THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY L30.7 W ' 75 b • ■ 1 < '' ; » AB81CULTURAL UIMRY Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 https://archive.org/details/whycostsofmilkva3453mcna Bulletin 345 WHY COSTS OF MILK VARY Possibilities of Cow Testing Associations AGRICULTURAL. EXPERIMENT STATION, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN, MADISON COOPERATING WITH THE STATE DEPARTMENT OF MARKETS DIGEST Milk costs are necessary in order to determine profits or losses of the herd. Page 3 Cow testing associations are a possible source of milk cost figures. Pages 4-5 Feed, labor, building and equipment cost are the chief items which enter into the cost of milk. Pages 6-9 Calves, manure, hides and insurance are items of credit. Page 9 Costs per hundredweight of milk varied from $1.88 to $4.01 for dif- ferent months of the year. Pages 9-10 Feed and bedding represented 54 per cent, man labor 25.8 per cent and other costs 21.2 per cent of the net cost for the year. Pages 10-12 The costs of keeping a cow a year were higher in winter than in summer. Pages 12-14 Months of low production are months of high costs per hundred- weight of milk produced. Pages 14-15 It is fundamental that the farmer know the pounds of feed and hours of labor required to produce a hundredweight of milk. Pages 15-17 As the production of milk increased from 5,500 pounds to 8,600 pounds per cow the cost per hundredweight decreased from $3.82 to $2.64. Pages 17-19 Heavy grain rations are generally found with large production, but it is true also that not all cows will respond to heavy grain rations. Pages 19-20 ^ 30,7 WOS'A' : 345'-B i ^3 ^ 0 , «*2 ^3 O yk Why Costs of Milk Vary P. E. McNall and D. R. Mitchell* P ROFITS IN tHE PRODUCTION OF MILK depend on the difference between the cost and the selling price. The dairyman’s first need is to have facts on milk costs, because his profits depend entirely on the extent to which he can produce below his selling price. Since he, individually, is practically un- able to influence the price he receives, his whole effort should be directed toward the lowering of his production costs. Any intelligent effort to reduce costs requires, first, that the costs be definitely known ; and, second, that the data be complete enough to make possible a study of the factors involved. A dairyman should know definitely the influence of production on costs, the comparative economy of summer and winter feeding, and the annual and monthly distribution of costs for feed, bed- ding, labor, and other expenses. He should know, for his own herd and his own conditions, the unit requirements in terms of pounds of feed and bedding, and hours of labor for the produc- tion of 100 pounds of milk. In other words, he should know his own business. If he would reduce costs, he must work from facts, not guesswork. The dairyman’s first need is to have facts on milk costs. This need has been partially met by the 70 or more cow-testing asso- ciations in the state that have done and are doing splendid work. They have increased profits by getting rid of the “boarder cows” and by the feeding of “balanced rations.” These associations are working in the right direction, but have not gone far enough in their record keeping to furnish the necessary cost data. The cow tester’s record indicates whether a given cow pays for her feed, but does not show whether she produces at a profit or loss. This is because the tester’s work is essentially a production and feed-cost study. It does not include any of the following factors which are necessary to a thorough understanding of the dairy- man’s problem: •Mr. Mitchell personally conducted the field study and arranged the data. He also contributed largely to the narrative part of the bulletin. 4 Wisconsin Bulletin 345 1. Labor costs. 2. Bedding costs. 3. Miscellaneous costs, such as building and equipment costs, including depreciation, insurance, upkeep and repairs, milk hauling, feed grinding, veterinary. 4. The unit requirements in terms of pounds of feed and bed- ding and hours of labor per cow and for the production of 100 pounds of milk. (The tester obtains the necessary data for determining the unit requirement for feed, but sel- dom uses it.) 5. Manure, calves, and miscellaneous returns to the producing herd. 6. Net profits or losses of the farm business. It is possible to obtain more complete dairy cost figures by supplementing the work of the present cow-testing associations. Associations using a more comprehensive plan for study may be distinguished from the ordinary testing association by the term “milk-testing cost association.” The tester in charge does the regular testing work and, in addition, collects the cost data from each farm, monthly. He takes the dairy inventory on each farm, notes inventory changes, figures interest, taxes, depreciation, and insurance; keeps record of feed, bedding, and labor; and, in short, keeps a complete cost record of the dairy enterprise. This results in overcoming the present inadequacy of the cow tester’s record, by furnishing to the farmers facts necessary to deter- mine their milk costs. Whether this plan will work for any given association depends upon : (1) The qualifications of the tester. He must possess more than average ability, as he cannot hope to succeed unless he is accurate with figures and has a working knowledge of accounting principles. He must be rapid enough to carry the extra burden of work, and enthusiastic enough to com- plete his job. (2) The cooperation given the tester by the members of the association. They must cooperate by helping the tester in every way pos- sible to get accurate cost data. This will usually require about one hour a month of the farmer’s time. As a changing member- ship is undesirable, cooperators should not start the work unless they are willing to see it through. Why Costs of Milk Vary 5 That such a plan is workable was shown last year (Sept 1, 1920, to Aug. 31, 1921) by the cow-testing association in the towns of Oconomowoc and Summit, in Waukesha county. Cost records were taken together with regular cow-testing work on 24 dairy farms. The results are shown in the following pages. SEASONAL DIFFERENCES AFFECT COSTS Many investigations have been summarized on the yearly basis with little or no attention being paid to the variations in cost from month to month. This method is not altogether satisfactory be- cause the seasonal differences in the cost vary too much from the average yearly cost to be ignored. For example, in the work on the following pages the cost of producing 100 pounds of milk varied from 62.3 per cent of the yearly average in May to 132.8 per cent of the yearly average in November. If the average yearly cost were used as a cost fixing basis, the production of November milk would prove very unprofitable, while the produc- tion of May milk would yield a considerable return. This, of course, would tend to concentrate the production of milk in May. It is evident, if a constant supply of milk is to be maintained at all seasons, that the price paid must vary, at least approximately, with the seasonal variations in the cost of production. These monthly costs are essential to a study of this character, and are included herein with the costs for the year and for the winter and summer seasons. The actual costs in dollars and cents are secondary to the de- termination of the basic requirements in pounds of feed and bedding and in hours of labor for the production of 100 pounds of milk. These costs are given only for comparison rather than for use as absolute cost figures. BASIS OF STUDY The producing herd was the basis of study. No record was kept of the feed and labor requirements of the young stock. Calves born during the year were credited to the herd at five days of age, and heifers freshening for the first time were charged into the herd at an estimated average value. The producing herd was considered a separate farm enterprise with the cow as the unit. 6 Wisconsin Bulletin 345 TERRITORY COVERED The farms included in this study were in the towns of Ocono- mowoc and Summit, in Waukesha county. They varied in size from 56 to 320 acres, the average being 125 acres. The cows in the herds varied in number from 8 to 28, the average being 16 cows. Four of the herds were purebred, ten were part purebred and part grade, and nine were all grade. Every farm had one or more silos and, with one exception, every herd was headed by a purebred sire. Seventeen of the herds were Holstein, four were Guernsey, one was Jersey, and two were of mixed breeds. The farms varied considerably in size, breed of cattle, and system of management, but are fairly representative of the country. METHODS OF OBTAINING DATA The data were collected along with regular cow-testing work. The dairy accountant in charge did the testing and in addition collected the cost data from each farm each month. He was in the field during the entire time of the study and his personal knowledge of the farms was a great help in getting careful esti- mates of feeds consumed, bedding used, hours of labor ex- pended, receipts, expenditures, and inventorial changes. The data were collected each month for the preceding month and en- tered on special forms printed for the purpose. FORMS USED IN COLLECTION OF DATA The forms used for entering the monthly data for each farm consisted of one for the investment, one for the income, two for the expenses, and one for the summary.* A brief description of the method of handling the main items of expense and income follows : I. Investment This includes only that part of the farm investment used ex- clusively for the milking herd. There are four main divisions : 1. Land used for dairy buildings and yard. 2. Buildings used by the dairy herd. 3. Dairy equipment and machinery. 4. Milking herd, including the sire. •These forms were prepared by D. H. Otis, director of the Banker- Farmer Exchange, and J. E. Stallard, former County Agent for Wau- kesha county. Before being used in this work, they were approved by the Department of Agricultural Economics of the University of Wis- consin. Why Costs of Milk Vary 7 The buildings, equipment, and machinery were inventoried con- servatively on the basis of their cost minus depreciation. All grade cows were valued at $75 per head, and all purebred co\Ys at $150 per head. Bulls were inventoried from $200 to $1,250 each, depending on their individuality and breeding. II. Items of Expense A 1. Depreciation This is shown each month through a decrease in the inventorial valuation. Three per cent annually was figured on the buildings and silos, and 10 per cent annually on the equipment and machin- ery. No direct method of figuring depreciation on the cattle was used. However, if an animal was bought or sold for a sum greater or less than her inventorial valuation, the difference was figured as an income or expense. The rates of depreciation for buildings and equipment were the co-operating farmers’ esti- mates of the usual rate for that area. 2. Taxes The tax receipts for the preceding year were obtained and the charge to the dairy was based upon the values of that year. This charge was distributed as a monthly cost throughout the year. 3. Insurance This charge was difficult to determine, as the majority of the farmers belonged to a town co-operative insurance company, where the losses were pro rated among the members as they oc- curred. Since no fixed premiums were paid, the amount charged monthly was an estimated average based upon previous annual insurance costs. 4. Interest The interest rate used was 6 per cent per annum or per cent figured monthly on the total investment at the beginning of the month. The item is handled separately so its influence on this set of records may be observed. 5. Upkeep and Repair on Buildings The upkeep expense included painting, alterations, and minor repairs on the buildings. If the repairs materially increased the value of the buildings, they were considered improvements, and were reflected in an increase in inventory rather than an item of expense. 8 Wisconsin Bulletin 345 6. Feed (Except Pasture) Feeds were charged each month at the average local retail price prevailing for that month. For purchased feeds, a hauling charge of 50 cents per ton mile was added, and for home-grown feeds a similar charge for hauling was deducted from the local price. For such feeds as silage and green corn that have no quoted market valuation, the estimated farm value was used. This was $8 a ton for silage and $8 a ton for green corn. These prices are high because the corn crop fed was that grown in the summer of 1920 when all costs of growing and ensiling the crop were highest. 7. Pasture The first plan was to determine the actual cost of pasture on the basis of acreage per cow. This plan was unsatisfactory be- cause the cows were pastured at one time or another on practically the total farm acreage, and it was impossible to determine with any degree of accuracy the value of the gleanings from the vari- ous fields. It was finally decided to charge a uniform rate of $20 a year or $3.33 a month per head for pasture. The increase over the charge for permanent pasture is the estimated value, as given by the cooperators, of the gleanings from other fields. 8. Labor The cost of labor is the cash paid for wages plus the estimated value of room, board and washing furnished the laborer by the operator’s family. This cost averaged approximately 30 cents an hour for all hired labor. The operators’ time was considered of greater value than that of the hired help. A uniform rate of 30 cents an hour was charged for hired labor, and 40 cents an hour for the operator’s labor. 9. Managerial Ability and Risks No business can long exist without intelligent management. This is especially true of dairying where the closest possible care is necessary at all times if the herd is to produce the best returns. The dairyman must be a shrewd buyer and seller of feeds and stock, a constructive breeder, a scientific feeder of balanced ra- tions, and an executive in carrying out his plans and in the man- aging of his help. He must be continually on the job, as even an hour of neglect at a critical time may mean a lessening of pro- duction or even, in time, a failure of the business. This some- thing-plus in knowledge, effort, and results, above the manual Why Costs of Milk Vary 9 labor of chores is “Wages of Management.” It should be re- flected in increased returns to the operator and is entered as a cost merely for comparison. The dairy business, like all others, is subject to certain unavoid- able risks that form a legitimate part of the costs of production. The dairyman may temporarily lose his market through the fail- ure of his receiving plants or through strikes. At the time of the hoof-and-mouth disease, the quarantine of stock caused dairymen to lose heavily through inability to dispose of surplus animals or to purchase needed ones. As one year’s records on a small num- ber of herds will not supply the required data to determine risk items, an arbitrary charge is made. Ten per cent of all other expenses was allowed to cover risks and managerial ability. III. Credit Items 1. Calves All grade calves were credited to the herd at $10 each when five days of age, and all purebred calves were credited at $40 each when the same age. 2. Manure It was assumed that a 1,000-pound cow would void 12 tons of manure a year or one ton a month. Cows of greater or less weight would void proportionate amounts. All manure was cred- ited at $2 per ton. 3. Miscellaneous Returns Under this heading are returns from hides, feed sacks, and in- surance. It was an almost negligible quantity, amounting to $23.06 for the 24 farms during the entire year. Very few hides were sold, as the price offered did not justify the labor of skin- ning. GENERAL DISTRIBUTION OF COSTS Table I (see p. 21) is a financial statement on the per-cow basis. It shows the expenses, the credits, and the net costs per hundredweight of milk produced for the year, for the month, and for the winter and summer seasons. The average cost per hundredweight for the year was $3.02. The variations in cost were considerable, ranging from $1.88 in May to $4.01 in November, and from $2.61 for the six summer months to $3.40 for the six winter months. The distribution of costs for the year, the summer, and the winter follows : 10 Wisconsin Bulletin 345 Feed and Bedding Labor Other Costs Year 54.0% 25.8% 20.2% Winter 58.2% 24.7% 17.1% Summer 48.3% 28.3% 23.4% Feed and bedding form a larger percentage of winter costs than they do of summer costs and are the most variable of the three costs, showing a maximum variation of 9.9 per cent, while labor varies 3.6 per cent and other costs 6.3 per cent. Per cent or Net Cost Represented by Feed 026 ' 55.8 51.8 56.0 44.7 39.2 47.0 3 9.9 53.5 60.7 623 6 t.b M.20 FEED EXPENSE JAN FEB MAR APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OGT. NOV DEG. Chart No. 1 — This chart shows the proportion of the net cost of pro- ducing milk represented by feed and bedding. I. Feed and Bedding This was by far the largest single item of expense, averaging 54 per cent of the net cost for the year. The variations from month to month are shown in Chart No. 1 and range from 39.2 per cent in June to 62.8 per cent in November. As would be ex- pected, the feed expense for the pasture months is considerably less than for the barn-feeding months. Expressed in money terms, milk was produced 72 cents per hundredweight cheaper for feed in the summer than in the winter. As each cow produced 3,359.1 pounds of milk during the summer, this meant a difference in cost of $24.19 per cow during this period. This would appear to con- firm the judgment of Wisconsin dairymen in maintaining an ade- quate pasture acreage, even on the high-priced lands of the south- ern counties. The loss in weight of cows on pasture is some offset Why Costs of Milk Vary 11 to this advantage, as this loss must be made up during the winter months. It is impossible to state to what extent this loss offsets the economy of pasture feeding. II. Man Labor Expense Labor expense is much less variable than feed. As shown in Chart No. 2, somewhat less labor is required during the summer than during the winter months. The difference is not as great as might be expected, as the time required to get the cows to and from pasture partially offsets the time saved in feeding and cleaning out the barn. The rather sharp rise in labor costs in September was due to the small volume of milk produced. The saving in labor for the pasture months amounted to 10 cents per hundred pounds of milk produced, or $3.37 per cow. Although Per cent or Net Expense Represented by Labor 24.7 23.9 223 27.6 29 3 290 27.6 243 30.9 28.5 242 24.4 , 400 s ^320 * ^ 2.40 k 8 do JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT NOV DEC. Chart No. 2 — This chart shows the proportion of the net cost of pro- ducing milk represented by labor. the saving in labor during the pasture season is not large from the money standpoint, it permits the dairyman to spend 18 hours more in the field during the summer for every milk cow kept than he could if the cows had been barn-fed the year around. With a herd of 16 milk cows this would amount to 1.6 more hours per day available for field work. As the summer is the season when the dairyman is hardest pressed for time and help, the advantage of pasture from the standpoint of labor economy is apparent. 12 Wisconsin Bulletin 345 III. Other Costs Feed, bedding, and labor constitutes 79.8 per cent of the yearly cost, 83 per cent of the winter cost, and 76.6 per cent of the sum- mer cost. The remainder of the expenses is composed of interest, taxes, insurance, and repairs. Variations in costs other than feed, bedding, and labor, Chart No 3, are due to changes in credit items, or abnormally high costs of one kind or another. For ex- ample, the high cost in March was due to the loss of a $1,250 purebred Holstein bull. The high cost in August was due to a decreased milk production for that month. The low cost in Octo- ber was caused bv the heavy calf.crop, 58 calves, or 17 per cent of Per cent or Net Coot Represented by Peed and Labor 67.5 79.7 74.1 63.7 73.9 66.2 74.7 64.2 044 693 87.0 06.0 JAN. FES. MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT NOW DEC. i uu ia.L»or repi esenla Hum 04 lu bV'yo ui l ue net cost of producing milk. the total for the year, were born in that month. The credits for the year averaged 15 per cent of the net cost, or $32.59 per cow. Of this, $24.38 was for manure, $8.15 for net herd increase, and $.06 for miscellaneous returns. COSTS OF KEEPING A COW The net cost of keeping a cow for the year was $215.25 (Table I). Of this, $116.66 was for feed and bedding, $56 was for labor, and $42.59 was for other costs. The winter costs were $127.41, compared to $87.84 for the summer. Why Costs of Milk Vary 13 Table II (see p. 22) gives a detailed statement of the pounds of feed and bedding, hours of labor and days on pasture per cow by the year, season, and month. From this table a farmer may figure the approximate cost of keeping a cow for any given month by applying the costs for that month to the quan- tities listed. A comparison of the feed required for the year, the summer, and the winter follows : Year Winter Summer Winter Excess Summer Excess Concentrates Succulent roughage 1555.2 tbs. 8430.0 lbs. 2866.7 lbs. 168 days 883.2 lbs. 149.2 hrs. 1073.0 lbs. 5904.5 lbs. 2404.1 lbs. 482.3 lbs. 2525.5 lbs. 462.6 lbs. 168 days 85.8 lbs. 65.6 hrs. 590.7 lbs. 3379.0 lbs. 1943.5 lbs. 168 days Dry roughage Pasture Bedding 797.4 lbs. 83.6 hrs. 711.6 lbs. 18.0 hrs. Labor These requirements are for a cow averaging 7,115 pounds of 3.78 per cent milk per year. The winter requirements are con- siderably higher than the summer requirements. The greater cost for the winter is represented by the value of the winter ex- cess minus the value of the 168 days on pasture. For the year of this study, the difference was $38.52 in favor of summer feeding. The difference in costs other than feed, bedding, and labor was $1.05 in favor of the summer, making the net cost per cow for feed, bedding, and labor $39.57 less for the summer than for the winter period. Minor items of cow cost are inventorial decrease, calf loss, and losses from the herd through death, sale, and other causes. (a) Inventorial decrease The inventorial decrease amounted to $10.95 per cow, which is 9 per cent of the average valuation of cows. The inventorial decrease added to the herd decrease or increase will give the total cow decrease or increase for the herd. (b) Calf crop The calf crop for the year was 84.8 per cent. The number and percentage of total dropped by months follows : Month Number dropped Per cent total Month Number dropped Per cent total January 49 15% July 6 2% February 32 10% August 6 “ /o 2% March 35 10% September . 28 8% April 23 7% October . 58 17% May 19 6% November . 45 *• /o 13% June 9 3% December 24 /o 7% Total calves dropped 334 Total cows 394 Calf crop percent 84.8 Total calves dropped 334 Total cows 394 Calf crop percent 84.8 14 Wisconsin Bulletin 345 Approximately 85 calves were dropped to every 100 cows. There was a decided tendency toward winter calving, as 72 per cent of the calves were dropped in the six months October to March, inclusive. The majority of the farmers preferred fall calving, and had as many of their cows come in at that time as possible. (c) Losses from the herd The losses of cows from death and sales are shown below : Means of disposal Number Per cent of average number - in herd 10 2.5% Sold (total) 103 26.1% For breeding 40 10.1% To butcher 37 9.4% Condemned for tuberculosis 24 6.1% Slaughtered for home use 2 • 5% The total number of cows lost to the herd during the year averages 28 out of every hundred. However, the 24 condemned for tuberculosis represent an abnormal loss. If we eliminate this, the net loss to the herd would be 22 out of every hundred. Should this rate of loss continue, the cows would stay in the herd an average of about 4.5 years. COSTS PER HUNDREDWEIGHT OF MILK Table III (see p. 22) gives the distribution of costs and cred- its in the production of 100 pounds of milk. The items of cost vary greatly through the differences in cost between summer and winter feeding and through variations in the volume of milk produced. That production is one of the most important factors influencing milk cost is shown clearly in Chart No. 4. The months of high production are usually the months of low cost — the production line generally being the inverse of the cost line. In March the cost per hundredweight is greater despite increased production per cow because of the loss of a purebred bull valued at $1,250. In some years a slight increase in cost might be expected at this time because of dairymen running low on farm grains and therefore feeding proportionately larger quantities of high-priced mixed feeds, but such was not the case in this instance. Between May 1 and June 1, the cost remains practically stationary in the face of a rather sharp de- crease in production. This is the period of change from barn Why Costs of Milk Vary 15 (jnait iNo, 4 — Montns of high production are months of low cost per hundredweight. feeding to pasture feeding and the shrinkage in production just about balances the decreased cost. Whether it would have paid to supplement the pasture at this point is an in- teresting question Personally, it is believed that the summer feeding of silage at this time can decrease the cost by maintain- ing the milk flow. From September 1 to November 1, the cost increases with greater production. This is the period of greatest calving, 25 per cent of the total number of calves being dropped at this time. A study of this chart will emphasize the importance, from the standpoint of the economical production of milk, of maintaining the herd at a high standard of production. UNIT REQUIREMENTS PER HUNDRED POUNDS OF MILK Table IV (see p. 23) gives the unit requirements in terms of pounds of feed and bedding, and hours of labor for the produc- tion of 100 pounds of milk. The yearly requirements based on the total production of 2,803,356 pounds of 3.78 per cent milk were : Concentrates 21.9 pounds 118.5 pounds 40.3 pounds 2.4 days 12.4 pounds Succulent roughage Dry roughage Pasture Bedding Labor 2.1 hours 16 Wisconsin Bulletin 345 Feed, bedding, and labor are 79.8 per cent of the net cost. So long as these proportions maintain, the average cost for any given year can be determined by the application of the average costs for that year to the quantities given above. By the use of this table a dairyman can approximate his milk cost for any month of the year by applying the prices for that month to the quantities given in the table. For example, if he desires to find his March cost per hundred pounds of milk pro- duced, he would use the quantities for March as given in Table No. 4 with the average prices prevailing for that month in his section. Assuming for the purpose of illustrating prices for this month, his March cost would be: Concentrates Succulent roughage Dry roughage Bedding Labor Value of feed, bedding, and labor Per cent of net cost Net cost of March milk per hundredweight. 28.5 lbs. at $30 per ton $ .43 142.0 lbs. at $ 6 per ton 43 55.7 lbs. at $20 per ton 56 19.1 lbs. at $ 8 per ton 08 2.0 hrs. at 25 cents 42 , $1 .92 .74.1% . $2.59 In using a formula of this kind it is assumed : 1. That the dairyman uses feed, bedding, and labor in about the same proportions as in the formula. 2. That his cows have an average production per year of about 7,000 pounds of milk. 3. That his feed, bedding, and labor charges bear the same proportionate relation to his net costs as in this study. Any radi- cal difference on these points would affect the accuracy of the results. The concentrate ration, both in kind and amount, is most likely to vary. In this study, the concentrate ration fed contained 42 per cent of the purchased feeds, mostly bran and oil meal. This pro- portion is the approximate requirement for a balanced ration on ordinary farms. The ratio between concentrates fed and milk pro- duction was 1 to 4.57 ; that is, for every pound of concentrates fed, 4.57 pounds of milk were produced. This ratio of concentrates to milk is normal for all but forced feeding, a method not practiced on most farms. The average production of the 24 herds, namely, 7,115 pounds, is almost identical with the average production for the cow-testing associations in the state. To assume that the ratio of feed, bedding, and labor requirements to the net cost, which has been worked out for these farms, holds for all farms would Why Costs of Milk Vary 17 be to assume that the costs, other than feed and labor, would vary from time to time to the same degree as the costs for feed, bed- ding, and labor. That is, if the charges for feed, bedding, and labor decreased one-half, other costs would decrease one-half also. Because most of the fixed or less changeable items of cost are included in “Other Costs” an increase in feed and labor cost will tend to decrease the relative value of the “other costs” items. Likewise a decrease in the value of the feed or labor items will tend to increase the relative value of the “other costs” items. If cost formulae are used with an intelligent understanding of their limitations, they are a great aid to the farmer in finding his approximate milk costs. Table V (see p. 24) gives a grouping of the herds accord- ing to the cost per hundred pounds. It will be noticed that 63.8 per cent of the milk was produced at average cost or less. Theoretically, if the price paid for milk were based on its average cost, only two-thirds of the supply would be available, because farmers would refuse to produce at a loss. With the decrease in supply would come an increase in the price offered. This would stimulate production and make it possible for some, whose previous costs had been above the average, to now produce milk at a profit. The final adjust- ment would probably find the price somewhere between the aver- age and the maximum cost. This statement presupposes: (1) That the farmers know their costs; and (2) that knowing them they would refuse to produce at a loss. Neither of these supposi- tions is entirely true. Probably the greater part of the milk reaching the market is produced by dairymen who have little or no idea of what it costs them. If dairymen did know their costs and were compelled for any considerable period to accept less, the majority would probably go out of the dairy business, or, at least, reduce their dairy operations. There are a few dairymen, however, who probably would continue to produce at a loss be- cause they could do no better at any other work. INFLUENCE OF PRODUCTION ON MILK COSTS This subject has already been discussed in a general way from the standpoint of the average cow and the average cost. Pro- duction was found to be the greatest factor influencing costs, the months of high production being the months of low cost and vice versa, both for the individual cow and for the herd. Can we 18 Wisconsin Bulletin 345 infer from this that the cow producing 8,000 pounds will do so at a lower cost per hundredweight than will a cow producing 6,000 pounds? In other words, how do cows of varying production influence milk costs? In an attempt to throw some light on this question the 24 herds were arranged in the order of their average milk production per cow. The herds were then divided into three equal groups called Group I, Group II, and Group III. Group I contained the 8 herds of lowest average production, Group II the herds of me- dium productoin, and Group III the herds of highest average pro- duction per cow. A detailed study from the standpoint of rela- tive economy was then made, the results of which are shown in the following tables. The average production of each of the lots is shown in Table VI (see p. 24). Group I averaged 5,554 pounds, Group II, 7,130 pounds, and Group III, 8,622 pounds. The difference between each group is about 1,500 pounds. The requirements per cow for the various groups, Table VII (see p. 24) show that in general the roughage requirements were about the same. The concentrate requirements were pro- portional to the milk yield. In other words, the higher produc- ing cows did not get any more silage and hay than did the low producing ones, but did obtain a more liberal feeding of the grain ration. The pasture days, pounds of bedding, and hours of labor show no very significant variations, as these factors are largely independent of production. When the yearly requirements for these groups are reduced to the requirements for 100 pounds of milk, however, very signifi- cant variations are noted, the higher producing cows showing marked economy in all items except concentrates. Table VIII (see p. 24) shows that the requirements per hundred pounds of milk for cows in Group III are less than those in Group I by the following amounts : 3.6 pounds of concentrates, 28.6 pounds of silage, 26.4 pounds of hay, 1.2 pasture days, 4.8 pounds of bedding, and .7 hours of labor. The ratio of concen- trates to milk produced varies but slightly for the different groups. The ratio was 1 to 4.06 for Group I and 1 to 4.76 for Group III. The total difference in cost of feed, bedding, and labor, using average prices for the year, amounted to 88 cents per hundred pounds. There was also a difference in “other costs” in favor of Group III of 30 cents, making the total dif- Why Costs of Milk Vary 19 ference between the highest producing and the lowest produc- ing group $1.18 per hundred — a considerable saving. Group II produced milk 81 cents per hundred cheaper than Group I. These results are as should be expected, because most of the expenses of milk production are as large for the low as for the high producing cows. It takes as good a barn to house one as the other, just as much labor, bedding, days on pasture, and almost as much for other costs. The economy of the higher producer lies in the fact that this expense is divided into a larger volume of milk, making the cost per hundred pounds less. The economy of milk production, then, lies largely in the pro- duction of the individual cow. This fact should emphasize the prime importance of breeding, selecting and testing for produc- tion, and for the vigorous weeding out of all cows unable to meet a fair production requirement. QUANTITY OF GRAIN TO FEED The quantity of grain in the ration is closely related to any dis- cussion of production. If production is the largest factor of milk costs, to what extent will it pay a dairyman to feed for produc- tion? How much grain should he feed, and will forced feeding pay? Cost figures obtained by milk-testing cost associations will aid the dairyman in answering these questions by making pos- sible a comparison of his own unit requirements with those of the average for his neighborhood. From Table VII it is seen that Group Ill’s grain requirement per cow is 318 pounds greater and that its cow cost is $13.30 greater than are those of Group II. Did the heavier feeding pay? Table VIII, which is Table VII reduced to the one hundred pound basis, shows that Group III, in spite of heavier feeding and added costs per cow, produced milk cheaper by 37 cents a hundredweight than did Group II. This was made possible by his increased production that effected economies in all cost items except concentrates. The heavier feeding of grain was justified in this case because of decreased cost per hundredweight of milk produced. Will it pay Group III to feed still heavier? This will depend on the degree to which these cows will respond to extra feed, and also to the existing production costs for feed, labor, and other items. The only method of determining this is by experimenting, 20 Wisconsin Bulletin 345 and interpreting results from milk cost data. From Table VIII we find that Group Ill’s grain requirement per hundred pounds of milk is almost the same as Group II. In other words, Group III gave proportionately as much milk for grain fed as did Group II and therefore so long as any added grain will yield the same proportionate increase in milk, the extra feeding will pay. This is clear, because each increase would add nothing to Group Ill’s grain cost per hundredweight of milk and would mean increased economies in all other cost items. As long as Group III can ob- tain proportionate increases in milk, this group is decreasing its production costs. The next question is, to what extent will it pay to feed beyond this point? It is true that as soon as added grain brings diminish- ing returns in milk, the grain requirement per hundred pounds of milk will increase and will add to the production costs. But it is true also that for every ircrease in milk flow resulting from the heavier feeding, there will be savings in all other costs. These economies will make it profitable to feed somewhat past the be- ginning of diminishing returns for. grain. The concentrate ration could profitably be increased to that point where the cost of the last increase of grain would just equal the saving on the fixed charges such as roughage, labor, and housing due to the increased milk flow. To feed more would be to increase costs. Why Costs of Milk Vary 21 TABLE I —DISTRIBUTION OF COSTS PER COW. (SIX WINTER OR BARN-FEEDING MONTHS.) Yearly Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. Winter Months Production Milk Fat Test, per cent pounds 7115.2 268.7 3.78 pounds 521.7 19.9 3.82 pounds 556.9 21.2 3.80 pounds 601.4 23.1 3.85 pounds 620.4 23.9 3.85 pounds 710.6 26.9 3.79 pounds 732.3 26.7 3.64 pounds 3746.0 141.7 3.78 Items of expense Feed and bedding Labor Interest Taxes, insurance, repairs. Net herd decrease $116.66 56.00 21.12 4.79 $ 13.15 5.10 1.79 .34 $ 13.45 5.37 1.69 .39 $ 13.68 5.41 1.78 .30 $ 11.43 4.89 1.77 .30 $ 12.38 5.34 1.77 .31 1.24 .76 1.28 2.85 $ 25.93 $ 10.27 5.14 1.76 .30 $ 74.35 31.24 10.56 1.94 Bldgs, and equip, depre- ciation Miscellaneous Managerial wage, risks, etc Total 5.09 17.14 27.04 $247.84 .30 1.53 2.53 $ 24.74 .47 1.50 2.70 $ 25.57 .73 1.19 2.96 $ 26.05 2.83 2.57 $ 23.79 .74 1.33 2.29 $ 21.83 2.05 9.66 15.90 $145.70 Returns not milk Net increase Miscellaneous $ 8.15 .06 24.38 $ 1.69 $ 1.60 .02 2.05 $ 2.20 $ .26 $ 1.33 $ 5.83 .04 12.42 Manure Bldgs, and equip, apprecia- tion 2.09 2.07 .96 2.05 2.05 Total $ 32.59 $ 3.82 $ 3.67 $ 4.29 $ 3.29 $ 2.05 $ 3.38 $ 18.29 Net cost Net cost of milk per cwt Net cost of butterfat per lb.. $215.25 3.02 .80 $ 20.92 4.01 1.05 $ 21.90 3.93 1.03 $ 21.76 3.60 .94 $ 20.50 3.30 .83 $ 23.88 3.36 .89 $ 18.45 2.52 .69 $127.41 3.40 .90 (SIX SUMMER OR PASTURE-FEEDING MONTHS) May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Summe Months Production Milk pounds 784.3 pounds 699.9 pounds 516.1 pounds 464.3 pounds 412.8 16.4 pounds 491.7 18.8 pounds 3369.1 127.0 3.77 Fat 29.0 26.0 19.2 17.7 Test, percent 3.71 3.72 3.80 3.97 3.83 Items of expense Feed and bedding $ 6.78 $ 5.20 $ 6.22 $ 5.89 $ 7.66 4.43 1.79 $ 10.58 4.98 1.80 .33 $ 42.31 24.76 10.56 2.85 Uahor 4.26 3.81 3.64 3.64 Interest 1.76 1.75 1.73 1.73 Taxes, insurance, repairs .55 .31 .62 .30 .73 Net herd decrease .49 1.97 Bldgs, and equip, depreciation .75 .59 .49 .74 .61 3.04 7.48 11.14 Miscellaneous 1.36 1.32 .94 .87 1.68 1.32 Managerial wage, risks, etc 1.92 1.72 1.64 1.66 1.93 2.26 Total $ 17.38 $ 15.19 $ 15.28 $ 16.80 $ 18.22 $ 21.88 $102.14 Returns not milk Net increase $ .56 $ .11 $ 1.72 $ 2.40 $ 2.32 .02 11.96 Miscellaneous .02 Manure 2.04 $ 1.95 1.93 $ 1.90 2.05 2.08 Bldgs, and equip, appreciation .15 Total $ 2.60 $ 1.95 $ 2.04 $ 1.90 $ 3.92 $ 4.50 $ 14.30 Net cost $ 14.78 1.88 $ 13.24 1.89 .51 $ 13.24 2.57 .69 $ 14.90 $ 14.30 3.46 .87 $ 17 38 $ 87.84 2.61 .69 Net cost of milk per cwt 3^21 .84 3! 54 .92 Net cost of butterfat per lb .51 22 Wisconsin Bulletin 345 TABLE II— FEED AND LABOR REQUIREMENTS PER COW (SIX WINTER OR BARN-FEEDING MONTHS) Yearly Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. March April Winter Months Concentrates, lbs 1555.2 148.0 170.3 181.6 171.3 202.4 199.3 1073.0 Succulent roughage, lbs 8430.0 946.8 998.2 1023.9 983.9 1009.0 942.7 5904.5 Dry roughage, lbs Pasture, days 2866.7 168 399.0 455.2 430.5 356.8 395.5 367.1 2404.1 Bedding, lbs 883.2 103.7 133.6 157.0 135.8 135.6 131.7 797.4 Labor, hours 149.2 13.5 14.2 14.5 13.1 14.4 13.9 83.6 Per cent of net cost 79.8 87.0 86.0 87.5 79.7 74.1 83.7 82.9 (SIX SUMMER OR PASTURE-FEEDING MONTHS) May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Summer Months Concentrates lbs 126.0 65.4 54.6 55.1 59.8 121.4 482.3 Succulent roughage, lbs 438.1 189.7 416.1 388.7 451.4 641.5 2525.5 Dry roughage, lbs 140.1 46.7 55.4 52.7 45.3 122.4 462.6 Pasture, days 17.0 30.0 31.0 31.0 30.0 29.0 168.0 Bedding, lbs 57.2 11.7 8.4 8.5 85.8 Labor, hours 11.5 10.2 9.8 9.7 11.4 13.0 65.6 Per cent of net cost 73.9 68.2 74.7 64.2 84.4 89.3 76.6 TABLE III— DISTRIBUTION OF COSTS PER HUNDREDWEIGHT OF MILK (SIX SUMMER OR PASTURE-FEEDING MONTHS) May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Summer Months Items of expense Feed and bedding Labor Interest Taxes, insurance, repairs Net herd decrease $ .84 .55 .22 .07 $ .74 .55 .25 .04 .07 .08 .19 .25 $ 1.21 .71 .33 .12 $ 1.28 .78 .37 .06 .43 .16 .19 .35 $ 1.85 1.07 .43 .18 $ 2.15 1.01 .37 .07 8 1.26 .74 .31 .08 Bldgs, and equip, depreciation Miscellaneous Managerial wage, risks, etc Total .io .17 .24 .10 .18 .32 .41 .47 .12 .27 .46 .09 .22 .33 $ 2.21 $ 2.17 $ 2.97 $ 3.62 $ 4.41 8 4.45 8 3.03 Returns not milk Net herd increase Miscellaneous $ .07 $ .02 8 .41 $ .49 8 .07 Manure Bldgs, and equip, appreciation .26 .28 .38 .41 .50 .04 .42 .35 Total .33 .28 .40 .41 .95 .91 .42 Net cost of milk per cwt $ 1.88 $ 1.89 8 2.57 $ 3.21 $ 3.46 8 3.54 8 2.61 Why Costs of Milk Vary 23 TABLE III— SIX WINTER OR BARN-FEEDING MONTHS Yearly' Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. March April Winter Months Items of expense 1.63 $ .78 .30 .07 2.52 $ .97 .34 .06 2.42 t .96 .30 .07 2.26 f .89 .29 .05 1.84 $ .79 .28 .05 1.74 $ .75 .25 .04 .17 .11 .18 .40 1.41 $ .70 .24 .04 1.98 $ .84 .28 .05 Taxes, insurance, repairs. Net herd decrease Bldgs, and equip, depre- ciation .07 .24 .38 .06 .30 .49 .08 .28 .48 .12 .20 .49 .10 .18 .31 .06 .26 .42 Miscellaneous .46 .41 Managerial wage, risks, etc Total $ 3.47 $ 4.74 S 4.59 $ 4.30 $ 3.83 $ 3.64 $ 2.98 $ 3.89 Returns not milk Net. Vierrl increase . . . $ .11 $ .32 S .29 $ .36 $ .04 $ .18 $ .16 Miscellaneous ... . Manure .34 .41 .37 .34 .34 .15 .28 .28 .33 Bldgs, and equip, appreci- Total $ .45 $ .73 $ .66 $ .70 $ .53 $ .28 $ .46 $ .49 Net cost of milk per cwt $ 3.02 $ 4.01 $ 3.93 $ 3.60 $ 3.30 $ 3.36 $ 2.52 $ 3.40 TABLE IV— FEED AND LABOR REQUIREMENTS PER HUNDREDWEIGHT OF MILK (SIX WINTER OR BARN-FEEDING MONTHS) Yearly Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. . March April Winter Months Concentrates, lbs 21.9 28.4 30.6 30.1 27.6 28.5 27.2 28.6 Succulent roughage, lbs 118.5 181.5 179.2 169.5 158.6 142.0 128.7 157.6 Dry roughage, lbs Pasture, days 40.3 2.4 76.5 81.7 71.3 57.5 55.7 50.2 64.2 Bedding, lbs Labor, hours 12.4 19.9 24.0 26.0 21.9 19.1 18.0 21.3 2.1 2.6 2.6 2.4 2.1 2.0 1.9 2.2 Per cent of net cost 79.8 87.0 86.0 87.5 79.7 74.1 83.7 82.9 (SIX SUMMER OR PASTURE-FEEDING MONTHS) May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Summer Months Concentrates, lbs 16.1 9.3 10.6 11.9 14.5 24.7 14.3 Succulent roughage, lbs 55.8 27.1 80.6 83.7 109.3 130.5 75.0 Dry roughage, lbs 17.9 6.7 10.7 11.3 11.0 24.9 13.7 Pasture, days 2.4 4.1 5.6 6.2 7.6 6.6 5.0 Bedding, lbs 7.3 1.7 1.6 1.8 2 6 Labor, hours 1.5 1.5 1.9 2.1 2.2 2.6 2.0 Per cent of net cost 73.9 68.2 74.7 64.2 84.4 89.3 76.6 24 Wisconsin Bulletin 345 TABLE V— RANGE IN COSTS PER HUNDREDWEIGHT OF MILK Cost per 100 lbs. Quantity produced at given cost Percentage of total production Cumulative percentage Pounds Per cent Per cent $2.19 208,847 7.45 7.45 2.33 133,360 4.76 12.21 2.39 136,198 4.86 17.07 2.49 195,658 6.98 24.05 2.53 88,930 3.17 27.22 2.72 227,774 8.13 35.35 2.81 115,698 4.13 39.48 2.91 114,806 4.10 43.58 2.92 103,136 3.68 47.26 2.97 150,784 5.38 52.64 2.99 139,450 4.97 57.61 *3.02 173,792 6.20 63.81 3.06 125,412 4.47 68.28 3.11 160,221 5.72 74.00 3.49 117,488 4.19 78.19 3.53 107,652 3.84 82.03 3.57 85,799 3.06 85.09 3.83 72,464 2.59 87.68 3.95 88,115 3.14 90.82 4.03 56,338 2.01 92.83 4.04 67,444 2.41 95.24 4.24 76,674 2.74 97.98 4.67 57,316 2.02 100.00 * Average cost of milk per hundredweight. TABLE VI —PRODUCTION STATEMENT OF HERDS Number of herds Average size of farms Average no. cows per farm Average production milk Average production fat Average test percentage Acres Pounds Pounds Per cent GROUP I 8 153 15.4 5554. 225.5 4.06 GROUP II 8 125 18.1 7130. 268.1 3.76 GROUP III 8 99 15.8 8622. 312.1 3.62 TABLE VII— YEARLY FEED AND LABOR REQUIREMENTS PER COW Concen- trates Succulent roughage Dry roughage Pasture Bedding Man labor Total costs per cow Pounds Pounds Pounds Days Pounds Hours GROUP I 1,367 7,333 3,229 174 846 144 $204.06 GROUP II 1,493 8,936 2,662 163 899 143 214.13 GROUP III 1,811 8,918 2,740 169 901 163 227.43 TABLE VIII— FEED AND LABOR REQUIREMENTS PER HUNDREDWEIGHT OF MILK Concen- trates Succulent roughage Dry roughage Pasture Bedding Man labor Cost per 100 !bs. milk Pounds Pounds Pounds Days Pounds Hours GROUP I 24.6 132.0 58.1 3.1 15.2 2.6 $3.82 GROUP II 21.0 125.3 37.4 2.3 12.6 2.0 3.01 GROUP III 21.0 103.4 31.8 2.0 10.4 1.9 2.64 Bulletin 346 January, 1923 v Of 11; MAR 9 Marketing by Cooperative Sales Companies AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON DIGEST Success in the cooperative marketing movement depends upon ren- dering better service at lower cost. Pages 4-6 Cooperation does not guarantee making profits. Efficiency must be developed by a cooperative system if profits are to be secured. Pages 5-6 Better service in storing and distributing cheese is needed to sta- bilize prices in order to reduce hazards of cheese production. Pages 7-8, 20-21 Price fluctuation is largely caused by the universal practice of farmers in dumping their products on the market without regard for the demand. Page 9 The marketing margin received by cheese dealers has been reduced more than one-half by cooperative effort. Pages 10-11, 26-27 Volume of business is necessary for a Cheese Federation to render storing services that will stabilize prices. Page 13 Paying the best cheesemakers more and giving them larger volume of milk reduces cost of making cheese and improves the price. This must be accompanied by doing away with small factories and poor makers. Pages 16-18 The cheesemaker is not a salesman and cannot do this work prop- erly whether trained or not. His time is too short and he has not enough cheese to sell. Pages 18-19 Cheese Boards cannot solve cheese marketing problems because they cannot enable farmers to wait until the proper time of selling to dispose of their output. Page 20 The service of district exchanges is essential to permit farmers to hold their cheese until the right time to sell. The district warehouse is necessary to handle cheese least expensively. Pages 21-23 District groups of cheese factories cannot sell cheese to advantage. They have too small a volume of cheese to do this task well. Pages 23-24 Best merchandising of cheese requires a national cheese sales or- ganization. Many district groups must join in order to provide suffi- cient business to make it worth while. Pages 24-25 The greatest results to be gained by cooperative cheese marketing, namely, improved marketing service, are still ahead. Page 27 Volume of business is the foundation for the development of the best service and hence the largest benefits of cooperative effort. Page 29 Marketing by Cooperative Sales Companies Theodore Macklin T he GREATEST improvements in marketing during recent years have come through the establishment and operation of sales companies doing their work with minimum expense and rendering better service than was pre- viously available. Although Wisconsin is noted for the development of co- operative enterprises by farmers, mostly of a local character, as shown by creameries, cheese factories, livestock shipping associations and similar enterprises, yet not until recently has the state accomplished much in real cooperative sales organi- zations. While the attention of farmers has been called re- peatedly to the cooperative marketing companies of California, Canada and other countries, few people in the state have realized that within her borders there were at least two important enter- prises — The Wisconsin Cheese Producers’ Federation and The Wisconsin Cranberry Sales Company — worthy of the name of cooperative sales companies. Wisconsin cheese has been successfully marketed cooperatively more than eight years, and cranberries for a longer time. This definitely shows that Wisconsin farmers who wish to co-operate may successfully do so if they earnestly and persistently follow sound plans. Numerous farmers are determined to bring about better conditions in marketing by means of cooperation. It is timely to inquire what these farmers believe cooperation is able to accomplish in marketing and under what conditions it bids fair to meet their expectations. As an example that will be most widely understood, take the cheese industry. What do cheese producers expect to gain by cooperation in marketing their prod- uct and what must be done to gain success? What may be wise in marketing cheese cooperatively may be equally advisable for those interested in marketing butter, tobacco, livestock, or other farm products. 4 Wisconsin Bulletin 346 Possibility for Cooperation Cooperation enables a group of farmers to assume responsibil- ity for having their products marketed. In other words, it enables a group to employ management, other workers and equip- ment needed for doing the work of delivering products, which are on the farm today in the shape of raw materials, to the con- sumer tomorrow in the form of finished articles that consumers can use. This work, in the absence of cooperative marketing companies, is accomplished by private marketing companies. It so happens that most of the marketing work of the present day is done by private companies and not by cooperatives. The FIG. 1.— WISCONSIN’S OUTPUT OF AMERICAN CHEESE More than 235,000,000 pounds of American cheese and almost 70.000,000 pounds of brick, swiss and limburger cheese were produced in the state during 1919. Cheese is a leading Wisconsin product and its marketing should be the most efficient possible. Marketing by Cooperative Sales Companies '5 reason is that individuals have organized private corporations, partnerships or individual enterprises, supported these concerns with their financial resources and personal services and then have gone out after business. This has meant the securing of cheese in one way or another from cheese factories and from other deal- ers. Once they had the cheese their next problem was to dispose of it advantageously. This meant that the cheese had to be moved from the factory to that state or city in which consumers would pay the most satisfactory prices during the year. Marketing Causes Expense It not only costs money to send cheese from Wisconsin to all of the various states, but moreover, it takes a vast amount of accurate information coupled with keen judgment to be sure that in sending a carload of cheese to Tampa, Florida, better results would not have been obtained by sending it to Los Angeles, Cali- fornia. To employ salesmanship that may be relied upon to dis- pose of cheese to advantage is expensive. Furthermore, to as- semble cheese at a central plant from numerous local cheese fac- tories so that it may be paraffined, graded, branded, stored if necessary, loaded into cars and sent on its way to 48 states also involves the purchase of supplies, the hiring of labor and the rental of warehouses and cold storages. All this results in fur- ther expense. No middleman who ignores the question of so controlling expenses of all kinds as to get the most work done for the least money is likely to be successful. The work of cheese marketing, therefore, is to secure a volume of business, operate the business at the lowest possible expense per pound, and sell the goods at the best prices obtainable. In these particulars the cooperative marketing company does not differ at all from the private. The work of marketing is funda- mentally the same whether the farmer, a private middleman, or a cooperative middleman or the consumer does it. The impor- tant questions are whether better service is realized one way or another, whether it costs more to do it one way or another, and whether the profits gained by doing the work of marketing effi- ciently go to the farmer or to someone else. Does Cooperation Insure Profits? The mere change of a private into a co-operative business by no means insures that profits will be made. All that cooperation guarantees is that if the work of marketing is efficiently done 6 Wisconsin Bulletin 346 and if profits are thereby earned, these profits will go to the farmer cooperators who now own the business instead of as formerly to one or more non-farmer middlemen who formerly owned the business. The most important questions are: (1) How may the cooperative marketing company render better service than the private company, and (2) How may the cooperative marketing company operate with lower expenses than the private company. If these two great objects are attained then only has cooperation met the full hopes of the cooperators. If coopera- tion does not achieve these purposes then it has made no financial improvements over the private marketing concern. FIG. 2. — LOCATION OF COOPERATIVE CHEESE MARKETING SYSTEM Local cheese factories, numbering 168 shown by the black dots and organized into district groups each surrounding a warehouse form the federation which supports the sales company known as the Wisconsin Cheese Producers Federation. (See Figs. 3 and 5.) Marketing by Cooperative Sales Companies 7 Need for Better Service Without thoroughly examining all causes for their predicament cheese producers generally affirm that one of their greatest hard- ships is caused by the fluctuation in cheese prices. They reason this way: if the price of cheese is 18 cents a pound then wise plans for production justify the development of a herd of a cer- tain number, say, ten cows. This, in order to care for the herd properly, requires a certain quantity of feed and of labor at given prices. Assuming that the income from this herd will be a given figure because cheese is 18 cents a pound, then they can afford to pay a given price for the needed feed and labor. After making plans on this basis, however, the seasonal decline in price upsets all reasonable calculations and changes the paper profit to an actual loss. This loss the farmer believes to be the result of premeditated efforts on the part of middlemen whose success, it is thought, can come from no other source than the farmers’ loss. Consequently, the farmers’ ills are laid directly to the middle- man and the latter’s efforts to buy what he wants at the lowest possible prices. According to this reasoning the solution logically follows that to improve the farmer’s condition requires either the abolition of the middlemen or else the change from private mid- dlemen to some sort of cooperative scheme. It rarely occurs to the cheese producer that the weakness in the present marketing system is due primarily to : ( 1 ) service which is inexcusably poor; (2) higher cost in marketing than is necessary. Marketing Needlessly Poor The work which must be done by the marketing system in taking milk from the farm and placing it as cheese with the final consumer may be briefly classified into eight distinct kinds of service : 1. Assembling. 2. Grading and standardizing. 3. Packaging. 4. Processing. 5. Transporting 6. Storing. 7. Financing. 8. Distributing. These services in some manner or other have to be rendered if products are to reach consumers and hence if farmers are to 8 Wisconsin Bulletin 346 succeed in disposing of their commodities. This is true no matter whether the work is done by cooperative or by private middle- men. The real questions of whether marketing should be con- tinued under private companies or whether cooperative com- panies should be established to do a part or all of it hinges upon which of the two will render the best service at the lowest cost. While there are weaknesses and hence wastes in rendering each of these eight services, by far the greatest weakness (or, stated in another way, the largest possibility for improvement), has to do with storing and distributing farm products. In these two services the private system of marketing is least helpful to the farmer. The fault is inherent in the system. Private effort subdivides volume of business to such an extreme that small volume of business per company rules. Small volume of business means high expense as proved by numerous investigations of marketing enterprises. To avoid large overhead expense small concerns do not install the equipment necessary to proper han- dling and storing of the product. Neither do these dwarfed en- terprises attract the type of expert efficient management that is necessary to do the marketing work well. FIG. 3 — A LOCAL CHEESE FACTORY Farmers while appreciating the service of a local factory do not as yet realize the necessity of large volume of business per factory if It is to be operated at minimum cost. The ideal is to have the average factory turn out more cheese of a better sort that will bring more money. Attracting the best cheese makers and joining the cooperative cheese marketing system will bring improvement. Marketing by Cooperative Sales Companies 9 Causes of Price Fluctuation Because of poor storing and distributing services the private marketing companies are unable to prevent needless price fluctuation. On the contrary wherever local coopera- tive associations have established a successful market-wide sales agency these services of storing and distributing have been so handled as to “feed” the market. That is, the farmers’ products have been fed to the market instead of being season- ally dumped on it in such vast quantities that the market could not absorb them without a declining or sacrifice price. As a consequence of extending the period of marketing from a few months or from certain months of oversupply and others of undersupply to a longer period whereby sales by farmers through their marketing companies occurred about in proportion to purchases by consumers, prices have been rela- tively stabilized. A comparison of conditions preceding the establishment of successful cooperative sales systems with conditions afterward reveals that they have rendered* better service in storing and distributing them than did their private predecessors. For Wis- consin’s cheese industry as well as for her butter industry it is safe to say that poorer service is given in storing and distribut- FIG. 4.— CHEESE MAKING ROOM The cheese maker Is an expert who converts milk into cheese He is not a salesman. Hire him to make cheese but not to sell it. 10 Wisconsin Bulletin 346 ing than is possible to supply through a successful cooperative sales system. Cooperative Marketing Reduces Operating Margin It was found by an investigation in 1912 that when cheese was selling on the cheese boards at 11 or 12 cents a pound the cheese dealer’s margin was from .75 cents to 1.5 per pound. 1 This was a margin of from 6.25 cents to 12.5 cents on each dollar of sales. It was in protest to this wide margin received by cheese dealers that the Wisconsin Cheese Producers Federa- tion was started by farmers on the cooperative basis to reduce the cost of doing business and to improve the marketing serv- ices. In the most expensive year of operation the Wisconsin Cheese Producers Federation (see table V) took a total margin of only 3.43 cents per dollar of sales. This was only half the former minimum margin of the private cheese dealers. It represents for the cooperative dealer a margin of only .6 cents per pound for cheese that sold at 18 cents^per pound, whereas in 1912 the private dealer secured a margin varying from .75 cents to 1.5 cents per pound for cheese that sold at 11 to 12 cents a pound. Thus a cooperative marketing company has already cut in half the relative margin secured by dealers in handling cheese. That a concern handling only 6 or 7 per cent of the state’s out- put of cheese should be expected to do more than this, namely to stabilize prices by market feeding when it has so little of the total cheese to store and distribute is expecting the impossible. Before it can improve on these services as successfully as it has reduced the marketing margin it must be increased in size to handle the bulk of the cheese of the state. What the Cheese Federation Is The Wisconsin Cheese Producers Federation is a cooperative national sales company. 2 It is owned by farmers and operated by expert management engaged by the board of directors, in behalf of the 4,368 or more farmers who are patrons of the 168 local cheese factories holding membership in. 1921. As with all sales companies it faces in two directions. On the one hand it comprises a line of organization from the farmer to the warehouse where cheese is assembled and paraffined. On ’Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 231, The Marketing of Wisconsin Cheese, p. 30. 2 For its article of cooperative association and by-laws see pages 29-32. Marketing by Cooperative Sales Companies 11 Table I. — Growth of Wisconsin Cheese Federation Shown by Cheese Handled Yearly Year Number of factories Pounds of cheese received from factories Pounds of cheese received from factories each year for every 100 pounds received in 1914 1914 | 45 6,125,480 100.0 1915 43 7,558,796 123.4 1916 45 7,490,020 122.3 1917 56 8,981,308 146.6 1918 63 8,522,509 139.1 1919 120 14,098,021 230.1 1920 125 13,982,817 228.3 1921 140 15,564,414 254.9 1922 145 *8,480,690 Total — - 90,804,050 ♦Corresponding figure for first six months of 1921 is 7,237,511. Increase of 1922 over 1921 for same period was 17 per cent. the other hand it maintains a sales organization which dis- tributes cheese from its six district warehouses to buyers in most of the states. In 1919 it sold and delivered cheese in 37 states. Figures 1 to 10 and tables I to VIII give an idea of the organization and how it handles cheese. Growth of the Federation In spite of obstacles, the Cheese Federation has made sub- stantial growth. During 1921 it handled 15,564,414 pounds, or more than 6 per cent of the American cheese produced in Wis- consin. Far more important than volume of business, it has shown that Wisconsin farmers can unite their local associa Table II. — Increase in Value of Federation’s Business Shown by Total Annual Payments to Factories Year Dollars paid to factories for cheese Dollars paid to fac- tories each year for each dollar paid in 1914 Net price per Dound for cheese paid to factories Per cent price increase over year 1914 Dollars Dollars Cents Per cent 1914 855,328.64 $ 1.00 14.302 1915 ' 1,115,795.20 1.30 15.085 ~5~4 1916 1,300,520.24 1.53 17.567 22.8 1917 2,144,005.05 2.51 24.087 68.4 1918 2,258,163.73 2.64 27.052 89.1 1919 4,243,938.56 4.96 30.108 115.4 1920 3,640,608.49 4.25 25.71 80.0 1921 2,851,546.13 3.34 18.02 26.0 1922 *1,421,749.21 — - 17.42 21.8 Total $19,831,655.25 .... First six months. 12 Wisconsin Bulletin 346 tions. It has proved that such federations can hire experts who will efficiently sell products in consuming markets. Further- more, it has made Wisconsin farmers think in terms of compre- hensive marketing systems. While this undertaking has not done all that farmers want to accomplish, yet it has gone as far as its volume of business permits. To do more necessitates the support of more farmers. It needs ten times the present membership and volume of business to render the best service. FIG. 5. — COOPERATIVE CHEESE MARKETING WAREHOUSES Each of the above six warehouses forms the center of a district ex- change. As shown in Fig-. 2 six of these district groups unite to main- tain the national cheese sales company. These plants are located respectively as follows: A — Plymouth, B — Spring Green, C — Pine Island, Minnesota, D — Wausau, E — Green Bay, F — New Richmond. Marketing by Cooperative Sales Companies 13 Storage of Cheese Surplus As yet the federation has not tried to hold over the seasonal surplus of cheese. First, it markets too small a fraction of the cheese of the state to be able to feed the market and thereby stabilize prices. Therd is but one answer to the farmers’ ques- tion, “Why doesn’t the Federation prevent low prices?” Before it can do this, the Federation must be large enough to keep the surplus cheese of the flush season off the speculator’s market and hold it for the effective consumers’ market during the rest of the year. That is, if farmers hope to do away with the drop in cheese prices that usually occurs annually they must have a federation so large that it can prevent the temporary glutting of any market by holding the surplus cheese for a better time of selling. A large part, or even all, of this surplus is being stored at present by private agencies. The farmers contend that there is manipulation to get this cheese at low prices. As a matter of fact, if prices were not relatively low these specu- lators would not buy cheese to be held over for winter sale. It is the great surplus during the flush producing season, out of all proportion to current use, which gives the speculator his chance. The only remedy worth considering by farmers is for them to retain ownership of the surplus until consumers need it. This in turn can be done only through a large, powerful fed- eration which really feeds the market. At present the very lack of this organization makes it unavoidable for farmers to glut and starve the cheese markets periodically. For the same reason, the markets for other farm products are periodically either oversupplied or undersupplied. Although the Cheese Federation, during its almost nine years of operation, has not solved all the problems of cheese mar- keting, it has built a firm foundation for future growth. Sinfilar early stages of growth must be passed through by any new sales company designed to market other products. A brief survey of its progress toward successively lower operating costs will surprise those who have been too hasty in criticism. It will emphasize that the growth of successful cooperative marketing companies is gradual and that too much should not be expected of cooperation in a day. 14 Wisconsin Bulletin 346 Steady Growth of Federation’s Business .When the Federation started business on April 1, 1914, cheese began coming in from 45 local cheese factories in and about Sheboygan County. During the first nine months of operation 6,125,480 pounds of cheese were received. The cheese pro- ducers marketed $855,328 worth of their product. During the following two years the Federation held its own in spite of FIG. 6.— PARAFFINING CHEESE Cheese must be paraffined or otherwise packaged before it is fit to ship. This is done at central points where grading, branding, holding in cold storage, and loading into cars are also done at minimum cost per pound. many difficulties; and in 1917 a period of substantial growth began. By 1921, as Table I indicates, the quantity of cheese handled had more than doubled, while the value of the business had more than trebled. The number of factories sending cheese had increased from 45 to 140. As the Federation expanded and therefore had to handle not only more cheese but was re- ceiving it from many more counties, warehouses at Spring Green, Pine Island, Minnesota, Wausau, Green Bay, and New Richmond became necessary. The map (Fig. 2), shows the Marketing by Cooperative Sales Companies 15 location of each of the 140 factories sending cheese to the Fed- eration during 1921 and includes the twenty-eight new factories joining up to September, 1922. The local cheese factories vary from 50,000 to 300,000 pounds of cheese annually. The average factory sold more than 111,000 pounds of cheese through the Cheese Federation during 1921. % Distribution of Sales When most of the business of the Federation came from farmers in Sheboygan county, all of the cheese was assembled at the Plymouth warehouse. The expansion which has taken place in eight years of growth has added to the system five new warehouses in as many different districts. In the future, as the expansion spreads to other parts of the state more ware- houses will be operated to facilitate efficient paraffining and shipping of cheese. In fact the interest in the Federation in other sections of the state is constantly crystalizing in the form of starting new district groups several of which are on the point of opening warehouses. Cheese is shipped from these ware- houses to various parts of the United States on orders given by the sales manager. During 1919 over 14 million pounds of cheese were sold in 37 states. Table IV shows that more than 100,000 pounds were shipped to each of 22 states. Operating Costs Are Small Wisconsin farmers, planning to establish other federated sales companies will find their greatest encouragement in the efficiency of this one. Being owned by farmers, the Federa- tion pays all its receipts, less expenses, to the account of the local cheese factories. The deduction for expenses has amounted to the very small item of 1.2 cents to 3.43 cents out of every dollar received for cheese marketed. Table VI shows that actual expenses have increased since 1917. This has been due en- tirely to the high cost of supplies, to increased wages, to enormously increased freight rates and to necessary activities for expanding the size of the organization. In spite of increased costs, board prices or better on an average have been paid to the account of local cheese factories. Form of Organization The organization is made up of three essential parts. First are the local cooperative cheese factories or associations. Second 16 Wisconsin Bulletin 346 are the district exchanges with their cold storage warehouses and equipment for paraffining cheese. Third is the sales or- ganization now so well known as the Wisconsin Cheese Pro- ducers Federation. Each of these parts of? this cooperative system have specialized duties to perform in making the whole enterprise a success. Service of the Local Unit The importance of the local cheese factory where an expert converts milk into cheese is too well known to need emphasis. Here it is that the usual cheesemaker receives the milk from an average of 26 patrons for each of the 168 or more factories be- longing to the Wisconsin Cheese Producers Federation. Dur- ing 1919 factories belonging to the Federation produced an average output of a little less than 120,000 pounds of cheese. For 1921 a larger number of factories averaged about 111,000 pounds of cheese. • Table III. — Sources And Volume of Cheese Handled by Federation Warehouses, 1921. 1. Pounds of cheese Number of local State County Warehouse at received cheese factories Wisconsin 1 Sheboygan Outagamie 1 Oalumet. Brown Manitnwne Washington Winnehagn Plymouth 12,323,70* 64 Wanpaea Fond du Lac.. ._ Kewaunee .. Marinette Oconto I Ozaukee 1 Sauk 1 Iowa ... Dane .[ Vernon Crawford J Spring Green.. - 2,539,059 16 Marathon | Wausau (i) 25 Shawano j Minnesota __ Pine Island _ 701,660( 2 ) 26 Goodhue \ Total.. 15,564,423 161 U) No cheese received at Wausau in 1921 as the warehouse was not opened for business until February 1, 1922. ( 2 ) Represents the volume of business for September to December. 1921. covering the period since joining the eentral sales organization. Marketing by Cooperative Sales Companies 17 No careful investigation has recently been undertaken in Wis- consin to show what is the complete cost of cheese making. In selected instances, however, the cost varied from as low as 3.4 cents to 4.1 cents per pound. * * 3 The Wisconsin Department of Markets in a published estimate of the cost of making cheese presents items totaling 3.93 cents per pound. On the other hand the most comprehensive investigation yet made of local cheese factory operating costs, the recent study made in the Province of Ontario, Canada, 4 shows total expenses varying from 1.58 cents per pound in the largest factories to 4.03 cents in the smallest factories. Perhaps Wisconsin cheese factories are less efficient than those of Ontario, but this is to be doubted. It is more likely that few, if any, persons know the total costs of making cheese in Wisconsin’s cheese factories. If the cost of cheese factory operation be assumed as ap- proximately 4 cents per pound (See publicity of Wisconsin Dairy Protective Association) during a period when cheese prices averaged 18 cents a pound then this part of the work of marketing handled by local factories costs 22.2 cents out of each dollar’s worth of cheese sold at wholesale. If, on the other hand, Wisconsin cheese factories are as efficient as those of Ontario where three-fourths of the cheese is made at a cost of less than 2.5 cents a pound, it is worth while knowing that efficient local cheese factory operation permits farmers to secure this valuable service at less than 14 cents out of the dollar’s worth of cheese sold at wholesale instead of for a cost of 22 cents. The most efficient local cheese factories in Ontario, and doubtless the same would be true of Wisconsin’s best factories, made one quarter of Ontario’s total cheese output at a cost of less than two cents per pound, or only 11 cents out of each dollar’s worth of cheese sold at wholesale. Thus it costs twice as much to make cheese in an inefficient instead of an efficient local factory. From a practical standpoint Wisconsin farmers in many sections can reduce the cost of cheese making by con- solidating small duplicating factories and by employing the best cheesemakers only to operate these larger local enterprises. A saving of 10 per cent of the price which they now receive is a handsome addition to the income which farmers of many 8 Report of Frostville Cheese Factory, Spring, Wis., Sheboygan County News, Feb. 9, 1921. Report of East Wrightstown Factory. Sheboygan Coun- ty News , Feb. 9, 1921. 4 The Farmers Advocate, June 15, 1922. p R29 18 Wisconsin Bulletin 346 regions may take advantage of by successfully developing ef- ficient local cooperative cheese factories. It cannot be overemphasized, that expert cheesemakers are greatly to be desired. They are so vital to the success of the cheese factory that higher salaries can profitably be paid for the good cheesemaker than are now given, while the reverse is also true that some cheesemakers are overpaid considering the amount _of cheese they can make and the low quality of the finished product. Farmers should appreciate, as they have not done suf- ficiently in the past, that the best cheesemakers can be attracted only by the best pay just as the best farm hand is secured not by bidding the lowest pay but by giving the highest. In actual practice the best paid men are costing the least per pound of cheese or per dollar of sales because they make more and better cheese than the poorer makers and because their superior product brings a premium or higher price. Cheesemaker Not a Salesman No matter how expert a cheesemaker may be it is certain that to make good cheese in a proper sized factory takes all his time and energy. He is employed because of his ability as a cheesemaker. He is not employed to be a cheese salesman. To expect of a properly trained and experienced cheesemaker ability and experience also in selling cheese is simply expecting more than one man can do. Cheesemaking and real salesmanship are very different things. It is vastly more difficult to sell cheese well than to make good cheese. Wherever cheesemakers are compelled to sell cheese it should not be forgotten that most of the effort goes into the making side and the least time and effort is put on selling. It could not be otherwise so long as farmers permit cheese to be sold for each little factory separately. The cheese from a single factory is by no means a merchantable quantity. It is less than enough to justify the employment of a real salesman. This is why the selling job is loaded upon the cheesemaker on top of his cheesemaking duties. Conditions will never be satisfactory while important main line work is done as a side line by some- one who already has another main line job. Marketing by Cooperative Sales Companies 19 Table IV. — Primary Shipments by Wisconsin Cheese Producers’ Federation to Various States — 1919 O States to which 100,000 pounds or more of cheese were shipped Pounds of cheese Per cent Illinois 3,178,912 22.64 New York - __ 1,381,285 9.84 Pennsylvania 1,287,235 9.17 Indiana _ __ -- - 783,591 6.58 Maryland 626,862 4.46 Virginia 557 , 124 8.97 Wisconsin 536,830 3.82 Michigan Missouri 510,679 3.64 487,381 3.47 Iowa - --_ — 468,189 3.33 Massachusetts - 455,855 3.25 West Virginia - - — 452,050 3.22 Tennessee 395,435 2.82 Louisiana 363,781 2.59 Georgia — _ - 321,725 2.29 South Carolina _ - - 198,736 1.42 California.- - - _ _ 176,388 1.26 Florida _ 165,975 1.18 Texas __ _ _- ___ - 163,423 1.16 Alabama _ __ 130,750 .93 North Carolina __ _ _ _ 124,594 .89 Ohio -- __ 108,691 .77 To above 22 states _ - . 12,875,491 91.70 To other 15 states, District of Columbia and miscellaneous 1,160,800 14,036,291 8.30 Grand total 100.00 C 1 ) Tabulation of 1921 shipments has not been made, but this 1919 tabulation gives an approximately correct idea of 1921 primary shipments. Because the selling side of the cheese industry is just as im- portant as the making sic^ it is not surprising that cheese mar- keting is so unsatisfactory when we consider that farmers have been having cheese made in their behalf by trained makers, but have overlooked the equally important matter of having it marketed in their behalf by trained and experienced salesmen. Cheese, so far as the farmer is concerned, has not been marketed at all. It has been dumped by the cheesemaker because he was blind on the problem of selling. If cheese were made as poorly by the cheesemaker as it is sold by him there would be no cheese industry at all. Consumers would not use the article. Here then is the problem of the local cheese factory associa- tion. The farmers in the local association bring together a makable quantity of milk. By this is meant that they deliver at the factory enough milk to keep a man fully occupied in making it into cheese. But when it comes to marketing, the output of one cheese factory of the usual size is altogether too small to be a marketable quantity. Yet farmers have left to the cheesemaker, who is not a salesman, the task of marketing 20 Wisconsin Bulletin 346 an unmarketable quantity. A more impossible task could not be imagined. Boards Cannot Solve Cheese Marketing The results of having cheese sold in this inefficient manner are serious. Yet just as farmers joined to patronize or operate local cheese factories so as to have better cheese made at lower cost so also local cheese factories may join or federate to have better selling of cheese made possible at lower cost. The penalty of selling cheese by each local factory individually is the an- nually recurring seasonal fluctuation in prices'. Few if any local factories have storage rooms for holding more than a week’s make of cheese. As a result cheese is disposed of at least once a week. Many factories operate only eight or nine Per cent Price 3375 37 31.50 29.25 27.00 24J5 22 50 20.25 13.50 li.25 4.50 2.25 > JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC < 1921 FIG. 7.— FLUCTUATION IN CHEESE PRODUCTION AND PRICES Local factories flood the wholesale cheese market part of the time and starve it the rest of the year. Under these conditions prices In- evitably fluctuate and no kind of cheese boards could stabilize them. The solution is for farmers to organize so that they may sell cheese systematically at the right instead of the wrong time. See text, pages 7-9, 13, 20-25. Marketing by Cooperative Sales Companies 21 months of the year, omitting the winter months. Others which receive milk the year round make from two to three times as much cheese in the months of May and June as in November and December. This means that the factories place more than four times as much cheese on the market in June as they do in January. Yet consumers eat about as much cheese in one month as another. If there is any appreciable variation doubt- ' less more is eaten in winter. Hence local factories dispose of most of the cheese when there is the least consumer demand. In failing to understand the principles and practice of ef- ficient salesmanship or merchandizing farmers are not able to understand why cheese boards cannot solve the cheese marketing problem. All that these boards can do at best is to register the supply of cheese and the demand for it and to record the resulting price. As long as local factories dump great over- supplies of cheese on the boards during part of the year the price is bound to go down no matter how perfect the board may be in its organization and operation. The problem which the board cannot tackle and is not designed to solve is the fact that too much cheese is offered for sale at certain times and too little at other times. Table V. — Per Cent Distribution of Money Received by the Federation for Cheese — 1914 to 1921 Year Payments direct to member factories Cost of freight to Federation Actual expenses of Federation Savings or profits Cents Cents Cents Cents 1914 97.6 .4 1.6 .4 1915 97.5 .3 1.5 .7 1916 97.5 .3 1.4 .8 1917 97.7 .2 1.2 .9 1918 97.0 .3 1.4 1.3 1919 97.7 .4 1.4 .5 1920 97.4 .41 1.94 .25 1921 95.8 .77 3.43 .0 1922(6 mo.) 95.65 .79 3.183 .377 Note: In each year shown the number of cents or fractional cents indicated was paid out of every dollar taken in by the Federation for cheese sold. District Organization and Warehouse Essential To make this dumping of cheese unnecessary during the flush season requires that the surplus cheese be held over by farmers for sale at a later time instead of selling at once in a flooded market for ruinously low prices. Adequate and suitable cold storages to hold this cheese are possible in connection with the 22 Wisconsin Bulletin 346 warehouses in which cheese is received for paraffining and load- ing into cars. It is at each of many central points to which groups of 25 to 150 local factories each can conveniently and cheaply deliver their fresh cheese that warehouses and cold storages are needed. No local factory alone can afford to have these marketing facilities. Yet these facilities are fundamental. They are being operated by private dealers wherever the co- operative system is not operating. Without them cheese cannot be efficiently marketed. To provide these facilities requires that a number of local factories band together cooperatively, that is federate, to raise capital, install the warehouse and pro- vide management and labor to receive cheese and operate this district marketing organization. FIG. 8.— COOPERATIVE CHEESE SALES PLAN Cheese to be marketed inexpensively must be shipped in carloads. Wholesalers who can handle carloads are located all over the United States. They cannot deal with small cheese factories as their supply is too uncertain in kind, quantity and quality. But they can deal with the representatives of a large number of factories. Hence they send orders to the General Sales Office of the cooperative system from which orders go to the nearest district warehouse to ship the cheese direct over the shortest route. During the past eight years the cost of freight pa’d on cheese sent by local factories to district warehouses has varied from .3 cent to .79 cent per dollar of cheese sold at wholesale. The cost of operating the district warehouses during the same period has varied from .7 cent to 1.9 cent per dollar of cheese sold. Roughly speaking it costs less than one-tenth as much per pound Marketing by Cooperative Sales Companies 23 of cheese to operate a district warehouse as to operate the local cheese factory. Yet the service rendered by the district ware- house is just as necessary to satisfactory marketing of cheese as the local factory is in making it. Table VI. — Trend of Warehouse Expenses 1914 to 1921 Year Wages Supplies and other expenses Total warehouse expense Cents Cents Cents 1914 .40 .50 .90 1915 .40 .50 .90 1916 .40 .40 .80 1917 .30 .40 .70 1918 .30 .60 .90 1919 .36 .60 .96 1920 .46 .70 1.16 1921 .87 1.03 . 1.90 1922(six months) .98 .891 1.871 Note: In each year shown the fraction of a cent indicated was paid out of every dollar taken in by the Federation for cheese sold. A fact not to be forgotten at this point is that while 26 farmers may provide a makable quantity of milk at a local factory, and while 25 to 150 local factories may provide a suitable quantity of cheese to operate an economical district warehouse, no dis- trict warehouse organization alone has enough cheese to repre- sent a merchandizable quantity. That is to say, a single ware- house district has too small a volume of cheese by itself to permit the establishment and operation of an expert and ef- ficient selling system. District Organization Too Small to Advertise For example, the large cooperative sales companies that have successfully developed national advertising campaigns have spent from .25 of 1 per cent to 3 per cent of sales in support of their campaigns. In terms of 18 cent cheese this is from .05 to .5 of a cent per pound. The average advertising program cost about 1 per cent of sales or for 18 cent cheese about .2 cent per pound. The Wisconsin Cheese Producers Federation with the 15.5 million pounds of cheese marketed in 1921 would have had an advertising expense of 1.125 cents a pound had it attempted national advertising, because such a campaign was estimated at $175,000 for the first year. To be able to conduct a campaign of this kind at a reasonable expense of .5 cent per pound dowi to .2 cent per pound would require from 35,000,000 to 87,000 24 Wisconsin Bulletin 346 000 pounds. In other words the Cheese Federation would need to handle from two to six times its present volume of cheese. The cheese handled in 1921 came from four district exchanges. From six to twenty district exchanges, depending upon their size, may be necessary to provide adequate cheese for success- ful inexpensive advertising. Service of the Sales Organization Just as any one district organization alone has too little cheese to advertise nationally so also it has too little to meet the ex- pense of developing an expert sales organization with all that the word implies. The purpose and place of the central sales This cooperative marketing system is built upon the commodity prin- ciple, namely that cheese is the finished product which retailers must have on their shelves to meet consumer demands. Farmers numbering 4,368 cluster around a local cheese factory in groups averaging 26 per factory. They deliver milk to 168 factories which then deliver cheese to 6 district warehouses. From these ware- houses cheese is then ready to go to wholesale buyers after they are found. The central sales organization is maintained by the 6 district groups to do the work of getting orders for all the cheese that the 168 factories turn out. Note that the cheese moves direct as far as possi- ble to buyers instead of going in round-about ways looking for them The central sales office makes this possible. Marketing by Cooperative Sales Companies 25 organization is to bring together a large enough number of district organizations to provide the volume of cheese needed to justify its existence. Improvement in the services of marketing, particularly storing and market feeding coupled with active salesmanship and ad- FIG. 10. — FEDERATION MARKETED CHEESE THROUGHOUT THE UNITED STATES Each of 22 states received more than 100,000 pounds of cheese from Wisconsin factories through their selling organization — the Federation. About 3,200,000 pounds went to Illinois; 780,000 pounds to Indiana; and 108,000 pounds to Ohio. See Table IV. vertising cannot be brought about without a central sales com- pany. Moreover such a company with its possibilities for im- proving marketing conditions cannot be established without im- mense volume of business. For small industries as the cranberry or walnut industry most of the output of the industry is needed Table VII. — Trend of Federation Management Costs — 1914 to 1921 Year Salaries Other office and general expenses Total management expenses Cents Cents Cents 1914 .50 .20 .70 1915 .40 .20 .60 1916 .30 .30 .60 1917 .30 .20 .50 1918 .30 .20 .50 1919 .27 .17 .44 1920 .47 .30 .77 1921 .80 .76 1.56 1922(six months) .68 .632 1.312 Note: In each year shown the fraction of a cent indicated was paid out of every dollar taken in by the Federation for cheese sold. 26 Wisconsin Bulletin 346 for success. In other lines a smaller proportion may permit successful operation. The main point is that there must be suf- ficient volume to bear the expenses of the sales organization without making the cost per pound of cheese burdensome. In the past the costs of operating the Cheese Federation’s Sales System has ranged from .44 of a cent to 1.56 cents per dollar’s worth of cheese sold at wholesale. The main task in keeping sales costs low is to have an abundance of cheese to sell. The problem of securing volume is to gain numerous loyal district organizations as members, and for each of these district organizations to secure the largest possible number of local cheese factories as their members. Obviously the larger these individual cheese factories are, by virtue of a large farmer mem- bership all producing milk for cheese making, the more volume of cheese each warehouse will receive. How the Federation Has Benefited Farmers Everyone who considers the Cheese Federation of course won- ders what it has accomplished for its members, for farmers in general, and for the state at large. For its members it has marketed (up to July 1, 1922) 90,804,050 pounds of cheese, pay- ing them on an average Plymouth Cheese Board Prices. In addi- tion it has paid to its members in patronage dividends more than $75,000, and has on hand a property, the Plymouth warehouse, worth not less than $75,000. These combined patronage dividends and savings in property amount to .125 of a cent per pound on all of the cheese sold by the Federation since it opened its doors for business. Patronage Profits and Savings to Members More important than the services rendered to the 4,200 farmer members whose cheese had been marketed, is the effect which its operation has had upon competitive conditions. The Cheese Federation, by its existence and competition with private dealers throughout Wisconsin, has narrowed the cheese dealers’ margin from the former figure of .75 of a cent to 1.5 cents taken when cheese sold at 11 cents to 12 cents a pound down to .6 of a cent taken on 18 cent cheese. It has by its competition reduced a margin averaging at least 8 cents on each dollar of sales to less than 4 cents on the dollar of sales. Marketing by Cooperative Sales Companies 27 Reduced Margin Benefits Cheese Industry This saving of 4 cents on each dollar’s worth of cheese sold at wholesale means $2,000,000 a year to the industry. It goes to the cheese producers of the state because there is a farmers cheese marketing company influencing the competitive system by cooperative principles. While the members of the organiza- tion have gotten slightly more for their cheese up to this time, a worthwhile thing in itself, the great financial benefit of the Federation has been diffused throughout the industry. All cheese producers have benefited as a result of the patience, faith and loyalty of some 4,000 members to their cooperative enter- prise. Cooperative Idea Benefits State More important even than the reduced cost of doing business and what this saves the farmers of the state, is the proof which the Wisconsin Cheese Producers Federation has made that Wis- consin farmers can succeed if they will be loyal to sane and wisely formulated cooperative plans and ideals. This organ- ization seeks success by rendering necessary services better than they were previously rendered and by reducing the costs of doing business. It claims no monopoly powers, nor does it want them. Even if attainable, monopoly efforts would only result in legal difficulties and costs and in ultimate suppression. That a group of farmers has been able to build a sales company operat- ing throughout the state of Wisconsin during a period of less than nine years and during all this time has been able to meet the competitive test and continue to grow is a demonstration that is educationally helpful not alone to cheese producers but to the producers of other important Wisconsin farm products. It is an object lesson invaluable for those seeking understand- ing through the extension and other educational systems in the state. Largest Benefits of Federation Still Ahead By far the most important results of cooperative cheese mar- keting still lie ahead of the organization. In 1921 (See Fig. 7) cheese prices fluctuated from above 24 cents to below 14 cents a pound. The average price was about 18 cents. During two months of flush production 25 per cent of the year’s cheese was 28 Wisconsin Bulletin 346 dumped on the markets by the local factories. An orderly movement of cheese during these two months would have been 17 per cent of the year’s output. The excess movement of cheese in this period, amounting to 8 per cent of the year’s out- put, was responsible for a depression of 4 cents per pound be- low the average price for the year and below the average price in April and in July. Cheese dumped by factories during May and June at a sacrifice of 4 cents a pound sold later above 19 cents. To so store and feed cheese to the market that this prac- tice of dumping could no longer seasonally oversupply markets at one time and starve them later should at least result in a saving of 1 cent a pound. It might accomplish more than this. Table VIII. — Variation in Monthly Receipts of Cheese by the Federation, 1921 Month Pounds of cheese received at Plymouth warehouse Pounds of cheese received at Spring Green warehouse Total pounds of cheeseC 1 ) Per cent January 454,019.50 47,938.25 501,957.75 3.38 February 561,088.00 49,251.25 610,339.25 4.11 March 909,687.00 80,337.25 990,024.25 6.66 April 1,216,531.75 177,710.00 1,394,241.75 9.38 May 1,326,337.25 298,296.75 1,624,634.00 10.93 June 1,709,891.75 406,422.75 2,116,314.50 14.24 July 1,289,397.00 329,466.75 1,618,863.75 10.90 August 1,204,136.00 328,345.25 1,532,481.25 10.31 September 1,207,530.50 301,910.50 1,509,441.00 10.15 October 1,036,066.75 260,394.00 1,296,460.75 8.72 November 711,733.00 156,980.50 868,753.50 5.84 December 697,242.00 102,006.00 799,248.00 5.38 Year 12,323,703.50 2,539,059.25 14,862,759.75 100.00 C 1 ) Excludes 701,660 pounds of cheese received at Pine Island, Minnesota, warehouse because it was in operation as a part of the central organization only the latter four months of the year. Incorporation of these figures would obliterate the seasonal tendency of cheese production. A further saving of 1 cent per pound is equal to 5 cents on the dollar’s worth of cheese at 20 cents a pound. It amounts to more than the dealer’s profit three or four times over. It also amounts to more than it has been possible to reduce the cost of doing business. That it is an amply worthwhile object no one can deny. It is a goal ahead of the Cheese Federation which can be reached in all practical reason, provided that Wisconsin cheese producers supply it with the volume of busi- ness which would make these objects attainable. Marketing by Cooperative Sales Companies 29 Volume Essential to Big Results To feed the market requires that the seasonal surplus be kept by farmers until the time when its release upon the market will not cause flooding. This is a simple proposition. The difficult task is to have a large enough part of the cheese producers act together to see that the surplus does not reach the market until the right time. Farmers cannot hope to act successfully on the marketing of a product as individuals. It is out of the ques- tion — impractical. To render these services — namely storing and distributing — which will place the seasonal surplus on the market when it will sell to advantage requires large volume of business in the hands of a single sales organization. It is to provide this necessary size of business as a basis for rendering better marketing service and hence of giving farmers larger returns from cheese that the Wisconsin Cheese Producers Fed- eration merits the state-wide support of all thinking cheese producers. The following copy of the revised articles of Cooperative As- sociation, drawn up for adoption by the Cheese Federation con- stituency, will give interested persons the latest information about the organization of cooperative sales companies in Wisconsin : For further information consult or write to any of the following: Wisconsin Cheese Producers’ Federation, Plymouth, Wisconsin; Depart- ment of Agricultural Economics, College of Agriculture, Madison, Wis- consin; Wisconsin Department of Markets, State Capitol. Madison. ARTICLES OF COOPERATIVE ASSOCIATION Know All Men By These Presents, That the undersigned have asso- ciated and do hereby associate themselves together for the pur- pose of forming a Cooperative As- sociation under sections 1786e — 1 to 1786e — 17, inclusive, of the Wis- consin statutes, and do hereby make, sign, and agree to the fol- lowing: Articles of Incorporation Article I The name of this Association shall he Wisconsin Cheese Pro- ducers’ Federation, and its prin- cipal place of business shall be in the city of Plymouth, County of Sheboygan, State of Wisconsin, P. O. address, Plymouth, Wiscon- sin. Article II The business and purpose of this association shall be to buy and sell, or act as agent to buy or sell, cheese and by-products; to manufacture cheese and by-pro- ducts; to buy and sell, or act as agent to buy or sell, cheese factory and creamery equipment and sup- plies; to manufacture cheese fac- tory and creamery equipment and supplies; to own and operate ware- houses and cold storages; to own and hold stock in any corporation or cooperative association within 30 Wisconsin Bulletin 346 the limits prescribed by law; to buy, lease, own, sell, exchange, and deal in all forms of property neces- sary or incident to the transaction of the business of this association; and to do all other things neces- sary or incident to the transaction of the business of this association. Article III The capital stock of this associa- tion shall be dollars, which shall be di- vided into shares of the par value of dollars each. Article IV The shares of capital stock of the association are non-assessable. Article V The affairs of the association shall be managed by a board of seven directors. The directors shall be elected by the stockhold- ers of the association at such time and for such term of office as the by-laws may prescribe. Article VI The names and residences of the persons forming this association are: BY-LAWS OF THE WISCONSIN CHEESE PRODUCERS’ FEDERATION Article I The regular annual meeting of the stockholders shall be held on the second Thursday of February of each year. The president of the board of directors may call spe- cial meetings of the stockholders upon ten days’ previous notice thereof to each stockholder by pub- lication or by personal service. The president of this association shall call a district meeting at each warehouse point not more than thirty days prior to any an- nual or special meeting of this as- sociation. At each district meet- ing the stockholders shipping to such warehouse point may elect one delegate for each ten stock- holders or for any lesser number and one delegate for the remaining fraction of the whole number of stockholders. Each delegate at the stockholders’ meeting (or his ap- pointee in his absence) shall be en- titled to cast one vote for every stockholder represented by him; provided, that no delegate shall represent more than ten stock- holders. Voting by proxy in this associa- tion shall not be permitted except as provided herein. Article II The directors shall be elected annually at the regular annual meeting of the stockholders and shall hold their offices for one year or until their successors are elect- ed and qualified. Every warehouse point shall be represented by at least one director. No person shall be a director unless he is or has been a milk producer and a mem- ber of a cooperative cheese pro- ducers’ association. The regular meeting of the board of directors shall be held within ten days after the regular annual meeting of the stockholders. The secretary of the board shall call special meetings thereof upon or- der of the president or of any three directors, but notice of any spe- cial meeting shall be given to all directors not joining in the call therefor. Every meeting of the board of directors shall be open to the Director of the Division of Markets and notice of every such meeting shall be given by the board of directors to said Director of the Division of Markets. The directors shall elect from their number a president, vice- president, secretary and a treas- urer, and shall employ such sales- men, inspectors and other em- ployes as may be necessary and shall fix the compensation of all officers and employes. The directors shall require any officer or employe to whom funds of the association are entrusted to furnish bond. A majority of the board of direct- ors shall constitute a quorum for Marketing by Cooperative Sales Companies 31 the transaction of business, but a less number may adjourn from day to day giving notice to absent members of said board of such adjournment. Any vacancy oc- curring in the board of directors shall be filled by the remaining members thereof. Article III The officers of this association shall be a president, vice-presi- dent, secretary and treasurer. The duties of secretary and of treasurer may be performed by one and the same person, who, in .such case, shall be known as secretary-treas- urer. The principal duties of the pres- ident shall be to preside at all meetings of the stockholders and of the board of directors and with said board to have general super- vision of the affairs of the asso- ciation. He shall sign all certifi- cates of stock and all contracts and other instruments; provided that the board of directors may au- thorize any officer or agent of the association to perform this duty unless prohibited by law. The principal duties of the vice- president shall be to discharge the duties of the president in the event of the absence or disability of the latter. The principal duties of the sec- retary shall be to keep a true and correct record of the proceedings of the board of directors, and to safely and systematically keep all books, papers, records, and docu- ments belonging to the association or pertaining to the business thereof. He shall countersign and affix the seal of the corporation to such papers and documents as shall be required to be counter- signed or sealed; ^provided that the board of directors may author- ize any officer or agent of the as- sociation to perform this duty, un- less prohibited by law. The principal duties of the treas- urer shall be to safely keep and account for all moneys and other property of the association which shall come into his hands, and to keep an accurate account of all moneys received and disbursed by him and to retain proper vouchers for all moneys disbursed and to render such accounts, statements and inventories as may be required by the board of directors. The officers of the association shall perform such additional duties as may from time to time be imposed by the board of direct- ors or as may from time to time be prescribed by the by-laws. Article IV The term of office of all officers of this association shall be one year (unless the office be declared vacant before the expiration of the year) or until a successor has been elected or appointed. The board of directors shall have authority to remove any of- ficer for cause or any employe at any time, and shall fill any vacancy caused by any such removal. Article V The directors shall apportion the earnings by first paying dividends on the paid-up capital at a rate not to exceed six per cent, an- nually, and then setting aside ten per cent of the net profits for a reserve fund until an amount has accumulated in the reserve fund equal to one hundred per cent of the paid-up capital stock. The re- mainder of the net profits shall be distributed as required by law. Article VI The board of directors shall have authority to issue shares of stock or the promissory notes of this as- sociation, in payment of patronage dividends to stockholders and to provide for a method of rotating capital based upon the tonnage of cheese marketed by the stock- holders through this association. Article VII (Note — Article VII was exclud- ed by the vote of the annual meet- ing in 1920.) Every stockholder of this asso- ciation shall enter into a contract to sell to this association all of the cheese produced by or for such 32 Wisconsin Bulletin 346 stockholder, or such part thereof as this association may .require, which contract shall be of two years’ duration, continuing there- after from year to year subject to the right of the stockholders to terminate liability under such con- tract at the end of any year after giving notice to the board of di- rectors of this association at least thirty days before the expiration of such year and affording to the board of directors of this associa- tion a hearing before the stock- holder in this matter. The require- ments of the contract herein shall not affect the right of a stock- holder to dispose of cheese to its members for their individual use. Any stockholder violating the agreement to sell its cheese, as provided herein, shall pay to this association — as liquidated damages — a sum equal to one cent per pound for each pound of cheese pro- duced but not delivered by it ac- cording to the provisions contained herein; and said sum may be de- ducted from any money due from this association to the stockholder. Article VIII Each cooperative association or corporation, which owns stock in this association, shall conform to all lawful rules and regulations adopted by this association for the manufacture and preparation for shipment of cheese and by- products. Article IX Stock in this association shall be transferred by the owner or its agent only on the books of this association. Article X No stockholder shall sell or otherwise alienate its stock in this association except after de- positing it with the secretary thereof, who shall have the author- ity, if exercised within thirty days, to sell or otherwise dispose of the stock as the board of directors may approve, paying to the owner of the stock the par value thereof, after deducting any amount due from the stockholder to this asso- ciation. In the event that the sec- retary does not exercise the option to sell the shareholder’s stock within thirty days after the share- holder has deposited said stock with the .secretary, the secretary shall return the stock to the share- holder who may then sell or other- wise alienate it in any manner not prohibited by law. Article XI The board of directors shall have authority, upon giving ten days’ notice in writing, to call in the stock of any stockholder upon pay- ment of its par value, after de- duction of any amount due from the stockholder to the association; provided, that not more than ten per cent of the paid-up capital stock shall be thus called in during the period intervening between any two annual stockholders’ meetings, unless authorized by a vote of the stockholders in the same manner as is prescribed for amendment of these by-laws. Article XII These by-laws may be amended by a vote of the majority of the stockholders at any regular or spe- cial meeting; provided that notice proposing to amend the by-laws at a special meeting shall be given in the call thereof. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON DIGEST Surface drainage is important and is one of the first things to consider in farming heavy silt loam. Plowing in narrow lands with dead furrows connected with good outlets is rec- ommended. Page 7 Plowing to a depth of 6 inches in the fall has been found) most desirable, with the possible exception of corn, where spring plowing has given best yields. Neither subsoiling, deep tilling nor deep plowing have been found profitable for the crops grown in the rotation. Page 12 Lodging of oats causes serious losses, due primarily to un- balanced soil conditions. Early maturing varieties and others adapted to this soil type should be grown. Applying manure on second-year hay instead of the corn crop, and planting corn after corn have been found helpful practices to reduce losses from lodging. Page 20 The heavy silt loam is acid, and requires about 2 tons of limestone per acre. Limestone furnishes plant food as well as overcoming acidity of the soil. Page 22 Clover is the best general legume crop to grow. Soybeans are also excellent forage crops and yield good tonnage. Page 23 Dairy products and livestock are the principal sources of income of farmers in the heavy silt loam region. Where only a limited amount of millstuffs is fed, the use of phosphate fer- tilizers supplementing stable manure is advised. Page 27 In applying fertilizers, all the crops grown in the rotation should be considered. Broadcasting is, therefore, recom- mended. Applying small amounts of fertilizer in the row or hill is justified in the case of corn in order to hasten growth, but the bulk of the fertilizer should be applied broadcast. Page 33 The cover photograph is an aeroplane view of part of the Marshfield Experiment Station Farm. Some of the experimental plots are shown in the foreground. Farming the Heavy Silt Loams of Central Wisconsin F. L. Musbach H EAVY SILT LOAM is the most important soil type in central Wisconsin. It occupies an area between 5,000 and 6,000 square miles in the heart of the state— an area equal to Connecticut and Rhode Island combined.* The soil is adapted to a wide range of crops and when prop- erly managed excellent yields are obtained. The soil is close textured and retains moisture to a marked extent, so that sur- face drainage is of first importance. The silt loams have a high degree of native fertility and when the plant food supply is maintained, big yields may be expected. The growing of legume crops, use of ground limestone, and supplementing the manure with phosphate fertilizers makes a combination that means permanent fertility as well as profitable crop yields. How Climate Affects Crops The influence of climate on crop production is generally rec- ognized. Rainfall and temperature are especially important. The relation of the soil itself to rainfall and temperature is an- other important factor. Heavy silt loams, for example, hold moisture especially well and where drainage is not ample the soil remains cold and is considered backward. The im- portance of having a soil in good fertile condition, therefore, cannot be too strongly emphasized. This applies particularly to the corn crop, which requires a warm soil and responds especially well either to stable manure or commercial fer- tilizer. The rainfall, as a rule, is ample in central Wisconsin, and the distribution is also ideal. Spring is sometimes late, but usually the temperature conditions are excellent for crop ger- mination. At the Marshfield Station, temperature and rainfall records were maintained since 1913. (See Table I.) •The management of this type of soil brings up problems of special interest to farmers now in the area as well as to the new settler. The Marshfield Experiment Station was established in 1912 and the results of the nine years’ work are briefly given in this bulletin. 4 Wisconsin Bulletin 347 8/otieio [DOUGLAS WASHBURN SAWYER FOREST FLORENCE BARRON LANGLADE I lOCONTO CHIPPEWA! ^MARATHto eauolaire’ WHmEi Itrempe- OUTAGAMIE AlEAU JACKSON - ! WAUSHARA H CROSSE MARQUETTE] GREEN } LAKE JEFFERSON [WAUKESHA GREEN LA FAYETTE PIG. 1.— AREA OF HEAVY SILT LOAM SOIL IN CENTRAL WISCONSIN This soil comprises a section equal to approximately one-tenth of the entire state. Table I. — Rainfall Record in Inches at Marshfield Station. 1913-1921 Year Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. f Oct. Nov. Dec. 1913_ .88 .86 3.30 2.48 6.22 2.70 3.50 3.88 3.13 2.31 1.33 .24 1914 1.56 .69 1.12 3.09 2.23 10.17 2.27 3.56 5.04 2.32 .83 .92 1915 1.69 1.61 .70 .51 5.36 3.84 6.38 3.20 2.40 2.91 4.86 1.09 1916 2.18 1.19 1.85 2.47 4.61 6.31 2.52 3.53 5.44 3.04 2.00 .87 1917 2.97 .55 1.10 2.24 2.14 4.21 6.05 8.41 1.33 3.00 .15 .48 1918 1.05 .75 .75 2.85 7.97 3.02 2.81 2.19 1.17 2.40 2.16 1.64 1919 .41 1.09 2.20 4.11 3.02 4.71 5.96 4.70 2.11 3.64 3.59 .81 1920 1.76 .40 2.23 2.13 3.65 : 4.92 1.02 1 52 1.74 3.55 2.63 2.45 1921 .15 .60 1.60 4.52 3.11 1 3.30 3.32 1.21 3.12 1.16 1.40 2.43 Nine year average 1.40 .86 1.65 , 2.71 4.25 4.79 3.76 3.58 2.83 2.70 2.11 1.21 Total 30. 33. 34. 36. 32. 28. 36. 28. 25. 31.86 Farming the Silt Loams of Central Wisconsin 5 On the average for nine years the heaviest rainfall came dur- ing the growing season — May, June and July. During this pe- riod, 12.70 inches, or practically 40 per cent of the total rainfall, comes. The average annual rainfall for nine years is 31.86 inches. The length of the growing season averages 128 days, based upon the records for nine years at the Marshfield Experiment Station, as shown by Table II. Table II. — Dates of Last Frost in Spring and First in Autumn Tear Last in spring First in autumn 1Q13 June 10 May 15 May 17 May 2 May 24 May 1 April 29 May 14 May 16 Sept. 22 Sept. 9 Aug. 27 Sept. 15 Sept. 10 Sept. 10 Oct. 11 Sept. 30 Oct. 4 1914 ■ 191K ...... 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 — _ 1921 . In Table II 30° F. was taken as the temperature determin- ing date of frost. Only twice during the nine years has the temperature reached 30° F. after May 20. As a rule, little or no injury is incurred in late spring frosts. Autumn frosts are more liable to cause injury, especially to corn. For several years soft corn was harvested during the period of 1913 to 1921. In part this was due to early fall frosts and in part to unfavorable growing weather during June and July. The crop grown on well-drained, fertile soil matures earlier and is, of course, less liable to suffer from these un- favorable conditions. Soil Made Up of Silt and Clay The surface soil is essentially a uniform greyish colored silt loam, containing a large proportion of fine earth particles called silt, hence the name, silt loam. In texture it is somewhat between a loam and a clay loam. The subsoil varies somewhat in texture and color. In the northern part of the district, the subsoil to a depth of 18 to 30 inches is a light gravelly and sandy material. In the southern portion, the area is underlain by a heavier subsoil, frequently spoken of as “hard pan/’ chiefly because this layer does not per- mit the rapid downward movement of water. 6 Wisconsin Bulletin 347 FIG. 2.— EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS AT MARSHFIELD STATION Several hundred similar plots are devoted to experimentation in variety tests, use of fertilizer, methods of tillage, and drainage. When the soil is sifted into its various separates based upon size, it is found that silt and clay make up a large part of the total soil particles. (See Table III.) Table III. — Mechanical Analyses of Typical Silt Loam Soil Depth Fine gravel Coarse sand Medium sand Fine sand Very fine sand Silt Clay 0"- 8" .2, 3.5 2.6 4.0 5.7 70.3 13 6 8"- 20" .3 3.5 j 3.7 5.8 7.0 64.3 15.4 20"-36" .4 7.2 8.5 14.8 11.5 34.9 22.9 DRAINAGE OF SILT LOAM The surface is generally slightly rolling with many nearly level areas which suffer from lack of drainage during some seasons. The greater part is rolling enough to afford good surface drain- age for most crops. Tile drainage, however, on a considerable area will be found profitable to insure best yields. The peculiar composition of the soil in size of particles makes quick passage of water through it somewhat difficult. The high proportion of silt is largely responsible for this. The soil for this Farming the Silt Loams of Central Wisconsin 7 reason does not check nor crack upon drying out, so that water courses are not readily established. Surface drainage is, there- fore, of importance. The internal drainage of soil is less easily remedied. Surface Drains Important Providing ample surface drains is the first question to which the farmer should give his attention. This simple process should be considered at plowing time. As a rule, land should be plowed in the direction of the slope and not at right angles to it. The field should be plowed in narrow “lands” with dead furrows about 20 paces apart. This distance is especially important on land that has only gentle slopes, but on the more rolling areas, dead furrows may be farther apart. It is more logical to keep wa- ter out of soil than to remove it after it soaks in. These dead furrows should be provided with good outlets at the lower end of the field. Oftentimes these outlets may be brought together and in turn emptied into a large surface ditch. The ditch should be shallow, 12 inches at the deepest part, and 16 feet wide, with graded slopes, that permit driving over with tools and machinery. A ditch of this kind may be easily built, using a road grader and plow. It is important to keep this run-way seeded and permanent unless it is neces- sary to move the location. The use of a reversible or side hill plow is, therefore, not rec- ommended unless dead furrows are afterwards plowed out. While considerable losses occur in poor yields in the dead fur- rows, they are very much less than the losses which occur when the entire field suffers from lack of drainage. Then, too, the well drained land may be worked earlier in the spring. Much time is required for the water to escape by evaporation and by seepage, thus delaying planting. Besides, the poorly drained soil remains colder and this retards the germination of the grain. In order to study the differences in temperature of soil, ther- mometers were placed at a depth of \y 2 inches directly over tile lines and also at the same depth 2 rods distant from the tile. Frequently the soil over the tile was found to be as much as 5° F. warmer than that 2 rods from the tile line. 8 Wisconsin Bulletin 347 Tile Drainage Beneficial on Silt Loam The first essential, that of surface drainage, has already been discussed. The soil, however, has a peculiar property of hold- ing water tenaciously, so that while surface water is removed, yet the ground remains wet. Ten years ago when the Marsh- FIG. 3.— A STUDY IN DRAINAGE EFFECTS ON SOIL CHECKING This view represents a plot not satisfactorily drained. Cracks nearly one inch in width and 10 to 12 inches deep are common. field Branch Station was established, an experiment in the profitableness of tiling the silt loam was undertaken. The question whether the tile would heave out of line was also an interesting one on which to get observations. The field tiled in 1912 consisted of nearly four acres (3.85 acres) and a system of drainage was installed. The laterals were 4 rods apart and 4-inch tile were used. The main is 5-inch and at the lower end of the system larger sizes are nec- essarily required. The laterals vary in depth from a little less than 30 inches to 36 inches. The tile are laid to a grade of 2 to 3 inches for each 100 feet. Five years ago manholes were installed into which the tile discharge. These were put in in order to study the discharge during the season and other important matters. During the ten years no trouble has been experienced with the tile heaving out of line or otherwise breaking. The sys- tem is apparently becoming more efficient, as indicated by a study of the discharge during the past five years. Farming the Silt Loams of Central Wisconsin 9 The heaviest discharge of the tile comes during the spring months — March, April and May, when the tile system on the four-acre tract discharges at the rate of 2,000 barrels of water in 24 hours. This is the maximum and occurred in March, 1920. A surprising amount of water is removed during the FIG. 4.— THIS PLOT HAS GOOD UNDERDRAINAGE Note difference in checking - . Compare with Fig. 3. early part of the season, before crops and evaporation make heavy draughts on the water supply. Table IV gives the amount of rainfall and the approximate discharge from the system. Table IV. — Rainfall and Discharge from Tile During Spring of 1920 Rainfall Tile discharge Per cent discharged in tile Inches Gallons Inches Gallons March . 2.23 232,528 2.280 237,832 102.2 April 2.13 222,100 .494 51,912 23.3 May __ 3.65 382,554 .016 16,518 4.3 June 4.92 513,020 .029 3,091 .0 The discharge is heaviest early in the season and gradually decreases as the season advances. The March discharge in the tile indicates a greater amount than came in the total rain- fall. This is due in part to melting snow that fell during the 10 Wisconsin Bulletin 347 previous month, and also to some water coming from higher lying land that is picked up by the tile as seepage water. Again the readings of tile discharge were taken twice daily in the man- holes, by taking duplicate readings of the time required to fill a Tiled field in the foreground — the location of the tile lines 4 rods apart can be seen by the light colored bands of soil extending across the field. container of known volume. This is, of course, a rather crude method and subject to error. The effect of tile on the land is also quite marked in the spring. As a rule, the soil may be worked earlier and dries out sooner after heavy rains than it otherwise would. Six years ago another field was tiled in a way to permit yields being obtained from small plots at different distances from the tile line. The rotation consists of barley, alfalfa (3 years), potatoes and corn. (See Table V.) Table V. — Average Results of Tiling (Acre Yields for Varying Periods) Distance of plot from tile Corn 3-yr. av. Barley 4-yr. av. Potatoes 6-yr. av. Alfalfa 1st yr. 2nd. yr. 4-yr. av. 3-yr. av. Rods Bushels Bushels Bushels : Pounds 1 Pounds 4 51.22 28.26 154.11 3,243 3,087 3 57.21 29.02 162.79 3,387 3,046 2 57.22 29.89 172.44 3,587 3,297 1 58.66 30.15 192.88 3,818 3,327 Farming the Silt Loams of Central Wisconsin 11 Since the manurial treatment and liming were the same on all plots, the increased yields were due to better drainage. Substantial increases were obtained notably on the plots near the tile compared to those four rods distant, especially FIG. 6. — CORN ADJACENT TO TILE LINES BETWEEN THE TWO PLOTS Note the full stand and thrifty growth. Tile are laid 2% to 3 feet deep. Compare with Fig. 7. with potatoes and corn. Alfalfa has not made big yields, yet tiling has been helpful in increasing fields. June grass was troublesome, especially after the second year, and this was one reason for the reduced tonnage. The cost of tiling (1915) averaged about $35.00 per acre where tile are placed 30 to 36 inches deep and laterals 4 rods apart. The increased yields paid a handsome return on the investment. TILLAGE METHODS ARE IMPORTANT How deep should heavy silt loam be plowed? Is spring plowing advisable? What about subsoiling, especially in sec- tions where subsoil is tight? These are a few of the ques- tions about tillage methods that the farmer wants answered. The depth of plowing is important. Many prefer plowing to a depth of 8 to 9 inches in the fall of the year, others say subsoiling or deep tilling is more profitable. In order to an- 12 Wisconsin Bulletin 347 swer these questions, a four-acre field was set aside at the Marshfield Experiment Station and various tillage methods studied. The rotation included corn, oats, clover and timothy, and timothy. (See Table VI.) Table VI. — Results Obtained With Various Tillage Methods (Average Acre Yields for Varying Periods) Method Com 6-yr. ay. Oats 9-yr. av. ] Clover and timothy Timothy 5-yr. av. - 1st cut 2d cut Bushels Bushels Pounds Pounds Pounds Fall plowed 6* 58.67 52.30 4,411 1,825 4,097 Fall plowed 3" 56.33 51.22 4,193 1,770 4,096 Fall plowed 8" 59.02 50.71 4,491 1,816 4,305 Fall subsoiled 16" 58.11 51.90 4,349 1,632 ' 1 4,252 Fall deep tilled 16" 56.15 48.81 4,143 1,854 i 4,360 Spring plowed 6"__. 60.68 53.29 4,290 1,528 4,182 FIG. 7. — CORN ON TWO PLOTS FOUR RODS FROM TILE LINE The missing hills and poor growth should be compared with tiled plots. The important features standing out in the results are that shallow plowing (3 inches) gives poor yields for each crop grown, and that subsoiling and deep tillage treatments are unprofitable. Some increases in the case of timothy hay are to be noted due to the deep tillage treatments. Both subsoil- ing and deep tilling treatments, however, more than double Farming the Silt Loams of Central Wisconsin 13 the cost of plowing. In fact, a tractor should be employed if either a subsoil plow or deep tiller is used extensively. Deep plowing (8 inches) increased yields over 6-inch fall plowing in all cases except oats. The increases, however, are not marked and would barely cover the cost of extra horse power needed to turn over the additional two inches of soil. Spring Plowing Best for Corn Spring plowing produced the best yield on the corn crop. The sod land for corn is usually plowed ten days or so before planting. Oats likewise yields best on spring plowing for a nine-year average. The first clover and timothy cutting following oats, however, yields lowest on spring plowing. Spring plow- ing, however, on account of the busy season, is not recom- mended for any crop except possibly corn. This is the prac- tice of many farmers who invariably report good results. Sod land is a good place on which to put manure in early fall and winter or in the spring. The young grass can then make quick growth by utilizing the plant food before both the ma- nure and green material are plowed under, which makes ideal conditions for the corn crop. On old timothy sod, however, fall plowing helps to prevent trouble with cut worms and grubs. With root crops it is probable that deeper plowing or stir- ring up the subsoil may prove profitable, although deep tillage results with grain, corn and hay show no benefit. It is the aim to try out rutabagas and other root crops in the near fu- ture, but there is sufficient evidence to show that for ordinary farm crops plowing to an average depth of about 6 inches in the fall of the year is sound practice. The corn crop is the possible exception. Preparing Seed Bed The silt loam soil works up easily and, as a rule, there is no trouble in preparing a good seed bed in the spring. In fact, there is danger of working the soil too much. Frequently, if a deep seed bed is disked up and heavy rains follow, soil pack- ing results, which is difficult to overcome. This is especially serious on small grain where the ground cannot be pulverized after seeding. Cultivation may be resorted to with corn, but even then it is difficult to restore the good tilth necessary for best results. 14 Wisconsin Bulletin 347 Lodging of oats must be considered on the average farm. While there are no direct experimental results, considerable observation shows that on fairly fertile land, lodging may be more serious on soil that has been thoroughly and deeply pul- verized. The deep cultivation permits air to enter and fur- nishes ideal bacterial conditions for releasing plant food, espe- cially nitrates. An excessive amount of nitrates produces a rank growth of straw that lodges, easily. Careless work is, of course, not recommended, yet where lodging is a serious question, shallow preparation either by means of a disc harrow with the gangs set straight, or even a spike tooth harrow, is advisable. CROP ROTATION BENEFICIAL In Roman agriculture 2,000 years ago the beneficial effects of crop rotation were well understood. One writer puts it, “The land must rest every second year, or be sown with light kinds of seeds, which prove less exhausting to the soil.” Again, “Some of the leguminous plants manure the soil.” The reasons underlying the effects of rotation and benefits of legumes were not understood, yet the practice was followed then as well as now. In discussing rotations, farm crops may be divided into three classes : 1. Grain crops — generally shallow feeders, add little humus or organic matter, and tend to weediness. 2. Hay crops — legumes, timothy, etc. Legumes have exten- sive root systems, tap roots, add organic matter or humus and also plant food (nitrogen). They also improve the phys- ical condition of the soil. 3. Cultivated crops — Corn, potatoes, etc., conserve mois- ture, favor decomposition of organic matter, and destroy weeds. Some are deep feeders, as corn, while root crops are shallow feeders. A good rotation should necessarily include crops belonging to each of these three classes. The value of such practice is apparent in its effect on the physical condition of the soil, on weediness, on organic matter supply, on plant diseases, and on nitrogen supply of the soil. Better yields are, therefore, obtained when crops are rotated than when a single cropping system is followed. Farming the Silt Loams of Central Wisconsin 15 FIG. 8— “STATION DAY” IS AN ANNUAL AFFAIR A group of interested farmers inspecting the crops on the Marshfield Experiment Station Farm. Farmers and their families from Central Wisconsin counties enjoy their visits to the Farm. Again, crop rotation permits raising livestock and means diversified farming. No one will deny the benefits of this type of farming in stabilizing farm business and making best use of labor and equipment the year around. It should not be understood, however, that crop rotation means maintaining the supply of plant food better than where a single cropping system is practiced. In fact, quite the con- trary is the case. The Illinois Experiment Station furnishes some interesting data on crop yields. Crops were grown continuously on some plots, while on others a three-year or a five-year rotation was followed. None of the plots received manure or commercial fertilizer for forty years. 16 Wisconsin Bulletin 347 FIG. 9.— SOIL FROM PLOT WHERE ROTATION IS PRACTICED The rotation included legumes. Note the mellow condition of soil, also the vegetable matter present. (Courtesy of Minnesota Experiment Station.) Table VII. — Yields for Ten-Year Periods from 1888 to 1917 First ten years— (188&-1897)— Second ten years— (1898-1907). Third ten years— (1908-1917).-. 2-yr. rotation 3-yr. rotation Corn every year Corn Oats Corn Oats Clover 40.9 42.5 41.6 52.1 45.3 2.34 82.9 42.4 37.5 55.7 48.4 f Crop | failure 28.3 37.6 38.6 40.7 42.4 ! [as rule The corn yields in the early years averaged about 70 bush- els per acre on all plots. The plots are located on heavy silt loam soil of the corn belt prairie of Illinois. The yields of corn where grown every year show a steady decline, and this is likewise true of the two-year rotation. In the three-year rotation, the last ten-year period showed a marked drop in yield over the preceding period. In a large Farming the Silt Loams of Central Wisconsin 17 measure this is due to clover failures which occurred during the last two ten-year periods, when only two clover crops were obtained. Soybeans were used as a substitute crop, but are much less efficient than clover in supplying organic matter and nitrogen to the soil in roots and stubble. The heavier crops likewise remove larger quantities of plant food — phosphorus, nitrogen, potassium, etc. In other words, rotating crops makes it pos- sible to get larger yields and this involves the removal of larger amounts of plant food. The clover crops have built up the supply of nitrogen and organic matter. Chemical analysis would indicate higher con- tent of both in the three-year rotation plot than in either of the other two. In fact, the increased yields are in a large measure due to the organic matter and nitrogen contributed by the hay crops that have made possible the increases. Of FIG. 10.— WHERE CORN IS GROWN CONTINUOUSLY THE SOIL TENDS TO BAKE Note absence of organic matter and cloddy conditions. (Courtesy of Minnesota Experiment Station.) 18 Wisconsin Bulletin 347 course, this should not be taken as an argument against rota- tion. But no farmer should think that because rotation of crops makes productive yields possible temporarily, it, there- fore, maintains the supply of plant food elements in the soil. (The exception is, of course, nitrogen if legumes are main- tained in the rotation.) It is often said that certain crops are “hard’’ on the soil in the sense that they remove more plant food than other crops. In part that is true, but a more important difference is that some plants remove more of certain elements than others. Again, a crop like corn, because of its root development and length of growing season, may utilize plant food that is less soluble. (See Table VIII.) Table VIII. — Plant Food Required by Average Farm Crops Crops Phosphorus Potassium Nitrogen Calcium [Total Corn 60 bu. 10.2 13.3 60. .47 Corn stover 3 T. 6.0 52.0 29. 30.4 Total 16.2 65.3 89. 30.87 201.4 Oats 50 bu. 7.0 7.3 33. 1.8 Oats straw Eh g 1 1 1 1 1 3.0 31.2 19. 6.8 Total 10. 38.5 52. 8.6 109.1 Barley 30 bu. 5.2 6.0 19.2 .6 Barley straw 1.5 T. 2.0 21.5 13.0 5.7 Total 7.2 27.5 32.2 6.3 73 2 Wheat 5.1 7.08 28.4 .67 Wheat straw 1.5 T. 2.4 25.0 15.0 6.51 Total 7.5 32.08 43.4 7.18 90.16 Rye 30 bu. 6.6 8.1 31.5 .75 Rye straw 2 T. 3.2 26.0 18.4 4.40 Total 9.8 34.1 49.9 5.15 98.95 Red clover 2 T. 7.3 73.6 80.0 49.4 210.3 Alfalfa 4 T. 19.0 66.5 200.0 90.4 375.9 Soybean hay 9.5 71.0 93.0 55.0 228.5 Timothy 2 T. 4.5 22.5 34.0 7.0 68.0 Millet 2 T. 6.6 51.0 25.5 j 12.4 95.5 Potatoes 200 bu. 9.0 60.0 22.0 ! 3.2 94.2 Rutabagas 10 T. 10.4 81.0 38.0 | 3.0 132.4 Farming the Silt Loams of Central Wisconsin 19 Potatoes require relatively more potassium ; corn draws heavily on nitrogen ; while legumes are heavy feeders of lime (calcium) and also require large amounts of phosphorus, po- tassium and nitrogen (some of which may be extracted from the air in the soil) . Again, grain crops and roots require plant food that is readily available, , while corn is less particular in this respect. By properly rotating crops, therefore, the soil is subjected to these different “feeding characteristics.” One crop com- pensates for the other, and there is maintained more nearly a balanced condition than with the single crop system. There is no one best system of rotation for the silt loam soils. The rotation depends on the system of farming, and this depends largely on the personal choice of the farmer, for some prefer one system and some another. It is highly de- sirable to rotate crops, but a serious mistake to think that ro- tation takes the place of other equally sound practices, such as liming and fertilizing. The silt loam area of central Wisconsin is noted as a diver- sified farm section. Dairying and livestock raising are the principal sources of income. The crops grown must, there- fore, include succulence, silage or root crops, grain crops, and forage crops — clover and other legumes. Succulent Crops Needed Corn is, no doubt, the best all around silage crop. Sunflow- ers have been tried, and while the tonnage exceeds that of corn, yet this does not overcome many of its undesirable fea- tures. Wisconsin No. 8 and Golden Glow have produced 12 to 14 tons per acre, and with favorable seasons can always be depended upon to make excellent silage. Root crops have also found favor, especially in the newer sections where frost is more serious than on the older more developed areas. At the Conrath Demonstration Farm the average yield for five years has been 23 tons per acre of rutabagas (Hurst’s Mon- arch). The roots are drilled-in in rows, thinned and culti- vated the same as corn is drilled in rows. Oats and rye are two dependable small grain crops. Barley yields well, though the crop is not as certain as the other two. Wheat is subject to rust and is not grown to any extent. 20 Wisconsin Bulletin 347 Lodging Is Serious Problem During the past ten years lodging of oats has become a se- rious problem, especially detrimental in many cases on ac- count of the bad effect on clover seeding. If the heavy oats nurse crop does not smother out the clover completely, it re- FIG. 11 —LODGING IS A SERIOUS PROBLEM Lodging is frequent on many farms on the heavy silt loam. The weather, soil conditions, and variety of oats are factors influencing lodging. duces its vitality so that after the oat crop is removed, only favorable distribution of rainfall will enable the clover crop to make thrifty, vigorous growth before winter. At the Marshfield Station in 1920 a reasonably fertile field produced a heavy crop that lodged before harvesting. Within a month after the oats were harvested, the entire new seeding had dis- appeared except in two foot strips where no nurse crop was seeded. Lodging is due to a number of causes, over some of which there is no control. The primary cause of lodging is an un- balanced soil ; that is, a soil relatively high in nitrogen and humus, or organic matter. The crop grown on a soil in which nitrates (compound of nitrogen) are available in abundance, produces a weak straw lacking in stiffness and easily broken down in unfavorable weather. Early maturing varieties of oats have the advantage in that they ripen earlier and thus avoid the bad weather conditions that frequently come later in the summer. State’s Pride or Wisconsin Pedigree No. 7, an early oats of the Kherson stock, has suffered less from lodging and its at- Farming the Silt Loams of Central Wisconsin 21 tendant bad effects on clover seeding than has heavier Swed- ish Select, Wisconsin Pedigree No. 5. In point of yield the Pedigree No 7 has also maintained its own, outyielding in some years the heavier strawed oats. Wisconsin Pedigree No. 1 is another variety that, while heavy in straw, stands up better than other late maturing varieties. Frequently the farmer with poor native pasture is forced to pasture new seeding in the fall. This is a bad practice, as it reduces the chances of having any clover hay the following season. Barley and rye are better nurse crops. Both come off early and are not subject to lodging. Fall rye should be grown more generally, because it is a safe crop and thus far little, if any, trouble has been experienced in getting good clover FIG. 12.— THE MOST IMPORTANT LEGUME FOR THE HEAVY SILT LOAM Timothy is a more common crop than clover in many sections. 22 Wisconsin Bulletin 347 stand with rye as a nurse crop. The usual practice is to seed red clover early in the spring before the frost is out of the ground. A good rate of seeding is 10 to 12 pounds per acre, with some timothy seed. The alternate freezing and thawing will furnish cover, so that on the silt loam soil no harrowing is necessary to cover the seed. Clover or Timothy for Forage The silt loam soil of Central Wisconsin has been called “Clover Land.” The name may still be used on the newer lands opened for farming purposes. On the older cropped lands, however, clover failures are common. Clover here has been replaced to a marked extent by timothy. In some areas farmers have given up the growing of clover entirely and de- pend, instead, on the timothy, which is so much more easily grown and which returns good yields for three to six years or even longer if top dressing is resorted to. The dairy farmer, however, finds timothy a poor substitute for clover in compounding his dairy ration. Not only is the protein content much less, but minerals also are woefully lacking in timothy. (See Table VIII and compare calcium content of clover, alfalfa, and soybeans with timothy.) Silt Loams Are Acid The silt loams, even in the virgin condition, are acid. Analyses made at this Experiment Station, however, show that the soil on old cropped land contains a good supply of calcium, though not in an available condition. Land just broken up is certain to contain more available lime on account of easily decomposing humus found invariably in new soil. No doubt this is one important reason why qlover does so much better on new land. The phosphorus supply, too, on the newer soil is more readily available. Legume crops, as a whole, are exceptionally heavy feeders of lime, and also draw heavily on the phosphorus supply. (See Table VIII.) Liming silt loam soils has been found good practice, not only to furnish readily available lime for the legumes, but also to better conditions for the development of the legume bacteria. Farming the Silt Loams of Central Wisconsin 23 Alfalfa also requires an abundance of lime, and thus far it has not been found a profitable crop on silt loam soil. Alfalfa may be grown, but should be seeded on well-drained land only — preferably rolling to hilly land. Where clover fails, several good substitutes that have been tried out successfully may be used. It should be understood, however, that these are substitutes, not in any case as good as clover. FIG. 13.— CORN AND SOYBEANS This is an' excellent succulent combination for silage. Soybeans are a splendid crop for the silt loams. The crop may be grown for hay, or silage with corn, or for seed. For hay, broadcasting or drilling in solid drills has been found satisfactory. A good plan is to drill a mixture of sudan grass with soys at about corn planting time. The mixture cures better than soys alone. In curing the hay, make medium sized 24 Wisconsin Bulletin 347 haycocks after the leaves are thoroughly wilted, and allow it to stand for four or five days, or longer if weather is unfavor- able. The crop is then turned over to dry out and hauled in. Oats and peas also make excellent combination hay and good yields are obtained. One and one-half bushel of each per acre is an average rate of seeding. Rotation for Silt Loams The following four-year rotation is used quite extensively by the average farmer: Table IX. — Four-year Rotation for Heavy Silt Loam Kind of crop For home con- sumption Cash crops Substituted crops First year Cultivated Com— rutabagas Oats— barley ___ Clover Potatoes, etc._ Rye — canning peas Second year Small grain Third year Fnra.gR . Soybeans for hay Sudan grass or millet Fourth year Forage or pas- ture . Clover and tim- othy TTay Frequently the rotation is lengthened by permitting hay to remain one or more years longer. As a general rule, that is poor practice and should not be resorted to unless necessary. The ideal arrangement, according to the rotation outlined, would be to divide the farm into fields of about equal area. On the average farm of 80 acres, about 60 acres are under plow. This would mean 15 acres in cultivated crops, and the same acreage in grain, clover, and mixed hay. This division, however, is seldom followed. The records of a large number of farms showed that the cultivated crops seldom occupy one- fourth of the land unless cash crops, as potatoes or cabbage, are important. The hay crops, as a rule, occupy 50 per cent of the land, small grains 30 per cent and corn 20 per cent. In this arrangement, sufficient silage may be grown to supply about twenty cows, and also enough small grain to furnish feed for the stock with some surplus to sell, especially hay. Cash crops in addition to hay should also be mentioned in the general rotation outlined. The soil is adapted to consid- erable range of crops. The farmer who has cash crops to market is enabled to use the returns to advantage in purchas- Farming the Silt Loams of Central Wisconsin 25 ing high powered proteins needed to properly balance his dairy ration. Oats are the principal small grain crop grown. Rye and peas, however, are excellent cash crops, and may occupy a part of the “area allotted to grains. Rye may be disked in fol- lowing corn and does well following a cultivated crop. Dur- ing the past few years, pea canneries have been established in a number of localities, and farmers have found it profitable to grow canning peas. In the rotation scheme, provision is also made for substi- tute crops when new seeding fails. Oats and peas, or soys and sudan grass, have been indicated in the table. Clover seeding is not dependable, however, with soys and sudan grass but will be fairly safe with oats and peas when used for hay. METHODS OF FERTILIZING Manure should be handled so as to reduce losses of plant food to the least possible amount. Ordinarily, this may be done by hauling directly from the stable to the field. This practice would fit in well with the four-year rotation indicated above by applying either on the field in second year hay, or to the sod land which is to go into corn. Very little losses occur in either method unless the land is quite hilly and sub- jected to considerable erosion. In either case, 10 tons per acre makes a good application. Heavier applications should be avoided. It is only in farms well stocked, and with small clearings that there is any danger of having more than ten tons per acre available once in the rotation period of four years. If the corn land receives the manure application, it neces- sitates spring plowing of the sod land. The good results of spring plowing have already been pointed out (except in case of old timothy seed), so this plan has found many advocates. The chief objection to applying manure to corn ground is that the small grains which follow corn are more liable to lodge. To overcome this difficulty in a measure, the plan of manuring for the second year hay crop is suggested. The corn then receives little or no manure except the residual ef- fects. The average dairy farm will find a phosphate fertilizer prof- itable, not only to offset the losses of phosphorus in the sale 26 Wisconsin Bulletin 347 of products, but also to increase crop yields and hasten ma- turity. Manuring New Seeding The clover seeding has not been given much attention until recently. In fact, it was unnecessary until recent years. The im- portance of maintaining clover or other legumes cannot be too strongly emphasized. The farmers, too, begin to realize this fact. A helpful practice is that of top dressing new* seeding in the late fall with manure that has accumulated in yards and old straw piles. Even though the application is only a light one of three to four loads per acre, this top dressing will do much to protect the young plants. Where straw is available, there is no better place for it than on the new seeding. Straw at- tachments are now made to fit standard manure spreaders. Maintaining the Plant Food Supply Does the average dairy farmer maintain the supply of plant food in his soil? Although he may answer “yes,” yet he fre- quently overlooks the fact that maintaining the supply of plant food and keeping up the fertility of the soil are not nec- essarily the same. A fertile soil is one that has the ability to produce good crops. It is not concerned alone with the supply of plant food, nor with drainage, nor tillage, nor crop rotation, but with all of these factors. During the past fifty years much has been learned • about better tillage methods and tillage implements. The horse hoe and the seed drill were the results of Jethro Tull’s efiForts in England early in the 18th century. Underground drainage and crop rotations are practices that have been known and used for centuries. These practices — crop rotation, improved tillage, drainage, and better seeds — in themselves are sound ; yet every one serves to remove larger amounts of plant food, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and lime. Nitrogen — This element may be brought into the soil and the supply maintained and even increased through the grow- ing of legume crops. In a general way, about one-fourth of the land under cultivation on the farm should be in one or more legumes — clover, alfalfa, soybeans, or others. The mill- stufifs fed by the dairy farmer furnish another source of nitro- Farming the Silt Loams of Central Wisconsin 27 gen. Protein feeds — oilmeal, cotton seed meal, and others are especially high in their nitrogen content. In general, there- fore, the dairyman may depend on the legume crops and the millstuffs to maintain and even increase the nitrogen supply of his soil. Potassium — Approximately three-fourths of the potassium in grain crops and corn is found in the straw or stover, and in a large measure is returned to the soil. The total supply in the silt loam soil averages nearly 40,000 pounds over an acre to a depth of eight inches. Considering this abundant supply in the soil, and the small losses that occur, the potassium supply on average dairy farms is ample for good crop yields without buying fertilizer containing it. The important thing is to make available the abundant supply now found, by maintaining organic matter and by other good cultural practices. Phosphorus — This element is found largely in the seed or kernel of the crops grown. About two-thirds of it is found in the grain and corn and only one-third in the straw or stover. Legume crops are also heavy feeders of phosphorus. In feed- ing these crops to the dairy animal there are many sources of loss. These may not be large for any one year, yet when the practice is continued for a long period the effect is shown in reduced crop yields. The losses of phosphorus come in the sale of dairy prod- ucts, such as whole milk, in the sale of cash crops, and in the handling of stable manure. Milk contains considerable amounts of phosphorus, chiefly lime prosphates. For example, the milk produced by a cow averaging 5,000 pounds per year when sold removes as much phosphorus annually as is removed in an average wheat crop of 14 bushels per acre. This assumes also that the wheat straw is returned in the manure without loss. The loss of this valuable plant food may be offset either through the purchase of millstuffs, such as bran, for example, or by the use of phosphate fertilizers. Dairymen are using large quantities of millstuffs and in many cases are enabled to offset the losses that occur or even to build up the supply in the soil. From a careful study of 250 dairy farms in the state, the amount of millstuffs fed was determined. In the table is given the percentage of farmers using various amounts of mill- stuffs. No commercial fertilizers were reported by any of the farmers whose farms were examined. 28 Wisconsin Bulletin 347 Table X. — Percentage of Farmers Using Millstuffs (250 farms) 22.6% of farmers used no millstuffs. 19.4% of farmers used 0-2 tons 12.0% of farmers used 2-4 tons 12.0% of farmers used 4-6 tons 9.0% of farmers used 6-8 tons 25.0% of farmers used over 8 tons The herds averaged 16 to 18 cows per farm. Nearly one- fourth of the farmers were depending upon home grown feeds entirely; about one-third were using up to 4 tons; one-fifth from 4 to 8 tons ; while only one-fourth were using over 8 tons per year. It is safe to state that, except in the last two groups, comprising 34 per cent of the farms, the outgo of phosphorus exceeds the income for any one year. In general, one-half ton of wheat bran is to be fed per animal a year in order to play even so far as the phosphorus exchange is concerned. The farmers who gave these figures depend principally on dairy products and livestock for their income. Milk is deliv- ered to cheese factories, or the cream to creameries. The loss FIG. 14.— A CHECK PLOT ON LAND CROPPED ABOUT TWENTY YEARS The five-year average yield on this plot was 45.4 bu. No manure was put on this land for ten years preceding. Farming the Silt Loams of Central Wisconsin 29 of phosphorus is, of course, somewhat greater when milk is sold to cheese factories than in the latter case. The skim- milk or whey is, as a rule, fed to hogs or calves. If either prod- uct is fed entirely to hogs the loss of phosphorus is bound to be large on account of the way hogs are raised on the farm. The up-to-date hog raiser usually keeps hogs in pasture lots for summer feeding so that these lots receive practically all the benefit of the manure produced by the animals. So far, there- fore, as the farm as a whole is concerned, little benefit is de- rived from the manure produced when milk, whey and mill- stuffs are consumed. The pasture lots, therefore, are certain to become enriched markedly. Where the dairy by-product, milk or whey, is fed to calves and the manure returned to the fields, there is a much better distribution of the plant food over the farm. The growing animal, however, extracts more of the fertilizing elements, especially phosphorus, than do the mature animals. Phosphorus is the plant food element about which the dairy farmer should be chiefly concerned. The losses that come in the sale of products, in leaching, in surface erosion, and in the way manure is handled, are important and every effort should be made to replace them. In a measure, the commer- cial fertilizers and millstuffs do offset the losses, yet the net losses during any one year for the entire state are enormous. (See Table XI.) Table XI. — Estimated Losses and Gains From Feeding Stuffs and Fertilizers Loss of phosphorus in livestock sold in 1918 6,158,000 lbs. Loss of phosphorus in milk sold in 1918 3,622,000 lbs. Loss of phosphorus in crops sold In 1918 8,050,000 lbs. Loss- of phosphorus in handling manure in 1918 _ 3,900,000 lbs. Total 20,730,000 lbs. Gain of phosphorus in millstuffs and fertilizers purchased in 1918— 7,700,000 lbs. Net loss for the year. 12,960,000 lbs. Depleting the soil each year will eventually impoverish it. In several of the older counties, the loss of phosphorus in the cropped soil has been found to be nearly one-third of the total found in uncropped or virgin soil. These farms have been under crop for fifty years, and in early years were de- voted largely to grain raising. 30 Wisconsin Bulletin 347 PIG. 15.— THIS PLOT RECEIVED MANURE, LIMESTONE AND PHOS- PHATES This treatment on a five-year average has increased yield 15 bu. per acre, or nearly 35 per cent over check plot, Fig. 14. EXPERIMENTS WITH MANURE SUPPLEMENTED WITH OTHER FERTILIZERS At the Marshfield Station a four-acre field was set aside for fertilizer experiments. The soil is typical heavy silt loam and has been under crop about twenty years. The experiments were started in 1913, but previous to that time the land had been in general farm crops and probably received several applications of manure. Phosphate Fertilizers with Manure The rotation consisted of corn, wheat, oats and clover. On account of black rust, wheat was dropped in 1921 and barley substituted. Manure is top dressed on corn land at the rate of 10 tons per acre. The acid phosphate is distributed with the manure by spreading the proper amount evenly over the top of the load. In this way the acid phosphate is broadcasted and the crops succeeding corn are also benefited. As a general farm practice, this method of applying fertilizer is recommended. Farming the Silt Loams of Central Wisconsin 31 Table XII. — Results of Supplementing Manure With Acid Phosphate Corn, Wheat, 5-yr. av. 5-yr. av. Oats, 6-yr. av. Clover, 4-yr. av. 1st crop 2d crop 10 T. manure 2 T. limestone _ _ - 56.84 bu. 15.05 bu. 1 57.37 bu. 2,886 lbs. 1,917 lbs. 10 T. manure _ 1 2 T. limestone __ - __ 60.41 bu. 16.21 bu. 60.49 bu. 3,090 lbs. 1,889 lbs. 450 lbs. acid phosphate _ __ _ . Increase due to phosphate 3 . 57 bu . 1.16 bu. 3.12 bu. 204 lbs . — 28 lbs While the increases from the use of phosphate fertilizer have not been large, it should be borne in mind that the land has been under crop but a short time. Again, the land has been in clover every fourth year since 1912 and no doubt the effect of the rotation has been important in liberating plant food. Then, too, the manure used on all plots comes from animals fed liberal amounts of millstuffs, and thus the phos- phorus hunger is not so apparent as on older cropped land less well supplied with manure of the kind used in this experiment. The effect of maintaining clover in the rotation should not be over- looked, for without question, it has an important effect on all crops following. | 4 i The importance of the effect of the rotation is shown by yields obtained on a plot which has received no manure nor fertilizer since 1912 and perhaps only one or two applications since the land was brought under cultivation twenty years ago. The yields are : Corn Wheat Oats Clover — First crop .. Second crop 44.87 bushels 10.05 bushels 54.78 bushels .2070.7 pounds 1583.2 pounds Applying Fertilizers When planning his fertilizer program, the farmer should keep in mind all of the crops grown in the rotation. He should remember that phosphate fertilizers are not leached out of 32 Wisconsin Bulletin 347 UNTREATED PLOT UNDER CROP ABOUT TWENTY YEARS It has received no manure since 1912 and perhaps one or two treatments before the plots were laid out. Yield 1921, 54.50 bu. with 32.9 per cent nubbins. GOOD EFFECTS OF MANURE AND LIMESTONE This combination raised the yield ’and also the quality. Yield 66.4 bu. and nubbins 19 per cent. RESULTS OF USE OF MANURE AND PHOSPHATE This plot produced 70.4 bu! of which 19.4 per cent was inferior corn. MANURE. LIMESTONE AND PHOSPHATE When manure is supplemented by phosphate in addition to limestone, the maximum yields are obtained — 77 bu. with only 10.6 per cent nubbins. Farming the Silt Loams of Central Wisconsin 33 the soil, and that crops succeeding the one receiving the treat- ment will likewise be benefited. This is brought out plainly in the figures above. Frequently the clover is in need of phosphate and in that case broadcasting phosphates for small grains is highly desirable. On the heavy silt loam, however, the method of applying a light application of 150-175 pounds per acre for corn along the row or in the hill is justified. Frequently the season is late and the soil is slow in warming up. Applying fertilizers near the corn row, but not in contact with the seed, starts corn off earlier and tends to hasten maturity. Either the acid phosphate or a mixture known as 2-12 may be used. A fer- tilizer attachment for the corn planter is necessary. The use, therefore, of 300 to 400 pounds of acid phosphate broadcasted with manure for corn or without manure for small grain, and a light row application for the corn crop makes a well balanced fertilizer program for the dairy farmer on the heavy silt loam. If, however, he is able to make but one ap- plication of fertilizer, preference should be given broadcast- ing. Potash Fertilizers — The supply of potassium in the silt loam as found by repeated chemical analyses is about 40,000 pounds per acre eight inches. The question whether potassium could be used profitably on dairy farms was therefore studied. (See Table XIII.) Table XIII. — Results of Use of Potassium on Dairy Farms Corn, 5-yr. av. Wheat, 5-yr. av. ' Oats, '6-yr. av. Clover, 4-yr. av. 1st crop 2d crop 10 T. manure. 60.41 bu. 16.21 bu. 60.49 bu. 3,090 lbs. 1,889.5 lbs. 2 T. limestone 450 lbs. acid phosphate 10 T. manure 57.98 bu. 16.25 bu. 56.93 bu.j 2,919 lbs. 1,889.7 lbs. 2 T. limestone _ 450 lbs. acid phosphate 200 lbs. potash... Potassium gave negative results with corn and oats, and on the other crops in the rotation the increases were negligible. Table XIII does not indicate the need for potash, but this re- 34 Wisconsin Bulletin 347 suit does not apply to other crops, such as potatoes, nor to other heavy potash feeders, nor to other soil types. Further study by means of trial plots will be necessary to find out the needs of these special crops in different soils. Gypsum — Gypsum or land plaster has long been used for agricultural purposes. The practice would flourish for a time and then cease for a decade or more until it was again taken up by enthusiastic advocates. Recently the Oregon Experi- ment Station found that under their conditions of soil and cli- mate, gypsum gave very profitable increases. Gypsum has been used since 1915 and the results are shown in Table XIV. Table XIV. — Results of Use of Gypsum on Dairy Farms Corn, 5-yr. av. Wheat, 5-yr. av. Oats, 6-yr. av. Clover 1st cut. 2d cut. 10 T. manure . _ 800 lbs. rock phosphate 9: T limftstonp. 60.51 bu. 14.66 bu. 59.89 bu. 3,098 lbs. 1,922 lbs. 2,115 lbs. 10 T. manure 800 lbs. rock phosphate 2 T. limestone- 450 lbs. gypsum 59.68 bu. 14.81 bu. 58.56 bu. 3,094 lbs. Experimental results show that the farmer is not. justified in investing in gypsum. Clover is the crop to which the material is applied at the rate of 450 pounds per acre. This is broad- casted in the spring before the crop has made much growth. The clover crop, therefore, should show increases. In the second cutting this amounts to 193 pounds, while in the first it is 4 pounds less on the plot receiving gypsum. The results do not justify the use of gypsum on the other crops grown in the rotation. Ground Limestone — Heavy silt loam is an acid soil, but the degree of acidity varies according to the cropping treatment, drainage, and length of time the land has been under plow. Liming the heavy silt loam is sound practice and profitable yields are obtained from using some form of lime except pos- Farming the Silt Loams of Central Wisconsin 35 1 i PIG. 16.— A LIME SOWER IS BEST There are a number of methods of applying limestone on the heavy silt loam soils, but the best method, however, is to apply by means of a lime sower. sibly on land that has been under plow only a short time. Limestone should be top dressed on plowed land and disked in previous to seeding. Many farmers make the mistake of plowing under limestone or top dressing on clover sod, but, as a rule, poor results are obtained. A lime sower is most satisfactory for distributing limestone, although a manure spreader in some cases can be made to work. The machine is set on low gear and some manure or litter is first placed in the bottom of the spreader to prevent the limestone from filtering through. Limestone may be applied at any time and with any crop, except possibly potatoes. The usual method is to apply on the field to be seeded to small grain and clover, but some prefer to use it on the corn ground. In this way the lime has an opportunity to react with the soil a year before the small grain and clover, seeded the year following. In either case, the material is disked in thoroughly before planting the crop. Table XV gives liming results. Two tons of finely ground limestone are used once in the four years, but tests indicate 36 Wisconsin Bulletin 347 that the second application may be reduced to possibly one ton and equally good results obtained. Table XV. — Results of Liming Heavy Silt Loams Corn, 5-yr. av. Wheat, 5-yr. av. - Oats, 6-yr. av. Clover, 4-yr. av. 1st crop 2d crop 10 T. manure 60.51 bu. 14.66 bu. 59.89 bu. 3,098 lbs. 1,922 lbs. ! 1 800 lbs. rock phosphate 2 T. limestone 10 T. manure - 800 lbs. rock phosphate _ 52.89 bu. 14.79 bu. 55.14 bu. 2,770 lbs. 1,756 lbs. Increase due to liming 7.62 bu. .13 bu. 4.75 bu. 328 lbs. 1 66 lbs. The increases due to liming have been consistent each year. Every crop in the rotation except wheat has shown increases due to liming. The wheat crop has practically every year been seriously injured by the black rust, so that liming as well as fertilizer treatments have not shown any marked effect. DIGEST A tobacco disease new to Wisconsin occurred in this state during the season of 1922. This disease, known as wildfire, has shown itself to be sufficiently serious in other tobacco districts to warrant Wisconsin growers using all possible measures to pre- vent its occurrence in their fields. A control campaign is under way in the infested district. Page 3 Wildfire resembles “ordinary rust” in some respects. Care- ful comparison shows, however, that they are quite different in appearance, but much more important is the fact that wildfire is capable of doing a hundred-fold more damage than “ordinary rust.” Page 8 Wildfire is caused by infections of the leaves produced by certain bacteria (germs). It is, therefore, infectious and can spread from leaf to leaf, plant to plant, and from farm to farm. The control of the disease depends upon preventing an excessive spread of these bacteria. Page 11 Storms spread the disease, produce more or less wounding favoring infection, and supply moisture, without which the bac- teria are unable to enter the leaf. The weather, therefore, has a very important part in determining the amount of damage done by the disease. Page 18 Practically all bacteria die out over winter since they have no living plants on which to multiply. A few, however, escape destruction and in some manner reach the seed-beds in the spring. The best possibilities for control lie in preventing seed-bed infec- tion. Page 19 Plants infected with wildfire should never be transplanted to the field if it is at all possible to obtain healthy plants else- where. Even apparently disease-free plants from infected beds should preferably not be used. Page 20 Plants and leaves found infected in the field should be des- stroved so far as practicable. Infected material serves as a source of further spread in the field and aids in carrying the dis- ease over into the following year. Page 20 Tobacco Wildfire in Wisconsin James Johnson and S. B. Fracker* W ILDFIRE is a serious disease of tobacco which has just appeared in Wisconsin, although it has been known in other tobacco districts of the United States for about six years. In the aggregate it has caused losses amounting to mil- lions of dollars. Tobacco growers must now recognize that they have a new disease to contend with and therefore use every pre- caution to prevent their fields from becoming infested. Mild cases of wildfire resemble ‘"ordinary rust” and for that reason it is important that growers learn to distinguish the dis- ease and to apply control measures in time. Preventing seed- bed infection and avoiding the use of plants from infected seed- beds are possible means of control. The Wisconsin outbreak in 1922 did not cause any considerable damage, owing largely to unfavorable weather conditions for its spread. The disease did, however, seriously threaten to destroy a few crops early in the season, indicating its dangerous possibil- ities under Wisconsin conditions. The fact that wildfire may cause large losses to tobacco has been amply illustrated in south- ern and eastern tobacco districts. Like most plant diseases, how- ever, wildfire is sporadic and while heavy losses may occur in some seasons there may also be seasons of comparative freedom from it as has been the experience in other states. Wildfire in Other Tobacco Districts Wildfire first occurred to a serious extent in North Carolina in 1917, so far as is definitely known. From there it spread rapidly to other tobacco districts of the United States until now it is found in practically all the tobacco growing sections, involv- ing as many as fourteen states. This is an exceedingly rapid spread for a plant disease in a six-year period and suggests the ease with which it may spread from farm to farm when once it has entered a district. In these other tobacco districts the damage to infected fields has varied greatly, ranging from insignificant *The authors represent the College of Agriculture, University of Wis- consin, and the State Department of Agriculture, State Capitol, respec- tively. 4 Wisconsin Bulletin 348 amounts to almost complete destruction in any one year, and from very widespread and general damage to hardly any signs of the disease in different years. The aggregate loss in the six-year period has run, however, into millions of dollars, and although other tobacco diseases are known to produce relatively larger losses to tobacco in the United States, yet the fact remains that, in years especially favorable for wildfire, far heavier losses than yet observed may occur. Infected Area in Wisconsin Diseased plants from seed-beds were brought to the Experi- ment Station on June 14, 1922, from the town of Deerfield, Dane county, and the disease was soon after determined to be wild- fire. While the original infected area in the beds was a relatively small spot, the disease later spread over most of the beds from which about twelve acres were transplanted. As an eradication measure this planting was destroyed and replanted with healthy plants. No further signs of infection were seen on this farm until late in the season, when very slight spotting was noted in a small percentage of the plants. About one week after the first case was reported, a second one was found in the town of Burke and a preliminary survey showed that several cases existed in this township. Arrangements were then made with the State Department of Agriculture to co-operate in checking or eradicating the disease. 1 A conference of tobacco growers from the town of Burke and vicinity was then called and met with officials of the State Department of Agriculture and the Experiment Station. A committee of growers to act with the officials was appointed and a campaign of control or eradication agreed upon. A detailed survey was undertaken to locate infested seed beds and fields. Wildfire was found on about ninety farms, situated largely in the northeastern part of Dane county. (Fig. 1.) The largest number of infected farms was found in the towns of Burke, Sun Prairie and Windsor, with scattered infections in the towns of Cottage Grove, Deerfield, Westport, Dunn, Chris- tiana, Bristol, Blooming Grove, Dunkirk, Pleasant Springs, and Madison. The inspection of fields outside these townships was x This department is empowered by state law to apply measures neces- sary for the control or eradication of any new or dangerous plant disease. Tobacco Wildfire in Wisconsin 5 DANE COUNTY/j / WINDSOR • • • •• BRISTOL • • • A • WESTPORT • • BURKE, ,*j\ -•TV ••• • GUN X PRAIRIE / LAKE C MENDOIA. 1 MADISON rS^Z • BLOOMING GROVE • • COTTAGE GRCVE • • • DEERFIELD DUNN p*' • • PLEASANT S SPRINGS • CHRISTIANA / DUNKIRK » FIG. 1.— THE WILDFIRE INFESTED AREA IN DANE COUNTY Each dot represents a farm on which wildfire was found in 1922. complete enough to make reasonably certain that wildfire did not occur outside the area of these townships. Preliminary surveys, newspaper publicity, letters and other methods of inquiry indicate that all other tobacco-growing counties are apparently free from the disease. The amount of infection varied from only faint signs of it to ten-acre fields in which practically every plant was infected up to the fourth or fifth leaf. The most severely infected fields bore no relation, however, to the center of the infected district. In practically every case field infection was traced to seed-bed infec- tion. The seed used by the various growers had been obtained from widely varying sources and no relation of the seed to infec- tion could be established. On the basis of the survey the campaign of control and eradi- cation was started early in July. State Department of Agricul- ture regulations regarding the control and eradication of wildfire were forwarded to owners of all infected fields. The first efforts at eradication were concerned with the removal of infected plants from the fields and replanting with healthy ones and destroying infected seed-beds. The most extensive work was cooperation 6 Wisconsin Bulletin 348 with the growers in removing and destroying infected leaves on farms where the disease was found too late for replanting. Half a dozen men were employed for several weeks in this way. After September 1, attention was given to the early plowing of infected FIG. 2. — WILDFIRE STARTS IN THE PLANT-BEDS The characteristic sign of wildfire is the yellow or bleached area around the center of infection. Watch your plant-beds for such signs on the young leaves. fields, especially where infection started on the sucker growth. The control campaign is expected to be continued in 1923, par- ticularly the inspecting of seed-beds and preventing the trans- planting of infected plants. 2 Signs of Wildfire in Plant-Beds Wildfire may attack the plants at almost any stage of growth. On young plants it may resemble bed-rot, but the typical symp- toms are quite distinct from other known diseases of tobacco. The most typical symptom in plant beds as well as in the field is a round, bleached or yellowish area (chlorotic area or halo). 2 The survey and campaign for the control of wildfire was officially conducted by the State Department of Agriculture, the Experiment Sta- tion cooperating. The work of the control campaign can not be dis- cussed in detail here, but the measures applied are essentially the same as those discussed under control measures in this bulletin. Tobacco Wildfire in Wisconsin 7 FIG. 3.— bud-infection sometimes occurs The wildfire disease may affect the whole plant, with the result that it turns yellow in the bud and makes little or no further growth. This symptom seems to result from the passage of toxic products from the infected areas through the plant to the bud, resulting in a bleaching similar to that characteristically localized in spots in older leaves. Plants so affected fail to make any growth or to recover. In some fields as high as 25 per cent of bud infection was noted. In such cases plowing under or removal of diseased plants and replanting the entire area was done. Where there are only a few cases of bud infection, infected plants should be removed and healthy plants res : in their places as soon as pos- This halo is sometimes as large as a dime and in the center is a dried area which often varies in size from a pin point up to a half inch in diameter (Fig. 2), with or without a distinctive yel- low border, depending on the age of the spot and other conditions. The spots run together when numerous and may cause the whole leaf to collapse and dry up. In some seed-beds noted last spring the disease had practically destroyed all the leaves on the plants in the beds, leaving only the bare stems of the seedlings. “Bud infection” is another symptom apparently not character- istic in other tobacco districts but fairly common in Wisconsin in 1922. In this case the young leaves surrounding the bud, and the bud itself, turned to a uniform light yellow color. (Fig. 3.) 8 Wisconsin Bulletin 348 sible. As growers become acquainted with the signs of the dis- ease, however, it is believed that infected plants will not be planted at all. This symptom occurred in the field probably only as the result of transplanting badly infected plants. All infected areas in the seed-bed should be destroyed as quickly as they are noticed. It is quite unsafe to transplant even apparently disease-free plants from infected beds, and this should not be done if healthy plants can be obtained elsewhere. Field Signs or Symptoms Practically all wildfire infection in the field is traceable to infected plant-beds. While a few cases of seeming infection from field soil have been observed there is as yet no definite evidence that such occurs. The earliest field symptoms on young plants are, of course, about the same as those of the plant-bed, that is, leaf spots and bud infection. If infection has escaped notice, however, until the crop is one-half to full grown, some modification of the typical plant-bed symptoms may occur. While the bleached round spot with its central dead area (Fig. 4) is almost a sure sign of wildfire it is important to remember two more facts, in field inspection. One is that wildfire spots some- times occur without any bleached area surrounding them (Fig. 5), and consequently the disease is likely to be mistaken for ordinary “rust.” The second is that at least one kind of “rust,” the true “old-fashioned rust” of Wisconsin, also a bacterial dis- ease, may show a fairly marked yellow area around the central point of infection when conditions are very favorable. By lab- oratory methods, however, all cases of true wildfire can be ac- curately determined. The bottom leaves are most likely to show infection because they are exposed for the longest time and are in a better environ- mental position for infection. (Fig. 6.) Also, they are appar- ently more susceptible to the disease. Under favorable conditions for infection, however, the disease attacks with almost equal vigor the uppermost leaves, and even the suckers and seed pods. Cigar binder and wrapper tobaccos may become worthless by a com- paratively few infections on a leaf, making it suitable only for stemming purposes. Heavily infected leaf ordinarily is not worth harvesting since the leaves are badly broken up in handling. Tobacco Wildfire in Wisconsin 9 FIG. 4.— TYPICAL WILDFIRE IN FIELD Fortunately infection is not always as heavy as here shown, but it is often worse under favorable conditions for the disease. 10 Wisconsin Bulletin 348 FIG. 5.— WILDFIRE, BUT NOT TYPICAL Easily mistaken for ordinary rust. Little or no bleached area around spots, and these have run together and turned nearly the whole leaf to a brown color. Tobacco Wildfire in Wisconsin 11 Note the young- spots on the upper leaves and the dried up condition of the lower leaves. Cause of Wildfire Most plant diseases are caused by microscopic organisms which infest and live on plant tissues. Different organisms cause differ- ent diseases and can often be recognized by the kind of decay or lesions they produce. Where such organisms are found, it is important to remember that the disease is infectious and hence may spread more or less rapidly, depending upon the vigor of the parasite, the susceptibility of the plants and the favorableness of the weather conditions for infection. Wildfire is caused by a bacterial organism named Bacterium tabacum. Like all other bacteria this organism is extremely small and while one organism is enough to start a leaf-spot, hundreds of thousands of bacteria are eventually present in each spot and serve as new sources of infection. While this organism is very small it can be measured, photographed (Fig. 7), separated from all other organisms, cultivated and inoculated to healthy tobacco. The typical wildfire which it then produces absolutely proves it 12 Wisconsin Bulletin 348 FIG. 7. — THE REAL CAUSE OF WILDFIRE Photographed through a microscope, and enlarging to several thousand times their actual size, the wildfire bacteria look like short rods to- which are attached “flagella’' which enable them to move about. to be the cause of this disease. (Fig. 8.) Without the wildfire germ it is just as impossible for the wildfire disease to occur as it is for a crop of corn to be produced in a field where no corn seed has been planted. Likewise, corn planted in dry soil fails to develop until sufficient moisture is supplied, and so while the wildfire organism may be present in great abundance rains are necessary for its development. Conditions Favoring Wildfire The worst periods of infection in Wisconsin in 1922 followed two separate storms with wind and some hail early in the grow- ing season. Many growers, therefore, believed that the storm caused the “rusting” of their fields, and found it difficult to accept Tobacco Wildfire in Wisconsin 13 The bacteria when placed on tobacco leaves in a drop of water produce spots of the same type as found under natural conditions. the infectious nature of the disease, although many neighboring fields showed the efifects of the storm but did not have wildfire. Storms, especially beating rains, however, have a very important relation to wildfire in that they favor infection to a high degree. The bacteria are often unable to infect the leaves except through slightly wounded tissue, such as may be produced by beating rain, although with rapidly growing tobacco, moisture in itself often suffices for considerable infection. The facts are, gener- ally, that heavy infection and damage practically depend upon storms or continued rains. This does not alter the conclusion, however, that wildfire damage is first of all dependent upon the presence of bacterial organisms and that the control of the disease must depend upon preventing the general introduction of these bacteria into the seed-beds and fields. Wildfire Compared With Other Rusts The name “rust” is a very general one used by tobacco grow- ers and includes many different leaf-spots due to as many dif- ferent and distinct causes. The characteristics of the more com- mon ones are as follows: 14 Wisconsin Bulletin 348 Ordinary or “old-fashioned rust” is quite similar to wildfire, but is due to a different bacterium which is much less serious and rare in its attacks on tobacco. The spots are ordinarily brown and show a less distinct, if any, yellow area around the center of infection. (Fig. 9.) The yellow area, or halo, is, on FIG. 9.— ORDINARY WISCONSIN “RUST” This disease looks much like wildfire, but it is caused by another species of bacteria which is not nearly apt to cause large losses as is wildfire. Tobacco Wildfire in Wisconsin 15 the other hand, quite typical of wildfire. Ordinary rust occurs rarely, usually only on small parts of the fields, and does not spread easily and as far as known never destroys plants in the seed-bed as wildfire does. “Mosaic rust” or “firing” was very common and serious in Wisconsin in 1922. White or brownish spots occur on the leaves and in more severe cases, large patches of the leaves turn yellow or brown and dry up. (Fig. 10.) This disease is readily FIG. 10.— MOSAIC “RUST” SOMETIMES MISTAKEN FOR WILDFIRE This disease was common in Wisconsin in 1922. The ordinary symptoms of mosaic are shown in the two upper sucker leaves, the lower ones being healthy leaves. recognized by the mosaic symptoms on the young leaves or suck- ers. The mosaic disease, itself, is indicated by leaves mottled green and yellow and often deformed. The plants are weakened as a whole and under certain weather conditions, rusting or 16 Wisconsin Bulletin 348 “firing” occurs. Commonly, no great damage is done by this disease in Wisconsin, although more or less of it can be found every year. Non-parasitic leaf -spots or non-inf ectious rusts not due to germs but resulting rather from unfavorable soil conditions for tobacco, make up a third class. (Fig. 11.) They are fairly common on some soils with certain types of tobacco, and often manifest themselves in several different types or forms of spots. These spots are usually not numerous enough to cause much concern. Many other leaf-spots or rusts occur throughout the country but are very uncommon or not known to occur in Wisconsin. How Does Wildfire Live Over Winter? For practically six months the wildfire germ must maintain life in some manner without any living plants upon which to feed and multiply. While there is evidence that some of these germs can live for several weeks under very unfavorable conditions as on dried leaves, seed, cloth and so forth, yet their number is re- duced very rapidly. It seems, however, that a few of the germs must survive in some manner for the six-month period, prob- ably because of being lodged in some especially favorable situa- tion for maintaining life. If the only manner in which the dis- ease overwinters could be determined it might greatly simplify present methods of control. Bacteria may live over winter in a wide variety of ways, but in the case of wildfire it is difficult to find out how this is done even with the aid of practical observation and experiments. It seems likely that under certain conditions the bacteria may live over winter on the seed, but that this is not in all cases true seems evident from the data gathered on the source of seed of infected seed-beds this past season in Wisconsin. Some suspi- cion also falls on seed-bed covers, seed-bed frames, soil, cured tobacco leaves, tobacco refuse from sheds, tobacco stalks or any other material or equipment that may come in contact with wild- fire and subsequently with tobacco plants in the spring. It is necessary, therefore, in preparing the seed-beds in the spring to use all possible precautions to prevent infestation with wildfire on farms where wildfire has previously occurred. Tobacco Wildfire in Wisconsin 17 FIG. 11.— ANOTHER TYPE OF RUST These spots are different from any of the others mentioned in that no germs are concerned, but they develop rather from a combination of conditions in the soil and plant itself. 18 Wisconsin Bulletin 348 Spread of the Disease Once infection has occurred in the spring it is not difficult to see how the disease may spread in the seed-bed, in the field and from field to field. In addition to being carried through the air under certain conditions, men, animals and tools or other equip- ment may carry it in various ways through the field or from field to field unless proper care is taken. The disease is most easily spread when the tobacco is wet and at such times it is a good plan to remain out of the fields when the plants have reached some size. The transfer of infected plants for transplanting is the most evident means of spreading the disease from farm to farm and should by all means be avoided. In general the greatest injury seems to be done by an upward spread on the plants from infected lower leaves so that the greater the number of infected plants the greater the damage from the disease. On the other hand, under favorable conditions for the spread of the disease, as during driving rain storms, general spread in the direction of the wind takes place and a relatively few infected plants in the field may cause general infection to occur later. When infection has once occurred in the field, therefore, and entire replanting is not re- sorted to, it seems practical in many cases to break off and de- stroy the infected leaves and hence reduce the spread which may follow stormy or rainy periods. Control Measures From the foregoing discussion the possible measures for the control of wildfire are evident. The practicability of the control measures vary, however, with conditions. If, for example, most of the leaves on a half grown crop are infected, it would be impractical and too expensive to remove these leaves from stalk- cut tobacco with the purpose of profiting by reducing the infec- tion in the remainder of the single crop. Until more ex- perimental evidence is at hand, however, the grower may need to go to some unnecessary trouble to make certain that everything possible is done to avoid unlimited spread. This is especially important while there may still be a possibility of erad- icating the disease from the state, or preventing its spread to un- infested sections. Tobacco Wildfire in Wisconsin 19 The control measures recommended are largely concerned with growing disease-free plants in the seed-beds. If this fails healthy plants should be sought elsewhere. If diseased plants are accidentally set out the infected plants and leaves should be destroyed as soon as possible, if the infection is light and scat- tered. In case of general infection found before July 1 it is advisable to destroy and replant entirely. These efforts are not only for the purpose of reducing as much as possible the chances of the present crop being damaged by wildfire, but also to pre- vent the accumulation of infected material on the farm which serves as a source of infection for next year’s crop on the same farm and vicinity. Precautions to Prevent Infection in Seed-Beds On farms where wildfire has once occurred the grower should take these precautions to reduce the danger of introducing wild- fire into the plant-beds : 1. Locate beds a considerable distance from where tobacco beds or fields were located last year and away from tobacco sheds. 2. Do not use refuse from tobacco sheds or stripping room as fertilizer in seed-beds or field, but preferably rake it up carefully and destroy before the beds are started. 3. Use new frame boards or disinfect old boards by sprink- ling or painting with some disinfecting solution such as 1 part of formalin to 25 parts of water. 4. Use new seed-bed covers, or sterilize old covers by boiling one hour. 5. Use seed known to come from uninfested districts or seed which has been disinfected. Seed may be treated most safely by using corrosive sublimate (1 part to 1,000 parts of water) into which the seed contained in a cheese-cloth bag is dipped for 10-15 minutes. Rinse thoroughly with pure water and dry as rapidly as possible. 3 6. As a final measure the grower may have to resort to spray- ing or dusting the beds with Bordeaux mixture if the dis- ease becomes sufficiently serious to warrant it in spite of all other precautions. Spraying or dusting should be done once a week from the time the leaves are as large as a dime until 8 Corrosive sublimate is a strong - poison but will not affect the hands. It corrodes metal and for that reason a glass or wooden vessel should be used for holding the solution. It can be purchased at drug stores in convenient form. 20 Wisconsin Bulletin 348 the pulling of plants is completed. Such treatment has been found to be efficient in preventing heavy spread of infection throughout the beds. More detailed information on this subject will be furnished upon request to the Ex- periment Station, Madison, or State Department of Agricul- ture. Do Not Transplant Infected Plants Where wildfire infection is found in seed-beds the diseased areas and those bordering them should be destroyed at once as completely as possible. Weeding and pulling plants will espe- cially spread the disease over large areas of the bed. The in- fected areas can best be destroyed by drenching with formalin (1 part to 25 parts water) and covering with some material to hold the fumes, or by cutting the plants and sprinkling the areas with kerosene and burning over. In case no further signs of the disease are evident it is fairly safe to use plants from other parts of the same beds, but plants should preferably not be pulled from within several feet of the infected areas. To be entirely safe, plants from such beds should not be used at all. Best Methods in Case of Field Infection When wildfire is found in the field the best procedure will depend upon the amount of disease present and the time of the season when it was first observed. If a large percentage of the plants show infection before July 1 in Wisconsin the safest thing is to destroy the planting by plowing under or pulling out all the plants, refitting the ground and replanting from healthy beds. While this method is tedious and expensive and involves the possibility of damage by frost to a later crop, it is no more discouraging than working with a crop badly damaged by wildfire. If infection is noted on only a few plants early in the session, pull them out, carry them off the field, burn or bury them, and reset healthy plants in their places. After July 1 planting is not ordinarily desirable and it is usually just as well to take the chance that the disease may be checked during the season by unfavorable weather conditions, together with what may be accomplished by removal of infected leaves. During the first month the tobacco is in the field serious effort should be made to remove all infected leaves, even though this means much tedious labor and expense. Even if infection Tobacco Wildfire in Wisconsin 21 gets such a start that two to five leaves are involved on prac- tically every plant, this measure may be profitably adopted as part of an eradication policy in place of complete destruction of the crop. Destroy Second Growth of Suckers Wildfire will also attack sucker growth on harvested fields in the fall if the weather is favorable. This is an additional and unnec- essary possible source of infection for the farm and community. Plowing under the suckers before they make much growth will effectively prevent this danger. Fall plowing is in any case de- sirable as a rule from a general agricultural standpoint. Fields on which wildfire has occurred should preferably not be used for tobacco culture the following year, although it is not generally regarded as unsafe to do so. . EXPERIMENT STATION STAFF The President op the University H. L. Russell, Dean and Director F. B. Morrison, Asst. Dir. Exp. Sta- tion J. A. James, Asst. Dean K. - L. Hatch, Asst. Dir. Agr. Exten- sion Service W. A. Henry, Emeritus Agriculture S. M. Babcock, Emeritus Agr. Chem- istry A. S. Alexander, Veterinary Science F. A. Aust, Horticulture B. A. Beach, Veterinary Science R. A. Brunic, Genetics L. J. Cole, In charge of Genetics E. J. Delwiche, Agronomy (Ashland) J. G. Dickson, Plant Pathology F. W. Duffee, Agr. Engineering J. M. Fargo, Animal Husbandry E. H. Farrington, In charge of Dairy Husbandry C. L. Fluke, Economic Entomology E. B. Fred, Agr. Bacteriology W. D. Frost, Agr. Bacteriology J. G. Fuller, Animal Husbandry W. J. Geib, Soils E. M. Gilbert, Plant Pathology L. F. Graber, Agronomy E. J. Graul, Soils F. B. Hadley, In charge of Veterin- ary Science J. G. Halpin, In charge of Poultry Husbandry E. B. Hart, In charge of Agr. Chem- istry E. G. Hastings, In charge of Agr. Bacteriology C. S. Hean, Librarian * B. H. Hibbard, In charge of Agr. Economics A. W. Hopkins, Editor, in charge of Agr. Journalism R. 9. Hulcb, Animal Husbandry G. C. Humphrey, In charge of Ani- mal Husbandry J. A. James, in charge of Agr. Edu- cation J. Johnson, Horticulture E. R. Jones, In charge of Agr. En- gineering L. R. Jones, In charge of Plant Pa- thology G. W. Keitt, Plant Pathology F. Kleinheinz, Animal Husbandry * OLD SEEDING WNTEftKIlUD lime Hardy jfl Common! 1 WEAK Common] TOO EAPLY CUTTING MAKES NEXT CROP SHORT* WEAK-YELLOW CUT IN FULL BLOOM MAKES NEXT CROP HEALTHY- STRONG-VIGOROUS Low Areas Winterkilled NEW SEEDING WT INJURED OLD SEEDING 1 WiNTERKlUED I Make Alfalfa a Sure Crop 13 Inoculate for Vigorous Growth Where alfalfa has not been grown successfully before, either the seed or the soil should be inoculated. Why take the risk? Cultures, which can be gotten through your county agent or Experiment Station, may conveniently be applied The little white swellings or nodules on alfalfa roots are sure indi- cations of proper inoculation. They are the homes of millions of alfalfa bacteria which gather nitrogen from the soil air and convert it into an actual growth-producing fertilizer for the alfalfa plants. to the seed just before sowing. Inoculation is nothing more or less than a simple, easy, and inexpensive process of intro- ducing into soils the real fertilizer manufacturing bacteria which develop swellings and nodules on the alfalfa roots and make the plants strong, healthy and vigorous. Give Alfalfa a Square Deal Alfalfa requires nothing in the way of soil treatment but what is largely needed to produce the most abundant yields of corn, small grains, and other crops. Play safe. Get inoculated with the right ideas about grow- ing alfalfa. Sow alfalfa right or don’t sow it at all. Give it a square deal if you expect a square deal in return. 14 Wisconsin Bulletin 347 Get the Nurse Crop off Early Many a good stand of alfalfa and of clover is ruined by the summer’s drought. Grasshoppers are very serious in some years. There is a way to play reasonably safe on this. Sow your alfalfa with one bushel of early ripening grain an acre, such as Kherson, (Wis. No. 7) oats or pedigree barley. Cut this grain for hay just after it is headed out. This saves soil moisture and gives the alfalfa a good growing start to stand later summer drought as well as grasshopper injury. Cutting the nurse crop for hay is not always necessary, but is essential when grain lodges, otherwise alfalfa may smother. PTC. 1 2.— EARLY RIPENING NURSE CROPS INSURE GOOD STANDS Such early ripening grains as Kherson (Wis. No. 7) oats (at left) and pedigree barley are far more preferable than late maturing oats (at right) or spring wheat. This method is especially advised when high-priced alfalfa seed is used. With this plan you take little chance of failure if your soil conditions are right or nearly so. Compare this method with that of sowing alfalfa with late oats or late spring wheat, which take huge quantities of moisture from the soil during the ripening process and are usually cut at the beginning of our hottest and driest weather. Canning peas make an excellent nurse crop because they are cut and Make Alfalfa a Sure Crop IS hauled off the land early. Other methods can be used, but late summer or fall seeding- should be avoided in Wisconsin. FIG. 13. — CUT LODGED GRAIN FOR HA V Early removal of the nurse crop for hay, especially in case of lodged grain, is an important step towards success in establishing a good stand of alfalfa. Select Reasonably Rich Soil it is a waste of time and money to attempt to grow alfalfa on a worn-out piece of ground unless the soil is abundantly supplied with lime. If your land is not rich and fertile, put on a good dressing of manure. In many instances phosphate fertilizer helps immensely. Lime, inoculation and manure. Make alfalfa doubly sure 16 Wisconsin Bulletin 347 Use Clean Ground To avoid weed trouble, have your alfalfa follow some well- cultivated crop like corn or potatoes. If weeds, especially foxtail, become thick the first season, cut them close to the ground, prior to August 15. Use a mower or grain binder. Haul the cut weeds off the field, especially if there is a heavy growth. A fairly heavy sprinkling of weeds will prob- ably cause very little harm and if not cut may prove a splendid winter protection. Cutting or clipping is not always necessary or advisable. Avoid Flat Land If you have a heavy flat soil with a hardpan subsoil, or a tight blue or red clay subsoil that does not permit good under- drainage, leave alfalfa alone. You will have better luck with timothy and alsike. Alfalfa must have good surface and FIG. 14.— best to choose a sloping field Flat lands will grow alfalfa but smothering ice sheets like this may cause winterkilling especially if the under-drainage is poor. under-drainage. It likes a gravelly limestone subsoil best. Sometimes it grows remarkably well on rich bottom lands or on black flat prairie loams and flat sandy soils that have good thorough under-drainage, but in certain years it will suffer most severely from ice sheets and other winter injury on any flat ground. Choose a sloping soil. Make Alfalfa a Sure Crop 17 Rolling Helps Alfalfa wants a firm but well-prepared seed bed. Fall plowing is best with the heavier soils as it gives the soil time to settle and become firm. Spring plowing should be com- paratively shallow. Alfalfa sown on spring plowed land — especially loose sandy soils — is greatly benefited by rolling FIG. 15. — ROLLING MAKES A SPLENDID SEED BED The corrugated roller breaks coarse lumps, firms the seed bed, and leaves the surface loose. Tt is often desirable to roll both before and after seeding. with a corrugated roller. It helps clover also and brings better yields of grain. The corrugated roller is a much needed implement on many farms. Alfalfa wants a firm seed bed with the lumps on the surface well broken up. The corrugated roller will do this and do it well. Rolling before and after seeding is advisable 18 Wisconsin Bulletin 347 Use Enough Seed Lf your land has plenty of lime, an open gravelly subsoil, and grows alfalfa easily, 15 pounds an acre of clean seed that germinates 90 per cent or above is sufficient. If you are sow- ing alfalfa for the first time or if your soil is not particularly well adapted to alfalfa growing, it is better to use 18 to 20 pounds, especially where common seed is used. Timothy With Alfalfa Keeps Out Weeds and Blue Grass Timothy grows surprisingly well with alfalfa. The first crop is ready to cut just when the timothy is in early bloom and at that stage it is quite palatable and digestible. The PIG. 16.— HOW TIMOTHY HELPS WHEN ALFALFA WINTERKILLS Mixing a little timothy with alfalfa insures against total loss when winterkilling occurs. Two seven-year-old alfalfa plots, one seeded with timothy and the other alone, winterkilled almost completely. The timothy mixture gave a yield of 2.4 tons of hay an acre made up of a mixture of a few spears of alfalfa, 95 per cent timothy and 5 per cent blue grass. Where alfalfa was seeded alone the plot gave 1.2 tons of blue grass hay containing about 10 per cent alfalfa. second and third growths will generally be pure alfalfa. But the important point is : Suppose the alfalfa should winter- Make Alfalfa a Sure Crop 19 kill or become thin in spots? Instead of weeds and blue grass coming in you are likely to find that the timothy thickens right up ; and the way it grows on the dead rotting roots of alfalfa is most remarkable. Where the alfalfa remains thick the timothy will be comparatively thin and where the alfalfa thins the timothy thickens. The two crops go hand in hand to maintain a good stand. Timothy helps keep out blue grass and increases the yields. Try this at least in a small way, mixing one-fourth or one-fifth timothy by weight with your alfalfa and sow the mixture 20 pounds an acre. The chief objection to this combination has come from those who are loathe to use even good timothy as part of their ration for dairy cattle and who secure splendid uniform stands of alfalfa with great ease under their particular soil conditions. Mix Alfalfa With Your Grass and Clover Seed It is excellent practice on most farms to mix in with the regular timothy and clover seedings from two to four pounds of alfalfa seed per acre. Inoculate this seed before mixing and you will soon have your whole farm inoculated for future crops of alfalfa. Alfalfa growing with timothy and clover im- proves the yield and quality of hay. Even if your ground is a little sour, a thin sprinkling of alfalfa plants will generally get sufficient lime for a strong, healthy growth. How to Avoid Blue Grass Troubles Do not cut or pasture your alfalfa after the first week in September if a permanent stand is desired. It does not pay to kill the goose that lays the golden eggs by trying to get an extra crop late in the fall. Alfalfa needs a growth of fully eight inches or more for protection against winter- killing 20 Wisconsin Bulletin 347 FIG. 17.— PASTURING NEW SEEDINGS A POOR PRACTICE Fall pasturing- new seedings may result in winterkilling and thin- ning of the stand. Proper Cutting Stage of Alfalfa Two crops of alfalfa cut in the full bloom stage often yield as much, and not infrequently yield considerably more hay FIG. 18.— LATE FALL CUTTING AND PASTURING CAUSE WINTER- KILLING AND BLUE GRASS TROUBLES The left part of this field which is so badly winterkilled and over- run with blue grass was cut the previous fall on October 12. The al- falfa on the right was last cut on August 30, the previous year, and came through the winter uninjured. In the northern states cutting or heavy pasturing after the first week in September is poor practice. than three crops cut in the early bud or tenth bloom stage. Of course, the later you ftit alfalfa the coarser and poorer the Make Alfalfa a Sure Crop 21 quality of hay, but too early cutting weakens and thins out alfalfa, while later cutting strengthens the plants against winterkilling, weeds, low yields and blue grass. With favor- able weather, alfalfa should be cut for hay as near the full bloom stage as possible without sacrificing too much on the quality of hay. Especially is this essential following hard winters. One-year-old alfalfa grows less luxuriantly and generally can be cut in the full bloom stage without serious reduction in the quality of the hay and with considerable increase in the total yields. Although the shoot develop- ment of alfalfa has long been used as a gauge for the proper FIG. 19.— TALL ALFALFA STUBBLES HELP TO HOLD SNOW There is no better winter protection than a good covering of snow A good fall growth of alfalfa strengthens the roots, prevents ice sheets from forming close to the ground and keeps the snow from rapidly melt ing or blowing away — all of which guard against winter injury cutting stage, experiments at the Wisconsin Experiment Sta- tion indicate that the clipping of the more advanced sprouts is not injurious to the succeeding growth. This is of im- portance for those who are raising alfalfa seed. While in certain seasons three hay crops may be obtained, many ex- perienced growers get the biggest yields in the long run by cutting only twice a year, leaving a tall heavy growth for winter protection. 22 Wisconsin Bulletin 347 How to Grow Alfalfa on Sandy Soil Sandy soils which grow potatoes successfully can usually be made to produce good crops of alfalfa. Remarkable growths of alfalfa have been secured on light sandy soils which have been properly treated. FIG. 20. — ALFALFA IS THE PREMIER HAY CROP FOR SANDY SOILS Because of its great drought resistance, alfalfa is the best perma- nent hay crop for sandy land. Lime, manure, and inoculation produced the above excellent crop (second growth) on a light sandy soil near Plainfield, Wisconsin. Six Sandy Soil Suggestions — Lime is the first essential. Inoculate for better yields. Apply manure or commercial fertilizer or both. Roll with corrugated roller just before and after sowing. Seed with a light sowing of early spring grain which should be cut for hay just as it heads out or use no nurse crop at all and sow the al- falfa in the latter part of May after the soil has been freed of weeds by previous cultivation. Make Alfalfa a Sure Crop 23 FIG. 21— INOCULATION OR STARVATION Each jar contains pure quartz sand to which all the necessary- elements for plant growth, ex- cept nitrogen, have been added. The alfalfa bacteria supplied by inoculation have taken sufficient nitrogen from the air to produce a healthy growth of alfalfa. The alfalfa plants in the sand receiv- ing no inoculation have starved for a want of nitrogen. Inocu- lation is very important especial- ly on sandy and other soils, which may lack nitrogen. FIG. 22.— CURING IN WINDROWS SAVES LEAVES Alfalfa hay is readily raked into windrows with side delivery rake* and can be loaded with hay loaders 24 Wisconsin Bulletin 347 Raising Alfalfa Seed in Wisconsin Several growers in the eastern part of the state have grown alfalfa seed very successfully. In one county alone over a thousand bushels of seed were grown in 1921. The second crop generally is taken for seed and if the dry weather occurs during the blossoming period yields of from two to four bushels an acre have been obtained. If the alfalfa blooms sparsely and heavy rains occur it is best to cut the crop for FIG. 23. — HARVESTING ALFALFA SEED IN WISCONSIN Cutting- the second crop of a thirty-acre field of Grimm alfalfa on the Cornfalfa Farms at Waukesha, Wisconsin, for seed. Seed growing, especially of the hardy varieties is proving profitable. Dry weather which cuts down yields of hay generally favors seed production. hay. Fortunately where drought prevents a big crop of hay. seed production is generally at its best. The seed crop is handled and hulled exactly like red clover. Where hardy strains of alfalfa are grown the production and use of home- grown seed will tend to reduce winterkilling losses. ,letin 350 ifb January, 1923 Minerals for Livestock LEGUMES '^OWN ON LIME-RICH SOILS ^E AN EXCELLENT SOURCE f - LIME FOR FARM ANIMALS LIVESTOCK NEED MINERALS Supply all livestock with plenty of common salt. Page 3. Guard against goiter and hairless pigs by using potassium or sodium iodide as an insurance where such trouble has been experienced. Pages 4-10. When swine get no dairy by-products, tankage, or green pasture, feed a mineral supplement furnishing lime. Steamed bone meal, wood ashes, ground limestone, or rock phosphate may be used as the mineral supplement. One-half to two pounds of one of these mineral supplements may be mixed with each 100 pounds of ground grain or other concentrates, or the pigs may be allowed free access to a simple mineral mixture. Where dairy by-products are used, such as skimmed milk and buttermilk, or where tankage is available and the rest of the ration properly selected, there is probably no need for additional lime. If whey is used, a lime supply should be added. Pages 10-13. Add a mineral supplement furnishing lime to the ration in feeding cows, sheep, and horses where the forage fed is grown on acid soils and is of a non-legume type. Steamed bone meal, wood ashes, limestone, or rock phosphate may be used at the rate of 3 to 4 pounds to 100 pounds of grain. Even where the roughage consists of clover, alfalfa, or soy- bean hay the use of any of these minerals will do no harm and may perhaps be of benefit. If they are not completely absorbed by the animal, they enrich the manure, particularly when bone meal or rock phosphate are used, as these supply phosphorus. Pages 15-16. Grains carry an abundant supply of phosphorus and wheat bran and middlings are especially rich in this element. Phos- phorus added as sodium phosphate to the ration of a dairy cow during her dry period has been found to increase her milk flow the following lactation period. It would probably be unwise for farmers to take up phosphate feeding until there have been further experiments with diverse systems of feeding. Pages 17-19. Most of the complex salt mixtures now on sale contain use- less ingredients for livestock. Since the extra minerals needed for livestock can be purchased cheaper as simple in- gredients and mixed by the farmer himself, it is uneconomical and unwise for him to purchase and use the commercial com- plex salt mixtures. Page 20. Minerals for Livestock E. B. Hart, H. Steenbock and F. B. Morrison M OST FARMERS know that livestock require some extra mineral matter as a part of the daily ration. The kind of minerals to feed, however, and the amounts required by different classes of stock are questions upon which there is a wide difference of opinion. This diffi- culty is probably increased because of the fact that a number of individuals or companies in Wisconsin and neighboring- states have various mineral mixtures for sale. The importance of the problem and the need for an ample supply of mineral materials cannot be overemphasized, but use should be made only of those extra salts that are absolutely essential. Farmers should purchase only what they need and not buy complex mineral mixtures that may contain needless ingredients. Livestock Need Salt All farm livestock absolutely need a certain amount of common salt in the ration. This viewpoint is so common that it would be difficult to find many farmers who were not using common salt for their livestock. It is necessary to supply salt because the crops and feeds fed to livestock are very low in ffie element chlorine and it is this that common salt must fur- nish the body. Common salt makes hydrochloric acid in the stomach of the animal, and this is absolutely essential for proper digestion. Experiments have shown that the dairy cow, for example, cannot get along indefinitely without an extra amount of com- mon salt. Dr. S. M. Babcock carried on trials at the Wiscon- sin station twenty years ago and showed that if the cow was fed a ration that did not have added salt, finally her flow of milk would diminish and her general condition become im- paired (see Figs. 1 and 2). The evidence is clear that farmers must feed common salt to all livestock unless some of the feeds they are purchasing already contain an extra supply of it. Stock may be allowed free access to salt, they may be fed 4 Wisconsin Bulletin 350 FIG. 1 — EFFECT OF LEAVING COMMON SALT OUT OF THE RATION This cow appeared in this condition January 19, 1901, after having been deprived of common salt for 9 months. She had decreased in her milk flow markedly. Note the roughness of her hair coat. salt at regular intervals, or it may be mixed with their feed. The most common plan with all stock except dairy cows and poultry is to allow them free access to it. Dairy cows should receive a least 1 ounce of salt a head daily. A plan followed by many dairymen is to mix one-half pound to one pound of salt with each 100 pounds of concen- trates, and then in addition to provide salt so the cows can have access to it and take what they wish. In the case of poultry, salt should form one-half to one per cent of their ration, depending on whether some of the feeds already carry added salt, as is often the case with meat scraps and tankage. Iodine Prevents Goiter and “Hairlessness” Especially heavy losses of new-born pigs, lambs, kids, calves, and foals, due to goiter or “hairlessness, ” have been experi- enced during recent years in certain sections of the northwest- ern states. Such trouble has been most prevalent in the region extending from the British Northwest through eastern Wash- ington, Montana, the Dakotas, and into the region of the Great Lakes. Minerals for Livestock 5 FIG. 2 — THE SAME COW AS SHOWN IN FIG. 1, AFTER RECEIVING SALT FOR FIVE MONTHS This photograph was taken on June 21, 1901, and shows the restora- tion to normal condition and the great improvement in appearance brought about by feeding common salt for 5 months. The young so affected are usually born dead or weak, they are frequently nearly hairless, especially in the case of pigs, lambs, and kids, and they commonly have enlarged necks. It has recently been found that these conditions are due to the thyroid gland in the neck being diseased and enlarged, just as in the case of humans affected with the common type of goiter. This goitrous swelling presses on the wind pipe and interferes with breathing, often resulting in death from suf- focation. Sometimes goiter develops after birth especially in calves. The primary cause for hairlessness or goiter is not known ; but recent experiments at this Station and elsewhere have shown that this condition can be prevented by administering iodine to the pregnant dams. It has been found that one of the functions of the thyroid gland is to make a certain iodine-containing compound which has important uses in the body. Near the sea coast humans suffer to a much less extent from goiter than in certain interior districts, and the same is true of stock. Apparently, this is due to the food plants in these interior districts being lower in iodine than 6 Wisconsin Bulletin 350 FIG. 3— A GROUP OF HAIRLESS PIGS Hairless pigs are dead pigs. The losses from the production of hair- less pigs in Wisconsin have been considerable, and such a loss can be avoided by the use of potassium iodide. those grown near the sea coast. (The water of the ocean contains appreciable amounts of iodine.) The forms of iodine used in treating animals to prevent goiter are potassium iodide and sodium iodide, whichever is the cheaper of these two forms of iod>ine. Just how large a dosage of iodine is necessary to prevent goiter or hairlessness has not yet been definitely determined. However, experiments have shown that a daily dose of 2 grains FIG. 4— A MIXED LITTER OF HAIRED AND HAIRLESS PIGS A sow may produce a litter in which there are both haired and hair- less pigs. The hairless ones are dead, while those with hair will show life and may be raised. This sow grew up on a ration of 30 parts of corn, 30 of oats, 30 of middlings, 8 of oil meal, and 1 of tankage. She was under strictly confined conditions, but appeared normal in every other respect except in reproduction. PIG. 5.- -RAISING THE GILT SO AS TO HELP IN THE PREVENTION OF HAIRLESS PIGS It is possible that hairless pig 1 production is often the result of im- proper feeding of young sows, such as giving them too high protein feeds and too little roughage in the ration. This sow was reared on a ration of 75 parts of corn and 25 parts of alfalfa. While a sow receiving such a ration will grow at a slower rate than normal, yet the litters have always been haired and strong where sows have been reared on rations containing 15 to 25 per cent of roughage such as alfalfa. Minerals for Livestock 7 t of potassium or sodium iodide throughout the gestation period will prevent the trouble. This same daily dose is sufficient for sows, ewes, cows, or mares. Cows and mares will receive dur- ing their gestation period a total quantity of somewhat over one ounce of the compound, whille ewes and sows will receive approximately one-half ounce, as their gestation periods are much shorter. It is entirely possible that a smaller daily dose would be sufficient to prevent the trouble, or else treatment during only the latter part of the gestation period. However, further experiments are necessary to decide the point. It is rather difficult to mix the dry potassium or sodium iodide with the feed, as the quantity of the substance neces- sary is so small. Therefore, Dr. J. W. Kalkus of the Wash- ington Experiment Station recommends that the potassium iodide be dissolved in water in the proportion of one ounce of the substance to a gallon of water. One tablespoonful of such a solution will contain approximately two grains of the com- pound and is, therefore, a daily dose. For horses or cows fed in the stable, it can be conveniently sprinkled on the feed 8 Wisconsin Bulletin 350 each day. In the case of sows, the solution can be mixed with the feed, swill, or water, adding one tablespoonful for each animal in the pen. If more convenient, about 320 grains (two-thirds ounce, troy weight) of the dry potassium or sodium iodide may be mixed thoroughly in each 1,000 pounds of the concentrate mixture fed the pregnant sows or other pregnant animals ; for stock on pasture the dry potassium iodide may be mixed with the stock salt. In this case it will be necessary to estimate the amount FIG. 6— A CORRECTION WITH POTASSIUM IODIDE This sow had already developed goiter when the experiments with her were begun and had produced hairless pigs upon a ration of 33 parts of corn, 33 of oats, and 33 of alfalfa. When in the next gestation period 10 grams of potassium iodide per 100 pounds of the same feed were fed a normal haired litter of young was produced. of salt the animals are consuming a head daily, and then mix sufficient of the potassium iodide with the salt so that they will get about two grains a day. Calves affected with “big neck” or goiter may recover with- out medical treatment, but it is best to treat them for this trouble. Field experiments by Dr. F. B. Hadley of the Veteri- nary Science department show that a cure may be affected by Minerals for Livestock 9 giving them two grains of potassium iodide a day for three or four weeks. Overdoses of iodine or of potassium or sodium iodide have poisonous effects, first shown by watering of the eyes, slobber- ing at the mouth and running at the nose. On one of the large stock farms in Wisconsin, tablets con- taining five grains of potassium iodide are placed every other day in the water buckets of the dairy herd test barn. These tablets are used for the sixty days preceding freshening. There has been no difficulty with goiter since this practice was begun, .although the stock did suffer from goiter before potassium iodide was used. FIG. 7— A NEW BORN LAMB SHOWING GOITER AND VERY THIN WOOL The great .success of Dr. David Marine in reducing goiter in school children at Akron, Ohio, by the systematic use of sodium iodide is a lesson to livestock men. By giving the children from the age of ten to seventeen, two grams of sodium iodide over a ten-day period, twice a year, he prevented goiter in practically all these children. The same quantity of potas- sium iodide could also be used. This public health measure in human nutrition should become a common measure of insur- ance against loss from goiter in the livestock industry. 10 Wisconsin Bulletin 350 FIG. 8— A NEW BORN CALF SHOWING GOITER This could have been prevented by feeding - the mother potassium iodide. Calves in early life suffering from goiter can often be helped by painting the neck^with tincture of iodine, or by giving potassium iodide. In Wisconsin there is much less difficulty from goiter or hairlessness than in such districts as eastern Washington or Montana. Trouble is most apt to be experienced with hair- lessness in new-born pigs after a severe winter with heavy snow fall. Apparently, the danger of this trouble is much less if sows, during the winter, are fed well-balanced rations, con- taining neither too much nor too little protein, and if they eat plenty of legume hay and are forced to take considerable exercise. Some Wisconsin farmers and breeders have never had trouble from hairlessness or goiter in their livestock, while others have experienced severe losses in certain years. Each farmer must decide for himself whether it seems advisable for him to go to the expense of administering iodine to pregnant sows, cows, etc. It is certainly advisable to use this treatment on farms where the conditions in question have occurred. Should Lime Be Added to the Ration? This question cannot be so definitely answered as in the case of common salt or of iodine. Whether extra lime should be added to the livestock ration depends upon what is fed. Minerals for Livestock 11 Lime and phosphorus are widely used by all animals in build- ing bone and by the dairy cow in producing milk. Compound- ing of rations from only seeds or seed by-products, will always result in a low-lime feed. For example, a mixture of corn meal, ground oats, wheat bran or middlings and oil meal would be too low in lime for the maximum growth of a pig. With such a ration a certain amount of lime woul^d have to be added either in the form of steamed bone meal, wood ashes, ground lime stone, or floats (rock phosphate). These mate- rials in thie proportion of one-half to two pounds, to 100 pounds of grain mixture, depending on the supplement used, would provide ample lime. When swine are fed shelled corn or ear corn, the mineral supplement can not be mixed with the feed, but should be fed separately in a suitable covered box or self-feeder. Such mineral supplements as ground limestone, wood ashes, ground rock phosphate, and bone meal, are not very palatable to pigs, and hence they may not eat enough of the supplement to have the desired effect. To increase the palatability of the mineral supplement, salt may be mixed with it, or else a small pro- FIG. 9— RICKETS IN A GROWING PIG This pig- received a ration of white corn and skimmed milk and de- veloped this condition after 7 weeks confinement to the ration. Rickets is not alone due to a low supply of lime or of phosphorus in the diet, because this ration carries a good supply of both these materials. In this case it was due to a lack of the vitamine that assists calcium assimilation. Dried alfalfa or dried clover would correct it. Cod liver oil would do the same thing. 12 Wisconsin Bulletin 350 portion of tankage or meat meal may be mixed with the min- eral supplement. For feeding to swine with ear corn or shelled corn and proper protein-rich supplements any one of the following mix- tures may be used. There is at the present time no definite information as to just which one of these mineral mixtures will give the best results. (1) Equal parts by weight of ground limestone and salt; or equal parts wood ashes and salt. These supply calcium but no appreciable amount of phosphorus. (2) Equal parts of ground limestone, salt, and either bone meal or ground rock phosphate. This furnishes both calcium and phosphorus. (3) Nine parts of either bone meal or ground rock phosphate and one part tankage for flavoring. These mixtures also fur- nish both calcium and phosphorus. In supplementing with limestone (calcium carbonate) in animal feeding only high grade limestone should be used and not the magnesian limestone (calcium-magnesium carbonate). FIG. 10— THE SAME PIG SHOWN IN FIG. 9 Recovery from rickets was produced by the daily administration of 10 c.c. of cod liver oil. Twenty-five (25) per cent of alfalfa or possibly less in the ration would have accomplished the same thing. Green forage will also prevent it. Minerals for Livestock 13 Such grain mixtures as mentioned above, however, do not produce normal growth ; and the most successful hog raisers use either skimmed milk, whey, or tankage to supplement these grain mixtures. While soybeans, or certain other vegetable sources of protein may supplement corn successfully in hog raising, nevertheless it will always be necessary to add min- erals, particularly lime, to rations made up exclusively of grain and seed by-products. Where plenty of skimmed milk or tank- age is fed to balance the ration, there is probably no advan- tage from adding a mineral supplement to furnish additional lime, for both tankage and skimmed milk are rich in lime. However, growing pigs fed white corn and skimmed milk in dry lot, without any pasture, often develop rickets, a serious disease of the bones, which may cause paralysis and even death. This is not due to a lack of lime, but to the lack of a vitamine necessary for the assimilation of lime. If the mixture fed is yellow corn and skimmed milk, there is much less dan- ger of rickets, because the yellow corn carries some of this needed vitamine. FIG. 11— RESULT OF FEEDING A RATION TOO LOW IN MINERALS This cow received a ration of ground oats and oat straw during her entire gestation period. A premature and weak calf was produced. This result invariably follows from the continued use of roughage poor in mineral content, particularly lime. 14 Wisconsin Bulletin 350 The mere supply of calcium (lime) or phosphorus in the ration is not enough to prevent rickets, for bone formation re- quires not only an ample supply of lime and an ample supply of phosphorus, but also a vitamine that assists in assimilating calcium and phosphorus. Without the vitamine only a limited use is made of the calcium and phosphorus in the ration. Supplementing a white-corn-skimmed-milk ration with ground alfalfa (5 to 10 per cent) will prevent rickets in swine. Tankage always carries a generous supply of bone meal and where it is used to supplement the grains, addition of extra amounts of lime materials is unnecessary. Where whey forms the supplement in winter feeding, it is wise to use an extra supply of lime. On the other hand, where grain mixtures and green forage are fed, such as clover, alfalfa, rape and pasture, there is no need whatever of an extra supply of lime. FIG. 12— EFFECT OF ADDING MINERALS TO THE OAT PLANT RATION This cow received a ration of 70 parts of ground oats, 7 parts of oat straw and 2 pounds of wood ashes per 100 pounds of grain. A fairly successful reproduction resulted, although the calf was not as strong as one produced on a natural roughage like clover or alfalfa hay. Minerals for Livestock 15 Clover and Alfalfa Furnish Lime Since such animals as cows, sheep, and horses get minerals, particularly lime, almost wholly from roughage, its mineral content is important. It has been demonstrated very clearly at this station that a cow receiving a dry roughage low in lime content and supplemented with grains, will usually abort her calf. This means not only loss of the calf, but also lowered milk production. The same thing has happened time and time again when wheat or oat straw was fed, as these are generally low in lime. On the other hand, where to such a ration a certain amount of lime salts was added, there was FIG. 13 — EFFECT OF ALFALFA HAY ON REPRODUCTION This cow received a ration consisting- of 7 parts of whole oats, 4 parts of oat straw and 3 parts of alfalfa. She produced a strong eighty-four (84) pound calf. The introduction of alfalfa into the ration brought in more lime and more of certain vitamines. marked improvement in the offspring, but they were not as thrifty as those produced when the roughage was a natural one rich in lime, such as clover or alfalfa hay. The stems and leaves of forage plants are variable in lime content, dependent upon the soil supply. If the soil is acid and low in lime, then plants, or parts of plants, like timothy hay, bluegrass, corn stover, or corn fodder, will have a relatively small amount of lime. Even red clover grown on an acid soil will be lower in lime than if grown upon a lime-rich soil ; but nevertheless the 16 Wisconsin Bulletin 350 lime content of a legume plant, such as clover or alfalfa, will always be relatively high. Its minimum is high and if it can- not get the minimum, it ceases to grow. Low Lime Roughages Cause Weak Calves The relation of soil to plants is an important one. Corn stover grown on acid soils in this state has as low a lime content as .31 per cent. The same is true of blue grass or timothy hay. If these are the sole roughage of a cow during the entire gestation period, particularly if she is milking, weak offspring will surely result. Green pasture for a number of months in the year will help save the situation, however. This is important because animals will get along on a lower per- centage of lime in their ration when they are given fresh, green feeds, like pasture, than when it is dry; and they will also use or assimilate added calcium salts with greater efficiency on green forage than on dried hays. This is because green mate- rials contain more of the vitamine that assists in calcium assimilation than do the dried materials. The method of dry- ing will also affect the amount of this vitamine left in the mate- rial. Drying grasses under caps preserves the vitamine much better than drying in the windrow with long exposure to sun- light. The same thing is probably true of corn fodder and corn silage. Silage from field and sun-dried mature plants will not be as effective in making “available” the lime in the ration as will silage from green plants. The fact that roughages low in lime may lead to premature and weak calves and that adding lime to the ration is helpful, has no doubt given rise to the idea that the Wisconsin Station has a cure for contagious abortion. This emphatically is not true. A cow may be getting the very best roughage grown, rich in lifne, such as alfalfa or clover, and yet when she becomes infected with the germs of contagious abortion, she is quite likely to abort or to drop her calf prematurely. On the other hand, the question may be raised as to how much of the weak offspring produced by our dairy stock is due to the feeding of forage low in lime and how much is due to infection. At present this question cannot be conclusively answered. However, it is certain that both factors play a role. There is no experimental evidence that contagious abortion or Minerals for Livestock 17 FIG. 14—4 REPRODUCTION ON CLOVER HAY This cow received a ration of 7 parts of ground oats and 7 parts of clover hay. She produced a strong, vigorous calf. The clover hay, like the alfalfa hay, carried more minerals in the ration, particularlv lime. sterility of cattle can be cured by the use of mineral mixtures of any kind but whether contagious abortion or sterility could not in part be eradicated if farmers used better roughages such as clover and alfalfa hay is an open question. The best advice in the present state of knowledge is to grow and feed clover, alfalfa and soybeari hay whenever it is at all possible. If you are forced to use poor hays or corn stover grown on acid soils and you have had losses in previous years from the premature birth of calves, add three to four pounds of limestone, steamed bone meal, wood ashes or floats (rock phosphate) to 100 pounds of grain for such livestock. This cannot possibly do any harm and may do a great deal of good. If you are a successful grower of clover, alfalfa, or soy- bean hay and have these for your dairy stock, then the need for adding lime carriers to the ration is less than with the poorer roughage. But even with legume hay available in win- ter feeding or when cows are not on pasture, the addition of lime carriers does no harm ; and if they carry phosphorus, as do steamed bone meal or rock phosphate, the manure is en- 18 Wisconsin Bulletin 350 PIG. 15— WHAT MARSH HAY GROWN ON AN ALKALINE SOIL WILL DO This cow received a ration of 7 parts of whole oats and 7 parts of marsh hay, which was grown on a soil rich in lime. This hay carried plenty of minerals, and the result was a strong, vigorous calf. riched by their use. It is possible that the extended use of legumes plus lime carriers may produce unusually large-boned young with greater difficulties at birth. This should not cause worry, however, until experience shows it to be true. TABLE I.— POUNDS OF LIME IN 1,000 POUNDS (AIR DRIED MATERIAL) Wheat straw Corn stover Timothy hay Blue grass . Clover hay . Soybean hay Alfalfa hay . 2- 3 pounds 3- 6 3- 5 4- 5 16-18 17- 18 18- 20 Hens Need Oyster Shells In feeding chickens an extra source of lime other than the feed should always be given. Producing eggs is such a heavy draft upon the hen for lime that successful poultry raising demands the use of extra lime. Experiments conducted at the Wisconsin Experiment Station proved that the best form of lime to feed chickens is oyster shells, with clam shells a close Minerals for Livestock 19 FIG. 16— LAYING HENS SHOULD RECEIVE EXTRA LIME Hens on low lime rations do not lay soft shelled eggs, but cut off egg production and fail to lay to capacity. This station has found oyster shells or clam shells the best carriers of lime for laying hens. They are superior to bone meal or lime rock. second. Why one source of lime should be superior to another (oyster shells over ground limestone) is not known, but it has been shown that oyster shells are a superior source of lime for laying hens. Table II gives the egg production of groups of twelve pullets kept under the same conditions and on a ration low in lime, but having free access to their respective grit mate- rials. TABLE II.— EGG PRODUCTION Grit material First test Second test Third test Oyster shell 1,606 eggs 557 eggs 976 eggs Clam shell 916 *' Dry bone 1,033 “ 507 “ Lime rock 948 “ 411 “ 879 Quartz 577 “ 221 “ 325 “ Extra Phosphorus in the Ration Grains are abundant sources of phosphorus, especially such by-products as wheat bran and wheat middlings. It is be- lieved that for all classes of livestock receiving grains, espe- cially wheat bran and middlings, the need for extra phosphorus would not warrant its purchase. Recent experiments, how- ever, by Dr. E. B. Meigs of the United States Department of Agriculture, have shown that by giving cows a daily allow- ance of one-half pound of sodium phosphate, during their dry 20 Wisconsin Bulletin 350 period, greatly increased milk production in the following lactation period. These results are new and extremely interesting, but it is not advisable that Wisconsin dairymen take up the practice until further tests have been made under different systems of feeding. It is possible that feeding amply of wheat bran during the dry period of dairy cattle would fill the need quite as well as sodium phosphate, and for the present farmers should wait for more definite information. Why Buy Commercial Mineral Mixtures? Complex salt mixtures should not be purchased by farmers. For example, there is on the market a product widely adver- tised for dairy cows which consists of calcium phosphate, sodium chloride (common salt), potassium iodide, magnesium sulphate (Epsom salts), sodium sulphate (Glauber’s salts), ferrous sulphate (Copperas), and sulphur. Why should sodium sulphate, sulphur, iron sulphate, or magnesium sul- phate be added to a dairy cow’s ration? If the cow is getting good clover or alfalfa hay in addition to her grains and silage, the only thing she needs in addition is some common salt, pos- sibly some bone meal or wood ashes, and, if necessary, potas- sium or sodium iodide to prevent goiter. There is absolutely no need to spend money for any other minerals. “High test” cows are often fed charcoal. This, again, seems a perfectly needless expense, for there is no scientific information that justifies it. A mineral mixture widely advertised for swine contains the same ingredients as the mineral dairy cow ration just men- tioned, plus charcoal. If swine need some charcoal in winter feeding, then buy charcoal only and not all the other salts in such a mixture. But where hogs can go to a rack of clover or alfalfa hay, no charcoal is needed. Another mineral mixture consisting of common salt, a low grade rock phosphate, and some calcium carbonate, or ground limestone is also sold. This is sold at too high a price for its actual cost or value. There are other complex mineral mixtures on the market, but none of them have any merit whatever over the unmixed, simple ingredients that livestock need. There is no educa- tional value in using an unknown mixture. To purchase intel- ligently the salts needed leads in many cases to a better under- Minerals for Livestock 21 standing of the problems of nutrition and to a well grounded knowledge of agricultural science. There is nothing mysteri- ous in these salt mixtures. The materials of which they are made can always be bought cheaper separately than in the complex mixtures now on sale. Such carriers of phosphorus and calcium that may be needed under special conditions can always be bought cheaper in steamed bone meal, wood ashes, ground limestone, or rock phosphate than in these mixtures. Some of the commercial mineral mixtures on the market for swine may help to rid pigs of worms, but a specific and reliable worm remedy is preferable. Combinations including santonin have been widely used with good results as worm remedies, but this drug is now high in price, and oil of chenopodium (American wormseed) is being commonly used in place of it. Castor oil should be given along with the oil of chenopodium as a physic. The dose for a 50-pound pig is 2cc. of oil of chenopodium thoroughly mixed with 15 cc. of castor oil. Proportionate amounts should be used for a large or a smaller pig. This worm remedy is best given as a drench after withholding feed for 18 to 24 hours. The dose should be repeated after a week or ten days. The following santonin mixture is an excellent worm rem- edy, though rather expensive: Santonin, 2}4 grains; calomel, 2 y 2 grains ; areca nut, 1 dram, and sodium bicarbonate, 1 dram. This is a dose for a 50-pound pig. Proportionately more or less should be used for pigs of other weights. This remedy may be given mixed with a thin slop, if the pigs are accustomed to slop. In this case be sure that each pig gets its share. It also may be given in a gelatin capsule. EXPERIMENT STATION STAFF The President of the University H. L. Russell, Dean and Director F. B. Morrison, Asst. Dir. Exp. Sta- tion J. A. James, Asst. Dean K. L. Hatch, Asst. Dir. Agr. Exten sion Service W. A. Henry, Emeritus Agriculture S. M. Babcock, Emeritus Agr. Chem- istry A. S. Alexander, Veterinary Science F. A. Aust, Horticulture B. A. Beach, Veterinary Science R. A. Brink, Genetics L. J. Cole, In charge of Genetics E. J. Delwiche, Agronomy (Ashland) J. G. Dickson, Plant Pathology F. W. Duffee, Agr. Engineering J. M. Fargo, Animal Husbandry E. H. Farrington, In charge of Dairy Husbandry C. L. Fluke, Economic Entomology E. B. Fred, Agr. Bacteriology W. D. Frost, Agr. Bacteriology J. G. Fuller, Animal Husbandry W. J. Geib, Soils E. M. Gilbert, Plant Pathology L. F. Graber, Agronomy E. J. Graul, Soils F. B. Hadley, In charge of Veterin- ary Science J. G. Halpin, In charge of Poultry Husbandry E. B. Hart, In charge of Agr. Chem- istry E. G. Hastings, In charge of Agr. Bacteriology C. S. Hean, Librarian B. H. Hibbard, In charge of Agr. Economics A. W. Hopkins, Editor, in charge of Agr. Journalism R. S. Hulce, Animal Husbandry G. C. Humphrey, In charge of Ani- mal Husbandry J. A. James, in charge of Agr. Edu- cation J. Johnson, Horticulture E. R. Jones, In charge of Agr. En- gineering L. R. Jones, In charge of Plant Pa- thology G. W. Keitt, Plant Pathology F. Kleinheinz, Animal Husbandry J. H. Kolb, Agr. Economics B. D. Leith, Agronomy Mable C. Little, Inst. Administration T. Macklin, Agr. Economics Abby L. Marlatt, In charge of Home Economics P. E. McNall, Agr. Economics J. G. Milward, Horticulture J. G. Moore, In charge of Horticul- ture R. A. Moore, In charge of Agronomy F. B. Morrison, Animal Husbandry G. B. Mortimer, Agronomy F. L. Musbach, Soils (Marshfield) W. H. Peterson, Agr. Chemistry D. H. Reid, Poultry Husbandry Griffith Richards, Soils R. H. Roberts, Horticulture J. L. Sammis, Dairy Husbandry E. S. Savage, Animal Husbandry H. H. Sommer, Dairy Husbandry H. Steenbock, Agr. Chemistry H. W. Stewart, Soils A. L. Stone, Agronomy W. A. Sumner, Agr. Journalism J. Swenehart, Agr. Engineering W. E. Tottingham, Agr. Chemistry E. Truog, Soils R. E. Vaughan, Plant Pathology H. F. Wilson, In charge of Economic Entomology A. R. Whitson, In charge of Soils A. H. Wright, Agronomy and Soils W. H. Wright, Agr. Bacteriology O. R. Zeasman, Agr. Engineering A. R. Albert, Soils H. W. Albertz, Agronomy Freda M. Bachmann, Agr. Bacte- riology E. A. Baird, Plant Pathology W. H. Ebling, Assistant to the Dean N. S. Fish, Agr. Engineering W. C. Frazier, Agr. Bacteriology A. A. Granovsky, Economic Ento- mology A. J. Haas, Executive Secretary R. T. Harris, Dairy Tests Elsie Hess, Home Economics E. D. Holden, Agronomy C. A. Hoppert, Agr. Chemistry L. K. Jones, Plant Pathology Grace Langdon, Agr. Journalism Samuel Lepkovsicy, Agr. Chemistry V. G. Milum, Economic Entomology E. M. Nelson, Agr. Chemistry G. T. Nightingale, Horticulture A. J. Riicer, Plant Pathology Marianna T. Sell, Agr. Chemistry L. C. Thomsen, Dairy Husbandry C. E. Walsh, Agr. Engineering J. A. Anderson, Agr. Bacteriology R. M. Bethke, Agr. Chemistry Archie Black, Agr. Chemistry Dorothy Bradbury, Horticulture Lloyd Burkey, Agr. Bacteriology Conrad Elveiijem, Agr. Chemistry R. E. Frost, Agr. Journalism O. H. Gerhardt, Agr. Chemistry Gerald Heebink, Animal Husbandry H. S. Irwin, Agr. Economics W. C. Jensen, Agr. Economics O. N. Johnson, Poultry Husbandry J. H. Jones, Agr. Chemistry C. C. Lindegren, Plant Pathology Edgar Martin, Animal Husbandry A. J. Moyer, Genetics N. T. Nelson, Agronomy O. .T. Noer, Soils G. A. Palmer, Agr. Engineering W. H. Pierre, Soils E. Rankin, Agr. Chemistry T. E. Rawlins, Horticulture E. G. Schmidt, Agr. Chemistry W. P. Smith, Agr. Bacteriology M. E. Smith, Inst. Administration D. G. Steele, Genetics Henry Stevens, Genetics Frances W. Streets, Plant Pathology R. B. Streets, Plant Pathology Ferne E. Taylor, Inst. Administration M. N. Walker, Plant Pathology B. L. Warwick, Veterinary Science V. R. Wurtz, Agr. Economics J. J. Yoke, Genetics December, 1922 *** * *' % DIGEST State laws provide a means by which neighbors may cooperate in the construction and maintenance of an outlet drain serving a com- munity. Without such outlets many farm drains would be valueless. Big tile are commonly used in place of open ditches. Pages 3-8 The better areas are due for improvement first. Among these are the low flat areas now cultivated, wild hay marshes adjacent to culti- vated land, and timbered swamps where drainage is necessary to aid the construction of roads. A well financed colonization policy is es- sential to the success of the drainage of large marshes in sparsely settled localities. Pages 9-13 A majority of the land owners or the owners of half the land must petition the court to start a project. The court hears the merits or demerits of the proposition and may order the construction of the drains to proceed under the direction of a board and its engineer. Pages 13-18 The board assesses the cost on the basis of benefits. Outlet drains cost between $5 and $30 an acre. The average cost has been about $7. Distance from the outlet, the slope of the land and the kind of drains are the big factors in benefits. Damages are allowed where damage is done. Bonds may be sold to distribute the payment of drainage taxes over a period of 20 years if the land owners desire it. Pages 19-33 An index of the drainage laws, forms of petitions, reports, specifica- tions and contract are given in the appendix. Pages 34-55 An Outlet Drain for Every Farm E. R. Jones and O. R. Zeasman W HY is there a marsh along the creek on so many Wisconsin farms? It is because the creeks are wind- ing, sluggish, and full of stones or logs that retard the flow of water. The adjacent lands are too wet for profitable cultivation or good pasture. They will remain so until the owners get together and construct an outlet drain, perhaps several miles long. Before deciding the extent and manner in which marsh lands are to be drained it is well to consider how desirable they are for farming or road-making. It is better to postpone the organization of a drainage project for a few years than to install it prematurely. Successful drainage demands that the outlet drains be deep enough ; that the lateral drains be sufficiently frequent to furnish adequate under drainage ; and that farmers know how to use such lands correctly. FIG. 1. — GIVE THE TILE AN OUTLET Two lengths of glazed sewer pipe with cemented joints supported by stone make an inexpensive, serviceable outlet where the normal water level in the ditch is nearly up to the tile. There are certain laudable enterprises that necessitate keep- ing some wet areas. The owners of such lands, however, should not be required to keep their lands wet for the benefit of others without just return for the actual losses sustained. 4 Wisconsin Bulletin 351 Intensive forestry and intelligent drainage harmonize, for often our best forests are on well-drained land. The mis- chief is done where haphazard, partial drainage of peat lands surrounded by natural forests has threatened both marsh and forest with destruction by fire. With adequate drainage and good farming the surface of the marshes is kept free from in- flammable rubbish, and the deep rooted trees in the wood lots thrive better. Generally it is best not to drain marshes until the advance of farming from the surrounding upland demands it. To this rule there are exceptions, providing a well financed policy of colonization or utilization is made a part of the drainage plan. One is found in northern Wisconsin where a marsh requiring no land clearing can be drained, broken and seeded to tame grass for a smaller cost per acre than the surrounding cut- over land can be cleared and stumped. Another is found in parts of central Wisconsin, where the drained peat lands can be made more productive of cultivated crops than the sandy uplands surrounding them. Draining Through Your Neighbor’s Land. Abundant fall affords an outlet without crossing the line fence. Less fall requires entering the land of a lower neighbor for the neces- FIG. 2.— AN OUTLET DITCH This was dug with a floating dredge. It is 20 feet wide at the top and 7 feet deep. Its sides are somewhat steeper than is advisable. An Outlet Drain for Every Farm 5 sary outlet. A mutual agreement with the neighbor, each agreeing to pay his share of the cost of construction, is the simplest form of procedure. If the neighbor is unwilling to cooperate in this way, he may be forced to cooperate under, (1) The Farm Drainage Law (Chapter 446, Laws of 1919), or (2) The Drainage District Law (Chapter 557, Laws of 1919), provided the public health or general welfare will be pro- moted thereby. In either case three disinterested men fix the tax that each owner is to pay for the construction of the out- let drain, or the damages to which he is entitled. When such awards are approved by the county judge or the circuit court, they are enforcible. Your Share Is Fair. The benefits must exceed the cost. Otherwise drainage would not be profitable and were better left undone. The benefits are usually more than twice the cost. For this reason, a land owner errs when he expects his neighbor, the state or the nation to contribute money toward the construction of an outlet drain for his farm, except when such contributors also receive tangible, financial benefits from the proposed drain. It must be established that the public health or general welfare will be promoted by the drains. Miles Men Have Made. Wisconsin has about 2,000 miles of open ditches and large tile constructed under state laws, chiefly during the last twenty years, giving an outlet to about 800,000 acres of land and consisting of about 200 independent projects. The largest of these projects consists of 75,000 acres. Another large project has 60,000 acres and 120 miles of ditch. The smallest project on record consists of only 40 acres with an outlet ditch only 1 rod long. But that rod ex- tends across the line fence where a neighbor had constructed a dam to hold back the water on the upper owner. In that case, upon petition of the upper owner, a profile was made and recorded, showing the grade of the water course for 80 rods below the offending dam, to prevent the lower owner from constructing another such dam in any portion of the water course thus recorded. Many small projects have been partially or wholly installed under state laws, but the records kept by town clerks under the Town Ditch Law (repealed in 1919) are imperfect, and some of the ditches have but little value. During the three years following the enactment of the Laws of 1919, a total of 6 Wisconsin Bulletin 351 ETG. 3. — BIG TILE WIN FAVOR These tile are 48 inches in diam- eter. They are more expensive but better than open ditches. Even a 12-inch tile with a surface run is better in many places than a large open ditch. 103 projects have taken steps toward organization. Of these, 17 were dropped or postponed upon the re- commendation of the Col- lege of Agriculture and the State Chief Engineer. The other 86 are proceeding to- ward completion or are com- pleted. They contain 217,- 110 acres and 660 miles of open ditch or large tile cost- ing $2,326,832. Big Tile W i n Favor. Sluggish, winding streams have been deepened, straightened and placed on forty-lines where possible. Open ditches are made by floating dredges or walking or dry-land dredges.* For short ditches, the overhead expense of building a large dredge is high, and some of the smaller dredges on the mar- ket are desirable. Dynamite also can be used with advantage m short ditches. The smallest outlet ditch advisable is 6 feet deep, 3 feet wide at the bottom and 15 feet wide at the top. Wherever a smaller ditch than this is sufficient, a big tile aided by a dry, shallow, rounded surface-run at its side is cheaper and better. Big tile are growing in favor as land becomes more valuable. They require less for maintenance. They waste no land; leave no uncultivated strip for weeds; can cross highways without expensive bridges ; and cost but little more than open ditches. When a dredge crosses a road, the bridge usually has to be reconstructed. This difficulty de- creases where the highway officials have been far-sighted enough to put in the concrete foundations of their bridges deep enough that they reach down below the grade line of the ♦Advantages of each are given in Bulletin 300, United States Depart- ment of Agriculture. An Outlet Drain for Every Farm 7 FIG. 4.— TILE LAID BY MACHINE This machine digs the trench with a dipper suspended from the boom. The heavy tile are then swung into place by a block and tackle from the same boom. The smaller tile are laid by hand and the smaller trenches are dug either by hand or with tiling machines. proposed ditch. Any farmer owning marsh land above a highway where a new bridge is proposed does well to confer with the highway officials when they are designing a new bridge in an effort to get the bridge foundations deep enough so that they will not have to be underpinned when the ditch is constructed. FIG. 5— TILE AND SURFACE RUN The tile carries the seepage and water from the tile laterals. The surface run carries water during a flood and is dry enough to raise hay the rest of the time. 8 Wisconsin Bulletin 351 LOW LANDS LYING WASTE Peat and Muck. Peat is partly decomposed vegetable mat- ter that has accumulated in the marshes. Before drainage it was virtually pickled. After drainage the acids leach out and air and bacteria come in. It then decomposes into muck, becoming more solid and darker in color. A technical defini- tion of muck requires that it contain 50 per cent or more min- eral matter, but this is not the muck of the farmer’s vocabu- lary. In this bulletin muck means a soil that was once peat, but which has decomposed through drainage until it has lost its tough, fibered structure. Marshes and Swamps. There are at least six types of wet lands. (1) Marshes are wet most of the year. They usually have a peat or muck soil and support wild grasses. (2) Swamps are the same as marshes except that they support trees or brush. (3) Overflowed lands are wet only when the adjacent stream overflows. (4) Pot holes are depressions that have no surface drainage. (5) Seeped areas are those kept wet by seepage from higher lands. (6) Tight soils are those that are kept waterlogged by the slow rate of percolation. The last two classes frequently have so much fall that the necessary tile drainage systems do not require the extension of the outlet into the land of a neighbor. FIG. 6.— A CAPSTAN DITCH Three feet deep but too shallow to serve as- an outlet for tile. An Outlet Drain for Every Farm 9 Where to Drain First. Low, flat, cultivated fields on which labor is expended annually but wasted by the drowning of cultivated crops demand attention first, particularly the nar- row wet strips in well drained fields. Areas where drainage can be made profitable, but where it may well await the convenience of a majority of the land own- ers, are : (1) Wild hay marshes, particularly the smaller ones that have well-developed upland adjacent to them. Corn or tim- othy and alsike is more profitable than marsh hay. (2) Timbered swamps across which a road is to be con- structed. It may be cheaper for the county to dredge a ditch 8 feet deep for the entire length of the swamp than to haul FIG. 7.— HAY MEADOW DRAINAGE Dredge or dynamite a ditch 6 feet deep down through the center and cut off the seepage at the edges with a line of 5-inch tile. It does not pay to bother with little ditches only three feet deep. The hay crop is too uncertain with shallow drainage. 10 Wisconsin Bulletin 351 in enough earth to build up the road to a height of 4 feet. Let the county pay for part of the dredging and the farmers pay for the rest and both will gain thereby. (3) Areas kept wet by small mill-dams in well-developed agricultural communities. Where the Railroad Commission of Wisconsin finds that the agricultural value of the land dam- aged is greater than the commercial value of the water power or pond, the farmers, through a drainage district duly organ- ized, are permitted to purchase and remove the dam at a stipulated or fixed price paid to the owners of the water power. (4) Wild hay meadows in undeveloped cut-over areas that can be converted into timothy and alsike meadows at less cost than that of clearing the surrounding upland. Finishing the Job. The outlet drain is but a starter. The land must be broken for a seed bed. Supplementary drains are necessary in most cases after the outlet drain is dug. This means laying enough lines of tile to complete the drainage, except in sandy sub-soils. In such soils, ditches that reach 4 feet into the underlying sand and are one-half mile or a mile apart, with a line of 5-inch tile at the edge of the sandy up- land or larger islands to cut off the seepage, give satisfactory drainage. More failures in marsh farming are due to the neglect in putting in the supplementary drains than to any other cause. Care prevents damaging fires in peat soils. Burning-off all the surface rubbish as soon as it is dry in the spring and be- fore the peat is dry enough to burn, lessens or eliminates the fire hazard. The older trees on a timbered swamp may occa- sionally die with drainage. Cutting and marketing them the first year after drainage is advisable. The younger trees de- velop deeper roots and thrive better thereafter. A peat marsh with a clay sub-soil is usually better than one with a sandy sub-soil, but the latter is more easily drained. While open ditches in sand must have a slope of 1J4 to 1, and the joints of tile must be protected from the sand by a layer of peat or a wrapping of heavy paper, the drains may be far- ther apart. Even with only two inches of peat on the surface, and certainly with six inches of peat, the sandy marshes have more organic matter than the sandy uplands and to that ex- tent are more valuable, except as they are more subject to frost. Drainage does remove some water from sandy soils An Outlet Drain for Every Farm 11 FIG. 8.— A DRY LAND DREDGE This dredge straddles the ditch and digs up stream best. It has a walking device or track for moving along the ditch or from one job to another without dismantling. that might be used later by plants, but to compensate for this loss, the plant roots go deeper into the soil after drainage and for that reason resist drouth better. The ideal plan is to have deep drainage during the spring, followed by sub-irrigation during the summer, where it can be accomplished by bulk- heads in the ditches. To do this there must be plenty of water running in the ditches in dry weather. Some Marshes Should Wait. Chief among the less desir- able wet areas, for agricultural purposes at present are : (1) Marshes that cannot be drained without impairing the beauty or usefulness of lakes. (2) Timbered swamps interspersed with little or no open marsh, particularly in Northern Wisconsin. (3) Large marshes in sparsely settled localities, unless a well financed development or colonization policy is assured. This may mean carrying the development to the raising of the first crop before it is sub-divided into farms for settlers. 12 Wisconsin Bulletin 351 The 8-inch tile from A almost to B is the equivalent of a 5-inch tile to the lower owner. The lower owner contributes the cost of a 5-inch tile and the upper owner pays the remainder of the cost of the 8-inch tile. Each pays half for the open ditch from B to C, where the land is too low to be tiled. The upper owner connects on the 8-inch tile at A. The lower owner pays the extra cost of a short line of 12-inch tile. THE LAWS THAT GOVERN Try Mutual Agreement First. Two or more land owners may agree as to how much each is to pay toward the drain and then install it themselves. If this is not possible, the next step is to proceed according to the special statutes. The Two Laws Are Similar. Simple projects are handled best under the Farm Drainage Law administered by the County Court. They are called farm “drainages.” The com- plicated projects involving navigable waters or unusually large areas are best handled under the Drainage District Law ad- ministered by the Circuit Court. There is no maximum or minimum limit to the size or cost of projects under either law. Out of 103 projects started in the first three years of the op- eration of these laws, 9 are drainage districts and 94 are farm “drainages.” The chief difference is that each drainage dis- trict has three special commissioners appointed to take charge of it, while a permanent board of three men in each county known as the “farm drainage board” takes charge of all farm “drainages” begun in the county. If a project lies in two counties, the board of the county having the larger acreage as described in the petition has jurisdiction. A drainage dis- trict may be placed in the circuit court of any county in which any part of the lands lie. An Outlet Drain for Every Farm 13 Reinforced concrete 4 inches thick to give tensile strength and pre- vent leakage under the face. The wing walls deflect the water down stream. The foundation is deep to resist frost action. Owners Petition Court. A majority of the land owners holding one-third of the land in a project or the owner or own- ers of more than half the land must sign the petition. Sug- gestions for such petitions appear in the Appendix (page 38). It is best to let a reliable, experienced drainage attorney re- sponsible to a representative committee of land owners take charge of the petition and present it to the court. An attor- ney who has handled other projects successfully can save the land owners considerable time and money. The land owners can aid the attorney by preparing a sketch of the forties in- cluded in the project and the approximate location of the pro- posed drains. This sketch satisfies the requirements of the petition. If time permits, an extension worker of the College of Agriculture will go over the area with the owners to aid them in deciding what forties to include. The boundaries of the project may be changed later, but it is essential that a tentative boundary be established so that the court can deter- mine the sufficiency of the signatures. The State Chief Engineer. The laws require that all drain- age districts and all farm “drainages’’ containing more than 200 acres (5 forties whether all marsh or not) within its boun- daries shall be under the direction of the state chief engineer. By virtue of the statute he requires : 14 Wisconsin Bulletin 351 (1) That all project engineers be approved by the state chief engineer. Such approval has now been extended to 36 engi- neers who are eligible to work on any project in Wisconsin so long as their work is up to standard. (2) That the board en- gage one of these engineers to make a preliminary sur- vey of the project and send to the state drainage engi- neer four blue prints of a map showing preliminary plans and topography. It is well for the engineer to cor- respond with the state drain- age engineer while making the preliminary survey and plans. (3) That the College of Agriculture prepare a report on the quality of the soil and the crops to which it is adapted. (4) That the board inclu4e this soil and crop report, to- gether with a feasibility report by the state drainage engineer, with its preliminary report to the court. (5) That the final report of the board containing final plans and assessments be submitted to him for recommendations or FIG. 11.— GOOD FACE BUT POOR BODY Unless the tile are imbedded in reinforced concrete for 8 or 10 feet back from the outfall, the water will escape through the cracks between the tile and undermine the founda- tion of the face. This is accomplished by having several laterals discharge into a single drain. A line of tile is located at the edge of the high land to cut off the seepage. Farmers put in systems like this after the outlet drains are constructed by the drainage board. An Outlet Drain for Every Farm 15 approval before it is filed with the court, preferably while it is in preparation. The College of Agriculture cooperates with the state chief engineer by extending to him the services of its drainage spe- cialist as state drainage engineer. The Preliminary Survey. When a drainage board directs an approved engineer to proceed with the preliminary survey, it relies upon him to collect all of the important data to deter- mine feasibility at a cost not exceeding 2 per cent of the cost of construction of the proposed drains. Detailed, expensive surveying is inadvisable at this stage because the project may prove to be not feasible. In that event the court dismisses it and assesses the cost of the survey and hearing against the petitioners on the acreage basis. It is not fair to ask the peti- tioners to be responsible for any more surveying than is ac- tually necessary to determine the feasibility of the project. Later, after the project is assured, is the time for the accurate survey. Figure 19 is a satisfactory preliminary map and Figure 20 a preliminary profile. Well established bench marks and other reference points recorded on the blue prints are of use in the final survey and there is no loss in duplication. The board may order the engineer to survey topography outside the boundary of the project petitioned for, but only where this additional land should be included or otherwise afifects the project. In the event of dismissal, this additional survey also must be paid for by the petitioners. If the court organizes the project, the cost of the preliminary survey is made a part of the cost of construction and is paid by a tax against all of the land and corporations benefited. No drains are staked out during the preliminary survey. Some engineers have wasted time staking out drains, meas- uring the angles, and have neglected to take important read- ings well selected over the marsh to determine approximately the slope of the land toward the proposed drain. A specimen of a preliminary report of the board based on the preliminary survey appears in the Appendix (page 43). The edge of the wet land is shown only approximately. The board ascertains in a general way the benefits and the cost of the proposed work. A letter from the project engineer to the state drainage engineer, describing the sub-soil, topography and size of catchment, size and condition of bridges and char- acter of the existing stream, is of value to supplement the data shown on the preliminary map. The Engineer’s Responsibility. A good engineer demands authority to make the plans and specifications and accepts re- sponsibility for their execution. He scorns the idea of “pass- ing the buck” to the board or to the state drainage engineer. If the board, or the state drainage engineer, insists upon plans which the project engineer cannot support with enthusiasm, confidence and good faith, he should resign, instead of be- traying his board by pretending to execute plans that he would rather see fail than succeed because he did not favor them. With the responsibility of inspecting the work of the con- tractor, the board gives the engineer authority to enforce specifications to his own satisfaction. FIG. 13— CLEAN OLD DITCHES Where the spoil banks have been reduced by partial leveling, a ma- chine like this can clean out a ditch at a reasonable cost. This is a good practice from five to ten years after t'he original ditches are dug and the slopes are seeded. Wisconsin Bulletin 351 An Outlet Drain for Every Farm 17 FIG. 14.— CURVES AND GRADES FOR LATERALS To prevent erosion at the junction make the first 200 feet of the lateral as deep as the main. Have a g-entle curve down stream. The larger ditches or swifter streams may require a 200 foot radius. The Final Report. If the hearing on the preliminary report proves the project advisable, the board is instructed by the court to prepare its final report. This includes the final loca- tion and design of the drains and the assessment of benefits and damages to each parcel. The final report is based on the final survey. The engineer stakes out the drains with a station marked by a stake every 100 feet on the lines of the drains. He takes elevations on the ground at the foot of these stakes, but for safety does not set the reference hubs until the board has let the contracts for construction and the contractor is ready to start the work. If these hubs are set too long in advance of construction, they may heave with freezing or be disturbed by tramping, or be burned or moved to facilitate the cutting of marsh hay. The final map (Figure 21) shows the location of the drains accurately and the finale profile shows their depths. The ele- vations of the ground at the critical places on each parcel and an accurate location of the edge of the wet land are necessary to the board in determining benefits. The engineer is the man to make the plans and be respon- sible for them. If he is competent, his plans are usually ac- 18 Wisconsin Bulletin 351 ceptable to the board. The assessment roll is prepared by the board “with the aid of the engineer” and an equitable assess- ment is based in great part upon the findings of the engineer and the soil examination. The purpose of asking the board to send a tentative draft of its final report and plans to the state chief engineer is to permit him to make his recommen- dations and suggestions before the report is put in final form or filed with the court. The Board May Borrow Money. When the court refers a petition to the board it may authorize the board in writing to borrow a limited sum in the name of the petitioners to make the preliminary survey and pay preliminary expenses. After the hearing on the preliminary report, when the court author- izes the final survey, it orders the board to borrow another limited sum to meet the necessary expenses'. All of these expenditures are later added to and become a part of the cost of construction. After the final report is confirmed, the drain- age taxes for the entire cost of construction are due, unless the court permits the debt to be paid in installments by the sale of bonds or notes based on the assessments. The latter is the common practice although any land owner may, up to the time of the selling of such bonds, pay the court his entire drainage tax. Bonds are then sold only to the extent of the unpaid taxes. Installments to pay assessments in farm drain- ages shall not exceed fifteen in number, the first one falling due one year after the assessment is confirmed, and one falling due each year thereafter. In drainage districts the first of the fifteen annual installments must fall due not more than five years after confirmation. The statute must be carefully com- plied with in every respect, or the attorney for the bond buy- ers will not approve the bonds for purchase. Hearings Required. Land owners are given several oppor- tunities to remonstrate and be heard by the court. Each law provides three distinct hearings. First on the petition, then on the preliminary report, and last on the final report. Ten days or more of notice is given to each land owner of each hearing so that he may examine the petition or report to be heard and prepare his remonstrance if he feels that the project should not go forward or that he is being wronged. The hear- ing on the petition for a farm “drainage” is informal but must be in strict accordance with the statute. The board, after An Outlet Drain for Every Farm 19 notice of time and place of meeting - , meets the land owners at some convenient place near the proposed drain to hear their complaints or comments. The rest of the hearings are held in the court room before the county court. Town boards and railroad officials are also notified. Highways and railroads must open their right-of-ways to permit the construction of drains, but damages must be allowed them to the extent of the expense incurred. LANDS ASSESSED FOR BENEFITS Computing the Benefits. Benefits to the land are measured by the increase in value due to the proposed drainage. It is necessary first to fix a value “before drainage” and a value “after drainage” and to subtract the former from the latter to ascertain the benefits. Value Before Drainage. The value of agricultural land be- fore drainage is determined largely by : 1. Proximity of roads and markets. 2. The brush or rubbish on the surface which must be re- moved before the land can be plowed. 3. The quality of the soil. 4. Difficulty of drainage as determined by topography, sub- soil and natural or artificial obstructions. Lands with high elevations but kept wet by seepage have less need of a dredge or deepened outlet, and therefore their value before drainage is usually greater th^n that of lands no wetter but having a lower and more unfortunate elevation. Even though the higher lands are just as wet and produce no more crops than the lower lands, they are worth more because of their fortunate topography. They may be worth $40 an acre, while the lower lands are worth only $10 an acre. If both are worth $70 an acre after the outlet drains are estab- lished by law and constructed, the higher wet lands are bene- fited only $70 minus $40, or $30 an acre, while the lower lands are benefited $70 minus $10, or $60 an acre. Wet lands 10 feet higher than the surface at the proposed ditch 80 rods away have a natural outlet as good as the low lands will have after a ditch 8 feet deep is dredged, and are benefited only to the extent of the legal rights afforded by the organization. 20 Wisconsin Bulletin 351 Wet lands lying above a railroad or a rock layer or a bed of quicksand have those obstacles in the way of their drain- age, and their value before drainage will ordinarily be corre- spondingly low for that reason. Value After Drainage. The value after drainage has the value before drainage for a background, but with the addi- tional factor of the quality of drainage to be affected by the proposed drains. Near the outlet the water may not be low- ered very much due to lack of fall, and the value after drainage will be but little in excess of the value before drainage. Not until a point is reached where tile can be laid 4 feet deep with a descending gredient of .1 in 100 feet to the top of the water in the outlet drain at reasonable stage, do benefits reach a maximum. Lands that are given an outlet anything short of this will not attain normal value after the proposed outlet is constructed and will not receive maximum benefits. To serve as an adequate outlet for level land 80 rods away from an outlet drain the top of the water in the outlet must be normally about S l / 2 feet below the top of the ground. This means that the bottom of a 12-inch tile in such cases would be 6 feet deep. An open ditch, if used, would have to be dredged about 2 feet deeper than that to provide for the deterioration common to open ditches with little fall. Outlet drains shallower than these specifications do not render max- imum benefit. High Lands Benefited. “Islands” of high land surrounded by marsh have a low value before drainage because of their inaccessibility, and the benefits to them may be as great as those to the surrounding marsh. High lands cut into irregu- lar fields by the, encroachment of arms of the marsh are bene- fited because they can be made into convenient rectangular fields after drainage. High lands now in rectangular fields but included in the project for convenience of description are usually benefited only by the reflection of benefits from the adjacent lands. Actual measurement of the high, interme- diate, and low areas on each parcel by the engineer is essential as a part of his final survey. Laterals Increase Benefits. A parcel of land a mile away from an outlet may be benefited, but not so much as if a lateral is put in from the main drain to a low part or corner of the distant parcel. Two methods are used. Either assess low An Outlet Drain for Every Farm 21 Dig a trench under the proposed spoil bank. Lay tile of required size about 5 feet deep and a 15-inch corrugated culvert about 2 feet above the tile, using a pump to keep trench dry during construction if necessary. After the ditch is constructed, extend each to the ditch. FIG. 16.— CULVERT UNDER SPOIL BANK It injures a ditch to admit surface water directly. Continuous spoil banks leveled to permit cultivation protect the ditch slopes from erosion. Use a culvert to admit the water from the abandoned bends Of the old creek bed. 22 Wisconsin Bulletin 351 benefits on the distant parcel and postpone the construction of the lateral, or put in the lateral and assess all parcels benefited by it high enough so that each will have to pay its just share toward the lateral, in addition to the contribution toward the main. Direct Drainage Extra Benefit. An outlet drain not only provides an outlet for smaller drains, but renders some direct drainage itself. If an open ditch or a big tile extends through the interior of a forty it does as much or more direct draining as a line of 5-inch tile would do if laid at the same depth. This is in excess of the service an outlet drain would render if its end merely touched one corner of the forty like the SE% NW*4 section 3 in Fig. 21. It is reasonable on good land needing drainage to assume that the benefits of the direct drainage afforded by a main drain is about $4 per linear rod of drain where the drain is wholly within a parcel of land, or $2 a* rod where the drain is on the boundary of the parcel. Where the drain is an open ditch this benefit is decreased by the inconveniences of the open ditch and the land occupied by it. There is not such compensating damage resulting from a tile. Where creameries, cheese factories, canning factories, or dwelling houses are on land within the district the benefits from furnishing sewerage outlet for those factories or dwell- ings are assessable against land because in most cases build- ings are legally land. If they are legally not land the benefits to them can be assessed only if they are the property of a corporation. Benefits, to Roads. Both railways and highways need drain- age. The other alternative is to build the road bed up two feet or more above high water. Assuming that before drain- age the water frequently reaches the top of the road between Sections 2 and 3, the proposed drains offer a means both of reducing the peak of the flood during high water and drying up the base at all times. To get maximum benefits it is nec- essary to lay a line of 5-inch tile on the west side of the road, but the outlet for this is provided. It is safe to assume that the benefits of the drains as shown are the equivalent of haul- ing in enough earth to build up the road 2 feet. If the road- way is 27 feet wide this would require 5,280 cubic yards in the one-half mile of road. At 50 cents a cubic yard the saving An Outlet Drain for Every Farm 23 due to drainage alone would be $2,640, a pro rata part of which should be paid by the town or county responsible for building the road. Where the proposed drainage will reduce the cost of maintaining or repairing a road, it is a benefit. TABLE I.— OPEN DITCHES— COST, CONTENTS AND CAPACITY. Bottom width Depth Top width Acres drained Cubic yards per mile Cost per mile 5 6 15 4,300 10,550 $1,600 s 0 16 5,000 11,750 1,750 b 6 18 6,500 14,000 2,100 4 7 18 8,500 15,250 2,300 6 7 20 11,000 17,750 2,600 8 7 22 13,000 20,600 3,100 4 8 20 13,000 18,750 2,800 0 8 22 16,000 22,000 3,300 8 8 24 18,000 25,000 3,750 10 8 26 22,000 28,000 4,200 6 9 24 22,000 26,500 4,000 8 9 26 26,000 30,000 4,500 10 9 28 30,000 33,500 5,000 12 9 30 33,000 37,000 5,500 Side slopes of 1 to 1 are assumed. In sand or unstable muck, slopes of 1 y 2 to 1 are necessary. The capacity of the ditch is based on a fall of 3 feet per mile with the crest of the flood 2 feet below the banks and with 1 foot of sediment in the bottom of the ditch. The acreage is based on the removal of % inch from the area in 24 hours. The cost is based on 15 cents a cubic yard. The cost will be more than this if less than 3 miles in length. Damages. Damages within the project consist of mutilation of land necessitating bridges and irregular fields, occupation of land, removal of stock watering places, or killing of timber. Damages below the project may result because of the water carried by the proposed drain. In any and all cases the land damaged must be compensated in some way. Damage may be allowed to cover the cost of a bridge. Land occupied is paid for by the acre at the rate of its value before drainage. This damage is eliminated where big tile are used or where the old ditch occupies as much land as the one proposed. The old ditch can usually be filled up at a small cost after the new ditch is dug. For $50 a satisfactory watering place can be excavated usually at the side of the ditch and fenced from it. Or, if the new ditch cuts off the water from a pasture, the damage can be measured by the cost of well, windmill, and tank. The killing of timber by lowering the water table is usually limited to 100 feet or less each side of the ditch, and where the timber is cut and marketed with advantage the first winter after drainage the damage from this source is neg- ligible. 24 Wisconsin Bulletin 351 FIG. 17— SKETCH FOR PETITION Check the forties that are to be included. Show approximately the location of the proposed drains. Boundaries and locations may be changed after the survey is made. It is seldom that damage is done below the project by the increased discharge of a good outlet ditch and its supplemental laterals after the first year. These drains lower the water table on the area drained and keep the soil dry enough to ab- sorb more of the rainfall than it did before drainage. This equalizes the runoff on the land below and reduces the floods. Immediately after the construction of the outlet ditch and before the laterals are installed to complete the drainage, the runoff may be greater because the soil to be drained has not An Outlet Drain for Every Farm 25 The engineer examines the size and character of the catchment basin as a basis for the design of the drains. FIG. 19.— THE PRELIMINARY MAP The purpose of this map is to show only the features that are to determine feasibility. A scale of 1-inch to 80 rods or 1-inch to 1,200 feet is desirable. d Not accurate in all details, but convenient and does not cost much. £3 O CP C$ w ©

•2-3 d S3 3 rt, d a ^ ctf <| O 16-1 8-1 Equitable nature of proceedings 10c 1 Errors in taxes 23-3 Failure to serve notice 13 3-4 Final report modification 19-3 9 Final report of commissioners 18 8-1 Fire wardens 14b (d) Hearing on final report 20 8-4 Hearing on petition 12 6-2 Hearing on preliminary report 17-1 6-9 Hearings, where held lOg 1 6-2 Infants or incompetents 10L 1 22 Interest, date and rate lOi 1 10-4 Irrigation 31t Jury trial lOg 3 Land, defined 10b 2-lU Laterals, petitioned for 31e 11 Liens ahead of mortgages 22-2 10-1 Lis pendens notice 10-k 3-5 Machinery and pumps 31v Machinery purchased 31n Modification of boundaries 18-2 9 Modification of orders-. lOd 1 3-6 Modifications affecting bonds lOd 2 Modifications of plans 10c 4 9 Mortgagee, defined 10b 2-11 Navigable waters 17-6 to 18. Notice, contents of lOf 2 6-4 Notice, how made lOf 3 3-2 Notice, how made 12-2 8-4 Obstructions, removed 31u 26 Omission by mistake 31 28 Ownership divided 31k 24 36 Wisconsin Bulletin 351 Provision Partial confirmation ' Petition by town or county board. . . Petition, contents of Petition, dismissed Petitioners recover expenses Petition for supplemental drains. . . . Petitioners signing subsequently.... Preliminary report of commissioners Punishment for molesting drains. . . . Railroads name representative Railroads open tracks Register of deed’s record Remonstrances Remonstrances, grounds for Remonstrances, grounds for Roads on spoil banks Specifications for intakes State chief engineer directs State chief engineer’s approval State chief engineer’s report State lands ... Sub-districts Supplemental drains Supplemental drains Tax roll Treasurer’s duties Trespass Section Section 1379 1368 21-1 5-1 11-1 5 14-5 10L 4 72 26-1 11-2 11-6 16-1 6-6 28a 26 lOp 29 16-1 25 10-1 10j 3-8 - 14-1 9 17-3 18a 28a 18-3 8 (h) 16-1 6-8 J 16-2 6-7 i 18c 31o 26 11-1 31s 23 13 24 18 14b 27 Validity of assessments.. Withdrawal from petition 28 lOn An Outlet Drain for Every Farm 37 DUTIES OF THE ENGINEER Preparatory Study 1. Observe the flow in the old creek. 2. Estimate the size of catchment basin. 3. Recognize the special merits of the project. 4. Recognize the chief obstacles. 5. Designate the forties to be included in the project and describe the plan that appears most feasible. Preliminary Survey 1. Make a sketch showing approximately the edge of the wet land, using the forty-line as a basis if possible. If not, use transit and stadia. 2. Establish bench marks, and get the elevation of critical places as the basis for a preliminary profile. Look out for the low places hard to drain, usually some distance away from the drain. Make soundings for depth of water in ponds. 3. Study catchment basin more in detail and observe the size and kind of bridges. 4. Make borings of the sub-soil to a depth of 8 feet in crit- ical places where drains will probably be. 5. Make preliminary plans computing the cost. Final Survey 1. Stake out the drain with stakes every 100 feet, taking ele- vations at the foot of the stakes. (Do not set hubs yet.) 2. Compare two or more possible locations and decide which is the best, making borings to the proposed grade line to observe the sub-soil. 3. Take enough elevations located by transit and stadia that contour lines can be located at intervals of one foot ; use these contours, supplemented with notes on the vegeta- tion, for measuring the wet land. Check on the bench marks. 1 Make final map, plans and profiles and compute costs. 5. Help the board with assessments, and help the attorney with specifications for the contract. 38 Wisconsin Bulletin 351 Inspection 1. Set a hub at each stake on tile lines just before the con- tractor starts work. Cross-section and compute yardage accurately. For open ditches a hub every 500 feet on the center line is sufficient with a reference hub about 100 feet away from the center or far enough that it will not be disturbed by the dredge. 2. Give the contractor written grade notes and necessary in- structions. 3. Stop the contractor and appeal to the board if unable to agree with the contractor as to methods. 4. Inspect all work each week so that the contractor can correct imperfections before his machine gets too far away. 5. Make monthly estimates of payments to be made to the contractor. 6. Recommend to the board any supplemental work proven necessary as the work proceeds. 7. Inspect drain tile when shipment arrives and reject un- satisfactory tile. PETITION FOR FARM DRAINAGE To the County Court of County, Wisconsin: The undersigned petitioners sufficient in number to comply with the : law, desire to .have organized under the Farm Drainage Law, a “drain- age” as hereinafter described. We, therefore, respectfully represent: (a) That the following lands will be benefited and should be included in the proposed “drainage:” (b) That the proposed work is necessary and will be beneficial to the public health and welfare, because there is in the proposed “drain- age” large amount of wet and marshy land affording breeding places for mosquitoes, causing infections, damps, and fogs, and having but little value for agricultural purposes. (c) That there is attached hereto a sketch of the proposed “drain- age” on a township plat showing the proposed boundaries of the same, and the general location of the proposed drains, subject to such changes as may appear advisable after the final survey is made. (d) That we believe that the benefits of the proposed drains are greater than the damages and the cost of construction. An Outlet Drain for Every Farm 39 (e) That the name of the proposed “drainage” be County Farm Drainage Number (the number to be in- serted by the County Judge). (f) That we desire to have the proposed “drainage” organized with the least possible delay. (g) That there ( is | (cross out one) filed herewith a guaran- \ is not $ tee for the payment of the portion of the cost of construction that may be in excess of the benefits. (h) That (to be omitted where no old project exists) there was in the year organized under an old state law a public drain within the area described in this petition and located approxi- mately as follows: Here follow the signatures of the petitioners: PETITION FOR DRAINAGE DISTRICT To the Circuit Court of County, Wisconsin: Your undersigned petitioners, sufficient in number to comply with the law, desire to have organized a drainage district under the Drain- age District Law. We, therefore, respectfully represent: (a) That the name of the proposed district is to be (b) That the proposed work is necessary and will be beneficial to the public health and welfare, because there is in the proposed drain- age district a large amount of wet and marshy land affording breeding places for mosquitoes, causing infectious damps and fogs, and having but little value for agricultural purposes. (c) That the accompanying sketch on a township plat gives a gen- eral description of the location, character, and plans of the proposed drains described more in detail as follows, but subject to such changes as may seem advisable in the light of the final survey: (d) That the sketch attached hereto shows the boundary of the pro- posed district including approximately acres described as follows: (e) That the public health and the public welfare will be promoted by the proposed work and that we believe that the benefits will ex- ceed the damages and the cost of construction. 40 Wisconsin Bulletin 351 (f) That the names and addresses of the owners and mortgagees of all land in the proposed district so far as known to us, is as follows* (g) That we desire to have the proposed drainage district organized I with all convenient speed. (h) That (to be omitted where no old project exists) the purpose of the proposed work is to enlarge and repair an existing drain estab- lished in the year and described approximately as follows:. In testimony of our desires we hereunto affix our signatures: FARM DRAINAGE NOTICE State of Wisconsin, County Court for Dane County, In the matter of Farm Drainage Number 7, (Berry). Notice is hereby given that the Drainage Board of Dane County, Wisconsin, will meet on the 6th day of April, A. D. 1921, at 10 o’clock A. M. at the home of in Section 35 in the Town of Berry, Dane County, Wisconsin, to consider the petition filed in the County Court for said Dane County: to drain lands in Sections Nos. 25, 35 and 36, in Township 8 North, Range 7 East, being in the Town of Berry, in said Dane County, and more particularly described as follows: DESCRIPTION Section 25, NE*4 of NE14 S% of NE 1 ^ SE% Of Nwy 4 NE14 of swyi sy 2 of SW % N% of SE14 SW14 of SE14 All persons may appear and be heard. Section 35, NE14 Ni/ 2 of SW^ n y 2 of SE14 Section 36, Ni/ 2 of NW14 swyi of Nwy£ Farm Drainage Board. An Outlet Drain for Every Farm 41 CERTIFICATION OF NOTICE State of Wisconsin, County Court for Dane County, 1 In Re Farm Drainage No. 7 (Berry) |> I I — o J State of Wisconsin, ) ss. Dane County, j being first duly sworn, on oath says, that he is a member of the Farm Drainage Board of Dane County and that on the 23d day of March, 1921, he posted true and correct copies of the an- nexed notice of preliminary hearing to consider the petition' filed in the County Court for Dane County as follows: One copy of said notice on telephone pole on west side of highway running in a slightly northeasterly and southwesterly direction in the Southeast quarter (SE 14 ) of the Southwest quarter (SW 14 ) of Sec- tion Thirty-five (35) in said town of Berry, said telephone pole being approximately twenty feet southeast of the store and store building owned and occupied by One copy of said notice on hog house abutting on east side of high- way running in a generally northeasterly and southwesterly direction in the Northeast quarter (NE 14 ) of Section Twenty-five (25), said hog house being on lands owned and occupied by One copy of said notice on cottonwood tree at north corner of high- way four corners near the Southwest corner of Section 25. That all of said notices so posted, were in Sections 25 and 35 of the town of Berry in said Dane County. That on the said 23rd day of March, 1921, this affiant served a true and correct copy of said notice on each of the following named per- sons and owners of land within said farm drainage as follows: One copy upon by delivering to and leaving with the said , a true and correct copy of said notice. One copy on by delivering to and leaving with Mrs by this affiant known to be the wife and a mem- ber of the family of the said a true and correct copy of said notice. One copy on , by delivering to and leaving with the said , a true and correct copy of said notice. One copy upon by delivering to and leaving with Mrs by this affiant known to be the wife and a mem- ber of the family of the said a true and correct copy of said notice. One copy on , by delivering to and leaving with the said , a true and correct copy of said notice. One copy on each of the following named persons: 42 Wisconsin Bulletin 351 by delivering to and leaving with each of said persons, a true and cor- rect copy of said notice. Subscribed and sworn to before me this 26th day of March, 1921. Notary Public, Dane Co., Wis. In Re Farm Drainage No. 7 (Berry) > MINUTES OF FIELD MEETING The Dane County Farm Drainage Board met at the home of in Section 35 in the above town of Berry pursuant to notice duly posted and served on April 6, 1921, at the hour of ten o’clock A. M. The meeting was called to order at the appointed time by president of the board, and proof of the posting and serving of notice was read by , secretary of the board. All members of the board were present. On roll call of interested land owners, the following answered pres- ent: The meeting was open for a general discussion of the drainage propo sition and the following owners of lands were heard: stated that he would like to know how the assess- ments were made, whereupon the board explained the manner of mak- ing the assessments. stated that they didn’t need a big ditch through his land; that a big ditch would be dangerous to cattle and that probably tile would be better, but that when a rain came tile would not be large enough. stated that there was a lot of water in the neigh- borhood of his land all the time and that it should be drained 1 out. stated that the principal trouble would be the bridges over a big ditch and that the water might be stopped at the lower end by reason of the bridges. wanted to know more about the manner of mak- ing assessments and further explanation was made relative thereto. stated that he wanted to know more about the method and manner of making assessments. stated that the proposition would be all right if the lands can be rid of the flood water. said that his lands did not need a ditch; that he had a ditch on his land and that it was open; that he did not want a ditch unless he was paid damages; that his land was all dry and it An Outlet Drain for Every Farm 43 would be a considerable damage to him if the water was taken away. made remarks similar to those of R. Jennickes. stated that it would benefit his lands if they can be rid of the water. said that he was at the upper end and did not think that his lands needed a ditch. Mrs said that they constructed a ditch at one time and that the money expended was thrown away. She was afraid the result of this would be about the same. The Farm Drainage Board thereupon checked over the acreage and signers to the petition and upon motion it was determined that the petition had attached to it a requisite number of signers. There being no further business, upon motion made, the meeting was adjourned. Secretary. SPECIMEN OF PRELIMINARY REPORT State of Wisconsin, County Court for Dane County, In Re Farm Drainage No. 7 (Berry) I J To the County Court for Dane County: Now comes the Farm Drainage Board of Dane County, Wisconsin, and makes its preliminary report to the court relative to the above en- titled farm drainage located in the town of Berry in said county, as follows: That subsequent to the entry of the order referring the petition to the board and directing the board to report thereon, the board ascer- tained the sufficiency of the signers of the petition and with the aid of an engineer, approved by the State Chief Engineer, examined the lands in the petition and all other lands that the board believes will be benefited or damaged by the proposed work and considered whether the drains, as proposed, were satisfactory and had the engineer pre- pare a map, plan and profiles setting forth the outlines of the district and showing the location and character of the drainage which the board and its engineer finally considered as most satisfactory for the work covered by the petition herein. That subsequently, and after due notice had been given as provided by law, a hearing on the petition was had as near the land described therein as convenient, such hearing being held on the 6th day of April, 1921, at the hour of ten o’clock A. M. on the farm of in Section 35 in said town of Berry, at which time and place, the board gave opportunity for all persons to be heard who desired to be heard for or against the petition; that after personal examination of the 44 Wisconsin Bulletin 351 lands by the commissioners and their engineer and upon the report of the State Chief Engineer, the board reports as follows: (a) That the petition is signed by adult persons owning a majority in acreage of the lands sought to be included within said proposed drainage. (b) That the lands described in the petition will be improved by drainage and by the plan of drainage herewith submitted. (c) That the plan of drainage proposed in the petition and herein recommended is feasible. (d) That both the public health and the public welfare will be pro- moted by the proposed work. (e) That the plan of drainage herein proposed, including any sug- gested changes in the report of the Chief Engineer, will best accom- plish the drainage prayed for. (f) That the benefits from such drainage will exceed the cost of construction. (g) The board attaches to this report, proof of service of and no- tice of hearing on the petition, together with a copy of its minutes of such hearing marked Exhibits A, B and C. (h) That filed herewith, are a map and profiles of the district and ditches prepared by the engineer of the board. (i) That attached hereto, marked Exhibit D, is the report of the Chief Engineer of the State of Wisconsin on the location, design, feas- ibility and cost of the proposed work, a general description of such additional drainage is deemed necessary to properly reclaim said lands, a statement of a comparison of the benefits to the lands in different portions of the drainage, together with the report of the College of Agriculure of the state of Wisconsin. WHEREFORE, the board prays the court to fix a time and place of hearing thereon and direct notice of such hearing to be given in the manner provided by law and for an order organizing said drainage. Farm Drainage Board of Dane County. SPECIMEN OF SPECIFICATIONS STATE OF WISCONSIN, COUNTY COURT FOR DANE COUNTY Prepared by the Committee en Drainage, Wisconsin Enginering Society and the Committee on Specifications of the Wisconsin State Drainage Association. In the Matter of the Farm Drainage No GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS EXHIBIT “A” OF THE CONTRACT [. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS AND EXPRESSIONS CONTAINED IN THE WITHIN SPECIFICATIONS. 1. The >term “Map” shall refer to the blue print of the drawing of said “Drainage” which was filed in the office of the Clerk of the County Court for County by the Farm Drainage Board. 2. The term “Profile” shall refer to the blue print of the profile of the proposed ditches and drains within said “Drainage” and which was An Outlet Drain for Every Farm 45 filed in the office of the Clerk of the County Court for Dane County by the Farm Drainage Board. 3. The term “Contractor” shall refer to the person or persons or the corporation, or its proper representative, to whom shall be let the con- tract for constructing the work proposed in the report and in these specifications. 4. The term “Engineer” shall refer to such person as shall be em- ployed by the Board to superintend under the direction of said Board the construction of said proposed work. 5. The term “Farm Drainage Board” or “ Board” shall refer to the person or persons and their successors in office, who shall be appointed by the Court under Chapter 446, Laws of 1919, and the laws amendatory thereof, and who are possessed of the powers and charged with the duties, provided in Chapter 446 and the laws amendatory thereof, in relation to the organization of and the prosecution and completion of the proposed work of the said “Drainage.” 6. The term “Station” shall refer to a point dividing the ditch or drain into sections of 100 feet each, and the stations shall be numbered consecutively from the outlet, which station is denominated zero, to the upper end of such ditch or drain. II. The starting point, route and terminus of the proposed ditch or drain and the location thereof as nearly as the same may now be determined, and which the said board may deem most proper and feasible for the accomplishment of the proposed work, are as follows: (Here insert the location and design of the work referred to.) III. GRADES Grades shall be as shown on the profile and the contractor be fur- nished with a table giving the depth of cutting at all stations, such depth being measured from the top of the station stakes or hubs. For open ditches a hub every 500 feet on the center line is sufficient, with a reference hub about 100 feet away from the center or far enough that it will not be disturbed by the dredge. The location of the station stakes, the plans, profiles and excavation sheets as furnished by the Engineer, shall constitute essential parts of these specifications. No work shall be accepted where the contractor leaves the line of the survey without authority of the Board. IV. CHANGES AND ALTERATIONS 1. The location and dimensions of the drains shall be subject to change by and under the direction of the Board and their engineer. 2. The Board shall have the right to increase or decrease the amount of work on any part thereof, to such an extent as they may deem advisable and necessary, but may decrease it to an extent not exceeding ten per cent of the entire contract without agreement in writing by the parties to this contract. 3. Any increase or decrease in the amount of work shall be figured at the unit rate named in the proposal, and the value of the work in- cluded in such alterations shall be added to or deducted from the con- tract price as the case may be, and no allowance shall be made to the contractor, in the case of an increase or decrease of such proposed work, for any damages or loss of profits to the contractor occasioned thereby. V. EXTRAS The amount of the bid for the construction of the proposed work shall include all work, material used, tools, machinery, the removal and replacement of any sluice pipe, wire conduit or cable and all other matters necessary to complete the work according to the plans, profiles, and specifications, and shall cover all losses and damage to the con- tractor arising from any action of the elements, the nature of the soil or obstructions or difficulties which may be incurred in the prosecution of the work, and all losses and damages to the owners of lands resulting from any negligence of the contractor, in constructing said proposed work, and no charge for extra work shall be made unless it shall be ordered in writing by the Board or by the engineer with the approval of the Board and at a price therefor agreed upon previous to its com- mencement. VI. MEASUREMENTS AND PAYMENTS 1. The profiles, maps and estimates herein referred to shall be con- sidered as approximations only, but are sufficiently accurate to serve as a basis for bids although bidders for the proposed work must satisfy themselves by personal inspection as to the difficulties to be encountered in the construction of said proposed work. 46 Wisconsin Bulletin 351 2. Intermediate payments based upon approximate estimates of the engineer for work performed during- the preceding month made during the first week of each succeeding month, during the. progress of the work shall be payable about the 15th day of each succeeding month. Such payments shall be 85 per cent of the contract price of the work done the previous month, as estimated by the engineer, or such other percentage thereof as may be agreed upon, and the remainder of the contract price shall be paid within ten days after the completion of the entire contract to the satisfaction of the Board. No charge or dam- age shall be made or claimed by the contractor for delay or hindrance resulting from any reasonable or unavoidable cause during the progress of any portion of the work done, but it shall in the judgment of the Board be construed as entitling him to an extension of the time allowed for the completion of the work. 3. Unless otherwise agreed, the contractor shall at his own expense keep all work in good condition and repair until the entire contract is completed and accepted by the commissioners. 4. Before payments are made and before final acceptance and final payment for the whole of the proposed work the contractor shall be required, to the satisfaction of the Board, to protect the drainage district harmless against all liens for labor and material used in the construc- tion of said proposed work and also against all claims for the use of patented articles, processes or appliances used in connection therewith, and against all claims or demands for personal injuries in whatsoever manner arising out of the construction of said proposed work. 5. No estimate of the engineer, other than the estimate provided by sub-section 2 of this section, shall be construed as a final estimate or acceptance of work done; nor shall any payment other than the final payment made after completion of the work to the satisfaction of the Board be construed as an acceptance of any work. 6. The contractor shall submit an itemized and correct statement of the cost of installing approved machinery and upon the satisfactory completion of such installation 90 per cent of such cost shall be due to the contractor. VII. PROSECUTION OF WORK The work provided for in the contract shall be begun at the time set forth in the contract or as otherwise determined, by the Board and shall be diligently prosecuted in a workmanlike manner until its com- pletion. VIII. SUPERVISION BY CONTRACTOR If the contractor shall not himself take immediate charge of the work in the field, he shall provide and designate to the Board and engineer a competent and experienced superintendent or foreman to take his place. In case the superintendent, foreman or other workman employed by the contractor shall neglect his or their duties or perform his or their work in an improper manner or shall persevere in misconduct after being warned by the engineer or Board the contractor shall discharge such superintendent, foreman or workman. IX. GRUBBING All grubbing or clearing of stumps, trees or brush, and the removal of all loose stone necessary for the construction of said ditch, shall be done by the contractor and shall be included in his bid for construction. X. TREES AND BRUSH All trees and brush within the area occupied by the ditch, berms and spoil banks shall be cut by the contractor and either burned or piled outside of that area before the spoil bank is deposited. XI. ROADS At the time of crossing any road or highway in the construction of any ditch or drain, the contractor shall erect barricades in such road or highway on both sides of ditch or drain at a distance of at least 200 feet from the point of crossing, and at such points that teams and vehicles may be readily turned and in the night time shall keep lights burning sufficiently adequate to give notice to travelers along such road or highway and to protect such travelers from injury. The contractor shall remove all bridges, the removal of which shall be necessary in the construction of the proposed work doing no unnecessary damage to the same and such barricades and lights as herein provided for in the case of crossing of roads shall be maintained until such bridges are recon- structed. The contractor shall further take all and every precaution necessary to protect the public from damage or injury in the construc- tion of any ditch. An Outlet Drain for Every Farm 47 Upon crossing- a railroad or other obstruction that would make it difficult to retrace the work with the machine, the board shall require the contractor to complete the work up to the point of crossing, permit the machine to cross, accept the work up to such crossing, and relieve the contractor of the responsibility of maintaining the accepted work. XII. LEDGE ROCK In case ledge rock shall be encountered in the construction of the work, the Board shall be notified immediately and will give instructions in regard to the removal of the same, and estimates and payments shall be based on the price bid for ledge rock. If no bid is made for ledge rock the board shall allow the contractor a fair price for such excavation. XIII. FENCES The contractor shall remove all fences the moving of which shall be necessary in the construction of said proposed work, and shall not cover up, destroy or do unnecessary damage to same. XIV. SUPERINTENDING OF WORK 1. Directions shall be given in writing by the Board to the contractor, if present on the work, or to his superintendent or foreman in his absence, and such directions shall be received and obeyed the same as if given to the contractor. 2. Any work condemned by the engineer shall be remedied and in case the contractor shall refuse to remedy such defect as ordered then the Board may cause such condemned portion to be remedied or repaired under the direction of the engineer and deduct the expenses thereof from any moneys in their hands due the contractor. XV. BRIDGES In the construction of the said proposed work the following are the principal bridges that will be encountered: Provision for the building of new bridges will be made by the Board and the construction of the same shall not enter into the contract for excavation. XVI. DECISION OF BOARD In the interpretation of these specifications and the contract and upon all questions concerning the execution of the work, the decision of the Board shall be final. XVII. ABANDONMENT If the contractor shall, at any time before its completion, abandon the work he has contracted to perform, he and his bondsman shall not be released from the provisions of part VI-4 of these specifications; but he shall remit to the board as liquidated damages all moneys then due him for work performed and he and his bondsman shall be liable to the district for all loss or damage occasioned by such abandonment and for any increased cost or expense to which the district may be put in completing the work according to the contract. XVIII. BONDS 1. Upon being awarded the contract to perform the whole or any part of the work herein proposed the contractor shall give his bond conditioned for the full and faithful performance by him of such work and the payment for all labor and materials used under these specifi- cations. 2. The amount of the bond shall be equal to one-half of the contract price and must be approved by the Board both as to amount, form and sufficiency of surety. 3. A copy of these specifications shall be attached to and made a part of the bond and no changes, alterations or modifications made in the plans or specifications, or in the contract entered into shall in any way release the contractor and his surety from the obligation of the bond; nor shall any acts of the Board or their engineers impair the obligation of the bond or be in any wav a waiver of the rights of the “Drainage” with respect to the protection of the bond; but the bond shall be understood to be given for a completed job, in accordance with these plans and specifications and any changes, alterations or modifica- tions made therein of whatever nature or character. 48 Wisconsin Bulletin 351 XIX. INDUSTRIAL INSURANCE The contractor shall maintain such insurance as will protect him from claims under the workman’s compensation acts and from any other claims for damages for personal injury, including death, which may arise from operations under this contract. Certificates of such Insur- ance shall be iiled with the Board and shall be subject to their approval for adequacy of protection. XX. BIDS 1. No bids or proposals will be considered unless accompanied bv a guaranty, executed in an amount equal to 3 per cent of the amount of the bid, but in no case shall a guaranty of more than $500.00 be required, and all guaranties shall be subject to the approval of the Board. The guaranty shall be considered as liquidated . damages and be retained by the district in case the contractor shall refuse or fail to enter into a contract as provided in these specifications, after acceptance of his bid by the Board. 2. The bids and guaranties shall be enclosed in a sealed envelope and endorsed “ County Farm Drainage Board, Bids for Construc- tion” and delivered at the office of the Board at the Wisconsin. The Board reserves the right to reject any and all bids. XXI. CONTRACT 1. A copy of the advertisement and of the specifications will be attached to the contract and form a part of ic. 2. Any changes or alterations made in the plans or specifications shall constitute and be a part of the contract, and the same shall be consid- ered as contained within the contract, although the same shall be made after the execution of such contract. 3. A transfer of the contract or of any portion thereof, or of any interest therein or the subletting of any portion of the work proposed to be done thereunder is prohibited without the written consent of the Board. 4. Within ten days after the successful bidder shall have been noti- fied of such fact by the Board, such successful bidder shall be prepared and ready and shall enter into a contract with the Board for the con- struction of said proposed work. 5. The contract shall provide for the commencement of the work under such contract within thirty days after date of the execution of the same unless otherwise ordered by the Board. 6. The contract shall provide for the faithful and continuous prosecu- tion of the work provided therein and for the completion of the same within the time to be determined therein by the Board upon consulta- tion with the contractor. XXII. EXPLANATION AND CORRECTIONS Any doubt as to the meaning of these specifications and any obscurity in the wording of them will be explained by the Board, who shall have the right to correct any error or omissions in them when such correc- tion is necessary for the proper fulfillment of their intention. XXIII. CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS Rock is defined as any material that requires blasting with dynamite or other explosive for economical excavation. All other materials shall be called earth. OPEN DITCH I. SLOPES The slopes desired in all ditches are one foot horizontal to one foot vertical; should the contractor not be able to slope the sides in con- formity to the above one to one form, he will be allowed to dig the sides in steps, but the inner angle of the steps must be outside of the proposed prism of the ditch so as to leave the ditch free of any material within the designed prism, and the bottom of the ditch shall not be so wide as to make the slopes too steep. (Make slopes 1% to 1 in sand.) II. BERMS All material removed in the excavation of the ditches shall be removed to a distance of not less than 8 feet from the top of the slope of the adjacent side of ditch, unless a less distance is ordered by the Board. An Outlet Drain for Every Farm 49 The berms shall be left practically free from all sods, roots, earth and other material excavated from the ditch. Any deviation of the edge of the ditch from a true line may be considered a defect and upon the order of the engineer shall be corrected without expense to the district. III. SPOIL BANKS 1. All material removed in the excavation of the ditches and laterals herein provided for shall be placed on either bank in as nearly equal quantities as can be determined by ordinary care and shall be distrib- uted evenly along the bank, except as herein provided and subject to such changes by the Board or their engineer as in their judgment the condition of the adjacent lands may warrant. Whenever a spoil bank would obstruct the flow of surface water from a ditch or watercourse, the contractor unless otherwise agreed, shall furnish and install a flume or pipe to conduct the water from such ditch or watercourse to the bottom of the outlet ditch to to avoid erosion of the side of the ditch. 2. Where a ditch is wholly within the land of one person, or persons owning such land jointly or as tenants in common, openings in the waste bank on both sides of the ditch, at points directly opposite, shall be left, so that a private crossing may be had at such points as shall be agreed upon by the Board and the owner or owners of the land. IV. MEASUREMENTS AND PAYMENTS 1. The material removed shall be measured by the cubic yard in the cut prism of the ditches, and the yardage shall be computed from the natural ground level, and no deductions will be made for old channels. The contractor shall furnish every facility for such measurements and will make no claim for any delay incident to such measurement. The engineer shall take accurate measurements upon the commencement and after the completion of the work, and from such measurements will determine the amount of material removed. 2. If the contractor shall construct any ditch wider or deeper than Called for in the specifications, or wider and deeper than is otherwise agreed upon by him with the Board, such fact will not entitle him to increased compensation by reason of such increased width or depth and shall not lessen the berm elsewhere provided for in these specifications. V. QUICK SAND If quick sand is encountered in prism of the ditch the Board shall be notified immediately and may order the grade of ditch lowered one or more feet and continued at such increased depth until said sand dis- appears from the prism of the ditch, or until such increased depth is considered unnecessary by the Board, and the additional material re- moved will be paid for at unit prices. Any filling of the ditch because of quick sand after its construction in accordance with the directions of the Board shall not be cause for refusal to accept the ditch when completed. This provision applies wherever unstable soil is encountered. VI. FLOATING DREDGES The contractor has the right with the approval of the board to maintain dams- to control the elevation of water for the practical oper- ation of floating dredges and shall not be responsible for damages caused by the reasonable exercise of that right. TILE I. DETAILED SPECIFICATIONS A. STAKES, STATION LINES AND GRADES: All trenches shall be dug accurately to the line and grade as given by an engineer, which shall be indicated by stakes set at station numbers, 100 feet apart or oftener as he may determine. The contractor shall protect and pre- serve these stakes and lines until the work shall have been completed. Any stakes, bench marks or other information unnecessarily or care- lessly disturbed or destroyed by the contractor shall be reset at the contractor’s expense. B. QUICKSAND. If quicksand be encountered in excavating any trench, the work shall be stopped and the Board or engineer be at once notified. Instructions for the prosecution of the work will be given the contractor, and any expense caused the contractor by any change in plan or method of construction shall be determined by the engineer and paid by the board. C. TRENCHING: The tile trenches shall be excavated on the line indicated and of such width and depth as shall be necessary to lay the tile to the grade line as given by the engineer. A sufficient' space 'must be allowed between the side of the tile and the side of the trench so 50 Wisconsin Bulletin 351 that it may be properly blinded. No deviation from straight lines or curves will be permitted except by a written consent of the engineer or Board. In deep trenches, in soft material, bracing and sheeting must be used in order to properly protect the work during construction. D. LAYING THE TILE: The laying of the tile must begin at the lower end and proceed up grade. The tile must be laid as closely as practicable and in lines free from irregular crooks, the tile being turned about until a close fitting joint is formed. When, in making turns, or by reason of irregular shaped tile, a crack of one-fourth inch or more is necessarily left, it must be securely covered with broken pieces of tile. Junction with branch lines must be carefully and securely made. E. BLINDING TILE: After the tile have been laid and inspected, the tile shall be properly blinded with top soil and protected so they will not be disturbed when the trench is back-filled. In case the mate- rial in the trench is sand or other loose material, and is likely to run into the joints and fill the tile, the joints shall be protected by sod, top soil, good building paper or in such other manner as the engineer shall direct. F. BACKFILLING: After the laying and blinding of the tile has been inspected, the trenches shall be back-filled even with ground sur- face, and the work may be done in any manner acceptable and satis- factory to the engineer. During freezing weather the filling must im- mediately follow inspection. In case the soil is suitable, the last spad- ing in digging the trench may be thrown on top of the tile already laid and properly blinded with top soil. In trenches more than 6 feet deep, no more than 6 feet shall be back at one time, and sufficient time shall intervene before the next filling to permit packing. G. BULKHEADS: At the outlet of the main tile there shall be con- structed a bulkhead of concrete according to dimensions as given on plans. The bulkhead shall be made in a form consisting of planks or boards closely nailed together. The proportions of concrete will be 1 cement, 3 sand and 5 crushed stone. The latter ranging in size from % in. to IV 2 in. or one part of cement and seven parts of clean gravel. The outside surface of the concrete must be spaded during pouring and after the forms are removed any rough places should be made smooth by filling in with mortar. Open outlets of the tile shall be protected by one-half inch iron rods placed vertically at a distance apart of not more than 2% inches from center to center. The bulkhead must be completed before the laying of tile is begun unless otherwise ordered by the Board. H. LATERAL CONNECTIONS TO MAINS: All lateral lines of tile shall have the top of the lateral level with the top of the main. Wher- ever it is necessary to connect a small tile with a large size without the use of a wye or a Tee, it shall be properly blinded with broken tile or by means of cement concrete. All junctions shall be made from the side of the main tile and not from the top. Lateral tile at a higher elevation than main tile will have the- grade changed fifteen feet from the main tile, so as to approach the mam at a steeper grade and inter- sect main tile at the side near the top. K. QUALITY OF TILE: Drain tile shall be subject to the inspec- tion of the engineer. He shall reject all tile that appear inferior on visual inspection. He shall then take samples of poorest of the superior grade and test them for strength and absorption, and if any of these samples has an absorption greater than 10 per cent of the dry weight of the tile or a supporting strength less than that of Extra Quality tile (A. S. T. M. Classification) the entire shipment shall be rejected. If the contractor desires a re-test, the engineer shall select the samples for the contractor to send prepaid to the State Chief Engineer, whose test and decision shall be final and binding. In all soils except peat and sand under peat, press-made, steam cured, well mixed and well proportioned concrete tile shall be considered the equivalent of hard burned shale tile. II. CHANGES AND ALTERATIONS A. The location of a main or lateral or both, and the size of the tile shall be subject to change by and under the direction of the Board and its engineer. An Outlet Drain for Every Farm 51 SPECIMEN OF FINAL REPORT State of Wisconsin, County Court for Dane County, In Re Farm Drainage No. 7 (Berry) L Now, comes the Farm Drainage Board of Dane County, Wisconsin, and files its final report in the above entitled drainage as directed by the order of the above entitled court dated December 12, 1921, and in accord with Section 1368 — 8 of the Wisconsin Statutes as follows: 1. That subsequent to the entry of the above mentioned order, the board, with the aid of an engineer, approved by the State Chief Engi- neer of the State of Wisconsin, proceeded to lay out drains of suffi- cient depth and capacity to adequately drain the lands proposed to be drained and in determining the depth and capacity of such drains, the board and its engineer considered the drainage of other lands lying above and draining in the direction of, through and along the general course of the proposed drain; and that the location, size, length, depth, grade and manner and method of construction of said drains are more particularly set forth in the specifications on file in the office of the board and attached hereto, marked Exhibit A, and by the blue print copies of the map and profiles heretofore filed in the above entitled court. 2. That in assessing the benefits that will accrue to the various par- cels of land and corporations benefited and in assessing the benefits to farm lands, the board has ascertained and considered the depth, character and quality of the surface and sub-soils, the thoroughness and difficulties of drainage, the uses to which the land when drained will be adapted and all other elements that, in the judgment and knowledge of the members of the board, will enter into any increase in the value of such parcels of land resulting from the proposed work. 3. That the estimated cost of construction of said proposed work, as nearly as the same may now be ascertained, is the sum of $9,736.35 and amounts to approximately 46 per cent of the total assessments of benefits. 4. That damages should be awarded to such lands and corporations as in the judgment of the board will be damaged thereby and that the amount of such damages is the sum of $1,118.70. 5. That the names of the owners and the descriptions of the lands and corporations benefited and damaged, the amounts of the assess- ment of benefits and cost of construction levied against and the awards of damages awarded to such lands and corporations, together with the net assessment for construction against the same are as follows: 52 Wisconsin Bulletin 351 Names of owners and description of lands Assessed benefits Assessed for construction Damages Net assess- ment for construction Sec. 24, T. 8 R. 7, Jacob Nonn, Pt. of NE% of NE 14 as Des. in Vol. 195 of Deeds Page 38 Prank Dermody, NE 14 of NE^i less parcel Des. in Vol. 195 of Deeds Page 38 $ 188.10 44.00 1,721.00 $ 88.53 20.24 791.66 $ 86.53 20.24 676.26 Prank Dermody SE 1 ^ of NE*4_- $115.40 Here follows the rest of the assessment roll with totals for each column. 6. The above lands included within the proposed drainage lie be- tween steep bluffs from which the waters will rush in considerable volume in times of freshets. If this water were uncontrolled and were permitted to flow over the berms and banks of the ditches, consider- able erosion would likely result; that in the judgment of the commis- sioners at various places along the main ditch, it would be advisable to provide flood water inlets into the ditch by extending sewer pipes from the surface of the water to the surface of the ground outside of the waste banks, such pipes pointing diagonally down stream. The exact location of these inlets has not been determined but the cost of the same has been included in the above estimate of cost of construc- tion. 7. That attached hereto and made a part hereof, is a report of the Chief Engineer of the State of Wisconsin marked Exhibit B. 8. The statutes permit the board, upon the approval of the court, to borrow money and issue bonds to meet the cost of construction and further permit that the assessments for cost of construction may he made payable at once or in annual installments not exceeding fifteen in number. The board is not informed as to whether any of the own- ers of lands and the corporations above described will be in a position to pay or will pay the whole or any considerable portion of the assess- ment of costs within a short period of time after the confirmation of this order, but the board is of the opinion that only a few, if any, will make such payments of the cost of construction. It is therefore prob- able that it will be necessary either to borrow money or issue bonds for the greater portion, if not all, of the cost of construction. For these reasons and in view of the present condition of the bond market, the board makes no recommendation at this time, believing that it will be to the advantage of the drainage to defer the issue of bonds as long as possible and therefore leaves the determination of the pro- cedure to be followed in financing the work until the hearing of the court upon this report. 9. The board further reports that it will he necessary to borrow money at once to meet some of the expenses of organization prior to An Outlet Drain for Every Farm 53 the date that may be determined for issuing bonds or borrowing moneys for the payment of the cost of construction and recommends that it be authorized to borrow moneys for such purposes in such a sum and under such conditions as the court shall determine upon the hearing of this report. WHEREFORE, the Farm Drainage Board of Dane County submits this report for the favorable consideration of the court. Dated February 1922. (Signed) Farm Drainage Board of Dane County. SPECIMEN ORDER OF JUDGE State of Wisconsin, County Court for Dane County, In Re Farm Drainage No. 6 (Middleton) J Whereas, the final report of the Farm Drainage Board of Dane County, in the above matter has been filed in this court and which report sets forth the assessments of benefits and cost of construction and awards of damages assessed against and awarded to all lands within said drainage; Now, on motion of , attorneys for said drainage, IT IS ORDERED: That said final report be heard and examined before this court cn the day of September, 1921, at o’clock in the noon in the county court room in the court house in the city of Madison in said Dane County, at which time and place all interested persons may appear and be heard. All objections must be in writing and comply with Subsection 8 of Section 1368 — 3 of the Wisconsin Statutes. Dated , 1921. By the Court. County Judge. SPECIMEN ADVERTISEMENT INVITING BIDS Exhibit “B” of Contract. Office of Farm Drainage Board of County, Wisconsin. Wisconsin, 19. . . Notice is hereby given that sealed bids will be received at the office of in Wisconsin, until o’clock .... M 19..., for the construction of the following work in Farm Drainage No : 54 Wisconsin Bulletin 351 Open Ditches. miles . . . . . . .cubic yards average depth .., . . . .max. depth. miles . . . . . . .cubic yards average depth ... . . . .max. depth. miles . . . . . . .cubic yards average depth ... . . . .max. depth. feet . . . .diameter Tile. .... average depth . . .max. depth. feet . . . .diameter .... average depth depth. feet . . . .diameter .... average depth , . . .max. depth. Extras. Maps, plans and specifications may be seen at the office of or may be procured by writing to at Wisconsin. A certified check for per cent of the amount of the bid, must accompany the hid, but in no case shall a check in excess of be required. Bids may be on all or any portion of the work. The board reserves the right to reject any or all bids. (Signed) Secretary Farm Drainage Board, County, Wisconsin. SPECIMEN OF AGREEMENT State of Wisconsin, County of Farm Drainage (Substitute “commissioners” for “board” in the case of drainage districts.) AGREEMENT Exhibit “C” of Contract. THIS AGREEMENT, made and entered into this day of 19..., by and between herein called the Contractor , and the Farm Drainage Board of County in the State of Wisconsin, herein called the board, in accordance with an act of the legislature of the State of Wisconsin, being Chapter 446, Laws of 1919, and all acts sup- plementary and amendatory thereto. WITNESSETH, That the Contractor for and in consideration of the sum of approximately dollars, to be paid as provided in the Specifications, hereby covenants and agrees to and with the board as follows, to-wit: An Outlet Drain for Every Farm 55 ARTICLE 1. That the Contractor will construct and finish in every respect, in the most substantial and workftianlike man- ner, and to the satisfaction of the board and the Engineer appointed by the above named board to survey and superintend the work to be per- formed under this contract the following work at the following sched- ule of prices in accordance with the Plans and Specifications which are made Exhibit “A” of this contract ARTICLE II. That the Contractor .. .will fully complete the said work not later than the day of 19..., and that time shall be the essence of this Contract; and that if the Contractor. .. shall fail to complete said work within the time above limited, shall forfeit and pay to the board as liquidated damages for such default the sum of Dollars for every subsequent day that such failure shall continue, un- less the time limit is extended for good cause by the board in writing. ARTICLE III. That the Contractor ... .has executed a satisfactory bond to the board conditioned upon the faithful performance of this contract and saving the board from any loss due to the failure of the Contractor in his performance. ARTICLE IV. That the Contractor. . agrees to start excavation on or before the day of , 192. . ., providing he has been duly notified by the board that it has funds available to pay for the work as it proceeds. IN WITNESS WHEREOF, The Contractor. . .and the board have hereunto affixed their signatures this day of 192... Contractor. Witnesses: Board. In all of these forms for drainage districts use “District” for “Farm Drainage,” “Commissioners” for “Board” and “Chapter 557 Laws of 1919” for “Chapter 446 Laws of 1919.” W”\ SJo Bulletin 352 February, 1923 FIVE FARM FACTS' 1. Progress in agriculture is possible only through use of better methods. 2. Better methods can come only by finding and trying out new ideas. 3. The individual farmer has neither the time nor the money to work out many new ideas. 4. The State, therefore, provides the Experiment Station to do this work for the benefit of its citizens. 5. This report gives the reader the experimental re- sults found and tested in 1921-1922. CONTENTS Page Introduction 5 Feeding Eggs to Baby Chicks Gets Results 7 Quality of Hatching Eggs Depends on Ration 9 The Influence of Specific Rations on Animal Growth 10 Do Hay-Curing Methods Affect Milk Cows?... 15 Recent Studies in Vitamines 16 Alcohol and Acetone from Waste Materials 18 Yellow Versus White Corn for Swine Feeding 18 Efficient Rations for Fall Pigs 21 Home-Grown Rations for Milk Production 22 Feeding Trials with Beef Cattle 23 Feeding Trials with Draft Foals 24 New Index Shows Quality of Animal Body 25 Inactive Ovaries Cause of Male Plumage in Hens 25 Inheritance of Milk and Meat Production in Cattle 27 Breeding Improves Strains of Sweet Corn 28 Breeding Jimson Weed for Higher Atropine Content 29 Alfalfa, Wisconsin’s Best Hay Crop 29 Alfalfa in the Sandy Sections 30 Recent Discoveries for Alfalfa Growers 31 Scarify Alfalfa Seed Shortly Before Planting 36 Lack of Snow Causes Heavy Alfalfa Losses 37 Emergency Hay Crops Often Help 40 Seeding Clover and Timothy on Winter Grains 41 Soybeans an Important Wisconsin Crop 41 Cold Resistant Corn Fills Need of North 42 White Cross Oats a New Successful Strain 44 “Forward” — A New High Yielding Oats 45 Oat Lodging Problems Studied 45 Wheats for Wisconsin 45 Producing Barley Seed Free from Stripe Disease 46 Planting Distance of Sunflowers for Silage 47 Rutabagas Outyield Mangels in Northern Wisconsin 47 Kudzu Not Successful in Wisconsin 47 New Varieties of Peas for Wisconsin 48 Improvement of Sweet Corn for Canning Purposes 48 Purebred Grains an Educational Factor 49 Recent Developments in the Hemp Industry 50 Recent Work in Weed Control 51 Wildfire Disease in Wisconsin Tobacco 53 Rotation of Crops Pays with Tobacco 57 Potato Mosaic Influenced by Temperature 58 Nitrogen Reserve in Apple Trees 59 Studies in Apple Scab Control 59 Cherry Leaf Spot Investigation 60 Relation of Plant Diseases to Temperature and Moisture 61 Disease Resistance in the Onion 62 Cucumber Mosaic Investigations 62 Development of Cabbage Resistant to Yellows 63 Crown Gall Investigated 63 Sprays for Anthracnose in Black Raspberries 65 How to Succeed in Wintering Bees 65 Fighting American Foulbrood with Sodium Hypochlorite 66 It Pays to Spray for Potato Leaf hopper 67 Effect of Nicotine Dusts on Crop Insects 68 Controlling the S'triped Cucumber Beetle 70 4 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 Page Control of the Pea Aphis 72 Sawdust Cheapens Grasshopper Poison 73 The Red-Necked Cane Borer on Raspberries 73 Moldy Bread Outbreak Due to Infected Flour 74 Yeast Causes Sauerkraut Discoloration 76 Grouping Legume Nodule Bacteria 76 Experiments with Silage 77 Lime and Inoculation Affect Nitrogen Fixing Capacity of Legumes. 77 Plowing Under Green Brush 78 “Stinker” Swiss Cheese Increasing 79 High Quality Milk Shut Out by Laboratory Tests 79 Trials with Tuberculosis Vaccine 80 Fur Farming Increasing in Wisconsin 80 Goiter in Calves and Sheep Prevented by Iodine 84 Infectious Abortion in Swine 85 Contagious Abortion in Cattle 86 Tuberculosis in Poultry 86 Danger Lies in Feeding Horses Silage 87 Calf Diphtheria or Stomatitis in Wisconsin 88 Better Methods Important in Swiss Cheese Making 88 Salts Affect Heat Coagulation of Evaporated Milk 90 Use of Alcohol Test Limited 91 Denatured Alcohols for Fat Extraction Test 91 Fishy Flavor of Butter 92 Cooperative Butter Marketing Needed 92 The Town as the Farmer’s Service Station 95 Analysis of Cost Shows Why Some Farms Pay 96 Farm Tenacy Increasing in Wisconsin 97 Fertilizer Needs of Soils Determined by Greenhouse Tests 98 Methods of Applying Fertilizers 99 Spots on Alfalfa Leaves May Mean “Potash Starvation” 100 Phosphate Fertilizers Produce Well at Ashland 102 Why Some Soils Become More Acid Than Others 103 Liming Shows Good Results at Spooner 104 Fertilizer Work at Spooner 105 How Can Stable Manure Be Best Utilized? 106 Green Manuring Alone Does not Maintain Fertility 106 Deep Tillage Trials at Ashland 106 Managing S'andy Soils at Hancock 107 Progress of the Soil Survey 108 Deep Ditches and More Tile for Drainage 110 Drain Tile Investigations Ill Brush Plow Improved by Staff Engineers 113 Marsh Plowing With Tractors 116 Worn Parts Greatly Increase Mower Draft 116 Science Serves Wisconsin Farms H. L. Russell and F. B. Morrison 00 OFTEN the business of farming is looked upon as merely the cultivation of the soil for the production of cereal crops. In Wisconsin, in earlier years at least, these were largely mar- keted as grain. More modern methods have shown the superiority of a system of livestock husbandry in which crop production is only one part of the industry. The old system developed grain farming with its loss of soil fertility and often unsatisfactory returns to the producer. The more recent system markets the crops through the medium of animals, thereby conserving the fertility of the soil and providing a better remuneration for the farmer. In these times, when the economic situation of the farmer is relatively trying be- cause the post-war deflation of prices has greatly disturbed the balance of exchange values between raw materials, such as the farmer produces, and the finished commodities of commerce, it is of exceed- ing importance that the products of agriculture be marketed in an orderly fashion through the most suitable channels and in as nearly a finished form as possible. We in Wisconsin have learned that livestock constitutes the main- stay of our agriculture. By marketing the products of the soil through the medium of our animal industry, this state has carried through the period of hard times in a manner which is second to none; and the livestock phase of our farming has become the ideal of many states less fortunate than ours. In the pursuit of this in- dustry it has been well established that not only is good stock re- quired, but it is of the utmost importance that the animals be well nurtured. In the conversion of field crops into animal products, feed- ing methods are of prime importance, and in this field the Experiment Station plays an exceedingly important role. Modern methods have long passed the mere feeding trials of earlier days which simply compared one feed with another. More and more it is realized that the work of the chemist and the physiologist must now precede the labor of the practical feeder. The new discoveries in nutrition, many of which have come directly from the work of this Experiment Station, have given an entirely new concept to the whole field of animal feeding. Farmers now realize the part which vitamines play in the nutrition of livestock (even though their character is not 6 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 yet known) ; that the successful growth of animal life is quite as dependent upon the presence of these hitherto unrecognized sub- stances as upon the energy-producing qualities of the feeds em- ployed; and that success is best attained when these growth-stimu- lating materials are furnished in abundance. For the purpose of rapid experimentation the chick with its early maturity offers peculiar advantages. The importance of the suc- ceeding studies here reported is of special significance in Wisconsin agriculture as poultry is rapidly becoming an important and power- ful adjunct to the dairy cow. In the decade between the last and the foregoing census, the value of poultry products in this state has increased 250 per cent. In 1920 the poultry output was over ten and three-quarter millions of dollars. In the last decade Wisconsin has passed both Michigan and New York in total poultry on farms, Wis- consin registering nearly eleven and one-half million fowls. In the period of stress through which agriculture is passing, no phase of farming has been more stable nor maintained better prices on the whole than the products of the dairy and the poultry yard. In pull- ing out of the present economic situation in agriculture, the state of Wisconsin can do no better than to combine the enviable lead which she already has in dairying with steady advance of other lines of the livestock industry in a highly diversified system of general farming. T HE KEEPING OF RECORDS and selective breeding have been among the primary factors in the success of Wisconsin’s dairy industry. The average yearly butterfat production per cow in the United States is only 127 pounds. The average production of Wisconsin’s cows exceeds that figure by nearly 50 pounds; while those in the Wisconsin cow testing associations reach an average of 265 pounds, a record equaling that of Holland whose development has long stood as a goal in the dairy world. Similar achievements are possible with poultry. The average egg production of the United States (1920 census) was only 53 eggs per year. Wisconsin’s production exceeds this average but slightly. At the Wisconsin Experiment Station 150 hens have averaged over 200 eggs per year, and 16 hens have individual records exceeding 250. Careful breeding and selection will increase profits in poultry as in the dairy industry. Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 7 Feeding Eggs to Baby Chicks Gets Results. A S' THE DAIRY industry has developed to a stage where a large percentage of the milk is produced during the winter months — a period during which the cows of the early pioneers were usually dry — so the poultry industry is rapidly going into the produc- tion of out-of-season eggs. In order to produce winter eggs successfully it is necessary to hatch the pullets early in the spring so that they will be mature and capable FIG. 1.— HEALTHY CHICKS AT SIX WEEKS OF AGE These chicks were fed white corn, middlings, eggs, salt, grit and bone. of laying during the period of high pric.ed eggs. It is not practicable to force immature pullets for egg production, as a pullet must be well grown, well fleshed, and have nearly completed her adult plumage be- fore it is desirable for her to start laying. If a pullet starts to lay too early only a few small eggs will be produced and then a false molt FIG. 2. — CHICKENS NEED VITAMINES This lot of six were fed a ration like the others except that they re- ceived no eggs. These chicks died shortly after this photograph was taken. A small amount of egg or other vitamine-rich food would have saved all of them. with a two or three months rest period is likely to follow. November and December eggs bring the highest price, and consequently progres- sive farmers are hatching their chicks early enough in the spring so 8 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 as to have them well growg and ready to start laying in October or November. In raising early spring chicks, especially when it is done on a large scale, the problem of greatest importance is that of pro- viding a proper ration. The speckled hen that in former days reared her nondescript brood in the summer months did not require much attention, for whatever deficiency may have existed in the ration was easily corrected by the food which nature supplied to the chicks; but the poultryman of today finds such methods impracticable. In an effort to determine just what feeds are needed to grow vig- orous chicks in large lots and in confinement, such as is necessary for PIG. 3.— STRONG NORMAL CHICKS CAN BE GROWN IN CONFINEMENT This group of chicks fed yellow corn, dried liver, middlings, lime, salt and skimmilk weighed 500 grams, or over one pound at seven weeks of age. They received no green or scratch feed, but the dried liver contained the necessary vitamines. the profitable production of early spring pullets, J. G. Halpin (Poultry) and E. B. Hart (Agricultural Chemistry) undertook a series of feed- ing trials. The value of whole milk in the ration for baby chicks was one of the early findings, but subsequent work showed that skimmilk was not sufficient for growth except in certain combinations. It was Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 9 found that a ration of white corn, skimmilk and middlings would not produce proper growth, while the use of yellow corn and clover with skimmilk gave much better results. Experiments conducted during the past year have shown that the addition of very small amounts of egg to the ration for baby chicks will give surprisingly good results. Chicks fed on white corn, mid- dlings, and skimmilk grow for a few weeks and then die; but when one egg per day to each thirty chicks is added, normal growth results. Chicks fed yellow corn, middlings, and skimmilk grow fairly well, but not nearly so well as when eggs are added to the ration. The depart- ment recommends the use of infertile eggs from the incubator, or old eggs for the purpose; thus giving the poultryman an opportunity to utilize material that formerly was considered of little value. It is desirable to break the eggs into a dish with skimmilk and then beat the mixture thoroughly. The resulting liquid is used to moisten the mash of the chicks ; feeding the eggs without beating makes the mash less palatable. Where no milk is available, good growth can be secured by the use of eggs alone. About one egg per day to 30 chicks is the amount recommended during the first two weeks of feeding, but after that a gradual increase in the quantity of eggs used seems desirable. Or- dinarily in chick feeding trials good results are obtained by the use of green feed in the ration; but when eggs are used, there appears to be no advantage in it. In case eggs are not available, whole milk can be used very satisfactorily as a substitute during the first three weeks of feeding. Quality of Hatching Eggs Depends Upon the Ration I T IS a well-known fact that to produce 100 pullets in the fall too many eggs are incubated in the spring. On an average about two eggs are used for each chick that is hatched, and considerable loss due to weakness of the chicks also commonly occurs. Poultry- men have long recognized this economic loss but have been powerless to reduce it. As the poultry industry slowly becomes more dependent upon commercial hatching, the importance of this factor becomes apparent, because the success of commercial hatcheries is almost en- tirely dependent upon the viability of the eggs which are incubated. That factors, such as exercise, bear an important relation to the viability of the eggs produced by the flock has been generally be- lieved. But last year J. G. Halpin (Poultry) and H. W. Steenbock (Agricultural Chemistry) began work to determine what influence the ration fed to hens had upon the viability of the eggs which were produced. Though this work has been in progress only a short time, some surprising results have already been obtained opening up a relatively new field of research. In these experiments pens of White Leghorn pullets, all of which were sisters from the same lot of eggs, were fed rations of white 10 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 corn versus yellow corn. Those fed white corn and casein gave an average hatch of only 15.3 per cent of the fertile eggs; whereas, when yellow corn was used instead of white, the average hatch increased to 23.6 per cent of the fertile eggs. When a vitamine-rich feed, such as pork liver, was added to these rations, the average hatch of the lot receiving white corn rose to 53.2 per cent of the fertile eggs and of the birds receiving yellow corn, to 62 per cent. When skim milk powder was used in the ration instead of pork liver, the white corn lot gave an average hatch of 20.9 per cent and the yellow corn lot 50 per cent of the fertile eggs. When dried pig’s heart was used in- stead of liver, the results were no better than those from skim milk powder. These experiments point unmistakably to the fact that such in- gredients as yellow corn and pork liver exert a very potent influence in the ration of the hens if eggs high in hatchability are to be pro- duced. In no case were satisfactory results obtained with rations low in the fat-soluble vitamine. These results have a definite bear- ing on the method of flock feeding where eggs are produced that are intended for hatching purposes. In late winter and early spring care must be taken to see that the ration used with the laying hen is sufficiently rich in this vitamine if a maximum production of hatchable eggs is to be secured. Many successful poultry keepers believe that their hens should rest during the winter if they are to produce the best hatching eggs in the spring. They believe that market eggs should be produced by the pullets and only eggs from older hens incubated. The low hatchability produced by white corn and casein or white corn and skim milk rations was more pronounced during the latter part of the hatching season. This seems to show that to a certain extent at least a hen stores the vitamines in her body and gradually lays out her store unless it is replenished by the ration. For several years careful records have been kept of the viability of the eggs from different hens, and frequently hens that laid most during the winter produced the highest percentage of vigorous chicks. This seems to indicate that vigorous hens if mated to vigorous males and provided with rations sufficiently high in vitamine content should produce high priced market eggs during the winter and good hatching eggs in the spring. Influence of Specific Rations on Animal Growth Leg Weakness in Chickens. — Leg weakness in chickens frequently makes it exceedingly difficult to raise these birds well in con- finement, and a further study of the problem has been made under the direction of Mr. Hart and Mr. Halpin. Though the roughage fac- tor in the diet seems to be an important one, recent results indicate that the factor of primary importance in avoiding this trouble in the rearing of baby chicks under confinement is the provision of an ample supply of the fat-soluble vitamine — or. more accurately, those Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 11 vitamines contained in cod liver oil. With the water-soluble and antiscorbutic (anti-scurvy) vitamine supplied by white corn and skimmed milk, excellent and uniform growth was made by the baby chicks from an initial weight of 40 grams each to a final weight of 800 grams, provided the vitamine complex of cod liver oil was also available in comparatively generous quantities. No leg weakness developed under these conditions. The birds were usually active and vigorous, and pronounced as normal specimens by experienced poultrymen. When the cod liver oil was withheld from the time of hatching, the growth ceased in four to six weeks, fol- lowed in many cases by sudden death. Occasionally the fowls con- (A) (B) FIG. 4.— THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WHOLE AND SKIMMED MILK The larger chick (B) received white corn, wheat, bran, lime, salt and whole milk. It weighed 400 grams at the end of 8 weeks. The other chick (A) received the same ration except that skimmed milk was used in place of whole milk. It weighed 160 grams at the end of 6 weeks and then began to decline. fined to a ration of white corn and skimmed milk grew for a longer period of time, but showed symptoms of nutritional disturbances, such as ruffled feathers, a squatting position, eye trouble, and leg weak- fiess, which in all cases ultimately ended in premature death. From these experiments it appears that the considerable variations ex- perienced in' the rearing of baby chicks on various diets are due to the variation in the vitamine content of the food supply. Blood analyses for inorganic phosphorus seem to show that rickets accompanied by low inorganic phosphorus content of the serum can be induced in this species, and while the term leg weakness may be used to cover a variety of symptoms and disturbances, it seems to b 9 due to a low supply of the vitamine complex of cod liver oil in the 12 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 diet. It appears that it is in this connection that green material serves its extraordinary usefulness in the rearing of baby chicks, and that they can be reared with success under confinement when this factor is supplied from other sources. It is possible that even the introduction into the ration of tomatoes, rich in the three classes of vitamin, es, will be a practical solution of the problem. Rickets in Swine. — Breakdowns in swine under certain conditions have been called rickets or rheumatism and, at other times, the effects of toxic material; but there has never been any very definite investi- gation as to whether these animals are subject to rickets or not. It FIG. 5.— COD-LIVER OIL REVIVES RICKETY HOGS Feeding white corn and skimmed milk brought on rickets in this pig (upper). When 10 c.c. of cod-liver oil were added to the daily ration, the animal recovered (lower). Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 13 has been shown that this condition developed readily from the use of certain grain rations and that it could be prevented by incorporat- ing a fraction of certain roughage material, such as clover or alfalfa hay. Tankage also was used with success in avoiding it, while skim- milk used as a supplement to the grain or grain mixture alone always brought bad results. Why alfalfa saved tl^ese animals from this trouble was a problem. Whether it was the effect of the roughage itself or whether it was due to some specific substance introduced by the alfalfa was not known. Studies so far made by Mr. Hart and H. Steenbock (Agricultural Chemistry) indicate that roughage itself will not save these animals from this trouble. Young growing pigs placed upon a ration of yel- low corn, oil meal, floats, common salt, and paper showed distinct nu- tritional disturbances after three months on th,e ration. When cod liver oil was administered at the rate of 10 c. c. per day, it never failed to correct this nutritional deficiency, showing that probably the trouble was caused by a lack of a supply of antirachitic (anti- rickets) vitamine. It has recently been shown in the study of rickets in children that during the height of the trouble the inorganic phosphorus content of the blood is gr,eatly reduced. Invariably when the swine got into this condition without development of pneumonia, the inorganic phos- phorus content of the blood has been low. Where the condition was complicated by pneumonia, this condition of low phosphorus content of the blood does not seem to occur. It appears also that rickets is likely to be produced in the winter feeding of swine when the ration is one of white corn and skimmed milk, and less likely to occur if the ration is made from yellow corn and skimmed milk, though this lat- ter ration is not the best carrier of the antirachitic vitamine, and some pigs fail to do well on it. A ration made from any of the grains other than yellow corn and supplemented with skimmed milk only will cause trouble, and the mere addition of calcium salts does not act as a preventive, although it may delay the appearance of the disease. The trouble always yields to the feeding of cod liv.er oil even in the advanced stages, but the practical way to avoid it is to use some al- falfa or clover in the ration. Chemistry of the Anti-scurvy (Antiscorbutic) Vitamine. — Work oontinued on the solubilities and fermentability of the antiscorbutic vitamine by Mr. Lepkovsky (Agricultural Chemistry) shows that this substance is soluble in water and alcohol but insoluble in chloroform, ether, ethyl acetate, benzine, and petroleum ether, which indicates that it is not of fat or lipoid character. It has been observed that it t is not present in silage and that it disappears from sauerkraut. From studies made of its destruction by different fermentations, it appears that it is actually destroyed by certain organisms but not by others. The data obtained indicate that it is not a hexose sugar and that it is destroyed by certain types of organisms which are lactic acid form- ers. This explains why this substance disappears from such materials as silage and sauerkraut where such organisms predominate. The 14 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 fact that it is fermentable by certain types of organisms as ferment sugars would indicate that it may belong to the carbohydrates or closely allied substances. Vitamine A in Whole Milk, Skimmed Milk, and Filled Milk. — In or- der to determine the distribution of vitamine A between whole milk and skimmilk. Mr. Steenbock and Miss M. T. Sell (Agricultural Chemistry) have devoted some time to this subject. The results ob- tained in the comparative growth of rats indicate that skimmed milk contained only about 20 to 25 per cent as much of vitamine A as whole milk. These figures vary somewhat from previous results, but they are considered somewhat nearer the truth. The work in this connection was done with baby chicks to de- termine their capacity to grow upon rations low in fat-soluble vita- mine- White corn and skimmed milk, and white corn and whole milk rations were used to bring out the difference between skimmed milk and whole milk in respect to their fat-soluble vitamine content. The chicks receiving the white corn and skimmed milk died in from four to six weeks, while those receiving the white corn and whole milk grew well without exhibiting the leg weakness or cessation of growth. FIG. 6.— FILLED MILK DOES NOT MAKE ANIMALS GROW LIKE WHOLE MILK The rat on the left received a purified ration plus 5 c.c. of whole milk daily and grew well. The one on the right received the same ra- tion plus an equivalent of filled milk. Both are the same age; note the difference in size. Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 15 Trials have also been made to determine the nutritive value of whole milk compared with filled milk, using for the purpose one of the widely advertised brands. These experiments were conducted with rats from the same litter and with the filled milk diluted to the same solid content as normal whole milk. Also, the daily consump- tion of food has been alike in th,e two groups. As shown in Figure 6, the rats receiving the filled milk did not grow nearly so well as those receiving the whole milk. Do Hay Curing Methods Affect Milk Cows? I T HAS BEEN shown in experiments of the past, especially trials conducted by E. B. Forbes at Ohio, that milk cows, especially heavy milkers, are usually in a negative calcium balance where loss of calcium from the body occurs. This was even true when alfal- fa hay was used in the ration. The problem has been further studied under the direction of Mr. Hart; and in the earliest experimental work conducted with three cows placed first upon a ration of grain, silage, dry alfalfa hay, and later upon the same grain ration plus green alfalfa hay, the results were FIG. 7.— CURING HAY UNDER CAPS IMPROVES THE QUALITY Protection from sun and weather preserves the vitamines which are so essential in animal nutrition. then contrary to those made by the previous investigators. A positive calcium balance was obtained on dry alfalfa hay and a more pro- nounced positive calcium balance on green alfalfa hay. This is in harmony with the theory that green material has a more abundant sup- ply of the vitamine assisting in calcium storage. In order to verify the work another trial, modified to some extent, was carried on. Three cows were again used and fed on definite ra- tions as follows : (1) on a silage and grain mixture plus timothy hay; (2) on grain, silage, and dry alfalfa hay; and (3) on grain, silage, timothy hay, and steam bone meal. On all of these rations negative calcium balances were observed, which was in agreement with the work of the earlier investigators and contrary to the results of the previous year. 16 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 In tracing the history of the alfalfa hays used in these two experi- ments, it was found that the one by which a positive calcium balance was established had been cured under caps and not exposed unduly to the weather. The second alfalfa hay used had been cured on the Hil 1 Farm in windrows and exposed to the sun and weather for several days It is tentatively suggested that in this difference of curing lies the cause of the difference obtained in the results of the feeding trials and that the method of curing will determine the content of the vitamine influencing calcium assimilation. Correspondence with Dr. Forbes elicited the fact that part of the alfalfa used in his early experiments was western hay, the curing process of which was unknown, and a part of it was hay produced in southern Ohio where the curing was done in the windrow. It appears from this that the nature of the cur- ing processes of hay may be of considerable importance in determin- ing its intrinsic feeding value from the standpoint of mineral metabol- ism. Of course, further study will be necessary upon the subject to check these results. Mineral Metabolism of Milking Goats. — To determine the influence of certain natural foods upon calcium assimilation, work has been continued by C. A. Hoppert (Agricultural Chemistry) with goats. With grain and straws negative calcium balances were established; and then there were added to the ration various amounts of cabbage, yellow carrots, and the alcoholic extract of alfalfa hay. In this year’s work, as in previous experiments, no influence upon the calcium assimilation was observed by the feeding of a large amount of fresh cabbage or yellow carrots. The animals remained in practically the same negative calcium balance as when these materials were left out of the ration. When the alcoholic extract of alfalfa was fed, however, there was a distinct change which indicated that something had been dissolved out of the alfalfa hay, which, when added to the ration, had a decided influence upon the calcium storage. It is believed that with this work some light may be obtained on the effect of the curing processes of the various roughages on their calcium storage efficiency. Recent Studies in Vitamines Relation of Vitamine A to Rickets. — Following the trials of a year ago, when an eye (ophthalmic) reaction was demonstrated with dogs, which were kept on a ration low in vitamine A, various experiments by Mr. Steenbock and J. H. Jones (Agricultural Chemistry) have been carried out to ascertain the conditions necessary for normal bone development. The criteria upon which conclusions have been based have been the appearance of the animal, the presence or absence of convulsive spasms (tetany), deformation of the chest as shown by the Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 17 thoracic arch formed by the fifth ribs together with sections of ad- herent breastbone (sternum) and vertebra, phosphorus and calcium of the blood, and ash content of the ether-alcohol extracted bones. These criteria have shown that as much as 60 grams of fresh green alfalfa or 42 c. c. of orange juice daily will not prevent rickets in rapidly growing dogs. The antirachitic substance, however, whatever it may be, shows in its resistance to destruction by saponification (soap FIG. 8. — ABNORMAL BONE DEVELOPMENT IS A SYMPTOM OF RICKETS The rachitic bone (a) is an X-ray picture of the left hind leg- of a dog fed on a ration low in fat-soluble vitamine. Note the abnormal joint development. The clean cut healthy bone (b) is an X-ray photograph of the left hind leg of a dog fed .a ration like the one given the other dog, but 5 grains- of cod-liver oil were added. making) a property entirely analagous to vitamine A. This was determined by feeding two dogs twice saponified cod liver oil as a sup plement to a basal ricket-producing diet. Calcification (laying down of lime in the bones) was found to be entirely normal. Of late considerable evidence has been presented that, on diets tending to a deficiency of the antirachitic factor, rickets is induced most rapidly in animals kept in the dark. This has been verified in a trial with four dogs from one litter, two of which were kept in the dark with the result that failure occurred sooner with them than in those kept in the light. While all failed ultimately, lung deformations with attendant abnormal locomotion was first observed in the animahj kept in the dark. In order to demonstrate some of the effects of light on rats. Miss Jean Dow (Agricultural Chemistry), working under Mr. Hart, under- took a special study of this subject. She was able to sensitize rats to sunlight by feeding buckwheat, germinated buckwheat, or green buck wheat straw. When exposed to the light, rats fed buckwheat at first scratch and bite themselves; an abnormal redness of the ears, nose, feet, and tail develops; the eyes become swollen; salivation increases 18 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 to an extreme degree; and sometimes convulsions follow which termi- nate in collapse and death. Animals kept in the dark remained per* fectly normal. The Origin of Vitamine B. Yeast has hitherto been one of the most important sources of vitamine B and the question was raised as to whether it produced this vitamine or merely absorbed it from its nutrient solution. Though scientists do not agree upon the subject, experiments carried out with organisms, such as Bacillus tuberculosis , Azotobacter, and others, have shown that they do not contain any of this vitamine when grown on a vitamine-free medium. Does Diet Influence Concentration of Vitamine B in Milk? There remains no question but that milk is relatively much richer in vitamine A than in vitamne B with respect to the requirements of rats for growth. It has been thought that this might be dependent upon the composition of the ration from which the milk was produced. Experi- ments were undertaken in which the 1 vitamine B content of the cow’s rations was increased many times by feeding large amounts of wheat germ. On feeding the milk so produced at different levels of intake of this material to rats, no change in the vitamine B content was ob- served, which leaves unexplained some of the results obtained by other experimenters. Alcohol and Acetone From Waste Materials T HE PRODUCTION of acetone and alcohol from agricultural waste products by bacterial fermentation has been continued by E. B. Fred (Agricultural Bacteriology) and W. H. Peterson (Agricultural Chemistry). Corncobs, oat hulls, and peanut hulls have been found to yield large quantities of fermentable sugars. From 100 pounds of oat'hulls may be obtained 2 to 3 pounds of acetone, 5 to 6 pounds of alcohol, and 3 pounds of volatile acid. That eventually such waste of agricultural materials, as corncobs and oat hulls will be put to use in the manufacture of these commercial products seems probable. The process used in obtaining these materials is one of hydrolysis with dilute sulphuric acid (H 2 S0 4 ), in which from 25 to 30 per cent of reducing sugars, mainly xylose, are produced from the dry weight of corncobs. The xylose sirup is readily fermented by an/ organism ( Bacillus acetoethylicum ) to produce various products. On this basis 100 pounds of corncobs yield about 2.7 pounds of acetone 6 to 8 pounds of alcohol, and 3.4 pounds of volatile acids. Yellow Versus White Corn for Swine Feeding I T HAS BEEN previously reported that yellow corn has proved de- cidedly superior to white corn for feeding swine not on pasture and fed such supplements as tankage, skimmilk, or linseed meal. This superiority is due to the fact that yellow corn contains consid- erable fat-soluble vitamine, while white corn has little or none. Ex- Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 19 periments on this question have been continued by F. B. Morrison and J. M. Fargo (Animal Husbandry) during the past year. That white corn is an unsafe feed for young pigs in dry lot when fed with skimmilk alone was shown again in a trial conducted last winter. Pigs fed yellow corn and skimmilk gained 1.02 pounds per head daily at a feed cost of only $5.59 for each 100 pounds gain. On white corn and skimmilk one pig died within nine weeks from rickets and another was in such condition that he would have died in a few days. This pig was removed from the experiment and, when given a small amount daily of cod-liver oil, which is exceedingly rich in FIG. 9.— WHITE CORN LACKS FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINE Above. — Pigs fed yellow corn and skimmilk from a weight of 65 lbs. These pigs, fed at the Wisconsin Station, are all thrifty and have made good gains. Below. — Pigs fed white corn and skimmilk. Four of the pigs in this lot died, because of the lack of fat-soluble vitamine in the ration. the fat-soluble vitamine, slowly recovered. At the end of the trial all but four out of the ten pigs in the lot had died or showed the effects of the lack of the vitamine. This trial, together with the experiments previously reported, shows clearly that white corn and skimmilk alone do not make a safe com- bination for young pigs not on pasture. Well-grown pigs weighing 100 pounds or more may come through safely if fed this ration, though white corn and skimmilk alone cannot be recommended even for such pigs. In a trial carried on this last summer with pigs averaging 142 pounds in weight when placed on feed, those fed white corn and skimmilk made the satisfactory daily gain of 1.57 pounds, while those fed yellow corn and skimmilk gained 1.65 pounds. The pigs fed white corn and skimmilk required slightly more feed for 100 pounds gain than those fed yellow corn and skimmilk, but the difference was not marked. These pigs had been raised on excellent rations and had been on good pasture before the experiment started. Under sucl| 20 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 conditions their livers. and certain other organs undoubtedly had a considerable store of the fat-soluble vitamine at the beginning of the trial. This store carried them through safely to a weight of 250 pounds even on the ration of white corn and skimmilk. How Can We Feed White Corn to Young Pigs in Winter? This question naturally arises in the minds of all who are raising white corn, and many farmers prefer some varieties of white corn to all others. To answer this problem a series of trials is being carried on. In the experiment conducted last winter, young pigs made excellent gains when only 5 per cent of chopped alfalfa was added to the un- satisfactory ration of white corn and skimmilk. This combination was tested out because good legume hay is especially rich in the fat- soluble vitamine, and it therefore appeared probable that a small FIG. 10.— LEGUME HAY MAKES GOOD THE DEFICIENCY OF WHITE CORN Above. — Pigs fed mixture of 95 per cent yellow corn and 5 per cent alfalfa hay with skimmilk. Average daily gain, 1.1 lbs. Below. — Pigs fed mixture of 95 per cent white corn and 5 per cent alfalfa hay with skimmilk. This small amount of alfalfa hay has saved the pigs from disaster. All are- thrifty and have made as good gains as those fed yellow corn. amount of alfalfa hay might save the pigs. A larger proportion of hay was not used because the digestive tracts of young pigs are not well suited to handle such hays or other dry roughage. This small amount of chopped alfalfa prevented any trouble from rickets or paralysis and the pigs were all thrifty. The alfalfa was chopped by running it through a silage cutter equipped with an alfalfa screen. Hay can be chopped sufficiently fine for all purposes at small expense on the farm by this method, and there is no necessity for buying alfalfa meal. Quite probably chopped clover or soybean hay would serve the same purpose as chopped alfalfa. If one does not Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 21 have a suitable cutter, he can scrape up the leaves and chaff from the floor where the legume hay is pitched down from the mow and mix this with the corn and skimmilk or other feeds to form a slop, thus forcing the pigs to eat the hay. Brood sows will commonly eat plenty of alfalfa hay of good quality if it is fed uncut in a suitable rack where they have access to it at all times. Usually they do not like clover hay nearly so well as alfalfa. Young pigs will not eat much long alfalfa from a rack and often will not take enough to provide themselves with a sufficiency of the fat-soluble vitamine. Efficient Rations for Fall Pigs I N ALL the northern states an exceedingly important problem is to find rations which will make fall pigs grow approximately as well as spring pigs when fed properly balanced rations on good pasture. A few years ago animal husbandmen thought that a ration of corn and tankage was well-nigh ideal for growing and fattening pigs, but experiments by Messrs. Morrison and Fargo, as well as trials at other stations, have clearly shown that pigs fed in the dry lot on only corn and tankage will often become unthrifty, even though the corn is yellow corn. Just what the deficiency in this ration is we ‘do not yet know. It may be there is some lack of vitamines, or the proteins may not be the most efficient, or there may be a de- ficiency in mineral matter. Whatever the difficulty is, it seems to be largely overcome by adding a very small amount of alfalfa. Even better results have been secured where both alfalfa hay and linseed meal have been added to the corn and tankage for pigs not on pasture. In three different trials during the past year pigs fed yellow corn and tankage have gained .95 pounds a head daily on the average while those receiving linseed meal and alfalfa in addi- tion have gained 1.21 pounds. With feeds at present prices the cost of 100 pounds gain was but $5.91 for the pigs fed the efficient com- bination of corn, tankage, linseed meal, and alfalfa, while it was $6.37 for those fed only corn and tankage. At first it may appear that this difference in rate and cost* of gains is not . very great, but sometimes it is enough to make the difference between profit and loss. This ration has proved the best of any thus far used for feeding fall pigs where there are no dairy by-products available. This ration may be fed by either of the following two methods: (1) Self-feed the corn separately in one compartment of a self- feeder. In another compartment of the self-feeder feed a mixture of 50 pounds tankage, 25 pounds linseed meal, and 25 pounds chopped alfalfa. The pigs will take about enough of this protein-rich mixture to balance their ration. (2) Self-feed or hand-feed a mixture of all four feeds in the proper proportions to make a well-balanced ration for pigs of the particular age you are feeding. This method apparently produces somewhat the most rapid gains, but it necessitates grinding the corn. 22 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 Home-Grown Rations for Milk Production I T IS A MATTER of much practical importance to determine whether dairymen can provide a simple, cheap, home-grown ra- tion which will maintain high production. If just as good results could be secured from such a home-grown ration as from one con- taining a considerable amount of high-priced purchased concentrates, farmers could often greatly increase their profits. Without question, the main source of protein in an economical home-grown ration must be a legume hay, usually clover or alfalfa. The results of metabolism trials by the Agricultural Chemistry De- partment have been previously reported in which it was found that, on rations of alfalfa hay, corn silage, and corn or barley, good dairy cows could be kept in positive nitrogen balance; i. e., without losing nitrogen from their bodies. When clover hay was fed in place of alfalfa, the cows lost nitrogen and their milk yi,eld fell rapidly. This was because clover hay did not furnish sufficient protein to meet the needs of the cows for nitrogen nutrients. To study further the effect of a home-grown ration in which alfalfa hay was the chief source of protein, Messrs. Morrison, Hulce and Humphrey have carried on feeding trials during the past two winters. In each trial a ration of alfalfa hay, corn silage, and a concentrate mixture of corn and oats was compared with a ration made up of the same feeds plus linseed and cottonseed meal. In the first ex- periment each group of cows was continued on the same ration through- out the entire winter period. This was done as it seemed possible that the home-grown ration might maintain a high production for a brief period, but that the amount of protein in the ration might be too low to keep up the production throughout the winter. In the second trial the double reversal method was used so as to elim- \ inate the effects of the individuality of the cows. In each trial the home-grown ration containing no purchased con- centrates maintained the yield of milk and of butter fat as well as the ration to which linseed meal and cottonseed meal had been added. These trials, together with the results of the previous meta- bolism experiments, show that, when cows have plenty of choice alfalfa hay, there is no need of purchasing expensive protein-rich concentrates to keep up good production. This is due to the fact that alfalfa hay is sufficiently rich in protein to balance the ration. In these trials the nutritive ratio of the home-grown, alfalfa-hay ration was 1:6.8 to 1:7.1. For cows forced to maximum production on official test, it is undoubtedly desirable to increase the amount of protein in the ration by the use of protein-rich concentrates, even when plenty of choice alfalfa hay is available. With such animals the object sought is the largest possible yield of milk without much regard for the economy of production. Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 23 Feeding Trials With Beef Cattle Baby Beef Production. — A fourth trial in the feeding and finish- ing of well bred beef calves for baby beef was conducted during the past year by J. G. Fuller (Animal Husbandry). Thirteen calves, ranging in age from 9 to 12 months and weighing from 600 to 650 pounds at the start, were fed in two lots for 140 days. When *fed an average ration of 1.8 pounds of cracked corn, 2.6 pounds of crushed oats, 1.9 pounds of bran, .68 pound oil meal, 14.1 pounds corn silage, and 3 pounds of mixed hay per day, the six heifers in Lot I made an average daily gain of 1.6 pounds. The return for the lot was $27.87 over the cost of feed. Seven steers which were fed a fattening ration of 7.1 pounds cracked corn, 1.3 pounds oil meal, 14.7 pounds corn silage, and 3 pounds of mixed hay made an average daily gain of FIG. 11. — BABY BEEVES THAT MADE A PROFIT This lot of seven steers, fed an average ration of 7.1 pounds cracked corn, 1.3 pounds oil meal, 14.7 pounds corn silage, and 3.0 pounds mixed hay, made a return of $62.85 over feed cost. 1.8 pounds; and the lot made a return of $62.85 over the feed cost. As in trials previously conducted, these experiments showed that under favorable feeding conditions young cattle will return a fair profit. From the results obtained in experimental work with baby beef extending over a period of four years in which seven different lots fed on different rations were used, it seems probable that the production of baby beef can be followed with profit in southern Wis- consin during ordinary times. Sunflowers Versus Corn Silage for Fattening Steers.— In the past year a feeding trial was also conducted to determine the value of sun- 24 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 flower silage as compared with corn silage for fattening a medium grade of two-year-old feeder steers. Two lots of ten animals each were equally divided, and the trial covered a period of 154 days. The first lot was fed an average daily ration of 8.6 pounds of broken ear corn, 1.5 pounds cottonseed meal, 24 pounds of corn silage, and 3.1 pounds of mixed hay. The second lot was fed in exactly the same manner except that sunflower silage in equal quantity was substituted for the corn silage. At the beginning of the trial the average weight of the animals was 677 pounds, and at the close those in the lot re- ceiving corn silage in the ration weighed 1001 pounds, and those in the lot receiving sunflower silage averaged 1004 pounds. The average daily gain for the first lot was 2.10 pounds and for the second lot 2.12. Hogs following these animals returned a pork profit per steer in Lot I of $5.70, and in Lot II $3.71, which becomes a large factor in the total profit made in these lots. When both lots were sold at the close of the trial at $8 per hundred weight, the profit per steer over the cost of feed for Lot I was $11.32 and for Lot II, $9.22. From these returns it is calculated that sunflower silage was worth 78 per cent as much as corn silage for fattening two-ycar-old steers in this particular trial. Feeding Trials With Draft Foals NDER ECONOMIC conditions, such as obtain in agriculture to- day, it seems rather surprising that good draft horses command the prices which are still paid for them. The value of the draft horse is, of course, largely determined by individual excellence. If the farmer raises horses at all, it will certainly pay him to raise only the best. Proper feeding is one of the primary factors involved in the mak- ing of a good draft horse out of a high-class foal. In order to deter- mine what rations are best suited for the proper development of the size and weight which is essential in these animals for ideal draft conformation, Mr. Fuller conducted some feeding trials on this subject. A lot of seven purebred draft foals was fed for 182 days during the winter of 1921-1922 on an average daily ration of 11.4 pounds of concentrates and 6.4 pounds of alfalfa hay. The grain mixture con- sisted of 90 pounds of crushed oats and 10 pounds of wheat bran. The foals made an average daily gain of 1.9 pounds and averaged 1141.4 pounds in weight at an average age of 377 days. The result of this work checked very closely with the trials of previous years, and it appears safe to conclude that by proper care and liberal feed- ing, good draft foals can easily be made to weigh 1,000 pounds at one year of age. Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 25 New Index Shows Quality of Animal Body NIMALS of apparently the same size and type often differ con- siderably in weight. The age factor and the manner of growth, the relative proportion of bone, muscle and fat all bear im- portant relations to the type of animal body; and very frequently the difference between types is not readily detected by the eye. There has long been a need for some single index which describes with reasonable accuracy the type of animal. Especially in experi- mental work and breeding and feeding trials, weight measurements alone are unsatisfactory. C. R. Yapp, working in the Department of Genetics under L. J. Cole, has devised such an index which, under certain conditions at least, serves as a satisfactory description of type. This index is based on the proportion any animal would fill of a rectangular solid determined by the animal’s major dimensions. The weight must be translated into volume, and the specific gravity of the animal also enters into the process. The specific gravity was deter- mined directly by experiment with animals in the genetics herd. The formula worked out for this work is as follows: ( Wh€re I=the dimension-weight index; H=height at withers; L— length (horizontal distance between pinbone and point of shoulder) ; W=weight of animal in pounds; and 475.8=constant for the volume per pound of the animal. The application of this index to the growing cattle in the experi- mental herd, which have been measured and weighed at regular in- tervals during their lives, showed a gradual change in body type from birth to maturity. The average index value of calves one week old was found to be 7.9, and for animals at the age of 22 months, when they were approaching maturity, it was 4.7. The decrease in the index value was fairly regular and consistent, which indicates the gradual change of type as animals grow from birth to maturity. In other words, the results of these experiments show T that a calf one week of age occupies only 12.6 per cent of the volume of a rectangular solid determined by its height and length and that at the age of 22 months the animal occupied 21.2 per cent of the volume of a solid obtained in a similar way. It is believed that this index will be of considerable value in genetics as well as in different phases of animal husbandry work, such as teaching and experimentation. Inactive Ovaries Cause of Male Plumage in Hens E VER SINCE days of the Middle Ages there have b en on record occasional cases of so-called egg-laying roosters. It was the usual custom in former times to explain phenomena of this sort by means of witchcraft, sorcery, or some other phase of the super natural. One case is on record where back in the fifteenth century H2 x L I— W x 475.8 26 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 a so-called egg-laying rooster was brought to trial with due solemnity, found to be a sorcerer, and condemned to be burned at the stake. Early in the spring of 1922, Mr. Halpin received a bird closely re- sembling a Brown Leghorn cock in plumage, but reputed to lay eggs The case was studied by the department of Genetics in cooperation with D. H. Reid of Poultry Husbandry. Previous investigations of L. J. Cole (Genetics) and W. A. Lippincott have shown that, when the PIG. 12.— THE ROOSTER HEN AND SOME OF THE EGGS This hen with cock plumage grew a new crop of normal hen feath- ers when she molted after her ovaries became active. ovary of a hen becomes inactive through disease or otherwise so that it no longer supplies certain specific characteristics to the blood, the bird will, if she molts under those conditions, assume a characterstic male plumage. If active ovarian tissue is then introduced and a molt induced, the incoming feathers, developing under the influence of the ovarian secretions, will be hen feathers. After a study of the case, it was decided that the ovaries of this hen had temporarily ceased to produce their usual secretion. As a molt had occurred during that time, the bird assumed clearly a male plumage. When subsequently the ovary resumed normal activity, egg production resulted; but there having been no molt during that time, the hen still wore her characteristic male feathers. When later Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 27 some of the feathers of this bird were artificially removed, new normal hen feathers grew in their place; and when a complete molt was un- dergone, the hen assumed a complete covering of normal female plumage. Inheritance of Milk and Meat Production in Cattle D EFINITELY planned experimental work for the purpose of find- ing how milk and meat characteristics of cattle are transmit- ted was begun by L. J. Cole (Genetics) in 1912. In order to support adequately any theory which may be formulated about the transmission of animal characteristics by inheritance, the number of individual animals involved and the number of generations observed must be relatively large. In the earlier stages of the work an Aber- deen-Angus bull was crossed with Jersey cows, and a Jersey bull with Angus cows. The result of these crosses was that the first generation of crossbreeds were all black polled like the Angus, but in most other respects were to a degree intermediate between the two, and there was a great deal of individual variation. The second generation offspring, produced by breeding the crossbreeds to one another, showed an even greater variation in type, especially in the matter of color and horns. These characteristics were inherited in definite Mendelian fashion, approximately three fourths of the second generation offspring being polled and one fourth having well developed horns. Pursuant to the work conducted with the Jersey cattle, it was con- cluded that more definite information could be obtained by crossing Holsteins with Aberdeen-Angus in a fashion similar to that of the previous work for the reason that these two breeds exhibited greater differences in type than the ones formerly used. With this greater difference in type it was thought that the matter of tracing the courses of the various characteristics through successive generations would be less difficult. Accordingly in 1917-1918 work was begun in crossing Holstein and Angus. The results obtained in this work so far show the dominance of the black color, which is not unlike that of the pre- vious experiment. The crossbred Holstein-Angus cattle were all black except for small areas of white, usually a small spot on the fore- head, a little on the underline, and occasionally a little on the feet. The polled condition of the Angus is dominant over the horns as in tho case of the previous work. The Holstein-Angus cross-breeds are strong, quick-growing, relatively meaty animals; and it seems that, if calves were used for vealing pur- poses only or fed to an early beef age, something might be gained by breeding a herd of ordinary grade Holstein cows to an Angus rather than to a Holstein bull. Such cross breeding, however, cannot be advised if the calves are to be retained for breeding purposes. The milking qualities of such crossbred heifers will be determined as the experi- mental work progresses. 28 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 Breeding Improves Strains of Sweet Corn T HE WORK of breeding improved varieties of sweet corn for the canning industry in Wisconsin has been continued by E. W. Lindstrom (Genetics) and E. D. Holden (Agronomy). Over 200 rows of inbred pedigreed grain, field selections, and first and second generation crosses of the common sweet corn varieties were grown. Several of the inbred strains of Evergreen sweet corn have stood up re- markably well and will be used for future selection. In the process of inbreeding many of the poor characteristics have been eliminated from strains, though their vigor and yield have been maintained. Of the Crosby sweet corn two distinct strains were isolated, one like the well-known Crosby, the other a variation of the 16-rowed type. From the Golden Bantam sweet corn an excellent strain has been ob tained which proved to be unusually early and combined with vigor and high yield. Some promising material was also obtained from second generation crosses of hybrids produced from crosses between the various sweet corn varieties. When a crossbred corn produced FIG. 13.— A FEW EARS OF INBRED GOLDEN BANTAM SWEET CORN The defective kernels shown in the picture were brought to light by inbreeding- this well-known strain. from Golden Bantam and Evergreen and another produced from Golden Bantam and Crosby were again crossed, ears were isolated in which the yellow color of the Golden Bantam parents had been com- bined with the 12 and 16-rowed condition of the other parent. It is hoped that with a continuation of this work the fine quality of the Golden Bantam corn can be successfully combined with types of higher yield and better vigor than this strain now possesses. Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 29 The Effect of Inbreeding on the Kernel. Much emphasis was placed this year on the effect of inbreeding on kernel characteristics, and by this method several new types of hereditary defective kernels were isolated as shown in the photograph. These ears of the Golden Ban tarn variety came as a result of inbreeding a good commercial variety for three years. The original variety showed less than 1 per cent of poor kernels, while two-thirds of the ears of this strain showed de- fective kernels to the extent of 25 per cent on each ear after in breeding. Though these defective kernels will not germinate well the defects would never be eliminated by ordinary selection, which illustrates how poor characteristics may tend to remain in a common variety of corn and appear when close selection is practised. Other types of hereditary abnormal kernels were found in flint, dent, and sweet corn; and there is probably a surprising amount of such abnormality in good varieties of corn. By careful attention much permanent improvement is still possible. Breeding Jimson Weed for Higher Atropine Content HE FIFTH year’s crop of self-pollinated selections for high and low alkaloid content of the Jimson weed (Datura stram- onium) was grown during the past season. The work served a two-fold purpose: it served as a study in inheritance in plants, and at the same time there are being isolated strains of the plants which are uniformly high in atropine content. (Atropine is an organic com- pound extensively used in medicine.) The first generation of hybrids of the high and low testing strains was grown in cooperation with the Department of Pharmacy, and duplicate plantings of last year’s selections were made also. The analysis of these crops showed that high and low selection lines re- mained separate so far as the production of the alkaloid was con- cerned. Practically no work has been done to improve the qualities of plants grown for medicinal purposes. If this work proves successful, it opens up a new field for extensive experimentation in connection with the Pharmaceutical Experiment Station. T HE GROWTH of more alfalfa is ope of the ways in which Wis- consin farmers will find relief from the economic depression or after effects of the war. During the past two years some crops have been so low in price that after deducting the cost of pro- duction, the balance has often been on the wrong side of the ledger, All during this time alfalfa hay has been purchased by Wisconsin farmers at prices ranging from $20 to $27.50 a ton. With high market values and the possibility of producing yields of three tons or more Alfalfa, Wisconsin’s Best Hay Crop 30 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 an acre, the financial advantages of alfalfa have appealed to manv farmers who have begun growing this remarkable crop. This situation has resulted in a tremendous demand for informa- tion about successful alfalfa growing under the varied soil and climatic conditions in Wisconsin. Several years of .extensive inves- tigations at the Wisconsin Station made by L. P. Graber (Agronomy) and numerous cooperative trials out in the state with the members of the Alfalfa Order have demonstrated that an abundance of lime in the soil, inoculation, good surface and und,er-drainage, a reasonable de- gree of fertility, a firm, well prepared seed bed and the use of early ripening or early removed nurse crops are the main essentials for Alfalfa in the Sandy Sections.— Application of these principles to the growing of alfalfa has resulted in success on some of the light sand areas in the central part of Wisconsin. Experienced growers declare alfalfa a surer crop on a properly treated sandy soil than red clover because of the deeper rooting and greater drought resistance With the opportunity to produce from two to four tons of alfalfa hay an acre on the light soils, the sand farmer is finding his way to ^^NCREASE^^WE^DS^^i^^I) STAND> reSVaMgK Trim 4 to® Th°i alfa J f f a ' cut whenever it exhausted the root reserves and ^ermUtP,?^ e * and four Sting's yearly The alfalfa cut in the blS?& Weed encroachments. growth and yielded in two cutUnis Ts^on^ of weed-free healthy with a total of only l.i ton/for ?f e S /our^eVea^f/ cmtfnga compared Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 31 profits which heretofore hav.e not been realized and at the same time he is building up his soil to a higher plane of fertility which will make all other crops yield a greater profit per acre. Splendid success has been obtaii^ed with alfalfa on the sandy soils at the Hancock Branch Station, and on a measured acre at the Spooner Branch Sta- tion the average yield for four years has been over three tons per acr,e in two cuttings. On an old worn-out sandy soil in Green Lake County a stand of alfalfa was started five years ago by means of lime, FIG. 15.— HEAVY ALFALFA ON LIGHT SAND This alfalfa field near Plainfield, Wisconsin, yielded three tons of hay an acre and is an excellent example of what lime, inoculation, and manure will do on sandy land to make alfalfa doubly sure. fertilizer, and inoculation, and has since produced continuously from two to three crops annually with a total yield of not less than three tons to the acre. At the tim,e the alfalfa was sown, the average yield of rye on this field was from nine to eleven bushels per acre. New Discoveries For Alfalfa Growers. — While the problems of get- ting alfalfa well started have required the greatest attention in the past, the maintenance of stand and yields in reference to the proper cutting stage appears to be of surprisingly great importance. During the past summer inquiries have come from farmers in various parts of the state in regard to the yellowing and short growth of the second crop of alfalfa on soils that formerly produced good, healthy alfalfa in abundance. Cutting trials conducted on the Experiment Station Farm by Messrs. Kraus (Applied Botany), Graber and N. T. Nelson (Agronomy) have given a satisfactory explanation. Sev,en plots of one-year-old Grimm alfalfa were cut when partly in bloom on June 20, 1922, and an average yield of 1.0 ton per acr.e was obtained. Four days later five other plots of the same alfalfa were 32 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 cut with a yield of 1.3 tons per acre. Th,e early cut crop seemed to do well for a time, but after about thirty days the leaves began to turn yellow, while the plots which were cut later continued to pro- duce a h,ealthy dark green growth. The second crop on all of these plots was cut on August 19, at which time the early cut alfalfa was only 8 inches high, decidedly yellow, and yielded only .35 tons an acre, while the later cut alfalfa reached a height of 13 inches and produced twice as much hay. Like results were obtained in three other trials of a similar character. The alfalfa used in these experiments was sown on June 14, 1921, and cut three times during the month of August that year in order to check we,ed growth. It is probable that this frequent cutting to- gether with the unfavorable winter weather which followed so weak- ened the plots of hardy alfalfa as to make them unusually sensitive to the cutting treatment. While in all probability the four days’ differ- ence in time between the cuttings of alfalfa two or more years of age would not produce such striking differences in yield, in trials at West Bend practically the sam,e results were produced in two and three- EARLY AND FREQUENT CUTTINGS CUT AT FULL BLOOM STAGE FIG. 16.— CUTTING FIRST CROP EARLY CAUSES “YELLOWING” OF SECOND GROWTH Especially with new seedings and following hard winters alfalfa is sensitive to early cutting treatments. The later cut hay may be some- what inferior in quality but to maintain yields, health, vigor, freedom from weeds, and permanence of stand require later cutting treatment than has been previously recognized. The yields of weed-free hay for the second crop here shown were reduced 50 per cent on account of early cutting. Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 33 year old alfalfa fields by allowing a difference of eight days in the cutting of the first crop. Too Frequent Cutting Kills Alfalfa. — Trials were conducted with Grimm and Turkestan alfalfa where parts of these two-year-old plots were cut twice during the season at the full bloom stage, while other portions were cut three times at the early bud stage, and still other portions were cut four times at a much earlier period when the plants were from 4 to 8 inches high. The last cutting for all of these plots was made on August 21, 1922. The results showed that the four-cutting treatment gave a yield of only 1.1 tons of hay per acre and practically eliminated the stand of alfalfa. After the first two crops had been removed, the plants rapidly lost vigor, turned yellow, grew very slowly, and became very weedy. Those plots cut twice in the full bloom stage maintained a thrifty, weed-free growth, and yielded 4.3 tons of hay per acre, while the three early bud cuttings reduced the vigor, thinned the stand, and gave a hay yield of only 3.0 tons an acre. Two Crops Yield More Than Three. — The injurious effects of fre- quent cutting at very early stages, are beginning to appear on the station farm in the cutting trials which are being made at the three practical cutting stages; namely, the bud, “tenth”, and full bloom stages. Two year trials indicate quite clearly the wisdom of adopting a two-crop system in the management of alfalfa fields. This year two crops in the full bloom stage yielded 3.5 tons of weed-free hay an acre compared with an average of 1.9 tons of hay from three crops cut in the bud and “tenth bloom” stages. Following the hard winter of 1921-22 the full bloom plots comprising the three varieties — Grimm, Common, and Turkestan, have yielded 1.6 tons more hay an acre than has been obtained with three cuttings of these varieties at earlier stages. Further yields are indicated in the following table: CUTTING TRIALS With Grimm, Turkestan and Common Alfalfa (1921-1922) Stage of cutting No. of cuts Average yields of cured weed- free hay an acre 1921 1922 Average Bud stage 3 3.1 tons ' 1.8 tons 2.5 tons Tenth bloom _ 3 4.4 “ 2.0 - 3.2 “ Pull bloom 2 4.4 “ 3.5 “ 4.0 “ The weakening effect of cutting alfalfa in the early stages shows itself in a natural decrease of the vigor of the plant and at the same time makes the crop more susceptible to winter injury when hard winters occur. These two factors seem to explain the rather para- doxical situation where two crops a season produce a greater ton- nage than three. 34 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 Two Crops System Fits Wisconsin Farming. — Two of the great objections which have long been urged against the growth of alfalfa have been the competition which the harvesting of the first crop early in June occasions with the early cultivation of the corn crop during this critical period. It has also been claimed with much jus- tice that the cutting of the first crop early in June has caused great difficulty in the curing process on account of the abundant rains and the natural succulence of the hay. Cutting alfalfa in the full bloom FIG. 17. — MORE HAY FROM TWO CROPS CUT IN FULL BLOOM THAN FROM THREE CUT EARLIER There are about three weeks between the bud and full bloom stages during which alfalfa may more than double its weight in dry matter. The picture shows the yield of the first crop from equal parts of Grimm alfalfa. When cut in the bud stage, the plot yielded 1.2 tons per acre: in the tenth bloom 1.8 tons; and in full bloom the yield increased to 2.9 tons. Total yield of season for two and three cuttings are shown. stage obviates these difficulties. It delays the alfalfa harvest until about the last week in June at which time the weather is very often more favorable and the hay more easily cured. It is true that alfalfa hay cut in the full bloom stage is of a coarser quality than that obtained from earlier cuttings and where soils pro- duce an exceedingly rank growth of alfalfa and lodging occurs, it may be necessary to cut the first crop somewhat earlier in order to secure good hay. But because of the fact that the succeeding growths are usually much finer, they can often be cut in the full bloom stage. The first crop of one year old seedings of alfalfa is often very fine stemmed and can be cut at the full bloom stage without serious re- duction in the quality of the hay and with considerable increase in the yields of the following cuttings. It is believed that where the alfalfa growth is very luxuriant on account of exceptionally favor- able soil and climatic conditions, the plant does not appear so sen- sitive to early cutting as indicated in the previously described experi- ments. Generally speaking, alfalfa should be cut as near the full bloom stage as possible without getting the hay too coarse. Cutting Off Young Crown Shoots Not Injurious. — For many years the warning has been sounded as to the danger of cutting alfalfa when the new crown shoots had reached a height where they would Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 35 be clipped by the mowing machine. It has been observed that, when alfalfa is allowed to reach the seed pod stage, many of these new shoots are 6 inches in height. Plots in the pod stage cut twice an- nually for the past two years showed no injury to the stand or vigor of the plants. These plots are now among the very best in stand and freedom from weeds. This work justifies a change in statement as to the supposed injury from the cutting of crown shoots. Root Reserves Produce Frame Work. — In the proper functioning of the alfalfa plant the crown and roots develop certain food re- FIG. 18. — ALFALFA SHOOTS ARE HARDIER THAN THE CROWN OR ROOT In many instances shoots that produced healthy leaves were found to originate from crowns which had completely winterkilled and de- cayed. As these crowns dried the source of food for the shoots was cut off and they gradually passed away. (a) Healthy shoots from winterkilled and decayed crown. (b) Healthy part of root. (c) Winterkilled and decayed root. 36 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 serves which are stored up in these structures. If frost, drought, or cutting injures the old leaf structure, new shoots start to de- velop. These root reserves are used in the production of the frame work of the plant. When the blossom stage is reached, the old vegetation growth gradually ceases. The plant, through its leaves and stems, manufactures food materials not only to form the seed but also to replenish the root reserves which have been used in the growing process. It is obvious that, when alfalfa is cut very early and frequently, there will follow a gradual exhaustion of these root reserves, which may cause a marked reduction in the ability of the plant to recover. This results in a stunted growth, yellowing, and may cause subse- quent death. Apparently this is what occurred in the plots where frequent and early cuttings were tried. On the other hand, where the plants are allowed to reach the full bloom or seed pod stage, the root reserves are replenished, thereby giving great strength and vigor to produce increased yields and to eliminate yellowing and weed encroachment. Scarify Alfalfa Seed Shortly Before Planting T HAT scarification is an effective means of increasing immediate germination of hard alfalfa and sweet clover seed has been repeatedly demonstrated. Samples of Grimm alfalfa giving a germination of 70 per cent and containing about 25 per cent of hard seed have been scarified and the viability increased to 90 per cent or higher. This process of scratching the hard surface coat of the seed so that it may germinate more readily is accomplished by forcing the seed by means of an air blast through a sandpaper lined tube, which removes particles of the outer seed coat. FIG. 19.— SCARIFIED SEED SHOULD BE SOWN WITHIN A YEAR Both scarified and unscarified alfalfa seed were stored for three years in a cool dry basement. At the end of this period the untreated seed (1), which originally germinated 85 per cent, gave a test of 70 per cent. The scarified seed (2) with an original germination of 89 per cent dropped to 32 per cent. Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 37 While the effect of this process is to increase the immediate ger- minating power of the seed, recent experiments conducted by Mr. Graber show that this process has a very pronounced and detri- mental .effect upon the keeping quality of the seed. Scarified and unscarified seed of four lots stored in a cool dry basement for two and three years showed an average loss of 54 per cent in germination at the end of these periods while unscarified samples of the same seed stored under the same conditions maintained their original viability- From a practical standpoint scarification is often used extensively for the improvement of the immediate germination of legume seeds, but where such seed is to be stored for more than one year, as some- times is done in the seed industry and frequently in experimental work, the wisdom of delaying this treatment until a few months be- fore seeding becomes very apparent. Lack of Snow Causes Heavy Alfalfa Losses I NDICATIONS are that about 25 per cent of Wisconsin’s alfalfa was lost last year through winter killing. The southern counties, where about 75 per cent of the state’s alfalfa acreage is located, were practically devoid of snow. Periods of unusually low temper- ature and an ice sheet of unusual thickness and duration formed in February 1922, which caused the destruction of many thousands of acres of alfalfa of all varieties; in some cases even the hardiest strains were lost. The northern three-fourths of the state, where there was an abundance of snow, suffered practically no losses from winterkilling. The winter of 1920-21 also was characterized by a relatively light snowfall, but the alfalfa crops came through in splen- did shape for the reason that they were not .exposed to frequent low temperatures, smothering sheets of ice, or heavy fall and winter rains. According to Mr. Graber, heavy fall rains in 1921 stimulated a succulent late autumn growth which in some varieties did not permit of the development of that protective dormant condition which is now believed to be so essential in the winter maintenance of alfalfa. An excess of soil moisture tends to increase the in- tensity of injury from alternate freezing and thawing. Furthermore, the favorable fall growing weather resulted in a great deal of late cut- S ting in September 1921; some fourth crops of alfalfa were even re- moved early in October, a dangerous practice in Wisconsin. Low Temperatures Injure Alfalfa.— Tests conducted by Mr. Graber and Mr. Nelson with alfalfa plants from four to sixteen months old of the Grimm, Turkestan, and common varieties in greenhouses gave significant results when exposed to low temper- atures ( — 4°F.) twice in December and three times in January. The common variety was winterkilled to a much greater extent than were the Grimm or Turkestan; and when exposed to low temperatures, the younger plants seemed to suffer less than the older ones. In these 38 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 trials 84 per cent of the common plants were killed while only 18 per cent of the Grimm were lost. When the injury of an ice sheet of a month’s duration was added to that of low temperatures, the winterkilling of all strains was very severe — reaching 100 per cent in the case of common alfalfa and over 82 per cent with the hardy Grimm variety. From these data it is evident that the frequent low temperatures may have winterkilled many bar,e fields of common alfalfa before the ice sheets occurred the latter part of February 1922. Heavy Fall Rains Help Winterkilling. — Heavy rains in September, October, and November, 1921, compared with the light rains for the same months of the previous year seem to have had a distinct bearing on the winter injury of alfalfa during the past year. It is apparent that the accumulation of excess moisture in the soil augments the injury from low temperatures, alternate freezing and thawing, and heaving. In both experimental and field tests it has been noted that the winter injury was decidedly less on the high land where the surplus moisture could readily drain away than it was on the flat areas where the soil moisture accumulated. The theory is held that heavy fall rains and favorable growing weather tend to prevent the alfalfa from becoming dormant, in which state it is apparently less susceptible to winter in- jury, especially the weaker strains of common alfalfa. The hardier varieties, such as the Grimm, Baltic, etc., have a tendency to develop this state of dormancy regardless of weather and growing conditions. Late Fall Cutting Injurious. — Three or four cuttings of the crop are often made in Wisconsin. When conditions are favorable, the plants may survive in spite of late fall cutting, but under adverse conditions — and one never knows when these conditions will set in — serious damage may result. In one trial late fall cropping increased the winterkilling of hardy Grimm alfalfa from 7 to 32 per cent and of common from 65 to 98 per cent. In another trial where three crops of common were cut in the full bloom stage 95 per cent winter- killing occurred compared to only 24 per cent winterkilling where only two crops of the common were removed. In this same test the removal of the third growth of Grimm in the full bloom stage in- creased the winterkilling from 8 to 24 per cent. Late fall cutting not only increases the percentage of winterkilling but previous experiments have shown that it reduces the vigor of the following season’s growth. New Seedings Lessen Winterkilling Losses. — The age factor of al- falfa is an important one in reference to the winterkilling problem. Numerous tests of the station have shown that new seedings of al- falfa are much hardier than old stands. In this year’s trials eight year old Grimm winterkilled seriously while adjacent plots of two year old Grimm, receiving the same cutting treatment, came through with very slight injury. The superior hardiness of the younger alfalfa offers a partial solution to the winterkilling difficulty. If the soil con- Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 39 ditions on the farm can be made sufficiently favorable so that alfalfa may be included in a four, fiv,e, or six year rotation, new seedings will be started every year or so and a total loss of the alfalfa acreage on the farm is not apt to obtain, particularly if the seed of hardy strains is used. In Jefferson, Waukesha and Green Counties, tremen- dous winterkilling losses occurred and to a considerable extent they have been due to a lack of new seedings. From 1918-21 inclusive, the FIG. 20— NEW SEEDINGS OF ALFALFA AVOID WINTERKILLING LOSSES A good stand of four-year-old Grimm winterkilled because of late cut- ting and the severe winter of 1921-22. A heavy growth of timothy and blue grass followed. Adjacent was a new seeding of Grimm which came through the winter with practically no injury. New seedings of alfalfa are much hardier than old. The inclusion of alfalfa in a regular rotation so that some new seedings will be established every one or two years reduces winterkilling losses. old stands produced such abundant yields of hay that the necessity of new seedings was not felt. Where dependence is placed on old stands of alfalfa for the next season’s crop, disappointment is very apt to be experienced when hard winters occur. Location of Winter Injury in Alfalfa Plants. — An examination of several fields of alfalfa which looked quite promising in the month of April showed that they gradually dried up and died out as warm weather followed. What appeared to be a fairly healthy growth and good stand in the early spring vanished almost completely. An exam- ination of 1600 plants from five to eight years old was made by Messrs. Graber and Nelson to determine the fundamental cause of this phenom- enon. Three hundred and thirty-four of these plants had live green crown sprouts at the time the examination was made- The roots were all healthy and firm, but 34 per cent of the crowns were decayed 40 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 and soft, while the remaining 66 per cent wer,e partially injured and rotted. In all instances living or green shoots of the plants could be easily pulled out of the rotted crown. During warm weather which normally would stimulate growth, the injured crowns or portions of the crown dried up and the sprouts soon died. These results indicate that the buds and shoots are more hardy than either the crown or the root of the plant and that the crown and upper portions of the root, which are more directly exposed to climatic conditions, are the parts of the plant which first suffer from winter injury. A similar condition was observed by these investiga- tions in fields of alsike and red clover that had suffered from winter injury and on which green sprouts appeared early in the spring, but later dried up and disappeared. Emergency Hay Crops Often Help B ECAUSE of the excessive winterkilling of alfalfa and the clovers in the southern portion of the state, many farmers, especially dairymen, found it necessary to resort to emergency hay crops to provide suitable roughage during 1922. The work of G. B. Mortimer (Agronomy) extending over a period of years has shown that if right amounts and proper varieties of seed are used, there are a number of combinations which the Wisconsin farmer can successfully use to pro vide good quality hay by means of emergency crops. Oats and Field Peas. — For an early seeded emergency hay crop a combination of oats and field peas is outstanding on soils adaptable to pea growing. During the past year yields ranging from 2 to 3 tons of air-dried hay per acre were secured. Though the quality of this hay was not equal to clover or alfalfa, it is readily eaten by dairy cattle and the digestible protein content is about equal to that of good red clover hay. Sudan Grass and Soybeans. — Another year of trials has shown that a mixture of Sudan grass and soybeans can be used to provide one of the most satisfactory emergency hay crops. The results obtained show that the most satisfactory rate of seeding is about 10 pounds of sudan grass and from 1.5 bushels to 2 bushels of soybeans. For this purpose the early varieties of soybeans seem to be best suited. Sudan Grass Alone. — It has been demonstrated over a period of five years that the best results may be obtained by broadcasting or drill ing sudan grass at the rate of 20 to 25 pounds of seed per acre. This rate seems to be most effective for seed production or for hay when this plant is grown alone. The crop has the additional advantages of making an excellent yield of hay even when sown at a time as late as the first week in July. As a smother crop to be combined with a partial fallow for the eradication of quack grass, sudan grass is urn excelled. Soybeans Alone. — Excellent hay crops were also obtained during the past year by the use of soybeans alone. The use of 1.5 bushels Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 41 of seed per acre with Black Eyebrow variety gave the most satisfac tory results, over 3.5 tons of air-dried hay being obtained per acre. The following table shows the results obtained from the various seeding rates and combinations: TABLE I.— RATES OF SEEDING AND YIELDS OF EMERGENCY HAY CROPS Combination and rates of seeding Average in tons per acre 1.5 bu. Canada peas with 1.5 bu. oats 2 bu. Canada peas with 1.5 bu. oats 2 bu. Marrowfat peas with 1.5 bu. oats 1.5 bu. Scotch peas with 1.5 bu. oats 1.5 bu. Wis. G'reen peas with 1.5 bu. oats 1.2 bu. Scotch peas with 1.5 bu. oats— Kherson seeded latter part of May 10 lbs. Sudan with 1.5 bu. Black Eyebrows 10 lbs. Sudan with 2 bu. Black Eyebrows 10 lbs. Sudan with 2.5 bu. Black Eyebrows 10 lbs. Sudan with 2 bu. Hollybroods 10 lbs. Sudan with 2 bu. Manchus 1.5 bu. Black Eyebrows seeded alone 2 bu. Black Eyebrows seeded alone 2.5 bu. Black Eyebrows seeded alone 3.69 3.34 3.11 3.10 3.32 1.95 3.46 4.69 4.00 3.91 3.85 Seeding Clover and Timothy on Winter Grains T O DETERMINE the best time of seeding clover and timothy on winter grains, trials were conducted by H. W. Albertz (Agronomy). The winter of 1921-1922 being an unusually open one, conditions were ideal for such work. It was found that clover seeding between March 1st and April 15th produced an excellent stand, while all others failed to do so. Timothy seedings between Decem- ber 15th and April 15th all produced excellent stands. These re- sults seem to show that seeding red clover on winter grains can be secured when alternate freezing and thawing of the ground occurs in the spring time, while timothy may be seeded any time after the fifteenth of December, provided there is no snow on the ground at the time of sowing. Soybeans an Important Wisconsin Crop T HE SOYBEAN seems destined to become a crop of considerable economic importance in Wisconsin. A great deal of interest has been aroused in recent years in the growing of this crop, es- pecially among the farmers on light and sandy soils. Some of them are now depending almost wholly for their silage, hay, and concen- trated feeds on the soybean plant. For the beginner on light Jack- pine soils especially, this crop is an important one, because it grows well under these conditions and it can be put to a great variety of uses. Experimental work with soybeans during the past year under the direction of B. D. Leith (Agronomy) has been confined very largely to tne selection of the most satisfactory strains for seed production with some attention also given to the growing of the crop for hay. As a result of the experimental work at Madison, it appears that 42 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 the Manchu variety (Wisconsin Ped. No. 39) has on the whole given the most satisfactory yield, an average of 21.7 bushels being obtained during the past year and an average of 20.9 bushels for the past five years. In growing the plant for hay, a yield of 4.2 tons per acre was obtained from seedings at the rate of two bushels per acre with a grain drill. Ordinarily, however, considerable difficulty is ex- perienced with the curing of soybean hay, and work on this subject will be continued. Due to the rapid increase in soybean acreage in the state, an un- usually large supply of seed has been produced. In former years there was considerable demand from surrounding states for seed, but as considerable quantities of this crop are now grown in these states the market demand for our surplus seed is limited. There will re- main a considerable need of seed for seeding purposes, but other than a seed outlet must sooner or later be developed. Flax seed production in the West is gradually declining, due largely to the ravages of the wilt disease. The problem of the adaptability of soybean oil as a substitute has been given much attention and much effort has been made by both the agronomy and genetics departments to improve the oil qualities of the soybean. To some extent soybean oil is now used in industry. Several mills have been .established in neighboring states, but at present the oil interests are somewhat re- luctant to establish the milling industry in Wisconsin. One of the problems has been to dispose of the soybean meal, which is a by- product remaining after the oil is expressed. Experiments have shown that this soybean meal has a feeding value about equal to that of linseed meal. In dairy states, such as Wisconsin, it seems probable that it should not be very difficult to dispose of this by-product, and it is possible that a satisfactory outlet for our surplus of soybeans may be obtained through the oil industry. Cold Resistant Corn Fills Need of North I N WISCONSIN and neighboring states there exists a general need for an early variety of corn which will produce a stalk growth large enough to enable farmers to fill their silos with a reasonable acreage. In order to meet this need B. D. Leith (Agronomy) has for several years been developing strains of Golden Glow (Wisconsin No. 12) by selecting it upon the basis of resistance to low tempera- ture, early maturity, and stalk growth. While practically one-half of the corn in Wisconsin at present is of the Golden Glow variety, it has been found that the new resistant strain is much more satisfactory in the northern counties of the state where the crop must needs encounter a much cooler climate than is found in the southern counties. Fields of this strain of corn grown in Forest and Florence counties seem to be fully as large as the Golden Glow which was grown on the Station Farm at Madison. The demand for this seed has become very insistent from Wisconsin and from neighboring states as well. A considerable amount of it has Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 43 been grown on northern soils and will be available for dissemination in 1923. Through selection from ice box germination tests, Mr. Leith has been able to adapt this corn so that it will germinate and develop dur- ing the cool weather of spring or early summer. FIG. 21.— SELECTING “COLD RESISTANT” SEED CORN This field of “cold resistant” Golden Glow, grown by Roman Muska- vitch of Shawano, yielded 111 bushels to the acre. Germinated in ice box temperatures ranging from 42° to 50° F., ordinary Golden Glow corn only germinated 82.5 per cent as many kernels as this cold-resistant strain. Planted in the field with com- 44 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 FIG. 22.— A FIELD OF WHITE CROSS OATS Earliness, high yield, and white color are the outstanding qualities of this new variety. 19) which has been grown in several parts of the state during the past year. The White Cross oat is a white kerneled oat and is much larger and heavier than the other early varieties. The oat stands up well on the richer soils, and it will be a valuable addition to our varieties of pedigreed oats. On an 8-acre field on the station farm, it produced 62.8 bushels per acre. mon Golden Glow on April 29th, 41.2 per cent of the cold resistant was ripe on August 23, 117 days after planting, while only 21.6 per cent of the ordinary Golden Glow was mature. This early germina- tion and early maturity makes this type an especially valuable quality for northern needs. In order to have this corn retain its cold resistant characteristics, it is necessary to grow it in the north where the environment is such as to maintain this cold resistant power. Last year about 2500 bushels of this cold resistant corn were dis- seminated. The demand from other northern sections, such as Canada, North Dakota, Northern Michigan and Northern Minnesota, has been very great. In a few years more time it seems reasonable to believe that the silage problem for our northern dairy farms will be solved. White Cross Oats a New Successful Strain D URING THE PAST eight years efforts have been made to breed a new oats for Wisconsin, the object being to get an oat that had somewhat taller straw than the Wisconsin No. 7 and pure white instead of yellow. B. D. Leith (Agronomy) has now produced such a strain that has been named the White Cross oat (Ped. No. Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 45 “Forward” — A New High Yielding Oats T HERE HAS recently been bred at the Ashland Station a new pedigree oats, Forward (Ped. 1241), by E. J. Delwiche (Agron- omy). This new strain produced 56-3 bushels per acre or over 6.5 bushels more than its nearest competitor, and it led the well- known and commonly grown variety, Swedish Select oats, by over 17.5 bushels per acre. As an eight-year average, it has yielded 52.9 bushels per acre which exceeds all other varieties by an average of about 4 bushels per acre. Several hundred bushels of this strain will be available for 1923 distribution. Oat Lodging Problems Studied I N ORDER to determine the factors influencing the lodging of oats, work on this subject has been continued at the Marshfield Station by E. J. Delwiche. Observations during the past year plainly in- dicate that the variety used as seed is one of the primary factors con- cerned in lodging. Wisconsin Pedigree No. 1 (Wisconsin Wonder) easily takes first rank, showing practically no lodging in the experi- mental plots; Pedigree 1214 (White Russian) is second, (5 per cent lodging), while many of the varieties tested lodged to the extent of 50 or 75 per cent. Because of its high rating in straw resistance and its high yield, Wisconsin Wonder is now recommended for central Wisconsin. The rate of seeding also was found to exert a considerable influence on lodging, the lighter seeding showing the least lodging, and, of course, a considerably smaller yield. TABLE II.— YIELDS AND PERCENTAGE OF LODGING WITH PED. NO. 1 (Wis- consin Wonder) OATS Rate sown pecks per acre Lodging percentage Date of ripening Yield per acre bushels 4 None August 0 45.5 8 10% August 5 55.5 12 10% August 5 61.3 16 30% August 2 67.8 These results indicate that 8 to 10 pecks per acre is the right seeding for Wisconsin Wonder oats. Experiments with mineral fertilizers to control lodging showed no satisfactory results. Wheats for Wisconsin Spring Wheat. — The experimental work conducted with spring wheat has been centered principally around the production of a variety of high rust resistance by E. J. Delwiche (Agronomy). Mr. Delwiche. after many thousands of selections from hybrid and mixed breecis 46 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 since this work began in 1909, has one strain, the M. 1611 (Early Java), which has consistently shown a marked resistance to stem rust, no^ only in his hands, but in tests made with farmers in upper Wisconsin and Michigan. One farmer at Wausau reported a yeield of 28 bushels per acre in 1921 and 25 bushels in 1922. This wheat is also of high gluten content (16.6 per cent in 1921), and work with it will be con-, tinued. About 1,000 bushels of this seed will be available for 1923 planting. Winter Wheat. — Winter wheats are so much better yielders in upper Wisconsin that they are favored by most farmers. At Ashland this year Ped. No. 408 (Bacska) gave an average yield of 41.9 bushels per acre. Two other varieties (Ped. No. 2 and Ped. 11825) were close rivals with 40 bushels per acre. For six years winter wheats have produced an average of 1,938 pounds per acre, while the best oats only made 1,857 pounds per acre. Either as feed or grain for market, winte wheat is decidedly superior to oats for the Superior red clay belt, says Mr. Delwiche. At Marshfield, Bacska again led with a yield of 42.9 bushels per acre or over 30 bushels more per acre than the best spring wheat. Winter wheats, however, are lower in gluten and therefore less desirable from the miller’s standpoint. Efforts will be continued to see if harder and higher gluten strains can be bred. Some selections from 1920 and 1921 hybrids show a decidedly high percentage of har berries. Producing Barley Seed Free From Stripe Disease B ECAUSE of the prevalence of stripe disease in the barley fields of Wisconsin, A. G. Johnson * (Plant Pathology) and E. D. Holden (Agronomy) for several years have been experimenting to obtain barley seed free from the barley stripe organism, Helminthosporium gramineum. Several plots were tested with formaldehyde solution in 1921 in order to remove the disease, and later by a process of roguing out in- fected plants apparently disease-free seed was obtained. This was planted in 1922, and though frequent inspections were made, no striped plants were discovered. From this work, the experimenters have concluded that stripe-free barley can be obtained from infected stock if the infected plants are not allowed to mature to the point where discharging lesions occur. Entire removal of infection was accomplished by seed treatment with formaldehyde solution combined with planting at a period which was naturally unfavorable to the development of the disease within the plants themselves. If the disease is one that can be entirely removed, it will not appear again until infection occurs from an outside source. * Tn cooperation with United States Department of Agriculture. Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 47 Planting Distance of Sunflowers for Silage C ONTINUED work with sunflowers for silage purposes by E. D, Holden (Agronomy) has shown that the yields are fairly uniform regardless of the planting distance as long as it remains be- tween 6 and 20 inches. Work during the past year has shown, how- ever, the ratio of the amounts of stalks to leaves in the silage increases as the distance between the plants in the row becomes less. When the plants are as close together as 6 inches, there is a pronounced drying up of the lower leaves long before cutting, which results in a considerable loss. During the past year it was found that planting sunflowers 8 to 12 inches apart in the row will produce the most sat- isfactory results, and the Department of Agronomy is now recommend* ing that rate because it overcomes the loss of leaves experienced when planting is too close. Though the relative proportion of leaves in the silage increases as the planting spaces increase up to 12 inches, no further gains are obtained by spacing the plants beyond that distance. Rutabagas Outyield Mangels in Northern Wisconsin T HE RESULTS of a comparative study of the yields of rutabagas and mangels conducted at the various branch stations during the year confirm the findings of former years. In each case the rutabagas outyielded the mangels, and their cost of production was less both per ton and per acre. A very fine type of rutabaga is being developed at the Ashland Station, which seems especially well adapted to the clay and silt loams of central and northern Wisconsin. This seed will probably be available for distribution next year. RUTABAGAS AND MANGELS COMPARED-ASHLAND, 1922 Variety Yield per acre Cost per acre Cost per ton Rutabagas (Monarch) _ 16.12 tons $38.86 $2.41 4.82 Mangels (Sludstrup) 9.3 “ 44.78 Kudzu Not Successful in Wisconsin F URTHER experiments were conducted during the year with Kudzu, a viny leguminous forage plant introduced from Japan, that has been much advertised. The observations made at this Station during the past year have revealed no characteristics which warrant its use by Wisconsin farmers. While a dense growth of vines was produced by fall, the winter of 1921-1922 completely killed the stand, although red clover growing beside it was uninjured. 48 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 New Varieties of Peas for Wisconsin F OR A NUMBER of years E. J. Delwiche (Agronomy) has been breeding canning peas at the Ashland Station until now we have the largest collection of pedigreed strains known. By hybridiza- tion and selection several excellent varieties have been developed, and there remains now the matter of fixing these best types and studying their relation to disease before dissemination of the varieties can be made. Some new early Alaskan type strains known as Hustler, Alcross, and Double Alaska have been found to be about a week earlier than the earliest types of Alaskan peas so far tested. Of the new Badger and Horal varieties, considerable seed is also available for next spring’s planting, and at that time a rather wide dissemination for these varieties is planned. Continued experimental work at the Marshfield Station has also shown the desirability of long rotations (six years) to reduce the like- lihood of disease. The value of inoculation was again tested, and the results w.ere definitely in favor of the use of culture. (19.7 bushels per acre no inoculation; 23.3 bushels, inoculated.) The adaptability of the stronger clay and silt soils of upper Wis- consin to pea culture has now been thoroughly demonstrated. Com- mercial interests have been encouraged to develop the canning in- dustry in the Lake Superior region. The pea cannery at Marengo in Ashland County has been in successful operation for the past three years. The cooler climatic conditions that prevail in this section make it possible to extend the factory run considerably longer than in the southern part of the state- The obvious advantage of a cash crop that will bring from $50 to $90 per acre as well as securing pea vine hay which is so highly prized makes this industry very promising for these new northern sections Improvement of Sweet Corn for Canning Purposes D URING THE PAST three years Mr. Holden has been engaged in breeding sweet corn for canning purposes. The work has been largely carried on in connection with fields of dif- ferent canning companies, most of it being done at Columbus. The primary purpose of these experiments was to determine the merits of the different corns used by Wisconsin canners and to obtain data as to the yields of the different strains and of the amount and value of the fodder that remains for feeding purposes after the corn has been husked. Some very satisfactory progress has been made up to the present time, and it appears probable that as a result of this work higher yielding strains of corn will be available for use by Wisconsin can- ners. Two strains of the Early Evergreen are especially promising, and several other varieties have shown outstanding vigor and yields. Sufficient seed is now available to give these strains more extended field trials in 1923. Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 49 Purebred Grains an Educational Factor GRONOMIC research has sought everywhere to lengthen the Wisconsin crop list, and by breeding and selection most of our present strains of field crops have been produced. In many cases the varieties now grown have been so improved that they re- semble but slightly those from which they were originally obtained. In recent years the studies of grains and crops have entered to an increasing degree into educational work. Junior departments have been added to state shows and to the International as well, and com- petition is keen among boys and girls in high schools and even in the. grades. At the 1922 State Grain Show held at Green Bay, the exhibits and judging contests of the boys and girls made one of the most inter- esting features of the entire display. Here, in a’ show sponsored by FIG. 23. — NEARLY 1000 SAMPLES WERE EXHIBITED AT WISCON- The state purebred grain exhibit at Green Bay was- one of the largest on record. The junior exhibits comprised one of the strong features of the show — the young folks often compete successfully even with experienced seed growers. the purebred seed growers of the state, where the high points of the production of quality grains were represented — where the best samples of our best varieties grown by our leading growers were assembled — the young folks held their own. With the remarkable junior showing made at the Green Bay Grain Exhibit, which was one of the best of its kind in many years, it is apparent that our purebred grains are playing an important part in our educational system and that in time these efforts must become a distinct factor in our agricultural development. SIN’S 1922 GRAIN SHOW 50 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 Recent Developments in the Hemp Industry T HOUGH THE economic situation in the hemp industry has shown no improvement during the last year, research work in this field has been continued by A. H. Wright (Agronomy). Efforts were largely concentrated on the development of new uses for hemp fiber in order to stimulate the market. A certain amount of trade has been established among cordage manufacturers, and a promising field has been found in rug manufacture. Already rugs are being made from hemp and designs outlined so that it is hoped hemp rugs will become a standard article of commerce. The foreign markets are now peculiarly inactive, the low rate of exchange making it most difficult for America to produce hemp at a figure that will meet Italian competition. Wisconsin-Grown Hemp Seed. — In the past we have been dependent upon Kentucky for our seed. But, as a result of eight years of work and selection at the Experiment Station, a variety known as the FIG. 24.— THE RESULT OF USING BOTH POTASH AND PHOS- PHORUS FOR HEMP ON MARSH SOIL When both phosphorus and potash were used on hemp on marsh soil at Union Grove, the increased growth was pronounced. The plot on the right received 400 pounds of potassium chloride an acre, while the plot on the left received 600 pounds of acid phosphate in addition to the 400 pounds of potassium chloride. Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 51 Ferramington has been developed to such a degree that it can be utilized for seed production in this state. During 1922 experimental fields of this variety were grown at Union Grove and Beaver Dam. These fields were grown for fiber in competition with fields planted with Kentucky seed, and it appears now that they are entirely satis- factory. The Ferramington variety matured fully two weeks earlier than did the fields of Kentucky seed. Though the height of the plants was a little less than that of the Kentucky varieties, they were suffi- ciently high to make very satisfactory straw. The present results indicate that the Ferramington variety is altogether satisfactory, and if future occasion requires it, Wisconsin can depend upon this variety for seed producton. Fertilizing Hemp on Marsh Soil. — Some interesting results were ob- tained from fertilizer tests made with hemp on marsh soil at Union Grove which was drained three years ago. This is a non-acid marsh and considered typical of the marshes of that section of the state. In these trials the plots fertilized with potash only showed no ap- preciable superiority over the unfertilized check plots; but the plots receiving phosphorus as well as potash showed great additional growth. The plants on the check plots and the potash plots averaged less than two feet in height, which means that the crop on such land was prac- tically worthless for fiber purposes. On the other hand, the crops on the plots receiving potash and phosphorus and those receiving potash, phosphorus, and nitrogen reached a height of from 7 to 8.5 feet. Where nitrogen was added to the phosphorus and potash, only slight additional growth was obtained, also a somewhat later maturity and a coarser straw. Recent Work in Weed Control O NE OF THE HEAVIEST taxes to which the Wisconsin farmer is subjected is that which is imposed upon him by weeds. Very often the farmer’s most valuable acres are most infested and the land which is naturally suited to produce abundantly may be- come the least productive on the farm. The great number of pests with which the farmer must contend makes it necessary that the best methods available be applied in combating the invaders that have already established themselves in the fields as well as in keeping down those which have not yet had the opportunity to spread. Austrian Field Cress. — Several years ago a plant, member of the mustard family, Austrian Field Cress (Radicula Palustris), an alien enemy of European origin, appeared in one of the fields of the University Farm. Methods were immediately used to exterminate the invader, but recently the plant again appeared in several areas. After several unsuccessful attempts had been made to rid the field of this infesta- tion by means of tar paper and intensive cultivation of the smaller 52 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 patches in which it appeared, it was decided to summer fallow the en- tire field in order to insure the complete eradication of the pest. This treatment seems to have been very effective, and apparently the weed has been eradicated. The extreme persistence and vitality of the cress plants make drastic measures for their destruction necessary. The vitality of the roots is amazing. In October 1919 a piece of root six inches long was put into a quart jar of water in the laboratory. It still bore green leaves in October 1921, having lived in the water for two years. The roots in the soil seem to possess an even greater degree of vitality, and sometimes new plants appear where none had been for two years. Canada Thistles.— Areas of Canada thistles again appearing on a field, from which this weed had been eradicated some years ago, were treated by fall plowing followed by a year of cultivation, in which the field was plowed twice and cultivated four times during the summer. This plan of attack seems to be a successful one, inasmuch as after the summer fallow the eradication of the thistle is apparently as- sured. Quack Grass. — The lower portion in one of the fields of the Uni- versity Farm became so badly infested with quack grass that the affected area covered approximately 10 acres. The worst infestation seemed to appear in a portion of the field which was low and flat. To overcome this weed encroachment, the entire field was planted to Murdock corn, and, after the crop was harvested in 1921, it was fall plowed. In the spring of 1922 the infested area was dug up with a deep-digging cultivator, using tractor power, and then followed by three cultivations with a spring tooth harrow during the spring and summer of 1922. Very little quack grass could be seen by the last week of June, and on June 28 and 29 the field was seeded to S*udan grass at the rate of 25 pounds per acre. The crop was very heavy when grown to maturity and cut for seed, and this heavy smother crop seems to have successfully eradicated the quack grass infesta- tion. White Campion. — A bad infestation of White Campion (Lychnis alba) has appeared in one of the fields on the Hill farm. This plant is a biennial, and its seeds precede in ripening those of many culti- vated crops, and when buried in the soil are very long-lived. In many sections of the state this weed is proving itself extremely troublesome in grass lands. The method of attack employed against this pest is the gathering and burning of all the vegetation on the ground, fol- lowed by cultivated crops, such as corn and potatoes, which is ap- parently eliminating this biennial plant. Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 53 Wildfire Disease in Wisconsin Tobacco T HE DISEASE of tobacco known as wildfire, which has caused large losses to tobacco growers in other states, made its ap- pearance in Dane county early in 1922; and it is important that growers use all practical precautions to prevent its spread. So far as is known, the first serious outbreak of wildfire occurred in North Carolina in 1917, from where it spread rapidly to other to- bacco sections causing severe losses. In the Dane county outbreak the infected area has been relatively small. The first diseased plants from seed beds were brought to the Experiment Station on June 14, 1922, from the town of Deerfield. Subsequently it spread over most of the seed beds, from which about 12 acres of tobacco were transplanted. Shortly after this, another case was reported from the town of Burke. A detailed survey showed DANE COUNTY^ WINDSOR • . * * * H * BRISTOL • • • • • WESTPORT • • • BURKE- * < -yV • SUN X PRAIRIE • j / LAKE, C NENDOTA 1 MADISON ^ • BLOOMING 4 • • COTTAGE GROT • • DEERKELD j •• * DUNN ^ • • PLEASANT 3 SPRINGS “ 1 CHRISTIANA * DUNKIRK » FIG. 25.— WHERE WILDFIRE APPEARED IN WISCONSIN The tobacco wildfire outbreak in 1922 was confined to a small area in Dane county. With careful control measures it may be possible to pre- vent its further spread. that the infection existed on about 90 farms, all of which were located in eastern Dane county, and arrangements were made with the State Department of Agriculture to apply measures of checking the disease. Wildfire Starts in Plant Beds. — In practically every case field in- fection was traced to the seed bed, the disease attacking plants at 54 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 almost any stage of their growth. The typical symptoms are round bleached or yellowish areas on the leaves sometimes as large as a dime, in the center of which is a dried area often only the size of a pin point but varying up to as much as one-half inch and often with a distinct yellow border. These spots, when numerous, run to- gether and .cause the whole leaf to collapse and dry up. In some of the seed beds observed, the disease had practically destroyed all of the leaves on the plants. “Bud infection,” in which the young leaves surrounding the bud turned to a light yellow color without any spots being present, seemed to be common in Wisconsin though not gen- erally found in other districts. For identification two facts should be noted: (1) Wildfire spots sometimes occur without any bleached area surrounding them and so may easily be mistaken for ordinary rust. (2) At least one kind of rust, the true old-fashioned rust of Wisconsin may resemble wildfire. In the laboratory it is easy to determine all cases of true wildfire by the use of special methods. By reason of their position, longer exposure to infection, and higher susceptibility, the lower leaves of the plant are most likely to show infection, though the disease seems to attack with vigor any of the leaves of the plant and even the suckers and seed pods. Cigar binder and wrapper tobaccos may be rendered worthless for such purposes by comparatively few infections per leaf, and heavily infested leaves are ordinarily not worth harvesting. The Cause of Wildfire. — Wildfire is caused by an organism known as Bacterium tobacum. The germ can be readily isolated and grown in pure cultures. Infection of fresh plants can be easily produced by inoculation. Comparison With Other Rusts of Tobacco. — Ordinary tobacco rust is quite similar to wildfire in many respects, but it is due to a differ- ent bacterium and is much less serious and rare in its attacks. Its spots are ordinarily brown and show less of the yellow band around the center of infection. Rust occurs rarely, usually only in small parts of the field, and it does not spread so rapidly as wildfire. Spread and Control of the Disease. — Once infection occurs in the spring, the disease is readily spread. In addition to being carried through the air under certain conditions, men, animals, tools, and other equipment may transmit it. It is most easily spread when the tobacco is wet, and at such times it is well to stay out of the field, One of the easiest means of spreading the disease from farm to farm is by the transfer of infected plants for transplanting. During driv- ing rain storms, a general spread in the direction of the wind takes place, and a few infected plants in the field may cause a general infection to occur later. To control the disease on farms where it has once occurred, James Johnson (Horticulture) made the following recommendations: Pre- vent seed bed infection by locating seed beds at a considerable dis- tance from old tobacco beds, fields, or tobacco sheds; old plant bed Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 55 FIG. 26.— WILDFIRE SPOTS PRODUCE HOLES IN THE LEAF Tobacco leaves heavily infested with wildfire disease are ordinarily not worth harvesting 1 , and when the infection is general, serious losses are caused by it. 56 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 boards can be disinfected by sprinkling or painting with a solution of 1 part of formalin to 25 parts of water, and old covers by boiling for one hour. The tobacco seed should be disinfected unless it is known to come from districts where wildfire has not occurred. Where wildfire infection is found in seed beds, it should be de- stroyed at once by drenching with formalin (1 part to 25 parts of water) and covering with some material to hold the fumes or by cutting the plants, sprinkling the area with kerosene and burning over. When weeding and pulling plants, the disease is frequently spread throughout the bed from such areas unless destroyed. If no FIG. 27. — GOOD RESULTS FROM CLOVER ROTATED WITH TOBACCO These adjacent plots show the benefits of clover in rotation with tobacco in comparison with no rotation. The experiment was planned to determine how much root-rot might be carried over from year to year by clover. urther signs of the disease are noticed, it is fairly safe to use the remaining plants from such a bed, but it is best not to use those within several feet of the infected areas. To be entirely safe, plants from infected beds should not be used at all. Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 57 Rotation of Crops Pays With Tobacco D ETERMINING the best crop rotation for tobacco is a com- plex problem on account of the large number of factors involved. While it is quite generally regarded as good practice to rotate tobacco with corn, grain, and clover, or alfalfa in Wisconsin, very often poor crops are produced in spite of such a rotation under apparently ideal conditions of growtlj. In some cases low soil fertility, poor preparation of soil, and other factors are probably the primary cause of the results, but in others the ordinary black rot retains a foot hold in the soil over a period of years, and the ordinary rotation is not sufficient to eliminate it from the soil. FIG. 28.— IT PAYS TO GIVE TOBACCO LAND A REST Resting- the land from tobacco dates from early colonial times-, but only in the last few years have the most important reasons for so doing become evident; i. e., root diseases. A four-year rest helps but a longer one is better. The Experiment Station data, however, show that rotation is highly beneficial in reducing the extent of disease damage- Where trouble has been experienced in the growing of tobacco in a regular rotation, 58 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 it is sometimes found that another root rot than the ordinary black root rot is concerned. This disease has been called brown root rot and is now being studied. Experiments have shown, however, that the black root rot organisms can persist in the ground at least six years even in the absence of the tobacco plant as a host, but during this time it is gradually reduced so that even a four-year period of rest from tobacco helps very materially in the growing of the crop. In badly infested fields it is probable that even better crops of tobacco could be obtained if such land were not planted to tobacco for as long a period as six years. Potato Mosaic Influenced by Temperature P OTATO MOSAIC is one of the most serious potato diseases in Wisconsin, particularly in the production of certified seed stock of Triumphs. Fields which apparently are relatively free from the disease often yield seed potatoes which, when grown, produce a high percentage of mosaic for reasons not fully understood. Any information bearing on the cause of the “masking” of mosaic symptoms is, therefore, of interest. Following the clue obtained with tobacco mosaic where it was shown by growing the plants under carefully controlled temperature conditions that relatively high temperatures were most favorable for the disease, similar work was undertaken with the potato mosaic by James Johnson (Horticulture). In the case of the potato disease it was found, however, that rela- tively low temperatures (57° to 65 °F.) were most favorable for the FIG. 29.— TEMPERATURE IS A FACTOR IN THE MOSAIC DISEASE Periods of relatively cool weather are most favorable to the develop- ment of the mosaic disease in potatoes. Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 59 development of the symptoms of mosaic, and that at temperatures above 77 °F. the symptoms of the disease may be made to disappear rapidly. Under field conditions then, mosaic is likely to show up most abundantly early in the season or after cool periods of a week or more later in the season if the plants are still young and in a rapidly growing condition. Conversely, fields showing a high percent- age of mosaic at one season of the year may after a period of a week or more show far less. It is important that temperature conditions preceding inspection of fields for certification records should he con- sidered. It is also fundamental that temperature relations should be more carefully taken into account in other lines of experimental work with the mosaic disease of potatoes and other plants as well. ONTINUED studies in dwarf fruit trees grown in the green houses by R. H. Roberts (Horticulture) have shown that the condition of composition and vegetation greatly affects the pollen tube growth and fertilization of blossoms. It was noted that fertilization occurred in three or four days less time on very strongly vegetative trees than on poorly vegetative trees. The dif- ference was apparently due to the amount of nitrogen reserve in the trees. Strong growth is usually made by trees having a large avail- able supply of nitrogen either in the food supply or in the reserve stored up in the tissue. The analyses of these reserves so far conducted under the direc- tion of W. E. Tottingham (Agricultural Chemistry) have not been carried far enough to show conclusively in what form the nitrogen storage occurs. HIS SEASON has been favorable for the development of apple scab. In studies at Madison and Sturgeon Bay, G. W. Keitt and L. K. Jones (Plant Pathology) continued the spraying experiments of the previous years and, in addition, extended them to the effect of adding adhesives, such as gelatin, glue, and calcium caseinate to lime-sulphur 1-40, and also calcium caseinate to bordeaux mixture 4-4-50. The most satisfactory spray program of the season consisted of lime-sulphur 1-40, (with powdered arsenate of lead, 1 pound per 50 gallons) applied on the following dates: (1) May 12-13 (“pre-pink”), (2) May 18-20 (“pink”), (3) May 29- June 1 (“calyx”), (4) July 8-14, and (5) August 5-11. In most tests the results from dry lime-sulphur 4-50 were similar to that obtained with liquid lime-sulphur 1-40. Bor- deaux mixture 4-4-50 controlled the disease satisfactorily, but as in previous seasons it russeted the fruit to an extent that made its use inadvisable. The lime-sulphur program in which glue and gelatin, respectively, were used as adhesives gave less satisfactory control of Nitrogen Reserve in Apple Trees Studies in Apple Scab Control 60 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 the disease than did the program of lime-sulphur without an adhesive. On the other hand lime-sulphur and bordeaux mixture, respectively, with the addition of calcium caseinate gave slightly better results FIG. 30.— POWER OUTFIT USED IN SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS This tractor-drawn spraying- outfit is representative of a type now widely used in the large orchards of Door county. than did these sprays without the addition of an adhesive. To determine the commercial value of this process, further trials will be required. Tests were also made to determine the advisability of substituting dust treatments for certain liquid applications. The results obtained in this work were variable, apparently depending very much upon the relation of the time of application to meteorological conditions. In some cases very good control of the scab disease was obtained, while in others it was very inadequate. Three applications of lime- sulphur followed by two of dust gave essentially as good control of the disease as did the five-spray program of lime-sulphur. Cherry Leaf Spot Investigations F ROM YEAR to year new methods have been tried out to protect the cherry crop from the ravages of the cherry leaf spot disease, and various control programs were tested during the past sea- son at Sturgeon Bay by Mr. Keitt and Mr. Jones. As in former years, bordeaux mixture 3-3-50 proved to be the most satisfactory spray, giving excellent control of the disease when applied (1) just after the petals fell, (2) two weeks later, and (3) Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 61 just after harvest. Similar programs of bordeaux mixture 2-2-50 lime-sulphur 1-40 and dry lime-sulphur 4-50 failed to control the disease with full satisfaction. Gelatin (.25 pound to 50 gallons), glue (0.5 pound to 50 gallons), and calcium caseinate (0.5 pound to 50 gallons) added as adhesives to bordeaux mixture 3-3-50 and lime- sulphur 1-40, respectively, failed to increase materially the effciency of these sprays. Dust applications as in former years failed to con- trol the disease satisfactorily but gave sufficient promise to warrant further trials. Relation of Plant Diseases to Temperature and Moisture HEAT AND CORN seedlings become susceptible to the wheat scab parasite only under unfavorable environmental condi- tions, according to greenhouse and field experiments carried on during the past three years.* These experiments conducted by J. G. Dickson (Plant Pathology) have shown that the two host plants respond in almost opposite manner to soil temperature. Wheat blights in a comparatively warm soil; that is, at soil temperatures above 52 °F. while corn blights in a cool soil; that is, at a temperature usually below 64 °F. The response to soil moisture is the same for both plants, wheat and corn seedlings alike being blighted by the wheat scab organism when grown in dry soils regardless of the soil temperature. The results of the work obtained so far indicate that there are certain fundamental differences in the composition of the plants grown under different moisture and temperature conditions and that these differences in composition apparently explain the predisposition of the seedling to the blight disease. Wheat seedlings grown at a low soil temperature have three dis- tinct characteristics: (1) they are high in available carbohydrates; (2) low in available nitrogen; and (3) large amounts of available sugar are rapidly converted into cellulose in the tissues, which makes for thickened cell walls and considerable resistance to the wheat scab organism. When the seedling is grown under conditions of high soil temperature, the reverse is true: (1) there are present little or no available carbohydrates; (2) the seedlings are high in nitrogen in the form of readily available protein; (3) no thickening of the cell walls by reserve material occurs; and (4) at the high soil temperatures, there- fore, the plant having no thickened cellulose deposition offers no resistance to the fungus, and the presence of an abundant supply of protein material results in a rapid development when once the para- site obtains a foothold. The corn seedlings grown at a high soil temperature are compar- able to wheat seedlings grown at low soil temperatures. They are high in available carbohydrates and low in available nitrogen, and some of the carbohydrate materials are laid down as cellulose. On the contrary, corn seedlings grown at low soil temperatures have Cooperating with the United States Department of Agriculture. 62 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 little available sugar or carbohydrate material and a plentiful supply of available nitrogenous material, which makes them, like the wheat seedlings grown at high soil temperatures, very susceptible to the fungous attack, and blighting results. These experiments, therefore, indicate that the disease resistance and predisposition to disease in this case at least may be largely dependent upon the environmental conditions under which the plant is grown and the resulting difference in the chemical composition of the host tissues. ONTINUED investigations have been made to determine the possible relation of the coloring matter (pigment), volatile oils, or associated substances in the onion to the resistance of the plant to the invasion of the smudge fungus ( Collet otrichum circinans). The former work of Dr. J. C. Walker, now with the United States Department of Agriculture, showed that disease resist- ance was closely associated with scale pigments and also influenced by the presence of the volatile onion oils. In the recent work an attempt was made to determine more definitely the composition of the onion pigment and to isolate and identify, if possible, the substance responsible for the resistance to the smudge fungus. From the chemical analysis the onion pigments appear to contain: (1) a yellow non-glucoside, (2) one or more yellow glucosides, (3) a red non-glucoside, and (4) one or more red gluco- sides. A yellow glucoside or a mixture of glucosides has been crystal- lized from both the red and yellow onions, but so far has not been entirely purified. In the case of the yellow onions this mixture was found to be toxic to the fungus. These results are opening up an interesting field in explaining why the colored onions are immune to the smudge disease while white onions are not. I NVESTIGATIONS of cucumber mosaic have been continued through the year by Messrs. M. N. Walker and S. P. Doolittle*, and it has been, shown that this disease is carried over winter on the poke- weed, Phytolacca decandra, as well as on the milkweed and wild cucumber. The disease has also been transmitted to the pigweed and to the cultivated ground cherry. This makes it much more difficult to control the disease by the eradication of the plants on which it lives over winter. *ln cooperation with United States Department of Agriculture; H. J. Heinz Company; and the National Pickle Packers' Association. Disease Resistance in the Onion Cucumber Mosaic Investigations Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 63 Development of Cabbage Resistant to Yellows I N ORDER to meet the needs of those interested in the kraut industry as well as in market gardening, special attention was given to the development of kraut varieties in field trials con- ducted at Racine during the past year by L. R. Jones and E. C. Tims (Plant Pathology). Several commercial strains of Copenhagen Market, Glory of Enkhuisen, and All Head Early were tried in addition to special strains of these varieties which were selected in former years. Of these selected strains, one of the All Head Early and one of the Glory of Enkhuisen appeared especially promising. They showed a fair degree of resistance combined with the essential earliness and conformity to type. The Wisconsin All Seasons, which was distributed for commercial trials in former years, has proved of considerable importance to the kraut industry, due to the fact that kraut growers from the Mississippi Valley to the Atlantic Coast have been losing heavily from the yellows disease. The National Kraut Packers’ Association was enabled through the cooperation with research workers of the United States Department of Agriculture and the Wisconsin College of Agriculture to grow for distribution several thousand pounds of this seed last year. Growers report uniformly satisfactory results both as to disease resistance and quality. Crown-Gall Investigated C ROWN-GALL has been reported for a number of years as one of the limiting factors in the production of certain cane fruits in Wisconsin. The disease is caused by bacteria which gain entrance only through wounds and lead to development of more or less spherical galls which commonly occir at the crown. The dis- ease has sometimes been called “plant cancer” because of the simi- larity in appearance and, to a certain extent, in structure and be- havior to animal cancer. It is world-wide in its distribution, and it affects a very large number of host plants, but is especially com- mon among the orchard trees and small fruits. In fact there are few plantings of raspberries and small apple trees in Wisconsin where crown-gall is not present, and the losses* from this have, in some cases, been reported to be as high as 60 per cent. A. J. Riker (Plant Pathology) has been studying the crown-gall disease with special reference to the relations of the organism to its host plants. Inoculation experiments on tomato have shown that wounds are necessary for infection. When needle punctures were made for inoculations, liquid was released which flowed immediately into the intercellular spaces causing water-soaked areas about the wounds. As the galls developed they were found to coincide closely in outline with these water-soaked regions. Expressed tomato sap was found to exert a positive attraction on the bacteria. They mi- grated through water-soaked tissue and produced galls at points 64 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 PIG. 31.— CROWN GALL IN THE SUNFLOWER This case of crown gall or “plant cancer” was produced in the grow- ing end of a sunflower stalk by inoculation. removed from the site of inoculation. The bacteria observed in every case were located between the cells. They caused neighbor- ing host cells to enlarge and divide, producing “secondary galls’’ and “tumor strands” as a result of the inoculation. Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 65 Sprays for Anthracnose in Black Raspberries E XPERIMENTS for the control of raspberry anthracnose have been continued through the year by L. K. Jones (Plant Pathology) following in general the plans of the two previous seasons; and a more extensive comparison of the effectiveness of bordeaux mixture and lime-sulphur in combination and with various -'dhesives has been made. The results in general confirmed those of the two previous seasons. Two applications of lime-sulphur alone controlled the disease for commercial purposes. The best results, however, w.ere obtained by the use of two applications of lime-sulphur with glue, gelatin, casein lime, or saponin as an adhesive. In gen- eral, bordeaux mixture alone or in combination with the various ad- hesives gave less satisfactory control than lime-sulphur. Two ap- plications of bordeaux mixture alone or in combination with the above adhesive gave satisfactory control of the disease in a com- mercial way. A third application of bordeaux or lime-sulphur about a week after the blooming period was beneficial in reducing the amount of the disease, but this spray was accompanied by severe foliage injury. How to Succeed in Wintering Bees T HE PROBLEM of wintering bees in Wisconsin is important because the average winter losses for the entire state are from 15 to 20 per cent and sometimes run as high as 30 per cent of all the colonies. Successful wintering with very little loss is possible if the proper storage is provided and proper temperature maintained. The colony must pass through the winter period in as inactive a condition as possible in order to reach the early spring brood rearing period and still be strong with young bees. Under winter conditions the bees form a more or less compact cluster for the preservation of heat which is produced by the muscular ac- tivity of the individual bees- If this activity is relatively great, it tends to shorten the life of the individuals and therefore lessen the strength of the colony as a whole. Thus, the question of maintain- ing a temperature that will not require undue losses of energy through excessive muscular activity becomes an important one. The primary purpose was to study the relative value of different kinds of packing material used for wintering bees.* Three colonies were used; one placed in an ordinary ten-frame Langstroth hive in the bee cellar; another in the same kind of hive but in a double packing case, surrounded with 6 inches of packing and 12 inches above, was placed on the east side of the building; and a third in a double walled hive with one inch of packing on the sides and four inches of shavings on top. It was found that there is a more or less definite reaction in the colony of bees to changing temperatures. As the temperature outside becomes lower, the temperature within the cluster of bees begins to rise; and it has been shown that the * These experiments were conducted by V. G. Milum and H. F. Wilson (Economic Entomology). 66 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 colony will keep a fairly constant temperature around the outside of the cluster ranging from 57° to 60 °F. This temperature is main- tained almost constantly regardless of how cold it may become. As the temperature without goes down, the bees develop by muscular activity a higher temperature within the cluster, and the mass also becomes more compact. TABLE III.— REACTION OF COLONY TO TEMPERATURE ^Temperature in ^Temperature in Outside outer portion of center of temperature cluster cluster 40° F. 57° to 60° F. 70° F. 30° F. 57° to 60° F. 80° F. 0° F. 57° to 60° F. 75° to 80° F. — 5° F. 57° to 60° F. 70° to 75° F. 1 These results show that, though the bees may be unable to k,eep on increasing the temperature of the inside sufficiently to resist the cold, the temperature on the outside of the cluster still remains at or near from 57° to 60° F. It appears certain that if the low tempera- ture is maintained very long, the bees must become unable to resist it and eventually die. The conclusion from these observations is that it is necessary for bees to use up a great deal more energy when packed out-of-doors than is the case when they are packed in the cellar; and that in- creased amounts of packing around the bees necessarily kept out of doors helps them in keeping the cluster temperature at 57° with l,ess energy and consequently gives them a better opportunity to sur- vive the winder. Fighting American Foulbrood With Sodium Hypochlorite F OR OVER twenty years beekeepers of Wisconsin have suffered heavy losses from a bacterial disease of the colonies known as American foulbrood. The disease attacks the larvae in the cells, gradually spreads to such a degree that the infected colonies usually die out completely at the end of the second season, or become so weak that they fail to live through the winter. Hundreds of empty hives are found in many parts of the state as the result of the ravages of this disease. In an effort to find a satisfactory means of destroying spores of the organism, Bacillus larvae , which causes American foulbrood, experi- ments in the use of a specially prepared sodium hypochlorite were carried on during the past year by H. F. Wilson (Economic En- tomology). The results show a solvent action on dead bees, pollen, ♦These temperatures were determined by means of electric thermo- couples. Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 67 cocoons, and other debris in the combs, but the compound does not injure the wax though concentrated solutions will dissolve a dead bee in a short time. Diluted solutions are found to be not at all harmful to the bees when added to their food. Living as well as dead larvae in the cells were completely dis- solved in 24 hours. Four combs so treated were placed in colonies of bees in June and remained fre,e from the disease throughout the summer, although the bees continued to rear brood in them. Syrup to which a water solution of spores had been added did not carry the disease after being treated with a weak solution of the chemical. Three colonies fed a diluted solution of diseased honey so treated showed very satisfactory results, two of them remaining free from disease and the third, though developing it, was shown to be in- fected from an outside source. From this work it appears that the specially prepared sodium hypochlorite destroys the spores of the Bacillus larvae wherever it comes into contact with them and that it is not poisonous and may be fed in syrup or honey to bees without apparent injury to them. For disinfecting hives and equipment the solution was found to be highly efficient. It Pays to Spray for Potato Leafhopper T HAT THE raids of the potato leafhopper, which have caused considerable loss to the potato growers, can be successfully avoided by proper spraying was demonstrated during the past year. Bordeaux hiixture used in one plot at Waupaca by C. L. Fluke* (Economic Entomology) increased the yield from 83.25 bushels per acre in an unsprayed area to 186.5 bushels in the sprayed plot. Four applications of the bordeaux mixture at 4-4-50 formula were made on the following dates: July 7, July 17, July 27, and August 5. When the comparison is made in U. S. Grade No. 1 potatoes, the differences are even more striking. Check plots yielded 49.5 bushels, and the plot TABLE IV.— RESULTS OF USING SPRAYS ON POTATOES. Plot* Yield in bushels per acre Total yield per acre No. applications U. S. Grade 1 u. S. G'rade 2 U. S. Grade 3 Homemade bordeaux 4-4-50 plus arsenical 4 (3 nozzles to the row) 144 36 6.50 186.50 Commercial powder bordeaux plus arsenical 5 (2 nozzles to the row) 90 33 6.66 128.66 Arsenical only 4 (,3 nozzles to the row) 49.5 29.25 | 4.25 83.25 *In cooperation with State Department of Agriculture. 68 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 which received the homemade bordeaux, produced 144 bushels per acre, nearly three times as much as .the check plots. An especially prepared spraying boom was used in this work, wkich was equipped with nozzles that thoroughly covered the under- side of the leaves. The three nozzles used to each row were so ar- ranged that one sprayed down and two upward, one on each side of the row. The leads to the lower nozzles were made with short rubber connections to prevent breakage in the striking of obstacles. From 75 to 100 gallons of spray were applied per acre, and an effort was made to keep the spraying pressure at 200 pounds. Arsenical poisons were added to kill the potato beetle, and the check plots were also sprayed for beetle control. The success of the “homemade bordeaux” is evident as it more than doubled the yield obtained where arsenical sprays alone were used and demonstrates clearly that it pays to control the potato leafhopper in Wisconsin. Effect of Nieotine Dusts on Crop Insects T HAT DUSTING can be used effectively against certain insects has been known for 20 years, but the use of contact insecticides such as nicotine compounds is a more recent development. While the actual cost of dusting materials is somewhat greater than that of spray materials, the cost per acre is usually less. In ad- dition the dusting process has the advantage of a wider range of FIG. 32 .— CONTROLLING PEA APHIS BY LUSTING This is a Dosch power duster in action. The amount of dust leaving the nozzles' can be adjusted to a very fine degree. Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 69 application inasmuch as moisture conditions do not affect the opera- tion. It seems to work equally w.ell whether the vines are wet or dry. Wind seems to be the only limiting factor. Work is in progress in nearly every state to perfect the process, and it appears probable that in time it will replace spraying to a very large extent. As a continuation of last year’s experiments, further data were collected on the effects' cf a new type of insecticide — nicotine sulphate in dust carriers by J. E. Dudley, Jr. (Economic Entomology).* Ex- haustive tests were made against eggs, larvae, or adults of the fol- FIG. 33.— PLANT LICE NEARLY DESTROYED THIS CROP Rutabagas nearly dead from attack of plant lice are saved by appli- cations of nicotine dusts. lowing insects: squash bug, Colorado potato beetle, potato flea beetle, onion thrips, turnip aphis, melon aphis, and two species of cabbage worms. The Squash Bug.— A number of careful tests were made against the squash bug in all stages, in which 100 colonies, averaging over 100 individuals in each, were treated, and it was shown that nymphs of the first, second, and third stages are readily killed by nicotine dusts containing from 4 per cent to 7 per cent nicotine sulphate; and that fourth and fifth stage nymphs and adults are quite resistant to these materials, seldom more than 30 per cent being killed; and that nicotine dusts have no effect upon the eggs. It was also found ♦Cooperating with United States Department of Agriculture. 70 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 that, when colonies consisting largely of nymphs in the first three stages were dusted early in the season, it was quite possible to obtain from 95 per cent to 99 per cent control. The Colorado Potato Beetle. — Potato beetle larvae in the first three stages are readily killed by nicotine sulphate combined with lime or copper sulphate-lime and containing from 5 to 10 per cent nico- tine sulphate. All the young larvae were killed in three tests cov- ering 75 hills of potatoes. When larvae in the fourth and fifth stages were dusted from 60 per cent to 80 per cent were killed. Potato beetle eggs are readily destroyed by nicotine dusts. The Potato Flea Beetle.— Eight tests of two nicotine dust combina- tions containing from 4 to 7 per cent nicotine sulphate were con- ducted against flea beetle on potato plants in large cases. Of a total of 1,600 beetles so treated, all were killed. The Onion Thrips. — In five tests with nicotine dusts varying in strength from 5 to 10 per cent nicotine sulphate against thousands of onion thrips in an onion field, results showed percentages of kill- ing of from 87 to 90. The Turnip Aphis. — A field of rutabagas nearly killed out from a severe infestation of the turnip aphis was treated with nicotine dusts containing 5 per cent nicotine sulphate. When hand dusters were used, from 90 to 95 per cent of the aphides were killed and, when the whole field was treated with a power duster, from 95 to 98 per cent of the aphid, es were killed. The Melon Aphis. — Tests of nicotine dusts containing from 7 to 10 per cent nicotine sulphate on 175 hills of melons heavily infested with the melon aphis resulted in 90 per cent of the insects being killed by the 7 per cent dust, and 100 per cent by the 10 per cent dust. The Cabbage Worms. — Cabbage worms infesting fields of cauli- flower and rutabagas were treated with various combinations of nicotine dusts. The effect of the dusts appeared to be governed greatly by the temperature. With an average temperature of 90°F. from 64 to 75 per cent were destroyed. With an average tempera- ture of 58°F. from 18 to 37 per cent were killed. Controlling the Striped Cucumber Beetle S ATISFACTORY results in controlling the striped cucumber beetle were obtained during the past season in experiments by Mr. Dudley. Nicotine sulphate combined with hydrated lime, copper sulphate, and lime, unslaked lime, gypsum, and sulphur were used against the insect with good success. A mixture of nicotine sulphate and hydrated lime containing 5 per cent nicotine sulphate was tested out five different times on cucum- bers and squash under varying conditions of temperature, humidity, and wind. An average of 75 per cent of the beetles were killed. A FIG. 34.— THE CANVAS TRAILER HELPS CONTROL PEA APHIS A power duster showing the canvas trailer attached. This keeps the dust from drifting too soon. rier of the nicotine sulphate, such as hydrated lime or gypsum, was preferable to an active carrier, such as unslaked lime, because much nicotine is lost by volatilization when it is mixed with an active substance. It now appears that the striped cucumber beetle can be controlled by two or three thorough applications of dust containing 10 per cent nicotine sulphate (4 per cent actual nicotine). The first ap- plication should be made early in June or just as soon as beetles have commenced to attack the plants. A duster having an arrange- ment for expelling the dust with force is necessary for effective work. Flight Experiments. — Continuing the work of last year tests were made with over 35,000 cucumber beetles in order to determine their length of flight. R.esults show that they had flown on an average about one J half mile each, so it seems probable that this insect seldom flies over that distance. Science Serves Wisconsin Farms mixture of nicotine sulphate and hydrated lime containing 10 per cent of nicotine sulphate, tested six different times under extremes of temperature, humidity, and wind, killed on an average 91 per cent of the beetles, varying from 83 per cent to 98 per cent. The best results were obtained in the absence of wind under high humidity and high temperatur.e. A mixture of nicotine sulphate and copper sulphate-lime (uncom- bined bordeaux), containing 10 per cent nicotine sulphate, gave an average kill of 86 per cent. It was found that a rather inert car- 72 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 For several years the rather sudden disappearance of cucumber beetles in late July and early August has been noticed; and during the past season an effort was made to .explain this condition. It was found that the overwintered beetles, which constitute the great ma- jority at this time, die off rapidly in the latter part of July; and the first generation coming on at this time are few in number and they do not increase until well into the fall. A carefully controlled experi- ment has proved conclusively that there are two generations of beetles occurring in Wisconsin annually, and this year a partial third obtained. W ORK ON THE control of the pea aphis upon a commercial scale was begun the past season. A general survey was made of the growing of field peas and data collected on the infestation of the pea aphis, by Mr. Fluke and Mr. Dudley, and some tests were made with nicotine dusts to determine their value in this work. Results show that the pea aphis is one of the most resistant aphides to nicotine fumes. When power dusters were used, the per- centage killed varied from 55 to 95, depending somewhat on the per- centage of nicotine in the dust, the temperature, and the absence or FIG. 35— THIS IS NOT A SMOKE SCREEN ON A BATTLEFIELD BUT A DUST SCREEN FOR CONTROLLING PLANT LICE. In the foreground the lice had killed all the plants, and the ground was re-seeded. To the left, the plants were treated with hand dusters applying nicotine dust. presence of wind. A large sheet of canvas or a trailer was dragged over the peas just behind the duster to keep the material from spread- ing and in this way much better results were obtained. The problem in this work is to find the most economical material to be used, the least injurious method of application, and also the most opportune time of treatment as well as to determine whether Control of the Pea Aphis Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 73 the treatment is necessary each season. Work on this subject will be continued in cooperation with the United States Department of Agriculture. Sawdust Cheapens Grasshopper Poison S AWDUST CAN BE substituted for bran in the formula for poison grasshopper bait, according to the tests made by Mr. Fluke this season. This change is effective when middlings are added as a coating to the prepared bait. The formula which was used suc- cessfully is as follows: Pounds Sawdust (hardwood preferred) 25.0 White arsenic 1.25 Salt 1.25 Amyl acetate 12.0 Water (enough to moisten, about 3 or 4 quarts) Middlings 5.0 The sawdust, white arsenic, and salt are mixed dry; the amyl acetate is added to the water and then mixed with the dry ingredients. After these ingredients are well mixed, middlings are added and the whole is stirred. There is no particular advantage in the use of this bait over that which contains bran, except that the cost of material is reduced about one-half. Inasmuch as there are two different feeding times for the various species of hoppers, some of them feeding during the morning hours and others during the afternoon, the tim,e of application of the bait plays an important part in its success. The bait loses its effective- ness quite rapidly; therefore it is necessary to apply it as near be- fore the feeding hours as possible. Red-Necked Cane Borer on Raspberries T HAT THE raspberry industry in Wisconsin has been greatly reduced because of the ravages of diseases and the raids of insects was shown in a survey made some years ago. One of the most troublesome insects in raspberry culture, the red-necked cane borer (Agrilus ruficollis), has been studied during the past year by A. Weed, working under C. L. Fluke (Economic Entomology). The adult borer is a beetle about one-third inch in length, small, slender, and tapering slightly toward the end of the abdomen. The upper wings and head are blue-black in color, while the thorax is reddish or coppery; the brassy neck makes it very easily recognizable and also accounts for the name of the species. From data collected in the vicinity of Madison, it appears that the ins.ect emerges from the raspberry canes during the latter part of 74 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 May or early June through an almost circular opening cut into the cane by the. newly developed insect. , The work of the larvae in the cane can be readily recognized in late fall or during the winter and spring by the swelling or galls (A) (B) FIG. 36.— THE RED-NECKED CANE BORER (A) Basal swelling caused by the larva. (B) Larva making its way up the cane above the first or upper gall. found at intervals upon the cane, and usually two in number. The insect can be held in check by the exercising of care in pruning the cane fruit by cutting below the galls and then burning the cuttings to destroy the larvae. , Moldy Bread Outbreak Due to Infected Flour A BAKING company at Eau Claire, after suffering considerable loss due to an outbreak of mold in bread in 1921 appealed to the College for help in solving the problem. The bread showed mold development inside the loaf within one and one-half to two hours after removal from the oven. Often by the time the bread had reached the consumer, the mold had penetrated to the entire loaf. It is a common opinion that moldy bread is oc- casioned only through contamination of the loaf after baking. But in this case everything had been thoroughly cleaned; the bread was wrapped immediately after baking; and it was shown that the wrappers were not at fault since the bread developed mold whether it was wrapped or placed in a closed box. Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 75 W. C. Frazier (Agricultural Bacteriology), in studying the outbreak, found that the trouble came from the flour. Two brands of flour were being used, one of which was very high in mold content, showing as many as 11,000 mold spores per gram of flour. The trouble stopped immediately when the use of this infected flour was discontinued. Bakers are commonly of the opinion that the temperature attained by the loaf of bread in "the baking process is sufficient to dest.rov mold spores. The temperature, however, is slightly below 212 °F. FIG. 37.— THE CANE BORER LARVAE Full-grown larvae are white in color and semi-transparent (about 2V 2 times actual size). Examination of the moldy loaves in the recent outbreak showed that the mold first began to develop in a crease in the loaf which is formed by the partitions between the series of pans. In it the dough warms up very quickly in the baking process and apparently dries out as is shown by the doughy appearance and the unchanged starch grains in that portion of the bread. It appears that becaus.e of the reduced water content of the dough at this point, the mold spores in this area are able to withstand thp heat. Since the trouble was noted only in the bread which was wrapped immediately after its removal from the pan, it seems that a contributing factor to mold development is the moisture which collects in these unbaked portions of the bread after baking because the wrapper does not permit it to escape. In the unwrapped loaves the mold spores present were unable to germinate because the mois- ture was taken up by the air, with no opportunity to collect in the unbaked areas. 76 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 Yeast Causes Sauerkraut Discoloration D URING THE latter part of 1921 numerous complaints were made by the sauerkraut manufacturers of Wisconsin because their product became discolored after it was transferred from the large vats into the wooden casks. This discoloration took place after the kraut had “ripened.” The trouble is entirely different from that which is commonly known as “pink sauerkraut.” W. H. Peterson (Agricultural Chemistry) and E. B. Fred (Bacteri- ology) devoted considerable time to the study of the kraut discolora- tion problem. After a detailed survey they found that the trouble is caused by a yeast-like organism which brings about a harmful fermen- FIG. 38.— ORGANISMS WHICH DISCOLOR KRAUT (A) Photomicrograph of juice from normal sauerkraut. (B) Photomicrograph of juice from discolored sauerkraut. Magnified about 95u diameters. tation. All affected krauts were high in alcohol and relatively low in lactic acid. The destruction of lactic acid is accompanied by an in- crease in alcohol and brings about a decided change in the taste and color of the kraut. This change renders it unsuitable for food and re- sults in large losses to the manufacturers. Promising results were se- cured by a change of brine and the use of carbon dioxide, but to com- plete the work further experiments will be required. Grouping Legume Nodule Bacteria B Y ADOPTING a test, that has long been used in medicine (the agglutination reaction), Mr. Fred and J. W. Stevens (Bacteri- ology) have found that the nodule-forming bacteria of legumes can be readily separated into their various strains. These groups, when thus separated, correspond to the groups found by means of inoculation experiments with plants. In addition this test also shows some new subdivision within the known groups of organisms. Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 77 The test is carried out as follows: 1 c. c. of a suspension of the bacteria is injected into a rabbit. This is repeated three times, doubling the dose each time. In this way the serum of the rabbit’s blood becomes sensitized to the particular strain of bacteria. When the clear serum is separated from the blood of the rabbit and to it is added a suspension of the same kind of bacteria with which the animal was inoculated, it is found that the bacterial cells collect in clusters (agglutinate) and settle to the bottom- With other strains of organisms no reaction is produced with the particular serum. Forty-one strains of legume bacteria have been tested for this property, and it is found that they can be separated into a far greater number of divisions than is possible by the plant inoculation test. For instance, 14 strains of alfalfa and sweet clover bacteria fall into two definite groups. It is hoped that this subdividing of the larger group will enable a selection to be made of the most active nitrogen- fixing strains of nodule-forming bacteria. This new method offers quite a new point of attack to the problem of legume inoculation. ARGE losses are annually sustained by farmers from the de- composition of silage, both on top and along silo chutes. Vari- ous ways have been tried to eliminate these losses, and experi- mental work on this subject is still being done. Since there are al- ready over 90,000 silos in the state, work on this subject is assum- ing considerable economic importance. The Fink Silo Seal. — Because of the requests received for informa- tion concerning the value of the Fink Silo seal, a study was made of the losses which occurred on the top of a silo with the seal and on the top of one without the silo seal by Mr. Fred and Mr. Peterson. Though the results are not complete, they indicate that there is a de- cided loss of silage even when sealed by means of the special silo seal. Loss in Dry Matter in Making of Silage. — By use of water-tight sacks, an attempt has been made to study the losses which occur in the making of corn tissue into silage. The results indicate that this loss is not so great as has been reported by former investigators. In general it was found that there was a decrease in dry matter of from 4 to 8 per cent, but further investigation will be made in order to obtain, if possible, a more definite figure. Lime and Inoculation Affect Nitrogen Fixing Capacity of Legumes T HAT lime and inoculation influence the growth of legumes has been known for a long time, although there is no way of estimating very accurately the annual gain in nitrogen due to the activity of the root nodule bacteria. Work this past year under greenhouse conditions by E. J. Graul (Soils) arid Mr. Fred shows that this gain occurs in both non-acid and Experiments With Silage 78 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 acid soils. On strongly acid soils it is important to know whether it is necessary to neutralize all of the soil acidity in order to grow a profit- able crop of a legume, such as alfalfa. Small applications of limestone usually produce a decidedly beneficial effect on the growth and nitro- gen content of the plant, in fact, often more so than when very heavy applications of limestone are made. A number of trials on several different types of soils have been made during the year with alfalfa and red clover. Analyses of the soil and seed were made at planting time, also of both the soil and the crop when harvested. The difference between the total nitrogen content of the soil and the se,ed at planting time and that of the crop and the soil at harvesting time was taken as the amount of nitrogen fixed from the air by the root nodule bacteria. Alfalfa on Colby silt loam gave the following results: Nitrogen fixed per acre Alfalfa unlimed 82.1 pounds “ — 2.5 tons of limestone per acre 106.2 “ — 5.0 “ “ “ “ “ 108.3 “ — 7.5 “ “ “ “ “ 112.4 “ —10.0 “ “ “ “ “ 87.9 “ — 15.0 “ “ “ “ “ 67.2 On Plainfield sand alfalfa fixed nitrogen as follows: Nitrogen fixed per acre Alfalfa unlimed 104.9 pounds “ — 1.25 tons of limestone per acre 107.8 “ “ —2.5 “ “ “ “ “ 69.9 “ — 5.0 “ “ “ “ 45.8 Medium red clover on Plainfield sand showed the following results: Nitrogen fixed peracre Clover unlimed 100.2 pounds “ — 1.5 tons of limestone per acre 140.0 “ “ — 2.5 “ “ “ “ “ 72.8 “ —5.0 “ “ “ “ “ 12.5 In all of the trials the seed was thoroughly inoculated. These results indicate that a partial neutralization of existing acidity of the soil is necessary to secure maximum production, and that a thorough inoculation of the legume helps the plant to overcome the unfavorable effects of soil acidity. Plowing Under Green Brush T HAT large amounts of green wood tissue retard the growth of higher plants has been shown in a series of carefully controlled pot tests by Mr. Fred and A. C. Fiedler (Agricultural Engineer- ing). Virgin soils from the cut-over district were used and finely di- vided wood, such as alder, poplar, willow, and birch, were added to the soil in which oats were planted. Apparently, the different woods have a decidedly varying effect upon the growth of cereal crops. Green alder and green poplar seems to be quite injurious to the oat plant, while green willow and green birch cause only a slight decrease in the growth. Plot investigations are being conducted to determine more definitely the toxic effect of green wood upon the growth of higher plants. Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 79 FIG. 39.— TURNED UNDER BRUSH AFFECTS THE PLANT GROWTH This experiment shows that green wood, when mixed with the soil, may be toxic to plants. Apparently the effects of some woods are much more marked than others. “Stinker” Swiss Cheese Increasing TINKER” CHEESE has increased to a great extent in the Swiss cheese industry during the last few years. Cheese so affected is darker in color and is characterized by a foul odor that often makes the product unsalable. Commonly the trouble is confined to small areas within the cheese, making it usually impos- sible to detect it from the outside. Many explanations have been suggested as to the cause of this trouble, such as difficulty in curdling of the milk and the influence of feed, especially silage. Others believe that mechanical stirring devices which are somewhat widely used are the cause, but none of these explanations is based on any scientific study. E. G. Hastings and W. C. Frazier (Agricultural Bacteriology) find on analysis that in many cases, as the odor increases, it is character- ized by hydrogen sulphide (H 2 S). Large numbers of butyric acid- forming bacteria are also found in the spoiled areas while very few of these organisms occur in the unaffected cheese. These bacteria grow in the presence of considerable amounts of acid such as are formed by the ordinary acid-forming organisms in Swiss cheese. The problem has only been opened up and needs more investigation, as it is a source of much loss in the Swiss cheese industry. High Quality Milk Shut Out by Laboratory Tests I N MAY 1922 the Experiment Station was consulted by certain Waukesha certified milk producers when their product was shut out of the Chicago market because it was alleged that haemolytic streptococci (blood-dissolving bacteria) were found in it. W. D. Frost 80 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 and Miss Freda Bachmann (Agricultural Bacteriology) examined about 500 samples of these milks and found that, in from 15 to 40 per cent of the milks of cows in three herds, organisms occurred that were often of the Beta type, (this type is generally assumed to be associated with streptococcus sore throat). Bacteria of this type are no doubt widely distributed, but little study has been made of their presence in milk except in times of epidemics. Similar organ- isms have been found in the milk of 15 per cent of the animals in the University herd. In no case, however, has there been any reason to suspect the safety of any of these milk supplies. This shows the laboratory methods employed need much more verification than now exists before being accepted as final in this regard. Certified milk producers are vitally interested in this problem as the present attitude of city health officials is to consider such organisms as potentially dangerous in a milk supply. Trials With Tuberculosis Vaccine F OR YEARS scientists have sought a way to reduce by means of a vaccine the ravages of tuberculosis. W. D. Frost (Agricul- tural Bacteriology) and assistants have made some progress by using tubercle bacilli, killed by means of ultra-violet light, as a vaccine, for which the name of tubuvase has been suggested. It was shown that the process of manufacture would kill the tubercle bacilli, rendering the method safe, also that the vaccine had considerable preventive properties. Inasmuch as the proper dosage of tubuvase is not known, Mr. Frost proposes to continue the experiment by using much larger quantities of the vaccine. Recent experiments indicate that more than one hundred times the former maximum dose may be given with perfect safety. When it is considered that from 25 to 30 per cent of the hogs killed in this state are tuberculous and that most other farm animals are more or less subject to it, any disease resistance which could be built up in the bodies of the little pigs by means of tubuvase would be of great economic importance to Wisconsin, and it seems desirable to continue this work with the hope of reaching the goal which science has so long sought. Fur Farming Increasing in Wisconsin T HE RECEIPT of several carcasses of foxes for autopsy led F. B. Hadley and B. L. Warwick (Veterinary Science) to make a survey of the fur farming industry in this state. In reply to a questionnaire, fifty-two answers were received from owners engaged in raising fur bearing animals in captivity in twenty- four counties. In this new industry Marathon county is an easy leader, 13 different ranches being located there. Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 81 Though the industry is comparatively new, the replies show that some Wisconsin men have been engaged in it for as long as 20 years, and decided activity has taken place during the last four or five years. The chief animals grown for their pelts are the foxes: the Alaskan silver fox, the silver black fox, and the crossbred fox being the most popular breeds while a few farmers raise the red fox. Skunks, minks, raccoons, wolves, and rabbits are also raised. A total of 1 ; 361 animals were reported, which gives an average of about 30 animals per farm. One thousand, one hundred and forty- seven acres of land were reported as being used strictly for fur-farm- ing purposes. In comparing the number of young born last year with the number raised, it was found that some ranchers lost all of FIG. 40.— ALASKAN SILVER BLACK FOX Wisconsin fur farmers find that foxes in captivity thrive best when their quarters are kept in a sanitary condition and as nearly like those chosen by wild foxes as it is- possible to provide. their pups while others raised substantially all of the young produced. The average reported was 75 per cent, which may be considered a very good record in view of the fact that in this industry animals are being raised under artificial conditions which may vary widely from the natural. While the fox industry is a relatively new industry in Wisconsin, artificial rearing of foxes has grown to the proportions of a large 82 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 business in some sections of the country. Prince Edward Island in Canada is perhaps the best known section for this business. Fine quality pelts bring several hundred dollars apiece, but it is difficult to get any satisfactory figures with reference to the differentiation of actual receipts for pelts or breeding stock. The final success of the business will, of course, have to rest in the sale of pelts rather than breeding stock. Among the obstacles to success in this business, disease, worms, and insanitary conditions were reported as the principal causes of FIG. 41. — THE LOCATION OF WISCONSIN FUR FARMS The small black dots indicate the number of farms at each place. loss. Mismanagement, the marketing of the pelts, feeding troubles, Canadian competition, lack of capital, failure to breed, and the dis- position of the fox were given as other difficulties which some of the Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 83 breeders have met. Forty-six ranchers reported plans of expansion, and the number of animals which they expected eventually to main- tain was stated to be from 40 to 100. Ten leading fox farms were visited, and a wide difference was found in the equipment and management. The common size of pen used is 24 feet by 48 feet. The individual pens on most ranches were separated from each other by spaces varying from 18 inches to 16 feet. The primary object in having a double wall is to prevent fighting through the fence; and it is said also to be an aid in preventing and controlling disease. On one ranch there were a few holding pens separated only by a single fence, but these are used only a short time during the year. At the time of the visit to this ranch one valuable silver fox was suffering from the loss of a paw as the result of fight- ing through the fence. Another ranch visited was using the double partition only up to about six feet in height with a single partition above that, but this was not considered satisfactory. To prevent the animals from digging their way to freedom, the fence also extends into the ground about 18 inches to two feet, or else the entire pen is carpeted with netting. All pens were provided with an “over- hang,” a projection to the fence on the inside to prevent the escape of the foxes. Some owners are emphatic in their contention that the only success- ful method of raising foxes is to have plenty of trees and rocks in the inclosure and to provide means for the animals to have plenty opportunity for digging, thus simulating natural conditions. An observation tower is an essential part of the equipment of most ranches. A side location is favored because observers are not so likely to disturb the animals during the mating season. Three general types of kennels were found in use: (1) a three- compartment kennel for one pen; (2) two single compartment kennels for one pen; and (3) underground kennels. The first two have their advocates, but the underground type is not favored by any. It is being tried, but appears to be too damp and musty and is therefore avoided by the foxes. Special ventilators are being used by some in the hope of making underground kennels more habitable. Infestation of the intestines with the round worm ( Belas caris mar- ginata), one of the Ascarids, is the principal disease with which fox breeders have to contend. This is probably the result of the con- finement of the animals to relatively small quarters, where there is usually little opportunity to keep conditions strictly sanitary. The most successful fox farmers treat the pups, soon after they appear out of doors and at regular intervals thereafter, to eradicate these worms. Most breeders use one of the several advertised remedies on the market for this purpose. In spite of this, some pups are occasionally lost because of this disease. Young fox pups a few weeks old sometimes contain hundreds of these parasites. In one that was examined in the laboratory 276 worms were found. 84 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 Reports from Canada indicate that the hookworm is a very serious menace to the industry there, but in the autopsy of Wisconsin foxes very few of these pests were found. Rickets is somewhat prevalent, and the breeders are showing con- siderable thoughtfulness in planning the rations for their foxes with this in mind. Many eggs, much milk, and ground bone are fed along with such feeds as horse meat, beef, unpolished rice, oat meal, vegetables, and bread- These combinations provide a ration that aids in the prevention of rickets as well as in promoting the growth of the young animals. Goiter in Calves and Sheep Prevented by Iodine HAT goiter is common in some animals of the North Central states has long been known; and, in order to find methods of treatment and prevention of the disease in calves, F. B. Hadley (Veterinary Science) has undertaken its study. Cases of goiter in calves have been reported from numerous places in the state, and a survey shows that the disease confines itself to certain herds rather than to any particular section of the state. Goiter is a diseased condition of the thyroid gland, which is located in the upper part of the neck. When this gland from affected calves was studied by means of the microscope, it was found to be much enlarged, due to increased number of cells. In newborn calves the swelling may be so large as to compress the trachea and result in suffocation. In some cases the swelling gradually disappears without treatment; but with the administration of potassium iodide (KI) recovery occurs much more promptly. In one herd of pure bred Guernseys, eight calves were born between January 28 and May 25, and all of them had goiter. The seven calves that lived out of this group were treated on June 2 by being given two grains of potassium iodide; and the treatment was continued daily for three weeks. At that time no signs of goiter could be detected in five of the animals, while there was a noticeable improvement in the other two; by August 1 all of them had fully recovered. Although no potassium iodide was administered to any of the cows of this herd, none of the calves born during the succeeding 12 months was goiterous. The only change made in the herd management during that time was that the cows were required to take more exercise than before. Whether this helped as a preventive is not known. As a method of prevention of goiter in calves, it is recommended that five grains of potassium iodide (KI), or sodium iodide (Nal), be given to each cow every second day during the last three months of the gestation period. This may be conveniently given by placing a five-grain tablet in the drinking cup or by dissolving the iodide crystals in water and then mixing with the feed or the drinking water. This method of treatment is also recommended for sheep, the dose being five grains per week by mixing it with the salt. The amount Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 85 required for a given number of sheep may be determined by first emptying the salt boxes and then filling them with a known amount of salt by weight. At the end of a week the remaining salt is removed and weighed to find the amount consumed. A like quantity of salt is then mixed with as much potassium iodide (KI) or sodium iodide (Nal) as would be required to allow five grains per head per week. The mixing of a fresh supply each week is desirable because the material turns reddish in color when left exposed to the air. It has been observed that goiter in newborn animals occurs almost exclusively on farms in sections where winter necessitates stabling between November and March. This is the season when the ration is likely to be restricted to food and drink low in iodine. Sows and ewes which have had access to green feed during the last three months of their gestation period seldom, if ever, give birth to goiter- ous offspring. Cows and mares may require a longer period on pasture to safeguard their prospective progeny against this disease. HAT infectious abortion in swine, if it continues to spread, threatens to menace seriously the swine industry is apparent from recent studies made by F. B. Hadley and B. A. Beach (Veterinary Science). Their work indicates that this disease is now prevalent to an alarming extent in Wisconsin and in other hog raising states as well. The abortion disease in swine is caused by a microorganism which is closely related to but not identical with the bacillus which is responsible for most cases of abortion in cattle. This germ has been found in aborted pigs, infected afterbirths, and in the first milk of aborting sows. When pregnant sows were inoculated with the abortion bacilli of swine, most of them aborted, but none aborted that were inoculated with strains of the organism recovered from cattle. The inoculation of pregnant cows with strains of abortion bacilli from cows caused abortion in these animals, but no effect was apparent upon pregnant sows inoculated with the same organism. The investigators have concluded that the abortion disease of swine is much more likely to be introduced into a clean herd by purchase of swine from infected herds than by the feeding of dairy products contaminated with germs of bovine abortion, and it does not appear likely that sows will contract the infection from affected cows. Blood tests were found to be the most satisfactory means of detect- ing the disease in swine, the agglutination method of testing being preferred. The average time required for abortion to result after a sow was infected was 23.2 days; in the cow it was 58.5 days. While infection may be contracted in various ways, sows seem to have con- siderable resistance against the organisms when taken by way of the Infectious Abortion in Swine 86 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 mouth; but when they are injected into the H. ad stream before breed- ing, it was found that 75 per cent of the pregnant sows aborted. Infectious abortion in hogs seems to be a self-limiting disease in that a naturally acquired infection usually is followed by immunity which will protect some sows for a long period of time. The breeding efficiency of animals which have aborted is not necessarily impaired. This, however, depends upon the individual. Vaccination ex- periments justify th,e belief that this is a means of conferring active immunity and promises to be effective as a control measure. Whether it would be advisable to use vaccine generally in herds throughout the state has not yet been determined. Contagious Abortion in Cattle P ROGRESS in the work being conducted to control contagious abortion of cattle is reported by Mr. Hadley. Careful study of the abortion vaccine after it had been kept in storage for varying lengths of time has shown that the microorganisms live for at least two months in a vaccine prepared with a physiologic salt solution and stored in a refrigerator. Five hundred doses of the vaccine were prepared and distributed for experimental purposes. This material was sent to veterinarians and farmers who were cooperat- ing with the Department of Veterinary Science in the study of the results which follow the use of live cultures of abortion bacilli when applied as a vaccine to immunize open cows and heifers against the abortion disease. The agglutination test on the blood serum of cattle must be made at least once every six months in order to detect incipient cases of infection. Otherwise the disease may make such headway that it would be impractical to control it by removing all reacting animals. During the year, 1,730 samples of bovine blood, 130 samples of porcine blood, 15 samples of ovine blood, and 25 samples of cow’s milk were tested to determine whether abortion infection was present. Recom- mendations to the owners of the animals for the management of their herds and flocks to prevent and control the disease were based upon these various tests. The sum of ten cents per sample is being charged for making these tests to cover the cost of materials used. Tuberculosis in Poultry T UBERCULOSIS is gaining headway in farm animals to an appalling extent. It is by no means confined to cattle, as was at one time believed, for Mr. Beach has found it widely pre- valent in hogs and to an alarming extent in poultry. In some localities practically all flocks of poultry on farms are infected. On account of the slow progress of the disease in individual birds, it is not recognized by the poultryman until many members of the flock become affected. Postmortem examinations were made in the Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 87 veterinary science laboratory during the past year on 300 birds of all ages and from different flocks. All of these fowls were affected with some kind of disease, and 18 per cent of them were found to be affected with tuberculosis. Of the adult fowls, 28 per cent were tuberculous. Avian (fowl) tuberculin is being prepared and distributed by the Experiment Station to be used in detecting tuberculous poultry in the same way that tuberculin is used to detect this disease in cattle. As a means of control and eradication this product promises to be of considerable aid. Danger Lies in Feeding Horses Silage HAT there is an element of danger in the feeding of silage to horses appears probable from an investigation made by Mr. Hadley during the past year. A number of outbreaks of disease followed by severe losses have been reported where silage seems to have contained some substance which was toxic to horses. The disease has been variously termed forage poisoning, botulism, staggers, and ptomaine poisoning. It is most prevalent in Wisconsin during the warm spells of early spring. The symptoms exhibited by horses suffering from this form of poisoning are given below, since they will aid veterinarians and farmers in recognizing cases of the disease in the early stages: (1) Inability to swallow either liquids or solids. (2) Paralysis of the tongue, which is shown by the animal being unable to retract this organ when it is withdrawn from the mouth. (3) A constant flow of saliva, which hangs from the mouth in long strings. (4) Attempts to eat hay, which is grasped by the lips, but can- not be carried into the mouth for mastication. (5) When trying to drink, the lips pucker a little, but not the slightest movement is noticeable in the throat. (6) The muscles that control the act of swallowing waste away rapidly, and a pinched appearance around the throat is observed. (7) A thick, whitish discharge occurs from the nostrils. (8) The pupils of the eyes dilate and are not responsive to light. (9) At first the mind is clear, but later the animal may become delirious, and the hearing appears to be affected. (10) The tail is so limp that it may be folded straight over the back like a rag. (11) When the animals walk, they exhibit incoordination of move- ment and lack control over the muscles. (12) Constipation occurs in most cases, but with little bloating. These symptoms become aggravated as the disease progresses, and after a few hours the animals become unable to maintain a standing position. 88 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 Though the exact cause of this disease is not definitely understood, Dr. Hadley believes that it is produced by a toxic substance formed by the Bacillus botulinus or some other disease-producing organism. For animals in the early stages of the disease, the use of a product known as botulinus antitoxin is recommended, but this is not effective as a curative agent in the advanced stages of the trouble. Purgatives and immediate change of feed are essential in the treatment of animals suffering from this form of poisoning. Calf Diphtheria or Stomatitis in Wisconsin A CONTAGIOUS and infectious disease in calves (known as necrotic stomatitis) has been brought to light in investigations by Mr. Hadley. This infection is also termed “calf diphtheria’' due to patches in the mouth and throat that resemble those seen in human diphtheria. In the herd first observed four calves had died and five were sick with the characteristic symptoms of the disease. The cause was found to be the Bacillus necrophorus (a microorganism often found in the intestinal organs of cattle where it usually does no harm). However, when the organism becomes highly virulent, it causes an inflammation in the tissues which finally destroys them. The following control means are advised: (1) Separation of all affected animals from the healthy ones, (2) Daily inspection of the mouth and throat of exposed animals, (3) Swabbing of necrotic patches with a 3 per cent solution of potassium permanganate, (4) Removal of all loose litter from the pens and disinfection with a reliable disinfectant. Better Methods Important in Swiss Cheese Making T HE IMPORTANCE of growing starters used in the manufacture of Swiss cheese at the proper temperature has long been advo- cated by the Dairy Husbandry Department and to meet this need, two simple devices have been perfected under the direction of J. L. Sammis (Dairy Husbandry) within the last year. In the past when the starter was kept at too low a temperature, it often failed to produce the amount of acid necessary for the manufacture of the best quality of cheese; and consequently many cheese makers in the state have experienced trouble in the making of a first quality product for the reason that they did not provide a suitable place for the keeping of the starter cans. The first of these new devices consisted of an ordinary egg incubator lamp and regulator applied to a wooden box provided with suitable space to hold the starter containers. Since the temperature requirement for the satisfactory growth of the starter bacteria ( Bacterium bulgaricus ) is not a very definite one, anywhere between 100° and 113°F. being satisfactory, it was found Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 89 that this device very easily maintained a proper temperature. Some cheese factories in the state have already adopted the plan and are obtaining satisfactory results with it. One incubator manufacturer in the state has gone so far as to modify his machine by substituting jar and tube holders for the egg shelving, thus providing a cheap and efficient outfit for use by the cheese makers in keeping starter cans at a uniform temperature. The second method used employed a double walled, galvanized iron jacket filled with cotton batting around cans of starter from 100 to 150 pounds in size. In such large quantities the insulation provided by this jacket is sufficient to keep the temperature uniformly high FIG. 4 2.— A SIMPLE STARTER CAN DOES THE WORK The can of starter is placed upon an insulated base and covered with a double-walled iron jacket in which the interspace is filled with in- sulating- material. It keeps the temperature sufficiently uniform for best results-. enough to permit proper growth and ripening. Several of these insulating jackets were constructed by the Dairy Husbandry Depart- ment and loaned to cheese makers with the result that in each case the cheese maker was able to construct an inexpensive and satisfactory- jacket after using the one loaned to him through the Experiment Station. A convenient way to build the arrangement at the cheese factory is to use a twenty-gallon milk can surrounded by a double wooden box, the walls of which are filled with a six-inch layer of insulating material. A cover similarly insulated is put on top; or, if 90 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 the jacket is made of metal, it can be inverted over the can of starter on an insulated base. Either of these ways is more satisfactory than the old custom of setting starter cans in the boiler room over night in the hope that they will keep a temperature which will produce a degree of ripening satisfactory for the manufacture of a first-class cheese. It is probable that the general use of some temperature controlling device in the keeping of starters will follow as the result of this work. Trials with “Eye”-Culture. — In view of the variety of methods used by Swiss factory men and the discordant ideas held by them on many points, a number of questions constantly come up for solution which are often best settled by direct experiment. In April 1922 trials were undertaken to determine the value of eye-forming cultures developed and distributed by the United States Dairy Division through C. M. Gere, who has been working in cooperation with the Wisconsin Experiment Station. While these experiments have not settled the question with complete finality, it is apparent that the eye-forming culture, if intelligently used, will do much to give our Wisconsin-made Swiss cheese the high flavor which is commonly found in that of foreign make. From the work conducted so far, it appears that temperature of the curing room must be under control to avoid too great eye formation in the use of the eye-forming cultures; and while some inexperienced cheese makers were unable to get satisfactory results with their use, it is probable that further experiments will bring about a more extensive appreciation of them. Salts Affect Heat Coagulation of Evaporated Milk M ILK condensaries frequently are troubled by a coagulation of the evaporated milk in the sterilizing process. This makes the evaporated milk curdled in appearance and practically unmarketable. H. H. Sommer (Dairy Husbandry) previously found that the calcium and magnesium salts, the citrates, and phosphates of milk have a decided influence on heat coagulation. Evaporated milk that coagulates in the sterilizing process frequently does so because of an excess of calcium and magnesium in the milk. This condition can be improved by the proper addition of sodium citrate, or disodium, or potassium phosphate. This remedy the past year has been further applied on a com- mercial scale at condensaries with considerable success. At one condensary calcium chloride brine leaked into the milk. By the addition of sodium citrate the product was finally processed at 244 °F. for 16 minutes. This striking illustration occurred on 50,000 pounds of milk, and it shows the marked effect of salts on the coagulation of evaporated milk. Certain condensaries are using disodium phosphate very successfully, and they are enabled thereby to extend the steriliz- ing process four or five minutes. Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 91 Mr. Sommer has begun a study of the causes for a variation in the salt composition of the milk which bring about this troublesome coagu lation. Preliminary experiments have shown that the feed influences the heat coagulation of milk v.ery materially. Fresh milk from one cow on dry feed coagulated consistently at 246°F. in two or three minutes. When this same cow went on pasture, the milk no longer coagulated at 246 °F. in thirty minutes. The properties of the milk of three cows were also decidedly changed by feeding them from 50 to 200 grams of calcium carbonate (lime) per day. More extended trials of this matter are now in progress HE ALCOHOL test has long been used as one of the methods of determining the quality of milk. If a precipitate formed in this test, the milk was supposed to be undesirable and therefore rejected or scored second grade. The reliability of this test has been further studied by H. H. Sommer and T. H. Binney (Dairy Hus- bandry). They found that the alcohol test is very decidedly influenced by small variations in the salt composition of milk. Calcium and magnesium salts cause a positive test but their effect is counteracted by the citrates and phosphates of the milk. It was shown that the milk of three cows which had been negative to the alcohol test be- came positive when liberal amounts of calcium carbonate (50 grams increased to 200 grams) were fed in the ration. The acidity was also found to be a factor in the alcohol test but of lesser importance in the case of fresh milk than the salt composition. Rennet-forming bacteria also cause a positive test. The alcohol test, therefore is not to be wholly relied upon. It is shown that it depends largely upon the salt composition of the milk, which may vary widely, and bear no relation to the quality of the milk itself. Salt composition which causes a positive alcohol test is not undesirable, and such milk should not be excluded except, possibly for evaporated milk where its tendency to coagulate rapidly may be detrimental. The heat coagulation of evaporated milk and the alcohol coagulation are both influenced by the same factor; i. e., an excess of calcium and magnesium over citrates and phosphates. The value of the alcohol test then may be more significant in the selection of milk for condensing purposes than in other lines. Denatured Alcohols for Fat Extraction Test I N' THE accurate determination of fat content of dairy products by the Rose-Gottlieb extraction method, grain alcohol is com- monly used. On account of its cost, due to the tax and the restric- tions placed upon its sale the desirability of using denatured alcohol for this purpose became apparent. Accordingly H. H. Sommer and K. V. Bryan (Dairy Husbandry) made a study of various substitutes and found that grain alcohol denatured by the addition of one-tenth Use of Alcohol Test Limited 92 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 of its volume of wood alcohol or with one-tenth its volume of ether and three-twentieths of ammonia gave good results. Wood alcohol and iso-propyl alcohol were unsatisfactory. Fishy Flavor of Butter O CCASIONALLY there develops in butter, especially storage butter, a flavor which is variously described as resembling that of salmon, mackerel, and salted herring. This fishy flavor has been a depreciating factor of considerable importance in the butter trade ever since highly flavored butter was made and put into cold storage. Conditions under which this fishiness develops in butter have been studied by H. H. Sommer and B. J. Smit (Dairy Husbandry). Butter was made from pasteurized and unpasteurized cream; from low, medium, and high acid test cream; it was unsalted, medium salted, and highly salted; some of it was overworked, some exposed to the air, and other samples left in contact with metallic surfaces; and different temperatures of storage were also used. After five months storage, fishy flavors were obtained. The most distinct fishiness was obtained from highly salted butter that had been made from high acid, unpasteurized cream in which iron lactate had been incorporated, and which had been stored at the higher storage temperatures. No fishiness was obtained in samples of low acidity, low saltiness, and in which oxidation was not favored. The theory has been advanced that the fishy flavor is due to an organic compound known as trimethylamine (herring brine odor), which may be formed from another organic compound found in butter known as lecithin. Experiments were conducted with the emulsions of lecithin prepared from egg yolk to determine the conditions under which lecithin will decompose to yield trimethylamine. It was found that the lecithin emulsion yielded by far the largest amount of tri- methylamine under the combination of the above named three condi- tions — high acidity, high salt content, and oxidation. Trimethylamine or its salts when incorporated into the butter im- parted to it the characteristic fishy flavor. This compound was also isolated from samples of fishy butter. The conclusion seems sub- stantiated that fishiness in butter is due largely to the results of the chemical decomposition of lecithin into trimethylamine, and that the factors which seem to favor this condition are high acidity and high salt content in butter combined with the oxidation resulting from overworking in the presence of metallic utensils. Cooperative Butter Marketing Needed T HERE IS a growing amount of dissatisfaction with the pre- vailing systems of butter marketing. Butter has long been marketed by the individual creamery shipping the same to ad- jacent available markets where it has been sold presumably on its merits but often without any knowledge of its origin. In view of Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 93 the fact that much improved methods have already been inaugurated in one Wisconsin county and have resulted in such signal success in the cooperative marketing of butter by shipping in car lots to eastern POUNDS IN PRICE IN MILLIONS CENTS (4 13 12 11 10 9 a 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ACTUAL SALES 'CA AV 'ER/ ^GE n Hi 56 52 48 44 40 36 32 28 24 20 lb 12 8 4 JAN FEB MAR APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUC SEPT OCT NOV DEC FIG. 43.— WHY BUTTER PRICES FLUCTUATE Butter production and sales are high in the summer months with the result that prices tend to fall as production increases. 94 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 markets, it appears that a state wide cooperative organization for improvement in the marketing of butter is readily possible. Accord- ingly, Theodore Macklin and L. P. Gabbard (Agricultural Economics) undertook a survey of the operations of thirty-one cream, eries located in the counties of La Crosse, Monroe, and Vernon for the purpose of determining how cooperative creameries in general might improve their marketing conditions. A number of conclusions in accordance with the experience of creamery operators have been reached: 1. Many farmers in each community are not producing as high a grade of cream as is necessary to make the highest quality of butter If the creamery refuses to accept the low grade cream, patrons shift from one creamery to another, and more creameries than are neces- sary to handle the butter fat are kept open for business with the result that unnecessary running expenses are incurred. 2. It is found that the cost of assembling butter fat, making butter, and placing it on the market by different creameries varied from slightly less than 2 cents per pound to 7.6 cents in 1921- Transporta- tion cost varied from almost nothing to 3.75 cents per pound, and creamery operating costs ranged from 1.9 c.ents to 5.3 cents per pound. Generally the larger creameries can make butter at a smaller cost per pound. 3. The size of the creamery seems to bear no relation to transpor- tation costs of cream and butter, but it does bear a direct relation to the cost of the creamery operations, which shows that the creamery manager is usually more expert in the making of butter than in marketing it. 4. There is a great variation in the prices which the different creameries receive for their butter from month to month and for the year. This is in part due to differences in the quality of the product, but undoubtedly the plan of selling also exerts an effect. The average price of butter sold to' retailers was 4 cents per pound above that sold to wholesalers. Though the disposal of their product to retailers pays best, few creameries have developed this kind of market. 5. While there is room for improvement in all phases of creamery operations, the greatest need lies in the marketing end of the busi- ness where more expert service is required. 6. Expert sales service at a reasonable cost per pound cannot very well be obtained by local creameries individually, because they have too little butter to market. A better sales service, however, is pos- sible at a small cost by federating cooperative creameries so that a large volume of butter will go to market through a single sales sys- tem. The development of such cooperative creamery federations that can establish their own selling system is the next logical step in the butter industry. That the dairy industry in the state of Wisconsin needs a wider application of such methods is apparent when Polk county’s achieve- ments in this direction for the past few years are considered. Already, unit No. 1 of the Wisconsin Cooperative Creamery Associa- tion has been established in this county, and H. P. Sond,ergaard at Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 95 Balsam Lake is its field man. About 8,000,000 pounds of butter were shipped to New York and Philadelphia during 1921, and according to John Klinka, county agent for Polk county, an increase of ap- proximately a million pounds in these eastern shipments will result in 1922. Twenty-eight cooperative creameries are included in this shipping unit, and twenty-one of them are in the fi.eld unit. Accord- ing to Mr. Klinka, the organization has easily increased the income from butter for this territory by $50,000 in a year. That there is every prospect of developing powerful statewide or- ganization out of this Polk county idea is evidenced by the fact that 65 , creameries are already members of the Wisconsin Coopera- tive Creameries Association. This organization has rendered signal service in reducing the shrinkage, which is ordinarily experienced in the shipping of butter, and in the promotion of more exact methods in the manufacture and handling of the product. With the premium that is offered for butter scoring 93 on the eastern markets, many Wisconsin creameries that formerly only attempted to make a but- ter scoring 92 are learning that with a little extra effort they can obtain a product of such quality as will enable them to receive the fancy prices paid by the trade for butter testing 93. Through these efforts it is probable that we shall soon r,each the time when all makers of first class butter will use only sweet cream and that butter makers who are trained to make a first class product only will be employed. When a first class product is combined with intelligent marketing, Wisconsin dairymen will reap their fullest reward for such effort. To provide suitable brand names for Wis consin butter and then to market it through single representatives in the large eastern cities is another step which will naturally grow out of this organization work; but this, too, will depend for its suc- cess upon the quality of the product which is to be handled. The Polk county idea, whereby the quality of the product is so improved by the producers themselves that there will develop a market de- mand based on merit, is probably the natural solution of the prob- lems of Wisconsin dairymen, and its gradual application on wider areas appears desirable. The Town as the Farmer’s Service Station O TJT OF a study of country neighborhoods made last year, an investigation of the service relationships between the farmer and the town has grown. The work is being carried on in three areas: eastern Dane county, the Elkhorn area in Walworth county, and the Waupaca area in Waupaca county, by J. H. Kolb (Ag- ricultural Economics). This study includes the economic services, such as merchandising, marketing and financial, educational, religious, social, and the services of communication and organization. In one town, with a population of 490 people, 85 different agencies were discovered which have direct relations with the farming population which surrounds them Tn another section including six small towns 96 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 it was found that the farmers furnished about 65 per cent of the patronage for the non-commercial agencies, such as church, school, social and fraternal organizations, but assumed only about 15 per cent of the leadership. The town needs the farmer and the farmer needs the town. This relationship can be of more mutual benefit when given attention and when united effort is made for its organization than when it is neglected. It is probable also that this planned and orderly rela- tionship will come about most readily when each group perfects its own organization and the cooperation is the result of federated effort. An organized relationship between the town and the farmer is greatly dependent upon a thorough knowledge and mutual under- standing regarding the services and functions which one group per- forms for another. Each group must know something of the difficulty of the costs, problems, and needs of the various services. The pro- cess is educational and it is necessary to establish confidence. The mainspring of this whole scheme of organization will always be that of motive. Any proposed activity in order to be assured of confidence and permanency must have a definite purpose and render a worth while service. Analysis of Costs Shows Why Some Farms Pay S OME FARMS pay while others of similar soils and topography, with the same seasonal conditions and identical markets, fail to do so. During the last few years there has been a general decline in prices, and those of farm commodities have remained at the bot- tom of the list. Unddr such conditions many farms, which during other times made money, have lost heavily. Large farms generally have been heavier losers than the small ones; and the few farms which actually made money were distributed among all sizes from the smallest to the largest. A study was made in Walworth county under the direction of P. E. McNall to determine why some farms paid and to learn, if possible, to what extent it is desirable to supplement the dairy with other lines of income. It was found that the two outstanding ways in which the farms that made money differed from the others were the increased number of sources of income for the farm and the greater production of the dairy herd. The w dl diversified farms, or those having four or five sources of incoin i of more than $100 each, made considerably more than ihe poorly diversified farms. In order of their importance the chief incomes were obtained from dairy products, hogs, young cattle, poultry, grain, hay, and truck crops. The less diversified farms de- pended almost altogether upon dairy products for their income. Good diversity provides opportunity for the better use of man and horse labor and for the utilization of by-products such as skim milk from the dairy herd and to spread the risks of the business. Un- favorable weather conditions or live stock diseases seldom affect Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 97 more than one crop or more than one group of animals at a time, and the farmer having several sources of income is not likely to he hit in all of them at once. In this study it was also shown that, where average production per cow in the dairy herd was low, the income from this source was also low. The average production of milk per cow (5,600 pounds in Walworth county), was not enough to tee a paying proposition. As the production per cow increased from an average of 4,625 pounds in the lowest herd to 8,138 pounds per cow in the best herd, the average farm income increased from $476 to $1,205. The cost of milk produced in this case decreased $1.19 per hundred weight. The amount of feed and the hours of labor required to produce 10Q pounds of milk were considerably less with high producing than with low producing herds. The greatest saving can be made in the case of grain and other concentrates. In herds where the average production per cow was as low as 5,000 pounds or less, 38 pounds of concentrates were used to produce 100 pounds of milk, while only 31 pounds were required in herds where production reached from 5.000 to 7,000 pounds per cow. In those herds where it ran above 7.000 pounds’per cow 27 pounds of concentrates were used to produce a hundredweight of milk. It appears that many farmers fed too heavily of grain in the ration ior their farms to be profitable. On thirty-four farms, where on an average 3,000 pounds of grain and other concentrates were fed per cow, the average milk production was 5,900 pounds. This shows that 60 pounds of grain and other concentrates were used to pro- duce 100 pounds of milk. On one hundred other farms, where be- tween 1,000 and 2,000 pounds of concentrates were fed per cow per year, the average production was 6,000 pounds per cow and the amount of concentrates used for each 100 pounds of milk was 26 pounds. On these farms the net return per cow was $54 larger than on those where the heavier grain rations were fed. Farm Tenancy Increasing in Wisconsin ESS FARM tenancy is found in Wisconsin than in any of the bordering states. For the state as a whole the amount of tenancy is about 14 per cent, a very large part of which is found in the southern and eastern counties. In some of the southern counties the tenancy runs above 30 per cent while in some of those in the extreme north it falls below 5 per cent. On the whole, there is a very slight but gradual increase in farm tenancy in the state, most of which seems to occur in counties where the percentage is already high. A recent study directed by B. H. Hibbard (Agricultural Economics) covering farms in Green, Rock, and Jackson counties shows some interesting facts. The investigation showed that in all of these counties the owned farms were smaller than the tenant farms, but 98 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 the tenant farms showed the larger proportion of tilled land, while the owned farms had the larger proportion of pasture. Over a period of ten years it was found that 70 per cent of the owned farms had made important improvements at an average value of $1,119; while on the 57 per cent of the tenant farms, on which such improvements were made, only $526 were spent on an average. Less than two-fifths as much improvement was being made on tenant farms as on owned farms. In the Green-Rock counties district the tenants owned almost as many automobiles and 10 per cent more tractors than were found among the land owning farmers. But in Jackson county the tenants owned relatively only about four-fifths as many of each. As in other surv.eys made, it appears from this study that about 46 per cent of the tenants are relatives of the landlord and that in both these districts tenancy in most cases is merely a step toward land ownership. Fertilizer Needs of Soils determined by Greenhouse Tests —— — * ’ ’ soils of unglaciated southwestern Wisconsin iviiumgciu tu uue level and undulating sands, loams, and clays of the north, a great variety of soil types is found. In so wide a range of soils there naturally exists a great variety of soil problems. To determine more definitely the fertilizer needs of various Wisconsin localities, 26 different soils from 17 counties of the state were studied during the past year under the direction of E. Truog (Soils). Chemical analysis and greenhouse tests were made. The soils were placed in two-gallon jars and treated with lime and fertilizer, both singly and in various combinations, and alfalfa was sown in all of the jars. With the proper treatment, it was possible to make alfalfa grow luxuriantly on all of the soils, which varied from non-acid to very strongly acid. How they responded to liming is shown by the following data: (a) Three non-acid soils — none responded to lime, (b) Two very slightly acid soils — none responded to lime, (c) Six slightly acid soils — three responded to lime and three did not, (d) Six medium acid soils — all responded to lime, (e) Six strongly acid soils — all responded to lime, (f) Three very strongly acid soils — all responded to lime. The results indicate that when a soil is not acid or only very slightly acid, lime is usually not needed even though the alfalfa plant is extremely high in lime requirement. If soil is slightly acid, however, lime must be used to obtain best results unless the soil is very high in fertility. When soil is more than slightly acid, lime should always be used for growing this crop. As shown in the following list, most *of the 26 soils also responded to treatment of phosphate and potash fertilizers. region which lies along the shore of Lake Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 99 (a) Seven responded to phosphate alone, (b) Three responded to potash alone, (c) Eight responded to a combination of potash and phosphate, (d) Eight did not respond to either. Of the eight soils which responded neither to phosphate nor to potash, seven responded to lime leaving only one of the 26 which did not respond to some treatment. Since alfalfa is one of the most exact- ing crops in regard to its lime requirements and fertilizer needs, these results emphasize the fact that proper soil treatment should precede the seeding of this crop. Methods of Applying Fertilizers F ERTILIZER research has been carried on for several years through fellowships established by the National Fertilizer Asso- ciation, and during the past year H. J. Harper, working with E. Truog (Soils), has been successful in obtaining some notable increases with oats by means of fertilizer treatment. It was found that small amounts of fertilizers give better results when applied in the drill row than when applied broadcast. In the case of oats maturity was appreciably hastened by the use of phosphate and potash. Studies of the effect of hill application of fertilizer with corn on the root development have also been made. When the soil was washed away from a number of hills of corn, it was found that the use of fertilizer in this way did not restrict growth either in amount or extent — in fact, it usually causes an increase in the root development. Investigations as to why some plants such as potatoes are easily prevented from coming up when fertilizers are applied in certain ways while other plants like corn are not so easily affected, have been undertaken by O. C. Magistad under direction of E. Truog (Soils). He has found that the osmotic pressure of the juice of potato sprouts and certain other sprouts is very low compared to that of the sprouts of corn. It is possible, therefore, for fertilizer in con- tact with potato sprouts to draw the water out of them and cause them to dry up. Corn sprouts are not nearly so easily affected. This indicates that, in the case of potatoes, fertilizer should not be applied directly over the seed in large amounts, but rather it should be mixed with the soil, and it would probably be better to apply it along both sides of the row rather than near the seed unless the application is made broadcast, which is probably most satisfactory. In this connection a study of the effect of fertilizer in increasing the salt concentration and the osmotic pressure of the corn sap and its relation to freezing has been made. It has been found that the use of fertilizer in the hill may increase the salt concentration of the corn sap sufficiently to enable it to withstand a lower temperature than the unfertilized corn. 100 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 [ Spots on Alfalfa Leaves May Mean “Potash Starvation” I N THE study of these 26 Wisconsin soils, the greenhouse tests I indicated that very frequently potash was the limiting factor in alfalfa growth; and where this condition obtained, characteristic I white spots appeared first along the border of some of the leaves and later spread over nearly the whole leaf, which then became yellow in color. These markings showed a distinct pattern-like appearance and cannot be confused with white spots upon the leaves from other causes. This discovery was brought to the attention of the Extension Service workers so that they might make observations of the alfalfa | / FIG. 4 4. — ALFALFA LEAVES SHOW POTASH DEFICIENCY Potash is frequently a limiting- factor in growing alfalfa this condition brings about the characteristic spotting of the shown above. 6 and often leaves as fields in the state to determine, if possible, whether other indications of “potash starvation” could be found. As a result of this work, a number of cases have been reported, which seem to show that it is probable, potash is very frequently a limiting factor in the produc- Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 101 FIG. 45. — ACID PHOSPHATE IMPROVES CORN CROP 102 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 tion of the alfalfa crop. The greenhouse trials on this work seem to be very definite and conclusive, but a wider field experience will settle this question with more finality. For the present these symptoms on the leaves may possibly serve as a method of detecting the lack of available potash in our soil. Phosphate Fertilizers Produce Well at Ashland I N EXPERIMENTS conducted on a large number of plots with corn, barley, oats, and clover rotations, and on rutabagas at the Ashland Station by the Soils department, the work of the past year has verified .earlier findings in regard to the beneficial effects of phosphate fertilizers. In oats, increases of nearly 10 bushels per acre were obtained in some of the plots where phosphate fertilizers were applied in combination with manure, and a gain of five bushels per acre resulted from the use of manure alone at the rate of 10 tons per acre. In the case of clovers even more striking differences FIG. 46.— ALFALFA ON SANDY SOIL, MEDIUM ACID, AND LOW IN PHOSPHORUS Alfalfa responded to lime, phosphorus, and potassium: 281 ^ reatr ^o? t L 283 Phosphorus, 284 potassium, 286 phosphorus and potassium, 288 lime, 292 lime and phosphorus and potassium. were obtained; manure and acid phosphate showed an increase of 546 pounds per acre over the check plots, while plant residues and rock phosphate increased the yield nearly 1,100 pounds per acre. Rutabagas require large amounts of phosphates for successful development, and for that reason this crop is very frequently used to determine the phosphatic needs of the soil. In past years this crop has been grown as a substitute for corn at the Ashland Station on account of the high yield and excellent quality of the roots obtained. It has been found to be a much more dependable crop than corn, and its yields are as a rule about twice as large on a given acreage. In fertilizer trials the response of the rutabaga crop to various treatments was rather striking, the yield in some cases being Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 103 increased more than 50 per cent over that of the untreated plots. The following table shows the average result obtained with the rutabaga crop under various fertilizer treatments. Treatment Rutabagas 2-year average Plant residues and acid phds. 400 lbs 21,590 27,310 23,454 18,020 10 tons' manure and am'd phns. 400 lhs Manure __ No fertilizer __ _ _ _ Why Some Soils Become More Acid Than Others U PLAND soils on weathering become acid because the bases, such as calcium and magnesium, are leached away more rapidly than the acids, and some of our soils have become much more | acid than others even though they have not undergone a greater : degree of weathering. It was thought that the reason for this might be due to the fact that some minerals on weathering leave much more acid residues than others; and therefore the amount of acidity which developed in a soil might be dependent largely on the relative amounts of the various minerals present in the rock from which the particular soil was formed. Investigations have been carried on during the past year by C. D., S’amuels under E. Truog (Soils) in order to determine this fact. In this work ten different minerals were ground to a fineness wh,ere they would pass through a 100-mesh sieve; and then weathered and leached by treating them with carbonated water for 42 days. The amount of material dissolved in this process was determined every two days by filtering and evaporating the solution, then weighing There was a distinct difference in the acidity of the residues from the dissolved residues. By placing litmus paper in contact with the minerals left after the extraction, the point at which materials became acid was noted; and the acidity of the residue was also de- termined by means of the Truog test and the hydrogen electrode, the various minerals, and from this it has been concluded that the original make-up of the soils is an important factor in determining the strength of the acid formed on leaching. The results indicate merely that one of the reasons why some soils become much more acid than others is the larger proportion of certain minerals which they originally contained. The micas muscovite and biotite are abundant in some soils and weather rapidly into distinctly acid resi- dues, which may account for the high acidity of such soils. In four different upland soils where the organic matter was removed by treating them with hydrogen peroxide, it was found that, after the removal of the organic matter, the soils showed an even greater degree 104 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 of acidity than before, which indicates that the acidity of upland soils is largely due to mineral acids rather than to organic residues. r A Comparison of Soil Acidity Methods. — A comparison of three dif- ferent methods of testing acidity — the hydrogen electrode, the sugar inversion method, and the Truog Test — was made on forty-two differ- ent soils by F. W. Parker and O. C> Bryan (Soils). The results indi- FIG. 47. — ALFALFA ON A BLACK SILT LOAM, STRONGLY ACID, AND i LOW IN AVAILABLE PHOSPHORUS Alfalfa responded to ph'osphorus and lime. Lime alone gives no in- crease, while in combination with phosphorus it gives a marked in- crease over ph'osphorus alone: 240 no treatment, 241 phosphorus, 242 potassium, 244 phosphorus and potassium, 246 lime, 252 lime and phosphorus and potassium. cated a fairly good correlation between the three methods used. The sugar inversion method and the Truog Test correlated better than either of them did with the results obtained by the hydrogen electrode, ; Liming Shows Good Results at Spooner C ONTRARY to the results of previous years, the 1922 hay crop. both first and second cuts, showed decidedly improved yields i at the S’pooner Station where liming was practiced. In some J of the plots the lime areas showed increases of over 50 per cent over the unlimed; and on an average all of the limed land produced over 30 per cent more hay per acre than the unlimed areas. One of the striking things exhibited in these liming experiments was the fact that weeds early gained a foothold on the unlimed land- As the alfalfa becomes weakened through unfavorable conditions, it read- ily yields to the encroachments of the weeds which are competing with it. While no exact data are available, the best estimate placed the percentage of weeds in the unlimed alfalfa hay at about 15 per cent, which shows that lime in this case influenced the quality as well as the quantity of the crop. Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 105 Fertilizer Work at Spooner G ENERAL fertilizer work has been carried on at Spooner since 1917 under the direction of F. L. Musbach and A. R. Whitson (Soils Department); and in the six years of work considerable organic matter in the form of green manure crop has been added to a soil which was originally low in this essential substance. In fact, this sandy soil has been supplied with organic matter to such an extent that at present the yelds of crops are not markedly increased by the use of stable manure or manure reinforced with commercial fertilizers. In the past year a supplementing of manure with varying amounts of phosphates has not shown profitable increases on the light soil at Spooner, and manure alone in some cases yielded more than the plots FIG. 4 9. — AEROPLANE VIEW OF MARSHFIELD BRANCH STATION (FARM NO. 2) SHOWING EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS On the right of the highway the plots of farm No. 1 of the Marsh- field Station are shown. Upward of 600 plots devoted to experimenta- tion in soils and crops are found on farms No. 1 and 2. on which a combination of fertilizers was used. This is doubtless due to the unusually high content of phosphorus in the manure coming from the feeding of more concentrates high in that element than the ordinary farmer feeds. I Observations of the work at Spooner indicate that distributing fer- tilizer over two crops instead of one shows consistent increases in yields; and as the work continues it is expected that the distribution of phosphate fertilizers over two crops will be found good practice. 106 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 How Can Stable Manure Be Best Utilized O UESTIONS in regard to the rate of application, the place in the rotation, and the best method of applying barnyard manure as a fertilizer are often asked. In order to find satisfactory an- swers to some of these questions as they may apply to the sandy loams in some parts of the state, experimental work was begun in 1918 at the Spooner Branch Station. Compilation by Messrs. Musbach and Whitson of the results for several years show that top dressing is a slightly better practice than plowing under. When manure was applied to corn ground and thoroughly disked in, the following results were obtained. Rye Treatment with yard manure Corn Hay 1920-21 ' 1921 . 1920-22 1922 - Bu. Bu. Bu. Lbs. 9 T. plowed under 19.40 21.27 44.68 1589.0 9 T. top dressed 21.37 23.40 | 46.51 1621.6 Green Manuring Alone Does Not Maintain Fertility T HAT green manuring alone is not sufficient to maintain the yields of crops grown was demonstrated in recent years in ex- perimental work at the Spooner Branch Station. In these trials neither stable manure nor commercial fertilizers were used since the work was begun in 1914, and a rotation of corn, oats, potatoes, and clover was used. Green manuring crops, such as lupine and sand vetch between the rows of corn and potatoes, soybeans alternated with corn and followed by clov,er after potatoes, and serradella alternated with corn and seeded to rye after the potato harvest, were tried over a period of years. The results of the work in 1922 show that all of the plots hav,e fallen off considerably in yield from the average of the four preceding years. While green manure can be used to make the fertility in the soil more rapidly available to the crops grown, the results of these experiments indicate that the practice in itself is en- tirely insufficient .to maintain crop yields on this soil type over a long period of time. Deep Tillage Trials at Ashland E XPERIMENTS’ at the Ashland Station for several years have shown that deep tillage increases slightly the yields obtained from most crops, but the difference produced by this treatment is not enough to make it profitable. The cost of applying such treat- ment is too high, and the returns this year corroborate those reported earlier that make it inadvisable to advocate this method. 1 Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 107 The result of trials for several years is that fall plowing to a depth of 6 or 7 inches is the most satisfactory practice in the long run; and on the heavy soils in that section of the state this practice is recom- mended. PIG. 50.— MANURED AND PHOSPHATED PLOT AT THE SPOONER STATION Limed plot yielded 4563 pounds and the unlimed 2893 pounds. Managing Sandy Soils at Hancock I N VIEW of the fact that about one-fifth of the total soil area of Wisconsin is of a more or less sandy nature, the problems con- nected with the farming of these light soils become increasingly important as more and more of this land is brought under cultivation. The Hancock Branch Station was established in the sandy section of the state in 1917 for the purpose of determining which crops, fertilizers, and cultural practices are most suitable for such land. Continued studies of these problems have been made during the past year by A R. Whitson and A. R. Albert (Soils) with special reference to crops and fertilizers needed on the sandy soils at Hancock. Fertilizer and lime trials were conducted with a three-year rotation of corn, rye, and clover or soybeans. It was found that on these light soils the plowing und,er of manure for corn, rye, and soybeans was most satisfactory; while top dressing seemed to produce a higher yield in clover. An application of eight tons plowed under for corn increased the yield 19.3 bushels per acre over untreated plots; the gain in rye was 4.4 bushels and in hay 319 pounds per acre. At current prices the increase obtained from the manure over a three-year period is valued at $16, which makes a return of $2 for each ton of manure applied. Studies to determine the relative needs of different plant food ele- ments showed that available potash and nitrogen are lacking and 108 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 that, when commercial fertilizers are substituted for stable manure, it is essential that these elements be supplied. Whether it is profitable to supply potash fertilizers in addition to manure has not yet been determined, but the addition of phosphates has produced small but consistent crop increases. The method of application of commercial fertilizers does not seem to make any appreciable difference. Beneficial results were also obtained by the use of lime, but the influence of an application of one ton per acre seems to be almost as effective as larger applications on these sandy soils for clover. Crops for Sandy Soils. — That alfalfa is one of the most successful crops on these sandy soils when properly managed has been amply demonstrated. The 1922 yield of this crop on land seeded four years ago was 5,300 pounds of hay per acre in two cuttings, and on fields seeded three years ago the average yield was 4,700 pounds per acre. Alfalfa, however, requires heavier applications of limestone than other legumes; and, in addition, it should be manured or treated with phos- phate and potash fertilizer. Potatoes or corn should follow alfalfa in the rotation; and, after cropping the fields for one year, it should be re-seeded to alfalfa. This practice does not permit a constant three- year rotation in all fields, so that the retention of clover or soybeans, in rotation with corn and rye on the main fields of the farm seems de- sirable. Potatoes should only be grown on the better portions of the sandy areas, and it is necessary that the crop be well fertilized. When grown after alfalfa, the potato crop provides excellent opportunity for the preparation of the ground for re-seeding to alfalfa. Progress of the Soil Survey I N TWENTY-SIX Wisconsin counties the field work of a detailed soil survey has been completed, and work in the two additional counties of Pierce and Monroe is now in progress. A general reconnaissance survey to assist primarily in land settlement was com- pleted several years ago, and the next step in the work will be to complete the detailed survey by counties as rapidly as this work can be conducted. During the field season of 1922, a total of 761 square miles have been mapped. During the past year some new phases have been stressed in addi- tion to the usual system of soil mapping, which has been in progress since this work began. Much attention has been given to topography, because it is one of the determining factors in farm operations and in the value of farm lands. A considerable number of calcium and mag- nesium determinations covering the most important types of soil mapped have also been made during the past two years, and sur- prising variation in total calcium content of the soils has been found. Most of the heavier types of silt and clay loam are fairly well supplied with lime. The amount of lime in the silt loams of central and northern parts of the state, such as Colby silt loam and the Kennan fine sandy loam, is as large as that in the silt loams of southwestern Wis- Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 109 consin and nearly equal to that in the southeastern portion of the state, while certain types of sandy soil and fine sandy loam derived from members of the Potsdam sandstone series proved to be very low in their total calcium content, there being in many cases less than one- third of the normal amount present. This information will be very helpful in determining the needs of lime as a fertilizer. In the peat soils a remarkable variation in the lime content has also been found. The peats from the southern part of the state have FIG. 48.— THE SOIL SURVEY NEARLY COVERS WISCONSIN Reconnaissance survey maps are available of the northern counties, and detailed maps are prepared on the southern counties which have been surveyed. from 1.5 to 3 per cent of total calcium, while those from certain areas in central and northern Wisconsin are as low as 0.1 per cent. In others words the southern peats contain ten times as much lime as some of those in the northern parts of the state. 110 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 It is already evident from this work that the total content of the calcium in the soil must be considered as well as the degree of acidity in determining the amount of lim,e that should be applied. The in- formation regarding the lime content of our soil will doubtless also as- sist in determining the need for lime in the rations of animals produced in those sections of the state in which the soils are found to be ex- ceptionally poor in calcium. As a part of the field work in the mapping of soils, examination of all limestone and marl deposits which are likely to be used as sources of agricultural lime is being made. Twenty-five different deposits in Pierce county have already been examined in an effort to assist the farmers in finding sources of lime which will reduce the cost of hauling. In ord.er to make the soils maps of the greatest possible usefulness in banks and schools and by the public in general, a new legend has been devised whereby the data can be summarized upon the map itself. Deep Ditches and More Tile for Drainage ONSTRUCTION of drains on large areas of marsh land in central Wisconsin was begun in 1901. The work has been carried on continuously ever since that time and is still in progress. Its importance in Wisconsin is indicated by the fact that prior to 1920 over $4,600,000 has been expended on land drainage work covering almost 800,000 acres. The object of this work is largely to drain the peat, muck, and sandy marsh land which has been too wet for farming. The major portion of it has been done in Juneau, Portage and Wood coun- The total area of swamp lands and periodically wet lands in* Wiscon- sin that could be drained profitably has been estimated 3,500,000 acres. The redemption of this area or such of it as is suitable for agricultural purposes can only be accomplished by drainage; in many places con- struction of roads and proper sanitation can only be achieved in this way. It is therefore obvious that the future work of the drainage en- gineer will be one of increasing importance in the state. There are two ways to drain land. Deep outlet ditches will do the job if they are close enough together, or shallower and fewer open ditches will do it if supplemented by lines of tile from 4 to 8 rods apart. The big question usually is, which method is the cheaper. Ob- servations made during the year in the Portage County Drainage dis- trict by E. R. Jones, O. R. Zeasman, C. Helwig, and S. Norling* (Agri- cultural Engineering) indicate that peat soils with a sandy subsoil can be most easily drained by means of large deep ditches which may be as much as a mile apart, while shallower ditches are less satisfactory and must in nearly all cases be supplemented by tile. Furthermore it is doubtful if the expenditure involved in tiling can be justified except ♦In cooperation with United States Department of Agriculture. ties. Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 111 where intensive cropping is practiced. Similar results were also ob- served in the Cranberry Creek and the Little Yellow drainage districts in Juneau county. One mile of open ditch 6 feet wide at the bottom, 8 feet d.eep, and 22 feet wide at the top costs about $3,200, which is about five dollars an acre when distributed over a section of land. Satisfactory tiling can- not be done at so low a cost. As a result of the extensive drainage operations in Wisconsin, en- gineers have concluded that peat and sandy marsh lands in the cen- tral part of the state usually can be drained at a reasonable cost. In the district examined in the largest marsh areas of the state it appears that sufficient returns may be secured from properly drained marsh lands to justify capital expenditures of approximately $15 per acre for main outlet ditches spaced from y 2 to 1 mile apart on comparatively flat land. Such expenditure should cover also the construction of border or diversion ditches which are necessary to intercept seepage. The peat and sandy soils of this region do not become overdrained nor too dry on account of deep drainage, as is sometimes believed. The opposite of this, rather, has been observed. Shallow drainage during the early part of the growing season prevents plant roots growing to a proper depth to sustain growth during the later dry periods. No cases have been found where shallow drains afforded good drainage, but all observations indicate that drains deep enough to keep the groundwater 4 to 6 feet or more below the surface are necessary. Finally, an all important matter in connection with drainage work is maintenance. After drainage ditches and outlets are constructed, they must be kept in condition to operate. Full responsibility for maintain- ing drainage should be given the drainage districts, and definite meth- ods should be established for doing this work. Drain Tile Investigations O BSERVATIONS by E. R. Jones and O. R. Zeasman (Agricultural Engineering) have been continued through the year on the subject of concrete drain tile. As the methods of manufacture are improved, an increasing durability in concrete tile is obtained. With the use of a cleaner aggregate, a wetter and richer mixture, firmer and more thorough packing, and curing in a steam room for a longer period of time, a tile of greater and more uniform density, reduced water absorbing capacity, and more endurance is produced. S'ome fac- tories are still making poor concrete tile. The better grades of concrete tile compare favorably with good shale tile. The severest test of tile is where it is placed in peat soils. Spec- imens of good concrete tile that have been lying for two years in the peat of the University Marsh show only a trace of disintegration at the water line on the outside, but some specimens of porous concrete tile showed general softening after only one year’s contact with the peat. In clay soils or clay under peat it has been shown that good 112 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 concrete tile are satisfactory, which makes them adapted to at least 75 per cent of Wisconsin lands ready for drainage. The problem of the durability of soft, porous, laminated, surface clay tile seems to be equally great. Some soft clay tile laid in Wiscon- sin in 1856, three feet under ground, are still in good condition. It is belieyed that their state of preservation is due to their freedom from lamination. Of course, they froze every winter but they were always empty when they froze and did not thaw out until spring. Further- more, they wer.e burned with a wood fire in the process of manufacture. The differefi.ee between the dry weight and the wet weight of a tile shows its absorption. The dry weight is obtained after three hours’ drying in a warm oven. The wet weight is found by weighing im- mediately after taking from water in which the tile has first been (A) (B) FIG. 51. — MANNER OF BREAKING IS TEST OF CONCRETE ^In good concrete tile the stones must break clean, (A) while in the poorer grades they often are stripped out of the aggregate without breaking (B). boiled for five hours, and then cooled. Clay or shale tile that absorb water to the extent of more than 14 per cent of their dry weight are undesirable and if more than 20 per cent their life is short, because frequent freezing and thawing will quickly cause them to crumble. Concrete tile with an absorption greater than 7 per cent are too porous to be recommended, particularly in peat or sand under peat. The detection of poor clay or shale tile is relatively easy, because it can be determined by scratching the surface with a nail or examining the tile walls for laminations. If the surface scratches easily or if there is excessive breakage in shipment, it may be concluded that the tile Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 113 is too soft. Lamination may be detected by an attempt to split the tile walls with a knife. To t.est the qualities of a concrete tile is a somewhat more difficult problem. One test is to break the tile and observe whether the pebbles have been broken squarely or whether they have been stripped away from the cement. If they do not break squarely, the tile is probably too weak or porous for use. The agricultural engineering laboratory tests tile, clay or concrete, for any farmer, engineer, or dealer, sent to the laboratory, freight and express prepaid, with a letter giving the name of the sender and the manufacturer. Clay tile from some factories have shown an absorp- tion as high as 27.5 per cent. Some concrete tile run as low as 3.2 per cent water absorption, thus making them very strong and service- able while others from the same factory showed over 13 per cent ab- sorption. When an owner is putting in a permanent improvement of this character, he should know definitely whether his tile are going to stand up or not. A few poor ones in a batch affect the value of the whole, because a line of tile is no better than its poorest member. Brush Plow Improved by Staff Engineers O NE OF THE big problems in upper Wisconsin is that of bringing the wild land under cultivation in the shortest possible time as well as at the lowest cost. For some years men have tried, by means of grub breaker and brush plows, to- subdue areas where the stumps were few and well decayed and only the brush remained as ail obstacle. A need of suitable equipment exists, however, which will adequately handle the breaking job on land overgrown with brush or filled with the roots and stumpage of brush that has been removed- In view of the fact that any method which will help to reduce the cost of putting this new land under cultivation must mean much to the state of Wisconsin and especially to the farmers in the northern coun- ties, John Swenehart and F. W. Duffee (Agricultural Engineering) have continued their investigations of brush plows during the past year. They find that the chief difficulty with brush-breaking plows has been that roots and brush accumulate under the beam and throw the plow out of the ground, thereby causing much waste of time, and a great deal of hard work must be undergone in order to free the plow from these obstacles. All of the plows as ordinarily designed have beams set directly above or slightly to the right of the landside, which read- ily causes the accumulation of trash against the beam to lift the plow out of the ground rather than being forc.ed under with the furrow slice. In order to obviate this difficulty some special castings were designed, which provide an offset for the beam to the left side of the plow. This reduces greatly the amount of brush, roots, and trash striking the plow and piling up under the beam. It permits the space directly in front of and above the plow to remain relatively free, and most of the brush is caught and turned under by the rolling action of the furrow 114 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 slice. A standing cutter, the upper end of which curves backward and to the right was also designed to further overcome the difficulty. This also aids in rolling the brush over and keeping it moving so that it is plowed under instead of accumulating on top. In trials conducted under extreme field conditions near Jump River, Taylor county, where poplar, willow, and tag alder brush were heavier than is ordinarily encountered it was found that such growth under 15 feet high did not cause trouble except when caught squarely on the point of the plow. Poplar trees as high as 30 feet caused trouble with the tractor. The soil was a dry silt loam with considerable stone, which caused trouble with the traction hut seldom interfered with the plow. A 16-30 heavy wheel type tractor was used. Similar results w,ere obtained at Merrill in comparison with other plows. A table of the data taken at Jump River follows: No. clogs Time loss Plow per round percentage Job done Sp. No. 3 2.5 10 Good Standard No. 1 10. 48 Poor Plow Special No. 3 was specially designed by the College staff. The right edge of the beam was 4-5 inches to the left edge of the land side and 8.5 inches offset from the original position. Clearance from the lower edge of the shar,e to the lower edge of the beam was over 26 inches, which is approximately that of standard brush breaker plows. The width of the furrow was 20 inches, and a special cutter was used. The work of this plow was considerably superior to that of Standard No. 1, which is designed and sold by manufacturers for brushwork. With the specially designed plow there was a remarkable reduction in the number of clogs and the consequent time losses, and the resulting job was much more satisfactory. When clogging did occur, it was found that the accumulated material was removed more readily with the offset beam and wing cutter; in many cases necessitating only the backing up of the plow in order to give the accumulation a chance to be thrown out when the plow was again pulled forward. Dynamometer tests with this outfit indicate that draw bar pulls of 2,500 to 3,000 pounds are frequent, and that pulls of over 4,000 pounds are often needed to pull the plows through cradle knolls and large brush stubble. This means that at least 8 good draft horses or equiv- alent pulling power would be required to handle an outfit. In case horses were employed, however, it might be necessary to remove the brush which a heavy tractor is able to knock down. Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 115 Clearance under the beam which is so important in pre- venting clogging has been in- creased in the perfected plow. The plow and standard of the perfected machine are set to the right of the. line of the original beam. Clogging with the old type of plow was common, result- ing in considerable loss of time. A good job of turning un- der brush and small trees. If the tractor can break down the second growth trees, they seldom interfere with the plow though they may be 15 to 30 feet high. 116 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 Marsh Plowing With Tractors F OLLOWING the development of the marsh plow, some investiga- tions and observations have been made regarding tractor sizes and lug equipment for this work by F. W. Duffee (Agricultural Engineering). The 20-inch plow, which is most commonly used for marsh plowing, usually requires a 12 to 15 horse power draw bar rating in the tractor. In practically all cases it was found that tractors weighing from 4,500 to 6,000 pounds operated most satisfactorily. The small light weight two-plow tractors frequently do good work with a 16-inch plow. Where wheel tractors are used, the rear wheels should be at least 20 inches wide, and a 24-inch width is even better, especially if one wheel runs in the furrow. Angle iron lugs at least 3 inches and pref- erably 4 inches in width have been found most satisfactory. Several tractors equipped with spade lugs were tried out, but failed entirely; and, when the same machines were equipped with angle iron lugs, they operated very successfully. It is sometimes necessary to equip the front wheels with extra ex- tension rims; and, if the land is very boggy, a good clearance under the tractor is also required. Worn Parts Greatly Increase Mower Draft HAT a dull mower pulls harder than a sharp one is well known, but that the amount of increased draft is greater than has been supposed is shown by experimental work conducted by F. W. Duffee (Agricultural Engineering). The study has shown that a two- horse mower requires the power of three horses when it is extremely dull or when some of the cutting parts are badly worn; while two horses may pull such a machine, they are subjected to an undue strain. A mower cuts like a pair of shears, and sharpening the cutting edges is only one-half of the problem, for in order to work properly the cut- ting parts, the section of the knife and the thin steel ledger plate of the guard, must be both sharp and fit together closely. The knife can be ground on the grindstone or emery, but the ledger plates, when worn, must be replaced. If the wearing plates which support the knife in the rear are worn so as to permit the points of the section to be raised from the ledger plate, poor cutting and heavy draft will result and the solution lies in replacing of the wearing plate. In this work an old 5-foot mower was used, the cutting parts of which were worn so badly that it was about to be discarded though all the gears and bearings except those on the pitman were in good condition. The cost of putting this mower into first-class condition by repairs consisting of a new pitman, knife, guard, wearing plate, clips, and knife head was a little over $13. This shows that a small amount of money and a few hours of work will make a good smooth- running, clean-cutting mower out of the machine that was hard run- ning and clogged so badly that it was about ready for the junk heap. Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 117 PROPERLY ADJUSTED Many farm machines have in the past been junked when a few dollars invested in new parts would have added years to their service. The life of a mowing machine is in the cutting parts. Keeping them adjusted greatly increases smoothness of operation and length of usefulness. Curve 1 is smooth and shows the light steady pull of a sharp mower. Curve 2 shows that a worn mower is a heavy uneven puller and that the load may be 3 times as great as in a properly working machine 118 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 The life of a mower lies largely in its cutter bar; and to keep it in order the following points should be observed: 1. Keep the knife sharp and the sections tight. 2. Keep sharp ledger plates in the guards. 3. Keep guards level by bending or shimming. 4. Replace the wearing plates when they become so worn that the tips of the sections no longer rest on the ledger plate. 5. Replace the knife head and knife head guide if the wear cannot be sufficiently taken up when they become worn. 6. Keep the clips hammered down just tight enough so as to elim- inate play and avoid binding. 7. Sections should center at the extreme ends of the knife stroke with the tongue 30 inches from the ground. PUBLICATIONS The Experiment Station in 1921-1922 published 11 new popular bul- letins and 3 reprints, and 2 new research bulletins. Thirteen new cir- culars and 9 reprints; also 14 new stencil bulletins were issued by the Extension Service. The bulletins are listed below: POPULAR BULLETINS Bulletin 334. — Combat Potato Leafhopper with Bordeaux. (J. E. Dudley, Jr., and H. F Wilson.) History of the leafhopper and control of hopperburn by applications of bordeaux mixture. Bulletin 335. — Judging Dairy Cattle. (G. C. Humphrey.) As suc- cessful dairymen are usually good judges of dairy cattle, it is impor- tant for all men to acquire this art. Bulletin 336. — Farm Poultry Buildings. (J. G. Halpin, J. B. Hayes, and O. R. Zeasman.) Discussion of various kinds of poultry houses, with drawings of certain types. Bulletin 337. — Tobacco in Wisconsin. (James Johnson and C. M. Slagg.) This bulletin treats of types, soils, and seed; as well as cul- tural, harvesting, and marketing methods. Bulletin 338. — Winter Care of Bees in Wisconsin. (H. F. Wilson.) Loss of bees during wintering is the most serious problem among state beekeepers, but this can be prevented by proper temperature, good stores, and bees of correct age. Bulletin 339. — New Pages in Farming. Annual Report of the Direc- tor 1920-1921. (H. L. Russell and F. B. Morrison.) A review of results secured on the different experimental projects conducted at the Ex- periment Station. Bulletin 340. — Wisconsin Oats. (B. D. Leith and E. J. Delwiche.) As the leading grain crop in the state, the culture of oats deserves careful attention. Bulletin 341. — The Use of Fertilizers on Dairy Farms. (A. R. Whit son and Griffith Richards.) A thorough discussion of fertilizers to be used in building up different types of soil. Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 119 Bulletin 342. — Milk — the Best Food. (H. Steenbock and E. B. Hart.) Milk, containing fat-soluble, water-soluble, and anti-scorbutic vita- mines, is a perfect food, and should occupy an important place in the daily diet. Bulletin 343. — Johne’s Disease. (B. A. Beach and E. G. Hastings.) This disease, while not widespread in Wisconsin, will become more and more common, unless due consideration is given it by the cattle industry. The bulletin serves the purpose of bringing this disease to the attention of cattle men — both buyers and sellers. Bulletin 344. — Better Cherry Yields. (R. H. Roberts.) Ways and means by which cherry yields can be increased. RESEARCH BULLETINS Research Bulletin 50. — Pump Drainage of the University of Wiscon- sin Marsh, (G. R. B. Elliott, E. R. Jones, and O. R. Zeasman.) A re- port of ten years’ experience in the reclamation of a marsh lower than a lake immediately adjacent, by means of an electrically driven, auto- matically controlled pump. Research Bulletin 51. — Rural Primary Groups. (J. H. Kolb.) A sur- vey of Dane county of the first grouping beyond the family which has social significance and which is conscious of some local unity. TECHNICAL ARTICLES Much of the technical scientific output of the experiment station staff is first presented to the scientific public through the medium of the science periodicals and publications of scientific societies. The publication of such matter enables our workers to have their results scrutinized by their scientific colleagues. The following ar- ticles have been published during the past year, ending June 30, 1922: Beach, B. A. Control of roup and chickenpox. Proc. Wis. Vet. Med. Assn. 37-42. 1922. Beach, B. A., Hadley, F. B., and Piper, H. B. Tuberculosis in a Shet- land pony. Jour. Am. Vet. Med. Assn. 60:600-605. 1922. Beach, B. A., and Hastings, E. G. Johne’s disease and its detection. Jour, of Inf. Dis. 30:68-79. 1922. Brunkow, O. R., Peterson, W. H., and Fred, E. B. The influence of certain factors upon the chemical composition of sauerkraut. Jour. Am. Chem. Society. 43: No. 10. 1921. Bryan, O. C. Effect of different reactions on the growth and nodule formation of soy beans. Soil Science. 13:217-302. 1922. Cole, L. J. The inbreeding problem in the light of recent experi- mentation. Proc. Am. Soc. Animal Prod. 30-32. 1922. Dickson, J. G„ and Johnson, A. G. Wheat scab and its control. U. S. D. A. Farmers’ Bui. 1224. 1921. Fluke, C. L. Syrphidae of Wisconsin. Transactions Wis. Acad. Sciences, Arts, and Letters. 20:215-253. 1922. Fred, E. B., and Peterson, W. H. The production of pink sauerkraut by yeasts. Jour. Bact 7:257. 1922. 120 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 Fred, E. B., Peterson, W. H., and Anderson, J. A. The characteristics of certain pentose-destroying bacteria, especially as concerns their action on arabinose and xylose. Jour. Biol. Chem. 48: No. 2. 1921. Hadley, F. B. Results from immunizing cattle against contagious abortion. Jour. Am. Yet. Med. Assn. 60:26-33. 1921. Hadley, F. B. What we now know about abortion. Proc. Wis. Vet. Med. Assn. 83-90. 1922. Hadley, F. B. Minerals for livestock. Vet. Med. 17:160-162. 1922. Hart, E. B., Halpin, J. G., and Steenbock, H. The nutritional require- ments of baby chicks. II. further study of leg weakness in chickens. Jour. Biol. Chem. 52: No. 2. 1922. Hart, E. B., Steenbock, H., and Hoppert, C. A. Dietary factors in- fluencing calcium assimilation. Jour. Biol. Chem. 48:33. 1921. Hart, E. B., and Humphrey, G. C. Can home-grown rations supply proteins of adequate quality and quantity for high milk produc- tion? III. Jour. Biol. Chem. 48:305. 1921. Hart, E. B., Halpin, J. G., and Steenbock, H. Nutrional requirements of baby chicks. II. Further study of leg weakness in chickens. Jour. Biol. Chem. 52:379. 1922. Hastings, E. G. Constant temperature rooms. Jour. Indust, and Engin. Chem. 13:1056. 1921. Hibbard, B. H. Farm tenancy in 1920. Jour. Farm Economics. 3:168. 1921. Hillstrom, Ellen. The need for recognizing art principles in the teaching of home economics. Jour. Home Economics. 14: No. 2. 1922. Hulce, R. S., Morrison, F. B., and Humphrey, G. C. Comparison of rations for dairy calves. Record of Proceedings of Annual Meet- ing of Am. Society Animal Production. 1922. Humphrey, C. J., Johnson, A. G., and McKinney, H. H. Take-all of wheat and its control.. U. S. D. A. Farmers’ Bui. 1226. 1921. Johnson, A. G., and Dickson, J. G. Wheat scab and its control. U. S. D. A. Farmers’ Bui. 1224. 1921. Johnson, James. The relation of air temperature to certain plant disease. Phytopath. 1 1 : 446-458. 1921. Johnson, James. Experimental evidence relating to the nature of the mosaic virus. Phytopath. (abstract) 22:26. 1922. Johnson, James. Non-parasitic leaf-spots of tobacco. Phytopath, (abstract) 22:26. 1922. Jones, E. R. Drainage Specifications. Engin. Society of Wis. 14th Annual Report. 35-37. 1922. Jones, E. R. Where drainage pays. Tri-state Development Congress, 2nd Report. 1922. Jones, L. R., and Doolittle, S. P. Angular leaf spot of cucumber. Phytopath. 11:297-298. 1921. Jones, L. R. Experimental work on the relation of soil temperature to disease in plants. Wis. Acad. Sciences, Arts, and Letters. 20:433-459. 1922. Science Serves Wisconsin Farms 121 Jones, L. R., and Walker, J. C. The relation of soil temperature and other factors to onion smut infection. Jour. Agr. Res. 22:235- 262. 1921. (Jones, L. R., and Keitt, G. W.) Eugene Washburn Roark. The Sep- toria leaf spot of rubus. Phytopath. 11:328-333. 1921. Keitt, G. W. Third progress report on apple scab and its control in Wisconsin. Phytopath. 12:54. 1922. Marlatt, A. L. Collegiate Training of Dietitians. Jour. Home Eco- nomics. 14: No. 2. 1922. Also in The Modern Hospital. Morrison, F. B., Humphrey, G. C., and Hulce, R. S. Hydrolized saw- dust for dairy cows. Record Proc. Annual Meeting Am. Soc. Ani- mal Production. 1922. Morrison, F. B., and Bohstedt, G. Linseed meal and wheat middlings versus tankage as supplements to corn for pigs. Record Proc. Annual Meeting Am. Soc. Animal Production. 1922. Parker, F. W. The classification of soil moisture. Soil Science. 13:43-54. 1922. Peterson, W. H., and Fred, E. B. Abnormal fermentation of sauer- kraut. The Canner. Feb. 1922. Peterson, W. H., Fred, E. B., and Verhulst, J. H. A fermentation process for the production of acetone, alcohol, and volatile acids from corncobs. Jour, of Industrial and Engineering Chem. 13:757. 1921. Sammis, J. L. The yield and composition of cheese from high and low testing milk. Annual Report Wis. Cheese Makers’ Assn. 1922. Slagg, C. M. Preliminary report on a study of the wildfire disease of tobacco. Phytopath, (abstract) 22:25. 1922. Steenbock, H., Nelson, E. M., and Hart, E. B. Fat-soluble vitamine IX. The incidence of an ophthalmic reaction in dogs fed a fat- soluble vitamine deficient diet. Am. Jour. Physiology. 58:14. 1921. Steenbock, H., Sell, M. T., and Boutwell, P. W. Fat-soluble vitamine VIII. The fat-soluble vitamine content of peas in relation to their pigmentation. Jour. Biol. Chem. 47: No. 2. 1921. Swenehart, John. Progress in cut-over land reclamation. Clover- land. 19:8. 1922. Swenehart, John. New engineering development in land clearing. Agricultural Engineering. 3:63-66. 1922. Swenehart^ John. Picric acid as an agricultural explosive. Agri- cultural Engineering. 2:246-248. 1921. Tisdale, W. B., and Jones, F. R. Effect of soil temperature upon the development of nodules on the roots of certain legumes. Jour. Agr. Res. 22:17-31. 1921. Tottingham, W. E., and Rankin, E. J. Nutrient solutions for wheat. Am. Jour. Botany. 9:270-276. 1922. Truog, E. The feeding power of plants. Science. 56:294-298. 1922. Wilson, H. F. Relation of climate to beekeeping manipulations. Jour. Econ. Ent. 15:143-146. 1922. 122 Wisconsin Bulletin 352 THE WISCONSIN AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, IN ACCOUNT WITH THE UNITED STATES APPROPRIATION. 1921-1922 Dr. Cr. To receipt from treasurer of the United States, as per appropriation for the year ending June 30, 1922, under the acts of Congress approved March 2, 1887, and March loofi _ _ _ $30,000.00 Py salaries . $17,285.77 5,953.85 22.61 2.85 752 10 1,498.78 194.03 2,549.10 60.04 95.22 1,383.20 48.00 134.95 19.50 $30,000.00 By labor Py postage and stationery Ry freight and express By chemicals and laboratory supplies Py seeds, plants and sundry supplies Py fertilizers Py feeding stuffs ..... Py tools, machinery and appliances Py furniture and fixtures By scientific apparatus and specimens By live stock Py traveling expenses By contingent expenses Total. $30,000.00 EXPERIMENT STATION STAFF The President of the University J. A. James, Asst. Dean H. L. Russell, Dean and Director K. L. Hatch, Asst. Dir. Agr. Exten- F. B. Morrison, Asst. Dir. Exp. Sta sion Service, tion W. A. Henry, Emeritus, Agriculture S. M. Babcock, Emeritus, Agr. Chem- istry A. S. Alexander, Veterinary Science F. A. Aust, Horticulture B. A. Beach, Veterinary Science R. A. Brink, Genetics L. J. Cole, In charge of Genetics E. J. Delwiche, Agronomy (Ashland) J. G. Dickson, Plant Pathology F. W. Duffee, Agr. Engineering J. M. Fargo, Animal Husbandry E. H. Farrington, In charge of Dairy Husbandry C. L. Fluke, Economic Entomology E. B. Fred, Agr. Bacteriology W. D. Frost, Agr. Bacteriology J. G. Fuller, Animal Husbandry W. J. Geib, Soils E. M. Gilbert, Plant Pathology L. F. Graber, Agronomy E. J. Graul, Soils F. B. Hadley, In charge of Veterin- ary Science J. G. Halpin, In charge of Poultry Husbandry E. B. Hart, In charge of Agr. Chem- istry E. G. Hastings, In charge of Agr. Bacteriology C. S'. Hean, Librarian H. Hibbard, In charge of Agr. Economics A. W. Hopkins, Editor, in charge of Agr. Journalism R. S. Hulce, Animal Husbandry G. C. Humphrey, In charge of Ani- mal Husbandry J. A. James, In charge of Agr. Edu- cation J. Johnson, Horticulture E. R. Jones, In charge of Agr. En- gineering L. R. Jones, In charge of Plant Path- ology G. W. Keitt, Plant Pathology F. Kleinheinz, Animal Husbandry /\J. H. Kolb, Economics B. D. Leith, Agronomy Maele C. Little, Inst. Management ■>T. Macklin, Agr. Economics Abby L. Marlatt, In charge of Home Economics — P. E. McNall, Agr. Economics J. G. Milward, Horticulture J. G. Moore, In charge of Horticul- ture R. A. Moore, In charge of Agronomy F. B. Morrison, Animal Husbandry G. B. Mortimer, Agronomy F. L. Musbach, Soils (Marshfield) W. H. Peterson, Agr. Chemistry D. H. Reid, Poultry Husbandry Griffith Richards, Soils R. H. Roberts, Horticulture J. L. Sam mis. Dairy Husbandry E. S. Savage, Animal Husbandry H. H. Sommer, Dairy Husbandry H. Steenbock, Agr. Chemistry H. W. Stewart, Soils A. L. Stone, Agronomy W. A. Sumner, Agr. Journalism J. H. Swenehart, Agr. Engineering W. E. Tottingham, Agr. Chemistry E. Truog, Soils R. E. Vaughan, Plant Pathology H. F. Wilson, In charge of Economic Entomology A. R. Whitson, In charge of Soils A. H. Wright, Agronomy W. H. Wright, Agr. Bacteriology O. R. Zeasman, Agr. Engineering and Soils A. R. Albert, Soils H. W. Albertz, Agronomy Freda M. Bachmann, Agr. Bacteriol- ogy E. A. Baird, Plant Pathology W. H. Ebling, Assistant to the Dean N. S. Fish, Agr. Engineering W. C. Frazier, Agr. Bacteriology A. A. Granovsky, Economic Ento- mology A. J. Haas, Executive Secretary R. T. Harris, Dairy Tests Elsie Hess, Home Economics E. D. Holden, Agronomy C. A. Hoppert, Agr. Chemistry L. K. Jones, Plant Pathology Grace Langdon, Agr. Journalism Samuel Lepkovsky, Agr. Chemistry V. G. Milum, Economic Entomology E. M. Nelson, Agr. Chemistry G. T. Nightingale, Horticulture A. J; Riker, Plant Pathology Marianna T. Sell, Agr. Chemistry L. C. Thomsen, Dairy Husbandry C. E. Walsh, Agr. Engineering J. A. Anderson, Agr. Bacteriology R. M. Bethke, Agr. Chemistry Archie Black, Agr. Chemistry Dorothy Bradbury, Horticulture Lloyd Burkey, Agr. Bacteriology Conrad Elvetejew, Agr. Chemistry R. E. Frost, Agr. Journalism O. H. Gerhardt, Agr. Chemistry GeraLd Heebink, Animal Husbandry »-H. S. Irwin, Agr. Economics -W. C. Jensen, Agr. Economics O. N. Johnson, Poultry Husbandry J. H. Jones, Agr. Chemistry C. C. Lindegren, Plant Pathology Edgar Martin, Animal Husbandry A. J. Moyer, Genetics N. T. Nelson, Agronomy O. J. Noer, Soils G. A. Palmer, Agr. Engineering W. H. Pierre, Soils E. Rankin, Agr. Chemistry T. E. Rawlins, Horticulture E. G. Schmidt, Agr. Chemistry W. P. Smith, Agr. Bacteriology M. E. Smith, Inst. Administration D. G. Steele, Genetics Henry Stevens, Genetics Frances W. Streets, Plant Path- ology R. B. Streets, Plant Pathology Ferne E. Taylor, Inst. Administra- tion M. N. Walker, Plant Pathology B. L. Warwick, Veterinary Science ' V. R. Wurtz, Agr. Economics J. J. Yoke, Genetics AGR ‘SLT IMENT STATION UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON DIGEST Plan the home to save the time and energy of the farm woman. Since the housewife spends most of her time in the home and has the task and responsibility of managing it, her needs should be most con- sidered when planning a home. Page 3. Screened working porches and living porches contribute greatly to the health of the farmer’s wife and daughter. Page 4. Running water in the farm home is essential. The burdens of the housewife are greatly lightened by running water in the home; and every member of the family will appreciate the comfort and con- venience. Page 4. A modified square house is economical to build and wastes the least space in hallways. The “Compact House” is a broad, low building, simple in construction and free from useless ornamentation. Page 4. A square house built so that an extra half unit may be added is one of the most practical plans for a progressive farm home. The kitchen working areas are compact; the front and side entrances are both close to the kitchen; and all rooms are well ventilated. Pages 7-11. The “Breakfast Alcove House” meets a very definite need of the farm woman who must make every moment count in the busy morning hours. The broken roof line is interesting and the house has the compactness of the more nearly square type. Pages 11-13. A central hall extending from the front to the back of the house is a novel feature of the “Long Oblong House.” The downstairs bedroom with wash room and shower attached are ideal for the farm home. Pages 13-16. The “Hillside Cottage” enables the farm woman to do most of her work without climbing stairs. This cottage is planned for the hilly districts of Wisconsin. Pages 16-19. In the “Colonial Farm House” the working areas of the laundry, kitchen, and dining room are very compactly arranged for saving time and energy. Pages 19-20. The “Semi-Colonial House” combines the dignified, balanced ex- terior of the colonial house without the wasteful central hall. Page 24. Farm Homes Departments of Home Economics and Agricultural ‘Engineering F ARM HOMES can be just as comfortable, convenient and attractive as city homes. Abundant space and plenty of fresh air and sunshine are much easier to obtain than in the city, and native trees and shrubs make attractive settings. The modern farm home should be carefully planned and adapted to the needs of the family. A city house plan is often unsuited to a rural home because of certain differences between farm and city life. Housing farm workers, for instance, and the need for carrying on farm enterprises within the home make some arrange- ments essential in the farm house that would be unnecessary in the city. Build Convenient Farm Homes Plan the farm home to save the steps of the farm women. Careful planning may mean that instead of walking many miles a day to do her work, the housewife may accomplish the same re- sults and walk only a short distance. Avoid making any room a passage way to other rooms. Both heat and cleaning are saved in this way. The main traveled paths in the farm home should be short and direct to save walking. Every farm home should have a downstairs bedroom or office adjacent to the kitchen and the living room. The kitchen should be the best ventilated room in the house. Moist heat causes exhaustion. Farm workers should pass from the wash room directly into the dining room without going through the kitchen. The dining room should be large enough to allow for the full spread of the table, room for the serving table, and passage way around the dining table. If kitchen and living room are combined in one there should be a pantry connecting with it. Clean, sanitary food makes for health. 4 Wisconsin Bulletin 353 The door between kitchen and dining room should be wide enough for the passage of the “speechless housemaid” or wheel tray. Bedrooms should all open into a common hall. Each person needs privacy some time in the 24 hours. Each bedroom should have cross ventilation. Screened sleeping porches will save doctor’s bills. Screened working porches and living porches are essential to the happiness of the farmer’s wife and daughter. The farm home laundry may have to be on the first floor. The basement should be large enough for furnace room and storage room, but not large enough to be a dumping place for use- less things. Closets and cupboards are “first aids” in saving the strength of the farm housewife and should be liberally provided. Running water in the farm home is essential; and electrical appliances mean longer life for the farm mother. Trees, vines, and shrubbery pleasingly arranged will contribute much to the beauty of the farm home. The Compact House (Fig. 1) The compact house is a modification of the square house which is cheapest to build and wastes the least space in hallways. It is a broad, low building, simple in construction and free from useless ornamentations. A living porch and sleeping porch ex- FIG. 1.— COMPACT HOUSE. Farm Homes 5 FIG. 2. — PLAN OF COMPACT HOUSE. 6 Wisconsin Bulletin 353 tend beyond the square of the basement, giving apparent width to the house. They are balanced by the chimney on the outside. The house is entered through the vestibule, into which light comes from the upper half of the outer door and the glass doors opening into the main hall. The stairs rise near the center of the front half of the house and are therefore convenient to the living room and office and the side door which opens into the laundry. One may go upstairs from the kitchen or laundry without pass- ing through the dining room or the living room. The cellar stair is under the front stair, opening into the laundry near the kitchen and convenient to the side door so that supplies may be carried to the basement without passing through the kitchen. The first floor lavatory opens from the laundry and is below the bathroom on the second floor so that the plumbing is reduced to the smallest amount. (Fig. 2.) The farm office may be entered from the outside, or through the laundry, or from the front hall without entering the living room. The dining room may be entered from the front hall or the laundry without going through the living room and the kitchen. A living porch opens from the dining room and the living room and is sufficiently large to be used as a summer din- ing room. The kitchen has a small screened work porch from which the ice box may be filled. The working surfaces in the kitchen are arranged so that the worker moves from the sink and the work table to the range, to the serving table, to the dining room, and then back to the sink without crossing her path. Near the range is a wood box that may be filled from the kitchen porch without entering the kitchen. The laundry is provided with two tubs, a stationary flat ironer. space for a water heater, range and a dumb waiter to the base- ment. The latter opens next to the kitchen door. The second floor contains four bedrooms, sleeping porch, bathroom and linen closets. Each bedroom is provided with cross ventilation and has either a closet or a wardrobe. A clothes chute leads from the bathroom to the laundry. If a furnace is not put in when the house is built, the two rooms on the second floor may be heated by stoves. If an attic is desired, a third stairway leading to the attic can be built directly over the stairs leading from the first floor. In an emergency, the office could be used as a sleeping room for a hired man. Farm Homes 7 The basement provides room for the furnace, coal, wood, fruit and vegetable storage, and a place for drying clothes in winter. Because of the uncertainty as to the cost of building materials, no estimate of cost can be given. The house may be all wood, stone, brick, brick veneer or stucco. The Unit-and-a-Half House (Fig. 3) The unit-and-a-half house is intended to be built on the one unit plan with additions to be made later as the family grows. In its original form, it is a square house and may be built with a hip roof, or the gable roof (illustrated in the drawing of the completed house), which lends itself better to the addition of a half unit. The side elevation shows it in the one unit form. The first floor plan (Fig. 4) shows the compact three-room house with entrance hall opening into the living room, back hall and kitchen. The side door opening from the ground level leads to the back hall, the basement and kitchen. There is a direct pass- age way through the back hall into the front hall so that the worker in the kitchen may reach the front door without going through the living rooms. The back porch could be made wider than seven feet and screened in. A 9xl2-foot porch is a very satisfactory working and even dining porch for the small family group. The living room and dining room are connected by double doors so that they may be thrown together, making a larger space for entertainment, or they may be separated and the living room used in emergency as a temporary bedroom. FTG. 3. — ONE UNIT HOUSE WITH HALF UNIT ADDED 8 Wisconsin Bulletin 353 FIG. 4. — PLAN FOR ONE UNIT HOUSE. (HALF UNIT TO BE ADDED.) Farm Homes 9 BedRoom or. Omc£ G'-6" ,9' Lining Q^dh \Djnin:g .f r» * . % ***** .«*v* * Jf'M h *.• %*»*■• S*fm*«*il*4S. m S rff V n ji «,*# %%»#«*% v jf*% %4 fx^M #*% |t*4T J*? « % % * *- » * * ** ^ ^ * V *'%$<# «<*-* «*# «*£ #&*W *.* Jfm**/iiJ ?*!‘ * * r » » ’ », » »uf j ?>«*/ * » * ♦ » « » . * •,)•! Bfe* S* ?“? # » # * * /* * v* n % m t ***-:. * , ; *t •v\*.* , v * * *v*«?'*V’« *“*vi *v v; « ” »*»* S ~® C w * * * * » * # w? *v *„•*.•, *Z1** Si I r*r»« * * * * *f .?f S ?.**■.*«* . “25 ** 2*1 *.*;*.■£*.*? ^ ** * * * ***^*'^ * »*. %■*•**** *1 * *?■»/ %> £ *1 * * * •« %**%*^. *$•**'$*%: *L * * * M *»**■■&*% * * **&&*»■ *►.&*-« # * #•**.•&«* * v * #*- %%?& 4h %* * '' + *■**& %* p «S:<: »>*»»>*<<*«*> vy V3 ***»*♦» .-. .»*AV »- ■ , /«Vt»y,- •AW.- t y, .vt^vty V?. ■ * a. ..Vi.- « ■ . .* * * -Iv • • '411** AC; R I Cl ’ LT l K \ LEXPK R I M ENT STATION tJNIVEKSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON 3:-:-:s;£-:-:-rca:<-rv-:o:-; »*« WAMi 1 *, %%‘i ^s: : :cik^!:*:*:*s^os:.;. ** * * vilSi* vviy#* ‘tWtr. <*>■#> *■ *«st .'//A cexciku: ♦ * «k# » ^ , #'5» t 't^*% < >««»,» » »<* -i Com Breeding Why? 1. Why do red ears of corn appear in yellow or white varieties when no red seed is ever planted? Pages 18-20. 2. Why are white kernels constantly found in yellow varieties even when they are discarded every year before planting? Page 22. 3. Can the white, off-type kernels be eliminated easily in any way? Page 23. 4. What does the appearance of white or albino corn seedlings mean? Pages 27-29. 5. Can one select for early maturity? Pa # ge 32 6. Does inbreeding (or close selection to type) de- crease yield and how can it be avoided? Pages 32-34. 7. Do show characters of a seed ear have anything to do with yield? Pages 35-36. Corn Breeding E. W. Lindstrom C ORN BREEDING is a source of both pride and profit to many enterprising farmers. The local breeder of corn is always needed despite the well developed federal and state experiment stations and reputable seed companies that are constantly breeding corn. This crop demands constant breeding to adapt it to different parts of the state and especially to keep the variety pure Since all this cannot be done by the state experiment station, some local breeder must develop reliable seed corn for his neigh- borhood. Selecting the best ears in the field is a simple method and is economically done although there are many complicated systems . 1 Such questions as those asked on the opposite page are very common to any One growing seed corn. If the answers to the questions do nothing else, they should at least indicate what not to do under certain circumstances, which would often mean a saving of time and money. Some corn breeders whose breeding stock produced a high proportion of white seedlings have treated their seed, others have used excess of fertilizers, and still others have spent hours hoeing out white seedlings or have worried about dis- eases and insects in their soil. None of these treatments, as a matter of fact, affect in any way the appearance of the ordi- nary white seedlings and only when the cause is found can the situation be handled wisely. A study of the heredity of the corn plant often answers many questions about corn. Breeding is based on a knowl- edge of the inheritance of characters and qualities. This in itself is a fascinating subject and has considerable importance from the commercial standpoint. The corn breeder, the county agent, and the agricultural teacher must know some- ^he ear-to-row method, the ear-remnant method, or the method of using hybrid seed are probably impractical to the average corn breeder at this time. Information and help in any of these methods can be had from the Agricultural Experiment Station at Madison. 4 Wisconsin Bulletin 356 thing of the way in which characters are transmitted or in- herited in order to deal with plant breeding intelligently. The corn plant is well adapted to a study in heredity. First, there are large numbers of different types of corn such as dent, flint, sweet, pop, flour, red, white, yellow, purple, podded, and a score of other types ; and second, corn is easily cross-bred. The crossing of corn, which is its natural method of pollination, is so important in breeding work that it should be well understood. How Com is Pollinated Corn is naturally cross-pollinated. It differs in this respect from wheat, oats, barley, peas, beans, and soybeans, all of which are naturally self-pollinated. The wind blows the corn pollen about, sometimes as far as half a mile, scattering the pollen so that it falls on plants other than the one producing it. % In corn the male element, the pollen, is produced in the tassels while the female element, the eggs or ovules are borne on the young cob. Each normal healthy corn plant produces over 2,000,000 pollen grains and about 500-1000 ovules. To produce a normal ear of corn, at least one pollen grain must fall on each silk, grow down this long thread-like affair and finally fertilize the ovule or egg at its base. This soon produces the young embryo plant seen in the corn grain, as well as the starchy food material surrounding the young plant, each fertilized ovule producing a single kernel. If any of the silks fail to receive pollen, or if for any other reason the ovules fail to develop, there is a corresponding deficiency of kernels. This condition is commonly seen at the extreme tip of the ear. Because of the distance between* the tassel and the silks on a corn plant (from 2 to 4 feet) and because the pollen is very light in weight, there is much chance that the plant’s own pollen will be blown aside and that the silks will be pollinated by pollen from another plant. This is what is meant by cross- pollination. Sometimes the pollen matures at slightly dif- ferent times from the silks, a fact which also aids cross- pollination. Corn Breeding 5 Cross-pollination makes corn breeding difficult. The mother plant can be controlled by saving its seed but the male con- tribution is always uncertain. Experience shows that the male plant has as much effect on the progeny as the female, and accordingly it cannot be neglected. Pollination can be artificially controlled by bagging the plants. This is, however, impracticable as an ordinary corn breeding method. Structure of Corn Grain The make-up of the corn grain is another matter that should be understood in discussing the heredity of corn. As seen under the microscope, the kernel of corn has the follow- ing constitution, shown in the diagram. Beginning at the outside, there are several layers of thin cells called the seed-coat or pericarp. Inside this is a single FIG. 1— DIAGRAM OF A CORN GRAIN A cross-section sketch showing the relative location of the different parts of the kernel. 6 Wisconsin Bulletin 356 distinct series of cells called the aleurone layer. See Fig. 1. Next come the larger and looser starch cells of the endosperm proper. These cells surround the young corn plant (embryo) and contain the food materials for the germinating seedling until its own roots and leaves can function. Each of these three kinds of cells may carry distinctive colors. In addition, the endosperm cells may contain different kinds of starch (or dextrin), making the kernel a dent, flint, pop, flour, or sweet corn. Colors of the Grain Seed coat color. As a rule two general colors, red and white, occur in the seed-coat. 2 Such varieties as Cardinal King Dent, King Phillip Flint, and Northwestern Dent, have red seed coats. The white or colorless seed coat is found in Golden Glow Dent, Murdock Dent, Clark’s Dent, Silver King Dent, Crosby Sweet, Golden Bantam Sweet, Black Mexican Sweet, Country Gentleman Sweet, Yellow Flint, White Flint, Rice Pop, and many others. All ears on any individual plant are entirely of the same color, either red or white. Very rarely bud sports occur, in which case red and white seed coat colors may be found on the same plant. The seed coat of the corn grain belongs to the mother plant, while the endosperm (starchy food materials), including the aleurone layer, belongs to the young embryo plant contained therein. The seed coat is produced by the mother plant as can easily be seen by placing a bag over an ear before the silks come out. If this is done neither the endosperm nor embryo develop within the thin seed coat which is already present. If fertilized by pollen, however, the embryo plant, the endosperm and the aleurone layer develop within this seed coat. It is very important to realize that the seed coat belongs to one generation (parent), and the endosperm and embryo plant to the next generation (progeny). Aleurone color. Commercially, aleurone color in corn does not play a very important part. But sometimes it does cause a contamination of good seed corn as every farmer knows who has seen ears speckled with blue grains. The only im- 2 Occasionally others are seen, such as calico (striped red and white), brown, or,. lighter shades of red, but these are not of great commercial im- portance. The red tint of smut-nosed flint is carried in the seed coat and is de- veloped by the gradual entrance of light at the upper end of the ear. Corn Breeding / portant varieties which have aleurone color are the Black Mexican Sweet Corn, Squaw Corn and the Blue Pop Corn. The native Indian corns also contain much aleurone color. There are three general colors carried in the aleurone layer of cells which lies immediately below the seed coat and forms the outer layer of the endosperm. These are purple (or bluish-black), red, and colorless. There are no commercial varieties with pure red aleurone color. The common white or yellow dent and flint corns have the colorless aleurone, as do the red seed-coated varieties. It is possible, however, to produce by cross-breeding an ear with a red seed coat over- lying a purple aleurone color, making a dark red combination. In other words, the seed coat and aleurone colors are inde- pendent of each other ; one or both may be present in the same grain. Endosperm color. The endosperm proper lying within the aleurone layer carries its own series of colors. They range from a dark orange-yellow to white, with all gradations of yellow color intervening. The Golden Bantam sweet corn contains one of the darker shades of yellow, while the Yellow Flint, Golden Glow, Murdock or Reid’s Yellow Dent varieties are just a trifle lighter in shade. The endosperm color of Silver King, Boone County White, Silver Mine, White Flint, or Cardinal King is white or colorless. The yellow series of endosperm colors is independent of both seed-coat and aleurone color. That is, we may have either yellow or white endosperm overlaid by either red or white seed coat or by either purple, red or colorless aleurone. A red variety like Cardinal King may have both yellow and white kernels. As a matter of fact, Cardinal King has a large majority of white kernels. Cob Color The cob ’like the seed coat is a part of the mother plant. There are two general colors of the cob, red and white . 3 Varieties such as Golden Glow, Reid’s Yellow Dent, Learning, Murdock, Clark, and Cardinal King have red cobs. White- cobbed varieties are Silver King, Silver Mine, Boone County White, Evergreen Sweet, Crosby Sweet, Golden Bantam Sweet, and Country Gentleman Sweet. 3 Other colors such as brown, purple, or red-striped (of calico corn) are sometimes found, but they are not very important commercially. TABLE 1. — COLORS OF CORN VARIETIES Wisconsin Bulletin 356 w c/3 o 2 pi A euo c/3_i 2 ° Pu £ W £ ** « o o o o .t; .tJ r3 J3 M v t> > Jh >i >5 in > > £ £ >« i* >H W og §o Wu .J < u u u u u P4 « T5 TJ T3 .t: J- U r- « « > Pi ££££££££££££ OP^ o o go WtJ w C/3 u Q Q 5 Q e .S s G _o E £ c/3 u V 0) V bo bo G G Wi .2* E E 4> S c3 & c/3 73 C M M $ 2: 2 e>* £ j2 !a (O O £ G ca « •8 g a; Silver Cardins .a in o £ bo G M >H *bo G o £ Smut G V •g o O o Ih o o K £