OF THL
U N IVLRSITY
Of ILLINOIS
G30
1870
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS
AGRICULTlfllE LIBRARY
Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2015
https://archive.org/details/newamericanfarnibOOalle
NEW
AMERICAN FARM BOOK.
OEIGINALLY BY
K. L. ALLEN,
AUTHOR OF "diseases OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS," AND FORMERLY EDITOR OP THB
"AMERICAN AGRICULTURIST."
REVISED AND ENLARGED BY
LEWIS F. ALLEN,
AUTHOR OF "AMERICAN CATTLE," EDITOR OF THE "AMERICAN SHORT HORN
HERD BOOK," ETC.
JS'EW YOKK-
ORANGE JUDD AND COMPANY,
345 BEOADWAY.
1870.
Entered according to act of Congress, in the year 1869, by
ORANGE JUDD & CO.,
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern
District of New York.
Warren, Johnson & Co.
Stereoiypers^ Printers and Bifiders,
Buffalo, N. Y.
^30
This work was originally written by Eichaed L.
Allen, then one of the editors of the American
Agriculturist." It was published in the year 1846, the
first and only complete work of kindred character
in this country, down to that time. It was an able
compilation of valuable matter, some portions of it
then existing in various miscellaneous publications of
the day, crystalized, and brought into available shape,
through the industry of its experienced author.
The volume — then among the best agricultural books
of the day, and upon subjects less investigated and
studied than now — ^had a wide circulation, and met
with general approval by those competent to judge of
the topics on which it treated. It was a work of
ability, of laborious research, and study; but, like
similar books in a rapidly progressive age, has had its
day. Twenty-three years is a long time for any book,
treating on science, and improved practice — particu-
larly as applied to agriculture— to have a successfuJ.
V
4
PREFACE.
sale and still meet the popular demand, on a great
proportion of the subjects of its discussion.
The publishers, aware of the continuous demand for
works advancing sound views *on the treatment of the
varied subjects which this volume embraces, and the
original author being engaged in pursuits more respon-
sible, and important to himself, placed it in the hands
of the undersigned for revision, amendment and exten-
sion, so far as might be necessary. Much of the orig-
inal matter, incapable of improvement, has been left as
originally written. New discoveries, and subjects not
before well comprehended have been added, giving the
present enlargement, and wider compass to the work.
In its present shape it comprises all that can well
be condensed into an available volume of its kind.
Nothing in fact, short of an Encyclopedia of Agriculture,
would embrace m full, all the subjects, in the various
extended ramifications necessary to their treatment.
The topics are therefore discussed in a manner partly
suggestive, although suflS.ciently instructive to guide the
practical farmer in the treatment of the various matters
embraced, taking a fair view of their importance.
The prominent value, and dignity of Agriculture i&
more than ever appreciated by the American people.
It ranks fairly among the learned professions. Its im-
portance is acknowledged by the Nation in its Con-
gressional capacity by the aids it has extended to its
improvement; by the several States of the Union in
PREFACE. 5
their Legislative encouragement ; and by the people at
large through the increased attention they bestow on its
implements, economies, labors, and results. The public
Press, widely potential over opinion in what relates to
the welfare of the people, exhibits its regard for the
farmer in devoting a share of its weekly columns to
the discussion of his interests, while the Agricultural
Monthlies and Weeklies of the day, firmly estab-
lished in their indispensable importance, send forth
their hundreds of thousands of copies to enlighten the
mass of our population in this, the fundamental source
of national wealth, prosperity, and greatness.
Fifty years ago a stable agricultural periodical did
not exist on the American continent. Fitful publica-
tions now and then glimmered out through the general
darkness. The profession of the Farmer was without
official recognition, his calling laborious, and his ele-
vation to the higher responsibilities of government,
science, literature, professional life, and art, attainable
only with great difficulty, chiefly on account of the
hard-working life he was obliged to lead, which was
the principal obstacle to his attaining a fair education.
To-day great attention is given to agricultural educa-
tion, especially to such as will both fit farmers for
their especial calling and for taking positions of the
greatest influence in society: labor-saving implements
relieve them of that exhausting bodily labor which so
unfits man for intellectual exertion, and throughout
6
PREFACE.
our land every avenue to social and political distinc-
tion is as fully open to farmers as to any of our citi-
zens. Besides, when our great men, and those who
have been successful in professional or mercantile pur-
suits, have secured a competency, or amassed fortunes,
they generally retire to the farm, and there, as practical
workers, or indulging in amateur fancies, find rest and
enjoyment. Among such persons, no doubt a great
number of the readers of this volume will be lound.
Their needs have been had in mind by the editor
while writing primarily for the guidance and instruction
of the professional farmer, who has constant need of a
book of reference.
LEWIS R ALLEK
Buffalo, IST. Y., 1869.
CONTENTS.
INTEODUCTION.
TiUage Husbandry— Grazing— Feeding— Breeding— Horticulture— Planting, etc., 13
CHAPTER I.
Soils— Their Classification— Description— Management— Properties 21
CHAPTER II.
Inorganic Manures— Mineral— Stone— Earth— Phosphatic 41
CHAPTER III.
Organic Manures— Their Composition— Animal— Vegetable ... 65
CHAPTER lY.
Irrigation and Draining gO
CHAPTER Y.
Mechanical Division of Soils— Spading— Plowing— Implements 101
8
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER YI.
The Grasses— Clovers— Meadows— Pastures— Comparative Values of Grasses— Im
plements for their Cultivation Ill
CHAPTER VII
Grain, and its Cultivation— Varieties— Growth— Harvesting 142
CHAPTER VIII.
Leguminous Plants— The Pea— Bean— English Field Bean— Tare or Vetch— Culti- •
vation— Harvesting 179
CHAPTER IX.
Roots and Esculents — ^Varieties — Growth — Cultivation — Securing the Crops — ^Uses
—Nutritive Equivalents of Different Kinds of Forage 185
CHAPTER X.
Fruits— Apples— Cider— Vinegar— Pears — Quinces — Peaclies — Plums — Apricots —
Nectarines— Smaller Pruits—Plauting— Cultivation— Gathering-Preserving, 209
CHAPTER XI.
Miscellaneous Objects of Cultivation, aside from the Ordinary Farm Crops-
Broom Corn— Flax— Cotton— Hemp— Sugar Cane — Sorghum— Maple Sugar—
Tobacco— Indigo— Madder — ^Woad— Weld — Sumach — ^Teasel— Mustard — Hops —
Castor Bean 242
CHAPTER XII.
" Aids and Objects of Agriculture — Rotation of Crops, and their Effects — ^Weeds —
Restoration of Worn-out Soils— Fertilizing Barren Lands— Utility of Birds—
Fences— Hedges— Farm Roads— Shade Trees— Wood Lands— Time of Cutting
Timber— Farming Tools— Agricultural Education of the Farmer 297
CONTENTS.
9
CHAPTER XIII.
Farm Buildings— House— Barn— Sheds— Cisterns— Various other Out-Buildings^
Steaming Apparatus 332
CHAPTER XIV.
Domestic Animals— Breeding— Anatomy— Eespiration— Consumption of Food.. 344
CHAPTER XV.
Neat or Horned Cattle— Devons—Herefords—Ayreshires— Galloways— Short Horns
— Alderneys, or Jerseys— Dutch, or Holstein— Management from Birth to
Milking, Labor, or Slaughter 363
CHAPTER XVI.
The Dairy— Milk— Butter— Cheese— Different Kinds— Manner of Working 379
CHAPTER XVII.
Sheep— Merino— Saxon— South Down— The Long Wooled Breeds— Cotswold— Lin-
coln — ^Breeding — ^Management — Shepherd Dogs 398
CHAPTER XVIII.
The Horse— Description of Different Breeds— Their Various Uses— Breeding-
Management , 444
CHAPTER S.IX.
The Ass— Mule— Comparative Labor of Working Animals 460
CHAPTER XX.
Swine — Different Bjreeds — Breeding — Rearing — Fattening — Curing Pork and
Haras 476
1 ^
10 CONTENTS.
CH'APTER XXI.
Poultry— Hens, or Barn-Door Fowls— Turkey— Peacock— Guinea Hen— Goose —
Duck— Honey Bees 486
CHAPTER XXII.
Diseases of Animals— What Authority shall we Adopt ?— Sheep— Swine— Treat-
ment and Breeding of Horses
CHAPTER XXIII.
Conclusion— General Remarks— The Farmer who Lives by his Occupation— The
Amateur Farmer— Sundry Useful Tables 508
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
II^TEODUOTION^.
Agriculture, in its most extensive sense, may be defined— the
cultivation of the earth with a reference to the production of
vegetables, and the conversion of portions of them into animals
and a variety of forms which are the best adapted to the wants
of mankind- It is appropriately distinguished by numerous sub-
divisions.
Tillage Huslandry consists in the raising of grain, roots and
other products, which require the extensive use of the plow and
harrow to prepare the ground for annual sowing and planting.
Grazing is limited to the pasturing and winter feeding of farm
stock, and it requires that the land appropriated to this purpose,
should be kept in pasturage for summer food, and in meadows to
yield the hay necessary for winter's use. In its strictly techni-
cal meaning, grazing implies the rearing of farm stock till they
have attained sufficient maturity for a profitable market, as far
as this maturity can be secured on grass and hay. It, however,
properly embraces in its minor divisions, the keeping of cows for
the purposes of a dairy, and the support of flocks for the pro-
duction of wool.
Feeding, in its agricultural signification, consists in stall fatten-
mg animals, and it is properly connected with tillage husbandry,
by which grain and roots are produced, and by their free use,
animals can be brought to a higher condition or ripeness, and
14 INTRODUCTION.
they will thus command a much better price in market, than
if fed exclusively on grass and hay.
Breeding, technically defined, is restricted to the production
of choice animals for use as future propagators, by the judicious
selection and crossing of the best specimens of the various
distinct breeds of domestic stock.
Horticulture embraces the entire department of gardening and
fruit culture.
Ahoriculture, the cultivation of trees and shrubbery.
By Planting, (or the occupation of planters,) is understood
the cultivation of extensive farms or plantations, for the exclu-
sive production of one or more commercial staples; as cotton,
sugar, rice, tobacco, indigo, etc., and their preparation for a dis-
tant market. The term is peculiarly sectional, and its use, so far
as adopted in this country, is hmited to the Southern part of it.
The foregoing, and various other occupations connected with
the cultivation of the earth, are comprehended under the general
head of Agriculture.
Besides the varied practical knowledge which is indispensable
to the proper management of every department of Agriculture,
its general principles and theoretical relations require a famil-
iarity with the elements of History, Geology, Meteorology,
Entomology, Zoology, Chemistry, Botany, Anatomy, Animal
and Vegetable Physiology, and Mechanics, involving a wide
share of human knowledge and science.
In view of its intricacy, its magnitude, and its importance to
the human race, we cannot fail to be struck with the peculiar
wisdom of Deity in assigning to man this occupation, when a far
seeing and vigorous intellect fitted him to scan with unerring
certainty and precision, the visible works of his Creator, and
INTRODUCTION. 15
trace their causes and effects through all their varied relations.
It was while in the sinless perfection of his original nature, when
*'the Lord God put hina into the garden of Eden, to dress it and
to keep it," and agriculture was his sole occupation, that his god-
like intelligence enabled him, instinctively, to give appropriate
names, indicative of their true nature or character, "to all cattle,
and to the fowl of the air, and to every beast of the field;" and
so just and accurate was his perception, that "whatsoever he
called every living creature, that was the name thereof."
In our present Imperfect condition, a beneficent Providence
has not reserved a moderate success in Agriculture, exclusively
to the exercise of a high degree of intelligence. His laws have
been so kindly framed, that the hand even of uninstructed toil,
may receive some requital in remunerating harvests ; while their
utmost fullness can be anticipated, only where corporeal efforts
are directed by the highest intelligence.
The indispensable necessity of an advanced agriculture to the
comforts and wealth, and indeed, to the very existence of a great
nation, renders it an object peculiarly worthy the attention and
regard of the legislative power. In looking to the history both
of ancient and modern times, we find, that wherever a people
have risen to enduring eminence, they have sedulously encour-
aged and protected this right arm of their strength. Examples
need not be given, for they abound in every page of their civil
polity. '
Our own country has not been wanting in a moderate regard
for Agriculture. By wise legislation in our National Congress,
every item of extensive agricultural production within the United
States, with the single exception of the inferior wools, is beheved to
be now protected from foreign competition, by an unyielding and
16
INTRODUCTION.
perfectly adequate impost on all such articles, as would other-
wise enter into a successful rivalry with them from abroad.
Many of our subordinate, or State Legislatures have also, by
liberal provisions, given such encouragement to various objects,
as they deemed necessary to develop the agricultural resources
within their jurisdiction. Such have been the appropriations
for numerous Geological and other State surveys; the bounties
on different articles, as silk, hemp, and some others; and occa-
sionally a small gratuity to encourage th.e formation and support
of State and County Agricultural Societies.
The organization of a Department of Agriculture " at
Washington a few years ago, by our National Congress, has
been a step in the right direction for the acceleration of
our progress in all that appertains to this indispensable
branch of American industry. It has powers and means, if
efficiently directed, to embrace and disseminate throughout
the land all the information available for the purposes of the
husbandman.
So far as relates to obtaining rare and valuable plants arid
seeds, and other agricultural material, from every quarter of the
globe, and their distribution to all parts of the country suitable
to their growth and production; to report from time to time
the statistics of crops, their cultivation and production, compar-
ative or otherwise; and to give to the public all such infor-
mation as may be in its power, to the various interests of the
country, either commercial, manufacturing, or agricultural, which
may inure to their benefit, it only needs a wise administration
in this Department to confer unbounded benefits on the agri-
culture of our country. This was a favorite, yet never a fully
digested plan of Washington, the promptings of whose bencv-
INTKODUCTION. 17
olent and comprehensive mind were never followed but for his
country's good.
Fjrom wise action of the individual States, a less command-
ing, but not less beneficial duty is required. Eestrictions wisely
imposed upon the General Government, limit its action to such
measures only as are essential to the general welfare, and such
as cannot properly be accomphshed by any more circumscribed
authority. More liberal and enlarged grants from the people,
as their well-tried and intelligently ascertained wants may be
developed, give to the State Legislatures the power of doing
all which their constituents choose to have effected for their
own benefit.
Education, in all its branches, is under their exclusive con-
trol; and to endow and foster every institution which has a
tendency to raise and improve the intellectual, the moral and
the social condition of the people, has ever been their cherished
pohcy. Yet, up to this time, no institution expressly designed
for the professional education of farmers, has ever been perfected
m this country. That far seeing wisdom which characterizes
the consummate statesman, which regards the future equally
with the present and past, has at last culminated in a most
benificent act of our National Congress, by a liberal provision
m the donation of public lands, for the partial endowment of
agricultural schools in the* several States. To aid with every
means in their power in laying the foundations broad and deep,
to elevate the superstructures, to rear the mighty columns, and
adorn the graceful capitals, would seem_ most properly to come
entirely within the province of the representatives of intelligent
freemen, the great business of whose lives is the practice of
agriculture.
18 INTRODUCTION.
In addition to continuing and making more general and
comprehensive the encouragement for these objects heretofore
considered, it is the duty of each and every State of the Union
hberally to endow and organize its Agricultural College, and
insure its successful operation within its jurisdiction. Con-
nected with these should be example and experimental farms,
where the suggestions of science should be amply tested and
carried out before submitting them to the pubhc. The most
competent men at home and abroad should be invited to fill a
professional chair ; and if money would temnt the most accom
phshed professional talent to leave the investigations of Euro-
pean soils and products, and devote their minds and energies
to the development of American Husbandry, it should be freely
given. In the absence of the latter, we must seek and build
them up from native growth.
These institutions should be schools for the teachers equally
with the taught; and their liberally appointed laboratories and
collections should contain every available means for the discov-
ery of what is yet hidden, as well as for the further development
of what is already partially known. Minor institutions should
of course be estabhshed at different and remote points, to
scatter the elements of agricultural knowledge broadcast over
the land, and bring them within the reach of the poorest
citizens and the humblest capacities.
By such a liberal and enlightened course, we should not only
incalculably augment the productive agricultural energies of our
own country, but we should also in part repay to the world at
large the obligations under which we now rest, for having appro-
priated numerous and important discoveries and improvements
from abroad. If we have the ability, which none can doubt, we
INTRODUCTION. 19
should make it a point of honor to return m kind, the liberal
advances we have thus received.
It is to the rising generation these suggestions are made^ the
risen are but partially prepared for their acceptance. A great
majority of the latter have been educated, and become habituated
to different and more partial influences. By their industry, intel-.
ligence, and energy displayed in numberless ways, and especially
l)y their protection of American labor, they have accomphshed
much for their own and their country^s welfare — with but
partially accomplished efforts, they will leave this glory for
their successors.
AMERICAN
CHAPTER 1.
SOILS.
Soils are those portions of the earth's surface which contain
a mixture of mineral and vegetable, or animal substances, in such
proportions as adapt them to the support of vegetation. Rocks
are the original basis of all soils, which by the convulsions of
nature, or the less violent but long continued and equally efficient
action of air, moisture and frost, have been broken into fragments
more or less minute. There are various gradations of these
changes.
The Texture of Soils. — Some soils embrace large bowlders
or rounded stones, that thickly overspread the surface and mingle
themselves with the earth beneath it, giving to it the name of a
rocky soil. The equal prevalence of the same materials, but of
smaller sizes, give to the surface where they abound, the charac-
ter of a stony soil. A third and more minute division is called
a gravelly soil; a fourth is a sandy soil; a fifth constitutes a
loam; and a sixth, in which the particles of earth are of a dif-
ferent character, is popularly denominated a clay soil. The
two first mentioned, are not properly distinct soils, as the onJy
support of any profitable vegetation is to be found in the finer
earth in which the rocks and stones are embedded. In frequent
instances, they materially benefit the crops, in the influence pro-
duced by the warmth, moisture, and protection from winds, afforded
by them ; and by the gradual decomposition of such as contain
AGRICULTD
llBRAl
22
AxMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
lime, potash and other fertihzing materials, they contribute to the
support of the soil. This last effect is aided hy the apparently
worthless vegetable life which they yield to the living mosses
that cling to their sides and everywhere penetrate their fissures,
thus nnperceptibly corroding the solid structures and preparing
them for future usefulness as soils. If we add to the above, a
peat or a vegetable soil, we shall have the material divisions of
soils, as distinguished by their texture.
Other Classification of Soils* — Soils are also distin-
guished by their tendency to absorb and retain water, gravel and
sand holding very little, while clay and peat readily absorb and
retain a great deal; by their constant saturation from perennial
springs, which are called springy soils ; by the quantity of vege-
table and animal matter they contain; by their porosity or
adhesiveness ; by their chemical character, whether silicious, argil-
laceous or calcareous; by the quality and nature of the vegetation
they sustain ; and lastly, and by far the most important, they are
distinguished by their fertility or barrenness, the result of the
proper adjustment and combination of most of the conditions
enumerated. Deserts of sands, layers of rocks, stone or pure
gravel, and beds of marl and peat, are not soils, though contain-
ing many of their most important elements.
It is apparent to the most casual observer, that soils frequently,
and by almost imperceptible degrees, change from ane character
to another, and that no classification therefore, however minute,
will suffice to distinguish each. Some obvious, yet simple dis-
tinctions, which are usually recognized, must nevertheless be
assumed for future reference. For this purpose, and to avoid
unnecessary deviations from what should be a common standard,
*ve shall adopt the arrangements as made by Professor Johnston,
10.361
nt Ma.
Potash chiefly combined with Silica,
n 1/ift
0.120
0.240
0.100
n fi4n
0.025
0.240
0.013
Phosphoric Acid combined with Lime
0,651
0.060
trace
1.221
Sulphuric Acid in Gypsum, .
0.011
0.027
0.034
0.009
Chlorine in common Salt, .
0.010
0.036
trace
0.003
Carbonic Acid united to the Lime,
0.080
1.304.
0.447
Insoluble Humus, ....
0.540
1.072
Organic substances containing nitro-
gen,
1.108
1.011
100 100 100 100
''Of these soils, the first had been cropped for 160 years suc-
cessively, without either manure or naked fallow. The second
was a virgin soil, celebrated for its fertility. The third had been
unmanured for twelve years, during the last nine of which it had
been cropped with beans, barley, potatoes, winter barley and red
clover, clover, winter barley, wheat, oats, naked fallow." —
Johnston.
Bergmann found that one of the most fertile soils in Sweden
contained 30 per cent, of carbonate of lime. . Chaptal analyzed a
very productive soil in France, which gave near 25 per cent, of
the same, and 7 of organic matter. Tillet even found one, and
that the most fertile, which yielded 37.5 of carbonate of lime.
Some of the best in the Mississippi valley, have yielded upon
analysis, 20 to 25 per cent, of magnesian lime, and of phosphate
of lime, 2 to 3 per cent. Many other soils throughout the United
States, contain an equal proportion of carbonate of lime. Such
are usually the last to wear out, and the first to recover by the
addition of manures, when suffered to remain uncultivated or in a
state of rest.
CHAPTER 11.
MANUKES.
While soils are permitted to remain in their natural state, or
if denuded of their original foliage and used only for pasture, little
or no change is perceptible either in their character or productive
powers. A shght change is however gradually wrought in their
texture and capacity for production, which is fully revealed in the
lapse of centuries. The elevated mountain's side, and the steep
declivities of hills, support a vegetation of more or less luxuriance ;
and a portion of this, together with the broken twigs, and even
the wasting matter of fallen trees, are carried down by the rains
and become a rich addition to the lower soils on which they
ultimately rest. Besides the vegetable matter thus annually
removed from one spot and accumulated upon another, many of
the fertilizing salts, which the action of the roots, or exposure to
the atmosphere has rendered soluble, and the fine particles of earth
which the alternations of heat and frost, of rain and drought, have
reduced to dust, are also washed out of the higher soils and
deposited on the plains and valleys below. Such, doubtless, was
once the condition of those secondary bottom lands, which for
ages probably, received the rich deposits from other soils, but
whose present situations, elevated beyond even the extraordinary
rise of the rivers whose course is near, show some radical alter-
ation of their respective levels, by which the latter no longer
contributes to their fertilization.
These soils being well stored with the food of plants, and fre-
quently to a great depth, will bear large successive crops for a
long period ; and they have, in many instances, been treated by
42
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
their first occupants as if they were inexhaustible. Of this de-
scription were the James river and other alluvial lands in Virginia,
some of which were continued in uninterrupted crops of corn and
tobacco for more than a century without the addition of manures.
But thej have long since become exhausted, and the more careful
planters are now endeavoring to resuscitate those worn out lands,
which ought never to have become impoverished. Of the same
character are most of the secondary bottoms on the Connecticut,
the Scioto, the Miami, and other rivers. The first, although under
cultivation for more than two centuries, in consequence of its
division among intelligent farmers, has fully maintained its pro-
ductiveness ; and the latter, if properly managed, are capable of
perpetual fertihty. Although but a httle more than half a century
has elapsed since these last have been subject to the white man,
they have already, in too many instances, been severely cropped.
The writer has seen fields, which he was assured have borne sixty
seven large successive crops of corn, and exclusively from their
own resources. A more careful tillage is however becoming,
general.
The lower alluvial bottoms that are frequently overflowed, and
thus receive large coatings of manures which are fully equivalent
to the products taken off, are the only soils which will permanently
sustain heavy crops without the aid of man. Such are the banks
of the Nile and the Ganges, and many of our own rivers, which
by the overflowing of their waters alone, have continued to yield
large annual burthens, the two former, for more than 3,000 years;
but they are thus supported at the expense of a natural drainage
of thousands of acres, which by this means, are proportionally
impoverished. Manures then, in some form, must be considered
as absolutely essential to sustaining soils subjected to tillage.
In their broadest sense, manures embrace every material, which
if added to the soil, tends to its fertihzation. They are appropri-
ately divided into organic and inorganic ; the first embracing
animal and vegetable substances, which have an appreciable
MANURES.
43
quantity of nitrogen ; the last compreliending only such as are
purely mineral or earthy, and which in general contain no nitrogen.
These characteristics are sometimes partially blended, but they
are sufficiently distinct for classification.
Much pertinacity has been exhibited by some highly inteUigent
minds, who should have entertained more hberal views, as to the
peculiar kinds ' of manures necessary to support a satisfactory
productiveness. We have seen that Tull maintained, that the
deepening and thorough pulverization of the soil was alone suffi-
cient to secure perpetual fertility. But this crude notion, it is
evident to the most superficial modern reader, is wholly untenable.
Some agriculturists of the present day however, while they scout
at the theory of Tull, (who was really a shrewd man for his day,)
will yet claim as essential to successfiil vegetation, the existence
in the soil of but a part only of the food of plants. Thus, one
asserts that the salts alone will secure good crops; others maintain
that the nitrogenous substances are the true source of fertihty ;
while still another class refer to the presence of humus or geine
(the available product of vegetable and animal decay in the soil)
as the only valuable foundation of vegetable nutriment in aU
manures. Truth and sound practice he between, or rather in the
combination of all these opinions.
It has been shown in a preceding page, that all fertile soils must
have not less than 15, and more probably 16, different simple or
elementary substances, in various combinations with each other.
All of the ordinary cultivated plants contain potash, soda, lime,
magnesia, alumina, sihca, oxide of iron, oxide of manganese,
sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid, chlorine, and frequently iodine ;
each of which, excepting the two last, are in combination with
ogygen. In addition to these, they also have carbon, oxygen,
nitrogen and hydrogen. Other substances or ultimate principles
may possibly exist in plants, which analysis may hereafter detect,
but hitherto they have eluded the closest investigation.
It is therefore obvious that such principles as all fertile soils
furnish to vegetables, must be contained in manures. It is no
44
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
satisfactory answer to this position to assert, that numerous ex-
periments have apparently been successful, of growing plants in
pure sand and water; or with charcoal and the salts added), or
even that there are some atmospheric plants, that fulfill their
zoophytic existence in air. Growth may continue for a long time,
imder such circumstances ; hut full maturity never arrives, and
prohally never cany without the av-ailahle presence in the soil of
every element which enters into the composition of plants.
Profitable farming requires that manures embodying all these
elements, should be added in sufiBcient quantities to the soil, to
develop fully and rapidly, such crops as are sought from it. It
becomes then, a matter of the highest consequence to the farmer
to understand, not only what substances may be useful as manures
but also how to apply them in the best manner to his crops so far
as they can be made profitable. We shall first speak of the
inorganic manures.
ASHES.
If any organic matter, whether animal or vegetable, be burnt,
an incombustible substance remains behind, called the ash, or
ashes. This varies in different plants from less than 1 to over 12
per cent, of their whole weight. It also varies with the dijSerent
soils upon which they are found, with the dijfferent parts of the
same plant, and in the different stages of its maturity. Thus
plants which grow on peaty, or low, wet soils, give a less propor-
tion of ashes, than those which mature upon soils that are dry or
rich in the sihcates and salts. The bark, leaves and twigs, give
much more ashes than the trunks of trees and stems of plants :
and in their early growth, they yield a larger proportion than after
they have attained maturity.
The following table, constructed from several rehable sources,
but principally by Sprengel, arranged in part by J ohnston, will
show the relative quantity of ashes found in some of the more
important objects of cultivation :
MANURES.
45
w
cS
O
c3
r0
O
ime.
[agnesia.
Alumina.
ilica.
alphuric
Acid.
Phosphoric
Acid.
hlorine.
xide of Iron.
i
^ i
O c
03 5
X
otal in every
1,000 lbs.
n ,
HH
QO
oc
o
O
*Wheat— Grain, .
2.25
2.40
0.96
0.90
0.26
4.00
0.50
0.40
0.10
trace
11.77
Straw, .
0.20
0*29
2.40
0.32
0.90
28.70
0.37
1.70
0.30
35.18
Barley— Grain, . .
2.78
2.90
1.06
1.80
0.25
11.82
.59
2.10
0.19
trace
23.49
Straw, .
liso
0"48
5.54
0.76
1.46
38.56
1.18
1.60
0.70
0.14
0.20
52.42
Oats-
Grain, . . .
1.50
1.32
0.86
0.67
0.14
19.76i0.35
0.70
0.10
0.40
25.80
Straw, . .
8.70
0.02
1.52
0.22
0.06
45.88
0.79
0.12
0.05
0.02
0.02
57.40
Rye—
Grain, . . .
5^32
f
1 22
0.44
0.24
1.64
0.23
0.46
0.09
0.42
o!34
10.40
Straw, . .
Q 32
0.11
1.78
0.12
0.25
22.97
1.70
0.51
0.17
27.93
Field
Bean, . .
4.15
8*16
1.65
1 58
0.34
1.26
0.89
2.92
0 41
21.36
Bean
' Straw, . .
16^56
0*50
6!24
2!09
0.10
2.20
0.34
2.26
0.'80
0.07
0.05
3l!21
Field
Pea, . . .
8^10
7^39
0.58
1.36
0.20
4.10
0.53
1.90
0.38
0.10
24.64
Pea i
" Straw, . 4
2*35
27.30
3.42
0.60
9.96
3.37
2.40
0.04
0.20
0.07
49.71
Potato— Roots, . .
4.028
2.334
.331
.324
.050
.084
.540
.401
.160
.032
8.284
Tops, .
8 19
09
12.97
1.70
.04
4.94
.42
1.97
.50
.02
30.84
Turnips— Roots, .
2.386
1.048
.752
.254
.036
.388
.801
.367
.239
.032
6.303
lb
Leaves,
3.23
2.22
6.20
.59
.03
1.28
2.52
.98
.87
.17
18.09
Carrots, ....
3.538
.922
.657
.384
.039
.137
.270
.514
.070
.033
.060
6.619
Parsnips, , . .
2.079
.702
.468
.270
.024
1.62
.192
.100
.178
.005
4.180
Rye Grass, . . .
8.81
3.94
7.34
0.90
0.31
27.72
3.53
0.25
0.06
52.86
Red Cloter, . . .
19.95
5.29
27.80
3.33
0.14
3.61
4.47
6.57
3.62
74.78
White Clover, . .
31.05
5.79
23.48
3.05
1.90
14.73
3.53
5.05
2.11
0.63
91.32
Lucern, ....
13.40
6.15
48.31
3.48
0.30
3.30
4.04
13.07
3.18
0.30
95.53
Sainfoin, ....
20.57
4.37
21.95
2.88
0.66
5.00
3.41
9.16
1.57
69.57
The farmer will perceive from this table, the great value of
ashes to his crops. The quantity seems small in comparison with
the total weight of the vegetables ; yet small as it is, the aggre-
gate of a few years will so far exhaust the soil of one or more of
the principles necessary to sustain a luxuriant vegetation, that it
will cease to yield remunerating returns. The annual exhaustion
*In the foregoing table, the grain, beans, peas, straw and hay are estimated after
they have been dried in the air ; the roots as they are taken from the field. The
clovers and grass lose from 55 to 75 per cent, of their entire weight when full of sap,
lessening, of course, as they approach to the state of ripening their seed. The potato
loses in drying, 69 per cent, of water ; the turnip, 91 ; carrot, 87 ; the turnip leaf, 86 ;
the carrot leaf, parsnip and parsnip leaf, each 81 ; and the cabbage, 93.
There is much variation in the different specimens of the above substances sub-
jected to examination, according to the peculiar variety, the difi"erent circumstances
and various stages of their growth. The oat is the most variable of the grains, one
specimen sometimes containing three times the quantity of ash afforded by others.
The roots also sometimes vary as three to one in their quantity of ash. As the
grain and most of the other crops approach to maturity, the quantity of some of the
principles constituting the ash diminish, as of potash and soda, their presence being
no longer necessary in the sap to aid the formation of the various products of the
plants.
+ Included in Potash.
46
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
of salts from large crops of grain, roots and grass, is from 180 to
more than 250 lbs. in every acre of soil. The ashes of vegetables
consist of such elements as are always required for their perfect
maturity, and it is evident they must furnish one of the best
manures which can be supphed for their growth. They are to
the earthy parts of vegetables, what milk is to the animal system,
or barn-yard manures are to the entire crop; they contain every
element, and generally in the right proportions, for insuring a Ml
and rapid growth.
Ashes then, may be pronounced the best of the saline manures.
They are also among the most economical; as from our free use
of fuel, they are largely produced by almost every household.
Good husbandry dictates that not a pound of ashes should be
wasted, but all should be saved and apphed to the land; and
where they can be procured at a reasonable price, they should be
purchased for manure. Leached ashes, though less valuable,
contain all the elements of the unleached, having been deprived
only of a part of their potash and soda. They may be drilled
into the soil with roots and grain, sown broadcast on meadows or
pastures, or mixed with the muck heap. They improve all soils
not already saturated with the principles which they contain.
The quantity of ashes that should he applied to the acre, must
depend on the soil and crops cultivated. Potatoes, turnips and
all roots— clover, lucern, peas, beans, and the grasses, are great
exhausters of the salts, and they are consequently much benefited
by ashes. They are used with decided advantage for the above
crops in connection with bone dust; and for clover, peas and
roots, their effects are much enhanced when mixed with gypsum.
Light soils should have a smaller, and rich lands or clays, a heavier
dressing. From twelve to fifteen bushels per acre for the former,
and thirty for the latter, is not too much; or if they are leached,
the quantity may be increased one-half, as they act with less
energy. Repeated dressings of ashes, Hke those of lime and
gypsum, without a corresponding addition of vegetable or barn-
yard manures, will eventually exhaust tillage lands.
MANURES.
47
Ashes may he a2jpUed to meadow lands^ for a longer time than
to any other crops, and for this obvious reason. The whole sur-
face of the soil is closely covered with vegetable agents, which
are actively employed in drawing carbon from the air and soil, a
large portion of which is stored up in the stubble and roots, which
thus makes it less important that the organic matters should be
given back to the soil, in the shape of vegetable or animal ma-
nures. As an instance of the rapidity with which this operation
goes forward, it has been found that the dried roots and stubble
of a clover field the second year, (and after one crop for the first,
and. two for the second season had been taken off,) yielded 56
lbs. for every 100 lbs. of the aggregate crops of hay. An old
meadow has yielded 400 lbs. of roots for every 100 of hay for
the season. Carbonaceous and organic matters are constantly
increasing in pastures, and they also increase for a time in
meadows; and will continue to do so for an indefinite period, if
the ashes of plants are added to the soil nearly to the amount
of those taken off. With this increase in the organic elements
of vegetation, (if we were certain that nitrogen is accumulated in
the same ratio, which we are not,) it is evident that the salts alone
would then be wanting to give the utmost luxuriance. But care
is necessary that they be not added in excess.
Coal Ashes. — The bituminous and anthracite coals afford
ashes, and although inferior in quahty to those made from wood
and vegetables, are like them, a valuable manure, and they should
be applied to the land in a similar manner. If they contain many
cinders from not having been thoroughly burned, they are more
suited to heavy than to light soils ; as they tend to their mechanical
division, which though beneficial to the former, is injurious to
the latter.
Ashes of Sea Weeds or Marine Plants. — ^When from
either quantity or remoteness it is inconvenient to carry the sea
weed, which abounds on some coasts, on to the soil, it can be
burned ; when it will be found to yield a large proportion of ash,
which is pecuharly rich in soda. This is of great value to the
48
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
farmer. Several species of tlie fuci have for a long period been
collected and burned on the northern coasts of Scotland, Norway
and the Baltic, formerly an article of commerce under the name
of hd'p. Its value consisted in its alkaline properties, for whj^h
it was much used by the glass and soap makers, the bleachers,
and for other uses in the arts. For these purposes it is now
nearly superceded by soda as\ a crude carbonate of soda, ex-
tracted by the decomposition of sea salt; and the price it now
bears m market will bring it within the reach of farmers for some
of the economical purposes of husbandry.
Peat Ashes. — Nearly all peat approaching to purity, when
thrown out of its bed and thoroughly dried, will admit of being
burned to an imperfect ash ; and when it does not reach this point
it will become thoroughly charred and reduced to cinders. In
both of these forms it is a valuable dressing for the soil. It is
always better for dry uplands, to use the unburned peat after it
has been properly composted in a muck heap, as the organic
matters which it contains, and which are expelled by burning, are
of great benefit to the soil. But when they are remote, the peat
may be burned at a trifling cost, and the ashes carried to a con-
siderable distance with manifest profit. The principal use
hitherto made of them by farmers, has been in spreading them
directly over the surface of the reclaimed bed from which they
were taken.
LIME.
Lime is the product of limestone, marble, marl or chalk, after
it has been burned, or subjected to an intense heat. In either
of the foregoing forms it is a carbonate, and contains from 43 to
46 per cent, of its weight of carbonic acid, which is expelled by
calcination. After the acid has been driven off, the lime is in its
quick or caustic state, and in that condition its affinity for moisture
and carbonic acid is great, and it greedily comljines with both on ex-
exposure to water, the earth, or even to the atmosphere, passing
again into a carbonate and hydrate. It is in these latter condi-
tions that it is applied to soils and muck heaps. If reduced to
MANURES.
4.9
powder (the condition in which chalks and marls exist,) limestone
acts with much less efficiency than if burnt.
Lime, next to ashes, either as a carbonate or sulphate, has been
instrumental in the improvement of our soils beyond any other
saline manures. Like ashes too, its application is beneficial to
every soil, not already sufficiently charged with it. It makes
heavy land Ughter, and light land heavier ; it gives adhesiveness
to creeping sands or leachy gravel, and comparative openness and
porosity to tenacious clays; and it has a permanently beneficial
efiect where generally used, in disinfecting the atmosphere of any
noxious vapors existing in it. It does not condense and retain
the organic matters brought into contact with it by the air and
rains, but it has the better effect of converting the insoluble
matters in the soil into available food for plants. It has proved
in many instances the wand of Midas, changing everything it
touched into gold. It is the key to the strong box of the farmer,
securely locking up his treasure till demanded for his own use,
and yielding it profusely to his demands whenever required. In
its influence in drying the land, and accelerating the growth of
plants, the use of lime is equivalent to an increase of temperature ;
and th^ farmer sometimes experiences, in effect, the same benefit
from it, as if his land were removed a degree or two to the south.
The influence of Hme in resuscitating soils after they have been
exhausted, has been frequent and striking; and it may be stated
as an incontrovertible truth, that wherever procurable at low
prices, lime is one of the most economical and efficient agents in
securing fertility, within the farmer's reach.
It has been falsely said to be an exhauster of soils; that it
enriches the fathers and impoverishes the sons. So far as it gives
the occupant of the land the control over its latent fertility, this
is true, but if he squanders the rich products when within his
reach, it will be his own fault. Lime gives him the power of
exhausting his prmcipal; if he uses aught beyond the interest, his
prodigality is cnargeable to his own folly, not to the hberality of
his agent. By the addition of Hme to the soil, the insoluble
. 3
50
AMERICAN AGKICULTU'KE.
ingredients contained in it are set free, and they are thus enabled
to aid in the formation of plants, and larger crops and of better
quality are the results. If these be taken from the soil, without
a corresponding return of manure, exhaustion must follow. In
the preceding table it is seen, that lime constitutes in all cases,
only a very minute part of the entire plant; all the other ingre-
dients must be added or the fertility of the soil cannot be sustained.
But in the very abundance of the crops which hme affords, means
are provided for the maintenance of the highest fertihty. If they
are consumed on the farm, their manure should be returned to the
fields ; and if sold, other manures should be procured to replace
the substances from which they are formed.
A practice which has extensively prevailed for many years in
sections of the Middle States, consists in alternating wheat and
clover on strongly hmed lands. The plan usually adopted is to
give one year to wheat and two to clover, sometimes taking off
the first clover crop for hay, and feeding off on the ground and
plowing in the after growth for manure ; and upon this, wheat is
again sown. This course has succeeded in bringing into fine con-
dition, many unprofitable fields. It may work well for years, but
it is nevertheless faulty and improvident. Lime only is add^d
directly to the soil, but clover draws from the air and moisture
whatever food it can attract from them. There remain to be
added, potash, soda, the phosphates and silicates, which the soil
will soon cease to furnish sufRcient for the wants of the wheat
and clover removed, or sterihty must inevitably follow.
The best method, is to add in some form^ the full amount of all
the materials ahstracted hy the annual crop. When this is done,
the large dressing of lime will retain the accumulating fertihty,
far beyond what the soil would be capable of were it not for its
agency, and it is in this that the great profit of farming consists.
Large crops only are profitable. The market value of many
indifferent ones will hardly meet the expense of cultivation, and
it is only the excess beyond this which is profit. It is evident
that if 15 bushels per acre of wheat, be an average crop, and it
MANURES.
51
requires 12 bushels to pay all expenses of production, 3 bushels
is the amount of profit. But if by the use of lime and ordinary
manures, the product can be raised to 30 bushels per acre, the
profit would be near the value of 12 or 15 bushels, after paying
for the manures. Thus the advantage from good management
may be five times that of neglect. This example is given as
illustrating a principle and not as an exact measure of the difier-
ence between limed and unlimed land. We have seen large farms,
worn out and worthless from long cropping, restored to more
than their virgin fertility by the liberal application of lime.
Application of Lime. — It may be carried on to the ground
immediately after burning, and placed in small heaps. There it
may be left to slack by rains and the air, or it is better to reduce
it at once with water if accessible, and then spread it prepara
tory to plowing. A good practice is to place it in large piles and
cover it thickly with earth, which gradually reduces it to powder.
It may then be carried where it is wanted, and spread from the
cart. It is still better, when small quantities only are wanted, to
add it to the compost after it has been thoroughly air-slacked,
avoiding fermentation as far as practicable after it has been added,
as its avidity for acids expels the ammonia, which is the most
valuable of the volatile ingredients of the muck heap. A thick
coating of earth over the whole, will arrest and retain much of
the gas that would otherwise escape.
Fresh burnt lime does not act on the crops during the first
year, and it may be prepared for action as well by mixing it with
three or four times its bulk of earth, as by spreading it directly
upon the ground.
Magnesian Lime. — Many of the limestones contain magnesia,
and are called magnesian lime. The effect of this is a more ener-
getic action, and where it is found in lime, the same result will
be produced by the application of a less quantity. Oyster and
all other shells of marine origin, afford pure lime by burning.
The amount to he used depends entirely on the soil. Some fer
tile lands contain over 30 per cent, in their natural state. Eight
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
hundred bushels of hme per acre, have been applied at one time
to heavy clays and such soils as were full of vegetable mold,
with decided benefit to the land. In the United States, the
average for a first dressing, is from fifty to one hundred and
twenty bushels per acre ; which may be renewed every four or
six years, at the rate of twenty to forty bushels. If an over-
dose has been apphed, time, or the addition of putrescent or green
manures are the only correctives.
To give lime its fullest effect, it should be kept as near the
surface as possible; and for this reason it is well to spread it after
plowing, taking care to harrow it well in. Allow it then to
remain in grass as long as possible. Its weight and minuteness
give it a tendency to sink, and after a few years' cultivation, a
large proportion of it will be found to have got beyond the
depth of its most efficient action. This circumstance gives addi-
tional value to the system of under draining and subsoil plowing,
which enable the atmosphere and roots to follow it, thus prolong-
ing its effect and greatly augmenting the benefit to crops. It
should be spread upon the ground immediately after taking off
the last crop, so as to allow all the time possible for its action
before the next planting.
Application to Meadows, — In addition to its other good effects,
lime like ashes, is useful to meadows in destroying the mosses
and decomposing the accumulated vegetable decay on the sur-
face. For this purpose it may be spread on them unmixed, after
having first passed into the state of carbonate or effete lime, to
prevent injury to the grass. If no such necessity require its use
in this form, it may be combined advantageously with the muck
and scattered broadcast over the meadow.
MARLS.
Marls are composed of carbonate of lime, mixed with clay,
sand, or loam, and frequently with sulphate and phosphate of
lime. They are a useful application to land in consequence of
the lime they yield, and when containing the phosphate in addi-
MANURES.
53
tion, their value is largely increased. The quantity that may be
advantageously used is even more variable than that of pure
lime, inasmuch as the quality varies with every bed in which it
is found. They are adapted to the improvement of all soils,
unless such as are already sufficiently filled with lime, and they
are more generally useful to meadows than the pure carbonate.
Their benefits will be greatly enhanced if the clay marl be used
on light or sandy soils, and sandy marls on clay and heavy lands.
From 20 to 400 cart loads of marl per acre have been applied,
according to its quality and the character of the land to be bene-
fited. Circumstances must alone determine the proper quantity
to be used. Marl should be carried out and exposed in small
heaps before spreading on the land. Exposure to the sun, and
especially to the frosts of winter, is necessary to prepare it for
use.
SHELL SAND.
This is a calcareous sand, sometimes mixed with animal mat-
ter. It abounds in some parts of the coast of Cornwall, and on
the western shores of Scotland and Ireland. It is also found on
the coast of France, and particularly in Brittany, where it is
known by the name of trez. This produces prodigious effects on
peaty clay, and other soils, to which it is applied at the rate of
10 to 15 tons per acre. It is so much esteemed for the former,
that it is sometimes carried to a distance of 100 miles. It is
probable there are similar deposits on the coast of some of the
Atlantic States, though we are not aware of any such applica-
tion for agricultural objects. Its great value as a top dressing,
will fully justify exploration, for the purpose of detecting it
wherever it may exist.
GREEN SAND MARL.
There are extensive beds of a green sand (generally though
improperly termed) marl, which run through a section of New
Jersey, from which farmers have derived an astonishing addition
to their crops. It is found by analysis to contain but a small
quantity of lime, but it readily yields a large amount of potash,
\
54
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
varying from 6 to 15 per cent. From a careful analysis of eight
different specimens, Prof. Eodgers fomid in it an average of 10
per cent, of potassa. The effect of this apphed to the barren
sands which abound in that neighborhood, has been so favorable,
that lands which before could be bought for. $3 per acre, would
afterwards bring $40 to $100. Several deposits of green sand in
the counties of Plymouth and Barnstable, Mass., similar in external
appearance to the foregoing, were explored by Prof. Hitchcock,
and specimens were analyzed by Dr. Dana, without however,
detecting any qualities of decided advantage to agriculture.
GAS LIME.
This is the spent lime of the gas works, and a most useful
top dressing for soils requiring lime, or gypsum. It may be drawn
out in the fall or winter season, and if not intended for composts,
dumped in small heaps, and especially, if fresh, it should be
spread at once upon the surface, so as to be well exposed to the
air. It may be applied to either grass, or plowed crops, with equal
benefit, operating in much the same way as gypsum, although
it should be spread in several times the quantity per acre.
Caution must alwavs attend its use, for without several months
exposure, it exercises a poisonous influence upon vegetation.
GYPSUM PLASTER OF PARIS OR SULPHATE OF LIME.
This is a combination of lime with sulphuric acid and water, in
the proportion of 28 of lime, 40 of acid, and 18 of water. It
is frequently found in connection with carbonate of lime, clay,
etc. The use of gypsum has been attended with great benefit
in most parts of the United States; and by many of the most
experienced farmers, is justly considered as indispensable to good
farming. Like all saline, and indeed like all other manures, it
acts beneficially only on soils which are free from standing water,
or which may be saturated with it. It is felt most on sandy,
loamy, and generally on clay soils, requiring more for the latter,
and for all such as contain a large proportion of vegetable mat-
ter. From two pecks on sandy, to fifteen btishels on clay soil
MANURES.
55
have been applied per acre; bub fi'om two to four busnels is the
usual quantity.
The crops on which it produces the greatest effect^ are tbe red
and white clover, lucern and sainfoin, and the leguminous plants,
peas, beans, etc. On natural meadows and the cereal grains, it
has no perceptible influence.
It should be sown broadcast as soon as the leaves have
expanded in the spring. It takes four hundred and sixty times
its weight of water to dissolve it, which shows the necessity of
applying it while the early rains are abundant, and the increased
effect of sowing it on the leaves, requires that its apphcation
should be deferred till they have become partially developed.
For corn, potatoes, turnips, etc., it is usually put in with the
seed, or sprinkled upon them after the first hoeing.
From its great effect on the clovers, increasing them some-
times to twice, and in rare instances, to thrice the quantity pro
duced without it, it is manifest that it is the most profitable
manure which can be used, as it can be generally procured by
farmers at from $5 to $12 per ton. Yet it should be fully under-
stood, that like hme and ashes, it furnishes only a part of the
food of plants ; and like them too, the addition of vegetable and
animal manures is indispensable to secure permanent fertility.
Extensive sections of this and other countries, particularly in
Great Britain, apparently derive no benefit from the apphcation
of gypsum. This failure has been variously ascribed to there
being already enough in the soil; or to the presence of a marine
atmosphere. Its great usefulness however, on many parts of our
Atlantic coast, would seem to require some other explanation
than the last as the cause of its inefficiency. Experiment alone
can determine the circumstances which will justify its application,
and to this test should not only this, but all other practices of the
farmer be rigidly subjected.
BONES.
About . 33 per cent, of fresh bone, consists of animal matter,
(oil, gelatine, etc.,) from 53 to 56 per cent, of phosphate of
56
AMERICAN AGRICULTUKE.
lime, and the remainder is principally carbonate of lime, soda and
magnesia. There is no part of the bone that is not useful to
vegetation; it is especially so to the various kinds of grain, to
potatoes, turnips, the clovers, peas and beans. The bones should
be crushed or ground, and then drilled in with the seed, or scat
tered broadcast, at the rate of twenty-five bushels per acre.
They may be repeated in less quantities every four or five years,
or till the soil ceases to be improved by them, when they should
be withheld till additional cropping shall have so far exhausted
them as to justify a further supply.
Bones are generally boiled before using for manure, to extract
the oil and glue. This does not lessen their value for agricultu-
ral purposes, beyond the diminution of their weight, while it
hastens their action. They are sometimes burned, which drives
off all the organic matter, leaving only the lime, etc., to benefit
the soil. This is a wasteful practice, though the effect is more
immediate on the crops ; but it is also more transient, and they
require to be more frequently renewed. Bones ought always to
be saved; and if not practicable to crush them, they may be
thrown upon the land, where they will gradually corrode and
impart their fertilizing properties. When partially decomposed
and buried just beneath the surface, the roots of the luxuriant
plants above will twine around them in all directions, to suck out
the rich food which ministers so freely to their growth. Crushed
bones are advantageously used with nearly an equal amount of
ashes, or with one-third their weight of gypsum; or, as with
nearly all other saline manures, they may be added to the muck
heap. Pastures which have been long grazed, can be wonder-
fully benefited by applications of bone dust, sowed broadcast on
their surface, at the rate of fifty to two hundred pounds per acre.
PHOSPHATE OF LIME.
This exists in a fossil state, and is known in some of its forms as
apatite, phosphorite, etc. An extensive quarry is found in Estra-
madura, in Spain, and smaller deposits of it have been discov-
MANURES.
57
ered in different parts of the United States, under a variety of
names. It is probable it maj yet be found in such localities and
in such quantity as to be useful to the farmer. It has been
shown that more than half of the whole weight of bones consists
of pure phosphate of lime ; its value therefore is apparent. This
may be applied to exhausted pastures in the same manner as
bone dust.
SALT OR CHLORIDE OF SODIUM,
Is variously obtained, as fossil or rock salt; from boiling or
evaporation of salt springs; and from the waters of the ocean.
In a pure state it consists of 60 of chlorine and 40 of sodium,
in every 100 parts. Sodium, chemically combined with oxygen,
forms soda; and it will be seen by referring to the table on page
45, that salt furnishes two of the important constituents in the ash
of every vegetable. Its advantage to vegetation is to be inferred
from a knowledge of its composition, which is fully sustained
by experience. As a manure, salt was extensively used by the
ancients, and has ever since been employed by intelligent agri-
culturists. On some soils it yields no apparent benefit. Such
as are near the sea-coast, and occasionally receive deposits from
the salt spray, which is often carried far inland by the ocean
storms ; or such as contain chlorine and soda in any other forms,
are not affected by it. But in other situations, when used at the
rate of three to sixteen bushels per acre, the crops of grains,
roots or grasses have been increased from 20 to 50 per cent. It
may be applied in minute portions in the hill, or scattered broad-
cast, or mixed with the muck heap. Its great affinity for water
has the effect, like that of gypsum, of attracting dews and atmos-
pheric vapor to the growing vegetation, by which it is suppHed
with moisture in a period of drought, much beyond what is con-
veyed to such as are destitute of these manures. Salt is also
useful in. destroying slugs, worms, and larvae which frequently do
much injury to the crops.
3*
58
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
SULPHATE OF SODA, (gLAUBER SALTS,) SULPHATE OF MAGNESIA,
(ePSOM SALTS,) AND SULPHATE OF POTASH.
These are all useful manures, and they act on vegetation in a
manner similar to gypsum. This was to have been expected so
far as the sulphuric acid is concerned, which is common to each;
but their action is modified to a certain degree by the influence
of the base or alkaline ingredients on the plants. The generally
increased price which they bear over gypsum, will prevent their
use away from those localities where they exist in a state of
nature, or where they may be procured at low rates, near the
laboratories in which they are manufactured.
NITRATE OF POTASH, (sALTPETRE,) AND NITRATE OF SODA.
These are both found in a crude state in native beds, or as an
efflorescence ; and in this condition they can frequently be bought
at a price which will justify their use. The first contains potash,
46J^, and nitric acid, 53)^; the second, in its dry state, soda, 36)^,
and nitric acid, 63K, in every 100 parts. Numerous experiments
have been tried with them on various crops ; but they have not
thus far, afforded very accurate or satisfactory results. In general,
they give a darker color and more rapid growth, and they increase
the weight of clover, grass, and the straw of grain; and the
former are more rehshed by cattle. But in the average efi"ects
upon grain and roots, the statements are too much at variance to
deduce any well settled principles.*
As a soak or steep for seeds, and especially when dissolved and
added to the bed where they are planted, there is no doubt of
iheir great value in giving an early and vigorous start to vege-
tables. This enables them rapidly to push forward their roots,
stems and leaves, thus obtaining a greater range for the roots, and
more mouths for the leaves to draw their nourishment from the
atmosphere.
* From the decidedly beneficial effects, produced in numerous instances, may we
not reasonably infer, that they have generally been successful, where there has been
a deficiency of them in the soil ?
MANURES.
59
CARBONATES, NITRATES, SULPHATES, PHOSPHATES, SILICATES,
AND CHLORIDES.
Se^reral of these have just been particularly enumerated. The
remainder are composed of carbonic, nitric, sulphuric and phos-
phoric acids, sihca and chlorine, in chemical combination with
potash, soda, lime, and the other bases of plants. Although no
one of these can fail to benefit crops, when rightly apphed, yet
the expense of most of them wiU prevent their extended use.
This can only be looked for from those which are procurable at a
cheap rate. The chemical laboratories, glass works and some
other manufactories, afford in their refuse materials, more or less
of these mineral manures, which would well repay the farmer for
removing and applying to his land. The most obvious that occur
in this country, are all that will be here mentioned.
OLD LIME PLASTER, FROM WALLS OF BUILDINGS, ETC.
This is a true silicate of lime, being formed mostly of sihceous
sand and lime, chemically combined. For meadows, and for most
other crops, especially on clays and loams, this is worth twice its
weight in hay; as it will produce a large growth of grass for
years in succession, without other manure. This effect is due not
only to the hme and sand, but to the nitric acid which they have
abstracted from the atmosphere, and which they continue alter-
nately (while in combination) to absorb from the air and give out
to the growing plant. But the farmer cannot too carefully re-
member, that with this, as with all other saline manures, but a
part of the ingredients only is thus supplied to vegetables ; and
without the addition of the others, the soil will sooner or later
become exhausted.
BROKEN BRICK AND BURNT CLAY.
These are composed mostly of sihcate of alumina, generally
mixed with sihcate of potash and other substances. They are
of much value as a top dressing for meadows. In addition to
their famishing in themselves a minute quantity of the food of
plants, hke old plaster, they serve a much more extended pur-
60
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
pose, by condensing ammonia, nitric acid, and the gases of the
atmosphere.
POWDERED CHARCOAL,
Scattered over the ground, produces the same effect as the
foregoing, and probably in a greater degree, as it absorbs and
condenses the nutritive gases within its pores, to the amount of
from twenty to over eighty times its own bulk. The economy
and benefit of such apphcations can be readily understood, as
they are continually gleaning these floating materials from the
air, and storing them up as food for plants. Charcoal as well as
lime, often checks rust in wheat, and mildew in other crops ; and
in all cases mitigates their ravages, where it does not wholly
prevent them.
SUPER-PHOSPHATE OF LIME.
This article has of late years become extensively used for the
hghter garden lands, and is valuable as a ready and active stimu
lant to the growth of plants.
In chemistry, according to Professor Johnson, of New Haven,
this is a soluble salt, composed of one equivalent of phosphoric
acid, one of hme, and two of water. It should be the character
istic ingredient of commercial super-phosphate. All compositions
of this character should be well understood and used with judg
ment. So convenient are these apphcations, so active as manures,
and so great the demand for them, much fraud has been practiced
in their manufacture ; spurious and almost worthless imitations
have been and are constantly imposed upon the pubhc, in place
of the genuine article.
The best super-phosphate is composed of ground bone, bone
black, or phosphorite, acted upon by sulphuric acid, (oil of vitriol,)
which renders a considerable portion of the phosphoric acid
soluble in water. It is a powerful fertihzer, as well as portable
and convenient, and of great value to the small cultivator and
gardener, as well as in green-houses, hot-beds, etc. It is also
very extensively employed for field crops, especially for turnips
MANURES.
61
of all kinds, cabbages, etc. In commerce, it is often mingled with
guano, and with other commercial manures. Animal matter of
any kind, properly treated with acids and earthy substances, afford
valuable and powerful manures, sometimes not over agreeable in
the handling, but quick in their action and lasting in the soil.
CRUSHED MICA, FELDSPAR, LATA, THE TRAP ROCKS, ETC.
Feldspar contains 66.75 of silica; 17.50 alumina; 12 potash;
1.25 lime; and 0.75 oxide of iron. Mica consists of sihca, 46.22 ;
alumina, 34.52; peroxide of iron, 6.04; potash, 8.22; magnesia
and manganese, 2.11. Most of the lavas and trap rocks hold
large quantities of potash, hme, and other fertihzing ingredients.
The last frequently form the entire ^oils in volcanic countries, as
in Sicily, and around Mount Vesuvius in Italy, in the Azores and
Sandwich Islands; and their value for grains and all cultivated
plants is seen in the luxuriance of their crops and the durability
of their soils. These examples illustrate the great influence of
saline manures, and their near approach to an entire independence
in sustaining vegetation. Whenever they become exhausted by
the severe usage they undergo, two or three years of rest enables
them again to yield a remunerating crop to the improvident hus-
bandman. Granite^ sienite^ and some other rocks^ yielding large
proportions of potash and some lime, abound throughout the
eastern portion of this country. The potash in them is, however,
firmly held in an insoluble state ; but if it be subjected to a strong
heat, it may afterwards be crushed, and then yield it in an easily
soluble form, and constitute a valuable top dressing for lands.
It is a subject of frequent remark, that the soil underneath, or
in immediate contact with some stone walls, which have been
erected for a long period, is much richer than the adjoining parts
of the same fields. This difference is probably due, in some
measure, to the slow decomposition of important fertilizers in the
stone, which are washed down by the rains and become incorpo-
rated in the soil. The removal of stones from a fertile field, has
been deprecated by many an observing farmer, as materially
62
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
impairing its productiveness. Beyond the shade thus afforded
against an intense sun, protection from cold winds, their influence
in condensing moisture, (and- the beneficial effects which perhaps
ensue, as in fibrous covering^) the difference may be attributable
to the same cause.
SPENT LYE OF THE ASHERIES,
Is the liquid which remains after the combination of the lye
and grease in manufacturing soap. It is of great value for plants.
Before its apphcation to the land it should be mixed with peat or
turf, or diluted with ten times its bulk of water. Five gallons of
this lye is estimated to contain as much potash or soda, according
as either is used, as would be furnished by three barrels of ashes.
It has besides, a large quantity of nitrogen, the most valuable
ingredient of animal manure, which by judicious apphcation, is
either converted into ammonia, or serves the same purpose in
yielding nutrition to plants.
AMMONIAC AL LIQUOR (fROM GAS HOUSES,) GAS LIME, ETC.
This hquid is the residuum of bituminous coal and tar used in
making gas, and holds large quantities of nitrogen, from which
ammonia is frequently extracted. When used for land near by,
it maybe carried to the muck heap in barrels; and when at
remote distances, gypsum or charcoal dust may be added to the
barrel, stirring it well for some time, and then closely covering it.
The gypsum and charcoal soon combine with the ammonia, when
the hquid may be drawn off, and the sohd contents removed. It
is a powerful manure, and should be sparingly used. Gas hme
may be laid in small heaps and spread on the soil, or thrown
broadcast from the cart or wagon. (See page 54.)
GUANO
Is derived exclusively from the animal creation, but from its
existence in a highly condensed state, and in combination with
large proportions of the salts, and having by its accumulation
through thousands of years, lost the distinguishing characteristics
MANURES.
63
of recent animal matter, it may almost be considered as a fossil,
and is properly enough classed under the head of inorganic
manures. It is the remains of the dung, feathers, eggs, food and
carcasses of innumerable flocks of marine birds, which have made
some of the islands in the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, places of
resort for rearing their young through unknown ages. It is found
in the Pacific, near the coast of Peru, between latitude 13° and
21° south, where the rain never falls; and in some places it has
accumulated to the enormous height of 60 and 80 feet. Yet
such has been the demand for this justly popular fertilizer, that
many million tons were imported into England from July, 1844,
to the same period in 1868, at an average value of $40 per ton.
A comparatively small amount has been taken to other countries,
including the United States. Its value has been known and
appreciated fi:om time immemorial by the Peruvians, who trans-
ferred it to the continent, and used it for various crops.
Different specimens vary greatly as to quality. The average
analysis of Dr. Ure's examinations is:
Organic matter containing nitrogen, including urate of ammonia, and
capable of affording from 8 to IT per cent, of ammonia by slow change
in the soil, 50
Water 11. Phosphate of lime 25, 36
Ammonia, phosphate of magnesia, phosphate of ammonia and oxalate
of ammonia, containing from 4 to 9 per cent, of ammonia, . . 13
Silicious matter from the crops of birds, 1
loo
The above analysis shows a strongly concentrated manure, and
it is certain it is much above the medium, as the sand alone is
sometimes 15 or 20 per cent. It is applied to roots, grain, and
other cultivated crops, and as a top dressing for grass ; ^but it has
thus far proved of most value to the former. Before using it as
a top dressing, it is mixed with twice its bulk of fine earth, ashes,
plaster or charcoal dust. The proper quantity is fi*om 200 to 400
lbs. per acre, sown broadcast and harrowed in, or supphed in two
dressings ; the first soon after the plants appear, but not in contact
with them; the last, ten or fourteen days after, and immediately
64
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
before moist or wet weather. The crops on poor soils are muck
improved, while those on rich lands have, in some cases, been
injured by it. For hot houses and many minor purposes, it is a
desirable manure, and in solution it is very convenient as an
occasional dressing. It is thus prepared by dissolving 4 lbs. in
12 gallons of water, twenty-four hours before using. On account
of its volatile character, it should be closely covered till wanted.
SOOT,
Like ashes, has its origin exclusively from vegetables, but may
with them, be properly treated under the present head. It holds
ammonia, charcoal and other rich ingredients, and is used at the
rate of fifty to three hundred bushels per acre. It produces its
greatest effects in moist weather, and in dry seasons it has some-
times proved positively injurious. It may be sown broadcast over
the field and harrowed in, or mixed with such other manures as
are intended for immediate use. The ammonia has a great ten-
dency to escape, which can only be prevented by adequate
absorbents, as earth or the Hke. Many experiments made with it
have proved contradictory. In some, it has been shown to be
useless for clovers, while it has proved of great service to several
of the grasses. Salt enhances its efiects. In an experiment made
in England with potatoes, on three separate acres of land of equal
quality, one without manure gave 160 bushels; one manured
with 30 bushels of soot, yielded 196; and the third, which
received the same quantity of soot and seven bushels of salt,
yielded 236.
CHAPTER III.
OKGAKIC MANUKES.
THE PRINCIPLES CONSTITUTINO ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE,
PUTRESCENT OR ORGANIC MANURES.
From the table in the foregoing pages, on the ashes of plants,
to which reference has been frequently made, it is shown that in
burning dried vegetables, they lose from about 95 to 99 per cent,
of their whole weight. The matter that has been expelled by
heat, consists of four substances or ultimate principles: carbon,
oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen, of which carbon makes up from
40 to 50 per cent, or about one-half of the whole.
Carbon constitutes all" of charcoal but the ash; nearly all of
mineral coal, and plumbago or black lead j and even the brilliant
diamond is but another form of carbon. The properties and
uses of carbon are various and important ; its agency in the
growth of plants alone concerns us at the present time.
Carbonic Acid. — When any matter containing carbon is burnt,
its minute particles or atoms combine with the oxygen which
exists in the atmosphere, and form carbonic acid, consisting by
weight, of six of the former and sixteen of the latter. When
animals inhale air into their lungs a similar union takes place ,
the carbon contained in the system being brought to the surface
of the lungs, and after uniting with the oxygen as carbonic acid,
is expelled. Pure limestone or marble loses 46 per cent, of its
weight by burning; and all of this loss is carbonic acid, which it
slowly absorbs again on exposure to the air, or to such substances
as contain it. It is evolved by fermentation, and if the surface
66
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
of a brewer's vat in full activity be closely observed in a clear
light, it may be seen falling over the edges, when it gradually
mingles with the air. Its density is such that it may be poured
from one open vessel into another, without material loss. It is
this which gives to artificial soda water and to mineral springs
(as the Saratoga) their sparkling appearance and acid flavor. It
abounds in certain caves, sunken pits, and wells, which destroy
animal life, both from its intrinsic poisonous qualities, and from
its excluding oxygen, which is essential to respiration. And it
is from the same cause, that death ensues to such as are confined
in a close room where charcoal is burnt.
This acid is an active and important agent in the incessant
changes of nature. It is everywhere formed in vast quantities,
by subterranean fires and volcanoes. Though heavier than
atmospheric air, it mingles with it and is carried as high as exam-
inations have yet been made, constituting in bulk, about one part
in one thousand of the atmosphere, and something more than
this in weight. Gay Lussac ascended in a balloon 21,735 feet,
and there filled a bottle with air, which analysis showed to be
identical in composition with that on the surface of the earth.
Carbon is one of the great principles of vegetation, and it is only
as carbonic acid, that it is absorbed by the roots, leaves and stems
of vegetables, and by them is condensed and retained as solid
matter.
Oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen, when uncombined with other
substances, exist only as gases. The first makes up nearly one-
half of all the substances of the globe; and with the exception
of chlorine and iodine, it constitutes a large part of every material
in the ash of plants. It forms rather over 21 per cent, by
measure, and 23 by weight of the whole atmosphere; and about
eight parts out of nine by weight of water, hydrogen making up
the remainder. It is absorbed and changed into new products by
the respiration of animals, and it is an essential agent in com-
bustion. Oxides are composed of it in union with the metals,
alkalies, etc. ; and most of the acids, as when combined with
ORGANIC MANURES. 67
other substances, nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus. Its presence
indeed, is almost universal, and the a'gency which it exerts in
vegetable nutrition, is among the most varied and intricate mani-
fested in vegetable life.
Hydrogen is the lightest of all the gases. It is but one-
fourteenth the weight of the atmosphere, and one-sixteenth the
weight of oxygen ; and from its great levity, it is used for filling
balloons. It burns with a hght flame when brought into contact
with atmospheric air on applying a lighted taper, the combustion
forming water.
It is largely evolved from certain springs, in connection with
carbon or sulphur, and is called carbureted and sulphureted hydro-
gen, an offensively pungent and inflammable gas. So abund
antly is this emitted from the earth in some places, that it is used
for economical purposes. The inhabitants at Fredonia, N. Y.,
and in the petroleum oil regions of Pennsylvania and other
States, light their buildings with it, and in the oil pumpings
use it as fuel; and some of the salt manufacturers in the
valley of the Ohio, apply it to evaporating the water of the
saline springs. Carbureted hydrogen is the gas now employed
for lighting cities. It is manufactured from oils, fat, tar, rosin,
and bituminous coal, all of which yield large quantities of carbon
and hydrogen. Both the carbon and hydrogen are entirely
consumed with a brilliant hght, when inflamed and exposed to
the oxygen of the atmosphere. It is the residuum of these sub-
stances, after driving off the gas, which makes the ammoniacal
liquor so useful as a manure ; all the nitrogen with a part of the
hydrogen, remaining. In combination with chlorine, one of the
elements of salt, it constitutes the muriatic, oi^ of the strongest
of the acids.
Ammonia. — The most frequent condition besides water in
which hydrogen is mentioned in connection vith vegetation, is
when combined with nitrogen in the proportion of three of the
former in bulk, to one of the latter; and by weight, 17.47 of the
first, to 82.53 of the last, in every 100 parts, composing the
68
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
volatile alkali, ammonia, whicli is about six-tenths the density of
the atmosphere. Bj strong compression at a low temperature, it
may be condensed to a Hquid having rather more than three-
fourths the specific weight of water. It is never found in a tan-
gible shape, except in combination with acids, forming carbonates,
nitrates, sulphates, muriates, etc., of ammonia.
Nitrogen exists in the atmosphere to the extent of about 79
per cent. The principal purpose it appears to fulfill in this con-
nection, is in diluting the oxygen, which in its pure state acts with
too great intensity on animal life, in combustion, and all its various
combinations. So great is the attraction of undiluted oxygen for
iron, that a wire ignited by a taper and plunged into a jar of
oxygen gas, will itself take fire and rapidly melt into irregular
drops. This is nothing more than an illustration of the principle
exhibited (in an intense degree) in the gradual rusting which
takes place in the air at its ordinary temperature ; or the more
rapid formation of the scales under the heat of the blacksmith's
forge. All are simple oxidations of the metal, or the combination
of oxygen with iron ; and we see in the comparison, the immensely
accelerated effect produced by the absence of nitrogen.
Nitric acid is another compound of great importance to veg-
etation. It is simply nitrogen and oxygen; the identical materials
which compose the atmosphere, combined in different proportions,
26.15 parts by weight of the former, and 73.85 of the latter in
every 100. This acid, in union with potash, forms nitrate of
potash, or saltpetre; and with soda, forms nitrate of soda. The
latter occurs in immense beds, and lies upon and immediately under
the surface of the earth in Chih, India and Spain. From Chili it
is exported in laige quantities, and has been extensively used in
England of late years, as a manure.
It has been deemed relevant to our subject to say thus much
respecting some of the most striking characteristics of those four
simple principles, which make up an average of more than 98 per
cent, of all living vegetables. And here a moment's reflection
irresistibly forces from us an expression of wonder and admiration
/
ORGANIC MANURES.
69
at that "Wisdom and Omnipotence, which, out of such Hmited
means, has wrought such varied and beautiM results. Every
plant that exists, from the obscure sea-weed 100 fathoms below
the surface of the ocean, to the lofty pines that shoot up 300 feet
in mid air; and from the clinging moss that seems almost a part
of the rock on which it grows, to the expanded banyan tree of
India, with its innumerably connected trunks, overshadowing
acres; every thing that is pleasant to the taste, deHghtful to the
eye, and gratefrd to the smell, equally with whatever is nauseous,
revolting and loathsome, are only products of the same materials,
slightly differing in association and arrangement.
BARN-YARD MANURE.
The first consideration in the management of manures, is to
secure them against all waste. The bulk, solubility and peculiar
tendency to fermentation of barn-yard manure, renders it a matter
of no little study so to arrange it as to preserve all its good qual-
ities and apply it undiminished to the soil. A part of the droppings
of the cattle are necessarily left in the pastures, or about the stacks
where they are fed; though it is better, for various reasons, that
they should never receive their food from the stack. The manure
thus left in the fields, should be beaten up and scattered with light
long-handled mallets, immediately after the grass starts in the
spring, and again before the rains commence in the autumn. With
these exceptions, and the slight waste which may occur in driving
cattle to and from the pasture, all the manure should be dropped
either in the stables or yards. These should be so arranged that
cattle may pass from one directly into the other ; and the yard
should, if possible, be fiirnished with wells, cisterns, or running
water. There is twice the value of manure wasted annually on
some farms in sending the cattle abroad to water, that would be
required to provide it for them in the yard for fifty years.
The premises where the manure is dropped, should be kept as
dry as possible; and the eaves should project several feet beyond
the side of the building so as to protect the manure thrown out
70
AMERICAN AaRICULTURE.
of the stables, from tlie wash of rains. The barns and all the
sheds should have eave-troughs to carry off the water, which if
saved in a sufficiently capacious cistern, would furnish a supply
for the cattle. The form of the yard ought to be dishing towards
the center, and if on sandy or gravelly soil, it should be puddled
or covered with clay to prevent the leaking and escape of the
liquid manure. The floors of the stables may be so made, as to
permit the urine to fall on a properly prepared bed of turf under
them, where it would be retained till removed; or it should be
led off by troughs into the yard or to a muck heap.
It is better to feed the straw and coarse fodder, which can always
be advantageously done by cutting and mixing it with meal or
roots. When it is not thus consumed, it may first be used as
htter for the cattle, and as it becomes saturated with the drop-
pings, it should be thrown into the yard. If the cattle are fed
under sheds, the whole surface ought to be covered with such
straw, refuse forage, etc., as can be collected; and if there is a
deficiency of these, peat or any turf well filled with the roots of
grass, and especially the rich wash from the road side maybe,
substituted. The manure may be allowed to accumulate through
the winter, unless it be more convenient to carry it on to the
fields. "When the warm weather approaches, a close attention to
the manure is necessary. The escape of the fi:ost permits circu-
lation of the air through it, and the increasing heat of the sun
promotes its decomposition.
LoNa AND Short Manure. — The question has been ofi:en
mooted as to the comparative advantages of long and short
manure, {the fermented and unfermented.) This must depend on
the use for which they are designed. If intended for the garden
beds, or for loose light soils, or as a top dressing for meadows, or
any crops, or if needed to kill any noxious seeds incorporated
with the heap, it should be fermented; if for hoed crops in clay
or loamy soils, it should be used in as fresh condition as possible.
Loose soils are still farther loosened for a time by long manure,
and much of its volatile part is lost before it is reduced to mold ;
ORGANIC MANURES.
71
while adhesive and compact soils are improved by the coarse
vegetables which tend to their separation ; and all the gases which
are set free in fermentation, are combined and firmly held in the
soil.
Decomposition of Manures. — Three conditions are essential
to produce rapid decomposition in manure : air, moisture, and a
temperature above 65°, and these, except in frosty weather, are
generally present in the heap. The gradual chemical changes
going on in all manures, but most actively in the excrements of
the horse and sheep, where they have sufficient air and moisture,
induce an elevation which keeps them always above the low
temperature of the surrounding air. If the manure be trodden
compactly and saturated with water, the air cannot circulate, and
if its temperature be likewise kept down, it will be preserved a
long time unchanged.
The fermentation of manure should go forward when thoroughly
blended with all the vegetable and liquid fertihzers about the
premises, including urine, brine, soap-suds, ashes, gypsum and
coal dust ; the last three substances combining with the ammonia
as it is formed. Over all these should be placed a good coating
of turf, peat, or fine mold, which will absorb any gases that escape
the gypsum, etc. Old mortar or eSete lime may also be added
for the formation of nitric acid. It draws this not only from the
materials in the heap, but largely also from the nitrogen of the
air, it having been ascertained in the manufacture of saltpetre,
(nitrate of potash,) that the amount of nitrogen in the salt, is
greatly increased above that in the manure used. The absorption
of nitre by lime in a course of years, is found to be large, as is
seen by the practice of the Chinese farmers, who to secure it will
gratuitously remove the old plaster on wtlls and replace it with
new. If required to hasten decay, and especially if there be
intractable vegetables, as broom and other cornstalks, or such as
have seeds that ought to be destroyed, they may be well moistened
and thrown together in layers three or four inches thick, and on
each may be strewn a liberal coating of fresh unslacked hme,
72
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
reduced to powder. This promotes decomposition, and wlien it
is far enough advanced, the whole may be sparingly added to the
general mass, as the lime will by that time have become mild.
These coarse materials, when remote from the cattle yard, may be
at once burned, and the ashes added to the soil, or they may be
buried in furrows, where the ground will not be disturbed, till
they are entirely rotted.
When thoroughly decomposed, the manure heap will have lost
half its original weight, most of which has escaped as water and
carbonic acid. It may then be carted on to* the ground, and at
once incorporated with it ; or if intended for a top dressing, it
should be scattered over it immediately before or during wet
weather. For the protection of the manure, it would be well to
cover it with a roof and convey off all the water from the eaves.
This will prevent any waste of the soluble matter, and promote
the escape of moisture by the free circulation of air, which to the
extent of this evaporation, will lessen the labor of hauling.
Tanks for HOLDma Liquid Manure have long been in use.
They should be convenient to the stalls and yards, and tight drains
should convey into them every particle of the urine and drainage
from the manure. In compact clay they may be made by simply
excavating the earth, and the sides can be kept from falling in, by
a rough wall, or by planks supported in an upright position by a
framework of joist. But in all cases the cisterns should be closely
covered to prevent the escape of the ammonia, which is developed
while fermenting. In porous soils, it is necessary to construct
them with stone or brick laid in water-lime or cement.
When partially filled, fermentation will soon take place in the
tank, and especially in warm weather; gypsum or charcoal should
then be thrown in to*absorb the ammonia. A few days after
decomposition commences, it should be pumped into casks and
carried on to the land. If intended for watering plants, it must
be diluted sufficiently to prevent injury to them. The quantity
will depend on the strength of the liquid, and the time it is applied,
much less water being necessary to dilute it in a wet than in a
ORGANIC MANURES.
73
dij time. By fermenting in the open air and undiluted, it has
been found that in six weeks, cow's urine will lose nearly one-half
of its solid matter or salts, and six-sevenths of its ammonia ; while
that which had been mixed with an equal quantity of water, lost
only one-eighteenth of the former and one-ninth of the latter.
The stables and troughs leading to the tank should be frequently
washed down and sprinkled with gypsum. This last will absorb
much of the ammonia which would otherwise escape. Some loss
of the volatile matter must be expected, and the sooner it is used
after proper fermentation, or ripeness, as it is termed, the greater
will be the economy.
Liquid Manure applied to the muck heap. — As a general
rule, it is more economical and a great saving of labor to keep
the urine above ground and mix it at once with the manure; but
in this case vegetable or earthly absorbents must be adequately
supphed; and in addition, the heap ought frequently to be
sprinkled with gypsum or charcoal. Rich turf, the wash of the
roadside, tan-bark or sawdust, and all refuse vegetables may be
used for this purpose, and so placed that the hquid can run on to
• them, or be deposited where it can be poured over it. The same
protection of a rough open shed should be given to this as to the
other heaps, to facihtate evaporation and prevent drenching from
rains. When fully saturated with the^ urinary salts, and all is
properly decomposed, it may be carried out for use, or closely
covered with earth till wanted. The decomposition is in a great
measure arrested by covering with compact earth, thoroughly
trodden together; this prevents the access of air, which is essen
tial to its progress.
A simple yet economical mode of saving the hquid manure, is
sometimes adopted in Scotland, and is thus detailed :
^'Divide a shed into two compartments, one of which we make
water-tight, by puddhng the side walls with clay to the height,
say, of two feet,; and separated from the other compartment by a
low water-tight wall or boarding. This is my fermenting tank,
which is filled half or three parts full of pulverized burnt peat,
4
74
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
and the liquid manure from the stable, pig-styes, etc., directed
into it. This is mixed up with the pulverized peat, and allowed
to remain three or four weeks, till the decomposition seems about
completed, being occasionally stirred about after the composition
has become about the consistency of. gruel. The whole is then
ladled (with a pole and bucket) over the low partition into the
second floor, which is also three parts filled with the carbon-
ized peat; and as the second floor is meant merely as a filter, we
have it lower on one side than the other, by which means, in the
course of a day or two, the carbonized peat is left comparatively
dry. The water having passed off at the lower side, the first or
fermenting floor is again filled as before, and the contents of the
second floor, if considered saturated enough, are then shovelled
up into a corner, and allowed to drip, and further dry till used,
which may be either immediately, or at the end of twenty years,
as scarcely anything will affect it, if not exposed to the con-
tinued washing of pure water, or exposed to the influence of the
roots of growing plants. By being thinly spread on a granary
floor, it soon becomes perfectly dry, and suited to pass through
drill machines.
"The mixing of the carbonized peat with the liquid manure
on the first or fermenting floor, it will be observed, is for laying
hold of the gaseous matters as they escape during the fermenta-
tion ; perhaps other substances may effect this more effectually,
but none so cheaply. I think by this plan it will be obvious to
every one that a great many desiderata are at once obtained. In
the first place, you get free of over nine hundred parts out of
every one thousand of the weight and bulk of manure, by the
expulsion of the water; w4nle at the same time you hnk all the
fertilizing properties contained in it to one of the most handy
vehicles — ^light, cleanly, and portable, and possessed of the
peculiar property of holding together the most volatile substances,
till gradually called forth by the exigencies of the growing plants.
Lastly, you get free of the tank, hogshead and watering cart,
with all its appendages, and are no more bothered with over-
ORGANIC MANURES.
75
flowing tank, or overfermented liquid, with weather unsuited to
its application. You have merely to shovel past the saturated
charcoal, and shovel in a little fresh stuff, and the process goes
on again, while the prepared stuffs He ready for all crops, all sea-
sons, and all times." The best way of distributing hquid manure
on the land, is by a hogshead on wheels, in the same manner
as streets are watered.
Value of Liquid Manures. — The urine voided from a single
cow is considered in Flanders, where agricultural practice has
reached a high state of advancement, to be worth $10 per year.
It furnishes nine hundred pounds of sohd matter, and at the price
of $50 per ton, for which guano is frequently sold, the urine of
a cow for one year is worth $20. And yet economical farmers
will continue to waste urine and buy guano ! " The urine of a cow
for a year will manure one and a quarter acres of land, and is more
valuable than its dung, in the ratio by bulk, of seven to six ,• and
in real value as two to one." — Dana. How important then,
that every particle of it be carefully husbanded for the crops.
The average urine of the cow, as analyzed by Sprengel, con-
tains 92.6 per cent, of water; that of the horse, 94; the sheep,
96; the hog, 92.6; and the human, 93.3. The remainder is
composed of salts and rich vegetable food; but the human is far
richer in these than any other. The quantity and value of urine
varies much, and depends on the food and liquid taken into the
stomach, the loss by perspiration, etc.
Solid Animal Manures. — Of these Horse dung is the rich-
est and the easiest to decompose. If in heaps, fermentation will
sometimes commence in twenty-four hours; and even in mid-
w^inter, if a large pile be accumulated, it will proceed with great
rapidity; and if not arrested, a few weeks under favorable cir-
cumstances, are sufficient to reduce it to a small part of its orig-
inal weight and value. Boussingault, one of the most careful
observers of nature, as well as an accurate experimental chemist,
states the nitrogen in fresh dried horse dung to be 2.7 per cent.
The same manure laid in a thick stratum and permitted to
76
AMERICAN AGRICULTUBE.
undergo entire decomposition, loses nine-tenths of its whole weight,
and the remaining tenth when dried, gives only one per cent, of
nitrogen. Such are the losses which follow the neglect of incon-
siderate farmers. Peculiar care should therefore be taken to
arrest this action at the precise point desired.
The manure of Sheep is rich and very active, and next to that
of the horse is the most subject to heat and decompose. The
manure of Cattle and Swine being of a colder nature, may be
thrown in with that of the horse and sheep in alternate layers.
If fresh manure be intermixed with straw and other absorbents,
(vegetables, peat, turf, etc.,) and constantly added, the recent coat-
ing will combine with any volatile matters which fermentation
develops in the lower part of the mass. Frequent turning of
the manures is a practice attended with no benefit, but with the
certainty of the escape of much of its valuable properties.
Many farmers assign a distinct or peculiar merit to the different
manures. Much of this opinion is fanciful, for there is frequently
more difference in the comparative value of that from the same
species, and even the same individual, at different times and
under different circum^stances, than from those of different species.
The diversity in manures may arise from several causes. The
more thoroughly the food is digested and its nutritive qualities
extracted, the less is the value of the manure. Thus on the
same quantity and quality of food, a growing animal, or a cow
in calf, or giving milk, yields a poorer quality of foeces, than such
as are not increasing in weight, and if the animal be actually
losing condition, the richness of the manure is very much
increased. The quality of food adds materially to this difference,
the richest giving by far the most valuable manure. Those ani-
mals which are kept on a scanty supply of straw or refuse hay,
yield manure little better than good turf, and far inferior to the
droppings of such as are highly fed. The imperfect mastication
of the horse and mule, in comparison with the ruminating ani-
mals, tlie ox and the sheep, their generally better quality of food,
and the fact that for the greater part of their lives they are not
ORGANIC MANURES.
adding to their carcass, is the cause of the increased value of
their manure. Their sohd fceces are also much richer than those
of the cow, as they void less urine, and this is of an indiffer-
ent character. In a long, series of careful experiments, made
at Dresden and Berhn by order of the Saxon and Prussian
governments, it was ascertained that soil which would yield
three for one sown, when dressed with cow dung would give
seven ; with horse dung, ten ; and with human, fourteen.
POUDRETTE AND URATE.
Poudrette is the name given to the human foeces after it
has been mixed with charcoal dust or charred peat, by which it
is disinfected of its effluvia, and when dried it becomes a conven-
ient article for use, and even for remote transportation. The
odor is sometimes expelled by adding quicklime, but this removes
with it much of the ammonia, and on this account should always
be avoided.
Urate^ as well as poudrette, should become an article of com-
merce. It can be made in large cities by collecting the urine and
mixing with it one-sixth or one-seventh of its weight of ground
gypsum, and allowing it to stand several days. This combines
with a portion of the ammonia, after which it is dried and the
liquid is thrown away. Only a part of the value is secured by
this operation. It is sometimes prepared by the use of sulphuric
acid, which is gradually added to urine and forms sulphate of
ammonia, which is afterwards dried. This secures a greater
amount of the valuable properties of the urine ; but even this is
not without waste.
Night Soil. — From the analysis of Berzelius, the excrements
of a healthy man yielded water, 733; albumen, 9"; bile, 9; muscil-
age fat and the animal matters, 167; saline matters, 12; and
undecomposed food, 70, in 1,000 parts. When freed from water,
1,000 parts left of ash, 132; and this yielded, carbonate of soda,
8 ; sulphate of soda, with a little sulphate of potash, and phosphate
of soda, 8 ; phosphate of lime and magnesia, and a trace of gypsum,
100; silica, 16.
78
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
Human urine^ according to the same authority, gives in every
1,000 parts, of water, 933; urea, 30.1 ; uric acid, 1 ; free lactic
acid, lactate of ammonia, and inseparable animal matter, 17rl ;
mucus of the bladder, 0.3; sulphate of potash, 3.7; sulphate of
soda, 3.2; phosphate of soda, 2.9; phosphate of ammonia, 1.6;
common salt, 4.5 ; sal ammoniac, 1.5 ; phosphates of lime, acid
magnesia, with a trace of sihca and of fluoride of calcuim, 1.1.
Urea, according to Prout, gives of carbon, 19.99; oxygen,
26.63; hydrogen, 6.65; nitrogen, 46.65. The analysis of
Wcehler and Liebig differs immaterially from this. Such are the
materials abounding in every ingredient that can minister to the
production of plants, which are suffered to waste in the air, and
taint its purity and healthfulness ; or they are buried deep in the
earth beyond the reach of any useful apphcation, and even in this
position, (frequently in villages, and always in cities,) they pollute
the waters with their disgusting and poisonous effluvia. The
water from one of the wells in Boston, examined by Dr. Jackson,
gave an appreciable per centage of excrementitious matter.
The Treatment of Night Soil with Dried Earth. — An
apparently perfect mode of managing human excrements has
recently been introduced in England, and to a small extent in
this country. It consists of mingling with them in their most recent
state a small quantity of dried earth. This completely deodorizes
them, making it possible to keep them in a sick room even, with-
out annoyance, any desirable length of time. In the country,
where it can be at once apphed, tight wooden boxes may be used,
with hooks on the outer side, to which a team may be attached,
for drawing them wherever required. The boxes should have a
coating at the bottom, of dried earth, and require to have added
to them daily about a pound and a half of earth for each individual
of the family, and to have the entire contents occasionally thor-
oughly commingled. This operation may be effected by a com-
mon hoe or shovel, or some simple mechanism may be devised to
effect the same result. It has been found that the accumulations
of these earth closets, when exposed again to the sun or air, and
ORGANIC MANURES.
70
thoroughly dried, are almost, if not quite, as efficient as fresh
earth for using again and again in the closets and commodes,
even after having been employed six or seven times. By this
time they have become a very powerful fertilizer, superior to
anything which has heretofore been used as night soil, or sold
under the names of poudrette, tafeu, etc. It is certainly within
the ability of families, in this way, not only to save large quanti-
ties of this valuable fertilizer, for use in their own gardens or on
their farms; but, if they have no land, by being careful to encour-
age or secure its accumulation, they will not only add to their
own health, comfort and cleanliness, but produce an article which
will have a definite market value.
THE EXCREMENTS OF FOWLS.
These contain both the foeccs and urine combined, and are next
to night soil in value. They should be mixed at once with the
soil, or with a compost where its volatile matters will be retained.
They are very soluble, and when exposed to moisture, are hable
to waste. They should be husbanded with economy and care.
FLESH, BLOOD, ETC.
"When decomposed, these substances afford all the materials of
manure in its most condensed form. Whenever procurable, they
should be mixed with eight or ten times their weight of dry peat,
turf, tan-bark or rich garden mold. A dead cow or horse thus
buried in a bed of peat, will yield ten or fifteen loads of the
richest manure. Butchers' offal will give twenty times its weight
of more valuable manure than any from his cattle yards.
HAIR, HORNS, HOOFS^ PELTS, WOOLEN RAGS, AND THE FLOCKS,
AND WASTE OF WOOLEN MANUFACTORIES,
Are rich in every organic substance required by plants, and
when mingled with the soil they gradually yield them, and afford
a permanent and luxuriant growth to every cultivated crop. All
80
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
animal substances contain about fifteen or eighteen per cent, of
nitrogen.
FISH FISH GUANO FISH POMACE FISH OFFAL, ETC., OF
THE MARKETS.
These articles are much used in this and other countries for
manure. The moss-bonker, or bonj-fish, and alewives, frequent
the Atlantic coast in countless numbers, in the spring, and are
caught in seines, and sold to the farmers by the wagon load. They
are sometimes plowed into the soil with a spring crop, or are
more frequently used for growing corn, for which purpose one or
. two fish are placed in each hill and buried with the seed. This
was the system adopted by the aborigines of our country in rais-
ing their maize on exhausted lands, long before their occupancy,
or even discovery by the whites. There is waste in this practice,
as the soils used for corn are generally sandy, and the slight
silicious covering imperfectly combines with the putrefying fish,
and much of their gases thereby eludes the plant, to the excessive
annoyance of the olfactories for miles around.
The proper method of using them is by composting with dry
earth, in alternate layers of about three inches in thickness of
fish to nine of earth, and over the whole a coating of two to four
feet of soil is placed. A few weeks of warm weather suffices to
decompose the fish, which unite with the soil, no perceptible
efifiuvia escaping from the heap, so effectual is its absorption. A
strong acrid smell is, however, noticeable, and when it has become
thus off'ensive, it is a sure sign of its decay. It may then be
overhauled and re-mixed with more earth, for further decomposi-
tion, if in warm weather. It may at any time thereafter be
applied to the use of growing crops, or, in the colder seasons and
in low temperature, be preserved a long time for future use. It
is suited to nearly all soils and crops. Oyster and clam shells,
and all other kind of mollusca, and fish debris, not readily decom-
posable by earthy mixtures, strewed over the surface, are also
valuable as fertilizers.
0R(5^ANIC MANURES.
81
SEA-WEED,
Is a powerful aid to the farmer when within convenient dis-
tances. It is thrown upon the sea-coast by the waves in large
windrows, or it is carefully raked up from the rocks or bottom of
the bays, either by farmers or those who make it a business to
procure and sell it. It may be used as bedding for cattle, or litter
for the barn-yard, or added directly to the compost heap. Where
the distance for carrying it would prevent its use, it may be
burned and the ashes removed to the land. It has much more
saline matter than vegetables which grow on land, and yields a
more valuable manure.
PEAT.
Much of our American peat is found equal in excellence to the
same article in many parts of Northern Europe. There, its
nearly pure carbonaceous quality admits of its extensive use as
fuel. Many of our domestic peats are mixed with the wash from
the adjacent elevations, which render them more easily suscep-
tible of profitable cultivation in their native beds, and not
less valuable as a fertilizer wh'en applied to other lands. In six
different specimens from Northampton, and four- from other local-
ities in Massachusetts, Dr. Dana found an average of 29.41
soluble, and 55.03 insoluble geine or humus; and 15.55 of salts
and silicates in every 100 parts. The extensive researches of the
same intelligent observer have led him to recommend the mixture
of 30 lbs. potash, or 20 lbs. of soda ash, or what is more
economical and equally efficacious, eight bushels of unleached
wood ashes, with one cord of peat as it is dug from its bed ; or,
if leached ashes be used, they should be mixed in the proportion
of one to three of peat. This he considers fally equivalent to
pure cow dung in value. He also estimates the salts and humus
of four cords of peat as equal to the manure of a cow for one
year. The opinion of Mr. Phinney, a distinguished agriculturist
of Lexington, Mass., founded on close observation and long
4*
82
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
practice, is that one part of green cattle dung composted with
twice its bulk of peat, will make the whole as good as pure dung.
Some peats are richer in ammonia than common barn-yard manure.
Peat, in its natural condition, contains from seventy to over
ninety per cent, of water. It should be dug from its bed in the
fall or winter for the purpose of draining or exposing it to the
action of the atmosphere, when it will be found to have lost about
two-thirds of its bulk. In this state it still holds about sixty-five
per cent, of water. It may then be carted in to the cattle yards
and used for making composts in any way desired.
MANURING WITH GREEN CROPS.
This system has within a few years been extensively adopted
in some of the older settled portions of the United States. The
comparative cheapness of land and its products, the high price of
labor, and the consequent expense of making artificial manures,
renders this at present the most economical plan which can be
pursued. The object of this practice is, primarily, fertilization;
and connected with it, is the clearing of the ground from noxious
weeds, as in fallows, by plowing in the vegetation before the seed
is ripened ; and finally to loosen the soil and place it in the mel-
lowest condition for the crops which are to succeed. Its results
have been entirely successful, when steadily pursued with a due
consideration of the objects sought, and the means by which they
are to be accomplished. Lands in many of our Eastern States,
which have been worn out by improvident cultivation, and
unsalable at $10 an acre, have, by this means, while steadily
remunerating their proprietors for all the outlay of labor and
expense by their returning crops, been brought up in value to
$50.
The full benefits of green crops seem only to be reahzed where
there is sufficient calcareous matter in the soil. Calcareous soils,
or such as have a large proportion of lime, however they may
have become exhausted, when put under a thorough course of
treatment, in which green crops at proper intervals are returned
to them, are soon restored to fertility; and when lime does not
ORGANIC MANURES.
83
exist in the soil, tlie application of it in the proper manner and
quantity will produce the same effect. Gypsum and ashes are
the best substitutes, when lime or marl is difficult to be procured.
This system of improvement varies with almost every indi-
vidual who practices it, according to the quality of his land, the
kind of crops to be raised, the facihty of procuring manures, the
luxuriance of particular crops, etc. We shall state merely the
general principles in this, as in most other subjects, and leave to
the farmer's judgment to apply them according to his circum-
stances. It is always better to commence this system while the
land is in good condition, as a luxuriant growth of vegetation is
as profitable for turning in as for cropping. Buckwheat, rye, and
some of the grasses, have been much used for this purpose in this
country; and spurry, the white lupine, the vetch and rape, in
Europe; but for the Northern portion of the Union, nothing
has been hitherto tried which is so well fitted for the object as
red clover.
Clover for Green Manures. — This is suited to all soils
that will grow anything profitably, from sand, if possessing an
adequate amount of fertility, to the heaviest clay, if drained of its
superfluous water. The seed is cheap, its growth certain and
rapid, and the expense of its cultivation trifling, while the return
on a kindly soil and with proper treatment, is large. Added to
this, and very much increasing its merits, is the abundance of its
long tap roots, which penetrate the ground to a great depth and
break up the stiff soils in a manner peculiarly beneficial to suc-
ceeding crops. The material yielded by the roots and stubble, is
of itself equal to a good dressing of manure. It has the further
advantage of giving two or more years' growth from one sowing,
and of maintaining itself in the ground thereafter by self-seeding
when not too closely cropped; and- it is equally suited to profit-
able pasturage and winter forage.
If the first season of growth of clover be luxuriant after the
removal of the grain upon which it was sown, it may be pastured
in the autumn or suffered to fall and waste on the ground, the
first being the most economical. The following year, the early
84
AMERICAN AGRICULTUKE.
crops may be taken off for hay, and the second, after partially
ripening its seeds, may be plowed in, and thus it carries with it a
full crop of seed for future growth. It is usual when wheat is
cultivated, to turn in the clover when in full flower in July, and
allow the ground to remain undisturbed till the proper time for sow-
ing the grain, when it may be shallowly cross-plowed, or worked
by the cultivator," when the wheat maybe sown directly on the
ground and harrowed in. This system gives alternate crops of
grain and clover, and with the use of such saline manures as may
be necessary to replace those abstracted from the soil, will sus-
tain the greatest fertility. With a slight dressing of these wlien
the land is in good condition, the first crop of clover may be
taken off, and yet allow a sufficient growth for turning in.
It is customary, however, to adopt a three or four years' course
of cropping, in which grain, roots, corn, etc., alternate with clover
and barn-yard manures ; and this we think the most approved
practice when the land is within convenient distance of the manure.
If the fields are remote, a still longer course would be preferable,
where stock, and particularly sheep, are kept, as they might be
allowed to pasture the field during a much greater time. Sheep
would remove only so much of the forage as remains in their
carcass; while milch cows and working animals would of course
carry off a greater amount, the first in the milk and the last in
their manure dropped while out of the field.
The Cow Pea is a rank, luxuriant producer, and is deemed
the best of the fertilizers for the South ; as it will there grow two
crops in one season from two successive plantings. This is also
a valuable fodder for cattle and sheep, and the ripe peas are a
profitable crop. Like a luxuriant growth of clover, it requires
the roller to prepare it properly for the plow.
Spurry is extensively used in the north of Europe, Flanders,
Germany and Denmark, as a fertilizer and as forage for cattle,
both in its green and dry state. It is admirably adapted to the
lightest sands, where it is said to grow with more luxuriance and
profit than any other of the cultivated plants. It may be sown
in the fall after grain or early roots, and plowed in the following
OKGANIC MANURES.
85
spring. Three crops may be grown on tlie same land in one
season. Yan Yoght says, by alternating these crops with rye, it
will reclaim the worst sands, and yield nearly the same benefits
if pastured off by cattle ; while it adds materially to the advant-
ages of other manures applied at the same time. It grows
spontaneously in many of our fields as a weed, and its cultivation
on our lightest sands, which are too poor for clover, might be
attended with the best effects. Like the cow pea, however, it is
deficient in the deep tap roots, which give much of their efficiency
to the clover and white lupine.
White Lupine. — This plant has not, to our knowledge, been
introduced as a field crop in this country; but from the great
success which has attended its cultivation in Europe, it is a proper
subject of consideration, whether it might not be advantageously
introduced among us. It grows freely in all except calcareous
soils, and is best suited to such as have a subsoil charged with
iron. It is hardy, not liable to injury from insects, grows rapidly
and with an abundance of stems, leaves and roots. The latter
protects the plant from drought by penetrating through the sub-
soil for a depth of more than two feet, which they break up and
prepare in the most efficient manner for succeeding crops.
The advantages of Green Manures consist principally in
the addition of vegetable matter which they furnish to the soil.
The presence of this, aids in the liberation of those mineral
ingredients which are there locked up, and which on . being set
free, act with so much advantage to the crop. The roots also,
exert a power in effecting this decomposition beyond any other
known agents, either of nature or art. Their minute fibres are
brought into contact with the elements of the soil, and they act
upon them with a force peculiar to themselves alone, and which
is far more efficacious than the intensest heat or strongest acids,
persuading the elements to give up for their own use, what is
essential to their maturity and perfection. By substituting a crop
for a naked fallow, we have every fibre of the roots in the whole
field aiding the ordinary decomposition which is slowly going
forward in every soil.
86
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
Clover, and most broad leaved plants, draw largely for their
sustenance from the air, especially when aided by the application
of gypsum. By its long tap roots, it also draws much from the
subsoil, as all plants appropriate such sahne substances as are
necessary to their maturity, and are brought to their roots in a
state of solution by the up-welling moisture from beneath. This
last is frequently a great source of improvement. The amount
of carbon drawn from the air in the state of carbonic acid, and
of ammonia and nitric acid, under favorable circumstances of soil
and crop, are large ; and when buried beneath the surface, all are
saved and yield their fertility to the land; while such as decay on
the surface lose much of their value by evaporation and drainage.
In the green statej fermentation is rapid, and by resolving the
matter of plants into their elements, it fits the ground at once for
a succeeding crop.
APPLICATION OF MANURES.
In the application of the different manures, opinions among
practical farmers somewhat differ, depending on the soils to which
they are applied. And soils differ so greatly in their several
compositions, that no positive rules can be laid down for their
general application.
The ordinary barn-yard manures also differ largely in their
composition, depending on the material from which they are
made. It has already been seen that the richer the food given
to farm stock, the better the manure will be, as grain yields the
richest; good hay, corn blades, and mixed feeds of ground grain
and straw come next; while the various straws, cornstalks, etc.,
yield the poorest of the three^ and littered straw of any kind,
not decomposed, makes the weakest of all. Yet, even tliis last,
when partially decomposed, is a valuable manure.
APPLIED TO GRASS GROUNDS.
Again, the kind of crops proposed to be grown by aid of these
manures, should measurably govern their application. On grass
ORGANIC MANURES.
81
grounds we hold that the fresher the manure the better, no mat-
* ter if it be drawn out the day that it is thrown from the stable
window, and spread equally over the soil. Foul seeds in fresh
manures — and they are sometimes apt to be in them — will sel-
dom take growth on a well compacted turf The juices of the
manure go down into the soil with the rains, or snows, while the
seeds dry up and take no root. Yet, on hay meadows, these
manures are best apphed as soon after the hay is cut off as possi-
■ ble, during the latter summer or autumn, so that they may
decompose through the winter, and not interfere with the growth
of the spring grass. Spring manuring, or top dressing on grass
grounds with coarse barn-yard dung, we would not recommend.
Better let it he over for the latter summer or fall season. It will
be in the way of cutting the grass, and more or less of it work
up, undecomposed, with the cut grass into the hay, and so injure
it ; while on pastures, it will taint the herbage and be distasteful
to the animals cropping it. We believe, also, that it will be
more beneficial to the coming crops so applied in the fall of the
year.
APPLIED TO PLOWED CROPS,
Seeds are an objection to fresh manures, as straw, sea- weed, etc.
They are often contained in them, as seeds of the grasses and
various noxious weeds, which may sprout and grow in the pulver-
ized soil with which they become intermixed, and thus cause
much extra labor in eradicating them in hoed crops, or repro-
ducing themselves in a much greater degree in crops of standing
grain. For such purposes barn-yard manures should be partially,
or wholly rotted. This may be done by throwing it into heaps
outside the buildings, and composting it with soil, or occasionally
turning it to let the seeds sprout, if they will, and die in the pro-
cesses of the work.
We believe, both from our own experience, and the experience
of others, that, as a general rule^ the better way on hoed, or sown
crops, is to spread the manure on the surface^ after the last plow-
ing^ and harrow it in with the planted or sowed crop. By this
88
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
process enougli of the juices of the manure will be washed into
the soil to feed the roots, together with the salts and ammonia
contained in it. By their action with the atmosphere, the stalks
and leaves, which are the lungs of the plant, are forced into more
rapid growth. This practice, we believe, acts on all soils alike.
When manures are plowed into clays, or loams, they are held
long unaltered by the compactness of the soil above them, as with-
out rain and sun acting directly upon them, they remain compara-
tively dormant, and are not decomposed, and they are of little use
until again thrown up to the future action of the atmosphere.
Therefore, for their immediate action on the crop they are of ht-
tle use. On the Hghter soils thus worked, manures may act much
quicker than on the clays, or heavy loams, but they are more
effective when near or quite upon the surface. Overflowed lands
or river bottoms, always receive their washings on the surface,
giving great yields of grass, and even when plowed their yields
are better from a second plowing, which returns the washings thus
brought upon them again to the surface.
It may be said to this plan of surface manuring, when it is seen
smoking after a rain, that the ammonia is escaping, and blown off
by winds into the atmosphere, is lost; or, that if a drought follows,
it dries up and no benefit is derived from it. This occurs to a much
less extent than might be supposed ; and the fact remains that
the crops get more benefit than if the manure were below the
surface. This is especially true of grass and small grains. With-
out moisture, manure, in any position lies dormant. It can only
become active with sufficient moisture to mduce decomposition.
Therefore it is not lost in its dryness whether under, or above
ground ; but its activity is more developed when near, or alto-
gether on the surface.
All quick growing and vegetable substances, decomposed,
make good manures, such as weeds, grass, potato tops, dry stalks
of any kind, corncobs — in short, anything, except woody brush.
And even that, if it could be finely cut, would soon decompose,
and make good manure. Wood-chips, sawdust, wood-shavings,
ORGANIC MANURES.
89
and any other fine wood material acts mechanically in clay lands
to great advantage, in loosening tlie soil and making it permeable
to the rains and atmosphere, although it does not, immediately,
much enrich it.
"Dust thou art, and unto dust shalt thou return," is as applica-
l>le to vegetable as to animal hfe, although apphed in a very dif-
ferent sense here to that in which the text was originally uttered.
Every decomposable thing, in fact, adds to the productiveness of
our soils when properly applied.
THE FALLOW SYSTEM.
As a means of enriching lands, this was formerly much prac-
ticed, but it is now mostly discarded by inteUigent farmers. It
consists in plowing up the land and exposing it naked to the
elements, whenever the exhaustion by tillage requires it. This
practice is founded on the principle, that plants gradually exhaust
the soil of such soluble food, potash, soda, etc., as are necessary
to their support ; and unless they are again given to it in manures,
in a form suited to their immediate appropriation by plants, time
is requisite for dissolving them in the soil so as to enable them
again to support vegetation profitably. Besides the loss resulting
from the frequent idleness of the land, naked fallows have this
further disadvantage, and especially in Hght and loose soils ; they
are exposed to the full action of the sun and rains, and by evap-
oration and drainage are exhausted of much of their soluble
vegetable food.
This system, bad as it is, may yet be absolutely necessary where
grain alone is raised, and no manure is applied. But it is always
avoidable by substituting fallow crops, as they are termed, potatoes,
turnips, etc., with manure; or clover or other green crops, as
above detailed ; by which the land is cleared of weeds and suffi-
ciently enriched for succeeding cultivation. Land is equally well
prepared for grain by having been occupied as meadows, if they
have been kept in good condition by top dressing, and pastured
answer the same purpose without them.
CHAPTER IV.
lEKIGATIOIS" AND DRAINING.
Irrigation might properlj enough be classed under the head
of manures, for the materials which it provides are not only food
for plants, but they aid also in procuring it from other sources.
Water is of indispensable necessity to vegetable life, and the
great quantity of it demanded for this purpose, is in most climates
amply provided by nature in the stores of rain and dew which
almost everywhere moisten the earth, and especially during the
early growth of vegetation when it is most required. In countries
where rain seldom or never falls, as in parts of South America,
(the great plains west of the Mississippi and the Colorado, and
the Utah valleys, and even into California, elevated above the
dew point,) Egypt and elsewhere, the radiation of heat from the
surface is so rapid under their clear skies, that excessive deposits
of dew generally supply the plants with all the moisture which
they need. The same effect takes place throughout most of the
United States in our transparent summer atmosphere, and it is to
the presence of copious dews on our rich, well cultivated fields,
that much of the luxuriance and success is due, which has ever
attended enlightened, well managed American husbandry.
Besides the moisture that abounds in the atmosphere, but
which is not always available in rains and dews to the desired
extent for the wants of vegetation, and that which imperceptibly
ascends from remote depths in the earth and administers to the
support of plants, it is a practice coeval with the earliest history
of agriculture to bring artificial waters upon the cultivated fields,
and make them contribute to the support of the crops. In many
countries this system is indispensable to secure their maturity ;
IRRIGATION AND DRAINING.
91
for, although dews accomplisli the object in a measure, they do
not supply it in the quantity required to sustain a vigorous growth.
We find in looking to the practice of Egypt and the Barbary
States in Africa; of Syria, Babylon and other places in Asia;
Italy, Spain and elsewhere in Europe, where husbandry early
attained a high rank, that irrigation was extensively introduced.
Damascus is one of the most ancient cities on record, (for it is
mentioned in Genesis as existing nearly 4,000 years ago,) and
notwithstanding its numerous successive masters, and its having
been frequently subject to plunder and devastation when con-
quered, it is still a flourishing city, though in the midst of deserts.
This is no doubt owing to the waters derived from the " Abana
and Pharpar, rivers of Damascus," which are conducted above
the city till they gush from the fountains and overspread the
gardens, and subsequently water all the adjacent plain. Had it
not been for irrigation, Damascus would doubtless, ages ago, have
followed Palmyra, the Tadmor of the wilderness, into utter ruin.
On no other principle than a systematic and extensive practice of
irrigation, can we account for the once populous condition of
Judea, Idumea and other vast regions in the East, which to the
eye of the modern traveler present nothing but the idea of irre-
claimable sterihty and desolation. The possession of the "upper
and nether springs " was as necessary to the occupant as possession
of the soil.
When the Mormons first settled in Salt Lake Yalley, the
country was a barren wilderness from perpetual drought in the
growing seasons of vegetation, but by aid of irrigation alone, it
has become one of the most productive countries in the world.
In those countries where the drought is excessive and rains are
seldom to be depended on, water is led on to the fields containing
all the cultivated crops, and made subservient to their growth.
But in the United States, and in the middle and northern parts
of Europe, where the crops ordinarily attain a satisfactory size
without its aid, irrigation is confined almost exclusively to grass
or meadow lands.
92
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
All waters are suitable for this purpose excepting such as con
tain an excess of some mineral substances that are deleterious to
vegetable life. Such are the drainage from peat swamps, from
saline and mineral springs, and from ore beds of various kinds ;
and those are most frequent in which iron is held in solution. Of
the spring, or ordinary river waters, those are the best which
are denominated hard, and owe this quality to the presence
of sulphate or carbonate of lime, or magnesia. Waters charged
with fertilizing substances that have been washed out of soils
by recent floods, are admirably suited to irrigation. Dr.
Dana estimates the quantity of salts (in solution) and geine, or
humus, which were borne seaward past Lowell, on the Merrimac
river, in 1838, (a season of unusual freshets,) as reaching the
enormous amount of 840,000 tons — enough to have given a good
dressing to 100,000 acres of land. Such waters as have flowed
out of the sewers of cities, or past slaughter houses and certain
manufactories, and received the rich vegetable food thereby
afibrded, are the most beneficial when applied to vegetation.
Meadows thus irrigated in the neighborhood of Edinburgh, have
rented by the acre at the large sum of $250 per annum. But
when none of these can be procured, pure spring water, appar-
ently destitute of any soluble matters, may be advantageously
used.
Besides its bringing of different matters from remote distances,
water freely absorbs the gases (carbonic acid, oxygen and nitro-
gen, etc.,) in proportions altogether different from those existing
in the air, and brings them to the roots by which they are greedily
appropriated, and in its onward, agitated progress over the field,
it again absorbs them from the air, again to be given up when
demanded by the roots. "When the water is permitted to remain
stagnant on the surface, this good effect ceases; and so far from
its promoting the growth of the useful and cultivated grasses,
they speedily perish, and a race of sour and worthless aquatic
plants spring up to supply their place.
lEKlGATION AND DRAINING.
93
Another and important office that water fulfills in ministering
to the growth of vegetation, is in disposing the soil to those
changes which are essential to its full maturity. Gypsum requires
460, and hme 778 times its bulk of water at 60° to dissolve them.
Others among the mineral constituents of plants, also require the
presence of large quantities of water to fit them for vegetable
assimilation.
Time for Applying "Water to Meadows. — In those
regions where the winters are not severe, water may be kept in
the fields daring the entire season of frosts. This prevents its
access to the ground, and on the approach of warm weather the
grasses at once start into hfe, and give an early and abundant
yield. But in general this system cannot be successfully practiced.
The water is admitted at proper intervals, freely during the
spring and early part of the summer when vegetation is either
just commencing or going forward rapidly. It is sufficient to
flood the surfiice thoroughly, and then shut off the water for a
time. In very dry weather this may be done with advantage
every night. Continued watering, under a bright sun, is an
unnatural condition with upland grasses, and could never be long
continued without proving fatal to them. Neither should the
water be applied after the grasses have commenced ripening.
Nature is the proper guide in this, as in most of the operations
of the farmer; and it will be seen how careful she is in ordinary
seasons to provide an affluence of rains for the commencement
of vegetation, while she as carefully withholds them when it
approaches maturity. After the grass is cut, the water may be
again let on to flood the meadows. Pastures may be irrigated
at proper intervals throughout the year.
The Manner of Irrigating. — This must depend on the
situation of the surface and the supply of water. Sometimes
reservoirs are made for its reception from rains or inundations,
and sometimes it is collected at a vast expense from springs
foimd by deep excavations, and led out by extensive subterra-
neous ditching. The. usual source of supply, however, is from
94
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
streams or rivulets, or copious springs which discharge their
water on elevated ground. The former are dammed up to turn
the water into ditches or aqueducts, through which it is conducted
to the fields, where it is divided into smaller rills, till it finally
disappears. When it is desirable to bring more water on to
meadows than is required for saturating the ground, and its
escape to fields below is to be avoided, other ditches should be
made on the lower sides to arrest and convey away the surplus
water.
The advantages of irrigation are so manifest that they should
never be neglected when the means for securing them are within
economical reach. To determine what economy in this case is,
we have to estimate, from careful experiment, the equivalent
needed in annual dressing with manures to produce the same
amount of grass as would be gained by irrigation ; and to offset
the cost of the manure, we must reckon the interest on the per-
manent fixtures of dam, sluices, etc., and the annual expense of
attention and repair.
Thoe quality of grass from irrigated meadows is but slightly
inferior to that grown upon dry soils ; and for pasturage it is
found that animals do better in dry seasons upon the watered
land, and in wet upon the dry. In Europe, where the disease is
common, sheep are more liable to rot upon irrigated and marshy
lands than on such as are free from excessive moisture. Dry
land is more natural to sheep.
The Kind of Soils suited to Irrigation. — Light porous
soils, and particularly gravels and sands, are the most benefited
by irrigation. Yet, tenacious and clay soils are improved by it,
and much, more so when made porous by under draining. It is
not only important that water be brought on to the ground, but
it should pass off immediately after accomplishing the objects
sought.
The increase from the application of water is sometimes four-
fold, when the soil, the season and the water are all favorable,
and it is seldom less than doubled. Many fields, which in their
IRRIGATION AND DRAINING.
♦
95
natural condition, scarcely yield a bite of grass for cattle, when
thoroughly irrigated, will give a good growth for years, and
without the aid of any. manures.
UNDER-DRAINING HEAYY AND TENACIOUS CLAY LANDS.
The advancement of agriculture in this country during the few
last years, the high price of farming lands and their products
within convenient distances of our larger markets, justify the
commencement of an intelligent system of draining on such lands
as require it. This system has for many years been introduced
and largely practiced in England and Scotland, and of late years
in various parts of the United States, and has resulted in the
most signal success. The plan first adopted was, to excavate the
land in parallel lines at intervals of sixteen to twenty-five feet,
and to a depth of two to three feet, forming a shghtly inchned
plane on the bottom, which was from three to six inches wide,
and gradually enlarging as it approached the surface. The
narrowest drains were arched with inverted turf and clay, and so
high as to allow of the requisite space at the bottom for the escape
of whatever water might filter through the soil. Others were
formed with continuous arched tiles laid on a sole^ (a flat tile of
the same material,) or a board placed on the bottom forming an
uninterrupted conductor. Larger ditches were filled with rubble-
stone (and in some instances brush,) to a sufficient depth, and
then covered with soil. In all cases the smaller ones commu-
nicated by their outlets with large open drains which led the
water from the field.
These drains were always below the reach of the plow, thus
leaving the whole surface of the lands free from any obstruction
to cultivation. Two recent improvements have been introduced
which materially diminish the expense while they enhance the
benefits of the system. They consist in sinking the drain to three
feet, and using baked clay or tile pipes one and a half to two
inches in diameter, and twelve to eighteen inches in length, con-
nected by laying them simply end to end, or better, by short col-
1)6 AxMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
lars made of sections of a size larger tile. The trifling opening
at each joint is found to be sufficient to admit all the water which
the drain can carry; while the increased depth at which the drain-
age takes place, draws the water from a much greater distance.
With the depth indicated, it has been found that the drains,
instead of being required once in sixteen to twenty-five feet, may
be placed at intervals of thirty to forty, and accomphsh the object
with equal success, and in less time. The expense of under-drain-
ing varies exceedingly. It may run from thirty to fifty dollars
per acre, as circumstances may govern. It has of late been ascer-
tained, that in heavy soils, three feet is a sufficient depth, and
thirty feet is about the proper distance apart for the most efiective
drainage.
The advantages of under-draining are numerous and import-
ant. It takes away all the surplus water which exists in heavy or
tenacious soils, which in wet seasons is a serious impediment to
the successful growth and perfection of vegetation ; thus always
insuring a full crop, when frequently not one-fourth of a crop is
matured on similar undrained soils. It allows of early culti-
vation in spring and late in autumn, by furnishing a dry, warm
soil, which would not admit of cultivation except in the warm
part of the season; thus enabling the farmer to grow a greater
variety of products where only a few were adapted to the soil
before, and to these it gave several weeks' additional growth. It
saves all the trouble and waste of surface drains and open furrows,
which require that much of the land be left almost in an unpro-
ductive state, to serve as conductors of the surplus water. The
rains falling on the convex surfaces of the lands, run off rapidly
into the furrows, and not only prevent the benefit to the soil
which would result from its absorption, but they carry with them
much of the fine soil, which is thus allowed to waste. The long
and the short of this matter of drainag-e is, that instead of leaving
plain furrows above ground to let off the water, the under drains,
acting the same as surface furrows, pass off the surplus water
beneath, when it has done its office of watering the plants above.
IRRIGATION AND DRAINING.
97
Eain water is charged with some of the most important
elements of nutrition to plants, and especially contains consid-
erable proportions of carbonic acid and ammonia. If these be
permitted to percolate through the soil, the roots of the plants, or
in their absence the elements of the soil itselfj absorb and form
permanent combinations with them. Air also holds vegetable
food, and it is necessary that this should penetrate through every
portion of the soil where the fibres of the roots exist. Soils
which are saturated with water do not admit of any air, unless
the small proportion combined with the water ; and from all such
this vital adjunct of vegetation is excluded. The porosity of the
land thus secured, facilitates the admission and escape of heat,
which last condition is of the utmost consequence in promoting
the deposition of dews.
The dense mass of saturated soil is impervious to air and
remains cold and clammy. By draining it below the soil, the
warm rains penetrate the entire mass, and there diffuse their
genial temperature through the roots. Immediately pressing after
these, the warm air rushes in and supphes its portion of aug-
mented heat to the land. Porous soils thus readily imbibe heat,
and they as readily part with it; every portion of their own
surfaces radiating it when the air in contact with them is below
their own temperature. This condition is precisely what is
adapted to secure the deposit of the dews, so refreshing, and
during a season of drought, so indispensable to the progress of
vegetation. Dew can only be found on surfaces which are below
the temperature of the surrounding air, and rapid radiation of the
heat imbibed during the warmth of a summer's day is necessary
to secure it in sufficient profusion for the demands of luxuriant
vegetation in the absence of frequent showers.
An insensible deposit of moisture precisely analogous to dew, is
constantly going forward in deep, rich, porous soils. Wherever the
air penetrates them at a higher temperature than the soils them-
selves possess, it not only imparts to them a portion of its excess
of heat, but with it also, so much of its combined moisture as its
5
98
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
thus lessened capacity for retaining latent heat compels it to
relinquish. To the reflecting mind, imbued with even the first
principles of science, these considerations will be justlj deemed
as of the highest consequence to the rapid and luxuriant growth
and full development of vegetable Hfe.
Another essential benefit derivable from drained lands, consists
in the advantageous use which can be made of the subsoil plow.
If there be no escape for the moisture which may have settled
below the surface, the subsoil plow has been found to be injurious
rather than beneficial. By loosening the earth it admits a larger
deposit of water, which requires a longer time for evaporation
and insensible drainage to discharge. When the water escapes
freely, the use of the subsoil plow is attended with the best results.
The broken earth, thus pulverized to a much greater depth and
incorporated with the descending particles of vegetable sustenance,
affords an enlarged range for the roots of plants, and in proportion
to its extent, fiirnishes them with additional means of growth.
The farmer thus has a means of augmenting his soil and its
capacity for production wholly independent of increasing his
superficial acres; for with many crops it matters not in the
quantity of their production, whether he owns and cultivates one
hundred acres of soil, one foot deep, or two hundred acres of soil,
half a foot in depth. With the latter, however, he has to provide
twice the capital in the first purchase, is at twice the cost in
fencing, planting and tillage, and pays twice the taxes. The
under drained and subsoiled fields have the farther advantage of
security and steady development in seasons of drought, as they
derive their moisture from greater depths which are firequently
unaffected by the parching heat. This secures to them a large
yield while all around is parched and withered.*
A more enlarged and general, or what may justly be termed a
philanthropic view of this system, will readily detect consider-
* The experienced reader will sometimes notice the same ideas repeated under dif-
ferent heads. He must bear in mind that this work is intended for learners; and
that it is of more consequence thoroughly to impress their minds with important
principles, than to study brevity in communicating them.
IRRIGATION AND DRAINING.
99
ations of great moment, in the general healthfulness of chmate
which would result from the drainage of large areas, which are
now saturated, or in many instances covered with stagnant
waters, and which are suffered to poUute the atmosphere by their
pestilent exhalations.
SPRING AND SWAMP DRAINING.
Springs are sometimes discovered, not by a free or open dis-
charge of their water, but in extensive plats of wet, boggy lands,
which are of no further use than to mire the cattle and bear a
small quantity of inferior bog hay. These springs should be
sought at the highest point where the ground appears moistened
and led away to a ravine or rivulet, by a drain sufficiently deep
to prevent the escape of any of the water into the adjacent soil;
unless as it sometimes happens, the position and quality of
water are suited to irrigation, when it may be conducted over
the field for that purpose.
Swamps and Peat heds occur frequently in a hilly country.
These are low, level, wet lands, whose constant saturation with
water prevents their cultivation with any useful plants. The
first object in effecting their improvement, is to find an outlet for
the escape of the water to a depth of three to five feet below
the surface, according to the area to be reclaimed ; the greatest
depth above specified being frequently necessary to the effectual
drainage at all times, of an extended surface. If the water^ in
the swamp has its origin in numerous springs from the adjoining
hills, a ditch should be dug around the entire outer edge of it
where it meets the ascending land. If the water be derived
from a rivulet, a broad ditch should be made as direct as possible
from its entrance to its outlet, and deep enough to lead off all
the water. If these are found insufficient, additional ones may
be made wherever required.
This subject of "under draining," in aU its ramifications,
requires a treatise of itself far too extended to enter into a work
of this character. Books have been written on the subject in all
100
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
its length and breadth of development. We therefore refer the
reader to either of the volumes of French, or Waring, which may
be readily found in the agricultural book stores of our principal
cities.
Indeed, this subject of under draining has become so important
in all heavy soils, worth, in their present condition, fifty dollars
an acre, that their value may be doubled, for crop producing pur-
poses, by the simple outlay of thirty to forty dollars in the sim-
ple process of under draining, which will last a hfetime.
Much time and ingenuity has been expended in the invention
of machines for ditching for tile drains, and we have no doubt
something of the kind will soon be perfected to reduce the cost
of the process, to at least one-half the expense as now encoun-
tered by the plow and spade. Still, tile draining will pay, at the
present expense. The only obstacle to present draining, to a
great extent, is the want of moneyed capital, with the ordinary
farmer to do it with; and when forehanded men, instead of invest-
ing their surplus gains in bonds, mortgages, and stocks, will apply
them to under draining their farms, where needed, the better
returns will they receive for the investment.
CHAPTER V.
MECHANICAL DIVISION OF SOILS.
SPADING.
After selecting a proper soil, and placing it in a suitable con-
dition, as to manuring, draining, etc., the next most important
consideration is the further preparation of the land for the recep-
tion of the seed. In small patches of highly cultivated land,
spading is resorted to for breaking up and pulverizing the ground
more effectually than can be done with the plow. This is the
case with many of the market gardens in the neighborhood of
our large cities, and with large portions of Holland, Flanders,
and other countries of Europe. It is even contended by many
highly intelhgent and practical farmers in Great Britain, where
labor is about half, and land and agricultural products nearly
twice the average price with us, that spade husbandry can be
adopted for general tillage crops with decided advantage to the
farmer. However this may be abroad, it is certain it cannot be
practiced in this country to any extent until some very remote
period. The flat tined fork is equal to or better than the spade.
PLOWINCr.
This is the most important of the mechanical operations of the
farm. The time, the depth and the manner of plowing must
depend on the crops to be raised, the fertility and character of
the soil, and other circumstances.
Plowing Clay Lands.— Whenever practicable, these should
be plowed in the fall for planting and sowing the ensuing spring.
The tenacity of the soil may thus be temporarily broken up by
102
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
the winter frosts, its particles more thoroughly separated, and the
whole mass reduced to a finer tilth than can possibly be effected
in any other manner. There is a still further and important
advantage from this practice, which ensues from the attraction
existing between the clay and those gases that are furnished from
the atmosphere, snow, rains and dews. In consequence of being
thus thrown up and coming in contact with them, it seizes upon
the ammonia, and carbonic and nitric acids which are in the air,
and holds them for the future use of the crops; while their great
affinity for manures effectually prevents the waste of such as are
in it.
The furrows of clay soils should be turned over so as to lap on
the preceding and lie at an angle of 45°; and for this purpose the
depth of the furrow slice should be about two-thirds its width.
Thus, a furrow six inches deep should be about nine inches wide,
or if eight inches deep, it should be twelve inches wide. This
will allow of the furrows lying regularly and evenly, and in the
proper position for the drainage of the soil, the free circulation of
air, and the most efficient action of frosts which in this way have
access to every side of them. Land thus thrown up is found to
be finely pulverized after the frosts leave it, and it is compara-
tively dry and ready for use some time earlier than such as is not
plowed till spring. For sowing, land plowed in this manner
requires no additional plowing, but it is better fitted for the recep-
tion of seed than it can be by any further operation, unless by a
slight harrowing if too rough. The different kinds of grain or
peas may be dibbled in, or sown directly upon the surface and
covered by the harrow ; and if sown very early, the grass and
clover seeds require no covering, but find their best position in
the slight depressions which are everywhere made by the frost,
and which the subsequent rains and winds fill up and cover suffi-
ciently to secure a certain growth. "When a field is intended for
planting, and is thus plowed in the preceding autumn, in some
instances, and especially when the soil is full of vegetable
manures, as from a rich green sward, a single furrow where the
MECHANICAL DIVISION OP SOILS. 103
seed is to be dropped, is all that is necessary to be plowed in the
spring. , ;j\ A
If the land has been previously cultivated, (not m sward,) and
is designed for planting, a stiff clay is sometimes ridged up by
turning a double furrow, one on each side, and so close as partially
to lap upon a narrow and unbroken surface, thus leaving the
greatest elevations and depressions which can conveniently be
made with the plow. The frost and air, by this means, have a
greater surface to act upon than is afforded by thorough plowing,
unless it be in a firm sod, which maintains its position without
crumbling. The advantage of a dry surface and early working
are equally secured by this latter method; and to prepare for
planting the furrows need only to be spht by running a plow
through their center, when they are ready for the reception of the
Plowing Sandy ok Dry Soils.— These require flat plow-
ing, which may be done when they are either quite wet or dry,
but never till wanted for use. By exposure to heat, rains and
atmospheric influences, the hght soluble manures are exhaled or
washed out, and they receive little compensation for this waste
in any corresponding fertility they derive from the atmosphere in
return. To insure flat plowing on an old sward, the depth of
the furrow should be about one-half its width, and the land or
ridges as wide as can conveniently be made, so as to preserve as
much uniformity of surface over the whole field as possible.
Depth of Plowing. — All cultivated plants are benefited by
a deep permeable soil, through which their roots can penetrate in
search of food; and as a thorough depth of soil is not fully equiv-
alent to its superficial extension, it is evident that there must be
a great increase of product from this cause. For general tillage
crops, the depth of soil may be gradually augmented to about
twelve inches, with decided advantage. Such as are appropriated
to gardens and horticultural purposes, may be deepened to fifteen
and even eighteen inches to the manifest profit of their occupants.
But whatever is the depth of the soil, the plow ought to turn up
104
AMEEICAN AGRICULTURE.
the entire mass, if within its reach, and what is beyond it should
be thoroughly broken up by the subsoil plow, and some of it
occasionally incorporated with that upon the surface. The sub-
soil ought not to be brought out of its bed exc6pt in small quan-
tities to be exposed to the atmosphere during the fall, winter and
spring, or in a summer fallow; nor even then, but with the
appHcation of such fertihzers as are necessary to put it at once
into a productive condition. The depth of the soil can aloi^e
determine the depth of plowing ; and when that is too shallow,
the gradual deepening of it should be sought by the use of
proper materials for improvement till the object is fully attained.
Two indifferent soils of opposite characters, as of a stiff clay
and sliding sand, sometimes occupy the relation of surface and
subsoil toward each other ; and when intimately mixed and sub-
jected to the meliorating influence of cultivation, they will
frequently produce a soil of great value.
Cross Plowing is seldom necessary except to break up tough
sward or tenacious soils ; and the former is more effectually sub-
dued by one thorough plowing in which the sod is so placed that
decomposition will rapidly ensue; and the latter is more certainly
pulverized by incorporating with it such vegetables, and long or
unfermented manures, and the hke, as will take the place of the
decaying sod. The presence of these in the soil lessens the labor
of cultivation, and greatly increases the products.
Subsoil Plowing. — This is a practice of comparatively recent
introduction, and it has been attended with signal benefit from
the increase and certainty of the crop. It is performed by sub-
soil plows made exclusively for this- purpose. The objects to be
accomphshed are to loosen the hard earth below the reach of the
ordinary plow, and permit the ready escape of the water which
falls upon the surface, the circulation of air, and a more ex-
tended range for the roots of the plants, by which they procure
additional nourishment, and secure the crop against drought, by
penetrating into the regions of perpetual moisture. When all
the circumstances are favorable to the use of the subsoil plow,
MECHANICAL DIVISION OF SOILS.
105
an increase in the crop of 20, 30, and sometimes even 50 per cent,
has been attributed to its operations. Its maximum influence on
stiff soils is reached only where under draining has been
thoroughly carried out. Its benefits have been more than
doubled when used in an impervious clay subsoil, where it makes
further room for storing up stagnant water ; and it is evident
they can only aggravate the faults of such subsoils as are natu-
rally too loose and leachy.
PLOWS AND OTHER FARM IMPLEMENTS.
There are plows for almost every situation and soil, in addition
to several varieties which are exclusively used for the subsoil.
Some are for heavy lands and some for light ; some for stony
soils, others for such as are full of roots ; while still another class
are expressly made for breaking up the hitherto untilled prairies
of the west. Some are adapted to deep, and some to shallow
plowing ; and some are for plowing around a hill and throwing
the furrows either up or down, or both ways alternately ; others
again throw the soil on both sides, and are used for plowing be-
tween the rows of corn or roots. Every farm should be supplied
with such plows as are entirely adapted to the different operations
required.
The farmer will find in the best agricultural warehouses, all
the implements necessary to his operations, with such descriptions
as will enable him to judge of their merits. Great attention has
been bestowed on this subject for several years by skillful and
intelligent persons, and great success has followed their efforts.
The United States may safely challenge the world to exhibit
better specimens of farming tools than she now furnishes, and
her course is still one of improvement. There are numerous
competitors for public favor in every description of farm imple-
ments ; and an intelligent farmer cannot fail to select such as are
best suited to his own situation and purposes.
The lest only should he used. There has been a penny wise
and pound foolish" policy adopted by many farmers in their
• 5^ ~
106
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
neglect or refusal to supply themselves with good tools to work
with. They thus save a few shillings in the first outlay, but
frequently lose ten times as much by the use of indifferent ones,
in the waste of labor and the inefficiency of their operations. A
farmer should estimate the value of his own and his laborer's
time as well as that of his teams, by dollars and cents ; and, if
it requires one-third, one-tenth, or even one-hundredth more of
either to accomplish a given object with one instrument than
with another, he should, before buying one of inferior quality,
carefully compute the amount his false economy in the purchase
will cost him before he has done with it. Poor men, or those
who wish to thrive, can ill afford the extravagance of buying
inferior tools at however low a price. The best are always the
cheapest ; not those of high or extravagant finish, or in any
respect unnecessarily costly ; but such as are plain and substan-
tial, made on the best principles and of the most durable materials.
To no tools do these remarks apply with so much force as to
plows. The improvements in these have been greater than in
any other instruments, the best saving fully one-half the labor
formerly bestowed in accomplishing the same work.
HARROWS.
The object of the harrow is threefold : to pulverize the land,
to cover the seed, and to extirpate weeds. Unless the land be
very light and sandy, the operation should never be performed
for either object, except when sufficiently dry to allow the crum-
bling down into a fine mellow surface iinder the action of the
harrow. There are several varieties of harrows : the triangular
and the square, both sometimes hinged and sometimes double ;
with long teeth and with short ones ; some thickly set together and
some far apart. For pulverizing firmly sodded or stiff clay lands, a
heavy, compact harrow is required, with strong teeth sufficiently
spread ; and for lighter lands, or for covering seed, the more ex-
panded harrow, with numerous, small and thickly set teeth. To
pulverize soil, the harrow should move as quickly as possible, so
MECHANICAL DIVISION OF SOILS. 107
as to strike the lumps forcibly, and knock them to pieces ; and
for this purpose an active team is required. "When the land
sinks much under the pressure of oxen or horses' feet, Hght ani-
mals as mules or ponies are preferable.
THE ROLLER,
Is an important implement for many fields. It is always use-
ful for pulverizing the soil, which it does by breaking down such
clods and lumps as escape the harrow, and thus renders the field
smooth for the scythe or cradle ; and it is equally so on meadows
which have become uneven from the influence of frost, ant-hills,
or other causes. It is serviceable in covering seed by pressing
the earth firmly around it, which thus secures moisture enough
for germination. But its greatest benefit is with such sandy soils
as are not sufficiently compact to hold the roots of plants firmly
and retain a suitable moisture. With these it is invaluable, and
the proper use of the roller has in some instances doubled the
product. Its effect is similar to that produced by the frequent
treading in a foot-path ; and the observing farmer will not have
failed to notice the single thread of thick greensward which marks
its course over an otherwise almost barren field of sand or loose
gravel. The thickly woven emerald net- work that indicates the
sheep-walks, on similar soils, is principally due to the same cause.
Rollers are variously constructed. The simplest form is a
single wooden shaft with gudgeons at each end, which rest in a
square frame made by fastening four joists together, a tongue for
drawing it being placed in one of its sides. A box may be at-
tached to this frame for the purpose of holding stones and weeds
picked up in the field, and for weighting the roller according to
the work required. A roller should not exceed eight or ten feet
in length, and should be divided in the middle and have an iron
axle pass through each part, upon which they revolve, taking
care to diminish the friction at the ends by a thick washer. The
larger the roller, the greater the surface brought into contact with
the ground, and the more level it leaves it, besides giving a much
108
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
easier draught to the team. To accomphsh this without too much
increase of weight, thej are frequently constructed with heads at
the ends and closely covered like a drum.
The best rollers, decidedly, are those made of cast iron segments,
each revolving independently on an iron shaft, six to eight feet in
length. The segments should be about a foot wide on the sur-
face, a washer between each two, and as many segments on the
shaft as will make a roller the desired length. The frame should
be of iron, also, and a wooden box may be fitted on to the top to
receive weights or collect stones fi-om the field, as may be required.
The tongue may be either of wood or iron. The segments may
be from twenty to thirty-six inches diameter, according to the
weight of roller needed. Such an implement will last almost
"forever." To those who always leave their tools out of doors,
it has an eminent advantage — it will not rot. But we house all
our own tools, whether wood or iron, alike. Rust does not
corrode, nor do thieves often break through and steal them.
THE CLOD CRUSHER.
This is a most admirable and usefiil invention. It has long
been used in Europe, and has lately been added to our American
farm implements. It is made in the same way as the last men-
tioned iron roller, only with the addition of spikes, or corrugated
sinuous teeth. It breaks the hard lumps of plowed ground for
the harrow which follows it, or it may be apphed to hide-bound
and mossy meadows, and pastures, loosening and breaking the
tough sward, and fitting it better to receive top dressings and
fresh seeds. It is eminently a labor saving tool, and no good
farmer should be without it. The large agricultural machinery
establishments of the country now usually supply them.
THE CULTIVATOR,
Has a light frame in the form of a triangular or wedge harrow,
with handles behind like those of a plow, and with several small
iron teeth in tlie frfiipp, spmewhat resembhpg a double share plow.
MECHANICAL DIVISION OF SOILS. iV^
They are of various sizes, slightly differing in construction, and
are of great utility in stirring the surface of the ground and do-
stroying weeds.
THE DBILL BAEROW,
Is useful for dibbling in seeds, and when the surface is mellow,
it will open the furrow for the reception of the seed, and drop,
cover and roll the earth firmly over it. The smaller ones are
trundled along like a wheelbarrow, by hand, and the larger, for
field planting, having several fixtures for drilling, are drawn by
horses. They are suited to the smaller seeds, and some have been
made to plant corn, beans and peas successfully.
SURFACE OB SHOVEL PLOWS SCARIFIERS.
These are a cheap, hght instrument, much used in England,
and to some extent in this country, for paring the stubble and
grass roots on the surfaces of old meadows. These are raked
together into heaps, and with whatever addition there may be of
earth or clay are burnt, and the ashes and roasted earth scattered
over the soil. There is an apparent objection to this practice in
the expulsion of the carbon and nitrogen stored up in the plants
and in the waste of the coarse material of the decaying vege-
tables, which is so useful in effecting the salutary mechanical
divisions of clay soils. But by a reference to what has been said
on the efaciency of burnt clay or broken brick, their great utility
as fertilizers will be seen. This and the ash of the plants remain,
and both are useful in quickening the action of soils and acceler-
ating those changes so beneficial to vegetation; and even the re-
absorption of the atmospheric gases, it is probable will more than
compensate for their equivalents expelled in burning. The effect
is farther salutary in destroying grubs, insects and their larvae,
and the seeds of noxious weeds.
THE WHEEL SPADER, OR TERRA-CULTOR.
This is a new digging implement recently invented, and in-
tended to spade or pick the ground, leaving it in a finely commi-
liO AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
nuted state, fit to receive the seed at once, with only the harrow
to follow and finish the work. "We have seen trials of several
of these machines. They worked well in light loams and level
ground, unobstructed by stones. But the power required for
working them is great. A double team, say two or more spans
of horses, are required, and the economy of their labor over plows
has not yet been satisfactorily tested. We trust that they may
yet be sufficiently perfected to come into every day use. It will
be a most perfect implement for preparing the soil for seed, if its
working can be brought within the draught of ordinary farm
teams.
The lighter hand tools, as hoes, shovels, spades, raKCS, hay,
manure and spading forks, and a multiplicity of other small tools,
are too commonly distributed and known to need particular
remark. Various new and, sometimes, improved patterns, are
constantly coming out to call the attention of the farmer and
gardener.
A single remark on these hand implements may suffice. Al-
ways get the hest to be had, and have enough of them. More
time is frequently lost for the want of a cheap famihar tool than
will twice pay the cost of it. No money is better expended on
the farm than in an ample provision of all the tools and imple-
ments necessary for its thorough cultivation, as well as hand
saving labor of any and every kind.
The grass mower, harvester and other implements for gather-
ing and securing the grass and grain crops, will be mentioned
upon treating of those important branches of our farm labor.
Indeed, under the old hand systems of manual labor in getting
in and harvesting our farm crops, their accomplishment, in present
quantities, would be impossible, and the end is not yet. Steam
plowing and cultivation, on our wide level lands, is yet to be
accomplished. How soon, we cannot say, but measured by past
inventions, the time, we trust, is not far distant. Gang-plows,
sulky-cultivators, etc., are among the trial implements almost every
year introduced, some of which have been quite successful.
CHAPTER VI.
THE GEASSES, CLOYEKS, MEADOWS AND PASTUEES.
The order designated by naturalists as Gramince^ is one of the
largest and most universally diffused in the vegetable kingdom.
It is also the most important to man and to all the different tribes
of graminiverous animals. It includes not only what are usually
cultivated as grasses, but also rice, millet, wheat, rye, barley, oats,
maize, sugar cane, broom corn, the wild cane and the bamboos
sometimes reaching sixty feet in height. They are universally
characterized as having a cylindrical stem, hollow, or sometimes,
as in the sugar cane and bamboos, filled with a pithlike substance,
with sohd joints, and alternate leaves originating at each joint,
surrounding the stem at their base and forming a sheath upwards
of greater or less extent, and the flowers and seed are protected
with a firm, ^trawlike covering, which is the chaff in the grain and
grass seeds, and the husk in Indian corn. They yield large propor-
tions of sugar, starch and fatty matter, besides those pecuharly
animal products, albumen and fibrin e, not only in the seeds, but
also and especially before the latter are fully matured, in the
stems, joints and leaves. These qualities give to them the great
value which they possess in agriculture.
Of the grasses cultivated for the use of animals in England,
there are said to be no less than two hundred varieties, while in
the occupied portion of this country, embracing an indefinitely
greater variety of latitude, climate and situation, we hardly cul-
tivate twenty. The number and excellence of our natural grasses
are probably unsurpassed in any quarter of the globe, for a sim-
ilar extent of country; but this is a department of our natural
112 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
history liitherto but partially explored, and we are left mostly to
conjecture as to their number and comparative quality. From
the health and thrift of the wild animals, the buffalo, deer, etc.,
as well as the rapid growth and fine condition of our domestic
animals when permitted to range over the prairies, or through the
natural marshes and woods in every season of the year, even
during the severe and protracted winters in latitude 44° north,*
the superior richness and enduringness of our natural grasses may
be inferred. We shall Hmit ourselves mostly to those which
have been introduced and successfully cultivated in this country.
Timothy, Cat's-tail or Herds-grass, {Phleum pratense,) —
We are inchned to place the timothy first in the hst of the
grasses. It is indigenous to this country, and flourishes in all
soils except such as are wet, too hght, dry or sandy, and is found
in perfection on the rich clays and clay loams which he between
40° and 44° north latitude. It is a perennial, easy of cultiva-
tion, hardy and of luxuriant growth, and on its favorite soil,
yields from one and a-half to two tons of hay per acre at one
cutting. Sinclair estimates its value for hay, when in seed, to be
double that cut in flowers. From its increased value when ripe
it is cut late, and in consequence of the exhaustion from maturing
its seed, it produces but httle aftermath or rowen. ♦It vegetates
early in the spring, and when pastured, yields abundantly
throughout the season. Both the grass and hay are highly rel-
ished by cattle, sheep and horses ; and its nutritive quality, in
* The writer has seen large droves of the French and Indian ponies come into the
settlements about Green Bay and the Fox river, in Wisconsin, in the spring, in good
working condition, after wintering on the natural grasses of that region. The pony
grass may perhaps be mentioned as one of the principal of the winter grasses in that
region. It grows in close, thick, elevated tufts, and continues green all winter, and
is easily detected by animals under the snow, by the little hummocks which every-
where indent its surface. The wild rice which lines the still, shallow waters of the
streams and small inland lakes of many of the Western States, affords nutritious
forage when green or if early cut and dried ; and the grain which is produced in
great profusion is an exhaustless store to the Indians who push into the thickest of
It, and bending over the ripe heads, with two or three strokes of the paddle on the
dry stalks, rattle the grain into their light canoes. The wild ducks, geese and swans
which yet frequent those waters, fatten on this grain throughout the fall and winter.
THE GRASSES, ETC.
113
the opiuijnof practical men, stands decidedly before any other.
It is also a valuable crop for seed, an acre of prime grass yield-
ing from fifteen to twenty-five bushels of clean seed, which is
usually worth in the market from $2 to $4 per bushel, and the
stalks and chaff that remain make a useful fodder for most lands
of stock. It may be sown on wheat or rye in August or Sep-
tember, or in the spring. When sown alone or with other grasses
early in the season on a rich soil, it will produce a good crop the
same year. From its late ripening it is not advantageously
mixed with clover imless upon heavy clays which hold back the
clover. We have tried it with the northern or mammoth clover
on clay, and found the latter, though mostly in full blossom, still
pushing out new branches and buds when the former was fit to
cut. The quantity of seed required per acre depends something
on the soil and its condition. Eight quarts on a fine mellow tilth
is sufficient, and is equal to sixteen on a stiff clay.
The Tall Fescue, {Festuca elatior,) would appear by the
Woburn experiments to yield more nutritive matter per acre
when cut in flower than any other grass, cut either in flower or
seed. This is a native of the United States, and is best suited
to a rich loam. It is not extensively cultivated in this country.
Meadow Fescue, [Festuca pratensis,) hkes a boggy soil, bears
well and produces an early grass, much relished by cattle, either
green or cured as hay.
Spiked Fescue, {F, loleaceaj) is adapted to a rich loam, and
produces the best of hay and pasture.
The Purple Fescue, {F. rubra;) Sheep's Fescue, (F ovina;)
The Hard Fescue, (F. duriuscula;) and The Floating Fes-
cue, [Ffluitans;) are all indigenous to this country, and good
pasture grasses.
Orchard or Cock's-foot G-rass, {Dactylis glomerata,) is
indigenous, and for good arable soils, and especially for such as
are shaded, it is one of the most profitable grasses grown. It
should be cut for hay before it is ripe, as in seeding it becomes
coarse and hard and is less acceptable to cattle. It is ready for
114 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
the scythe with the clover, and after cutting, it immediately
springs up and furnishes several crops of hay or constant pastur-
age throughout the season. It should be fed closely to secure a
tender, succulent herbage. The seed is remarkably hght, weigh-
mg only twelve or fifteen pounds per bushel. Twenty to thirty
pounds are usually sown upon one acre; yet ten pounds on finely
prepared soils have been known to produce a good sod over the
entire ground. It flourishes from Maine to Georgia. Its indi-
gnation to grow in stools or tussocks, however, is an objection, as a
meadow grass.
Smooth-stalked, Meadow, Green, Spear or June Grass,
the (erroneously called) Blue Grass of Kentucky, {Poa pra-
tensis,) is highly esteemed for hay and pasture. It is indigenous
and abounds through the country, and is seen in its highest perfec-
tion in strong hmestone soils, and particularly in the valleys of the
streams west of the Allegany mountains, where it is seen in all
its glory. The seed ripens in June and falls upon the ground,
where the succeeding rains give it vitahty and it pushes out its
long, rich slender leaves, one to two feet in height, which in
autumn fall over in thick windrows, matting the whole surface
with luscious herbage. Upon these fields, which have been care-
fully protected tiU the other forage is exhausted, the cattle are
turned and fatten through the winter. It maintains its freshness
and nutritive properties in spite of frost, and the cattle easily
reach it through the hght snows which fall upon it. A warm,
dry, calcareous soil, seems to be its natural element, and it flour-
ishes only in a rich upland.
Flat-stalked Meadow or Blue Grass, {Poa compressa,)
is an early dwarfish grass, which abounds in the Middle and
Northern States. It is tenacious of its foothold wherever it
intrudes. It possesses httle merit as hay, but is valuable for
pasture, affording as it does a close covering to the ground and
yielding much in a small compass.
The Roughish Meadow Grass, {Poa trivialis,) has much the
appearance of the poa pratensis, but its stalk feels rough to the
THE GRASSES, ETC.
115
touch while the other is smooth. It has the further dijBference of
preferring moist or wet loams or clay. It yields well and affords
good hay and pasture.
Tall Oat Grass, {Avena elatior,) is an early luxuriant grass,
growing to the height sometimes of five feet. It makes good
hay, but is better suited to pasture. It flourishes in a loam or
clay soil.
Meadow Fox-tail, (Alopecurus pratensis^) is a highly
esteemed grass in England, both for meadows and pastures. It
grows early and abundantly, and gives a large c[uantity of after-
math. It is best suited to a moist soil, bog, clay, or loam. It is
indigenous to the Middle States.
Perennial Rye Grass, [LoUum perenne,) and Biennial
AND Italian ditto, are all grasses highly esteemed in Europe,
but repeated trials in this country have given no satisfactory
results. They yield indifferently with us, and easily winter kill.
Careful cultivation under favorable circumstances, may yet accli-
mate and render them useful grasses.
FiORiN Grass, {Agrostis stolonifera^) has been much lauded
in England of late, but has made httle progress in the estimation
of American farmers, and probably with sufficient reason. It is
a diminutive grass, affording considerable nutriment in a con-
densed form, and is adapted to a winter pasture. It grows on a
moist clay or boggy soil. §everal of the florin family abound in
this country, among which is the squitch, couch or quick grass.
The sweet scented Vernal Grass, [Anthoxanthum odora-
turn,) is an early, valuable pasture grass, which exhales that
dehghtful perfume, so characteristic of much of the Eastern
meadow hay. It is a late as well as early grass, and luxuriates
in a dry, sandy loam. It affords two and sometimes three crops
in a single season.
Red Top, Herds-grass, Foul Meadow, or Fine Bent,
{Agrostis vulgaris,) is a hardy, luxuriant grass, loving a very
moist soil, and somewhat indifierent as to its texture. It grows
luxuriantly under favorable circumstances, and is much rehshed
116
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
bj cattle ; but by observing farmers it is seldom cultivated where
the better grasses will grow. It makes excellent stock hay.
Upright Bent Grass, Herds grass or Foul Meadow,
(^Agrostis stricta,) is similar to the foregoing, and by some is
deemed only a variety.
American or Swamp Cock's-foot, {^Dactylis cynosuroides^)
is an indigenous swamp grass, yielding a large amount of grass
or hay of inferior quality.
E.IBBON GnASQj (Phalaris Arundinacia)is the beautiful striped
, grass occasionally used for garden borders. It has been highly
recommended for swamps, where it is alleged that by trans-
planting, it supercedes all other grasses, and affords a fine quality
of hay, of an appearance quite different from the upland growth.
The writer tried several experiments both with the seed and
roots, on a clay marsh without success. Its proper pabulum is
probably a carbonaceous soil, such as is found in an alluvial
swamp or peat bed.
Gam A Grass, [Tripsacum dactyloides,) is found growing spon-
taneously on a naked sand beach in Stratford, Ct., and in other
places on our Eastern coasts. It has occasionally been much
lauded, but is a coarse, rough grass at the North, and seems not
to be highly prized at the South. We have the opinion of some
intelligent men in the latter section, that it is utterly worthless
for any stock.
Bermuda Grass. — This is considered by Mr. Spalding, of
Georgia, who examined them both critically from specimens
which he raised together, as the Douh grass of India^ so much
commended by Sir William Jones, and so highly prized by the
Brahmins. It is by the agriculturists of the South deemed an
invaluable grass, yielding four or five tong per acre on good
meadow. Mr. Affleck, of Mississippi, states the yield of three
cuttings at "five to eight tons per acre on common meadow, that
it loses just 50 per cent, of its weight in drying, and is conse-
quently the hardest grass to cut. It is the most nutritive grass
known, and to the river planter it is invaluable. There is not a
THE GRASSES, ETC.
117
levee on the banks of the Mississippi which could resist for an
hour the pressure and attrition of its fearful flood but for their
being bound together with this grass." It loves a warm and
moist, but not wet soil.
Grama {''la grama,'' or the "grass of grasses,") is held in the
highest estimation by the Mexicans. It attains a medium height,
and is deemed the most nutritious of the natural grasses in our
south-western frontier prairies, in Cahfornia and parts of Mexico.
It grows on dry, hard, gravelly soils, on side hills, the swells of
the prairies, and the gentle elevations in the valleys. The prin-
cipal value is found in the numerous seeds, which are retained in
the pods with great tenacity long after they are ripe, serving as
a luxurious food for all the granivorous beasts and fowls of the
western region.*
The Buffalo Grass is found intermixed with the grama,
and seldom grows more than a few inches in height. It forms a
thick, soft herbage, on which the traveler walks with ease, and
reposes when weary, with dehght. It yields a rich sustenance
to countless herds of wild cattle, buffaloes, deer, antelopes, etc.
This is the great grass of the buffalo ranges of the wide North-
western plains, and will prove of immense value to the extensive
herds of cattle which in the future are to graze those immense
regions of countrv.
There are various other grasses and leguminous plants in our
Southern Gulf States, little known as yet, or recently brought to
notice, which may prove valuable either in cultivation, or in their
natural condition, as found on the wide savannas which spread
over the wide ranges of that hitherto but partially explored region.
Among these are the
Mesquit, a popular name, known in Texas, and apphed to a
variety of grasses, described by Rev. C. "W. Howard, in the Pat-
ent Office Report for 1860. These are considered highly valua-
ble as grazing forage, and hay. They are described as soft, wavy,
and succulent.
* This name is applied to a variety of grasses, of different species, and even of dif-
ferent genera.
118
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
The Prairie Grasses are found abundantly in the western
prairies and afford large supplies of nutritious food, both as pas-
turage and hay. As a general rule, however, they are coarse,
and easily injured by the early frosts of autumn. Some of the
leguminosse, or wild pea vines, which are frequently found
among them, yield the richest herbage. We are not aware that
any of these grasses have been cultivated with success.
TussAC Grass, {Dactylis cespitosa^) is a luxuriant salt marsh
grass, growing in large tufts, and is found in perfection on its
native soil, the Falkland Islands, between 51° and 52° south,
and about 8° east of the straits of Magellan. Captain Ross
describes it as "the gold and glory of those islands. Every
animal feeds upon it with avidity, and fattens in a short time.
The blades are about six feet long and from two hundred to three
hundred shoots spring from a single plant. About four inches
of the root eats like the mountain cabbage. It loves a rank,
wet, peat bog, with the sea spray over it." Governor Hood, of
those islands, says, "to cultivate the tussac, I would recommend
that the seed be sown in patches, just below the surface of the
ground, and at distances of about two feet apart, and afterwards
weeded out, as it grows very luxuriantly, and to the height of
six or seven feet. It should not be grazed, but reaped or cut in
bundles. If cut, it quickly shoots up; but is injured by grazing,
particularly by pigs, who tear it up to get at the sweet nutty
root."
Arundo Grass, {^Arundo alopecurus.) — Mr. Hooker, from the
same islands, says, "another grass, however, far more abundant
and universally distributed over the whole country, scarcely
yields in its nutritious qualities to the tussac ; I m.ean the Arundo
Alopecurus, which covers every peat bog with a dense and rich
clothing of green in summer, and a pale yellow, good hay in the
winter season. This hay, though formed by nature without
being mown and dried, keeps those cattle which have not access
to the former grass, in excellent condition. No bog, however
rank, seems too bad for this plant to luxuriate in ; and as we
THE GRASSES, ETC.
119
remarked during our survey of Port "William, although the soil
on the quartz districts was very unprolific in many good grasses
which flourish on the clay slate, and generally speaking, of the
worst description, still the Arundo did not appear to feel the
change; nor did the cattle fail to eat down large tracts of this
pasturage."
We have purposely devoted some space to the description of
such new grasses as are indigenous to this continent, and which
by their superior value in their native localities would seem to
commend themselves to a thorough trial in similar situations
elsewhere. There are doubtless others of great merit, which
experiment hereafter, wiU demonstrate to be of singular benefit
to the American farmer. The subject of grasses has been but
slightly investigated in this country in comparison with their
immense importance ; and for this reason, with few exceptions,
we are at a loss for the true value of the foreign and indigenous
grasses to American husbandry.
As an instance of the want of a well established character to
some of our cultivated grasses, we quote the opinions of Dr.
Muhlenburgh, of Pennsylvania, who has written ably on the
subject, and the late John Taylor, a distinguished agriculturist
of Virginia, both of whom place the tall oat grass (^Avena elatior,)
at the head of the grasses; yet from the investigations made at
Wobum, it appears among the poorest in the amount of nutritive
matter yielded per acre. Dr. Darlington, also of Pennsylvania,
does not mention it, but gives the following as comprehending
"those species which are considered of chief value in our
meadows and pastures, naming them in what we consider the
order of their excellence. 1. Meadow or green grass, [Poapra-
tensis.) 2. Timothy, (^Phleum pratense.) 3. Orchard grass,
(^Dactylis glomerata.) 4. Meadow fescue, {^Festuca pratensis.)
5. Blue grass, (Poa compressa.) 6. Eay grass, (LoUum perenne.)
7. Red top, (^Agrostis vulgaris,) 8. Sweet scented vernal grass,
[Anthoxanthum odoratum")
120
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
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02 is more precocious than any other, is said to yield a heavy har-
vest, and to constitute the principal food for the people of that
populous region. But it has succeeded no better in Europe than
any other kind of rice.
'^The best rice lands of South Carolina are valued at five
hundred dollars per acre, while the best cotton lands sell for a
tenth part of that sum, proving that rice is more profitable than
cotton. The profits of a crop should not so much be estipaated
by the yield per acre, as the number of acres a laborer can till.
GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION.
177
After the land is properly prepared for inundation, by leveling,
ditching, and embankments, a single individual can grow almost
an indefinite quantity of rice. Eice is no doubt ultimately
destined to supercede cotton in a large portion of Mississippi
and Louisiana." Under the now changed and free system of
labor in the South, this fact may be somewhat problematical.
But things will all find their level, and after a time, we trust,
resume a substantial, well compensated, and happier disposition
of labor than ever before.
MILLET, (PANICUM MILLIACEUM.)
In its growth and the manner of bearing its seeds, the millet
strongly resembles a miniature broom corn. It grows to the
height of two and a half to four feet, with a profusion of stalks
and leaves which furnish excellent forage for cattle. From
eighty to a hundred bushels of seed per acre have been raised,
and with straw equivalent to one and a half or two tons of hay,
but an average crop may be estimated at about one-third this
quantity. Owing to the great waste during the ripening of the
seed, from the shelling of the earliest of it before the last is
matured, and the frequent depredations of birds which are very
fond of it, millet is more profitably cut when the first seeds have
begun to ripen, and harvested for fodder. It is cured like hay,
and on good land yields from two and a half to four tons per
acre. All cattle relish it, and experience has shown it to be fully
equal to good hay.
Cultivation. — Millet requires a dry, rich, and well pulverized
soil. It will grow on thin soil, but best repays on the most fer-
tile. It should be sown broadcast or in drills, from the first of
May to the first of July. If for hay, and sown broadcast, forty
quarts per acre will be required ; if sown in drills for the grain,
eight quarts of seed will suffice. It will ripen in sixty to
seventy-five days, with favorable weather. When designed for
fodder, the nearer it can approach to ripening, without waste in
harvesting, the more valuable will be the crop.
8^
178
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
BUCKWHEAT OR BEECHWHEAT, (POLYGONUM FAGOPYRUM,)
Is a grain much cultivated in this country. It grows freely on
light soils, but yields a remunerating crop only on those which
are fertile. Fresh manure is injurious to this grain. Sandy loams
are its favorite soils, especially such as have lain long in pasture,
and these should be well plowed and harrowed.- It may be sown
from the first of May to the tenth of August, but in the Northern
States this ought to be done as early as June or July, or it may
be injured by early frosts, which are fatal to it. It is sown broad-
cast at the rate of two to four pecks per acre, and harvested when
the earliest seed is fully ripe. The plant often continues flower-
ing after this, and when the early seed is blighted, as is often the
case, the plant may be left till these last have matured. As it is
liable to heat, it should be placed in little stoohs, of the size of a
two bushel basket, over the field, and as soon as dry, taken in
and threshed out. If not perfectly dry, the straw may be stacked
with layers of other straw, and when well cured, it will be a valu-
able fodder for cattle. Sheep and young horses will feed and
thrive as well on this straw as on ordinary hay.
Uses. — This grain is ground and bolted, and the flour is much
used for human consumption. Before grinding, the hull or outer
covering is removed, and when thus prepared, the flour is as
white and delicate in appearance as the best rye. It is equally
light and digestible, and is scarcely inferior to wheat in its nutri-
tive properties. The grain is used for fattening swine, but is
most profitable when mixed with corn. Poultry thrive upon it.
Buckwheat was formerly employed as a fertihzer, but for this
object it is inferior to the clovers in all cases where the soil is
capable of sustaining them. Its rapid growth will insure the
maturing and turning under of two crops in one season. There
are other varieties than the one specified, but none of equal value
for general cultivation in this country.
CHAPTER VIII
LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.
THE PEA, (PISUM SATIVUM.)
The pea, bean, tare, vetch, lupine, the clovers, etc., are all
embraced in the botanical order Leguminosce. The pea is valua-
ble for cultivation not only for the table, but for many of the
domestic animals. It is much fed to swine, sheep and poultry.
For the former, it should be soaked, boiled or ground. If land
is adapted to it, few crops can be more profitably raised for their
use. They ripen early, and when beginning to harden they may
be fed with the vines, and the animals will masticate the whole
and soon fatten.
The Soil. — The heaviest clays will bear good peas, but a
calcareous or wheat soil is better. Strong lands produce the best
crops, but these should be made so by manures previously applied,
as the addition of such as are fresh increases the growth of haulm
or straw, and sometimes diminishes both the quantity and quality
of the pea. When sown on a thin sward, the manure should be
spread before plowing. A dressing of well rotted manure increases
the crop, and is a good preparation when intended to be followed
by wheat.
Varieties. — Of these there are many. The earlier kinds are
generally indifferent bearers, and their cultivation is limited almost
exclusively to the garden. Of those for field culture, the marrow-
fat are preferred for good lands, and are a rich pea. The small
yellow are perhaps the best for poorer soils. There is a very
prolific hush pea grown in Georgia, bearing pods six or seven
180
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
inches long, which hang in clusters on a short, upright stem.
The pods are filled with a white pea, which is highly esteemed
for the table either green or dry. In that latitude they bear two
or three crops in one season.
Cultivation. — Peas should have a clean fallow, or fresh, rich
sod, well harrowed. They are not affected by frosts, and may be
sown as soon as the ground is dry. This will enable them to
ripen in season to plow for wheat. They are very liable to attack
from the pea bug, which deposits its egg in the pea while in its
green state, where it hatches, and the worm by feeding on the
pea, diminishes its weight nearly one-half. Here it remains
throijgh the winter and comes out as a bug the following season.
To avoid this pest, some sow only such seed as has been kept
over two years, while others sow as late as the fifteenth or twenty-
fifth of May, which delays the pea till after the period of its attacks,
but this latter practice seldom gives a large crop. It may be
killed by pouring boiling water upon the seed, stirring for a few
minutes, and then draining it off. Peas are sometimes sown in
drills, but most usually broadcast, at the rate of two or three
bushels per acre. It is better to plow them in to the depth of
three inches and afterwards to roll the ground smooth to facihtate
gathering. When sown in drills they may be worked by the cul-
tivator soon afi;er coming up. The growth is promoted by steep-
ing the seed for^twenty or thirty hours in urine, and then rolling
it in ashes or plaster.
Harvesting is accomplished by cutting with the scythe, or
what is more expeditious, (wnen fully ripe, so that the roots pull
out easily,) with the horse rake. "When thus gathered into heaps
and well dried, they may be threshed out and the haulm care-
fully stacked and saved for sheep fodder. If this is secured in
good condition, cattle and sheep will do well upon it. Peas are fi'e-
quently sown with oats, and when thus grown they are fed to
sheep unground, or made into meal for swine.
The Cow Pea. — This is grown in the Southern States, and
is valuable either as a fertilizer or as food for domestic animals.
LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.
181
Its long vines and succulent leaves, which draw much of their
substance from the air, and its rapid and luxuriant growth, par-
ticularly adapt it to the first object, while its numerous and well
filled pods, and its great redundancy of stem and leaf, afford large
stores of forage. This is improved for cattle when harvested be-
fore the seed is fully ripe. It ' is sown broadcast, in drills, or
hoed in among corn, when the latter is well advanced. If in
drills, it may be cultivated in its early stages by the plow, shovel-
harrow or cultivator. It may be cut with the scythe or drawn
together with a heavy iron-toothed harrow, or horse rake, as
with the common pea. It requires a dry, medium soil, and is
well suited to clays.
THE BEAN, (PHASEOLUS VULGARIS.)
The bean is often a field crop in this country, and especially in
the Northern and Middle States. It is principally used either
green or dry for the table. It is a palatable and highly con-
densed food, containing much in a small compass. In proportion
to' its weight, it gives more nutriment than any of the ordinary
vegetables ; according to Einhof, yielding 84 per cent, of nutri-
tive matter, while wheat gives only 74. It has, in common with
the pea, vetch, etc., though in a greater proportion, a pecuhar
principle termed legumin, which is analagous to casein, the ani-
mal principle in milk, which is convertible into cheese, and in its
nutritive properties it is essentially the same as ihejihrin of lean
meat, the albumen of eggs, and other animal matter. There is
no vegetable we produce so fitted to supply the place of animal
food as the bean.
Soil. — The bean is partial to a quick, dry soil, too great
strength or fresh manuring giving a large quantity of vine with-
out a corresponding quantity of fruit.
Cultivation. — The land should be finely pulverized, and if
at all inclined to wet it should be ridged. Beans are tender plants
and will not bear the slightest frost, and, as they grow rapidly,
they will be sure to ripen if planted when this is no longer to be
182
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
apprehended. The seed is exposed to rot if put into the ground
in a cold, wet time, and the land should, therefore, be previously
well warmed by the sun. The bush beans are the only kind
used for field planting, and of these there are several sub-varie-
ties. The long garden pole beans, white, red or mottled, are
great bearers, of fine quality and early maturing, but the Lima
bean, although later, is the richest and best of all for table use.
Early ripening, with field beans, is important, when other crops
are to succeed the same season. They are usually planted in
hills about two feet apart, and also in drills covered two inches
with fine earth. They have been sown broadcast, on clean dry
soils, and produced largely. When planted in hills, from four to
six plants should be left in each, according to their proximity,
or if in drills they need about one and a half bushels of seed to
the acre.
Harvesting. — ^When the beans are fully formed and there is
any danger of frost, they should be at once secured, but this
scarcely affects them when they are gathered and thrown into
heaps. If the ground is not wanted for other uses, they may
stand until the latest pods assume a yellow color. They are
pulled with ease when the plant is mature, as the fibres of the
roots are by that time dead. This is more quickly accompHshed
with an iron hook rake, or if the stalks are partially green they
can be mown. The vines, if not dry, should remain for a while
in small heaps, and afterwards collected in larger piles around
stakes set at convenient distances, with the roots in the center
and secured at the top by a wisp of straw ; and when well dried
they should be threshed, cleaned and spread till quite free from
dampness. The straw or haulm is an excellent fodder for sheep
and should be stacked for their use. Beans are one of the best
kinds of winter food for sheep when fed in small quantities.
Forty bushels have been raised on an acre, and worth from $1
to $3 per bushel. Twenty to thirty bushels per acre is the usual
crop. Sheep are the only animals which will eat them raw, but
swine, cattle and poultry will thrive on them boiled.
LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.
183
There are three varieties of field, or bush bean usually cultiva-
ted in the United States. The small white is most commonly
grown. It is the most prohfic, bearing the closest culture, and
the best for shipping purposes, being very hard, solid, and keeps
longest on sea voyages. The kidney^ or long white, is much
larger and of better edible quality, requiring a longer time to
mature, with a ranker growth ; and the marrow^ with a large
round kernel, and of equally good edible quahty as the kidney,
requiring the same time to mature. These two last are usually
worth full 25 per cent, more in the market than the small white,
on account of their superior excellence for table use.
THE ENGLISH FIELD BEAN, (viCIA FABA,)
Is cultivated under many varieties in Europe, and particularly
in Great Britain, as a field crop for the use of horses and other
animals. Among these are the Windsor, the thick, the long pods,
and others, Arthur Young prefers ^* the common little horse
bean as being more generally marketable." We have tried sev-
eral of these varieties, and, although entirely successful, have
found them less adapted to our climate and agriculture than the
ordinary crops. They prefer strong clay or loam clay soils.
They cannot be profitably grown in America, the climate being
too hot and dry for them.
THE TARE, VETCH OR FITCH, (viCIA SATIRA,)
Is an important field crop in Europe for its stem and leaves as
animal food. It is hardy and productive, and considered valu-
able for green fodder or soiling. There are two kinds, the win
ter and spring. It is partial to a clay, but grows indifferently on
any rich soil which is not too dry. It is sown broadcast or in
drills, but generally the former, on well pulverized lands, and
covered with the harrow, demanding no after attention but the
extermination of weeds. They are most useful for soiling, but
may be fed on the ground or cut for hay. Tares have, hitherto,
been little grown in this country, but in certain soils and situa-
184
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
tions they may be introduced as a substitute for clover, where,
from any cause, the latter does not grow successfully. All
domestic stock are fond of them. As yet, tares have had Httle
success here, owing, probably, to our dry and hot summers.
THE PINDA OR GROUND PEANUT, (aRACHIS HYPOGJEA.) *
This is a legumen, and is cultivated with profit in the South-
ern States, on Hght sandy lands, where it yields from twenty to
even fifty bushels per acre, besides furnishing much haulm for
forage. It is sown in drills four or five feet apart, and worked
with a light plow or cultivator immedietely after the plants show
themselves above ground. They soon overspread the whole sur-
face, like a bushy running pea. It has a yellowish pea-like blos-
som. The small pod, contained in the blossom, strikes downward
into the soil, and ripens its seed beneath the surface.
When properly matured, the pods are loosened by a fork and
pulled up by hand, and after curing are put under cover for
winter's use. They contain a large quantity of oil, but in other
respects, closely resemble the common pea and bean in their
nutritive quahties. They are in high repute for their fattening
qualities.
CHAPTEE IX
EOOTS AND ESCULENT TUBERS.
THE POTATO, (SOLANUM TUBEROSUM.)
The potato is a native of the American Continent. It is found
in a wild state both ia Buenos Ayres and Chih, and was probably
discovered in the same condition by the early settlers of North
America. It was supposed to have been taken into Spain and
Italy early in the sixteenth century, by Spanish adventurers, as
it was cultivated in those countries in 1550. In 1588 it was
introduced into Vienna from Italy, and also into England proba-
bly as early as 1586, by the colonists of Virginia who were sent
out by Sir Walter Kaleigh. It was regarded in Europe at first
as a dehcacy ; but not mitil within a comparatively recent period
has it found its way in both continents, as an article of agricul-
tural attention, and an almost indispensable food for man and
beast. As an illustration of the neglect of the potato in this coun-
try as a field crop, the writer may mention that he once knew an
extensive eastern farmer, who, late in the last century had raised
in one year seven bushels of potatoes. After disposing of all
that was wanted for his own and his neighbors' consumption, he
had still a surplus left. A farmer on the same premises at the
present day, would deem seven hundred bushels a short crop.
Varieties. — These are almost illimitable. They differ in form
from round to oblong, are flat and curved, or kidney-shaped; they
vary in size from the delicate lady-finger to the gigantic blue-
nose ; their exterior is rough or pohshed, and of almost every
hue, white, yellow, red, and almost black; and the surface is
186
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
smooth and even, with the eye scarcely discernible, or deeply
indented with innumerable sunken eyes like the rohan and merino.
The interior is equally diversified in color, and is mealy, glutinous
or watery, and sometimes pleasant, and sometimes disagreeable
to the taste. They hkewise differ in ripening earher or later, and
in being adapted in some of their varieties to almost every pecul-
iarity of soil. New kinds are produced at pleasure, by planting
the seed found in the balls. The tubers obtained in this way will
be small the first season, but with careful culture will be large
enough the second year to determine their quality, when the best
may be selected for propagation. The earhest are easily desig-
nated by the premature decay of the tops. The varieties may
also be increased from the seed by hybridizing, or impregnating
the pistils of one flower by the pollen taken from the flower of
another, and in this way some of the best and most valuable kinds
have been procured. Such as have no flowers are more produc-
tive of tubers, as there is no expenditure of vitality in forming the
seed. They may be compelled to flower by removing the small
tubers from the stalks as they form.
The best Soil for potatoes is a rich loam, neither too wet or
too dry ; but such as are cool and moist, as those of Maine, Nova
Scotia and Ireland, especially if in rich, fresh sod, give the best
flavored potatoes, and are the least Hable to disease. A calca-
reous soil yields a good potato, and generally a sure crop, and
when there is little hme in the soil, it should be added. Salt,
ashes and gypsum are excellent manures, and, in certain instances,
have astonishingly increased the product. Crushed bones also
greatly improve a potato soil. Fresh manures will often unpleas-
antly affect the taste of the potato, and when necessary to apply
it, should be scattered broadcast and plowed in.
The Seed chosen should be such as experience has decided is
best adapted to the soil and the use for which they are to be
appropriated. Some are careful to select the most mealy for the
table, and plant those which give the greatest yield for their cattle.
This is mistaken policy, as what are best for man, are generally
ROOTS.
best for cattle; and although the farmer may get a much greater
weight and bulk on a given quantity of land of one kind, it may
still be inferior in fat and flesh-forming materials to those afforded
by a smaller quantity. Thus of three varieties grown in Scot-
land in 1842, tlfe cups gave 13M tons per acre, containing 2ft
tons of starch; the red dons yielded UK tons and 1ft of starch;
the white dons, IS}£ tons and 2ft of starch, and the kidney has
even given as much as thirty-two per cent, of starch,— Johnston,
There is also a difference in the relative proportions of gluten.
Of this last, the potato contains in its new and ripe state, about
two and one-fourth per cent., which diminishes by long keeping.
It is important in this as in an infinite number of other practical
matters in the economy of agriculture, to have agricultural labora-
tories of unquestionable rehability, where the errors of superficial
observation maybe detected, and where the real superiority of
one product over another, and their variations induced by soils,
manures and treatment, maybe estabhshed beyond the possibihty
of a doubt.
Planting. — ^To produce abundantly, potatoes require a fer-
tile soil, and if not already sufaciently rich, manure should be
spread on the surface before plowing. If a tough sod, it should
be plowed the preceding fall, or if friable, it may be done just
before planting; but in all cases the land should be put in such
condition as to be perfectly loose and mellow. Hills are the most
convenient for tillage, as they admit of more thorough stirring of
the ground with the cultivator or plow. Medium size, split pota-
toes have been ascertained from numerous experiments to be the
best for planting, and when seed is scarce, it is sometimes econom-
ical to quarter them. Six or seven eyes should be placed in
each hill, or if in drills, the pieces should be planted ten inches
apart. The distance both of hills and drills must depend on the
strength of the soil and the size of the tops, some varieties grow-
ing much larger than others. Cover with fight mold to the
depth of four inches, and if the soil be light, leave the ground per-
fectly level ; if cold, heavy or moist, let the hill, or drill be raised
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AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
when finished. Subsoil plowing is a great help to potatoes. The
sets cut from, the seed end give a much earher crop than those from
the root.
Cultivation. — When the plants first appear above the ground,
run the plow through them, and throw the earth over them two
or three inches, and no injury results if the tops are partially or
even entirely covered. The hoe is scarcely required, except to
destroy such weeds as may have escaped the plow. The ground
should be several times stirred before the tops interfere with the
operation, but never after they come into blossom. Enormous
crops have been procured by top dressing with compost earth,
well rotted chip manure, etc., soon after the plants make their
appearance; this is carried to the field and spread from a hght,
one-horse cart, the wheels passing between the rows; but such
results are due to the nicest cultivation, and they would be equally
attained by placing the land in the best condition before planting.
There is some gain to the crop, when the buds are plucked before
they come to blossom.
Harvesting and Storing should not be commenced until the
tops are mostly dead, as the tuber has not arrived at full maturity
before this time. They may then be thrown out of the hills by
a plow, horse potato digger, or some hand implement. They
ought not to be exposed to the sun for any length of time, but
may dry on the surface in a cloudy day, or be gathered into small
heaps with some of the tops spread over them, until freed from
the surface moisture, when they may be stored. Those selected
for seed should be placed in small piles in the field, or in thin
layers in a cool, dry place in the cellar where the air is excluded,
and no heating or injury can occur. Such as are intended for
consumption may be put in dry bins or barrels in the store room,
covered with straw and dry sand, or loose earth to prevent the
circulation of air, or buried in the field. Where convenient of
access, a hole may be excavated in the north side of a hill, or under
a shade in a porous soil. When first stored, the potatoes should
be covered for a few days with a shght thatch of straw, so arranged
ROOTS.
189
as to shed the rain. A partial sweating or heating soon takes place,
which drives off some of the moisture, after which they may be
lightly covered with earth, and in this way they may remain till the
commencement of severe frosts, when they should be effectually
^ protected from frost and rain till wanted in the spring. A north-
ern exposure or shade will shield them from any injurious effects
of the sun on the approach of warm weather. If stored on level
ground, a hole should be excavated for their reception, from one
to two feet in depth and four to five in width, and of any length
required. The potatoes are then ridged up like the roof of a
hofise, thatched and covered as previously described. A ditch
lower than the base must encircle the heap when the soil consists
of clay, from which an outlet conducts away all the water, as any
left upon them will inevitably produce decay.
Diseases.— The potato has long been subject to the curl
From numerous experiments made in Scotland to avoid this
disease, it has been found that seed from potatoes which were
gathered before fully ripe, gave a much better and surer crop.
It would be well to try the experiment in this country, where
there is any deficiency of product from want of fall and healthy
development. Potatoes are also affected by the scah and gruh,
■ against whose attacks there is no remedy unless in a change of
seed and location. The rot has for several years produced
serious and increasing injury to the potato crop; in 1845, and in
several years since, almost threatening starvation in Ireland, and
causing great loss and suffering in other countries. Its effects
have also been extensively felt in the United States. Numerous
and scientific examinations have been made on the subject. The
proximate cause is supposed to be a fungus, but what are the
reasons for its continued rapid extension, and what may be
the remedy for its ravages have not yet been satisfactorily
ascertained.
Preventives of Bot— Under the following circumstances rot has
not appeared when adjoining fields have been destroyed by it.
1. By using unripe seed, or seed which has been exposed to the
190
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
sun, light and air, and well dried for ten days after digging, and
afterwards stored in a dry place in small parcels where air is
excluded till the moment of planting. 2. By the use of lime,
some of which is placed in the hill and the potatoes dusted with
it, and also from the use of charcoal and salt, gypsum or other
salts. 3. By the absence of fresh barn-yard manure, or if used,
by. adding largely of lime or saline manures. 4. The use of
fresh sod, which has long been untilled. This has been found
more efficacious than any other preventive, although it has occa-
sionally failed. The sod may be plowed in the fall, or it may be
left till late in May or early in June, when it has a good coating of
grass, and then turned under flat, and furrowed lightly to receive
the seed without disturbing the sod. Or they may be planted by
using a sharpened stake, three inches in diameter, with a pin or
shoulder ten inches from the bottom, on which the foot may be
placed for sinking the holes. These should be made between
the furrow slices at the proper distance for drills, and a single
potato placed in each, which may be covered with the heeL
5. Sound, early varieties, early planted, have also escaped.
We have thus secured a good yield, almost wholly free from
disease ; and even those affected did not appear to communicate
disease to others. It has also been found that some very late
planted have escaped rot ; and if it be an epidemic, it may be
that both by early and late planting, the peculiar stage of vege-
tation when the fungus appears, is in a great measure avoided.
But the investigations on this important subject, after many
years, are still unsatisfactory, and nothing has thus far been
ascertained, which can be justly considered as having determined
principles of universal appKcation ; yet it is to be hoped that the
zeal, intelligence and general interest which are combined for
this object may detect what has hitherto evaded the severest
scrutiny of scientific research.
Arresting the disease has in some instances been successful, by
mowing off the tops when they are found defective. This prac-
tice would be injurious to healthy plants, but may be adopted,
ROOTS.
191
like that of cutting grain when struck by rust, if it will secure
even a part of the crop. When disease appears in such as are
dug, they should be carefully sorted and the sound ones well
dried, then placed separately in layers and covered with ashes,
burnt clay, or fine dry mold, which act as absorbents of moisture
and prevent contagion from such as may be imperceptibly affected.
They may also be cut in slices and dried, or crushed, and the
farinaceous part extracted. By this means the potato will be
made to yield nearly all its nutriment. It is found that this
disease affects the tissues (the nitrogenized or albuminous part)
of the potato only ; and for this reason, potatoes which have not
been too long or too deeply injured, will yield nearly their full
amount of fat for animals, or starch for the manufacturer.
Uses. — Besides being an indispensable vegetable, potatoes
are boiled and mixed with flour for bread, to which they impart
a desirable moisture and an agreeable flavor. They are sliced,
dried, and ground, and much used in Europe as flour, and by the
confectioners. They are also manufactured into tapioca, and
when nicely prepared, the product is not distinguishable from
that of the manioc. In all of these and some other forms, they
enter into consumption as human food. They have been also
used in large quantities by the manufacturers of starch; to some
extent for distiUing ; and in a less degree for making sugar. The
refuse of the pulp after extracting the starch, as well as the
liquor drained from it, is used for cleansing woolens and silks,
which it effects without injury to the color. But by far the
greatest use of potatoes in this country, before they were affected
by the rot, was for stock feeding. They are eaten with avidity
by all the brute creation, either cooked or raw. For cattle and
sheep, they are equally nutritious in either condition. For
horses, they are improved by steaming or baking. Swine, and
most poultry, will subsist on them raw, but will fatten on them
only when cooked. Their good effects are most enhanced by
mixing with meal when they are hot, which partially cooks it.
192
AMERICAN AGRICULTUUE.
THE SWEET POTATO, (CONVOLVULUS BATATUS,)
Is a root of very general growth in the Southern, and is much
cultivated in the Middle sections of the United States, and for
the table is scarcely surpassed by any esculent. It is also greedily
eaten, and with great advantage, by every species of stock.
We are indebted to an excellent article on this subject, from
the U. S. Ag. Department Report, for 1865, by Mr. J. S. Lip-
pincott, of New Jersey:
" Much of the soil of the district of New Jersey is adapted to
the growth of this admirable root. No other Northern State
produces the sweet potato so abundantly or in as great perfection.
In 1862, the Agricultural Department estimated the growth of
the sweet potato in New Jersey, at 1,634,832 bushels, valued at
$1,226,126. The crop of 1862, thus estimated, surpassed all
other Northern and Western States, in aggregate product. Most
of the Southern States greatly surpass New Jersey, in the amount
of product. North Carolina and Georgia having produced, in 1859,
more than 6,000,000 bushels each, Alabama 5,000,000, sundry
others from two to four milHons of bushels, where it appears to
be the great staple vegetable product. Though adapted to a
warmer climate, it attains in our State, in favorable seasons, a
degree of perfection which leaves nothing to be desired. Such a
season was that of 1864, which was remarkable for its product, .
both in quantity and quality, and for remunerative prices.
"The return of this crop varies from 100, to 200 baskets and
upwards per acre, the latter being an exceedingly favorable yield.
From six and a half acres there were taken in 1864, 1,700 baskets,
which sold for $1,700. Upon three acres 800 baskets (or 500
bushels) were raised, which sold for $1,000. On two acres 600
baskets (or 185 bushels per acre,) was produced in 1864, which
yielded per acre, about $300 gross revenue. The above is not,
however, a fair exhibit of regular annual returns for the anxious
care, the labor and expense, which is sometimes poorly remuner-
ated by an indifferent crop and diminished prices.
ROOTS.
193
A successful grower has favored us with his method of culture,
which we cannot do better than give entire, for the instruction of
those who may wish to cultivate this choicest of esculent roots.
Moderately good sweet potatoes may be raised further north than
New Jersey, on a warm soil, and large crops have been grown in
Northern Pennsylvania, where we would not have deemed success
could be obtained. The .product was not, however, commended to
our taste by that flavor and dryness, which result from growth upon
a properly selected soil, under a warmer sky. The sweet potato
requires a sandy soil or a sandy loam. Land is generally chosen
which has been in corn or a vegetable crop the previous year,
though it is a common . practice to plant the same ground with
sweet potatoes, season after season. In the latter they seem to
grow as well as they do in freshly chosen ground.
"About the middle of April, the preparation of the hot-beds
for starting the sweet potato, for the production of sprouts, is
commenced. Having been plowed as for any ordinary crop, but
not deeply, the ground is furrowed out with a one horse plow, three
feet each way if to be planted in hills, over three and a half feet
apart if in rows, the plow rimning twice in the furrow. A forkful!
of horse stable manure is then, if for hills, placed at each intersec-
tion of the furrows, and well covered by hand with a hoe. If to
be grown in rows, the manure is scattered evenly along the row,
and covered by turning two good furrows directly upon it. The
field is then ready to receive the plants. The manure should be
appHed freely, and be of good quality. It liliould have been well
forked over until fine and mellow, to avoid as much as possible,
increasing the evil effects of drought, by presenting to the plants
their food in lumps, which readily become dry and unavailable,
and which, if once in that condition, will certainly remain so
throughout the season. When grown in rows a larger number
of plants are required than when grown in hills.
" Both methods have their advocates, but if the sprouts are
placed from twenty inches to two feet apart in the row, abetter crop
is generally obtained for the same amount of labor and money
9
194
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
expended. The young sprouts or plants are grown from ^seed
potatoes,' selected from the previous year's crop, which should be
of middle size, and of short, compact shape. These are placed in
hot-beds, made up from about the first to the middle of April, in
the ordinary way. The manure, fresh from the horse stable,
having been evenly shaken into the bed or fi-ame to the depth of
twelve or eighteen inches, is pressed down by the weight of the
laborer upon a board laid thereon. The board is removed, and
the whole evenly covered with about three inches of rather dry
sand. Upon this the ^ seed potatoes ' are carefully placed, close
together, though not actually touching, and are then covered with
about three inches of good sand or loam. Great care is observed
that the right degrees of heat and moisture shall be maintained.
If the heat become too great it may be checked by piercing
through the bed into the manure with a rake handle, thus allow-
ing the excess of heat to escape. Moisture must be regulated by
the watering pot, which should be used on clear days only, and
about noon. If the heat or moisture become excessive, the pota-
toes will rot ; deficient heat with moisture may cause the ^ black
rot.' If the plants become infected with the latter, it will prove
worse than useless to endeavor to use them. Heat and dryness
kill the sprouts, or prevent their growth ; and even when moder-
ate dryness is combined with other influences favorable to growth,
though sprouts apparently good may be produced, they will not
possess well developed fibrous roots.
Experience alon€»can teach that wisdom in minutiae which
will command certain success. • The bed should be exposed to the
sunshine on every clear day, and covered with hay or straw at
night, and in rainy weather protected from excess of moisture by
a covering of boards. The sprouts will be ready for transplant-
ing in about a month, and planting commences from the fifteenth
to twenty-second of May, and continues from two to four weeks.
When the time for removal has nearly arrived, the plants should
be exposed to the open air, to harden them for the field. The
sprouts are drawn by taking hold of but one at a time, and gently
ROOTS.
195
extracting it in order to avoid disturbing the mother potato, from
which, if undisturbed, a second crop may be obtained. A bushel
of good seed, properly managed, will produce 1,200 or 1,500
sprouts at the first pulhng, and three-fourths as many at the
second. Those obtained later are often as good as the earlier
growth.
*'Good, strong, stocky plants having been obtained, they are
rapidly and expertly transferred to the soil, the operator using no
implement but his bare hand. Dashing aside the crown of the
hill or ridge, he thrusts his open hand into the yielding sand, and
with the other inserts the plant, covers and compresses it, and if
the ground is too dry, waters it. In a week or two the field
must be examined and re-planted wherever cut worms or other
insect larvae may have destroyed the first setting. Clean culture,
with the hand hoe or iron garden rake and horse cultivator, is
now required until the vines have covered the ground. About
the middle of August the ground should be ^ tended ^ for the last
time, by plowing to the rows or ridges, and cleaning up the balks.
To perform this thoroughly, the vines must be loosened from the
soil to which they have attached themselves by small roots along
the main stem, and turned over or out of the way by means of
sticks or by the hand. Before gathering the crop, the vines are
cut off close to the hill with a sharp hoe. The potatoes are then
ploughed out and thrown into rows to dry, when they are readily
sorted for market. •
"To fit them for preservation they must be lifted before the
weather indicates a degree of cold sufficient to freeze the ground, or,
in this latitude, before the twenty-fifth of October. Those intended
for winter storage should be gathered before the middle of Octo-
ber, put up in barrels or shallow boxes, and placed in a dry, warm
situation. When placed in barrels in the open field, and carefiilly
handled, they will be more readily preserved during winter, other
circumstances being favorable — slight bruising from rough carriage
proving injurious to them, if designed for winter use. When
large quantities are reserved for spring sales, houses are erected
196
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
expressly for their preservation. These are generally two stories
high, built of wood, and so arranged that the potatoes may be
stored therein, in boxes about two feet deep, placed in tiers, with
spaces of a few inches between for ventilation, and extending
from side to side of the house to within a foot of the weather
boarding. The source of heat is a fire in the cellar, from which
the warmth is caused to circulate equally and freely throughout
the building. Thus arranged and carefully tended, maintaining
a nearly uniform moderate heat, sweet potatoes may be preserved
until late in the following spring. No chaff, shavings, or other
material is needed; careful packing and handling, and uniform
moderate heat, being the only requisites for the attainment of
perfect success in the preservation, for the entire season, of this
admirable root."
The foregoing modes of culture, etc., apply to the latitude oi
New Jersey, and must, of course, be altered, as to the seasons, in
other States and sections of the country.
THE TURNIP, (bRASSIOA RAPA.)
The common flat English turnip was introduced into this
country with our English ancestry, and has ever since been an
object of cultivation. When boiled, it is an agreeable vegetable
for the table. Its principal value, however, is food for cattle and
sheep, by which it is eaten uncooked. Its comparative nutritive
properties are small, but Hie great bulk which can be raised on a
given piece of ground, and the facility and economy of cultiva-
tion, have always rendered it a favorite with such farmers as
have soil and stock adapted to its profitable production and use.
A GOOD SOIL for it is a fertile sand or well drained loam. Any
soil adapted to Indian corn will produce good turnips. But it is
only on new land or freshly turned sod, that they are most suc-
cessful. An untilled virgin earth, with the rich dressing of ashes
left after the recent burning of accumulated vegetable matter,
and free from weeds and insects, is the surest and most productive
for a turnip crop. Such land needs no manure. For a sward
ROOTS.
197
ground, or clover lay, there should be a heavy dressing of fresh,
unfermented manure before plowing.
Cultivation.— Turnips are sown from the fifteenth of June
to the first of August. The first give a greater yield; the last
generally a sounder root and capable of longer preservation.
The ground should be plowed and harrowed immediately before
sowing, as the moisture insures rapid germination of the seed,
which is of great importance to get it beyond the reach of
insects as soon as possible. This may be sown broadcast, at the
rate of one or two pounds per acre, and hghtly harrowed and
rolled; or it is better to be sown in drills, when a less quantity
of seed will suffilce. A turnip drill will speedily accomplish the
furrowing, sowing, covering and rolling, at a single operation.
The crop will be materially assisted by a top dressing of lime,
ashes and plaster, at the rate of fifteen or twenty bushels of the
first, half the quantity of the second, and three or four bushels
of the last, per acre When the plants show themselves, and
the leaves are partially expanded, the cultivator or hoe may
be freely used, stirring the ground well and exterminating all
weeds.
RuTA-BAGA OR SwEDES TuRNiP.— The introduction of this is
comparatively recent, and it proves to be more worthy of atten-
tion than the Enghsh or white turnip. It will bear a heavier
soil, yield as well, give a richer root, and it has the great
advantage of keeping longer in good condition, thus prolonging
the wint'er food of cattle when they are most in need of it.
Cultivation. — It is usually planted after wheat or corn, but
if a fresh virgin soil or old pasture sod is chosen, it will mate-
rially lessen its habihty to insects and other enemies. It is
generally sown in drills, about two feet apart, and on heavy lands
these should be shghtly ridged. The plants must be successively
thinned to prevent interfering with such as are intended to ma-
ture, but enough should remain to provide for casualties. Where
there is a deficiency, they may be supplied by transplanting during
showery weather. They should be left eight to twelve inches
198
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
apart in the drills, according to the richness of the soil. The
Swede turnip is a gross feeder, and requires either a rich soil or
heavy manuring, though the use of fresh manures has been sup-
posed to facilitate the multiplication of enemies. Bones ground
and drilled in with the seed, or a dressing of lime, ashes, gypsum,
and salt, are the best applications that can be made. The Swede
should be sown from about the twentieth of May to the fifteenth
June, earlier than the English turnip, as it takes longer to mature,
and two or three weeks more of growth frequently adds largely
to the product. An early sowing also gives time to raise
another crop in case of failure of the first.
Enemies. — The turnip is exposed to numerous depredators,
of which the turnip flea-beetle is the most inveterate. It attacks
the plant as soon as the first leaves expand, and often destroys ^
two or three successive sowings. The black caterpillar, slugs,
wire-worms, and numerous other insects, grubs, and aphides,
prey upon and greatly diminish the crop.
Remedies have been tried to an almost indefinite extent, but
none hitherto with more than very partial success. Liberal
sowing and rapid growth best insures the plant from injury, and
to effect this the seed should be plentifully sown, and if possible,
when the ground is moist, and always in a rich soil. The seed
should be steeped in some preparation which experience has
shown will the most quickly develop the germ. Solutions of the
nitrates or sulphates, urine, soot-water, liquid guano, currier's
oil, etc., impregnate the first leaves with substances distastefiil to
their early enemies, and thus a short respite from their attacks
will be secured. Gypsum, ashes, bone dust, and poudrette,
drilled in with the seed are excellent forcers for the young roots.
Charcoal dust apphed in the same way has been found to increase
the early growth from four to ten fold. When the fly, and bug,
etc., is discovered, the application of lime, ashes, or soot, or all
combined, should be made upon the leaves while the dew or a
slight moisture is on them. This leads the young plant along,
and kills such enemies as it reaches. Urine, diluted sulphuric
ROOTS.
199
acid, (oil of vitriol,) and other liquid manures wiU have the same
effect. Ducks, chickens, and young turkeys, and birds, will
devour innumerable quantities, and their presence should always
be encouraged not only on this but on most of the fields.
Dragging the surface with fine, light brush, will lessen the slugs
and insects. The ground should be plowed just before winter
sets in, which exposes the worms and the larvae of insects to the
frost, when they are unable to work themselves into a place of
safety. The seed should not be planted on ground before occu-
pied or near any of the order of plants crxicifercB, cabbage, radish,
mustard, charlock, and water cress, as they all afi'ord food for
the enemies of turnips, and thereby tend to their multipHcation.
HARVESTiNa may be deferred till the approach of cold
weather, and in those sections of the country not affected by
severe frosts, when on dry soils, they may be allowed to winter
on the field. Otherwise they should be secured during the good
autumnal weather. This is accomphshed most expeditiously
.with a root hook, which is made with two iron prongs attached
to a hoe handle. The use of a bill hook or sharp knife, will
enable the operator to lop off the leaves with a single blow, when
they are thrown into convenient piles and afterwards collected
for storage.
The storing may be in cellars or in heaps, similar to potatoes,
but in a cooler temperature, as slight heat injures them, while
frost does not. If stored in heaps, one or more holes should be
lefli at the top, which may be partially stopped by a wisp of hay
or straw, to allow the escape of the gases which are generated.
The feeding of ruta-bagas to cattle and sheep, is always in
their uncooked state. They are better steamed or boiled for swine,
but their food should be sought from the more fattening products
of the farm. In moderate quantity they may be given to horses,
but they cannot be rehed upon for them, as they are too bulky for
working animals. Their place is much better suppHed for horses
by the carrot or potato. Their true value is as food for store and
fattening cattle, milk cows and sheep, as they furnish a salutary
200
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
change from dry hay, being nearly equivalent as a fodder to green
summer food. They should be washed before feeding if too much
dirt adheres to them, but if grown on a light soil, the tap roots
lopped off and otherwise properly secured, they will not require
it. They may be sliced with a heavy knife, or more summarily
cut up while lying on the barn floor, with a. sharp spade, or root
slicer, which is made with a socket handle and two blades cross-
ing each other in the center at right angles, or by some of the
numerous improved cutting machines, which are much better.
"With an abundance of turnips and a small supply of straw, hay
may be entirely dispensed with for cattle and sheep. Many of
the best English breeds are kept exclusively on turnips with a
little straw till ready for the shambles.
The varieties of turnips are numerous. After selecting such
as will give the largest crop of the most nutritious roots, the next
object in the choice of particular varieties should be to adapt them
to the most economical use. Some will keep much longer than
others, and if wanted to feed late in the season it may be neces-
sary to take a variety intrinsically less valuable than another
which must be earher consumed. The English turnip should be
first fed as it soonest wilts and becomes pithy, then follow with
the others according to their order of maturity and decay. The
leaves yield good forage, and if unmixed with earth may be fed
dry or green to cattle.
The value of turnips to this country, is trifling in comparison
with that of many parts of Europe. In Great Britain alone, this
value probably exceeds one hundred millions of dollars annually.
But its culture here is less desirable, as our dryer climate and early
and severe winters are not as well adapted to its production and
economical preservation and feeding as those of England, and its
numerous enemies render it an uncertain crop. These objections
are increased by the important fact, that it enters into competition
with our Indian corn, which, under ordinary circumstances, always
gives a certain and highly remunerating return. It may some-
times, however, take the place of corn, with advantage, and the
ROOTS.
201
turnip or some other roots should always occupy a conspicuous
place in the change of winter food for cattle and sheep.
Turnips are cold food, and not recommended to be fed during
very severe winter weather. We have had calves and other
young stock severely scoured by them. The best use for turnips
is for lambing ewes before grass comes.
THE CARROT, (dAUCUS CAROTA,)
Is one of our most valuable roots. It is a hardy, easy cultivated
plant, and grows in almost every soil, and is next to the potato
in its nutritive properties.
The soil which best suits it is a fertile sand or Hght loam, but
it will grow on such as are more tenacious, if well drained, and
deeply worked. The success of this and the parsnip depends
much on the depth to which their roots can reach. Deep spading
or subsoil plowing is, therefore, indispensable to secure large crops,
and nearly all kinds of manure are equally suited for their food,
if well rotted. The ground should be thoroughly pulverized.
The varieties chiefly used for field culture, are the long red,
the orange, and white Belgian. The last, under favorable circum-
stances, attains huge dimensions, and from its roots growing high
out of the ground, it is supposed to draw more of its nourishment
from the air, and to exhaust the ground less, while it is of course,
more easily harvested. But it is considerably below the others
in comparative value.
Planting. — The carrot should be sown in drills, sixteen to
twenty inches apart, when the ground has become warm and
dry. The seed is best prepared by mixing with fine mold or
poudrette, and stirring them well together to break off the fine
beards ; then sprinkle with water and allow it to remain in a
warm place, and occasionally turn it to produce equal develop-
ment in the seed. It may remain ten or fifteen days before sow-
ing, till nearly readj to sprout. It then readily germinates, and
does not allow the weeds to get the start. The frequent use of
the cultivator and entire cleanliness from weeds is all that is
9^
202
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
necessary to insure a crop, unless it be convenient to give it a top
dressing of liquid manure, which the Flemings always do, and which
no crop better repays. Two pounds of good seed will sow an acre.
Any deficiency of plants may be suppHed by transplanting in
moist weather. Six inches is near enough for the smaller kind
to stand, and eight for the larger. They are subject to few dis-
eases or enemies, excepting such as can be avoided by proper
selection of soil and careful tillage.
The harvesting may be facilitated by running a plow on one
side of the rows, when the roots are easily removed by hand.
The tops are then cut and the surface moisture from the roots
dried, when they may be stored like turnips and potatoes. They
ought to be kept at as low a temperature as possible above the
freezing point. On the approach of warm weather they will
sprout early if left in heaps, and if important to preserve them
longer, the crown should be cut off and the roots spread in a
cool, dry place.
Uses. — Carrots are chiefly grown for domestic stock. Horses
thrive remarkably on them, and some farmers feed them as a
substitute for oats. But their intrinsic value in weight, is less,
in the proportion of about five to one. They are good for work-
ing cattle and unsurpassed for milk cows, producing a great flow
of milk and a rich yellow cream. Sheep and swine greedily
devour them, and soon fatten if plentifully supplied with them.
The Dutch grate them, and with sugar and salt, make a pickle
for their choicest table butter. They are also employed in dis-
tilling. The average yield on good land may be estimated at
about three hundred bushels of the smaller, and four hundred and
fifty of the Belgian or white, per acre, but with extra cultivation,
one thousand bushels of the last have been raised.
THE PARSNIP, (PASTINACA SATIVA,)
Is cultivated as a field crop, and is of nearly equal nutritious
value with the carrot. The soil may be heavier for parsnips
than for carrots, and they will even thrive on a strong clay, if
ROOTS.
203
rich, well pulverized, and dry. Large crops can only be obtained
on deep, rich ground, well pulverized. They should be sown
early, as frosts do not affect them, and they require a long time
to come to maturity. Drilling at a distance of twenty inches
apart, is the proper mode of planting, and they should be thinned
to a space of six or eight inches. It requires four or five pounds
of seed per acre, which must be of the previous year's growth,
as older does not readily vegetate. No preparation of the seed
is necessary. The subsequent cultivation is similar to that of
carrots, and they will generally yield more under similar cir-
cumstances of soil and tillage. They are httle subject to disease
or enemies.
The gatherino should be deferred till the frost leaves the
ground in spring, unless wanted for winter's use, as they keep
best in the ground, where they are uninjured by the heaviest
frost. But particular care should be observed in allowing no
standing water on them, or they will rot. When taken up in
the fall, the roots should neither be trimmed nor broken, nor
should the tops be cut too near the root. They should be stored
out of doors, in a dry place, and covered carefully with earth,
so that they can thoroughly freeze, as exposure to air, or even
moderate heat, wilts them.
XJsES. — The parsnip is one of our most delicious table veg-
etables. It is an excellent food for swine, either raw or cooked,
and for cattle, milk cows, and sheep, it is highly prized. Qualey
says, "it is not as valuable for horses, for though it produces fat
and a fine appearance, it causes them to sweat profiisely, and if
eaten when the shoot starts in the spring, it produces inflamma-
tion in the eyes, and epiphora, or weeping." The leaves of both
carrots and parsnips are good for cattle, green or dried. Gerarde,
who wrote in 1596, says, "an excellent bread was made from
them in his time." They have also, like the carrot, been used
for distillation, and a«e said to afford a very good vinous beverage.
The hest. vardety for field culture is the large Jersey.
204
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
THE BEET, (bETA.)
There are two varieties of the beet in general use for the
field: the sugar beet and mangel-wurzel, both of which have
several sub-varieties. They are of various colors, red, pink,
yellow, white or mottled, but color does not seem to affect their
quahty. The conditions under which they grow, are similar.
Beets do well in any soil of sufficient depth and fertihty, but they
are perhaps most partial to a strong loam. If well tilled, they
will produce large crops on a tenacious clay. We have raised
at the rate of eight hundred bushels to the acre, on a stiff clay,
which had been well supplied with unfermented manure. The
soil cannot be made too rich. For such as are adhesive, fresh
or unfermented manures are much the best.
The planting should be in drills twenty to twenty-four
inches asunder, at the rate of four to six pounds of seed per acre,
buried not over one inch deep. The seed should be early planted,
or as soon as vegetation will proceed rapidly, but must first be
soaked by pouring soft scalding water on it, allowing it to cool to
blood heat, and remain for three or four days, then roll in plaster
and drill it in. The husk, or outer covering of the seed, is thick
and impervious to moisture, and without a thorough, previous
saturation, will not readily germinate.
The culture is similar to that of carrots and parsnips. They
should be thinned to a distance of about eight inches to a foot,
according to the kind, and all vacancies filled up with strong,
thrifty plants. It is better to sow thick enough to avoid the
necessity of transplanting, for in addition to the time and expense
of this operation, it puts them back some days in their growth,
although such plants will thrive as well as those which grow
in their ranks from the seed. The above distances are suit-
able for the sugar beet; the mangel-wurzel attains a larger
size, and the spaces may be increased to«t foot apart. The
practice of plucking off the leaves for cattle feeding, is objection-
able, as it materially interferes with the growth of the plants.
ROOTS.
205
Scarcely any disease or enemy troubles it, except when young.
It is then sometimes, though rarely, attacked by grubs or small
insects.
Harvesting may be commenced soon after the first leaves
turn yellow, and before the frosts have injured them. The
tops must not be too closely trimmed, nor the crown of the roots
or its fibrous prongs cut from such as are destined for late keep-
ing. If intended for early winter use, they may be abridged a
trifle, and after the surface is dry, stored like other roots. They
do not need as effectual protection as potatoes, for if the frost
touches them under a covering of earth, it will gradually be
withdrawn on the approach of warm weather, and leave the
roots uninjured ; but they will not keep as long as if untouched
by the frost. A slight opening for the escape of the gas, as with
the other roots, should be left at the top and partially guarded
with straw.
Uses. — The beet is a universal favorite for the table and of
great value for stock. Domestic animals never tire of it, and
swine prefer it to any other root excepting the parsnip. "We
have often kept swine in the best condition, through the winter,
on no other food than the raw sugar beet. They possess addi-
tional merit from their capability of resisting decay longer than
the turnip, and frequently beyond the carrot and parsnip. They
will be solid, fresh, and juicy, late in the spring if properly stored,
and at a time, too, when they are most wanted for aihng sheep
or cattle, milk cows, or ewes, or for contributing to the support
and health of any of the ordinary stock. "When fed to fattening
animals, they should follow and never precede the turnip. It h^s
been found that such animals continue steadily to advance in flesh
after being carried to a certain point with turnips, if shifted on
to the beet, but in repeated instances they have fallen back if
changed from beets to turnips. Davy found in 1,000 parts, the
following quantity of nutritive or soluble matter: /White, or
English turnips, 42; Swede, 64; mangel-wurzel, 136; sugar
beet, 146. This order of nutritive quality is followed by Bous-
206
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
singault, though he places the field beet and Swede turnip at
nearly the same point. Einhof and Thaer, on the contrary,
place the Swede before mangel-wurzel. But in feeding to ani-
mals, unless for an occasional change, the roots should be given
out in the order named. The sugar beet is seen to be more
nutritious than the mangel-wurzel ; it is equally hardy and pro-
ductive, and more palatable to stock, and of course is to be
preferred for raising. The former has been largely cultivated in
France and Germany, for making into sugar, where it has been
entirely successful, because protected by an adequate impost on
the imported article. Their conversion into sugar has repeatedly
been attempted in this country, and of late with flattering pros-
pects of success. It may, possibly, sustain a successful compe-
tition with the cane. From the experiments of M. Darracq, it
has been found, that in summer the best yielded from three and
a half to four per cent, of sugar, but in October, after the com-
mencement of frost, it gave only syrup and saltpeter, and no
crystalizable sugar. When used for this purpose, the residuum of
the pulp after expressing the juice, is given to cattle. When
wilted, the leaves are also fed to them, but caution is necessary to
prevent their scouring. What are not thus used are plowed in
for manure. The beet is also distilled, and yields about half
the product of potatoes.
The beet is no doubt the surest and best crop for stock feeding
in America, particularly to milk cows and breeding ewes, as it
largely promotes their flow of milk, and keeps their bowels free,
THE JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE, (hELIANTHUS TUBEROSUS,)
A native of Brazil, is a hardy plant, but little cultivated.
Loudon says the name Jerusalem is a corruption of the Itahan
word girasole, (or sun-flower,) the blossom of which it closely
resembles, except in size. It flourishes in a moist, loose soil, or
sandy loam, with little care except to thin out and prevent weeds.
It is very productive, and easily cultivated in drills, three or four
feet apart. The planting may be done in March or April. As
ROOTS.
207
it is not injured by frost, and is very prolific, it will spread rapidly
and often becomes a pest in the garden. The product is enor-
mous, sometimes amounting to several hundred bushels per
acre. Its nutritive qualities are much less than those of the
potato, but its great productiveness and the facility of raising it,
would seem to commend it to more general favor. Boussingault
considers it an improving and proEtable crop, from its drawing
its nitrogen largely from the atmosphere. It is pecuharly fitted
for a spring feed, as the roots he uninjured by the vicissitudes of
the weather, and may be taken out in- perfection after most other
roots are gone.
The uses of the Jerusalem artichoke in this country, are both
for human and animal food. The roots are generally used as a
pickle or salad. Loudon says, ''they may also be eaten boiled,
mashed in butter, or baked in pies, and have an excellent flavor."
The tops when cut and cured as hay, afford a good fodder for
cattle, and the roots arp excellent for sheep and other stock.
Swine will thrive upon them through the winter, and do their
own harvesting when the ground is not locked up by frost.
Note. ^We give on the following page a table of the nutritive
equivalents of food, compiled by Boussingault, as a convenient ref-
erence, though not entirely rehable in all cases. For it will be seen
from what has before been said, that the particular plants vary not
only according to the season and soil, but also frequently, according
to the particular variety subject to analysis. He says : "In the
following table, to the numbers assigned by the theory, I have
also given the standard quantity of water, and the quantity of
azote, contained in each species of food. The details of my ex-
periments, and the precautions needftd in entering on and carrying
them through, must have satisfied every one of the difficulties
attending their conduct. In my opinion, direct observation or
experiment is indispensable, but mainly, solely as a means^ of
checking within rather wide hmits, the results of chemical
analysis." •
208
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
do.
NUTRITIVE EQUIVALENTS OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF FORAGE.
Ordinary natural meadow hay, .
Ditto, of fine quality, .
Lucernhay,
Red clover hay, 2d year's growth
Red clover, cut in flower, green ■
New wheat straw, crop 1841,
Old wheat straw.
Do., do., lower parts of stalk.
Do., do., upper part of do. and ear,
New rye straw,
Old ditto,
Oat straw, ....
Barley ditto, ....
Pea ditto ....
Millet ditto, ....
Buckwheat ditto, .
Vetches cut in flower and dried.
Potato tops, ....
Field beet leaves, .
Carrot ditto, ....
Jerusalem artichoke stems, .
Canada poplar shoots.
Oak ditto, ....
Drum cabbage, ....
Swedish turnip.
Turnip,
Field beet, 1838, .
Ditto, white Silesian,
Carrots,
Jerusalem artichoke, 1839,
Ditto, 1836
Potatoes, 1838, ....
Ditto, 1836, ....
Ditto, after keeping in the pit.
Cider apple pulp dried in the air.
Beet root magma, from sugar mill
Vetches in seed.
Field beans.
White peas, dry,
Kidney beans,
Lentils, .
New maize.
Buckwheat, .
Barley, 1836,
Barley meal, .
Ditto, .
Oats, 1838,
Ditto, 1836, .
Ditto, Parisian,
Rye, 1836, .
Ditto, 1838, .
Wheat, 1836, Alsace,
Ditto, 1838
Ditto, from highly manured soil,
Recent bran, ....
Wheat husks or chaff".
Rice, Piedmont,
Linseed cake, . .
Hemp, ditto, ....
Beech mast, ditto.
Dry acorns, . . . . .
Refuse of the wine press, air dried,
Azote per ct.
Azote
in tb^ article
Theory.
water per ct.
per ct.
not dried.
11 ft
11. U
1 ^
1 1^
100
1d ft
1 '^ift
1 .^ft
98
1ft fi -
ID.O
1 fifi
1 .ou
1 fiH
A. 00
83
10 1
. lU.l
1 7ft
1. IVI
1.54
75
7fi ft
ft fi4
311
9ft ft
n Aft
ft 27
426
ft '^^
0.49
235
. o.o
ft 4TBERRY, (OXYCOO'US MACROOARPUS,)
Yields one of the most delicious of our tart esculents. It is
found in great abundance in many low, swampy grounds in our
Northern and Western States; and although it has been gath-
ered from it^ative haunts from the earhest settlement of the
country, yet it is only within a few years that it has become an
object of cultivation. Experience, after many years' trial, has
developed the certain means of attaining the greatest success,
and enough is already known, to assume that they are a profit-
able object of attention to the farmer.
Soil and Cultivation.— They are generally planted on low,
moist meadows which are prepared by thoroughly taking out all
aquatic or other shrubs or trees, filling in with gravel where
needing it, and plowing and harrowing. They are then set in
drills by shps and roots, usually in the spring, but sometimes in
autumn, about twenty inches apart and at distances of about
three inches. They require to have the weeds kept out and the
ground stirred with a light cultivator or hoe, and they wiU soon
overrun and occupy the whole ground. An occasional top
dressing of swamp muck is beneficial. Cultivators in Massachu-
setts, have in this way, produced at the rate of three hundred
bushels per acre, which were worth in the market from two to
four dollars per bushel.
This fruit is now cultivated largely in the marshes of New
Jersey, wide tracts of which have been reclaimed and devoted
to its culture. It is a sure and progressive crop in our country.
The cranberry is sometimes killed by late or early frosts, and
it has been suggested, that these might be avoided by having
the fields so arranged when they may be expected, as to be
shghtly covered with water. The berries are gathered when
sufficiently ripe, by raking them from the bushes. They are
FKUITS.
241
cleaned from the stems, leaves, and imperfect fruit, by washing
and rolling them over smooth boards set on an inclined plane, in
the same manner as imperfect shot are assorted. After this they
are put into tight casks and fOled with water. If stored in a
cool place, the water changed at proper intervals, and the imper-
fect berries occasionaUy thrown out, they will keep till the
following summer. They will frequently bring $20 per barrel
in European markets. The raking is beneficial rather tlian
otherwise to the plants, for though some of the plants are pulled
out and otherwise broken, their places are more than supphed by
the subsequent growth.
11
CHAPTER XI.
MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS OF CULTIVATION.
BROOM CORN, (sORGHUM SACCHARATUM.)
So far as we are acquainted witli its history, this is a product
pecuhar to America. In its early growth and general appear-
ance it resembles Indian corn. It stands perfectly upright at a
height of eight feet or more, with a stalk of nearly uniform size
throughout, from which an occasional leaf appears; and at the
top a long, compact bunch of slender, graceful stems is thrown
out, famiharly termed the Irush, which sustains the seed. An
approved dwarf variety has lately been introduced.^
Soil. The best soil for raising broom corn, is similar to that
required for Indian corn or maize. It should be rich, warm,
loamy land, not hable to early or late frosts. Spring frosts injure
broom corn more than maize, as the roots do not strike so deep,
nor has it the power of recovering from the effects of frost equal
to the latter. The best crops are usuaUy raised on a green
sward, turned over as late as possible in the fall, so as to kill the
worms. Clay lands are not suitable for it. A river bottom is
best of all.
Manure. — Hog or sheep manure is best, and rotten better
than unfermented. If the land is in good condition, three cords,
^ eight loads to the acre is sufficient. This is usually placed in
Mib^ and twelve to fifteen bushels of ashes per acre may be
added with great advantage. Plaster is beneficial at the rate of
two to four bushels per acre. The addition of slacked lime
helps the ground, affords food to the crop, and is destructive to
BROOM CORN.
243
worms. Poudrette, at the rate of a gill or so to each hill at
planting, or guano at the rate of a tablespoonful per hill, if the
African, or two-thirds the quantity if Peruvian, mixed into a
compost with ten times its quantity of good soil, is an exceUent
apphcation; especially if the land is not in very good heart. To
repeat either of the above around the stalks on each hill alter
the last hoeing, will add materially to the crop.
Planting.— It should be planted in hills three feet apart, m
rows three to four feet distant. If the seed is good, ten or twelve
seeds to a hill are enough; if not, put in sufBcient to insure five
or six thrifty plants, which are aU that require to be left for
each hill. Time of planting must depend on climate and season.
The first of May is time for planting in latitude 40"^, and later as
the season occurs, up to 43°; but as early as possible, yet late
enough to escape spring frost is best. The ground should be
thoroughly harrowed and pulverized before planting. Thick
planting gives the finest, toughest brush. Seed should be buried
one to one and a half inches deep.
After Culture. — As soon as the plants are visible, run a
cultivator between the rows, and follow with a hand hoe. Many
neglect this till the weeds get a start, which is highly prejudicial
to the crop. The cultivator or a hght plow should be used after-
wards, followed with a hoe, and may be repeated four or five
times with advantage. Breaking the tops should be done before
fully ripe, or when the seed is a little past the milk; or if frost
appears, then immediately after it. This is done by bending
over the tops of the rows towards each other, for the con-
venience of cutting afterwards. They should be broken some
thirteen inches below the brush, and allowed to hang till fully
ripe, when it may be cut and carried under cover, and spread
till thoroughly dried. The stalks remaining on the ground may
be cut close or pulled up and buried in the fiirrows for manure
or burnt, and thus be restored to the earth to enrich it; or they
may be carried to* the barn-yard to mix in a compost, or with
the droppings of the cattle.
244
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
Cleaning the Brush.— This is done hj hand, by passing
it through a kind of hetchel, made by setting iipright knives
near enough together, or it may be cleaned by a long toothed
currycomb. By the firs^ method none of the little branches are
broken, and the brush makes a finer, better broom. Horse
power machines are frequently used for cleaning the seed, which
they do with great rapidity. The average yield is about five
hundred pounds of brush per acre. ' It varies according to season
and soil, from three hundred to one thousand pounds. The price
also varies materially, depending on the extent of the crop and
demand. A good crop of seed is obtained in the Connecticut
valley about two years out of five. When well matured, the
seed will average three to five pounds, for every pound of the
brush. A single acre has produced one hundred bushels seed,
though twenty-five to fifty is a more common yield. It weighs
about forty pounds per bushel.
The uses of broom corn are limited to the manufacture of
brooms from the brush, and the consumption of the seed when
ground and mixed with other grain, in feeding to fattening or
working cattle, sheep and swine, and occasionally to horses.
Brooms manufactured from it, have superceded every other kind
for general use in the United States, and within a few years they
have become an article of extensive export to England and
other countries. The brush, and wood ior the handles, are
imported separately to avoid high duties, and are there put
together, and form a profitable branch of agricultural commerce
to those hitherto engaged in the traffic. The cultivation of
broom corn has, till quite recently, been almost exclusively con-
fined to the North-eastern States, but it is now largely raised in
the "Western States. Their fresh, rich soil, however, does not
in general yield so fine, tough, and desirable a brush as that
grown in the older cultivated soils.
FLAX, (lINUM USITATISSIMUmJ •
This is one of the oldest cultivated plants of which we have
any record ; and its habitat or region of naturalization, extends
FLAX.
245
from the torrid to the frigid zones. Its long, silken fibres, which
come from the outer coating or bark of the stem, has been used
for the manufacture of linen, from time immemorial. The abso-
lute quantity at present grown, is probably equal to that of any
preceding age; but relatively, it is falling behind the product of
cotton, which is rapidly on the increase. Flax is still a profitable
crop, for in addition to its use as a material for clothing, the seed
is of great value for its oil, and the food it yields to cattle.
The proper soil for flax, is a good alluvial or vegetable loam,
equally removed from a loose sand or tenacious clay. In a very
rich soil the fibre grows too coarse, and on a hard soil, the crop
will not make a profitable return. Fresh barn-yard manures are
not suited to it, and they should in all cases where necessary for
a proper fertility, be added to the preceding crop. A rich sod
which has long lain in pasture or meadow, well plowed and
rotted, is the best for it. Lime in small quantities may be given
to the soil, but the Flemings, who raise flax extensively, never
allow it to follow a heavy liming, till seven years intervene, as
they consider it injures the fibre. A good wheat is generally a
good flax soil. Salt, askes, and gypsum, are proper manures for
it; the last has the greatest effect if applied afi:er the plant is
developed and while covered with dew or moisture; all the
sahne manures used as a top dressing, benefit the plant and
check the ravages of worms which fi-equently attack the young
plants.
Culture. — On a finely prepared surface of fresh sod, or
after corn or roots which have been well cleared, sow broadcast,
from sixteen to thirty quarts per acre if wanted for seed, or two
bushels if wanted for the fibre. "When thin it branches very
much, and every sucker or branch is terminated by a boll well
loaded with seed. When thickly sown, the stem grows single
and without branches, and gives a long, fine fibre. If the soil
be very rich, and fibre is the object of cultivation, it may be
sown at the rate of three bushels per acre. There is a great
difference in seed ; the heaviest is the best, and it should be of a
246
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
bright brownish cast, and oilj to the touch. It should be lightly
harrowed or brushed in and rolled. When three or four inches
high, it may be carefully weeded by hand, and for this it is best
to employ children, or if adults are put on the field, they should
be barefoot, and any depression of the plants by the feet will
soon be recovered by the subsequent growth, which on good soil,
will be sufficiently rapid to prevent the weeds again interfering
with it.
Harvesting. — When it is designed for cambrics and the finest
linen, flax is pulled when flowering; but in this country it is
seldom harvested for the fibre till the seed is entirely formed, and
although not ripe, most of it will mature if pulled, while the fibre
is in its full strength. If required for seed, it should be left stand-
ing, till the first seeds are well ripened. It is then gathered and
bound in small bundles, and when properly dried is placed under
cover. If it falls before ripening, it should be pulled at once,
whatever be its stage of growth, as it is the only means of saving it.
After Management. — The usual method of preparing flax
in this country, after removing the seed by drawing the heads
through a comb or rake of finely set teeth, called rippling, is by
dew-rotting, or spreading it thinly on a clean sward, and turning
it occasionally till properly rotted, after which it is put into
bundles and stored till a convenient period for cleaning it. This
is a wasteful practice and gives an inferior quahty of fibre. The
best plan of preparing it is by water-rotting, which is done in
vats or small ponds of soft water, similar to those used for hemp.
This gives a strong, even, silky fibre and without waste, and
worth much more either for sale or for manufacturing than the
dew-rotted. Various steeps for macerating, and machines for
preparing it have been used, which materially increases its mar-
ketable value. The fibre is generally got out on the Ireah by hand,
when the farmer is most at leisure. A crop of the fibre may be
estimated at 300 to 1,000 pounds; and of seed, from fifteen to
thirty bushels per acre. (See machine noticed in Ilemp-hreah,
page 252.)
HEMP.
247
There are no varieties worthy of particular notice, for ordinary
cultivation. Great benefit is found to result from a frequent
change of seed, to soils and situations differing from those where
it has been raised. The seed is always valuable for the linseed
oil it yields, and the residuum or oil cake stands deservedly high
as a feed for all animals; and the entire seed when boiled, is
among the most fattening substances which the farmer can use
for animal food. Flax, like most other plants grown for seed, is
an exhausting crop, but when pulled or harvested before the seed
matures, it is not. The Flemings think flax ought not to be
raised on the same soil oftener than once in eight years. It may
be oftener repeated in this country.
HEMP, (CANNASBIS SATIVA,)
Is suited to large portions of our western soils and climate,
and for many years it has been a conspicuous object of agricul-
tural attention. We have not yet brought the supply to our full
consumption of it in its various manufactured forms, as we have
till recently imported several miUions annually. B ut the increased
attention and skill bestowed on its cultivation, combined with our
means for its indefinite production, will doubtless, ere long, con-
stitute us one of the largest of the hemp exporting countries.
The Soil for hemp may be similar to that for flax, but with a
much wider range from a uniform standard, for it will thrive in
moderately tenacious clay, if rich, drained, and well pulverized ;
and it will do equally well on reclaimed muck beds when properly
treated. New land is not suited to it till after two or three years
of cultivation. A grass sod or clover bed is best adapted to it
when plowed in the fall or early in winter. This secures thor-
ough pulverization by frost and the destruction of insects, and
especially the cut- worm, which is very injurious to it. It should
be re-plowed in the spring, if not already sufiiciently mellow, as
a fine tilth, considerable depth and great fertility are essential to
its vigor.
Cultivation. — Early sowing produces the best crop, yet it
should not be put in so early as to be exposed to severe frost ;
248
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
and where there is a large quantity planted, convenience in har-
vesting requires that it should ripen at sufficient intervals. The
farmer may select his time for sowing, according to his latitude,
and the quantity cultivated. From the tenth of April to the
tenth of June is the fullest range allowed. The choice of seed is
material, as it is important to have a full set of plants on the
ground; yet an excess is injurious, as a part are necessarily
smothered after absorbing the strength of the soil, and they are
besides in the way of the harvesting, without contributing any-
thing to the value of the crop. Seed of the last year's growth is
best, as it generally heats by being kept over, which can be
avoided only by spreading thin. From four to six pecks per
acre of good seed, is sufficient. The best is indicated by its
weight and bright reddish color. It is usual to sow broadcast,
and harrow in lightly both ways, and roll it. A smooth surface
is material in facihtating the cutting. Sowing in drills, would
require less seed, give an equal amount of crop, and materially
expedite the planting. This should always be done before moist
weather if possible, as rapid and uniform germination of the seed
is thus more certainly secured. If the soil be very dry, it is
better to place the seed deeper in the ground, which can be done
with the cultivator. If sown in drills and well covered, it
might be previously soaked so as to secure early germination in
the absence of rains.
Cutting. — No after cultivation is necessary, and as soon as
the blossoms turn a little yellow, and begin to drop their leaves,
which usually happens from three to three and one-half months
after sowing, it is time to cut the hemp ; if it stands, however, a
week or ten days longer than this, no other detriment will ensue
except that it will not rot so evenly, and becomes more laborious
to break. Cutting is now almost universally practiced in prefer-
ence to pulling. Not quite so much lint is saved by the first as
by the last process, but the labor is pleasanter, and all subsequent
operations, such as spreading out, stacking and rotting, are made
easier. The lint also is of a better color and finer fibre, and the
HEMP.
249
roots and stubble left in the ground and plowed under, tend to
lighten the soil, and as thej decompose, become an equivalent to
a hght dressing of manure. If the hemp is not above seven feet
high, it can be cut with cradle scythes, similar to those used for
wheat, (only larger and stronger,) at the rate of an acre per day;
but if above this height, hooks must be used, full three inches
wide, of a corresponding thickness, and about two and a half feet
long, something in the shape of a brush scythe or sickle, attached
to the end of a long and nearly straight snath, and with these
half an acre is considered a good day's work.
Drying and Securinq. — As fast as cut, spread the hemp an
the ground where it was grown, taking care to keep the butts
even, when if the weather be dry and warm, it will be cured
in' three days. As soon as sufficiently dried, commence binding
into convenient sheaves, and if destined for water rotting, it ought
to be transported to dry ground convenient to the pools, and then
secured in round stacks, carefully thatched on the top to keep
out the rain; but if designed for dew rotting, it should be secured
in the same field where grown in large ricks. The reason why
these are to be preferred is, that less of the hemp in them is
exposed to the weather, and of course the more and better the
lint when it comes to be rotted and broken out.
The Ricks should be thirty to forty feet long, and fifteen to
twenty feet wide, the best foundation for which is large rails or
logs laid down for the bottom course, six feet from each other,
then lay across these, rails or poles one foot apart. As the hemp
is bound in sheaves, let it be thrown into two rows, with suffi-
cient space for a wagon to pass between. While the process
of taking up and binding is going on, a wagon and three hands,
two to pitch and one to load, is engaged in hauling the hemp to
the rick, and stacking it. The rick should be in a central part
so as to require the hemp to be removed as short a distance as
possible. Thus the process of taking up, binding, hauling, and
ricking, all progress together. In this way five hands will put
up a stout rick in two days and cover it. By having two
11*
250
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
wagons and ten hands, it may be accomplished in one day. It
is proper to remark, that for making the roof of the rick, it is
necessary to have long hemp, from which the leaves should be
beat off. In this state only will hemp make a secure roof^ —
Beatty.
In laying down the hemp, begin with the top ends of the
bundle inside, and if they do not fill up fast enough to keep the
inside of the rick level, add as occasion may require, whole
bundles. Give it a rounded elliptical form at each end, and as it
rises it must be widened so as to make the top courses shelter the
bottom ones, and after getting up about twelve feet high, then
commence for the roof, by laying the bundles crosswise, within a
foot of the edges of the rick, building the top up roof- shaped, of
a slope at an angle of about forty-five degrees. This finished, 'for
the covering of the roof lay up the bundles at right angles to its
length, the butt ends down, and the first course resting on the
rim of the rick as left all around, one foot in width. Lap the
bundles in covering the roof in courses, precisely as if shingling
a house. The first shingling thus finished, commence the second
by reversing the bundles, placing the top ends down, and then go
on lapping them as before. The third course of shingling begin
with the butt ends down again, letting the first course hang at
least one foot below the edge of the roof, as eaves to shed off the
rain well from the body of the stack. Unbind the bundles, and
lay the covering at least one foot thick with the loose hemp, lap-
ping well shingle fashion as before, and for a weather board, let
the top course come up above the peak of the roof about three
feet, and be then bent over it, towards that point of the compass
from which the wind blows least. If the work has been faithfully
performed, the rick may be considered as finished, and weather
proof, and it requires no binding with poles or anything else.
The rick should be made when the weather is settled and certain,
for if rain falls upon it during the process, it will materially injure
the hemp. There ought always to be a sufficient number of
hands in the field to gather, bind the shocks, and finish the ricking
in a single day.
HEMP.
251
Time of Dew Rotting — The best time for spreading hemp
for dew rotting, is in the month of December. ''It then receives
what is called a winter rot, and makes the lint of the hemp a
light color, and its quality better than if spread out early. But
where a farmer has a large crop, it is desirable to have a part of
his hemp ready to take up Jate in December, so that he may
commence breaking in January. To accomplish this object, a
part of his crop may be spread about the middle of October. It
would not be prudent to spread earlier, as hemp will not obtain
a good rot if spread out when the weather is warm. The experi-
enced hemp-grower is at no loss to tell when hemp is sufficiently
watered. A trial of a portion of it on the break will be the best
test for those w^ho have not had much experience. When suffi-
ciently watered, the stalks of the hemp lose that hard, sticky
appearance or feel, which they retain till the process is completed.
The lint also begins to separate from the stalk, and the fibres will
show themselves somewhat like the strings of a fiddle-bow attached
to the stalk at two distant points, and separate in the middle.
This is a sure indication that the hemp has a good rot.
SHOCKma after Breaking and Rotting. — " When hemp is
fit to be taken up, it should be immediately put in shocks, with-
out binding, of suitable siza If it is dry, the shocks should be
immediately tied with a hemp band, by drawing the tops as
closely together as possible, in order to prevent the rain from wet-
ting the inside. If carefully put up and tied, they will turn rain
completely. Each shock should be large enough to produce from
fifty to sixty pounds of lint. If the hemp should be considerably
damp, when taken up, the shocks should be left untied at the
tops until they have time to dry. If shocks are not weU put up,
they are liable to blow down by a strong wind. To guard against
this, it is desirable, when commencing a shock, to tie a band
around the first armful or two that may be set up, and then raise
up the parcel so tied, and beat it well against the ground so as to
make it stand firmly in a perpendicular direction. The balance
of the shock should now be set regularly around the part as herein
252
AMERICAN AGRICULTUEE.
directed. If hemp be carefully shocked, it will receive little or
no injury till the weather becomes warm. In the meantime it
should be broke out as rapidly as possible. If the operation be
completed by the middle of April, no material loss will be sus-
tained. If delayed to a later period, more or less loss of lint will
be the consequence. Cool, frosty weather is much the best for
hemp breaking. In that state of the weather, if the hemp is good,
first rate hands on the common hemp-break, will clean two hund-
red pounds per day, upon an average. Two of my best hands,
during the past season, for every day they broke, favorable and
unfavorable, averaged one hundred and eighty-six pounds. Two
others, who are young men, and not full hands, averaged one
hundred and forty-four pounds. The ordinary task for hands is
one hundred pounds." — Beatty.
Hemp-break. — The hand hemp-break is made precisely like
that for flax, only much larger; the under slats on the hinder end
are sixteen to eighteen inches apart; at the fore end they approach
within three inches of each other. The slats in the upper jaw,
are so placed as to break joints into the lower one, as it is brought
down on to the hemp. It is a machine so common, however,
that we deem further description unnecessary. After breaking
out the hemp, it is twisted into bunches, and sent to the press
house to be baled, and is then transported to market. We are
happy to say that an effective hemp and flax breaking and
hetchehng machine has lately been brought into use, and sold
by the larger dealers in agricultural implements throughout the
country.
Water Rotting.— We think the best plan for water rotting
is in vats under cover, the water in which is kept at an equable
temperature. The hemp thus gets a perfect rot at all seasons of
the year, in seven or ten days, and when dried, is of a bright,
greenish, flaxen color, and is considered by many, of a better
quahty, and appears as handsomely as the finest Russian, and
brings as high a price in market. These vats may be easily con-
structed and managed, and if built in a central position, by a
HEMP.
253
company of planters on joint account, they would be but of small
expense to each, and all in turn could be accommodated by tbem.
The hemp is first broken in a machine, which is moved by steam
power, previous to rotting; this lessens the bulk greatly, by rid-
ding it of most of its woody fibre ; but the process is not essential
to rotting in vats, and can be dispensed with where the machines
do not exist. If it be rotted in spring or river water, artificial
pools or vats must be formed for this purpose, and should not be
over three feet deep, otherwise the hemp is liable to an unequal
rot. It will require plank placed upon it, weighed down with
timbers or stones, in order to keep it well under water. Mr.
Myerle recommends vats forty feet long, twenty feet wide, and
two feet deep, as best, and the most convenient, for the reason
that the hemp -is kept cleaner while rotting, and the hands can
lay it down in the vats and take it out without getting wet, which
is very important to the health of the laborer. These vats also
greatly facilitate the operation, and can be fed with water and
have it run off at pleasure, without endangering loss from the
hemp. Water rotting in streams, requires a longer or shorter
period, according to the season. In September, when the water
is warm, ten days is generally sufficient ; in October, about fifteen,
and in December, thirty days or more. For the latitude of Ken-
tucky, October and November are considered the best months
for the operation, and perhaps is the easier done, gives more lint,
and upon the whole, as good a sample as if deferred later.
Kaising Hemp Seed.— It is important that the farmer should
be suppHed with good seed, which is free from weeds, and this he
can only be certain of when he produces it himself. This requires
another system of cultivation, but similar soil, which should be
in the finest condition as to fertihty and pulverization. An old
pasture or meadow, heavily manured and plowed in the fall, and
well pulverized in the spring, furnishes the best soil. We again
quote from Judge Beatty's valuable essay on practical agriculture :
"The seed should be planted as we do corn, either in hills or
drills. I prefer the former, because it admits of easier and better
254
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE^
cultivation, as the plow can be used both ways. It is usual to
plant five feet apart, each way, and suffer four or five stalks to
stand in a hill until the blossom hemp is removed, and then reduce
the number so as not to exceed two stalks' in a hill. Thus there
would be two seed plants for each twenty-five square feet. It
would be a better practice to make the hills three feet six inches
apart, each way, and thin the hemp to three stalks in a hill, till
the blossom hemp appears, and at the proper time cut out the
blossom or male hemp ; and, if necessary, a part of the seed hemp,
so as to reduce the latter to one stalk in the hill. If each hill
should contain one stalky there would be two seed stalks for each
twenty-four and a half square feet. This will give a greater
number of seed stalks per acre than planting five feet each way,
and leaving two in a hill. According to this plan, each seed
plant will stand by itself, and, having its appropriate space of
ground, can spread its branches without obstruction. According
to the other plan, two seed plants, standing together, will obstruct
each other, in putting forth lateral branches, and can scarcely be
expected to produce twice as much as the single stalk.
''The ground for hemp seed, having been well prepared by at
least two plowings, and a number of harrowings, sufficient to
pulverize the ground, it should be laid off as above directed, and
planted in the same manner as corn, except that the seed need
not be covered more than ah inch and a half deep. Twelve or
fifteen seed should be dropped in each hill, which should be
somewhat scattered to prevent them from being too much crowded
in the hill. Though good seed is certain to come up, yet it is
prudent to plant about the number suggested to guard against
casualties. Soon after the hemp seed comes up, a small shovel
plow should be run through, both ways, once in a row. If the
ground is not foul, the plowing may be delayed till the hemp is a
few inches high, which will enable the plowman to avoid throw-
ing the dirt on the tender plants. The hoes should follow the
second plowing, and clean away the w^eeds, if any, in or near
the hill, and thin out the hemp to seven or eight stalks. These
HEMP.
255
should be the most thrifty plants, and separated from each other.
The plowing should be repeated from time to time, so as to keep
the ground light and free from weeds. And when the plants are
about a foot or a foot and a half high, the hoes should again go
over the ground and cut down any weeds or grass which may
have escaped the plow. The plants should be still further thinned
out, at this time, leaving but four in a hill, and some fine mold
drawn around the plants, so as to cover any small weeds that
may have come up around them.
"After seed hemp has attained the height of a foot and a half,
it will soon be too large to plow, but it ought to have one plow-
ing after the last hoeing. The ground, by this time, will have
become so much shaded by the hemp plants, as to prevent the
weeds from growing, so as' to do any injury, and nothing more
need be done but for a boy to follow the plow, and (if three and
a half feet be the distance of the hills apart,) reduce the number
of plants invariably to three^ taking care to remove those which
the last plowing may have broken or injured, by the treading of
the horse or otherwise. The next operation will be to cut out
the blossom or male hemp. This, according to the opinion of
some farmers, should be done as soon as the blossom begins to
show, in order to make room for the seed hemp to grow and
spread its branches. This opinion must be taken with some
allowance. The farina or pollen of the male hemp is necessary
to fertilize the seed bearing plants. The seed of the latter would
be wholly unproductive, if the whole of the male hemp should
be cut before its pollen has been thrown out. It is important to
cut the male hemp as soon as it has performed its office, because
much room is thereby afforded to the seed bearing plants to spread
their branches.
*'When the seed hemp has so far advanced as readily to dis-
tinguish the male from the female plants, let all the blossom hemp
be cut out, except one stalk in every other hill, and every other
row. This would leave one stalk of male hemp for every four
hills. These, together with the stalks which should thereafter
256
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
blossom, would be sufficient to fertilize all the seed bearing plants,
and secure a crop perfect seed. After the blossom plants, thus
left, have been permitted to remain until -they have pretty well
discharged their pollen, (which can be easily ascertained by dust
ceasing to flow from them when agitated,) they, also, should be
cut down. Some farmers top the seed plants, when five or six
feet high, to make them branch more freely, but this is not neces-
sary where but one or two seed bearing plants are suffered to
remain in each hill."
A seed bearing hemp crop is a great exhauster of land, while
such as is grown only for the fibre takes but a moderate amount
of fertilizing matter from the soil. Unlike most crops sown
broadcast, it grows with such strength and luxuriance, as to keep
the weeds completely smothered, and it may therefore be grown
for many successive seasons on the same field. Its entire mo-
nopoly of the ground, prevents the growth of clover, or the grains
in connection with it.
The seed yields an oil of inferior value, and when cooked, it
affords a fattening food for animals.
COTTON, (gOSSYPIUM,)
Has, for many years past, been the leading agricultural export
of the United States. Its enormous product has mainly grown
up within the last sixty years. Even as late as 1825, our total
production was within 170,000,000 pounds. The introduction
of Whitney's cotton gin, in the latter part of the last century,
gave the first decided movement towards the growth of American
cotton. Previous to this invention the separating of the cotton
seed from the fibre was mostly done by hand, and the process
was so slow and expensive as to prevent any successful compe-
tition with the foreign article. This incomparable invention,
which cleaned one thousand pounds in the same time a single
pound could be cleaned without it, overcame the only obstacle
to complete success, and millions of acres of the fertile lands of
the South and West are now annually covered with the snowy
product.
COTTON.
257
Climate and Soil. — Cotton will grow in some of the Middle
States, but with little profit north of the Carolinas and Ten-
nessee. The soil required is a drj, rich loam.
Cultivation. — During the winter, the land intended for
planting should be thrown up in beds by turnings several furrows
together. These beds should be four feet from center to center
for a moderate quality of upland soil, and five feet for the low-
land. But these distances should be increased with the increas-
ing strength of the soil, to seven and eight feet for the strongest
lands. Those may lie until the time of planting, from the twen-
tieth of March to the twentieth of April, when no further danger
from frost is apprehended ; then harrow thoroughly, and with a
light plow mark the center of the beds, and sow at the rate of
two to five bushels of seed per acre. A drilling machine might
be made to answer this purpose better, and save much time.
An abundance of seed is necessary to provide for the enemies
of the plant, which are frequently very destructive. If all the
seed germinates, there will be a large surplus of plants, which
must be removed by thinning. The kind of seed used for
uplands is Mexican and Petit-Gulf, both of the same variety, but
the last is better selected and has been kept pure.
There is an advantage in mixing the seed before it is sown,
with moistened ashes or gypsum, as it faciUtates sowing and ger-
mination. The seed should be buried from one-half to one and
a half inches, and the earth pressed closely over it. The subse-
quent cultivation is performed with various instruments: the bull-
tongue or scooter, the shovel, double shovel, the sweep, the
harrow, the cultivator and the hoe. One or more of the former
must be used to pulverize the land and uproot and clean off the
weeds; while the last is necessary to carry this operation directly
up to the stem of the plants. The culture is thus summarily
stated by Dr. Phillips:
" Commence clearing the cotton early; clean it well; return
to it as soon as possible, throw earth or mold to the young plants,
and if the ground be hard, give it a thorough plowing; keep the
earth light and mellow, and the plants clear of grass and weeds."
258
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
The plants are thinned at every hoeing, till thej attain a height
of three or four inches, when two or three are allowed to stand
together at intervals of about eight inches for a medium quality
of soil. This distance should be largely in.creased when it is
richer. ,
Cotton is subject to the cut and army worm, the slug and cat-
erpillar, cotton hce, rot, sore shin and rust. We have seen no
remedies prescribed for either, but we suggest for experiment the
exposure of the two former to frost, by plowing just before its
appearance. The free use of lime and salt and similar manures
might arrest or mitigate the effects of all. Birds should also be
encouraged upon the fields, as they would destroy numbers of
the worm and insect tribes. It has been claimed that the intro-
duction of the Mexican and Petit-Gulf varieties is the most
effectual remedy, as they furnish hardier kinds, which are less
the object of attack and have a greater ability to withstand it.
Harvesting is commenced when the bolls have begun to
expand and the cotton is protruded, and this is continued from
time to time as the bolls successively ripen and burst their cap-
sules. It is done entirely by hand, the picker passing between
two rows and gleaning from each. The cotton is placed in a
bag capable of containing fifteen or twenty pounds, which is
hung upon his shoulders or strapped upon his breast. These are
emptied into large baskets, which are taken,, when filled, to the
gin-house. We quote again from Dr. Phillips :
''Having all things ready for picking cotton, I commence as
usual, early, as soon as the hands can gather even twenty pounds
each. This is advisable, not only in saving a portion of that
from being destroyed, if rains should fall, which often do at this
season, (about the middle of August,) but for another reason;
passing through the cotton has a tendency to open out to sun and
air the hmbs that have interlocked across the rows, and hastens
the early opening. On low grounds, especially, much loss is
incurred in some seasons from the want of the sun to cause an
expansion of the fibre within the boll, so as to cause it to open.
COTTON.
259
. The boll is composed of five divisions, in each of which there is
a parcel of cotton wool surrounding each seed, there being sev-
eral in each loch of cotton. When green, these fibres he close
to the seed, and as it ripens, the fibres become elastic, the boll
becoming hard and brownish.
"The Sea Island has only three divisions, as also the Egyptian,
which is only the Sea Island of the best variety, with black seed,
smooth, and a yellowish tuft of fibres on the small end ; they are
both from Pernambuco. Some of the cotton we plant has only
four divisions, but I think five generally. There is a peculiar
art in gathering the cotton from the boll, which, like handling
stock, can only be acquired by practice ; many gather equally
fast with either hand. The left hand seizes the stem near the
open boll, or the boll between the two middle fingers, the palm
of the hand up ; the fingers of the right hand are inserted toler-
ably low down in the boll, a finger on each lock of cotton ; then,
as the fingers grasp it, there is a slight twisting motion, and a
quick pull, which, if done well, will extract the contents, the
boll being open, and the bottom of the locks not gummy to
adhere.
" There is a vast difference in hands — ^not the quickest making
the best pickers — a steady, clocklike motion, with some quickness,
is necessary to gather fast. A neighbor of mine, when a young
man, some ten years since, gathered four hundred pounds, which
was at that time the best I had known ; this has been beaten
since, by aiding the hand in emptying his sacks, and almost
feeding and watering him while at work.
" Cotton should be gathered from the field as clean as possible,
taken to the scafiblds and dried until the seed will crack when
pressed between the teeth ; not crush or mash, but crack with some
noise. It should be frequently turned over and stirred, (all the
trash and rotten pods taken out while this is being done,) so as
to insure its drying earlier.
*'If seeds are wanted for planting, gin the cotton immediately,
and spread the seed over the floor some five inches thick, until
260
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
perfectly drj. If the cotton seed be not wanted, pack the seed •
cotton away into the house, to remain until a gentle heat is dis-
covered, or until sufficient for ginning ; after it has heated until
a feeling of warmth to the hand, and -it looks as if pressed
together, open out and scatter to cool. This cotton will gin
faster, have a softer feel, is not so brittle, therefore not so hable
to break by rapidity of gin, and has a creamy color; the wool
has imbibed a part of the oil that has exuded by the warmth of
seed, and is in fact restored to the original color ; for the oil being
vegetable, it is dissipated by sun and air, and the color by moisture
(of rain and dews) and light. I have known of a number of
sales made of this description of cotton, and even those who are
most strenuous against the heating, admit it bore a better
price." The cotton is then ginned and baled, when it is ready
for market.
Topping Cotton between the twentieth of July and twen-
tieth of August, is practiced by many planters with decided
success. It is thought by the foregoing authority, highly ben-
eficial in dry seasons, but not in wet, and that in three years out
of five, it is attended with particular advantage to the crop.
Sea Island Cotton requires in many respects a treatment
unlike that of the upland. We insert an article by Thomas
Spalding, Esq., who has long been engaged in its cultivation.
^'The Sea Island cotton was introduced into Georgia from the
Bahamas; the seed was from a small island near St. Domingo,
known as Arguilla, then producing the best cotton of the Western
world. It in no way resembles the Brazil cotton, which is the
kidney seed kind, introduced some years later, and which after
trial, was rejected in Georgia. This seed came in small parcels
from the Bahamas in the winter of 1785. It gradually and
slowly made its way along the coast of Georgia, and passed into
Carolina, from the year 1790 to 1792. The winter of 1786 in
Georgia, was a mild one, and although the plants of the Sea
Island cotton that year had not ripened their seed, it being a
perennial, and subject only to be killed by frost, it started the
COTTON.
261
next season (1787) from the roots of the previous year, its seed
ripened, and the plants became accHmated. Many changes have
come over this seed since that time, from difference of soil, of
culture, and local position; and above all, from careful selection
of seed. But it requires to be discovered, that what is gained
in fineness of wool, is lost in the quality and weight of the pro-
duct; for in spite of a zeal and intelligence brought to act upon
the subject without parallel, the crops are yearly diminishing;
until to grow Sea Island cotton is one of the most profitless pur-
suits within the limits of the United States.
^'The Culture. — When the Sea Island cotton seed was
introduced in 1786, it was planted in hills prepared upon the
level field, at five feet each way ; but it was soon learned, that
of all plants that grow, it is in its first vegetation and early stage
the most tender; liable to suffer by storms, by wind, by drought,
and by excess of rain. The quantity of seed was therefore
increased, and the plants multiplied, until, as in most other cases,
one extreme produced another. For many years, however,
among experienced planters, the course is to divide their
enclosed fields into two portions; the one at rest, the other in
culture.
"PREPARiNa THE Land FOR THE Crop. — Early in February,
any hands not engaged in preparing the previous crop for market,
are employed in cleaning up the rested fields, and either in burn-
ing off the fennel weeds and grass of the previous year, or in
listing them in at five feet apart, to serve as the base of the
future ridges or bed. There is much difference of opinion, upon
the subject of burning or listing in ; for myself, I am inclined to
take the first opinion, believing that the light dressing of ashes
the field receives from burning off, is more beneficial to the soil
than the decay of the vegetable matter, and renders it less liable
to produce what is a growing evil, the rust, a species of blight,
much resembling the rust or bhght upon wheat, and which takes
place about the same period, just as the plant is putting out and
preparing to ripen its fruit.
262
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
"Ridging. — The land being listed in short lines across the
entire field, at five feet apart, the operation of ridging is com-
menced about the first of March. The ridges occupy the entire
surface; that is, the foot of one ridge commencing where the other
ridge ends, and rising about eight inches above the natural level
of the land, thus presenting a surface almost as smooth, and
almost as deeply worked as a garden bed. This ridging is carried
on but a few days ahead of the planting. The ridge, if the oper-
ation has been carefully done, is from two to two and one-half
feet broad at the top ; it is then trenched on the upper surface with
the hoe, six inches wide, and fi-om three to six inches deep,
depending upon the period of planting.
"Planting. — In the beginning, if the seed is covered more
than two inches with soil, the soil will not feel the influence of
the sun, and the seed will not vegetate later; that is, in April up
to the first of May, you must give from three to four inches of
covering to preserve the moisture, or there, too, you fail from an
opposite cause, the wind and burning influence of the sun drying
the soil too much for vegetation. In most countries, after sowing
the seed the roller is applied; but in cotton planting, in our
ridge-husbandry, the foot, in covering the seed and pressing down
the earth well supphes its place.
"Quantity of Seed per Acre. — A bushel of seed is gener-
ally sown to the acre; I beheve half a bushel is better, for where
the evil comes, whether the worm, or wind, or drought, or wet,
there is no security in the many; but on the contrary, where
they come up thin, they soon grow out of the way of injury from
any enemy.
"After Culture. — The cultivation of Sea Island cotton is
carried on by the hand hoe, and the quantity always limited to
four acres to the laborer. The operation of weeding commences
as soon as we finish planting, because in our flat and sandy soils
the grass seed springs with the first growth of the cotton, and by
the time we finish planting, say the first of May, what we planted
in March requires the hoe. The land is kept in the operation of
COTTON.
263
lioeing and weeding as far as may be, at its original level, the
beds neither increased or diminished, that rains which generally
fall with beating power, and in redundant quantity, in the month
of August, may as little as possible injure the growing plants,
which are then in full bearing. The young cotton is thinned out
slowly at from six to twelve inches apart on the ridge, by the
tenth of June. As soon as the rains commence, which is about
the last of July, it is wise to leave nature to herself, and no
longer disturb the soil; four hoeings if well done, and the grass
well picked at each hoeing, is enough ; nor does any aftergrowth
of grass do injury.
"Manures and Soiling Stock. — For some years past, great
efforts have been made by the Sea Island planters, in manuring.
Much of the alluvion of our salt rivers have been collected, and
sometimes placed directly in heaps through the fields at rest, at
other times placed in cattle pens, on which cotton seed, and all
waste materials are strewn, and the cattle pounded up on it. But
what is preferred, is to pen our cattle near the river at night, and
cut salt grass, which covers these alluvion lands, and which is as
nutritious as so much clover. Great benefits will result from the
use of marl, I have no doubt, hereafi;er.
"Amount of Crop per Acre, and Picking. — It has been
stated already, that 500 pounds to the acre is about the medium
crop, which at twenty cents per pound, is to the planter $100 for
gross crop ; and from this hundred dollars is to be subtracted the
expense of cultivation, bagging, freight^ and expenses of sale."
The varieties which have been cultivated with success in the
United States, in addition to those enumerated, are the Rio^ with
a staple about three inches in length, of a glossy, silky texture,
brought from South America ; the Egyptian^ received from the
garden of Mehemet Ali, and grown in Louisiana fifi^een feet in
height; the Mastodon, lately introduced from Mexico, firm in
texture and highly productive ; the Chinese Silk Cotton, white,
soft, fine and silky ; the East India, growing to a height of four-
teen feet, and producing a beautiful fibre ; and the Nankeen, a
264
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
handsome staple of a true nankeen color, raised by the late Hon.
John Forsyth, of Georgia, and some other planters.
Cotton Seed. — The amount of seed in cotton is large, being
nearly 70 per cent, of the entire gathering, the fibre being about
28. This is used for various purposes. Sometimes it is pressed
for its oil, of which it yields from 15 to 20 per cent, of its own
weight. When thus treated, the cake is used for cattle food.
The seed is frequently though improperly fed raw to stock, and
this often proves fatal, especially to swine, besides being attended
with much waste. It is most advantageously prepared by boiling
for half an hour, when it will benefit all descriptions of stock.
By adding an equal quantity of corn and boiling them together
it will fatten swine rapidly. It is also useful to land as a manure.
THE SUGAR CANE, (sACCHARUM OFFICINARUM.)
The cultivation of the cane is an important branch of Southern
agriculture. Its first introduction into this country, is said to
have been in 1751, by some French Jesuits, who planted it on
the present site of New Orleans. But it was not until between
1794 and 1800, when the revolution in St. Domingo sent hundreds
of their planters into that State, that the growth of the cane
became an object of decided importance. They brought with
them the small yellow Creole, the only kind then cultivated in
the French West India islands. From these limited and compar-
atively recent beginnings, the product has rapidly increased, until
it has now become next to cotton, the great agricultural export
from the Southern States.
In Louisiana, the great sugar producing State, it has been cul-
tivated almost exclusively on the low or rich level lands; but
recently, the more elevated country has been used for it, and the
experiments have been such as to justify the expectation that
large quantities will hereafter be raised on the uplands. The
cane was brought to Georgia in 1805 from the island of Otaheite.
Its extension in some parts of that State and Florida was rapid,
until the breaking out of the late civil war in the Southern
SUGAR CANE.
265
States, and with the return of their accustomed industry, sugar
will again become a heavy staple in those States, and in some
portions of Texas.
Cultivation. — The first operation is to drain the land effectu-
ally with large open ditches, by which all the surface water is
removed. The ground is then thoroughly prepared with the
plow, and well harrowed if rough. "In Georgia," says Mr.
Spalding, "the cane was cultivated differently from what it was
elsewhere. It naturally took the course of cotton culture of the
sea-coast, to wit : ridges at five feet apart ; a trench was opened
on the top of the ridge, three inches deep, in which a double row
of cane plants were placed, cut about two feet long, and placed so
as the eyes which are alternate, should be on the sides, and then
covered with two inches of earth. This you may suppose in a
good season gives a continued line of stalks, not more than three
inches apart, and throwing up cane five or six feet, fit for the
mill. I have often supposed that there was growing of vegetable
matter to the acre, from thirty to forty tons, certainly containing
more nutritious matter for stock, than any other plant would give
upon the same surface. In Louisiana they planted altogether
with the plow, and had their trenches not more than two and a
half feet apart; they have since gradually widened their distance.
When I was there, they used generally the old French plow,
with a wheel at the end of the beam. With strong teams, they
plowed deep and better than anywhere I had seen in the South-
ern States. It was by means of the plow, that they planted so
many acres to the laborer; and again, because they had Httle
grass upon their river lands except the nut grass."
The cane may be planted any time between the months of
September and March ; but is usually done in January and Feb-
ruary, after the sugar making is completed. Some planters have
recently obtained large crops by planting in rows at a distance
of eight feet apart. After the frost has disappeared, the earth
is removed by the plow from each side of the cane, and the top
earth is scraped off to prevent early vegetation. It is then kept
12
266 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
clear of weeds and grass bj the frequent use of the hoe, till it
has produced suckers or shoots enough to afford a full stand. In
the latter part of May or early in June it should be hilled about
four inches, and then left unmolested till ready for the mill. The
cane begins to ripen at the bottom in August or September, and
advances upwards at the rate of about six inches per week, and
is usually fit for the mill by the middle of October.
Harvesting. — The cane is first topped while standing, which
consists in cutting off the upper end of the stalk as far as the
leaves are dry. The dry leaves are then stripped fi-om the stand-
ino- stalk, and the cane cut with a cane knife close to the ground,
and carried in carts to the mill, where it is at once passed through
the rollers for expressing the juice. This last is immediately put
into the kettles, boiled, skimmed, and reduced to the proper point
for granulation or conversion into sugar. The tops and leaves
are frequently left on the ground for manure, or used for stock
feeding, and sometimes they are planted. But it is better to use
the choicest whole cane for this purpose ; and when thus selected,
it is cut before fi-ost and laid down in beds or matelas one or two
feet in thickness, with the tops overlapping and occupying the
surface Hke shingles in a roof.
Cane is generally planted in this country once in three years,
and it continues to grow vigorously for this period from a single
planting. In St. Domingo, many of the cane fields are irrigated
from the mountain streams, by which the crop is largely increased,
and the ratoons or old plants last for several years. Mr. Spalding
places the average crop of the uplands in Georgia at 500 pounds
of sugar per acre, and that of the bottom or river lands, at 1,000
pounds, while that of Louisiana is estimated at 800 pounds.
The crushed cane is frequently used for fuel where wood is scarce.
This is a wasteful custom, as it is a valuable food for stock.
Large quantities of the molasses have heretofore been used for
distilling into alcohol, but the manufacture of this has materially
lessened of late, and a salutary change has been made in its dis-
posal. When it would not bring a remunerating price for
SUGAR CANE.
267
exportation, as has sometimes been the case in the West Indies,
it has been mixed with other materials and fed to stock. It is
healthful and exceedingly fattening to animals. It may become
an economical question whether there cannot be found a mode of
drying and storing the expressed cane, or bagasse, to be cut up
in the same manner as hay, in a cutting box, and mixed with
ground grain, as food for farm stock, and thus consumed on the
plantations, where the cane is grown. Great quantities of hay
are annually shipped from the States north of the sugar region,
for consumption there, and why not use the bagasse as well? Its
fibre is woody, and perhaps harsh in its dried condition. But it
can be steamed or cooked in the manner that comparatively
worthless straw, mixed with grain meal, is cooked and fed to
dairy cows and other stock at the North. The sweetness is not
all expressed from the cane in the grinding mills, and much of
excellent nutriment still remains. The valuable quality of sweet-
ness still remaining in it is palatable to the cattle, and fattening
in its qualities. In the common way of its use as fuel, it is
comparatively, or if thrown away, altogether lost.
The blue ribbon is the most prolific and extensively cultivated
variety on the rich lands of Louisiana. The Otaheite is largely
raised, and with the Creole or Brazilian, (now nearly superseded,)
makes up the cultivated varieties of the United States.
The Cane Coverer, recently invented by Mr. Bryan, it is
affirmed, will save a large amount of labor, a boy and span of
horses covering with it ten acres in a day, and it is equally effi-
cient in removing the earth from the cane. The hydraulic press
has been lately introduced for expressing the cane juice, which it
does at the rate of 6,000 gallons in* every ten hours, either by
manual labor or with the aid of a couple of mules. The advant-
ages claimed for it are numerous and striking. The appUcatio'r
of steam to the manufacture of sugar, has been generally intro-
duced into Louisiana and the other sugar States, by which 18,000
pounds have been made in twenty-four hours, with great economy
and advantage.
268
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
SORGHUM SUGAR CANE, (SORGIIUM SACCHARINUM.)
Within a few years past, this syrup producing plant has become
of great importance in the Middle and "Western States, as well
as in the Southern States lying north of the cane sugar zone, and
may possibly be rendered still more so, in the labor revolutions
which have lately taken place in the cane sugar regions.
It is an ancient plant, long cultivated in Asia and Africa, for
its saccharine qualities, and next to the tropical cane, perhaps
more productive than any other. Its success in making sugar
has not yet been profitably demonstrated in America, owing,
possibly, to imperfections in the mode of crystallization. But
if it will simply produce molasses, its value can be scarcely too
greatly magnified, in the economies of our soil productions.
There are several varieties, as the African Imphee, and others,
but the Chinese, now most generally cultivated, appears to be
most highly approved, for productiveness, and mild and pleasant
flavor.
Soil and Cultivation. — Like Indian corn, the sorghum is,
in its roots, deep and wide spreading, and hke that, requires a
thoroughly drained, warm, free, and good soil to promote its sweet
flavor — wet and cold soils contributing but slightly, or in a much
less degree, to its development. It should be planted, too, at
about the same season as corn, and receive frequent and clean
cultivation. Heavy, unctions barn-yard manures should not be
apphed to the crop, giving it too rank a growth. Well rotted, or
compost manures are better, or it may be grown on soils succeed-
ing a crop to which such manures have been previously and
lately applied. Lime, ashes, salt, guano, and the phosphates gen-
erally, are excellent manures, giving a medium growth to the
stalk, and promoting the development of the saccharine juice in
a higher degree than the more stimulating humus of the heavier
fertilizers. It is, in fact, a cultivation by itself, but no more
intricate, or difficult, than that of Indian corn, the proper • land
being once selected; and as a general rule, good corn land will
produce good sorghum.
SORGUM. 269
In growth it much resembles broom corn, being small when it
first comes up, and should be planted, and, in its early stages,
worked pretty much like it. It also tassels out somewhat like it,'
only that the seed stems run up pointedly, instead of equally.
Time and Manner of Haryesting.— This should be done
before the first sharp autumnal frosts. The sorgho ripens
unequally, or unevenly rather, some stalks being fit to cut a few
days before others; but as it should not be left to fully ripen
before cutting, this inequality in maturity, when favorably grown,
is of no particular injury. It should be cut near the ground ; the
two top joints be cut off and thrown aside, bein^ too weak and
crude in their sap to add to the quality of the cane below.
As soon after cutting as possible, it should be removed to the
crushing, or grinding mill, and put under cover from storms, or
the drying heat of the sun, that its juices be not tainted by mold,
or too much dried by condensation, to be easily expressed. As'
soon after cutting as possible, the canes should go into the mill
for crushing.
Grinding, Etaporation, and its Manufacture into
Syrup.— This is a process by itself, and through which the ordi-
nary farmer, who rears the crop only for his own family supply,
cannot enter profitably to the best advantage. A detail of its
fiill operation, would require a treatise far beyond the limits of
our work, but which, fortunately, is well understood in all neigh-
borhoods where sorghum is grown, and easily learned by any
intelhgent inquirer. It is a simple process, so far only as the
makmg of syrup is concerned, while its further manufacture into
sugar requires the aid of chemicals, and an educated study into
its varied and more intricate processes.
Mills made of iron, and driven by either horse, steam, or water
power, are extensively made for the purpose of crushing, while
boilers, or evaporators, speciaUy made for that object, are attached
to complete the operation, from which the finished article is drawn
off and barrelled for consumption. The mills are of various
capacity, suited to the amount of cane grown in their immediate
270
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
vicinity, accommodating many different growers of the cane, and
in such way only, is the syrup made really profitable.
Uses. — Where the cane is properly grown and manufactured,
the syrup is a mild, rich and delicious sweet — much superior to
the common West India, or New Orleans molasses in most kinds
of cookery, or to eat on puddings, or cakes, when such flavoring
is required. Where it can be readily produced, it is an article of
cheap cultivation, and great household economy. In such locali-
. ties, its production should be recommended, more or less, as a por-
tion of the farm crop, for syrup, if nothing else.
Its manufacture into sugar, as yet, has not been particularly
successful, although further trials may, it is hoped, result in emi-
nent success. Should it so result, an tmtold source of wealth
and luxury may be found in wide portions of the country now
dependent on other climates and countries, which draw off no
small amount of the avails of other portions of our industry.
MAPLE SUGAR.
The rock, hard or sugar maple tree, {Acer Saccharinum^) is
among our most beautiful shade, and most valuable forest trees,
and it stands next to the sugar cane and sorgho in the readiness,
and abundance with which it yields the material for cane sugar.
When refined, there is no difference either in appearance or
quality between the sugar from the cane, the maple, or the beet.
In the brown state, the condition in which it is sent to market,
when made with care and formed into solid cakes, it retains its
peculiar moisture and rich aromatic flavor, which makes it more
acceptable to the nibblers of sweets, than the most refined and
highly scented lon-hons of the confectioner. The quantity made
in this country, is very large, though from the fact of its domestic
consumption, and its seldom reaching the large markets, there is
no estimate of the aggregate production which will come very
near the truth. Both the sugar and syrup are used for every
purpose for which the cane is employed.
The sugar maple extends from the most northern limits of
Maine and the shores of Lake Superior, to the banks of the Ohio.
MAPLE SUGAR. // 271 *
Further south, it is rarely found. The cane and mapl^approaik/fii^
each other, but scarcely meet, and never intermingle as^^als in ^
the peculiar region which nature has assigned to each, fe'soi^ier ^
sections of the country, the sugar maple usurps almost the entire
soil, standing side by side, like thick ranks of corn, yet large and
lofty, and among the noblest specimens of the forest. The writer
has thus repeatedly seen them around the Manitouwoc river, near
the coast of Lake Michigan, in Wisconsin, and in the beautiful
sugar orchards of the same country, where, unlike the others,
they grow in open land among the rich native grasses, their tops
graceful and bushy like the cultivated tree, and but for their
great numbers and extent, and their more picturesque grouping,
one would think the hand of taste and civilization had directed
what nature alone has accomplished. And amid those beautiful
orchards, or in the depths of those dense, dark woods, the Indian
wigwam and the settler's rude cabin may of late been seen,
filled with the solid cakes and mokoks,* which contain from
thirty to sixty pounds of their coarse grained, luscious sugar.
The season for drawing and crystallizing the sap, is in early
spring, when the bright sunny days and clear frosty nights give
it a full and rapid circulation. The larger trees should be selected
and tapped by an inch auger, to the depth of an inch or more,
but not through the alburnum of the wood, the hole inclining
downward, to readily pass off the sap. At the base of this, a
sharp, gouge shaped piece of galvanized sheet iron, a few inches
long, and an inch to an inch and a half wide, should be driven into
the bark, to conduct the sap into the bucket below.
It is contended, however, by many good and experienced sugar
makers, that it is a better way to lox the trees by cutting with a
gouge, a narrow, slanting t^j9t(;ar(i channel, three or four inches
* Mo-kok— An Indian sack or basket, with flattish sides and rounded ends, similar
in fashion to a ladies' traveling satchel. They are made perfectly tight, of strips
of white birch bark, sewed with thongs of elm. They make some of their sap
buckets of the same material, but different in form. The small mo-koks, tastefully
ornamented with various colored porcupine quills and filled with maple sugar, are
sold for toys.
272
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
long, an incli or so into the wood of the tree, and inserting the
iron spout below, as in the auger method, as it will draw an equal
or a greater amount of sap, and sooner heal over, with less
detriment to the tree, and in much less time, as it is never tapped
during several successive years in the same place.
When the sugar season is over, if holes are bored, they should
be closely plugged, and the head cut off evenly with the bark,
which soon grows over the wound. If carefully managed, sev-
eral borings, or small cuts, during the same season, may be made
in a large and thrifty tree, without any apparent injury to it.
The barbarous, slovenly mode of half girdling the tree with an
ax, soon destroys it.
The sap is collected daily, with buckets which are carried on
the neck by a milkman's yoke to the boilers; or if the quantity
be great and remote from the sugar fires, by a hogshead placed
on a sled, with a large hole at the top, covered with a cloth
strainer, or a tunnel, similarly guarded, is inserted in the bung-
hole. The primitive mode of arranging the sugary, is with large
receiving troughs, (or much better, tanks,) placed near the fires,
capable of holding several hundred gallons of sap, and the boiling
kettles suspended on long poles supported by crotches.
The process of sugar making^ we give from the statement of
Mr. Woodworth, of Watertown, N. Y., who obtained the pre-
mium from the State Agricultural Society, for the best sample of
maple sugar, exhibited at the annual fair of 1844. We saw the
sample alluded to, and no maple sugar, or even any other kind, could
be purer or finer. Of later years, different and lighter made metal
evaporators than potash kettles, have come into use, somewhat
like the sorghum evaporators, in which a hght colored and purer
article is made, at less expense of manipulation. When such can be
obtained, and of unimpeachable quality in strength, we do not hes-
itate to recommend their use, instead of the old and heavier boilers.
The statement says: "In the first place, I make my buckets,
tubs, and kettles, all perfectly clean. I boil the sap in a potash
kettle, set in an arch in such a manner that the edge of the ket-
MAPLE SUGAR. 273
tie is defended all around from the fire. I boil through the day
taking care not to have anything in the kettle that will give color
to the sap, and to keep it well skimmed. At night I leave fire
enough under the kettle to boil the sap nearly or quite to syrup
by the next morning. I then take it out of the kettle and strain
It through a flannel cloth, into a tub, if it is sweet enough- if
not I put ,t in a caldron kettle, which I have hung on a pole' in
such a manner that I can swing it on and off the fire at pleasure
and boil It till it is sweet enough, and then strain it into the tub
and let it stand tiU the next morning; I then take it, and the
syrup m the kettle, and put it altogether in the caldron and sugar
It off. I used, to clarify say one hundred pounds of sugar, the
whites of five or six eggs, well beaten, about one quart of new
milk, and a spoonful of saleratus, all well mixed with syrup before
It IS scalding hot. I then make and keep a moderate fire directly
under the caldron, until the scum is all raised; then skim it off
clean, taking care not to let it boil so as to raise in the kettle
before I have done skimming it. -I then sugar it off, leaving it so
damp that it will drain a little. I let it remain in the kettlf untH
he bottom, that will hold from fifty to seventy pounds, having a
hm piece of board fitted in, two or three inches above the bot-
tom, which IS bored full of small holes to let the molasses drain
through, which I keep drawn off by a tap through the bottom
put on the top of the sugar in the box, two or tfree thick:!ssTs'
of lean, damp cloth, and over that a board, well fitted in so as to
exclude the air from the sugar. After it has done, or nearly don!
draimng, I dissolve it and sugar it off again, going through the
same process m clarifying and draining as before "
When sap is not immediately boiled, a small addition of lime
water shoula b. made to check fermentation, which prevents the
gram lation of he syrup. A single tree has yielded in one day
twen y.four gallons of sap, making over seven and a quarS
pounds o sugar; and in one season it made thirty-three pounds
Trees will give an average of two to six pounds in a single season
274
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
There are sugar maple lands throughout all our Northern and
Middle States, which in many locahties can be more profitably
devoted to sugar making, than almost anything else. These are
highly elevated, or rocky positions, with a warm, open soil,
where the maple grows freely, and the sap attains a remarkable
sweetness. They grow, too, on many frosty lands, where grain
cannot grow, and on hillsides, that cannot well be cultivated in
anything but pasturage. It is a question of calculation, therefore,
with the proprietor, with an original growth of trees upon such
lands, whether to let them remain for sugar making, or to clear
them for simply agricultural uses. Indeed, if devoted solely to
sugar, all other wood growth should be cut out, when the maples
stand thick enough, so that they may have the whole ground to
themselves, and let the sun and air into them, thus promoting
their growth and giving them an abundant flow of sap. In such
cases, the land can be sown in grass and afford considerable good
pasturage.
It is a long time to look ahead, perhaps, but we see no good
reason why certain favorable lands for the growth of maples, and
not valuable for much else, may not be planted, even, for future
sugar orchards. When grown to a foot in diameter near the
ground, they may be tapped and made productive.
TOBACCO, (nICOTIANA.)
This narcotic is a native of North America, and has been an
object of extensive use and cultivation in this country, since the
first settlement of Virginia, in the latter part of the sixteenth cen-
tury. It formed, for a long time, the principal export from that
colony and Maryland. Kentucky for many years has been a
large producer, exceeding even Virginia, and of late years, Mis-
souri and other Western States have embarked largely in its
growth. It is also cultivated to some extent in New York,
in the Connecticut valley, and some other locahties in New Eng-
land, where it is profitably produced for the making of cigars,
particularly wrappers.
TOBACCO.
275
The Soil may be a light loamj sand, or it may be alluvial,
well drained and fertile. New land, free of weeds and full of saline
matters, is best suited to it, and next to this is a rich grass sod,
which has long remained untilled. The seed should be sown in
beds which should be kept clean, as the plant is small and slow
of growth in the early stages of its existence, and is easily
smothered by weeds. If not newly cleared, the seed beds should
be burned with a heavy coating of brush.
Cultivation. — The beds should be well pulverized, and the
seed sown at the rate of a table spoonful to every two square
rods. The seeds are so minute, that sowing evenly is scarcely
attainable, unless by first mixing with three or four times its bulk
of fine mold. This should be done sufficiently early to secure
proper maturity to the plants, in time for transplanting, (say by
the last of February or early in March, south of the Ohio and
Potomac, and about the first of April, north of them,) covering
lightly, and completely rolling or treading down the earth. The
plant appears in fifteen or twenty days, and will be fit for trans-
planting in six or eight weeks. This should be done in damp
weather, and the plants set singly, at a distance of two and a
half to three feet each way. The after culture is like that of
corn, and consists of firequently stirring the ground, with the plow,
or cultivator and hoe, and keeping down weeds. The places of
such plants as fail, or are blighted, must be at once filled up, and
all worms destroyed.
The Pbiming, Topping and Suckering, are necessary opera-
tions. The first consists in breaking off four or five of the leaves
next the ground which are valueless ; the second is taking off the
top, to prevent the seed stalk from developing, and is regulated
by the kind of tobacco. The first topping will always admit of
a greater number of leaves being left ; and in proportion as the
season advances, fewer leaves should be left. The heavier kinds
of tobacco are generally topped, early in the season, to twelve
leaves, then to ten, and still later to eight. The fighter kinds are
topped to a greater number of leaves. If the soil is light, fewer
276
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
leaves should be left. Suckering consists in breaking off the
young side shoots, which should be done immediately after they
make their appearance.
Harvesting may be commenced with such plants as have
become sufficiently ripe, which is indicated by greenish, yellow
spots on the leaves. This will generally occur in August at the
South, and in September at the North. The stem of the plant is
cut near the ground, and allowed to wilt, but not exposed to a
hot sun. If there is danger of this, it should be cut only in the
morning or evening. When properly wilted, which will be in a
few hours, it may be carefully carried to the drying house, where
it should be hung up by twine tied to the butt end of the stalk,
and suspended over poles, at drying distances, with the head
downwards. The circulation of air is necessary in the drying
houses, but there must be entire safety against storms or winds,
as the leaves are Hable to break by agitation, and rain seriously
injures them. When the stem in the leaf has become hard, it is
sufficiently dried. This takes place in good weather, in two or
three months. The leaves may be stripped in damp weather,
when they will not crumble, and carefully bound in small bundles,
termed hands, and then boxed for shipment.
The Varieties of tobacco are numerous, not less than twelve
being cultivated in America, and they are adapted to the different
soils and climates where they are grown. The most fragrant are
produced in Cuba, and are almost exclusively used for cigars.
They command several times the price of ordinary kinds. The
leaves of the Connecticut river tobacco are now largely used as
cigar wrappers, being of excellent quality for that purpose. The
tobacco of Virginia, Maryland, Kentucky, and some adjoining
States, is peculiarly rich and high flavored, and is most esteemed
for chewing.
Much of the peculiar flavor and value of tobacco depends on
the soil, and the preparation or sweating of the plant after dry-
ing. The former should not be too rich, and never highly ma-
nured, as the %vor is thereby materially injured though the
/
INDIGO. 277
product will be increased. Yet it is an exhausting crop, as is
seen bj the large quantity and the analysis of the ash, and the
soil requires a constant renewal of well fermented manures, and
particularly the saline ingredients, to prevent exhaustion. To-
bacco contains nitrogen and the alkalies in large quantities, and
but very little of the phosphates. The ash is shown in the analy-
sis of Fresenius and Will, to consist of potash, 30.67; lime,
(mostly, with a little magnesia,) 33.36; gypsum, 5.60; common
salt, 0.95; phosphates, 6.03; silica, 18.39; in 100 parts of the
ash. The inferior kinds contain a large proportion of lime ; and
the superior, the largest of potash. The customary method of
burning fuel on the beds designed for tobacco, and the use of
freshly cleared and burnt lands, by which the largest crops of the
best quality are obtained, shows conclusively the proper treat-
ment required. By each of these operations, the ground is not
only loosened in the best possible manner, and all insects and
weeds destroyed, but the salts, and especially potash, are produced
in the greatest abundance. Some of the best soils in Virginia
have been ruined by a constant succession of tobacco crops, the
necessary result of neglect in supplying them with the constitu-
ents of fertility so largely abstracted. The yield per acre is gen-
erally from 1,500 to 2,500 pounds, and it is a profitable crop
when the best kinds are properly cultivated, under favorable cir-
cumstances of soil, climate, etc.
INDIGO, (iNDIGOFERA TINCTORIA,)
Was formerly cultivated at the South to a limited degree, but
the introduction of cotton and the great profits which it yielded,
and its consequent rapid extension, drove the culture of indigo
on to foreign soils. The increasing consumption of indigo in this
country, will probably again make it an object of agricultural
attention in those States where the soil and climate are suited to
It. We have no detailed history of its cultivation in the United
States, and we quote from Loudon. He says:
"It is one of the most profitable crops in Hindostan, because
labor and land here are cheaper than any where else; and
278 AMERICAN AGKIGULTURE.
because the raising of the plant and its manufacture may be car-
ried on without even the aid of a house. The first step m the
culture of the plant is to render the ground, which should be
friable and rich, perfectly free from weeds, and dry, if naturally
moist. The seeds are then sown in shallow drills, about a foot
apart. The rainy season must be chosen for sowing, otherwise,
if the seed is deposited in dry soil, it heats, corrupts, and is lost.
The crop being kept clear of weeds, is fit for cutting in two or
three months, and this may be repeated in rainy seasons every
six weeks. The plants must not be allowed to come into flower,
as the leaves in that case become dry and hard, and the indigo
produced is of less value; nor must they be cut in dry weather,
as they would not spring again. A crop generaUy lasts two
years. Being cut, the herb is first steeped in a vat till it has
become macerated, and has parted with its coloring matter; then
the hquor is let off into another, in which it undergoes the pecu-
har process of beating, to cause the fecula to separate from the
water. This fecula is let off into a third vat, where it remams
some time, and is then strained through cloth bags, and evapo-
rated in shallow wooden boxes placed in the shade. Before it is
perfectly dry, it is cut in smaU pieces of an inch square; it is then
packed in barrels, or sewed up in sacks, for sale."
Indigo can only be raised to advantage in our most southern
States. The soil requires to be dry, finely pulverized, and rich.
The seed is sown early in April, in drills about eighteen inches
apart, and the weeds are kept down with the hoe. It should be
cut with a sickle or scythe, when the lower leaves begin to turn,
and just before the plant is going into flower. This period occurs
in this country about the middle of summer. A second crop
may be taken the first of autumn, and in hotter climates even a
third one. '
It has been estimated that Louisiana wiU raise from forty to
sixty pounds of indigo, not inferior to the best Caraccas, selling
at two dollars per pound. It takes only from July to October
to mature, and it does not demand one-third of the time or
MADDER. 279
expense for raising, as that of a cotton crop. The consumption
of indigo in this country, amounts to several mHlions of dollars,
annuaUy. There are several varieties indigenous to the Southern
States, and one or more in the Northern, which yield inferior dye.
MADDER, (rUBIA TINOTORUM,)
Used for several dyes, but principally for the rich madder red,
has long been an object of attention in the United States!
The introduction of this, with numerous other articles consequent
upon the extended growth of our manufactures, shows the inti-
mate and mutuaUy beneficial effects of associating the two lead-
ing industrial occupations of agriculture and manufactures. The
principal cause which has prevented its cultivation among us,
thus far, has been the long time required for maturing a crop!
We subjoin a description of its culture, from Mr. Bateham.
Soil and Preparation.— "The soH should be a deep, rich,
sandy loam, free from weeds, roots, stones, etc., and containing a
good portion of vegetable earth. Alluvial bottom land is the
most suitable ; but it must not be wet. If old upland is -used, it
^should receive a heavy coating of vegetable earth, (from decayed
wood and leaves.) The land should be plowed very deep in the
fall, and early in the spring apply about one hundred loads of weU
rotted manure per acre, spread evenly, and plow in deeply,
then harrow till quite fine and free from lumps. Next, plow the
land into beds four feet wide, leaving alleys between, three feet
wide, then harrow the beds with a fine, light harrow, or rake
them by hand so as to leave them smooth, and even with the
alleys; they are then ready for planting.
Preparing Sets and Planting.— Madder sets, or seed roots,
are best selected when the crop is dug in the faH. The horizon!
tal uppermost roots, (with eyes,) are the kind to be used; these
should be separated from the bottom roots, and buried in sand,
in a cellar or pit. If not done in the fall, the sets may be dug early
m the spring, before they begin to sprout. They should be cut
or broken into pieces, containing from two to five eyes each; i. e.
280
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
three to four inches long. The time for planting is as early in
spring as the ground can be got in good order, and severe frosts
are over, which, in this climate, is usually about the middle of
April. With the beds prepared as directed, stretch a line length-
wise the bed, and with the corner of a hoe make a drill two
inches deep, along each edge and down the middle, so as to give
three rows to each bed, about two feet apart. Into these drills
drop the sets, ten inches apart, covering them- two inches deep.
Eight or ten bushels of sets are requisite for an acre.
After Culture. — "As soon as the madder plants can be
seen, the ground should be carefuUy hoed, so as to destroy the
weeds and not injure the plants; and the hoeing and weeding
must be repeated as often as weeds make their appearance. If
any of the sets have failed to grow, the vacancies should be
filled by taking up parts of the strongest roots and transplanting
them; this is best done in June. As soon as the madder plants
are ten or twelve inches high, the tops are to be bent down on
to the surface of the ground, and all except the tip end, covered
with earth, shoveled from the middle of the alleys. Bend the
shoots outward and inward, in every direction, so as in time to ^
fill all the vacant space on the beds, and about one foot on each
side. After the first time covering, repeat the weeding when
necessary, and run a single horse plow through the alleys several
times to keep the earth clean and mellow. As soon as the plants
again become ten or twelve inches high, bend down and cover
them as before, repeating the operation as often as necessary,
which is commonly three times the first season. The last time
may be as late as September, or later, if no frosts occur. By
covering the tops in this manner, they change to roots, and the
design is to fill the ground as full of roots as possible. When
the vacant spaces are all full, there will be but little chance for
weeds to grow ; but all that appear must be pulled out.
The Second Year. — "Keep the beds free from weeds; plow
the alleys and cover the tops, as before directed, two or three
times during the sep-son. The alleys will now form deep and
MADDEB. 281
narrow ditches, and if it becomes difficult to obtain good earth
for covering the tops, that operation may be omitted after the
second time this season. Care should be taken, when covering
the tops, to keep the edges of the beds as high as the middle;
otherwise the water from heavy showers wUl run off, and the
crop suffer from drought.
The Third Year.— « Very little labor or attention is required.
The plants will now cover the whole ground. If any weeds are
seen, they must be pulled out; otherwise their roots will cause
trouble when harvesting the madder. The crop is sometimes
dug the third year; and if the soil and cultivation have been
good, and the seasons warm and favorable, the madder will be
of good quality; but generally, it is much better in quahty, and
more m quantity, when left until the fourth year.
Digging and Harvesting.— " This should be done between
the twentieth of August and the twentieth of September. Take
a sharp shovel, or shovels, and cut off and remove the tops with
half an inch of the surface of the earth; then take a plow of the
largest size, with a sharp coulter and a double team, and plow
a furrow outward, beam deep, around the edge of the bed; stir
the earth with forks, and carefully pick out all the roots, remov-
mg the earth from the bottom of the furrow; then plow another
furrow, beam deep, as before, and pick over and remove the
earth m the same manner; thus proceeding untU the whole is
completed.
Washing and Drying.-"As soon as possible after digging
take the roots to some runnmg stream to be washed. If there
IS no runnmg stream convenient, it can be done at a pump Take
large, round sieves, two and a half or three feet in diameter, with
the wire about as fine as wheat sieves ; or if these cannot be had
get from a hardware store sufficient screen wire of the right fine-
ness, and make frames or boxes about two and a half feet long
and the width of the wire, on the bottom of which nail the wire
In these sieves or boxes, put half a bushel of roots at a time
and stir them about in the water, pulling the bunches apart so as
282
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
to wash them clean; then, having a platform at hand, lay them
on it to dry. (To make the platform, take two or three common
boards, so as to be about four feet in width, and nail elects across
the under side.) On these spread the roots about two inches
thick, for drying in the sun. Carry the platforms to a convenient
place, not far from the house, and place them side by side, in
rows east and west, and with their ends north and south, leaving
room to walk between the rows. Elevate the south ends of the
platforms about eighteen inches, and the north ends about six
inches from the ground, putting poles or sticks to support them ;
this will greatly facilitate drying. After the second or third
day's drying, the madder must be protected from the dews at
night, and from rain, placing the platforms one upon another, to
a convenient height, and covering the uppermost one with boards.
Spread them out again in the morning, or as soon as the danger
is over. Five or six days of ordinarily fine weather will dry the
madder sufficiently, when it may be put away till it is convenient
to kiln-dry and grind it.
Kiln-drying. — "The size and mode of constructing the kiln
may be varied to suit circumstances. The following is a very
cheap plan, and sufficient to dry one ton of roots at a time.
Place four strong posts in the ground, twelve feet apart one way,
and eighteen the other; the front two fourteen feet high, and the
others eighteen ; put girts across the bottom, middle and top ; and
nail boards perpendicularly on the outside as for a common barn.
The boards must be well seasoned, and all cracks or holes should
be plastered or otherwise stopped up. Make a shed roof of com-
mon boards. In the inside put upright standards about five feet
apart, with cross pieces, to support the scafiblding. The first
cross pieces to be four feet from the floor; the next two feet
higher, and so on to the top. On these cross pieces lay small
poles about six feet long and two inches thick, four or five inches
apart. On these scaffolds the madder is to be spread nine inches
thick. A floor is laid at the bottom, to keep all dry and clean.
When the kiln is filled, take six or eight small kettles or hand
woAD. 283
furnaces, and place them four or five feet apart on the floor, (first
securing it from fire with bricks or stones,) and make fires in
them with charcoal, being careful not to make any of the fires so
large as to scorch the madder over them. A person must be in
constant attendance to watch and replenish the fires. The heat
will ascend through the whole, and in ten or twelve hours it will
all be sufficiently dried, which is known by its becoming brittle
like pipe-stems.
BREAKiNa AND GRINDING. — "Immediately afler being dried,
the madder must be taken to the barn and threshed with flails, or
broken by machinery, (a mill might easily be constructed for this
purpose,) so that it will feed in a common grist mill. If it is not
broken and ground immediately, it will gather dampness so as to
prevent its grinding freely. Any common grist mill can grind
madder properly. When ground finely it is fit for use, and may
be packed in barrels like flour, for market."
, Mr. Swift, of Ohio, has raised 2,000 barrels per acre in one
crop of four years' growth, at a net profit, including all charges
of rent, etc., of $200 per acre. The roots of madder are also a
good food for cattle, but the expense and delay of producing it,
unfit it for this use among us.
WOAD, (iSATIS TINCTORIA,)
is considerably used in this country for dyeing, and generally
as a base for blues, blacks and some other colors, and for these it
supplies the place of indigo. There are several varieties of woad,
but the common biennial plant is the only one cultivated. Lou-
don says:
"The Soil for woad should be deep and perfectly fresh, such
as those of the rich, mellow, loamy, and deep vegetable kind.
"Where this culture is carried to a considerable degree of perfec-
tion, the deep, rich, putrid, alluvial soils on the flat tracts extend-
ing upon the borders of the large rivers, are chiefly employed for
the growth of this sort of crop ; and it has been shown by repeated
trials that it answers most perfectly when they are broken up for
it immediately from a state of sward.
284
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
''The preparation of the soil, when woad is to be grown on
grass land, maj either be effected by deep plowings, with the aid
of the winter's frost, cross plowing and harrowing in spring; by
paring and burning; or by trench plowing, or spade trenching.
The first mode appears the worst, as it is next to impossible to
reduce old turf in one year, and, even if this is done, the danger
from the grub and wire worm is a sufficient argument against it.
By plowing deep in February, and soon afterwards sowing, the
plants may germinate before the grub is able to rise to the sur-
face ; by trench plowing, the same purpose will be better attained ;
and, best of all, by spade trenching. But a method equally effect-
ual with the first, more expeditious, and more destructive to
grubs, insects, and other vermin, which are apt to feed on the
plants in their early growth, is that of paring and burning. This
is, however, chiefly practiced where the sward is rough and
abounds with rushes, sedge, and other plants of the coarse kind,
but it might be had recourse to on others, with benefit.
^ ^'The mode of Sowing is generally broadcast, but the plant
might be most advantageously grown in rows and cultivated with
the horse hoe. The rows may be nine inches or a foot apart, and
the seed deposited two inches deep. The quantity of seed for
the broadcast method is five or six pounds to the acre; for the
drill mode, two pounds are more than sufficient, the seed being
smaller than that of the turnip. New seed, where it can be
procured, should always be sown in preference to old ; but, when
of the latter kind, it should be steeped for sometime before it is
put into the ground. The time of sowing may be extended from
February to July. Early sowing, however, is to be preferred, as
in that case the plants come up stronger, and afford more produce
the first season. The after culture of the woad consists in hoeing,
thinning, prong-stirring, and weeding, which operations may be
practiced by hand or horse tools, as in the culture of teazel.
Gathering the Crops. — "The leaves of the spring sown
plants will generally be ready towards the latter end of June oi
beginning of July, according to the nature of the soil, season and
WOAD. 285
climate; the leaves of those put in at a later period in the summer
are often fit to be gathered earlier. This business should, how-
ever, constantly be executed as soon as the leaves are fully grown
while they retain their perfect green color, and are highly succu-
lent; as when they are let remain till they begin to turn pale,
much of their goodness is said to be expended, and they become
less in quantity, and of an inferior quahty for the purposes of the
dyer. Where the lands are well managed, they will often afford
two or three gatherings, but the belt cultivators seldom take more
than two, which are sometimes mixed together in the manufac-
turing. It is necessary that the after-croppings, when they are
taken, should be constantly kept separate from the others, as they
would injure the whole if blended, and considerably diminish the
value of the produce. It is said that the best method, where a
third cropping is either wholly or partially made, is to keep it
separate, forming it into an inferior kind of woad. In the execu-
tion of this sort of business, a number of baskets are usually pro-
vided m proportion to the extent of the crop, and into these the
leaves are thrown as they are taken from the plants. The leaves
are detached fi-om the plants, by grasping them firmly with the
hand, and giving them a sort of sudden twist. In favorable sea-
sons, where the soils are rich, the plants will often rise to the
height of eight or ten inches; but in other circumstances, they
seldom attain more than four or five.
"The produce is mostly from about a ton to a ton and a half
of green leaves. The price varies considerable ; but for woad of
the prime quaUty, it is often from $125 to $150 per ton, and for
that of an inferior quality $30 or $35, and sometimes much more.
"To prepare it for the dyer, it is bruised by machinery to
express the watery part; it is afterwards formed into balls and
fermented, re-ground, and fermented in vats, where it is evapora-
ted mto cakes in the manner of indigo. The haulm is burned for
manure or spread over the straw-yard, to be fermented along with
steaw dung. To save seed, leave some of the plants undenuded
of their leaves the second year, and when it is ripe, in July or
286
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
August, treat it like turnip seed. The only diseases to which
the woad is liable, are the mildew and rust. When young it is
often attacked by the fly, and the ground obliged to be re-sown,
and this more than once even on winter-plowed grass lands."
WELD OR dyers' WEED, (rESEDA LUTEOLA.)
Weld is much used by the manufacturers of various fabrics as
a dye. It has not to our knowledge been cultivated in this coun-
try. We again quote from Loudon: "Weld is an imperfect
biennial, with small fusiform roots, and a leafy stem from one to
three feet in height. It is a native of Britain, flowers in June
and July, and ripens its seeds in August and September. Its
culture may be considered the same as that of woad, only being
a smaller plant it is not thinned out to so great a distance. It
has this advantage for the farmer over all other coloring plants,
that it only requires to be taken up and dried, when it is fit for
the dyer. It is, however, an exhausting crop.
" Weld will grow on any soil, but fertile loams produce the
best crops. The soil being brought to a fine tilth, the seed is
sown in April or the beginning of May, generally broadcast.
The quantity of seed is from two quarts to a gallon per acre, and
it should either be fresh, or, if two or three years old, steeped a
few days in water previously to being sown. Being a biennial,
and no advantage obtained from it the first year, it is sometimes
sown with grain crops in the manner of clover, which, when the
«oil is in a very rich state, may answer, provided that hoeing,
weeding and stirring take place as soon as the grain crop is cut.
The best crops, however, will obviously be the result of drilling
and cultivating the crop alone. The drills may be a foot asunder,
and the plants thinned to six inches in the row. In the broad-
cast mode, it is usual to thin them to six or eight inches' distance
every way. Often, when weld succeeds grain crops, it is never
either thinned, weeded or hoed, but left to itself till the plants are
in fiill blossom.
" The crop is taken by pulling up the entire plant ; and the
proper period for this purpose is when the bloom has been pro-
WKLD OR DYPJRS' WEED.
287
duced the whole length of the stems, and the plants are just be-
ginning to turn of a light or yellowish color ; as in the beginning
or middle of July in the second year. The plants are usually
from one foot to two feet and a half in height. It is thought by
some advantageous to pull it rather early, without waiting for the
ripening of the seeds ; as by this means there will not only be the
greatest proportion of dye, but the land will be left at liberty for
the reception of a crop of wheat or turnips ; in this case, a small
part must be left solely for the purpose of seed. In the execution
of the work, the plants are drawn up by the roots in small hand-
fiils ; and after each handful has been tied up with one of the
stalks, they are set up in fours in an erect position, and left to dry.
Sometimes, however, they become sufficiently dry by turning
without being set up. After they have remained till fully dry,
which is mostly effected in the course of a week or two, they are
bound up into larger bundles, each containing sixty handfuls, and
weighing fifty-six pounds. Sixty of these bundles constitute a
load, and in places where this kind of crop is much grown, are
tied up by a string made for the purpose, which is sold under the
title of weld-cord.
"The produce of weld depends much on the nature of the
season ; but from half a load to a load and a half per acre is the
quantity most commonly afforded. It is usually sold to the dyers
at from five or six to ten or twelve pounds the load, and some-
times at considerable more. It is mostly bought by persons who
afterwards dispose of it to the dyers. The demand for it is some-
times very little, while at others it is so great as to raise the price
to a high degree. It is sometimes gathered green and treated
like woad or indigo ; but in general the dried herb is used by the
dyers in a state of decoction.
" The use of weld in dyeing is for giving a yellow color to
cotton, woolen, mohair, silk and linen. Blue cloths are dipped
in a decoction of it, which renders them green ; and the yellow
color of the paint called Dutch pink is obtained from weld. To
save seed, select a few of the largest and healthiest plants, and
AMERICAN AGRICULTCEE.
leave them to ripen. The seed is easily separated The chief
disease of weld is the rnHdew, to which it is very hable when
young, and this is the reason that it is often sown with other
crops."
SUMACH, (RHUS GLABEUM, R. CORIARIA AND E. COTINXTS.)
The Rhus Glahrum is the common sumach of the United Stages
which grows spontaneously on fertile soils. It is considerably
used by dyers, and the tanners of light leather. It is however,
much inferior to the R. Goriara or Sicilian sumach, which is im-
ported into this country from Spain, Portugal, Sicily Syria and
Lewhere, and sells at from $50 to $120 per ton. It is a dwarf
bushy shrub, smaller than the American, but with much larger
leaves. These with the seed cones and young stems are all
used by the manufacturers. The R. Cotvnus or Venice sumach,
is the fringe tree or burning bush, a shrub for ornamental grounds
beSL alossy, drab colored blossom. It is known m England
as young fiistic, and is much used in the arts. This has not been
a ye,, I article of much production in the United States but we
see n; good reason why it may not be introduced into many
localities with decided profit.
Cultivation and Te.atment.-A11 the sumachs are propa.
gated by layers, though it is probable they might under favorable
ScumsLces, be raised from the seed. On good soils they grow
in great profusion. The harvesting consists simply m cutting off
the young branches with the leaves and seed cones attached, in
clear' wefther, drying them thoroughly without exposure o
either rain or dew, and packing them m bales of about 160
Tht"U astringent, often taking the pl.e of g.ls^
This quality is much enhanced by warmth of chmate, and the
most vaJble article is brought from the -o«V"1rte7with
There is no doubt this species of plants might be cultivated w ith
great profit in the Southern States, and thus save the large amount
fnnua ly expended in its importation, which is constantly mcreas-
THE TEASEL.
289
ing. The total importation is now estimated at between one and
two millions of dollars per annum.
THE TEASEL OR^FULLEr's THISTLE, (dIPSACUS FULLONUM,)
Is another article exclusively used by the manufacturers for
the purpose of raising a nap, or combing out the fibres upon the
dressed surface of woolen cloth or flannels. The consumption
cannot of course be extensive, being limited exclusively to this
demand. There is but one kind cultivated. A bastard variety
of spontaneous growth exists in portions of our Middle States
which resembles the useful teasel, with this peculiar difference,
that the ends of the awns or chaff on the heads are straight
instead of hooked, which renders them perfectly useless.
Cultivation. — The teasel is a biennial, requiring two years .
to mature. It is sown on a deep loamy clay, previously well
plowed and harrowed, in drills twenty inches asunder, leaving a
plant in every ten inches, or in hills about sixteen inches apart.
The ground should be kept light by occasional stirring, and free
from weeds. The plants are generally stronger and more thrifty
if allowed to mature where sown, and to accomplish this, the
intermediate spaces between the hills may be annually planted
with new seed. Many adopt the plan of sowing in beds and trans-
planting. Although hardy, there is sometimes an advantage in
covering the beds which contain the young plants with straw dur-
ing the winter.
Gathering. — Those intended for use should be cut with a
stem eight inches long below the head, just as it is going out of
flower, when the awns are the toughest; and as these come into
maturity at different times in the same plant, , they should be cut
successively as they come forward. Those intended for seed,
which should always be the largest, strongest heads, must be
suffered to remain till ripe, when they can be gathered antt
threshed with the flail. The others should be thinly spread anu
dried under cover where no moisture can reach them. They may
then be assorted into three parcels, according to size and quality,
13
290
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
and packed in large sacks, when tliey are ready for market. The
crop on good soils well cultivated, may be stated at 150,000 to
200,000 per acre, worth from $1.50 to $2.50 per 1,000.
; MUSTARD.
There are two species of mustard used for field cultivation; the
white, {Sinapis alba,) and the hlacJc, {S, nigra,) the last of which
is generally raised. It requires a rich loamy soil, deeply plowed
and well harrowed. It may be sown, either broadcast, in drills
about two feet apart, or in hills. Mr. Parmelee, of Ohio, thus
raised on twenty-seven acres, 23,850 pounds, which brought in
the Philadelphia market, $2,908; an average of over $100 per
acre. The ground on which it is planted must be frequently
stirred, and kept clear of weeds. When matured, it should be
carefully cut with the scythe or sickle, and if so ripe as to shell,
laid into a wagon box with tight canvas over the bottom and
sides, so as to prevent waste. As soon as it is perfectly dry, it
may be threshed and cleaned, when it is ready for market.
The mustard is a valuable crop for green food for cattle or
sheep, or for plowing in as a fertilizer. The following experiment
was made by Mr. Gray, in England, in 1844, an account of which
appears in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society. He
says: "The land on which it is growing is a thin stone-brash, and
very poor. It had been manured for turnips and rape, at the rate
of thirty loads an acre, with compost, consisting of two-thirds lime
and one-third road earth; and, on the tenth of July, the turnip
and rape seed were drilled in with eighty bushels of ashes an
acre. It came up slowly; and, with very few exceptions, was
taken off by the £y. On the twenty-eighth of August, I sowed
twelve pounds of whi^ mustard seed an acre, harrowing in the
same. It was slow in coming up, from the dryness of the land;
indeed, at one time I despaired of a crop, but when the rain fell
it grew prodigiously; and on the eleventh day of October I com-
menced feeding it. On an average it was then two feet high,
and very thick in the ground ; you will judge, from the specimen
THE HOP.
291
sent, of its present height — above thirty inches. T consider it a
valuable artificial in sheep husbandrj, and particularly so when
turnips or rape fail; and, from its rapid growth, two, or even
three crops may be taken and fed off in the season. From its
great succulency, some care is required in feeding it off. Our
sheep are doing well upon it; but I find they make better work,
having an outlet every day on their walk, than when they were
wholly confined upon it. Four hundred consume about a quarter
of an acre a day, or thereabouts. One man grew a most excellent
piece of mustard last autumn, on some very heavy clay land, and
without manure. His sheep being badly managed when feeding
it off, he plowed in a considerable quantity for his wheat, of
which he had a splendid crop, and certainly the best he grew last
season. I mention this circumstance, believing it may be grown
with success on either heavy or light soils. I was led to suppose
it might be greatly affected by frosts, but we have experienced
sufficient to destroy the potato haulm and the dahhas, yet it has
not in the slightest degree affected the mustard; I, therefore, con-
clude it must be severe to destroy it. The seed cost 145. Qd.
(about $3.65) per bushel, and weighed about fifty pounds."
THE HOP, (hUMULUS LUPULUS,)
Of which there are several varieties indigenous to this country,
is an important field crop. It grows best on a strong loam or
well drained clay with a light subsoil. If the latter be retentive
of water, the hop will soon dwindle or die out. If made suffi-
ciently rich, it will flourish on light loams or gravels, but a new,
strong soil is better, and this requires little or no manure. The
most desirable exposure is a gentle slope to the south, but this
should be where it can have a free circulation of air amidst the
tall, luxuriant, vegetable growth.
Cultivation. — If the land has been long in use, it should be
thoroughly dressed with compost and alkaline manures, or what
is nearly equivalent, with fresh barn-yard manures, on a pre-
viously well hoed crop, made perfectly free of all weeds, and
. 292 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
deeply plowed and harrowed. Then mark out the ground at
intervals of six feet each way, and plant in the intersection of
the furrows, and unless the ground be sufficiently rich, place
three or four shovels of compost in each hill. The planting is
done with the new roots taken from the old hills, which are laid
bare by the plow. Each root should be six or eight inches long
and must contain two or more* eyes, one to form the root and the
other the vine. Six plants are put in a hill, all of which should
be within the compass of about a foot, and covered to a depth
of five inches, leaving the ground level when planted. The first
season, the intermediate spaces between the hills may be planted
with corn or potatoes, and the ground should be carefully cleared
of weeds and frequently stirred. No poles are necessary the first
year, as the product will not repay. The ground should receive
a heavy dressing of compost the following spring, if not suffi-
ciently rich, and the plants should be well hoed and kept clean.
Poles m.ay be prepared at the rate of two or three to each
hill, twelve to sixteen feet long, according to the strength of the
soil in which the hops are planted — the stronger the soil, the
longer the poles — and selected from a straight, smooth, under-
growth of tough, durable wood, from four to five inches diameter
at the butt end. Cedar, or tamarac, (larch,) are the best, hghtest,
and most durable. These are sharpened and firmly set with an
iron bar, or socket bar with a wooden handle, in such a position
as will allow the fullest effect of the sun upon the hills or roots.
When the plants have run to the length of three or four feet in
the spring, they should be trained around the poles, winding in
the direction of the sun's course, and fastened below the second
or third set of leaves, where there is sufficient strength of vine to
sustain themselves. They may be confined with rushes, tough
grass, or more easily with woolen yarn. This operation is
needed again in a few days, to secure such as may have got
loose by the winds or other causes, and to train up the new shoots.
A recent method has been adopted of making trelhses from
pole to pole of strong twine — one pole to the hill — three or four
THE HOP.
293
twisted twines stretching from one pole to the other in rows.
This is a more laborious process than to use double poles to the
hill, but the gross amount of expense may be lessened by the
process.
The gathering of hops should be when they have acquired
a strong scent, at which time the seed becomes firm and brown,
and the lowest leaves begin to change color. This precedes the
frosts in September. The vines must first be cut at the surface
of the ground, , and the poles pulled up and laid in convenient
piles, when they may be stripped of the hops, which are thrown
into large, light baskets. Or the poles may be laid on long,
slender boxes, with handles at each end, (to admit of being car-
ried by two persons,) and as the hops are stripped, they fall into
the box. But care must be taken that they be free from leaves,
stems, and dirt.
The hops should be hilled or covered with compost, and all
the vines removed in the fall. The following spring, when the
ground is dry, the surface is scraped from the hill, or additional
compost is added, when a plow is run on four sides as near as
possible without injury to the plants. All the running roots are
laid bare and cut with a sharp knife within two or three inches
of the main root, and the latter are trimmed, if spreading too
far. It is well to break or twist down the first shoots, and
allow those which succeed to run, as they are likely to be more
productive. Cutting should be avoided unless in a sunny day,
as the profuse bleeding injures them. The poles will keep longer
under cover.
Curing or Drying. — This is an important operation, and it
may be done by spreading the hops thinly in the shade and stir-
ring them often enough to prevent heating. But w^hen there is
a large quantity, they can only be safely cured in a kiln. The
following mode is recommended by Mr. Blanchard, in the New
England States:
*'Much depends on having a well constructed kiln. For the
convenience of putting the hops on the kiln, the side of a hill is
294
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
generally chosen for its situation. Care should be taken that it
be a dry situation. The kiln should be dug out the same big-
ness at the bottom as at the top ; the side walls laid up perpen-
dicularly, and filled in solid with stone, to give it a tunnel form.
Twelve feet square at the top, two feet square at the bottom, and
at least eight feet deep, is deemed a convenient size. On the top
of the walls, sills are laid, having joists let into them in like man-
ner as for laying a floor, on which laths, about one and a half
inches wide are nailed, leaving open spaces between them three-
fourths of an inch, over which a thin linen cloth is spread and
nailed at the edges to the sills. A board about twelve inches
wide is set up on each side of the kiln, on the inner edge of the
sill, to form a bin to receive the hops. The larger the stones
made use of in the construction of the kiln, the better; as it will
give a more steady and dense heat. The inside of the kiln
should be plastered with mortar to make it completely air tight.
Charcoal (that made from yellow birch or maple I should prefer,)
is the only fuel proper to be used in drying hops. The kiln
should be well heated before any hops are put on, and carefully
attended, to keep a steady and regular heat. Fifty pounds of
hops, when dried, is the largest quantity that should be dried at
one time, on a kiln of this size ; and unless absolutely necessary
to put on that quantity, a less would dry better. The green hops
should be spread as evenly and as light as possible over the kiln.
The fire at first should be moderate, but it may be increased as
the hops dry and the steam is evaporated. The hops, after lay-
ing a few days, will gather a partial moisture, called a sweat.
The sweat will probably begin to subside in about eight days, at
which time, and before the sweat is ofi*, they ought to be bagged
in clear, dry weather.
"As the exact time when the hops will begin to sweat, and
when the sweat will begin to subside or dry off, (the proper time
to bag them,) will vary with the state of the atmosphere, it will
be necessary to examine the hops from day to day, which is easily
done by taking some of them from the center of the heap with
THE HOP.
295
your hand. If on examination you find the hops to be very
damp, and their color altering, which will be the case if they
were not completely dried on the kiln, and not otherwise, you
must overhaul them and dry them in the air. Hops should not
remainlong in the bin or bag after they are picked, as they will
very soon heat and become insipid. The hops should not be
stirred on the kiln until they are completely and fully dried.
Then they should be removed from the kiln into a dry room, and
laid in a heap, and there remain, unmoved and unstirred, until
bagged, which is done with a screw, having a box made of
plank, the size the bag is wished, into which the cloth is laid,
and the hops screwed into the box, which is so constructed that
the sides may be removed and the bag sewed together while in
the press. The most convenient size for a bag of hops, to handle
and transport, is about five feet in length, and to contain about
two hundred and fifty pounds. The best bagging is coarse,
strong, tow cloth, of our domestic manufacturing; next to that,
Eussia hemp bagging.
"It is now common for those who have entered considerably
into the cultivation of hops, to build houses over their kilns,
which, in wet weather, are very convenient ; otherwise, a kiln in
the open air would be preferable. It is necessary to have these
buildings well ventilated with doors and windows, and to have
them kept open night and day, except in wet weather, and then
shut those only which are necessary to keep out the rain. If a
ventilator was put in the roof of the building, directly over the
center of the kiln, about six feet square, built like those in brew-
eries and distilleries, they would be found very advantageous. I
have seen many lots of hops much injured both in color and
flavor, by being dried in close buildings. Where the houses
over the kilns are built large, for the purpose of storing the hops
as they are dried, which is a great saving of labor, a close parti-
tion should be made between the kilns and the room in which
the hops are stored, to prevent the damp steam from the kilns
coming to them, as it will color them, and injure their flavor and
quality very much."
296
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
The foregoing account states fairly the principle on which hops
should be dried. Since that was written, improved kilns have
been invented and brought into use.
Diseases.- — Hops are liable to attack from various insects,
blight, mildew, etc. There is no effective remedy of general
appHcation for either. The best preventives are new or fresh
soil, which is rich in ashes and the inorganic manures, and in a
fine tillable condition to insure a rapid growth, by which it may
partially defy attack, and open planting on such positions as
will secure free circulation of air. When properly managed
they are one of the most productive crops, and their increasing
use will always make them a large object of cultivation.
Hops are now so extensively grown in some parts of the
country that treatises have been written and published on their
culture, curing, and packing, which we recommend the cultivators
to obtain.
THE CASTOR BEAN, (rICINUS COMMUNIS, COMMONLY CALLED
PALM A CHRISTI,)
Is a native of the West India Islands, where it grows with
great luxuriance. It is cultivated as a field crop in our lower
Middle States, and in the States bordering the Ohio river on the
north. It likes a rich, mellow bed, and is planted and hoed~like
corn. It attains the height of five or six feet, and bears at the
rate of twenty to thirty bushels per acre. The seed is separated
from the pods, bruised and subjected to a great pressure, by
which they yield near a gallon to the bushel of cold pressed
castor oil, which is better than that extracted by boiling and
skimming. The last is done either with or without first slightly
roasting. This oil forms not only a mild cathartic, but with some,
is an article of food. Its separation into a limpid oil for machin-
ery and lamps, and into stearine for candles, has lately much
increased its valuable uses ; but with the spontaneous flows of
mineral oils now so plentifully produced with us, the use of castor
oil will be chiefly confined to medicinal uses.
CHAPTER XII
AIDS AND OBJECTS OF AGKICULTUEE.
We have thus far treated of soils and manures, the preparation
of the ground, and the ordinary cultivated field crops, as fully as
our hmits will permit. It remains for us briefly to add such
mcidental aids and objects of agriculture, as could not appropri-
ately be embraced under either of the foregoing heads.
KOTATION OF CROPS, ITS USES AND EFFECTS.
The practice of rotation of crops, is an agricultural improve-
ment of very modern date. It is first mentioned in Dickson's
Treatise on Agriculture, "published in Edinburghin 1777 Eota
tion has, for more than a century, been partially practiced in
b landers, and perhaps in some other highly cultivated countries
and It was afterwards introduced and imperfectly carried out on
a hmited scale, in the Norfolk district in Great Britain but its
general introduction did not take place till the beginning of the
present century. The system of rotation is one of the first and
most important principles of general husbandly, and it cannot be
omitted without manifest disadvantage and loss. The place of
rotation was formerly suppHed by naked fallows. This practice
consists, as we have before shown, in giving the soil an occasional
or periodical rest, in which no crop is taken off, and the soil is
allowed to produce just what it. pleases, or nothing at all for one
or more years, when it is refreshed and invigorated for the pro-
duction of Its accustomed useful crops. This system, it will be
perceived implies the loss of the income of the soil for a certain
portion of the time, and it can be tolerated only where there is
more land than can be cultivated. Modern agricultural science
298
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
has detected, in part at least, the true theory of the necessity for
rotation. It has been discovered that every crop robs the soil of
a portion of its elements, (fifteen or sixteen elementary substances
combined in various forms and proportions,) and that no two dis-
similar crops abstract these elements or their compounds from the
soil in the same proportions. Thus, if we consider the amount
of the salts taken out of the soil by a crop of turnips, amounting
to five tons of roots per acre ; of barley, thirty-eight bushels ; one
ton each of dry clover or rye grass; and of wheat, tw^enty-five
bushels, we shall find the great disproportions of 'the various
elements, which the difierent vegetables have appropriated. As
given by Johnston, they will be in pounds as follows:
Potash,
Soda,
Lime, .
Magnesia,
Al'jmina,
Silica,
Sulphuric Acid,
Phosphoric Acid
Chlorine,
Turnip.
Barley.
Red.
Rye.
Wheat.
Total.
Roots.
Grain.
Straw.
Clover.
Grass.
Grain.
Straw.
145.5
5.6
4.5
45.0
28.5
3.3
0.6
233.0
64.3
5.8
1.1
12.0
9.0
3,5
0.9
96.6
45.8
2.1
12.9
63.0
16.5
1.5
7.2
149.0
15.5
3.6
1.8
7.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
32.9
2.2
0.5
3.4
0.3
0.8
0.4
,2.7
10.3
23.6
23.6
90.0
8.0
62.0
6.0
86.0
299.2
49.0
1.2
2.8
10.0
8.0
0.8
1.0
72.8
22.4
4.2
3.7
15.0
0.6
0.6
5.0
51.5
14.5
0.4
1.5
8.0
0.1
0.2
0.9
25.6
970.9*
Besides the elements above noted, all crops contain oxide of
iron, and nearly all oxide of manganese and iodine; and of the
organic elements associated in various combinations, they appro-
priate about ninety-seven per cent, of their entire dried weight.
Now it is not only necessary that all the above materials exist in
the soil, hut that they are also to he found in a form precisely
adapted to the wants of the growing plant. That they exist in
every soil, in some conditions, to an amount large enough to
afford the quantity required by the crop, can hardly be doubted,
but that they are all in a form to supply the full demand of a
luxuriant crop, is probably true of such only as are found, under
favorable circumstances of season and climate, to have produced
the largest burthens. If a succession of any given crops are
* This is exclusive of the turnip tops.
ROTATION OF CR.OPS.
299
gathered and carried off the land, without the occasional addition
of manures, they will be found gradually to diminish in quantity,
till they reach a point when they will scarcely pay the expense,s
of cultivation. We mean to be understood as affirming this of all
crops and all soils, however naturally fertile the latter may be,
unless they are such as receive an annual or occasional dressing
from the overflow of enriching floods, or are artificially irrigated
with water, which holds the necessary fertihzing matters in solu-
tion; and such are not exceptions, but receive their manure in
another form, unaided by the hand of the husbandman.
Neither are old meadows (mowing lands filled with the natural
or uncultivated grasses, or whatever of useful forage they choose
to bear,) exceptions to this rule, for though they may part with a
portion of their annual crop in the hay, which is removed, and
which is not returned as manure, and by a partial rest or pastur-
age appear to sustain their original fertility, yet if the true
character of the various plants which they produce were accu-
rately observed, (all of which are indiscriminately embraced under
the general head of grass or hay,) it would be found that the
plants gradually change from year to year; and while some pre-
dominate in one season, others take their place the year succeed-
ing, and these again are supplanted by others in an unceasing
round of natural rotation.
Another illustration of rotation may be observed in the suc-
cession of forest trees that shoot up on the same soil, to supply
the places of such of their predecessors as have decayed or been
cut down. Thus the pine and other of the conifers, are fre-
quently found to usurp the place of the oak, chestnut, and other
deciduous trees. This occurs sometimes partially, but in repeated
instances which have come within our notice, forests have been
observed to pass entirely from one order of the vegetable crea-
tion to its remote opposite, the seeds or germs of which, (the
product of an ancient rotation,) had been lying dormant for cen-
turies, perhaps, waiting a favorable condition of circumstances
and soil to spring into life.
300 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
Many choice secondary bottom lands, and others munificently
supplied by nature with all the materials of fertility, have by a
long succession of crops been reduced to a condition of compar-
ative sterility. Yet it will have been found in the progress of
this exhaustion, that after the soil ceased to give an adequate
return of one crop, as of wheat, corn, or tobacco, it would still
yield largely of some other genus which was adapted to it.
These lands, when thus reduced and turned out to commons for
a few years, will again give crops much larger than those which
closed their former bearing career, proving that nature has been
silently at v7ork in renovating the land for further use. The
whole course of her operations is not yet known, but this much
is satisfactorily ascertained, that she is incessantly engaged in
producing those changes in the soil, which enable it to contribute
to vegetable sustenance. Enough of lime, or potash, or silica,
may have been disengaged to yield all that may be required for
one crop, which by that crop is principally taken . up, and if
another of the same kind follows in quick succession, there will
be a deficiency ; yet if a different crop succeed, there may be
found enough of all the materials it needs, fully to mature it. A
third now takes its place, demanding materials for nutrition in
forms and proportions unUke either which has preceded it, and
by the time a recurrence to the first is necessary, the soil may be
in a condition again to yield a remunerating return. These
remarks apply equally to such soils as have, and such as have not
received manures; unless, as is seldom the case, an accurate
science should add them in quantity and character, fully to supply
the exhaustion. The addition or withholding of manures, only
accelerates or retards this effect.
Another prominent advantage of rotation, is in its enabling
such crops to have the benefit of manure, as cannot receive it
without hazard or injury if applied directly upon them. Thus
wheat and the other white grains, are liable to overgrowth of
straw, rust and mildew, if manured with recent dung ; yet this
is applied without risk to corn, roots, and most of the hoed crops ;
ROTATION OF CROPS.
301
and when tempered by one season^s exhaustion, and the various
changes and combinations which are effected in the soil, it safely
ministers in profusion to all the wants of the smaller cereal
grains.
A third benefit of rotation is, by bringing the land into hoed
crops at proper intervals, it clears it of any troublesome weeds
which may infest it. And still a further advantage may be
found, in cutting off the appropriate food of insects and worms,
which in the course of time, by having a full supply of their
necessary aliment, and especially if undisturbed in their quiet
haunts, will oftentimes become so numerous as seriously to inter-
fere with the labors of the farmer. A change of crops, and
exposure of the insects to frosts, and by the change of cultivation
which a rotation insures, will make serious inroads upon their
numbers, if it does not effectually destroy them.
The fanciful theory of the noxious excretions of plants^ first
broached, and ingeniously defended by the powerful name of
Decandolle, and which the closest scrutiny of scientific observers
since has pronounced unworthy of credit, does not form a fifth
reason for rotation. It is because principals, essential to success-
fill vegetation, have been abstracted, not that others hurtful to it
have been added by preceding crops, that rotation is rendered
necessary. From all that has hitherto been learned on the sub-
ject of rotation, either from science or practice, two general
principles may be assumed as proper to guide every farmer in
his course of cropping. First, to cultivate as great a variety of
plants as his soil, circumstances and market will justify; and
second, to have the same, or any similar species, follow each other
at intervals as remote as may be consistent with his interests.
From the foregoing observations on the subject, it is evident
that the proper system of rotation for any farmer to adopt, must
depend on all the conditions by which he is surrounded, and that
it should vary according to these varying circumstances.
It is a practice with some to alternate wheat and clover, giving
only one year to the former and one or two years to the latter.
302
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
This will answer for a long time, on soils adapted to each crop,
provided there be added to the clover, such manures as contribute
to its own growth, and such also as are exhausted by wheat.
The saline manures, ashes, lime, etc., may be added directly to
wheat without injury; but gypsum should be sown upon the
clover, as its benefits are scarcely perceptible on wheat, while
upon the clover, they are of the greatest utility. But there are
objections even to this, as it does not allow an economical or
advantageous use of barn-yard manures, which, from their com-
bining all the elements of fertihty, are the most certain in their
general effect. In different countries of Europe, fields which
have been used for an oft-recurring clover crop, have become
clover sic\ as it is famiharly termed. The plant will not grow
luxuriantly; sometimes refusing to vegetate, or if it starts upon
its vegetable existence, it does so apparently with the greatest
reluctance and suffering, and ekes out a puny, thriftless career,
unattended with a single advantage to its owner. This is simply
the result of the exhaustion of one or more of the indispensable
elements of the plant. If it be desirable to pursue this two
course system for any length of time, nothing short of the apph-
cation of all such inorganic matters as are taken up by the crops,
will sustain the land in a fertile condition. "We subjoin, simply
for the purpose of illustration, and the guidance of such as may
have little experience in rotation, some systems which have been
pursued with advantage in this country:
1st. On a grass sod, broken up, with a heavy dressing of barn-
yard manure, and muck, ashes, and lime, if necessary. First year,
corn, with gypsum scattered over the plants after the first hoeing,
which should be immediately after its making its first appearance ;
second year, roots with manure; third year, wheat, if adapted to
the soil; if not, then barley, rye, or oats, with grass or clover
seed, or both ; fourth year, meadow, which may be continued at
pleasure, or till the grass or clover gives way. The meadow
may be followed by pasturing if desired. Clover alone should
not remain over two years as meadow, but for pasture it may
be continued longer.
WEEDS. 303
«
2d. First year, corn or roots on grass or clover lay, with
manure; second, oats and clover, with a top dressing of ten to
twenty bushels of crushed bones per acre ; third, clover pastured
to the last of J une, then grown until fully matured in August,
when it is turned over, and a hght dressing of compost and forty
to eighty bushels of leached ashes spread over it, and wheat and
timothy seed sown about the fifteenth of September. If desired,
the following spring, clover is sown and lightly harrowed. This
gives for the fourth year, wheat; fifth and sixth, and if the grass
continues good, the seventh year also, meadow.
3d. First, corn on a grass sod, heavily manured, and a half
gill of ashes and gypsum, mixed at the rate of two of the former
to one of the latter, put in the hill, and an equal quantity of pure
gypsum added, after the corn is first hoed ; second, oats or bar-
ley, with hme at the rate of twenty to thirty bushels per acre,
sown broadcast after the oats, and harrowed in ; third, peas or
beans, removed early, and afterwards sown with wheat; fourth,
wheat with a Hght top dressing of compost, and saline manures
in the spring, and clover, or grass and clover seed; fifth, two or
three years in meadow and pasture.
4th. First, wheat on a grass sod; second, clover; third, Indian
com, heavily manured ; fourth, barley or oats, with grass or clover
seed; fifth, and following, grass or clover.
5th. A good rotation for hght, sandy lands, is first, corn well
manured and cut off early and removed from the ground, which
is immediately sown with rye, or the rye hoed in between the
hill; second, rye with clover sown in the spring, and gypsum
added when fairly up; third, clover cut for hay, or pastured, the
latter being much more advantageous for the land.
WEEDS. ^
Whatever plants infest the farmer's grounds, and are worthless
as objects of cultivation, are embraced under the general name of
weeds. In a more comprehensive sense, all plants, however useful
tliey may be as distinct or separate objects of attention, when.
304 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
scattered through a crop of other useful plants, to their manifest
detriment, may be considered and treated as such. Perfect culti-
vation consists in having nothing upon the ground but what is
intended for the benefit of the farmer, and it imphes a total
destruction of every species of vegetation which does not
contribute directly to his advantage.
In China, and some parts of Flanders, the fields are entirely
free from weeds. This is the result of long continued cleanly
cultivation by which every weed has been extirpated, a scrupulous
attention to the purity of the seeds, and the sole use of urine,
poudrette, and saline manures. This object is scarcely attainable
in this country, except on fields pecuHarly situated. The prin-
cipal causes of the propagation of weeds among us, is the negli-
gent system of tillage, and the use of unfermented vegetable
manures. By heating or decomposition, all the seeds incorporated
in the manure heap are destroyed. But there is a great loss in
applying manure thus changed, and having parted, with large
portions of its active, nutritive gases, unless protected by a
thick covering of turf or vegetable mold. For many soils and
crops, undecomposed manures are far the most valuable. But
they should always be applied to the hoed crops, and such as will
receive the attention of the farmer for the utter extinction of
weeds. A single weed which is allowed to mature, may become
500 the following year, and 10,000 the year after. The cleansing
of land from weeds, is almost the sole justification for naked
fallows. When a large crop of them have by any means obtained
possession of the ground, they ought to be turned into the soil
with the plow before ripening their seed, and they thus become a
means of enriching rather than of impoverishing the ground.
Meadows which have become foul with useless plants, may be
turned into pasture; and if there are plants which cattle and
horses will not eat, let them first crop it closely, and then follow
with sheep, which are much more indiscriminate in their choice
of food, and consume many plants which are rejected by other
animals. Whatever escapes the maw of sheep, should be extir-
WEEDS. 305
pated by the hand or hoe before seeding. The utmost care, also,
should be used in the selection of seed, and none sown but such
as has been entirely freed from any foreign seeds.
The Canada thistle is the only weed which has taxed the
ingenuity of vigilant fanners in effecting its removal. This is,
however, within the power of every one who will bestow upon
it a watchful attention for a single season. The plant should be
allowed to attain nearly its full growth, or till it comes into flower,
when it has drawn largely upon the vitality of its roots. If the
patch be large, the plow should be used to turn every particle of
the plant under the surface, and let the hoe or spade complete
^ what has escaped the plow. If the patch be small, the hoe or
spade should be used to cut off the crown of the foot, and if in
blossom, let the tops be burnt to prevent the possibiHty of any of
the seeds ripening. As soon as the tops again make their appear-
ance above ground, repeat the plowing or spading, and continue
this till the middle of autumn, when the land will be free from
them, and in fine condition to yield a crop of wheat. If they
harbor in fences or walls, these should be removed, or the thistle
followed to its roots, and kept constantly cut into the ground, when
it will not long survive. We have found mowing off with a
scythe, when in early flower, quite an effective mode of extirpat-
ing this troublesome pest. The difficulty or ease of extirpating
this weed depends much on the composition of the soil in which
they spring up. When the land is cultivated from year to year
in hoed or sown crops, they are most difficult. In pastures and
meadows they are less hurtful. On some grounds, newly cleared,
they may come in myriads, from their light, feathery seeds,'
wafted by winds. In such cases, the best way is to sow grass
seeds thickly, mow the crop, which is generally done when both
grass and thistles are in bloom, and the latter will rapidly disap-
pear with each successive mowing. Such has been our own
experience.
306
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
RESTORING WORN OUT SOILS TO FERTILITY, AND FERTILIZINC+
BARREN LANDS.
Reams of paper have been written and printed in our agricul-
tural journals on this not yet exhausted subject, and much still
remains to be known. We have vast tracts of vacant land in
these United States which have long lain exhausted by the plow,
from the effects of continuous cropping without the return of
adequate manures to keep up their fertility. They are favored
by chmate, contiguity to seaboard markets, and other advantages
which would render them, in a state of moderate fertility only,
among the most desirable of all our agricultural lands. Deposits
of marl, hme, and other fertilizing material He embedded in close
proximity to them, needing only the aid of enhghtened enter-
prise and industry to restore them to their original power of
production.
In other sections, extensive areas, once supposed to be incura-
bly barren, await a like action to render them available for good
farming. "While richer soils in like situations, are worth, for farm
purposes, fifty to two hundred dollars per acre, these barrens are
comparatively worthless. On the good lands, the occupants and
cultivators grow rich, while the poor are hardly worth the taxes
paid upon them. Still, they are in no worse natural condition
than large tracts of soil in Britain, and on the neighboring conti-
nent, two or three centuries ago ; and but for the almost illimit-
able fertile soils extending over our Western States and Territories,
more inviting to the emigrant, they would, ere this, have been
brought into moderate, if not good fertihty, and cultivated by a
thriving population. Large commercial and manufacturing cities
lie near them, consuming triple the amount of crops which under
the best condition they might bear, and still they are measur-
ably neglected. This can only be accounted for in the dislike of
poor land so common to the native American, and the want of
means in the foreign immigrant to our shores, who, having the
knowledge of their properties, but wanting the means to pur-
HESTOEING WORN OUT SOILS. 307
chase and improve, passes them hj for the new and virgin soils
far away in the interior.
Yet, the worn out lands, long ago abandoned under a system
of labor now forever passed, as well as the soils never yet
reclaimed from their original barrenness, give indications of resto-
ration and improvement which promise both reproduction in the
one, and bringing into culture of the other. The plan of the
American farmer has seemed to be to select a naturally good
soil, plant himself upon it, and either by a careless mode of crop-
pmg, wear it out, and then abandon it for a better, and newer
one, or by a course of good husbandry maintain it in its produc-
tive condition and transmit it to his heirs, if his restive disposi
tion did not induce him to " better himself " by a sale, and remove
to what he considered a more eligible home.
We can do no better service to our farmers, gardeners, and
fruit growers, than to draw their attention to these either Vorn
or naturally barren lands, provided they have the means, and will
intelligently select them and undertake their improvement We
say nothing of localities, having no private interest in any but
m a general way, only, refer to them. Some are better than
others; some, possibly, incurably barren; but selections can b.
made to decided advantage by those who choose to enter on their
cultivation. Fertilizers of almost every description abound in
our country, either of native production, or which, at moderate
prices, can be obtained from abroad. These, with the aid of
green crops plowed in, as the clovers, buckwheat, green corn—
the latter used to great advantage in many localities within our
knowledge-even the common annual weeds, when not of too
pestiferous character, will aid largely in bringing these lands into
a state of fertility. In our discussion of animal and vegetable
manures, the phosphates, and the various organic and inorganic
materials applicable to such uses, no intelligent man need be at a
loss for the means to make these lands available as permanent
sources of profit.
308
AMERICAN AGRICULTITRE.
We have, too, wide tracts of marsliy land on our seaboard,
as well as in interior localities, now comparatively worthless,
which may be ditched, dyked, and drained to untold benefit. With
us, little has yet been done to reclaim our seaboard marshes. During
the past year, the tide-water lowlands lying between Jersey City
and Newark, in the State of New Jersey, have been entered
upon by an enterprising company for the purpose of dyking and
drainage. These lands have hitherto yielded only moderate crops
of salt grass, of little value. We trust this may prove a suc-
cessful experiment.v If so — and we see no good reason why it
should not — it will be followed by other enterprises of the kind,
extending along our wide-spread Atlantic shores, and reclaim an
untold wealth of soil to our agricultural production in its most
valuable localities. Extensive areas of swamp land, also, are
scattered throughout our several states, awaiting only an intelH-
gent expenditure of capital in the same direction, to render them
among the most fertile, enduring, and desirable soils to the hus-
bandman. Millions of acres, with much greater natural obstacles
to encounter, have been reclaimed, and enclosed from the sea, and
the broad estuaries of rivers in various parts of Europe, now
embracing some of the most productive regions of the globe.
And why should it not be so in America?
The subject is almost exhaustless, and we can only suggest
these improvements — ^new creations of wealth, in reality — in gen-
eral terms. Innumerable instances can be named where lands,
even near many of our large cities, have already been rid of their
myriads of forbidding boulders, and brought into the finest tilth
and production; swamps, hterally worthless, overgrown with
bushes, coarse grass, good for nothing, and inhabited only by
destructive vermin, or spreading miasma, and other pestilential
exhalations over their neighborhoods, now yielding crops of the
richest grasses ; other once dismally barren tracts now yielding
mountains of the finest vegetables, and the choicest fruits, for the
support and luxury of the human family ; all these we have seen
accomphshed within the time of a single generation; and why
RESTORING WORN OUT SOILS. 309
should not such progress be indefinitely repeated? The subject
commends itself to our industry, our public spirit, our patriotism,
love of country, and humanity.
Look at England, Scotland, Ireland to a considerable extent,
Belgium, Holland; neither of them, in their natural condition!
equal to any given area in almost any portion of our Atlantic
States. The main difference between those countries and ours,
is, they had a redundant population within narrow hmits, which
oUiged them to reclaim their waste lands, and we, Americans,
have had all the fertile western world before us 'on which to
spread, conquer, and ravage, with exhausting crops and heedless
cultivation. It should not be so, or rather, it should not so
remain. Without those wonder working feats of engineering
skill and industry which have achieved our great canals and rail-
ways, our western crops would hardly be worth the harvesting,
so distant are they from the seaboard markets. But speed and
cheapness of transportation have overcome distance, and happily
our far off cultivators and producers, by their timely aids, are
brought into intimate connection with the consumers and export-
ers of their industry.
^ Those different soils, and their cultivation also, suggest divi-
sions of agricultural labor into the products most favorable to
them. The dairy, the grains— each in their own varieties— the
grazing, the wool growing, the fruit bearing, the miscellaneous
products, are ea^jh working into their own most available lands, '
instead of the old time ways of the farmer trying every thing'
and producing scanty crops of many articles, with but a poor
return for his labor. This mode of cultivation also produces a
profitable interchange of commodities, one section with another,
and each more favorable to his own chosen course of husbandry!
The upshot of the whole matter is, the farmer should ascertain,
as near to a certainty as possible what his land is best fitted for
m a profitable crop or production, turn his chief attention to
that and steadily pursue it with aU the intelligence and vigor
he may command. By such a course, and such a course only,
can he expect to thrive. And this leads us to the subject of
310
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
EXPERIMENTS AMONG FARMERS.
The idea of "experiments" among farmers, has a very vague
meaning, and has more often been a subject of ridicule with
many of our practical men. It should not be so. "We* see no
reason why farmers should not experiment in a reasonable way,
as well as meclianics, chemists, or those of other useful professions.
A great advantage would result to agriculture if every intelli-
gent farmer would pursue some systematic course of experiments,
on such a scale and variety as bis circumstances would justify,
and give the results, if successful, to the community. It is with
experiments in farming, as was said by Franklin, of a young
man owning wild lands: ''it is well enough for everyone to
have some, if he donH have too manyT They should be his
servants, not his masters; and if intelligently managed and kept
within due bounds, they may be made greatly subservient to his
own interest, and, by their promulgation, eminently promotive of
the general good. It is fully in accordance with another maxim
of that wise head, that when it is not within our power to return
a favor to our benefactor, it is our duty to confer one on the first
necessitous person we meet, and thus the circle of good offices
will pass round.
The mutual communication of improvements of any kind in
agriculture, has the effect of benefiting not only the community
generally, but even the authors themselves; as they frequently
elicit corrections and modifications which materially enhance the
value of the discovery. These experiments should embrace the
whole subject of American agriculture; soils and their amelior-
ation ; manures of every kind, alkaline, vegetable and putrescent,
and their effects on different soils and crops; plants of every
variety, and their adaptation to different soils, under different
circumstances and with various manures ; and their relation to
each other, both as successors in rotation, their value for conver-
sion into animals and other forms, and their comparative ultimate
profit ; the production of new varieties by hybridizing and other-
UTILITY OF BIRDS.
311
wise; draining, both surface and covered; the improvements of
implements and mechanical operations, etc., etc. They should
also extend to the impartial and thorough trial of the different
breeds of all domestic animals, making ultimate profit to the
owner the sole test of their merits, crossing them in different
ways and under such general rules as experience has determined
as proper to be observed; their treatment, food, management,
etc. Although much has been accomplished within the last few
years, the science and practice of agriculture may yet be consid-
ered almost in its infancy. There is an unbounded field still open
for exploration and research, in which the efforts of persevering
genius may hereafter discover mines of immense value to the
human family.
THE UTILITY OF BIRDS.
These are among the most useful of the farmer's aids, in
securing his crops from insect • depredation ; and yet manifest as
this is to every observing man, they are frequently pursued and
hunted from the premises as if they were his worst enemies.
The martin, the swallow and the wren, which may almost be
considered among the domestics of the farm; and the sparrow,
the robin, the bluebird, the woodpecker, the bob-o-hnk, the
yellowbird, the thrush, the oriole, and nearly all the gay song-
sters of the field, accompHsh more for the destruction of noxious
flies, worms and insects, (the real enemies of the farmer,) than
all the nostrums ever invented. And hence the folly of that
absurd custom of scarecrows in cornfields and orchards, to which
we have before alluded; and the chickens and ducks do the
farmer more benefit than injury in the garden and pleasure
grounds, if kept out of the way while the young plants are
coming up. A troop of young turkeys in the field will destroy
their weight in grasshoppers every three days, during their prev-
alence in summer. A pair of sparrows, while feeding their
young, will consume 3,360 caterpillars in a week. One hundred
crows will devour a ton and a half of grubs and insects in a
season. Even the hawk and the owl, the objects of general
312
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
aversion, rid the fields and woods of innumerable squirrels, moles
and field mice, which are frequently great depredators upon the
crops, (after having exhausted the stores of worms and insects,
which they first invariably devour,) and the smaller species when
pressed by hunger, will even resort to grubs, beetles and grass-
hoppers, in the absence of larger game. (We mention the
operations of the crows, hawks and owls simply as a fact. We
have no love for either of them, being satisfied that they are
more destructive to crops, and valuable domestic fowls, than in
their consumption of insects and other vermin.) That loathsome
monster, the bat, in its hobgoblin, murky flight, will destroy its
bulk of flies in a single night. SHght injury may occasionally be
done to the grain and fruit by the smaller birds, and when thus
intrusive, some temporary precaution will suffice to prevent much
loss. But whatever it may be, the balance of benefit to the
farmer, from their presence, is generally in their favor, and instead
of driving them from his grounds, he should encourage their
social, chatty visits by kind and gentle treatment, and by
providing trees and pleasant shrubbery for their accommodation.
Toads, Frogs, etc. — Shakspeare has said 'Uhe toad, ugly
and venomous, wears yet a precious jewel in his head." Deduct-
ing the venom, we shall find the poet right ; for we can no more
attempt the defence of his beauty, than that of the muck heap;
and we can well excuse his unprepossessing exterior, for the sake
of the jewel which he wears in his tongue. This, like that of
the chamehon, of which he is a cousin-german, he darts out with
lightning rapidity, and clasps his worm or insect prey within its
glutinous folds, which is with equal rapidity transformed to his
capacious maw. Apparently dull, squat, and of the soil's hue,
whatever that may be, he sits silent, meditative, yet watchful, in
the thick shade of some overgrown cabbage, or other plant ; and
then as the careless insects buzz by, or the grub or beetle crawl
along unheedful of danger, he loads his aldermanic carcass with
the savory repast. Sixteen fresh beetles, a pile equal to his
fasting bulk, have been found in the stomach of a single toad.
iFINCES. 313
The frog^ traipsing over the dewy fields, procures his summer
subsistence in the same way as his seeming congener, the toad,
and with equal benefit to the farmer.
FENCES.
In many countries which have been long under cultivation,
with a dense population and little timber, as in China, and other
parts of Asia, Italy, France, Belgium, Holland, and other parts
of Europe, fences are seldom seen. In certain sections of the
older settled portions of the New England States, also, a similar
arrangement prevails. This is especially the case over the wide
intervals or bottom lands which skirt the banks of the Connect-
icut and many other large rivers, where periodical inundations
would annually sweep them away. Wherever this system is
adopted, cultivation proceeds without obstruction, and a great
■ saving is made not only in their original cost, but in the interest,
repairs and renewal; all the land is available for crops; no weeds
or bushes are permitted to send their annoying roots or scatter
their seeds over the ground ; no safe harbors are made for mice,
rats or other vermin; the trouble and expense of keeping up
bars or gates are avoided ; and a free course is allowed by the
conceded roads or by-paths, for the removal of the crops, and
carrying on manures, and the necessary passing to and fro in
their cultivation. These are important advantages, which it
would be well for every community to consider and secure, to
the full extent of their circumstances. The inconveniences of
this arrangement are trifling. "When cattle or sheep are pastured
in Europe, where fences are wanting, they are placed under the
guidance of a shepherd, who, with the aid of a well trained dog,
v/ill keep a large herd of animals in perfect subjection, within
the prescribed limits. In the unfenced part of the Connecticut
valley, (where extensive legislative powers reside in the separate
towns, which enables each to adopt such regulations as best
comport with their own interests,) no animals are permitted to
go on to the fields till autumn, and the crops are required to be
14
314
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
removed at a designated time, when each occupant is at liberty
to turn on to the common premises, a number of cattle propor-
tionate to his standing forage, which is accurately ascertained by a
supervisory board. A certain number of fences are necessary for
such fields as are continued in pasture through the season, but,
unfortunately, custom in this country has increased them beyond
all necessity or reason. It rests with the farmers to abate such
as they deem inconsistent with their interests.
The kind of fences should vary according to the controlling
circumstances of the farm. In those situations where stone
abounds, and especially if it is a nuisance, heavy stone fences,
broad and high, are undoubtedly the most proper. Where these
are not abundant, an economical fence may be constructed, by
a substantial foundation of stone, reaching two or two and a
half feet above ground, in which posts are placed, at proper
distances, with two or three bar holes above the wall, in which
an equal number of rails are inserted. Post and rail, and post
and board fences are common where there is a deficiency ot
timber. The posts should be placed from two and a half to three
feet below the surface, in the center of a large hole, and
surrounded by fine stone, which should be well pounded dowii
by a heavy iron-shod rammer, as they are filled in. The post
will not stand as firmly at first as if surrounded by dirt, but it
will last much longer. The lower end should be pointed, which
prevents its heaving with the frost. If the position of the post,
while in the tree, be reversed, or the upper end of the split
section of the trunk which is used for a post, be placed in the
earth, it will be more durable. Charring or partially burning the
part of the post which is buried, will add to its duration. So,
also, will imbedding it in ashes, lime, charcoal, or clay; or it may
be bored at the surface with a large auger, diagonally down-
wards and nearly through, filled with salt and closely plugged.
The best timber for posts, in the order of its durability, is red
cedar, yellow locust, black walnut, white oak, and chestnut. We
recently saw red cedar posts, used for a porch, which, we were
FENCES. 315
assured, had been standing exposed to the weather previous to
the year 1770, and they were still perfectly sound. Two years
ago, we took up about thirty old red cedar fence posts, which
had stood forty -seven years in a compact clay soil, and all but
three or four of them were perfectly sound, throughout. The
avidity with which silicious sands and gravel act upon wood,
renders a post fence expensive for such soils.
There are large portions of our country where timber abounds,
especially in the uncleared parts of it, where the zig-zag, worm'
or Virginia fence is by far the most economical. The timber is
an incumbrance, and therefore costs nothing, and the rails can be
cut and split to fen or twelve feet long for seventy-five cents to
a dollar per hundred; and the hauling and placing is still less.
With good rails, well laid up from the ground on stones or dura-
ble blocks, and properly crossed at the ends, and locked at the
top, they are firm and durable. Staking the corners, by project-
ing rails, gives an unsightly appearance at aU times, and is
particularly objectionable for plowing, as it considerably increases
tlie waste ground. The same object is obtained by locking the
fence when completed, with a long rail on each side, one end
resting on the ground and the other laid into the angle, in a line
with the fence. More symmetry and neatness is secured and a
trifling amount of timber saved, by putting two smaU upright
stakes, one on each side of the angle, and securing theni by
a white oak plank, six inches wide by eighteen inches long with
two holes of three inches diameter bored eight inches apart, and
shpped over the posts, after most of the rails have been laid
Stout annealed wire, the size of No. 8 or 9, wrapped around
each stake to hold them together, answers quite as well An
additional rail may be laid over it to keep the yokes, caps or
wires m their place, and the whole is thus firmly bound together
In addition to the timber designated for posts, rails may be made
from any kind of oak, black walnut, black and white ash, elm
and hickorj. ' '
Turf and clay fences have been tried in this country without
success. Our frosts and rains are so severe as to break and
316 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
crumble them down continually. Cattle tread upon and gore
them; and to swine and sheep they scarcely offer any resistance.
Wire fences have been used to some extent, and if galvanized
wire, which is not liable to rust, could be procured at a reason-
able' cost, it would combine gracefulness and utihty in a high
degree. The hurdle, or hght movable fence, is variously formed,
of cordage, wire, or wicker work, in short panels, and firmly set
into the ground by sharpened stakes at the end of each panel,
and these are fastened together. This is a convenient appendage
to farms, where heavy green crops of clover, lucern, peas, turnips,
etc., are required to be fed off in successive lots, by sheep, swine,
or cattle. We have, within a few years past, seen several
different samples of patent hurdle fence in use, which were quite
effective for all kinds of the lighter farm stock. The sunken
fence, or wall, is by far the most agreeable to good taste, and it
is perfectly efiadent. It consists of a vertical excavation on one
side, about five feet in depth, against which a wall i& built to the
surface of the ground.^ The opposite side is inchned at such an
angle as will preserve the sod, without shding, from the effects of
frost or rain, and is then turfed over. A farm thus divided,
presents no obstruction to the view, while it is every where
properly walled in, besides affording good ditches for the drainage
of water. These sunken fences are sometimes raised a couple of
feet above the ground, which increases the protection, at a less
cost than deepening and widening the ditch.
Good fences, at all times kept in perfect repair, are the
cheapest. Most of the unruly animals are taught their habits by
their owners. Fences that are half down, or which will fall by
the rubbing of cattle, will soon teach them to jump and throw
down such as they are unable to overleap. For the same reason,
gates are better than bars. When the last are used, they should
be let down so near the ground that every animal can step over
conveniently; nor should they be hurried over so fast as to
induce any animal to jump. In driving a flock of sheep through
them, the lower bars ought to be taken entirely out, or they be
FENCES. 317
allowed to go over the bars in single file. Animals will seldom
become jumpers, except through their owner's fault, or from some
bad example set them bj unruly associates; and unless the fences
be perfectly secure, these ought to be stalled until they can be
disposed of. The farmer will find that no animal will repay him
the trouble and cost of expensive fences and ruined crops.
Hedges have, from time immemorial, been used in Great
Britain, and some parts of the European continent, but are now
growing unpopular with utihtarian agriculturists. They occupy
a great deal of ground, and harbor much vermin. A few only
have been introduced in the old settled States of America, and
they may never become great favorites there. For those dis-
posed to try them, as a matter of taste or fancy, there are several
kinds of our thorny, native shrubs that are both beautiful and
hardy.
The subject of fences and hedging, in this country, has been
much discussed* in farm consultations within the last twenty years
and various opinions are entertained as to the necessity of their
extent, and the material of which farm enclosures should be
made, aU depending much on the surface of the land, and the
kinds of husbandry pursued. Where land is so plenty as in the
United States, and large tracts, as in some of the States, lie out
in commons— and frequently owned by non-residents— a wide
latitude of custom prevails in letting animals range at large to
graze upon them, particularly in the prairies. In many good
farming districts, cattle are permitted to run in the highways.
In the vicinity of growing towns, and villages, also, where many
vacant lots are left unenclosed, cattle, swine, and geese, by com-
mon usage, although there may be general or local laws to the
contrary, are permitted to run at large over them, and in the
streets, greatly to the inconvenience of those who live within
secure enclosures, while the streets in front of them are made a
nmsance by these common trespassers, and so long as law is dis-
regarded, and this annoying custom prevails, the subject offences
will remam one of extraordinary expense and difficulty.
318 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE,
As a rule, excepting the prairie regions, we have a great deal
too much fencing in America. In many districts of country —
the rough and hilly districts of New England for example, — ^the
numerous stone waPs that exist and have been built, at one time
and another, cost more than the entire farms would now sell for.
They were built, probably, partly to get rid of the surface stones
on the fields, and partly because the owners of the farms thought
at the time there was a necessity for them. So, also, it is the
case with rail fences where fencing stones are not found.
A multiplicity of fences, either on a small or a large farm, are
little better than a nuisance. In England, where hedges univer-
sally prevail, of late years they have been rooted out and thrown
aside by thousands of miles in the aggregate. It should be so
here, with stone walls and fences, as a great waste of good land
will be saved by the process. Where fencing material is scarce
and dear, excessive fencing will probably take care of itself
Eoad fencing is the most difficult wherever cattle run at large,
and indeed these are the only fences of the farm, beyond those
to enclose the buildings, which assume a permanent character,
and demand a lasting material for their construction.
Hedges, for road fencing, are probably the best, if we can find
the proper kinds of wood for the purpose. The Enghsh haw-
thorn, of which the English hedges are usually made, does not
thrive in our cold, hot, and drier seasons. The leaves mildew
badly in summer, and the wood is apt to freeze in winter. It
has been often tried, and- a failure has generally, as often been
the result. The varieties of American thorn have also been tried,
but with no very satisfactory results. The Osage orange has
been extensively planted. Its chief objection thus far, has been
its liability to winter kill in many northern locahties. Yet it
may surmount this tendency, and if so, it makes an effective
hedge, being a strong grower, not succoring from the root, well
thorned, and when well grown, sufficiently sturdy to resist any
animal.
Other woods, as the three thorned acacia, or honey locust, the
common white beech, some varieties of the willow, and evergreens
SHADE TREES.
319
have been recommended, and tried, but as jet with no well
established success. We think, .the wild crab apple, and plum,
provided they will bear such close growing and clipping, will
prove among our best native woods for this purpose, as they are
hard J, not over rampant growers, and durable. We are likely,
however, to undergo a long series of trials, before a universal
American hedge plant shall become established.
FARM ROADS.
Good roads in the interior of a farm of any considerable size
are indispensable to facilitate the passage to and from the culti-
vated fields, or pastures, and aid in drawing all articles back and
forth. These roads need not be expensive in construction, as
they are not in daily use for vehicles, and farm stock require little
accommodation beyond a simple roadway in passing over them.
All roads of this kind should be so conveniently located as to
approach the several fields readily, and made permanent in their
structure, when once laid out.
It is not necessary that they be always fenced off from the^
adjoining fields. That must depend on the mode of farming
adopted, whether it be in crop raising, or stock keeping. The
surface of the land and the character of the soil will determine
the necessity of throwing the pathway into a ridge, with side
ditches, or not. Clayey or heavy muck lands will require them,
for a permanently good road ; free and loose soils will be well
enough without that labor. Ten to twelve feet wide is space
enough for the trackway, if the open ditches by the side are
shallow enough to admit a turnout, when two vehicles meet,
which is seldom the case inside of the farm. If it be necessary
to fence the road into a lane, twenty to thirty feet is wide enough ;
otherwise, the track need only occupy a httle more than the
width of a cart or wagon.
SHADE TREES,
In such situations and. numbers as may be required around the
farm premises, are both ornamental and profitable. They have,
320
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
too, a social and moral influence, far beyond the mere gratifica-
tion of the eye, or the consideration of dollars and cents. In
their freshness and simplicity, they impress the young mind with
sentiments of purity and loveliness as enduring as life. From
the cradle of infancy, consciousness first dawns upon the beauty
of nature beneath their grateful shade; the more boisterous
sports of childhood seek their keenest enjoyment amid their
expanded foliage; and they become the favorite trysting place
when the feehngs assume a graver hue, and the sentiment of
approaching manhood usurp the place of unthinking frolic.
Their memory in after life greets the lonely wanderer amid his
trials and vicissitudes, inciting him to breast adversity till again
welcomed to their smiling presence. Their thousand associations
repress the unhallowed aspirations of ambition and vice ; and
when the last sun of decrepid age is sinking to its rest, these
venerable monitors solace the expiring soul with the assurance,
that a returning spring shall renew its existence beyond the
winter of the tomb.
Trees ought not to stand too near the buildings, but occupy
such a position as to give beauty and finish to the landscape. In
addition to danger from lightning, blowing down, or the breaking
ojBf of heavy branches, there is an excessive dampness from their
proximity, which produces rapid decay in such as are of wood,
and which frequently affects the health of the inmates. Low
shrubbery, that does not cluster too thickly and immediately
around the house, is not objectionable. Trees are ornamental to
the streets and highways, but should be at such a distance from
the fences as will prevent injury to the crops and afford a grateful
shade to the wayfarer. In certain sections of the Middle and
Southern States, where the soil is parched from the long, sultry
summers, it has been found that shade trees rather increased than
diminished the forage of the pastures, but through most of the
Middle and Northern States, they are decidedly disadvantageous,
as the feed is found to be sweeter and more abundant beyond
their reach. For this reason, such trees as are preserved exclu-
SHADE TBEES.
321
sivelj for timber should be kept together in the wood lots, and
even many that are designed for necessary shade or ornament,
may be grouped in tasteful copses, with greater economy of
ground and manifest improvement to the landscape.
In the selection of trees, regard should be had not only to the
beauty of the tree and its fitness for shade, but to its ultimate
value as timber and fuel. The e?m, in the Northern and Middle
States, w^hen standing isolated, is one of our most graceful and
imposing trees. It grows to an immense size, with graceful pro-
jecting hmbs and long pendent branches. It is Hable to few
diseases, and the fuel and timber are good for most purposes.
Every one who has seen the patriarchal elms which grace the
beautiful villages of the Connecticut valley, and other old towns
of New England, must wish to see them universally disseminated.
The roch or sugar maple is a beautiful tree, having a straight
trunk and regular upward branching limbs, forming a top of great
symmetry and elegance. Beside the ornament and thick shade
it affords, it gives an annual return in its sap, which is used for
making into sugar and syrup ; the fuel is equal to any of our
native trees; the timber is valuable, yielding the beautiful glossy
bird's-eye maple so much esteemed for furniture. The Uack
walnut is a stately, graceful tree, of great value for wood and
durable timber, and besides its extensive use for plain, substantial
furniture, the knots and crotches make the rich dark veneering,
which rivals the mahogany or rosewood in brilliancy and lasting
beauty. In fertile soil it hkewise bears a highly flavored nut.
The hutternut is also a fine tree for shade, as well as for its rich
flavored fruit. So, too, with the shell or sJiagharh hickory. The
white ash has a more slender and stiff"er top than either of the
preceding, yet is Hght and graceful. The fuel is good, and the
timber unequalled in value for the carriage maker. The weeping
willow, in the Middle States, south of latitude 42°, is a tree of
variegated foliage, and long, flexile twigs, sometimes traihng the
ground for yards in length. Its soft silvery leaves are among the
earliest of spring, and the last to maintain their verdure in the
14*
322
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
autumn. Its timber is worthless and the wood of little value.
The hlach and white oaks^ on soil adapted to them, are trees of
commanding beautj and stalwart growth. The foliage appears
late^ but is unsurpassed for depth and richness of color and highly
polished surface, and retains its summer green long after the early-
frosts have mottled the ash and streaked the maple with their
rainbow hues. When grown on dry. and open land, both fue.
and timber are valuable. The locust is a beautiful tree, of rapid
growth, flowering profusely, and with layers or massive flakes of
innumerable leaflets of the deepest verdure. The wood is
unrivalled for durability as ship timber, except by the live oak ;
and for posts or exposure to the weather, it is only excelled by
the savin, or red cedar. It has of late years been subject to
severe attack and great injury from the borer, a worm against
whose ravages hitherto there has been no successful remedy. Its
chief drawback is its propensity to throw up suckers. The
button woodj sycamore^ or plane tree, by all of which names
it is known in different parts of this country, is of gigantic
dimensions, when occupying a rich and moist alluvial soil. One
found on the banks of the Ohio measured forty-seven feet
in circumference, at a height of four feet from the ground.
Its lofty mottled trunk, its huge irregular limbs, and its numer-
ous pendent balls, in which are compressed myriads of seeds,
with their plumy tufts that are wafted to immense distances
for propagation, have rendered it occasionally a favorite. They
are often seen on the banks of our rivers, where the branches inter
lock, and sometimes they completely span streams of considerable
size. The wood is cross-grained and intractable for working, and
the timber is of little use. This is a tree, however, in its native
grandeur, of history more than of the present. For the last
forty years, it has been afflicted with a disease which has dwarfed
it growth and spoiled its shade. The great variety of American
shade trees, both deciduous and evergreen, far surpasses that
within the same area on any portion of the eastern continent,
WOOD LANDS.
323
but it would be transcending our limits farther to particularize
them.
WOOD LANDS.
There are few farms in the United States where it is not
convenient and profitable to have a wood lot attached. They
supply the owner with his fuel, when coal is not accessible, which
he can prepare at leisure times; they furnish him with timber
for buildings, rails, posts, and for the occasional demands for
implements; they also require little attention. The trees should
be kept in a vigorous, growing condition, as the profits are as
much enhanced from this cause as any of the cultivated crops.
Few of our American fields require planting with forest trees.
The soil is everywhere adapted to their growth, and being full of
seeds and roots, when but recently deceased, they will everywhere
spring up spontaneously. Even the oak openings of the West,
with here and there a scattered tree, and such 6f the prairies as
border upon wood lands, when rescued from the destructive effects
of the annual fires, will rapidly shoot up into vigorous forests.
"We have repeatedly seen instances of the re-covering of oak
barrens and prairies with young forests, which was undoubtedly
their condition before the Indians subjected them to conflagration;
and they have, indeed, always maintained their foothold against
these desolating fires, wherever there was moisture enough in the
soil to arrest their progress. In almost every instance, if the
germs of forest vegetation have not been extinguished in the soil,
the wood lot may be safely left to self propagation, as it will be
certain to produce those trees which are best suited to the present
state of 4he soil. Shghtly thinning the young wood may in some
cases be desirable, and especially by the removal of such worth-
less shrubbery as never attains a size or character to render it of
any value. Such are the alders, the blue beach, 'swamp willow,
etc., and where there is a redundance of the better varieties of
equal vigor, those may be removed that will be worth the least
when matured. In most of our woodlands, however, nature is
left to assert her own unaided preferences, growing what and how
324
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
she pleases, and, it must be confessed, she is seldom at variance
with the owner's interest. Serious and permanent injury has
often followed close thinning. In cutting over woodlands, it is
generally best to remove all the large trees oh the premises at
the same time. This admits a fresh growth on equal footing,
and allows that variety to get the ascendency to which the soil
is best suited.
In the older settled States, where land and its productions are
comparatively high, many adopt the plan of clearing off every
thing; even burning the old logs and brush, and then sow one
or more crops of wheat or rye, for which the land is in admirable
condition, from the long accumulation of vegetable matter, and
the heavy dressing of ashes thus received. They then allow the
forest to resume its original claims, which it is not slow to do,
from the abundance of seeds and roots in the ground. But unless
the crop be valuable the utility of this practice is doubtful, as, by
the destruction of all the young stuff which may be left, there is
a certain delay of some years in the after growth of the wood;
and the gradual decay of the old trunks and brush may minister
fully as much to its growth as the ash whieh their combustion
leaves; and the fertihty of the soil is diminished just in propor-
tion to the amount of vegetable matter which may have been
abstracted by the grain crops taken off. The proper time for
cutting over the wood must depend on its character, the soil, and
the uses to which it is to be apphed. For saw lOgs or frame
timber, it should have a thrifty growth of forty or fifty years ;
but in the meantime much scattering fuel may be taken from it,
and occasionally such mature timber trees as can be removed
without injury to the remainder. For fuel alone, a much earlier
cutting has been found most profitable.
The Sahsbnry Iron Company, in Connecticut, has several
thousand acres of land, which were purchased and have been
reserved exclusively for supplying their own charcoal. The
intelligent manager informed us, when recently there, that from
an experience of eighty years^ they had ascertained the most
WOOD LANDS.
325
profitable period for cutting was once in about sixteen years,
when everything was removed of an available size, and the wood
was left entirely to itself, for another growth. It has been found
that this yielded an annual interest on $16 to $20 an acre, which
for a rough and rather indifferent soil, remote from a wood or
timber market, will pay fully as much as the net profits on
cultivated land in the neighborhood.
There are numerous hill and mountain ranges of land in many
of our States, once cleared and cultivated to some extent, (partic-
ularly in the New England States,) which are now abandoned
to the growth of wood, and wisely so, as more profitable than
the lean returns of either cropping in grain, or grazing. They
renew a good growth of wood in twenty to thirty years, at
farthest, which may be worth, according to its locality, fifty to
one hundred dollars per acre, when an acre of such land, cleared
and in grass, would scarcely yield summer pasture for a single
sheep. We have seen thousands of acres, once in farms, (on
which, too, great men were born and grew to manhood,) now
grown into wood. In old times, when all farm labor was done
by hand, such land paid to Kve on as things then went; but, with
the application of improved implements, by which hand labor has
largely been superseded, and cannot be used in such rough lands
the ordinary crops cannot be profitably grown. Hence, they
become, as farm lands, comparatively worthless. The warm
sheltered, sunny nooks are only reserved, which, by better culti-
vation, have become more profitable than the whole farm put
together, under the old method of ranging over the broader
surface, with the same amount of labor.
When young, the wood should be kept entirely free from sheep
and cattle, as they feed upon the fresh shoots with nearly the
same avidity as they do upon grass or clover, and when it is
desirable to thicken the standing trees by an additional growth
cattle should be kept from the range till such time as the new
sprouts or seedling may have attained a height beyond their
reach. Where it is desirable to bring into woodland such fields
326
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
as have not forest roots or seeds already deposited in a condition
for germination, the fields should be sown or planted with all the
various nuts or seeds adapted to the soil, and which it is desirable
to cultivate. Transplanting trees for a forest in this country,
cannot at present be made to pay, from its large expense, and if
the trees will not grow naturally or by sowing, the land should
be continued in pastures or cultivation. - There are some lands so
unfitted for tillage by their roughness or texture, as to be much
more profitable as woodland. It is better to retain such in
forest, and make from them whatever they are capable of yield-
ing, than by clearing and bringing them into use, to add them to
what are perhaps already superfluous tillage fields, and become a
drain on labor and manures which they illy repay.
In clearing lands, when it is desirable to reserve sufficient trees
for a park or shade, a selection should be made of such as are
young and healthy, which have grown in the most open places,
with a short stem and thick top. It will tend to insure their
continued and vigorous growth, if the top and leading branches
be shortened. - A large tree will seldom thrive when subjected to
the new condition in which it is placed, after the removal of the
shade and moisture by which it has been surrounded. They will
generally remain stationary or soon decay; and the shght foot-
hold they have upon the earth by their roots, which was sufficient
for their protected situation while surrounded by other trees,
exposes them to destruction from violent gales ; and they seldom
have that beauty of top and symmetry of appearance which should
entitle them to be retained singly. If partiahties are to be
indulged for any, they should be surrounded by a copse of younger
trees by which they will be in a measure protected. Young
stocks should be left in numbers greater than are required, as
many of them will die, and from the remainder selections can be
made of such as will best answer the purpose designed. In the
many hundreds of acres of original forest which we^ave had
the supervision of clearing up, where we left occasional copses
of large growth, they almost all died out in a few years.
WOOD LANDS.
327
We have of late seen many ingeniously written articles against
the impolicy of clearing lands of their timber, as opening them to
prolonged droughts, and, of course, destroying much of their value
for agricultural purposes, and drying up the springs and streams.
The theory for retaining the timber on the land, is — for we believe
the proposition is theoretical only, — that the woods, or forests
keep the land shaded, and so prevent evaporation of the water
from the soil, thus letting the rains in to supply the springs, and
promote their perpetual flow, while the low and swampy places,
by retaining the collections of water within them to a continuous
supply or inlet of the streams into which they run, keep them at
a more equable volume; also, that the trees draw the rain from
the passing clouds, break their misty volume, and arrest their
progress into rain, when if the land were clear of trees the clouds
and rain would pass into more favored quarters. Another branch
of the theory is that in clearing up the land, the water courses are
opened for immediately discharging the falling water from them,
thus passing it rapidly into the larger streams and rivers, sweUing
them inordinately, and causing greater freshets than when the
country was new, and thus causing droughts.
The answer to these propositions as it appears to us, is short
and altogether probable and practical.
1st. Woods and forests take up quite as much moisture from
the soil, in the support of their trunks, branches and leaves, thus,
evaporating it into the atmosphere from the soil, as growing crops
do. If they retain the surplus water in swamps, it is of no use
either to the trees themselves, or the streams into which they
flow only for mill power ^ a matter of httle consequence where
farm lands are of much value.
2d. While we have milHons of acres of prairie lands in many
of our TVestern States, where for miles scarcely a tree is seen, and
rains appear to be as abundant there as elsewhere, who can sup-
pose that a wide forest of trees, not over a hundred feet high,
while the clouds pass over at the height of several hundred, or
several thousand feet above them can exercise any but the feeblest
328
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
influeiice in a^rresting their course, or break them into a discharge
their waters?
3d. Supposing the falUng waters on cleared and cultivated
lands do discharge themselves rapidly into the water courses, as
they should do ? If the parched ground needs the rain, it will
absorb it to its full capacity for doing so. The surplus ought to
run away, as it only damages the crops by lying on them. If
the springs are really good for anything — that is, lie deep enough
to give water in a dry time when they are really needed — their
fountains lie too deep to be affected by summer rains. As for
the freshets of recent years being so much greater than in olden
times, we have little faith that they are so. Men's memories are
short, and not always accurate.
THE PROPER TIME FOR CUTTING TIMBER.
Nine-tenths of the community think winter the time for this
purpose, but the reason assigned, "that the sap is then in the
roots," shows its futility, as it is evident to the most superficial
observer that there is nearly the same quantity of sap in the tree
at all seasons. It is less active in winter, and like all other moist-
ure, is congealed during the coldest weather, yet when not abso-
lutely frozen, circulation is never 'entirely stopped in the living
tree. Reason or philosophy would seem to indicate that the
period of the maturity of the leaf, or from the last of June to
the first of November, is the season for cutting timber in its per-
lection. Certain it is, that we have numerous examples of tim-
ber cut at this period, which has exhibited a durability twice or
three times as great as that cut in winter, when placed under
precisely the same circumstances. After it is felled, it should at
once be peeled, drawn from the woods and elevated from the
ground to facilitate drying, and if it is intended to be used under
cover, the sooner it is put there the better. "Wood designed for
fuel, will spend much better when cut as above mentioned and
immediately housed, but as this is generally inconvenient, from
the labor of the farm being then required for the harvesting of
FARMING TOOLS. 329
the crops, it may be more economical to cut it whenever there is
most leisure.
Preservation of Timber. — Various preparations, of late
years, have been tried for the more effectual preservation of tim-
ber, which have proved quite successful, but the expense pre-
cludes their adoption for general purposes. Chemistry, in its
later developments, has aided much in the knowledge of the best
compositions for preserving timber, when exposed to the weather,
from the destructive action of the elements; and from the con-
tinuous experiments still made, it is hoped that different, cheap,
and effective preparations, with their modes of application, will
ere long be found for common use. Under water, without special
preparation, almost any kind of timber will endure sound for
centuries. Gas-tar, salts, crude petroleum, and alkalies of a cheap
kind and easily procured, are now his chief material, and answer
a tolerable purpose. But something still more enduring than
these have proved, awaits the farmer's demands, and should be
afforded within the limits of his means. The cost of obtaining
the present known chemical compounds, usually termed kyaniz-
lUfT is too great with the large majority. Although the expense
Liiese preparations may prevent their use for large, cheap
structures, yet for all the lighter instruments, such as farmer's
tools, plows, etc., where the cost of wood is inconsiderable, in
comparison with that of making, it would be economy to use
such timber only, as will give the longest duration, though its
first price may be ten-fold that of the more perishable material.
FARMING TOOLS.
These should form an important item of the farmer's attention,
as upon their proper construction depends much of the economy
and success with which he can perform his operations. There
have been great and important improvements within the past few
years, in most of the implements, which have diminished the
expense while they have greatly improved the mechanical opera-
tions of agriculture. We have studiously avoided a reference to
330
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
any of these, as there are many competitors for similar and nearly
equal improvement, and in this career of sharp and commendable
rivalry, what is the best to-day, may be supplanted by something
better to-morrow. These implements may now be found at the
agricultural warehouses, of almost every desirable variety. Of
these, the best only should be procured; such as are the most
perfect in their principles and of the most durable materials.
The wood work should be well guarded with paint, if to be
exposed to the weather, and the iron or steel with paint, or a
coating of hot tar, unless kept brightened by use. When required
for cutting, they should always be sharp, even to the hoe, the
spade, and the share and coulter of the plow. When not in use,
they ought to be in a dry place. Plows, harrows, carts and sleds,
should all be thus protected, and by their longer durability they
will amply repay the expense of shed room. They ought also
to be kept in the best repair, which may be done at leisure times
so as to be ready for use. (Some additional remarks on this sub-
ject will be found under the head of *'plows.")
THE AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION OF THE FARMER.
Though last mentioned, this is of the first importance to the
farmer's success. It should commence with the thorough ground-
work attainments, everywhere to be acquired in our primary
schools, and should embrace the elementary knowledge of me-
chanics, botany, chemistry and geology; nor can it be complete
without some acquaintance with anatomy and physiology. The
learner ought then to have a complete, practical understanding
of the manual operations of the farm, the best manner of plant-
ing, cultivating and securing crops; he should be familiar with
the proper management, feeding and breeding of animals; the
treatment of soils, the application of manures, and all the various
matters connected with agriculture.
This will be but the commencement of his education, and it
should be steadily pursued through the remainder of his life. He
must learn from his own experience, which is the most certain and
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION.
331
complete knowledge lie can obtain, as he thus ascertains all the
circumstances which have led to certain results; and he should
also learn from the experience of his neighbors, and from his
personal observation on every subject that comes within his
notice. He will be particularly assisted by the cheap agricultu-
ral journals of the present day, which embrace the latest expe-
rience of some of our best farmers, throughout remote sections
of country, on almost every subject pertaining to his occupation.
To these should be added the selection of standard, reliable works,
. on the various topics of farming, and of the latest authority,
which can be procured for direction and reference.
It is hoped that the agricultural schools and colleges^ now being
so generally estabhshed in our different States, in aid of the farm-
ing interests of the country, where experienced and gifted minds
should be placed, surrounded by the means for conveying instruc-
tion in the fullest, yet most simple and effective manner, and with
every requisite for practical illustration, may prove of signal
benefit. We cannot permit ourselves to doubt that this neglected
field will soon be efficiently occupied, and thus supply the only
link remaining in the thorough education of the farmer.
I
CHAPTER XIII
PAKM BUILDINGS.
This is a subject so various and extensive in its discussion,
tliat we can, here, barely touch upon it. Only general hints and
suggestions can here be made, the subject itself requiring a full
treatise by an author competent to its mastery.
Great neglect still prevails in this country, in the erection of
suitable farm buildings. The deficiency extends not only to their
number, which is often inadequate to the wants of the farm, but
more frequently to their location, arrangement and manner of
construction. The annual losses which occur in consequence of
this neglect, would, in a few years, furnish every farm in
the Union with barns and outhouses entirely sufficient for the
necessities of each. We will give briefly, in detail, the
leading considerations which should govern the farmer in their
construction.
THE FARM HOUSE.
If this is required for the occupation of the oVner, it may be
of any form and size his means and taste dictate. If for a tenant,
and to be employed solely with a reference to its value to the
farm, it should be neat, comfortable, and of convenient size. It
should especially contain a cool, airy and spacious dairy room,
unless the owner should prefer one independent of the house,
over a clear spring or cool rivulet, where, partially protected
from the sun by a sheltering bank, half buried in the earth, and
made, as it should be, if possible, of stone, the cool atmosphere
within will afford the best safeguard against flies and other insects, ,
and preserve the butter and cheese in the finest condition. Stone
FARM BUILDINGS.
333
or brick are the best materials for dwellings, as they are cooler
in summer and warmer in winter, and if comfort be the object of
the farmer's toil, there is certainly no place where it should be
sooner consulted than iii his own domicile. A naked, scorching
exposure, equally with a bleak and dreary one, is to be avoided.
The design of a house is protection to its inmates, and if there
be no adequate shelter from the elements, it fails in its purpose.
It should be tastefully built, as this need not materially increase
the expense, while it adds a pleasant feature to the farm. It
ought to occupy a position easily accessible to the other buildings
and the fields, and yet be within convenient distance of the high-
way. It is desirable to have it so far removed as to admit of a
light screen of trees, and nature will thus add an ornament and
protection, in the surrounding foliage, which no skill of the
architect can equal.
The Cellar. — This is an essential appendage to a house,
particularly where roots are to be stored. Many appropriate a
part of it to the dairy, and if thus employed it should be high,
clean and well ventilated. The proper preservation of what is
contained in it, and the health of the inmates, demand a suitable
dryness and free circulation of air. The cellar is frequently
placed on the side of a hill, which renders it more accessible from
without. This is in no respect objectionable, if the walls are
made sufficiently tight to exclude the frosts. When on level
ground, they should be sunk only three or four feet below the
natural surface, and the walls raised enough above to give all the
room wanted; and the excavated earth can be banked around
the house, thus rendering it more elevated and pleasant. It also
provides for the admission of Hght and air through small windows,
which are placed above the ground. A wire gauze, to exclude
flies, ought to occupy the place of the glass in warm weather,
and, if Hable to frosts, there should be double sashes in winter.
Ventilation is important in all seasons, and it may be secured by
as large an aperture as possible connected with the chimney, and
the windows may be thrown open in pleasant weather during the
334
AMEKICAN AGRICULTURE.
warmer part of the day. The cellar should be connected with
the kitchen or sheds above, by safe, well lighted stairs. And,
lastly, the entire building should be rat-proof. This is more
easily accomplished than is generally ihiagined. When erecting
a building, a carpenter, or mason, for less than the additional
expense of a year's support for a troop of rats, can forever
exclude them from it, by the exercise of a little ingenuity. A
brick floor in a cellar is easily broken up by these insidious and
ever-busy vermin, and a plank or wooden floor is objectionable,
from its speedy decay. The most effective and permanent barrier
to their inroads is afforded by a stone pavement, laid with large
pieces, in cement, closely fitted to each other and to the side
walls. This is also secured by placing a bed of small stones and
pebbles on the ground, and grouting^ or pouring over it a mortar
made of lime and sand, so thin as to run freely between the stones.
When dry, a thin coating of water-lime cement is added, which
is smoothed over with the trowel. This can be so laid as to
admit of ready and perfect drainage, by a depression in the center
or sides, which answers for gutters.
THE BARN
Is a very important appendage of the farm, and its size and
form must depend on the particular wants of the owner. It is
sometimes essential to have more than one on the premises, but
in either case they should be within convenfent distance of the
house. They should be large enough to hold all the fodder and
animals on the farm. Not a hoof about the premises should be
required to brave our Northern winters, unsheltered by a tight
roof and a dry bed. They will thrive so much faster, and con-
sume so much less food when thus protected, that the owner will
be ten-fold remunerated. Disease is thus often prevented, and if
it occurs, is more easily removed. The saving in fodder, by
placing it at once under cover when cured, is another great item
of consideration. Besides the expense of stacking and fencing,
the waste of the tops and outside fodder in small stacks, is fre-
FARM BUILDINGS.
335
quently one-fourth of the whole, and if carelessly done, it will be
much greater. There is a further expense of again moving it to
the barn, or foddering it in the field, which greatly increases the
waste.
It is a convenient mode to place a barn on a side hill, inclin-
ing to the south-east, whenever the position of the ground admits
of it. There are several advantages connected with this plan.
Room is obtained by excavating and underpinning, more cheaply
than in building above. An extensive range of stabling may be
made below, which will be warmer than what is afforded by a
wooden building, and the mangers are easily supplied with the
fodder which is stored above. Extensive cellar room can be had
next to the bank, in which all the roots required for the cattle
can be safely stored yet near to their mangers, and where they are
easily deposited from carts through windows arranged on the
upper side, or scuttles in the barn floor above. More room is
afforded for hay in consequence of placing some of the stables
below, and in this way, a large part of the labor of pitching it
on to elevated scaffolds is avoided. The barn and shed ought to
be well raised on good underpinnings, to prevent the rotting of
sills, and to allow the free escape of moisture, as low, damp prem-
ises are injurious to the health of animals.
Every consideration ought to be given to the saving of manure.
The stables should have drains that will carry off the liquid
evacuations to a muck heap or reservoir, and whatever manure
is thrown out, should be carefully protected. Sheds for com-
posting muck, sods, etc., may well be used, in which pits are
sunk and moisture applied, as may be needed. A low
roof, projecting several feet over the manure which is thrown
from the stables, will do much to prevent waste from sun and
rains. The mangers ought to be so constructed as to economize
the fodder. Box feeding for the cattle we prefer, as in addition
to hay, roots and meal may be fed in them without loss; and
with over-ripe hay, a great deal of seed may in this way be
saved, which will diminish the quantity necessary to be purchased
33G
AMKBIOAN AGKICULTUEE.
for sowing. The fine leaves and small fragments of hay are also
kept from waste, which in racks are generally lost by falling on
the floor. We object to racks, unless provided with a shallow
box underneath, and to foddering in the open yards. There is a
loss in dragging the forage to them, and too often this is done
near a herd of hungry cattle, which gore each other, and are
scarcely to be kept at bay by the use of the stoutest goad.
There is also a waste of the hay which falls while the cattle are
feeding, and which is largely increased in muddy yards ; added
to which, the animals are exposed to whatever bad weather "there
may be while eating, which is at all times to be deprecated.
Sheds. — Feeding in sheds is convenient, and in many instances
may take the place of the stall or stable. They are frequently
and very properly arranged on two sides of the cattle yard, the
barn forming one end, and the other opening to the south, unless
this is exposed to the prevailing winds. This arrangement forms
a good protection for the cattle, and the sheds being connected
with the barn, is of importance in economizing the labor in fod-
dering. The racks or boxes are placed on the boarded side of
the shed, which forms the outer side of the yard, and they are
filled from the floor overhead. If the space above is not sufficient
to contain the necessary quantity of fodder, it should be taken from
the mows or scaffolds of the barn, and carried or dragged over
the floor to the place wanted. The floors ought to be perfectly
tight to avoid waste, and the sifting of the particles of hay or
seed on the cattle or sheep. Unless the ground under the shed
be quite dry, it is better to plank it, and it will then admit of
cleaning with the same facility as the stables. A portion of the
shed may be partitioned off for close or open stalls, for colts, calves
or infirm cattle, and cows or ewes that are heavy with young.
A little attention of this kind will frequently save the hfe of an
animal, or add much to their comfort and the general economy
of farm management. The surplus straw, cornstalks and the like,
can be used for bedding, though it is generally preferable to have
them cut and fed to the cattle.
FARM BUILDINGS.
337
WATER FOR THE CATTLE YARD,
Is an important item, and if the expense of driving the ani-
mals to a remote watering place, the waste of manure thereby
occasioned, the straying of cattle, and sometimes loss of limbs or
other injury, resulting from their being forced to go down icy
slopes, or through excessive mud, to slake their thirst — if all
these considerations are taken into account, they will be found
annually to go far towards the expense of supplying water in the
yard,. where it would at all times be accessible. All animals
require water in winter, exc^t such as hav^e a full supply of
roots; and though they sometimes omit going to distant and in-
convenient places where it is to be had, they may, nevertheless,
suffer materially for the want of it. "When it is not possible to
bring a stream of running water into the yard, or good water is
not easily reached by digging, an effectual way of procuring a
supply through most of the year, is by the construction of
Cisterns. — Where there is a compact clay, no further prep-
aration is necessary for stock purposes, than to excavate to a
sufacient size, in a dishing shape at bottom, and lay a thick coat
■ of water-lime cement all over the inner surface, and cover with
a stout frame top, heavily planked over the surface. Through
this top a pump can be permanently placed. This should be
made near the buildings, and the rains carefully conducted by the
eaves-troughs and pipes, from an extensive range, will afford an
ample supply.
For household purposes, one should be made with more care
and expense, and so constructed as to afford pure filtered water
at all times. These may be formed in various ways, and of dif-
ferent materials, stone, brick, or even wood; though the two
former are preferable. They should be permanently divided into
two apartments, one to receive the water, and another for a reser-
voir to contain such as is ready for use. Alternate layers of
gravel, sand, and charcoal at the bottom of the first, and sand
and gravel in the last, are sufficient; the water being allowed to
15
338
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
pass througn the several layers mentioned, will be rendered per-
fectly free from all impm'ities. Some who are particularly choice
in preparing water, make use of filtering stones, but this is not
essential. Occasional cleaning may be necessary, and the substi-
tution of new filtering materials will at all times keep them sweet.
For stock uses, pumping the water into troughs from the
cisterns, is the most ready way to draw it, and this may be done,
according to the quantity of stock kept, by either hand, horse,
or wind power — the last of which, with a good mill, is the
cheapest. ^
THE CARRIAGE HOUSE, STABLE, GRANARY, BINS, ETC.
The carriage house and horse stable sometimes occupy a dis-
tinct building, which is a good precaution against fire, and where
this is the case, it is frequently convenient to have the upper loft
for a granary. The propriety of having this proof against rats
is obvious. Yet it should be capable of thorough ventilation
when the grain is damp, or exposed to injury from want of air.
Entire cleanhness of the premises, is the best remedy against
weevil and other noxious insects.
The Corn Crib. — If there be more Indian corn on the prem-*
ises than can be thinly spread over an elevated, dry floor, the
corn crib for storing it should occupy an isolated position. This
should be made of upright lattice work, with a far projecting roo^
and sides inchning downwards to each other, so as to avoid the '
admission of rain. The corn in the cob is stored in open bins on
either side, leaving ample room in the center for threshing, or the
use of the corn sheller. Close bins may occupy the ends for the
reception of the shelled grain. All approach from rats and other
vermin, may be avoided by placing the building on posts, with
projecting stones or sheet iron on the top, and so high that they
cannot reach it by jumping.
A Tool House and Work Shop ought always to have a place
about the premises. In this building, all the minor tools may be
arranged on shelves, or in appropriate niches, where they can at
FARM BUILDINGS.
339
once be found, and will not be exposed to theft. Here, too, the
various farming tools may be repaired, which can be anticipated
and done in those leisure intervals which often occur. Ample
shed room for every vehicle and implement alout the farm, should
not be wanting. Their preservation will amply repay the cost
of such slight structures as may be required to house them. A
wagon, plow, or any wooden implement, will wear out sooner by
exposure to all weathers without use, than by careful usage with
proper protection.
A HORSE POWER, either stationary or movable, can be made
to contribute greatly to the economy of farming operations, where
there is much grain to thresh, or straw, hay, or cornstalks to cut.
With the aid of this, some of the portable mills may crush and
grind much of the grain required for feeding. Even the water
may be pumpe'd by it into large troughs for the use of cattle, and
all the fuel sawed, thereby saving more expensive labor.
A STEAMING APPARATUS.
"Where there are many swine to fatten, or grain is to be fed,
this is at all times an economical appendage to the farm. It has
been shown, from several experiments, that, except in roots, for
all animals, excepting store sheep, and, perhaps, even they may
be excepted, grain or meal is better for feeding when cooked.
Food must be broken up before the various animal organs can
appropriate it to nutrition; and whatever is done towards effect-
ing this object, before it enters the stomach, diminishes the
necessity for the expenditure of vital force in accomphshing it,
and thereby enables the animal to thrive more rapidly, and do
more labor, on a given amount. For this reason, we apprehend,
there may have been some errors undetected in the experiments
in feeding sheep and cattle with raw and cooked roots, which
results in placing them apparently on a par as to their value for
this purpose. The crushing or grinding of the grain insures more
perfect mastication, and is performed by machinery at much less
expense, than by the animals consuming it. The steaming or
340 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
boiling is the final step towards its easy and profitable assimila-
tion in the animal economy. With a capacious steaming-box for
the reception of the food/the roots and meal, and even cut hay,
straw and stalks, may be thrown in together, and all will thus be
most efi'ectually prepared for nourishment. There is another
advantage derivable from this practice. The food might at all
times be given at the temperature of the animal system, about
98° Fahrenheit, and the animal heat expended in warming the cold
and sometimes frozen food, would be avoided.
The steaming apparatus is variously constructed. We have
used one consisting of a circular boiler five and a half feet long
by twenty inches diameter, made of boiler iron, and laid length-
wise on a brick arch. The fire is placed underneath, and passes
through the whole length and over one end, then returns in
contact with the boiler through side flues, or pockets, where it
entered the chimney. This gives an exposure to the flame and
heated air of about ten feet. The upper part is coated with
brick and mortar, to retain the heat, and three small test cocks
are apphed at the bottom, middle and upper edge of the exposed
end, to show the quantity of water in it; and two large stop
cocks on the upper side, for receiving the water and dehvering
the steam, completes the boiler. The steaming box is oblong,
seven or eight feet in length, by four feet in depth and width,
capable of holding sixty or seventy bushels, made of plank
grooved together, and clamped and keyed with four sets of oak
joist. "We also used a large circular tub, strongly bound by
wagon tire, and keyed, and holding about twenty -five bushels.
The covering of both must be fastened securely, but a safety
valve is allowed for the escape of steam, which is simply a one
and a half inch auger hole. Into these the steam is conveyed
from the boiler by a copper tube, attached to the steam delivery
cock, for a short distance, when it is continued into the bottom of
the box and tub by a lead pipe, on account of its flexibility, and
to avoid injury to the food from the corrosion of the copper. It
is necessary to have the end of the pipe in the steaming box
FARM BUILDINGS.
341
properly guarded by a metal strainer, to prevent its clogging from
the contents of the box. "We find no difficulty in cooking fifteen
bushels of unground Indian corn, in the tub, in the course of
three or four hours, and with, small expense of fuel. Fifty bushels
of roots could be perfectly cooked in the box, in the same time.
For swine, fattening cattle and sheep, milk cows and working
. horses, and perhaps oxen, we do not doubt a large amount of
food may be saved by the use of such or a similar cooking appa-
ratus. The box may be enlarged to treble the capacity of the
foregoing, without prejudicing the operation, and even with a
boiler of the same dimensions, but it would take a longer time to
effect the object. If the boiler were increased in proportion to
the box, the cooking process would, of course, be accomplished
in the same time.
The materials for farm huildings we have assumed to be of
wood, from the abundance and cheapness of this material, gener-
ally, in the United States. Yet we always prefer, when not too
expensive, or where the capital could be spared, that brick or
stone should take their place. They are more durable, are less
exposed to fire, and they sustain a more equable temperature in
the extremes of the seasons. Barns and sheds cannot, like
houses, be conveniently made rat-proof, but they may be so
constructed as to afford them few hiding places, where they will
be out of the reach of cats and terrier dogs, which are always
indispensable around infested premises. These and an occasional
dose of arsenic, carefully and variously disguised, will keep their
numbers within reasonable bounds. If poison be given, it would
be well to shut up the cats and terriers for three or four days,
until the object is effected, or they, too, might partake of it.
LIGHTNING RODS.
In the hot, dry weather of our American summers, thunder
showers are frequent, and often destructive to buildings. This
danger is much increased for such barns as have just received
their annual stores of newly cut hay and grain. The humid
342
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
gases driven off by the heating and sweating process, which
immediately follows their accumulation in closely packed masses,
offers a strong attraction to electricity, just at the time when it is
most abundant. It is then an object of peculiar importance to
the farmer to guard his buildings with properly constructed light-
ning rods, and they are a cheap mode of insurance against fire
from this cause, as the expense is trifling and the security great.
It is a principle of general application, that a rod will protect
an object at twice the distance of its height, above any given
point, in a line perpendicular to its upper termination. Thus, a
rod attached to one side of a chimney four feet diameter, must
have its upper point two feet above the chimney to protect it.
The height above the ridge must be at least one-half the greatest
horizontal distance of the ridge from the perpendicular rod.
Materials and Manner of Construction. — The rod may be
constructed of soft, round or square iron, the latter being preferable,
in pieces of convenient length, and of not less than three-fourths
of an inch in diameter. They should not be hooked into each
other, but attached either by screwing the ends together, or
forming a point and socket to be fastened by a rivet, so that the
rod, when complete, will appear as one continuous surface of equal
size throughout. If a square rod be used, it will attract the
efectricity through its entire length, if the corners be notched' '
with a single, downward stroke of a sharp cold chisel^ at intervals
of two or three inches. Each of these will thus become a point
to attract and conduct the electricity to the earth. A bundle of
wires, thick ribbons, or tubes of metal, would be much better
conductors than an equal quantity of matter in the sohd, round,
or square rods, as the conducting power of bodies is in the ratio
of their surface. No part of the rod should be painted, as its
efficiency thereby is greatly impaired. The upper extremity may
consist of one, two, or more finely drawn points, which should be
of copper, silver, or iron, well gilded, to prevent rusting. The
lower part of the rod, at the surface of the ground, should term-
inate in two or three flattened, diverging branches, leading several
FARM BUILDINGS. 343
feet outwardly from the building, and buried to the depth of
perpetual moisture, in a bed of charcoal. Both the charcoal and
moisture are good conductors, and will insure the passage of the
electricity into the ground, and away from the premises. The
rod may be fastened to the building by glass or well seasoned
wood, boiled in linseed oil, then well baked and covered with
several coats of copal varnish.
After all, there are different opinions about the value of light-
ning rods. Some consider them of no account whatever. Yery
much of their utility depends on the size and the manner in
which they are constructed. The Httle, light things that are
commonly peddled over the country are not worth the trouble of
putting them up.
ICE-HOUSES, HEN-HOUSES, PIG-STYES, ETC.,
May be multiphed almost indefinitely as the wants and pleasure
of the farmer may demand. They are, indeed, all necessary in
a complete farm establishment, and their modes of construction
so varied, or fanciful, that no written description will suit every
one alike. Our agricultural periodicals, and various books writ-
ten expressly on such subjects, give many different plans — some
of them not so practical as others, we admit — but most of them
convenient and useful. A complete farm estabhshment, in its
buildings, usually makes a little village of itself All the struc-
tures should be so placed as to be convenient of access to the
main dwelling, and the laborers' cottages, whenever erected,
handy to the every day work of the concern.
The question maybe discussed whether the various accommoda-
tions for stock, feeding, etc., may not be better under one roof.
The proper arrangement of all these is a matter of study, and
they should be dehberately planned and laid out, as without such
precaution, much, even a life time, inconvenience and expense
will be entailed on the occupants for want of a proper forethought
in their structures and arrangements. The question of insurance
against fire is to be considered.
CHAPTER XIV.
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
The principal 'domestic animals reared for economical purposes
in the United States are horned, or neat cattle, the horse, the
mule, sheep and swine. A few asses are bred, but for no other
object than to keep up the supply of jacks, for propagating mules.
"We have, also, goats, rabbits, and the house domestics, the dog
and cat; the two former in large and growing numbers, but both
the latter much beyond our legitimate wants. There have been,
within late years, considerable numbers of the Cashmere and
Angora goat imported, which, in their increase and dissemina-
tion, will test their value for increasing our agricultural resources.
"We shall confine ourselves to some general considerations
connected with the first mentioned and most important of our
domestic animals.*
The purpose for which animals are required^ is first of conse-
quence to be determined, before selecting such as may be neces-
sary either for breeding or use. Throughout the North-eastern
States, cows for the dairy, oxen for the yoke, and beef for the
butcher, are wanted. In much of the West and South, beef
alone is the principal object, while the products of the dairy, until
recently, have been considered of less importance as commodity
for distant markets, and the work of the ox is seldom relied on,
except for occasional drudgery. Sheep may be wanted almost
* The subject of breeding and management of farm stock is of such importance,
that, for more particular information than our limited space will permit, we must
refer the reader to the several treatises extant, comprising their histories, modes of
breeding, and general management. A full dissertation on farm stock would require
several volumes.
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
345
exclusively for the fleece, or for the fleece and heavy mutton, or,
in the neighborhood of markets, for large, early lambs. The
pastures and winter food, climate and other conditions, present
additional circumstances, which should be well considered before
determining on the particular breed, either of cattle or sheep, that
will best promote the interest of the farmer. The kind of work
for which the horse may be wanted, whether as a roadster, for
the saddle, as a heavy team horse, or the horse of all work, must
be first decided, before selecting the form or character of the
animal. The range of pig excellence is more circumscribed, as
it is only necessary to breed such as will yield the greatest amount
of valuable carcass, within the shortest time, and with the least
expense.
PRINCIPLES OP BREEDING.
All breeding is founded on the principle that like begets like.
This is, however, liable to some exceptions, and is much more
generally true when hreeding down than when hreeding up. If
two animals which can never be exactly similar in all respects, are
requisite to the perpetuation of the species, it necessarily results
that the progeny must differ in a more or less degree from each
parent. With wild animals and such of the domestic as are
allowed to propagate without the interference of art, and whose
habits, treatment and food are nearly similar to their natural con-
dition, the change through successive generations is scarcely
perceptible. It is only when we attempt to improve their good
qualities, that it is essential carefully to determine, and rigidly to
apply, what are adopted as the present scientific principles of
breeding. We cannot believe that we have penetrated beyond
the mere threshold of the art. Unless, then, we launch into
experiments, which are necessarily attended with uncertainty, our
duty will be to take for our guide the most successful practice of
modern times, until further discoveries enable us to modify or add
to such as are already known and adopted. We may lay down,
then, as the present rules for this art,
1st. That the animals selected for breed should unite in them
selves all the good qualities we wish to perpetuate in the offspring.
15*
346
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
2d. These qualities, technically called ^om^5, should be in-bred
in the animals as far as practicable, by a long line of descent from
parents similarly constituted. The necessity for this rule is evi-
dent from the fact, that in mixing different species, and especially
mongrels, with a long established breed, the latter will most
strongly stamp the issue with its own pecuharities. This is
forcibly illustrated in the case of the foreign cattle of ancient
races, whose color, form and characteristics are strikingly perpet-
uated, sometimes to the sixth or even a later generation. So far
is this principle carried by many experienced breeders, that they
will use an animal of indifferent external appearance, but of
approved descent, (bloody) in preference to a decidedly superior
one, whose pedigree is imperfect.
3d. All the conditions of soil, situation, climate, treatment,
and food, should be favorable to the object sought.
4th. Perfect health, and sound constitution in the breeding
animals, and freedom from blemish, either inherent or chronic.
5th. As a general rule, the female should be relatively larger
than the male. This gives ample room for the perfect develop-
ment of the foetus, easy parturition, and a large supply of milk
for the offspring, at a period in its existence when food has a
greater influence in perfecting character and form than at any
subsequent time.
6th. Exceptions to this rule may be made, when greater size
is required than can be obtained from the female, and especially
when more vigor and hardiness of constitution are desirable.
For this purpose, strong masculine development in the sire is
proper, and, if otherwise unattainable, something of coarseness
may be admitted, as this may be afterwards corrected; but nothing
will atone for want of constitution and strength.
7th. Pairing should be with a strict reference to correcting
the imperfections of one animal by a corresponding excellence in
the other.
8th. Breeding in-and-in, or propagating from animals nearly
allied, may be tolerated under certain circumstances. When the
animal possesses much stamina and pecuhar merit, which it is
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
347
desired to perpetuate in the breed, it may be done either in the
ascending or descending Hne, as in breeding the son to the parent,
or the parent to his own progeny. This has been practiced with
decided advantage, and in some cases has even been continued
successively as low as the sixth generation.
9th. Yet, with inexperienced breeders it is usually better to
avoid close relationship, by the selection of equally meritorious
stock-getters ,of the same breed, from other sources, unless the
breeder be a perfect master of the art of close breeding. It re-
quires the soundest judgment and long experience to long follow
in-and-in breeding with entire success.
1 0th. "Wholesome, nutritious food, at all times sufficient to keep
the animals steadily advancing, should be provided, but they
should never be allowed to get fat. Of the two evils, starving is
preferable to surfeit. Careful treatment and the - absence of
disease must be always fully considered.
11th. Animals should never be allowed to breed either too
early or too late in life. These periods cannot be arbitrarily laid
down, but must depend on their time of maturity, the longevity
of the breed, and the stamina of the individual.
12th. No violent cross or mixing of distinct breeds should
ever be admitted for the purpose of perpetuation, as of cattle of
diverse sizes; horses of unlike characters: the merino and long
wools, or even the long or short and the middle wooled sheep.
For carcass and constitution, the last named crosses are unexcep-
tionable; and it is a practice common in this country, and well
enough, where the whole produce is early destined for the sham-
bles. But when the progeny are designed for breeders, the prac^
tice tends to a total uncertainty in fixed character, and quality.
GENERAL FORM AND CHARACTERISTICS OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
Within certain limits, these may be reduced to a common
standard. All animals should have a good head, well set up ; a
clean, fine muzzle, and a bright, clear and full, yet perfectly placid
eye. With the exception of the dog and cat, whose original
nature is ferocity, and whose whole hfe, unless diverted from their
348
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
natural instincts, is plunder and prey; and the race horse, which
is required to take the purse, at any hazard of life or hmb to the
groom; a mild, quiet eye is indispensable to the profitable use of
the domestic brute. The neck should be well formed, not too
long, tapering to its junction with the head, and gradually enlarg-
ing to a firm, well expanded attachment to the back, shoulders
and breast. The back or chine should be short, straight and
broad; the ribs springing out from the backbone nearly at right
angles, giving a rounded appearance to the carcass, and reaching
well behind to a close proximity to the hip ; tail well set on, and full
at its junction with the body, yet gradually tapering to fineness;
thighs, fore-arms and crop well developed; projecting breast or
brisket; the fore-legs straight, and hind ones properly bent,
strong and full where attached to the carcass, but small and taper-
ing below; good and sound joints; dense, strong bones, but not
large ; plenty of fine muscle in the right places ; and hair or wool
fine and soft. The chest in all animals should be full, for it will
be invariably found that only such will do the most work, or
fatten easiest on the least food.
The Lungs. — From the above principle, founded on long
experience and observation, Cline inferred, and he has laid it
down as an incontrovertible position, that the lungs should always
be large; and Youatt expresses the same opinion. This is
undoubtedly correct as to working beasts, the horse and the ox,
which require full and free respiration, to enable them to sustain
great muscular efforts. But later physiologists, Playfair and others,
perhaps from closer and more accurate observation, have assumed
that the fattening propensity is in the ratio of the smallness of
the lungs. Earl Spencer has observed that this is fully shown
in the pig, the sheep, the ox, and the horse, whose aptitude to
fatten and smallness of lungs, are in the order enumerated. This
position is further illustrated by the different breeds of the same
classes of animals. The Leicester sheep have smaller lungs than
the South Down; and it was found in an experiment made on
Lord Ducie's example farm, that a number of the former, on a
given quJfntity of food^ and in the same time, reached twenty-
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
349
eight pounds a quarter, while the South Downs, with a greater
consumption of food, attained, in the same period, onlj eighteen
pounds. The Chinese pigs have much smaller lungs than the
Irish, and the former will fatten to a given weight on a much less
quantity of food than the latter. The principle would seem to
be corroborated by the fact, that animals generally fatten faster
in proportion to the quantity of food they consume, as they
advance towards a certain stage of maturity; during all which
time, the secretion of internal fat is gradually compressing the
size, by reducing the room for the action of the lungs. Hence,
the advantage of carrying the fattening beast to an advanced
point, by which not only the quality of carcass is improved, but
the quantity is relatively greater for the amount of food consumed.
These two propositions appear to be at variance, and the exact
truth may lie with neither. If the fuller development of the
chest, which we esteem a point of great excellence in the animal,
promote larger lungs, we decidedly incline to the latter. These
views are intimately connected and fully correspond with the
principles of
RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS.
From careful experiments, it has been found that all animals
daily consume a much larger quantity of food than the aggregate
of what may have been retained in the system, added to what
has been expelled in the foeces and urine, and what has escaped
by perspiration. Boussingault, who combines the characteristics
of an ingenious chemist, a vigilant observer and practical agri-
culturist, made an experiment with a "milk cow and a full grown
horse, which were placed in stalls so contrived that the droppings
and the urine could be collected without loss. Before being made
the subject of experiment, the animals were ballasted or fed for
a month with the same ration that was furnished to them during
the three* days and three nights which they passed in the experi-
mental stalls. During the month, the weight of the animals did
not vary sensibly; a circumstance which happily enables us to
assume that neither did the weight vary during the seventy-two
hours when they were under especial observation.
350
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
*'TliQ COW was foddered with after-math, hay, and potatoes;
the horse with the same hay, and oats. The quantities of forage
were accurately weighed, and their precise degree of moistness
and their composition were determined from average samples.
The water drank was measured, its sahne and earthy constituents
having been previously ascertained. The excrementitious mat-
ters passed were of course collected with the greatest care ; the
excrements, the urine, and the milk were weighed, and the con-
stitution of the whole estimated from elementary analysis of
average specimens of each. The results of the two experiments
are given in the following tables.
*^The oxygen and hydrogen that are not accounted for in the
sum of the products, have not disappeared in the precise proper
tions requisite to form water; the excess of hydrogen amounts to
as many as from thirteen to fifteen penny-weights. It is proba-
ble that this hydrogen of the food became changed into water
by combining, during respiration, with the oxygen of the air."
Food Consumed by the Horse in 24 hours.
Forage.
Hay, .
Oats,
Water,
Total,
Weight in Weight in
the wet the dry
state. state,
lbs. lbs. oz.
.20 17 4
6 5 2
. 43 ..
22 G
Carbon,
lbs. oz.
7 11
2 7
Salts and
Earths.
Elementary matter in the food.
Hydrogen. Oxygen. Azote.
Ib.oz. dwt. lb. oz.dwt. lb. oz. dwt. lb. oz.dwt.
0 10 7 688 032 16 14
0 3 18 1 10 14 0 1 7 0 2 10
0 0 8
69
10 6 125 872 0 4.
1 9 12
Products Voided by the Horse in 24 hours.
Elementary matter in the products.
Hydrogen. Oxygen. Azote.
Salts and
Earths.
Weight in Weight in
Products. the wet the dry
state. state. Carbon,
lb oz dwt. lb. oz.dwt. Ib.oz. dwt. lb. oz.dwt. lb. oz.dwt. Ib.oz. dwt. lb. oz.dwt.
3 6 15 9 9 14 0 3 10 0 0 7 0 1 2 0 1 4 -
38 2 2 9 5 6 3 7 17 0 5 15 3 6 14 0 2 10
Urine, . .
Excrements,
Total, .
Total mat'r
71 8 17 10 3 0 3 11 7 0 6 2
off^'d'^}^^ 00 22 60 10 60 125
6 6 13
3 7 16
8 7 2
0 3 14
0 4 9
0 3 10
1 6 10
1 10 0
1 9 12
Difference,
27 3 3 12 3 0
083 4 11 6 00 15 008
Water Consumed by the Horse
in 24 hours,
lbs. oz.
With the hay, 2 3
With the oats, 0 14
Taken as drink, 35 3
Water Voided by the Horse
in 24 hours,
lbs. oz.
With the urine, 2 6
With the excrements, .... 23 8
Total consumed, 38 4
Water exhaled by pulmonary and cutaneous transpiration, 12 6
Total voided, 25 14
Water consumed, 38 4
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
351
Fodder.
Food Consumed hy the Cow in 24 hours.
Elementary matter of the food.
Potatoes, .
After-math hay, 20 1
Water, . . . 160 0
Total, .
Weight in
the wet
state,
lb. oz. dwt.
40 2 5
2
0
Weight in
the dry
state,
lb. oz. dwt.
11 2 1
16 11 0
Carbon,
lb. oz. dwt.
4 11 2
•? 11 11
Hydrogen,
lb. oz. dwt.
0 7 15
0 11
3 7
1 1 12 10 13 IT
Salts and
Earths,
lb oz. dwt.
0 6 13
18 6
.. .. 0 1 12
10 9 14 0 6 9 2 4 11
Oxygen,
lb. oz. dwt.
4 10 17
5 10 17
Azote,
lb. oz. dwt.
0 1 12
0 4 17
Weight in
the wet
state,
lb. oz. dwt.
76 1 9
21 11 12
22 10 10
120 11 11
" mat.food,2 20 3 7
Difference,
Products.
Excrements,
Urine, . .
Milk, . . .
Total, .
Products Voided hy the Cow in 24 hours.
Elementary matter in the products.
Weight in
the dry
state,
lb. oz. dwt.
10 8 12
2 6 17
3 10
16
28
Carbon,
lb. oz. dwt.
4 7 0
0 8 7
18 3
6 11 10
12 10 13
Hydrogen,
lb. oz. dwt.
0 6 13
0 0 16
0 3 3
0 10 12
1 7 2
Oxygen,
lb. oz. dwt.
4 0 9
0 8 3
0 10 6
Azote,
lb. oz.dwt.
0 2 19
0 13
0 19
Salts and
Earths,
lb. oz. dwt.
13 8
10 6
0 1 16
5
10
6 18
9 14
5 11
6 9
5 10
4 11
99 3 16 11 8 12 5 11 3 0 8 10 5 2 16 0 0 18 0 0 19
Water Consumed hy the Cow
in 24 hours.
lbs. oz.
With the potatoes, 23 12
With the hay, 2 9
Taken us drink, ....... 132 0
Total consumed, 158 5
Water Voided hy the Cow
in 24 hours.
lbs. oz.
With the excrements, . . . . 53 10
With the urine, 15 14
With the milk, . 16 3
Total voided, 85 11
Water consumed, ..... 158 5
Water passed off by pulmonary and cutaneous transpiration, 72 10
The forgoing tables must be taken as comparative, depending
on the breeds, sizes, forms, and styles of the animals fed, for the
proportion of food they consume.
In the tables, we perceive a large loss of water, carbon, hydro-
gen, etc. Nearly all this loss of carbon and hydrogen escaped
by respiration, while most of the water, oxygen, nitrogen and
salts, passed off in perspiration. In further illustration of the
subject of respiration, Liebig says, *'from the accurate determina-
tion of the quantity of carbon daily taken into the system in the
food, as well as of that proportion of it which passes out of the
body in the foeces and urine, unlurned^ that is, in some form un-
combined with oxygen, it appears that an adult, taking moderate
exercise, consumes 13.9 ounces of carbon daily." The foregoing
are facts in the animal economy, capable of vast practical bear-
ing in the management of our domestic animals. But before
352
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
following out these principles to their application, let us briefly
examine
THE EFFECTS OF RESPIRATION.
We have seen from the experiment of Boussingault, that there
m a loss of six pounds and six ounces of carbon, and eight
ounces of hydrogen in the food of the horse, and something less
in that of the cow, every twenty-four hours, which has not been
left in the system, nor has it escaped by the evacuations. What
has become of so large an amount of solid matter? It has escaped
through the lungs and been converted into air. The carbon and
hydrogen of the food have undergone those various transformations, .
which are peculiar to the animal economy, digestion, assimilation,
etc., which it is not necessary, nor will our limits permit us here
to explain; and they appear at last in the veinous blood, which
in the course of its circulation, is brought into the cells of the
lungs. The air inhaled, is sent through every part of their innu-
merable meshes, and is there separated from the blood, only by
the delicate tissues or membranes which enclose it. A portion
of the carbon and hydrogen escape from the blood into the air
cells, and at the instant of their contact with the air, they effect
a chemical union with its oxygen, forming carbonic acid and the
vapor of water, which is then expired, and a fresh supply of
oxygen is inhaled. This operation is again repeated, through
every successive moment of the animal existence. Besides other
purposes which it is probably designed to subserve, but which
have hitherto eluded the keenest research of chemical physiology,
one obvious result of it is, the elevation of the temperature of
the animal system. By the ever operating laws of nature, this
chemical union of two bodies in the formation of a third, disen-
gages latent heat, which taking place in contact with the blood, is
by it, diffused throughout the whole frame. The effect is pre-
cisely analogous to the combustion of fuel, oils, etc., in the open
air.
Perspiration is the counteracting agent which modifies this
result, and prevents the injurious effects which, under exposure
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
353
to great external heat, would insure certain destruction. And
this too, it will have been seen, is provided at the expense of the
animal food. "When from excessive heat, caused hy violent exer-
cise or otherwise, by which respiration is accelerated, and the
animal temperatiire becomes elevated, the papill89 of the skin
pour the limpid fluid through their innumerable ducts, which in
its conversion into vapor, seize upon the animal heat and remove
it from the system, producing that delicious coolness so grateful
to the laboring man and beast in a sultry summer's day. These
two opposing principles, like the antagonistic operations of the
regulator in mechanics, keep up a perfect balance in the vital
machine, and enable the entire division of the animal creation,
distinguished as warm blooded, including man and the brute, all
the feathered tribes, the whale, the seal, the walrus, etc., to main-
tain an equilibrium of temperature, whether under the equator or
the poles, on the peaks of Chimborazo, the burning sands of
Zahara, or plunged in the depths of the Arctic ocean.
The connection between the size of the lungs, and the apti-
tude of animals to fatten, will be more apparent from the fact,
that the carbon and hydrogen which are abstracted, constitute
two of the only three elements of fat. The larger size, the fuller
play, and the greater activity of the lungs, by exhausting more
of the materials of fat, must necessarily diminish its formation in
the animal system; unless it can be shown, which has never yet
been done, that the removal of a portion of the fat-forming prin-
ciples accelerates the assimilation of the remainder.
The food which supplies respiration in the herbiverous animals,
after they are deprived of the milk which furnishes it in abund-
ance, is the starch, gum, sugar, vegetable fats and oils, which
exist in vegetables, grain and roots which they consume ; and in
certain cases where there is a deficiency of other food, it is spar-
ingly furnished in woody and cellular fibre. All these substances
constitute the principal part of dry vegetable food, and are made
up of these elements, which in starch, gum, cane sugar and cellu-
lar fibre, exists in precisely the same proportions, viz.: 44 per cent.
354
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
of carbon, 6.2 of hydrogen and 49.8 of oxygen. Grape sugar,
woody fibre, and vegetable and animal fats and oils, are made up
of the same elements, but in different proportions, the last con-
taining much more carbon and hydrogen than those above speci-
fied. In the fattening animals, it is supposed the vegetable fats
and oils are immediately transferred to the fat cells, undergoing
only such slight modification as perfectly adapts them to the ani-
mal economy, while respiration is supphed by the other enumerated
vegetable matters.
If these last are taken into the stomach beyond the necessary
demand for its object, they, too, are converted by the animal func-
tions into fat, and are stored up in the system for future use.
But if the supply of the latter is insufficient for respiration, it
first appropriates the vegetable fat contained in the food; if this
is deficient, it draws on the accumulated stores of animal fat
already secreted in the system, and when these two are exhausted,
it seizes upon what is contained in the tissues and muscle. "When
the animal commences drawing upon its own resources for the
support of its vital functions, deterioration begins ; and, if long
continued, great emaciation succeeds, which is soon followed by
starvation and death. The carniverous animals are furnished
with their respiratory excretions from the animal fat and fibre
which exist in their food, and which the herbivoras had previously
abstracted from the vegetable creation.
The circumstances which augment respiration are exercise, cold
and an abundant supply of food. Exercise, besides exhausting
the materials of fat, produces a waste of fibre and tissue, the
muscular and nitrogenized parts of the animal system ; and it is
obvious from the foregoing principles, that cold requires a corres-
ponding demand for carbon and hydrogen to keep up the vital
warmth. The consumption of food to the fullest extent required
for invigorating the frame, creates a desire for activity, and it
insensibly induces full respiration. The well-fed, active man
unconsciously draws a full, strong breath ; while the abstemious
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
355
and the feeble unwittingly use it daintily, as if it were a choice
commodity not to be lavishly expended. If the first be observed
when sleep has effectually arrested volition, the expanded chest
will be seen heaving with the long-drawn sonorous breath ; while
that of the latter will exhibit the gentle repose of the infant on
its mother's breast. The difference between the food of the
inhabitants of the polar and equatorial regions, is strikingly illus-
trative of the demands both for breathing and perspiration. The
latter are almost destitute of clothing, and subsist on their light,
juicy, tropical fruits, which contain scarcely twelve per cent, of
carbon, yet furnish all the elements for abundant respiration;
the latter are imbedded in furs, and devour gallons of train oil ^
its equivalent of fat, which contains nearly eighty per cent, of
carbon, that is burnt up in respiration to maintain a necessary
warmth. The bear retires to his den in the beginning of winter,
loaded with fat, which he has accumulated from the rich, oily
mast abounding in the woods in autumn. There he Hes for
months, snugly coiled and perfectly dormant; the thickness of
his shaggy coat, his dry bed of leaves and well protected den
effectually guarding him from cold, which, in addition to his want
of exercise, draw shghtly upon respiration to keep up the vital
heat. "When the stores of carbon and hydrogen contained in the
fat are expended, his hunger and cold compel him to leave his
winter quarters, again to wander in pursuit of food. Many of
the swallow tribes, in like manner, hybernate in large hollow
trees, and for months eke out a torpid, scarcely perceptible exist-
ence, independent of food. Activity and full respiration, on the
return of spring, demand a support which is furnished in the
myriads of flies they daily consume. The toad and frog have
repeatedly been found in a torpid state, embedded in Hme-stones,
sand-stones and the breccias, where they were probably impris
oned for thousands of years without a morsel of food; yet when
exposed to the warmth of the vital air and the stimulus of its
oxygen, they have manifested all the activity of their species.
356
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
This they are enabled to sustain only by an enormous consumption
of insects. Dr. Playfair states, that in an experiment made by
Lord Ducie, one hundred sheep were placed in a shed, and eat
twenty pounds of Swedes turnips, each, per day; and another
hundred were placed in the open air, and eat twenty-five pounds
per day ; yet the former, which had one-fifth less food, weighed,
after a few weeks, three pounds more per head than the latter.
He then fed five sheep in the open air, between the twenty-first
of November and first of December. They consumed ninety
pounds of food per day, the temperature being at forty^four
degrees; and, at the end of this time, they weighed two pounds
less than when first exposed. Five sheep were then placed under
a shed, and allowed to run about in a temperature of forty -nine
degrees. At first, they consumed eighty-two pounds per day;
then seventy pounds, and at the end of the time they had gained
twenty-three pounds. Again, five sheep were placed under a
shed, as before, and not allowed to take any exercise. They eat,
at first, sixty-four pounds of food per day ; then fifty-eight pounds,
and increased in weight thirty pounds. Lastly, five sheep were
kept quiet and covered, and in the dark. They eat three-fifths
pounds per day, and increased eight pounds.
Mr. Childers states that eighty Leicester sheep, in the open
field, consumed fifty baskets of cut turnips per day, besides oil
X cake. On putting them in a shed, they were immediately able
to consume only thirty baskets, and soon after but twenty-five,
being only half the quantity required before, and yet they fat-
tened as rapidly as when eating the largest quantity. The
minimum of food, then, required for the support of animals, is
attained when closely confined in a warm, dark shelter; and the
maximum, when running at large, exposed to all weathers.
THE FOOD OF ANIMALS
Should be regulated by a variety of considerations. The
young which may be destined for maturity, should be supphed
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
357
with milk from the dam until weaning time. No food can be
substituted for the well-filled udder of the parent, which is so safe,
healthful and nutritious. If, from any cause, there is deficiency
or total privation, it must be made up by that kind of food, meal
gruel, etc., which^ in composition, approaches nearest in quality
to the milk. At a more advanced age, or the time for weaning,
grass, hay, roots, or grain may be substituted, in quantities sufii-
cient to maintain a steady, but not a forced growth. Stuffing can
only be tolerated in animals which are speedily destined for the
slaughter. Alternately improving and falling back is injurious
to any animal. Especially is high feeding bad for breeding
animals. Much as starving is to be deprecated, the prejudicial
effects of repletion are still greater. The calf, pig, or lamb,
intended for the butcher, may be pushed forward with all possible
rapidity. Horses or colts should never exceed a good working
or breeding condition.
Purposes Fulfilled by Different Kinds of Food. —
The objects designed to be answered by food are, to a certain extent,
the same. All food is intended to meet the demands of respira-
tion and nutrition, and fattening to a greater or less degree. But
•some are better suited to one object than others, and it is for the
intelligent farmer to select such as are best for accompHshing his
particular purposes. The very young animal requires large
quantities of the phosphate of lime for the formation of bone ;
and this is yielded in the milk in larger proportions than from any
other food. The growing animal wants bone, muscle and a certain
amount of fat, and this is procured from the grasses, roots, and
grain ; from the former when fed alone, and from the two latter
when mixed with hay or grass. Horses, cattle and sheep need
hay to qualify the too watery nature of the roots and the too
condensed nutritiveness of the grain. Animals that are preparing
for the shambles, require vegetable oils or fat, starch, sugar, or
gum. The first is contained in great abundance in flax and
cotton seed, the sun-flower and many other of the mucilaginous
358
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
seeds. Indian corn is the most fattening grain. The potato
contains the greatest proportion of starch, and the sugar beet has
large quantities of sugar, and both consequently are good for stall-
feeding.
The ripe sugar cane is perhaps the most fattening of vege-
tables, if we excejot the oily seeds and grain.. The Swedes
turnip is a good food to commence feeding to cattle and sheep,
but where great ripeness in animals is desired, they should be
followed with beets, carrots, or potatoes, and grain. The table
of the average composition of the different crops, which we insert
from Johnston, affords another view of the nutritive qualities of
varicTus kinds of food, before given from Boussingault, (page 208,)
and from which it is principally abridged, and it will be found a
valuable reference for their nutritive and fattening qualities. He
says, " in drawing up this table, I have adopted the proportions
of gluten, for the most part, from Boussingault. Some of them,
however, appear to be very doubtful., The proportions of fatty
matter are also very uncertain. With a few exceptions, those
above given have been taken from Sprengel, and they are, in
general, stated considerably too low. It is an interesting fact,
that the proportion of fatty matter in and immediately under the-
husk of the grains of corn is generally much greater than in the
substance of the corn itself Thiis I have found the pollard of
wheat to yield more than twice as much oil as the fine flour
obtained from the same sample of grain. The four portions sep-
arated by the miller from a superior sample of wheat, grown in
the neighborhood of Durham, gave of oil reispectively : fine flour,
1.5 percent.'; pollard, 2.4; boxings, 3.6; and bran, 3.3 per cent.
Dumas states that the husk of oats sometimes yields as much as
five or six per cent, of oil." The columns under starch, etc., and
fatty matter, denote the value for respiration or sustaining life,
and the fattening qualities ; that under gluten, the capacity for
.yielding muscle and supporting labor ; and saline matter indicates
something of the proportions which are capable of being converted
into bones:
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
359
Huslc or
Starch y
Gluten J
Water.
woody
gum, and
albumen,
Fatty
Saline
fibre.
sugar.
legumin, &c.
matter.
matter.
Wheat, .
.16
15
55
10 to 15
2 to 4 J.
2.0
Barley,
. . 15
15
60
12?
2.5 J.
2.0
Oats, * •
. 16
20
50
o.o o .
O.O
Rye, .
12
10
60
14.5
3.0
1.0
Indian corn, ,
. 14
^15?
50
12.0
5 to 9 D.
1.5
Buckwheat,
16?
25?
50
14.5
0.4?
1.5
Beans, .
. 16
10
40
28.0
2t
3.0
Peas, .
13
8
50
24.0
2.8?
2.8 '
Potatoes,
. ■ . 75?
5?
12?
2.25
0.3 0.
8tol
Turnips,
85
3
10
1.2
? 0.8 to 1
Carrots, .
. . 85
3
10
2.0
0.4
1.0
Meadow hay.
14
30
40
7.1
2 to 5 D.
5 to 10
Clover hay.
. 14
25
40
9.3
3.0
9 .
Pea straw, .
. lU to 15
45
12.3
1.5
5
Oat straw,
. 12
45
35
1.3
0.8
6
Wheat straw, ,
. 12 to 15
50
30
1.3
0.5
5
Barley straw,
12 to 15
50
30
1.3
0.8
5
Rye, .
. 12 to 15
45
38
1.3
0.5
3
Indian corn, do.
. 12
25
52
3.0
1.7
4
This table, it will be perceived, is far from settling tbe precise
-relative value of the different enumerated articles. An absolute,
unchanging value can never be assumed of any one substance, as
the quaUtj of each must differ with the particular variety, the
soil upon which it is grown, the character of the season, the man-
ner of curing, and other circumstances. An approximate relative
value is all that can be expected, and this we may hope ere long
to obtain, from the spirit of analytical research which is now
developed and in successful progress. More especially do we
need these investigations with American products^ some of which
are but partially cultivate(i in Europe, whence we derive most of
our analysis. And many which are there reared, differ widely
from those produced here, as these also differ from each other.
What, for instance, is the charact.er of meadow hay f We know
that this varies as four to one, according to the particular kinds
grown; and our Indian corn has certainly a less range than from
five to nine.
The Changes in the Food of Animals. — Potatoes when
first ripe, are estimated to be worth for feeding purposes, nearly
3(30 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
twbe as much as when old; and we have seen that the relative
value of the different kinds varies greatly at the same age, and
under similar conditions of growth. Perrault ascertained by
careful experiment, that hay, clover and lucern lost much of their
nutritive qualities by drying, and in lucern this loss amounted to
about thirty-five per cent. This is an important consideration in
the feeding of green and dry forage. ' Oats are among the best
feed, both for young and working animals; but it is found that
they are greatly improved for the latter, and perhaps for both,
by allowing the new crop to remain till the latter part of winter
before feeding.
The improvement by steaming and cooking food has been
alluded to in a previous chapter. Food properly managed, can
never be made worse by cooking for any animals, although it has
not been considered so essential for working, and generally for
ruminating animals, as for swine, and such as were stall-feeding.
But the alteration produced in cooking, by fitting it for a more
ready assimilation, must as a general rule, add much to the value
of the food, and the rapid improvement of the animal. The
effect of slight fermentation or souring the food, produces the
same result. Animals accustomed to this acid food, will reject
what is unprepared when they can get at ihe former; and we
have no doubt, from our own experience, that there is a saving
in thus preparing it, from 20 to 40 per cent. A mixture of food
should be supplied to all animals. Like man, they tire of any
constant ahment. For such, especially, as are fattening, and which
it is desirable to mature with the greatest rapidity, a careful indul-
gence of their appetite should be studied, and it should be pro-
vided with whatever it most craves, if it be adapted to the
secretion of fat. Cutting, crushing and grinding the food; cook-
ing, souring and mixing it, are each by themselves an improve-
ment in feeding, and frequently two or more of these preparations
combined, are of great utility in effecting the object proposed.
The profit of feeding, it is evident, consists in a valuable
return from the animal of the food consumed. In the horse, this
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
361
can only be received in labor or breeding; in the ox, from labor
and flesh; in the cow, from the milk, the flesh and her young.
In the sheep, it may be returned in its fleece, its carcass or its
progeny; and in the swine, only by its progeny and flesh. The
manure we expect from all, and if this be not secured and judi-
ciously used, few animals about the farm will be found to yield a
satisfactory profit for their food and attention; though it is evi-
dent, it should form but a small part of the return looked for.
Animals are only profitable to the farmer when they yield a daily
income, as in its milk or labor, or annually^ by its young or fleece,
unless it be in a course of regular improvement, either in its ordinary
growth or preparation for the butcher. The animal nmst con-
sume a certain amount of food merely to keep up its stationary
condition, and to supply the materials for waste, respiration, per-
spiration and the. evacuations. These must first be provided for
in all cases, before the farmer can expect anything for the food.
Frequent observation has shown that an ox will consume about
2 per cent, of his weight of hay per day, to maintain his con-
dition. If put to moderate labor, an increase of this quantity,
to 3 per cent., will enable him to perform his work and still main-
tain his flesh. If to be fattened, he requires about 43^ per cent,
of his weight daily, in nutritious food. A cow to remain station-
ary and give no milk, eats 2 per cent, of her weight daily, and
if in milk, she will consume 3 per cent. If these statements are
correct, which it is certain they are in principle, though they may
not be entirely in degree, it will require the same food to keep
three yoke of cattle in idleness, as two at work, and the food of
every two that are idle, will nearly support one under the most
rapid condition of fattening. Two cows may be kept in milk with
the same feed that will keep three without.
No practice is more impoHtic, than barely to sustain the stock
through the winter, or a part of the year, as is the case in too
many instances, and allow them to improve only when turned on
grass in summer. Besides subjecting them to the risk of disease
16
362
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
consequent upon their privation of food, nearly half the year is
'lost in their use, or in maturing them for profitable disposal, when
if one-third of the stock had been sold, the remainder would
have been kept in a rapidly improving condition, and at three
years of age, they would probably be of equal value as other-
wise at five or six. It is true that breed has much to do with
this rapid advancement, but breed is useless without food to
develop and mature it.
CHAPTER XV.
NEAT, OE HOEITED CATTLE.
The value of our neat cattle exceeds that of any other of the
domestic animals in the United States, and they are as widely
disseminated and more generally useful. Like the sheep and all
our domestic brutes, they have been so long and so entirely sub-
ject to the control of man, that their original type is unknown.
They have been allowed entire freedom from all human direction
or restraint for hundreds of years, on the boundless pampas of
South America, Mexico and elsewhere; but when permitted
to resume that natural condition, by which both plants and ani-
mals approximate in character to their original head, they have
scarcely deviated in any respect from the domestic herds from
which they are descended. From this it may be inferred, that
our present races do not differ in any of their essential features
and characteristics from the original stock.
VARIOUS DOMESTIC BREEDS.
Cultivation, feed and climate, have much to do in determining
the form, size and character of cattle. JEvery country, and
almost every district, has its peculiar breeds, which by long
association have become adapted to the food and circumstances
of its position, and when found profitable, they should be
exchanged for others, only after the most thorough trial of
superior fitness for the particular location, in those proposed to
be introduced. More attention has been paid to the improve-
ment of the various breeds of cattle in England than in any
other country ; and it is there they have attained the greatest
perfection in form and character,, for the various purposes to
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AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
which they are devoted. We have derived directly from Great
Britain, not only the parent stock from which nearly all of our
cattle are descended, but also most of those fresh importations,
to which we have looked for improvement on the present race
of animals. A few choice Dutch cattle, generally black and
white, and of large size, good forms and good milkers, with a
decided tendency to fatten, have been occasionally introduced
among us, but not in any considerable numbers.
Native Cattle. — This is a favorite term with Americans,
and comprehends everything in the country excepting such as
are of a pure and distinct breed. It embraces some of the best,
some of the worst, and some of almost every variety, shape,
color and character of the bovine race. The designation has no
farther meaning, than that they are indigenous to the soil, and
do not belong to any well defined or distinct variety. The best
native cattle of the Union, are undoubtedly to be found in the
North-eastern States. Most of the early emigrant cattle in that
section were from the southern part of England, and though not
bearing a close resemblance to any particular Enghsh breed,
unless it has been impressed upon them by more recent importa-
tions, yet a large number have that general approximation in
character, features and color, which entitles them to claim a
kindred with one or another of the better breeds there. They
have been so promiscuously interbred that most of their original
characteristics are lost, and an amalgamation of their good, bad,
or indifferent quahties, have become diffused into their present
condition.
Of the native cattle we need not further speak, as they abound
everywhere, and their various qualities are well known; but as
they evidently need improvement by an infusion of better, and
foreign distinct breeds among them, the principal varieties of
those introduced here for that purpose will be named.
the devons.
This beautiful race is claimed, in England, their native coun-
try, where only in Europe they are bred in any considerable
NEAT CATTLE.
365
numbers, to be aboriginal in blood, being known there before the
time of the Koman invasion, in the early centuries of the Chris-
tian era. They are of medium size, red in color, symmetrical in
shape, and of great beauty in appearance, combining almost
every good quality demanded in the bovine race. They have
been kept and cultivated for many centuries in the south-western
counties of England — more in Devonshire than elsewhere — and
much improved in form and early ripeness within the last century.
They were brought into America probably among the early
importations of cattle by the Massachusetts colonies. "We have
no accounts of their having been distinctly bred by themselves,
and they became soon lost in the miscellaneous admixtures which
prevailed among all the early importations. Yet, their blood
and characteristics were strong, and they gave tone and style to
many of the predominating herds in various sections of the coun-
try, where their taking appearance made them favorites as work-
ing oxen.
They are fine in the bone, round and long in the carcass, wide
in the hips, short in the leg, straight and broad in the back, fine
in the head and neck, deep in the chest and brisket, prominent in
the eye, high and spreading in the horn, and yellow in the muz-
zle — ^taken altogether, of most graceful and blood-like appear-
ance. They are naturally excellent milkers, giving a medium
quantity, and of remarkably good quality, yielding the richest
butter. It is but just to say, however, that the Enghsh breeders
of them, within the last century, have bred them more with a
view to flesh and early maturity as beef cattle than for the dairy,
in which symmetry in form, early ripeness, and choicer meat has
been obtained at the expense of their dairy qualities. Yet
among the thorough-bred herds in the United States, where
attention has been paid to the milk development, they have
proved well in that particular.
A few small herds of pure Devons were imported into the
United States early in the present century. Those have since
been added to by several new importations into several of the
Eastern States, down to a quite recent date, and been bred in their
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AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
purity, and of a quality quite equal, probably, to tbeir original
ancestry in England. Their beef is of the best quality, and for
working oxen they excel almost any others, being quick and
sprightly in action, docile in temper, easily matched in color and
movement. Yet with all their good quahties, they have not, of
late, been so generally sought and appreciated as their merits
demand, as tastes and fashions change, in cattle, as in some other
commodities. But for hilly and medium soils, no cattle are bet-
ter fitted, as a profitable stock, for the farmer. We decidedly
recommend them, from long experience in their keeping, as a
valuable and profitable race.
THE HEREFORDS.
This is another valuable breed, of great antiquity in some of
the western counties of England, bordering on Wales, of which
Herefordshire is the chief, and from which the cattle take their
name. They have been bred there, time immemorial, with a
distinctive character altogether their own, and are claimed by
their breeders and advocates to have an origin as distinct and
pure as any other breed. In England they are highly esteemed
as among the best of the beef producing breeds, in early matu-
rity, and a profitable carcass, and hold a sharp competition and
rivalry with even the best of other breeds for the shambles. As
working oxen they are unsurpassed. As a dairy cow, the Here-
ford is less esteemed, not running to milk so well as the Devons,
and some of the other more common dairy breeds.
They were probably early imported, with other cattle, to
America, but, like them, became lost in the general diffusion of
their blood with them. Their size is large, their color red, with
white or mottled faces, sometimes white backs and belhes, and
occasionally a deep roan of red and white intermixed on their
bodies. In general shape they are much like the Devons, a fourth
larger in size, somewhat coarser in the bone, and hardly so refined
and graceful in the outline. Their horns are high and spreading.
So far as tried in America, as a beef animal they mature early, as
NEAT CATTLE.
367
at three to four years they are well grown for fattening. As a
working ox no beast can be better, being large, strong, readily
matched, docile, and of great strength — taken altogether, the best
of working cattle.
Several herds of pure Herefords have been imported here
' within thirty years past; successfully bred, and scattered. They
have been well approved, as a grazier's beast, fitted to our
medium soils, and profitable. Several good herds now exist
among us, but we regret to say they are not sought by our lead-
ing cattle breeders with the avidity to which, by their actual
merits, they are entitled.
THE AYRSHIRES.
This is perhaps the most popular breed of milk cows now in
Scotland, taking their name from the county of Ayr, where they
were first originated and bred, and obtained their celebrity.
Their origin is of recent date, being within the last hundred
years, and made up from the original Scotch Kyloe cow, by a
cross of bulls obtained from the north-eastern counties of Eng-
land, mainly, so far as our investigations have proved, the Short-
horns, the older original families of which were known as excel-
lent milkers. The history of these various crosses is too much
involved in obscurity to trace it thoroughly within our limited
pages ; but as they are now a well established breed of great
merit in their lacteal qualities, and widely disseminated in Scot-
land, England and America as dairy cattle, their history is of less
consequence than the fact of their decided excellence for the pail.
They may now be considered as an established dairy breed,
capable of perpetuating, in their OAvn blood alone, their excellent
qualities. As such, they are now bred, cherished, and valued.
In size they are medium, compared with our native cattle ; in
color, dark red, or brown and white, occasionally inclining to roan,
sometimes flecked, or spotted, the red and white variously inter-
mingling. Their shape is usually good, being squarely built,
short in the leg, broader behind than before, as all good milkers
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AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
should be, straight in the back, wide across the hips, finely shaped
udder with the milk marks well developed, and bounteous milk-
ers. Their heads are small, the horns short and well set, the eye
bright, the nose either dark or yellow, but the dark usually pre-
vailing, — altogether a satisfactory dairy cow.
They were first imported into America in the year 1822,
and many more about 1830, when they readily established a
good reputation as milkers. Frequent importations, and in con-
siderable numbers, have since been made, and they have been
bred and multiplied with a care evincing the value accorded to
them by those who best knew their good properties. They are
fitted to our medium soils and rougher lands, being active in
movement, docile in temper, and grazing where some of the
heavier and more sluggish breeds would not so well flourish.
As a beef or laboring animal they have been but little sought
or tried. That the quality of their flesh may be good — equal
perhaps to others — we have no reason to doubt, although our
opportunities to judge them have been limited. As a laboring
ox they have really had no trial. Their demand, hitherto, for
breeding purposes, has been too active to admit of thorough trials
for either flesh or labor.
THE POLLED CATTLE, OR GALLOWAYS,
Of Scotland, have been recently introduced into Upper Canada
(now Ontario,) by several of the Scotch farmers there. They
are a beef animal chiefly, the cows having little reputation in
their native land as milkers. They are of medium size only,
mostly black in color, although occasionally red, dun, or black and
red brindled, compact in shape, and hornless. They are hardy,
easy keepers, early matured, and of excellent quality for flesh.
They thrive well on rough soils and in a severe climate, and may,
on some of our leaner lands, yet obtain a considerable celebrity.
Some of their partial breeders and advocates contend that they
are good milkers, but such is not their usual reputation. For the
lighter labor uses they have proved good working oxen.
NEAT CATTLE.
THE SHORT-HORNS. fl LilBHAF
This is the most universally popular foreign breedl^ our coun-_
try. Their large size, full development, and excell^, general '^^^^ ^
qualities, have made them universal favorites on all good ^i^fl^l^NO^^
where abundant grasses prevail. They have great size, greaT
length, breadth, and depth of carcass, small in bone, fine in sym-
metry, attractive in color, which is red, and white, wholly, or of
those colors in patches, or agreeably interminghng through all
degrees and shades of roan. They are fine in the head, clean in
the neck, with yellow noses, bright eyes, small, short, curved
horns, and of elegant, imposing contour. They mature early, at
three to four years old, and make a quick and profitable return
of their food in either milk, or beef, for either of which purposes
they may be profitably bred and used, as selections are made, or
these qualities are required. As working oxen exclusively, we
do not recommend them, as they are heavier and slower in move-
ment than some of the other breeds, or even our native cattle.
They are of ancient origin, and until early in the present cen-
tury never known, to any extent, only in a few of the North-
eastern counties of England. In their present improved condition
they were imported to America, only so late as the earher years
of the present century. But since their good qualities have
become more known and approved, frequent and valuable impor-
tations have been made of the best blood, and they have been
bred and scattered throughout the country, with an assiduity per-
taining to no other foreign breed, and promising a popularity
among our cattle breeders and farmers, on the richer soils, which
is likely to become permanent.
When bred for that purpose, they have proved excellent milkers,
and for quantity of flesh to the carcass they are superior as a
beef producing animal. Yet, in their pure blood, and kept solely
for breeding, they require good care to keep them up to their
best condition, in quality and appearance, as, indeed do all other
good cattle, of any established breeds.
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AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
THE ALDERNEYS, OR JERSEYS,
Are a choice, small race, giving a moderate quantity of very
rich, creamy milk, much prized by families who choose to indulge
in the rarest luxury of its kind. They are natives of the Chan-
nel Islands of Britain, lying off the coast of Normandy in
France, where they are reared and kept in the highest perfection.
In size they are small, and in shape lean, ragged, and angular,
as compared with the Devons, or Short-horns. Their heads are
small, yet symmetrical, with black muzzles, mealy faces, bright,
prominent eyes, dishing or slightly concave forehead, light, short,
crooked horns, and thin necks. Their shoulders are high and
narrow, they are thin in the chest, large in the belly, somewhat
depressed in the back, high and well-spread in the hips, thin in the
thighs. The udder and teats are well shaped and delicate, giving
a moderate quantity — say eight to twelve quarts a day of the
richest, yellowest milk, and yielding more butter to a given
quantity than any other race of cows known. Their colors are
usually fawn and white, or squirrel grey," prettily blended, and
sometimes a smoky, or deep brown hue, and occasionally black
and white mottled. They have a pecuHarly Z>Zooc^-like appear-
ance, and of distinct characteristics from any other breed. They
are docile in disposition, not so hardy to withstand the severe
vicissitudes of our climates as some others, yet great favorites
with those who properly appreciate and carefully use them. They
are rapidly increasing in popul^irity, particularly in the neigh-
borhood of our large towns and cities, — indeed some of our
tasteful lovers of this race of hovines^ jocularly assert that the
ownership of one or more Alderneys is necessary to constitute a
finished "country gentleman."
As a beef producing, or working ox, the Alderney is in little
request, their forms not being fitted to excel in the one, nor their
muscular form sufficient for the strength of the other. Still they
are a most useful and desirable breed for the purposes to which
they are applied.
NEAT CATTLE.
371
THE DUTCH CATTLE, OR HOLSTEINS.
This valuable dairy breed has lately been introduced iTom
Holland into the neighborhood of Boston, Mass. They are of
large size, black and white in color, and in shape somewhat
resemble the Short-horns. They have evidently been bred in
their own original blood, for a long time, perhaps for centuries,
in their native homes, the dairy districts of North Holland, and
been carefully improved with a view to develop their lacteal
qualities. Their trial, as a dairy cow, has thus far been most
successful, as they show all the prominent points of great milkers,
both in quantity and quahty. We have seen some fine speci-
mens of them, and have no doubt of their value in making up
one of the most useful of our dairy varieties, on good soils, and
under proper treatment, as well as for labor, and beef. We hope
to see them thoroughly distributed and successful throughout the
country.
There is still another race of hardy, rugged little cattle which
we hope yet to see introduced into America, as being wonder-
fully well fitted to our mountainous regions of country, and the
wild, high plains of the Western States and -Territories. It is
the "West Highland" breed of Scotland. They have there bred
and flourished, time immemorial. They are of little value for
milk, but their flesh is superior to any known breed in Britain.
MANAGEMENT OF CALVES.
The safest and least troublesome manner of raising calves, is
at the udder of the dam; and whenever the milk is not converted
into butter and cheese, we believe this to be the most economical.
The milk of one good cow is sufficient, with a run of fresh, sweet
pasture, to the feeding of two calves at the same time, and if we
allow the calves to arrive at three or four months of age before
weaning, we may safely estimate, that one good cow will yield a
quantity of milk in one season fully equivalent to bringing up
four calves to the weaning age. By keeping the calf on the fresh
372
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
milk, whether he take it directly from the udder, or warm from
the pail, all risk of disordered bowels is avoided. The milk is
precisely adapted to the perfect health and thrift of the young,
and whenever we substitute for it any other food, we must watch
carefully that not the slightest mismanagement produces disorder,
lest more be lost by disease or want of improvement, than is
gained loy the milk of which they are robbed. The calf, or
calves, should never run at large with the cow, but always be
confined in a yard or grass paddock, until thoroughly weaned,
when they may be turned to pasture, apart from the cow.
The first milk of the cow, after calving, is slightly purgative,
which is essential to cleanse the stomach of the calf. It is more-
over of little value, for two or three days, for any other pur-
poses except for swine. The calf will seldom take all the milk
at first, and whatever is left in the bag should be thoroughly
removed by the hand. If the calf is destined for the butcher,
he must have all the milk he wants for at least six weeks, and
eight or ten is better; and if the cow does not furnish enough, he
ought to be fed Indian, barley, pea, or oat meal gruel, or linseed
tea. He should be closely confined in a snug, but clean and airy
stable, and the darker this is, and the more quiet he is kept, the
more readily he will fatten. If designed to be reared, the safest
and least troublesome method is to keep the calf on new milk.
If saving the milk be an object, it is still doubtful whether it is
not better that he should have a part of it fresh from the cow,
and depend for his remaining food on a good grass or clover
pasture, meal or roots. Some farmers never allow the calf to
approach the dam, but take it when first dropped, and put a
handful of salt in its mouth, which is daily repeated till he is put
to grass. This has a purgative effect, similar to the first milk.
Flax-seed is theu prepared by boiling a pint in four to six quarts
of water, and diluted with hay tea till rather thicker than milk,
and fed at blood heat. It is a much better plan, however, to
let the calf suckle the cow for two or three days, until the fcetal
matter frqm the intestines has fully passed off. Its nursing is
NEAT CATTLE,
373
sootliing to the udder of its dam, and altogether the best and
most natural way of startnig the calf into a healthy growth. As
the calf becomes older, oat, barley, rye, or Indian meal may be
scalded and added to the flax-seed. A better way when the
skim milk is of little consequence, is to withdraw him from
the cow after three or four days, then scald the milk, ad-
ding a little oat meal, and cool to the natural temperature
of the milk, and feed it. 'Oats, either crushed or ground, is
the best and safest grain for all young stock. The milk should
not stand more than half a day before feeding to young calves.
As they advance in age, it may be fed rather older, but should
never be allowed to become sour; nor should it ever be fed cold.
Connected with this feed should be a good range of short, sweet
pasture, and shelter against both sun and storms. If expedient,
at about twelve weeks old, he may be safely weaned, but four
months' nursing is better for the calf. If allowed only milk for
several months, without grass or other coarser food, it is injurious
to the future development of the young. Milk alone does
not distend the stomach properly, nor call into use its rumi- ^
nating habits. Calves thus brought up, have often proved
light-bellied, indifferent feeders, and decidedly inferior animals.
"When the calf is removed from the cow, they should be
effectually separated from sight and hearing, as recognition
creates uneasiness, and is an impediment to thrift in both. If
there be any deficiency of suitable pasture for the calf, a small
rack and trough should be placed under the shed in his range,
and fine hay put in the former, and wheat bran or oat meal, with
a little salt, in the latter. It is also well to have resin within its
reach, and if inclined to scour, add a little rennet to its food ; if
costive, administer pork broth. For disordered bowels, mix 2
dr. rhubarb, 2 oz. castor oil, and /i dr. ginger, with a little warm
milk or gruel ; or give 2 oz. castor oil alone, or 3 oz. of Epsom
salts. Calves, like all young stock, should be allowed to change
their feed gradually, from new milk to skimmed, or from the
latter to other food. Their stomachs are delicate, and need gentle,
374
AMERICAN AaRICULTURE.
moderate changes, when necessary to make them at all. Much
depends on the care and attention they receive. A comfortable
shelter, with a dry, warm bed, suitable food, regularly given
three times a day at blood heat, and keeping the stomach in
proper order, will do much to bring them forward rapidly, and
with a small expenditure of food. The calf may grow faster if
supplied through the winter with an abundance of fine, sweet liay
and roots, the latter either chopped or mashed by a roller, with
the addition of a trifle of meal or oats, and a weekly supply of
salt, and pure water daily. When there are larger animals on
the premises, the calves ought to be kept by themselves. They
should be sustained on their winter feed the following spring, until
the grass furnishes a good bite on a well-compacted sod. The
change from hay to grass must be gradual, unless the latter is
considerably matured. The extreme relaxation of the bowels
from the sudden change, frequently produces excessive purging.
A slight and temporary relax from the early spring grass is not
objectionable.
Time of Breeding. — The young animals should never be put
to breeding mider fifteen months old, so as to bring their first
calf at two years old; nor then, unless they have large size and
good feed. Much depends on the progress towards maturity,
and the supply of food, in selecting the proper time for breeding.
Some are as ready for this at a year and a half as others are at
three. Early breeding gives deUcacy and symmetry to the form
of the heifer, but it checks its growth, and when it is found to
put her back too much, she may be allowed to rest for a few
months, or even a year, to bring her up to the desired standard.
These remarks apply principally to choice breeding, or as it i
some times termed, fancy stock. For ordinary milk cows which
have been moderately fed, two to three years, according to th
size and growth they attain, is a proper age to come in, afi:e
which they must be milked as regularly and as late before dryin
as possible.
Breaking Steers should be commenced when two or three
years old. Some begin with the calf, accustoming him to a light
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375
yoke and occasional training. This practice will do as a pastime
for trustworthy boys, as it makes them gentle and manageable
afterwards, but is hardly worth a man's time. If always care-
fully handled when young, they will be found tractable. They
should at first be placed behind a pair of well-broke cattle, and
should not be put to hard labor until quite grown, strong and
perfectly accustomed to the yoke. If properly managed, cattle
may be trained with all the docility, intelligence, and much of the
activity of the horse. That they are not, is more frequently the
fault of their masters.
Management of Oxen. — To procure perfect working cattle,
it is necessary to begin with the proper breed. Many parts of
the country will furnish such as are well suited to this purpose.
A strong dash of Devon or Hereford blood is desirable when it
needs to be improved. A well-formed, compact, muscular body;
clean, sinewy limbs; strong, dense bones; large, well-formed
joints, with a mild, expressive eye, are essential for good working
oxen. After breaking, they must be led along gently, and taught
before they are required to perform their task, and never put to a
load which they cannot readily move, nor dulled by prolonged
exertion beyond that point when it becomes irksome. A gener-
ous diet is necessary to keep up the spirit and ability of cattle,
when there is hard work to be done. The horse and mule are
fed with their daily rations of grain, when at hard service, and if
the spirit of the ox is to be maintained, he should be equally well
fed, when as fully employed. Great and permanent injury is the
result of niggardly feeding and severe toil, exacted from the
uncomplaining animal. His strength decHnes, his spirit flags,
and, if this treatment be continued, he rapidly becomes the stupid,
moping brute, which is shown off in degrading contrast to the
more spirited horse that performs, it may be, one-half the labor
on twice his rations. The ox should be as httle abused by
threats and whipping, as by stinted feed and overtasked labor.
Loud and repeated halloing, or the severe use of the lash, is as
impohtic as it it is cruel and disgraceful. We never witness this
barbarity without wishing the brutes could change places long
376
AMERICAN AaRICULTURE.
enough at least to teach the biped that humanity, by his own
sufferings, which his reason and sensibihty have failed to inspire.
Clear and intelligible, yet low and gentle words, are all that are
necessary to guide the well-trained, spirited ox. The stick, or
whip, is needed rather to indicate the precise movement desired,
than as a stimulant or means of punishment. The ox under-
stands a moderate tone more perfectly than a boisterous one; for
all sounds become indistinct as they augment. He loses his
sensitiveness as the driver's voice increases, till at last he becomes
almost as brutal. It is of great advantage to have oxen well
trained to lacking. They may soon be taught by beginning with
an empty cart on a descent; then on a level; then with an
increasing load, or up hill, till the cattle will back nearly the
same load they will draw. Some oxen have a bad trick of hauling
or crowding. Changing to opposite sides, longer or shorter yokes,
and, more than all, gentle treatment, are the only remedies, and
those not unfrequently fail. Cattle will seldom contract this
habit, in the hands of a judicious, careful driver. The yokes
should be carefully made and set easy, and the bows fitted to the
necks and properly attached to the yoke. Cattle are liable to
sore necks if used in a storm, and, when subject to this exposure,
they must be well rubbed with grease, where the yoke chafes
them, and respite from work should be allowed till the necks heal.
The Proper Time for Fattening Cattle, must depend
on their previous feeding and management, the breed, and the
purposes required. The improved breeds and many of their
crosses will mature for the butcher as fully at three or four, as
inferior cattle at five to seven years old. If pushed rapidly with
proper food, they will of course be ripe much sooner than if
stinted. When cattle have to be purchased for work, or cows
for the dairy, it becomes an object to keep them as long as they
can be made profitable, and yet be turned off for fattening at a
fair price. We have seen active and spirited oxen in the yoke
at twelve or fourteen ; but they seldom do as well after eight or ten
years. Old cattle are liable to more diseases than young, are less
NEAT CATTLE.
377
hardj, and recover more slowly when exposed to scanty feed or
hard usage. They also fatten with more difficulty, and their meat
is inferior. When they can be sold advantageously to the feeder,
and replaced without inconvenience, it is found to be most profit-
able to turn them off at seven or eight years. They will by that
time have attained full maturity ; they will feed rapidly, and make
the largest amount of good beef. If there are extraordinary
milkers among the cows, or first-rate workers among the oxen, it
is better to keep them as long as they maintain their full vigor.
Such as are designed for the shambles the ensuing fall or winter,
may be allowed to do their spring's labor; or, if cows, they may
be milked into summer after calving, or go farrow during the
previous year. They should early be put on the best summer
feed, which is better to be occasionally changed, to give variety
and freshness, and keep the animal in good appetite. Let the
fattening animals have the best, and after they have cropped it a
while, give them a fresh field, and the younger cattle, or sheep,
can follow and clear off the remaining herbage, preparatory to
shutting it up for a new growth. Some prefer an extensive range
of rich feed, which is unchanged throughout the season, and
when it is not necessary to divide the pasture with the other
animals, this is the best practice.
The selection of animals for stall fattening is a nice point, and
none without a practiced eye and touch, can choose such as will
make the best return for the food consumed. The characteris-
tics of choice animals heretofore enumerated, are particularly
essential in those intended for profitable fattening. But the most
important of all is that firm mellowness, and quick elasticity of
touch, which unerringly marks the kindly feeder and profitable
bullock. "When other means for ascertaining fail, it is a safe rule
to select the best conditioned animals, out of a herd of grass fed;
for if all were of equal flesh and health, when turned out, those
which have thriven most on their summer pasture, will generally
fatten quickest on their fall and winter keep. Only the best
should be selected. The remainder, after consuming the coarses
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AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
forage,' may be at once disposed of for early use. From repeated
trials in those districts where "grain bears a high price, it is found
that the carcass of stall-fed animals will barely return the value
of the materials consumed, and their manure is generally the
only compensation for the time and attention bestowed. None
but choice, thrifty beasts will pay for their food and attention,
and all others will make their best returns, by an immediate dis-
posal after the surplus fodder is gone.
Stall-feeding ought to be commenced early in the season. An
ox may be fed in a box stall, or if accustomed to a mate, they
do better by tying together with sufficient room to lie down, yet
not so near as to allow of injuring each other. The building
should be warm, but not hot; well ventilated, yet having no
current of cold air passing through; and as dark as possible.
The stall ought to be kept clean and dry, and a deep bed of clean
straw is of decided advantage. The ox should be first fed the
inferior and most perishable roots with his grain and dry forage,
and his food should be gradually increased in richness as he
advances towards maturity. The food and water should be given
twice a day, from thoroughly cleaned mangers or troughs. The
animal likes a change of food, in which he should be indulged as
often as may be necessary. If he refuses his food, a temporary
privation, or variety is essential. "When the food is changed, he
should be moderately fed at first, till he becomes accustomed to
it, as there is otherwise danger of cloying, which is always inju-
rious. The moment the animal has done feeding, the remainder
of the food ought to be at once removed. He then lies down,
and if undisturbed, rests quietly till the proper hour induces him
again to look for his accustomed rations. Kegularity in the time
of feeding, is of the utmost consequence. An animal soon
becomes habituated to a certain hour, and if it be delayed beyond
this, he is restless and impatient, which are serious obstacles to
speedy fattening.
CHAPTER XVI.
THE DAIKY.
Cows FOR THE Dairy. — Froiii what has been said on the
various characteristics of the different breeds of cattle, it must be
evident, that no very definite criteria of excellence can be given
for all good dairy cows. But there are certain points in a
good milker that can hardly be mistaken. She should be
descended from the best milking stock; her head should be small,
or of medium size; muzzle fine and nostrils flexible and expanded;
face long, slender and dishing; cheeks thin; eyes full, mild and
prominent; horns delicate and waxy, and they may be either
branching, lopped, crumpled, or absent; long, thin, lively ear,
rather thinly haired on the inside; neck thin and small at its
junction with the head ; deep chest, but not too heavy before ;
back level and broad; well ribbed; belly large; low flank; wide
thighs, but thin ; short legs, and standing well apart; large milking
veins; loose, capacious udder, rather square in form, coming well
out behind; good teats; loose, mellow skin, of a yellow shade; and
a fine, thick coat of glossy hair ; and she must be of a good disposi-
tion, and free from tricks. Yet, with all the skill of a well prac-
ticed taste in the selection of animals, the dairyman will frequently
find his theories and results at sad variance. One may sometimes
select a fine animal, with every appearance of good milking quali-
ties, which is but a medium cow at the pail; and another, that
hardly seems worthy of notice, and which sets at defiance many
estabhshed milking points and all preconceived notions of symme-
try, may yet prove a good milker. A cow that runs to flesh while
in milk, is generally an indifferent animal for the dairy. Perfec-
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AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
tion in a cow, consists in converting all she eats into milk while
yielding it, and when dry, in turning all she consumes into
valuable meat.
Management of Dairy ' Cows. — A cow may have her first
calf when between two and three years of age, according to her
size and developments. After calving, if in cold weather, or not
at pasture, she should be fed twice a day a pail full of warm
water, with two or three quarts of hght meal or bran in it, in
addition to a moderate supply of her common food for two or three
days. Avoid fat in a breeding cow. Too high feeding is the
cause of milk fever, caked bag, garget, and a host of evils ; and
too poor feed is almost equally objectionable. The average
time of a cow with young is from forty to forty-one weeks;
but they sometimes go only thirty-four, and occasionally over-
run forty -four. A dry, unoccupied stall or yard is best for
her to calve in; and if there is any serious delay or difficulty
in the operation, she may be assisted by placing the foetus in
the right position, and gently pulling it with every throe of
the dam. After the calf has drawn all he wants at morn-
ing and evening, the bag should be thoroughly and quickly
emptied of all the milk. If strong and vigorous, the calf
is the best doctor for garget or caked bag. He may be
allowed to suck the cow or not, at the option of the owner;
there are reasons for and against the practice, as will be seen
under the head of raising calves, and each person must deter-
mine in his own case, on which side the balance lies.
Milking. — This is an important operation, and on its proper
performance depends much of the success of the dairyman. The
work should be done in a stable if it can be, the cows tied, or
stanchioned as in their winter feeding, thus keeping them orderly
and not exposed to storms, as when milked in a yard. A cow
regularly, gently, yet quickly and thoroughly milked, will give
much more than if neglected. The same milkers should milk
the same cows daily if possible. They get used to each other,
and both milker and cows are the better for it. If a herd of cows
THE DAIRY.
381
be separated into two divisions, each yielding the same quantity of
milk, and one is given to a good milker, and the other to a shiftless
or lazy one, the latter will speedily reduce his milk much below the
quantity obtained by the former ; and if the milkers then exchange
cows, they will be found to change quantity, too; those before
affording the least soon giving the most. An indifferent milker
ought never to be tolerated in a herd j good ones are cheaper at
double the price. It is best to milk at intervals of about twelve
hours, which may be done when pastures are convenient, or cows
are soiled or fed in the yard. But as this is not often the case,
they should be milked early in the morning and turned into
pasture, to fill themselves before the sun is oppressive; and if
they are to be kept up at night, let them browse in the pasture as
long as possible before they are brought to the yard or stable.
MILK
Is produced from the females of all the warm-blooded animals
which are enumerated among the mammalise. The milk of
several animals is employed for domestic purposes, among different
nations. That of the camel is used by the Arabs; the milk of
the ass by the Spaniards, the Maltese, and the inhabitants of the
Levant; that of the mare by the Cossacks, the Kirgheez, and
other Tartars ; and that of the goat, the ewe and the cow by most
of the ancient, and, with few exceptions, by every modern
European nation. "Within the last century, however, the use of
all, excepting cow's milk, has been almost entirely discarded among
the most highly civihzed people. The cow is the only animal
which is employed in America for producing milk, excepting in
the vicinity of some of our large cities, where the goat is some-
times used by foreign emigrants. . For milk uses, the cow is pre-
eminently fitted, and the modern improvement of this invaluable
animal, has carried her product of milk almost as far as can
be reasonably looked for from a given amount of food; and
although this is of about the average richness of the goat
and ewe, and before that of the ass, the quantity she yields is
382
AMERICAN AGRICULTUEE.
frequently as eight to one in favor of the cow over the first two
competitors. As a milk-giving animal, the cow is the best fitted
for the purposes of civihzed man, and she is made to contribute,
not only to his health, his comfort and his economy, but to many
of his choicest luxuries. Milk contains every element of nutrition
necessary to animal existence; and man can subsist with unim-
paired health, if hmited to this food alone.
The Constituents of Milk are butter, which varies from
2 to 6 per cent. ; casein or cheese, usually 4 to 5, but sometimes
varying from 3 to 15 per cent.; (the last excessive quantity
yielded only by the first milk after calving;) milk sugar, 4 to 6 ;
salts or saline matter, 0.2 to 0.6; and water, 80 to 89.
There is much diversity in the product and quality of milk from
cows of the same breed, the same food, and other circumstances
and conditions apparently equal. Thus, of a herd of twenty -two,
one gave 84 quarts in one week, which afforded 3M pounds of
butter; two others, in the same time, gave 86, yielding 5)^
pounds; and a fourth gave 88 quarts, making 7 pounds. The
amount of butter, however, which a given quantity of milk will
produce, is not the only criterion of the value of the milk, except
for this purpose alone. Some cows will yield more butter, others
will produce more cheese; while, for consumption, another m.ay
partially compensate, in the increased quantity of milk-sugar and
the saline matters, for a deficiency of both the other ingredients.
But for dairy purposes, butter and cheese are the only measure
of the value of milk; and a cow is esteemed good or indifferent
as she gives one or the other in the greatest abundance.
Circumstances which modify the Quantity and Char-
acter OF Milk. — Besides the accidental variation in the quan-
tity and quality of milk in different animals before adverted to,
there are many reliable causes which influence both. Of these,
parentage has a most decided and uniform influence, fi-equently
modified, however, in the particular individual, by some personal
and controlling causes. But a cow whose maternal ancestry on
both sides are choice milkers, is almost certain to resemble them.
THE DAIRY.
383
Food influences the quantity rather than the quahtj. Boussin-
gault tried numerous experiments, with cows fed on various kinds
of food, and found the difference hardly appreciable in the qual-
ity of milk. Its true benefit is to be looked for, in the increased
quantity, through which the valuable ingredients are distributed
in nearly the same proportion, as when the product is materially
lessened. By quality we mean to be understood, the amount of
the ingredients, valuable for nutrition only ; for it is certain, that
there is a rich aromatic flavor, not only in milk, but in butter and
cheese, which is afforded in various articles of food, and especially
by the fresh green herbage which abounds in the pastures from
spring to autumn. Activity or rest has a great effect on both
quantity and quality. The less action and the more quiet and
rest, the greater the amount of milk and butter. But exercise is
absolutely essential to the production of cheese. Butter may be
made from cows confined in a stable, but cheese can only be prof-
itably made by animals at pasture, or by soiling on green food.
It is supposed by physiologists, that the exercise in gathering
their food, rather than any peculiarity in its character, is neces-
sary to convert the nitrogenized tissues into the nitrogenized
principle of caseum or cheese. The time from calving, has also
its effect. The first milk drawn from a cow after calving, has
been found to yield over fifteen per cent, of casein, while in its
ordinary state it gives only three to five and a-half. As the
quantity of milk diminishes in a farrow cow, the quality improves
within certain limits. Pregnancy affects the quahty injuriously,
and especially towards its latter stages; and a cow that is predis-
posed to giving milk, should be dried off a few weeks before its"
expiration, as it is then unfit for use. Fat cows give poorer milk
than such as are moderately leaii; and young animals do not
come up to the maximum of their quahty, till afler their third or
fourth calving. The milk first drawn from the udder, will yield
less proportion of cream, than the strippings; and the milk which .
is drawn three times a day, is greatly inferior to such as is taken
but once, though the latter is less abundant. As a rule, the milk
384
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
should be drawn twice during the twenty-four hours. Excite-
ment, or fretfuhiess; change of locahty, or to a different herd
with new companions ; separation from her calf ; periodical heat ;
annoyance from flies, or worry from dogs; exposure to storms,
severe cold, or an oppressive sun; and many similar causes,
diminish the quantity of milk.
Dr. Playfair found that the quantity of butter in the evening
milk, after the cow had been at pasture all day, was 3.7 per cent.,
while the casein was 5.4 ; after lying quietly all night, the milk
from the same cow on the following morning, contained 5.6 per
cent, of butter, and only 3.9 of casein. In stabling the cow,
the butter was invariably in greater proportion than when allowed
to ramble in the pasture ; and the casein with a single exception,
was equally diminished.
Cream. — If milk be immediately set away in shallow vessels,
after being taken from the cow, the cream rises to the surface,
and carries with it most of the butter contained in the milk, and
along with it much of its casein. Hence the great nutritive prop-
erties of butter-milk, which retains the casein in very large pro-
portions, much of it being rejected by the butter in its separation
from the cream. A temperature below 34°, will prevent the
cream from rising in any considerable quantity, and preserve the
milk unaltered for some weeks. Coagulating the milk from any
cause, will equally prevent the separation of the cream. The
elevation of temperature within certain limits, hastens the sepa-
ration. Thus, at 50°, the cream will mostly have risen in 36
hours; at 55°, in 24; at 68°, in 18 or 20, and at 77°, in 10 or
12 hours. Heating the milk near the boiling point, and then set-
ting it away and allowing it to remain undisturbed, will soon
cause the cream to rise. In the celebrated Orange dairy, near
Baltimore, Md., this system was practiced, by which, not only
most of the cream was secured for butter, but in consequence of
its rapid separation, the skimmed milk was sent to market appar-
ently fresh; and the scalding imparted to it an agreeable flavor
and apparent richness, which it did not really possess. We do
not advise this practice where the sale of fresh milk is an object.
THE DAIRY.
385
BUTTER.
Sour Cream. — Cream, for the purpose of churning, is usually-
allowed to become sour. It ought .to be at least one day old, but
may with advantage be kept several days in cool weather — if it
b@ previously well freed from milk and be frequently stirred to
keep it from curdling. This sour cream is put into the churn
and worked in the usual way till the butter separates. This is
collected into lumps, well beat and squeezed free from the milk,
and in some dairies is washed with pure cold water as long as
the water is rendered milky. In other locahties the butter is not
washed, but, after being well beat, is carefully freed from the
remaining milk by repeated squeezings and dryings with a clean
cloth. Both methods, no doubt, have their advantages. In the
same circumstances the washed butter may be more easily pre-
served in the fresh state, while the unwashed butter will probably
possess a higher flavor.
Sweet Cream may be put into the churn and the butter be
obtained, but in most cases it requires more labor and longer time^
without, in the opinion of good judges, affording in general a
finer quality of butter. In all cases the cream becomes sour dur-
ing the agitation and before the butter begins distinctly to form.
Sourness of the Cream. — For the production of the best but-
ter, it is necessary that the cream should be sufficiently sour
before it is put into the cWn. Butter made from sweet cream
is neither good in quahty nor large in quantity, and longer time
is required in churning. It is an unprofitable method.
Churning the milk^ with the cream upon it, when soured to
thickening, is much practiced by many excellent butter makers.
We do not know of any particular difference in the quahty of
the butter produced from it, than when the cream alone is churned.
The alleged advantages of churning the entire milh^ may be
thus stated. The proper temperature can be readily obtained
both in winter and summer. A hundred gallons of entire milk
will give in summer five per cent, more butter than the cream
from the same quantity of milk will give. Butter of the best
17
386
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
quality can be obtained, without difficulty, both in winter and
summer. No special attention to circumstances or change of
method is at any time required. The churning in winter and
summer is alike simple and easy. The butter is not only of the
best quality while fresh, but is also best for long keeping, when
properly cured or salted.
Quickness m Churning— The more quickly milk or cream is
churned, the paler, the softer, and the less rich the butter. The
churning ought always to be regular, slower in warm weather
that the butter may not be soft and white, and quicker in winter
that the proper temperature may be kept up.
Over- Churning. — When the process of churning is continued
after the full separation of the butter, it loses its fine yellowish,
waxy appearance, and becomes soft and hght colored. The
weight of the butter, however, is said to be considerably
increased.
Temperature of the Milk or Cream, — Much also depends upon
the temperature of the milk or cream when the churning is com-
menced. Cream when put into the churn should never be warm-
er than 55° Fahrenheit. It rises during the churning from 4° to
10° above its original temperature. When the whole milk is
churned, the temperature should be raised to 65°, which is best
done by pouring in hot water into the churn while the milk is
kept in motion. In winter, either of these temperatures may be
easily attained. In cold weather it is often necessary to add hot
water to the cream to raise it even to 55°. But in summer, and
especially in hot weather, it is difficult, even in cool and well
ordered dairies, (without the use of ice,) to keep the cream down
to this comparatively low temperature. Hence, if the cream be
then churned, a second rate butter, at best, is all that can be
obtained.
Cleanliness is peculiarly necessary to the manufacture of good
butter. Cream is remarkable for the rapidity with which it
absorbs and becomes tainted by any unpleasant odors. It is very
necessary that the air of the dairy should be sweet, that it should
THE DAIRY.
387
be often renewed, and that it should be open in no direction from
which bad odors can come.
The statement of J. T. Lansing, who received the first pre-
mium for butter from the New- York State Agricultural Society,
is as follows:
1. The number of cows kept is ten.
2. Keep them stabled through the inclement season; feed
them from three to four times per day with good hay or green
stalks; when near coming in, add some oats, barley, or corn
cracked. In summer, good pasture, with living water accessible
at all times, and plenty of salt.
3. The treatment of milk and cream before churning, is to strain
the milk in tin pans and place them in a cool cellar for the cream
to rise. When sufficiently risen, separate the gream from the
milk; put in stone jars, well prepared before churning.
4. The mode of churning in summer, is to rinse the churn with
cold water ; then turn in the cream, and add to each jar of cream
put in the churn, full one-fourth of the same quantity of cold
water. The churn used is a patent one, moved by hand with a
crank, having paddles attached, and so constructed as to warm
the milk, if too cold, with hot water, without mixing them
together. The milk and cream receive the same treatment in
winter as in summer; and in churning, use hot instead of cold
water, if necessary.
5. The method of freeing the butter from the milk, is to wash
the butter with cold water till it shows no color of the milk, by
the use of a ladle.
6. In salting the butter, use the best kind of Liverpool sack
salt ; the quantity varies according to the state in which the but-
ter is taken from the churn; if soft, more, if hard, less, always
taking the taste for the surest guide. Add no saltpeter, nor other
substances.
7. The best time for churning is the morning, in hot weather,
and to keep the butter cool till put down.
8. The best mode of preserving butter in and through the
summer and winter, is as follows : The vessel is a stone jar, clean
388
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
and sweet. Tlie mode of putting it down is to put in a chum
ing of butter, and put on strong brine; let it remain on until the
next churning is ready to put down, and so on till the jar is filled ;
then cover it over with fine salt, the same to remain on till used.
Mr. McWilliams, of Orange countj, the celebrity of whose
butter is unsurpassed, thus details his method of butter making :
"Our practice is not to churn the milk until it becomes thick
or loppered; the milk and cream is then churned together. The
temperature of the milk is about 50 degrees. In warm weather
about a quart of cold water is put in each pan before the milk is
strained, so as to keep it sweet as long as possible. The cellar
floor is brick. This in warm weather is daily cleansed with cold
water. A drain from the cellar carries ofi* the water thus applied.
The churn is filled about half full with milk, with the addition of
two pails of cold water before starting the churn. In cold
weather the same quantity of warm water is applied. When
the churning is finished, which usually occupies about two hours
of time, there are then two more pails of cold water apphed to
raise the butter and cool it. The butter is then taken out of the
churn and put in a large tray; this is immediately filled with cold
water and the butter carefully washed ; after which the water is
thrown off. The butter now undergoes the process of salting, and
is then placed in a cool situation where it stands about an hour,
and worked carefully over. This finished it is placed in the same
situation as before, where it stands three or four hours, and is
again worked over ; again replaced for five or six hours, when it
is worked over for the third time. It is now replaced, where it
stands till the next morning and worked over for the fourth time.
A small quantity of nitre is then put in the butter. Thus fin-
ished it is placed in firkins holding about eighty-five pounds.
Previous to packing, the firkin is scalded with hot water, rinsed
and cooled with cold water, then rubbed all around with fine salt;
this prevents the butter from adhering to the sides of the firkin.
"When the firkin is full, a hnen cloth is placed over the top of
the butter; on this cloth a covering of salt is put one inch deep.
THE DAIRY. 389
and cold water enougli added to it to form a brine. It then stands
till it is to be sent to market, when the cloth and salt are removed,
the firkin turned down, the top of the butter in the keg washed
with cold water, and the pickle drained off. The firkin is now
neatly headed up and sent to market."
The salt added to the butter should be from l-24tli to 1-2 8th
of its weight, or two-thirds of an ounce to a pound, and this m.ust
be of the best quality. All the butter- milk must be thoroughly
extracted by -repeated washings, and when completed, the butter
should be immediately packed^ and not a particle of air allowed
to come in contact with it, till open for the table.
Butter factories have of late been introduced into some of the
Eastern counties of New York, and worked with success.
■ Their chief advantages are the aggregation of large quantities of
milk from many farms, thus cheapening the labor and producing
butter of uniform quality.
CHEESE.
The circumstances affecting the Quality of Cheese. — All cheese
consists essentially of the curd mixed with a certain portion of
the fatty matter, and of the sugar of milk. But differences in
the quahty of the milk, in the proportion in which the several
constituents of milk are mixed together, or in the general mode
of dairy management, give rise to varieties of cheese almost
without number. Nearly every dairy district produces one or
more qualities of cheese, peculiar to itself.
Natural difference in the Milk. — It is obvious that whatever
gives rise to natural differences in the quality of the milk must
affect also that of the cheese prepared from it. If the milk be
poor in butter, so must the cheese be. If the pasture be such as
"to give a milk rich in cream, the cheese will partake of the same
quality. If the herbage or other food affect the taste of the milk
or cream, it will also modify the flavor of the cheese.
Creamed or Uncreamed Milk. — Still further differences are
produced according to the proportion of cream which is left in or
390
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
is added to the milk. Thus, if cream only be employed, we have
the rich cream cheese^ which must be eaten in a comparatively
recent state. Or, if the cream of the previous night's milking be
added to the new milk of the morning, we may have such cheese
as the Stilton of England, or the small,- soft, and rich Brie cheeses
so much esteemed in France. If the entire milk only be used,
we have such cheeses as the Cheshire^ the Double Gloucester , the
Cheddar, the Wiltshire, and the Dunlop cheeses of Britain, the
Kinnegad cheese, I beheve, of Ireland, and the Goujda and Edam
cheeses of Holland. Even here, however, it makes a difference
whether the warm milk from the cow is curdled alone, or whether
it is mixed with the milk of the evening before. Many persons
are of opinion that cream which has once been separated, can
never be so well mixed again with the milk; that a portion of
the fatty matter shall not flow out with the whey and render the
cheese less rich. If, again, the cream of the evening's milk be
removed, and the skimmed milk added to the new milk of the
next morning, such cheeses are of inferior quality. If the cream
be taken from all the milk, the cheese is still inferior to the last.
Butter-milk Cheese. — But poor or butterless cheese will also
differ in quality according to the state of the milk from which it
is extracted. If the new milk be allowed to stand to throw up
its cream, and this be then removed in the usual way, the ordi-
nary skimmed-milk cheese will be obtained by adding rennet to
the milk. But if, instead of skimming, we allow the milk to
stand till it begins to sour, and then remove the butter by churning
the whole, we obtain the milk in a sour state (butter-milk.) From
this milk the curd separates naturally by gentle heating. But
being thus prepared from sour milk, and without the use of rennet,
butter-milk cheese differs more or less in quality from that which
is made from sweet skimmed milk. The acid in the butter-milk,
especially after it has stood a day or two, is capable of coagu-
lating new milk also, and thus, by mixing more or less sweet
milk with the butter-milk, before it is warmed, several other
qualities of mixed butter and sweet milk cheese may readily be
0
THE DAIRY. 391
manufactured. This article is, however, of little use, only when
eaten fresh, when it is a healthy and palatable food.
Whey Cheese. — The whey which separates from the curd, and
especially the white whey, which is pressed out towards the last,
contains a portion of curd, and not unfrequently a considerable
quantity of butter, also. "When the whey is heated, the curd
and butter rise to the surface, and are readily skimmed off. This
curd alone will often yield a cheese of excellent quality, and so
rich in butter, that a very good imitation of Stilton cheese may
sometimes be made with alternate layers of new milk curd and
this curd of whey.
Mixtures of Vegetable Substances with the Milk, — New varieties
of cheese are formed by mixing vegetable substances with the
curd. A green decoction of two parts of sage leaves, one of
marigold, and a little parsley, gives its color to the green cheese
of Wiltshire; some even mix up the entire leaves with the curd.
The celebrated Schalzieger cheese of Switzerland is made by
crushing the skim-milk cheese, after it is several months old, to
fine powder, in a mill, mixing it then with one-tenth of its weight
of fine salt, and one-twentieth of the powdered leaves of the
mellilot trefoil, {trifolium melilotus cerulea^) and afterwards with
oil or butter, working the whole into a paste, which is pressed
and carefully dried. The green decoction of garden sage is
frequently used by American dairymen, to make the article called
"sage cheese," for a variety of home consumption, but not exten-
sively for sale.
Preparation op Rennet. — Rennet is prepared from the
salted stomach or intestines of the suckling calf, the un weaned
lamb, the young kid, or the young pig. In general, however,
the stomach of the calf is_ preferred, and there are various ways
of curing and preserving it. The stomach of the newly killed
animal contains a quantity of curd, derived from the milk on
which it has been fed. In most districts it is usual to remove, by
a gentle washing, the curd and slimy matters which are present
in the stomach, as they are supposed to impart a strong taste to
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
the cheese. The calf should have a copious draught of milk
shortly before it is killed, in order that the stomach may contain
a larger quantity of the valuable curd.
Salting the Stomach. — In the mode of salting the stomach
similar differences prevail. Some merely put a few handfuls of
salt into and around it, then roll it together, and hang it near the
chimney to dry. Others salt it in a pickle for a few days, and
then hang it up to dry; while others, again, pack several of them
in layers, with much salt both within and without, and preserve
them in a cool place till the cheese making season of the following
year. They are then taken out, drained from the brine, spread
upon a table, sprinkled with salt, which is rolled in with a wooden
roller, and then hung up to dry. In some foreign countries, again,
the recent stomach is minced very fine, mixed with some spoon-
fuls of salt and bread-crumb into a paste, put into a bladder, and
then dried. In whatever way the stomach or intestine of "the
calf is prepared and preserved, the almost universal opinion seems
to be, that it should be kept for ten or twelve months before it is
capable of yielding the best and strongest rennet. If newer than
twelve months, the rennet is thought to make the cheese heave
or swell, and become full of eyes or holes.
Making the Rennet. — In making the rennet different customs
also prevail. The usual way is to take the entire stomachs, and
pour upon them from one to three quarts of water for each
stomach, and to allow them to infuse for several days. If only
one has been infused, and the rennet is intended for immediate
use, the infusion requires only to be skimmed and strained. But
if several be infused, as many as have been provided for the
whole season, about two quarts of water are taken for each, and,
after standing not more than two days, the infusion is poured off,
and is completely saturated with salt. During the summer, it is
constantly skimmed, and fresh salt added from time to time. Or
a strong brine may at once be poured upon the skins, and the
infusion, when the skins are taken out, may be kept for a length
of time. Some even recommend that the liquid rennet should
I
THE DAIRY.
393
not be used until it is at least two months old. When thus kept,
however, it is indispensable that the water should be fully
saturated with salt.
In making rennet, some use pure water only; others prefer
clear whey; others a decoction of leaves, such as those of the
sweet-briar, the dog-rose, and the bramble, or of aromatic herbs
and flowers ; while others, again, put in lemons, cloves, mace, or
whisky. These various practices are adopted for the purpose of
making the rennet keep better; of lessening its unpleasant smell;
of preventing any unpleasant taste it may give to the curd; or,
finally, of directly improving the flavor of the cheese. The
acidity of the lemon will, no doubt, increase also the coagulating
power of any rennet to which it may be added. The rennet
thus prepared is poured into the milk, previously raised to the
temperature of 90° or 95° Fahrenheit, and is intimately mixed
with it. The quantity which it is necessary to add varies with
the quality of the rennet, from a table-spoonful to half a pint for
thirty or forty gallons of milk. The time necessary for the com-
plete fixing of the curd varies also from fifteen minutes to an
hour, or even an hour and a half The chief causes of this
variation are the temperature of the milk, and the quality and
quantity of the rennet employed.
Different Qualities of Cheese. — The temperature of new
or entire milk, when the rennet is added, should be raised to about
95° Fahrenheit; that of skimmed milk need not be quite so high.
If the milk be warmer, the curd is hard and tough ; if colder, it
is soft and difficult to obtain free fi-om the whey. "When the
former happens to be the case, a portion of the first whey that
separates may be taken out into another vessel, allowed to cool,
and then poured in again. If it prove to have been too cool, hoi
milk or water may be added to it; or a vessel containing hot
water may be put into it before the curdling commences ; or the
first portion of whey that separates, may be heated and poured
again upon the curd. The quality of the cheese, however, will
always be more or less affected, when it happens to be necessary
17*
394
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
to adopt any of these remedies. To make the best cheese, the
true temperature should always be attained, as nearly as possible,
before the rennet is added.
Mode in which the Milk is Warmed. — If, as is the case in many
family dairies, the milk be warmed in brass caldrons, great care
must be taken that it is not singed, or fire-fanged, A very slight
inattention may cause this to be the case, and the taste of the
cheese is sure to be more or less affected by it. It is desirable in
this heating not to raise the temperature higher than is necessary,
as a great heat is apt to give an oiliness to the fatty matter of the
milk.
The time during which the curd stands is also of importance.
It should be broken up as soon as the milk is fully coagulated.
The longer it stands after this, the harder and tougher it will
become.
The quality of the rennet is of much importance not only in
regard to the certainty of the coagulation, but also to the flavor
of the cheese.
The quantity of rennet added ought to be regulated as carefully
as the temperature of the milk. Too much renders the curd
tough; too little causes the loss of much time, and may permit a
larger portion of the butter to separate itself from the curd. It
is to be expected, also, that when rennet is used in great excess,
a portion of it will remain in the curd, and will naturally affect
the kind and rapidity of the changes it afterwards undergoes.
Thus it is said to cause the cheese to heave or swell out from
fermentation. It is probable, also, that it will affect the flavor
which the cheese acquires by keeping. Thus it may be that the
agreeable or unpleasant taste of the cheeses of certain districts
or dairies may be less due to the quality of the pastures, or of
the milk itself, than to the quantity of rennet with which it has
there been customary to coagulate the milk.
The way in which the rennet is made^ no less than its state of
preservation and the quantity employed, may also influence the
flavor or other qualities of the cheese.
THE DAIRY.
395
The way in which the curd is treated^ is usual in our best
cheese districts carefully and slowly to separate the curd from the
whey; not to hasten the separation, lest a larger portion of the
fatty matter should be squeezed out of the curd, and the cheese
should thus be rendered poorer than usual. But in some places
the practice prevails of washing the curd with hot water after
the whey has been partially separated from it.
The separation of the whey is part of the process upon whicli
the qualities of the cheese in a considerable degree depends. In
making the celebrated Stilton cheese, the curd is not cut or
broken at all, but is pressed gently and with care till the whey
gradually drains out. Thus the butter and the curd remain
intermixed, and the rich cheese of Stilton is the result. Thus,
while it is of importance that all the whey should be extracted
from the curd, yet the quickest way may not be the best. More
time and care must be bestowed in order to effect this object, the
richer the cheese we wish to obtain. The quality of the milk or
of the pastures may often be blamed for the deficiencies in the
richness or other qualities of cheese, which are in reality due to
slight but material differences in the mode of manufacturing it.
The hind of salt used is considered by many to have some effect
upon the taste of the cheese. It should be of the purest quality.
The mode in which the Salt is applied. — ^^In making large cheeses,
the dried curd, for a single cheese of sixty poimds, is broken down
fine and divided into three equal portions. One of these is
mingled with double the quantity of salt added to the others, and
this is so put into the cheese vat, as to form the central part of the
cheese. By this precaution, the after-salting on the surface is
sure to penetrate deep enough to cure effectually the less salted
parts. It may not be impossible to cause salt to penetrate into
the very heart of a large cheese, but it cannot be easy in this
way to salt the whole cheese equally, while the care and attention
required must be greatly increased.
Addition of Cream or Butter to the Curd. — Another mode of
improving the quality of cheese is by the addition of cream to
396
AMERICAN AGRICULTUBE.
the dry and crumbled curd. Much dihgence, however, is required
fully to incorporate these, so that the cheese may be uniform
throughout. Still this practice gives a peculiar character to the
cheeses so manipulated.
Size of the Cheese. — From the same milk it is obvious that
cheeses of different sizes, if treated in the same way, will, at the
end of a given number of months, possess qualities in a consid
erable degree different. Hence, without supposing any inferi-
ority, either in the milk or in the general mode of treatment,
the size usually adopted for the cheeses of a particular district
or dairy, may be the cause of a recognized inferiority in some
quahty which it is desirable that they should possess in a high
degree.
The method of curing has very much influence upon the after
qualities of the cheese. The care with which they are salted,
the warmth of the place in which they are kept during the first
two or three weeks, the temperature and closeness of the cheese
room in which they are afterwards preserved, the frequency of
turning, of cleaning from mold, and rubbing with butter; all
these circumstances exercise a remarkable influence upon the
after qualities of the cheese. Indeed, in very many instances,
the high reputation of a particular dairy district or dairy farm is
derived from some special attention to one or another, or to all of
the apparently minor items of its process.
In the foregoing remarks, we have treated the making of cheese
in a domestic way chiefly, as a household production. But th^
manufacture of cheese in our dairy districts has of late assumed
such large proportions, being now mainly made in factories, that
the old time manner of treating it, in all but the preparation of
the essential ingredients, is thrown aside for more recent improve-
ments, as the heating caldrons, the curd vats, and various other
utensils to work the milk through its different processes into the
perfectly cured cheese. It has become a trade by itself, requiring
skill, experience, and apprenticeship to the work, which few can
obtain outside of the regular factory.
THE DAIRY.
397
It is fortunate for the country that it has become so, as the
household labor of cheese making is extremely toilsome to the
female department, and many times hazardous in the quahty of
its production. The perfect management of the dairy, either but-
ter or cheese, requires a thorough and practical instruction for its
full government. To all who propose cheese making as a pursuit,
we commend them to an examination of the factory process, and
apprenticeship to the work, or, if the latter cannot be afforded, to
the employment of a competent hand, well versed in the modes of
making the article at the best of these estabhshments. -
I
CHAPTER XVII
SHEEP.
With the exception of the dog, there is no one of the brute
creation which exhibits the diversity of size, color, form, cover-
ing and general appearance which characterizes the sheep, and
none which occupies a wider range of climate, or subsists on a
greater variety of food. In every latitude between the equator
and the arctic, he ranges over sterile mountains, and through the
fertile valleys. He feeds on almost every species of edible forage,
the cultivated grasses, clovers, cereals and roots ; he browses on
aromatic and bitter herbs ; he crops the leaves and bark from the
stunted forest shrubs, and the pungent, resinous evergreens. In
some parts of Norway and Sweden, when other resources fail, he
subsists on fish or flesh during their long and rigorous winters,
and if reduced to necessity, he eats his own wool. He is diminu-
tive like the Orkney, or massive like the Teeswater. He is
policerate or many-horned; he has two large or small spiral
horns like the Merino, or is polled or hornless like the long
wooled. He has a long tail like our own breeds ; a broad tail, like
many of the Eastern, or a mere button of a tail, like the fat-
rumps, discernible only by the touch. His coat is sometimes long
and coarse, like the Lincolnshire ; short and hairy, Hke those of
Madagascar ; soft and furry, like the Angola, or fine and spiral, like
the silken Merino, or Saxon. Their color, either pure or fancifully
mixed, varies from the white or black of our own country, to
every shade of brown, dun, buff, blue and gray, like the spotted
flocks of the Cape of Good Hope and other parts of Africa and
Asia. This wide diversity is the result of long domestication,
under almost every conceivable variety of condition.
SHEEP.
399
Uses. — Among the antediluvians, sheep were immolated for
sacrificial offerings, and their fleeces probably furnished them with
clothing. Since the deluge, their flesh has, with all nations, been
used as a favorite food for man ; and by the rude, roving nations
of the East, they are employed in carrying burthens. Their milk
is generally used by the uncivilized, and to some extent, by the
refined nations of Europe, not only as a beverage, but for making
into cheese, butter and curds. Job refers to its use, as do Isaiah
and » other of the Old Testament writers. Most of the Greek and
Roman writers describe its general use and manufacture. The
ewe's milk scarcely differs in appearance from that of the cow,
but is generally thicker, and yields a pale, yellowish butter, that
is always soft, and soon becomes rancid. Cully remarks: The
cheese is exceedingly pungent, and for that reason is preferred bj^
many, to that from the cow." In Wales, it is mixed with that
of the dairy, and makes a tart, palatable cheese. We have never
seen it appropriated for dairy purposes in the United States,
except by a few Welsh and Highland emigrants. The sheep is
sometimes employed in the dairy regions of this country, at the
tread-mill or horizontal wheel, to pump the water, churn the
milk, or perform other Hght domestic work ; but it is rather a
poor power.
The dignity and importance of the shepherd's vocation have
ever been conspicuous. Abel, the supposed twin-brother of the
first-born of the human race, was a " keeper of sheep;" and from
this it may be fairly inferred, that there is no animal which has
so long been under the immediate control of man. Abraham
and his descendants, as well as most of the ancient patriarchs,
were shepherds. Job had 14,000 sheep. It is said of Rachel,
the favored mother of the Jewish race, she came with her
father's sheep, for she kept them." The seven daughters of the
priest of Midian, " came and drew water for their father's flocks."
Moses, the statesman and law-giver, who " was learned in all the
wisdom of the Egyptians, kept the flocks of Jethro, his father-in-
law;" and David, the future monarch of Israel, the hero, poet,
400
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
and divine, was a keeper of sheep. It was to shepherds, while
"abiding in the field, keeping watch over their flocks by night,"
that the birth of the Saviour was announced. The root of the
Hebrew name for sheep, signifies fruitfalness, abundance, plenty ;
as indicating the blessings they were destined to confer on the
human race. With the sacred writers, they were the chosen
symbol of purity and the gentler virtues; they were the victims
of propitiatory sacrifices ; and finally they became the type of
redemption to fallen man. These may not be considered acci-
dental allusions in a book, whose every feature is full of design.
Nor has the sheep been less the subject of eulogy and attention
with profane writers. Among these, Homer and Hesiod, Yirgil
and Theocritus, introduced them with evident dehght in their
pastoral themes ; while their heroes and demi-gods, Hercules and
Ulysses, JEneas and Numa, carefully perpetuated them through-
out their regal domains. The modern English poet, Bloomfield,
in one of his charming pastorals, describes the clouds,
Spotless as snow, and countless as they're Mr,
The beauteous semblance of a flock at rest."
In later times they have commanded the attention of the most
enhghtened nations; and their prosperity has in no instance
been independent of those useful animals, wherever wool and
its manufactures have been regarded as essential staples. Spain
and Portugal, for more than two centuries, were the most enter-
prising nations of Europe, and during that period they excelled
in the production and manufacture of wool. Flanders, for a
time, was before England in the perfection of the arts and
the enjoyments of life, and England then sent the little wool
she raised to that country to he manufactured. Her pohtic
sovereigns soon found this a losing game, and offered large
bounties for the importation of artists and machinery. By a
systematic and thorough course of legislation, which looked to
the utmost protection and augmentation of wool and woolens,
she has carried their production beyond anything the world has
ever seen. The small islands of Great Britain 'and Ireland, in
SHEEP.
401
addition to the support of their 30,000,000 of people, 15,000,000
of cattle, 2,250,000 horses, 18,000,000 swine, and innumerable
smaller domestic animals, maintain 50,000,000 sheep, worth
$300,000,000; and besides manufacturing nearly all their fleeces,
annually import a greater amount from abroad. The sumptuary
law for burying the dead in woolen, still occupies its place in
their statute book. And beyond all question, England is the
leading power of Europe in the combination of all those quah-
ties, which constitute national greatness, ciyihzation and strength.
Varieties. — Naturalists have divided the wild sheep into
four varieties. The Musimon, {Ovis Masimon,) inhabiting Cor-
sica, Sardinia and other islands of the Mediterranean, the moun-
tainous parts of Spain and Greece and. some other regions bor-
dering upon that inland sea, have been frequently domesticated
and mixed with the long cultivated breeds. The Argali^ (0.
Ammon,) ranges over the steppes or elevated plains of Central
Asia, northward and eastv/ard to the ocean. They are larger,
more hardy and more untameable than the Musimon. The Rocky
Mountain sheep^ {0. Montano,) frequently called the big-horn
by our western hunters, is found in various flocks and large
numbers throughout the wild mountainous regions, extending
through California and Oregon to the Pacific. They are larger,
but in other respects resemble the Argali, of which they are
probably descendants, as they could cross upon the ice, at Behr-
ing's straits, from the north-eastern coast of Asia. Like the
Argali, when caught young, they are easily tamed ; but we are
not aware that they have ever been bred with the domestic
sheep. Before the country was overrun by the white man, they
probably inhabited the region bordering on the Mississippi. Fa
ther Hennepin, a French Jesuit, who wrote nearly two hundred
years ago, and who falsely claims to have first discovered that
river, often speaks of meeting with goats, in his travels through
what is now the territory embraced by Ilhnois and Wisconsin.
The wild, clambering propensities of these animals, occupying the
giddy heights,, far beyond the reach of the traveler, and the outer
402
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
coating of hair, (supplied underneatli however, with a thick coat-
ing of soft wool,) gives to them much of the appearance of that
animal. In summer they are generally found single; but when
they descend from their isolated rocky heights in winter, they are
gregarious, marching in flocks under the guidance of leaders.
The Bearded sheep of Africa, (0. Tragelaphus,) inhabit the
mountains of Barbary and Egypt. They are covered with a
soft, reddish hair, and have a mane hanging below the neck, and
large locks of hair at the ankle.
The Domestic Sheep (^Ovis Aries,) embraces all the varie-
ties of the subjugated species. Whether they have descended
from any one of the wild races, is a question yet undetermined
among the naturahsts ; but however this may be, many of the
varieties apparently differ less from their wild namesakes than
from each other. The Fat-rumped and Broad-tailed sheep are
much more extensively diffused than any other. They occupy
nearly all the South-eastern part of Europe, "Western and Central
Asia, and Northern Africa. They are supposed to be the varie-
ties which were propagated by the patriarchs and their descend-
ants, the Jewish race. This is inferred from various passages in
the Pentateuch, Exodus xxix. 22; Leviticus, iii. 9; viii. 25; ix.
19, and some others, where ''the fat and the rump" are spoken
of in connection with offerings, in which the fat was always an
acceptable ingredient. Dr. Boothroyd renders one of the forego-
ing passages, "the large fat tail entire taken clear to the rump."
It is certain this variety gives indisputable evidence of remote
and continued subjugation. Their long, pendent, drowsy ears,
and the highly artificial posterior developments, are characteristic
of no wild or recently domesticated race.
This breed consists of numerous sub -varieties, differing in all
their characteristics of size, fleece, etc., with quite as many and
marked shades of distinction as the modern European varieties.
In Madagascar, they are covered with hair; in the south of
Africa, with coarse wool; in the Levant, and along the Mediter-
ranean, the wool is comparatively fine; and from that of the fat-
SHEEP.
403
lumped sheep of Thibet, the exquisite Cashmere shawls are
manufactured. Both rams and ewes are sometimes bred with
horns, and sometimes without, and they exhibit a great diversity
of color. Some yield a carcass of scarcely thirty pounds, while
others have weighed two hundred pounds dressed. The tail or
rump varies greatly, according to the purity and style of breed-
ing; some are less than one- eighth, while others exceed one-third
the entire dressed weight. The fat of the rump or tail is con-
sidered a great delicacy, and in hot climates resembles oil, and in
colder, suet. The broad-tailed were brought into this country
about seventy years since, by Commodore Barron and Judge
Peters, and bred with the native flocks. They were called the
Tunisian Mountain sheep. Some of them were subsequently
distributed by Colonel Pickering, of Massachusetts, among the
farmers of Pennsylvania, and their mixed descendants were
highly prized as prolific and good nursers, coming early to
maturity, attaining large weights of superior quality of carcass,
and yielding a heavy fleece of excellent wool. The principal
objection brought against them, was the difficulty of propaga-
tion, which always required the assistance of the shepherd. The
lambs were dropped white, red, tawny, bluish or black ; but all
excepting the black, grew white as they approached maturity,
retaining some spots of the original color on the cheeks and legs,
and sometimes having the entire head tawny or black. The few
which descended from those originally imported into this country,
became blended with American flocks, and are now scarcely
known. A few other importations have since been made, but
have proved of little value for American cultivation.
Native or Common Sheep of the United States. —
Strictly speaking, there are no sheep indigenous to North Amer-
ica, excepting the Ovis Montana, or Rocky Mountain sheep.
Before the introduction of the improved European breeds, during
the present century, our sheep consisted generally of a hardy,
long-legged, coarse, open-fleeced animal, which yielded according
to attention and feed, from one and a half to four pounds of indif-
404
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
ferent wool. We have seen numerous flocks within the last
thirtj years, of the old natives, whose bellies were entirely desti-
tute of wool, and sometimes the whole carcass was bare, excepting
a mere strip or ridge like a mane, reaching from the head to the
tail. The wool which was retained on the neck, back and sides,
was frequently matted almost as firmly as a leather apron ; and
that on the thighs, and sometimes on the sides, was often com-
posed almost wholly of long hair. Although indifferently formed
in comparison with the best breeds of the present day, being thin
in the breast and back, light quartered, and slow in coming to
maturity, they yet possessed some good qualities. They were
prolific, and made excellent nurses.
There were occasionally some smutty-nosed, or brockle-faced
sheep among them, distinguished by their additional size, superior
merits and courage. These were usually the leaders of the flock
in their marauding expeditions on their neighbor's domains, and
in common with the others, were eminently adapted to purvey
for themselves on the frontier settlements. There were besides,
some black or dark chocolate-brown members in every flock,
which were much valued by the thrifty housewife for their wool,
which afforded an economical mixture for jackets, hose and
trowsers, known as sheep's grey. Our original stock v/ere prin-
cipally derived from England, where their counterparts may be
seen at the present day, in the refuse breeds of that country.
"When these sheep were well selected and properly bred, there
was rapid and satisfactory improve'ments, and from such flocks,
mixed with some of the more recently improved varieties, have
sprung many valuable animals.
The Merino. — This is undoubtedly among the most ancient
race of sheep extant. The loose descriptions and indefinite gener-
ahties of the ancient writers, leave much to conjecture on this
point; yet we have a few passages from Pliny, Columella and
some other Roman authors, which leave little doubt that tlie
Merino was bred in their age, and had even been introduced into
Italy from Greece. It is a matter of history, that the Greeks
SHEEP.
405
had choice breeds of sheep at an early day, which they might
have, derived from Egypt, Tyre and Asia Minor, as they were
intimately connected in commerce with those countries, where
the woolen manufacture early reached great perfection. It is
supposed that the celebrated Argonautic expedition, in quest of
the golden fleece, undertaken by the Greeks nearly 1,300 years
before Christ, resulted in procuring a valuable race of sheep from
Colchis, in the Euxine. However this may be, it is certain that
when Augustus extended his peaceful sceptre over half the known
world, the Romans were in possession of some flocks, bearing
fleeces of exceeding fineness and beauty. They had been reared
in the province of Apulia, on the south-east coast of Italy, and
were called Tarentine, from the capital of the province. Here,
then, may have been one branch of the Merino family. Another
is undoubtedly described by Pliny, who says, "the red fleece
Bcetica^''^ which comprises the modern Spanish provinces of Jaen,
Cordova, Seville, Andalusia and Grranada, "was of still superior
quality, and had no fellow.''^ All the Spanish coast on the Med-
iterranean, of which Baetica f(3rmed a considerable part, was early
colonized by the enterprising Greeks ; and this red fleece that had
no fellow^ was probably introduced by them at an early day, and
by their descendants had been carried to a still higher degree of
perfection than that of Apulia. Columella, 'the uncle of the
writer on agriculture, a wealthy emigrant to Spain, from Italy,
A. D. 30, carried with him some of the Tarentine sheep, and
thus added to the fine-wooled sheep of Spain. These two ancient
streams, united perhaps with a third, from the more ancient stock
of the Euxine, (for Strabo asserts that some of the finest wooled
sheep were brought from that region in his time, and sold for the
enormous sum of $750,) flowed on in an uninterrupted current,
over that broad country, and brought down to modern times the
unrivalled race of the Merino. The limited region of Italy,
overrun as it repeatedly was, during and after the times of the
late Emperors, by hordes of barbarians, soon lost her pampered
flocks, while the extended regions of Spain, intersected in every
406
AMERICAN AGRICULTUBE.
direction by almost impassable mountains, could maintain their
more hardy race, in defiance of revolution or change.* The
conquest by the Moors of a part of those fine provinces, so far
from checking, served rather to encourage the production of fine
wool. They were not only enterprising, but highly skilled in the
usefiil arts, and carried on extensive manufactories of fine woolen
goods, which they exported to different countries. After their
expulsion in the fifteenth century, by Ferdinand and Isabella, the
Spaniards preserved these manufactures in part, and seduously
cherished their fine flocks, and knowing the incomparable advan-
tage tliey had in them, their sovereigns, except in a few isolated
instances, strictly prohibited their exportation.
Exportation of Merinos from Spain. — History asserts
that Henry VHI. of England, by permission of Charles V.,
imported 3,000 sheep, but of what kind is not mentioned, they
having numerous varieties in Spain. If of the true Merino, it
will explain the superior quahty of the English middle-wools, the
Rveland, South Downs, and some others. The first well authen-
ticated exportation of the Merino was made to Sweden in 1723,
by Alstroemer, which solved the problem of their capacity for
sustaining their character on rough fare and a high northern
latitude. Lasteyrie, who wrote fifty years after the experiment
had been tried, speaks of their improvement both in carcass and
the quahty and quantity of fleece. The next exportation was
* Whatever distrust may be attached to these scraps of history, which apparently
establish the remote antiquity of the Merino, this much is absolutely certain, that
they are a race whose qualities are inbred to an extent surpassed by no others.
They have been improved in the general weight and evenness of their fleece, as in
the celebrated flock of Rambouillet : in the uniform and excessive fineness of fibre,
as in the Saxons, and in their form and feeding qualities in various countries ; but
there has never yet been deterioration either in quantity or quality of fleece or
carcass, wherever transported, if supplied with suitable food and attention. Many
sheep annually shed their wool, if undipped ; while the Merino retains its fleece,
sometimes for five years, when allowed to remain unshorn. This, we conceive,
afl'ords conclusive evidence of long continued breeding among themselves, by which
the very constitution of the wool-producing organs beneath the skin, have become
permanently changed, and this property is transmitted to a great extent even among
the crosses, thus marking them as an ancient and peculiar race.
SHEEP.
407
made to Saxony, in 1765, and consisted of one hundred and five
ram3 and one hundred and fourteen ewes, but from what flocks
they were taken, history nowhere mentions. A second exporta-
tion to that country was made in 1778, of one hundred and ten
that were variously selected from the be^t flocks in Spain. From
these have descended the high-bred, silken-fleeced Saxons, whose
wool stands confessedly without a rival.
In 1775, the Empress Maria Theresa imported three hundred
Merinos into Germany, and placed them on the Imperial farm in
Hungary. In 1786, an importation was made into Denmark and
her provinces; and again, in 1797, another flock of three hun-
dred was brought into the kingdom, and placed at Esserum, about
eight leagues from Copenhagen. In 1786, one hundred rams and
two hundred ewes were imported into Prussia, most of which were
allowed to perish from disease, but their places were fully made
up by later importations. The same year, four hundred ewes and
rams were selected from the choicest Spanish flocks, and placed
on the Koyal farm of Rambouillet, in France, which laid the
foundation of the celebrated flock which bears that name. A
small flock of inferior animals was clandestinely procured by
George III. of England, in 1788, which attracted little attention.
In 1791, a small but choice flock was presented to that monarch,
by the Cortes of Spain, which soon acquired high favor among
many intelligent breeders. A part of these were kept piu:e, and
their descendants frimished the superb flock of seven hundred
Nigrettis, which procured for their owner, Mr. Trimmer, in 1829,
the gold medal from the London Society of Arts. Others were
mixed with different flocks in the kingdom, to the evident im
provement of their fleeces.
Thie first importation of Merinos into the United States which
resulted in the propagation of a pure breed,* was made by Chan-
ceUor Livingston, then minister at the Court of Versailles, who
* One or more ptire Merinos were imi>orted into Massachnsetts, in the latter part
of the last century, by a citizen of that Stat^, but they were soon mixed with other
sheep, and resulted in the perpetuation of no distinct flocks.
408
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
sent two cHoice rams and ewes from the Rambouillet flock in
1802, t^ Claremont, his country seat on the Hudson. In the
latter part of the same year, Col. Humphreys, our minister in
Spain, sent out nearly one hundred Merinos, which were followed
by more numerous flocks from the same and other sources. The
largest importations of the Merino, however, were made through
Mr. Jarvis, of Vermont, then U. S. Consul in Spain, in 1809, and
immediately thereafter. He first shipped, as he states, "200
Escurial; afterwards, 1,400 Paulars, 1,700 Aqueirres, 100 Ni-
grettis,. and about 200 Montarcos. 2,700 Montarcos were sent
out by a Spaniard and Portuguese, and a])out 300 Guadaloupes
by others; also 200 to 300 Paulars, by Gen. Downie to Boston.
Of the Montarco flock shipped by others, about 2,500 came to
Boston, Providence, New York, and other ports. All were
imported in the latter part of 1809-10, and early in 1811, and
were the only Leonese Transhumantes, if we include Humphrey's
and Livingston's, (which no doubt were of the same stock,) that
were ever shipped to the United States."
Varieties of the Spanish Sheep. — Besides several other
breeds of sheep in Spain, consisting of long and coarse wool and
that of a medium staple, embraced under the different names of
Qhorinots, Choaroes or ChunahSj the Merino is distinguished by
two general divisions : the Transhumantes or traveling, and the
Estantes or stationary flocks. The former are subdivided accord-
ing to the Provinces they occupy, into Leonese, Segovian and
Sorian. Many of the Bstantes were of the best quality in respect
to carcass, constitution and fleece, and such as were highly bred
and in the hands of intelhgent breeders, were not surpassed by
any of the Spanish flocks. There were also many choice sheep
among the Segovian and Sorian Transhumantes, but in general
they were decidedly inferior to those of Leon. These last were
universally regarded as the prime flocks of Spain. They com-
prised the Escurial, the Paular, the Nigretti, the Aqueirres or
Muros, the Montarco, the Guadaloupe, Infantado and some others.
SHEEP.
409
There is much contradictory testimony as to the comparative
merits of the last mentioned flocks, as they were found in Spain ;
which is owing in part, doubtless, to the difference in the speci-
mens subjected to examination. We subjoin some of the most
reliable authorities on this subject. M. Lasteyrie, who investi-
gated this matter closely, says: "The Guadaloupe have the most
perfect form, and are likewise celebrated for the quantity and
quahty of their wool. The Paular bear much wool of a fine
quahty, but they have a more evident enlargement behind the
ears, and a greater degree of throatiness, and the lambs have a
coarse hairy appearance which is succeeded by excellent wool.
The lambs of the Infanta do have the same hairy coat when
young. The Nigretti are the largest and strongest of all the
traveling sheep in Spain." Mr. Livingston says : " The Escurial
is the most perfect of all the traveling flocks in Spain; the Guada
loupe for form, fineness and abundance of the fleece ; the Paular,
with similar fleeces, are larger bodied. Those of Castile and
Leon have the largest with the finest coat. Those of Soria are
smcxll with very fine wool; and those also of Valencia which do
not travel, and like the last have fine wool but of a very short
staple." Mr. J arvis, who spent many years in Spain under every
advantage for studying them closely, and who imported and had
since bred large numbers of them on his estate in Vermont, says:
"The Paulars were undoubtedly one of the handsomest flocks in
Spain. They were of middling height, round bodied, well spread,
straight on the back, the neck of the bucks rising in a moderate
curve from the withers to the setting on of the head, their head
handsome, with aquiline curve of the nose, with short, fine glossy
hair on the face, and generally hair on the legs, the skin pretty
smooth, that is, not rolling up or doubling about the neck and
body,* as in some other flocks; the crimp in the wool was not so
short as in many other flocks, the wool was somewhat longer, but
. it was close and compact, and was soft and silky to the touch, and
*In this feature Mr. Jarvis' description differs from M. Lasteyrie. belore men-
tioned.
18
410
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
the surfiice was not so much covered with gmu. This flock was
originallj owned by the Carthusian friars of Paular, who were
the best agricultmists in Spain, and was sold by that order to
tlie Prmce of Peace when he came into power. The Nigretti
flock were the tallest Merinos in Spain, but were not hand-
somely formed, being rather flat-sided, roach-back, and the neck
inclining to sink down from the withers ; the wool was somewhat
shorter than the Paular, and more crimped, the skin was more
loose and inclined to double, and many of them were wooled on
their faces and legs t^own to the hoofs. All the loose-skinned
sheep had large dewlaps. The Aqueirres were short-legged,
round, broad bodied, with loose skins, and were more wooled
about their faces and legs than any other flock I ever saw ; the
wool was more crimped than the Paular, and less than the
Nigretti, but was thick and soft. This flock formerly belonged
to the Moors of Spain, and at their expulsion, was bought by
the family of Aqueirres. The wool in England was known as
the Muros flock, and was highly esteemed. All the bucks of
these three flocks had large horns. The Escurials were about as
tall as the Paulars, but not quite so round and broad, being in
general rather more shght in their make ; their wool was crimped,
but not quite so thick as the Paular or Nigretti, nor were their
skins so loose as the Nigretti and Aqueirres, nor had they so
much wool on the face and legs. The Montarco bore a consid-
erable resemblance to the Escurial. The Escurial flock had
formerly belonged to the crown, but when Phihp II. built the
Escurial palace, he gave them to the friars, whom he placed in a
convent that was attached to the palace, as a source of revenue.
These four flocks were moderately gummed. The Guadaloupe
flock was rather larger in the bone than the two preceding,
about the same height, but not quite so handsomely formed, their
wool was thick and crimped, their skins loose and doubling, their
faces and legs not materially different from the two latter flocks,
but in general they were more gummed than either of the other
flocks. In point of fineness there was very httle difference
SHEEP. ' 411
between these six flocks, and as I have been told by well informed
persons, there is very little difference in this respect among the
Leonese Transhumantes in general. The Escurials, the Montar-
cos and the tjuadaloupes were not in general so heavy horned as
the other three flocks, and about one in six of the bucks were
without horns."
The Rambouillet flock, of France, was founded in 1786,
by Louis XYL, from a selection of four hundred of the best
Spanish sheep, which were placed on the royal farm at Rambouil-
let. These received all the attention which intelligence and
wealth could bestow, and the consequence was soon manifest in
their larger size, and the increased weight and uniformity in the
fineness of their fleece ; the last improvement being particularly
evident in the absence of the coarse wool which in many cases
infested the quarters, and the jarr, or hair, which frequently
abounds on the flanks, legs and thighs of the original Merino.
Besides the crown flocks at Rambouillet, they are found in equal
perfection on several other of the royal farms, especially those of
Malmaison, Perpignan, Aries, Clermont, and some others. These
flocks have been bred for hardy constitution, large carcass and
heavy fleece, of as much fineness as consistent with large weights,
and as uniform in quality throughout as possible. Mr. Gilbert,
who was particularly famihar with them, says: ^'Almost all the
fleeces of the rams, from two years old and upwards, weigh
(unwashed) from twelve to thirteen pounds ; but the mean weight,
taking the rams and ewes together, has not quite attained to eight
pounds, after deducting the tags and the wool of the belly." The
French pound is about one-twelfth heavier than the Enghsh ; but
from the general custom of folding the sheep in France, feeding
them in fallows and wintering them in houses, the fleece becomes
very dirty. The loss in washing (fit for manufacturing,) is about
60 per cent., so that the clean fleece of the ram will average
about six pounds, and that of the whole flock something under
four pounds.
The first importation of the Ramlouillets to this country was in
1801, by M. Dellesert, of Paris, for M. Dupont, then in New
412
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
York, and consisted of four choice rams, only one of which, Don
Pedro, reached this country. He was used among the native
ewes near Kingston, N. Y., for three years, and then transferred
to. Delaware, where he effected great improvemenf among the
native flocks. The second was that -made by the late Chancellor
Livingston, before alluded to. There was another in 1840, by
Mr. CoUins, of Connecticut, comprising thirty select ewes and
two rams. All these sheep possessed the characteristics peculiar
to the variety as described. A still more recent importation has
been made by Mr. Taintor, of Connecticut, during the summer
of 1846, of twenty-three ewes and three bucks. We subjoin a
description of these from the editor of the "American Agricul-
turist," New York. "The rams, though young, are the most
promising animals of their breed we ever saw, and when full
grown will weigh at least from 225 to 250 pounds each. One of
them sheared twenty-three pounds of unwashed wool. To give
an idea of the ewes, we measured them after they were shorn,
and found they varied from 25M to 29 inches in height over the
withers ; and lest.it may be thought this superior height is attained
by extra long legs, we will add, that the height of the under side
of their bodies from the ground was from 9>^ to 12 inches, which,
according to our observation, is no greater in proportion to their
size than that of good American Merino sheep. Their weights
we took afler being shorn. They varied from 124 to 153 pounds.
Some of them were quite thin in flesh, the largest especially,
which, if in fine condition and her fleece on, would weigh at least
200 pounds. Fourteen of these ewe fleeces weighed an average
of 15 pounds each, unwashed."
These sheep were separated, a part of them taken into Ver-
mont, and all bred with great care. They were wooled over
the forehead and face, on the legs, even to the feet, prolific, and
under good management multiphed rapidly. They had an exten-
sive sale at high prices, and were introduced into many Merino
flocks, chiefly in New York and the Western States ; but it was
found that their wool was coarser in fibre than the old, or Spanish
SHEEP.
413
Merino stock, and they lacked in hardihood, compared with our *
common Merinos. After some years they gradually waned, and
were superceded by the improved Vermont stock of the original
importations, so that now but few of the Eambouillets, of pure
blood, are to be found. Although of large size, they were coarse
in figure, lacking compactness in body; yet, with these draw-
backs, and but for the painstaking care which had been, and
still is bestowed on the American born flocks of the old Span-
ish stocks, they might have secured a strong admixture of their
blood in many of our present flocks.
SiLESiAN Merinos. — Some years since, some fine importations
of these were made from Silesia, in Germany, by Mr. Chamber-
lain, of Columbia Co., N. Y., and perhaps others in different
places, although not now recollected. These have proved unsur-
passed in style of carcass, fineness and good quality of wool.
They are comparatively free from the crusty yolk carried by the
Spanish Merinos, and evidently an improvement on many of that
class of flocks. Thus far, both in breed and weight of fleece,
they have proved eminently successful.
The Progress op the Merino in the United States. —
Though reaching back but two-thirds of a century, the Merino
flocks of this country have been very fluctuating as to their value,
increase and improvement. When first introduced, they were
viewed with distrust by the majority of our farmers; and it was
not till after several years' experience of their paramount merits,
that they were generally disseminated. But the confidence of
our flock-masters having once been secured, it has never been
withdrawn, and they have ever since been cherished favorites.
The prices for choice Merinos rapidly increased after a few years,
and Livingston states the average price for rams, in 1811, at
$1,000, and some were sold at a much higher rate. This was
the period of the embargo, when our infant manufactures were
just starting into life; and being followed by war with the
greatest commercial nation of the world, we were thrown entirely
on our own resources for the supply of our woolen and other
414
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
fabrics, and wool and sheep maintained their full value till the
return of peace, in 1815. The flooding of our country with
foreign goods, under low duties, which succeeded this event,
either broke down or effectually paralyzed our woolen manufac-
tures, and wool, of course, felt the full weight of this crushing
influence. The Merino rapidly declined in value, till its price
nearly approximated to that of the native sheep. Their merits
had, however, become so conspicuous, that the low prices pro-
duced a more general diffusion, and they and their crosses were
thus sown broadcast over the country.
The introduction of the Saxons, in great numbers, in 1826,
many of which were excessively diminutive and diseased, and
their indiscriminate use with our pure-bred Merinos, was a serious
interruption to the career of improvement in many of our flocks.
Their mixture with the best Saxons was no further detrimental
than to reduce the quantity of fleece, and to a certain extent
lessen the pecuhar hardiness of the original Transhum antes,
which had been fully preserved by their descendants in this
country. The use of well selected Saxon rams with Merino
flocks was extensively practiced, and their crosses, although some-
what remote, are stifl retained by inteUigent flock-masters, after
forty years' experience, who are satisfied that they find it for
their interest to continue this style of breeding. The animals
being smaller, consume less, and they probably produce a quantity
of wool in proportion to their food, which, from its improved and
uniform quality, commands a higher price in the market. Their
natures are intrinsically the same. They are only divergent
streams from the same original fountain, and when again united,
they readily coalesce and flow onwards, without violence or
disorder.
The Merino, as might reasonably have been anticipated, when
properly managed, has improved from a variety of causes.
Though kept scrupulously pure in Spain, they were seldom bred
with that refinement of taste, or that nice judgment which dis-
tinguishes the accomplished modern breeders. Their management
SHEEP.
415
was too entirely entrusted to ignorant shepherds or careless agents
to secure that close attention which is essential to improvement.
The sheep had to perform a' journey of several hundred miles
twice in a year, to and from the distant Sierras; and it was abso-
lutely essential that strong animals should be selected for breeding,
and to secure this object, those were frequently used which were
deficient in the most profitable qualities. They were also closely
bred in-and-in, seldom or never departing from a particular flock
to procure a fresh cross. Their wild, nomadic life, approaching
nearly to that of their natural state, and their peculiarly healthful
pasturage alone prevented a serious deterioration from this cause.
"When brought into the United States, the flocks were soon
mingled with each other, and for many years past, probably, not
an unmixed descendant of any distinct original flock could be
traced. Abundance of appropriate food has been given them,
without the labor of long and fatiguing journeys, and, lastly
there has been much care used in the selection of the most profit-
able animals for breed. The spirit of improvement has, for some
years past, been thoroughly awakened to this important branch
of American husbandry, and has resulted in giving us numerous
flocks of as choice sheep as the world affords, having all the
elements within ourselves for its attainment.
Peculiarities of the Merino. — The promment peculiarities of
the Merino, are the abundance and fineness of its fleece, the
tenacity with which it is held, its crimped or spiral form, its
felting properties, and the excessive quantity of yolk, giving to
it that sofi:ness which distinguishes it from all others. Their large
horns are common to several other varieties. Their hoofs are
sometimes singularly long, reaching six or eight inches, when
allowed to grow. The horns, hoofs and wool scarcely difier in
their chemical constituents, and the peculiar development of the
two former is justly considered as an additional evidence of their
vv^ool-bearing properties. The yolk, in most of the sheep, forms,
with the dust which adheres to it, a firm crust on the exterior,
and, together with the compactness of the fleece, it ofiers consid-
416
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
erable resistance to the open hand on being pressed, giving the
impression of rigidity. This outer covering repels the rain, the
snow, and the wind, hke a coat of mail, thus fitting the Merino
t-o endure exposure better than any other sheep. On opening
the crust, the wool is found of a brilHant, golden hue, sparkling
with yolk, and firmly held together in masses, hardly distinguish-
able from the cocoon of the silkworm. The wool closely covers
every part of the body, and frequently the entire legs and head,
excepting a part of the face.
Another pecuharity of the Merino is its longevity. They
attain a great age when properly managed, and, in healthy local-
ities, sometimes breed till a dozen years of age. The Merino
may be described, generally, as a small-boned, closely made,
medium sized sheep, varying from sixty pounds of five weight
for a small ewe, to one hundred and forty poimds for good
sized wethers and rams, in ordinary condition. They are light
in the shoulders and chest, and are, altogether, more deficient in
■form than the best mutton sheep. This apparent difference is
materially lessened when both are denuded of their fleece, as the
longer pile of the latter covers defects which would manifest
themselves under the closer covering of the Merino. The quality
of their flesh, although tolerable, is much inferior to that of the so-
called "mutton" breeds.
Breeding Merinos. — The general principles of breeding cattle
and sheep, as laid down by the most approved authorities, must
be taken w4th some exceptions, when applied to the Merino.
Good form and feeding qualities are desirable in this breed, but
they are not as essential as with others. Wool is the great
object, and if this be suflSciently fine, even and abundant, some-
thing may be abated in the perfection of form. Early maturity,
so much sought after in the mutton sheep, cannot be reconciled
with the great longevity and the prolonged productive powers of
the Merino. We must content ourselves, therefore, with slowly
engrafting such improvements on the breed as can be effected
without prejudice to his other good qualities, and look to his
SHEEP.
417
crosses with others for such qualities as are irreconcilable with
his nature. It is considered indispensable to the improvement of
the Merino, that it be not bred too young. A vigorous ewe maj
bring her first lamb at two years old, but it is better that it be
deferred till three. The ram should never be used till his second
year, and then but sparingly. From two and one-half to six
years old is deemed the most vigorous age, though many may be
safely used till eight or ten, and occasionally later. Both ewes
and rams have been known to breed till twenty years old.
TJie ram should be large, stout and well made, carrying his
weight as compactly as possible. The nose should be convex;
the face covered %ith a soft, velvety hair, where not covered
with wool; the eye lively and prominent; the veins near
the lachrymal glands of a clear red; the horns rough; short
neck; pendant dewlap not objectionable; full chest; broad
shoulders; broad, level back; large quarters; tail large and well
set up; good legs and sound hoofs, with a firm, easy, regular
gait ; the head carried high, with a look of boldness and decision,
without in any degree approaching to wildness or ferocity. The
ewe should possess these characteristics generally, with such
modifications as are suited to the sex. Great care should be
taken to breed from such as are most perfect in all the essential
points of constitution, form and size, and weight, uniformity and
fineness of fleece. The closest observation is requisite to select
the best in all respects.
Excessive use of rams can never be permitted without decided
injury to them and their progeny. If moderately grained before
and during their use, and especially if kept up, and allowed to
serve the ewes once only as they come in heat, the number may
be largely increased. A vigorous ram will suffice for thirty-five
to forty ewes, when running with the flock; yet his powers
would not be more taxed by double or even treble this number,
if admitted to each but once. If he is gentle, which he should
always be, he should be stabled at night and fed with grain. If
young ewes have stolen lambs, they should be taken away from
4i8
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
them immediately after yeaning, and the nourishment supphed to
the lamb by another ewe, or the milk of a cow. The tax of
nursing is nearly equal to that of gestation, and farther injury to
the dam may be avoided by this practice. Merino ewes have
had the reputation of being indifferent nurses in Spain. This is
owing to their fatigue in traveling, and frequently to scanty pas-
turage, instead of any constitutional deficiency. It is a frequent
practice there, to kill a part of the lambs and put one on to two
ewes. This has never been found necessary in the countries
where they have been transplanted, as generous feed for the
dams has invariably been found entirely adequate to their sup-
port of the young.
TJie localities in which Merino sheep can he 'profitably kept in
the United States^ are wherever the pastures are sweet and dry,
the climate not too hot, and the land not too valuable for other
purposes. Wool is the great object of sheep husbandry in a
large majority of the States of this country, and when sheep
farms are remote from the large markets, the Merino will make
the most profitable returns. In the neighborhood of cities, and
in the more densely populated States, where large and fat sheep
and early lambs bear a high price, the mutton sheep maybe
substituted.
From repeated trials in cleansing unwashed fleeces of thorough,-
bred Merino flocks in the United States, so as to be fitted for
manufacturers' use, the yield is about 35 per cent, of clean wool;
in other words, 65 per cent, of the fleece, unwashed on the
sheep's back, is grease and dirt. There are some varieties, how-
ever, with less of the dark outside crust on their fleeces, which
will give a larger proportion of clean wool to the gross weight.
Prices within the last few years have greatly increased for
improved sheep of Vermont breeding. • One, to three thousand
dollars each, and even more, have been paid for rams, and fifty
to five hundred dollars each for ewes. Although the animals
may have been of superlative merit, such prices must be held as
merely speculative. To show the vacillating spirit of our Amer-
SHEEP.
419
icaii sheep breeders, and flock-masters in tlie United States, as a
matter of history: In the first year of our late civil war, 1861,
the wools of our country, soon after the shearing season, sold at
an average of 25 to 30 cents a pound. Soon afterwards, prices
rose rapidly, until in 1862-3-4 and 5, they reached the unprece-
dented rates of $1.00 to $1.50 per pound, and the choice high-
bred Vermont Merino rams sold frequently at $500 to $3,000
each ; and the flocks of sheep in these years increased enormously
in numbers. Soon after peace, prices gradually waned, until in
1868, both sheep and wool fell to the low prices of 1861. The
furor had its day, and now, at this present writing — November,
1868, — large flocks of valuable sheep in the Western States are
selling off at 75 cents to $1.00 a head, and slaughtered for their
pelts and tallow, although wool is gradually advancing in price !
The Saxon, hke some others, is one of the varieties of the
pure-bred Merino, the foundation of which was laid by an impor-
tation of some of the choicest animals into Saxony, in 1765.
The great care and attention bestowed upon these sheep by the
Elector, the nobility and the most intelligent farmers, soon carried
them to a point of uniformity and excellence of fleece, never
exceeded by the best of the original flocks. The breeders were
selected with almost exclusive reference to the quahty of the
fleece. Great care was taken to prevent exposure throughout
the year, and they were housed on every slight emergency. The
consequence of this course of breeding and treatment, has been
to reduce the size and weight of fleece, and partially to impair
that hardiness and vigor of constitution which universally char
acterized the original Transhumantes. In numerous instances,
this management resulted in permanent injury to the character
of their flocks, which America has severely felt in several impor-
tations of worthless aniihals, which a too great eagerness for
improvement induced her flock-masters to use with the Spanish
Merinos and their descendants, as a means for this object, but
which has resulted in the introduction of fatal diseases and serious
deterioration in their flocks.
420
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
The first importation of Saxons into this country was made in
1823, of four good rams, two of which went to Boston and the
others to Philadelphia. The next was made the following year,
and consisted of seventj-five rams and ewes, which were brought
to Boston and sold at pubhc auction, and afterwards were scat-
tered over the country. Another lot of one hundred and eighty
followed to the same place, the next year, and was sold in the
same manner, but at an increased price, some selling as high as
$450 each. These prices excited the spirit of speculation, and
the following year witnessed the importation of near 3,000, many
of which were decidedly inferior. These were all thrown upon
the market for the most they would command, and in many
instances the sales not half covering the cost of importation, the
enterprise was abandoned as a speculation or commercial opera-
tion. The late Henry D. Grove, of Hoosic, New York, a native
of Germany, and a highly intelligent and thoroughly bred shep-
herd, accompanied some of the best early importations to this
country. He selected one hundred and five choice animalg for
his own breeding, which he imported in 1827, and seventy more
equally good in 1828, and with these he formed the flock from
which he bred to the time of his decease, in 1844.* There are
few, if any, pure flocks of Saxony sheep now in the United
* The average weight of fleece from the entire flock of Mr. Grove, nearly all of
which were ewes and lambs, as stated by him to the writer, in 1842, was 2 pounds 14
ounces, thoroughly washed on the sheep's back. This was realized after a short
summer and winter's keep, when the quantity of hay or its equivalent did not
exceed by actual weight 1)4 pounds per day, except to the ewes, which received an
additional quantity just before and after lambing. This treatment was attended
with no disease or loss by death, and with an increase of lambs, equalling one for
every ewe.
In a flock of pure Saxony sheep owned by Mr, Smith, of Connecticut, as stated in
a letter from the owner, published in the ''American Shepherd," one hundred and
four ewes raised one hundred and one lambs, and yielded 341 pounds of wool, which
sold at seventy cents per pound. For the eighteen months preceding, he lost but
three animals out of three hundred, from ordinary casualties. But some flocks do
not, in good condition, average over 2 pounds per head. Ai^ importation, (May,
1846,) mads by Mr. Taintor, of Connecticut, consisting of fouf bucks and four ewes,
from the celebrated Saxon flock of Baron de Spreck, showed a size and vigor of Qon-
Btitution equ'il to any of their Merino progenitor^.
SHEEP. 421
States. They have proved too delicate and Hght of fleece for
ordinary American husbandry.
It will be understood that all the above noticed varieties of
j^we-wooled sheep, belong to the ancient family of the "Spanish
Merino."
The South-Down. — -This valuable sheep has been known and
bred for a long time on the chalky downs of England, where^ it
has always maintained the character of a hardy animal, yielding
a medium quality of wool, and furnishing mutton of a superior
flavor. It was not however, till within the last ninety years, that
any considerable attention was devoted to its improvement.
Since that period, its fine points have been remarkably devel-
oped, which is shown in its improved size and form, and its early
maturity and productiveness. The late Mr. John Ellman, of Eng-
land, was the first who -took them thoroughly in hand; and so
eminent was his success, that he founded a flock which has been
the source from which all the best blood has been since derived.
His criterion of a good South-Down is as follows: "The head
small and hornless ; the face dark-brown or grey ; the lips thin,
and the space between the nose and the eyes narrow; the
under jaw, or chap, fine and thin ; the ears wide apart, and the
forehead,^nd the whole space between, well covered with wool
as a defence against the fly; the eye full and bright; the
neck of a medium length, thin towards the head, but enlarging
towards the shoulders, where it should be broad and high, and
straight in its whole course above and below ; the breast should
be wide, deep, and projecting forwards between the fore legs,
indicating a good constitution, and a disposition to thrive. Cor-
responding with this, the shoulders should be on a 4evel with the
back, and not too wide above; they should bow outward from
the top to the breast, indicating a springing rib beneath, and leav-
ing room for it ; the ribs coming out horizontally from the spine,
and extending far backward, and the last rib projecting more than
the others ; the back flat from the shoulders to the setting on of
the tail; the loin broad and flat; the rump long and broad, and
422
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE,
the tail set high up and nearly on a level with the spine ; the
hips wide; the space between them and the last rib on either
side as narrow as possible, and the ribs, generally, presenting a
circular form like a barrel ; the belly as straight as the back ;
the legs medium in length, proportionate with the body; the
fore-legs straight from the breast to the foot ; not bending inward
at the knee, and standing far apart both before and behind ; the
hocks having a direction rather outward, and the twist, or the
meeting of the thighs behind, being particularly full and well let
down; the bones fine, yet having no appearance of weakness,
and of a dark color ; the belly well defended with wool, and
the wool coming down before and behind to the knee, and to the
hock; the wool, close, curled, and fine, and free from spiry pro-
jecting fibres."
Other breeders have commenced where Ellman left ofi*, and
have apparently pushed their improvement to its utmost capac-
ity; and especially has this been done by Messrs. Grantham and
Webb, the latter of whom, while preserving all the essential
merits of the sheep, has carried the live weight of breeding rams,
to two hundred pounds, and that of well fattened w^ethers to
one hundred and fifty pounds, dressed weight. Many of the
choicest animals have been imported into this country, ^nd they
are now to be found in considerable numbers in many States
of the Union— probably as good as can be found in Eng-
land. The wool was formerly short and used only for cloths,
flannels, etc. It has been considerably lengthened in many of the
late flocks, and with the improvements in the combing machinery,
is now much used in England, as a combing wool. The quantity
produced is neTirly equal to that of the Merino flocks when well
kept, varying according to the size and style of breeding, from
three to six pounds of clean washed wool, which in quantity, does
not differ materially from half-blood Merino, and sometimes rather -
exceeds it. The larger animals of course, produce fleeces of much
greater weight, sometimes reaching to eight or nine poimds. The •
Soutli-Down will subsist on short pasture, but well repays full
SHEEP.
423
feeding. It attains early maturity, is hardy and prolific, fre-
quently producing two at a birth. Like all highly improved
English breeds, it is not a long-lived sheep. It may be consid-
ered in its prime at three. The wethers may be fattened at
eighteen to thirty months, and the ewes at five to seven years,
when first required as breeders. The ewes should not produce
lambs until two years old.
Shropshire-Downs. — Under this name a larger variety of the
Down sheep has of late been introduced among us. They are
nearly one-third larger, and somewhat coarser than the South-
Down, although descended from the same original race — the old
Hampshire Downs, and probably crossed with one of the larger
coarse wooled breeds of England. In quality and appearance
they much resemble the South-Downs, but whether for wool and
mutton purposes they are really superior, other than in their
weight of carcass and fleece, is yet a question. The pure high-
bred South-Down, in flavor and quality^ is the choicest mutton
sheep that we have, and over rolling, or hilly lands, with sweet
grasses, no other breed equals them for that purpose, although
in the weight of fleece, in proportion to that of the carcass, they
fall behind the long wooled varieties. The Shropshire-Down
partakes, to much extent, the same characteristics.
The Long Wooled Breeds.— Of these there are several in
England, their native country, where they have been bred, time
immemorial. Although existing under several different local
names, they are now chiefly designated under those of Leicester,
Cots wold, and Lincoln. They are hornless, and the largest class
of sheep known, with very white, coarse, open fleeces of long
fibre, valuable for combing purposes, and the manufacture of
worsted goods, blankets, and other cloths, requiring great length
of staple in the wool. They are also a mutton sheep, taking on
flesh readily, with good keep, and feeding up to an enormous size
of carcass, (for a sheep,) reaching, in rare instances, three hund-
red and eighty pounds live weight, and two hundred and fifty
pounds in the dressed carcass.
424
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
In their original condition they were coarse, rangy, and leggy,
yet always yielding large fleeces. Upwards of a hundred years
ago the celebrated English stock breeder, Bakewell, took one of
the varieties — the Leicester — ^in hand for improvement. He
found them deficient in form, slow feeders, and late in maturity.
He began by selecting the choicest individual animals of the race
he could find, which possessed the essential requisites, and by
good feeding and management throughout, he soon brought them
up to a character widely differing from the originals with which
he started. So eminent was his success, that in 1787, he let
three rams for £1,250, (about $6,200,) and was offered £1,-
050, (about $5,200,) for twenty ewes. Soon after this, he
received the enormous price of 800 guineas, (or $4,000,) for the
two-thirds use of a single ram for a season, reserving the other
third for himself. He reduced the bone and offal, or worthless
parts of the carcass, and increased the weight of the valuable
parts, and especially their tendency to fatten and early maturity.
This was effected mainly, by a nice discrimination, which has
probably never been surpassed, if it has ever been equalled. He
selected medium sizes for the breed, with as much evenness and
perfection of form as possible, for he found that excellence and
profitable feeding qualities were seldom connected with extra
size, large bones, or imperfect form. He also observed the dis-
position to fatten in individuals, and used only such as were con-
spicuous in this respect. He relied more than all upon their
quality of handling^ well, depending even more upon that flesh-
yielding excellence than upon the most symmetrical figure. He
used only the choicest rams, a little under size, while the ewes
were of full medium weight. The progeny were pushed with a
full supply of nutritious food, and systematically brought to early
maturity. Connected with this, was his practice of in-and-in
breeding^ or breeding thQ parent upon the progeny, for several
successive generations, which had the tendency still further to
* The soft elastic touch of the skin a;id underflesh, when pressed by the fingers.
SHEEP.
refine the bone and offal, and impress most effectually, the desira-
ble characteristics of the race.
It is said that Bake well carried his refining system to such an
extent as partially to destroy the pro-creative powers, and was
subsequently obliged to introduce new animals to reinvigorate
and continue his flock. The general system of Bakewell, how-
ever, was attended with complete success. He produced a race
of animals, not only far beyond what England had ever before
seen, but which, in all the qualities he endeavored to establish,
have not been exceeded since ; and his improved Leicesters have
come down to the present day as perfect as he left them, showing
conclusively that he not only formed, but stamped the peculiari
ties of the breed with a permanence which yet bears witness to
his genius.
The Cotswold and Lincoln. — Other breeders were not
slow in following in Bakewell's footsteps with different breeds,
and the Cotswold and Lincoln, especially, have become the sub-
jects of an equally decided improvement, while the errors of
Bakewell were entirely avoided. They possess a rather more
desirable robustness, approaching in some few specimens almost
to coarseness, as compared with the finest Leicesters. It is con-
tended that the Cotswolds and Lincolns are more hardy in
constitution than the more refined Leicesters, but they have now
become so intermingled in their various crosses, that few except
experts can detect the difference between many individual sheep
of one variety or the other; yet the improved Leicesters were
undoubtedly resorted to, on one side, for a nucleus to their refine-
ment. They attain as large a size and yield as great an amount
of wool, of about the same value. These breeds scarcely differ
more from each other than do flocks of a similar variety which
have been separately bred for several generations. They are
prohfic, and when well fed the ewes will fi-equently produce two
lambs at a birth, for which they provide liberally from their udder
til] the time for weaning. The weight of their fleece, in all these
varieties, varies from six to twelve pounds clean wool per head.
426 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. I
Peculiarity of Long "Wool and its Uses. — The striking i
peculiarity of the long wools is in the production of a fleece,
which is perfectly adapted, by its length and the absence of the
felting property, to the manufacture of worsted stuffs, bombazines,
muslin de laines, etc. This is a branch of our manufactures for
which we had little material that was suitable, till the introduc-
tion of the long wools; and its rapid extension within the past
few years clearly shows that a large and increasing demand for
this kind of wool will continue at remunerating prices. Besides
its uses for combing, it is extensively manufactured into blankets,
carpeting, and many other fabrics.
Their Introduction to America. — Occasional importations of
the long w^ooled sheep were made here early in the present
century, but not to such an extent as to make any sensible
impression upon our native and comparatively ragged flocks.
The South-Downs took an early lead in our importations of Eng-
lish sheep, on account of their superior mutton properties. Forty
years ago the long wools came in to some extent, and as the
staple of their wool has become more in demand within the last
twenty years, they have been brought out in considerable num-
bers. The Enghsh and Scotch farmers of Upper Canada have
imported them in considerable numbers, for thirty years past, and
bred them in their highest quaUty and excellence, continually
reinforced by fresh arrivals from the best English flocks. Indeed,
many of the choicest long wools of the States have been obtained
from the Canadian border. Within a very few years, however,
several choice breeding animals have been selected from the best
Enghsh flocks, by our own enterprising breeders, at prices indi- ■
eating the high estimate placed upon them there ; sums ranging
as high as $500 to $1,000 have been paid for individual animals
brought to the United States. These liberal selections have been
induced not only for their superiority in flesh, but for the growing
demand for their fleeces, and their value for the improvement of
our own domestic flocks in those properties. It is not assuming '
too much to say that now, in both the United States and Canada,
SHEEP.
427
are to be found numerous long wooled sheep of equal quality and
value with any in Great Britain.
Breeding. — Like the South-Down, the long wooled ewe should
not breed till nineteen months old, to bring her first lamb at two
years. They are prolific, frequently bearing twins, and are
usually good nurses. It is hardly necessary to remark that the
most perfect rams should be selected as stock getters, and not
bred until at least eighteen or twenty months old, and for their
first breeding season used sparingly. Not more than fifty ewes
should be served by a young ram, and it is better that he be
confined with but a few at a time, and his breast be marked with
powdered red chalk mixed with oil, that his service may be shown.
Let in among a large fiock, when several ewes are in heat
together, the ram often confines his attention to a single ewe for
several continuous services, thus exhausting his vigor for no
benefit, and to the exclusion of others, when, by proper atten-
tion, he could serve many. It is better, indeed, unless rams be
plenty, that he be separated from the flock at night, put in a
stable and well fed on grain or other hearty food, as a quart of
oats and good hay, or its equivalent in ground Indian corn meal,
both night and morning. In such case, a ewe not in heat, or a
wether or two, should be put with him, as, without company, he
may not feed or drink well, being continually uneasy when alone.
The ewe goes with young about five months, varying from 145
to 162 days. Each flock-master will of course determine what is
the proper time for his lambs to -come. For early market, or
when there are few sheep, and those well looked after, they may
come while the ewes are in the yards, and provision can be made
for the progeny, by placing such as are heavy, in warm stalls.
Both the dam and young thus receive a closer attention than they
would in the field ; and afi^er a week's housing in severe weather,
the lamb may be turned out into the dry yard, wliere he will suf-
fer no more, apparently, than the full grown sheep. But with
large flocks, early lambing is attended with much trouble, and it
is generally avoided, by deferring it till the weather has become
428 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. j
more settled, and a full bite of grass will afford the dam a plen-
tiful supply of milk. Yet in this case, the young sheep must
daily be under the eye of the shepherd, who should see that they
are well supplied with food, and especially that they are brought
under cover in severe or stormy weather.
A ram will serve from twenty to one hundred ewes in a sea-
son, according to his age, health, feed, and management. A
South-Down or Long-Wool lamb of seven or eight months, is
sometimes used of necessity here, and when this is done, he should
be well fed, and allowed to run only with a very few ewes. If
full grown 'rams are turned into a lean pasture to remain with the
ewes, not less than four should be put in for every hundred. But
if a well-fed ram, in full health and vigor, is kept up, and led out
to the ewe as she comes into heat, and allowed to serve her once
only, he will suffice for one hundred, without injury to himself or
progeny. For this purpose the ram should be prepared, not by
being fat, for this, neither he nor the ewe should ever be; but by
being fed with grain for a short time before and during the con-
tinuance of the season. The ewes are more likely to come
quickly into heat, and prove prolific, if lightly fed with stimula-
ting food at the time. It is reasonably enough conjectured, that
if procreation and the first period of gestation takes place in cold
weather, the foetus will subsequently be fitted for the chmate
which rules during the early stages of its existence. If this be
so, and it is certainly in accordance with the laws of nature,
fine wooled sheep are most likely to maintain their excellence,
by deferring the connection of the male till the commencement
of cold weather; and in the northern states, this is done about
the first of December, which brings the yeaning time in the last
of April or first of May, when the early grass will afibrd a good
quality of feed.
Pare-hred sheep of different character, as the Long- Wools and
the South-Downs, or Merinos, should not be crossed or bred upon
each other except for mutton purposes, as such crosses for breed-
ing uses are almost worthless, giving no distinctness of character
SITEEP.
429
to their progeny, even when such progeny are used for crossing
on inferior varieties. The object of every flock-master, whether
he breed for mutton or for wool, if they be of an inferior race or
quahty, should be to raise the quality of his sheep. The Merino,
if kept at all, should be for wool, as the main object, and let the
mutton, if mutton be made of them at all, take care of itself.
They are not a mutton sheep^ compared with either of the proper
mutton breeds. Yet if the owner of them wants to turn them
into that hue, the South-Down ram only, of the mutton breeds,
should be used, as the larger Long- Wool rams make too violent
a cross, by their great size, on the diminutive carcasses of the
others. We have bred very passable mutton sheep in such way,
but would prefer the coarse native ewes, even for such an object.
The South-Down ewe should never be put to a Long- Wool
ram. The ewe, compact in form, and closely built, has not suf-
ficient room for a proper growth of the larger foetus, and is sub-
ject to great danger in yeaning. But reverse the order — the
South-Down ram to the Long- Wool ewe — such crossing, for
mutton purposes, may be made to great advantage. Her larger
breadth and size gives ample space to the expansion and growth
of the foetus, and a fine and perfect lamb is the product. So also
may the open, coarser boned common ewe be bred to either the
Long- Wool or South-Down ram, her elastic frame yielding to the
expansion of the larger foetus sufficiently to give it good growth
and nourishment. Two or three continuous crosses in this way,
breeding up the ewes thus produced to thorough-bred rams, soon
gives the essential quahties, both in fleece and flesh, of the full
blood to the ascending progeny. We have so bred them for
many years, getting up very good sheep from the most execra-
ble beginnings, on almost worthless common ewes, in two or three
generations. For market lambs, perhaps no more profitable way
can be practiced than to obtain as good common ewes as may be
selected, at a low price, using thorough-bred rams of either the
South-Down or Long- Wool breeds for the purpose. The com-
mon ewes are generally good nurses, and afl;er the lambs are dis-
430 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
posed o5 the ewes may be tolerably fatted in good pastures for
winter mutton, or still kept over for further breeding. Such
breeding, for market lambs, is a profitable business in the vicinity
of good markets, and may be followed to advantage.
Where mutton is in demand, and bears a good price, sheep
feeding is profitable — if of the mutton varieties. But they
should be chiefly fatted on grass. A lean sheep, when going
into winter quarters, can never pay for making flesh on grain
and hay. If of proper breed, he may be fed the season afl:er
two years old, and turned off to better profit than when kept
longer.
Winter Management and Food. — Sheep should be brought
into winter quarters soon after the severe frosts occur, as these
diminish the feed and materially impair its nutritious qualities.
They ought also to be removed from the grass lands before they
become permanently softened by the rains, as they will injuri-
ously affect their comfort and health; and it is equally objection-
able from their poaching the sod. If the number be large when
brought to the yards, they must be carefully divided into flocks
of one hundred or less, according to the size of the yards and
sheds. The young and feeble must be separated from the others,
and the aihng ones placed by themselves, and that no one may
suffer from the others, all should be classed as uniformly as
possible, as to strength. The yards must be dry, well supplied
with a trough of fresh water, and with comfortable sheds to
which they can retire when they choose. In snowy winters, if
water be not handy, snow wiU supply its place quite well
Shelters in northern chmates are indispensable to profitable
sheep raising, and in every latitude north of the Gulf of Mexico,
they would be advantageous. There is pohcy as weU as humanity
in the practice. An animal eats much less when thus protected ;
he is more thrifty, less liable to disease, and his manure is richer
and more abundant. The feeding may be done in the open yard
in clear weather, and under cover in severe storms. The shelters
for sheep are variously constructed, to suit the taste or circum-
SHEEP.
431
stances of the flock-master. Sheep barns built upon a side hill
will afford underground floors, surrounded by three sides of wall
and opening to the south, with sliding or swinging doors to guard
against storms, and sufficient storage for the fodder may be made
by scaffolds; or they may be constructed with twelve or fifteen
feet posts, on level ground, allowing them to occupy the lower
part, with the fodder stored above. In all cases, however,
thorough ventilation should he provided^ for of the two evils of
exposure to cold or too great privation of air, the former is to be
preferred. Sheep cannot long endure close confinement without
injury. In all ordinary weather, a shed, closely boarded on three
sides, with a close roof, is sufficient protection, especially if the
open side is shielded from bleak winds, or leads into a well
enclosed yard. If the apartment above is used for storage, the
floors should be made tight, that no hay, chaff or dust can fall
upon the fleece.
Racks or Mangers are indispensable to economical feeding.
If the hay is fed on the ground, the leaves and seeds, the most
valuable part of the fodder, are almost wholly lost, and when
wet, the sheep, in their restlessness while feeding, will tread much
of it into the mud. To make an economical box or rack, take
six light pieces of scantling, say three inches square, one for each
corner, and one for the center of each side. Boards of pine
or hemlock, twelve or fifteen feet long and twelve or fourteen
inches wide, may then be nailed on to the bottom of the posts
for the sides, which are separated by similar boards at the ends,
two and one-half feet long. Boards twelve inches wide, raised
above the lower ones by a space of nine to twelve inches, are
nailed on the sides and ends, which completes the rack. The
edges of the opening should be made perfectly smooth, to prevent
chafing the wool. The largest dimensions above given are suit-
able for the larger breeds, and the smallest for Merinos, and still
smaller are proper for their lambs. These should be set on dry
ground, or under the sheds, and they can easily be removed
whenever necessary. Some prefer the racks made with slats, or
432
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
smooth, upright sticks, in the form of the usual horse rack. There
is no objection to this, but it should always be accompanied by a
board trough affixed to the bottom, to catch the fine hay which
falls in feeding. These may be attached to the side of a building,
or used double. A small lamb requires fifteen inches of space,
and a large sheep two feet, for quiet, comfortable feeding, and at
least this amount of room should be provided around the racks
for every sheep.
Troughs may be variously constructed. The most economical
are made with two boards of any convenient length, ten to twelve
inches wide. Nail the lower side of one upon the edge of the
other, fastening both into a two or three inch plank, fifteen inches
long and a foot wide, notched in its upper edge in the form
required.
J^OOD. — There is no better food for sheep than good upland
hay, composed of the clovers and nearly all the cultivated grasses.
Bean and pea straw are valuable, and especially the former,
which, if properly cured, they prefer to the best hay; and it is.
well adapted to the production of wool. All the other straws
furnish a good food, and sheep will thrive on them without hay,
when fed with roots or grain. Roots ought to be given them
occasionally for a change, and especially to the ewes after lamb-
ing, if this occur before putting them on to fresh pasture. They
keep the stomach properly distended, the appetite and general
health good, and they render their winter forage nearly equal to
their summer feed. Much grain is not suited to store sheep. It
is too rich, and should be given sparingly, except to the lambs,
the old ewes or feeble sheep, or to restore the rams after hard
service. For the above purposes, oats are the best ; and if any
other grain, beans or peas are given, it should be in small quan-
tities. When there is a deficiency of hay and roots, grain may
be used with straw. But the flock ought to be so fed as to
receive the same amount of nourishment throughout every part
of the year. The evenness and value of the fleece depends much
upon this. When the amount of nutrition is great, the wool-
SHEEP.
433
secreting organs are distended, and the fiber becomes enlarged;
when Hrnited, they necessarily contract, and the fiber is small.
This produces a want of trueness, which the experienced wool
stapler readily detects, and does not fail to estimate against the
value of the fleece. Sheep ought to have a full supply of salt,
and, if accessible, sulphur, ashes, tar and clay would frequently
be nibbled by them when their stomach required either. Pine or
hemlock boughs are a good substitute for tar, and afford a most
healthful change in the winter food of sheep. Entire cleanhness
and dryness are also essential to the health of the flock. The
smaller sizes of sheep may be well sustained on two and a half
pounds of hay, but larger sheep will consume from three and a
half to four, or even five pounds per day. Sheep, like all other
animals, when exposed to cold, will consume much more than if
well protected, or than during a warmer season.
The care of the ewes with young ^ is an important consideration,
as the lamb is sometimes the only profit yielded by the flock, for
when fodder is high or wool low, the fleece will barely pay for
the food and attention. Pregnant ewes require the same food as
at all other times, but caution is necessary to prevent injury or
abortion, which is often the result of excessive fat, feebleness, or
disease. The first may be remedied by spare diet, and both the
last by restored health and generous food. Sudden fright, as
from dogs or strange objects, long or severe journeys, great exer-
tions, unwholesome food, blows in the region of the foetus, and
some other causes, produce abortion.
Yeaning, — Most flocks are turned into the pasture before
yeaning time, and the ewe is then lefii to nature, which is a good
practice, if she is healthy and the weather good. But a larger
number of lambs will be reared by a careful oversight of the
ewes and the use of proper precautions. As their time approaches,
which may be known by the springing of the udder and the
enlargement of the maternal parts, they should be put by them-
selves at night, in a warm stable, or with others in the same con-
dition, and well looked after, late and early in the day. They
19
434
AMEBICAN AGRICULTURE.
seldom need any assistance, nor should any be rendered, except
m case of wrong presentation, or feebleness in expelling the
foetus. In the former case, the shepherd may apply his thumb
and finger, after oiling, and push back the young, and assist in
gently turning it till the nose and .fore feet appear; and for the
latter, only the slightest aid should be rendered, and that to help
the throes of the dam.
Management of Lambs. — When lambing in the field, only a
few should be together, as the young sometimes get changed, and
the dams refuse to own them. This difficulty is generally obvia-
ted by holding the ewe till the lamb has sucked two or three
times, or they may be shut up together, and the lamb rubbed
with a httle fine salt. The lamb does not require nourishment
for some hours; but if the dam refuse to lick it as soon as it
appears, it must be carefully wiped dry. If the weather be cold
and the lamb is dropped in the field, the shepherd should be
furnished with large pockets or a weU-lined basket, in which it
must be placed till the ewe is brought to the shed. After the
first day or two, the udders ought to be completely drained of
their milk, by the hand, so as to prevent swollen or caked bag.
In case of deficiency of milk, the lamb may be supplied from a
new milk cow, by means of a sucking bottle with an air vent, or
it may draw a part of its nourishment from another ewe, which
can be held while the lamb is sucking. It is sometimes necessary
to substitute a foster-mother, in which case the ewe may be made
to own the lamb, by milking from her udder over the lamb and
under his tail, rubbing it on well; or rub the adopted lamb with
the entrails and contents of the stomach of the dead lamb, or
cover it with the skin. If the ewe proves a bad nurse, or it is
desirable to bring the lambs forward rapidly, they may be early
taught to eat boiled oats or other grain, cabbage, roots and tender
hay. Lambs should be well fed, as it is important to produce
size, constitution and perfection of form. The ewes and their
young ought to be divided into small flocks, and have good
pasture. Some careful shepherds adopt the plan of confining
SHEEP.
435
their lambs, and allow them to suck two or three times a day, by
which they suffer no fatigue and thrive much faster. But this
is troublesome and injurious, as the exercise is essential to the
health and constitution of the lamb intended for rearing. It is
admissible only when they are wanted for an early market, and
by those who keep sheep for this purpose, it is a common practice.
Castrating and Docking Lambs. — After selecting enough of
the choicest rams for stock getters, the castratmg may be per-
formed at any time between two and six weeks old, when the
f amb is in good health. A cool day should be chosen, or if warm,
it must be done early in the morning. The best method is for
one person to hold the lamb firmly between his arms, about
breast high as he stands, while another, with a sharp knife, cuts
off the low^r part of the scrotum. The testicles are then drawn
out till the spermatic cord is reached, which is gently pulled out
and cut with a sharp knife. It is sometimes done by simply
opening the scrotum, when the testicles and spermatic cord are
jerked out. This, however, is a severe and cruel way, and not
so safe as the other. The wound should then be rinsed with cold
water, after which apply lard. The operation of docking, is by
many deferred till a late period, from apprehension of too much
loss of blood; but if the weather be favorable and the lamb in
good condition, it may be performed at this time with the least
trouble and without injury. The tail should be laid upon the
plank, the person holding him in the same position as before.
With one hand he draws the skin towards the body, while the
other person, with a two inch chisel and mallet, strikes it off at a
blow between the bone joints, leaving it one and a half to two
inches long. The skin immediately sHps back over the wound
and is soon healed. Ewe lambs should be docked closer than
the rams. To prevent flies and maggots, and assist in healing,
it is well to apply an ointment composed of lard and tar, in the
proportion of four pounds of the former to one quart of the lat-
ter. Spirits of turpentine is more conveniently applied, and
equally good. This is also a good application for the scrotum.
436
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
The lambs should be carefully protected from cold and wet till
they are perfectly well.
Tagging or Clatting^ is the removal of such wool as is liable
to get fouled when the sheep are turned on to the fresh pastures,
and of course it should be done just before leaving their winter
quarters. It is most easily accomplished by placing the animal
on a low table, or a floor, or on the ground, or even standing,
another person holding it, till the operation is performed. All
the wool near the extremity of the sheath and the scrotum of
the males, from the udder of the ewes, and from the dock, and
below it, the inside of the thighs, and from the legs of the sheep,
should be removed.
Summer Management. — As soon as the warm weather
approaches and the grass appears, sheep become ^-restive and
impatient for the pasture. This instinct should be repressed till
the ground has become thoroughly dry, and the grass has
acquired substance. They ought, moreover, to be provided for
the change of food, by the daily use of roots for a few days before
turning out. It would also check the tendency to excessive purg-
ing, which is induced by the first spring feed, if they were housed
at night, and fed for the first' few days with a little sound, sweet
hay. Or, if a weU grown fall pasture be left the previous fall,
we have found it equally good, as the sheep feed off the old
grass, and the young herbage springing up through it, they grad-
ually work from one into the other, and thus get on to their sum-
mer food without detriment. They must be provided with pure
water, salt, etc., as in winter, for though they may sometimes do
tolerably well without either, yet thrift and freedom from disease
are cheaply secured by this slight attention. Dry, sweet pas-
tures, and such as abound in aromatic and bitter plants, are best
suited for sheep-walks. No animal, with the exception of the
goat, crops so great a variety of plants. They eat many which
are rejected by the horse and the ox, and which are even essen-
tial to their own wants. In this respect, they are valuable assist
ants to the husbandman, as they feed greedily on w41d mustard,
SHEEP.
437
burdocks, thistles, marsh-mallows, milk-weed and various other
offending plants; and the Merino exceeds the more recent breeds
in the variety of his selections. Many prepare artificial pastures
for their flocks. This may be done with a number of plants.
Winter rye or wheat sown early in the season, may be fed off in
the fall without injury to the crop; and in the following spring
the rye may be pastured till the stalks shoot up and begin to form
a head. This affords an early and nutritious food. Corn may
be sown broadcast or thickly in drills, and either fed off in the
fields, or cut and carried to the sheep in their folds. An experi-
ment made with white mustard for feeding sheep, is detailed
under the head of that article, which shows it to be a valuable
crop for this purpose. Sheep love a wide range, and when suf-
ficient pasturage is afforded, which always should be, it is better
to give them a steady feeding than to often change from dry to
green, flashy food, causing them to scour.
Washtn-g Sheep. — ^In most of that portion of the Union
- north of 40°, the washing is performed from the middle of Ma}?
to the tenth of June, aiscording to the season and climate. When
the streams are hard^ which frequently is the case in lime-stone
regions, it is better to do this immediately after an abundant rain,
by which the lime derived from the springs is proportionally less-
ened. The practice of a large majority of our farmers, is to
drive their sheep to the washing^ground, early in the morning of
a warm day, leaving the lambs behind. The sheep are confined
on the bank of the stream by a temporary enclosure, from which
they are taken, and if not too heavy, are carried into water suf-
ficiently deep to prevent their touching bottom. They are then
washed by gently squeezing the fleece with the hands, after
which they are led ashore, and as much of the water pressed out
as possible before letting them go, as the great weight retained
in the wool, frequently staggers and throws them down. A
good practice is to lead the sheep into the water and saturate the
fleece, after which they are taken ashore. When they commence
steaming^ they are again led into the water, and washed clean.
438
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
This insures thorough cleansing where water is pure. Others
make use of a shallow boat, or scow, one end of which rests
on a bold shore and the other is in deep water. The operator
stands in the boat and plunges the animal over the side where
the washing is performed; or it is sometimes done by sinking a
tight hogshead or large box in the running water, with heavy-
weights, in which a man stands, and the sheep are brought or led
to and from him by another person who walks on a platform
reaching from the bank to the vat. Either of the last methods
obviates the necessity of standing for a long time in water, by
which colds, rheumatism, etc., are frequently contracted. In
parts of Germany, and sometimes in this country, sheep are
forced to swim across a narrow stream several times, by which
the fleece is tolerably cleaned^ if all the water be pressed out
when they get to the land. The yolk being a saponaceous com-
pound, not an oily matter, as is generally supposed, it readily
combines with the water and passes out of the wool. An excel-
lent practice when streams are not convenient, is to lead a small
ripple of soft water into a tub. To this a little soap is added,
after which the sheep are immersed and thoroughly cleansed.
Perfect whiteness and purity of the fleece is readily obtained
afterwards, by throwing over the sheep a jet of water. This
practice has a good effect, in preventing or removing cuta-
neous disorders and destroying, ticks or other vermin. Many
good farmers object to washing sheep, from its tendency to pro-
duce colds and catarrhal affections, to which sheep are par-
ticularly subject; but it cannot well be dispensed with, as the
wool is always more salable, and if carefully done, need not be
attended with injury. Warm settled weather, however, is indis-
pensable to washing with safety to the general health of the
sheep.
SHEARiNa. — The manner of shearing varies with almost every
district ; but as this is an art to be acquired under a skillful mas-
ter, we shall omit particular details on the subject. First clip all
the tags and filth, if any remains or has been accumulated after
the tagging in the spring; then take off the fleece and spread it
SHEEP.
439
with the outside uppermost on a smooth bench or table, and push
the wool carefully together, to render it more compact; double
the sides over to the center ; throw the clean loose locks into the
middle, and roll together from each end. This makes a smooth,
dense package, which is secured by passing a stout twine one or
more times around the sides and ends. All the wool from the
extremities should be closely sheared and saved by it^self, before
dismissing the sheep, but never put up with choice fleeces. If
wounds are made^ which is sometimes the case with unskillful
operators, a mixture of tar and grease ought to be appHed.
After shearing, such horns and hoofs as are likely to be trouble-
some, should be sawed and pared. The branding or marking is
essential to distinguish them from other flocks, and this is done
by clipping a cut of some shape, or punching a hole or holes
through one or both ears, or painting on the shoulder, side or
rump. A brush or marking iron is used for this latter purpose,
with paint made of red lead or lamp black, to which a little spir-
its of turpentine is first added, and then diluted with linseed or
lard oil. If the weather be cool, and especially if severe storms
occur after washing or shearing, the flock should be housed. If
sultry, they should have a cool, shady retreat, where they will
be shielded from the flies and heat. Bhsters and permanent
injury to the skin and fleece, are frequently the result of such
exposure. Shade trees in their pastures, contribute much to the
comfort of sheep, when exposed to a blazing sun. A close
examination of the skin should be made at shearing, for the
detection of disease or vermin.
Smearing, or salving sheep, is a custom little practiced in
this country. For cold, elevated and exposed situations, it may
be necessary, and it is generally adopted in Scotland. The object
is to prevent cutaneous diseases and vermin, and furnish addi-
tional warmth and protection to the fleeces of such breeds as are
deficient in yolk. It is usually performed the latter part of Octo-
ber, but is sometimes done immediately after shearing. The
mixture or salve consists of tar and butter or grease, in difierent
proportions; one gallon of the former to twelve, or sometimes
440 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 1
twenty pounds, of the latter; the greater proportion of tar being
required for the younger sheep, or for more exposed situations.
The grease is melted over the jSre, and the tar stirred in, and
when sufficiently cool, it is appHed to the whole body of the
sheep, by carefally parting the wool and rubbing it on the skin
with the fingers. The above quantity is sufficient for thirty or
fifty sheep, according to their size and the character of the wool.
This application is not required for fine-wooled sheep, whose
fleeces are more appropriately protected by a natural secretion of
yolk; - and it is better to omit it in all cases, where the health and
comfort of the animal do not render it absolutely essential. Mr
Stewart, an experienced Scotch sh^herd, uses only tallow and '
train oil, mixed in equal proportions. He asserts that the
improvement in the growth and quality of the wool is at least
one-third, and it materially benefits the condition of the sheep
We have seldom, or never, known it practiced in this country.
Weaning. — The lambs may be weaned at about three and
a half to four months old. They should be put upon rich, sweet
feed, but not too luxuriant ; while the dams are turned upon the
poorest, and so remote from their young, as to be out of sight
and hearing. The ewes ought to be carefully examined after a
ii day or two, and if necessary, the milk removed with the hand.
If it continues to accumulate, the ewe may be fed on hay for a
few days. When thoroughly dried off, they should have the
best fare to recover condition for subsequent breeding and win-
tering. The fall is a critical period to lose flesh, either for sheep
or lambs ; and if any are found deficient, they should be at once
provided for by extra^feed and attention. If cold weather over-
takes them poor, or in ill health, they will scarcely outhve it; or
if by chance they survive, their emaciated carcass, impaired con-
stitution, and scant fleece will illy repay the food and attention
they will have cost.
The time for taking sheep from the pastures must depend on
the state of the weather and food. Severe frosts destroy much
of the nutriment in tlie grasses, and they soon after cease to
4
SHEEP.
441
afford adequate nourishment. Long exposure to cold storms upon
such lands, with such food to sustain them, will rapidly reduce
their condition. The only safe rule is to transfer them to their
winter quarters the first day they cease to thrive abroad. Draft-
ing the flock for the purpose of ridding it of the supernumeraries,
should be done at an earlier day. Such of the wethers as have
attained their prime, and those ewes that have passed it, ought
to be withdrawn soon after shearing, provided with the best
feed, and rapidly fitted for the shambles. If they have been
properly pushed on grass, they will be in good flesh by the time
they are taken from it, and if not intended for stall-feeding, the
sooner they are then disposed of the better. Stall-feeding will
be lost on an ill-shaped, unthrifty beast. The perfection of form
and health, and the uniform good condition which characterize the
thrifty one, indicate too plainly to be misunderstood, those which
will best repay the care of their owner. The selection of any
indifferent animal for stall-fattening, will inevitably be attended
with loss, and they had better at once be disposed of when first
brought from the pasture, for the most they will bring.
Management of Sheep for the Prairies. — "When destined
for the prairies, they ought to commence the journey as early
after shearing as possible. They are then disencumbered of their
fleece, and do not datcli and retain as much dust as when driven
later. Feed is also generally better, and the roads are dry and
hard. Young and healthy sheep should be selected, with early
lambs ; or if the latter are too young, and the distance great, they
should be left and the ewes dried ofi*. A large wagon ought to
accompany the flock, to carry such as occasionally give out; or
they may be disposed of whenever they become enfeebled.
With good care, a hardy flock may be driven at the rate of
twelve or fourteen miles a day. Constant watchfulness is requi-
site to keep them healthy and in good plight. One-half the
expense of driving may be saved by the use of well-trained shep-
herd dogs. When arrived at their destination, they should, if
possible, be thoroughly washed, to free them from all dirt, and
19*
442
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
closely examined as to any diseases they may have contracted,
which if discovered, should be promptly removed. A variety of
suitable food and good shelter must be provided, for the autumn,
winter, and spring ensuing, and every necessary attention given
them. This would be necessary if indigenous to the country ;
how much more so, when they have just undergone a campaign,
to which neither they nor their race have been accustomed.
Sheep cannot be kept on prairie lands without much care,
artificial food and proper attention ; and in a false system of
economy, hitherto attempted by many, losses have occurred from
disease and mortahty in the flocks sufficient to have made ample
provision for the comfort and security of twice the number saved.
More especially do they require proper food and attention, after
the first severe frosts set in, which wither and kill the natural
grasses. By nibbling at the /o^, (the frost bitten, dead grass,)
they are inevitably subject to constipation, which a bountiful
supply of roots, sulphur, etc., are alone sufficient to remove.
Roots, grain and good hay, straw or cornstalks, pea or bean vines,
are essential to the preservation of their health and thrift during
the winter, any where north of 40°. In summer, the natural
herbage is sufficient to sustain them in fine condition, till they
shall have acquired a denser population of animals, when it will
be found necessary to stock their meadows with the best varieties
of artificial grasses.
The dry and roUing prairies seem adapted to the usual varieties
of sheep introduced into the United States; and of such are the
flocks made up, according to the taste or judgment of the owners.
Shepherd dogs are invaluable to the owners of flocks, both as
preventives against the small prairie wolf, which prowls around
the flock, but which are rapidly thinning off by the settlers; and
also as assistants to the shepherds in driving and herding their
flocks on the open ground. The vast stretch of prairie and open
lands now opening in the new States and Territories west of the
Missouri river, will probably, in time, become among the mOst
profitable sheep ranges of the United States.
SHEEP.
443
SHEPHERD DOGS.
Of these there are two widely distinct breeds. One embraces
the large Spanish dog and their descendants, the Mexican, and
some other varieties, which are of a size, strength and courage
sufacient to defend the flock against wolves or other formidable
enemies. They are frequently inclined to be ferocious, and will
sometimes commit depredations on the flocks themselves. They
are only necessary where there is danger from wild beasts and
prowHng dogs, against which, if thoroughly trained, they are
always an efficient protection. The smaller kind is invaluable for
assisting the shepherd in bringing in his sheep, keeping them
within any required compass, driving them from place to place,
and giving signal of danger. There are numerous sub-varieties,
of different sizes; some with long tails, others without any; some
smooth-haired, but more generally shaggy or long-haired. Each
of these have a natural instinct for the management of sheep,
and, if properly educated, will seldom fail to answer every rea-
sonable wish of their masters. Unless sheep are confined in
small pastures, and are so familiar and manageable as to come
readily at call, the use of the sheep dog will save much of the
shepherd's time. He has the intelhgence of a man in compre-
hending the wants of the shepherd, and is vastly more efficient in
bringing them together, or driving on the road and keeping them
separate from other flocks. Sheep soon get accustomed to them,
and, without being alarmed by their presence, they learn to regard
them as guides, whom they most impHcitly obey. All the above
varieties have been imported, and the smaller ones are now
extensively bred in this country.
CHAPTER XVIII
THE HOKSE.
In nearly all ages and countries, the horse has been the devoted
servant and the object of the pride and affection of man. Among
the semi-civilized Tartars of middle and northern Asia, the abo-
rigines of our remote western prairies, reaching even beyond the
Bockj mountains, and some other rude nations, his flesh is used
for food. Many tribes among the former use the milk for domes-
tic purposes, and especially when fermented and changed to an
unpleasantly sour and intoxicating beverage. But throughout
the civilized world, with some shght exceptions, the horse is
useful only for his labor. For this purpose he is pre-eminently
fitted by his compact, closely knit frame ; his sinewy, muscular
hmbs ; his easy, rapid stride ; his general form and entire structure
and habits. He is found in his wild condition in central Asia,
Siberia, and the interior of Africa, and for three hundred years
he has been turned loose to follow his native instincts on the
inimitable pampas of South America and the wide-spread prairies
of Mexico and California. In all these regions he closely resem-
bles the medium varieties of the domesticated horse, but, as the
ng^tural result of his freedom, he possesses more fire and spirit
than any other, except the blood horse.
Arabig. is generally claimed as the original native locality of
the horse, and as the orijy source from which he is to be derived
in the requisite perfection for the highest improvement of the
race. But Strabo, who wrote more than eighteen hundred years
ago, asserts that the horse did not then flourish in Arabia, and it
was not till some centqries later that he attained any decided
THE IIOESE.
445
superiority there. Gfreat attention, however, has been paid in
that country, since the era of Mahomet, to the possession of a
hght, agile and enduring frame, intelh'gence and tractabihty of
character, and the perpetuation of these qualities, by the most
scrupulous regard for the purity of blood. This is equally true
of the Barb, or pure-bred horse of Morocco, and those of the
northern coast of Africa, in Egypt, among the Turks, and indeed
wherever the followers of the Prophet are to be found. It is
unquestionable that the influence of the Eastern blood among the
choicest animals of modern Europe has been followed by great
improvements in racing stock. Yet it is equally certain that the
race horse, both of England and the United States, has accom-
plished what has never been demonstrated as within the ability
of their progenitors; and on repeated trials with the Eastern
horses, he has shown himself confessedly their superior in speed,
strength and endurance.
The experience of Eastern blood in this country, in compari-
son with the best Enghsh, is decidedly in favor of the latter.
We have had one horse of unsurpassed excellence, which a
fortunate accident threw upon our shores a short time previous
to 1770. This was the white Barb, Ranger^ which was presented
by the Emperor of Morocco, as the_ choice of his stud, to an
English naval officer, for some distinguished service. On his
route homeward, the animal was set on shore for exercise at an
intermediate port, where, in his gambols, he broke three of his
legs, and, thinking him worthless, his owner gave him to the
commander of a New England merchantman, then present. He
was readily accepted, and placed in shngs on board of his vessel,
and recovered. This animal stood for many years in the eastern
part of Connecticut, and on their good mares produced a numer-
ous progeny of unrivalled cavalry horses, which rendered inval-
uable service in the troop commanded by that consummate
partisan. Captain (afterwards General) Lee, of the revolution. It
is said the favorite w^hite field-horse of General Washington was
of the same stock. He was afterwards sold to Captain Lindsey,
446
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
as a special favor, and taken to Virginia, where lie produced
some good racers. Bussorah, a small sorrel horse, brought into
this country from the head of the Persian Gulf, in 1819, then five
years old, got many choice roadsters, though few if any racers.
The Narraganset pacers, a race belonging to our Eastern States,
but for many years almost extinct, possessed for a long time an
unrivalled reputation for spirit, endurance, and easy, rapid motion
under the saddle; and they are said to have originated from a
Spanish horse, many of which are pure descendants of the Barb.
As an offset to these isolated examples of success in this country,
we have numerous instances of the importation of the best
Orientals, which have been extensively used on some of our
superior mares, without any marked effect. We shall refer to
three prominent importations only. The first consisted of two
choice Arabians, or Barbs, selected in Tunis by General Eaton,
and sent to his estate in Massachusetts. The second was a present
of four choice Barbs from the Emperor of Morocco to our gov-
ernment, in 1830 ; and the third consisted of two Arabians, sent by
the Imaum of Muscat, near the Persian Gulf, to our government,
in 1839 or '40. These were all claimed to be, and no doubt
were, of the pure Kochlani, the unadulterated line royal; yet
none have earned any distinguished reputation. Some years ago,
about 1857 or '8, two choice Arabian horses were sent from
Africa, a present to Gov. Seward, of New York. They were
bred to many mares in different parts of that State, during four
or five successive years, and some good colts got by them, but
they failed to get anything of distinguished value — not at all
equal to many of the American-bred horses.
It is to England we are mainly indebted for the great improve-
ment in our blood, road and farm horses. A numerous race of
fine horses were reared on that Island, long previous to any
authentic history of it ; for in his first invasion, Julius Caesar took
many of them to Rome, where they immediately became great
favorites, although this mistress of half the known world had
already plundered every region of some of their best breeds.
THE HORSE.
447
What might have been the particular merit of the English horse
at the time of the Norman invasion, is not known, but it is cer-
tain that the Saxon cavalry under Harold, were speedily over-
powered by William, at the battle of Hastings, which at once
secured the throne to the Conqueror. History first informs us of
the improvement of British horses, by importations from abroad
during this reign, which consisted of a number of Spanish stal-
lions. These were supposed to be strongly imbued with the Ara-
bian or African blood, which had been brought over to that coun-
try by the Moors, who had founded the Saracenic empire in the
Peninsula, three centuries before. More than a century later,
King John made some importations from Flanders, to give
weight and substance to their draught and cavalry horses. The
improvement of their various . breeds, was afterwards pursued
with more or less judgment and zeal, by other British mon-
archs, till they reached their highest excellence during the mid-
dle of the last century. Flying Childers, Eclipse, Highflyer, and
others on the course, have probably exceeded in speed anything
ever before accomplished ; while the draught horse, the roadster,
the hackney, the cavalry horse and the hunter, attained a merit
at that time, which some good authorities claim, has not been
since increased. It is even asserted, that some of the more serv-
iceable breeds have been seriously injured by too great an infu-
sion of the blood; while the almost universal absence of long
heats on the turf, has tended to the improvement of speed rather
than bottom in the race horse.
The improvement of the horse in this country, has not been a
matter of record or history, till within a comparatively recent
period. But it has silently, and with no little rapidity been
going forward, for more than a century, till we have attained a
race of animals, throughout the Eastern and Middle States at least,
which probably equal those of any other country for adaptedness
to draught, the road and the saddle. This improvement has been
mainly brought about^ by the importation of some of the test and
stoutest of the English hlood. In breeding from these for pur-
448
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
poses of utility, particular reference has been paid to strength,
endurance and speed. No horses surpass our best four naile
pacers ; none equal our trotters. The world has not seen their
equal. It was not many years ago that a mile in three minutes
was thought a prodigious speed for a horse; but in the year 1867,
Dexter trotted his mile in two minutes seventeen seconds, and it
is contended that he can even do better than that surprising feat.
Though much inequality exists in those bred for our various other
uses, yet for profitable service, it is believed, no equal number of
animals elsewhere, can excel those in the region above indicated.
It would be a superfluous task to attempt enumerating all tlie
imported horses that have contributed to this improvement.
Each good animal has done something. But among the earlier
horses which may be named with distinction, as having effected
much for our useful beasts, are Lath, Wildair, Slender, Sour-
krout, Tally-ho, Figure, Bay Richmond, Expedition, Baronet,
and a host of others. Pre-eminent among these, w^as imported
Messenger. He was foaled in 1780, imported in 1788, and died
in 1808. He stood in different places in New Jersey; and in
Duchess, Westchester and Queens counties in New York; and
upon the mares derived from the foregoing and other good horses,
he got a numerous progeny of illustrious descendants. Of these,
we may name those capital stallions, Potomac, Hamiltonian, Bay
Figure, Engineer, Mambrino, Tippoo Saib, Columbus, Gunn's,
and Bushe's Messenger, and many others, which were exten-
sively disseminated over the Northern and Middle States ; and he
has the credit of imparting a large share of his merits to his
grandson, that nonpareil of horses, American Eclipse, and through
Eclipse to his later posterity of the present day. His descend-
ants were so numerous and widely spread, that it may be safely
asserted, that of the best horses bred in the above States, scarcely
one can now be found which does not trace one or more crosses
to his distinguished sire. His success in producing roadsters,
besides his blood qualities of speed and endurance, consisted in
his great strength and the peculiar formation of his limbs, large
THE HORSE.
449
forehand and deep quarters, in which he excelled any other of the
imported bloods. Later horses, as Lexington, Kentucky, (reared
in Kentucky,) and others of recent years, have kept the high repu-
tation of their sires. The United States has now, probably, as
good blood horses as the world can show.
As an illustration of what may be accomplished by judicious
breeding with the present materials in our hands, we mention one
family of the American roadster, which is strongly tinctured with
blood, and which has attained an enviable notoriety among the
choicest of the Northern horses. They are derived from the
Morgan horse of Vermont, that was foaled in Springfield, Mass.,
in 1793. He was got by True Briton, (supposed to have been
bred by Gen. Delancey of New York, and got by imported
Wildair,) or one of his sons, a horse of such distinguished excel-
lence, as to have been re-exported to England for the benefit of
his stock. The Morgan horse stood in Vermont from 1795 till
his death, at an advanced age. From him and the choice mares
of Vermont, descended many excellent colts ; and his merits were
inherited in an eminent degree by three of his sons, which stood
in the same state and continued the career of improvement com-
menced by the sire. The result was the production of a family
of roadsters, of much similarity of appearance* and uniformity
of character, unsurpassed by any others of their size for service-
able qualities. They were of medium size, from thirteen and a
half to fifteen hands high; with a well-formed head and neck;
.high withers; deep chest; round body; short back; long quar
ters; broad flat legs; moderately small feet; long wavy mane
and tail ; presenting altogether the beau ideal of the road horse.
They are spirited, docile, hardy, and easily kept. They have an
easy, rapid trot, and glide along with a good load, without clat
ter or apparent effort, at the rate of ten or twelve miles an hour.
This family of horses — for they are not a Ireed^ being chiefly of
*M any of the Morgan horses have shown the steep rump and heavy breast and
neck, which indicates a Norman cross on the side of their dams, which has been
largely imported through the French horse in the adjoining Canadian settlements ;
but none of these points are said to have characterised the founder of the race.
450
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
local rearing in the hilly regions of northern New England — •
gained considerable celebrity for a time ; yet they ceased to be
"Morgans" when taken to the milder climates and richer soils
west and south of Vermont, as they gained larger size on the
heavier pastures and more stimulating food of the richer lands.
With all their fine qualities of look and action, they proved too
small for the main purposes demanded of a thorough-going
business horse, and have measurably gone out of fashion. They
are mentioned, merely as a type of what the serviceable roadster
ought to be, and what he may become by the use of the proper
instrument for breeding. And if the materials already in our
hands are intelligently and perseveringly used, we can produce
all we require of horseflesh.
Besides our unsurpassed blood horses, we have others derived
from various sources, and especially from the different English
breeds, all of which are variously compounded, with the first and
with each other. On our north-eastern frontier, the Canadian
prevails, a bastard but not degenerate race, made up of the
French Norman and the English or American. At the extreme
south and west, we have the horse of Spanish origin, obtained in
his domestic state in Florida and Louisiana ; and from another
branch of the Spanish, are descended the wild horses of Mexico
and the more northern prairies. These are diversified in character,
and generally possess medium size and merit. The Conestoga, s.
heavy roadster, and draught horse of fine symmetry, and great
power, is principally reared in Pennsylvania, and is used for the
team and truck. He is an amalgamation of several breeds, but
probably owes a share of his character to the Flemish horse, for
which there was a decided partiality among the numerous Ger-
man emigrants of that State. Several varieties of ponies are to
be found in different sections, but principally among the French,
the half-breed, and the Indians upon the frontiers, who have bred
a stunted race from the Canadian or wild horse, and such others
as could survive the hard usage and scanty winter food, afforded
by nature and their rude husbandry. Many of these have con-
THE HORSE.
451
siderable beauty and symmetry, and are fleet, hardy and spirited.
The modern Norman^ or mixture of the old French Norman
draught horse, (heavy framed, big limbed, but stout and hardy,)
and the Andalusian, a descendant of the Moorish Barbs, has
been introduced within a few years, and will unquestionably
become approved as a useful and serviceable animal for many
purposes. He exhibits the qualities of both ancestry in the
proper proportions for farm service. He has a thick head ; lively,
prick ears ; short, heavy neck ; large breast and shoulder ; strong
limbs ; well knit back ; large quarters, with much wavy mane, tail
and fetlock. Like his French progenitor, he frequently stands
low in the withers, which enables him to throw great weight into
the collar ; and the diminished, flattened leg, the wind and game
derived from his Moorish blood, give him much of the capacity
and endurance of the •thorough-bred. The Percheron^ another
variety of the French draught horse, has also been lately im-
ported, and may prove valuable in imparting additional good
qualities to our heavier style of horses. The English cart horse,
of which the Suffolk Punch is the finest specimen we have seen,
and the Clydesdale, from Scotland, brought into Upper Canada,
have made up some of the best heavy dray horses in the coun-
try, and late importations have refreshed the breed with additional
choice specimens. The Cleveland hay, a large and heavy coach
horse, has been introduced of late, but not bred to any extent
of superior excellence. The Norfolk trotter, Belfounder, was
imported many years ago, and with our high-bred mares, he
produced many choice roadsters and trotters.
The remainder of our horse-flesh deserving of any notice is
chiefly composed of such as are superior in point of blood and
merit. The improvement in the American horse is conspicuous
and decided. Judicious breeders have obtained qualities in the
descendants which they sought for in their imported sires, and the
infusion of some of the stoutest of the blood is rapidly gaining
an ascendancy in the general stock; and we are confident our
intelhgent agriculturists will not permit this to proceed to an
452
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
exterlt that may be prejudicial to their value as draught horses,
as has been done in some portions of England and our Southern
States. There is no danger from excess of blood, if it be of the
right kind; but it is seldom found combining that fullness and
stoutness, and that docility and tractableness of disposition which
are essential to the gig horse or the horse of all work. Youatt
says truly, that "the road horse may possess different degrees of
blood, according to the nature of the country and the work
required of him ; (he might have added with propriety, and
according to the character of the Mood.) His legs will be too
slender ; his feet too small ; his stride too long, and he will rarely
be able to trot. Three parts or half, (of the thorough-bred,)
and for the horse of all work, even less than that will make a
good and useful animal." For the saddle only, the high-bred
is never objectionable to an enterprising alid accomplished' rider,
if not disposed to be vicious. His long, elastic pasterns give
easy, flexible motions ; his quick and almost electrical obedience
when under thorough discipline; his habitual canter and high
spirit always commend him for this purpose.
Some of the prominent external points of a fine saddle or huggy
horse are, a moderately small head, free from fleshiness ; fine
muzzle and expansive nostrils; broad at the throat and wide be-
tween the eyes, which denotes intelligence and courage ; a dished
face indicates high breeding, and sometimes viciousness ; a convex
or Roman nose frequently betokens the reverse; the ears rather
long, yet so finely formed as to appear small, and playing quickly
like those of a deer; and the eyes clear, full and confident, with
a steady forward look. Glancing them backward or askance with
a sinister expression, and with none or only a slight movement of
the head, is indicative of a mischievous temper. The neck should
be handsomely arched, and fine at the junction with the head,
while the lower extremity must be full and muscular, and well
expanded at the breast and shoulders. The latter ought to be
high and run well back; the withers strong, firmly knit and
smooth ; the breast even in front, of medium width, and supported
THE HORSE.
453
hy a pair of straight fore-legs, standing well apart. The chest
should be deep and the girth large; the body full, and not drawn
up too much in the flank; the back short, and the hips gathered
well towards the withers; the loins wide and rising above the
spine ; the ribs springing nearly at right angles from the back,
giving roundness to the body. The hips ought to be long to the
root of the tail, and the latter may approach to near the line of
the back, which is a mark of good breeding. Both the thigh
and hock should be large and muscular; and between the hock,
or knee, and pastern, the legs. should be broad, flat and short; the
hind legs properly bent, and all well placed under the body; the
pasterns of moderate length, and standing shghtly obhque; the
hoof hard, smooth, round before, and wide at the heel; the frog
large and sound; and the sole firm and concave. A white hoof
is generally tender, easy to fracture and to lame, and difficult to
hold a shoe.
The draught horse ought to differ from the foregoing, in show-
ing greater compactness, a heavier and shorter neck, a wider and
stouter breast, and lower withers, so as to throw the utmost
weight into the collar; a heavier body and quarters, larger legs
and feet, and more upright shoulders and pasterns ; yet he should
be- full and round in the body, and carry a face of docility and
intelligent exjDression.
Considerations which affect the Value of the Horse. — The
color is not material, provided it be not pied or mealy. No better
color for horses can be found than the dark bay^ or brown, with
black mane, tail and legs. Chestnut is also an admirable color.
But most of the other colors are frequently found with the best
horses. Hard-mouthed horses, when accompanied with great
spirits, are objectionable, as they require pecuhar bitting and the
utmost vigilance. The paces and action of a horse are important,
for if good, they give a much greater capacity for performance.
Some of these depend on form and structure, and are unchange-
able; others are the result of breaking. All horses should be
taught to walk fast, as it is their easiest and most economical
454
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
pace, and it will help them over a great deal of ground in a day,
even with a heavy load, and with comparatively little effort. A
horse that steps short and digs his toes into the ground, is worth-
less as a traveler, and suited only to a ferry boat or bark mill.
It is important that a horse be good tempered. If inchned to
viciousness, he should be gently yet firmly managed when it is
first apparent. A resort to great severity will be justified, if
necessary to conquer him; for if once allowed to become a habit,
it will be difficult to cure him. Grooms and mischievous stable
boys frequently do much injury by their idle tricks with horses,
and when detected, they should be discharged at once. Some
horses are nervous, easily excited, and start at every unusual
noise or object. Others are restive and fretful, and ever anxious
to be on the move. Kindness, and firm., yet mild treatment, by
which their motions and will are at all times controlled, and their
confidence secured, are the only remedies. Others are inclined to
sluggishness. These should have stimulating food, and never be
overloaded or overworked, and then kept well to their paces.
Whatever they are capable of performing, can in this way onlv
be got from them. Habit has great influence with animals, as
with man ; and when within the compass of his ability, he may
be habituated to any reasonable physical exertion. More horses
are ruined by unskillful breaking and overwork when under six
years old, than in any other way. A horse ought never to be
put to full work before seven years old.
Breeding. — Agreeably to the general principles before enu-
merated, such animals should be selected as most eminently
possess those points which it is desired to propagate, and these
they should not only exhibit in themselves, but should inherit as
far as possible from a long line of ancestry. For the perpetua-
tion of particular points in progeny, it would be safer to rely on
the latter quahty than the former. The selection of a mare, rela-
tively larger than the horse, is an important rule in breeding, and
it is beheved that much of the success of Arabian and other
Eastern horses as stock-getters, has resulted from the application
THE HORSE.
455
of this principle. Thej possess valuable traits, but condensed
within too small a compass. When such an animal is put to a
well-bred, larger mare, the foetus has abundance of room and
nourishment to develop and perfect the circumscribed outlines of
the male parent, and acquire for itself increased volume and char-
acter. The horse ought not to be less than four or five, and the
mare one year older before being put to breeding. It would be
still better to defer it for two or three years, or till the frame is
fully matured. A mare intended for breeding should never be
highly fed on grain, nor overworked ; or if they have been so, a
previous run of some months on grass, or hay without grain,
should be allowed to put them into natural condition.
The gestation of the mare sometimes varies from forty-four to
fifty-six weeks, but she usually goes with young from forty-seven
to fifty ; and it is advisable she should take the horse at a time
^which will ensure the foaling when the weather is settled, and
there is a fresh growth of grass. She will be the better for hght
working till near the time of foaling, if well, but not too abund-
antly fed. In a few days after this, she may resume moderate
labor; and if not in the way or troublesome, the foal may run with
her; but if she is exposed to heating, it should be confined till
she cools, as suckling then is decidedly injurious to it. The mare
is in danger of slinking her foal from blows and over exertion,
the use of smutty grain, foul hay, or offensive objects of smell;
and when this has once occurred, which happens usually in the
fourth or fifth month, she should afterwards be generously fed at
that period, and only moderately worked. When liable to slink-
ing, the mare should be removed from others in foal, lest a pecul-
iar sympathy should excite an epidemic. The mare comes in heat
from nine to eleven days after foaling, when she should be put to
the horse, if it be desirable to have a colt the following season.
She comes round at intervals of about nine days each.
Management of the (7oZ^.— The colt may be weaned when five
to seven months old, and preparatory to this, while with the
mare, may be taught to feed on fine hay, meal or oats. When
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AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
taken away, lie should be confined beyond a hearing distance of
the dam, and plentifully supplied with rowen or aftermath hay,
mashed or ground oats, or wheat shorts. It is economy to pro-
vide a warm shelter through the inclement season for all animals,
and especially for colts, which with .all other young, should have
an abundance of nutritious food. They will thus grow evenly
and rapidly, and attain a size and stamina at two years old, they
would not otherwise have acquired at three. Every colt should
be thoroughly halter broken during the winter before a year old.
He will be all the easier managed afterwards.
Castrating. — The colt should be altered at about one or one
and a half years old, but if thin in the neck and light before, the
operation may be deferred to a year later. Few of the French
diligence and farm horses, and scarcely any of the Oriental, are
ever castrated. They are thought to be more hardy and endur-
ing ; but the slight advantage they may possibly possess in thi^
respect, would illy compensate for the trouble and inconvenience
arising from their management. The operation should be per-
formed late in the spring or early in autumn, while the weather
is mild. If in high condition, the animal should be well physicked.
The easiest, safest and most convenient way is to cast him by
ropes on his legs. The scrotum should be opened on both sides
and the testicles cut, or rather the cord scraped off, and tied,
which prevents much bleeding. The wound may be dressed with
a little lard ; then turn him loose in a pasture which has a shelter
from sun, wind or rain. Docking is practiced by many, but
merely to gratify an absurd and cruel caprice, without a single
advantage, and the animal is better in every respect with the tail
unmutilated. Nicking is an inhuman custom, and now unfash-
ionable. We omit any description of it. It has been in and out
of fashion for several years together since our recollection.
Breaking. — While feeding in the stable, the colt should be
gently treated, and accustomed to the halter and bit, which pre-
pares him for breaking. If permitted to run with the others
while at work, he becomes famiharized to it, and w^hen harnessed
THE HORSE.
457
by the side of some of his well trained mates, he considers his
disciphne rather a privilege than a task. The colt may be taken
in hand for breaking at three, and thoroughly broken to light
work at four, but should not be put to hard service till six or
seven. A due regard to humanity and sound judgment, in thus
limiting the burthen in his early years, will save much disease
and sufifering to the animal, and profit the owner by his unim-
paired strength and prolonged life. The annual loss from neglect-
ing this precaution is enormous, which might be entirely avoided,
by less eagerness to grasp the substance, while as yet the shadow
only is within reach. Many animals are thus broken down at
twelve, and are in their dotage at fifteen, while others of good
constitution, if well treated, perform hard service till thirty.
Longevity of the Horse. — Mr. Percival mentions one that died
at sixty-two. Mr. Mauran, of New York, had a fine gig and
saddle horse, which was, in his forty-fifth year, sound, spirited and
playful as a kitten. He was of a dark brown with a tanned nose.
"We never saw a horse with a buff or bear muzzle, that had not
great endurance. American Eclipse successfully covered mares
in Kentucky at the age of thirty-one, the result of late and fight
service till his sinews became fully matured. "We knew a large,
compact, flea-bitten horse, thirty years old, at work, dragging a
heavy load in a single cart, which was formerly used as a coach
horse, and apparently sound and vigorous. The writer worked
a noble family carriage horse, of his own breeding, from five until
twenty-eight years old ; and a better, truer, honester, more spir-
ited, docile, intelHgent animal, never looked through a bridle.
His death bereft us of an old and dear friend.
Feeding. — The vigor and duration of the horse depend much
on proper feeding. Like the cow and sheep, his natural and
proper aliment is the grasses, grain and roots. In the middle and
northern sections of the country, his dry forage is almost invari
ably good meadow hay, generally timothy, which is the richest
of the cultivated grasses. At the South, this is often supplied
by the blades of Indian corn. But in all the States, a great
458
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
variety of the grasses and clover are used. When put to hard
labor, grain ought always to accompany hay in some form. Of
the different kinds of grain, oats are peculiarly the horse's food,
and they are always safe, digestible and nutritive. Barley is the
best substitute for it. Wheat and Indian corn are sometimes
given, but either, alone, are unsuitable; the first is too concen-
trated, and the last too heating. They ought to be sparingly
used, and only when ground. The offal of wheat, as shorts, or
bran, is excellent, particularly when mixed with about one-third
Indian corn meal. Grain is always more advantageously fed
when ground or crushed, and wet some time previous to eating ;
and it is still better when cooked. On both sides of the Medi-
terranean, in the Barbary States, in Spain, France and Italy,
much of the food is given in small baked cakes, and the saving
in this way is much greater than the expense of preparing it.
When confined to dry food, roots or apples fed once a day, are
always beneficial. They keep the bowels open, the appetite and
general health good, and contribute largely to the nutriment of
the animal. Carrots are the best of the roots, as besides giving
muscle and working power, they more than any other, improve
the wind and remove all tendency to heaves. They have even
been found effectual in curing an obstinate cough. By many of
the keepers of livery stables, they are always used, for which
purpose they command the same price as oats. Potatoes, pars-
nips, beets and Swedes turnips, in the order mentioned, are next
to be preferred. Potatoes are improved by cooking. Mixtures
of food are best, as of cut hay, meal and roots. Old horses, or
such as are put to hard labor, will do much better if their food
be given in the form easiest of digestion. No inconsiderable
part of the vital power is exhausted by the digestion of dry, raw
food. Horses ought to be fed, and if possible, exercised or
worked regularly, but never on a full stomach. This is a fre-
quent cause of disease, and especially of broken wind. If
their food is given at the proper time, and the horse be allowed
to finish it at once, without expecting more, he will lie down
THE HOESE.
459
quietly and digest it. This will be much more refreshing to him,
than to stand at the rack or trough, nibbling continually at . his
hay or oats. "What remains after he has done feeding, should be
at once withdrawn. They should have water, in summer three
times, and in winter twice a day. Soft or running water is much
the best. "While working, and they are not too warm, they
may have it as often as they desire. Neither should they be fed
when heated, as the stomach is then fatigued and slightly inflamed,
and is not prepared for digestion till the animal is again cool.
Salt should always be within reach, and we have found an occa-
sional handful of clean wood ashes, a preventive of disease and
an assistance to the bowels and appetite.
CHAPTER XIX.
THE ASS, THE MULE, AND THE COMPAKATIVE LABOR
OF WORKING ANIMALS
THE ASS
Is a native of Arabia, Persia, and the central parts of Asia
and Africa. Like the horse, he goes in troops, and displays
great natural sagacity, activity and courage. Job says, "he
scorneth the multitude of the city, neither regardeth the crying
of the driver." Like the horse, too, he has from time immemo-
rial been tamed, and become the faithful servant of man ; but,
unlike him, he is subject to few maladies, is hardy and enduring,
and subsists, and even thrives, on coarse and scanty forage.
Thus Job says of his natural haunts: "Whose house I have
made the wilderness^ and the harren land his dwellings; the
range of the mountains is his pasture, and he searcheth after
every green thing ^ And Xenophon, in his Anabasis, a thousand
years later, says of one of the Asiatic deserts through which he
passed with the army of Cyrus, "that it was full of wormwood;
if any other kinds of shrubs or reeds grew there, they had all
an aromatic smell, but no trees appeared. Of wild creatures, the
most numerous are wild asses, which our horses sometimes chased,
but the wild asses exceeded them much in speed."
Yaeieties. — The different breeds of asses are supposed to be
quite as numerous as those of the horse. Four distinct races are
mentioned in the ancient scriptures. In modern times we find a*
similar diversity. There are two kinds in Persia; the largest a
slow, heavy brute, used only for burdens ; the other smaller and
THE ASS.
461
more spirited, and used for the saddle. In Egypt, a considerable
though less marked difference exists, those near the Delta being
inferior to those which are bred in upper Egypt and Nubia. In
Spain, a difference in size and spirit prevails, greater even than
in Persia. The Zebra is nearly alhed in size, shape and charac-
ter to the wild ass, but his untamable ferocity has hitherto effect-
ually bid defiance alike to the scourges and caresses, the frowns
and the favors of man. Arabia produces some of the most
spirited and hardy asses, but their size, like that of their horses,
is too small for purposes of the greatest utihty. The Maltese
jack is, by American breeders, deemed the choicest animal from
which to propagate. He is evidently of Arabian descent, and
posesses all the good qualities of his ancestry, with considerable
additional size. We have several varieties, all of which are
imported, as there are no natives of the Western Continent.
The early importations were principally made from the Azores
and Cape de Verd Islands, and were mostly of an inferior char-
acter. A superior Maltese jack was presented to General
Washington, in 1787, by La Fayette, and is believed to be the
first ever sent to this country. Mr. Custis describes him as of
moderate size, clean limbed, possessing great activity, the fire and
ferocity of a tiger, of a dark brown and nearly black, white belly
and muzzle, and manageable only by one groom, nor then safely.
He lived to a great age. His mules were all active, spirited and
serviceable, and when from stout mares, attained considerable
size. A Spanish jack and jennet were also presented to Wash-
ington about the same time, by the King of Spain. The first is
characterized by the same authority as a huge, ill-shapen animal,
nearly sixteen hands high, very large head, clumsy limbs, and to all
appearance little calculated for active service; he was of a gray
color, and not much valued for his mules, which were unwieldy
and dull. From the Maltese jack and Spanish jennet, which
approach the size of the large Spanish jack, was bred a valuable'
animal, [Compound^) which partook of all the good quahties of
the sire, with the weight of the dam. From him descended many
462
AMERICAiJ AGRICULTURE.
of the best mules of Mount Vernon. Many other valuable
importations have since followed these early animals, and it is
believed we have for many years had as fine specimens of the ass
as the world affords. Jennets, or she asses, are used among us
principally for breeding jacks, and of course are not numerous.
They are sometimes, though seldom, bred to the horse. It is
difficult to induce the horse to notice them, and the produce,
which is called a hinny, is less hardy and useful than the mule.
The milk of the she ass is lighter and more digestible than that
of any other animal, and in former times was in great request for
invalids.
In this country, the ass is occasionally used in the cart, or as a
beast of burden. Such as are employed for these purposes are
generally of an inferior kind, and are only used for the hghtest
work. They may sometimes be seen among the fish-mongers
and small vegetable dealers about our city markets, but little
larger than a Shetland pony, trundling along a fight cart with a
wheelbarrow load. In ancient times, they have been, and in
foreign countries at the present time, they are extensively used
by the peasantry and cottagers, to whom they prove a cheap and
convenient drudge in the many miscellaneous labors of their
various employments.
There is probably no living animal that so well answers so
many purposes for drudgery in the humbler employments of the
poor as the cheap donkeys of Europe, in the British Islands, and
on the Continent. They are of diminutive size, ranging from
three and a half to four feet high, yet possessing all the assinine
quafities, except high breeding and the larger size of those more
exclusively used for mule propagation. They are kept by all
classes of the lower laborers, cottagers, tinkers, peddlers, strolling
handicraftsmen — in fact every class of the small, self-supporting
classes. They breed freely, live in the cheapest possible way,
under shelter, or without it; on the roughest forage by the road-
side, or in pastures, or on cured forage in the stables. They are
docile, ever ready for the harness in cart or wagon, or the pan-
THE MULE.
463
niers; will carry burdens and draw loads almost incredible for
their size and weight; are good and handy for nudging about
under the saddle, with a stout rider upon it; a companion and
drudge for the children and servants — in short, a most serviceable,
indispensable httle brute for various uses, when horse or even
mule labor for like purposes would be both costly and incon-
venient. There is, in fact, no such useful animal so much
maligned as the donkey — otherwise, ^'jackass''^ — and none which
we, Americans, should sooner introduce into many of the humbler
employments which now abound and are rapidly multiplying in
our more densely populated districts. "Stupid as a jackass!"
It is a vile slander; not half so stupid are they as many owners
who brutally maltreat them and get a living out of their labors,
wanting which, they would starve.
THE MULE
Is the hybrid produced by the ass with the mare. How early
this animal was bred is uncertain, but we know he was in high
repute in the reign of David, near three thousand years ago, for
he was rode by Absalom, the favorite prince of Israel, on the
field of battle. They have from time immemorial been bred in
various parts of the East, on the borders of the Mediterranean,
and throughout Spain, Portugal and other countries, many of
them being of splendid appearance and of fine qualities. In
these countries, they are frequently used by the grandees and
nobles, and indeed by royalty itself; and however much they
may be undervalued elsewhere, when they are finely bred and
trained, and richly caparisoned, they exhibit a stateliness and
bearing that few of the highest bred horses can excel.
Breeding Mules in the United States, was commenced
with much spirit in some of the New England States, soon after
the American revolution. The object was not to breed them for
their own use, but simply as an article of commerce. They were
at first shipped exclusively to the West Indies, and afterwards
to the South and West, for employment in the sugar mills, and
464
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
other work on the plantations. Indifferent animals, both as sires
and dams, were used at first, as anything which bore the name
of mule, then commanded a ready sale. These were necessarily
inferior brutes, and viewed with almost universal derision in the
States where they were bred; and being considered the type of
their race, a prejudicer was excited against them, which more than
half a century has not been sufficient to dispel. Among a few
thinking men at the North, they have been adopted and made
highly useful in the various duties of the farm. Of late they have
been largely introduced into the Middle States, where they perform
many useful slow labors in draught equally well as in the planting
States. It is in the South, and in other and hotter climates,
that the superior merits of the mule over the horse as a laboring
animal, are peculiarly manifest. In many instances they are
indifferently fed, hardly worked, and greatly neglected by their
drivers, and yet they sustain themselves for years in defiance of
usage that would annihilate two generations of horses. Their
powers have been largely increased and their merits improved,
by the introduction of some of the best Maltese and Spanish
jacks, and the use of large, blood mares. The propriety of this
course is seen in the value of the product ; for while some of the
inferior brutes are unsalable at $50, others of the same age, and
reared under the same circumstances of keep and condition, could
not be purchased for $150 to $300 each.
The hreeding^ rearing and management of mules is similar to
that of colts. They will be found, as much as horses, to repay
generous keep and attention by their increased and rapid growth.
But they should not be pampered by high feed, as it not only
has a tendency to produce disease, but to form habits of fastidi-
ousness, which materially lessens their economical feeding in after
life. The diseases to which mules are subjected which are always
few, — and if properly managed they will seldom or ever occur, —
require a treatment like that of horses. Mules, as a rule,
are unable to breed, although instances of their producing young
have sometimes occurred ; but we have never learned of any of
THE MULE.
465
their offspring living to adult age. Neither the sexual develop-
ment or propensities are wanting, but they are seldom indulged
with effect. Mr. Kilbj, of Virginia, stated in the " Farmer's
Register," that a mare mule brought two colts, got by a young
horse, which they closely resembled. The first was a male, and
died, apparently with staggers, which no treatment could arrest,
at six months old. The second was a female, from the same
parents, sixteen months younger than the first, marked like the
sire, being jet black, excepting a white foot, and star in the fore-
head, and died at a year old, after a two days' illness, notwith-
standing the utmost care was bestowed upon it. Successful
propagation of this hybrid, however, beyond the first cross,
seems to be incompatible with the fixed laws of nature.
With a view of encouraging the substitution of mules for a
part of the horses now employed in American husbandry, we give
the following testimony from experienced individuals of great
intelhgence and careful observation :
Advantages of Mule over Horse Labor. — The official
report of an agricultural committee in South Carolina, in 1824,
says: "The annual expense of keeping a horse is equal to his
value ; that a horse at four years old would not often bring more
than his cost; that two mules could be raised at less expense than
one horse ; is fit for service earher, and if of sufficient size, will
perform as much labor; and if attended to when first put to work,
his gait and habits may be formed to suit the owner." Mr.
Pomeroy, who used them near Boston for thirty years, and to
such an extent as to have had more labor performed by them
probably than any person in New England, says : " I am convinced
the small breed of mules w^ill consume less in proportion to the
labor they are capable of performing than the larger race, but I
shall confine myself to the latter in my comparison, such as stand
fourteen and a half to sixteen hands, and are capable of performing
any work a horse is usually put to. From repeated experiments
I have found that three mules of this description, which were
constantly at work, consumed about the same quantity of hay,
20*
466 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
and onlj one-fourili the provender which was given to two mid-
dling size coach horses, only moderately worked. I am satisfied
a large sized mule will not consume more than three-fifths to two-
thirds the food to keep him in good order, that will be necessary
for a horse performing the same labor. The expense of shoeing
a mule the year round, does not exceed one- third that of the horse,
his hoofs being harder, more homy, and so slow in their growth,
that shoes require no removal, and hold on till worn out ; and
the wear from the lightness of the animal is much less. Mules
have been lost by feeding on cut straw, and corn meal ; in no
other instance have T known disease in them, except by inflam-
mation of the intestines, caused by the grossest exposure to cold
and wet, and excessive drinking cold water, after severe labor,
and while in a high state of perspiration. It is not improbable a
farmer may work the same team of mules for twenty years with-
out having a farrier's bill presented to him. In my experience
of thirty years, I have never found but one mule inclined to be
vicious, and he might have been easily subdued while young. I
have always found them truer pullers and quicker travelers, with
a load, than horses. Their vision and hearing are much more
accurate. I have used them in my family carriage, in a gig, and
under the saddle ; and have never known one to start or run
from any object or noise, a fault in the horse that continually
causes the maiming and death of numerous human beings. The
mule is more steady in his draught and less likely to waste his
strength than the horse, hence more suitable to work with oxen,
and as he walks faster, will habituate them to a faster gait. In
plowing among crops, his feet being small and following each
other so much more in a line, he seldom treads down the ridges
or crops. The facility of instructing him to obey implicitly the
voice of the driver is astonishing. The best plowing of tillage
land I ever saw, I have had performed by two mules tandem^
without lines or driver. The mule is capable of enduring labor
m a temperature of heat that would be destructive to a horse.
.Although a large mule will consume something over one-half
THE MULE.
467
the food of the horse, yet the saving in shoeing, farriery, and
insurance against diseases and accidents, will amount to at
least one-half. In addition, the owner may rely with tolera-
ble certainty on the continuance of his mule capital for thirty
years; whereas the horse owner must, at the'end of fifteen years,
look to his crops, his acres, or a bank, for the renewal of his.
The longevity of a mule is proverbial. Pliny mentions one
eighty years old; and Dr. Rees, two in England, that reached
the age of seventy. I saw one performing his labor in a cane
mill in the West Indies, which the owner assured me was forty
years old. I have a mare mule twenty-five years old, that I
have had in constant work for twenty-one years. She has often
within a year, taken a ton weight in a wagon to Boston, five
miles, and manifests no diminution of her powers. A neighbor
has one twenty-eight years old, which he would not exchange for
any horse in the country. One in Maryland, thirty-five years
old, is now as capable of labor as at any former period."
Mr. Hood, of Maryland, in the "American Farmer," estimates
the annual expense of a horse for twelve months at $44, and
that of a mule at $22, just half price, and his working age at
more than twice that of the horse, and that, too, after thirty years*
experience in keeping both. A correspondent of the ''Baltimore
Patriot" asserts that "Colonel John B. Howard had a pair of
mules that worked thirty years, after which they were sold to a
carter in the city, and performed hard service for several years
longer. Many mules twenty-five years old, and now in this
county, perform well. Many have been at hard work for twelve
or fifteen years, and would now sell for $100 each. They are
not subject to the colt's ailments, the glanders, heaves, yellow-
water, and colic, like horses, and seldom are afilicted with spavin,
ring-bones, or bots; and they will not founder." General Shelby
says "he has known mules to travel ten miles within the hour in
Hght harness, and has himself driven a pair forty miles in six
hours, stopping an hour by the way." Major Shelby, of Lexing-
ton, sold to Mr. Preston four match mules, for $1,000. They
468
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
were, of course, very superior animals, and made elegant coach
liorses. Mr. Preston has driven these mules eighty miles in a
single day, v^ithout injury, and they proved a first rate team for
many years. Mr. Ellicott, of the Patuxent Furnaces, says:
"Out of about one hundred mules at the works, we have not
lost, on an average, one in two years. Bleeding at the mouth
will cure them of nearly every disease, and by being turned
out on pasture, they will recover from almost every accident. I
do not recollect we have ever had a wind-broken one. They are
scarcely ever defective in the hoof, and though kept shod, it is
not as important as with the horse. Their skin is tougher than
that of a horse, consequently, they are not as much worried by
flies, nor do they suffer so much with the heat of summer."
To the foregoing testimony may be added that of the late
Judge Hinckley, of Northampton, Massachusetts, a shrewd and
close observer through a long life, reaching to eighty-four years.
He bred mules at an early day, and always kept a team of them
for his farm work, much preferring them to horses for this pur-
pose, after an experience of fifty years. He had a pair nearly
thirty years old, which, in light pasturage in summer, and with a
moderate supply of hay and very little grain in winter, and no
grooming, performed all the drudgery, though he kept his stable
full of horses besides. They outlived several successive genera-
tions of horses, and though the latter were often sick and out of
condition, the mules never were. One from his stock, forty -five
years old, was sold /or the same price paid for a lot of young
mules, he being at that mature age, perfectly able to perform his
full share of labor.
For the caravans, which in past years have drawn their loads
over the almost inaccessible ranges which form the continuation
of the Rocky Mountains, and the extensive arid plains that lie
between and west of them, on the route from Santa Fe to Cah-
fornia, mules have been the only beasts of burden used in these
exhausting and perilous adventures. Their value may be esti-
mated from the comparative prices of mules and horses ; for while
THE MULE.
469
a horse may have been bought for $10 to $20, a good mule was
worth $50 to $75. Br. Lyman, who passed through those
regions twenty years ago, informed us that their caravan left
Santa Fe with about one hundred and fifty mules, fifteen or
twenty horses, all beasts of burden, and two choice blood horses,
belonging to an English gentleman, which were led and treated
with peculiar care. On the route, all the working horses died
from exhaustion and suffering; the two bloods that had been so
carefully attended, but just survived ; yet of the whole lot of
mules, but eight or ten gave out. A mule thirty-six years of
age, was as hardy, strong, enduring, and performed as hard
labor, as any one in the caravan. When thirst compelled them
to resort for successive days to the saline waters, which are the
only ones furnished by those dry and sterile plains, the horses
were at once severely, and not unfrequently, fatally affected,
while the mules, though suffering greatly from the change, yet
seldom were so much injured as to require any remission of their
labor.
The mules sent to the Mexican possessions from our Western
States, Arkansas, Missouri, Tennessee, and Kentucky, are con-
sidered of much more value than such as are bred from the native
(usually wild) mares. The difference probably arises, in part,
from the Mexicans using jacks inferior to those so highly im-
proved of late years by our western citizens. Mare mules are
estimated in those regions at one-third more than horse mules.
The reason assigned for this is, that after a day's journey of
excessive fatigue, there is a larger quantity of blood secreted in
the bladder, which the female, owing to her larger passage, voids
at once and without much apparent suffering, while the male does
not get rid of it, frequently, till after an hour of considerable pam.
The effect of this difference is seen in the loss of flesh and strengtli
in the male, to an extent far beyond that of the female. The
universal method of reducing refractory mules in the northern
Mexican possessions, is for the person to grasp them firmly by
the ears, while another whips them severely on the forelegs and
belly.
470
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
Estimated annual saving to the United States from the employ'
ment of Mules in the place of Horses. — To sum up the advantages
of working mules over horses, we shall have as advantage :
1. They are more easily, surely and cheaply raised. 2. They
are maintained, after commencing work, for much less than the
cost of keeping horses. 3. They are not subject to many of
the diseases of the horse, and to others only in a mitigated
degree, and even these are easily cured in the mule. 4. They
attain a greater age, and their average number of working years
is probably twice that of the horse.
In 1860, there were reported to be 6,115,458 horses, and
1,129,553 asses and mules in the Union, no discrimination hav-
ing been made between the latter, of which 1,000,000 may be
mules. Suppose the total number of both are the same at the
present time, and if we deduct one-third, and the odd fraction of
the number of horses, supposed to be required for the purposes of
breed, fancy, etc., we shall then have 4,000,000 horses, whose
places may be equally well supplied by the same number of mules.
We have seen that Mr. Hood, of Maryland, estimates the expense
of a working horse at $44 per annum, (not an over estimate for
the Atlantic States,) while that of the mule is $22. The differ-
ence is $22, which it is proper to reduce to meet the much lower
rate of keeping at the west. If we put the difference at $10,
we shall find the saving in the keep, shoeing, farriery, etc., by
substituting mules for the 4,000,000 horses that can be dispensed
with, will be $40,000,000 per annum. But this is not all. The
working age of the horse will not exceed an average of eight
years, while that of the mule is probably over sixteen. To the
difference of keep then, must be added the annual waste of the
capital invested in the animal. A mule is more cheaply raised to
working age than a horse, but allowing them to cost equally, we
shall have the horse exhausting one-eighth or three-twenty-fourths
of his capital annually for his decay, when the mule is using up
but one-sixteenth; and if we allow $48 as the first cost of both
THE MULE,
471
animals, we shall find the horse wasting $6 annually for this
item, while the mule deteriorates but $3, making an additional
item of $12,000,000 more; and an aggregate of $52,000,000 as
the annual saving to the United States by substituting good mules
for three-fourths of the horses now used in this country.
The foregoing remarks are the mule side of the argument in
their favor against the horse, presuming that the facihties of
obtaining, or rearing the mule, and its keeping, is equal to that
of the horse. But such is not the fact. Mule breeding is chiefly
confined to particular localities and States west of the Allegany
mountains.
All through the United States, irrespective of locality, horses
are universally kept and bred, and they are fitted for all kinds
of farm labor, as well as the road, and easily managed by men,
boys, and even women and girls. They are docile, tractable,
kind, and gentle, as a rule. Therefore they are readily bred and
reared, and easily accessible to every one needing them. Mules
are not so. Breeding jacks are seldom kept out of the mule
breeding districts ; therefore mules cannot be bred by the com-
mon farmer out of those districts, and the only way he can obtain
them is by purchase, which he has not always the abihty to do,
where, within his own immediate means, and on his own farm he
can raise more or less colts, either for his own use or for sale.
Aside from this, there is no pleasure in driving a mule for any
labor, except the mere drudgery of the draught, either in farm
or road work. He is obstinate, quarrelsome, tricky, when not in
constant use; often treacherous, breachy in jumping and throwing
fences when in pastures, and safe nowhere but in the stable, when
not at work. Therefore a good stock of patience and smooth
temper is required on the part of the driver of mules. The
whole question may be summed up in this: when economy is the
sole governing object, in slow, steady, pertinacious labor, the
mule is unquestionably the cheapest and most serviceable beast;
but in all the varieties of farm or road work, the horse is the
most desirable, and such being the case most men are willing to
472
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
forego the increased risk, expense, and contingencies of the horse,,
for the superior gratification of using him.
COMPARATIVE ECONOMY OF HORSE AND OX LABOR.
This is a question which has been often discussed, and when
with candor, the conclusion generally has been in favor of ox
labor. The different employments, the variety of situation, the
season, and the kind of stock reared on the farm, are all questions
which should be fully considered in arriving at their true com-
parative advantages. Most farmers would find it for their inter-
est to keep teams of each, where there is employment for more
than one ; or if this be not the case, the preference should be
given to that which is best suited in all respects to their particu-
lar position. If work upon the road is required, a horse team
will generally be best. Their superiority will consist principally
in their greater speed, for even with a heavy load, they will be
able to trot occasionally, and when driven without it, they may
increase their pace to nearly double the natural gait of the ox.
This will amount to a large annual saving in the time of the
driver when steadily employed. The same is true when remov-
ing manure or crops on the farm to remote distances, over a
smooth surface, which admits of trotting with the empty wagon.
Harrowing ought always to be done with a quick team, as a vio-
lent stroke of the teeth breaks the clods, and pulverizes the earth
much better than when slowly dragged along. But we assume
in this comparison, that oxen shall not only be well adapted to
their work by their natural formation, like the Hereford, the
Devon, and others equally good, but that they be also well broke,
well managed, accustomed to quick movements, and as well fed
and looked after as horses. We shall then find their walk equal
to a quick horse team, and that in this case, the horse will have
no advantage over the ox in harrowing. For plowing, the teams
are on a par, as a good ox team will do as much in a day in cool
weather, as horses. Where the loads can be tipped, as in unload-
ing manure in the field, or roots through a scuttle, or in heaps,
HORSE AND OX LABOR.
473
the ox cart, or the two-wheel single horse cart is best, as all the
labor of throwing out by hand is avoided.
The situation of the farm may materially affect this estimate.
In a warm climate, horses, and more especially mules, would be
more serviceable than oxen, as they are capable of enduring much
greater heat with impunity. If the farm be small and convenient
to market, the labor may in general be best accompHshed by
oxen, as httle traveling will be required. So too, if the land be
stony or rough, the plowing and harrowing will be more kindly
and patiently done by oxen than by spirited horses. Other con-
siderations will suggest themselves as affecting the comparative
economy of this labor.
The time of work is to be fully considered. If much and
heavy work be required in summer, as is often the case in plow-
ing extensive wheat farms, horses are to be preferred ; yet if the
ox-team be started at early dawn, and worked briskly four or five
hours, and then turned out to rest with a supply of suitable food,
they may again commence when the extreme heat has abated,
and accomphsh a day's work that few horses will exceed. Dar-
ing the season of muddy roads, the horse, with his broad, compact
foot and longer leg, has a decided advantage over the ox. If the
ox draws by the yoke, (which on the whole is the best mode,) he
is hable to a sore neck when working in wet or snowy weather,
and at such times he is over-matched by his competitor. This is
partially remedied by applying a decoction of white or yellow oak
bark.
The hind of stock raised on the farm has an important bearing
on this question. Some farms are devoted to rearing horses, and
some exclusively to rearing cattle. These sometimes remain on
hand after they are fit for market, from the want of a profitable
demand. They can then be employed not only without injury,
but in consequence of the thorough training thus secured, with
positive benefit to their future value. Even if intended for the
shambles, the well developed ox may advantageously be put to
light work at three, after which, it may be gradually increased
474
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
till he is six or eight, and during all this time he will be improv-
ing, and after doing an earlj spring's work, he may then be
turned on to good pasture, and if followed with proper stall-feed-
ing, he will in the latter part of the winter or spring, yield a
tender, better flavored and more profitable carcass than can be
procured by any other mode of fattening.
The first cost of oxen is less than- that of horses, and they are
at all times cheaply reared on the coarser herbage of the farm.
The expense of working-gear, tackle and shoeing, is much less
than with horses. They are subject to fewer diseases, and these
are more within the reach of ordinary medicines. The cost of
food is also less, and while the horse is depreciating, the ox is
increasing in value till eight or nine years old. Accidents are
less frequent with oxen, from their slower movements ; and when
they occur, the ox may be turned out to fatten, and still be worth
as much for this purpose as for the yoke. A permanent injury
to the horse, is perhaps a total loss of the beast, with a large far
rier's bill in addition, for which there is nothing to hquidate it
but the hide. The small farmer can make out a most serviceable
team, by putting a single horse before a yoke of cattle. If well
trained, they will soon accommodate themselves to each other's
pace, and work as advantageously together, as an entire team of
either animals would do alone. Bulls are frequently put to the '
draught, and when they have not other services that fully test
their powers, they cannot be better employed. Heifers and cows
are sometimes worked, but hitherto they have not been used to
any extent in this country. In the absence of other animals,
they might perform light work to advantage, but severe labor
would stint their growth or impair their milk beyond the benefit
derived from it. The spayed heifer is an exception to the fore-
going remark, and by many, is esteemed even more useful than
an ox of equal weight. TVe have no definite statements of the
comparative money value of the labor of oxen and horses. But
in England, repeated trials have been made, and while some have
found no advantage in the employment of oxen over horse%
HORSE AND OX LABOR.
475
Others have proved them decidedly superior. One Anglesey
farmer, found in an experience of three years, with twelve horses
and twenty oxen, which accomplished an equal amount of work,
that he had saved by the latter £236, or nearly $1,180. This
result proves the subject to be one of sufficient importance, to
justify the closest investigation of every farmer to determine for
himself, the comparative value of ox, horse or mule labor.
After all, the character of the farm, the kinds of crops raised,
and the various other work to be performed, must decide the
policy and economy of employing either ox, horse or mule labor.
The greatest impediment to ox labor on the fiirm, is their inability
to endure our intensely warm summer weather, and to obtain
good ox teamsters.
CHAPTER XX.
SWINE.
The hog is a cosmopolite of almost every zone, though his
natural haunts, like those of the hippopotamus, the elephant, the
rhinoceros and most of the thick-skinned animals, are in warm
climates. They are most abundant in China, the East Indies,
and the immense range of Islands which extend over the whole
Southern and Pacific Oceans ; but they are also numerous through-
out Europe, from its southern coast to the Russian dominions
within the Arctic. In the United States, they have been an
object of attention since its earliest settlements, and whenever
a profitable market could be found for pork abroad, it has been
exported to the full extent of the demand. For twenty years
following the commencement of the general European wars, soon
after the organization of our national government, it was a com-
paratively large article of export ; but since then, exports to any
extent, have not been justified, until within the last twenty-five
years, in which a material reduction in the British import duty on
pork, lard, hams, beef, etc., has again brought it up as a promi-
nent article of commerce with that country. The recent use
which has been made of the carcass in converting it into lard oil,
has still further increased its consumption. Swine are reared in
every part of the Union, and when properly managed, always at
a fair profit. At the extreme North, in the neighborhood of large
markets, and on such of the southern plantations as are particularly
suited to sugar or rice, they are not profitable, beyond the num-
ber required for the consumption of the coarse or refuse " food
produced. While pork remains at a moderate price, it can only
SWINE.
477
be advantageously raised on a large scale on good soils, as it is
such only that yield heavy crops of grain, roots, etc., which are
essential to fattening it. Swine are profitable in connection with
a dairy or orchard, as with little additional food besides what is
thus afforded, they can be put into good condition for the butcher.
It is on the rich bottoms, and other lands of the West, where Indian
corn is raised in profusion, and at small expense, that they can be
reared in the greatest numbers and yield the largest profit. The
extensive and fertile States west of the AUeganies, have for many
years, taken the lead in the production of swine; and it is proba-
ble their climate and soil, which is peculiarly suited to their rapid
growth, as well as that of their appropriate food, will enable them
forever to remain the leading pork producers of the North Ameri-
can Continent.
The Breeds of Swine cultivated in this country are numer-
ous, and like our native cattle, they embrace many of the best,
and a few of the worst to be found among the species. Great
attention has for many years been paid to their improvement in
the Eastern States, and nowhere are there better specimens than
in many of their herds. This spirit has. rapidly extended west-
ward and southward, and among many of the intelligent farmers,
who make them a leading object of attention, on the rich corn
grounds of the "West, the swine have attained a great degree of
excellence. This has been accomplished by the introduction and
perpetuity of some of the distinct races, and in the breeding up
to a desirable size and aptitude for fattening, from such meritorious
individuals of the breeds, or their crosses, as have come within
their reach.
Among the different breeds of swine imported here within the
present century, are the spotted black and white Chinese —
among the earliest — and the white Byefield^ or Grass breed, both
small-boned, chunky varieties. These were, in the Eastern States,
crossed on to the coarse, rangy hogs, then common throughout
the country, and considerably improved their shapes and the
quality of their flesh. They were followed, years afterwards,
478
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
hj the Leicester^ a large white, rather coarse, but rangy animal.
All these crosses were variously intermixed, and bred much to
the improvement of the old race, and perhaps even the new
breeds themselves.
But probably the most marked improvement made upon the
swine family, was by the introduction of the Berkshires about
the year 1832, by two English farmers, Mr. Brentnall, into Orange,
and Mr. Hawes, into Albany counties. New York. This was, at
the time, considered the best English breed for all uses in Eng-
land, and built up from a cross of the small, plump China pig, on
the ancient Berkshire stock, a large, stout, but well made beast
of a dark sandy and white color. The improved breed were
chiefly black, or deep plum color, mixed with a little white, round,
long, and full in the carcass, with full shoulders, long bodies, and
round plump hams. They soon became very popular, and widely
disseminated all over the country. Several other importations
rapidly followed those of Messrs. Brentnall and Hawes, but by
far the largest and finest importation of this breed was made in
the year 1841, by Mr. A. B. Allen, then residing at Bufialo, N.Y
He selected them in England, himself, in the county of Berkshire,
from the most noted breeders. We have never seen specimens of
the breed excelling, or scarcely equaling in size and symmetry, that
importation, although many Berkshires have been since imported
by other parties. The produce of that importation of Mr. Allen,
was more widely spread throughout the several States, East,
West, North and South, than any other, and added greatly to the
popularity of the breed, and to the improvement of our swine
generally. Mr. Allen, at the same time, brought out several of
the Kenilworths^ a large white breed which he found in the
vicinity of Kenilworth castle, which he afterwards bred and dis-
tributed, chiefly in the Western States. Owing, however, to the
unprecedented low price of meats which, within a few years after-
wards, followed those importations — ^pork falling to the very low
price of two to three cents a pound, by the carcass, in our chief
meat markets — the inducement to their extension fell off, and
SWINE. 479
their further choice breeding almost altogether ceased. But the
stock was here, and the gradual improvement of most of our
swine families continued.
As prices of meats afterwards advanced, further importations
were made, not only of Berhshires^ but Essex (black,) Suffolks
(white,) of the smaller breeds, and the Yorkshires (white,) Chesh-
ires (white,) of the larger breeds, and Neapolitans^ (mostly black,)
by Mr. L. G. Morris, of Westchester, Mr. Samuel Thome, Mr.
C. S. Wainwright, of Duchess counties, N. Y., the late Mr. James
G. King, and Mr. John C. Jackson, of New York city. Several
other importations of Suffolk, and other breeds, were made by
Mr. Stickney, of Boston, and others since, whose names are not
now recollected, in different Eastern cities. Very fine York-
shires were imported by Mr. Brodie, of J efferson county, N. Y.,
and some Canadian farmers. These latter were of the largest
breed yet imported, very long, fine, and rangy in figure. All
these breeds have been widely distributed, and greatly to the
improvement of the prime stock of our country.
Breeding. — Swine should not be allowed to breed before
twelve or fifteen months old, unless the animals are large and
coarse, when they may be put to it somewhat younger. Not
only choice individuals, but such as are well descended, should be
selected for the purpose of breeding. The sow should be in good
condition, but not fat, nor approaching to it, and a proper degree
of exercise is essential to the development of the foetus and the
health of the parent; for which reason she should have an
extended range connected with her pen. The sow goes with
young about one hundred and fourteen days. A week before her
time comes round, a comfortable, quiet place should be prepared
for her under cover, and well protected from cold, if the weather
be severe, or if warm, a range in a pasture with an open shed
to retire to, is sufficient. Too much litter for bedding must be
avoided, and no change or disturbance of the sow permitted till
two or three weeks after pigging, as the restlessness thereby pro-
duced may result in the loss of the pigs. The sow should be fed
480 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
0
only with a sm-all quantity of the lightest food or thin gruel, for
two or three days, nor put on full feed for a week. If inclined
to eat her pigs, she should be fed two or three times with raw
pork or fresh meat. The pigs may be taught to crack oats or
soaked corn after three or four weeks, but those, or any other
grains, are much better for being ground, and corn cooked, if pos-
sible. Milk is the best food to wean pigs on, where it can be had,
and meal mixed gradually as they grow older. The pigs, at this
time, should be provided with a trough inaccessible to the dam;
they will soon learn to feed on milk and other food, preparatory
to weaning. This may take place when they are eight or ten
weeks old, and to prevent injury to the sow, let one or two
remain with her a few days longer, and when finally removed,
if her bag appears to be full, they may be allowed to drain the
milk after twenty or thirty hours. , The sow should be restricted
to a light, dry diet for a few days. At six to eight weeks old,
the male pigs, intended for pork, should be castrated.
Raising, Feeding and Fattening. — There are but two
objects in keeping swine, — for breeding, and for slaughter, — and
their management is consequently simple. Those designed for
breeding should be kept in growing condition, on light food, and
have every advantage for exercise. Such as are destined exclu-
sively for fattening, ought to be steadily kept to the object. It
is the usual practice, with extensive pork raisers, in this country,
to let spring pigs run at large for the first fifteen months, with
such food as is convenient, and if fed at all, it is only to keep
them in moderate growth till the second autumn. They are then
put up to fatten, and in the course of sixty or ninety days, are
fed off and slaughtered. During this brief period, they gain
from fifty to one hundred per cent, more of dressed weight, than
lathe fifteen or eighteen months preceding; nor even then do
they yield a greater average weight than is often attained by
choice, thrifty pigs, which have been well fed from weaning to
the age of eight or ten months. Three pigs, when precisely seven
and a half months old, dressed 230, 235 and 238j^ pounds.
SWINE.
481
Two others, at nine months, dressed 304 and 310 pounds.'
Three others, seven months and twenty-seven days old, weighed
240, 250 and 257 pounds net. Innumerable instances could
be adduced of similar weights, gained within the same time,
with a good breed of animals under good treatment. We have
no one accurate account of the food consumed, so as to deter
mine the relative profit of short or long feeding. But that
an animal must consume much more in eighteen or twenty months
to produce the same quantity of dressed meat, which is made by
others of eight or ten months, does not admit of a doubt. We
have seen that an ox requires but little more than double the
quantity of food to fatten, that is necessary for supporting exisl-
ence. If we apply this principle to swine, and state the quantity
of food which will fatten the pig rapidly, to be three times aa
great as for the support of life, we shall find that the pig will
fatten in seven months, on the same food he would consume to
keep him alive for twenty-one. This is based on the supposition
that both animals are of equal size. But the pig that matures
and is slaughtered at seven months, has only a moderate capacity
for eating. During the early stages of his growth, his size, and
the consequent incapacity of the digestive organs, prevent the
consumption of the same quantity which the larger animal
requires ; and his accumulating fat, his limited respiration, conse-
quent upon the compression of his lungs, and his indisposition
to exercise^ all conspire to keep the consumption of food within
the smallest possible limit. This result, in the absence of any
experiment, must be conjectural entirely; but we believe that
experiments will show that of two thrifty pigs from the same
litter, one of which is properly fed to his utmost capacity for
seven months^ and the other fed with precisely double the quan-
tity of similar food for twenty-one months, the first will yield
more carcass and of a better and more profitable quality than the
latter, which has consumed one hundred per cent, the most. The
food is only one item iu this calculation. The oldest requires the
most attention, is liable to more accidents and disease, besides the
21
4S2
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
loss of interest. Some good farmers assert, that by far the cheap-
est mode of wintering pigs is in the pork barrel. We can readily
anticipate one objection to this practice, which is the want of food in
the early part of the season to fatten them. This can be obviated
by reserving enough of the previous year's grain, to keep the
animal in a rapidly thriving state till the next crop matures suffi-
ciently to feed. Spring pigs to be fatted, at a few months old,
should be of the smaller breeds, which acquire an early growth,
as the China, Essex or Sufiblk. The larger breeds require a
longer time for maturity and to take on their full quantity of
flesh.
In the rich corn regions of the "Western States, the old waste-
ful way of turning swine into the corn fields to fatten, is now
mostly discontinued from the increased value of the harvested
grain, and it is fed to them from the harvest wagon, or crib. But
penning them under shelter, and grinding and cooking the food,
would be more economical. If fattened early in the season, they
will consume less food to make an equal amount of flesh than in
colder weather; they will require less attention, and generally
early pork commands the highest price in market.
It is most economical to provide the swine with a fine clover
pasture to run in during the spring and summer, and they ought
also to have access to the orchard, to pick up all the unripe and
superfluous fruit that falls. They should also have the wash of
the house and the dairy, to which add meal, and sour in large
tubs or barrels. Not less than one-third, and perhaps more, of
the whole grain fed to swine, is saved by grinding and cooking,
or souring. Yet care must be observed that the souring be not
carried so far as to injure the food by putrefaction. A mixture
of meal and water, with the addition of yeast, or such remains
of a former fermentation as adhere to the side or bottom of the
vessel, and exposure to a temperature between 68° and 77° will
produce immediate fermentation. In this process there are five
stages. The saccharine^ by which the starch and gum are con-
verted into sugar ; the vinous^ which changes the sugar into alco-
hol ; the mucilaginous^ sometimes taking the place of the vinous,
SWINE.
483
and occurs when the sugar solution, or fermenting principle is
weak, producing a slimy, glutinous product; the acetic^ forming
vinegar, and the putrefactive^ which destroys all the nutritive
principles and converts them into a poison. The precise point in
fermentation when the food becomes most profitable for feeding,
has not jet been satisfactorilj determined; but that it should
stop short of the putrefactive, and probably the acetic, is certain.
The roots for fattening animals ought to be washed, and
steamed or boiled, and when not intended to be fermented, the
meal ought always to be scalded with the hot roots. Such a
quantity of salt as will not scour, may be added to every prepa-
ration for swine. Potatoes are the best roots for swme; then
parsnips, orange or red carrots, white or Belgian sugar beets,
mangold-wurzel, in the order mentioned. The nutritive proper-
ties of turnips are diffused through so large a bulk, that we doubt
if they can ever be fed to fattening swine with advantage ; and
they will barely sustain life when fed to them uncooked. There
is a great loss in feeding roots to fattening swine, without cook-
ing. The animal machine is an expensive one to keep in motion,
and it should be the object of the farmer to put his food in the
most available condition, for its immediate conversion into fat and
muscle. Swine ought to be kept perfectly dry and clean, and
provided with a warm shelter, to which they can retire at pleas-
ure. This will greatly hasten the fattening and economize the
food. A hog ought to have three apartments, one each for
sleeping, eating, and evacuations, of which the last ought to
occupy the lowest, and the first the highest level, so that nothing
shall be drained, and as little carried into the first two as possi-
ble. They must be regularly fed three times a day, and if there
is a surplus, it must be removed at once. If they are closely
confined in pens, give them as much charcoal twice a week as
they will eat. This corrects any tendency to disorders of the
stomach. Kotten wood is an imperfect substitute for charcoal.
Greaves, scraps or cracklings, as they are variously called, the
residuum of rough lard or tallow after expressing the fat, are a
good change and an economical food. Some animal food,
484
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
although not essential, is always acceptable to swine. "When
about to finish them off, many feed for a few weeks on hard
corn. This is proper when slops or indifferent food has been
given, and meal cannot be conveniently procured ; but when fat-
tened on sound roots and meal, it is a wasteful practice, as the
animal thus falls behind his accustomed growth. It is better to
give him an occasional feed of the- raw grain, for a change, and
to sharpen his appetite.
The products furnished by swine are numerous. Every part
of the carcass is used for food, and it admits of a far greater
variety of preparation for the table, than any other flesh. From
the remotest antiquity to the present time, and in every grade of
barbarous and civilized life, it has been esteemed as one of the
choicest delicacies of the epicure. Lard oil has within a few
years, given to pork a new and profitable use, by which the value
of the carcass is greatly increased. At some of the large pork
packing depots of the West, one-third of the whole quantity has,
in some years, been thus disposed of, which withdrew a large
amount of pork from the market, and prevented the depression
which must otherwise have occurred.
Stearme and Oleine, — Lard, and all fatty matters, consist of
three principles, of which stearine contains the stearic and mar-
garic acids, both of which, when separated, are solid and used as
inferior substitutes for wax or spermaceti candles. The other,
oleine, is fluid at a low temperature, and in American commerce,
is known as lard oil. It is very pure and extensively used for
machinery, and most of the purposes for which olive and sperma-
ceti oils are used.
Curing Hams and Porh, — After dressing, the carcass should
be allowed to hang till perfectly drained and cool, when it may
be cut up and salted. The usual way is to pack the pork in clean
salt, adding brine to the barrel when filled. But it may be dry
salted, by rubbing it in thoroughly on every side of each piece,
with a strong leather rubber, firmly secured to the palm of the
right hand. The pieces are then thrown into heaps and sprinkled
SWINE.
485
with salt, and occasionallj turned till cured ; or it may at once be
packed in dry casks, which are occasionally rolled to bring the
salt into contact with every part. Hams and shoulders may be
cured in the same manner, either dry or in pickle, but with differ-
ently arranged materials. The following is a good pickle for two
hundred pounds. Take 14 lbs. of Turk's Island or other pure
salt, K lb. of saltpeter, 2 qts. of molasses, or 4 lbs. of brown
sugar^ with water enough to dissolve them. Bring the hquor to
the scalding point, and skim off all the impurities which rise to
the top. When cold, pour it upon the hams, which should be
oerfectly cool but not frozen, and closely packed; and if not
sufficient to cover it, add enough pure water for this purpose.
Some extensive packers in the great slaughter houses, who send
choice hams to market, add pepper, allspice, cinnamon, nutmegs
or mace, and cloves. The hams may remain six to "eight weeks
in this pickle, then hung, up in the smoke house, with the small
end down, and smoked from ten to twenty days, according to the
quantity of smoke. The fire should not be near enough to heat
the hams. In Holland and Westphaha, the fire is made in the
cellar, and the smoke carried by a flue into a cool, dry chamber.
This is undoubtedly the best method of smoking. The hams
should at all times be dry and cool, or their flavor will suffer.
Green sugar maple chips are best for smoke ; next to them are
hickory, sweet birch, corn cobs, white ash, or beech. -The smoke
house is the best place to keep hams till wanted. If removed,
they should be kept cool, dry and free from flies. A canvas
cover for each, saturated with lime, which may be put on with a
whitewash brush, is a perfect protection against flies. "When
not to be kept long, they may be packed in dry salt, or even in
sweet brine, without injury. A common method is to pack in
dry oats, baked sawdust, grain or hay, chaff or dry ashes.
The sides, or rib pieces of hght pork carcasses, are extensively
made into bacon. They are cured by salting them in piles on
forms or benches, as hams and shoulders, and curing them by
smoking. They make an excellent and convenient meat.
CHAPTEE XXI
POULTRY, Etc.
Choice varieties of fowls add a pleasant feature to the farm
premises. Thej engage the attention and sympathy of the'
juvenile farmers, and the time bestowed in the poultry yard keeps
them from mischief is an agreeable and salutary rehef for toil and
study, and elicits the taste, the judgment, and the kindlier feehngs
of humanity, which are to be matured in the future accomplished
breeder. When properly managed, poultry are a source of con-
siderable profit, yielding more for the food they consume, than
any other stock, although their value is not often considered.
The agricultural statistics of the United States, for 1839— thirty
years ago— gave its value at over $12,000,000, and the current
value of the poultry in the United States is now probably twenty
millions of dollars, and its annual product in eggs and flesh is
much greater. It is estimated by McQueen, that the poultry of
England exceeds $40,000,000, and yet McCulloch says, she
imports 60,000,000 eggs annually from France, (McQueen states
it at near 70,000,000;) and from other parts of the continent^
25,000,000; besides 80,000,000 imported from Ireland. The
people of the United States are much larger egg and poultry con-
sumers than the BngHsh, and thus they are a considerable object
of agricultural attention, and assume an important place among
the other staples of the farmer.
HENS, OR BARN-BOOR FOWLS,
Are the most numerous and profitable, and the most generally
useful of the feathered tribe. The hen is peculiarly an egg-pro-
ducing bird. She has the same predisposition for laying, that the
POULTRY.
487
cow has for secreting milk. Some breeds are better adapted for
this object than others, but in all that have ever come within oui
notice, the proper food and circumstances are alone wanting, to
produce a reasonable quantity of eggs. The egg consists of three
distinct parts : the shell, the white, and the yolk. A good-sized
egg will weigh 1,000 grains, of which about 107 are shell, 604
are white, and 289 are yolk. Of the shell, 97 per cent, is car-
bonate of lime, 1 per cent, phosphate of lime and magnesia, and
2 per cent, albumen. The white consists of 12 per cent, of albu-
men, 2.7 of mucus, 0.3 of salts, and 85 of water. The yolk has
about 17.4 per cent, of albumen, 28.6 of yellow oil, 54 of water,
with a trace of sulphur and phosphorus. The above are the
constituents of eggs, which have been formed when the bird has
free access to the various articles which constitute her natural
food. But they vary with circumstances. When full fed and
denied all access to hme, she will form an egg without the shell,
and dehver it enclosed in the membrane or sack which always
surrounds the white, when covered by the shell. When scantily
fed, they will frequently lay ; but from a deficiency of nutriment,
the egg will be meagre and watery, and possess but a small por-
tion of the nutritious quahties peculiar to them. To produce the
largest number of good eggs, several conditions are important ,
and they must especially have an abundance of the right kind of
food. This is the most readily obtained in part from animal food.
In warm weather, when they have a free range, they can gen
erally supply their wants in the abundance of insects, earth
worms, and other animal matters within their reach. The large
proportion of albumen contained in their eggs, requires that much
of their food should be highly nitrogenized, and when they can-
not procure this in animal matter, it must be given in grains con-
taining it.
If to the usual qualities of hens, a breed of pecuHar elegance,
of graceful forms, and beautiful plumage, be added, together with
entire adaptation to the economical purposes required, good lay
ers, and good carcass, we have a combination of utility, luxury,
488
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
and taste in this bird, which should commend them as general
favorites. They can everywhere be kept with advantage, except
in dense cities. A hen that costs a few shillings, if provided
with a suitable range, will consume fifty to eighty cents' worth
of food, and produce from one hundred to two hundred eggs per
annum, worth two or three times the cost of feed and attention.
The food of hens may consist of different kinds of grain,
either broken, ground, or cooked; roots, and especially boiled
potatoes, are nutritious and economical ; green herbage, as clover
and many of the grains, chickweed, lettuce, cabbage, etc., will
supply them with much of their food, if fresh and tender. Though
not absolutely essential to them, yet nothing contributes so much
to their laying, as unsalted, animal food. This is a natural
alimenfc, as is shown by the avidity with which they pounce on
every fly, insect or earth worm which comes within their reach.
It would not of course pay to supply them with valuable meat,
but the blood and offal of the slaughter houses, refuse meat of
all kinds, and especially the scraps or cracklings to be had at the
melters' shops, after soaking for a few hours in warm water, is
one of the best and most economical kinds of food. Such, with
boiled meal, is a very fattening food. Grain is at all times best
for them when ground and cooked, as they will lay more, fat
quicker, and eat much less when it is fed to them in this state;
and it may be thus used unground, with the same advantage to
the fowls, as if first crushed, as their digestive organs are certain
to extract the whole nutriment. All grain is food for them,
including millet, rice, the oleaginous seeds, as the sunflower, flax,'
hemp, etc. It is always better to afford them a variety of grain,
where they can procure them at their option, and select as their
appetite craves.
They are also fond of milk, and indeed scarcely any edible
escapes their notice. They carefully pick up most of the waste
garbage around the premises, and glean much of their subsist-
ence from what would otherwise become offensive, and by their
destruction of innumerable insects and worms, they render great
POULTRY.
489
assistance to the gardener. Of course their ever busy propensity
for scratching, is indiscriminately indulged just after the seeds
have been planted and while the plants are young, which renders
it necessary that they be confined in some close yard for a time ;
vet this should be as capacious as possible. Their food, if cooked,
is better when given to them warm, not hot ; and no more fed at
a time than they will pick up clean. Besides their food, hens
ought to be at all times abundantly supplied with clean water,
egg or pounded oyster shells, old mortar or slaked lime. If not
allowed to run at large, where they can help themselves, they
must also be furnished with gravel to assist their digestion; and
a box or bed of ashes, sand and dust, is equally essential to roll
in for the purpose of ridding themselves of vermin.
The hen-house may be constructed in various ways to suit the
wishes of the owner, and when tastefully built, it is an ornament
to the premises. It should be perfectly dry throughout, prop-
erly lighted by glass windows in the roof, if possible, and capable
of being made tight and warm in winter, yet afford all the venti-
lation desirable at any season. In this, arrange the nests in boxes
on the sides, in such a manner as to humor the instinct of the hen
for concealment when she resorts to them. "When desirable to
set the hen, these nests may be so placed as to shut out the others,
yet open into another yard or beyond the enclosure, so that they
can take an occasional stroll and help themselves to food, etc.
This prevents other hens laying in their nests, while sitting, and
may be easily managed, by having their boxes hung on the wall
of the building, with a movable door made to open on either side
at pleasure. Hens will lay without a nest egg, but when broken
up, they ramble off and form new nests, if they are not confined.
They will lay if kept from the cock, but it is doubtful if they w411
thus yield as many eggs. Hens disposed to sit at improper times,
should be dismissed from the common yard, so as to be out of
reach of the nests, and plentifully fed till weaned from this incli-
nation.
TJie chickens require to be kept warm and dry, for the first few
days after hatching, and they may be fed with hard boiled eggs,
2P
490
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
crumbs of bread or pudding, and milk or water, and allowed to
scratch in the gravel in front of the hen, which should be con-
fined in a coop for the first three or four weeks, after which, they
may be turned loose, when thej will thrive on anything the older
ones eat. Many use them for the table when they are but a few
weeks old ; but they are much less valuable for this purpose, till
they have attained to near or quite full maturity. The white-
legs are preferred by some, from the whiteness and apparent deli-
cacy of the meat; but the yellow and dark-legged are good.
The color of the feathers does not seem to afi'ect the quality of
the flesh or their character for laying. If we consider the prin-
ciple of the absorption and retention of heat, we should assume
the white coat to be best, as it is coolest in summer when exposed
to the sun, and warmest in winter. Yet some of the white breeds
are delicate and do not bear rough usage or exposure.
Varieties. — Aside from the common dunghill fowl which
embraces many differences in shape, size, color and appearance,
there are many distinct breeds which more or less attract our
poultry fanciers in their choice of selection. These are so numer-
ous that our space will permit no extended descriptions, and we
must refer the reader to some of the several treatises on poultry
management for particulars, wherein they are fully discussed.
We may remark, however, that among the leading breeds, are
the Asiatic of several varieties, as the Bhrama^ Shanghai^ Chit-
tag ong ; the English Games and Dorkings; the Spanish^ Poland^
Bantam^ and many others ; and of late, some of the French varie-
ties, as Creve- Cceur^ La Fleche^ Houdan^ etc.
The late extraordinary interest in poultry breeding and selec-
tions which has spread throughout the country, called in derision,
the poultry fever," has proved of wonderful benefit to the qual-
ity of our barn-door fowls, in rearing them from a low estate to
the highest grade of excellence, both in their production, and .
edible qualities, as well as ornament to the rural premises.
The Diseases of hens are not numerous or complicated, and
may be mostly avoided by proper treatment and food, which are
indicated with sufficient minuteness in the foregoing observations.
POULTRY.
491
Gapes or pip is generally owing to drinking unwholesome or
dirty water. Bemove the white bhster on the tip of the tongue,
and wash with sharp vinegar, diluted with warm water ; or com-
pel the bird to swallow a large lump of fresh butter, mixed with
Scotch snuff. It has been removed by opening the mouth and
forcing a pigeon feather, with a tuft of the feather left on the
end, the other being stripped off, down the wind-pipe, and gently
turning it as withdrawn, to be repeated the following day if
necessary. This detaches large numbers of slender red worms,
collected in the larynx of the throat, which impede respiration
and swallowing. A Httle spirits of turpentine mixed with the
food is a preventive ; as are also clean, white-washed premises,
and good food. Feed for a few days with hght food, soaked
bran, and cabbage or lettuce chopped fine. Roup, Catarrh or
swelled head, is shown by feverish symptoms, swollen eye-lids,
(frequently terminating in blindness,) rattling in the throat, and
temporary strangulation. These are accompanied by a highly
offensive watery discharge from the mouth and nostrils, loss of
appetite, and much thirst. They should be placed near the fire ;
their head bathed in warm Castile soap-suds, or milk and water.
Stimulating food, as flour or barley-meal, mustard and grated
ginger, mixed and forced down the throat, Boswell says, has been
effectual in their speedy restoration. This, like many other dis-
eases, is contagious, and when it appears, the bird should be at
once separated from the flock. Flux is cured by the yolk of an egg
boiled hard, and boiled barley soaked in wine or cider. Costiveness
is removed by giving bran and water with a little honey ; or give
a small dose of castor oil. Vermin are destroyed by giving them
clean sand and ashes to roll in, adding a little quicklime if neces-
sary. Crude kerosene oil is perhaps, the best remedy for hce.
Swabbed along the roosts and laying boxes, or on the under feath-
ers of the fowl, it has proved destructive to these vermin. Car-
bolic acid, or "heavy oil," (a distillation from gas tar,) is also an
effectual remedy for vermin, apphed in the same manner. Entire
clea7\liness is necessary for the avoidance of this and other dis-
4d2
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
eases. A perfectly dry range is also essential, nor should there
be too many together, as this is a fruitfiil source of disease.
THE TURKEY
Was unknown, to the civihzed world till the discovery of this
Continent. It was found here both in its wild and domesticated
state, and still occupies the whole range of the Western Hemi-
sphere, though the wild turkey disappears as the country becomes
settled. The wild is about the size of the domesticated bird. The
color of the male is generally a greenish brown, approaching to
black, and of a rich, changeable, metalhc lustre. The hen is
marked somewhat like the cock, but with duller hues. Domesti-
cation through successive generations, has changed the color of
their plumage, and produced a variety of colors, black, buff, pure
white, or speckled. They give evidence of the comparative
recency o^f their domestication, in the instinct which frequently
impels the cock to brood and take care of the young. Nothing
is more common than for the male bird to supply the place of the
hen, when any accident befalls her, and bring up a family of
young chicks with an equally instinctive regard for their help-
lessness and safety. The flesh of this bird, both wild and tame,
is exceedingly dehcate and palatable ; and though not possessing
the high game flavor of some of the smaller wild fowl, and
especially of the aquatic, as the canvas-back duck, etc., it exceeds
them in its digestibiHty and healthfulness. The turkey is useful
principally for its flesh, as it seldom lays over a nest full of eggs
at one clutch, when they brood on these and bring up their
young. If full fed, and their first eggs are withdrawn from them,
they frequently lay a second time. We have had them lay
throughout the summer and into late autumn.
Breeding. — Those intended for breeders should be compact,
vigorous and large, without being long-legged. They should be
daily, yet lightly fed through the winter, on grain and roots, and
some animal food is always acceptable and beneficial to them.
They are small eaters, and without caution will soon get too fat.
POULTRY.
493
One vigorous male will suffice for a flock of ten or twelve hens,
and a single connection is sufficient for each. They begin to lay-
on the approach of warm weather, laying once a day, or every
other day, till they have completed their clutch, which in the
young or indifferently fed, may be ten or twelve, and in the older
ones, sometimes reaches twenty. The hen is sly in secreting her
nest, but usually selects a dry, well protected place. She is an
inveterate sitter, and carefully hatches most of her eggs. The
young may be allowed to remain for twenty-four hours without
eating, then fed with hard boiled eggs, made fine, or crumbs of
wheat bread. Boiled milk, curds, buttermilk, etc., are food for
them. As they get older, oat or barley meal is suitable, but
Indian meal, uncooked, is hurtful to them when quite young.
They are very tender, and will bear neither cold nor wet, and it
is of course necessary to confine the old one for the first few
weeks. When able to shift for themselves, they may wander
over the fields at pleasure; and from their great fondness for
insects, they will rid the meadows of innumerable grasshoppers,
etc., which ofi;en do incalculable damage to the farmer. Early
chickens are sufficiently grown to fatten the latter part of autumn
or the beginning of winter, which is easily done on any of the
grains or boiled roots. The grain is better for cooking. They
require a higher roosting place than hens, and are impatient of too
close confinement, preferring the ridge of a barn, or a lofty tree,
to the circumscribed limits of the ordinary poultry house. When
rightly managed and fed, turkeys are subject to few maladies,
•and even these, careful attention will soon remove.
THE PEACOCK AND GUINEA HEN.
The peacock is undoubtedly the most showy of the feathered
race. It is a native of the southern part of Asia, and is still
found wild in the islands of Java and Ceylon, and some parts of
the interior of Africa. They are an ornament to the farm prem
ises, and are useful in destroying reptiles, insects and garbage,
49'4
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
but thej are quarrelsome in the poultry yard and destructive in
the garden. Their flesh is coarse and dark, and they are worth-
less as layers. The brilHant silvery green, and their ever- varying
colors give place to an entire white in one of the varieties.'
The Guinea hen is a native of Africa and the southern part of
Asia, where it abounds in its wild state. Most of them are
beautifully and uniformly speckled, but occasionally they are
white on the breast, Hke the Pintados of the West India Islands,
and some are entirely white. They are unceasingly garrulous,
and their excessively pugnacious character renders them uncom-
fortable inmates with the other poultry. Their flesh, though
high colored, is delicate and palatable, but, like the peacock, they
are indifferent layers. Both are natives of a warm chmate, and
the young are tender and rather difficult to rear. Neither of
these birds are general favorites, and we omit further notice of
them.
THE GOOSE.
There are many varieties of the goose. Main enumerates
twenty -two, most of which are wild; and the tame are again
variously subdivided. The common white and gray are the most
numerous and profitable. The white Bremen is much larger, often
weighing over twenty pounds net. It is" of a beautiful snowy
plumage, is domestic and reared without difficulty, though not as
proHfic and hardy as the former. The China goose is smaller than
the gray, and one of the most beautiful of the family, possessing
much of the gracefulness and general appearance of the swan;
There are three varieties of these in the United States : the small
brown, with black bill andjegs; the larger gray, with black bill
and reddish legs; and the pure white, with orange bill and legs.
It is prolific and tolerably hardy, but has not thus far been a
successful rival with the first. The Guinea or African goose is
the largest of the species. It is a majestic and graceful bird, and
very ornamental to water scenery. Several other varieties are
POULTRY.
495
domesticated in the United States. The finest goshngs for the
table we have ever reared, or seen, were a cross from the China
gander and common gray goose. They are very hardy and easy
to raise.
Breeding. — Geese pair frequently at one year old, and rear
their young; but with some kinds, especially of the wild, this is
deferred till two and sometimes three. They require a warm,
dry place for their nests, and when undisturbed they will sit
steadily, and if the eggs have not been previously chilled or
addled, they will generally hatch them all, if kept on the nest.
To insure this, it is sometimes necessary to withdraw the first
hatched, to prevent the old ones wandering before all are out.
They should be kept in a warm, sheltered place, till two or three
weeks old, if the weather be cold or unsettled. The best food
for the goslings is barley or oat, or Indian meal boiled, and bread.
Milk is also good for them. They require green food, and are
fond of lettuce, young clover, and fresh tender grass, and after a
few weeks, if they have a free range on this, they will forage for
themselves. Geese are not a profitable bird to raise, unless in
places where they can procure their own subsistence, or at least
during the greater part of the year. This they are enabled to
do wherever there are extensive commons of unpastured lands,
or where there are streams or ponds, lakes or marshes, with shoal,
sedgy banks. In these they will hve and fatten throughout the
year, if unobstructed by ice and snow.
They may be fattened on all^kinds of grain and edible roots,
but it is more economical to give them their food cooked. The
well-fattened gosling affords one of the most savory dishes for the
table. Geese live to a great age. They have been known to
exceed forty years. "When allowed a free range on good food
and clean water, they will seldom get diseased. When well fed,
they yield nearly a pound of good feathers in a season, at three
or four pluckings, and the largest varieties even exceed this. But
plucking is a cruel business, and should not be done closely, and
only between the months of May and October. Goshngs in-
AMERICAN AGEICULTUKE.
tended for eating should not be plucked at all until fatted and
killed.
DUCKS
Are more hardj and independent of attention tnan the goose
and they are generally the most profitable. They are omnivorous
and greedily devour everything which will afford them nourish-
ment, though they seldom forage on the grasses, like the goose
when they can procure other food. They are peculiarly carniv-
orous, and devour all kinds of meat, putrid or fresh, and are
especially fond of fish and such insects, worms, etc., as they can
find imbedded in the mud or elsewhere. They wiU often distend
their crop with young frogs, almost to the ordinary size of their
bodies. Their indiscriminate appetites often render them unfit
for the table, unless fattened out of the reach of garbage and
ofFensive matters. An English admiral used to resort to well-
fattened rats for his fresh meat, when at sea, and justified his
taste by saying they were more cleanly feeders than ducks, which
were general favorites.
The tabieties of ducks are almost innumerable. Main
describes thirty-one, and some naturalists number many more
The most profitable for domestic use, aside from the common one
are the Uach Cayuga, the Ayleslury, and Rouen, all being of
much larger size, and richer and more dehcate flavor of flesh
They lay prgfusely in the spring, when well fed, often producing
forty or fifty eggs, and sometimes a greater number, if kept
from sitting. They are much larger than those of the hen and
equally rich and nourishinff, but less delicate. They are careless
in their habits, and generally drop their eggs wherever they hap-
pen to be through the night, whether in the water, the road or
farm-yard; and, as might be expected from such prodigahty of
character, they are indiff-erent sitters and nurses. The ducklings
are better reared by sitting the eggs under a sedate, experienced
hen, as the longer time necessary for hatching requires patience
in the foster-mother to develop the young chick. They should
POULTKY.
497
be confined for a few days, and away from the water. At first
they may be fed with bread, or pudding made from boiled oat,
barley, or Indian meal ; and they soon acquire strength and enter-
prise enough to shift for themselves, if afterwards supplied with
pond or river water. They are fit for the table when fully grown,
and well fattened on clean grain. This is more economically
accomphshed by feeding it cooked. We omit further notice of
other varieties, and of the swan, brant, pigeons, etc., as not
profitable for general rearing, and only suited to ornamental
grounds. •
HONEY BEES.
Every farmer, when favorably situated, should keep these useful
insects. "When successfully bred, they are very profitable, as
they obtain their own living and provide stores of surplus honey,
with only a reasonable care. To those who adopt their cultiva-
tion, we can do no better than refer them to some one of the
numerous treatises with which our bookstores abound, for learning
all that may be required about them.
CHAPTER XXII
DISEASES OF ANIMALS.
Thesb are so ramified in their extent, so various in their
influences, in many cases so intricate in their natures, and so
difficult in treatment, as to induce even the most learned in phys-
iological and medical science to ponder doubtfully before venturing
on any settled rules of practice.
Books of farriery and veterinary treatment of farm stock have
been written, almost without number, and in many instances by
men of ability and undoubted attainments ; but so different were
their judgments of the kinds of disease under discussion, and their
treatment of them, that on searching their different authorities
and finding the extreme variance of their prescriptions and prac-
tice, one hardly knows what to think, what to do, or, in fact,
whether he shall put any faith at all in either one or the other.
V^eterinary schools have abounded, they now abound — of one
sort or another — ^but many sound, practical horse and other stock
owners avoid them, so chary are they of their prescriptions and
treatment of even common diseases. Surgery is another matter,
both scientific and mechanical, and may be practiced on the lower
order of animals by almost any one skillful in his treatment of
human anatomy and giving a moderate study to brute conform-
ation.
"We might name a score of authorities, of different nationalities,
of reputable attainments and approved practice at home, yet dis-
carded elsewhere, and not acknowledged as sound in either theory,
prescription, or practice. Doubtless, cHmate, food and the ordinary
treatment of the animals, had much to do with the rules and
DISEASES OP ANIMALS.
499
practices of the veterinarians in the locahties and countries where
thej worked. "What would do or be successful in France, Hol-
land, or Germany, would not answer in Great Britain; and what
would be- good practice in the latter country, would illy succeed
in the other localities; so on this side the ocean, with our different
climates, foods and usage, neither of those foreign practices would
answer with us. "We have but a limited veterinary authority
and practice in America. Our schools of the kind are few, and
those not always confided in, and yet in every city, village and
rural neighborhood are found more or less self-constituted horse
and cattle doctors.
We touch the subject with diffidence in our ability to select
from the mass of material before us, what to recommend, or what
to withhold in the medical treatment of our various farm stock,
knowing, as we do, the different opinions of even sound cattle
pathologists, physiologists and practitioners.^ Our treatment of
cattle disorders, (and by the term, cattle, we include all farm
stock,) should be American treatment; that is to say, a treatment
found to be successful on our soils and in our chmates generally,
by those who have given the various diseases to which they are,
or have been subject, deliberate study and practice — not empiri-
cism, or quackery, for of these latter every neighborhood has its
supply, and too frequently of deleterious influence.
^ . After saying this much, our sagacious reader may conclude we
had better say nothing at all. Perhaps so. But our work, after
treating of domestic animals as we have, would not be complete
without alluding to the subject, or laying down some rules of
practice, general in their nature and effect, at least, as well as
somewhat in particular for the common diseases to which our
stock are or may be subject. This we shall endeavor to do; but
not until we have first suggested to all who have the welfare of
their stock at heart, the greatest of all considerations : that of
prevention of disease and accident in the whole routine of usage
of the animals under their charge.
Prevention of Diseases and Accidents. — For the safety
of his animals, and their successful well-doing, care in handling,
500
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
feeding, watering, exercise, work, land stabling is of the highest
importance. For this purpose, every preparation for the keeping
and accommodation of the stock should, if possible, first be made.
If all these cannot be complete, they should be as near to it as
circumstances will admit. The golden rule in this category should
be: *'The merciful man is merciful to his beast," in all things,
which includes all of precaution and .care for the welfare of the
stock within his range. We have known farmers who, during
a score of years, had scarcely a sick or ailing creature on their
place. We have known others with some one or other contin-
ually ailing, maimed, or sick; ever losing them by death, and
always deprecating their miserable "luck" in stock. To one
intimately acquainted with the different parties and their man-
agement, the solution of their varied fortunes would be easy.
The first were pains taking, careful husbandmen, using foresight
and judgment. Th^ others were neglectful, heedless, paying little
attention to their animals ; careless in their feed, water, treatment,
or shelter; their fences poor, with every facility offering for mis-
haps and accidents. It is needless to go into particulars, as every
one having the means to grow, or keep stock at all, can readily
understand what ordinary good care means, and can, if he have
the disposition, practice it.
What Authority shall we Adopt? — If all the receipts,
nostrums and remedies which we have seen recommended and
printed in agricultural papers and other publications — and many
of them, no doubt, good and successful in the experience of those
who have urged and practiced them — were gathered and recorded,
we could fill a scrap-book of voluminous size ; but as our space
will limit us to a few, and most common only, of the various ail-
ments and diseases to which our animals are subject, -we shall
resort to that one which, after all our researches, has met with
a good share of popular approbation. We say, however, at the
threshold, that every stock breeder, and keeper of farm stock of
any kind, should provide himself with some competent authority
m the way of a book or treatise, (and of that authority himself,
DISEASES OF ANIMALS.
501
or some experienced man in whom he has confidence, should be
the judge,) and have it always at hand for instruction, when a
practitioner in the line is not at hand, which latter, we regret to
saj, is seldom readily found in many localities of our wide-spread
community.
There are partisans in veterinary treatment^ as well as of the
human system. Allopathy, homeopathy, and hydropathy each
have their advocates and practitioners, and perhaps with about
equal success, while it may be truthfully said,J;hose who give the
least medicine and permit nature to mainly work its own cures,
succeed equally well, if not better than most others. In our
practical experience of more than thirty years of stock husbandry, •
in which horses, neat cattle, sheep and swine have been consid-
erably kept, prevention of disease and accident, through careful
attention to them, has been our chief study; and when medicine
was resorted to, that of the simplest kind has been used. Leeches,
quacks, and doctors" of various degree have importuned and
assailed us, to whom we have paid little attention, and our success
has compared most favorably with those whose animals have been
attended by ''professed" practitioners in the line of medicaments.
We have seldom lost an animal where preventive care has been
bestowed, or timely mild medical treatment has been adopted.
Nature itself, aided by kindly stimulants, has been our chief
reliance for recovery. Blood-letting, after the old fashion, violent
purgations — which, however, in some acute inflammatory disor-
ders or attacks, may sometimes be resorted to — have not been
registered in our list of ordinary remedies. "Within the last fifty,
even thirty years, veterinary practice has largely changed from
the old way, and, we think, much for the better. In our boyhood
days, almost every farmer carried a case of "phlemes" in his
pocket, or, wanting that blood-letting instrument, his jack-knife
became the substitute, while his home cupboard contained more
or less bottles of the vilest drugs, with which to retch and distress
the viscera of his poor suffering brutes. These, in most instances,
are happily done away with, or so modified in their use as to only
502
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE,
be of occasional resort, while milder remedies have taken their
places.
To conclude the matter, after looking over most of the author-
ities in cattle diseases, we beheve *'Dadd's American Cattle
Doctor" to be a good work. Some of our readers may prefer
another. But we earnestly recommend all cattle keepers to pos-
sess themselves of some competent author, to study him closely ;
and that, with his own earnest study of the condition of his
stock, will aid him best in the welfare of his herd.
DISEASES OF SHEEP.
If properly attended, sheep have few disorders. Dry grounds,
sufficient food and water, salt every week or ten days, a reason-
able guard against accidents, and shelter during inclement seasons,
will usually carry the flock-master, with either small or large
numbers, through the year safely. There are, however, diseases
which more or less infest our flocks, and should be cured if pos-
sible, as they occur. We again refer to Dadd, for the informa-
tion which our own experience does not supply.
DISEASES OF SWINE.
Dadd also treats of their disorders in his "Cattle Doctor" as
with cattle and sheep.
In the treatment of all these different animals, the same caro
in keeping and feeding, and precautions against disease, should
be adopted as with cattle or horses. Our running remarks, when
treating of the varieties of stock, will sufficiently explain the
necessity of pains-taking with every living, useful thing apper-
taining to the success of the farmer. He must have brains of his
own, and use them.
TREATMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES.
Taken in their whole range of detail, horse ailmgs ar^^, almost
innumerable; and to treat of them, as they run, an entire vol-
ume would be necessary for their enumeration and management.
DISEASES OF ANIMALS.
503
Dadd, whom we think is as sensible and practical an American
authority as we have —although there are others which may be
entitled to equal confidence —enumerates and treats of more
than one hundred and fifty ailments, disorders, and diseases of
the body, bowels, bones, skin, and other organs belonging to the
horse, comprised in a compact volume of more than four hundred
pages of the size of this work. It would be altogether impossi-
ble, therefore, to give, within the limited space at our command,
any but the faintest allusion even to the most important of them,
besides being foreign to the main purposes of this work.
We can do no better, then, than commend the reader at once
to the possession— if he have it not already— of some one of the
approved American authorities for such instruction as may be
necessary in his -treatment of the several horse ailments and dis-
orders which may attend his stock.
There are a few simple suggestions, however, which we ven-
ture to make to all horse breeders, keepers, and workers, which,
if well attended to, will guard against most of the diseases, acci-
dents and misfortunes in their management. The horse is a
noble, generous, spirited animal, the most useful in his service of
any creature which assists us in his out of door labor, and grati-
fies our pride and pleasure in his use. He is intelhgent, kind,
affectionate to his keeper, patient in labor, enduring in, effort, and
almost always, under kindly treatment, submissive to the will of
his master. In ninety-nine cases of a hundred, where he fails to
be all these, the blame is not in the horse, but in the wrong treat-
ment which, at some age or other, he has received from those
who have handled him.
The first law which should govern all who have to do with
horses, from their birth forward, is the law of kindness ; and
no law is so often violated as in the want of judgment, des'cend-
ing many times into brutality, in the usage of this noble animal.
Most people, we trust, use them well; but many, we know, are
guilty of the most inhuman treatment of their generous natures,
and if there be a sin to be accounted for towards one of God's
504
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
most useful bounties to humanity, that of ill usage to horse flesh
must be reckoned one of the most glaring.
Among the rules which should govern the breeder, or farmer,
in his management, should be the following:
1st. Make the young foal gentle, in handling. Let it be well
nursed till weaning, which may take place at four or five months
old. If the dam be worked, let that work not be too severe, and
do not let the foal nurse when she is heated with uncommon
exercise or labor.
2d. Feed it plentifully on good grass till the grass season is
past, and then on good fodder, such as it will eat, and keep it
growing in good condition. Halter-break it the first winter, if
possible, and learn it to lead. Continue to feed well on grass
and hay, as the seasons occur, until three years old, when it
should be broken to the harness, or saddle, as the horse is afi:er-
wards intended to be used.
3d. Let the first labors be light and easy, for the young horse
is still growing, and severe labor will injure both growth and
constitution, which will soon be felt; and if persevered in, he
will not last half his allotted years, nor in those years perform
near his full amount of labor.
4th. Let his food always be good, wholesome, and nutritious,
his times of feeding and watering regular, his shelter warm, well
ventilated, and the floor, (which should be of wooden planks,
rather than of earth, brick or stone,) on which he stands, kept
clean. This latter item is of great importance, as guarding against
the pungent ammonia which escapes from the accumulated dung
and urine deposited, causing weakness to the eyes, and a foetid
atmosphere most deleterious to his health. (We some years ago
had occasion to use a stable for the winter, belonging to a farmer
— and he called himself a good one — in which he had kept his
horses for some months previous. On taking possession of it,
we found piles of manure a foot to eighteen inches thick in the
rear part of the stalls on which the hind feet of his horses had
stood, raising them to that elevation above the fore feet. The
DISEASES OF ANIMALS.
505 *
piles steamed with heated ammonia, and so hot that one could
hardly bear his hand on them. It is hardly necessary to say that
we had them cleared out before using, and on remonstrating with
the owner, he hstlessly answered, that such was his regular prac-
tice until spring, and that it was also the general custom of his
neighbors. It was too much work to clean them every day!"
Blindness, foot fever, swellings, and "scratches" of course, were
frequent occurrences with their horses.)
5th. Let the horses, when worked, be thoroughly rubbed
down and cleaned after taking off their harness, well bedded,
cooled before they are fed with grain, or watered ; and well fed
and watered in the morning before put at work.
6th. When worked, they should not be over-driven. If the
horse be naturally slow, do not urge him beyond his natural gait,
and never match a dull horse with a hvely one, or a slow horse
with a fast one. They can never work evenly together, and one
or the other must suffer from the inequahty of gait, draught, and
action.
7th. Never overload the team, nor discourage them by a too
heavy pull on first starting; nor start from a bad place, but let
the load be on a level and hard bottom. A single horse, or a
pair, will draw more and easier after getting warmed up to their
work, than when first starting. Never draw the check-rein tight
in heavy pulling, nor in a fast gait.
8th. Always keep clean wood ashes, pulverized charcoal, salt,
rosin, sulphur, epsom or glauber salts at hand, to be administered
for slight ailments; and in dosing, when necessary, administer the
dose through a cattle horn placed in the mouth, and not by a glass
bottle, as the latter may break, and bits of glass get into the
throat and stomach of the beast.
Keep, also, liniments of a mild unctuous nature, at hand to
apply to bruises, wounds, swelled legs, or other casualties to the
flesh or limbs. Carbohc acid is said by chemists to be one of the
best, as it is one of the cheapest of the kind.
9th. If horses, when turned to pasture, are inclined to jump
fences or become breachy, have the fences good, and if that will
' 22-
506
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
not secure them, do not put pokes on "their necks, but take a
leather strap, with a buckle at one end, and holes in the other,
(a heavy hame strap will answer the purpose,) and secure a
smooth wooden clog of a dozen or twenty pounds weight, accord-
ing to the size of the horse, to one of the forelegs at the fetlock.
Let the end of the clog where the strap is fastened, have a hole
for it, and be rounded off. It will not hinder their feeding, but
keep them within bounds, and make them easy to catch. In our
own practice of many years, we have tried almost all devices,
and find this the simplest and most effective.
DISEASES OF HORSES.
When a horse is found ailing, examine him thoroughly,
and consult your book — which you should never be without —
and if, in your own judgment you can relieve him by a mild dose
of medicine, do so, and he will in most cases recover soon, or be
relieved, when rest and careful feeding will soon restore him.
But if the case be an inflammatory, or violent . one, and yourself
be not competent to its mastery, apply at once to an experienced
farrier^ or veterinarian^ if such an one can be found. There are
always, in almost every neighborhood, more or less horse doc-
tors," empirics, quacks, and pretenders, professing everything,
and knowing nothing, in reality, about acute diseases. They
more frequently kill than cure, being neither chemists, physiolo-
gists, nor intelligent practitioners, in animal diseases. Do not
employ them.
After all, ailments and diseases, in a great majority of cases,
originate from bad treatment or neglect, and if the rules which
we have enumerated are properly regarded, ailments will seldom
occur, and then of so trivial kind as to be easily managed. In a
forty years' experience with a great many horses, in all kinds of
labor, we have never lost but two, and that by violent wind
coHc, which we traced to gross neglect on the part of our team-
sters. Heaves, spavins, blindness, broken wind, and most of the
disorders so common with work-horses, can usually be traced to
improper usage, neglect, or abuse.
DISEASES OF ANIMALS.
507
Sometimes infectious or contagious diseases will occur out of
the common line, and not always to be guarded against by even
pains-taking men; but with proper precaution, even these, in
many cases, may be avoided by keeping their animals from con-
tact or exposure with diseased ones. Too much caution cannot
be used when such exposures are imminent. *
With these general retnarks, we dismiss the subject, only
repeating the advice to have a good treatise on horse diseases
always at hand.
CHAPTER XXIII
COIS^CLUSION. GENEKAL KEMAEKS.
In concluding our work, we cannot well let it go to the reader
without remarking somewhat on the husiness of agriculture as a
permanent occupation, in which the whole mind and abihty of
the farmer is engaged.
To the successful farmer, it is his only proper occupation — his
engrossing business, above all other. By it he earns his living
and rears his family. His associations, his interests, and his
affections, cluster about his farm, his stock, his crops, his home.
His social relations, his domestic sympathies are all there. His
farm is his little world, and over it he reigns supreme, caUing no
man master. If his affairs are properly conducted, he is inde-
pendent — so far as any man can be in civilized society. It is
therefore necessary that he attend to his farm, that it be his
only, or at all events, chief business and occupation; and that
all other concerns in which he may engage, should be secondary,
or subsidiary to that.
Look at all the other professions and occupations in life, and
see how they are conducted by those who follow them.
The clergyman studies his theology, and labors "in season,
and out of season," for the welfare of his people, and the care of
their souls.
The lawyer is devoted to his profession, solely ; and frequently,
through the course of a long and laborious life, knows little out-
side of it ; except, happily, indulging his leisure hours in cultivat-
ing the graces of society, or recreating in some chosen path of
study or exercises outside, to which his tastes invite hinr. The
physician does the same. The merchant, the manufacturer, the
GENERAL REMARKS.
509
artisan, the chemist, the miner, pursue the Hues of labor embraced
in their professions, industriously, studiously, laboriously; and.
in each they excel and prosper, in proportion to their diligence
and intelHgence, gaining fame, fortune, or whatever other great
object each has striven from the beginning to attain.
The farmer should do likewise. His is not a business to be
delegated to others, any more than either of the professions, or the
pursuits which we have named ; nor can it be thrown off upon
clerks and journeymen.
He that by the plow would thrive,
Himself must either hold or drive."
In this adage hes a volume of wisdom. The farmer must not
only be industrious, but studious. His mind, his thoughts must
be in his business. His family must also be industrious and
studious. It is true that modern inventions, which have greatly
alleviated the labors of not only himself, but his family, have per-
mitted him, and them, much more leisure than their ancestors
enjoyed, as well as other pleasures and luxuries ; but after all, the
farm, the crops, the stock, and household economy, should be his
and their chief occupation and dehght ; and unless that be so,
they cannot succeed and prosper. With these properly attended
to, success is generally sure. Locality, soil, climate, markets, and
some other outside influences may favor one more than another,
but in the long run, wherever the farmer fixes his home, success,
when his labors are well directed, is almost sure to follow.
As farming is usually pursued, what occupation with no more
intelhgence and industry apphed to it, pays better? Suppose
the farmer gets a bare hving for himself and family — his farm
being paid for — how many men in other occupations can waste,
or spare the time, from their regular occupations, that he does, and
bring the year about as comfortably and with so little embarrass-
ment? None whatever. Many farmers spend scarcely half
their time in steady work on their farms, and still they and their
families get through the year comfortably, after their own notions
of comfort. Successful men in other pursuits are apt to look on
510
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
the farmer's life as one of drudgery, deprivation, hardship. If
they understood the farmer's life in all its phases, bearings, and
experiences, their conclusions would be widely different.
AMATEUR FARMING.
Thi^re is another kind of farming, of which it is proper to speak.
It is undertaken as a recreation, an amusement, or a convenience.
It is followed, generally, by men who depend for a livelihood upon
other pursuits, and their farm labors are delegated to subordinate
hands who seldom have the brain, or the application required for
the best development of the soil. There is seldom much money
profit in it, although there may be much convenience, pleasure,
and enjoyment to the proprietor. His knowledge, his perse-
verance, his persistent attention is given to his own regular
business, and not applied to the cultivation of his acres, or the
detailed care of his stock. He draws a share of his provisions,
food, fruits, and other commodities from his farm, and in their
freshness, or superior quality, he derives his enjoyment. He
discourses to his friends of his triumphs in cultivation, of his
productions, and enjoys at his table and fireside, with them his
successes. All this is in the way of luxury, over and above
what he can buy in the markets, or obtain from his huckster.
He revels in his own products, and takes a hearty pleasure in
them. He does not count the cost, and so he obtains what he
wants, charges the expense to "profit and loss" in his accounts,
and lets the matter go — his enjoyment being a full compensation
for the outlay.
Yet, both of these farmers, the one who lives and thrives
solely by the cultivation of his land, and the other who cultivates
solely for his own pleasure or convenience, should be equally well
instructed in the science and principles of their work — the one
to make his daily labors profitable and easy ; the other to add to
his own pleasure, and set a good example to others.
"We never yet knew an ignorant man who was a good farmer
throughout. Clever, he may be, in many things, and very labo-
USEFUL TABLES.
511
rious, but never achieving success in a full round of farm labors,
or duties. Truly successful men read, ponder, and understand.
They are not great readers of books always, but their minds are
on their business, and they are ever ready to seek in books or
periodicals for information, where a doubt is to be solved, and
they find no readier way to do it. The amateur is always a
reader, and his '^book farming" is often made a butt of ridicule
by many who are utterly ignorant, or know much less of the
subject than himself " Every man who turns up a sod in the way
of cultivating the earth, should be, more or less, a book farmer.
SUNDEY USEFUL TABLES.
For convenient reference a few tables are given of various
itemsj which may much facilitate the farmer in his operations:
ESTIMATE OF FARM SEEDS FOR AN ACRE.
Winter Wheat, broadcast, lU to 2 bush.
Winter Wheat, drilled, 1 to 1}^ bush.
Spring Wheat, broadcast, 2 to 2^ bush.
Spring Wheat, drilled, IX to 2 bush.
The difference between the quantity of winter and spring
wheat, is caused by the tillering of the winter variety into many
stalks in its autumn growth, which the spring sown grain does to
a less extent.
Rye, broadcast, IX hush.
Rye, drilled, 1 to 1)^ bush.
Barley, broadcast, 2 to 2X t>ush.
Barley, drilled, IX to 2 bush.
Oats, broadcast, 2 to 3 bush.
Oats, drilled, 2 to 2K bush.
Timothy, (always broadcast,) when sown
with grain in the fall of the year, to be
followed with clover in the spring, 6 to
8 quarts.
Timothy, without clover, 12 to 16 quarts.
Timothy, sown with clover in the spring,
8 to 10 quarts.
Red Clover, (broadcast,) after timothy in
the spring, 4 to 6 quarts.
Red Clover, without other grass, in the
spring, 8 to 12 quarts.
Herds, or Red Top, 1 to IX hush., of 14
pounds to the bush.
Lucerne, drilled, 10 pounds.
Blue Grass, 1 to IX hush., of 14 pounds
to the bush.
White Clover, (broadcast,) 8 pounds,
usually sown with blue grass.
Indian Corn, in hills, small varieties, 6
to 8 quarts.
Indian Corn, in hills, large varieties, 4 to
6 quarts.
Sorghum, or Chinese Sugar Cane, 2 to 3
quarts.
Millet, broadcast, K to 1 bush.
Buckwheat, K to 1 bush.
Beets and MangoldWurtzel,4 to 6 pounds.
Carrots, 2 to 3 pounds.
Turnips and Rutabagas, 1 pound.
Parsnips, 4 to 6 pounds.
Beans, in drills 2)^ feet apart, IX bush.
Potatoes, in drills. 10 to 12 bush.
Potatoes, in hills, 8 to 10 bush.
512
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
As a general rule, rich soil requires one-fourth to one-third less
seed per acre than thin, or hght soils, as the plants grow stouter
on rich than on poor ground.
NUMBER OF PLANTS ON AN ACRE.
The following table shows the number of nlants or trees, at
the distances named apart, which may be planted on an acre.
Distances apart.
No. of Plants.
Distances apart.
No. of Plants.
1 foot by 1
foot,
. 43,560
6Xfeetby
6M feet,
. 1,031
19,360
7
1
888
2 feet
((
1
. 21,780
8
8
. 680
((
2
leet,
10,890
9
((
(I
9
t(
537
"
. 6,969
10
((
10
. 435
3
(I
1
(1
. 14,520
11
((
11
3C0
3 "
(I
2
i(
. 7,260
12
12
((
. 302
3 "
ifc
3
i(
4,840
13
.(
13
((
257
3X "
((
((
. 3,555
14
11
14
((
. 222
4
((
1
((
. 10,890
15
(.
(I
15
193
4 "
2
. 5,445
16
(«
16
. 170
4
(I
3
11
3,630
17
17
(I
150
4
4
(•
. 2,722
18
18
. 134
4i^r "
2,151
19
((
l(
19
.1
120
5 "
(I
1
((
. 9,712
20
((
11
20
((
. 108
5 "
(I
2
i(
4,356
25
(I
11
25
i(
. . 69
5 "
ii
3
11
. 2,904
30
i(
(I
30
((
. 48
5
(I
4
(fc
2,179
40
40
27
5 "
i(
5
(fc
. 1,742
50
l(
50
. 17
5X
((
. . 1,417
60
11
60
i(
12
6 "
((
6
((
. 1,210
66
4(
U
66
. 10
For intermediate spaces in the above numbers, one can readily
add, subtract, divide or multiply, as he may wish.
VALUE OF FOOD FOR DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
The figures below give the comparative number of pounds of
each substance to equal in effect that of any standard food— as,
for instance, that of hay.
Good Hay, to give a certain nourishment, requires
Good Clover Hay will give same effect by the use of
Rye Straw
Oat Straw
Potatoes
Carrots
Beets
Ruta Bagas
100 pounds.
95
355
220
195
280
346
262
USEFUL TABLES.
513
Wheat will give same effect by the use of
Peas ' "
Beans
Rye
Barley
Fndian Corn " " "
Oats
Buckwheat " " "
Oil Cake
48 pounds.
44 "
40 "
49 "
51
56 "
59 "
64 "
64 "
CONSUMPTION OF HAY
The hay consumed hj different animals does not vary greatly
from three pounds daily for each hundred pounds weight of the
animals. The following table is the result of various experiments
by different persons, and will be useful for farmers who wish to
determine, by calculation beforehand, how their hay will hold out
for the winter; 500 cubic feet of timothy hay, in a full bay, being
about one ton:
2.84 pounds.
2.42 "
3.00 "
3.00 "
Working Horses, 3.08 pounds. Steers,
Working Oxen, 2.40 " Dry Cows,
Milk Cows, (Boussingault's) 2.25 " Pigs, (estimated)
Milk Cows, (Lincohi's) 2.40 " Sheep,
Young Growing Cattle, 3.08 "
All the articles enumerated in these food tables are estimated
as of good quality. If the fodder be of poor quahty, more must
be allowed.
WEIGHT OF A CUBIC FOOT
of various substances, from which the bulk of a load of one ton
may be easily calculated :
Cast Iron, .... 450 pounds.
Water, .... 62 «
White Pine, seasoned, about 30 "
White Oak, " 52 "
Loose Earth, " 95 "
Common Soil, compact, about 124 pounds,
Clay, " 135 "
Clay, with stones, " 160 '*
Brick, " 125 "
Stone, " m "
BULK OF A TON OF DIFFERENT SUBSTANCES.
23 cubic feet of Sand make about a ton.
18 cubic feet of Earth make about a ton.
17 cubic feet of Clay make about a ton.
22*
514
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
18 cubic feet of gravel or earth, before digging, make 27 cubic
feet when dug ; or, the bulk is increased as three to two.
TO MEASURE GRAIN IN THE GRANARY.
Divide the cubic feet by 56, and multiply by 45, and the result
will be struck measure in bushels.
TO MEASURE CORN IN THE CRIB.
Multiply the length, breadth, and height together, in feet, to
obtain the cubic feet ; multiply this product by 4, and strike off
the right figure ; and the result will be shelled bushels, nearly.
UNITED STATES BUSHEL AND GALLON.
The United States bushel, adopted now by the State of New
York, is 2150.40 cubic inches. The gallon 231 cubic inches.
The dry measure gallon, or one-eighth of the bushel, is 268.8
cubic inches.
WEIGHT OF GRAIN.
The laws of this State established the following weights, avoir-
dupois, to the bushel of the articles named, in the absence of a
specific contract:
Wheat,
Indian Corn,
Rye, .
Pounds.
. 60
56
. 56
Buckwheat, 48
Barley, 48
Oats, 32
Beans, 62
Peas, 60
Pounds.
Timothy Seed, . . . , .44
Clover Seed, 60
Flaxseed, 55
Potatoes, • . 60
Dried Apples, 22
Dried Peaches, .... 32
Salt, 56
Onions, . . . . . . 51^
CAPACITY OF SOILS FOR WATER.
The following substances are saturated when they contain, of
their own weight,
about 24 per cent, of water.
Calcareous Sand, " 28 *' "
Loamy Soil, u 33 ti u
Clay Loam, "47 " "
Peat, " 80 " "
USEFUL TABLES.
515
VELOCITY OF WATER IN TILE DRAINS.
An acre of land in a wet time contains about 1,000 spare hogs-
heads of water. An underdrain will carry off the water from a
strip of land about 2 rods wide, and one 80 rods long will drain
an acre.
The following table will show the size of the tile required to
drain an acre in two days' time (the longest admissible) at dif-
ferent rates of descent, or the size for any larger area
Diameter
of Bore.
2 inches,
2 "
2
2 "
3 "
3 "
3
3
4 "
4
4 "
Rate
of Descent.
1 foot in 100
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
50
20
10
100
50
20
10
100
50
20
Velocity
of current
per second.
22 inches,
32
51
73
27 "
38 "
67
84 "
32
45
72 "
Hogsheads
discliarged
in 24 hours,
. 400
560
900
1,290
1,170
1,640
3,100
3,600
2,500
3,500
5,600
1 10 100 " .... t,800
A deduction of one-third to one-half must be made for the
roughness of the tile or imperfection in laying. The drain must
be of some length to give the water velocity, and these numbers
do not therefore apply to very short drains.
CONTENTS OF CISTERNS.
The following gives the contents of circular cisterns for each
foot in depth :
5 feet diameter,
Barrels.
. 4.66
6.71
. 9.13
8 feet diameter,
9 "
10 "
Barrels.
11.93
15.10
18.65
FORCE OF WIND.
The force exerted by windmills will vary greatly with the
velocity of the wind.^ The following table shows the pressure
a^^ainst a fixed surface; from the velocity given in this table, the
average velocity of the sails must be deducted, and the remam-
der will show the real force exerted :
516
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
Veloci(y. Pressure
Miles ar hour. in lbs. on Description.
square ft.
1 005 Hardly perceptible.
2 ..... . .020) ^
3. ^ 0^5 > Just perceptible.
4 . . * . . . . .089 1 _.
5 125 y Light breeze.
6 1801 ^
7 >■ Gentle, pleasant wind.
10 500 1
15 1 125 1 -P^^^s^^*' hrisk wind.
20 2.000 )
25 . : 3.125 I Very brisk.
30 4.500 1
35 6.125 f ^*^ong, high wind
40 8.000)
45 10.125 / ^^^^y ^^Sh.
50 . . . . . . 12.500 Storm or tempest.
60 . . . . . . . 18.000 Great storm.
^80 32.000 Hurricane.
50.000 Tornado, tearing up trees and sweeping
off buildings.
YALUE OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF WOOD AS FUEL.
The celebrated experiments of Marcus Bull, of Philadelphia,
many years ago gave the following results, showing the amount
required to throw out a given quantity of heat :
Hickory, .... 4 cords. Pitch Pine, .... 9 1-7 cords.
White Oak, . . . 4a4 " White, . . . . 91-5 "
Hard Maple, . . . .6 2-3" Anthracite Coal, ... 4 tons.
Soft Maple, . . . 7 1-5 " Bituminous Coal, . . 5 "
TEMPERATURE FOR THE RISING OF CREAM.
The temperature of the surrounding air has a great effect upon
the time required for the rising of the cream. Experiment has
demonstrated that, with the thermometer at
80 deg., all the cream will rise in 10 hours.
77
12
18
55 deg., all the cream will rise in 24 hours.
50 " " 36
45 " " 43 »
WEIGHT OF HAY IN CUBIC MEASURE.
According as it is packed, in large or snlall quantities, and the
pressure on the top, hay will weigh a ton to 400, 500, and even
600 cubic feet of measurement, either in mows in barns, or stacks
USEFUL TABLES.
517
outside, after lying two, three, or more months. The weight, per
measure, will also depend somewhat on the condition in which it
is put up. Late cut and woody haj w^ill weigh less than that
which is cut green and in good season, as the latter packs closer
than the other. Also fine hay, as red-top, blue-grass, white clover,
and rowen, which packs very close, will weigh much heavier to
the same bulk than timothy, red clover, orchard grass, &c.
AVERAGE COMPOSITION, PER GENT. AND PER TON, OP VARIOUS
KINDS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE, ETC.
-
PER CENT.
LBS. PER (long) ton.
11
1
1 matter
d reckoned
3 of lime.
1 matter
d reckoned
5 of lime.
nre in dolla
n (2000 lbs)
as
nera
o3 5
•a -a
S3
nera
i J
.a -a
>>
a .
>-> 8
1. Linseed cake
88.0
7.00
4.92
1.65
4.75
1,971
156.8
110.2
37.0
106.4
19.72
2. Cotton seed cake
89.0
8.00
7.00
3.12
6.50
1,994
179.2
156.8
70.0
145.6
27.86
3. Rape cake
89.0
8.00
5.75
1.76
5.00
1,994
179.2
128.8
39.4
112.0
21.01
4. Linseed
90.0
4.00
3.38
1.37
3.80
2,016
89.6
75,7
30.7
85.1
15.65
5. Beans
84.0
3.00
2.20
1.27
4.00
1.882
67.2
49.3
28.4
89.6
15.75
6. Peas
84.5
2.40
1.84
0.96
3.40
1,893
53.8
41.2
21.5
76.2
13.38
7. Tares
84.0
2.00
1.63
0.66
4.20
1,892
44.8
36.5
14.8
94.1
16.75
8. Lentils
88.0
3.00
1.89
0.96
4.30
1,971
67.2
42.3
21.5
96.3
16.51
9. Malt dust
94.0
8.50
5.23
2.12
4.20
2,106
190.4
117.1
47.5
94.1
18.21
10. Locust beans
85.0
1.75
1.25
1,904
39.2
28.0
4.81
11. Indian meal
88.0
1.30
i;i3
6!35
1.80
1,971
29.1
'25'.3
'h\s
40.3
6.65
12. Wheat
85.0
1.70
1.87
0.50
1.80
1,904
38.1
42.0
11.2
40.3
7.08
13. Barley
84.0
2.20
1.35
0.55
1.65
1,882
49.3
30.2
12.3
37.0
6.32
14. Malt
95.0
2.60
1.60
0.65
1.70
2,128
58.2
35.8
14.6
38.1
6.65
15. Oats ...
86.0
2.85
1.17
0.50
2.00
1,926
63.8
26.2
11.2
44.8
7.70
16. Fine pollard*
86.0
5.60
6.44
1.46
2.60
1,926
125.4
144.2
32.7
58.2
13.53
17. Coarse pollard t
86.0
6.20
7.52
1.49
2.58
1,926
138.9
168.4
33.4
57.8
14.36
18. Wheat bran
86.0
6.60
7.95
1.45
2.55
1.926
147.8
178.1
32.5
57.1
14.59
19. Clover hay
84.0
7.50
1.25
1.30
2.50
i;882
168.0
28.0
29.1
56.0
9.64
20. Meadow hay
84.0
6.00
0.88
1.50
1.50
1,882
134.4
19.7
33.6
33.6
6.43
21. Bean straw
82.5
5.55
0.90
1.11
0.90
1,848
124.3
20.2
24.9
20.2
3.87
22. Pea straw
82.0
5.95
0.85
0.89
1,837
133.3
19.0
19.9
20.2
3.74
23. Wheat straw
84.0
5.00
0.55
0.65
oieo
1,882
112.0
12.3
14.6
13.4
2.68
24. Barley straw
85 0
4.50
0.37
0.63
0.50
1,904
100.8
8.3
14.1
11.2
2.25
25. Oat straw
83.0
5.50
0.48
0.93
0.60
1,859
123.2
10.7
20.8
13.4
2.90
26. Mangold wurtzel .
12.5
1.00
0.09
0.25
0.25
280
22.4
2.0
5.6
5.6
1.07
27. Swedish turnips
11.0
.68
0.13
0.18
0.22
246
13.4
2.9
4.0
4.6
91
28. Common turnips
8.0
.68
0.11
0.29
0.18
179
15.2
2.5
6.5
4.0
86
29. Potatoes
24.0
1.00
0.32
0.43
0.35
537
22.4
7.2
9.6
7.8
1.50
30. Carrots
13.5
.70
0.13
0.23
0.20
302
15.7
2.9
5.1
4.5
86
31. Parsnips
15.0
1.00
0.42
0.36
0.22
336
22.4
9.4
8.1
4.9
1.14
* Middlings, Canielle. t Shipstuff.
518
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.
The foregoing table, showing the composition of various foods
and the estimated value of the manure made by animals consuming
a ton of them, was prepared by John B. Lawes, of Rothamstead.
The composition of the foods is undoubtedly correct; the esti-
mated money value must be taken only relatively. The figures
given are in gold, and are based on Enghsh prices of guano and
other commercial manures. New York prices are from one-
quarter to one-third higher.
It will be seen that cotton seed cake makes the richest manure
of any food in the list. Linseed oil-cake, peas, beans, malt dust,
and bran, are among the most valuable foods. Coarse bran is
frequently sold at a price that would make it, after deducting the
value of the manure, one of the most profitable foods to purchase.
Clover hay stands high in the fist.
INDEX.
Agriculture, defined. 14
national board of, required 16
Agricultural Education demanded. . . 11
Alluvial soils, how formed and treated 30
Ammonia, how formed and combined 67
Animals, domestic 344
See Cattle, Sheep, etc.
Apples, situation and soil for 210
planting trees 211
cultivation of 213
pruning 214
grafting and budding 215
selection of trees 216
gathering and preserving.. 217
for farm stock and value of 218
best varieties of 219—221
Apricots, cultivation of 232
Arboriculture, defined 14
Artichoke, the Jerusalem 206
its value, product and cultivation 207
Arundo grass, described 118
Ashes as manure 44
defined 44
from various vegetables 45
quantity required per acre 46
applied to meadows 47
coal, for manure 47
from sea-weeds or marine plants 47
peat, how used on soils 48
See Soils and various crops.
Ass, The...; 460—463
varieties and characteristics 460
breeding in the United States. . . 461
as a beast of burthen 462
Barberry 239
Barley, varieties of 160
soil and cultivation 161
harvesting and uses of 161
ashes analyzed 45
Barren soils made fertile 306
Beans, nutritive value of 181
soil and cultivation 181
harvesting 182
varieties of the English field 183
ash of, analyzed 45
Bees, honey 497
Beets, varieties of 204
cultivation of 204
harvesting and uses 205
analysis 205
Birds, utility to the farmer 311
Bermuda grass. 116
Blackberries 237
Blood, as manure 79
Blue grass, (erroneously called) 114
described 114
comparative value and descrip-
tion of 114
Bokhara clover, or sweet-scented. . . 137
Bones, analyzed 55
used as manure 56
Breeding, defined 14
principles of 345
Bricks, broken, for manure 59
Broom-corn, soil and manure 242
cultivation and harvesting 243
value and uses 244
Buckwheat, cultivation and uses 178
Buildings for the farm 332
farm-house 332
barn 334
sheds 336
carriage-houses, granary, etc 338
materials for building 341
Butter. See Dairy.
Button-wood trees, for shade 322
Bushel, in measurement , 514
Calcareous soils 24
.520
INDEX,
Canada thistle, how extirpated 305
Carbon, described • 65
Carbonic acid, uses 65
Carrots, ash, analyzed 45
soil and varieties 201
harvesting and uses 202
Castor bean 296
Cattle, neat or horned 363
various domestic breeds , 363
native cattle 364
Devons 364
Short-horns 369
Herefords 366
Ayi'shire 367
Polled, or Galloway 368
Alderney 370
Dutch, or Holsteins 371
management of calve^. 371
breeding cattle 374
breaking steers 374
management of oxen 375
fattening and stall-feeding 376
Diseases of Animals 498
prevention 499
Charcoal, as manure 60
Cheese. See Dairy.
Chemical, defined 27
Cherries, cultivation and varieties.. 229
Chlorine, combined with soda 57
Churns. See Dairy.
Cider, to make 221, 226
Cisterns, construction 337
contents of 515
Clay, useful to sandy soils 28
Clay soils, defined 22
character and treatment 23
Clod crusher 108
Clover, red and white, ashes of, ana-
lyzed 45
for green manure 50, 83
common red 128, 129
value and description 128, 129
cultivation 128, 129
growth promoted 129
time for cutting and curing 130
management of fields 131
importance of 132
harvesting the seed 134
southern clover : 135
white creeping clover 135
yellow, hop-trefoil or shamrock 136
Clover, crimson or scarlet 136
Bokhara or sweet-scented 137
Cock's-foot, or orchard grass 113
Conclusion 508
Comparative value of oxen and horses 472
Corn, Indian 166
quality raised in United States. . 166
varieties of 167
analysis of 167
soil and cultivation 168
selection of seed 169
planting 169
harvesting 170
for soiling 171
uses of corn 172
Cotton, its value 256
climate and soil 257
harvesting 258
topping 260
Sea-Island 260
Cotton-seed, for food 264
Cow-pea, as a fertilizer. 84
cultivation and value 84
Cows. See Cattle.
Cranberry, soil and cultivation 240
Cream, temperature of 516
Cultivator, how used 108
Currants, cultivation 235
Dairy, the 379
selection and management of
cows 380
milking 380
properties of milk 381
variations in 382
cream 384
Butter making, from sour, sweet
and clouted cream 385
from the whole milk 385
sourness of cream 385
quickness in churning 386
over churning 386
temperature of milk and cream . . 386
advantages of chui-ning the whole 386
cleanliness in churning 386
premium butter, how made 387
Orange county, how made 388
Cheese making, how affected 389
creamed and uncreamed 389
butter-milk cheese 390
whey cheese 391
vegetable substances added 391
INDEX.
521
Dairy the, Cheese making, prepara-
tion of rennet 391
different qualities of cheese 393
warming the milk 394
quality of rennet 394
quantity of rennet 394
treatment of curd 395
separation of whey 395
cheese, salting 395
addition of cream 395
size of cheese 396
mode of curing 396
Dew-point, when attained 37
Diseases. See Cattle, Sheep, etc.
Draining (under) clay lands 95
manner of, and improvements in 95
great advantages of 96
spring and swamp described 99
Drill-barrow, how made and used. . . 109
Ducks 496
Education of the farmer 330
should be provided for by the
National and State Legisla-
tures 17
Elm trees for shade 321
Ergot or Cockspur of cereals and its
effects described 159
Experiments should be made among
farmers 310
Fallow system described 89
Farm roads 319
implements. See Tools,
buildings. See Buildings.
Feeding defined 13
Feldspar analyzed 61
useful as manure 61
Fences 313
various kinds, manner of con-
structing . 314-317
Fescue grass, the tall, meadow,
sheep, etc 113
Fiorin grass 115
Fish for manure 80
how managed 80
Flax, soil 244
cultivation, harvesting and man-
agement of 245
value of and varieties ... 246
Flesh as manure 79
Food, comparative nutritive quali-
ties of 356, 512
Food, how given, purposes fulfiUed by
it 350, 351
changes in 359
Friableness of soils important 36
Frogs, their utility 312
Fruits 209-241
Fuel, value of different kinds 516
Gas lime 54
Gama grass 116
Glass, broken, analyzed 60
as a manure 61
Geese 494
General remarks 508
Gooseberries, cultivation, etc 235
Grain and its cultivation 142-150
Grama grass 117
Granite, Sienite, etc., as manures — 61
Grapes, soil and cultivation 233
varieties of 234
Grasses, ash analyzed 45
defined 111-119
various kinds 111-119
number in England Ill
number in America Ill
value of natural in United States 119
order of nutrition and value . 120, 121
seeds, sowing 122
lands.... 123
time for cutting and curing 126
Gravelly soils, how treated 29
Grain, weight of 514
Grazing, defined 13
Green crops for manures 82
advantages of — 82
Green-grass, smooth-stalked mead-
ow, spear or June 114
Guano, its localities, etc 62
analyzed, how used 63
Guinea-hen 494
Gypsum, defined 54
as a manure 54
Hair, hoofs, etc.,. as manure 79
Harrows 106
Harrowing, how done 106
Haytedder or spreader 127
Hay, consumption of 513
Hay, weight in measure 516
Hedges, from shrubs 317
Hemp, soil for 247
cultivation and cutting 248
drying and ricking 249
522
INDEX.
Hemp, dew-rotting 251
shocking and breaking 251
water-rotting 252
raising the seed 253
Hens. See Poultry.
Hen-houses 343, 489
Herds-grass, red-top or foul meadow. 112
Hinny. See Ass.
Hogs. See Swine.
Holy-grass, or sweet-scented soft. .. . 122
Hops, soil and cultivation 291
harvesting and curing 293
diseases in 296
Horse rake 128
Horse hay fork 128
Horse, the 444
the Arabian and Barb 445
the English 446
American 447
Arabians in America 445
Bussorah 446
Narraganset pacers 446
Messenger, imported 448
Morgan horses 449
Canadian and Spanish 450
.Conestoga and Norman 451
Cart, Cleveland bay, Belfounder. 451
Eclipse, American 448
points of 452
habits 453
breeding 454
management of colts 455
breaking 456
longevity, feeding 457
Diseases 506
Horse-power 339
Horticulture, defined 14
Hydrogen described 67
its uses for vegetation 67
Ice houses 343
Implements. See Tools.
Indian Corn. See Corn.
Indigo, cultivation of 277
Introduction 13
Irrigated lands, value of 90
Irrigation, where necessary 90, 91
water, best for 92
time for applying 93
manner and utility of 93
quality of grass from 93
soils suited to 93
Leguminous plants 179-184
Lightning rods 341
materials for, construction 342
Lime 48, 53
See Soils, etc.
Loamy soils defined 23
how treated 23
Locust trees for shade 322
Lucern, ashes analyzed 45
value of 136
cultivation 136
Lupine, as a fertilizer 85
Lye, as manure 62
Madder, its uses, soil, etc 279
harvesting and preparation 281
value of 283
Magnesian lime defined 51
Manures defined « 41
described 41
ingredients 42
ashes 44
table of ashes 45
value and application of ashes ... 46
for meadow lands 47
coal-ashes and sea-weed ash 47
peat, ashes 48
great value of lime 48
application of lime 51
marls 52
shell-sand 53
green sand marl 53
bones 55
phosphate of lime 56
sulphates, the 58
saltpetre and nitrate of soda 58
carbonates, nitrates, sulphates,
etc 59
old plaster, broken brick 59
charcoal 60
mica, feldspar, lava, etc 61
spent-lye 62
ammoniacal liquor 62
guano 62
analyzed, how applied 63
soot 64
organic manures, constituents of, 65
various kinds, management of. . . 65
barn-yard manures . 69
important to preserve from waste C9
long and short 70
decomposition of 73
INDEX.
523
Manures, liquid, how saved 72
applied to the muck-heap 73
value of 75
analysis of urine 75
solid evacuations 75
poudrette, urate, night-soil 77
urine, urea, treatment of night-
soil 78
excrements of fowls 79
sea-'^eed, peat 81
manuring, with green crops 82
clover, cow-pea, spurry, etc.. 83, 85
advantages of green manures .... 85
application of 86-89
fallow-system, the 89
Maple sugar. See Sugar.
Maple trees for shade 321
Marls for manure, defined 52
how analyzed 53
green sand described 53
Marly soils defined 24
how treated 24
Meadows, preparation of 122
means of renovating 124
management of 125
Meadow grasses 111-119
Measurement of grain 514
corn in crib 514
Mica, composition of 61
useful as manure 61
Milk. See Dairy.
Millet, character and production of. . 177
cultivatioH of 177
Mowing machines 127
Mule, the 463
rearing and management 464
advantages over horse labor . ... 465
valuable qualities 466
enduringness of 468
economy of mule labor 471
Mustard, varieties and product of. . . 290
value for feeding 290
Nectarine, cultivation 232
Night-soil, analyzed 77
how treated and applied 78
Nitrate of potash. See Saltpetre.
Nitrate of soda analyzed 58
for manure 58
Nitric acid, composition 68
how formed 68
Nitrogen, described 68
Nitrogen, necessary for vegetables . . 68
Nutritive qualities of diff'erent kinds
of forage 207, 208
Oak trees, for shade 322
Oats, ashes analyzed 45
cultivation 164
varieties of 162
harvesting 165
uses and analysis 165
Oat grass 115
Oleine, how obtained 484
Orchard or Cock's-foot grass 113
Oxen 375
Oxygen, its uses 6^
Parsnip, soil and cultivation 202
harvesting and uses 203
ash of, analyzed 45
Pastures, importance and manage-
ment of..... 124, 138
Peaches, where grown 231
soil, value and diseases 232
varieties 232
Peacock. See Poultry.
Peanut. See Pinda.
Pears, cultivation of 226
diseases in trees 227
gathering and preserving, varie-
ties 227, 228
Peas, soils, varieties, cultivation 179
ash of, analyzed 45
cow-pea as a fertilizer 180
cultivation and value of 181
the ground pea. See Pinda.
Peat used for manure 81
Peaty soils defined 31
described 31
cultivation of 31
Perspiration 352
Phosphate of lime for manure 56
Phosphorite, a species of above 56
Pig styes 343
Pinda, cultivation of 184
Planting, defined 14
plants for an acre 512
Plaster of Paris. See Gypsum.
Plaster, old, useful for manure 59
Plowing clay lands 101
sandy soils, depth of 103
cross-plowing , 104
subsoil 104
Plows, various kinds of 105
524
INDEX.
Plow shovel, described, when and
how used 109
Plums, cultivation of 230
diseases and varieties ^ 230
Potato ash, analyzed 45
its origin, varieties of 185
selection of seed 186
planting and cultivation 187, 188
harvesting, storing, diseases . 188, 189
preventives of rot 189
arresting rot, uses 190, 191
Potato, the sweet, soil, cultivation.. 192
varieties 192
Poudrette described 77
Poultry.: 486
their value 486
Hens, constituent of eggs 486
general management 488
the poultry-house 489
general arrangements and rearing 489
varieties 490
diseases 490
gapes or pip, roup or catarrh 491
flux, costiveness, vermin 491
Turkey, the 492
breeding, rearing and manage-
ment 493
Peacock, the 493
Goose, the ; 494
varieties, breeding 494
feeding and food 495
Ducks 496
feeding, varieties 496
breeding and rearing 496
Power, horse 339
Prairie grasses described 118
management of sheep, on 441
Profit in feeding 360
Quinces, cultivation of 228
Raspberries, cultivation and varie-
ties 236
Red-top grass 115
Rennet. See Dairy.
Respiration 349-352
Ribbon-grass 116
Rice, its importance 172
varieties and cultivation 173
value of the crop 173
necessity of water for 173
Rollers, how and when used 1G7
manner of constructing 107 j
Rotation on grass lands 126
of crops, when introduced 297
its importance 298
in natural meadows 299
in forest trees 299
system of 301
Rye, ash of analyzed 45
cultivation of 157
peculiar aroma in 157
soil and cultivation 157
preparation of soil 158
sowing and cultivation 158
diseases in, for soiling 159
Rye-grasses, varieties of 115
Sainfoin, ash analyzed 45
description and value of 137
cultivation of 137
Salt as manure 57
Saltpetre analyzed 58
for manure and steeps 58
Sand useful to clay soils 26
Sandy loams defined 23
their treatment improved by the
roller 29
Sea-weed for manure 81
Seeds for an acre 511
Shade-trees. See Trees.
Sheep, the 398-442
uses of. 399
varieties of wild 401
domesticated 402
native 403
The Merino • 404-419
history of 404
exportation from Spain 406
importation into the U. States. . . 407
varieties of 408
Silesian 413
the Rambouillet 411
history of Merino in U. States. . . 413
improvements of 414
peculiarities of 415
breeding 416
localities for rearing 418
Saxony Merinos 419
The South-Down 421
The Shropshire-Down 423
The Long wools 423
improvement by Bakewell 424
improvement of Gotswold and
Lincoln 425
INDEX.
525
Sheep, the, peculiarities of the Long
Wools 426
importation into the U. States... 426
breeding sheep ..427
Winter management 430
sheep barns and sheds 430
racks, mangers, and troughs — 431
food 432
management of ewes, yeaning. . . 433
management of lambs 434
castrating and docking 435
tagging or clotting 436
Summer management and food — 436
washing 437
shearing 438
smearing and salving 439
weaning 440
drafting, stall feeding 441
management on the prairies 441
Diseases of Sheep 502
Shepherd dogs 443
Shell-sand for manure 53
Shovel-plows, how used 109
Silicate of potash and soda 59
Soda ash described 58
Sodium described 57
Soils described 21-40
origin and texture 21
divisions of 22
description of varieties 23
how examined 25
ingredients necessary to them — 25
clays, characteristics and man-
agement • 25
gravelly, their management 29
loamy, marly, calcareous, allu-
vial, peaty 30
effect of cultivation upon 84
additional properties of 35
attraction and capacity for water 38
various fertile, analyzed 39
much lime in fertile 40
changes in 40
Soot as manure 64
Sorghum 268-270
Spading, advantages of 101
Spader-wheel 109
Spurry as a fertilizer 84
cultivation of 84
Steaming apparatus, advantages of. . 339
how constructed 340
Stearine and oleine, how obtained
and used 484
Strawberry, cultivation, varieties. . . 238
Subsoil plow, useful for drained
lands 104
Subsoils and their management 32
advantages of plowing 33
Sulphate of lime. See Gypsum.
Sulphate of soda for manure 58
Sulphate of magnesia, potash 58
Sugar cane, its product in the XJ. S. 264
cultivation 265
harvesting. 266
analysis and fattening properties
of 267
varieties of cane 267
cane coverer 267
Maple Sugar, its production ... 270
region where made 270
process of making 272
Sumach, varieties described 288
cultivation, harvesting, uses 288
Superphosphate of lime 60
Swine 476-485
where profitable 477
various breeds 477
breeding and rearing 479
rearing and fattening, large
weights 480
economy of early fattening 481
treatment of food 482
products of the carcass 484
lard oil, how made 484
stearine and oleine 484
curing pork and hams 484
Diseases of Swine 502
Table of analysis of various soils. . 39, 40
ash of plants 45
of grasses, their characteristics
and value 120, 121
• explanation of nutritive equiva-
lents 208
nutritive qualities of food and
forage 208
exhaustion of saline manures by
crops 298
loss by respiration, evacuations,
perspiration in animals 351
principles contained in various
animal food 359
Tanks for holding liquid manure .... 72
526
INDEX,
Tanks, how constructed and managed 72
Tares, cultivation and value of 183
Teasels, uses, cultivation of 289
Terra-cultor 109
Tillage husbandry, defined 13
Timber, best time for cutting 328
preparation and preserving 329
Timothy grass, described 112
cultivation and value 112
Toads, their utility 312
Tobacco, where cultivated 274
soil and cultivation 275
priming, topping, harvesting 275
quality, 'analysis, value of 276
Tools, farming, how made, etc. : . . . . 329
Tool-house, work-shop, etc. 338
Trap-rocks, valuable soils 61
useful as manure 61
Trees for shade, their value 319, 320
their proper position 320
various kinds used 321
forest, how managed 323
cutting, best time for 324
TuU's theory 35
Ton, bulk required of different sub-
stances 513
Turnips, ashes of, analyzed 45
soil and cultivation 196
ruta-bagas, cultivation of 197
enemies and treatment 198
harvesting and storing 199
feeding value, varieties of. . .199, 200
Turkeys. See Poultry.
Tussac grass, described us
Under-draining. See Draining.
Urate described, its uses 77
Urea analyzed _ 73
Urine of various animals analyzed. . 78
human, analyzed 78
Vegetable molds described 24
Vernal grass, sweet scented 115
Vetches. See Tares.
Vinegar, to make. . . 226
Wahaut tree, the black for shade. ... 321
Water, suited to irrigation . 92
its uses for 92
rain, contains nutritious gases , . 92
in soils
its flow in the drains 515
for cattle yards 337
Weeds, destroying in grain 303
defined, how avoided 304
Weld, description and cultivation of 286
Weight of different substances 513
Wheat, ash of, analyzed 45
cultivation of, winter and spring,
how produced 142
analysis of, value of American.. 143
preparation of ground and ma-
nures for 144
selection and preparation of seed 145
sowing and after culture. . . . 146, 147
enemies of wheat 147
smut described and prevented. . . 149
rust, how treated 149
time of harvesting, threshing,
stacking 150, 151
value of straw and chaff 152
varieties of seed 152
production of new varieties. .. . 155
management of spring and varie-
ties 155
Willow, the weeping, for shade 321
Wind, force of : 515
Woad, uses, soil and cultivation.... 283
gathering and preparation 284
description and cultivation 284
Wood-lands, how managed 323
profits of 323
lands that should remain in wood 324
Woolen rags and waste as manure. . 79
Worn out soils restored 306
1
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