THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY NV| K\ tr Ho r Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 https://archive.org/details/washingtonsoils8597that THE STATE COLLEGE OF WASHINGTON Agricultural Experiment Station PULLMAN, WASHINGTON DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY WASHINGTON SOILS By R. W. Thatcher Bulletin No. 85 190 8 «I All bulletins of this station sent free to citizens of the state on application to the Director. BOARD OF CONTROL Peter McGregor, President Colfax F. J. Barnard, Treasurer Seattle J. J. Browne Spokane Dr. J. S. Anderson - - - - - - Asotin Eee A. Johnson Sunnyside A. Bryan, Secretary ex officio .... Pullman President of the College. STATION STAFF. R. W. Thatcher, M. A., Directoi and Chemist E. E. Elliott, M. S., Agriculturist and Supt. Farmers’ Institutes Elton Fulmer, M. A., State Chemist S. B. Nelson, D. V. M., Veterinarian O. E. Waller, Ph. M., Irrigation Engineer R. K. Beattie, A. M., Botanist WalterS. Thornber, M.S. Horticulturist A. E. Melander, M. S. Entomologist George Severance, B. S., Agronomist C. W. Eawrence, B. S. Cerealist W. A EinklaTER, B. S. A. - - - - Animal Husbandman H. B. Berry, B. S., Soil Physicist W. E. Ralston, D. V. M. Assistant Veterinarian H. R. Watkins, M. S. Assistant Chemist A. G. Craig, B. S. Assistant Horticulturist W. T. Shaw, B. S. Assistant Zoologist Washington Soils By R. W. Thatcher In the fall of 1893 the Chemistry Department of this Station commenced what was planned to be an '‘exhaustive soil survey of the state.’ ’ Work in connection with this sur- vey has been in progress, as opportunity permitted, ever since that time. Two bulletins reporting results obtained have been issued. Bulletin No. 13, by Elton Fulmer and C. C. Fletcher, was issued in 1894, and contained a discussion of the purposes of the work and the benefits which it was hoped might accrue from it, the results of the analyses of twenty different samples of soil, a comparison of the chemi- cal composition of some of these with typical fertile soils from other states, and a report of the analyses of eight sam- ples of soil from what is now Benton County of this state, made by the United States Department of Agriculture. Bulletin No. 55, by Elton Fulmer, was issued in 1902. It contains a report of the results of analyses of seventy-nine soil samples, made between the date of the publication of the preceding bulletin and July 1st, 1901, and such general con- clusions as seemed warranted at that time. Since the prepar- ation of that bulletin there have been analyzed eighty-nine additional soil samples, coming in the main from different sections or different localities than those previously analyzed. It is believed that the one hundred eighty-eight samples which have been analyzed fairly represent all the different localities and different types of soil which are to be found in the state, and that the soil survey may, therefore, be consid- ered as completed, and that a final report of its results may now be issued. This is the purpose of this bulletin, which contains a report of the analyses which have been made in 4 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station connection with the soil survey since July 1st, 1901, and a summary of the results of the whole survey. Most of the analytical work reported in this bulletin was done by the author himself. About fifteen of the samples were analyzed by Mr. H. R. Watkins, the present Assistant Chemist of the Station, to whom the author's indebtedness is hereby ex- pressed. OBJECTS AND METHODS OF THE SOIL SURVEY WORK. Inasmuch as Bulletin No. 13 is now out of print, a few words as to the purpose for which this work was undertaken and methods of carrying it on may properly be given here. The variations in the topography, nature of the mother rock, climatic conditions, and other influences which have been active agencies in the formation of our soils are so great, that we have within the boundaries of the state a very large number of different kinds of soil. The variations in the types of soils of this state are probably greater than in any other state in the United States. The object of the soil sur- vey of the state has been to accumulate as complete informa- tion concerning the chemical composition, and probable fer- tility to be derived thererfom, of all the varieties of soil to be found in the state, as it would be found possible to do. The possession of such data will make it possible for us to give our farmers, orchard ists and investors, much valuable information both as to the probable extent and durability of the fertility of the soil in the different sections of the state, and as to the best means to increase the fertility of those soils which are not now capable of yielding wholly satisfact- ory crops. It is believed that the information now at hand amply repays the expense and effort necessary to secure it, and that it will become increasingly valuable as the agricul- tural resources are developed and more attention is given to securing increased returns from the acreages under cultiva- tion. In carrying out this survey, it has not been possible for this Department to send out parties to study the soil in the Bulletin No. 85 — Washington Soils 5 different counties and to select representative samples there- from. We have had to depend to a considerable extent upon samples sent in to us by interested persons throughout the state. Whenever such samples as were sent were accom- panied by a satisfactroy description of the land from which they came, and were representative of a type of soil of con- siderable extent, complete analyses were made and the rec- ords of the results preserved as a part of the soil survey work. . A great many samples have been received which were of only local or private interest to the person sending them, and have been dealt with as such and are not included in this soil study. A very considerable proportion of the samples analyzed in this survey have been sent in at the re- quest of this department and some have been secured by the chemists themselves during visits made for other purposes to the localities which they represent. In order that the terms used and the analytical data re- corded in the following pages maybe more easily understood, a few words concerning the general composition of soils will be necessary. ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION OF SOILS. All soils are produced by the disintegration, or mechan- ical breaking-down, and decomposition, or chemical break- ing-down, of rock. This breaking-down, or “weathering” as it is termed, is caused by the joint action of air, moisture, sudden changes of temperature, and of growing or decaying vegetation, on the rocks of which the earth's crust is com- posed. The action is generally slow, but is continuous and very powerful. When it has been going on long enough so that the rock is reduced to a rather fine powder, and this “rock waste” is mixed with a certain amount of decaying vegetable matter, “soil” is produced. It follows that the nature of the soil will depend largely on that of the rocks from which it originated. But the nature and the amount of vegetable matter which they contain, the extent to which they have been moved about and intermixed by wind and 6 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station water, etc., are disturbing factors which make it impossible to always definitely associate a soil with the rock which it overlays. A distinction should here be made between “soil” and “sub-soil.” The latter is much more apt to be of the same chemical nature as the original mother rock of that lo- cality. In sections of abundant rainfall, where the growth of vegetation is considerable, the character of the surface soil is much modified by the vegetable remains, and there is often a sharp line of demarcation between the soil and the subsoil. But in dry regions the differences between the soil of different depths are often scarcely perceptible. From the above brief discussion it will be apparent that soil consists essentially of two major constituents, namely mineral matter, or “rock waste,” and organic matter, or vegetable matter in various stages of decay. The organic matter is very complex in its nature, and exists in every stage of decay from the woody fibre of grow- ing plants to the gases which are the result of the complete decomposition of vegetable matter. In the analysis of soil a distinction is made between “volatile and organic matter,” which comprises all the material which may be driven off or burned off from a soil by high heat, and includes combined water and certain gases as well as the purely vegetable mat- ter of the soil, and “humus,” or that part of the organic matter which is in certain intermediate stages of decay and may be dissolved out of the soil by dilute solutions of am- monia or other alkaline liquids. Humus is that part of the organic matter which is in the proper form to serve as a supply of plant food. It is of very great value in soils, be- cause it not only sunplies a very necessary element of plant food, nitrogen, but has also the power to attack some of the inert mineral matter of the soil and change it into forms which are available for plant food purposes. It also exerts very beneficial effects upon the physical properties of the soil because of its light, bulky form and its dark color, prop- erties which tend to increase the power of the soil to absorb and retain heat and moisture, and to make it much more easily tillable. The influences which change organic matter Bulletin No. 85 — Washing toil Soils 7 to humus are most active in well tilled soils and it will be noticed in the analyses which are reported in this bulletin that a much larger proportion of the total organic matter of cultivated soils is in this form than in the case of the “vir- gin”, or uncultivated soils. NITROGEN is always a constituent of the vegetable matter of the soil, although in widely varying proportions. It is an absolutely essential element of plant food, being largely consumed in the builidng up of the green growing parts of the plant, i. e., the stems and leaves, or foliage. A rank growth of dark green foliage indicates an abundance of available nitrogen in the soil, while a slow growth, of pale green color, if other conditions are suitable, indicates nitro- gen hunger. None of the original rocks of the earth’s crust contain nitrogen, and the supply in the soil comes wholly from decayed organic matter. The mineral matter of the soil comprises all the material derived from the original mother rock, and exists in all de- grees of fineness from coarse sand or gravel down to the finest clay particles so small as to be scarcely visible even under a powerful microscope. In making a chemical analy- sis, the sample of soil is first sifted through a sieve having meshes 0.5 millimeter, or 1-50 of an inch apart. This is done because it is supposed that mineral particles too large in size to pass through this sieve are too coarse to serve as a supply of plant food. All the analyses recorded in this bulletin were made on the fine earth which had been so sifted. The mineral matter of soils ordinarily contains the fol- lowing chemical elements: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, aluminium, maganese, sulphur, silicon^ carbon, phosphorus. Of these the first seven are metallic elements, while sulphur, silicon, carbon and phosphorus are non-metals. In addition to those just named, small quanti- ties of other elements are occasionally found, but not in suffi- cient quantities to give them any significance in this discus- sion. These elements in the soil are always united together in more or less complex compounds. These compounds al- 8 Washintgon Agricultural Experiment Station most invariably contain oxygen and are made up of metallic oxide (or combination of oxygen w ith a metallic element) united "with a non-metallic oxide (or combination of oxygen with a non-metallic element.) Hence it is customary to de- termine the percenatge of the oxide of each element, rather than that of the element itself, in making an analysis of a sample of soil, as is shown in the reports of all the analyses which have been made in this laboratory. For this reason the names of these oxides rather than the names'of the ele- ments themselves, as given above, are used in the following discussion and throughout the bulletin. In making an analysis such as has been employed for this work the soil is digested with strong hydrochloric acid (specific gravity 1.115) for ten hours at the temperature of boiling water. This treatment is believed to dissolve all the mineral matter of the soil which is in such form that it may become available as plant food. The material which is not dissolved under these conditions is undecomposed rock which has no value whatever as plant food. This is reported in the tables below as insoluble silica, although it invariably con- tains insoluble rock substance other than pure silica or quartz. The hydrated silica represents that part of the sil- ica not dissolved by the acid which is soluble in a strong so- lution of sodium carbonate, and was originally present in the soil as clay substance, the latter being attacked by the acid and the metals in combination with it dissolved out. It is of value, therefore, as indicating the proportion of the min- eral elements which are in combination as clay. The soluble silica is that part of the silica which dissolves in the acid and probably represents the amount of silicates in the soil which might, under proper conditions, be taken into plant roots has such. SILICA is of no value as plant food. Small amounts of it are found in the ash of plants, showing that it is taken up from the soil into plants, but it performs no known function in the plant tissue. The physical properties of soils are greatly affected by the amount of silica (true sand, or quartz) or clay (silicate of alumina) which it con- tains. Friability, porosity, and conductivity for heat are Bulletin No. 85 — Washington Soils 9 properties of sand, while a certain' amount of clay increases the water-holding capacity and capilarity of the soil. IRON OXIDE, or iron rust, either as such or combined with water as ferric hydroxide, is present in all soils in con- siderable amounts, and often gives a red color to them, al- though if more organic matter is present the color due to iron may be obscured by the brown or black color of the humus. Plants require a small amount of iron as plant food, but it is always present ir soils in far greater abundance than is ever needed by crops. ALUMINA occurs chiefly in the form of clay (alumi- nium silicate). The importance of clay in a soil has already been pointed out. Alumina is not necessary to plant growth and so does not serve as plant food. LIME is one of the most important constituents in the soil. Chemically, it serves to neutralize the organic acids produced by the decay of vegetable matter, aids the rapid transformation of vegetable matter into*humus and liberates other elements of plant food from insoluble forms, thereby rendering them available for plant use. Physically, it im- proves the soil by rendering the clay more flocculent, thus increasing its friability and water-holding capacity, and by cementing sand grains in sandy soils, thereby increasing the water-holding capacity and capillary of the soil. Lime is also required by plants in building up cell-tissue, but only in very small amounts, hence it is usually abundant in the soil as far as its use as plant food is concerned. MAGNESIA occurs in the soil associated with lime, and is somewhat similar in its chemical properties to it. But it does not exert the same beneficial effect on the soil as does the lime. Magnesia is used by plants, especially by cereals, being in some way connected with seed-formation. It is us- ually present in soils in abundance for plant uses. POTASH is present in soils as a result of the decompo- sition of rocks of the feldspar type, such as orthoclase, gran- ite and some forms of mica. It is usually found more or less loosely combined with the clay which results from the decomposition of these rocks. It is an essential element of IO Washington Agricultural Experiment Station plant food, being connected with the building up of the car- bohydrates (starches, sugars, etc.) It is, therefore, needed in considerable amounts by all crops, especially fruits and vegetables. SODA is very similar to potash in its origin, occurence in the soil, and chemical properties. It cannot, ' however, perform the functions of potash in plants, and is of no value as plant food. When present in soils in forms which are soluble in water it is one of the commoner kinds of “alkali” and if in sufficient quantity is very injurious to plants. PHOSPHORIC ACID is the form in which the element phosphorus usually occurs in soils. It never occurs as free acid but combined with iron, lime, or some other metal, phosphate of lime being the most common form. It is usually present in smaller amounts than any other of the substances mentioned above. It is a very essential element of plant food, being required for the building up of proteid matter in plants. This proteid matter is usually stored up largely in the seeds and forms an important constituent of them. Hence, phosphoric acid is directly connected with seed-pro- duction and is required in considerable amount by all crops, especially by the cereals. Because of the small amounts which are ordinarily present, soils are often deficient in phosphoric acid and are, therefore, benefitted by the appli- cation of phosphate fertilizers. SULPHURIC ACID bears the same relation to the ele- ment sulphur that phosphoric acid does to phosphorus, and what has been said about the latter applies equally as well to sulphuric acid. It is present in soils in much smaller quan- tities, however, but is required in smaller amounts by plants. Hence, it is supposed to be always present in sufficient amounts to supply plant needs, although the most recent in- vestigations seem to show that the use of sulphates as fer- tilizers is of more importance than has been supposed. CARBON DIOXIDE, or carbonic acid gas, is present in soils both as the free gas and combined with lime and other metals, as carbonate of lime, etc. The gaseous form is not included in the ordinary analysis of the solid matter of soils. Bulletin No. 85 — Washington Soils 1 The combined carbonic acid is of importance as a measure of the amount of carbonate of lime present, since it is in this form which lime exerts its most beneficial effects. From the above discussion it will be seen that of all the elements described, four alone are necessary to be considered in connection with problems of supply of plant food, or fer- tility questions. The others are either non-essential to plant growth, or are always present in soils in abundance. The four constituents, lime, potash, phosphoric acid, and nitro- gen, which are essential to plant growth and are likely to be insufficient in quantity in the soil are known as the “criti- cal elements of fertility.’ ’ A study of the analytical tables recorded in this and the preceding soil bulletins shows exceedingly wide variations in the percentages of these different elements in our soils. As a means of comparison with these, the following state- ment of the average composition of two hundred typical fertile soils, as given by Professor Snyder, of the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, in his book on “Soils and Fertilizers,” is presented: Insoluble matter - 79.95 per cent Potash 0.29 per cent Soda - 0.25 per cent Lime 2.16 per cent Magnesia 0.55 per cent Iron Oxide 2.68 per cent Alumina 5.20 per cent Phosphoric anhydride 0.24 per cent Sulphuric 0.03 per cent Carbonic 1.12 per cent Volatile Matter 7.00 per cent Total 99.7 per cent Humus 3.35 per cent Nitrogen 0.29 per cent It appears that an average fertile soil of Washington is richer in potash, about the same in phosphoric acid, and 12 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station poorer in carbonate of lime, humus and nitrogen, than the average of those reported by Prof. Snyder, which seem to have come chiefly from the prairies of the Upper Mississippi Valley. EELATION OF SOIL COMPOSITION TO FERTILITY. The methods of analysis employed in his work show the total amount of plant food present in the soils in forms which are dissolved by the strong acid employed. They do not at all show how much of this material is in available forms for plant uses. Unfortunately, no methods have yet been per- fected which will show, with sufficient accuracy to make them even fairly conclusive, how much available plant food of the various kinds is present in a soil at any given time. The best that can yet be done, therefore, is a determination of the total acid-soluble plant food. Experience has shown, however, that it is possible to draw certain fairly definite conclusions as to the fertility or fertilizer needs of a soil from the results of such an analysis. In this connection, Professor Hilgard, the celebrated authority on soils in this country, says: “As between soils of similar character and origin, the production and durability are sensibly propor- tioned to the plant food percentages when the latter fall be- low a certain limit.” With regard to the percentages of each of the critical elements of fertility, lime, potash, phosphoric acid, and nitrogen, which are necessary for satisfactory plant growth, the most complete standards which have been proposed are those of Professor Maerker, of the Halle Ex- periment Station, in Germany. These are given in Prof. Hilgard’s new book on “Soils,” page 369, as follows: Bulletin No. 85 — Washingto?i Soils 15 Practical Ratings of Soils by Plant-Food Percentages According to Prof. Kaerker, Halle Sta., Germany. Grade of Soil Potash Phosphoric Lime Total Acid Clay Soil Sandv Soil Nitrogen Poor Below .05 Below .05 Below .10 Below .05 Below .05 Medium •05—15 .05— .10 .10-. 25 .05-. 10 .05— .10 Normal •15— -25 .10— .15 .25-.50 .10-.20 .10— .15 Good .25— .40 •15—25 .50-1.00 .20-. 30 •15— -25 Rich Above .40 Above .25 Ab’vei.oo Above v 30 Above .25 These estimates are in very close agreement with nearly all of those which have been suggested by other soil chemists, in all parts of the world, although different methods of analysis are used by men in different countries. In fact, the writer believes that these standards may be fairly considered as proper ones for soils throughout the humid regions of the temperate zone. In tropical regions percentages required for fertility have been shown to be much less than these, and in semi-arid districts, typical fer- tile soils invariably show higher percentages of the mineral ingredients of the soil. But for general purposes, the stand- ards of Prof. Maerker may be commonly applied, and it is suggested that they be kept carefully in mind in the consid- eration of the analyses reported in this, and the other bul- letins in this series. RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF SOILS. The results of the analyses of the samples of soils which have been made in connection with this survey, since those reported in Bulletin 55 were completed, follow. The sam- ples are arranged by counties, and following each analytical table, a brief description of each sample and discussion of the results of the analysis of it are given. M Washington Agricultural Experiment Station SPOKANE COUNTY. I No. 564 No. 641 No. 642 No. 643 No. 1030 Insoluble Silica I ( 84.380 79 .432 65.480 70.900 Hydrated Silica \ 60 .040 2.920 7.776 11.626 9.540 Soluble silica l 0.108 0.040 0.580 0-122 Potash (K,0) 0.829 0 438 0.304 0.356 0.389 Soda (NaoO) 0.912 0.356 0.250 . 0.550 0.230 time (CaO) 7 .768 0.320 0.334 0.524 0.618 Magnesia (MgO) 3.891 0.142 trace 0.398 0.295 Manganese Dioxide (Mn._>0).... none none none none none Iron Oxide (Fe«0 3 ) 4.123 3.100 3.430 4.298 3.141 Alumina (ALO ; ) 6.928 5.335 6.655 10.826 6.582 Phosphorus Pentoxide (P 2 O 5 ) . 0.249 0.108 0.157 0.300 0.185 Sulphur Trioxide (S0 3 ) trace none 0 073 0.061 0.100 Carbon Dioxide (COo) 7.187 none none trace Volatile and Organic matter... • 3 724 2.595 1.822 5.448 7.894 Total 100 .151 99.802 100.273 100 484 99.996 Humus 1 .000 0 . 6 C 0 0.520 1.190 3.050 Total Nitrogen 0.062 0-027 0.022 0.061 0.143 Moisture in Air-Dry Soil 2.880 0.606 0.787 1.910 2.040 No. 564 was sent in by Mr. B. 0. Wing, of Spokane. It was taken from the upper part of the Little Spokane valley, representing an area which it was proposed to bring under irrigation. Mr. Wing writes that the soil shows “alkali” spots. The analysis shows the soil to be marked calcareous in nature, containing over 18 per cent of carbonates of lime and magnesia. The proportion of potash and soda is also very high— indicating the possibility of considerable amounts of alkali in the soil. Under proper irrigation, these injurious alkali salts might be successfully removed, however, and the soil is otherwise well stocked with plant food. It is some- what low in humus and nitrogen, but this is quite character- istic of irrigated soils, and may easily be remedied by plow- ing under leguminous crops. Nos. 641, 642 and 643 were sent in by Mr. Guy Stam- baugh, of Elk. They were taken from a farm lying upon the divide east of the Little Spokane river, on Sec. 7-29-44 E. Nos. 641 and 624 are stiff clay loams lying at the top of the divide, while No. 643 lies lower down on the east slope. The upper soils are very deficient in humus and nitrogen, the lower soil being better supplied but still not very rich in these constituents. Bulletin No. 85 — Washmglon Soils 15 No. 1030 was sent in by Mr. J. A. Yeomans, of Spokane, who writes that the sample was taken from Sec. 25-26-43 E. ; that it represents a very considerable area of soil in the dis- trict known as “Five Mile Prairie, ,, and that winter apples growing on this soil do not “color up” well, and asks for an explanation of the latter difficulty. The analysis shows the soil to be well supplied with all the essential elements of plant food; potash and iron, the two elementts which are sometimes supposed to be associated with the production of highly colored fruit, being present in ample amounts. The difficulty which Mr. Yeomans mentions is, therefore, prob- ably due to climatic or other conditions, rather than to any lack of fertility in the soil. Ci ^ CT> rf OJ rH O <3$ OC »-l I avTroaoO'S= v <50SSC5co I o«Oto (j®i>o»o)Tr ,_• ® dio’oo 0 '*’^ ° eo ■ M >* H £ £ O o C/2 £ w > &q H C/2 No. 673 o tcotto u i-i | O K00 31H n^tiCO) c -H mo^io jCooh g: io O o’ © © o' r; c4 C«5 O* c ci © I 99.939 0.920 ! 0.030 | 2.249 No. 656 | 86.870 0.320 0.290 0.590 0.469 none 3.380 4.521 0.089 none 3.840 100.369 1.410 0.040 0.759 No. 655 O | O ■— (lt»f rl H o i" S«n« g: © 100.369 OQO(N lsf8 0(D®NiOt» OOiOOOCO (onoh^mh odco-^oQo go |cs i> o’ o’ dodi; xo o' o' 2 tt i 1 ' 100.173 1.590 0.044 2.420 6 £ 87.718 4.242 0.040 0.074 0.290 0.400 0.234 none 1.246 2.361 0.083 none trace 3.420 100 108 I 1 WO No. 78 79.420 8.630 0.034 0.225 0.338 0.741 0.239 none 2.142 5.175 0.048 none 3.445 100.437 0.465 0.034 0 847 No. 77 76.686 9.706 0.026 0.492 0.033 0.741 0.150 none 2.384 5.939 0.122 none 4.201 ii Is !005H IC5-TH ! ooocc OOrH Insoluble Silicia Hydrated Soluble " Potash (K 2 0) Soda (NaoO) Lime (CaO) Magnesia (MgO) Manganese Dioxide (MnOo) Iron Oxide (Fe 2 0 3 ) Alumina (A1 2 0 3 ) Phos. Pentoxide (P 2 0 5 ) Sulphur Trioxide(S0 3 ) Carbon Dioxide (COo) Vol. & Organic Matter Humus Total Nitrogen Water in Air-dry Soil Bulletin No. 85 — Washington Soils 17 STEVENS COUNTY. Nos. 77 and 78 are samples of surface soil and subsoil respectively, sent in by Mr. P. E. Peterson, of Camden. Mr. Peterson writes: “This soil is taken where nothing is grow- ing, except trees all having pitch, except cedar. The ground has never been plowed and never had any manure, but fire has run over it several times. There is at present a thin covering of pine, fir, balsam fir and tamarack needles. There is no lime, minerals, or ore in this locality so far as I know. The land where this soil was taken is low and level and is apparently different from the high land soil. I plowed two acres of this land this spring and sowed it to sand vetch, but it did not grow four inches high, while vetches in my garden grew three feet high. The garden has had manure. My neighbors inform me that crops of any kind do not do well on this soil the first year after it is broke up, owing to there being too much turpentine, or pitch in the ground.” The analyses show the soil to be well supplied with potash, lime and phosphoric acid, but very low in humus and nitro- gen. It is probable that the difficulty in getting crops to grow on new land of this kind is due to a lack of available nitrogen. This is further shown in the beneficial effect of manure on the soil. The plowing under of some vegetable or animal matter to supply humus and nitrogen is the ob- vious remedy. No. 161 is not properly a soil, but a sample of the white ashy subsoil found in layers underlying the surface soil in many places in Eastern Washington. It was sent in by Mr. Mihills, of Spokane, who writes that it was taken from his ranch in Spirit Valley, in the southeastern part of Stevens County. He states that this subsoil is covered with a rich, black loam from six to twenty-four inches in depth and asks if this subsoil is adapted to the growing of grass crops, or if it can be improved by manure or other fertilizers. Both the microscopic examination and the chemical analysis of this material show it to be a highly siliceous volcanic ash, of little value for plant food purposes. It could not possess much value to crops either chemically or physically, and the growth i8 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station of crops will depend wholly upon the nature of the overlying soil. Samples Nos. 342, 435, 436, 655 and 673 all represent soils from the Pend d’Oreille valley taken at different locali- ties along its course through Stevens Co. No. 342 was sent in by Mr. W. A. Sloan, of Locke. It was taken from the S.E. quarter of Sec. 14-34-43 E. Mr. Locke writes: “The land here lies in benches rising one above the other back from the Pend d’Oreille river. This place is about five hundred feet above the river and two and one-half miles from it. This soil seems very peculiar in that it re- tains moisture very tenaciously, as during the past summer when it has been so dry (three months without rain) if one dug down three or four inches the soil felt quite moist. When dry it is like powder, and makes a very deep dust, and when moist it packs down quite hard yet is very easily tilled. There have been at least three forest fires burned over this ground. The last one, last summer, left a thick coating of ashes on the ground. The land has never been under culti- vation.’ ’ The analysis shows the soil to be well stocked with phosphoric acid, fairly well supplied with potash, lime and humus, but low in nitrogen. Mr. Locke’s proposal to plow under a clover crop would be ideal treatment for this type of soil. Nos. 435 and 436 were sent in by Mr. Chas. M. TaL madge, of Newport, who describes them as follows: “lam sending you two samples of soil from a piece of bench land south of Newport. Sample No. l,(No. 435), is taken from a piece which has a heavy growth of fir, tamarack, pine and alder. There is very heavy growth of underbrush and vines. The soil is always moist, for the reason that water may be had at almost any point on it at a depth of from three to four feet. Sample No. 2, (No. 436,) is from adjoining land that lies about ten to fifteen feet higher and has a lighter growth of timber, mostly fir and pine. I would like very much to have the soil analyzed in hopes that some way may be discovered of taming the soil for a first crop. Garden peas sowed on this soil started out splendidly, but after they Bulletin No. 85 — Washington Soils 9 had attained a height of about six inches they stopped grow- ing and have since truned yellow. Other vegetables are act- ing the same way. Potatoes, however, show up much better and will undoubtedly return a half crop.” The most notice- able difficulty with these soils is the proportion of coarse sand, gravel, etc., which they contain, No. 435 showing 26.4 per cent and No. 436 62.6 per cent of material of this kind which is too coarse to serve for plant food purposes. The fine earth of the soil, in each case, shows unusually high percentages of phosphoric acid, and a fair supply of potash, nitrogen and humus. The amount of lime is rather low, and it is probable that this, together with the poor physical con- dition of the soil, is responsible for the lack of available plant food as shown by the poor growth of plants on these soils. Nos. 655 and 656 are soil and subsoil from the Pend d- ’Oreille at Usk, sent in by Mr. Henry Bauer. Unfortunately, the correspondence concerning these samples has been mis- laid. No. 673 was sent in by Mr. R. X. Davis, also of Usk, who states that it represents a somewhat different type of soil from that owned by Mr. Bauer. The chief difference in the analyses of these two soils is in their humus and nitro- gen content. The inorganic or mineral plant foods, potash, lime and phosphoric acid are not greatly different in the two cases, and are present in fairly liberal amounts. The supply of nitrogen in No. 673 is very low -and the soil is probably deficient in available nitrogen. No. 1103 was sent in by Mr. S. R. Taylor, from Rock- cut, in the extreme northwest corner of the county. Mr. Taylor writes: ”1 am sending you a sample of some soil over which I have been greatly baffled. I have tried to raise grain upon it, grain of different kinds, but to no purpose. The grain apparently sprouts quickly after first sown, and shoots up green and rank, but presently it turns yellow and then beginsjx) burn up as if a scorching sun had blasted it, until it finally dies outright. Whether the weather is wet or dry makes no material difference with it.” The analysis 20 Washington Agt {cultural Experiment Station shows that the material is not true soil, but an impure car- bonate of lime, or marl mixed with a little soil. It contains about 66 per cent of carbonate of lime. The difficulty of producing crop is easily explained by this fact. It would be almost impossible for any considerable amount of plant food to remain in available form in such a mixture as this any great length of time. FERRY, OKANOGAN AND CHELAN COUNTIES < a w u No. 1886 i»oooo o Tf Oi rH t© C4 00 iO gONNO gO GO rH © O © © O ri d t> © © 2 TP I> ** * 99.371 1.830 .077 2.232 o QO 00 6 £ (N CO O 00 W T* 50 0> © O O rH g g © rg ei © o’ d do q tp d o q 2 flNr!0 Tf< Tj< r-i C^l 50 tO i-l g tO CO »-< O g TJ> w o’ o' 6 a o' o ci « d o a ^ SOCM H W 1 100.135 1.650 0.062 0.908 FERRY No. 1873 N^OTfOCKO^NOH^ijiO i ooojcomcdh ^ owwnw g oo oq 3 © g to wp*doddd gw’ddd poo i i tP cc 00 3 6.671 .220 3.770 No. 1872 » ^ O CO OI » ^ g Tf 1 © c 4 O g l> t;io’ 6 o' 6 dd gMwo n °° 1 100.666 7.099 0.262 3.388 No. 446 l ! Am 10.492 0.204 0.264 0,235 0.581 0.548 none 2.811 4.440 0.124 none trace 3.290 100.033 ® ® 00 doe ( < 2 < < c iiiauiuu.c oiiii.a Hydrated Silica Soluble Silica Potash (K a O) Soda (NaoO) Dime (CaO) Magnesia (MgO) Manganese Dioxide (Mn 2 0).... Iron Oxide (Fe.>O s ) T Alumina (AI 0 O 3 ) Phosphorus Pentoxide(P 2 C> 5 ) . . Sulphur Trioxide (S 0 3 ) Carbon Dioxide (C0 2 ) Volatile and Organic matter... Total Humus Total Nitrogen Moisture in Air-Dry Soil 22 Washington Agricultw al Experiment Station FERRY COUNTY. No. 446 was sent in by Mr. J. J. Charlton, of Kettle Falls. It was taken from the northwest quarter of Sec. 9- 35-37 E. The soil is a very coarse gravelly upland loam, the sample containing 63.5 per cent of coarse sand, gravel, etc., and only 36.5 per cent of earth fine enough to serve as plant food. Mr. Charlton writes concerning the soil: “I have made three attempts to raise alfalfa, the third time inoculat- ing the seed, but it is not yet satisfactory. After the pres- ent year I will have plenty of water for irrigation.” The analysis shows the fine earth of the soil to be well supplied with potash, lime and phosphoric acid, but quite poor in humus and nitrogen. Taking into account the fact that the fine earth constitutes only about one-third of the soil, and that the plant food in the soil is thus greatly thinned out by the large amounts of gravel, etc., it is probable that their is a deficiency in available plant food of all kinds. Soil of this kind would have a poor water-hclding capacity, and it may be that the lack of fertility is due to its inability to hold enough water for the plant needs. Nos. 1872 and 1873 were brought to the laboratory by Mr. H. C. Wilcox, of Pullman, but were taken at his request from districts in Ferry County. No. 1872 was taken from an open bunch grass prairie three miles south of Malo. It came from unbroken sod land. It was a fine brown loam soil, with an occasiqnal large pebble or stone, but with very little coarse sand and gravel. No. 1873 was taken from a cleared pine forest near Republic. This land has been under cultiva- tion for a few years. The soT is a black, clay loam, contain- ing many large pebbles from the size of a pea to that of a hens egg, but no sand or fine gravel. The analyses show both of these soils to be very rich in all the essential ele- ments of plant food. With thorough cultivation, they should prove of very high fertility for a long time to come. Bulletin No. 85 — Washington Soils 23 OKANOGAN COUNTY. The two samples of soil from the Okanogan Valley were taken from land owned by the State College. They were se- cured at the request of the writer by Mr. Geo. A. Davis, of Ophir. No. 789 was labelled by him as “Okanogan Valley soil which has never been broken up or cultivated. Best alfalfa and fruit land in the valley.” No. 790 was marked “Soil from the State College Flat. Has been cultivated two years. Last year produced thirty bushels of wheat per acre, without irrigation.” No. 789 was a coarse sandy alluvial drift, containing 46 per cent of coarse sand, etc., and 64 per cent of fine earth. No. 790 was a very fine silt of the most uniform texture and the finest physical condition of any sam- ple of soil which has ever been received at this laboratory. The two soils are both well stocked with nlantfood, although the proportion of nitrogen in the lower sandy soil is rather low for a grain soil. CHELAN COUNTY. No. 158 was sent in by Mr. J. F. VanDyke, of Leaven- worth. It was taken from the Chewawa River bottom, about six miles north and east of the east end of Lake We- natchee. It was a coarse sandy soil containing 63.2 per cent of fine earth. The pebbles in the sample were chiefly par- tially decomposed sandstone rock. The analysis shows the sample to be rather poorly supplied with mineral plant food, lime especially being present in unusually small amounts for a soil from East of the Cascade Mountains. No. 576 was a sample of only partially decayed or disin- tegrated granite. The weathering of the rock had gone on far enough so that the pebbles of rock were very rotten and crumbled easily between the fingers, and a considerable amount of decayed vegetable matter was present so that the material could probably be classed as soil. It was sent in by Mr. H. C. Peters, of Seattle, but was taken from the south- east quarter of Sec. 14-24-17 E., a little over a mile north of 24 Washintgon Agricultural Experiment Station Leavenworth. Mr. Peters describes it as'follows: “The property lies at the foot of a mountain in the Cascade Ridge running up some 5000 feet. The valley is a mile and a half long, by a half a mile wide and is in the valleys of the We- natchee and Icicle Rivers. The soil seems to be very deep, twenty feet or more, and apparently is a deposit of decom- posed granite washed down from the hill and forming a level plateau.’ ’ The analyses show the sample to be very rich in potash and lime, and well stocked with phosphoric acid, humus, and nitrogen. Whether these ingredients are in such form that they may easily become available for plant food in sufficient quantities can only be ascertained by ex- perimental crops, but the probability is that this will prove a very fertile soil. Nos. 1885 and 1886 were sent in by Mr. J. F. Littoooy, manager of the Wenatchee Canal Company’s orchards at We- natchee, in response to the writer’s request for representa- tive samples of the Wenatchee fruit lands. No. 1885 repre- sents the upper bench lands, lying at an elevation of some thirty to fifty feet above the Columbia River, and No. 1886 represents the lower bench lying between the higher land and the river bottom proper. The samples are quite similar in their chemical composition, both being very rich in pot- ash, and well supplied with lime and phosphoric acid, and having a fair amount of humus and nitrogen. The fine earth of the lower soil is slightly richer in all the essential ele- ments of fertility than the soil of the upper bench, but this is more than counterbalanced by the fact that it contains 44.7 per cent of coarse sand, etc., which is unavailable for plant food purposes. Both soils are amply supplied with plant food, and under proper cultivation, especially when ir- rigated, are capable of the very highest fertility. No. 1416 77.638 8.972 0.898 0.380 0.185 0.563 0.171 none 5.198 3 155 0.102 none none 3.672 100.834 1.280 0.078 0.996 No. 1242 CTiCCO-T'OcO^ M C CC TT lC i-h ^ CO t^> CD ~ O rH O q oc CO o O O O O © 2 CD oi o’ o 2 CO 1 100.419 1.280 0.085 1.534 DOUGLAS No. 1241 73.494 11.676 0.447 0.298 0.302 0.568 0 568 none 7-715 1.700 0.126 0 017 none 3.338 1 °° 5* 00 ag o o o o ib o 2 co o o’ cc m i 1 ss 1 ® lO d i " 0.890 1 0 069 0 690 No. 1890 4 O No. 1087 0.368 0.919 0.129 4.897 0.127 4.280 £ a o c> £ O g. 3 No. 742 76.376 6.484 0.256 0.524 0.568 0 755 0.746 none 3.560 6.990 0.150 0.033 none 4 323 100.657 2.385 0.132 2.024 t— < ►4 No. 741 cDCC-*‘COcDrJ-~ U'^CDr^'M ^ © 1 Tf^lCCCH^OO a -rM»-:Or-^ 1 io co c* ^ io go io goot^rHp geo hjbbdo'od g co cd* o 100.474 1.815 0.121 2.350 Insoluble Silica Hydrated •' Soluble “ Potash (K a O) Soda (Na.,0) Lime (CaO) Magnesia (MgO) Manganese Dioxide (Mn0 2 ) Iron Oxide (Fe 2 0 3 ) Alumina (A1 2 0 3 ) Phos. Pentoxide (P 2 0 5 ) Sulphur Trioxide(S0 3 ) Carbon Dioxide (C0 2 ) Vol. & Organic Matter Total Humus Total Nitrogen Water in Air-dry Soil 26 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station LINCOLN COUNTY. Nos. 741 and 742 were sent in by Mr. Wm. L. Lauritzen, of Wilbur, who writes: “I send you herewith two samples of soil from land near Wilbur, Sec. 4-26-33 E., which 1 think will represent the average soil in this locality. One sample, (No. 741), is soil which has never been under cultivation and the other. (No. 742), is soil that was plowed the first time in 1886, and this year it raised a crop of thirty bushels of wheat to the acre; it never had any kind of manure, except of course the stubble and weeds plowed under when summer f allowed.’ ’ These samples represent soil abundantly supplied with all the essential elements of plant food. The somewhat greater percentages of potash, phosphoric acid, and lime in the soil which has been under cultivation without manuring for twenty years are unexplainable except on the grounds of differences in the original virgin soils in the two spots from which the soil came. No. 1087 was brought in to the laboratory by Mr. Otto Wollweber, of Reardan, who stated that the sample is typical soil of northeastern Lincoln Co. The sample was taken from Sec. 10-26-39 E. The soil has been under cultivation for twenty-one years, and has produced eighteen crops of wheat and two crops of sugar beets. A complete analysis of this sample was not made, but the percentages of the elements which were determined show it to be practically identical in composition with Nos. 741 and 742. No. 1890 was sent in by Mr. M. T. Brislawn, of Sprague, and was selected by him as a representative sample of the Sprague wheat lands. It came from Sec. 19-22-39 E., and was taken from a high level strip where there was no possi- bility of any kind of sedimentation, and so represents typical unaltered soil of this district. It came from land which had been under cultivation for a few years. The results of the analysis show it to be very similar in composition to the other soils from this county. In fact, the soil throughout that part of the Big Bend country lying east of the Douglas County line seems to be very uniform in its chemical compo- sition. Bulletin No. 65 — Washing ton Soils 27 DOUGLAS COUNTY. No. 868 is a sample of a light sandy soil containing some alkali, sent in by Mr. Ernest Peterson, of Ephrata. It was taken from his land lying about 75 rods from Soap Lake. Mr. Peterson writes: “A great part of this land is covered with salt grass. In places there was no salt grass— corn was good, seven feet tall and every stalk with one or two ears eight to ten inches long, and in some places nine ears to the hill; but where the salt grass was the corn did not grow more than five feet tall and then died out. We have had no luck with potatoes so far. The sample was taken from eight different spots to a depth of eighteen inches. It was under- laid with a hard-pan subsoil. ,, It was found to contain 0.326 per cent of water-soluble salts or alkali, an amount somewhat higher than is tolerated by most plants. These salts were all in the form of white alkali, however, whicn is the least harmful form. The soil contains a good supply of potash and phosphoric acid, and a large excess of lime amounting to almost 10 per cent of carbonate of lime. The supply of humus and nitrogen is low. Mr. Peterson writes that the land cannot be flooded for the removal of the alkali, and a heavy treatment with rich manure was suggested as the best remedy for the alkali and at the same time an im- provement in the supply of humus and nitrogen in the soil. No. 1024 was a sample of the very sandy soil of that part of Douglas County lying south of the line of the Great Nor- thern Railroad. It was sent in by Mr. H. W. Olney, of Spo- kane, but was taken from land lying fifteen miles southeast of Winchester. The analysis shows this sandy soil to be well supplied with potash and an abundance of lime. It has a low percentage of phosphoric aicd and only very slight amounts of humus and nitrogen. With conditions very favorable for the availability of the plant food in the soil it will probably produce crops for a time if a sufficient supply of water can be had, but the humus and nitrogen are present in such small quantities that they will have to be very ma- terially built up before any very permanent fertility is pos- sible. 28 Washington Agyicultural Experiment Station Nos. 1241 and 1242 were sent in by Mr. F. E. Weston, of the Washington Land Co., of Waterville, as representative samples of the wheat lands of the Waterville district. Mr. Weston writes concerning the samples: “Sample No. 1 (Laboratory No. 1241) was taken from the southwest quarter of Sec. 10-25-24 E., and is virgin soil. The land is situated about fifteen miles from the Columbia River and the soil in this locality is considerably lighter than that along the breaks of the river, and the best results are obtained from winter wheats, as spring wheat is apt to burn on this soil. Sample No. 2 (Laboratory No. 1242) was taken from the northeast quarter of Sec. 2 -25-22 E. This soil is considered as strong as any in the Waterville district and spring wheat does better than winter.’ ’ The analyses show the reason for the greater fertility of the second sample, since it contains more of each of the necessary elements than does No. 1. Both of these are well balanced soils, but will probably need replenishing with humus before anything else becomes de- ficient. No. 1416 was brought to the laboratory by Mr. E. A. White, of Lewiston, Idaho, but was taken from the Grand Coulee in Twp. 27-29 E., in the northeastern part of Douglas County. It represents a considerable area of land in this coulee which it is proposed to irrigate^from springs of water coming from the walls of the coulee. The soil is a very fine clay, resembling very closely the clays of the Okanogan River Valley. The analysis shows a very well balanced con- dition of the essential elements of fertility. The percentages of these elements, while not high, are sufficient for a fairly permanent fertility, and if properly irrigated this soil should be very productive. The sample showed .032 per cent of black alkali, and .052 per cent of white alkali, but these amounts are not sufficient to cause injury to most crops. Bulletin No. 85 — Washington Soils 29 ADAMS COUNTY. The two samples from Adams Co. were secured as repre- senting the wheat lands of the famous Ritzville district. No. 1699 was sent in by Mr. 0. N. Campbell, of Hatton. It was taken from Sec 15-15-31E., and represents the virgin soil of the table land west of Hatton. The analysis shows it to be well supplied with potash and lime, but quite low in phos- phoric acid and nitrogen. As these are the two elements most largely drawn upon by cereal crops, the adaptibility of this soil to long continued cropping to wheat alone seems very doubtful. No. 1837 was sent in by Mr. D. A. Scott, of Ritzville. It represents virgin soil and was taken from the northwest quarter of Sec, 16-19-34 E. The analysis shows it to be well supplied with notash and lime, and fairly well with phos- phoric acid, humus and nitrogen. It is probable that with continuous cropping with cereals alone the supply of humus and nitrogen will in time become insufficient, but for the present the soil is well supplied with plant food. ADAMS WHITMAN No. 1699 No. 1837 No. 1888 Insoluble Silica 82 465 82.328 79.740 Hydrated “ 4.268 1.500 2.220 Soluble “ 0.380 0.285 0.495 Potash (K 2 0) 0.450 0.411 0.506 Soda (Na 2 6) 0.350 0.411 0.249 Lime (CaO) 0.618 0.591 0.508 Magnesia (MgO) 0.684 0.258 0.194 Manganese Dioxide (Mn0 2 ) none none none Iron Oxide (Fe 2 0 3 ) 4.205 4.403 5.196 Alumina (Al 2 0 3 ) 4.235 5.205 4.735 Phos. Pentoxide (P 2 0 5 ) 0.042 0.120 0.187 Sulphur Trioxide (»0 3 ) 0.013 0.058 0.034 Carbon Dioxide (C0 2 ) none none none Volatic and Organic Matter 2.505 4.249 5.190 Total 100.215 99.919 99.254 Humus 0.929 1.320 2.848 Total Nitrogen 0.043 .090 0.138 Moisture In Air-dry Soil 1.020 1.652 1.630 WHITMAN COUNTY. No. 1888 was sent in in response to the request of the writer by Mr. S. A. Small, of Winona. It was taken from a 30 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station point a quarter of a mile east of the town of Winona and was selected as a representative sample of tne wheat lands of that part of Western Whitman County. It shows the same general characteristics as the Palouse basaltic soil and is better supplied with humus and nitrogen than was expected of a soil of so light a type. ASOTIN COUNTY. GARFIELD ASOTIN ! No. 1134 No. 1133 No. 1420 No. 1431 No. 1432 Insoluble Silica ) ) 6T282 78.74U 82.156 Hydrated “ ' > ' 80.173 } 87.997 4.212 3.968 2.618 Soluble ) 0.435 0.330 0 222 Potash (KoO) 0.567 0.320 0.434 0.426 0.391 Soda (Na.jO) 0.281 0.326 0.196 0 145 0.252 Lime (CaO 0.726 0.609 0.480 0.535 0.549 Magnesia (MgO) 0.847 0.632 0.239 0.095 0.210 Manganese Dioxide (MnCL) none none none none none Iron Oxide (FoO, ; ) 6.370 4 133 6. 151 8.413 6.111 Alumina (ALO^j 5.280 3.370 10.010 3.175 4.315 Phos. Pentoxide (PoCX-,) 0.127 0 081 0.052 1 0.042 0.047 Sulphur Trioxide (SO ;i ) .053 0.037 0 051 none none Carbon Dioxide (CO .) none none none none none Volatic and Organic Matter 6 355 2.526 8.723 4.062 ! 3 322 Total 99.784 100.000 100 265 99.931 100.192 Humus 2.970 1 335 3.744 1405 1.780 Total Nitrogen 0 164 0.C46 0.185 0 064 0.032 Water in Air-dry Cells 2.416 1.040 3.468 1 1.378 1.404 Nos. 1133, 1431 and 1432 are samples taken under the writer’s direction from different parts of the Clarkston flat. They represent three different sections of the flat. No. 1431 was taken from the upper bench, or hillside, near the high- line ditch. No. 1133 came from the main and most fertile ridge of the flat, and No. 1432 from a lower, more gravelly ridge running through the business portion of the city of Clarkston. The analyses show this sedimentary soil to be well supplied with potash and lime, but rather low in phos- phoric acid and nitrogen. They are a good type of fruit soil, however. Their fertility can probably be considerably im- proved by sowing an occasional crop of red clover in the fall and plowing it under in the spring. Bulletin No. 85 — Washington Soils 3i No. 1420 was sent in by Mr. J. Stueky, of Anatone. It came from the farm of Mr. C. Taplin, in Sec. 2-7-45 E., and represents the wheat-growing lands of Ten Mile Creek Val- ley. It is rather low in phosphoric acid, but otherwise well supplied with plant food. GARFIELD COUNTY. The single sample which it has been possible to obtain was sent in at the writer's request by Mr. Henry Schneck- loth, of Mayview, and is said to represent the general soil of northern Garfield County. The soil is a fine black loam, of excellent physical properties. The analysis shows it to be one of the best, if not the best soil, as far as can be judged by chemical analysis, that has been found in the state. There can be no doubt of the long continued fertility of this soil. COLUMBIA COUNTY. No. 1135 was sent in upon request of the writer by Mr. J. W. McIntosh, of Starbuck, as a representative sample of the wheat lands of northern Columbia county. It was taken from the northeast quarter of Sec. 8-2-38 E. The analysis shows it to be very similar in composition to No. 1134, which came from the northern end of Garfield Co., with the exception that this sample is somewhat lower in humus and nitrogen. It appears, therefore, that the wheat lands lying in that part of the southeastern section of the state which lies north of the Pataha River are rich soils, well balanced in fertility, but decreasing in humus toward the west end of the district. Nos. 1411 and 1412 were sent in by Mr. J. L. Dumas, of Huntsville. They represent the soil of the Touchet Valley. They were taken from Sec. 4-9-38 E. No. 1411 is virgin soil while No. 1412 is from adjoining land which has been under cultivation for 45 years. They show the soil to be rich and well balanced in its fertility. The effect of the long-contin- ued cropping of No. 1412 is shown in its lower percentages of potash, phosphoric acid, organic matter and nitrogen. The proportion of the organic matter which has been con- verted into humus is higher because of the cultivation. ' tn 63 £ £ o o < t— I PQ s 43 o o Q £ 1-4 i-4 <5 & No. 785) Bottom land soil, cropped for twenty years, never manured much No. 4 (Laboratory No. 786) Bottom land soil cleared in 1870, and farmed ever since. Very little manure was ever used on this field. The large variations in the re- sults of the analyses of these soils are difficult to account for. It seems impossible that manuring alone could account for the large increase in all the essential elements of fertil- ity in No. 784 as compared with No. 783. Or that the longer continued cropping alone is responsible for the large de- crease in these elements in No. 786 as compared with No. 785. If these differences of treatment are the only causes for these striking differences, then the advantages of proper handling of these clayey soils are most apparent. No. 1772 was sent in by Mr. Geo. Campbell, of Dryad, who writes: ‘‘The land from which this sample comes has been cleared for four or five years. It has been cultivated for at least three years. Last year it was in wheat and yielded a small crop except where there had been patches of ashes. It was originally covered with a heavy growth of fir. The land is on the first bench above the Chehalis river, perhaps 30 or 40 feet above the valley.” The analysis shows the soil to be fairly well supplied with phosphoric acid and nitrogen, but low in potash and very low in lime. A clay soil of this type needs plenty of lime and the lack of fertil- ity is doubtless due to a lack of lime and of available potash. CHEHALIS COUNTY. The two samples of soil from Chehalis County were sent in by Mr. James Moore, of Satsop. No. 143 represents the peaty soil of an old reclaimed swamp, and No. 144 the up- land or bench land of the Chehalis Valley. These samples are very high in organic matter, and sour from an excess of organic acids. A quantitative estimation showed that it 4 6 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station would take at least eight tons per acre of dry lime to com- pletely neutralize the acidity of soil No. 143. At the sug- gestion of the writer Mr. Moore is now making some exper- iments to determine just how much lime he can afford to use on this soil. These soils are rather low in potash, also, but well supplied with nitrogen and phosphoric acid. It is probable that heavy applications of lime will be all that will be necessary to bring them to a high state of fertility. MASON COUNTY. Only one sample has ever been received from Mason County. It was sent in by Mr. J.M. Sweetland, of Union, who states that the soil is bottom land, that this sample was taken from Sec. 7-22-3 W., and represents all the tillable land in that part of the county; that this land has been under cultivation for 45 years and still yields good crops. The an- alysis shows that the sample is somewhat low in potash but otherwise well supplied with plant food. KING COUNTY. Nos. 159 and 160 were sent in by Mr. B. W. Alexander, of Vashon, at the request of the Vashon Island Horticultural Association, in order to learn if possible why one soil is bet- ter adapted to the production of the Clarks Seedling straw- berry than the other. No. 159 was taken from the northwest quarter of the northwest quarter of Sec. 29-23-3E. It grows this variety of berries most satisfactorily. It was formerly covered with fir timber. After clearing it was seeded to red clover and used as a pasture for ten years. Commercial fer- tilizers were applied each year— usually tankage, at the rate of half a ton per acre. This soil contained 37.1 per cent, gravel, etc., and 62.9 per cent fine earth, and was in fairly good physical condition. No. 160 came from the northeast quarter of the northeast quarter of Sec. 6-22-3 E. This land does not produce Clarke's Seedling berries, although other varieties do well. The land was originally covered with fir and alder timber. It has been cropped three years to pota- toes, peas and strawberries, respectively. It has never been fertilized. The soil contiains 44.8 per cent gravel, and 55.2 per cent fine earth, and is in rather poor physical condition, containing many hard lumps. The analyses show that No. 160 is much better supplied with total plant food than No. 159. The difference in physical condition, and probably also in the availability of the plant food caused by the clover pasturage and the use of fertilizers doubtless accounts for Bulletin No. 85 — Washington Soils 47 the better growth of berries on the soil which is poorer in total plant food. Nos. 499, 500 and 744 were sent in by Mr. Marion Ed- wards, of Seattle. The first two were taken from land owned by him, at Brighton Beach, in Sec. 26-24-3 E. This is an old fern prairie region lying on the west shore of Lake Washington. No. 499 came from a spot which had been for some time a violet bed which had been fertilized with manure for several years. No. 500 was taken from a spot about one hundred feet away, which had never been fertil- ized or cultivated. No. 744 came from a farm about a quar- ter of a mile south of this locality from land owned by Mr. Albert Koch, which is of the same general type as the other two samples, but is unproductive. Hay, oats, and potatoes are alike failures on this land. The results of the analyses fail to show any reason for this lack of fertility. No. 744 is richer in potash and lime, than the other two soils, is abund- antly supplied with nitrogen and humus. The phosphoric acid content is lower than in the other two samples, but is well above the limit that is usually considered ample for farm crops. It may perhaps be that conditions in this soil are such that the phosphoric acid is not in available form. No. 499 shows quite a marked effect of the fertilization with manure, in its increased humus, nitrogen and phosphoric acid. The most surprising thing about these soils is their high percentage of lime, a very unusual occurrence in soils from that section of the state. SAN JUAN COUNTY. No. 394 was sent in by Mr. G. E. Goodwin, of Belling- ham, but was taken from his farm on Orcas Island. It is very coarse soil, containing 59.1 coarse sand and gravel, and only 40.9 per cent earth fine enough to be available for plant food purposes. The fine earth is rich in lime and phosphoric acid, but rather poorly supplied with potash and nitrogen. Nos. 870 and 871 were taken from land on the island ly- ing in Sec. 28-37-2 W., at an elevation about 175 feet above sea level. No. 870 represents alder bottom land and No. 871 fir upland. Both are now in prune orchard, which does not bear satisfactory crops of fruit. No. 870 contained 21. per cent and No. 871 35.8 per cent of gravel, coarse sand, etc. The percentage of potash in these soils is low, otherwise they are well supplied with plant food, except possibly the phosphoric acid in No. 871. It is probable that the failure of the trees to fruit well is due to some climatic condition rather than the lack of fertility, but it is possible that fer- tilizing with potash salts might improve the yield of fruit. Bulletin No. 8s — Washington Soils 49 Summary of the Soil Survey of the State The soil analyses recorded in this bulletin practically complete the soil survey of the State, which was commenced by the Department of Chemistry of this Station fourteen years ago. In the course of this survey one hun- dred and eighty-eight samples of soil have been analyzed, coming, as is shown below, from every county in the state except one. We believe that these samples include representatives of every type of soil which is found in the state, and that we have now on our records information as to the composition of every type of soil with which our farmers will have to deal. While the results of a chemical analysis do not show many things which farmers would like to know about their soils they do afford certain valuable information concerning the general character of the different types of soil and often furnish indications of probable fertilizer needs of the soil and lead to suggestions as to improvements in its crop producing power. Such general conclusions as may be safely drawn from the results of this soil survey are presented in this summary, together with a few suggestions as to soil treatment which it is believed may be profitably applied in some sections of the state. More complete and more detailed information con- cerning the maintenance and improvement of soil fertility will be found in a bulletin on this subject which is now in preparation and will be issued in the near future. The one hundred eighty- eight soil samples which have been analyzed in connection with this survey were distributed as follows : EASTERN WASHINGTON WESTERN WASHINGTON Adams County, 4 samples Chehalis County, 2 samples Asotin 44 4 Clallam 2 Benton 4 4 5 Clarke “ 8 44 Chelan (4 4 “ Cowlitz “ none Columbia << 3 “ Island “ 2 «« Douglas ( ( 6 Jefferson “ 3 < < Ferry 44 3 King ii “ Franklin 44 2 “ Kitsap “ 5 “ Garfield 4 4 I “ Lewis “ 5 “ Kittitas 4 4 3 “ Mason “ i « i Klickitat 44 5 “ Pacific “ 2 “ Lincoln 44 4 “ Pierce “ ' 9 “ Okanogan 7 San Juan “ 6 “ Spokane 44 13 Skagit 12 “ Stevens 44 IO “ Skamania “ 2 a WallaWalla“ 8 “ Snohomish “ 5 tt Whitman 4 4 6 Thurston “ 4 tt Yakima 4 4 II “ Wahkiakum** 3 “ — Whatcom “ 7 Total 99 Total 89 (« 50 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station In some of the counties the number of samples is not so large as might be desired. We have not been able to send out soil survey parties from the Station, but have had to depend upon interested persons in the several lo- calities to secure the samples for us. The number of samples from a given section depends, therefore, partly upon the number of soil types in that sec- tion and partly upon the amount of cooperation from persons in that section which we could secure. The distribution of these samples throughout the state is shown in the accompanying diagram (Fig. i). The apparent ab- sence of representative samples from certain large areas in the diagram is due to the fact that these areas are mountainous and heavily timbered, and contain little or no agricultural lands. In this connection the illustration of the topography of the state as shown by the relief map of the state made by Professor Shedd of the State College, a photograph of which is repro- duced in Figure 2, is of interest. This makes plainer also the conditions and limitations of the agricultural soils of the state as described in the sum- marized statement below. For the purposes of discussion of the character of the soil the state may be roughly divided into several districts, as follows : The Puget Sound dis- trict, including all the part of the state west of the Cascade Mountains which is drained into Puget Sound; the South-West section, which includes all the rest of the state lying west of the Cascades, and is drained either directly into the Pacific Ocean or into the Columbia River; the central, chiefly irrigated, section, which includes Klickitat, Benton, Yakima, and Kittitas Counties; the Okanogan section, including Chelan, Okanogan, Ferry, Stevens, and the north half of Spokane Counties ; the Palouse sec- tion, which comprises Whitman County and the South half of Spokane County; the Big Bend section, comprising Douglas, Lincoln, Adams, and Franklin Counties; and the South-East section, including all that part of the state lying south of the Snake River. The Puget Sound District. The agricultural lands of this district lie in the flats bordering upon Puget Sound and in the valleys of the rivers which flow into it. The re- maining lands of this section are mountainous and heavily timbered, and not, as yet, to be considered as agricultural soils. The flats are level lands which lie very low, only a few feet above sea-level and in some cases, even below the level of high tide. These latter are protected from the salt water of the ocean by dykes which have been built for that purpose. Such lands form the celebrated “reclaimed tide flats.” Both these reclaimed flats and the other flats lying at a higher level are made up of sand brought in by the tides, mixed with alluvial material washed down from the higher lands. They are, therefore, usually of very fine physical condition and apt to be very fertile. The higher flats are particularly rich in decaying organic matter, or humus, and are apt on that account to be “sour” because of the excess of organic acids which they contain. In some localities certain small areas of soils are found which show very peculiar composition, prob- ably because of old lake beds, old swamps, or other local features. Con- cerning these it is obviously impossible to make general statements. The river valley lands of this section may be divided into three types ; the low land lying in the bottoms of the valleys, commonly called “alder- bottom land” ; the upper benches lying at some distance back from the rivers and a higher level and sloping up toward the hillsides, usually spoken of as “red-fir upland soils”; and the timbered ridges, a few of which have been cleared and are being cultivated. The soil of the ridges and hills of this section is, for the most part, a stiff, heavy, reddish clay, Figure i — S howing distribution of samples analyzed in the soil survey Figure 2— Map showing contour of the state. Agricultural lands are in the valleys and table lands. Bulletin No. 85 — Washington Soils 5i often quite gravelly and frequently containing considerable amounts of poorly decayed forest residues. Such soils are usually in poor physical con- dition, difficult to work, and not very fertile. The chief plant residues which they contain are the cones, needles, etc., of fir, and pine trees, which decay very slowly and form very poor humus. Very little can be done in the way of green manuring, or plowing under of clover crops, and commer- cial fertilizers are about the only remedy for the infertile condition. This poor quality of the soils of the ridges makes it appear that no great advant- age can be gained by further clearing and plowing up of these timbered areas. The red-fir uplands, or second bench lands, appear to have been formed largely by the broken rock, gravel, and other debris which has come down from the hillsides. In the natural state they are usually heavily timbered. When cleared of timber they become covered with immense growths of ferns. When plowed, they are usually very gravelly, light in color, and apt to be not very fertile, except where the land has been burned over and a considerable quantity of ashes left. They usually contain only limited amounts of humus, because of the poverty of this in the higher lands from which they came. Clovers of various kinds often make very good growth on these soils and their fertility can usually be very mater- ially improved by frequent turning under of some clover crop. The alder- bottom lands usually consist of a layer of rich black soil of varying thick- ness, overlaying a sub soil consisting of very gravelly clay mixed with large stones. These soils are usually well-watered and in ordinary seasons yield immense crops, particularly of hay and roots. They have very poor water- holding capacity, however, and in seasons of drought dry out very rapidly and the crops burn badly. These bottom lands are usually heavily charged with decaying vegetable matter, sometimes being very peaty in character. They are, therefore, usually well stocked with nitrogen. As a rule they contain more potash and less phosphoric acid than the upland soils. From the standpoint of chemical composition, the most striking char- acteristic of the soils of this region is the very low percentage of lime which they contain. This is doubtless the result of the heavy rainfall and exces- sive leaching out of the lime in these soils. It results in a very poor phys- ical condition of the clay upland soils, making them stiff and inclined to bake hard when dry, and in frequent cases of acidity or “sourness” of the lower land soils. Except in those localities near the lime rock, which is found in one of the two localities in this district, there are very few soils which would not be likely to be materially improved in their physical con- dition or their fertility, or both, by a liberal application of lime. The potash content of the soils of this region is likewise very low, particularly in the uplands. This is true throughout that part of the state lying west of the Cascade Mountains and is due to the long-continued leaching of the soil by the heavy rain- fall. Potash fertilizers are now in extensive use in these districts, and will probably be increasingly necessary. The beneficial effect of wood-ashes which is so frequently noticed in this part of the state is doubtless due to the lime and potash which they supply. Phosphoric acid is usually present in sufficient quantities in the upland soils, but likely to be deficient in the lower lands. Nitrogen is present in abundance in the bottom land soils but is often deficient in the upper gravelly or clayey soils, particularly if they have grown large forests of fir and pine. The Southwestern Section, This district is almost wholly made up of broken or rolling hills, with the exception of the extreme northern end of it, where are found several open level prairies. The agricultural lands comprise these open prairies and the valleys of the rivers. The river valleys are, for the most part, somewhat 52 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station broader and the hills surrounding them less abrupt than in the Puget Sound district. The soils of these valleys are wholly different in type from those of the Peget Sound district also, since the latter are produced from glacial drift brought in from other localities, while the soils of this district were produced almost entirely by the decomposition of the rocks of the hills of the district itself. The open prairies of i his section consist of immense level deposits of coarse sand and gravel formed by the melting of the glaciers which at one time flowed through the great Puget Sound depression. These deposits are so very gravelly as to possess only very slight agricultural value, but bor- dering upon them are considerable areas of tillable land, and in several places in them there are depressions of greater or less extent forming more or less marshy areas which when properly drained become very rich farm- ing lands. The parts of the gravelly prairies which are cultivated are usu- ally inclined to be deficient in all the essential elements of plant food, with the possible exception of phosphoric acid. The marshy lands are almost invariably “sour” because of excess of decaying organic matter and lack of lime. The river valleys show a great variety of types of soil. In some, de- pressed areas which were formerly old river beds and later swamps filled with vegetable debris are occasionally found, which result in very peaty soils — some even containing so high a proportion of vegetable matter as to be practically worthless for crop production. A very common type of river bottom soil is a heavy, black clay, commonly known as “beaver-dam” bot- tom lands. These are alluvial drifts brought down from up the streams by the current at times of high water. They contain little or no sand but are essentially fine clay mixed with comparatively large quantities of well de- cayed organic matter. They contain very large stores of nitrogen and are usually fairly well stocked with phosphoric acid, but are not very liberally supplied with potash, and frequently are “sour,” the supply of lime being insufficient to neutralize the excess of organic acids present. These are or- dinarily very productive soils, but have often been found to yield very profitable returns to fertilizing with potash and lime. Occasionally sandy bars deposited at some abrupt turn of a river are found, but these are not of sufficient extentto be considered of much general importance. The higher bench lands of this district are essentially clayey in char- acter, but exhibit a great many different types. Perhaps the most common is the “shot-clay,” so called because of its tendency to break into small hard pellets when dry. This type is usually a strong soil, containing ordi- narily a fairly good supply of phosphoric acid and nitrogen, but apt to be somewhat deficient in potash. The percentage of lime is rarely very high, but seems in most cases to be sufficient for immediate needs, as several ex- periments in liming this type of soil have not given any strikingly benefi- cial results. It seems probable that the physical condition, and the fertility also, of this shot-clay would be improved by green manuring. Another common type of bench land soil of this section is a rather heavy, yellowish to brownish, clay loam, found chiefly in the wide, open valleys. This is nearly always fairly well supplied with all the essential elements of plant food, but frequently does not contain as high a percentage of lime as is de- sirable in clay soils, hence, is more or less heavy and difficult to work when wet and inclined to bake when dry. This type is especially susceptible to improvement by plowing under a green clover crop. Vetches are admir- ably adapted for this purpose. The hill lands of this district consist chiefly of a reddish, or yellowish, clay, containing as a rule, very little coarse sand or gravel. They are richer in phosphoric acid than any other type of soil west of the Cascade Moun- Bulletin No. 85 — Washington Soils 53 tains in this state. They usually contain a rather poor supply of humus and nitrogen and are not very well stocked with potash. With the excep- tion of their phosphoric acid content they are the poorest soils of this sec- tion, and will probably require the most extensive use of fertilizers. Barn- yard manure is a particularly valuable fertilizer for this type of soil, since it supplies the humus which is needed both as a means of rendering available the plant food and to improve the physical condition of the soil. A very striking characteristic of all the soils of this district is the very high percentage of iron oxide and alumina which they contain, amounting oftentimes to twenty per cent or more of the dry soil. This indicates that the soils are almost wholly clay or decomposed rock of the feldspar or gran- ite type, and contains very little sand or decomposed quartz. Such soils are likely to prove of high and very permanent fertility if properly tilled, but are generally very difficult to cultivate. They require large amounts of humus to keep the fertility in available form, to make the clay able to absorb and hold moisture, and to prevent puddling when wet and baking when dry. The best treatment for such soils is one which will frequently add to the soil some organic matter, either in the form of barnyard manure, or a green leguminous crop plowed under. Temporary stimulation and improvement in physical condition may often be secured by heavy liming of these soils. The Central Section. The rain fall is lower than in any other part of the state and farming is carried on almost entirely by irrigation. Some of the uplands in the south- ern part and the lands lying toward the foothills of the Cascade Mountains receive sufficient rainfall to permit cultivation without irrigation. All these uplands are well supplied with potash and lime, except those lying well up on the sides of the mountains at an elevation of 3000 feet or more. Above this line the soils are of the same general type as the hill soils of the South- west section on the other side of the Cascades. The lower foot hill soils of this section are rich in all the essential elements of plant food, and appear to be of great permanent fertility. As the distance from the mountains in- creases, however, the supply of humus, nitrogen, and phosphoric acid de- creases, and the proportion of infertile sand increases until at the extreme eastern part of the district the amount of humus and nitrogen is less than that considered by soil experts as necessary for plant growth. Conditions are very favorable for the plant food to be largely in available form, how- ever, and whenever sufficient rainfall can be had crops are successfully grown. Soils of this class cannot exhibit any great permanence of fertil- ity, however, unless steps are taken to increase their humus content. The valley, or irrigated, soils of this section consist chiefly of a layer of sandy soil, of the so-called “sage brush” type, overlaying a sub-soil of coarse gravel through which run layers of “hard-pan” or of a white volcanic ash locally known as “cement.” This soil is obviou c ly sedimentary in its char- acter and was undoubtedly deposited in the bed of an old lake which once covered this region. Chemically, this soil is very rich in lime, but much poorer in potash and nitrogen than other soils of Eastern Washington. The abundance of lime and other conditions are favorable for rendering the plant food easily available, and when watered the soils show very great fer- tility. This fertility cannot be permanently maintained, however, without the addition of some humus-forming material. Fortunately, legumes can be grown with the greatest ease, and when plowed under will supply this lack. Potash fertilizers will probably be required in the not far distant future, particularly for fruit and vegetable crops. The occurrence of alkali in the soils of this region and treatment for it have been discussed in Bulletin No. 49 of this Station. 54 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station The Okanogan District. This district comprises all that part of the state lying north of the Co- lumbia River, from Lake Chelan and the Cascade Mountains to the Idaho line. The agricultural resources of this part of the state have not as yet been fully developed and many fertile valleys which will in time become profitable agricultural lands are as yet uninhabited wilds. The comparative newness of the agricultural development of this district has made it impos- sible to secure a very complete survey of its soils. Some general conclus- ions may be drawn, however. The topography of the country is that of a very hilly, rolling tableland, quite similar in many respects to that in the Southwestern section of the state. The rocks of the hills from which the soils are derived are also largely granitic in type, making the prevailing soil types clayey ones. The clays of this section differ from those of the South- west section, however, in that they must have not been subjected to so heavy rainfall and leaching as those under the West-side conditions and are, therefore, usually richer in lime and potash. This gives them a much more friable character, and greater fertility, because of better availibility of the plant food which they contain. Peaty meadows of the same general type as found west of the Cascades are found in many places in this section. These are, however, practically the only soils of this section which are likely to require liming. In the western part of the district the river valley soils are usually made up of large proportions of a very friable clay mixed with considerable fine sand, making a combination very easily cultivated and of high fertility. In the eastern part development has been somewhat more advanced, and farms have been extended up to some of the upper benches and higher hillsides. These are usually found to be somewhat less fertile than the bottom lands, being lower in humus and more difficult to work. The valleys of Southern Stevens County show a heavy clay soil, inclined to be deficient in nitrogen and humus, but well supplied with lime and potash. Occasional very cal- careous (that is, containing high percentages of carbonate of lime) soils are found. In fact, a high lime content may be said to be the most striking characteristic of the soils of this district. Soils of this type are almost uni- versally considered as having high crop-producing capacity, and it would appear that further development of this section will add much to the agri- cultural resources of the state. The Palouse District The prevailing, and practically the only, type of soil in this district is a decomposed basalt, a fine loam of high fertility, easy tillage and great water- holding capacity. The land is rolling, and the soil on the south-hill slopes is for the most part shallow and inclined to be clayey, but elsewhere deep and rich. The proportion of clay is greatest towards the hill tops. Humus increases as we go down the slopes, and is highest in the valleys, forming a rich black loam with occasional patches of “adobe.” This Palouse type of soil is very rich in potash and phosphoric acid, and fairly well supplied with lime. The supply of humus and nitrogen is only moderate, and in the western part of the district is quite low. The present system of almost exclusive cropping to cereals is making large de- mands upon the stock of humus, which will have to be counteracted by some svstem of restoration of humus to the soil in the not far distant future. All other elements of plant food are present in practically inexhaustible supply, and with proper attention to the humus needs this soil will doubtless main- tain its reputation for high fertility indefinitely. Bulletin No. 85 — Washington Soils 55 The Big Bend Section. In its general topography this section is a level or slightly rolling plat- eau, cut by numerous river beds with almost perpendicular walls of basalt rock, known as coulees. Some of these coulees contain flowing streams, others have streams in which running water is found during the winter and early spring months, and still others are dry beds of old rivers, which have now ceased to flow because of decreased rain-fall or because of a change in their course to some other line of flow. Many of these coulees are wide enough so that a certain amount of tillable land is found in them. This soil is moist, usually well supplied with humus and, particularly in the northwestern part, shows a composition very similar to that of the river val- leys of the western part of the Okanogan section. Most of the agricultural lands of this section are found upon the rolling table-land, however. In their general type, the upland soils or so-called wheat-lands of this section are a decomposed basalt, very similar to that of the Palouse section, but carrying less humus in direct proportion as the average annual rainfall of the locality becomes less. In the southwestern part of the Big Bend district there is a very large area where the annual rain-fall is so slight that only sage-brush and small patches of the hardier bunch grasses can grow. Here the soils are very sandy and contain only slight amounts of decayed organic matter. They are well supplied with the mineral constituents of plant food, however, and if supplied with sufficient water will produce abundant crops. With a proper supply of water to grow leguminous crops their humus content could be very easily built up, hence if any feasible way of watering these soils can be devised they may become very valuable agricultural lands. An abund- ance of water will be necessary at first, however, since the soils are so sandy and contain so little humus that they have very little water-holding capacity. In the regions of sufficient rain-fall the soils of this district are well sup- plied with the mineral elements of plant food, lime especially being present in large supply, particularly in the northwestern part where a surplus of carbonate of lime is often found giving a tendency to form hardpan. With a sufficient supply of humus, therefore, these soils will possess a very high and very permanent fertility. Unfortunately, the natural supply of humus is low, and in many localities the soils are already showing a strong tendency to run together when damp and form crusts when dry, a sure evidence of deficiency in humus. With a system of soil cultivation which will introduce some humus-forming materials at rather frequent intervals, these soils prom- ise very high fertility for a long time to come, but without such treatment very diminished crops will probably result in the not far distant future. The Southeastern Section* The agricultural lands of this section are of two general types, the light volcanic ash soil derived from the decomposition of the rocks of the extreme edge of the basaltic overflow of the state, and a heavier loam bordering on the foothills of the Blue Mountains and resulting from the decomposition of the rocks of this range of mountains. The line of demarcation between these two types is very irregular because of the irregularities in topography which limited the edge of the lava overflow, but is fairly sharp and well de- fined. In the valleys of the streams the nature of the soil is, of course, much changed from these original types of sedimentation, etc., but the upland soils fall very clearly into one of the other of these types. The Bine Moun- tain loam is a soil rich in all the essential elements of fertility, especially in 56 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station potash. The percentage of humus and nitrogen is high near the foothills of the mountains, but decreases as the distance from them increases and the resulting annual rainfall decreases. The soils of the north and west slopes of these mountains are probably the richest distinct type to be found in this state. On the eastern slope in the extreme southeast part of the state the soils contain less humus and are more clayey in their nature. They are very much lower in phosphoric acid also, their most characteristic feature as far as chemical composition is concerned being a probable deficiency in this constituent. The light volcanic ash soils of the northern and western parts of this section resemble those of the western part of the Palouse and Big Bend sections. Phj 7 sically. they are very finely divided, forming an almort im- palpable dust when dry, but possessed of very great water-holding power when wet. Chemically, they are very abundantly aupplied with potash, lime, and phosphoric acid, but very low in humus and nitrogen. What was said in regard to the soils of the Big Bend section applies equally as well to the soils of this part of the Southeastern' section. General Conclusions. Even the most casual glance at the results of this soil survey will show the extreme variations in the kinds of soil which are found in this state. Practically every type known to soil students is represented somewhere in this state. We have every variation from al- most pure sand to pure clay on the one hand and to pure peat on the other. In other localities special types, "such as marls, glacial drift of several kinds, etc., etc., are found. These variations in type are accompanied by almost the widest conceivable variations in chemical composition. The extreme variations in the percentages of the several constitu- ents which have been found in the samples of 3oils which we have analyzed are shown in the following statement: Insoluble silica.... Hydrated silica.... Soluble silica Potash ,, 3.014 — 1 ..0 157 — : 0.002 — 0.000 — Soda 0.027 — Time 0.005 — ; Magnesia Iron Oxide Alumina 0.000 — o.i8i — : 0.148 — : Phos. Pentoxide... Sulphur Trioxide. Carbon Dioxide.... 0,000 — o.ooo — : Humus 0.084 — , Nitrogen trace — In addition to the discussion of the soils in the 90.716 per cent. 18.524 per cent. 0.938 per cent. 0.829 per cent. 1.632 per cent. 36.009 per cent. 4.830 per cent. 16.368 per cent. 14.898 per cent. 0.409 per cent. 0.694 per cent. 28.998 per cent. 51.000 per cent. 2.660 per cent. above the following general statements made in Bulletin No. 55 may profitably be repeated: “The soils of the western, central and eastern portions of the state show marked dif- ferences in their percentages of potash and lime. The potash content is generally greatest in the eastern part and least in the western, while in the central portion the amount is intermediate. The lime content is greatest in the central part, where the minimum amount of rain falls. It is least in the western part, especially in those portions where the rainfall is forty inches or more. An intermediate amount is found in that portion where the rain- fall varies from eighteen to thirty inches. “In many of the samples from Eastern Washington the amount of soda exceeds that of potash. This is unusual (except in alkali soils) and is doubtless due to the basaltic ori- gin of the soil, and to the climatic conditions attending the soil-forming period. In gener- al, the wide variations in composition between the virgin soils in different sections of the state are due to (1) origin; (2) climatic conditions both present and past; (3) past vegetation. “Fertilizers containing lime and potash will be found most generally beneficial to soils west of the Cascade Mountains. “In the irrigated regions humus-forming materials with added potash would in most cases best meet the soil needs. “When fertilization is required in Eastern Washington it is probable that humus-form- ing material and, in some cases, lime, would give maximum benefit at the minimum cost.’’ V ' THE STATE COLLEGE OF WASHINGTON Agricultural Experiment Station PULLMAN, WASHINGTON DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY The Codling Moth in 1907 By A. L. MELANDER Assisted by R. E. TRUMBLE Bulletin No. 86 J 90 8 <9 All bulletins of this station sent free to citizens of the state on application to the Director. BOARD OF CONTROL Peter McGregor, President ----- Colfax F. J. Barnard, Treasurer Seattle J. J. Browne - - - - - - - Spokane Dr. J. S. Anderson Asotin Lke A. Johnson Sunnyside E A. Bryan, Secretary ex officio - - - - Pullman President of the College. STATION STAFF. R. W. Thatcher, M. A., Director and Chemist E. E. Elliott, M. S., Agriculturist and Supt. Farmers’ Institutes Elton Fulmer, M. A., - - State Chemist S. B. Nelson, D. V. M., Veterinarian O. E- Waller, Ph. M., Irrigation Engineer R. K. Beattie, A. M., Botanist Walter S. Thornber, M.S. Horticulturist A. E. Melander, M. S. Entomologist George Severance, B. S., Agronomist C. W. Lawrence, B. S. Cerealist W. A. Einklater, B. S. A. - - - - Animal Husbandman H. B. Berry, B. S., Soil Physicist W. E. Ralston, D. V. M. Assistant Veterinarian H. R. Watkins, M. S. Assistant Chemist A. G. Craig, B. S. Assistant Horticulturist W. T. Shaw, B. S. Assistant Zoologist Ufie Codling MotK in 1907* By A. L. MELANDER Assisted by R. E. TRUMBLE For a number of years the Washington State Experi- ment Station has been studying the codling moth. In the course of the investigation arsenate of lead HISTORICAL, was found to give best satisfaction as a spray, and the usual number of sprayings necessary was found to be three or four. Experiments were carried on in the Yakima Valley, the Spokane country, and on the Snake River bluffs. In 1907 the campaign was ex- tended to Walla Walla and Wenatchee. Thus we have now carried on spraying demonstrations in practically all the commercial orchard localities of the state. The main purpose of this year’s work was to demon- strate how easily the codling moth could be kept in check by proper spraying methods. At the same OBJECTS IN 1907. time tests were made of the value of the dust spray and of the newer brands of arsenate of lead. For the demonstration several badly infested orchards were taken in charge and were sprayed entirely by us. Gasolene power sprayers were used in all liquid spraying. In general spraying at Walla Walla is carried on in a desultory way. Many of the growers are using methods of a decade ago with only partial success, WALLA WALLA and have become disgusted with the cod- CONDITIONS. ling moth outlook. In the warm Walla Walla valley the codling moth breeds pro- lificly. It seems certain from this year’s observations that the growers there have three broods to contend with. Many orchards are abandoned or are being cut down for fire wood. The orchard of E. Lennon in the city of Walla Walla was * Contribution from Zoology Laboratory of the State College of Washington 4 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station selected as an extreme example of an abandoned orchard. Originally this place produced LENNONS’ ORCHARD. 20,000 boxes of apples a year, but because of the codling moth and the San Jose scale the major part of the orchard had been cut down and disposed of as fire wood in order to use the ground for growing wheat. At the time of our visit but 150 trees remained and of these fifty had been sold when the or- chard was divided into town lots. The trees selected for spraying are among the oldest in the valley, some being twenty, others nearly thirty years of age. As they have not been pruned for years, they have grown far out of reach of the spray nozzle. The ground is uncultivated and this year was sown to wheat, but close to the trees the wild sweet clover as well as alfalfa and white clover of former plantings were growing rank. In the midst of the orchard is a large shed wherein had been piled about one thousand boxes of wormy apples the winter previous. During the summer the fruit was not thinned; the close clusters of apples were so numerous as to bend the un- trimmed branches to the ground. All in all a more severe test of codling moth spraying could not be imagined. As the trees were thickly incrusted with scale a prelim- inary step was to have the orchard sprayed with sulphur- lime. The efficiency of this treatment was apparent in the absolute extinction of this pest. Four sprayings of arsenate of lead (one pound to forty gallons) were given for the codling moth with the most grat- ifying results, as the following table shows. The dates of the applications were, May 9, June 28, July 31 and August 31. Table I. Variety How Sprayed Picked Windfalls PerCt. Clean Wormy Clean Wormy Good 1. Arkansas Black Liquid, 1:40 700 8 98.9 2. Rome Beauty 1437 10 186 4 99 2 3. Arkansas Black Dust 232 106 250 500 60 4. Rome Beauty Dust 236 09 19 100 60 5. Winesap Not Sprayed 17 250 1 250 3.4 Bulletin No. 86 — The Codling Moth in igoy 5 Partial counts, including apples from all levels of the tree, were made of two Arkansas Black and three Rome Beauty trees taken at random. These counts represent a just average of the orchard, and as they show 99 per cent, of the fruit free from worms, they afford a striking contrast to the three per cent, clean of the unsprayed trees. A dozen trees were sprayed with a dust sprayer to test the efficiency of this method as compared with liquid spray- ing. Dust spraying has become THE DUST SPRAY. quite popular in the Yakima valley, and has had many advocates. During our tests of 1905 the dust spray was given a competitive trial. It was then decided that a mixture of one part of Paris green to twenty of lime afforded the best mixture, but that the dust spray was somewhat inferior to arsenate of lead. The results of the former year are corroborated in a striking manner by the 60 per cent, of good fruit of the experiment this year. It may safely be asserted that the dust spray is unreliable in an excessively wormy orchard. The 750 windfalls of experiment 3 of table 1, represents the total number of windfalls from this tree while the picked apples were but about one-fifth of the fruit on the tree. In the other experiments the windfalls are proportional to the number picked from the trees. It is of interest to note the cost of spraying this orchard. To spray the hundred trees required but a couple of hours, but labor was paid for at half day rates. COST OF THE Many more trees could have been sprayed TREATMENT, at but a slight advance in cost. Team and driver, one half day, - $2.00. Two men, at $2, - 2.00. Arsenate of lead, 20 lbs., at 16c., 3.20. Total for each spraying, - - $7.20. Total for four sprayings, - - $28.80. In this case the investment of less than $30 insured a crop of 1200 boxes which sold for $1200. If the spraying had not been done the crop would have brought only $100 as 6 Washington Agricultural Expet intent Station cider apples. The fruit from the fifty unsprayed trees was rejected by the buyer and was disposed of to the vinegar factory at the rate of twelve boxes for a dollar. The orchard of C. L. Whitney comprises but a few hundred trees. No attempt has hitherto been made to sup- press the codling moth as the trees have been WHITNEY’S kept for scions in Mr. Whitney’s nursery ORCHARD, rather than for their fruit. A part of this orchard lies in a low meadow land grown to alfalfa. The heavy frost that occurred at blossoming time destroyed most of the fruit of this portion of the orchard. The only fruit that set came from late blossoms, many of which were not yet open at the time of spraying. The low percentage of good fruit from these trees (experiment 7, table 2) bespeaks a good moral. Ordinarily the first blos- soms are the ones to set. If these become frozen it will pay to repeat the first spraying for the tardy blossoms, or at least to time this spraying for their benefit. The following table briefly indicates the results of spray- ing in this orchard : Table II. Exp. No. No. Trees count’d Variety How Sprayed Good Wormy Per Ct. Good 1 1 Yellow Transparent 2 sprayings 745 2 99.8 2 2 Wealthy 3 “ 631 2 99.7 3 2 Red Cheeked Pippin 4 “ 964 23 98 4 1 Jonathan 4 1489 33 98 5 1 King 4 739 86 90 6 1 Rome Beauty 4 225 9 97 7 3 Jonathan 4 “ frosted 694 66 91 8 1 «« 1st spraying omitted 319 291 52 9 1 *« Not sprayed 480 445 52 10 1 Rome Beauty 52 240 17 The apples of experiments 1 and 2 were picked early, be- fore the onset of the second brood. The low percentage for the King apple is relatively high for this variety. In our Yakima series of tests the King apple sprayed with Paris green ran about at 60 per cent, good when Rome Beauties ran at 96 per cent. This would indicate that arsenate of leadjis a valuable spray for apples with an excessively waxy skin. The well kept orchard of W. S. Offner represents an Bulletin No. 86 — The Codling Moth in 190J 7 average ranch under the charge of hired men. A positive effort has yearly been made to keep this place OFFNER’S properly sprayed, but the lack of skill on the ORCHARD, part of the workmen has resulted in losses of 15 to 40 per cent. The heavy freeze at blos- soming time seriously affected this orchard also. The crop this year was light, and therefore more subject to worms, while much of the fruit came from late blossoms which were not in proper receptive condition at the time of the first spraying. Nevertheless even under these untoward condi- tions the results given in Table 3 clearly show the import- ance of proper spraying methods. The counts of these tables include a proportionate number of windfalls unless otherwise stated. Trees with a few wormy apples have a correspondingly small number of windfalls. Table III. NO. Per Ct. trees count’d Variety Treatment Good Wormy Good 5 Jonathan 4 sprayings 4512 192 96. 4 Jonathan . Not sprayed 54 512 9. The orchard of John Ross near the state line to the south of Walla Walla was selected for practical dust spraying. Most unfortunately for the experi- THE ORCHARD OF ment, but luckily for Mr. Ross, the JOHN ROSS. dust machine was delayed so that the first spraying was given by Mr. Ross with liquid. This orchard of three hundred trees had been sprayed with a power sprayer the year previous. At pick- ing time a careful estimate of several trees gave the follow- ing results. 1. — Yellow Newtown, with three dust sprayings, the first spraying not given, 5 per cent, free from worms. 2. — Yellow Newtown, first spraying of liquid, three sub- sequent dust sprayings, 60 per cent, good on the trees, but with many wormy windfalls. 3. — Rome Beauty and Jonathan, sprayed as number 2, 90 per cent, free from worms. 8 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station 4. — Jonathan, not sprayed, 15 per cent. good. The results here bear out what we have observed in the experimental dust spraying "in the Lennon orchard. Dust should not be depended on to clean up a wormy orchard. In Mr. Ross 7 case 400 boxes were lost, 20 per cent, of his crop. This was a direct loss of $400 for his little orchard, most of which could have been saved by proper spraying. It will be recalled, moreover, that Mr. Ross gave the all-important first spraying with liquid. Otherwise his loss would have prob- ably been much greater. The advocates of dust spraying make much of the rapid- ity with which the dust can be applied. A liquid sprayer working at 200 pounds pressure can cover the trees nearly or quite as fast as the dust sprayer, while the comparative cheapness and cleanliness of the liquid spray are strong points in its favor. Eight hundred trees the size of those in Mr. Ross 7 orchard could be sprayed by our power outfit in a day, while it took practically a day to complete a dust spray- ing of his 300 trees after preparing the materials. The only important point in favor of dust spraying is therefore the cheapness of the outfit, but in a very wormy district the in- creased saving from worms, even in a small orchard, brought about by using a liquid spray, will pay for the spraying, power machine and all. A discussion of the effect of the dust spray on fruit is given further on in the paragraph on the Holcomb orchard at Wenatchee (page 13). Although the codling moth has been present in the upper Wenatchee district for a score of years it is only recently that the pest has pervaded the valley. The cod- WENATCHEE ling moth is now considered a regular factor CONDITIONS, in orcharding, and every Wenatchee grower makes some effort to spray. Nevertheless, in those orchards where the moth has been present a half- dozen years the best determined efforts have saved but three fourths of the crop. The explanation for this is that grow- ers have employed the old fashioned methods in vogue before they emigrated to Wenatchee. They have used low pressure pumps, and have aimed for a concentrated misty spray. They Bulletin No. 85 — The Codling Moth in 1907 9 regularly have given the second spraying ten days or two weeks after the first according to the old rule, and any sub- sequent sprayings have been given whenever convenient. It was to demonstrate the value of experimental methods of investigation that we determined to apply the knowledge of the codling moth gained from the study of Washington conditions to the important apple district at Wenatchee. Two orchards were selected, the first where the moth had been present for many years, the other in the lower valley. Mr. Z. A. Lanham has had a hard struggle with the codling moth. His ten year old orchard has been regularly sprayed in what was generally conceded to LANHAM’S be an approved manner. A gasolene engine ORCHARD. pump, working at 140 pounds and fitted with Vermorel nozzles, was employed. The Eagle brand of arsenate of lead was used, in the proportion of three pounds to fifty gallons. In 1906 four sprayings were given yet the loss from worms was over 3000 boxes or 40 per cent, of the entire crop, according to the observations of the foreman and pickers. This season we used the same Eagle brand of arsenate of lead, but in the proportion of one pound to forty gallons. We used a Bean power sprayer working at 180 to 200 pounds pressure. Each of the two extension rods was fitted with two Bordeaux nozzles set at an angle of about 45 degrees. This arrangement of the nozzles enabled us to throw the spray through all parts of the tree by simply twisting the rod. It is to this simple device that much of our success is due. The spray was rained on until the trees commenced to drip. At the first spraying we did not stop even then, but by the time we were satisfied that every flower cup was filled with spray, the ground beneath the trees was wet. To spray thus took from seven to fifteen gallons to each tree, whereas but three gallons or less sufficed for the second spraying, but even so we used much less arsenate of lead than had been put on the year before. We had planned to test various spraying methods, such as varying the strength of the spray at the different spray- IO Washington Agricultural Experiment Station ings. We also wished to compare with the older brands two new makes of arsenate of lead, Vreeland’s and Lavanberg's. Vreeland’s brand of arsenate of lead has a higher arsenic content than any other brand we know, containing over 20 per cent, of arsenic as compared with the 14 per cent, of the usual brands. Athough a dozen experiments intended to show the best strength of spray were carried on they gave no results for comparison. Throughout the tests the weaker spray gave as good effects as the stronger, and all the brands of arsenate proved alike in producing a perfecty clean crop. It may be emphasized as we have stated in previous publica- ions that success depends not so much on a correct formula, nor, with the exception of the first spraying, on the exact timing of the sprayings., but altogether on the manner in which the spraying is done. At picking time representative trees were stripped. The results of the tests have too much uniformity for compari- son, and but reiterate the importance of proper spraying regardless of what brand is used. Table IV. Exp. Formula Brand Good Wormy 1 1:40, all sprayings Eagle 1942 0 2 1:40, first; 1:50 others “ 1790 4 3 3:50, “ 1^40 “ 1323 4 4 1:20, " 1:50 “ • 4 1067 0 5 1:50, “ 1:80 “ Vreeland 1325 l 6 1:80, all •« 2499 2 7 3:200, first; 1:40 others Lavanberg 868 0 These tests were conducted in what was acknowledged the wormiest part of the orchard. The trees from which the counts were made were adjacent to a packing shed which had contained 1400 boxes of wormy culls the winter pre- vious. Half of this wormy fruit was fed to stock during the winter. The remainder was kept in the shed until it decayed in the spring. At any rate whatever moths came from this mass of wormy fruit had every opportunity to lay their eggs on the very trees from which the counts were made. The foreman stated that in this portion of the orchard the Bulletin No. 86 — The Codling Moth in 1907 1 E ground had been covered with wormy windfalls the year be- fore, estimating that there had been nearly two hundred boxes of windfalls to the acre left on the ground when the crop was picked. This year scarcely a windfall was to be seen. The relation of the wormy and good apples of the trees stripped and counted is one worm to 1000 apples, or one tenth of one per cent. The following letter from Mr. Lanham shows that the stripped trees were representative of the en- tire orchard, even though they must have received the eggs of thousands of moths from the shed that settled on them in preference to flying into the interior of the orchard. Glencove Fruit Farm, Wentachee, 10, 31, 1907. Prof. Melander: We have gathered our apple crop and marketed 5605 boxes, and by as careful an estimate as we could make, we lost not more than one tenth of one per cent. That, I consider, very remarkable, considering the great loss I had last year. You have certainly demonstrated the fact that the codling moth can be kept in check with proper spraying. Very respectfully, Z. A. Lanham. This would place the loss from worms at but six boxes, an impressive contrast to the 3000 boxes lost the year before. 675 trees of the orchard were banded. The entire number of worms obtained from these bands this year was 178. Last year the same bands harbored over 100,000 worms. The conclusion we can draw from this recital is that the first spraying was so thorough that every blossom was filled with poison. Since practically all the early worms seek to enter the apple at the calyx end, they were destroyed as fast as they came. This complete destruction of the first brood left no progenitors of the second and there were no late worms to blemish the apples. From the record this year at Wenatchee it would seem that the first spraying did all the work, and that not enough worms escaped to make the other three sprayings pay for their application. The truth of this assertion will be determined next season. 12 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station It may be of value to note the cost of this treatment. The trees of Mr. Lanham are ten years of THE COST age, but are very large. At the first OF SPRAYING, spraying they averaged 7i gallons of spray. At the second less than three gal- lons were used. The increasing size of the fruit at the third and fourth sprayings required four to five gallons per tree. During a day eleven tanks, or 2200 gallons, were sprayed, the cost divided as follows: Labor: Team and driver - - $3.50 Two men, at $2.50 - 5.00 Materials: Gasolene - .80 Arsenate of lead, 44 pounds, at 16c. 7.00 $16.30 The cost per gallon is therefore less than three-fourths of a cent. The 10-year old trees of this orchard averaged twenty gallons for the season’s spraying, costing fifteen cents per tree. The entire spraying bill for this season amounted to $225. Last year but twelve gallons were used to each tree, but with Vermorel nozzles and the lower pres- sure it required a longer time to spray, and with the triple strength of arsenate of lead, this brought the cost of the season’s spraying appreciably over $300. Inadvertantly all the trees in Mr. Lanham’s orchard were sprayed. Therefore as a check on the value of the spraying we must consider the THE PENALTY OF results obtained in neighboring or- IMPROPER SPRAYING, chards. Otherwise those unfam- iliar with the conditions might suppose that this was an off-year with the codling moth. For this purpose we prefer to quote from a letter received from the Special Horticultural Inspector for the Okanogan district. “I consider the results obtained in the spraying demon- strations here wonderful. I had never before seen or heard of such results. I was present when the count was made and out of 11.000 apples only eleven were found wormy. I Bulletin IVo. 86 — The Codling Moth in igoj 13 inspected other orchards in the immediate neighborhood to compare results. At the Cox place, adjacent to the Lanham place, I roughly estimated the per cent, of wormy fruit to be about 50 per cent. This orchard had been sprayed several times but evidently not according to up to date methods. The Garrison place, within one-fourth mile from Lanham’s had also about 50 per cent, wormy fruit. These results ob- tained by our State College officials are truly encouraging and they prove to me that any intelligent fruit grower need no longer fear the ravages of the codling moth.” Signed, P. S. Darlington, Special State Horticultural Inspector. The Cox orchard of which Mr. Darlington writes had been sprayed four times for the first brood, but not for the second. Three pounds of arsenate of lead to fifty gallons, a hand pump of low pressure, andVermorel nozzles had been used. The Garrison orchard had beer given the first spray- ing only, and in the same way as at Cox’s orchard. Such cases show that if spraying is to be worth anything it must be carefully done. The western half, including ten acres, of the orchard of the late B. B. Holcomb was selected as a representative com- mercial orchard. The largest part of this HOLCOMB’S orchard was sprayed but three times, the ORCHARD. usual second spray being omitted. The marginal five rows around the orchard were given four sprayings. The dates of the sprayings were May 15, June 20, July 23 and August 25. In this orchard a num- ber of trees were sprayed with dust, in amounts varying from one pound to thirteen pounds per application. The object of this dusting was to find out if even excessive amounts of dust spray could produce perfect fruit. Finely screened dry slaked lime, twenty parts, and Paris green, one part, formed the dust mixture. At picking time every one of the dusted trees had a large proportion of badly distorted apples although all were comparatively free from worms. The amount of distortion was directly proportional to the amount of dust they had received. A tree sprayed with 14 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station thirteen pounds of dust at the first spraying and five pounds attach of the other three sprayings had more than one-half of its fruit rendered unsalable. A count was made of a tree dusted with 5:2:2 :2 pounds at the various sprayings. 1501 good apples were found, 158 were so badly distorted as to be unsalable, and six were wormy. No distortion at all was apparent on the adjacent liquid sprayed trees. The abnor- mality consisted of a woodiness of the skin, which was often cracked deeply, after the manner of scorching from Bordeaux spraying. Many of the apples were soft and decayed throughout their lower naif. The scorching obviously was caused either by arsenic poisoning from the Paris green or by dessication by the excess of lime. Apparently it was in- duced at the first spraying as it always manifested itself at the calyx end first. After the first spraying many blossoms which were sectioned showed that the dust had penetrated beneath the crown of stamens. It must be mentioned that the Wm. Turner orchard, where we obtained the sifted dust mixture, was dusted in part, the same material being used, and in this orchard there was no evident scorching. The trees of this place were dusted with the usual amount of about one-half pound to each tree. Counts were made of a few liquid sprayed trees as they were being picked. The results of the spraying in this or- chard are given in Table 5. It will be noticed that the Ben Davis number 2 was located in the middle portion of the or- chard where the usual second spraying was omitted. Ap- parently in an orchard kept in a clean condition there is no need of giving this spraying if the first spraying be thor- ough. No account of the previous worminess of the Hol- comb orchard is available. We know it has not been as near perfect as this year, but the place has not been considered a wormy orchard. The chief picker stated it was fully 20 per cent, wormy last year, while Mr. Holcomb did not suppose it went above five per cent, wormy. The Holcomb ranch has been regularly sprayed. Trees 4, 5 and 6 were picked early in the season, before the time of the last spraying. These trees are representatives as practically no apples were culled by the packers because of worminess, a clean record of 100 per cent, for the liquid sprayed trees. 5 Bulletin No. 86 — The Codling Moth in 1907 1 Table V. Per Ct. Variety Treatment Good Wormy Good 1. Ben Davis.... 4 liquid sprayings 1878 0 100. 2. Ben Davis.... 3 liquid sprayings 2087 0 100. 3. Ben Davis.... 4 dust sprayings 1658 6 99.64 4. King 3 liquid sprayings 3215 4 99.88 5. King 2 liquid sprayings 546 5 99.08 6. Spitzenberg. 3 liquid sprayings 457 2 99.57 7. Jonathan not sprayed 529 182 74.40 8. Ben Davis... not sprayed 1132 57 95 21 For the privilege of conducting these experiments we wish to thank the owners of the various orchards. We desire to thank the John Smith ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. Company of Walla Walla and Messrs. Wells and Morris of Wenachee for generously loaning the modern Bean power sprayer, three of which we had in operation. Similarly we are indebted to the Wenatchee Produce Company for the use of a Gould's power sprayer operated by an air cooled gaso- lene engine. All the spraying was done by the authors or under their personal direction. Some conclusions of the greatest practical importance can be drawn from this season's observations. Briefly stated they are these. Practically every READjTHESE SPRAY- worm of the first brood attempts to ING DIRECTIONS. enter the apple at the calyx end. If every calyx cup is filled with poison, practically every worm will therefore be poisoned. There will then be no second brood. But poison can be put into the calyx cup only within a few days after the petals have fallen. If it is not done then no amount of after spray- ing can force a thorough coating of poison into the calyx end of the apple, and the apples will become wormy. This fundamental principle must be understood if you wish suc- cess. In the foregoing pages we have shown that the first spraying CAN be so thoroughly applied that other sprayings are hardly necessary. This can be done by using much pressure, a coarse spray, a bent nozzle, and enough liquid to drench ’every blossom. Use arsenate of lead, and if you i6 Washington Agtiadtuj at Experiment Statro?i spray thoroughly one pound to 50 gallons will be strong enough. Force the spray into every flower. This means that four fifths of your spray must be thrown down from above every branch, but it also means that you must spray in every other direction too. If the trees are tall it will pay to spray from a tower. Otherwise a bead at the end of the extension rod will answer. STAY WITH EACH TREE UNTIL YOU ARE SURE THAT EVERY BLOSSOM IS FILLED WITH SPRAY. That is what we mean by spraying thoroughly. FIG. 1.— Diagram of the Flower at Time of First Spraying. The outer calyx cup (1) can be easily sprayed, but the fleshy stamen bars (2) and the branched pistil (3) make a tight capping over the inner calyx cavity (4) through which it is difficult to spray. Since most worms enter the apple at 4 the inner cavity must be thor- oughly poisoned, and this can not be done by a low-pressure misty spray. The first spraying must be done on time. Commence when about 85% of the white petals have fallen. If one pump can not cover the orchard in eight days get enough outfits to do so. If the orchard contains mixed varieties that do not blossom to- gether, go over it more than once, spraying each variety when it is in best conditon. Never put off the first spraying. It must be done on time. We recommend to you to repeat this spraying in one week, and in the same way as before. This application will help insure thoroughness and will have more value than a spraying given at any other time of the year. But if the first spraying is not thorough, so that you permit even a few first brood worms to live you will have Bulletin No . 86 — The Codling Moth in 1907 17 many of the second brood to endanger the fruit. Most of these worms also attempt to enter at the calyx, and here the value of the first spraying is again apparent. But as many of the late worms try to enter the sides it is necessary to keep every side of every apple coated with poison. A second spraying for the first brood and two sprayings for the sec- ond brood usually are necessary to accomplish this. At any of these sprayings spray until the apples just start to drip. You may use the same outfit as for the first spraying, or you may use lower pressure, Vermorel nozzles, and a straight extension rod. It is not necessary at these sprayings to spray from above the fruit. For the last three years the second spraying, which is given when codling moth eggs are beginning to hatch, has followed a month to six weeks after the first. The third spraying should be given one month after the first worms appear under the bands. The effect of this spraying lasts three or four weeks, when the fourth spraying should be given. These directions are simple. If you follow them you need have no dread of the codling moth. You can set out to have whatever number of worms you wish, just according to how carefully or how carelessly you give the first spraying. FIG. 2. — An abandoned orchard in the city of Walla Walla, scaly, wormy, unpruned, uncared-for, was changed in a single season to 99 per cent, and more of clean fruit by care- ful spraying. FIG. 3— This orchard was considered such a failure that most of it had been cut down in order to grow wheat on the ground. This year $1000 worth of apples were sold from one acre of the remaining trees. The wheat barely paid the taxes of the land it occupied. FIG. 4 —The large pile of apples to the left is wormy; the small pile is clean. These apples came from a tree in the part of the orchard that was not sprayed and were so wormy that it did not pay to sort them over. They were sold to a vinegar factory at the rate of eight cents a box. FIG. 5. — The man holds three wormy apples, all that weie found in 25 boxes. That is what 99.9 per cent of clean fruit means. The hoxes in the background were filled with wormy culls in 1906- and there were 3000 boxes full. This year careful spraying reduced the number of culls to six boxes in all. LIST OF BULLETINS No. The following bulletins of this station are now available for distribution. Missing numbers are out of print. 1. Announcements. 2. Report of Farmers’ Institute held at Colton. 3. “ “ “ “ “ Garfield 4. Wireworms 5. Report of Farmer’s Institute held at Pomeroy. 7 . Two Injurious Insects. (The Pea Weevil and Cottony Maple Scale) 10. Wheat, Barley, Oats, Peas and Forage Crops. 11. Preliminary Report of Feeding Test with Swine. 25. Pruning Orchard Trees. 28. Clearing Land. 31. Irrigation Experiments in Sugar Beet Culture in Yakima Valley. 32. Correction of Babcock Test for Cream, Effects of Richness of Cream on Acid Test. 33. Fiber Flax Investigation. 34. The Russian Thistle in Washington. 35. Miscellaneous Injurious Insects. 36. Insects Injurious to Currants and Gooseberries. 37. The Present Status of the Russian Thistle in Washington. 4r. Grasses and Forage Plants in Washington. 42. A New Sugar Beet Pest and Other Insects Attacking Beets. 47. The Variegated Cut-Worm. 48. Mechanical Ration Computer. 49. Alkali and Alkali Soils. 55. Washington Soils. 57. A Home Vegetable Garden in the Palouse Country. 58. Experiments in Feeding Swine. 59. Root Diseases of Fruit and Other Trees Caused by Toadstools. 60. A Report on the Range Conditions of Central Washington. 67. Some Notes Concerning Halpen’s Test for Cotton Seed Oil. 68. The Wormy Apple. 69. Preliminary Report on the Codling Moth in the Yakima Valley. 70. Powdery Mildews in Washington. 71. Preserving Eggs. 72. The Chemical Composition of Washington Forage Crops. 74. Two Insect Pests of the Elm. 75. Apple Scab in Eastern Washington. 76. The Economical Preparation of the Sulphur-Lime Spray. 77. The Codling Moth in the Yakima Valley. 78. The Goat Industry in Western Washington. 79. Steer Feeding under Eastern Washington Conditions. 80. Growing Alfalfa Without Irrigation in Washington. 8t. The Codling Moth in Eastern Washington. 82. I. The Chemical Composition of Washington Forage Crops. II. Analyses of Grains and Concentrated Stuffs. 83. Some Important Plant Diseases in Washington. 84. Wheat and Flour Investigations. (Crop of 1905) 85. Washington Soils. 86. The Codling Moth in 1907. THE STATE COLLEGE OF WASHINGTON Agricultural Experiment Station P u llm an , Washington Department of HORTICULTURE = Raspberries, Blackberries and Loganberries in Washington BY W. S. THORNBER " ™ ~ Bulletin No. 87 190 9 The Puyallup Summer Fruit Association Building. The center of the small fruit industr3 T of that section. All bulletins of this Station sent free to citizens of the State on application to director BOARD OF CONTROL Peter McGregor, President , Colfax F. J. Barnard, Treasurer , Seattle K. A. Bryan, Secretary ex officio , Pullman President of the College J. J. Browne, Spokane Dr. J. S. Anderson, Asotin Tee A. Johnson, Sunnyside STATION STAFF. i R. W. Thatcher, M. A., - - Director and Chemist E.E. Elliott, M.S. , Agriculturist, Supt. Farmers’ Institutes Elton Fulmer, M. A., S. B. Nelson, D. V. M., O. L. Waller, Ph. M., - R. K. Beattie, A. M., - Walter S. Thornber, M. s. - A. L. Melander, M.S. - George Severance, B. S., C. W. Lawrence, B. S. - H. B. Berry, B. S., W. H. Lawrence, M. S., Ira P. Whitney, B. S., - W. T. McDonald, M. S. A. - W. E. Ralston, D. V. M., - A. G. Craig, B. S., W. T. Shaw, B. S., H. B. Humphrey, Ph.D., George A. Olson, M. S. State Chemist Veterinarian Irrigation Engineer Botanist Horticulturist Entomologist Agronomist Cerealist Soil Physicist - Plant Pathologist Dairy Expert - Animal Husbandman - Assistant Veterinarian Assistant Horticulturist Assistant Zoologist Assistant Botanist Assistant Chemist Raspberries, Blackberries and Loganberries in Washington. BY W. S. THORNBER. INTRODUCTION. Practically all kinds of small fruit can be profitably grown in nearly every part of Washington. Some localities are especially adapted to commercial production of berries or other small fruits. In others, such fruits are grown only for home use ; but wherever other fruit is grown, either for home consumption or for sale, berries can be produced with equal success and satisfaction. In several localities in this state, especially west of the Cascade Mountains, berry-growing has come to be a very important industry. The fruit grows to a perfection found ' in few other parts of the United States. The difficulties due to expense in picking and marketing the berries have been overcome by careful attention to the manner in which the berries are grown and by the formation of cooperative associ- ations for marketing or preserving the fruit. The information contained in this Bulletin has been gathered largely from the experience of the most successful berry-growers in those localities and from the berry plantation on the Station farm at Pullman. While intended primarily for the grower of berries for commercial purposes, the suggestions are equally » applicable to the home fruit garden, and may be relied upon to give profitable returns wherever they are made use of. SOIL. The raspberry and blackberry are two of our most cos- mopolitan plants. Some form or forms of each are found in almost every climate and on practically all kinds of soil. True 4 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station it is they are partial to certain soils, yet no farmer in the state need be without berries if he chooses to grow them. A deep, well-drained, yet moist, sandy loam with considerable humus in it is the ideal soil. While blackberries do well on and apparently favor moist soil, raspberries are freer from winter injury on dry soil and rather favor it to the moister soils. If the soil lacks humus it should be supplied if possible either by green or stable manure before the plants are started, other- wise one will experience more or less difficulty in adding humus. Plant food may be added annually and economically to the soil by one of two methods. Either by growing cover-crops of vetch or peas between the rows and working them into the soil in spring, or by the hauling in of stable manures. The latter method combines two of our very important industries under one management, i. e., dairying and small fruit growing. However, the phase of fertility is not the only common ground of the two industries. They naturally travel hand in hand and where berries are grown, dairy cattle should be kept. DRAINAGE. If the soil is not naturally well drained artificial drainage must be provided, or success cannot be expected. Berry plants enjoy plenty of moisture but it must not be in excess. Many patches visited during the summer of 1906-07 showed evil effects of the excess of water at their roots. Land that is appar- ently dry enough during the summer months may be entirely too wet during the winter. While studying the conditions of soil drainage the phase of air drainage must not be neglected. Evil results will come from poorly air drained plantations of berries just as surely as they will come from poor soil drained fields. This can be avoided by the use of properly adapted planting plans on sloping fields, and the removal of any obstructions such as hedges, fences, etc., that may tend to check the free circulation of the air down the valleys or over the flats. Plant diseases and insect enemies thrive best in the poorly drained field. Bulletin No. 87— Ben ies in Washington 5 CULTIVATION. Nothing can take the place of thorough cultivation. Care- less or injudicious tillage ruins more fruit than all the insects and plant diseases together. “The price of successful fruit growing is eternal vigilance.” Cultivation is the most economical way of keeping down the weeds, of conserving the soil moisture, of preparing plant food for the plants and of improving the physical condition of the soil. These are vital considerations of berry culture. The work of cultivation should start as early in the spring as the soil will permit and continue late into the harvest season. Many berry crops are cut short by the cessation of cultivation too early in the season. The early cultivation should be for the purpose of loosening up the soil to let the air in, while the later should be for the conservation of moisture, the killing of weeds and suckers and making plant food more available. HARVESTING THE CROP. Every commercial berry field should be provided with a conveniently located packing or cooling shed of some sort. It should be large enough to provide a place for the temporary cooling of the fruit as it is packed as well as some sort of a shelter for the packers and their crates. One of the perplexing problems that most growers have to contend with is the securing of pickers. Many of the growers are solving this by providing suitable and pleasant camping grounds or living quarters, and securing boys and girls or even young people from the cities and nearby towns. The methods of tabulating the work of the pickers is somewhat varied. However, most of the growers are using heavy manila tags upon which is printed the grower’s name, a space for the picker’s name and figures of various denomina- tions to be punched as the required number of cups of fruit are picked. These tags are generally suspended by a string around the picker’s neck and when all punched represent one 6 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station dollar’s worth of labor. In many country places they are often? passed at face value at the stores, redeemable on demand by* the grower. A shipping tag with this printing upon it makes an excellent “Pickers Tag” Several forms of berry stands are used but probably the- most satisfactory one is the low, legless one which is hard to upset and easily placed in the shade. Some pickers prefer the tall one; however, it is difficult to set in the shade and almost impossible to keep it from tipping over. One with short legs is frequently used ; but it has few, if any, advantages over the flat-bottomed one. 6 6 6 6 6 ! 6 i c CM Great Northern fruit CO. — 1 ■ CM incorporated. -* - BERRY TICKET 3 Crates. 8 Boxes CM Good tor one Dollar CM Monroe. Washington. 0 ) 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 A temporary packing shed Bulletin No. 8y — Bcrties in Washington 7 A successful grower gives the following directions for picking : “Raspberries should be picked w T hen they are turning red. They will color and ripen in twelve hours, and will have as fine a flavor as if allowed to remain on the vines until entirely ripe. They should never be picked when wet or damp nor picked nor packed for shipment during the extreme heat of the day. If picked when warm, berries should be allowed to stand in the picking trays in the shade for a few hours before packing. The morning pick is the best long distance shipper. “A rigid inspection of vines should be made by the field boss to see that no ripe berries are overlooked to be picked over-ripe at the next picking, as a few of these will spoil an entire case and may lower the grade of the entire shipment. The packer at the receiving shed should examine each tray delivered by the pickers to see that the berries at the bottom of the cup are as well picked as those at the top. Display on your receiving counter a cup of well picked and filled berries and call attention to it of all pickers who fall below the standard.” Pony Refrigerators, used for shipping small fruit long distances in limited quantities. 8 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station SHIPPING. One of the drawbacks to the growing of soft fruits in many sections has been due to the difficulty of getting the fruit to market without serious if not total loss. The larger grower and the fruit associations solved this problem for car- load lots. Other means had to be resorted to for the small or isolated shipper and as a result of this we have the so-called “pony refrigerator” — a small, light refrigerator that will hold fifty-four boxes of fruit, constructed in such a way that it can be sent by express, iced before starting and reiced once or more times on the road if necessary, and when empty returned to the owner or shipper to be refilled and sent out again. This has made it possible for small growers to ship quantities of soft fruit from the coast to St. Paul, Chicago and other central points and have it arrive at its destination in good condition. Care must be exercised in the handling of fruit for long shipments. The fruit must be in prime condition when it leaves the field and not needlessly hauled over a rough road nor exposed to the sun for a longer period of time than is actually necessary. Over-ripe, soft, or wet fruit should never be shipped at all but be immediately consigned to the cannery, evaporator, or fruit juice factory. PLANTING PLANS. The distances that the plants should be set apart and the plan used is of more real importance to the berry grower than was formerly believed to be. Many berry plantations in Washington are now yielding poor or unsatisfactory crops simply because they are planted so close together that it is impossible to give proper culture and training. Like all other industries of a similar nature it is frequently abused by the over zealous grower. This close planting is not only responsible for poorly developed plants and therefore small unsatisfactory yields, but is also responsible to a very marked degree for the severe losses from insect pests and plant diseases. There is no condition more favorable to these pests than the crowd- Bulletin No. 8y — Berries in Washington 9 ing of plants together in large areas such as we find in Western Washington. Weak plants and poor air drainage are ideal conditions for all kinds of pests to secure a foothold and do much damage. The following reasons give some of the evil effects of close planting: (a) Proper tillage cannot be given when the plants are crowded. (b) The training of the plants and the harvesting of the crop is more expensive. (c) Small unsatisfactory growth, hence light yields. (d) Poor air drainage invites plant diseases. (e) Crowding provides better breeding places for all kinds of insects. (f) Increased expenses per acre for planting, care, train- ing, and harvesting, without increased yields. (g) Small, soft fruit as compared with large, firm fruit. The soil, moisture, variety, and the nature of growth all tend to govern the planting plan used and the distance apart that the plants are to be set. For the convenience of this dis- cussion the plants are grouped under two heads as follows: 1. The Upright Growers. These include the red rasp- berries and such of the blackberries as do not produce long vines, examples of which are Snyder, Ancient, Briton, etc. 2. The Viny Growers. Those plants producing long, trail- ing, recumbent vines so commonly seen in the Logan and Phe- nomenal berries and The Evergreen, Early Mammoth and Himalaya Giant blackberries. I— UPRIGHT GROWERS. There are two general systems, with numerous modifica- tions, for planting the upright growers. These are known as the “Hill” and “Continuous row” systems. Each has its advantages as well as its disadvantages. The evils are ap- parently minimized in the former, while the latter system has a greater number of admirers but is more easily abused. The large growers apparently favor the hill system on account 10 Washington Agricultural Expo intent Station A forty acre field of Red Raspberries near Monroe, Washington of the advantages that it offers for the handling of large yields; while the smaller planters usually favor the continuous row system for the simple reason that it lends itself more readily to close planting and heavy fertilizing. Continuous Rows — This system takes its name from the fact that the plants are in continuous rows and while the indi- Snyder Blackberry, one of the most productive sorts Bulletin No. Sy — Berries in Washington 1 1 vidual plants are farther apart yet it bears practically the same relation to bush fruit culture that the matted row sys- tem does to strawberry culture. The plants are set in rows from seven to nine feet apart and from two to three feet apart in the row. While this gives plenty of room for culture in one way it completely bars it in other directions. A large percentage of the first berry fields planted in Western Wash- ington were planted in this way, while a majority of the new fields, and especially of the large ones, are being planted in the hill system. Practically the only advantage that this has over the hill system is that it is possible to set more plants per acre and under favorable conditions harvest a few more crates of berries per acre. However, the grade is usually not as good as that of those grown by the other system. It has a few very important disadvantages that should be carefully considered by every prospective grower. They are as follows : 1. Cultivation is possible in only one direction. 2. Air drainage is usually not so good. 3. A large portion of the plant is shaded more hours of the day. 4. In dense rows it is impossible for the pickers to secure all of the ripe fruit at each picking, therefore soft, unmarket- able fruit will frequently find its way into the berry cups. 5. Diseases affecting the roots of the plants spread more rapidly in these closely planted fields than in other fields. 6. Diseases affecting the canes and fruit are more abun- dant in the continuous row than the hill system. Hills — As the name implies, this system consists of grow- ing the plants in hills rather than in continuous rows. The distances that the plants are apart will be governed somewhat by the fertility and variety of the fruit grown. A rank grow- ing variety on rich soil should be planted from six to seven feet apart each way, while a weaker growing sort on fair to 12 Washington Agricultural Expet intent Station poor soil need not be planted farther than five to six feet apart each way. However, as a general rule . six feet apart each way, or 1210 plants per acre, gives satisfactory results for most varieties, soils, and purposes. Some of the finest and most productive patches in Western Washington are planted in this way. The hill system has one apparently serious drawback in that it reduces the number of plants possible to set per ^jre, from 1840 where planted 3 by 8 feet to 1210 plants where planted 6 by 6 feet. To the average advocate of the hill system this is no drawback, as he is more than able to make up in quality and grade what he loses in quantity. The fol- lowing advantages are very apparent in this system : 1. Room for thorough tillage with horse cultivators each way and even diagonally if so desired. 2. Boom for pickers to see and secure all fruit as it ripens; therefore, the elimination from the cups of soft, unsal- able fruit. 3. The maximum amount of sunlight — which is essential for the formation of large buds and the development of the highest quality and best size of fruit. 4. Necessary room for proper pruning, thinning, train- ing, etc. 5. Economy and simplicity of supporting the canes. 6. A more nearly perfect air drainage, which tends to minimize if not eliminate the dangers of late spring frosts and much of the loss caused by bacterial and fungus troubles. II— VINY GROWERS. As a matter of convenience we have grouped the Ever- green, Mammoth and Himalaya Giant blackberries and Logan berries and called them the viny growers, since they produce long recumbent, climbing, or trailing vines. From the nature of their growth they require an entirely different planting plan and system of training to make satisfactory cultivation and picking possible. Eight feet is a reasonable distance Bulletin No. 8y — Berries in Washington 13 Evergreen Blackberry, the latest and most productive variety in cultivation apart for the rows, but the plants in the row require intervals of from sixteen to twenty-four feet, governed entirely by the fertility and moisture determinants. In good rich soil with the proper amount of moisture it is not uncommon to find canes or vines from fifty to sixty feet in length, while on dry or poor soil they may not be more than four or five feet. Other things being equal the longer and stronger cane that can be grown the more productive will be the field. Many of the early planters made a mistake in using the opposite instead of the alternate system of planting. It is only reasonable to assume that strong feeding plants will sooner or later begin to crowd one another when planted not more than eight feet apart and therefore for this reason we find it advisable to use the alternate row system. BERRIES AS FILLERS IN YOUNG ORCHARDS. The practice of using berries as fillers in a young orchard is one that requires careful consideration. It involves the same principles that the use of fillers in any orchard does and can be fairly treated only from a similar point of view. The profitable use of fillers depends more upon the man that uses 14 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station them than upon any other single consideration. While it is a safe proposition for some men, it is extremely dangerous for others. The arguments may be well summed up in the follow- ing manner: Fillers are a good thing in an orchard so long as they stimulate better tillage and in no way interfere with the growth or management of an orchard. But under no con- sideration must they be permitted to remain long enough to interfere with the pruning, fertilizing, spraying, thinning and harvesting of the orchard crops. The man is rarely to be found who will remove a good healthy productive filler before it does serious injury to the permanent tree. So long as this condition lasts the general use of fillers will always be at- tended by more or less risk. There are two general systems of planting berries as fillers in the orchard. One consists of adapting the continuous row system to orchard conditions and the other by making use of the hill system. Both systems are successfully used at the present time. However, for various reasons the Hill system carried out in the following manner is preferable: Plant the fruit trees thirty-six feet apart using the alternate system and set the berry plants six feet apart between the fruit trees in the rows as well as between the rows. This will allow the planting of 1180 berry plants and thirty fruit trees per acre. This method of planting minimizes the evils of fillers in an orchard and if properly cared for and the bushes removed as the trees require the room large quantities of small fruit may be raised in conjunction with the growing of the orchard trees. After the third or fourth years all berry plants within six feet of the fruit trees must be removed without fail and the fourth or fifth years those berry plants situated diagonally on the same squares with the trees must be removed and so on until all berry plants are out. In so doing the trees are given abun- dance of room as they require it and no evil should result from the use of fillers. Where the conditions of soil and climate are favorable for each, this is an excellent plan to use in connection with Bulletin No. 8y — Berries in Washington 15 the growing of English walnuts. Since walnut trees are grown with longer stems and require little or no spraying they are much more adapted to use in connection with small fruit than the ordinary orchard tree. TRAINING AND STAKING. The manner of training and staking is largely governed by the varieties, system of planting, and the method of tillage. No single phase of berry culture requires a more careful con- sideration than that of training and staking. The neglected patch is a thing of the past and the up-to-date culturist no longer expects to gather successful crops without giving special attention to training. The conditions that exist in Western Washington have been productive of almost a revolution in the methods of berry culture and while this is more noticeable in the methods of training than in any other particular yet wonderful strides have been made in all directions. There is practically only one system to follow for train- ing the upright growers when they are planted in hills and that is to set a light post from five to six feet high at each hill. From five to seven canes are trained up and tied firmly to this post until they reach the top when they are topped and are permitted to throw out laterals. This produces a well-sup- ported compact hill that can be easily cared for with a horse cultivator and gives the fruit every opportunity for its fullest development as well as simplifies picking very materially. A grower at Sumner employs an interesting and very successful method of training his Snyder blackberries which are planted in hills six feet apart each way. Instead of using one light post at each hill he sets two from twelve to eighteen inches apart. While one post is supporting the fruiting canes the growing canes are being trained upon the other and any one familiar with the Snyder blackberry will at once see that this simplifies picking and training materially even though it does increase the initial cost of staking. Whenever the continuous row plan of planting of upright Washington Agricultural Experiment Station 1 6 growers is followed, some form of lateral support is necessary to keep the canes from leaning over into the spaces between the rows and interfering with cultivation and picking. Various materials from heavy wire to light alder or even cedar rails .are employed for this purpose. The best plan is to set a single line of posts about sixteen feet apart and from five to five and o a > «3 O? to rt 0 o 3 »«■§ I sisSlssl S 3 of §■£ „ , g $ Sfggg gS6i sEg I Ss 5o 5 be k | © r G g g ifi g j,Si § . g t S ° t .2 B m © c - « a> ffi « i — ii — i cS bfl % “ s . 5 ? s a % & G . o !>> Q G © C 3 'C b:. -Tt w ffi OJ !0 03 -P_,K> , — < r . - ■ — u r 3 hHZ o < jC.«.d.M s 3 is cs cs o? 2 (T)Q)CU(D^^C', Gr^dC o C o o L S .b G G G G E E *E *E E E ^ b b ^ ^ r-.' c3 ■B >> © 2 tr. ,G P b ce ^ G © ce 'B Bo b % efi o 3 >. >. © G .r © J- G G b b o3 © a § © o

icea Excelsa Picea Nigra Picea pungens Pinus Alba Pinus Parriccta Pinus Montana Pinus. Ponderosa Pinus Sylvestris Pinus Lauricio Pseudotsuga Douglasii Thuya occidentalis Thuya Gigantea TUyya occidentalis, var Thuya occidentalis, var Chamaecyparis sphaeroidea |White Cedar Red Cedar jlrish Juniper | American Larch ! European Larch | White Spruce (Hngelman’s Spruce [Norway Spruce Black Spruce Colorado Blue Spruce (White Pine Western Jack Pine |Dwarf Mountain Pine [Bull Pine 'Scotch Pine I Austrian Pine I Douglas Fir | Arborvitae Giant Cedar | Dwarf arborvitae I Blue arborvitae Bulletin No. 90. — Forest, Shade and Ornamental Trees 23 >rably with any tree of the same age even the Cottonwood Lombardy Poplar group. Some of these trees are growing n*ass while others are in cultivated lands. TREES The following facts concerning the habits of growth of the 'erent species of trees as described were collected largely jm the experimental tree planting on the College campus and periment Station, with additional notes from plantings in ferent parts of the state. ACER Campestre, Linn. English Maple. Native of Europe and stern Asia. A medium to rapid growing, round topped tree with mpact head, numerous small branches and an abundance very pretty, small, dark, green leaves. It starts into wth early in spring, holds its leaves rather late in the fall, and en full of ripening seeds is very attractive. As a small street or ade tree it has few superiors, standing drouth and dust as well as nty of moisture. It is easy to transplant and propagate and should extensively used in all ornamental planting. A. Circinatum, Pursh. Vine Maple. Native of Western ited States. This is a small tree or large bush as grown on the npus. It throws up several slender trunks from one root, none of ich ever become very large. The limbs are usually more or less .ndulous in habit, which gives it the name of Vine Maple. The iage is dense and pretty, taking on beautiful autumm tints in the 1. It can be used very effectively in banking and small clumps, jecially in moist soils where it grows best. The Vine Maple is per- tly hardy anywhere in the state and readily stands transplanting. A. Macrophyllum, Pursh. The Oregon or Large-leaved pie. Native of parts of California, Oregon, Washington and Brit- Columbia. Several trees of this species are growing on the npus and while it is not hardy enough at first to produce a single mmed tree, it may become more or less acclimated in time so that can remove all but one stem of these bush-like trees and by this ans obtain a nice tree. The limbs are coarse and heavy. The ves are large and very ornamental. The Oregon Maple may be I very effectively as a screen for the back of the yard or as a wind- ak. In the Western part of the state it is the principal street ; e and it serves the purpose well, since it is a clean rapid growing, use shade-producing tree. A. Negundo, Linn. Box Elder, Ash Leaf Maple. Some form the Box Elder is a native of practically all paries, of the United 24 State College Experiment Station States. The Box Elder is a very pretty round topped maple-like tree and is occasionally called the pioneer of shade trees, since we find it being planted usually before any other form of shade trees. It is a valuable shade and street tree for severe situations, but we find it serving its best purposes when planted along public roads or be- ing used for a wind-break. The rapidity of its growth, denseness of its foliage, the value of its wood for fuel and the ease with which it can be transplanted all add to its usefulness for the farm or city home. Old specimens become irregular or unsightly sometimes, but they can usually be rejuvinated by severe pruning and proper care. A. Platanoides, Linn. Norway Maple. Native of Northern and central Europe and Asia. Many good specimens of this tree are growing on the campus. It is one of our best shade and street trees, forming a dense round top with very pretty foliage and strong limbs that are not easily injured in wind storms. It comes into leaf early in spring and drops its leaves late in the fall after taking on a rich yellow or bright red color. This tree is perfectly hardy anywhere in the state, is long lived, easily transplanted and withstands drouth re- markably well. Under normal conditions it is a rapid grower and easily propagated from seeds. A. P., Schwedleri. Koch. Schwedler’s Maple. A horticultural variety closely resembling the species but having foliage that is bright red when young and purple red when older. Propagated by budding upon the Norway Maple. A. Pseudoplatanus, Linn. Sycamore Maple. Native of east- ern Europe. There are several good specimens of this tree found growing on the campus where it has proved itself to be a very valu- able shade and street tree when well cared for and severely cut back occasionally in order to develop a dense crown. Naturally the top is spreading, irregular and open in habit, but severe pruning will correct this fault. The limbs are long, pole-like, and, although the crotches are acute angled much like the White Maple, it rarely, or ever, breaks or splits in wind storms since the wood is very tenaceous. The tops are not as dense as the Norway Maple but the leaves are large, three to five-lobed and very showy for ornamental plant- ing. It is perfectly hardy and a rapid grower. The Sycamore Maple, when undisturbed, forms a long, heavy tap root, which makes the transplanting of large trees very difficult and uncertain. Small trees are usually easily transplanted. It is readily propagated from seeds. The Sycamore Maple is being sub- stituted for the Sugar Maple in some parts of the state, and it is said to produce a large quality of a fair quality of maple syrup and sugar. This is one of our best street trees. Bulletin No. 90. — Forest, Shade and Ornamental Trees 25 A. Rubrum, Linn. Red Maple, Scarlet Maple or Swamp Maple. Native of the eastern United States and Canada. Good specimens of this tree may be seen on the campus or on several lawns in Pull- man. It is a beautiful slender tree of an upright habit of growth with a rather compact dense crown. The Red Maple resembles the White Maple somewhat, but is a much slower grower. It is hardy anywhere yi the state and withstands drouth as well as an excess of water. It is epsecially valuable for ornamental planting, since its red blossoms come out very early in spring, and in fall the autumn ef- fects of its foliage are not surpassed by any other plant. This tree is easily transplanted, but usually makes a slow growth for a few years or until it becomes established. It is readily propagated from seeds if sown as soon as they are ripe in June. A. Saccliarinum, Linn. Silver Maple. Soft or White Maple. Native of southeastern Canada and eastern half of the United States. A very popular as well as satisfactory shade and street tree. It is a very rapid grower and does extremely well in a great variety of soils and climates. In very dry soils the limbs are apt to be brittle and frequently split or break in wind storms, but this evil may be avoided by careful pruning and cutting back the lateral limbs which tends to strengthen the crotches. The foliage is dense, light and airy and always gives a graceful appearance. It is practically free from insect pests and diseases. The Soft Maple is a very valuable tree for wind-breaks, shelter-belts and wood-lot plantations. A small plantation of White Maple properly cared for would in a few years soon yield the owner a lot of valuable fire wood, or even lum- ber. This is easily propagated from seeds sown as soon as they are ripe in June or July. A. S., var. Wierii laciniatum. Wier’s Out-leaved Maple. This is a horticultural variety of the common White Maple, differing from the species in having finely cut or dissected foliage and slender beau- tifully drooping branches. • It is almost as hardy as the type, a very rapid grower and ranks among the most attractive of lawn trees. Good specimens have been seen in all parts of the state. It is pro- pagated by budding or grafting the cut leaf form upon the common White Maple. A. Saccharum, Marsh. Sugar Maple. Hard Maple. Native of southeastern Canada and eastern half of the United States. The specimens of Hard Maple show that while the tree is perfectly hardy, it is a rather slow grower under the conditions of Eastern Washing- ton. Naturally the tree is tall and slender when grown with other trees but spreading when alone. It does not take favorably to dusty, smoky situations, so is not valuable in large cities, and from the na- 26 State College Experiment Station ture of its slow growth and thin foliage when young is not a popular street tree. Its foliage is very pretty any time, but especially so during the autumn when it colors up beautifully. The Hard Maple is easily transplanted but the stem should be protected from the sun for some time since it is apt to become “bound” or injured by scald. It propagates readily from seed planted as soon as ripe or stratified in sand and planted early in spring. A. Spicatum, Mountain Maple. A small round topped tree to upright bush with thin foliage and slender branches. It makes a very slow growth on dry stony land but makes a very rapid growth on moist rich soil. Valuable only as a screen or low shade tree. AESCULUS Glabra, Willd. Ohio Buckeye. Native of the east- ern part of the United States. A small round topped, rather open- crowned tree, seldom growing more than thirty feet high. It is not so pretty in foliage flowers or shape as the Horse Chestnut, yet it is much prized for street, shade and specimen work in parks, lawns, etc. The flowers are more numerous than the following species, but smaller and of light yellow color. In moist locations in eastern Washington, it is a rapid grower and soon produces a pretty tree. It is easily transplanted when small and readily propagated from seeds. A. Hippocastanum, Linn. Horse-chestnut. Native of south- ern Europe. A medium-sized to tall, round topped dense foliaged tree, having a very compact crown which causes it to be used exten- sively where a dense shade is desirable. It leaves out reasonably early in spring and is soon a mass of large beautiful spikes of white flow- ers. The wood of this tree has very little value commercially since it is soft and not durable. The Horse-chestnut is usually a slow grower during its first three or four years, but after it becomes es- tablished, in favorable soil it is a rapid grower, and makes splendid specimens for lawn shade or street planting. It is easily transplant- ed when young, and readily propagated either by planting the nuts as soon as ripe or stratifying them in sand and planting the follow- ing spring. A. H., var. carnea. Hayne. Red Flowering Chestnut. A small dense foliage round topped tree bearing large red blossoms. Valu- able for ornamental planting. ALNUS Rubra, Bong. Red Alder. Native of western part of the United States and Canada. A large shrub or small round-headed tree, frequently attaining twenty-five feet in height. It is occasion- ally used for ornamental planting, and makes a very valuable plant for rich, moist or even wet ground. It is not desirable for dry situ- ations. AMEL AN CHIER alnifolia, Nutt. Juneberry, Shad-bush or Ser- Bulletin No. 90. — Forest, Shade and Ornamental Trees 27 vice-berry. Native of practically all of the western half of the United States and southern Canada. A large shrub to small upright tree. If carefully pruned to one stem the June-berry makes a very pretty upright little tree v/hich is one mass of beautiful white flowers in April or May and produces large quantities of fruit in June or July. In localities where fruit is scarce it is some times used as food, but ordinarily its chief value is to attract birds from other fruits. It is easily transplanted and readily propagated by suckers, root cuttings or seeds. BETULA alba, Linn. European White Birch. Native of various parts of Europe and Asia. A very graceful little tree with white bark and slender branches. The foliage is light and airy and so produces very little shade, which makes it especially valuable for lawns, etc., where a grassy surface is desirable. It is perfectly hardy here and adapted to many kinds of soil, but readily responds to deep rich moist soil. The European Birch is not desirable for street planting but can be advantageously used in forest or wood lot plantations. While its wood is not valuable it is extensively used for furniture, fuel, etc. It is easily transplanted, rather hard to propagate, which is usually by seeds, but makes a rapid growth in favorable conditions. B. a., var. pendula. Weeping White Birch. This is a horticultur- al variety of the preceding species which it resembles very closely but differs from it by having very slender pendulous branches. It is extensively used for lawn and park planting where the cut-leaved forms are too expensive. It is as hardy as the species and favors -practically the same treatment. B. a., var. laciniata. Cut-leaved Weeping Birch. This is an- other horticultural variety of the European White Birch, and is especially valuable for lawn and park planting on account of its finely divided leaves and drooping habit of its slender branches. It is considered by many to be the most beautiful of all lawn trees, and for this reason is commonly called “The Queen of Trees.” Its tall slender stem and long, graceful branches make it very attractive to all. It is perfectly hardy here, but apt to be short-lived on dry soils. On deep rich moist soil it is long-lived and a rapid grower. It is easily transplanted, but difficult to propagate since it must be budded or grafted on common stocks. B. lutea, Michx. Yellow Birch. Native of Newfoundland to North Carolina and Tennessee and then westward to Minnesota. A tall upright tree often attaining the height of one hundred feet. This is one of our most valuable forest trees for cool moist soils, but it cannot withstand drouth. The wood is hard, heavy, close grained and very valuable and is frequently termed American Mahogany. 28 State College Experiment Station It is easily transplanted and is a rapid grower in favorable soils, but not recommended for dry situations. B. nigra, Linn. Red Birch. Native of the eastern part of the United States. A tall slender rapid growing tree with slender branches and dull green foliage.* Valuable for wood and ornamental planting in moist places. Our dry southern slopes are too severe for it in eastern Washington. B. populifolia, Ait. White Birch. Native of the eastern part of the United States. A small slender rapid growing tree with willowy branches and white trunk. A tree that prefers moist soil yet does very well on dry soil. Valuable here for wood and ornamental planting. CARPINUS Caroliniana, Walt. American Hornbeam. Native of the eastern part of the United States westward to Minnesota and south to Texas and Mexico. A small bushy tree rarely attaining a height of forty feet, of an upright, compact nature with small attractive leaves and much desired for specimen trees in lawns and parks. The wood is very tough, heavy, fine grained and very strong. It is not a rapid grower but is easily transplanted and has done well wherever planted upon the campus and experimental plots. It is pro- pagated by sowing the seeds as soon as they are ripe in the fall, but the germination is usually irhegular and unsatisfactory. CATALPA bignonioides, Walt. Catalpa. Native of the southern states as far north as Tennessee. A very rapid growing round topped tree with large beautiful leaves, and many flowered pinacles of large showy flowers. It has the disadvantage of leaving out very late in the spring and losing its foliage very early in the fall, but in July its flowers in a measure make up for these disadvantages. It oc- casionally kills back a little here on the grounds but as a rule it may be safely used for ornamental planting. It is easily transplanted, and readily propagated from seeds planted early in th espring. C. ovata, Don. Kaempfers Catalpa. Native of China and Japan. This is smaller and rather slower growing tree than either of the other forms. On the Station grounds it has proved itself hardy and worthy of a place for ornamental purposes. It leaves out late and loses its foliage early in the fall, but its blossoms are very attractive in July. It produces seed abundantly and may be readily propagat- ed from seed sown in the spring. C. speciosa, Wardner. Hardy Catalpa. A native of Illinois, In- diana and adjoining states. A tall upright growing tree often at- taining one hundred or more feet in height. For protected situa- tions this is a very valuable tree not only ornamentally but also for shade and forest purposes. In dry exposed situations it frequently kills back somewhat but quickly renews its growth the following Bulletin No. 90. — Forest, Shade and Ornamental Trees 29 year. The wood is light, coarse grained and very durable when in contact with the soil, therefore making it especially valuable for fence posts and railroad ties. Its large leaves and attractive blos- soms make it a general favorite for park planting. It is easily transplanted and a rapid grower when planted in moise rich soil. The Hard Catalpa is propagated from seed sown in the spring and oc- casionally from cuttings of mature wood. When used as a forest tree it should be permitted to grow at will for three or four years and then cut back to the ground with the idea of developing one strong straight stem, which will soon produce a fence post, railroad tie, or large pieces of fine wood. This practice may be repeated several times, or until the roots .become diseased or die entirely. CASTANEA Americana, Raf. American Chestnut. Native of the eastern part of the United States and south to Alabama and Mississ- ippi. A tall, vigorous, upright growing tree often attaining ninety to one hundred feet in height. It is valuable for shade, ornamental and forest purposes. The wood is coarse grained and extensively used for furniture, railroad ties, posts, etc. Our specimens have made a fairly rapid growth and are very attractive. They have not matured nuts as yet. It is easily transplanted when young and rapidly propagated from the nuts planted as soon as they are ripe or stratified in sand and planted very early in the sphing. C. crenata, Sieb. Japanese Chestnut. Native of China and Japan. A small tree or large shrub attaining a height of twenty to thirty feet. When left to grow naturally it produces an upright dense shrub which is very ornamental not only from the beauty of its foliage but also on account of the large upmber of burs borne in the top of the branches. It usually begins to bear nuts at six years of age and when the season is long enough produces a large crop of nuts which are fairly good both raw and for cooking purposes. It seems to be perfectly hardy and does real well when grown upon moist, rich soil. It is easily transplanted when young and is pro- pagated by planting the nuts are soon as they are ripe or by stratify- ing and planting in the spring. As a small growing tree or large shrub, the Japanese Chestnut has few deciduous equals for orna- mental planting. It leaves out early in the spring and retains its foliage late in fall. The foliage frequently colors some before drop- ping. CELTIS occidentalis, Linn. Hackberry. Found native in various parts of the United States and Canada. A large rapid growing beau- tiful shade, lawn and park tree. It does best in moist, rich soil, but still makes a splendid growth on dry, poor soil. This tree is cer- tainly a valuable substitute for the American Elm. Its beautiful fol- iage and slender graceful branches make it useful for ornamental 30 State College Experiment Station planting. The Hickberry is rather difficult to propagate. The seeds should be sown or stratified as soon as ripe. CRATAEGUS coccinea, Linn. Scarlet Thorn. Native of eastern part of North America. A large round topped shrub or small tree with dark green, glossy leaves, and white blossoms nearly an inch across that appear in May. A very valuable plant for hedges, screens and specimen planting. C. Crus-galli, Linn. Cockspur Thorn. Native of eastern United United States and Canada. A small spreading to round topped tree with dark green, glossy foliage and numerous long curved spines. This is one of the most striking trees of the Thorn family and is ex- tensively used as an ornamental plant. It is a rapid grower and readily adapts itself to our conditions of soil and climate. C. Douglasi, Lindl. Douglas Thorn. Native in parts of British Columbia, Washington, Oregon and California. A small round top- ped tree thirty to forty feet high, often having pendulous branches, which makes it a very ornamental plant for lawn or park planting. During the last of May or early in June it is covered with beautiful large bunches of pure white flowers and in autumn its fruit is very ornamental. Early in the fall its foliage takes a light yellow and later changes to a beautiful crimson color. Specimens or small groups of this plant are very valuable for park or lawn planting. It may be propagated by seeds which usually require two years to germ- inate, or by grafting or budding upon another Thorn or even a com- mon apple stock. C. mollis, Scheele. Smooth Thorn. Native of the eastern and central part of the United States and eastern Canada. A small rapid growing, round topped tree with dense dark green foliage and strong erect branches. Its blossoms in May and bright red fruit in Septem- ber make it valuable for ornamental planting. Considered by many to be the best native thorn in America. C. Oxyacantha, Linn. English Hawthorn. Native of Europe and Africa. A small, rapid growing, round topped tree, with beautiful dark green foliage. The great masses of pink and white blossoms which appear in May make this tree one of our most valuable orna- mental plants. It requires one or two years to become established but after that it does very well, even on dry soil. A valuable plant for hedges, screens and ornamental planting. C. pyracantha, Ait. Evergreen Thorn. . Native of Europe. A small irregularily topped evergreen tree with small dark green leaves, thorny branches and numerous red berries. A plant that starts into growth very slowly after being transplanted. Valuable for ornamental planting. C. Piperi. Pipers’ Thorn. Native of western United States. A Bulletin No. 90. — Forest, Shade and Ornamental Trees 31 small, dense, round topped tree, with dark green foliage, abundance of white blossoms in May and bright red fruit in August. Useful for ornamental planting. ELAEGNUS augustifolia, Lin. Russian Wild Olive or Oleaster. Native of Southern Europe and Western Asia. A hardy, small, rapid growing, round topped tree or large shrub with long silvery gray leaves. It leaves out early in the spring, produces a lot of small, yellow, fragrant blossoms the last of June and holds its leaves late into the winter. It is particularly adapted to our long, dry, dusty summers, is valuable for shade, ornamental planting and hedges and is one of the few ornamental trees that will thrive in strong alkali soil. When used. as a hedge plant, the constant shearing and clip- ping develops an unusual number of sharp thorns making it a barrier that will turn stock of all kinds. The Wild Olive, as it is commonly called, is readily propagated from seeds and transplants very easily, if taken before it is more than four years old. FAGUS sylvatica, Linn. European Beech. Native of central and Southern Europe. A medium sized, upright tree, with feathery limbs and silky foliage. One of the most beautiful ornamental trees but very difficult to transplant after it has passed its seeding stage. It forms a very strong tap root with few laterals thus making it al- most impossible to transplant large trees that have never been reset before. All Beeches should be severely pruned and little top growth expected before the second or third year after being transplanted. F. hetercpliylla. Loud. Fern-leaved Beech. A horticultural form with a dense, compact top, cut leaves and tendril-like branches. Val- uable for planting on north slopes in moist soils or protected situa- tions but of little value in exposed places in eastern Washington. F. purpurea, Ait. Purple Beech. A purple form of the Euro- pean Beech grown for its beautiful dark purple foliage. Our speci- mens have made a splendid growth during the past years and while usually considered tender, yet they appear to be hardy enough for this climate. Very difficult to transplant except when young. FRAXINUS Americana, Linn. White Ash. Native from Canada to Florida and west to Minnesota and Texas. The White Ash, if well grown, is one of our most valuable as well as ornamental trees. It is large, often one hundred and twenty feet high, round topped, dense foliaged, and well branched. It is used extensively for shade, wind-break and wood lot planting. The wood is valuable and dur- able. Under normal conditions the tree is perfectly hardy, easily transplanted and a rapid grower. It is ocassionally troubled with ash aphis but may be easily freed by proper spraying. It is easily pro- pagated by planting seed in the fall or keeping dry and planting in spring. 32 State College Experiment Station F. excelsior, Linn. English Ash. Native of Europe and Asia. A large rapid growing, upright tree with dark green foliage and strong, erect limbs. Valuable as a shade tree in moist soil but of lit- tle value in hard dry soils. It requires severe pruning when young to get the best results. Propagated from seed sown as soon as ripe or stratified and sown early the next spring. F. lanceolata, Borkh. Green Ash. Native from Maine to Florida and west to the Rocky Mountains. A medium sized, round topped tree, often attaining a height of sixty feet or more. It is very de- sirable for its wood which is hard and strong but coarse grained and brittle. Valuable for shade and street planting since it stands neg- lect and drouth remarkably well and is extremely hardy, but has the habit of starting into growth early enough each spring to get caught occasionally by a late spring frost and is subject to bad attacks of green aphis. Under favorable conditions of soil and moisture the Green Ash is easily transplanted and makes a rapid growth. It is easily propagated by planting the seeds in the fall or keeping them until spring and then plant. The seedlings of the Green Ash vary much the same as other seedlings. So, by a little care in selection, it is possible to secure a wide variation in color as well as the time of falling of the foliage. F. nigra, Marsh. Black Ash. Native of the central parts of the United States. A small, slow growing tree, with gray green leaves. While it does fairly well on moist soil, yet it is of no value for this state. F. Oregona, Nutt. Oregon Ash. The Oregon Ash is purely a western tree, being native of parts of Oregon and California. It is a round topped, strongly branched tree, with smooth gray bark, at- taining a height of from seventy to eighty feet. Under favorable conditions of soil and climate the Oregon Ash makes a nice shade tree, produces a fair quality of wood and is easily transplanted. The hard freezes of March 10, 11, 12, ’06, killed this back severely in eastern Washington. So for this reason we cannot recommend it as being perfectly hardy. It may be easily propagated from seeds sown in fall or spring, which come the first year after planting. F. Ornus, Linn. Flowering Ash. A native of Southern Europe and western Asia. The Flowering Ash is a medium sized, round topped to conical shaped tree, with beautiful dense foliage, compact upright branches, firm heavy crotches, which seldom or ever split or break in the winds, and a smooth gray green trunk. It is one of our most ornamental and attractive trees which may be used for street, wood lot or shade planting. It is free from insect pests and fungus diseases and so gives us a very clean tree. Under favorable conditions it is easily transplanted, a rapid grower, and readily pro- Bulletin No. 90.— Forest, Shade and Ornamental Trees 33 pagated from seeds which usually require two years to germinate. It starts into growth late in spring and thereby is seldom caught by the late frosts. It is perfectly hardy on the station grounds. The Flowering Ash should be extensively planted not only on account of its beauty but also for its wood producing tendencies. F. quadrangulata, Michx. Blue Ash. Native of the central part of the United States. A large upright growing tree with dense foliage and corky branches. It requires moist soil to secure the best re- sults. Not valuable in this state. GINKO biloba, Linn. Maidenhair Tree. A native of northern China which was introduced into the United States almost a century ago, and has now become a very popular tree where the climate is not too severe. It is a tall, slender, thinly branched, upright grow- ing tree extensively used for ornamental planting. While it has not been planted in large numbers in the state, yet beautiful specimens are frequently seen. The Maidenhair Tree is easily transplanted and naturally prefers a moist, rich soil, but does remarkably well on dry soil. It is usually propagated from seed stratified as soon as ripe in the fall and then planted in the spring. GYMNOCLADUS Canadensis, Lam. Coffeetree, Kentucky Coffee Tree. Native of the south central part of the United States. A very rare forest tree of irregular form. One is usually attracted by its oddness rather than beauty. Its bare, peculiar limbs in winter, its rich brown leaves, which appear so late in spring, and the large brown pods each add to its attractiveness. While our specimens have made a tall growth they contain but few lateral branches. It seems to be perfectly hardy. The Coffeetree is propagated from seeds which should be scalded before planting. HICORIA laeiniosa, Sarg. Big Shell-bark Hickory. Native of the central and southeast part of the United States. A large growing tree with dull green foliage and strong branches. A tree that starts to grow very slowly but does well on moist rich ground. H. mimimia, Britt. Bitter Nut. Native of eastern United States and Canada. A large upright broad topped tree with dense foliage and strong branches. It grows very rapidly in moist soils and re- sponds readily to cultivation and irrigation. A valuable tree for shade, forest and ornamental planting. Propagated from nuts plant- ed as soon as ripe or stratified and planted as early as possible the next spring. H. Pecan, Britt. Pecan Nut. Native of central and eastern part of the United States. A tall upright growing forest tree when young, but spreading and irregular when old. Not a rapid grower with us but a valuable forest tree in many ways. Propagated by planting nuts or budding on seedlings. 34 State College Experiment Station JUGLANS cinerea, Linn. Butternut. Native of New Brunswick to Georgia, west to South Dakota and Arkansas. A tall, lofty tree when grown in forest conditions, but large, spreading, round topped tree when grown in the open. It leaves out late in spring, but has pretty dense foliage in the summer time which is practically free from insects and plant diseases. The wood is light, rather soft, coarse grained and not nearly so valuable as the Black Walnut. It should be planted extensively not only for its wood and ornamental values but also for the nuts it produces. On rich moist soil it is a rapid grower, produces large crops of nuts, and is easily transplanted. It is propagated practically the same as the Black Walnut. J. Mandschuriea, Maxin. Mandschurian Walnut. Native of east- ern Asia. A valuable nut and wood producing tree for the irrigated valleys but not hardy enough for the uplands of eastern Washing- ton. The trees always make a strong growth each year at the Sta- tion and winter kill from one-half to two-thirds of the new wood each year. J. nigra, Linn. Black Walnut. Native of Massachusetts to Florida, west to Minnesota and Texas. A tall upright tree, often at- taining one hundred and fifty feet in height when grown under for- est conditions but when grown in the open it is spreading or even round topped. The foliage appears late in the spring and is dense and beautiful. The wood is hard and strong and considered one of our most valuable woods. The tree is practically free from insects but is occasionally slightly affected with walnut anthrocnose which fortunately does very little damage here in Washington. Under favorable conditions of moisture and rich soil it is easily transplant- ed and makes a rapid growth. It is sometimes difficult and expen- sive to transplant successfully old walnut trees which have never had tap roots cut, but most nursery men are now prepared to supply their customers with trees that have well branched roots thus making transplanting easy. One of our most valuable shade trees. J. regia, The Persian or English Walnut. Native of southern Europe and Asia. A very valuable shade and nut producing tree in many parts of the state. And while hardy enough to grow anywhere in the state, yet some sections are too severe for it to become of value as a nut producing tree. In Eastern Washington it winter kills when young, but does well after becoming thoroughly establish- ed. None but the hardiest sorts such as Mayette and Franquette var- ieties should be planted. The walnuts are easily transplanted when young, readily grown from nuts but difficult to bud or graft. J. Sieboldiana Maxin. Japanese Walnut. Native of eastern Asia. This species has made splendid growth in our plots and while tender when young it soon becomes hardy enough to stand our winters. Like Bulletin No. 90. — Forest, Shade and Ornamental Trees 35 the English and Mandschurian Walnuts, it does very well in the irrigated valleys and Western Washington. Walnuts are easily propagated by gathering the nuts in fall and either planting at once or stratifying in sand and then planting the following spring. LIRIODENDRON Tulipifera, Linn. Tulip Tree. Native of central and eastern parts of the United States. A large rapid growing tree with beautiful lobed leaves and large greenish yellow tulip like flow- ers. One of the most beautiful lawn and park trees in America. It is very difficult to transplant and should be attempted only when small. The Tulip Tree requires deep moist soil for its best develop- ment and should not be expected to grow on very dry soil. Our specimens on a northern slope have made splendid growths while those on southern or western slopes have practically all failed. It starts into growth very slowly but after once becoming established makes very rapid growth. Where proper conditions exist it is a very valuable forest tree. Not generally valuable except on northern slopes in eastern Washington. MORUS alba, Linn. White Mulberry or Russian Mulberry. A small round topped tree that was introduced into the central states by the Russian Mennonites, who made use of it as a fruit, a hedge plant, and when the wood attained sufficient size, for fuel. It is very rapid in its growth, but occasionally kills back during our late spring frosts. Some individual trees bear fairly edible fruit but it is usual- ly considered worthless where so much better fruit may be grown. The Russian Mulberry is used for ornamental planting and wind- break purposes, but is not at all adapted to our dry southern slopes. PLATANUS oecidentalis, Linn. Sycamore, American Plane Tree. A native of Maine to Minnesota and south to Florida and Texas. A large round topped or broad headed tree from one hundred and fifty to one hundred and seventy-five feet high. It is very valuable for shade, street and park planting, being especially ornamental and at- tractive on account of its silver gray leaves. It is easily transplanted makes a rapid growth in moist soil and is readily propagated from seed sown in spring after being kept moist during winter, or from cuttings or ripe or green wood. POPULUS alba, Linn. White Poplar, Silver Poplar or erroneously called Silver Maple. Native of Europe and Asia. A very pretty round topped spreading tree, attaining large size in a comparative- ly short time. On account of its very rapid growth is valuable for shade, street and wood lot planting. It is perfectly hardy and under normal conditions of moisture and fertility produces good sized boles and considerable branch wood in a few years. It should not be plant- ed too extensively, however, on lawns or in parks since it tends to 36 State College Experiment Station cheapen the effect, although a few trees may be advantageously used to lighten up the more sombre clumps. The wood is light, soft, close grained and, if properly cured, makes a good fuel. It is easily pro- pagated from hardwood cuttings or by digging the suckers which spring up abundantly around the trunks of old trees. The trouble these suckers cause may be helped somewhat by carefully pulling them out instead of cutting as is usually the case. P. a., vai\ Bolleana, Lauch. Bolles Poplar. A varietal form of the common White Poplar, resembling the Lombardy Poplar in habit and growth. Its upright growth gives it a very striking ap- pearance and makes it especially valuable for mixed planting in small numbers on lawns, in parks, etc. It does not sucker so freely from the roots as most Poplars but it occasionally sends up a sprout. It may be propagated from mature hardwood cuttings. P. balsamifera, Linn. Balsam Poplar. A native of northern United States and southern Canada. A large upright growing tree which is very useful for shade, hedge and wood lot purposes. From the nature of its rapid growth, its ability to withstand drouth and severe winters it becomes one of our valuable but short- lived trees. While it does fairly well on dry, poor, soil, yet it does real well on rich, moist soils. It is easily propagated from hardwood cuttings and readily transplanted either as large or small trees. P. b., var. candicans, Gray. Balm of Gilead. Native from New Brunswick to Minnesota. A large strong growing round topped tree often attaining one hundred or more feet in height. As a quick growing tree it is especially valuable for wood lot purposes and may occasionally be used for street trees. It is probably the best of the Poplar for shade purposes, but has the undesirable feature of oc- casionally losing its top in wind storms or at least becoming unsight- ly and also suckering freely in the lawn. It stands drouth fairly well but does not take kindly to dust and smoke of city life. The wood is fine grained, soft and not very strong. Its vigorous growth and pleasant odor given off by the buds make it a general favorite. The Balm of Gilead is easily propagated from cuttings of mature wood or suckers planted any time when the leaves are off the tree. P. Caroliensis, Hort. Carolina Poplar. A large rapid growing upright form of the Cottonwood with large dark green leaves and strong, erect branches. This tree is taking the place of the Lom- bardy Poplar as well as the common Cottonwood to a large extent in the new plantations that are now being made in many parts of the country. It is a superior tree in every way not only on account of its rapid growth but because it never gives off any cotton so trouble- some with tree cottonwood. It is easily propagated from cuttings Bulletin No. 90. — Forest, Shade and Ornamental Trees 37 taken when the tree is dormant and grows better in dry soil than any other Cottonwood. P. deltoides, Marsh. Cottonwood. Native of Quebec, Rocky Mountains and South. A very large round headed, much branched tree frequently attaining one hundred or more feet in height. It is valuable for shade, ornamental, forest and wind-break purposes. The wood is light, spongy, weak and soon decays when in contact with the soil. Its ability to withstand severe winters and dry summers has caused it to be used entirely too much. Many cities are now passing ordinances against the use of this tree for street purposes on account of it giving off so much cotton at seeding time. How- ever, this difficulty may be avoided by propagating from the stamin- ate sort. It is readily propagated from cuttings taken any time dur- ing the dormant period and either planted at once or stored until early spring. P. laurifolia, Ledeb. Russian Poplar. Native of Europe and Asia. A short-lived rather large upright growing tree very useful for wind-break and wood lot purposes. Its upright habit renders it un- serviceable for street or shade purposes. The specimens on the campus have made a rapid growth and shown a wonderful resistance to drouth which makes it an especially valuable tree for general wind- break planting. It has the tendency of producing a large, tapering trunk. It may be readily grown from cuttings or suckers which spring up abundantly around old trees. P. nigra, var., ltalica, Du Roi. Lombary Poplar. A tall colum- nar growing tree brought to this country from Asia. A tree that might well be called the “Missionary of Trees,” since it is usually always used as a forerunner of better and more permanent varie- ties. It is liked on account of its rapid growth, ability to withstand severe weather, both cold and dry, and the rapidity with which it forms a large amount of wood. The wood is light, soft, not strong, and can be used for about the same purposes as Cottonwood. The Lombardy Poplar is usually a short-lived tree )r at least soon be- comes ragged at the top. This can be helped, however, by an occa- sional severe cutting back which in a measure rejuvenates the tree and lengthens its life. Too much has been expected of this tree and consequently it has been over planted in a few sections of the state. Its particular value lies in its quick growth, making it suitable for wind-break and wood lot plantations, but it should never be used as a shade or street tree, and sparingly used in ornamental planting. It is readily propagated from hardwood cuttings or by suckers from the roots. P. tremula, Linn. European Aspen. Native of Europe and Asia. A medium sized, open topped tree with small leaves attached to long 38 State College Experiment Station slender petioles which causes the constant quivering so common in the Aspen tree. It is a valuable little tree for shade, ornamental planting in moist, or even wet soils, but is of little value in dry soils. Propagated easily from cuttings or root sprouts. P. t., var., pendula, Hort. An attractive weeping form of the European Aspen. Grows well in dry soil, but prefers moist or even wet soil. Propagated from cuttings taken when the tree is dormant. P. tremuloides, Michx. American Aspen. Native in some of its forms of practically all parts of the United States. A small rapid growing tree when young, but slow growing when old; seldom at- taining more than fifty or sixty feet in height. Like the Birch it is always ready to follow the forest fire or lumberman’s ax. Its smooth greenish white bark, pendulous limbs, ever quivering leaves and beautiful autumn coloration of its foliage make it a general favorite for planting in a limited way on lawns, parks, etc. In moist rich soil it is a rapid grower and does fairly well even on dry soil. The wood is light, soft and fine grained. Its principal use is for paper pulp. The Aspen is readily propagated from hardwood cuttings and by the use of suckers which spring up abundantly. P. trichocarpa, Hook. Black Cottonwood. Native of western United States. A very large broad open topped tree with large straight bole and horizontal branches. The lumber is valuable for paper pulp, thin box material and other domestic purposes. It grows rapidly in moist soil and is valuable for wind-breaks and forest planting. PRUNUS Americana, ]Marsh. American Wild Plum. Native of the central parts of the United States. A small round topped tree with slender branches and numerous thorns. It grows well in dry soil but prefers moist or even wet soil for its best development. Its num- erous white blossoms in May, hardy nature, and red and yellow edi- ble fruit in September make it valuable as a hedge plant, small shade tree and ornamental plant. It is easily transplanted and may be propagated from root cuttings or seeds. P. avium, Linn. Mazzard Cherry. Native of Europe and Asia. A. tall rapid growing tree with erect branches and dark green foliage, usually used as a stock for sweet cherries but of value as an orna- mental and forest tree. Its beautiful now white blossoms in May and abundance of ripe fruit in July makes it doubly attractive for park and shade tree planting. It is easily propagated from seeds and readily transplanted. P. cerasifera, Ehrh, Myrabalan Plum. Native of Europe. A small shrubby tree with erect branches and dark green foliage, usual- ly used as a stock upon which to bud known varieties of the common plum. Valuable as a hedge plant, small shade tree or low screen. Bulletin No. 90. — Forest, Shade and Ornamental Trees 39 It makes a rapid growth in almost any kind of soil and is easily transplanted. P. c., Pissardi, Hort. Purple-leaved Plum. A very attractive form of the preceding species with dark reddish purple foliage and dark wine red fruits. It is one of our best purple-leaved trees and seems to adapt itself to all kinds of conditions. Valuable for lawn and park planting only where individual trees are desired. P. Cerasus, Linn. Sour Cherry. Native of Europe. A small round headed tree with willowy branches and dark green foliage. While ordinarily used as a fruit tree yet it has splendid ornamental values as a specimen tree or small shade tree for lawn or park plant- ing. It is easily propagated from seed planted as soon as ripe or stratified and planted early in spring, but has the undesirable habit of suckering quite freely. P. Mahaleb, Linn. Mahal^b Cherry. Native of Europe. A small round topped tree with slender horizontal branches and small dark green leaves. Its ability to grow in hard, dry soils, early white blossoms and general spreading habit make it of value for orna- mental planting especially where thin shade is desirable. P. Pennsylvanica, Linn. Bird or Pin Cherry. Native of many parts of the United States. A small rapid growing tree with willowy branches and light green foliage. The small bunches of white blos- soms appear in May and the fruit ripens in September. It is readily propagated from seeds and thrives in almost any soil but prefers moist or even wet soil. It has the undesirable habit of suckering ■quite freely. P. Padus, Linn. European Bird Cherry. Native of Europe and Asia. A small erect growing tree resembling in many ways the common Choke Cherry. Its very early leafing and blooming habits make it desirable as an ornamental plant. It is a rapid grower and does well on almost any kind of soil and is easily transplanted. P. P., var M fl. pi. Hort. Double Flowering Cherry. A horti- cultural variety of the Bird Cherry with large double white flowers making it especially valuable for ornamental planting. Apparently hardy here, a rapid grower and one that does well on almost any kind of soil. P. Persica, fl. pi. Hort. Double Flowering Peach. A rapid grow- ing double flowering form of the common peach. Valuable as an or- namental plant for all kinds of lawn or park planting. Propagated by budding the seedlings of the peach. P. serotina, Ehrh. Wild Black Cherry. Native from Nova Scotia to South Dakota and south to Florida and Texas. A tall, large, straight or sometimes spreading tree, frequently attaining one hun- dred feet or more in height. This is one of our valuable timber, 40 State College Experiment Station shade, street and park trees. The wood is light, strong and rather hard, of reddish brown color and takes on a beautiful satin finish, which makes it especially valuable for cabinet making and interior work and for school apparatus, etc. The Wild Black Cherry is a general favorite as a specimen tree on account of its dark glossy fol- iage which remains late on the tree in the fall. Its numerous clust- ers of beautiful white flowers which come out in May and its attrac- tive red and black fruit which frequently cling to the tree until Nov- ember make it very ornamental for lawn and park planting. It is propagated from seeds which must be planted as soon as they are picked or stratified in sand until spring and then planted. P. spinosa, Linn. Black Thorn. Native of various parts of Eu- rope, Asia and Africa. This large bush or small tree is frequently cultivated as a hedge plant or a small ornamental tree. It is espec- ially attractive in May when in full bloom and during the fall when its fruit is of bluish purple color. The Blackthorn is a bad sprouter and when planted on a lawn frequently gives serious trouble to the lawn mower. It is perfectly hardy and may readily be propagated from its pits or by digging the suckers. P. Virginiana, Linn. Choke Cherry. Native of practically all parts of the United States. It varies from a bush to a round topped upright tree thirty or more feet in height. It is highly ornamental when in bloom in May and can be advantageously used when a small shade tree is desired. It usually bears a large crop of small black cherries which add to its beauty in the fall. It has the undesirable features of suckering freely, which interferes with the lawn. The wood is heavy, close grained, and light colored. It is a very de- sirable plant for low wind-breaks and shade in poultry yards. The Choke Cherry is easily propagated from seed or suckers and one ex- periences no difficulty in transplanting. PYRUS Baccata, Linn. Siberian Crab. Native of eastern Asia. A very hardy round topped tree with dense foliage and numerous white blossoms which appear early in May. Its rapid growth, ability to grow in all kinds of soils and climates and fresh appearance make it a very valuable tree for general ornamental planting in all parts of the state. P. coronara, Linn. Wild Crab Apple. Native of the central and eastern part of the United States and Canada. A small thorny tree with stiff branches and dark green leaves and beautiful rose red blossoms which appear in May. It grows well on all kinds of soils but prefers rich moist for the best development, is easily transplanted and readily propagated from seed. P. floribunda, Nicols. Flowering Crab. Native of Japan. A small tree or large bush with dark green foliage and slender wil- Bulletin No. 90. — Forest, Shade and Ornamental Trees 41 lowy branches. Early in May this plant is one mass of pink and white blossoms and in the fall covered with bright yellow fruits about the size of a pea. It grows in almost any kind of soil and read- ily adapts itself to our varied conditions. One of our most valuable ornamental trees. P. f. Scheideckeri Hort. Scheidecker’s Crab. A dwarf double flowered horticultural form of the Flowering Crab, having a dark pink blossom appearing very early in spring. It is hardy, does well in our climate and is very ornamental as a flowering plant. P. fusca, Raf. Oregon Crab. Native of western United States and Canada. A medium sized tree with small gray green leaves and thorny branches. A useful plant for moist soils but of slow growth in dry hard soil. P. Soulardi, Bailey, Soulard Crab. A natural hybrid of two of our American crabs. A strong growing round topped tree with erect branches and dark green foliage. Its hardy nature, numerous pink blossoms and ability to grow in all kinds of soil make it a valuable plant to use in many ways. P. toringo, Sieb. Dwarf Crab. Native of Japan. Small spread- ing tree or large shrub with pink blossoms and fruit the size of a pea. A rapid grower on moist soil but slow and unsatisfactiry on hard or dry soil. Useful for ornamental planting. QUERCUS alba, Linn. White Oak. Native of the eastern part of the United States. Under favorable conditions of soil and moisture this is one of the best timber trees, but on dry soil the White Oak has not been a decided success in our tree plots. Its slow growth and occasional killing back makes it unsuitable for permanent plant- ings. However, under other conditions, it may prove a favorable tree for planting. Q. coccinea, Muench. Scarlet Oak. Native of the eastern por- tion of the United States. A large growing tree with gradually spreading limbs, valuable for shade, ornamental and wood lot plant- ing. The wood is strong, heavy and coarse grained and excellent for fence posts, finishing lumber, etc. The Scarlet Oak has made a very rapid growth and is the most beautiful autumn coloring tree on the grounds. It grows best in moist rich soil but can be grown very successfully on drier soil. A few specimens should be planted in all large collections to give the autumn coloring. It is easily pro- pagated from acorns planted in the fall as soon as they are ripe or by stratifying and planting early in the spring. Q. ilicifolia, Wangh. Scrub Oak. Native of the eastern part of the United States. A small rapid growing shrubby tree with dull green foliage. Adapted to dry rocky situations and useful only as a screen or cover for hillsides or steep banks. 42 State College Experiment Station Q. cuneata, Wangh. Spanish Oak. Native of the southeastern part of the United States. A rapid growing, medium sized, upright to round topped tree with beautiful dull green foliage becoming bronzy brown early in the fall. It grows well in dry soil but prefers the rich moist soil for the best results. One of our best Oaks. Valu- able for ornamental as well as forest planting. Q. imbricaria, Miehx. Shingle Oak. Native of the southeast and central parts of the United States. A medium sized to pyramidal topped tree with beautiful dark green glossy foliage which turns red in the fall. Its symmetry when young and glossy foliage makes it valuable for ornamental planting, especially where the soil is moist. Q. rubra. Linn. Red Oak. Native of the eastern part of the United States and Canada. A large rapid growing round topped tree with dull green foliage which turns red in the fall. Grows well in almost any kind of soil but prefers the moist soil for best develop- ment. Valuable for forest as well as shade planting. Q. macrocarpa, Miehx. Bur Oak. Native of the eastern and central United States and eastern Canada. A large spreading tree with dense dark green foliage and coarse corky branches. Of rapid growth on moist soil but slow and poor on dry hard soil. A valu- able tree for forest shade and ornamental planting. Q. palustris, Linn. Pin Oak. Native of eastern and central United States. A medium sized pyramidal to irregular topped tree with dense beautiful foliage which colors bright red in the fall. Grows well on dry soil but prefers moist for its best development. Useful for shade or ornamental planting. Q. prinus, Linn. Chestnut Oak. Native of the eastern part of the United States and Canada. A large, upright, irregular shaped top tree, often seventy and occasionally one hundred feet high. The Chestnut Oak has made a very rapid growth with us and appears to withstand drouth remarkably well. In the fall its foliage colors up very prettily, making it especially valuable for lawn and park plant- ing. The wood is very valuable for all purposes requiring strength and lasting powers. Q. sessiliflora, Salieb. English Oak. Native of Europe and west- ern part of Asia. In its native country under forest conditions it is a large, upright, irregular topped tree with stout spreading lat- eral branches. In our plots and on the campus it has become very popular on account of its rapid growth, very pretty foliage, which frequently remains on until spring, and low branching habit, mak- ing it an ideal tree for specimen as well as group planting. It ap- pears to be hardy and has made very satisfactory growth upon dry soils as well as on moist or rich soil. By careful pruning it can be made to take on a beautiful tree form and to branch from the ground Bulletin No. 90. — Forest, Shade and Ornamental Trees 43 up to the top. It is propagated by either planting the acorns as soon as they are ripe in the fall or by stratifying them in moist sand and planting very early in the spring. Q. velutina, Lam. Black Oak. Native of the central and east- ern part of the United States. A large rapid growing upright tree with slender branches and dark green foliage which turns brown in the fall. It does well on dry soils and makes a valuable tree for general planting. ROBINIA Pseudacacia, Linn. Black Locust, Yellow Locust or Lo- cust. Native of the eastern part of the United States. A tall slender upright growing tree with light attractive foliage and fragrant white or purple blossoms which hang in long racemes in May or June. One of our most valuable shade and wood lot trees since it is a very rapid grower, withstands severe drouth and is almost if not perfectly hardy. The wood is hard, fine grained and very heavy. It is valu- able for fuel, fence pests,' etc. The Black Locust is easily propagat- ed by seeds or by removing sprouts which spring up so readily near the old trees. The seeds should be gathered in the fall or winter and kgpt dry until the following spring. When the soil is ready soak the seeds in hot water, this will cause most of them to swell to sev- eral times their natural size. These should be sifted or picked out and the remainder soaked again in hot water. This process of scalding should be continued until all have started to swell; then the seed maybe planted in rows much the same as peas, and by fall they will have grown into nice little trees. One of its disadvantages is that the seed pods remain on the tree the year around and make it rather unsightly during the spring and early summer. SALIX alba, Linn. White Willow. Native of the northern part of Europe and Asia. A large rapid growing tree with short trunk and many lateral branches. It may profitably be used as an ornamental plant where a quick growth is desired or as a nurse tree, but its chief value is in its use as a wind-break or wood lot tree. In moist rich land it produces large quantities of valuable fuel, provided it is cured under cover. The White Willow is easily propagated from cuttings planted either in the fall after the leaves have fallen or in the spring before growth is resumed. S. Babylonica dolorosa, Rowen. Wisconsin Weeping Willow. A horticultural variety of the Napoleon Willow with long slender, pendulous branches and beautiful glossy foliage. Under fav- orable conditions of soil and moisture it makes a very pretty tree but it is not perfectly hardy since an occasional winter will kill it back at least to the main stem. It is easily propagated from cuttings. S. blanda. Smooth Willow. Native of Europe. A large rapid growing tree with thick trunk and numerous branches. Useful in 44 State College Experiment Station wind-breaks, wood lot plantings and as an ornamental plant. Es- pecially valuable where quick growth is desired. S. cordata, Muhl. Diamond Willow. Native of many parts of North America. A small shrubby tree with short trunk and rigid branches. Of very little value in this country. S. discolor, Muhl. Pussy Willow. Native of eastern North Amer- ica. A small rapid growing shrubby tree. Worthy of cultivation. Valuable in dry as well as moist soil. S. elegantissima, Koch. Thurlows Weeping Willow. Native of Japan. A beautiful slender growing weeping tree with gray green foliage and light willowy branches! One of our hardiest and most rapid growing weeping trees. It is easily propagated from cuttings taken while the tree is dormant. S. lucida, Muhl. Glossy Willow. Native of eastern North Amer- ica. A low rapid growing bushy tree with brown branches and dark green glossy foliage. Very attractive as an ornamental plant. S. nigra, Marshall. Black Willow. Native of eastern North America. A small rapid growing tree rarely used ornamentally but of value for fuel purposes. S. pentrandra. Linn. Laurel-leaf Willow. Native of Europe and Asia. A small tree or large bush eight to twenty feet high. The leaves are of dark green color and very glossy, making it attractive as a lawn or park plant. The twigs are of a dark reddish brown color and also glossy. The Laurel-leaf Willow is not especially valu- able for wood purposes but may be used as a hedge or wind-break. It is easily propagated from cuttings. S. sericea, Marsh. Silky Willow. Native of eastern part of North America. A small spreading tree with silky leaves. Valuable only as an ornamental plant. S. viminalis, Linn. Osier Willow. Native of Europe and Asia. A very rapid growing plant with long slender branches. W T hen cut annually these shoots are from five to six feet in length and very slender indicating value for basket purposes. S. vitt^llina, Linn. Golden Willow. Native of various parts of the United States. A large round topped tree with a thick short trunk. It is valuable for shade, wind-breaks, hedges and wood lot purposes, but especially useful for ornamental planting where a win- ter effect is desirable. As a hedge plant it survives severe pruning remarkably well. The bright golden yellow of its young branches produces a striking contrast to the dull gray or brown twigs of num- erous other trees and shrubs. The Golden Willow grows fairly well on dry land but makes the best growth upon moist rich soil. It is easily propagated from cuttings. Bulletin No. 90. — Forest, Shade and Ornamental Trees 45 SORBUS Americana, Marsh. American Mountain Ash. Native of the north and eastern parts of the United States. A rapid growing small tree to large shrub, occasionally attaining thirty or more feet in height. By careful pruning it may be trained to a single stem, but our most attractive and best specimens are composed of from five to seven stems pruned to umbrella form. The foliage is dark green and beautiful. The flowers are very showy the latter part of May or early in June, and the fruit makes it a general favorite from July until October. The American Mountain Ash is very valuable as an ornamental tree for lawn and park planting and the seedling are now occasionally being used to graft apples upon instead of apple stocks. It is easily grown from seed gathered and cleaned in the fall and stratified until the second spring as very few seeds will germin- ate the first year after maturing. S. aucuparia, Linn. European Mountain Ash. Native of Europe and Asia. A small rapid growing round headed tree from forty to sixty feet high somewhat resembling the American Mountain Ash but usually retaining its leaves and fruit later in the season. The European Mountain Ash is especially ornamental and may be profit- ably used where a small tree is desired. Its flowers in May and June, beautiful light grf>en foliage and bright red fruit all add to its charms. It is propagated in the same manner as the American Moun- tain Ash. S. sambucifolia, Roem. Western Mountain Ash. Native from Labrador to Alaska and south to Pennsylvania to Michigan. Also found in Europe and Asia. A very attractive small tree or large shrub from twenty to thirty feet high. It is adapted for ornamental plant- ing when a small tree is desirable. The large clusters of white flow- ers and bright red berries of autumn make it a general favorite. S. hybrida, Linn. Oak-l e aved Mountain Ash. A European hy- brid of two forms found in that country. It is a small compact up- right tree often attaining thirty or more feet in height. In our plots it has made a rapid growth, appears perfectly hardy and withstands drouth remarkably well. The Oak-leaved Mountain Ash may be used the same as the other forms of this group. TIL1A Americana, Linn. Basswood or American Linden. Native of the eastern part of North America. A medium to large round topped tree with beautiful light green foliage and fragrant blos- soms which appear early in June. Its rapid growth, freedom from pests, fragrant flowers and ability to adapt itself to natural condi- tions make it one of our most useful shade and forest trees. T. heterophylla, Vent. Native of eastern part of the United States. A large rapid growing tree with light green leaves and fra- grant flowers. This tree resembles the American Basswood, but is 46 State College Experiment Station of a more rapid growth and has larger leaves. Useful for shade and ornamental planting. T. vulgaris, Hayne. .European Linden, European Basswood. Native of northern Europe. Under forest conditions it develops into a large round topped tree often ninety or more feet in height. On the campus and in our tree plots it is one of our most attractive trees. Its compact conical form when grown as a specimen with limbs to the ground, or the dense round topped tree when pruned up is always admired. The leaves are showy and remain on long after most other trees have lost their leaves. When in blossom it is very fragrant and valuable as a honey plant. While not especially valuable as a wood producing tree, yet as a small shade tree or a beautiful lawn specimen it has few equals. It is rather difficult to propagate since it requires two years to get the seed to germinate, but it may be grown from layers or even cuttings of the young wood if they are carefully calloused before planting. ULMUS Americana, Linn. White Elm, American Elm. Native of practically all parts of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains. A tall usually upright but variable tree, often attaining one hundred and twenty feet or more in height in forest conditions. A collection of American Elms usually show a wide range of forms from stiff upright “Vase” form to the beautiful “Feathery Fringed” or “Pendu- lous” forms. In moist places the American Elm is a very valuable shade, ornamental and forest tree, but from our experiments it does not appear to be adapted to our soil and conditions on account of be- ing so seriously molested by plant aphis. Our specimens have made a fair growth and in most ways valuable. It may be propagated from seeds sown as soon as they are ripe which is usually the early part of June. U. racemosa, Thomas. Cork Elm, Rock Elm. Native of north- eastern and central portions of the United States. A large, oblong to round topped tree, often attaining eighty to one hundred feet in height. Usually not so rapid a grower as the American Elm but nevertheless a valuable tree for Washington. Our specimens are small but very fine, clean rapid growing trees. The peculiar corky wings on the young limbs make this tree especially attractive in win- ter. The Cork Elm transplants easily and is readily propagated from seeds sown as soon as they are ripe. U. scabra, Mill. Scotch Elm. Native of Europe and Asia. A large upright tree often growing one hundred or more feet in height. It is almost as variable as the American Elm in form and even more so in color of foliage. The Scotch Elm is especially valuable in Washington as a shade and ornamental tree. Our specimens have made a very rapid, healthy, clean growth and thus far. have been Bulletin No. 90. — Forest, Shade and Ornamental Trees 47 practically free from all forms of insect pests so common to the American Elm. The leaves of this tree are especially attractive, be- ing large dark green and very rugose. It is easily propagated from seed sown soon as they are ripe. EVERGREENS ABIES balsamea, Mill. Balsam Fir. Native of the northeastern part of the United States and the eastern part of Canada. Under favorable conditions this is a tall slender tree with short horizontal branches. It does not appear to do as well in the West as it does in the East, yet is is possible to grow beautiful specimens here. On moist rich soil it makes a rapid growth producing a very attractive lawn tree, while on dry soil it is slow and occasionally produces an unsightly, scrubby looking tree. The Balsam Fir varies in color from a dark green to a silvery white. In ornamental planting one usually desires the silvery specimens. A. grandis, Lindl. Native of the western part of the United States and British Columbia. A very tall slender growing forest tree fre- quently attaining three hundred feet in height and logs four feet in diameter. Under favorable conditions of soil and moisture it is a rapid grower in this locality and soon makes a very beautiful lawn or forest specimen. It is easy to transplant and soon recovers from the shock. Specimens, as in many other conifers, vary greatly as to their beauty. The more silvery specimens being sought for as lawn trees. While it is not entirely hardy alone it does nicely in groups of trees. JUNIPER communis, Linn. Irish Juniper, Common Juniper. A small pyramidal tree of compact habit and dense silvery gray to dark green foliage. It is extensively used for ornamental hedge purposes since it stands severe pruning remarkably well. While it prefers moist soil it does fairly well on dry soil. The Juniper is rather low for wind-break purposes, but it makes a nice small ornamental tree for parks and lawns. It is easily transplanted but propagated with more or less difficulty from seeds and cuttings. J. Virginiana, Linn. Red Cedar, Juniper. Native of practically all parts of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains. The Red Cedar varies from a bushy plant in the North to a medium' sized tree in the South. It is extensively used for hedges, wind-breaks and lawn trees, being a rapid grower when young but slower when it is older. The Red Cedar grows fairly well in almost any soil but nat- urally prefers a moist rich soil. It transplants readily but is diffi- cult to propagate since the seed requires two years to germinate. 48 State College Experiment Station LARIX Americana, Michx. Tamarack, American Larch. Native of the north and northeastern part of the United States and of the southeastern part of Canada. A tall slender rapid growing forest tree for moist or swampy lands but not valuable for high dry soils. It may be advantageously used in low places for ornamental plant- ing since its beautiful light green foliage is very attractive in early spring and again its light yellow foliage of late autumn contrasts beautifully with the dark green of the pines and spruces. It is easily transplanted if set before growth sets in in the spring. L. decidua, Mill. European Larch. Native of central part of Eu- rope. A medium sized slender tree often with a more or less droop- ing habit to its limbs. Like the American Larch it prefers moist, rich soil but will stand drier soils better than the American Larch. It is valuable for forest planting, wind-breaks and ornamental plant- ing. In the eastern states it is used extensively for ornamental and wind-break purposes. As a lawn tree it soon becomes very beau- tiful and graceful either for specimen or group planting. The Eu- ropean Larch is a much more rapid grower than the American Larch and so for this reason should be substituted for it. PICEA alba, Link. White Spruce. Native from Labrador to Alaska, and south to Montana and New York. A medium to large pyramidal tree with dense horizontal branches and occasionally pen- dant branchlets which make it very valuable for ornamental plant- ing. The foliage varies from light green to bluish green or even dark green. Our specimens have made a rapid growth and seem to withstand drouth remarkably well. The White Spruce is also valu- able for wind-break purposes and wood lot planting. It is propagated from seed. P. alba, var., Black Hills Spruce, a natural variety or closely al- lied species of P. alba, found native in the Black Hills region. It is a medium to a large pyramidal tree with dense stiff foliage and strong upright branches. Its extreme hardiness and ability to with- stand our long dry summers make it more valuable for utility plant- ing than the true P. alba, while its compact form and silver speci- mens make it a valuable plant for ornamental planting. Carefully selected specimens of this species are frequently sold at high prices for the much prized Colorado Blue. The Black Hills Spruce is easily transplanted and readily propagated from seed. P. Engelmanni, Engelm. Engelman’s Spruce. Native of the Rocky Mountains from Arizona to British Columbia. A tall pyra- midal tree with slender branches closely arranged so as to form a very compact tree. It has the stiff foliage and frequently the glac- ous color of the Colorado Blue Spruce and so frequently sold for this species being more common and hence easily obtained. The Engel- Bulletin No. 90. — Forest, Shade and Ornamental Trees 49 man’s Spruce is perfectly hardy, withstands severe drouth and is very ornamental for either specimen or group planting. It is fre- quently used for hedges since it stands shearing remarkably well and its density makes it valuable for wind-breaks. Propagated from seed. P. excelsa, Link. Norway Spruce. Native of Europe. A tall growing tree with dense dark green foliage, stiff horizontal branches and usually pendulous branchlets which sweep the ground. It is a rapid grower and when given room makes a very handsome sym- metrical tree. Like most spruces it begins to get ragged soon after thirty years of age. Its ease of propagation and rapid growth have caused it to be planted probably more than any other evergreen tree for ornamental purposes, but it is also valuable for shelter belts, hedges and wind-breaks. It is readily propagated from seeds sown early in spring. P. nigra, Link. Black Spruce. Native of the northern part of the United States and Canada. A small slender, irregular shaped tree, usually with slender pendulous branches. It is not a rapid grower and should be used only on wet, cool soils. The Black Spruce is not desirable for ornamental purposes as it soon loses its lower limbs and becomes unsightly. P. pungens, Engelm. Colorado Blue Spruce. Native of Wyom- ing, Colorado and Utah. A dense pyramidal tree from one hundred to one hundred and fifty feet in height with foliage varying from dark green to silvery gray. It is undoubtedly the most ornamental and most highly prized of all evergreens. The silver specimens sell for fancy prices, while trees from the same lot of seed only of a green color sell at moderate prices. After once becoming establish- ed it withstands severe drouth and all kinds of neglect with remark- ably persistency. As a specimen plant for lawns, parks, etc., the Colorado Blue Spruce has few, if any, equals. The species may be easily propagated from seed, but rare, silver individuals must be grafted or started from cuttings. P. flexilis, James. Western White Pine. Native of the mountain ranges of the western part of the United States and Canada. A small slender, rather slow growing pine, resembling the White Pine in many ways. It frequently becomes open and round topped in old age and is especially adapted for ornamental planting on rocky situa- tions or where the soil is shallow. It may be propagated by seeds in practically the same manner as other pines. P. contorto, Dougl. Scrub Pine. Native of the western part of the United States and Canada. A tree that varies from twenty to one hundred feet in height and from a close, compact, pryamidal headed tree to a loose round topped tree. It grows on practically all kinds of soil but usually prefers rich, moist soil. The Scrub Pine is 50 State College Experiment Station perfectly hardy and while not a rapid grower it soon forms a good wind-break or an attractive group for ornamental planting. It has many of the characteristics of the Jack Pine and is frequently mis- taken for it. P. divaricata, Dum. Jack Pine. Native of the northern part of the United States and north into Canada to the Arctic Circle. A small to medium sized tree from fifty to one hundred feet high. Of a very irregular, ragged growth, which makes it undesirable for ornamental planting. The young specimens are pretty but they soon become open and unattractive. It is the hardiest native pine on the continent and while it prefers moist, rich soil it will grow fairly well on dry, poor soils. The Jack Pine is very hard to transplant unless small specimens be taken. It can be profitably used in wind-breaks, shelter-belts and wood lots, since the wood may be substituted for Red Pine either for lumber or fuel. The cones have the peculiarity of remaining on the tree for from twelve to fifteen years. P. laricio. Poir. Austrian Pine. Native of Europe and Asia. A tall, rapid growing pyramidal tree from one hundred to one hun- dred and fifty feet in height with dense, long dark green leaves and strong spreading branches in regular whorls. It is a valuable tree for wind-breaks, shelter-belts, and wood lot plantations and where a coarse, heavy pine is desired it may be profitably used for orna- mental planting. The specimens on the campus are very attractive and have always made satisfactory growths. Small trees are very easily transplanted and while the species favors moist, rich soil, yet it does well upon dry or even rocky soils. P. Montana mugus, Willk. Dwarf Mountain Pine. Native of Eu- rope. A small dwarf, compact tree seldom growing more than thirty feet high. As a shade or wood producing tree it is comparatively worthless, but it is highly prized for ornamental purposes. It seems to be perfectly hardy and produces a neat and attractive specimen for lawn or park planting. P. Ponderosa, Dougl. Yellow Pine, Bull Pine. Native of the western part of the United States and Canada. One of the tallest and most important trees of the west. It frequently attains two hundred to three hundred feet in height and is a very valuable lum- ber tree. Under favorable conditions it is a rapid grower, trans- plants fairly easy, and is very ornamental from early life to maturity. P. sylvestris, Linn. Scotch Pine. Native of Europe. A rather large, rapid growing, hardy tree, frequently attaining one hundred and twenty feet in height. When young it is compact and pyramidal in form, but as it grows older it takes on a round, open topped form, and early in life becomes unsightly and begins to die. It has been used extensively on the plains as a wind-break, shade and forest Bulletin No. 90. — Forest, Shade and Ornamental Tree§ 51 tree, and while not entirely satisfactory for ornamental purposes it serves its purpose well. Pseudotsuga Douglasii, Carr. Douglas Spruce, Douglas Fir, Red Fir. Native of the Rocky Mountains and west to the Pacific Ocean. A very large pyramidal tree from two hundred to three hundred feet in height and occasionally twelve feet in diameter at the base of the trunk. This tree is rapidly becoming one of the most popular, if not the most widely planted, trees of the conifer group. It is a rapid grower and soon makes a very graceful, highly ornamental tree. If planted far apart or as specimens and the full effect of its good color and soft foliage is secured by group planting. The Douglas Spruce is very variable in habit from long to short leaves, light to green foliage of from a bluish to a silvery gray colors. It is easily trans- planted if small trees from the open woods be taken, but like all coni- fers, its roots must never become dry. While it would make the best wind-break alone, yet with other trees it would be valuable for this purpose as well as for ornamental and wood lot planting. Thuya gigantea, Nutt. Giant Cedar. Native of the western coast of North America from Alaska to Northern California. A tall up- right growing tree with slightly pendulous branches and a very at- tractive foliage. This is considered one of the most beautiful native evergreen trees of the United States and while it is not wholly adapt- ed to general planting, yet can be profitably used in moist or pro- tected situations. The Giant Cedar is not difficult to transplant and is usually propagated from seed, but may be multiplied by cuttings taken during the winter. T. occidentalis, Linn. Arborvitae, White Cedar. Native of the northeastern part of the United States, extending as far west as South Dakota and as far south as North Carolina. A conical shaped tree from fifty to seventy feet in height. If left to grow unpruned it is of a loose, graceful habit, but it can be made to form a dense compact tree by systematic pruning. It grows well on moist soil but is usually poor on dry soil. The Arborvitae is a general favor- ite for ornamental hedge planting or an occasional specimen on lawns or parks. Where it can be grown as a forest tree it is usually of a rapid growth and the wood is valuable for telegraph poles, fence posts, pails, tubs, etc. It is rather difficult to propagate from seed but can be grown from cuttings. T. O., var. Ellwangeriana. Tom Thumb Arborvitae. . A dwarf horticultural variety of the common arborvitae with two distinct kinds of foliage making it desirable for ornamental planting. It is a very slow grower, frequently not averaging more than an inch per year. It is readily propagated from cuttings taken during the win- ter and is easily transplanted. Twelve Years' Growth of European Linden Suggested Trees for Special Planting I. LARGE, RAPID GROWING TREES FOR STREET AND SHADE 1. Black Locust . . 2. Carolina Poplar 3. Silver Poplar . . 4. Cottonwood . . . 5. Oregon Maple . . Robinia pseudacacia . . Populus deltoides Populus alba . . Populus deltoides Acer macrophyllum* II. LARGE, MEDIUM GROWING TREES FOR STREET AND SHADE: 1. Norway Maple . . 2 Sycamore Maple . 3. Silver Maple 4. Flowering Ash . . 5. Green Ash 6. Box Elder 7. Hackberry 8. Black Walnut . . 9. Scarlet Oak .... 10. English Maple . 11. English Oak 12. Scotch Elm 13. European Linden 14. Horse Chestnut . Acer platanoides . . . Acer pseudo-platanus Acer saccharinum Fraxinus ornus . . . Fraxinus lanceolata Acer negundo . . . . Celtis occidentalis Juglans nigra Quercus coccinea Acer campestris Quercus sessiliflora Ulmus scabra Tilia vulgaris Aesculus hippocastanum 54 State College Experiment Station 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 . 10 . 11 . 12 . 13 . 14 . 15 . 16 . 17 . 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 . 10 . 1 . 2 . III. DECIDUOUS TREES FOR LAWN PLANTING: Cut-leaved Weeping Birch . .Betula alba pendula laciniata English Maple Acer campestris Wier’s Cut-leaved White Maple. .Acer saccharinum Wierii laciniatum European Linden Tilia vulgaris American Hornbeam Carpinus Caroliniana Japanese Chestnut Castanea crenata Flowering Ash Fraxinus ornus English Oak * Quercus sessilflora Scarlet Oak Quercus coccinea American Mountain Ash Sorbus Americana Bolles Poplar Populus alba bolleana Lombardy Poplar Populus nigra Italica European Larch Larix Europea Golden Willow Salix vittellina White Birch Betula alba Red Maple Acer rubrum Native Thorn Crataegus Douglassi IY. EVERGREEN TREES FOR LAWN PLANTING: Colorado Blue Spruce Douglas Fir Engleman’s Spruce .. Black Hills Spruce . . Norway Spruce Scotch Pine Dwarf Mountain Pine Austrian Pine Irish Juniper Giant Cedar Picea pungens Pseudo-tsuga Douglassi Picea Englemanni Picea alba, var. Picea excelsa Pinus sylvestris . Pinus Montana Mugus Pinus laricio Juniper communis Thuya gigantea Y. THE BEST TREES FOR SINGLE ROW WIND- BREAKS OR TALL SCREENS: White Willow Salix alba Lombardy Poplar Populus nigra, Italica Bulletin No. 90. — Forest, Shade and Ornamental Trees 55 3. Oregon Maple 4. Box Elder . . , 5. Douglas Fir . , 6. Scotch Pine . . 7. Austrian Pine . . Acer macrophyllum* , _ Acer negundo Pseudo-tsuga Douglassi Pinus sysvestris Pinus laricio VI. THE BEST TREES FOR SINGLE ROW WIND- BREAK OR LOW SCREEN : 1. English Maple 2. Golden Willow . . . 3 American Hornbeam 4. Native Thorn 5. Russian Wild Olive 6. Engleman’s Spruce 7. White Spruce Acer campestris Salix vittelina , Carpinus Caroliniana . . Crataegus Douglassi Elaeagnus angustifolia . . . . Picea Englemanni Picea alba VII. THE BEST TREES TO PLANT FOR FUEL PURPOSES: * 1. White Willow 2. European Larch 3. Black Locust 4. Cottonwood 5. Austrian Pine 6. White Maple # For west of the Cascade Mountains. Salix blanda . . . Larix Europea Robinia pseudocacia . Populus deltoides Pinus lausico . Acer saccharinum THE STATE COLLEGE OF WASHINGTON Agricultural Experiment Station Pullman, Washington DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY Wheat and Flour Investigations (CROPS OF 1906-7) By R. W. THATCHER. Bulletin No. 91 1910 All Bulletins of this Station Sent Free to Citizens of the State on Application to the Director BOARD OF CONTROL R. C. McCROSKEY, President - - - -Garfield D. S. TROY, Vice-President - Chimacum E. A. BRYAN, Secretary Ex-Officio - - - Pullman President of the College. LEE A. JOHNSON Sunnyside J. J. BROWNE Spokane PETER McGREGOR, - Colfax o STATION STAFF R. W. THATCHER, M. A. ELTON FULMER, M. A. S. B. NELSON, D. V. M. O. L. WALLER, Ph. M. - - R. K. BEATTIE, A. M. WALTER S. THORNBER, M. S. A. L. MELANDER, M. S. LEONARD HEGNAUER, M. S., W. H. LAWRENCE, M. S. w. t. McDonald, m. s. a., C. C. THOM, M. S., - H. B. HUMPHREY, Ph. D., ALEX CARLYLE, W. T. SHAW, B. S., GEORGE A. OLSON, M. S., E. L. PETERSON, B. S., REX N. HUNT, M. S., W. H. HEIN, M. A., W. L. HADLOCK, B. S., - M. A. YATHERS, B. S.S. - Director and Chemist State Chemist V eterinarian Irrigation Engineer Botanist Horticulturist Entomologist Agronomist Plant Pathologist Animal Husbandman Soil Physicist - Plant Pathologist - Cerealist - Assistant Zoologist - Assistant Chemist Assistant Soil Physicist Assistant Botanist Assistant Horticulturist Assistant Chemist Assistant Entomologist Wheat and Flour Investigations (CROPS OF 1906-7) BY R. W. THATCHER The Chemistry Department of this Station has in progress a series of investigations of the chemical composition and mill- ing qualities of Washington wheats. These investigations have a two-fold purpose. One important object is to ascertain the comparative value for flour production of the different varie- ties of wheat which are now being grown in different parts of the State. This is a matter of both scientific and practical interest and value, and if once definitely established may serve several important purposes. The other object of the investi- gations is to discover, if possible, the causes of variations in composition of wheat and to utilize the knowledge thus gained in improving the quality of the grain either by proper breed- ing or by proper control of the influences which tend to cause deterioration in quality. It is obvious that a thorough knowledge of the composition of the grain as it is now grown is the first and fundamental step in these investigations. For this purpose, it was planned to collect and submit to complete analytical and milling tests typical samples of all the varieties commonly grown, from each of the wheat-growing districts of the State, for five successive years, or seasons. It is believed that the results of the tests made on these five successive crops, grown under the varying conditions of the different seasons in each of the different lo- calities, when summarized and averaged, will give a correct knowledge of the average composition of each of the varie- ties studied, and of the variations which may reasonably be ex- pected to result from varying conditions under which the same variety is grown. The general methods of securing the samples and of testing 4 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station them in the Station laboratories, together with the results of the first year’s tests, on samples of the crop of 1905, have been published as Bulletin No. 84. The collection of samples of the crops of 1906 and 1907 has now been completed and the re- sults are recorded in this bulletin. It is proposed to present the results of the same investigations on the crops of 1908 and 1909, together with a sumary of the five years’ work and final conclusions which may be drawn from it in a later bulletin to be published as soon as the investigations can be completed. For complete details of the methods employed in these in- vestigations, and for a general discussion of the principles in- volved and their application to these studies, interested readers are referred to Bulletin No. 84. In the following pages, only such brief explanations as will make the tables intelligible, to- gether with short descriptions of any new additions to or modifi- cations of the methods of study, are presented. THE CROP OF 1906 In the fall of 1906, those millers, warehousemen, grain dealers, and farmers who had furnished samples for the stud- ies of the crop of 1905, were requested to submit similar sam- ples of the crop of 1906, and in most cases willingly consented to do so. Some additional co-operation was also secured from localities not formerly represented. Sacks, blank forms for supplying information concerning the samples, shipping tags, and directions for preparing and shipping the samples were sent out from the Station laboratory. A total of ninety-two samples were received, representing twenty-one different ship- ping points and sixteen different varieties. There was an easily noticeable disposition on the part of the persons who sent in the samples to select those varieties which are commonly considered to be of higher market grade as the typical wheats of their locality, so that the total number of samples of these varieties is greater than that of some of the other varieties of lower market grade, which may be nearly as commonly grown. The harvest of 1906 was marked by very hot dt*y weather and much of the grain of the wheat-producing portions of the State did not mature normally and was more or less shrunken. Washington Agricultural Experiment Station 5 With the belief that these conditions afforded an excellent opportunity of studying the effect of rapid maturity, or short- ened ripening period, upon the quality of the grain, and the re- lative value of plump and shrivelled grain for milling purposes several of the persons who expressed their willingness to secure samples for the work were requested to get samples of plump, slightly shrunken, and badly shrivelled grain of the same var- iety and grown in the same locality, if possible. The information accompanying each sample, together with notes aslo its condition and its weight per bushel, as determined either by the shipper or by a laboratory assistant, are given in Table I. TABLE I. DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLES— CROP OF 1906 6 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station >— 1 v.'* 1 - uj 03 05 ^ CM • — ■ 1 — 1 CO^OiOiO 'fiOiO « MO 040000 43 . •— „ N „ N r _ N _ x x P\ P\ -\-\-\ CO!M N 00 05 O O - X - N C X rt c> a ^ 00 “ ~ ~ ^ K ' , -~ ~"~00 lOOOOOOtOOOOOOOlO ftAaaaa a, a. a« a, cxo cu « a. cu a. a,.a a. t-Ii-I©©■0 00 C > p a a ct ct o3 a 2 a a c« >.2 3 3 ^ o a? ca a > o> r g !> O > <-> ©fflOM!)(D©®©a) flfiflfitfifl®© o 33 03 o< £3 ;a 33 M 02 4 _J 4 J 03 03 +j v +j p +j 333333333^033330303 a a a a a a a 0000000 +->-*-> -u +j -i-> -»-» -*-> © O © © *P *P >P rP -P iP fP ccr/jccccOOOOOOO 03 O O 03^or-j>-jH5(— jl— 5 H - 5 OOOOcooiccmcoojco^CU^ 8| m 03 3 ^ ^ ra w to ® O ^ 03 03 03 O . o c m m x B B o - . , . O'C'O'S'O •'O - - - P ~ ~ P c ~ s_ s-. jl, »_ . p a wwsfl£>;!Bpt“»”jr© t (i t;it| 3 c 3 nic 3 dcd 225^©au Jc-^°oooCf3 0.5-S^ ..••.i^ . 00 -^ 03 . • . ^^oooa^ffi § ^ Q K 0 OO...*O..O03. k J G 2 • • • • Q rtrtPQQtfddWW^i^cQSddddd-Sdfe 03 pa a p'p^ g a^a^ • T3 • 03 •« 3 03030 ^ 0303 '-!'-; -t— 5 -•— > «4— I -l} -t-> ■, S w 03 03 -t-> ■* 03 03 3 3 ^ P P O 03 tn 2 §t 3 -o ,P 03 0 ) 7 : K J ^ ^ >> 03 ° O ~ >» o B P <13 03 't* K 0- - o a o •- 03^2 cfi 03 >,’ S3 03 03 . . . U . . . • ■ H 3 • 2 • • 03 ”2 a • _ 2 p : * 2c a 25 fO ^ o 03 03 W ' U 03 «m 03 4J M >j -»_» 20 ^3 , -- i 5 -e ■- p ps ^fefcCQK&HE-'CQCQOHPHCOfcHpHSfci £ E- S 7 : - ~ “cn^pihi&H^pacQJ jn^u 0 OI >00 53 05 ^K 3 Wt' 0003 Or-- t^- t— I>- t^- [-- i - ['• ^ t - L'* t'- t" L'- L— t'- t^- C'- 00 3C 00 TABLE I. DESCRIPTION OE SAMPLES— CROP OF 1906— Continued Washington Agricultural Experiment Station 7 \N N|N O t''- CO CO © CO CO C D ^ -f ^ CO O ©00 -t 1 05 G0'c5 oc 05 o' ^ CO lOCDiOiOCOiOiOvOCOkO iOiDiOOOiOiniCOOiOEC LC LO O lO O CO O 10 CL Pi c/j Pn CL CL CL c/i Ph Ph P P P P P ia P P P P P PhCLCLCLCLCLPh OO lO 05 o o co co Q) — < .rt -rl .rH H H PC? P5 pj cOcOcOcOcOcOcOcOcO ppacooo'O'c • • -pipjp! • . . . 0> <0 > > CSJ N (S3 OOOOticjOOcjrfrfd^o^OOuouL .2SS.222S2S ooooa5“"ofl? •Pi • a; <0 £ !2 o 2 *53 *02 ^ Sh pH Lh 2 <0 'S o c > g > o 5^ bn w L- 05 00 00 fQCO^HMCO^ElCODCOffiOOfflO^ -. ^ 05 05 05 o ® O O O O O O O CO CO f” t~* C— t>* t~» 0000000505 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 “ ~ TABLE i. DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLES— CROP OF 1906— Continued 8 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station J V £< I ~ NN x 0. o. a x aaaaaacx a a, a, co a a x ^ a aaaaaaaw x a O LQ ■'f t-_i U — 1 “—1 "H •>-' <-! o o o o o o CO CO CO CO CO ^ JZ3 ^ CC JZ! CC Sooooos-s-t-t-s-s- ^OOOOO® s^sS3SSS6S5535ijfiS55fi!2||gst^seeg|!! S|_| «|_| C|_| G G G 1 — 1 1 G £ .S G G G G OOOO G G G X X X M £ £ ,* s« ' . T? So . G . -G . o . G >> - S 5^52 2 G G g £ O S co «P g£ * s . G • G O OO .sa . B i £ % § G O £ CO U ^ E-» o d^O 5 c ^ G o O G u % X to o .2 S .. j o »>> >4 ® j -* u S- s- s-. < & • GJ • Cfi c ro®r r'CcoCGoS cc b£ C o G ?-. O O PStj'C-.dO G CC c —1 -*-> T3 G G O GOO C a l- 9 d ^ r2 G G £d . S-H • . • ^ ^ ^ ^ C ^ • . <3 a ^<3 d^ s o CO »cd O 5 S s « © G 'G 73 o O • ^ 2 • jH ^ a • O *2 • <13 <13 O +^GGG 2 3 I 2 e ^’^S e 2'0'^!c « S £ a> ’( 5 £S«- W o .2 - 0 cc S a <3 2 o 22 n £ a o G O co O .0 §«»■ «n ® ^.rt o »C5OHN«'t‘Offl|.''00C5OHNC0l>JCC!OHO H NN riHfqNNNfCINC'KNiNiNMMCOMmcOCO^^O®' 0 ^ 0O 00 00 00 O0c«O0 00 00 o0 00 00CX30000GO00O0i0<»0C 00 00 00 0C LC 5 ZD CO CD CO 00 00 00 i> oc e: CO CO OO 00 00 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station 9 The samples are arranged in the table in the order in which they were received at the laboratory, and each is designated by the laboratory number which was assigned to it, by means of which it may be identified in later tables in this bulletin. The second, third, fourth and fifth columns show the variety, grow- er’s name, nearest shipping point and county where the grain was grown, for each sample concerning which this data was supplied by the shipper. The sixth column contains the exact or approximate yield per acre of the crop from which the sam- ple was taken. The seventh column indicates the condition of the grain as observed at the laboratory “P” signifying plump; “SS,” slightly shrunken; “S,” shrunken; and “BS,” badly shrivelled. The final column shows the test weight per bushel as determined by the ordinary Fairbanks grain grader. In addition to these samples of wheat from this State similar samples were also secured from the Agricultural Department of the Experiment Stations in several of the great wheat-grow- ing States of the Mississippi Valley. In each case, these sam- ples were received in response to a request for representative average samples of the varieties of wheat most commonly grown in that particular State. These were secured for the purpose of submitting them to the same tests under identically the same conditions as our Washington wheats were being test- ed, in order that the composition and milling quality of our grains might be compared with those grown in the Mississippi Valley States. The total number of these eastern grown wheats which were received and tested was twenty, distributed as follows: Kansas, five; Illinois, four; North Dakota, and South Dakota; three each; Nebraska and Minnesota, two each and Tennessee, one. An additional sample from a miller in central Nebraska, and one from central Ohio were also received and submitted to similar tests. In the main, the varieties represented by these Eastern States are different than those collected in Washington, so that the com- parisons to be drawn from the results of the tests cannot be said to show the effects of the different conditions existing in these several States upon the same variety of wheat. They do, however, afford a basis of comparison of the quality and compo- 10 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station sition of the prevailing wheats of the States represented with those of the same season’s crop grown in Washington. It should, perhaps, be mentioned in this connection that the Blue- stem wheat received from Minnesota and North Dakota is a different variety from that known by the same name in this State, the former being a red, small-berried variety originating in Europe, while the bluestem of the Pacific Coast States is a white large-berried grain originally imported from Australia. It is intended to secure similar samples of Eastern wheats of other season’s growth, for similar comparisons with Washing- ton wheats of the same season, in order to avoid the possibili- ties of drawing erroneous conclusions from the results of a single year’s samples. Results of the Tests The results of the analyses of the wheat, the percentages of each of the three mill-products (flour, bran and shorts) ob- tained in the experimental milling of samples, the gluten tests of the flour in each case, and the percentage of crude protein found in the bran, shorts and flour from each sample, are shown in Table II. TABLE II. RESULTS OF TESTS ON WASHINGTON WHEATS— CROP OF 1906 Sample No. OO US OOF-t'OOaiQrHHN«M®tfiiOOOff>OOCO«iM> - OOO t-t>t-l>l>I>l>0000 00 00 00 < »00000000010i 05 05a5(J505 C— P- p- HHHHrlHHHHHHHHHriHHrlrlHriHHH 1 — 1 i— ) tH Protein in Mill Pr’dets i-> 0 S -<*i®C'-t'-COeOC5T ® LO CO CO © ■'T t- ® HOt^LOO^HM CSICCOSOJMXOO^^M (NWOIH^OCO® MHHCOlOOOOqWasN rH tH rH tH rH rH rH tH tH tH rH rH rH tH rH tH rH rH ^ rH i Bran |shorts| ooascqoco'T 1 • 10 10 ^ o5oi c© as ip- oo lq co • as as c© p- NooiOHooo®HOib.i> l> 05 ^ O 05 1 ^ • rH rfOOoO^ OOCDCCOOaSLOLOC^^^^O rH rH tH t— 1 rH t— 1 • rH tH rH rH tH rH tH rH H H H H H rH rH rH P- ® ia t^cO'fc^O'^Lor-ococo HNHhHHHH H H H H HHHHNrtHHNrlrl Gluten inFlour >1 U Q V z c^C'-®Theoi©t'-'T c© ® i-h p- T^c^ooascoaac^c^ooiooo t-MHrfHOOWO CO ®S 00 ® C— OS N H N N N r- 1 N H ® NCOOSH«OOMr^ ® M K5 CO Tf H H lO t- O H lO 05 M co n i> ® 10 lo a p- c© e- p- lo oiao-^oioooiDMp-® N05(Na«)COLO't O® Hr)< HlflNC0C5MlN®O5(NiO Ifl'® H CO 05 in 05 OS t- CO LO ONNHCCOOH05®TjCOlOiOCOLOl>lO LO CO LO LOCOlOt^CDI>l>lOt^iOC^ tH tH HrHrHTHr-iH tH rH rH rH r— ir—irH rH rT r -1 r-* n rH rH rH Analysis of the Wheat Carbo and Oil HHoincoN«cof'(50 , touo(Nioino505NHin®HoocqinMHaio C005l0'Tij®(NHI>l50®(N^in^(N05inH01^00O05(N '^as®ooLOi-ici0^cr-i®®cooo)H'Tnq®LOiO'^cDod(Mas®Tti P-tOP-P*P , P - I>P‘P'P"P*P'P'C^P*P"P'P*tO['-t>P't'* ICrude 1 |P rot ’11 OSCOOOOHNHCOXOLOlOlO^SOH^Ot-NNintflOOCOHinOS^lM ®^cgOC0®^t>00CD®TtHWMOOC)0005(MH rH t-H tH tH tH H H H r H H rH rH rH tH rH H H H H rH rH rH tH tH H r rH rH tn < V V- *55 0 £ HOOOSCOn D t> MCI ^ IMOqOl (50® H H HlflCOCOWOOCOClOONa D 05lOHHOO®NONP-COHOOHO^{OHMin(»05HHXC*H®OOM H(N(NNHdN01fqHr-ip>lNH^®0®(NOOOOCOO«DinOOCO'^ OH(Nff>lTt05M(NI'^Mp.«Mp.C0C0CDTttOI>(50NHH © 00 OS c© p- OO “IT *5 y< CO -*t< L© ®® >t '-t>* 00 ® l cnT- irH ®®cocat-t>.p- * fl ® ® ® ® p-p-p'-p'-t'-p'-p'-ooooooooooooooooooooasa5asas© 5 ®©s*3£p|p-p-p- i—l 1 T— * t— 1 1— ^ 1 1— 1 i— 1 T— 1 r- l t— It— 1 r— i tH -H t— 1 l— I i— 1 — ( - S i -1 t — i r— i i— i S ^ l— ! iH *"H Variety Bluestem Jones’ Fife TABLE II. RESULTS OF TESTS ON WASHINGTON WHEATS— CROP OF 1906— Continued. 0 ) Sampl< No. OONMMffiONMOOOffiO Ht-OOOJOiWt-COOSNM t'flSNMCOICOJOOt'C'OO OOHrtNtOOOffii-fqM L-t-00000000000105 05 0505 C~00 00 00 00 C5O5t~00 00 00 HHHHHHHHHHHH HHrli-irlrlHrlrHrHH jGluteu inFlourj Protein in Mill Pr’dcts| Flour cqooo-LO cst-C'-©i-icoir5©oO(rciLGicoiG>LOoot~'sFt-ooooi©t-C'-; OOO^COO NOOHNniNOIXKCCO©WHteMHHI>COOJHC-M cooiOHTt (Ncqd^od^aiHasoowLOooaiddc-Qoo^^o rH H H rH tH H H H H H H rH rH tH tH tH tH in O JG C/3 lOOHOOO E5t>NI>1000M00(N®00Ot>® 050 O 't 1 l> N O ^ CO Klfq'tCO(NMT)HM(NNinOOCiNT)HNTf^l>t>M'^t> 00 CO CO 00 LOCOLO^^COOOCOlOCOHCDLOCO^^^HCO(MCC»HCO tH rH rH H r- ( HHHHHHHHrlHHHHHHHHH rH r— ! rH tH rH j Dry Bran int>ME5(»IN^Oi^OCnOO®COlOHlXiff}lOOtOOCl^ CO O CO lO (N OOfqC5(NCO^'^lOHHI>HQHI>05 t^coc^rfoo LOcptdLOCocooofNiONdcdtocicq^^ascoo^^w rH tH t— 1 rH tH rH rH HHHHHHHHHHH tH H H H H H H rH MNNinOOOOCOOOHCO^NMN’^HO^NCONNO'^HCON'^CO HlOCOCOCONOHOlOlOOHO^OJLOMNlNlXOlOOlCOlONOJN HOOt-OMC-WHHCOCi^HhOO^HlOOOCSOCiCDCit-W^O rH H H H H H H rH rH rH tH rH rH iH rH aJ £ (Nt>COOOt>OOlOfOHlOI>Nt>^000005lOOlOCOTjiTlHt-05'tCO 'tcoooNcocoi>oocoocq^Ni>o^HaiU3ooHeot>ooH®t'ia t>(Ndo5^05H0500inCOOOI>OOI>I>M®OONlOt-lOCOlOO<»'0'fi M!N(?qoqMHOO(N(NCO(NHeOH(NNN«>OOiMN(NCOLOp.M(NffqLOTMNI>OI>(NI>LOcc>^cr>co^rH-cc»i>-LOco HHHHt-iHHhHHHHHHHHHH rH rH rH rH tH rH rH rH tH tH rH ca V fe V JS 9-1 0 in >, "c a < Carbo. and Oil O^MOOOOMNffi^ifiOlOrHOCOOlNOJH^^OOOMOOMMHH CO^lOMTm-lONNOOHNOCOCO'H^OOHOlOHiat-OJOSOiHO OlG>'COCO'*tt-C~'^00'CC>OOOOi-l C— b-t'-t— t-t-t— t'-t—C—C'-t'-t'-t'-t'-C— C'-t—t—t—C'-t'-t'-C'-C'-t'-t'-t'- t- v a ■V _ 3 0 Q1 JG m < V u to O S ioc-LC©ooc^rj< ©OOlXNOCOMLnOOlflOHOCOrOlNCOOOlOCOMOqHfOrhOOOOMOJ HOO'!j 3 © ^ •« J?Hti00OjO5(ai>eOQNN , 5 > - *« IXJSNMMCOOJOO -0-00 2 — »OOHH(MCO©©jr5H(NM 5 S T t-t-OOOOOOOOOO©©©^©^^^^ 00 00 00 00 ® 5 ^^ 00 00 00 ^^^ H < 1 g S < *3 — Sc E 3 u ~x ■- z ^ ’-r-' c 0 0 15 v 005 TABLE II. RESULTS OF TESTS ON WASHINGTON WHEATS— CROP OF 1906— Continued a> I© n 00 N ifl H rj! 10 O H Tf Ot-OOS5N^ff>Ot»t-t- OCOOi'J'Ot' OONCOMt- t-t'*C~C'-OOOOOOCi050SCO t- t- 00 CO CD C- CO 00 00 Ci rlHHHHHHHHrlH Hr- 1 r 1 rl 1 — 1 r I HHHHh | Protein in Mill Pr’dcts Bran J Shorts Flour -UOCOt-OOi^lflTfHOOOOTHOoojOOINNHNHCfl^HOOOOlOlOWOO COF*t^N5CCO®OHHoetDHOiOiXit>-C'00»t-tCOO(NTjiffsCOOOOO(NU5 owHHocoH^No^^OMHGajNHajw^ooociooajHHooaj HHHHHHHHHHHH H t-H ,-h H H rH rH H H MNt-t-t-0X»Ln<»LnoOI>^«iN50050)t>i3>(NMO05H00OOON COtO^^MLOCOLOCOCO^^M^OCO^^OCO^COlOCO^TtcOiOtCCO^ rH tH r-i rH H H rH tH rH H H H H r - rH rH rHrHrHrHrHrHrHr- 1 rH t-H tH rH tH rH rH OtOmt-i'Ht'OOOOOH HOCl^^LfllOO^lO'tNNt'lrtOOOOMTf l>^OMaCiOHO'.l>NMt'Mci:MOOOU3MOCO^IDT)N'^HM{ONlfltflHM HtHHHHHHHHHH'— IHH r— IHHHHHHHHHHHHH i- - It— tH Gluten inFlour V £ C00000(fil0l05CTH00N?0®MlA®T)<«it>CNONu0MNasNt't>M«C Mt>^Nff}Ttilrt(£iOOlNHHmCO^OOE:t>TflO flONC^OOlflNCOMOCS S5N(MINO«Hi'NOlOtfl®M05C'05asHt-Hr»C5t-a5MCJTjiTf|>05 Dry NO'Jt»M00t>l0O««>®N03NOlflNHNHC')ajTfiniflNt.t-T)HH NOt'SlOOIMt'HOONNNOMXOHOlflOlflNMOOOiOOO O CO CO tOOt-Nff>OOHO®OOlOi.';!CLO«50TtF'OtD (NCOCONNMMrfiMNTtiTtNMNNiNlNMT-NHNNMiMiMCOOJNN |Y’ld of Mill Prdets 3 £ tL H t-i O OS.H H«»«OOIC't05!C(NMOOO»T)50®Tt HUOCO‘X>LOtf5UO LJ S> l ^ c ’'3lO?OCOLiO'5t , ''fCOUOLOlAC©HLr5COCOCOCC>SOC£>cc>CO Analysis of the wheat ^_S t-Orft-aiMHClOOaiOOHTtimHOOOOffSCiOOOCJtDClOOOOOOoOH HtONOCUOClNtCCloHtfO^^OM^HHOOH’tiNOMNMN^ o6(MMNlOMCDCOCOCD-»ooOiMLO'T , t'J , fO^OOOOCOlO«DC£>I>OOLOOOU5«D t-t— t—t—c— c— c— t-t-c— t-»t— t> t— t— t- t— t— c— c— c— c-tr-tr—t-t-c— t— t— t— t- 0 a T3 - 2 ® ^Wt-OtD^OiNOOOcOMOTtiOJTjiLfliOTfMClCOOtOiOaOMMtON HMMff)C5t»C5O^t>«MC'tCOt0(10O00OOOC5lNtflON(3Clfq(£i HCONHO^H^WOiOLddwCOOO^WOCOOHOJOOONdaiO rH rH rH tH rH rH rH ^ ^ rH rH t-H rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH t— < t-h rH rH rH rH rH rH J3 in < NOON01ijiiOONt-NOt»Ot>OlOOOC5tOC50« (DWWlDOOOOt-HOlt-^HTtit^LOCOWHOlt-Hint-tCOOIXJjajastOOO HHHHHHrltllHrlHNHHTHrlHWHHNrHHHT-IHrHHHHrl Moistre !>C£'t-'tH00Tti®WC?S00|>®Ot'OlN©«MNO(MTjHL':Tt- g fi ® 00 N CO M O* g © 9 C-C-C-t'-00O00O®®®'^j2L3^ c '* t '‘ t '*OOCCCD^;35t>-0OO0OOCS| 1 2;2 > Variety Turkey Red ... Forty Fold Red Russian .. TABLE It. RESULTS OF TESTS ON WASHINGTON WHEATS— CROP OF 1906— Continued Sample No. OOONOOI>aiOOO®N?Ot*t-t>?C«KOtOt-«l(N TtTfTj<{01flOOittOfOE:ifl WrlHH^oaiaOOOOHHaiaiHCOOai rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH tH rH rH rH rH 'ifcoosoc-Loeoosiocjc^asC'-coaiCiiocoMco rH rH rH t-t rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH tH rH t-t Bran C-COt-OOOM-^NC-OOOLOlfltOOlHt-lMMOO ©(MOlM^IOMt-t-OlCOtflCOH^COiMCKNH HWWIOOOCO(N1COCOCOWIOCDHH^C£>HCOC<1 rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH [Gluten inFlour >> 0 00(»Tft-OM>t'a>HHTHE5O01r-iMOO TfHNWrfOOOHHNOOHflodpiOHOa) Wet Ot-WOlOOiat-lOmCO^HOCOCqOOlOOl'TiN MOOOO)01U3HlMNOCOaiCCHI>OHMOia QOONOlOt-NaOOMMN'tOOOOLOOaCOiM COMMN^NlMlMIMMlNCOCOlMlNMeOiMNOl Y’ld of Mill Pdcts 0 s in £ CAJ Ot-JJCOCCNWOTIO 00H«NTf(NO5HO05 !> t- t- t> 50 t> l> !£> t~C'-C-t'-t-5©C~C~t- lOM^^OOlCOWWO KKOOOOHlflHlM LOCOOCOiMHHtNICOH (NKMHCOM C0HMHH00C0C5iM50H(NTC'fl00N'tl<»O(xl-TlOU510eO(NU5Tt'rfinMlflt> it— tr— t — tr— tr— t^— It— t— C-— l: — t — C — C — t — t— t — tr— Cr— tr— ICrude | (Prot’n coco['-®LOT-it'-Tt00-00©<0q©«£>LOT--ILr5 i-iHTfl>TjlOC-H^.'tff}ffQ50'tlO©kOOHNMTH®0 ©ooc'aooc~ci>©ooc5C'q:ot~[-t>*c£> CD 50©c--oociJJC 100 '^Ht>CO!Oin^lO'>tlO«lt-NOOOHN NOOOOHMHNOHOMMHIMCCWONOOiSajffJ 00 N 10 03 rM>©OOI>WHOOK3<£iOO«C ^cocqrBcqcqcOi-ioosoood co © 03 co cq as co os o ^ N co co i-l co co co io uo o oo HHHHHIMH ^®OOOMtjOCOriTj< H00 r* ) i—l HOWWHlOCOW^NHMHOOOt*^ tH HrHHHHHHHHHH h h CO CO c- oo b- cq 0303HC0^l0^HOC0^03 O N N OO H corBoococqTtiooLOcot-cqoo o oo r- oo cq rH TjH cq’ itcocq rHocq-MNOOCOWlO cocqcqcqcococqcocococqcoi— I t-ht— ithco 03 H ^ CO 03 03 NHNON00O .'•030303H1000CC Co'^BlOcdi-OUOt'-LOUO OCOIOCOCO-^UJLO £ c S-T3 NO^CONCO^HOOOOtONO OCO^MHNHlO t^C0(NrJ<03tJtC0C003lrt(N03O03 COlOtOrhM^asfqHOO'tHNfqHNt'USWrtt C'-t'-t-C-C-t-t-COt'-t-t-C—t'-t-t-t-t'-t-b-C'-t—t'- i» a T3 " O u£ 03Hlf3HTl't>C01>M'tlrtHC0Cq^(NHCqt^OC0H CqHt-lOCOOOHTjiCOOOlOCqttHOSt-COL-ttCOOOS co^ 03 (NHcqcoeoo:cqcoiflNio«ico^MH 0003 cqioa 30 coi>t'OTf H ocofq«ot'Ht>oNioomooHiooo 00 ^ 031 flOq 03 lflTt03 03 00 ^Ht^MCOlOTfWTjtLOCO .— fqoOOOHCOHfqoHONN^NCOCOCO i*iTti' ! 't l O3O3''C<''t l L(0''^U0TBt>. 1 '^'StiCqCqCq 03 ta : ;t i i !® ! m m ijll Jjl“ >O^Cntt£Q W 18 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station These results show that the chemical composition and other analytical results on these samples are not greatly different from those of Washington wheats grown the same year. The samples from Illinois are noticeably lower in those consti- tuents which are generally recognized as conferring high qual- ity upon wheat and its mill products. The samples from North and South Dakota and Minnesota, the so-called “hard red spring wheat” section show analytical data very similar to that of the best wheats of Washington. Those from the “hard win- ter wheat” district in Kansas generally show somewhat higher per centages of desirable constituents than the averages for any Washington varieties, while the winter wheats from Ne- braska are considerably lower in the same constituents. Evidence from additional tests on other year’s crops must be secured before final conclusions can safely be drawn. It would appear from the results of these tests, however, that so far as the crop of 1906 is concerned, the difference between the so-called “hard” wheats of the Mississippi Valley and the “soft” wheats of this State, is not so great as has been sup- posed. It has been pointed out, on the other hand, that Wash- ington wheats of the crop of 1906 are richer in protein .i,nd yield flour of higher gluten content than those of the preceding years ’s crop. Should it later be ascertained that the 1906 sam- ples of Eastern grown wheats were lower than they normally are in the constituents, then the real difference between East- ern and Washington wheats is greater than shown by this year’s tests. If, however, the Mississippi Valley wheat of the crop of 1906 were above the normal in the same way, or to the same de- gree that Washington wheats of this season were, there the difference between the two is normally no greater than that found this year. THE CROP OF 1907 The samples of Washington grown wheats of the crop of 1907 were secured in exactly the same manner as those of the preceding years. The total number of samples received was eighty, representing sixteen different varieties and twenty-four Washington Agricultural Experiment Station 19 different shipping points. The full details of the descriptions accompanying the samples are shown in Table IV. TABLE IV. DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLES— CROP OF 1907 20 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station *3 \i: - > '— 1 P P P O O O ° O P ' P P c3 c3 c3 c3 c3 c3 " ,H ,H 2 2 2 2 2 2 p CPdp 3 i=IC 5 af 3 a 3 --:a:'P , P .5 .S ej tS c 3 c 3 to w » 5 oj 4 ) .h .h .h .h .h ^ O O JJ J 1 - 5i— IP 3 P5 P 3 1 — i— ^ h— 3 !> O O 000 QOO oooooo^a>Q>a> ooooooflCOC coajMcoajcnoooofl a)®a)ffl»(D+j+j+j+Jo ccapGppppc^ 0 K 2 bn tc t>o tuo l. u u M u ^ 32 ^ r j2 ej p 3 d P b3 cO c$ ci i* u u (j-O'O'O'O 3 3 3 3 >> « » » S B 0 03 co ^ 4 J cd 0 Ph a>tf 2 §5 33 - P K>> =3 07 bJ3 W fl »J bB^ 5jO t* '5 X —• ^ O 07 «.2«. P ^ PQ fl02^ .© « £ £ 'S p rl 07 -a S p ffl* & PS 0 ^ k ® 35 O 3 < . • • >~i. p !£ O O O ^ <>3 ^ Isllslslsll S® (§ fe ^ «3 PS fe 6 ^ Q E (S 6 § ,0 T 3 ' _ 07 T3 33 /v» P U Q 07 07 c! h -So 0 a .2 2 'g £ •§ M © 3s. S3 P 4 *j 03 T3 . . . *2 o p a 3 £ ^-i >fh f-h .rt 3 c3 07 ,— 1 pQJfflJH^CO^CQhJ a> 'S „«« 2 O x *» U 5 S 3 .s o 33 33 fo & -1 E -1 u p > > S F ^ 2 ^ £ « 53 . 32 (P • 2 ^ Q7 2 — ^ S3 C3 » w ‘rj 07 07 t h <17 3* _. P «W 33 % p a ^ __ M-I 07 ca _ Q7 07 m H CQ t-s ^bsb 'O TJ 07 07 tf >» >> 07 07 3*1 30 t- 00 »fl 10 U5 (C»® N M (M 05 O 1-1 CO nnnn C>5 t(< U3 CO t> CO 07 o o O O O o © nNNNNNN CO 3Z w m PQjJ co eo H E-i c- t^- C0 CO T— . r-t t- t- C1 CO fl o u O © S Q CO t> iH tH t> t- CO C5 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station 21 Q W P g £ K 0 o 1 o On tl4 o Du, 0 p* o 1 CO tt s < CO tL, o £ o UH 2 u CO W Q W 5 < s- O- u * B.B«B«CuB. 0 LiB o O o ” ^ . K ^ -o -s ■o TS T3 ■d t_ ® ® ® o © > > t-i s-< OS OS 4-> -M 03 03 ££ CD© B B B OOOOO m ' -iM U © u U UhSh ^ n •>-< -rt |H .H .H *> +J +J '2 0 ) CCflflflo30ic32' J B . . O be as ^ cc co tn cq 03 P* > u. u. as as +-> 03 03 M W M M l-H >H »v >•« vw I—I i-h ,—1 .,~i w w - : . ■ - 03 2 > > o c 2 .H *3 M X .2 as as 03 o £S B3 B 03 03 B B 03 03 O © 2 B O as g s 5 Sg O o Q BJ B S3 0 • b a 03 a3 ' — © ' B • ' S S ' 02 50 . ’Eg ' .2 ^ b •£ b 2 ‘ ® “ —I B s M s- 03 -m u 2 bO fl, B fl >» 0 = 5 &•§£!•§ O s “m“« ansrarara^Esgs* . **! . . • ^ d m b w td S cc L . • . • udKS& ddfeffid^dc o o B B ^as as T3 T3 as as tf P 3 B B S5 • • Ti B . Q) 5 'B * P-I Oo T3 !2 B g © S 02 c2 s *5 e3 ffiK d^' •-s ^ ce ^3 o 02 ^ .2 >> r 2 o H t-i as • C 2 o .2 11 — 02 as O ^; *-s PQ B 2 O .2 r ’ 73 02 03 2 o as 2 u b 2 PQ §3 CO »— i PQ 02 -B 3 _ fc> >> as i? ^3 Vi/ e . e S £2 as as as o 03 • ro as xs 23 O C ts cs s 13 3S< £ £ £ s5.2 osHb3^ o!2 CQtftfpPpQpqpQHpqjCPQmpOfcEiH as rH cm CM CM U5 CD CM 02 a| Em HOOOHWM^lO{Ct-OOai CO M S'. CO w 52 Tt‘-*)*zotOZDzC>(£>ZCizDZDzD(£> c— t>- i — c~ t- t'- c— t>- t - r - t '- t - r- t - [ '• t - t - t~- fjNNNNNNNNNNNNClfllMNN TABLE IV. DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLES— CROP OF 1907— Continubd 22 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station OQ 3Q 00 QQ ft x n O. Q. in CL ft- Cl, CL Q. oo CL CL CL P.E o iflO • 10 o N (N • • CO CO PftftftftSgg a s csJ ft sssss aaasaa 00 « pi « ft ft £S .tJ £ £ £ £J § § ft ft ft ft ft ft ft ft ccs ft cjo b£ bfl bD bo C C O O O ft ft ft ft ft ft ft ft ft ft .s .a .h .a a x * ^ ,* m B B B B B ~ ^ 'o *0 o 000 ft ft «SKcS«Ci®J®SSr^S'S‘ 9 S' llSSg 3 S 131 S«Sfi&S&§s§§ ftftft ft ftiS””r- 2 --H--Hftft ftftftftft ftftft ft ft ft ft ft 55 .rt 25 .H ^^^^^flftfitift OOUOO^^^l >>>uimmmrnO~znwrfim co bJO 9 ft ft g • ft o 03 tr. •—* Sh O 0) m 'o ft £ Q B OH ■ X _ ft 03 O .ft H o s* H 1-0 CO ft o s ffl > ft ft xs 00 co ^ • o H V H Vi ft ^ ft p. V CD TJ CO ft O ft ft *- CD X C I o ftT CO M CD x « os ft ft > s- ft ft ^ & T3 TD ft ft tf« s >» >> ft ft ft -ft ft ft .5 H H H H PQ .ft .ft ft ft S 55 ft ^ ^ SSSS6SSS ftftftftftftftft CQ H v o ft ft cocococococococo ftftftftftftftft ftftftftftftftft Tft ft pcj s ft >* I ft m HNM^COt-QOCJOHMM^lOCCCOC'OOClO Ot-F*t>C-C-t-l>QOOOOOOOOOOOCOC3ClC3aO t> t>" t> t'— C*“ t” O I> |> t~” t— t- t— t>* C"* 00 fqNNNNCdNCqiMCqiMNMiMMNNMNN Washington Agricultural Experiment Station 23 The harvest of 1907 was remarkable for its cool, cloudy, moist weather in many parts of the state. As a consequence the majority of the samples received were of plump, heavy grain. In some localities, rain fell while the grain was ripe and still standing uncut in the fields, or in the shock. Some of the grain was therefore bleached, and samples representing this kind of grain are marked “Bl” in the column headed “ Condi- tion.’ ’ In certain sections of the state, maturity was so slow that an early frost caught some of the wheat before it was quite ripe. Samples of this grain are marked “F.” “Sm” in the same column indicates that the grain was badly damaged by smut, and “W” indicates the presence of considerable foreign weed seeds. The complete results of the laboratory and milling tests on these samples are shown in Table V. TABLE V. RESULTS OF TESTS— CROP OE 1907 OJ iniOCCOOHMNNMCOMTf«i«>tO(050L'"l>t'OOOOOOOOOOasa)OiCl M N N N ■ w iw ^ - < ' ■ rn 1-1 wv 1 .V vv ^ w W W ffi !C ['• l> p- OO OO OO OO OO Ol NNNMNNN NI>TflMM(N«OOOMlOI>005lO^^ OONWOJM NNOOOOOHOSOOOOJfflOMOOO t^oooooiasoiroo-c-oco^oooasO'^'uooqLOrHcoooaiO'^ooooai C0Cl0MNt>Nt£KCit-C50!OU'5M^‘’^00OLaMO00H05OM COlOlO'^M«OlOCOCOlOC010«OCCl0^t | Tj< LOlOlOCO'^Tti^tiuO'tiitiCOi— ©t'-©00©©t-©^©t~MOOH©'tOlOH > a>'^ OHLCt-(MOK5HCOt-(NOlOlfll>©l>05'>JHr-iNOC300(550i©00 05050505©ffiMt-© ■cqooajLO 10 oo © © on © T-iHNNNNTfr- t-O-C-t-t'-C-t'-C'- owoM«e ffi CO N H O H r-ioo^io©t-t^©©uoeoco©t^co©eocot-LOii-iooooio©iO'^Tti OH © CO OH OH t— INC qNCOCONNWWNCJNNNMHNNCOON X)00iOCr5C0CD©^MC000't>N5£IM©©r- I © Tf i— l©C'-CO'^'^- D— t— i>- t— ir— tc— t~- ir— t— tr~- L— c^~ tr— t— ir— t— tr— t>~ t— t-~* ir— ir— c~— ir— 1 5 = o t- U CJO. OO © C- © rf OO M 00 t> lO CO © OH OH t— 00 CO © CO OH 03 OO © ^ CO © C-* OH CO t>* © LO CO f- © LO©©‘©C00HTt<©©^©L0©©''* l T-<©©r-l0nLOLO©00 00'©LO00^COlO‘>tC0^lOH00005£l00 00 00 ©00O5O5HC5© © LO OO LO CO h lo i> in o ©©Cqi-H©'^r-lCO©i-HCOLO©CO©00"^^'^©"t>-COTj'^H0500Tj> 3 ■&>£ o $ 'O »H ® ® &H E S > > > ctf ctf a> 13 > — .2 .2 > > — „„ — w ... .. w , o ’O 'O o3 XtCX SSj >»>»>» 3 >» >%>»>» c ?3 c 3 nS 'O c3 'S. c 3 c3 cj 'to ^x) c3 T 3 to ,-iC'- a5 coi:-i-iioa©io>— i®t^t-©coTf LO< 5o© i: ^ ,| >‘c L- c ^ t ~00 00 0000 Nd^NNcqcqNcqcgcqiMcqcqNciqCiiNMMcqiMiMiMN o-d WOOOOM«Dt»H«)Q^NlO M 13 13 t- © HK 1 N?DI>I>CO«) 0 0 C£>CO©>©C'-t-t-t-t-t-t'-«DC -4 'iMNiMimNiMNNNNNNimL' ff> N CO Tf lO O OO CO Tt* o © cc> r- c~ t-~ t— t—t— oo (NMNNNNWNINN Q w D g £ 55 O u pL, o 0 - o erf 0 1 CO go pa :to O •co >4 ; 4 > co ■« .Prf P 4 >4 ea Jh l- OOCO-^ 1 HiOOOMt't'li5DOKItflI>MOa)a55CNOOOiJ'. O'tOOOlO g , co -<$< eo cOHLOMininoostDCstoft^woo^^Nt^oiMt-ajot- C 05 OO OO OOfflt'ONO 5 «Sa)OON«CWt*CCO)OOMHHHHa>Ht' 0 ) to CC 05 rt< 05 « IN OO CO*CO Mt£> 00 M , tO 5 NtOlOO 5 lOt- 00 r-t«lO ( NM H H tO t»Mt>LOt'Ht>l>IQHHl0050lOCONt>00 05tOr-05K)5P50 Tf CO N TtiT(i'#HLOt>MH'C 5 tOHOtOtOCOO , J , OONI>'} | I> l ®tCC 50 | 350 ^ COTfii# t>|>t 005 MMU 5 li 0 ONC 0 l 0 M(Nt -05 00 l 3505 HH^O^t-H ! -,-H 1-4 eoaWNint'NO'tJ')l>OC0005000CO'f^^N^OiN ^ ,00 M o t»HfOOOOlO ^tOLOlO t^' 5 lOOH 10 t>lN'>tt'(OtOM'(Nt£!OOtOt>tO'>tCO ® © OQ «j dfflC5t-ONNt0005(NtOC5LOtOOOOOOOr- © © lO © c-©lo ©©-iou 5 ©C'-iOLO©''t , ©co© r- I t— !LOLO- 00 ©t s - 00 IN to M 50 00 © iH 'rfiTjHLOlOLCUOLOlO'*i H lOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOLOCOLOCO jo'O ;t3 3 a 5§ CO TjHQOi— I CO © r- l©COt'-(MCO©COOC5NlO©(N©tOlOOiNtOM©OOOOOffi lOlOi-UOt»©tDtOOlONfq^tOU 5 NTfrJTjiOO©NOO^iOTf01>NOlOI>© tOtOlOCqcO^CO©tOOOHtOOOOCOOCD'^l>©lO©rti©Ht>iNO'^t>CO H(N©©OHM 00 00 NCi 5 00 NP 500 H© © © t— I H H 00 © © g B B > > > .2 .2 > £ > .2 ctaSrtTdT^cd't^cd'rJ ai>£UtPa)a;ai^cD 3 4 rj . 5 ? © 4 ^ be be 4 4 >> ctS g 4 5 © 00 ©oC 0 < ®t^’~ , 00 cr:i Tti ' 7qL0 lOlOt-oiH^iMtO^Nco 1 ®® COCO©«£>c-t'*t~t> , [-t'*C~ l:c> t'- N N N N ?i N im Cl ci Cl ci Cl Cl 00 -p s3 ci £ s © >>>>>>> ct 3 c 3 ctJc 3 a 3 c 3 c 33 a>a>a>cL>a)a>cD© 4 4444 C 4 4 >> > a s CD s 4 2 OOH(NO aH(NMMH00t£)(CCM , J' l iiNHt>OTi O -i'-cot'-tr-c~r'-r-t-C'-C'-t-t'-<©c© NNNNNNN iNNNNN(NfqcgN(N(NiMN(MNNHMHoooaot-i>HaioatOMHi>fO(Nt-?e tf ousia®® HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH hhhhhh Bran a^t>^at>i>t>a)a-^t£i«)i>i>fo®o(N a m o n io co la n (a t-taaHcoHaHt-NoHHt-aoo^aooioo a m n w oo OCOHlOl^l>LOl>O^CD^LOCOCOOC. i~ Q 00 CSJ CO tH C-* tH r — 1 ^ C<) 00 Tf !>• tH LO 00 ^ CO l£S CO i“H r-l CO 00 lO 05 o tH tH rH tH rH H H rH rH tH rH tH rH rH Wet N^OLOtXWHCOIMOOtaOWOHt-OOONlOMM 00 IM M O lfl lO MLO^NHOOHMM^iNt'NOaiOt-HMCOlNMat'OOaOlfl o>T3'^coiLOir5oqiaoaiLot-coLOiooda3LC5tOLO(X>o cq t- oci oo oo oo M(M 3 rt u OQ oi>coiM^(Neocot>aaoocoMiflt-fONaooa^ a cow 't h oo NONNHNN(NOHMMCqeq«HHHNHNH o* t> t— r— t> t- c- d- c- t- t- c- tr- c~ t- t- t- c- c- t- ooaiflt>^oioi>t-ooiai>ooMat-ooooMo 03<^cqcdoqc^c^<^c-COeOT-ICOCOCO''f ^t0t>lO00H001>HMH(M«KaHC000MM(N!DM00aO^O«( ooTtDco«DTt<)ninaifl^ooco«)MNt>aMdifl NiOCOOt'MOOIMat-MrPOOONOlCtJ'OlflmWNIXMat- (NOOW'tPin^OOCCNtOOOOOOOtOt'OOlMNHt-HKlMWaOt-M oio^NdHWNajHddHooxdcotNajdHLOxaicooH rH rH rH rH tH rH tH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH tH rH rH J3 to <5 ^OOOOONOfqOOtDMNCOlOaOOOOlOtDaOCClOlflMtONN w^MioiooiaoMiaiococooot-'ttcuoMiain’tawt't-tcoo rH rH rH rH tH 'X»ONinaT((O?0O^'tMHt-MH(M00HTt (®^00 00 (NOinH NMOOaaWWOOONHNHINONOMMHMarHaHHH i +-> b b+-> b >>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>>>>>. 2 >>>> c3c3oiCTjc3ctCwc3c3c3c3c'jc3 r Cc3c£rtcti ^(1)0)5)0)0)00(00)4)0)1)4!®®®®® — l: - . , — ;or SC? ... „ ^0[-(X)HlN0.rt« fcaHNNMHOOOWOCOTPlOoqHt^O 0 C<1 CO C~ t- 00 * fi OONNMCCIXNCCOHlMNr-^OOHtOCO jTJlDlNflSUNS^NMNNNiMNNNMNNNfqNNflCq Washington Agricultural Experiment Station 27 The results recorded in the table show that the whole crop of 1907 averages lower in protein, or gluten producing material, than the crop of 1906, the difference being undoubtedly due to the cool, moist, cloudy weather during the harvest season of 1907 as compared with the hot, dry harvest weather of 1906. It is believed tha't the actual difference between the two crops is greater than that shown in the two tables (Tables II and V.) y because of the fact that most of the samples of the crop which were sent to the Station were of No. 1 grade, whereas a very large percentage of the total crop of the state for that year was lighter grain of No. 2, or even No. 3, grade. The instances in which heavy and light grain were received from the same local- ity and tested side by side in the laboratory show, as has been pointed out, that the lighter grain was richer in protein and yielded flour with higher gluten content. Hence, if as large a proportion of the samples tested had been light w r eight grain, as was the proportion of light grain in the whole crop of the state, the average percentage of these constituents in the year’s samples would doubtless have been considerably higher than those actual^ obtained. The comparisons to be drawn from the two tables do show, however, the variations in the similar grade, or plumpness, of grain grown in the two seasons in the same districts and afford very interesting evidence upon the relation of climate to the chemical composition of crops. The comparison between sam- ples of the same grade of any given variety, grown during the same season, show what variations may be caused by different •conditions of growth. But in such cas‘e it is impossible to say how much of the observed variations may be due to difference in soil and how much to climatic differences. But the compari- son between crops grown in the same locality, on the same soils, in different years, eliminates the possibility of soil in- fluence, at least so far as chemical composition of the soil is concerned, and limits the causes for the differences found to climatic influences, such as temperature, sunshine, moisture supply, etc. It appears from the analytical figures already ob- tained in this study, and from similar results obtained by other investigators, and the chief, if not sole factor in determin- 28 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station ing the comparative chemical composition of wheat of the same variety grown in different localities is the climatic conditions during harvest, and that differences in the compositon of the soil have very little, if any, effect upon the quality of the grain, except in so far as the soil affects the moisture supply of the plant. In comparisons between different varieties, the tendency of each variety to produce grain of a certain quality must, of course, be taken into account. But varietal differences seem 'to be less marked than differences within the same variety caused by variations in the climatic conditions under which the grain is ripened. Investigations are in progress at this station to determine the .• effect of each of the several factors which go to make up ■ climatic influence, such as relative temperature, cloudy weather Vor direct sunshine, humidity of the air, moisture supply in the coil cr rainfall, etc., upon the composition of the wheat; and also the stage of the plants development at which these in- aluences exert the strongest effect upon the quality of the ripe ■grain. The results of these investigations will be presented in slater bulletin. ATXTAGE COMPOSITION OF WHEATS OF THE CROPS OF 1905, 1906 and 1907 It is very desirable that the full live years’ investigation shall be completed before definite conclusions as to the compara- tive composition of the different varieties of wheat grown in this state are drawn. But the results of the three years’ tests which lave been completed, representing as they do one nearly nor- mal. cue usually hot and dry, and one cool, moist, harvest sea- son may be summed up and certain average figures presented wbmh will be of general interest. Accordingly some of the data from, 1 be entire number of samples have been received, has been ■romp-led and the averages for the moisture and protein con- f • i if the grain, the yield of flour, and the wet gluten test of the ibr.r, are presented in Table VI. Washington Agricultural Experiment Station 29 TABLE VI AVERAGE OF TESTS FOR THE THREE CROPS 1905-1907 INCLUSIVE variety No. of Samples Tested Moisture Per Cent Crude Protein Per Cent Yield of Flour Per Cent Wet Gluten Per Cent Macaroni 9 . 9.94 • 12.41 72.0 32.77 Bluestem 76 10.88 12.34 71.7 30.98 Turkey Red .... 28 . 10.40 11.96 71.2 30.68 Sonora 7 12.00 11.78 72.2 30.29 Jones’ Fife 30 10.07 11.67 71.8 26.25 Red Allen 12 11.75 11.56 72.7 30.29 White Amber .... 6 12.10 11.01 71.1 26.97 Fortyfold 15 11.06 10.96 72.5 23.1 1 Club 43 10.93 10.68 72.5 25.82 Red Russian .... 12 10.67 9.77 71.2 22.86 In this table the several varieties are arranged in the order of their average protein contents for flapr making. Sonora wheat is largely used for the manufacture of bread foods. Maca- roni wheat is not yet used in any quantity in this state. The comparatively high protein content of the few samples which have been analyzed indicate that in this state it con- forms to its usual high gluten qualities. It is, there- fore, a very valuable wheat for food purposes, and may be largely used in this country for the manu- facture of macaroni and similar food products. Millers are not yet successful in producing as high a quality of flour from this variety of wheat as its high gluten content would seem to indicate to be possible. It is possible that further study of this matter may reveal a proper system of milling whereby a flour of good baking quality may be made from this high gluten wheat. It should not be understood that the averages presented in this table necessarily represent the real relative composition of these several varieties of wheat as grown in this state. They do, probably, acurately represent the comparative values of these varieties for milling purposes, so far as the three years, 1905 to 1907 are concerned. At least, this may be assumed to be true for the five varieties of which twelve or more samples were submitted to complete tests. 30 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station A lack of sufficient laboratory force to handle the rapidly increasing volume of analytical work of the Department, has made it impossible to carry out such elaborate sponge and bak- ing tests on the samples collected during these two years as were originally planned, and put in operation upon a part of the samples of the crop of 1905. A student of the Washing- ton State College did make some baking tests on some of the samples of the crop of 1906, using both some of the Washing- ton-grown and some of the Eastern-grown wheats. He was absolutely inexperienced in the methods of bread-making and in the use of the standard apparatus for this purpose, however, and his results were so erratic and so impossible to correlate with any other observed properties of the several flours or wheats from which they were made, that it seemed best to dis- card them. Their publication would only lead to confusion and possibly to wrong conclusions, and they will, therefore,. be omit- ted from this report. It is hoped that increased assistance may be available for the further investigations of this series and that complete sponge and baking tests of at least a considerable pro- portion of the flours which are manufactured from the wheats analyzed may be made. Some indications of a probable in- fluence of certain mineral constituents of the flour, especially the soluble phosphates, upon the physical quality of the gluten and the baking strength of the flour, have been discovered and are being investigated. These will be fully discussed in later reports of these investigations. The author of this bulletin desires to express here his in- debtedness to the many citizens of the state who have assisted ’ in collecting samples; to Mr. C. W. Lawrence, Cerealist of this Station, for the milling of the wheat ; and to Mr. H. R. Watkins, formerly Assistant Chemist of the Station for a large part of the analytical work reported in this bulletin. Washington Agricultural Experiment Station 31 The following bulletins of this Station are now available for distribution. Missing numbers are out of print. General Bulletins 31. Irrigation Experiments in Sugar Beet Culture in Yakima Val- ley. 33. Fiber Flax Investigation. 34. The Russian Thistle in Washington. 37. The Present Status of the Russian Thistle in Washington. 4 2. A New Sugar Beet Pest and Other Insects Attacking Beets. 4 8. Mechanical Ration Computer. 49. Alkali and Alkali Soils. 60. A Report on the Range Conditions of Central Washington. 67. Some Notes Concerning Halphen’s Test For Cotton Seed Oil. 70. Powdery Mildews in Washington. 71. Preserving Eggs. 72. The Chemical Composition of Washington Forage Crops. 74. Two Insects Pests of the Elm. 77. The Codling Moth in the Yakima Valley. 78. The Goat Industry in Western Washington. 79. Steer Feeding Under Eastern Washington Conditions. 80. Growing Alfalfa Without Irrigation in Washington. 81. The Codling Moth in Eastern Washington. 82. I — Chemical Composition of Washington Forage orops. II — Analyses of Concentrated Feeding Stuffs. 83. Some Important Plant Diseases. 84. Wheat and Flour Investigations — Crop of 1905. 86. The Codling Moth in 1907. 89. A History of the Hybrid Wheats. 91. Forest, Shade and Ornamental Trees in Washington. 90. W T heat and Flour Investigations, Crops of 1906-1907. 92. Cherries in Washington. Popular Bulletins 1. Announcements. 4. Notes on Swine Management. 6. The Milling Quality of Washington Wheats. 7. Soil Survey of the State. 8. Orchard Cover Crops. 9. Some New Hybrid Wheats. 10. Silo Construction. 11. Commercial Potato Growing. 12. The Care of Milk on the Farm. 14. Planting an Apple Orchard. 18. Growing Raspberries and Blackberries in Washington. 19. The Use of Fertilizer Lime. 20. Summary of Experiment Station Work. :2 1. Hybrid Wheats'. .22. Tillage and Its Relation to Soil Moisture. 2 3. Trees in Washington. 24. Pruning Apple Trees. 2 5. Gooseberries for the Home Garden or Commercial Orchard. 2 6. Currants for the Home Garden or Commercial Plantation. 27. Spraying Calendar for 1910. 28. Sulphur-Lime Wash. 29. Milling Quality of Washington W T heat. :30. Spraying for Codling Moth. . ' >1 . ' ■ ' - The State College of Washington AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION PULLMAN, WASHINGTON DEPARTMENT OR HORTICULTURE Cherries in Washington By W. S. THORNBER BULLETIN No. 92 1910 Figure i. A well-cared-for Cherry Orchard. All bulletins of this station sent free to cittzens of the State on application to director BOARD OF CONTROL R. C. McCROSKEY , President - - Garfield D. S. TROY, Vice-President - Chimacum E. A. BRYAN, Secretary Ex-Officio - - - Pullman President of the College. LEE A. JOHNSON Sunnyside J. J. BROWNE Spokane PETER McGREGOR, Colfax -o- STATION STAFF R. W. THATCHER, M. A. ELTON FULMER, M. A. S. B. NELSON, D. V. M. 0. L. WALLER, Ph. M. - - R. K. BEATTIE, A. M. WALTER S. THORNBER, M. S. A. L. MELANDER, M. S. LEONARD HEGNAUER, M. S., W. H. LAWRENCE, M. S. w. t. McDonald, m. s. a., - C. C. THOM, M. S., H. B. HUMPHREY, Ph. D., ALEX CARLYLE, W. T. SHAW, B. S„ GEORGE A. OLSON, M. S., E. L. PETERSON, B. S., REX N. HUNT, M. S., W. H. HEIN, M. A., W. L. HADLOCK, B. S., M. A. YOTLIERS, B. S. - Director and Chemist State Chemist V eterinarian Irrigation Engineer Botanist Horticulturist Entomologist Agronomist Plant Pathologist Animal Husbandman Soil Physicist - Plant Pathologist - Cerealist - Assistant Zoologist - Assistant Chemist Assistant Soil Physicist Assistant Botanist Assistant Horticulturist Assistant Chemist Assistant Entomologist INTRODUCTION. During the last ten or twelve years the cherry industry of the Northwest has made rapid progress and now is ranked as one of the leading horticultural industries of this state. A few sections have become famous for their cherries; others have failed. There are many valleys yet to be tried. Only recently have the possibilities of this crop as a com- mercial proposition been realized. With the coming into use of the refrigerator car for soft fruits, the invention of the Pony refrigerator, the erection of canneries and the origin of several particularly firm, good shipping, high quality western varieties the industry received an impetus that placed it at once with the foremost fruit crops. With the invention of a cheap method of pitting, especially sour cherries, another profitable and wide field of cherry growing will open to the Northwest. These varieties grow ex- ceedingly well and produce abundantly in practically all parts of the Northwest but there is a very limited market for them in the fresh state and labor is entirely too high for hand pit- ting for drying purposes. According to Commissioner F. A. Huntley’s report for the year ending 1908, there are 10,688 acres of cherries in the State of Washington alone and many more acres are being prepared for planting; and the wholesale average market prices for “Spokane, Seattle and Tacoma” were $1.25 to $1.50 per ten- pound box in May to from 50 cents to $1.25 per ten-pound box in August. During the season of 1908, the first week in August $2.00 per box was paid for the best grades, the highest average for any week of the season. The sweet cherry as a crop is a very heavy producer in most parts of the state. The only serious drawback is late spring frosts and for this reason every precaution possible should be taken to select as nearly as possible frost free loca- tions for the growing of this crop. Smudges and orchard heat- ers are being employed and in many sections will be of great value, but the early precaution is by far the safest. 4 State College Experiment Station Location. The cherry as a tree is generally hardy and readily adapts itself to. varied conditions. However, it is extremely suscepti- ble to early fall injury if caught by a hard freeze before the new wood has had an opportunity to ripen thoroughly or ma- ture. This injury is frequently called “winter killing,” but in reality is due to poor location, unsatisfactorj^ site or late sum- mer or fall growth. Probably the most critical time in cherry culture is that period preceding, during and immediately following the bloom- ing of the trees. Heavy losses occur annually during this time of the year which possibly might have been avoided if proper judgment had been used in the selection of the site or loca- tion for the orchard. Cherry trees bloom from two to eight days later on northern slopes than they do on southern slopes an 1 are always less subject to frost injury on rolling, slightly ele- vated or sloping than on flat lands. Good atmospheric drain- age is one of the essentials to successful cherry culture. Soil. Soil: The cherry can be profitably grown on a variety of soils, but for long life of tree and large, regular crops it shr.ild have a rather dry sandy loam to light clay loam, rich in mineral plant foods but poor in nitrogen. The subsoil should be porous, well drained and neither clay hard pan nor dry gravel. A stiff clay soil rich in nitrogenous plant food produces a woody, rarely productive, short lived tree; while a poorly drained s.,il rarely or ever produces a healthy, productive tree. Tie merry is a heavy feeder and should be encouraged in growth while young, but wood growth should be discouraged in the old or bearing tree. A first class cherry soil should contain abundance of free moisture during the early spring months and up to the time of the ripening of the fruit; afterward only enough moisture to keep the tree growing slowly or keep the wood plump. Planting. Distance: The variety, soil, climate and rainfall or irriga- tion all combine as factors in governing the distance apart that Bulletin No. 92 —Cherries in Washington. 5 trees should be planted. The sweet cherry on rich soil, with a* reasonable amount of moisture, requires from thirty to forty feet ; while sour cherries under the same conditions will not re- quire more than twenty to twenty-five feet. On the rich moist soils of Western Washington, the sweet cherry should be given plenty of room for full development and will require from! thirty-five to forty feet. The irrigated valleys with light sandy soils and more or less of a scarcity of nitrogen will produce good cherries at from twenty-five to twenty-eight feet; while sweet cherries on the rich uplands of Eastern Washington should have from twenty-eight to thirty- two feet in order to be sure of sufficient moisture. Heavy fruit production at the expense of wood growth is common in the valleys, while the reverse is true in Western Washington. The cherry should always be planted alone and never as a filler or with a filler for any other orchard tree since it requires an entirely different method of cultivation. It is a late spring and early summer grower and matures its crop very early in the season and should naturally take the remainder of the sea- son for the development of fruit spurs and buds and the ma- turing of the wood. It is wrong to expect it to maintain a growing activity for a period as long as the apple or peach and so for this reason should never be planted with these trees. Before planting the trees the soil should be thoroughly subdued, properly graded if irrigation is necessary and placed in perfect surface tillage. It matters little whether the square or hexagonal plan be used. Each has its advantages. The more important advant- age of each is that the square places the rows a little farther apart ; while the hexagonal permits the planting of from six to eight trees more per acre. Time : In sections where spring comes on very early, the winters are mild, and rain continues until late in the season so that the working of the soil is retarded, fall planting may be practiced to advantage, providing the soil can be properly pre- pared and well ripened stock be secured. In practically all other sections of the state and especially where there is danger of very cold winter weather, early spring planting is best for 6 State College Experiment Station cherry trees. Secure the stock in the fall, carefully heel in near to where it is to be planted, cover the tops if necessary and plant as soon as the soil can be properly worked in the spring. Method: Dig the holes wide enough so that the roots will go in without crowding, and deep enough so that the trans- planted tree will stand from one to two inches deeper than it formerly stood in the nursery. Prune back all bruised or brok- en roots with a sharp pruner or knife, cutting in such a manner so as to have the cut surfaces rest on the bottom of the hole. Lean the top slightly toward the south or southwest if the pre- vailing winds come from that direction ; otherwise plant straight or at least never lean the tree away from the two o’clock sun or there will be danger of sun scald. Fill the hole from one-third to one-half full of moist, rich soil, or at least cover the roots, and tramp it until firm. Fill the remainder of the hole with loose earth, tramp lightly and leave the top smooth and levelj if planting in the spring, but slightly high, if planting in the fall. If water is used at all in the transplanting of trees, it should be applied to the holes the day before planting and per- mitted to soak away thoroughly before being disturbed unless it is used to firm the soil instead of so much tramping, as is commonly practiced in the irrigated sections. And then as soon as the surface dries it should be gone over with an iron rake and carefully loosened up or leveled as is necessary. Trees : First class one year old trees are best for planting. However, low headed two year old trees may be satisfactorily used provided they are not overgrown and their root systems ar^ good. A one year old tree is easier to transplant, it can be headed as desired and usually develops into a better and longer- lived tree than an older one. Propagation and Stocks. The greatest care possible in the cutting of bud sticks for the propagation of a stock of cherry trees should be exercised. Only vigorous, healthy trees should be propagated from and never under any condition should a diseased or shy bearer be used as a bud stick producer. The average sweet cherry tree Bulletin No. 92. — Cherries in Washington. 7 is normally healthy and productive, but it is not difficult to find weak, diseased, or unproductive strains or individuals of our most common sorts. It is better to propagate from mature bearing trees than young growing trees as the stock tends to come into full bear- ing earlier and produce firmer, better fruits. Cherries may be grown or a number of different stocks or roots, but the more contmon ones are Mahaleb, a wild species from southern Europe and Mazzard, a wild sweet cherry also from Europe, producing small, worthless fruit. The Mahaleb makes the best stock for the Kentish or sour cherry and, while commonly used is not entirely satisfactory for the sweet varieties. It is hardier and does better tljan the Mazzard on dry and unsatisfactory soil, but in climates similar to ours the Mazzard produces the better long-lifed tree of the two. The Mazzard is more difficult to bud upon and the trees are harder to trans- plant, but even with these disadvantages it is by for the more satisfactory root for the sweet cherry. Top Working — In sections where the body of the tree of certain varieties tends to suffer severely from sun scald, cherry canker and gumosis troubles, it is frequently advantageous to top work these varieties onto some resistant, hardy variety or species and thereby avoid this difficulty. The May Duke, Late Duke, Mazzard and Native Western cherries all make excellent stems upon which to work the sweet cherry while the Mahaleb makes an excellent trunk for the sour sorts. The top working may be done the same as for apples by either side or cleft grafting; or, better yet, by budding. If grafting is employed it must be done very early in spring while the buds of both scion and stock are still dormant. Cultivation. Whatever may be the treatment of the old bearing orchard the young cherry orchard should receive nothing but the very best of clean culture from the time it is planted until it is three to five years old. The grass o*r mulch system is probably 8 State College Experiment Station all right for the old tree but when it is necessary to produce wood growth and frame work nothing can do it like clean culture. The young orchard can be advantageously cropped for the first few years without injuring the trees in the least, providing cover crops can be sown or cultivation or irrigation can cease by the middle of August or at the latest by the first of September. The cropping of the young orchard where no cover crops are used produces a better and more developed growth than clean culture alone. The cultivation of the bearing orchard should start in the spring just as soon as the soil is ready to work, if no cover crops are used, by plowing or disking and immediately pul- verizing or clod mashing and harrowing until the surface is firm and smooth. After once getting the soil in first class shape, harrow or surface cultivate every ten days or two weeks and after every rain until the middle of July to first of August when a cover crop should be sown to take up the sur- plus moisture, temporarily appropriate the available plant food and cause the newly made wood to ripen up thoroughly before winter. If the trees have been making a poor, unsatisfactory growth the cover crop should be vetch, Canada peas or Crimson clover (preferably Hairy vetch), but if the growth is good or the tendency is toward wood production at the expense of the fruit, then the cover crop should be fall rye or winter wheat for the purpose of checking growth and adding humus to the soil. If irrigation is practiced, it must not be overdone late in the season on bearing trees, nor should any water be applied to the trees after the fruit begins to color and until it is harvested, or the quality of the fruit will be materially lowered and its ability to keep and ship very seriously injured. The cherry blossoms very early in the spring, matures its crop in June or July and should have from then until fall to develop fruit buds and ripen its wood. A bearing tree Bulletin No. 92. — Cherries in Washington. 9 should not be permitted to make a heavy summer growth. This is always at the expense of the future crop. The fruit buds which produce the largest and best fruit are developed during the preceding June and July and not late in the fall or just before they blossom in spring. Pruning. During the first four years of a young cherry tree’s life in the orchard it should be carefully, systematically and regularly pruned. By this time it should be large enough and its frame work so well developed that the future pruning would consist largely of the removal of dead, diseased, broken or crossed limbs and an occasional heading back or thinning out of the fruiting wood. Pruning for the production of wood after a tree starts to bear should not be necessary as there is a relationship existing between the amount of wood produced and the size of the crop borne, in the case of most varities of cherries. How to Prune — The first and most essential pruning of a cherry tree should take place just previous to the beginning of its second year’s growth. When one year old trees are planted in the orchard, immediately after transplanting is a good time to give it this pruning. All lateral branches should be cut off close and the top headed back to from 24 to 36 inches from the ground. The purpose of this pruning is to establish a low headed spreading tree rather than a high up- right tree. The young tree will require no further pruning un- til the beginning of the third year’s growth unless a very strong sprout springs from the root or on the main stem six inches or less from the ground, necessitating immediate re- moval. At the beginning of the third year’s growth from three to five of the best branches should be selected to form the frame work of the tree. The remainder should be cut off and those headed back to from one-third to one-half of their original length, cutting to outer buds always and maintaining the most central one as a leader, which should be from four to six inches longer than the rest. These branches should be selected with special reference to their position on the main stem and 10 State College Experiment Station to one another. They should have wide angles, no two should be opposite and be as far apart as possible on the main stem. The pruning for the fourth and fifth .year’s growth should be very much the same as for the third, using special care to thin the tops and cut back in such a manner as to spread the top as much as possible. After this only the necessary pruning should be done, as heavy pruning tends to produce wood growth which is not at all desirable in bearing trees. When to Prune — The pruning of young growing trees should be done late in the winter or early in the spring, but never early in the winter as there is a strong tendency for the best results in our experiments show that pruning immediately after the crop has been harvested gives more favorable results. This, in reality, amounts to summer pruning and tends to check growth as well as expose all prospective fruits spurs and their leaves to the sun light which are very desirable features. Harvesting and Marketing. Western methods of harvesting and marketing the cherry like other horticultural crops has revolutionized the industry, and while occasionally yet we see a man clawing his fruit from the tree, as a general rule it is carefully picked, neatly packed and placed upon the market in probably the most satisfactory manner. For long distance shipping the light colored sorts should be picked soon after they begin to color and the dark ones long before they are black and juicy. They must not be poured from one receptacle to another or permitted to become bruised in any manner. They should be packed immediately after picking, pre- cooled and shipped at once, one day in the life of a cherry frequently means the difference between a very satisfactory or a very unsatisfactory price in eastern markets. The western ten pound box and four to six box carton make the ideal way to handle either in car load lots or by express in small quantities. Gumosis. The much dreaded gumosis of the cherry is neither an in- sect trouble nor a plant disease, but is a condition of the tree Bulletin No. 92. — Cherries in Washington. 11 resulting from one or more unfavorable conditions under which the trees are compelled to grow. Its first appearance is usu- ally noticeable in the toughening or dying of the outer bark on the tree and later in small patches or quantities of gum or juice oozing out of the cracks or breaks in the bark. As time passes on, this usually grows worse, fungi, producing canker enter into these cracks or breaks in the bark, borers find a ready entrance to the wood and sooner or later the tree be- comes girdled, unfruitful and finally dies, frequently requiring three to five years to destroy an apparently thrifty tree. Any of the following conditions will cause gumosis, how- ever where one condition exists others are generally found. 1. Poor soil drainage or too wet land. 2. Strong late fall fall growth, followed by fall or winter injury. 3. Late summer tillage. 4. Root injury, caused by crown gall, woolly aphis, too deep cultivation or winter freezing. 5. R epeated injuries from the single-tree or cultivator handles. 6. A severe attack of aphis, borers or slugs. 7. Too heavy spring pruning of the bearing trees. 8. A hard late spring frost that kills leaves, blossoms, etc. 9. A severe check of growth caused by over irrigation, under irrigation or any natural cause. In the treating of gumosed trees the essential thing is if possible, to remove the difficulty. If the bark is dry and tough, it should be softened by a good coat of whitewash or a thorough scrubbing with a stiff brush and strong soap suds. It is sometimes advantageous to slit the outer bark on two or three sides of the trunk or large limbs, with the point of a penknife. This should be done during June and not deep enough to injure the inner bark or the cure will be worse than the disease. If the gum has already started to ooze out and harden, cut away all patches, at the same time removing any dead, 12 State College Experiment Station injured or diseased bark, cleanse with strong bordeaux mixture and when dry, coat over with orange shellac or lead paint. A large percentage of the trees can be cured in this way and the lives of all greatly lengthened even though not cured. VARIETIES. The following fruit descriptions and notes were made from fruit as it grew in the Experiment Station orchard and shows in many instances interesting variations as to shape, quality productivity, and general behavior of these varieties, as compared with the same varieties in similar reports from Eastern stations. Dukes and Morellos. Baender — A dark red, medium to large, roundish to slightly flattened cherry with a heavy, long stem and long, smooth pit. The skin is thin and tender. The flesh is firm, meaty, slightly stained and has a rich acid flavor. A very pretty fruit, ripening from the 25th of July to the 10th of August. The tree is medium sized, roundish, upright, with erect branches and a small amount of light green foliage free from aphis and disease. A very light yielder of the sour cherry group. Not adapted to eastern Washington conditions. Bessarabian — Introduced from Russia in 1885 by Prof. Budd. A medium sized purple red, roundish, oblate to heart- shaped fruit with a long, slender stem ; small, round stone ; thin, tender skin and a meaty, deeply stained, juicy flesh. The fruit is of good quality, of a rich acid flavor when ripe, but rather astringent if picked before it is well ripened on the tree. It ripens from the 12th to the 20th of julv and if not dis- turbed, it hangs to the tree until October. The tree is a large, upright, round topped one, with long, slender branches and narrow but firm croches. It has an -abundance of darlf green foliage practically free from insect ■pests and plant diseases. It has produced three medium to light crops and two big crops during the past five years. One of our most attractive, but not profitable, sour cherry trees. Bulletin No. 92. — Cherries in Washington. 13 Fig. 2. A Good Commercial Pack, Very Commonly Used in Pacific Northwest. Fig. 3. Olivet. Our Best Sour Variety, One-third Natural Size. 14 State College Experiment Station Brusseler Braune — Introduced from Russia, in 1883, by Prof. Budd. A dark to purple red, heart-shaped to round fruit with a heavy, long stem, a large long stone, thin, tender skin and a fine grained, meaty, deeply stained, juicy flesh. When ripened on the tree it is of good quality and has a rich, very pleasant sub-acid flavor. It ripens from the 25th of July to the 10th of August and clings well to the tree. The tree is a small, low, spreading, opentopped tree with strong horizontal branches and numerous short, recumbert, slender twigs. The foliage is sparse, light green and while free from' insects and plant diseases is not at all healthy looking. During the past five years it has produced three light crops, one fair crop and one large one. Not adapted to eastern Washington conditions. Budd 533 — Probably a seedling of a Russian sort sent out by Prof. Budd. A very large, dark mottled red, roundish heart-shaped fruit with a thick, short stem, large round stone, thin, tough skin, and a firm, yellow, astringent, slightly stained flesh. The fruit is of fair quality with a slightly sub- acid flavor and ripens from the 5th to the 25th of July, drop- ping soon after ripening. The tree is a small, round-topped tree with slender re- cumbent branches, good, strong crotches and only a few leaves, mostly on tips of the branches; a light yielder of very large fruit. Not adapted to our conditions. Cerise de Ostheim — Of Russian introduction. A small to medium sized, dark purple red, roundish oblate fruit with a long slender stem, small round stone, thick, tender skin and a firm, juicy, meaty, deeply stained flesh. The fruit is of good quality and has a rich sub-acid, almiost sweet, flavor when dead ripe. It ripens from the 10th to 20th of July and frequently hangs on the tree until September. The tree is a small, round headed one with strong, horizon- tal branches and slender, pendant twigs. The foliage is light green, sparse and not characteristic of a strong, sour cherry tree. During the past five years it has produced two light crops; two medium crops and one heavy crop. Neither large enough nor productive enough to be of commercial value. Bulletin No. 92. — Cherries in Washington. 15 Fig 4. Late Duke. One of Our Best Hardy Cherries. One-half Natural Size. Double Natte — Introduced from Russia. A medium sized, dark purple red, oblate to heart-shaped fruit with a very long stem, roundish lop-sided stone, thin, tender skin and a light red, soft, meaty flesh of good quality and rich, pleasant, acid flavor. It ripens from July 10th to the 20th, but remains in good condition upon the tree until September, or even later. The tree is large, vigorous, compact and rather flat topped. The branches have strong crotches, are horizontal and have numerous pendant twigs. The foliage is dark green, abundant, clean and healthy. During the past five years it has produced two light crops; one medium crop and two very large crops. Not considered valuable in eastern Washington. Dyehouse — First found growing on the grounds of Mr. Dye- house, of Lincoln County, Kentucky. A rather small, bright red, roundish oblate cherry, with a small round stone, short, heavy stem, thin tender skin and a soft, juicy flesh. It ripens from the 20th to the 28th of July and remains in good condition upon the tree for two or three weeks. 16 State College Experiment Station The tree is a small, round topped tree with slender, wil- lowy branches and an abundance of dark green leaves which are practically free from all kinds of insect pests and plant diseases. While our trees of this variety are still young, they give promise of being a first class variety for commercial planting. A very heavy annual bearer. Early Morello — Imported from Russia by Prof. Budd, in 1883. A medium to small, bright red mottled with dark crim- son, roundish oblate fruit with a rather short stem, small round stone, thick tender skin and a firm juicy, yellow flesh. It is of fair quality and has a brisk acid flavor. It ripens from the last week in June to the first week in July, but hangs on the tree until the first of September. The tree is a large, round topped, spreading, with long strong, horizontal branches and numerous slender twigs. Its foliage is rather thin, of dark green color, but free from in- sects and plant diseases. During the past five years it has produced three heavy crops and two medium sized crops. Its soft small, juicy fruit makes it unprofitable for commercial use. Early Richmond — Introduced from Europe. A medium sized, bright red, roundish oblate fruit with a short, thick stem, very small round stone, thin, tender skin and a soft, juicy flesh. The fruit is of good quality and has a mild pleasant, sub-acid flavor. It ripens from the 2nd to thel6th of July and hangs well to the tree until the first of September. The tree is medium sized, round topped with horizontal branches and long pendant twigs, a very poor, short lived tree. The foliage is abundant, dark green and free from aphis and plant diseases. During the past five years it has produced one fair crop and four very large crops of fruit. One of the oldest and most popular sour cherries in cultivation. It is what is commonly known as the “ Kentish” or “Pie” cherry. One of our most satisfactory sour cherries. English Morello — Introduced from Europe. A medium sized, purple to black red, roundish, oblate fruit with a thick, short stem, small round stone, thin, tender skin and a meaty. Bulletin No. 92. — Cherries in Washington. 17 juicy, light red flesh. The fruit is of fair quality and of a rich acid to slightly astringent flavor, ripening from the 6th to the 20th of August. Te tree is medium sized, spreading with slender branches and has dark green foliage which is free from aphis and plant diseases. During the past five years this variety has produced two fair crops and three heavy crops. One of the best of the Morello type. Gibb — A large, dark crimson to purplish red, roundish heart-shaped fruit with a heavy stem, thick, tender skin, a large oblong stone, and dark red, meaty flesh. The fruit is of good quality; has a rich sub-acid flavor and ripens from the 25th of July to the 1st of August. The tree is a medium sized, round headed, open topped tree with long, thick branches and slender pendant twigs. The foliage is medium sized, light green and not very abun- dant. During the past five years this variety has produced four light crops and one heavy crop of fruit. While an at- tractive large fruit and a good strong tree, yet it is not con- sidered valuable from a commedcial point of view. Heartshaped Weischel — Imported from Russia by Prof Budd in 1883. A small dark red to purple red, roundish, ob- long fruit with short stem, round pointed stone, thin tender skin, and a dark colored, firm , meaty flesh. The fruit is of a fair quality with a bitter, astringent flavor until dead ripe when it is fairly good. It ripens from the 1st to the 15th of July, but holds fruit in good condition until the first of September. The tree is round topped and spreading with numerous slender pendant twigs and an abundance of beautiful dark green foliage making it a very attractive tree. It is a light yielder rarely producing a big crop. Not profitable. Herformize Weischel — Same as Heartshaped Weischel. June Morello — Introduced into the United States by Prof. Budd in 1883. A medium sized, bright red, roundish, oblate fruit with a heavy, short stem, thin skin, small lopsided stone and a yellow meaty flesh. The fruit is of fair quality and 18 State College Experiment Station has a rich sub-acid flavor, ripening from the 10th to the 20th • of July and frequently hanging to the tree in good shape until the last of November. The tree is vigorous, medium sized, has a dense, spreading top, straight, strong branches and numerous pendant twigs. The foliage is dark green, abundant and practically free from aphis and plant disease. During the past five years it has produced one good crop and four very light or almost failures. Its quality makes it desirable, but its yielding habits make it unprofitable. Large Montmorency — Probably an American variety of the Montmorency family. A large, deep crimson, roundish oblate fruit with a short, thick stem, thin tender skin, small, round pointed pit and a yellow, juicy flesh. The fruit is of good quality ; has a rich acid flavor and ripens from the 10th to the 20th of July. The fruit frequently hangs to the tree in good condition until the first of October. The tree is tall, upright, round topped, having strong lateral branches and numerous pendant branches. The foliage is dark green, very abundant and free from common pests. During the past five years it has produced two good crops and three very heavy crops. It is a regular annual bearer, and very popular for commercial planting. Late Duke — An old variety of European origin bearing large dark red, roundish, heartshaped fruit with a long stem, large round stone, thick, tender skin, and a firm, meaty, light yellow to stained flesh. The fruit is of good quality; has a mild, sub-acid flavor and ripens from the 1st to the 10th of August. The fruit frequently hangs to the tree until the middle of September. The tree is a large, upright, open topped tree with strong horizontal branches and long, slender twigs. The crotches are wide and strong, rarely ever splitting under the heavy loads of fruit. The leaves are large, dark green, abundant, clean and free from all kinds of pests. It bears heavy annual crops which ripen slowly and come after other cherries have ripened. One of our best and most popular cherries for eastern Washington. Bulletin No. 92. — Cherries in Washington. 19 Fig. 5. Bing. One of Out* Best Commercial Varieties. One-half Natural Size. Fig. 6. Lambert. One of Our Best Commercial Varieties. One-half Natural Size. 20 State College Experiment Station May Duke — An old European variety of large size, dark red to purplish crimson, almost round to obtuse, heartshaped fruit with a long slender stem, medium sized, flat stone, thin, tender skin and a reddish purple, tender, melting flesh. The fruit has a very good quality, rich acid flavor and ripens from the 25th of June to the 10th of July. The tree is a large, upright, open topped tree with long slender branches, narrow, strong crotches, slender twigs and an abundance of dark green foliage. During the past five years it has produced one light crop; two medium sized crops and two very heavy crops. This is one of our most satisfactory cherries being comparatively hardy, almost free from insect pests and a good thrifty grower. Montmorency — An old European variety with large, light red, roundish, oblate fruit. It has a thick, short stem, thin tender skin, and a yellowish, juicy, meaty flesh. The quality is good and the flavor rich, vinous and pleasant. It ripens from July 10th to July 25th and the fruit frequently hangs on the tree until the first of October. The tree is a round, drooping, spreading, low topped tree with horizontal, long, strong branches and slender, recumbent twigs. The leaves are small, abundant and dark green. A very attractive tree for ornamental planting. During the past five years it has produced three small crops ; one medium sized crop and one very large one. It is not considered profitable for commercial cherry culture as the fruit is rather soft and of low quality. Northwest — Originated by D. B. Weir, of Lacon, 111. A medium to large, dark red to almost purple, roundish, heart- shaped fruit with thick, tough skin, small round stone and a firm, deeply colored flesh. A cherry of excellent quality and a mild acid to slightly astringent flavor. One of our very best sour cherries. A heavy annual bearer, producing very satis- factory crops. The tree is a medium sized, round topped tree with slender, recumbent branches and an abundance of dark green, healthy, clean foliage. This is one of our most common sour cherries, doing well under practically all conditions. Bulletin No. 92. — Cherries in Washington. 21 Olivet — A variety of French origin. A medium sized, clear •dark red, round, heartshaped fruit, with a short heavy stem, a thick, but tender skin, round, medium sized stone and a tender, juicy flesh. The fruit is of excellent quality, rich, spicy flavor and ripens from the 1st to the 12th of July. The tree is a small, round headed, open topped tree with short, thick, horizontal branches, long slender twigs and wide strong crotches. The foliage is dark green, abundant and en- tirely free from insect pests and plant diseases. During the past five years this variety has produced four large crops and one medium sized crop. This is by far our best sour cherry, considering the size of fruit, productiveness, quality and gen- eral habits of the tree. Orel Sweet — Introduced from Russia. A medium sized, dark crimson to purplish, roundish, oblate fruit with a long slender stem, thick tender skin, round, small stone and a deeply stained, soft flesh. The fruit is of good quality and has a rich sub-acid flavor. The tree is large, unright, with closed regular top, long slender, pendant branches and an abundance of dark green leaves. The fruit ripens from the 20th to the 30th of July. During the past five years this variety has produced two medium sized crops and three large crops of fruit. It is one of our best, medium sized but not sweet cherries. Ostheim — Introduced by Prof. Budd from Russia in 1883. A medium sized, dark red, slightly heartshaped fruit with a short stem, small round stone, thin, tender skin and yellow, meaty flesh. The fruit is of good quality and has a mild acid flavor, ripening from the 10th to the 21st of July. The tree is a large, upright, round topped tree with strong upright branches, long slender twigs, narrow but stout crotches and a fair amount of medium sized, light green leaves. During the past five years it has produced four light crops and one very large crop. While this variety has been largely planted, yet it is not considered profitable from a commercial stand- point. Ostheim Weichsel — Of Russian origin. A large, dark crim- son., roundish, heartshaped fruit with a rather long stem, 22 State College Experiment Station medium sized pointed stone, thin, but tough, skin and a firm, juicy flesh. The fruit is of fair quality, rich acid flavor and ripens from the 25th of July to the 5th of August. The tree is a small, low, round headed tree with short, thick branches and slender, pendant twigs. The foliage is- dark green and not very abundant. It is rarely ever attacked by insect pests or plant diseases. During the past five years this variety has produced one light crop, two medium sized crops and two big crops of fruit. It is not considered profit- able for commercial planting. Reine Hortense — An old European variety which has been sold under many names. A very large, bright red, roundish, elongated fruit, with a long, strong stem; large, long stone, thick, tender skin and light colored, firm juicy flesh. The fruit is of good quality and has a rich sweet flavor ripening from the 10th to the 18th of July. The tree is a small, upright, concial shaped tree, with short strong branches and long slender, well leafed twigs. The foli- age is a dark green, abundant and comparatively free from in- sect pests and plant diseases. During the past five years this variety has produced three small crops and two very large crops of fruit. On account of the softness of the fruit it is not considered profitable as a commercial cherry. Skalanka — Introduced from Russia in 1883 by Prof. Budd. A medium sized, bright crimson, roundish, oblate fruit with a slender, short stem ; small, round stone ; thick, tough skin and a yellow, melting, juicy flesh. The fruit is of fair quality ; has a rich acid flavor and ripens from the 1st to the 10th of July. The tree is medium sized; has a spreading, round top long, pendulous twigs and wide, strong crotches. The foliage is light green and very sparse. During the past five years this variety has produced two fair crops and three very large crops of fruit. This is one of our promising cherries. Wragg — Originated by J. Wragg, of Waukee, Iowa, as a sprout of an English Morello. A small, dark crimson, roundish, oblong fruit, with a rather short stem; long, blunt pointed stone; thin, tender skin and a slightly stained, meaty flesh. The fruit is of rather poor quality; prominently acid, and ripens from the 1st to the 10th of August. Bulletin No. 92. — Cherries in Washington. 23 The tree is a small, low, flat, round headed tree with long, thick, pendant branches; long twigs and an abundant of dark green leaves — a typical sour cherry form. During the past five years it has produced one fair crop and four very large crops of fruit. While not commonly grown this is one of our very promising sour cherries. s 0 HEARTS AND BIGARREAUS. Bing — A seedling of the Black Republican, originating in 1875 in the nursery of Seth Lewelling, of Milwaukie, Oregon. A very large, purple black, obtuse, heartshaped fruit with a short, heavy stem, small oblong seed, thin, tough skin and dark purple red, meaty ? juicy flesh. The fruit is of excellent quality and has a rich sweet, pleasant flavor. It ripens from June 15th to 25th, in the valleys, and from July 1st to 12th on the uplands and clings well to the tree even after it has become dead ripe. The tree is a large, vigorous, erect grower with long, strong, horizontal branches and good wide crotches. The foli- age is dark green and abundant but very subject to shot hole fungi. The Bing is one of our best trees in the orchard. During the past five years this variety has produced two light crops .and three very heavy crops. It is undoubtedly our best sweet cherry for the uplands of eastern Washington and one of the best for the irrigated districts of the state. Its meaty flesh, tough skin and keeping habits makes it one of the best cherries grown on the coast for long distance shipping. In the irrigated •sections of the state it is a regular bearer of large annual crops. Black Republican — A seedling of the Black Eagle, originat- ing in 1860 in the nursery of Seth Lewelling, of Milwaukie, Oregon. A medium to large, purple to black, roundish, heart- shaped fruit with a short heavy stem,, small round, smooth stone, thick, firm skin and dark red, firm, juicy, meaty flesh. The fruit is of high quality and a rich, spicy, pleasant sweet flavor. It ripens from the 15th to the 20th of June in the walleys and from the 8th to the 18th of July in the uplands. 24 State College Experiment Station Fig. 7. Lewelling. A Popular Commercial Variety. One-half Natural Size. Fig. 8. Royal Ann. Our Best Light Colored Cherry* One-half Natural Size. Bulletin No. 92. — Cherries in Washington. 25 The tree is a strong, vigorous grower, producing a beauti- ful pyramidal tree with strong, upright branches and numerous twigs. Its leaves are large, dark green and abundant but very subject to the shot hole fungi. This variety is very productive in the valleys and is very much liked as a commercial cherry, but it is not adapted to the conditions of the upland districts. Black Tartarian — Of Russian origin. A medium to large purple almost black, obtusely heartshaped fruit with a long slender stem, rather large smooth stone, a thick tender skin, and a meaty, firm, deeply colored flesh. The fruit is of good quality, has a rich sweet, pleasant flavor and ships well. It ripens from July 10th to the 20th and hangs well to the tree. The tree is a large, thrifty, upright grower with numerous strong, erect branches and crotches and abundance of dark green beautiful foliage which is free from diseases but annually severely attacked by the black aphis of the cherry. In the lower alittudes and western Washington it is very productive but the fruit buds are too frequently killed to be a profitable sort for the uplands of eastern Washington. During the past five years it has produced specimens four times and a light crop once. While a fruit of very high quality, it is not adapted for general planting. California Advance — Originated by W. H. Chapman, of Napa, California. A medium to large yellowish red, heart- shaped fruit with a rather long stem, large irregular stone, thick, rather tough skin, and a firm, light colored, juicy flesh. It has a rich sweet flavor and ripens from June 20th to July 1st. The tree is an erect grower with strong branches, abundance of dark green leaves and is practically free from insect pests and plant diseases. During the past five years it has produced three very large and two fair crops. Coe Transparent — Originated in Middletown, Connecticut. A medium sized, pale amber to light red, roundish oblong fruit with a rather long stem, large smooth stone, very thin tender skin and a light colored meaty flesh. The fruit is of good quality, mild subacid to sweet flavor, ripening from the 15th of June to the 1st of July on the uplands. 26 State College Experiment Station The tree is thrifty, large, tall, upright, open topped with strong horizontal to upright branches and an abundance of dark green beautiful foliage. While it is comparatively free from plant diseases, yet it is always seriously affected by the black aphis of the cherry. It ripens from a week to ten days earlier than any other cherry and is always seriously raided by the birds. It is valuable for this reason since they get a fill of this early fruit and do not molest the later sorts. During the past five years it has produced three light and two good crops of fruit. Its thin, very tender skin makes it un- desirable for shipping purposes. Elton — An old sweet cherry of European origin having a medium sized light yellow mottled with red and a round heart- shaped fruit. The stem is long and heavy ; the stone small and round ; the skin thick and almost white. It ripens from the 15th to the20th of June in the valleys and produces regular medium sized crops. The tree is vigorous, large and upright with abundance of dark green foliage. Valuable for early use and close markets. Galopin — Introduced from France. A medium to large, clear, bright red, round heartshaped fruit with a short, heavy stem, thin tender skin, large, flat, irregular shaped stone and a stringy almost meaty flesh. It is of fair quality; has a rich subacid flavor and ripens from the 15th to 25th of July. The tree is a strong, upright grower with an abundance of dark green foliage practically free from orchard pests. During the past five years it has produced two very light crops; one fair crop and two very heavy crops. Not considered valuable for commercial planting. Governor Wood — Originated in Cleveland. Ohio. A medium sized light yellow^ and bright red, oblong, heart shaped fruit with a very thin tender skin, large long stem and light yellow, soft juicy flesh. It is of good quality and has a rich sweet flavor. It ripens from June 10th to June 20th in the valleys. The tree is vigorous, round headed and compact. Very productive in the valleys, but too tender for the uplands of eastern Washington. A good early fruit for close markets but too soft for long shipments. Bulletin No. 92. — Cherries in Washington. 27 Fig. 9. Vilne Sweet. Our Hardiest and Best Light Colored Variety for Uplands. One-half Natural Size. \ Fig. 10. Yellow’ Glass. A Popular Home Orchard Cherry. One-third Natural Size. 28 State College Experiment Station Graham — A small dark red, round fruit with slender stem,, small round stone, thin tender skin and light red, juicy flesh. A cherry of good quality and rich sweet flavor. It ripens from the 20th to the 29th of July and is a regular annual bearer of fair to large crops. The tree is medium sized, of upright growth and has an abundance of dark green, medium sized leaves. The fruit is rather small for commercial use. Hoskins — Originated on the farm of C. E. Hoskins, of Newberg, Oregon. A large, roundish, heartshaped fruit with a medium length stem, large round stone, thin, rather tough, skin and a meaty, deeply stained, juicy flesh. The fruit is of good quality; has a rich sweet flavor and ripens from the 7th to the 15th of July. The tree is a large, upright, spreading, open topped tree with strong crotches and an abundance of dark green foliage. During the past five years it has produced two light crops, two medium sized crops and one very large one. Lambert — Originated on the farm of J. H. Lambert, of Mil- waukie, Oregon, 1888. A large, dark red, heartshaped fruit with a rather heavy, short stem, large long stone, thick, tough skin and a dark colored, firm, meaty, juicy flesh. The Lambert is a fruit of excellent quality and has a rich, mild sub acid to sweet flavor. It ripens from the 10th to the 15th of June in the valleys and from the 16th to the 25th of July on the up- lands. The tree is a vigorous, upright grower with strong crotches and limbs and an abundance of dark green leaves which are usually seriously affected with the black aphis of the cherry. While it is not a heavy bearer on the uplands, yet it is a very satisfactory cherry. In the valleys it is one of the best sorts for commercial use. During the past five years it has produced three light crops and two very full crops. This is believed by many to be the best all round sweet cherry now in the west. Lewelling — A seedling of the Black Tartarian, originating in 1872 in the nursery of Seth Lewelling of Milwaukie, Oregon, A very large, purplish black, heartshaped fruit with a thick, Bulletin No. 92. — Cherries in Washington. 29 tough skin, rather large oblong stone, a heavy short stem and a dark purple, firm, meaty flesh. It is of high quality and has a rich sweet flavor, ripening about the 20th of July, but remains in good condition on the tree for a month to six weeks. The tree is a vigorous, upright grower with strong branches, wide crotches and an abundance of dark green foliage which is frequently attack by cherry aphis and shot hole fungi. While well adapted to the valley conditions, this variety is not adapted to the uplands. A light unsatisfactory yielder in our orchard. Lincoln — Originated by Seth Lewelling, of Milwaukie, Oregon, in 1865. A medium sized, very dark red, round, hearshaped fruit with thick, tough skin', very short stem, small round stone and a firm, deep red, juicy flesh, ripening from the 20th of June to the 1st of July. It is of good quality and has a rich sweet flavor. The tree has a large, spreading, open top with strong, erect branches and good crotches. Its foliage is dark green and abundant but seriously affected with the black aphis of the cherry. During the past five years it has failed to produce a single full crop and what does begin to color are usually taken by the birds before they are thoroughly ripe. Not productive in eastern Washington. Major Francis — Originated by G. W. Walling, Oswego, Oregon, about 1865. A rather large, dark red, heartshaped fruit, deeply stained, juicy flesh. It has a good quality and a sweet rich flavor. The fruit ripens from the 25th to the 30th of June an is nearly always taken by the birds as soon- as it colors. The tree is a very large, upright grower with strong, erect branches and narrow, but strong crotches. The foliage is abun- dant, dark green, but is usually seriously attacked by the black aphis. During the past five years it has produced three light and two fair crops. While of good quality and attractive color, yet it is considered valuable only as a bait for birds in or- der to attract them from more valuable sorts. Markirsche — A rather large, dark red, heart shaped fruit with a short stem, round smooth stone, thick tender skin and 30 State College Experiment Station a deeply stained meaty flesh. It is of excellent quality and has a very rich flavor. The fruit ripens from the 15th to the 23rd of July frequently clinging to the tree until the 10th of August. The tree is a large, thrifty, upright, opentopped tree with strong crotches, numerous twigs and an abundance of dark green foliage which is frequently attack by the cherry aphis. During the past five years it has produced two lair crops and three big crops of fruit. Not commonly planted but considered by many to be a worthy fruit. Ox-Heart — Of European origin. A medium sized, light red and yellow, long heartshaped fruit with thin tender skin, long narrow pointed stone, long slender stem and light yellow, solft melting flesh. The fruit ripens in the valleys from the 10th to the 15th of June and is fairly regular as a yielder of, good crops. The tree is a large, upright grower with strong branches and an abundance of dark green foliage. It is frequently at- tack by the black aphis of the cherry. While an excellent fruit for home or near by markets it is too soft for long shipments. Plymouth Rock — A medium to large light red mottled, roundish oblong cherry with long slender stem, large long stone, thin tender skin and white, juicy, melting flesh. A fruit of good quality and rich sweet flavor. The fruit ripens from the 4th to the 10th of July. The tree is an upright, round topped tree with strong branches and an abundance of dark green leaves. It is not a heavy annual bearer. Rockport — Of European origin. A large, light red, to amber colored, round heartshaped fruit with short stem, thin tough skin, long, irregular stone and sweet flavor. The tree is a large, regular, round headed tree with long slender, upright branches and horizontal twigs. The foliage is dark green and abundant but very seriously troubled with the black aphis of the cherry. During the past five years this variety has produced four light crops and one big crop. While a thrifty grower and a fruit of good quality yet it is not regu- lar enough bearer to warrant general planting. Bulletin No. 92. — Cherries in Washington. 31 Royal Ann — (Napoleon) Of European origin. The old well known Napoleon of the east. A large light red and yellow, oblong heartshaped fruit with rather long stem, small oblong stone, thin, tough skin and yellow, firm, juicy flesh. A cherry of extra fine quality and rich sweet flavor, ripening from the 15th to the 20th of June in the valleys and about the 10th of July on the uplands. The tree is a large, upright grower with long branches, strong crotches and a large number of fruiting twigs. The foliage is abundant, dark green, but seriously troubled with the black aphis of the cherry. Our best and most successful light colored sweet cherry for the valleys but too tender in wood and bud for the uplands. It is a regular annual bearer. Vilne Sweet — Im ported from Yilne in the southwest Rus- sia by Prof. Budd. A large, dark red, oblong fruit with long slender stem, large oblong stone, thin, tender skin and yellow, rather firm, meaty flesh. A comparatively little known cherry of good quality and a rich sweet flavor, ripening from the 10th to the 16th of July and hanging to the tree in good shape until the last of August. The tree is a medium sized, irregular, upright grower with long strong branches and nuiperous slender twigs. Its foliage is dark green, abundant, and practically free from in- sect pests and plant diseases. During the past five years this variety has produced one light crop, two fair crops and two very heavy crops. It probably is the hardiest sweet cherry grown here at the station and while not as firm as si- milar varieties, yet it gives promise of being an excellent sweet cherry for the uplands of eastern Washington. Wagner — A medium to large, dark red, roundish oblate fruit with rather short, heavy stem, almost round stone, thin tender skin and a yellow, meaty, melting flesh. A cherry of good quality and rich subacid to almost sweet flavor, ripening from the 10th to the 16th of July. The tree is an upright, round topped tree with long up- right branches and short thick twigs. Its foliage is dark, plentiful and practically free from plant diseases and insect pests. During the past five years this variety has had one failure, two fair crops and two heavy crops. 32 State College Experiment Station Yam — Originated in California. Rather large, purplish red, roundish, heartshaped, attractive fruit with a heavy long stem, large round stone, thick tough skin and deeply stained, firm, juicy flesh. The fruit is of excellent quality and has a rich sweet pleasant flavor, ripening from the 1st to the 15th of July. The tree is a medium sized, upright, pyramidal shaped tree with long strong branches, very narrow crotches and an abun- dance of dark green leaves which are usually seriously attacked by the black cherry aphis. During the past five years this va- riety has produced one medium! sized crop and four almost failures. While the fruit is rather nice the buds are too tender to withstand our winters. Yellow Glass — Introduced from Russia by Prof. Budd. A medium to large, light lemon colored, roundish, heartshaped fruit with a long stem, round large stone, thin but tough skin and a firm, yellow, meaty flesh. The fruit is of fair quality; has a mild subacid to sweet flavor and ripens from the 20th to the 27th of July. The tree is a large, upright, strong grower with abundance of large, light green leaves. During the past five years this variety has produced one light crop and four very heavy crops. This is one of our most attractive cherries, but not considered of commercial importance on account of its color. It is very pleasant to eat out of the hand and while not as sweet as some cherries yet it is a very nice variety for the home orchard. STATE COLLEGE OF WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION PULLMAN, WASHINGTON INVESTIGATIONS CONDUCTED AT WESTERN WASHINGTON EXPERIMENT STATION PUYALLUP, WASHINGTON I. A Preliminary Report on Some Experiments in Clearing Logged-off Land with a Stump Burner II. A Promising Method for Destroying Stumps and Logs By W- H. LAWRENCE Bulletin No. 93 1910 All Bulletins of this Station sent free to Citizens of the State on application to the Director. BOARD OF CONTROL. Lee A. Johnson, President Sunnyside E. A. Bryan, Secretary ex-officio, President of the College Pullman J. J. Browne Spokane Peter McGregor Colfax R. C. McCroskey Garfield D. S. Troy Chimacum STATION STAFF. (Pullman, Wash.) R. W. Thatcher, M. A., Director and Chemist. Elton Fulmer, M. A., State Chemist. S. B. Nelson, D. V. M., Veterinarian. 0. L. Waller, Ph. M., Irrigation Engineer. R. K. Beattie, A. M., Botanist. Walter S. Thornber, M. S., Horticulturist. A. L. Melander, M. S., Entomologist. W. H. Lawrence, M. S., Plant Pathologist. W. T. McDonald, M. S. A., Animal Husbandman. C. C. Thom, M. S., Soil Physicist. H. B. Humphrey, Ph. D., Plant Pathologist. Leonard Hegnauer, B. S. A., Agronomist. Alex Carlyle, Cerealist. W. T. Shaw, B. S., Assistant Zoologist. George A. Olson, M. S., Assistant Chemist. E. L. Peterson, B. S., Assistant Soil Physicist. Rex N. Hunt, M. S., Assistant Botanist. W. H. Hein, M. A., Assistant Horticulturist. W. L. Hadlock, B. S., Assistant Chemist. J. W. Kalkus, D. V. M., Assistant Veterinarian. M. A. Yothers, B. S., Assistant Entomologist. STATION STAFF. (Puyallup, Wash.) W. H. Lawrence, M. S., Superintendent. H. L. Blanchard, Assistant Superintendent , in charge of Dairy and Poultry Investigations. Christian Westergaard, Assistant in Agricultural Investigations. , Assistant in Horticultural Investigations. h. Janet Silsby, Stenographer and Laboratory Assistant. Grove L. Stillman, Farm Foreman. PART I A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON SOME EXPERI- MENTS IN CLEARING LOGGED-OEE LAND WITH A STUMP BURNER. By W. H. LAWRENCE. INTRODUCTION. A more rapid development of the agricultural lands in and near the timber area in Washington is desirable, since, in many cases, the demand for farm produce exceeds the supply. This condition can be overcome in case a more rapid and less expen- sive method in clearing logged-off land can be practiced. Gen- erally the present methods as practiced have proven to be too slow and ineffective, or too expensive to be practiced by one of limited means. Cheaper and more serviceable methods are de- sired. Usually the more rapidly the method and the greater the results, the higher the cost per acre. Owing to so great a demand for money in other industries which are paying good dividends on short investments, only a limited amount of capital has been available for use in clearing land or in making more rapid and effective the present methods. More recently, how- ever, the clearing of logged-off land is receiving much more attention. Much time is being devoted to a more careful study of the older methods, with the hope of improving them. Also, time is being devoted to devising and trying newer methods. 4 Western Washington Experiment Station SERVICEABILITY OF METHODS OF LAND CLEARING. The oldest method is the hand method. By the use of peavies, mattocks, shovels and axes, the dirt is removed from the roots, which are then cut off and piled around the stump with the re- mainder of the debris and burned. An immense amount of slow and extremely taxing labor is required, but the land when cleared is in a better condition than when cleared by other methods. More recently capstans and stump-pullers have been used to a good advantage, in connection with the hand method. The work is made less laborious and more rapid, but the cost is usually somewhat greater. The work of removing stumps has also been facilitated and made more effective, under a wide range of conditions, by the use of stumping powder. In re- moving stumps by this method, large holes are made in the ground which must be filled before plowing can be done. The subsoil is scattered over the surface soil and the pieces of the stump must be gathered together and burned. The cost of the powder, the work of filling the hole, collecting, piling and burning the debris makes the method an expensive one. Boring intersecting holes into the base of the stumps and burning them (also practiced in burning down large trees) has also been a serviceable method. While the destruction of logs by boring and burning has proven more successful, yet it requires as much time and hard labor, as does the practice of boring holes in stumps and burning them. In the case of the latter, how- ever, very frequently the crown fails to burn, thus leaving the large roots intact. To complete the destruction by burning is oftentimes tedious and quite difficult work. In using stumping powder, which is the last resort in such a case, the explosion of powder usually breaks the weaker portions of the crown and fails to remove the roots. It is then necessary to place several smaller blasts in order to accomplish the desired results. In many cases it is necessary to separate the roots by hand in order to handle them to a good advantage. The charcoaling or pitting method is proving to be a very satisfactory and effec- tive but slow method of destroying stumps. This method, like Clearing Land with Stump Burner 5 a majority of the others, does not provide for complete land clearing. All of the down trees and small timber not burned with the slashing must be destroyed. The use of stumping powder for splitting and loosening stumps preparatory to pull- ing and piling them with a donkey engine has proven to be the most rapid method. This method, as practiced by many, has proven to be a very expensive one. After the stumps have been pulled and piled with the logs and other debris collected and piled by the aid of the donkey engine, it is necessary to remove many roots which were broken off when the stumps were pulled, after which the large hole in the ground must be filled before the land is ready for the plow. While the method is a good one, it is expensive and requires considerable ready money. The use of the various types of stump-burning ma- chines has been made with largely varying success, depending upon the condition of soil (variety of soil and water content) and the kind and condition of the timber. The above mentioned methods variously modified have been the most effective ones followed in land clearing. OBJECT OF THE EXPERIMENT. While some methods have been more serviceable than others, none have yet met the requirements of the land owner of very limited means who possesses a few acres of logged-off land which was originally purchased for a home. An inexpensive but serviceable machine by which logs and stumps can be destroyed very rapidly and at a low cost, and with very little injury to the soil, easy to operate, requiring the attention of one or two persons, will to a large degree meet the requirements of the homemaker. With these requirements in mind, the stump-burner described below was given a limited trial with sufficient promising results to warrant publishing the in- formation gained in using the same. THE STUMP-BURNER USED IN THE EXPERIMENTS. The stump-burner consists of a 1% horse-power gasoline engine with 13-inch flywheel and adjusted to run 650 revolu- 6 Western Washington Experiment Station tions per minute; a circular fan (No. IV American blower with 8%-inch fan and S^-inch pulley) provided with a patent wind distributor tapped to attach five lines of l^-inch hose; hose couplings; pieces of l^-inch rubber hose of different lengths; a number of pieces of galvanized iron tubing; a few small iron plates, and several lengths of boiler tubing slightly curved at one end, which are used as blow-pipes. The hose couplings are used to attach the rubber hose to the wind distributor and the blow-pipes. The tubing, which is of the right diameter to fit inside of the hose tightly, is connected with short pieces of rubber hose 18 to 24 inches in length. By using tubing and short pieces of hose of variable lengths the right size to tele- scope, provision is made for varying the length of line of hose as desired. The lines of hose are very light and easily ad- justed, since no couplings are required. The tubing connected by short pieces of hose also prevents doubling, thus retarding or stopping the current of air. From the description, it is plainly seen that the stump-burner is small, light in weight and very cheaply constructed. At a later date the blower was coupled with a two-horse-power gasoline engine and mounted on a truck. With the latter engine a few trials in operating a wood-boring auger by power were made as described on an- other page of this bulletin. THE PLAN OF WORK. The machine was set in a convenient position to burn several stumps at a time. Auger holes, two inches in diameter, were made in the base of the stumps. The boring was done by hand. The auger was directed inward and downward in order to extend the hole as low and as far as the center or even three- fourths to seven-eighths of the diameter when the stumps were of large size. Short pieces of hose with couplings on one end were attached to the wind distributor, and sections of galvan- ized iron tubing inserted, after which alternate sections of hose and tubing were added in order to make the lines of hose of sufficient length, after adding the last section of hose with the blow-pipe attached, to reach the stumps. A fire was then Clearing Land with Stump Burner 7 started in each auger hole by using live coals of wood or kindling. The machine was set in motion in order to fan the fires. In burning, it was the plan to drive the fire to the center of the stump and to confine it as long a time as possible, pre- venting, if possible, the forming of a large opening at the point of entrance. This was accomplished by inserting the blow-pipe into the opening as fast as the burning would allow. Occa- sionally, burning around the blow-pipe takes place more rapidly than desired. In such a case it was found advantageous to use an iron plate of sufficient diameter to cover the hole. The plate has an opening in the center large enough for the insertion of the blow-pipe. By keeping the fire confined it is less difficult to drive it into the main roots than when allowed to burn in the open. The blow-pipes must be moved frequently in order to keep the fire burning briskly and to the best advantage. When the fire is confined and the air is constantly forced into the small space, the heat becomes so intense that the air burns as it leaves the blow-pipe, forming a long flame. The heat generated under such conditions is intense. Small rocks were readily melted when placed in the stumps which were burning briskly. The in- tense heat produces charcoal very rapidly. The layer of char- coal apparently retards the rate of burning. It was found advantageous under some conditions to frequently remove the layers of charcoal, using a long-handled iron chisel. After the center of the stump has been partially burned out and the opening is large enough to permit the introduction of kindling, it is an excellent plan to insert as much small wood as possible. The bed of coals formed by the kindling aids to maintain an intense heat. Excellent use of the debris can be made in burn- ing the roots after the crown of the stump has been largely destroyed. From a very limited trial, it is evident that char- coaling and pitting the roots may be practiced to a good ad- vantage at this stage in the use of the stump-burner. Burning large logs is also quite readily accomplished. The best results were obtained by boring a hole as near the underside of the log as possible and about three-fourths through it, after which the fire was controlled as described above. Small debris (sections 8 Western W ashington Experiment Station of dead limbs, etc.) may be inserted into the log to a good ad- vantage after the fire has made a cavity of some size. Again, as in burning stumps, it is advisable to remove the charcoal by using the long-handled chisel. After the logs have been burned into sections and reduced in weight so that they can be handled to a good advantage, the tops of the stumps (which are seldom entirely burned) may be piled with the other debris, consisting of all small stuff, together with the small trees which have been cut into sections for con- venience in handling, and burned. It is advisable to use the outfit only in case marked results cannot be obtained in burning the pile. KIND AND CONDITION OF LOGS AND STUMPS BURNED. Trials were made in burning both cedar and fir under various conditions. The first trials were made in a marsh, in burning cedar stumps and logs which were so saturated with water that it was impossible to burn them without the aid of a machine. The intense heat, generated by the burning air and wood (espe- cially when the fire was confined), produced a heat which dried the wood faster than burning took place. This trial lasted for a period of eight days. The results obtained under such con- ditions were encouraging. Better success, however, was met with in burning fir. Stumps of various ages and conditions were burned. It is found that the greater the stump, the more quickly it could be destroyed. The condition of the older stumps was found to vary from solid to badly decomposed, by the action of the elements, assisted by saprophatic fungi and wood-boring ants. Stumps consisting of fir wood which have not absorbed very much water are easily burned. Naturally the more pitch they contained the more rapidly combustion took place. Those stumps, however, in various stages of decay and full of fungi, and in many cases well saturated with water, were usually more difficult of de- struction. Concerning the various conditions of fir stumps, it can be said that the general appe4rance is no indication of the Clearing Land with Stump Burner 9 ease with which they may be burned. In several instances, stumps apparently sound, as indicated by external appearance, were so thoroughly saturated with water throughout the greater portion of the heart wood that, after the holes were bored, the water continued to drip or even in some cases to run from the wood for a period of several minutes and even hours. The in- tense heat which can be generated by the aid of such a machine is sufficient to destroy the most water-soaked and decayed forms, although the progress is much less rapid under such conditions. THE EFFECT OF BURNING THE SOIL. One of the most important considerations connected with clearing the land is the burning of the soil. An examination of an area of land before the slashing is burned reveals consider- able leaf mould and humus on the surface and in the surface soil. Following the fire, no humus is found on the surface and little or none in the soil, since a very large proportion, if not the entire amount, has been destroyed during the burning. The burning of the slashing is necessary, and the injury done the soil cannot be controlled. In using the stump-burner it has been observed in this experiment that the soil is burned but very little. This is due to the fact that the blow-pipes can be placed so that the fire is directed to the best advantage. It has also been observed that in case the soil is dry, the volume injured is greater than where moisture is abundant. The water evidently prevents the heat from penetrating more than a few inches. It may also be said concerning this method of burning that the damaged soil is not left on the surface, but, since it forms a part of the subsoil, is buried when the hole formed by the destruction of the stump has been filled. It is also true that the virgin soil which has been exposed to the elements for so long a time is not burned or mixed with the subsoil, as such is the case in level- ing after clearing when stumping powder has been used in con- nection with various devices, such as teams and tackle, donkey engine and stump-puller. It is also to be noted that the volume of soil damaged by burning in this method of clearing is but a small area as compared with the diameter of the stump de- 10 Western Washington Experiment Station stroyed. It is the opinion of the writer that of the various methods of land clearing which injure the soil, this one does the least of any of the methods practiced. Inquiry has been made concerning the fertilized value of ashes of wood which has been burned in this manner. The volume of ash is small. There is very little potash present, since the high temperature to which most of the ash has been exposed volatil- izes the compound containing this essential plant food. THE DETAIL OF EXPERIMENTS. The first test with the outfit was made in a marsh in burning cedar. Trials were made to destroy logs and stumps in all sorts of conditions — some solid, consisting of perfectly sound wood, while others were in various stages of decay, many times con- sisting of mere shells filled with rotten, water-soaked wood. A very large proportion of this material was thoroughly water- soaked. While very slow progress could be made in burning the partially dry logs, etc., by the usual method, nothing was ac- complished in burning the stumps or piles of water-soaked logs, unless the machine was used. By the aid of the blower, however, burning was accomplished at a reasonable cost. The conclusion drawn was based upon the expense of operating the machine, as compared with the amount of work accomplished. The second test was made in burning fir stumps which had been split by the use of stumping powder. It was easily demon- strated that splitting the stumps previous to burning with such a machine makes the work tedious and much more expensive. The fire is much more difficult to control, since it is impossible to produce a great enough heat to do as rapid burning as under conditions where burning is easily controlled. During the third test a fir log cut in 1907, eighty-five feet long, with an average diameter of thirty-six inches, partially sound and partially infested with fungus, and which had split about one-third its length when cut down, was burned in ten hours’ time — five lines of hose, nine hours, and one line, five hours. The log was burned in sections which were rolled to- Clearmg Land with Stump Burner 11 gether by the aid of a peavy, and the burning finished by the use of one line of hose. Two green fir stumps, one five feet in diameter five feet above the ground, twenty-two feet around the base at the ground, with twelve large roots, and the other four and a half feet in diameter six feet from the base and measuring a little under nineteen feet around the base, with eight roots, were burned off in a twelve hours’ run. The twenty roots, with the exception of three very large ones, were burned below the level so that the plow would go over them. A run of four hours with four lines of hose was required to finish the work. The cost to do the work, basing the cost of labor at 30 cents per hour, and a charge of 70 cents for gasoline and oil, the average price for removing the stump would be $2.60 each. Twenty-two hours’ work on a green fir stump about five feet in diameter, with large spreading roots, gave less encouraging results. The small fir burned out completely, even the smaller roots penetrating to a depth of three feet. The crown of the •cedar burned, separating the roots but not low enough for plow to pass over them. The roots of the large fir were water- soaked, hence burning was almost impossible. In both cases, the crowns were burned out, separating the roots. Basing cost on above mentioned price, the average cost was $2.73. The sixth test was made on cedar stumps, one two and a half feet, and one four feet in diameter, and a green fir five feet in diameter six feet from the base. It took twenty-eight hours to complete the work. The roots were not burned out. During this test a delay of several hours was caused by a disabled en- gine, thus making it impossible to control the fire to the best advantage. The cost per stump was $2.93 in this trial. A group of five old fir stumps, one two feet, two each three feet, and two each two feet and six inches in diameter, each nine feet high, more or less decayed and thoroughly soaked with water, were burned, low enough to destroy the crowns, thus separating the roots, in a twenty-two hour run. These stumps were in such a water-soaked and decayed condition that the fire 'would not burn after the blowers were removed. The roots could 12 Western Washington Experiment Station not be burned, owing to the abundance of water in the soil. The average cost for doing this work was $1.56 each. Another group of five fir stumps, nine feet tall, with an aver- age diameter of three feet six inches, mostly sound but water- soaked, were burned, as low as the soil conditions would permit,, in twenty-seven hours. Again the crowns were destroyed, leav- ing the roots separate. The average cost of this work was $1.70 per stump. Five large fir stumps, each ten feet in height, averaging five feet two and one-half inches three feet from the bases, were burned off so that all the crowns were destroyed, leaving the roots separate, many of which were also largely burned up. Forty hours’ time was required to do the work. The cost of burning done on each of these stumps was $2.80. CONCLUSIONS. 1. The economical destruction of large stumps is the most perplexing problem in land clearing. By the use of the the stump-burner the crowns of stumps are readily destroyed, thus leaving the roots separated. The roots may be burned below the surface so they will not interfere in cultivation, or they may be removed by the use of small quantities of stumping powder or some other convenient method — the method to be determined by the cost. The stumps of the smaller growth may be re- moved at this time and by the same method. The large logs may be burned in sections, the smaller ones cut into convenient length for handling, and the entire mass of debris, including the small rubbish, collected in piles and burned. By this method, the important problem of putting the entire mass into a condi- tion so that it may be handled and burned quite readily is ac- complished, leaving the land ready for the plow. 2. To operate the outfit described for a period of ten hours requires the services of one man, two gallons of gasoline, and a small quantity of cylinder oil. The cost for labor, at $2.00 per day, and two gallons of gasoline and a small quantity of cylinder oil would not make the cost of operating exceed $2.50 per day. In operating a five-line burner, the operator has time- Clearing Land with Stump Burner 13 to get together the small refuse, and to saw into convenient lengths for handling the timber which is too small to burn, to a good advantage with the aid of the machine. It is believed from the experience gained in the use of this stump-burner that one large enough and equipped to operate ten lines of hose at a time could be operated to a better ad- vantage. The increase in cost of operation of a large machine would only exceed the original cost of operation of the five-line type by a small per cent. The large machine would require more gasoline and cylinder oil. 3. The average cost of burning stumps was $2.30. These stumps averaged 47 inches in diameter. To remove such a stump by blasting would require about 33 sticks (25 pounds) of powder at 13 cents per pound. The powder would cost $3.25. Considering the additional cost of doing the blasting, filling the hole caused by the explosion and the work required to destroy the stump after it has been removed by the use of powder, the practice of burning can readily be seen to be by far the cheaper one. It is also to be noted that the purchase of the powder requires $3.25 ready money. In using a stump-burner, the cost is represented very largely by labor at $2.00 per day. 4. Clearing land with a stump-burner requires good man- agement in order to obtain good results. It is essential to place the blow-pipes in the right position in order to direct the burning to the best advantage and the right distance from the fire to insure rapid burning. The operator must be a good observer, industrious, and a steady worker to get the desired results. Plate I. Fig. A — A general view of a tract of land once heavily timbered but from which the logs were removed during the early days of logging. The second- ary growth on the tract has since been cut down and has just been burned over. Fig. B — A view of the same tract, showing the stumps of second-growth tim- ber and the material which did not burn during the period of burning. Fig. C — A view of several large stumps in various stages of decay, as shown by the irregular and much splintered tops. These stumps were thoroughly water- soaked, but were burned as low as soil conditions would permit, at an average cost of $1.70 per stump. Fig. D — A general view of a small area once heavily timbered with cedar. Plate II. Fig. A — A view of the stump burner outfit mounted on a truck, showing the machine with the lines of hose attached. Fig. B — A closer view of the machine, as shown in Fig. A. Fig. C — The same burning outfit as seen when mounted on a skid. Fig. D — Figure of the stump burner, as shown in Fig. C., which gives a better view of the machine, particularly of the wind distributor, and the attachment of the five lines of hose used to convey the air to the place of burning. Plate III. Pig. L — A green fir stump 5 feet in diameter at the top, measuring 22 feet around the base at the ground, with twelve large roots. This stump was burned out at a cost of $2.60. The roots, with the exception of three very large ones, were burned below the level, so that the plow would pass over them. Fig. M — This figure shows the hole in the ground left when a small fir tree was burned by the aid of the stump buirner. The entire tree was burned out, even the smaller roots, to a depth of three feet. Fig. N — Fig. N is a view of the hole left in the ground after the stump shown in Fig. L was destroyed. Fig. O — This figure shows the way in which the base of the stump is burned out in using the stump burner. A blow-pipe is placed so that the fire is driven into the roots, thus burning the crown of the stump and the greater portion of the roots near the surface of the soil. Fig. S — The stump shown in this figure was 4% feet in diameter six feet from the base, at which place it measured a little less than 19 feet in circum- ference. There were eight large roots. The crown of the stump was burned out in a twelve-hour run. The cost of burning this stump was $2.60. Fig. T — Figure T shows the holes left in the ground after the large stump shown in Figure S had been destroyed, with the exception of three large roots, which spread out over the surface of the ground for a distance of several feet. This figure well illustrates the value of such a machine as used in the experi- ments in destroying the crown of a stump. Destroying the stump in this manner eliminates the problem of handling enormous weights of wood. The roots are all separated, thus making it easy to remove them by the most expedient and less expensive method for doing such work. It is sometimes advantageous to bore holes into the large roots and burn them below the plow line. In other cases, it is advisable to remove them in some other manner. PART II A PROMISING METHOD FOR DESTROYING STUMPS AND LOGS. By W. H. LAWRENCE. As concluded in the first part of this bulletin, a stump-burner to be had at a reasonable cost, light in weight, and easy to handle, easily and cheaply operated, with which effective and rapid destruction of logs and stumps is accomplished, more nearly meets the requirements of the small land owner of limited means. While the plan followed, to confine the fire and direct the cur- rent of air so that the greater portion of the interior of the log or stump has been consumed before the fire breaks out, has proven to be a successful and cheap method, a more rapid burn- ing is desirable. It is also true that a stump or log, when prop- erly bored so that the holes extend about three-fourths through the obstacle of destruction and they intersect, merging at a wide angle and are so slanted that a good draft is possible when a fire is started at the point of intersection, will in many cases be partially consumed, a log will usually burn into sec- tions and the greater portion of the crown of a stump will be destroyed, yet leaving the large roots still united. A judicious combining of these two methods appeared plaus- ible. It was very evident from experience and observation with both methods that the slow and tedious work of boring the holes by hand is responsible for a large portion of the time con- sumed. It was also evident that in some cases at least much more effective and rapid work could be done by increasing the number of holes, in order to place the fires in different portions of the same piece of wood at the same time. In order to accomplish the boring of a large number of holes, and at a rapid rate, some form of mechanical power must be 18 Western Washington Experiment Station employed. The engine, mounted on the truck with the blower (also mentioned in the first part of this bulletin and shown in Plate I, Figs. 1 and 2) was fitted with a sheave wheel. A flex- ible shaft about 7 feet in length, provided with attachments to be driven by an endless rope, was fitted with a 1%-inch ship auger with a special shank about 18 inches in length. The flex- ible shaft was then fastened to the stump or log to be bored by using a chain. It was then set in motion by the endless rope,, guided by pulleys attached by leads to the nearest and most convenient obstacle, running on the sheave wheel of the engine. Running at a rate which did not make the task of holding the auger a difficult one, holes 15 to 18 inches in depth were easily bored in twenty to twenty-eight seconds. The average was twenty-five seconds. Using the same auger, and running it at the same speed, holes were bored to a depth of thirty to thirty- two inches in fifty seconds to one minute in time. The average was fifty-five seconds. The more rapid rate at which holes were bored to a depth of from fifteen to eighteen inches was due to the structure of the auger. The speed of the auger was suffi- cient to run shavings clear of the hole until it was inserted past the worm. Occasionally pitch seams or small knots cause the worm to clog. After insertion past the worm, however, the shavings would accumulate in the hole at the top of the shank and at frequent intervals were removed by withdrawing the auger, causing the worm to force the shavings out. In order to remove the shavings while boring at this rate, it is apparently necessary to equip the auger with a much longer worm. In the limited number of trials made, it was somewhat surprising to note that such rapid work could be done with very little delay on account of heating the auger. Care must be exercised at all times, however, so that the auger will not be heated enough to injure the temper. To combine the method of burning by keeping the fire en- closed and briskly burning by use of the blower, and where the fire is given a natural draft as in the plan where intersecting holes are bored, a large fir log about feet in diameter was bored at four intervals about 6 feet apart. The plan in boring Clearing Land with Stump Burner 19 was to make one hole straight into the lower side of the log about four inches from the lower edge and three-fourths the distance through it. Three to five holes were then made by directing the auger downward from the upper surface, con- necting with the cross hole, if possible. The fires were started in the lower holes, the blower set in motion and the results noted. The fire, constantly fanned in the lower holes, advanced into the vertical ones very rapidly. In some cases all the vertical holes had not been made to connect with the horizontal ones. In these cases the rate of burning at first was greatly retarded until the fire ate its way through the solid portions of wood, connecting the vents. The fire when fanned by the blower is driven into all the openings, and very shortly every portion is lined with fire, which is also driven in short columns several inches in length from the mouths of the openings. In the twilight, the several short and straight but even columns of fire, appearing like so many fiery spines grow- ing from the log, each merging into a small column of smoke of various shades and colors, the several rings located at various intervals on the log, the glare and low constant roar of the fire, the hum of the fan, the explosion of the engine and the deepen- ing of the evening shades as twilight merges into dusk, makes the scene of burning a weird and picturesque one. Although several minor trials were made with good results, the main experiment was conducted on a large log. Each set of boring gave slightly different results. In one case the lower hole was bored entirely through the tree. It was impossible to burn to advantage, since a draft could not be produced in the longer and vertical holes. In another trial, the holes were not bored as deeply as the cross holes. It took some time to get the fire burning briskly and to connect all these vents with the lower one, since several inches of solid wood had to be consumed before a draft was possible. One trial, however, where the cross holes met with the vertical vents, in every case, the fire started in the lower hole, advanced into all the upper ones very rapidly, and continued to burn briskly. In less than one hour the entire center of the log had been burned out, leaving a shell about six 20 Western Washington Experiment Station to eight inches in thickness. By making vents to direct the fire, burning can be easily controlled and made more effective by placing pieces of bark or sods of dirt over one or any number of the vents, thus stopping the drafts, and making a few new vents, if necessary. The trials were very limited in developing this method, since they were necessarily discontinued by a disabled engine and followed by heavy rains interfering, and furthermore requiring the attention of the entire station force to care for grain and other crops. Owing to a slight unavoidable change in the plan of the work, the writer finds it impossible to continue the work on this method at the present time. Believing that the results obtained are worthy of further consideration, the plan of work and conclu- sions drawn, together with the method pursued, is herewith given. CONCLUSION. This method is a very promising one, since — 1. The machine used is easy to handle and serviceable. 2. Much time is gained by boring the holes by power and makes it possible to bore large numbers of holes in a very short period of time. 3. Directing the flame by making vents insures burning in the desired direction. By the use of these vents, fire may not only be driven in the desired direction, but the rate of burning may be regulated. The rate of burning may be easily regulated by placing pieces of bark or sods over the vents or by inserting the section of the limb of a tree — using the thing at hand and procured with the least exertion. 4. Wood burns more rapidly when given a draft than where the fire is confined. The rate of burning may be regulated by the amount of air forced through the vents by the use of a blower. 5. Much effective burning may be accomplished by boring a series of holes for vents, after which the fires may be started and allowed to burn by the natural drafts — burning trees into sections and the tops of large stumps, etc. 6. Combining the methods of burning stumps and logs by the use of a stump burner and boring intersecting holes and burning, so that the fire is guided to the best advantage and caused to burn briskly by a continual forced draft is both prac- ticable and advisable. The State Coliege of Washington AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION PULLMAN, WASHINGTON DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE Potato Investigations By A. G. CRAIG BULLETIN No. 94 1910 All bulletins of this station sent free to cittzens of the State on application to director BOARD OF CONTROL. R. C. McCROSKEY, President - - - - Garfield D. S. TROY, Vice-President - Chimacum E. A. BRYAN, Secretary Ex-Officio - - - Pullman President of the College. LEE A. JOHNSON - - Sunnyside J. J. BROWNE - - - - Spokane PETER McGREGOR, ------ Colfax STATION R. W. THATCHER, M.A. ELTON FULMER, M.A. S. B. NELSON, D.V.M. 0. L. WALLER, Ph.M. R. K. BEATTIE, A.M. WALTER'S. THORNBER, M.! A. L. MELANDER, M.S. LEONARD HEGNAUER, M. S., W. H. LAWRENCE, M.S. w. t. McDonald, m.s.a. C. C. THOM, M.S. H. B. HUMPHREY, Ph.D ALEX CARLYLE, W. T. SHAW, B.S., GEORGE A. OLSON, M.S. E. L. PETERSON, B.S. REX N. HUNT, M.S. W. H. HEIN, M.A. W. L. HADLOCK, B.S. M. A. YOTIIERS, B. S STAFF. Director and Chemist State Chemist Veterinarian Irrigation Engineer Botanist 5. - Horticulturist Etomologist Agronomist Plant Pathologist Animal Husbandman Soil Physicist Plant Pathologist Cerealist Assistant Zoologist Assistant Chemist Assistant Soil Physicist Assistant Botanist Assistant Horticulturist Assistant Chemist Assistant Entomologist INTRODUCTION. The peculiar climate and soil conditions of Washington are especially favorable for the production of potatoes. In many large sections the atmosphere is so dry during the grow- ing period that it furnishes unfavorable conditions for the development of fungus diseases on the foliage, nor have we in this state the Colorado beetle (potato bug), which is so destruc- tive east of the Rocky Mountains and annually necessitates the expenditure of large sums of money- for spraying. There is little danger of overstocking the potato market here. The eastern demand for Washington-grown potatoes is good and in the past has rarely allowed the price to fall below ten dollars per ton in car lots. In addition to this there is a rapidly increasing market for our potatoes in Alaska and at home. There are, however, few crops now grown in Washington which show greater variation in yield per acre than the potato. This crop responds to good culture to a greater degree than most others, and the grower who exercises proper care with his po- tatoes is always paid in yield and quality. There are thousands of acres of land now devoted to sum- mer-fallow which might produce good crops of potatoes with very little additional expense and yet leave the soil in better condition for wheat than it is under the present methods of summer-fallowing. The average cost of producing potatoes in eastern Washington is a little less than five dollars per ton. The plowing and harrowing which would have to be done on the summer-fallow land if potatoes were not grown is included in the cost. Therefore, potatoes grown in the place of summer fallow can be sold for a very low price and still leave a good balance. If the market remains as high as it has been for many years a net profit of fifteen to twenty dollars per acre from what would otherwise be idle land can easily be secured. This bulletin is a report of an extended investigation of the possibilities of profitable potato culture in Washington. The experiments were as follows: 1. Variety Tests. — Over 225 varieties were grown under as uniform conditions as possible. In taking notes special at- 4 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station tention was paid to the yield, shape, and color of the tubers; whether adapted to summer or winter market, long or short seasons. 2. Seed Selection. — Experiments were carried out to de- dermine the importance and practicibility of selecting the seed in the field. Tubers from individual hills were planted and the offspring were carefully studied. This was done through three generations and is to be continued. This experimental study was started for three purposes, (a) to find a means of deter- mining the best plants before digging, (b) to determine the individual hereditary tendencies, and (c) to determine the accumulative effect of selecting year after year. 3. Best Time to Plant. — One variety was planted at dif- ferent times from the second week in April until the 10th of June. Notes were also taken on plantings made by farmers. 4. Amount of seed per acre under different conditions. 5. Best distances apart for hills under different condi- tions. 6. Number of Cultivations per Season. — One plot was cultivated at intervals of once a week or ten days during the growing season and on a second plot cultivations were given after each rain only, to maintain a dust mulch. 7. Destroying Weeds, especially wild oats, with the harrow to diminish the hoeing and reduce the number of row cultiva' tions. 8. Mulching Versus Cultivation. The results of observations of field practices are not given in this bulletin except in the summary. The results of our experiments and studies of methods of farm practices in com- mercial potato growing have been briefly described in our Popular Bulletin No. 11. Bulletin No. 94— Potato Investigations 5 VARIETY TESTS. A large number of varieties were tested in 1905, 1906, 1907 and 1908. A full description and behavior of the plants of all varieties and their yields would be extremely lengthy, and because of that fact only a few are briefly described and placed in groups. In each group the varieties are placed in the order of preference — yield, shape, color, character of eyes, etc., being taken into consideration. The name of each variety is followed by the initials of the person or firm from which the seed was obtained. The addresses corresponding to these initials may be found in the list on page 17. Group 1. — Varieties that produce new potatoes early and mature early in the season. New Queen. (Y. & H.) — Marketable in seventy-five days. Plants large, vigorous, moderately spreading. Tubers large; form oval flattened, regular; skin, smooth light pink; eyes medium in size, uniform character, a little depressed and a little brighter pink than the skin. A very good variety for early market and promising for short season. Peck’s Early (F. & P.) — Marketable seventy-eight days, size, variable ; form round to oval slightly flattened, irregular ; Plants medium to large, vigorous, spreading. Tubers medium in skin smooth, light pink; eyes few, medium size, well distri buted, shallow, variable in character, not conspicuous. A few tubers have streaks of pink in the flesh. A very desirable early variety. Pride of the South. (H. A. D). — This variety is known by several different names. (See synonyms page 14). This strain has given better results than the others. Plants medium in size with light green, large leaves. Tubers medium to small; form round, regular; skin finely netted, brownish to white with a few small blotches; eyes small, bright pink; flesh clear white. A handsome tuber. Iris Cobbler. (V S.) — Marketable in eighty days. Plants medium size, vigorous, spreading. Tubers medium to small, 6 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station uniform in size and shape; form round very little flattened; skin a little rough, clear white; eyes small, inconspicuous. A good short season variety. Early Ohio. (L. L.) — Marketable in eighty days. Plants medium size, light green color. Tubers average small; form oval slightly flattened, regular; skin smooth, light brownish pink ; eyes medium number, rather small, shallow. A very good quality potato. Good strains of this variety give good yields. White Ohio. (V. S. S.) — Marketable in seventy-five days. Plants medium to large, moderately spreading. Tubers me- dium in size, a little variable ; form oval, slightly flattened, not always uniform; skin smooth, clear white; eyes variable in character, medium in size, light pink. Six Weeks. (L. L. 0.) — Marketable in eighty-four days. Plants edium size, spreading. Tubers medium to small; form round and oval, slightly flattened, fairly regular; skin smooth with a few netted spots at one end, brownish pink; eyes, medium in size, shallow but somewhat variable in character. A few tubers have pink streaks in the flesh. New Early Standard. (H. A. D.) — Marketable in eighty- two days. Plants medium, vigorous, healthy, moderately spreading. Tubers medium in size, uniform ; form round slight- ly flattened, regular ; skin smooth, clear white ; eyes medium in size, shallow and uniform in character. A very desirable early maturing variety. King of Michigan. (V. S. S.) — Marketable tubers in eighty days. Plants medium to large, spreading. Tubers medium; form round to oval flattened, regular; skin coarsely netted, white ; eyes small, shallow, inconspicuous. Good for short season. King of the Earliest. (F. S. C.) — This variety resembles the Early Ohio in many respects. Flesh white with pink streaks. New Century. (K. S. C.) — Marketable in eighty days. Plants medium size, moderately spreading. Tubers medium Bulletin No. 94 — Potato Investigations 7 size, uniform; form round, regular; skin smooth, light pink; eyes medium in size. Flesh clear white. Resembles the Ohio. A good variety for short season. White Star. (H. A. D.) — Marketable in eighty-two adys. Plants medium in size. Tubers small; form oval flattened, a little irregular; skin smooth, clear white; eyes medium to small, shallow; flesh clear white. Requires good soil and plenty of moisture. Early Thoroughbred. (F. & P. & H. B.) — Tubers market- able in eighty-five days. Ripened early in August, 1906, but the tops remained green until the middle of September in 1907. Plants medium sized and vigorous. Tubers resemble the Early Rose, but they are not so long as the Rose. The skin is netted, light pink; eyes medium to large and sunken. Occasionally a tuber has pink streaks through the flesh. Quality good. New Climax. (F. & P.) — Marketable in eighty days. Plants small to medium. Tubers small, uniform ; form round, slightly flattened, regular; skin smooth, clear white; eyes small in- conspicuous. If the tubers were larger this would be almost an ideal early maturing variety. Early Rosie. (Department). — This variety has given vari- able yields on the Station grounds. A few farmers have re- ported good results with it. Marketable in eighty-five days. Plants medium size, vigorous. Tubers large, elongated flat- tened, regular; skin smooth, light pink; eyes vary in size and appearance. Flesh stained with pink. Group 2. Varieties that produce new potatoes early and mature in early September. Sweet Home. (F. & P.) — Marketable in eighty-four days. Plants large, vigorous, spreading. Tubers, large, very uniform in size and shape; form regular, oval flattened; skin very finely netted, clear white; eyes few, uniform, small, shallow; flesh clear white. A very promising variety for main crop, in semi- arid sections. 8 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station Champion of the World. (H. B.) — A very desirable early variety. Marketable in eighty days. Plants large, spreading. Tubers medium to large; form oblong, flattened, regular; skin smooth, creamy white ; eyes variable in size and depth. Tubers small in 1908. Early Excelsior. (Y. and H.) — Marketable tubers in eighty- four days. Plants medium to large. Tubers medium to large; form oval flattened, regular; skin netted, pinkish yellow; eyes, few, variable, medium to small, shallow, pink. A good summer variety for light soil. Rural Red. (K S. C.) — Marketable in eighty-four days. Plants large vigorous, spreading. Tubers large, uniform; form , oblong, flattened, irregular ; skin smooth, brownish pink ; eyes medium to small, shallow, compound, variable ; flesh white slightly tinged with pink. Quality is good but the pink in the flesh is objectionable. Crine’s Lightning. (L. L. 0.) — Marketable tubers in eighty days. Plants twelve to fifteen inches tall, vigorous, spreading. Tubers large; form elongated oblong, flattened, slightly irregular; skin netted, pink striped with different shades of pink; eyes variable in depth. Not desirable for mar- ket, but it is a good quality potato for home use. White Victor. (L. L. 0.) — Marketable in eighty-seven days. Plants medium size. Tubers medium to large, uniform; form oval slightly flattened, regular; skin netted, dull white; eyes uniform, medium to small, shallow; flesh white. Good looking tubers. A good yielding variety under favorable conditions. Early Hamilton. (N. K. & C.) — Marketable tubers in eighty-three days. Plants vary from small to very large. Tu- bers medium in size; shape round, variable; skin slightly net- ted, yellowish white; eyes vary from medium to large, shallow inconspicuous. Good quality. White Rose. (K. S. C.) — Marketable in seventy-eight days. Plants medium in size, moderately spreading. Tubers fairly uniform, medium to large; form elongated, flattened, regular; Bulletin No. 94 — Potato Investigations 9 skin smooth, white; eyes variable in character, but most of the tubers have medium sized, shallow eyes. Flesh clear white. Group 3. Varieties that produce new potatoes early but mature late. Burpee’s Extra Early. (H. B.) — Marketable tubers in eighty days, but the plants did not ripen until the early part of October. Plants fourteen to eighteen inches tall, vigorous, moderately spreading. Tubers large and a little variable in size; form elongated ablong, flattened, fairly regular; skin smooth but a few are coarsely netted, mottled with white and pinkish yellow; eyes 'medium number, well distributed, quite shallow but variable in shape and depth. Arcadia. (F. S. C.) — Marketable tubers in eighty-seven days, but the plants did not mature until the middle of October. Plants medium size. Tubers large, somewhat variable; form oblong, flattened, fairly regular; skin smooth, clear white; eyes few, small, shallow. Bovee. (H. B.) — Marketable tubers in seventy-eight to eighty-two days. Plants eighteen to twenty inches t S ,W S N)SMSMSU»N)SU»N)S,(\)S «VJ S kj s HQ P CT -J p *< 5 t3 W td P CD p p p p 513 , o Hjt-^c»cQ'-d'-d»-d>Td ppPPpPBP BP^^73 73®P (I) (D HlMl 3 3 P P QQQQ ^®®aass So WKp p «HtH® ® <-t 5§ O o o P P M Mj Ma P o >-s 73 CD cn O H |5 Pi o o o p p pi . g s 50 03 p H O P P crq 3 0 ^ P o cn? p, — p p p p cn? "* o' p p P‘ ►-! rt P 73 P ” O' »rP n p'r* p p ? CD P cn P rh 5 — ^ h-. cn 73 hhhhhhhh PdPPPPPP O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O' pppppppp 73 73 73 73 73 73 73 73 P- P- _. p W P o * p p - p p o p pi P -J N BP® — cn? p c p S p p £u ~ 01 rt — p P - P P ^ P O' W *P 2 £. n ® r 5 n p ^ p O P B P P CL P (X 03 „ 7! P P' P . rt O P P O M . P Pi d P p P* * >-s • c ? : Cl H , • 3 • P ; s# 03 . p . n’ • 0 • • P • d • • » E? % gSS pi p p 2? cn 73 ”bP P P P P P sbc 3 sc p s cn? g o' Pi 3 p Sc p 1 B P p p s era . tO Oi CO ^ tO CO I — 1 I — 1 H - 1 I — 1 to M H to CO M tO^OtOOM^HOOOCOHMei ~].tO H *? O) cn o pcnoc£>aiM^»pi-‘-qoi»o3WOcop to to to to m to h-icncoi-ii>o Cn4)WO3MHt0 00 CJ3 4lO •ocncncncn-jcncccototo 0)*?oo30M^oo^ffiaicotoMaoa)cncnoo o co 1 — o o CJ^IOI-iOOJ^^HOlOtOajCOOOOtOtOtO-CI cncnooococn^t-ooocncni^o-^-qcntocotoi^ai P(-*~?tO>MS1^CTCO^P^OOCO COOOOOOrfi^WWrf!-COOptpOO Cn to CT^^p^oicnoototooi H K H ' — rr P 1 S — o' i 73 03 O ( 1-1 1 o 03 £ g g ^ pi £ 2 - 5 • O TABLE II First Years* Selection and Results CO . >