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 VICE-PRESIDENT, SECTION C. 
 
 BEFORE THE 
 
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THE RELATIONS OF THE INDUSTRIES TO THE ADVANCE¬ 
 MENT OF CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 ADDRESS 
 
 BY 
 
 WILLIAM McMURTRIE Ph.D. 
 
 VICE-PRESIDENT, SECTION C. 
 
 BEFORE THE 
 
 SECTION OF CHEMISTRY. 
 
 AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, 
 
 At the Springfield J^eeting, 
 
 • > »Tf 
 
 ^ _ , August, 1895 . 
 
 <5 
 
 A 
 
 I • ■ 
 
 [From the Proceedings of the American Association for the 
 Advancement of Science, vol. xliv, 1895.] 
 
 Printed by Aylward & Huntress, 
 
 Ubc Salem B)re0s. 
 
 Salem, Mass. 
 
 1895, 
 

•oOo^. 
 
 ADDRf:SS 
 
 BY 
 
 WILLIAM McMUKTKIE, Pii.D., 
 
 VICE-PRESIDRNT, SECTION C. 
 
 THE RELATIONS OF THE INDUSTRIES TO THE ADVANCE¬ 
 MENT OF CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 We justly congratulate ourselves that development and progress 
 in chemistry, both in science and technology, have been more 
 rapid in the past three decades than ever before and that as much 
 has been accomplished in this period as in all the years preceding 
 since reactions have been known and applied. New elements, new 
 compounds, new theories and new laws have followed each other 
 in the manifold directions with such enormous rapidity that few 
 have been able to keep informed of all, and most of us of only a 
 few, of the discoveries and generalizations that have been made. 
 It is for the purpose of exchanging information on these subjects 
 that we come together at the present time, and it has been the 
 custom of the Chairman to discuss one or another of these lines of 
 progress, setting forth the most important of what has been devel¬ 
 oped in the more recent times. In many of the discussions and 
 addresses on similar occasions by those more or less closely allied 
 with or engaged in the study of so-called pure chemistry, much 
 has been said of the practical value of the results obtained in the 
 scientific laboratories devoted to research, and the uses they have 
 found in daily life. No one has arisen to question the truth of 
 what has been said, nor could it be questioned, for those men who 
 have been working with the most unselfish devotion to the pursuit 
 of truth for truth’s sake, and with little hope of reward for the 
 service they have rendered, have acquired and disseminated a store 
 
 ( 1 ) 
 
 13380 
 
2 
 
 SECTION C. 
 
 of knowledge which has added so largely to the capacity of all 
 men for work that only the most grateful acknowledgments may be 
 offered. While all this must be accepted, it is seldom that any¬ 
 thing is heard regarding the reciprocal influence of the industries 
 and the ordinary occupations of daily life, upon the development 
 or advancement of chemical science, and it has seemed that, in this 
 period of relaxation, it would be well to stop and consider what 
 are the relations of the industries to the science from the other 
 side of the question, and what aid has come from the former- to 
 the latter to promote its advancement, if, indeed, any distinction 
 can be made so far as the additions to human knowledge are con¬ 
 cerned. For science is cosmopolitan, as it were, and omnivorous, 
 and facts from whatever source, and of whatever kind, are greedily 
 absorbed to form a part of the grand structure of human knowl¬ 
 edge, whether the}^ come from efforts made at leisure and in the 
 quiet of the study or private laboratory, or whether they are de¬ 
 veloped in the struggle for existence and the daily bread. 
 
 In its earlier development, substantially beginning with the pres¬ 
 ent century, chemistry was the newest of the physical sciences. 
 It grew up out of the empiricism of the preceding centuries and 
 had its foundation in the facts to be found in the daily practice of 
 those engaged in the endeavor t^ meet the demands of the current 
 needs. As civilization progresses, culture extends, demands con¬ 
 sequently grow, and it is one of the inevitable laws of sociology 
 and political economy, as of nature, that these demands shall be 
 met. To meet them human ingenuity must be taxed for the de¬ 
 termination of methods and means ; and whether it be to secure 
 immediately useful results or to establish more abstract truths, 
 intellectual endeavor is required, knowledge must be increased, 
 and science therefore advanced. Literature is filled with descrip¬ 
 tion of the service which the science of chemistry has rendered to 
 the industries and the commercial world, and the development of 
 the tar color industry is the favorite example of this so frequently 
 cited. History, so far as it is wu’itten, for the most part deals with 
 the subject from this standpoint. But it may properly be ques¬ 
 tioned whether the industry was wholly the outcome of scientific 
 research or whether science received much, at least, of its inspira¬ 
 tion, its suggestion, its original material from the industry already 
 developed in an intensely empirical way. It is this side of the 
 question that Avill occupy us at the present time and we shall en- 
 
ADDRESS BY WILLIAM MCMURTRIE. 
 
 3 
 
 deavor to call attention to some of the influences which operate 
 from one side or the other to bring about the results indicated and 
 to the reciprocal influences which flow from the results themselves. 
 
 The true fundamental principles of the science were not devel¬ 
 oped and set forth through the classic researches and deductions of 
 the great leaders, Dalton, Priestley, Cavendish, Black, Wenzel, 
 Richter, Lavoisier, Gay Lussac, Avogadro, Dulong and Petit until 
 the close of the last and the earlier years of the present century. 
 But even before the beginning of the last century the rapid prog¬ 
 ress of civilization and culture in other lines had made demands 
 for the products of the chemical arts and they were met in ways 
 that were empirical it is true, but by reactions which were as pos¬ 
 itive then as they are now, even though they were unknown, and 
 they furnished fertile food for study and speculation on the part of 
 the philosophers in fields quite new to them, led them out from the 
 libi'aries of the monasteries to the active work of the l)usy world, 
 furnished them with facts for collaboration and classification, from 
 which tliey were amply able to construct the hypotheses and build 
 up the theories which have been of so much value to the civilized 
 world. During the entire century the industries thrived and grew, 
 met the demands put upon them and brought about the establish¬ 
 ment of facts that long since were recorded as new discoveries. 
 
 The acknowledged fathers of the science of chemistry, although 
 eminent scholars and connected with the institutions of learning, 
 were many, if not most of them, directly interested iu the manu¬ 
 facture of chemical products, and by their general education and 
 higher intelligence were enabled to contribute to their material ad¬ 
 vancement. At the period in which these men lived and w'orked, 
 these industries could with difficulty meet the demands of the ad¬ 
 vancing civilization, and that they were profitable then, even as 
 they were later, we may learn from the experience and writings 
 of Chaptal,^ who was turned from the profession of teaching to 
 establish at Montpellier, as he tells us, large works for the manu¬ 
 facture of sulphuric, nitric, muriatic and oxalic acids, alum, 
 copperas, sal ammoniac, sal saturn, white lead and the prepara¬ 
 tions of lead, mercury, etc. He declares that he had made 
 “ mountains of alum without being able to crystallize it,” until he 
 had, through the analysis of Roman alum, determined the presence 
 of potash in the crystallized product. And in order that he might 
 
 1 La Vie et I’Oeuvre de Chaptal. p. 31. 
 
I 
 
 4 SECTION C. 
 
 have proper apparatus for his works he undertook the manufacture 
 of the porcelain and pottery he required. A little later he became 
 interested in dyeing and calico printing in a commercial way. How 
 profitable this manufacture was may be gathered from the fact that 
 after the political reverses which brought about his deposition from 
 the public life in Paris which had consumed his entire fortune, he 
 returned to his manufacture at Montpellier and in a single year 
 realized from it a handsome net profit of 350,000 francs. He fur¬ 
 ther relates that, encouraged by his success, other chemists of 
 France established large manufacturing works and entered into 
 their management. He was closely associated with Lavoisier, 
 Berthollet,^ Monge, Fourcroy, Carny, Vandermonde, Guyton de 
 Morveau and others in the manufacture of gunpowder near Paris, 
 and his memoirs show that during his residence at Montpellier he 
 was in constant correspondence with the chemists of Paris and else¬ 
 where. Dubrunfaut^ states that at the instigation of the Comptroller 
 General Turgot, the Academy of Sciences of Paris offered a prize 
 in 1776 for the invention of a method for the production of niter 
 and that Stahl and Lavoisier did not disdain to take an interest 
 in the subject of the prize. It amounted to £3000 and was awarded 
 to Thouvenel who was required, we are told, to justify experimen¬ 
 tally the theory of Lavoisier. At that time Lavoisier was director 
 of the Royal Saltpeter Works. Berthollet was interested in bleach¬ 
 ing and dyeing, suggested the use of chlorine for the former and 
 in 1791 published a work entitled Elements of the Art of Dyeing. 
 Guyton de Morveau^was devoted to analytical and technical chem¬ 
 istry and among other things he founded saltpeter works in 1773 
 and soda works in 1783. 
 
 Much of the work, therefore, not only of Chaptal but of other 
 chemists of his time, was doubtless done in response to demands 
 made upon them by the exigencies of the manufactures, but how 
 many of the results they communicated to the journals and learned 
 societies flowed directly therefrom we are not told. Certainly they 
 could not have failed to study closely the phenomena thus offered 
 for theii’ observation and which in many respects could not have 
 been as efficiently exhibited in any other way. 
 
 So also, as we are told by Meyer^ and other historians, the earlier 
 
 > Le Sucre. II. 95. Note. 
 
 2 Schaedler, Handworterbuch der Wissenscliaftlich bedewteuden Cheuiiker. 
 
 2 GeBchicbte der Cheniie. Zweite A ullage 1895. 
 
ADDRESS BY WILLIAM MCMURTRIE. 5 
 
 contributors to the new science, Boyle, Kunkel, Bergmann, Scheele, 
 Margraff, Macquer, Duhamel and others, were largely devoted to 
 the development of certain chemical processes in the industries. 
 With all these men, the other great leaders of the science were 
 closely associated ; the problems constantly arising and the results 
 obtained in their solution were doubtless subjects of frequent dis¬ 
 cussion and led them to profitable study, regarding them and the 
 fundamental and natural laws upon which they were based. And 
 what was true of that earlier period of the history is true to-day 
 and to an increasing degree must find illustration in future work. 
 The industries are still pushing forward with earnest competition 
 to supply the demands which grow with the years, and tlie hard 
 questions which come from managers and proprietors to profes¬ 
 sional men are as numei’ous and as difficult in their way as those 
 which puzzled the early philosophers and stimulate an earnestness 
 in endeavor and investigation that brings the highest and most use¬ 
 ful results. We must admit that without these hard questions the 
 advances in the science itself would be less rapid and the intellect¬ 
 ual activities of investigators less alert. - 
 
 Beautiful illustrations of the results growing out of such demands 
 are everywhere to be seen at the present day even as they were in 
 former years, although they are not often to be found recorded in 
 the pages of published history. Many of us will remember the 
 incident cited by Hoffmann* in his necrological notice of Dumas de¬ 
 scribing the circumstances which led to the discovery of the ab¬ 
 sorption of chlorine by organic bodies, in which he declares that 
 “it is not generally known that the theory of substitution owes its 
 source to a soiree in the Tuileries.” Dumas had been called upon 
 by his father-in-law, Alexander Broguiart, who was director of the 
 Sevres Porcelain Works, and as Hoffmann says, in a measure a 
 member of the royal household, to examine into the cause of the 
 irritating vapors from candles burned in the ballroom, a demand to 
 which Dumas readily acceded, because he had already done some 
 work upon the examination of wax which could not be bleached 
 and was therefore unmerchantable. He was readily led to the con¬ 
 clusion that the candles used in the palace had been made with wax 
 which had been bleached with chlorine and that the vapors were 
 hydrochloric acid generated in the burning of the candles. But 
 examination of the wax of the candles showed that the quantity 
 
 1 Berichte der Deutscheu Chemischen Geeellschaft. 17. R. 667. 
 
6 
 
 SECTION C. 
 
 of chlorine found was greater than could be accounted for by its 
 presence as a mechanical impurity and from it Dumas was led to 
 experiments which showed that many organic substances when 
 heated with chlorine have the power to fix it, and from these re¬ 
 sults he was in turn led to the further generalization concerning the 
 law of substitution. In this connection Hoffmann says, “This 
 information upon the origin of substitution, which the author of 
 this sketch had from the mouth of Dumas himself, is more than an 
 interesting incident. We frequently see that like the Luxembourg 
 palace, the Tuileries, besides their historical legends have likewise 
 scientific memories. How wonderful! A ray of sunlight reflected 
 from the window of Luxembourg and accidentally seen by Malus 
 through a plate of calcspar, revealed to him the phenomenon of 
 double refraction, adding a new province to the domain of physics ; 
 while the acid vapors from a smoking, burning caudle in the ball 
 room of the Tuileries led Dumas to study the influence of chlorine 
 upon organic bodies and finally led him to speculation upon this 
 action which for many years had controlled the science and even 
 to-day has a mighty influence upon its development.” 
 
 It would be difficult to follow Dumas through the hundreds of 
 investigations he made in all the fields of chemical activity, clear¬ 
 ing up the questions arising in the various occupations of daily 
 life and in all its departments, even as it would that of other men 
 active in progressive work. Much of the work of Dumas, as shown 
 by Hoffmann and the published i-ecords, was devoted to the solu¬ 
 tion of such questions, and much of his inspiration was drawn from 
 them. It was an incident similar to that already described, that 
 brought Dumas to the reaction whereby hydrogen sulphide may be 
 oxidized to sulphuric acid. He found the walls of one of the bath 
 rooms at Aix les Bains covered with crystals of calcium sulphate 
 which could have no other source than the vapors liberated from 
 the hot water. No trace of sulphuric acid could be found in the 
 atmosphere of the room. The portieres of the room soon acquired 
 an acid reaction which proved to be due to sulphuric acid. Dumas 
 concluded that the combination of hydrogen sulphide with oxj^gen 
 had occurred upon the wall itself, the porous surface exercising an 
 influence similar to that of platinum black upon hydrogen and 
 oxygen. And subsequent investigation showed that when air, 
 steam and hydrogen sulphide are passed over porous substances at 
 from 40° to 50° C. and still better at 80° to 90°, sulphuric acid is 
 
ADDRESS BY WILLIAM MCMURTRIE. 
 
 7 
 
 quickly formed without intermediate formation of sulphurous acid 
 or separation of sulphur. 
 
 Similar instances are set forth by Ilotf inann,^—who seems to have 
 recognized the value of the influences we here have in mind — in his 
 necrological address upon Liebig, whose well-known devotion to 
 the industries and their advancement is so familiar and interesting. 
 Hoffmann says “ no branch of chemical industry has failed either 
 directly or indirectly to receive benefit from Liebig’s works.” He 
 calls attention to the study of the fat and acetic acid industries 
 and declares that the key to their peculiar operations is of his 
 making, that the preparation of the prussiates and fulminates, the 
 manufacture of the cyanides, the production of the silver mirror, 
 were the result of Liebig’s work. His interest in the problems of 
 agriculture and of the nutrition of plants and animals, of physiol¬ 
 ogy and pathology, led him not only to the development of many 
 new industries, but to the establishment of many of the truths of 
 science as well. His method for the production of artificial foods 
 and concentrated animal extracts were not the smallest of his 
 contributions to the industry, and the possibilities of their'value 
 and wide application in turn led to further investigation. Mej^er,^ 
 quoting from Hoffmann, says, “ if we could hold up to view all that 
 Liebig has done for the well being of the human race in the indus¬ 
 tries, in agriculture or in the promotion of health, one can scarcely 
 declare that any other scholar of his time has left a richer legacy 
 to mankind.” 
 
 And what Hoffmann has said of Liebig is also applicable to him¬ 
 self, for in many respects he rivalled Liebig in his intelligent com¬ 
 prehension of commercial and industrial needs and their value in 
 suggesting new and fruitful lines of work. No question could be 
 proposed to him that had not for him some germs of useful thought 
 and it was the ntilization of such possibilities as came to him in this 
 way that made him great. His genius for this will be illustrated 
 in connection with the incidents in the coal tar color industry 
 which show the relation of that great branch of human endeavor to 
 the subject in hand. 
 
 It seems to make little difference to -which branch of chemical 
 work we turn for illustrations of the ideas just presented. The 
 enormous losses suffered by Italy and France by the diseases of the 
 
 * Hoffmann. Berichte der Deutschen Cliemischen Gesellschaft, vi, 467. 
 
 2 Gescliichte der Chemie. 231. 
 
8 
 
 SECTION C. 
 
 silk worm, the deterioration of the wines and the diseases of farm 
 animals, made demands upon the genius of Pasteur, and through 
 his brilliant work and magnificent results attention has been di¬ 
 rected to the field of bacteriology and fermentation, and almost a 
 new science has been built upon it. What a mass of material has 
 through this one branch of work been added to the sum of human 
 knowledge and what an impetus has it given to the advancement 
 of science ! The industries demanded relief from their losses, but 
 the path to that relief is strewn with facts which have been utilized 
 for the establishment of new principles ; and the new principles, ex¬ 
 tended to the other industries, have widened still further the field 
 and led to the study of the products developed in the growth and 
 nutrition of the lower organisms, with results, the spread of whose 
 influence it would be difficult to define. 
 
 Some of us will remember that a little more than a decade ago, 
 many of the leading chemists of this country were called upon to 
 settle a commercial dispute in Chicago, turning upon the question 
 of an admixture of fats in the adulteration of lards and that, on 
 account of the lack of knowledge then prevailing regarding the 
 exact constitution and reactions of various fats, it was impossible 
 to arrive at satisfactory conclusions with regard to the mixtures 
 submitted. It was embarrassing for chemists to admit the weak¬ 
 ness, but it nevertheless had useful results. Since that time the 
 development of knowledge concerning these products has been such 
 that it is possible readily to determine in many cases, not only the 
 components of such admixtures but even the quantity of each com¬ 
 ponent present. 
 
 Such illustrations in increasing numbers will occur to every one 
 who may consider the history of the science and the industries from 
 this point of view. The coal tar color industry, which has so fre¬ 
 quently been cited and described as the direct outcome of scientific 
 investigation, will serve admirably to illustrate further the relations 
 we are considering. No one of the industries has been so rapid in 
 growth or has attracted the same degree of attention from both 
 scientists and technologists, or has had so wide an influence upon 
 the progress of the other industries and scientific work* A brief 
 review of the conditions of its development from the standpoint 
 of this discussion will be of interest and will serve to show how 
 much the purely scientific side of chemistry may be found to owe 
 to the development of the technical side. 
 
ADDRESS BY WILLIAM MCMURTRIE. 9 
 
 The origin of the crude product of this industry, the manufacture 
 of gas, is comparatively modern, 'riiough it was'known in the 
 latter part of the last century it did not find extensive application 
 permanently until between 1830 and 1835. But from the time of 
 its first extended application, its by-product, tar, became a trouble¬ 
 some nuisance and many endeavors were made on all sides to find 
 some means for its disposition and utilization. It was consumed 
 by burning, it was boiled down in open vessels and its residues 
 used as preservative paint for wood and metals ; its lighter and more 
 volatile products were subsequently collected by condensation and 
 put upon the market as a solvent for fats, waxes, rubber, etc., and 
 was so used in the manufacture of varnishes. According to Lunge,^ 
 Accum was the first to boil tar down in close vessels and thus ob¬ 
 tain volatile oil which could be used as a cheap substitute for tur¬ 
 pentine. Dr. Longstaff declares that, in conjunction with Dr. 
 Dalston, he erected the first distillery for coal tar in 1822 near 
 Leith, and that the spirits obtained were sent to Mr. Mackintosh, 
 while the residue was used for making lampblack. Roscoe states 
 that the distillation was carried on near Manchester in 1834, the 
 naphtha obtained being used for making black varnish with 
 the pitch. So that the lighter distillates had been furnished to the 
 markets some years before Mansfield began, in 1847, the distillation 
 of the lighter oils to obtain products which might be used for 
 lighting purposes. It was in the course of this work that he de¬ 
 termined the composition of the lighter oils in the market and found 
 that they contaiped considerable quantity of benzene, a fact discov¬ 
 ered by Hoffmann two years before. Supplies for the subsequent 
 uses in the color industry were therefore possible. 
 
 It may be observed here that the discovery of this compound by 
 the dry distillation of coal, de novo^ in the laboratory, would have 
 been practically impossible^ since, according to Perkin,^ 100 lbs. of 
 coal yields only 0.85 oz. of coal tar naphtha, and 0.275 oz. of 
 benzene. The operations of the industry carried out on a large 
 scale are necessary to this”*, and such operations we know and shall 
 see have furnished to those working in purely scientific lines ma¬ 
 terials for study which has given the most important results and 
 without which many of the relations would still be unknown. 
 
 1 Lunge. Coal Tar and Ammonia. 189. 
 
 2 Compare Roscoe and Schorlemmer, Treatise on Chemistry, iii. pt. iii. 51. 
 
 3 Jour. Soc. Arts, 1869, 101. 
 
 * Compare Hoffmann. Jour. Soc. Arts, 1863, 647. 
 
10 
 
 SECTION C. 
 
 But to proceed. With the commercial production of benzene, its 
 derivative nitrobenzene was readily obtained in large quantiths. It 
 had been made, it is true, years before b}^ Mitscherlich in 1834, from 
 benzene of benzoic acid, and by Laurent a little later by the action 
 of nitric acid upon light oil of tar. Collas, a French pharmacist, 
 made it in 1848 in a large way in Paris and later Mansfield took 
 up its manufacture from the product of his stills, putting it on the 
 market as artificial oil of bitter almonds, or oil of Mirbane, to be 
 used in scenting soap. 
 
 vSo aniline which Unverdorben produced in 1826 by dry distilla¬ 
 tion of indigo and called krystallin, and Runge first separated 
 from coal tar by treating it with hydrochloric acid in 1834 and called 
 bhiudl, and Fritsche produced by digestion of indigo with potash 
 and distillation of the product in 1840 and called aiiilin, and 
 Zinin produced in 1842 by reduction of nitrobenzene with ammo¬ 
 nium sulphide and called benzidam, remained a scientific curiosity 
 the true constitution of which was not fully determined until some 
 years after it had been produced by Bechamp by reduction of coal 
 tar nitrobenzene with iron and acetic acid and Perkin had utilized 
 it in the manufacture of mauve. 
 
 And so the way for Perkin had been prepared. Both the in¬ 
 dustry and the science, so far as they had been able, had done their 
 share: the industry, by efforts at the utilization of the products 
 at hand and showing possible commercial profit; the science, in the 
 struggle after new compounds. The spirit of the iatro- chemists 
 still prevailed and substantial benefits fiowed from it as of old. 
 Perkin^ in an effort to produce a compound valuable .and scarce in 
 the market and to effect the synthesis of quinine, produced aniline 
 purple or mauve instead. Starting out, as he says, with the con¬ 
 sideration of the empirical formula he concluded that by the oxida¬ 
 tion of allyl-toluidine he might attain his end. Describing his 
 experiment he says: “ For this purpose I mixed the neutral sul¬ 
 phate of allyl-toluidine with bichromate of potassium, but instead 
 of quinine I obtained only a reddish brown precipitate. Never- 
 theless being anxious to know more about this curious reaction, I 
 proceeded to examine a more simple body under similar circum¬ 
 stances. For this purpose, I treated the sulphate of aniline with 
 bichromate of potassium. The mixture produced nothing but an 
 unpromising black precipitate ; but, on investigating this precipi- 
 
 1 Cheniiciil News, 1861. Ml. 
 
ADDRESS BY WILLIAM MCMURTRIE. 
 
 11 
 
 tale, I found it to be the substance which is now, 1 may say, a 
 commercial necessity.” Perkin treated the black precipitate with 
 dilferent solvents in the study of its properties and found it to 
 yield to alcohol a colored solution. With more of the inventive 
 and commercial spirit than prevailed with his illustrious teacher in 
 whose laboratory he was working, he at once began experiments to 
 determine whether this new color, so benutiful in its hues, could be 
 fixed upon textile fibers, and succeeded in dyeing a strand of silk 
 with it without the aid of any mordant whatsoever. He promptly 
 submitted his discovery to Puller of Perth who tried the color in a 
 larger way, proving its commercial value. The patents were 
 secured and Perkin at once devoted himself to the industrial pro¬ 
 duction of the color and, after more or less difficulty, always inci¬ 
 dent to the manufacture of a new substance, he attained commercial 
 success. The tar color industry was launched ; it was immensely 
 profitable; it furnished incentive to further investigation and ex¬ 
 periment in similar lines, a new field was opened up, and what a 
 flood of results has come from it. In them both empiricism and 
 rationalism have been represented, and the addition to the number 
 of new substances, whose properties and constitution have been 
 essential to the establishment of new theories and new laws has 
 been enormous, and unprecedented in all the history of chemical 
 work. The search after the production of a commercial product, 
 yielded accidentally as it were, and almost empirically, the seed 
 from which this great and flourishing tree has sprung. 
 
 For it must not be forgotten that after Perkin had obtained his 
 oxidation product of aniline and had found that some portion of 
 it was colored and could be applied to the dyeing of fabrics, his 
 study of its properties ended for the time being and it was not 
 until 1863 that he was able to take up this subject and follow it to 
 conclusion, establishing the constitution of the new compound. 
 
 The history of the coal tar color industry is full of examples of 
 the production of new substances and new reactions by the indus¬ 
 try of the highest importance to the advancement of knowledge in 
 the domain of chemistry and to the development of the great theo¬ 
 ries to which, in turn, much of progress both in science and tech¬ 
 nology has been due. In this connection one may study, with 
 profit and interest, the very able address of H. Caro^ before the 
 Berlin Chemical Society, on the subject of theDevelopment of 
 
 1 Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft. 25. R. 955. 
 
12 
 
 SECTION C. 
 
 the Coal Tar Color Industry.” While very properly giving the full¬ 
 est credit for the scientific or rational work done in this connection 
 and the applications of it in the industries, he shows many exam¬ 
 ples of the important results attained by technical or empirical 
 methods and of the highest interest and value to the science. He 
 calls attention to the fact that C. E. Nicholson suggested to Hoff¬ 
 mann that pure aniline would not yield aniline red, and that it was 
 not the true agent for the production of this compound. A gallon 
 of aniline with a constant boiling point of 220° C. sent to Hoffmann 
 by Nicholson gave such a result; while a sample of the ordinary 
 aniline of commerce, and boiling at from 182° to 220° yielded an 
 abundant quantity of color. From this Hoffmann concluded that 
 the commercial aniline contained a second base which, together with 
 aniline and homologous with it, entered into the reaction to pro¬ 
 duce the regular result. But Hoffmann^ declared that, if such an 
 admixture of bases existed, their separation by any other than 
 operations on a large scale would be out of the question, a condi¬ 
 tion found by other investigators. Nicholson had already sug¬ 
 gested the presence of toluidine in the mixture. Hoffmann tried 
 making the color with pure toluidine from tolu balsam sent him by 
 Muspratt and found that this too gave a negative result. But 
 upon mixing the pure aniline from Nicholson in proper proportions 
 with the pure toluidine from Muspratt, the proportions correspond¬ 
 ing with one molecule of benzene to two molecules of toluene the 
 red color was promptly produced. In this connection Hoffmann 
 said the “industry was ahead of the science” and Caro said “ hence 
 the industry was not only the generator of aniline red, but further- 
 it had opened up the way to the rational utilization of benzene and 
 more its homologues for all present and future uses of color manu¬ 
 facture.” 
 
 Artificial alizarine has much the same kind of history. It was 
 developed by Graebe and Liebermann by most rational methods 
 and from the constitution and reactions of the body itself. Start- 
 ting with a commercial body, produced by industrial methods and 
 in most empirical ways, they endeavored to reproduce it by rational 
 synthesis and succeeded. Their method through dibromanthra- 
 quinone was not, however, a commercial possibility and it remained 
 for Perkin, with his industrial experience and capacity, and his en¬ 
 gineering skill combined with his knowledge of chemistry, to over- 
 
 2 Berichte der Deutchen Cheniisclien Geeellscliaft. 25, 97(5. 
 
ADDRESS BY WILLIAM MCMURTRIE. 
 
 13 
 
 come the manufacturing difficulties and to attain this end by other 
 means and reactions than had been proposed by Graebe and Lieb- 
 ermann. The process proposed by the latter was precluded by the 
 high cost of bromine and Perkin replaced it by sulphuric acid, 
 producing the anthraquinone sulphonic acids which yielded after the 
 melt the product desired. The industrial genius of Perkin^ gave ar¬ 
 tificial alizarine and with it a long series of products and problems 
 for study and solution by chemists everywhere. It taught reac¬ 
 tions that were fertile in stimulating new research and established 
 facts that could not be, or at least were not, discovered in the 
 laboratory. For instance in the course of the manufacture, Perkin 
 found that when, as sometimes happened, sulphonation of the an¬ 
 thraquinone was not thoroughly effected through insufficient heat¬ 
 ing or use of too little acid, a really better product was obtained 
 than when the process had proceeded normally. He found that in 
 the latter case the color of the resulting product was less brilliant 
 than when these irregular conditions prevailed ; that, in the latter, 
 the resulting paste was a mixture of colors, while with the former, 
 nearly pure alizarine was the result. Investigation confirmed the 
 outcome of the practice and showed that from the anthraquinone 
 monosulphonic acid, only pure alizarine was produced, while from 
 the result of higher sulphonation a mixture of products was se¬ 
 cured. Such a discovery may have been possible only in the larger 
 way occurring in the works and might have long been overlooked 
 in the laboratory. At any rate it was brought out in the industrial 
 operation of the reaction, and a new fact was added to the sum of 
 knowledge. 
 
 This discovery brought further necessity and new invention. By 
 the ordinary method of sulphonating then enployed, the monosul¬ 
 phonic acid could not readily be produced and it remained for Per¬ 
 kin to advance both science and technology still further by the 
 determination of a new process for attaining this end. . He found^ 
 that dichloranthracene which is easily made may be as easily sul- 
 phonated and that the dichloranthracene sulphonic acid is readily 
 converted to the anthraquinone sulphonic acid by heating with sul¬ 
 phuric acid, the final result depending upon the degree of heat em¬ 
 ployed in the reaction in sulphonating the dichloranthracene. He 
 had thus not only advanced the industry in this branch of manu- 
 
 1 Jour. Soc. Arts, 1879, 580. 
 
 2 Jour. Soc. Arts, 1879, 577. 
 
14 
 
 SFCTION C. 
 
 facture but he had added to the list of reactions and compounds in 
 chemistry as well. 
 
 Hoffmann received from the French color works the queues d’- 
 aniline, from which he was able to separate para toluidine and the 
 two new bases paraniline and paramidophenol.^ Other products 
 from the same residues enabled the great investigator to arrive at 
 a knowledge of the mode of formation and structure of rosaniline. 
 Later another French color-maker sent Hoffman a well crystallized 
 by-product which he recognized as meta-toluylendiamine which he, 
 together with Muspratt had endeavored to make by synthesis. 
 He found it to have been undoubtedly produced by the Bechamp 
 method from nitrobenzene contaminated with dinitrotoluene. 
 
 In his most interesting and valuable address from which many 
 of these illustrations have been obtained, Caro calls attention to 
 other instances of contributions to the advancement of science from 
 this great industry; the use of zinc dust in strongly alkaline so¬ 
 lution for the reduction of nitro-bodies was worked out in the fac¬ 
 tories ; safranine was produced technically several years before its 
 structure and mode of formation are made out by Nietzki. The 
 empirical formation of nitro-dracylic acid and naphthylamin is 
 cited as furnishing contributions to the establishment of isomerism 
 in the classes to which they respectively belong. Aniline blue 
 produced empirically by heating together fuchsine and aniline, was 
 found later by Hoffmann to be triphenylated rosaniline and led him 
 to the recognition that change of color could be produced by sub¬ 
 stituting an alkyl, phenyl or benzyl radical for hydrogen ; and so 
 started the theory, now developed into a law, that color of com¬ 
 pounds is a function of structure, and that, in those compounds 
 having antifermentive, therapeutic or toxic action, the influence 
 will vary in intensity with the position of the radical in the mole¬ 
 cule. Thus it has been found that ortho-cresol is less active as an 
 antiferment than the meta-compound while this in turn is less in- 
 tence in its action than paracresol. « Naphthol is more poisonous 
 and more actively antiseptic than naphthol. 
 
 The field of chemical work, here so wonderfully opened up, has 
 done much to bring into closer contact and communion, the profes¬ 
 sional men and investigators on the one hand and the practical 
 technologists on the other. Professional men find that such union 
 furnishes valuable material for study and most useful suggestio n 
 
 1 Proc. Roy. Soc. 18G3, 312, 
 
 Proc. Roy. Soc, 13, 9, 
 
ADDRESS BY WILLIAM MCMDRTRIE. 
 
 15 
 
 for work. As Hoffmann says, “ the technologist is not likely to 
 leave long without utilization any fact of science which may be de¬ 
 veloped and made valuable from the technical sideso we find 
 that the benefits which flow from each to each are rapidly increas¬ 
 ing from year to year and the distinction formerly made between 
 science and technology is rapidly being broken down, and more 
 cordial, and therefore more useful, relations established. Such un¬ 
 ion for progressive work was established with profit to both sides 
 by Hoffmann and Nicholson, Graebe and Caro, O. Fischer and E. 
 Heppe and others, and the example of these authorities has been 
 followed by the great manufacturers in all countries by the foun¬ 
 dation in the works, of well-equipped laboratories, intended not 
 only for control of processes by analytical methods but for the im¬ 
 provement and extension of processes by careful research methods 
 and the discovery of new principles. OstwakF has clearly set forth 
 the manner in which technology and science may work together in 
 electrical work, in the various directions. 
 
 How rapidly this practice has grown will be illustrated by the 
 fact that the great color works, successors to Meister Lucius and 
 Bruning in Hochst, made in 1890, 1700 to 1800 colors^ and 
 employ 3000 persons including 70 chemists and 12 engineers.^ 
 K. Ochler & Co. in Offenbach have 300 workmen and 45 chemists.^ 
 Other works of large capacity like the Badische Anilin und Soda 
 Fabrik of Ludwigshafen, Bayer & Co. at Elbersfeld, Casella & Co. 
 in Frankfurt am Main, likewise employ large numbers of edu¬ 
 cated chemists and engineers. This practice now extends to most 
 of the more important manufactures. Its value was early recog¬ 
 nized in metallurgy and it has been adopted in other lines As a 
 consequence a demand has been made upon the educational insti¬ 
 tutions and an influence has been exerted upon the management 
 leading to provision of better facilities for work both in investiga¬ 
 tion and instruction. 
 
 In connection with the working force of the German color fac¬ 
 tories, it is worthy of remark, that experience has led directors to 
 employ educated engineers alongside the research chemists and so 
 
 1 Chemische Industrie, 1895, 212 from Zeitschrift fUr Electrotechnik und Electro, 
 chemie, 1894, 81. 
 
 2 Ost. Lehrbuch der Technischen Chemie. 
 
 3 Grandhomme. Die Fabriken der Actien-Gesellschaft Farbwerke Meister, Lucius 
 und Bruning. 
 
 * Dir. E. Franck. Zeitschrift fiir Angewandte Chemie, 1895, 444. 
 
16 
 
 SECTION C. 
 
 recognize the fact that engineering capacity is necessary to the 
 practical and industrial application of chemical reactions. These 
 reactions effected in the laboratory cannot always be obtained in 
 the works in a large way without the invention of special apparatus, 
 and frequently the most brilliant discoveries in science prove to be 
 nothing more than mere suggestions to the industries, doubtful 
 stepping stones to new processes or new products. The discoveries 
 of aniline and alizarine are examples of this principle. The am¬ 
 monia soda reaction remained dormant nearly half a century until 
 it was made practical through the genius of Solvay and by means 
 which scarcely involved chemical reactions. The Leblanc soda 
 process, with its beautiful reactions—partly it is true because of 
 the political situation—remained dormant nearly a quarter of a 
 century before the genius of Muspratt restored it to life. The 
 sugar industry, the conception of Margraff and Achard, required 
 the invention and construction of much special apparatus before it 
 could develop into the astonishing dimensions it presents to-day. 
 The Weldon process could be established in the industry only after 
 a most earnest struggle extending over three years, and the final re¬ 
 sult showed that the complete reaction could be obtained only when 
 working in the largest way. 
 
 The study of the ultimate history of any or all of these indus¬ 
 tries will show that, as they grew, they made demands upon the ed¬ 
 ucated men and so both directly and indirectly contributed to the 
 sum of useful knowledge in nearly all its branches, chemistry in¬ 
 cluded. 
 
 For this reason the demand is growing for a combination of 
 chemical and engineering knowledge in the same person. The value 
 of this has been noticed in the lives and works of many of the 
 leaders in chemical work and its recognition among educators is 
 advancing. This is illustrated in the views of Victor Meyer^ ex¬ 
 pressed as follows : “I coincide completely with Dr. Lippmann in 
 his wish not only for an extension of his technical instruction in 
 our own university in its present scope, but also for the further de¬ 
 velopment of the same, and I would add thereto the expression of 
 my own opinion that instruction in technical drawing ought not to 
 be omitted in the curriculum of any university, in which numerous 
 young chemists seek their education and are likely ultimately to 
 desire occupation in factories and works.” Similar expressions 
 
 1 Chemical News, 1894, 97. 
 
ADDRESS BY WILLIAM MCMURTRIE. 
 
 17 
 
 have come from other high authorities in the field of education, and 
 the wisdom of the establishment of the technical schools with pro¬ 
 vision for thorough education in all the special branches that may 
 find useful application in the different industries, is thoroughly con¬ 
 firmed. 
 
 Thus far no reference has been made to the influence of the in 
 dustries upon the development of analytical chemistry, and per¬ 
 haps for this there is no need. It is generally accepted, or is fast 
 growing to be, that it is an integral part of all technical work 
 involving any kind of chemical reactions. Meyer^ says “The 
 industry practically developed volumetric analysis. It was first 
 used by Decroizelles and Vauquelin in an empirical way in the 
 chemical industries wdth which they were connected and was finally 
 developed rationally by Gay Lussac, who brought it to a state of 
 perfection not greatly improved upon in many respects.” 
 
 The industries of the earlier chemical history were controlled by 
 other methods of analysis also, crude, perhaps, but serving_a use¬ 
 ful purpose and forming the foundation of the beautiful systems in 
 use to-day. 
 
 In this particular the requirements of the industries of the pres¬ 
 ent day are most exacting. Technical methods as distinguished 
 from scientific methods have passed away, for with rapidity of op¬ 
 eration that many of the processes call for, the utmost accuracy must 
 likewise prevail. This is particularly true of the metallurgical in¬ 
 dustries in which many of the operations must be controlled by 
 analysis from hour to hour. So, too, the utmost accuracy is de¬ 
 manded in all work controlling commercial operations, and fre¬ 
 quently the investigation required to confirm the value of these 
 so-called commercial methods, or the data upon which they are 
 based, brings forth results both as to quality and quantity that are 
 most gratifying. In at least two cases that have come to my 
 knowledge the directors of the laboratories of great educational in¬ 
 stitutions made requests to the directors of large chemical works, 
 asking for descriptions of the analytical methods in daily use in 
 the works in question, and the request was of course cordially 
 granted. 
 
 And if the analytical methods of the technical side are recognized 
 as of value, so too are the experimental methods. In the great 
 German chemical works, where large numbers of chemists are em- 
 
 1 Geschiclite der Cheinie, 339. 
 
 2 
 
18 
 
 SECTTON C. 
 
 ployed, the force is divided into “ laboratoriums Chemiker ” and 
 betriebs Chemiker,” each class having its appointed work:^ the 
 first class devoted to the investigation of new ideas in the smaller 
 way in the laboratory, producing new compounds or investigating 
 new reactions, or, still further, controlling by analysis the operations 
 in the works ; the second class experimenting in a larger way, with 
 larger apparatus and quantities, and even with the normal factory 
 facilities, with either new principles deduced from the results of 
 factory work, or with processes or products worked out in the labo¬ 
 ratory. The results of this combination are extensive and im¬ 
 portant ; most of them are covered by patents, it is true, but they 
 are nevertheless offered to the world, soon became public property 
 and add to the store of knowledge. How much tliis really amounts 
 to is illustrated by the fact that the records show that the works 
 of Fr, Bayer & Co., patented or described in the first half of 1895 
 forty-five processes and products, while during the same period 
 there were issued to the house of Meister Lucius and Brunning 
 thirty-seven patents. The number of specifications for chemical 
 patents^ accepted in Germany from 1889 to 1893 were respectively, 
 4,406,4,680, 5,900, 6,430. Of these patents Dr. Freidlander^ says 
 “ If one could be certain of the excellence of all these compounds, 
 a new era in the color industry would be imminent. Manifestly 
 however even the patentees themselves find it difficult to recognize 
 instant practical value in them. The numerous naphthyldiamine, 
 amido-naphthol and dioxynaphthaline sulphonic acids were pa¬ 
 tented, not, indeed because a special technical interest was claimed 
 for them, but only because they were new and it was scarcely possi¬ 
 ble at once to determine whether they would be applicable in one 
 direction or another.” 
 
 In no direction has the application of the methods in the larger 
 way, either in the laboratory or in the works given richer yields in 
 new material than in the varied uses of the electric current in chem¬ 
 ical work. It has led to the production of new compounds or has 
 increased the means for production of old ones, and through it 
 additions are constantly being made to the store of material of 
 such composition and properties that they must inevitably lead 
 to further new discoveries or the establishment of new principles or 
 laws. It has added greatly to our knowledge of the reactions of 
 
 ’ Caro. Bericlite der Deutsclicn Chemigchen Gesellscliaft, 25. R. 967. 
 
 2 Cheni. Zeit. 1894, 136. •’ Cheni. Zeit. 1894,1184. 
 
ADDRESS BY WILLIAM MCMDRTRIE. 
 
 19 
 
 oxidation and reduction and has made new applications of those 
 phenomena possible. In this connection we may refer to the proc¬ 
 esses of Iloepfner and of Siemens and Ilalske for the extraction 
 of copper from its solutions whereby as the metal is removed from 
 the solution at the cathode, the reduced salts are oxidized at the 
 anode, and the solutions thus brought to the higher state of oxida¬ 
 tion are ready for use on new portions of ore.^ Similar reactions 
 occur in the new process of Ldwenherz for the production of sodium 
 persulphate, a compound new to chemistry and resulting from tlie 
 application of electricity on a scale more extended than is usually 
 employed for laboratory work. Sulphuric acid and sodium sulphate 
 solutions, separated by a porous diaphragm are electrolyzed with 
 the anode immersed in the sodium sulphate. The resulting com¬ 
 pound is comparatively unstable, yielding up its oxygen with the 
 production of acid sodium sulphate. And since this latter may 
 readily be neutralized by sodium carbonate, the new compound is 
 recommended for all uses to which oxidation may be applied:'^ 
 
 With the production of hypochlorites and the chlorates we are 
 already familiar. It grows rapidly with the cheapening of artificial 
 power or the utilization of natural power, until eventually the 
 world’s demand for them must be covered by materials from this 
 source. The reaction necessary to this is further utilized in the 
 production of such compounds as chloral, iodized phenol and other 
 similar substances.^ 
 
 In the field of reductions reference may with interest be made 
 to the late discoveries of Gattermann and the color works of Fr. 
 Bayer & Co., that electrolysis is readily applied to the production 
 of a large number of compounds not heretofore produced techni¬ 
 cally but for which technical uses constantly exist. Their earlier 
 discovery of the application of electrolysis to tlie reduction of ni¬ 
 trobenzene to amido-phenol with intermediate production of phenyl- 
 hydro xylamine finds wider application than they at first supposed 
 and will doubtless constitute the starting point of a new line of 
 syntheses of the carbon compounds.'^ This reaction is similar to 
 that of zinc dust in alkaline solutions, preferably in alcohol con¬ 
 taining calcium chloride whereby, as noticed by Wohl and Bam- 
 
 1 Zeitschrift fur Angewandte Cliemie, 1893. 
 
 2 Zeitschrift fur Angewandte Cheniie, 1895, 349. 
 
 3 Ohem, Zeit. xix. < Chem. Zeit. xix, 1111. 
 
20 
 
 SECTION C. 
 
 ber^er, phenylhydroxylamine is produced instead of the aniline 
 produced by the reduction with acetic acid and iron. 
 
 The electrical smelting furnace has opened up a wide field of ex¬ 
 periment and investigation as fascinating as it is new, and it is to 
 be expected that many additions will be made to the list of new 
 substances through its use. The increased production of chromium 
 and the crystallization of carbon by Moissan,^ the production of 
 carborundum by Acheson, the production of the various carbides 
 by iMoissan, Willson, Borcher and others are of great interest from 
 both the technical and scientific side. Whether the calcium carbide, 
 which has been so much discussed and seems such a valuable mate¬ 
 rial for the production of acetylene, will at once take and hold the 
 high position assigned to it by its inventors is still an open ques¬ 
 tion. But whether it sfiall find extended application in the indus¬ 
 tries or not, whether it will prove too expensive to compete with 
 benzene as an enricherof illuminating gas, or as a raw material for 
 the synthesis of alcohol or other substances in a commercial way ; 
 it will serve as a convenient and sufficiently inexpensive source of 
 acelylene for experimental purposes and it will therefore without 
 doubt still become the starting point for many valuable investiga¬ 
 tions. Nikodem Caro^ has already applied the method of Berthelot 
 to the synthesis of alcohol with acetylene liberated from calcium 
 carbide and shown that the yields are so far from the theoretical 
 amounts that immediate application in this direction is at least 
 doubtful. But the results illustrate the possibilities of the ad¬ 
 vancement of the science through these technical or semi-technical 
 methods. 
 
 It would be impossible in such a discussion as this to cover more 
 than a few of the manifold ways in which the science of chemistry 
 has been advanced by the industries, their wants and their wastes 
 'rhe former have led to the establishment of the great systems of 
 technical schools provided with the magnificent library and labo¬ 
 ratory equipments, the state and national experiment stations, the 
 various official boards and commissions for the study of those 
 questions which immediately affect the general welfare, and from 
 each and all of these sources come reports of advances which are 
 most gratifying. The latter,^ that is, the industrial wastes, gave us 
 
 > Cheiuische Industrie, 181)5,231. ^ Chem. Industrie, 1895,226. 
 
 s Roscoe and Schorlenimer Treatise on Cheinietiy. in. pt. in, 15. 
 
ADDRESS BY WILLIAM MCMURTRIE. 
 
 21 
 
 new elements and new compounds and so furnished the material 
 for the establishment of new laws. The soap-boiler’s lye gave 
 iodine, the wastes of the salt gardens gave bromine, the mother 
 liquors from the springs gave caesium and rubidium, the acid cham¬ 
 bers selenium and thallium and the mines and metallurgical works 
 gave gallium and germanium. 
 
 Whether we consider this side of the subject of the advancement 
 of our science from one direction or another, we shall find am[)le 
 encouragement for combination of forces and for closer union of 
 professional and technical workers in our general field of activity. 
 For the benefits from one side must bring reciprocal benefits from 
 the other. 1 The principle of action and reaction is as true and 
 as applicable here as in the great domain of physics. Necessity is 
 the most natural stimulant to effort and honest investigation must 
 call to her aid all knowledge whatever its source and all methods 
 however they may be acquired, and where this is the moving spirit 
 progress is most active. Dr. Ostwald says most justly that “ the 
 secret of German industrial chemistry is the recognition that-science 
 is the best practice.” Is it not equally true that practice, which 
 leads to the development of truth, is the best science? 
 
 1 Caro. Ber. d, deutch. Chein. Gessells. 25, R. 991. Meyer. Geschichte der Chemie 
 469-470. 
 
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