Net Wyse: Cl Seay, % ar ek a i « THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY TL ations Gb ie a Return this book on or before the Latest Date stamped below. A charge is made on all overdue books. U. of I. Library FER mB 1950 APR PU Ih JUN % an id 9324-S Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2021 with funding from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign https://archive.org/details/christianityethi00alex_0O CHRISTIANITY AND ETHICS STUDIES IN THEOLOGY 12mo, cloth. 75 cents net per vol. NOW READY A Critical Introduction to the New Testament By ArTHUR SAMUEL PEAKE, D.D. Faith and its Psychology By the Rev. Wirt1aM R. INGE, D.D. Philosophy and Religion By the Rev. Hastincs RAsapALt, D.Litt. (Oxon), D.C.L. (Durham), F.B.A. Revelation and Inspiration By the Rev. JAmEs Orr, D.D. Christianity and Social Questions By the Rev. Witt1am CunNINGHAM, D.D., F.B.A. Christian Thought to the Reformation By Hersert B. Workman, D.Litt. Protestant Thought Before Kant By A. C. McGirrert, Ph.D., D.D. An Outline of the History of Christian Thought Since Kant By Epwarp CALDWELL Moore, D.D. The Christian Hope: A Study in the Doctrine of Immortality By Witt1aAm ApaAms Brown, Ph.D.. D.D. The Theology of the Gospels By the Rev. James Morratt, D.D., D.Litt. The Text and Canon of the New Testament By ALEXANDER SouTER, D.Litt. A Critical Introduction to the Old Testament By the Rev. GEoRGE BucHANAN Gray, D.D., D.Litt. A Handbook of Christian Apologetics By ALFRED ERNEST GARVIE, M.A., D.D. Gospel Origins By the Rev. WitLt1AM West Hotpswortu, M.A. The Religious Ideas of the Old Testament By H. WHEELER Rosinson, M.A. Christianity and Sin. By Rosert MAcKINnTosH, D.D. Christianity and Ethics By ARrcHIBALD B. D. ALEXANDER, M.A., D.D. CHRISTIANITY AND ETHICS A Handbook of Christian Ethics BY ARCHIBALD B. D. ALEXANDER, M.A., D.D. AUTHOR OF ‘A SHORT HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY,’ ‘THE ETHICS OF ST. PAUL,’ ETC. NEW YORK CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS 1914 y All rights \ PREFACE » THE object of this volume is to present a brief but compre- hensive view of the Christian conception of the moral life. . In order to conform with the requirements of the series to which the volume belongs, the writer has found the task of compression one of almost insurmountable difficulty ; and _, some topics, only less important than those dealt with, have »» been necessarily omitted. The book claims to be, as its ~! title indicates, simply a handbook or introduction to Christian Ethics. It deals with principles rather than details, and suggests lines of thought instead of attempting an exhaustive treatment of the subject. At the same time, in the author’s opinion, no really vital question has been overlooked. The treatise is intended primarily for students, but it is hoped that it may prove serviceable to those who desire a succinct account of the moral and social problems of the present day. A fairly full bibliography has been added, which, along ’~ with the references to authorities in the body of the work, ~ may be helpful to those who wish to prosecute the study- For the convenience of readers the book has been divided into four sections, entitled, Postulates, Personality, Char- acter, and Conduct; and a detailed synopsis of contents has been supplied. To the Rev. W. R. Thomson, B.D. of Bellshill, Scotland, - who read the chapters in type, and generally put at his © disposal much valuable suggestion, the author would record his most sincere thanks. ILO 2 PD Gad Bes Be Maan sé AA AM , iy Vig Ay Ss “) is CONTENTS INTRODUCTION PAGE A PLEA FOR THE Stuby oF CHRISTIAN Eruics. é 3 1 SECTION A—POSTULATES CHAPTER I THE NATURE AND Scope or Eruics . 5 F “ 9 I, General Definition. II. Distinctive Features—1. Ideal ; 2. Norm; 3. Will. III. Is Ethics a Science? . IV. Relation to—1l. Logic; 2. Aisthetics ; 3. Politics. VY. Dependence upon—l. Metaphysics ; 2. Psychology. CHAPTER II Toe PostTuLaTEs OF CHRISTIAN ETHICS , ; : 4 22 I. Philosophical Ethics. Il. Dogmatics. III, Theological Presuppositions— 1, Christian Idea of God. 2. Christian Doctrine of Sin, 3. Human Responsibility, IV. Authority and Method. CHAPTER III ErHicaAL THOUGHT BEFORE CHRIST . ‘ : : r 35 I, In Greece and Rome—Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Stoics. Stoicism and St. Paul. II. In Israel—1. Law ; 2. Prophecy; 3. Poetry. Preparatory Character of pre-Christian Morality. vii viii CHRISTIANITY AND ETHICS SECTION B—PERSONALITY CHAPTER IV PAGE THe EsTiMATE or Man i - - i ‘ ; 55 I, Conflicting Views of Human Nature— 1. Man by nature Morally Good. 2. Man by nature Totally Depraved. 3. The Christian View. II, Examination of Man’s Psychical Nature— 1. The Unity of the Soul. 2. The Divine in Man. 3. The Physical and Mental Life, III. Appeal of Christianity to the Mind. CHAPTER V Tae WiTNESS OF CONSCIENCE . , ‘ ; ‘ 68 I, Treatment of Conscience— 1. In Greek Poetry and Philosophy. 2. In Old ‘Testament. 3. In New Testament. Il. Nature and Origin of Conscience— 1. Intuitionalism. 2. Evolutionalism. III. Validity of Conscience— 1. The Christian View. 2. The Moral Imperatives. 3. The Permanence of Conscience, CHAPTER VI ‘Toe MIRACLE OF THE WILL’ . 4 i ; j fs 82 Is Man free to choose the Good ? Creative Power of Volition. Aspects of Problem raised. I. Scientific— Man and Physical Necessity. II. Psychological— Determinism and Indeterminism, Criticism of James and Bergson. Spontaneity and Necessity. ; III. Theological— Divine Sovereignty and Human Freedom, Jesus and Paul—Challenge to the Will. Freedom—a Gift and a Task. CONTENTS ix SECTION C—CHARACTER CHAPTER VII PAGE Mopern THEORIES oF LIFE Te LP AOE SP gi Rio 99 I, Naturalistic Tendency— 1. Materialistic— (1) Idyllic or Poetic— Rousseau, (2) Philosophic—Feuerbach. (3) Scientific—Haeckel. 2. Utilitarian—Hobbes, Bentham, Mill. 3. Evolutionary—Spencer. 4. Socialistic—Marx, Engels. 5. Individualistic— (1) Aistheticism—Goethe, Schiller. (2) Subjectivism— (a) Pessimism—Schopenhauer, (6) Optimism—Nietzsche. II, Idealistic Tendency— 1. Kant—Categorical Imperative. 2. Fichte and Hegel—Idea of Personality, 3. James—Pragmatism. 4. Bergson—Vitalism. 5. Eucken-—Activism. CHAPTER VIII Tae Curistian IDEAL ‘ : ‘ : : ° hae eA Life, as the highest Good. I, Life, in its Individual Aspect— 1. Its Intensity. 2. Its Expansion. 3. ‘ Eternal Life.’ II. Life, in its Social Aspect— 1, ‘The Kingdom of God’— Eschatological Interpretation, Untenableness of Jnterimsethik, 2. Christ’s View of Kingdom— (1) A Present Reality—a Gift. (2) A Gradual Development—a Task, (3) A Future Consummation—a Hope. III. Life, in its Godward Aspect— 1. Holiness. 2. Righteousness, 3. Love. x CHRISTIANITY AND ETHICS CHAPTER IX PAGE STANDARD AND MOorivE : ; A ; : é ae Christ as Example— 1, Portrayal by Synoptists— (1) Artlessness of Disciples, (2) Naturalness of Jesus. 2. Impression of Power— (1) Power of Loyalty to Calling. (2) Power of Holiness. (3) Power of Sympathy. 3. Value of Jesus’ Example for Present Life— Misconception of Phrase ‘ Imitation of Christ,’ II. The Christian Motive— 1. Analysis of Springs of Conduet— (1) Divine Forgiveness, (2) Fatherhood of God. (3) Sense of Voéation. (4) Brevity of Life. (5) Idea of Immortality. 2. Question as to Purity of Motive— (1) Charge of Asceticism. (2) Charge of Hedonism, 8. Doctrine of Rewards— (1) In Philosophy. (2) In Christianity—(a) Jesus ; (b) Paul. CHAPTER X Tar Dynamic or THE New LIFE a ‘ 4 ° - 164 I. Divine Power— Operative through Christ’s 1. Incarnation and Life. 2. Death and Sacrifice. 3. Resurrection and Indwelling Presence. II. Human Response— 1. Repentance— (1) Contrition—Confession—Resolution. (2) Question of ‘Sudden Conversion,’ (3) ‘Twice Born’ or ‘Once Born.’ 2. Faith— (1) In Ordinary Life. (2) In Teaching of Jesus. (3) The Pauline Doctrine, 8. Obedience— ; (1) Active Appropriation of Grace. (2) Determination of Whole Personality, (3) Graduai Assimilation. CONTENTS xi SECTION D—CONDUCT CHAPTER XI PAGB VIRTUES AND VIRTUE . Pi Loe Definition of Virtue. I. The Natural Basis of the Virtues— ‘The Cardinal Virtues.’ II, The Christian Transformation of the Virtues— 1, The New Testament Account. 2. Cardinal Virtues, Elements of Christian Character, 3. Place of Passive Virtues in Life, III. The Unification of the Virtues— 1. Unity in Relation to God. 2. Love, Spring of all Virtues. 3. ‘ Theological Virtues,’ Aspects of Love. CHAPTER XII THe Reaum oF Doty . - 199 e e s e e 6 I. Aspects of Duty— 1. Duty and Vocation. 2. Conflict of Duties— (1) Competing Obligations. (2) ‘Counsels of Perfection,’ (3) Indifferent Acts. 8. Rights and Duties— (1) Claim of ‘ Natural Rights.’ (2) Based on Worth of Individual. (3) Christian Idea of Liberty. II, Spheres of Duty— 1. Duties in Relation to Self— (1) Self-Respect. (2) Self- Preservation, (3) Self-Development— Self-regarding Duties not prominent in Scripture. Self-Realisation through Self-Sacrifice. 2. Duties in Relation to Others— (1) Regard for Man: Brotherly Love— (a) Justice. (6) Veracity. (c) Judgment. (2) Service— (a) Sympathy. (6) Beneficence, (c) Forgiveness, (8) Example and Influence. xii CHRISTIANITY AND ETHICS PAGE 3. Duties in Relation to God— (1) Recognition. (2) Obedience — Passive and Active. (3) Worship—Reverence, Prayer, Thanksgiving. CHAPTER XIII SocraL InstiTuTIoNs . AB Cie » \y Mes tts ay ela ee eee I, The Family— 1. Origin and Evolution of Family. 2. Christian view— (1) Christ’s Teaching on Marriage, (2) State Regulation and Eugenics, (3) Tendencies to Disparagement. 3. Family Relationships— (1) Parents and Children. (2) Woman’s Place and Rights, (3) Child Life and Education, II, The State— 1. Basis of Authority— Tolstoy and Anarchism, ‘Social Contract.’ 2. State, in New Testament, 3. Modern Conceptions— Views of Augustine and Hegel, (1) Duty of State to Citizens. (2) Duty of Citizens to State. (3) The Democratic Movement— Reciprocity of Service and Sense of Brotherhood, III. The Church— 1. Relation of Church and State. 2. Purpose and Ideal of Church— (1) Worship and Edification. (2) Witness to Christ. (3) Evangelisation of Mankind. 3. The Church and the Social Problem— (1) Christ’s Teaching as to Industry and Wealth, (2) Attitude of Early Church to Society. (3) Of Roman and Reformed Churches. 4, Duty of Christianity to the World— The Missionary Imperative and Opportunity. CHAPTER XIV ConcLUSION—THE PERMANENCE OF CHRISTIAN Etuics . 245 BIBLIOGRAPHY . : ; : ; : : : . 248 INDEX . A ) A . ‘ : : $ A fo SEs CHRISTIANITY AND ETHICS INTRODUCTION A PLEA FOR THE STUDY OF CHRISTIAN ETHICS Ir, as Matthew Arnold says, conduct is three-fourths of life, then a careful inquiry into the laws of conduct is in- dispensable to the proper interpretation of the meaning and purpose of life. Conduct of itself, however, is merely the c outward. expression. of of. character ; Pane character again has its roots in personality ; so that if we are to form a just conception of life we have to examine.the forces which shape human personality and raise it_to.its highest power and efficiency. In estimating the value of man all the facts of consciousness and experience must be considered. Hence no adequate account of the end of life can be given without regard to that which, if it is true, must be the most stupendous fact of history—the fact of Christ. If the Christian is a man to whom no incident of ex- perience is secular and no duty insignificant, because all things belong to God and all life is dominated by the spirit of Christ, then Christian Ethics must be the application of Christianity to conduct; and its theme must be the systematic study of the ideals and forces which are alone adequate to shape character and fit man for the highest conceivable destiny—fellowship | with, and likeness to, the Divine Being in whose image he has been made. This, of course, may be said to be the aim of all theology. The theologian must not be content to discuss merely specula- tive problems about God and man. He must seek above 2 CHRISTIANITY AND ETHIOS all things to bring the truths of revelation to bear upon human practice. All knowledge has its practical implicate. The dogma which cannot be translated into duty is apt to be a vague abstraction. In all ages there has been a tendency to separate truth and duty. But knowledge has two sides; it is at once a revelation and a challenge. There is no truth which has not its corresponding obligation, and no obligation which has not its corresponding truth. And not until every truth is rounded into its duty, and every duty is referred back into its truth shall we attain to that clearness of vision and consistency of moral life, to promote which is the primary task of Christian Ethics. | It is this practical element which gives to the study of morals its justification and makes it specially important for the Christian teacher. In this sense Ethics is really the crown of theology and ought to be the end of all previous study. As a separate branch of study Christian Ethics dates only from the Reformation. It was natural, and perhaps in- evitable that the first efforts of the Church should be occupied with the formation and elaboration of dogma. With a few notable exceptions, among whom may be mentioned Basil, Clement, Alquin and Thomas Aquinas, the Church fathers and schoolmen paid but scanty atten- tion to the ethical side of religion. It was only after the Reformation that theology, Roman and Protestant alike, was divided into different branches. The Roman Catholic name for what we style Ethics is ‘moral philosophy,’ which, however, consists mainly of directions for father confessors in their dealing with perplexed souls. Christian Ethics appears for the first time as the name of a treatise by a French theologian of the Calvinistic persuasion—Daneus, whose work, however, is confined to an exposition of the Decalogue. The first recorded work of the Lutheran church is the Theologia Moralis, written in 1634, by George Calixtus. But the modern study of the subject really dates from INTRODUCTION 3 Schleiermacher (1768-1834), who divides theology into two sections, Dogmatics and Ethics, giving to the latter an in- dependent treatment. Since his time Ethics has been re- garded as a separate discipline, and within the last few decades increasing attention has been devoted to it. This strong ethical tendency is one of the most notice- able features of the present age. Everywhere to-day the personal human interest is in evidence. We see it in the literature of the age and especially in the best poetry, be- ginning already with Coleridge and Wordsworth, and con- tinued in Tennyson and Browning. It is the inner life of man as depicted to us by these master singers, the story of the soul, even more than the delineation of nature which appeals to man’s deepest experience and evokes his finest response. We see it in the art of our times, which, not content to be a mere expression of sensuous beauty or life- less nature, seeks to be instinct with human sympathy and to become the vehicle of the ideas and aims of man. We see it in modern fiction, which is no longer the narration of a simple tale, but the subtle analysis of character, and the intricate study of the passions and ambitions of common life. History to-day is not concerned so much with recording the intrigues of kings and the movements of armies as with scrutinising the motives and estimating the persona] forces which have shaped the ages. Even in the domain of theology itself this tendency is visible. Our theologians are not content with discussing abstract doctrines or re- counting the decisions of church councils, but are turning to the gospels and seeking to depict the life of Jesus—to probe the secret of His divine humanity and to interpret the meaning for the world of His unique personality. Nor is this tendency confined to professional thinkers and theologians, it is affecting the common mind of the laity. ‘Never was there a time,’ says a modern writer, “when plain people were less concerned with the meta- physics or the ecclesiasticism of Christianity. The con- struction of systems and the contention of creeds which once appeared the central themes of human interest are now re- i CHRISTIANITY AND ETHICS garded by millions of busy men and women as mere echoes of ancient controversies, if not mere mockeries of the problems of the present day.’ ‘The Church under the in- spiration of this new feeling for humanity is turning with fresh interest to the contemplation of the character of Jesus Christ, and is rising to a more lofty idea of its re- sponsibilities towards the world. More than ever in the past, it is now felt that Christianity must vindicate itself as a practical religion; and that in view of the great problems—scientific, social and industrial, which the new conditions of an advancing civilisation have created, the Church, if it is to fulfil its function as the interpreter and guide of thought, must come down from its heights of calm seclusion and grapple with the actual difficulties of men, not indeed by assuming a political role or acting as a divider and judge amid conflicting secular aims, but by revealing the mind of Christ and bringing the principles of the gospel \_ to bear upon the complex life of society. No one who reflects upon the spirit of the times will doubt that there are reasons of urgent importance why this aspect of Christian life and duty, which we have been con- sidering, should be specially insisted upon to-day. Of these the first and foremost is the prevalence of a materialistic philosophy. Taking its rise in the evolutionary theories of last century, this view is now being applied with relent- less logic as an interpretation of the problems of society by a school of socialistic writers. Man, it is said, is the creature of heredity and environment alone. Condition creates character, and relief from the woes of humanity is to be sought, not in the transformation of the individual but in the revolutionising of the circumstances of life. As a consequence of this philosophy of externalism there is a filtering down of these materialistic views to the multitude, who care, indeed, little for theories, but are quick to be affected by a prevailing tone. Underlying the feeling of unrest and dissatisfaction, so marked a feature of our present day life, there is distinctly discernible among the masses a loosening of religious faith and a slackening INTRODUCTION 5 of moral obligation. The idea of personality and the sense of duty are not so vivid and strong as they used to be. A vague sentimentalising about sin has taken the place of the more robust view of earlier times, and evil is traced to un- toward environment rather than to feebleness of individual will. And finally, to name no other cause, there is a tendency in our day among all classes to divorce religion from life—to separate the sacred from the secular, and to regard worship and work as belonging to two entirely distinct realms of existence. For these reasons, among others, there is a special need, as it seems to us, for a systematic study of Christian Ethics on the part of those who are to be the leaders of thought and the teachers of the people. The materialistic view of life must be met by a more adequate Christian philosophy. The unfaith and pessimism of the age must be overcome by the advocacy of an idealistic conception which insists not only upon the personality and worth of man, involving duties as well as rights, but also upon the supremacy of conscience in obedience to the law of Christ. Above all, we need an ethic which will show that religion must be co- extensive with life, transfiguring and spiritualising all its activities and relationships. Life is a unity and all duty is one, whether it be duty to God or duty toman. It must be all of a piece, like the robe of Christ, woven from the top to the bottom without seam. It takes its spring from one source and is dominated by one spirit. In the Christianity of Christ there stand conspicuous two great ideas bound together, indeed, in a higher—love to God the Father. ‘These are personal perfection and the service of mankind—the culture of self and the care of others. ‘Be ye perfect’ and ‘love your neighbour as yourself.’ It is the glory of Christianity to have harmonised these seemingly competing aims. The disciple of Christ finds that he cannot realise his own life except as he seeks the good of others ; and that he cannot effectively help his fellows except by giving to them that which he himself is. This, as we take it, is the Christian conception of the moral life; and it is 6 CHRISTIANITY AND ETHICS the business of Christian Ethics to show that it is at onee reasonable and practical. The present volume will be divided into four main parts, entitled, Postulates, Personality, Character and Conduct. The first will deal with the meaning of Ethics generally and its relation to cognate subjects; and specially with the Philosophical, Psychological and Theological presupposi- tions of Christian Ethics. The second part will be devoted to man as moral subject, and will analyse the capacities of the soul which respond to the calls and claims of the new Life. The third Section will involve a consideration of the formative Principles of Character, the moulding of the soul, the Ideals, Motives and Forces by means of which the ‘New Man’ is ‘ recreated’ and fashioned. Finally, under Conduct, the Virtues, Duties and Rights of man will be discussed ; and the various spheres of service and in- stitutions of society examined in relation to which the moral life in its individual and social aspects is manifested and developed. SECTION A POSTULATES CHAPTER I THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF ETHICS PHILOSOPHY has been defined as ‘ thinking things together.’ Every man, says Hegel, is a philosopher, and in so far as it is the natural tendency of the human mind to connect and unify the manifold phenomena of life, the paradox of the German thinker is not without a measure of truth. But while this is only the occasional pastime of the ordinary individual, it is the conscious and habitual aim of the philosopher. In daily life people are wont to make assump- tions which they do not verify, and employ figures of speech which of necessity are partial and inadequate. It is the business of philosophy to investigate the pre-suppositions of common life and to translate into realities the pictures of ordinary language. It was the method of Socrates to challenge the current modes of speaking and to ask his fellow-men what they meant when they used such words as ‘ goodness,’ ‘ virtue’ ‘justice.’ Every time you employ any of these terms, he said, you virtually imply a whole theory of life. If you would have an intelligent understand- ing of yourself and the world of which you form a part, you must cease to live by custom and speak by rote. You must seek to bring the manifold phenomena of the universe and the various experiences of life into some kind of unity and see them as co-ordinated parts of a whole. When men thus begin to reflect on the origin and con- nection of things, three questions at once suggest themselves —what, how, and why? What is the world? How dol know it ? and why am I here? We might briefly classify the three great departments of human thought as attempts 9 10 CHRISTIANITY AND ETHICS [CH. to answer these three inquiries, What exists is the pro- blem of Metaphysics. What am I and how do I know ? is the question of Psychology. What-is.my purpose, what ' amI todo? isthe subject of Ethics. These questions are closely related, and the answer given to one largely de- termines the solution of the others. The truths gained by philosophical thought are not confined to the kingdom of abstract speculation but apply in the last resort to life. The impulse to know is only a phase of the more general impulse to be and to act. Beneath all man’s activities, as their source and spring, there is ever some dim percep- tion of an end to be attained. ‘The ultimate end,’ says Paulsen, ‘impelling men to meditate upon the nature of the universe, will always be the desire to reach some con- clusion concerning the meaning of the source and goal of their lives.’ The origin and aim of all philosophy is con- sequently to be sought in Ethics. 1. If we ask more particularly what Ethics is, definition affords us some light. It is to Aristotle that we are in- debted for the earliest use of this term, and it was he who gave to the subject its title and systematic form. The name ta. €6cxa is derived from 760s, character, which again is closely connected with é60s, signifying custom. /Ethics, therefore, according to Aristotle is the science of character, character being understood to mean according to its etymology, customs or habits of conduct. But while the modern usage of the term ‘character’ suggests greater inwardness than would seem to be implied in the ancient definition, it must be remembered that under the title of Ethics Aristotle had in view, not only a description of the outward habits of man, but also that which gives to custom its value, viz., the sources of action, the motives, and especi- ) ally the ends which guide a man in the conduct of life. / But since men live before they reflect, Ethics and Morality are not synonymous. So long as there is a congruity between the customs of a people and the practical require- ments of life, ethical questions do not occur. It is only when difficulties arise as to matters of right, for which the I.] THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF ETHICS 11 existing usages of society offer no solution, that reflection upon morality awakens. No longer content with blindly accepting the formule of the past, men are prompted to ask, whence do these customs come, and what is their authority ? In the conflict of duties, which a wider out- look inevitably creates, the inquirer seeks to estimate their relative values, and to bring his conception of life into harmony with the higher demands and larger ideals which have been disclosed to him. This has been the invariable course of ethical inquiry. At different stages of history-— in the age of the Sophists of Ancient Greece, when men were no longer satisfied with the old forms of life and truth : at the dawn of the Christian era, when a new ideal was re vealed in Christ : during the period of the Reformation, when men threw off the bondage of the past and made a stand for the rights of the individual conscience: and in more recent times, when in the field of political life the antithesis between individual and social instincts had awakened larger and more enlightened views of civic and social responsibility—the study of Ethics, as a science of moral life, has come to the front. Ethics may, there be defined_as.. ience of the , end _ of life—the science which inquires into its meaningy and purpose. But inasmuch as the end or purpose of life involves the idea of some good which is in harmony with the highest conceivable well-being of man—some good which belongs to the true fulfilment of life—Ethics may also be defined as the science of the highest good or summum _ bonum. Finally, Ethics may be considered not only as the science of the highest good or ultimate end of life, but also as the study of all that conditions that end, the dispositions, desires and motives of the individual, all the facts and forces which bear upon the will and shape human life in its various social relationships. m. Arising out of this general definition three features may be mentioned as descriptive of its distinctive character among the sciences. 12 CHRISTIANITY AND ETHICS [cH. 1. Ethics is concerned with the ideal of life. By an ideal we mean a better state of being than has been actually realised. We are confessedly not as we should be, and there floats before the minds of men a vision of some higher con- dition of life and society than that which exists. Life divorced from an ideal is ethically valueless. Some con- ception of the supreme good is the imperative demand and moral necessity of man’s being. Hence the chief business of Ethics is to answer the question: What is the supreme good ? For what should a man live? What, in short, is the ideal of life? In this respect Ethics as a science is distinguished from the physical sciences. They explain facts and trace sequences, but they do not form ideals or endeavour to move the will in the direction of them. 2. Ethics again is concerned with a norm of life, and in this sense it is frequently styled a normative science. That is to say, it is a science which prescribes rules or maxims according to which life is to be regulated. This is sometimes expressed by saying that Ethics treats of what ought to be. The ideal must not be one which simply floats in the air. It must be an ideal which is possible, and, therefore, as such, obligatory. It is useless to feel the worth of a certain idea, or even to speak of the desirability of it, if we do not feel also that it ought to be realised. Moral judgments imply an ‘ought,’ and that ‘ ought’ implies a norm or standard, in the light of which, as a criterion, all obligation must be tested, and according to which all conduct must be regulated. 3. Ethics, once more, is concerned with the will. It is based specifically on the fact that man is not only an in- tellectual being (capable of knowing) and a sensitive being (possessed of feeling) but also a volitional being ; that is, a being endowed with self-determining activity. It implies that man is responsible for his intentions, dispositions and actions. The idea of a supreme ideal at which he is to aim and a norm or standard of conduct according to which he ought to regulate his life, would have no meaning if we did not presuppose the power of self-determination. What- 1.] THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF ETHICS 13 ever is not willed has no moral value. Where there is no freedom of choice, we cannot speak of an action as either good or evil.1 When we praise or blame a man’s conduct we do so under the assumption that his action is voluntary. In all moral action purpose isimplied. This is the meaning of the well-known dictum of Kant, ‘There is nothing in the world . . . that can be called good without qualifica- tion except a good will. A good will is good, not because of what it performs or effects, not by its aptness for the attainment of some proposed end, but simply by virtue of the volition.’* It is the inner aim, the good will which alone gives moral worth to any endeavour. It is not what I do but the reason why I do it which is chiefly of ethical value. The essence of virtue resides in the will, not in the achievement; in the intention or motive, not in the result. m1. The propriety of styling Ethics a science has some- times been questioned. Science, it is said, has to do with certain necessary and uniform facts of experience; its object is simply to trace effects from causes and to formulate laws according to which sequences inevitably result from certain ascertained causes or observed facts. But is not character, with which Ethics confessedly deals, just that concerning which no definite conclusions can be predicted ? Is not conduct, dependent as it is on the human will, just ‘the element in man which cannot be explained as the re- sultant of calculable forces? If the will is free, and is the chief factor in the moulding of life, then you cannot forecast what line conduct will take or predict what shape character will assume. The whole conception of Ethics as a science must, it is contended, fall to the ground, if we admit a variable and incalculable element in conduct. Some writers, on this account, are disposed to regard Ethics as an art rather than a science, and indeed, like every normative science, it may be regarded as lying midway between them. A science may be said to teach us to know 1 Cf. Mackenzie, Manual of Hthics, p. 32; also Wuttke, Christian Ethics (Eng. Trans.), vol. i. p. 14. 2 Metaph. of Morals, sect. i. 14 CHRISTIANITY AND ETHICS [cH. and an art todo: but as has been well remarked, ‘a norma- tive science teaches to know how to do.’! Ethics may indeed be regarded both as a science and an art. In so far as 1t examines and explains certain phenomena of character itis a science : butin so far as it attempts to regulate human conduct by instruction and advice it is an art.2, Yet when all is said, in so far as Ethics has to do with the volitional side of man,—with decisions and acts of will,—there must be something indeterminate and problematic in it which pre- cludes it from being designated an exact science. A certain variableness belongs to character, and conduct cannot be pronounced good or bad without reference to the acting subject. Actions cannot be wholly explained by law, and a large portion of human life (and that the highest and noblest) eludes analysis. A human being is not simply a part of the world. He is able to break in upon the sequence of events and set in motion new forces whose effects neither he himself nor his fellows can estimate. It is the unique quality of rational beings that in great things and in small things they act from ideas. The magic power of thought cannot be exaggerated. Great conceptions have great consequences, and they rule the world. A new spiritual idea shoots forth its rays and enlightens to larger issues generations of men. There is a mystery in every forth- putting of will-power, and every expression of personality. Character cannot be computed. The art of goodness, of living nobly, if so unconscious a thing may be called an art, is one certainly which defies complete scientific treat- ment. Itis with facts like these that Ethics has to do; and while we may lay down broad general principles which must underlie the teaching of every true prophet and the conduct of every good man, there will always be an element with which science cannot cope. Iv. It will not be necessary, after what has been said, to trace at any length the relations between Ethics and the 1 Mackenzie, Manual of Ethics, p. 8. See also Muirhead, Hlements of Ethics. 2 Hyslop, Elements of Ethics, p. 1. ri THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF ETHICS 15 special mental sciences, such as Logic, Austhetics, and Politics. 1, Logic is the science of the formal laws of thought, and is concerned not with the truth of phenomena, but merely with the laws of correct reasoning about them. Ethics establishes the laws according to which we ought to act. Logic legislates for the reason, and decerns the laws which the intellect must obey if it would think correctly. Both sciences determine what is valid ; but while Logic is con- fined to the realm of what is valid in reasoning, Ethics is occupied with what is valid in action. There is, indeed, a logic of life; and in so far as all true conduct must have a rational element in it and be guided by certain intel- ligible forms, Ethics may be described as a kind of logic of character. 2. The connection between Ethics and Aisthetics is closer. Aisthetics is the science of the laws of beauty, while Ethics is the science of the laws of the good. But in so far as Aisthetics deals with the emotions rather than the reason it comes into contact with Ethics in the psychological field. In its narrower sense Aisthetics deals with beauty merely in an impersonal way; and its immediate object is not what is morally beautiful, but rather that which is beautiful in itself irrespective of moral considerations. Ethics, on the other hand, is concerned with personal worth as ex- pressed in perfection of will and action. Conduct may be beautiful and character may afford Aisthetic satisfaction, but Ethics, in so far as it is concerned with judgments of virtue, is independent of all thought of the mere beauty or utility of conduct. Aisthetic consideration may in- deed aid practical morality, but it is not identical with it. It is conceivable that what is right may not be immediately beautiful, and may indeed in its pursuit or realisation in- volve action which contradicts our ideas of beauty. But though both sciences have different aims they are occupied largely with the same emotions, and are connected by a common idealising purpose. In the deepest sense, what is good is beautiful and what is beautiful is good; and 16 CHRISTIANITY AND ETHICS [CH. ultimately, in the moral and spiritual life, goodness and beauty coincide. Indeed, so close is the connection be- tween the two conceptions that the Greeks used the same word, 76 xaXddv, to express beauty of form and nobility of character. And even in modern times the expression ‘a beautiful soul,’ indicates the intimate relation between inner excellence of life and outward attractiveness. Both Aisthetics and Ethics have regard to that symmetry or proportion of life which fulfils our ideas at once of good- ness and of beauty. In this sense Schiller sought to re- move the sharpness of Kant’s moral theory by claiming a place in the moral life for beauty. Our actions are, indeed, good when we do our duty because we ought, but they are beautiful when we do it because we cannot do otherwise, because they have become our second nature. ‘The purpose of all culture, says Schiller, is to harmonise reason and sense, and thus to fulfil the idea of a perfect manhood. ‘When I dared question: ‘It is beautiful, But is it true?” Thy answer was, ‘In truth lives beauty.” ’ 2 3. Politics is still more closely related to Ethics, and indeed Ethics may be said to comprehend Politics. Both deal with human action and institution, and cover largely the same field. For man is not merely an individual, but is a part of a social organism. We cannot consider the virtues of the individual life without also considering the society to which he is related, and the interaction of the whole and its part. Politics is usually defined as the science of government, which of course, involves all the institutions and laws affecting men’s relations to each other. But while Politics is strictly concerned only with the outward con- dition of the state’s well-being and the external order of 1 Schiller, Uber Anmuth und Wiirde. Cf. also Ruskin, Mod. Painters, vol. ii.; Seeley, Natural Religion, and Inge, Faith and its Psychology, p. 203 ff. See also Bosanquet, Hist. of Aesthetic. We are indebted to Romanticism, and especially to Novalis in Germany and Cousin in France for the thought that the good and the beautiful meet and amalgamate iu God, 2 Browning. 1.] THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF ETHICS 17 ~ the community, Ethics seeks the internal good or virtue of mankind, and is occupied with an ideal society in which each individual shall be able to realise the true aim and meaning of life. But after all, as Aristotle said, Politics is really a branch of Ethics, and both are inseparable from, _ and complementary of each other. On the one hand, Ethics cannot ignore the material conditions of human welfare nor minimise the economic forces which shape society and make possible the moral aims of man. On the other hand, Economics must recognise the service of ethical study, and keep in view the moral purposes of life, otherwise it is apt to limit its consideration to merely selfish and material ends. v. While Ethics is thus closely connected with the sciences just named, there are two departments of know- ledge, pre-supposed indeed in all mental studies, which in a very intimate way affect the science of Ethics. These are Metaphysics on the one hand and Psychology on the other. 1. Metaphysics is pre-supposed by all the sciences ; and indeed, all our views of life, even our simplest experiences, involve metaphysical assumptions. It has been well said that the attempt to construct an ethical theory without a metaphysical basis issues not in a moral science without assumptions, but in an Ethics which becomes confused in philosophical doubts. Leslie Stephen proposes to ignore Metaphysics, and remarks that he is content ‘to build upon the solid earth.’ But, as has been pertinently asked, ‘How does he know that the earth is solid on which he builds ?’ This is a question of Metaphysics. The claim is frequently made by a certain class of writers, that we withdraw our- selves from all metaphysical sophistries, and betake our- selves to the guidance of commonsense. But what is this commonsense of which the ordinary man vaunts him- self? It is in reality a number of vague assumptions borrowed unconsciously from old exploded theories—asser- tions, opinions, beliefs, accumulated, no one knows how, 1 Cf, Newman Smyth, Christian Ethics, p. 3, B ti ™s, \voogeremnecnernenmnsen 18 CHRISTIANITY AND ETHICS [cH. and accepted as settled judgments. We do not escape philosophy by refusing to think. Some kind of theory of life is implied in such words, ‘soul,’ ‘ duty,’ _< freedom,’ ‘ power,’ ‘ God,” which the unrefle sting md ts d daily using. It is useless to say We~can-dispensé with philosophy, for that is simply to content ourselves with bad philosophy. ‘To ignore the progress and development in the history of Philosophy,’ says T. H. Green,? ‘is not to return to the simplicity of a pre-philosophic age, but to condemn our- selves to grope in the maze of cultivated opinion, itself the confused result of these past systems of thought which we will not trouble ourselves to think out.’ The aim of all philosophy, as Plato said, is just to correct the assumptions of the ordinary mind, and to grasp in their unity and cohesion the ultimate principles which the mind feels must be at the root of all reality. We have an ethical interest in determining whether there be any moral reality beneath the appearances of the world. Ethical questions, therefore, run back into Metaphysics. If we take Metaphysics in its widest sense as involving the idea of some ultimate end, to the realisation of which the whole process of the world as known to us is somehow a means, we may easily see that metaphysical inquiry, though distinct from ethical, is its necessary pre-supposition. The Being or Purpose of God, the great first cause, the world as fashioned, ordered and interpenetrated by Him, and man as conditioned by and dependent upon the Deity—are postulates of the moral life - and must be accepted as a basis of all ethical study. The distinction between Ethics and Philosophy did not arise at once. In early Greek speculation, almost to the time of Aristotle, Metaphysics and Morals were not separated. And even in later times, Spinoza and to some extent Green, though they professedly treat of Ethics, hardly dissociate metaphysical from ethical considerations. Nor is that to be wondered at when men are dealing with the first principles of all being and life. Our view of God and of the 1 See Author’s History of Philosophy, p. 585. 2 Introduction to Hume’s Works. I.] THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF ETHICS 19 world, our fundamental Welt-Anschauung cannot but determine our view of man and his moral life. In every philosophical system from Plato to Hegel, in which the universe is regarded as having a rational meaning and ultimate end, the good of human beings is conceived as identical with, or at least as included in the universal good. 2. But if a sound metaphysical basis be a necessary~ requisite for the adequate consideration of Ethics, Psychology as the science of the human soul is so vitally connected with Ethics, that the two studies may almost be treated as branches of one subject. An Ethic which takes no account of psychological assumptions would be impossible. Con- sciously or unconsciously every treatment of moral subjects is permeated by the view of the soul or personality of man which the writer has adopted, and his meaning of conduct will be largely determined by the theory of human freedom and responsibility with which he starts. Questions as to character and duty invariably lead to inquiries as to certain states of the agent’s mind, as to the functions and possibilities of his natural capacities and powers. We can- not pronounce an action morally good or bad until we have determined the extent and limits of his faculties and have investigated the questions of disposition and purpose, of intention and motive, which lie at the root of all conduct, and without which actions are neither moral nor immoral. It is surely a mistake to say, as some do, that as logic deals with the correctness of reasoning, so Ethics deals only with the correctness of conduct, and is not directly con- cerned with the processes by which we come to act correctly.1 On the contrary, merely correct action may be ethically worthless, and conduct obtains its moral value from the motives or intentions which actuate and determine it. Ethics cannot, therefore, ignore the psychological processes of feeling, desiring and willing of the acting subject. It is indeed true that in ordinary life men are frequently judged to be good or bad, according to the outward effect of their actions, and material results are often regarded as the sole 1 Mackenzie seems to imply this view, Hthics, p. 25. Ps A t 20 CHRISTIANITY AND ETHICS [cH. measure of good. But while it may be a point of difficulty in theoretic morality to determine the comparative worth and mutual relation of good affections and good actions, all surely will allow that a certain quality of disposition or motive in the agent is required to constitute an action morally good, and that it is not enough to measure virtue by its utility or its beneficial effect alone. Hence all moralists are agreed that the main object of their investiga- tion must belong to the psychical side of human life— whether they hold that man’s ultimate end is to be found in the sphere of pleasure or maintain that his well-being lies in the realisation of virtue for its own sake. The problems as to the origin and adequacy of conscience, as to the mean- ing and validity of voluntary action; the questions con- cerning motives and desires, as to the historical evolution of moral customs, and man’s relation at each stage of his history to the social, political and religious institutions amid which he lives—are subjects which, though falling within the scope of Ethics, have their roots in the science of the soul. The very existence of a science of Ethics depends upon the answers which Psychology gives to such questions. If, for example, it be decided that there is in man no such faculty or organ as conscience, and that what men so designate is but a natural manifestation gradually evolved in and through the physical and social development of man: or if we deny the self-determining power of human beings and assume that what we call the freedom of the will is a delusion (or at least, in the last resort, a negligible element) and that man is but one of the many phenomena or facts of a physical universe—then we may continue, in- deed, as some evolutionary and naturalistic thinkers do, to speak of a science of Ethics, but such a science will not be a study of the moral life as we understand it and have defined it. Ethics, therefore, while dependent upon the philo- sophical sciences, has its own distinct content and scope. The end of life, that for which a man should live, with all its implications, forms the subject of moral inquiry. It is I1.] THE POSTULATES OF CHRISTIAN ETHICS 23 given a new direction to the moral life of man. Man’s life at its highest can only be interpreted in the light of this supreme revelation, and can only be accounted for as the creation of the dynamic force of this unique Personality. But while this truth gives to Christian Ethics its distine- tive character and pre-eminent worth it does not throw discredit upon philosophical Ethics, nor indeed separate the two departments by any hard and fast lines. They have much incommon. A large domain of conduct is covered by both. The so-called pagan virtues have their value for Christian character and are in the line of Christian virtue. Even in his natural state man is constituted for the moral life, and, as St. Paul states, is not without some knowledge of right and wrong. The moral attainments of the ancients are not to be regarded simply as ‘splendid vices,’ but as positive achievements of good. Duty may differ in con- tent, but it is of the same kind under any system. Purity is purity and benevolence beneyolence, whether manifested in a heathen or a Christian. / While, therefore, Christian Ethics takes its point of departure from the special revela- tion of God and the unique disclosure of man’s possibilities in Christ, it gladly accepts and freely uses the results of moral philosophy in so far as they throw light upon the fundamental facts of human nature.) As a system of morals Christianity claims to be inclusive. It takes cognisance of all the data of consciousness, and assumes as its own, from whatever quarter it may come, all ascertained truth. The facts of man’s natural history, the conclusions from philosophy, the manifold lights afforded by previous speculation—all are gathered up, sifted and tried by one all-authoritative measure of truth—the mind of Christ. It completes what is lacking in other systems in so far as their conclusions are based upon an incomplete survey of facts. It deals, in short, with personality in its highest ranges of moral power and spiritual] consciousness and seeks to interpret life by its greatest possibilities and loftiest attainments as they are revealed in Christ. But\while Christian Ethics is at one with philosophic 24 CHRISTIANITY AND ETHICS [CH. Kthics in postulating a natural capacity for spiritual life, it is differentiated from all non-Christian systems by its distinctive belief in the possibility of the re-creation of character. ) Speculative Ethics prescribes only what ought ideally to be done or avoided. It takes no account of the foes of the spiritual life; nor does it consider the remedy by which character, once it is perverted or destroyed, can be restored and transformed./ Christian Ethics, on the other hand, is concerned primarily with the question, By what power can a man achieve the right and do the good.?—~ It is not enough to postulate the inherent capacity of man. Experience of human nature shows that there are hostile elements which too often frustrate his natural develop- ment. Hence the practical problem which Christian Ethics has to face is, How can the spiritual ideal be made a reality ? It regards man as standing in need of recovery, and it is forced to assume, that which philosophical Ethics does not recognise, a divine power by which character can be renewed. Christianity claims to be ‘the power of God unto salvation to every one that believeth.’ Christian Ethics therefore is based upon the twofold assumption that the ideal of humanity has actually been revealed in Christ, and that in Him also is the power by which man may realise this ideal. \ II The relation of Christian Ethics to Dogmatics.—Within the sphere of theology proper the two main constituents of Christian teaching are Dogmatics and Ethics, or Doctrines and Morals. Though it is convenient to regard these separately they really form a whole, and are but two aspects of one subject. It is difficult to define their limits, and to say where Dogmatics ends and Ethics begins. The distinc- tion is sometimes expressed by saying that Dogmatics is a theoretic science, whereas Ethics is practical. It is true that Ethics stands nearer to everyday life and deals with matters of practical conduct, while Dogmatics is concerned with beliefs and treats of their origin and elucidation. II.] THE POSTULATES OF CHRISTIAN ETHICS 25 But, on the other hand, Ethics also takes cognisance of beliefs as well as actions, and is interested in judgments not less than achievements. There is a practical side of doctrine and there is a theoretic side of morals. Even the most theoretic of sciences, Metaphysics, though, as Novalis said, it bakes no bread, is not without its direct bearing upon life. Dogmatic theology when divorced from prac- tical interest is in danger of becoming mere pedantry ; and ethical inquiry, if it has no dogmatic basis, loses scientific value and sinks into a mere enumeration of duties. Nor is the common statement, that Dogmatics shows what we should believe and Ethics what we ought to do, an adequate one. Moral precepts are also objects of faith, and what we should believe involves moral requirements and pre- supposes a moral character. Schleiermacher has been charged with ignoring the difference between the two disciplines, but with scant justice. For, while he regards the two subjects as but different branches of Christian theology, and insists upon their intimate connection, he does not neglect their distinction. There has been a grow- ing tendency to accentuate the difference, and recent writers such as Jacoby, Haering and Lemme, not to men- tion Martensen, Dorner and Wuttke, claim for Ethics a separate and independent treatment. The ultimate con- nection between Dogmatics and Ethics cannot be ignored without loss to both. It tends only to confusion to speak as some do of ‘a creedless morality.’ On the one hand, Ethics saves Dogmaticsfrom evaporating into unsubstantial speculation, and by affording the test of workableness, keeps it upon the solid foundation of fact. On the other hand, Dogmatics supplies to Ethics its formative principles and normative standards, and preserves the moral life from degenerating into the vagaries of fanaticism or the apathy of fatalism. But while both sciences form complementary sides of theology and stand in relations of mutual service, each deals with the human consciousness in a different way. Dogmatics regards the Christian life from the standpoint of divine dependence: Ethics regards it from the stand- 26 CHRISTIANITY AND ETHICS [cH. point of human determination. Dogmatics deals with faith in relation to God, as the receptive organ of grace: Ethics views faith rather in relation to man, as a human activity or organ of conduct. The one shows us how our adoption into the kingdom of God is the work of divine love: the other shows how this knowledge of salvation manifests itself in love to God and man, and must be worked out through all the relationships of life. Ii We may define more particularly the relation of Ethics to Dogmatics by enumerating briefly the doctrinal postu- lates or assumptions with which Ethics starts. 1. Ethics assumes the Christian tdea of God. God is for Ethics not an impersonal force, nor even simply the creator of the universe as philosophy might conceive Him. Creative power is not of course denied, but it is qualified by what theology calls the ‘moral attributes of God.’ We do not ignore His omnipotence, but we look beyond it, to ‘the love that tops the power, the Christ in God.’ ? It is not necessary here to sketch the Old Testament teaching with regard to God. It is sufficient to state that the New Testament writers, while not attempting to pro- claim abstract doctrines, took over generally the Hebrew conception of the Deity as a God who was at once almighty, holy and righteous. The distinctive note which the New Testament emphasises is the Personality of God, and person- ality includes reason, will and love. The fact that we are His offspring, as St. Paul argues, is the basis of our true conception of God’s nature. Through that which is highest in man we are enabled to discern something of His character. But it is specially in and through Jesus Christ that the distinctive character of the Divine Personality is declared. Christ reveals Him as our Father, and everywhere the New 1 Cf. Dorner, System der Christl. Hthik, p. 48. See also Newman Smyth, Christian Ethics, p. 44. 2 Cf. Mackintosh, Christian Ethics, p. 11. II.J THE POSTULATES OF CHRISTIAN ETHICS 27 Testament writers assume that men stand in the closest filial relations to him. In the fundamental conception of divine Fatherhood there are implicitly contained certain elements of ethical significance.1 Of these may be men- tioned : (1) The Spiritual Perfection of God.—The Christian doc- trine of God includes not only His personality, but His spiritual perfection. All that is highest and best in life is attributed to God. What we regard as having supreme moral worth is eternally realised in Him. It is this fact that prescribes man’s ideal and makes it binding. ‘ Be ye perfect even as your Father in heaven is perfect,’ says Christ. Because of what God is, spiritual and moral excellence takes precedence of all other aims which can be perceived and pursued by man. Morality is the revelation of an ideal eternally existing in the divine mind. ‘The belief in God,’ it has been said, ‘is the logical pre-supposition of an objective or absolute morality.’* The moral law, as the norm and goal of our life, obtains its validity and obliga- tion for us not because it is an arbitrarily-given command, but because it is of the very character of God. (2) The Sovereignty of God.—Not only the spiritual perfec- tion but the moral sovereignty of God is pre-supposed. He is the supreme excellence on whom all things depend, and in whom they find their ultimate explanation. The world is not merely His creation, it is the expression of His mind. He is not related to the universe as an artist is related to his work, but rather as a personal being to his own mental and moral activities. He is immanent in all the pheno- mena of nature and movements of life and thought ; and in the order and purpose of the world His character and will are manifested. The fact that the meaning and order of things are not imposed from without, but constitute their inner nature, reveals not only the completeness of His 1 Cf. Lidgett, The Christian Religion, pp. 106, 485 ff., where the idea of God’s nature is admirably developed. 2 Rashdall, The Theory of Gocd and Evil, vol. ii. p. 212. ne vad idem. But see Bosanquet, Principle of Indiv. and Value, p. ; 28 CHRISTIANITY AND ETHICS [cH. sovereignty, but the purpose of it. The highest end of God, as moral and spiritual, is fulfilled by the constitution and education of spiritual beings like Himself, and in laying down the conditions which are necessary for their existence and perfecting. No definition of divine sovereignty can exclude the idea of moral freedom and the consequences bound up with it. Hence God must not only confer the gift of individual liberty, but respect it throughout the whole course of His dealings with man. (3) The Supremacy of Love.—This is the highest and most distinctive feature of the divine personality. Itis the sum of all the others ; as well as the special characteristic of the Fatherhood of God as revealed by Christ. ‘ God is love’ is the crowning statement of the Gospel and the fullest expres- sion of the divine nature. ‘The essential of all love is self- giving ; and the peculiarity of God’s love is the communica- tion and imparting of Himself to His creatures. The love of God finds its highest manifestation in the gift and sacrifice of HisSon. He is the supreme personality in history, revea!- ing God in and to the world. In the light of what Christ is we know what God is, and from His revelation there flows a new and ever-deepening experience of the divine Being. 2. Christian Ethics presupposes the Christian doctrine of Sin. It is not the province of Ethics to discuss minutely the origin of evil or propound a theory of sin. But it must see to it that the view it takes is consistent with the truths of revelation and in harmony with the facts of life.