| Earning anb ^abor. ^ LIBRARY | University of Illinois 2 CLASS BOOK VOLUME Accession No.... tk ■ ■ ! » i » * kttfPI if > <*.» V 11 * 1 * w W £ «> ' * Jir 41 4fe W? * *\& ^; «f . if w> jri 4 "fte & 4 2 v * M #■ # 1 N&& * * € j m M | :«!»V- : «•* • * v * ft *' aJbv ?v. ■j* # ♦ i£V . *. , - ■ ,r ■?'■ 0 .» r , f ■ Pr „ ' 4 P - ~ ~ ftf $ a j^Jh v -1 ^ At-. * ^ . :W , * .iff . * HI#*** # # •*■ 9#- >'- # “ . * * * •» ’hr vVl * * . U ■A im r * *• * #*, ^«/«•«. »/ “ * 7 - ** ’. ;: * « * ** ?'♦.'* > I ■ ■ *•• .. am JblL ..;■> ' . ' ' * V*? .•V-. »A "• / *■ *m ** »*.. > .- *i % ., i ^K'$ „ if pSL 8L. z/,/ftC,' Bulletin 106. January, 1896. Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. ITHACA, N. Y. HORTICULTURAL DIVISION. REVISED OPINIONS OF THE JAPANESE PLUMS. Burbank. Page //. By L. H. Bailey. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. 1896. O RGA NIZ AT ION. BOARD OF CONTROL,: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. STATION COUNCIL. President, Jacob Gould Schurman. Hon. A. D. White, ... - Trustee of the University. Professor I. P. Roberts, - President State Agricultural Society. Professor I P. Roberts, Professor G. C. Caldwell, Professor James Law, - Professor A. N. Prentiss, Professor J. H. Comstock, Professor L. H. Bailey, Professor H. H. Wing, Professor G. F. Atkinson, Agriculture. Chemistry. Veterinary Science. Botany. Entomology. Horticulture. Dairy Husbandry. Cryptogamic Botany. OFFICERS OF THE STATION. I. P. Roberts, - E. L. Williams, - H. W. Smith, ..... ASSISTANTS. M. V. Slingerland, .... G. W. Cavanaugh, ----- E. G. Lodeman, .... E. J. Durand, - Director. - Treasurer. Clerk. Entomology. Chemistry. Horticulture. Botany. Office of the Director, 20 Morrill Hall. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to all who request them. In 189J, the following Bulletins were issued: 84. The Recent Apple Failures in western New York. 85. Whey Butter. 86. Spraying of Orchards. 87. The Dwarf Lima Beans. 88. Early Lamb Raising. 89. Feeding Pigs. 90. The China Asters. 91. Recent Chrysanthemums. 92. Feeding Fat to Cows 93. The Cigar-Case-Bearer. 94. Damping Off. 95. Winter Muskmelons. 96. Forcing-House Miscellanies. 97. Entomogenous Fungi. 98. Cherries. 99. Blackberries. 100. Evaporated Raspberries in western New York. 101. The Spraying of Trees; with remarks on The Canker-Worm. 102. General Observations Respecting the Care of Fruit Trees ; Weeds. 103. Soil Depletion in Respect to the Care of Fruit Trees. 104. Climbing Cutworms in Western New York. 105. Tests of Cream Separators. Cornki.Iv University, Ithaca, N. Y., Jan. i, 1896. Honorable Commissioner of Agriculture , Albany. Sir : The following account of the Japanese plums is sub¬ mitted for publication under the Experiment Station Extension Bill (Chapter 230, Eaws of 1895). There is universal interest in the Japanese plums amongst the fruit growers of western New York and it therefore seems to be wise to publish this bulletin, as a sort of report of progress, even though the subject is very much confused. It is hoped that the bulletin may tend to check further confusion, by bringing into one report an account of all the var¬ ieties which are now before the public. In making these studies of Japanese plums, I have depended quite as much upon the in¬ formation which I have gathered in many plantations about the state as I have upon our own tests. E- H. Baikey. The illustrations in this bulletin show the fruits full size, but the reader must bear in mind the fact that pictures always look smaller, to the untrained eye, than the objects which they represent. i. Abundance, from Daniel Roberts, Keyport, bV. J. {Seepage 7.) 6 . Chase. {See page 13.) REVISED OPINIONS OF THE JAPANESE PLUMS. Two years ago this station published an account (Bulletin 62, “ The Japanese Plum in North America ”) of the Japanese plums as they were then known in this country. Our knowledge was very fragmentary and imperfect at the time, and it was not ex¬ pected that final conclusions could be reached respecting most of the questions which were uppermost in the public mind. Yet the confusion in which the whole subject lay was so great that it was thought better to publish such conclusions and facts as we pos¬ sessed rather than to allow the perplexities and the entangle¬ ments of nomenclature to increase. Many of the varieties which were passing under indefinite class names were renamed, and the new nomenclature has been widely adopted by nurserymen. The interest in Japanese plums is unabated, and it now seems to be wise to again report upon the subject, adding the experiences of the two past seasons. It will be many years yet before the difficulties of nomenclature can be wholly cleared up, but an oc¬ casional report of progress may be expected to hasten the final outcome. A few varieties are now fairly well understood, and descriptions of these are printed in large type in this paper. I have attempted to add descriptions of all other varieties, in small¬ er type, for the purpose of bringing our scattered knowledge to¬ gether for convenient reference ; but many of these varieties I have not yet seen in fruit and I cannot, therefore, vouch for the ac¬ curacy of the descriptions. In my former report, I said that “altogether, the Japanese plums constitute the most important type of fruit introduced into North America during the last quarter of a century, and they should receive careful tests in all parts of the country.” Iam now more fully convinced of the truth of this statement than I was at that time ; but some persons seem to have read it so care¬ lessly as to have obtained the idea that I recommend the Japanese 6 Bulletin 106. plums as superior to the old domestica or European types and to the natives. The latter classes were already well established a quarter century ago, when the Japanese sorts first came into the country, and their value is not lessened by the introduction of the Japanese type. Wherever the common domestica plums will suc¬ ceed, they are still the most valuable types, but some of the Jap¬ anese sorts can be added for variety with profit. The Japanese type is adapted to a much wider range of our country than the domestica plums are, and they introduce certain features which are invaluable everywhere. The peculiarly desirable features presented by many of the Japanese plums, in various degrees, are earliness, great productiveness, almost complete freedom, so far, from black-knot and leaf-blight, long-keeping qualities and beauty of fruit. In quality they are generally inferior to the domes- ticas, although several of them compare favorably in this re¬ spect with the.Lombard. The only other foreign species of fruit which has been lately introduced into this country and which ap¬ proaches the Japanese plums in importance, is the kaki or Jap¬ anese persimmon ; but this fruit is confined to the fig belt, whilst the plum thrives from Canada to the Gulf. A third Japanese fruit—introduced over a quarter century ago—the Japanese pear, is also important and a report on it may be expected from this station within the present year. It is yet too early, in my judgment, to recommend the exten¬ sive planting of the Japanese plums in this state, yet such varie¬ ties as Red June, Abundance, Burbank, and Chase seem to be safe to plant; and to this lot may no doubt be added, as a second- choice list, Georgeson, Maru, Chabot, Ogon, Berckmans, Sat- suma. For very early, we might add Berger and Yosebe, and Willard. The two first are very small, and the last is very poor in quality. The experiences of one or two more seasons may modify this list considerably, but it represents the best informa¬ tion which I possess at the present moment, for New York. Those who desire a fuller exposition of the history and char¬ acteristics of the Japanese plums, may consult our Bulletin 62*. * The following additional historical notes may be added: D. E. Hough, who first received the Japanese plums in this country, had a small nursery in Vacaville, California, about 1870 to 1875. Professor Wickson writes : “ Mr. Japanese Peums. 7 It may be said that the fear expressed in that bulletin that these plums may be found to bloom too early for safe cultivation in western New York, has proved to be unfounded. Farther south, however, and even in Ohio and Indiana, the habitual early bloom of some varieties renders them unsafe. The winters are more uniform in character here than they are farther south, and the “ warm spells ” of early spring are rarely pronounced enough to start the blossoms. It is probable, also, that the many large bodies of water in and about western New York exert a consider¬ able influence in retarding the fitful variations of early spring. I have yet to hear of any serious loss of Japanese plums through late spring frosts. There was an abundant crop of them in many parts of western New York in 1895, notwithstanding the hard frosts of May. Abundance (. Lovett , Catalogue , 1888). Figs. 1, 2. Botan, of some. Medium to large, globular to globular-oblong, generally with a distinct but minute point at the apex, often unequal-sided ; stem y in. long ; under-color yellow, overlaid with coppery red or with very bright pink-red on the exposed side, in well-colored speci¬ mens the entire surface reddened and the under-color almost com¬ pletely obscured or showing through only in dots and small flaky patches; flesh firm, yet rather elastic and very juicy, sometimes Hough was a very expert budder and budded stock for others as well as on his own account. He was quite given to roving from place to place and turned over his acquisitions to other parties. He seems to have pulled up stakes in Vaca valley between his enlistment of the U. S. officer in Japan in getting the trees, and the arrival of the trees in San Francisco, and therefore he turned over the stock to John Kelsey. D. E. Hough died about twelve years ago.” Mr. Burbank wrote me as follows, in 1894, respecting his first importation : “My collector whom I sent to southern Japan about 10 years ago for the Satsuma—of which, two years before, I had found a description in a book in the Mercantile Library of San Francisco, written by a sailor—sent me about half or more of the Japan plums now in general cultivation. All collectors inform me that there were no nurseries until lately, and when an order was given, the collector secured a few here and there, wherever they could be found. This accounts for the confusion of the names.” 8 Bulletin 106. slightly stringy, light amber-yellow, sweet and fully as good as Lombard when well ripened, although sometimes having a slight musky flavor, the skin rather sour ; cling. The above description is drawn from specimens received from Daniel Roberts, Keyport, New Jersey, and from many New York samples which were indistinguishable from Roberts’ specimens. I wrote to Mr. Lovett for fruits from the original tree of Abund¬ ance ; he replied that the tree is not standing, but referred me to Mr. Roberts, whose trees were propagated from the original stock. Mr. . Roberts sent me excel¬ lent samples, some of which I then sent to Mr. Lovett who wrote that the fruit “arrived in perfect condition, and is the true Abundance.” I was thus particular about the matter, be¬ cause there appear to be two if not three things sold in the country as Abundance ; or else the variety is wonderfully modified by climate and local conditions. This exact type of Abundance is much planted in west¬ ern New York. It is the same variety which I described and figured in Bulletin 62. The Abundance makes a hardy, thrifty, upright-spreading tree, (Fig. 2). It is very productive, and the fruit generally needs thinning to bring it to perfection. Abundance ripened at Ithaca in 1895 the first week in August, over two weeks ahead of Lombard, a week ahead of Burbank, three weeks later than Yosebe, two weeks later than Willard, and a week to ten days later than Red June. 2 .—Abundance tree , 6 years old. Japanese Peums. 9 I do not know if the Yellow-fleshed Botan is identical with Abundance. This name was given by P. J. Berckmans to distin¬ guish a variety received by him from Luther Burbank under the name of Botan. There were two varieties in the batch, and the other, with a lighter-colored and sweeter flesh was named, by Mr. Berckmans, Sweet Botan. This latter is now called Berckmans. When Mr. Lovett sent out his Abundance, it was pronounced to be identical with Yellow-fleshed Botan by Mr. Berckmans. “ I have seen trees that were received from Lovett,” Mr. Berckmans writes, “whose fruit was identical with Yellow-fleshed Botan.” The Yellow-fleshed Botan fruits which Mr. Berckmans has sent me several times, seem to differ from the Abundance, as grown here, in the yellower color, less prominent point at the apex, and shorter stem, but these differences may all be due to climate or other local environments. I often notice that plums may be shorter-stemmed when grown in the south than when grown in the north. In specimens which I have received from Berckmans, the Yellow-fleshed Botan has a lighter-colored flesh than the Berck¬ mans. We have trees of the Yellow-fleshed Botan growing, and shall soon be able to determine its relationship to Abundance. Babcock (. Bailey , Cornell Bull. 62, p. 19, 1894). Botankio and Botan, of some. ‘ Medium to large in. diam.), round-conical; skin yellow overlaid with purplish red, rather thick ; flesh deep orange and solid, a little coarse, sweet, of good flavor and quality, cling ; rather late, ripening about with the Burbank, or about a week earlier than Chabot in the south. “Imported in 1885 by Luther Burbank. Now named for Col. B- F. Bab¬ cock, a well-known nurseryman of Little Rock, Arkansas, and among the first to grow and recommend the variety. *'—Bullelin 62. I have never seen a fruit which I could refer to this variety. I substituted the name Babcock for the loosely applied Botankio, drawing my description very largely from notes furnished me by Colonel Babcock. Our own variety bought as Botankio turns out to be Abundance. Bailey {J. L. Normand , Catalogue , 189 /). “ Large, nearly globular, with only a slight tendency «to become conical; ground-color rich orange, overspread with light and bright cherry red, and showing many minute orange dots; flesh thick and melting, yellow, of ex¬ cellent quality, cling. Tree strong and upright, productive. Closely related to Burbank, but rounder and mostly larger, and a week or more later. “ Imported by J. L. Normand, Marksville, Louisiana, and by him named IO Bulletin 106. and introduced in 1891. Figured in American Gardening, xiii. (1892), p. 700. There appears to be another Bailey plum of the domestica type. I know it only from a plate made by Dewey of Rochester and who declares that it ‘ has not failed to bear for twenty-five successive years.’ The Rochester Lithographing Co., successors to Dewey, write me that this plate was in Dewey’s stock before 1886, but that they know nothing further about it.”— Bulletin 62. I have not yet fruited this variety, but I have received it from several sources. Mr. Berckmans regards it as identical with Chabot. It is also re¬ markably like the Chase, and Hoyo Smomo. It is possible that all these four names belong to the same plum. It is evidently a good plum, whatever its proper name may be found to be. Berckmans ( Bailey , Cornell Bull. 62 , p. 20 , 189P). True Sweet Botan. Sweet Botan. White-fleshed Botan. Botan, of some. Medium (or slightly above if thinned), broadly and obtusely conical and somewhat angular in cross-section; dull deep blood red if ripened in the sun, sometimes with yellowish patches on the shaded side ; flesh very sweet, moderately juicy or dry ; cling or semi-cling ; ripens with Abundance or just ahead of it. Becomes too dry when very ripe. Introduced by Tuther Burbank in 1887, from imported stock. The variety does not appear to be a true Botan, and its nomen¬ clature is so confused and indefinite that I renamed it for Mr. Berckmans, who, to distinguish it from another variety which was also received under the name of Botan (see remarks on Yellow- fleshed Botan, under Abundance), called it White-fleshed Botan. Mr. Berckmans considers it poor in quality, but as it is grown in the north it compares well with Abundance ; and even the speci¬ mens which Mr. Berckmans has sent me seem to me to be superior in quality to the Abundance which he has sent. Deeper and duller red than Abundance, lacks the point characteristic of that variety, and the flesh is much drier. Very productive. Figured in Bulletin 62. Berger ( Munson ; Bailey Cornell Bull. 62, p. 20 , 1894 )• Fruit very small and globular, bright uniform red, with a firm, Japanese Peums- i i meaty and sweet yellow flesh and a very small free stone, ripen¬ ing the middle of July in New York. There has been much confusion respecting this plum. Mr. Berckmans once sent it to me without a name, saying that it came from H. H. Berger & Co., of San Francisco, as Red Nagate. N. S. Platt sent it from Connecticut as Satsuma, the name under which it was received from Berger. It came from the south (also originally from Berger) as Shiro Smomo. I also have it from western New York, unnamed. T. V. Munson, Texas, sent specimens which he called the Berger, and I adopted his name and published it in Bulletin 62. He writes as follows of it : “The Berger plum is an upright, cherry-like tree. It bears a purple fruit about the size of the Black Tartarian cherry, with meaty flesh, nearly free stone which is as small as the pit of the common Black Morello cherry and much the same shape.” It falls from the tree as soon as ripe, leaving the stem on the tree. An interesting little fruit for the home garden, but too small for market. There is a picture of it in Bulletin 62. See Yosebe. Blood : See Satsuma, Blood Plum No. 3. “Fruit somewhat smaller than Satsuma, flesh very deep red and juicy, sweet; middle of July ; tree of very open straggling growth.”— P. J. Berck¬ mans, Catalogue , 1895. Blood Plum No. 4. “This corresponds with the description of Honsmomo of the Agricultural Bureau of Tokio. Fruit medium, dark red flesh ; July roth to 25th ; tree of erect growth.”— P. J. Berckmans , Catalogue , 1895. Botan : See Abundance, Babcock, Berckmans, Willard. ' BoTankio : See Abundance and Babcock. Burbank ( Van Deman , Kept. Dept. Agric. 1891 , p. 392). Fig. on title page and Nos. 3 and 4. Medium, to rather large upon thinned trees, conical to oblong in form, the point generally blunt ; ground-color orange-yellow, mostly rather thinly overlaid with red and showing many yellow dots, often more or less marbled, in the sun becoming rather dense red ; flesh firm and meaty, yellow, not stringy, rich and sugary ; cling. As compared with Abundance, it is a week or two later, more oblong and lacking the peculiar point of Abund¬ ance, flesh firmer and .not inclined to be stringy, and sweeter, lacking the slight muskiness of Abundance. Burbank is shaded 12 Bulletin 106. and splashed with dull maroon-red and is much spotted, the yel- Abundance is a vivid pink- red, the yellow ground conspicuous only on the shaded side. In 1895, the Burbank on our grounds was less than a week later than Abundance, but the very dry season may have ripened it ahead of its usual season. A specimen of the Bur¬ bank sent by Luther Bur¬ bank, Santa Rosa, Cal., is shown natural size in Fig. 3. It is very unlike the Burbank as grown in the east. The size is greater, and the color a deep claret red with minute golden dots. The flesh was very thick, firm and meaty, and of excellent quality. The variety is a most sprawling, flat-topped or even drooping grower (Fig. 4); and this habit distin¬ guishes the variety from all other Jap¬ anese plums which we have grown. young, to keep it within bounds. The fruit generally needs thinning, for the tree is enormously productive. The Burbank was imported by Luther Burbank, Santa Rosa, California, late in 1885, and named for him by H. F- VanDeman. The tree should probably be headed-in when low under-color being conspicuous. 3. —Burbank. From Luther Burbank , Santa Rosa, Cal. Japanese Peums. 13 See Rept. Dept. Agr. 1891, p. 392, where it is also given a good colored plate. Generally introduced in 1890. The Russian plum 20 M, sent me by Professor Budd, is indis¬ tinguishable from Burbank. We have two trees of it, and they bore two or three bushels of plums this year. Burbank No. 1. Said to resemble Berckmans. I do not know it. Burbank No. 2. ‘‘Described as of medium size, regular and globular in shape, yellow over¬ spread with purplish carmine, with a yellow very juicy flesh which is fine¬ grained and of good quality ; pit nearly free. Very early. This variety is not reported in any recent tests.”— Bulletin 62. ‘‘ Burbank No. 2, from Berckmans, fruited in 1892 and since ; no apparent difference between it and our Abundance.”— Stark Bros., 1895. Burbank No. 3 : see Late Blood. Burbank No. 4: see Heikes. Burbank No. ii. I know this only from specimens received the past summer from Stark Bros., Louisiana, Missouri. It looks very much like Willard Freestone or very nearly so. Drops easily. Season of Red June, and said by Stark Bros, to be not worth propagating. Chabot (Burbank ). Fig. 5. Medium to large (size of Burbank), oblong-conical; under-color orange, deeply overlaid with light cherry-red, the sunny side dark red, and many minute golden dots showing through the red over¬ color ; flesh yellow, rather soft, not stringy, sweet and of excellent quality, with no almond flavor ; skin scarcely sour ; cling. An excellent plum, ripening early in September in this latitude. Imported from Japan by Mr. Chabot, of Berkeley, California, but introduced to the trade by Luther Burbank in 1886. See Chase. Chabot Beood. ‘‘A novel and remarkable addition to our fruits. The size is medium, stem very short, and of a brick red or cinnabar color ; flesh firm, fine brick red color; very juicy and sweet, and with a peculiar aromatic flavor.”— Catalogue California Nursery Co., Fourth Edition ( recent: no date). Chase (R. G. Chase Co., Catalogue, 1893). Fig 6. Hattonkin, of some. Yellow Japan, of some. Medium to large, heart-shaped ; under-color yellow (like Abun¬ dance), deeply overlaid with dull red and showing manyfgolden 14 Bulletin 106. dots, finally becoming uniformly dull red all over; bloom thick; flesh yellow, firm, rather juicy, sweet and good; skin rather tough ; cling. The coloring is that of the Burbank, but the plum is more pointed and it is two or three weeks later, rip¬ ening in this latitude the first or second week in September. This very excellent plum was bought by the Chases for Abun- 5.— Chabot. dance, but is about a month later than that variety. It is of the Chabot type and may not be distinct (see remarks under Bailey). The tree is a strong upright-spreading grower, and productive. It is considerably disseminated in New York under the name of Yellow Japan, although it is a* red plum. . Chase Co. speaks of the tree as “a good grower ” and blooming “ two weeks later than Abundance, thus escaping the spring frosts.” Delaware ( Burbank , Catalogue , 189J ) “ Roundish, conical, medium in size, purplish bronze in color with a white bloom; flesh wine-color, juicy, combining many flavors. Trees semi-dwarf, Japanese Plums. 15 very productive. Catalogued amongst Luther Burbank’s novelties, 1893. Said to be a cross of Satsuma and Kelsey.”— Bulletin 62. Douglas {R. H. Price , Bull. 32, Texas Exp. Sta. p. 488 , 1894). Munson, of Bailey, Bull. 62, p. 27. Hytankayo, of Whitaker. Hattankio, of some. “Size rather large, conical, yellow with purple tinge; skin tough ; flesh firm, flavor very good. Tree upright vigorous grower, hardy and very pro¬ ductive. Nearly free from attacks of insects and fungi.”— Dr. Whitaker, Tyler, Texas , in Bull. 32, Texas Exp. Sta. Imported and introduced by Dr. Whitaker. The name Munson which I proposed for this plum in Bulletin 62, is antedated by another Munson plum of the Chickasaw type. Earliest of All {Stark Bros.) Yosebe, of some. “ Small to medium, globular; color a solid dark red; quality good; pit small, free. Fully ten days earlier than Red June. It drops as soon as col¬ ored. Our idea in growing this variety for market would be to shake the fruit on a sheet and market in quart berry boxes. Very productive. Leaf very narrow, conduplicated and somewhat smaller than the Red June.”— Stark Bros. See Uchi-Beni. Engre. Fruit small, globular, red, almost exactly like Willard and of same season; poor. It seems to differ from Willard in foliage, however. The leaves are short and elliptic, whilst those of Willard are long and obovate. Little known. Two varieties seem to be passing under this name. Excelsior {Cherokee Nursery Co.) “A seedling of the Kelsey. Fruit large, round, 1 1 / 2 inches in diameter; color reddish purple, with heavy blue bloom ; flesh sweet, juicy, melting and of excellent quality. Ripens early in June. The trees of this variety had more fruit last year than any other variety, either native or foreign. It is undoubtedly a cross between the Kelsey and some variety of the Chicka¬ saw type. The tree is a very strong grower, symmetrical and handsome ; a valuable variety.”— Catalogue , Cherokee Nursery Co., Way cross, Ga. The fruits which I have seen were an inch and a half in diameter, round- conical, with a distinct small sharp point; stem slender ; color very bright dark red with many minute gold dots ; flesh soft and watery, sweet; cling. The fruit and foliage suggest only the Wild Goose type {Prunus hortulana), but the pit suggests Kelsey. Furugiya. Name given, without description or comment, by J. L. Normand, Marks- ville, La., in “Special Circular of New Japan Plums and Rare Novelties,” 1895-6. i6 Bulletin 106. Georgeson ( Bailey , Cornell Bulletin 62 , p. 2j) Figs. 7 and 8. Hattonkin, No. 1. Hattonkin, of some. Hattankio, of some. Medium in size, or fairly large when thinned, variable in shape 7.— Georgeson. but usually irregularly globular with a flattened apex but some¬ times obscurely conical ; color a clear rich uniform yellow, with a thin white bloom and minute whitish dots in the skin ; flesh very firm, not juicy nor stringy, sweet and good; skin sour ; strong clingstone. Ripe at Ithaca in 1895 the last days of August and first days of September, one or two weeks later than Burbank. I had it from Niagara County, New York, however, early in August. A very long keeper. Fairly productive. Tree (Fig. 8) a sprawling, forked grower, intermediate in form between Abundance and Burbank. The variety is well distribut- Japanese Plums. i 7 ed in western New York, under a variety of names. Imported by H. H. Berger & Co., San Francisco, and brought to notice chiefly by J. F. Normand, Marksville, Fa. Golden (.Burbank Catalogue , 1893). Said to be a cross of Robinson (a Chickasaw) and Kelsey. Hale (G . H. and J. H. Hale , 1895). “J”, of Burbank. Prolific, of Burbank. A very handsome large round-cordate plum, usually lop-sided ; orange, thinly overlaid with mottled red, so as to have a yellow¬ ish red appearance, or, in well colored specimens, deep cherry-red with yellow specks; flesh yellow, soft and juicy (yet a good keeper), not stringy, with a very delicious slightly acid peachy flavor; skin some¬ what sour; cling. Very late. I know the fruit only from specimens sent at . 8 . — Georgeson , 6 years old. two or three differ¬ ent times by Luther Burbank. To my taste, these specimens have been the best in quality of all Japanese plums, although Mr. Burbank regards it as inferior in this respect to Wickson (which see). Seedling of Satsuma. HaTTankio : see Douglas, Georgeson, Kerr. HaTTONKIn No. i : see Georgeson. HaTTONkin No. 2 : see Kerr. Heikes ( Bailey , Cornell Bulletin 62, ft. 23, 1894.'). Burbank No. 4. Much like Late Blood, but rather more flattened on the ends, or oblate, mostly darker in color, the flesh acid. Little known. Named for W. F. Heikes, of the Huntsville Nurseries, Huntsville, Ala. i8 Bulletin 106. Housmomo. Name inserted in “Special Circular” (1895-6) by J. L. Normand, without note or comment. (Misprint for Honsmomo? See Blood No. 4). Hoyo Smomo. Apparently identical with Bailey, which see. Hytankayo : see Douglas. Juicy ( Burbank , Catalogue , 1893). Cross of Robinson (a Chickasaw plum) and Kelsey. L Kelsey ( W. P. Hammon & Co., Oakland , Cal.'). Very large (2-3 in. diam.) and long-pointed, tapering gradually from a heart-shaped base, usually somewhat lop-sided, with a deep furrow-like suture; color bright red-purple on a yellow ground, more or less marked with dots, very showy ; flesh light yellow and rather firm, rich and pleasant in flavor, free or only slightly clinging to the small stone, more or less hollow above the pit. The first Japanese plum introduced into this country, but it did not attract much attention outside of California until ten or twelve years ago. It was figured by Mr. Van Deman in Dept, of Agr. Rept. for 1886, plate X., and again (colored) in Report for 1887, plate I. ; in Wickson’s California Fruits, p. 351 ; and in my Bul¬ letin 62. Its behavior is not uniform in different years. F. M. Ramsey, of Lampasas, Texas, writes me that in 1888, his Kelsey ripened in September, in 1889 in July, and in 1890 in June. L. A. Berckmans, Georgia, says* that in 1887 the Kelsey did not mature until October 1st; in 1889 it ripened in July; in 1890 it “ began to ripen the latter part of July and continued for eight weeks,” and on October 1st perfectly green specimens were on the trees. It has a more or less prolonged or indefinite season of bloom. Luther Burbank (Santa Rosa, Cal.) writes : “ Kelsey blooms here all winter, from December to March.” In California the tree is said to be nearly evergreen. There are still the most conflicting reports respecting the hard¬ iness of Kelsey. Some persons declare that it fruits in New York, but every report, when run down, shows that the party is mis¬ taken in the variety. The farthest north that I have known *Proc. 14th meeting, Ga. Hort. Soc. (1889) 52. Japanese: Plums. 19 Kelsey to fruit is in extreme southern Delaware. J. Van Lindley says* that in 1893 in North Carolina his Kelsey trees “were loaded with fruit, large and fine, quality of the very best.” It ripened from the first to the last of August. “ The Kelsey,” he continues, “ stands at the head for canning and preserving, and sells in any market at fancy prices, but it comes into competition with other fruits grown north.” Kelsey has been killed by cold in northern Texas ; on the other hand, the trees are said to have come through the winter with little injury in Iowa. My first ex¬ perience with the Kelsey was at Lansing, Michigan, where the trees killed to the snow line the first winter. Professor Tamari, of Tokio, says that the variety is too tender for the northern plum sections of Japan. Mr. H. E. Van Deman, formerly pomologist of the Department of Agriculture, wrote me upon the hardiness of Kelsey, in 1892, as follows : “ My present opinion is that it is about as hardy as the fig. All reliable information that has come to this office up to this date is to the effect that it is not suitable to the northern states because of its tenderness. I know from personal observation that between here [Washington] and Balti¬ more trees have been seriously injured by winter-killing. Occa¬ sionally I have heard of Kelsey plum trees withstanding severe cold, but in every case yet followed up, it has been found that the trees were not correctly named.” I am inclined to think, how¬ ever, that the Kelsey will sometimes endure a New York winter if the wood has been well ripened ; but I doubt if it will ever bear in this State. The following correspondence to the California Fruit Grower (Sept. 14, 1885) s tiU further explains the vagaries of the Kelsey: “ The Kelsey Japan plum is surely erratic in disposition,—more or less reliable. “ My experience teaches me, however, that it bears much more regularly when in close proximity to some other variety of plum. “ This is very marked, not only in outside rows, but in the cen¬ ter of the block. Wherever I have an odd tree of Satsuma, im¬ mediately surrounding that tree the Kelseys bear well. ‘ ‘ It does better with very little pruning. * Thirteenth Rep. N. Car. Hort. Soc. (1893) 20. 20 Bulletin 106. “ It must be sprayed with a good fungicide once or twice a year to keep in check the shot-hole fungus. “It succeeds best in heavy, moist land, and preferably in the coast or bay counties. ‘ ‘ In marketing it, great care must be taken as to when the fruit is picked. Some seasons it colors much more than others, hence the danger of waiting for color. “ I pick mine the very hour (if possible) that the slightest color is apparent. They will color up afterwards in the boxes before they reach destination—referring, of course, to the eastern markets. ‘ ‘ My trees are picked over seven or eight times. “ When the fruit sets very thickly it must be well thinned. “The prices have been very satisfactory to me. I am well repaid for the extra labor, the fruit netting me four cents to eight cents per pound. “ Conditions and surroundings vary so much that I would not advise one way or the other. Almost any variety of plum or prune could be grafted on Kelseys, where they are not profitable. Why not use Robe de Sargent, especially if the root is peach ? “ A double-worked Robe de Sargent tree is best, as it makes a larger tree, and larger fruit as well as more of it. “ It will not unite directly on the peach, as is generally known, hence the suggestion to double work, using the Kelsey on peach root. Leonard Coates.” Napa, Cal., September 9, 1895. George S. Higby, Poway, San Diego Co., California, writes as follows of the Kelsey : “I had the honor, I believe, of exhibit¬ ing the first specimens of Kelsey in San Diego county. The Kelsey is fast becoming a popular fruit in this county, and is adapted both to the sea-coast and inland valleys. I think that in the near future it may take a position equal to the French or Cali¬ fornia prime as a dried fruit. A well ripened Kelsey has very few superiors. ’ ’ KERR (Bailey, Cornell Bulletin 62 , p. 25, 1894). Hattonkin No. 2. Hattonkin, of Berckmans and others. ‘ ‘ Medium to large, generally very strongly conical with a deep suture; color orange-yellow, with a creamy bloom; flesh juicy and sweet, good in quality, cling ; early. Japanese Peums. 21 “An excellent variety, but not tested in the north. It varies considerably in shape, even on the same tree, occasional speci¬ mens occurring without the point. Mr. Berckmans writes me that in 1890 the round form seemed to predominate, while in 1892 the pointed or normal form alone was produced. Imported from Japan by Frost & Burgess, Riverside, California. Named for J. W. Kerr, of Denton, Maryland, one of the most intelligent plum growers of the central states.”— Bulletin 62. ‘ ‘ Kerr is not only the earliest of the large-sized plums, but most excellent in quality. It partakes more of the Green Gage flavor than any other of the group.”— P. J. Berckmans , 1895. Figured in Bulletin 62. Bate Beood (Burbank , in early lists). Hale, of Bailey, Bulletin 62. Burbank No. 3. Medium in size, globular or slightly flattened, scarcely if at all pointed, rather light bright uniform red ; flesh red, firm and sweet, tightly clinging to the pit. Imported by Ruther Burbank in 1885, together with Heikes, which see. Mr. Burbank writes me that he disposed of this and No. 4 after they had fruited in the nursery row, and that he now has no knowledge of them. Very much like Satsuma, but a few days later and appears to bloom earlier ; also less pointed, and somewhat different in leaf. Bittle known. Bate HaTTankio ( Cherokee Nursery Co., Way cross, Ga ., in letter, 1894). “ Color pale orange yellow, heavily covered with a white bloom. Suture very slight. Flesh dark yellow, very firm and somewhat dry with a slight astringency. Generally of poor quality and irregular shape. Ripe with us June 15th to 20th.” Bong Fruit {Burbank ). Very small, roundish in shape, red, early and said to be a shy bearer. Thought by some to be the same as Engre. Others say that it is the same as Red June. Possibly two things are propagated under this name. Stark Bros, write of it: “Equally small or smaller than your cut of Berger [in Bull. 62], and very acrid.” Imported by Ruther Burbank in 1885, but very little known. Maru (. Burbank .) Fig. 9. Masu and Massu. Medium in size, depressed-globular with an obtuse point; very 22 Bulletin 106. dark uniform maroon-red with numberless minute golden dots; flesh deep yellow, rather soft, with a musky flavor which is not disagreeable, sweet, but quality only medium ; skin sour ; cling to half cling. Often acid in flavor. Season of Abundance. Said to be very hardy in bud. 9.— Maru. Imported by kuther Burbank in 1885. Maru is Japanese for rou?id. Mikado. “ It is a large, golden yellow plum when ripe, and samples measured seven and one-quarter inches in circumference. It is considered now as the most Japanese Peums. 23 profitable variety that is propagated in the valley, ripening early, the trees good bearers and the fruit bringing very high prices. Last season they brought as high as $11 per box in the eastern markets, or over fifty cents a pound, and this season bringing from $5 to $7 per box.”— Vacaville ( Cal .) Reporter , quoted in California Fruit Grower , xiii. 198 (Sept. 2, 1893). “A very large plum, of greenish yellow color, nearly round, very little suture, a very rapid grower, more so than any other. This is the most remarkable of all plums for its enormous size, beauty and good quality. It is probably the largest plum in existence ; ripens fifteen days after Yeddo. I have had specimens of it larger than any Kelsey, or as large as any coni' mon-size Elberta peach.”— -J. L. Normand , Marksville, La ., Special Circu¬ lar, 1895-6. Munson: See Douglas. NagaTE no Botankyo. “ Early.”—/. L. Normand , Special Circular , 1895-6. Normand (/. L. Normand , Catalogue , 1891). Normand Yellow. Normand’s Japan. Medium to large, obtusely conical with a heart-like base and short stem ; color clear golden yellow ; flesh firm and meaty, yellow, of high quality ; the small pit free. Very prolific, and ripens just after Berckmans and Abundance. Allied to Georgeson and Kerr ; less conical than the latter. Imported by J. L. Normand, MarksviUe, La., and by him disseminated under the name of Normand’s Japan in 1891. Figured in Bull. 62. October PurpuE {Burbank). A very large black-purple heart-like plum, with no splashes of lighter color; flesh amber-yellow, red beneath the skin, very juicy, but yet firm, somewhat stringy, very sweet and good; skin sour; cling. Very late. Ogon. Fruits medium in size, flattened at the ends or tomato-shaped, not at all conical, the suture prominent ; color clear lemon with a light creamy bloom giving the fruit a whitish appearance ; flesh thick and very meaty, not juicy, firm and keeping long, of second or third quality, entirely free from the stone. Tree only moder¬ ately productive in New York, or in some regions even shy. Early, ripening in New York from late July to the middle of Au¬ gust. Excellent for canning. Imported by H. H. Berger & Co., San Francisco. One of the best known varieties, but evidently not increasing in popularity in this state. Figured in Bulletin 62. 24 Bulletin 106. O-Hatankyo. “ Said to be early.”—/. L. Normand, “ Special Circular,” 1895-6. Orient (Stark Bros., Catalogue, 1895). Red Nagate, of some. “ Large, broadly conical; red, very highly colored ; flesh yellow, of high quality. Ripens soon after Burbank. Introduced in the fall of 1893 by Stark Bros., Louis¬ iana, Mo. Figured in American Gar¬ dening xiv. (1893), p. 363.”— Bulletin 62. Possibly the same as Chabot. Red June {Stark Bros., Catalogue,18 93 ). Figs. 10 and 11. Red Nagate, of some. Shiro-Smomo, of some. 1 ■ up Medium to nearly large size, cordate and very prominently elongated at the apex, the suture deep, generally lop-sided, deep vermilion-red all over, with a handsome bloom, very showy; flesh light lemon-yellow or whitish, firm and moderately juicy, not stringy, very slightly subacid to sweetish, the skin slightly sour, of good pleasant quality although not so rich as some; cling to half cling ; pit small. 10.— Red June . Japanese: Peums. 25 Avery handsome plum, ripening at Ithaca in 1895 from July 28 to August 1st, nearly a week later than Willard, and a week earlier than Abundance. By all odds the best Japanese plum rip¬ ening before the Abundance which I have yet tested. Tree (Fig. 11) up¬ right -spreading, vigorous and hardy, about as productive with us, so far, as Abundance. I thought that the quality of our speci¬ mens last season were nearly or quite equal to that of Abundance. Imported by H. H. Berger & Co., San Francisco. The nomenclature of the variety here de¬ scribed is much confused. H. H. Berger & Co. write me that the true Japanese Red Nagate has red flesh, which this has not. The name Red Nagate is applied to such different varieties, and there is such an absence of opinion as to what the true Red Nagate is, that I have adopted Red June as the only tenable name. This is the variety to which the name Shiro Smomo is oftenest applied, but it is neither a Sumomo plum nor is it white (Shiro means white), thus affording a curious instance of the utter con¬ fusion of the American application of the names of the Japanese plums. Professor Georgeson tells me that the Shiro Sumono of the Japanese is a small white early plum with yellow flesh, some¬ what cling and of medium season. I do not know if it occurs in 11 .—Red June , 6 years old. 26 Bulletin 106. this country; and it is probably not worth while to endeavor to fit the name to any variety. The Ogon is probably the nearest to it of any variety in this list. Sagetsuna. Name given in J. L. Normand’s “ Special Circular,” 1895-6, without com¬ ment. Satsuma. Blood. Yonemomo. Size medium to rather large, broadly conical with a blunt, short point, suture very deep ; color very dark and dull red all over, with greenish dots and an under-color of brown red ; flesh blood-red, rather coarse and acid, fair to good in quality, tightly clinging to the pit; midseason ; productive. Imported by Luther Burbank in 1886. Figured in Pomologist’s Report, Rept. Dept. Agr. 1887, Plate I. (colored), and also in Wickson’s California Fruits, 351, the latter copied from the for¬ mer. I have never seen a Satsuma with such a small pit as rep¬ resented in these cuts, nor of the same shape. The fruit appears to be uniform in shape and markings, and it is figured from life in Bulletin 62. The Satsuma is hardy in the northern states. Stark Bros., Louisiana, Mo., write that it blooms too early with them and is not so hardy as some others. This belongs to the Beni-Sumomo group of the Japanese, which is characterized by red flesh. Season about with Burbank. Usually too sour to be agreeable, and the color is such that the market will probably ob¬ ject to it. Very long keeper. Sea-Egg ( Burbank ). Mr. Burbank sends me a very handsome and well-marked Japanese plum under this name, which is globular-heart-shape in outline, and mottled-red ; flesh very thick and meaty, orange-yellow, sweet and excellent, with a slight muskiness; cling. Shiro Smomo : see Red Nagate and Berger. Shipper ( Burbank ). Fruit oval, light red with a white bloom ; flesh very firm, yellow, sweet and juicy; long keeper. Tree sturdy, but a moderate grower. Described with Burbank’s Novelties, 1893. Seedling of Satsuma. Shira ta Bene. “Similar to Satsuma, but much earlier, ripening in July; fruit blood red through.”—/. H. Haynes {Indiana ) in Prairie Farmer , Dec. 21 , 1895, 8. Strawberry: see Uchi-Beni Sweet Botan : see Berckmans. Japanese Plums. 27 True Sweet Botan : see Berckmans. Uchi-Beni. Ura-Beni. Honsmomo. Strawberry. Medium in size, heart-shape and somewhat pointed, bright carmine-red ; flesh red and fine-grained, somewhat acid, rather poor in quality, cling ; rather early. Little known. Uchi-Beni means inside red. Stark Bros, write me as follows, under date of August 12, 1895 : “This is a small plum similar to the variety you describe as Berger, and is the variety we called Strawberry wheu we propagated it; but we discarded it two years ago. Ripens a few days after the Earliest of All, but is not so large nor so good quality, and is not at all productive, while the Earliest of All is re¬ markably productive.” White-Feeshed Botan : see Berckmans. Wasse Botonkyo. Name given, without comment, in J. L- Normand’s “Special Circular,” 1895-6. Wasse Sumomo. “Said to be very early.”— J. L. Normand , “Special Circular ,” 1895-6. Wassu. Name only, in J. L. Normand’s “Special Circular,” 1895-6. Weeping Beood. “ This is a valuable acquisition, said to produce a blood red plum of good quality. The tree must be seen to be appreciated. I have them here on my experimental grounds, growing finely ; I budded them at different heights on straight peach stock four to eight feet from the ground, with slender limbs curving down gracefully like the Tea’s Weeping mulberry. Single trees set out on the lawn look grand.”— J. L. Normand , “ Special Circular ,” 1895-6. White Keesey. “ This is a duplicate in size and shape of the common Kelsey, except it is of a pale, creamy color, almost white when ripe; does not rot before maturi¬ ty like the Kelsey, and much earlier to ripen and later to bloom than it; delicious in flavor.”— J. L. Normand , “ Special Circular ,” 18(95-6. Wickson ( Burbank, Catalogue , 1894). Perfection, of Burbank. A remarkably handsome and very large deep maroon-red plum of the Kel¬ sey type. Long-cordate, or oblong-pointed ; flesh firm, deep amber-yellow, clinging to the small pit. There is apt to be a hollow space about the pit, as there is in Kelsey. I have had the plums from Burbank three times, all of them in good condition and have tested them when in prime condition ; but each time the fruit has had such a pronounced musky-almond flavor that I could not enjoy it. Mr. Burbank, however, regards it as superior to Hale in quality. Excellent keeper. Cross of Burbank with Kelsey, Burbank fur¬ nishing the seed. Stark Bros, report that nursery stock of this variety has stood 22 0 below zero at their place without injury. 28 Bulletin 106. Willard (IV. F. Heikes, 1893). Fig. 12. Botan No. 26. Medium in size, spherical to oblong in general outline but prominently cornered or angled, never pointed, the sinus very slight but stem cavity deep; color bright claret-red with many minute yellow dots ; flesh rather firm, whitish, of poor quality ; freestone. A strong, vigorous and hardy tree, productive, 12.— Willard. Grown by S. D. Willard , Geneva, 13.— Yosebe . One of the Somomo or eherry-like type. Japanese Peums. 29 and one of the earliest plums yet tested in the north, ripening in central New York late in July. In appearance the fruit is remarkably like some of the improved types of Primus Americana. The fruit is hand^ ome when well ripen¬ ed, and keeps two to three weeks if picked when it begins to color, but the quality is alrnond- 1 i k e and poor, — so poor that I cannot rec¬ ommend it. I'ruit picked iu 1895 on July 16, when it just began to color, kept until August 6, the speci¬ mens shrivel¬ ing rather than rotting. Cions procured from California six or seven years ago by S. D. Willard, Geneva, N. Y., and named for him by W. V. Heikes in Practical Nursery¬ man , June 1893. It was undoubtedly imported from Japan, but the 30 Bulletin 106. history of it is lost. Mr. Burbank writes: “I had the Willard sixteen years ago. Not valuing it very highly, I discarded it many years ago, although it may prove valuable as an early variety ; but I would prefer Stark Bros.’ Red June, which ripens at the same time, but even that variety, though handsome, is poor in quality.” Yeddo. “ Much like White Kelsey, which it resembles in some respects, but it is of a deeper yellow color and ten days later to ripen, and very attractive and fine-flavored plum.”— -J. S. Notmand , “ Special Circular ,” 1895-6. Yellow Japan : See Chase. Yonemomo : See Satsuma. Yosebe. Fig. 13. A small short-oblong-pointed fruit, with slender stem and almost no suture ; deep purple-red all over; flesh dark yellow, soft, sub¬ acid, with a pronounced almond flavor ; pit small and free. A handsome very early plum, but the quality poor. Falls from the tree as soon as rip'e, leaving the stem on the tree. Ripe here a week earlier than Willard. Tree an upright grower, with reddish twigs and light-colored foliage. Reaves comparatively small and rugose, somewhat con- duplicate, very prominently serrate, yellowish green. Stipules conspicuous. Tree very unlike other Japanese plums, when in leaf. There are two or three varieties passing as Yosebe, and nobody knows which one is entitled to the name. Neither do I know whether the proper orthography of the name is Yosebe or Yosobe. It is probable that all the varieties have been given separate names, which can be used as soon as the characteristics of the varieties are understood. Apt to be confounded with Berger. The Berger is small and nearly or quite globular, with a smooth circular cherry-like pit ; Yosebe is distinctly cordiform and a half to twice larger, with a roughish and lenticular pit. The two are also very unlike in foliage. L. H. Bailey. Bulletin 107. January, 1896. Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. ITHACA, IN. Y. ENTOHOLOGICAL DIVISION. WIREWORMS AND THE BUD MOTH. See page 59. By M. V. SLINGERLAND. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. 1895. ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. STATION COUNCIL. President, Jacob Hon. A. D. White, Professor I. P. Roberts, Professor I. P. Roberts, Professor G. C. Caedwele, Professor James Law, - Professor A. N. Prentiss, Professor J. H. Comstock, Professor L. H. Bailey, Professor H. H. Wing, Professor G. F. Atkinson, Goued Schurman. Trustee of the University. President State Agricultural Society. Agriculture. Chemistry. Veterinary Science. Botany. Entomology. Horticulture. Dairy Husbandry. Cryptogamic Botany. OFFICERS OF THE STATION. I. P. Roberts, - E. L. Wieeiams, ----- H. W. Smith, - ASSISTANTS. M. V. Seingereand, - G. W. Cavanaugh, - E. G. Lodeman, .... L. A. Clinton, - E. J. Durand, ----- Director. - Treasurer. Clerk. Entomology. Chemistry. Horticulture. Agriculture. Botany. Office of the Director, 20 Morrill Hall. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to all who request them. BULLETINS OF 1896. 106. Revised Opinions of the Japanese Plum. 107. Wireworms and The Bud Moth. EXPLANATORY NOTE. In Bulletin 33, issued in November, 1891, Professor J. H. Com¬ stock and the writer gave a detailed account, occupying 80 pages, of nearly three years of experimentation with wireworms , The bulletin embodied the results of our efforts to discover a practica¬ ble method of preventing the ravages of these pests, and a study of the life-history of several common species. In Bulletin 50, issued in March, 1893, the writer devoted 26 pages to a detailed discussion of the bud moth , one of the most destructive insect pests in the orchards of western New York. Our two years’ study of the insect enabled us to correct several erroneous statements regarding its habits and life-history which had a very practical bearing on the method of combating it. Wireworms had long ranked among the worst insect pests of the general farmer ; the bud moth threatened to ‘ ‘ nip in the bud” many a prospective crop of fruit; and unfortunately what little definite and accurate knowlege had been published regarding these insects was widely scattered and inaccessible to the farmer or fruit grower. Therefore, as our bulletins combined these pre¬ viously ascertained facts with many new ones, the results of much original investigation, the demand for the bulletins was so great that the entire edition of each was exhausted in less than a year. So that during the past two or three years that these bul¬ letins have been “out of print,” the information they contain has been inaccessable to the hundreds of correspondents who have de¬ sired information regarding wireworms and the bud moth. Although but few observations have since been made on these insects, it seems advisable, in consideration of the above facts, to again discuss them. In the following pages we, therefore, give, in a condensed form, the information contained in bulletins 33 and 50 ; what few new facts we have seen recorded are also included in their proper connection, thus bringing the information up to date. Several new figures enliven the pages. M. V. SEINGERRAND. CONTENTS. Wireworms. Pages 37-56. I. Introduction. II. Methods of Experimentation. Page 39. III. Experiments Pages 40-50. A. Protection of Seeds. Pages 40-43. 1. By a coating of Paris green and flour. Page 40. 2. By a coating of tar. Page 41. 3. By soaking it in a solution of salt. Page 41. 4. By soaking it in a copperas solution. Page 41. 5. By soaking it in a chloride of lime and copperas solution. Page 42, 6. By soaking it in kerosene oil. Page 42. 7. By soaking it in turpentine. Page 42. 8. By soaking it in a strychnine solution. Page 42. 9. By soaking it in other poisonous substances. Page 42. B. Destruction of the Larvae. Pages 43-48. 1. By starvation. Page 43. a. By clean fallow. b. By supposed immune crops, like buckwheat, mustard, and rape. 2. By insecticides, as kerosene, crude petroleum, poisoned dough, bisulphide of carbon, salt, kainit, muriate of potash, lime, chloride of lime, and gas lime. Page 45. C. Destruction of pupae and adults. Pages 48-50. 1. Fall plowing Page 48. 2. Trapping. Page 49. General Summary of the Methods .of combating Wireworms. Page 50. IV. The Transformation of Several Species of Wireworms. Page 50. 1. The wheat wireworm ( Agriotes mancus ). Page 51. 2. Asaphes decoloratus. Page 52. 3. Melanotus communis. Page 53, 4. Drasterias elegans. Page 54. 5. Cryptohypnus abbreviatus. Page 55. The Bud Moth ( Tmetocera ocellana ). Pages 57-66. Its history and distribution. Page 57. How it is spread. Page 58. Its name and classification. Page 58. How its presence is indicated. Page 59. Its appearance. Page 59. Its life history. Its appearance and habits in the spring. Page 60. Pupation. Page 62. Habits of the moth. Page 62. Egg-laying. Page 62. Summer habits of the caterpillar. Page 63. Hibernation. Page 63. Number of broods. Page 64. Its natural enemies. Page 64. Methods of preventing its ravages. Page 64. WIREWORMS. RESULTS OF EFFORTS TO DISCOVER A PRACTICA¬ BLE METHOD OF PREVENTING THE RAVAGES OF THESE PESTS, AND A STUDY OF THE LIFE HISTORY OF SEVERAL COMMON SPECIES. I. INTRODUCTION. Among the most prominent of the pests that infest field crops are the insects commonly known as wireworms. These are long slender grubs of a yellowish-white color and with unusually hard bodies. Their wire-like form and the hardness of the body has suggested the common name. Two wireworms are shown, natural size, among the roots in figure 16; one is represented enlarged in figure 14. Unfortunately the term wire- 14.— A wireworm , twice natural size. worm has been misapplied to certain animals—the millipedes— which are not true insects but belong to a different class in the animal kingdom. Figure 15 represents a millipede. The follow¬ ing pages do not treat of millipedes. The true wireworms are 15 ,—A millipede. the young of click-beetles, or snapping-bugs as they are more commonly termed. Our com¬ mon kinds of click-beetles are mostly small or of medium size ; a few are larger. Two are shown on the corn plant in figure 16, and figures 17 and 18 represent others. They are usually of a uniform brownish color ; some are conspicuously spotted. More than five hundred kinds of click-beetles have been described from North America. “There is hardly a country child that has not been entertained by the acrobatic performances of these long, tidy- 38 Bulletin 107. 17 —A click- beetle. appearing beetles. Touch one of them and it at once curls up its legs and drops as if shot; it usually lands on its back, and lies there for a time as if dead. Suddenly there is a click, and the insect pops up into the air several inches. If it comes down on its back, it tries again and again until it succeeds in striking on its feet, and then runs off. We remember well carrying these crea¬ tures into the old district schoolhouse, where all les¬ sons had to be learned from books, and where nature was never given a chance to teach us anything. Here with one eye on the teacher and one on this interesting jumper laid on our book be¬ ll i n d the desk, we found a most f ascinating occupation for the tedi- o u s m o - ments. But the end was always the same ; the . 18.— The Eyed Elater beetle jump- (Alaus oculatus). ed so high that it betrayed us and was liberated, and we were disgraced.” {From Com¬ stock's Manual for the study oj 16.— A corn-plant growing in a root-cage infest-fjisects t). .) ed by wireworms and click-beetles (from a ' r' jttj/ specimen in the Cornell Insectary). Many SpecieS of wireWOrmS are not at all injurious to agriculture, but certain others live in WIREWORMS. 39 the soil and feed on the roots of plants, and on seeds. The latter species are often exceedingly injurious ; and as they work in the ground out of sight, they are very difficult to combat. During three years (1889, 1890 and 1891) we made numerous ex¬ periments to ascertain a practical method of preventing the rav¬ ages of these pests. Unfortunately our efforts were not attended with that degree of success for which we had hoped, and thus the chief object of our investigations was not accomplished. But we did succeed in proving the futility of many methods that have been very generally recommended for the destruction of these pests ; and it seemed worth while to publish the detailed results of our experiments, as given in bulletin 33, for they might save farmers from making expensive efforts that would surely bring no adequate returns. Much has been written upon how to combat wireworms. And yet, at the time bulletin 33 was written (November, 1891), there had not been published the results of a single extensive series of carefully conducted experiments. Professor Forbes has recently published some results he obtained in 1888 and 1891 (Seventh Report, p. 48-49), and these will be noted in connection with the discussion of our experiments. Most writers on this subject have reasoned and written, but have not tested their theories. II. methods of experimentation. Under this heading in bulletin 33, we described and figured the different kinds of cages used in our experiments. As they are of general interest to the working entomologist only, we will not again discuss them. Suffice it to say in this connection that every precaution was taken to keep the wireworms under as nearly natural conditions as possible, and the experiments were conducted in a systematic and careful manner. To eliminate possible sources of error, comparative or check cages were used in each experiment; in these check experiments the cages were the same as the others, only they remained untreated. So far as practicable, every method was applied as it would be in the field. 40 Bulletin 107. III. EXPERIMENTS. Both defensive and offensive measures were used in our expert ments. Thus we tried to protect seed from the ravages of the wire worms, and we also tried to destroy the insects in each of three different stages of their existence—as wireworm or larva, pupa, and adult; no eggs were obtained upon which to experi¬ ment. The scope of our experiments was necessarily large as they embraced nearly all of the methods that we found recom¬ mended in the literature of these insects. Only the general results can be given here ; they were published in much detail in bulletin 33. Most of them were made in 1890 and 1891, while some were begun in 1889. The results of Professor Forbes’ recently published experiments will also be included in their proper connection in this discussion. A. PROTECTION OF SEEDS. The most conspicuous of the injuries caused by wireworms, and the one most keenly appreciated by the farmer, is the destruc¬ tion of the seed. Thus farmers have given more attention to protecting their seeds than to any other method of combating wireworms. Seeds have been coated with various substances in the effort to render them distasteful or poisonous to the insects, and several methods are strongly recommended. But as none of the recommendations were based on carefully ascertained facts, we tested each one. 1. Protection of Seed by a Coating of Paris Green and Flour. This method promised to be a most desirable one ; for, if it resulted as we confidently expected, not only would the seed be protected but the wireworms would also be killed. We coated kernels of corn with varying amounts of Paris green and flour (in one case sugar was added), and carried on a large number of experiments covering a period of nearly two years. The only apparent result of the coating was to retard the sprout¬ ing of the seeds. We saw wireworms destroy several of the coated seeds without apparent injury to themselves. WIREWORMS. 41 In 1888, Professor Forbes found that corn which “ was covered with a coating of the green poison, was eaten freely by some of the wireworms without killing them.” In 1885, he also mixed Paris green to the soil in which the corn was planted without any injurious effect on the wireworms, but the corn failed to grow. It is thus evident that it is useless to try to protect seed from the attacks of wireworms by coating it with a Paris green mix¬ ture. 2. Protection of Seed by a Coating of Tar. It has long been a common practice among farmers to coat their seed corn with tar to prevent its being attacked by wireworms. However, no one has demonstrated that they will not attack corn thus coated. Our results from two years of experimentation show that some¬ times larvse will attack seed corn even when it is completely coated with tar. In actual practice, but few of the kernels would get a complete coat ; it requires considerable disagreeable labor to apply the coating; germination is considerably retarded, even when the kernel has been previously soaked in water ; and corn thus treated cannot be readily used in a planter. From these considerations it can be seen that this method of protection does not afford that degree of certainty and practicability which is desired. 3. Protection of Seed by Soaking it in a Solution of Salt. This method was quite commonly practiced many years ago among farmers in western New York. Our series of experi¬ ments, extending over a period of nearly a year, made it evident that corn soaked in a saturated salt solution is as readily eaten by wireworms as if not thus soaked, and no injury results to the wireworms. 4. Protection of Seed by Soaking it in a Copperas Solution. In 1876 an Illinois farmer reported favorable results from soak¬ ing his seed corn before planting in a solution of copperas (sul¬ phate of iron), to protect it from the attacks of wireworms. 42 Bulletin 107. After two seasons of experimentation with the solution, we got no results which indicated that wireworms would not eat and destroy seed soaked in it as readily as any other, and receive no injury therefrom. 5. Protection of Seed by Soaking it in a Chloride of Lime and Copperas Solution. Our experiments during two seasons gave conclusive evidence that a solution of chloride of lime and copperas will not protect seed corn which has been soaked in it from the attacks of wire- worms. 6. Protection of Seed by Soaking it in Kerosene Oil. In our experiments with this substance made in the spring of 1891 the wireworms destroyed nearly every kernel of corn we planted ; there were no indications that this food disagreed with them. 7. Protection of Seed by Soaking it in Spirits of Turpentine. The soaking of seed corn in turpentine has been frequently recommended as a preventive against attack from wireworms. All of the kernels of corn we thus soaked were destroyed, before germination began, by the wireworms and they were unaffected by the meal. 8. Protection of Seed by Soaking it in a Strychnine Solution. The idea of soaking seed corn in a solution of strychnine was suggested to us by the fact that seed thus soaked is used to poison sparrows and gophers. Our results from experiments made in 1891 showed that although seed corn be soaked in a very strong solution of strychnine, it is rendered neither distasteful nor destructive to wireworms. Prof. Forbes has recently reported similar results from experiments made in Illinois in 1888 and 1891. 9. Protection of Seed by Soaking it in Other Poison¬ ous Substances. In 1888 and 1891, Professor Forbes fed to wireworms corn that had been soaked in the following : WIREWORMS. 43 A mixture of Paris green and water. Fowler’s solution, diluted with an equal quantity of water. An alcoholic solution of arsenic. « A solution of arsenic in boiling water. An alcoholic solution of corrosive sublimate. A saturated solution of potassium cyanide. In almost every case the wireworms fed upon the kernels with¬ out injury to themselves. Thus, Professor Forbes says, “that it is not practicable to protect corn by means of these substances, even were it possible to use them without retarding or preventing the germination of the seed.” B. DESTRUCTION OF THE EARV 7 E. The various methods that have been proposed for the destruction of wireworms fall under two heads : First, destruction by starva¬ tion ; second, destruction by the use of insecticides. i. Destruction of Wireworms by Starvation. (a) Starvation by Clean Fallow. It has been the general belief that the wireworms which infest our fields could live but a short time in soil in which no vegeta¬ tion was allowed to grow. No experiments were recorded, how¬ ever, to show how long the worms could live in such soil. We kept several experiment cages in “clean fallow” for nearly a year, and more wireworms remained alive (many of them passed through the transformations to the beetle stage) in these cages than in similar cages in which grass was kept growing. Therefore, we would not advise the farmer to lose the use of his land for a season and the labor necessary to keep it free from all vegetation in the hope that he may thus starve out the wireworms. ( b ) Starvation by the Growth of Supposed Immune Crops. It is supposed there are certain crops so distasteful to wire- worms that when these crops are grown the worms will either perish from hunger or leave the field, and thus the succeeding crops be spared from the ravages of these pests. The crops usually recommended for starving out the wireworms are buck¬ wheat, mustard and rape. 44 Bulletin 107. buckwheat. In this country more attention has been directed to buckwheat as a supposed immune crop than to any other. By a series of experiments extending over a period of two years, we proved that wireworms will attack and cut off roots of buckwheat; and that they can live for many months, and undergo the transformations necessary for the continuance of the species, in soil in which only buckwheat is growing. Therefore as wire- worms have lived as long and thrived as well in cages of buck¬ wheat as they have in cages of timothy and clover, we cannot regard buckwheat as an immune crop. mustard. In Europe, mustard has long been regarded as a crop that clears the soil of wireworms by starving them out. We experimented with both the Chinese and brown mustard, and wireworms lived in cages containing no other vegetation but these plants for from •one to two years ; we have never been able to keep them alive so long in cages containing clover and timothy. Thus our experi¬ ments do not indicate that a crop of mustard will render the soil so free from wireworms that the succeeding crop will escape their ravages. RAPE- Another crop, upon which it is said wireworms will not feed, is rape. It is but little grown in America, but is considerably grown in England to provide pasture that will fatten sheep readily. Wireworms lived as long and thrived as well in our breeding cages on roots of rape as in soil in which clover and timothy were grown. Thus, it would seem that rape can no more be regarded as an immune crop than any other crop cultivated at the same time. 2. Destruction of Wireworms by means of Insecticides. As the species of wireworms which infest growing crops live during their whole larval life beneath the surface among the roots, it is a more difficult matter to reach them with insecticides than those pests which feed exposed on the plants. A substance must have great penetrating and killing power to be of any value. WIREWORMS. 45 Most of the substances that have been recommended were first applied merely as fertilizers, but in later years their insecticidal properties also have been much discussed. (a) Substa?ices that act merely as Insecticides. 9 Most of the insecticides which we used are well known and have been used successfully against other underground insects. KEROSENE, PURE AND AS AN EMULSION. In 1885, Professor Forbes found that “applications of these substances made to wireworms in the earth were found practically ineffective, any strength sufficient to kill them killing vegetation also.” Our experiments corroborate Professor Forbes’ conclu¬ sion. We found that wireworms could be killed by using either substance in sufficient quantities, but this amount would destroy all vegetation and would be too expensive an application. CRUDE PETROLEUM, PURE AND AS AN EMULSION. On the whole our results with the crude petroleum emulsion and with the crude petroleum were not as promising as those obtained with the kerosene oil emulsion. POISONED DOUGH. In our experiments in 1888, poisoned sweetened dough was used with some success to attract and destroy the click-beetles. (See Bulletin No. 3, Nov., 1888, p. 38.) As the wireworms in our breeding cages readily came to the surface to eat wheat scat¬ tered thereon, it was thought that many might be attracted by sweetened dough placed on the surface. A few experiments soon made it evident that the wireworms could not be thus attracted to the poisoned dough. BISULPHIDE OF CARBON. This substance has been quite extensively used against certain subterranean insects. Our experiments showed that it would kill wireworms when poured into a hole near infested plants ; but as it had to be used at the rate of about 150 gallons per acre, its cost would be excessive. 46 Bulletin 107. (£) Substances that act also as Fertilizers. There are several substances now in common use as fertilizers which possess some insecticidal properties. Dealers in the potash fertilizers, especially kainit and muriate of potash, claim that the ravages of wireworms are effectually checked by the use of their fertilizers. In 1890 and 1891 we carried on a large series of ex¬ periments with salt, kainit, muriate of potash, lime, chloride of lime, and gas-lime to determine whether they might be effectually used against wireworms. SALT. Many farmers assert that salt either destroys wireworms, drives them deeper into the soil beyond the roots, or renders the soil so obnoxious that the worms leave. 1. Will salt kill wireworms ?—From a large series of experi¬ ments we found that to destroy wireworms, salt must be used at the rate of about eight tons to the acre, or over one per cent, of the soil to a depth of four inches must be salt. This amount would be very destructive to vegetation. 2. Will salt drive wireworms deeper into the soil? —In 1891 we thoroughly tested this supposed action of salt upon wireworms by means of special apparatus devised for the purpose (see Bulletin 33, p. 230 for detailed description and figures). The results of this experiment indicated that salt applied at the rate of 1000 pounds per acre (a heavy dressing) interfered with the germination of wheat, and neither drove the wireworms deeper into the soil, nor caused them to migrate any appreciable distance. KAINIT. This is a German potash salt which is now much used as a fer¬ tilizer in this country. We made many and varied experiments with kainit on wireworms. The results obtained indicate that kainit has but little, if any, effect on wireworms in the soil even when applied in very large quantities, as from four to nine tons per acre. It should be noted that these results are diametrically opposed to those obtained by Professor J. B. Smith of the New Jersey Ex¬ periment Station (. bisect Life , Vol. 4, Nos. 1 and 2, p. 45 ; WIREWORMS. 47 Bull. 85, N. J. Exp. Sta., p. 5 ; An. Rept. N. J. Exp. Sta. for 1891, p. 42). However, none of the statements yet made by Pro¬ fessor Smith are supported, by sufficient evidence to lead us to modify the conclusions derived from the results of our experi¬ ments. Professor Forbes says of the experiment upon which most of Professor Smith’s evidence is based : “ It is evident from the context that this experiment had been made some years be¬ fore, apparently not under the inspection of an entomologist.” Mr. F. M. Webster, entomologist of the Ohio Experiment Sta¬ tion, in discussing the methods of fighting wireworms, says-(Bull. 51, Ohio Expt. Sta., p. 137): “ There may be some virtue in the application of kainit, although this has not as yet been thor¬ oughly and clearly demonstrated.” MURIATE OF POTASH. This is a product of German mines, and is our principal potash fertilizer. After many experiments extending over a period of more than nine months, we were forced to conclude that it has to be used at the rate of from four to six tons per acre to have any effect on the larvae, and then it is not so effective as the cheaper kainit or the much cheaper common salt. Its use in such large quantities would also be very destructive to vegetation. Although a valua¬ ble fertilizer, it is too expensive an insecticide to use against wire- worms. time. Eime has long been used as a fertilizer, and many report good results from its use on fields infested by wireworms. However, our experiments covering a period of over seven months showed that lime applied at the rate of even 200 bushels per acre, either slaked or unslaked, or as lime water, had no effect upon the wire- worms. CHLORIDE OF LIME. Several experiments made with this substance showed that it will kill wireworms in the soil, but must be used at the rate of nearly six tons per acre. It is thus impracticable and too expen¬ sive. 4 8 Bulletin 107. gas lime. This is the refuse lime thrown out at gas works. When fresh it smells strongly of ammonia and sulphur, but becomes nearly odorless after exposure to the air for a few days. We thoroughly tested it; and our experiments indicate that the killing properties of the gas lime soon pass away, and it has to be used fresh in such great quantities (twenty to forty tons per acre) to be even partially effective that, notwithstanding its cheapness, it is hardly practicable on large areas. » C. DESTRUCTION OF PUP.E AND ADULTS. (CLICK-BEETLES.) 1. Fall Plowing. It is with pleasure that we turn from the discussion of measures that give little or no promise of practical use to one that we be¬ lieve is of great importance. For the results of our experiments convince us that much can be done towards checking the increase of wireworms by fall plowing. The explanation of the beneficial results that will follow fall plowing we believe to be found in the following facts, which were brought out in our studies of the life history of our more common species of wireworms : Wireworms live for at least three years in the worm or larval state. In this state they cease feeding about November 1 st, and hibernate until spring. When the worms are fully grown they change to soft white pupae which resemble the beetle in form. This change takes place in the species that com¬ monly infests field crops during the month of July. The pupa state lasts only about three weeks, the insect assuming the adult form in August. But, strange to say, although the adult state is reached at this time, the insect remains in the cell in the ground in which it has undergone its transformations till the following April or May, nearly an entire year. We found that in every case where we disturbed the soil so as to break these earthen cells, the insects within perished. This experience clearly indicates that if infested fields are WlREWORMS. 49 plowed after July 20th and thoroughly pulverized and kept stirred up, many of the little earthen cells may be broken and the tender pupae or beetles within destroyed. After three or four weeks of this thorough cultivation, wheat or rye may be sown. In connection with this fall plowing and cultivation we earnestly recommend the method of short rotation of crops to farmers hav¬ ing land badly infested with wireworms. Do not keep fields in sod for more than a year or two at a time. No doubt it will re¬ quire several, at least three years by this method, to render the soil comparatively free from the pests as only the pupae and adults are killed each fall, while most of the one-and two-year-old wire- worms will escape injury. Those farmers who practice the method are not troubled with wireworms. 2. Trapping. Our experiments on preventing the ravages of wireworms by trapping were carried on in 1888 and 1889. Two methods were employed, trapping by baits, and by lanterns. On trapping by baits .—This method has been discussed in de¬ tail in bulletins 3 and 33 of this Station, so that only the general results will be given here. The baits, which consisted of sliced potatoes, wads of green clover, and sweetened and unsweetened cornmeal dough were placed under boards in various parts of a badly infested corn field. Instead of attracting the wirewo rms, as was expected, their parents—the click-beetles—came to the baits in large numbers ; the clover attracted by far the 1 arger number (65 per cent.). It was found that the beetles were the most active at night, and that they seek their food chiefly by running over the surf ace of the ground. When it was found that they were so readily attracted to the baits, poisoned clover baits were used with the result that most of the click-beetles were destroyed, proving that they fed upon the baits and thus suggesting a practical method of comba ting them. Where the insects are very numerous over a limited area, many of the beetles can be killed with the expenditure of a very little labor in distributing these poisoned baits. 50 Bulletin 107. On trapping by la?iterns .—A series of six trap-lanterns were kept lighted every night here on the University farm from May 1st to October 1st, 1889. During the whole five months only eighty click-beetles were captured. Thus the method has no practical value in fighting wireworms. General Summary of the Methods of Combating Wire- worms. When we began our experiments in 1889, we confidently ex¬ pected to be able in a short time to tell farmers how to protect their seed and their growing crops from these pests. We thought that the greatest part of our work would be to determine which of several ways is the most practicable, the easiest used, or involv¬ ed the least labor or expense. For three years we did our best; and we failed to discover a single satisfactory method of protect¬ ing seed, or of destroying immature wireworms in the soil. We did learn, however, why fall cultivation will destroy the wireworms ready to pupate, the pupae, and the beetles; the beetles can also be trapped and killed in large numbers with poisoned clover baits. We also learned that many commonly recommended plans are useless. Such a short rotation of crops as will include a period of thorough cultivation in the fall will prove the best method of fighting these pests yet suggested. IV. NOTES ON THE TRANSFORMATIONS OF SEVERAE SPECIES OF WIREWORMS. We used nearly 10,000 wireworms in our experiments. They were collected by correspondents in L,ewis county and forwarded to us in invoices of a thousand or more at a time. We were easily able to distinguish five different species among those sent. The species were kept in separate cages, thus enabling us to make many observations on the habits, etc., of each during the course of our experiments upon them. WIREWORMS. 51 i. The Wheat Wireworm. Agriotes viancus , Say. This species is probably the most numerous and most destruc¬ tive kind of wireworm in our State ; it constituted 91 per cent, of the 10,000 with which we experimented. The beetle (Fig. 21) was described in 1823, but nothing was known of its life until 1867 when Dr. Fitch described the wire- worm (Fig. 19) and added a few other notes. It is widely dis¬ tributed and has been reported as destructive in Canada and some of the Western States. Its life-history .—It is not known where any species of click-beetle lays its eggs. It is the general opinion that they are laid in the spring in the earth close to the roots of the plants. We never found any of the wheat wire- worms less than 4 mm. in length ; they measure when full grown from 16 to 19 mm. They are of a waxy-yellow color; their general appearance is well represented in figure 19 (a detailed de¬ scription was given in bulletin 33, p. 257). The eye-like depressions (Fig. 20, e ) on the sides of the last segment render it easily distinguished from most other wireworms. How long this insect re¬ mains in the wireworm state, we failed to learn. We found that one cannot draw accurate conclusions as to their age from their size. Our observations indicated that this wheat wireworm may trouble the farmer at least three years before as- I9 ._ 7 - hew kcat wireworm, back suming the beetle state; it grew only dltJiurfwurF^bfst^ about 2 mm. during six months. The wireworms cease feeding in the fall before November 1st, and descend into the soil for several inches where they remain in a torpid condition all winter. With appetites sharpened by their 52 Bulletin 107. long fast, they come toward the surface in the spring and do more damage than at any other time. When they become full grown, which occurs about July 1st, these wheat wireworms prepare for pupation by forming a little earthen cell in the soil, usually less than six inches from the surface. The pupa is of a pure white color, very soft, and about one-fourth longer than the beetle which it resembles in general appearance. The pupal stage lasts about three weeks, and by September 1st all have trans- details of mouth parts , enlarged; formed tO beetles. e, caudal segment, enlarged. The beetles (one is shown, en¬ larged seven times, in figure 21, and natural size on the upper part of the corn plant in figure 16) are of a dark brown color. They remain in the little earthen cells, made by the wireworms, all win¬ ter, and work their way to the sur¬ face during April. They fly well and can run quite rapidly ; when disturbed they ‘ * play possum ’ ’ for a time. They will eat clover leaves and we saw one at work on a kernel of wheat. They lived but a few days after emer¬ ging in our cages. When and where they lay their eggs still remains one of nature’s secrets. 2. Asaphes decoloratus , Say. This click-beetle is widely dis¬ tributed over the northern states east of the Mississippi river, and occurs in both cultivated and grass lands. It has not yet occurred in sufficient numbers to be injurious; only about five per cent, of the wireworms we have examined belonged to this species. 2r .—Agriotes mancus , the adult en¬ larged 7 diameters [after Forbes'). WlREWORMS. 53 Its life-history .—Our specimens of the wireworms ranged in length from 7 mm. to 25 mm. They are of a dark, waxy-yellow color; their form and characteristic features are well shown in figures 22 and 23 (a detailed description is given in bulletin 33, p. 261). What little data we have indicates that the duration of the wireworm period is at least three years. 22.— The wireworm of Asaphes decoloratus, enlarged three and three-fourths diameters (after Forbes). Unlike the wheat wireworm, this wireworm matures in May. The change to a pupa takes place in little earthen cells in the soil. We have not seen the pupa ; this stage lasts about three weeks. Most of the beetles emerged in our cages in June. In Professor Forbes’ experiments in Illinois they emerged as early as May 25th. The beetle varies from o mm. to 15 mm. in length, and is of a shining black¬ ish color with -s. forown legs. Its f j§!§ characteristic features are well shown in figure 24. All the beetles 53 .—Caudal segment of the wire- emerge before worm of A sap lies decoloratus, ® much enlarged (after Forbes). fall, but of the further life nothing. of this insect, we know 3. Melanotus communis , Gyll. This species of wireworm is very com¬ mon in cultivated lands, especially in corn fields, in our State; Professor Forbes 24 .—Asaphes decoloratus, the adult, ■ enlarged four and one-fifth dia¬ meters (after Forbes). 2j .—Caudal segment of the wireworm of Me - lanotus communis, greatly enlarged ( af¬ ter Forbes). 54 Bulletin 107. found an allied species (Af. cribulosus ) much more common in Illinois corn fields. The insect is widely distributed, ranging at least from Nebraska to New Jersey and Canada. Its life-history .—The mature wire- worms vary in length from 25 to 30 mm. They are of a light brown color, with the head, thorax and last segment considerably darker. (They are described in detail in bulletin 33, p. 265.) Figure 25 shows the characteristics of the caudal segment of this wireworm, and figure 26 (although it is of the closely allied species M. cribulosus ) will serve equally well to show the principal features of the whole worm. The insect spends at least three years as a wire- worm ; one specimen lived in our cages for nearly two years. The change to a pupa takes place in earthen c^lls during July. The pupa is white and ten- 26.— The corn der, and changes to a beetle in about a month. The w tr ew ortn (Me l anotus principal characteristics cribulosus), enlarged4% of the slender, glossy, d 1 ci yy'i g l gYS {afterForbes dark brown beetle are well shown in figure 27. They re¬ main in the earthen cells in the soil all winter, emerging in May. May. The secret of the rest of their life remains with nature. f. Drasterias el eg an s, Fabr. This species of wireworm is wide¬ ly distributed over the country and has been reported as exceedingly abundant and injurious to young wheat in Indiana. We have found it quite abundant in sod land here. „ nr , , Its life history— Notwithstanding adult< e „iarged four diame- its abundance, comparatively little ters {after Forbes). WlREWORMS. is known of the life of this insect. It is one of the smallest of the wireworms, measuring from 9 mm. to 12 mm. in length when full grown. Its body is considerably flattened and of a light waxy-yellow color. Figures 28 and 29 well illus¬ trate its characteristic features. (It is described in detail in bulletin 33, p. 268). They undergo their transformations in earthen cells in the soil, the change to a beetle taking place about July 1st. The beetle is of a general rusty-brown color with black markings ; it is shown natural size and enlarged in figure 30. We were unable to determine whether they emerged in the fall or passed the winter in the earthen cells. Professor Forbes has recorded considerable data on this point which leads him to conclude that it seems probable that they emerge in the summer and early fall, probably laying their eggs in part the same season ; son; that it hibernates in sheltered places and continues abundant 28.— The wvreworm of Drasteria e lega ns, until June OI the IOl- enlarged seven dia- . ...... meters {after Forbes), lowing year, CiOUbtleSS breeding meanwhile; and that it lives two seasons in the earth as a wireworm. — Caudal segment of the 5. Crypiohypnus abbreviate , Say. e i egans , m J uch enlarged , We met with a few wireworms of {after Forbes). this species in old sod land. The beetle has been known since 1823, and it is not uncommon throughout North America. It is a robust beetle, about one-fourth of an inch in length and of a brownish-black color with a greenish-bronze lustre. (For detailed descriptions see bulletin 33, p. 270, or Trans. Am. Ent. Soc., 1891, p. 7.) The wireworms are from 7 mm. to9 mm. in length when mature, and closely resemble the 30 —Drasterias eie- young worms of Asciphes decoloratus (Fg. 22). gans, the adult ' natural size and They are of a dark waxy-yellow color and consid- enlarged. 56 Bulletin 107. 31.— Wireworm of Crypto- hypnus abbreviatus. a, b , c ) details of the mouth-parts; e the caudal segment—all en¬ larged. erably flattened in form. The caudal segment and some details of the mouth parts are shown in figure 31. (For a detailed description see Bulletin 33, p. 271.) The Bud Moth. 57 THE BUD MOTH. Tmetocera ocellana. This bud moth has come to be recognized by many of the most extensive apple growers in western New York as the most injuri¬ ous and hardest to fight of any insect now present in their orchards. It works in the opening leaf (Fig. 32) and flower 32.— Work of the bud moth in opening leaf buds. buds (see frontispiece), and often nearly the whole crop on many trees is destroyed while yet in the bud. It is also especially destructive when it attacks recently budded or grafted trees and nursery stock. Besides apple, it also feeds upon pear, plum, cherry, quince, and peach trees, and blackberry buds. Thus fruit growers have to fear, in the bud moth, a pest which is capable of literally ‘ ‘ nipping in the bud ’ ’ a prospective crop of fruit, a graft, or a budded stock. Its History and Distribution. As the insect had been known in Europe for more than half a century before it was recorded in this country, it is, therefore, no 58 Bulletin 107. doubt an imported species, attained economic importance in Europe about 1840, and was first discovered in this country in 1841 in Massachusetts where it was doing considerable damage ; by 1869, it had come to be “the most injurious enemy of the apple-tree, next to the canker-worm, in the State.” The same year it did some damage in Pennsylvania, and in 1870, plum trees were attacked by it in Canada. The first record of the occurrence of the insect in New York State is in 1880 in a Union Springs nursery. The previous year it was found at Washington, D. C. and by 1885 it had reached Nova Scotia. In 1887, it was quite injurious near Rochester, N. Y., and in 1888 and 1890 apple and blackberry buds were injured in Maine. Throughout Massachu¬ setts, New York, and Canada, the insect appeared in very destructive numbers in 1891, and in Michigan in 1892. It has been found in Missouri, and two or three years ago was intro¬ duced into Idaho. The bud moth is thus widely distributed over the New England and Middle States, and Canada ; it occurs as far south as Wash¬ ington, D. C-, and as far west as Idaho. How It is Spread. The active moths doubtless fly readily from orchard to orchard and thus the pest may slowly spread. But a much more fruitful source of infestation is to be found in nursery stock. We have seen the insect at work in several nurseries, and it is claimed that it was introduced into Idaho on stock received from one of our New York nurseries. Its manner of hibernating makes its dis tribution very easy on nursery stock. Its Name and Classification. The bud moth is closely allied to the codlin moth, and resem¬ bles the latter in size and form, but differs in structure, in color¬ ing, and in its habits and life-history. A spot, somewhat eye-like in appearance, on each front wing of the moth suggested its name— ocellana —which was given to it in Austria in 1776. The popular name—eye-spotted bud moth— first used by Dr. Harris in 1841, is now in common use. The moth has been described under five different names, and has been Thk Bud Moth. 59 placed in six different genera. The genus Tmetocera (“cut¬ horned,” from the notched appearance of the base of the antennae of the male moth) was established in 1859 f° r the reception of this insect which still remains its only representative. How Its Presence is Indicated. The caterpillars of the bud moth are astir early in the spring, usually about May 1st, and soon begin their destructive work on the swelling and opening fruit and leaf buds. They eat into the buds, and often so check and disfigure a small tree as to spoil its symmetry. More often the caterpillar does not begin its work until the buds are -nearly half opened. It then feeds upon the central expanding leaves or flowers, tying them together with silken threads (see the frontispiece, and figure 32). Some of the partly eaten leaves soon turn brown and thus render the work of the insect quite conspicuous; one correspondent wrote that his trees looked as though a fire had swept quickly through them, as so many leaves had turned brown. This tying together of the opening leaves and flow r ers and the brown appearance of many of them, are the most characteristic indications of the presence of the insect. Its Appearance. 33 .—Caterpillar of the bud moth about three times natural size. The caterpillar .—It is in this stage that this insect is familiar to fruit-growers. It appears on the buds in the spring as a little brown caterpillar, about .16 of an inch long, with a black head and thoracic shield. In June, when the caterpillars are full-grown (Fig. 33) they are about half an inch in length and are of a cin¬ namon brown color ; the head, thor¬ acic shield, and true legs are black. The body is sparsely hairy, and bears five pairs of pro-legs. The pupa .—This quiescent stage of the insect is passed in the nests in the latter part of June in a tube of dead leaves. Two views of a pupa are shown in figure 34. It is about 27 of an inch in length and of a light brown color ; the dorsum of each abdominal segment bears two transverse rows of small tooth-like processes directed caudad. 6o Bulletin 107. The moth .—The moth (Fig. 35) measures about three-fifths of an inch across its expanded wings. It is of a general dark ash-grey col¬ or with a broad cream white band across the front wings. Dr. Harris saw the resemblance to two eye-like spots in the arrangement of two short horizontal black dashes fol¬ lowed by a b a verti c a 1 34. —Pupa of the bud moth ; o, ventral S t X e ak of view; b, dorsal view — enlarged. , j i i lead blue near the anal angle of the front wings, and in the three or four similar black dashes, also followed by a streak of lead 35 T n ‘ bud ad "“ J insect , twice natural size. blue, near the apex of these wings. Its Life-History. Although the caterpillar and pupa of the bud moth were known more than eighty years ago, its true life-history, as observed by Mr. J. Fletcher, the Canadian Government entomol¬ ogist, and the writer, was not recorded until 1892 (Report of Entomologist for Dept. Agr. Canada, 1891, p. 195). Its appearance and habits in the spring .—The date of the emergence of the little brown caterpillars from their winter retreats varies considerably in this State. They seem to time their ap¬ pearance by the date at which the buds begin to open. Thus the earliness or lateness of the season or of the variety of the tree in¬ fested will vary the time from two to four weeks, ranging from April 15 to May 15. In some cases the caterpillar appears before the bud has opened sufficiently for it to readily enter. It is then forced to eat its way into the bud. Once within the bud it revels in the very ten¬ der growing leaves or flower buds, tying them together with its silken threads, and thus forming for itself a well protected nest within which its destructive work goes on (Figs. 32 and 36). It does not confine its work to one or two leaves or flowers, but seems to delight in devouring a part of a leaf here or one side of a developing flower there. So that nearly every leaf or flower in The Bud Moth. 6 i the opening bud is forced to contribute to the greed of the little creature, thus greatly increasing its destructiveness. It is especially destructive on young trees or nursery stock as it then most often attacks the terminal buds, sometimes burrow- 36.— Characteristic nest of the bud moth caterpillar; and several of the curious eggs, greatly enlarged , laid by the moth. If the leaf which it has selected as its final home should become too weak at the place where it has been cut so that there may be danger of its falling to the ground ; then the larva goes to work and either strengthens it with silk which is fastened to the twig and petiole or ties the apical portion of the tube to another leaf or cuts that part of the leaf which contains its tube from the rest of the leaf, so that either the whole or only that portion which contains the tube hangs suspended from another leaf.” The larva lives in this tube most of the time, only coming forth to feed ; when disturbed it retreats into the tube out of sight. In feeding it draws other leaves, one after another, toward it and ing down the shoot for two or three inches caus¬ ing it to die, and thus greatly marring the sym¬ metry of the tree. The later work of the caterpillars in the open¬ ing leaves has been well described by Professor Comstock as follows : 44 The larva settles on one of the more advanced leaves, of which it cuts the petiole half through either near its base or close to the leaf so that it wilts. Of this half dead leaf it forms a sort of tube by rolling the edge of one side more or less down and fastening it with silken threads and then lining the in¬ side sparsely with silk. 62 Bulletin 107. fastens them with threads of silk, thus forming a nest (Fig. 36). Some of these partially devoured leaves soon turn brown and die, thus rendering the nest quite conspicuous. The caterpillars continue to feed in the spring, mostly at night, for six or seven weeks, and probably shed their skin three times during this time. Pupation .—Within a tube, usually formed in the nest by rolling up one side of a leaf or by bringing together two or three half devoured leaves and securely fastening everything with silken threads, the full-grown caterpillar retreats and lines the interior with a thin closely woven layer of silk. This forms the cocoon within which the caterpillar is soon to undergo its wonderful change to a pupa. The date of this change varies in this State from June 1st to the 25th. About ten days are spent as a pupa, then by the aid of the tooth-like hooks on its back, it works its way nearly out of the cocoon, and its skin splits open to allow the pretty little mgth to emerge. Habits of the moth .—The moths begin to appear as early as June 5th in our State, and often all have not emerged by July 10th. They are most active during the night, remaining quiet during the day on the trunk and limbs of the tree, with wings folded roof-wise ; in this position they closely mimic the bark. They probably live about two or three weeks. Egg-laying .—Three or four days after emerging, the moths be¬ gin to lay eggs, working mostly at night. They are laid on the leaves singly or in small clusters slightly overlapping each other. They are curious objects (Figs. 36 and 37). In fact they so closely resemble minute drops of water or a fish’s scale on the leaf as to necessitate the use of a lens to determine the egg char¬ acteristics. They are very transparent and will reflect the pris¬ matic colors like a drop of water. They are disc-like, very much flattened, usually oval in outline, a few are circular, and measure .8 mm. by .7 mm. A flat outer rim .2 mm. wide adheres closely to the leaf, leav¬ ing a central slightly elevated rounded disc in which the larva develops. About nine days The; Bud Moth. 63 tion can be plainly seen through the shell. The egg-stage lasts from seven to ten days. Summer habits of the caterpillar .—Soon after emerging through a hole near the edge of the central portion of the egg-shell, the little greenish caterpillar begins to feed upon the skin of the leaf, usually upon the underside. A few hours later it makes for itself a tube of silk open at both ends and usually made alongside the mid-rib. From these silken homes the caterpillars sally forth to feed upon the surrounding tissues, protecting themselves as they go by a thin layer of silk spun over their feeding grounds (Fig. 38). They feed upon one epidermis and the inner tissues of the leaf, leaving the net-work of veinlets ; the opposite epidermis forms the floor of its feed¬ ing grounds. The vein- lets and the epidermis SOOn turn brown, thus ^g— Leaf showing the work of a young caterpillar rendering the summer during the summer. work of the insect quite conspicuous. Rarely more than one caterpillar works on a leaf. The caterpillars continue to feed in this manner during July and August, and apart of September. Soon after the third or fourth moulting of the skin, they cease feeding and seem to know in¬ stinctively that they have reached that point in their develop¬ ment when it is necessary for them to make preparations to go into winter quarters, even though it be several weeks yet before the leaves become unfit for food, or fall from the trees. Hibernation .—Our ob¬ servations in 1891 and 1892 definitely showed that the bud moth passes the winter as a half- grown caterpillar snugly hidden in a silken case on the tree. Figure 39 represents a twig, natural size, bearing three of these hibernacula at a , a , and b. 39.— Twig showing the position of the winter homes of the caterpillar at a, a, and b , natural size. 6 4 Bulletin 107. These little winter homes are very inconspicuous objects as they are scarcely more than an eighth of an inch in length, and are cov¬ ered with bits of dirt from the bark or are sometimes made under some convenient piece of dead leaf or bud-scale. One must be very familiar with these hibernacula to be able to find them, even on a badly infested tree. The caterpillars begin to go into winter quarters early in August and all are snugly tucked away before the leaves fall. They instinctively build their winter homes near the winter buds on the twigs so they may be at hand to nip the bud upon its showing any signs of opening in the spring. The life-cycle is completed with the opening of spring and the ap¬ pearance of the little brown caterpillars on the buds. Number of broods. —There is but one generation of the insect in a year in this and more northern latitudes. The moth appears and lays her eggs in June or July, and the caterpillars feed upon the leaves until half-grown, in which stage they hibernate. Pos¬ sibly two broods may occur further south. Its Natural Enemies. In Europe, five parasites are recorded at work upon this insect. Three parasites (Phytodictus vulgaris,Pimpla sp. and Microdus lati- cinctus) have been reared from it in this country ; the latter species seems to be quite common in some localities. •Besides these parasitic enemies, the bud moth is sometimes eaten by birds in Canada, and we also found a large wasp ( Odyn - erus catskillensis) storing its cell with the caterpillars which must furnish delicious morsels for the grub of the wasp when it hatches. Doubtless all of these foes aid considerably in keeping the pest in check, but it has now become so numerous and wide spread that its enemies are insufficient and the devices of man must be called into action. Methods of Preventing its Ravages. This insect is proving an exceedingly hard one to combat. It cannot be effectively and practicably fought while in the adult or egg stages, and there is but little hopes of reaching the cater¬ pillars in their hibernacula during the winter. Although the caterpillars work under a silken covering on the undersides of the Thk Bud Moth. 65 leaves during the latter part of the summer, it may be possible to kill some of them with a Paris green spray, but we doubt it. The pupae can be reached only by hand-picking the nests during the ten days in June which the insect passes in this stage. Thus, so far as we now know, the most vulnerable period in the life- cycle of the bud moth is during the last half of its caterpillar life when it is at work upon the opening buds, leaves and flowers. We once saw a case where hand-picking could have been profit¬ ably practiced. A block of young pear trees had become badly infested, and each caterpillar’s nest was rendered conspicuous by one or two brown, dead leaves. All of the then nearly full-grown caterpillars could have been quickly killed by collecting and burn¬ ing their nests; this would have effectually prevented the ap¬ pearance of the insect another year. One man could have thus exterminated the pest in that block of a thousand or more young trees in a very short time. This method may prove practicable in many cases where nursery stock becomes infested. The nests should be gathered before June 1st. Although hand-picking is the surest method of checking the insect, it is impracticable on large trees, and besides, by the time the work of the caterpillar has progressed far enough to render its nest conspicuous, it has done most of its damage. Fruit growers cannot afford to wait until after the developing fruit and new growth are “ nipped in the bud ” before placing any obstacles in the way of this insect. We believe the pest can be reached with an arsenical spray ap¬ plied frequently and thoroughly . It will necessitate at least two thorough applications before the floivers open. If possible, keep the swelling and opening buds coated with Paris’ green so that the little caterpillar’s first meal in the spring will be a poisonous one. In order that the spraying should be thoroughly done at this time, fruit growers should realize that if the insect is not killed before the blossoms open they will not have another chance to do it nearly so effectively until the next spring. If the trees are usually badly infested with the apple scab or other fungi it would be well to combine the Paris green with the Bordeaux mixture, and in this case using about one pound of the poison to one hundred gallons of the fungicide; the poison will 66 Bulletin 107. adhere longer if applied with the fungicide. If Paris green only is applied, use about one pound to two hundred gallons and al¬ ways add two or three pounds of freshly slacked lime to prevent the burning effects of the free arsenic in the Paris green. Take especial pains to thoroughly wet the buds on the smallest twigs. With at least two thorough applications of Paris green before the flowers open we believe this insect can be effectively checked for the season. Do not spray when the trees are in bloom as many honey-bees may be killed. The limited time during which this bud moth can be reached by sprays renders it an especially hard insect to fight. It will require thoughtful, intelligent, and persistent work early in the spring to hold it in check. Mark Vernon Slingkrland. Bulletin 108. January, 1896. Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. ITHACA, N. Y. ENTOMOLOGICAL DIVISION. THE PEAR PSYLLA AND NEW YORK PLUM SCALE. By M. V. SLINGERLAND. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY. ITHACA, N. Y. 1896. ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. STATION COUNCIL. President, Jacob Hon. A. D. White, Professor I. P. Roberts, Professor I. P. Roberts, Professor G. C. Caldwell, Professor James Law, - Professor A. N. Prentiss, Professor J. H. Comstock, Professor L. H. Bailey, Professor H. H. Wing, Professor G. F. Atkinson, Gould Schurman. Trustee of the University. President State Agricultural Society. Agriculture, cj - Chemistry. Veterinary Science. Botany. Entomology. Horticulture. Dairy Husbandry. Cryptogamic Botany. OFFICERS OF THE STATION. I. P. Roberts, ----- E. L. WILLIAMS, - H. W. Smith, - ASSISTANTS. M. V. Slingerland, - G. W. Cavanaugh, - E. G. Lodeman, .... L. A. Clinton, - E. J. Durand, ----- Director. - Treasurer. Clerk. Entomology. Chemistry. Horticulture. Agriculture. Botany. Office of the Director, 20 Morrill Hall. \ The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to all who request them. BULLETINS OF 1896. 106. Revised Opinions of the Japanese Plum. 107. Wireworms and The Bud Moth. 108. The Pear Psylla and The New York Plum Scale. I. THE PEAR PSYLLA * Psylla pyricola Forster. During the past five years this minute insect has inflicted such severe losses upon pear growers in various parts of the country that it threatens to seriously interfere with the successful cultiva¬ tion of this fruit. Its History, Distribution and Destructiveness. The insect is an old offender, and like most of our other import¬ ed insect pests, it has wrought much more destruction here than in Europe, its native home. It was probably first introduced into this country upon young pear trees imported from Europe in 1832 by Dr. Ovid Plumb of Salisbury, Conn. ;f during the next five years he lost several hundred trees from its ravages. By 1848 it had spread into Massachusetts and into Dutchess and Columbia counties in New York. It is not again recorded as injurious until 1871, and then in Illinois ; this State seems yet to be the western limit of its range. In 1879, it was destructive at Ithaca and at Saratoga, N. Y. A dozen years passed without any record of its injury. Then in 1891 it suddenly appeared in enormous numbers in restricted localities in quite widely separated portions of this and other states, and thousands of dollars worth of fruit and many valuable trees were ruined by its ravages. Pear orch¬ ards at Fitchburg, Mass., Meriden, Conn., and Pomona, Md., were devastated. In this State, it was especially destructive, or¬ chards in the eastern, central and western portions suffering severely, many trees ultimately dying. One orchard near Ithaca *This insect was discussed in detail in Bulletin 44, issued in October, 1892. There was so great a demand for the bulletin that the issue was exhausted in about a year. While this discussion includes an abstract of bulletin 44, it also contains much new material, especially in regard to the distribution of the insect, its natural enemies, and to the methods of fighting it. f The evidence submitted by Dr. bintner (Ninth Rept. p. 319) to show that this insect “may have been operating in the State of New York as early as in 1824, if not in the preceding century,” is far from conclusive. 70 Bulletin 108. promised 600 bushels of fruit, but less than 50 matured ; and Mr. G. T. Powell at Ghent had an estimated yield of 1,200 barrels re¬ duced to less than 100 barrels of marketable fruit. At the time we wrote bulletin 44 (1892), the insect was known to occur only in Connecticut, Massachusetts, New York, Illinois and possibly in Michigan ; its occurrence in Maryland, noted above, was not recorded until 1894. In 1892 it was found abundant in Ohio. In 1893 it was discov¬ ered in New Jersey, and we also received it from Thomaston, Me. In 1894 it was found to be quite generally distributed over New Jersey and had appeared in Canada (Freeman, Ont.) and Virginia for the first time. The same year it invaded a Maryland orchard (Chestertown, Md.) of over 20,000 trees in overwhelming num¬ bers, and was quite destructive to several orchards in western New York. This year (1895) we have learned of no serious out¬ breaks of the pest. We have, however, received it from Clinton, Mich., where it did considerable damage in 1894. We believe the insect is now present in alarming numbers in most of the pear orchards in New York State. We have not fail¬ ed to find it in any orchard, examined for this purpose, in west¬ ern New York, especially in Niagara county and in the vicinity of Rochester. Specimens have been, sent us from Coxsackie, Pa¬ vilion, Milton, Carlton, and Dansville, N. Y. ; and it has been recorded from Athens, Menands, Catskill and Baltimore, N. Y. Thus the range of the insect has been greatly increased since 1892. It now ranges from Maine southward through Massa¬ chusetts, Connecticut, New Jersey, Maryland and into Virginia ; and westward through New York, Canada, Ohio and Illinois to the Mississippi river, beyond which it has not yet been recorded. How it Spreads. In spite of its wide distribution, it seems to be rather a local insect, and its spread from orchard to orchard rather slow. Some of Coe Brothers’ orchards at Meriden, Conn., have been badly in¬ fested for fifteen years and yet it had not appeared (in 1892) in one orchard set in 1881 only half a mile distant. Our New York nurserymen are reported to be responsible for its introduction into Maryland, Virginia, New Jersey, and Canada. In nearly every case, it is claimed, the source of infestation can The Pear Psylla. 7i be directly traced to pear stocks bought of New York nurserymen in 1890 or 1891, or about the time the pest was so numerous in this State. It is supposed that the hibernating form of the insect is thus distributed. Its Classification and Name. This pear pest is one of the true bugs and belongs to the family Psyllidae , commonly known as jumping plant-lice from the leap¬ ing habit of the adult insects. Thirty-four species of Psyllids have thus far been described from the United States. Psylla pyricola , although it was observed in this country in 1833, received its name in Europe fifteen years later. Previous to 184 8, European writers had referred to the species as Psyllapyri, not distinguishing it from that species. Psylla pyricola sometimes attacks the apple-tree in Europe, but it seems to confine its attacks to the pear in this country. Indications of its Presence. During severe attacks of this pest, old trees put forth but little new growth, new shoots often droop and wither in May, the leaves turn yellow and the fruit grows but little, and in midsum¬ mer the leaves and half-formed fruit often fall from the trees. The insect also indicates its presence by secreting large quantities of a sweet, w T ater-like, sticky liquid called “ hone}' dew” which often covers all parts of the tree ; it has literally rained from the leaves in some cases and smeared the backs of horses during cul¬ tivation.* A black fungus soon grows all through this honey- dew and thus gives the tree a disgusting blackish appearance as if treated with a thin coat of black paint or soot. Pear trees of all varieties and ages are attacked in this State. Although the indications of the presence of some enemy is so conspicuous, the depredator is so small as to be easily overlooked. * During the severe attack in Maryland in 1894, “ the leaves were scarcely at all yellowed, but were covered with dead and dry patches or spots, some¬ times invading almost the entire leaf.” It seemed to be due “ to the sun- scalding resulting from the collection of the honey-dew on the leaves in large drops.” 72 Bulletin 108. Its Appearance. The immature insect. —These curious, minute, oval, immature forms are called nymphs. The newly-hatched ones (Fig. 43) are yellow in color, with crimson eyes, and can scarcely be seen with the unaided eye. During their growth they gradually acquire the black markings, shown in the frontispiece and in figure 40, and become tinged with red. A very conspicuous fea¬ ture in the full-grown nymph is the large black wing-pads on each side of the body. The adult insect. —In this form (Fig. 41) the insect strikingly resem¬ bles a cicada or dog-day harvest-fly in miniature. Its general color is crimson with broad black bands across the abdo¬ men. Its thickened femora enable it to jump like a flea. In the male insect the abdomen terminates in a large trough-shaped segment from which project upward three narrow copu¬ lating organs ; the end of the abdomen of the female resembles a bird’s beak. Its Tiee-History. But little was known of the life-history of the pear psylla, either in Europe or in this country, 4i _ Psylla p yrico i a previous to the publication of our bulletin No. 44 the adult insect t much enlarged. i'n 1892. How it passes the winter. —The insect hibernates in the adult stage, hidden in the crevices under the loosened bark on the trunk and large limbs of the pear trees ; a favorite hiding place on some trees is in the cavity formed by the bark growing about the scar of a severed limb. During warm days they often crawl about on the branches and trunk. They are not easily seen as they are so small and their color so closely imitates the bark. Egg-laying of the winter brood. —During the first warm spring weather the adults come from their hiding places, copulate, and The Pear Psyeea. 73 e gg-l a ying soon begins. In this State, most of the eggs are usu¬ ally laid before April 25. They are placed in the creases of the bark, or in old leaf scars, about the bases of the terminal buds of the preceding year’s growth ; some occur about the side buds near the terminal ones. They are usually laid singly but rows of eight or ten sometimes occur. The eggs (Fig. 42) are scarcely visible to the unaided eye; it would take eighty of 42 —Egg of pear psyiia, them placed end to end to measure an inch, greatly enlarged. They are elongate pyriform in shape, smooth and shining, and of a light orange-yellow color when first laid, becoming darker before hatching. A short stalk on the larger end attaches the egg to the bark, and a long thread-like process projects from the .smaller end. The temperature conditions in the spring influence the time of oviposition and the duration of the egg-state. In 1892, the eggs were from seventeen days to three weeks in hatching. Hatching usually begins about May 10th. By the 18th, most of the nymphs are out, and their parents have disappeared. Habits of the nymphs .—Immediately after emerging, which usually happens about the time the leaves are expanding, the minute nymph (Fig. 43) seeks its favorite feed¬ ing place, the axils of the leaf petioles and later on stems of the forming fruit. When these axils become full they gather on the leaves. Their food consists entirely of the sap of the tree which they suck through a short, sharp, beak. Unless disturbed, they move about but very little, sometimes becoming covered with their own honey-dew. They* stop feeding only when their skin gets too small and they cast it off for a new elastic one that they grow just beneath the old one. Habits of the adult .—The strong legs and wings of the adult enable it to spring up and fly away with surprising quickness upon the slightest unnatural jar. The hibernating forms are not as active, and are readily captured. The adults also feed upon the sap by means of a sharp beak, but seem to have no favorite feeding place. 43 .—Ne wly-hatched nymph of pear psylla, ventral view , greatly enlarged. (Re du ce d from figure by U. S. Dept, of Agr.) 74 Bulletin 108. Egg-laying, and habits during the summer .—In about a month after emerging from the egg in the spring, the nymphs become full grown and at the last casting of the skin the adult insects appear. This first brood, appearing about June io, and all subsequent summer broods of the adults, differ strikingly from those that hibernate. The winter forms differ in size, being nearly one-third larger, in their much darker coloring, and especial^ in the dark¬ er coloration of the front wings. Thus in this pear psylla we have a case of true dimorphism ; the winter form had been de¬ scribed as a distinct species, Psylla simulans. In about a week after their transformation from the nymph stage, the summer adults copulate and begin laying eggs for another brood. These eggs do not differ from those laid by the winter forms, but they are laid singly or in groups, not on the bark of the twigs, but on both sides of the leaves tucked in among the hairs along the midrib or adroitly placed in the notches of the toothed edge of the leaf. They hatch in from eight to ten days. A careful study was made of one generation of the insect in 1892 and the many interesting details then learned have been re¬ corded in bulletin 44. It was found that the nymphs cast their skin five times at intervals of from three to seven days, the adult insect appearing at the fifth or last moult. So life-like were some of the cast-skins as they were left on the leaves by the nymphs, that it often required close examination with a lens to determine if the object was alive or only a nymph’s cast off garment. In each stage the nymphs secreted globules of honey-dew several times larger than themselves. Although the adults feed, they do not grow, nor do not seem to secrete any honey-dew, but void considerable quantities of a whitish excrement. The summer adults probably live for less than a month, while those that hiber¬ nate remain alive for at least six months. Number of broods .—Our observations indicate at least four broods in this State ; the adults were the most numerous on or about June 15th, July 20th, August 20th, and September 25th, or a brood appeared about once a month. Apparently a fifth brood appeared in Maryland in 1894. The adults emerging in Septem¬ ber and later were the hibernating form. Honey-dew and excrement .—The honey-dew occurs in such im- The Pear Psylla. 75 mense quantities that it seems almost impossible that it is all secreted by the nymphs, and yet such is the fact. We found that one nymph secreted at least four drops (i. e. four minims) before it became an adult. In the case of the nymphs most of the food is elaborated into honey dew ; some is assimilated, and the waste matter voided as excrement. The adults, however, seem to secrete no honey-dew, and consequently they void considerable quantities of excrement. The honey-dew and excrement are very different substances. The former is a clear water-like liquid and forms into globules when secreted. The excrement, however, is a whitish semi¬ solid substance which is voided in long cylindrical strings, or minute whitish balls which roll from the anus like quicksilver globules. The honey-dew seems to be secreted from the anus with the excrement. Its Natural Enemies. When we wrote in 1892, no enemies of the pear psylla had been recorded ; we had heard rumors that a lady-bug beetle was destroying them in some localities but there was nothing definite. However, during the outbreak in Maryland in 1894, at least two predaceous insects were found feeding on the psyllas, one of which did very efficient work. As both of the insects are com¬ mon in our State, pear-growers should learn to know them. One is a common lace-winged fly, Chrysopa oculata. Its various stages are well illustrated in figure 44. It is such an interesting creature and proved such an efficient foe of the psylla in Mary¬ land that we give a brief sketch of its life. The adult (Fig. 44, U) is a beautiful, dainty creature with its wings and body of a pea-green color, and with a pair of large eyes that shine like melted gold. It is a very helpless creature, does not feed at all, and remains concealed in low grass during the day, becoming active and depositing its eggs in the evening. It emits a very disgusting odor when handled. “ The lace-wing is a prudent mother ; she knows that if she lays her eggs to¬ gether on a leaf the first aphis-lion (as the young are called) that hatches will eat for its first meal all his unhatched brothers and sisters. She guards against this fratricide by laying each egg on the top of a stiff stalk of hard silk about half an inch high 76 Bulletin 108. (Fig. 4, a). Groups of these eggs are very pretty, looking like a tiny forest of white stems bearing on their summits round glis¬ tening fruit. When the first of the brood hatches, he scrambles down as best he can from his egg perch to the surface of the leaf, and runs off, quite unconscious that the rest of the family are re¬ posing in peace high above his head.” ( Comstock's Manual for the Shidy of Insects , p. 181). Mr. Marlatt, who observed its work in Maryland, says of the young aphis-lion : “On approaching the egg or young psy 11 a nymyh, it immediately grasps it between its long, curved, man¬ dible-like organs, which amount to two sucking tubes, between the tips of which the egg or young nymph is held and rolled one way and the other, as between thumb and finger, the juicy con¬ tents being in the meantime rapidly extracted ; the dry shell is cast aside, the whole operation frequently taking less than a min¬ ute. The aphis-lion is an extremely hungry one and is always seeding. It eats anything that comes in its way, is totally fear- 44 .—Chrysopa oculata. a , eggs ; b, full-grown larva or aphis-lion ; d, larva devouring a 7 i adult psylla ; e, cocoon ; f adult insect ; g, front view of the head of the adult—all enlarged. (Reduced from figure by U. S. Dept, of Agr.) less, and is also, unfortunately, cannibalistic, eating its own kind with great readiness. It is a safe estimate to say that one aphis- lion will destroy several hundred eggs and nymphs of the psylla, in addition to the adults which it will destroy (see d in figure 44) The Pear Psyrra. 77 in its later larval growth.” In about ten days the aphis-lion be¬ comes fully grown (Fig 44, b) and rolls itself up into a tiny ball and weaves around it a glistening, white cocoon (e in figure 44), which looks like a seed-pearl. Possibly while secluded in this pearly cell the aphis-lion repents its greedy, murderous ways, and changes in spirit. In from ten to fourteen days, a neat lid is cut from the upper end of the cocoon (see e in figure 44) and an ac¬ tive pupa* wriggles out, from which in an hour or so the dainty lace-wing emerges. There are several broods of this predaceous enemy of the psylla during the year. It is to be hoped that this lace-wing may see fit to include the pear psylla in its menu in New York State, where there is abun¬ dant opportunity for it to do our pear growers as efficient service as it has rendered in Maryland. The other insect enemy of the pear psylla is the very common red lady-bug (.Adalia bipunctata ) with a black spot on each wing-cover (Fig -45 > A It is so common that if it can be in¬ duced to feed freely upon the pear psylla it will prove a very effi¬ cient aid in the warfare against the pest. It is predaceous in both its larval (Fig. 45, a ) and adult stages. Mr. Marlatt saw a beetle with an adult psylla in its mandibles in the Maryland orchard ; 45.— Adalia bipunctata. a , larva; d, pupa ; e , adult—all enlarged. (.Reduced from figure by U. S. Dept, of Agr. } * Most writers state that the adult emerges from the cocoon, but, as was pointed out by Dr. Shimer in 1865 and by Dr. Riley in 1869, what they have called th z.pseudo-imago or sub-imago comes from the cocoon. The names given this stage of the insect are misleading, as they properly apply to a winged stage preceding the imago stage of may flies. In the case of the lace-winged flies, their pupce are sufficiently active to force their way out of the cocoon. 78 Bulletin 108. and he says one of the beetles cleaned the eggs from the leaves of a young pear tree in his breeding cage about as fast as upwards of 50 to 75 psyllas laid them. He reared from the egg state a brood of the lady-bug beetles on the eggs and nymphs of the pear psylla. Our correspondent in Clinton, Mich., writes that he has “ noticed the common lady-bird feeding on the nymphs of the psylla.” Birds have been seen picking the adult psyllas out of their winter retreats in Niagara county ; so industrious were the birds that but few psyllas were left on some trees. How to Combat the Pear Psylla. The eggs .—Although the eggs laid early in the spring are freely exposed on the bark to the action of insecticides, yet we were surprised to find that many of them hatched after they had been dipped in kerosene oil, turpentine, benzine, and several of the washes used for killing scale insects. Mr. Marlatt reports that in July he killed many of the eggs laid on the leaves, by spraying with a kerosene or whale-oil soap emulsion diluted with from seven to nine parts of water. However, as many of the eggs cannot be killed in this way and as the insect can be combated much more effectively in another stage, we do not consider it ad¬ visable to fight it in the egg-stage. The nymphs .—Our experiments in 1892, showed that the nymphs in all stages were quickly killed by kerosene emulsion.* Others who have tested it thoroughly report success. Usually most of the damage is done in this State by the first brood of nymphs before June 15th. It is therefore very important * The formula is y z pound hard or soft soap, 1 gallon water, 2 gallons kero¬ sene. First, thoroughly dissolve the soap in boiling water. While this solution is still very hot add the kerosene ; if the whole is then left over the fire for a few moments to raise the temperature of the kerosene slightly, it will facili¬ tate the emulsifying process. Remove from the fire and quickly begin to agitate the whole mass through a syringe or force pump of some kind ; draw the liquid into the pump and force it back into the dish. Continue this operation for five minutes or until the whole mass assumes a creamy color and consistency which will adhere to the sides of the vessel, and not glide off like oil. If desired for use immediately, it may now be readily diluted with The Pear Psylla. 79 that the insect should be checked early in the season. We now advise using the emulsion diluted with about fifteen parts of • water, instead of with twenty-five, as it is more effective against the nymphs, and it will also kill the adult insects. As the nymphs begin to hatch just as the leaves are expanding, then is the time to begin spraying; about May 15th is usually the time in this State. Where they are numerous, a second or third spray¬ ing will be necessary. The emulsion must be applied liberally and thoroughly; it will not injure the tree in the least. It is much more difficult to fight the insect later in the summer, when the tree is in full foliage and many of the nymphs are covered with honey-dew. Watch for their appearance on the unfolding leaves in the spring and act promptly. Spray two or three times in a week if necessary ; make every effort to prevent the development of a second brood. The adults .—In bulletin 44 we suggested that a thorough wash¬ ing of the trunks and larger branches of the trees in winter with kerosene emulsion (at least five per cent, kerosene), or a strong soap solution, would destroy many of the adults in hibernation in the crevices of the bark. It is reported that a whale oil soap solution has been thus used very effectively in New Jersey. We believe it is a practical method, and should be practiced in in¬ fested orchards.- We once saw hundreds of the hibernating adults congregated on the smooth trunks of a large block of young standard pear trees. There were twenty-five or more on each tree, and all of them on the same sides of the trees. It was a short job with a rag or mitten to grasp the tree at the base, draw the hand up the trunk, and thus crush the psyllas. Is it practicable to fight the adults in summer? They are then cold water, preferably with rain water. Or the whole mass may be allowed to cool when it has a semi-solid form, not unlike loppered milk. This stock if covered and placed in a cool dark place will keep for a long time. In making a dilution from this cold stock emulsion, it is necessary to measure out the amount of the emulsion required and first dissolve it in three or four parts of boiling water; if cold water be used a large quantity of a white flocculent mass rises to the surface and does not dissolve. After the stock emulsion is dissolved, cold water may be added in the required quantities. If all the utensils are clean, and the directions followed closely, no free oil will rise to the surface of the dilution. 8o Bulletin 108. often very numerous but are very shy and active, and fly from the tree the moment the spray strikes it. It would thus seem that “ spraying has practically no value against the adults during • their active summer existence” (Mr. Marlatt). However, sev¬ eral of our New York pear growers have demonstrated the prac¬ ticability of fighting the adult insect. In 1894, the presence of the pest in destructive numbers was not suspected in one Niagara county orchard until the leaves began to drop off in July. The kerosene emulsion spray was at once directed against the enemy • with the result that it at once brought down millions of the adults, their dead bodies being thickly strewn about the spraying appar¬ atus. Although the insect had gotten such a start in the orchard, it was so effectively checked with the emulsion that but few psyllas were to be found in 1895. Ml Geo. T. Powell, who has had more practical experience with this insect than any other fruit grower in the state, also sends us the following brief, yet graphic, account of his fight with the insect in 1894 •• “ May 10th. Eggs began to hatch and we sprayed with kero¬ sene emulsion, diluted 1 to 20. May 15th. The nymphs began to get out in full force, when we began spraying with great thoroughness. When the wind blows hard, the spraying is not done so effectively, especially in the tops of quite tall trees. May 16th. Sprayed a second orchard. The day is clear and still. The work is very much more effective, killing the young psyllas quickly and in all parts of the tree. May 17th. Sprayed the first orchard again. Many insects alive, the emulsion not having hit them thoroughly on account of high winds. Unless the insect is destroyed, the fruit will be worthless. June 5th. After several rainy days, sprayed pear trees again and for the last time as the psylla seems to be pretty well knocked out by this time ; only a few nymphs are feeding, but quite a number of adults about the tree. June 1 ith. Finding a few nymphs still coming out and work¬ ing, we spray again and at the same time bring down millions of the adults that escaped former sprayings. The day is very still and warm. The greatest possible force is given the spray, which goes over the tops of the highest trees. The stones on the ground and the platform of the machine are covered with dead adults. A sheet is placed under a small tree, and after spraying but ten seconds, 150 adults fell upon the sheet and in five minutes 90 per cent, of them were dead. After discovering the extent to which the adults were being de- The Pear Psyeea. 8i stroyed, the entire orchards were gone over, extra force being given to the spray to bring down as many adults as possible, thereby lessening largely the number to multiply next year. We used a hand-pump on the Phillip’s sprayer and stopped at each tree, spraying very thoroughly before leaving it. There is no power machine that will do this work thoroughly enough as yet ; for pressure on the pump cannot be kept on strong enough or loug enough to do the work effectually. Results.—Notwithstanding a very long and severe drouth, we brought through a very good crop of pears of excellent quality, the first good crop in four years. The trees made growth and have quite rallied from an almost hopeless condition of decline. June 18th, 1890. I very thoroughly annihilated the psy 11 a last year. My pear orchard is improving remarkably. Sprayed only once this season, they were so few.” Disheartened pear growers cannot fail to find much encourage¬ ment in the above account of how the ravages of this pear psy 11a were checked in one of the worst afflicted orchards in our State. 82 Bulletin 108. II. THE NEW YORK PLUM SCALE. Lecanium jugla?idisf Bouche. This insect (Fig. 46), which suddenly appeared in overwhelm¬ ing numbers in many of the largest plum orchards in western New York in 1894, was discussed in detail in our bulle¬ tin No. 83, Decem¬ ber 1894. The bul¬ letin is not yet out of print and can be obtained by ad¬ dressing the Direc¬ tor of the Experi¬ ment Station. Sev- eral new and important facts have been learned about the insect since the bulletin was published, and these are included in the following notes which aim to give fruit-growers the latest news about this serious pest. Extent of its dam¬ age in 1894 ..—The serious picture we drew in bulletin 83 of the ravages of the insect did not tell half the truth. Before the winter was far advanced, it was found that the strain on many trees from so many millions of little pumps sucking out their vital fluid—the 46 .—Plum branches badly infested with the full- grown scales , natural size. The New York Prum Scare. 33 sap—had been too great. In one orchard three hundred of the oldest bearing trees had succumbed in January, and three hun¬ dred more died before spring. Effect of the winter of 1894.- 95 on the scales .—When winter set in, each one of 50,000 of the best plum trees in western New York harbored millions of the little scales, thus threatening the entire destruction of thousands of these trees in 1895. The situation was exceedingly serious. However, in January it was reported at the meeting of the Western New York Horticultural Society that “ a large percentage of the insects were being killed by the winter.” We at once made a careful examination of many infest¬ ed branches sent in by correspondents in different localities, and found that the report was well founded ; the good news was for¬ tunately true. From 50 to 75 per cent, of the scales were then dead, and evidently more succumbed later for we believe that in most orchards less than 25 per cent, of those that went into hiber¬ nation in the fall were alive in April, 1895. Apparently those most exposed died first, indicating that weather conditions of some sort may have caused their death. But whether it was due solely to low temperature, or to the sharp, dry, chilling winds that prevailed, we cannot say. Extent of damage in 1895 .—So far as we have learned, all those who suffered so severely from the insect in 1894, are unanimous in their opinion that but very little damage has been done by it in their orchards this year ; and it has not been numerous enough to attract particular attention except on a few trees. This general exemption from injury this year was due to three principal causes. First, a majority of the scales died from some cause during the winter, thus greatly checking the future development of the in¬ sect. Second, most of those having infested trees carried on a vigorous warfare against the pest with the kerosene emulsion, both in the fall and early spring. Third, thousands of the scales were killed by minute parasites in the spring, and the lady-bug beetles which feed upon the scales were unusually numerous and active during the summer. However, a few orchards suffered considerably from the insect this year ; we learned of one apple orchard in Niagara county that was quite badly injured. On the whole, the insect did very little dam¬ age in 1895 compared with the destruction wrought in 1894. 8 4 Bulletin 108. The future outlook. —What little information we have indicates that the insect is going into hibernation in considerable numbers on some trees, but the outlook for 1896 is encouraging. Never¬ theless, it will not do to be too sanguine. Every tree known to harbor the pest should be carefully examined this fall, during the winter, and especially early in the spring. Previous to last year, New York orchards had never suffered from the attacks of this or any other Eecanium scale, and they may not be threatened so seriously again for many years to come. But we can never tell when to expect most of our insect foes to appear in alarming numbers, so that our fruit growers must be continually on the alert and watch this plum pest closely every year. Its najne. —Experts are not yet agreed upon the name this Eecanium should bear. It has lately been decided by Mr. New- stead, of England, that it is identical with the Europen insect— Lecanium prunastri . Messrs. Cockerell and Maskell conclude that it is probably identical with Lecanium juglandis which Bouche found on black walnut in Germany over fifty years ago.* Its history and distribution. —The fact that isolated specimens of this insect can be found on almost any large plum tree in cer¬ tain portions of the State, indicates that it has been with us for many years. The few years preceding 1894, happened to offer the conditions most favorable for its multiplication in exces¬ sive numbers in western New York ; and it then forced itself upon our attention by its destructive work. Mr. L. O. Howard, U. S. Entomologist, reports (Yearbook of U. S. Dept, of Agr. for 1894, p. 272) that there are two other distinct kinds of Lecaniums affecting plum trees in the United States. One of these passes the winter in the same stage as does our New York species, while the other hibernates as a nearly full-grown, rounded female. Our New York species has recently appeared in destructive numbers in Canada. It is also more generally distributed over our State than was suspected *Mr. Masked writes us on October 6, 1895: “I have examined your insects, and agree with Mr. Cockerell that on the whole they are nearest to Lecanium juglandis. I don’t quite see how your insect can be L. prunastri which has very marked epidermal puncta. I don’t think you will go far wrong in calling it L. juglandis." The New York Peum Scaee. when we wrote bulletin 83. We have received it from Aquetuck, Hector, Scoharie (on Prunus simoni ), Eastwood and Penn Yan, N. Y. Its food-plants .—The insect still remains par excellence a plum pest, yet several quince and apple trees have been seriously in¬ jured by it. A possible source of infestation for some of the orchards near Geneva was found to be an ash grove which was very badly injured in 1894 by a Lecanium which is apparently the same as the one working on the plum trees. The grove was also badly inj ured this year, the leaves all dropping off during the summer. Probably the Eecaniums found in such large numbers on maple and other forest trees in different parts of the State are distinct from the plum Eecanium. Its natural enemies .—The small, black, elevated, smooth, para¬ sitized scales described in bul¬ letin 83, p. 693, werejvery nu¬ merous last spring, and we bred many of the minute four-wing¬ ed flies. Mr. L. O. Howard has determined them as Coccopha- gus lecanii Fitch, a Chalcid which is common in many parts of the country and attacks sev¬ eral different kinds of Lecani- ums. This little foe proved a valuable ally of the fruit¬ grower last spring, as we found a considerable percent¬ age of the scales parasitized. From several different sources we have learned that the twice-stabbed lady-bug beetle was very numerous in the infested plum trees this year. Several groups of the spring skins (Fig. 47) shed by their larvae when they pupate, have been sent in by plum growers. Protect these little lady-bugs, as they are doing valiant service in the extermination of this pest. 47 .—Spiny larval skins of lady-bug beetles , natural size. 86 Bueeetin 108. Results of spraying .—All who sprayed with the kerosene emul¬ sion (diluted with 4 parts of water) according to the directions given in bulletin 83, report general success. There is no longer any question about its killing the scales hit by it. During the summer we saw infested trees that had been sprayed with different substances to kill the young scales then on the leaves. Some of the scales had been killed, but as it was evident that a great majority, over 75 per cent., were uninjured, the ap¬ plications were far from a success. The liquids had also injured the bloom on what little fruit there was. What results we saw fully confirmed our opinion, expressed in bulletin 83, that the insect cannot be effectually and practicably checked by sprays while it is on the leaves during the summer and early fall. Spray infested trees once after the leaves fall in autumn, and at least twice in the spring before the buds open. Use kerosene emulsion diluted four times, and the application cannot be done too thoroughly ; each little scale must be hit Mark Vernon Seingerland. Bulletin 109. January, 1896. Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. ITHACA, N. Y. HORTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT. GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE CHAUTAUQUA GRAPE BELT. By R. S. TARR. * PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY. ITHACA, N. Y. 1896. ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. STATION COUNCIL. President, Jacob Gould Schurman. Hon. A. D. White, Professor I. P. Roberts, Professor I P. Roberts, Professor G. C. Caldwell, Professor James Law, - Professor A. N. Prentiss, Professor J. H. Comstock, Professor L. H. Bailey, Professor H. H. Wing, Professor G. F. Atkinson, Trustee of the University. President State Agricultural Society. Agriculture. Chemistry. Veterinary Science. Botany. Entomology. Horticulture. Dairy Husbandry. Cryptogamic Botany. OFFICERS OF THE STATION. I. P. Roberts, ------ Director. E. L. Williams, ------ Treasurer. H. W. Smith, ------ clerk. ASSISTANTS M. V. Slingerland, G. W. Cavanaugh, - E. G. Lodeman, L. A. Clinton, E. J. Durand, - Entomology. Chemistry. Horticulture. Agriculture. Cryptogamic Botany. Office of the Director, 20 Morrill Hall. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to all who request them. BULLETINS OF 1896. 106. Revised Opinions of the Japanese Plum. 107. Wireworms and The Bud Moth. 108. The Pear Psylla and The New York Plum Scale. 109. Geological History of the Chautauqua Grape Belt. Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., Jan. i, 1896. Honorable Commissioner of Agriculture, Albany. Sir: One of the most obvious circumstances connected with the cultiva¬ tion of many fruits is the fact that the most successful plantations of them are confined within somewhat narrow areas or in well marked geographic regions. This circumstance is emphatic in the grape belt of Chautauqua County. It becomes a matter of great importance to determine the reasons for the existence of these fruit belts, and to ascertain how far their limits may probably be extended with profit. A study of the surface geology and topography of any of these belts may be expected to afforded most interest¬ ing and valuable facts for the pomologist, for this type of investigation is yet practically untouched by scientific inquiry. In Chautauqua County there is a particular reason for such an inquiry because of the fact that the entire Erie slope is not equally adapted to the grape, although vineyards have been almost promiscuously planted upon it. It is necessary that the true grape belt be delimited and charted. In seeking to take up this investigation, we have been fortunate to secure the services of R. S. Tarr, Professor of Geology in Cornell University. It is a happy circumstance that Chautauqua County, which originated and matured the movement for Experiment Station exten¬ sion work, should now be the scene of the first specific attempt in this country, on the part of an Experiment Station, to analyze the physical geog¬ raphy of a fruit belt. L. H. Bailey. CONTENTS. Introduction. . Topography .. The Bed Rock. The Soils. General Description of the Soils. The Hillside Soils. The Gravel Ridges..... The Rake Clay Soils. Shale Gravel.. . The Relative Value of the Soils. The Modern Beaches. . The Ancient Beaches. The Gravel Ridges. . Variations in the Gravel Ridges .. Irregularities and Revel of Gravel Ridges . ... Interpretation. { . Resume of the Geological History.. . Climatic Conditions . Most Favorable Places for the Location of Vineyards Influence of the Gravel Ridges. Page. 90-91 92 93 93 93 96 98 101 102 102 103 109 109 hi 113 113 115 120 121 122 fM i ‘ f 48.— Wave-cut cliff and beach of Lake Erie , north of Ripley GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE CHAUTAU¬ QUA GRAPE BELT. INTRODUCTION. This study was made primarily for the purpose of ascertaining the natural conditions which favor fruit growing in the grape belt of the Brie shore of New York. It became immediately evident that these conditions had to do both with the soil and the climate. Concerning the latter little detailed information of value could be obtained ; for in order to gain this information, meteorologi¬ cal observations must be carried on for a series of years at sta¬ tions located in different places. In order to find out how the soil varies, a rather careful study of characteristics and distribu¬ tion was made ; and the satisfactory study of these, involved the question of origin. Since the origin is a question of some interest, it will be included in this paper. In general, it may be said that the two factors of soil and cli¬ mate have conspired to make the grape belt a district admirably adapted to fruit raising. While each is of importance, it is evi¬ dent that the climatic peculiarities are of more importance than the soil. Both the characteristics of climate and soil are due to the topographic peculiarities and the geological history of the region included within the grape belt and in its immediate neighborhood. The time occupied in the field study has amounted to only about three weeks,—two in June, one in September and two days in November ; and therefore a great amount of detail cannot be expected. Although a little work was done east of Silver Creek, the study was practically limited to the region between this town and the state line. During the study, I have received many cour¬ tesies from the residents of the grape belt, and I am particularly indebted to Mr. J. W. Spencer, of Westfield. In September I was aided by Mr. T. B- Watson, of Cornell University. In run¬ ning the three lines of levels, Mr. M. D. Tennant, of Westfield, did the leveling and the writer acted as rodman. 92 Bulletin 109. TOPOGRAPHY. The situation of the grape belt is peculiar. From Lake On¬ tario southward, toward Niagara Falls or Lockport, there is a nearly level plain extending to the base of the Niagara escarp¬ ment, known locally as “ the mountain ” (Fig. 49), which rises quite abruptly to a height of two or three hundred feet. This escarpment is well seen at Lewiston, where the basal plain stretches away toward the lake, with scarcely any diversity to break the monotony. All of this plain is less than 500 feet in elevation above the sea, and it borders the entire southern shore of Ontario. South of the Niagara escarpment, toward Batavia or Buffalo, there is another plain, which beyond Buffalo narrows down to a width of only one or two miles as the state line is approached. It is nowhere below 500 feet, nor above 800 feet in elevation. This narrow strip which borders the Erie shore is the true grape belt. Everywhere the southern margin of this plain is backed by an es- 50 .—Location of the grape belt. carpment or ridge (Fig. 50), which quickly rises to a height of 500 or 600 feet above the plain, and in some places is over 1,000 feet above the lake. Therefore, the grape belt (in New York) is a narrow plain extending north-eastward from the Pennsyl¬ vania state line, and bounded on the north by the lake, on the south by a high range of hills. East of Silver Creek the plain widens, and the bounding escarpment loses in elevation. This « narrow plain is only a small fragment of the feal plain ; for the Chautauqua Graph Belt. 93 waters of Bake Brie cover the greater part of it. As is shown in the profile (Fig. 50), the plain descends beneath the lake waters and ascends on the Canadian side. Not merely is a part of the plain now submerged, but at a recent geological period more of it, and that part now occupied by the most flourishing vineyards, was covered by the lake waters. Bake Brie now plays an important part in modifying the climate of the grape belt; it formerly did important service in modifying the soils. THB BBD ROCK. As revealed along the lake shore, and in the remarkable gorges which cut the escarpment and the plain, the bed rock is entirely upper Devonian shales and sandstones above the horizon of the Hamilton, which does not extend farther west than Bvans. Both plain and escarpment are made of these ; but it is probable that the latter owes its elevation to the protective effect of some harder layers of upper Devonian rock now removed. On the northern face of the escarpment the soil is prevailingly thin, and the plough frequently reaches the bed rock ; but on the plain, the bed rock is rarely seen at the surface, excepitng in the stream beds and in the shale ridges, which are found mainly east of Dunkirk. Still the bed rock plays an important part in the soils ; for fragments of shale are commonly present in all the soils of the district. THB SOIBS. General description of the soils .—If we should make several north and south sections across the grape belt, from the middle of the escarpment to the lake shore, they would be found to vary in details according to the location of the line, but to be quite the same in general features. The average condition would be as follows 51 .—Section of the grape belt. (Fig. 51). Commencing on the hillside with a thin soil of clayey nature, and with an abundance of pebbles, (Fig. 53) and perhaps —Map of the region in the vicinity of the Grape Beit. Showing the approximate location of the three beaches and the moraines (M). Chautauqua Grape Beet. 95 boulders, at the base of the hill, when at the elevation of about 250 feet above the lake, we come to a gravelly soil in which the pebbles are well rounded (Fig. 57), as if by water action. North of this there is a steep slope of twenty or thirty feet, at the base of which the soil becomes clayey; and this continues, usually for several hundred feet, or possibly as many yards, when gravelly con¬ ditions are again encountered, somewhere in the vicinity of the main Buffalo and Erie turnpike. One or two gravel terraces are found here ; and, at the base of the northernmost of these, clay again appears. Here, as in the case of the first gravel ridge, there are springs at the junction of the gravel and clay, so that, where not artificially drained, this place is continuously indicated by swampy conditions. From the top of the upper (southern¬ most) gravel ridge to the spring line at the base of the lowest, the descent is about 90 feet, and the distance anywhere between two or three hundred yards and a mile, or even more, though usually not far from a quarter of a mile. From this point lakeward, a distance of one or two, and in some places even three miles, the plain is somewhat irregular, with a general descent toward the lake, which is some 150 to 160 feet below the gravel ridges. The soil is usually a clay, though it is often of a sandy nature. The immediate shore line is commonly a bluff, either of shale or of clay, (Figs. 48, 59 and 61) though at times it is in the form of a beach, without any well developed bluff (Fig. 58). As has been said, this will hold in general for any north and south line, whether at the state line, Fredonia, Silver Creek, or any intermediate point. If, however, we make our section nearly parallel to the lake shore, remaining at the same elevation above its surface, we find a remarkable uniformity of conditions. Thus we may pass from Erie, Pa. (and indeed from far to the west of this), to Hamburg, N. Y., without leaving a belt of gravel, ex¬ cepting where the road crosses a stream ; or, if on the hillsides, one may pass over the same distance upon a boulder-bearing clay; or, if near the lake, upon a fine clay soil, usually free from bould¬ ers. These differences are constant, and they are due to definite causes. Since the result is of importance to the fruit grower, the cause must at least be of interest. Before considering the cause, we will examine the conditions in a little more detail. 96 Bulletin 109. The hillside soils .—Above the upper gravel (see map, fig. 52), which usually lies but a short distance south of the main road, the ground generally commences to rise more rapidly, and the escarpment is soon reached. On this hillside there is considera¬ ble grape raising, but the soil is altogether different from that in the region to the lakeward, which is the main grape belt. The base of this soil is a clay of very fine texture; but there are some local variations from this. In some cases the soil is a loam, and in places it is even sandy, while on the other extreme it is often a dense hardpan ; but nearly everywhere the bulk of the soil is clay, whether it is hard and compacted into hardpan, or is a loose 53 .—Section in the boulder clay on Mayville and Westfield road . and relatively friable loam. When fresh, the color is blue; but since the soil is generally somewhat disintegrated, the color ordi¬ narily seen is a yellow, which is due to iron rust leached from the soil fragments. Next in importance to the clay is the presence of pebbles. These are very numerous, and at times they are of considerable size. It is important to note the form of these. They are angu¬ lar, and if rounded at all, this is usually on only one or two of the sides, so that angular corners are almost invariably to be found. Chautauqua Grape Bert. 97 Moreover, the sides of these often bear numerous grooves and scratches. While many of the pebbles are fragments of shale rock, like that which forms the bed rock of the region, a careful examination shows that there are many which are foreign to this part of New York. Thus granites, sandstones and limestones are found in a region which from the bed rock yields only shales and sandy shales. If we could examine the soil particles with a microscope, we should find them to be composed of minute rock particles, fresh and unchanged, as if worn or ground from the rock by some strong force. The entire mass is put together with¬ out arrangement, and there are no distinct layers such as those found in the lower gravel soils. We say it is unstratified, though sometimes (as in figure 53) there is a partial stratification, never very distinct. This soil varies greatly in thickness, being usually several feet deep ; but while sometimes, particularly in the stream valleys, it attains a depth of several hundred feet, in other places on the hillsides it forms a very thin veneer over the shale rock. Near the crest of th,e escarpment, there is another belt of soil of mo¬ rainic origin ; but as this is not in the true grape belt, it need not be considered here. This clay soil is the same as that which covers the greater part of the area of New York and New England, and of Canada to the north of these districts. Its characteristics and origin are well understood by geologists, to whom it is known as till or boulder clay. In the first half of this century its origin was in dispute; but we now know that it is a deposit from a great con¬ tinental glacier which occupied northeastern North America, and extended outward in all directions from a center near Hudson Bay or Labrador, behaving like the present ice sheet of Green¬ land, or the Antarctic. Slowly moving across New York state, toward the south, with a depth certainly as great as a mile (for it covered the highest mountains of the east), it ground down the rocks, reducing them to a fine clay, which is often called rock flour, and caused a mingling of pebbles from various sources. Thus the granite from the Canadian highlands is stranded on the hillsides of Chautauqua county and is there mingled with the shale. The grooved and scratched pebbles show that this process of grinding was in operation. 98 Bulletin 109. 2 o u H X Much of this material was dragged beneath the ice; and owing to variations in the topography of the land, in currents or in supply, in some places it accumulated to a depth of several hundred feet, while in other places it was not so extensively deposited, just as in some places a river scours its channel clear, while elsewhere it is building a bar. Finally the ice disappeared from these hill¬ sides and all of the material that was in or under it was left to form the present hillside soils. The hillside soils are somewhat difficult to work, partly because of the roughness of the surface, partly because of the irregularities of the texture and composition, which, even in the same field, may very differently affect capillarity and drainage. Moreover, it is often a dense hardpan which is difficult to till. Still it is a strong, sturdy soil, which, when properly cultivated, furnishes good crops. However, it is not so well adapted to grapes as the more sandy soils of the valley. The gravel ridges .—Throughout the entire grape belt (Fig. 54), there are three distinct grav¬ el areas, extending approximately parallel to the Erie shore. On one of the two northernmost of these the main road to Buffalo is generally located, while the third is south of this, at distances gen¬ erally varying from one or two hundred yards to more than a half mile. Between these distinct ridges there are sometimes one or two less dis¬ tinct gravel beds ; but most of the space between them is occupied by a clayey soil. In some places, particularly near the larger streams, the entire belt is gravelly. The surface of the gravel ridges is typical. Each one is remarkably level-topped (Fig. 55), and the roads that follow them often extend for miles almost on a dead level. They are distinct terraces, and when viewed from Chautauqua Grape Belt. 99 55 .— Road on the crest of a gravel ridge just east of Fredonia. the north they present a bold face which rises quite abruptly to a height of from fifteen to thirty feet (Fig. 56), beyond which a nearly level plain is usually encountered (Figs- 54 and 55). Near the streams the terrace is broader than elsewhere ; and in some cases it is a true ridge with a nearly level top but with a slope both to the north and the south (Fig. 65). The soil of these gravel ridges is peculiar, and it is upon them that many of the best vineyards are located. Wells and natural sections show that the gravel soil varies in depth from one or two feet near the edge, to ten or fifteen feet. Beneath the gravel is found clay or shale. The gravel soil consists of pebbles and sand with scarcely any clay, excepting that which has come from IOO Bulletin 109. the disintegration of some of the fragments. After plowing, it does not form clotted bunches, but is loose, friable and porous. Water readily passes through it, and for this reason, forms of vegetation whose roots do not extend deep into the soil are in danger of suffering in times of drought. When examined in a fresh section, it is found that the gravel is often very pebbly, and that the pebbles are sometimes very large. Compared with those of the hillside, the pebbles are found to be well rounded and smoothed (Figs. 57 and 66), as if by water action. There are few if any angular corners, and no grooves of scratches. The clay element is practically absent, and the peb¬ bles are bound together by sand instead. The pebbles and sand are in layers, or are stratified (Fig. 57), so that there are several important differences between the soils of the two zones. A comparison with the beaches of the present lake shore shows a striking resemblance, not only in texture but in the surface out¬ line. In both cases there are many rounded pebbles and much sand ; and in both cases, also, the surface form is that of a flat- topped terrace. However, in the beach there is almost no clay, while in the gravel ridges the decay of some of the pebbles and sand particles has furnished some clay ; and also the action of vegetation and cultivation has somewhat modified the gravel Chautauqua Graph Bkut. ioi ridge soil. The meaning of this resemblance will soon be shown to be similarity of origin. As many who have tilled the gravel soil have conjectured, the ridges are true lake beaches now strand¬ ed on dry land. The lake clay soils .—In the present lake, gravel beaches are be¬ ing formed along the shore line ; and each time that there are strong waves, the washing action of the water moves the pebbles backward and forward, rounding them by grinding off tiny parti¬ cles of clay. The force of the waves and currents is capable of 57 .—Section through the upper beach at Westfield , showing stratification of pebbles and sand. carrying the beach sand and gravel only to a very short distance from the shore line ; but the clay that is worn away by the waves passes in suspension for a considerable distance from the shore line before settling to the bottom. During windy days the waters immediately off shore are clouded with sediment. Fishermen know that at a distance of only a few yards from the shore the lake bottom is almost everywhere covered with clay or sandy clay. The soundings made by the United States Engineers, who have surveyed the bottom of Take Erie, show that a muddy bottom is the prevailing feature. When the lake waters reached to the height of the gravel ridges, the region below this was naturally a place for the deposit of clay. While some pebbles may have been drifted away by the ice, and dropped to the bottom away from the shore, the clay was 102 Bulletin 109. «* in most places free from large fragments. In some places, par¬ ticularly opposite the mouths of streams, the clay might be re¬ placed by sand for a considerable distance from the coast. An examination of the soil between the northermost gravel ridge and the lake shore, shows that these features exist. A layer of clay, varying in depth from a few inches to several feet, is spread over most of the region west of Silver Creek and north of the gravel ridges. Oftentimes it rests on the bed rock, barely covering it : in other cases it is found above the true boulder clay, and in some stream cuts one may often see a bed of dense boulder clay upon which rests a foot or two of clay, which is often quite sandy. In such places, one has the opportunity of studying the differences between the two kinds of clay soil, one of which is characteristic of the hillsides. The lake clays are found to be in layers, as if deposited in water, and the clay is usually less dense than the boulder clay, while pebbles are rela¬ tively scarce. Shale gravel .—Between the lake shore and the true gravel ridges, in some places there are low ridges of shale, on which the soil is so thin that deep plowing reaches the friable shale bed rock. The soil is then made up of a mixture of fragments of shale and clay, forming what is known as shale gravel. These deposits are not very extensive, and they merely represent rock hills which have not been deeply covered by glacial or lake deposits. They are less common west of Silver Creek than they are east of that town. The relative value of the soils .—Of the three important kinds of soil in the grape belt, the gravel is distinctly the best for fruit raising, and the hillside soils of the least value. That the fruit growers have generally recognised this, is shown by the fact that in the belt of gravel there is a much greater percentage of vine¬ yard than in either of the other belts. While it is so readily per¬ meable to water that plants whose roots do not extend deep into the ground may suffer from droughts, it rests upon a much less permeable rock or clay, over which water is constantly percolat¬ ing ; and those forms of vegetation whose roots are able to reach down to this zone are not endangered. The depth of this per¬ manent water zone is variable, but it is usually several feet. Chautauqua Graph Belt. 103 The width of this gravel belt is very variable, as indeed are the details of its composition. Near the mouths of large streams, as at Silver Creek, Fredonia, Westfield and the state line, the zone broadens so that a sandy soil extends from the base of the true gravel ridge across the plain, nearly, if not quite to the lake. Be¬ tween the streams, the gravel ridges become narrower terraces, and the lake clay soil commences at their very base. Therefore in different parts of the grape belt, the area in which the soil features are especially adapted to grape raising is somewhat variable ; but 58 .—Modern beach at Barcelona, showing the crest in the backgroicnd. there is a certain uniformity, and the importance of this to the question of origin is sufficient to call for a more detailed statement of the features of the gravel ridges, or, as we may now call them, the ancient beaches. THE MODERN BEACHES. Let us first take a glimpse at the present shore line features of Lake Erie. There are two separate kinds of shores, the rock or clay bluffs (Fig. 48) and the gravelly or sandy beaches (Fig. 61). Oftentimes the bluff is faced by a beach (Figs. 48 and 61). Where the larger streams enter the lake, the width of the beach is in¬ creased, and the waves are not cutting at the base of the shale bluffs. The cliffs need not delay us, for it is the beaches with which we have to do in particular. The beaches consist of sand and 104 Bulletin 109 gravel thrown by the storm waves to a height of several feet above the reach of the ordinary waves. In time of strong waves the water dashes over the top of the beach, moving the pebbles too and fro, although they are situated fully ten feet above the 59 .—Crest of modern beach at Barcelona with a clay bluff in the background. Chautauqua. Graph Bklt. 105 present lake surface (measured at Barcelona) (Fig. 58). This is the crest of a terrace whose width varies, sometimes being a nar¬ row strip at the base of a bluff (Fig. 59), sometimes, especially near the mouth of a stream, broadening out to quite an extensive plain. At Silver Creek and at the mouth of Cattaraugus Creek, the beach deposits are very extensive ; and in the latter, the action of the wind by building sand dune hills has raised the level above the reach of the highest waves. In these places also, bars are being built opposite the mouth of streams (Fig. 60). 60 .—Present bar formation at Silver Creek. The reason why these beaches are being built is that the sup¬ ply of gravel is greater than the waves are able to remove. In some cases the supply comes mainly from the rocky headlands, in others from streams. Where it cannot all be ground down to a fine clay, that can be carried off shore and dropped to the bot¬ tom, it accumulates as beach gravel ; and so, year by year,the beaches encroach upon the lake. The crest of the beach, which may be ten feet above the lake level, represents the highest point to which the lake waves can reach and bear gravel : in other words it represents the height reached by the violent storm waves. io6 Buixktin 109. Since this varies with the exposure, the crest of the beach may vary in height, as we have seen that it varies in width. This 6r .—Present beach of Lake Erie , north of Dunkirk . FORMER LAKE LEVEL variation amounts to only a few feet, the beach being higher on exposed than on sheltered coasts. Generally the top of the beach is nearly level (Figs. 59 and 61) ; but where accumulations are made off shore, as they sometimes are where streams bring consid¬ erably more gravel than the waves can dispose of, a bar is built, and this slopes both ways (see Figs. 60 and 62B). Also compare with Figs. 62A and 65)- LAKE BAR lagoon SHORE B 62 .—Cross section of bar: ancient A; modern B. Therefore the top of the true beach is a plain of varying width, whose elevation is nearly uniform, both along the shore and at Chautauqua Graph Belt. 107 right angles to it. If it is in the form of a bar, the elevation re¬ mains nearly uniform in the direction of the length of the bar, but at right angles to this it rapidly descends in both directions. In the beach, the flat topped plain is faced on the lakeward side by a rapidly sloping front; and this descent continues beneath the lake waters. (Fig. 63). Therefore on the shore of the present lake we have a terrace plain of a nearly uniform level, and the terrace slope (Figs. 58, 59 and 61), the whole being composed of well rounded and water-worn gravel and sand (Figs. 58 and 64). We also find numerous wave- 64. —Pebbles of the modern beach at Barcelona. cut cliffs either in the clay (Fig. 61) or in the rock (Fig. 48) ; and opposite the mouths of the streams there are often formed bars (Fig. 60) which are welded at their base to the beach, and stretch more or less completely across the stream mouth. Sometimes there are spits of gravel; and there are numerous other minor details of shore line features. 65 .—Section through a bar. Midway between Sheridan and Fredonia. Beach to be seen in the background in the gap cut through the bar. 66 .—Photograph showing pebbly nature of old beach terrace near Sheridan Chautauqua Grape Beet. 109 THE ANCIENT BEACHES- Most of the features just described are found also in the gravel ridges. They usually have all of the characteristics of beaches (Figs. 56 and 66), and near the streams they are often trans¬ formed to bars (Fig. 65). The resemblance is so close that even the most casual observers have noticed it and formed the theory that the ridges were made by the lake waters. So far no fossils of lake shells have been found in the gravels, though some have been reported by residents of the region. It would be of great importance to find these* for they would determine beyond ques¬ tion whether the gravel ridges are lake or ocean beaches. There is little reason for believing the latter, although this explanation has been suggested by some. The gravel ridges .—In passing from one end of the district to the other, numerous differences are found in the gravel ridges. Perhaps the most important change is in the number of beaches 1 \ o 100 90 SO 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 SI. 12 13 14 15 16 17 16 /9 20 2 f 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 3 1 S.2. S3 247.1 II no 100 Uf PER 90 BEACH MISSING 80 70 €0 50 4.0 30 20 ro 67.— Diagram to show the elevation of the different terraces (in thirty-one sections ) above the base of the lowest terrace. /, at state line ; 30, just east of Silver Creek. (Fig. 67). From the base of the lowest to the crest of the highest, there is a vertical range of from 85 to 100 feetf in a distance which is often less than a half mile. In this distance there are always two distinct ridges or beach terraces and usually several. There *If any reader should know of the existence of fossil shells like those now living in the lake, I should be very glad to be informed of the occurrence. f The elevation of the lake is 573 feet above sea level; and of the base above the lake, as determined by a line of levels run at Portland, 147 feet. Therefore at this point the base of the lowest beach ridge is 720 feet above sea level. I IO Bulletin 109. seem to be five beaches, though it is rare to find all developed in the same section. In thirty-one sections whose elevations were measured with the aneroid barometer, only one (Number 17) clearly exhibited five ridges. In Section 1 there are six gravel ridges, but one or two of these may have been bars opposite the stream mouth. There are four beaches in Section 10, in which the upper beach was not measured ; .and there are also four in Section 31 where the upper beach is absent. In several places (nine sections, 8, 11, 12, 13, 22,25, 2 8> 29 and 30) four beaches appear in the same north and south line. On the other hand there are places where the three lower beaches are merged into one terrace, or in which one or two of the beaches are so indistinct as to be scarcely notice¬ able (notably section 16). From State Tine to Sheridan the upper beach is quite distinct ; but east of that place this beach begins to lose distinctness and it disappears just east of Silver Creek. The lower beaches extend eastward, one disappearing just south of Hamburg, the others ex¬ tending to the vicinity of Crittenden where they also die out. Without analyzing my measurements here, it may be said that the crest of the first or lowest beach ranges from 15-20 feet above the base of the terrace ; the second beach ranges between 10-15 feet above this ; the third from 10-15 feet higher ; the fourth also 10-15 feet higher ; and the fifth between 30-40 feet above this. As one drives along the main road to Buffalo, the face of the upper terrace is frequently visible, while the road itself is usually upon either the lowest, or, more commonly on the second level. From just west of Silver Creek to within three miles of Fredonia, it follows the lowest; but west of this is more commonly on the upper level, though at times descending to the lower. When visible, the third and fourth beaches (measured from the base) are indicated by slight gravel ridges. There is so much variability in these respects that to make the feature entirely clear it would be necessary to the region in much detail. From figure 67 one will obtain an describe idea of the irregularity of level, throughout which how¬ ever there is considerable uniformity. Below the upper terrace there is usually a bench or plain which slopes quite uniformly up to the base of the terrace and on the northern margin ends in a steep descent; but in a number of places Chautauqua Graph Bkut. i 11 this plain is diversified by slight benches of gravel, marking some of the intermediate beaches. From the crest of the upper terrace towards the south there is also a plain, which is usually very narrow, but is sometimes gradually merged into abroad till-cov - ered plain (Fig. 54). From the lake shore to the base of the first gravel ridge, near the main road, there are no beaches of a distinct character, al¬ though in one or two places there are indications of wave action. Over this plain, which is often one or two miles in width, the soil is mostly of clay,as has already been noted. However, north of the town of Portland there is an ancient sand dune region, in which the sand is no longer in movement, having probably had its features 68 .—Front face of lower beach terrace just west of Portland. East of sec¬ tion line No. 2 , Fig. 67. introduced immediately after the lake water left the land. The sand is fine in texture, quite like moulders’ sand, and it is heaped into the typical conical peaks, with enclosed craters, which characterize sand dune belts. Here the topography is very rough ; but else¬ where the prevailing condition is that of a plain, sloping lake- ward. Variatio?is in the gravel ridges .—Not only do the number of the gravel ridges vary, but there is a considerable difference in their characteristics from one point to another. Generally the slope of the terrace front is abrupt (Fig. 68), and the top quite level; but, as has already been noted, it may be in the form of a I 12 Buixktin 109. ridge or bar instead of a beach. There is also a variation in width, which in some cases is very marked. Notably opposite the mouths of streams the width of the gravel is greatly increased, the deposit there being in the nature of a delta. Here the steep front of the terrace disappears and is replaced by a gravel slope, crossed by numerous gullies and traversed by ridges of gravel; and this gravel extends for a considerable distance toward the lake, gradually becoming a sand, and then, near the lake, a clay. The best delta in the area studied is that upon which the town, of Fredonia is situated ; but there are other similar deposits near the mouth of nearly every stream of considerable size. Just as in the modern beach, there is also a variation in texture in any single gravel ridge. But quite unlike the modern beach, the material is always a gravel. In the entire region studied I have found no considerable part of either terrace made of sand. In small areas there is often much sand ; but nearly everywhere there are layers of rounded pebbles in close association. On the present shore there are many wave-cut cliffs of shale; but in the entire region occupied by the gravel ridges, from State Line to Hamburg, I have not found a single rock cliff. In some cases wells have reached rock near the front edge of the gravel terrace, suggesting the possibility of such cliffs veneered over with gravel which has slipped down from above. This would be possible only with low rock cliffs ; and we may therefore con¬ clude that in this part of the shore ne there are no wave-cut cliffs which are at all comparable in size to those of the present lake shore. Whether there are any wave-cut cliffs of gravel I am not so certain. There are places where the lowest terrace may be of this nature; but this could not be proved, for beach gravel covers the face and base. In any event, it may be concluded that the prevailing feature of these ancient shore lines is the wave-built, instead of the wave-cut terrace. In this respect there is a marked difference in the fea¬ tures of the present lake shore, and a resemblance to such coasts as the sandy shores of New Jersey and the Carolinas. This is a feature which needs to be explained and will be discussed in later pages. Chautauqua Grape; Belt. “3 Irregularities of level of gravel ridges .—When formed by the lake waters, these ridges were essentially horizontal. That is to say, leaving out of question certain minor variations from place to place, such as we see on any beach at present, the average crest of each beach from one end of the region to the other, was a horizontal line, just as is the case on the present lake shore. Still, at present, these ridges are not horizontal. As determined by careful lines of levels, and by numerous elevations obtained by other means, they are tilted so that the eastern end is higher than the western. This necessarily records a change in the level of the land since the beaches were deposited. Along the line of beaches from Cleveland to Silver Creek the change amounts to over 90 feet. Therefore, since the distance is about 150 miles, the change in level amounts on the average to about three-fifths of a foot per mile. The levels made in the grape belt are not of decisive value for the distance between them is not great. Still in the pro¬ files (Fig. 69) one sees that very nearly the same changeisrecorded.* Interpretation .—For a long time we have known more or less concerning elevated lake beaches which seem to nearly surround the Great Takes. Different geologists have studied different sec¬ tions and so we have many scraps of knowledge ; but these are not sufficiently complete to allow of any full statement of their meaning. Indeed, one of the needs of North American geology is to have some one person follow this subject to an end by tracing the beaches not only through the States, but also through Canada. There is much yet to be learned, though we are in a position to state the more general facts of the history. It cannot be doubted that these ridges were formed in water. Their resemblance to the shore lines of the lake is so perfect, in almost every particular, that the conclusion is almost forced upon us that the water in which they were formed was lake water ; and this conclusion scarcely admits of a reasonable doubt. No other explanation than beach origin can be admitted, for no other pos- *From Section 1 to Section 3 the distance is 36 miles. The crest of the second beach is 185 feet above lake level at State Line, 195 feet at Portland and 221 feet just east of Silver Creek. In other words, the beach increases in elevation at the rate of about 1 foot a mile. There is little doubt that the uplift is greater in the east than in the west. TOTAL LENGTH OF SECTION 9.812 FEET .moraine 69 .—Profiles to show the height of the terraces above Lake Erie. Beach ridges shown by inverted V's. Height above Erie indicated in feet and tenths of feet. Distance between stations (;marked at base of diagram) given in feet. Chautauqua Graph Belt. 115 sible cause can be found ; and if of beach origin, then the beaches were formed either in lake or ocean. In support of the latter hypothesis no single fact can be found which does not equally apply to the theory of origin in lake waters ; and against the ocean theory there are facts which seem to entirely exclude it. If these were formed in the ocean they should be continuous ; but the beaches end quite abruptly, the upper one just south of the town of Silver Creek, the next, south of the town of Hamburg, and the others and lower ones near Crittenden. There is no known reason why ocean beaches should thus terminate, while, as we shall see, there is an excellent reason why lakes should cease to build beaches at these points. Everything then points to lake origin ; and all the observed facts may be accounted for by this theory, while no known fact opposes \ it. Therefore we may consider it more than a theory :—it is a proved fact. There remains to be explained (1) why Take Erie should have been so much higher than now, (2) why the beaches end so abruptly, and (3) why they are no longer horizontal. These facts can best be explained in the course of a brief state¬ ment of the geological history of the region. RfiSUMfi OF THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY. Before the last geological period, the northern part of New York had valleys and hills, plains and escarpments, very much as at present, though the details of topography were quite different. Among the more important differences was the absence of the Great Lakes, which occupy valleys that have been transformed to lakes largely by the action of the glacier. Over this country the glacier ice slowly advanced until practically the whole of New York was covered ; and for a time this ice sheet ground its way over the rocks, carrying fragments southward and wearing down the valleys and the hills as it passed. All life was of course ex¬ terminated from the region, and the land was transformed to a dreary ice plateau, like that of central Greenland. Why it came, or how long it remained, are questions which the geologists of the future must answer, if we ever learn. That it came and worked, performing certain tasks, we of the present century have determined. Bulletin 109. 116 At last, by some change in the condition of the climate, the ice sheet began to melt away and to uncover the buried land. It seems to have done this quite rapidly, though somewhat inter¬ mittently. That is, it would stand for awhile with its front along a certain line, then quite rapidly melt away and transfer its front to a distance of a dozen or score of miles to the north, where it would again take a stand. This is indicated by the moraines, which are irregular hills of glacial deposits that were accumu¬ lated at the front of the ice. The glacier was carrying a load of rock materials ; and when these reached the front they were dropped from the melting ice and therefore accumulated. If the ice stood long enough, a moraine was built along the margin ; if its stand was brief no morainic accumulations were made. One of these moraines passes through Jamestown, another past the northern end of Brakes Chautauqua, Bear and Cassadaga, and in a general east and west line back of the crest of the escarpment. Another line passes just east of Silver Creek, one near Hamburg, and another through Crittenden. Beneath and in the ice was a load of rock fragments which were moving southward. They were being ground over one another and over the bed rock, so that they were being reduced to clay by the scouring action of the ice which worked somewhat like a great sandpaper. When the glacier disappeared, this material was left where it happened to be; and so a soil was deposited which was composed of clay and pebbles derived from various sources to the north. This till or boulder clay was dragged into many of the old valleys, either wholly or partially filling them, so that the streams have often been obliged to cut new channels in the shale. Sometimes these rock gorges end abruptly where the stream crosses or flows in the old drift-filled valleys ; and then the shale wall is changed to one of till, in which the boulder clay is sometimes one or two hundred feet deep, as is the case in parts of the Gulf near Westfield. As the ice withdrew, with a south-facing front, it naturally in- terferred with all north-flowing streams. It formed a dam and caused many reversals of drainage. The St. Lawrence valley was occupied by the ice when the front had retreated north of the escarpment which partly encloses the grape belt. Therefore these Chautauqua Graph Bkut. i i 7 north-flowing streams could not drain by the present outlet, but were ponded back and forced to take another place of outflow, and this was of course the lowest point in the enclosing hills, a point which was naturally higher than the present outlet. While the lake was held at its upper place of outflow it was building the upper beach, which has been called Sheridan beach. The outflow of this lake was then at Fort Wayne, Ind., into the Wabash and the beach may be traced continuously to this outlet. However, in the east this beach comes to an end just south-east of Silver Creek; and near its eastern end there is a tract of moraine.* To the southward of the town of Hamburg, on the road to New Boston, there is another morainic belt, and a second beach, which can be quite continuously traced from west of Silver Creek nearly to Hamburg, begins to disappear as this town is neared. The last place at which it could be distinctly determined is near Eden Church, southwest of Hamburg; but a third beach from the top passes directly through Hamburg and has been found to disappear near Crittenden. In each case, as the moraine is approached, the beach becomes less distinct and finally can be traced no farther. This shows that while these beaches were being built at their respective levels, the ice was standing at different places and was bringing materials which were being laid down at its front in the form of moraines. At first the ce front passed near Silver Creek and then the upper beach was made, while the outflow of the lake was past Fort Wayne. Then the edge of the ice withdrew for a distance until some lower outlet was formed, and again to a still lower, more northern point, when another and still lower outlet was established. One of these last two outlets was past Chicago ; but we know too little about the subject to state which one represents this stage, or to tell where the third outlet was. * At last the ice retreated far enough for the Erie basin to take its present outflow past Buffalo ; but the valley of the St. Law¬ rence was still ice dammed, and Ontario was raised to the level of the overflow of the Mokawk valley. Thus temporarily the sev¬ eral Great Lakes had their level raised by ice dams ; and during this time distinct shore lines were formed. *This moraine has not been traced, so that nothing can be stated concerning its extension ; but it appears in quite distinct development about two miles east of Silver Creek, extending nearly to the town. 118 Bulletin 109. There are some differences from the present shore lines still to be accounted for. Why, for instance, are there no rock cliffs, but everywhere a series of beach gravels, a condition of so much im¬ portance to the grape grower ? It would have been a serious dis¬ advantage to have had the vineyards traversed by two or three rock escarpments like that of the present lake shore. In the first place, the question whether the waves and currents shall cut or build, depends upon whether they are able to remove all of the material that they obtain by one cause or another. That is the reason why beaches are not built on some of the exposed head¬ lands of the lake, while they are commonly present in the enclos¬ ed bays, and why the gravel accumulations opposite the mouths of the streams are more extensive than elsewhere. There are various reasons why the waters of the ancient lake were less able to remove the materials furnished them than is the case with the present lake. As the ice was leaving the land, there was at first a time when no vegetation covered the clay soil, and when the whole surface was attacked by the rain just as a plowed field is to day. Therefore the streams were given more materials to carry to the lake. In the second place, the rains must also have been heavier when the cold ice wall was melting and furnishing vapor to the air. Besides this, the streams entered the lake at the base of the hill, while now they flow for a mile or two over a plain. Another important reason is the fact that the shores were gradually rising. Therefore, for various reasons, the lake was given more materials than the waves and currents could dispose of, and hence they accumulated in the gravel ridges which we find. A second important difference between the old shores and the present ones, is the fact that they are no longer horizontal. This is due to a tilting of the land since the beaches were formed. There is abundant evidence that the land is now and has been in the past in a state of motion. Actual historic record proves this in several places, and geological study proves it in many more. Since the glacial period the movement in this part of the land has been that of tilting, with greater elevation in the northeast. Therefore these beaches do not show so great a change as they would if they extended in a more nearly north and south direc¬ tion. The amount of tilting varies from place to place, but in the Chautauqua grape belt averages not far from one foot per mile. 70 .—.Rainfall in inches , giving total for the year. 71 .—Average temperature for the year in degrees From report of the State Weather Bureau. Farenheit. From report of the State Weather Bureau. 120 Bulletin 109. A final question that we may ask, is how long ago this happen¬ ed. To this no definite answer can be returned. A study of Niagara gorge, which has been formed since Take Brie fell below the lowest gravel ridge, seems to show a period between 4,000 and 15,000 years. There is some reason for believing that the first is nearer to the truth than the last, and that it may even be a shorter period than this. Otherwise it would be difficult to ac¬ count for the fact that these gravel ridges have resisted destruc¬ tion so well. Nor can we state any more definitely how long it took the lake waters to build the beaches. They probably do not represent a great length of time, for materials were apparently rapidly supplied. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS. While the soil is a very important element in the value of the grape land, the climate is of even greater importance. Hence, while this study was not made primarily with the object of deter¬ mining the climatic peculiarities of the belt, some features of a general nature were so pronounced that they attracted attention. The lake is a great modifier of climate. In the spring, by reason of the low temperature of its waters, it holds back the vegetation and this tends to keep it behind the ordinary frosts. Its very presence checks frost by moderating the temperature of the neigh¬ boring air. In the summer, the water tends to cool the air of the day and to keep the nocturnal temperature fairly high. During the fall, the water has been warmed by the summer sun, and the influence of this warm body of water lengthens the growing sea¬ son and tends to keep off the early autumn frosts. There are many other influencees, but nothing of importance can be stated excepting on the basis of a careful study extending over several years. The lake breeze of the day must moderate the daytime temperature ; and the land breeze of the night may in some cases so keep the air in motion as to prevent frosts. That there is a marked influence upon climate as a result of the peculiar conditions of topography and neighborhood of water, is evident at the very first. The sketch maps (Figs. 70 and 71) show that the mean annual rainfall is greater on the escarpment than on the lake plain, and that the mean annual temperature of the hills is Chautauqua Grape Beet. I 2 I lower than that near the lake. During the disastrous frost of May, 1895, the vineyards in the grape belt, taken as an average, suffered less near the lake, while those farthest from the water were most injured. Still there were cases of vineyards near the lake that suffered considerably, while some on the escarpment were scarcely touched * MOST FAVORABLE PLACES FOR THE LOCATION OF VINEYARDS. As has been said, there are two factors in the problem which deals with the reason for the conditions in the grape belt, one cli¬ matic the other geologic. The climatic features are dependent upon the location near a large lake, and the presence of the bound¬ ing escarpment, which confines this influence to a narrow limit. In the eastern part, where the escarpment is relatively low and far from the lake, the influence of the lake is much less distinct.f This is the main reason why the grape belt does not extend far east of Silver Creek. Even in the distance of a few miles, from the lake to the crest of the hill, where grape raising practi¬ cally ceases, there is much variation in climate, as has already been pointed out. Considering the three belts of soil from the standpoint of their adaptability to grape raising, the hillside soils are of least value, * The behavior of this frost was altogether remarkable, leaving some dis¬ tricts or vineyards almost unharmed, and nearly ruining the crop in others, while even in the same vineyard these extremes were sometimes noticed. This was probably chiefly due to eddies of the air, for even though air is al¬ most quiet, it is still in uneven motion. One may see this illustrated on a calm day bv noticing the movements of a column of smoke. The air, being invisible does not reveal these movements, and we become aware of them only when the conditions are exceptional, as when a frost is dealing out des¬ truction to vegetation. The condition of the ground also affects the frost, and the question whether it is dry or moist, freshly plowed or turf covered, whether there are trees or pastures or plowed ground in the neighborhood, all have their influence ; but this subject has never been properly studied, and it is not possible to state just how these differences affect frost action. fThis was well illustrated during a frost in the middle of September, 1895. At Westfield there was no indication of a frost, east of Silver Creek signs of its effect began to appear, and at Hamburg, the frost had done considerable damage to the more delicate forms of vegetation. 122 Bulletin 109. the climate is least favorable, and the surface configuration of the land is least adapted to this industry. The lake clay soils are of poorer grade than the gravel soils, but the climate is in favor of this belt. The defect of soil texture, which is against most of the lake clay soils, can be readily overcome by a very little intel¬ ligent study of the conditions ; and so there seems to be no reason why the vineyards should not extend from the base of the hill to the lake. Indeed, the favorable climatic conditions make this in¬ dustry possible even on the hillsides for a considerable elevation above the plain. INFLUENCE OF THE GRAVEL RIDGES. One of the most striking influences of the gravel ridges is upon the roads. For the greater part of the distance, each of the two main gravel strips is occupied by a road which is remarkable for its general levelness and for the gravelly material which makes the excellent roadbed. Travelling is therefore extremely easy, and it is very probable that this natural roadway was the site of an Indian trail. Even the position of the towns is often deter¬ mined by the gravel ridges. Several of the villages and towns, east of Silver Creek, are, (including Hamburg) on the gravel; and west of this town, in New York, every place of any size on the Erie shore (excepting Dunkirk, which is so situated because of its port) is located on the gravel ridges. This is true of Sheridan, Fredonia, Brockton, Portland, Westfield and Ripley. Another important influence is upon the water supply. The gravel furnishes a reservoir through which the water percolates along the junction with the clay ; and at the base of the gravel ridges, springs occur where the line of junction nears or reaches the surface. So important is this underground reservoir, that not only are the houses on the ridges easily supplied with water, but houses below the beaches are in some cases furnished with water from this source. Of course the most important influence is upon the fruit indus¬ try, and this has already been discussed in sufficient detail. Two or three suggestions may however be in place. There is no rea¬ son why the fruit district should not extend beyond Silver Creek. For several miles beyond that town the conditions are favorable, though they become less and less so as the distance increases. Another point is the feasibility of increasing the range of crops. The climate and soil are well adapted to all kinds of fruits which are common to this latitude; and one would suppose that even the tobacco plant might be profitably grown in a region so pecu¬ liarly favored. Almost all conditions have conspired to make this one of the most favored spots in the state. R. S. Tarr. Bulletin iio. January, 1896. Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. ITHACA, IM. Y. HORTICULTURAL DIVISION. EXTENSION WORK IN HORTICULTURE. By L. H. BAILEY. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. 1896. ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. STATION COUNCIL. President, Jacob Gould Schurman. Hon. A. D. White, Professor I. P. Roberts, Professor I. P. Roberts, Professor G. C. Caldwell, Professor James Law, - Professor A. N. Prentiss, Professor J. H. Comstock, Professor L. H. Bailey, Professor H. H. Wing, Professor G. F. Atkinson, OFFICERS OF I. P. Roberts, E. L. Williams, H. W. Smith, Trustee of the University. President State Agricultural Society. Agriculture. Chemistry. Veterinary Science. Botany. Entomology. Horticulture. Dairy Husbandry. Cryptogamic Botany. THE STATION. Director. - Treasurer. Clerk. ASSISTANTS. M. V. Slingerland, G. W. Cavanaugh, - E. G. Lodeman, L. A. Clinton, E. J. Durand, - Entomology. Chemistry. Horticulture. Agriculture. Botany. Office of the Director, 20 Morrill Hall. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to all who request them. BULLETINS OF 1896. 106. Revised Opinions of the Japanese Plum. 107. Wireworms and The Bud Moth. 108. The Pear Psylla and The New York Plum Scale. 109. Geological History of the Chautauqua Grape Belt, no. Extension Work in Horticulture. Extension Work in Horticulture. The Honorable Commissioner of Agriculture, Albany. Sir: A report of progress of the work which has been under¬ taken by the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station in pursuance of the requirements of the Experiment Station Ex¬ tension Bill, is herewith submitted. At the outset, it is proper to say that this bill originated entire¬ ly with the people. The beginnings of it occurred in 1893, when certain Chautauqua County persons asked the Station to under¬ take some experiment w T ork in their vineyards. We replied that while we should like.to take up the investigations, our funds were insufficient to meet the expense without endangering work in which we were already engaged; and this lack of funds would be keenly felt if other sections of the state should also, following the Chautauqua example, ask for help. We suggested to them, therefore, that if their local horticultural society could raise suffi¬ cient funds to meet the expense of fertilizers, travelling and inci¬ dentals, we should try to detail a man to look after the work. The matter dropped here ; but the next winter we heard of a movement on foot amongst the Chautauqua people to obtain a small state appropriation to pay for experiment work in their vineyards. The movement was placed in the hands of S. F. Nixon, Assemblyman from Chautauqua County, who, early in 1894, obtained a grant $16,000, one-half of which was to be ex¬ pended by the Cornell Experiment Station in work in horticulture in the Fifth Judicial Department of the State, an area comprising sixteen counties of western New York. This is the only instance, so far as I know, of a movement for experiment station work which has been initiated and pushed to a final passage wholly by a farming community. The laws upon which our land-grant col¬ leges and the agricultural experiment stations are founded were conceived and completed almost wholly by a comparatively small body of educators and experimenters, aided by persons in the various professions. But at last, the people themselves, whom these foundations are intended to benefit, have felt the touch of 126 Bulletin ho. the new spirit and the quickened life, and have demanded addi¬ tional funds to be expended more immediately under their own direction. It must be gratifying to every citizen of New York to know that this State is the pioneer in this experiment station ex¬ tension movement. The clause in the law of 1894 which appropriated money to the Cornell Experiment Station, is as follows : “ The sum of eight thousand dollars, or so much thereof as may be necessary, is here¬ by appropriated out of any moneys in the treasury, not otherwise appropriated, to be paid to the agricultural experiment station at Cornell university, for the purpose of horticultural experi¬ ments, investigations, instruction and information, in the fifth judicial department, pursuant to section eighty-seven of the agri¬ cultural law.” The law also provided that “such experiment station may, with the consent and approval of the commissioner of agriculture, appoint horticultural experts to assist such experi¬ ment station, in the fifth judicial department, in conducting in¬ vestigations and experiments in horticulture ; in discovering and remedying the disease of plants, vines and fruit-trees ; in ascer¬ taining the best means of fertilizing vineyard, fruit and garden plantations, and of making orchards, vineyards and gardens pro¬ lific ; in disseminating horticultural knowledge by means of lec¬ tures or otherwise ; and in preparing and printing, for free distri¬ bution, the results of such investigations and experiments, and such other information as may be deemed desirable and profitable in promoting the horticultural interests of the state. * * * * All of such work by such experiment station and by such experts shall be under the general supervision and direction of the com¬ missioner of agriculture.” This bill became a law, by the Gov¬ ernor’s signature, May 12, 1894. In the legislature of 1895, Mr. Nixon introduced a bill to continue the work, but increasing the amount given to Cornell Experiment Station to $i6,000. This second bill became a law on the 4th of April, 1895. Upon taking up the work asked for by the bill, in the early summer of 1894, the Cornell Experiment Station placed the im¬ mediate prosecution of the enterprise in the hands of a chief “ horticultural expert,” in the language of the law, and the pres¬ ent writer was elected to that office, with the expectation that most Extension Work in Horticulture. 127 or all of the work should be completed during his summer vaca¬ tion. In entering upon his duties, this officer laid out three gen¬ eral lines of work, as specified in the law,—“conducting investiga¬ tions and experiments, ’ ’ ‘ ‘ disseminating horticultural knowledge by means of lectures or otherwise,” and “ preparing and print¬ ing ” the results of the work. In other words, the work was to be divided between research, teaching, and publication. The en¬ terprise was new and untried ; the territory to be covered is large, the interests varied, and the demands numerous ; and the promo¬ tors of the bill had large expectations of the results. The respon¬ sibility of inaugurating the enterprise was keenly felt, for a mis¬ take in the beginning might be expected to exert a serious and baneful influence upon future legislation designed to improve the conditions of rural life. The officer in charge has been extremely fortunate, however, in having the hearty support of his colleagues, the free cooperation of the commissioner of agriculture, and, above all. the kindly and intelligent interest of scores of horticulturists in his territory. It was conceived that, in the beginning, a com¬ paratively small and well digested enterprise prosecuted by a few carefully chosen men would be productive of better results than any bold attempt, with a large force, to carry the work into every part of the fifth judicial department. Inasmuch as the original grant was obtained through the exertions of the grape-growers of Chautauqua County, it was designed to undertake careful studies of the vineyard interests at the outset. The immediate charge of this work was placed in the hands of my assistant, E. G. Uode- man, who, to fit himself more specifically for certain problems which were presenting themselves, went to Europe (at his own expense) and visited the vineyards of the Rhine, of Italy and Southern France. The entomological inquiries were placed in the hands of M. V. Slingerland, assistant entomologist of the Experiment Station. Certain lines of investigation made at Ithaca were placed in immediate charge of Michael Barker, who was secured from the Botanic Gardens of Harvard University. We also associated with us for a time in certain field work, Mr. Harold G. Powell, a senior in agriculture in Cornell University, and one who has had much experience in pomological matters. 128 Bulletin ho. In 1895 the work was placed in the hands of the director of the station (who was absent the previous year) and the writer, but the immediate charge of it was given, as the year before, to the latter officer. Some additional help was secured because of the larger work which was demanded by the larger appropriation ; but in general the enterprise went forward upon the same lines as in 1894. 1. Research or Experime?it. There are two types of experiment work which the people seemed to require of us. One type is a demand for more exact knowledge upon many rural problems ; and in order to obtain this knowledge it was thought best to prosecute the inquiries at the Station at Ithaca where there are facilities for scientific work and where the experiments can be given that personal attention which is absolutely essential to truthful results. The other type of experiment is a demand for actual tests of fertilizers, spraying, methods of tillage, and the like, which shall be made upon the farms in various parts of the territory, and where they may be seen by the farmers themselves. These experiments are rather more object lessons than scientific research for they are largely concerned with problems which are already well understood, and their results are not capable of such exact analysis as are those which are obtained from painstaking and long continued ex¬ periments at the home station. This latter category comes rather more directly under the head of teaching than of experiment. Arrangements were at once made to take up certain lines of ex¬ periment at Ithaca which the fifth judicial department seems to need ; and several lines of inquiry which had been already un¬ dertaken by the station and had been discontinued because of lack of funds, were again taken up, since they were capable of yielding quicker results, and with much less expenditure of money, than experiments which should be newly started. Some of the inquiries which were completed and published from this state fund in this way are : Apricot Growing in western New York; The Cultivation of Orchards ; The Grafting of Grapes; The Native Dwarf Cherries ; Black-Knot of Plums and Cherries, and Methods of Treatment; The Spraying of Orchards ; Winter Extension Work in Horticulture. 129 Muskmelons ; Forcing-House Miscellanies (comprising accounts of heating glass houses, lettuce growing under glass, celery under glass, cress, forcing egg-plants, winter peas, bees in greenhouses, methods of controlling greenhouse pests, treatment of carnation rust) ; Revised Opinions of Japanese Plums. Several other lines of experiment, touching the horticultural interests of our terri¬ tory and which had already been carried to a certain point by our own funds, are now going forward at the home station, and the results may be expected in bulletin form, as they mature. Certain wholly new investigations have also been undertaken at the home station for the benefit of western New York, most of which, however, are not yet ready for publication. Certain of these studies have been prosecuted in part upon the farms in western New York, particularly those relating to insects. The bulletins of this type which have already been published are as follows : A Plum Scale in western New York ; The Climbing Cutworms in western New York ; The Cigar-Case-Bearer in western New York ; The Dwarf Eima Beans ; Recent Chrysan¬ themums ; The China Asters, with Remarks upon Flower Beds ; The Spraying of Trees, with Remarks upon the Canker-Worm ; Soil Depletion in Respect to the Care of Fruit Trees. A half dozen other investigations of this type are already completed and awaiting publication. Another type of research work which we have undertaken under the auspices of this bill is the investigation of the condi¬ tion of certain horticultural interests in western New York. In the interest of these particular inquiries, we have travelled no less than 25,000 miles in western New York and have visited and ex¬ amined many hundreds, if not thousands, of plantations. We have attempted in these investigations to learn the actual state of the industries and to suggest means for their improvement. They are really the beginning of a horticultural survey which can be much extended with great profit. Some of these inquiries have already matured, and the results are published in the following bulletins : Hints on the Planting of Orchards ; The Peach In¬ dustry in western New York ; Peach Yellows ; Some Grape Troubles in western New York (with a particular account of the “rattling” of grapes in Chautauqua County) ; Varieties and 130 Bulletin i io. Eeaf-Blight of the Strawberry ; The Quince in western New York ; The Recent Apple Failures of western New York ; Cher¬ ries ; Blackberries ; Evaporated Raspberries in western New York ; General Observations Respecting the Care of Fruit Trees; Geological History of the Chautauqua Grape Belt. Various other investigations of this type have been completed, for the time, and the reports may be expected soon. Some of these are currant growing, gooseberries, the Japanese pears, and dwarf apples. Other inquiries which have been under way for the past two seasons still need one or two more years’ work before they are ready for publication. Some of the most promising of these are the bean industry, dwarf pears, standard pears, plums, strawberries, raspberries. Many other horticultural industries, some of which are sadly in need of investigation, we have not yet been able to touch. Some of the most pressing of these un¬ touched problems are connected with the growing of various vege¬ table crops for the canning trade, some of the forcing-house in¬ dustries, and the nursery business. The experiments which are now in progress in western New York are chiefly concerned with the fertilizing of fruit lands. There are, for example, experiments under way in fertilizing peach lands at Youngstown, Niagara County, and near Morton, Monroe County ; in fertilizing apple orchards near Eockport, and in Wayne County; in fertilizing and managing nursery lands at Dansville ; and several tests upon grape lands in Chautauqua County. Aside from these definite experiments, we are keeping close run of the experiments which are making by various farm¬ ers in our territory. At the present time, every intelligent farmer is an experimenter. We are in a transition period as respects the methods and objects of farming. But the greater part of all this experiment is lost unless it is carefully studied and collated by a specialist, and the summary results of it given to the world. Much of this cumula¬ tive body of experience of the best farmers is capable of yielding better results than similar work which might be undertaken at an experiment station. In fact, there are many lines of investi¬ gation touching rural economy, or farm management, which can be undertaken in no other way than by a study of actual farm conditions. An experiment station, which is necessarily consti- Extension Work in Horticulture. 131 tuted for scientific research, cannot touch many of the most vital problems of farming. The only ideal station is that which adds the farm of every one of its constituents to its own resources. 2. Teaching . One of the distinctive marks of the last decade, in educational lines, is the extension of university teaching to the people. Prob¬ ably no movement of the latter part of the century is destined to exert a greater influence upon the form of our institutions and civilization, than this attempt to leaven the entire lump of citi¬ zenship with the inspiration of higher motives. The agricultural experiment station movement is itself a part of this general desire to carry the new life to every person, whether college-bred or not. But this movement, beneficent as it is, still lacks some of the means of making itself felt. It must have a closer vital connec¬ tion with the people. The people must be made to hear, even though they desire to be deaf. Good citizenship has a right to demand that every person live up to the full stature of his oppor¬ tunities. The establishment of the experiment stations upon a federal grant ensures stability and removes them beyond the reach of petty and local jealousies and criticisms ; but the addition of a state grant to the federal grant, brings them home to the people and awakens a personal interest in them in the rural communities which can be obtained in no other way. If this state aid asks for extension teaching, still more will be gained towards spreading the influence of the stations. The results of the experi¬ ment station work must be carried to every farmer’s door ; and if he shuts the door, they must be thrown in at the window. The greatest good to be derived from this experiment station extension bill was conceived, therefore, to be teaching. So meet¬ ings have been held and attended—nearly fifty of them in the last two years,—in which something has been said of the new teach¬ ing of science and the new demands of the times. This teaching has not only been cordially met by the rural communities, but it has been eagerly sought by them. The rural population is ready for instruction, and by far the greater part of those who receive it endeavor to profit by it. The derision of “book farming,” of i 3 2 Bulletin no. which we have heard so much, has all gone, because the teaching is now worth being received. In the light of our present knowl¬ edge, it is easy to see that most of the agricultural teaching of a generation ago was wholly unsuited to the conditions which it desired to reach, and it had, for the most part, a most meager foundation both of fact and of inspiration. If “ book-farming ’ ’ came to be a by-word, it was because the epithet was deserved. It is true that the agricultural industries are the most difficult of all industries to reach with the educational motive, but this is be¬ cause of the inherent difficulties of the subjects and not because farmers are unwilling to learn. The truth of these remarks is attested by the large attendance at many of the meetings which have been held under the auspices of the bill, by the eager questioning of the attendants, and by the enormous correspondence which pours into the Experiment Sta¬ tion offices. An instance of the awakening interest may be cited. The writer met about twenty fruit growers at Hotel Richmond, Batavia, in early spring. The work of the year in Genesee County was talked over. On the 14th day of May, an orchard meeting was held at South Bethany at which 300 to 400 people were present ; on the 18th of July, at a potato-spraying contest at Stafford, 500 or 600 people were in attendance ; on the 22d of August, at Nelson Bogue’s, near Batavia, the turnout was esti¬ mated at 1,500 to 2,000. Yet, large as this number is, the writer has addressed a western New York farmer’s audience of twice this size during the past season ! Surely, the time is ripe for sowing the seed of the new agriculture ! Some of the teaching under the auspices of this bill has been done by sending a man to attend horticultural and grange meet¬ ings, when such a favor was requested. East spring we inaugu¬ rated a series of “ spring rallies,” which were brisk, active meet¬ ings of one or two days’ duration. For the most part, two or three persons took part in these meetings,—the officer in charge of the work, Mr. Eodeman and Mr. Slingerland. It was the pur¬ pose of these meetings to send the farmer into the season’s work with such an initial velocity that he could not stop himself before the harvest time. There were plain direct talks about the philo- Extension Work in Horticulture. 133 sophy of tillage, fertilizing the land, conservation of moisture, and the like, instructions about spraying, and sometimes talks about insects. An orchard was generally sprayed for the purpose of ex¬ plaining the operation. These meetings were uniformly well at¬ tended. Some of the best of them were held at Morton, Clyde, Dundee and Youngstown. The most exact work which has been done in extension teach¬ ing, however, is in the holding of certain meetings which we have called “ horticultural schools.” These are designed to carry the most useful features of university extension methods to the aid of the rural communities. The instruction is designed to be somewhat fundamental in character, of such a nature that it in¬ terests the listener in the subject because of its intellectual relish, and thereby sets him to thinking. If the farmer thinks correctly, he then does correctly. In the treatment of insects, for example, the listener is asked to consider the anatomy, physiology, natural history, and habits of insects, and little is said about the means of destroying noxious kinds. He can read current literatute the more intelligently and with keener interest, for having even a lit¬ tle of the fundamental knowledge, and he is very likely to carry the new habit of thought directly into the field with him. Another feature of these schools which has met with much favor is the training of the powers of observation by placing specimens of twigs, fruits, flowers, or other objects, in the hands of the par¬ ticipants, asking that they explain what they see. It is true that most persons do not see what they look at, and still fewer persons draw correct conclusions from what they see. It has been our habit to enroll those persons who signify a desire to attend all the sessions of a school, in order that they may feel themselves to be intimately identified with the movement ; and the roll is generally called at the opening of each session. An average attendance of forty or fifty persons is sufficient for a successful school. he first school was held at Fredonia in the holidays of 1894. The enrollment was about 60 ; but the effect of the teaching was felt throughout a wide constituency. It is generally only the most influential persons who attend such schools, and they spread the instruction far and wide ; and the teaching is perhaps all the bet- I 34 Bulletin ho. ter for being second-hand and for being worked over into more assimilable shape. The high-water mark in these schools was reached at Jamestown, where over ioo persons were enrolled, and where the interest was at high tension from start till finish. Other persons than those enrolled attend the exercises, and the evening lectures draw a larger audience. The instructors in these schools were mostly teachers in Cornell University, and each one provided printed synopses of his lectures for the use of his hearers. At the first Fredonia school, the last day, by request of the promoters in that vicinity, was given over to local speakers upon ‘ ‘ practical ’ ’ questions ; but we were re¬ quested, in arranging the program for the second school, to omit all local talent in order that the exercises might ‘ ‘ not fall below the university standard.” Five of these schools have been held. The character of them can best be understood by a display of the announcements and the synopses : CONSPECTUS OF A SCHOOL OF HORTICULTURE TO BE HELD AT FREDONIA, CHAUTAUQUA CO., N. Y., Dec. 26-29, 1894 Under the auspices of The Experiment Station Extension, or Nixon, Bill. Conducted by L. H. Bailey, and A committee of Chautauqua Horticulturists, consisting of John W. Spencer, S. S- Crissey, I. A. Wilcox, G. Shoenfeld, U. E. Dodge, E. K. Hough, F. W. Howard, L. Roesch, F. Southwick, G. Jaarda, J. C. Thies, S. G. Bartlett. Day sessions will be held in Temple of Honor Hall and evening sessions in the large Normal Hall. Extension Work in Horticulture. i35 2 P. M. 1. 2 . 3 - 7 P. M. 4 - 9.30 A. M. 5 - 6 . 2 P. M. 7 - 8 . 7 P. M. 9 - 9.3O A. M. 10. 11. 2 P. M. 12 . 13 . Wednesday, Dec. 26. Announcements. Observation upon Twigs . How Plants Live and Grow. With demonstrations with the microscope. W. W. Rowlee, Assistant Professor of Botany in Cornell University. An Analysis of Landscapes, with stereopticon views. L- H. Bailey. Thursday, Dec. 27. Observations upon Fruit Buds. The Nursery. Discussion upon the propagation of plants, illustrated with the operations and nursery- grown specimens. Nelson C. Smith, Geneva. Observation upon Seeds. A Brief of the Evolution of Plants. Origination of varieties. Philosophy of domestication and pruning. E. H. Bailey. The Geological History of Soils. With stereopticon views. R. S. Tarr, Assistant Professor of Dy¬ namic Geology and Physical Geography in Cor¬ nell University. Friday, Dec. 28. % Observation upon Leaves. Chemistry of the Grape and of Soils. G. C. Cald¬ well, Professor of Chemistry in Cornell Univer¬ sity. Observation upon Flowers. Theory of Tillage and Productivity of Land. I. P. Roberts, Director of the College of Agriculture, Cornell University. 136 Bulletin no. 7 P. M. 14. What are Fungi f Considered with special refer¬ ence to the grape, with stereopticon views. E. G. Lodeman, Instructor in Horticulture in Cornell University. 9.30 A. M. i 5 - 16. 2 P. M- I 7- 18. 19. 20. Saturday, Dec. 29. Observation upon Fruits. Commercial Grape CulUcre in Chautauqua County. Considered in various aspects, by S. S. Crissey, Fredonia; G. Schcenfeld, Westfield; J. A. Tennant, Ripley. Observation upon The Apple. Continuation of No. 16. General Question Box. Final exercises. This is probably the first school of its kind devoted to horticulture in this country. With no precedents to guide us, we shall probably make mistakes, but we shall all do our best. It will always be a pleasant memory that we have participated in a pioneer movement The day exercises will aim at specific instruction in particular subjects. The evening exercises will be popular illustrated lectures. Everyone is invited to attend the various exercises. Persons have the privilege of enrolling themselves as students for the purpose of receiving personal aid upon the points under discussion. At the close of each day’s exercise, the students will be questioned upon the subject. This questioning is not pursued for the purpose of ascertaining the student’s knowledge of the exercise, but to elucidate the subject under discussion. During this ex¬ ercise, also, the student has the privilege of freely asking questions upon the topic under consideration. It is expected that the instructors will not be interrupted with questions during the course of the exercise. Each day session will be opened with a lesson upon observation. Students will be given specimens, as indicated in the program, and ten minutes will be allowed for examination of tfiem. The students will then be questioned as to what they have seen. Students should provide themselves with note-book and pencil. Roll will be called immediately upon the hour set for meeting. Printed synopses of all the day lectures will be distributed to students. While most of the instruction deals with fundamental principles, special applications will be made to the grape whenever possible. Extension Work in Horticulture. J 37 Roster of the first Fredonia School: J. R. Adams, Fredonia. L. S. Allnott, Fredonia. S. G. Bartlett, Fredonia. F. A. Beckwith, Fredonia. A. J. Blodgett, Fredonia. Newel Cheney, Poland Center. Mrs. Newel Cheney, Poland Center. H. B. Clothier, Forestville. T. W. Clute, Fredonia. E. L. Colvin, Fredonia. L. E. Cowden, Fredonia. S. S. Crissey, Fredonia. U. E- Dodge, Fredonia. M. M. Fenner, Fredonia. G. H. Green, Fredonia. E. A. Guest, Fredonia. G. C. Guthrie, Fredonia. Sam’l Hall, Fredonia. Geo. T. Hammond, Fredonia. F. D. Hardenburg, Brocton. W. W. Harris, Brocton. Mrs. W. W. Harris, Brocton. E K. Hough, Fredonia. F W. Howard, Fredonia. G. Jaarda, Fredonia. F M. Kidder, Fredonia. C. I. Mason, Fredonia. A. Matthews, Portland. J. A. Miller, Fredonia. R. E. Morris, Brocton. A. F. Newton, Fredonia. O. Ostrander, Fredonia. J. N. Palmer, Fredonia. Dr. William Parks, Fredonia. J. J. Parker, Fredonia. J. M. Pettit, Fredonia. Dr. A. P. Phillips, Fredonia. J. A. Powers, Portland. Dr. N. Y. Richmond, Fredonia. L. Roesch, Fredonia. P. L. Saxon, Fredonia. G. Schoenfeld, Westfield. J. W. Skinner, Laona. C. L. Snow, Forestville. F. M. Southwick, Dunkirk. J. W. Spencer, Westfield. A. M. Tennant, Westfield. J. A. Tennant, Ripley. Carl Thatcher, Fredonia. D. M. Thayer, Fredonia. Mrs. D. M. Thayer, Fredonia. John C. Theis, Fredonia. M. J. Tooke, Sheridan. E. I. Wilcox, Fredonia. I. A. Wilcox, Portland. C. W. Wilson, Fredonia. E. P. Wilson, Fredonia. H. M. Wolbur, Fredonia. -58 Students. CONSPECTUS OF A SCHOOL OF HORTICULTURE TO BE HELD AT YOUNGSTOWN, NIAGARA CO., N. Y., Friday and Saturday, August 16 and 17, 1895, Under the auspices of the Experiment Station Extension, or Nixon, Bill. Bulletin ho. 138 1. 2. 3 - 4 - 5 - 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 - 10. 11. 12. 13 - 14. Friday, August 16. Morning Session— 10 A. m. Music. Observations o Buds and Branches. The Soil— Its resources and management. I. P. Roberts, Professor of Agriculture , Cornell University. Afternoon Session—2 p. m. Music. Observations on the Peach. The Orchard.—Management of land and trees. L. H. Bailey, Professor of Horticulture , Cornell University. Evening Session— 7:30. Music. The Science of the Weather.—Illustrated by charts and diagrams. R. S. Tarr, Professor of Geology and Physiography , Cornell University . Saturday, August 17. Morning Session— 10 a. m. Music. Observations on the Apple. Insects Injurious to the Peach.—Illustrated by actual specimens. M. V. Slingerland, Entomologist in the Experiment Station , Cornell University . Afternoon Session— 2 p. m. Music. Observations on the Apple-scab. The Spraying of Orchards.—Lessons of the year. E. G. Lodeman, Assistant Horticulturist , Cornell University , Extension Work in Horticulture. i39 The meeting will be held in the Opera House. The school is free to everybody, and every one interested in horticulture is invited to attend. Come with note-book and pencil. Be on hand promptly at the opening hour. The Observations will be the most interesting exercises. Bring in specimens of fruits, flowers, insects, and whatever else interests you. Come with the determination to learn all you can about the subjects under discussion. A SCHOOL OF HORTICULTURE WILL BE HELD IN UNION GRANGE HALL, JAMESTOWN, N. Y., Oct. 31, Nov. 1 and 2, 1895, Under the auspices of The Nixon, or Experiment Station Extension Bill. Conducted by L. H. Bailey, Cornell University. Free to All. Thursday, Oct. 31. 2:00 p. m. Lesson in observation upon Bark. Outline of the Nutrition of Plants. With examples. E. J. Durand, Instructor in Botany, Cornell University. 7:30. p. m. Address on Evolution in the Vegetable Kingdom. L. H. Bailey, Professor of Horticulture, Cornell University. Friday, Nov. i. 10:00 p. m. Observation on bisects. Insects and Insect Enemies. M. V. Slingerland, Entomologist in the Experiment Station, Cornell University. 2:00 p. m. Observation on Flowers. Plows and Plowing. I. P. Roberts, Director of the College of Agriculture, Cornell University. 7:30 p. m. The Geological History of Jamestown Region. With lantern slides. R. S. Tarr, Professor of Geology, Cornell University. 140 Bulletin iio. Saturday, Nov. 2. 10:00 A. m. Observation on the Apple. How can the Farmer tell what Fertilizer his Soil Needs ? G. C. Caldwell, Professor of Chemistry, Cornell University. 2:00 p. m. Observation on Fungi. Fungi and Fungous Enemies. E. G. Eodeman, In¬ structor in Horticulture, Cornell University. Let everyone who is interested in agriculture and horticulture come and take part in the sessions. Bring in all specimens of plants, insects, fruits, and the like, concerning which you wish to ask questions. Come with note-book and pencil. Read up on the subject under discussion before you come. You will then get more out of the instruction. Be on hand promptly at the opening hour. This is an opportunity for everyone to renew his school days. Roster of the Jamestown.School: R. Adams, Jamestown. James S. Aiken, Fluvanna. Mrs. Geo. L. Ames, Gerry. Miss Nettie J. Armstrong, Jamestown B. B. Bissell, Gerry. Mrs. R. M. Bissell, Gerry. Flint Blanchard, Jamestown. Mrs. Flint Blanchard, Jamestown. L. G. Brainard, Ellington. Mrs. Mary Brainard, Ellington. Miss Ellen A. Breed, Jamestown. Simeon Brownell, Dewittville. Mrs. Simeon Brownell, Dewittville. W. O. Brownell, Bemus Point. Miss Callahane, Jamestown. A. M. Cheney, Jamestown. Mrs. A. M. Cheney, Jamestown. Asa Cheney, Bemus Point. J. Cheney, Jamestown. Mrs. J. Cheney, Jamestown Mrs. Kate Cheney, Bemus Point. Lewis Cheney, Kiantone. Miss Martha Cheney, Bemus Point. Newel Cheney, Poland Center. Mrs. Newel Cheney, Poland Center. Amos Colburn, Ellington. Miss Minnie Comstock, Jamestown. F. A. Crandall, Falconer. J. W. Creal, Kiantone. Thos. W. Crouch, Jamestown. Chas. M. Dow, Jamestown. Edwin Durand, Frewsburg. F. E. Durand, Frewsburg. Mrs. F. E. Durand, Frewsburg. Mrs. O. J. Felton, Falconer. C. C. Fisher, Stow. F. A. Fitch, Randolph. L. D. Gale, Stedman. Miss Louise E. Geer, Jamestown. C. D. Gifford, Jamestown. Mrs. C. D. Gifford, Jamestown. T. H. Gifford, Jamestown. W. C. Gifford, Jamestown. Mrs. W. C. Gifford, Jamestown. G. A. Gladden, Napoli. Mrs. G. A. Gladden, Napoli. A. L. Gleason, Open Meadow. Miss Gertrude Greene, Ashville. Miss Ophelia Griffith, Jamestown. Mrs. Dan’l Griswold, Jamestown. Extension Work in Horticulture. 141 Miss Bertha Gron, Jamestown. E. A. Harvey, Fluvanna. Mrs. E. A. Harvey, Fluvanna. W. Haskin, Ellery. A. Hazeltine, Jamestown. R. T. Hazelton, Frewsburg. Jared Hewes, Stedman. W. L• Hyde, Jamestown. Miss Lottie C. Landon, Jamestown. Miss E. E. Leet, Jamestown. G. F. Leet, Point Chautauqua. C. H. Love, Frewsburg. N. D. Lewis, Jamestown. R. R. Lord, St. Clairville. S. A. Markham, Ellington. Mrs. S. A. Markham, Ellington. O. D. Mitchell, Busti. Mrs. Ann A. Mills, Jamestown. S. M. Morley, Stow. Mrs. L. Morgan, Jamestown. Mrs. Florence Morton, Stow. W. Palmeter, Jamestown. V. E. Peckham, Jamestown. Mrs. V. E. Peckham, Jamestown. Miss Clara Phillips, Bemus Point. Geo. A. Phillips, Bemus Point. Mrs. J. Phillips, Bemus Point. Mrs. Mary Phillips, Jamestown. Mrs. L. J. Pierce, Jamestown. H. Pike, Jamestown. Mrs. Josephine Price, Jamestown. David Rider, Levant. Mrs. David Rider, Levant. Mrs. L. S. Robertson, Ashville. D. F. Rose, Jamestown. Mrs. D. F. Rose, Jamestown. E. H. Sample, Kennedy. S. J. Sample, Jamestown. Mrs. S. J. Sample, Jamestown. W. H. Seymour, Kennedy. Miss Laura F. Sheldon, Jamestown. D. Sherman, Jamestown. Mrs. D. Sherman, Jamestown. S. O. Smith, Busti. Mrs. L. T. Stafford, Kennedy. W. J. Staples, Frewsburg. Mrs. S. M. Stewart, Ashville. E. A. Stone, Poland. Mrs. E. A. Stone, Poland. C. N. Taylor, Frewsburg. Lawrence Taylor, Frewsburg. F. D. Thompson, Boomertown. Mrs. N. R. Thompson, Jamestown. S. W. Thompson, Jamestown. Sam’l Townsend, Frewsburg. A. A. VanVleck, Jamestown. Mrs. A. A. VanVleck, Jamestown. M. B. Wample, Jamestown. Mrs. M. B. Wample, Jamestown. T. H. Welch, Stow. R. I. Weld, Sugar Grove, Pa. Mrs. Mary Wheeler, Ellington. J. W. Whitford, Stow. -113 Students. A SCHOOL OF HORTICULTURE WILL BE HELD IN THE COURT HOUSE, LOCKPORT, N. Y., Nov. 29 and 30, 1895, Under the auspices of The Nixon, or Experiment Station Extension, Bill- Conducted by L- H. Bailey, Cornell University. Free to All. 142 Bulletin ho Friday, Nov. 29. 2:00 p. m. Lesson in observation upon Seeds. The Soil. What there is in it, and how to get it out. I. P. Roberts, Director of the College of Agriculture, Cornell University. 7:30 p. m. Address, Landscape Art. With lantern views. L. H. Bailey, Professor of Horticulture, Cornell University. Saturday, Nov. 30. 9:30 A. m. Observation on bisects. Insects and Insect Enemies, with specimens and models. M. V. Slingerland, Entomologist in the Experiment Station, Cornell University. 11:00 A. m. Black-Knot and Potato Blight, with drawings and specimens. E. G. Lodeman, Instructor in Horti¬ culture, Cornell University. 2:00 p. m. A session with the growers. “ How Science-teach¬ ing looks to a farmer.” John W. Spencer, West- field, Chautauqua Co. “Is Orchard Culture going to Supplant Mixed Hus¬ bandry?” Albert Wood, Carlton, Orleans Co. Roster of the Lockport School: Asa Baldwin, Lockport. E. M. Baldwin, Lockport. R. A. Barnes, Lockport. George Bebe, Lockport. Lewis T. Bell, Lockport. F. M. Bradley, Lake Road. Jones W. Brown, Lockport. H. H. Bugbee, Gasport. Wm. Bugbee, Gasport. Ellis S. Button, Gasport. Fernando Capen, Warren’s Corners. Merritt H. Carl, Lockport. W. B. Cook, Lockport. E. E- Crosby, Lockport. I. N. Crosby, Pekin. J. R. Crosby, Lockport. F. Day, Hartland. L. S. DeWolf, Gasport. Ralph G. DeWolf, Gasport. Wm. L. Dysinger, Lockport. A. G. Eighme, Lockport, A. Flanders, Lockport. E. G. Gafla, North Ridge. Almon Gallup, Lockport. C. Gaylord, Lockport. T. Greiner, La Salle. W. T. Hall, Lockport. T. J. Hastings, Ridge Road. Geo. W. Haynes, Lqckport. Geo. W. Hildreth, Lockport. T. Hough, Lockport. Orman S. Jaques, Wright’s Corners. W. T. Mann, Barker. G. E. Manning, Ransomville. Dan’l McCarthy, Lockport. Chas. H. Modem, Newfane. A. Merlen, Gasport. F. R. Montgomery, Johnson’s Creek. Extension Work in Horticulture. T 43 Franklin Moore, Ransomville. Okas. Oeds, Lockport. Wm. H. Outwater, Olcott. M. B. Reed, Medina. Wm. Seism, Lockport. W. E. Shafer, Lockport. E. Ashley Smith, Lockport. John W. Spencer, Westfield. H. L. Taylor, Cambria. E. Terry, Ridge Road. Geo. P. Tower, Youngstown. H. B. Tower, Ransomville. Mrs. H. B. Tower, Ransomville. Luke Tower, Youngstown. B. Treadwell, Lockport. A. D. Tripp, North Ridgeway. A. E. Van Dusen, Hickory Corners. John Walker, Ridge Road. A. J. Wheeler, Cheboygan, Mich. E. V. Wheeler, Lockport. P. B. Wilson, Kuckville. Albert Wood, Carlton. Miss E. A. Wood, Pekin. J. S. Woodward, Lockport. -62 Students. PROGRAM OF A SCHOOL OF HORTICULTURE, TO BE HELD AT FREDONIA, CHAUTAUQUA CO-, N. Y., December 30 and 31, 1895, and Jan. 1 and 2, 1896. Under the auspices of The Experiment Station Extension, or Nixon, Bill. Conducted by L. H. Bailey. Day Sessions will be held in Temple of Honor Hall and Even¬ ing Sessions in the Large Normal Hall. 2 P. M. 1. 2. 7:30 p. M. 3 - Monday, December 30. Observation upon Pollen. Pollen : What it is and what it does. By E. J. Durand, Instructor in Botany in Cornell Univer¬ sity. Illustrated by charts, and pollen under the microscope. Address : How Plants Obtain their Nitrogen. By George F. Atkinson, Professor of Cryptogamic Botany, Cornell University. With lantern views. 144 Bulletin iio. io A. M. 4 - 5 * 2 P. M. 6 . 7 - 7:30 P. M. 8 . Tuesday, December 31. Observation of Insects. Insects ; How they live, grow and multiply. By M. V. Slingerland, Assistant Entomologist to the Experiment Station, Cornell University. Illus¬ trated by specimens, charts, and papier mache models. Observatio?i upon Soils. Stock, Silos and Soiling for Fruit Growers. By I. P. Roberts, Director of the College of Agricul¬ ture, Cornell University. Address: The American Boy. By Professor Roberts. New Year’s Day. 10 A. M. 9. Observatio?i upon Knot-holes . 10. The Philosophy and Practice of Pruning. By L. H. Bailey. 2 P. M. 11. Observatioyi upoii Black Curra 7 its of the Shops. 12. Flower-Growing for Amateurs. By Ernest Walker, Florist, New Albany, Indiana. 7:30 P. M. Address : History of Grape-Growing in America. By E. H. Bailey. With lantern views. IO A. M. 14. 15 . 2 P. M. l6. T 7 - Thursday, January 2. Observatio 7 i up 07 i Figs. Vegetable Gardens under Glass. By W. M. Mun¬ son, Professor of Horticulture, Agricultural Col¬ lege of Maine. With photographs, and samples of the vegetables. Observatio 7 i upo 7 i Potatoes. Potato Blight and Potato Rot. By E. G. Eodeman, Instructor in Horticulture, Cornell University.. With specimens. Extension Work in Horticulture. r 45 Everyone is invited to attend the various exercises. Persons have the privilege of enrolling themselves as students for the purpose of identifying themselves intimately with the Extension movement. At the close of each day’s exercise, the students will be questioned upon the subject. This ques¬ tioning is not pursued for the purpose of ascertaining the student’s knowledge of the exercise, but to elucidate the subject under discussion, During the exercise, also, the student has the privilege of freely asking ques¬ tions upon the topic under consideration. It is expected that the instructors will not be interrupted with questions during the course of the exercise. Dis¬ cussion, and questions asked for the purpose of eliciting information are al¬ ways welcome ; but there is no time for mere argument and contention. The day exercises will aim at specific instruction in particular subjects. The evening exercises will be popular illustrated lectures. Each day session will be opened with a lesson upon observation. Students will be given specimens, as indicated in the program, and ten minutes will be allowed for examination of them. The students will then be questioned as to what they have seen. Students should provide themselves with note book and pencil. Roll will be called immediately upon the hour set for meeting. Printed synopses of all the day lectures will be distributed to students. Read up on the subject under discussion before you come to the meeting. You will then get more out of the instruction. Roster of the second Fredonia School: (On account of the bad weather and the interruption of New Year’s Day, the attendance was smaller than it otherwise would have been.) S. M. Aldrich, Fredonia. F. Baldwin, Fredonia. W. T. Benjamin, Fredonia. P. G. Cate, Fredonia. H. B. Clothier, Forestville. R. C. Clothier, Silver Creek. T. W. Clute, Fredonia. E. L. Colvin, Fredonia. L. E. Cowden, Fredonia. S. S. Crissey, Fredonia. Eliza Denton, Fredonia. U. E. Dodge, Fredonia. Elbert A. Guest, Fredonia. George Hammond, Fredonia. F. W. Howard, Fredonia. G. Jaarda, Fredonia. F. M. Kidder, Fredonia. J. N. Larder, Fredonia. R. D. Luther, Fredonia. S. T. Lyne, Fredonia. C. J. Mason, Fredonia. Thos. Moran, Fredonia. E. J. Oakes, Fredonia. Dr. Wm. Parks, Fredonia. Dr. A. P. Phillips, Fredonia. Dr. N. Y. Richmond, Fredonia. Lewis Roesch, Fredonia. Mrs M. H. Sackett, Fredonia. David Scott, Fredonia. Henry Smith, Fredonia. Miss L. Smith, Fredonia. Mrs. L. E. South wick, Fredonia. John W. Spencer, Westfield. J. Spink, Fredonia. N. A. Tambling, Fredonia. Karl A. Thatcher, Fredonia. 146 Bulletin iio. John C. Theis, Fredonia. A. W. Tuttle, Fredonia. I. A. Wilcox, Portland. Mrs. I. A. Wilcox, Portland. E. P. Wilson, Fredonia. . L. I. Young, Fredonia. W. H. Van Scoter, Fredonia. H. F. Weaver, Fredonia. E. I. Wilcox, Fredonia. 45 students. The synopses which have been used in the various meetings are as follows: THEORY OF TILLAGE AND PRODUCTIVITY OF LAND. ( Given at first Fredonia School .) —By Professor Roberts. I. Plant food in the soil. II. Its availability. Objects of cultivation : 1. To promote capillarity. 2. To bring fertility to the plant. 3. To set free the mineral plant food. 4. To hasten nitrification. 5. To aerate the soil, or to prevent too free aeration. 6. To present new surfaces to the rootlets. 7. To induce new root growth, b. To conserve moisture. 9. To facilitate the drying of the land. 10. To form a mulch. III. Treatment of the land. How to cultivate. When to cultivate. Crimson clover. Phosphoric acid. Potash. [Students should consult Bulletin 72, Cornell Experiment Station.) PL O V VS A ND PL O WING . [Given at Jamestown School .) —By I, P. Roberts. I. Why we Plow. Effects of Plowing on moisture. Drying and warming the land. Conservation of moisture. Preventing Hard-Pan. Increased Storage Capacity. Aeration of Soil. To promote Nitrification. To bury Trash. To prepare a home for plants. Extension Work in Horticukture. 147 II. When to Plow. III. How to Plow. IV. When and How not to Plow. STOCK , SILOS AND SOILING FOR FRUIT-GROWERS. (Given at the second Fredonia School.) —By I. P. Roberts. 1. Importance of the animal in the rotation. Manure. The animal en¬ forces a change of cropping. The ideal farm is self-sustaining, making its own fertility. Gives continuous employment. Value of the stock itself. 2. How stock may be kept without permanent pastures or meadows. A. Silage. The value of silage, and how to use it. Crops which may be made into silage. Silage rations for various animals,—horses, milch cows, steers, sheep, hogs, poultry. How to make the silo. How to fill it. B. Soiling. What it is, and what are its uses. Crops which may be grown for soiling purposes. Yield of soilage crops. Soiling in catch crops. Soiling in the rotation. Can soiling be substituted for pas¬ turage ? 3. What stock, and how many, can the fruit grower with 80 acres of land keep with profit? How to procure good stock. CHEMISTRY OF THE SOIL AND OF THE GRAPE. (Given at first Fredonia School .) —By Professor Caedweee. I. The chemistry of the soil. (a) An arable soil in its best condition for producing crops contains seven essential parts : (1) Clay; (2) sand; (3) assimilable plant food; (4) moisture; (5) humus; (6) air; (7) micro-organisms. (b) Clay furnishes the substantial medium required by the plant as a root- hold, and is also a storehouse for preserving some of its food from waste. (c) Sand is required to make more friable and porous the too stiff and com¬ pact soil that clay alone would yield. (d) The most important part of the food of the plant that is in the soil con¬ sists of nitrogen, lime, potash, and phosphoric acid, forming a very small part of the soil, and mostly insoluble, or unassimilable. (e) Plant growth involves unceasing chemical change in the soil as well as in the plant itself, and this cannot go on without water, nor can plant food be taken up without it. (f) Humus, or decaying vegetable and animal matter is, as it decays, a source of carbonic acid, which is an important solvent of plant food ; humus also itself contains plant food, and it is a loosener of the soil. (g) Air is necessary in the soil for its oxygen, without which the humus is not formed, and cannot decay, Bulletin ho. 148 (h) An important featnre of this decay is the progress of nitrification ; this does not go on without the assistance of micro-organisms. 11. The chemistry of the grape. (a) The vine as a whole is composed of three parts : Water, combustible matter, and incombustible matter. (b) The largest part of the dry plant is combustible, consists of what is called carbonaceous matter, and is derived from the air. (c) The rest of the combustible matter, forming but a small portion of it, contains nitrogen, and is called nitrogenous matter or proteids. Though small in proportion it is very important. The nitrogen for it must come from the soil. (d) The production of starch, sugar, cell-walls and acids is the chief work accomplished in the growth of the vine and its fruit. (e) The quality of the grape for eating depends largely on the relative proportions of sugar and acid. The ripening of the grape consists largely in changes in these proportions. (f) Can the grape grower modify these proportions bv fertilizing or other treatment of the plant? (g) The fermenting of the grape juice depends on its sugar, the access of air and the assistance of micro-organisms. HOW CAN THE FARMER TELL WHAT FERTILIZER HIS SOIL NEEDS? {Given at the Jamestown School .) —By G. C. Caldwell. Nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, are the only plant foods that need any special looking after in the management of manuring the soil. The old-time management compared with more modern methods. In some respects the modern method better, in others not. Neither method is based on any real knowledge of what any particular crop growing on any particular soil requires. No royal road, to this knowledge The chemical analysis of the soil will not give a reliable answer to the question in hand, because the soil of a field cannot be fairly sampled. A recent striking illus¬ tration of the difficulty. The question must be put to the soil and crops together in each case, by plot experiment. The difficulties of this method discussed. How the experiment should be conducted,— a : Selection and preparation of the field, b : Size, shape and arrangement of the plots, c : Fertilizers to be used, and when and how to be applied, d : Cultivation of the crop, e : Harvesting and measurement of the crop, f : Corrections that may be made to even up the results. The use of the results as an answer to the question put. Concerning the repetition of the experiment. Extension Work in Horticulture. H9 THE NUTRITION OF PLANTS . {Given at first Fredonia School). —By Professor Roweee. r. Nutrition is one of the two primary functions of all organisms. The other is reproduction. 2. There are different methods of taking food. Amoeba absorbs its food through the walls of its body. In higher forms a body cavity is developed and food is absorbed only through its walls. The culmination of complexity of structure is reached in the highly complicated respiratory and digestive systems of the higher animals. 3. To understand the relation of nutrition in plants to nutrition in ani¬ mals, one must go back to primitive methods of taking food. 4. There are two great operations going on in living beings, one a build¬ ing up process (constructive), the other a tearing down process (destructive). 5. These processes may be distinguished,—(a) by the materials used as food, (b) by the structure of the operating organs, (c) by the product of the operation. 6. There is no hard and fast line separating animals from plants. The method of nutrition prevailing among plants is one of the most decisive characters. 7. The chlorophyll function (photosynthesis). 8. The content of the vegetable cell is primarily protoplasm. This in active cells is differentiated in two parts,—the nucleus, at the center, and the ectoplasm, the lining membrane of the wall. The former displays greater activity in the processes of reproduction, the latter, in those of nutrition. 9. The green pigment, chlorophyll, which gives the green color to plants is fixed in minute differentiated masses of proplasm, called chlorophyll bodies. to. Various forms of chlorophyll bodies, — Oscillaria, — Spirogyra,—Chara, —Coleus. Hi Movement of the chlorophyll bodies occurs in all plants so far as known. It is rapid in Elodea aud Vallisneria. 12. Conditions best suited to activity of these workers. Importance of sunlight. Pruning to avoid waste of energy. 13. Plants without chlorophyll. 14. General conclusions. OUTLINE OF THE NUTRITION OF PLANTS. (1 Given at the Jamestown School). — By E. J. Durand. All plants built up of cells. —Various forms of cells in different parts of the plant. The green coloring matter of plants ( chlorophyll .) 150 Bulletin ho. The essential elements of plant food. —These are obtained (i) from the soil, (2) from the air. The food of the seedling ; of the mature plant. What is sap ? Water and certain soluble portions of plant food are ab¬ sorbed from the soil by the root hairs.—Forced up through the sap-wood or inner bark by root-pressure.—Most of the water is evaporated from the leaves through the stomates.—The constant current of water from the roots to the leaves.—Some of the water combined with the carbon dioxide of the air forms starch. Assimilation. —This process can take place only in the presence of chlo¬ rophyll and light. Parasitic plants containing no chlorophyll cannot assim¬ ilate carbon dioxide. The diffusion of the assimilated food. —It may be used at once ; or stored up, usually (1) roots e. g. } carrot, maple, or (2) underground stems, e. g. potato —This stored up material forms the food of many plants in spring before the leaves start. Respiration , the breaking down of tissue and its burning up with oxygen. POLLEN: WHA T IT IS, AND WHA T IT DOES. {Given at the second Fredonia School .) —By E. J. Durand. 1. Stamens and Pistils: The essential parts of a flower; their sexual function. Pollen. The floury mass of minute grains borne in the anther, the sack at the upper end of the stamen. 2. The pollen-grain consists of a rounded bit of fluid, protoplasm, sur¬ rounded by two membranes. Some of the forms of pollen. After being scattered from the anther, the pollen is carried by the wind or by insects, or other agencies, to the pistils of other plants of the same species. 3. Office of the pollen. The pollen-grain germinates by sending out a min¬ ute tube, which grows down through the pistil, finally entering the ovary to fertilize the egg-cell. How fecundation takes place. 4. Close fertilization and cross fertilization . The most healthy and hardy seed is borne by the plant whose flowers have been fertilized by pollen from a different plant. 5. Some devices of plants to insure cross fertilization. The stamens and pistils may be borne in different plants, e. g. Maples and Willows. The stamens may mature before the pistils on the same plant, e g. Sunflower. Pollen may be impotent when applied to the pistil of the same plant, or of the same variety, as in some varieties of fruits. The case of Pears. Special devices to insure cross-fertilization. 6 . The agency of insects in crossfertilization. Why flowers are colored. The office of nectar (honey). Importance of bees in orchards. Some flowers fertilized by special insects, e. g. clover. Some adaptations of insects for carrying pollen. Extension Work in Horticulture. x 5 1 FUNGI AND FUNGOUS DISEASES. (Given at the Jamestown School.) I. II. —By E. G. Lodeman. Bacteria. What are they ? Some of their characters. Effects upon plants. Pear-blight. Methods of treatment. Methods of study in the laboratory. Illustrated by specimens and photographs. Fungi Proper. The principal groups, respecting their habit of life : 1. Feeding upon living tissues (Parasites). 2. Feeding upon injured or dying tissue. 3. Feeding upon dead tissue (Saphrophytes). Consideration of the first group (Parasites). How they injure plants ; 1, by growing on the surface of the host plant ; 2, by growing within the tissue of the host. External indications of their presence. Illustrated by examples and photographs. How they pass the winter. Conditions favoring their development. Methods of dissemination. Methods of study in the laboratory. Illustrated by specimens. Methods of treatment. POTATO DISEASES. ( Given at the second Fredonia School.) —By E. G. Lodeman. A. Scab. Due to a fungus (Oospora scabies). Nature of the fungus. It lives both in the tubers and in the soil. Treatment of the tubers ; of the soil. Where it is worst ; effects of much stable manure ; often worse where lime or ashes have been used, probably because these materials modify the acidity of the soil. Clean seed, clean land, and rotation are the soverign remedies. There is a scab which is produced by insects. B. Early Blight. Caused by a fungus ( Macrosporium Solani). Features of the disease ; appears early in the season, in small spots, and causes the leaf to shrivel as if suffering from drought; spreads slowly ; tubers do not rot. It is the commonest disease of potato tops. The flea-beetle and its relation to the disease. The remedy. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture. 152 Bulletin iio. C. Late Blight , Rot. Caused by a fungus ( Phytophthora infestans ). This is the potato disease of history, and it once caused a famine in Ireland. Known for a half century. Usually appears after the middle of July ; attacks large areas of the leaf; spreads rapidly, causing vines to wilt down ; tubers contract a dry rot. How it is treated. Bordeaux mixture is a specific. Treatment of tubers in the cellar; lime and plaster ; heating. INSECTS AND INSECT ENEMIES. [Given at the Jamestown , Lockport . and the second Fredonia Schools.) —By M. V. Slingeri^and. Illustrated by large models, diagrams, and specimens. 1. What is an insect ? Its near relatives. How many insects are known ? 2. How they are built. External features. Appendages of the body and their use. Internal structure ; muscular system ; how they breathe ; the blood and its circulation ; their nerves. 3. How they feed. Striking differences in their mouth parts. 4. Their sensations. The five senses, their form, location, and range in insects. 5. The story of their life. How it begins. How they grow. Their wonderful transformations. 6. Injurious insects. Questions answered, and discussion of any specimens which may be brought in. THE NURSERY; FROM THE SEED TO THE SETTING OF THE PLANTATION. (Given at the first Fredonia School.) —By Nelson C. Smith, Geneva. I. Cuttings. —The kinds : hardwood, softwood, long, short, single eye, root cuttings. How and when they are taken. How stored and how planted. What plants are thus propagated. Commercial propagation of currants, gooseberries, grapes. II. Layers. —How made and when. Tip layering. The raspberry. Mound or stool layering. The English gooseberry and quince. III. Budding. —The method: the stock, cutting the cions, setting the buds, tying, subsequent treatment. What plants are budded, and when. IV. Grafting. —The kinds : root, top, crown, cleft, whip. Uses of each. What plants are grafted in the nursery, how and when. V. General nursery practice. —Lands and fertilizers. Method of culti- Extension Work in Horticulture. i53 vating. Raising the stocks. Importing them. Transplanting. Trimming. Stripping. Double-working. VI. Advice to purchasers .— Age of trees and vines to plant. Points of first-class stock. Trimming the young trees at planting time. How to plant. When to buy and plant. The whole to be illustrated with operations and specimens. {Students are referred to Bulletins 6g and 77, Cornell Experiment Station.) Definitions. — Cutting. —A severed portion of a plant which is inserted in soil or water with the intention that it shall grow. A softwood or herba¬ ceous cutting is often called a slip. Layer. —A shoot or portion of a plant bent down and covered with earth with the intention that it shall take root at the covered part, when it can be severed from the parent plant. Mound layer (or stool layer ) is an erect stool or sucker with earth heaped about its base. Stock — A plant or part of a plant upon which a bud or scion is set. Graft¬ ing. —The operation of inserting a cion in a stock. Cion. —A portion of a plant bearing one or more buds and a piece of stem, which is inserted into a plant (the stock') with the intention that it shall grow- Budding. —The oper¬ ation of inserting a bud, with little or no wood attached, in a plant with the intention that it shall grow. VEGETABLE GARDENS UNDER GLASS. (Given at the second Fredonia School .) —By W. M. Munson. Illustrated with Photographs and Specimens of Vegetables. 1. Why vegetables are grown under glass. The nature and extent of the markets. Who may engage in the business. The profits. 2. What vegetables are grown under glass. 1. Lettuce. 2. Tomato. 3. Cucumbers (two types). 4. Asparagus. 5. Rhubarb. 6. Beans. 7. Radish. 8. Cauliflower. 9. Melon. 10. Pepper, n. Eggplant. 12. Miscellaneous, as cress, sweet herbs, etc. 3. The houses which are used for winter gardens. a. The lean-to house. b. The uneven span house. c. The even span house. d. How they are made :—foundations, sides, roof, ventilators, glass. e. How much they cost. f. How they are heated :—flues, steam, water. g. How hot they must be : the cool house, for lettuce and the like ; the warm house, for tomatoes and cucumbers. h. How the sunlight is managed :—clear roofs and shaded ones. Internal arrangement, and general management. a. The beds or benches. b. The soil. 4 - .154 c. d. e. Bulletin ho. The water. Insects and fungi. It all depends upon the gardener. FLOWER-GROWING FOR AMATEURS; OR FLOWERS IN AND AROUND THE HOUSE. (Given at the second Fredonia School .) —By Ernest Walker. 1. Propagation of plants. (a) By Seeds. Seed pans or trays. Soil. The conditions of germina¬ tion. Soaking seeds. Filing. Depth to sow. Watering. Tem¬ perature. Light. “ Drawing up.” “ Damping off.” (b) By buds, Tubers, Corms, Scales, Root-cuttings, Budding, Grafting, Layers, Leaf-cuttings, Head-wood cuttings, Soft-wood cuttings, Saucer-system, Close-system. 2. Transplanting plants. Potting soil. Seedlings and cuttings, potting, Boxing, Larger plants shifting, “ Setting out.” 3. Window Gardening . Difficulties, Selection of plants, Unsuitable plants, Preparation for winter bloom. Bulbs, potting, rooting. Watering plants. How roots absorb. Loss of water. How roots behave in pots. How often to water. Leaf surface. Size of pots. Pots in saucers. Sickly plants. Dust. Insects. 4. The Yard. Lawn. Concealing the unsightly objects. Foliage. Flowers. The location and planting of borders, and beds. Vases. Simplicity. Shrubs. Trees. ‘ ‘ Come ’round and see my back yard. ” COMMERCIAL CRAPE CULTURE IN CHAUTAUQUA COUNTY (Given at the first Fredonia School .) — By S. S. Crissey and G. Schoenfeld. I. Modern Methods an Outgrowth. —Examples ; pruning and train¬ ing; distances for planting ; varieties; culture; extent of acreage. II. Modifying Influences. —Varieties modified by climate ; cultiva¬ tion modified by extent; the educational work of societies and institutes. III. Physical Topography. Natural superiority for grapes due to cli¬ mate ; theory of thermal strata; formation of Northern Chautauqua; land and lake air currents ; Freedom from fungi; Exemption from frosts ; high summer temperature ; dryness of the atmosphere. IV. Pruning. —Philosophy of; physiological effects ; grapevine period¬ ically extends its structure ; evil effects of improper methods. V. Green Manuring. —Plant food available by nitrification ; green Extension Work in Horticulture. i55 crops in fall and spring prevent loss of nitrogen; improvement of mechanical condition ; comparative value of fertilizers furnished by green manuring; effect on cultivation. PICKING AND PACKING GRAPES. (Given at the first Fredonia School .) —By J. A. Tennant. I. Time to Pick; What to pick in; How to Pick; How to Remove to Packing House; How to Store ; When to Pack ; How to Pack ; What to Pack in ; How long to keep when packed, before marketing. Above applying to common methods of marketing. II. Suggestions as to shipping-crates. III. New scheme concerning handling and marketing grapes. A BRIEF OF THE EVOLUTION OF PLANTS. {Given at the first Fredonia School.) —By L. H. Bailey. 1. Conception of an organic evolution. Its relation to philosophy, his¬ tory, sociology, theology. 2. Reasons for the belief in evolution. Struggle for existence. Constant changes in the external world. 3. Explanations of evolution. Lamarckism. Darwinism. Neo-Darwin¬ ism or Weismannism. Neo-Larmarckism. 4. Divergence of the animal and plant. Individuality. Theory of the phytomer. Bud variation. Philosophy of pruning. 5. Variants of domestication. Climate. Food supply : (a) character of soil; (b) thin planting; (c) fertilizing; (d) tillage. Change of seed. Greenhouses. 6. Philosophy of sex. It exists for the purpose of making variable off¬ spring. Crossing and hybridizing amongst plants. 7. Selection as a means of contemporaneous evolution. Definitions :— Family , Order in botany.—A group of genera and species ; as Ciipulifercs, the Oak Family, Rosacece, the Rose Family. Genus (plural, genera). —A group or kind comprising a greater or less number of closely related species; as Acer , the maples, Fragaria , the strawberries. Species (plural species). —An indefinite term applied to all individuals of a certain kind which come or are supposed to come from a common parentage. A perennial succession of normal or natural similar individuals perpetuated by means of seedage. “ All the descendants from the same stock.”— Gray. Variety. —A form or series of forms of a species marked by characters of less permanence or less importance than are the species themselves. Sport. —A variety or variation which appears suddenly and unaccountably, either from seeds or buds. Bulletin ho. 156 Cross .—The offspring of any two flowers which have been cross-fertilized. Hybrid .—A cross between two distinct species. Environment .—The conditions or circumstances in which an organism lives, comprising climate, soil, and all other external conditions. THE PHILOSOPHY AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING. A. {Given at the second Fredonia School .) —By L. H. Bailey. Why we prune. 1. To produce larger and better fruit. 2. To keep the plant within manageable shape and limits. 3. To change the hat>it of the plant from more or less wood-bearing or fruit-bearing. 4. To remove superfluous or injured parts. 5. To facilitate spraying. 6. To facilitate tillage and to improve the convenience of the plantation. B. The philosophy oe pruning. 1. The argument from philosophy. The struggle of existence amongst the branches. 2. The argument from physiology. 3. The argument from experience. 4. How nature prunes. C. How AND WHEN TO PRUNE. 1. The position of the fruit buds. 2. How wounds heal. (a) The cork cells and their mission. (b) The cambium and its office. The tension in stems. The callus. (c) The form of the wound in relation to the healing process. The wound parallel to the parent branch. The wound at right angles to the severed branch The shoulder. The direction of the wound. The length of the stub. The edges of the wound. (d) The time to prune, with reference to the healing of the wound. More depends upon the position of the wound than upon the season in which it was made. (e) Dressing for wounds. The vegetable parasites of the wounds ; bacteria ; toadstool-fungi; punk-fungi. 3. Pruning for wood and pruning for fruit. 4. Practical considerations. Allow the tree to take its habitual form. How much and how often it is advisable to prune. Head- ing-in. Tools. Extension Work in Horticulture. i57 THE MANAGEMENT OF ORCHARD LANDS. « (Given at the Youngstown School; also followed essentially in meetings at Dickensonville , Morton , Dansville, Clyde , Ridgeway , Williamson , Palmyra , Lyndonville , Dundee and other places.) —By L. H. Bailey. 1. The Soil. Its origin. Its mechanical texture and physical characters. Soil moisture. Its source. Its importance. Movements. How con¬ served. Its relation to vegetable covers. Mulches. Tillage. Spring or fall plowing. The harrow. Management of clay lands. 2. Fertility. Amount of fertility in the soil. Where it comes from. Tillage and fertility. Nitrification. Humus. Loams. Manuring. Feed the plant rather than the soil. Nitrogen. Potash. Phosphorus. Stable manures. Green manures. Commercial fer¬ tilizers. How to tell what the land needs. Ask the plant, not the chemist. At the first Fredonia School, an eight-page folder was printed for the use of the participants, containing extracts and abstracts of various local essays touching the grape-growing of the Chau¬ tauqua region. There are so many suggestive things in this circular, not only to Chautauqua County, but also to many other parts of western New York, that an abstract of it is published here : GRAPES: DEVELOPMENT OF METHODS ON LARGE AREAS. ( Used at the first Fredonia School .) Introduction. Modern methods in vineyard management are an outgrowth or develop¬ ment. Consider, for example, pruning and training. We began with stakes; first one stake per vine, then two stakes per vine, then post and wire trellis. At first, we used posts six and one-half feet and two wires, then posts seven and eight feet and three wires, and now in some instances posts nine and ten feet and four wires. Distances of planting are also an out¬ growth. In an early day, Concord vineyards were in some few cases put as close as six feet each way. Thousands of acres have been set eight feet by eight, and later, thousands of acres more at the now commonly received dis¬ tance of nine feet between the rows. The development in varieties is equally marked. For many years Catawba and Isabella were the standard, then came Clinton and Delaware, then the Concord and its well-known seed¬ lings; then Brighton, Niagara, Diamond, Moyer, Vergennes, Jessica, and last some new early varieties not yet fully disseminated but from which 158 Bulletin ho. much is expected. Methods of cultivation are a development. The first cultivation was in small garden plantings, tilled by hand or the one horse cultivator, and in a slow, laborious and comparatively costly way. The grape industry has outgrown the garden period and has become a farm crop. Methods of cultivation which are well enough for a quarter acre, are too slow and costly for twenty-five acres. Vineyardists have been obliged to widen the rows, put on two horses, use the gang plows and the latest im¬ proved spring tooth harrows and horse hoes. We have introduced this line of thought, which is perfectly familiar to all of you, and which might be extended to many other branches of the industry, for the purpose of calling your attention, in this introductory part of to-day’s study, to some of the causes which have led to this rapid development. As we study the philosophy of vineyard management, we are impressed with the interdependence and modifying influence of one branch or condi¬ tion upon others. To illustrate : the species and varieties we can profitably grow are determined by our climate. Attempts to raise varieties grown ex¬ clusively in Europe and California have been repeated failures. Again, the production of grapes on the large scale now demanded, has greatly modified the entire farm economy. As we have said, the grape has become a farm crop. We can with as equal propriety speak of grape farms, as we say dairy farms, stock farms or grain farms, and the question of boarding houses, packing houses, machinery, spraying apparatus, etc., becomes a legitimate and necessary branch of our farm study. The development of modern methods in grape growing has not been car¬ ried forward independently of the principles involved. The men who first began extensive vineyard planting were men who had already had, many of them, years of experience as fruit growers and market gardeners. They had long been members of farmers’ clubs and leaders in its discussions. August 28, 1886, the present Horticultural Society was formed. This society had in its beginning a membership from the best fruit growers. Its first president, Ira Porter, deceased, had for years been the president of the Pomfret Farm¬ ers’ Club. Lincoln Fay, originator of the Fay currant, was a charter mem¬ ber. This society has persistently, and as we think, wisely, adhered to its original mission as stated in section second of article first: “Its object shall be the advancement of its members in a knowledge of the theory and prac¬ tice of horticulture.” From the first, we have kept to the original mission, “talking it out winters and working it out summers,” along the line of advancement in the knowledge of the theory and practice of horticulture. We have held our meetings, discussing old questions, and, as fast as they come to the front, new questions, eagerly sending for and reading all the bulletins of the experiment stations, reports of the department at Washing¬ ton, transactions of horticultural societies, and standard fruit journals. In twenty years there has been rapid progress, here and in other fruit growing centers, not only in making history, but in the development of the funda¬ mental principles of scientific management. It has become a broad field. Extension Work in Horticulture. i59 The Chautauqua grape belt has to-day 26,000 acres of vines, and the crop for 1894. was 3,600 cars, or 10,800,000 nine pound baskets. The special papers brought before the class for to-day’s study will be one on “ Topographical formation and its relation to climate” (reprint), “Conditions of climate fav¬ oring the grape” (reprint), “Why I sow rye in the vineyard,” (reprint) “Pruning,” by Mr. Shoenfeld, “Picking and packing.”by Mr. Tennant, and perhaps other papers. The reprints are made to save time and for the con¬ venience of the class. Grape Growing in Northern Chautauqua , by E. S. Bartholomew . The question is often asked, why it is that the valley lying along the south shore of Lake Erie, within the border of Chautauqua county, is so much better for grape growing than very many other sections of the United States, for it is a fact that the grape vine is found growing wild in almost every part of the country, and the cultivated varieties have been tried almost everywhere. I will answer, first, negatively, that it is not in the soil, neither is it in the fact that the valleys of Chautauqua and Bear lakes lie elevated and south of Lake Erie at a distance of seven to eight miles. Then why do not the vines perfect fruit as well in so many other locations, and as regularly as in this valley? It is the climate. This peculiar condition of climate, is the result of two prominent causes : the great body of water of Erie on the north, furnishing by its evaporation, just the necessary hygrometrical condition of the atmosphere ; and the lake helps to form a thermal belt, or stratum of warm air, furnishing a more even temperature during the night, thus aiding the early and perfect maturing of the grape, and affording immunity from frost.Thus we have a more uniform temperature during the twenty-four hours, so essential to the earlier maturing of the fruit. This thermal stratum is intensified by the peculiar topographical formation of the earth forming the south boundary of this valley. The northern end of the Alleghany mountains forms a ridge of high land of a somewhat circu¬ lar form, with its highest point nearest the lake, about two miles west of the gorge of Chautauqua creek, at an altitude of about seven hundred feet above the lake, and about two miles from it. From this point westward it rounds off from the lake, and begins to break down in its altitude until it is lost in the great plain of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. Eastward it retains its nearness to the lake to a point about three miles east of the village of West- field, when it begins to recede from the lake, and to slowly reduce its alti¬ tude, until south of Fredonia it is from five to six miles from the lake. In the towns of Sheridan and Hanover, its trend is changed to the east. As soon as its altitude decreases, and the distance from the lake increases, the thermal stratum thins by widening, and much of its benefits are lost to the grape grower. It will be found, by careful observation, that the soil of almost the entire United States is as favorable for the growth of the grape vine as is that of i6o Bulletin iio. this location, and the success in grape culture would be just as remunerative if the same climatic conditions existed as with us. Hence it is found that the peculiar influeuce we have is worth to us four times as much per acre as the soil is. Conditio?is of Climate Favoring the Grape. [From the Transactions of the Chautauqua Horticultural Society.] 1. Exemption from frosts, especially in the fall months. The vine begins to leaf out about May io ; it is in blossom June 15 to 20 ; in 90 days from the blossoming the early, and in 120 days the late grapes are ripe. In Southern Chautauqua and in parts of Cattaraugus and Allegany counties, the vine will grow, but three years ago in all that section there was a killing frost on September 24. In this lake shore section, with one exception, there has not been a damaging frost before October 20 in twenty-five years. In 1887 the first killing frost did not occur till after the first week in November. 2. The high mean temperature of the summer months. In the fierce heat and drought of mid-summer, the surface vegetation of the garden suffers, the pastures are scorched as by fire, but the vine, sending its roots three, four and even five feet into the earth, is able to withstand the severe trial if the tillage is good. 3. Conditions securing dryness of the atmosphere, and perfect circula¬ tion of air. Lake Erie is by far the most shallow of the five great lakes, having an average depth of only 70 feet. In consequence, it is soonest af¬ fected by the summer heat. In mid-summer we have in the latter part of the day a constant lake breeze blowing inland, and during part of the night a contrary current. Going back from the water, the land gradually rises in a succession of terraces. June, July and August are the dangerous months for disease, and just then is experienced this climatic condition of dryness and high temperature. Bulletin No. 7, Botanical Division, Department of Agri¬ culture, 1888, says: “At Sandusky, on the shore of Lake Erie, the loss from black rot in 1887 was only four or five per cent.; the same was true at Fredonia, Dunkirk and Brocton in New York, and in all these places the ab¬ sence of dews or fogs during this year was marked. In Tennessee grape culture is really not remunerative excepting above the limit of fogs. Thus, upon the plateaus of the Cumberland there is a Swiss colony that cultivates the vine successfully, and upon the lower hills of Ashland county, Ives seed¬ ling gives moderately good crops, although black rot is more frequent; but upon the Cumberland river, where thick morning fogs are frequent, and where the temperature is high, vine products amount to almost nothing.” In the discussion which followed, Mr. Christy, of Hanover, said that wherever the lake breeze strikes the inland without any interruption, we do not have serious frosts. Mr. Rathbun, living near Smith Mills, said he planted a Delaware vine¬ yard in 1863. Delawares have never failed to produce a crop and have never been injured by the frosts. Extension Work in Horticulture. 161 Mr. Ryckman, of Brocton, said that Hanover is a larger town than Portland and there is much good land for grapes in it. I should select the land back upon the the foot hills, even if it should be, as much of it is, very poor for ordinary farming. On the foot hills, the Salem does well. In planting he preferred grass or sod ground to stubble. You need not hesitate to set a vineyard because the land is not broken up. ********* From the address of Hon. R. P. Marvin (late Justice of the Supreme Court in the Eighth District) at the meeting of the society in Brocton : “ In 1850, before grape growing had started much, while holding court in Cattaraugus County, I met young Mr. Deveraux, the son of a prominent Utica man, who to my great surprise told me that we had in northern Chau¬ tauqua a great grape country. He had traveled through all the great grape regions of Europe. I asked him why he considered the lake region good for grapes. He said that Lake Erie is a shoal lake and consequently in winter freezes over. The ice in the spring keeps vegetation back and gives a later spring than farther west around deeper lakes. Thus we avoid late spring frosts. During the summer, owing to its shallowness, the lake becomes warmer than either of the other lakes, and this warm water gives to this section a long, beautiful autumn with plenty of time to ripen the grape to perfection.” Why I Sow Rye in the Vineyard , By G. Shoenfeld. In the months of July and August, when the vineyards should be clean and exposed to the sunlight the organic matter in the soil is broken up, and nitrification proceeds rapidly. Nitrogen being the most valuable and costly as well as the most subtle element of plant food, is then easily lost by leach¬ ing during our fall and spring rains. To prevent this, in the latter part of August I sow rye in the rows of the grapes. The rye will thoroughly pene¬ trate the ground with its roots during the wet season, take up and store available plant food for the next season, when the vine will appropriate it, besides putting the land in just that mechanical condition, when plowed under, to make the plants thrive. The plants want organic matter to work upon and plenty of heat, a moderate amount of moisture, just the right con¬ ditions in which the vineyard should be during June and July to the middle of August. By adding potash and phosphoric acid, if not in abundance already in the soil, the plant food for the vines is complete. I consider such a course bet¬ ter and safer than using stable manure instead. The valuable parts of ma- uure are precisely the same as in fertilizers, viz,, nitrogen, potash and phos¬ phoric acid. Its value over commercial fertilizers lies in its fibre, or vegeta¬ ble substance ; but this fibre can be added by the rye. Following this paper Mr. Shoenfeld read a statement of a vineyard of one and one-half acres, which, before being improved by plowing under rye for a term of years, produced a crop hardly worth harvesting. In 1892 the yield was 1,184 nine-pound baskets. i62 Bulletin ho. j>. Publication . The character of the publication which has been made under the auspices of the Experiment Station Extension Bill, has already been discussed. After conferring with the Commissioner of Agriculture, it was decided to number these extension bulletins consecutively in our regular series, thus avoiding the complications which would arise from two independent series. Fifteen bulletins (comprised between Nos. 69 and 87, inclusive) were published from the first grant (1894). Fifteen bulletins have also been published from the second fund, but several more, for which the work is already completed, are awaiting publication from the unexpended funds now in our hands. The complete list of these bulletins to date is as follows: No . Title . Author . Engrav ¬ Pages . ings . 69. Hints on the Planting of Orchards. L. H. Bailey. 7 16 70. The Native Dwarf Cherries. L. H. Bailey. 6 12 7 i- Apricot Growing in western New York. L- H. Bailey. 12 28 72. The Cultivation of Orchards. L. H. Bailey. 4 22 74 - Impressions of the Peach Industry in western New York. L. H. Bailey. 16 30 75 - Peach Yellows. L. H. Bailey. 8 20 76. Some Grape Troubles in western New York. E. G, Lodeman. 7 46 77 . The Grafting of Grapes. E. G. Lodeman. 17 22 79 - Varieties and Leaf-Blight of the Straw¬ berry. L. H. Bailey. 11 26 80. The Quince in western New York. L. H. Bailey. 13 28 81. Black-Knot of Plums and Cherries, and Methods of Treatment. E. G. Lodeman. 7 24 83 - A Plum Scale in western New York. M. V.Slingerland. 6 24 84. The Recent Apple Failures of western New York. L. H. Bailey. 11 34 (1 colored) 86. The Spraying of Orchards,—Apples, Quinces, Plums. E. G. Lodeman. 9 34 8 7 -, The Dwarf Lima Beans. L. H. Bailey. 15 24 90. The China Asters ; with Remarks upon Flower Beds. L. H. Bailey. 12 24 91. Recent Chrysanthemums. Michael Barker. 6 32 93 - The Cigar-Case-Bearer in western New York. M. V.Slingerland. 12 20 95- Winter Muskmelons. L. H. Bailey. 12 20 Extension Work in Horticulture. 163 96. Forcing-House Miscellanies. f h. H Bailey. E. G. Lodeman. 11 44 98. Cherries. j L. H. Bailey, G. H. Powell, 15 34 99. Blackberries. Iy. H. Bailey. 15 26 IOO. Evaporated Raspberries in western New York. L. H. Bailey. 28 40 IOI. Notions about the Spraying of Trees ; with remarks on the Canker-Worm. L. H. Bailey. 8 24 102. General Observations respecting the Care of Fruit Trees ; with some reflections upon Weeds. L. H. Bailey. 4 26 IO3. Soil Depletion in Respect to the Care of Fruit Trees. I. P. Roberts. 3 22 I04. Climbing Cutworms in western New York. M. V.Slingerland. 21 50 105. Revised Opinions of the Japanese Plums. ly. H. Bailey. 14 30 IO9. Geological History of the Chautauqua Grape Belt. R. S. Tarr. 24 33 no. Extension Work in Horticulture. L. H. Bailey. 1 42 Total, 335 862 This report is necessarily but the merest outline of the work which has been undertaken in fulfillment of the requirements of the bill. A large part of such work lies in the visiting of farms and communities where some dfficulty demands attention, in the giving of advice everywhere by person and letter, and of send¬ ing an entomologist, botanist, or other expert to investigate such dangers as seem to threaten any horticultural interest. The bill has virtually carried the Experiment Station to every horticul¬ turist’s plantation, and every constituent has been at liberty to call for personal aid whenever his troubles are of such a character that others, as well as himself, are interested therein. All this work does not admit of publication, and its value is all the greater for being done in a quiet, unostentatious way, with no thought of public recognition. A word should be said respecting the attitude of Cornell Uni¬ versity towards this grant of funds for extension work. The reader will already have noticed that the movement originated wholly with the people. If the movement has value to the people of western New York, the advantage must necessarily 164 Bulletin ho. be in proportion to the public desire and demand for it. It is in every sense a popular movement. Its prosecution has imposed great burdens upon the officers who have had it in charge, and it has demanded important changes and considerable sacrifice in the accustomed work of the University. On the other hand, the University exists to serve the people of the State, and if the people desire that it undertake or continue such an enter¬ prise and are satisfied that it can help them, then the University, on its part, stands ready to lend its men, equipment and influence to assist the rural population, so far as such undertakings do not jeopardize its more legitimate work. But it must be distinctly understood that this is not a grant to Cornell University, but a grant to the people to be administered by Cornell University, and that the University has refused, and must continue to refuse, to take any part, directly or indirectly, in forwarding any legislation connected with the work. Respectfully submitted, L. H. Bailey. January 10, 1896. Bulletin iii. February, 1896. Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, ITHACA, N. Y. HORTICULTURAL DIVISION. By L. H. BAILEY and A. P. WYMAN. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. 1896. ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. STATION COUNCIL. President, Jacob Hon. A. D. White, Professor I. P. Roberts, Professor I. P. Roberts, Professor G. C. Caedwele, Professor James Law, - Professor A. N. Prentiss, Professor J. H. Comstock, Professor L. H. BaieEY, Professor H. H. Wing, Professor G. F. Atkinson, Goued Schurman. Trustee of the University. President State Agricultural Society. Agriculture. Chemistry. Veterinary Science. Botany. Entomology. Horticulture. Dairy Husbandry. Cryptogamic Botany. OFFICERS OF THE STATION. I. P. Roberts, E. L. WlEEIAMS, H. W. Smith, M. V. Seingereand, G. W. Cavanaugh, - E. G. Lodeman, L. A. Ceinton, E. J. Durand, - Director. - Treasurer. Clerk. ASSISTANTS. Entomology. Chemistry. Horticulture. Agriculture. Cryptogamic Botany. Office of the Director, 20 Morrill Hall. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to all who request them. BULLETINS OF 1896. 106. * Revised Opinions of the Japanese Plum. 107. Wireworms and The Bud Moth. 108. The Pear Psylla and The New York Plum Scale. 109. Geological History of the Chautauqua Grape Belt, no. Extension Work in Horticulture. in. Sweet Peas. Cornell University, Ithaca, Feb. i, 1896. Honorable Commissioner of Agriculture, Albany. Sir :—A good friend once wrote us that it might be well enough to make a bulletin on chrysanthemums for florists, but that what the people really want is a bulletin on cabbages. We replied that if we make a bulletin on cabbages, the florist will write that such literature may be allowable, but that the people want a bulletin on sweet peas. And the florist may add, with much force, that whilst there are bulletins enough on cabbages, there are none whatever on sweet peas. All this simply means that the constituencies of a government experiment station are exceedingly various, and that all, alike, help to support it. There are probably more persons in this state who grow sweet peas than there are who grow cabbages ; at least, such ought to be the case. There is a wide-spread feeling that flower-growing is not a com¬ mercial occupation, but simply a sentimental one ; yet people who buy and sell flower seeds and cut-flowers and flower plants, have reason to hold a contrary opinion. Flower-growing, both for home and for market, is rapidly increasing in the east; and of all horticultural occupations, this has received the least scientific at¬ tention in this country. We shall be sorry to offend our corres¬ pondent a second time, but we shall lay the blame upon the sweet pea. The plant is so attractive that we cannot help it. In this study of the sweet pea, I have associated with me one of my students, who is fitting himself to be a landscape gardener. Mr. Wyman has made a faithful record of our varieties during the season, and I am convinced that he has good taste in matters of flower-growing. All the detail work of Part II is his. The bulletin is submitted for publication under Chapter 230 of the Laws of 1895. L- H. Bailey. Tlt-ory/' J ^ ffil <£*-**-. $-KJL rt l^-XJLSLtf^&dj -^-^-JUv_ jd+~*-fr(jL- . M^6- ua^cJL SWEET PEAS. I. General Sketch of the Sweet Pea. The improved sweet peas hold a leading place in the returning tide of the good old flowers. The varieties now number many over a hundred, where but a few years ago they were less than a dozen. The sweet pea has long been a favorite, for it has beauty of form and color, attractive habit, and delightful perfume ; it needs only a variety of colors, shapes, sizes and seasons to perfect it for the amateur’s and florist’s use, and all this has now been added to it. The sweet pea is one of those fortunate flowers which can never be developed into stiffness and formality, for the shape is irregular and the plant is a free and random grower. However much the desire for oddity or formalism may conduce to the popularizing of other flowers, it can effect little with the sweet pea. It is unique and wayward, and if it once loses its old-time freedom, it is no longer a sweet pea. Yet there is a tendency to develop the sweet pea beyond its characteristic limits of simplicity and daintiness. The most ap¬ parent fault with some of the novelties, if one may judge from the pictures of them, is their arrogant size; but, fortunately, I have never seen such peas in the garden. If I were really assured that I should raise such amazing flowers as I see in the catalogues, I should certainly never buy the seed of them. I should still give my affections to the modest Painted Lady, whose presence still graces the unconventional old gardens. But I do not desire to complain of the trade cuts, for I know what a powerful magnifier a silver dollar is when it is placed behind a flower; and I simply “make allowances,” and buy. If I get the color and the shape and the texture, the degree of bigness is a trifling matter. Another heresy in sweet peas is the desire for a double flower. The form of the pea flower is its peculiar beauty. The broad trim standard is the most perfect surface for the display of color, Bulletin hi. 170 and an effective shield and foil for the contrasting pigments of the wings and keel. When that simple standard is displaced by two or three, and the shield becomes shapeless and contorted and con¬ trary, the flower is no longer the sweet pea of the dear old gar¬ dens, but is apt to be a mussy and impudent thing. We want not bigger flowers and more petals, but we want more sweet peas. That is, we want more productive plants—if that is possible—and more flowers in the cluster. We need, also, more very early and more very late varieties, a still greater range in color, and some improvement in the texture of the flowers. But let us keep to the sweet pea type. Those contrary individuals who are always try¬ ing to grow tomatoes on potato plants and strawberries on black¬ berry bushes, would leave the world a better legacy if they were to grow more tomatoes on tomato plants and better strawberries on strawberry plants. My reader wants to know how these new sweet peas are ob¬ tained. The process is simple enough, but, like most simple things, it is hard to learn and harder to perform. The most im¬ portant part of the process is a well laid plan of action on the part of the operator. He must determine what improvement the plant needs. Then he must study the plant closely to learn its habit of variation, and how it adapts itself to the different conditions in which it is grown. He will then put himself in sympathy with the plant, simply trying to improve or augment the little differ¬ ences which appear, and not set himself squarely against the line of evolution of the plant by attempting the impossible. He has a picture in his mind of a deep clear pink flower. Very well; he goes through the rows of his pink-flowered varieties and marks those plants whose flowers are nearest his ideal. The seeds of these plants are separately saved, and sown. Amongst the off¬ spring, he again selects, and he again sows, taking care that his stock does not become crossed with some other type. Presently, his new color is obtained, the seeds have got in the habit of “ coming true, ” and the brood is given a new name and intro¬ duced to the trade. More often, however, the operator has no distinct ideal in his mind, but he watches his plants carefully and every marked departure or “ sport ” from the type is saved and sown. From such sports the greater part of our novelties, of all Sweet Peas. 171 annual plants, have come. The sports are frequent enough, but it requires rare judgment to distinguish those which will likely perpetuate themselves, and to carry on the subsequent selection by means of which they are freed of their im¬ purities or the tendency still to sport. If de¬ sired variations do not ap¬ pear, then the operator may endeavor to start it off by a radical change of soil or treatment, or possibly by crossing. All this means that the cultivator must be¬ come intimately familiar with his subject before he can expect to make much headway in the origination of novelties. So it has come that the modern im¬ proved plants owe their development largely to one or two careful and patient persons in each generation. The sweet pea has had but one genius. He is Henry Eckford, who for twenty years has given his attention to this plant upon his garden-farm at Wem, in Shropshire, England. He has given us the greater number of our best improved varieties. ‘ ‘ When I first took up the sweet pea,” he writes, “ there were six or eight distinct varieties in cultivation, and experts in the art, as far as I could learn, had come to the conclusion that it could not be further improved, and in the first two or three generations of the work it appeared a fair conclusion ; but I should say that I had been for many years working on the improvement of various florist flowers, and which had proved so eminently successful that a first rebuff did not deter me from further attempts.” In our own country, the work has now been taken up by Rev. W. T. Hutchins, of Indian Orchard, Massachusetts ; and it has remain¬ ed for him to make the first important attempt to write any ac¬ count of the modern sweet pea. His booklet, “ All About Sweet 1 73 —Henry Eckford. IJ2 Bulletin hi. Peas,” appeared in 1894; and he has been and is still the most devoted grower and champion of sweet peas upon this side of the Atlantic. This is not saying that he is the largest grower, for this honor is held by C. C. Morse & Co., of California, whose crop of sweet peas covered 250 acres in 1895, and this firm has also produced a number of excellent varieties. But Mr. Hutch¬ ins is an amateur sweet pea critic, whilst Mr. Morse grows the seeds for market. W. Atlee Burpee & Co., of Philadelphia, were amongst the first retail seedsmen to take up the sweet pea. The first sweet pea show of any note in this country was held under the inspiration of Mr. Hutchins at Springfield, Mass., in 1893. Although this great improvement in the sweet pea is so recent, the plant has been long in cultivation. It is native to Italy, and was introduced into England about 1700. Its Latin name, Lathyrus odoratus, was given by Linnaeus in 1753. In 1754, Philip Miller, a famous English garden-botanist, speaks of two distinct varieties in the fourth edition of his “Gardener’s Dic¬ tionary”: “One of these has pale-red Flowers, which is com¬ monly called by the Gardeners, Painted-lady Peas ; the other hath intire white Flowers : both these may be allowed a Place in the Borders of the Flower-garden, for the sake of Variety.” Wil¬ liam Curtis had a colored plate of a purple form in his “Botanical Magazine” in 1788, and speaks as follows of the plant: ‘ ‘ There is scarcely a plant more generally cultivated than the Sweet Pea, and no wonder, since with the most delicate blossoms it unites an agreeable fragrance. Several varieties of this plant are enumerated by authors, but general cultivation extends to two only, the one with blossoms perfectly white, the other white and rose-colored, commonly called the Painted Lady Pea. * * * * They have both been introduced since the time of Parkinson and Evelyn.” In America, M’Mahon mentions the sweet pea amongst his “ hardy annual flower-seeds,” in his “ Gardener’s Calendar,” in 1806 He knew five varieties, as follows : Var. albis [white]. Var. carneo, old Painted Lady. Var. roseo, new Painted Lady or Scarlet. Var. cseruleis [blue]. Var. atropurpureo [dark purple]. SwKKT P^AS. 173 Thomas Bridgeman, in his “Young Gardener’s Assistant,” 1838, mentions “ Sweet Peas, of various descriptions and colours. Lathyrus odoratus, var. alba, purpurea, rosea, striata, etc.” Ed¬ ward Sayers, in “ American Flower Garden Companion,” 1838, speaks of sweet peas, “ purple, scarlet, white, pink, pink and white or painted lady.” Buist, of Philadelphia, writes that they are “ well deserving of culture,” and says that there are “ many varieties,” in his “ Flower Garden Directory,” 1845. Yet they could not have been very widely grown at this time, for Eley’s ‘ ‘ American Florist, ’’ which appeared in the same year at Hartford, does not mention them. In 1851, Breck writes in his “ Book of Flowers ” that sweet peas are “ deservedly one of the most popu¬ lar annuals which enrich the flower-garden. The varieties are, white, rose, scarlet, purple, black, and variegated. Every variety should be sown by itself in circles about a foot in diameter, three or four feet from any other plant.” The custom of giving designative personal or descriptive names to varieties of an¬ nual flowers was scarcely known forty or fifty years ago, and we do not know just what types were then in cultivation. The loose vernacular or Latin names were used rather more for groups or strains of color than for any particular minor variation as the names are in these days, when we have so greatly refined the choice and descriptions of garden plants. The first distinct note of the recent popularizing and diffusion of named sweet peas in this country came in 1889 with the introduction of the Blanche Ferry, which is an improvement of the old Painted Lady, and which is still one of our best varieties when grown from carefully selected seeds. This variety was found in a garden in northern New York by W. W. Tracy, of the firm of D. M. Ferry & Co. C. L. Allen writes as follows of its evolution, in “ American Ag¬ riculturist,” for September 7, 1895 : “ The farmer’s wife had for years been in the habit of saving her own seeds, starting with the old and well-known Painted Lady. In the heavy loam of her garden, and with the much shorter season of growth there than in Europe, this made a more rapid growth, and annually became more dwarf in habit. At the same time it became a “ cropper, ” — that is, all the flowers, that in other climates would have a much longer period in which to develop, here appeared nearly all at the 174 Bulletin hi. same time if not cut. Thus in a few years a dwarf and very free flowering type was established, which remains constant in our country. The success that greeted the introduction of this var¬ iety, and the fact of its having been developed here, stimulated our grow¬ ers to extra exertion, not only to grow sweet peas as a crop, but to watch for variations which a change of climate is sure to pro¬ duce. The re¬ sult is we have found that sweet peas can be about as cheaply grown here as the com¬ mon field pea. Tangier Scarlet Pea ( Lathyrus Tin- gitanus). Half size. But more important still is the fact 'that all our well-known sorts are more prolific when the seeds have been grown here. The in¬ troduction of new varieties, as well as new types, is one of the marked features of our industry.” Before going further, the reader should be reminded that there Sweet Peas. i75 are two other closely related species of peas in cultivation for their flowers, and one of them, the Tangier Scarlet, is even called a sweet pea. This Tangier pea is Lathyrus Tingitanus (Fig. 74). It has been in cultivation longer than the sweet pea, having been introduced into England as early 1680. Curtis figures it in the “Botanical Magazine” in 1790, and speaks o it as follows : ‘ ‘ The Tangier Pea, a native of Morocco, cannot boast the agreeable scent, or variety of colours of the sweet pea ; nor does it continue so long in flower ; nevertheless there is a richness in the colour of its blossoms, which entitles it to a place in the gardens of the curious.” It bears an attractive purple flower, with a large standard and small wings, and blooms earlier than the true sweet peas. It is also known for its very narrow and long leaflets, generally 2-flowered peduncles, and long, flat, hair¬ less pods. The other pea to which I wish to refer is Lathy¬ rus latifolius (Fig. 75), the perennial or everlasting pea. This plant, a native of Europe, 75. — Perennial or Everlasting Pea. ^ as ^ een l° n £> i n cultivation, (Lathyrus latifolius.) although it appears never to have received special attention, since there are only three or four well marked varieties of it. Its leading forms are simply known as the red and the white. It is at once distinguished from the sweet pea, aside from its perennial nature, by the many-flowered clusters, the very large standard, the thick and stiff texture of the scentless flowers, the broad and strongly veined leaflets, and the broad hairless pods. It is V % ; 176 Bulletin hi. an excellent hardy plant for a mixed border or for clambering over rocks or other low objects. I have several plants of it grow¬ ing against a tennis screen, and they bloom most profusely in late spring and early summer. It is a profuse seeder, and the pods should not be allowed to form if continued bloom is desired. It propagates readily by seeds and by cuttings. Where and How to Grow Sweet Peas. The sweet pea is such an unconventional and domestic flower that it is unsuited to formal beds or to an obtrusive position on the lawn. It is one of those flowers which we enjoy the more if it is somewhat hidden from the public view, and is restricted to the more private and personal parts of the grounds. It is preemi¬ nently a flower for the back yard. A rear or side border, against a fence or other background, is a good position for it. The plant is always attractive when seen clambering over bushes, but it rarely thrives well when planted close under shrubbery unles it is grown in a box or large pot of rich earth plunged into the ground, to remove it from the competition of the roots. If one is to raise a considerable quantity of sweet peas, they may be planted in rows and allowed to run up a screen of chicken-wire ; or, if one can take the pains to tie them occasionally, a trellis may be made ,of four or five strands of fence-wire, like a half-size grape trellis. On good soil most varieties will reach a height of four or five feet. If sweet peas are to continue to bloom throughout the season, the soil must be rich and capable of holding moisture. A thin, dry soil will not grow good peas. In light soils it is well to apply a liberal dressing of manure to the soil in the fall, plowing it under very early in the spring ; and in addition to this, a dressing of some concentrated fertilizer in the spring will be useful. But the chief thing is moisture. The land must be well and deeply fitted, to increase its water-holding capacity. It is ordinarily ad¬ vised to till the soil frequently after the peas are planted until they begin to bloom, at which time all cultivation should cease. I do not believe that this is safe advice. The land becomes hard by constant tramping of visitors when the plants are in bloom, and the evaporation from the soil is thereby greatly increased. A heavy mulch of straw or litter may be placed on the soil when the f Swket Peas. 177 plants begin to bloom, to conserve the moisture ; but if the rows are far enough apart to allow of it, a frequent stirring of the soil all through the season with a horse or hand cultivator will be found to be the most efficient conservator of moisture. The plants also endure dry weather better when thinly planted. We like to have the plants six or seven inches apart in the row. Our own test in 1895 comprised four rows each 150 feet long, and three feet asun¬ der, in heavy clay loam. The vines were trained on five horizon¬ tal wires, making a trellis three or four feet high. The land was stirred with a horse and cultivator about every week all summer long. The result was, that although we had a prolonged drought, we had sweet peas in adundance from early July until October. Deep planting also enables the sweet pea to resist dry weather. It is a good plan to make furrows four or six inches deep, drop the peas in the bottom and cover an inch or so. Then, as the plants grow, the earth is gradually filled in about the plants, un¬ til the furrow is full. If there is danger that these furrows will fill with water, and hold it for some time, the peas should be planted more shallow and the furrows filled at once. Early planting is also desirable. In this latitude we can plant as early as the first of April, on warm soil,—that is, a month before hard frosts have ceased. The sweet pea is a hardy plant, and the seed is not injured by much cold weather. I have known good results from planting seeds in the fall, but this practice is unreliable in the northern states. I doubt if it can be recommended with full confidence north of Norfolk. But even if the seeds are got in late and shallow, the plants may be carried through by a little extra attention to tillage. Our test of 1895, of which I have spoken, was inaugurated so late that we thought it inadvisable to delay matters by deep planting. So we planted the seed about two to three inches deep, on the last day of April, and our sweet peas were the admiration of the community. If there are any secrets in the growing of sweet peas, they are these : A rich, well-pre¬ pared soil, early and rather deep planting, picking off the pods as soon as they form, and the judicious selecting of seed and varie¬ ties. There is some inquiry as to the forcing of sweet peas. Our ex¬ perience in this matter is very limited. It is generally thought to 178 Buixktin III. be best to sow the peas early in winter in a cool house amongst other things—as carnations—and let them take their time for growing. When the sunny days come in March and April, they may be expected to bloom. The Varieties of Szveet Peas. All the foregoing requirements are easy enough to meet save the last,—the selection of varieties. The kinds are now so numerous and so various that the amateur may be perplexed in the choice. Of course much depends upon the taste of the grower. One should always be sure, also, to have enough. The beauty of flowers lies largely in the generosity and profusion of them. The grower should also have a good variety in color and shape, and this is best obtained by purchasing the best named varieties, and making the mixture to suit. If I’were confined to six varie¬ ties, I think that I should choose the Improved Painted Lady or a pure type of Blanche Ferry, Apple Blossom, Emily Henderson, Mrs. Gladstone, Butterfly, and Countess of Radnor. But there are twenty varieties which even the average flower-lover may grow with great satisfaction. F. Schuyler Mathews, in his “ Beau¬ tiful Flower Garden,” (1894), speaks as follows of his method of growing sweet peas and his choice of varieties. I am glad to transcribe his account, because Mr. Mathews regards the subject from the artist’s standpoint. “ My own method of arranging sweet pea vines is confined to a fence or hedge row, which I create out of chicken-yard wire and rustic posts. This fence serves the double purpose of a thing of beauty, and a barrier against the roaming cow, who, by the way, frequently takes toll in the shape of a fine bunch of my favorite Boreattons. The varieties which are most attractive in color are: Boreatton, red-purple and violet. Mrs. Sanky, white. Lottie Eckford, white, blue-edged. Orange Prince, scarlet pink and rose pink. Blanche Ferry, pink and white. Cardinal, red-crimson and red-scarlet. Grand Blue, ultramarine-purple and purple-crimson. Primrose, cream-yellow. Sweet Peas. 179 .With all deference to a perfect harmony of color, I may add that there is really very little discord to be found in an indiscriminate mixture of all varieties.” A more detailed account of the merits of the various sweet peas which we have grown will be found in the descriptive list in Part II. But, after all, it does not matter so much, as I have said, what varieties one plants as it does that he plants, and plants generously. One can scarcely obtain such a profusion of color and fragrance throughout the season from any other flower. Mr. W. N. Craig contributes to “Garden and Forest,” the following record of the productiveness of sweet peas : “We have never tested individual plants, but last year we kept a record of the spikes cut from a row sixty feet long, partly composed of theEck- ford varieties and partly of good mixed sorts. The first flowers were cut on June nth, and the last on October the 20th. The number gathered for each month was as follows : June, 2,000 ; July, 17,600; August, 18,000; September, 6,400; October, 3,500 ; total, 47,500. Besides this, large numbers went to seed, and probably the row would have yielded 60,000 spikes if it had been carefully picked over. ’ ’ The varieties of sweet peas with which Mr. Eckford began his work, as given by Mr. Hutchins, are seven, as follows : Eight Blue and Purple, Painted Eady, Common White, Scarlet, Scarlet Striped, Dark Striped, Black. Most or all of these Mr. Hutchins would now discard ; and he also adds (1894) the following to the list of those which are superseded by better varieties: Adonis, Crown Prince of Prussia, Vesuvius, The Queen, Carmen Sylva, Queen of England, Empress of India, Isa Eckford, Bronze Prince, Black, Purple Brown Striped, Scarlet Invinci¬ ble. Yet several of these varieties are still fav¬ orites with us ; and for myself, I should place Empress of India in a list of my second or third half-dozen. This simply illustrates the old aphorism that there is no accounting for tastes. 7 b—The Sweet Pea So long as one likes the varieties which he flower. grows it does not matter what names they bear. 1 i8o Buu,ktin hi. Before going further the reader should stop long enough to no¬ tice the architecture of the sweet pea flower (Fig. 76). The broad orbicular upper petal, s, is the standard, banner, vexillum, or shield ; the two mid-sized pieces, w, are the wings, and these close over the smallest central portion, comprised of two conniv- ent parts, called the keel, k. When the sweet pea attempts to become double the duplication usually appears in the standard, which, instead of comprising but a single piece, may be formed of two or three or four petals. This is well shown in Fig. 77, in which the expanded flower is seen to have three standards. There is no double variety of sweet pea, but most of the im¬ proved types tend to duplicate the standard, and some varieties will give from twenty to fifty per cent, of these monstros¬ ities, when grown upon strong soil. In other words, there is a general and cumulative tendency towards doubling, as the species is improv¬ ed, but the seeds of double flowers of any particular variety do not necessarily pro¬ duce double flowers. There is every reason to expect, however, that the time will soon come when double peas will reproduce themselves as reliably as many other annual flowers do ; but unless the product is more shapely than anything which I have yet seen, I shall be ready to quit sweet peas when I am obliged to grow double ones. Another word may be said upon the size of the sweet pea flower. 77 .—Double pea. The Splendor. Sweet Peas. 181 78 .—Three typical sizes of sweet pea flowers. The accompanying engraving (Fig. 78) shows three types of peas, exactly natural size. All illustrations of objects which have depth and rotundity in them, look smaller than the objects which they represent, until the eye becomes trained to seethe perspective and the solidity in the picture. The small flower, on the left, is the Rising Sun. It is about the size of the sweet peas of the last generation. The flower on the right is Etna, and is of good size, as sweet peas go. The middle flower is Dorothy Tennant, and is one of the modern grandiflora type. The flower is large enough for a good sweet pea, in my opinion, although it might be some¬ what enlarged without losing its daintiness. Yet this flower measures only an inch and a quarter across, whilst a catalogue illustration before me has them two inches across. I do not deny that such peas are possible, with high culture and pruning, but it is a fair question if they are desirable. The Apple Blos¬ som, Fig. 80, is one of the grandiflora type, a development from the old Painted Eady, but the illustration is the merest trifle over¬ size. All the other pictures of varieties in this bulletin, except Fig. 74, are exactly natural size, and are made from flowers grown in ordinary conditions, in too thick planting. Along with the increasing tendency towards doubling of the flowers, the sweet pea has also developed a tendency to enlarge the flower cluster. This often comes as a result of fasciation or ab¬ normal broadening of the stem. As many as eight perfect flowers were developed in some clusters of Apple Blossom in our planta- 182 Bulletin iii. tion last year, with no diminution in the size of the flowers, whilst the normal number is only three. Fig. 80 shows this augmenta¬ tion of the flower cluster. Like the doubling, this enlargement of the cluster is not perpetuated by seeds, but it is not too much to expect that a permanent modification in this direction may come in the future. Another interesting development of the sweet pea is the recent appearing of dwarf or non-climbing forms. These have appeared in Germany, England and California. This is one of those pecu¬ liar accumulative effects of domestication which is apt to appear somewhat simultaneously in widely separated regions, evidently largely because an equal degree of domestication tends to produce similar effects in any num¬ ber of regions. The same thing is illustrated in the dwarf Lima beans (see our Bulletin 87), and it tran¬ spired long ago in the com¬ mon garden beans. The California dwarf, which is introduced this spring (1896) by Burpee as Cupid, was found in a field of peas in C. C. Morse & Co.’s plantations in 1893. There was a single plant of it. This original plant was strong and apparently nor¬ mal in every way except in its diminished size. In 1895, Morse & Co. grew seven acres of this Cupid, and all the plants came true to seed. We have not grown the plant, but Bur¬ pee pulled up two entire full-grown plants and sent them to us last year. One of them 79 — Two types of flowers. Alba mag- nifica ( above ), and Emily Henderson (below). Sweet Peas. 183 measured seven inches high, and the other eight inches. The flowers were of medium size, pure white, and of good form. It is difficult to construct any classification of the varieties of sweet peas. The best scheme for popular use is thought to be one founded on the color of the flowers. Yet there are various well-marked types of form in the sweet pea flower, which should be recognized in classifying them. The old-time type has a broad plane standard, as in Apple Blossom (Fig. 80), and Countess of Radnor (Fig. 72). In many of the recent varieties, the standard is variously curled or rolled. One of the best of these newer forms is that in which the standard is inrolled or hooded. This is shown to perfection in the dainty and exquisite Butterfly (Fig. 82, best seen in the central flower and in the uppermost flower at the right). An opposite form of standard is the reversed or revolute, well shown in Imperial Blue (Fig. 83). The form of the flower also varies when seen sidewise. Consider Fig. 79. The upper flowers are Alba Magnifica, in which the standard and wings stand nearly at right angles to each other, and therefore present a want of connection and homogeneity which is displeas¬ ing to many persons. In the lower spray, which is Emily Hen¬ derson, this fault does not exist, and the flowers present a more united and shapely effect. A Seedman's Account . The reader will be interested to know something of the methods and trials of seed-growers in growing and breeding varieties. The following account is written by Mr. Waldo Rohnert, one of my former students, who is associated with C. C. Morse &. Co., of California : ‘ ‘ Eight or nine years ago the sweet pea was little known as a garden flower. It then had little merit to attract public atten¬ tion. At that time, Mr. Eckford had done considerable work and his efforts and perseverance were becoming apparent. From the ordinary type and colors he has improved the flower to its present high standard. Cross-fertilization and selection, keeping the size, form, substance and color constantly in mind, have had a wonderful effect. We depend somewhat upon sports for new varieties, however. As each variety is brought up to the gran di¬ floral type, its liability to sport is also increased. 184 Bulletin hi. “ As the six new varieties of C. C. Morse & Co. have resulted from sporting and selections, you may be interested in their his¬ tory. America is a sport of Queen of the Isles. It was selected to a deep crimson-scarlet upon a white ground, large size, good substance, bold and upright standard. It runs about ninety-five per cent. true. Its deep and contrasting color gives it a striking appearance. Ramona is a selection out of Blushing Beauty. It is a delicate pink stripe upon creamy-white ground, perfectly hooded form, good substance and grandiflora size ; very effective. Oddity was found in a mixed lot, so its parentage is unknown. It is odd because wings and standard are peculiarly hooded, a fea¬ ture new in the sweet pea. It comes perfectly true from seed. Juanita is a selection out of Countess of Radnor. It has a deli¬ cate appearance and as its parent is a back-slider, only apart of it comes true. Grey Friar also adds a departure. Both wings and standard are peculiarly shaded or marbled-purplish mauve. It is a selection out of Senator and has taken some time and critical selection to bring it to its present standard. The vine is vigorous, and, as a rule, has four flowers to the truss. “The professional growers of sweet pea seed have a good deal of trouble to contend with, in the matter of keeping their stock pure. Some varieties are very hard to keep true to type, while other varieties almost take care of themselves. As a rule, nearly all small-flowered varieties come true, while the grandiflora types run off more or less. “Countess of Radnor and Dorothy Tennant are very hard to keep true. Two years of careless work in growing these varieties will run them into stripes and poor forms. Her Majesty reverts to Princess Victoria ; Duke of Clarence runs into Her Majesty and Dorothy Tennant; Mrs. Eckford runs into Primrose and poor whites, while Primrose will lose its primrose effect; Mrs. Sankey runs into poor Demon Queen ; Mrs. Joseph Chamberlain passes into Ovid and weak stripes ; Stanley goes into Boreatton and to Boreatton with purple wings ; Peach Blossom varies into Isa Eck¬ ford ; Blanche Burpee into Mrs. Eckford; Mrs. Gladstone into pink stripes ; Emily Henderson has strong light blue and pur¬ ple and Blanche Ferry tendencies; Apple Blossom runs into Splendor; Royal Robe into Ovid and delicate pinks ; Captain Sweet Peas 185 of the Blues into Monarch and stripes ; Monarch into Duke of Clarence and stripes; Waverly into Apple Blossom. “There are now about one hundred distinct varieties of sweet peas and the question arises if the limit of improvement in color and form is not already reached. In what direction are the grow¬ ers working to keep the public interested in this flower ? In the first place, all the present varieties could be improved by having four flowers on each truss. The clear blue, lemon-yellow and fiery scarlet varieties are still to come. A flower having a blue standard with white wings, to correspond with Blanche Ferry, would be a decided acquisition. Such varieties as Meteor, Eady Beaconsfield and Blanche Ferry should be brought up to the grandiflora type. New ranges of colors, as the apricot shades, are not out of the question. Even the size of the present grandi¬ flora type could be increased to a larger and bolder flower. Our work with the sweet pea is really only fairly begun. “One feature which should be impressed upon the public is that there are types of form in the sweet pea. We should class¬ ify the varieties into forms, not into colors. When we speak of a certain color we convey but a vague meaning. From a descrip¬ tion of color, no two persons receive the same impression. “ In my experience, crossing has produced some unlooked for results. Cupid on Venus produced a weak Painted Lady of no value. Penzance on Venus has produced an exceptionally fine pink of solid color and good form. It corresponds with Royal Robe, but is larger and holds form and color better. Ovid on Venus had the same result, except that the color was a trifle stronger. Stanley on Venus produced a Boreatton ; Ignea on Venus produced something close to Princess Victoria ; Bronze King and Primrose on Venus made a weak pink of no value; Beaconsfield on Venus produced Beaconsfield. The conclusion from these crosses is that the stronger color predominates in the cross. We cannot forsee what the result will be. “Of Eckford’s 1895 novelties, Blanche Burpee certainly takes the lead. It is the finest white to date. While Emily Henderson may be considered a little purer in color and on account of its free blooming habits, a better variety for florists, yet it does not possess the size or gracefulness of the Blanche Burpee. The i86 Bulletin hi. stiffness or formality has always been against the Emily Hender¬ son. Eliza Eckford comes .second in value of Eckford’s 1895 novelties and possesses considerable merit. Mrs. Joseph Cham¬ berlain is also a decided acquisition. Meteor is a decided improve¬ ment on Orange Prince, but will not be appreciated until it is brought up to the grandiflora type. Duke of York, Novelty, and Duchess of York come next in order of value.” A Student's Opinion of the Sweet Peas . Mr. Wyman, who has studied our sweet peas in the field day by day, has given me the following impressions of their merits and adaptabilities: ‘ ‘ There is much to interest the careful observer in the different types of sweet peas. In the flower only three colors appear, white red and blue, or rather purple, although the bud is always yellow. While the habit of the plant is much the same in all varieties, the various colors and forms of the blossoms present a series of transitions throughout the species. One type, represented by the Improved Painted Lady, seemingly the founda¬ tion of many of the improved sorts, is widely known. It has pink wings and a peculiar pink-reddish banner, upon both of which numerous changes have been wrought. The pink wings may become whiter and whiter, until only the slightest tinge of pink is apparent, while the banner retains most of its lurid hue. The type, on the other hand, may run to deep colors, the wings pass¬ ing into purple, and the banner also becoming darker. When both banner and wings become strongly purple, another type is obtained, of which Cardinal Wolseley is an example. Here the * banner is crimson and the wings maroon. The darkest and pur- plest flowers belong to this class, and are, also, the least beautiful. In other cases the flower retains the purple, but it as¬ sumes a distinctly lighter cast. Still another form of the Painted Lady type is a red-purple, blotched with lavender, like the Coun¬ tess of Radnor. Going back to our original type of the pink and red, we may start again in the first direction, towards a loss of color. When both banner and wings become very light, as in the Empress of India, we have a beautiful salmon, one of the softest shades in the species. “ While the greatest variations of the blossoms appear in the Sweet Peas. 187 color, there as also, though in a lesser degree, a variation in form. One type spreads out abroad rigid banner ; another, more fragile, folds its banner together slightly, while another bends it back¬ ward. Still another class, perhaps the most remarkable, folds over the lateral edges of its banner and forms a hood. The student loves to contemplate the flower and attempt to construct some hypothesis of the means by which these variations are brought about. Here a delicate fibre has strengthened itself, and holds a petal rigidly in place. In another flower the fibre is less sturdy, and allows its banner to curl and plait itself. In another a notch is taken from the side of the banner, weakening the rigidity of the structure. Of necessity the edge then curls forward and we have the hooded form. One can imagine a change in color, too, by a cell losing or retaining its characteristic pig¬ ment; and even in health there may come the deathly purple which is always sure to appear as the blossom fades. “There are so many attractive varieties that it is difficult to say which are the leading ones. If a flaming color is wanted, one may choose the Apple Blossom, of the old pink and red type, which surpasses all in brilliancy and uniformity of color. It gives the prettiest mass to be found in all the varieties which we have grown. Another form of the same type, the Improved Painted Lady, combines much of the brilliancy of the Apple Blossom with a softer and much more pleasing finish. It is also earlier and more profuse in its bloom. The Empress of India gives a delightful salmon which, in the beauty of its mass, approaches the Apple Blossom and at the same time is one of the prettiest varieties for cutting for single specimens. The Countess of Rad¬ nor is an expression of a dark lilac color and a hooded form. Notwithstanding its remarkable characteristics, it is by no means a beautiful flower because the color seems to lack character. The Butterfly, of a much lighter type of azure, is perhaps the most charming of all. It is pale lilac and delicate. Its single flower is effective, and in mass it gives a shade of which one never tires. It, too, is an early and profuse bloomer. Of the whites, Mrs. Langtry is, perhaps, the most pleasing, but is surpassed in earli¬ ness and productiveness by the Fairy Queen. Of the purples, Cardinal Wolseley stands foremost both in richness and harmony Bulletin iii. i 88 of color. Nevertheless, it has a rival in earliness and bearing qualities in the Imperial Black, but it is not equalled in quality. The Orange Prince, while only a moderate bloomer, must not be overlooked. It approaches the Painted Lady type, but is charac¬ terized by its orange banner and rose-pink wings. It is pretty, but not the best. It is different from all the rest, and the collection would be incomplete without it. As to which sweet pea is best of all, the Improved Painted Lady seems to me to be most satisfac¬ tory and I am willing to cast our lot with it. “ It is a common practice to sow together a number of varieties and to call them mixed, but when one tries it, he finds that it does not give the satisfaction which comes of a single variety. Al¬ though the colors may be related, the mixtures do not produce the harmony which is essential to the best effects. If there must be a mixture, it is much better to follow the pattern of a single flower by giving a decided tone to the mass with some one charac¬ teristic variety, of a profuse bloom, as the Invincible Scarlet, and then touch it up slightly in the two directions of light and shade,— with a light pink, as Mrs. Gladstone, and a white, as Fairy Queen, and perhaps with a moderately dark pink and purple,—the less purple the better,— as the Captain of the Blues, discarding lilacs, —which may be good in themselves,—and also all striped purples, which seem to be inappropriate to any ornamentation whatever. “The use of the sweet pea in ornamental work can be best understood by considering its natural character and adaptability. It is a common and rather cheap plant. It seems to have some¬ thing in common with weeds as well as with refined exotics. It is naturally modest and retiring. It is not improved by the so¬ ciety of other flowering plants. It is beautiful when growing by itself in masses in half-secluded places, but does not bear great prominence. I remember to have seen one place where it looked uncommonly well, and that was on a rough wooden trellis, sur¬ rounded by half-grown grass, a few feet from a dingy uninterest¬ ing wooden house, on the side where no one ever came. In an ordinary well-kept flower-garden, where the beds are laid out by themselves, it may sometimes appears to advantage, but it seems wholly out of place in a strictly formal bed. “All that has been said refers to the growing plant and flower. Sweet Peas. 189 More properly, the use of the sweet pea bloom is in the bouquet. No place then is so exalted but that it adds an extra light, and none is so humble that it is not at home.” II. Varieties Grown at Cornele in 1895. An attempt was made the past season to obtain all the sweet peas which were offered by American seedsmen. Nearly all of them were planted April 30th, but a few later arrivals were sown in the first days of May. The soil was a stiff clay loam. The area was about 150 feet long, and one end of it was naturally more moist than the other, yet this difference in soil did not appear to exercise a great influence upon the season of bloom. The entire area was well tilled throughout the season (as explain¬ ed on page 176). The vines were tied up as they grew to a trellis of five horizontal wires, and the pods were removed as they form¬ ed. The plants continued to bloom throughout September, and even on the 8th of October, when the last notes were taken, sev¬ eral of the varieties were still producing good flowers. In rating the merits of the flowers in this list, we have called those varieties ‘ ‘ good ’ ’ which rise to the accepted standard of excellence of the modern improved sweet peas. A variety which rises above this level, or has some superlative merit, is designated “ very good.” Varieties which fall below this level, are variously designated, usually as “ fairly good these are varieties of indif¬ ferent merit. Below these are the varieties which were distinctly poor. The reader should remember, however, that these opinions are founded solely upon the behavior of the varieties upon our own grounds last year. They are not intended to serve as a gen¬ eral or infallible estimate of the varieties. The accounts of these varieties are all made directly from the plants as they grew on our grounds, uninfluenced by published descriptions. One who is sensitive to inelegant or pretentious expressions must deplore many of the names of the sweet peas. Ambit¬ ious names are always in bad taste, but nowhere more so than in the sweet pea, of which the most prominent characteristic is modesty and indifference. We cannot expect to control the names which come to us from abroad, but our own originators 190 Bulletin hi. should exercise a care to give names at least worthy the plant which is to bear them. The name in parenthesis in the following list is that of the dealer who supplied us with the seed. The varieties marked with an asterisk (*) were originated by Mr. Eckford, and to some of these the date of introduction is added. Several dealers have kindly contributed to this test of varieties, and Mr. Hutchins sent us a good’collection of seeds “ for the good of the cause.” i. Adonis. (Gardiner.) Very good. Flowers small. Standard convex, apex rounded, base wedge- shaped. Color, rose-pink, soft. Bloom profuse. Began to bloom July 17. Continued until Sept. 1. Profuse July 29. > ; * ,, ■mm ■ .. 80 .—Apple Blossom. An ab?iormal 4-flowered truss . Sweet Peas. 191 2. Alba Ma^nifica. (Bnrpee.) Fig. 79, top. Good. Flowers small. Standard flat, notched. Color, pure white. Bloom somewhat profuse. Began to bloom July 17. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 5. 3. American Belle. (Burpee.) Good. Flowers large. Standard hooded to almost flat. Color, rose pink. Bloom medium, uniform the whole season. Began to bloom July 19. Continued throughout the season. 4. Apple Blossom. (Gardiner.) * Fig. 80. Very good; one of the best. Flowers above medium size. Standard slightly hooded. Color, rose-pink. Bloom profuse. Beautiful growing in a mass. Began to bloom July 22. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 12. 5. Black and Brown Striped. (Breck.) Fairly good. Flowers medium size. Standard flat, notched. Color, standard white striped with pink, wings white striped with rose. Bloom % profuse. Began to bloom July 29. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 12. 6. Black Purple. (Breck.) Not a success. Flowers medium size. Color, standard dark pink, wings reddish purple. Bloom sparse. Began to bloom July 23. Continued throughout the season. 7. Blanche Burpee . * 1894. Received from two dealers. The seed from one source did not grow ; that from the other was received so late that the plants failed to bloom. 8. Blanche Ferry. (Gardiner.). Fig. 8t. Very good. Flowers medium size. Standard convex. Color, scarlet, the wings with large white blotches. Somewhat brilliant. Bloom profuse. Began to bloom July 13. Continued throughout the season. Profuse from July 29. 9. Blue Bell. (May & Co. ) Not a success. Flowers small. Standard convex, wedge-shaped. Color, standard pink, wings purple-rose. Bloom sparse. Began to bloom Aug. 9. Continued throughout the season. 192 Bulletin hi. 10. Blue Bird. (C. B. Strong). Fairly good. Flowers medium size. Standard hooded. Color, dark pur¬ ple-red. Bloom medium. Began to bloom July 22. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 12. 11. Blue Edged. (Vick’s Sons.) Good. Flowers large. Standard hooded, with two sinuses at the sides. Color, purple lilac. Bloom profuse. Evidently the same as Butterfly. Began to bloom July 15. Continued throughout the season. At best July 29 12. Blue Invincible. (Childs) Same as Imperial Blue. 81 .—Blanche Ferry. 13. Blushing Beauty. (Hutchins.) *1893. Good. Flowers small. Standard convex, notched. Color, soft, pure salmon. Bloom always sparse. Began to bloom Aug. 12. Continued throughout the season. Sweet Peas. i 93 14. Blushing Bride. (Childs.) Fairly good. Flowers large. Standard flat. Color, standard pink, wings white blotched with purple-rose. Cheap. Bloom profuse. Evidently a strain of Painted Lady. Began to bloom July 13. Continued throughout the season. 15. Boreatton. (Gardiner.)* Very good. Flowers medium size. Standard convex. Color, standard crimson, wings maroon, deep and rich. Bloom profuse. Began to bloom July 16. Continued throughout the season. Profuse from July 22. 16. Bronze King. (Burpee.) Good. Flowers medium size. Standard flat, stiff, notched. Color, stand¬ ard light pink, wings white; Bloom medium. Began to bloom July 16. Continued until Sep. 15, quite uniformly. 17. Bronze Prince (Burpee.)* Good. Flowers large. Standard flat. Color, purple-red, the wings the more purple. Bloom medium. Began to bloom July 22. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 12. 18. Butterfly. (Burpee.) Fig. 82. Very good and dainty. Flowers medium size. Standard hooded, with two sinuses at the sides. Color, purple-lilac, one of the prettiest. Bloom profuse. Began to bloom July 17. Continued throughout the season. Profuse from Aug. 5. 19. Captain Clarke. (Burpee.)* Poor quality, but prolific. Flowers small. Standard flat, stiff. Color, standard white merging into pink and purple, wings white with a purplish cast. Bloom profuse. Far from being beautiful. Began to bloom July 16. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 5. 20. Captaifi of the Blues. (Gardiner.)* Very good. Flowers large. Standard flat. Color, purple-red, the wings more purple. Bloom profuse. Began to bloom July 18. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 12. 2r. Captain Sharkey. (Breck.) Flowers small. Standard flat. Color, standard pink, wings dark rose. 194 Bulletin hi. Bore only one flower. Evidently not a fair test. . Bloomed Aug. 8. 22. Cardinal IVolse/ey. (May & Co.) Very good. Flowers large. Standard flat, slightly wedged. Color, standard crimson, wings maroon, rich. Bloom somewhat profuse. Same as Cardinal ? Began to bloom July 19. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 12. 23. Carmen Sylva. (Hutchins.) Not a success. Flow¬ ers medium size. Standard convex, notched. Color, stand¬ ard pink, wings dark rose-purple. Bloom very sparse. Began to bloom Ang. 5. Bloom of short dura¬ tion. 24. Countess of Rad¬ nor. (Gardiner.)* Fig. 72. Very good, unique. Flowers large. Stand¬ ard hooded. Color, 1 avender blotched with red-purple. Bloom medium in quantity. 82.— Butterfly. Began to bloom July 17. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 12. The same from Hutchins, except that the bloom w r as profuse, beginning with July 22. 25. Crown Princess of Prussia. (Burpee.) Good. Flowers medium size. Standard convex. Color, standard pink, wings rose-pink. Bloom profuse. Began to bloom July 15. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 12. Cupid: Seepage 182. 26. Dark Red. (Childs.) Same as Painted Lady. Sweet Peas. i 95 27. Delight. (Breck. )* Good. Flowers small. Standard concave, stiff. Color, white. Bloom medium. Began to bloom July 24. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 12. Same from Burpee, but bloom very profuse. 28. Dorothy Tennant .*1892. Fig. 78, center. Good. Flowers large Standard hooded. Color, red purple, the wings more purple, somewhat heavy. Bloom medium. Began to bloom July 22. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 12. 29. Duchess of Edinburgh. (Burpee.)* Good. Flowers small. Standard flat, stiff. Color, standard pink, wings rose pink. Bloom profuse. Began to bloom July 19 Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 5. 30. Duchess of Marlboro. (May & Co.) Very good. Flowers small. Standard flat. Color, standard pink, wings rose-pink. Bloom profuse. Began to bloom July 22. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 5. 31. Duke of Clarence (Hutchins. )*i893. Fairly good. Flowers large. Standard somewhat hooded, with two sinues in the sides. Color, purplish red, the wings strongly purple. Bloom profuse. Began to bloom July 22. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 12. 32. Duke of Kent. (May & Co.) Good. Flowers small. Standard flat, wedge-shape. Color, rose-pink. Bloom medium. Began to bloom July 27. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 5. 33. Emily Eckford. (Hutchins. )*i893. Good quality. Flowers medium and large. Standard hooded. Color, red- purple, bright. Bloom always sparse. Began to bloom July 15. Continued throughout the season. 34. Emily Henderson. (Burpee.) Fig. 79 bottom. Very good. Flowers medium size. Standard flat, notched. Color, pure white. Bloom profuse, early. 196 Bulletin hi. Began to bloom July 13. Continued throughout the season. At best July 22. 35. Empress of India. (Burpee.)* Very good. Flowers large. Standard flat, stiff. Color, salmon, soft, bright, one of the most beautiful. Bloom medium. Began to bloom July 17. Continued throughout the season. Profuse from Aug. 12. 36. Etna. (Hutchins.) Fig. 78, right. Good. Flowers medium size. Standard flat, wedge-shaped. Color, stand¬ ard pink, wings rose, brilliant. Bloom medium. Began to bloom July 13. Continued until Sep. 1. At best Aug. 5. 37. Fairy Queen. (Burpee.) Rather poor. Flowers small. Standard flat, stiff. Color, white streaked or shaded with pink, the soft color almost pure. Bloom very profuse. Began to bloom July 11. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 5. 38. Firefly. (Hutchins.)* i893. Good in quality. Flowers small. Standard flat, stiff, spreading. Color, standard, crimson, wings rose-pink. Bloom very sparse. Began to bloom Aug. 7. Continued throughout the season. 39. Flesh-Colored. (Caldwell and Jones). Of no great value. Flowers small. Standard flat, notched. Color, stand¬ ard pink, wings rose-pink. Bloom sparse. Much like Painted Lady. Began to bloom July 17. Continued throughout the season. 40. Gaiety. (Hutchins.)*i893. Fairly good. Flowers medium size. Standard slightly convex. Color, white, heavily streaked with pink, bright and somewhat fickle. Bloom pro¬ fuse. Began to bloom July 20. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 12. 41. Grand Blue. (Gardiner & Co.) Same as Imperial Blue. 42. Her Majesty. (Hutchins.)* i892. Good quality. Flowers medium size. Standard flat. Color, rose-pink. Bloom always sparse. Began to bloom July 31. Sweet Peas. 197 Continued throughout the season. 43. Ignea. (Burpee.) * Good. Flowers large. Standard flat. Color, standard pink, wings rose- pink, brilliant, one of the richest colors. Bloom sparse. Began to bloom July 15. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 12. 44. Imperial Black . (Perry Seed Store.) Fairly good. Flowers large. Standard hooded with two sinuses at the sides. Color, purplish red. Bloom profuse. Probably same as Imperial Blue. Began to bloom July 20. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 5. 45. Imperial Blue. (Burpee.) * Fig. 83. Not a success. Flowers medium. Standard somewhat rolled. Color, purple-red. Bloom medium. Began to bloom July 18. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 12. 46. Improved Painted Lady. (Eandreth & Sons.) Very good. Flowers medium size. Standard flat, somewhat wedge-shaped. Color, standard pink, wings light pink, or white blotched with rose-pink. Bloom profuse. Began to bloom July 13. Continued profuse from July 22. 83 .—Imperial Blue. 198 Bulletin hi. 47. Indigo King. (Burpee.)* Fair quality. Flowers large. Standard hooded with two sinuses at the sides. Color, standard, dark purple-red, wings, dark plum. Bloom medium. Began to bloom July 22. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 12. 48. Invincible Carmine. (Burpee.) Not a success. Flowers small. Standard flat, wedge-shaped. Color, standard dull pink, wings rose-pink. Bloom always sparse. Began to bloom July 31. Continued until Sept. 1. 49. Invincible Scarlet . (Gardiner.) Good. Flowers small. Standard convex, base wedge-shaped. Color, scarlet. Bloom profuse. Brilliant, but somewhat cheap, from becoming white about the edges as it fades. Began to bloom July 15. Continued throughout the season. Profuse from Aug. 5. 50. Invincible Striped. (Burpee.) Fairly good. Flowers medium size. Standard slightly convex, notched. Color, white streaked with pink, rather cheap. Bloom profuse. Began to bloom July 20. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 12. 51. Isa Eckford. (Burpee.)* Very good. Flowers medium size. Standard sometimes hooded. Color, light rose-pink, delicate. Bloom profuse. Began to bloom July 19. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug 12. 52. Joanna Theresa. (Breck.) Good. Flowers medium size. Standard flat, stiff, notched. Color, standard dark pink, wings reddish purple, rich. Bloom profuse. Began to bloomjuly 19. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 12. 53. Lady Beaconsfield. (Hutchins. )*i894. Not a success. Flowers small. Standard convex, wedge-shaped. Color, standard dull pink tinged with lavender, wings lavender and a very light yellow. Bloom medium. Began to bloomjuly 13. Continued until Sept. 1. At best Aug. 12. Sweet Peas. 199 54. Lady Penzance. (Hutchins. )*i894. Good. Flowers large. Standard slightly hooded. Color, cherry. Bloom moderately profuse. Began to bloom July 24. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 12. 55. Lemon Queen. (Burpee. )*i892. Very good. Flowers medium size. Standard flat, stiff. Color, white with a slightly pinkish cast, soft, bright. Bloom medium. Began to bloom July 13. Continued throughout the season. Profuse from Aug. 5. 56. Light Blue and Purple. (Burpee.) Not wholly a success. Flowers small. Standard convex, stiff, notched. Color, standard dark pink, wings purple. Bloom sparse. Began to bloom Aug. 3. Continued throughout the season. 57. Lord Derby. (May&Co.) Fairly good. Flowers small. Standard slightly concave, wedge-shaped. Color, standard pink, wings purple-pink. Bloom medium. Began to bloom July 17. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 5. 58. Lottie Eckford. (Burpee.)* Not a success. Flowers medium size. Standard hooded. Color lilac. Bloom sparse. Began to bloom July 29. Continued until Sept. 1. See also, New Lottie Eckford. 59. Madame Carnot. (Hutchins.) Same as Imperial Blue. 60. Minnie Keepers. (May & Co.) Good. Flower large. Standard hooded. Color, standard pinkish lilac, wings lilac. Bloom*medium. Began to bloom July 19. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 12. 61. Miss Hunt. (Burpee)* Good. Flowers medium size. Standard flat, slightly wedged. Color, light cherry. Bloom^medium. Began to bloom July 13. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 12. 200 Bulletin hi. 62. Mixtures — Alneer's Invincible. (Alneer.) A fairly good mixture. The lilac and pink do not harmonize any too well. Bloom medium. Began to bloom July 19. Continued throughout the season. At best July 29. Boston Beauties. (Rawson.) A fairly good mixture. Bloom somewhat profuse. Began to bloom July 23. Continued until Sept. 10. Breck's Mixture. (Breck.) Almost all white, though the combinations are good. Bloom medium. Began to bloom July 20. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 12. Eckford's Gilt Edge or Surpassing. (Burpee.) Not a good combination, but better than some others. Began to bloom July 17. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 12. Eckford's New Mixed. (Burpee.) Not a good combination, the contrasts of color too strong. Bloom profuse. Began to bloom July 13. At best Aug. 12. Fine Mixed. (Burpee.) A mixture of the darker colors, giving a heavy effect. Bloom very profuse. Began to bloom July 13. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 5. Huckin's Bouquet. (Geo. A. Huckins.) None too good. Bloom profuse. Began to bloom July 18. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 5. Invincible Mixture. (Vick’s Sons.) Not a good mixture. Too dark. Bloom profuse. Began to bloom July 18. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 5. New Varieties Mixed. (Burpee.) Combination poor; too great contrasts. Bloom profuse. Sweet Peas. 201 Began to bloom July 15. Continued throughout the season. Profuse from Aug. 5. Special Colored Plate Mixture. (Burpee.) Good, but for the presence of an objectionable striped purple. Profuse Aug. 12. Out of bloom Sept. 1. Splendid Hybrid. (Perry Seed Store.) Evidently consisted mainly of one pink variety. Bloom profuse. Began to bloom July 13. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 5. 63 - Monarch. (Burpee. )* Not a success. Flowers medium size. Standard flat. Color light rose pink, soft. Bloom always sparse. Began to bloom July 22. Continued throughout the season. 64. Mrs. Eckford. *1892. Not a success. Flowers small. Standard flat, stiff. Color, white. Bloom always sparse. Began to bloom Aug. 6. Continued throughout the season. 65. Mrs. Gladstone. (Gardiner.)* Fig. 84. Very good. Flowers medium size. Standard convex, rounded apex. Color, a light rose-pink, soft and delicate. Bloom profuse. Began to bloom July 13. Continued throughout the season. Profuse from July 29. 66. Mrs. Langtry. (May & Co.) Fairly good. Flowers medium size. Standard flat, notched. Color, pure white, rich. Bloom medium. Began to bloom July 30. Continued until Sept. 15. At best Aug. 12. 67. Mrs. Sankey. (Burpee.)* Fairly good. Flowers medium. Standard flat. Color, light pink. Bloom rather sparse. Began to bloom July 22. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 12. 68. Nellie Jaynes. (Barteldes & Co.) Same as Painted Lady. 202 Bulletin iii. 69. New Lottie Eckford. (Hutchins.) Good. Flowers large. Standard hooded. Color, lilac. Bloom medium. Began to bloom Aug. 3. Continued until Sep. 1. At best Aug. 12. 84.— Mrs. Gladstone. One of the best pinks . 70. Orange Prince. (Burpee, Breck.)* Good, unique. Flowers small. Standard convex. Color, standard bright orange-pink, wings light rose. Bloom sparse. Began to bloom July 29. Continued throughout the season. Sweet Peas. 203 71. Ovid. (Hutchins.) *1894. Good quality. Flowers large. Standard slightly hooded. Color, a bright reddish pink, brilliant, well diffused. Bloom always sparse. Began to bloom July 20. Continued throughout the season. 72. Painted Lady. (Burpee.) Good. Flowers medium size. Standard nearly flat, slightly notched. Color, standard rose-pink, wings light pink, or else dark pink blotched with white. Bloom profuse. Bright. Began to bloom July 13. Continued until Sept. 15. At best Aug. 12. See Improved Painted Lady. 73. Peach Blossom. (Huchins.)* 1894. Grew to a height of forty inches, but did not bear a single blossom, al¬ though it produced buds at various times thoughout the season. 74. Primrose. (Gardiner.)* Good. Flowers medium size. Standard quite convex, notched, base wedge-shape. Color, white with a slightly yellowish tinge. Bloom sparse throughout the season. Began to bloom July 22. Continued throughout the season. 75. Princess Beatrice. (Burpee.) Not a success. Flowers medium size. Standard concave, stiff. Color, soft pink. Bloom sparse. Began to bloom July 22. Continued throughout the season. 76. Princess Louise. (Burpee.) Same as Violet Queen. 77. Princess May. (Hutchins.) A failure. One blossom Aug. 5. 78. Princess of Wales. (Gardiner.) * Good. Flowers large. Standard flat, apex round. Color, drab strongly streaked with purplish red, dull. Bloom profuse. Began to bloom July 17. Continued throughout the season. Profuse from July 29. 79. Princess Victoria. (Burpee.)* Good. Flowers medium size. Standard flat. Color, standard pink, wings rose-pink. Bloom medium. Began to bloom July 18. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 12. 204 Bulletin hi. 80. Purple. (Price & Read.) Grew 36 inches high. First flower Aug. 9. Did not bloom again. 81. Purple Brown. (Caldwell and Jones.) Not a success. Flowers large. Standard somewhat hooded. Color, standard purple-red, wings purple. Bloom sparse. Began to bloom July 23. Continued throughout the season. 82. Purple Prince. (Burpee.)* Not a success. Flowers large. Standard flat, stiff. Color, standard dark pink, wings purple. Bloom sparse. Began to bloom July 30. Continued until Sept. 15. 83. Purple Striped. (Burpee.) Good. Flowers medium size. Standard flat. Color, purplish-red streak¬ ed with lilac. Bloom medium. Began to bloom July 13. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 12. 84. Purple Striped. (Caldwell & Jones.) Not like Purple Striped (Burpee), but like Black and Brown Striped (Breck). Of little value. Flowers large. Standard flat. Color, white striped with rose-purple. Bloom scarcely any. One blossom appeared Aug. 5. 85. Queen. (Gardiner.)* Good. Flowers medium size. Standard convex base wedge shaped. Color, standard light pink, wings a pink-purple. Bloom profuse. Began to bloom July 17. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 5. 86. Queen of England. * Medium quality. Flowers medium size. Standard convex, notched, base wedge-shape. Color, white. Bloom medium. Began to bloom July 18. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 12. 87. Queen of the Isles. (Burpee.) Fairly good. Flowers large. Standard flat, stiff, wings at right angles to it. Color, white striped with pink. Bloom somewhat sparse. Began to bloom July 25. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 5. Sweet Peas. 205 88. Red and White Striped. (Breck.) Poor. Flowers medium size. Standard convex. Color white strongly streaked with pink. Bloom sparse. Began to bloom July 23. Continued until Sept. 15. 89. Rising Sun. (Burpee.) Fig. 78, left. Thrifty but not beautiful. Flowers small. Standard flat, slightly notched, Color, standard white streaked with cherry, wings white and cherry ; bril¬ liant. Bloom profuse. Began to bloom July 13. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 5. 90. Royal Robe. (Hutchins.) *1894. Fair quality. Flowers large. Standard slightly hooded. Color, pink, not well diffused. Began to bloom July 20. Continued throughout the season. Blossoms always sparse. 91. Senator. (Burpee.)* None too good. Flowers large. Standard flat. Color, lilac streaked with purplish red. Bloom medium. Began to bloom July 23. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 12. 92. Scarlet. (Vick’s Sons.) Fairly good. Flowers medium size. Standard flat, notched. Color, stand¬ ard pink, wings purple-rose. Bloom somewhat sparse. Probably same as Invincible Scarlet. Began to bloom July 24. Continued throughout the season. 93. Scarlet Striped. (Burpee.) None too good. Flowers large. Standard flat, wedge-shape. Color white strongly streaked with pink, cheap. Bloom medium. Began to bloom July 20. Continued throughout the season. „ At best Aug. 12. 94. Scarlet Winged. (Vick’s Sons.) Did not grow. 95. Snowflake. (C. B. Strong.) Did not bloom. 96. Splendid Lilac. (Burpee 1 ) Good. Flowers medium. Standard convex, slightly notched. Color, standard, pink edged with red purple, wings lilac. Bloom profuse. Began to bloom July 17. 206 Bulletin hi. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 5. 97. Splendor. (Burpee.)* Fig. 77. Good. Flowers medium size. Standard flat. Color, bright pink. Bloom sparse. Began to bloom July 22. Continued throughout the season. 85.— Venus. Soft and delicate pink. 98. Stanley. (Hutchins.)* i894. Good quality. Flowers large. Standard flat. Color, standard, dark pink, wings, rose-purple. Bloom always sparse. Began to bloom Aug. 2. Continued throughout the season. 99. Tangier Scarlet. (Price & Reed.) Fig. 74. Very good at a distance from the sweet pea. If both are together, the sweet pea is smothered, this species maturing very much the earlier. Flow¬ ers medium size. Standard, sometimes flat, stiff - , obcordate, pointed, at others closely hooded so as to overlap itself and enclose the wings. Wings very small. Bloom profuse. A strong grower. Began to bloom July 1. Sweet Peas. 207 Continued through most of the season. Profuse from July 13. A variety of Lathyrus Tingitanus See p. 174. 100. Venus. (Hutchins )*i 893- Fig. 85. Good to very good. Flowers large. Standard slightly hooded. Color, soft pink, delicate. Bloom rather sparse. Began to bloom July 19. Continued throughout the season. Blossoms always scattered. 101. Vesuvius. (Burpee.) Good. Flowers small. Standard flat, stiff, notched. Color, standard pink with a shade of purple, wings reddish purple. Bloom somewhat profuse. Began to bloom July 18. Continued throughout the season. Profuse from Aug. 5. 102. Victoria Regina. (May & Co.) Not a success. Flowers medium size. Standard flat, broad. Color, standard white heavily blotched with pink, wings blotched with purple-rose, cheap. Bloom medium. Much like Invincible Striped. Began to bloom July 24. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 12. 103. Violet Queen. (Burpee.) Fairly good. Flowers small. Standard flat wedge-shaped. Color, standard light pink, wings pink-rose. Bloom medium. (Princess Louise.) Began to bloom July 26. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 12. 104. Waverly. (Burpee.) *1892. Good. Flowers small. Standard flat, wedge-shape. Color, standard, light pink, wings light purple-pink. Bloom somewhat profuse. Began to bloom July 22. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 12. 105. White. (Burpee.) Fair. Flowers medium. Standard, slightly convex, notched. Color, pure white. Bloom always sparse. Began to bloom July 18. Continued until Sept. 1. Same from another dealer. Not a success. Flowers medium size. Standard flat, deeply notched. Color, pure white. Bloom sparse. Began to bloom July 30. Continued througout the season. At best Aug. 12. 208 Bulletin iii. 106. White Invincible. (Childs.) Fairly good. Flowers small. Standard flat, stiff. Color, white. Bloom medium. Began to bloom July 22. Continued throughout the season. At best Aug. 5. The superlative (‘ ‘ very good ”) varieties in this test are the following : Adonis, Apple Blossom, Blanche Ferry, Boreatton, Butterfly, Captain of the Blues, Cardinal Wolseley, Countess of Radnor, Duchess of Marlboro, Emily Henderson. Empress of India, Improved Painted Lady, Isa Eckford, Lemon Queen, Mrs. Gladstone, Tangier Scarlet. A. P. Wyman. L. H. Bailey. Bulletin 112. February, 1896. Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. ITHACA, N. Y. HORTICULTURAL DIVISION. THE 1895 CHRYSANTHEMUMS. . J. E. Eager, See p 235 By L. H. Baijey, Wilhelm Hiller, and C. E. Hunn. * PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. 1896. ORGANIZATION BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. STATION COUNCIL. President, Jacob Hon. A. D. White, Professor I. P. Roberts, Professor I. P. Roberts, Professor G. C. Caldwell, Professor James Law, - Professor A. N. Prentiss, Professor J. H. Comstock, Professor L. H. Bailey, Professor H. H. Wing, Professor G. F. Atkinson, Gould Schurman. Trustee of the University. President State Agricultural Society. - ' Agriculture. Chemistry. Veterinary Science. Botany. Entomology. Horticulture. Dairy Husbandry. Cryptogamic Botany. OFFICERS OF THE STATION. I. P. Roberts, ------ Director. E. L. Williams, ------ Treasurer. H. W. Smith, ...... Clerk. ASSISTANTS M. V. Slingerland, G. W. Cavanaugh, - E. G. Lodeman, L. A. Clinton, E. J. Durand, - Entomology. Chemistry. Horticulture. Agriculture. Cryptogamic Botany. Office of the Director, 20 Morrill Hall. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to all who request them. BULLETINS OF 1896. 106. Revised Opinions of the Japanese Plum. 107. Wireworms and The Bud Moth. 108. The Pear Psylla and The New York Plum Scale. 109. Geological History of the Chautauqua Grape Belt, no. Extension Work in Horticulture. in. Sweet Peas. 112. The 1895 Chrysanthemums. Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., February 8, 1896. Honorable Commissioner of Agriculture, Albany. Sir : This account of our cultivation of chrysanthemums in 1895, is sub¬ mitted for publication under Chapter 230, of the laws of 1895. In our former report (Bulletin 91) of chrysanthemums, made nearly a year ago, we took the opportunity of a fly-leaf to explain our position upon the vexed question of the testing of novelties. We made the following statement: “We refuse to test varieties simply because they are new. Our basis of study is the monograph,—the investigation of a particular subject, rather than the indiscriminate growing of things which chance to be put upon the market in a given year, and which have no relationship to each other aside from a ■coincidence in date. When we take up a certain group of plants for study, we endeavor to. secure every variety of it, old or new. These varieties are studied not only in the field, but botanical specimens are invariably made of every one, so that the experimenter has specimens before him for liesurely study when the hurry of field work and the excitement of bug-catching are done. We are always glad to receive the seed novelties of any year, but we do not agree to report upon them or even to grow them. If we were to attempt to grow them all, we should simply be making a museum of curiosi¬ ties, and we should have no time left for investigation and experiment.” This seems to be plain enough to allow of no mistake as to our position,yet we have been half accused of an unwillingness to aid dealers and buyers in the determining of synonyms and the discarding of duplicate and unworthy varieties. This is exactly the opposite of the truth. We are so desirous of aiding in this direction that we have refused to make any effort except when we believed that we could really accomplish the purpose. We are free to say that we have no sympathy with the ordinary “ variety test,” which simply grows a lot of things and then sets down a few unrelated measurements of them. One must make a comprehensive and detailed and prolonged study of his subject, with all the factors before him, before he is able to judge of such an apparently simple thing as the merits of varieties. All estimates of varieties must be comparative. One cannot grow an onion, and then say that it is or is not the same as others, nor can he likely give any accurate measure of its comparative merits, for he has no other varieties with which to compare ; and he cannot carry even such emphatic subjects as onions in his mind from year to year. One cannot file away specimens of all garden varieties, as they grow in all soils and all seasons, as he can dried plants and bugs. If the station officer is to be able to identify and to judge all varieties sent to him, he must attempt to grow every variety of every plant every year. And even if he should grow them all, he would likely gain little, save exper¬ ience, from his effort, for the subject is too large for instant study. In 1896 we expect to make a study of Brussels sprouts, dahlias, sweet corn, chrysan¬ themums, cannasand tuberous begonias, and any person who has varieties of these things which he wants tested may send them to us. Of these things, especially the ornamentals, we should receive the novelties in advance of their general introduction, if possible. F In this chrysanthemum study, I have been fortunate in my associates. Mr. Miller is a special student in horticulture, a graduate of the University of Michigan, and has given most enthusiastic attention to our chrysanthemum test. Mr. Hunn is a gardener of much experience, well known for his long and earnest connection with experiment station work. U. H. Bailey. 86 .—Chrysanthemums grown for specimen blooms. THE 1895 CHRYSANTHEMUMS. I. Sundry Remarks upon the Subject. It is charged that the rapid popularization of the chrysanthe¬ mum is mere fashion. It may be so ; but if fashion were hence¬ forth always to produce so many beauties as it has in the chrysan¬ themum, it might be forgiven its endless record of follies. The transcendent merit of the chrysanthemum lies in its almost limit¬ less variety of form, texture and color of flowers. There is no plant known to American gardens which approaches it in these respects, not even the rose. Such variety of form is possible only in compositous flowers, in which each floret is a distinct element and capable of independent development. One cannot feel the truth of these remarks until he has an opportunity to study a large collection of varieties growing together. He will then see that almost every form of compositous flower which the mind can picture has here arisen. Yet, various as the chrysanthemums are, there are limitations to the development of the species in certain directions. For ex¬ ample, it is idle to look for a blue chrysanthemum. This is not because of any assumed or theoretical incompatability of the blue and yellow series of colors, but simply because no true blue vari¬ eties have ever yet appeared, to our knowledge. The only guide in the breeding for particular characters is experience, or the ob¬ served behavior of the species. The chrysanthemum has been cultivated for some thousands of years, but amongst all its depart¬ ures it has given no blue flowers. It is reasonable to expect that if no hint of such variation has occurred in all this eventful evolu¬ tion, we can have little hope for its appearing in the future. The same remark will apply to the much-coveted but ever-evasive blue rose. It is a fundamental tenet of plant-breeding that the oper¬ ator must put himself in line with the natural tendencies of the plant and work harmoniously along with nature, rather than to set himself against her. Man’s power lies more in improving or augmenting tendencies which already exist than in creating new 214 Bulletin 112. tendencies. There is a tradition, to be sure, that a blue chrysan¬ themum was once produced, under political pressure, in the orient, but there is no exact knowledge of the matter ; and if the King of Japan really did receive such a tribute, I am willing to believe that someone connected with the transaction forestalled the modern flower “artist” and dyed the flower. It is possible, of course, that a blue chrysanthemum may appear, but the prob¬ abilities are all against it; and if it does come, it will probably originate as a sport or bud-variety rather than as a definite at¬ tempt thereat on the part of the operator. One must remember, too, in this connection, that the heavy colors of chrysanthemums are nearly always associated with heaviness and gracelessness of habit. We have no pure deep red with the cut of Mrs. Rand, for example. But even the same form, particularly if it inclines strongly to regularity, has a heavier appearance in dark colors than in light ones. There is no more fertile field for the development of new types than in the combining of light and graceful forms with dark colors. A word about the culture of chrysanthemums .— Our own tests of chrysanthemums have been made for the purpose of obtaining specimen or exhibition blooms. The plants are therefore trained to a single stem and a single flower. Fig. 86 shows our house as it looked last November. When so many varieties are grown, the house is not at its best at any one time, but there is a progressing exhibition. The house there- 8 i—'Mum cut- fore lacks the full appearance of an ordinary ting. Half size, commercial house. These plants were made from cuttings taken the previous spring, the plants having been grown in pots until late July, when they were taken from the pots and set in the bed. This growing of the plants to a single bloom does not produce the most decorative or satisfactory results. It simply gives large specimen blooms. I much prefer to grow from three to six blooms on a plant, and shall do so this year. The plants may be flowered in pots, or in a solid soil bench. Very good small plants The 1895 Chrysanthemums. 215 may be brought to perfection in 6-inch pots, but the best results, in pot plants, are to be obtained in 8-inch or 10-inch pots. If the plants are to be used for decoration, they should, of course, be grown in pots, but the best results for cut flowers are usually ob¬ tained by growing in the earth. In any case, the cuttings are made from the tips of basal or strong lateral shoots, late in February to May. One form of cutting is shown in Fig. 87. It is inserted in the soil to the point C. If the plants are to be flower¬ ed in pots—in which case they usually mature earlier—the cut¬ tings may be started as late as April, or even June ; but if they are grown in the soil and large plants are desired, the cuttings should be taken in February or March. The plants which are flowered in the soil are generally grown in pots until July. The grower must decide how many blooms he desires on a plant, and then train the plant accordingly, bringing up the different branches so that they will all bloom at the same time. A well grown chrysanthemum, in an 8-inch pot and bearing five or six perfect blooms, is one of the most decorative plants which the florist can produce. Reflectio 7 is upon nomenclature , classification , and variation ( Mr . Miller ).—There is need for reform in three important matters re¬ lating to chrysanthemums,—nomenclature, synonomy, and classi¬ fication. New varieties of chrysanthemums often bear absurd, bombastic, and vulgar names. Many are named after society leaders, and prominent persons. There are always practical rea¬ sons why novelties are named after popular men and women, and these reasons are often unworthy ones. The poor quality of cigars named after election candidates is notorious. Those who buy new flowers because of the attractive names usually feel de¬ frauded of their sympathies. The criticism is often made that our monthly magazines are dealers in attractive titles, that the matter is rarely as spicy as the caption. The disseminators of new hor¬ ticultural varieties take advantage of waves of popular enthusiasm. They name flowers after actors, base-ball players, barons, saints, and society leaders. Almost is realized one of Dean Swift’s dissonant combinations, “lords, fiddlers, judges, and dancing masters.” The only consistent course is to abolish the whole system of naming varieties after living persons. So long as this Bulletin 112. 216 12 34 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 88 .—Forms of chrysanthemum florets. (See pages 220. 221.) Floret incurved, 13, Floret reflexed, 2, Margin incurved, 7, 10, Margin revolute, 2, 15, Ligulate, 1, 6, Tubular, 12. 13, Various degrees of tubularity, 7-13. Doubly curved ( i.e ., twice curved, Incurved and cupping, 4, Incurved and hooded (cucullate), 5, Laciniate, or cut, 13, 14, Twisted, 15, 16, Hairy, 4, 5, Quilled, 11, “recurved”), 3. 16 The 1895 Chrysanthemums. 217 system continues, the element of disappointment and bad taste will persist. It is a constant reproach to horticulture that the art lacks dignity. Need it also be pointed out that we seem to be deficient in imagination ? The reform would be sweeping if made all at once, but there is a preliminary step in this direction that can easily be taken. All such titles as Mr., Mrs., Miss, General, Judge, Count, Baron, etc., should be dropped. These titles cause endless confusion. What makes the case peculiarly hopeless is that the Natonal Chrysanthemum Society of England in its Official Catalogue has set the example of indexing varieties according to these titles, in defiance to the established rules adopted by librarians, indexers, and cataloguers. It frequently happens that the pater familias is not the only popular member of the family. In verifying varie¬ ties by English catalogues (whose methods have been tamely copied in America) it is often necessary to remember which is Miss Blank, and what are the first names of the other daughters. Label-writers are usually careless, and their “ M ” may stand for Mr., Mrs., Miss, Monsieur, ora Christian name. According to the trade journals, it is not uncommon to order a “ Miss ” and get a “ Mr.” The use of titles ought to be discontinued. There are other problems of nomenclature which are coming up constantly. Many of them have been considered by societies devoted to other flowers, or to fruits. The only real attempts to solve any of these problems have been made by the American Pomological Society, and, for vegetables, by a committee of Ex¬ periment Station horticulturists. The Pomological Society has drawn up a set of rules, but unfortunately the other societies do not follow them. What is really wanted for progress is a na¬ tional horticultural society in which professional growers of plants, amateurs and botanists may work together. The socie¬ ties devoted to the culture of a single flower could cooperate with the national society. Of course, a society, as such, might not deal with problems of synonomy and classification, but its members could do so either as committees or as individual students. Records of hybridization are worth keeping, as well as many other data for a study of the botany of cultivated plants. It is a pity that we have no horticultural society of the dignity of the 218 Bulletin 112. Royal Horticultural Society. The American genius for organiz¬ ing ought to be able to create a better society than this for our own needs. Commercial men could supply materials for history and science, and botanists could instruct plant-breeders at almost every point of their work. There is this distinction between botanical classification and horticultural classification : the world can wait for the first; the second has a daily practical bearing. Prizes often do harm in this—that they encourage production of flowers that conform to arbitrary and fallacious standards, and discourage informality and freedom. This is strongly illustrated in the case of the Mrs. Alpheus Hardy chrysanthemum. The hairiness of that var¬ iety was no novelty in the western world. It had repeatedly ap¬ peared in England and had been patiently if not sorrowfully re¬ pressed. The florists did not want a hairy flower, nor was it absolutely new, and the successes of the florist who sold it for $1,500 and the dealer who is supposed to have made $10,000 out of it in one year, must be explained in some other way. The les¬ son of this is that conventional standards and horticultural classi¬ fications are often tyrannical. It is certain that in 1886 no hairy chrysanthemum could have won a prize before the National Chrysanthemum Society of England. If florists want a good example of the tyranny of classifications they can examine the centenary catalogue of that society and see the ten artificial sec¬ tions that the English have made and Americans too often follow. The English have more rigid classifications, a more severe system of scoring by points, bigger prizes, and less individuality in their flowers. The danger of suppression of individualism can be averted for the present, so far as the American Chrysanthemum Society is concerned, by a more liberal interpretation of what ‘ * incurved ’ ’ and “Japanese” may mean. The Japanese section should be made broad enough to include most types which do not fit else¬ where. The English “ incurved ” chrysanthemums are compact, round, formal, and regular. The florets are carefully arranged in mathematical order by means of forceps. The ‘ ‘ dressing ’ ’ of petals is unpopular in this country. The guard petals of exhibi¬ tion carnations in England used to be pasted down on cardboards. The 1895 Chrysanthemums. 219 There are perfectly estimable people who still take pleasure in the stiffest incurved chrysanthemums. Indeed, it is the wonder and the glory of the chrysanthemum that it can be varied to suit all tastes. This variability is a thing inherent and essential. It is the peculiar genius of the composites Asters have it, dahlias have 89.— IV. IV. Astor. Four-fifths natural size. it, and chrysanthemums most of all. It is capable of reflecting the fleeting frivolities and fashions of the age as well as certain deeper and dearer things. Chrysanthemums can be formal as well as fanciful, but we have plenty of other formal flowers. In¬ curved chrysanthemums were popular in a hoop-skirt age, but 220 Bulletin 112. the Japanese are truly fin de siecle. They are informal, fanciful, quaint, odd, individual, and therefore a more complete expression of the times than single, incurved, anemone, or pompon-flowered sections. Descriptions of the florets ( Mr . Miller ).—The greatest con¬ fusion exists in commercial catalogues as to descriptive terms for chrysanthemums; for example the word ‘ ‘recurved” is used by some dealers to mean twice curved or doubly curved, i. e., the second curve being in a direction opposite to that of the first. (See No. 3 in the plate illustrating different types of florets, Fig. 88.) Botanists, however, use “recurved” to mean a single curve of greater extent than that expressed by ‘ ‘reflexed. ’ ’ Descriptive cata¬ logues are hard to write, and harder still to order from. Illus¬ trations are preferable in this day of cheap mechanical processes of ’engraving. A “ half-tone ” gives one an idea of the bloom which no words can convey. Sometimes, however, the individu¬ ality of the floret needs special notice, and it is often impossible to tell from the loose description of florists whether they are describing the blossom or the floret. Illustrations are needed to give general effect, and botanical terms to describe particular effects. No descriptions can convey the idea of the form, com¬ pactness or looseness, regularity or irregularity of the blossom so well as a picture does. The floret, however, can sometimes be described by words that are helpful to the imagination. “ Ostrich plume ” is a fanciful and attractive name, but it has no place in botany. “Hairy” is the proper term. A head of florets like No. 13 (Fig. 88) gives the general effect of hairiness, and it takes a second look to determine that the individual florets are irregularly cut, but do not have hairs or trichomes, as do florets 4 and 5. Cataloguers should distinguish between a floret and its margin ; for example, a reflexed floret may also have its margins reflexed (No. 2); an incurved floret may be ligulate (No. 6), tubular (No. 13), or have its margins incurved (No. 7). Unfortunately, it is impossible to indicate such various degrees of tubularity as are successfully presented by the florets No. 13 to 7. Nos. 12 and 13 are properly called tubular, and No. 11 quilled. The ligulate form of petal is conceived to have been originated by the splitting The 1895 Chrysanthemums. 221 of a tubular form. This theory is well illustrated by florets 13 to 6. In No. 9, half of the floret shows the tubular origin, and half is ligulate. Whether the opposite tendency for ligulate to produce tubular forms exists, is a question. Possibly Nos. 7, 15 and 16 might be regarded as transitional forms from the ligulate to the tubular. It is often important to distinguish whether a floret is ligulate or whether the margins are incurved. For example, single, intense, vivid colors are probably best displayed by a ligulate floret. Crimsona (No. 6) is a case in point. The color of Miss Helyett is a similar shade, but the general effect is ruined (for some at least) by a distracting element: the margins of the florets are turned in so much that florists would say, ‘ ‘ it shows the under side. ’ ’ Various types of chrysanthemum florets are shown, natural size, in Fig. 88. No. 1 is a ligulate floret which was incurved in the bloom ; No. 2 stood reflexed in the flower, margins revolute ; No. 3, floret doubly curved, is cupped at base and top and high in the middle ; No. 4, incurved as it stood in the flower, hairy- tipped, cupped, but the character not showing well in the cut (Mrs. Higinbotham) ; No. 5, incurved in the flower, hooded and hairy-tipped ; No. 6, ligulate floret (Crimsona) ; No. 7, tubular below, broadly ligulate above, the margin incurved; No. 8, greater part of the floret tubular ; No. 9, to be compared with No. 7 ; No. 10, a partially tubular floret, with very slender base, and strongly involute blade ; No. 11, quilled floret; No. 12, tubular, straight (Iora) ; No. 13, tubular and curved or hooked, the apex cut or laciniate (Mrs. R. W. E- Murray) ; No. 14, deeply cut or laciniate (Mrs. W. H. Rand) ; No. 15, broad at base, twisted above (Ezeta); No. 16, floret twisted throughout (Shavings). Color problems (. Mr . Miller ).—In consulting catalogues of chrysanthemums for the purpose of verifying new varieties, some very perplexing color problems were encountered. Much of this confusion can never be straightened out, because color is a sub¬ jective phenomenon. It exists in the minds of men, rather than in nature. But there are certain practical suggestions which can be made to flower dealers, and it is to be hoped that some general principles can be educed. Cataloguers of new varieties should not 222 Bulletin 112. attempt to make very fine and subtle distinctions, nor should they use such seductive phrases as “soft dove colored, ” ‘ ‘fawn colored,” etc. Men who write of colors should be examined for color blind¬ ness, so that they may know their own limitations. The great r . Georges Biron. Natural size . The 1895 Chrysanthemums. 223 practical reason against using words expressing fine shades of color is that these words mean very different things to different persons. It is hard enough to get people to agree on such staple colors as red, blue, green and yellow. What the florists of the country need is a cheap chart of colors, containing simply the common names and the common colors. This matter has been agitated for several years. Mr. F. Schuyler Mathews, a well known artist and colorist, prepared a chart for the use of florists, which was published as a supplement to the American Florist of Aug. 17, 1895. It is an excellent and worthy attempt, and is a distinct gain to the profession ; but it has the fault of containing too many uncommon and unimportant colors and names of colors. “Dull ultramine (blue, grayish)” is too long for ordinary use. Even if the florist were capable of distinguishing between Mr. Mathews’s “ salmon,” “ salmon pink ” and “ reddish salmon,” these names would never be attractive names for the description of flowers. It is very doubtful whether people would care to dis¬ tinguish lilac and light lilac. Horticulturists ought to agree upon twenty or thirty common names of colors and then secure the prep¬ aration of a chart to correspond with these common names. We need colors for the names in common use. People must not expect too much of color charts. They should realize (as Mr. Mathews does) that pigments cannot compete with the colors of nature. Pigments are dead, petals are alive. More¬ over, neither pigments nor petals correspond with the colors of the solar spectrum. It is doubtful if Mr. Mathews is warranted in calling his colors “absolutely true.” They may be correct from the pigmental or chemical standpoint, or from the stand¬ point of technical or trade nomenclature, but it is a question if these are to be the standards of absolutely true colors. The fact is that there is no absolute standard of color. Lapis lazuli and bichromate of potash may furnish very stable and constant pig¬ ments, but these materials and all others have decided limitations. These limitations must be understood, or there will always be dis¬ appointment, no standard in common use, and the consequent mutual charges of dishonesty and color blindness. There are one or two suggestions which I offer in the hope that they may be of some practical help to those selecting varie- 224 Bulletin 112. ties. The first suggestion is intended for those who grow chrys¬ anthemums on a small scale, who wish the best of the new varieties, and cannot afford to experiment with many. This suggestion is that such growers select of new varieties only those which have a single color. It is early enough to get those varieties containing combinations of two or more colors after they have stood the test of a year’s experience with the market. People like strong, vivid, and highly individualized single colors in chrysanthemums. There are only two sides to the question when a single pure color is considered. People either like it, or dislike it. But when two colors are combined there are infinite possibil¬ ities for difference in taste. For example, here is a list of eight recent chrysanthemums, all of which have combinations of only two colors,—Fred Walz, Mme. O. Mirabeau, Mrs. Potter Palmer, Genevieve, Sunset Pink, Mrs. C. Harman Payne, Edith Smith and Burt Eddy. Now, who is to decide which one of these is an inharmonious mixture, and which a happy combination ? But the problem is even more complicated than this. Let us suppose that the variety Burt Eddy contains seventy per cent, of red (to avoid confusion I shall not attempt to describe the shade) and thirty per cent, of white, on each floret. Do you suppose that this propor¬ tion can be maintained year after year ? Florists know that com¬ binations of colors are very unstable. I do not mean to condemn these varieties out of hand. Some of them may prove stable as to their proportions, and artistic in effect, but the ordinary florist can afford to wait a year. The point is, that these are typical of a class which it is safer for him not to buy while they are new. Other mixtures of doubtful value are Gilt Edge, Evening Star, Miss Sylvia Shea, and Mrs. Moses Wentworth. To illustrate how variable the amount of color is, the case of the new variety, Miss M. M. Johnson, may be cited. This is adver¬ tised as a pure yellow, but some of the many blossoms grown this year showed varying amounts of red. Radiance is another yellow that should be made ‘ ‘ red proof ’ ’ before being sent out as a pure yellow. Secondary colors appear with age in many new varieties that have only one color at their best. The pink that comes with age to Crystallina (white) is attractive, but that which spreads over Miss Georgiana Pitcher (yellow) makes a melancholy spec- The 1895 Chrysanthemums. 2^5 tacle. Often there is a chance for difference of opinion. In any case, would it not be well for disseminators in their introductory notices to state the fact of secondary color appearing with age ? An analogous case is that of varieties which show the center. Mrs. J. M. Parker, Jr., and Mme. Carnot are two of many new ex- 91 .—Madame Carnot. Half size. amples of this latter class. The centre is objectionable in one, not objectionable in the other. It is a matter of dollars and cents to cut the flowers of the former and sell them before the center shows. But such judgments are essentially personal. What buyers want is the fact. If the center shows, the disseminator should state the fact. 226 Bulletin 112. A blue chrysanthemum is not impossible. It was formerly taught that red, yellow, and blue flowers could never be gotten in the same species. Scientists no longer believe in the incompat¬ ibility of the cyanic and xanthic series of colors. A blue chrys¬ anthemum may arise either from seeds or “ sports.” As far as seedlings are concerned, one would naturally be tempted to save the seeds of varieties approaching purple. Blue is perhaps most easily reached through purple, but when the blue is once obtain¬ ed the difficulty is to keep out the purple. Probably we shall never have an azure-blue chrysanthemum. Even the fringed gentian, which is the standard for azure-blue among wild flowers, is not always free from purple. The tendency among chrysan¬ themums is to sport towards white, instead of away from it. Of course, sports, like men of genius, have a way of disregarding prophecies, but the tendency is worth pointing out. The story is often repeated that in the year 386 A. D. the King of Corea had to pay to the Japanese Emperor a tribute consisting of red, white, yellow, blue, and black chrysanthemums. Even granting that the tribute was actually paid, what proof have we that the Japanese word for blue has meant the same thing for fifteen cen¬ turies ? Moreover, how does the average person know that the Japanese word is properly translated? If those who are striving to produce a blue chrysanthemum, are also cherishing hopes of selling it for $1500, they should be reminded that the public may not care for it when it is obtained. A green chrysanthemum was very rare, but when the two plants of the pink variety Viviand- Morel sported to a green simultaneously in different parts of Eng¬ land, the coincidence was barely mentioned in a British horticul¬ tural journal. Fragrance (. Mr . Miller ).—Can chrysanthemums be made fra¬ grant ? Yes and no. Nymphaea is fragrant, but it is a.small-flow- ered variety. There are at least half a dozen others. How much these can be developed is a question. At any rate, the large- flowered varieties will certainly never all be fragrant. They are valued for other things. If odor is associated with hereditary constitution, the chances are small for making the genus crysan- themum a fragrant one. People are not looking to the chrysan¬ themums for odor, but simply for form, color, and texture. Fra- The 1895 Chrysanthemums. 227 gratice would have to be very emphatic to make any impression beside a flower six or eight inches in diameter. And besides, whatever odor the flower might have would be overpowered by the heavy scent of the foliage. Yet there is nothing really incom¬ patible with the development of odor in the large chrysanthe¬ mums. Nymphaea has been forced to grow flowers four inches across. * II. Test of Novelties. In judging new varieties, we have this year divided all the chrysanthemums into very good, good, poor, and intermediate. The word intermediate does not appear in the list, however, be¬ cause it was thought best not to try to describe the shades of merit between “good” and “poor.” When, therefore, there is no comment upon the merit of the variety, it is to be understood that, in our test, the variety seemed to be only intermediate or indifferent in quality. There are so many good and vefy good chrysanthemums on the market that it is necessary to measure new varieties by a high standard. If the present judgments seem to imply a rigorous standard, it is certainly not so severe as the test of time. It is safe to prophecy that most of the new varieties of 1895 will not be for sale five years from now. The most complete adaptation to current wants is found among white and yellow chrysanthemums. There is great room for im¬ provement in pinks and dark shades. There are plenty of quilled and hairy pinks, but the Japanese incurved section possesses no pink of the size and beauty of Mrs. Henry Robinson (white) or a dozen yellows that could be named. The trouble with delicate shades of pink is that the color is rarely evenly diffused and it often fades oqt. The lack of single, pure colors other than white, yel¬ low, and pink, is very noticeable. Dark reds are very popular, and yet there is no section in which so little improvement has been made as that represented by Cullingfordii, Geo. W. Childs, John Shrimpton, and Mrs. J. H. White. In the description of varieties below, the name in the parenthesis following the name of the variety signifies the dealer who sent us the cuttings ; the name at the end of each description is that of the introducer, so far as we are able to determine from the current 228 Bulletin 112. literature. The varieties are arranged alphabetically according to the customary rules of library catalogueing, except that when¬ ever a name consists of two words, the first of which is an adjec¬ tive, the variety is indexed according to the first letter of the ad¬ jective,— e. g., Latest Fad is put under “L” and ‘‘Autumn Leaves” under “A.” Varieties named for persons are catalo- logued under the surname. All those varieties which were first introduced to the trade last year are marked ‘‘1895”. Those few without dates are such as we have been unable to trace to the introducer ; but they are all very recent. There are several matters of great practical importance which 92.— Crimsona. Four-fifths natural size. The 1895 Chrysanthemums. 229 an experiment station cannot determine for the forcing-house industry. Florists must decide amongst themselves the shipping qualities of different chrysanthemums and the length of time cut flowers will last. These matters are of great practical and momentary value, but of little scientific or permanent importance. The depot for such information should be the trade journals. It is surprising that greenhouse men do not supply these lists to their trade papers with greater frequency instead of going on year after year making avoidable mistakes, and purchasing experience dearly. The following varieties described in Bulletin 91 have been grown again this year with results similar to those recorded last year.— Elizabeth Bisland, Georgienne Bramhall , Charlotte, Maud Dean, Golden Wedding, Mrs. Chas. Lanier (better than we said), & Enfant des deux Mondes, Mrs. Geo. J. Magee, Mayflower, Mutual Friend, Niveus, Mrs. Howard Rinek (worse than we said) and Miss Florence Pullman. Some of the older varieties, not mentioned in Bulletin 91, have been grown again. Of these, the following have done well :— Callendreau, Dr. —Similar to Miss Georgiana Pitcher. Comley, fas. —A very good late variety, dark red, changing to carmine and white. Iora. —See Fig. 93, and page 234. Lippincott, Mrs. Craig. Queen, The. —Midseason white. Shrimpton\John .—Type of Cullingfordii, and the best red ’mum. Su?iderbruch, F. L. —Early yellow. Viviand-Morel. —The standard pink of its class, and still to be excelled. The following were intermediate in merit: fohn Bunyan , Geo. S. Conover, Miss Helyett, Eva Knowles, SauteVs White. The following were poor or bad : Mrs. fas. Eadie, fohn M. Kupfer, Mrs. C. H. Payne, Sylvia Shea, Yellow Queen. The following descriptions and estimates of varieties are made u.p from notes taken by Mr. Hunn, Mr. Miller and myself. The dates in the descriptions indicate when the flowers were at their best. 230 Bulletin 112. 1 1. Abbott, Marion (Smith*)—Flower 6 inches wide, pink, “color of La France rose,” incurved, and slightly hairy. Stem 46 inches, long joint¬ ed. Nov. 20. (Spaulding). 1895. 2. Astor, IV. W. (Smith)—Good. (See Fig. 89.) Flower medium sized. The single row of ray florets white, edged with pink ; disk flowers yellow, forming a high compact centre. Stem 36 inches, leaves small, deeply cut. Claimed to be an improvement in size. This belongs to an unpopular class. Considered by gardeners as of no value for commercial purposes. Keeps well. (Rob’t Owen, Maidenhead, Eng. Introduced in America by Hill and Smith, 1895.) 3. Atkins , F. L. (Smith)—Flower 6 inches. Florets reflexed. Stem 40 inches, close jointed, leaves long and pointed. Considered by our gardener a good midseason white for commercial purposes. Nov. 16. (Pitcher and Manda.) 1895. 4. Autumn Leaves (Smith)—Flower 6 inches wide; a combination of white, red, and yellow, the yellow being confined to the tips of the florets. Habit half dwarf, stem close jointed, foliage thick and leathery. The combi¬ nation of color is considered a pleasing one by our gardener. At best Dec. 12. (Spaulding) 1895. 5. Bigelow , E. M. (Dornerf)—Good. Flowers 5 to 7 inches, with general appearance of a red dahlia. Florets stiff, a few outer ones reflexed. Stem 50 inches, close jointed ; leaves large, heavy, deeply cut. Considered by our gardener a fine, showy variety of a color that is scarce among chrysanthe¬ mums. Late. (Dorner.) 1895. 6. Biron,M. Georges (Beckertj:)—Good. (See Fig. 90.) Flower 6 inches in diameter, bizarre, showing chiefly the reverse side of florets which are strongly whorled. Inner side of florets maroon, reverse amber colored. Stem 42 inches, habit slender, leaves long and deeply cut. This eccentric appearance may be incident to development or confined to rare cases, as the flower is advertised to belong to the Viviand-Morel type. This is recom¬ mended chiefly for its oddity and the attention it attracts. Nov. 16. (Calvat.) 1895. 7. Black , Miss Louise D. (Beckert)—Flower 4 to 5 inches in diameter, regular and globular, orange-red. Florets small, semi-tubular and tending to incurve. Stem 36 inches, habit slender. A good variety for its type and color. 1895. 8. Bloodgood , Helen (Hill$)—Good. Flower 7 to 8 inches, pink. Florets mostly incurved, the outer ones irregularly .reflexed. Stem 52 inches, stout and short jointed ; leaves deeply cut. An improvement in pinks. The shade is pure, and the color is quite evenly spread over the florets. Nov. 10. (Spaulding.) 1895. 9. Borel , Pres. (Smith)—Flower 8 inches wide, loosely arranged, a strik¬ ing combination of purple and silver. Stem 56 inches, long jointed, leaves *Nathan Smith & Son, Adrian, Mich. % fDorner & Son Lafayette, Indiana. jBeckert & Bros., Glenfield, Pa. £E. G. Hill & Co., Richmond, Indiana. The 1895 Chrysanthemums. 231 long and narrow. Nov. 18. A French novelty. The colors are either liked or disliked at first sight. (Calvat.) 1895. 10. Brigand (Smith)—Flower 6 inches wide, deep crimson, slightly re¬ flexed. Florets show yellow reverse. Stem 34 inches, close jointed, foliage large and light green. At best Dec 12. (Spaulding. Raised by Hill.) 1895. 93 .—lor a. Four-fifths natural size. 11. Bronze Giant (Smith)—Flowers 6 inches, compactly incurved. Florets yellow, shaded and splashed with dark red. Stem 30 inches, long jointed, foliage scant. At best Dec. 5. (Spaulding ) 1895. 12. Bryant , Mrs. IV. A. (Pitcher & Manda*)—Flower 7 inches, yellow. Habit very tall and slender; stem 5 to 6 feet, long jointed, and strong *Pitcher & Manda, Short Hills, N. J. 232 Bulletin 112. though very thin ; leaves small and very unhealthy. The color and form of the flower is similar to that of H. L. Sunderbruch. Nov. 27. (Pitcher & Manda.) 1895. 13. Carnot, Madam { Smith). Very good.. (See Fig. 91). Flower very large (8 inehes wide), loose and free, the florets being very limp and grace¬ ful and ligulate, pure white. Outer florets reflexed or hanging, the inner ones variously placed. Very tall (4 ft. or over), the stem long-jointed, and foliage rather scant. A long keeper, and a most graceful and excellent white. Nov. 10. (Calvat, 1894. Introduced in America by Smith.) 14. Carnot, Mademoiselle (Beckert). Good. Much like the last, fully as large or larger, but shows the center, although this defect is not greatly objectionable in a flower of this class. White. Stem 40 inches, long- jointed, the foliage rather scant. Nov. 27. Variation of No. 13 ? Burt , Eddy. (See Eddy, Burt). 15. Chipeta (Smith)—Flowers 7 inches wide, closely incurved, showing only the reverse side of the florets, the color of which is compared to that of ripened oak leaves. Stem 45 inches, close jointed, leaves large. At best Nov. 16. (Smith.) 1895. 16. Compton , Miss Georgie (Spaulding*)—Flower in color and shade sug¬ gesting a double yellow tulip. Stem 40 inches, close jointed, leaves deeply cut, held well from stem. Nov. 10. (Spaulding.) 1895. 17. Crimsona (Beckert)—Very good. (See Fig. 92.) Flowers 6 inches wide, dark crimson, the intense color well displayed by the ligulate flor¬ ets. Stem 40 inches, close jointed, leaves large and deeply cut. Remarka¬ ble for the vividness of its deep color, and the velvety finish of the florets. Reverse light colored. At best Nov. 27. (W. Jarvis Smith, Pittsburg.) 1895. 18. Crosby, Emma N. (Smith) —Flower 5 inches wide, golden. Florets slightly hairy, the outer ones reflexed back to the stem. Habit dwarf. Nov. 20. (Spaulding.) 1895. 19. Crystallina (Smith)—Very good. Flower 5 inches in diameter, globu¬ lar and distinct in form, pure white. Florets are crisp, firm, and stand out radially. Stem 36 inches. At best Nov. 10. This is recommended for its earliness, purity of color, distinctness of form and keeping qualities. A secondary color appears with age, the pink being evenly diffused, and not displeasing. (Vaughan.) 1895. 20. Darville, Camille (Smith)—Flower 5 inches in diameter, same form as Ezeta, pure white. Stem 42 inches, short jointed, foliage light green. At best Nov. 10. (Spaulding.) 1895. De Galbert (see Galbert). 21. Diavola (Smith)—Flower 6incheswide, darkred, white and lightyel- low. Reverse of florets silvery red. Florets very wide and thick. Stem 40 inches, close jointed, foliage very thick, and dark green. At best Dec. 12. (Spaulding.) 1895. *T. H. Spaulding, Orange, N. J. The 1895 Chrysanthemums. 2 33 22. Dinsmore , IV. B. (Pitcher & Manda)—Flower 6 inches in diameter, regularly incurved, golden. Stem 40 inches, close jointed, leaves deeply cut. November 16. Midseason. (Pitcher& Manda.) 1895. 23. Eddy , Burt (Smith)—Flower 6 inches wide. Florets ligulate, purple and white. Stem 28 to 30 inches, very close jointed, foliage small. At best Nov. 16. (Vaughan.) 1895. 94.— Northern Lights. Three-fifths natural size. 24. Egyptian , The (Hill)—Same as Nellie Elver son with us. (Hill.) 25. Elver son, Miss Nellie (Hill)—Good. Flowers 6 inches, incurving, showing the reverse. Inner side of florets dark red, reverse bronze. Stem 44 inches, close jointed, leaves large. Nov. 25. A good exhibition flower. (Hill.) 1895. 234 Bulletin 112. 26. Evening Star (Beckert)—Flower large, 6 inches across. Outer florets reflexed, the inner ones spreading and whorled, showing the center, semi- double ; color old gold and salmon. Stocky, 30 inches high. Nov. 16. Odd. 27. Experiment (Smith.) Flowers 6 inches wide, white, very loose and spreading. Florets narrow and twisted at the apex. Stem 46 inches, leaves small. Advertised “ delicate shrimp pink.” Dec. 23. (Spaulding). 1895. 28. Ezeta (Smith.) Good. “An improved Rohaillon.” Flowers 5 inches in diameter, pure yellow, and distinct in form. Stem 50 inches, close jointed, leaves large and thick. At best Nov. 16. The form of the flower head is globular, the general effect is one of regularity. (See fig. 88 floret No. 15.) Recommended for earliness, purity of color, distinctness of form, and lasting qualities. (Smith). 1895. 29. Falconer, Jennie (Smith.) Flowers 6 inches in diameter, lemon yel¬ low, globular. Florets broad, margins incurved and cupped. Nov. 25. Considered by our gardener a very good midseason yellow. (Spaulding.) 1895. 30. Fitzwygram , Lady (Beckert)—Poor. Flower 4 inches, white. Half dwarf. Not equal to advertised merits. (H. J. Jones.) 1895. 31. Galbert, Mile. M. A. de (Beckert)—Flowers 6 inches, pure white. Florets broad, incurved, a few outer ones reflexed. Stem 40 inches ; foliage scant. Nov. 19. (D. Calvat.) 1895. 32. Gardiner , Mrs.John (Beckert)—Flowers inches, yellow, incurved. Stem 32 inches, longjointed, leaves small. Early. Nov. 3.(H.J. Jones.) 1895. 33. Genevieve (Vaughan)—Flower medium in size, 5 inches across. Flor¬ ets straight or slightly reflexed, the inner ones white and the outer ones splashed with pink. Stem 30 inches, weak, the foliage small. Nov. 10. (Vaughan.) 1895. 34. Gilt Edge (Smith)—Poor. Flowers medium in size, 5 inches across, the florets very narrow. Color yellow tipped bronze. Stem 30 inches, close jointed. Nov. 19. (W. Jarvis Smith, Pittsburgh, Pa.) 1895. 35. Gold Dust (Smith)—Flower 8 inches wide, pure yellow. Inner florets incurved, outer ones reflexed, and somewhat hairy. Stem 28 inches, short jointed, leaves deeply cut and of rank growth. Not as hairy as L'Enfant des deux Mondes. Nov. 20. (Hill.) 1895. 36. Haggard, Rider (Smith)—Good. Large-flowered anemone. Flower 9 to 10 ]/z inches. Ray florets light pink, disk florets a darker pink, the inner ones tipped with yellow. Habit very tall. Stem 60 inches, leaves small. Nov. 10. Recommended for its striking oddity. Mrs. F. Gordon Dexter. (picture on title page of Bulleten 91) gives an idea of the form. This is not a new variety, but the size has been greatly increased. Attracted universal at¬ tention among visitors and much dislike. (H. J. Jones.) 1895. 37. Hallowe'en (Smith)—Very good. Flower head 7 inches wide and flat. Florets incurved and quilled, the tubular portion a lighter pink than the ligulate portion. This variety has as much individuality as Northern Lights, which has similar colors, but a somewhat different development. Nov. 25. (Hill.) 1895. The 1895 Chrysanthemums. 235 38. Heacock , Esther (Smith)—Flower incurved, yellow. A sport from Ada Spaulding. Stem 30 inches, close jointed, foliage good. Nov. 10. (Spaulding.) 1895. 39. Hersylea (Sunset Seed and Plant Co.)—Flower large, 6 inches across. Outer florets slightly reflexed, the inner ones upright and cupped. Color good golden yellow. Growth rather slender ; foliage oak-leaved. Stem 40 inches. Nov. 16. (Sunset Seed & Plant Co.) 1895. 40. Higinbotham } Mrs. (Smith) —Good. Flower 9 inches wide, incurv¬ ing, showing the center, hairy, pink. Florets incurving, cupping, and even more hairy than those of Louis Boehmer. Stem 40 inches, close jointed,leaves large and very dark green. A gain in size over L. Boehmer. Nov. 16. (Spaulding. Raised by Hill.) 1895. 41. Hole , Dean (Smith)—Flower 8 inches, white and pink. Stem 36 to 40 inches, foliage large, drooping to stem. Nov. 26. (May.) 1895. 42. Hurley , Mrs. Wm. H. (Beckert)—Poor. Flower large, 6 inches across; florets slightly reflexed. Color buff 1 . Growth slender, the stem 20 inches high. Nov. 10. (Graham.) 1895. 43. Iora (Smith)—Very good. (See Fig. 93). Not a new variety. Flower 6 inches in diameter. Florets tubular, pink. The color is a delicate shade evenly diffused throughout. Recommended for exhibition and pot cul¬ ture. Nov. 16. (Smith.) 1894. 44. Jayne (Smith)—Flower 4 inches wide, dark rose color, the shade of Mrs. Murdock. Stem 30 inches, long jointed, leaves nearly entire. Nov. 27. (Vaughan.) 1895. 45. Johnson , Miss M. M. (Hill)—Very good. Flower 5 inches in diam¬ eter, loosely incurved, globular, golden yellow. Florets wide, incurved. Stem 24 inches, foliage good. Recommeded for purity of color, earliness, and dwarf habit. Nov. 5. (Hill.) 1895. 46. Lager , J. E. (Smith)—Good. (See title page.) Flower 6 inches wide, bright yellow, irregular in general form, and irregular as to florets, which show varying degrees of tubularity and are irregularly reflexed. Stem 40 to 45 inches and stout, leaves good. Recommended for earliness, and keeping qualities. This is not as good as Mrs. IV. H. Rand (see Fig. 95), an early yellow of the same class. Nov. 23. (Pitcher & Manda.) 1895. 47. Latest Fad (Beckert)—Flower 8 inches wide, yellow. Florets tubu¬ lar, the outer reflexed. Stem 30 to 36 inches, close jointed, leaves small. Dec. 5. Considered by our gardener a good variety for growing single blooms in pots. (Spaulding.) 1895. 48. Leech , Katherine (Beckert)—Good. Flower very large, 7 inches across. Florets loosely reflexed, the central ones erect or spreading. Color clear buff. Strong, short-jointed grower, 25 to 30 inches high. Nov. 16. (Graham.) 1895. 49. Masse , Marie (Beckert)—Flower medium in size, the florets reflexed. Color pink, with a purple tinge. Very early and dwarf. Stem 12 inches. Oct. 20. English. 95 -— Mrs. W. H. Rand. Five-eighths natural size , The 1895 Chrysanthemums. 2 37 50. Meige , La (Beckert)—Flower 5 inches wide, white. Florets broad, waxy. Stem 28 inches, close jointed, deeply cut. Very late. Dec. 26. (Cal vat.) 1895. 51. Millbrook (Dorner)—Very good. Flower 7 inches, tubular. The ligulate portion of florets a bright! red, tubular portion a salmon bronze, Stem 40 to 55 inches, close jointed, leaves large and held well to flower. The combination of colors is unique, and attractive. Nov. 20. (Dorner.) 1895. 52. Mirabeau , Mme. Octavie (Beckert)—Good. Flower rather large. Florets long and loose, color a delicate shade of silvery pink. Stem 30 inches high, long jointed. Nov. 28. Very attractive and odd. 53. Molin y Mme . C. (Beckert)—Flower 8 inches, loosely arranged, pure white. Outer florets reflexed. Stem 40 inches, close jointed, leaves light green, long. Nov. 25. (Calvat.) 1895. 54. Mor title t , M. de (Beckert)—Flower 5 inches wide, incurved. Outer florets red, inner bronze and yellow, reverse buff. Stem 44 inches, foliage unhealthy. (Calvat.) 1895. 55. Murdock , Mrs. S. 7 ..'(Dorner)—Flower 6 to 7 inches, incurved, pink. Stem 36 to 40 inches, very'.short jointed, leaves large, deeply cut, dark green. Nov. 25. (Dorner.) 1895. 56. Murray , Mrs. R. W. E. (Beckert)—Very good. Flower 5 inches wide, 4 inches deep, white, loosely incurved showing centre. Florets are cut or toothed in such a manner as totgive the general effect of hairiness. (See Fig. 88, No. 13.) Stem 46 inches, close jointed, leaves small. A good late exhibition variety. Recommended for purity of color, individuality of form, and lateness. Centre’ notsobjectionable. Stands test of close scrutinv as well as that of general effect. Not to be confused with Mr. R. W. E. Murray. (Syn. Mrs. Geo. W. Pullman.) (H. J. Jones, England.) 1895. 57. Noisette , Paul (Vaughan*)—Flower of medium size, 4 inches across. Outer florets reflexed, the.iinner ones incurved. Color dull yellow. Dwarf (15 inches high). The foliage small. Nov. 10. (Vaughan.) 1895. 58. Northern Lightsi{ Beckert)—Very good. (See Fig. 94.) Flower 8 inches in diameter, quilled, pink. Stem 46 inches, close jointed, foliage very good. Mid season. Nov. 25. Recommended for distinctness of form, and keeping qualities. The spiral condition of development shown in Fig. 94 is succeeded by stages 1 of growth that are perhaps even more attractive. (W. Jarvis Smith, Pittsburg.) 1895. 59. Nyanza (Smith)—Good. Flower 6 inches in diameter, high built. Florets incurved, cherry red,ireverse golden, very broad and strong. Stem 45 inches, close jointed ; leaves finely cut. Suitable for cutting Nov. 20. In fine condition Nov, 27. Striking form and color. Keeps well. (Smith.) 1895. 60. Oakland (Dorner)—Good. Flower 6 inches in diameter, dark red or terra cotta, very double and spherical. Outer florets reflexed, inner ones slightly incurved, the’ margins revolute in every case. Stem 50 to 60 inches. At best Nov. 5. Good Nov. 25. Recommended for distinctness of form and color, earliness and.keeping qualities. (Dorner.) 1895. *J. C. Vaughan, Chicago. 238 Bulletin 112. 61. Octoroon (Smith)—Flower resembles Nellie Elverson. Stem 40 inches, close jointed ; leaves dark green, thick and stiff. Dec. 5. (Smith.) 1895. 62. O'Farr el, Miss Elma (Dorner)—Good. Flower medium sized, very evenly reflexed, magenta red. Stem 36 to 40 inches, close-jointed, leaves deeply cut and drooping to stem, held well up to flower. Dec. 12. Recom¬ mended for those who desire a dark red, late in the season. (Dorner.) 1895. 63. Orange Child (Beckert)—Poor. Flower medium in size, 4 inches across, zinnia-shaped. Color dull yellow. Half-dwarf; foliage small. Nov. 16. (W. Piercy, Forest Hill, London.) 64. Palmer, Mrs. Potter (Hill)—Flower 7 inches wide. Florets incurved of heavy texture, rose pink with silver reverse. Stem 46 inches, long jointed, foliage dark green. A show variety with good keeping quali¬ ties. Nov. 16. (Walz.) 1895. 65. Parker Jr., Mrs. J. M. (Hill)—Flower 6 inches wide, pink, showing the centre. Outer florets somewhat tubular. Stem 30 inches. Must be cut early as the centre is a decided disadvantage. The shade of pink is equal to that of Viviand-Morel, but scarcely better. Very early. At best Nov. 8. (Spaulding.) 1895 66. Pauckoucke, M. (Beckert)—Flower 10 inches, lemon colored, loose and sprawling, the outer florets drooping to the stem ; inner florets twisting toward centre. Stem 44 inches, very stocky, close-jointed, leaves large. Nov. 10. Calvat.) 1895. 67. Pauckoucke, Mile. Theresa (Beckert)—Flower 8 inches wide, pure white. Stem 46 inches. Dec. 12. (Calvat.) 1895. 68. Philadelphia { Hill)—Good. Flowers 6 to 8 inches in diameter, light yellow, loosely incurved and whorled. The color changes with growth toward creamy white, the tips of florets being somewhat darker. Stem 36 inches, stiff, close-jointed. Nov. 16. Recommended for its class. (Graham.) 1895. 69. Pitcher, Miss Georgiana (Pitcher and Manda)—Very good. Flower 6 inches in diameter, globular, loosely incurved, bright yellow. Type of Golden Dragon. Stem 36 inches, unusually stout, foliage broad, thick and rank. Nov. 10. (Pitcher and Manda.) 1895. 70. Radiance (Hill)—Poor. Flower 6 inches in diameter, golden, loosely incurved. Florets wide. Habit dwarf. Stem 24 inches. Early. Keeps well, but is by no means pure yellow as advertised. Much red is irregularly distributed. Nov. 10. (Hill.) 1895. 71. Rand, Mrs . IV. H. (Hill)—Very good. (See Fig. 95.) Flowers 8 inches wide, pure yellow, looking like a mass of tangled yellow thread. Florets show much irregularity especially in the degree of lacination and tubularity. Stem 24 to 30 inches, leaves small. Recommended for earli¬ ness, purity of color, individuality of form, and remarkable keeping quali¬ ties. Comments on the form ranged from “informal,” “free,” “pleasing,” and “irregular,” to “odd,” “fantastic” and “eccentric.” It is worth The 1895 ChrYvSAnthemums. 239 noticing that the individual florets are far more irregular than the flower head in its general effect. Compare J. E. Lager , title page. Nov. 10. (Vaughan.) 1895. 72. Reynolds , Maud D. (Smith)—Flower 9 inches, high built, canary yellow. Outer florets reflexed irregularly. Stem 38 inches, close jointed. Nov. 25. (Spaulding.) 1895. 73. Robinson , Mrs. Henry (Beckert, Smith).—Very good. (See Fig. 96.) Flower 7 to 9 inches in diameter, globular, incurved, pure white. Florets wide. Stem 36 inches, foliage good. Nov. 10. Recommended for great size, purity of color, earliness, and keeping qualities. A popular vote of visitors would probably have given this the first place over the entire collection. (Pitcher and Manda.) 1895. 74. Rieman , W. H. (Hill)—Flower 6 inches in diameter, incurved, very high built, yellow. Outer florets often tubular. Stem 30 inches, close joint¬ ed, foliage well up to flower. Nov. 24. (Hill.) 1895. 75. Shavings (Smith)—Good. (See Fig. 97.) Flower small, only 3 inches in diameter, unique in form. Florets twisted and curled, inner side reddish, outer bronze or straw colored. Stem 36 inches, close jointed, foliage good. Midseason. Nov. 16. Recommended solely for its novelty, and oddity. (Vaughan). 1895. 76. Smith , Mrs. A. W. (Beckert)—Flower rather large. Florets reflex¬ ed. Color shell pink. Of Viviand-Morel type of color. Four feet high, close jointed, the foliage deeply cut. Nov. 19. (W. Jarvis Smith, Pittsburg.) 1895. 77. Spaulding , Mrs. Gladys (Hill)—Good. Flower 4 to 6 inches in diameter, high built, white, incurved. Stem 32 inches, long jointed, leaves small. At best Nov. 10. Good Nov. 25. (Spaulding.) 1895. 78. Starin , Mrs. J. H. (Smith)—Good to very good. Flower large, about 6 inches across and 5 inches high. A few outer florets reflexed, the remainder incurved. White. Stem nearly 4 ft., strong. Nov. 25. One of the best midseason and long-keeping whites. (Pitcher & Manda). 1894. 79. Sunrise (Smith)—Flower 9 inches wide, showing centre. Florets broad, of heavy texture, terra cotta, reverse old gold. Stem 40 inches close jointed ; leaves large and thick. Nov. 10. Same class as Eva Knowles. (May.) 1895. 80. Sunset Pink ^o-.nset Seed & Plant Co.)—Flower large, 7 inches across. Outer florets horizontal, the inner incurved and making a high center. Color pink. Stem 40 inches high, short-jointed. Nov. 19. 1895. 81. Thalia (Smith)—Flowers 6 to 7 inches in diameter. Florets lavender, opening loosely but incurving to a firm head. Stem 40 inches, very close jointed, foliage large, drooping, completely covering the stem. Nov. 10. • (Smith.) 1895. 82. Trilby (Smith) —Flower 6 inches wide, pure white. Florets of very heavy texture, the outer reflexed. Stem 36 inches, close jointed, foliage large, dark green, drooping to stem. Dec. 10. (May.) 1895. 240 Bulletin 112 83. Troy , /. H. (Smith)—Flower 5 inches in diameter, incurved Japan¬ ese, pure white. Stem 40 inches, close jointed, foliage scant. (Advertised to be ready for cutting Oct. 5 to 9.) This would rank very high among the early, pure white, incurved varieties if it were not so much exceeded in size and form by Mrs. Henry Robinson. Nov. 10. (Pitcher & Manda.) 1895. 96.— Mrs. Henry Robinson. Half size. 84. Valleau , Marie (Smith)—Flower 6 inches in diameter, globular, light pink, slightly hairy. Florets broad, heavy texture, the outer reflexed. Stem 40 to 45 inches, short jointed, leaves large, deeply cut, and held well from the stem. Nov. 20. (Spaulding.) 1895. The 1895 Chrysanthemums. 241 85. Wakeley, Dr. A. W. (Smith)—Flower 6 inches in diameter. Florets wide, incurved, loosely arranged, light red, with light pink reverse. Stem 24 inches; leaves small. At best Nov. 20. (Spaulding.) 1895. 86. Walz, Fred (Bock)—Flower 5 inches wide, pink and white. Re¬ verse and tips of inner florets silvery. Stem 30 inches. Nov. 16. (Bock.) 1895. 87. White , Mrs. J. H. (Hill)—Flower 6 to 7 inches, reflexed, crimson, Stem 30 to 40 inches, short jointed, foliage very thick. It seems doubtful whether this is any improvement in the much desired dark shades of which Cullingfordii is the historic example. There was considerable variation among the specimens as to time and manner of blooming, color and stature. Neither was “ extra dwarf.” 1895. 88. Wynne , Rose (Smith)—Flower very large, 7 inches across, loose, sil¬ very pink. Stem 3 feet, very stout and close jointed, and of distinct ap¬ pearance. Nov. 16. (Rob’t Owen, Maidenhead, Eng., 1894. Introduced in America by Hill, 1895). 89. Zipangi (Smith)—Flower 6 inches wide, very high built. Outer florets reflexed showing dark red, inner ones incurved showing buff" reverse. Stem 48 inches ; leaves large. Nov. 16. (Smith.) 1895. 90. Zulinda (Smith)—Flower similar to that of Halloween, but smaller. Stem 34 inches, very close jointed ; leaves large, very dark green. Dec. 5. (Smith.) 1895. Mr.'Miller's synopsis of varieties .—The names of the varieties in the following selection are not arranged in a fashion that is de¬ signed to be complete or systematic, but simply helpful. The ar¬ rangement aims to save persons of limited time the labor of reading through a long list of new varieties alphabetically arranged. Flor¬ ists, gardeners and others who visited our forcing-houses were con¬ stantly asking such questions as these : “ Where is your biggest blossom?” “Have you any good pink varieties?” “What new colors are there in hairy varieties ?” “ Will you give me the names of some good quilled sorts ?” The following list attempts to answer just such questions : Varieties of great size.—Mrs. Henry Robinson, Rider Haggard, Mrs. Higinbotham, Helen Bloodgood, Mrs. W. H. Rand, Northern Tights. Varieties of single, strong colors.— White.—Mrs. Henry Robinson, Crystallina, Mrs. R. W. E. Murray. Yellow.—Mrs : W. H. Rand, Miss Georgiana Pitcher, Ezeta, Miss M. M. Johnson. 242 Bulletin 112. Pink —Helen Bloodgood, Mrs. Higinbotham. Crimson.—Crimsona. Dark red.—Miss Elma O’Farrell, Oakland. Good combinations of color.—W. W. Astor, Millbrook. Early varieties.— White.—Mrs. Henry Robinson, Crystallina. Yellow.—Mrs. W. H. Rand, Miss Georgiana Pitcher, Miss 97.— Shavings. Natural size. M. M. Johnson. Eight yellow.—Philadelphia. Pink.—Mrs. Higinbotham, Marie Masse. Dark red.—Oakland. Midseason varieties.— White.—F. E. Atkins. Yellow.—Ezeta. Crimson.—Crimsona. Eate varieties.— White.—Mrs. R. W. E. Murray. The 1895 Chrysanthemums. 243 Red.—E. M. Bigelow, Miss Elma O’Farrell. Tall.—Rider Haggard, Oakland. Dwarf.—Miss M. M. Johnson, Marie Masse, Paul Noisette. Hairy.—Mrs. Higinbotham. Quilled.—Hallowe’en, Northern Eights, Millbrook. Tubular.—Iora, Mrs. R. W. E. Murray. Keeping qualities.—Crystallina,Ezeta, Oakland, Mrs. W. H.Rand, Mrs. J. H. Starin. Good for exhibition blooms.—W. W. Astor, M. Georges Biron, Crimsona, Crystallina, Mrs. Higinbotham, Millbrook, Mrs. R. W. E. Murray, Miss Georgiana Pitcher, Mrs. Henry Robinson, Mrs. W. H. Rand, Northern Eights, Shavings. Strong individuality of form.—Crystallina, Ezeta, Shavings, Mrs. W. H. Rand, W. W. Astor, Hallowe’en, Northern Eights, Millbrook. Large Anemone.—Rider Haggard. Varieties showing the reverse colors.—Miss Nellie Elverson, M. Georges Biron. Velvety finish of florets.—Crimsona. Odd, striking, fanciful, eccentric,, etc.—W. W. Astor, M. Georges Biron, Rider Haggard, Mme. Octavie Mirabeau, Mrs. W. H. Rand, Shavings. Mr. Hunn's choice of varieties .—It is a difficult matter among so many varieties of exceptional merit to name those possessing the greatest number of valuable points, as different methods of growing and varied soils will often so change the character of a variety that one is compelled to constantly revise his opinion. The following list is not an arbitrary selection, but it simply gives the results obtained here in 1895 : Early. Mrs. Henry Robinson, Madame Carnot, Crystallina, Miss Gladys Spaulding, White. Late. The Queen, Mile. Carnot, F. E. Atkins, Mrs. J. H. Starin, Mrs. R. W. E. Murray 244 Bulletin 112. Pink. Northern Lights, Mrs. S. T. Murdock, Marion Abbott, Marie Valleau. Yellow. W. B. Dinsmore, Jennie Falconer, Ezeta, W. H. Rieman. Red. E. M. Bigelow, Nyanza, Crimsona, Miss Nellie El verson, Millbrook, Diavola, Hallowe’en. Mr. Bailey's choice of six .— 1. Mrs. Henry Robinson (Fig. 96). 2. Mrs. W. H. Rand (Fig. 95). 3. Crimsona (Fig. 92). 4. Iora (Fig. 93). 5. Madame Carnot (Fig. 91). 6. Miss Georgiana Pitcher. In this test of 90 novelties, we thought that the following twelve showed superlative (“very good’’) merits (excluding the varieties which are simply odd or curious) : Madame Carnot, Crimsona, Crystallina, Hallowe’en, Iora, Miss M. M. Johnson, Millbrook, Mrs. R. W. E. Murray, Northern Eights, Miss Georgiana Pitcher, Mrs. W. H. Rand, Mrs. Henry Robinson. E. H. Bailey, Wilhelm Miller, C. E. Hunn. Iora, Helen Bloodgood, Mrs. Potter Palmer, Mrs. J. M. Parker, Jr. Mrs. W. A. Rand, J. E. Eager, Miss Georgiana Pitcher, Eouise A. Black, Mrs. M. M. Johnson. M. Georges Biron, Mrs. J. H. White. Bulletin 113. February, 1896. Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, ITHACA, N. Y. HORTICULTURAL DIVISION. t • By E. Q. LODEMAN. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. 1896. ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. STATION COUNCIL. President, Jacob Gould Schurman. Hon. A. D. White, - - - Trustee of the University. Professor I. P. Roberts, - President State Agricultural Society. Professor I. P. Roberts, Professor G. C. Caldwell, Professor James Law, - Professor A. N. Prentiss, Professor J. H. Comstock, Professor L. H. Bailey, Professor H. H. Wing, Professor G. F. Atkinson, Agriculture. Chemistry. Veterinary Science. Botany. Entomology. Horticulture. Dairy Husbandry. Cryptogamic Botany. OFFICERS OF THE STATION. I. P. Roberts, ------ Director. E. L. Williams, ------ Treasurer. H. W. Smith, ------ clerk. ASSISTANTS M. V. Slingerland, G. W. Cavanaugh, - E. G. Lodeman, L. A. Clinton, E. J. Durand, - Entomology. Chemistry. Horticulture. Agriculture. Cryptogamic Botany. Office of the Director, 20 Morrill Hall. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to all who request them. BULLETINS OF 1896. 106. Revised Opinions of the Japanese Plum. 107. Wireworms and The Bud Moth. 108. The Pear Psylla and The New York Plum Scale. 109. Geological History of the Chautauqua Grape Belt, no. Extension Work in Horticulture. in. Sweet Peas. 112. The 1895 Chrysanthemums. 113. Diseases of the Potato. Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., Feb. 20, 1896. Honorable Commissioner, of Agriculture, Albany. Sir :—For a number of years the farmers of western New York have been asking for light upon the insidious and serious diseases of the potato crop. A special effort has been made during the past season to study these troubles, and although the season was unusually dry and therefore not very productive of some diseases, the results of the investigations seem to be so useful that they are submitted for publication and distribution under Chapter 230 of the Laws of 1895. L. H. Bailey. SYNOPSIS. Part I. Fungi. Pages 249 to 273. A. Descriptions of the fungous diseases, 249 to 264. 1. Potato rot, late blight, or downy mildew, 249. 2. Early blight, or leaf-blight, 254. 3. Potato scab, 261. B. Treatments of the fungous diseases, 264 to 274. 1. Potato rot or late blight, 264. 2. Early blight, 265. 3. Potato scab, 271. Part II. Insects, 274 to 277. 1. Potato beetle, 274. 2. Flea-beetles, 275. Part III. Machinery for spraying potatoes, 277 to 280. Summary, 281. Historical Notes on the Potato Disease. “The most easy way to scourge the land,and force it to yield speedy returns, was by growing crops of potatoes, which are largely productive, but at the same time specially exhaustive of the mineral wealth of the soil. An aver¬ age crop of potatoes robs the soil of the seed constituents of between three and four average crops of wheat. The tenants were too poor, and if they had been rich had no inducement,by the tenure of their land, to restore to the soil, through adequate manuring, the heavy demands which had been made on its fertility. At the time of the famine in 1846, nearly one-fourth of the land under crops was devoted to potatoes. And even now, out of every 100 acres devoted to green crops in Ireland, 71 are still given to potatoes—a pro¬ portion nearly three times greater than that in Scotland, and six times greater than that of England. ****** “The striking deterioration of the potato produce in Ireland deserves much more attention than it has received, but can only be slightly alluded to in the present essay. From 1601, when Raleigh introduced it into Ireland, the crop grew steadily in favor with the Irish peasantry until 1845, which year the largest amount of acreage was devoted to it, and fine crops of six and seven tons to the acre were habitually and persistently attained. The famine came, and, as Irish agriculturists assert, the nature of the potato was altered by the disease of 1846, and its productive power was lessened ; at least this is given as the explanation of its present low position among Irish crops. It is no longer the potato which is the farmer’s chief source of profit in Ireland. ” (“Recess Studies,” edited by Sir Alexander Grant, pp. 250-251.) “If, then, the loss to Ireland is called 3,500,000 f, we should be glad to know how much the total loss will have been when the destruction in Eng¬ land, Wales and Scotland, is taken into account. To place the latter at 1,500,000^, is no very extravagant assumption ; and if so, this country has lost five millions of money by the Potato murrain.” ( Gardeners' Chronicle , 1846, p. 219. “Copper Smoke a Preventive of Potato Disease. —In the district about Meath and Swansea, “wherever the copper smoke prevails,” was the expres¬ sion of an intelligent inhabitant with whom I fell into conversation, the potatoes are sound, and the same person informed me it was also the case last year. I can verify the fact so far as the present appearance of the crop, as seen from the mail-coach roof, can be considered a verification ; but I state it with a view of inducing more particular inquiry into it. You are, I dare say, aware the district I speak of is crowded with copper smelting furnaces” ( Gardeners' Chronicle , 1846, p. 582). PART I. FUNGI. A. DESCRIPTION OF FUNGOUS DISEASES. 7 i. Potato rot ; rate blight ; downy mildew (Phytophthora infestans, DeBary).—The fungus causing the common potato rot is an old offender. It was undoubtedly introduced into Europe with some of the early importations of the potato, and has in certain years proved so destructive that famines have resulted from the entire loss of the potato crop. Such occurrences eventually lead to thorough study of the organism. As early as 1846, the fun¬ gus causing the trouble was very carefully described in an En¬ glish publication,* and since that time other observers have given the disease much attention. It has spread to all regions in which potatoes are extensively grown, so that both scientists and farm¬ ers are very familiar with many of its characteristics. The most interesting feature connected with the fungus is un¬ doubtedly the wonderful energy which it exhibits, under favorable conditions, in the destruction of the potato plants. It sometimes spreads with such rapidity that a crop may be ruined in one or two days ; and unfavorable conditions, or the total destruction of the plants, formerly appeared to be the only effectual agents in preventing or checking the spread of the dreaded disease. This rapid decay of both the foliage and tubers is perhaps the most distinctive of those characters which are commonly brought for¬ ward for the identification of the disease. It is almost invariably accompanied by a strong, disagreeable odor which is easily recog¬ nized by all who have once experienced it. When large fields have been attacked, the smell is particularly strong ; it then arises en¬ tirely from the foliage, and is not produced by the tubers. The conditions which favor such rapid decay are, as a rule, not generally present throughout this state. The fungus makes its most rapid growth in a temperature of about 70° F. when much moisture is present in the atmosphere. Cloudy days, with occa- *Rev. M. J. Berkeley, Journal oj the Royal Horticultural Society, Vol. I. 250 Bulletin 113. sional showers, and a close damp air are especially favorable to its growth; and if such periods occur during August and Sep¬ tember, the disease may appear at any time. But, on the contrary, if the season is dry and hot the fungus is unable to develop, and little or no injury of this nature can appear. It is for this reason that the potato rot is not a regular visitor in most parts of the state, but is more generally confined to certain localities. These are found in the more northern potato districts, in the regions near the sea coast, and in some parts which have a high altitude. In such places the fungus may develop regularly every year, and the severity of the attack will be modified chiefly by abnormal atmos¬ pheric conditions. The fungus causing the late blight of potatoes passes the win¬ ter in two forms. The mycelium, or vegetative portion of the parasite, may retain its vitality until the following spring, when growth may again begin and further attacks of the fungus take place. These are followed perhaps by less serious results than those which result from the other form. This second method of surviving the winter is effected by means of a small fruiting body known as an oospore. It is surrounded by a comparatively hard covering and is able to resist considerable extremes of tem¬ perature and moisture. The spores are produced in the fall within the tissues of the potato plant, and here they remain until the following spring or summer. By the gradual decay of the sur¬ rounding tissues these spores become liberated and when dry may easily be spread over wide areas by means of winds and other natural agencies. Those which eventually rest upon potato fol¬ iage soon germinate under proper conditions, and reproduce the fungus at the new point of infection. Here the development of the parasite takes place so fast that in a very short time such places become centers from which the disease is rapidly dis¬ seminated. The manner in which the germ tube of a spore penetrates the tissues is interesting. It is now generally believed that the ends of the tube secrete a ferment which has the power of dissolving the walls of the cells comprising the outer layer of leaf tissue. When such an opening has been made, the small thread of the parasite enters and it then rapidly extends to other cells, and soon Diseases of the Potato. 251 the entire destruction of the leaf may be accomplished. A stoma, or breathing pore may also serve as a point of entrance. The rapidity with which the fungus advances within the leaf tissues depends very largely upon external conditions, and the appearances of the affected parts is also modified to a very con¬ siderable extent. Unfavorable conditions frequently render the identification of the parasite a difficult matter without the aid of a glass, but under such circumstances the disease may be fairly widespread and still cause little injury. In serious attacks, how¬ ever, many characteristic symptoms may be easily recognized. The colored plate represents a leaf which has been entered in sev¬ eral places by the fungus causing late blight, or potato rot. The growth of the parasite has been rapid, and the illustration may be considered as a typical example in which the normal develop¬ ment of the disease was taken place. The following points should be noted : The diseased areas are of considerable extent, and possess a rich brown color. They may be situated in any part of the leaf, but the edges appear to suffer more from new infection than the more central portions of the leaflets. This is probably due to the fact that in case of rains these portions remain moist for a longer period than the center, since the water drains to the lower parts of the leaflets, and collects there in the form of drops of greater or less size. It is to be expected that under such condi¬ tions a fungus could gain an entrance more easily than in drier places. The decayed portions are inclined to droop ; this is es¬ pecially true in cases of rapid invasions, for at such times the parts do not dry so fast as the parasite advances The rapid decay also prevents the edges *of the leaflets from curling, although this takes place when the air becomes warm and dry. The distribution of colors over the affected leaf is very sug¬ gestive. Under normal conditions, the unaffected parts retain a deep green color, while the diseased area may be yellowish- brown, dark brown, or nearly black. But whatever the color, each area is sharply outlined. There is no gradual merging of one into the other, but a distinct change of color marks the prog¬ ress of the disease. Occasionally another peculiarity may be no¬ ticed. If the leaves are closely examined it will be found that 252 Bulletin 113. the green and the brown areas are not directly in contact with each other ; they are separated by a narrow strip in which the green has been destroyed, and the brown has not yet appeared. It consists of a colorless or at most a very pale yellow line in which the growth of the fungus is probably very active. But during periods which are unfavorable to the development of the parasite this line cannot be discerned, and the green and brown tissues are apparently in contact. Under such circumstances the identifi¬ cation of the disease without the aid of a microscope is an ex¬ ceedingly difficult matter. Let us suppose that the fungus has succeeded in gaining an entrance, and that it has advanced a limited distance in the leaf tissues. If at this time the weather should turn dry and hot, the development of the parasites would be checked, and the result would be the formation of a small brown spot or area perhaps near the edge of the leaflet, and if several such spots exist the injury might be ascribed, without careful examination, to what is commonly knows as the early blight fungus. The name “ downy mildew ” has been given to the potato rot disease from the fact that there appears, under favorable cir¬ cumstances, a downy or mouldy growth upon the under sur¬ face of the leaves. This is white in color and may be of consid¬ erable density. The upper surface of the foliage does not show it, but whenever this frost-like growth appears on the under side, it is almost certain that the potato rot fungus is present, especially if the other conditions mentioned above are also present. This external growth consists of spores and of the parts bearing them. The spores, or conidia, mature very quickly, and have the power of immediately propagating the fungus. They are small and light, and may be carried long distances by winds. It is largely owing to these bodies that the progress of this potato disease is so rapid. They are produced in countless numbers and are very energetic in attacking healthy tissue. It appears to be very probable, also, that these conidia, or summer spores, are the cause of the rotting of the tubers. After maturing upon the leaf, some fall to the ground and by means of water and other mechan¬ ical agents they are brought in contact with the tubers growing underneath the surface of the soil. Here they germinate and Diseases of the Potato. 253 effect an entrance in the same manner as occurs above ground. The color of the affected parts also changes, a brown, dry rot taking the place of the normal white color (see Fig. 98). The more slowly the tubers decay, the less is the amount of moisture present; the contrary is also true. The decay does not take place in a uniform manner, but its progress varies in different tubers. In some it is mostly the parts ^ near the surface that i/j S are affected, while in others the dis- •S ease may advance | rapidly towards the ^ center of the tuber, ^ causing theexterior ^ to show a much smaller amount of disease than is act- ^ ually present. The ^ discoloration, how- •'I ever, generally pre- ^ sents a uniform ap- pearance. Al- ^ : though it is by no ^ means impossible- ^ for the mycelium to *§ reach the tubers ^ from the leaves by I means of the stems, ^ still it is the gen¬ erally accepted opinion that infec¬ tion does not take place in this man¬ ner. This belief was held many years ago, for in some of the earlier writings recommendations may be found in which very high hilling 254 Bulletin 113. is advocated so that the spores may be washed past the tubers and away from them, and not through the soil directly to them. There is still another feature of the late blight which it is well to bear in mind. The disease generally appears during August and September, although earlier and later attacks are not very rare. Coming so late in the season, all the earlier varieties are comparatively free from attack, but the later ones are especially subject to the disease. This, however, is not necessarily due to the foliage of such varieties being more susceptible, but rather to the habits of the fungus. I have not observed that the age of the potato plants has a marked influence upon the spread of the disease ; nor that the young foliage of the plants is less subject to the disease. It appears as if the parasite is able to thrive upon all potato foliage which is in a healthy condition at the time of the germination of the spores, and that old and young foliage or plants suffer practically to an equal extent. This mat¬ ter is here empasized because it will be considered again in con¬ nection with the early blight of potatoes. 2. Early blight ; Leaf-blight ( Macrosporium Solani , E. & M.).—It is only within the past five or six years that the early blight of potatoes has been recognized by scientists and farmers as a distinct disease.* The trouble has been known during a longer period, and its general character fairly well understood. But the attention which in former years was given to the potato rot fun¬ gus caused this second disease to be overlooked, or at least to be regarded as perhaps a peculiar condition resulting from the attacks of late blight, or from certain conditions unfavorable to the growth of the potato plant. But since 1891 the fact has been clearly established that two distinct evils have preyed upon potato foliage, and since that time the second trouble, or, as it has been popularly called, the “early blight,” has received considerable study. The one character which was probably the most valuable in distinguishing the two diseases is the fact that plants having the * For bibliographies of the earlier contributions concerning the early blight of potatoes, see Jones, 6 th Ann. Rept. Vt. Agric Exp. Sta. 189?, 66 et seq. Also Sturgis, / 8 th Ann. Rept. Conn. Agric. Exp. Sta. 1894, 127 et seq. Diseases of the Potato. 2 55 early blight do not necessarily have rotten tubers, but on the con¬ trary these are almost invariably perfectly sound, although small. The slow progress of the disease, and the peculiar discoloration and shriveling of the plants also made it apparent that there were two distinct diseases affecting the crop. But the real cause of this trouble has not been found with equal readiness and certainty as was the case with the potato rot. Al¬ though at first it appeared as if the entire trouble could be laid at the door of the fungus Macrosporium Solani, yet later investiga¬ tions have shown that the matter is not so simple as at first ap¬ peared. It is true that this fungus is almost invariably found in plants affected by this blight, and that the life of the plants is shortened perhaps to a considerabls extent by the fungus, yet it may be doubted whether the whole trouble should be ascribed to the one organism. But, before entering into detailed discussion concerning the cause of the early blight of potatoes, it may be well to define as clearly as possible the trouble which is generally designated by this term. Upon referring to the plate it will be seen that the leaf upon the right differs considerably from the one which has thus far been considered. This illustration also was made from a typical leaf in order that the more essential features of the trouble might be the more clearly brought out. It will of course be understood that many variations occur, and that these are so great that fre¬ quently it is impossible to distinguish with the naked eye whether the phytophthora or the macrosporium is present. Such cases are by no means rare, and I have seen a single leaflet suffering from the attacks of both fungi, as was proved by cultures, yet the two diseased areas were practically indistinguishable. Neverthe¬ less, the following characters will be of assistance in determining which of the two fungi is responsible for the trouble. Perhaps the most striking differences between the two leaves lie in the size, form, and position of the diseased areas. In the leaf¬ lets affected with the early blight, it will be seen that these areas are small as a rule, and that they are almost circular in outline except where several have coalesced, in which case the entire area is of irregular outline ; but all inequalities have rounded outlines. It appears as if infection occurred at a great number of points, 256 Bulletin 113. instead of in a few as shown in the other figure. And it is also interesting to notice that these many points of infection are, with but comparatively very few exceptions, placed along the outer edges or periphery of the leaflets. Although the same is to a cer¬ tain extent also true with the other disease, still the fungus caus¬ ing the potato rot does not confine itself nearly so persistently to the edges, but as soon as it is established it extends rapidly to all the softer tissues of the leaflets regardless of whether these are in one part of the leaflet or in another. It may also be stated of the early blight that frequently the leaf tissue situated along the larger veins succumbs to the disease more slowly than do those portions which are further removed from the veins. If these diseased areas are very carefully examined, it will be found that it is a very common occurrence to find numbers of slight elevations or ridges arranged in circles about a common center. These may vary slightly in color, but they are perhaps most noticeable on account of their apparent elevation. Since such ridges are absent, so far as my observations go, in areas affected by the late blight, their presence is of considerable value in de¬ termining the character of the disease, the more so since the general color of the parts destroyed is very similar in the different cases. When the colors of the green and apparently unaffected tissues in the figures are compared, another marked difference will instantly appear. The leaf affected with the late blight shows sound healthy tissue up to the region penetrated by the parasite. The leaflets appear to suffer only in those parts actually invaded by the mycelial threads of the fungus^ Yet what is the meaning of the yellow color which pervades almost all parts of the other leaf? No parasite appears to have reached these portions, and yet they are manifestly unhealthy. Two explanations might be advanced ; first, that the presence of the fungus has an injurious action extending beyond the parts in which it is growing, a supposition which may be said to have but very little support; and second, that the yellow color is due to a natural weakening or maturing of the plant, this in turn being brought about by untoward circumstances, or by age. This point will be touched upon more fully under the causes of the early blight. In the illustration, the edges of the leaflets are shown as having Diseases of the Potato. 257 curled to a very marked degree. Such curling is not necessarily an indication of early blight, since whenever the leaf tissue dies, expecially at the outer extremities of the leaflets, the tendency seems to be for the leaf to roll upon itself as shown in the figure. Yet this character possesses a certain significance. In order that a leaflet should assume the position of those here represented, it is necessary that the death of the tissue shall occur more or less slowly, and that the change shall take place from the outer portions toward the center. As already stated, such condi- tions may or may not appear during an invasion of the late blight, and for this reason the curling of leaflets affected by early blight is of considerable value in identifying the present disease. In addition to the characters above mentioned, there are sev¬ eral other factors which appear to be clearly connected with the early blight of potatoes. As the popular name of the disease implies, its appearance may be expected earlier in the year than the late blight; but from this it does not follow that later attacks may not take place as well. The growth of the fungus does not seem to depend so much upon the season, as it does upon the con¬ dition of the plants exposed to infection. The writer has occa¬ sionally seen potatoes of the same variety growing side by side, but which were planted at different times, that were unequally affected by disease. The earlier plantings invariably showed much more injury than the later ones. In some cases the differ¬ ence was so marked that it would scarcely be exaggerating to say that the younger plants were entirely free from disease, while the older plants, or those first set out, had lost about 50 per cent of their foliage area. Other modifying conditions were sought, but no other conclusions could be drawn than that in these cases at least, the entrance of the fungus depended upon the plants having reached a certain age. A similar circumstance has frequently been noted in various parts of the state, with this difference, however, that the plants growing side by side were not of the same varieties. The effect was especially marked when late and early varieties were grown in the same field. The earlier the potato the sooner did it show the effects of disease, the later varieties remaining free for a long time ; or in case of late plantings, the foliage may have escaped 258 Bulletin 113. the trouble to a marked extent. A large number of fields have been examined with these points in mind, and such observations have lead to the conclusion that young, vigorously growing plants are practically free from the disease, while those which have almost completed their growth of foliage, and are rapidly forming tubers, are much more subject to attack. The time of the appearance of early blight may therefore de¬ pend upon questions of plant physiology fully as much as upon the season, or even more so. Since full) 7 developed plants, re¬ gardless of variety, are more subject to disease than the younger and more vigorously growing ones, it would seem reasonable to conclude that conditions which would cause the plants to ripen prematurely, or that will check the normal growth, will at the same time favor the appearance of the early blight. Facts tend to support this view of the case. It has been my observation that plants grown upon dry soils, those which are naturally warm and “ quick,” are more subject to the disease than those grown in moister places in the same field. That is, the early blight appeared first upon the high and dry knolls, and it is here also that the tubers mature the ear¬ liest. Seasons of protracted drought, therefore, might be sup¬ posed to have a similar effect, and the testimony of all observers bears out the supposition. It is in dry weather that the early blight progresses most rapidly, the late blight requiring a moist atmosphere for its best development. The falling of rain upon a field in which the tops are gradually yielding to the invasion of early blight has a tendency to freshen the plants and apparently to give them a new lease of life. Water seems to be the one thing most needed. Upon lower land the conditions are different, and as a rule such lands suffer less from drought, and the potato crops less from the early blight. A curious exception to the above may here be noted. I have many times seen potatoes growing under trees in dry fields where all the potato plants were suffering severely from the early blight except those protected by the foliage of the trees. As a rule the thicker the foliage upon the tree, and the nearer the branches came to the ground, the less was the injury from blight to the po¬ tatoes below. This may be explained by supposing that the- Diseases of the Potato. 259 spores of the fungus (assuming it to be the sole exciting cause of the trouble) are unable to reach the plants, a scarcely warrantable belief; or, that the spores which do succeed in reaching the potato foliage are unable to germinate on account of lack of moisture. There are several arguments forming the second supposition, for with the exception of the more or less complete absence of direct sunlight and rainfall,the plants growing under the trees are in prac¬ tically the same condition as those growing within the area occu¬ pied by the feeding roots of the tree. They have about the same amounts of soil moisture and of heat, and they also suffer to nearly the same extent from injury by insects. But they escape the moisture of light showers, and they are also free from dew. It appears probable, therefore, that the secret of their immunity from disease lies in this fact. Although the character of the season exerts a great influence upon the prevalence of early blight, it is not the only great factor which has the power of seriously reducing the vitality of potato plants. A second agent is a small organism which often appears in countless numbers. It is generally known as the flea-beetle, on account of its quick movements when disturbed. The injury done to the foliage by these little beetles is greater than was formerly supposed. They feed upon the tissues of the leaves, taking out small amounts at different points. Very frequently sufficient material is removed to cause the formation of small holes which extend through the leaf. The diameters of these holes are scarcely larger than that of a pin, yet a leaf is often riddled to such an extent that its vitality is seriously affected. In the plate the leaf affected with early blight shows the results of the work of these insects, yet only the more serious part of the injury could be represented. If a fresh leaf is closely examined it will be found that there are many places in which the beetles have begun to feed, yet when the epidermis of the leaf has been penetrated, and only a few of the cells underneath have been destroyed, the insect changed its base of operations, leaving scarcely a trace to bear witness of its presence. It is true that often when a leaf has been partially pierced, the color of the spot becomes much lighter, but the intensity of the color depends very largely upon the amount of injury done, and in certain cases the change can scarcely be distinguished. 26o Bulletin 113. The results of such repeated attacks of the flea-beetle cannot be otherwise than disastrous to potato foliage, and I have heard several growers maintain that the work of the flea-beetle is more to be dreaded than that of any other organism which injures the plants. In localities where these beetles are numerous, such statements do not exaggerate the matter, for the vigor of the entire plant is frequently much reduced by these insects. From what has already been said regarding the physiological effect of other injurious influences, it would seem very probable that the work of the flea-beetle may also be considered as being a means of reducing potato plants to a condition which renders the development of the early blight fungus possible. This supposi¬ tion is supported by facts. If a potato leaf is examined when the first traces of early blight appear, it will probably be found that the first browning of the tissue occurs about the edges of holes made by flea-beetles, or in places in which the tissues have been but partially injured. This is perhaps not always the case, but it has proved to be so in the vast majority of the leaves which I have examined. A reddish-brown zone of varying width is formed about a central point (see plate) and this gradually enlarges until other similar discolorations are met, and the gradual uniting of several of these originally distinct areas, causes the more or less continuous destruction of the tissue at the edges of the leaflets. When the discolorations start nearer the center of the leaf, they generally remain isolated for a longer period. The later stage 5 of the disease are well known to potato growers. The entire leaves gradually assume the brown and shrivelled ap¬ pearance, and the stems in turn become yellow, dry, and brown, so that nothing remains of a formerly green and flourishing plant except a few withered remnants of foliage, and a number of small, partially developed tubers. These do not rot, but owing to the death of the tops they remain small from want of nourishment. It follows from the preceding remarks on the early blight, that the fungus which is commonly held responsible for the injury is not a true parasite ; that is. it will not attack healthy tissue, but only succeeds in obtaining a foothold after the potato foliage has become weakened by age, by unfavorable climatic conditions, or by mechanical injuries, chief among which is probably the flea- o o Diseases of the Potato. 261 beetle. This places the most effective lines of treatment upon a different basis from that generally followed with other fungous diseases ; instead of preventing the entrance of the organism by means of protective substances, the constitution of the plant it¬ self is to be strengthened, and the removal of as many injurious influences as possible is desired. There appears to exist another trouble which is generally con¬ founded with the early blight; in fact it is very difficult to distin¬ guish the two without the aid of laboratory methods. This disease, which is entirely of a physiological nature, has been thoroughly discussed by Sturgis.* It has been found only to a limited extent in New York, for almost invariably cultures made from affected leaves freely developed the early blight fungus. According to Sturgis the same conditions which produce the early blight also bring about the death of certain parts of the leaf tissue, in a manner almost identical with that of the macrosporium. He says : “Both classes of injury appeared in connection with the marks of the flea beetle, both were exhibited as brown spots and blotches marked with concentric rings ; but in specimens charac¬ terized by the presence of the fungus, the spots were more sharply defined and darker in color. This difference was sufficiently marked to enable a close observer to distinguish either one in the field after a little practice, but a comparison between the two pro¬ duced the impression that both classes of injury might have been caused by the same agency, and that the slight difference in appearance might be due to the fact that in the one case a fungus had occupied the injured tissue, and in the other had not done so.” It seems, therefore, that the causes which lead to the appearance of these two diseases are the same, and the same lines of treatment are consequently indicated. 3. Potato scab (Oospora scabies , Thaxter).—This disease is one which is well known to potato growers. Figure 99 represents affected tubers. The uneven, warty growths upon the surface of the potatoes are composed of material produced by the tubers in consequence of the irritation of parasitic organ¬ isms which live upon the substance of the potatoes. Under favor- Ann. Rept. Conn. Agric. Exp. Sta. 1894, 127-134. 262 Bulletin 113. able circumstances these injuries are very extensive, for the entire surface of the tuber may be affected, and although the affected parts do not always penetrate very deeply, the blemished appear¬ ance of the tubers and the actual loss of material may become very serious. The causes of potato scab have been discovered only within recent years. The disease was carefully studied in 1889-90 by H. L. Bolley, who was then assistant botanist of the Indiana Experiment Station. The results of his work appeared in Agricultural Science, 1890, Nos. 9 and 10.* He ascribed the 99 .—Scab on potatoes. cause of the trouble to a certain bacterium which had the power of injuring tubers while they were in active growth, but later caused little injury. The injuries produced by the microbe are generally rather shallow, not extending deeply into the tis¬ sues of the tubers. Later in the year 1890 Dr. R. Thaxter of the Connecticut Experiment Station read a paper upon potato scab in which it was stated that potato scab is due to the work of a fungus.f *See also N. Dak. Agric. Exp. Sta. 1891, Dec. Bull. 4, which contains a record of Bolley’s work and a full bibliography of the subject. |The paper was read Nov. 12, 1890, at Champaign, Ill., before a meeting of the Association of Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations. See also a full account in the Ann. Rept. Conn. Agric. Exp. Station. 1890, pp. 80-95. 1 Diseases of the Potato. 263 More recent investigations have verified the work of Thaxter, and it is now the generally accepted belief that practically all the injury which is commonly known as scab is due to a fungus (Oospora scabies , Thax). This frequently enters deeply into the potato, especially if the infection occurs early in the season when the tubers are small. When older tubers become affected, the injury generally assumes the form of a corky crust upon the sur¬ face. The conditions which favor the growth of the potato scab fun¬ gus are dampness and an alkaline condition of the soil. It is a common experience that scab is more prevalent in soils rich in organic matter, and abundance of air and moisture allow a more vigorous growth of the parasite to take place. The fact that an alkaline soil causes more severe attacks of potato scab has an important practical bearing. A soil may be made alkaline in a number of ways, especially by the addition of certain fertilizers. Lime has a very strong tendency in this direction, and stable manure exerts a similar influence. This fact has undoubtedly given rise to the popular belief that stable manure will increase the amount of scab upon potatoes. The appearance of the fungus may be favored merely by the alkaline condition of the soil, or it may actually be applied to soil which is free from the disease, and thus an entire field be infected by the fertilizer. If both the soil and the manure are free from disease, no scab will appear, unless it exists upon the tubers used for seed. All fertilizers which have a tendency to produce an acid condi¬ tion of the soil may check the growth of the fungus, and by the proper selection of fertilizing material sometimes a very marked effect may be produced upon the crop.* During 1894, a third cause for the injury generally known as scab was advanced by A. D. Hopkins, entomologist of the West Virginia Experiment Station. The first account of his investigation of this diseasewas read before the West Virginia State Horticultur¬ al Society April 6.f In this paper it was said that the larvae of one *An excellent account of the effect of various chemicals and manures upon the amount of scab upon potato tubers has been published by Wheeler and Tucker in Bull. 23, of the R . I. Agric. Exp. Sta. Oct. 1895. fSee Special Bull. 2. IV. Va. Agric. Exp. Sta. pp. 97-iri. Also, Pro¬ ceedings of the Washington Entomological Society, May 3, 1894 ; Insect Life , vii. p. 147. 264 Bulletin 113. or two species of insects (Epidapus scabies , Hopkins, and Sciara sp.) disfigure potatoes in a manner very similar to that of the scab fungus. In the more northern states, however, these insects do not appear to be so troublesome, and the methods of treatment recommended for the destruction of the fungus are generally very effective in controlling the disease. B. TREATMENT OF FUNGOUS DISEASES. 1. Potato Rot or Eate Blight. —Bordeaux mixture is the sovereign remedy for the rot or late blight. It was first success¬ fully used by the French in 1886 and since that time innumerable experiments have been made with this fungicide in checking the trouble. Success has followed whenever the applications have been properly made, and it is no longer a question whether the mixture will prevent the blight; it is now entirely a matter of judgment and skill on the part of the grower. If the Bordeaux mixture is properly made*, and thoroughly applied at the right time, scarcely a decayed tuber should appear in the field. It is im¬ possible to state when the first applications should be made, nor how many times the plants should be treated, for the conditions vary so much in different localities. As a rule it is unnecessary to be¬ gin spraying before the middle of July, and the first of August will prove none too late in the majority of cases. The character of the season, and the prevalence of the disease in former years must serve as guides as to the best time to begin spraying. In certain localities the late blight appears with considerable regular¬ ity, and in such cases it is well to spray about ten days before the period in which the trouble is generally first noticed. Eater applications may be made at intervals of one to three weeks, depending upon the weather. Even in years favorable to blight, three applications should be sufficient to protect the plants * A good mixture for use upon potatoes may be prepared by dissolving 6 pounds copper sulphate in about 12 gallons of water ; slake 4 pounds quick¬ lime and add to the copper sulphate solution. Dilute to 40 gallons. If the ferocyanide of potassium test is employed, put in about one-fourth more lime than the test solution shows to be necessary. Diseases of the Potato. 265 almost perfectly. The foliage should be thoroughly covered from above, and if the spray may be conveniently applied from below also, so much the better. A fine and abundant spray will be found most satisfactory (see page 277 for report upon spraying machinery). 2. Early Blight. —The successful treatment of the early blight is by no means an easy matter, as appeared in the discus¬ sion of its probable causes. It was shown that the early blight does not appear until the period of active growth is passed, or until the plants have become weakened by some mechanical agency. The first step towards checking the trouble, therefore, is to maintain the plants in as vigorous condition as possible. Proper fertilization, abundant cultivation, and close attention to the welfare of the plants become matters of prime importance. The selection of suitable land in favorable localities, and its thorough preparation will also prove of material benefit. This disease is an excellent example of the theory that disease in plants is not the prime cause of injury, but rather only an indication or symptom of weakness which existed before the injurious organ¬ ism could gain an entrance, and which in fact must exist before such an entrance can be effected. The idea, however, does not apply so aptly to all cases of the disease. The mechanical injuries to potato vines are mostly brought /• about by insects, and chief among these is the flea-beetle. The methods of treating this pest will be found on page 275. The bulk of the injury done by the early blight has been ascribed to a fungus (Macrosporium Solani ) which unduly hastens the destruction of plants that are already on the down-hill side of life. The fungus is widespread and is undoubtedly responsible for much of the injury done to potato crops. During the summer of 1895 the writer endeavored to control the early blight by means of thorough application of the Bordeaux mixture. Four plots were selected for the work, I and II being upon the University farm where Professor Roberts kindly allowed me the use of certain portions of the potato field, and materially assisted in carrying on the work ; plots III and IV were upon the farm of H. R. McNair, Dansville, N. Y. By distributing the 266 Bulletin 113. plots in this manner it was hoped that more accurate and con¬ vincing results might be obtained. Plot I .—The land selected for the experiment was divided into four sections, each covering an area of a little more than three square rods. Burbank potatoes were planted May 16 in rows 3^ feet apart, the pieces being put in at intervals of 14 inches. At this rate it was estimated that about 10 bushels of seed would be used per acre. Notes taken July 5 show that the plants were growing vigor¬ ously, and were scarcely troubled by flea-beetle. The first appli¬ cation was made at this time, the four sections receiving the fol¬ lowing treatments : 1. Bordeaux mixture made May 18, it having been allowed to stand since that time and receiving only an occa¬ sional stirring ; 2. Bordeaux mixture freshly prepared;* 3. no treatment ; 4. copper chloride mixture.! The materials were ap¬ plied with a knapsack pump and Vermorel nozzle. It was found that the application could be made very satisfactorily in this man¬ ner with the exception of section 1, which received the old Bor¬ deaux mixture. The sediment settled so fast that it was mostly applied before one-half of the required amount of liquid had been used, in spite of repeated shaking of the tank by the operator. This necessitated a second treatment immediately after the first, the work being started at the opposite end of the section. On July 23 the above treatments were repeated with the excep¬ tion that section 1 received but one application, the distribution being still more uneven than the first time. There was some indi¬ cation of early blight, yet not enough to distinguish whether the treatments had been of value. August 28, however, showed a marked difference in the appear¬ ance of the sections. The third, which was untreated, had fully 50 per cent of its leaves badly affected ; the first was as bad as *The Bordeaux mixture was made according to the “ Normal ” formula ; copper sulphate, 6 pounds; quicklime, 4 pounds; water, 45 gallons. This mixture contains copper sulphate at the rate of 1.6 per cent of the weight of water used. f This mixture was made by dissolving 3 ounces copper chloride in 24 gal¬ lons of water, and then to this solution was added 6 ounces of slaked quick¬ lime. Diseases of the Potato. 267 the check where little of the sediment had been applied, but where the spraying had commenced, and consequently upon that part which received most of the solid contents of the knapsack pump, the foliage was much better, scarcely 10 per cent of the leaves showing serious injury. Section 2 also appeared very thrifty since the foliage averaged fully as well as the best parts of section 1. Section 4, the one which was treated with the copper chloride mixture, appeared to have fully 25 per cent of its leaves seriously attacked. Section 2 was again sprayed with fresh Bor¬ deaux mixture, the other sections remaining untreated. Other observations were made September 12. At this time the relative amounts of early blight appeared to be about the same as two weeks previous. The part of section 1 which had received most of the sediment was in as thrifty condition as section 2 which had received the extra treatment. From this it would seem that the last application made to section 2 was of minor importance. The vines at that time had practically completed their growth so that there was little new foliage exposed to the disease. The rainfall had also been slight, and the Bordeaux mixture could still be plainly seen upon all sections treated with it. The potatoes were dug September 26. Since the sections varied somewhat in size, the yield of each has been estimated upon the proportionate yield per acre, this furnishing a more convenient basis for comparison. The result was as follows : Section 1, Old Bordeaux mixture, 332 bushels per acre. “ 2, Fresh Bordeaux mixture, 350 bushels per acre. “ 3, No treatment, 284 bushels per acre. “ 4, Copper chloride mixture, 297 bushels per acre. The apparent gains from the treatments of the sections were accordingly, 1-48 bushels ; 2-66 bushels ; 4-13 bushels. The ad¬ vantage derived from the copper chloride mixture is so slight that it promises little practical value. The results obtained with the Bordeaux mixture, however, are more encouraging, and seem to indicate that it may be possible to spray for the early blight, al¬ though the margin may at times be close. To what extent these gains were due to the prevention of injury to the flea-beetle it is difficult to say. The vines which were most thoroughly sprayed with the Bordeaux mixture did not 268 Bulletin 113. escape the attacks of this insect, as could be seen by the many pits which remained as witnesses of its presence. Untreated plants suffered more severely, as they did also from the early blight. The probable action of the Bordeaux mixture thus appears to be two-fold. In the first place it prevents to a very considerable ex¬ tent injury from the flea-beetle ; in the second place it prevents the entrance of the macrosporium into tissues which have suffered from the work of the insect, and also protects those which are made susceptible to the disease in other ways. It is certain that the fungus was very abundant in the foliage of untreated plants, and it seemed probable that the value of the mixture was just as great in preventing injury from this source, as it was in protecting the leaves from the attacks of insects. Plot II. This plot was also upon the University farm. It contained just one-third of an acre, and was planted to several varieties of potatoes, some of which were considerably earlier than others. The field was divided into two nearly equal parts, the line of division running across the rows so that each part should contain the same proportionate amount of each variety. One por¬ tion was sprayed with the Bordeaux mixture, the other part re¬ maining untreated. Applications were made July 13 and August 12, fresh Bordeaux mixture being used each time. At the time of the second spraying, a remarkable difference could be seen between the two parts. The untreated portion showed fully 50 per cent of badly blighted foliage, while that of the sprayed part scarcely exceeded 5 per cent. This difference was especially marked in case of the earlier varieties, and it could be distinguished a considerable distance from the field. The un¬ treated vines perished earlier in the season, and when scarcely a vestige of green could be found in the check section, the other portion was still fairly green, at least the tops appeared to possess a decided ability to nourish the tubers which were depending upon them for support. At this time the very late varieties, such as the Orphan, were all of a deep green color, apparently unaffected either by flea-beetles or by blight. Their turn came later in the fall, although the difference was never so clearly defined as in the case of the earlier varieties. Diseases of the Potato. 269 These potatoes were dug during the last days of September, and yielded at the following rate : Section 1. Fresh Bordeaux mixture, 311 bushels per acre. “ 2. No treatment, 272 “ “ This represents a gain of 49 bushels per acre, a result appar¬ ently due more to the prevention of the macrosporiun than to the destruction of the flea-beetle, for the latter was not conspicuous by its absence. The fungus was very prevalent, and the vines appeared to succumb rapidly when it had once gained a foothold. Plot III. The figures relating to the experiments in plots III and IV mere obtained from Mr. McNair, who very kindly looked after the work in such a thorough manner that the results are here published in full. The McNair farm is situated near the head of the famous Genesee Valley, upon the bottom lands. The potato rot is an occasional visitor, but during the summer and fall of 1895 practically no rot was discovered, as was also the case upon the University farm, so that the beneficial results of all applications must be due to the prevention of other troubles, these being com¬ monly summed up in the term early blight. Mr. McNair grew a number of acres of White Star potatoes, and in his field the plots and sections were laid out so that four rows extended from one end of the plantation to the other. Only the two central rows were considered when the yields were meas¬ ured. The potatoes were planted May 28, and were sprayed with the Bordeaux mixture July 19 and August 5. This mixture was made of different strengths. a. The most concentrated form contained 6 pounds copper sulphate, 4 pounds quick lime, and 40 gallons of water. b. This mixture contained 5 pounds copper sulphate, with lime in the above proportions, in 40 gallons of water. c. The amount of copper sulphate was reduced to 4.3 pounds in 40 gallons, with lime in proportion. d. Only 3.5 pounds copper sulphate were used to 40 gallons, the amount of lime being likewise reduced. Five sections were selected, each having four rows and contain¬ ing 24 square rods. One section remained untreated, but the re¬ mainder were sprayed with the different mixtures. The work was done by an efficient power sprayer which Mr. McNair had 270 Bulletin 113. made. Vermorel nozzels were used, and very satisfactory work was done, although the amount of liquid applied might perhaps have been increased to advantage. When the potatoes were dug in the fall the following yields were obtained, the figures again showing the proportionate amounts per acre: Section 1, Untreated, 209 bushels. “ 2, Mixture a , 227 ‘‘ “ 3. “ b, 234 “ 4, “ c, 221 “ 5, “ d, 191 These figures are not altogether encouraging for the sprayer. Sections 2, 3, and 4 on the average yielded an increase of only 18.3 bushels per acre, while section 5 produced 18 bushels less than the untreated one. These figures appear to represent the actual gains, yet no apparent reason exists for the decreased yield of section 5. Probably local conditions of the soil exerted this influence. Plot IV. This plot was situated in another part of the field. Only two sections were made, these being still larger than in the preceding experiment. The most concentrated Bordeaux mix¬ ture above mentioned was applied to one, the other remaining untreated. The plants were sprayed at the same time as in the preceding case, and the same machinery was used. When the crop was harvested it was found that Section 1, untreated, yielded 252 bushels per acre “ 2, Bordeaux mixture, yielded 298 bushels per acre. In this plot, the gain was 46 bushels per acre. Apparently the conditions were exactly the same, and as this result corres¬ ponds fairly well with the results obtained in Ithaca it may be stated that spraying for the early blight is of advantage, and if the applications are properly made, the operation should be profitable. In summing up the gains obtained by spraying with fresh Bordeaux mixture for the early blight, omitting section 5 in plot III in which an actual loss occurred, it is found that the average increase in the four plots is 44.8 bushels, by no means an insigni¬ ficant amount. In order that such results may be obtained, it is essential that very thorough work shall be done, and that the operation shall take place at the proper time. Diseases of the Potato. 271 Mr. McNair also kindly furnished me with some interesting data regarding the value of having plants sufficiently thrifty to with¬ stand early blight, a subject already discussed upon page 260. He found that in a certain portion of his field the addition of 10 loads of barnyard manure per acre produced an increased yield of 19 bushels. When there were also added 100 pounds of sulphate of potash, and 100 pounds of Carolina rock, and the plants were in addition well cultivated and sprayed, the actual increase in yield was 100 bushels per acre, as was shown by an adjoining plot. The early blight, therefore, should be treated by growing vigor¬ ous plants, and by protecting the foliage against the work of in¬ sects and fungi by the use of the Bordeaux mixture. The early blight may also be avoided to a certain extent by planting early varieties, as these frequently mature before the blight does much harm ; and also by planting late, for in this case the plants will be in active growth during the season when the blight is most prevalent, and it has already been shown that such plants are practically free from the disease. During the fall, when the plants are maturing, there is less danger of attack. 3. Potato Scab. —The remedy proposed by Bolley* may be considered as almost a specific for this disease. His first recom¬ mendation was to soak the seed in a solution of corrosive sublimate for one and one-half hours. The solution was made by dissolving 2 ounces of the poison in 15 gallons of water. Potatoes treated in this manner are practically free from the scab fungus, as the latter is usually destroyed, unless the potatoes used for seed are very badly injured. In such cases it appears that some of the germs of the disease may escape and serve as sources of infection in the field. In order to overcome this defect, the use of stronger solutions have been recommended, or the immersion of the tubers during a longer time. Bolley’s latest recommendation is to dis¬ solve 10 ounces of corrosive sublimate in 60 gallons of water, and the general tendency among experimenters is to use stronger solutions than the ones first recommended. The period of im¬ mersion also varies from one and one-half to three hours. Probably the period of treatment may vary with the amount of scab upon the tubers, and with the depth to which the tissues are *N. Dak. Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 4, p. 14. 272 Bulletin 113. diseased. The germinating power of potatoes is sometimes im¬ paired if they are treated with the strong solutions for the long periods recommended. It is advisable therefore to get as clean seed as possible, but if the potatoes are scabby, to treat them with solutions whose strength iucreases with severity of the disease on the tuber, at the same time lengthening the period of immersion. It has been my experience that it is fully as important to have clean land as it is to have clean seed. The fungus causing the trouble appeared upon potatoes which were grown from clean seed upon land that had not been used for this crop during five years, although two crops of beets had been grown upon it during Ihis period. How long the disease may persist is not known, but it was sufficiently severe during the comparatively dry season of 1895 to obscure the results of several experiments designed to show the value of various treatments of Burbank potatoes for the destruc¬ tion of the scab fungus. The soil selected is a moderately moist gravel loam. Another portion of the field had not grown potatoes for eighteen years, and the land proved to be entirely free from the disease. The portion selected for the experiments is a comparatively dry gravel loam, in a high state of cultivation. The attempt was here made to lessen the disease by means of copper and brass shavings, these being mixed with the soil in the drills. No beneficial results from the treatment were observed, however, even when enormous quantities of the shavings were used. It was evident that too small an amount of the metals entered in solution to affect the growth of the scab fungus, although the spores of other fungi are unable to germinate in water which has passed through a copper pipe only a few feet in length. An attempt to increase the amount of scab was, however, entire¬ ly successful. A small handful of air-slaked lime was scattered in the drills where the pieces of potato were planted, and when these potatoes were dug it was found that the number of scabby potatoes was more than twice as great as in the rows which receiv¬ ed no treatment ; the individual tubers were also more seriously affected. Air-slaked lime therefore appears to have a decidedly favorable influence upon the growth of the fungus. An alkaline or an acid condition of the soil becomes a serious matter in certain potato growing regions. This question has been Diseases of the Potato. 273 very thoroughly studied at the Rhode Island experiment station* and several of the conclusions obtained are here given. “ Wood ashes (which like air slaked lime consists largely of calcium carbonate) pure calcium carbonate, calcium acetate, and calcium oxalate, promote the scab in a high degree. “ Calcium chloride injured the potato plants but entirely prevented scab, although an abundance of germs was probably introduced. “ Calcium sulphate (known as land plaster and gypsum) is the only form of lime employed which has not injured the growth of the crops, and which has at the same time failed to promote with certainty the development of the scab. “ Upon our acid soil, which has been partially neutralized by air-slaked lime, the use of ammonia sulphate has, under other¬ wise like circumstances, resulted in producing tubers less scabby than where the same amount of nitrogen in form of sodium nitrate was used, “ Common salt has reduced the percentage of scab. “ Sodium carbonate acts in the same way as calcium carbonate, though perhaps not in the same degree, and promotes decidedly the development of disease. “ Barnyard manure, owing to its alkalinity or the production of carbonate from it, has probably in and of itself increased the scab. “ Oxalic acid seems to have a tendency ... to reduce the percentage of scab. “ By the use of ammonium sulphate and probably muriate and sulphate of potash, Kainit and common salt in connection with dissolved phosphate rock, dissolved bone, or dissolved bone black, soils which now tend to produce scabby tubers, would probably become less favorable to the disease. It is possible that a rational system of rotation of crops which would include no beets or other root crops , and perhaps no cabbages, would also help to alleviate the condition in such soils.” - t *Wheeler and Tucker. Bull. 33, pp. 58-79. PART II. INSECTS. i. Potato BEETLE. (.Doryphora decemlineata , Say).—This insect is too well known to require description. During the past twenty-five years it has been very generally destroyed by the use of Paris green, and in more recent years also by London purple. These poisons were at first applied in dry form, being mixed with flour, plaster, air slaked lime, and similar powders. The propor¬ tions of the ingredients varied greatly, one part of the poison being added to from one to fifty parts of the diluent. The mixture was then dusted upon the plants by means of perforated boxes, or bags made of coarse material. In recent years very effective machines have been invented for the purpose of making uniform applications of powders with great rapidity, and these have largely supplanted the older devices. The powder is driven forcibly from the machines by means of an air blast; when applied in this manner it is well to mix one part of poison with one to three parts of air-slaked lime. The lime makes the powder visible as it leaves the machine, and it also prevents injury from the poison; for these reasons it is probably the best diluent to use. One and one- half pounds of these arsenites per acre is sufficient for each appli¬ cation. The more popular method of applying arsenites at present is to mix them with one hundred and fifty or two hundred gallons of water. An equal weight of quicklime should be added to the mixtures, first slaking the lime in water. This prevents the caustic action of the arsenites, and yet does not interfere with the machinery. When poisons are applied in water with proper ma¬ chinery, rapid applications may be made at all hours of the day, and with but little regard to the weather. Paris purple* is another form of arsenic which has been sold dur¬ ing a number of years for the destruction of potato beetles. It resembles London purple, but is of a deeper color and mixes with much greater difficulty with water. In our experiments it proved *Chemical analysis of Paris purple showed it to contain 34.1 per cent arsenic trioxide, 40 7 per cent of this being soluble in water. It is sold by Sykes & Street, 85 Water street, New York. Diseases of the Potato. 275 effective when used at the rate of one ounce to four gallons of water. Within the past few years another form of arsenic, known as English purple poison*, has been offered for sale in this country. The results of various trials of the poison upon potato foliage show that when used at the rate of one ounce to four gallons of water it is effectual in destroying the insects. But it also possesses the serious objection of mixing slowly with water. 2. Feea-beetles —The most serious insect enemy of pota¬ toes is undoubtedly the flea-beetle. The insects are scarcely a tenth of an inch in length ; they are nearly black in color, and the quickness of their movements has caused them to receive their popular name. There appear to be several broods each season, so their work is more or less continuous during the grow¬ ing season. Many remedies have been suggested for the destruction of this pest. Among them may be included the following : Paris green ; London purple ; decoction of tobacco; kerosene emulsion ; air- slaked lime; land plaster; wood ashes; tobacco powder; Bor¬ deaux mixture. With the exception of the last named remedy, all the above appear to be without practical value for potatoes. I have tried Paris green, London purple, kerosene emulsion, tobacco powder and air-slaked lime with no apparent benefit; and as others have failed in obtaining satisfactory results with these as well as with all the others except the Bordeaux mixture, their use cannot be recommended. The Bordeaux mixture, however, appears to be a promising remedy. Jones has tested the material very thoroughly and the following is his opinion of the value of his treatments.f “The actual number of holes per leaflet, from the unsprayed row was found upon counting to be 262, which from the sprayed row the average was but 12. . . . These results bear out completely the conclusions of last year, and justify the claims that the Bordeaux mixture is the best practical remedy known for the flea-beetle as *The poison was introduced by Henry S. Ziegler, 400 N. Third street, Phila¬ delphia, Pa. It contains 36.75 percent arsenic trioxide, 14.58 per cent of which is soluble in water. ■fAnn.Rept. Vt. Agric. Exp. Sta. 1894,96. 276 Bulletin 113. it occurs upon potatoes. ” The leaves examined by Professor Jones appear to have been sprayed with the mixture June 16 and July 17, and the results obtained by him are decidedly encourag¬ ing. His work indicates that these early treatments are essen¬ tial for obtaining the most thorough protection, but as applica¬ tions of Paris green are generally made at this time for destroy¬ ing potato beetles, very little extra work is required for treating the vines with the Bordeaux mixture also. The results of my work during 1895 do not show such marked differences as those quoted above. The foliage of all the plants mentioned in the preceding pages was several times examined with particular regard to the work of the flea-beetle. The num¬ ber of holes in the leaves was not counted, but the independent estimates of different observers practically agreed with those of the writer, and they may be considered as representing fairly well the amount of protection afforded by the Bordeaux mixture. Upon the university farm it was estimated that the amount of injury upon the sprayed foliage was from sixty to seventy per cent as much as upon untreated vines. The section which was treated with the old mixture showed less injury where the great¬ est amount of sediment was applied, and more at the other end where the mixture was much diluted. The potato foliage on the farm of Mr. McNair was also pro¬ tected, but to a less degree. His plants were treated the first time July 19. The foliage already showed considerable injury from the insect, but no blighting of the foliage was apparent. Five weeks later we estimated the amount of flea-beetle injury upon the section which received the most concentrated mixture to be about eighty five per cent of that upon untreated vines. In the other sections the difference was still less marked. It would seem that in order to derive the greatest benefit from the Bordeaux mixture in preventing the attacks of flea-beetles, the applications must be made during June and July, and a strong mixture should be used. PART III. SPRAYING MACHINERY. A trial of machinery suitable for the spraying of potatoes was made July 18 upon the farm of J. S. Coombs, Stafford, Genesee Co., N.Y. All manufacturers were invited to be present and to exhibit machines, for the field which Mr. Coombs kindly placed at their disposal was particularly well adapted for such a trial. The land was perfectly level, well cultivated, and the plants only about one-third grown. The farm is accessible from three railroads, and no more favorable conditions could have been desired. The circular letter addressed to the manufacturers stated that the normal Bordeaux mixture (see page 266) would be applied, as this would give them an opportunity to work their machines under actual field conditions. Upon the appointed day, the following manufacturers were represented : Aspinwall Mfg. Co., Jackson, Mich.; Deming Co., Salem, O.; W. & B. Douglas, Middletown, Conn.; Excelsior Co., New Haven, Conn.; Leggett & Bro., 301 Pearl St., New York; F. E- Myers & Bro., Ashland, O.; Potter & Ware, Ba¬ tavia, N. Y. (exhibited a machine made for their own use) ; Seth K. Samms, Byberry, Philadelphia, Pa.; J. R. Steitz, Cudahy, Wis.; Studebaker Mfg. Co., South Bend, Ind. The machines shown by these ten exhibitors were of very varied nature : small bucket pumps, barrel pumps, power sprayers, gravity sprayers, and powder guns were to be found among them. Twenty ma¬ chines were exhibited, and most of them were tried in the field, each manufacturer having at his disposal an acre of land. Before the field work was commenced, a committee of local potato growers was appointed ; this committee was to judge of the merits of the various machines, considering them from the standpoint of practical growers. The men, selected by the local Grange, were as follows: J. G. Fargo, E. D. Rumsey, J. H. Potter, C. E. Shepard, all of Batavia ; and Jay Lathrop, of Mor- ganville. Following is the report of the committee : “ The first machines in the field were those in which no pumps were used for forcing the liquid. The only power used was the 278 Bulletin 113. force of gravity, the fluids passing downward from the tank to the outlet orifices. The Steitz potato sprayer was soon found to be working under disadvantage. The agitator broke almost at the moment of starting. The machine is designed to spray two rows at once ; the liquid runs over two broad pieces of galvanized iron, one being over each row, and then it is broken up into a fine spray by means of rapidly revolving brushes. The holes through 100 .—An excellent home-made potato sprayer, treating four rows. which the liquid passed upon the iron were too small, so that the plants were not properly covered. Another objection to the ma¬ chine was found in the tank ; this was too small, and it could be increased two or three times its present capacity to advantage. “The Studebaker machine was built on the pattern of a street- sprinkler. The mechanism forming the discharge was designed to be so constructed that any desired amount of liquid could be thrown in a fairly fine spray. The machine could not be made to work satisfactorily, as too much or too little liquid was thrown, and the spray was altogether too coarse for efficient and econom¬ ical work. Even clear water was not thrown satisfactorily. “The Aspinwall sprayer was then tried, the result being some- Diseases of the Potato. 2 79 what similar to that produced by the preceding machine. It clogged repeatedly, and proved to be unsuited to throwing Bor¬ deaux mixture. “A change was introduced with the appearance of Samms’ machine, this being known as ‘ Roberts’ Improved Atomizer.’ It is designed to spray four rows. Three small streams of liquid left the machine over each row, but immediately upon leaving the discharge pipes, they were broken by blasts of air into an exceedingly fine spray which was well distributed over the plants. The machine worked admirably, and demonstrated its capability of spraying 4 rows of potatoes as fast as a walking team could draw it. The amount of liquid leaving the discharge pipes was found to be too small, but this defect could be easily remedied. Another objection was the cost of the machine, the price being $65.00. “Power sprayers were represented by Deming’s ‘Monarch.’ This is constructed so that five rows may be sprayed at once. A double-acting brass pump is worked by gearing, and it is suffi¬ ciently powerful to supply the nozzles, which are held over each row, with the required amount of liquid. The work of this machine was also very satisfactory. The spray was produced continuously, it was forcibly applied to the plants, and the amount of liquid thrown could be varied by the use of different nozzles. The ‘ Monarch ’ was one of the most useful machines exhibited; but its high price, $75.00, is ar item which may dis¬ courage some from using it. “ The greatest sensation of the day, however, was occasioned by the appearance of the home-made sprayer of Potter and Ware. Figure 100 represents the appearance of the outfit. An ordinary barrel spray pump was fastened to a barrel having a capacity of about fifty gallons. The liquid was pumped into a gas-pipe which was supported upon a light frame at the rear of the wheels. This pipe was fitted with four discharges to which nozzles could be attached. Four rows were sprayed at once, the work being fairly well accomplished as the horse walked across the field. Mr. Ware drove and pumped at the same time, and the machine worked without a break. The plants were uniformly although rather lightly covered, and the machine was pronounced a decided success by the four or five hundred people who saw it in 28o Bulletin 113. operation. It should serve as a model to potato growers who desire this kind of an outfit. “The Douglas and the Deming knapsack pumps were then brought into the field and both worked well. The pumps are sufficiently strong to force the Bordeaux mixture through Ver- morel nozzles, and a very thorough application could be made. But the severe labor, and the slow rate of progress will prevent this type of machine from becoming popular for potato spraying. Myers’ ‘ Fountain Knapsack Spray Pump ’ is a gravity sprayer, the liquid being forced through a perforated disk by means of a rubber bulb situated immediately behind it. Bordeaux mixture could not be applied with this device, as the holes in the disk clogged continually. When clear water is used, 'good work may be done. “The powder guns of Leggett and of the Excelsior Co., did excellent work. They are easily worked and efficient. The only objection to them is that they treat but one or two rows at a time and this becomes a serious fault when large areas have to be treated. This objection is the more weighty when one considers that the most efficient applications of powders can be made only on a still day and when the foliage is wet. “ The other pumps which were exhibited were not tested in the potato field. The Deming and the Douglas pumps were found to be very strong, serviceable, and apparently durable, and with the proper attachments they could be made of service in spraying potatoes. “ In conclusion, it is the opinion of the committee that as a rule the best machines are those in which a pump forces the liquid through nozzles, so that a uniformly fine spray may be produced. Gravity machines, with the exception of ‘ Roberts’ Improved Atomizer,’ proved to be unsatisfactory, although the Steitz machine, if slightly modified, could be made serviceable.’ “ Signed J. G. Fargo, Chairman. E. D. Rumsey. J. H. Potter. C. E. Shepard. Jay Lathrop.” SUMMARY. 1. Potato rot, or late blight, is caused by a fungus which may develop with extreme rapidity under favorable circumstances ; it may cause the decay of all parts of the potato plant, including the tubers. (Page 249.) 2. The conditions favoring the growth of the parasite are a temperature of about 70° F. and a moist atmosphere. Few sec¬ tions of New York are every year seriously troubled by the disease. (Page 250.) 3. A leaf affected by late blight normally shows distinct brown and mostly large areas of varying form, but usually not circular spots ; these may enlarge very rapidly, the under sur¬ face of the leaf showing a frost-like growth in the parts first attacked. Unaffected portions of the leaves retain their healthy green color. (Pages 251, 252.) 4. Tubers affected with potato rot assume a dark color where the fungus is found. Where decay takes place slowly, the dead portions become dry and shrivelled ; during rapid invasions con¬ siderable moisture may be present in the rot. (Page 353.) 5. The early blight of potatoes does not cause the tubers to rot. A more or less rapid drying and curling of the leaves and stems mark the presence of the disease. The edges of the leaves are first visibly affected ; the color changes to yellowish brown, while the central parts of the leaflets gradually become lighter green or even yellow and more or less spotted. Eventually all portions above ground turn brown. (Pages 255, 257.) 6. Young, vigorous potato plants do not appear to suffer from , early blight. (Page 257). 7. The probable causes of early blight, as found in New York, are the following : A fungus, this having the power of attack- * ing only such tissues as have become weakened to a certain extent; unfavorable conditions of soil or atmosphere ; mechani¬ cal injuries to the foliage, commonly produced by flea-beetles or other insects. (Pages 257, 261.) 8. Potato scab, as commonly found upon the tubers, is due to the presence of a fungus. Similar blemishes have also been 282 Bulletin 113. ascribed to the work of bacteria, and to insect injury. (Pages 261, 264.) 9. The late blight of potatoes may be successfully treated by spraying the vines two or three times with the Bordeaux mixture. The first application should be made during the latter part of July ; it may be repeated at intervals of one to three weeks. (Page 264.) 10. The early blight of potatoes may be treated with partial success by means of the Bordeaux mixture. The vines should be sprayed when about two-thirds grown, and the application should be repeated as necessary, the foliage at all times being well covered with the mixture. (Pages 265, 271.) 11. Proper methods of fertilization and of cultivation have also proved to be of much value in reducing injury from early blight, as was shown by greatly increased yields. (Page 271.) 12. The apparent increased yield per acre of potatoes sprayed with the Bordeaux mixture was 44.8 bushels. (Page 270). 13. The increased yield per acre of potatoes well fertilized and cultivated, as compared with partially neglected plants, was 100 bushels per acre. (Page 271.) 14. Seed potatoes affected with scab may be cleaned and made fit for planting by soaking them in a solution of corrosive sublimate. (Pages 271, 272.) 15. An alkaline condition of the soil favors the growth of the scab fungus ; an acid condition checks it. 16. Land in which the fungus causing potato scab is known to exist should not be used for growing potatoes or beets except at intervals of several years. Fertilizers which tend to produce an acid condition of the soil should be applied. Even treated seed will produce scabby potatoes, if the scab fungus is in the soil. (Pages 272, 273.) 17. Potato beetles may easily be destroyed by means of the arsenites. Paris green and London purple are the safest insecti¬ cides to use. (Pages 274, 275.) 18. Flea-beetles cannot be controlled satisfactorily. Bordeaux mixture thoroughly applied, appears to be the best practical rem¬ edy against these insects. This material probably does not kill the beetles, but simply keeps them away. (Pages 275, 276.) Diseases of the Potato. 283 19. In a comparative trial of many kinds of machines de¬ signed for spraying potatoes, it was found that those machines were unsatisfactory in which liquids are distributed wholly by the force of gravity. 20. Gravity sprayers are of value when the liquids are broken into a spray after leaving the discharge pipes. This may be done by means of air blasts or by revolving brushes. 21. Pumps for driving the liquids through nozzles are on the whole most satisfactory. They can be arranged so that several rows may be sprayed at once. 22. Horse-power sprayers can be recommended for spraying potatoes. If the plants are sprayed for the potato beetle, one nozzle over each row is sufficient; for flea-beetles and for fungous diseases, it is better to have two nozzles for each row, that a more thorough application may be made. 23. Powder guns are very satisfactory when insecticides are to be applied to potatoes, although wind and dry foliage may lessen the value of the treatments. 24. Fungicides should usually be applied in liquid form, using machinery which will treat the vines thoroughly as fast as a man or a horse can walk. E. G. Lodeman. Bulletin 114. r>*r Horticultural Division of Cornell Agricultural Experiment Station. February, 1896. I. P. ROBERTS, Director, Ithaca N. Y. SPRAY CALENDAR. By E G. LODEMAN. see at a glance what to apnlv and when t,, ,„ a i lm Poi;tant points regarding sprays have been selected and arranged in such a manner that the grower can understanding of the work can he ohtaine.l h ° 10 a PP llcatlons - The more important insect and fungous enemies are also mentioned, so that a fairly clear also kept under control for onlv the moot . xamimng the table below. When making the applications advised, other enemies than those mentioned are latest results obtained by leadintr horticnliMrio/' 011 ^ ° n f S CO , U d be ln so brief an outline. The directions have been carefully compiled from the Notice.-I n this calendar it win . entomologists, and they may be followed with safety, applications given in each case has Dartiri.W^fo.. 81 S ° U .' e fPP^ations arc . i *i parentheses and these are the ones which are least important. The number of when some applications are advised ? it is umiwMs^ l ° ° ca ltles which fungous and insect enemies are most abundant. If the crops are not troubled judgment in making applications ' Know d,. \° VA 6 a . ny ' , U s , lould be remembered that in all cases success is dependent upon the exercise of proper son. prompt, tLZ>-, iTper ^- most effective ; .nd finally, apply them at the proper sL Apple. ' to success than any definite rules. See Bulletin ior. Bean. Beet. Cabbage and Cauliflower. Carnation. Celery. Cherry. Chrysanthemum. Cranberry. Currant. Eggplant. Gooseberry. Grape. Hollyhock. Nursery Stock. Peach, Nectarine, Apricot. Pear. 9owc-vllCopper sulphate solution before buds break); 2. Bordeaux mixture when leaf buds are open, but before 4 at intervals ofTbo’u^iw^wptlc? S ° 2 ’' “n b,oss .°“ rt ha ^ fallen; 4. Bordeaux mixture 10 to 14 days after the third; (5, 6, repeat thoroughly 2 renent ^ t Se *j BuHeun 84.— Canker-worm. 1. When first caterpillars appear apply Paris green very soon as S leaDins annenr^u B a n l ° 10 dayS ’ <3, 4 ’ re P eat ever y 10 da Y s lf necessary). See Bulletin 101 .—Bud-moth. 1. As See Bulletin j/ . )uda : Pans green ; 2. repeat 1 before the blossom buds open ; (3. repeat 2 when blossoms have fallen). Paris trrppn at , °f ,ln f moth - !• Paris green immediately after blossoms have fallen ; 2. repeat 1, 7 to 10 days later ; (3, 4, deaux mixture /.if °. 1 to 3 weeks after 2, especially if later broods are troublesome). Paris green may be added to the Bor¬ deaux mixture and the two applied together with excellent effect .-Case-bearer. As for bud moth. See Bulletin 93. to kee^the foliage cfvere'd by the mixture* mIXtUre ’ when firSt trUe leaf has ex P anded ! 2, 3 , etc., the same, at short intervals Leaf spot. 1. When 4 or 5 leaves have expanded, Bordeaux mixture ; 2, 3, etc., the same every 10 to 14 days. reneat i^vvhen y° un g Plants, kerosene emulsion or arsenites, when worms are first seen ; 2. if plants are not heading worm r nS 1 3 ‘ bc K Inn,u K to head, hot water ( i 3 o»F.) or hellebore ; 4. repeat 3 when necessary.-C«Mq*£ heading hellebore or wa ^ ft y?’ ker ° s ene emulsion or arsenites ; 2. repeat 1 at intervals of 7 to 10 days ; 3. if plants are g, e, or water at 130 to 135 F.; 4, 5 , etc., repeat 3 when necessary.— Plusia. 1. Make very thorough applica- tions as recommended under caOOage-worm. rui Anthracnose, Rust, Spot. 1. At first appearance of disease, Bordeaux mixture thoroughly applied in fine spray ; 2,3, etc., if plants are not blooming, Bordeaux mixture ; ammoniacal copper carbonate to avoid staining the flowers. Keep foliage covered with a fungicide.— Red spider. Syringe freely with clear water ; kerosene emulsion. Leaf-blight. Rust. 1. Ammoniacal copper carbonate at first appearance of disease ; repeat 1 to keep foliage protected. Black-knot. See Plum.— Rot. 1. When buds break, Bordeaux mixture; 2. when fruit has set, repeat 1; 3, when fruit is grown, ammoniacal copper carbonate.— Aphis. 1. Kerosene emulsion when insects appear; 2, 3, repeat at intervals of 3 to 4 days if necessary. — Slug. j. When insects appear, arsenites, hellebore or air-slaked lime ; 2, 3, repeat 1 in 10 to 14 days if necessary. ^ ^ Leaf spot. 1. Bordeaux mixture, or ammoniacal copper carbonate at intervals of 10 to 14 days, to keep foliage pro- Lire-worm, Fruit-worm. 1. When larvae first appear, arsenites, kerosene emulsion, or tobacco water ; 2, after 10 to 14 days repeat 1 ; 3, repeat if necessary. Leaf-blights. 1. When injury first appears, before the fruit is harvested, ammoniacal copper carbonate, to avoid stain- mg the fruit , 2. After fruit is harvested, Bordeaux mixture freely applied ; 3, repeat 2 when necessary.— IVorm. 1 TT7 hen first leaves are nearly expanded, arsenites ; 2. After 10 to 14 days, hellebore ; 3, repeat 2 if necessary. Leaf-spot. 1. As soon as plants are established in the field,Bordeaux mixture ; 2, 3. repeat 1 at intervals of 2 to 3 weeks till first fruits are grown ; 4. ammoniacal copper carbonate, repeat when necessary. M l ldew. 1. Before buds break, Bordeaux mixture ; 2, when first leaves have expanded, Bordeaux mixture or potassium sulphide ; 3, 4, etc. repeat 2 at intervals of 7 to 10 days, if necessary throughout the summer. Avoid staining the fruit.— Currant worm, see under currant. Anthracnose. 1. Before buds break in spring, sulphate of iron and sulphuric acid solution ; 2. Repeat 1 after 3 or 4 days to cover untreated portions. Black-rot. (1, as soon as first leaves are fully expanded, Bordeaux mixture). 2. after fruit has set, Bordeaux mixture; 3 repeat 2 at intervals of 2 to 3 weeks until fruit is grown; 4. ammoniacal copper carbonate when fruit is nearly grown. 5, 6, etc. repeat 4 at intervals of 7 to 14 days as required.— Downy mildew, Powdery mildew, the first application recommended under Black-rot are of especial importance. See Bulletin ■jb.—Ripe-rot, apply very thoroughly the later applications recommended under Black-rot. — Steely-bug. 1. As buds are swelling, arsenites; 2, after 10 to 14 days, repeat 1. Rust. 1. In spring, when foliage expands, Bordeaux mixture; 2, 3, etc. apply a good fungicide at short intervals to keep new growths covered. Fungous diseases. 1. When first leaves appear, Bordeaux mixture; 2, 3, etc. repeat 1 at intervals of 10 to 14 days to keep foliage well covered. Biown >ot. 1. Before buds swell, copper sulphate solution ; (2. before flowers open, Bordeaux mixture) ; 3, when fruit has set, repeat 1 ; 4. repeat after 10 to 14 days ; 5. when fruit is nearly grown, ammoniacal copper carbonate • 6, 7 etc repeat 5 at intervals of 5 to 7 days if necessary. For Yellows, see Bulletin 75. Leaf-blight or Fruit-spot. (1. As buds are swelling copper sulphate solution) ; 2. just before blossoms open, Bordeaux mixture , 3, after fruit has set, repeat 2 ; 4, 5, etc. repeat 2 at intervals of 2 to 3 weeks as appears necessary. — Leaf-blister. 1 Before buds swell in spring, kerosene emulsion, diluted 5 to 7 times —Psylla. 1. When first leaves have unfolded in spring, kerosene emulsion diluted 15 times ; 2, 3, etc. at intervals of 2 to 6 days repeat 1 until the insects are destroyed. See Bulletin 108.— Mug. See under CHERRY. Plum. Potato. Quince. Raspberry, Black¬ berry, Dewberry. Rose. Strawberry. Tomato. Violet. Brown-rot. See under peach.— Leaf-blight. (1. When first leaves have unfolded, Bordeaux mixture); 2. When fruit has set, Bordeaux mixture ; 3, 4, etc. repeat 2 at intervals of 2 to 3 weeks, use a clear fungicide after fruit is J 4 grown. Black-knot. ’ 1. During first warm days of early spring, Bordeaux mixture ; 2. repeat 1 when buds are swelling ; 3. during latter part of May, repeat 1 ; 4. repeat 1 during middle of June (5, repeat 1 in July). See Bulletin 81.— Curculio, spiaying is not always satisfactory ; jar the trees after fruit has set, at intervals of 1 to 3 days during 2 to 5 weeks.— Plum Scale. 1. In autumn when leaves have fallen, kerosene emulsion, diluted 4 times; 2 and 3. in spring, before buds open, repeat 1. See Bulletin 108. —San Jose Scale. Thorough applications of kerosene emulsion as recommended under Plum Scale may prove effective if followed later in the season by others, diluting the emulsion to avoid injuring foliage. Early blight. 1. When vines are grown, Bordeaux mixture; 2 and 3. repeat 1 at intervals of 2 to 3 weeks (only partially successful). — Rot. 1. During middle of July, Bordeaux mixture; 2 and 3. at intervals of 1 to 3 weeks, repeat 1. — Scab. Soak uncut seed potatoes 1 j 4 hours in solution of 1 ounce corrosive sublimate in 8 gallons water.— Potato beetle. 1. When beetles first appear, arsenites. 2 and 3. repeat 1 when necessary. See Bulletin 113. Leaf-blight, or Fruit-spot. (When blossom buds appear, Bordeaux mixture) ; 2. when fruit has set, repeat 1; 3, 4, etc. repeat 1 at intervals of 2 weeks, until fruit is % grown ; if later treatments are necessary, ammoniacal copper carbonate. See Bulletin 80. Anthracnose. i. Before buds break copper sulphate solution, also cut out badly infested canes ; 2. when growth has commenced, Bordeaux mixture; 3, 4, etc. repeat 2 at intervals of 1 to 3 weeks, avoid staining fruit by use of clear fungicide. (Partially successful. )— Orange-rust. Remove and destroy affected plants as soon as discovered. See Bulletin ico.— Saw-fly. 1. When first leaves have expanded, arsenites ; 2. after 2 to 3 weeks repeat 1, or apply kerosene emulsion (unsatisfactory). Black-spot. Spray plants once a week with ammoniacal copper carbonate. — Mildew. Keep heating pipes painted with equal parts lime and sulphur mixed with water to form a thin paste. Spray with copper fungicides.— Aphis, Leaf-hopper. Kerosene emulsion, or tobacco water applied to the insect’s bodies at short intervals, is effective.— Red spider. Spray as for Aphis, or with forcible streams of clear water. Leaf-blight. 1. When growth begins in spring, Bordeaux mixture ; 2. when first fruits are setting, repeat 1 ; 3. during fruiting reason, ammoniacal copper carbonate ; 4. after fruiting, or on non-beating plants, Bordeaux mixture at intervals of 1 to 3 weeks See Bulletin 79 -Saiv-fty. Spray plants when not in bearing with arsenites, repeating application if necessary. Leaf-blight. 1. As soon as disease is discovered, Bordeaux mixture or a clear fungicide. 2, 3, etc. repeat 1 at intervals of 7 to 10 days —Rot. Spray as directed under leaf-blight (unsatisfactory in many cases). Blight; Spot. 1. When disease is first seen in summer or fall, Bordeaux mixture ; 2, 3, etc. repeat one at intervals of 1 to 2 weeks, using ammoniacal copper carbonate to avoid staining blossoms. (Not always satisfactory as good culture must also be given.) Remove affected leaves. RO R M Paris Green. Paris green.. 1 pound Water . 150-300 gallons If this mixture is to be used upon fruit trees, 1 pound of quicklime should be added, and repeated applications will injure most foliage, unless the lime is used. Paris green and Bordeaux mixture can be applied together with perfect safety. Use at the rate of 4 ounces of the arsenites to 50 gallons of the mixture. The action of neither is weakened, and the Paris green loses all caustic properties. For insects which chew. London Purple. This is used in the same proportion as Paris green, but as it is more caus tic it should be applied with two or three times its weight of lime, or with tl, « BoE ueaux mixture. The composition of London pur°ple is variable, and unless good reasons exist for supposing that it contains as much arsenic as Paris green, use the latter poison. Do not use London purple on oeach or plum trees unless considerable lime is added. For insects wh ich chew Normal or 1.6 Per Cent Bordeaux Mixture. Copper Sulphate . «P ou “ ds . Dissolve the copper sulphate by putting it in a bag of coarse cloth and hanging this in a vessel holding at least 4 g^ons, so that it is just covered by the water. Use an earthen or wooden vessel Shake the lime in an enual amount of water. Then mix the two and add enough water to make XaCsIt is then ready for immediate use. If the mixture is to be used on peach foliage it is advisable to add two pounds of lime in the above formula When applied to such plants as carnations or cabbages it will adhere better if about a pound of hard soap lie dissolved in hot water and added to the mixture. For rots, moulds, mildews, and all fungous diseases. Iron Sulphate and Sulphuric Acid Solution. , . .. 100 parts Water (hot)... n Iron sulphate, as much as the water will dissolve. ^ t SU Ttm U solution ' should "be 3 prepared just before using. Add the acid to the crystals and then pour on the water. Valuable for grape anthracnose, the dormant vines being treated by means of sponges or brushes. Potassium Sulphide Solution. Potassium sulphide . gallon W This preparation loses its strength upon standing, so should be made immediately before using. Particularly valuable for surface mildews. U L AS. Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate. Copper carbonate .I oz. Ammonia, enough to dissolve the copper. Water . 9 gallons Before making the solution, the ammonia should be prepared as follows : Use 26° ammonia, and dilute with 7 to 8 volumes of water. Then gradually add the necessary amount to the copper carbonate until all is dissolved. It is best treated in large bottles, and in them it will keep indefinitely. Dilute as required. For same purposes as the Bordeaux mixture. Copper Sulphate Solution. Conner sulohate . . . I pound Water . .15 gallons Dissolve the copper sulphate in the water, when it is ready for use. This should never be applied to foliage, but must be used before the buds break. For peaches and nectarines use 25 gallons of water. For fungous diseases. Hellebore. Fresh white hellebore . 1 ounce Water. .. 3 gallons Apply when thoroughly mixed. This poison is not so energetic as the arsenites, and may be used a short time before the sprayed portions mature. For insects which chew. Kerosene Emulsion. Hard soap . —. 'A pound Boiling water . . I gallon Kerosene . . . . 2 gallons Dissolve the soap in the water, add the kerosene, and churn with a pump for 5-10 minutes Dilute 4 to 25 times before applying. Use strong emul¬ sion for all scale insects. For such insects as plant lice, mealy bugs, red spider, thrips, weaker preparations will prove effective Cabbage worms, currant worms and all insects which have soft bodies, can also be success¬ fully treated. It is advisable to make the emulsion shortly before it is used. Tobacco Water. This solution may be prepared by placing tobacco stems in a water-tight vessel, and then covering them with hot water. Allow to stand several hours, dilute the liquor from 3 to 5 times and apply. For soft bodied insects. -J ’ 1 £ V K, Bulletin 115. February, 1896. Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. ITHACA, N. Y. HORTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT. THE POLE LIMA BEANS. By L. H. BAILEY. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY. ITHACA, N. Y. 1896. ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. STATION COUNCIL. President, Jacob Hon. A. D. White, Professor I. P. ROBERTS, Professor I P. Roberts, Professor G. C. Caldwell, Professor James Law, - - . Professor A. N. Prentiss, Professor J. H. Comstock, Professor L. H. Bailey, Professor H. H. Wing, Professor G. F. Atkinson, Gould Schurman. Trustee of the University. President State Agricultural Society. Agriculture. Chemistry. Veterinary Science. Botany. Entomology. Horticulture. Dairy Husbandry. Cryptogamic Botany. OFFICERS OF THE STATION. I. P. Roberts, ------ Director. E. L. Williams, ------ Treasurer. H. W. Smith, ------ Clerk. ASSISTANTS M. V. SlingERLAnd, G. W. Cavanaugh, - E. G. Lodeman, L. A. Clinton, E. J. Durand, - Entomology. Chemistry. Horticulture. Agriculture. Cryptogamic Botany. i Office of the Director, 20 Morrill Hall. v The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to all who request them. BULLETINS OF 1896. 106. Revised Opinions of the Japanese Plums. 107. Wireworms and the Bud Moth. 108. The Pear Psylla and the New York Plum Scale. 109. Geological History of the Chautauqua Grape Belt, no. Extension Work in Horticulture. in. Sweet Peas. 112. The 1895 Chrysanthemums. 113. Diseases of the Potato. 114. Spray Calendar. 115. The Pole Lima Beans. Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., ) Feb. 29, 1896. } Honorable Commissioner of Agriculture, Albany. Sir: The following paper—a complement to No. 87, upon the Dwarf Lima beans—is submitted for publication and distribution under Chapter 230 of the Laws of 1895. L. H. Bailey. SYNOPSIS. I. Types and Varieties, pages 293 to 306. A. The sievas, ...... 294 B. The large flat Limas, . . * . . 296 C. The potato Limas, .... 300 D. Varieties not tested, .... . .302 E. The Horticultural Lima, 303 F. The Chickasaw Lima or Jack bean, • 303 II. Remarks on the Growing of Lima Beans, pages 306 to 314. 1. Methods for New York, ..... 306 2. The California practice, . . . . . *310 III. Index, ......... 314 io8 .—New Extra Early Lima Bean. Natural size. See page 297. THE POLE LIMA BEANS. I. Types and Varieties. About a year ago we tried to say something (Bulletin 87) about the dwarf Lima beans. We found that those beans are all modern developments from the pole Limas, and that they represent each of the three types or tribes of Lima beans,—the Sieva, Flat and Potato Lima types. A discussion of the botanical features and the history of these groups was then given, and it is therefore unnec¬ essary to repeat the account here. We need only recapitulate the leading marks of the groups. The Sieva or Carolina bean is a small and slender grower as compared with the large Limas, early and hardy, truly annual, with thin, short and broad (ovate-pointed) leaflets, numerous, small papery pods which are much curved on the back and pro¬ vided with a long upward point or tip and which split open and twist when ripe, discharging the seeds ; beans small and flat, white, brown, or variously marked with red. This, like the true Lima, is a native of South America, and was early cultivated by the aborigines of North America and countries to the southward. It is the plant which Linnaeus meant to designate by the name Phaseolus lunatus . The distinguishing marks of the pods of the Sieva beans may be seen in Figs. 102 and 103 ; and the beans of two of the varieties are shown in Fig. 101. The reader may con¬ sult Bulletin 87 for fuller information of the botany and history of the Lima beans. The true Lima bean is distinguished from the Sieva by its tall growth, lateness, greater susceptibility to cold, perennial in trop¬ ical climates, large thick often ovate-lanceolate leaflets, and fewer thick fleshy straightish (or sometimes laterally curved) pods with a less prominent point and not readily splitting open at maturity ; seeds much larger, white, red, black or speckled. The botanical name of this plant is Phaseolus lunatus var. macrocarpus. Of this true or large Lima there are two types in cultivation : 294 Bulletin 115. The Flat or Large-seeded Limas, which have large, very flat and more or less lunate and veiuy seeds, very broad pods with a distinct point and broad ovate leaflets. See figs. 107 and 109 for foliage ; 106, 108 and no for pods ; and 101 for the beans. The Potato Limas, with smaller and tumid seeds, shorter and thicker pods with a less prominent point, and long-ovate leaflets tapering from a more or less angular base into a long apex. See figs 112 for foliage ; 111 and 113 for pods ; and 101 for the beans. Kaighu. Willow-I y eaf. Speckled. Black. Dreer. 101. — Types of Lima beans. Natural size. A. The Sievas .— There are four dwarf varieties of the Sieva type, the Henderson, Jackson, Dwarf Carolina, and Northrop, Braslan and Goodwin Dwarf Lima. The Sievas are valuable chiefly because of their earliness. The beans are not so rich as those of the large Limas, and seem to us to be scarcely worth the growing where the latter can be successfully raised. Last 3 7 ear we made an effort to grow all tall Lima beans. The seeds were all started in good garden soil on the 31st of May, and kept in very clean cultivation throughout the season. Amongst the pole or running Limas, the following, in our test, are Sievas : The Pole Lima Beans. 295 1. Snail Carolina or Sieva Lima .—An early variety which began to bloom July 29, and ripened its crop before frost. Green beans were ready for the table late in August. The beans are small, clear white, three or sometimes four in the small and pro¬ fuse papery pods. It is a heavy grower, a tall climber and very productive. Hender¬ son Dwarf is like this except in stature. Seeds from Burpee. 2. Black or Early Black (Figs. 101, 102). —Differs from the last chiefly in the color and shape of the beans, which are black (or deep purple-black) blotched and stained with white near the ventral edge, more or less angular or irreg¬ ular in shape. Ripen¬ ed its crop well. Very productive. Thebeans are in every way as good in quality as the white sievas. Sent out for trial by Burpee in 1892 and introduced by him in 1893. Var ious purple spotted sievas have long been known. Seeds from Thorburn and Burpee. 3. Willow-Leaf (Figs. 101, 103, 104, 105).-—Later than No. 1, with which it is practically identical in the beans and pods. The distinguishing feature of this interesting bean is the very curious foliage. The typical form of leaf is shown in Fig. 104, but the bean is not well fixed, and many plants bear leaves as shown in Fig. 105 or even as broad as those of the ordinary Sieva. The Willow-Leaf Lima is a very ornamental plant, 102. Black Lima. Natural size. 103. Willow-Leaf, size. Full \ 296 Bulletin 115. and is worth growing for its attractive foliage and habit. It is a'tall grower, and if given a moist soil, would make an effectual i , screen until frost comes. We have three years, but have never prized vegetable garden. It is a sport or mon sieva type. It was introduced tributed for trial in 1891) by Bur- it from the South. Seeds from B. The large flat Limas .— Of the large white are several important type of bean is the one represents the species dens. It is much su- the sieva type in bear¬ ing larger and much richer beans. The ear¬ lier strains mature most of their crop in central New York, if properly grown. The filled green pods which remain when frost comes yield ex¬ cellent green beans for the table. Burpee Dwarf is an offshoot of this type of Lima. 4. Large White .—The old stock of Lima bean, from which most sprung. It was catalogued by as 1838. It has probably been edTn the meantime, however. As grown it two or it greatly for the offshoot of the com- in 1892 (but dis- pee, who received Burpee. or flat Limas there varieties. This which chiefly in the gar- Willow-Leaf. Half size. other varieties have Dreer as long ago somewhat improv- we grew it last year, short or medium it had little value. The growth was (not climbing strongly), and it was late and unproductive. Al¬ though it began to bloom as early as the sievas, it had ripened very few beans by the first of October. The pods were medium The Poee Lima Beans. 297 large, flat and curved, with a short tip. Beans flat, clear white, two to three in a pod. Of a variety which has been so long cultivated, there are certain to be strains of varying merit. Very likely the exact type cultivated twenty years ago is now unknown. Seeds from Burpee. 5. Jersey .—A good early strain of the Large White Lima, usually a week or ten days earlier. A strong, tall grower. Pods me¬ dium size, much curv¬ ed when ripe, and strongly tip-point¬ ed. Beans medium size, flat, greenish white, av¬ er aging two or three in a pod. Seeds from Landreth. 6. Bliss (Bliss's Extra Early , Extra Early , Extra Early Jersey ) Fig. 106.— A good early bean, fully as early as No. 5, and more productive. Tall, bearing broad pods of medium length with three to five large flat 106 . Bliss. Natural size. u • . ~ greenish white beans m each. One of the very best of the early strains of the large Limas. Introduced by B. K. Bliss & Sons, 1878. Seeds from Rawson, and May. 7. New Extra Early (Figs. 107, 108).—A low plant (2 to 4 feet high), mostly not disposed to climb, with large pods, each 105 . Willow Leaf. Half size. 298 Bulletin 115. containing three or four rather large white beans. Began to bloom the 19th of July, but was not so early in maturing fruit as No. 6. It is probably the same as No. 6, however, the difference K being due to seeds or other inciden¬ tal circumstances. Seeds from Bur¬ pee. \ \ • -V. 8. Platt , or Plait's King of the Garden (also called King of the Garden ). —A very large-pod¬ ded bean, late, pro- / .- , ducing very large and excellent white kid¬ ney-shaped beans. A short and slender grower, and not very productive with us last year. Sent out by Frank S. Platt, New Haven, Conn., as early as 1886, and said to be a cross of the Large White Lima and Dreer Improved. Seeds from Burpee, and Perry (Syracuse). 9. Mammoth Kidney-Shaped (Figs. 109, 110).—A good selection of the Large White Lima, the strain we grew being a medium tall grower, bearing broad and short' tipped pods of medium size, and white, flat, kidney-shaped me¬ dium sized beans. Productive, and ripens most of its crop before frost. A kidney-shaped form of the Large White Lima was cat¬ alogued as early as 1846 by Coates. Seeds from Livingston’s Sons. V. 107 . New Extra Early. Elalf size. £3 10. Kaiglm, or Kaighyi's Improved (Fig. 101).—The best large Lima on our grounds last year. Medium strong grower, bearing heavily of very large curved and pointed pods. Beans three or four to the pod, very large and flat, white, of most excellent qual¬ ity. Ripened well before frost- The variety is a selection out of The Poee Tima Beans. 299 the Tong White Tima by John M. Kaighn, Camden, N. J. Seeds from Tandreth. May Champion .—An extra strain of Targe White Tima, with very large and broad curved tip-pointed pods, and 12. Speckled Lima (Fig. 101).—An early form of Tima, with handsome, medium sized flat beans which are speckled and blotched no. Mammoth Kidney- Shaped. Full size. 300 Bulletin 115. with very dark red-brown. Pods rather long and slender, tipped, containing three or four beans. A tall grower, ripening about all its crop before frost. A good bean, but the color is objectionable to most persons. The Speckled Tima originated in 1867, and is said to be a cross of the common Tima with Red-Seeded Giant Wax Pole Bean, but I fail to discover any evidences of hybridity. It is possible that there are different breeds of this Speckled or “ strip¬ ed” bean, and that our strain is not a direct descendent of the form introduced in 1867. Seeds from Thorburn. Red Tima is evidently the same. C. The Potato Limas .— The Potato Tima type was represented in our test by two kinds. The Kumerle, Thorburn or Dreer Dwarf Tima belongs to this type. The beans are perhaps the richest in quality of all the Timas. 13. Dreer Improved { Figs. 101, 111). —A most excellent bean, producing al¬ most straight pods of medium size, lack¬ ing the tip, thick and without the thin edges of the common large Timas. Beans three to four in each pod, of medium size, irregular in shape, turgid and rounded on the edges, dull or greenish white, of best quality. A strong grower, productive, and ripening a large part of its crop before frost, although not so early as two or three of the varieties of the large Tima. This variety can be strongly recommended for its quality and for the large yield of shelled beans in hi. Dreer Improved. Full size. proportion to the bulk of pods. This bean was offered first time in Dreer’s Garden Calendar of 1875. This is the description then given: “This bean is the The Poee Pima Beans. 301 product of the green wrinkled variety obtained from Mr. H. Kimber, of Kimberton, Chester County, Pa., about thirty years ago. Selections of the best specimens were annually made for seed until the bean has increased in early maturity and size, and established the present standard character. “Thedis- tinctive features of this sort are early m aturity, prolificness and extra " : >- \ I 'V ; ' V ' ' -A v ,. '* ■ .\ s V. ... ^ 112. Challenger . Half size. containing matter and pro- more shelled quality of bean ; more saccharine ducing one-third beans to the pole than the Large Pima, while the shelling becomes an easy matter, from the fact of the pods being entirely full of beans, forming[ one against the other like peas in a pod. “ Th z. American Agriculturist of November 1874, says: ‘In these beans the pods are not only full, with no spaces between, 113. Challenger. Full size. 302 Bulletin 115. but are as full as they can stick, the seeds so crowding one another that the ends of the central beans are square ; the bean is also much thicker than the ordinary kind. A vine of this kind bear¬ ing the same number of pods as one of the ordinary variety would, we should judge, yield nearly if not twice as much in shelled beans. The pod being so completely filled, the shelling becomes an easy matter, and the beans when cooked are much superior to the ordinary ones, as the amount of skins is much smaller in pro¬ portion to the enclosed nutriment. “ ‘We regard the improving of this bean as one of the most im¬ portant of the recent contributions to horticulture.’ ” 14. Challenge or Clialleyiger (Figs. 112, 113).—So like Dreer Improved that I cannot distinguish any constant differences, but the pods are perhaps shorter. Introduced some years ago by J. M. Thorburn & Co. Seeds from Livington’s Sons. John W. Kumerle, Newark, New Jersey, a well known Lima bean grower and the originator of the Kumerle or Thorburn dwarf Lima, writes me as follows respecting this bean : “I have sold this variety for a number of years under the name of Hedden Lima bean. It is the same as J. M. Thorburn & Co. of New York City sell as Challenge. I receive my supply from V. J. Hedden, Esq., of East Orange, N. J. This bean has been in the Hedden family for at least eighty years and they have been very particular in selecting them every year for seed until they have succeeded in producing a bean that yields from five to six beans in the pod. ” D. Varieties not tested .— Other varieties of true Lima beans which were catalogued last year but which we did not grow, are the following : Ford's Mammoth Podded —“Selected by James Ford of Phila¬ delphia from Large Lima, with reference to five and six beans in pod of large size ; the pod is also very and unnecessarily large.” Salem Mammoth —A greenish Lima, similar to the Ford, from Salem Co., New Jersey. Stokes' Evergreen or Mammoth Green Jersey —“A very large green-seeded Lima. Valuable because it retains its green color even after ripening. ” Our seeds of this variety failed to grow. The Polk Lima Beans. 303 Washington Market —We know it only by name (catalogued by Perry Seed Store, Syracuse). E. The Horticultural Lima .— There are two other species of beans which are sometimes known as Limas, which should be mentioned in this connection. The Horticultural Lima (Fig. 114) is one of these. This is not a Lima bean at all, but simply a form of the com¬ mon garden pole bean ( Phaseolus vulgaris'). It is not a vigorous climber, reaching only three or four feet high, ripening its slender pods very early. The beans are dun-colored with pretty brown markings. A good and early bean (maturing before any of the Limas), valuable either for a “ shelled ” bean or for use when fully ripe. A Horticultural Lima was raised some years ago by O. H. Alexander, Charlotte, Vermont, and I suppose that the current stock passing under this name is the same bean. Mr. Alexander describ¬ ed the variety as follows : ‘ ‘ This is a cross from the Boston Horticultural bush bean on Dreer’s \ Extra Early Lima, and I find it, after testing it several years, to be the best of all pole beans. In color and foliage it resembles the Horticultural; in form it resembles the Lima. The quality I find is superior to either of its parents. It is very prolific, and throws out handsome green pods from five to six inches long.” It is also known as Child’s Horticultural Lima. We grew the variety last year from seeds obtained from Burpee and from Childs. The two stocks were identical, and neither of them gave the least sug¬ gestion of a cross with the Lima. I have never yet seen any evidence of hybridity between Phaseolus lunatus and P. vulgaris. F. The Chickasaw Lima .— The Chickasaw Lima, Jack Bean, or Horse 114. Horticultural Lima. Full size. 304 Bulletin 115. Bean (Figs. 115, 116) is a curious bean which I mention here only because it is sometimes called a Fima. It is Canavalia ensi- formis , a tropical species which is widely cultivated. It has be¬ come generally distributed in the southern states during the past few years, where it is generally known as the Jack Bean. I have not been able to trace its intro¬ duction into this couutry, nor have I found any recent Amer¬ ican literature describing it. It has probably come into the United States from the West Indies or Mexico. Grisebach and others speak of its cultiva¬ tion in Jamaica, and we are growing it from there at the present moment. The Jack bean will probably not ripen in the north. We have grown it under glass, where it makes a twining vine four to eight feet high. In warm countries, it is a bushy plant with little tendency to climb. The pods reach a length of ten to fourteen inches, the walls being very hard and dense when ripe. The halves of the pod, when split apart, roll up spirally, often into an almost perfect cylinder. The large white turgid beans, bearing a very prominent brown seed-scar, are packed crosswise the pod, imbedded in a very thin white paper lining. The flowers are small and light-purple, resembling those of the Cow-pea (though larger) and of various species of dolichos. The leaflets are three, large and broad (5 to 8 inches long and half or three-fifths as broad), strongly veined and dull dark green, abruptly pointed and smooth. 115. The Chickasaw Lima or Jack Bean (