REPER ENOE 
 
The person charging this material is re¬ 
 sponsible for its return on or before the 
 Latest Date stamped below. 
 
 Theft, mutilation, and underlining of books 
 are reasons for disciplinary action and may 
 result in dismissal from the University. 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN 
 

 
 
THE CATHOLIC 
 ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 •' INTERNATIONAL WORK OF REFERENCE 
 ON THE CONSTITUTION, DOCTRINE, 
 DISCIPLINE, AND HISTORY OF THE 
 CATHOLIC CHURCH 
 
 :ating Art, Biography, Education, Exploration, History, Law, 
 Literature, Nations, Philosophy, Races, Religion, 
 
 Science and Sociology 
 
 EDITED BY’ 
 
 1 YARD A. PACE, Ph. D„ D. D. CONDE B. PALLEN, Ph. D„ LL. D 
 THOMAS J. SHAHAN, D. D. JOHN J. WYNNE, S. J. 
 
 ASSISTED BY NUMEROUS COLLABORATORS 
 
 SUPPLEMENT I 
 VOLUME XVII 
 
 IRew 
 
 THE ENCYCLOPEDIA PRESS. INC. 
 
r 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 P 
 
 % 
 
 \ 
 
 V 
 
 j ( 
 
 r 
 
 
 1 A K ( 
 
 1 ?v 
 
 \ 
 
 . 
 
 . ; f I 
 
 ■*» f ■ ■ f 
 
 / 
 
 Nihil Ohstat, 1922 
 
 ARTHUR J. SCANLAN, £>. D. 
 
 CENSOR 
 
 Imprimatur 
 
 * PATRICK J. HAYES 
 
 ARCHBISHOP OP NEW YORK 
 
 Copyright, 1922 
 
 By THE ENCYCLOPEDIA PRESS, INC 
 
 The articles in this work have been written specially for The Catholic 
 Encyclopedia and are protected by copyright. All rights, includ¬ 
 ing the right of translation and reproduction, are reserved. 
 
A 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 The Catholic Encyclopedia was completed in 1913; the Index 
 Volume, with supplementary articles, in 1914. Since then the editors 
 have published “The Catholic Encyclopedia and Its Makers,” con¬ 
 taining biographies of the contributors and others engaged in produc¬ 
 ing the work, and a volume containing the revisions in the New Code 
 of Canon Law. This, therefore, is the first Supplement in the real 
 sense. It was impossible to issue one sooner, owing to war conditions. 
 With great difficulty the volume is published now, owing to the delays 
 in correspondence, and the impossibility of getting in touch with many 
 
 former contributors. This volume shows that Tun Catholic. Ency- 
 
 \ 
 
 clopedia is a work of permanent value that in substance many of its 
 articles on Art, Education, Law, Literature, Philosophy, Religion and 
 social questions need scarcely any revision, that additional or supple¬ 
 mental matter is needed chiefly in biography and geography, to cover 
 the changes that have come about in territorial boundaries and in the 
 establishment of new nations, in the constitution of new dioceses and 
 the opening up of new missions; the origin of new social, political and 
 religious organizations and movements and the development of those 
 that were already in progress. The articles on these subjects bring the 
 whole work up to date, making it actually more valuable than ever as 
 a work of reference. 
 
 In size, form and style, editorial and typographical, this volume 
 conforms in every particular with the original volumes of the Ency¬ 
 clopedia and we trust its readers will find it as useful as a source of 
 information as well as a record of progress. 
 
 4 
 
 513?13 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 . : • i < / f. \l r -'iff :r».« ’y,- . *, •• / 
 
 
 
 ! 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 'll 
 
 
 Bit! 0‘JffHT 
 
 
 
 11 . • r *'? r' ' 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -; J 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 < ■: as 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 * r-VL-y-r'i^m 
 
 ■ i J i. 1; 
 
 
 PJi *J0' 0 • 0 '• T ' 
 
 . 
 
 
 . • ;i' :•• = - ,:;o jo o) . ) ' • •«. 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 - ; 1 • : . ' /O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 
The Catholic Enc) 7 cl opedia 
 
 SUPPLEMENT 
 
 AND 
 
 YEAR-BOOK 
 
A 
 
 Aachen. See Cologne. 
 
 Abbess (cf. C. E., I-7b).—A nun is ineligible for 
 the office of abbess unless she is of legitimate birth, 
 and is at least forty years old; ten years, moreover, 
 must have elapsed since her first profession in the 
 order. These are the only requirements laid down 
 by the Code, which, however, confirms whatever 
 more rigid qualifications are prescribed by the Con¬ 
 stitutions of the various orders. The Council of 
 Trent was less rigorous, as it fixed the years of 
 t profession at eight, and authorized lowering the 
 age to thirty and the period of profession to five 
 years, when no suitable candidate possessing the 
 stricter qualifications could be found. 
 
 Abbir, a titular see in Proconsular Africa, for¬ 
 merly Abbir-Cella or Abbir Majus, to distinguish 
 it from Abbir Minus in the same locality. It was 
 a suffragan of Carthage. One of its Bishops, Felix, 
 is mentioned in the lists of African prelates as 
 having taken the Catholic side in the great Car¬ 
 thaginian conference of 411 between Catholics and 
 Donatists. Its ruins exist to-day at Henchir-en- 
 Naam, about forty miles southwest of Tunis. 
 
 Abbot (cf. C. E., I-15d).—An abbot is the su¬ 
 perior of an autonomous community of monks com¬ 
 prising as a rule at least twelve religious. There 
 are two chief classes of abbots: regular abbots de 
 regimine, that is, superiors having jurisdiction only 
 over the persons lay or ecclesiastical, attached to 
 their abbey, and abbots nullius (i. e., of a territory 
 belonging to no diocese) whose jurisdiction extends 
 also over the faithful and churches of a district 
 around the abbey entirely separated from any 
 diocese. The territory thus ruled is called an abbey 
 nullius and has its own clergy, who are not neces¬ 
 sarily members of the monastic institute and its 
 own parishes. If it has less than three parishes it 
 is governed by special laws, just as the religious 
 chapter of the abbey is governed by its own laws 
 and constitutions. The erection, circumscription, 
 division, union and suppression of abbeys nullius 
 are reserved to the Holy See. An abbot nullius 
 must have the qualifications required for the epis¬ 
 copacy. He is nominated and instituted by the 
 pope, unless the right of election or presentation 
 has been granted to a particular organization or 
 person, in which case he must be confirmed or in¬ 
 stituted by the pope. At the election he is chosen 
 by an absolute majority of the valid votes cast, 
 unless there is a special law requiring a greater per¬ 
 centage. If the canons or the constitutions of his 
 order require him to be blessed, he must receive 
 the abbatial blessing, from a bishop, whom he is free 
 to select, within three months after receiving his 
 Apostolic letters, unless he is legitimately prevented; 
 otherwise he is by the very fact suspended from 
 jurisdiction. 
 
 Abbots nullius are included under the term ordi¬ 
 nary when it is used in canon law, unless they are 
 expressly excluded; they are also included under 
 the term bishop when the circumstances or the con¬ 
 text do not show a different intent on the part of 
 the lawgiver. After their appointment they may 
 not interfere for any reason in the government of 
 their abbey personally or through another before 
 taking canonical possession of it; if they interfere 
 they incur a canonical disability, and persons who 
 
 admit them before they have shown their Apostolic 
 letters are by the very fact suspended from the 
 right of electing during the pleasure of the Holy 
 See. 
 
 Abbots nullius have the same ordinary powers 
 and obligations as a residential bishop in his own 
 diocese. Even though they have not been con¬ 
 secrated, they can, if they have received the abbatial 
 blessing, consecrate churches and fixed altars when 
 necessary, and within their own territory and dur¬ 
 ing their term of office they may impart all the 
 blessings reserved to bishops, except the pontifical 
 blessing; they can consecrate chalices, patens, and 
 portable altars, with holy oil blessed by a bishop; 
 grant indulgences of fifty days; administer con¬ 
 firmation, and confer first tonsure and minor orders 
 on their own subjects, even secular, and on others 
 who have the requisite dimissorial letters, but or¬ 
 ders conferred by them in any other case would be 
 invalid. 
 
 As long as they possess local jurisdiction abbots 
 nullius can give dimissorial letters to seculars, even 
 for the reception of major orders. They can im¬ 
 part the papal blessing with a plenary indulgence 
 while within their own territory, but only on one 
 of the more solemn feasts each year (bishops on 
 the other hand may grant it on two days, one being 
 Easter Sunday); they can designate and declare a 
 daily perpetual privileged altar in any church of 
 their territories if there is none there already, but 
 they cannot do so in public or semi-public oratories, 
 unless these are united to a parochial church or 
 subsidiary to it, nor in a private oratory. Abbots 
 nullius in their own territory, even when they are 
 not bishops, use the pontifical insignia with throne 
 and canopy, and may lawfully hold Divine services 
 there according to the pontifical rite; they may 
 wear the pectoral cross, the ring, and the violet 
 zucchetto, even when they are outside their terri¬ 
 tory. 
 
 Abbots nullius, the abbot primate and abbots 
 superior of monastic congregations have a right to 
 assist at oecumenical councils and the right to a 
 decisive, not merely to a consultive, vote. Abbots 
 nullius, furthermore, must attend the quinquennial 
 meeting of the local ordinaries of their province. 
 On being promoted they must make a profession 
 of faith according to the formula approved by the 
 Holy See, in presence of an Apostolic delegate; if 
 they fail to do so without a just cause, they are to 
 be warned, and if the warning is fruitless they are 
 to be punished, even by deprivation of office and 
 dignity, and of the enjoyment of its fruits for the 
 time being. On the death of an abbot nullius, the 
 religious chapter succeeds to the government, unless 
 the constitutions of the abbey provide otherwise; 
 within eight days it must designate a vicar capitular 
 to rule the abbey until the new abbot is elected; 
 if it fails to do so the metropolitan is to appoint 
 one, unless other provision is made in the constitu¬ 
 tions. 
 
 A regular abbot de regimine lawfully elected is 
 to receive the blessing of the bishop of the diocese 
 where his monastery is situated within three months 
 after his election. Abbots who are not exempt are 
 blessed by the authority of their own bishops, 
 whereas for the benediction of exempt abbots the 
 consent of the pope is required. Since the Bene¬ 
 dictines are exempt, being engaged in many distant 
 
ABBREVIATORS 
 
 2 
 
 ABORTION 
 
 lands, it has not infrequently occurred that the 
 abbatial blessing has had to be deferred for a long 
 time while awaiting the mandate from Rome 
 authorizing the bestowal of the blessing. Conse¬ 
 quently on 19 June, 1921, Benedict XV granted a 
 general mandate in virtue of which the benediction 
 may be imparted to any abbot of the confederated 
 Benedictines by the diocesan bishop without a 
 special mandate, or by any bishop in communion 
 with the Holy See if the diocesan bishop is dead, 
 or if there is written proof either that he has given 
 his consent or that he is legitimately prevented 
 from bestowing the blessing. If a regular abbot 
 de regimine is a priest and has received the abbatial 
 benediction legitimately, he can confer tonsure and 
 minor orders on his own professed subjects; under 
 any other circumstances, ordination conferred by 
 him would be void, unless he possessed the episcopal 
 character, all privileges to the contrary having now 
 been revoked. Regular abbots de regimine, like 
 abbots nullius, may pontificate and have a throne 
 and canopy; they may wear a pectoral cross and a 
 ring, but not the violet zucchetto. In conclusion, 
 it may be noted that no one may now become an 
 abbot under the age of thirty. 
 
 In 1921 there were eighteen abbeys nullius: 
 Monte Cassino, Subiaco, Monte Vergine, Cava dei 
 Tirreni, and St. Paul-without-the-Walls (all in 
 Italy), New Nurcia (Australia), Our Lady Help of 
 Christians (Belmont, North Carolina), Santa Maria 
 de Monserrato (Rio de Janeiro), Martinsberg (an 
 archabbey, Hungary), Einsiedeln (Switzerland), 
 Saint Peter (Muenster, Canada), all ruled by Black 
 Benedictines; Monte Oliveto Maggiore (Italy) 
 under the Olivetans; St. Maurice-en-Valais (Switzer¬ 
 land) under Augustinians; Wettirigen-Mehrerau 
 (Vorarlberg, Austria), under Cistercians; Nonantula, 
 which is perpetually united to the Archdiocese of 
 Modena; San Martino al Monte Cimino and Saints 
 Vincent and Anastasius near Rome, formerly under 
 Cistercians, Miridite or St. Alexander de Oroshi 
 (Albania), formerly under Benedictines, are now 
 governed by secular abbots. In 1920 Benedict XV 
 made the sanctuary of Santa Maria di Polsi in 
 Calabria, Italy, formerly belonging to the Basilian 
 monks, a titular abbey nullius. Its rector, who is 
 removable at the will of the Bishop of Gerace, is 
 ipso facto a titular abbot nullius, with limited 
 special powers and privileges, including authoriza¬ 
 tion to administer Confirmation during his term of 
 office. 
 
 Abbreviators (cf. C. E., I-28c).—In the reorgani¬ 
 zation of the papal chancery under Pius X the 
 college of abbreviators of the greater presidency 
 disappeared. As the abbreviators of the lower presi¬ 
 dency had been suppressed in the reforms of 
 Pius VII, the last chapter in the history of ec¬ 
 clesiastical abbreviators has now been written. 
 
 Abduction (cf. C. E., I-32b), is viewed in the 
 canon law either (a) as a crime or (b) as a 
 diriment matrimonial impediment, (a) The crime 
 of abduction is committed when a man with a view 
 to marriage or to the gratification of his lust carries 
 off any woman by force or fraud against her will, 
 or a female minor who consents, but does so with¬ 
 out the knowledge of or against the orders of her 
 parents or guardians. The law now explicitly re¬ 
 quires for the crime of elopement or abduction by 
 seduction that the woman should be minor. For¬ 
 merly the crime of abduction was punished among 
 other ways by excommunication incurred ipso facto 
 and perpetual infamy; now there is no excom¬ 
 munication, but the abductor is excluded from 
 legitimate ecclesiastical acts and is to be punished 
 otherwise according to the gravity of his offense. 
 
 (b) There can be no marriage between a man who 
 abducts a woman with a view to marrying her, as 
 long as she remains in his power; if the woman, 
 however, after being separated from him and re¬ 
 stored to liberty in a place of safety consents to 
 wed him, the impediment ceases. The Code ex¬ 
 tends the Tridentine legislation by enacting that 
 the same impediment arises also when a man with 
 a view to marriage detains a woman by physical 
 force in a place where she lives or to which she had 
 gone of her own accord. 
 
 Ayrinhac, Penal Legislation (New York, 1920), 293-96; 
 Idem, Marriage Legislation (New York, 1919), 158-163. 
 
 Aberdeen, Diocese of (Aberdonensis; cf. C. E., 
 I-41d).—The fourth bishop, Rt. Rev. iEneas Chis¬ 
 holm, d. 13 January, 1918, was bom at Inverness in 
 1836, studied at Blairs College, Aberdeen, and at 
 the Gregorian University, Rome, being ordained in 
 1860. After serving in various missions in Scotland 
 he was made rector of Blairs in 1890, the new build¬ 
 ings being erected during his incumbency. He was 
 consecrated Bishop of Aberdeen in 1899. He was 
 succeeded by the present incumbent, Rt. Rev. 
 George H. Bennett, b. in Antigua, B.W. I., 1875, 
 ordained 1898, consecrated 1918. 
 
 The Catholic population of the diocese is about 
 12,000. It has 43 churches, 39 missions, 16 stations, 
 1 abbey (Fort Augustus), 7 convents for women, 
 47 secular priests, 26 monks, 16 lay brothers, 1 sem¬ 
 inary with 120 seminarians and 9 professors. The 
 congregations of women include the Religious of 
 the Sacred Heart, the Sisters of Nazareth, the Sis¬ 
 ters of Mercy (3 houses), the Franciscans and the 
 Sisters of St. Joseph. St. Mary’s College, at Blairs, 
 Aberdeen, is under the conduct of diocesan clergy. 
 There is a school for girls with higher and junior 
 grades with 8 teachers and an attendance of 100. 
 There are 17 elementary schools with 50 teachers 
 and an attendance of 1931. Under the Education 
 Act of 1918 all the elementary schools are now 
 taken over by the local education authorities and 
 supported by the public funds. Nazareth House, 
 Aberdeen, is an industrial school for girls, with four 
 teachers and an attendance of 100. There are like¬ 
 wise a home for old men and women, an orphanage 
 for boys and one for girls. 
 
 In September, 1911, the centenary of the death of 
 Bishop Hay, who did so much for the restoration 
 of the Church in Scotland, was celebrated with 
 great solemnity at Fort Augustus. During the 
 World War three secular priests and several of the 
 Benedictines served as army or navy chaplains. 
 
 Abjuration (cf. C. E., I-^44c).—As schism, like 
 apostasy and heresy, is now punished with excom¬ 
 munication reserved specially to the Holy See, the 
 ordinary may not absolve from the censure if it is 
 brought before him in the external forum unless the 
 culprit has juridically abjured his schism, that is in 
 his presence or in that of his delegate and at least 
 two witnesses, as in cases of apostasy or heresy. 
 
 Abortion (cf. C. E., I-46d).—Those who actively 
 and efficaciously bring about an abortion, the 
 mother herself included, incur excommunication 
 latce sententioe, that is inflicted by the law with¬ 
 out the formality of a sentence, absolution from 
 which is reserved to the ordinary; if one of the 
 guilty parties is a cleric he is, moreover, to be 
 canonically deposed. The Code, it may be re¬ 
 marked, in speaking of co-operation says that 
 those who command or induce another to perform 
 an action, or who aid him in such a way that the 
 crime would not have been committed but for 
 their assistance, share equally in the guilt with the 
 principal culprit, and so incur the same penalty. 
 
ABRYTUS 
 
 3 
 
 ABUSE 
 
 An irregularity, that is, a hindrance to the recep¬ 
 tion or exercise of orders in the Church, from 
 which an ordinary cannot dispense, even in the 
 case of his own subjects, is incurred by those who 
 procure the abortion of a human foetus, and their 
 co-operators. The Code does not restrict the 
 penalty to the case of an animated foetus as was 
 formerly the accepted doctrine. It should be noted 
 that these penalties are imposed only for abortion, 
 not for other operations even when they are sinful 
 or criminal. 
 
 Abrytus, a titular see of Lower Moesia, a country 
 of ancient Europe loosely corresponding to modern 
 Bulgaria, and suffragan of Marcianopolis. This 
 city is first mentioned by the historian Dexippus 
 as the place near which the Emperor Decius was 
 killed in his pursuit of the invading Goths in 251. 
 A bishop of Abrytus, Marcian, defended Nestorius 
 at the Council of Ephesus (431). Some historians 
 identify the ancient city with Aboba, seven miles 
 northwest of Jenibazaar and north of Shumla; 
 others with Abtaat in Dobrudja. 
 
 Abstinence (cf. C. E., I-67b).—The law of ab¬ 
 stinence regards only the quality of food, while 
 that of fasting is concerned now merely with the 
 quantity of food that may be taken. The law of 
 abstinence is binding on all those who have com¬ 
 pleted their seventh year; it forbids the eating of 
 flesh meat or soup made from meat, but not the 
 use of eggs, milk, butter, cheese, or of condiments 
 even when made from animal fat. The prohibition 
 against eating fish and flesh at the same meal has 
 been abolished. Abstinence is now obligatory only 
 on Fridays, Ember Days, the vigils of Pentecost, 
 the Assumption, All Saints’, and Christmas, on Ash 
 Wednesday and the Saturdays of Lent; but the 
 obligation ceases on Holy Saturday at noon, and 
 also on all feasts of precept, except those falling 
 on week-days in Lent; furthermore, if one of the 
 vigils mentioned above falls on Sunday there is 
 no abstinence on the Sunday, or on the preceding 
 Saturday as was formerly the case. For ages the 
 Holy See had persistently refused to abolish the 
 Saturday abstinence, though in many places indults 
 dispensing from it had been granted; but now ab¬ 
 stinence, as noted above, is obligatory only on the 
 Saturdays of Lent and the vigil of Pentecost. In 
 some countries an indult has been grant -1 to trans¬ 
 fer Saturday abstinence in Lent to Wednesdays, 
 excepting Ember Saturday. There is no mention 
 in the Code of abstinence on Rogation Days nor 
 of the Advent fast or abstinence as such. The 
 regulations set forth in the Code do not affect 
 special indults or obligations imposed by vow or by 
 the rules of religious or of communities not bound 
 by vow. 
 
 Local ordinaries may appoint a special day of 
 abstinence for their own territories as an isolated 
 occurrence. They and parish priests can in in¬ 
 dividual cases and for just reasons dispense from 
 abstinence persons or families subject to them, 
 even if they are outside of their territories, and 
 also travelers, possessing a domicile or quasi-domi¬ 
 cile elsewhere, who happen to be within their terri¬ 
 tories. An ordinary can dispense the entire diocese 
 or a particular locality for reasons of public health 
 or on the occasions of a large gathering of the 
 people; superiors of exempt clerical religious have 
 the same power as parish priests over their subjects 
 and those living day and night in their houses. 
 
 In reply to a query concerning the doctrine that 
 since the publication of the Code it is permissible 
 to eat meat more than once on days of fast only, 
 the Commission for the interpretation of the Code 
 said that it could not be safely held in conscience 
 
 (Acta Ap. Sedis, 1919, p. 480). In answer to another 
 query the Sacred Penitentiary said that when in 
 virtue of an indult certain meats are allowed to 
 be eaten on days specified in the indult, persons 
 who by reason of age or labor are not bound to 
 fast may eat meat as often as they like on such 
 days; many years earlier a similar reply was given 
 in the case of people excused from fasting through 
 illness. Apart from these instances, in virtue of a 
 special indult in the United States “workingmen 
 and their families are permitted to use flesh meat 
 once a day on all fast days and days of abstinence 
 throughout the year, with the exception of Fridays, 
 Ash Wednesday, Spy Wednesday, the forenoon of 
 Easter Saturday, and Christmas Eve.” 
 
 Abuse of Power or Office.—The power placed in 
 the hands of the clergy being so very great, we find 
 the Church, as might be expected, insisting strongly 
 that it shall not be misused. Anyone, therefore, 
 who misuses his ecclesiastical office or power is to 
 be punished in whatever way seems proper to his 
 lawful superior, unless a definite penalty is laid 
 down by the canons. Thus, vicars capitular and 
 all others, whether members of a chapter or not, 
 who, personally or through others, remove, destroy, 
 conceal or substantially change any document be¬ 
 longing to the episcopal curia, incur excommunica¬ 
 tion reserved simply to the Holy See; in addition 
 they may be deprived of their office or benefice by 
 the ordinary. Again, should a person who is offi¬ 
 cially entrusted with the compilation or care of 
 the records of the ecclesiastical curia or of the 
 parish registers, presume to falsify, forge, destroy, 
 or conceal any of them, he is to be deprived of his 
 office, and if the circumstances demand it, he should 
 be otherwise severely punished by the ordinary. If 
 anyone betrays his trust in transcribing, transmit¬ 
 ting or showing acts, documents, or books, when 
 his services have been lawfully asked, he may be 
 punished by the ordinary by privation of office, 
 suspension therefrom, and by a fine, according as 
 circumstances demand. Persons who en eavor to 
 bribe curial officials or ecclesiastical administrators, 
 judges, advocates, or procurators, are to be pun¬ 
 ished, and compelled to make restitution if they 
 have caused any injury. Anyone who charges more 
 than the lawfully approved fees for voluntary acts 
 of jurisdiction, or for the administration of the 
 sacraments or sacramentals, or the legal costs of a 
 suit is to be heavily fined, and if it is his second 
 offense he is to be suspended or removed from 
 office, as circumstances demand, and in addition he 
 must restore what he thus unjustly obtained. 
 
 A vicar capitular who grants dimissorial letters 
 for ordination, without the consent of the chapter, 
 when the see has been vacant more than a year, or 
 if, when it has been vacant less than a year, he 
 grants them to anyone except a person who is 
 obliged to receive orders b}^ reason of a benefice 
 he has obtained or is to obtain or by reason of an 
 office which the interests of the diocese require to 
 be filled without delay, is by that very fact sus¬ 
 pended from the exercise of his sacred orders. If 
 a religious superior unlawfully presumes to send 
 dimissorial letters for ordination to a bishop other 
 than the ordinary of the diocese in which the house 
 to which the candidate belongs is situated, or if he 
 defrauds the diocesan bishop by sending the candi¬ 
 date to another house or deliberately delays grant¬ 
 ing the dimissorial letters unto such time as the 
 bishop is away or is not ordaining, he is by that 
 very fact suspended from saying Mass for a month. 
 
 If the superior of an exempt religious house or 
 church, on being admonished, does not correct- 
 abuses that have crept in, the local ordinary must 
 
ABYSSINIA 
 
 4 
 
 ACERRA 
 
 immediately inform the Holy See. In houses not 
 fully established, if abuses have crept in and scan¬ 
 dalize the faithful, the local ordinary can in the 
 meantime act by himself. Again, religious superiors 
 who admit to the novitiate aspirants who have not 
 the requisite qualifications or the proper testimonial 
 letters, or who allow a novice to be professed when 
 it is uncertain whether or not he is suited for re¬ 
 ligious life, should be punished, even by privation 
 of office. 
 
 A superioress of nuns, even exempt, is to be pun¬ 
 ished by the ordinary, by privation of office if 
 necessary, if she presumes to spend the dowry of 
 a nun before her death, or if she omits to notify 
 the local ordinary about the approaching admission 
 of a candidate to the novitiate or to profession. 
 A religious superior, male or female, who, without 
 the visitor’s consent, transfers a religious after a 
 canonical visitation to another house, and all fellow- 
 religious, whether superiors or not, who personally 
 or through others, directly or indirectly, induce a 
 religious to remain silent or to conceal the truth 
 in any way, or not to be frank when interrogated 
 by the visitor, or who under any pretext molest a 
 religious on account of the information he or she 
 has given to the visitor, are to be declared by the 
 visitor incapable of holding any office entailing the 
 government of others, and the superior is to be 
 deprived of his position. If a mother superior vio¬ 
 lates the canonical rights of a subject to confess to 
 a priest other than the ordinary chaplain, she is to 
 be admonished by the local ordinary; if she repeats 
 the offense, she is to be deprived of her office by the 
 ordinary, who must thereupon inform the Sacred 
 Congregation for Religious about the occurrence. 
 
 Abyssinia (cf. C. E., I-75b).—A kingdom in 
 northern Africa with an area of about 350,000 
 square miles, and an estimated population of about 
 10,000,000. It is divided into the following nine 
 provinces: Harar and dependencies, Wollo, Kassa 
 and Magi, Gore, Tigre, Damot and Gojam, Equa¬ 
 torial provinces, Gondar, Gima or Jimma. Menelik, 
 the ruler from 1889, died in December, 1913, and 
 was succeeded by his grandson, Lij Yasu. On 
 27 September, 1916, Lij Yasu was deposed by pub¬ 
 lic proclamation and Waizeru Zauditu, daughter of 
 Menelik, was nominated empress, and Ras Taffari 
 proclaimed regent and heir to the throne. The 
 empress was crowned at Addis Abbaba on 11 Feb¬ 
 ruary, 1917. The new government has been recog¬ 
 nized by Great Britain. In August, 1919, Cabinet 
 Government was introduced after more than a 
 year’s personal administration by the regent. There 
 are reports, however, that the splendid work done 
 by King Menelik in developing the country, and 
 which would probably have continued under his 
 chosen successor, Lij Yasu, has fallen into decay 
 and that Abyssinia is relapsing into a state ap¬ 
 proaching barbarism. Under the Arms Convention 
 of 1919, France, England, and Italy bound them¬ 
 selves not to supply munitions to the Abyssinians 
 for fear that they would be used for slave raiding 
 purposes. During the World War Abyssinian troops 
 served with the British in the East African cam¬ 
 paign. 
 
 There is a railway of meter gauge from the port 
 of Jibuti in French Somaliland to Dire Dawa 
 (about twenty-five miles from Harar), in the south¬ 
 east of Abyssinia. In January, 1909, a new company 
 was formed to complete the line from Addis 
 Abbaba, taking over the portion completed on 
 French territory; and the section fo the Hawash 
 River, 150 miles from Dire Dawa, and the same 
 distance from Addis Abbaba, reached the capital 
 in 1917. 
 
 Education. —Education, heretofore restricted to the 
 secular and regular clergy, was extended in October, 
 1907, an edict being issued enjoining compulsory 
 education on all male children over the age of 
 twelve. This is, however, a dead letter. There is 
 one school in Addis Abbaba, directed by a few 
 Coptic teachers, introduced by the Abuna; it has 
 100 pupils, but the attendance is irregular. 
 
 Agriculture. —The production of Harari coffee 
 is on the increase, the supply being practically un¬ 
 limited. In 1914, 3,810 metric tons were exported; 
 in 1915, 5,121 tons; in 1916, 6,364 tons. 
 
 Abyssinia, Vicariate Apostolic of (Abyssinia), 
 is one of the three missionary divisions of Abyssinia 
 in Africa. It comprises Tigre, Amhara and Gondar 
 and is entrusted to the Lazarist Fathers, the present 
 Vicar Apostolic being Rev. Edward Grusson, C. M.. 
 who was appointed in 1906. By latest statistics 
 there are 2,000 Catholics in this territory out of a 
 total population of 4,000,000; 6 parishes, 6 churches 
 or chapels, 12 native secular priests, 5 European 
 and 3 native missionaries, 16 native religious, 1 
 seminary with 9 students, 2 secondary schools for 
 boys with 60 pupils, 1 for girls with 20 pupils, 4 
 elementary schools with 90 pupils, 1 mission, and 3 
 dispensaries. Owing to the almost constant perse¬ 
 cution to which the missionaries are subjected, the 
 progress of this vicariate is very slow. See Galla, 
 Vicariate Apostolic of; Kaffa, Southern, Pre¬ 
 fecture Apostolic of. 
 
 Accession (cf. C. E., I-95d), Latin accessus, a 
 procedure in voting at papal elections, was abolished 
 by Pope Pius X in his Constitution “Vacante Sede 
 Apostolica,” 25 December, 1904. 
 
 Accomplice (cf. C. E., I-100a).—The absolution 
 of an accomplice in a sin against the sixth com¬ 
 mandment is invalid, unless the accomplice is in 
 danger of death; even if there is danger of death 
 such absolution would be illicit on the part of the 
 confessor except in case of necessity, i. e., if no 
 other priest was present, or could be got, or if he 
 could not act without danger of scandal or loss of 
 reputation on the part of the guilty priest, or finally 
 if the penitent refused to confess to any other 
 priest. A priest absolving or pretending to absolve 
 in violation of these provisions incurs excommunica¬ 
 tion reserved in a very special way to the Holy 
 See; formerly the censure was reserved only 
 specially. 
 
 Acerenza (Acherontia), Archdiocese of (cf. C. E., 
 I-101a), in the province of Lecce and Potenza, Italy, 
 is united with the diocese of Matera. The episco¬ 
 pal residence is maintained at Acerenza from May 
 to October, and at Matera from November to April. 
 The present incumbent is Most Rev. Anselmo Pecci, 
 Benedictine, b. at Tramutola, 1868, ordained priest 
 1891, appointed Bishop of Tricarico 22 June, 1903, 
 promoted to the see of Acerenza 18 September, 
 1907. In 1920 the Catholic population of Acerenza 
 numbered 128,200; there were 28 parishes, 140 secu¬ 
 lar and 6 regular clergy, 28 seminarians, 20 religious, 
 and 140 churches or chapels. At Matera there were 
 19,700 Catholics, 4 parishes, 25 secular priests, 26 
 seminarians, 28 sisters and 27 churches or chapels. 
 
 Acerra, Diocese of (Acerrarum), in the province 
 of Caserta, Italy, suffragan of Naples. The first 
 bishop recorded for this see is Concordius in 499, 
 and after a lapse of centuries we find Bartholomaeus 
 in 1179, but the list does not become regular until 
 1247, with Luca. The see was united in 1818 to 
 that of Santa Agata dei Goti, but was again made 
 a separate see, 30 November, 1854. It is dedicated 
 to Our Lady of the Assumption. Its present bishop, 
 
ACHONRY 
 
 ACOUSTICS 
 
 5 
 
 Rt. Rev. Francesco di Pietro, b. at Naples, 1844, 
 was appointed 14 December, 1899. By 1920 statistics 
 the diocese comprises 38,000 Catholics, 12 parishes, 
 98 secular and 15 regular clergy, 25 seminarians, 44 
 churches or chapels, and 28 religious women. 
 
 Achonry, Diocese of (Acadensus: cf. C. E., 
 I-102d), in Ireland, includes portions of Mayo, 
 Sligo and Roscommon, and is suffragan of Tuam. 
 Upon the death of Most Rev. Dr. Lyster, bishop 
 of this diocese, 17 January. 1911, the present incum¬ 
 bent, Rt. Rev. Patrick Morrisroe, succeeded him, 
 being consecrated 3 September, 1911. Dr. Morris¬ 
 roe, b. at Charlestown, County Mayo, 1869, ordained 
 1894, after a year of parish duty, became professor 
 of the Classics and English at the diocesan college, 
 Ballaghdereen (1895-96), and (1896-1911) was dean 
 and professor of liturgy at Maynooth. He con¬ 
 tributed numerous articles on liturgical subjects to 
 the original edition of the Catholic Encyclopedia. 
 
 Within recent years a new diocesan college, cost¬ 
 ing about £20,000 and accommodating about eighty 
 students, has been opened for boys. A parochial 
 church has also been completed and dedicated in 
 the parish of Straid. Among the clergy who have 
 died were two prominent workers, Rt. Rev. Mgr. 
 Loftus (d. 30 October, 1908), and Rt. Rev. Mgr. 
 Staunton (d. 6 November, 1910). During the World 
 War three of the clergy of this diocese served as 
 chaplains. 
 
 In 1921 the total population of the diocese was 
 76,983, all Irish, and of this number only 1,927 are 
 non-Catholics. There are 22 parishes, 43 churches, 
 55 secular priests, 8 convents of women, 1 seminary, 
 1 college for men, and 3 high schools. Among the 
 charitable institutions are hospitals at Swinford and 
 Tubbercurry. The college and three intermediate 
 schools are aided by the government. The Apos¬ 
 tolic Union, “Pia Unio Cleri,” and two missionary 
 societies are organized among the clergy, and the 
 Sacred Heart League and Total Abstinence League 
 among the laity. The Sisters of Mercy, of Charity, 
 of the Sacred Heart, of St. Louis, the Marist Sisters 
 and the Brothers of the Christian Schools are estab¬ 
 lished here. 
 
 Aci-Reale (Jaca Regalis), Diocese of (cf. C. E., 
 I-105a), in the island of Sicily, is immediately sub¬ 
 ject to Rome. The third bishop, Rt. Rev. Salvatore 
 Bella, who succeeded Bishop Giovanni Battista 
 Arista-Vigo (d. 27 September, 1920), in 1921, died 
 29 March, 1922, and the see is now vacant. 
 
 By present (1921) statistics it comprises 18 par¬ 
 ishes, 300 churches, 1 monastery for men, 2 for 
 women, 5 convents for men, 287 secular and 80 
 regular clergy, 1 seminary with 90 seminarians, 3 col¬ 
 leges for men with 670 students and 6 for women 
 with 300 students. Among the charitable institu¬ 
 tions are 2 homes under Catholic auspices; 10 
 societies are organized among the laity and 1 among 
 the clergy and 2 Catholic periodicals are published. 
 
 Acoustics is that branch of natural science which 
 treats of the phenomena of sound, and the term 
 “sound,” as used in physics, is vibration that may 
 be appreciated by the ear. For the purpose of 
 this article the subject will be confined to its rela¬ 
 tion to church edifices, as these buildings must 
 possess the proper acoustical properties to render 
 them thoroughly serviceable for Divine worship. 
 
 Many churches which are architecturally beau¬ 
 tiful have failed to fulfill the expectations of the 
 builders in their acoustical quality, this being due 
 primarily to a general lack of knowledge of the 
 science of architectural acoustics. However, a 
 search through literature on the subject shows there 
 have been learned writers and investigators in 
 
 many countries adding valuable contributions to 
 the subject, which made possible the classified 
 knowledge existing to-day. A few of the more 
 noted among the early investigators and writers 
 have been Bulfinch, Strickland, Mills, Joseph and 
 Jacques in America; Eichhorn, Haege, Orth, Strum- 
 hofel in Germany; Williams and Lord Rayleigh in 
 England. In later years in America among the 
 many physicists who have contributed to the 
 further development of the science are Wallace C. 
 Sabine, W. S. Franklin, G. W. Stewart, H. O. Taylor 
 and Jacob Mazer. The foundation laid by these 
 scientists and many others, combined with recent 
 inventions of combinations of materials archi¬ 
 tecturally suitable, has brought the development of 
 architectural acoustics within the scope of rational 
 engineering problems. 
 
 The subject is necessarily complex; in order that 
 hearing may be good in any church, it is necessary 
 that the sound should be sufficiently loud, that the 
 simultaneous components of a complex sound should 
 maintain their proper relative intensities, and that 
 the successive sounds in rapidly moving articula¬ 
 tion, either of speech or of music, should be clear 
 and distinct, free from each other and from extrane¬ 
 ous noises. As an engineering problem it involves 
 the shape of the auditorium, its dimensions and the 
 materials of which it is composed, and this latter 
 property is by far the one that most controls the 
 acoustical conditions. 
 
 The researches above mentioned and the con¬ 
 tributions of other physicists have made it possible 
 and practicable to determine, given the plans of a 
 church and the kind of materials of which it is to 
 be constructed, the acoustical conditions in the 
 finished building, and to make the necessary pro¬ 
 visions to overcome faults. 
 
 Of acoustical defects, the most common is excess 
 reverberation, including, as a special case, the echo. 
 Sound being energy will, when produced in a con¬ 
 fined space, continue until it is either transmitted 
 by the walls, or transformed into some other kind 
 of energy, generally heat. This process of decay is 
 called absorption. Sound, following the same gen¬ 
 eral law as light, is transmitted by the intervention 
 of a medium capable of being set in vibration. 
 Solids and liquids, as well as gases, transmit sound 
 vibrations. If we take a membrane similar to a 
 drum-head and expose it to the light, some of the 
 rays will penetrate the membrane, some will be 
 reflected from it, and others will be absorbed by it. 
 So it is with sound waves when they strike any sur¬ 
 face. Some are reflected, some are absorbed by it, 
 and some will penetrate it and continue their mo¬ 
 tion to the other side. But as reverberation, due 
 to multiple reflection, enters so largely into the 
 subject of acoustics as applied to auditoriums, a 
 closer study of this phenomenon will assist in the 
 proper appreciation of the difficulties occasionally 
 encountered in auditoriums or churches. 
 
 By the term “reverberation” is meant the con¬ 
 tinuation of sound in a room after the source that 
 produced it has ceased to operate. This is due to 
 the reflecting quality of the walls. The principal 
 cause of the gradual diminution of sound is the 
 absorption of the surface. The length of time that 
 sound will endure after the source has ceased to 
 function is also spoken of as the duration of audi¬ 
 bility. The continuation of sound after it is pro¬ 
 duced is obviously essential to hearing, but produces 
 indistinctness when the continuation is for too long 
 or too short a period. If a speaker is to be heard 
 distinctly, the syllable he has just spoken must not 
 be too much in evidence when he utters the next 
 one. On the other hand, there must be an amount 
 
ACOUSTICS 
 
 6 
 
 ACOUSTICS 
 
 of reverberation which will produce a sufficient 
 volume of sound. 
 
 That reflection, with its consequent reverberation, 
 is necessary, is readily understood if one considers 
 the difference in volume of sound produced indoors 
 and out of doors. Reflection is essential; too much 
 reverberation is detrimental. Just how much re¬ 
 verberation will produce the proper effects is not 
 entirely a matter for scientific demonstration, but 
 is rather a decision to be reached by those who 
 have the correct taste. Inasmuch as the objection 
 to excess reverberation is the resultant confusion, 
 the element of rapidity of succession in the sounds 
 to be differentiated enters into the question. Here 
 we have a hint that the requirements of an audi¬ 
 torium depend upon its intended use. 
 
 Nearly all the investigators on the subject have 
 arrived at the conclusion that the time of reverbera¬ 
 tion in an auditorium depends upon the volume of 
 the room and upon the absorbing power of the sur¬ 
 faces. This will seem reasonable enough when one 
 observes that if sound loses a part of its energy by 
 reflection, then the fewer the number of reflections 
 per second, the less the loss per second and the 
 longer the sound will last. An increase in the 
 volume of the room of course increases the length 
 of the paths between reflections, thus decreasing 
 the number of reflections and extending the time of 
 reverberation. Again, the amount lost by a reflec¬ 
 tion will depend upon the absorbing quality of the 
 surface. Consequently the greater the absorbing 
 power of the surfaces, the less will be the time of 
 reverberation. Professor Sabine gave a numerical 
 value for the absorbing power of various materials. 
 
 In certain known instances the duration of audi¬ 
 bility has been computed to be as long as twelve 
 seconds, which means that the ear is capable of 
 hearing the same sound twelve seconds after the 
 source has become quiet. You can readily see how 
 such a condition produces great confusion, indis¬ 
 tinctness and discomfort. A deliberate speaker will 
 utter about four average syllables per second. 
 Nature has provided a “factor of safety” of about 
 twice as many in the ear. That is, the ear can hear 
 without confusion about ten syllables per second. 
 Therefore, it can readily be understood that if an 
 auditorium has a duration of audibility of more 
 than two and one-half seconds, it is very close to 
 the time where confusion of hearing will result. 
 
 The ideal duration of audibility in an auditorium 
 varies greatly. It depends upon the uses to which 
 the auditorium is put, and its size. The ideal time 
 of audibility is slightly less for speech than it is 
 for vocal music, and slightly different for piano 
 music from orchestral, etc. Oftentimes it is found 
 that an auditorium, when empty, has a long time 
 of audibility which diminishes very rapidly as the 
 size of the audience increases, and becomes prac¬ 
 tically normal when an average attendance is 
 reached. 
 
 As the volume increases it is necessary to increase 
 the duration of reverberation. Unfortunately, a 
 reduction in the reverberation produces a cor¬ 
 responding reduction in the intensity. For this 
 reason, in a room having a volume of say 400,000 
 cubic feet, it would not be advisable to reduce th.e 
 reverberation below 2.7 seconds. This duration of 
 reverberation is slightly excessive for an untrained 
 speaker but necessary to insure sufficient intensity 
 in the furthermost parts of the room. In a small 
 room there is less need to augment the sound, for 
 the auditors are situated near the speaker and also 
 near to reflecting surfaces. In the average room 
 used only for speaking, when the volume is approxi¬ 
 mately 150,000 cubic feet, the reverberation under 
 
 average audience conditions should be not more 
 than 1.9 seconds, nor less than 1.3 seconds. For 
 most forms of music it is desirable to have the 
 reverberation exceed 2.1 seconds. When a room is 
 to be used for both speaking and music, as in a 
 church, it is usual to compromise, having the re¬ 
 verberation slightly excessive for ideal speaking con¬ 
 ditions, and slightly less than that demanded for 
 ideal musical conditions. The solution can be 
 varied, of course, to suit the special conditions pre¬ 
 sented by each case. 
 
 Besides the duration of audibility, or time of 
 reverberation as it is often called, refraction of 
 sound waves, diffusion, interference, a lack of reso¬ 
 nance, concentration of sound energy due to curved 
 surfaces, corners, pockets, etc., must be considered. 
 However, it usually happens that if the duration of 
 audibility can be reduced to a proper time all the 
 other defects will automatically cease, since they 
 are to a more or less extent its functions. 
 
 As in most instances a long time of audibility is 
 directly due to the non-absorbing qualities of the 
 interior surfaces of the room, and our present con¬ 
 struction is tending toward harder and more rigid 
 interior surfaces, which have a greater capacity for 
 reflecting sound; it is necessary in order to obtain 
 good acoustical results to replace or surmount some 
 of the reflecting surfaces with surfaces which have 
 the property of absorbing a great amount of the 
 sound striking upon them. The surfaces to be re¬ 
 placed with absorbing materials must be scien¬ 
 tifically chosen, otherwise the effect will be nullified 
 or discounted; as the distribution of the absorbing 
 material in the structure is of greater importance 
 than the quantity. Various combinations of mate¬ 
 rials have been used as absorbing surfaces, but pos¬ 
 sibly the best of these is matted hair felt about one 
 inch thick covered with a tightly stretched mem¬ 
 brane of light canvas, which latter is secured to 
 well braced and rigid frames, built before erection 
 and applied to the surface requiring the absorbing 
 element. When properly decorated or painted, these 
 materials serve a purpose equally as good as plaster, 
 wood or other interior building materials, and are 
 architecturally practical. 
 
 It is very important to have an air space of about 
 one-quarter of an inch between the tightly stretched 
 membrane and the hair felt, since it has been found 
 that it is not enough to have absorbing surfaces 
 alone to prevent reverberation, but the absorbing 
 surfaces should possess the quality of multiple ab¬ 
 sorption, by being able to vibrate and thus have a 
 certain resonance to respond to the overtones of 
 the sound waves, and give that quality to the audi¬ 
 torium which corresponds to the resonance quality 
 of a violin body or the sounding board in a piano. 
 It is the advance made in the study of how to ob¬ 
 tain in the wall and ceiling covering, this important 
 quality that makes it possible to predetermine the 
 acoustical success of a church and to correct the bad 
 conditions which now exist in so many of our 
 churches. Based upon the data which have been 
 obtained in connection with hundreds of installa¬ 
 tions throughout the United States and Canada of 
 “acoustile” pre-built panels on the walls and ceil¬ 
 ings of churches and auditoriums, the number of 
 square feet of treatment required in the average 
 auditorium can be roughly estimated at from 2% 
 to 3% of the number of cubic feet in volume, de¬ 
 pending on the sound-absorbing value of other 
 materials in the auditorium. 
 
 It can thus be seen that regardless of the shape, 
 it is so far possible to obtain good acoustical results 
 in a church, that the architectural design may in¬ 
 clude domes, high groined vaults and other features 
 
ACQUAPENDENTE 
 
 ADAMAWA 
 
 formerly looked upon as having a distinctly in¬ 
 jurious effect upon the acoustical properties of a 
 building. 
 
 Further, those churches whose acoustics are de¬ 
 fective can be remedied by the application of the 
 absorbing panels above referred to. Prominent 
 among the buildings in which this system has been 
 installed is the United States Supreme Court Cham¬ 
 ber, Washington, D. C.; House of Commons, 
 Ottawa, Canada; State Capitol Building, Cheyenne, 
 Wyoming; St. Columba’s Church, Johnstown, 
 Penn.; St. Cecelia’s Church, Hastings, Neb.; Church 
 of the Immaculate Conception, Toledo, Ohio; and 
 the Church of the Holy Redeemer, Detroit, Michi¬ 
 gan. Still another method of preventing excess 
 reverberation is to construct the ceiling, or vaults, 
 and upper portions of the walls of a church or 
 auditorium, with a permanent fireproof material, 
 such as Acoustical sound-absorbing tile. The fol¬ 
 lowing churches have this material built in either 
 the vaults, or walls, or both: St. Thomas’ Church, 
 5th Ave. and 53rd St., New York; First Congre¬ 
 gational Church, Montclair, New Jersey; Church 
 of St. Vincent Ferrer, New York; Notre Dame 
 Church, New York; St. Bartholomew’s Church, 
 Park Ave. and 50th St., New York. 
 
 Emile G. Perrot. 
 
 Acquapendente, Diocese of (Acqu^ependensis; 
 cf. C. E., I-109a), in Italy, at the present time 
 (1921) has 13 parishes, 80 churches, 5 monasteries 
 for men with 15 religious, and 3 for women, 40 
 secular priests, 45 nuns, and 10 seminarians. The 
 Catholic institutions conducted in the diocese in¬ 
 clude 1 asylum, 1 home, and 2 hospitals; these 
 institutions as well as the Catholic schools receive 
 some support from the government. Rt. Rev. 
 Tranquillo Guarneri, titular Bishop of Europus, was 
 promoted to the see 8 March, 1920, succeeding 
 Bishop Gisleni Veneri, resigned. 
 
 Acqui, Diocese of (Acquensis; cf. C. E., I-110b), 
 in the province of Alexandria, Italy, is suffragan of 
 Turin. The present bishop (1921), Rt. Rev. Disma 
 Marchese, b. at Camogli, 1844, was appointed bishop 
 15 April, 1901, and made an assistant at the pon¬ 
 tifical throne 26 May, 1918. In 1920 there were 
 181,200 Catholics in this diocese, 126 parishes, 317 
 secular and 42 regular clergy, 30 seminarians, 459 
 churches, or chapels, and 95 religious, 75 sisters. 
 
 Acre and Purus, a prelature nullius erected by the 
 Apostolic Constitution of 4 October, 1919, from 
 territory taken from the Diocese of Amazones. It 
 comprises the Brazilian civil provinces of Alto Area 
 and Alto Purus, and is separated from Peru and 
 Bolivia by the territory of the province of Alta 
 Pardua. According to the Brief it is to be the 
 nucleus of a diocese and is endowed at once with 
 diocesan privileges. Its titular has episcopal rank 
 and jurisdiction and is to be supported by the funds 
 of the Church in this region and the offerings of 
 the faithful. The prelature must maintain two 
 pupils at the South American College in Rome. It 
 is in charge of the Servite Fathers. 
 
 Acta Apostolicae Sedis, the official organ of the 
 Holy See for the publication and promulgation of 
 its laws, decrees, and decisions. It was established 
 in accordance with the wish of Pius X expressed in 
 his Constitution “Promulgandi pontificias,” dated 
 28 September, 1908, and appeared first in January, 
 1909. It is published by a board of editors with 
 offices in the Palazzo della Cancellaria, and is 
 printed at the Vatican Press, Rome. It is issued 
 once or twice a month, and forms an annual volume 
 of from 600 to 1,000 octave pages, 7 Mj in. by 10 in., 
 the cost to subscribers being 12 lire a year in Italy 
 
 and 15 francs in other countries. It is printed in 
 Latin, though occasionally it contains documents 
 in Italian or French. Its contents consist of the 
 encyclical and decretal letters, motu proprios and 
 similar communications, as well as occasional 
 homilies or consistorial addresses of the sovereign 
 pontiff; the decrees and decisions of the various 
 Sacred Congregations, the ecclesiastical tribunals, 
 and the Biblical Commission; and diary of the 
 Roman Curia, together with the names of all the 
 officials throughout the world appointed or honored 
 by the Holy See, and a necrology of the bishops 
 and cardinals. The “Acta Apostolicae Sedis” has 
 taken the place of the Acta Sanctae Sedis (q. v.). 
 In accordance with the Code of Canon Law, legis¬ 
 lative acts of the Holy See are promulgated by 
 their appearance in the “Acta Apostolicae Sedis,” 
 except in particular cases where another method of 
 promulgation is prescribed; they begin to bind only 
 three months after the date of the number of the 
 “Acta” in which they have been published, unless 
 from the nature of the case their binding force 
 arises at once, or when a shorter or a longer interval 
 is expressly prescribed in the law itself (can. 9). 
 
 Acta Sanctae Sedis (cf. C. E., I-lllc), a Roman 
 periodical for the publication of ecclesiastical docu¬ 
 ments, was begun in 1865 and from May, 1904, was 
 acknowledged to a certain extent as an organ of 
 the Holy See. It is no longer published and was 
 replaced by the “Acta Apostolicae Sedis” in 1909. 
 
 Acts, Legal Ecclesiastical. —In one form of 
 canonical punishment an offender is prohibited from 
 performing legal or legitimate ecclesiastical acts. 
 He may be forbidden to act under penalty of in¬ 
 validity, as is the case of one who is infamous by 
 law, or merely of illiceity, as happens to a Catholic 
 who contracts a mixed marriage without a dispensa¬ 
 tion. In this connection the expression legal or 
 legitimate ecclesiastical acts refers to: the office of 
 administrator of church property; the functions of 
 judge, auditor, relator, defender of the bond, pro¬ 
 moter of justice or of the faith, notary, chancellor, 
 cursor, apparitor, advocate or procurator in ec¬ 
 clesiastical law suits, or of sponsors at Baptism or 
 Confirmation; voting in ecclesiastical elections; and 
 the exercise of the right of patronage. 
 
 Codex juris canonici, can. 2256. 
 
 Acuna, Cristobal de, Spanish Jesuit and South 
 American missionary, b. at Burgos, 1597, d. at Lima, 
 date uncertain. At the age of fifteen he entered the 
 Society of Jesus; having completed his studies he 
 went to America, where he became rector of the 
 Jesuit College at Cuenca. In 1869 the viceroy of 
 Peru ordered him to accompany the Portuguese 
 general, Pedro Texeira, on his second journey of 
 exploration along the Amazon River, and to write 
 an account of his observations. On his return he 
 went to Spain to present his work to the king, 
 Philip IV, who received him coldly, fearing that the 
 Portuguese, recently revolted from Spain (1640), 
 would profit by the information his work contained. 
 Later Acuna became provincial of the Jesuits in 
 Rome, and subsequently returned to Madrid as 
 censor of the Inquisition. Re-crossing the ocean he 
 died at Lima probably soon after 1675. His “Nuevo 
 Descubrimiento del Gran Rio de las Amazonas” was 
 published in Madrid in 1641. 
 
 Adamawa, Prefecture Apostolic of, in Central 
 Africa, erected 28 April, 1914, from territory taken 
 partly from the Vicariate Apostolic of Khartum, 
 partly from the Prefecture Apostolic of Ubanghi- 
 Chari, and partly from the Vicariate Apostolic of 
 Kamerun. Its boundaries are as follows: on the 
 north 10° N. lat.; on the east, the boundaries be- 
 
ADANA 
 
 8 
 
 ADMINISTRATORS 
 
 tween the former German and the French colonies 
 from the 10° to the 7° N. lat.; on the south, the 
 7° N. lat. and the line which separates the civil dis¬ 
 tricts of Nganduere, Banjo, Bamum, Bamenda, and 
 Ossidinge forming part of tl e new prefecture, from 
 the districts of Ober-Sanga-Ubam, Dume, Jaunde, 
 Jabassi, Dshang, Johang, Johann, Albrecht shore 
 and Rio del Rey remaining in the vicariate of 
 Kamerun; on the west by the former Anglo-German 
 boundaries. This vast tract of land, nearly 60,000 
 square miles, was the northern part of the colony 
 of Kamerun. It is traversed by a mountain chain 
 whose peaks reach an altitude of 6,000 feet, situated 
 to the south of Lake Chad, on the two shores of 
 the Benue river, a tributary of the Niger. By the 
 Treaty of Versailles Adamawa became a French 
 colony. The prefecture is entrusted to the Priests 
 of the Sacred Heart of St. Quentin. The first pre¬ 
 fect Apostolic was Rev. Frangois Lennartz, suc¬ 
 ceeded in July, 1920, by Mgr. J. Plissonneau, the 
 present incumbent, who on account of the devastat¬ 
 ing effects of the war and the retirement of the 
 German missionaries, had to begin a practically new 
 work. Contrary to his expectations he was received 
 with great kindness by the Sultan, who granted him 
 a plot of land and sent workmen to help him to 
 replace the demolished mission buildings. 
 
 Adana, Diocese of (Adanensis; cf. C. E., I-135d), 
 in Asia Minor (Asiatic Turkey), belongs to the 
 Armenian Rite. The present bishop, Rt. Rev. 
 Pascal Keklikian, b. at Kutahia, 1857, ordained 
 1884, was appointed Bishop of Adana 27 August, 
 1911, to succeed Bishop Terzian, who had been 
 promoted to the Patriarchate of Cilicia. In 1920 
 there were in this diocese 3,100 Catholic Armenians, 
 3,000 Catholics of other rites, about 100,000 heretics 
 and infidels, 8 secular priests, 7 churches or chapels 
 and 10 Catholic schools. 
 
 Adelaide, Archdiocese of (Adeleidensis; cf. C. 
 E., I-140a), in South Australia, was created an 
 episcopal see in 1843. After years of struggle and 
 privation the diocese started on an era of prosperity 
 with the introduction of religious orders. Although 
 the Passionists were never introduced as a com¬ 
 munity, two came in 1846 and worked as secular 
 priests; in 1868 the Dominican nuns from Calva, 
 Dublin, were established; in 1879 the Christian 
 Brothers; in 1881 the Carmelite Fathers and Sisters 
 of Mercy; in 1882 the Dominicans of the Third 
 Order; in 1898 the Dominican Fathers; in 1902 the 
 Good Samaritan Sisters; in 1905 the Loretto Nuns; 
 in 1912 the Little Sisters of the Poor; and in 1913 
 the Missionaries of the Sacred Heart. 
 
 The present archbishop is Most Rev. Robert 
 William Spence, O. P., D. D., who became coadjutor 
 16 August, 1914, when he was consecrated titular 
 Archbishop of Pessinus. On the death of Arch¬ 
 bishop O’Reilly, 6 July, 1915, Archbishop Spence 
 succeeded to the see. 
 
 By the present (1921) statistics the English-speak¬ 
 ing Catholic population is approximately 55,000. 
 There are: 33 parishes, 94 churches, 6 convents for 
 men and 36 for women, 42 secular and 27 regular 
 clergy, 7 lay brothers, 404 Sisters; 16 high schools 
 with an attendance of 1,074 boys, 2 college- 
 academies with 16 teachers and attendance of 418 
 boys, 1 industrial school with 9 teachers and 13 in¬ 
 mates. Among the charitable institutions are: 
 
 1 home for aged poor with 93 inmates, 1 House 
 of Providence with 26 inmates, 1 prisoners’ home 
 with 5 inmates, 2 orphanages, 1 hospital and 1 
 female refuge with 98 adults and 39 children. The 
 Adelaide public hospital, home for incurables, con¬ 
 
 valescent home and old folks home, permit the 
 priests to minister in them. The Sick Priests’ 
 Benefit Fund and Eucharistic League are established 
 among the clergy, and the Catholic Federation, 
 Hibernian Australian Catholic Benefit Society, 
 Sacred Heart, Holy Family, Rosary and Holy Child¬ 
 hood Confraternities, the St. Vincent de Paul 
 Society and the Catholic Women’s League are es¬ 
 tablished among the laity. A Catholic periodical, 
 ‘'The Southern Cross,” is published in Adelaide. 
 During the World War two of the priests of the 
 diocese served as chaplains. 
 
 Aden. See Arabia. 
 
 Administrator Apostolic ( c f. C. E., I-143b), a 
 
 cleric, generally one who has received espiscopal 
 consecration, to whom the Holy See for grave and 
 special reasons entrusts the government of a diocese 
 with or without its own bishop, temporarily or 
 permanently. His rights, duties, and privileges are 
 set out in his letters of appointment or in the Code 
 of canon law. If his position is permanent he en¬ 
 joys the same rights and honors and has the same 
 duties as a residential bishop; if it is only tem¬ 
 porary: (a) he has the rights and duties of a vicar 
 capitular, and if the see is not vacant he can make 
 a canonical visitation of the diocese, but he is not 
 bound to say Mass for the faithful; that obligation 
 remains incumbent on the bishop; (b) if he has 
 been consecrated, he enjoys the honorary privileges 
 of a titular bishop; if he has not been consecrated, 
 he has a right to the honors and privileges of 
 prothonotaries Apostolic de numero 'participantium, 
 but only during his term of office and while within 
 their territory. 
 
 If the administrator is a bishop who, on being 
 transferred to a new diocese, retained the adminis¬ 
 tration of his old see, he has, when he is in the 
 latter diocese, a right to all the honorary privileges 
 of a residential bishop. If he is appointed adminis¬ 
 trator when the see is not vacant the jurisdiction 
 of the bishop and his vicar general is suspended; 
 but the administrator must not meddle in affairs 
 relating to the bishop himself, nor proceed against 
 the vicar-general, nor concern himself with the acts 
 of the previous administration. If his jurisdiction 
 is impeded or if he dies, the Holy See is to be 
 notified at once; meanwhile the regulations for the 
 government of vacant sees are to be followed, if 
 the diocese is vacant or the bishop incompetent, 
 otherwise the bishop is to take charge of affairs, 
 unless the Holy See has provided differently. 
 Finally it is to be noted that the administrator’s 
 jurisdiction does not cease with the death of the 
 pope or the bishop; but continues till the new 
 bishop takes canonical possession of his see. In 
 the United States in accordance with the decrees 
 of the third plenary Council of Baltimore bishops 
 designated administrators to take charge of the 
 dioceses in case of their death, but this practice 
 was abrogated by the Code of Canon Law. A vicar 
 or prefect Apostolic on assuming office must name 
 a pro-vicar or pro-prefect who is to take full con¬ 
 trol if his rule is impeded or terminated, and if 
 the party chosen succeeds he, too, must delegate 
 someone to take his place in a similar emergency; 
 if this was omitted and the necessity for an ad¬ 
 ministrator arises, the position devolves on the 
 senior missionary in the territory. 
 
 Administrators of Ecclesiastical Property (cf. 
 
 C. E., I-144b).—To secure the proper administra¬ 
 tion of church property, the ordinary is to appoint 
 in his episcopal city a diocesan council, consisting 
 of himself as president and two or more persons, 
 
ADMONITIONS 
 
 9 
 
 ADOLESCENCE 
 
 preferably persons having a knowledge of civil law; 
 they are to be chosen by the ordinary after con¬ 
 sulting the chapter, unless provision for this selec¬ 
 tion has been made otherwise. No one, however, 
 may be an administrator if he is related to the 
 ordinary in the first or second degree of con¬ 
 sanguinity or affinity, except with special permis¬ 
 sion of the Holy See. In administrative acts of 
 greater moment the ordinary is to consult the mem¬ 
 bers of the council, though he need not follow 
 their advice, except in special cases expressly pro¬ 
 vided for in the canons or where the terms of a 
 foundation require their consent. The members of 
 the council must bind themselves by oath in pres¬ 
 ence of the ordinary to be faithful and diligent in 
 this discharge of their duties. 
 
 In addition to this diocesan council, the ordinary 
 is to name a council to administer the property 
 belonging to churches or holy places, if administra¬ 
 tors have not been provided by the law or the 
 terms of the foundation. They hold office nominally 
 for three years only, and must swear before the 
 ordinary or the vicar forane to fulfil their duties 
 faithfully. After expressly or tacitly accepting 
 office, administrators are held to restitution, if by 
 abandoning it arbitrarily they injure the church. 
 They must exercise the degree of care that a 
 prudent man would take in regard to his own 
 property; hence they are to see that the church 
 property is neither destroyed nor injured; that the 
 requirements of the canon and civil law are ob¬ 
 served; and that the conditions imposed by the 
 founder, the donor, or the lawful authorities are 
 fulfilled; that the income is duly collected, de¬ 
 posited, and properly expended, that the surplus 
 of the church money is invested or deposited, for 
 the benefit of the church with the ordinary’s con¬ 
 sent ; that the books showing the receipts and 
 expenditure are kept accurately; that all documents 
 and papers dealing with the church property are 
 in good order and deposited in the archives of the 
 church or other suitable place, and that an au¬ 
 thentic copy of these titles is placed in the curial 
 archives, if this can be conveniently done. 
 
 Administrators, clerical or lay, of any church, 
 including the cathedral, or of a pious place canoni¬ 
 cally erected, or of a confraternity must make an 
 annual accounting to the local ordinary, any cus¬ 
 tom to the contrary being reprobated. If by any 
 particular law the accounting is to be made to 
 others, the ordinary or his delegate must be ad¬ 
 mitted to it. Administrators must not take part 
 in any litigation in the name of the church with¬ 
 out the written permission of the ordinary or, in 
 urgent cases, at least, of the vicar forane, who 
 under such circumstances must inform the ordinary 
 at once. Unless they have first obtained the writ¬ 
 ten permission of the local ordinary, administrators 
 act invalidly in going beyond the limits of ordinary 
 administration; and the church is not responsible 
 for contracts entered into by them without the 
 proper superior’s permission, except when and in 
 as far as it adopts them. 
 
 Administrators of ecclesiastical property are under 
 an obligation to see that the employees receive 
 adequate compensation; they must see, especially, 
 that they have suitable time for their religious and 
 family duties, and that they are not overworked or 
 employed in work for which their age or sex unfits 
 them 
 
 Admonitions, Canonical (cf. C. E., I-144d).—Un¬ 
 der normal circumstances no member of a religious 
 institute of men, who has been perpetually pro¬ 
 fessed, may be dismissed unless he has been three 
 
 times guilty of a serious offense, and has been 
 twice admonished by his immediate higher superior, 
 that is after the first and the second offense. A 
 canonical admonition is to be administered also 
 before the imposition of a censure ferendce senten- 
 tice in order to give the culprit an opportunity to 
 abandon his contumacy and repent. Admonitions 
 are also expressly required by the Code in pro¬ 
 ceedings against clerics for violating the law of 
 residence or the regulations governing association 
 with women. A canonical admonition is given either 
 orally in presence of the chancellor or other curial 
 official or of two witnesses, or by registered letter, 
 a record of the admonition being preserved in the 
 archives. It may also be public or secret; if public, 
 it should be given before a notary or two witnesses, 
 or by letter, but in this case there should be docu¬ 
 mentary evidence of the receipt and of the contents 
 of the letter. 
 
 Adolescence—Pre-adult life is commonly divided 
 into four distinct periods: infancy, childhood, boy¬ 
 hood or girlhood, and youth or adolescence. In¬ 
 fancy reaches to nearly the beginning of the third 
 year, childhood to the beginning of the ninth, 
 and the next ten or eleven years are divided almost 
 equally between boyhood and youth. However, 
 no hard and fast line can be drawn between any 
 period and its successor. The transition is gradual 
 and it is only by degrees that the characteristics 
 peculiar to each period manifest themselves. Again 
 it must be noted that there are in this respect, 
 as in others, striking differences between the sexes, 
 the races and individual cases. Boys and girls 
 mature more rapidly in the South than they do in 
 the North, the girl everywhere more rapidly than 
 the boy, and it is a matter of common, everyday 
 observation that a boy or a girl may be more 
 advanced physically and mentally than other boys 
 and girls who are their seniors by one, two or 
 even three years; this fact is being taken into con¬ 
 sideration more and more in the grading of pupils 
 by the American elementary schools. 
 
 Each period is distinguished by certain character¬ 
 istics, which are determined by nature and must 
 not be overlooked by parent or teacher under 
 penalty of at least partial failure in their work as 
 educators. Mentally, even more strikingly than 
 physically, the child differs from the youth and 
 must be dealt with accordingly. It is chiefly 
 because of its strong, eloquent insistence on this 
 fact that Rousseau’s “Emile” has retained its place 
 among educational classics. Unfortunately, the 
 author’s views concerning man’s nature and destiny 
 betray not only an extremely poor psychological 
 insight, but what is far worse, an utter lack of 
 sound religious and moral principles. Man is not, 
 as Rousseau would have us believe, at the outset 
 and for many years nothing else than a creature 
 of feeling, a mere animal, but from the very be¬ 
 ginning, a being made to the image and likeness 
 of God. Just as the form of the tree and all its 
 properties are contained in the seed, so the fac¬ 
 ulties, tendencies, abilities, which are to unfold 
 during life, are potentially present in the new-born 
 child; they all grow and develop simultaneously, 
 though not with the same rapidity. Thus, e. g., the 
 child’s first efforts to speak show glimmerings of 
 his reasoning powers and tendency to imitate; 
 his thirst for knowledge and truth is constantly 
 evidenced by his questions, at time so embarrassing 
 for parents and teachers; his social and moral 
 nature, the craving for the companionship of others, 
 sympathy, love of justice, fair play, tendency 
 to obey, are plainly manifested in play with other 
 
ADOLESCENCE 
 
 10 
 
 ADOLESCENCE 
 
 children. Infancy, childhood, boyhood and youth, 
 should not then be thought of independently of 
 one another; each period is the outcome of what 
 preceded it and the preparation for what will 
 follow it. The child in swaddling-clothes is the 
 product of pre-natal life and a long line of ances¬ 
 tors; if it is true to state that youth begins around 
 the fifteenth year it can be no less true to say that 
 it is rooted in infancy and is prepared by child¬ 
 hood and boyhood. 
 
 The chief business of infancy and early childhood 
 is pure growth; what the child needs most at 
 this stage is freedom of movement, plenty of fresh 
 air, sunlight, pure digestible food, and careful safe¬ 
 guarding against any untoward influence which 
 might disturb the natural growth and development 
 of this young and as yet very tender organism. 
 During these early years of its life, the child is 
 quieter than at any of the subsequent periods; 
 the power of locomotion is not acquired perfectly 
 until long after the faculties of sense perception 
 have reached maturity; imagination soon becomes 
 very active, but draws little or no distinction 
 between fact and fancy. The next six years, cor¬ 
 responding to the primary and early grammar 
 grades, might appropriately be called a motor 
 period. In the preceding period the ever recurring 
 question was: “What is this?” now it is: “What 
 is this for?” The child is very anxious to do some¬ 
 thing, to use his hands at all kinds of little tasks, 
 but is still very clumsy, because the motor centers 
 are as j>et far from being completely developed. 
 This superabundance of activity, coupled with the 
 fact that much of the latent energy is still needed 
 for growth, explains why the child is so easily 
 tired before reaching his teens. His senses are 
 alert and keen, his imaginations and memory are 
 craving for exercise, but logical thought is still 
 very weak. It is also during this period that some 
 of the fundamental instinctive tendencies ripen into 
 maturity; chief among these tendencies is imitation, 
 which for good or evil plays such a large part in 
 the upbuilding of character. 
 
 Youth or adolescence is ushered in by puberty, 
 the importance of which has been recognized in all 
 ages, and among savages and semi-civilized peoples 
 has been celebrated by strange, curious customs. 
 It is a period of deep physical and mental changes 
 leading to the metamorphosis of the child of the 
 lower grades into the boy or girl of the upper 
 grades and high school. The process does not 
 begin exactly at the same time in all individuals. 
 It varies according to the racial stock, clime, sex, 
 temperament, environment and occupation. It 
 begins earlier among the peoples of the Semitic 
 race than among those of the Indo-European group, 
 earlier in the tropics than in the temperate or 
 frigid zone, earlier in the girl than in the boy. 
 A warm, sanguine temperament is likely to accel¬ 
 erate it and a phlegmatic one to retard it. It is 
 more tardy among those who have been accus¬ 
 tomed from childhood to plain living and hard 
 work, than among those who have been brought 
 up in luxury and idleness. On the North American 
 continent the process takes place in the majority 
 of cases between the eleventh and fifteenth year. 
 Adolescence in this country may thus be said to 
 begin around the sixteenth year, perhaps a little 
 earlier in the southern states and a little later on 
 the northern border, but whatever may be the 
 variations in time, the characteristics of the period 
 are the same everywhere. It is a time of great 
 physical and mental expansion. The girl by the 
 eighteenth year has practically attained her full 
 height and weight, but the boy still has somewhat 
 
 to gain in both respects. The brain has reached 
 very nearly its full size and weight. The logical 
 powers are fast increasing; they crave exercise 
 and the boy often argues quite as much from the 
 love of debate as from the desire to attain truth. 
 It is doubtful whether the memory is either as 
 quick or as retentive as in earlier years. Boy and 
 girl are led more by their impulses and feelings 
 than by the dictates of cold judgment. Authority 
 no longer has the same hold on them as in earlier 
 years, but they are very loyal and generous to 
 their friends. Their conception of the realities of 
 life, of the meaning and value of time, are rather 
 hazy; they see the future in roseate colors and 
 idealize human nature. This is the period of the 
 hero, of romance and fiction, but it is also the 
 period of genuine religious growth, of religious voca¬ 
 tions. 
 
 The Pedagogy of Adolescence.— The treatment 
 of the pedagogy of adolescence wuthin the limits 
 of this article is of necessity restricted to a brief 
 consideration of a few principles which are nothing 
 else than logical deductions from the facts, so far 
 brought out, interpreted in the light of the goal 
 to be reached, viz., strong, healthy, Christian man¬ 
 hood and womanhood. Youth is a period of 
 rapid growth in every direction; plenty of food, 
 sleep, sunshine, fresh air, freedom of muscular 
 movement are no less needed in these years than 
 heretofore. The hard bed with light covering in 
 the cool or cold room should be the rule for the 
 healthy boy. Personal cleanliness should by this 
 time have become a fixed habit. Vigorous exer¬ 
 tion in the form of play, gymnastics and work, 
 not only on physical grounds but on intellectual 
 and moral grounds as well, is also greatly needed. 
 It will not only prepare the youth to meet effi¬ 
 ciently the test of real life, but will fortify him 
 against the diseases which cause the rise of the 
 death rate at nineteen and later. Gymnastics can 
 do much to develop the finer muscles, the higher 
 motor centers and to correct the defects that have 
 outlasted or come in with puberty. Play is just 
 as useful now as it was in childhood, but it takes 
 on the form of contest and competition, team¬ 
 work, which not only affords useful physical exer¬ 
 cise but develops habits of self-control, obedience 
 to rule, swiftness of decision as well as consideration 
 for others. 
 
 Most essential, however, is the discipline of gen¬ 
 uine hard work, requiring close attention, diligence, 
 application, the putting forth of all one’s energy, 
 the conscious strenuous effort of the will, bent on 
 completing the task once undertaken, no matter 
 how difficult it may seem at the time, nor how 
 disinclined one may feel to perform it. The time 
 was when there seemed to be general agreement 
 as to the soundness of this principle, but in the last 
 hundred years it has been challenged by a “new 
 school” of educators, the so-called school of inter¬ 
 est. According to their tenets, the chief function 
 of the teacher is to arouse the interest of the 
 pupil in the subject to be taught, or the task 
 to be performed; he should study the native ten¬ 
 dencies and the acquired interests of the child 
 and take these tendencies and interests as his 
 starting point in every school activity, because this 
 is the surest way of securing attention which alone 
 guarantees apprehension; compulsion is to be 
 avoided as much as possible, not only because 
 it weakens the child’s activity but because his 
 right to happiness is sacred and his personality 
 should be respected. It cannot be gainsaid that 
 the discussion of the value of interest in school 
 life has done much to soften the harshness, at 
 
ADOLESCENCE 
 
 11 
 
 ADRAA 
 
 times extreme, of the old school; that it has 
 contributed to broadening and enriching a 
 curriculum which had become extremely narrow; 
 that it has helped the teacher in gaining a better 
 understanding of the problem of attention; that 
 it has brought about a better adaptation of the 
 teaching process to the capacities of the growing 
 mind. However, when all has been said in the 
 favor of interest, the fact remains that there is 
 in the school and still more in life much of an 
 uninteresting nature that must be done and on 
 the other hand there are many things in themselves 
 alluring that must be avoided. Life for most of 
 us is no path strewn with roses; it is full of diffi¬ 
 culties, setbacks, disappointments, hard knocks, and 
 on the whole more bitter pills to swallow than 
 sugar plums to taste. If the school is to be a 
 preparation for life, the motto of its work should 
 not be interest but effort, for the chances are 
 that the child w r ho has been fed on the diet of in¬ 
 terest will be found sadly wanting when con¬ 
 fronted with the realities of the workaday world. 
 
 Much has been said, and rightly so, on the 
 necessity for the teacher of appealing to and train¬ 
 ing the senses of his pupils, of proceeding from the 
 concrete to the abstract, from the particular to 
 the general, from the empirical to the rational. 
 This signifies that in learning his mother-tongue 
 the child will approach grammar through the liter¬ 
 ary product; in the study of a foreign language, 
 that he will start with a maximum of conversation 
 and a minimum of formal grammar; in mathematics 
 that he will proceed from the concrete example 
 to the general definition or proposition; in geogra¬ 
 phy, that he will study first the particular features 
 of the locality in which he lives as a starting point 
 for wider and broader generalizations; in history 
 that he will first be acquainted with the great 
 national personalities and events; in science, that 
 experiment and laboratory will illustrate and sup¬ 
 plement the lecture; in the teaching of every sub¬ 
 ject, that the pedagogue will try to appeal to the 
 senses and imagination of his class by means of 
 objects, maps, globes, pictures, diagrams and vivid 
 language. The principle has found its widest and 
 most successful application in the elementary school 
 but it has also been adopted with good results 
 by the high schools and the college. What is 
 not always realized however, or at least not suf¬ 
 ficiently stressed, is that the principle is but a 
 means to a higher end. Knowledge of the con¬ 
 crete is but a beginning, a stepping-stone to con¬ 
 cept building, judgment and reasoning, which are 
 the real prerogatives of man and should therefore 
 receive the greatest attention from the teacher 
 at every stage of the educative process, but espe¬ 
 cially during the period of which we treat. 
 Adolescence, as we have seen, is a period of ex¬ 
 pansion of the entire being, nowhere more striking 
 perhaps than in the intellect. The youth is eager 
 for vigorous mental exertion, eager to tackle with 
 genuine difficulties, and he finds great delight in 
 the solution of any question calling for keen intel¬ 
 lectual insight and close reasoning. The natural 
 manner of dealing with the young intellect is not 
 then to burden it with a mass of concrete facts, 
 but to develop by appropriate exercise its powers 
 of abstraction, generalization, judging and reason¬ 
 ing. And after all that is the best preparation 
 for intellectual leadership. The master mind in 
 any field of human endeavor is not the walking 
 encyclopedia, but he who can analyze any given 
 situation, abstract its essential elements and from 
 these reach a sound generalization, be it law or 
 principle or-decision. 
 
 Intellectual education, however useful or desirable 
 it may be, is secondary to religious and moral 
 education, which looks to the formation of good 
 habits. Such at least is the position of the Catholic 
 Church. She has ever consistently taught that 
 man’s worth is not to be found in what he knows 
 or thinks, but in what he does; that a virtuous 
 life in not only the logical preparation for eternal 
 salvation, but the best guarantee of happiness in 
 this life; that a sound moral education is impos¬ 
 sible without religion. 
 
 The means to be employed for moral training 
 are many, but they can all be brought under one 
 or the other of the following headings: example, 
 supervision, ethical and religious instruction, and 
 certain means provided by the Church, such as 
 the Sacraments. The first two only will be briefly 
 considered here, the others having been treated 
 at length in the first edition of this work. The 
 educative value of example can hardly be over¬ 
 estimated; it has been recognized in all ages; 
 it has been insisted upon by all leading educators; 
 it has found its way into the language of every 
 civilized nation in some such adage as: “Verba 
 movent, exempla trahunt,” “A man is known by 
 the company he keeps.” Example is the great 
 teacher of all of us throughout life, but its influence 
 is perhaps nowhere felt more lastingly than in the 
 home. The mother, burdened by cares, regrets 
 that she cannot give more time to instructing her 
 children. She forgets that in the example of her 
 virtues they are taught a lesson a hundred times 
 more valuable than any instruction she may give 
 them in the school branches. This influence of 
 example has its explanation in the deep-rooted 
 human tendency to imitate whatever captivates 
 the attention, be it good or bad or indifferent. 
 Hence follows the sacred duty of parent and teacher 
 to set none but good examples before their charges, 
 to guard them against all evil influences, to supervise 
 their readings and relationships. Neglect of watch¬ 
 fulness in this regard is indeed sad enough, but 
 to expose a youth to moral contagion, or as the 
 phrase goes, to allow him “to sow his wild oats,” 
 on the assumption that he stands a better chance 
 of growing to be a respectable citizen, is a folly 
 that passes all description. 
 
 Fenelon, Telemaque; Education des Filles; Baldwin,. 
 Social and Ethical Interpretations in Mental Development 
 (New York, 1906); Brackett, The Education of American 
 Girls; Bushnell, Christian Nurture (New York, 1916); Coe, 
 The Spiritual Life (New York); Fiske, Boy Life and Self- 
 Government (New York, 1910); Hall, Adolescence (New 
 York, 1904); Maher, Psychology (New York, 1909); Swift, 
 Youth and the Race (New York, 1912); Thorndike, Educa¬ 
 tional Psychology (New York, 1914); Tracy, Psychology of 
 Childhood (New York, 1909); Idem, Psychology of Adolescence 
 (New York, 1920); Tyler, Growth and Education (New 
 York, 1907); Wagner, Youth (New York, 1913). 
 
 P. Marique. 
 
 Adoption (cf. C. E., I-147c).—The canon law now 
 conforms to the civil law in each country regarding 
 the effect of legal adoption on marriage. Where, 
 therefore, the civil law looks upon the legal rela¬ 
 tionship as rendering a marriage invalid, adoption 
 is a diriment matrimonial impediment; where the 
 civil law considers the marriage valid but illegal, 
 the impediment is merely prohibitory; in any other 
 country adoption has no effect on marriage. 
 
 Adraa, a titular see of Arabia, suffragan of Bostra 
 in the patriarchate of Antioch, identical with the 
 Biblical city of Edrai, one of the two capitals of 
 Og, King of Basan, near which he was defeated by 
 the Israelites (Num. xxi, 33-35; Deut. i, 4; iii, 1—10), 
 when the country passed to the half-tribe of 
 Manasses. Prior to this time it was inhabited by 
 
ADRAMYTTIUM 
 
 12 
 
 ADRIAN IV 
 
 the Raphaim, a race of giants of whom Og was one 
 of the last descendants. It is probable that the 
 many curious dungeons at Deraat, the modern name 
 of Edrai, are remains of the work of this primitive 
 people. Eusebius places this “important city” of 
 Arabia twenty-four or twenty-five miles from Bostra 
 and six miles from Astaroth. Christianity was in¬ 
 troduced into Adraa at a very early date under the 
 form of Ebionism and spread rapidly. Bishops of 
 the city appear from time to time in various 
 chronicles down to the Middle Ages, notably Proc- 
 lus, who condemned Eutyches at the Synod of Con¬ 
 stantinople (448). To-day Deraat is the seat of a 
 sub-prefecture and is the principal station on the 
 road from Damascus to Caifa, a city of about 5,000 
 inhabitants. 
 
 Adramyttium, a titular see in Proconsular Asia 
 on the Gulf of the same name, according to Bat- 
 tandier, a suffragan of Cyzicus; Baudrillart assigns 
 it to. Ephesus. The city was reputed to be a Lydian 
 foundation and to owe its name to Adramytus, 
 brother of Croesus. Later it was colonized by the 
 Athenians, who in 496 were victims of a Persian 
 massacre. Recovering from this disaster the city 
 prospered under Roman rule until its alliance with 
 Mithridates, when it was saved from destruction 
 only by the eloquence of Xenocles, who pleaded 
 its cause before the Senate. Adramyttium is iden¬ 
 tical with the Adrumetum of the Bible (Acts xxvii, 
 2), and it is probable St. Paul visited the city in 
 going through Mysia on his way from Galatia to 
 Troas (Acts xvi, 6, 7). Eight bishops of the see are 
 known; the last, George, assisted at a synod of 
 Ephesus in 1230. To-day it is the principal town in 
 the vilayet of Brusa with 1,400 inhabitants. It is 
 called Adramyti by the Turks. 
 
 Adrana, a titular see in Bythinia, suffragan of 
 Nicomedia, according to Baudrand the ancient city 
 of the Emperor Adrian. Comanville identifies it 
 with Achyrac on the Hellespont. To-day it is a 
 small village of Anatolia, called Edrenos. It is not 
 certain if this city is the same as Adrianotera spoken 
 of by Charles de St. Paul as having a bishop, 
 Patricius, present at the Council of Chalcedon (451). 
 
 The title was last borne by Mgr. Teofilo Andres 
 Melizan, O. F. M., who, at the time of his death 
 (1905), was Archbishop of Colombo, but had been 
 titular bishop of Adrana while vicar apostolic of 
 Ceylon. 
 
 Adrassus, also known in ancient documents as 
 Darasos and Adrassos, a titular see of Isauria, suf¬ 
 fragan of Selucia in the Patriarchate of Antioch. 
 It appears in the Notitia episcopatuum of Antioch 
 in the second century as one of the suffragans of 
 Seleucia, according to the “Echos d’Orient” (1907). 
 The ecclesiastical province of Isauria is known to 
 have been reunited to the patriarchate of Constan¬ 
 tinople in the eighth century, under Leo the Isau- 
 rian, and from that time until the tenth century 
 mention of Adrassus is found in several documents. 
 The see is known to have had three bishops: Zoti- 
 cus, who according to Le Quien in his “Oriens 
 Christianus” was present at the Council of Chal¬ 
 cedon; Paul, who attended the fifth oecumenical 
 council (Mansi, “Conciliorum Collectio,” IX., 177); 
 and Stephen, who is also reported by Mansi to have 
 been present at the council in Trullo. 
 
 The exact position of the city is not known, but 
 Ramsay in his “Historical Geography of Asia 
 Minor” says that it was found near the Taurus 
 Pass on the road from Lycaonia to Celenderis, very 
 probably some miles south of Meliss-Tepe-Meloe 
 or Melouos, on the Calycadnus. In 960 Leo Phocas, 
 
 brother of the Emperor Nicephorus, reported a 
 great victory over the Saracens in the Pass of 
 Kylindros or Adarassos (Schlumberger, “Un em- 
 pereur byzantin au XV® siecle,” Paris, 1890). The 
 name seems to have been preserved in the Adras- 
 Dagh, a mountain situated between Ermenek and 
 Mout. Ramsay (op. et loc. cit.) identifies Adrassus 
 with Dsu-l-Kala, a fortress mentioned by Arab his¬ 
 torians of the Middle Ages, falsely identified with 
 Sideropolis, which has never been found. 
 
 Adria, Diocese of (Adriensis; cf. C. E., I-155a), 
 is suffragan of Venice and has its episcopal residence 
 at Rovigo. The Rt. Rev. Anselmo Rizzi, the 
 present bishop (1922), was born at Ponterra Cre- 
 monese, 1874, and appointed bishop 4 June, 1913, 
 to succeed Bishop Boggiani, who came to this see 
 in 1908 and was promoted to the titular see of 
 Edessa in 1912. There are 91 bishops recorded for 
 this see since its foundation. In 1920 there were 
 203,000 Catholics in the diocese, 75 parishes, 250 
 secular and 12 regular clergy, 72 seminarians, 300 
 churches or chapels, and 9 religious women. 
 
 Adrian IV (cf. C. E., I-156c).—In treating of the 
 Donation of Ireland to Henry II, Arthur Ua Clerigh, 
 the writer of the article on Adrian IV in the Catho¬ 
 lic Encyclopedia declares that in his judgment 
 there is no controverted matter in history about 
 which the evidence preponderates in favor of one 
 view so decisively as it does in favor of the genuine¬ 
 ness of the Donation. He bases his conclusion 
 mainly on a passage in the “Metalogicus” of John 
 of Salisbury in which this writer declares that he 
 visited Adrian IV at Beneventum and obtained 
 from him a grant of Hibernia to Henry II of Eng¬ 
 land. Adrian’s Bull “Laudabiliter,” in which the 
 Pope expressly approves of Henry’s invasion of 
 Ireland, is also accepted as genuine. As the matter 
 is one on which historians are divided it is fitting 
 to consider the reasons which have lead a scholar 
 like Cardinal Gasquet to reject Ua Clerigh’s con¬ 
 clusions. In brief, he holds both the Bull and the 
 passage in the “Metalogicus” to be undoubted for¬ 
 geries, made later to uphold the claim of Henry II 
 to Ireland. John of Salisbury says that he obtained 
 the Bull of Henry in 1155. This seems untrue be¬ 
 cause Henry II who came to the throne in 1154 sent 
 Bishop Rotrod of Evreux with the Abbot of St. 
 Albans and the Bishops of Lisieux and Le Mans 
 on a mission to Adrian a few months later. John 
 of Salisbury is not mentioned in connection with 
 this mission, and in Adrian’s reply of 27 February, 
 1155, nothing is said about Ireland. Again, John of 
 Salisbury does not seem to have been known to 
 Henry II till after the publication of his “Poly- 
 craticus” in 1159, dedicated to the English Chan¬ 
 cellor, Thomas a Becket. It is most improbable 
 then that he had been sent on a royal mission to 
 Rome in 1155. In the “Polycraticus” he speaks of 
 his visit to the pope at Beneventum, but his de¬ 
 scription of his familiarity with the pope renders 
 his statement most improbable; in any case, he 
 makes no mention therein of the donation of 
 Ireland. This would be incomprehensible if he 
 obtained the grant, as the “Polycraticus” was evi¬ 
 dently written to win the Chancellor’s patronage, 
 and the mention of it would have served to get 
 him the favor of king also. If then no mention 
 of the Donation occurs in the “Polycraticus,” pub¬ 
 lished four years after the supposed event, how then 
 can its inclusion in the “Metalogicus” a later work, 
 be accounted for? 
 
 Assuming that the Donation is spurious, the pas¬ 
 sage in the “Metalogicus” would be a deliberate 
 forgery by Salisbury to gain Henry’s favor—and 
 
ADRIAN IV 
 
 13 
 
 ADVENTISTS 
 
 Salisbury’s letters show he could play a double 
 part—or an interpolation at a later period. Cardinal 
 Gasquet accepts the latter solution. The forty- 
 second or last chapter of the “Metalogicus,” in 
 which mention is made of the Donation, has abso¬ 
 lutely nothing to do with the preceding forty-one 
 chapters which deal with the study of logic and 
 metaphysics. It gives details of a most unlikely 
 familiarity between Adrian and Salisbury, and dif¬ 
 fers in style from his other writings; the description 
 of the interview with Adrian diverges considerably 
 from that given in the “Polycraticus”—which has 
 no mention of the Donation or of the fine emerald 
 ring sent for the investiture; so that the conclusion 
 forces itself on one that the chapter is spurious. 
 The work was written not later than 1161; no men¬ 
 tion was made by Henry of the Donation till 1175— 
 fourteen or fifteen years of inexplicable silence; 
 for the Bull would have been most useful in 1167 
 to justify Norman interference in Ireland, and it 
 could hardly have escaped mention at the Council 
 of Cashel in 1172, at which a papal legate presided. 
 
 The Bull “Laudabiliter” is not given in Salis¬ 
 bury’s work; it first appears in 1188 in the “Ex- 
 pugnatio Hibernica” of Giraldus Cambrensis, a 
 writer whose ambitions to become archbishop of 
 St. David’s, through the patronage of Henry II, 
 have destroyed his value as a trustworthy historian; 
 he candidly admits he wrote his “Expugnatio Hiber¬ 
 nica” to glorify Henry, and the work is looked upon 
 more as an epic poem than as sober history. The 
 testimony of Matthew of Paris, Roger Wendover 
 and Raoul de Diceto in favor of the Bull being 
 based on Giraldus Cambrensis does not strengthen 
 the case, and incidentally it may be said that the 
 Vatican document on which Baronius later based 
 his agreement favoring the Bull is only a MS. of 
 Matthew of Paris. 
 
 There are three letters of Alexander III written 
 from Tusculum in which reference is made to 
 Ireland. The letters are all dated 20 September; 
 no year is mentioned, probably it was in 1172. 
 They ignore the existence of the Bull: they recog¬ 
 nize no claim of Henry to Ireland except the right 
 of might and the submission of the Irish chief; 
 they speak, it is true, of the pope’s right over all 
 islands, but there is no known authentic document 
 containing this claim; they refer to certain papal 
 rights but make no mention of Peterspence which 
 Adrian’s Bull charges Henry to establish in Ireland. 
 The Bull was evidently unknown then in Rome. 
 Again though in 1316 the pope insists on the 
 English king doing homage to him as he held Eng¬ 
 land as a fief from the Sovereign pontiff, he said 
 nothing about doing homage for holding Ireland. 
 
 Alexander’s Ill’s reputed Bull confirmatory of 
 Adrian’s grant is no more reliable. It was issued 
 from Rome in 1172; but Alexander was not in 
 Rome in that year; he was in Tusculum and did 
 not return to Rome till 1178. Again it is most 
 improbable that Alexander would have shown this 
 favor to Henry, who had supported two anti-popes 
 against him and who had but two years earlier 
 abetted the murder of St. Thomas a Becket. It is 
 known, moreover, that Henry did not hesitate to 
 manufacture or adapt papal documents to serve his 
 purposes. There is little independent testimony 
 upholding the authenticity of the documents; 
 Cambrensis says that the Bulls were produced at 
 a synod of the Irish clergy at Waterford in 1175, 
 but the Irish annals make no reference to such a 
 synod. 
 
 So far from the pope having abetted Henry in 
 his attempt on Ireland it is almost certain that 
 when the proposal was made to him he rejected 
 
 it. About 1158 Henry II and his avowed enemy, 
 Louis VII of France, suddenly became friends. 
 Thereupon they despatched Rotrod, Bishop of 
 Evreux, on a new mission to Rome to ask the 
 blessing of the pope on a hostile expedition they 
 were about to undertake. They presented that the 
 invasion of a certain land, referred to merely as 
 H—, was a crusade of religion. Internal evidence 
 would indicate that H— did not mean Hispania 
 but Hibernia. Adrian refused to approve of the 
 plan and in a letter to Louis set out at length 
 the reason that led him to this decision. Granting 
 that H— refers to Ireland, as is almost certain, 
 it is difficult after reading this letter to believe 
 that Adrian donated Ireland at John of Salisbury’s 
 request. And here a remarkable fact may be noted. 
 The resemblance between the opening ten or fifteen 
 lines of this authentic letter of Adrian refusing to 
 bless Louis and Henry’s proposed expedition and 
 the opening of the Adrian’s alleged Bull “Lauda- 
 bilitir,” is too close to be the result of an accident. 
 Taking this with the incidents mentioned above 
 it seems almost certain that Adrian’s letter of 
 refusal was used as a basis for the Bull which was 
 forged later to uphold Henry’s conduct. Naturally, 
 Henry could not rely on the forgery during the 
 lifetime of Louis without it coming to the knowl¬ 
 edge of the French king. Louis, however, did not 
 die until 1180, and it is only after that event that 
 we find the wording of the Bull for the first time. 
 The annalist of Archin seems to have known of 
 Pope Adrian’s refusal, for writing of the year 1171, 
 he says: Henry, King of England, puffed up with 
 pride, and usurping things not conceded: striving, 
 for things he had no business to do, prepared ships 
 and called together the soldiers of his kingdom to 
 conquer Ireland. 
 
 Cardinal Gasquet sums up his study thus: 
 “Whether this theory as to the origin of the ‘Bull’ 
 be current or not, it can safely be said that the 
 evidence upon which the authenticity of the docu¬ 
 ment has so long been held is at best very doubtful, 
 and should be accepted with extreme caution. A 
 careful examination will, we believe, induce most 
 inquirers to reject the ‘Bull’ as an undoubted for¬ 
 gery, and to consider it more than probable that 
 Pope Adrian IV, so far from granting any approba¬ 
 tion to Henry in his design on Ireland, or making 
 any donation of the country to the English crown, 
 in reality positively refused to be a party to rush 
 an imposture. 
 
 Adriane, also known as Adirnas or Adriana, a 
 titular see of Asia, in Pamphilia. It was suffragan 
 of the metropolitan see of Perga. 
 
 Adult. —In the matter of baptism canon law now 
 considers as adults all those who have attained the 
 use of reason. 
 
 Advent (cf. C. E., I-165b).—Marriage may be 
 celebrated during Advent, but the solemn nuptial 
 blessing is forbidden during this period and on 
 Christmas Day, though for a just cause the ordi¬ 
 nary may allow it. 
 
 Adventists (cf. C. E., I-166c). — I. Evangelical 
 Adventists (the original stock).—As the older 
 members died many of the younger families joined 
 other evangelical denominations and the number of 
 churches and members diminished rapidly. In 1906 
 they reported 18 organizations with 481 members, 
 and 8 ministers. In -1916 all the churches, except a 
 few in Pennsylvania, had disbanded or discontinued 
 all services. Apparently even these few churches in 
 Pennsylvania were moribund, for the United States 
 Government in ..compiling religious bodies (1916) 
 
ADVOCATES 
 
 14 
 
 AFGHANISTAN 
 
 could get no information from the ministers, and 
 this branch of the Adventists accordingly was 
 dropped from the aforesaid report for 1916. 
 
 II. Advent Christians. —In 1916 this body re¬ 
 ported 418 churches (a decrease of 10 from 1906), 
 30,597 members, and 287 ministers engaged in pas¬ 
 toral work. In the foreign field 12 stations are 
 occupied (1916), in addition to some out-stations, 
 in India, China, and Japan. They reported in 
 1916, 20 American missionaries, 10 churches with 
 889 members; 11 schools with 433 scholars; 1 hos¬ 
 pital; 1 orphanage with 80 inmates. 
 
 III. Seventh Day Adventists. —This demonina- 
 tion reported at the end of 1916, throughout the 
 world, a membership of 141,488 with 3,987 churches, 
 1,678 ministers and 113 organized mission fields. In 
 the United States the membership was 79,355, or¬ 
 ganizations 2,011, churches 1,231, ministers 582. At 
 the close of 1916 organized work was carried on 
 outside the United States in 249 mission stations 
 and 353 sub-stations, in 92 countries, by a working 
 force consisting of 880 American missionaries, and 
 about 2,000 native helpers. 
 
 IV. The Church of God. —This denomination 
 reported in 1916, 848 members and 46 ministers, 
 and 8 church edifices. 
 
 V. Churches of God in Christ Jesus. —In 1888 
 various organizations, such as the Age-to-Come 
 Adventists, Church of God, Restitution Church, 
 and some others, formed the association known as 
 “Churches of God in Christ Jesus.” This organiza¬ 
 tion is in general accord with the Adventist bodies, 
 though the term “Adventists” does not appear in 
 its title. In 1916 this body reported 87 organiza¬ 
 tions, 3,457 members, 52 church edifices, and 50 min¬ 
 isters. 
 
 Summary: H. K. Carroll’s statistics for 1921 
 (“Christian Herald,” 7 March, 1921) listed for the 
 five Adventist bodies, 1,665 ministers, 2,984 church 
 edifices, and 134,725 members in the United States. 
 
 Religious Bodies, 1906 (Washington, D. C., 1909); Religious 
 Bodies, 1916 (Washington, D. C., 1919); Year Book of the 
 Churches, 1920 (New York, 1920). 
 
 N. A. Weber. 
 
 Advocates (cf. C. E., I-167d).—In criminal suits 
 in the ecclesiastical courts an accused party should 
 always have an advocate either chosen by himself 
 or appointed by the judge; so, too, in contentious 
 cases when minors or the public welfare are in¬ 
 volved, if either the plaintiff or the defendant has 
 none, the judge should appoint one, and, should 
 circumstances so require, he may appoint an addi¬ 
 tional advocate for either side. In any other case 
 a party may dispense with the services of an advo¬ 
 cate, unless the judge deems it necessary for him 
 to have one. The same person may appear in a 
 suit both as advocate and procurator. An advocate 
 should be a man of good repute, not under twenty- 
 one years of age, a doctor or at least an expert in 
 canon law; unless in exceptional circumstances or 
 in case of necessity he must be a Catholic. A 
 religious may act as an advocate with leave of his 
 superior, but that is allowable only if his order is 
 involved in the suit and if his constitutions do not 
 forbid him to undertake such a task. To be recog¬ 
 nized officially as an advocate in a suit, a party 
 requires the approbation of the ordinary, or of a 
 papal delegate when the latter is acting as judge. 
 If the suit is between members or provinces of the 
 same exempt clerical order, or between monasteries 
 of the same congregation, the advocate must be 
 chosen from the order and must be approved by 
 the judge; in any other case a religious of a dif¬ 
 ferent order may be appointed. Before acting as 
 such an advocate must be commissioned by a 
 
 litigant or by the judge, and his appointment must 
 be noted in the record of the case; he may be dis¬ 
 missed from the suit by his client, who, however, 
 has to notify his adversary and the judge, if the 
 case has begun. If one of the parties in a suit is 
 poor the judge must appoint an advocate from 
 amongst those authorized to practice before him 
 to take up his case gratuitously, and he can compel 
 the advocate to do so under penalty of suspension 
 from office. 
 
 Advocates possessing more rigorous qualifications 
 than those mentioned above are required also in 
 causes of beatification and canonization; they must 
 be doctors of canon law or at least licentiates of 
 theology; they must have been trained under advo¬ 
 cates of the Congregation of Rites or by the general 
 sub-promoter of faith, and, in addition they must 
 have been officially admitted as advocates of the 
 Rota. 
 
 Advocates of St. Peter (cf. C. E., I-168a).—The 
 
 corporation of the Advocates of St. Peter, canoni¬ 
 cally instituted at Rome in 1878 to defend and pro¬ 
 mote the interests of the Church and the Apostolic 
 See, was abolished by the motu proprio “Id prseclaro 
 semper” of Pius X on 26 May, 1909. 
 
 Affinity (cf. C. E., 1-178b).—Affinity, in canon 
 law, is now a relationship arising exclusively from 
 valid marriage, whether consummated or not; be¬ 
 fore the promulgation of the Code it arose, on the 
 other hand, solely from intercourse, whether lawful 
 or illicit. From this it will be seen that the nature 
 of the relationship is quite changed. It exists only 
 between the man and the woman’s blood relatives 
 on the one hand, and between the woman and the 
 man’s blood relatives on the other; the line and 
 degree of relationship between the husband and 
 his blood relatives are those adopted in computing 
 the line and degree of affinity between them and 
 the woman, and vice versa. Affinity is a diriment 
 impediment to marriage to any degree in the direct 
 line, but in the collateral line it annuls marriages 
 only to the second degree inclusively, whereas for¬ 
 merly it invalidated them in the third or fourth 
 degrees also; affinity in the second degree of the 
 collateral line is a minor impediment. The impedi¬ 
 ment of affinity is multiplied as often as the 
 impediment of consanguinity from which it pro¬ 
 ceeds is multiplied, and also by successive marriage 
 with a deceased spouse’s blood relatives. It may 
 be noted that the law of England invalidating mar¬ 
 riage with one’s deceased wife’s sister was repealed 
 by the Parliament in 1907. 
 
 Slater in Eccl. Rev., LXI (Philadelphia), 396-401. 
 
 Afghanistan, a monarchy in central Asia, between 
 parallels 29° and 38° 28' north latitude and 61° and 
 72° east latitude, with a narrow strip running to 
 75° east longitude, bounded on the west by Persia, 
 on the east by tribal districts under the government 
 of India, on the north by Russian territory and 
 Bokhara, and on the south by British Baluchistan. 
 The extreme breadth of Afghanistan from northeast 
 to southwest is about 700 miles; its length from the 
 Herat frontier to the Khyber Pass, about 600 miles; 
 the area is about 245,000 square miles. There are 
 five larger and two smaller provinces, in addition to 
 the province of Kabul, each under a governor and 
 each possessing its own army. The population is 
 about 6,300,000. The majority are Iranian-Aryan 
 Tadjiks, who inhabit the settlements and large 
 towns, the Mongolian Hazaraks, who roam the 
 mountainous central regions of the country, and the 
 Turkomans and Uzbegs of northern Afghanistan. 
 The real Afghans, or Pahtos (Pathans) as they call 
 themselves, live in the high ranges stretching from 
 
AFGHANISTAN 
 
 15 
 
 AFGHANISTAN 
 
 the Solimans past Ghanzi and Kandahar to the 
 west toward Herat. Though the language of the 
 Afghan originated from the old Iran, it now shows 
 the mark of Indian influence. In writing the Afghan 
 uses an Arabic character; Persian and Pushtoo are 
 the leading tongues. The largest cities are Kabul, 
 the capital, with a population of 150,000; Kandahar, 
 31,500; and Herat, 20,000. The mountainous char¬ 
 acter of Afghanistan allows agriculture only in the 
 fertile plains and valleys, and sheep-raising in the 
 highlands. 
 
 Religion. —The establishment of Christian mis¬ 
 sions has never been permitted in Afghanistan. 
 The various tribes are overwhelmingly Moslem and 
 are of the Sunni sect of Islam. Their caliph is the 
 Turkish Sultan who, according to the sacred law, 
 should be an independent sovereign, wielding an 
 effective guardianship over the great Moslem holy 
 places at Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem. The 
 Turkish caliph has been made a virtual prisoner of 
 the British in Constantinople and the holy places 
 taken away from him. Mecca and Medina are in 
 the hands of the King of Hijaz, who is subsidized 
 by the British; and Jerusalem is held by the British 
 themselves. This new state of affairs has been bit¬ 
 terly resented by all of Sunni Islam (except the 
 Arabs) as a destruction of its most sacred institu¬ 
 tions, and as a result, Afghanistan has been greatly 
 inflamed against the British government of India. 
 In the Turco-Afghan treaty which the Afghan mis¬ 
 sion to Angora signed in April, 1920, the Turkish 
 caliphate was recognized and an alliance was made 
 between the two parties against “any alien impe¬ 
 rialism,” presumably meaning the British empire. 
 Djemal Pasha, one of Turkey’s triumvirate during 
 the war, was made Minister of War in the Afghan 
 Cabinet, and has founded a military college at 
 Kabul and imported forty Turkish officers to whip 
 the Afghan army into shape. 
 
 Education. —The Government contributes nothing 
 to maintain public schools. The better families often 
 send their sons to be educated in the universities 
 of India. 
 
 History. —Afghanistan, a part of ancient Aria, 
 was included in the conquests of Alexander the 
 Great, who founded Alexandria, Arion (Herat), 
 Kandahar, and a settlement in Kabul. Various bar¬ 
 baric dynasties succeeded one another, the most 
 notable monarch being Kanishka (Kanerkes), who 
 ruled vast domains stretching over the Upper 
 Oxus basin, Peshawar, Kashmir, and probably 
 India. On the decline of the Bagdad Caliphate, 
 Afghanistan formed a part of the domains of the 
 Samanides, a Mohammedan dynasty which was 
 overthrown by a Turkish tribe, founder of the 
 Ghaznevide dynasty. It was included in their 
 realms until 1186, when it was overrun by the 
 Mongols of Genghis Khan. In the last quarter of 
 the fourteenth century it was subjugated by the 
 Tartar chief Timur. A descendant of this Timur, 
 Baber, founder of the Mogul Empire, made Kabul 
 his capital. Its decline dated from 1722, when 
 Mahmud, an Afghan chief, invaded Persia, captured 
 Ispahan and dealt a blow to the permanent pros¬ 
 perity of Afghanistan. During the wars which fol¬ 
 lowed the Afghans were defeated and driven out by 
 Nadir Kuli, a Persian, one of the conquerors of 
 Afghanistan, who later became Shah. After the 
 assassination of Nadir Shah (1747), one of his offi¬ 
 cers Ahmed Shah, founded the Durani dynasty in 
 Afghanistan, which has since maintained an inde¬ 
 pendent existence. In 1800 the Tsar of Russia and 
 the Emperor Napoleon concocted a scheme to in¬ 
 vade India. This led to the intervention of the 
 British government which sent an ambassador to 
 2—Oct. 22. 
 
 Peshawar and in 1809 concluded a treaty. The 
 Barakzai tribe, under the leadership of Fateh Khan, 
 deposed Shah Shujah, who fled from Peshawar to 
 seek protection at Lahore. 
 
 In 1826, Dost Muhammad became Amir of 
 Afghanistan, founding the present dynasty of 
 Afghan rulers. Attaining supreme power, he entered 
 into negotiations with Russia. The British inter¬ 
 vened and the first Afghan War began in 1838, 
 partly to counter the Russian advance in central 
 Asia and partly to place on the throne at Kabul in 
 place of Dost Muhammad the dethroned ruler 
 Shah Shuja. The latter object was easily attained 
 and for two years Afghanistan remained in the 
 military occupation of the British. Later Dost 
 Muhammad regained the throne. In a war with 
 Persia in behalf of the ruler of Afghanistan, the 
 British finally restored the province of Herat to 
 Afghan rule. At the death of Dost Muhammad in 
 1863, a rebellion broke out, and for some time the 
 elder sons of the Dost reigned conjointly as heirs. 
 Finally Shir Ali emerged master of the land. He 
 was suspected of intriguing with Russia, and this 
 fact, coupled with the repulse of a British mission, 
 led to the second Afghan war (1878) in which the 
 British were victorious. The murder of the British 
 envoy caused the third Afghan war (1879). Abdur 
 Rahman was finally left undisputed Amir of 
 Afghanistan, until his death, in 1901. 
 
 Abdur Rahman agreed to leave the control of his 
 foreign relations to the British government which, 
 on its part, undertook not to interfere with the 
 internal government of Afghanistan, and in case of 
 unprovoked aggression on Afghan dominions, to aid 
 the Amir in such a manner as to them might seem 
 necessary. In 1893 this position was confirmed in a 
 conference between the Amir and Sir Mortimer 
 Durand. Chitral, Bajaur, and Swat were to be 
 included in the British sphere of political influence, 
 while the Amir was to retain Asmar and the Kunar 
 valley above it, as far as Arncwai; also the tract 
 of Birmal. Kafiristan was included within the 
 countries under Afghan control and to be garrisoned 
 by the Amir’s troops. The Amir had withdrawn his 
 pretensions to Waziristan. The Durand Agreement 
 settled the border of the country on the British side, 
 except for a small section to the west of the Khyber, 
 which remained a fruitful source of trouble between 
 the Afghans and the British and led to the war in 
 1919. This agreement was confirmed in a formal 
 treaty signed on 21 March, 1905, between the British 
 and Amir Habibulla Khan, who accepted unre¬ 
 servedly the engagements into which his father had 
 entered with the British government. 
 
 In the Anglo-Russian agreement of 31 August, 
 1907, Great Britain undertook neither to annex nor 
 occupy any portion of Afghanistan nor to interfere 
 in the internal administration of the country, pro¬ 
 vided the Amir fulfilled his engagements toward the 
 British government. The Russian government de¬ 
 clared that Afghanistan was outside the sphere of 
 Russian influence and arranged that its political 
 relations with Afghanistan should be conducted 
 through the British government. The principle of 
 equality of commercial opportunity was to be ob¬ 
 served. During the Great World War the Amir 
 maintained strict neutrality. In 1918 the new Rus¬ 
 sian government at Moscow abrogated the 1907 
 treaty, and with London’s concurrence in Moscow’s 
 abrogation, Afghanistan automatically became “offi¬ 
 cially free and independent, both internally and 
 externally.” The Amir Habib L T llah Khan, who had 
 been a loyal friend of Great Britain, was murdered. 
 Thereupon ensued a competition for the throne. At 
 Jelalabad, a proclamation was issued that Nasr 
 
AFRICA 
 
 16 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 Ullah had assumed the throne but in Kabul the 
 power was seized by Aman Ullah Khan, third son 
 of the late Amir. Aman Ullah soon showed that 
 he had control of the situation. Owing to the 
 intrigues of the Russian government, the new Amir 
 did not keep his promise of preserving the friend¬ 
 ship of Great Britain, and in May a large Afghan 
 army crossed the Indian frontier and commenced 
 pillaging on a large scale. Strong British forces 
 moved up the Khyber and seized Dacca. Jelalabad 
 and Kabul we're repeatedly bombed from the air. 
 In ten days the Afghans were severely defeated 
 by General Sir Arthur Barrett, commander of the 
 British forces. A peace conference was opened at 
 Rawalpindi on 26 July, 1920, and a preliminary 
 treaty of peace was signed on 8 August. The Amir’s 
 subsidy was withdrawn and its arrears confiscated. 
 The Afghan privilege of importing arms and ammu¬ 
 nition from India was also withdrawn. The frontier 
 line of the Khyber region was demarcated by the 
 British government. A clause that aroused much 
 criticism was the withdrawal of the stipulation that 
 the Amir’s government was to have no relations 
 with any foreign power except England. Naturally, 
 on 23 February, 1921, the newly independent Afghan 
 government signed a Russo-Afghan treaty at Mos¬ 
 cow providing for a Russian subsidy for its Amir, 
 for five Russian consulates within its frontiers, and 
 other arrangements so favorable to Russia that the 
 British demanded an immediate discontinuance of 
 Russian propaganda in Afghanistan. Negotiations 
 have been made for a new Anglo-Afghan treaty. 
 Afghanistan has taken advantage of its indepen¬ 
 dence, also, to proclaim the first Code of Criminal 
 Law, the initial step toward constitutional govern¬ 
 ment. 
 
 Africa (cf. C. E., I—181b). —Recent History and 
 Geography. —African territory is entirely under 
 European control, with the exception of the inde¬ 
 pendent monarchy of Abyssinia and the Republic 
 of Liberia. In Abyssinia during 1917, 1918, and 
 1919 civil war produced unstable conditions. Under 
 the British protectorate proclaimed over Egypt in 
 1914 there has been considerable unrest and dis¬ 
 satisfaction, the Egyptians desiring greater inde¬ 
 pendence than the terms of the protectorate pro¬ 
 vide. A compromise is under consideration. In the 
 1921 elections in the Union of South Africa the 
 secession issue failed. This was a critical event in 
 the history of the country, determining its con¬ 
 tinued dependence on Great Britain. In Morocco 
 during 1920 there were uprisings of the natives, 
 which were successfully brought under control by 
 the French and Spanish troops. Melilla was the 
 center of fierce fighting between the Moors and 
 Spaniards in 1921, with unfortunate results to the 
 latter, though their losses were later retrieved. 
 Strong French sentiment in Tangier opposed Span¬ 
 ish propaganda recently active there. Extensive 
 railway construction throughout Africa has done 
 much towards the development of the continent. 
 The countries of Africa are listed in the following 
 paragraphs under the nations on which they are 
 dependent. 
 
 England.— Egypt, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, Soma¬ 
 liland, Kenya (formerly British East Africa) 
 Uganda Protectorate, Tanganyika Territory (for¬ 
 merly German East Africa), Rhodesia, Bechuana- 
 land Protectorate, Basutoland, Swaziland, Union of 
 South Africa (including Cape of Good Hope, Natal, 
 the Transvaal, and Orange Free State), with a man¬ 
 date over former German Southwest Africa, Nigeria, 
 with a strip of Kamerun (formerly German) along 
 its southern border, Gold Coast, part of Togo (for¬ 
 
 merly German), Sierra Leone, Gambia, and the 
 islands of Mauritius, Zanzibar, Pemba, Ascension, 
 Saint Helena, and Seychelles. 
 
 France.— Morocco, Algeria, Tunis, French West 
 Africa (including Senegal, French Sudan [formerly 
 Upper Senegal and Niger], Upper Volta, French 
 Guinea, Ivory Coast, Dahomey and Mauretania), 
 part of Togo (formerly German), part of Kamerun 
 (formerly German), French Equatorial Africa (for¬ 
 merly French Congo), French Somaliland, Madagas¬ 
 car, Mayotte and Comoro Islands, and Reunion 
 Island. 
 
 Spain. —Rio de Ordo and Adrar, Spanish Guinea, 
 Spanish Morocco, Ifni, and the islands of Fernando 
 Po, Annabon, Corsico, Great Elobey, and Little 
 Elobey. 
 
 Portugal. —Angola (Portuguese West Africa), 
 Mozambique (Portuguese East Africa), Portuguese 
 Guinea, part of former German East Africa known 
 as “Kionga Triangle,” Cape Verde Islands, Principe 
 and St. Thomas Islands. 
 
 t Belgium .—Belgian Congo, and the provinces of 
 Urundi and Ruanda in former German East Africa. 
 
 Italy. —Tripolitania, Cyrenaica, Libia, Eritrea, and 
 Italian Somaliland. 
 
 Former German Colonies. —Togo (divided be¬ 
 tween Great Britain and France), Kamerun (divided 
 between Great Britain and France), German East 
 Africa (provinces of Ruanda and Urundi under 
 Belgian occupation, and Tanganyika Territory un¬ 
 der British occupation), German Southwest Africa 
 (under mandate of Union of South Africa). 
 
 Population. —The most recent statistics give the 
 population of Africa as from 137,000,000 to 200,000,- 
 000, of which 180,000,000 are blacks. According to 
 the “American Jewish Year Book” for 1921, there 
 are about 360,000 Jews in Africa, distributed as 
 follows: Abyssinia, 25,000; Egypt, 38,635; Tunis, 
 54,665; Algeria, 70,271; Morocco, 103,712; Tripoli, 
 18,860; Rhodesia, 1,500; Union of South Africa, 
 46,919. The following figures for the Mohammedan 
 population, taken from the “Moslem World” for 
 1914, are the latest available: Algeria, 4,175,000; 
 Tunis, 1,660,000; Morocco, 3,100,000; French West 
 Africa, 5,705,000; Wadai and the Sudan, 2,120,000; 
 Somaliland, 345,000; Egypt, 10,269,445; Zanzibar, 
 190,000; total, 42,039,000, including those in the 
 interior of Africa. According to the “Egyptian 
 Annuaire” for 1916, there are 667,036 Orthodox 
 Copts, 14,576 Catholic Copts, and 24,710 Protestant 
 Copts in Egypt. 
 
 Religious Statistics.— The most recent religious 
 statistics for the whole of Africa are as follows: 
 Animists and Fetishists, 98,000,000; Mussulmans, 
 51,000,000; Jews (including the Falashes of Abys¬ 
 sinia), 360,000; other non-Christians (Parsees, 
 Buddhists, etc.), 11,000; Copts of Egypt, 706,322; 
 Abyssinian Church, 4,000,000; Schismatic Greeks, 
 3,800,000; Armenians, 14,000; Protestants, 2,750,000; 
 Catholics, 2,500,000; total Christians, about 14,000,- 
 000. In 1916 there were 119 Protestant missionary 
 societies in Africa, with 1,761 ordained missionaries 
 in a foreign staff of 4,893, 1,641 ordained missionaries 
 in a native staff of 29,546, and 726,823 communi¬ 
 cants. The important Protestant Norwegian mission 
 at Betseleo in Madagascar has 24,417 communicants. 
 
 Catholic Missions.— Since 1905 the Catholic 
 Church has made great progress in Africa, though 
 missionaries still have to contend with primitive 
 barbarity in some localities, as in Bahr-el-Gazal 
 (the Sudan), the prevalence of slavery often prac¬ 
 ticed secretly under the guise of religious ritual or 
 business transactions, the custom of polygamy diffi¬ 
 cult to abolish because of the desirable “price” a 
 bride brings her father’s household, sorcery, the 
 
AFRICA 
 
 17 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 power of Mohammedanism (especially in Nigeria), minor orders. The Congo and Nigeria have each 
 the orgies of paganism, as well as anti-Catholic ordained a native priest. In Madagascar the Jesuits 
 propaganda particularly rife in South Africa, have erected a seminary for natives. These native 
 Treacherous climatic conditions and financial need clergy, through their knowledge of languages and cus- 
 enhance the hardship of the missionary. This latter toms, as well as their example, are a great help to the 
 was felt especially during the war, due to the cessa- missionaries. The catechists also are zealous aids, 
 tion of contributions from nations at war. The The leper colonies are a special labor of charity, 
 enlistment of missionary priests and students, the this dread disease being prevalent along the east 
 closing of seminaries (Paris, Lyons, Steyl, etc.), coast of Africa. In lesser ailments, curing the body 
 left comparatively few to carry on the evangeliza- to save the soul is also a great work of the mis- 
 tion of the African native. Especially did the sionary. Among.the tribes converted in great num- 
 missions in the former German colonies suffer. The bers to the Church are the'Baganda, the Babemba 
 German clergy were deported or interned, and the of Rhodesia, and the Kabyles. The king and queen 
 missions left desolate. In Kamerun the Pallotines of the Mendes tribe in Sierra Leone are Catholics, 
 were replaced by the Fathers of the Holy Ghost; as is also the supreme chief of the Basutos,. who 
 the prefecture of Adamawa was assigned to the recently visited London. In Belgian Congo the 
 priests of the Sacred Heart; in German East Africa missions are flourishing. A special effort is being 
 the White Fathers carried on the work of the made to evangelize the schismatic Copts of Egypt, 
 Bavarian Benedictines. Untrained African minds and among the Americo-Liberians and in Nigeria 
 with difficulty reconciled the war in which they took there is great scope for work. On board the ship 
 part with the Gospel of Peace preached to them. “Africa” which sank 6 January, 1920, were one 
 But in spite of these hardships of war Catholicism bishop, ten priests, six brothers, one seminarian, and 
 flourished. The abandoned missions are regaining one nun, all members of the Holy Ghost Order, 
 their former prosperity. In Khartum some of the bound for Africa. An official document of impor- 
 interned priests have returned. That Americans are tance to African missions is the mandate for East 
 now sharing the task of evangelization is witnessed Africa recently issued, by the terms of which com- 
 by the American members of the Holy Ghost Order plete religious liberty is granted in that territory, 
 in Africa, the La Salette priests ordained in 1920 for Many new vicariates and prefectures have been 
 African missions, and the women who have taken erected in the last several years. The Catholic 
 their vows in African sisterhoods. One of the missions in Africa are listed in the table below, with 
 glories of the Church in Africa is the beatification date of establishment, title, and the society in 
 (6 June, 1920) of the martyrs of Uganda. On the charge of each. The table following gives the num- 
 same date three natives of Uganda were ordained ber of dioceses, vicariates and prefectures apostolic 
 priests at Villa Maria and four others received assigned to each society. 
 
 CATHOLIC AFRICA 
 
 Date of 
 
 Erec¬ 
 
 tion 
 
 Name 
 
 Title 
 
 Clergy 
 
 Date of 
 Erec¬ 
 tion 
 
 Name 
 
 Title 
 
 Clergy 
 
 
 
 Alexandria (1895) 
 
 Coptic ffatri- 
 
 Secular Clergy 
 
 1848 
 
 Mayotte Islands, 
 
 Prefecture 
 
 Fathers of the Holy 
 
 
 
 
 arch ate 
 
 
 
 Nossi-Be, Co- 
 
 
 Ghost 
 
 
 
 Alexandria 
 
 Armenian Bish - 
 
 Secular Clergy 
 
 
 mores 
 
 
 
 
 ■i 
 
 
 opric 
 
 
 1850 
 
 Saint-Denis (Re- 
 
 Bishopric 
 
 Fathers of the Holy 
 
 
 
 Hermopolis (1895) 
 
 Coptic Bishop- 
 
 Secular Clergy 
 
 
 union) 
 
 
 Ghost 
 
 
 
 
 ric 
 
 Secular Clergy 
 
 1850 
 
 Natal 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Oblates of Mary 
 
 
 
 Thebes (1895) 
 
 Coptic Bishop- 
 
 1852 
 
 Port Victoria (1892) 
 
 Bishopric 
 
 Capuchins 
 
 
 
 
 ric 
 
 
 1855 
 
 Fernando Po (1904) 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Missionaries of the 
 
 202 
 
 Carthage (1884) 
 
 Archbishopric 
 
 Secular Clergy 
 
 
 
 
 Immaculate Heart 
 
 1234 
 
 Morocco (1908) 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Franciscans 
 
 
 
 
 of Mary 
 
 1263 
 
 Ceuta (and Cadiz, 
 
 Bishopric 
 
 Secular Clergy 
 
 1858 
 
 Sierra Leone 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Fathers of the Holy 
 
 
 
 1851) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ghost 
 
 1406 
 
 Canaries (Las Pal- 
 
 Bishopric 
 
 Secular Clergy 
 
 1860 
 
 Benin 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 African Missions of 
 
 
 
 mas) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lyons 
 
 1514 
 
 Jb unchal (JYL&dGirs,) 
 
 Bishopric 
 
 Secular Clergy 
 
 1860 
 
 Zanzibar (Northern 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Fathers of the Holy 
 
 1532 
 
 Sao Thiago de 
 
 Bishopric 
 
 Secular Clergy 
 
 
 Zanguebar) 
 
 
 Ghost 
 
 
 
 Cabo Verde 
 
 
 
 1863 
 
 Senegambia 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Fathers of the Holy 
 
 1534 
 
 Angra (Azores) 
 
 Bishopric 
 
 Secular Clergy 
 
 
 
 
 Ghost 
 
 1584 
 
 Saint Thomas 
 
 Bishopric 
 
 Secular Clergy 
 
 1866 
 
 Oran 
 
 Bishopric 
 
 Secular Clergy 
 
 1596 
 
 Angola and Congo 
 
 Bishopric 
 
 Fathers of the Holy 
 
 1866 
 
 Constantine 
 
 Bishopric 
 
 Secular Clergy 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ghost 
 
 1868 
 
 Sahara (Bamako 
 
 Vicariates 
 
 White Fathers 
 
 1612 
 
 Mozambique 
 
 Prelature nullius 
 
 Secular Clergy 
 
 
 (1921) and Wagh- 
 
 
 
 1640 
 
 Lower Congo (1865) 
 
 Prefecture 
 
 Fathers of the Holy 
 
 
 adugu (1921)f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ghost 
 
 1874 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 
 Prefecture 
 
 Secular Clergy 
 
 1654 
 
 1 rlp o1 1 (Libya, 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Franciscans 
 
 
 (Central) 
 
 
 
 
 
 1913) 
 
 
 
 1879 
 
 Upper Cimebasia 
 
 Prefecture 
 
 Fathers of the Holy 
 
 1763 
 
 Senegal 
 
 Prefecture 
 
 Fathers of the Holy 
 
 
 
 
 Ghost 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ghost 
 
 1879 
 
 Gold Coast 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 African Missions of 
 
 1818 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Secular Clergy 
 
 
 
 
 Lyons 
 
 
 
 (Western) 
 
 
 
 1879 
 
 Zambesia (1905) 
 
 Prefecture 
 
 Jesuits 
 
 1819 
 
 Tenenne (San Cns- 
 
 Bishopric 
 
 Secular Clergy 
 
 1880 
 
 Upper Congo 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 White Fathers 
 
 
 
 t o b a 1 de la 
 
 
 
 1880 
 
 Tanganyika (1886) 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 White Fathers 
 
 
 
 Laguna) 
 
 
 
 1882 
 
 Dahomey 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 African Missions of 
 
 1838 
 
 Algiers (1886) 
 
 Archbishopric 
 
 Secular Clergy 
 
 
 
 
 Lyons 
 
 1838 
 
 Abyssinia 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Lazarists 
 
 1883 
 
 Victoria-N y a n z a 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 White Fathers 
 
 1839 
 
 Egypt 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Franciscans 
 
 
 (1915) 
 
 
 
 1842 
 
 Gaboon 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Fathers of the Holy 
 
 1884 
 
 Upper Nigeria 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 African Missions of 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ghost 
 
 
 (1918) 
 
 
 Lyons 
 
 1844 
 
 Tananarive (Cen- 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Jesuits 
 
 1884 
 
 Orange River (1898) 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Oblates of St. 
 
 
 
 tral Madagascar) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Francis of Sales 
 
 1846 
 
 Gallas 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Capuchins 
 
 1885 
 
 Lower Nigeria 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Fathers of the Holy 
 
 1846 
 
 Sudan (Khartum, 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Sons of the Sacred 
 
 
 (1920) 
 
 
 Ghost 
 
 
 
 1913) 
 
 
 Heart (Verona) 
 
 1885 
 
 Delta of the Nile 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 African Missions of 
 
 1847 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Secular Clergy 
 
 
 (1909) 
 
 
 Lyons 
 
 
 
 (Eastern) 
 
 
 
 1886 
 
 Kimberly in Orange 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Benedictines of the 
 
 1847 
 
 Port Louis (Mau- 
 
 Bishopric 
 
 Fathers of the Holy 
 
 
 
 
 Primitive Obser- 
 
 
 
 ntius) 
 
 
 Ghost 
 
 
 
 
 vance ... 
 
AFRICA 
 
 AGAUNUM 
 
 18 
 
 CATHOLIC AFRICA—Continued 
 
 Date of 
 Erec¬ 
 tion 
 
 Name 
 
 Title 
 
 Clergy 
 
 Date o; 
 Erec¬ 
 tion 
 
 Name 
 
 Title 
 
 Clergy 
 
 1886 
 
 L o a n g o (French 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Fathers of the Holy 
 
 1904 
 
 Benadir 
 
 Prefecture 
 
 T Unitarians 
 
 
 Lower Congo) 
 
 
 Ghost 
 
 1905 
 
 Kenya (1909) 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Missionaries of the 
 
 1886 
 
 Unyanyembe 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 White Fathers 
 
 
 
 
 Consolata (Tu- 
 
 1887 
 
 Dar-es -Salaam 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Bavarian Benedic- 
 
 
 
 
 rin) 
 
 
 (Southern Zan- 
 
 
 tines 
 
 1906 
 
 Bagamoyo (Central 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Fathers of the Holy 
 
 
 guebar) 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 Zanguebar) 
 
 
 Ghost 
 
 1888 
 
 Congo Free State 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Congregation of 
 
 1909 
 
 Ubangi-Shari 
 
 Prefecture 
 
 Fathers of the Holy 
 
 
 (Leopoldville, 
 
 
 Scheutveld 
 
 
 
 
 Ghost 
 
 
 1919) 
 
 
 
 1909 
 
 Great Namaqua- 
 
 Prefecture 
 
 Oblates of St. 
 
 1889 
 
 Nyassa (1897) 
 
 .Vicariate 
 
 White Fathers 
 
 
 land 
 
 
 Francis de Sales 
 
 1889 
 
 Transvaal (1904) 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Oblates of Marv 
 
 1910 
 
 Katanga 
 
 Prefecture 
 
 Belgian Benedic- 
 
 1890 
 
 Kamerun (1905) 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Fathers of the Holy 
 
 
 
 
 tines 
 
 
 
 
 Ghost 
 
 1910 
 
 Kilima-Najaro 
 
 Vicai'iate 
 
 Fathers of the Holy 
 
 1890 
 
 Ubanghi (French 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Fathers of the Holy 
 
 
 
 
 Ghost 
 
 
 Upper Congo) 
 
 
 Ghost 
 
 1910 
 
 Northern Transvaal 
 
 Prefecture 
 
 Benedictines of the 
 
 1892 
 
 Lower Cimbebasia 
 
 Prefecture 
 
 Oblates of Mary 
 
 
 
 
 Primitive Obser- 
 
 1892 
 
 Togo (1914) 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 African Mission of 
 
 
 
 
 vance 
 
 
 
 
 Lyons 
 
 1911 
 
 Mat.adi 
 
 Prefecture 
 
 Redemptorists 
 
 1892 
 
 Kwango (1903) 
 
 Prefecture 
 
 Jesuits 
 
 1911 
 
 Korogo 
 
 Prefecture 
 
 African Missions of 
 
 1894 
 
 Upper Nile 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Foreign Missions of 
 
 
 
 
 Lyons 
 
 
 
 
 Mill Hill 
 
 1911 
 
 Southern Katanga 
 
 Prefecture 
 
 Fathers of the Holy 
 
 1894 
 
 Uganda (Northern 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 White Fathers 
 
 
 
 
 Ghost 
 
 
 Victoria Nyanza) 
 
 
 
 1911 
 
 Belgian Ubanghi 
 
 Prefecture 
 
 Capuchins 
 
 1894 
 
 Erythrea (1911) 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Capuchins 
 
 1911 
 
 Eastern Nigeria 
 
 Prefecture 
 
 African Missions of 
 
 1894 
 
 Basutoland (1909) 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Oblates of Mary 
 
 
 
 
 Lvons 
 
 1895 
 
 Ivory Coast 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 African Missions of 
 
 1911 
 
 Eastern Welle 
 
 Prefecture 
 
 Dominicans 
 
 
 
 
 Lyons 
 
 1912 
 
 Kivu 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 White Fathers 
 
 1896 
 
 Fort-Dauphin 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Lazarists 
 
 1913 
 
 Bahr-el-Gazal 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Sons of the Sacred 
 
 
 (Southern Mada- 
 
 
 
 
 (1917) 
 
 
 Heart (Verona) 
 
 
 gascar) 
 
 
 
 1913 
 
 Banguelo 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 White Fathers 
 
 1897 
 
 French Guinea 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Fathers of the Holy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (1920) 
 
 
 Ghost 
 
 1913 
 
 Betafo (1918) 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Missionaries of La 
 
 1897 
 
 Stanley Falls (1908) 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Priests of the Sa- 
 
 
 
 
 Salette 
 
 
 
 
 cred Heart (St. 
 
 1913 
 
 Fianarantsoa 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Jesuits 
 
 
 
 
 Quentin) 
 
 
 
 
 
 1898 
 
 Diego-Suarez 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 
 1913 
 
 Southern Kaffa 
 
 Prefecture 
 
 Missionaries of the 
 
 
 (Northern Mada- 
 
 
 Fathers of the Holy 
 
 
 
 
 Consolata (Tu- 
 
 
 gascar) 
 
 
 Ghost 
 
 
 
 
 rin) 
 
 1898 
 
 Western Welle 
 
 Prefecture 
 
 Premonstratensians 
 
 1913 
 
 Lindi 
 
 Prefecture 
 
 Bavarian Benedic- 
 
 
 (1911) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tines 
 
 1901 
 
 Upper K a s s a i 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Congregation of 
 
 1914 
 
 Adamawa 
 
 Prefecture 
 
 Priests of the Sa_ 
 
 
 (1917) 
 
 
 Scheutveld 
 
 
 
 
 cred Heart (St. 
 
 1901 
 
 Ghardaia 
 
 Prefecture 
 
 White Fathers 
 
 
 
 
 Quentin) 
 
 1903 
 
 Shire (1908) 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Company of Mary 
 
 1914 
 
 Jibuti 
 
 Prefecture 
 
 Capuchins 
 
 1903 
 
 Liberia 
 
 Prefecture 
 
 African Missions of 
 
 1919 
 
 New Antwerp 
 
 Vicariate 
 
 Congregation of 
 
 
 
 
 Lyons 
 
 
 (Belgian Congo) 
 
 
 Scheutveld 
 
 RESUME OF DIOCESES AND MISSIONS 
 
 IN 1920 
 
 Clergy 
 
 Dio¬ 
 
 cese 
 
 Vica¬ 
 
 riates 
 
 Pre¬ 
 
 fec¬ 
 
 tures 
 
 Total 
 
 Secular Clergy . 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 
 
 (including 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 patriarchate 
 
 1. Fathers of the Holy Ghost 
 
 
 
 
 and 1 
 prelature) 
 
 (Pqris) . 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 21 
 
 2. White Fathers (of Algiers).. 
 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 3. African Missions (Lyons)... 
 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 4. Oblates of Maiy (Rome). 
 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 5. Franciscans (Rome) . 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 
 6. Fathers of the Heart of Mary 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Scheutveld) . 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 
 7. Capuchins (Rome) . 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 8. Jesuits (Rome) . 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 9. Lazarists (Paris) . 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 10. Sons of the Sacred Heart 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Verona) . 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 11. Priests of the Sacred Heart 
 
 
 
 
 
 (St. Quentin) . 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 12. Oblates of St. Francis of Sales 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Troyes) . 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 13. Missionaries of the Consolata 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Turin) . 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 14. Benedictines of the Primitive 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 Observance . 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 15. Bavarian Benedictines . 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 16. Belgian Benedictines . 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 17. Missionaries of the Immacu- 
 
 
 
 
 
 late Heart of Mary (Barce- 
 
 
 
 
 
 Iona) . 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 18. Foreign Missions of Mill Hill 
 
 
 
 
 
 (London) . 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 19. Company of Mary. 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 20. Missionaries of La Salette_ 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 21. Premonstratensians (Tonger- 
 
 
 
 
 
 loo, Belgium) . 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 22. Trinitarians . 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 23. Redemptorists . 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 24. Belgian Dominicans . 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 18 
 
 57 
 
 25 
 
 102 
 
 African Missions*, (Verona). See Sacred Heart, 
 Sons of the. 
 
 Agathopolis, a titular see in the province of 
 Hemimontus, now Akhtebolu, not far from the 
 Black Sea. It was first a bishopric, then an arch¬ 
 bishopric, and finally a metropolitan see, but noth¬ 
 ing more is known of its ancient history, except 
 that it had its own coinage. In the Middle Ages 
 the city is mentioned by Byzantine historians; it 
 is identified with the Gatapoli which appears in the 
 ancient Italian geographical writers and is also men¬ 
 tioned in 1204 in the “Partitio Romanise.” To-day 
 Agathopolis, called by the Turks Akhtebolu, is 
 one of the principal cities of the province of 
 Adrianople and counts about 3,000 inhabitants, the 
 majority of whom are Greeks. In 1760 it was 
 raised to an archbishopric and in 1808 was united 
 to the see of Sozopolis to form a metropolitan see. 
 The following are the names of some of the titulars 
 of this see: Anthony (1596); Metrophanes (1620- 
 24); Gregory, resigned in 1650; Philotheas (1650- 
 59); Macarius (1660-73); Lawrence (1673); 
 Sophronius (1673); Romanus (about 1700); 
 Neophites (1767-74); Gabriel (1806). 
 
 Agaunum (now St. Maurice-en-Valais), an 
 Abbey Nullius in the Diocese of Sion, Switzerland. 
 It is the seat of the Abbey of St. Maurice of 
 Agaunum, the oldest monastery in the world, hav¬ 
 ing existed without interruption for over fifteen 
 centuries. King St. Louis gave to the abbey, a 
 thorn of Christ’s crown in exchange for certain 
 other relics, and the thorn is still preserved there, 
 while the king’s original letter is extant in the 
 abbey archives. The Abbey exercised a strong in- 
 
AGE 
 
 19 
 
 AGRIA 
 
 fluence in the political life of Gaul, and in the 
 eighth century took part in negotiations between 
 the papacy and the Carlovingian kings. The mix¬ 
 ture of politics and religion brought about great 
 abuses, and in 1128 St. Hugh, Bishop of Grenoble 
 came to St. Maurice to reform the monastery. It 
 was he who introduced the Canons Regular of St. 
 Augustine into the abbey, where they have re¬ 
 mained ever since. During the Reformation the 
 abbey remained true to the Faith owing largely 
 to the courage of Abbot Bartholomew IV, but suf¬ 
 fered severely during the sixteenth and seventeenth 
 centuries as a result of the intrusion of Valais 
 statesmanship into the inner life of the monastery. 
 However in the seventeenth century the reforming 
 zeal of two holy abbots, Peter IV, Odet (1640-57) 
 and Joseph I, Franc (1669-86), brought about a 
 renewal of activities. For centuries it has never 
 been as prosperous as it is to-day (1922). It is 
 immediately subject to the Holy See, and since 
 1840 the abbot has carried the title of titular Bishop 
 of Bethlehem. The present bishop is Rt. Rev. 
 Joseph Marietan, born in Val dTlliez, Switzerland, 
 1847, studied at St. Maurice and the University 
 of Fribourg, entered the Canons Regular of St. 
 Augustine in 1894, was ordained in 1899, appointed 
 abbot 13 August, 1914, and consecrated bishop 6 
 December following. The bishop has under his 
 jurisdiction 6 parishes and a rectorate, comprising 
 about 3000 souls. There are twenty clergy of the 
 Order who act as teachers in the school of St. 
 Maurice, which counts about 3000 pupils. Eight 
 other parishes which are under the jurisdiction of 
 the Bishop of Sion, are also served by these priests. 
 
 Age (cf. C. E., I-206d).—To be bound by ec¬ 
 clesiastical law one must be at least seven years 
 old, unless it is otherwise expressly stated; below 
 that age one is termed child, baby, or infant ( puer, 
 parvulus, infans), and is not held responsible; after 
 the age of seven a person is presumed to have the 
 use of reason. Puberty begins in males at fourteen 
 complete, in females at twelve complete. However, 
 marriage is invalid if contracted by males under 
 sixteen or females under fourteen. The imputa- 
 bility of crime is to be considered lessened by minor 
 age in proportion as the person is nearer to in¬ 
 fancy, unless the contrary is clear. Persons who 
 are below the age of puberty are excused by the 
 Church from all canonical penalties latce sententice, 
 that is those incurred independently of a judicial 
 sentence; however, if the children have reached 
 the use of reason, they are to be corrected for their 
 faults just as children are corrected at school. Per¬ 
 sons who have reached the age of puberty and who 
 induce these younger children to commit an offense 
 or who concur with them in a crime incur the 
 penalties attached to the violation of the law. 
 Minors reach their majority on completing their 
 twenty-first year. 
 
 The law of abstinence binds all those who have 
 completed their seventh year; that of fasting is 
 obligatory only oil those who have finished their 
 twenty-first but not their fifty-ninth year. Sponsors 
 at baptism or confirmation should as a rule have 
 reached their fourteenth year. In the Latin Rite 
 children ordinarily are not to be confirmed until 
 they are about seven. Children should receive Holy 
 Communion when they understand in a way suit¬ 
 able to their years the mysteries necessarily ( neces¬ 
 sitate medii) to be believed for salvation, and when 
 they can receive it with due reverence, their con¬ 
 fessors and parents or guardians being judges of 
 this. The obligation of confession begins with the 
 use of reason. No one can begin his religious 
 Novitiate validly before completing his fifteenth 
 
 year; hence sixteen years complete are required 
 for a first profession and twenty-one complete for 
 a perpetual profession, whether simple or solemn. 
 The law by which a higher age was required in 
 the cases of lay-brothers has now been abolished. 
 A master of novices must be at least thirty-five 
 years old, though his socius or assistant need only 
 be thirty. Ordinary and extraordinary confessors 
 of nuns, whether they be secular or religious priests, 
 must as a rule have completed their fortieth year! 
 While respecting the constitutions of religious in¬ 
 stitutes requiring more stringent qualifications, the 
 Code prescribes that generals of orders or superior¬ 
 esses of monasteries of nuns with solemn vows 
 should be at least forty years old; but other higher 
 superiors need only be thirty. It is unlawful for 
 anyone to receive tonsure before beginning his 
 theological studies, and the ages of twenty-one, 
 twenty-two, and twenty-four are required for the 
 reception of the sub-diaconate, the diaconate, and 
 the priesthood respectively. Finally bishops, vicars 
 capitular, diocesan officials (i. e. judges), and canons 
 penitentiary must have completed their thirtieth 
 year. 
 
 Agen, Diocese of (Aginnum; cf. C. E., I-209b), 
 comprises the Department of Lot-et-Garonne in 
 France and is suffragan of Bordeaux. The present 
 incumbent (1921), Rt. Rev. Charles-Paul Sagot du 
 Vauroux, has filled the see since 1906. Bora in 
 the diocese of La Rochelle 1857, he was ordained 
 in 1881, made titular chancellor of La Rochelle 
 1894 and director of the “Bulletin religieux,” and 
 appointed bishop 21 February, 1906. 
 
 Since the year 348, when the regular appointment 
 of bishops to this see commenced, there have been 
 82 bishops, of whom 4 have been canonized, 2 were 
 patriarchs and 3 cardinals. In 1920 there were 
 268,083 Catholics in the diocese, 47 parishes and 
 397 succursal parishes. 
 
 Agnes, Saint, Sisters of. See Saint Agnes, Sis¬ 
 ters of. 
 
 Agra, Archdiocese of (Agraensis; cf. C. E., 
 I-225a), in British India, is bounded on the North 
 by the Archdiocese of Simla, on the east by the 
 Diocese of Allahabad, on the south and west by 
 the Diocese of Ajmer. Upon the erection of the 
 Archdiocese of Simla, 13 September, 1910, the Dio¬ 
 cese of Lahore and the Prefecture Apostolic of 
 Kashmir and Kafiristan, which had formerly been 
 suffragans of Agra, were made suffragans of the 
 new archdiocese. 
 
 Most Rev. Charles Gentili, who was appointed 
 Archbishop of Agra 27 August, 1898, died 31 Decem¬ 
 ber, 1916, and was succeeded by the present incum¬ 
 bent, Most Rev. Raphael Bernacchioni, b. in 
 Tuscany, 1854, who went to the mission of Agra 
 in 1884, and was appointed Archbishop of Agra 7 
 August, 1917. The episcopal residence is at Agra 
 in the winter and at Barlowganj in the summer. 
 
 Besides the Capuchins who have charge of this 
 mission, the Brothers of St. Patrick, Sisters of Jesus 
 and Mary, and Sisters of St. Francis of Assisi are 
 also established here. In addition to the parochial 
 schools at Sashkar there are in all thirteen schools 
 conducted by these religious orders, with a total 
 of 1,668 children under instruction. In 1920 there 
 were 8,915 Catholics in this territory, 27 parishes, 
 30 Capuchin Fathers and 12 native priests, 115 sis¬ 
 ters, 27 churches or chapels, 22 principal mission 
 stations and 26 secondary ones, and 7 orphanages 
 with 800 orphans. 
 
 Agram, Archdiocese of. See Zagrab. 
 
 Agria, Diocese of. See Eger. 
 
AQUAS CALIENTES 
 
 20 
 
 AJACCIO 
 
 Aguas Calientes, Diocese of (Aqile Caudle; 
 cf. C. E., I-232b), a Mexican see comprising the 
 province of Aguas Calientes, is suffragan of Guada¬ 
 lajara. The first bishop of this diocese, Rt. Rev. 
 Jose Maria Portugal, O.F. M., appointed 28 May, 
 1902, died 27 November, 1912. He was succeeded 
 by Rt. Rev. Ignatius Valdespino y Diaz, b„ at 
 Chalchihuites, 1861, appointed Bishop of Sonora, 
 19 September, 1902, and transferred to Aguas 
 Calientes 10 January, 1913, in which year new 
 Catholic schools and a beautiful building for a 
 seminary were begun, the old ones having been 
 usurped and destroyed by the Revolutionists. New 
 choir stalls have been placed in the cathedral and 
 handsome gratings replace the old ones in the 
 doors. During the World War the clergy, assisted 
 by many of the laity, carried on an active campaign 
 against Socialism, Bolshevism and Protestantism, 
 with the result that many Catholic syndicates are 
 now organized. 
 
 The diocese comprises 11 parishes, 54 churches, 
 3 monasteries for women, 58 secular and 10 regular 
 clergy, 42 brothers, 1 seminary with 45 seminarians, 
 2 secondary schools for boys with 14 professors and 
 300 students, 5 elementary schools with 30 teachers 
 and 1,500 pupils and 1 home for the aged. The 
 Knights of Columbus are organized in the diocese. 
 
 Aikenhead, Mary (cf. C. E., I-234b).—The cause 
 of her beatification was introduced 15 March, 1921. 
 
 Aila (^Ela), a titular see in Palsestina tertia, 
 situated on the Red Sea at the foot of the Gulf 
 of Akabah, and now known as Dasr-el-Akabah, 
 suffragan of Petra, in the Patriarchate of Jerusalem. 
 This place is mentioned first in Deuteronomy (ii, 
 8) in connection with the march of the Hebrews 
 around the mountains of Seir. It was then joined 
 to Idumea and later fell into the hands of David 
 (II Kings, viii, 14; III Kings xi, 15, 16), and Solo¬ 
 mon used its port with that of Asiongaber in set¬ 
 ting sail for Ophir. The city revolted, with all the 
 rest of Idumea, against Jehoram, but was retaken 
 by Azarias who rebuilt it and returned it to Juda 
 (IV Kings xiv, 22; II Par. xxvii, 2). A little later 
 we find that Rasin, king of Damascus, drove the 
 Jews from the city and restored it to Idumea 
 (IV Kings xvi, 6), thus greatly benefiting the com¬ 
 merce of the kingdom of Juda, as the ports along 
 the Mediterranean were occupied by the Phcenecians 
 and Philistines. In spite of these many changes 
 the city held its important position and the gulf, 
 formed by a branch of the Red Sea, is named 
 from it. 
 
 The city has been known under many names, 
 Elath, Ailat, Ailath, Aela, etc., and is mentioned by 
 Josephus (Ant. IX, XIII, 1), Pliny (Hist, natur., 
 V, 65, VI, 156), and by Stratonieus (XVI, 11, 30), 
 who fixes its distance as 1,200 furlongs from Gaza. 
 Eusebius and St. Jerome tell us that the tenth 
 legion charged and took this garrison. 
 
 At least three bishops of this see are known: 
 Peter, in 325, who attended the Council of Nicaea 
 (Gelser, “Patrum nicaenorum nomina, Leipzig, 1898), 
 Beryl (451), present at the Council of Chalcedon 
 (Mansi, “Conciliorum ampl. collectio,” VII, col. 
 32), and Paul (536), who attended the Council of 
 Jerusalem (Mansi, op. cit., VIII, col. 1175). 
 
 Conquered by the Arabs upon their entrance 
 into Palestine, iEla became one of their principal 
 fortresses as well as an important commercial city 
 because of its location on the road to Mecca. Oc¬ 
 cupied by the French in 1116 it was retaken in 
 1175 with the Island of Graye, now called Djezireh 
 Faraoun, from which it is separated by a narrow 
 arm of the sea and upon which stands a chateau. 
 
 In 1182 Renaud of Chatillon, Lord of Kerak and 
 of the territory of the Upper-Jordan, vainly at¬ 
 tempted to take possession of the city when he 
 organized his adventurous expedition against the 
 holy cities of Islam. To-day it is called Akaba, 
 as is also the gulf upon which it is situated; the 
 name is taken from a rough slope (Akaba) which 
 faces the city, and which the Sultan Ibn-Ahmed- 
 Ebn-Touloun in the ninth century made passable 
 by the construction of an excellent road. It was 
 first called Akabah-iEla, then the Slope of Akaba, 
 and finally simplified to Akaba. 
 
 Aire (Aturum), Diocese of (cf. C. E., I-237a), 
 comprises the territory of the Department of 
 Landes, in France, and is suffragan of Auch. From 
 1906 to 1912 the episcopal residence was at Saint- 
 Sever, but by a decree of 22 April, 1912, the bishop 
 was authorized to reside at Dax until he should 
 find suitable quarters for himself and the seminary 
 at Aire, which remains the seat of the diocese. 
 
 Rt. Rev. Eugene-Frangois Touzet, who was ap¬ 
 pointed to this see 21 February, 1906, died 23 Sep¬ 
 tember, 1911, and was succeeded by the present 
 (1922) bishop, Rt. Rev. Marie-Charles-Albert de 
 Cormont, b. in Paris, 1847, ordained 1876, appointed 
 Bishop of Martinique 1899, transferred to Aire 27 
 November, 1911. In 1920 this diocese had a Catho¬ 
 lic population of 288,902, 28 parishes, 293 succursal 
 parishes and 41 vicariates. 
 
 Aix, Archdiocese of (Aquensis; cf. C.E., I-237d), 
 in the Department of Bouches-du-Rhone, France. 
 Most Rev. Frangois-Joseph Bonnefoy, who was ap¬ 
 pointed to this see 18 April, 1901, died 20 April, 
 1920, and was succeeded by Mos Rev. Marie-Louis- 
 Maurice Riviere, b. at Paris, 1859, appointed Bishop 
 of Perigueux 1 June, 1915, and promoted to this 
 see 9 July, 1920. 
 
 The total Catholic population of this territory 
 is approximately 200,000. The diocese comprises 
 129 parishes, 226 priests and 17 religious orders: 
 Capuchin and Carmelite Fathers, Sisters of the 
 Blessed Sacrament, Visitation Sisters, Sisters of 
 Mercy, of St. Thomas, of St. Vincent de Paul, of 
 the Holy Ghost, of the Presentation, of St. Joseph, 
 of the Good ShepheH of Notre Dame (Auxiliaries), 
 Sisters of the Seven Dolors, of St. Francis of 
 Assisi, of Mercy, Franciscan Sisters of Lyons, and 
 Trinitarians. 
 
 Among the educational institutions are 2 semi¬ 
 naries, a higher seminary with 5 professors and 30 
 students, a lower seminary with 7 professors and 
 80 students; 2 colleges for boys (the College of the 
 Sacred Heart at Aix, with 12 clerical professors, 6 
 lay professors, and 300 students, and the College 
 of St. Etienne at Arles, with 5 clerical and 6 lay 
 professors); 8 boarding schools for girls, 15 free 
 schools for boys and 14 for girls, with a total of 
 286 instructors and 6,000 pupils. The charitable in¬ 
 stitutions include 50 patronages for boys and 80 for 
 girls, 14 hospitals, 5 orphanages, 2 nurseries and 
 14 day nurseries. The principal societies formed 
 in the diocese are the Cercle Saint-Mitre, the Cath¬ 
 olic Association, the Association of Catholic Youth, 
 the Association of Catholic Teach'rs of the Public 
 Schools, conferences of St. Vincent de Paul, the 
 Tabernacle Society, catechetical and mission socie¬ 
 ties. A number of Catholic periodicals are pub¬ 
 lished here: “La Semaine Religieuse,” “Croix de 
 Provence,” “Memorial d’Aix,” “L’Echo de Bouches- 
 du-Rhone,” “Le Forum Arlesien,” “Tablettes de la 
 Schola d’Arles,” and “Bulletins paroissiaux.” 
 
 Ajaccio, Diocese of (Adjensis; cf. C. E., I-238d), 
 comprises the island of Corsica and is suffragan of 
 Aix. Bishop Desantis, who came to this see in 
 
AJMER 
 
 21 
 
 ALABAMA 
 
 
 
 1906, died 12 February, 1916, and his successor, 
 Rt. Rev. August in-Joseph-Marie Simeone now 
 (1921) fills the see. Born at Marseilles 1863, or¬ 
 dained 1888, he was appointed bishop 27 May, 1916, 
 and consecrated in the cathedral of Marseilles 31 
 August following. In 1920 there were 288,820 Cath¬ 
 olics in this diocese, 511 priests, 441 succursal 
 parishes, 1 parish of Greek Catholics with 378 mem¬ 
 bers, and 55 religious of five congregations who are 
 engaged in various charitable works. 
 
 Ajmer, Diocese of (Ajmerensis; cf. C. E., XII- 
 635b), in India, was erected from the Prefecture of 
 Rajpootana on 21 May, 1913, Rt. Rev. Fortunatus 
 Caumont, Prefect Apostolic of Rajpootana being 
 appointed the first bishop (consecrated 28 October, 
 1913). The total area of the diocese is 156,500 
 square miles and the total population (1921) is 
 12,950,000, comprising 6,000 Catholics, 11,200 Prot¬ 
 estants, 996,800 Mussulmans and 11,936,000 pagans 
 (Hindus, Animists, Jains and Parsis). Of the Cath¬ 
 olic population 500 belong to the British Army, 
 1,200 are Anglo-Indians, 1,800 are Indians emigrated 
 from the south, and 2,500 are natives of the diocese. 
 There are now 12 churches and 12 chapels served 
 by 1 Indian secular priest and 36 Capuchin Fathers 
 of the Province of Paris, assisted by 7 lay brothers. 
 The Franciscan nuns number 59. 
 
 Various institutions included in the diocese are: 
 the Sisters of the Third Order of St. Francis of 
 Assisi with 75 members, besides confraternities num- 
 being about 700 members; the Mission Sisters of 
 Ajmer, with a novitiate for Indian and Anglo-Indian 
 girls, with 15 members; the “Prabhudasi” (Hand¬ 
 maids of the Lord) with a novitiate for Hindu¬ 
 speaking girls, at Thandla, with 20 members. The 
 Franciscan Nuns of St. Mary of the Angels conduct 
 these two novitiates as well as the following institu¬ 
 tions for the education of girls: Convent of St. 
 Mary Magdalen, Ajmer, with 19 Sisters, a high 
 school with 38 boarders and 168 day scholars; the 
 Convent of the Assumption, Mhow, with 22 sis¬ 
 ters, a high school with 23 boarders and 90 day 
 scholars; St. Joseph’s School, Mhow, with 26 free 
 boarders; St. Ann’s School, Mhow, with 67 free 
 boarders; and mission schools at Mariapur and 
 Mikelpura. Under the Mission Sisters are: St. 
 Angela’s School, Ajmer, with 16 free boarders; 
 Sophia School, with 45 pagan girls of high caste; 
 girls’ schools at Jhabua and Parbalpura. Under 
 the Prabhudasi: the girls’ school at Thandla; in 
 addition to these are orphanages and sewing classes 
 at Mikelpura, Thandla, and other towns; St. Cath¬ 
 erine’s Hospital, Jhabua, conducted by a medically 
 qualified mission sister; Surgical Home, Indore, 
 with Franciscan Nuns as nurses: dispensaries in 
 • 10 places; co-operative banks for the Bhils at 
 Thandla. “The Crusader,” the monthly organ for 
 India of the Enthronement of the Sacred Heart 
 and of the Archconfraternity of the Three Hail 
 Marys are published in the diocese. 
 
 Akra, Diocese of (Akrensis; cf. C. E., I-376a), 
 is a Catholic diocese of the Chaldean Rite in 
 Kurdistan, Turkey, in Asia. It was formerly united 
 to the diocese of Amadia, but by a decree of 24 
 April, 1910, it was separated and is now temporarily 
 administered by the Chaldean Patriarch of Babylon, 
 His Excellency Emmanuel Joseph Thomas. In 1920 
 there were 2,390 Catholics in the diocese, 16 priests, 
 
 7 mission stations, 15 churches or chapels and 7 
 schools. 
 
 Alabama (cf. C. E., I-240a).—The State of Ala¬ 
 bama lias an area of 51,998 square miles, of which 
 719 are water surface and 51,279 land surface. Its 
 area in acres is 33,278,720. 
 
 Population.— The fourteenth federal census (1920) 
 gave the population of the state as 2,347,295, or 
 more than eighteen times that of 1820. The rate of 
 increase of 1920 over 1910 is 9.8 per cent. The 
 average number of persons to the square mile was, 
 in 1910, 41.7, in 1920, 45.8. The urban population 
 was 509,317, including 312,410 whites and 196,833 
 colored; the rural population was 1,838,857, includ¬ 
 ing 1,134,622 white and 703,819 colored. The popu¬ 
 lation of cities was: Anniston, 17,734; Birmingham 
 178,806; Huntsville, 8,018; Mobile, 60,777; Mont¬ 
 gomery, 43,464; Selma, 15,589. 
 
 Resources.— The principal crop of the state is 
 cotton, the yield in 1920 being 660,000 bales, giving 
 the state the eighth position in cotton production. 
 The following are mineral statistics for 1917: iron 
 ore, 7,037,797 tons; coal, 20,413,811 tons; coke 4,868- 
 593 tons; pig iron, 2,953,705 tons. In 1919 there 
 were in the state 3,654 manufacturing establish¬ 
 ments with a capital of $452,912,000, employing 3,914 
 officials and 107,159 wage earners, and turning out 
 a product valued at $492,731,000. The following 
 are the statistics of railroad mileage (1919): 5,441.87 
 miles of main track; 1,760 miles of side track; total 
 value of main line, side track and rolling stock, 
 $55,000,000. The public debt of the state (1919) 
 was $15,351,702; the state expenditure in the same 
 year was $12,702,744. 
 
 Education.— At present (1920) about one-fourth 
 of the state’s revenues goes to the support of public 
 or common schools and the higher institutions of 
 learning. A tenth agricultural school and experi¬ 
 ment station has been recently opened at Lineville, 
 a state training school for girls at Pinson, and a 
 school of trades and industries at Ragland. 
 
 The state laws relative to private and parochial 
 schools are as follows: English shall be the only 
 language employed and taught in the first six grades 
 of the elementary schools; every teacher employed 
 in the schools giving instruction to pupils within 
 the compulsory attendance age shall after 1 October, 
 1920, hold a teacher’s certificate issued by the State 
 Department of Education; in every elementary 
 school in the state there shall be taught at least 
 reading, spelling, handwriting, arithmetic, oral and 
 written English, geography, history of the United 
 States and Alabama, community civics, agriculture, 
 elementary science, hygiene, sanitation and physical 
 training; no money shall be appropriated for the 
 support of sectarian schools (XIV, 263); parochial 
 schools shall by 10 October of each year register 
 with the State Department of Education, and re¬ 
 port enrolment, instruction, course of studies, prop¬ 
 erty, funds, tuition, etc.; officers of parochial schools 
 must make reports required by superintendent with 
 reference to attendance. 
 
 For the fiscal year ending 1 June, 1918, the state 
 spent for educational purposes as follows: public 
 or common schools system, $5,725,772; Alabama 
 Polytechnical Institute, $50,000; University of Ala¬ 
 bama, $66,000; deaf, dumb and blind institutions, 
 $48,000; Alabama Industrial School for White Boys, 
 $41,000. 
 
 History. —Alabama’s recent development has been 
 along industrial lines, especially during the war 
 (1917). The federal government began the con¬ 
 struction of an experiment plant at Sheffield for 
 the manufacture of nitrogen from the air, and later, 
 by means of a vast dam across the Tennessee River 
 at Florence, proceeded to utilize the latent water 
 power energy at Muscle Shoals, near Sheffield, with 
 the purpose of recovering the nitrogen for use in 
 the manufacture of explosives. In 1917 the Warren 
 River was opened to navigation, the first steel ship 
 going from Birmingham bv water to Mobile. The 
 
ALAGOAS 
 
 22 
 
 ALASKA 
 
 importance of Mobile as a port was greatly in- parts of Alaska are passing through the stage of 
 creased b\ r the opening of the Panama Canal. Ala- the deserted mining camp. 1 he adoption 01 . & 
 bama’s contribution to the World War was 74,678 broad constructive policy that will make for the 
 soldiers, or 1.99 per cent of the United States Army, rational development of Alaska through the peo- 
 They trained either with the 31st Division at Camp pling of the country and the financing ot indus- 
 Wheeler Georgia, or with the 82d Division of the tries will do much, indeed, for the nation. 
 
 National’ Army at Camp Gordon, Georgia. Of the Resources.— In 1918 the output of canned salmon 
 
 casualties in the Expeditionary Forces, 46 officers and was 6,605,835 cases, and the total value ot the 
 
 1 205 men died; 5 officers and 40 men were taken fisheries of the territory was $59,099,483. 
 
 prisoners; 156 officers and 3,705 men were wounded. The output of gold for the fiscal year 1918 was 
 
 Religion. —According to the most reliable in- $9,108,500; 1919, $9,036,300. The national forests 
 formation the Southern Baptists in Alabama num- of Alaska have an area of about 20,579,000 acres 
 ber 207 603; the Methodist Episcopalians, South, (30 June, 1920). The total wealth accruing to the 
 167 938-’ the Southern Presbyterians, 20,428. The United States from its Alaskan possessions between 
 Catholic population of the state in 1920 was about 1867 and 1919 is calculated at nearly $600,000,000. 
 40,000. Convents and schools are conducted in During the fiscal year 1919 the bulk of tiade, ex- 
 Montgomery by the Sisters of Loretto, in Selma by port and import, amounted to $135,115,025. There 
 the Sisters of Mercv, in Cullman by the Sisters of are 180,000 animals farmed out in herds to the 
 the Sacred Heart, and in Birmingham by the Sisters various mission centers. I 
 
 of St Benedict. Government and Revenue. —By Act of Congress, 
 
 On 5 March,’ 1911, Catholic Mobile, under the approved 24 August, 1912, Alaska became a terri- 
 leadership of its Bishop, Rt. Rev. Edward P. Allen, tory with a legislative assembly consisting of eight 
 celebrated the bi-centenary of the foundation of senators and sixteen representatives. Congress re- 
 the city by a solemn pontifical Mass at which the served to itself the right to legislate on certain 
 late Cardinal Gibbons presided, followed by other subjects, so that the territory is now governed 
 imposing ceremonies. conjointly by Congress at Washington and its local 
 
 Legislation. —The sale of liquors has been pro- legislative assembly. The delegate to Congress 
 hibited by state and federal legislation. Alabama participates in the debate but has no vote. Regular 
 was the thirtieth state to ratify the prohibition sessions are held biennially at Juneau, the capital, 
 amendment, 14 January, 1919, but refused to ratify Special sessions are called by the governor, who is 
 the suffrage amendment, 2 September, 1919. After appointed by the President of the United States for 
 the passage of the Federal Suffrage Act r an ex- four years, and. is assisted by a sur\ eyoi-geneial, 
 traordinary session of the legislature was called who is ex-officio secretary of the territory. In 
 (1920). It was decided that the same conditions November, 1916, Alaska voted for territorial pro- 
 which applied to male voters were to extend to hibition. The judicial power of. the territory is 
 women voters, and an amendment was proposed vested in the United States .District Court for 
 providing that in order to register or to vote the Alaska, and in probate, and juvenile courts and 
 elector must be of good character and must under- courts of justice. The Distiict Couit is divided into 
 stand the duties and responsibilities of citizenship four divisions. There is no provision for. taxation 
 under a republican government. This was designed of real or personal property, except in municipalities 
 to prevent the voting of undesirable females of (2 per cent only). The revenues are derived from 
 the negro race. business licenses. There is no funded debt. The 
 
 ., _ ci n t governor’s message to the Alaska legislature urged 
 
 Alagoas, Diocese of. bee Maceio. the revision of the act to regulate marriage and 
 
 Alaska (cf. C. E., I-246c).— Area and Accessi- marriage licenses, in order that any person author- 
 bility —According to the census of 1920, Alaska ized to solemnize marriage between parties living 
 embraces, inclusive of the islands, 590,884 square more than twenty-five miles away from the office 
 miles. The total area including water surface is of the United States Commissioner could issue mar- 
 378,165,760 acres. There is a railway of 112 miles riage licenses as agent for the commissioner, 
 from Skagway to the town of White Horse in the Education— The federal (Nelson) law provides 
 
 Canadian Yukon region; thence transport is by for schools outside of incorporated school districts 
 coach or in summer, by steamer. The Copper and receives for their maintenance 25 per cent of 
 River and Northwestern Railway completed its the Alaska fund. The territorial laws provide for 
 line from Cordova to Kennecott, a distance of 197 schools in incorporated towns, one-fourth of the 
 miles, in 1911. In 1915 the route for the Alaska cost of maintenance being borne by the town or 
 railroad was decided upon,, to run from Seward to district by taxation of real and personal property; 
 Fairbanks, a distance of 471 miles. Of this 398 this includes night schools. The Board of Educa- 
 miles are already being used. tion, which is composed of the governor and four 
 
 Population.— The census of 1920 revealed a sur- senators, appoints the territorial commissioner of 
 prising decrease in population from 64,356 in 1910 education. The schools for the education of the 
 to 54 899. natives are under the supervision of the United 
 
 Recent History. —Intensely patriotic, the first States Commissioner of Education in Washington, 
 thought of the Alaskans during the World War In 1920 there were 67 schools in Alaska with 3,418 
 was service to their country, and by the end of enrolled pupils and 163 teachers. The total cost of 
 1918 the exodus assumed the proportions of a instruction was $330,038. An appropriation of $60,- 
 typical Alaska stampede. Alaska’s contribution was 000 has been made for the uncompleted Alaska 
 2 102 soldiers, or 1.06 per cent. The heavy drain Agricultural College and School of Mines near Fair- 
 of man power resulted in curtailing the output of banks. The report on education for 1918 (156-57) 
 many industries and in the interruption of all new enumerates in Alaska three schools of the Russian 
 development, with the exception of the fishing and Mission ministering to Indians of their own com- 
 1 umbering industries, which were enlarged to meet munities and to Russian white children, 
 the demand for food and airplane material. The Catholic Missions.— The Prefecture Apostolic 
 production of gold dropped nearly 45 per cent comprising the 586,400 square miles that make up 
 between 1916 and 1919, and the labor employed in the Territory- of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands 
 all forms of mining was cut in half. Considerable was erected into a Vicariate Apostolic 22 December, 
 
ALATRI 
 
 23 
 
 ALBANIA 
 
 1916. The Prefect Apostolic, Mgr. Joseph Crimont, 
 S. J., became the first Vicar Apostolic and was 
 consecrated titular bishop of Ammedara, 25 July, 
 
 1917. There are at present (1920) 20 Jesuit Fathers 
 and 10 coadjutor Jesuit brothers, 20 stations with 
 chapels, 17 churches with resident priests; 17 Sis¬ 
 ters of Charity of Providence from Montreal, 26 
 Sisters of St. Anne of Sachine and 8 Ursulines. 
 The total population is about 72,000, of which 12,000 
 are Catholics, about one-half of these being natives. 
 The total number of children in Catholic institu¬ 
 tions is 1,000. 
 
 Alatri, Diocese of (Alatrinensis; cf. C. E., 
 I-251a), in the province of Rome, Italy, is directly 
 subject to the Holy See. In 1909 Bishop Bevilacqua 
 came to this see as successor to Bishop Spila who 
 had retired, and he filled the see until his transfer 
 to the titular see of Rhithymna, when he was suc¬ 
 ceeded on 1 July, 1915, by Rt. Rev. Michel Izzi. 
 Bishop Izzi died 31 December, 1917, and the present 
 incumbent, Rt. Rev. Anthony Torrini, was ap¬ 
 pointed Bishop of Alatri 23 December, 1918. Born 
 in the diocese of Fiesole, 1878, he served as vice¬ 
 rector of the seminary of Strada and then rector of 
 the seminary of Fiesole, until his appointment as 
 bishop. In 1920 the Catholic population of this 
 diocese numbered 33,000 and there were 16 parishes, 
 62 secular and 42 regular clergy, 52 seminarians, 77 
 churches or chapels, 31 brothers, and 86 sisters. 
 
 Alba Julia, Archdiocese of. See Fogaras and 
 Alba Julia. 
 
 Alba Pompeia, Diocese of (Albae Pompeii; cf. 
 C. E., I-252c), in the province of Cuneo, Italy, is 
 suffragan of Turin. The present bishop, Rt. Rev. 
 Giuseppe Francesco Re, b. in the diocese of Turin, 
 1.848, was appointed to this diocese 30 December, 
 1889. The number of Catholics recorded for the 
 diocese in 1920 was 150,500 and there were 101 
 parishes, 316 secular and 11 regular clergy, 43 semi¬ 
 narians, 675 churches or chapels, 6 brothers, and ISO 
 sisters. 
 
 Albania (cf. C. E., I-253b), a country in the 
 Balkan Peninsula, corresponding to the ancient 
 . Epirus and Illyria, and consisting, under the Turkish 
 regime, of the provinces of Scutari and Yanina and 
 parts of the vilayets of Kossovo and Monastir. It 
 is bounded on the north and east by Jugoslavia; 
 on the south by Greece; on the west by Adriatic; 
 on the southwest by the Ionian Sea; and has an 
 area of about 11,000 square miles. The exact boun¬ 
 daries of the country have not yet been settled. The 
 principal cities are Durazzo, Scutari (largest town), 
 Elbasan, and Tirana. The principal ports are 
 Valona and San Giovanni di Medua. About two- 
 thirds of the Albanians are Moslems (chiefly of the 
 Bektashi sect); of the remaining one-third the 
 Christians in the north are for the most part Catho¬ 
 lic; those in the south belong to the Greek Church. 
 There is a total of 121,440 Catholics. The esti¬ 
 mated population is about 825,000, but the Albanians, 
 as a race, are not confined to Albania alone, for 
 there are 25,000 Albanians in Italy, and 200,000 in 
 Greece. 
 
 Ecclesiastical Division. —Albania is divided 
 ecclesiastically into the Archdiocese of Scutari, 
 where the Jesuits have their seminary with suffragan 
 sees of Alessio, Pulati, and Sappa; the Archdiocese 
 of Durazzo with the suffragan see of Croia; Uskub, 
 without suffragans, and the abbey nullius of St. 
 Alexander of Orosci or Miridite (q. v.). Durazzo 
 and Uskub depend directly on the Holy See. An 
 Apostolic Delegation was erected in Albania 
 November, 1920, with its seat in the city of Scutari. 
 
 Mgr.‘Ernesto Cozzi was the first Apostolic Delegate. 
 In 1921, following much political and religious ani¬ 
 mosity, Albania’s complete separation from the 
 Greek Church took place. This final excision of 
 the Albanians from religious connection with the 
 Greek Patriarchate was accomplished by Fan Roli, 
 who won much prestige as president of Albania’s 
 delegation to the League of Nations. 
 
 Government.— The foundations of the present 
 Government were laid by the Convention of Lusnia, 
 January, 1920, when it was decided that the govern¬ 
 mental authority should be lodged in three distinct 
 but correlative bodies. First in rank comes the 
 Regency Council—composed of two Christians and 
 two Moslems—which takes the place of the chief 
 executive. Its authority is not very wide. The sec¬ 
 ond body is the Council of Ministers, or Cabinet, 
 composed of the departmental heads of the Govern¬ 
 ment; it is responsible to the third body, Parlia¬ 
 ment. The Parliament consists of seventy-two 
 members forming one chamber and elected by the 
 people. The Cabinet is in reality the body that 
 wields the executive power, subject to the dictates 
 of Parliament and to the exigencies of the party 
 S 3 ^stem. As to the future government, plans are 
 unsettled, the probability being in favor of a con¬ 
 stitutional monarchy. 
 
 Recent History. —At Valona on 28 November, 
 1912, the independence of Albania was proclaimed 
 and on 20 December, 1912, at the London Ambas¬ 
 sadorial Conference it was guaranteed. The crown 
 was offered to Prince William of Wied by an 
 Austrian deputation at Neuwied on 21 February, 
 
 1914, and accepted. The government of the country 
 was vested in the hands of the Prince, supported 
 and advised by an International Commission of 
 Control. At the outbreak of the European War, 
 however, the Prince' and nearly all of the Commis¬ 
 sion left the country, which fell into a state of 
 anarchy. An attempt by Essad Pasha Topdani to 
 establish a military government failed (October, 
 1914). He had been expelled from the country in 
 May, but returned with the departure of the Prince 
 of Wied. In the secret treaty of London, April, 
 
 1915, Albania was partitioned among Italy, Greece, 
 and Servia, During the European War the Aus¬ 
 trians overran Albania, capturing San Giovanni di 
 Medua in January and Durazzo in February, 1916. 
 On 3 June, 1917, General Ferrero, the commander 
 of the Italian Expedition in Albania, officially de¬ 
 clared the independence of Albania under the pro¬ 
 tection of the Italian Crown and set up a provisional 
 government at Durazzo. In December, 1918, how¬ 
 ever, the Albanians convened the national Albanian 
 Assembly at Durazzo, and elected the first governor 
 of the re-established Albanian state in the face of 
 the opposition of the Italian authorities. The Ital¬ 
 ians retaliated by interfering with the cables and 
 telegraphs, and suppressing the news about the new 
 Albanian government. Again, in 1919, the partition 
 of Albania was proposed and roused great indigna¬ 
 tion, especially that of President Wilson of the 
 United States, who forced the abandonment of the 
 proposals. In January a National Congress of 
 Albanians gathered at Lusnia and elected a Regency 
 Council of notables to act in the place of a prince, 
 and also a Government under the premiership of 
 Suleiman Bey Delvina. Shortly afterwards the seat 
 of the administration was moved to Tirana. The 
 Italians came to an agreement with the Albanians 
 at Tirana on 2 August, 1920, and evacuated the 
 Valona district, which' they had held for several 
 years, retaining no hold on Albania, except the right 
 to fortify Cape Linguetta and Cape Trepanti. Italy 
 retained the island of Sasseno, and also recognized 
 
ALBANO 
 
 24 
 
 ALBI 
 
 the independence of Albania. In this protocol' the 
 provisions of the secret Treaty of London parti¬ 
 tioning Albania were annulled and the French 
 troops were forced to withdraw. On 17 December, 
 1920, Albania was admitted to membership in the 
 League of Nations. The Albanian frontiers of 1913 
 are again being considered as the boundaries of the 
 present Albania, which means that Scutari, Koriza, 
 and Argyrovastron are to belong to her. This, how¬ 
 ever, leaves out the 1,500,000 Albanians in the 
 provinces of Chameria, held by Greece, and in 
 Kossovo and Dibra. 
 
 Albano, Diocese of (Albanensis; cf. C. E., 
 I-255d), a suburbicarian diocese in the province of 
 Rome, in central Italy. The see is now (1922) filled 
 by His Eminence Granito Pignatelli di Belmonte, b. 
 at Naples, 1851, ordained 1879, attached to the office 
 of the Secretary of State, 1893, and ablegate to 
 France the same year, appointed titular archbishop 
 of Edessa, 10 November, 1899, made apostolic 
 nuncio in Belgium the same year, and in Austria- 
 Hungary, 1904, returned to Rome, 1911, and made 
 cardinal priest 27 November of that year. He 
 represented the pope at the coronation of King 
 George V of England (1911), and in 1914 attended 
 the Eucharistic Congress of Lourdes as papal legate. 
 He was promoted to this see 5 January, 1916, as 
 successor to Cardinal Agliardi, d. 19 March, 1915. 
 By 1920 statistics the Catholic population of the 
 diocese numbers 50,000 and there are 12 parishes, 
 60 secular and 100 regular clergy, 35 seminarians 
 and 62 churches or chapels. 
 
 Albany, Diocese of (Albanensis; cf. C. E., 
 I-256b), comprises 10,419 sq. miles in the State of 
 New York, U. S. A.,.and is suffragan of Buffalo. 
 For more than twenty years this see was filled 
 by Rt. Rev. Thomas Burke, born in Utica, N. Y., 
 in 1840, ordained in 1864, and appointed bishop 
 15 May, 1894. In 1902 he was made a knight 
 of the Grand Cross of the Holy Sepulchre and 
 took the cross as his coat of arms; on 30 May, 
 
 1914, he was named an assistant at the pontifical 
 throne. Bishop Burke died suddenly on 20 January, 
 
 1915, and was succeeded by Rt. Rev. Thomas 
 F. Cusack, born in New York City 1862, ordained 
 1885, made superior of the New York diocesan 
 missionaries in 1897, appointed titular Bishop of 
 Themyscira and auxiliary to the Archbishop of 
 New York, 11 March, 1904, and transferred to 
 Albany, 5 July, 1915. Upon the death of Bishop 
 Cusack 12 July, 1918, his successor was appointed 
 in the person of Rt. Rev. Edmund Gibbons, 10 
 March, 1919, and consecrated by Mgr. Bonzano in 
 Buffalo, 25 March following. Born in White Plains, 
 N. Y., 1868, Bishop Gibbons made his final studies 
 at the American College in Rome in 1887, and was 
 ordained in the church of St. John Lateran, 27 
 May, 1893. He served as episcopal-secretary and 
 pastor, and was appointed to the episcopacy 10 
 March, 1919, and consecrated 25 March following. 
 He is the sixth bishop of this see. 
 
 The religious orders established in the diocese 
 include: men, Minor Conventuals, Franciscans, 
 Paulists, Redemptorists and Brothel s of the Chris¬ 
 tian Schools; women, Religious of the Sacred 
 Heart, Sisters of St. Dominic, of Mercy, of the 
 Holy Name, of the Good Shepherd, Little Sisters 
 of the Poor, Daughters of Charity, Sisters of St. 
 Joseph of Carondolet, and Presentation Nuns. By 
 latest statistics (1922) the Catholic population of this 
 territory numbers 215,412; comprising Germans, Aus¬ 
 trians, Poles, Ruthenians, Slovaks, Italians, French, 
 and Lithuanians, besides the American born. The 
 diocese comprises 254 secular and 52 regular priests, 
 
 202 churches (1 of the Maronite Rite), 47 missions 
 with churches, 64 mission stations, 30 chapels, 82 
 clerical students, 2 colleges for men and 1 for 
 women, 30 parochial high schools with 4631 pupils, 
 6 academies with 639 boys and 601 girls, 2 normal 
 schools with 12 teachers and 100 students, 60 par¬ 
 ishes with parochial schools with 22,812 pupils, 
 6 orphan asylums, 2 refuges, 3 day nurseries, 3 
 hospitals, and 6 homes; 12 public institutions per¬ 
 mit the priests to minister in them. A total of 
 23,321 children are under Catholic care. The 
 Clerical Fund Society is established among the 
 clergy, and the Knights of Columbus, Catholic 
 Daughters of America, Knights of St. John, Ladies’ 
 Catholic Benevolent Association, and National 
 Catholic Welfare Council are organized among the 
 laity. 
 
 Albenga, Diocese of (Albiganensis; cf. C. E., 
 I-258c), in the Province of Genoa, Italy, is suffragan 
 to the Archdiocese of Genoa. Rt. Rev. Filippo 
 Allegro, who came to this see in 1879 and filled it 
 for thirty-one years, died 2 December, 1910. His 
 successor, Rt Rev. Joseph Cattaroni, was appointed 
 11 April, 1911, but transferred to Belluno in Novem¬ 
 ber, 1913. The next incumbent, Bishop Carletti, 
 was appointed in July, 1914, consecrated 13 Septem¬ 
 ber, and died 23 October of the same year, before 
 he had been installed. He was succeeded by the 
 present bishop, Rt. Rev. Angelo Cambiaso, b. at 
 Genoa, 1865, ordained 1889, appointed bishop 22 
 January, 1915, and consecrated 21 March following. 
 The diocese has a Catholic population of 125,000, 
 167 parishes, 258 secular and 86 regular clergy, 50 
 seminarians, 354 churches or chapels, 50 brothers 
 and 190 sisters. 
 
 Albi, Archdiocese of (Albiensis; cf. C. E.,* 
 I-267a), in France, comprises the Department of 
 Tarn. At the time of its re-establishment in 1882, 
 it united the ancient Bishoprics of Castres and 
 Laveur. The first monastery founded in the arch¬ 
 diocese was that of St. Salvy near Albi. Many of 
 its parishes are very ancient, having existed before 
 the time of Charlemagne. The cathedral of St. 
 Cecelia is southern Gothic in architecture, though 
 it gives the impression of a fortified church. The 
 ancient Benedictine Abbey of Soreze was founded 
 26 August,, 816, by Pepin, son of Louis the Pious. 
 The Abbey of Castres, which later gave birth to 
 the city of Castres, dates from 819, its founder being 
 St. Benedict of Aniane, acting under the patronage 
 of Louis the Pious. The monasteiy was originally 
 called St. Benedict of Belle-Celle, the name of 
 Castres being added in the middle of the ninth 
 century. 
 
 The present (1922) Archbishop is Mgr. Pierre- 
 Celestin Cezerac, who succeeded the late Mgr. 
 Mignot in 1918. Born in 1856, at Caussens in the 
 Diocese of Auch, he was ordained in 1880, was made 
 vicar general of the diocese in 1900, and consecrated 
 bishop of Cahors, 4 January, 1912. Six years later 
 he was promoted to the titular Archbishopric of 
 Caesarea Mauretaniae and made coadjutor of the 
 Archdiocese of Albi. On 27 June, 1919, Mgr. Cezerac 
 promulgated the Brief erecting into an archcon¬ 
 fraternity the confraternity of the Sacred Hearts of 
 Jesus and Mary established for some time in the 
 Church of St. Mary Magdalen; and the decree of 
 the Congregation of Rites granting a votive Mass 
 of the Sacred Heart. A diocesan synod attended by 
 more than 140 priests, was held from 23 to 26 
 August, 1920, the first to be convened since 1881. 
 
 The Church in France suffered a great loss in 
 the predecessor of Mgr. Cezerac, Mgr. Mignot, who 
 died 18 March, .1918. Born in 1842 at Brancourt, 
 
ALBI 
 
 ALEPPO 
 
 9q 
 
 he was ordained in 1865, became vicar general of 
 the diocese of Soissons, in 1887, and three years 
 later was made Bishop of Frejus, whence he was 
 promoted to Albi in December, 1899. His episcopate 
 was marked by the great impetus given to doctrinal 
 studies amongst the clergy, and by the development 
 of the Catholic press and of social organizations, 
 notably L’association de la jeunesse jrancaise. Un¬ 
 der his wise guidance the difficult application of the 
 Associations and Separation Laws took place with 
 very little change in the religious life of the diocese. 
 The schools were reopened with a secularized per¬ 
 sonnel, no churches were closed, and the numerous 
 secular clergy were suported either by state pensions 
 or the funds of the diocese. 
 
 The apostolate of Mgr. Mignot was peculiarly an 
 intellectual one, and his published works, “Lettres 
 a son clerge sur les etudes ecclesiastiques,” “L’eglise 
 et la critique,” “Quelques accusations portees contre 
 l’eglise,” “La necessite de l’enseignement chretien,” 
 etc., testify to his enlightened scholarship and his 
 worth as philosopher, theologian, and apologist. 
 
 Other prominent people of Albi recently deceased 
 are Mgr. Gabriel Cazes (1849-1920), arch-priest of 
 Castra; the Baroness Renee Reille, foundress of the 
 French Patriotic League; Jean Jaures, deputy from 
 Tarn, head of the United Socialists and enemy of 
 religion, who was assassinated during the war. 
 
 Of the 863 priests in the diocese, besides 56 semi¬ 
 narians, 349 were mobilized during the World War: 
 7 as chaplains, 41 as volunteers, 15 as commissioned, 
 and 32 as non-commissioned officers. The Cross of 
 the Legion of Honor was conferred on 10, the 
 Military Medal on 5, and the War Cross on 90, 
 while there were 150 citations. Sixteen secular and 
 fifteen regular priests and nine seminarians gave up 
 their lives. 
 
 The statistics for 1921 are as follows: 507 par¬ 
 ishes, 49 first class, 452 second class and 6 vicarial 
 chapels; 720 secular and 50 regular priests, 60 broth¬ 
 ers, all secularized, 1 monastery of Benedictines, 1 
 convent of men of the Third Order Regular of St. 
 Francis; 15 convents of women, 3 Carmelites, 2 
 Poor Clares, Benedictines, Sisters of the Sacred 
 Heart, Sisters of the Holy Agony, Sisters of the 
 Cross, Daughters of Jesus, Religious Adorers of the 
 Most Blessed Sacrament, Sisters of the Presentation, 
 Sisters of St. Dominic, Sisters of St. Joseph of 
 Oulias and the Institute of the Immaculate Con¬ 
 ception. Since the Associations Law went into 
 effect, many of the 2,500 members of these com¬ 
 munities have been doing missionary work in other 
 countries. There are 1 theological seminary with 
 7 professors and 60 students, and 3 preparatory 
 seminaries with 580 students. The educational in¬ 
 stitutions include, 3 colleges for boys, professors 15, 
 pupils 600; 18 academies for girls, teachers 80, 
 pupils 1,000; 186 free elementary schools, teachers 
 431, pupils 10,496. Charitable works comprise 1 
 orphanage, 3 infant asylums. 1 insane asylum, 1 free 
 dispensary, 15 hospitals in charge of Sisters, 1 house 
 of refuge. Missionary work in the diocese is done 
 by the Franciscans of Ambialet. 
 
 Organizations amongst the clergy are: The Re¬ 
 lief Fund, Priestly League, Diocesan Mutual Asso¬ 
 ciation, Pious Association for the Relief of De¬ 
 ceased Priests, and the Third Orders. For the laity 
 there are, The Association for Catholic Young 
 People, Third Orders Secular of St. Francis and St. 
 Dominic, Patriotic League, Professional Association 
 of Catholic Railroad Workers, and Christian 
 Workers. 
 
 Catholic periodicals are the “Croix de Tarn,” “Le 
 Semeur,” “La Semaine Religieuse.” and numerous 
 parochial bulletins. 
 
 Albini, Charles Dominique, priest and mis¬ 
 sionary b. at Mentone, 26 November, 1790; d. in 
 Corsica, 21 May, 1839. On the completion of his 
 early studies he entered the theological seminary at 
 Cimiez, where he was distinguished by his intelli¬ 
 gence and piety. After his ordination in 1815, the 
 bishop entrusted him with several important mis¬ 
 sions, and later made him superior of the seminary. 
 Desiring to lead a life of greater perfection, he 
 entered the Society of Oblates of Mary Immaculate 
 at Aix in 1824. His virtue was such that by apos¬ 
 tolic indult he was professed after a few months 
 novitiate. Sent to Marseilles, he labored with great 
 zeal and remarkable results, and later founded and 
 took charge of the Italian Missions. In 1835 he 
 was sent to Vico, in Corsica, to open a new house of 
 his congregation; his indefatigable work in the 
 pulpit and in the confessional gained many souls to 
 God. Exhausted by his untiring labors, he died a 
 saintly death at the age of forty-nine, receiving the 
 Last Sacraments from Father Guibert, later Cardinal 
 Archbishop of Paris. The cause of Father Albini’s 
 canonization was introduced 14 April, 1915, and 
 confirmed by the Pope. 
 
 Albright Brethren (cf. C. I., I-270b).—I. Evan¬ 
 gelical Association. —This body, known variously 
 as “New Methodists,” “Albrights,” “Albright Breth¬ 
 ren,” numbered 155,114 members in 1916. In the 
 United States it had 120,756 members, 1,582 church 
 edifices and 1,051 ministers. It supports missions in 
 Japan, China, Germany, Switzerland, Russia and 
 Canada, employing 24 American missionaries, chiefly 
 in Asia, conducting 15 hospitals and 1 orphanage. 
 
 II. United Evangelical Church. —In 1894, due 
 to a schism, this sect broke away from the Evan¬ 
 gelical Association. In doctrine it does not differ 
 essentially from that body'nor from the Methodist 
 Episcopal Church. In recent years there has been 
 a movement toward reunion with the parent body, 
 the Evangelical Association. In 1916 it claimed 
 89,774 members, 905 church edifices, and 610 minis¬ 
 ters. Its foreign mission work is confined to the 
 province of Hu-nan, in China, where there are 28 
 missionaries, 8 churches, 13 schools, and 2 hospitals 
 or dispensaries. 
 
 H. K. Carroll’s statistics for the two bodies in 
 1921 (“Christian Herald,” 7 March, 1921), listed 
 1,597 ministers, 2,399 church edifices, and 209,047 
 members in the United States. 
 
 Religious Bodies, 1916. (Washington, D. C., 1909); Year 
 Book of the Churches, 1920. (New York, 1920.) 
 
 Aleppo, Archdiocese of (Aleppensis; cf. C. E., 
 I-283b), in Syria, is governed by four Catholic 
 archbishops for the Melchite, Syrian, Armenian and 
 Maronite Rites. Those of the Latin Rite are gov¬ 
 erned by a vicar apostolic, who is at the same time 
 apostolic delegate of Syria, with residence at Beirut, 
 and constitute the Vicariate Apostolic of Aleppo, 
 which was separated from the general Vicariate of 
 Constantinople in 1762. This territory has about 
 2,350,000 Latin Catholics and 10,250 of other rites. 
 In 1920 the archdiocese counted a Catholic popula¬ 
 tion of 23,476 (Greeks, Uniats or Melchites, Syrians, 
 Armenians and Maronites), 700,000 Mohammedans, 
 20,000 Jews, 30,000 Armenian Schismatics, 15,000 
 Greek Schismatics, 4,000- Protestants and 6,000 of 
 the sect of Jezides. There are 6 parishes, 16 mis¬ 
 sions, 5 regular priests, 5 churches and 5 schools 
 with 370 pupils, for the Armenian Rite; 16 secular 
 and 2 regular clergy, 2 churches and 3 schools for 
 the Greek Melchites; 7 parishes, 16 priests, 5 
 churches, 6 seminarians, 4 schools, 3 of which are 
 free, and the Institute of Notre Dame de Lourdes 
 at Aleppo under the Franciscan Missionaries of 
 
ALES 
 
 26 
 
 ALEXIAN BROTHERS 
 
 Mary, for the Maronites; 14 secular priests, 5 par¬ 
 ishes, 4 missions and 5 churches, 1 secondary school 
 for boys (200 pupils), 1 for girls (160 pupils), and 
 1 orphanage for the Syrians. Rt. Rev. Denis- 
 Fphrem Naccachi, appointed Archbishop for the 
 Syrians 5 April, 1903, died 13 March, 1920, and on 
 28 August, 1921, the diocese lost Dr. Philippus 
 Shaual, chorepiscopus. A Syrian Catholic fills the 
 post of Minister of Economics and Agriculture. 
 The diocese is now administered for the Syrians 
 by Most Rev. TheophilusrGabriel Tappouni, trans¬ 
 ferred to this diocese in September, 1921; for the 
 Armenians by Most Rev. Augustin Sayeghian, 
 appointed 6 July, 1902, for the Greek Melchites, 
 by Most Rev. Peter Macarios Saba, promoted 23 
 June, 1919, and for the Maronites by Most Rev. 
 Michael Akras, appointed 24 February, 1913. Dur¬ 
 ing the World War the Syrian archbishop, with 
 several of the clergy, was imprisoned for three and 
 a half months, while the churches and other build¬ 
 ings were seized by the soldiers. Since the war all 
 the territory included in this diocese has been freed 
 from the Turkish yoke. 
 
 Ales and Terralba, Diocese of (Uxellensis 
 and Terralbensis; cf. C. E., I-283d), in the 
 province of Cagliari, Italy, is suffragan of the 
 Archdiocese of Oristano. The present bishop, Rt. 
 Rev. Francesco Emanuelli, b. at Andagno, 1863, 
 served as rector of the seminary of Cagliari and was 
 appointed bishop 29 August, after a vacancy of four 
 years, to succeed Bishop Garau-Onida, d. 1906. The 
 episcopal residence is at Ales. In 1920 there were 
 59,530 Catholics in the diocese, 42 parishes, 83 
 secular priests, 16 seminarians and 108 churches or 
 chapels. 
 
 Alessandria della Paglia, Diocese of (Alexan- 
 drinensis Statiellorum ; cf. C. E., I-282d), in 
 Piedmont, Italy, a suffragan of Vercelli. Rt. Rev. 
 Giuseppe Capecci, who was appointed to this see 19 
 April, 1897, died 16 July, 1918, and was succeeded 
 by Rt. Rev. Giosue Signori, b. at Commenduno 
 1859, appointed Bishop of Fossano 15 April, 1910, 
 transferred to Alessandria della Paglia, 23 Decem¬ 
 ber, 1918, and installed 10 March, 1919. In 1920 
 the Catholic population of this diocese numbered 
 140,500 and there were 63 parishes, 210 secular and 
 25 regular clergy, 50 seminarians, 200 churches or 
 chapels and 160 sisters. 
 
 Alessio, Diocese of (Alexiensis; cf. C. E., 
 I-284c), in Albania, suffragan of Scutari. Bishop 
 Deda, who was made coadjutor to Bishop Mal- 
 czyinski in 1904, succeeded him as Bishop of Alessio 
 21 April, 1908, and filled the see until his death 8 
 October, 1910. The present incumbent, Rt. Rev. 
 Louis Bumci, b. at Scutari, 1872, was appointed 
 bishop 18 September, 1911. Within the diocesan 
 limits is the quasi-episcopal abbey of Miridite 
 (q. v.). In 1920 there were 15,000 Catholics in the 
 diocese, 9 secular and 3 regular clergy, 13 churches 
 and 5 sisters. 
 
 Alexandria, Diocese of (Alexandrinensis; cf. 
 C. E., I-302d), in Ontario, Canada, is suffragan to 
 the Archdiocese of Kingston. Its first bishop, Rt. 
 Rev. Alexander MacDonell, who came to the see in 
 1900, d. 29 May, 1905,. and the second bishop, Rt. 
 Rev. William Andrew MacDonell, b. in St. Andre, 
 1853, was appointed 21 March, 1906. Bishop 
 MacDonell died 17 November, 1920, and on 28 
 June, 1921, the third and present bishop of the 
 diocese, Rt. Rev. Felix Couturier, Dominican, titular 
 Bishop of Myriophvtos, was appointed to succeed 
 him. By 1921 statistics there were 21,000 Catholics 
 in the diocese, 22 priests, 80 religious women, 17 
 
 parishes, 23 churches, 6 convents, and 1 hospital. 
 The religious orders established in the diocese are: 
 Sisters of Notre Dame, Sisters of Providence, Sisters 
 of the Holy Cross and Seven Dolors and Brothers 
 of the Presentation. 
 
 Alexandria, Diocese of (Alexandrina in Loui¬ 
 siana; cf. C. E., X-710b), created in August, 1910, 
 from the former See of Natchitoches, is under the 
 direction of Rt. Rev. Cornelius Van de Ven, D. D., 
 who was consecrated Bishop of Natchitoches 30 
 November, 1904, and was instrumental in having 
 the see transferred. It includes the same territory 
 as Natchitoches and has a Catholic population of 
 about 44,500, comprising 25,000 whites of French 
 descent; 2,500 Mexicans; 2,000 Italians; 9,000 other 
 whites; and 6,000 negroes. There are 25 parishes 
 and 50 missions with 75 churches in all, 27 secular 
 priests, 11 regular; 8 lay brothers and 10 semi¬ 
 narians; 2 convents for men; 18 for women with 
 197 sisters; 2 colleges for men with 15 teachers and 
 an attendance of 450; 1 college for women with 5 
 teachers; 4 academies for girls with a total attend¬ 
 ance of 762, and 1 normal school. An orphan asylum 
 for boys and girls was founded in 1917 near Pine- 
 ville by the Sisters of Charity of the Incarnate 
 Word, of Galveston, and now has 56 inmates. There 
 are two Catholic hospitals in the diocese, one under 
 the direction of the Sisters of Charity of the Incar¬ 
 nate Word, the other under the Franciscan Sisters 
 of Calais, France, and the priests of the diocese are 
 admitted to minister in the Louisiana Hospital for 
 the Insane and the United States Public Health 
 Hospital. During the World War one priest, the 
 Rev. F. J. Plutz, served as a chaplain in the army, 
 and the laity did its full duty in all respects. The 
 various societies established in the diocese are: The 
 Knights of Columbus, Catholic Knights of America 
 and the Holy Name Society. 
 
 Alexandria, Patriarchate of (Alexandriensis; 
 cf. C. E., I-299d), in Egypt. It comprises the 
 Coptic, Latin and Armenian Rites, the head of the 
 first named being Patriarch of Alexandria with resi¬ 
 dence at Cairo. This rite is at present under an 
 Apostolic administrator, Bishop Sedfaoui, the last 
 patriarch, His Excellency Mgr. Macaire having re¬ 
 tired in 1908. Belonging to this rite there are 5,500 
 of the inhabitants, 11 priests, 21 churches or chapels, 
 
 1 seminary, 9 secondary schools and 19 elementary 
 schools. The patriarchate for the Latin Rite is 
 titular, the patriarch, Mgr. Paul De Huyn, residing 
 in Rome. Mgr. De Huyn was appointed successor 
 to Mgr. Marinangeli, who died 6 March, 1921. 
 
 A diocese is established for the Armenian Rite 
 which comprises the whole of Egypt with the epis¬ 
 copal seat at Cairo. The present bishop, Rt. Rev. 
 John Couzain, born at Mardin, 1875, was appointed, 
 27 August, 1911, to succeed Bishop Kojounian, pro¬ 
 moted to the titular see of Chalcedon. In 1920 
 there were in this diocese, 2,300 Armenian Catholics, 
 70,000 of other rites, 9,500,000 infidels, 650,000 
 Schismatics, 87 missionaries, 5 native regular clergy, 
 
 2 primary stations, 2 secondary stations, and 3 
 churches. 
 
 Alexian Brothers ( c f. C. E., I-306d).—In 1865 
 Brother Bonaventura Thelen established the Alexian 
 Brothers in the United States, in Chicago, Ill;, 
 where in the first fifty years of its existence the 
 Brothers’ hospital cared for 101,633 patients, of 
 whom 50,905 were Catholics, 37,775 Protestants, 
 6,430 Jews, and 6,523 of no religion. Of this num¬ 
 ber 35,082 were nursed free of charge. The present 
 hospital, erected in 1895, ranks with the best 
 equipped hospitals in the country. Connected with 
 
ALGERIA 
 
 27 
 
 ALGERIA 
 
 it is the mother-house and novitiate of the Alexian 
 Brothers for the United States, and the training 
 school for the members of the community. Candi¬ 
 dates for admission to this order are received be¬ 
 tween the ages of eighteen and thirty-three years, 
 are trained in hospital work as well as in the duties 
 of the religious state, and observe the Rule of St. 
 Augustine. The Brothers also conduct hospitals in 
 St. Louis, Mo., Elizabeth, N. J., and Oshkosh, Wis. 
 
 On 22 May, 1906, at the meeting of the General 
 Chapter of the Alexian Brothers, at Aix-la-Chapelle, 
 Germany, Brother Paulus Overbeck was elected as 
 superior general, to succeed Brother Quirinus Bank, 
 who had held that position for fifteen years. In 
 1911 Overbeck was re-elected and remained superior 
 general, by special permission of the Holy See, 
 until 1920, as owing to the World War it was im¬ 
 possible to hold a general chapter for an election 
 of• the general council of the community. At that 
 date Brother Alexius Jansen, who had been pro¬ 
 vincial rector of the American province, was elected 
 superior general. The general chapter resolved a 
 series of alterations in the statutes of the com¬ 
 munity demanded by the new Canon Law; these 
 changes are now awaiting the approval of the Holy 
 See. 
 
 During the World War and its subsequent up¬ 
 heavals the growth of the community was very 
 much retarded, but since then several new branch 
 hospitals have been opened; one at Malseneck near 
 Munich, Bavaria, another at Yiersen, Rheinprovinz, 
 Germany, while a branch house and novitiate 
 are to be established in Ireland. In the United 
 States the number of candidates for the Brother¬ 
 hood is on the increase, and the Brothers contem¬ 
 plate starting a training school for male nurses in 
 connection with the hospital at Chicago. The 
 present training of nurses being restricted to mem¬ 
 bers and candidates of the community only, and 
 there not being such a school in existence in the 
 United States, this institution would be of great 
 benefit to the public. 
 
 Algeria, a French province in northern Africa, 
 comprising two great divisions: Northern and 
 Southern Algeria, which are in turn divided into 
 denartments and territories as follows: Northern 
 Algeria, consisting of Civil Territory and Territoire 
 de Commandement, 17 arrondissements and 269 
 communes, besides 74 mixed communes; Southern 
 Algeria, consisting of four territories, Ain Sefra, 
 Ghardaia, Tuggurt, and the Saharan oases, organized 
 by decree of 14 August, 1905, 12 communes of w T hich 
 
 5 are mixed and 7 native. The total population in 
 1911 was 5,563,828, of which 494,306 belonged to the 
 southern territories. This included 4,411,276 natives, 
 492,660 French, 70,271 Jews and descendants, 2,375 
 Tunisians, 23,115 Moroccans, 135,150 Spaniards, 
 36,791 Italians, and 23,927 other foreigners. The 
 largest towns with their population (1912) are: 
 Algiers, 172,397; Oran, 123,086; Constantine, 65,173; 
 Bone, 42,039; Sidi-bel-Abbes, 30,942; Tlemgen, 
 39,874; Mostaganem, 23,166. 
 
 Religion. —The majority of the inhabitants are 
 Mohammedans. There are about 70,000 Jews, with 
 
 6 Jewish rabbis sharing in government grants. The 
 Protestant pastors number 13. The Catholic Church 
 in the province of Algeria is divided into the Arch¬ 
 diocese of Algiers and its suffragans, the dioceses of 
 Oran and Constantine (q.v.). When the Law of 
 Separation went into effect in the French posses¬ 
 sions (1906), a special decree (1907) empowered the 
 Governor General, where public and national inter¬ 
 ests required it, to grant temporary indemnities to 
 the clergy who conducted public worship in con¬ 
 
 formity to the law. These indemnities were to cease 
 after ten years. In 1917 the suppression of all state 
 aid to the clergy of Algeria would have resulted 
 most disastrously, as many parishes, too poor to 
 support themselves, would have disappeared, and 
 the numerous Catholics of Spanish, Italian and 
 Maltese origin would naturally have appealed to 
 their mother-lands for priests and subsidies, leading 
 to the ultimate disappearance of the French clergy. 
 In response to a petition of the archbishops and 
 bishops of Northern Africa, which was supported by 
 the Governor General and the financial delegation, 
 the French government granted an extension of the 
 indemnities for five years. 
 
 Economic Conditions. —The European War con¬ 
 tributed largely to the development and prosperity 
 of Algeria. At the outbreak of hostilities France 
 looked to Algeria for her food supply and since the 
 war its power of production, far from showing any 
 falling off, has enabled it to tide over the critical 
 period that threatened to paralyze its activities. 
 Notwithstanding the difficulties of transport, its 
 products realized high prices in France and abroad, 
 and the growing wealth of the country is attested 
 by the volume of foreign trade which in 1919 
 reached a total of 2,288 millards, or 759 millards 
 more than in 1919. Of the imports in 1919, 61.1 per 
 cent came from France; of the exports, 88.2 per 
 cent went to France. In 1920 the chief imports 
 were cottons, clothing and linen, machinery and 
 parts, wine, and tobacco. In 1919, 8,170 vessels of 
 5,807,632 tons net entered, and 8,107 vessels of 5,704,- 
 719 tons cleared Algerian ports. The mercantile 
 marine consisted on 1 January, 1920, of 364 vessels 
 of 29,505 tons. On 31 December, 1919, there were 
 2,221 miles of railway open for traffic (807 privately 
 owned). However, the lack of development of the 
 immense resources of Algeria is due to inadequate 
 transportation facilities. Motor routes are being es¬ 
 tablished and motor transport is being utilized in 
 every branch of trade. The soil is, under various 
 systems, held by proprietors, by farmers, and by 
 metayers or khammes. Most of the state lands have 
 been appropriated to the colonists. In 1920 the 
 yield of wine was 157,136,452 gallons; wheat, 243,000 
 tons; barley, 207,397 tons; oats, 73,422 tons. The 
 forests cover 6,560,232 acres, of which 645,000 acres 
 are devoted to cork trees. In 1919 the mineral 
 output amounted to 1,019,824 tons. 
 
 Education— In 1919-20 there were 496 Moham¬ 
 medan schools with 35,578 pupils, also higher schools 
 (medersas) at Algiers, Tlemgen, and Constantine. 
 For secondary education, Algeria had 16 establish¬ 
 ments with 9,837 pupils (7,180 boys and 2,651 girls). 
 There were also 1,298 primary schools and kinder¬ 
 gartens, public and private, with 132,617 pupils, 
 two normal schools for men with 29 professors and 
 230 students (54 Mohammedan), and three for 
 women with 21 professo. and 200 students. The 
 university at Algiers has an attendance of 1,428 
 pupils, 614 for law, 359 for medicine and pharmacy, 
 189 for science, 266 for art. Besides the university 
 there were schools for commerce, agriculture, hy¬ 
 drography, and fine arts. 
 
 Government.— The administration of Algeria is 
 centralized at Algiers under the authority of a gen¬ 
 eral government and the control of the Minister 
 of the Interior. The Governor-General, nominated 
 by decree of the President of the Republic, is as¬ 
 sisted by a conseil de gouvernement which deals in 
 a deliberative or consultative manner with certain 
 affairs, and by a conseil superior, whose principal 
 duties include the examination of the budget pro¬ 
 posals and the division of the taxes. The financial 
 delegations comprise three groups of members or 
 
ALGHERO 
 
 28 
 
 ALL HALLOWS 
 
 delegations, one of officials, one of French colonists, 
 and one of native taxpayers. Algeria is divided 
 into three departments: Algiers, Oran, and Con¬ 
 stantine, each headed by a prefect, assisted by a 
 conseil de prefecture and a conseil general. The 
 civil territory is divided into arrondissements. The 
 four territories of the south: Ghardaia, Ain-Sefra, 
 the Oasis, and Tuggurt, form a separate colony. In 
 each of these the military commander directs all 
 administrative services under the authority of the 
 governor. They have an autonomous budget dis¬ 
 tinct from that of Algeria. The great aid rendered 
 by Algeria to France during the War led the French 
 government to cause a new reform program to 
 be voted by the Chambers. The law of 4 February, 
 1919, accords French citizenship to all Algerian 
 natives who have fulfilled one of the following con¬ 
 ditions: to have served in the French Army or 
 Navy, to be a proprietor or farmer or be inscribed 
 on the license charts, to know how to read and 
 write French, and be holder of a French decoration. 
 The Mohammedan Algerian natives who are not 
 French citizens are represented in all Algerian as¬ 
 semblies by elected members holding the same rank 
 and privileges as the French members. They are 
 admitted by the same right as the French citizens 
 to all public functions, except certain authoritative 
 positions defined by decree of 26 March, 1919. 
 Since January, 1919, colonists and natives are sub¬ 
 jected to the same taxation. The military force 
 in Algeria constitutes the XIXth Army Corps, con¬ 
 sisting of three divisions. French residents are 
 under the same military obligations as in France; 
 the natives must serve three years with the colors 
 and can be called upon as reservists at any time in 
 case of mobilization. 
 
 Alghero, Diocese of (Algherensis; cf. C. E., 
 I-310d), in Italy, is suffragan of Sassari. Rt. Rev. 
 Ernest Piovella, who was appointed to this see 15 
 April, 1907, was promoted to the Archdiocese of 
 Oristano 15 April, 1914, and the present bishop, Rt. 
 Rev. Francesco d’Errico was appointed his successor, 
 12 August, 1914. In 1920 the Catholics of this 
 diocese numbered 54,300; there were 26 parishes, 
 80 secular priests, 20 seminarians, and 120 churches 
 or chapels. 
 
 Algiers, Archdiocese of (Algeriensis; cf. C. E., 
 1-31 la), comprises the province of Algeria in French 
 Africa. The Catholics number 300,000, of whom 
 200,000 are French, 30,000 Italians, 40,000 Spaniards 
 and 5,000 Maltese. Since 1917 the archdiocese has 
 been administered by the Most Rev. Augustine 
 Fernand Leynaud, b. at Ollieres, 26 August, 1865, 
 ordained 24 June, 1888. In 1901 he was made pastor 
 at Susa where in 1903 he discovered the famous 
 catacombs of Hadrumetum, which to-day attract 
 a great number of visitors from all parts of the 
 world. He is the author of a learned and widely 
 circulated work on these catacombs, to which is due 
 the fact that they are so well known. He was 
 elected archbishop 2 January, 1917, consecrated at 
 Carthage 6 March, published 22 March following 
 and enthroned on the same day. During his admin¬ 
 istration many charitable institutions have been 
 established in the archdiocese. The auxiliary 
 bishop, Rt. Rev. Alexandre Piquemal, a devout 
 and zealous prelate, died in 1921, as did also Sister 
 Chabanne, Yisitatrix of the Sisters of Charity, 
 who was a member of the order for seventy-eight 
 years and died at the age of ninety-eight. 
 
 At the present time (1922) the archdiocese con¬ 
 sists of 125 parishes, 150 churches, 5 mission stations 
 for the Mussulmans of Kabylia, 1 monastery of the 
 White Fathers. 5 monasteries and convents for 
 
 women with 200 sisters, 150 seculars, 40 regulars, 1 
 seminary and 35 seminarians, also the mother-house 
 and novitiate of the White Fathers, missionaries 
 in Africa. The following schools exist in the arch¬ 
 diocese: 2 colleges for men with 15 teachers (250 
 students), 5 for women with 40 teachers (500 stu¬ 
 dents), 10 elementary schools with 40 teachers 
 (1,400 students). Some of the schools as well as the 
 hospitals are supported by the government. There 
 is one Catholic periodical published in the arch¬ 
 diocese. The Little Sisters of the Poor have estab¬ 
 lished an asylum. There are also in the arch¬ 
 diocese the following institutions: 3 hospitals and 
 a small lyceum which admit the ministry of priests, 
 
 1 settlement house, 1 refuge, 2 day nurseries. The 
 following associations have been formed by the 
 laity: Conference of St. Vincent de Paul, Associa¬ 
 tion of Catholic Youths, Tertiaries of St. Francis 
 and Les Hommes de France au Sacre Cceur. 
 
 Alicante, Diocese of. See Orihuela. 
 
 Alife, Diocese of (Aliphanensis; cf. C. E. 
 I-312b), in the province of Caserta, Italy, is suf¬ 
 fragan of the Archdiocese of Benevento. Rt. Rev. 
 Settimio Caracciolo who was appointed to this 
 see 24 March, 1898, was transferred to the diocese 
 of Aversa, 10 April, 1911, and the present incumbent, 
 
 Rt. Rev. Felix Del Sordo, was appointed his suc¬ 
 cessor. Born at Nusco, 1850, he was appointed 
 titular Bishop of Claudiopolis and made auxiliary 
 to the Bishop of Nusco, 14 October, 1906. He was 
 transferred to Venosa 15 July, 1907, and 12 October, 
 1911, he was again transferred to the see of Alife. 
 
 In 1920 there were 25,140 Catholics in this diocese, 
 
 17 parishes, 50 secular and 8 regular clergy, 20 
 seminarians, 54 churches or chapels, 8 brothers and 
 14 sisters. 
 
 Alinda, a titular see in Caria. Alinda was one of 
 the largest districts of Caria and was surrendered 
 to Alexander by Queen Ada, but he allowed her to 
 retain the government. The see was suffragan of 
 Stauropolis and is mentioned in the “Notilise” of 
 Epiphanius, Basil, and Parthey. Four bishops of 
 the see are known: Promachius, present at the Coun¬ 
 cil of Ephesus (431); John, present at the Council 
 of Chalcedon (451); Theodorus, at the Council of 
 Constantinople (536), and Theophilus, at the Coun¬ 
 cil of Constantinople (879). 
 
 All Hallows College (cf. C. E., I-314d), in Dub¬ 
 lin, founded in 1842, for the education of missionary 
 priests for foreign countries, especially those coun¬ 
 tries to which Irish people emigrated. The college 
 is at present (1922) presided over by Rev. Thomas 
 O’Donnell, of the Congregation of the Missions, this 
 congregation having been entrusted with the direc¬ 
 tion of the institution in 1892. In 1908, upon the 
 establishment of the National University of Ireland, 
 the curriculum of studies of All Hallows was some¬ 
 what changed. Although the university is neutral, 
 from a religious point of view, most of its professors 
 and students are Catholic, and as clerics graduate 
 from the university in large numbers, the students 
 of All Hallows are also required to do so. Be¬ 
 fore entering the college, they matriculate, and 
 after entrance attend daily lectures at the univer¬ 
 sity, reading a three years’ course in arts and . 
 philosophy. At the end of that period they are 
 graduated, and take their B. A. degree in the pass or 
 honors course of classics, philosophy and educa- j 
 tional science. A selected number subsequently 
 take an advanced course in the theory and practice 
 of education, with a view to special efficiency in 
 missionary work; these are given a higher diploma, 
 and M. A. degree in that subject. During their v 
 
ALL SOULS 
 
 20 
 
 ALMS 
 
 theological course the students receive lectures on 
 educational methods, and th^.r practical application 
 to the duties of the priesthood. 
 
 All Souls; Day ( c f. C. E., I-315d).—On 24 June, 
 1914, Pius X granted a plenary indulgence applicable 
 to the Holy Souls to be gained by the faithful, on 
 the usual conditions, for each visit to a church, or 
 public, or semi-public oratory on All Souls’ Day. 
 The privilege of saying three Masses on that feast, 
 which Benedict XIV granted for the dominions of 
 Spain and Portugal, was extended to the whole 
 world by Benedict XV in his Constitution “El¬ 
 ement um Altaris,” of 10 August,* 1915. When the 
 three Masses are celebrated, one must be said for the 
 repose of the Holy Souls, a second for the intention 
 of the pope, and the third for whatever intention 
 the priest chooses; however, only one Mass stipend 
 may be accepted. All altars are privileged on that 
 day. The first Mass to be said is the one given in 
 the Roman Missal for the Feast of All the Faithful 
 Departed; the second is the Mass for the Anniver¬ 
 sary of the Deceased with the Dies Irce ; the third 
 is the Daily Requiem Mass, also with the Dies Irce. 
 Special prayers for the second and third Masses 
 were prescribed by a decree of the Congregation of 
 Rites on 11 August, 1915. When only one Mass is 
 said it must be the Mass for the Faithful Departed; 
 the same Mass is prescribed when Mass is to be 
 sung, and in this case the celebrant may anticipate 
 the second and third Masses. If the Blessed Sac¬ 
 rament happens to be exposed for the Forty Hours’ 
 Adoration on this day, the requiem Mass, which 
 must necessarily be said with violet vestments, must 
 not be celebrated at the altar of Exposition. By a 
 decree of 28 February, 1917, the Feast of All Souls’ 
 was raised to a double of the first class for the 
 whole Church, so that it excludes all local feasts 
 or feasts of churches, religious orders or institutions. 
 However, if 2 November is a Sunday, the com¬ 
 memoration of All Souls is transferred with all its 
 privileges to 3 November. 
 
 Rome, XVIII (Rome, 1915), 89, 247, 260. 
 
 Allahabad, Diocese of ( Allah abaden sis; cf. C. E., 
 I~31fic), in India, is suffragan of Agra with episcopal 
 residence at Naini-Tal in the summer and Allaha¬ 
 bad in the winter. It is entrusted to the Capuchins 
 of Bologna, Italy, the Rt. Rev. Angelo Giuseppe 
 Poli of this order being the present bishop. Born 
 at Casola Valsenio, Italy, 1878, he came to India as 
 a missionary in 1901, was elected regular superior 
 in 1913, appointed titular Bishop of Curium and 
 coadjutor to the Bishop of Allahabad 13 March, 
 1915, and on 18 December, 1917, took possession 
 of the see upon the death of Rt. Rev. Petronius 
 Gramigna, who had filled the see since 1904 In 
 1920 ^ there. were 10,557 Catholics in the diocese, 
 28 Capuchin priests, o belonging to other orders 
 and 4 seculars and 66 religious women. The 1921 
 statistics credit the diocese with 25 churches, 10 
 chapels, 22 stations, 41 sub-stations, 4 secondary 
 schools for boys with 798 pupils, 8 for girls with 954 
 pupils, 5 free schools with 298 pupils, 1 native 
 school with 47 pupils, 4 orphanages with 452 orphans, 
 1 industrial school, 6 dispensaries and 1 hospital. 
 A Catholic press is established at Cawnpore. The 
 sisters of the Institute of the Blessed Virgin Mary, 
 Sisters of Loretto, Sisters of St. Joseph, and Native 
 Sisters of the Third Order of St. Francis conduct 
 the educational and charitable institutions. The 
 most notable event of the diocese in recent years 
 was the celebration in 1921 of the fiftieth anni¬ 
 versary of the dedication of St. Joseph’s Cathedral 
 at Allahabad. Most Rev. Peter Pisani, Apostolic 
 
 delegate to India, and many other prominent 
 churchmen of India attended the ceremonies. 
 
 t ^ 0 m ? ria> P I0 ? ESE 0F (Almeriensis; cf. C. E 
 i-328a), in Spain is suffragan of Granada. The 
 piesent bishop, Rt. Rev. Vincent Casanova y 
 Marzol, born at Borja, 1854, was appointed bishop 
 
 19 December, 1907. In 1920 the population of this 
 diocese, entirely Catholic, numbered 290,200- there 
 were 110 parishes, 239 priests, 1 seminary, 47 chapels 
 
 20 convents with 39 nuns and 298 Sisters. 
 
 Alms (cf. C. E., I-328c).—As the support of the 
 poor and the works of religion devolves largely upon 
 the faithful, inspired by motives of charity to give 
 freely, it has become necessary in view of the in¬ 
 creasing number of calls made upon the laity to 
 protect them from unnecessary solicitation and to 
 prevent their generosity from being played upon 
 by the unscrupulous. The following regulations 
 therefore, have been laid down governing the col¬ 
 lection of alms by means of personal appeals to the 
 general public (they do not, however, refer to ap- 
 peals by letter or personal appeals to a few persons). 
 (1) No private individual, whether lay or clerical, 
 may collect for any pious or religious institute or 
 object, without the written permission of the local 
 ordinary or of the Holy See. (2) No pious asso¬ 
 ciation may collect alms unless its statutes authorize 
 or necessity requires it to do so; even then it must 
 obtain the local ordinary’s permission and follow his 
 instructions; furthermore, if the collection is to be 
 made outside of the diocese, the written permission 
 of both ordinaries is required. (3) Mendicant regu¬ 
 lars, properly so-called in virtue of their institute, 
 need only the permission of their superior for 
 collecting alms in the diocese where their house is 
 situated; in other places they require permission 
 of the local ordinary also. If the alms which they 
 obtain in their own diocese are insufficient for their 
 support, the local ordinaries of other places, espe¬ 
 cially of the neighboring dioceses, must not refuse 
 or withdraw from them permission to collect, except 
 for grave urgent reasons. (4) No other religious 
 of pontifical institutes may collect alms, except in 
 virtue of a special indult, in which case they must 
 have the written leave of the ordinary of the place 
 of eollection, unless the indult provides to the con¬ 
 trary. (5) Religious of diocesan congregations be¬ 
 fore collecting alms must obtain permission of the 
 ordinaries of their place of residence and of the 
 place of collection, but this must not be granted 
 unless there is no other way in which their pressing 
 needs can be met, and they must be restricted to 
 their own diocese if possible. This regulation is to 
 be rigorously enforced in dioceses in which there is 
 a mendicant order properly so-called. (6) Finally, 
 ordinaries of the Latin Rite must not allow any 
 person belonging to an Oriental Rite to collect 
 in their territories nor may they send any of their 
 Subjects into an Oriental diocese for that purpose, 
 except when the collector has a recent authenticated 
 rescript from the Sacred Congregation for tho East¬ 
 ern Church. 
 
 The collections must be made by the religious 
 themselves and not by seculars; superiors must 
 select for that purpose professed religious of mature 
 age, and never those who are still engaged in study. 
 As far as possible collectors should not go unac¬ 
 companied ; if they cannot return home at night, they 
 should lodge with the parish priest, or with other 
 religious, or where that is not possible with a good 
 Catholic family; they must not remain away from 
 their house more than a month when collecting in 
 their own diocese, or two months if in another dio¬ 
 cese, and they must not be sent out again until the 
 
ALPHEUS 
 
 30 
 
 ALSACE 
 
 lapse of a period equal to that of their previous 
 absence. If sisters are sent to collect they must 
 always go in twos and must have sufficient funds to 
 bring them home; furthermore, before going any¬ 
 where they must notify the person to whom they 
 have to present the bishop’s letters, so that he may 
 
 secure proper accommodation for them. 
 
 Vermeersch-Creusen, Epitome juris canonici , n. 626-27. 
 
 Alpheus, Brother (Patrick J. Coffey), b. in 
 Co. Tipperary, Ireland, 1846; d. in New Lork, 
 20 February, 1921, one of the oldest educators in 
 the Archdiocese of New York. In 1861 he came 
 to the United States and entered the Order of the 
 Christian Brothers, spending the first years of his 
 career at St. Mary’s School and the old Cathedral 
 School, New York. His next charge was the 
 junior class of old De La Salle Institute, whence 
 he was appointed to Albany Academy. In 1881 
 Brother Alpheus was named director of De La 
 Salle Institute, where Archbishop Hughes of New 
 York, Archbishop Mundelein of Chicago, and the 
 late Bishop McDonnell of Brooklyn were among 
 the many prominent men who came under his 
 influence. For the past twenty years he had been 
 connected with the Clason Point Academy and the 
 New York Catholic Protectory. 
 
 Alsace-Lorraine (cf. C. E., I-341d), the former 
 German Imperial territory acquired by France by 
 the treaty of Versailles, signed 28 June, 1919, the 
 possession dating from the Armistice of 11 Novem¬ 
 ber, 1918. It is divided into the departments of Bas- 
 Rhin, containing 1,848 sq. miles and a population of 
 700,738; Haut-Rhin, 1,354 sq. miles, population 517,- 
 865; and Moselle, 2,403 sq. miles, population 655,211. 
 The largest cities with their population in 1910 are: 
 Strasburg, 178,891; Miilhausen, 105,488; Metz, 79,318. 
 In 1910 in German Alsace-Lorraine (Reichsland) 
 there were 1,428,343 Catholics, 408,274 Protestants 
 of various German churches, 3,868 Christians of 
 other denominations, 30,483 Jews, and 3,046 ad¬ 
 herents of other religions or unclassified. In Kreis 
 Zabern the Protestants were in the majority, as 
 also in Strasburg. In Lower Alsace the Catholics 
 were about 62 per cent of the population; in Upper 
 Alsace they formed 84 per cent; in Miilhausen they 
 outnumbered the Protestants by six to one, in Geb- 
 weiler by 25 to 1, and in Altkirch by 44 to 1. In 
 German Lorraine the proportion of Catholics was 
 about 90 per cent, Protestants were strongest in 
 Metz, which had more than 1 to 3 Catholics and 
 weakest in Kreis Bolchen, where there was only 
 one Protestant to one hundred Catholics. The 
 Jews have declined steadily from 40,812 in 1871 
 to 30,483 in 1910. 
 
 According to the census of 1910, 1,634,260 persons 
 spoke German; 3,395 were bilingual; 204,262 spoke 
 French. Compared with the figures of 1905 there 
 is a decline of bilinguals, and of French speakers in 
 German Lorraine, but an increase in Alsace, espe¬ 
 cially in the towns. German had beon the official 
 language for was x u®etl in the schools, and 
 
 wao the only language heard by the vast majority 
 of the conscripts from Alsace-Lorraine during their 
 three years of military service; the surprising thing 
 is that there has been any increase in the use of 
 French in Alsace, a result which can be traced to 
 the nationalist (Francophil) movement. During 
 the war the French language was totally prohibited 
 in Alsace-Lorraine, French names being superseded 
 by German names, and the native soldiers of the 
 garrison of Strasburg being forbidden to speak 
 French in the streets. 
 
 Economic Conditions. —The economic impor¬ 
 tance of Alsace-Lorraine centers chiefly around her 
 
 potash mines. They were discovered in 1904, and 
 by 1913 there were 160 borings. Alsatian salts con¬ 
 tain more potash in a pure state, viz., 20 per cent 
 as against 12 to 13 elsewhere. The shafts had nearly 
 all come to a working order by the outbreak of 
 the war, and in 1917, if conditions had remained 
 normal, each shaft would have produced 1,000 to 
 1,200 tons a day, about 6,000,000 tons for the whole 
 area. The deposits in Upper Alsace are estimated 
 at 300,000,000 tons. In 1920 about 591,000 tons of 
 potash salts were mined, an increase of 65 per cent 
 over the products of 1913. The amount of pure 
 potash mined was 96,546 tons. In August, 1920, the 
 French Chamber passed a bill providing for the ac¬ 
 quisition and equipment by the state of the potash 
 mines of Alsace. According to a decree issued by 
 the commissary-general of the French Republic at 
 Strasburg, the railway system of Alsace-Lorraine 
 was to be reorganized and operated by an adminis¬ 
 trative body with headquarters at Strasburg under 
 the authority of the commissary-general. From 
 1871 to the end of the war, they were the only 
 imperial railways in the German Empire, the other 
 state railways being owned by the different states 
 within the empire. 
 
 Education. —In 1914, besides the University of 
 Strasburg, which had in that year 176 professors 
 and 2,220 students, the following educational in¬ 
 stitutions existed: 18 gymnasia, 3 progymnasia, 
 6 higher realschulen, 7 realschulen, 4 realschulen 
 united with gymnasia, 1 agricultural school, 1 
 technical school, 7 seminaries, 5 preparatory schools 
 for teachers, 68 girls’ higher schools, 2,850 ele¬ 
 mentary schools, 68 private elementary schools, 504 
 infant schools, 52 intermediate schools, 5 institu¬ 
 tions for the deaf and dumb, 2 institutions for the 
 blind and 2 for imbeciles. About 1,800,000 marks 
 were spent on the University of Strasburg. In 
 their haste to re-introduce the French language 
 into the schools, the French have encountered 
 difficulties. The Alsatian teachers had been for¬ 
 merly in German normal schools and therefore were 
 regarded with suspicion. The Germans had left 
 nothing undone that could bestow on them a 
 German mentality and so combat the influence of 
 the French priests. About 80 per cent did not 
 understand French nor much about French litera¬ 
 ture, all they knew about France and her people 
 being derived from hostile German sources, in the 
 German normal schools. The question was how 
 to replace them until they were assimilated to the 
 French civilization. 
 
 Ecclesiastical History. —In recognizing the 
 French sovereignty in Alsace-Lorraine, the Pope 
 accepted the resignation of the German Bishops of 
 Strasburg and Metz and appointed them arch¬ 
 bishops in Partibus , In April, 1919, President Poin¬ 
 care nominated Monsignor Ruch, Bishop of Nancy, 
 for the BirhopUv uf Strasburg, and Monsignor Kelb 
 for that of Metz. This caused an animated debate 
 in the French Chamber and led the Foreign Min¬ 
 ister, M. Richon, to explain that the policy of 
 France was to uphold the Concordat in Alsace- 
 Lorraine. The nominees were given canonical in¬ 
 stitution by the pope. 
 
 For religious statistics see Strasburg, Diocese of; 
 Metz, Diocese of. 
 
 Civil History, 1910-1920.—The recent history of 
 Alsace-Lorraine has been one continual agitation 
 for its return to France. In the first decade of 
 the twentieth century the German Government felt 
 that the arrangements of the Government of 
 Alsace-Lorraine were not satisfactory, for the spirit 
 of opposition seemed to grow. Therefore, in June, 
 1911, a new Constitution was granted. It was de- 
 
ALTAMURA 
 
 31 
 
 ALTON 
 
 dared that the sovereign power in Alsace-Lorraine 
 was vested in the emperor, at the head of the Gov¬ 
 ernment was placed the Statthalter, nominated and 
 removable by the emperor. The task of legislating 
 for the country was taken from the Bundesrat and 
 Reichstag and entrusted to the emperor and a 
 Landtag of two Chambers. The Upper Chamber 
 included thirty-six persons, representatives of bodies 
 controlling religious and economic interests, such as 
 the Catholic Archbishops of Strasburg and Metz, 
 etc. The proposed Constitution fell short of the 
 program formulated by the Autonomists, who de¬ 
 manded that Alsace-Lorraine be placed on equal 
 footing with the other States of the empire, al¬ 
 though it might have proved feasible if the Ger¬ 
 man Government had not been suspicious of 
 French tendencies. In 1913 occurred the Zabern 
 (Saverne) incident, the bullying of a defenseless 
 cripple by a young German officer. The dispropor¬ 
 tionate violence which at once placed the town under 
 a state of siege, the explanation given that the 
 German garrison felt they were camping in an 
 enemy country, the acquittal of the young officer 
 for wounding the lame cobbler on the incredible 
 ground that he was acting in self-defense, all showed 
 the position of Alsace-Lorraine in the eyes of the 
 military party. A vote of censure was passed by 
 the Reichstag, but it was actuated by a dislike of 
 the German military methods, not by sympathy 
 with Alsace-Lorraine, where the repressive measures 
 continued until the outbreak of the war. 
 
 Further hostility toward Germany is proved by 
 the treatment of Alsace-Lorraine at the outbreak 
 of the European War. As early as 20 July, 1914, 
 the country was placed under martial law, and 
 hundreds of persons who figured in the police lists 
 as suspects were instantly arrested and imprisoned 
 without trial. On their first entry into Mulhausen 
 (8 August, 1914) the French troops were received 
 “with transports of joy, while the inhabitants be¬ 
 haved like a lot of lunatics’’ (Breisgauer Zeitung, 
 10 October, 1915). During the first two years of 
 the war forty-eight persons were convicted of high 
 treason, fifty-four of aiding and abetting desertion, 
 317 of anti-German sentiments, and about 6,000 were 
 deprived of their German nationality. At the end 
 of 1916 the number of desertions (Alsatian) ex¬ 
 ceeded 30,000, and according to the French more 
 than 20,000 Alsatians were serving in the French 
 army. For the details of the French campaign in 
 Alsace-Lorraine during the European War see War. 
 
 By a decree of 26 November, 1918, the French 
 Government took over the administration of the 
 territories until peace should be signed, French 
 troops meanwhile having occupied the country. 
 French officers were placed in charge of affairs and 
 on 22 March, 1919, M. Alexandre Millerand was 
 appointed governor-general. This acquisition was 
 confirmed by the Treaty of Versailles. In 1919-20 
 the administrative system was centralized under a 
 commissary general, aided by an advisory council. 
 The unity of the region is retained, a species of 
 regionalism which seems very successful. Justice 
 will be administered under the Ministry of Justice 
 at Paris, M. Poincare having decided that hence¬ 
 forth the redeemed province shall be treated like 
 the old department, eliminating the German laws 
 and courts code. As might have been expected, 
 some friction took place in the passing of the 
 region from German hands. The local administra¬ 
 tion and particularly the administration of justice 
 was good; the railway system and the industrial 
 wealth of the country were largely developed; and 
 m Strasburg a large amount of money had been 
 spent on the improvement of the city, and above 
 3 
 
 all, on the university, whose endowments were on 
 lavish scale, all of course in the interest of Ger- 
 manizmg the country. This talent for organization 
 
 Wa ? £ llsssd hy the inhabitants 
 
 under the first years of French rule and made the 
 hange from German to French rule one of greater 
 difficulty than was anticipated. Such will be the 
 existing situation for a few years to come. 
 
 Altamura and Acquaviva (Altamurensis et 
 £ C. E., I-345d), an exempt archh 
 
 Itnlv Tn a foen 1 prOV1 u Ce , ° f Bari ’ in Southern 
 Italy. In 1920 Altamura had 19,333 Catholics and 
 
 4 parishes; Acquaviva, 8,527 Catholics and 1 parish- 
 
 there are about 80 priests for the whole territory’ 
 
 E -’ I- 346a).—Every fixed altar 
 should have its own name, the high altar having the 
 same title as the church; this name, unlike that of 
 a portable altar, may not be changed even with 
 the ordinary s consent. No altar may be dedicated 
 under the title of one of the beatified except by 
 special permission of the Holy See. Care must 
 be taken that an altar is never used for any pro¬ 
 fane purpose; if a corpse has been interred within 
 a metre of an altar, Mass may not be celebrated 
 there until the body has been removed. 
 
 Bishops, abbots and prelates nullius, vicars and 
 pi elects Apostolic, and higher superiors of exempt 
 religious orders are now authorized by the common 
 law to designate and declare privileged daily 
 and perpetually one altar in their cathedrals, ab¬ 
 beys collegiate, conventual, parish or quasi-parish 
 churches provided the privilege has not been con¬ 
 ferred already on another altar in such church. 
 Ihey cannot do this, however, in public or semi- 
 pubfic oratories unless these are united to or are 
 subsidiaries of a parish church. All altars are now 
 pi iv lleged on the feast of All Souls and in churches 
 on the days during which the Forty Hours’ Adora¬ 
 tion is being held there. 
 
 Among recent instances in which the privilege 
 has been granted to members of pious associations 
 are the following: in November, 1918, to the Pious 
 Umon of the Clergy; in June, 1920, to the Holy 
 Name Society; in April, 1921, to the Apostolic 
 Union of Priests; to each on four days a week* 
 and m July, 1921, to the Society of the Three Hail 
 Marys for three days each week. In rare cases 
 the Church grants the favor of a privileged altar 
 for the benefit of the living; thus on 15 June, 1917, 
 
 1 ope Benedict XV conferred it on members of the 
 sodality called “A Transitu S. Joseph,” as often as 
 they said Mass for the agonizing. This probably 
 means that a plenary indulgence is applied to the 
 dying person for whom the Mass is offered, pro¬ 
 vided he is in the state of grace and has the 
 requisite intention of gaining the indulgence. 
 
 . Nothing is to be inscribed on an altar to show 
 it is privileged except altare privilegiatum (privi¬ 
 leged altar), with a word indicating whether the 
 favor has been granted perpetually or temporarily. 
 Needless to say it is strictly forbidden for anyone 
 to ask a larger stipend for Masses offered at a 
 privileged altar than for those said elsewhere. 
 
 Altomiinster. See Bridgettines. 
 
 Alton, Diocese of (Altonensis; cf. C. E., 
 I-367b), comprises 15,139 sq. miles in the State of 
 Illinois. It is at present (1922) under the adminis¬ 
 tration of its third bishop, Rt. Rev. James Ryan, 
 consecrated 1 May, 1888. The Franciscan Fathers 
 are established in this diocese and conduct Quincy 
 College and Seminary in Quincy, St. Francis Mon¬ 
 astery and novitiate and St. Joseph’s Seminary at 
 Teutopolis. The religious orders of women include 
 
ALTOONA 
 
 32 
 
 AMADEUS 
 
 the Ursuline Sisters, Sisters of Charity of St. Vin¬ 
 cent de Paul, Sisters of the Precious Blood, Hos¬ 
 pital Sisters of St. Francis, Sisters of the Holy 
 Cross, Sisters of Misericorde of Montreal, School 
 Sisters of Notre Dame, Sisters of the Poor of St. 
 Francis and Sisters, Poor Handmaids of Jesus 
 Christ. 
 
 By 1921 statistics this diocese comprises a Catho¬ 
 lic population of 87,000; 170 secular and 38 regular 
 clergy, 119 parishes, 42 missions with churches, 20 
 chapels, 21 ecclesiastical students, 1 seminary with 
 105 students, 2 colleges and academies for boys with 
 219 students, 5 academies for young ladies, 67 paro¬ 
 chial schools with 10,465 pupils, 2 orphan asylums 
 with 288 orphans, 12,360 young people under Catho¬ 
 lic care, 11 hospitals, and 3 homes for the aged. 
 
 Altoona, Diocese of (Altunensis; cf. C. E., 
 I-368b).—Bishop Eugene A. Garvey, the first bishop 
 of Altoona, consecrated 8 September, 1901, died 
 22 October, 1920. He organized the diocese, his 
 special attention being devoted to Christian educa¬ 
 tion and the care of the orphans of the diocese. 
 He built orphanages at Cresson, Pa., for boys and 
 for girls. He won the esteem of non-Catholic and 
 Catholic alike, and rendered valuable service to the 
 country during the war. 
 
 He was succeeded by Bishop John Joseph Mc- 
 Cort, a native of Philadelphia, who was conse¬ 
 crated auxiliary to the Archbishop of Philadelphia 
 17 September, 1912. He was appointed coadjutor 
 with the right of succession to the Bishop of Al¬ 
 toona 27 January, 1920, and succeeded him in the 
 see 22 October of the same year. Bishop McCort 
 had in view two great objects: the building of a 
 cathedral worthy of the growing diocese and pro¬ 
 vision for the higher education of. the youth of 
 the diocese, both of which aims were received with 
 generous approval by priests and laity and are at 
 present well under way. A site for the cathedral 
 has been secured and two central Catholic high 
 schools will open in September, 1922. The bishop 
 has also taken a firm stand on primary education, 
 directing that where it is possible every parish shall 
 be provided with a Catholic school. 
 
 The total population of the city of Altoona was 
 given at 60,331 in 1920. The Catholic population 
 of the diocese (1921) is 135,241. There are 103 
 parishes, 131 churches, 35 missions, 12 stations; 3 
 monasteries for men; secular priests 116, regulars 
 44; 128 Sisters; 1 seminary with 55 seminarians; 1 
 college for men with 15 teachers and an attendance 
 of 160; 9 high schools with 28 teachers and an 
 attendance of 307 (160 boys, 147 girls); 1 academy 
 for girls (Mount St. Aloysius at Cresson conducted 
 by the Sisters of Mercy) with 17 teachers and an 
 attendance of 160; 1 training school; 46 parochial 
 schools with 256 teachers and an attendance of 
 12,710; 1 home for working girls (the Casa Regina 
 Sodality Home at Altoona, conducted by Sisters of 
 the Immaculate Heart of Mary), 3 asylums (St. 
 Joseph’s Infant Home at Ebensburg, conducted by 
 Sisters of St. Joseph, St. John’s Orphan Asylum for 
 boys and St. Mary’s Home for girls, both conducted 
 at Summit by Sisters of the Immaculate Heart of 
 Mary); 1 hospital (Mercy Hospital at Johnstown, 
 conducted by the Sisters of Mercy). The Pennsyl¬ 
 vania State Sanitarium for Tuberculosis at Cresson 
 has a Catholic chaplain and the various hos¬ 
 pitals admit the ministry of priests. The Priests 
 Eucharistic League, the Young Men’s Institute, the 
 Knights of Columbus, and the Knights of St. George 
 are established in the diocese. The Catholic period¬ 
 icals are the New Guide, published at Altoona, and 
 the Altoona Monthly, under the editorship of Rev. 
 Morgan M. Sheedy, LL. D. 
 
 In 1908 the diocesan community of Franciscan 
 Brothers at Loretto, Pa., were admitted to solemn 
 profession in the Third Order Regular of St. 
 Francis, and in 1910 their institute at Loretto was 
 made the provincial house for the newly erected 
 province of the Sacred Heart. 
 
 During the World War, although limited in 
 priests, the diocese sent six chaplains to the army, 
 each of whom made an excellent record. Each 
 parish sent its quota of young men into the ranks 
 and there is hardly a congregation that did not 
 lose one or more, killed in the war. Priests and 
 prominent laymen made stirring addresses, urging 
 their hearers to subscribe for Liberty Bonds and 
 take their full share in the burdens the war im¬ 
 posed. The laity, both men and women, and even 
 the children in the schools, did splendid service. 
 
 Amadeus of the Heart of Jesus, Mother 
 Mary (Sarah Theresa Dunne), foundress of 
 the Ursuline Missions in Montana and Alaska, 
 b. at Akron, Ohio, 2 July, 1846; d. at Seattle, 10 
 November, 1920. She was descended from the 
 O’Dunne’s of Iregan, Ireland; her father John 
 O’Dunne, sailed for America in 1820, having bought 
 a tract of land in upper Canada upon which he 
 intended to found a Catholic colony from Ireland. 
 Finding too much opposition from Orangemen he 
 sold out in 1836 and moved to the United States, 
 where he settled in the Western Reserve, Ohio. 
 When Sarah was ten years old he moved to Cali¬ 
 fornia, leaving her and her sister Mary at school 
 in the Ursuline Convent at Cleveland. Here her 
 character was moulded to heroism and she acquired 
 that fearlessness in undertaking great things for 
 God that distinguished her in after life. After 
 graduation she entered the novitiate of the order 
 at Toledo, where she pronounced her vows, 23 
 August, 1864. Upon the death of the foundress, 
 in 1874, she was elected superior and unanimously 
 re-elected. Her term of office was a period of 
 flourishing growth for the Ursulines; in 1876 she 
 built a new novitiate; in 1878 she restored the 
 enclosure prescribed in 1607 for the Ursulines of 
 Paris; and in 1879 she re-established the convent 
 at Youngstown. 
 
 In 1883 there was an urgent call for missionary 
 and educational work among the Indian tribes in 
 the far West. Bishop Brondel, then Vicar Apostolic 
 of Montana, appealed to the bishops in the East 
 for aid and especially for sisters to establish schools 
 among the Indians. Bishop Gilmour of Cleveland 
 responded by sending him six Ursulines, with 
 Mother Amadeus at their head, saying “I am send¬ 
 ing you a Christmas present of six Ursulines with 
 the Flower of my Flock at their head.” They left 
 Toledo in January, 1884, arriving 17 days later at 
 Miles City, Montana, where Mother Amadeus 
 founded her first house in the West. A few months 
 later with two of her nuns she went to a mission 
 in the Tongue River Reservation, founded the 
 previous year by Father Barcelo, S.J., among the 
 Cheyennes. Thanking God for the privilege of 
 their apostolate the Sisters bore the privations of 
 their primitive surroundings and the outbursts of 
 vengeance of the absolutely untamed tribe, when 
 even the priests succumbed and left the mission. 
 The personal magnetism and winning firmness of 
 the Mother won over the chiefs of the Cheyenne, 
 who never after wavered in their loyalty to her. 
 
 She soon extended her work to other tribes, and 
 during her twenty-three years in Montana founded 
 twelve flourishing missions. 
 
 In 1900, at the request of Leo XIII, she attended 
 the first chapter general of the Ursulines in Rome, | 
 
AMADIA 
 
 33 
 
 AMERICAN 
 
 and was elected Provincial Superior for all the 
 northern portion of the United States. She was 
 five times a delegate to the general chapter, en¬ 
 joying the personal esteem and appreciation of 
 Popes Leo XIII, Pius X, and Benedict XV. In 
 1905 she sent three sisters to Alaska to open the 
 first mission in the Yukon delta. Mother Amadeus 
 joined them in 1907, realizing at last the ambition 
 of her life. At the cost of terrible hardships she 
 founded a second mission at St. Michael’s; then, 
 at the request of Bishop Crimont, she journeyed to 
 southwestern Alaska to establish a mission at 
 Valdez. This was an environment more adapted 
 to ease and comfort, and a large and well-equipped 
 building was soon completed. She returned, how¬ 
 ever, to her beloved Innuits every year; on her 
 trip to St. Michael’s in 1918 she was thrown from 
 her berth by the storm and severely injured. While 
 still confined to her bed in the convent, the house 
 was burned to the ground and the nuns had barely 
 time to escape. She never recovered from these 
 repeated shocks and in the following June was 
 brought to the home of the Ursulines in Seattle, 
 where she died a few months later. In accordance 
 with her expressed desire, her body was brought 
 back to the scene of her labors and rests at the 
 mission of St. Ignatius. 
 
 Amadia, Diocese of (Amadiensis; cf. C. E., 
 I-376a), a diocese of the Chaldean Rite in Kurdis¬ 
 tan, Turkey, in Asia. In 1895 this diocese was 
 united to that of Akra, but by a Brief of 24 Feb¬ 
 ruary, 1910, it was separated. The present bishop, 
 Rt. Rev. Francis David, b. at Aradene 1870, or¬ 
 dained 1893, was appointed to this see 25 January, 
 1910, to succeed Bishop Sakkar, d. 13 June, 1909. 
 In 1920 there were in the diocese 4,970 Chaldean 
 Catholics and 4,000 Nestorians, 19 priests, 15 
 churches or chapels, and 10 schools. 
 
 Amalfi, Archdiocese of (Amalphitanensis; cf. 
 C. E., I-379b), in Italy, is directly subject to the 
 Holy See and has its seat at Amalfi, not far from 
 Naples. Rt. Rev. Antonio Maria Bonito, who was 
 appointed to this see 17 June, 1907, retired and 
 was appointed titular Bishop of Axum 5 August, 
 1910. His successor, Rt. Rev. Angelo Maria Dolci, 
 appointed 27 January, 1911, was made Vicar Apos¬ 
 tolic at Constantinople and transferred to the 
 titular see of Hierapolis 16 November, 1914. The 
 present incumbent, Rt. Rev. Ercolano Marini suc¬ 
 ceeded him 2 June, 1915. Bom at Matelica, 1866, 
 and ordained 1889, he was appointed titular Bishop 
 of Archelais 29 June, 1904, and transferred to Norcia, 
 11 December, 1905, filling that see until his trans¬ 
 fer to Amalfi. 
 
 The church of the Assumption at Ravello (dio¬ 
 cese from 1087-1818) was made a minor basilica 
 31 June, 1918. Among the relics preserved in this 
 church, which is a gem of medieval architecture, is 
 a sealed vessel containing the blood of St. Panta- 
 leon, martyred at Nicomedia 27 July, 303. In 1920 
 the Catholic population of Amalfi was counted at 
 46,000 and divided into 54 parishes. 
 
 Amazones (or Manaos), Diocese of (cf. C. E., 
 I-381b), in South America was formerly dependent 
 on San Salvador of Bahia but is now suffragan of 
 Belem de Para, with the seat at Manaos. Rt. Rev. 
 Frederick de Souza e Costa, who was appointed 
 to this see 8 January, 1907, was transferred to the 
 titular see of Tubuna, 16 April, 1914, and was suc¬ 
 ceeded by the present incumbent, Rt. Rev. John 
 Irenaeus Joffily. Born in the diocese of Parahyba 
 in 1878 he was ordained in 1901, became director 
 of the College of St. Anthony at Natal in 1903, and 
 of the College of Pius X at Parahyba 1908, was 
 
 made a domestic prelate in 1913, appointed titular 
 Bishop of Sufetula, 18 August, 1914, and trans¬ 
 ferred to Amazones 4 May, 1916. In 1906 a large 
 portion of the territory of this diocese was detached 
 and united to the Abbey Nullius of Monserrate in 
 Brazil. There are no recent statistics for this 
 diocese. 
 
 Amelia, Diocese of (Amerinensis; cf. C. E 
 I-406d), in the province of Perugia, Central Italy’ 
 is dnectly subject to the Holy See. The present 
 incumbent, Rt. Rev. Francesco Maria Berti, b. at 
 Popilio, 1868, ordained 1890, was appointed bishop 
 31 August, 1907. In 1920 there were 19,650 Catho¬ 
 lics in the diocese, 20 parishes, 30 secular and 21 
 regular clergy, 17 seminarians, 78 churches or 
 chapels, 30 brothers and 64 sisters. 
 
 America ( c f. C. E., I-409b).—With the excep¬ 
 tion of the purchase of the Virgin Islands from 
 Denmark by the United States for $25,000,000 in a 
 treaty proclaimed 25 January, 1917, the status of 
 the American republics and the colonial possessions 
 of the Old World in America remains the same. 
 However, there has been in the last decade, as a 
 result of the European War (1914-1918), a closer 
 connection between the Old World and the New. 
 The sympathy of the Americas with the Allies was 
 attested in the continuous stream of men, muni¬ 
 tions, and food from the British possessions as well 
 as from the countries which had broken relations 
 with German^y. America’s concern with the eco¬ 
 nomic rehabilitation of Europe after the war sent 
 her representatives to the Peace Conference at 
 Versailles and the beginning of 1922 witnessed the 
 unusual spectacle of the foremost statesmen of the 
 world gathered in Washington to discuss not only 
 the limitation of armaments, but the vexing prob¬ 
 lems rising from the European War in the Far East 
 and the Pacific. Historical details will be found 
 under the titles of the various countries of North, 
 South and Central America. 
 
 It is difficult to give accurate statistics of the 
 Catholic population of America, for even in the 
 United States the number usually given, “about 
 17,000,000,” is a conjecture more or less accurate. 
 The United States of America alone contains 14 
 archbishoprics, 86 bishoprics, and 1 vicariate apos¬ 
 tolic. The remainder of America divides into 213 
 dioceses, 51 of which are seats of metropolitans. 
 There are to-day four American cardinals: Joaquim 
 Arcoverde de Albuquerque, Archbishop of Rio de 
 Janeiro, Brazil, created in 1905; William O’Connell, 
 Archbishop of Boston, created in 1911; Louis- 
 Nazaire Begin, Archbishop of Quebec, Canada, 
 created in 1914; Dennis J. Dougherty, Archbishop 
 of Philadelphia, created in 1921. 
 
 American Christian Convention. See Christian 
 Church. 
 
 American College, Louvain (cf. C. E., I-424d).— 
 During the war the American flag flew constantly 
 over the portals of the college, and the building 
 was spared. The few students who remained in 
 August, 1914, formed themselves into ambulanciers, 
 and the college was used as a hospital. Monsignor 
 De Becker, with the heads of the University, was 
 roughly handled by the Germans and taken to 
 Brussels as a hostage, but Brand Whitlock, United 
 States Minister to Belgium, insisted on his release 
 and the rector was allowed to return. In October, 
 1919, the college reopened with some twenty 
 students, fourteen of whom were Americans, Rev. 
 Charles C. Curran, of Providence, being appointed 
 vice-rector. The numbers have increased since the 
 reopening, but are far below the pre-war roster. 
 The American College course of studies forms the 
 
AMERICAN 
 
 34 
 
 AMERICAN 
 
 scholci minor of the faculty of theology at the 
 University, and includes two years of philosophy 
 and four of theology. The professors are all mem¬ 
 bers of the faculties of the University, teaching in 
 both the schola minor and the schola major. 
 
 The library is the gift of the friends of the college 
 and contains especially a fine collection of books 
 in English on philosophical and theological sub¬ 
 jects from the late Archbishop John Spalding, the 
 founder of the college. 
 
 There is no museum. A monthly publication, 
 The American College Bulletin , was founded by 
 Rev. Joseph Van der Hayden, a priest of the dio¬ 
 cese of Boise City, who has lived in Louvain for 
 the past twenty years. 
 
 American College, The South (cf. C.E., I-425d), 
 in Rome (legal title, Collegio Pio Latino Americano 
 Pontificio). The present rector is Rev. Juan 
 Bigazzi, and the cardinal protector is His Eminence 
 Cardinal Billot. The college is under perpetual 
 direction of the Society of Jesus and draws its stu¬ 
 dents from the many different countries of the New 
 World, where Spanish and Portuguese is the lan¬ 
 guage spoken. In 1922 there were 104 students 
 sent to Rome from dioceses in the following coun¬ 
 tries: Ecuador 1, Argentina 15, Bolivia 3, Brazil 7, 
 Chile 11, Colombia 5, Costa Rica 1, Cuba 3, 
 Guatemala 2, Mexico 36, Paraguay 2, Peru 8, the 
 Philippines 5, Porto Rico 2, San Salvador 1, 
 Uruguay 1, and Venezuela 1. There is an increase of 
 25 students over the number of last year. Twenty 
 students are priests, 6 deacons, 3 sub-deacons, and 
 75 without orders; of these 17 are students of canon 
 law, 45 of theology, 39 philosophy, and 3 of the 
 humanities. 
 
 The benefits derived from this college, which 
 gathers together students from so many countries 
 to study in the shadow of the Vatican, can readily 
 be seen by reading the lists of honors conferred 
 on its 1122 graduates (among whom is Cardinal 
 Arcoverde, Archbishop of Rio de Janeiro) and the 
 good works effected by them, especially in in¬ 
 structing in diocesan seminaries. 
 
 American Federation of Labor, The, was or¬ 
 ganized at Columbus, Ohio, 8 December, 1886, by 
 a convention composed of representatives of the 
 national and international trade unions. The sixth 
 annual convention of the Federation of Organized 
 Trades and Labor Unions of the United States 
 and Canada (founded at Pittsburgh, Pa., in 1881), 
 then in session at Columbus, voted to dissolve and 
 merge with the Federation. In 1889 the conven¬ 
 tion of the Federation declared that the “con¬ 
 tinuity of the American Federation of Labor be 
 recognized and dated from the year 1881 in all 
 future documents”; therefore it is usually stated 
 that the Federation was founded in 1881. The 
 primary object of the Federation is the thorough 
 organization of the wage-earners into local trade 
 and labor unions, the federation of the local unions 
 into central trade and labor unions, the combi¬ 
 nation of the central bodies in state and provincial 
 organizations, the establishment of national and 
 international unions, and the federation of all the 
 organizations in the American Federation of Labor. 
 The general object of the Federation is the pro¬ 
 tection and promotion of the economic, political, 
 and social rights of all working people. Proceeding 
 from the principle that the economic interests of 
 all workers are identical and can only be safe¬ 
 guarded by associated effort, the Federation urges 
 the workers to unite in trade unions regardless of 
 nationality, sex, color, creed, race, or politics. 
 
 As the name implies, the American Federation 
 
 of Labor is a federation of labor organizations. 
 The affiliated bodies enjoy complete self-govern¬ 
 ment, craft autonomy of each trade being the 
 basis upon which the national and international 
 unions are established. The jurisdiction of the 
 international unions is limited to the United States 
 and Canada, these countries being also the juris¬ 
 diction limits of the Federation itself. The powers 
 of the Federation are conferred upon it by the 
 constitution and the annual conventions. The con¬ 
 vention, which is a delegate body elected by the 
 affiliated organizations, is the supreme legislative 
 and judicial authority. The government of the 
 Federation is administered by the executive coun¬ 
 cil, composed of the president, secretary, treasurer, 
 and eight vice-presidents, all elected annually by 
 the convention. In addition to executing the laws 
 the executive council may take the initiative in 
 matters affecting the interests of the workers which 
 arise between conventions; these interim actions, 
 however, are subject to the approval of the sub¬ 
 sequent convention. 
 
 The affiliated bodies consist of national and in¬ 
 ternational unions, state federations, city central 
 bodies, and directly affiliated local trade and federal 
 labor unions. The local trade and federal labor 
 unions are composed of wage-earners employed in 
 crafts and callings in which no national union is 
 established. They are directly affiliated to the 
 Federation. Since 1896, eighty-five national and 
 international unions have been formed out of the 
 directly affiliated local unions. The Federation has 
 affiliated with it (in 1922) 112 national and inter¬ 
 national unions, representing 36,247 local unions; 
 49 state federations, 910 city central bodies, and 
 658 local trade and federal labor unions. There 
 are also five trade departments, with 783 local de¬ 
 partment councils. 
 
 The average dues-paying membership of the 
 affiliated bodies was 548,321 in 1900; ten years 
 later the number was 1,562,102, rising to 4,078,740 
 in 1920. The prolonged unemployment of 1920-21 
 reduced the average dues-paying membership to 
 3,906,528 in the latter year. Although most of 
 the trade unions in the United States are affiliated 
 with the Federation, the railway brotherhoods are 
 not. The railway department of the Federation, 
 however, includes railway workers’ unions with a 
 membership of 600,000. 
 
 The revenue of the Federation is mainly derived 
 from charter fees and taxation. The charter fee 
 for national and international unions is five dollars; 
 for state federations, city central bodies, and local 
 trade and federal labor unions, fifteen dollars. The 
 national and international unions pay a per capita 
 tax of one cent per member per month; the 
 state federations and city central bodies pay a 
 tax of ten dollars per year; the directly affiliated 
 locals pay a per capita tax of 25 cents per mem¬ 
 ber per month, 17 V 2 cents of which is set aside for 
 strike benefits and subscription to the official 
 journal of the Federation, leaving but 7% cents 
 for the Federation’s general expenses. The total 
 revenue of the Federation for 1900 was $71,125; in 
 1910 the revenue rose to $193,470; in 1920 it was 
 $921,255, and in 1921, $832,169. 
 
 The political policy of the American Federation 
 of Labor is non-partisan. This principle is applied 
 both in qualifications for representation in the con¬ 
 ventions as well as in contemporaneous political 
 action. The 1890 convention declared that “a 
 political party of whatsoever nature is not entitled 
 to representation in the American Federation of 
 Labor”; the 1895 convention declared that “party 
 politics .... shall have no place in the conven- 
 
AMERICAN 
 
 35 
 
 AMERICANIZATION 
 
 tions of the American Federation of Labor.” Sub¬ 
 sequently this declaration was made a part of the 
 Federation’s constitution. In its contemporaneous 
 political action the Federation recommends the 
 defeat of candidates for public office who are hostile 
 to the trade union movement and the election 
 of those who may be relied upon to support meas¬ 
 ures favorable to labor. The Federation’s test is 
 not the candidate’s political party, but his record. 
 The same test is applied to political parties. In 
 practice the Federation submits its legislative de¬ 
 mands to the party conventions, reporting to the 
 workers whether the convention declarations are 
 favorable or unfavorable to labor. With respect 
 to candidates for public office, the Federation 
 compiles each candidate’s record on the question 
 of fairness or unfairness to labor and submits 
 the report to the candidate’s wage earning con¬ 
 stituency. Should there be no fair party candi¬ 
 dates the Federation recommends the nomination of 
 independent labor candidates. In 1920 the Federa¬ 
 tion expended $53,934 in this advisory work. 
 
 Although affirming the inherent and constitu¬ 
 tional right of the wage earners to quit work for 
 any reason whatsoever, the Federation is not 
 authorized to declare strikes. With respect to the 
 affiliated national and international unions, the 
 strike-declaring power rests with the unions them¬ 
 selves. With the directly affiliated local trade and 
 federal labor unions, the executive council’s power 
 is limited to approving or authorizing a strike con¬ 
 templated by the locals. The Federation may give 
 its moral support to a strike declared by an an affil¬ 
 iated organization, and may issue appeals for strike 
 funds; the executive council has the constitutional 
 power to levy an assessment of one cent per 
 month for not exceeding ten months in one year 
 to assist an affiliated union in a protracted strike 
 or lockout; fifteen such assessments have been 
 levied since 1881; in seven of them one cent was 
 the total levy, the maximum of ten cents having 
 been called for in but one instance. Under its 
 authority to raise strike funds by appeals for 
 voluntary contributions, the executive council col¬ 
 lected $426,823 in support of the iron and steel 
 workers strike in 1919-20. 
 
 The contemporaneous demands of the Federation 
 include the recognition of principles regarded as 
 fundamentally necessary for the freedom of the 
 workers. Among the more important are: the 
 right of the working people to organize in trade 
 unions, to practice collective bargaining through 
 representatives of their own choosing, to work 
 and cease work collectively, to collectively bestow 
 or withhold patronage, and to exercise collective 
 activities in the furtherance of the welfare of labor. 
 In the legislative field the Federation demands 
 legal protection against the conception that there 
 is a property right in human labor power; prohi¬ 
 bition of injunctions in labor disputes where they 
 would not apply in the absence of such disputes; 
 suitable laws to prohibit the courts from declaring 
 Acts of Congress unconstitutional; election of 
 judges; exemption of trade unions from anti-com¬ 
 bination laws; legislation prohibiting courts from 
 holding trade unions and individual trade unionists 
 liable for damages for the unlawful acts of others; 
 legislation declaring that labor organizations are 
 not co-partnerships; repeal of state industrial court 
 laws; prohibition of immigration for two years and 
 restricted immigration thereafter; the general appli¬ 
 cation of the initiative and referendum in federal 
 and state political affairs; public administration 
 of credit; inauguration of a federal employment 
 service; abolition of child labor under sixteen 
 
 years; equal wages for equal work of men and 
 women wage earners; graduated tax on usable lands 
 above the acreage cultivated by the owner; gov¬ 
 ernment aid for farm and home ownership and 
 home building; progressive inheritance, income, 
 and land value taxes; state monopoly of work¬ 
 men’s compensation insurance; state colleges for 
 workingmen’s children; complete freedom of press, 
 speech, assemblage, and association; substitution of 
 state-use system for contract convict labor system; 
 democracy in industry and education as well as 
 in government. 
 
 In 1920 and 1921 the Federation convention de¬ 
 clared in favor of “government ownership and 
 democratic operation of the railroad systems of 
 the United States.” It also favors government 
 ownership and development of water power, govern¬ 
 ment ownership and operation of wharves and 
 docks connected with public harbors, and govern¬ 
 ment ownership and operation or control of public 
 and semi-public utilities. The Rochedale plan of 
 productive and distributive co-operation was ap¬ 
 proved by the 1917 convention as necessary for 
 the protection of the wage earners “in their rela¬ 
 tions with the merchants and business men in the 
 same sense that the trade union movement protects 
 them from employers.” The Federation has a 
 special fund for promoting co-operation. It also 
 supports farmers’ co-operatives, such as dairies, 
 canneries, packing houses, grain elevators, and dis¬ 
 tributing houses. 
 
 For the adjustment of disputes between em¬ 
 ployees and employers the Federation favors volun¬ 
 tary arbitration applied by collective bargaining, 
 under which the organized workers, through repre¬ 
 sentatives of their own choosing, deal directly with 
 the employers or their representatives. The Feder¬ 
 ation is opposed to compulsory arbitration in 
 every form, claiming that it re-establishes compul¬ 
 sory work similar to that -of the slave and feudal 
 periods. In the interests of federal labor legislation 
 the Federation maintains a special bureau. The 
 state federations maintain state bureaus to look 
 after state labor legislation. 
 
 The headquarters of the Federation are situated 
 at Washington, D. C. It publishes a monthly 
 official journal, the “American Federationist”; the 
 “American Federation of Labor Weekly News 
 Service” for the benefit of the labor press, and 
 maintains an information and publicity service. 
 The officers of the American Federation of Labor 
 (1922) are: president, Samuel Gompers; vice-presi¬ 
 dents, James Duncan, Joseph F. Valentine, Frank 
 Duffy, William Green, W. D. Mahon, T. A. Rickert, 
 Jacob Fischer, Matthew Woll; treasurer, Daniel J. 
 Tobin; secretary, Frank Morrison. 
 
 Americanization, also known as civic education 
 and citizenship training, was one of the problems 
 which received the widespread attention of the 
 American people at the entrance of the LTnited 
 States into the World War. Prior to that time 
 formal instruction in civics was given almost solely 
 in secondary schools and higher institutions of 
 learning. The discovery of millions of unassimilated 
 immigrants, revelations of disloyalty to America 
 and of hostility to organized Government by radical 
 groups of our population, disclosures by the Selec¬ 
 tive Draft of an astoundingly high rate of illiteracy 
 among the men recruited for service in the army 
 and navy, all focussed public attention upon the 
 necessity of evolving an educational program which 
 would make America more American. The wave 
 of patriotism which swept over the United States 
 at the outbreak of the war caused the average and 
 
AMERICANIZATION 
 
 36 
 
 AMERICANIZATION 
 
 previously indifferent American citizen to realize 
 that while enjoying all the privileges of American 
 citizenship he had not been shouldering his full 
 share of its duties and responsibilities, and that he 
 and his Government had done little to bring about 
 the assimilation of 13,000,000 or more unnaturalized 
 immigrants who were included in our war-time 
 
 population. . 
 
 The seriousness of the problem was first impressed 
 upon the military authorities of the country as a re¬ 
 sult of psychological tests conducted in various can¬ 
 tonments by the War Department. One significant 
 result may be quoted: Of 1,566,011 men examined, 
 25.3 per cent were unable to “read and understand 
 newspapers and write letters home” (Memoirs 
 of the National Academy of Sciences, XV). Thirty- 
 one per cent of this number were native-born Amer¬ 
 icans. The presence of 2,953,011 foreign-born whites 
 over ten years of age (census of 1910) who were 
 unable to speak the English language was regarded 
 as a potential handicap to the winning of the war 
 and a menace to our national unity, security and 
 progress. The publication at that time of nearly 
 1500 foreign-language newspapers (there were 1244 
 such papers listed by the Census Bureau in 1920) 
 was regarded as an influence which, to a certain 
 extent, served to keep in ignorance of the English 
 language, American institutions and American laws, 
 literally millions of unassimilated immigrants, living 
 in the United States and profiting financially 
 through employment in American industries. This 
 ignorance on the part of a great number of foreign- 
 born, who were employed in what the Government 
 designated as essential war industries, made them 
 the easy prey of agitators who opposed the Govern¬ 
 ment’s war policy, with the result that many dis¬ 
 turbances were fomented among foreign-born war- 
 workers to the disadvantage of America’s war 
 program. 
 
 These and other circumstances impelled the Fed¬ 
 eral Government, the various states, and communi¬ 
 ties to formulate programs of Americanization with 
 the intention of correcting the unfavorable condi¬ 
 tions. A great variety of agencies immediately took 
 up the work and co-operated with the Federal Gov¬ 
 ernment and other official agencies in carrying on 
 the movement. These co-operating groups included 
 well known semi-public organizations, chambers of 
 commerce, church societies, labor unions, industrial 
 corporations, councils of defense, philanthropic soci¬ 
 eties, lodges and fraternal organizations, racial or¬ 
 ganizations, and a great variety of small groups 
 scattered throughout the country. The report of 
 the Commissioner of Naturalization for 1921 lists 
 3526 communities as co-operating with the Naturali¬ 
 zation Bureau in the work of citizenship training. 
 As a result, Americanization work became one of 
 the most widespread educational movements ever 
 launched in the United States. 
 
 The Americanization Bureau of the United States 
 Department of Education divided the work of 
 Americanization into four phases: educational, 
 social, racial, and informational. The educational 
 phase took cognizance of the problem of illiteracy, 
 the non-English-speaking groups, and the training 
 of Americanization teachers. The function of the 
 United States Bureau of Education in this connec¬ 
 tion dealt with the working out of methods of 
 instruction, the preparation of text-books, the or¬ 
 ganization of schools and classes, the encouraging 
 of the states and communities to activity in Amer¬ 
 icanization work and the bringing about of a co¬ 
 ordination of the educational facilities of the 
 Bureau of Education and of the educational agencies 
 of the various States. The social phase dealt with 
 
 such related problems as housing and sanitation, 
 community recreation, public health, prevention of 
 the exploitation of the immigrant, protection of his 
 savings, and the education of our native-born 
 people to a sympathetic and tolerant understanding 
 of the problems of the foreign-born. The racial 
 phase of Americanization work took into considera¬ 
 tion co-operation with racial organizations, with 
 the foreign-language press, and with the foreign- 
 born generally. The informational service dealt 
 with publications and bulletins explaining technical 
 methods of Americanization, organization of speak¬ 
 ers’ bureaus, and dissemination to the press of 
 general propaganda in reference to the needs, the 
 aims and purposes, and the methods of carrying on 
 the work. 
 
 The Americanization work of the reconstruction 
 period expressed itself in two distinctly different 
 schools. One reflected the negative attitude, which 
 assumed that the immigrant constituted the sole 
 problem of citizenship development. This group 
 advocated a compulsory Americanization process 
 for all aliens; disregarded the history of the demo¬ 
 cratic strivings of immigrant peoples and their 
 nationalistic language, customs and traditions; tried, 
 through drastic police power, restrictive legisla¬ 
 tion and irritating espionage, even by imprisonment, 
 to inculcate Americanism by implanting a fear of 
 America rather than by cultivating an understand¬ 
 ing of and a belief in America and its democratic 
 institutions. 
 
 Under the pretence of attacking Bolshevism, there 
 developed in some localities organizations which 
 made sinister attempts to control programs _ of 
 Americanization for the purpose of promoting 
 special interests and thwarting efforts toward social 
 justice. The terms “Americanism” and “Ameri¬ 
 canization” were in several instances found to be 
 mere cloaks for un-American undertakings. Most 
 of these pseudo-Americanization schemes over¬ 
 reached their mark and were exposed in due time. 
 These activities created in many quarters, espe¬ 
 cially in the minds of the immigrant, distrust for 
 the very idea of Americanization. 
 
 The other school brought to the work of Amer¬ 
 icanization a saner, more sympathetic and more 
 constructive point of view. The proponents of 
 this school realized that neither the indifferent 
 native-born citizen nor the unnaturalized immigrant 
 could be forced into a mould of good citizenship. 
 They held that democracy is a co-operative under¬ 
 taking and that upon the measure of co-opera¬ 
 tion given by the individual citizen depends the 
 failure or success of our American political in¬ 
 stitutions. This school advocated that good citizen¬ 
 ship should be promoted among native-born and 
 immigrant alike, for the purpose of fixing an ideal 
 of social justice and civic responsibility toward 
 which all might strive in practical fashion. It 
 realized that the foreign-born alone should not 
 be shouldered with the entire responsibility of 
 America’s deficiency in true citizenship and it held 
 that the foreign-born, simply because they were 
 foreign-born, were not responsible for all radical 
 and Bolshevistic movements. It stated that the 
 native-born must share the responsibility for both 
 these unfortunate conditions. It believed that the 
 ideals of fair play and the square deal, freedom 
 of expression, freedom of religious worship, appre¬ 
 ciation of the duties and responsibilities of citizen¬ 
 ship and co-operation in democracy’s work should 
 be held before the American people and be made 
 the goal of their strivings as individuals and as 
 citizens. This school looked upon the teaching 
 of English as an instrument by which the ideals 
 
AMERICANIZATION 
 
 37 
 
 AMERICANIZATION 
 
 of American citizenship may be acquired, but it 
 did not overlook the native tongue as a vehicle 
 of expression of democracy and of Americanism. 
 
 It recognized that sympathy, interest, and the 
 manifestation of a spirit of real brotherhood, on 
 the part of the native-born American toward the 
 foreign-born were necessary if the aims contem¬ 
 plated by the Americanization movement were 
 to be attained; that a greater knowledge by the 
 native-born of the immigrant groups in America— 
 of their racial characteristics, of their patriotic 
 struggles for democracy at home was required; that 
 their racial contributions to the literature, art, 
 sciences, and general culture of the world, as well 
 as the spiritual richness of their national lives, must 
 be taken into consideration. This school reflected, 
 and in fact was greatly influenced, by the Catholic 
 attitude toward the work of Americanization as 
 evidenced by nation-wide campaigns for better 
 citizenship carried on by the National Catholic 
 War Council and the Knights of Columbus, the 
 two organizations recognized by the United States 
 Government as the official agencies of the Catholic 
 Church in welfare activities growing out of the 
 war. Through lectures delivered by such well 
 known men as Dr. James J. Walsh, Conde B. Palles, 
 Peter Collins, Joseph Scott, and David Goldstein, 
 the Knights of Columbus, with the co-operation 
 of their 2000 councils, carried on an effective cam¬ 
 paign against Bolshevism, Socialism* and other 
 forms of radicalism. The Knights of Columbus 
 night-schools and correspondence courses were 
 sources of constructive Americanization work. 
 There is grave need to defeat the destructively anti- 
 American propaganda, which is carried out under 
 the cloak of re-writing American history more ac¬ 
 curately, and in order to do this effectively the 
 Knights of Columbus have planned the publication 
 of a standard American history, in which the story 
 of America will be told for Americans and the 
 traditions of America perpetuated. 
 
 The nation-wide program of the National Catholic 
 War Council, jointly directed by John A. 
 Lapp, LL. D., a well known authority in the field 
 of civics, and by the writer of this article, was 
 likewise a positive and constructive movement in 
 behalf of better citizenship. The N. C. W. C. pro¬ 
 gram was based on the following principles: that 
 every youth should have before leaving school ade¬ 
 quate training in the duties, obligations and rights 
 of citizenship, to which end such training should be 
 given in the elementary grades; that a broad pro¬ 
 gram of instruction in social science should be given 
 in the high schools and colleges for the development 
 and more extensive training of civic leaders; that 
 all persons, native or immigrant, who had not had 
 courses in citizenship, should have the opportunity 
 of taking such courses in order better to fulfil their 
 obligations to the community; that immigrants who 
 come to this country with the intention of staying 
 for any great length of time should assume their 
 part of the common burdens of society by seeking 
 citizenship and by performing the tasks of citizen¬ 
 ship with understanding; and finally, that develop¬ 
 ment of individual character, the teaching of correct 
 moral principles, and the inculcation of religion are 
 essential to the making of good citizens. A series 
 of Americanization pamphlets, the total issue of 
 which exceeded one million copies, was widely used 
 in explaining the principles underlying the adminis¬ 
 tration of our American Government, the privileges, 
 opportunities, rights and duties of American citi¬ 
 zens, the process of naturalization and the means 
 of acquiring citizenship. 
 
 Realizing that in the elementary school system 
 
 the subject of civics had been universally neglected 
 and that only 10 per cent of the elementary school 
 graduates eventually reach high school, where the 
 subject is formally taught, the directors of the 
 N. C. W. C. campaign brought about the introduc¬ 
 tion of a simple course in patriotism and civics 
 in the 6551 Catholic elementary schools. The “Fund¬ 
 amentals of Citizenshin ” a short text explaining 
 the A B C’s of our American democracy, and the 
 “Civics Catechism/’ a question-and-answer exposi¬ 
 tion of the rights and duties of American citizens, 
 were widely used both in the Catholic schools and 
 in community Americanization work. These texts 
 were also reproduced in installments in the leading 
 Catholic papers and periodicals of the country and 
 in many secular newspapers as well, thereby reach¬ 
 ing millions of our population. The “Catechism” 
 was published in the language of several of the 
 leading nationalistic groups, the English text ap¬ 
 pearing in parallel column form with the foreign 
 translation, thereby permitting the stranger to read 
 in his own language of the privileges, opportunities 
 and rights of American citizenship, the process of 
 naturalization, and at the same time to obtain 
 a knowledge of the English language. Many for¬ 
 eign-language publications co-operated in printing 
 both the English and foreign-language texts of these 
 two pamphlets. There was employed effectively a 
 series of motion picture programs, utilizing short- 
 reel subjects which visualized the opportunities of 
 America, industrially and educationally, and pro¬ 
 vided entertaining pictures of a patriotic, dramatic 
 and educational character. The motion picture fea¬ 
 tures were most successfully employed in industrial 
 centers where large populations of immigrants were 
 found. The “Speakers’ Outline of Talks on Citizen¬ 
 ship” instructed speakers in the preparation and 
 delivery of short talks, both in English and in the 
 native language of the group, dealing with the simple 
 facts of government, and set forth full instructions 
 to pastors, community leaders and others for or¬ 
 ganizing civic education activities. Educational 
 features contributed by the foreign-born groups 
 themselves added to the appeal and interest of 
 these entertainments. 
 
 In all the Americanization work of the N. C. W. C. 
 it was pointed out: that the success of a democracy 
 depends on knowledge, moral character and reli¬ 
 gious faith; that the Catholic Church has always 
 taught the fundamentals of good citizenship and 
 emphasized the social rights and responsibilities 
 of citizens; that in all teaching of civics it should 
 be kept in mind that religion supplies the only 
 adequate and stable as well as the highest and the 
 noblest motives for the discharge of civic obliga¬ 
 tions; and that our democracy cannot long endure 
 unless all the people are animated by motives of 
 religion in their dealings with one another. Citizen¬ 
 ship was defined as “our duty to God, fulfilled in 
 our care and solicitude for our country whose wel¬ 
 fare God has placed in our hands.” The Catholic 
 program pointed out America to the foreigner as 
 a land of freedom and of opportunity. It told 
 the American-born that a knowledge of the consti¬ 
 tution is necessary if he is to become a desirable 
 citizen, and that this knowledge is equally necessary 
 to the foreign-born if he is to take up the task 
 of faithful citizenship. It pointed out that a demo¬ 
 cratic government is not secured simply by as¬ 
 suming the name, but that democracy demands 
 a knowledge and sense of responsibility, respect for 
 human rights, and personal interest in the affairs 
 of government. 
 
 The Catholic program of Americanization, there¬ 
 fore, emphasized four practical aspects of the work 
 
AMERICANIZATION 
 
 38 
 
 AMERICANIZATION 
 
 of citizenship training: first, training of children 
 of the Catholic school system, citizens of the next- 
 generation, in the elementary principles of democ¬ 
 racy and in the rights, duties and privileges of 
 citizenship under a democracy; secondly, educating 
 America’s immigrant population in the workings 
 of our government and instilling in them the desire 
 to become American citizens and to take part in 
 our civic, political and social life; thirdly, arousing 
 the average citizen to a more active performance of 
 his civic duties; and fourthly, emphasizing to all 
 persons the fact that religion supplies the only ef¬ 
 fective motives for the conscientious discharge of 
 civic obligations. 
 
 The constructive features of the Catholic Amer¬ 
 icanization work soon won recognition from many 
 organizations outside the Catholic Church, and its 
 program and literature were utilized by many of 
 them. Americanization leaders, editors, and edu¬ 
 cators referred to the program of the N. C. W. C. as 
 the most constructive and practical one presented 
 to the American public. A typical editorial com¬ 
 ment is the following from the “Post-Intelligencer,” 
 Seattle, Washington: “It is reassuring to other 
 religionists and provocative of public confidence 
 to be assured that the Americanization work of 
 the Welfare Council is free from denominationalism 
 of any kind; that the Council is planning in the 
 most constructive way that it can devise to make 
 Americans, actual and potential, realize that good 
 citizenship is a matter of great concern to them not 
 
 only on election day, but on every other day. 
 
 But beyond the immediate work of the Welfare 
 Council is the assurance that the effective machin¬ 
 ery of the Roman Catholic Church is exerting its 
 great influence in these fretful days of reconstruc¬ 
 tion in the direction of better Americanism and 
 better citizenship. The Church itself is interna¬ 
 tional, but its hierarchy and its membership in 
 America is American. This speaks in many ways, 
 but in none more plainly and forcibly than in the 
 work of the N. C. W. C.” 
 
 One of the problems closely related to the work 
 of Americanization was that of immigration. Eccle¬ 
 siastical authorities recognized that lack of proper 
 attention to the needs of Catholic immigrants at 
 the various ports of entry to the United States, and 
 failure to follow them up after their arrival in 
 America, had in past years resulted in a great leak¬ 
 age from the Church and delay, if not failure, in 
 their becoming good citizens of the country. Prior 
 to the war, inadequate facilities prevented proper 
 care of Catholic immigrants arriving in America. 
 The authorities of the National Catholic Welfare 
 Council determined upon a national bureau of 
 immigration as one of the main activities of that 
 organization. Assisting Catholic immigrants, both at 
 the principal ports of embarkation and entry, aiding 
 immigrants to their destination, co-operation with 
 local Catholic agencies, co-ordination of Catholic 
 immigration activities, distribution of Americaniza¬ 
 tion and religious literature and aiding the immi¬ 
 grant to final naturalization, were the principal 
 functions and “follow-up” activities of this bureau. 
 
 Probably the greatest hindrance to the civic as¬ 
 similation of immigrants is the trickery and fraud 
 perpetrated by the unscrupulous upon the newcom¬ 
 ers. Some of the things which the N. C. W. C. 
 citizenship program recommended to be done to 
 prevent the exploitation of immigrants were: the 
 purging of the police courts and other petty courts 
 of every practice of injustice; the establishment of 
 small claims courts where claimants, native as well 
 as immigrant, may secure their rights without cost; 
 the discontinuance of arbitrary methods of police 
 
 and inspection departments and the substitution of 
 uniform treatment of air persons, citizens and immi¬ 
 grants; the prohibition of the business of private 
 and personal banking, except where such is under 
 government supervision; the encouragement of the 
 use by immigrants of United States Postal Savings 
 Banks; the scrutiny of employment agency meth¬ 
 ods to'prevent immigrant exploitation; the careful 
 supervision of business agencies, such as steamship 
 companies, loan societies, etc., catering to for¬ 
 eigners, the prohibition of payment of tributes for 
 the right to work or for the securing of jobs, and 
 protection by voluntary agencies from such exploi¬ 
 tation; and the establishment of legal and business 
 aid bureaus by welfare organizations. 
 
 Under the new Immigration Law passed by the 
 67th Congress, the number of aliens of any 
 nationality who may be admitted to the United 
 States in any fiscal year was limited to three per 
 centum of the number of foreign-born persons of 
 such nationality resident in the United States, as 
 determined by the United States Census of 1910. 
 The effect of this Act was a lessening of the acute¬ 
 ness of the immigration problem, both as regards 
 Americanization work generally and as regards the 
 aid and follow-up work of the Catholic body in 
 behalf of the immigrants coming from Catholic 
 countries. 
 
 The average number of immigrants entering the 
 United States annually during the ten years prior 
 to the enactment of the new Immigration Law was 
 573,581. Under the new law the alien influx .will 
 be approximately 250,000 per year. According to 
 the 1920 census, the total foreign-born population 
 of the United States on 1 January, 1920, numbered 
 13,920,692, an increase of 404,806, or 3 per cent since 
 1910. Of this total 6,493,088 were naturalized, 
 1,223,490 had taken out their first papers, and 
 5,398,605 were aliens, and for the remaining 805,509 
 the citizenship status was not ascertained. Ex¬ 
 pressed in percentages the distribution was: natu¬ 
 ralized, 46.6 per cent; first papers, 8.8 per cent; 
 alien, 38.8 per cent; not reported, 5.8 per cent. 
 Wide differences in citizenship status appear among 
 the natives of the various foreign countries, the 
 proportions naturalized among those twenty-one 
 years of age and over ranging from 74.4 per cent 
 for the Welsh to 5.5 per cent for the Mexicans. 
 For the five countries which contributed the largest 
 numbers of immigrants, the percentages naturalized 
 were as follows: natives of Germany, 73.6; of 
 Ireland, • 66.1; of Russia,. 42.1; of Italy, 29.8; and 
 of Poland, 28.9. The natives of these five countries 
 formed more than half of the total foreign-born 
 white population of the United States in 1920. 
 Limiting the comparison to persons twenty-one 
 years of age and over, the natives of Germany 
 numbered 1,648,884; of Italy, 1,408,933; of Russia, 
 1,211,337; of Poland, 1,048,050; and of Ireland, 
 1,021,677. Of the total white population twenty-one 
 years of age and over 22.7 per cent were immigrants 
 and 11.3 per cent were naturalized immigrants. 
 Thus in the white population of voting age there 
 were 146 naturalized immigrants to every 1000 
 natives. 
 
 According to the 1921 Annual Report of the Com¬ 
 missioner of Naturalization, 18,981 foreign-born resi¬ 
 dents of the United States (10 per cent of the 
 total applicants) were refused certificates of natu¬ 
 ralization during the fiscal year (30 June, 1920, to 
 30 June, 1921), for the following reasons: already 
 a citizen, immoral character, incompetent witnesses, 
 insufficient residence, ignorance, no certificate of 
 arrival, declaration invalid, no jurisdiction, motion 
 of petitioner to deny, premature petition, want of 
 
AMERICANIZATION 
 
 39 
 
 AMERICANIZATION 
 
 prosecution, inability of petitioner to produce wit¬ 
 nesses or depositions, deceased, and miscellaneous 
 reasons which include denials because petitioner 
 claimed exemption from military service on ac¬ 
 count of alienage. The number of certificates 
 granted during the last fiscal year was 163,656. 
 
 According to the 1920 census, of the 13,497,886 
 foreign-born whites ten years of age or over, 1,488,- 
 948 or 11 per cent were reported as unable to speak 
 English. Both the number and the per cent are 
 about one half as large as in 1910, when 2,953,011 
 foreign-born whites ten years of age and over, or 
 22.8 per cent of the total, were returned as unable 
 to speak English. Of the 105,710,620 persons shown 
 by the 1920 census as constituting the population 
 of the United States, 4,931,905 persons ten years 
 of age and over are listed as illiterates. Of this 
 figure 1,242,572, or a percentage of 2.0, are native 
 whites; and 1,763,740, or 13.1 per cent are foreign- 
 born whites. Of the total number of illiterates 
 twenty-one years of age and over (4,333,111) the 
 native white males form 13.0 per cent and the 
 native white females 11.0 per cent. Of the total 
 negro population of ten years and over, 8,053,225, 
 the illiterates are given as 1,842,161, or 22.9 per 
 cent. Illiteracy among the rural population of the 
 ' United States is found to be 3.3 per cent greater 
 than in the cities. Of the 4,931,905 illiterates ten 
 years of age and over in the United States, 2,976,793 
 reside in the rural districts as against 1,955,112 in the 
 cities. In the cities illiteracy is slightly greater among 
 the females while in the rural sections the reverse 
 is true. Figures furnished by the Bureau of the 
 Census based on the 1920 census show that illiteracy 
 is decreasing. The decennial illiteracy percentage 
 for the years 1880 to 1920 are 17.0, 13.3, 10.7, 7.7, 
 and 6.0. 
 
 The decrease in illiteracy and in the number of 
 persons unable to speak the English language is 
 explained partly by the decrease in immigration 
 during the war and an increase in the facilities 
 supplied through the Americanization movement, 
 especially those enabling the immigrant to learn 
 the English language. Twenty-six states have re¬ 
 cently enacted laws requiring the use of the English 
 language as the sole medium of instruction for 
 all common school subjects. Catholics and organi¬ 
 zations representing them unquestionably carried 
 out a program of practical and constructive Amer¬ 
 icanization work unexcelled by that of any of the 
 numerous groups and organizations participating in 
 this great movement. Especially was this true of 
 the Catholic schools, whose Americanism during 
 and after the crisis of the war, measured up to the 
 highest standards of patriotic duty. The war gave 
 the Catholic school another chance to prove be¬ 
 yond a doubt that its teaching of religion and of 
 practical morality develops the finest type of 
 citizenship. It proved that the Catholic school 
 believes in America, teaches love and respect for 
 America, and is second to no other American in¬ 
 stitution in its promotion of American ideals. Dur¬ 
 ing the period of the World War the Catholic 
 school engaged in every form of national aid and 
 patriotic endeavor. It sent its product, the parish 
 school boy, into the service in numbers out of all 
 proportion to the strict demands of loyalty. The 
 spirit of patriotism as developed in the Catholic 
 school has probably never been better stated than 
 in the historic pledge of the American Hierarchy 
 delivered to President Wilson at the entrance of 
 America into the World War by the late Cardinal 
 Gibbons, a product of the Catholic school. The 
 following is an excerpt from this pledge: “Standing 
 firmly upon our solid Catholic tradition and history 
 
 from the very foundation of this nation, we re¬ 
 affirm in this hour of stress and trial our most 
 sacred and sincere loyalty and patriotism toward 
 
 our country, our Government, and our flag. 
 
 Acknowledging gladly the gratitude that we have 
 always felt for the protection of our spiritual lib¬ 
 erty and the freedom of our Catholic institutions 
 under the flag, we pledge our devotion and our 
 strength in maintenance of our country’s glorious 
 leadership in those possessions and principles which 
 
 have been America’s proudest boast.We 
 
 stand ready, we and all the flock committed to 
 our keeping, to co-operate in every way possible 
 with our President and our national Government, 
 to the end that the great and holy cause of liberty 
 may triumph, and that our beloved country may 
 emerge from this hour of test stronger and nobler 
 than ever. Our people now, as ever, will rise as 
 one man to serve the nation. Our priests and con¬ 
 secrated women will once again, as in every former 
 trial of our country, win by their bravery, their 
 heroism and their service, new admiration and ap¬ 
 proval. We are all true Americans, ready, as our 
 age, our ability, and our condition permit, to do 
 whatever is in us to do, for the preservation, the 
 progress, and the triumph of our beloved country.” 
 
 Some of the outstanding results of the movement 
 for better citizenship may be stated as follows: 
 Development of special teacher-training courses, 
 methods and textbooks dealing with the teaching 
 of citizenship to aliens; introduction of an elemen¬ 
 tary course in civics in 6551 Catholic elementary 
 schools and in many other public and private 
 schools; establishment of numerous night schools 
 and other special schools affording facilities to the 
 immigrant for the study of the English language 
 and for preparation for the naturalization process; 
 organization of community Amercanization activi¬ 
 ties by Catholic and other agencies in many cen¬ 
 ters of foreign population; a closer understanding 
 and a more sympathetic attitude by the native- 
 born toward the unassimilated groups of our for¬ 
 eign population; education of the immigrant peoples 
 to a sense of their duty to become American citi¬ 
 zens while enjoying the opportunities and benefits 
 of our country; a general awakening of the Amer¬ 
 ican people to a keener sense of their obligations 
 and responsibilities as citizens; a reduction in 
 illiteracy among both the native-born and foreign- 
 born population; a more widespread appreciation 
 and a greater usage of the English language, espe¬ 
 cially by non-English-speaking immigrants; an in¬ 
 crease in the number of naturalized citizens; 
 enactment of legislation restricting immigration and 
 the consequent debarring of many undesirable aliens 
 from the United States; adoption of protective 
 measures against immigrant exploitation; establish¬ 
 ment by Catholics and others of immigrant agen¬ 
 cies at ports of embarkation and entry; co-ordination 
 throughout the United States of follow-up work 
 aimed to protect the faith of Catholic immigrants 
 and to hasten their assimilation as American citi¬ 
 zens; and a more general recognition of the fact that 
 religion is the foundation upon which good govern¬ 
 ment and good citizenship rest. The pioneer efforts 
 of those engaged in Americanization work during 
 the war and reconstruction period have laid the 
 foundations for its continuance in the schools and 
 elsewhere as one of the permanent and necessary 
 forces of education in the interest of the public 
 welfare. 
 
 Bulletins of Department of Interior, Bureaus of Census, 
 Naturalization and Education. The U. S. Bureau of Educa¬ 
 tion’s circular, Immigrants: Americanization and Education, 
 lists practically all the books and pamphlets that have been 
 written on the general subject of Americanization. See in 
 
AMETTE 
 
 40 
 
 AMOVIBILITY 
 
 particular Thompson, Schooling of the Immigrant (New York, 
 1920); Daniels, America via the Neighborhood (New York, 
 1920); Park and Miller, Old World Traits Transplanted (New 
 York, 1921), and Davis, Immigrant Health and the Commun¬ 
 ity (New York, 1921); Breckinridge, New Homes for Old 
 (New York, 1921); N. C. W. C. Civic Education Series (pub¬ 
 lished by National Catholic War Council, Washington, D. C.): 
 Program for Citizenship, Civic Education Through Motion 
 Pictures; Speakers’ Outline of Talks on Citizenship; The 
 Fundamentals of Citizenship; Civics Catechism on the Rights 
 and Duties of American Citizens; Egan and Kennedy, The 
 Knights of Columbus in Peace and War (New York, 1920); 
 Williams, American Catholics in the War (New York, 1921) ; 
 N. C. W. C. Education Series: Ryan, Catechism of Catholic 
 Education (published by Paulist Press, vid. chapter on 
 “Americanism of the Catholic Schools”); Lapp, The Catholic 
 Citizen (New York, 1921). 
 
 Charles A. McMahon. 
 
 Amette, Leon-Adolphe, Archbishop of Paris, 
 Cardinal, b. at Douville, Eure, 6 September, 1850, 
 d. at Antony, Paris, 29 August, 1920. He made his 
 early studies at Evreux, whence he entered the 
 seminary of St. Sulpice, and was ordained in 1873. 
 His first appointment was to the cathedral at 
 Evreux; in 1880 he was made private secretary to 
 the bishop. Later he became a titular canon and 
 vicar general of the diocese, and in January, 1899, 
 was consecrated Bishop of Bayeux. In February, 
 1906, he was raised to the titular Archbishopric of 
 Sida and made coadjutor to the Archbishop of 
 Paris with the right of succession. On the death 
 of Cardinal Richard, January, 1908, he succeeded 
 to the see, and 27 November, 1911, was created 
 cardinal-priest. Entering on his episcopate shortly 
 after the passage of the law of Separation, he faced 
 the delicate and difficult task of a general religious 
 reorganization. At the head of a body scorned by 
 the ruling powers, he yet won his way to the hearts 
 of the people and conquered the respect and con¬ 
 fidence of those in authority by his rare qualities of 
 heart and head and sheer devotion to duty. To 
 this huge work Cardinal Amette brought unfailing 
 tact, an innate gift of graceful conversation and 
 eloquent public speaking, and a rare faculty of 
 realization and adaptability. His policy was one 
 of conciliation wherever possible; his preoccupation, 
 problems of practical action for the glory of God; 
 his aim, the re-establishment of harmony between 
 religious and secular society. 
 
 During the World War Cardinal Amette never 
 left his diocese and was everywhere a pillar of 
 strength and consolation. Taking his place in all 
 public functions, he was one of the most ardent 
 apostles of the Sacred Union and one of the most 
 notable figures in the Committee of National Aid, 
 where every political party and religious belief were 
 represented. He was likewise the champion of the 
 workman, being instrumental in obtaining much 
 beneficial legislation in his behalf. 
 
 One of the great joys of Cardinal Amette’s epis¬ 
 copate was the consecration of the Basilica of the 
 Sacred Heart at Montmartre, 16 October, 1919, at 
 which the papal legate, nine cardinals and nearly all 
 the bishops of France assisted. Before all a man 
 of God and a true shepherd of souls, under his 
 leadership 46 churches were erected in the diocese, 
 and five are in the course of construction; parish 
 committees and parish unions have been formed; 
 free primary instruction, abolished by the proscrip¬ 
 tion of religious orders, has been given a new 
 existence, while an organized hierarchy by its 
 vigilant and apostolic action has established the 
 best of material, moral and spiritual conditions. 
 
 Amida (Diarbekir), Diocese of (cf. C. E., I-429c), 
 of the Armenian Rite, in Mesopotamia, Asiatic 
 Turkey. It comprises also the Chaldean and Syrian 
 Rites. Rt. Rev. Suliman Musa Sabbagh, appointed 
 6 June, 1897, is bishop for the Chaldean Rite. 
 
 For the Syrian Rite the diocese is united to that 
 of Mardin and is administered by Mgr. Rahmani, 
 Syrian Patriarch of Antioch. For the Armenian 
 Rite the see is vacant, Rt. Rev. Elie Andre Chele- 
 bian, who filled it from 1899, having been thrown 
 into the Tigris in 1915. In 1920 there w r ere 5,000 
 Armenian Catholics, 300 Syrians, 4,180 Chaldeans, 
 100 Melchites, 132,000 Schismatics and 16,000 Mo¬ 
 hammedans in the diocese. There are 18 mis¬ 
 sionary priests, 10 parishes, 10 churches or chapels 
 and 12 schools for the Armenian Rite; 12 native 
 priests, 9 churches and 10 schools for the Chaldean 
 Rite. 
 
 Amiens, Diocese of (Ambianensis; cf., C. E., 
 I-429d), comprising the department of Somme, 
 France, is suffragan of Reims. Rt. Rev. Jean-Marie- 
 Leon Dizien who came to this see in 1896, died 27 
 March, 1915, and was succeeded by Rt. Rev. Andre 
 du Bois de La Villerabel, appointed 1 June, 1915. 
 Bishop de La Villerabel was transferred to Rouen 
 9 December, 1920, and Canon Lecomte, Vicar Gen¬ 
 eral of Lille, was appointed to succeed him 9 March, 
 1921. In 1912 the church of Notre Dame de Bre- 
 bieres, at Albert, a minor basilica, was granted a 
 Gregorian altar, i. e., the same benefits are attached 
 to Masses for the deceased as to those offered at 
 the privileged altar of the church of St. Gregory 
 on Monte Coelio in Rome. By a decree of 12 
 December of the same year no more Gregorian 
 altars are to be granted. In 1920 there were 520,161 
 Catholics in this diocese, 60 primary parishes, 609 
 succursal parishes, 173 chapels and 772 churches. 
 
 Ammedara, a titular see of Africa now known as 
 Haidra, north of Tebessa, not a suffragan of any 
 metropolitan see. The city was of Byzantine origin 
 and its name appears under numerous forms: Ad 
 Medera, Admedera, Almedera, Ammedara, Am- 
 medera, and Metridera. The city is identified with 
 the modern Haidra, situated about twenty-two miles 
 northeast of Tebessa. It was originally a colony of 
 veterans founded by Vespasian or his sons, whence 
 the name, Colonia Flavia Augusta Emerita Am- 
 msedara. Despite the ruins to which it was reduced 
 by the Arab invasion, or by modern excavations, 
 important remains are still found on both banks 
 of the river Oued Haidra, but principally on the 
 left bank. The Council lists show many bishops 
 of Ammedara, where Christianity seems to have 
 penetrated at an early date. The first of these 
 known is Eugenius, a contemporary of St. Cyprian, 
 who assisted at the Council of Carthage (256). 
 Like most of the other African cities, Ammedara 
 was invaded by the heresy of Donatism and at the 
 conference of Carthage in 411 the Catholic bishop 
 Speratus found his schismatic rival, Crescentianus, 
 also there. 
 
 Amovibility (cf. C. E., I-437a).—The Code of 
 Canon Law prescribes that all dioceses are to be 
 divided into parishes, each having its own priest, 
 termed a rector, who enjoys fixity of tenure, not 
 absolute fixity, however, as he may be removed in 
 a legal way. Rectors, consequently, are classed as 
 irremovable or removable, according to their greater 
 or less stability of tenure. As a rule all new 
 parishes are to have irremovable rectors; once a 
 rector has been made irremovable all his succes¬ 
 sors enjoy the same privilege. Among the reasons 
 for removing rectors of either class are ill-health, 
 mal-administration, loss of reputation, or public 
 hatred, even when unmerited, if it is such as to 
 interfere seriously with the spiritual welfare of 
 the parishioners. In the legal procedure for the 
 removal of rectors, the chief difference between 
 
AMOY 
 
 41 
 
 ANCHIALOS 
 
 the two classes is that the irremovable may demand 
 a second investigation of their case by the bishop 
 and two synodal examiners, and may even then 
 appeal to a tribunal composed of the bishop and 
 two diocesan consultors, whereas a removable rec¬ 
 tor if he is dissatisfied with the first decision has 
 no remedy but an appeal to the Holy See. 
 
 Amoy, Vicariate Apostolic of (Amoensis; cf. 
 C. E., I^37c), in China, is entrusted to the Spanish 
 Dominicans. Formerly the island of Formosa 
 formed a part of this vicariate, but in August, 1913, 
 it was made an Apostolic Prefecture, the civil pre¬ 
 fectures of Lonyen-tcheou, Yung-tchoen-tcheon, 
 Hing-hon-fou, the island of Nanjik and the small 
 islands dependent on the prefecture of Hsing-houn- 
 fou, being joined to it. The present vicar apostolic 
 is Rt. Rev. Emanuel Prat, titular Bishop of 
 Mactaris. In 1920 the total population of this terri¬ 
 tory was 4,500,000, of whom 10,582 are Catholic, and 
 of this number 2,143 are in Formosa. There were 
 5,214 catechumens, 21 European and 10 native 
 priests, 15 churches, 24 chapels, 96 stations, 1 semi¬ 
 nary with 30 students, 23 schools for boys, 18 for 
 girls, 50 orphanages, and 13 religious of the Order 
 of St. Dominic. 
 
 Ampurias (or Castelsardo and Tempio), Diocese 
 of (Ampuriensis ; cf. C. E., I-440c), in Sardinia, is 
 suffragan of Sassari. The see was vacant from 
 1907 until the appointment of the present bishop, 
 Rt. Rev. Giovanni Maria Sanna, b. at Oristano, 
 1873, appointed bishop 22 December, 1914. During 
 its vacancy the see was administered by Mgr. 
 Parodi, Archbishop of Sassari. In 1920 Ampurias 
 had 11,200 Catholics, 8 parishes, 20 secular priests, 
 5 seminarians, 34 churches or chapels; Tempio had 
 29,200 Catholics, 18 parishes, 42 secular priests, 5 
 seminarians and 73 churches or chapels. 
 
 Amyzone, a titular see in Caria, Asia, now known 
 as Mazyn-Kalchsi, suffragan of Stauropolis. Until 
 the Roman epoch the little city of Aymzone had 
 its own coinage, bearing the insignia of a head, 
 two specimens of which are preserved in the British 
 museum. Amyzone appears as a diocese, suffragan 
 of Stauropolis in all notices of the twelfth and 
 thirteenth centuries, under various forms of the 
 name. Several ancient bishops of this see are 
 known: Philetus, who signed at the council of 
 Ephesus (431); John, present at the Council of 
 Chalcedon (451); and Andrew, present at the Coun¬ 
 cil of Contanstinople, under the Patriarch Menas 
 (536). Theophylact attended the second Council 
 of Nicaea (787), and in the biography of St. Paul 
 the Younger a certain Bishop of Amyzone is men¬ 
 tioned among the benefactors of the monks, but 
 his name is not given. The diocese is mentioned 
 in a judgment of Isaac Angelus (1185-95), and we 
 find an Act of the Patriarch, Manuel II (1244-45), 
 exempting the monks of St. Paul of Latros from 
 the jurisdiction of neighboring bishops, particularly 
 the Bishop of Amyzone, who is mentioned three 
 times. At this time the see bore a double title, 
 in addition to the name Amyzone it added that of 
 a neighboring locality, Coracia or Coracium. The 
 city cannot have survived long after the time at 
 which it is mentioned in the documents, and must 
 have been destroyed by the Turkish invasion. The 
 ruins of the ramparts of the fortress can be seen 
 at the summit of a hill on the eastern slope of 
 Mount Latros (to-day Bech Parmak Dagh), above 
 the village of Kafarlar in the province of Symrna. 
 The Turks call the remains Mazyn Kalehsi, i. e., 
 fortress of Amyzone. 
 
 Anagni, Diocese of (Anagninensis; cf. C. E., 
 
 I-448d), in the province of Rome, Italy, is directly 
 subject to the Holy See. Leo XIII conferred upon 
 the bishops of this see the perpetual right to the 
 pallium. Bishop Sardi di Rivisondoli, who was 
 appointed to this see in 1908, was transferred to 
 the titular see of Caesaria in Palestine and was 
 succeeded by the present incumbent, Rt. Rev. 
 Silvio Gasperini, b. at Bevagna, 1852, appointed 
 to the Congregation of the Consistory 2 December, 
 1912. In 1920 the Catholics of this diocese num¬ 
 bered 41,700; there are 26 parishes, 60 secular and 
 52 regular priests, 20 seminarians, 50 churches or 
 chapels, 23 brothers and 113 sisters. 
 
 Anatolia—For early history see Asia Minor 
 (C. E., I-782c).—The present confusion in Ana¬ 
 tolia lies in the eagerness of the great powers to 
 share in the after-war despoliation of Turkey. 
 Even as early as 26 April, 1915, in the Pact of 
 London arranged between Italy and her allies, 
 France, Great Britain and Russia recognized 
 Italy’s desire to maintain a political balance of 
 power in the Mediterranean and her right to 
 take over, at the break-up of Turkey, a portion 
 equal to theirs in the Mediterranean, namely, in 
 that part which bordered on the Province of 
 Adalia, where Italy had already acquired special 
 rights and interests laid down in the Italo-British 
 convention. In the Treaty of Sevres, August, 
 
 1920, Smyrna with the surrounding strip, compris¬ 
 ing Tireh, Odemish, Magnesa, Akhissar, Bergama, 
 and Aivali was to be administered by Greece under 
 Turkish sovereignty, but in five years a plebiscite 
 was to decide to whom the district was to be 
 annexed. The Turkish Nationalists objected to 
 the loss of their part of western Anatolia, and 
 immediately commenced a campaign for the re¬ 
 vision of the treaty. They overran Anatolia and 
 soon had 300,000 troops there. To the powers it 
 became evident that the Treaty of Sevres could 
 not be executed without a prolonged struggle, and 
 a conference was called in London in February, 
 
 1921, to revise the treaty. The question of Smyrna 
 was compromised, the demilitarized zone in the 
 Straits was reduced considerably, and a substantial 
 arrangement of the financial clauses of the treaty 
 was made. It is doubtful whether these proposals 
 will stand, as hostilities have broken out between 
 Turkey (q.v.) and Greece (q.v.). 
 
 At present the country is in a bad condition 
 economically, as foreign interests have been con¬ 
 fiscated and destroyed during the past five years. 
 The resources of the country were placed at the 
 disposal of the military authorities, who have seized 
 the crops and live stock at their discretion. The 
 population has suffered enormous losses; Moham¬ 
 medans have been drafted into the army whose 
 casualties have been heavy; the Armenians have 
 nearly all been massacred, and of the other Chris¬ 
 tians nearly all suffered severely from deportation, 
 forced labor, and Turkish cruelty. In the late years 
 of the European War there was an increased de¬ 
 mand from the Central Empires for Anatolian 
 products, and vigorous measures were taken to 
 stimulate production. The effect of this has been 
 permanent and beneficial, a new market being 
 opened up for Anatolian products. There are no 
 trustworthy statistics regarding the population of 
 Anatolia. 
 
 For Catholic statistics see Asia Minor, Vicariate 
 Apostolic of. 
 
 Anchialos, a titular see in the province of Hemi- 
 montus in Thrace, suffragan of Adrianople. The 
 ancient city of Anchialos originated in a little 
 Greek colony situated in Thrace on the western 
 
ANCONA AND UMANA 
 
 42 
 
 ANGLICANISM 
 
 side of tlie Black Sea, which belonged to the inhabi¬ 
 tants of Apcllonia, now called Sizebolou. From 
 the reign of Trojan it was known as Ulpia and the 
 coinage of the imperial epoch, from Domitian to 
 Gordian III, is stamped with a head. With the 
 invasion of the Slavs and Bulgars in the sixth and 
 following centuries the city was the scene of re¬ 
 peated sieges and battle and 17 June, 762, the 
 Byzantines won an important victory over the 
 Bulgars, but they were completely defeated in 766; 
 Anchialos had suffered so severely during these 
 conflicts that the Empress Irene rebuilt the city 
 in 784. On 20 August, 917, the Byzantines under¬ 
 went a bloody defeat, and at this time the city 
 was called Achelos, which was the popular form 
 of the name, and by modern historians Acheloiis. 
 In 1423 the city, which had till then belonged to 
 the Greeks, was conquered by the Turks and re¬ 
 mained in their possession until 1885, when it was 
 annexed to the province of Rumelia in the prin¬ 
 cipality of Bulgaria. The city, populated principally 
 by Greeks, was almost entirely wiped out during 
 the summer of 1906 by an internal war between 
 two factions. 
 
 The exact date of the introduction of Christianity 
 into this city is not known, but it seems to have 
 been very early; according to the legend of St. 
 Sebastian there were Christians there as early as 
 the end of the first century. In any case it is cer¬ 
 tain that an organized Church did exist here in the 
 last half of the second century, whose bishop, Sotas, 
 wished to exorcise Priscilla, the companion of 
 Montanus. Anchialos appears as an archdiocese 
 in the province of Rhodope, directly dependent 
 on Constantinople; it remained so until the six¬ 
 teenth century. At the present time (1922) the 
 Greek metropolitan of Anchialos, situated in Bul¬ 
 garia, is directly subject to the Greek Patriarchate 
 of Constantinople in Turkey. For the Roman Rite 
 Anchialos is a titular see. The list of bishops of 
 this see from Sotas, in 170, is quite regular. 
 
 Ancona and Umana, Archdiocese of (Anconi- 
 tana et Humana; cf. C. E., I-463d), in the province 
 of Ancona, Italy. In 1904, upon the occasion of 
 the episcopal jubilee of Cardinal Manara, Pius X 
 raised this see to the dignity of an archdiocese 
 without suffragans; the bishops of this see are ipso 
 facto given the title of count. The present bishop, 
 Rt. Rev. John Baptist Ricci, b. at Montenuovo, 
 1895, and transferred to Iesi 9 June, 1902, and pro¬ 
 moted to this see 15 July, 1906, to succeed Cardinal 
 Manara. By 1920 statistics there are 90,964 Catho¬ 
 lics in this diocese, 37 parishes, 82 secular and 28 
 regular priests, 30 seminarians, 85 churches or 
 chapels, 10 brothers and 115 sisters. 
 
 Andreis, Felix de (cf. C. E., I-470b).—The 
 decree of the introduction of the cause of his 
 beatification received the papal approbation 25 
 July, 1918. 
 
 Andria, Diocese of (Andriensis; cf. C. E., 
 I-475c), in the province of Bari, Italy, is suffragan 
 of Trani. By a decree of 9 June, 1916, the Congre¬ 
 gation of the Consistory accorded the title of cathe¬ 
 dral to the basilica of St. Savinus at Canossa. 
 Bishop Staiti di Braceleone, who was appointed to 
 this see in 1899, died 14 December, 1916, and was 
 succeeded by the present incumbent, Rt. Rev. 
 Eugenio Tosi, b. at Busto Arsizio, 1863, appointed 
 bishop of Squillace 5 April, 1911, and transferred 
 to Andria 22 March, 1917. In this diocese there is 
 preserved a thorn of the crown of Our Lord, the tip 
 of which bears brown stains, the inhabitants holding 
 the tradition that whenever Good Friday falls on 
 25 March these stains become actual blood. This 
 
 coincidence occurred in 1911 and upon examination 
 of the thorn by civil and church authorities the 
 facts were proven to be true to tradition. In 1920 
 the diocese counted 101,000 Catholics, 15 parishes, 
 200 secular and 5 regular priests, 15 seminarians, 
 53 churches or chapels, 6 brothers and 60 sisters. 
 
 Angers, Diocese of (Andegavensis; cf. C. E., 
 I-489b), comprises the department of Maine-et- 
 Loire, in France, and is suffragan of Tours. The 
 present incumbent, Rt. Rev. Joseph Rumeau, b. at 
 Tournon, 1849, ordained 1872, was made secretary 
 to the Bishop of Agen and vicar general, 1881, and 
 appointed bishop 28 November, 1898. By 1921 sta¬ 
 tistics there are 502,200 Catholics in the diocese. 
 There are 37 first class parishes, 377 succursal par¬ 
 ishes and 129 vicariates with salaries formerly paid 
 by the state. A legally constituted lay society has 
 bought back the lower seminary, which was taken 
 from the diocese as a result of the Law of Separa¬ 
 tion in 1906. The municipality of Angers, with the 
 authorization of the Government, showed a great 
 spirit of justice and liberality in the negotiations 
 just completed, and the lower seminary of Beau- 
 preau in the same diocese has also been bought 
 back. 
 
 Anglicanism (cf. C. E., I-498d).—In 1914 a Welsh 
 Church Act was passed by Parliament, disestab¬ 
 lishing the Church of England in Wales. Owing 
 to the war this act was not put into effect until 
 1919, when another act completed the disestablish¬ 
 ment of the Church of Wales and Monmouthshire 
 as from 31 March, 1920. Wales was made a sepa¬ 
 rate archbishopric. Property belonging to the 
 Anglican Church in Wales, and a sum of £1,000,000 
 have been assigned to a temporary body, “Welsh 
 Commissioners,” for distribution to a body repre¬ 
 senting the Welsh Church, and to certain other 
 authorities, including the University of Wales. This 
 disestablishment was bitterly opposed by many 
 Anglicans, who fear that it forebodes the disestab¬ 
 lishment of the Church in England. In Canada 
 the proposal (1918) to change the name of the 
 “Church of England in Canada” to some broader 
 title has not as yet been adopted. 
 
 It is difficult to estimate the total number of 
 Anglicans in the world, since the returns for 
 England and the United States (Protestant Epis¬ 
 copal Church) list communicants and not the 
 total constituency. On the basis of marriages 
 in England (59.7% in 1919 were Anglican), there 
 are probably about 20,000,000 at least loosely 
 affiliated with the Anglican Church in that country. 
 The 1,104,000 communicants in the United States 
 may represent 3,000,000 constituents; there are 
 nearly 5,000,000 constituents in the rest of the 
 world, and as many of the statistics are no later 
 than 1911 it is fair to estimate the entire Anglican 
 constituency in the world in 1922 as about 30,000,- 
 000. The following figures are for total membership 
 (constituents) except for England, Scotland, and 
 the United States, for which only communicants are 
 listed. British statistics are taken from the States¬ 
 man’s Year-Book, 1921; in some cases they show 
 a decrease from the earlier figures of the Catholic 
 Encyclopedia. England, 2,360,000; Scotland, 56,000; 
 United States, 1,104,000; Ireland, 576,000; Canada 
 and Newfoundland, 1,121,000; Australia, 1,731,000; 
 New Zealand, 459,000; South Africa, 542,000; India, 
 493,000. 
 
 The doctrinal tendency of Anglicanism in recent 
 years is epitomized in the Kikuyu incident. In 
 June, 1913, a conference of Protestant missions with 
 the Church Missionary Society (Low Church 
 Anglican) was held at Kikuyu, British East Africa, 
 
 
ANGLICANISM 
 
 43 
 
 ANGLICANISM 
 
 the chief object apparently being to arrange a com¬ 
 mon basis of work among the various Protestant 
 missionary bodies there. An interdenominational 
 compact was drawn up whereby one district was to 
 be assigned to each church exclusively. Doctrinally 
 the “Federation” acknowledged the Bible as the 
 rule of faith and practice; the Apostles’ and 
 Nicene Creeds as a general expression of belief; 
 and “the vital importance of belief in the atoning 
 death of our Lord as the ground of forgiveness.” 
 The Anglican bishops of Mombasa (in which 
 Kikuyu is situated) and Uganda were present and 
 with the representatives of the other churches 
 pledged themselves: to recognize common member¬ 
 ship between federated churches; to establish a 
 common form of church organization; to admit 
 to any pulpit a preacher recognized by his own 
 church; to admit to communion a recognized mem¬ 
 ber of any other church; to draw up and follow 
 common courses of instruction both for candidates 
 for baptism and candidates for ordination. Finally 
 at the end of the conference the Anglican bishop 
 of Mombasa (although theoretically the agreement 
 needed ratification by the authorities in England) 
 “celebrated the Holy Communion,” according to 
 the Anglican ritual, in a Presbyterian Church, and 
 admitted to communion as many of the Protestant 
 delegates as presented themselves. In this he was 
 not without precedent, for the bishop of Hereford 
 in England had about a year before acted in a 
 similar manner. 
 
 The action of the two bishops, on the two points 
 of the proposed federation and the intercommunion 
 service, was criticized by the High Church Bishop 
 of Zanzibar, who had refused to attend the con¬ 
 ference. His complaint was referred by the Arch¬ 
 bishop of Canterbury to the Consultative Body 
 of bishops, the question being whether “due con¬ 
 sideration being given to precedent and to all the 
 facts of the case, the action of the bishops who 
 arranged and conducted the admittedly abnormal 
 service was consistent or inconsistent with princi¬ 
 ples accepted by the Church of England.” The 
 decision was substantially as follows: (1) Minis¬ 
 ters of other bodies may be welcomed as visitors 
 to preach in Anglican churches, if accredited by 
 the diocesan bishops; (2) non-Anglicans may be 
 admitted to communion in Anglican churches under 
 authority of diocesan bishops, on acceptance of 
 the Apostles’ and Nicene creeds, the deity of Christ, 
 and the absolute authority of the Scriptures; 
 (3) Anglicans must not receive the communion 
 from ministers not episcopally ordained or w r hose 
 orders are otherwise irregular; (4) it is wisest to 
 abstain from such services as the closing service 
 held at Kikuyu. The Archbishop of Canterbury 
 in 1915 issued a statement embodying the report of 
 the Consultative Body. The controversy which 
 had arisen when the Kikuyu incident first came to 
 light, broke out again, the High Church clergy 
 objecting to what they considered a minimizing of 
 Anglican doctrine. The archbishop refused to 
 prosecute the bishops of Uganda and Mombasa, 
 and the Anglican Church had once more clearly 
 shown its policy to be that of laissez jaire. 
 
 The incident, with two other cases cited also by 
 the bishop of Zanzibar in his complaint, the wide¬ 
 spread controversy, and the decision in the matter, 
 seem to indicate plainly that the preponderance 
 of authority and of opinion to-day in the Anglican 
 Church leans toward the “Protestant” or Low 
 Church party. Of the Kikuyu incident the bishop 
 of Zanzibar said “there has not been a Conference 
 of such importance to the life of the Ecclesia 
 Anglicana since the Reformation,” while another 
 
 advanced Anglican likened it in importance to 
 the bavoy Conference of 1661, “the work of which 
 the Kikuyu Conference has set itself to undo.” 
 
 In the Open Letter” of the bishop of Zanzibar, 
 attacking the Kikuyu Conference, there was also 
 complaint made against the book “Foundations” 
 written by seven Oxford men, and the attitude of 
 the church authorities toward its editor was severely 
 criticized. This book treated as open questions 
 to be accepted or rejected freely by Anglicans: 
 the necessity of the episcopate in the Christian 
 Church; the institution by Christ of any church at 
 all and of any sacraments; the reliability of the 
 Bible as a witness; the Resurrection of our Lord 
 from the dead, and His divinity. No public official 
 condemnation was taken in the case, although six 
 of the authors were Anglican clergymen. The 
 editor, who had also contributed one of the essays, 
 was merely asked to resign his chaplaincy “privately 
 and quietly.” The fact that in these controversies 
 a fight was made for conservative doctrine and 
 practice is interpreted by many as evidencing the 
 presence of a strong High Church or “Catholic” 
 party in Anglicanism; the truth is, however, that 
 m each case the point at issue was not High 
 Church doctrine as such, it was merely the tradi¬ 
 tional Anglican doctrine that was at stake, and the 
 fact that only 700 clergymen were found to request, 
 a definite pronouncement by the church authorities 
 on the doctrines called in questions by “Founda¬ 
 tions” shows only too clearly that the drift is 
 toward liberal Protestantism or doctrinal indiffer- 
 entism in.the Anglican Church to-day. (For the 
 third point of complaint voiced by the Bishop of 
 Zanzibar see Ritualism). 
 
 This same tendency is also somewhat apparent 
 in the attitude of the Anglicans on the question 
 of church unity. In 1920 the Lambeth Conference 
 issued an appeal and some resolutions differing 
 somewhat from the Lambeth Quadrilateral. The 
 Conference (1) speaks of union of communions 
 rather than of churches; of the communions of 
 the East and the West, of episcopal and non-epis- 
 copal communions; (2) it speaks of ministries of 
 grace in all of them; (3) it disclaims the idea, even 
 the right, of pronouncing upon the validity of the 
 sacraments of other communions; (4) it considers 
 that the Creed does not impose a test, but that 
 it is offered and accepted as a symbol of unity. 
 Actually these proposals bear considerable resem¬ 
 blance to the “federation plan” of Kikuyu. No 
 results are as yet (1922) apparent and in fact, broad 
 as are the conditions, the Federal Council of Free 
 Churches and the National Free Church Council, 
 both of Scotland, practically rejected them as stand¬ 
 ing too strongly for episcopacy, while the Metho¬ 
 dists have formally rejected the overtures, refusing 
 to consider reordination of their clergy. 
 
 In missionary work the Church of England has 
 maintained its attitude against Protestant propa¬ 
 ganda in Catholic countries, notably in the World 
 Missionary Conference of 1910, at Edinburgh. As 
 a consequence the American missionaries devised 
 the “Panama Conference” (see Protestantism) for 
 the purpose of furthering Protestant work in Latin 
 America. (See also Ritualism and Book of Com¬ 
 mon Prayer.) 
 
 Wace, Some Questions of the Day (London, 1912); Gasquet, 
 The Ecclesia Anglicana in Catholic World, XCVIII (1914), 
 633; Nankivel, Kikuyu: the New Situation in Catholic World, 
 CII (1915), 32; Britten, Kikuyu (with bibliography) in Dublin 
 Review, CLIV (1914), 335; Henson, Kikuyu (Low Church 
 exposition) in Hibbert Journal, XII (1913-14), 481; Knox, 
 Some Loose Stones (London, 1913), (Anglican answer to 
 Foundations; the author later became a Catholic); Idem (as 
 a Catholic), Tendencies of Anglicanism in Dublin Review, 
 CLXII (1918), 25; Ollard and Crosse, A Dictionary of English 
 Church History (London, 1919); Year Book of the Churches 
 
ANGLONA AND TURSI 
 
 44 
 
 ANTIGONISH 
 
 (New York, annual); Statesman’s Year-Book, (London, 
 annual); Selbie, English Sects (London, n. d.); Moyes, Aspects 
 of Anglicanism (London, 1909); Wotherspoon Intercommunion 
 and Lambeth in Constructive Quarterly, IX (1921); Mason, 
 The Church of England and Episcopacy (London, 1914); 
 The Ministry of Women, report of committee appointed by 
 Archbishop of Canterbury (London, 1919); Conference of 
 Bishops of the Anglican Communion Holden at Lambeth 
 Palace, 1920 (London, 1920); Emhardt, Historical Contact of 
 the Eastern Orthodox and the Anglican Churches (New 
 York, 1920); Discussions theologiques entre tes Anglicans et 
 les Orthodoxes (Athens, 1919). 
 
 Gerald Shaughnessy. 
 
 Anglona and Tursi, Diocese of (Anglonensis et 
 Tursiensis; cf. C. E., I-512c), in the province of 
 Potenza, Italy, suffragan of Acerenza. Rt. Rev. 
 Vincent Pisani, who came to this see 5 February, 
 1908, retired 5 September, 1910, and was made ad¬ 
 ministrator apostolic of Thebes and on 3 January, 
 1912, titular bishop of that see. He was succeeded 
 by the present incumbent, Rt. Rev. John Pulvirenti, 
 b. at San Antonio, 1871, appointed Bishop of 
 Anglona and Tursi 27 November, 1911. In 1920 
 there were 96,000 Catholics in the diocese, 107 
 secular priests, 19 seminarians, 40 parishes, 120 
 churches or chapels and 4 sisters. 
 
 Angola and Congo, Diocese of (Angolensis and 
 Congenensis; cf. C. E., I-512d), also known as 
 Santa Cruz de Reino de Angola, and Sao Paolo 
 de Loanda, in Portuguese West Africa, suffragan of 
 Libson, with episcopal residence at Sao Paolo de 
 Loanda. From 1909-15 the see was filled by Rt. 
 Rev. Joao Evangelistao de Lima Vidal, but on 
 9 December, 1915, he was promoted to the titular 
 see of Mytilene and made suffragan to the Patriarch 
 of Lisbon, since which time the see has been 
 vacant. In 1920 the total population of this diocese 
 numbered 2,000,000, of whom 1,000,000 are Catho¬ 
 lics ; there are 82 parishes, 36 priests, 8 Missionary 
 Fathers of the Holy Ghost, 8 churches and 10 
 chapels. 
 
 Angora, Diocese of, of the Armenian Rite (cf. C. 
 E., I-513a), in Asiatic Turkey, known to the Greeks 
 and Romans as Ancyra. Rt. Rev. Clement Gha- 
 zarossian, appointed to this see 28 August, 1901, d. 
 21 November, 1910. He was succeeded by the 
 present bishop, Rt. Rev. Gregory Bahabanian, b. 
 at Angora, 1866, appointed 27 August, 1911. During 
 the World War Bishop Bahabanian was interned by 
 the Turks (1915). By latest statistics there are 3000 
 Armenian Catholics in this diocese, 5 missionary 
 priests, 1 parish, 1 church, 2 schools with 60 pupils, 
 
 1 orphanage and 4 government orphanages caring 
 for 60 children. From 1907-21 thirty priests have 
 died in this territory, some from natural causes 
 and some by martyrdom during the World War, 
 and by the same causes the diocese lost 2000 of its 
 faithful. During the year 1915 the Turks deported 
 or killed numbers of the Christians and set fire 
 to the whole Catholic s'ection of the city of 
 Angora, destroying the bishop’s house, four 
 churches, the Sisters’ monastery, the seminary, 
 'schools and shrines. 
 
 Angouleme, Diocese of (Engolisma; cf. C. E., 
 I-513b), comprises the Department of Charente in 
 France and is suffragan of Bordeaux. Since 1907 
 the see has been filled by Rt. Rev. Henri-Marie 
 Arlet, b. at Martel in 1858, ordained 1881, appointed 
 bishop 7 August, 1907. Under his direction an 
 exhibition of the relics was held in the diocese in 
 April, 1918. By 1920 statistics the population of 
 the diocese, entirely Catholic, numbers 346,424^ of 
 whom 38,211 are in Angouleme; there are 30 first 
 class parishes, 237 succursal parishes, and 42 vica¬ 
 riates, formerly under state subvention. 
 
 Angra, Dtocese of (Angrensis; cf. C. E., I-513c), 
 in the island of Terceira, Azores. On the death of 
 
 Mgr. Joseph C. C. Monteiro, who had been bishop 
 of the diocese for five years, he was succeeded by 
 the present bishop, Emanuel Damascene da Costa,, 
 chancellor of Viseu, born 2 February, 1867; elected 
 bishop of Angra 2 October, 1914. He took posses¬ 
 sion of the see 26 May, 1915, and died 27 January, 
 1920. 
 
 The Catholics of the diocese number 250,000 
 Portuguese. There are 173 parishes, and 185 
 churches w T ith 313 secular priests; 1 seminary with 
 8 professors and 60 seminarians; 3 elementary 
 schools with a total of 145 students; 5 homes, 8 
 asylums, 1 of which admits the ministry of priests; 
 4 societies or organizations for the clergy, and a 
 great many for the laity. The Catholic publica¬ 
 tions consist of 6 weeklies and 1 monthly. 
 
 Anhalt, Vicariate Apostolic of. See Paderborn. 
 
 Ann, Saint, Sisters of. See Saint Ann, Sis¬ 
 ters of. 
 
 Anna Maria Taigi, Blessed (cf. C. E., XIV-430d), 
 beatified 30 May, 1920, by Benedict XV. 
 
 Annam. See Indo-China. 
 
 Anne de Beaupre, Sainte (cf. C. E., I-539c).— 
 This famous American shrine, near Quebec, Canada, 
 was entirely destroyed by fire in March, 1922. The 
 only one remaining of the group of buildings con¬ 
 nected with the basilica is the Memorial Chapel, 
 to which were transferred the relics and statue 
 of St. Anne, saved from the flames. A temporary 
 church will be erected to accommodate the pil¬ 
 grimages for 1922, and a larger edifice along the 
 general lines of the former basilica will eventually 
 replace the destroyed structure. 
 
 Anne of St. Bartholomew, Blessed (cf. C. E., 
 
 VI-378d), was beatified on 6 May, 1917, by Pope 
 Benedict XV. 
 
 Annecy, Diocese of (Anneciensis; cf. C. E., 
 I-540b), in Haute-Savoie, France, suffragan of 
 Chambery. Rt. Rev. Pierre-Lucien Campistron, 
 who was appointed bishop of this diocese 9 June, 
 1902, died 22 August, 1921, and was succeeded by 
 the present incumbent, Rt. Rev. Florent du Bois 
 de La Villerabel, transferred to this see, 18 Novem¬ 
 ber, 1921. Bishop de La Villerabel an alumnus of 
 the French Seminary at Rome, was born at St. 
 Brieuc, 1877, served as a professor of philosophy 
 and theology at the higher seminary at St. Brieuc, 
 was mobilized and discharged in 1915, became vicar 
 general of Amiens the same year, was appointed 
 titular Bishop of Enos, 7 May, 1920, and made 
 auxiliary with right of succession to the Archdiocese 
 of Tours, which office he filled until his transfer to 
 Annecy. In 1920 there were 257,606 Catholics in 
 this diocese, 29 first class parishes, 270 succursal 
 parishes and 169 vicariates with salaries formerly 
 paid by the state. 
 
 Antigonish, Diocese of (Antigonishensis; cf. 
 
 C. E., I-562d), in Canada, is a suffragan to the 
 Archdiocese of Halifax. The present incumbent, 
 Rt. Reverend James Morrison, was born at Saint- 
 Andre, Prince Edward Island, 9 July, 1861, ordained 
 1 November, 1889, acted for a time as apostolic 
 administrator of this diocese, was appointed bishop 
 25 May, 1912, and consecrated 4 September of the 
 same year. He succeeded Rt. Rev. John Cameron, 
 
 D. D., who filled the see from 1886 v until his death, 
 6 April, 1910. 
 
 In 1919 the Trappist Monastery at Tracadie, N. 
 S., one of the oldest institutions of the diocese, was 
 closed and the 12 Fathers and brothers who were 
 conducting the institution returned to France. 
 
ANTIGONISH 
 
 45 
 
 ANTIOCH 
 
 The Antigonish ‘‘Educational and Social Confer¬ 
 ence,” organized in 1917, has had four annual meet¬ 
 ings and is growing yearly in importance and influ¬ 
 ence. In 1920 the first retreat for lady teachers was 
 held in the diocese at Mt. St. Bernard’s College 
 and plans have been made for similar retreats every 
 two years. 
 
 The chief seat of learning of this diocese is St. 
 Francis Xavier University at Antigonish with 19 
 professors and 196 students, 85 of whom are resi¬ 
 dent. Mt. St. Bernard’s Ladies College, affiliated 
 w r ith the university, has 42 students doing university 
 work and 87 doing high school work. During recent 
 years the university has led in a great educational 
 movement and many new buildings and useful 
 equipment have been added through the generosity 
 of friends of the institution. In 1920 extension 
 teaching was undertaken and a “People’s School,” 
 modeled after similar schools in Belgium and Hol¬ 
 land, was established. In the same year a success¬ 
 ful campaign for $500,000 was conducted and the 
 Carnegie Corporation contributed $58,750 for a 
 chair of French. 
 
 By present (1921) statistics the population of this 
 diocese is 92,000, of whom 50,000 are Scotch, 24,000 
 French, 14,000 Irish. There are: 70 parishes, 45 
 missions, 115 churches, 109 secular priests, 18 con¬ 
 vents of women, 296 sisters, 17 seminarians. A 
 number of educational institutions are conducted 
 by the various communities represented in the dio¬ 
 cese; the Congregation of Notre Dame with 92 
 sisters and mother-house at Montreal have 9 con¬ 
 vents; the Daughters of Jesus, with 24 sisters, have 
 2 schools; the Sisters of Charity with 92 sisters and 
 mother-house at Halifax have 8 schools. There are 
 in all 14 high schools with 24 teachers and an at¬ 
 tendance of 657 boys and 770 girls, and 33 elemen¬ 
 tary schools with 133 teaching sisters and 77 lay 
 teachers, and an attendance of 10,034. In this 
 province Catholic schools recognized by local school 
 boards are public schools and as such receive their 
 share of provincial aid. As a result nearly all the 
 towns have Catholic public schools, which conform 
 in every detail to requirements of the public school 
 law and are subject to official inspection; the prop¬ 
 erty usually belongs to the parish and is rented 
 to the public school board for school purposes. 
 
 A number of the charitable institutions are under 
 the care of the Sisters of St. Martha, a diocesan 
 community with 88 sisters and mother-house at 
 Antigonish; they are in charge of the domestic 
 work at St. Francis Xavier University and at St. 
 Augustine’s Seminary, Toronto, St. Martha’s Hos¬ 
 pital and House of Providence, St. Joseph’s Hos¬ 
 pital, St. Mary’s Orphanage and Ross Memorial 
 Hospital. The Daughters of Jesus conduct a home 
 for the aged at Sydney and the Sisters of Charity 
 have a hospital at North Sydney and a sanitorium at 
 Lourdes. Several of these institutions receive grants 
 from the municipal and provincial governments. 
 Among the clergy St. Joseph’s Society, the Priests’ 
 Eucharistic League and the Priests’ Total Absti¬ 
 nence Union are established, and among the laity 
 the usual parish societies and the Knights of 
 Columbus, Catholic Women’s League of Canada, 
 League of the Cross Total Abstinence Society, Holy 
 Name Society, Catholic Society of Canada, Ancient 
 Order of Hibernians, and the Assumption Society. 
 The diocese has one weekly periodical, “The Cas¬ 
 ket”; a monthly paper, “The Xaverian,” issued by 
 the students of the university, “The Memorare,” a 
 quarterly by the students of the Ladies’ College, 
 and two annual publications, “The Catholic Year 
 Book of the Maritime Provinces” and “The Easter 
 Lily.” 
 
 During the World War the diocese of Antigonish 
 responded with great patriotism and the most cor¬ 
 rect figures obtainable show 4,791 enlistments, 558 
 killed and 691 wounded. Five priests of the diocese 
 served as chaplains at the front, and St. Francis 
 Xavier University sent a hospital unit of eleven 
 medical officers and twenty-seven nurses. One of 
 these nurses was made matron-in-chief of all the 
 Canadian nurses and served in that capacity during 
 the whole war. Four priests and five brothers from 
 the Trappist monastery returned to France and 
 served in various capacities. In response to a letter 
 from Bishop Morrison to the Knights of Columbus, 
 11 May, 1918, in which he suggested that they 
 raise a fund for the Canadian soldiers overseas, a 
 fund of $1,000,000 was raised throughout Canada 
 before the end of October of that year, and of this 
 sum $132,305.65 were raised in Nova Scotia alone. 
 The following statistics published in December, 
 
 1915, show the various religions of 1,200 men re¬ 
 cruited in Cape Breton County (a part of this 
 diocese), by Captain Rev. E. Watering, a non- 
 Catholic clergyman of Florence, C. B. Roman 
 Catholic 47.9 per cent, Presbyterian, 27.5 per cent, 
 Church of England, 14.4 per cent, Methodist 6.5 
 per cent. For further details see “Catholics of the 
 Diocese of Antigonish, Nova Scotia, and the War” 
 (St. Francis Xavier University Press). 
 
 Antioch, Patriarchate of (Antioquiensis; cf. C. 
 E., I-568c), comprises four rites united with Rome, 
 the Greek-Melchite, Maronite, Syrian and Latin, 
 with a patriarch for each. The official title of the 
 Greek-Melchite patriarch is, “Patriarch of Antioch, 
 Alexandria, Jerusalem and all the Orient,” and he 
 has his residence at Damascus. He has three 
 patriarchal vicars, at Damascus, Alexandria and 
 Jerusalem, and since 1859 has had jurisdiction over 
 the Greek Catholics of the Patriarchate of Con¬ 
 stantinople. The present patriarch, His Excellency 
 Joseph Dimitri Cadi, b. at Damascus, 1861, ordained 
 in Paris 1888, appointed bishop 1903, and conse¬ 
 crated at Alexandria, named vicar apostolic of the 
 Melchites after the death of the Patriarch Geha, 
 
 1916, appointed patriarch 3 July, 1919. By 1920 
 statistics there are 10,835 members of this rite, 11 
 secular and 15 regular priests, 14 churches and 2 
 schools. 
 
 The residence of the Syrian Patriarch is at Mar- 
 din, the Catholic hierarchy of the Syrians having 
 been re-established in 1783. The present patriarch, 
 His Excellency Ignatius Denis Ephrem Rahmani, b. 
 at Mossul, 1848, an alumnus of Propaganda College, 
 was consecrated titular Archbishop of Edessa, 1887, 
 transferred to Aleppo, 1894, and appointed patriarch 
 29 October, 1898, under the name of Ignatius 
 Ephrem II. He was named a consultor of the 
 Congregation for the Oriental Church 27 November, 
 
 1917, There are two patriarchal vicars for this rite, 
 at Mardin and at Homs, and a procurator of the 
 patriarch at Rome. In 1920 there were 4,200 Syrian 
 Catholics, 14 secular and 13 regular priests and 8 
 churches or chapels. 
 
 The Maronite Rite has its residence at Bekorki 
 in Lebanon. The patriarch has jurisdiction over all 
 Maronites scattered throughout the Orient, the 
 Ottoman Empire, in Egypt and in Cyprus; the 
 patriarchal diocese, or see of the patriarch is Gibail 
 and Batrun. The present patriarch, His Excellency 
 Elie Pierre Hoyek, b. in the diocese of Batrun 1842, 
 ordained 1870, consecrated titular Archbishop of 
 Area 1889, and made patriarchal vicar, director of 
 the Maronite College at Rome, 1897, was appointed 
 patriarch 6 January, 1899. After a period of exile 
 he returned to Bekorki in October, 1917, and in 
 
ANTIOQUIA AND JERICO 
 
 46 
 
 APOLOGETICS 
 
 1919, accompanied by four archbishops, he went to 
 Paris, to defend the interests of Lebanon at the 
 Peace Conference. There are three patriarchal 
 vicars in Lebanon and one in Egypt. In 1920 there 
 were 85,000 Maronite Catholics in this district, 470 
 priests, 277 churches or chapels, 1 seminary, 12 
 monasteries of the Baladites with 177 monks, 2 
 monasteries of the Aleppines with 30 monks, the 
 Antonians with 2 monasteries and 9 monks, the 
 Baladite Sisters with 1 monastery and 18 religious 
 and 2 convents of native sisters with 21 religious. 
 
 For the Latin Rite the see is merely titular, 
 the patriarch residing in Rome or some place in the 
 West. The present patriarch, His Excellency 
 Ladislas Michel Zaleski, b. 1852, appointed titular 
 archbishop of Thebes, 1892, was appointed patriarch 
 7 December, 1916. 
 
 Antioquia and Jerico, Diocese of (Antioqtjiensis 
 et Jericoensis), in Colombia, South America, is 
 suffragan of Medellin. The diocese of Jerico was 
 founded 29 January, 1915, by a division of the 
 Diocese of Antioquia, sixteen parishes from the 
 southern part of that diocese constituting the new 
 see. On 5 February, 1917, it was reunited with 
 Antioquia, each diocese having equal rights, and 
 at the same time a portion of the united dioceses 
 was erected into the new Diocese of Santa Rosa de 
 Osos. Rt. Rev. Emanuel Antonio de Mesa who 
 filled this see from 1902 until his death in 1910, 
 was succeeded by Rt. Rev. Maxmilian Crespo, ap¬ 
 pointed 18 October, 1910. Upon the erection of the 
 diocese of Santa Rosa de Osos, Bishop Crespo was 
 transferred to that see, and the present incumbent, 
 Rt. Rev. Francis Christopher Toro was transferred 
 to the united sees of Antioquia and Jerico, 8 
 February, 1917. Bishop Toro, b. at Antioquia 1869, 
 ordained 1894, was appointed Bishop of Socorro 18 
 October, 1910, and transferred to Santa Marta 16 
 December, 1913. By 1920 statistics there are 211,315 
 Catholics in this diocese, 75 secular and regular 
 clergy and 80 churches or chapels. 
 
 Antivari, Archdiocese of (Antivarium; cf. C. E., 
 I-582b), is the Catholic metropolitan see of Monte¬ 
 negro, and is directly subject to the Holy See. 
 Monsignor Simon Millinovic, who came to this see 
 in 1886, died 24 March, 1910, and was succeeded by 
 the present incumbent Most Rev. Nicolas Dobrecic, 
 b. at Antivari, 1872, appointed archbishop 16 Jan¬ 
 uary, 1912. In 1920 there were about 25,000 Catho¬ 
 lics in this diocese, 14 parishes of which 10 are 
 served by the Friars Minor, 27 churches or chapels, 
 12 secular priests and 12 Friars Minor. 
 
 Antofogasta, Vicariate Apostolic of (Antofogas- 
 tensis; cf. C. E., I-583a), in Chili. By a decree of 
 22 November, 1918, the territory commonly known 
 as the Department of Taltal was taken from the 
 Diocese of Serena and united to the vicariate of 
 Antofogasta, thus changing the boundaries of this 
 vicariate. The present vicar apostolic, Don Luiz Silva- 
 Lezaeta was appointed in 1907, and made titular 
 Bishop of Olena, 5 January, 1912. By 1920 statistics 
 the Catholic population of this territory numbers 
 200,000, of whom 35,000 are in the city of Antofo¬ 
 gasta. At present (1921) there are 20 parishes, 
 22 secular and 6 regular clergy (Missionaries of the 
 Heart of Mary), 3 congregations of Sisters with 27 
 members, 1 monastery for men, 1 convent for men, 
 3 secondary schools for boys with 6 teachers and 
 300 students, 1 professional school and 80 elemen¬ 
 tary schools. A lyceum for boys and one for girls, 
 and the industrial school are supported by the gov¬ 
 ernment. Fifteen different societies are organized 
 among the laity. 
 
 Antonians, Chaldean (cf. C. E., I-556a).—These 
 
 religious of the Congregation of St. Hormisdas have 
 three monasteries in Mesopotamia in the Chaldean 
 Archdiocese of Mossul. The prior of the monastery 
 of Notre Dame is Fr. Elia Hanna; prior of the 
 monastery of St. Hormisdas, Fr. Stephan Eugen; 
 and prior of the monastery of St. George, Fr. Ber- 
 rianien Ounan. In 1917, at the death of Dom 
 Samuel Giamil, general of the order since 1901, the 
 Chaldean patriarch appointed Dom Mose Geramie 
 vicar general. The congregation numbers 17 priests, 
 44 lay brothers, and 5 novices. The priests have 
 missions in the towns and villages, where their min¬ 
 istry is requested by the patriarch or bishops. 
 
 AntsirabS, Vicariate Apostolic of (cf. C. E., 
 XVI-68a), formerly the Vicariate Apostolic of 
 Betafo, in Madagascar. This territory was erected 
 into a prefecture Apostolic 15 May, 1913, by a 
 division of the Vicariate Apostolic of Central Mada¬ 
 gascar, and was raised to a vicariate 24 August, 
 1918, and entrusted to the Mission aries of La 
 Salette. On 10 January, 1921, the name was changed 
 to the Vicariate Apostolic of Antsirabe. Rev. Father 
 Frangois Pra, who was appointed superior of this 
 mission 14 July, 1900, died at Antsirabe 17 February, 
 1918. The present vicar apostolic is Rt. Rev. 
 Francois-Joseph Dantin, b. at Meyrieux^Trouet, 
 1870, appointed prefect apostolic of Betafo 24 June, 
 1913, and promoted to the titular see of Satala, and 
 made the first Vicar Apostolic of Betafo, 10 Septem¬ 
 ber, 1918. During the World War five of the priests 
 from this mission were mobilized and served in the 
 field hospitals. 
 
 The Catholic population numbers about 56,000, 
 almost all of the Hova race. At the present time 
 (1922) the vicariate comprises 5 parishes, 5 churches, 
 5 missions, 246 mission stations, 4 convents of men 
 and 3 of women, 17 missionary priests, 9 brothers, 
 22 sisters, 5 seminarians. The educational institu¬ 
 tions include: 3 secondary schools with 5 teachers, 
 50 boys and 10 girls; 1 normal school with 2 teach¬ 
 ers and 20 pupils; 20 elementary schools with 40 
 teachers and 2,160 pupils. Four of the public 
 institutions permit the ministry of the priests and 5 
 societies are organized among the laity. 
 
 Aosta, Diocese of (Augustanensis; cf. C. E., 
 I-591d), in Italy, suffragan of Turin. The diocese 
 contains (1922) 87 parishes, 566 churches, chapels 
 and oratories, 3 convents for men, 1 for women with 
 191 sisters, 170 secular priests, 25 regulars, 8 lay 
 brothers, 2 seminaries and 26 seminarians. There 
 are one college with 10 professors, and 174 students; 
 600 secondary schools, all of which are maintained 
 by the government, and one mission school. The 
 following charitable institutions exist in the diocese: 
 5 asylums, 1 hospital, 1 refuge, 2 day nurseries, 2 
 diocesan shelters. Among the clergy there exists 
 one association and three among the laity. 
 
 During the World War numerous priests served 
 their country as chaplains in the Italian army, five 
 of them being killed. Two thousand soldiers be¬ 
 longing to the diocese gave up their lives for the 
 cause. The seminary of St. Anselm was used as a 
 hospital for wounded soldiers. Monuments were 
 erected in many towns as memorials for those who 
 had fallen in the war. The present incumbent is the 
 Rt. Rev. William Calabrese, b. at Modane, 1867, 
 ordained September, 1889, elected 7 May, 1920, 
 consecrated at Susa, 1 July following. Since 1907 
 the church of St. Anselm has celebrated its cen¬ 
 tenary and a Marian Congress was held in the 
 diocese. 
 
 Apologetics (cf. C. E., I-618b).—The history of 
 apologetics in the last fifteen years is chiefly cen- 
 
APOLOGETICS 
 
 47 
 
 APOLOGETICS 
 
 tered in the defense of traditional Catholic faith 
 against the insidious dangers of Modernism. In 
 addition to this the vindication of the Christian 
 conception of God and the human soul has been 
 prompted anew by the steadily growing anti-theistic 
 rationalism in the learned world of to-day. Mod¬ 
 ernism is little more than the infiltration of Prot¬ 
 estant liberal thought into the Catholic views of 
 revelation, Holy Scripture, Christology, the Church 
 and the sacraments. The philosophy underlying 
 liberal Protestantism is closely related to the sub¬ 
 jectivism of Kant, rejecting external proofs for 
 the existence of God and stressing the conscious¬ 
 ness we have of God working within us. Sharing 
 the prejudice of the modern scientific world against 
 Divine intervention in the realm of nature, it re¬ 
 jects all miracles and prophecies, even the historic 
 reality of the Resurrection, and denies the Divinity 
 of Jesus, to whom, indeed, it attributes surpassing 
 goodness and ethical wisdom, but concedes only a 
 knowledge subject to human limitations and not 
 wholly free from error. In accordance with its de¬ 
 structive criticism of the Bible, it declares the 
 Christ of the Gospels to be an idealization of the 
 historic personage Jesus, the exact portraiture of 
 whom is beyond recovery. Only a small kernel of 
 His recorded sayings is accepted as genuine. On 
 the basis of this rigorously sifted evidence, it is 
 generally agreed that in His mature years Jesus 
 went about preaching the kingdom of righteousness 
 as foretold by the Prophets and making known that 
 He was the Messias; but that in preaching this 
 Messiahship, He lived and died a Jew, faithful to 
 the Law, conforming rigidly to its ritual. That He 
 had in mind the radical innovations of Christianity, 
 that He instituted a Church with a sacramental 
 system hitherto unknown to Judaism is declared to 
 be absolutely incompatible with His genuine say¬ 
 ings, especially with His insistence on the nearness 
 of the great Judgment and of the end of the world. 
 
 Such in brief is the attitude of liberal Protes¬ 
 tantism, common to many scholars calling them¬ 
 selves Christian in Germany, Holland, France and 
 England. Unhappily, their views, so subversive of 
 historic Christian faith, found favor with a number 
 of Catholic scholars, some of them of no mean 
 ability, who were strongly attracted by the brilliant 
 studies of men like Harnack and Sabatier, and 
 who flattered themselves that by interpreting 
 Catholicism in the light of this phase of modern 
 scholarship, they could make Catholic faith more 
 widely respected and more readily acceptable to 
 scholars of university training. For this reason they 
 became known as Modernists. Prominent among 
 these liberalizing Catholics were the Abbe Loisy 
 in France, Father Tyrrell, S. J., in England, and 
 in Italy Fogazzaro and Abbate Murri. Loisy’s 
 earlier writings had put him in the front rank of 
 Catholic Scriptural scholars. His Modernist views, 
 partly revealed in his work “l’Evangile et l’Eglise” 
 (1902), found bolder expression in his “Autour d’un 
 Petit Livre” (1903). Of equal influence, if not 
 scholarship, was Father Tyrrell in English-speaking 
 countries. In his works, “Lex Orandi” (1903), and 
 “Lex Credendi” (1906), favorably mentioned in the 
 article Apologetics (C. E., I-623b), he had given 
 expression to a few statements of Modernist sig¬ 
 nificance, which were generally overlooked in his 
 many excellent utterances of an edifying character, 
 but a new light was thrown on his radical interpre¬ 
 tation of Catholicism in his little treatise printed 
 for private circulation, “A Confidential Letter to a 
 Friend, Who Is a Professor of Anthropology” (1906). 
 The storm of criticism provoked by this letter led 
 soon after to the publication of his “Much Abused 
 4 
 
 (1^06), and “Through Scylla and Charybdis” 
 (1907), in which, while seeking to justify his posi¬ 
 tion as that of a true Catholic, he plainly revealed 
 how inconsistent were his views with traditional 
 Catholic belief. At the same time a similar trend 
 of thought was finding expression in the published 
 utterances of Abbate Murri, author of “Psicologia 
 della religione” (1905), and “Democrazia e Cris- 
 tianesimo (1906), and of Fogazarro, author of “II 
 Santo” (1905). 
 
 The assertions of all these writers and of their 
 less prominent followers were, to a large degree, 
 the reflex of modern liberal Protestant thought ar¬ 
 rayed in the specious garb of Catholic terminology. 
 Their teaching was, to use the happy saying of 
 Father Donat, S. J., “Kant preaching in the robe 
 of a Catholic theologian” (Freedom of Science, p. 
 167). Not all kept pace with the Abbe Loisy, who 
 went so far as to hold views subversive of belief 
 in the Divinity of Christ and in the Divine origin 
 of the Church and of the sacraments. But common 
 to most of them was the view that the Gospel por¬ 
 traiture of Christ is not wholly true to the original, 
 that miracles, including the Resurrection, elude the 
 human power of demonstration, that the old con¬ 
 ception of faith resting on a positive Divine com¬ 
 munication from without and having for its object 
 a message from God definite in its contents and 
 admitting no change, must give place to the new 
 idea that faith is the conviction of man’s responsi¬ 
 bility to God, born of and fostered by the con¬ 
 sciousness of the presence and working of God 
 within us, and that revelation is naught else than 
 the self-manifestation of the Divine in our inward 
 life. 
 
 It would be outside the scope of this survey of 
 the recent history of Apologetics to describe in de¬ 
 tail the nature and fate of Modernism. That has 
 already been well done in the able article Mod¬ 
 ernism, by Father Vermeersch, S. J. (C. E., X-415b). 
 Suffice it to say that in July, 1907, the Decree 
 “Lamentabili,” of the Holy Office, branded as false 
 and un-Catholic sixty-five theses expressing Mod¬ 
 ernist views on Scripture, revelation and faith, the 
 Divinity of Christ, prophecies and miracles, espe¬ 
 cially that of the Resurrection, the Church and the 
 sacraments. This Syllabus of errors was followed 
 in September by the Encyclical, “Pascendi,” of Pope 
 Pius X, condemning Modernism as a synthesis of 
 teachings destructive of Catholic faith. The ex¬ 
 communication of its chief exponents, Loisy, Tyr¬ 
 rell, Murri and Fogazarro, followed soon after, in 
 consequence of their unwillingness to submit, and 
 their Modernist writings were put on the Index. 
 
 In refutation of Modernism a very large number 
 of able treatises have been published, some of them 
 as books and pamphlets, others in the form of 
 articles for periodicals and dictionaries. While some 
 of these have aimed to show the untenableness of 
 the whole system from the Catholic standpoint, by 
 far the larger number have been directed against 
 particular features of the new heresy. Among those 
 who have done notable service in this field of 
 apologetics may be mentioned: Cardinal Mercier, 
 “Le Modernisme, sa Position vis-a-vis de la sci¬ 
 ence” (1908); A. Vermeersch, S. J., “De Modernismo 
 Tractatus” (1910), also his article Modernism, in 
 Volume X of this Encyclopedia; Msgr. Farges, 
 article “Modernisme,” in the recently issued part of 
 the new “Dictionnaire apologetique de la foi catho- 
 lique,” a masterly treatise of about seventy-five 
 thousand words; M. Lepin, S. S., “Les Theories de 
 M. Loisy” (1908); “Christologie” (1908); “Jesus 
 Messie” (4th ed., 1909); trans. “Christ and the Gos¬ 
 pel” (1910); “Jesus Christ, sa vie et son ceuvre” 
 
APOLOGETICS 
 
 48 
 
 APOSTASY 
 
 (1912); J. Lebreton, “L’Encyclique et la theologie 
 moderniste” (1908); MM. Bourchany, Pener et 
 Tixeront, “Conferences apologetiques” (1910); MM, 
 Jacquier et Bourchany, “Conferences apologetiques 
 sur la Resurrection et les miracles evangeliques” 
 (1911); E. Mangenot, “La Resurrection de Jesus” 
 (1910); J. de Tonquedec, “La Notion de verite dans 
 la philosophic nouvelle” (1908); also “Introduction 
 a l’etude du Merveilleux et du Miracle” (1916). 
 
 A prominent feature of the Catholic reaction 
 against Modernism is the increased emphasis laid on 
 Scriptural studies. The Biblical Commission, estab¬ 
 lished in 1902 under Pope Leo XIII, received a new 
 significance and importance after the publication of 
 the Encyclical Pascendi. The authority of its de¬ 
 cisions, questioned by some, was defined in the 
 Motu Proprio of Pius X, November 18, 1907 
 (Prsestantia Scripturse Sacrse), making them the 
 guide-posts of Catholic teaching. Two years later, 
 the Pontifical Biblical Institute was established in 
 Rome and put in charge of Jesuit scholars. As 
 the apostolic letter of authorization indicates, its 
 purpose is to safeguard Catholic students of Scrip¬ 
 ture from the grave danger of having recourse to 
 non-Catholic teachers and of being thereby imbued 
 with Modernist errors. In the interests of the 
 Institute, a new periodical, “Biblica,” issued every 
 three months, was presented to the world of scholars 
 in 1920. It is edited by the professors of the Insti¬ 
 tute, the chief editor being the noted scholar, Dr. 
 Fonck, S. J., and is destined to publish many articles 
 of apologetic value. 
 
 The article on Apologetics in the first volume of 
 this encyclopedia makes mention of the so-called 
 “Immanence School,” that was in vogue twenty 
 years ago in France, and of the subjective Christian 
 philosophy of apologists like Olle-Laprune and 
 Fonsegrive. The loyalty of these writers to Catho¬ 
 lic faith was unquestioned, but after the condem¬ 
 nation of Modernism in 1907, their subjective 
 philosophy fell into discredit, being so strongly sug¬ 
 gestive of the philosophy of Kant as to be open to 
 the suspicion of leading to Modernism. 
 
 The Modernism of liberal Protestantism does not 
 mark the furthest outposts of rationalistic specula¬ 
 tion. Beyond is the riot of ever-shifting theories 
 on monistic evolution, on the physico-chemical ex¬ 
 planation of the activities of living organisms from 
 the microbe to man, on the relation of human 
 knowledge to an objective world, on religious 
 psychology. The numerous exponents of these 
 theories, strong in criticizing the work of their pre¬ 
 decessors and at the same time weak in setting up 
 any enduring monument of their own, show an 
 atheistic trend that bodes no good for Christian 
 faith and gives rise to serious misgivings when one 
 considers that many of these leaders of the blind 
 are teachers of the Christian youth in the great 
 universities of the land. To neutralize these teach¬ 
 ings there is need of more works like those of 
 Father E. Wassmann, S.J., “Modern Biology and 
 the Theory of Evolution” (1910); “The Berlin Dis¬ 
 cussion of the Problem of Evolution” (1909): B. 
 Windle, “What Is Life?” (1908); “Facts and Theo¬ 
 ries” (1912); J. Donat, S.J., “The Freedom of Sci¬ 
 ence” (1914); Carrigou-Lagrange, “Dieu, son Ex¬ 
 istence et sa Nature.” 
 
 Besides the works mentioned above, the following 
 
 are of value for apologetic study: 
 
 Ottiger, Theologia Fundamentalis (2 yols., 1918); Esser- 
 Mausbach, Religion, Christentiim, und Kirche (3 vols., 1913); 
 D'Ales (ed.) Dictionnaire Apologetique de la Foi Catholique. 
 (This monumental work, begun in 1911 and appearing in parts 
 is about half complete); Walshe, Principles of Apologetics 
 C191S); Batiffol, The Primitive Church and Catholicism 
 (1911); Idem, Orpheus et VEvangile (1910); Finlay, The 
 Church of Christ (1915); Barnes, The Early Church in the 
 
 Light of the Monuments (1913); Rickaby, Authority and 
 Religious Belief (1916); Cuthbert and Others, God and the 
 Supernatural (1921); Baudrillart, The Catholic Church, 
 Renaissance and Protestantism (1908); de Poulpiquet, Le 
 miracle et ses suppleances (1913); Joyce, The Question of 
 Miracles (1914); Devas, The Key to the World’s Progress 
 (1918); Jacquier, Etudes de critique et de philologie du 
 Nouveau Testament (1920); Allo, L’Evangile en face du 
 syncretisme paien (1910); Le Roy, La Religion des Primitifs 
 (1909); Bricout, Ou en est Thistoire des religions? (1911); 
 Huby, Christus, manuel d’histoire des religions (1913); Mar- 
 tindale and Others, The History of Religions (5 vols., 1910-11); 
 Guibert, Les Origines (6th ed., 1910); Idem, Les Croyances 
 Religieuses et La Science de la Nature (1908); Eymieu, Le 
 Naturalisme devant la Science (1921); Windle, The Church 
 and Science (1917); Hugueny, Critique et Catholique; I. Apolo¬ 
 getique (4th ed., 1919); Langan, Apologetica (1921); Brosnan, 
 Institutiones Theologiae Naturalis (1921). 
 
 Charles F. Aiken. 
 
 Apostasy (cf. C. E., I-624c), is of three kinds: 
 apostasy from the Christian Faith, apostasy from 
 religious life, and apostasy from orders. All apos¬ 
 tates from the Christian Faith incur excommunica¬ 
 tion reserved specially to the pope, by the very 
 fact of their crime; unless they repent on being 
 warned, they are to be deprived of all ecclesiastical 
 benefices, dignities, pensions, offices, or posts, if 
 they have any, to be declared infamous and if they 
 are clerics, on being warned again, they are to be 
 punished by canonical deposition. If an apostate 
 affiliates formally with a non-Catholic sect or pub¬ 
 licly adheres to it he incurs infamy ipso jacto; if 
 he is a cleric he loses ipso facto any office he holds, 
 and after a fruitless warning he is to be degraded. 
 Those who receive, favor or defend apostates, for¬ 
 merly incurred the same excommunication; this is 
 no longer the case, though the censure is incurred 
 by the publishers (not the printers, as heretofore) of 
 works of apostates defending apostasy, heresy, or 
 schism. Contrary to the former discipline, the Code 
 enacts that infamy, one of the punishments men¬ 
 tioned above, does not affect those who are related 
 by consanguinity or affinity to the party excom¬ 
 municated; his children, however, would be pro¬ 
 hibited from receiving orders as long as he re¬ 
 mained unrepentant. Apostasy debars from 
 ecclesiastical burial and from requiem or memorial 
 Masses, but this is so only when notorious, and 
 the party has died without giving signs of repent¬ 
 ance. Catholics are most earnestly urged in the 
 canons to avoid marriage with apostates; if they 
 are deaf to this warning the parish priest must 
 not assist at the marriage without the permission 
 of the bishop. Any person who knowingly receives 
 orders from an apostate prelate incurs a suspension 
 a divinis reserved to the Holy See. 
 
 Absolution of apostates in the internal forum, or 
 confession, is specially reserved to the Holy See; 
 but if the crime of apostasy is brought to the exter¬ 
 nal forum of the local ordinary in any way, the 
 bishop, or vicar capitular, but not the vicar general 
 without a special mandate, may by his ordinary 
 power absolve the penitent in the external forum 
 after obtaining from him a judicial abjuration (that 
 is one made in the presence of the local ordinary 
 or of his delegate and two witnesses), and observing 
 the other legal requisites. Having been thus freed 
 from the censure, the penitent may be absolved 
 from his sin by any confessor. The bishop’s power 
 in this matter is ordinary and may, therefore, be 
 delegated, such delegation to priests being the usual 
 practice in the United States. 
 
 Apostates from religious life are those who being 
 professed with simple or solemn perpetual vows 
 leave their religious house illegitimately, with the 
 intention of not returning, or who, having gone out 
 with permission, do not return, in order to with¬ 
 draw themselves from religious obedience. Such a 
 person’s evil intent is presumed by the law- if within 
 
APOSTLES 
 
 49 
 
 APPEALS 
 
 \ 
 
 a month the religious does not return or at least 
 inform the superior of his intention to return. 
 Superiors are to seek out such apostates to induce 
 them to return, and are to receive them if they re¬ 
 turn penitently. If the apostate is a sister or a 
 nun, the local ordinary, and also the regular superior, 
 if there is question of an exempt monastery, are 
 to interest themselves prudently in securing her 
 return. A religious, of course, who flees with a 
 person of the other sex is ipso facto lawfully dis¬ 
 missed from the order. Apostates from religious 
 life, by the very fact of their crime, incur excom¬ 
 munication reserved to their higher superior, or if 
 the order is lay or nonexempt to the ordinary of 
 the place in which the apostates sojourn; they are 
 excluded from legitimate ecclesiastical acts, and lose 
 all the privileges of their order; if they return to 
 religion they are deprived perpetually of active and 
 passive voice, and should be suitably punished by 
 the superiors in accordance with the rules. 
 
 The fugitive or runaway religious is one who 
 leaves his house without the superior’s leave but 
 with the intention of returning to the religious 
 life. He is by the very fact of his crime deprived 
 of his office, if he held any in his order, and, if he 
 is ordained, he incurs suspension reserved to his own 
 higher superior; when he returns he is to be pun¬ 
 ished according to the rule; if the rule has made 
 no provision regarding the penalty, the superior 
 should inflict suitable punishment. It may be noted 
 that a nun with solemn vows who leaves her 
 monastic enclosure, even for a short time, without 
 a special indult of the Holy See, except in an 
 urgent case of grave danger, incurs excommunica¬ 
 tion reserved simply to the pope. 
 
 A third kind of apostasy, though not classed as 
 such in the Code is apostasy from orders, the aban¬ 
 donment of the clerical state and dress by clerics 
 who have received major orders. To-day a cleric 
 who abandons his clerical dress is to be seriously 
 admonished by his ordinary to wear it again; if a 
 month elapses without the warning being regarded, 
 a minor cleric is ipso jure expelled from the ranks of 
 the clergy; if the cleric is in major orders, any office 
 he hold becomes vacant ipso facto, he is to be sus¬ 
 pended from the orders he has received; if he openly 
 adopts a profession or business foreign to the 
 clerical state he is to be warned again, and, if three 
 months elapse without this second warning being 
 heeded, he is to be deposed. 
 
 Apostles (cf. C. E., 626d).—Though the history of 
 the evangelical career of some of the Apostles is 
 wrapped in obscurity or legend, the following are 
 the places of which they are commonly credited as 
 being in an especial way the Apostles: St. Peter, 
 Antioch and Rome; St. Andrew, Achaia and Scy¬ 
 thia; St. John, Ephesus; St. James the Greater, 
 Spain; St. James the Less, Judea; St. Thomas, 
 Mesopotamia and India; St. Jude, Persia; St.Simon, 
 Egypt; St. Matthew, Persia and Macedonia; St. 
 Bartholomew, Arabia, Mesopotamia, and Asia 
 Minor; St. Philip, Phrygia. In addition we have 
 St. Paul, the Apostle of the Gentiles; St. Barnabas 
 in Cyprus and Antioch; and St. Matthias in Asiatic 
 Ethiopia. The following also are honored as the 
 apostles who laid the foundations of the Faith in 
 the regions or among the peoples mentioned, or who 
 by their efforts there to revive or save it won the 
 title of apostle: Abyssinia, St. Frumentius; The 
 Alps, St. Bernard of Menthon; Armenia, St. Gregory 
 the Illuminator; Artois, St. Vedas; Austria, St. 
 Severinus; Auvergne, St. Austremonius; Bavaria, 
 St. Severinus; Brabant, St. Willibrord; Brazil, Ven. 
 Jose Anchieta; Brittany, St. Paul, de Leon; Bur¬ 
 
 gundy, St. Benignus; Carinthia, St. Virgil; Corsica, 
 Bl. Alexander Sauli; Crete, St. Titus; Denmark, 
 St. Anschar; East Anglia, St. Felix; England, St. 
 Augustine; Finland, St. Henry; Flanders, St. 
 Livinus; France, St. Martin of Tours; Franconia, 
 St. Killian; Friesland, St. Suitbert and St. Wulfran; 
 Georgia, St. Nina; Germany, St. Boniface; Goth¬ 
 land, St. Sigfrid; Guelderland, St. Plechelm; Hol¬ 
 land, St. Willibrord; the Indies, St. Francis Xavier; 
 Ireland, St. Patrick; Livonia, Bishop Berthold; 
 Mechlin, St. Rumold; the Mecklenberg Wends, 
 Berno; Mercia, St. Ceadda; North Britain, St. Nin- 
 nian; Norway, St. Olaf; Persia, St. Maruthas; the 
 Piets, St. Colmcille; Pomerania, St. Otto; Portugal, 
 St. Christian; Provence, St. Lazarus and St. Martha; 
 Prussia, St. Adalbert and St. Bruno of Querfurt; 
 Ruthenia, St. Bruno; Sardinia, St. Ephesus; Saxony, 
 St. Willihad; Scotland, St. Palladius and St. Colm¬ 
 cille; the Slavs, Sts. Cyril and Methodius; Spain, 
 St. James and St. Euphrasius; Sussex, St. Wilfrid; 
 Sweden, St. Anschar; Switzerland, St. Gall and 
 St. Andeol; Tournai, St. Piat and St. Eloi; Tyrol, 
 St. Valentine; Valencia, St. Felix; the Wends, 
 Boso; Wessex, St. Birinus; Westphalia, St. Ludger. 
 The following titles also are commonly accepted: 
 St. Vincent de Paul, Apostle of Charity; St. Peter 
 Claver, Apostle of the Negro Slaves; "Father Bar- 
 tolome de las Cassas, Apostle of the Indians; Father 
 Theobald Mathew, Apostle of Temperance; Ven. 
 Camillo Pacetti, Apostle of Perugia; St. Francis de 
 Sales, Apostle of Chablais; Bl. Peter Canisius, 
 Apostle of Germany; St. Philip Neri, Apostle of 
 Rome, and Bl. Sebastian Valfre, Apostle of Turin. 
 
 Apostolicae Sedis Moderationi (cf. C. E., I-645c), 
 the Constitution in which Pius IX set forth the 
 modern law of censures and reservations, is now 
 only of historic interest, as all pontifical censures 
 and penalties contained in papal documents were 
 abolished in 1918, except those mentioned in the 
 Code of Canon Law which came into effect that 
 year. 
 
 Apparitors (cf. C. E., I-650a) may be described 
 as sheriffs of the ecclesiastical tribunals; they may 
 at the same time act also as cursors or heralds. 
 They are usually laymen, and their nomination, 
 suspension and recall are governed by the rules 
 enacted concerning notaries. 
 
 Appeal as from an Abuse. See Privileges, 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 Appeals (cf. C. E., I-652b).—Any party to an 
 ecclesiastical suit who believes himself wronged by 
 the judgment of the court, and likewise the pro¬ 
 motor of justice and the defender of the marriage 
 bond, in cases in which they are interested, may 
 appeal from the decision of the trial judge (judge 
 appellee) to a higher or appellate judge. Indeed 
 the defender of the bond must appeal against the 
 decision of the court of first instance if it annuls a 
 marriage. However, no appeal can be taken from a 
 decision of the pope or of the Apostolic Signature; 
 or from the decision of a judge who has been dele¬ 
 gated by the Holy See to try a case, if the rescript 
 appointing him contained the clause appellatione 
 remota (without right of appeal) from a judgment 
 that is still null and void; or when the matter 
 in dispute has been once definitely settled by the 
 court; or from a definitive judgment based on an 
 oath decisive of the suit; or from a judicial decree 
 or an interlocutory judgment not having definitive 
 force, unless it is joined with an appeal from a 
 definitive judgment; or from a judgment in a case 
 which the canons require to be decided without 
 any delay; or from a judgment against a contu- 
 
APPEALS 
 
 50 
 
 APPROBATION 
 
 macious person who has not purged himself from 
 his contumacy; or from s, judgment against one 
 who has expressly renounced in writing his right 
 of appeal. If a judge decides he is relatively com¬ 
 petent to hear a case there is no appeal allowed 
 against such a decision; though if he declares him¬ 
 self incompetent either .of the parties may appeal 
 if he believes himself wronged by the decision. 
 
 Usually the judge of appeal or of second instance 
 is the metropolitan or archbishop, yet if the latter 
 has acted as trial judge, the judge of appeal will 
 be any bishop whom he has selected once for all 
 for that purpose, with the approval of the Holy 
 See. If the archbishop has no suffragans or if the 
 trial judge was a local ordinary immediately sub¬ 
 ject to the Holy See, the appeal is to be made to a 
 neighboring metropolitan. In the case of exempt 
 religious an appeal is made from a decision of the 
 provincial to the general, or from the local abbot 
 to the head of the monastic congregation. Appeals 
 against episcopal decrees are to be taken to the 
 various Roman Congregations, not to the Sacred 
 Rota. 
 
 An appeal may me made verbally before the 
 judge in court, if the decision is given there pub¬ 
 licly, and in that case it must be immediately re¬ 
 corded by the notary. In any other case it has 
 to be made in writing, except when the party can¬ 
 not write. An appeal must be made before the 
 judge appellee within ten days after notice of the 
 publication of the decision, and must be brought 
 before the judge of appeal or appellate judge within 
 a month, unless the judge appellee has granted an 
 extension. This is done by the appellant asking 
 the appellate judge to amend the decision, at the 
 same time presenting a copy of the judgment and 
 of the notice of appeal, which he shall have pre¬ 
 viously shown to the judge appellee. If he cannot 
 obtain a copy of the judgment, the time which 
 is allowed within which to appeal ceases to run; 
 the appellate judge is then to be notified, and he 
 must compel the judge appellee to give the copy 
 as soon as possible. If one of the litigants dies or 
 changes his status or resigns from the office in virtue 
 of which he was acting, within the time for appeal¬ 
 ing, but before the appeal has been interposed, 
 those who are interested should be informed about 
 the judgment, and the time for appeal begins to run 
 from the day on which they are so notified; if the 
 change happens after notice of appeal has been 
 given, the parties interested are similarly to be in¬ 
 formed, and from that moment the time for con¬ 
 tinuing the appeal begins to run. 
 
 An appeal made by the plaintiff may be utilized 
 by the defendant and vice versa. If one of the 
 litigants appeals against part of the judgment, his 
 adversary may appeal against other parts of it, even 
 though he had already lost his right to appeal by 
 lapse of time; and he can do this also with an un¬ 
 derstanding that he is to withdraw his appeal if his 
 opponent does likewise. If the appellant attacks only 
 certain parts of the judgment, he is considered as 
 having acquiesced in the remainder, but if he speci¬ 
 fies no particular part, he is deemed to have ap¬ 
 pealed against the entire decision. If one of several 
 plaintiffs or defendants appeals, all are considered to 
 have appealed, if what is sought, or if the decision 
 affects them jointly; but if the judge of appeals 
 confirms the decision of the lower court, the actual 
 appellant alone has to bear the costs of the appeal. 
 There is never an appeal properly so-called al¬ 
 lowed on the question of costs, but an aggrieved 
 party may apply within ten days to the judge who 
 gave them, and he may re-open the question. All 
 appeals suspend judgments unless the law states 
 
 otherwise; however, in a case of grave necessity 
 a provisional execution may be allowed, if an ade¬ 
 quate bond is lodged in court as security against 
 loss in case the appeal is upheld. As soon as the 
 appeal has been brought before the higher tribunal, 
 the lower court must supply a certified copy or the 
 original documents of the proceedings to the judge 
 of appeal, who can deal only with the case exactly 
 as it was presented to the lower court, though addi¬ 
 tional proofs of the questions involved may be 
 introduced. 
 
 When a sentence rendered is null and void the 
 remedy is not an appeal, but a complaint of nullity. 
 The sentence is irremediably null if it was given 
 by an absolutely incompetent judge or by a tribunal 
 of judges lacking the canonical number; or if one 
 of the party was incompetent to litigate; or if the 
 suit was conducted in the name of a party but with¬ 
 out his leave. Under these circumstances the 
 question of nullity may be raised as an exception 
 {per viodum exceptionis) at any time, or by lodging 
 a complaint within thirty years with the judge who 
 rendered the decision. On the other hand the defect 
 in the sentence may be remediable; this happens 
 when the citation was illegal, or when no reasons 
 for the decision were given by the judge (excepting 
 in decisions of the Apostolic Signature), or where 
 the requisite signatures, dates, or name of place 
 were omitted. In this case the complaint with an 
 appeal may be made within ten years, or the 
 complaint alone within three months from the time 
 of publication of the judgment; the application is 
 to be made to the judge who heard the case, but if 
 the applicant mistrusts him he can demand to be 
 heard by another judge of the same standing. If 
 a definitive sentence does wrong to a third party, 
 he may intervene before its execution by a pro¬ 
 ceeding known as oppositio tertii, in which he either 
 petitions the adjudicating judge to revise his de¬ 
 cision or appeals to a higher court. 
 
 If a question has become a res judicata, that is 
 definitively closed or settled, for instance when the 
 first decision has been upheld on appeal, or where 
 no appeal is allowed bj'' law, or when the appeal 
 was not begun or prosecuted in time, an aggrieved 
 party may have recourse to the extraordinary rem¬ 
 edy known as restitutio in integrum (restoration of 
 the party to his original condition), if the decision 
 was manifestly unjust. A decision is not considered 
 manifestly unjust, however, unless it is shown that 
 it was based on false documents, or was obtained 
 by the fraud of one of the parties, or that the pro¬ 
 visions of the law were clearly disregarded, or that 
 new documents have been discovered establishing 
 facts that clearly necessitate a reversal of the sen¬ 
 tence. The petition for a hearing is to be made to 
 the adjudicating judge, unless it is based on a claim 
 that the judge neglected the prescriptions of the 
 law, in which case it is to be addressed to the court 
 of appeal. A propos of res judicatae it must be 
 noted that the question of a person’s status, for 
 instance where the validitjr of a marriage is in¬ 
 volved, is never a res judicata, yet if a decision has 
 been rendered and upheld on appeal no re-hearing 
 is allowable, unless it is based on new and grave 
 arguments or documents. 
 
 Approbation (cf. C. E., I-656d) .—Under the 
 Tridentine regime a minister of confession, besides 
 sacerdotal orders, required jurisdiction and approba¬ 
 tion. Approbation was defined as a juridical de¬ 
 cision of a prelate that a priest was competent to 
 hear confession. Without approbation, which could 
 be granted only by a bishop or a person exercising 
 episcopal jurisdiction, no one could hear the con- 
 
AQUILA 
 
 51 
 
 ARABIA 
 
 fessions of seculars, licitly or validly. The Code 
 makes no mention of approbation in this technical 
 sense as essential for absolution. While the canon 
 877 says that local ordinaries are not to grant juris¬ 
 diction and religious superiors are not to grant 
 jurisdiction or permission to hear confessions except 
 to those who have been proved by examination or 
 who are known in some other way to be competent 
 theologians, canon 872, speaking of the minister of 
 Penance, says merely that “in addition to the power 
 of orders the minister requires ordinary or dele¬ 
 gated power of jurisdiction over the penitent in 
 order to absolve him validly from sin.” (See Juris¬ 
 diction.) 
 
 Aquila, Archdiocese of (Aquilanesis; cf. C. E., 
 I-661a), in the Abruzzi, Italy, is directly subject to 
 the Holy See. Most Rev. Pellegrino Francesco 
 Stagni, appointed to this see 18 February, 1907, 
 was transferred to the titular see of Ancyra, 1 Jan¬ 
 uary, 1916. He was succeeded by the present arch¬ 
 bishop, Most Rev. Adolfo Turchi, b. at Balignano, 
 1863, made a domestic prelate, 1904, named secretary 
 of the Sacred Congregation of Religious, 1914, and 
 titular Bishop of Canope, promoted to the Arch¬ 
 diocese of Aquila 17 July, 1918. By 1920 statistics 
 there are in this diocese 107,800 Catholics, 135 
 parishes, 200 secular and 29 regular clergy, 25 semi¬ 
 narians, 242 churches or chapels, 32 brothers, and 
 100 sisters. 
 
 Aquino, Sora and Pontecorvo, Diocese of 
 (AqUINATENSIS, SoRANENSIS ET PONTIS 1 CuRVi; cf. 
 C. E., I-662d), in the province of Caserta, Italy, is 
 directly subject to the Holy See. The present in¬ 
 cumbent, Rt. Rev. Antonio Maria Janotta, b. 1847, 
 was appointed to this see in 1900 and made an 
 assistant at the pontifical throne 28 March, 1913. 
 By 1920 statistics Aquino has a Catholic population 
 of 52,150, 19 parishes, 64 secular and 8 regular clergy, 
 30 seminarians, 220 churches or chapels, 10 brothers, 
 and 7 sisters. Sora has a population of 95,200, 
 45 parishes, 168 secular and 30 regular clergy, 35 
 seminarians, 220 churches or chapels, 19 brothers, 
 and 59 sisters. The population of Pontecorvo num¬ 
 bers 12,050, and there are 8 parishes, 29 secular and 
 10 regular clergy, 25 churches or chapels, 27 brothers, 
 and 24 sisters. 
 
 Arabia (cf. C. E., I-663a).—A territory in western 
 Asia, containing the new Kingdom of Hejaz, the 
 Emirates of Nejd and Hasa, Jebel Shammar, and 
 Kerak, the principate of Asir, the Imamate of 
 Yemen, the British Protectorate of Aden, and the 
 Sultanates of Oman and Koweit. The total area 
 is approximately 1,000,000 square miles with a popu¬ 
 lation of between five and six millions. 
 
 At the outbreak of the European War, Turkey 
 was in possession of the whole Red Sea littoral 
 from Akaba to Mocha, with the single exception of 
 Idrisi’s territory, a stretch of about 100 miles from 
 Shukeik to Wadi Ain. The Ottoman holding aver¬ 
 aged inland about 150 miles, but its connection with 
 the main body of the Empire was slender and 
 precarious. The oases of Teima and Kheibar were 
 held, not by the Turks, but by Ibn Rashid of 
 Hail; Yemen in the north was free from the Turks, 
 also, and the region east of Sana. When war broke 
 out, Great Britain feared a holy war on the part of 
 the Moslems, the possible loss of Aden, and the 
 destruction of the British trunk route to the East. 
 In search of a local ally to combat these dangers 
 Great Britain naturally turned to the Grand Sherif 
 Husein, who desired the independence of the Meccan 
 Sherifate. He had been astute enough to undertake 
 for Turkey, who had nominated him in 1908, mili¬ 
 
 tary operations which equally served his purpose of 
 weakening Ins rivals by encroaching on the domain 
 °£ th ? Yali of Hejaz until by 1913, he was the most 
 effective power in Mecca and Jidda. In the sum¬ 
 mer of 1915 he opened negotiations with Great 
 Britain, who guaranteed the autonomy of Hejaz in 
 the event of a successful revolt. 
 
 Kingdom of Hejaz.— On 5 June, 1916, Husein Ibn 
 Ali, proclaimed his independence, and in November, 
 1916, issued a proclamation assuming the title King 
 of Hejaz. The Treaty of Peace with Turkey recog¬ 
 nizes Hejaz as a free and independent state. By 
 the end of 1917, when Husein had borne the title 
 of “Malik” for more than a year, and successfully 
 presided over two pilgrimages, Turkish authority 
 had disappeared throughout northwestern Arabia 
 from Ivunfuda to Akaba, except at Medina. In 
 Mecca and southern Hijaz the king’s rule rests 
 on a traditional local loyalty and among other 
 tribesmen there exists some vague sentiment of 
 nationalism. The new kingdom has an area of 
 about 100,000 square miles, and an estimated popu¬ 
 lation of at least 750,000. Its capital is Mecca 
 (80,000 inhabitants); the second largest city is 
 Medina (40,000); the chief port is Jidda on the 
 Red Sea, population 30,000. 
 
 The Emirate of Nejd and Hasa, the more power¬ 
 ful of the two Central Arabian principalities, has 
 its capital at Riyadh, whence the Saud dynasty 
 exercises jurisdiction over the neighboring groups 
 of oases. The present Emir is Abd el-Aziz es-Saud, 
 who expelled the Turks from Hasa in 1913 and 
 has extended his influence to include Hofuf in the 
 region of the Persian Gulf. Estimated population, 
 250,000 inhabitants. South Nejd has about 50,000 
 inhabitants, Central Nejd, about 100,000; Kasin, 
 50,000; Stasa, 50,000. 
 
 The Emirate of Jebel Shammar is ruled by 
 Abdullah ibn Mitah, who succeeded on the assassi¬ 
 nation of his father, Ibn Rashid, in May, 1920. Its 
 capital is at Hail and its population, including the 
 Shammar, numbers 200,000 (estimated). 
 
 The Principiate of Asir is ruled by Mohammed 
 ibn Ali-el-Idrisi, a member of the Idrisi family. 
 The estimated population is about 1,000,000; the 
 capital, Sabiyah. 
 
 The Immamate^ of Yemen, with its capital at 
 Sana, is ruled by Yahya Mohammed Hamid ed-Din, 
 and has an area of about 75,000 sqaure miles and 
 an estimated population of one million. The chief 
 ports are Mocha and Hodeida, population 40,000. 
 
 The Sultanate of Koweit, on the northwestern 
 coast of the Persian Gulf, is ruled by Ahmed ibn 
 Jobar, who succeeded his uncle in March, 1921. The 
 Sultan is subsidized by the British government 
 which maintains a political agent at his court. The 
 estimated population is about 50,000. 
 
 The Emirate of Kerak is governed by Abdullah, 
 son of King Husein. Kerak is Transjordania. 
 
 The Protectorate of Aden.— By the Anglo- 
 Turkish Convention of 1914 the boundary of Aden 
 was prolonged through the desert to a point on the 
 coast opposite Bahrein in the Persian Gulf. The 
 settlement also includes the island of Perim at the 
 entrance of the Red Sea, and is subject to the Bom¬ 
 bay government. The government is administered 
 by a political resident (who is also General Officer 
 commanding the troops) with four assistants. The 
 India office has hitherto exercised internal adminis¬ 
 trative control; the Foreign Office has been re¬ 
 sponsible for political questions, and the War Office 
 for military questions. The area is about 75 square 
 miles, but with the Protectorate included it is about 
 9000 square miles; the area of Perim is 5 square 
 miles. A railway was begun in 1915 for military 
 
ARACAJU 
 
 52 
 
 ARCHBISHOP 
 
 purposes, from Aden to Lahej, a distance of 30 
 
 lllllCS. 
 
 Vicariate Apostolic (cf. C. E., I-674c).—The 
 Vicariate Apostolic of Arabia includes the whole 
 Arabic territory between 35° and 60° east longitude 
 and 13° and 30° north latitude, the islands of Perm 
 and Socotra, and British Somaliland. In 1901 Mgr. 
 Jean Bigel was consecrated titular bishop of 
 Eumenia and appointed to succeed Mgr. Lasserre, 
 the first vicar apostolic, who resigned. Mgr. Bigel, 
 who was elected against his will, never acted as 
 vicar, and in 1902 Mgr. Thomas Clark was con¬ 
 secrated titular bishop of Tingis and vicar apostolic. 
 Eight years later Bishop Clark was transferred to 
 the diocese of Port Victoria, Seychelles Islands, and 
 Mgr. Raffaele Presutti, consecrated titular bishop 
 of Anchialos, replaced him in Arabia. He died 3 
 August, 1914, and the present incumbent, Mgr. 
 Evangelista Vanni, titular bishop of Tenedos, be¬ 
 came vicar in 1916. Born in the diocese of Pistoia, 
 Italy, in 1878, he entered the Capuchin novitiate 
 at Cortona, was ordained in 1901, and four years 
 later went as a missionary to India. He was rector 
 of the cathedral in Agra when appointed vicar 
 apostolic of Arabia. 
 
 In 1912 the Somali chiefs, threatening an insur¬ 
 rection, forced the English authorities to close the 
 missions in Somaliland founded by the French 
 Capuchin Fathers, who were later given charge of 
 the newly erected Prefecture Apostolic of Jibuti, 
 formed from territory belonging to the Galla Mis¬ 
 sion. Efforts to evangelize the interior of Arabia 
 are still unsuccessful. During the World War a 
 military chaplain was stationed at Sheik Othman. 
 Catholics in the vicariate made a special contribu¬ 
 tion to the War Memorial. 
 
 Statistics for 1921 were as follows: about 5,000,000 
 inhabitants, of whom about 1,000 were Catholics, 600 
 native and 400 European; 2 missions, 2 churches, 
 4 priests, 5 stations, 5 schools with 247 pupils and 
 12 teachers, 2 convents of Franciscan Sisters of 
 Calais with 11 Sisters, 2 orphanages with 50 orphans, 
 4 pious associations; Tertiaries of St. Francis, 
 League of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, Societies of 
 St. Francis Xavier and of the Holy Rosary; 1 co¬ 
 operative society. 
 
 Aracaju, Diocese of (Aracajunensis), in Brazil, 
 was erected on 15 December, 1909, by the dis¬ 
 memberment of the Archdiocese of Bahia, of which 
 it is a suffragan. It comprises the state of Sergipe, 
 of which Aracaju is the capital, and is bounded on 
 the north by the state of Alagoas, on the west and 
 south by Bahia, and on the east by the Atlantic 
 Ocean, thus covering an area of 86,993 sq. miles. 
 The cathedral is dedicated to the Holy Saviour. 
 The first and present bishop, Rt. Rev. Joseph 
 Thomas Gomes da Silva, b. at Martins, 1873, was 
 appointed to this see 12 May, 1911, and consecrated 
 19 November following. By 1920 statistics the dio¬ 
 cese has a Catholic population of 550,000, divided 
 into 28 parishes. 
 
 Arassuahy, Diocese of (Arassuahiensis), in the 
 State of Minas Geraes, Brazil, is suffragan to the 
 Archdiocese of Diamantina, out of a portion of 
 which it was erected 25 August, 1913, having as its 
 western limits the civil communes of Theopilo 
 Ottoni and Minas Novas, which form a part of it. 
 The original boundaries were changed 2 April, 1914, 
 making the diocese somewhat larger than when it 
 was first erected. 
 
 The present incumbent, Rt. Rev. Seraphino 
 Gomez-Jardim, is the first bishop of the diocese. 
 Born at Olhos d’Agua 7 September, 1875, he made 
 his studies at the seminary of Diamantina and was 
 
 ordained a priest 1 June, 1901, became a professor 
 in the seminary, was appointed papal chamberlain 
 7 December, 1907, secretary to the bishop 17 August, 
 1908, and editor of the Catholic journal, “A Estrella 
 Polar.” He was appointed Bishop of Arassuahy 
 12 March, 1914, consecrated 20 September, and in¬ 
 stalled 4 October of the same year. 
 
 The diocese now (1921) comprises: 24 parishes, 
 15 secular and 22 regular clergy, 2 convents for men, 
 
 3 lay brothers, 5 sisters, 1 seminary in course of 
 construction, 1 college for men and 1 for women, 
 
 1 asylum, and 7 hospitals. Societies to the number 
 of 10 are organized among the laity, and 2 Catholic 
 periodicals are published. 
 
 Arauca, Prefecture Apostolic of (Araucensis), 
 in Colombia, South America, was erected 26 May, 
 1915, by a division of the Vicariate Apostolic of 
 Casanare, of which it took all the northern part 
 situated to the left of the River Casanare. It is 
 entrusted to the Lazarist Fathers and has 30,000 
 inhabitants, comprising whites and Indians, and 7 
 missionaries. 
 
 Araucania, Prefecture Apostolic of (Araucanue; 
 cf. C. E., I-679a), in Chili, South America, with 
 residence at Valdivia. This mission comprises part 
 of the provinces of Cantin, Valdivia and Leauquihue, 
 and is bounded on the north by the River Imperial, 
 on the east by the frontier of Argentina, on the 
 west by the Pacific Ocean, and on the south by the 
 River Maipue. It has 143,000 inhabitants, of whom 
 60,000 are Indians and a number of these are in¬ 
 fidels. By 1920 statistics there are 20 parishes, 27 
 churches or chapels, 31 Capuchin Fathers and 21 
 brothers, 9 communities of religious of the Holy 
 Cross of Menzigen (Swiss), 9 elementary schools 
 with 519 pupils, and 9 secondary schools with 538 
 pupils. 
 
 Arbitration, Canonical (cf. C. E., 1-682).—To 
 avoid litigation the canons provide that the parties to 
 a dispute may covenant to submit it to one or more 
 arbitrators to decide the issue on the basis either of 
 law or of equity. Persons who are excommunicated 
 or infamous after a declaratory or condemnatory 
 sentence cannot act validly as arbitrators; neither 
 can laymen in ecclesiastical cases, while religious 
 must not undertake to adjudicate without permis¬ 
 sion of their superiors. Arbitration is invalid in 
 criminal cases or in contentious suits involving the 
 validity of a marriage, or the title to a benefice 
 (though in this case the lawful authorities may 
 authorize arbitration), or spiritual matters mixed 
 with temporal. If, however, the question concerns 
 church temporal goods and things which, though 
 connected with spiritual matters, can, nevertheless, 
 be considered apart from them, arbitration is law¬ 
 ful; but in that case the regulations concerning the 
 alienation of ecclesiastical property must be care¬ 
 fully observed. 
 
 Archbishop (cf. C. E., 1-691).—The right of an 
 archbishop to intervene in the dioceses of his suf¬ 
 fragan is strictly limited by the Code as follows: 
 He may grant institution to beneficiaries who have 
 been presented by patrons, if the suffragan has 
 neglected to do so within the statutory period. He 
 can grant indulgences of 100 days to the suffragan’s 
 subjects. He may appoint a vicar capitular or 
 ceconomus if the cathedral chapter has neglected 
 to elect one after the death of the bishop. He is 
 to see that the faith is not endangered and that 
 ecclesiastical discipline is strictly observed, and if 
 there are any abuses, he is to notify the Holy See. 
 If the suffragan has neglected the canonical visita¬ 
 tion of his diocese^ the archbishop may make it 
 
ARCHCONFRATERNITY 
 
 53 
 
 ARDAGrH 
 
 after obtaining permission from Rome; formerly 
 the practice was for him to undertake it only after 
 the matter had been discussed and approved at a 
 provincial council; but at that time such councils 
 were held every three years, while now they need 
 be called every twenty years. When an archbishop 
 is canonically visiting a suffragan’s diocese he may 
 preach, hear confessions and absolve even from sins 
 reserved by the bishop; he may investigate the 
 manner of life of the clergy, and denounce to their 
 ordinaries those clerics who are tainted with infamy 
 so that they may be punished; and may inflict 
 equitable punishment, not excluding censures, for 
 notorious crimes or for public notorious offenses 
 committed against himself or his assistants. He 
 may pontificate in any church, even if it is exempt, 
 though he must notify the ordinary if he desires 
 to do so in the cathedral; he may bless the faithful, 
 and may have the cross carried before him when 
 he enters the church. He must not, however, per¬ 
 form any other acts which imply jurisdiction. Of 
 course he acts as first judge of appeal in cases 
 originating in his suffragans’ courts, but he may 
 hear suits in first instance when they directly in¬ 
 volve the rights or temporalities of the bishop or 
 the diocesan mensa or curia. Formerly when an 
 archbishop heard a suit in first instance, an appeal, 
 if taken, had to be brought before the Holy See; 
 now the appeal is taken before a bishop selected 
 by the archbishop for that purpose once for all, 
 with the approval of the Holy See. 
 
 Archconfraternity ( c f. C. E., 1-692).—The title 
 archconfraternity can be conceded, even when it is 
 merely honorary, to an association only by the 
 Holy See, whose permission must be obtained also 
 before the location of an archconfraternity can be 
 changed. No association can be affiliated to an 
 archconfraternity unless it has the same title and 
 object, except by special permission of the pope. 
 When an association has been affiliated all the in¬ 
 dulgences, privileges and other communicable spir¬ 
 itual favors which have been granted by the Holy 
 See to the aggregating association, directly and by 
 name, and all that are granted thereafter are com¬ 
 municated to the affiliated association, unless the 
 contrary is stated by the Holy See. This com¬ 
 munication, however, gives the archconfraternity no 
 rights whatsoever over the aggregated association. 
 
 The following conditions are expressly laid down 
 for valid aggregation: the association must have 
 been canonically erected and must not have been 
 affiliated to any other archconfraternity or primary 
 union; the aggregation must be perpetual, and must 
 be executed in the manner prescribed in the 
 statutes; the diploma of aggregation is to be sent 
 gratis, voluntary payment for it being for¬ 
 bidden, except what is necessary to cover expenses, 
 which shall not be more than thirty francs or six 
 dollars; the indulgences, privileges, and other spir¬ 
 itual favors communicated by aggregation must be 
 set forth in a schedule, authenticated by the ordi¬ 
 nary of the place where the archconfraternity is 
 established, and sent to the aggregated society; 
 finally, the aggregation must be made with the 
 written consent and testimonial letters of the local 
 ordinary. 
 
 Archives, Ecclesiastical (cf. C. E., 1-696).— 
 Every diocese must have a special place, known as 
 the archives, in which all writings and documents 
 relating to the spiritual and temporal affairs of the 
 diocese are to be kept carefully in order and in¬ 
 dexed by the diocesan chancellor. The chancellor 
 is always a notary and documents drawn up by him 
 are held authentic. Sometimes he is given an assis¬ 
 
 tant or vice-chancellor, and often he has the help 
 of other notaries who may be laymen. The chan¬ 
 cellor or the notaries may be suspended or removed 
 by the bishop, but not by a vicar capitular unless 
 the cathedral chapter consents. It is the duty of the 
 chancellor to draw up an inventory or a catalogue 
 of the contents of the archives with an abstract 
 of each document. In the first half of each year 
 he must add a precis of the documents of the pre¬ 
 ceding year and any others that have been over¬ 
 looked. The archives are to be kept locked, and 
 no one must have access to them without the leave 
 of the' bishop or of the vicar-general and the chan¬ 
 cellor, the key being always entrusted to the latter. 
 Documents must not be taken from the archives 
 without leave of the bishop or vicar-general; if 
 any are removed with permission they must be 
 returned at the end of three days, unless the ordi¬ 
 nary extends the time. 
 
 In the document room there must be a special 
 compartment or irremovable safe in which all secret 
 documents are preserved with the greatest care. 
 This is to have two different locks, the key of one 
 lock being retained by the bishop or Apostolic 
 administrator, while the other is held by the vicar- 
 general or, if there is no vicar-general, by the chan¬ 
 cellor. No one except the bishop or the Apostolic 
 administrator is allowed to open the archives or 
 consult the secret documents, and special regula¬ 
 tions have been laid down to prevent the bishop’s 
 key from coming into possession of the official 
 holding the second key, in case of the bishop’s 
 death or disability. The illegal destruction, re¬ 
 moval or substantial modifying of any document 
 belonging to the episcopal archives is punished ipso 
 facto by excommunication; however, the documents 
 relating to criminal cases of morality must be burnt 
 immediately after the death of a culprit or as soon 
 as ten years have elapsed since the sentence of 
 condemnation was pronounced, but a synopsis of 
 all of these cases with the text of the final judg¬ 
 ment is to be preserved. An inventory or catalogue 
 of these secret archives must be kept as described 
 above. 
 
 Vicars and prefects Apostolic shall have their 
 archives, which are subject to the same regulations 
 as diocesan archives, due allowance being made for 
 differences of persons and places. 
 
 Duplicate inventories or catalogues of the archives 
 of the cathedral and collegiate or parochial churches, 
 and also of confraternities and holy places, are to 
 be made; one copy is to be kept in its proper 
 place, and the other deposited in the diocesan 
 archives. At the end of each year parish priests 
 must send the episcopal curia a certified copy of all 
 their parochial books, except the census returns; 
 and administrators of ecclesiastical goods are to 
 forward likewise a descriptive inventory of the 
 property entrusted to their care, noting the values 
 and calling attention to any changes in the prop¬ 
 erty; moreover, they must send the curia certified 
 copies of the documents relating to the ownership 
 of the property, if that can be done conveniently. 
 Anyone who is interested in these documents may 
 inspect those that are not secret, and may obtain 
 a copy of them. Documents may also be borrowed, 
 but only under the regulations governing the 
 diocesan archives. 
 
 Ardagh, Diocese of (Ardachadensis; cf. C. E., 
 I-699c), in Ireland, by the census of 1911 had a total 
 population of 102,380, of whom 94,827 were Catholics. 
 There are 41 parishes in the diocese, 96 secular and 
 4 regular clergy, 75 churches, 12 chapels, 1 seminary, 
 
 1 house of regulars, 12 convents, and 2 monasteries. 
 The various institutions in the diocese include 6 
 
AREQUIPA 
 
 54 
 
 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC 
 
 workhouses; the College of St. Mel, which cele¬ 
 brated its golden jubilee in 1912; 3 intermediate 
 schools; 3 industrial schools, and the Societies of 
 St. Vincent de Paul. Rt. Rev. Joseph Hoare, D. D., 
 consecrated 19 March, 1895, to succeed Most Rev. 
 B. Woodlock, D. D., is now bishop of the diocese. 
 
 Since the Easter Rebellion in 1916 the diocese of 
 Ardagh has suffered severe losses from the sacking 
 of Granard, the fierce battles of Ballinalee, the de¬ 
 struction of St. Mel’s Temperance Hall, one of the 
 finest in Ireland, the burning of houses, blowing up 
 of roads and bridges, and numerous other deeds of 
 violence. 
 
 Arequipa (de Arequipa; cf. C. E., I-701b), Dio¬ 
 cese of, in Peru, South America, is a suffragan of 
 Lima. The present incumbent, Rt. Rev. Mariano 
 Holguin, b. at Arequipa, I860, entered the Order 
 of Friars Minor 1881, was ordained 1886, appointed 
 Bishop of Huaraz 2 July, 1904, and transferred to 
 Arequipa 30 May, 1906; made an assistant at the 
 pontifical throne 12 August, 1915. By 1920 statistics 
 the Catholic population of this diocese numbers 
 290,000; there are 2 rectorates, 11 deaneries com¬ 
 prising 72 parishes, and 5 students from this diocese 
 are at the seminary at Lima. 
 
 Arezzo, Diocese of (Arretinensis; cf. C. E., 
 I-702b), in Tuscany, Italy, is directly dependent on 
 the Holy See. Rt. Rev. Giovanni Volpi, who was 
 appointed to this diocese in 1904, was transferred 
 to the titular see of Antioch of Pisidia 3 July, 1919, 
 and was succeeded by the present bishop, Rt. Rev. 
 Emanuele Mignone, b. at Cavatore, 1864, appointed 
 Bishop of Volterra, 29 April, 1909, and transferred 
 to Arezzo 18 December, 1919. The statistics for 
 1920 for this diocese give 250,300 Catholics, 330 
 parishes, 400 secular and 149 regular clergy, 135 
 seminarians, 436 churches or chapels, 44 brothers, 
 and 147 sisters. 
 
 Argentine Republic (Argentina; cf. C. E., 
 I-702d).—The area of the Argentine Republic is 
 1,153,119 square miles. According to the last official 
 census of 1 June, 1914, the total population was 
 7,885,237, distributed as follows: Argentines, 5,527, 
 285; foreigners, 402,555. The male population was 
 given as 4,227,023, the female population 3,568,214. 
 Of the foreign population 929,863 were Italians, 
 829,701 Spaniards, 79,491 French, 126,201 Spanish- 
 Americans (Bolivians, Chilians, Uruguayans, and 
 Paraguayans), 36,442 Brazilians, 27,692 British, 26,995 
 Germans, 38,123 Austrians, and 3,449 citizens of the 
 United States of America. It is estimated that the 
 present population is 8,411,000. 
 
 The following table gives the figures for Argen¬ 
 tine immigration and emigration since 1910: 
 
 Year 
 
 Immigrants 
 
 Year 
 
 Emigrants 
 
 1910..../... 
 
 345,275 
 
 1910. 
 
 136,405 
 
 1911. 
 
 281,622 
 
 1911. 
 
 172,041 
 
 1912. 
 
 379,117 
 
 1912. 
 
 172,996 
 
 1913. 
 
 364,878 
 
 1913. 
 
 219,529 
 
 1914. 
 
 182,672 
 
 1914. 
 
 243,701 
 
 1915. 
 
 83,019 
 
 1915. 
 
 148,425 
 
 1916. 
 
 75,381 
 
 1916. 
 
 122,328 
 
 1917. 
 
 51,665 
 
 1917. 
 
 83,996 
 
 1918. 
 
 50,662 
 
 1918. 
 
 59,908 
 
 As the number of emigrants has exceeded that of 
 immigrants since 1914, plans are being made for 
 the attraction of immigration to the country. In 
 1920 steps were taken by Austria to promote the 
 emigration to Argentina of her working classes by 
 
 means of opening credits for intending emigrants. 
 
 Economic Conditions. —Of the 1,000,000 square 
 miles of the republic, more than one-third is arable; 
 333,000 square miles can be utilized for cattle. In 
 1904 slightly over 26,000,000 acres were under cul¬ 
 tivation, while in 1920 62,500,000 acres were reported 
 under specified cultivation. It is evident, therefore, 
 that only one-third of the land known to be arable 
 is at present utilized. According to the latest 
 statistics wheat was sown on 16,975,770 acres, corn 
 on 8,715,217 acres, linseed on 3,521,670 acres, oats on 
 2,980,026 acres; alfalfa on 19,898,481 acres; flax on 
 3,083,619 acres. A campaign is being carried on 
 for the further cultivation of cotton. The exporta¬ 
 tion of flour in 1919 represented a total of 130,806 
 tons, estimated at $9,161,000. Tucuman produces 
 over three-fourths of the total cane grown in the 
 country. In 1919 the estimated national produc¬ 
 tion of sugar amounted to 260,000 metric tons. 
 
 Foreign Trade. —The foreign trade of the Argen¬ 
 tine Republic is mainly with the countries enumer¬ 
 ated in the following table. The values of this 
 trade are given in gold. 
 
 
 Impoi 
 
 'ts from 
 
 Expoi 
 
 'ts to 
 
 Countries 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 $80,080,322 
 
 .$124,960,102 
 
 $155,217,373 
 
 $296,626,000 
 
 France . 
 
 21,811,554 
 
 25,954,483 
 
 70,029,308 
 
 109,610,000 
 
 Spain . 
 
 26,530,672 
 
 41,779,305 
 
 8,814,880 
 
 23,086,000 
 
 Japan . 
 
 3,203,081 
 
 14,744,000 
 
 2,036,725 
 
 2,716,000 
 
 United States 
 
 133,251,949 
 
 169,506,948 
 
 155,626,288 
 
 165,151,620 
 
 Italy . 
 
 25,421,356 
 
 20,008,772 
 
 27,883,227 
 
 40,280,952 
 
 Brazil . 
 
 33,226,402 
 
 47,918,000 
 
 22,021,772 
 
 32,301,000 
 
 CJprrrm.ny .... 
 
 
 221,628 
 
 
 
 *Rp1orinm 
 
 
 159,900 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The United States trade with Argentina for five 
 years was as follows: 
 
 Imports Exports 
 
 Year (toU. S.) (fromU.S.) 
 
 1914 . $49,468,512 $43,507,753 
 
 1915 . 93,706,075 75,589,885 
 
 1916 . 119,730,145 106,988,508 
 
 1917 . 161,270,764 138,084,920 
 
 1918 . 165,151,620 169,506,948 
 
 The total trade of the republic in 1919 was: im¬ 
 port, $533,159,000; export, $867,823,000. In 1920 it 
 was: import, $850,000,000; export, $1,000,000,000. 
 
 The chief import from Argentina into the United 
 States in the year 1917 was wool, $100,533,658; the 
 chief exports from the United States to Argentina 
 were textile manufactures, $45,748,600; foodstuffs, 
 $33,038,155; iron manufactures, $17,836,366. 
 
 Shipping and Navigation. —In 1917 the registered 
 shipping consisted of 1,108 steamers of 2,966,518 
 tons, and 216 sailing vessels of 294,917 tons; total, 
 1,324 of 3,261,435 tons. In 1917 the number of 
 ocean-going vessels which entered the port of 
 Buenos Aires was 975, with an aggregate tonnage 
 of 2,420,809 tons, as against 1,757 of 4,527,790 tons 
 in 1915. 
 
 Hierarchy.— The Argentine hierarchy consists of 
 the Archbishop of Buenos Aires, and the Jlishops of 
 Cordoba, La Plata, Parana, San Juan de Cuyo, 
 Santa Fe, Salta, Tucuman, Santiago del Estero, 
 Catamarca, Corrientes. There is a seminary in 
 each diocese under the control of the bishop for 
 the support of which an appropriation is made 
 yearly. The Argentine nation has an Envoy Ex¬ 
 traordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary in Rome. 
 The Apostolic Internunciature to Argentine was 
 raised to a Nunciature in July, 1916, when the re¬ 
 public celebrated the centenary of its independence. 
 The new envoy, Mgr. Alberto Vassallo di Torre- 
 
ARGENTINE REPUBLIC 
 
 ARIZONA 
 
 55 
 
 grossa, titular archbishop of Emesa, arrived at 
 Buenos Aires in June, 1916. 
 
 Education. —The system of education comprises 
 the following divisions: primary, secondary, normal, 
 special (including industrial, commercial, agricul¬ 
 tural, artistic, and education of defectives), and 
 higher education. Primary education is compulsory 
 for all children from six to fourteen years old; it 
 is supported by the national Government and the 
 Governments of the different provinces and its 
 general administration is in charge of the National 
 Council of Education. In 1918 there were in the 
 republic, including night schools and private institu¬ 
 tions, 8,494 schools with 1,019,944 pupils and 31,872 
 teachers. Primary education covers a period of 
 six years; secondary education is imparted by the 
 ‘‘Colegios Nacionales” (National Secondary Schools'), 
 and in private schools under government super¬ 
 vision. There are 38 “Colegios Nacionales" under 
 the supervision of the General Superintendent of 
 Secondary, Normal, and Special Education, with 
 an enrolment of 11,022 students; 39 private secon¬ 
 dary schools with an enrolment of 3,288 students; 
 moreover, each of the National Universities has a 
 secondary school department. The secondary school 
 course covers five years. 
 
 In 1918 there were 82 normal schools, besides the 
 private normal schools. Industrial education is 
 given in the so-called industrial schools, of which 
 there are 24. There are 8 National Commerce 
 Schools. The schools of agriculture, five in num¬ 
 ber, are of a regional character, each being 
 connected with an agronomic station. Higher edu¬ 
 cation is given in the three National Universities: 
 Cordoba, the oldest, with five faculties; Buenos 
 Aires, the largest, with six; and La Plata with five. 
 There are also two provincial universities at Tucu- 
 man and Santa Fe. The government also main¬ 
 tains three military schools. Argentina devotes 
 12 per cent of its annual budget to education. 
 
 In 1920 it was planned to establish at Rosario 
 the National University of the Littoral, with com¬ 
 plete courses in technical instruction, to take place 
 of the industrial school formerly in operation in 
 Rosario. A popular university was in process of 
 organization in 1920- with departments of law, art, 
 etc. 
 
 Recent History. —In 1911 diplomatic relations 
 between Argentina and Bolivia, which had been 
 interrupted on account of boundaiy disputes, were 
 resumed. In 1915 the first actual treaty between 
 Argentina, Brazil, and Chile, signed in Buenos Aires 
 on 25 May, provided for a five years’ peace among 
 the three nations, during which time each was 
 pledged not to make war on either one of the 
 others until the cause of the conflict had been in¬ 
 vestigated and reported by an impartial commis¬ 
 sion. In 1917 trouble rose between the republic and 
 Germany over the sinking of the Argentine ships 
 by German submarines. It came to a climax when 
 the correspondence of the German minister at 
 Buenos Aires revealed a dispatch to his govern¬ 
 ment, advising the sinking without warning of 
 Argentine vessels. Thoroughly aroused the Argen¬ 
 tines immediately broke off diplomatic relations 
 with Germany, though they did not share in 
 the active part taken by the United States in the 
 European War. In 1919 the country joined the 
 League of Nations. Among the recent legal enact¬ 
 ments were a law, effective on 1 January, 1917, 
 withdrawing from the stores permission to open on 
 Sundays, and forbidding the sale of liquor from 
 12 p. m. on Saturdays to 12 p. m. on Sundays, 
 and a decree in 1920 providing for the colonization 
 of 30,000 square miles of state lands, 
 
 Argyll and the Isles, Diocese of (Ergadiensis 
 et Insularum; cf. C. E., I-706c), comprises the 
 County of Argyll, the southern part of Inverness 
 and the Islands of Bute and Arran and the Hebrides. 
 It is a suffragan of the Archdiocese of St. Andrews 
 and Edinburgh, and is under the administration of 
 Rt. Rev. Donald Martin, the third bishop since the 
 restoration of the diocese in 1878, and successor to 
 Bishop Smith, who died 18 January, 1918. Bishop 
 Martin was born in Ardnamurchan 6 October, 1873, 
 appointed bishop 2 April, 1919, and consecrated at 
 Oban 9 June of the same year. 
 
 During the World War, out of the very small 
 number of clergy belonging to this diocese, three 
 served as chaplains: Rev. John MacNeill, serving 
 with the 9th Division (Highland), was mentioned 
 in dispatches, was wounded twice, and won the 
 military cross with a bar; Rt. Rev. Hugh Cameron, 
 vicar general to the Lovat Scouts, served in Gal¬ 
 lipoli, Egypt, Palestine, and was mentioned in dis¬ 
 patches; Rev. Duncan Campbell was attached to 
 the 51st (Highland) Division. Although this dio¬ 
 cese comprises a large territory, its Catholic popu¬ 
 lation is comparatively small and there is little 
 activity. The present (1921) statistics show: 24 
 missions, 45 churches and mission stations, 34 
 secular priests, 2 convents of sisters, and 38 elemen¬ 
 tary schools-. 
 
 Ariano, Diocese of (Arianensis; cf. C. E., 
 I-710d), is a suffragan of Benevento in Southern 
 Italy. During the war twenty priests served with 
 the Italian army and the canon of the cathedral 
 was chaplain in a military hospital. Rt. Rev. 
 Guiseppe Lojacono, b. at Tropea, 11 November, 
 1862, elected bishop 4 November, 1918, was conse¬ 
 crated bishop of Ariano, 12 January, 1919. He 
 succeeded Rt. Rev. Cosimo Agistino, who was born 
 in Gerace, 16 April, 1860, elected to Lacedonia, 28 
 July, 1913, consecrated at Gerace, 23 September fol¬ 
 lowing, transferred 1 June, 1915, to Ariano, adminis¬ 
 trator Apostolic to Lacedonia, 22 September, 1915, 
 to 22 March, 1916, died 30 March, 1918. His pre¬ 
 decessor was Rt. Rev. Onorato Carcaterra, O. F. M., 
 v/ho was elected in 1913, and resigned and was 
 transferred in 1915. Rt. Rev. Andrea Agostino 
 preceded Bishop Carcaterra, b. 1838, elected 1 June, 
 1888, he died 14 February, 1913. In the diocese are 
 24 parishes, 91 churches, 3 abbeys for men, 4 monas¬ 
 teries for women, 98 secular priests, 30 sisters, and 
 50,400 Catholics; 2 colleges for girls, 8 seminarians, 
 
 1 refuge, 1 asylum, 1 hospital, and one paper, the 
 official organ of the bishop, is published. 
 
 Arizona (cf. C. E., I-719b).—Arizona is the 
 newest state in the Union, having been admitted 
 on 14 February, 1912. 
 
 Recent History. —In 1906 joint statehood was 
 proposed for Arizona and New Mexico and re¬ 
 jected, almost unanimously in Arizona. In 1910 
 an enabling act, passed by Congress, authorized 
 Arizona to call a constitutional convention. The 
 constitution, thus formulated, contained some 
 salient features, among which were the following: 
 an eight-hour day, the prohibition of the sale of 
 liquor to Indians, the initiative and referendum, 
 providing 10 per cent of the qualified electors 
 petition for the former, and 5 per cent for the 
 latter, and the recall of public officers upon petition 
 of 25 per cent of the electors. The application of 
 the recall to the judiciary caused the veto of the 
 statehood bill by President Taft, despite the passage 
 of the Act through the two houses of Congress. 
 With the removal of the offending feature the bill 
 was signed on 22 August, 1912, and became law. 
 Following the admission to statehood thus attained 
 
ARIZONA 
 
 56 
 
 ARKANSAS 
 
 by renunciation of the recall, the legislature and 
 people had the power to re-incorporate the objec¬ 
 tionable feature, which was adopted on 5 Novem¬ 
 ber, 1912, by the people, as an amendment to the 
 state constitution. In the same year an inheritance 
 tax law, an eight-hour law for women, and an alien 
 land law were adopted. On 1 January, 1916, a state¬ 
 wide prohibition bill went into effect as a result 
 of a constitutional amendment adopted 3 Novem¬ 
 ber, 1914. The federal prohibition amendment was 
 ratified 22 May, 1918, and the suffrage amendment 
 12 February, 1920. 
 
 During the World War Arizona contributed the 
 largest percentage of soldiers and sailors to the 
 war, per capita of male citizens, of any state in 
 the Union. The first native Arizonian to give up 
 his life for his country in France was Matthew 
 Rivers, a Pima Indian, who had been educated in 
 the Sherman Institute, California. 
 
 Population, Climate, Resources. —The fourteenth 
 United States census, besides 32,989 Indians, reports 
 a population in 1920 of 334,162. There were 213,350 
 natives and 78,099 foreigners. Of negro descent 
 there were only 8,005. Including in the list those 
 who could only read with those who could neither 
 read nor write, 14.5 per cent of the males of voting 
 age were illiterate. 
 
 According to the report of the chief of the 
 weather bureau, the highest temperature observed 
 at any weather station in Arizona during the year 
 1917 was 124°, the lowest 18°. One station reports 
 each of these extremes. The smallest rainfall re¬ 
 ported for the same year from any station is 2.22 
 inches, the greatest 29.22 inches. In October and 
 November, 1917, no trace of snow is reported at 
 any station, and for the following six months to 
 May, 1918, inclusive, the greatest fall reported is 
 177 inches, 13 stations reporting only a slight fall 
 of snow. 
 
 Limited by supply of water for irrigation, the 
 area of farming land is 9,975,000 acres out of 72,000,- 
 000. Of manufacturing establishments there were 
 480 in the year 1919, with a capital of $101,486,070. 
 The value of products was $120,769,112. The value 
 of the products of smelting and refining copper com¬ 
 prises 78.0 per cent of the total of all industries. 
 There are 2,416 miles of railroad. The assessed 
 valuation of taxable property for the year 1918 was 
 $834,020,592. 
 
 State Government.— The state senate consists of 
 nineteen members and the House of Representatives 
 of thirty-five. An amendment voted to the state 
 constitution gave the state the power to engage in 
 industrial pursuits. In the laws which the first 
 legislature of Arizona enacted, the affairs of the 
 state government were placed under direct control 
 of the people by means of the initiative, referendum 
 and recall. 
 
 Education. —There are more than 77,000 children 
 in the public schools. In 1919-20 the school ex¬ 
 penditure was $6,339,211. State laws relative to 
 private and parochial schools are as follows: no 
 tax shall be laid or appropriation of public money 
 made in aid of any church or private or sectarian 
 school (IX, 10); property of educational, charitable, 
 and religious associations or institutions not used 
 or held for profit may be exempted from taxation 
 (IX, 2); private schools within the compulsory 
 education law shall be taught for full time of publio 
 school session. 
 
 Ecclesiastical History. —See Tucson, Diocese of. 
 
 Arkansas (cf. C. E., I-724e). —Climate.— The re¬ 
 port of the chief of the Weather Bureau states the 
 highest temperature observed at any weather sta¬ 
 
 tion in Arkansas during the year 1917 to have 
 been 106°, observed at two stations, the lowest, 21°, 
 also observed at two stations. The smallest rain¬ 
 fall reported for the year is 19.80 inches, the 
 greatest 70.88 inches. As early as October, 1917, 
 there were snowfalls at all of the stations except 
 5; in February, 1918, at all except 47; no snow is 
 reported at any station in March and April. The 
 greatest fall of the season was 30.0 inches, the least 
 2.0 inches. The reports of temperature are from 
 58 stations, and of snowfall from 59 stations. 
 
 Population. —According to the official census of 
 1920, the population of the st-.te was 1,752,204. Only 
 13,975 were foreign born. Of negro descent there 
 were 472,220. Little Rock, with a population of 
 65,142, and Fort Smith, with 28,870, were the only 
 cities whose population exceeded 25,000. Six other 
 cities, Helena, Hot Springs, Jonesboro, North Little 
 Rock, Pine Bluff and Texarkana were the only cities 
 which had a population exceeding 8,000. 
 
 Wealth and Resources. —The total assessed 
 valuation of property for 1919 was $553,485,082; the 
 state indebtedness on June 30, 1919, $2,226,400. In 
 1919 the value of the cotton crop was $151,060,000 
 or 55.0 per cent of the value of all crops of the 
 state. The value of the corn crop was $79,911,000. 
 A production is reported of 3,321,000 bushels of 
 potatoes and 456,000 pounds of tobacco. Of manu¬ 
 facturing establishments there were (1919) 3,123; 
 the amount of capital employed was $138,818,000; 
 the value of products, $200,3i3,000. The coal pro¬ 
 duction for 1917 amounted to 1,913,000 short tons, 
 one half of which is classed as semi-anthracite. The 
 railroad mileage in 1919 was reported to have been 
 5,350 miles. 
 
 Education. —The federal census of 1920 reported 
 a school attendance of 664,101, of whom 332,593 
 were females. Including in the list those who could 
 only read with those who could neither read nor 
 write, 11 per cent of the males of voting age were 
 illiterate. Bible reading is neither permitted nor ex¬ 
 cluded in the public schools. State laws relative to 
 private and parochial schools are as follows: The 
 basic language of instruction in the common school 
 branches, in all the schools of the state, public and 
 private, shall be the English language only; no 
 money or property belonging to the public school 
 fund or to the State for the benefit of schools or 
 universities, shall ever be used for any other than 
 for the resnective purposes to which it belongs 
 (XIV. 2). 
 
 Recent History. —During the World War, Ar¬ 
 kansas contributed 61,027 soldiers, or 1.62 per cent 
 of the total United States army. At the outbreak 
 of the war (1917) the First Arkansas Infantry (15 
 organizations) was mustered into service, and later 
 in August the Second and Third Arkansas In¬ 
 fantry, the Arkansas ammunition train, field hospital, 
 and ambulance companies were mustered and mo¬ 
 bilized at Fort Logan, and finally transferred to Camp 
 Beauregard, Louisiana. In December, the Fourth 
 Regiment and Engineers Battalion was raised. Camp 
 Pike one of the army cantonments was established 
 near Little Rock and Eberts Field (aviation) near 
 Lonoke. 
 
 Ecclesiastical History. —For Catholic religious 
 statistics see Little Rock, Diocese of. _ 
 
 Recent Legislation. —In 1905 a drastic anti-trust 
 law drove the insurance companies and other con¬ 
 cerns out of the state, but it was later amended 
 and the companies returned. In 1912 came Ar¬ 
 kansas’ first opportunity to exercise the initiative 
 and referendum, provided for by an amendment to 
 the constitution in 1910. Out of thirteen amend¬ 
 ments, only one received the necessary majority. 
 
ARMAGH 
 
 57 
 
 ARMENIA 
 
 Later the Supreme Court held that only three could 
 be submitted at one time. Among the amendments 
 which passed at a later time were a child labor law 
 (1914) and a publicity act, subsidizing the press 
 through public advertising. State-wide prohibition 
 became effective in 1915, although a prohibition 
 law initiated in 1912 had been rejected. In the 
 same year a drastic inheritance law and a minimum 
 wage law were passed. A primary election law 
 was adopted in 1916, and also an amendment rais¬ 
 ing the limit of the school tax to 12 mills. The 
 proposed new constitution formulated in the con¬ 
 stitutional convention of 1918, failed to pass. The 
 year 1919 was unique, for there were three sessions 
 of the Legislature and the fourth was called before 
 the year was out. The emergency highway legisla¬ 
 tion of the second session was invalidated by the 
 Supreme Court on the ground that the provision 
 requiring the publication of intention to apply for 
 special acts had not been complied with. This 
 deficiency was remedied by a third session. In 
 1919 the Arkansas Corporation Commission was 
 created, with jurisdiction over public utilities. In 
 the same year the State ratified the prohibition 
 amendment (14 January) and the suffrage amend¬ 
 ment (28 July). 
 
 Armagh, Archdiocese of (Armacanensis; cf. C. 
 E., I-729d), is the primatial see of Ireland, its 
 archbishop bearing the title “Lord Primate of all 
 Ireland.” The present incumbent, His Eminence 
 Michael Cardinal Logue, who came to this see in 
 1887, is the first Primate of Armagh to become a 
 member of the Sacred College. On 23 May, 1920, 
 the beatification of Oliver Plunket, Primate of 
 Armagh 1669-81, took place in Rome, and religious 
 celebrations of the event were held throughout 
 Ireland. On 6 October following the relics of the 
 blessed martyr were translated from the sarcophagus 
 in which they had reposed, to a beautiful shrine 
 prepared for them in Downside Abbey. The fol¬ 
 lowing November Cardinal Logue received the De¬ 
 cree of the Sacred Congregation of Rites dated 30 
 June, 1920, authorizing the translation of the relic 
 of the head of Blessed Oliver Plunket from the 
 Dominican Convent to the Oliver Plunket Memorial 
 Church, St. Peter’s, Drogheda. On 3 October, 1920, 
 the cardinal laid the corner-stone for the new 
 church of the Immaculate Conception in Tully- 
 saron, this diocese. By decree of the Sacred Con¬ 
 gregation of the Consistory 14 January, 1922, Rt. 
 Rev. Patrick O’Donnell, Bishop of Raphoe, was 
 made titular Bishop of Attalia and coadjutor to 
 Cardinal Logue, with right of succession. 
 
 By the 1911 census the total population of this 
 diocese is 137,595 of whom 127,729 are Catholics. 
 By 1921 statistics there are 66 parishes, 153 secular, 
 and 21 regular clergy, 144 churches, 13 convents of 
 nuns with 124 religious, 3 monastic houses with 17 
 religious. The religious orders of the diocese in¬ 
 clude : Male: Franciscans, Carmelites, Jesuits, 
 Christian Brothers of Ireland and De La Salle 
 Brothers. Female: Sisters of Loretto, of the Pre¬ 
 sentation, and Mercy. The charitable institutions 
 and societies include an asylum for infirm priests, 
 cripples’ house, Total Abstinence Society, 4 Soci¬ 
 eties of St. Vincent de Paul, 4 confraternities of 
 the Holy Family, 5 confraternities of the Holy 
 Rosary and associations in honor of the Sacred 
 Heart. 
 
 Armenia (cf. C. E., I-736a), a mountainous dis¬ 
 trict of western Asia, at present divided between 
 the Turks and Russians, excepting the Zanghezur 
 district which has not been occupied. Before the 
 European War the term Armenia was indeterminate, 
 
 being sometimes applied to the territory in the 
 Turkish Empire occupied by the Armenians, some¬ 
 times to the whole country in which the Armenians 
 were the dominant race element, and which was 
 partly in Russian territory. The territory as con¬ 
 stituted by the Treaty of Sevres and as delimited 
 by ex-President Wilson of the United States, has an 
 area of 80,000 square miles and contains the south¬ 
 eastern frontiers of the Transcaucasian division of 
 the Russian Empire, besides the ethnically Armenian 
 regions of the vilayets of Van, Erzerum, Bitlis, and 
 Trebizond in Asiatic Turkey. The frontier thus 
 defined begins at Treboli, 50 miles west of Trebizard 
 on the Black Sea, crosses west of Erzinjan, and then 
 curving eastwards, skirts the northern slopes of 
 Armenian Taurus, south of Mush, Bitlis, and Lake 
 Van, and ends on the Persian frontier. The statis¬ 
 tics of the six Armenian provinces of Turkey com¬ 
 piled in 1912 by the Armenian Patriarchate of Con¬ 
 stantinople are as follows: 
 
 
 Population 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Turks . 
 
 666,000 
 
 25.4 
 
 Kurds. 
 
 424,000 
 
 16.3 
 
 Mussulman races. 
 
 88,000 
 
 3.4 
 
 Armenians . 
 
 1,018,000 
 
 38.9 
 
 Nestorians, etc. 
 
 123,000 
 
 4.8 
 
 Greeks, etc. 
 
 42,000 
 
 1.6 
 
 Kizibashis. 
 
 140,000 
 
 5.3 
 
 Zazas, etc. 
 
 77,000 
 
 2.9 
 
 Yezidis . 
 
 37,000 
 
 1.4 
 
 
 2,615,000 
 
 100.0 
 
 It is estimated that the Armenians once numbered 
 over twenty millions and the steady reduction of 
 the population in modern times must be attributed 
 almost entirely to the Turkish persecution in one 
 form or another. During the war and as a result 
 of the deportations and massacres of 1915, Lord 
 Bryce estimated in 1916, that of a total of Armenian 
 population in Turkey of about 1,800,000 before the 
 war, 600,000 were massacred, .600,000 were deported, 
 300,000 remained in Armenia, and 300,000 survived 
 in Constantinople, Smyrna, and other parts of Tur¬ 
 key or in adjoining territories as refugees. Of the 
 600,000 who were stated to have been deported to 
 Mesopotamia in 1915, the latest estimate received 
 from Aleppo (Decemb r, 1918), puts the number 
 of survivors at only 90,000. The total population 
 of United Armenia in its widest extent would be 
 about 8,000,000. The chief towns of Russian Ar¬ 
 menia are Erivan with about 90,000 inhabitants, 
 Alexandropol, - 50,000; Kars, 35,000. The Supreme 
 Council at San Remo in April, 1920, decided to 
 internationalize the port of Batum and make it 
 a common outlet for Armenia, Azerbaijan, and 
 Georgia. 
 
 Education.— Measures for nationalization were 
 taken after the separation from Russia and Ar¬ 
 menian became the official language of the schools. 
 A system of compulsory education was established 
 and the old church seminaries and technical schools 
 continue their work. 
 
 Economic Conditions.— The first railway dates 
 from 1900, and in 1920 the mileage was 370 miles. 
 The Turkish system of land tenure did not recog¬ 
 nize the right of the Christian Church to hold land, 
 and consequently the Armenian Church has often 
 been dispossessed of its property, which in any case 
 may be held by trustees. Turkish taxation falls 
 much more heavily upon the Armenian than upon 
 the Mohammedan population. Apart from racial 
 
ARMENIA 
 
 58 
 
 ARMIDALE 
 
 troubles Armenia has suffered in common with all 
 Turkish provinces from the stagnation produced by 
 Turkish misrule. Schemes of development have not 
 been wanting, but nearly all suffered shipwreck 
 through lack of security, of communication, of 
 capital, and of any adequate economic incentive. 
 Commercially the Armenians were long hampered 
 by the decree forbidding them to travel abroad, 
 which was abrogated only in 1908. While this w r as 
 in operation, the Armenians could not get into 
 direct touch with foreign supplies, and were de¬ 
 pendent on Constantinople and Aleppo agents, 
 who granted them long credits. 
 
 History (1909-1921).—The rise of the Young Turk 
 party, concentrated in the Committee of Union and 
 Progress, with its assertion of liberty and toleration 
 and the new constitution of 1908, aroused Armenian 
 hopes. However, the deposition of Abdul Hamid 
 in 1909 was followed by the massacre of Adana, 
 for which a pretext was found in the pretensions 
 to complete independence of a small section of 
 Armenians. This massacre was part of the reac¬ 
 tionary revolution projected by Abdul Hamid and 
 resulting in his fall. But the extermination of the 
 whole Armenian people was a later project, at¬ 
 tributable to the government of the Young Turks. 
 At the outbreak of the European War, the Ar¬ 
 menians who had fought for the Turkish Govern¬ 
 ment in the Balkan Wars were regarded with sus¬ 
 picion and were consequently disarmed. Then 
 ensued, in 1915, massacres on a larger scale than 
 ever, in which it is said that 1,000,000 Armenians 
 perished. 
 
 On the eve of Turkey’s entry into the war, the 
 Young Turks employed every conceivable means, 
 persuasion, cajolery, intimidation, and the promise 
 of a large autonomous Armenia to induce the Ar¬ 
 menian party leaders to prevail on the Russian 
 Armenians to rally to the Turkish flag against 
 Russia. The Armenians obeyed the Turkish orders 
 for mobilization, but soon developed in large num¬ 
 bers. The massacres and deportations began soon 
 after the collapse of the Turkish invasion of the 
 Caucasus and North Persia, and when Turks de¬ 
 termined to deport and to destroy all Armenians, 
 the persecuted race took up arms in self-defense. 
 In Shahin-Karahissar they held out for three 
 months and were only reduced by artillery brought 
 from Erzerum. In Van and Jebal-Mousa they de¬ 
 fended themselves against heavy odds until relieved 
 by the Russians and Armenian volunteers in the 
 first case, and rescued by the French and British 
 cruisers in the second. By this resistance they 
 forced the Turks to detach large numbers of their 
 troops and in some cases, artillery and machine 
 guns to keep the Armenian rebels -in check, thus 
 hindering the full development of the Turkish mili¬ 
 tary power during the war. They gave enthusiastic 
 support to the Russian cause, they organized a 
 volunteer force of Armenians which was blamed by 
 the Turks for the disaster that befell them at 
 Sarikamish, Azerbaijan, and Van; they contributed 
 high officials to the Russian army, including several 
 generals, and they suffered their land to become 
 the battleground of Asia Minor. Archbishop 
 Sempad, the Gregorian incumbent of Erzerum, was 
 murdered by brigands in the service of the Union 
 and Progress Company. The Gregorian Bishops of 
 Trebizond, Caesarea, Mush, Bitlis, and Erzindjan, 
 and the Catholic Bishop of Seerth were also mur¬ 
 dered by the order of the Young Turk government. 
 
 On 22 April the Diet of Transcaucasia declared its 
 independence of Russia under the title of the Fed¬ 
 eral Republic of Transcaucasia, comprising Georgia, 
 Armenia, and Azerbaijan (Tartar). It had from 
 
 the first refused to recognize the Bolsheviki, and 
 had formed a provisional government at Tiflis in 
 February, 1918. Each party was to hold its own 
 territory, but the republic lasted only five weeks, 
 owing to the divergent political tendencies. On 
 26 May, 1918, the Transcaucasian Republic was 
 dissolved and Georgia declared its independence, 
 as did Armenia. Its de facto government was recog¬ 
 nized by the allies in January, 1920; and the de jure 
 recognition was embodied in the Treaty of Sevres, 
 signed in August, 1920, between the allied powers 
 and Turkey, to which Armenia was a signatory. 
 
 In the new republic there was no president, the 
 presidential functions being discharged partly by 
 the chamber of deputies (80 members), and partly 
 by the cabinet of ministers. The mandate of Ar¬ 
 menia was offered to the League of Nations and 
 refused on the ground that it was not the object 
 of the League to take up mandates. It was offered 
 to the United States and refused by the Senate, 
 contrary to the wishes of President Wilson, who 
 was asked to arbitrate the question of Armenian 
 frontiers. In the meantime the Nationalists and 
 the Bolsheviki made a concerted attack on Ar¬ 
 menia. The Russian divisions commenced opera¬ 
 tions against Armenia in their base at Azerbaijan. 
 The seriousness of the Polish situation caused the 
 withdrawal of these troops and Armenia took ad¬ 
 vantage of the occasion by capturing the coal-fields 
 of Olti. In August they advanced to Julfa on the 
 Persian frontier and forced the Turks to retire to 
 the Arax River. Ill-luck befell the Armenians after¬ 
 wards and they lost Erivan, their capital, to the 
 Turks. On 11 November, 1920, the Armenian min¬ 
 istry which had taken part in the treaty of Sevres 
 was replaced by an extremist government which had 
 come to an understanding with the Soviet govern¬ 
 ment, with a view to concluding a new armistice 
 with the Turks. This took place, the terms pro¬ 
 posed by the Turks being made with the view of 
 keeping Armenia as a buffer state between Turkey 
 and Russia. The Turks demanded that Armenia 
 renounce the treaty of Sevres and that the frontier 
 between Armenia and Turkey should be fixed by 
 the two peoples concerned. As yet the boundaries 
 are indeterminate. First reports place them as run¬ 
 ning along the Black Sea at a point a little to the 
 west of Tireboli through Militkan, west of Mush, 
 south to Lake Van to the frontier of Azerbaijan. 
 President Wilson’s award did not include the 
 vilayets of Daiarbekr, Sivas, Kharput, and Adana. 
 
 On October, 1921, a treaty was signed at Kars, 
 Armenia, between the four Bolshevized republics, 
 Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Daghestan on 
 one hand, and the Turkish Nationalist government 
 on the other, giving the latter about one half of 
 Caucasian Armenia, and creating a small autonomous 
 state on Armenian territon r under the protection 
 of Azerbaijan, to be known as Nakitchevan. It now 
 appears that the Turks are supporting the inten¬ 
 tions of Russia to federalize all the so-called Cauca¬ 
 sian republics in Russia into a Russian state, the 
 political center being at Baku, and the economic 
 center at Tiflis. The independence of these repub¬ 
 lics is a thing of the past. 
 
 Armenierstadt, Diocese of. See Gherla. 
 
 Armenopolis, Diocese of. See Gherla. 
 
 Armidale, Diocese of (Armidalensis; cf. C. E., 
 I-740b), in New South Wales (Australia) is under 
 the administration of its third bishop, Rt. Reverend 
 Patrick Joseph O’Connor, D. D., who has filled the 
 see since 1904. Dr. O’Connor came to this diocese 
 in 1876 and in 1882 was appointed dean and vicar 
 
ARRAS 
 
 59 
 
 ASIA 
 
 general of the diocese, which latter position he filled 
 until his appointment as bishop. His long experi¬ 
 ence in the diocese particularly fitted him for his 
 administration, and during his incumbency he has 
 seen it grow from a mere wilderness to a flourishing 
 diocese. Numerous schools, churches, and convents 
 have been added to the diocese and a beautiful 
 cathedral erected, costing £32,000, all of which was 
 collected in three years through the efforts of the 
 bishop. At the solemn opening of the new building 
 he was able to announce that it was free of debt, 
 and in 1919, on the occasion of the. Golden Jubilee 
 of the diocese the cathedral was consecrated by 
 the papal delegate Most Rev. B. Cattaneo. Another 
 celebration was the laying of the foundation stone 
 of a diocesan orphanage, by the papal delegate and 
 Archbishop Kelly of Sydney, and £10,500 were col¬ 
 lected toward the erection of the institution, which 
 was planned to cost £17,000. On 2 October, 1921, 
 the institution with a remaining debt of only £4,000, 
 was solemnly opened by the papal delegate, who 
 returned to complete his work, and before the 
 ceremonies were over this sum and £700 additional 
 were collected by Bishop O’Connor. The various re¬ 
 ligious orders established in the diocese are: Broth¬ 
 ers of the Christian Schools, Sisters of Mercy, 
 Dominican Sisters and Ursuline Sisters. The 
 present (1921) statistics show 19 parochial districts, 
 69 churches, 33 priests, 7 brothers, 210 nuns, 12 
 secular teachers, 5 boarding schools for girls and 
 1 for boys, 5 high schools with 471 children at¬ 
 tending, 28 primary schools with 3,639 children 
 attending, and 1 orphanage. The total number of 
 children attending Catholic schools is 4,300 and 
 the total Catholic population of the diocese, 33,000. 
 
 Arras, Diocese of (Atrebatum; cf. C.E., I-752d), 
 comprises the Department of Pas-de-Calais in 
 France and is suffragan of Cambrai. Rt. Rev. 
 Alfred Williez, who was appointed to this see in 
 1892, d. 25 January, 1911, and was succeeded by 
 Rt. Rev. Emile-Louis Lobbedey 5 May, 1911, d. 
 24 December, 1916. He was succeeded by the 
 present incumbent, Rt. Rev. Eugene-Louis Julien, 
 born in the Diocese of Rouen 1856, ordained 1881, 
 made prelate of the Holy See 1916, appointed bishop 
 22 May, 1917. 
 
 During the World War the region suffered cruelly 
 and the cathedral, rebuilt 1775-1833, was com¬ 
 pletely destroyed by the German bombardment 
 and fire and more than two hundred churches were 
 totally ruined. In 1912 the cathedral chapter was 
 granted the privilege of wearing red on the sleeves 
 of the rochet. By latest statistics the Catholic 
 population of this diocese numbers 1,068,155, there 
 are 672 parishes and 53 vicariates, formerly with 
 state subventions, 985 churches, 1073 priests, 1 
 upper seminary with about 100 students, 2 lower 
 seminaries, 1 at Bethune, the other at Boulogne 
 sur Mer, 9 secondary schools for boys with 103 
 professors and 1600 pupils, 10 boarding schools for 
 girls with 93 teachers and 1400 pupils, 244 elemen¬ 
 tary schools with 774 teachers and 32,055 pupils, 
 and 2 professional schools having about 100 stu¬ 
 dents. Several periodicals are published; “La 
 Croix d’Arras,” at Arras, “La Croix du Pas de 
 Calais,” at Boulogne, and the “Courrier du Pas de 
 Calais” at Arras. Within recent years the diocese 
 has lost .three prominent clergy, by the deaths of 
 Rev. Canon Rambure, vicar general and a pro¬ 
 fessor and pro-rector of the Catholic faculty of 
 the University of Lille, and author of a number 
 of books; Mgr. Hervin, protonotary apostolic and 
 vicar general; and Rev. Canon Decrouille, author 
 of many spiritual books. 
 
 - 7 c^ Vin ’ ^ I0CESE 0F (Artumensis; cf. C. E., 
 1-765), of the Greek Armenian Rite, comprises the 
 
 i o^o r( ailCaSlan P rov ^ nces Artvin and Kars. Since 
 1878 Russia has prevented the appointment of a 
 bishop of Tiraspol, to which this territory was 
 united by Russia in that year. By 1920 statistics 
 there aie 12,000 Armenian Catholics in the diocese 
 25 missionary priests, 30 churches or chapels and 
 22 elementary schools with 900 children. 
 
 Ascoli-Piceno, Diocese of (Asculanensis Piceni- 
 ensis; cf. C. E., I-773d), in Italy, is under the 
 immediate jurisdiction of the Holy See. Rt. Rev. 
 Bartolommeo Ortolani, who came to this see in 
 1877, d. 7 May, 1910, and was succeeded by the 
 present incumbent, Rt. Rev. Apollonno Maggio, b. 
 1859, appointed titular Bishop of Lystra 31 January, 
 1910, and named administrator apostolic of Ascoli- 
 Piceno 12 March, of the same year, transferred to 
 this see 13 May following. 
 
 According to most recent statistics (1922) the 
 population of this diocese numbers 230,000 and is 
 divided into 166 parishes. There are 190 secular 
 and 15 regular clergy, 9 convents of men for the 
 Capuchins, Conventualists, and Minor Observants, 
 1 convent of men under papal cloister with 20 
 monks, and 2 Benedictine monasteries under epis¬ 
 copal cloister. Among the religious orders of women 
 are: 21 Sisters of the Infant Jesus who conduct 
 a convent for 30 children; 25 Sisters, Pious Work¬ 
 ers of the Immaculate Conception, charged with 50 
 children; 14 Dominican Sisters; 13 Sisters of Maria 
 Auxiliatrice in charge of 130 children, and a public 
 dispensary; 5 Sisters of Charity who conduct an 
 orphanage for girls, with 90 orphans; 6 Daughters 
 of Charity in charge of a civil hospital; 7 of the 
 same congregation in charge of a poorhouse, and 
 14 Sisters Felatrice of the Sacred Heart, in charge 
 of an orphanage for girl war orphans, of whom 
 there are 80 in the institution. An infant asylum 
 is connected with it, and 2 other infant asylums, 
 an orphanage and a community house, complete 
 the list of charitable institutions in the diocese. 
 Various societies of a religious or charitable char¬ 
 acter, numbering in all 120, are organized through¬ 
 out the diocese. 
 
 Ascoli-Satriano and Cerignola, Diocese of (As¬ 
 culanensis Apulue et Cerignolensis; cf. C. E., 
 I-774a), in the province of Foggia, Italy, is suffragan 
 of Benevento. Rt. Rev. Angelo Struffolini, who 
 came to this see 15 April, 1901, was transferred to 
 the titular see of Philippi in July, 1914. His suc¬ 
 cessor Rt. Rev. Giovanni Sodo, b. at Naples, 1862, 
 was appointed 19 February, 1915. On 9 December, 
 1918, he was named administrator Apostolic of 
 Troja. In 1920 there were 70,115 Catholics in this 
 diocese, 12 parishes, 100 secular and 8 regular clergy, 
 30 seminarians, 100 churches or chapels, 4 brothers 
 and 50 sisters. 
 
 Asia (cf. C. E., I-777b).— Population.— The total 
 population of Afeia is about 800,000,000, divided ac¬ 
 cording to latest available statistics as follows: 
 Siberia, 10,377,900; Chinese Republic, 320,650,000: 
 Korea, 17,284,207; Japan, 55,961,140; Indo-China, 
 16,990,229; Siam, 8,819,686; British India, 244,267,- 
 542; Afghanistan, 6,380,500; Persia, 9,500,000; 
 Turkish Empire, 8,000,000; Arabia, 5,500,000. Ac¬ 
 cording to the Moslem World for 1914, there are 
 12,278,800 Mohammedans in Asiatic Turkey; 8,421,- 
 000 in China; 66,000,000 in India and Burma; 
 35,000.000 in the Malav Archipelago. The “Jewish 
 Year Book” for 1921 gives the following number of 
 Jews in various Asiatic countries: Aden, 3,747; 
 Afghanistan and Turkestan, 18,316; Dutch East 
 
 
ASIA 
 
 60 
 
 ASIA 
 
 Indies, 10,842; Hong Kong and Straits Settlements, 
 366,145; India, 20,980; Palestine, 85,000; Persia, 
 40,000; Russia in Asia, 76,262; Turkey in Asia, 
 177,500. Previous years give 59,235 Jews in Meso¬ 
 potamia, 77,458 in Asia Minor, 130,000 in Arabia, 
 and 20,000 in Bokhara. The Chinese “Year Book” 
 enumerates 600 Jews in China. 
 
 Political Geography and Recent History. —In 
 the following paragraphs are briefly given note¬ 
 worthy historical facts of recent years and the 
 present status of each Asiatic country. 
 
 Siberia, formerly part of the Russian Empire, now 
 under the Russian Bolsheviks, except Vladivostok, 
 where Japanese troops remain in occupation. After 
 the Russian revolutionary outbreak in 1917, various 
 independent “governments” arose in Siberia, a con¬ 
 stitutional government being finally established at 
 Omsk in 1918, under the presidency of Admiral 
 Polchak. This was recognized by the Allied and 
 Associated Powers, but was attacked by Bolshevik 
 forces in 1919, removed to Irkutsk, and was over¬ 
 thrown in 1920, Kolchak being executed. 
 
 China:, formerly an empire, declared a republic 
 in 1912 and distracted by civil war since 1917. She 
 entered the war in 1917 on the side of the Entente, 
 refused to sign the Treaty of Paris, which acceded 
 Japanese rights in Shantung, and concluded a sepa¬ 
 rate peace with Germany. In 1920 a severe drought 
 caused the complete failure of the harvest in a 
 large area, resulting in famine in the latter months 
 of the year and in 1921. Hongkong belongs to 
 Great Britain, Macao to Portugal, and Kwang Chau 
 Wau to France. 
 
 Japan, an Empire, including Korea and Formosa, 
 with mandatory over Shantung. This disputed ter¬ 
 ritory was wrested by Japan from Germany in 
 1914, and according to a treaty with China in 1915 
 was to be restored to Chinese sovereignty. Failure 
 to do this, and other alleged encroachments of 
 China’s rights, have aroused much bitter feeling 
 in China towards Japan. The race question has 
 beeh an issue between the United States and 
 Japan. Universal suffrage in the Empire has been 
 seriously debated, with no definite outcome as yet. 
 The budget for 1921 included enormous sums for 
 naval and military expenditure, this arousing much 
 unfavorable comment from other powers. Japanese 
 activities in the war were mostly local, including 
 intervention in Siberia in 1918 and the seizure of 
 Shantung in 1914. 
 
 Siam, an independent monarchy. 
 
 French Indo-China, a French dependency, com¬ 
 prising the colony of Cochin China, the protec¬ 
 torates of Annam, Cambodia, Tonking, and Laos, 
 and the territory of Kwang Chau Wau, leased from 
 China. She contributed money and supplies as 
 well as troops to France during the war. Recent 
 judicial and legislative reforms and educational 
 progress are noteworthy. 
 
 Nepal, an independent kingdom in the Himalayas. 
 
 Bhutan, an independent state in the Himalayas. 
 
 India {Portuguese) , the four provinces of Goa, 
 Damao, Diu, and Timor. 
 
 India {French), the five provinces of Pondicherry, 
 Karikal, Chandernagar, Mahe, and Yanaon. 
 
 India {British), an empire of the British Crown, 
 administered by a governor-general. The Govern¬ 
 ment of India Act of 1919 granted the natives a 
 greater representation in the government, and 
 greater provincial autonomy was forced by the ap¬ 
 pointment of five new provincial governors to take 
 office in December, 1920, and January, 1921. India 
 sent troops to the European battlefronts and fought 
 actively in the Turkish campaigns. 
 
 Baluchistan, a country comprising British and 
 
 administered territory and the native states of 
 Kalat and Las Bela. 
 
 Afghanistan, an hereditary monarchy with foreign 
 policy under control of the British Government of 
 India. Relations with India are strained, as a re¬ 
 sult of the war between the countries in 1919. 
 Bolshevik influences are feared here as well as in 
 Persia, India, and China, because of proximity to 
 Russian Bolshevism. 
 
 Persia, a monarchy, whose unstable government 
 made necessary the intervention of Great Britain 
 and Russia, resulting in the Anglo-Russian treaty 
 of 1907 according to w'hich both powers agreed to 
 respect the integrity and independence of Persia, 
 while controlling her sources of revenue. During 
 the war German influences fomented disorders in 
 Persia, though she maintained'neutrality through¬ 
 out. British and Russian troops opposed the 
 Turkish invasion of Persia in 1918. The dissolution 
 of the Russian Empire aroused efforts in Persia 
 towards genuine independence, and in 1918 she de¬ 
 clared the Anglo-Russian treaty null and void. In 
 
 1919 by the Treaty of Teheran, Persia accepted 
 British co-operation in the administration of her 
 government, construction of her railways, revision 
 of her tariff, and maintenance of order by a force 
 of military police. In 1920 Bolshevist forces threat¬ 
 ened the country. 
 
 Arabia, a peninsula in great part desert land oc¬ 
 cupied by Bedouin tribes, with oases and coastal 
 districts populated by settled peoples, politically 
 divided as follows: On the west coast, the kingdom 
 of Hejaz (former Turkish principality, which at¬ 
 tained its independence during the war [1916] and 
 where are situated Mecca and Medina, the holy 
 places of Islam), the principate of Asir and the 
 imamate of Yemen; in the south, the British pro¬ 
 tectorate of Aden and the province of Hadramant, 
 mostly desert waste; on the east coast, the sultanate 
 of Oman, the maritime district. of the emirate of 
 Nejd and Hasa, and the sultanate of Koweit; in 
 Central Arabia, the emirate of Nejd and Hasa and 
 the emirate of Jebel Shammar; the emirate of 
 Kerak is Transjordania. 
 
 Mesopotamia, a state independent of Turkey 
 since 1920, under mandate of Great Britain. 
 
 Palestine, a state independent of Turkey since 
 
 1920 under mandate of Great Britain, comprising 
 the districts of Jerusalem, Jaffa, Gaza, Beersheba, 
 Samaria, Phoenicia, and Galilee. 
 
 Syria, a state independent of Turkey since 1920, 
 under mandate of France. 
 
 Armenia, independent state comprising the vila¬ 
 yets of Erzerum, Trebizond, Van and Bitlis, with 
 boundaries to be determined by arbitration between 
 the United States and Turkey. Armenian massacres 
 were one of the horrors of the war. 
 
 Kurdistan, an antonomous state since 1920. 
 
 Smyrna, chief seaport of Asia Minor, with some 
 hinterland, formerly Turkish, is under Greek man¬ 
 date for five years, when the inhabitants will decide 
 by plebiscite whether to be annexed to Greece or 
 to remain under Turkish sovereignty. 
 
 Asia Minor or Anatolia, the extreme western 
 peninsula of Asia, belonging to Turkey. 
 
 Straits Settlements, a colony of the British.Crown, 
 comprising Singapore, Penang, and Malacca. 
 
 Malay States comprise Johore, Kedah, Perlis, 
 Kelantan, and Trengganu, and the Federated Malay 
 States of Perak, Selangor, Negri Sembilan, and 
 Pahang—all under British protection. 
 
 Islands. —Cyprus, Ceylon, Bahrein Islands, British 
 North Borneo, Sarawak and Brunei in Borneo, 
 Perim, Sokotra, Kuria Muria, Andaman, Nicobar, 
 Laccadine, and Keeling Islands, belonging to Great 
 
ASIA MINOR 
 
 61 
 
 ASSOCIATIONS 
 
 Britain; Dutch East Indies, comprising Java and 
 Madura, Suratra, Rian-Lingga Archipelago, Banca, 
 Billiton, Borneo, Celebes, Molucca Islands, Timor 
 Archipelago, Bali, and Lombok. 
 
 Turkey in Asia, before the war, comprised Asia 
 Minor, Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia, Kurdistan, 
 Armenia, and part of Arabia. By the terms of the 
 Treaty of Sevres (10 August, 1920), she retains 
 only part of Asia Minor, Smyrna having been 
 granted to Greece. Certain concessions made to 
 her by a revision of this treaty in 1921 are con¬ 
 tested by Greece with open hostilities. The war 
 resulted disastrously for Turkey, her power was 
 greatly diminished, her territorial losses very great. 
 Strong German influences within the Turkish Em¬ 
 pire had led her to enter the war allied with Ger¬ 
 many. She had but recently emerged from the 
 Balkan Wars, defeated, when she was precipitated 
 into the world conflict. Her geographical position 
 prevented her from being of direct assistance to 
 Germany in Europe, though she defended the Dar¬ 
 danelles and the Russian frontier. Asia was the 
 scene of constant struggle, chiefly against British 
 forces, drawn in large numbers from India. The 
 seizure of Basra, the capture of Kut by General 
 Townshend (September, 1915), its subsequent siege 
 and surrender to Turkish forces (April, 1916), -its 
 recapture (February, 1917), and the occupation of 
 Bagdad (March, 1917), by British troops under 
 General Maude were important events in the Meso¬ 
 potamian campaign. The surrender of Gaza, Joppa, 
 and finally Jerusalem (December, 1917), were vic¬ 
 tories for British forces under General Allenby in 
 Palestine. All these culminated in the great Allied 
 offensive of the fall of 1918 when, simultaneously 
 Allied troops pressed northward through Syria, cap¬ 
 turing Haifa, Damascus, Tyre, Sidon, Beirut, and 
 finally Aleppo (26 October) and through Meso¬ 
 potamia, arriving victorious in Mosul (3November). 
 Turkey surrendered unconditionally to the Allies 
 30 October, 1918. In Arabia the Turks were opposed 
 by the Arabs themselves who revolted against 
 Turkish rule and with the aid of the British, notably 
 Col. Thos. Lawrence, routed the Turkish forces 
 after severe fighting and established the independent 
 kingdom of Hejaz. Armenia, divided in its alle¬ 
 giance to Russian and Turkish sovereignty, was the 
 scene of hideous massacre by the Turks, and thank¬ 
 less fighting in the cause of Russia. The new re¬ 
 public was born out of bloodshed and oppression. 
 
 Asia Minor, Vicariate Apostolic of (Asue 
 Minoris), with residence at Smyrna, is entrusted to 
 the Archbishop of Smyrna, who acts as adminis¬ 
 trator. For civil history see Anatolia. 
 
 Assam, Prefecture Apostolic of (Assamensis; 
 cf. C. E., I-793d), in the ecclesiastical province of 
 Calcutta, India, was served by the Society of the 
 Divine Savior up to 9 July, 1915, when the Ger¬ 
 man Fathers were repatriated. The Belgian Jesuits 
 of Bengal took charge on 22 June, 1915, and served 
 until the appointment of the Salesian Fathers in 
 July, 1921. The Rev. L. Mathias is Superior 
 Regular of the mission. By 1920 statistics the total 
 population of this territory is 7,309,800, of whom 
 5,738 are Catholics and 800 catechumens. The re¬ 
 mainder of the population is divided among seven¬ 
 teen different sects. There are 51 regular priests, 
 50 churches or chapels, 10 principal mission stations 
 and 88 sub-stations and 2 orphanages. A press 
 established at Shillong publishes textbooks and 
 controversial pamphlets in the Khasi language. 
 
 Assessors (cf. C. E., I-799d), in ecclesiastical 
 courts are clerics associated with judges in the trial 
 
 of causes as advisers, but destitute of jurisdiction, 
 formerly a judge might select laymen for this post, 
 but the Code now provides that they are to be 
 chosen from among the synodal judges. 
 
 Assiout, mission in Egypt, is the seat of a Coptic 
 bishop and is under the care of the Friars Minor. 
 Rev. Vincenzo Fracisini of this order has been 
 superior of the mission since its erection in 1907 
 I he territory has a population of 15,000. 
 
 Assisi, Diocese of (Assisiensis; C. E., I-801b) 
 m the province of Perugia, Italy, is directly sub¬ 
 ject to the Holy See. The present bishop, Rt. Rev. 
 Ambrogio Luddi of the Dominican Order, b. at 
 Raggioli, 1841, was appointed to this see 27 Feb¬ 
 ruary, 1905. In 1921 there were 30,152 Catholics in 
 the diocese, of whom 4,227 are in the city of Assisi 
 there are 35 parishes, 186 churches, 19 students in 
 the diocesan seminary, and 72 at the pontifical 
 seminary. Among the religious orders of men there 
 are 58 priests and 36 lay brothers, besides 46 broth- 
 ers J in )T vai ^ ous congregations; 18 convents for men, 
 and 17 monasteries for women with 236 nuns. The 
 various institutions include 1 college with 215 stu¬ 
 dents, an institute for the deaf and blind, 107 recrea¬ 
 tion centers and 27 Circles of St. Francis, for the 
 young. A new laboratory and recreation center will 
 be opened under the patronage of St. Francis in 
 iMZZ. 
 
 Associations, Pious (cf. C. E., II-5).-Under the 
 general title of associations of the faithful the Code 
 treats of secular third orders, confraternities and 
 pious unions. A secular third order is a body of lay 
 persons (occasionally clerics are enrolled) who, aim¬ 
 ing at Christian perfection, follow a rule inspired 
 by the spirit of a religious order but suited to their 
 conditions as laics, and approved for them by the 
 Holy See. Pious unions are associations of the 
 faithful erected to promote the practice of works 
 of piety or charity; pious unions are called sodali¬ 
 ties when they are organically constituted, that is 
 when they are constitutionally required to have a 
 president and a body of assistants and councilors; 
 while a sodality erected to foster public wnrship is 
 known as a confraternity. There are certain non- 
 ecclesiastical though pious associations of Catholics, 
 such as the Conferences of St. Vincent de Paul 
 and various temperance organizations, which have 
 been commended and enriched with favors by the 
 pope; yet as they have been called into existence 
 and are governed not by the Church but by the 
 laity, they are not bound by the canon law govern¬ 
 ing associations. As societies they are, therefore, 
 exempt from episcopal jurisdiction; however, they 
 come under the vigilance of the bishop in so far 
 as it is his duty to see if there is anything in his 
 diocese that is a source of danger to the faith or 
 morals of his subjects; this duty of vigilance entails 
 the rights of visitation (cf. Acta Apost. Sedis, 1921, 
 pp. 135-44). 
 
 The Church recognizes as ecclesiastical only such 
 associations as have been erected or approved by 
 lawful ecclesiastical authority; that is, by the pope 
 or the local ordinary, except where by Apostolic 
 privilege the right of institution is reserved to oth¬ 
 ers. When such a privilege has been granted the 
 erection of the association would, as a rule, be 
 invalid without the written consent of the ordinary, 
 for the consent of a vicar general or vicar capitular 
 does not suffice. When an ordinary consents to 
 the erection of a religious house, that permission 
 suffices also for the erection in that house or in 
 the church belonging to it of an association belong¬ 
 ing to the religious order, but not organically con- 
 
ASSOCIATIONS 
 
 62 
 
 ASSUMPTION 
 
 stituted; such associations, for instance, as the 
 Holy Name Society in Dominican churches, and the 
 Bona Mors or the Blessed Virgin’s Sodality in 
 Jesuit churches. 
 
 Associations must adopt congruous titles, and 
 must have their rules examined and approved by 
 the Holy See/or the local ordinary, the latter having 
 power to supervise and modify statutes that have 
 not hitherto received papal confirmation. All pious 
 associations, even those erected by the Holy See, 
 are ordinarily under the jurisdiction and supervision 
 of the local ordinary; but in case of those erected 
 in virtue of an Apostolic privilege by exempt re¬ 
 ligious in their churches, the ordinary must not 
 interfere in matters of internal discipline or spiritual 
 direction. As a rule the chaplain and moderator of 
 an association are appointed by the local ordinary; 
 but when associations have been erected by exempt 
 religious in their own churches the local ordinary’s 
 consent is needed only if the superior wishes to 
 appoint a secular priest as chaplain and moderator. 
 During their term of office they may bless and im¬ 
 pose the association’s habit, insignia or scapulars. 
 Not infrequently the moderator also acts as chap¬ 
 lain. 
 
 When various pious associations assemble offi¬ 
 cially with their crosses or banners and habits or 
 insignia, the order of precedence is, as a general 
 rule, third orders, archconfraternities, confraterni¬ 
 ties, primary pious unions, other pious unions; but 
 in processions of the Blessed Sacrament the Con¬ 
 fraternity of the Holy Eucharist precedes the arch¬ 
 confraternities. 
 
 As a rule any Catholic may validly join a pious 
 association, and if he does he shares in its rights, 
 privileges and spiritual favors until he is lawfully 
 expelled. Non-Catholics and members of condemned 
 societies or those under notorious censure and in 
 general public sinners cannot be received validly as 
 associates. A person may be enrolled in several 
 associations, but not in two-third orders except in 
 virtue of an Apostolic indult. Those who are 
 absent may not be enrolled in organically consti¬ 
 tuted associations; those who are present can be 
 enrolled only if they know and consent; by special 
 permission of the Holy See, however, young chil¬ 
 dren and even the dead may be enrolled in certain 
 confraternities. A religious may join any pious 
 association, unless his superior judges that its regu¬ 
 lations do not harmonize with his religious rule and 
 constitutions; but those who are bound by perpetual 
 or temporary vows cannot become members of third 
 orders, nor can they retain their membership after 
 their profession, if they have previously been en¬ 
 rolled ; however, if such persons return to the world 
 lawfully, freed from their vows, their former mem¬ 
 bership revives. 
 
 If a person has been received into an association 
 his name should be entered on the roll, and more¬ 
 over, must be entered, under penalty of invalid 
 membership, if the association has been erected as 
 a moral person. No payment, direct or indirect, for 
 reception must be exacted, except what the statutes 
 authorize or is expressly allowed by the ordinary in 
 favor of the association under special circumstances. 
 No lawful member may be expelled unless for just 
 cause and in accordance with the statutes. Those 
 who have joined forbidden societies or who are 
 under a notorious censure or who have become 
 public sinners must be expelled, if they have failed 
 to amend their ways after being duly warned; they 
 have, however, a right to appeal to the ordinary against 
 their expulsion. Local ordinaries and religious 
 superiors have power to dismiss members from asso¬ 
 ciations erected by religious in virtue of an Apos¬ 
 
 tolic indult even when the statutes do not ex¬ 
 pressly recognize this power. 
 
 Associations legitimately erected being thereby 
 ecclesiastical moral personalities, have the right to 
 hold general meetings, pass rules, and elect officers 
 and administrators of their property, in accordance 
 with their statutes and canon law. Their general 
 meetings should be presided over by the bishop 
 or his delegate, who, though he has no power of 
 voting, has to approve or reject the officers elected. 
 The ordinary or his delegate should be notified in 
 time about extraordinary general meetings, other¬ 
 wise he may forbid them or annul their decrees. 
 For grave reasons the ordinary may suppress any 
 association, except those erected by the Holy See, 
 but the members have always the right of appeal 
 to Rome against his action. A legitimately erected 
 association may, unless the contrary is expressly 
 stated in the statutes or the decree of erection, 
 hold and administer temporal property, subject to 
 the authority of the ordinary. The parish priest 
 in whose parish it is established has, however, no 
 right to interefere in these matters, except with the 
 bishop’s authorization. The association must render 
 each year an account of its administration to the 
 ordinary. It may receive offerings and apply them 
 to 'its pious purposes, but it must not solicit alms, 
 unless its statutes so provide or necessity urges, 
 and then only with the consent and according to 
 the directions of the local ordinary. If it should 
 be necessary to make collections outside of the 
 diocese, the written consent both of the local ordi¬ 
 nary and of the bishop of the other place are 
 necessary. 
 
 Vermeersch-Creusen, Epitovie juris canonici, 686-99. 
 
 Assumption, Little Sisters of the (cf. C. E., 
 I-5d), founded in 1864 in Paris, France, by Rev. 
 Etienne Pernet, one of the first members of the 
 Congregation of the Augustinians of the Assump¬ 
 tion. Born at Vellaxon (Haute Saone), 23 July, 
 1824, Fr. Pernet made his vows 25 December, 1850, 
 and was ordained in 1858. The co-foundress was 
 Antoinette Fage, who, as Mother Marie de Jesus 
 in 1865, became the head of the little community 
 established in a modest flat, rue St. Dominique. 
 They removed, 7 April, 1870, to the Convent of 
 Grenelle, which became and is now the mother- 
 house of the congregation. In that year the com¬ 
 munity numbered 24 members. They followed the 
 Rule of St. Augustine, and the founder gave them a 
 constitution according to their work. His predomi¬ 
 nant idea was to give the Sisters an intense interior 
 life to animate their activity—daily Little Office 
 of the Blessed Virgin in choir, two half-hours medi¬ 
 tation, two spiritual readings. In 1875, after exami¬ 
 nation of the constitution, Cardinal Guibert gave 
 his approbation and encouragement to the work. 
 The Little Sisters nurse the sick poor in their own 
 homes, without regard to creed or nationality, ac¬ 
 cepting no remuneration of any kind. In addition 
 to caring for the patient, they keep the house 
 clean and in order, urepare the meals for the family, 
 dress the children and send them to school. This 
 work of charity gives them a great influence in 
 the home, enables them to re-enforce the faith 
 and religious knowledge of the family, to bring 
 souls back to their religious duties, to prepare 
 adults for baptism, abjuration, Confirmation, and 
 First Communion; they also arrange for the legali¬ 
 zation by the Church of marriages merely civil. 
 
 That the founder’s ideal of “union through charity 
 of the two classes of society” might be realized, the 
 nuns are assisted in their work by Lady-Auxiliaries, 
 called “Lady-Servants of the Poor,” who take an 
 
ASSUMPTION OF THE BLESSED VIRGIN 
 
 63 
 
 ATHABASKA 
 
 active part in the labors among the poor. This 
 branch of the work received the approbation of 
 Pope Leo XIII, with special indulgences, in March, 
 1881. Two confraternities also help the Sisters. 
 Once a month the Confraternity of Our Lady of the 
 Assumption gathers together the fathers of families, 
 a priest presides, and addresses are made by promi¬ 
 nent laymen who co-operate in the work under 
 the title of “Decurion.” In January, 1921, Pope 
 ®. ene ^ c ^ -X-V granted them special indulgences, 
 lhe Confraternity of the Daughters of St. Monica 
 gathers the mothers of families, under the guidance 
 of a priest. Once a month an address is delivered 
 by one of the “Lady-Servants.” 
 
 A candidate for the religious order may make 
 her first probation in her own country. Postulancy 
 lasts hom six to nine months, then follows a 
 
 n0V j^ a ^ e ^ wo y ears > after which profession is 
 made. Perpetual vows are taken eight years after 
 the first profession. The congregation received 
 the Apostolic Brief from Pope Leo XIII, 29 March, 
 1881, was granted the Decree of Praise in April' 
 1897, and final approbation in July, 1901. The 
 process of the beatification of the co-foundress, 
 Mother Marie de Jesus (Antoinette Fage), was 
 begun in September, 1921, the postulators of the 
 cause being Rev. Esteban, procurator general of 
 the Hermits of St. Augustine, and Bishop Roland- 
 Gosselm, Auxiliary Bishop of Paris, President of 
 the Ecclesiastical Tribunal in Paris. Mother Marie 
 de Jesus was bora in Paris, 7 November, 1824, 
 and made her perpetual vows in 1878, ruling the 
 community until her death in 1883. She was suc¬ 
 ceeded as superior general by Mother Marie du 
 St. Sacrament, who by special decree of the Sacred 
 Congregation of Religious, 21 June, 1921, will re¬ 
 main at the head of the congregation until her 
 death. 
 
 The congregation has spread throughout the 
 world. In 1880 foundations were made in England; 
 in 1891, in Ireland and New York; in 1900 in 
 Belgium; in 1903, in Rome; and in 1909, in Buenos 
 Aires. In 1922 the congregation numbers 1000 
 members with 32 houses in France, 3 in Italy 
 (Rome, Turin, Milan), 3 in Ireland (Dublin, Cork 
 Kingstown), 5 in England (at Bow, Notting Hill, 
 and Clapham in London, at Norwich, and at Ches- 
 tw* f Belgium (Brussels, Antwerp, la Louviere, 
 Marchienne-au-Pont), 1 in Argentina (Buenos 
 Aires), and 2 in New York City, N. Y. On 11 
 April, 1891, Mother Marie du Christ, with five 
 other Little Sisters of the Assumption, sailed 
 from Havre for New York. They were welcomed 
 by Archbishop Corrigan, who had visited the 
 mother-house in 1891 to ask for a foundation in 
 his diocese. They started their work in a small 
 house on Second Avenue and removed in 1892 to 
 Sj larger house on East Fifteenth Street, and again 
 m 1919 to another house on the same street. A 
 second branch in New York was established uptown 
 at 130th Street in 1900, and transferred in 1917 to 
 Convent Avenue and 144th Street. The assistance 
 of the Lady-Auxiliaries is encouraging, and the 
 work yearly receives new impetus. Cardinal 
 Dougherty, Archbishop of Philadelphia, visited the 
 mother-house in 1920, when returning from Rome, 
 desiring to have a foundation made by the Sisters 
 in his own city This new branch will be estab¬ 
 lished in September, 1922. 
 
 Assumption of the Blessed Virgin, Sisters of 
 the, a religious congregation of nuns with mother- 
 , in . Nicolet, P. Q., Canada, founded in 
 bt.-Gregoire of Nicolet, 8 September, 1853, by the 
 parish priest, Fr. Jean Harper, and four young 
 5 
 
 girls of his parish: Leocadie Bourgeois (Sceur de 
 lAssomption), Julie Heon (Sceur de Jesus), 
 Mathilde Leduc (Sceur Sainte-Marie), and Hedwige 
 Buisson (Soeur Samt-Joseph). The end of the con¬ 
 gregation is the education of children. At present 
 the Sisters have 66 houses, of which 13 are in 
 the United States These are at: Southbridge, 
 Diocese of Springfield, Mass, (founded 1891) 15 
 Sisters, 705 pupils; Spencer, Diocese of Springfield 
 Mass. (1892), 11 Sisters, 401 pupils; Meriden® 
 cese of Hartford, Conn. (1893), 8 Sisters, 282 
 pupils, Indian Orchard, Diocese of Springfield 
 Mass. (1895), 8 Sisters, 371 pupils; Brockton, Arch¬ 
 diocese of Boston, Mass. (1902), 10 Sisters, 384 
 PuPjJs; Greenville, Diocese of Manchester, N. H 
 
 rUr l ? lste A r T s > T -? 5 ? Pupils; Laconia, Diocese 
 of Manchester N. H. (1906), 19 Sisters, 686 pupils- 
 Lowell, Archdiocese of Boston, Mass. (1907) 22 
 m Barton, Diocese of Burlington, 
 
 Vt ' (1 ?°a^ 6 Sl ® ters > 170 Pupils; Glens Falls, Dio- 
 cese of Albany, N. Y. (1908), 9 Sisters, 284 pupils; 
 Southbndge, Diocese of Springfield, Mass. (1910) 
 
 11 1 Sisters 508 pupils; Hudson Falls, Diocese of 
 Albany, N. Y. (1916), 8 Sisters, 252 pupils; Bristol, 
 Diocese of Hartford, Conn. (1918), 8 Sisters, 312 
 pupils, a total of 142 Sisters and 5710 pupils. 
 
 Asti, Diocese of (Astensis; cf. C. E II-18b) 
 one of the divisions of the province of Alexandria,’ 
 Italy, is suffragan of Turin. Rt. Rev. Giacinto 
 Arcaugeh, who came to this see 1898, d. 6 February, 
 1908, and was succeeded by the present incumbent 
 7C* uTa Luigi Spandre. Bishop Spandre, b. at 
 Caselle-Tormese 1853, appointed titular Bishop of 
 Tiberiade 3 September, 1899, and made auxiliary 
 a°±* Archbishop of Turin, was transferred to 
 Asti 12 June 1909. In 1920 the Catholic population 
 numbered 182,600; there are 180 parishes, 300 secu¬ 
 lar and 20 regular clergy, 85 seminarians, 525 
 churches or chapels, 5 brothers and 60 sisters. 
 
 Diocese of (Aturicensis; cf. C. E., 
 11-18d), comprises parts of the provinces of Leon 
 Zamora and Orense in Spain and is suffragan of 
 Valladolid. Rt. Rev. Juliano de Diego y Alcolea 
 who came to this see in 1904, was transferred to 
 Salamanca 18 July, 1913, and was succeeded by Rt. 
 
 TcSo' Anthonio , Senso Lazaro, born in this diocese 
 1868, appointed bishop 18 July, 1913. In 1920 there 
 were 401,000 Catholics in the diocese, 890 parishes 
 950 priests, 890 churches, 630 chapels, 18 convents 
 with 90 religious and 350 sisters. 
 
 Aterrado, Diocese of (Aterradensis), in the 
 State of Minas Geraes, Brazil, suffragan of Mari- 
 
 i W f- s erected 8 July, 1918, by a separation 
 oi the Archdiocese of Marianna, the western portion 
 being taken to form the new diocese. The eastern 
 limits of the diocese of Aterrado coincide with the 
 eastern boundary lines of the parishes of Formiga, 
 
 Roi to-Real, Dores de Judaya and Abaede, which 
 now, with fourteen other parishes, are comprised 
 m this diocese. The first and present bishop of the 
 diocese, Rt. Rev. Emmanuel Nunes Codho, b. in 
 the diocese of Diamantina, was appointed 10 June, 
 1920. Up to the present time (1922) no statistics 
 have been published. 
 
 Athabaska, Vicariate Apostolic of (Athabas- - 
 kensis; cf. C. E., II-33b), in Canada, is suffragan 
 to the Archdiocese of Edmonton. Since 1907 the 
 \ icariate has undergone considerable changes owing 
 to the building of new railways which have opened 
 up the country, which for the most part consists of 
 vast prairies or farm land, the chief occupation of 
 the people being cattle-raising or farming. The 
 greater number of the people are Protestant or of 
 
ATHENS 
 
 64 
 
 ATONEMENT 
 
 no religion at all, but the number of Catholics is 
 growing slowly and parishes are being formed. Most 
 of the new inhabitants come from the United States 
 and Europe, with some from Asia. The Indians 
 who were the first inhabitants of this territory, have 
 been entirely banished by the influx of white men, 
 but the Canadian government has assigned them 
 reservations; they are almost all Catholic, and the 
 civil authorities respect their faith, and Catholic 
 boarding schools, aided by the government, have 
 been established and have an attendance of 200 
 Indian children. The Vicariate is at present (1921) 
 under the administration of the Rt. Rev. Emile 
 Grouard, O.M.I., D.D., who was consecrated titular 
 Bishop of Ibora 1 August, 1891. 
 
 During the World War five missionaries, Oblates 
 of Mary Immaculate, responded to the call of the 
 French Government, two of whom won the croix 
 de guerre, and numbers of the men of this territory 
 entered the service, many of them giving up their 
 lives. 
 
 The Grey Nuns of Montreal have been estab¬ 
 lished in this district for many years and have been 
 followed by the Sisters of Providence who conduct 
 6 schools, and in 1920 by the Sisters of the Holy 
 Cross, who have opened a school for the children 
 of French Canadians. There are now 28 priests 
 (Oblates of Mary Immaculate), 32 churches or 
 chapels, 64 Canadian religious, 8 schools with 600 
 pupils, and a very modest hospital which, in spite 
 of its size, has rendered very great service. 
 
 Athens, Archdiocese of (Athenarum; cf. C. E., 
 II-46c), in Greece, is under the immediate jurisdic¬ 
 tion of the Holy See, Archbishop Delenda who came 
 to this see in 1900, d. 10 September, 1911, and was 
 succeeded by the present incumbent, Most Rev. 
 Louis Petit, Assumptionist. Archbishop Petit, b. in 
 the diocese of Annecy 1868, entered the Order of 
 the Assumptionists 1885, superior at Toulouse 1894- 
 95 and at Kadi-Keui, 1895; founder and editor of 
 “Echos d’Orient” and co-publisher of the “Recueil 
 des inscrits chretiens du Mont-Athos,” and the 
 charts of the Greek monasteries. In 1902 he went 
 to Rome and engaged in research work in the 
 Propaganda and Vatican Archives, preparatory to 
 the Council of Armenian Catholics held in 1911, 
 the year in which he was made assistant general of 
 his order; elected Archbishop 4 March, 1912, and 
 named apostolic delegate to Greece. He was made 
 a consultor of the Congregation of the Oriental 
 Church 29 November, 1917. He contributed a num¬ 
 ber of articles to the Catholic Encyclopedia. By 
 1920 statistics there are over 20,000 Catholics under 
 the archbishop’s jurisdiction, and of these 8,600 are 
 in the diocese, properly speaking. There are 14 
 secular and 12 regular priests, 14 brothers, 53 
 religious, 16 churches or chapels, 1 seminary, 2 lyce- 
 ums under the care of religious, 4 boarding schools 
 and a clinic directed by religious and 4 elementary 
 schools. 
 
 Atonement, Friars of the, a branch of the Third 
 Order Regular of St. Francis, which follows closely 
 the Rule of the Friars Minor, and was founded in 
 1899 by the Rev. Paul James Francis, S. A., a clergy¬ 
 man of the Episcopal Church, who was even then en¬ 
 dowed with a de fide grasp of Catholic truth and 
 while clinging to the ecclesiastical organization in 
 which he had been reared, bore fearless witness to 
 the Apostolic See of Rome as the de jure divino 
 center of Catholic unity and communion. The 
 Church Unity Octave (q.v.), propagated by 
 the Society, originated in 1908 and the following 
 year won the approval and blessing of Pope Pius X. 
 It has since been extended by a Papal* BUef of 
 
 Pope Benedict XV to the Universal Church. The 
 first-fruits of this observance was the submission 
 and corporate reception of the Society of the 
 Atonement itself, 30 October, 1909. The institute 
 was permitted to retain its name, its dominant 
 characteristics and spirit, and to continue its organ, 
 “The Lamp,” as a Catholic publication. The Father 
 Founder took a seven months’ course of theology 
 at St. Joseph’s Seminary, Yonkers, New York, and 
 was ordained priest 16 June, 1910. The Friars of 
 the Atonement are the first congregation of what 
 is known as the Society of the Atonement, the 
 second congregation being the Sisters of the Atone¬ 
 ment, who are, however, a separate organization, 
 and the third congregation, or Tertiaries, being at 
 the same time members of the Third Order of 
 Saint Francis. These three form the institute 
 known as the Society of the Atonement (Societas 
 Adunationis ) and so designated by the Holy Father. 
 At the time of their reception into the Catholic 
 Church, two professed friars, five professed sisters, 
 and ten tertiaries, seventeen persons in all, were 
 received in the convent chapel by the present 
 Bishop of Ogdensburg, Monsignor Conroy, acting 
 for His Eminence Cardinal Farley, just ten years 
 after Father Paul came to Graymoor to make his 
 foundation. Up to this time the growth of the 
 Society had been extremely slow and hazardous, 
 nothing but a powerful faith in a God-given mis¬ 
 sion sustaining it; but it now received new life and 
 grew rapidly, and its activities along with it. The 
 members of the Rosary League have grown from 
 a handful to 100,000, and countless petitions are 
 offered in the novenas to Our Lady of the Atone¬ 
 ment which begin the first Saturday of each month. 
 The Union-that-Nothing-be-Lost (q.v.), the in¬ 
 strument through which hundreds of thousands of 
 dollars have been dispensed to missionaries and 
 their work in all parts of the world, numbers 50,000 
 members. There are 1,500 Tertiaries of the Society: 
 All through these years “The Lamp” has been the 
 organ of the society, the work of both the Friars 
 and the Sisters being extended and developed 
 through its instrumentality. This publication 
 reached a circulation of over 150,000 in 1921. It is 
 devoted chiefly to the reunion of the “other sheep” 
 with the Apostolic See, and to missionary work. 
 The Friars of the Atonement now (1921) number 
 13 professed, 4 novices, and 10 postulants, with 36 
 aspirants studying for the priesthood in Saint John’s 
 Atonement College, Graymoor, N. Y. Three ter¬ 
 tiary priests also share the community life of the 
 Friars. The president of St. John’s Atonement 
 College is Very Rev. Paul James Francis, S.A., 
 Father Minister, and Charles H. Schultz, T.S.A., 
 is director of studies, there being a staff of 10 
 teachers, including 1 friar-priest and 2 tertiary 
 priests. The college includes the scholasticate with 
 3 philosophers, the academic department with 21 
 students, and the preparatory department with 10 
 students. There are 3 tertiary priests and 6 tertiary 
 brothers resident, engaged in teaching or in other 
 departments of the Friars’ activities. The Friars 
 of the Atonement serve St. John the Baptist 
 Church, Graymoor, ministering to the rural com¬ 
 munity. Besides the original foundation on the 
 Mount of the Atonement, there is one other at 
 Hereford, Texas, St. Anthony’s Church, being served 
 by Father Salvator, S. A. 
 
 Atonement, Our Lady of the. —The first Church 
 dedicated to the Blessed Virgin under this title is 
 in Baguio, Province of Benguet, Philippine Islands, 
 the Rev. Jose De Samber pastor. This church was 
 thus dedicated in 1919, having been erected largely 
 
AUCH 
 
 65 
 
 AUGOUARD 
 
 by missionary donations contributed through the 
 Society of the Atonement. This also is the title 
 under which the Mother of God is invoked by the 
 numerous members of the Rosary League of Our 
 Lady of the Atonement. 
 
 Auch (Au xita na; cf. C. E., II—67d); Archdiocese 
 of, in h ranee, is under the administration of Most 
 Rev. Jean Fran^ois-Ernest Ricard. Born at Sau- 
 vensa Diocese of Rodez, 27 February, 1852, he 
 made his studies at Rome, became secretary to the 
 bishop and afterwards vicar general of the Diocese 
 of Rodez, was appointed Bishop of Angouleme 18 
 April, 1901, consecrated 29 June, and promoted to 
 the Archdiocese of Auch 15 April, 1907, succeeding 
 Archbishop Enard, who died 13 March, 1907. Arch¬ 
 bishop Enard had filled the see for only one year, 
 having come to it in 1906 as successor to Arch¬ 
 bishop Balai'n, who died 13 May, 1905. 
 
 Until 1789 the Archbishops of Auch bore the title 
 of Primate of Novempopulanie and the two 
 Navarres. The archdiocese was re-established in 
 1822 and includes the dioceses of Condom, Lec- 
 toure, and. Lombez. The ancient Cathedral of 
 Ste-Mane is famous for its fifteenth century win¬ 
 dows and for its great choir with 113 stalls of beau- 
 tifully carved wood, which is a true masterpiece 
 of the Renaissance. 
 
 The carving was done under the direction of the 
 cardinals of Clermont-Lodeve and de Tournon 
 (1515-1554). Since its establishment (879) this dio¬ 
 cese has had 51 bishops and 62 archbishops, of 
 whom 6 have been canonized and 12 have been 
 cardinals. 
 
 Within recent years a new lower seminary has 
 been erected in the diocese; a diocesan Synod was 
 held in September, 1911, and in August and Septem¬ 
 ber of the same year a pilgrimage went from the 
 diocese to the shrine of Our Lady of Lourdes. 
 
 By present (1921) statistics this diocese has 507 
 parishes, 15 chapels, 3 Carmelite monasteries for 
 women, 1 convent for men and 25 for women, 540 
 secular and 5 regular clergy, 10 brothers, 250 sisters, 
 
 2 seminaries, 110 seminarians, 3 colleges for boys 
 with 30 teachers and 300 pupils, 120 elementary 
 schools with 250 teachers and 4,000 pupils. Chari¬ 
 table work is carried on by diocesan missionaries 
 numbering 8; in addition to this there are 1 home 
 for the aged, 2 orphanages, and 15 hospitals. There 
 are three organizations established among the clergy, 
 the Apostolic Union of Secular Priests, the Priests 
 Adorers, and “Jesus Hostie,” as also a committee 
 for the defense of the priesthood; among the laity 
 are the Society of Catholic Youth, Catholic Diocesan 
 Union, Association of Christian Men, various con¬ 
 fraternities and associations of Catholic works of 
 Our Lady of Auch. Various periodicals are pub¬ 
 lished: “Semaine Religieuse,” “Croix du Gers,” and 
 “La Jeune Ganoque.” 
 
 five priests as chaplains and 4,200 men into the 
 service. 
 
 P resent , (1?21) statistics the total Catholic 
 population of the diocese is approximately 46,500 
 4™ h0 M 37 ! 000 ” e New Zealanders, 5,000 Irish, and 
 
 q7 0 i,^ a n OnS -oo The '' e - are 50 .Parishes, 22 missions, 
 97 churches, 92 mission stations, 16 convents for 
 
 women, 51 secular and 22 regular priests, 296 sisters 
 Various educational institutions are conducted bv 
 the Little Brothers of Mary, Sisters of Mercy, R e - 
 hgious of the Sacred Heart, Sisters of Saint Joseph, 
 and Sisters of the Missions; there are in all: 1 col- 
 
 oAo 6 io T u^i U ^ ith , 12 teachers and attendance of 
 j schools with attendance of 260 boys 
 
 and 330 girls, and 36 elementary schools with 182 
 teachers and 4,100 pupils. The charitable institu- 
 \ h are: 1 home for the aged poor (under the 
 Little Sisters of the Poor), 2 orphanages, and 1 hos¬ 
 pital. h our of the public institutions permit the 
 priests of the diocese to minister in them The 
 Hibernian Benefit Society, St. Vincent de Paul 
 Society, and the Catholic Federation are established 
 among the laity, and a Catholic periodical, “The 
 Month, is published. 
 
 Auditors ( C f. C. E., 11-70) are officials frequently 
 appointed by the bishop or religious superior to 
 assist at diocesan and religious tribunals either 
 permanently or for a particular case. If none has 
 been named a presiding judge may select one, 
 who should be chosen if possible from among the 
 synodal judges. It is the duty of an auditor to 
 summon witnesses .and to receive their testimony 
 he draws up the judicial record of the case, but 
 does not render a definitive judgment. With the 
 reorganization of the Roman Curia in 1908 the 
 auditors of the Sacred Rota were called upon to 
 take a much more prominent place in the ecclesias¬ 
 tical judicial system than they had done in recent 
 times. If an auditor of the Rota is suspected of 
 bias the aggrieved party may lodge an objection 
 with the Apostolic Signature; but an objection to 
 any other auditor is to be brought to the notice 
 of the judge who is hearing the suit. 
 
 Auckland, Diocese of (Aijcopolitana; cf. C. E., 
 II-68b), in New Zealand, is under the adminis¬ 
 tration of Rt. Rev. Henry William Cleary, born at 
 Glenranny, Wexford, this diocese, 15 January, 1859, 
 appointed bishop 9 June, 1910, consecrated 21 
 August. He succeeded Rt. Rev. George Michael 
 Lenihan, D.D., who had filled the see from 1896 
 until his death, 22 February, 1910. 
 
 The principal events in this diocese in recent 
 years have been the opening of the enlarged and 
 redecorated Cathedral of St. Patrick in Auckland, 
 the introduction of the Religious of the Sacred 
 Heart of Jesus into the diocese, the appointment 
 of a coadjutor bishop, Rt. Rev. James M. Liston, 
 consecrated titular Bishop of Olympias, 12 Decem¬ 
 ber, 1920. During the World War the diocese sent 
 
 Augouard, Philippe-Prosper, Vicar Apostolic of 
 Upper French Congo, b. 16 September, 1852, in 
 Poitiers; d. 3 October, 1921, in Paris. He studied 
 tor the priesthood at the lower seminary at Seez 
 under the direction of Mgr. de Segur, and was about 
 to finish his studies when the Franco-Prussian War 
 broke out. He joined the Papal Zouaves, then re¬ 
 constructed as an independent regiment under 
 Colonel de Charette. The war over he entered the 
 Congregation of the Holy Ghost, and in 1877 left 
 for the missions on the east coast of Africa. In 
 1881 he opened the first mission station of St 
 Augustin and two years later penetrated to Stanley 
 Pool. The following year Jules Ferry, French Min- 
 lster of Education, gave him a large grant for 
 schools for the Upper Congo. Pere Augouard as¬ 
 sisted the French explorers by every means in his 
 ppwer, seconding their work by the creation of hos¬ 
 pitals and schools, and winning their respect by his 
 initiative and enterprising zeal. 
 
 Appointed titular Bishop of Sinis in 1890 he be¬ 
 came vicar apostolic of Upper French Congo 
 (Ubanghi), with his residence at Brazzaville and a 
 wide.field for his missionary zeal. In recognition 
 of his services the French Government in 1896 
 made him a Chevalier of the Legion of Honor, 
 and in 1913 an officer, while Belgium bestowed upon 
 him the Order of Leopold. On the twenty-fifth 
 anniversary of his episcopate, 1915, the Holy Father 
 appointed him titular Archbishop of Cassiope. 
 
AUGSBURG 
 
 66 
 
 AUGUSTINIANS 
 
 Mgr. Augouard’s unfailing charity endeared him to 
 the simple natives, for in spite of his many-sided 
 activities as engineer, administrator, professor, 
 physician, geographer, he was above all bishop and 
 apostle. 
 
 Augsburg, Diocese of (Augustan Vindelicorum ; 
 cf. C. E., II-73b), in Bavaria, Germany, suffragan 
 of the Archdiocese of Munich-Freising. The diocese 
 is divided into 60 deaneries and has 871 parishes, 
 
 35 parochial curacies, 263 benefices, 235 chaplaincies, 
 and 14 mission stations. There are about 1,300 
 churches, 21 monasteries, 1 archabbey and 2 abbeys 
 for men, 364 lay brothers, 209 convents for women 
 with 3,622 sisters. In 1921 the clergy of the diocese 
 numbered 1,534: 1,353 seculars and 181 regulars. 
 There is 1 diocesan seminary. The University 
 (Hochschule) has a theological and a philosophical 
 faculty with 19 professors and 178 students. There 
 are also in the diocese 23 Hohere Schulen (9 and 6 
 years classical course), which are state and non¬ 
 sectarian institutions, with 587 teachers and 5,860 
 students, 21 for girls, of which 1 is a government 
 school, the others are conducted by Sisters and are 
 denominational for resident students; 6 agricultural 
 winter schools, 1 industrial continuation school. The 
 elementary schools are state and denominational 
 and number 900, with 2,500 teachers and about 
 95,000 students. 
 
 The following societies exist among the clergy: 
 Association of Priests, 1,220 members; Marian Con¬ 
 gregation of Priests, 500 members; Unio Apostolica, 
 180 members; association of lecturers or catechists, 
 30 members; association for the support of sick 
 priests, 1,050; fire insurance association, about 200. 
 Prominent among the numerous religious, political, 
 and social organizations of the laity are: 107 Cath¬ 
 olic workingmen’s associations (6,956 members); 
 
 36 Catholic workingwomen’s associations (3,576 
 members); 5 Catholic merchants’ associations (800 
 members); 61 young men’s associations (800 mem¬ 
 bers) ; 43 young women’s associations (2,500 mem¬ 
 bers); 66 journeymen’s unions (4,000 members); 
 19 associations for women servants (1,200 members); 
 10 associations for men servants _ (2,180 mem¬ 
 bers) ; 442 Catholic mothers’ associations (28,000 
 members); 115 press associations (139 corporation 
 members, 6,200 individual members); 1 academ¬ 
 ical association (105 members); 3 mission associa¬ 
 tions, 9 altar societies, 150 Marian congregations 
 (5,000 members); 21 Caecilian societies (600 mem¬ 
 bers) ; 620 farmers’ associations (17,000 members); 
 Caritas Association (310 branches); People’s League 
 (248 branches, 15,320 members). Eight periodicals 
 are published in the diocese. 
 
 The following important events have taken place 
 in the diocese since 1907: Creation of an auxiliary 
 bishop in 1907; an addition was built to the semi¬ 
 nary in 1912, and a theological course of four years 
 was introduced, 1912-1914; a home for poor priests 
 was opened at Fiissen; a diocesan synod was held 
 in 1919 and Catholic Congresses ( Katholikentage) 
 were held in 1910 and 1921. 
 
 Throughout the war the clergy did all in their 
 power to give spiritual aid and comfort to the 
 soldiers and unselfishly gave their services in be¬ 
 half of their country. Eight priests were wounded 
 on the field of battle, 19 served as chaplains in 
 field hospitals, and 39 as nurses. In 1918, 161 of 
 the seminarians were in the army; of these 41 were 
 killed, 3 were missing, and 4 were taken prisoners. 
 One hundred and nine army hospitals and some 
 maintained by private organizations were estab¬ 
 lished in the diocese, which were regularly attended 
 to by the clergy. The prisoners were cared for 
 
 spiritually by the priests of the respective place 
 and also by some of the priests who were prisoners. 
 The troops as well as the prisoners and the wounded 
 were provided with good literature. The collec¬ 
 tions for charities during the war amounted to 
 3,000,000 marks. The Catholic Press Association of 
 Bavaria alone published, from 1915-1918, 24,272 
 books. The pastors of Augsburg weekly distributed 
 2,400 copies of the “Katholische Kirchenzeitung” of 
 Augsburg, and the Aurische Presse at Donauworth 
 likewise distributed fortnightly 3,000 copies of its 
 splendid periodical “Raphael.” 
 
 The present bishop of Augsburg is the Rt. Rev. 
 Maximilian de Lingg, b. at Nesselwang, 8 March, 
 1842, ordained 22 July, 1865, was professor of canon 
 law and history at the seminary at Bamberg, elected 
 bishop of Augsburg 18 March, 1902, consecrated 
 20 July following. He was made a prelate, assistant 
 to the pontifical throne, 28 March, 1908. 
 
 Augustinians of the Assumption (cf. C. E., 
 
 I-104a).—This congregation, founded in 1845, at the 
 College of the Assumption at Nimes, has increased 
 its work during recent years in spite of the religious 
 persecution rigorously pursued in France since 1900, 
 and the general destruction accompanying the 
 World War. In addition to the four apostolic 
 schools, called alumniates, established in Belgium, 
 one was founded in Holland during the war for the 
 education of Dutch children, another in London for 
 English subjects, and two in Chile. The war having 
 facilitated the return of religious to France, the 
 congregation has re-established itself there as far as 
 possible, having three apostolic schools, welfare cen¬ 
 ters, and eight houses of residence. Since 1910 
 three foundations have been made in the Argentine, 
 at Buenos Aires, where in addition to preaching, 
 15 religious have the care of welfare centers, an 
 association for Catholic youth, an association of 
 young girls called “Noelistes,” and social fraterni¬ 
 ties, being aided in their work by the Little Sisters 
 of the Assumption who have two houses there. 
 In the Orient their work suffered much during the 
 war. Expelled by the Turks, after some of their 
 number had been imprisoned for two months, and 
 re-entering France after a variegated journey across 
 Russia, Sweden, and England, crossing the North 
 Sea and the English Channel in spite of the danger 
 of submarines, 150 religious returned to the Orient 
 as soon as the war was over, to re-establish their 
 works there and the houses more or less impaired 
 by the war. Twenty houses, colleges, and schools 
 have been reopened. The College of Philippopoli, 
 in Bulgaria, in its new buildings in the center of 
 the, city, recognized and endowed by the French 
 Government and patronized by the Bulgarian Gov¬ 
 ernment, is more prosperous than ever. The bache¬ 
 lor’s degree conferred there is recognized by both 
 the French and Bulgarian Governments, French 
 and Bulgarian being the two official languages of 
 the college. Bulgarian ministers and officers have 
 graduated there. The schools at Varne and Adri- 
 anople have been erected into colleges since the 
 war. 
 
 Fr. A. Vanhove, formerly superior of Notre Dame 
 de France at Jerusalem, was named superior of 
 the missions in the Orient in 1918, and died in 
 January, 1919, a victim of the catastrophe of the 
 “Chaouia,” which foundered in the Strait of Messina 
 on a floating mine. Fr. Michael d’Hondt and three 
 Oblates of the Assumption died in the same disaster. 
 Fr. Gervais Quenard succeeded Fr. Vanhove as 
 provincial. At Kadikoi the school of higher Byzan¬ 
 tine studies, the office of the review, “Echos 
 d’Orient,” has gained new vigor under the direction 
 
AUGUSTINIANS 
 
 67 
 
 AUGUSTINIANS 
 
 of Fr. S. Salaville, who succeeded Fr. L. Petit. 
 Many of the editors of “Echos d’Orient” have 
 acquired fame in the scientific world by their col¬ 
 laboration in different Oriental reviews and encyclo¬ 
 pedias and by their works: Fr. J. Pargoire (d. 
 1907) wrote “L’Eglise byzantine de 527 a 847,” 
 “Recueil des inscriptions chretiennes du Mont 
 Athos,” etc. Fr. J. Thibout, who had occasion to 
 decipher valuable manuscripts in the Imperial Li¬ 
 brary of Petrograd, wrote “Monuments de la nota¬ 
 tion ekphonetique et neumatique de FEglise latine,” 
 “Monuments de la notation ekphonetique et 
 hagiopohte de FEglise grecque,” etc.; Fr. R. Louaru 
 wrote Memento de theologie morale a l’usage des 
 missionaries,” etc.; Fr. Jugu wrote “Nestorius et la 
 controverse nestorienne” (collection: “Bibliotheque 
 de theologie historique”), “Histoire du canon de 
 1 ancien Testament dans FEglise grecque et FEglise 
 russe,” “La Priere pour l’unite chretienne,” etc. 
 The last two are, with Fr. S. Vailhe, professors at 
 the Oriental Pontifical Institute, founded by Pone 
 Benedict XV. * p 
 
 Another Assumptionist of note is Mgr. Petit, 
 former superior of the school of higher studies at 
 Kadikoi and former director of the “Echos 
 d Orient.” He was named by Pius X in 1912 arch¬ 
 bishop and delegate apostolic at Athens, being 
 appointed there because of his perfect knowledge 
 of the Greek language and of Oriental affairs. He 
 published with Fr. Pargoire “Recueil des inscriptions 
 chretiennes du Mont Athos,” and “Chartres de 
 monasteres grecs (5 vols). In 1908 he engaged in 
 research work in the Propaganda archives, and 
 was theologian and consultor of the Council of 
 Armenian Catholics in 1911. His principal work 
 is the continuation of the famous collection of the 
 Councils by Mansi, in collaboration with Abbe 
 Martin. More than twenty volumes have appeared 
 and supplements have been added to complete the 
 first volumes of Mansi. The documents of the 
 Council of the Vatican will comprise five volumes * 
 tw ? j l ve a PP eare d accompanied by notes and pre¬ 
 ceded by a masterly preface in Latin by Mgr. Petit, 
 who ha-s been able to consult the secret and reserved 
 a L c "IY es °f the council with the kindly authorization 
 ot Pius X. This collection is one of the most 
 important literary works of the twentieth century 
 The splendid hostelry of Notre Dame de France 
 at Jerusalem, from which the religious were ex- 
 pelled by the Turks during the war, was not in¬ 
 jured during its military occupation first by the 
 1 urks and then by the English, owing to the 
 presence of a religious who because of his German 
 origin found favor with the military force. The 
 first series of pilgrimages to the Holy Land were 
 resumed after the war in 1922. On this occasion 
 the professors of Notre Dame de France at Jeru¬ 
 salem re-edited and brought up to date “La Pales¬ 
 tine, an historical guide, both devout and scientific, 
 to the Holy Places. The church of Notre Dame 
 de France, which was enriched by Pope Leo XIII 
 with the indulgence of the Tomb of the Blessed 
 Virgin, was made by Fr. V. de P. Bailly the center 
 oi the .Society of the Crusaders of Purgatory. 
 
 Russia became a field of activity for the congre¬ 
 gation several years before the war, due to the 
 liberality and broadmindedness of 'the Russian min¬ 
 ister, Stolypine. The religious established influen¬ 
 tial intellectual centers at Petrograd, Moscow, and 
 Udessa, and founded a review in the Russian lan- 
 guage to make Rome better known to the Slavs. 
 
 1 he Russian revolution destroyed these works and 
 expelled the religious, with the exception of one 
 who was hunted and finally imprisoned by the 
 Bolsheviks. The Fathers are preparing to re-enter 
 
 h°P. iQ g for greater religious liberty under 
 the Bolsheviks than under the former Government. 
 
 n the United States the College of the Assump¬ 
 tion founded at Worcester, Mass., in 1903, has 
 developed rapidly. Teaching is bilingual. The 
 program of studies includes an elective course in 
 philosophy and such obligatory courses as are es¬ 
 sential to the formation of a thorough and general 
 knowledge. The college confers degrees upon those 
 who successfully pass a final examination. There 
 are accommodations for 250 boarders, and many 
 priests, religious, doctors and lawyers are among 
 the alumni.. The Fathers have two parishes in 
 JNIew York, in one of which the prqvincial Fr. T. 
 
 esse, resides. In 1916 a foundation was made in 
 Quebec, Canada, where the novitiate for the Amer¬ 
 ican province was erected the following year. The 
 headquarters for Canada of the Archconfraternity 
 of Prayer and Penance in honor of the Sacred Heart 
 of Jesus is at the convent of Jeanne d’Arc, Quebec 
 and for the United States at the Church of Our 
 Lady of Hope, New York. This archconfraternity 
 numbeis more than 300,000 members, and was 
 established in the United States by Fr. M. Clement 
 Staub. 
 
 ^ In France the numerous branches of work of the 
 \Bonne Presse” are under the hidden but real in¬ 
 fluence of the religious. Several years before the 
 war a third daily supplementary page on doctrinal 
 subjects was added to the regular two-page journal, 
 La Croix ; there are treated questions concerning 
 popular theology, apologetics, philosophy, social 
 science, and spirituality. The number of interesting 
 and instructive reviews on Rome, Jerusalem, Notre 
 Dame, and the Eucharist was increased. The diffi¬ 
 culties of the war made necessary the suppression 
 of some of these reviews; those on Rome and the 
 Eucharist have been revived. The review “Le 
 Noel continues to spread throughout all countries 
 and Rom it have been founded three other reviews 
 La Maison,” “L’Etoile Noeliste,” and “L’echo du 
 Noel. Le Noel” has a special office in Buenos 
 An es, with a Spanish edition under the direction 
 of a religious who also has under his care the young 
 men and women of South America. The “Bonne 
 Presse” also publishes the “Annuaire pontifical 
 catholique, commenced by Mgr. Battandier, and 
 continued by the Fathers of the Assumption. An 
 index of the first twenty volumes (1898-1917) has 
 just been published. Two important reviews of 
 recent date are also published by the “Bonne 
 Presse”: the “Documentation catholique” and 
 Pretre et Apotre.” The “Documentation catho- 
 “fluo is a weekly, founded in 1919 by the fusion 
 of four documentary magazines which the war in¬ 
 terrupted: “Questions actuelles,” “La Chronique 
 de la Presse,” “La Revue d’organization et de 
 defense rehgieuse,” and “L’Action catholique.” It 
 treats of religious, social, political, literary, his¬ 
 torical, juridical, national, and international sub¬ 
 jects giving varied information derived from 
 periodicals of all nations and every language. It 
 constitutes a documentation of general opinion, 
 valuable alike in fortifying the Catholic mind and 
 developing the civic information of the elite in 
 grouping in one magazine all the authentic texts 
 oi which the Catholic has need who desires to 
 participate in the life of the Church and the State. 
 Ihe Pretre et Apotre,” founded during the war, 
 was originally called “Le Pretre aux armees.” It 
 was meant to sustain the religious spirit of priests 
 and religious in the army. Since the end of the 
 war it has become an eminently serious and doc¬ 
 trinal review for the clergy, a bulletin of the in¬ 
 terior life and of the apostolate, giving subjects 
 
AUSTRALIA 
 
 68 
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 for meditation instruction, and spiritual direction, 
 extracts of sermons, conferences, pastorals, and 
 liturgy. With the war unfortunately disappeared 
 the “Revue Augustinienne,” a serious doctrinal 
 review, founded in 1902, and edited by a group 
 of professors eminent at the University of Louvain 
 and universally esteemed. Outside of the general 
 questions treated, it contributed largely to the 
 revival of Thomistic philosophy. 
 
 The war gave an opportunity to the “Associa¬ 
 tion of Our Lady of Salvation,” founded in 1871 by 
 Fr. Picard, second superior general, and continued 
 by his successors, to show its fecundity. During 
 the war it distributed 10,500 portable altars to the 
 armies, brought aid to ravaged dioceses, celebrated 
 innumerable Masses for dead soldiers, made numer¬ 
 ous appeals for war orphans, continued the pil¬ 
 grimages to Lourdes, especially that of 1916, when 
 it conducted 1200 children to the grotto, delegates 
 of more than 800,000 little ones who sent up a 
 fervent petition to the Virgin of Massabielle for 
 the victory of the Allies. A Brief of Pope Benedict 
 XV in 1919, enriched the association with new 
 indulgences. 
 
 During recent years the congregation has lost 
 many of its eminent members. In 1912 Fr. V. de 
 P. Bailly (q.v.), died at Paris at the age of eighty 
 years. His brother, Fr. E. Bailly (q.v.) third 
 superior general, died in 1917. Fr. Germer-Durant, 
 a learned Orientalist and epigraphist, officially 
 charged with excavations and scientific researches 
 in Palestine, correspondent of the “Societe des 
 Antiquaires” of France, died in 1917. Since the 
 death of Fr. Bailly (1917), the congregation has 
 been governed by Fr. J. Maubon, vicar general, 
 formerly superior of the mission of the Orient and 
 Chile. A new superior general is to be named in 
 1922. 
 
 The general chapter of the Congregation held 
 at Rome at the end of 1921 has reorganized the 
 congregation in conformity with the new Code of 
 Canon Law. The provinces constituted are: 3 in 
 France, 1 in Belgium, 1 in the United States, 1 
 in Chile, each with its own novitiate and scholas- 
 ticate of philosophy. The novitiate lasts one year, 
 and the course of philosophy for the religious is 
 three years. There are at present 700 religious and 90 
 houses. The congregation has under its direction, 
 the Oblates of the Assumption, who have boarding 
 schools in France, Belgium, the Orient, and Eng¬ 
 land; the Little Sisters of the Assumption, who 
 are established outside of France in different cities 
 of Belgium, England, Italy, Chile, and the United 
 States where they have foundations in New York 
 and Philadelphia; the “Orantes,” a community of 
 contemplative religious, founded by Fr. Picard in 
 1900, with the assistance of the Comtesse d’Ursel, 
 first superior general, who died at Paris in 1921; 
 and the Sisters of St. Joan of Arc (q.v.). 
 
 Australia (cf. C. E., II—113d), Commonwealth 
 of, is a self-governing federal state under the British 
 Crown, comprising six states and two territories. 
 These, with their population according to the 1911 
 census, are: New South Wales, 1,646,734; Victoria, 
 1,315,551; Queensland, 605,813; South Australia, 
 408,558; West Australia, 282,114; Tasmania (a sep¬ 
 arate island), 191,211; Northern Territory (trans¬ 
 ferred to the Commonwealth of South Australia 
 1 January, 1911), 3,310; Federal Territory (trans¬ 
 ferred on the same date by New South Wales), 
 1,714; total, 4,455,005. The estimated total popula¬ 
 tion of the Commonwealth on 1 January, 1920, was 
 5,247,019. An area of 28 square miles at Jervis Bay 
 was acquired for purposes of a naval college, and 
 
 the right to construct a railway from the capital 
 thereto. The total area is 2,974,581 square miles. 
 Dependencies of Australia are Papua and Norfolk 
 Island. 
 
 Religious Statistics. —The ecclesiastical divisions 
 of the Australian Commonwealth in 1920 were 6 
 archdioceses, 13 dioceses, 1 abbey nullius, 3 vica¬ 
 riates apostolic, and 1 prefecture apostolic. There 
 is thus a total hierarchy of 26 prelates exercising 
 episcopal jurisdiction, including 1 delegate apostolic 
 and 1 coadjutor archbishop. The former Diocese 
 of Port Victoria and Palmerston was established as 
 the Prefecture Apostolic of the Northern Territory 
 in 1906. The Diocese of Wagga Wagga was erected 
 from part of the Diocese of Goulbourn in 1917. 
 
 The number of Catholics in the various provinces 
 in 1911 was as follows: New South Wales, 402,313; 
 Victoria, 278,465; Queensland, 141,161; South Aus¬ 
 tralia, 53,467; West Australia, 58,449; Tasmania, 
 29,576; total, 963,431. The total number of Jews 
 was 17,287. The numerical strength of the principal 
 religious groups in the different states in 1911 is 
 given in the table on the following page, compiled 
 from the Australian Year Book for 1917. 
 
 Economic Conditions. —The total foreign trade 
 of Australia for the fiscal year 1919 amounted to 
 $905,594,818; that with the United States to $166,- 
 215,240, of which $125,672,693 represent imports 
 from the United States to Australia and $40,542,277 
 w T ere exports from Australia to the United States. 
 The countries contributing chiefly to Australia’s 
 imports are the United Kingdom and other British 
 possessions, the United States, and Japan. The cus¬ 
 toms tariff Act of 1920 gives the preference to goods 
 to and from the United Kingdom. During the 
 war the wheat crop of Australia was controlled 
 by Government pools in the different states, which 
 guaranteed the farmer a price and made advances. 
 For 1919-1920 the wheat yield was placed at 46,210,- 
 380 bushels. The development of barley culture 
 of late years has been very large. The wool clip 
 which passed through the hands of dhe Central 
 ’Wool Committee amounted to 652,109,672 pounds, 
 or 2,025,486 bales, valued at $204,516,430. All this 
 wool went to the Imperial British Government at 
 a flat rate of 15*4 pence a pound. The imperial 
 contract ended 30 June, 1920. The total number 
 of sheep in the Australian Commonwealth in 1918 
 was 84,965,012. Plans are being made to foster 
 the manufacture of woolen goods. Sydney is the 
 chief shipping port of Australia, and in spite of 
 war difficulties has a shipping trade, exceeded by 
 only four ports in the United Kingdom, Liverpool, 
 London, the Tyne, and Cardiff. The total area of 
 the port consists of 14,284 acres, of which 3,000 
 acres have a depth of 35 to 160 feet. A Com¬ 
 monwealth Bureau of Commerce and Industry 
 was established in 1919 to organize the country’s 
 resources and form a policy for the expansion of 
 trade, improvement of methods and establishment 
 of new industries. 
 
 The chief difficulty with the Australian railway 
 system has been with the varying gauges of the 
 states, each state having begun its own system 
 and adopted its own gauge without considering the 
 subsequent necessity of linking up with another 
 line. It was decided in 1920 to have a standard 
 gauge of four feet eight and a half inches. In 
 1912 the building of’ the trans-Australian railway 
 from Port Augusta in South Australia to Kal- 
 goorlie in Western Australia was commenced and 
 was opened in November, 1917, the length being 
 1,051 miles. A transcontinental railway from 
 north to south, over 1,000 miles in length, is also 
 under consideration. The mileage of the govern- 
 
AUSTRALIA 
 
 69 
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 ment railways is 22,647; of private railways open 
 to general traffic, 1,125. 1 
 
 Up to 1918, 858,600,345 acres representing 45.10 
 pei cent of the total area of the Australian Com¬ 
 monwealth were either unoccupied or occupied by 
 the Crown only 5.63 per cent had been actually 
 alienated (107,093,317 acres), 2.92 per cent (55,672,- 
 5/8 acres) were in course of alienation, and 46.35 
 per cent (S82,365,600 acres) were held under various 
 forms of leases and licenses. The total area under 
 crops was 13,332,393 acres and the total value of 
 the crops was about $261,360,000. The total mineral 
 production up to the end of 1918 was $4,309,527 181. 
 
 Government. —The seat of the government is pro¬ 
 visionally at Melbourne, but eventually will be at 
 Yass-Canberra, the site acquired from the State 
 of New South Wales in 1910. Now that peace 
 has been concluded, the Government is planning 
 to go ahead with the establishment of a federal 
 capital The Legislative power is vested in a 
 federal Parliament, consisting of the King repre¬ 
 sented by a governor-general, a Senate (six for 
 each of the original six states, voting as one elec¬ 
 torate), chosen for six years, and a House of 
 xvepiesentatives consisting if possible of twice as 
 many senators, the number chosen in the several 
 states being in proportion to the respective num- 
 
 r.u ^ eir P e °P le as shown in the latest statistics 
 ol the Commonwealth, but not less than five for 
 any original state. The Constitution provides for 
 a federal Judicature, for an inter-State Commis- 
 +i 011 r* 4 r . e , an d Commerce, and for alteration of 
 the Constitution. A high court of seven judges 
 
 J‘“f. Ijf:cn established with original as well as ap¬ 
 pellate jurisdiction In 1920 Mrs. Cowan was the 
 first woman elected to Parliament. Tile present 
 governor-general is Henry William Baron Forster 
 
 in C 1920 mS S ' r R ° nald Craufurd Munro Ferguson 
 
 Present Military System.— In September iqin 
 modifications in the defensive poh^re/pectmg 
 both the army and navy were announced in Parlia- 
 ment The army is to be organized and trained 
 i° n iJr e dlvl f. 1 °f lal basis and will consist of two 
 light-horse divisions, four infantry divisions, and 
 three mixed brigades, with the necessary extra- 
 divisional units. In time of peace the number of 
 soldiers will be about 130,000. The restoration of 
 tne Council of Defense insures continuity of policy 
 and the co-ordination of the requirements on sea 
 air, and land; control and administration to be 
 exercised by the military and naval boards. By the 
 reduction of the naval forces, many of the vessels 
 oi the Koyal Australian Navy pass to the reserve. 
 
 education . Throughout the states primary edu¬ 
 cation is compulsory and free, while there exists 
 in most of the states a liberal provision of scholar¬ 
 ships and bursaries to the higher state schools, 
 secondary schools, and universities. Each state has 
 its university; affiliated to those of New South 
 .f, ^ Victoria are f° ur colleges in connection 
 
 ™ lY j- 9 ath ? llc ’ An gbcan, Presbyterian, and 
 Methodist churches respectively. At the census of 
 1911, according to the Australian Year Book for 
 cc 0114 ^Y- Ver * v 10,000 children between the ages 
 of five and fifteen 8,907 could read and write. Ac- 
 
 Religious denominations 
 
 Church of England.. 
 Roman Catholic.... 
 
 Presbyterian. 
 
 Methodist . 
 
 Baptist. 
 
 Congregational . 
 
 Lutheran. 
 
 Salvation Army. 
 
 Total population.. 
 
 New South 
 Wales 
 
 748,493 
 
 382,740 
 
 186,592 
 
 153,512 
 
 20,965 
 
 23,008 
 
 7,177 
 
 7,533 
 
 1,646,734 
 
 Victoria 
 
 1 Queens- 
 
 i land 
 
 South 
 
 Australia 
 
 West 
 
 Australia 
 
 Tasmania 
 
 Northern 
 
 Territory 
 
 Federal 
 
 Territory 
 
 Common¬ 
 
 wealth 
 
 462,388 
 
 278,465 
 
 240,515 
 
 180,339 
 
 31,867 
 
 16,841 
 
 11,906 
 
 7,968 
 
 219,614 
 
 141,461 
 
 78,048 
 
 61,557 
 
 14,080 
 
 10,735 
 
 24,843 
 
 4,431 
 
 119.385 
 
 53,467 
 
 23,709 
 
 104,836 
 
 22,799 
 
 13,940 
 
 27,794 
 
 4,007 
 
 112,975 
 
 58,449 
 
 27,569 
 
 35,298 
 
 4,931 
 
 6,376 
 
 2,561 
 
 1,944 
 
 91,255 
 
 29,576 
 
 16,295 
 
 25,746 
 
 4,898 
 
 5,032 
 
 202 
 
 1,465 
 
 678 
 
 454 
 
 153 
 
 121 
 
 15 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 • •••••• 
 
 685 
 
 634 
 
 192 
 
 121 
 
 1 
 
 1,755,743 
 
 945,246 
 
 573,073 
 
 561,550 
 
 99,555 
 
 75,948 
 
 74,508 
 
 27,348 
 
 1,314,551 
 
 605,813 
 
 408,558 
 
 282,114 
 
 191,211 
 
 1 
 
 3,310 
 
 1,714 
 
 4,455,005 
 
 Stilish^- 81 ™ 1 ™™ Catholic Director y for 1921 gives the following summary 
 
 of Catholic Ecclesiastical 
 
 State and Ecclesiastical 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 73 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 •-*-« 
 
 73 
 
 
 
 73 
 
 'o 
 
 O 
 
 - --- 
 
 Provinces 
 
 73 
 
 © 
 
 73 
 
 Q 
 
 73 
 
 03 
 
 o 
 
 m 
 
 3 
 
 *3 
 
 o 
 
 Secular 
 
 Priests 
 
 Regular 
 
 Priests 
 
 Religious 
 
 Brothers 
 
 cj 
 
 3 
 
 £ 
 
 .a to 
 
 += c 
 
 to --H 
 .2 rt 
 
 8.S 
 -5 a 
 
 Colleges 
 
 (Boys) 
 
 m 
 
 bC 
 
 a 
 
 ■ -H 
 
 T3 to 
 
 "C 
 03.3 
 
 P3 ■—' 
 
 Superior 
 
 Day School 
 
 Primary 
 
 Schools 
 
 Charitable 
 
 Institutions 
 
 G 
 
 ,r *G 0 
 
 C3 o 
 
 ii 
 
 S3 
 
 oo 
 
 Catholic 
 
 Population 
 
 State of New South Wales.. 
 
 (Prov. of Sydney) 
 
 State of Victoria. 
 
 i 235 
 
 155 
 
 689 
 
 521 
 
 480 
 
 283 
 
 132 
 
 59 
 
 322 
 
 109 
 
 3,259 
 
 1,571 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 13 
 
 69 
 
 51 
 
 101 
 
 28 
 
 409 
 
 220 
 
 44 
 
 22 
 
 65,119 
 
 47,391 
 
 400,859 
 
 (Prov. of Melbourne) 
 
 ... 
 
 286,433 
 
 State of Tasmania. 
 
 (Prov. of Tasmania) 
 
 21 
 
 72 
 
 30 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 169 
 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 27 
 
 2 
 
 3,596 
 
 32,600 
 
 State of South Australia) .... 
 (Prov. of South Australia) 
 
 45 
 
 129 
 
 61 
 
 27 
 
 32 
 
 434 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 19 
 
 54 
 
 q 
 
 7,539 
 
 60,238 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 State of West Australia . 
 
 (Prov. of Perth) 
 
 58 
 
 144 
 
 64 
 
 31 
 
 53 
 
 550 
 
 ! 
 
 5 j 
 
 36 
 
 3 
 
 72 
 
 14 
 
 11,219 
 
 47,100 
 
 State of Queensland . 
 
 (Prov. of Brisbane) 
 
 80 
 
 | 
 
 221 
 
 118 
 
 19 
 
 59 
 
 747 
 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 35 
 
 22 
 
 88 
 
 8 
 
 20,564 
 
 117,000 
 
 Commonwealth of Australia. 
 (Including V. A. of New 
 
 632 
 
 1,805 
 
 1,026 
 
 291 
 
 601 
 
 6,768 
 
 3| 
 
 41 
 
 201 
 
 177 | 
 
 914 
 
 108 
 
 157,895; 
 
 952,108 
 
 Guinea) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 ! 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
AUSTRALIA 
 
 70 
 
 AUSTRIA 
 
 cording to the same source 92.29 per cent of the 
 children of school age (six to thirteen) in Victoria, 
 could read and write; in Queensland, 92.51 per 
 cent; in West Australia, 90.66 per cent; in South 
 Australia, 88.66 per cent; in New South Wales, 89.59 
 per cent; in Tasmania, 89.59 per cent. The total 
 number of schools in Australia is 8,992, with 24,177 
 teachers and 764,980 pupils. The education of 
 children in the sparsely settled districts is a difficult 
 problem, and attempts are being made to solve it 
 by means of provisional schools, traveling schools, 
 railway camp schools, etc. 
 
 In spite of the withdrawal of state aid from 
 denominational schools in 1882, Catholic primary 
 schools have grown. In 1881 there were in Victoria 
 180 primary schools attended by 20,337 children; 
 in 1911 there were 874 primary schools and 95,595 
 children. In New South Wales in 1888 there w r ere 
 247 schools, 916 teachers, 27,172 scholars on roll, 
 and 21,809 scholars in average attendance; in 1911 
 there were 401 schools, 2,034 teachers, 46,097 scholars 
 on roll, and 38,657 scholars in average attendance. 
 According to official returns there were 54,124 chil¬ 
 dren on the rolls of the Catholic schools in New 
 South Wales in the December quarter, 1916, and 
 7,677 on the roll of the Catholic schools of West 
 Australia in the last school week of 1911 (latest 
 Government figures available). No official informa¬ 
 tion appears in the census or reports of Tasmania, 
 Queensland, or South Australia. The Australasian 
 Catholic Directory for 1921 gives an apparently 
 conservative estimate of 157,895 children attending 
 Catholic schools throughout the Commonwealth. 
 
 Australia in the European War (1914-1918).— 
 On the 10th of August, four days after the declara¬ 
 tion of war between England and Germany, all the 
 Australian vessels and members of the Australian 
 navy were transferred to the King’s Naval Forces 
 for the period of the war. The first convoy of 
 20,000 troops landed in Egypt in December for 
 the defense of that country and to undergo war 
 training in the vicinity of Cairo. In conjunction 
 with the other allied troops they took part in the 
 campaigns on the Gallipoli Peninsula, in Egypt, 
 in France, and Belgium, holding many dangerous 
 positions, notably in the battle of the Somme and 
 winning, in 1918 at Amiens the title of “the saviours 
 of Amie'ns.” The cavalry organized as the “Anzac 
 Mounted Division” formed the larger portion of 
 the Desert Columns, and were victorious in Syria 
 and Arabia. 
 
 In various theaters of war Australian personnel 
 was engaged on special duties, or on lines of com¬ 
 munication. Medical and nursing work was accom¬ 
 plished in New Guiana, Mesopotamia, India, 
 Vladivostok, and Salonika. The number of casual¬ 
 ties in the war announced by the Defense Depart¬ 
 ment was 232,324, of whom 43,475 died from wounds 
 or disease, 116,594 were wounded or gassed, and 
 68,434 were on the sick list. Only 3,627 were 
 missing or taken prisoners. 
 
 In 1914, upon suggestion of the Imperial Govern¬ 
 ment, the Commonwealth also dispatched an expe¬ 
 ditionary force against certain German possessions 
 in the Pacific Ocean with the object of seizing Ger¬ 
 man wireless stations, occupying German territory, 
 and arranging for temporary administration. In 
 two months the capture of the whole of the enemy’s 
 possessions was affected and the German Pacific 
 wireless chain was broken. By the terms of the 
 Peace Treaty, the former German islands south of 
 the equator (except the Samoan group) are now 
 occupied and administered by Australia under a 
 mandate. 
 
 During 1915 the battle-cruiser Australia joined 
 
 the Grand Fleet in the North Sea. The most thrill¬ 
 ing naval exploit was the capture of the German 
 cruiser Emden at Cocos Island. As the Emden 
 had wrought havoc to the extent of 21 British 
 merchantmen and two million and a half pounds, 
 this was considered a signal victory. 
 
 At the outbreak of the war, the Federal War 
 Precautions Act put powers in the hands of the 
 Executive Government of the Commonwealth as 
 great as have ever been possessed previously by 
 British administrators in any British possession. 
 It limited state authority, and enabled the Com¬ 
 monwealth to take any action necessary to the 
 successful prosecution of the war, even to the extent 
 of fixing prices, declaring moratoria, and estab¬ 
 lishing pools. This act was in effect for two years 
 after the end of the war, and was even used by 
 the Premier in ending a strike of marine engineers, 
 and deporting Father Jerger, a priest of German 
 parentage, who had been accused of expressing 
 disloyal and anti-recruiting sentiments in his ser¬ 
 mons. The agitation was partly sectarian and 
 partly political, but it was felt that the use of 
 executive power was entirely too arbitrary. In 
 accordance with the War Gratuity Act (1920), a 
 bonus payable as an overseas war service gratuity 
 was authorized for soldiers and sailors who served 
 in the Great War. In 1917 at the Premiers’ Con¬ 
 ference at Melbourne it was agreed that the states 
 should undertake the w r ork of settling on the land 
 soldiers or sailors and war workers who had been 
 abroad but that the Commonwealth should finance 
 them for this purpose. Up to April, 1920, 15,509 sol¬ 
 diers had been settled. Among the questions that 
 concern the status of Australia is the agitation for a 
 “White Australia,” with the purpose of shutting out 
 the Japanese or others of the yellow race, and 
 reserving Australia only for those of white blood. 
 
 Austria (cf. C. E., II-121a).—The new Republic 
 of Austria, proclaimed 12 November, 1918, consists 
 broadly of the former Austrian provinces of Upper 
 Austria, Lower Austria, Salzburg, North Tyrol, 
 Styria, Carinthia, and Vorarlberg, and German 
 Western Hungary, and is bounded on the south by 
 Switzerland, Italy, and Jugoslavia; on the east by 
 Hungary and Czechoslovakia; and on the north by 
 Czechoslovakia, Bavaria, and Wurtemberg; the 
 western boundaries are unchanged. As a result of 
 the dismemberment of the Austro-Hungarian Mon¬ 
 archy, the larger part of Austria’s possessions be¬ 
 came parts of the Jugoslav state, the Czechoslovak 
 Republic, Poland, and Italy. With her only sea- 
 coast taken away from her by the peace treaty 
 (1919), she is now an inland state without maritime 
 boundary. Vienna has been separated from Lower 
 Austria and becomes a separate entity. 
 
 Population. —The area and population (census 
 taken on 31 January, 1920), of Austria are shown 
 as follows: 
 
 Provinces 
 
 Area in 
 Miles 
 
 Population 
 
 Percent¬ 
 age of 
 Popula¬ 
 tion 
 
 Density 
 
 Per 
 
 Square 
 
 Mile 
 
 Vienna. 
 
 107 
 
 1,841,326 
 
 29.99 
 
 17,209 
 
 Lower Austria. 
 
 7,449 
 
 1,458,269 
 
 23.75 
 
 196 
 
 Upper Austria. 
 
 4,621 
 
 858,795 
 
 13.90 
 
 186 
 
 Salzburg. 
 
 2,759 
 
 214,200 
 
 3.49 
 
 78 
 
 Styria. 
 
 6,317 
 
 957,509 
 
 15.60 
 
 152 
 
 Carinthia. 
 
 3,678 
 
 369,401 
 
 6.02 
 
 100 
 
 Tyrol . 
 
 4,782 
 
 306,485 
 
 4.99 
 
 64 
 
 Vorarlberg .... 
 
 1,003 
 
 133,212 
 
 2.17 
 
 133 
 
 Total. 
 
 30,716 
 
 6,139,197 
 
 
 18,118 
 
AUSTRIA 
 
 AUSTRIA 
 
 71 
 
 • ^ es ^ ern Hungary, awarded to Austria 
 
 in 19-0, consists of 1,684 square miles and has an 
 estimated population of 345,082. Compared with 
 the corresponding figures for 1910, the census of 
 1920 shows a loss of 227,209, or 3.6 per cent. It has 
 been estimated that the number of Austrians killed 
 in battle was 160,000 to 180,000 and the total loss 
 due directly or indirectly to the war, 184,461. A 
 striking disproportion between the sexes is noted, 
 the 1920 census revealing 1,0S9 women to every 
 1,000 men. * 
 
 The principal towns are Vienna, with a population 
 Graz, 157,032; Linz, 93,473; Innsbruck, 
 o5,6o9; Salzburg, 36,450. In 1918 there were 87,594 
 births, 40,738 marriages, 168,378 deaths, 1,779 di¬ 
 vorces. 
 
 Religion.— Religious liberty is one of the funda¬ 
 mental laws of the republic and the principle is 
 embodied in the Treaty of St. Germain (article 63). 
 In 1920 there were 5,979,667 Catholics (94.17), 165 007 
 Protestants (2.60), 189,758 Jews (2.99), and 19,021 
 others (0.30). Before the Great War there were 53 
 dioceses in Austria-Hungary; in the Republic at 
 present there are six; the Archdiocese of Vienna, 
 with the suffragan dioceses of St. Polten or St. 
 Hippolitus, and Linz; the Archdiocese of Salzburg, 
 with suffragan dioceses of Gurk, and Seckau or 
 Graz (q. v.). The diocese of Brixen formerly a 
 s ml lagan of Salzburg, has been made an exempt 
 diocese, and retains its ecclesiastical limits notwith¬ 
 standing the partition of its territory by the Treaty 
 of St. Germain. Catholic organization has been 
 strengthened and unified in its fight to uphold the 
 indissolubility of marriage and to combat other 
 morally pernicious legislation urged by the Socialist 
 party, as well as in its opposition to the proselytism 
 of Protestant sects who would take advantage of 
 the material wants of the people to upset their 
 spiritual allegiance. The Christian Socialist (Catho¬ 
 lic) party won in the 1920 elections, and for the first 
 time since 1871 Austria has a Catholic premier in 
 the person of Doctor Mayr, Chancellor of the Con¬ 
 federation, and Minister of Foreign Affairs. The 
 Chairman of the Christian Socialist party is Dr. 
 Ignatz Seipel, a Catholic priest and a powerful 
 peisonality in the politics of new Austria. Minister 
 of Public Works under the Emperor Charles and a 
 member of the Assembly since its establishment, 
 he is the only member of the old monarchy to re¬ 
 tain his influence. 
 
 The sufferings of religious and priests in Austria 
 are intense; lack of sufficient and proper food, and 
 of clothing, are serious hindrances to their work 
 of Christian education and charity. The Catholic 
 organizations of Austria, though they give heroic 
 service, are unable to meet the immense demands, 
 and it is largely owing to American Catholic gen¬ 
 erosity, expressed in the establishment of Catholic 
 Relief for Austria and the Vienna Catholic Bureau, 
 that this desolating need will be met. 
 
 Government.— According to the new constitution 
 adopted in 1920, Austria is transformed into a con¬ 
 federation consisting of the following eight States 
 {Lander): Lower Austria (subdivided into the 
 pro'vince of the same name and Vienna), Upper 
 Austria, Styria, Carinthia (reunited to the confed¬ 
 eration by the result of the recent plebiscite), Salz¬ 
 burg; Tyrol, Vorarlberg, and Burgenland tthis being 
 the Austrian name of the Western Hungarian coun¬ 
 ties awarded to Austria by the peace treaties). 
 Each state has its own legislature. The Federal 
 Legislature consists of two chambers, the National 
 Council, elected by direct proportional suffrage, and 
 the Federal Council, elected by the Landtags of 
 each State. The Federal Council has a limited 
 
 veto power over measures enacted by the National 
 Council. The two Chambers together form the 
 Tederal Assembly, which, however, meets only in 
 two emergencies—to declare war and to elect the 
 Federal President. The Federal Assembly met on 
 i • *920, the session being preceded by 
 
 lgh Mass for the first time since pre-war days. 
 The national flag consists of three horizontal stripes 
 the top and bottom being red, and the center 
 white There are two principal political parties, 
 Socialists (not Bolshevist) and Christian Socialist 
 (Catholic). 
 
 Education.— There are two classes of elementary 
 schools, the Volksschulen and Burgerschulen, of 
 winch the former teach the first principles of re¬ 
 ligion, reading, writing, arithmetic, natural science 
 history, geography, and drawing, and the latter 
 carry instruction in these subjects farther and add 
 to them otheis such as book-keeping, geometry, and 
 in certain cases, music and modern languages. ’ At¬ 
 tendance is obligatory from the ages of six to’ four¬ 
 teen, or in some provinces, from six to twelve As 
 regards religious teaching, which occupies the chief 
 place in the curriculum, the ecclesiastical authorities 
 oi the vai lous recognized denominations have access 
 to the schools and the clergy are bound to give 
 a certain modicum of religious instruction in the 
 v olLsschulen without payment; but if remuneration 
 becomes due it is drawn from public funds. As 
 regards the language question, the rule is that the 
 provincial school council which is presided over by 
 the governor of the province, and includes educa¬ 
 tional experts, clergy, and representatives of the 
 local Diet, should determine what language or lan¬ 
 guages aie to be taught in any school. An opportu¬ 
 nity is always afforded to learn German. 
 
 The immediate educational authority is the dis- 
 trict school council, representative of the rate payers 
 and the parish. Between this and the provincial 
 school council is another body, the county school 
 council, which, besides determining questions re¬ 
 specting the building and staffing of schools, regu¬ 
 lates the affairs of private elementary schools and 
 kindergartens. 
 
 In 1918 there were 4,763 public and private ele¬ 
 mentary schools with 30,667 teachers and 914,258 
 pupils. Secondary education is carried on by gym¬ 
 nasia and realschulen, public or private; the former 
 furnish a classical education; the latter a modern 
 education. In 1917-18 there were 73 gymnasia with 
 20,955 pupils; and 38 realschulen with 14,632 pupils 
 There are also 4,000 technical institutes in which 
 the knowledge of different trades and professions 
 may be pursued, and technical high schools for 
 instruction in agriculture, architecture, chemistry, 
 and engineering. The political changes now taking 
 place will undoubtedly be followed by far-reaching 
 alterations in this school system. Socialism, which 
 in the elections of 1919 conquered 48 per cent of 
 the voters, sought to exploit its power in the do¬ 
 main of education. Although in the government of 
 the State the Catholics then constituted the mi¬ 
 nority, their vigilance warded off the worst blows 
 and every advance of the adversary met clever 
 counter measures. 
 
 Conditions in the universities are very serious 
 at present (1921). Many professorial chairs are 
 vacant, their holders having abandoned them be¬ 
 cause they were unable to live on their salaries. 
 Austrian professors and men of science are emi¬ 
 grating to Germany. Four universities are main¬ 
 tained by the State, those of Vienna with 310 
 teachers and 5,510 students, Graz, with 232 teachers 
 and 1,142 students, Innsbruck, with 164 teachers 
 and 982 students, and Salzburg. Besides there are 
 
Austria 
 
 12 
 
 AUSTRIA 
 
 37 training colleges for teachers with 736 lecturers 
 and 5,043 students. 
 
 Army. —After the break-up of the Austrian mon¬ 
 archy and during the subsequent confusion, the 
 Austrian Government set up a defense force (V olks- 
 wehr), which in August, 1920, consisted of 34,000 
 men. By the terms of the Treaty of St. Germain 
 universal compulsory training was abolished in 
 Austria, and the total miltiary force limited to 
 30,000 men, including officers and depot troops, to be 
 organized either in divisions or in mixed brigades, 
 at Austria’s discretion. All officers must be regu¬ 
 lars, and those serving now must serve to the age 
 of forty. All measures of mobilization are for¬ 
 bidden. The number of gendarmes, customs offi¬ 
 cers, foresters, and members of the police force must 
 not exceed the number employed in a similar 
 capacity in 1913. Educational and sporting clubs 
 are forbidden to occupy themselves with military 
 matters. Within two months of the final ratifica¬ 
 tion of the treaty the air force of Austria was to 
 be demolished. With the abolition of Austria’s 
 seacoast, the Austrian navy ceased to exist; 3 bat¬ 
 tleships, 3 light cruisers, 9 destroyers, 12 torpedo 
 boats, a mine-layer, and 6 Danube monitors were 
 surrendered to the allies. Two battleships were 
 brought by the Italians to Venice, while the ships 
 at Cattaro were handed to France. 
 
 Justice. —The Supreme Court of Justice and 
 Court of Cassation ( Oberste Gerichts und Kassa - 
 tionshof) in Vienna is the highest court in the 
 land. Besides there are 3 higher provincial courts 
 (Oberlandesgerichte ), 17 provincial and district 
 courts ( Landes und Kreisgerichte), and in connec¬ 
 tion with these the jury courts ( Geschworenen - 
 gerichte). There are likewise 269 county courts 
 (Bezirksgerichte ) and 2 special courts for com¬ 
 mercial affairs, 4 for industry, 1 constitutional court, 
 1 administrative court, and 1 electoral court. 
 
 The law for unemployment insurance bears date 
 24 March, 1920. Under the Act one-third of the 
 cost of unemployment insurance is to be borne by 
 the State, two-thirds by employers and workers. 
 Benefits under the scheme are not to be granted 
 for more than twelve weeks. 
 
 Economic Conditions. —According to the census 
 returns of 31 January, 1921, Austria contains 3,084,- 
 602 workers, of whom 33.3 per cent are engaged in 
 industries; 31.9 per cent in agriculture and forestry; 
 12.1 per cent in commerce and trade; 8.8 per cent 
 in civil service, and 2.6 per cent in professions. In 
 1919 the total acreage sown amounted to 4,084,121 
 acres. Of the total in 1919, 2,126,175 were in Lower 
 Austria and 929,988 acres in Upper Austria. The 
 chief products were (1920) as follows: Wheat, 
 374,032 acres, yielding 149,515 metric tons; rye, 
 688,687 acres, yielding 251,410 tons; oats, 658,740 
 acres, 187,730 tons; potatoes (1918), 290,697 acres, 
 584,996 tons; turnips, 87,285 acres, 536,183 tons. 
 The number of animals in 1918 were: 270,000 
 
 horses, 858,000 cows, 223,000 oxen, 53,000 bulls, 
 499,000 calves. The production of lignite in 1920 
 was 2,387,996 tons; of anthracite, 133,173 tons. 
 There were 11 anthracite mines worked in 1920 and 
 61 lignite mines. The railway statistics of Austria 
 in 1919 were as follows: State lines and private 
 companies worked by the state, 2,659 miles; private 
 lines worked by the owners, 1,222 miles; state lines 
 worked by private companies, 1.3 miles, making a 
 total of 3,882 miles. 
 
 The Austrian standard coin is the krone, coined 
 in denominations of 100, 20, and 10, but the cur¬ 
 rency is for the most part paper, including even 
 20-heller pieces. The Republic’s share of the old debt 
 of Austria-Hungary is not yet definitely fixed. On 
 
 30 September, 1920, it was estimated at 44,958,000 
 kronen, with an annual interest of 1,554,000 kronen. 
 The debt of the new republic on that date 
 amounted to 14,904,000 kronen, with an annual 
 charge of 731,000,000 kronen. This does not include 
 foreign credits for foods, etc., which is estimated 
 at 17,500,000 kronen. The desperate financial situa¬ 
 tion in Austria can be understood in the rate of 
 exchange of the Austrian crown, which at the end 
 of the year 1920 had sunk to over 2,000 to the 
 pound sterling. The present value of the Krone is 
 .04 of the American dollar. 
 
 Whether Austria as created by the Treaty of St. 
 Germain is capable of existence as an independent 
 state is yet to be proved. Her lack of means to 
 supply her economic needs, especially coal, rests 
 upon the antagonism existing between her and the 
 new states which formerly made up the monarchy, 
 and which takes concrete shape in the erection of 
 high customs barriers. The majority of factories 
 in the realm are idle because high customs prevent 
 the arrival of raw material and because there is 
 no coal. The real difficulty lies in the violent 
 racial hatred between Czechs and Germans. Europe 
 and America can do much for the rehabilitation of 
 Austria, but outside of this, her future depends 
 on one thing, whether the Succession States (the 
 new States formed out of the old monarchy) can 
 be induced to forego their hostility sufficiently to 
 supply her with coal, foodstuffs and raw material. 
 
 When it is remembered that this small state, with 
 an area of barely 30,000 square miles and about 
 6,000,000 inhabitants, has to pay its civil service 
 14,110,000 kronen half-yearly, that its expenditure 
 in cheapening foodstuffs amounts to 10,400,000 
 kronen, and that the losses on the foreign exchange 
 and interest payment of debt amount to 23,520,000 
 kronen, it can be understood why the finance com¬ 
 mission entrusted with the economic restoration of 
 Austria is justified in demanding, first and foremost, 
 the reduction of the personnel of the civil service, 
 the gradual abolition of food subsidies, and a more 
 rational management of state-owned industrial con¬ 
 cerns, before giving credit grants for consolidating 
 the new Bank of Issue and stabilizing the currency. 
 Great Britain, France, Rumania, and Serbia have 
 accepted a delay of twenty years in pressing liens 
 rising from the priority of payment of reparations 
 and other credits. 
 
 History (1908-1920).—In 1908 Austria utilized an 
 alleged Pan-Serb conspiracy as a pretext for an¬ 
 nexing Bosnia and Herzegovina. The annexation 
 roused the deepest indignation in Servia, for the 
 population in those two provinces was mostly Ser¬ 
 vian. It drew upon Austria the hostility of Russia 
 and Servia, and gave impetus to the formation of 
 a new and formidable power on her borders. An 
 Austro-Turkish convention was later concluded 
 (1909), in which Austria renounced the rights she 
 had acquired in respect of the Sanjak of Novi 
 Bazar through the Berlin treaty, guaranteed the 
 free exercise of religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 
 and the payment of an indemnity as an equivalent 
 for vakiif (Moslem religious property). 
 
 On 28 June, 1914, the Archduke Francis Ferdi¬ 
 nand, nephew of the aged Emperor-King Francis 
 Joseph and heir to the Hapsburg crowns, was as¬ 
 sassinated, together with his wife, in the streets 
 of the Bosnian city of Serajevo by youthful Serb 
 conspirators. The outrage caused an instantaneous 
 outburst of indignation throughout Austria-Hun¬ 
 gary, especially when the official Austrian investiga¬ 
 tion indicated that the plot was hatched with the 
 connivance of at least two officials of Servia. A 
 week after the Serajevo assassination, a conference 
 
AUSTRIA 
 
 73 
 
 AUSTRIA 
 
 of German and Austrian dignitaries was held at 
 Potsdam. Provided with secret assurances of Ger- 
 many s unqualified support, Austria-Hungary pre¬ 
 sented to Servia, on 23 July, 1914, an ultimatum, 
 calling upon her to suppress anti-Austrian publica¬ 
 tions and societies, to discharge such government 
 employees as the Austro-Hungarian Government 
 would accuse of anti-Austrian propaganda, to ex- 
 clude anti-Austrian teachers and text-books from 
 the Servian schools, and to accept the collabora¬ 
 tion in Servia of representatives of the Austro- 
 Hungarian Government for the suppression of the 
 subversive movement, and to signify unconditional 
 acceptance of these and the other Austro-Hungarian 
 demands within forty-eight hours. 
 
 Russia, France, and Great Britain endeavored to 
 obtain from Austria an extension of the time limit 
 0 • u e ultimatum in order that the whole question 
 might be submitted to general international co¬ 
 operation, but Austria-Hungary was committed and 
 sharply declined the request. On 25 July Servia 
 replied to the ultimatum, promising to comply with 
 such demands as did not seem to impair her inde¬ 
 pendence and sovereignty, and offering to refer all 
 disputed points of The Hague tribunal or to a 
 conference of the Great Powers. The Austrian 
 Government pronounced the reply evasive and un¬ 
 satisfactory, broke off all diplomatic relations with 
 Servia, and started the mobilization of her army. 
 To the Russian view it was obvious that Austria- 
 Hungary was planning to deprive Servia of inde¬ 
 pendence and to annihilate Russian influence in 
 southeastern Europe. On the other hand the Ger¬ 
 man Government insisted that the quarrel was 
 one which concerned Austria-Hungary and Servia 
 alone and opposed the repeated efforts of Russian, 
 British, French, and even Italian diplomats to 
 refer the quarrel to an international Congress or 
 Hague tribunal. Unequivocally Germany declared 
 that if Russia should come to the assistance of 
 Servia, she would support Austria-Hungary with 
 all the armed forces at her command. On 28 July, 
 1914, exactly a month after the archduke’s as¬ 
 sassination, Austria-Hungary formally declared war 
 against Servia. 
 
 Russia immediately began to mobilize her army 
 and when she refused to comply with Germany’s 
 demand to demobilize, war was declared between 
 the two countries. Germany then declared war on 
 France, who was in sympathy with Russia. Thus 
 within a week of the declaration of hostilities by 
 Austria-Hungary against Servia, four Great Powers 
 were in a, state of war—Germany and Austria-Hun¬ 
 gary against Russia and France. Belgium was in¬ 
 vaded, at which violation of neutrality Great 
 Britain protested and was soon involved in the 
 struggle. On 6 August Austria-Hungary declared 
 war on Russia. On the following day Montenegro 
 joined Servia against Austria-Hungary. On 13 
 August a state of war existed between Austria- 
 Hungary on one hand, and France and Great 
 Britain on the other. 
 
 The Great War originated as a struggle on the 
 part of Austria-Hungary and Germany against the 
 ‘‘Slavic Peril,” against the great Slav empire of 
 Russia and the small Slav kingdoms of Servia and 
 Montenegro, but from the beginning of hostilities, 
 Teutonic defense against Russia was of minor inter¬ 
 est to Germany as compared with the attack on 
 Belgium and France. Thus Austria-Hungary had 
 to bear the brunt of the struggle with Russia. As a 
 military power she was far less efficient than Ger¬ 
 many. She was a hodge-podge of quarrelsome 
 nationalities, and now she had to wage war on the 
 Bosnian front against Servia and Montenegro, to 
 
 keep a reserve force at Trieste and in the Trentino 
 against the possible intervention of Italy, as well as 
 to del end Galicia. Russia was slow on the field 
 ^d Austm-liungary decided that the best method 
 of defending Galicia was an attack on Russian 
 Poland before the Russians were fully mobilized. 
 
 Accoixlirigly, two Austro-Hungarian armies, num¬ 
 bering 300,000 men each, were collected in Galicia 
 eariy in August 1914; and on 1-2 September the 
 cntical battle of Lemberg was fought. Owing to 
 defective Austrian generalship the Russians entered 
 the city in triumph, giving it the Slavic name of 
 Lvov. A new army under the Archduke Joseph 
 berdinand was then put in the field from the 
 Vistula to Lubm. On 6-10 September the combined 
 Austrian armies were completely routed. At this 
 critical moment Field Marshal von Hindenburg 
 was put in command of all the German and Austro- 
 Hungarian foices in the East. His first offensive 
 however, failed, and the Austrian army was forced 
 back to Cracow, 19 October. In January, 1915, an 
 Austrian counter-offensive was launched, its failure 
 culminating in the surrender of Premysl to the 
 Russians, 22 March. The Servian campaign was 
 also unsuccessful. In May, Italy denounced her 
 treaty of alliance (1882, 1912) with Austria, and the 
 Italian offensive against Austria commenced. The 
 Austro-German forces under Field Marshal von 
 Mackensen recovered nearly all of Galicia 1915 
 successfully invaded Servia, and set about the con¬ 
 quest of Montenegro and Albania. In 1916 the 
 Austrian offensive against Italy was definitely 
 checked. Owing to the pressure of the Allied 
 blockade, the food situation became alarming and 
 it was doubtful if the country, weakened by famine, 
 would be able to withstand concerted pressure 
 against its frontiers. On 27 August, 1916, Rumania 
 declared war against Austria-Hungary, but in three 
 months was completely subjugated by the Germans. 
 
 The Russian monarchy then collapsed (1917) and 
 the Russian troops were completely routed, freeing 
 the Austro-German troops for another Italian drive. 
 After varying successes, on 24-25 October, 1918 
 Italian armies smote the Austrians in the Monte 
 Grappe region; a British unit attacked along the 
 lower Piave, and a French unit took Monte Seise- 
 m °b The Austrian army fled, and Austria-Hungary, 
 macle overtures for peace, offering unconditional sur¬ 
 render. The irretrievable disaster of the Austro- 
 Hungarian armies led swiftly to the dissolution of 
 the Dual Monarchy. The government at Vienna 
 resigned and the empire fast disintegrated into 
 independent states. Czechoslovakia and Jugoslavia 
 emerged at once. The German-Austrian Republic 
 was proclaimed on 12 November, 1918. The treaty 
 of peace between Austria and the allied and asso¬ 
 ciated powers was signed at St. Germain-en-Laye 
 on 10 September, 1919. 
 
 The dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire 
 lelt the small German nucleus around which that 
 gieat congeries of states had been built up during 
 many centuries in a pitiful condition. The breaking 
 away of the Polish, Czechoslovak, Jugoslav, Hun¬ 
 garian, and other fragments of the Hungarian do¬ 
 minions, left only the core of Austria still attached 
 to the imperial capital and that core was essentially 
 German and was composed of the two historic 
 provinces of Upper and Lower Austria. Over such 
 a state the leading Social Democrats of Vienna 
 established their authoritv with Dr. Karl Renner 
 as provisional prime minister. By forbidding the 
 union of Bohemia with the German Austrian re¬ 
 pub he the allies forced that country to join the 
 newly formed Czechoslovak state. The small Ger¬ 
 man-speaking district of Hungary which had been 
 
AUTUN 
 
 74 
 
 AZORES 
 
 given to Austria by the Peace Conference was 
 established as a separate province. The province of 
 Vorarlberg desired to be detached from Vienna, 
 voted for union with Switzerland, but was over¬ 
 ruled by the Supreme Council at Paris, which de¬ 
 sired to preserve the integrity of Austria, as estab¬ 
 lished by the treaty of St. Germain. To Poland 
 was apportioned the Duchy of Teschen in Austrian 
 Silesia, and part of Galicia, including Cracow and 
 Lemberg; to Ukraine another part of Galicia; to 
 Rumania, the extreme southeastern part of Aus¬ 
 tria (Bukowina), with Czernowitz, and Transylvania. 
 Slavonia, Croatia, Dalmatia, Carniola, Bosnia, 
 Herzegovina, parts of Hungary and of Dalmatia 
 joined Servia to form Jugoslavia. Trentino was 
 ceded to Italy. By the treaty of Rapallo, signed 
 on 12 November, 1920, Gorz, Gradisca, and Trieste, 
 all of Istria, and a large part of Carniola passed to 
 Italy. On 10 October, 1920, the plebiscite in Zone 
 A, the Klagenfurt district of Carinthia resulted in 
 an overwhelming majority in favor of Austria. Ac¬ 
 cording to the terms of the Treaty of St. Germain, 
 if that zone went in favor of Austria, there would 
 be no vote in Zone B, which would automatically 
 revert to Austria. When the result of the plebiscite 
 was known, the Jugoslav troops marched into the 
 zone, but evacuated in a month by the orders of 
 the Supreme Council. According to the treaty of 
 peace between the allied and associated powers 
 signed at Trianon, 4 June, 1920, Western Hungary 
 goes to Austria, much to the opposition of the 
 Hungarians. In May, 1921, Salzburg voted for 
 union with Germany, but there is doubt as to its 
 realization. 
 
 Autun, Diocese of (Augustodunensis; cf. C. E., 
 II-144a), comprises the entire Department of Saone- 
 et-Loire in France, and is suffragan of Lyons. Rt. 
 Rev. Henri-Raymond Villard was appointed to this 
 see 13 July, 1906, and filled it until his death 8 
 December, 1914. Under his administration the 
 thousandth anniversary of the Abbey of Cluny was 
 celebrated 10-12 September, 1910, as well as the 
 centenary of Louis Veuillot, at Montmartre, Novem¬ 
 ber, 1913. In 1914, on the feast of the Holy Rosary, 
 Bishop Villard made a vow to have a Mass per¬ 
 petually celebrated in the cathedral every day 
 of the month of Maj^, for the intention of France, 
 and particularly for the soldiers killed during the 
 war. Upon the death of Bishop Villard the Rt. 
 Rev. Desire-Hyacinthe Berthoin, b. at Chatte, 
 14 October, 1855, was appointed to succeed him, 1 
 June, 1915. Bishop Berthoin died 24 February, 
 1922, and the see is now vacant. By 1920 statistics 
 there are 604,446 Catholics in this diocese, 813 
 priests, 65 first class parishes, 458 succursal parishes, 
 and 68 vicariates with salaries formerly paid by 
 the state. 
 
 Auxiliary Bishop ( c f. C. E., 11-145), one who is 
 appointed as coadjutor to a residential bishop on 
 account of age, ill-health, or the multiplicity of 
 matters requiring episcopal attention, yet who does 
 not enjoy the right of succession. (See Coadjutor 
 Bishop.) 
 
 Avellino, Diocese of (Abellinensis; cf. C. E., 
 II-149d), in the province of Naples, Italy, is suf¬ 
 fragan of Benevento. Bishop Angelini, who came 
 to this see in 1896, d. 4 February, 1908, and was 
 succeeded by Rt. Rev. Giuseppe Padula, b. 1847, 
 appointed Bishop of Bovino 24 March, 1898, trans¬ 
 ferred to this diocese 2 August, 1908. In 1920 the 
 diocese counted 107,598 Catholics, 34 parishes, 160 
 secular, and 21 regular clergy, 25 seminarians, 90 
 churches or chapels, 18 brothers, and 65 sisters. 
 
 Aversa, Diocese of (Aversanensis; cf. C. E., 
 II-151d), in the province of Caserta, Italy, is 
 directly subject to the Holy See. The present bishop, 
 Rt. Rev. Settimio Caracciolo di Torchiarolo, b. at 
 Naples, 1862, was appointed Bishop of Ahfe 24 
 March, 1898, and transferred to this see 10 April, 
 1911, to succeed Bishop Vento, d. 29 September, 
 1910. In 1920 there were 160,000 Catholics in this 
 diocese, 55 parishes, 350 secular, and 300 regular 
 priests, 100 seminarians, 377 churches or chapels, 
 and 20 sisters. 
 
 Aviators—By a decree of 24 March, 1920, Our 
 Lady of LorettO' was proclaimed patroness of 
 aviators by the Holy See; at the same time the 
 Congregation of Rites issued a special formula of 
 blessing for flying machines, which has now been 
 inserted in the Roman Ritual. The choice of Our 
 Lady of Loretto as special protectress of aviators 
 recalls the ancient tradition that her home at 
 Nazareth, in which the Incarnation took place, was 
 miraculously carried by angels through the air in 
 safety to Loretto on the Italian shore of the Adri¬ 
 atic, where it is still held in veneration. 
 
 Acta Ap . Sedis (1920), 175. 
 
 Avignon, Archdiocese of (Avenionensis; cf. C. 
 E., II-159c), comprises the Department of Vaucluse, 
 France. Its present archbishop, Most Rev. Gaspar- 
 Maire Latty, b. in Cagnes, 1844, was appointed 
 Bishop of Chalons 21 May, 1894, and promoted to 
 this see 15 October, 1907. By 1920 statistics the 
 total Catholic population of the territory numbers 
 238,656, of whom 49,304 are in Avignon. There are 
 29 first class parishes, 144 succursal parishes, 69 
 vicariates, 315 secular priests, 1 higher seminary, 
 and 1 ecclesiastical school. 
 
 Avila, Diocese of (Abulensis; cf. C. E., II-160c), 
 is suffragan of Valladolid, in Spain. Bishop Beltran 
 y Asensio, appointed to this see in 1898, d. 3 
 November, 1917, was succeeded by Rt. Rev. 
 Enrique Pla y Deniel, b. at Barcelona, 1876, ap¬ 
 pointed bishop 4 December, 1918. The Catholic 
 population of the diocese numbers 254,000 by 1920 
 statistics, and there are 393 parishes, 418 priests, 
 393 churches, and 245 chapels, 37 convents, 127 
 religious, and 425 sisters. 
 
 Ayacucho (or Guamanga), Di&cese of (Ayacu- 
 quensis de Huamanga; cf. C. E., II-164a), in Peru, 
 is suffragan of Lima. Rt. Rev. Fidelis Olivas 
 Escudero, b. at Pomabamba, 1849, appointed bishop 
 of this diocese 19 April, 1900, now fills the see. 
 By 1920 statistics there are 254,000 Catholics in the 
 diocese, 393 parishes, 418 priests, 393 churches, 245 
 chapels, 37 convents, 127 religious, and 425 sisters. 
 
 Azores (cf. C. E., II-168a).—The census of 1911 
 gives the population of the island as 243,376, a 
 density of 264 per square mile. The estimates of 
 the population of each island vary greatly, but the 
 most trustworthy seem to be as follows: 
 
 Island 
 
 Area per 
 sq. mile 
 
 Population 
 
 Density 
 per sq. 
 mile 
 
 Corvo . 
 
 7 
 
 746 
 
 106 
 
 Flores . 
 
 57 
 
 7,233 
 
 127 
 
 Fayal . 
 
 64 
 
 20,461 
 
 319 
 
 Pico . 
 
 175 
 
 21,966 
 
 125 
 
 Sao Jorge . 
 
 40 
 
 14,309 
 
 357 
 
 Graciosa . 
 
 17 
 
 7,747 
 
 455 
 
 Sao Miguel . 
 
 297 
 
 116,619 
 
 392 
 
 Santa Maria. 
 
 42 
 
 6,268 
 
 149 
 
 Terceira . 
 
 239 
 
 48,029 
 
 215 
 
AZORES 
 
 7 o 
 
 AZORES 
 
 There are only three towns with a population of 
 more than 3,000; Punta Delgada (Sao Miguel) 
 
 jJ?™* }£ 000 ,\ A ? gra (Terceira) about 10,000; and 
 Horta (Fayal) about 6,000. 
 
 Present Conditions.— The separation of Church 
 and State effected by the Republican Government 
 in Portugal applied also to the Azores, which are 
 an integral part of the republic. For ecclesiastical 
 details see Angra, Diocese of; Funchal, Diocese 
 of. 
 
 The chief export of the Azores is the pineapple, 
 which forms a large part of the exports of Sao 
 Miguel. Next in importance are sugar, tobacco, 
 and beans, followed by maize and alcohol. There 
 is but one line of steamers plying between Lisbon 
 and the Azores with a fleet not exceeding three 
 ships. While there are seven Portuguese banks 
 with branches or agencies, there are no less than 
 
 thirty American banking establishments, besides 
 five English. 
 
 In recent years the Azores have come a great 
 deal under American influence, not because they 
 are on the natural highway from Europe to Amer¬ 
 ica, but because a great number of emigrants from 
 the Azores to the United States return home in 
 sympathy with American ideas. After Portugal 
 came into the war as an ally of the Entente Powers 
 the Azores were very valuable as a supply depot 
 and coaling station for the Allied fleets. The har¬ 
 bor of Punta Delgada being the best in the Central 
 Atlantic afforded a useful rendezvous; during the 
 year 1917-18 the American armies made great use 
 of it, and the aerodrome they established near 
 Punta Delgada was able to do good service in the 
 protection of trade. During the war Punta Delgada 
 was once bombarded by a German submarine. 
 
B 
 
 Baalbek, Diocese of Heliopolitana; cf. C. E., 1919, and which was elected on the basis of equal, 
 II-177a) in Syria, known to the Greek and Latin secret, direct, universal suffrage, with proportionate 
 writers as Heliopolis It is the see of a Maronite representation of all males and females. According 
 Ld a Melchiie P bisho P ; and for the Maromtes is to this Constitution of 21 March, 1919, the Free 
 an archdiocese. There are at present (1922) 40,000 State of Baden is a Republic and a component part 
 Catholics belonging to this Rite, 173 priests, and 112 of Germany There is no State church, but religion 
 churches or chapels, presided over by Most Rev. is taught in the schools. The initiate e and referen- 
 John Mourad, consecrated 12 June, 1892. He re- dum have been adopted. There is only one Cham- 
 sides at Aramoun-de-Kesrouan, in Lebanon. ber, elected for f our years, which nominates the 
 
 The diocese for the Greek-Melchite Rite is ad- President of the Cabinet (State President). The 
 ministered by Rt. Rev. Agapios Maalouf, b. at Cabinet consists of 5 ministers and 4 state-coun- 
 
 Zahle 1846 appointed bishop 29 March, 1896. His cilors. . , ,, , . 
 
 residence is at Baalbek, to which he returned in Baden has 2 universities (Heidelberg and Frei- 
 1918, after having been driven from his diocese by burg), 1 commercial high school (Mannheim), 
 the Turks. There are 8,450 Catholics belonging to technical high school, 12 high schools for girls, 12 
 this Rite, 9 parishes, 4 secular priests and 10 normal schools, and several technical and special 
 
 rperilar clere:v 10 churches, and 3 schools. Heliop- schools. . . . _ . 
 
 olis is a titular see for the Latin Rite. For Catholic statistics see Freiburg, Archdiocese 
 
 , OF. 
 
 Babylon, Patriarchate of (Babylonensis; ct. 
 
 C. E., II-179a), of the Chaldean Rite, has its seat Bagamoyo, Vicariate Apostolic of (Bagamoyen- 
 at Mossul where the patriarch resides. The present eiS j cf. c. E., II-202b), in East Africa. On 23 
 patriarch, His Excellency Emmanuel Joseph Thomas, November, 1918, Bagamoyo, a former possession of 
 b at Alkosh 1852, was appointed Bishop of Seert the German Empire, surrendered and is now divided 
 4 September, 1890, and promoted to the Patriarchate between the British and Belgians. Owing to the 
 of Babylon 8 July, 1900. In 1910 he was named ravages of the war this once flourishing Vicariate 
 administrator apostolic of Akra, and in 1920 he Apostolic suffered untold losses and was threatened 
 went to Paris to watch over the interests of his w ith ruin. Thirteen priests, 15 brothers, and 16 
 people at the Peace Conference. The patriarch has nims were obliged to leave the mission. Some of 
 a patriarchal vicar at Mossul, one at Jerusalem, them died; others, owing to their German nation- 
 and one at Adana. By 1920 statistics there are a iity, were requested to leave the country; two 
 31,900 Chaldean Catholics in this patriarchate, 46 missions were entirely laid waste, others were partly 
 secular and 39 regular clergy, 27 churches or chapels, demolished, and 200 schools were partly destroyed, 
 and 17 schools. It was impossible to replace those who had been 
 
 /t) TOT .. r t? called away, and as the revenues decreased con- 
 
 Badajoz, Diocese of (Pacensis, cf. U b. siderabl it was difficult to continue the work. 
 
 II-193d), in that district of Spain called Cirntas w;th m y ch , abor and expen se the rubber industry 
 Pacensis, because it was once thought to be tfte had bcen established and was beginning to thrive, 
 Pax Julia or Pax Augusta of the Romans Rt- Rev too was ruine d by the war, and it will take 
 
 Adolphe Perez y Munoz, appointed to this see of labor t0 re . e8 t a blish it. 
 
 18 July, 1913, was transferred to Cordova 11 July, Th population n ow (1922) numbers 400,000 in- 
 1920, and was succeeded by the present incumbent, habitan £ s> P of whom 21 _ 180 are Catholics. Prior to 
 Rt. Rev. Raymond Perez y Rodriguez, appointed ^ ^ fhey numbered 2 6,000. There are 14 prin- 
 31 August of the same year. According to 1920 mission gtationg( u churche s and chapels, 20 
 
 statistics this diocese comprises a Catholic popula- u , ; ; stations, 21 priests of the Con- 
 
 tion of 648,000, 154 parishes, 14 archpriests, 376 *“°“ tion y of the Ho!y Gho ’ st> 5 brothers, 16 sisters, 
 
 priests, 154 churches 251 chapels, 56 convents with 8^8 belong t0 the congregation of Daughters of 
 153 religious, and 520 sisters. Mary; 365 native catechists who instruct the adults 
 
 Baden (cf. C. E., II-194b), Free State of, for- and the children in the rural schools. In each mis* 
 merly a grand duchy, now a republic and a com- sion there is a primary school, and in the out ying 
 ponent state of Germany; bounded by Switzerland, districts there are a number of rural schools situated 
 Alsace, the Palatinate, Hesse, Bavaria, and Wurtem- at a walking distance of one or two days I he 
 berg, covering an area of 5,819 sq. miles. According government does not support the schools nor does 
 to S the census of 1 December, 1910, the popula- it care for the sick. The difficult work of clearing 
 lion numbered 2,142,833, including 1,271,015 Cath- the land is being carried on.. Islamism is spread 
 olics 821,236 Evangelicals, 7,821 Old Catholics, 2,154 throughout the country especially along the coast 
 I utherans 1 765 Reformed, 2,209 of various Evan- For many year the Church Mission Society has 
 gelical beliefs 25 896 Jews, 4,833 others of various been active in the vicariate. The University Mis- 
 relidous 'nersuasions sion n0 lon S er has an ^ K 11881 ?, 118 ’, but . conducts sev- 
 
 In 1919 the population was 1,051,405 males and eral rural schools. A smallI p ^spital been 
 
 1 157 098 females the density being 379.5 per sq. opened at Bagamoyo an at each of the fmirteen 
 mile’ The principal cities are Mannheim, 229,576; missions there is an orphanage and a clinic with 
 Karlsruhe 135 952- Freiburg 87946; Pforzheim, medical service, and several workshops. Nearly all 
 irooq. Heidelherff 60 831- Constance 30 119 the brothers have left and the work has progressed 
 
 On 22NovembS, 19^ theGrand Duke abdicated slowly in consequence The first h Vicarapostffiic, 
 and the provisional government proclaimed Baden Rt. Rev Franz Xavier V g , g g 
 
 a republic. The new Constitution was determined of the Holy Ghost is a TXlm 1 3 Decem- 
 
 by the National Assembly, which met on 15 January, vicariate. He was born at Merlenheim, 3 De 
 
 76 
 
BAGDAD 
 
 77 
 
 BAHAMA ISLANDS 
 
 ber, 1870, elected 25 July, 1906, consecrated at 
 Knechtseden and made vicar apostolic of Baga- 
 moyo 6 December following. 
 
 Bagdad, Archdiocese of (Babylonensis-Lati- 
 norum, Babylonensis-Syrorum; cf. C. E., II-202b), 
 is a metropolitan see for both the Latin and the 
 Syrian Rites. It is situated in Mesopotamia, 
 Asiatic Turkey, and for the Latin Rite comprises 
 the missions of Bagdad or Babylon, Mardin and 
 Mossul. The Latin see is directly subject to the 
 Holy See and has its episcopal residence at Mossul. 
 Most Rev. Francis Berre, a Dominican, and superior 
 of the mission at Mossul, was appointed Archbishop 
 of this see 9 August, 1921. Archbishop Berre, who 
 has been in the Orient for over thirty years, was 
 taken prisoner by the Turks during the World War 
 and saw the destruction of a great part of the work 
 which he had accomplished. In 1919 he accom¬ 
 panied Cardinal Dubois on a trip through the 
 Orient and rendered such great service by his 
 knowledge of Oriental people and affairs that the 
 French Government conferred upon him the Cross 
 of the Legion of Honor. Upon his return to Mossul 
 he began rebuilding the ruins left by the war, giv¬ 
 ing his attention particularly to the schools and 
 Syro-Chaldaean seminary, which had played such 
 an important part in the religious progress of the 
 territory, and he was occupied in this work when 
 his appointment came. By 1922 statistics there are 
 in all about 60,000 Catholics of different rites under 
 the jurisdiction of this see. 
 
 For the Syrian Rite this archdiocese comprises 
 Bagdad and Bassorah and (1920 statistics) has a 
 population of 1,300 Syrian Catholics, besides 55,000 
 Jews, 2,000,000 Mussulmans, and 600 Christians. 
 There are 5 priests, 2 churches, and a few Carmelite 
 missionaries of the Latin Rite. The present in¬ 
 cumbent is Most Rev. Athanasius George Dallal, 
 b. in Lebanon, 1877, studied at the College ( of 
 Propaganda in Rome, ordained 1900, and appointed 
 Archbishop of Bagdad 14 September, 1912, succeed¬ 
 ing Archbishop Noury, who had retired. 
 
 The present Visitor Apostolic and Regent of the 
 Apostolic Delegation of Bagdad for Mesopotamia, 
 Kurdistan, and Armenia Minor is Mgr. Adrian 
 Smetz. The city of Bagdad, called at the time of 
 its foundation Medinet-es-Selam, or City of Peace, 
 is now the capital of the kingdom of Irak. The 
 Christians number about 13,500, divided as follows: 
 Chaldaeans, 9,000; Armenians, 3,000, of whom about 
 1,200 are Catholics; Greeks, 100, of whom 40 are 
 Catholics; Syrian Catholics, 600; Latin, 800. 
 
 The Armenian dioceses of the delegation were 
 destroyed during the war, and it is not yet known 
 how many of the faithful are left. All that remain 
 of the Syrian diocese of Gezireh are four priests 
 and a handful of Catholics. Of the nine Chaldsean 
 dioceses, Akra had ceased to exist before the war; 
 Gezireh and Seez were destroyed during it, while 
 Diarbekir and Mardin are reduced to their re¬ 
 spective bishops, a few priests and several hundred 
 Catholics. 
 
 The charitable works include 2 orphanages for 
 boys, one founded and maintained by the pope 
 in the house of the Delegation, with 50 inmates; 
 the other in Amarah in charge of the Carmelite 
 Fathers, with 35 inmates; 3 orphanages for girls, 
 
 1 in Bagdad under the Sisters of the Presentation, 
 inmates 70; 1 in Basrah under the same sisters, 
 inmates 25; 1 in Mossul in charge of the Dominican 
 Fathers, inmates 30. There are 35 students in the 
 seminary of the Chaldsean Patriarchate. The ap¬ 
 proximate Catholic population of the Delegation is 
 55,000. 
 
 Bagnorea, Diocese of (Balneoregiensis; cf. C. 
 E., II-203b), in the province of Rome, Italy, i 3 
 directly subject to the Holy See. After the promo¬ 
 tion of Bishop Rousset, who filled this see from 
 1906 until 14 September, 1909, the see was left 
 vacant until the appointment of Rt. Rev. Emilio 
 Poletti, 28 August, 1912. Bishop Poletti died 17 
 December, 1918, and was succeeded by Rt. Rev. 
 Giovanni Battista-Lodovico Antomelli, O.F. M., b! 
 in Mezzano, 1863, appointed titular Bishop’ of 
 Leptis Magna 23 February, 1913, and vicar apostolic 
 of Lybia, and transferred to this see 10 March, 1919. 
 
 During the World War the diocesan seminary 
 was used as a shelter for refugees, and many priests 
 of the diocese distinguished themselves at the front. 
 The 1922 statistics give the population as 35,000, 
 and credit the diocese with 28 parishes, 110 
 churches, 50 secular and 20 regular clergy, 3 monas¬ 
 teries for women, 3 convents for men and 6 for 
 women, 16 brothers, 100 religious women, 1 semi¬ 
 nary, and 20 seminarians. Among the institutions 
 are 2 elementary schools with 8 teachers and 80 
 pupils, all other schools being dependent on the 
 State; 3 homes, 3 asylums, and 2 hospitals. An 
 important event in the recent progress of the 
 diocese was the founding of an industrial school 
 for dressmaking and tailoring by Rev. Don Enrico 
 Bartoloni. One clerical and four lay societies are 
 organized, and a Catholic periodical is published in 
 the diocese. 
 
 Bahama Islands (cf. C. E., II-204b).—The fol¬ 
 lowing are the principal islands, their area and 
 their population, according to the latest available 
 census: 
 
 
 Area 
 sq. miles 
 
 Population 
 
 Males Females 
 
 Abaco and Cays. 
 
 776 
 
 2,234 
 
 2,229 
 
 Acklins Island . 
 
 120 
 
 725 
 
 1,008 
 
 Andros Island . 
 
 1,600 
 
 3,875 
 
 3,670 
 
 Berry Islands . 
 
 14 
 
 279 
 
 208 
 
 Biminis . 
 
 8*4 
 
 224 
 
 252 
 
 Crooked Island . 
 
 76 
 
 596 
 
 945 
 
 Eleuthera . 
 
 164 
 
 2,852 
 
 8,681 
 
 Exuma and Cays. 
 
 100 
 
 1,406 
 
 2,059 
 
 Grand Bahama . 
 
 430 
 
 784 
 
 1.040 
 
 Inagua . 
 
 560 
 
 589 
 
 754 
 
 Long Cay . 
 
 8 
 
 140 
 
 236 
 
 Long Island . 
 
 130 
 
 1,765 
 
 2,394 
 
 Mayaguana . 
 
 96 
 
 148 
 
 210 
 
 New Providence . 
 
 85 
 
 5,899 
 
 7,655 
 
 Ragged Island and Cays 
 
 5 
 
 165 
 
 188 
 
 Rum Cay . 
 
 29 
 
 171 
 
 259 
 
 San Salvador . 
 
 160 
 
 2,090 
 
 2,982 
 
 Watlings Island . 
 
 60 
 
 261 
 
 356 
 
 
 
 24,213 
 
 35,126 
 
 Of these about 85% are colored. The estimated 
 population on 1 January, 1921, was 56,385. In 1919 
 the birthrate was 34.4 and the deathrate 21.6. 
 
 Economic Situation. —In 1919 the total imports 
 into the Bahamas were valued at $2,630,455, 81% 
 of which came from the United States; the ex¬ 
 ports, valued at $1,864,096, went mostly to that 
 country. In 1920 there were 255 grants of Crown 
 land made during the year, the area being 1,327 
 acres. Approximately a total of 372,204 acres in 
 the colony have been sold by the Crown to private 
 persons, and 242,795,000 remain ungranted. 
 
 Education.— In 1919 the teaching staff employed 
 by the Board of Education consisted of 50 principal 
 teachers, 4 assistant teachers, 4 pupil teachers, 190 
 monitors, 8 sewing teachers, 4 students in training, 
 
BAHR-EL-GAZAL 
 
 78 
 
 BAILLY 
 
 and 30 employed in aided schools. The total num¬ 
 bers receiving primary education are given as fol¬ 
 lows for 1920: Board schools, 5,858; aided private 
 schools, 875; Church of England, 1,031; Catholic, 
 461; Baptist, 86; private schools, 383; total, 8,694. 
 
 Primary education is compulsory between the 
 ages of six and fourteen years, is provided by the 
 Government, and is controlled by a Board of Edu¬ 
 cation, consisting of twelve members appointed 
 annually by the governor. The board receives an 
 annual grant from the legislature of £6,000, out of 
 which repairs are made and teachers’ salaries are 
 paid. The cost of education is enhanced by the 
 breaking up of the population into many small 
 settlements, long distances apart, on the various 
 islands, themselves separated by many miles. There 
 is still no state provision for secondary schools, but 
 private organizations connected with religious bodies 
 provide higher education, as follows: Queen’s Col¬ 
 lege and Preparatory School (Wesleyan), 132pupils; 
 Nassau Grammar School (Church of England), 18 
 pupils; St. Hilda’s High School (Church of Eng¬ 
 land), 54 pupils; St. Francis Xavier’s Academy 
 (Catholic), 50 pupils. There is also a night school 
 with 22 pupils. 
 
 Religion. —The ecclesiastical returns in the Blue 
 Book of the Bahamas give the number of churches 
 and chapels as follows: Anglican, 88; Wesleyan, 
 38; Bahamas Baptist Union, 9; Native Baptist 
 Union, 46; Baptist Mission, 12; Presbyterian, 1; 
 Catholic, 3; African Methodist Episcopal Zion, 1. 
 The Bahamas belong ecclesiastically to the Arch¬ 
 diocese of New York, and statistics have not varied 
 in the last decade. There is only one Benedictine 
 Father in the islands, besides the Vicar Forane 
 (1921). 
 
 Government and Recent History.— The Gover¬ 
 nor and Commander-in-chief is assisted by an 
 Executive Council of 9, and a representative assem¬ 
 bly of 29 members, electors being required to have 
 small property qualifications. 
 
 A contingent was raised in the Bahamas by volun¬ 
 tary enlistments for service at the European front 
 in 1915, to be kept up at a strength of 200 men, 
 funds for the purpose to be provided by voluntary 
 subscription and legislative appropriations. The 
 first draft of 30 men embarked on 9 September, 
 1915, for Jamaica, en route to England, followed 
 subsequently in November of the same year and 
 in May, 1916, by drafts of 105 and 65 respectively, 
 making a total of 200 for the Bahamas unit of the 
 British West Indies Regiment. Reinforcements to 
 the extent of 100% per annum were guaranteed, the 
 Government bearing the whole cost of transport, 
 separation allowances, pensions, gratuities and dis¬ 
 ability allowances. The contingent was composed 
 almost entirely of colored men. They served under 
 Sir Edmund Allenby, commander-in-chief of the 
 forces in Egypt, against the Turks, and also did 
 some remarkable work in France, being employed 
 in all the main operations that took place after 
 their arrival, including the battles of Somme, Arras, 
 Messines, and Ypres. The economic effect of the 
 war on the colonies was shown in the increasing 
 demand for sisal and sponge, the two principal 
 commodities of the Bahamas, and the interruption 
 of regular communication between the United 
 States and the Bahamas. 
 
 Bahr-el-Gazal, Vicariate Apostolic of (de 
 Bahrel-Gazal), in Sudanese Africa. The vast terri¬ 
 tory comprised under this name belonged to the 
 Vicariate Apostolic of Sudan until 30 May, 1913, 
 when it was divided into two parts, the first remain¬ 
 ing a vicariate under the name of Khartum, while 
 
 the other half was made a prefecture apostolic. On 
 13 June, 1917, this latter was made a vicariate, 
 bounded on the north by 10° latitude, on the east 
 by the Anglo-Ethiopian frontier, on the west by 
 the Anglo-Belgian frontier, and on the south by the 
 White Nile and Lake Albert. It is entrusted to the 
 Sons of the Sacred Heart of Verona, the present 
 and first vicar apostolic being Rt. Rev. Antonio 
 Stoppani, titular Bishop of Stratonic. No statistics 
 have as yet been issued. 
 
 Bailly, Emmanuel, superior general of the 
 Augustinians of the Assumption, b. in Paris, 4 
 August, 1842; d. there 23 November, 1917. He was 
 the son of M. Bailly, founder of the Conferences 
 of St. Vincent de Paul, and a participator in all 
 the works of the Church in France that sprang up 
 between 1820-40. Emmanuel entered the Society 
 of the Augustinians of the Assumption at Nimes 
 in 1861, seven months after his brother Vincent 
 de Paul (q.v.), was professed two years later, and 
 in 1865 was ordained. He was successively superior 
 of the College at Nimes, master of novices, procu¬ 
 rator general and vicar general, succeeding M. 
 Picard as superior general in 1903. The following 
 year Pere Bailly was made a member of the per¬ 
 manent committee of international Eucharistic 
 Congresses, and director general of the Association 
 de Notre Dame de Salut, and of the National Pil¬ 
 grimage to Lourdes. In 1915 he became consultor 
 of the Sacred Congregation of Seminaries and 
 Studies. Gifted with an enlightened mind, great 
 eloquence and a very ardent spirit of faith, he 
 spent himself unstintedly for the prosperity of his 
 order, the good of the Church and the glory of his 
 country. During his generalate he made several 
 visits to missions of the Assumption in England, 
 in North and South America, and in the Orient. 
 The destruction of the latter and the mobilization 
 of many of his religious during the World War 
 was a cause of intense grief to his apostolic soul 
 and did much to hasten his end. To sweetness of 
 character he united solidity of principle, and at a 
 particularly difficult time directed his congregation 
 with wisdom and zeal. 
 
 Bailly, Vincent de Paul, editor and publicist, 
 b. at Berteaucourt-les-Thennes, Somme, 2 Decem¬ 
 ber, 1832; d. in Paris, 2 December, 1912. He was 
 the son of Emmanuel-Joseph Bailly, founder and 
 first president of the Conferences of St. Vincent 
 de Paul, and was born into an atmosphere of love 
 for souls and ardor for charitable works. Educated 
 at first by private teachers under the enlightened 
 direction of his father, he later attended the Lycee 
 Louis le Grand, where in 1850 he received the 
 degree of Bachelor of Science. In 1852 he entered 
 the bureau of telegraphy in Paris, and was trans¬ 
 ferred to Nimes, where he lived at the college 
 of the Assumptionists and taught mathematics in 
 his leisure hours. Pere d’Alyon, founder of the 
 Congregation of the Augustinians of the Assump¬ 
 tion, was a close friend of his family. Returning 
 to the central bureau three years later he became 
 the private telegrapher of the Emperor Napoleon 
 III, and was entrusted with many important mis¬ 
 sions, private and diplomatic. As an aid to his 
 international correspondence he studied law, and 
 a brilliant future in the ministry seemed to open 
 up before him, but he had other ambitions. On 
 20 October, 1860, he entered the Congregation 
 of the Assumption, and received the habit from Pere 
 d’Alyon. His brother Emmanuel (q.v.) followed 
 him into the Congregation seven months later. After 
 his ordination in 1863, he was made director of 
 the College at Nimes, a post he held until 1867, 
 
BAKER 
 
 79 
 
 BALTIMORE 
 
 
 
 
 when he went to Rome as chaplain with the Volun¬ 
 teers from Nimes who rallied to the defense of the 
 Holy Father, and were formed into a company 
 under Captain Wyart, later Dom Sebastian, Abbot 
 General of the Reformed Cistercians. On his return 
 in 1869, Pere Bailly was attached to the Paris house 
 of the Congregation, which later became the center 
 of so many activities then in their infancy, and 
 where he worked under Pere Picard. In 1870 Pere 
 Bailly served as chaplain with the troops during 
 the siege of Metz, and did untold good among 
 the soldiers in the field and in the hospitals. 
 
 In the great work of Christian reconstruction 
 undertaken with rare vision, by the Fathers of 
 the Assumption in France, Pere Bailly was one 
 of the leading spirits. He became secretary gen¬ 
 eral of the Union des associations ouvrieres catho- 
 liques, a union resulting from l’Association de Notre 
 Dame de Sault, founded by the Assumptionist 
 Fathers; director of the national pilgrimages to the 
 Holy Land begun in 1883 and ended for him in 
 1910; editor of “La Pelerin, founder of “La Croix," 
 and editor or collaborator in the multiple publica¬ 
 tions of the Maison de la Bonne Presse, nearly 
 all due to his creative genius and devouring zeal 
 in spreading the kingdom of Christ. His principal 
 work, “La Croix," to which he contributed under 
 the pseudonym “le* Moine," became the most pow¬ 
 erful organ of Catholic opinion in France. Original, 
 alert, vigorous, purely Catholic and the organ of no 
 political party, it made a bold and courageous fight 
 against Free Masonry and anti-clericalism, and the 
 nefarious laws promulgated by a Government which 
 was completely under their control. When, in 
 1900, by order of Leo XIII, the Congregation re¬ 
 signed the publication into secular hands, Pere 
 Bailly submitted unquestioningly to the sacrifice 
 demanded of him in the cause of peace. The years 
 of exile (1900-06), after the expulsion of the Con¬ 
 gregation from France, were spent in Rome, in 
 Belgium, in founding the English houses of the 
 Congregation, in visiting the missions in the Orient 
 and in giving retreats. On his return to Paris he 
 lived in an apartment in the Rue Goethe, and 
 devoted much of his time to his literary work. 
 In 1912 in spite of severe illness, he attended the 
 general chapter of the congregation in Luxemburg, 
 dying a few months later in Paris. He received the 
 last sacraments from his brother Pere Emmanuel, 
 his superior general. It is to Pere Bailly’s intense 
 spiritual life that we have to look for the explana¬ 
 tion of his prodigious achievements for the glory 
 of God and the defence of the Faith. His spirit of 
 faith truly moved mountains and his name, coupled 
 with that of Louis Veuillot, sums up Catholic jour¬ 
 nalism in France in the nineteenth century. 
 
 Baker, Elizabeth Anstice, convert and writer, 
 b. in London, 1849; d. there 16 October, 1914. She 
 was the fourth daughter of the Hon. John Baker, 
 and sister of Sir Richard Baker, K.C.M.G., K. C. 
 In her youth her family moved temporarily to 
 one of England’s distant colonies, where she doubt¬ 
 less imbibed the independence of thought and 
 breadth of view that in all her intellectual wander¬ 
 ings saved her from mental servility to the many 
 systems of philosophy and thought current at that 
 time. She was received into the Church in Paris 
 by Pere Etienne, O.P. The story of her early 
 life, her restless search for truth and her conversion 
 are told in “A Modern Pilgrim’s Progress,’’ pub¬ 
 lished in 1906, with introduction by Father Henry 
 Sebastian Bowden (q.v.). It reveals considerable 
 intellectual power, a clear forcible style, and at 
 
 times great depths of feeling and has been a power 
 6 " 
 
 for good. A later edition has a preface by Mgr. 
 Benson (q.v.). Pope Leo XIII conferred on its 
 author the cross Pro Ecclesia et Pontifice. Miss 
 Baker was on the Committee of the Catholic 
 Truth Society, the Catholic Women’s League, 
 Catholic Girls Protection and other societies, and 
 her home in South Kensington was a center of 
 constant occupations and interests for helping 
 others. 
 
 Baker City, Diocese of (Bakeriensis; cf. C. E., 
 11-213d )j in the State of Oregon, United States, 
 comprises an area of 68,000 sq. miles. The first 
 bishop, Rt. Rev. Charles J. O’Reilly, D. D., who 
 came to the see in 1903, was transferred to Lincoln 
 20 March, 1918, and was succeeded by the present 
 incumbent, Rt. Rev. Joseph F. McGrath, D.D. 
 Bishop McGrath was born at Aglish, diocese of 
 Waterford, Ireland, 3 March, 1871, ordained a priest 
 at Montreal, 21 December, 1895, made curate at 
 St. Patrick’s Church, Tacoma, 1907, and appointed 
 bishop 21 December, 1918, consecrated 25 March 
 of the following year. During the World War one 
 priest of this diocese served as a chaplain and 
 eleven of the men who entered the army gave up 
 their lives. 
 
 By present (1921) statistics the total Catholic 
 population of the diocese numbers 7,300, of whom 
 1,300 are English, 2,000 German, 1,700 Irish, 400 
 Portuguese, 500 Italians, 700 French, 250 Spanish, 
 150 Belgian, and 300 of other nationalities. There 
 are 19 parishes, 39 missions, 53 churches, 17 secular 
 and 10 regular clergy, 12 convents for women, 101 
 sisters, 3 seminarians, 7 academies, with 69 teachers 
 and an attendance of 329 boys and 628 girls, and 
 1 normal school with 3 teachers and 20 pupils. The 
 various religious orders established in the diocese 
 are Capuchins, Franciscans, and Jesuits; Sisters of 
 the Third Order of St. Dominic, Sisters of the Holy 
 Names of Jesus and Mary. 
 
 Balearic Islands ( c f. C. E., II-221d).—On 1 
 January, 1920, the area of the Balearic Islands was 
 1,935 square miles, and the population 331,195 (171.1 
 per square mile). The islands form a separate 
 military district of Spain and have a strong fortress 
 at Mahon, also a new wireless station. For religious 
 statistics see Majorca and Iviza, Diocese of; 
 Minorca, Diocese of. 
 
 Ballarat, Diocese of (Ballaratensis; cf. C. E., 
 Il-223a), in Australia, suffragan of Melbourne. Rt. 
 Rev. Joseph Higgins, translated to this see in 1905, 
 died 16 September, 1915, and was succeeded by the 
 present incumbent, Rt. Rev. Daniel Foley, con¬ 
 secrated 24 August, 1916. According to the 1911 
 census this diocese comprises a Catholic population 
 of 61,369. The religious orders established here at 
 the present time (1922) are: men, Congregation of 
 the Most Holy Redeemer and the Christian 
 Brothers; women, Sisters of the Blessed Virgin 
 Mary, founded from Ireland, Sisters of Our Lady 
 of Mercy, Brigidine Sisters, Sisters of St. Joseph, 
 Sisters of the Good Samaritan, Sisters of the Pre¬ 
 sentation, and Sisters of St. John of God. The 1921 
 statistics credit this diocese with 166 churches, 64 
 secular and 7 regular clergy, 17 brothers, 221 nuns, 
 
 2 boarding schools for boys and 10 for girls, 12 
 secondary day schools, 59 primaiy schools, 1 home 
 for the aged, 2 orphans’ homes, and 5,211 children 
 receiving Catholic education. 
 
 Baltimore, Archdiocese of (Baltimorensis; cf. 
 C. E., II-228a), comprises 6,399 sq. miles of terri¬ 
 tory in Maryland and 64 sq. miles in the Dis¬ 
 trict of Columbia. 
 
 On 24 March, 1921, His Eminence James Cardinal 
 
BALTIMORE 
 
 80 
 
 BAMBERG 
 
 Gibbons, Archbishop of Baltimore from 1877, and 
 the nation’s most prominent churchman and citizen, 
 died, and was succeeded by Rt. Rev. Michael J. 
 Curley, former Bishop of St. Augustine, installed 
 30 November, 1921. In October, 1911, the diocese 
 celebrated, with great pomp and ceremony, the 
 golden jubilee of the cardinal’s priesthood and the 
 silver jubilee of his accession to the cardinalate, 
 the celebration lasting one week. On 29 October, 
 1918, the golden jubilee of his elevation to ‘the 
 episcopate was celebrated quietly at St. Mary’s 
 Seminary, and on 20 February, 1919, a public cele¬ 
 bration was held at the Franciscan Monastery, 
 Brookland, Washington, D. C. 
 
 On 10 September, 1919, His Eminence Desire 
 Cardinal Mercier, Archbishop of Malines, Belgium, 
 visited the Diocese of Baltimore and spent several 
 days at the cardinal’s residence. 
 
 On 23 September, 1920, the corner-stone of the 
 Shrine of the Immaculate Conception chapel at the 
 Catholic University was laid. The first yearly meet¬ 
 ing of the Hierarchy of the United States, which 
 has been inaugurated in recent years, was held in 
 February, 1919. 
 
 Besides the cardinal many other prominent clergy¬ 
 men of the diocese of Baltimore have died within 
 the last few years, among them Rev. Dr. Dennis J. 
 Stafford (d. 30 January, 1908), pastor of St. Patrick’s, 
 Washington, and a noted Shakespearean student 
 and lecturer; Rt. Rev. Charles Warren Currier, 
 D. D. (d. 23 September, 1918), missionary bishop, 
 lecturer and writer; Rt. Rev. Alfred A. Curtis, D.D. 
 (d. 11 July, 1908), noted convert to the Church; Rt. 
 Rev. Mgr. Dennis J. Flynn, D.D. (d. 7 July, 1911), 
 president of Mt. St. Mary’s College, Emmitsburg, 
 Md.; Rev. Francis N. McKenna, S.S. (d. 22 May, 
 1917), president of St. Charles College, Catonsville, 
 Md.; Mgr. W. H. Ketcham (d. 14 November, 1921), 
 director Bureau of Catholic Indian Missions, Wash¬ 
 ington. Among the prominent laymen of the diocese 
 deceased within recent years are: Mr. Edgar Gans (d. 
 20 September, 1914), prominent lawyer; Mr. Michael 
 Jenkins (d. 7 September, 1915), trustee of Catholic 
 University; Mr. Charles J. Bonaparte, (d. 28 June, 
 1921), former United States Attorney General, Sec¬ 
 retary of the Navy, and trustee of the Catholic 
 University; Hon. Edward Douglass White (d. 19 
 May, 1921), Chief Justice of the Supreme Court 
 of the United States. During the World War 
 twelve of the diocesan clergy served as chaplains, 
 and 276 young men gave up their lives. 
 
 The total Catholic population of the diocese is 
 276,200 and includes the following races: negro 
 (15,280), German (25,572), Italian (16,800), Lithu¬ 
 anian (8,000), Polish (19,679), Czechoslavak (7,000). 
 Since 1907, 23 new parishes have been established 
 and at the present time there are in all: parishes, 
 151; churches, 227; missions, 76; monasteries for 
 men, 3; convents for women, 9, with total number 
 of sisters 503; secular priests, 290; regular clergy, 
 325; lay brothers, 108; nuns and sisters, 1,512; 
 seminaries, 17, with 940 seminarians; universities, 3, 
 with 300 professors and a total attendance of 2,962; 
 colleges for men, 9, with 155 teachers and an at¬ 
 tendance of 2,033; colleges for women, 3, with 117 
 teachers and an attendance of 825; academies, 14, 
 with 195 teachers and an attendance of: boys 579, 
 girls 1,302; normal schools, 3, with 47 teachers and 
 an attendance of 344; training schools, 2, with 19 
 teachers and an attendance of 84; elementary 
 schools, 97, with 755 teachers and an attendance of 
 31,802; industrial schools, 4, with 59 teachers and 
 an attendance of 1,151. 
 
 Missionary work is carried on by the Mission 
 Helpers of the Sacred Heart, and among the institu¬ 
 
 tions of the diocese are: 2 homes for aged poor, 
 2 for self-supporting girls, and 1 for boys; 12 infant 
 and orphan asylums with 1,418 children; 8 hospitals 
 for the sick, 1 for the insane; 3 Houses of the 
 Good Shepherd; 2 settlement houses under the 
 auspices of the National Catholic Welfare Council, 
 and 4 day nurseries. The industrial schools, orphan 
 asylums, hospitals and houses of the Good Shepherd 
 receive aid from state and city for subjects officially 
 committed. Such public institutions as the Walter 
 Reed Government Hospital, Washington Asylum, 
 Soldiers’ Home, and St. Elizabeth’s for the Insane, 
 in Washington, Bay View Hospital in Baltimore, 
 Maryland Sanatoria, and Eudowood and Sabillas- 
 villo, Md., admit the ministry of priests of the 
 diocese. The various organizations among the 
 clergy are: the Clerical Benevolent Association and 
 the Association of Prayers for Deceased Priests. 
 Among the laity the usual religious fraternal and 
 parish organizations and societies are conducted. 
 The “Baltimore Review” is the diocesan official 
 weekly. 
 
 Bamako, Vicariate Apostolic of (de Bamako), 
 in French Sudan, Northern Africa. By a Decree 
 of 2 July 1921 the Vicariate Apostolic of the Sahara 
 Desert was divided into two vicariates one of which 
 is Bamako. It comprises the territory in the north¬ 
 ern part of the old vicariate extending from the 
 5° West, to a lake south of the River Niger in 
 the city of Timbuctoo, and from here, to the boun¬ 
 dary line of the three civil departments of 
 Bandiagara, Dedugu and Bobodiulasso. All terri¬ 
 tory west of this line is included in this vicariate, 
 entrusted to the White Fathers. Rt. Rev. Emile 
 Fernand Sauvant, appointed titular Bishop of Utica, 
 8 July, 1921, was appointed first vicar apostolic. 
 Statistics have not yet been published for this 
 vicariate, but in 1920 the old vicariate, of which this 
 territory formed a part, had a total population of 
 4,000,000, of whom 1000 were European Catholics, 
 900 Catholic negroes and 4000 catechumens. The 
 mission comprised 43 missionary priests, 72 catechists, 
 13 churches or chapels, 10 schools, 7 orphanages, 3 
 leper settlements, 2 hospitals, and 19 Missionary 
 Sisters of Our Lady of Africa. 
 
 Bamberg, Archdiocese of (Bambergensis; cf. C. 
 E., II-242d), in Bavaria. Of the many Catholic 
 conventions successively held within the archdiocese 
 since 1919 of special note is that of Nuremberg in 
 1921, attended by 45,000 faithful, and that of Bam¬ 
 berg in the same year, at which 25,000 were present. 
 During the World War sixty-five priests cared for 
 the soldiers at the front or in the hospitals, and the 
 Catholic laity strove in every way to relieve the 
 existing misery and suffering. Among the recently 
 deceased clergy of note are: Rev. Francis Xavier 
 Scheidler, dean of the metropolitan chapter, Pro- 
 thonotary of the Roman Curia, died 1911; Franz 
 von Keller, provost of the Chapter; Archbishop 
 Friedrich Philipp von Abert (d. 25 May, 1912). 
 The present incumbent is the Most Rev. Johannes 
 Jacobus Hauck, b. at Miltenberg 22 December, 1861, 
 ordained 3 August, 1884, appointed to the see of 
 Bamberg 18 June, 1912, and consecrated 25 July fol¬ 
 lowing. He received the pallium 11 January, 1913. 
 The auxiliary bishop is Rt. Rev. Adam Senger, 
 titular bishop of Comana. 
 
 The archdiocese contains 465,000 Catholics. There 
 are 225 parishes, 625 churches, 129 chaplaincies, 60 
 benifices, 57 curacies, 11 monasteries for men and 
 5 for women, 97 convents for women, 93 lay 
 brothers, 478 secular clergy, 48 regular clergy, and 
 2 seminaries. There is a university with 12 pro¬ 
 fessors (53 students), 1 hochschule for boys with 
 
BANGUELO 
 
 81 
 
 BANSKA-BYSTRICA 
 
 2 teachers (76 students), 27 hohere schulen (9 and 
 6 year classical and scientific curriculum) with 309 
 teachers (2,800 boy students, 1,200 girl students), 
 1,070 elementary schools with 2,008 teachers, 7 in¬ 
 dustrial schools with 78 teachers (680 students). All 
 the schools are supported by the Government. The 
 following charitable institutions exist in the arch¬ 
 diocese: 5 homes for journeymen and working 
 girls, 2 asylums, 13 hospitals, 2 refuges, 65 day 
 nurseries. The ministry of priests is permitted in 
 all public institutions. The following associations 
 have been formed by the clergy: Unio Apostolica, 
 Fcedus Ottomanum (Ottoman League), Association 
 for Priestly Perserverance. The associations among 
 the laity are: Association of Workingmen and Me¬ 
 chanics, Association of Workingwomen, Young 
 Men’s Club, the Marian Congregation for young 
 men and women. Two Catholic periodicals are 
 published in the archdiocese. 
 
 Banguelo, Vicariate Apostolic of (de Banguelo; 
 cf. C. E., XVI-79d), in Central Africa. This 
 vicariate was erected 23 January, 1918, by a division 
 of the Vicariate Apostolic of Nyassa, and is bounded 
 by the boundary line of the waters between Lun- 
 angua and Zambezi, and the 13° latitude. Its limits 
 are the same as those of Nyssa. It is entrusted to 
 the White Fathers, the present and first vicar 
 apostolic being Rt. Rev. Mgr. Larue of this con¬ 
 gregation, titular Bishop of Thuburbo. The re¬ 
 markable progress of religion in this territory from 
 the time of the erection of the vicariate is best 
 shown by the following statistics published in 1917: 
 
 Neophytes.. 
 
 Catechumens 
 
 Baptisms . 
 
 Confessions. 
 
 Communions 
 Christian families. 
 Chapels. 
 
 1913 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 7,202 
 
 9,152 
 
 11,642 
 
 14,955 
 
 16,387 
 
 14,597 
 
 18,350 
 
 22,192 
 
 2,926 
 
 4,660 
 
 4,512 
 
 4,881 
 
 60,434 
 
 76,758 
 
 100,334 
 
 108,099 
 
 83,853 
 
 128,685 
 
 182,926 
 
 204,286 
 
 1,215 
 
 1,808 
 
 2,076 
 
 3,291 
 
 22 
 
 48 
 
 73 
 
 109 
 
 It is probable that the World War retarded in 
 some measure the work of the missionaries, but 
 the 1921 records show an encouraging increase in 
 conversions, there being now 6,000 Catholics out of 
 a total population of 600,000, 32,000 catechumens, 
 24 priests, 6 brothers, 7 White Sisters, and 214 
 catechists. 
 
 Banjaluka, Diocese of (Banjalucensis; cf. C. 
 E., II-252b), in Bosnia. The predecessor of the 
 present bishop, Joseph Garric, the first elected to 
 the see, was Bishop Marianus Markovic, Apostolic 
 Administrator. He died 20 June, 1912, after a life 
 of eminent virtue. Both clergy and laity bore the 
 hardships of the World War with great fortitude, 
 and unselfishly attended the wants of the needy, 
 the Trappists and Franciscans proving in this work 
 especially deserving of praise. 
 
 The Catholics of the diocese number 102,000, of 
 whom 90,000 are Croatians and the balance Ger¬ 
 mans, Poles, Czechs, and a few Hungarians. There 
 are 28 secular and 50 regular priests and 97 lay 
 brothers, 45 parishes with 50 churches, 1 abbey for 
 men with 2- affiliated houses, 3 convents for men 
 and 5 for women, 1 seminary, 3 high schools, 12 
 normal schools with 36 teachers and a total of 1,895 
 students of both sexes, 2 orphan asylums, one for 
 boys kept by the Trappists, and the other for girls 
 in the care of the Sisters of the Precious Blood in 
 Nazareth and supported by voluntary contributions. 
 For the clergy there is a mutual benefit association 
 of artificers and workmen. A periodical diocesan 
 bulletin is issued, also a publication for Catholic 
 
 y °uth inteiested in art. At one time a Catholic 
 weekly was published for one year, but lack of 
 financial support forced its abandonment. 
 
 Banns of Marriage (cf. C. E, II-256c) .-Before 
 a marriage takes place it must be announced or 
 in other words the banns must be published’ on 
 three successive Sundays or other feasts of obliga¬ 
 tion during Mass or any other service at which 
 theie is a large attendance. Fhe local ordinary is 
 now authorized to substitute for this usual method 
 of publication the affixing of the names of the 
 parties on the doors of the parochial or other 
 church for the space of eight days, which must in¬ 
 clude two days of precept. If either or both of the 
 parties, after reaching the age of puberty (12 years 
 for girls, and 14 years for boys), have resided for 
 six months elsewhere than in the parish of the 
 priest, who has the right of assisting at the mar- 
 iiage, the parish priest is to notify the ordinary 
 who may require the publication of the banns in 
 that place or may prescribe other steps for ascer¬ 
 taining the status of the parties. Even when the 
 period of residence was less than six months, if it is 
 suspected that an impediment was contracted, the 
 parish priest is to refer the matter to the ordinary, 
 who must not allow the marriage till the suspicion 
 is removed. If a Catholic is to be married to a 
 non-Catholic the banns must not be published, how¬ 
 ever, the ordinary may allow it to be done if he 
 deems it advisable, though in such a case the re¬ 
 ligion of a non-Catholic must not be mentioned. 
 A local ordinary may dispense his own subjects 
 from the publication of the banns for a legitimate 
 cause, even when it would have to be made in 
 another diocese. Where several ordinaries have 
 jurisdiction, the dispensation is granted by the one 
 in whose diocese the marriage is to take place; but 
 either of them can grant it if the marriage is to 
 be celebrated outside of their dioceses. 
 
 In case of doubt about the existence of any im¬ 
 pediment, the parish priest should investigate the 
 matter, examining under oath at least two trust¬ 
 worthy witnesses, and, if necessary, the parties 
 themselves; he is to proceed with the publication, 
 but if the doubt is not eventually dispelled he must 
 not assist at the marriage without consulting the 
 ordinary. Should an undoubted impediment be dis¬ 
 covered, then if it is occult he must continue the 
 publication and refer the case to the local ordinary 
 or the sacred penitentiary without revealing the 
 names of the parties; if the impediment is public 
 and has been discovered before beginning the pub¬ 
 lication, the banns must not be proclaimed until the 
 impediment has been removed, even if the pastor 
 knows that a dispensation for the internal forum 
 only has been granted; if the discovery was made 
 after the first or the second proclamation the parish 
 priest is to continue the publication, and refer the 
 matter to the ordinary. 
 
 If the investigation of the parties’ freedom to 
 marry or the proclamation of the banns has been 
 made by a priest other than the one who is to 
 assist at the marriage, the latter should not officiate 
 until the investigations have been completed and, 
 as a rule, until three days have elapsed from the 
 last publication of the banns; on the other hand, 
 if the marriage does not take place within six 
 months, the publication must ordinarily be re¬ 
 peated. 
 
 Code , can. 1022-32; Ayrinhac, Marriage Legislation (New 
 York, 1919), n. 42 sqq.; O’Donnell in lr. Eccl. Rec., XV, 56; 
 XVI, 49. 
 
 Banska-Bystrica (or Neusohl), Diocese of 
 (Neosoliensis ; cf. C. E., X-774c), in Czechoslovakia, 
 suffragan of Esztergom. The see is filled by Rt. Rev. 
 
BAPTISM 
 
 82 
 
 BAPTISM 
 
 Marien Blalia, born in Hradok Loptorski, Slovakia, ministered. An abortive foetus, no matter when 
 in 1869, served as director of the St. Adalbert born, is to be baptized absolutely if it is certainly 
 Society, and a delegate from Czechoslovakia to the alive, or conditionally if life is doubtful. A de- 
 Peace Conference in 1919, named an honorary formed foetus must always be baptized at least 
 chamberlain the same year and appointed bishop conditionally; if in doubt whether there is one 
 16 December, 1920, to succeed Rt. Itev. Wolfgang human being or more, one is to be baptized ab- 
 Radnai, appointed 11 July, 1914, retired and pro- solutely, the others conditionally, 
 moted to the titular see of Axum 16 December, Ceremonies .—A different ceremony is used in 
 
 1920. The diocese comprises a Catholic population baptizing according as the recipient is an infant 
 of 223,779; 71,629 Lutherans, 193 Calvinists, 6560 or an adult; but the local ordinary may for a grave 
 Jews; the 1920 statistics credit it with 111 parishes, reason allow the ceremonies of infant baptism to 
 43 second-class parishes and vicariates, and 171 be used in baptizing adults. A child is to be bap- 
 secular priests. tized according to its parents , Rite, but if the 
 
 parents are of different Rites the ceremony must 
 Baptism (cf. C. E., II-269a ).—Minister. A per- be according to the father’s Rite, unless there is a 
 son must be baptized solemnly in his own parish special law in certain cases: American, Syrian, and 
 and by his own parish priest or by another priest Coptic Uniats follow the general law r ; among 
 with his or the ordinary’s permission, if this can Ruthenian Uniats, boys are baptized in the father’s, 
 be done easily and without delay; otherwise the girls in the mother’s Rite, unless their father is a 
 baptism may be administered by any pastor in Ruthenian cleric; among Italo-Greeks living in the * 
 whose parish the person happens to be. Conse- West if the father is Greek and the mother Latin, 
 quently a child whose parents belong to parish A either Rite may be used. If only one of the parents 
 should be baptized there, even if it were born and is a Catholic, the ceremony should be according to 
 remained some time in parish B. Deacons are his or her Rite. If this canon is violated, the per- 
 extraordinary ministers of solemn baptism; they son nevertheless belongs to the Rite in which he 
 may not exercise their power without leave of the should have been baptized. 
 
 local ordinary or the parish priest, which should be If a person is in danger of death he may receive 
 granted if there are good reasons, and this permis- private baptism. If this is administered by one who 
 sion may be presumed in case of necessity. Parish is neither a priest nor a deacon, he is to use only 
 priests are ordered to see that the faithful, espe- the rites which are required for the validity of the 
 eially midwives, physicians and surgeons, know how sacrament. On the other hand, if the minister is a 
 to baptize in case of necessity. When private bap- priest or deacon and there is time, he must add the 
 tism is conferred, there should be one or two wit- ceremonies which should follow the actual baptism, 
 nesses if possible, so that the fact of baptism can If the subject is not in danger of death, the ordinary 
 be established if occasion .for this should arise. An cannot permit private baptism, except when an 
 important change has been made by the Code which adult heretic is to be baptized conditionally; with 
 declare that the minister of baptism now contracts this exception, too, all ceremonies that have been 
 a spiritual relationship only with the person bap- omitted for any reason in conferring baptism must 
 tized; formerly he became related to the parents be supplied in church as soon as possible. When 
 also. The question of baptizing adults, by which baptism is repeated conditionally—excepting the 
 in speaking of baptism is meant those who have case of an adult heretic, as mentioned above—cere- 
 attained the use of reason, should be referred to monies previously omitted must be supplied; but 
 the local ordinary, that if he so desires the sacra- if they were not omitted in the first instance the 
 ment may be administered by him or his delegate minister is free to use or omit them in the condi- 
 in a more solemn manner. It is recommended that tipnal baptism. If the parents do not wish to give 
 priests who baptize adults and the adults them- the child a really Christian name the priest must 
 selves should, if they are enjoying good health, add a saint’s name and record both in the bap- 
 be fasting; moreover, the newly baptized adult is tismal register. 
 
 under an obligation to assist immediately after Sponsors .—There should always be a sponsor at 
 
 baptism at Mass and to receive Holy Communion, private baptism if it can be easily arranged; if none 
 unless grave and urgent reasons prevent him. was present then, there should be one later when 
 
 Subject .—As a rule Catholics may baptize only the ceremonies are supplied. In the latter case the 
 infants, one of whose parents is a Catholic, unless person acting as sponsor does not contract a spir- 
 in case of necessity. However, infants of infidels, itual relationship. In repeating baptism condi- 
 and ordinarily those of two heretical or schismatical tionally, the sponsor who acted at the first baptism, 
 parents, or of two Catholic parents who have apos- if possible, be employed again; this, it may be 
 tatized or fallen into heresy or schism, can be noted, is the only case in which a sponsor is needed 
 lawfully baptized if arrangements are made for at conditional baptism. When baptism is repeated 
 their Catholic education, and if the parents or conditionally, neither the sponsor who acted at the 
 guardians, or at least one of them, consent, or if first baptism nor he who acts at the second con- 
 the child has no father, mother, grandparent or tracts spiritual relationship, unless the same person 
 guardian living, or if these have lost their rights was employed in both cases. The conditions re- 
 over him or are absolutely unable to exercise them, quisite for acting validly or licitly as sponsor have 
 Adults are not to be baptized except with their been made stricter by the Code. For validity a 
 knowledge and consent and after proper instruction; sponsor: (a) must be baptized, have attained the 
 but if they are in danger of death and there is not use of reason, and intend to assume the obligation; 
 time to instruct them in the principal mysteries, (b) must not belong to any heretical or schismatical 
 they may be baptized provided they give signs of sect, nor be excommunicated by a condemnatory or 
 assent and promise seriously to observe the com- declaratory sentence, nor be legally infamous or 
 mandments. If they are unable to request baptism, debarred from acts, nor be a deposed or degraded 
 but either formerly or in their present condition cleric; (c) must be neither the parent nor the 
 probably manifested the intention of receiving it, spouse of the person to be baptized; (d) must be 
 they should be baptized conditionally; should they nominated to act by the person to be baptized or 
 recover and a doubt concerning the validity of the his parents or guardians, or, lacking these, by the 
 baptism remain, conditional baptism is to be ad- minister; (e) must personally or by proxy hold or 
 
BAPTISTS 
 
 83 
 
 BARCELONA 
 
 touch the subject physically at the moment of bap¬ 
 tism or immediately take him from the sacred font 
 or from the minister’s hands. 
 
 To act licitly as sponsor, one: a() must have 
 reached his fourteenth year, though for a just cause 
 the minister may allow a younger person to stand; 
 (b) must not be excommunicated nor be debarred 
 from legal acts nor be legally infamous on account 
 of a notorious offense, even if no judicial sentence 
 has been pronounced, nor be interdicted or other¬ 
 wise publicly known as a criminal, nor be infamous 
 by act; (c) must know the rudiments of the Faith; 
 
 (d) must not be a novice or a professed member 
 of a religious institute in which the members make 
 vows, perpetual or temporary, to be renewed after 
 a fixed time, unless in case of necessity and with 
 the express permission of at least the local superior; 
 
 (e) finally must have the express permission of his 
 ordinary, if he is a cleric in sacred orders. In case 
 of doubt whether one can be admitted validly or 
 licitly the parish priest must consult his ordinary 
 if there is time. A sponsor contracts spiritual rela¬ 
 tionship with the person baptized, but not as for¬ 
 merly with the parents also. 
 
 Time and Place .—The faithful are under a grave 
 obligation to have their infants baptized as soon as 
 possible. In case of necessity, private baptism may 
 be administered at any time and in any place. 
 Solemn baptism also may be administered on any 
 day, but it is recommended that, following the 
 ancient custom of the Church, the baptism of 
 adults, if it can be conveniently arranged, should 
 take place on the vigil of Easter or Pentecost, espe¬ 
 cially in metropolitan and cathedral churches. The 
 proper place for .administering solemn baptism is 
 in the baptistery of a church or public oratory; 
 and every parish church must have its baptismal 
 font, any statute, privilege, or custom to the con¬ 
 trary being now revoked and reprobated, though 
 this has been decreed without prejudice to the 
 vested rights of other churches. For the con¬ 
 venience of the faithful the local ordinary may 
 allow or even order a baptismal font in any other 
 church or public oratory within the parish limits. 
 If the person to be baptized cannot, without grave 
 inconvenience or danger, come to or be brought to 
 the parish church or to another possessing a bap¬ 
 tismal font, the parish priest ought to administer 
 solemn baptism in the nearest church or public 
 oratory within the parish limits, even if it has no 
 baptismal font. Solemn baptism is not allowed in 
 private houses except: (a) when the person to be 
 baptized is the child or the grandchild of the 
 supreme ruler of the people or of one who has the 
 right of succession to the throne; in this case, how¬ 
 ever, the privilege is to be asked for on the occasion 
 of each baptism; or (b) when the local ordinary 
 believes that there is a just and reasonable cause 
 for allowing it in an extraordinary case. In both 
 of these instances the baptism is to be conferred 
 in a domestic chapel or other becoming place. 
 
 Code, 737-79; O’Donnell in Irish Eccl. Rec., X, 441 sqq. 
 
 Baptists (cf. C. E., II-278b).—A iqore vigorous 
 effort to promote general Baptist interests, a desire 
 for greater unity among themselves and with other 
 denominations, and a tendency toward radicalism in 
 the interpretation of the Bible and toward less ex¬ 
 clusive religious practice have marked the history 
 of the denomination since 1907. 
 
 History.— The creation in 1907 of the Northern 
 Baptist Convention, corresponding in character to 
 the older Southern Baptist Convention and British 
 Baptist Union, gave the Northern Baptists a central 
 body in charge of certain specific tasks. It chooses 
 
 the boards and superintends the work of the various 
 societies; it also controls the general funds for mis¬ 
 sionary enterprise. In 1911 it took over some of 
 the activities of the Freewill Baptists, who in 1919 
 completed their union with the Northern Baptists 
 and ceased to exist as a denomination. 
 
 The Baptists organized in 1905 the Baptist World 
 Alliance, which by its quinquennial meetings pro¬ 
 motes a spirit of fellowship and co-operation; in 
 1911 they joined the Federal Council of the 
 Churches of Christ in America, and in 1920 sent 
 delegates to the preliminary meeting of the World 
 Conference on Faith and Order held at Geneva in 
 Switzerland. 
 
 In their treatment of theological and Biblical 
 questions, many Baptist scholars have in recent 
 years departed from the traditional attitude of 
 their Church and adopted advanced and radical 
 opinions. A.mong the individual churches invita¬ 
 tions to ministers of other denominations to occupy 
 Baptist pulpits tend to become more frequent and 
 the practice of admitting to the Eucharist the mem¬ 
 bers of any Christian denomination (open com¬ 
 munion) is also spreading in Great Britain and the 
 United States. 
 
 Statistics.— According to the “American Baptist 
 Year-Book” (1921), there were at the time of its 
 publication 8,965,995 Baptists in the world, with 
 69,326 churches and 48,812 ministers. They were 
 distributed as follows on the different continents: 
 America, 8,020,715; Europe, 633,128; Asia, 252,892; 
 Australasia, 30,888; Africa, 28,372. The great ma¬ 
 jority of the Baptists of the world is found in the 
 United States, 7,804,449; Canada has 138,882; Cen¬ 
 tral America, including the Canal Zone, 1,531; 
 Mexico, 3,834; South America, 21,376; the West 
 Indies, 50,643. The figures given for 1921 by Dr. H. 
 K. Carroll in his annual table of religious denomina¬ 
 tions in the United States are below those published 
 in the “American Baptist Year-Book.” They are 
 for the United States: Baptists (fifteen bodies), 
 7,207,578; churches, 58,933; ministers, 47,983. 
 
 Newman, A History of the Baptist Churches in the United 
 States, 6th ed. (New York, 1915); American Baptist Year- 
 Book (American Baptist Publication Society, Philadelphia, 
 
 192D- N. A. Weber. 
 
 Barat, Madeleine-Sophie. See Madeleine- 
 Sophie Barat, Blessed. 
 
 Barbastro, Diocese of (Barbastrensis; cf. C. E., 
 II-285d), in the province of Huesca, Spain, suffragan 
 of Sargossa. Since 1895 this diocese has been gov¬ 
 erned by an apostolic administrator, who at present 
 (1922) is Rt. Rev. Monsignor Jimenez y Perez, 
 titular Bishop of Anthedon. The 1921 statistics 
 give the Catholic population as 54,540 and credit 
 the diocese with 199 parishes and 46 annexes, di¬ 
 rected by 10 archpriests, 190 secular priests, 199 
 churches, 254 chapels, 3 convents of men with 80 
 religious, 8 convents of women with 96 Sisters, and 
 180 Catholic schools. An official diocesan bulletin 
 is published. 
 
 Barcelona, Diocese of (Barcinonensis ; cf. C. 
 E., II-288d), in Spain, suffragan of the Archdiocese 
 of Tarragona. This see was filled by His Eminence 
 Salvadore Cardinal Cassanas y Pages, transferred 
 from the titular see of Cerama, 19 April, 1901, until 
 his death 27 October, 1908. He was succeeded by 
 Rt. Rev. Juan Jose Laguarda y Fenollera, promoted 
 from the diocese of Jaen 29 April, 1919, died 3 
 December, 1913. His successor was appointed 28 
 May, 1914, in the person of Rt. Rev. Henri Reig 
 y Casanova who filled the see until his promotion 
 to Valencia, 22 April, 1920. The present incumbent 
 Rt. Rev. Raimundo Guillamet y Coma, b. at San 
 Esteban de Olet, 23 March, 1856, ordained 21 
 
BARI 
 
 84 
 
 BASILIANS 
 
 December, 1878, elected Bishop of Leon, 29 April, 
 1909, consecrated at Olot, 10 October following, 
 transferred to Cordova, 18 July, 1913, enthroned 29 
 November following, published 25 May, 1914, and 
 transferred to Barcelona at the Consistory of 22 
 April, 1920. In 1907 a diocesan council of Catholic 
 corporations and works was established, and on 20 
 January a monster mass-meeting took place in the 
 Arena to protest against the Law of Associations. 
 On 14 May, 1909, the diocesan pilgrimage to Rome 
 was inaugurated. During the tragic week of the 
 Revolution, 23-30 July, mobs took possession of the 
 capital and the principal manufacturing centers of 
 the Province, setting fire to 12 parish churches, 
 30 chapels and convents, educational and charitable 
 institutions and other important diocesan estab¬ 
 lishments. In May, 1910, festivities were held to 
 solemnize the canonization of St. Jose Criol of 
 Barcelona. In 1911 a diocesan council was held, 
 and during the following years Barcelona was the 
 meeting place of the third national Congress of 
 Sacred Music, 1912, Congress of Christian Art, 1913, 
 Liturgical Congress at Montserrat, 1918, and Marian 
 Congress, 1919. In 1918 the seventh century of 
 the apparition of Our Lady of Mercy at Barcelona 
 was celebrated. The following year a diocesan 
 s 3 mod was convoked by the bishop, and in 1921 
 the bishop issued a pastoral letter prohibiting the 
 Catholic associations from holding theatricals, 
 cinematograph productions, balls or worldly assem¬ 
 blies of any kind for the purpose of raising funds: 
 this letter merited the unanimous approbation of 
 the Spanish press. Since 1907 the diocese has lost 
 several prominent members by the deaths of Rev. 
 Juan Gatell y Domenech, since 1882 pastor of the 
 Church of St. Ann of Barcelona, Rev. Jaime 
 Almera, dean of the Cathedral Basilica, Rev. Dr. 
 Sarda y Salvany, native of Sabadell, professor of 
 Latin and Humanities in the Seminary of Barce¬ 
 lona, and the Marquis of Pascual, eminent pro¬ 
 moter, founder and first president of the Accion 
 Catolica of the diocese. The diocese comprises 264 
 parishes, 291 churches, 522 chapels and shrines, 1 
 monastery for men (27 priests), 30 monasteries 
 for women, 1 abbey for men (50 priests), 23 con¬ 
 vents for men (1050 professed religious), and 265 
 convents for women (5079 Sisters). 
 
 Bari, Archdiocese of (Barensis; cf. C. E., 
 II-295d), in the province of Puglie in Southern 
 Italy. Rt. Rev. Giulio Vaccaro, b. in Naples, 1851, 
 appointed Bishop of Trivento, 4 June, 1891, pro¬ 
 moted to Ancyra and made coadjutor to the Arch¬ 
 bishop of Trani, 30 November, 1896, was transferred 
 to Bari, 24 March, 1898, and now (1922) fills the 
 see. He was made an assistant at the pontifical 
 throne 30 May, 1916, and from August, 1917, to 
 March, 1918, acted as apostolic administrator oi 
 Conversano. This diocese comprises a Catholic 
 population of 300,400, and by 1921 statistics counts 
 33 parishes, 260 secular and 30 regular clergy, 100 
 students in the upper and lower seminaries, 261 
 churches or chapels, 10 Brothers, and 200 Sisters. 
 
 Barquisimeto, Diocese of. See Carabobo. 
 
 Barra do Rio Grande, Diocese of (Barrensis), 
 in the State of Rio Grande, Brazil, suffragan of 
 San Salvador de Bahia. This diocese was erected 
 20 October, 1913, by a division of the diocese of 
 San Salvador de Bahia, taking nineteen parishes of 
 that diocese. The episcopal residence is at Barra 
 do Rio Grande, and the cathedral is dedicated to 
 St. Francis. The first bishop appointed was Rt. 
 Rev. Augusto Alvaro da Silva, who now (1922) fills 
 the see; b. at Recife, diocese of Olinda, Portugal, 
 
 1876, ordained 1899, appointed first Bishop of Flo- 
 resta 12 May, 1911, and transferred to Barra 25 
 June, 1915. No statistics are published for this 
 diocese. 
 
 Basilians, Ruthenian (cf. C. E., II-323d).—On 
 the eve of the World War the Basilians of the re¬ 
 form of Debromil numbered 234, of whom there 
 were 88 hieromonachs in 16 large or small mon¬ 
 asteries. Twenty-seven, one of whom was the 
 metropolitan, Andrew Szeptyckyj, were carried into 
 captivity in Russia. In 1918 the congregation 
 suffered even more, owing to the violent conquest 
 of Eastern Galicia by the Poles. Up to the mo¬ 
 ment of their retreat the Russians occupied the 
 two monasteries of Mychajlivka and Ulaskivce. 
 The Poles destroyed the library of the monastery 
 of Krechiv and, so that it could not be afterwards 
 restored, carried to Warsaw all the typographical 
 material of the monastery of Zovkva, the literary 
 activity of which was considerable. Nevertheless, 
 their works have been reorganized, and in 1921 the 
 congregation numbered 206 members, of whom 94 
 are hieromonachs. A new field has been opened 
 for their activities since the Sacred Congregation 
 of the Eastern Church confided to their care the 
 reform of the Ruthenian monasteries of Ruthenia, 
 south of the Carpathians, an autonomous province 
 of Czechoslovakia. On 4 October, 1920, the protoh 
 egumenos, Platonides Peter Filas, was replaced by 
 Anastasius Alexander Kalys. The Ruthenian Basil¬ 
 ians to-day have the direction of the metropolitan 
 seminary of Leopol and the Ruthenian college at 
 Rome, three missions in Brazil (Prudentopolis, 
 Itayopolis, and Curityba), three in Canada (Win¬ 
 nipeg in Manitoba, Edmonton and Mundare in 
 Alberta). A novitiate is to be opened in Montreal. 
 
 The constitutions were definitely approved by 
 decree of Propaganda, 2,7 July, 1909, and were not 
 subject to any change due to the recent revision 
 of the Code of Canon Law, the prescriptions of 
 which do not concern the Eastern Church. The 
 Order admits subjects of any rite, but all belong to 
 the Byzantine-Slavonic Rite from the time of their 
 profession. The lay brothers must have a knowl¬ 
 edge of some manual art or be apt in the various 
 duties necessary within the monasteries. The postu- 
 lantship lasts six months and the novitiate one year 
 and six weeks, after which simple vows are taken, 
 lasting three years, and then solemn profession is 
 made. In addition to the usual vows the members 
 take two particular simple vows, one of fidelity to 
 the Apostolic See at Rome and the other not to 
 seek monastic or other dignities. As long as there 
 is a sufficient number of monks in each monastery 
 Divine Office is sung. The monastic habit consists 
 of a closed tunic with woolen girdle and over this 
 a habit of special form with monastic cloak or 
 mandyas. The abstinences traditional among orien¬ 
 tal monks have been mitigated according to the 
 spirit of the Eastern Church. The cloister in regard 
 to women is very strict. All must be- occupied 
 either in some function of the priestly ministry, 
 aside ‘from the usual parochial duties, or in some 
 manual art. 
 
 The Order is governed by an archimandrite, 
 elected for ten years and approved by the Holy 
 See; he is assisted by three consultors. At the 
 head of each province is a protohegumenos elected 
 for five years by the archimandrite and his council. 
 Until the Order numbers at least two provinces, the 
 protohegumenos of the one province actually exist¬ 
 ing has all the authority of an archimandrite. The 
 Constitutions provide for general, provincial, and 
 simple claustral chapters. The local hegumenoi are 
 
Basleltjgano 
 
 85 
 
 BASUTOLAND 
 
 nominated by the protohegumenos of each province 
 assisted by his council. The studies particularly 
 cared for are: Ukranian, Slavonic, Greek, Latin, and 
 a sufficient knowledge of German and Polish; two 
 years of philosophy and four of theology. The 
 instruction of youth is one of the principal works 
 of the Order. 
 
 About 1895 the Basilians undertook the reform 
 of the Basilian Sisters. These now number twelve 
 houses, where they have established normal schools 
 for teachers, colleges for young girls, boarding 
 schools, or orphanages. One of their houses, com¬ 
 prising a novitiate, orphanage, and printing press, 
 is in the United States at Philadelphia. In addition 
 to the reform of the Basilian Sisters properly so 
 called, the Basilians aided in the foundation of the 
 Congregation of the Servants of the Blessed Virgin 
 (Slujebnitsy Presviatyia Bogoroditsy), whose chief 
 works are elementary schools and orphanages, and 
 who have about eighty houses in Galicia and many 
 in the new world. More recent than these are three 
 other congregations: The Sisters of St. Joseph 
 (Iosefitky), Sisters of St. Josaphat (Iosafatky), and 
 the Myrophores (Mironositsy). 
 
 In their way of life and the works to which they 
 are devoted, the Basilians resemble more the clerks 
 regular of the West than monks. To satisfy mon¬ 
 astic aspirations of a more contemplative tendency, 
 the metropolitan, Andrew Szeptyckyj, instituted 
 earlier in the twentieth century the Order of 
 Studites, the name of which indicates the tradition 
 to which they are attached. The provisory con¬ 
 stitutions were promulgated 26 October, 1905, 
 approved by the bishop of the province of Halyc- 
 Leopol, 30 December, 1906, and are now being 
 examined by the Holy See. One monastery estab¬ 
 lished first at Sknilov, near Leopol, was ruined by 
 the war and has been temporarily transferred to 
 Uniov. The hegumenos is Clement Szetyckyj, 
 brother of the metropolitan, and he has under him 
 forty religious. 
 
 Basle-Lugano, Diocese of (Basileenensis et 
 Luganensis; cf. C. E., II-338d), the largest diocese 
 in Switzerland, is directly subject to the Holy See. 
 These two dioceses are joined by an external union 
 only, the Bishop of Basle having no spiritual juris¬ 
 diction over the diocese of Lugano, which is gov¬ 
 erned by an administrator Apostolic. This see is 
 now (1922) filled by Rt. Rev. Johannes Stammler, 
 bora in Bremgarten 1840, ordained 1863, made a 
 papal chamberlain 1891, dean of the new deanery 
 1899, appointed 4 July, 1906, and made an assistant 
 at the pontifical throne 14 July, 1913. In June, 
 1920, Bishop Stammler celebrated his eightieth 
 birthday and received the official felicitations of 
 the president of the Swiss Confederation and the 
 Federal Council, who praised the zeal and activity 
 of his administration. However, he is not yet 
 officially recognized by the Government of Berne, 
 which for the last forty years has recognized instead 
 the Schmismatic bishop, who has about 500 
 adherents. On 23 September, 1912, a motion was 
 made in the Grand Council to obtain recognition, 
 but it was rejected in May, 1913, and again, after 
 another attempt, the following November, when 
 an adverse decision was reached by a vote of 138 
 against 30. However, the increasingly friendly atti¬ 
 tude of the Government gives hope of future 
 recognition; in January, 1918, when the Diocesan 
 Council decided to raise the salary of the bishop 
 to 20,000 francs, the Executive Council of Berne 
 promised to assist by the payment of 1865 francs, 
 this decision being subject to ratification by th« 
 Grand Council. 
 
 4 he present diocese of Basle (excluding Lugano) 
 embraces the cantons of Solothurn, Lucerne, Berne 
 ci?' A argau , Thurgau, Basle-Land, Basle-Stadt, and 
 bchanhausen, and in 1920 contained 543,941 Cath- 
 and 1,114,409 non-Catholics. The majority 
 of the people speak German, although there is a 
 large proportion of French-speaking people in the 
 Canton of Berne. The diocese is div,ded into 29 
 deaneries, 29 rural chapters, 406 parishes, and 157 
 chaplaincies, and counts about 660 secular and 85 
 regular clergy The religious orders established 
 here include. Capuchins with 7 houses, 74 priests 
 25 clerics and 27 lay brothers; the Hermit Brothers 
 of Lutheme, who have become hospital nurses in 
 the bamtormm Franziskusheim; the Benedictines 
 of Mariastein, who have only 5 priests, the rest 
 having gone to Bregenz in Austria; Sisters of the 
 Holy Cross of Menzengen, and Sisters of Baldegg, 
 Cham and Ingenbohl (284), who conduct institutes 
 lor girls and a great number of elementary schools. 
 
 I he Diocese of Lugano.— This diocese is under 
 the administration of Rt. Rev. Aurelio Bacciarini 
 born m the diocese 1873, ordained 1897, rector of 
 the Lower Seminary of Pollegio 1903, entered the 
 congregation of the Servites of Charity at Como 
 m. 1909, rector of the new parish of St. Joseph in 
 Rome 1912, made superior general of his order in 
 191o, and appointed titular Bishop of Daulia and 
 administrator Apostolic of Lugano 12 January, 1917. 
 He is still superior general, and was named an 
 assistant at the pontifical throne 26 August, 1921, 
 and two days later celebrated the silver jubilee of 
 his priesthood. On this occasion a public Mass 
 was sung which was attended by the papal nuncio, 
 Mgr. Maglione, many bishops and prelates, official 
 representatives of the Government and 25,000 of 
 the faithful. An address, signed by 100,000 of the 
 people ol Tessin, and a purse of 65,000 francs were 
 presented to the bishop; the latter he devoted to 
 the seminary and the invalid clergy. The diocese 
 °r com .P rises . th e canton of Tessin, an area 
 
 tcnnnA s< ?' m ^ es ’ with a Catholic population of 
 160,000, who use Italian as the common language. 
 By 1920 statistics there are 252 parishes, of which 
 54 are of the Ambrosian Rite; 4 collegiate churches 
 with chapters, besides the Cathedral at Lugano, 
 which also has a chapter; 1 upper seminary, 1 
 lower seminary of the Ambrosian Rite, at Pollegio, 
 150 seminarians; 796 churches or public chapels, 
 400 clergy, and numerous communities of religious. 
 The episcopal residence is at Lugano and an epis- 
 chateau is also maintained at Balerna. Upon 
 the death of the administrator the cathedral chapter 
 elects a vicar capitular to administer the diocese 
 until the appointment of a new administrator by 
 the Holy See. 
 
 Basse Terre, Diocese of. See Guadeloupe. 
 
 Basutoland, Vicariate Apostolic of (Basuto-Lan- 
 DEfrsis; cf. C. E., II-346a), in South Africa. It is 
 a British Protectorate and is administered by native 
 chiefs under a British resident commissioner, offi¬ 
 cially appointed by the Crown, assisted by a regular 
 parliament of chiefs and some other members, also 
 appointed by the Crown. The National Assembly, 
 or “Pisto,” which formerly met once a year, is now 
 only an extraordinary meeting convoked on special 
 occasions, i. e., on a visit of the High Commissioner 
 for South Africa. This territory, formerly a pre¬ 
 fecture Apostolic, was raised to a vicariate 18 
 February, 1909, and the Rev. Father Cenez, then 
 prefect apostolic, was appointed titular Bishop of 
 Nicopolis and Vicar Apostolic of Basutoland, 25 
 January, 1909. In 1908 the Sisters of the Holy 
 Cross of Menzingen, Switzerland, came to the conn- 
 
BATAVIA 
 
 86 
 
 BATTANDIER 
 
 try to assist the Sisters of the Holy Family, already 
 established there. The work of conversion has been 
 ably carried on by eighteen missionary priests, and 
 although more workers are required and despite 
 the difficulty of obtaining funds, the record of con¬ 
 versions is very encouraging. Particularly impor¬ 
 tant was the conversion of Griffith, high chief of 
 the Basutos, in 1912, and of three lesser chiefs— 
 Soko (1916), Maama (1921), and Peete (1921). In 
 1910 one of the missionaries, Rev. Father Lebihan, 
 discovered a beautiful waterfall which flows over 
 a precipice 650 feet high, and which now bears his 
 name. Father Lebihan died in 1916. Rev. J. J. 
 Gerard, one of the founders of this mission, died 
 here in 1914, and the natives have erected a monu¬ 
 ment to his memory, bearing the inscription “To 
 the beloved missionary of the Basutos.” 
 
 The entire population of this territory comprises 
 543,078 natives (Basutos), 1,241 colored people, and 
 1,603 whites; of these 31,698 are baptized and 11,229 
 catechumens. Only 5 whites, besides the mis¬ 
 sionaries and Sisters, are Catholic. According to 
 1922 statistics the mission has .30 churches, 15 mis¬ 
 sions and 42 mission stations, 2 convents of men, 
 18 missionary priests (Oblates of Mary Immacu¬ 
 late), 5 Brothers of the Oblates of Mary and 8 
 Marist Brothers, 54 white and 35 native Sisters, 
 
 2 training schools with 188 teachers and 6,716 pupils, 
 
 2 industrial schools with 7 teachers and attendance 
 of 202. The priests are permitted to minister in 
 the public hospital, leper settlement and jail, and 
 all the schools are aided by government grants. The 
 League of the Sacred Heart is organized among the 
 laity. 
 
 Batavia, Vicariate Apostolic of (Batavle; cf. 
 C. E., II-346c), comprises the Island of Java and 
 the small islands of the Sunda group, a total of 
 87,222 sq. miles. The Island of Sumatra, formerly 
 a part of this vicariate, was separated from it in 
 June, 1910, and a decree of 19 November, 1919, 
 took the Island of Celebes and raised it to a pre¬ 
 fecture apostolic. The present vicar (1922) is Rt. 
 Rev. Edmond Luypen, titular Bishop of Oropus, a 
 member of the Jesuit Order, to whose care this 
 territory is entrusted. Born in the diocese of Breda 
 in 1855, he was ordained in 1879, and appointed 
 bishop and vicar apostolic 21 May, 1898. The 1920 
 statistics credit this territory with 30,500 European, 
 13,650 native and 185 Oriental Catholics. The fol¬ 
 lowing statistics for the year 1921 show the recent 
 progress of this mission: schools of mixed religions, 
 18, with 6000 Catholic pupils (3104 boys and 2896 
 girls); non-Catholic pupils, 3104 boys and 2296 
 girls; purely Catholic schools, 23, with 731 boys 
 and 741 girls; total religious teachers 235, lay 
 teachers 188; these schools are conducted by the 
 Jesuit Fathers, Brothers of St. Aloysius of Gonzaga, 
 Franciscan Sisters, Ursuline Sisters, St. Vincent de 
 Paul Society, and the Sodality of St. Francis 
 Xavier. The vicariate, comprising 34,075 Catholics, 
 is served by 54 priests. During the year there were: 
 baptisms of legitimate children' 1492, illegitimate 
 children 637, first communions 1479, confirmations 
 412, Catechumens 10,052, general communions 415,- 
 998, Easter communions 11,697, 122 conversions of 
 heretics, 403 conversions of infidels, 226 marriages 
 of Catholics, 157 mixed marriages, and 318 receiv¬ 
 ing the last sacraments. There are 35 public chapels 
 and 19 chapels in religious houses, and a number of 
 Catholic libraries, public lecture bureaux, musical 
 societies, charitable works and periodicals are estab¬ 
 lished. 
 
 Bathurst, Diocese of (Bathurstensis; cf. C. E., 
 I-349b), in New South Wales, Australia, is suffragan 
 
 of Sydney. Rt. Rev. John Dunn, who came to this 
 see as its third bishop, 8 September, 1901, died 22 
 August, 1919, and was succeeded by the present 
 incumbent, Rt. Rev. Michael O’Farrell, consecrated 
 30 November, 1920. The religious orders who con¬ 
 duct the educational and charitable institutions of 
 the diocese are: the Vincentian Fathers, Brothers 
 of St. Patrick, Sisters of Mercy, Sisters of St. Brigid, 
 and Sisters of St. Joseph. St. Stanislaus College, 
 one of the foremost institutions of learning in Aus¬ 
 tralia, is under the direction of the Vincentian 
 Fathers. The Sisters of Mercy conduct an orphan¬ 
 age at Bathurst with 65 orphans. The diocese now 
 (1921) comprises 17 parochial districts, 93 churches, 
 29 secular and 7 regular clergy, 9 religious brothers, 
 231 nuns, 3 training colleges, 3 novitiates, 1 college, 
 
 9 boarding schools for girls, 13 secondary day 
 schools, 35 primary schools, and 1 orphanage. The 
 total number of children receiving Catholic educa¬ 
 tion in these schools is 4,573, the total Catholic 
 population about 26,000. 
 
 Battandier, Albert, priest and scholar, b at St. 
 Felicien, Ardeche, 11 April, 1850; d. there 25 May, 
 1921. His father was notary and later mayor of the 
 neighboring canton of Satellien, and sent his son 
 to* the Jesuit College of Mongre, near Lyons. After 
 finishing his studies he entered the Jesuit novitiate, 
 but owing to ill health was obliged to leave. In 
 1871 he entered the Seminary of Viviers, was or¬ 
 dained four years later, and continued his ecclesias¬ 
 tical studies at the French seminary in Rome, where 
 he was a brilliant student and won his degree in 
 theology and canon law (1879). At this time he 
 attracted the attention of Cardinal Pitra, recently 
 made suburbucarian bishop of Frascati, who ap¬ 
 pointed him his secretary and later his vicar general. 
 He continued in the same position when, in 1884, 
 the cardinal became Bishop of Porto and sub¬ 
 dean of the Sacred College. In this formative stage 
 of his career he was guided and taught by Cardinal 
 Pitra, who gave with the affection of a father all 
 the benefit of his ripe experience and scholarship. 
 Pere Battandier always found in him an example 
 of highest virtue, and never wavered in his loyalty, 
 even at the cost of his own advancement. He 
 profited so well by his training that in 1881 he was 
 made honorary chamberlain and consultor of the 
 Congregation of Bishops and Regulars, being recog¬ 
 nized as a specialist in the complex questions con¬ 
 cerning the laws of religious communities. A real 
 authority in Rome, he was consulted by many epis¬ 
 copal chancelleries in matters of church legislation, 
 and his “Guide canonique pour les constitutions 
 des sceurs a voeux simples” went through many 
 editions. In 1882 he became a prothonotary Apos¬ 
 tolic. When Cardinal Pitra died in 1889 he left 
 his library and chapel to his vicar general. 
 
 In 1898 Mgr. Battandier was appointed a mem¬ 
 ber of the special commission for the approbation 
 of new institutes, established in 1890. The follow¬ 
 ing year the publication “Analecta juris pontificii” 
 was suspended after forty years by the liquidation 
 of the Societe generale de librairie catholique. Mgr. 
 Battandier acquired it, published two volumes, and 
 then resigned it to the Augustinians of the Assump¬ 
 tion, with whom he was actively associated as a 
 collaborator in their many literary works. He con¬ 
 tributed to many literary and scientific reviews in 
 Rome and was a resident member of the Societa 
 per gli Studii Biblici (1897). 
 
 It was at this time that he conceived, edited and 
 published at the Maison de Bonne Presse, with the 
 encouragement and co-operation of Pere Vincent 
 de Paul Bailly, the work that has made him famous, 
 
 j 
 
BAUNARD 
 
 87 
 
 BAVARIA 
 
 the “Annual're pontifical Catholique,” an invaluable 
 work, compiled with- precision, exactitude and 
 probity, and requiring long and patient research. 
 It is a veritable encyclopedia of Roman and 
 ecclesiastical knowledge, a mine of instructive and 
 practical information made possible by Mgr. Bat- 
 tandier’s undisputed competence in ecclesiastical 
 affairs, intellectual power and great capacity for 
 work. With all the resources of Rome at his dis¬ 
 posal he contributed to it original articles on little 
 known points which contain information obtainable 
 nowhere else. His aim in its foundation was to 
 initiate the faithful into the life of the Church, 
 to make it known in its entirety and its details, and 
 to establish a bond between all Catholics and the 
 Holy See. It is universally praised and was blessed 
 by all the Sovereign Pontiffs every year from its 
 first appearance in 1898 to the present issue. 
 
 In 1906 Mgr. Battandier was made consultor of 
 the Congregation for Latin and Oriental Rites, and 
 after the reform of the Roman Curia was consultor 
 of the Congregation of Religious, which replaces 
 that of Bishops and Regulars. After his mother’s 
 death, in 1907, he returned to France, where he built 
 himself a home near his birthplace. The Bishop of 
 Viviers made him canon of his cathedral, and he 
 continued his many activities until his death, 
 amongst them the revision of his “Guide canonique 
 des instituts religieux” to accord with the new 
 code of canon law. 
 
 Baunard, Louis Pierre Andre, ecclesiastical 
 writer, b. in Bellegarde, Diocese of Orleans, France, 
 24 August, 1828; d. in Gruson 9 November, 1919. 
 Of humble origin he was brought up in the fear 
 and love of God, and in his poems has left many 
 beautiful tributes to the moral worth and self- 
 sacrifice of his parents. He was one of five chil¬ 
 dren, was educated in Orleans, and ordained priest 
 5 June, 1852. He taught in the preparatory semi¬ 
 nary and in the Christian Doctrine classes estab¬ 
 lished by Mgr. Dupanloup throughout his diocese 
 until 1860, when he studied for his doctorate in 
 letters. The following year he won that in theology 
 and was made vicar at the cathedral. Successively 
 chaplain of the Ecole normale and professor in 
 the Catholic University in Lille, he became superior 
 of St. Joseph’s College in 1881, returning to the 
 university as rector seven years later. In 1908 he 
 resigned and retired to his house at Gruson, where 
 he spent the remainder of his long life in literary 
 pursuits, and the society of his chosen friends, 
 retaining his influence in the educational world 
 until the end. 
 
 Mgr. Baunard was made a prelate of the Holy 
 See in 1884 and prothonotary Apostolic in 1908. 
 His writings, mirror of his supernatural outlook, 
 clear principles and just and sympathetic apprecia¬ 
 tion of the spiritual and intellectual needs of his 
 day are many, valuable, and varied, including 
 “Vingt aimees de rectorat,” “Un siecle de l’Eglise 
 de France (1800-1900),” “Le Doute et ses victimes,” 
 “La Foi et sec victoires,” “Le college chretien,” 
 “l’Evangile du pauvre,” “Le Livre de la premiere 
 Communion et da la perseverance,” “Autour de 
 l’histoire,” “Reliques d’histoire,” “Le Vieillard,” 
 “Saints et Saintes de Dieu,” “L’Apotre St. Jean,” 
 “St. Ambroise,” “La Bse Madeleine-Sophie Barat,” 
 “La Yen. Louise de Marillac,” “Ernest Lelievre et 
 les fondations, des Petites-Sceurs des Pauvres,” “Le 
 Cardinal Pie, eveque de Poitiers,” “Mme. Duchesne,” 
 “Le general de Sonis,” “Frederic Ozanam,” “Le 
 Cardinal Lavigerie,” “Les deux Freres: Philibert 
 Vrau et Camille Feron-Vrau,” and a volume of 
 poems, “Pretre,” He was an able leader in the 
 
 combat against godless education and the separa¬ 
 tion of religion and learning. 
 
 Bavaria (cf. C. E., II-353c)., formerly a kingdom, 
 now a republican State under the new German 
 government, has an area of 30,562 square miles and 
 a population of 7,150,146 (1919). This includes the 
 Bciyanan PalatmatB (2,372 sq. miles) with a, popu- 
 lation of 937,085; also the territory of the Free 
 State of Coburg, which voted to unite with Bavaria 
 on 30 November, 1919. On 11 March, 1920, the 
 Bavarian Diet adopted the Bill for union by unani¬ 
 mous consent, thus adding to its area a total of 
 216 square miles and a population of about 75,000. 
 The largest cities with their respective populations 
 are: Munich, 630,724; Nuremberg, 352,679; Augs¬ 
 burg, 154,567; Wurzburg, 86,581. The latest avail¬ 
 able statistics are those of 1 December, 1910, when 
 there were in Bavaria 4,862,233 Catholics (76% of 
 the population); 1,942,385 (21%) largely of the 
 Lutheran and Calvinist confessions, and 55,065 Jews, 
 living chiefly in Munich, Nuremberg, and Fiirth. 
 Besides the above there were included 5,816 Old 
 Catholics, 3,017 Mennonites, 164 Anglicans, 1,611 
 Greek Catholics and Russian Orthodox, 1,139 Irv- 
 ingites, 1,183 Methodists, 5,841 Free Christians, 1,649 
 other Christians. Bavaria maintains diplomatic re¬ 
 lations with the Holy See, an apostolic nuncio being 
 stationed at Munich and an envoy and minister 
 plenipotentiary at Rome. For further Catholic 
 statistics see Munich, Archdiocese of; Bamberg, 
 Archdiocese of. 
 
 Economic Conditions.— Bavaria is essentially an 
 agricultural State, and at least 3,000,000 of the in¬ 
 habitants are engaged in agricultural pursuits. 
 Catering to the tourist trade was the most’ im¬ 
 portant source of revenue to the people before 
 the war, and the lack of tourists, together with the 
 depression of the beer industry, has made the 
 economic situation rather serious. Of the total 
 land area in Bavaria nearly one-half is under cul¬ 
 tivation, one-sixth under grass, and one-third under 
 forests. In 1919 the state forests netted the gov¬ 
 ernment half a billion marks. The chief crops in 
 1919 were wheat, 659,982 acres, yield 266,822 metric 
 tons; rye, 1,135,622 acres, 441,130 metric tons; oats, 
 1,076,082 acres, 581,142 tons; potatoes, 690,347 acres, 
 1,619,141 tons. The vines, covering an acreage of 
 43,782 acres in 1919, yielded 10,014,290 gallons of 
 wine; 18,405 acres under hops yielded 450 metric 
 tons. These figures are _ slightly below the 1913 
 figures, but there is an increase in production in 
 recent years. In 1913 the output of coal was 1,895,- 
 715 tons; iron ore, 450,074 tons; pig iron, 195,606 
 tons; sulphuric acid, 163,343 tons; in 1918 the out¬ 
 put of coal was 2,438,391 tons; iron ore, 436,961 
 tons; pig iron, 172,906 tons; sulphuric acid, 126,927 
 tons. The railway lines cover about 5,900 miles. 
 
 Education.— Education is compulsory between six 
 and sixteen. The latest census gives 7,534 ele¬ 
 mentary schools (public and private) with 19,564 
 teachers, and 1,091,884 pupils. The year’s expendi¬ 
 ture on public schools was given as $3,167,653. 
 The schools cost about $15,000,000. 
 
 Government and Recent History.— On 12 De¬ 
 cember, 1912, Luitpold, regent for the insane Otto, 
 was succeeded by his son, Ludwig, who, yielding 
 to popular demand, was proclaimed king as Ludwig 
 III, on 5 November, 1913. In 1916, after forty 
 years of confinement, the insane Otto died. The 
 royal family of Bavaria took a prominent part in 
 the Great World War. The Crown Prince Rup- 
 precht was in full command of the German forces 
 on the Somme; Prince Leopole participated in the 
 Polish campaign, and was among the first to march 
 
BAYARD 
 
 88 
 
 BEATIFICATION 
 
 into Warsaw; Prince Henry was killed on the 
 western front in November, 1916; and Prince Ferdi¬ 
 nand was decorated by Kaiser Wilhelm with the 
 Red Cross Medal of the first class. The feeling 
 among the masses of the people, however, was very 
 strongly anti-war. According to the different press 
 reports, repeated mutinies broke out in the Bavarian 
 regiments, the Royal Guard even refusing obedience. 
 The Bavarian press carried on a continual propa¬ 
 ganda against the Kaiser in the last months of the 
 struggle. The pro-war policy of the Socialist party 
 forced the working people of Bavaria to resign in 
 great numbers and to join the Independent Socialist 
 party. As early as October, 1917, northern Bavaria, 
 hitherto solid for the old party, went over to the 
 Independents. 
 
 At the overthrow of the German imperial mon¬ 
 archy the Bavarian dynasty was deposed 22 Novem¬ 
 ber, 1918, and Bavaria was proclaimed a republic. 
 It is truly very significant that the first dynasty 
 to fall at the beginning of the revolution was that 
 of Bavaria, the oldest dynasty in Europe. ^ A cab¬ 
 inet under the leadership of Kurt Eisner, a Socialist, 
 took control of the government. He was assassi¬ 
 nated in February, 1918, and for a time there was 
 a struggle between the more moderate groups and 
 the extremists of the Left, who sympathized with 
 the Bolsheviki. By May, 1919, the moderate party 
 had returned to power. In 1920 there was a move¬ 
 ment in Salzburg, Tyrol, and parts of Upper Aus¬ 
 tria, which had for its aim the establishment of a 
 kingdom with Bavaria, under the Bavarian Prince 
 Ruprecht. 
 
 Legislation. —The Constitution of 14 August, 
 1919, establishes the Free State of Bavaria, and 
 places the supreme power in the people. The Diet 
 consists of one Chamber, elected for four years on 
 the basis of one member for every 40,000 inhabi¬ 
 tants; at present there are 183 members. The 
 present Chamber continues until 30 June, 1922. The 
 suffrage is universal, equal, direct, secret, and pro¬ 
 portional. All citizens over twenty-three years of 
 age have the vote. The supreme power is exercised 
 by the Ministry as a whole, and all privileges of 
 birth and caste are abolished. The Church is sep¬ 
 arate from the State, all religious associations having 
 equal rights and equal freedom in their activities. 
 The various parties in the Bavarian Constitutent 
 Assembly were Bavarian People’s Party, the Ma¬ 
 jority Socialists, the German Democrats, the 
 Peasants’ Union, the National Liberals, the Inde¬ 
 pendent Socialists, and members from Coburg 
 (three). The debt on 1 January, 1919, was 2,559,- 
 687,077 marks, of which 1,951,425,700 marks were 
 railway debt. 
 
 Bayard, Pierre Du Terrail, Chevalier, an heroic 
 French knight, called “le‘ chevalier sans peur et sans 
 reproche” (the knight without fear and without 
 reproach); b. at Castle Bayard, near Grenoble, in 
 1475; d. 30 April, 1524. He was remarkable for his 
 modesty, piety, magnanimity, and his various ac¬ 
 complishments. He served under Charles VIII in 
 his expedition against Naples in 1494, and distin¬ 
 guished himself at the battle of Tornova. After 
 the accession of Louis XII of France, Bayard per¬ 
 formed several remarkable exploits in war against 
 the Spaniards and English. In the service of 
 Francis I he took Prosper Colonna prisoner, and 
 gained a victory at Marignano in 1515. He de¬ 
 fended Mezieres with success against the invading 
 army of Emperor Charles V (1522), and for this 
 important service was saluted as the saviour of his 
 country. He was killed in battle at the river Sesia, 
 expiring as he kissed the cross on the hilt of his 
 
 sword. He won the reputation of having been the 
 
 model of nearly every virtue. 
 
 Champier, La Vie et les Gestes de Bayard (1525); Simms, 
 Life of Chevalier Bayard (New York, 1847). 
 
 Bayeux, Diocese of (Baiocensis; cf. C. E., 
 II-358b), in the department of Calvados, France, 
 with the united title of Lisieux, suffragan of Rouen. 
 This diocese is at present (1922) under the adminis¬ 
 tration of Rt. Rev. Thomas-Paul-Henri Lemonnier, 
 b. in Etretat, 1853, ordained 1877, appointed 13 
 July, 1906. On 9 August, 1919, Bishop Lemonnier 
 was named commander of the Order of Leopold by 
 the Belgian king. During the World War 260 
 priests and 75 seminarians of this diocese were 
 mobilized, and of this number 17 priests and 16 
 seminarians died, 1 priest was decorated with the 
 Legion of Honor, 1 priest and 1 seminarian with 
 the medaille militaire, 32 priests and 9 seminarians 
 with the croix de guerre. According to the latest 
 statistics the population of this diocese numbers 
 396,300, divided among 38 deaneries and 716 
 parishes. The principal educational institutions in¬ 
 clude an upper and lower seminary and a college. 
 
 Bayonne, Diocese of (Baionensis; cf. C. E., 
 II-360c), comprising the department of Basses- 
 Pyrenees, France, suffragan of Auch. Since 22 June, 
 1909, this diocese has also borne the united titles of 
 Lescar and Oloron. The see is now (1922) filled by 
 Rt. Rev. Francois-Xavier-Marie Gieure, b. in Cas- 
 tels, 1851, ordained 1874, superior of the upper 
 seminary of Aire, 1895, appointed bishop 21 Feb¬ 
 ruary, 1906. During the World War 560 oriests and 
 seminarians were mobilized from this diocese and 
 of these 50 gave up their lives, 6 were decorated 
 with the Legion of Honor, 3 with the medaille 
 militaire, and 75 with the croix de guerre. 
 
 From 20-22 September, 1921, a diocesan synod 
 was held here in the synodal hall of the new theo¬ 
 logical seminary. The principal educational insti¬ 
 tutions of the diocese are: The upper seminary 
 of Bayonne, the lower seminaries of Balloc and 
 Nay, the colleges of St. Louis de Gonzague at Bay¬ 
 onne, of the Immaculate Conception at Pau, of 
 Moncade_at Orthez, and colleges of St. Francis at 
 Mauleon,~Hasparren, Pontacq and Oloron. In 1921 
 the population of this territory was counted at 
 433,320, divided among 40 deaneries and 507 parishes. 
 
 Bearne, David, editor and author, b. at Castle 
 Donington, England, 28 February, 1856; d. at 
 Wimbledon College, 25 February, 1920. In 1877 
 he was received into the Church, and ten years 
 later entered the Society of Jesus. After his ordi¬ 
 nation, 31 July, 1896, he served the Bournemouth 
 mission for four years, then spent a year at 
 Roehampton, whence he moved to Wimbledon. 
 Appointed assistant to Father Gretton, editor of 
 the “Sacred Heart Messenger,” on the latter’s re¬ 
 tirement Father Bearne took sole charge of the 
 magazine, retaining the editorship until his death. 
 However, he is best known as a write of fiction, 
 his series of boys’ stories being popular in his own 
 country and in America. Despite a few peculiarities 
 of style, they were received with almost universal 
 praise by the critics. Among them are “Ridingdale 
 Stories,” “The Golden Stair,” “Stories from the 
 Bright Ages,” “The Ridingdale Boys,” “Paying the 
 Price,” “Lance and His Friends.” He produced in 
 all thirty volumes, as well as contributions to his 
 magazine, and some occasional verse. The latter 
 is inferior to his prose but he had a gift of melody 
 peculiarly his own. He was also a valuable preacher 
 and giver of retreats. 
 
 Beatification and Canonization (cf. C. E., 
 II-367b).—Formerly it was permissible to call ser- 
 
BEATIFICATION 
 
 89 
 
 BEIRUT 
 
 vants of God Venerable as soon as their processes 
 of beatification were introduced before the Congre¬ 
 gation of Rites, now the title is to be given only 
 after the publication of the papal decree declaring 
 that they have practiced virtue in a heroic degree 
 or that the fact of their martyrdom has been es¬ 
 tablished. It should be remembered that the title 
 “Venerable” never authorizes public veneration. To 
 establish reputation for sanctity, the fact of martyr¬ 
 dom, and the working of miracles through the in¬ 
 tercession of the servant of God, at least eight 
 witnesses are required. In ancient causes, in which 
 there are now no eye-witnesses or persons who have 
 heard the testimony of such witnesses, the practice 
 of virtue and the fact of martyrdom can be estab¬ 
 lished by hearsay evidence, public tradition and 
 contemporary documents or monuments recognized 
 as authentic; but the miracles must always be 
 proved by eye-witnesses. In establishing the sanc¬ 
 tity or martyrdom of a religious not more than one 
 half of those whose testimony is accepted may be 
 members of his order. 
 
 After a cause has been introduced and the re- 
 missorial letters (C. E., 11-368, n. 10) received, the 
 tribunal of investigation must begin its sessions 
 within three months, and complete its work within 
 two years from the date of reception of the letters; 
 formerly only eighteen months were allowed. When 
 the results of the inquiry have been sent to the 
 Holy See a discussion concerning the validity of 
 the information and the Apostolic processes takes 
 place in the presence of the cardinal prefect and 
 three other cardinals of the Congregation of Rites 
 selected by the pope, and of the cardinal relator, 
 the secretary, the prothonotary Apostolic, the gen¬ 
 eral promoter of the Faith, and the subpromoter, 
 and a decision is rendered by the cardinals just 
 mentioned. In the third or general meeting, to 
 discuss the degree of virtue practiced by a con¬ 
 fessor or the fact and cause of his martyrdom 
 (C. E., 1. c., n. 16), the consultors, prelates, and 
 cardinals have only a consultive vote, the decision 
 being reserved to the Pope. 
 
 Miracles. —As in establishing the practice of 
 virtue in an heroic degree three formal meetings 
 for discussion are held, so there are the ante- 
 preparatory, the preparatory, and the general meet¬ 
 ings for the proof of miracles wrought through the 
 intercession of the venerable. 
 
 In the ante-preparatory meeting two specialists, 
 physicians or surgeons, who have been selected by 
 the cardinal relator after consulting the general 
 promoter of the Faith, report whether a cure has 
 been wrought, and whether the fact can be ex¬ 
 plained by natural causes; the postulator of the 
 cause, who formerly was allowed to name one of 
 the experts, must not be informed now who the 
 experts are, and ordinarily they should not be 
 known as such to one another. If the two experts 
 consulted in the ante-preparatory meeting have up¬ 
 held the miracles, only one expert is called in the 
 preparatory discussion; if, however, they did not 
 agree, the opinion of two new experts must be 
 obtained. The cardinals may, however, always in¬ 
 crease the number of experts, and the advocate 
 of the cause may call another in replying. As in 
 deciding the fact of martyrdom and the heroic 
 practice of virtue, so here the decision in the 
 general meeting regarding the miracles rests with 
 the Pope alone. When the decree approving of 
 the miracles has been issued, a discussion as to 
 whether or not it is safe to proceed with the beatifi¬ 
 cation is held in presence of the Pope, who, after 
 hearing the opinions of the consultors and cardinals, 
 renders the decision. 
 
 Canonization (cf. C. E., II-369b).—Though only 
 two miracles wrought through the intercession of a 
 blessed after formal beatification are required for 
 canonization, three are necessary when the beatifi¬ 
 cation has been merely equivalent or virtual, that 
 is in cases where the Holy See has approved of the 
 honor paid to holy servants of God since at least 
 ^ ar 1540 (C. E., l..c., n. 6). In conclusion, it 
 should be noted that no writings relating to the 
 causes of beatification or canonization of servants 
 of God may be published without leave of the 
 Sacred Congregation of Rites. Code, can. 1999-2141. 
 
 Beauvais, Diocese of (Bellovacum; cf. C. E., 
 II-377d), in the department of Oise, France, with 
 the united titles of Noyon and Senlis, suffragan of 
 Reims. Bishop Donais, appointed to this see 14 
 December, 1899, d. 28 February, 1915, and was 
 succeeded by the present incumbent, Rt. Rev. 
 Eugene-Stanislas Le Senne, b. in St. Pierre, 
 Quiberon, 1866, ordained 1890, appointed 1 June, 
 1915. During the World War 140 priests and 
 seminarians were mobilized from this diocese, of 
 whom 7 priests and 12 seminarians died, 3 were 
 decorated with the Legion of Honor, and 10 with 
 the croix de guerre. A portion of the diocese was 
 occupied by the enemy and Roye was entirely de¬ 
 stroyed. 
 
 The population of this diocese numbers 411,000, 
 divided among 36 deaneries and 600 parishes, and 
 the 1920 statistics credit it with 540 secular and 16 
 regular clergy. The educational institutions include 
 the lower seminary at Beauvais, the secondary 
 school of Our Lady at Pont-Sainte-Maxence, the 
 College of St. Vincent at Senlis, the College of the 
 Holy Ghost at Beauvais, and the international 
 agricultural institution, also at Beauvais. 
 
 Beaven, Thomas D. See Springfield, Dio¬ 
 cese of. 
 
 Bedjan, Paul. See Mission, Congregation of 
 the. 
 
 Beirut, Maronite Archdiocese of (Berytensis 
 Maronitarum; cf. C. E., II-392b), in Phoenicia. 
 On 1 September, 1920, France proclaimed the region 
 of Mount Lebanon a Christian State, independent 
 of the rest of Syria, with the capital at Beirut. The 
 proclamation was the result of the joint efforts in 
 Paris of the patriarch and the present Archbishop 
 Ignatius Mobarak of Beirut. A Maronite cleric 
 assisted by prelates of other communities drafted 
 the constitution. 
 
 There are five parishes within the city and 95 
 without, with a total of 110 churches and a ministry 
 of 150 secular and 50 regular priests. There are 18 
 monasteries, 1 seminary with 25 seminarians, 1 col¬ 
 lege for men in Beirut with 20 teachers and 300 
 students, 60 elementary schools with 120 teachers 
 and 2,000 pupils of both sexes. The Catholic in¬ 
 stitutions are supported by the government. Con¬ 
 ferences for the clergy are held bi-monthly, and a 
 monthly magazine is published for them. For the 
 laity there is a Sodality of the Blessed Virgin Mary 
 with a large membership of both sexes. There are 
 many dailies and periodicals which have proved 
 zealous defenders of the Faith. During the World 
 War about a third of the Maronites died of a 
 famine brought about by the Turks. 
 
 Archbishop Joseph Debs (1879-1907), was a man 
 of great energy, his zeal being attested by many 
 handsome churches within Beirut, among which is 
 the present cathedral, a college for men, numerous 
 pious works existing even to this day, together with 
 a large number of liturgical and historical works. 
 He was succeeded by Archbishop Peter Chelbi 
 
BEJA 
 
 90 
 
 BELGIAN BUREAU 
 
 (1908-1917), a man of unusual talent and learning, 
 who during the war died in exile. 
 
 Beja, Diocese of (Biensis; cf. C. E., II-393d), 
 in Portugal, suffragan of Evora. Beja is the site 
 of the old Roman city, Pax Julia, and was a 
 splendid diocese until the Moorish invasion, which 
 extinguished Christianity there. The diocese was 
 restored in 1770. Since that time there were many 
 long vacancies of bishops, during which religious 
 life was not fervent. There is no chapter at Beja. 
 
 Following the revolution of 1910 and the procla¬ 
 mation of a republic, the Bishop of Beja, Rt. Rev. 
 Sebastiao Leite de Vasconcellos, was obliged to 
 leave the diocese, the seminary was closed, and all 
 religious orders were expelled. Bishop Leite de 
 Vasconcellos, born at Oporto, was ordained 15 
 November, 1874, appointed Bishop of Beja 19 
 December, 1907, but forced by decree of the re¬ 
 public, 18 April, 1911, to leave his diocese, he lived 
 at Lourdes, and since November, 1912, in Rome, 
 where he resides at the Latin-American College. 
 On 15 December, 1919, he was promoted titular 
 Archbishop of Damietta, assistant at papal throne, 
 named a Knight of the Order of St. George 26 
 August, 1918. 
 
 Since the expulsion of the bishop the diocese has 
 passed through a tempestuous and desperate period, 
 being administered by the Archdiocese of Evora. 
 On 16 December, 1920, Rt. Rev. Jose do Patrocinio 
 Dias was elected bishop, consecrated in the cathe¬ 
 dral at Guardia 3 June, 1921, and entered Beja 
 November of the same year. 
 
 There are 116 parishes in the diocese with 72 
 secular priests and 10 seminarians, who go for their 
 studies to the archdiocesan seminary at Evora. The 
 lack of vocations, combined with other losses, have 
 made the shortage of priests in the diocese serious. 
 The hospitals, asylums, refuges, and schools are 
 without any religious jurisdiction. 
 
 During the revolution many priests were put in 
 prison, banished, and persecuted, while many 
 emigrated, all of which caused in the diocese a 
 most deplorable condition. There is a commission 
 organized in the diocese to give religious instruc¬ 
 tion. The present bishop, Mgr. Dias, was in France 
 from the time of the entrance of the Portuguese 
 Expeditionary Forces until the end of the war, as 
 chaplain of 15th Regiment of Infantry, and chief 
 chaplain of the Corps, he was cited at various 
 times in the army orders and decorated with a 
 medal ( medal comenda da ordem militar ) for dis¬ 
 tinguished service in the field, crus de guerra (2d 
 class), and also fourragere da Torre e Espada. Rev. 
 Antonio dos Aujos, secretary to the bishop, was 
 also chaplain w T ith the Portuguese Expeditionary 
 Corps in France, served in various advances, men¬ 
 tioned twice in army orders, decorated with crus de 
 guerra (4th class), crus de Christi (with palm), and 
 fourragere da Torre e Espada. No other priests 
 of the diocese were absent during the war. 
 
 Belem do Para, Archdiocese of (Belemensis do 
 Para; cf. C. E., II-394c), in the State of Para, 
 Brazil, South America. This see is now (1922) filled 
 by Rt. Rev. Santin-Maria da Silva Coutinho, b. in 
 Areias, 1868, ordained 1891, appointed Bishop of St. 
 Louis de Maranhao, 9 September, 1906, and pro¬ 
 moted 6 December of the same year. By a decree 
 of 29 October, 1920, a portion of the territory of 
 the archdiocese was taken to be joined to the prela- 
 ture nullius of Concepcion. By 1920 statistics this 
 diocese comprises a Catholic population of 480,000, 
 2,000 Protestants, almost 100,000 uncivilized natives, 
 50 parishes, 10 filial churches, 62 secular and 25 
 regular clergy, 30 Brothers, and 2 colleges, 
 
 Belgian Bureau (with headquarters at 429-31 
 West 47th Street, New York), organized to foster the 
 spiritual and temporal welfare of the Belgians in 
 America, was founded in September, 1913, at the 
 joint request of the Belgian Government and the 
 bishops of Belgium with the hearty approval of His 
 Eminence Cardinal Farley. The principal work of 
 the new institution was to be the care and pro¬ 
 tection of the Immigrant. The Belgian Govern¬ 
 ment had repeatedly been advised by Mr. Pierre 
 Mali, the Belgian consul-general at New York, of 
 the unhappy conditions among immigrants land¬ 
 ing in the United States, and the Belgian bishops 
 had often heard from bishops and priests in Amer¬ 
 ica of the same unfortunate situation. An existing 
 society, the Belgian Benevolence Society of New 
 York, had made several unavailing efforts to remedy 
 the sad state of affairs, and the conclusion was 
 reached that only a priest would be able to handle 
 the proposition satisfactory. After several consulta¬ 
 tions between Mr. Mali, Bishop Gabriels, Father 
 Notebaert of Rochester and others, at the sugges¬ 
 tion of Monsignor De Becker, the Rector of the 
 American College of Louvain who happened to be 
 in New York, it was decided to ask Father Stille- 
 mans then pastor of the Sacred Heart Church of 
 El Reno, Oklahoma, to take up the new work. 
 With the consent of Bishop Meerschaert, Rev. J. F. 
 Stillemans came to New York where he was heartily 
 welcomed by Cardinal Farley, Monsignor Mooney, 
 Monsignor Edwards, and other authorities of the 
 archdiocese. The Belgian Bishops promise to sup¬ 
 ply whatever assistants might eventually be needed, 
 and so in July, 1914, Rev. O. A. Nys came from 
 Belgium, and in 1919 the Belgian bishops sent a 
 second assistant in the person of Rev. C. C. 
 Roosens. 
 
 In a general way the immigration work may be 
 considered as threefold: assistance to the immi¬ 
 grants whilst passing through the immigration in¬ 
 spection; protection en route, especially for girls 
 and children; and care as to proper location and 
 assistance for those who arrive without definite 
 destination. To accomplish this means work at the 
 piers, the railroad stations and Ellis Island, besides 
 the work at the office, and correspondence. The 
 Belgian Bureau has also a few rooms where tem¬ 
 porary shelter is given. 
 
 There is close communication between the im¬ 
 migration authorities and the bureau. Often the 
 Government calls upon the Belgian Bureau for 
 special cases, or brings people to it. On the other 
 hand the Belgians in the United States most fre¬ 
 quently advise the Bureau of the expected arrival 
 of relatives and friends, while the directories and 
 ordos of the Belgian dioceses instruct the priests in 
 Belgium to notify the Bureau of the departure of 
 their parishioners. The steamship agents in Bel¬ 
 gium also do this quite often. In not a few cases 
 prospective immigrants or people who think of 
 coming to these shores write to the Bureau for 
 information of different kind. 
 
 Immigration from Belgium is not large as com¬ 
 pared with that from several other countries, and 
 owing to the war its numbers have varied consid¬ 
 erably. If the Government could see its way to 
 greater liberality in the rights granted immigration 
 workers and if the Bureau’s resources were more 
 ample, it could undoubtedly reach every Belgian 
 immigrant. As it is, it assists, several thousands 
 each year, and fortunately practically all those who 
 encounter unusual difficulties or stand in need of 
 special protection. 
 
 The follow-up work in New York itself is ren¬ 
 dered very difficult by the vastness of the city 
 
Belgium 
 
 91 
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 and the consequent fact that it is so easy to lose 
 track of people. Special care is devoted and very 
 successfully to young girls by the Belgian Sisters of 
 St: John Berchmans Convent. Outside of New 
 York, the Bureau can do follow-up work only as 
 far as it is able to enlist the co-operation of priests 
 or laymen, for it lacks the necessary means to set 
 up an adequate organization. 
 
 Besides the Immigration Department, the Bel¬ 
 gian Bureau operates an Employment Bureau and 
 an Information Office, the last named constituting 
 a very important activity. Thousands of Belgians, 
 in America as well as in Belgium, avail themselves 
 of this means to obtain correct and safe information 
 and guidance. The Charity Department of the 
 Belgian Bureau relieves the sick and destitute and 
 is made especially effective, thanks through the 
 untiring zeal of the Belgian Sisters of St. John 
 Berchmans Convent. The Belgian Bureau is further¬ 
 more a center of social work comprising conferences, 
 lectures, social gatherings, classes and other means 
 of education, Americanization and general welfare. 
 
 During the war the Belgian Bureau rendered great 
 services as headquarters of the Belgian Relief Fund 
 and numerous other committees, and also took care 
 of the Belgian Refugees who came to America. 
 The resources of the Belgian Bureau consist of the 
 subsidy granted by the Belgian Government and 
 the one allowed by the Belgian Bishops, besides 
 donations by private persons or societies. No fees 
 or compensations of any kind, not even for board or 
 lodging, are accepted from the immigrants. 
 
 J. F. Stillemans. 
 
 Belgium ( c f. C. E. II-395b).—The area of the 
 kingdom is 11,373 square miles, excluding the dis¬ 
 tricts of Eupen and Malmedy, which come under 
 Belgian sovereignty as a result of the Treaty of 
 Versailles (1919). The population, estimated on 
 31 December, 1919, was 7,577,027, or 652 persons to 
 the square mile. The excess of females over males 
 was 77,787. Of the population in 1910,2,833,334 spoke 
 French only, 3,220,662 Flemish only, 31,415 German 
 only, and 52,457 spoke all three languages. In 
 1919 there were 57,758 emigrants and 50,043 immi¬ 
 grants. The largest cities, with the population in 
 1919, are: Brussels and suburbs, 658,268; Antwerp, 
 322,857; Liege, 166,697; Ghent, 165,655; Malines, 
 59,869; Bruges, 53,489; Ostend, 45,973; Verviers, 
 44,118; Louvain, 40,069. 
 
 Religion.— In 1921 Belgium raised its Ministry 
 to the Holy See to the rank of embassy and ap¬ 
 pointed as ambassador one of its most distinguished 
 diplomats, Baron Beyens, dean of the Belgian Dip¬ 
 lomatic Corps. The retiring Minister, Comte 
 D’Ursel, received the Grand Cross of the Order of 
 St. Gregory the Great from Pope Benedict XV. 
 Belgium has a Catholic premier (1921) in the per¬ 
 son of Baron Carton de Wiart, the acknowledged 
 leader of the Younger Right Catholic Democrats, 
 former Minister of Justice, and for years a promi¬ 
 nent figure in Catholic campaigns in Belgium. The 
 language question, involving the predominance of 
 the French or Flemish language has long been a 
 disturbing element both from a religious and a 
 political standpoint. A letter of Pope Benedict XV. 
 (1921) warned the clergy of the possible loss of 
 their priestly dignity and the fruit of their ministry, 
 by indulging in acrimonious controversies, verbal 
 or written, on the subject. Religious statistics re¬ 
 veal 21 Protestant pastors and 15 Jewish rabbis or 
 ministers. For Catholic statistics see Malines, 
 Archdiocese of; Bruges, Diocese of; Ghent, Dio¬ 
 cese of; Liege, Diocese of; Namur, Diocese of; 
 Tournat, Diocese of. 
 
 Economic Conditions.— Of all the warring coun¬ 
 tries in Europe, none have returned to their pre-war 
 activities in a measure comparable with Belgium. 
 When the armistice was signed, the country found 
 itself with one-third of its factories ruined; in 
 transportation essentials, 1,250 miles of railroads 
 1,800 bridges, and 400 miles of canals had been de¬ 
 stroyed, 60,000 railroad cars and 2,500 locomotives 
 taken by the Germans, and the telegraph and tele¬ 
 phone systems ruined. Progress toward reconstruc¬ 
 tion has been phenomenal in the past two years, 
 for all the pre-war industries, with the exception 
 of the steel plants, have practically attained the 
 production of former years. Practically all the 
 trains in the country are now running on pre-war 
 schedule and the bridges and roadbeds have been 
 re-constructed. The total length of railways in 1919 
 was: State lines, 2,759 miles, private lines, 184 
 miles; light, rail ways, 1,706 miles; total, 4,649 miles. 
 It is now proposed to electrify the railway system 
 of the country. The length of navigable waterways 
 in 1919 was 1,231 miles; the length of the roads, 
 state roads, 5,187 miles; provincial roads, 964 miles; 
 concreted roads, 26 miles; total length, 6,177 miles. 
 
 Agricultural activity commenced immediately 
 after the armistice was signed, with the result that 
 crops produced in 1919 fully equalled those in 1913, 
 the best sugar crop showing an excess of 4,000,000 
 pounds. As evidence of the intensity with which 
 the Belgians applied themselves to work, it is in¬ 
 teresting to note that on the termination of the 
 war there were upward of 800,000 persons receiving 
 chomage (unemployment wage) while at present, 
 the number has been reduced to less than 200,000. 
 Much of this remarkable progress is due to the 
 activity of the Recuperation Committee, which has 
 succeeded in recovering most of the machinery 
 taken away by the Germans. In each province 
 there is an official Agricultural Commission, dele¬ 
 gates from which, together with specialists, form a 
 supreme council of agriculture. 
 
 Of the total area in 1920, 2,945,104 hectares, 
 1,340,415 are under cultivation, 519,781 under forest, 
 107,977 fallow or uncultivated, the rest, roads, 
 marshes, rivers. Figures for 1919 show 298,508 farms, 
 of which approximately 28 per cent were cultivated 
 by their owners. The devastated region, amounting 
 to but 250,000 acres, lies mainly in west Flanders; 
 and of this 25,000 acres were cultivated in 1920. 
 
 The chief crops for 1919 were wheat, oats, rye, 
 potatoes, barley, beets, and tobacco. In 1919 there 
 were 755 quarries, with 14,909 workmen, turning out 
 products worth 58,504,450 francs; the number of 
 coal mines in the same year was 121, number of 
 workers, 139,674; the coal production in 1920 was 
 22,413,530 tons of coal, 2,922,000 tons of briquettes, 
 1,800,000 tons of coke. In 1919, 250,570 metric tons 
 of pig iron were produced in 13 furnaces, as against 
 2,484,690 tons in 19 furnaces in 1913. An offi¬ 
 cial investigation revealed that Belgian industry 
 was then employing 76 per cent of its 1913 work¬ 
 ers, labor in coal mining and transportation showing 
 an excess. The principal foreign commerce of 
 Belgium is with Argentina, Belgian Congo, France, 
 Germany, Great Britain, Netherlands, and the 
 United States. Imports from Great Britain in 1919 
 showed a value of $155,933,000; from the United 
 States, $122,017,444; France, $103,207,222; Argentina, 
 $23,319,333. Exports to Germany, customs union, 
 $70,520,222; France, $62,018,778; Netherlands, $49,- 
 551,889. The public debt in 1914 amounted to 
 4,890,000,000 francs; in 1919 to 19,533,434,900 francs. 
 
 Education.— Many have been the dissensions in 
 recent years regarding education in Belgium. In 
 1914 school education was made compulsory for 
 
BELGIUM 
 
 92 
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 all children under fourteen, and in 1919 the Bel¬ 
 gian government enacted a law giving the same 
 subsidies to private religious schools as to public 
 schools, provided the former conformed with the 
 minimum standards laid down by the state for 
 the latter. In Belgium, primary schools, of which 
 there must be one in every commune, are adminis¬ 
 tered by the authorities of the commune, the cen¬ 
 tral Government contributing to their support by 
 subsidies and laying down certain requirements. 
 Religious instruction, established by law of 1895, 
 continues, and parents who do not wish their chil¬ 
 dren to take the religious courses may have them 
 exempted. Of the public schools there sue (31 
 December, 1920), 23 royal athenaeums and colleges 
 with 1,364 pupils, 8 private colleges with 1,462 
 pupils, 97 middle class schools with 25 male pupils, 
 and 48 with 13,638 female pupils. For elementary 
 education there are 7,959 primary schools with 
 960 819 pupils, 3,366 infant schools with 205,418 
 pupils, and 4,193 adult schools with 174,044 pupils. 
 Of normal schools there are 24 for training sec¬ 
 ondary teachers and 75 for training elementary 
 teachers. Of the four universities, Ghent and Liege 
 are State institutions, Brussels and Louvain free. 
 In 1919-20 Brussels had 1,644 students; Ghent, 1,006; 
 Liege, 2,656; and Louvain, 2,783. Attached to the 
 universities are various special technical schools, 
 with 3,034 students in 1919-20. There were also 6 
 commercial high schools; the Royal Academy of 
 Fine Arts at Antwerp, a poly technical school at 
 Mons, an agricultural institute at Gembloux, and 
 four royal conservatories at Brussels, Liege, Ghent, 
 and Antwerp. 
 
 When the war broke out, a Bill had been in¬ 
 troduced into the Chambers to change the State 
 University of Ghent in the heart of Flanders, from 
 a French to a Flemish school. The German in¬ 
 vaders, regardless of the laws of the land, made 
 the change without any more ado, and created a 
 peculiarly awkward situation, for all those who 
 taught and studied in the university are now looked 
 upon as traitors. The agitation for the use of 
 the Flemish tongue in the university continues to 
 the extent that the Chambers are undecided whether 
 to establish a Flemish university, or to convert the 
 present University of Ghent into a Flemish insti¬ 
 tution, or merely to institute Flemish courses there. 
 
 The school question continues to play an im¬ 
 portant part in the religious and political life of 
 the country, and Catholics are compelled to wage 
 a continuous war for the freedom of their educa¬ 
 tional establishments, against Liberal and Socialist 
 encroachments. Illegality in the system of the 
 Minister of Instruction, M. Destree, Free Mason, 
 recently resigned, is in some measure due to Catho¬ 
 lic negligence in not giving religious instruction in 
 schools where, by law, it is compulsory. M. Destree 
 endeavored to supply in its stead, instruction in 
 civic ethics, claiming this as an interpretation, not 
 an abrogation, of the law. Since the armistice, 
 however, many Socialists seem inclined to settle the 
 school question in a fairer way, realizing the tenacity 
 of Catholic Belgium in maintaining its rights, and 
 their recognition, public opinion gives to the justice 
 of its claims. 
 
 Government. —The changes in Belgium’s constitu¬ 
 tion agitated for before the European war, are now 
 materializing. In 1919 a drastic reform Bill was 
 passed, giving one vote and one only to every 
 Belgian over 21 years of age. In 1920 a Bill grant¬ 
 ing unrestricted suffrage to women was defeated, 
 but later the Chamber voted to amend the Con¬ 
 stitution so that any future Parliament by two- 
 thirds majority could extend the suffrage without 
 
 constitutional revision. On 8 February, an eight- 
 hour day law was enacted, and in November a 
 bonus was granted to every Belgian soldier re¬ 
 gardless of rank. In the latest provincial election 
 of senators, the returns were as follows: 336 Catho¬ 
 lics, 132 Liberals, 206 Socialists, and seven others. 
 The Catholics have an absolute majority in five 
 provinces, and are strongest numerically in two 
 others. The Socialists have an absolute majority 
 in only 2 provinces. The newest Cabinet of Bel¬ 
 gium is composed of 5 Catholics and 5 Liberals. 
 The returns to the Chamber of Deputies in the 
 latest election reveal the composition of the Cham¬ 
 ber as 80 Catholics, 52 Socialists, 28 Liberals. In 
 1921 the first woman was elected to the Belgian 
 Parliament. 
 
 History (1911-1921).— As early as 1911 Belgium 
 had feared for her neutrality. Though this neu¬ 
 trality was guaranteed by the Great Powers under 
 the Treaty of London, 19 April, 1829, the country 
 felt that in view of the alarming Moroccan situa¬ 
 tion she could not afford to omit any precautions 
 against its violation. Accordingly the defenses of 
 Liege and Namur were strengthened, and guns 
 were brought from Antwerp. 
 
 At the very first news of the ominous Austrian 
 ultimatum to Servia in July, 1914, she felt more 
 keenly the danger to which she might be exposed. 
 On 29 July, she placed her army “upon a strength¬ 
 ened war footing,” but did not order complete 
 mobilization until two days later, when war ap¬ 
 peared inevitable. On 2 August, 1914, German 
 troops occupied Luxemburg, and on the same day 
 the German Government presented an ultimatum 
 to Belgium, demanding within twelve hours the 
 permission to move German troops across that 
 country into France, promising, if permission were 
 accorded, to guarantee Belgian independence and 
 integrity and to pay an indemnity, and threatening 
 that, if any resistance were encountered, Germany 
 would treat Belgium as an enemy and that “the 
 decision of arms” would determine the subsequent 
 relations between the two powers. 
 
 The Belgian Government characterized the ulti¬ 
 matum as a gross violation of international law 
 and refused the request. On 4 August, 1914, when 
 the German troops had actually crossed the Belgian 
 border, she appealed for the assistance of the Pow¬ 
 ers that had guaranteed her neutrality. Sir Edward 
 Grey, the British foreign secretary, dispatched an 
 ultimatum to Germany, requiring assurance by mid¬ 
 night that Germany would respect Belgian neu¬ 
 trality. Germany refused on the ground of “military 
 necessity.” 
 
 The resistance of the Belgians was a surprise to 
 the German military authorities. From the German 
 frontier, opposite Aix-la-Chapelle to the gap of the 
 Oise on the Franco-Belgian frontier, it would have 
 been but a six day march for an unresisted army. 
 The outraged Belgians unanimously and heroically 
 determined to resist. Liege happened to be in the 
 path of the German soldiers, and against Liege a 
 detachment was sent under- General von Emmich, 
 but so anxious were the Germans not to lose any 
 time that von Emmich recklessly sacrificed his men 
 in order to carry the city by assault. Assault fail¬ 
 ing, von Emmich brought up giant 42-centimeter 
 howitzers which speedily demolished some forts en¬ 
 circling the city, and enabled the Germans to enter 
 the town. Eight days later, all the forts were 
 silenced. 
 
 After the fall of Liege, the German cavalry swept 
 over the neighboring country and German armies 
 penetrated Belgium. The Belgians fell back to 
 Louvain and there on 19 August, made their last 
 
BELGIUM 
 
 BELLEVILLE 
 
 stand. Louvain was burned and its famous library 
 reduced to ashes. Towards the northwest, in the 
 direction of Antwerp and Malines, the valiant 
 Belgian army retreated, pressed by a German force. 
 General von Kluck entered Brussels on 20 August 
 and then moved south towards Mons and Mau- 
 beuge. In the meantime the armies of General von 
 Hausen and Duke Albert of Wurttemberg were 
 moving westward through the hilly country of 
 the Ardennes in southeastern Belgium. Between 
 these forces, was a small detachment of Belgians, 
 pursued up the Meuse to Namur by the troops 
 of General von Biilow. On 22 August, Namur fell 
 to the Germans. The Belgian resistance gave the 
 French time to mobilize their forces behind the 
 Franco-Belgian front. 
 
 By this time the Franco-British forces were on 
 hand to render assistance, and on 21 August man¬ 
 aged to take a defensive position north of Maubeuge 
 on a line from Conde, in France, to Mons in 
 Belgium. An offensive was attempted in south¬ 
 eastern Belgium but it broke down completely, and 
 the French were soon in precipitate retreat. The 
 British, too, were unable to withstand the German 
 onslaughts and unwilling to be outflanked or over¬ 
 whelmed, General French, the British commander, 
 began his sensational retreat from Mons on 23 
 August. Most of Belgium was conquered and the 
 road to France lay clear to the Germans. Only a 
 tiny strip in the southwestern corner extending from 
 Nieuport to Ypres was in the possession of the 
 Belgians. The Belgian government was exiled to 
 Havre, in France, and the Belgian people were ruled 
 by a German military governor at Brussels. 
 
 . T he violation of Belgian neutrality aroused the 
 civilized world and brought Great Britain into the 
 war. The dismantling of her great industries, the 
 war levies demanded from them (3,000,000 francs 
 from the town of Wavre alone), embittered the Bel¬ 
 gians against the conquerors. The burning of 
 Louvain, including the famous Catholic university 
 and church of St. Peter, which was justified, as a 
 revenge for a concerted attack on the German 
 troops,” shocked the world by its vandalism. For 
 the horrors of war, inflicted on countless women 
 and children, the Germans offered the pleas of 
 military necessity” and “war is war.” The Belgian 
 found a courageous and able advocate in Cardinal 
 Mercier, Archbishop of Malines and primate of the 
 Catholic Church in Belgium, who protested the 
 German conquest and appealed for aid to the 
 Vatican and foreign Powers. Especially notable was 
 the organization of relief under American auspices. 
 
 In 1916 the devastated country was subject to 
 another calamity, namely the deportation of some 
 hundred thousand Belgians to work in German fac¬ 
 tories and thus husband the supply of military 
 power in Germany. The mineral wealth of Belgium 
 had already been requisitioned and used in the 
 production of munitions of war and its railways 
 were working overtime in the transportation of 
 troops from one frontier to another. The fortune 
 of war now changed, and on 28 September, 1918, 
 King Albert and his Belgians, aided by a French 
 tinny under General Degoutte and the British army 
 pi General Plumer, struck out between Dixmude 
 and Ypres and while the Belgians got close to 
 Roulers, the British recovered Passchendaele. In 
 Flanders, 14 October, the group of Franco-Belgian- 
 pntish armies renewed their attacks on a vast front 
 rom Dixmude to the Lys. Albert’s army continued 
 ts victorious march; Ostend and Bruges were re¬ 
 entered, then Zeebrugge; the suburbs of Ghent and 
 he Dutch frontier were reached; the Lys was 
 rossed. On 21 October, the British assailed the 
 
 Germans east ^ of Denain and captured Valenciennes 
 on 2 Novemoer, and Landrecies two days later. 
 Maubeuge fell on 9 November, and on 11 Novem- 
 ber, the last days of fighting, the British gained 
 Mons, the scene of their defeat and retreat in 
 August, 1914. 
 
 The war was formally ended by the Treaty of 
 .fc&cg, signed at Versailles between Germany and 
 the Allied Powers in 1919. This abrogated all 
 former treaties between Belgium and the Allies 
 especially the famous Treaty of London, 15 Novem¬ 
 ber, 1831. By the Treaty of Versailles, Belgium ac- 
 Quired the Prussian districts of Malmedy (813 square 
 kilometers) and Eupen (180 square kilometers), 
 i he terms .of the treaty gave the inhabitants the 
 nght to express their wish to remain united with 
 Germany, but only a small minority of the popula¬ 
 tion expressed such a wish, and accordingly on 12 
 January, 1920, Belgian sovereignty was proclaimed 
 over these regions. In March of the same year, 
 Belgium and the Netherlands ratified the treaty for 
 the settlement of the boundary and waterway ques¬ 
 tions, especially as regards the Scheldt. In May, 
 1921, the Treaty of Trianon signed by Belgium, put 
 an end to the state of war existing between Hun¬ 
 gary and Belgium. On 12 June, 1921, Belgium dis¬ 
 placed Germany as protector of the Duchy of 
 Luxemburg. All customs formalities between Bel¬ 
 gium and the Duchy were abolished; all Luxem¬ 
 burg money was to be replaced by Belgian money, 
 with the exception of bills less than 10 francs, to 
 a total of 25,000,000 francs. The mandate for the 
 north-western part of the ex-German colony of 
 East Africa was given to Belgium. A report of the 
 Hoover Relief Committee, formed to aid the in¬ 
 habitants of the devastated regions showed that 
 between Septemebr, 1914, and September, 1920, 
 $1,300,000,000 has been expended for food and 
 clothing; help had been given to 10,000,000 people; 
 and the administrative cost was only .42 of 1 per 
 cent of the funds handled. 
 
 Belgrade and Smederevo, Archdiocese of (Bello- 
 gradensis et Semenpriensis ; cf. C. E., II-407b), 
 in Servia, directly dependent on the Holy See! 
 This see is sometimes listed as a titular, sometimes 
 as a residential see, but the Curia always regards 
 it as titular for the Greek Rite. At present (1922) 
 Rt. Rev. Dominic Premus, auxiliary to the arch¬ 
 bishop of Zagrab, bears the title. However, the 
 Concordat with Servia of 24 June, 1914, erected 
 the diocese into a residential metropolitan see, 
 which as yet is not filled by any archbishop. 
 
 Prevented by the old Austro-Hungarian Mon¬ 
 archy, which held a protectorate over all the Catho¬ 
 lics in Servia, Belgrade has never had a church for 
 her Catholic population. However, an ever in¬ 
 creasing body of Catholic Jugoslavs, is working to 
 raise funds for the erection of a church here. The 
 Holy Father has given his approval to the enter¬ 
 prise and it is significant that the Crown Prince 
 Regent Alexander has replied to greetings sent by 
 the Society, wishing them continued success. 
 
 Bellarmine, Robert, Venerable (cf. C. E., 
 II-411c).—His cause was again introduced by a de¬ 
 cree dated 22 December, 1920. 
 
 Belleville, Diocese of (Bellevillensis; cf. C. E., 
 II-414d), in southern Illinois, suffragan of Chi¬ 
 cago. At the time of its erection, 1887, had a 
 Catholic population of 50,000 and now (1921) num¬ 
 bers 72,000, divided as follows: Americans, 60,000; 
 Italians, 5,000; Poles, 3,000; Lithuanians and 
 Slovaks, 4,000. The diocese includes 135 parishes, 
 135 churches, 35 missions, 1 convent for men, 86 for 
 women, 130 secular priests, 2 regular, 4 lay brothers, 
 
BELLEY 
 
 94 
 
 BELMONT ABBEY COLLEGE 
 
 459 nuns, 30 ecclesiastical students, 2 high schools 
 with 4 teachers 1 for boys with attendance ol 58, 
 and 1 for girls with an attendance of 28, 2 academies 
 for girls with 10 teachers and 105 students, 2 tiain- 
 ing schools with 4 teachers and 22 students, 74 
 elementary schools with 4,000 teachers and 10,650 
 students. Missionary work in the diocese ^ con¬ 
 ducted by the Diocesan Mission Society and the 
 Holy Childhood Association. There are 2 homes, 
 
 1 orphan asylum, 8 hospitals and a National Catho¬ 
 lic Community House. The St. Clair County Jail, 
 St. Clair County Farm, State Hospital at Anna, 
 and Southern State Penitentiary admit the priests 
 of the diocese to minister to them. The various 
 organizations of the diocese are: the Priests Purga¬ 
 torial Society, Priests’ Eucharistic League, Clergy¬ 
 men’s Aid Society, St. Francis de Sales Educational 
 Aid Society, the People’s Eucharistic League, 
 National Council of Catholic Men, Catholic 
 Women’s League, Catholic Junior League ihe 
 «Messenger” and the “Schoolmate” are published 
 in the diocese. On 2 July, 1913, Bishop Janssen 
 first bishop of the diocese died, and was succeeded 
 by Rt. Rev. Henry Althoff, D. D., who was conse¬ 
 crated 24 February, 1914. Within recent years the 
 diocese also lost its vicar general, Rev. H. J. 
 
 H (fr^A "January, 1912, the Cathedral of Belleville 
 was destroyed by fire and in October, 1913, a new 
 cathedral was completed. In 1919 the National 
 Catholic Community House of East St. Louis was 
 opened, and on 1 December, 1920, the fourth dio¬ 
 cesan synod was held. During the World War the 
 diocese sent three chaplains and an organized Dio¬ 
 cesan War Council took an active part in all 
 patriotic work. 
 
 Belley, Diocese of (Bellicium; cf. C.E.,II-415c), 
 coextensive with the civil department of Am in 
 France, and suffragan of Besangon. Rt. Rev. 
 cois-Auguste Labeuche, who came to this see 13 
 July, 1906, d. 18 March, 1910, and was succeeded 
 by the present incumbent, Rt. Rev. Adolphe Mamer, 
 b. at Foug, 1851, ordained 1875, appointed bishop 
 13 April, 1910, and consecrated at Autun, 11 June, 
 following. During the World War 251 priests and 
 
 51 seminarians were mobilized from this diocese, of 
 this number 14 priests and 20 seminarians were 
 killed or wounded, 8 were decorated with the 
 Legion d’honneur, 10 with Medaille Militaire, 3 
 with Medaille des epidemies, 4 received foreign 
 decorations, and 165 received the Croix de Guerre 
 or other citations. By latest statistics the Catholic 
 population of the diocese numbers 342,482, and is 
 divided into 442 parishes. The diocese comprises 
 442 churches, 1 Trappist abbey, 553 secular and 
 30 regular clergy, 8 convents of women, 1 seminary, 
 
 52 seminarians, 3 secondary schools for boys with 
 50 teachers and 300 students, 12 secondary schools 
 for girls with 48 teachers and 400 students, and 15 
 elementary schools with 30 teachers and 500 pupils. 
 Ten diocesan missionaries conduct charitable works 
 and various institutions, including 25 hospitals, 2 
 lunatic asylums, and 10 centers for monthly retreats 
 for the clergy are established. An association lor 
 deceased clergv, an association for the fathers of 
 families, and the “Societe d’emulation scientifique, 
 litteraire, historique,” are organized; the Journal de 
 l’Ain,” and “Croix de l’Ain” are published here. 
 
 Bells (cf. C. E., II-418d).—To summon the faith¬ 
 ful to Mass and other services, every church should 
 have a bell -that has been consecrated or at least 
 blessed. If the bell is the property of exempt re¬ 
 ligious it may be blessed by a higher superior; other 
 bells may be blessed by local ordinaries; in either 
 
 case the power to bless may be delegated to any 
 priest. The consecration of a church bell is, how¬ 
 ever, reserved to the bishop. The bells are under 
 the exclusive jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical 
 authorities. They should not be used for purely 
 secular purposes except in case of necessity or by 
 leave of the ordinary or in accordance with a lawful 
 custom or with conditions laid down by the donors 
 of the bells. 
 
 Belluno-Feltre, Diocese of (Bellunensis et 
 Feltrensis; cf. C. E., II-424b), in Venitia, Italy, 
 suffragan of Venice. Rt. Rev. Giusseppe Foschiam, 
 who came to this see 3 July, 1910, d. 5 October, 
 1913 and was succeeded by the present incumbent, 
 Rt. Rev. Giosue Cattarossi, b. at Cornale, 1863, ap¬ 
 pointed Bishop of Albenga, 11 April, 1911, and trans¬ 
 ferred to this see 21 November, 1913. The diocese 
 comprises a Catholic population of 187,650, the 
 1922 statistics credit it with 95 parishes, 470 churches, 
 165 secular and 72 regular clergy, 3 convents of 
 men and 20 of women, 142 sisters, 2 seminaries, 46 
 seminarians, 2 secondary schools for boys with 
 250 students, and 3 for girls with 400 students. 
 All public schools, both elementary and secondary, 
 are dependent upon the State, as well as all the 
 charitable institutions. During the World War the 
 clergy and laity of this diocese took an active part 
 in all patriotic and charitable works. A mutual 
 aid society is organized among the clergy, and 
 Catholic organizations among the laity are formed; 
 a Catholic periodical, “Amico del Popolo, is pub¬ 
 lished here. 
 
 Belmont Abbey, a Benedictine foundation estab¬ 
 lished at Belmont, near Hereford, England, in 1859, 
 under the invocation of St. Michael, as a central 
 novitiate house of studies for the English congre¬ 
 gation. The priory church was the pro-cathedral 
 of the Diocese of Newport, the bishop and canons 
 of which were chosen from the English Benedictines. 
 When, in 1916, that diocese became the Archdiocese 
 of Cardiff, the church was raised to the rank of 
 a cathedral. The archdiocese was to have two 
 metropolitan chapters, a regular chapter at Bel¬ 
 mont and a secular chapter at Cardiff, but on the 
 petition of the Abbot President of the English 
 Congregation, who intimated his willingness to re¬ 
 linquish the privilege of the cathedral and the 
 cathedral chapter at Belmont, the Holy See an¬ 
 nounced that the Belmont chapter should be dis¬ 
 solved and the priory raised to the rank of an 
 abbey After the publication of the Apostolic 
 Letter in 1920 effecting this, the Belmont com¬ 
 munity elected as first Abbot of Belmont Dom 
 Aelred Kindersley, formerly prior. The election 
 took place 30 June, and immediately afterwards 
 the newly elected abbot was escorted to the abbey 
 church, where he was enthroned by the Abbot 
 President, Dom Cuthbert Butler, Abbot of Down¬ 
 side. On 15 July, 1920, the solemn blessing of 
 the new abbot took place in Belmont Abbey 
 Church, when Cardinal Bourne performed the cere¬ 
 mony, assisted by the abbots of the English con¬ 
 gregation with a large attendance of bishops and 
 prelates of the Benedictine Order. The Abbey has 
 a community of 22 religious, of whom 12 are 
 priests, 4 clerics, 5 novices, and 1 postulant. 
 
 Belmont Abbey College —Belmont, North Caro¬ 
 lina, formerly known as St. Mary’s College, is one 
 of the oldest Catholic institutions of higher learning 
 in the Southern Atlantic States, and was founded 
 by the Fathers of the Order of St. Benedict in 1878 
 and chartered with full collegiate powers on 1 April, 
 1886. The faculty numbering 14, is composed ex- 
 
BENADIR 
 
 BENEDICT XV 
 
 95 
 
 nil 11 members of the Order of St. Benedict. 
 I he college possesses a library of 7,000 volumes, a 
 m 1907 UiPPCd laboratory, and a gymnasium, erected 
 
 Connected with the college is an academy which 
 embraces the usual high school course and a com¬ 
 mercial school. A seminary in which members of 
 the Order of St. Benedict and students for the 
 \ icaiiate of North Carolina receive their training, 
 is also connected with the college and numbers 
 twenty students. 
 
 In recent years ten scholarships have been founded 
 m Belmont Abbey College, for the education of 
 young men for the priesthood. The Rt. Rev. 
 Leo Haid, O.S. B., D. D., is president of the col¬ 
 lege, where in 1920-21 100 students were registered. 
 (For Abbey Nullius, see North Carolina.) 
 
 Benadir, Prefecture Apostolic of (cf. C. E., 
 11-426(0, comprises the territory of Italian Somali¬ 
 land in East Africa, and is entrusted to the Dis¬ 
 eased Trinitarians. Rev. Guglielmo di San Felice, 
 second prefect apostolic of this territory, named 
 toward the end of 1906, was forced to retire the 
 following year because of ill-health. His successor, 
 the present prefect apostolic, Rev. Alessandro de 
 Santi, went to his prefecture 12 February, 1908. 
 In 1920 there were 6 regular clergy (Trinitarians), 
 in this territory, 5 Brothers, 4 resident parishes, one 
 of which was vacant, 1 hospital at Gelit and several 
 others are about to be established. 
 
 Benedict XV (Giacomo della Chiesa), Pope, b. 
 21 November, 1854; d. 21 January, 1922. He was 
 the second son of Giuseppe Marchese della Chiesa, 
 of Genoese nobility, and Giovanna Migliorati of 
 Venice. Belonging to his family on his mother’s 
 side was Innocent VII, Roman pontiff 1404-1406. 
 After preparatory studies he entered the university 
 in his native city, receiving there his doctorate in 
 both civil and canon law in 1873. His father de¬ 
 sired that he should become a lawyer, but Giacomo 
 wished to dedicate himself to the priesthood. 
 Accordingly he went to the Collegio Capranica in 
 Rome for his ecclesiastical studies, and completed 
 them at the Academy of Ecclesiastical Nobles. He 
 was ordained priest 21 December, 1878. Appointed 
 secretary to Mgr. Rampolla in the Sacred Con¬ 
 gregation of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs, he 
 followed him to Madrid when Rampolla was apos¬ 
 tolic nuncio there, and returned when his distin¬ 
 guished chief was made cardinal and Secretary of 
 State by Leo XIII in 1887. He remained at that 
 post after the death of Leo XIII, and for the first 
 four years of the pontificate ^ of Pius X. During 
 that time he had advanced through successive 
 grades until he reached that of Substitute. When 
 Cardinal Swampa died, in 1907, Mgr. della Chiesa 
 was chosen as his successor in the See of Bologna, 
 and was consecrated by Pius X himself in the Sis- 
 tine Chapel. On 25 May, 1914, he was made cardi¬ 
 nal and on 3 September of that year was elected 
 to succeed Pius X. He took the name of Benedict 
 -XV. 
 
 His pontificate lasted for seven years, four 
 months, and nineteen days; all of them synchronous 
 with the years of the most tragic crisis in the 
 world’s history, the World War. His first encyclical. 
 Ad Beatissimi Apostolorum Principis,” was issued 
 at the beginning of the titanic struggle; his second, 
 ‘Pacem Dei Munus Pulcherrimum,” coincided with 
 the meeting of the plenipotentiaries in their en¬ 
 deavor to reconstruct the map of Europe and give 
 peace to the world. Between these two major utter¬ 
 ances of the pope, there are three others, those of 
 22 January, 1915, the great Appeal of 28 July of 
 
 ‘ y ear > addressed to the belligerents and 
 i j • ca -deis, and, on 1 August, 1917, the offer made 
 u as me diator for a general peace. In 
 
 a l of these documents, however, it must be noted he 
 cited no one to his tribunal. To have done so would 
 not only not have been conducive to peace, but 
 would have aroused jealousy on all sides and would 
 also have exposed the Church itself to the most 
 serious perturbations. Nevertheless, he regarded 
 himself as obligated to condemn all violations of 
 international justice and morality, no matter by 
 whom they were committed, meantime lavishing his 
 bounties on all the victims of the war, by securing 
 through diplomatic channels the exchange of 
 wounded soldiers, the liberation of civilian prisoners, 
 the hospitalization of the wounded, the repatria¬ 
 tion of prisoners whose families needed their help, etc. 
 His message of 1 August, 1917, was a plea for’the 
 application of Articles 3, 4, 5, and 6 of the Hague 
 Conference of 1907, and sketched in large lines the 
 oiganization established in 1919 and known as the 
 League of INations, such as, for instance, general 
 and proportional disarmament, obligatory arbitra¬ 
 tion, freedom of the seas, reciprocal cancellation of 
 the general indebtedness, total evacuation of Bel¬ 
 gium and France, and other countries and colonies, 
 
 ' ^ ^ rectification of frontiers, in keeping with 
 
 the just aspirations of the various peoples and the 
 general good of human society. All this was done 
 before it became evident that the victory was to 
 be with the Allies, so that a proposition of such a 
 at such a moment should, dispel forever 
 the calumny that the document was inspired by 
 Germany. Unfortunately, this appeal of the pope 
 was not treated with even the common courtesy 
 of an acknowledgment by the Entente, their pur¬ 
 pose being to pointedly ignore him and to exclude 
 all Sovereign Pontiffs from any share in European 
 diplomacy. In his Encyclical of 1917, “Pacem,” 
 the pope almost replies to their silence and reminds 
 J~ipl 0I P a ts in a league founded on the basis 
 of Christianity there can be no better instrument 
 employed-than the Church, not only for the eternal 
 interest of man, but for his material prosperity. 
 
 As a matter of fact, the pope is now the center 
 of the diplomatic world, for whereas the nations 
 had very few representatives accredited to the 
 Holy See, prior to the war, now that it is over, 
 almost all the nations of the world are represented 
 there. Italy has welcomed in Monte Citorio the 
 admission of a hundred Catholic legislators to check 
 the danger of the rising tide of Socialism. The 
 ceremonial code has been modified to facilitate the 
 reception of European kings and princes at the 
 Vatican. France, in particular, has been mollified 
 by the canonization of Joan of Arc and Miirgaret 
 Mary, and by the assurance as far as possible of 
 the pope’s interest in the Orient. Russia’s crash 
 possibly opens the way to a union of Eastern and 
 Western Christianity, and perhaps the elevation of 
 St. Ephrem, the Syrian, to the rank of Doctor of 
 the Lniversal Church is a move in the same direc¬ 
 tion. Ireland has rejoiced in the canonization of 
 Oliver Plunket, the Archbishop of Armagh, and 
 his associate heroes. 
 
 During his pontificate the New Code of Canon 
 Law was draughted. Modernism was again con¬ 
 demned and the new term of Integralism was for¬ 
 bidden, while on the other hand the traditional 
 position against minimizing was maintained in 
 Biblical controversies and in the teaching of the 
 philosophy and theology of St. Thomas. Benedict 
 XV m the few brief years of his pontificate estab¬ 
 lished in out-of-the-way places in the world 9 pre¬ 
 fectures apostolic, 28 vicariates apostolic, 25 new 
 
BENEDICTINE 
 
 BENEDICTINE 
 
 96 
 
 bishoprics, 8 archbishoprics, and 2 apostolic delega¬ 
 tions. 1 ^ In charitable works, individual or_associate, 
 the spirit of his predecessors, Pius X and Leo ALII, 
 was continually insisted upon, namely, the necessity 
 of basing them on the supernatural, an element 
 that is lacking in most of the humanitarian schemes 
 of the day. His own charities were so lavish and 
 so regardless of race, color, or creed, that a most 
 marvelous recognition of it was publicly made m 
 a quarter where it could never have been expected. 
 In Constantinople, the heart of Mohammedanism 
 a magnificent bronze statue of the pope m full 
 canonicals was erected even before his death the 
 expense of which was borne exclusively by lurks 
 schismatics, and Jews. When Benedict X\ bieathed 
 his last, immediately from-all quarters of the globe 
 came diplomatic messages of condolence, not only 
 the great nations of Europe, but Luxembuig, B 
 garia, Monaco, Finland, Denmark, Norway, An¬ 
 dorra, Japan, Nicaragua, Czechoslovakia, and 
 others. Most affectionate of all was the one from 
 Dail Eireann: “Kindly receive the expression of 
 the profound grief of the Irish people on the death 
 of the great Pontiff who has shown to us such devo¬ 
 tion and paternal affection.” The message from 
 Egypt says: “In the name of the Mussulmans of 
 Egypt the Committee at Paris presents to the whole 
 of Christendom its sincerest condoience for the 
 distressing loss of His Holiness Pope Benedict J , 
 who was the apostolic soul of the worlds peace. 
 His statue erected at Constantinople, the capital of 
 Islam affords us the consolation of having always 
 before our eyes his loving soul, the memory of 
 his efforts for the peace of the world, his profound 
 respect for justice and mans right to liberty. All 
 of this will form an everlasting page m the history 
 
 of the world. 
 
 Benedictine Order (cf. C. E., II-443a), an order 
 which comprises fifteen congregations of monks 
 living under the rule of St. Benedict, each with an 
 abbot president and all under an abbot piimate. 
 The International Benedictine College of St. Anselm 
 in Rome is immediately subject to the Holy See 
 and is the residence of the abbot primate, who, 
 however, during the World War (1915-19), retired 
 to Einsiedeln, and St. Anselm became a military 
 hospital under American auspices. The college was 
 reopened in 1919 and is now crowded to capacity 
 with 81 students, 24 professors, and 15 lay brothers. 
 The present abbot primate is Dom Fidelis de 
 
 Stotzingen of the Beuronese Congregation, born 
 
 1871, ordained 1897, Abbot of Maria Laach in 1901, 
 coadjutor in 1913 of Abbot Primate Hildebrand 
 de Hemptinne, whom he succeeded at the latter s 
 death in 1913. He is also procurator of the Creek 
 Pontifical College of St. Athanasius Pope Bene¬ 
 dict XV was Protector of the whole Benedictine 
 
 0r a) r ’ The Cassinese Congregation, formerly that 
 of St. Justina of Padua, erected by Gregory XII m 
 1408, consists of fourteen abbeys: Monte Cassmo, 
 St. Paul-without-the-Walls, Trimta di Cava, 
 Modena, Florence, Perugia, Sienna, Assisi, Cesena, 
 Catania, Palermo, Monreale, Farfa, and Pontida. 
 The first three are abbeys nullius. Ihe abbot 
 president is Dom Gregory Diamare, elected m 1909, 
 re-elected in 1915. New Constitutions for the con¬ 
 gregation were approved in 1915. St. Justina oi 
 Padua, which was despoiled and its monks dis¬ 
 persed in 1787, was restored and erected into an 
 abbey in 1919 under the Cassinese Congregation 
 
 of Primitive Observance. 
 
 (2) The English Congregation, restored in 1607 
 after its suppression by Henry VIII, numbers five 
 
 abbeys: Downside, Ampleforth, Woolhampton, 
 
 Fort Augustus, and Belmont. In 1920 the first 
 foundation of the English Congregation in America 
 was made at Portsmouth, R. I., under Dom Leonard 
 Sargent. The status of this foundation is still 
 undefined. At Gorey (Ireland) is a school (Mt. 
 
 St. Benedict’s) established by Rev. Francis Sweet- 
 man, a monk of Downside. In 1916 the episcopal 
 see of Newport, of which Belmont was the pro¬ 
 cathedral, was translated to Cardiff, with a metro¬ 
 politan cathedral chapter erected in 1920. Belmont, 
 having renounced its privileges as cathedral priory, 
 was erected into an abbey by papal deciee of 1J 0. 
 
 In recognition of this renunciation and past services 
 of the order, the decree provides that so as far 
 as circumstances permit “there shall always^ be a 
 Benedictine among the bishops of England, lne 
 Anglican Benedictines of Caldey came under Catho¬ 
 lic obedience in 1913, but whereas they observe the 
 Benedictine Rule they have not yet joined the 
 Benedictine Congregation. The abbot president of 
 the English Congregation is Dom Oswald omith. 
 Abbot of Ampleforth since 1900, appointed abbot 
 
 president in April, 1921. A , 
 
 (3) The Hungarian Congregation, affiliated to 
 the Cassinese, comprises the four abbeys of Bakony- 
 bel Tihany, Domolk, and Zalavar, and the six resi¬ 
 dences of Komaron, Koszeg, Gy or, Papa, Sopron, 
 and Esztergom, which are dependent on the Arch- 
 abbey Nullius of Monte Pannoma (Martmsberg). 
 The abbot president and arch-abbot of Monte Ran- 
 nonia is Dom Remigius Bardos, appointed m 1920. 
 
 (4) The Swiss Congregation established in lt>U2, 
 under the patronage of the Immaculate Conception, 
 comprises five abbeys: Einsiedeln, Gnes, Disentis, 
 Engelberg, and Bregenz. The abbot president is 
 Dom Thomas Bossart, Abbot of Einsiedeln since 
 
 19 (5) The Bavarian Congregation erected in 1684, 
 under the patronage of the Holy Angels, numbers 
 ten abbeys and two priories. The abbeys with date 
 of abbatial title are: Metten (1840), Augsburg 
 (1834), Ottobeuren (1834), Scheyern (1842), Welten- 
 burg (1913), St. Boniface (1835) at Munich, 
 Schaftlarn (1866), Ettal (1900), Plankstetten (1917). 
 Niederalteich (1918). The priories are Andechs, 
 dependent on the Abbey of Munich, and the Priory 
 of Sts. Corbinian and Theodore at Munich founded 
 in 1903, canonically erected in 1904 and dependent 
 on the Abbey of Scheyern. The Abbey of Nieder¬ 
 alteich, founded in 731, ceased to exist in 1803, and 
 was restored in 1918. The Abbey °f Ottobeuren, 
 formerly united to the Abbey of Augsburg, in 1918 
 was re-established as a monastery sui juris. Ihe 
 abbot president of the Bavarian Congregation is 
 Dom Placid Glogger, Abbot of Augsburg since 1915. 
 
 (6) The Brazilian Congregation, founded m lost, 
 ceased to exist in 1889, and was restored by monks 
 of the Beuronese Congregation m 1895. It consists 
 of six abbeys and the Priory of Trinidad, founded 
 1912 and canonically erected m 1915. The abbeys, 
 with date of restoration, are: Rio de Janeiro (1903), 
 Bahia (1889), Olinda (1895), Parahyba (1903), Sao 
 Paulo (1900), Quixada (founded 1900). United to 
 the Abbey Nullius of Our Lady of Montserrat at 
 Rio de Janeiro is the territory of Rio Branco an¬ 
 nexed in 1909. The arch-abbot and President of 
 the congregation is Joseph Faria, elected m W-U. 
 The Abbey of Parahyba was united to the Abbey 
 
 of Olinda in 1906. . ... , , . 
 
 (7) The Gallican Congregation, established m 
 
 1837, since the expulsion of its religious from 
 France has houses in England, Spam, Italy, Belgium, 
 Holland, Mexico, Argentina, and Canada. It num- 
 bers nine abbeys, the Conventual Priory of Our 
 
BENEDICTINE 
 
 97 
 
 BENEDICTINE 
 
 Lady of Victory at Paris, founded in 1893 and 
 canonically erected in 1900, and five cells. The 
 abbeys, with their present place of residence, are* 
 Solesmes (Quarr Abbey, Isle of Wight, England), 
 Liguge (Chevetogne, Belgium), Marseilles (Chiari, 
 Italy), Silos, Fontanelle (Conques in Ardennes, Bel¬ 
 gium), Farnborough, St. Maurice of Clairvaux in 
 Luxemburg (erected in 1909, succeeding to the 
 rights and privileges of the Abbey of St. Maurus 
 at Glanefuil), Wisque (Oosterhout, Holland), Ker- 
 gonan (Ciney-Linciaux, Belgium). The cells are: 
 Cogullada in Saragossa, Spain, dependent on the 
 Abbey of Liguge; San Rafael in Mexico, Madrid, 
 and Buenos Aires, dependent on the Abbey of 
 Silos; and St. Benedict of the Lake in Sherbrooke, 
 Canada, dependent on the Abbey of Fontanelle. 
 In 1921 Dom Paul Delatte resigned as Abbot of 
 Quarr Abbey and Superior General of the Gallican 
 Congregation, and was succeeded by Dom Germain 
 Gozien, hitherto prior of Quarr Abbey. 
 
 (8) The American-Cassinese Congregation, 
 erected by Pius IX in 1855, under the title of the 
 Holy Guardian Angels, comprises eleven abbeys: 
 St. Vincent’s (Beatty, Penn.), St. John (College- 
 ville, Minn.), St. Benedict’s (Atchison, Kan.), St. 
 Mary’s (Newark, N. J.), Maryhelp (Belmont, N. 
 C.), St. Bernard’s (Cullman Co., Ala.), St. Pro¬ 
 copius’s (Lisle, Ill.), St. Leo’s (Pasco Co., Fla.), 
 St. Bede’s (Peru, Ill.), St. Peter’s (Muenster, Sask.), 
 St. Martin’s (Lacey, Wash.). St. Peter’s was es¬ 
 tablished under the name of Cluny in Illinois in 
 1892, and in 1903 was translated to Canada and 
 erected into an abbey in 1911 and abbey nullius in 
 1921. Maryhelp is an abbey nullius erected in 
 1910. St. Bede’s was erected into an abbey in 1910 
 and St. Martin’s in 1914. The abbot president is 
 Dom Ernest Helmstetter, Abbot of Newark since 
 1910. Abbot visitors are Dom Bernard Menges, 
 Abbot of St. Bernard’s, and Dom Vincent Huber, 
 Abbot of St. Bede’s. 
 
 (9) The Congregation of Beuron established by 
 Pius IX in 1868, comprises seven abbeys and three 
 priories. The abbeys are: Beuron, Prague, Seckau, 
 Maria-Laach, Gerleve, Cucujaes, and Neresheim. 
 The priories are: Mount Sion, Jerusalem (founded 
 1906); Kempen (founded 1908), dependent on 
 Beuron; and Gruessau, dependent on Prague. The 
 Abbey of Sts. Ulrich and Afra at Neresheim was 
 restored in 1920. At the death of Dom Maurus 
 (1900), Dom Placid (d. 1908) succeeded him as 
 Arch-abbot of Beuron. His successor, Dom Ilde- 
 fonse Schober, resigned in 1918, and Dom Raphael 
 Walzer was elected arch-abbot. The Holy See has 
 delegated Dom Raphael Molitor, Abbot of Ger¬ 
 leve, to govern the Beuronese Congregation. In 
 1920 Maredsous and Louvain were separated from 
 Beuron and with St. Andre formed into the Belgian 
 congregation. In 1922 the community of Erding- 
 ton Abbey (q.v.) was disbanded. 
 
 (10) The Swiss-American Congregation, founded 
 in 1870, numbers six abbeys and the Priory of 
 St. Michael at Cottonwood, Idaho (1908), de¬ 
 pendent on Conception Abbey. The abbeys, with 
 date of erection, are: St. Meinrad’s, St. Meinrad, 
 Ind. (1870), Conception Abbey, Conception, Mo. 
 (1881), New Subiaco, Spielerville, Ark. (1891), St. 
 Joseph’s, Covington, La. (1903), St. Mary’s, Rich- 
 ardton, N. D. (1903), St. Benedict’s, Mount Angel, 
 Ore. (1904). The abbot president, Dom Frowin 
 Conrad, Abbot of Conception Abbey since 1881, has 
 two assistants:" Dom Athanasius Schmitt, Abbot 
 of St, Meinrad, and Dom Ignatius Conrad, Abbot 
 of New Subiaco. 
 
 ('ll) The Cassinese Congregation of Primitive 
 Observance, founded in 1851 and erected in 1872, is 
 
 made up of five provinces. The superior general is 
 Dom Benedict Gariador, elected in 1920. He is 
 assisted by Dom Claudius Barnaba (Italian and 
 English provinces), Dom Vincent Coosemans (Bel¬ 
 gian province), Dom Fulbert Glories (French 
 province), Dom Isidore Fernandez (Spanish 
 province). The pro-procurator general is Dom 
 Gerard lornarole, who resides at St. Ambrose. 
 
 (a) The Italian province comprises the proto- 
 ccenoby of St. Scholastica and the hermitage of the 
 
 i * ,9 rotto at Subiaco, which is an abbey nullius 
 * l j e ^ s G enoa > Finalpia, Parma, Praglia, on 
 which depend the house at Daila and the monastery 
 cit \ 6 mc 0 , tlio Abb 0 y Nullius of IVIonto \ 0rg1nG 
 the monastery of St. Onofrio (Sicciole, Istria), the 
 house ol St. Ambrose at Rome, and the Abbey 
 of St. Justina of Padua, restored in 1919 and ad¬ 
 ministered by Praglia. The abbot visitor is Dom 
 Isidore Sain, Abbot of Praglia. 
 
 (b) The English province comprises the Abbey 
 of St. Augustine at Ramsgate, with Dom Thomas 
 Bergh as abbot visitor. 
 
 (c) The Belgian province comprises the Abbeys 
 of Affligem, Termonde, Steenbrugge, and Merkel- 
 beek, the house of Siegburg dependent on Merkel- 
 beek, Priory of Cornelemiinster, and Prefecture 
 Apostolic of Northern Transvaal. The Abbot Gen¬ 
 eral Dom Benedict Gariador is visitor of this 
 province. 
 
 (d) The French province comprises the Abbeys 
 of Pierre-qui-Vire, Buckfast, Oklahoma, with a de¬ 
 pendent priory in California, Belloc with some of 
 its community in Spain at Lazcano, Encalcat 
 (Dourgne), and Kerbeneat, and the priories of Nino- 
 Dios (Argentina), and Jerusalem. The abbot visitor 
 is Dom Maurus Etcheverry. 
 
 (e) The Spanish province comprises the Abbeys 
 of Montserrat, Vilvaneira, and Samos, the Abbey 
 Nullius of New Norcia, the Priories of Podio 
 (Pueyo), St. Clodio, Manila (Philippines), De 
 Miraculo (Solsona), the house of Los Cabos de¬ 
 pendent on Samos, the monastery of Lorenzana, 
 and the monastery of Puente-Alto (Chilo) founded 
 from Samos in 1915 and dependent on it. The abbot 
 visitor is Dom Joseph Alvarez, Abbot of Samos. 
 
 (12) The Austrian Congregation of the Immacu¬ 
 late Conception, erected in 1889, numbers ten ab¬ 
 beys: Kremsmiinster, Brevnau-Braunau including 
 the arch-ccenoby of Brevnau and the monastery of 
 Braunau, Saint Lambert in Styria, Gottweig, Ad- 
 mont, Melk, St. Paul in Carinthia, Seitenstetten, 
 Altenburg, and Vienna. The abbot president is 
 Dom Adalbert Dungel, Abbot of Gottweig, elected 
 in 1889. 
 
 (13) The Austrian Congregation of St. Joseph, 
 erected in 1889, comprises the Priory of Innsbruck 
 and six abbeys: Salzburg, Michaelbeuern, Fiecht, 
 Lambach, Rajhrad, and Marienberg. The abbot 
 president is Dom Willibald Hauthaler, Abbot of 
 Salzburg, elected in 1901. The abbot visitors are 
 Dom Leo Treuinfels, Abbot of Marienberg, and 
 Dom Ccelestin Baumgartner, Abbot of Lambach. 
 
 (14) The Congregation of St. Ottilien, estab¬ 
 lished in 1904, has the special work of foreign mis¬ 
 sions. It comprises: the Arch-abbey of St. Ottilien 
 (erected 1902; arch-abbev, 1914); the Abbeys of 
 Schweiklberg (1914), Muensterschwarzach (1914), 
 and Seoul (1913); the Priory of St. Ludwig at 
 Wipfeld, Bavaria, dependent on Muensterschwar¬ 
 zach; the houses at Dillingen, Munich, and Passau; 
 the Vicariate Apostolic of Dar-es-Salaam; and the 
 Prefecture Apostolic of Lindi. The superior gen¬ 
 eral is Dom Norbert Weber, Arch-abbot, of St. 
 Ottilien, elected in 1902. 
 
 (15) The Belgian Congregation was erected by 
 
BENEDICTINE 
 
 BENEDICTINE 
 
 98 
 
 rmnl decree of 20 February, 1920, under the title 
 of the Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin. It com¬ 
 prises the Abbeys of Maredsous and Louvam 
 separated from the Congregation of Beuion, the 
 Abbey of St. Andrew near Bruges, separated from 
 the Brazilian Congregation, and the Prefecture 
 Apostolic of Katanga. The abbot president is 
 Dorn Robert de Kerchove, Abbot of Louvain. Dur- 
 
 The following table shows the increase of the 
 Benedictine Order in the last forty years m the 
 number of members and monastenes. 
 
 Year 
 
 i 
 
 C/3 
 
 o3 tn 
 
 C o> 
 
 o-e 
 
 Priests 
 
 Clerics 
 
 Lay 
 
 Brothers 
 
 1880 . 
 
 107 
 
 1,870 
 
 210 
 
 570 
 
 1RQ4 . 
 
 119 
 
 2,418 
 
 478 
 
 y52 
 
 1RQR . 
 
 128 
 
 2,628 
 
 669 
 
 1,202 
 
 1Q05 . 
 
 155 
 
 3,076 
 
 676 
 
 1,435 
 
 1Q10 . 
 
 156 
 
 3,410 
 
 689 
 
 1,624 
 
 1920. 
 
 159 
 
 3,844 
 
 712 
 
 1,676 
 
 Increase . 
 
 52 
 
 1,974 
 
 502 
 
 1,106 
 
 xn 
 
 <D 
 
 ZJ 
 
 O 
 
 Jz; 
 
 w 
 
 3 
 
 O 
 
 *3) 
 
 '5 
 
 £ 
 
 115 
 
 464 
 
 449 
 
 753 
 
 734 
 
 806 
 
 691 
 
 2,765 
 
 4,308 
 
 4,948 
 
 5,940 
 
 6,457 
 
 7,038 
 
 4,273 
 
 abandoned after the war. 
 
 Present Work of the Order.—T he Benedictines 
 
 continue to direct their activities to parochial, mis- 
 
 important ^literary Tork^is ^thatTf 'the'Pontifical ~Th7^ic7of the Order for the year 1920 ar 
 Commission for the revision and correction of the as follows. 
 
 Vulgate, instituted by Pius X and reor^mzed in - 
 1914 by Motu Poprio of Benedict XV. The head- 
 Quarters of this Commission is at the palace of 
 St. Callistus in Transtevere. The president is Dorn 
 Aidan Gasquet and the vice-president is Dom -- 
 
 Ambrogio Amelli. . Cassinese 
 
 All of the Congregations have parochial or mis- English ... 
 sionar/dtie^ as'mfy be judged by the following 
 table, giving the diocesan, incorporated, ami non^ Bav 
 
 Congregation 
 
 SI 
 
 5 xn 
 G 0) 
 
 *2 (D 
 -4—' 
 
 CO 
 
 <D 
 
 • fH 
 
 & 
 
 o 
 
 u 
 
 (D 
 
 O 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 zj 
 
 > 
 
 O 
 
 525 
 
 cn 
 
 s-. 
 
 a> 
 
 A 
 
 . -V- 1 
 
 >> O 
 
 c3 ^ 
 
 
 CO 
 
 3 
 
 O 
 
 *3) 
 
 ; -x” , ' , , i uttvanan ... • ■ • i 
 
 incorporated parishes, and the mission under^the Brazilian .| J 
 
 14 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 care of Benedictines’, with the mmto of fihal ; || 
 
 churches, public oratories, secular priests, extern Beuronese 
 clerics, and souls in each. 
 
 Congregation 
 
 ^ CO 
 cd a> 
 
 w.a 
 2 '3 
 
 T3 
 
 cO 
 
 £ co 
 O a) 
 
 Sh CO 
 
 8-5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <D 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Souls 
 
 a 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 xn 
 
 CD 
 
 
 
 Aclmin- 
 
 o 
 
 o zn 
 
 xn 
 
 xn 
 
 <D 
 
 
 
 istered 
 
 ZZ 
 
 i xn 
 
 £ 
 
 O 
 
 • i—4 
 
 C Q 
 xn 
 
 5-< 
 
 .2 3 
 
 .2 'S 
 
 H xn 
 
 CO -+-1 
 
 3 <D 
 
 r< 03 
 
 S 2 
 
 to 
 
 O 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 0) 
 
 r nX.u 
 
 
 
 Swiss-American . 
 
 Cassinese of Prim. Obs.. 
 Immaculate Conception.. 
 
 St. Joseph . 
 
 St. Ottilien . 
 
 Belgian . 
 
 Coll, of St. Anselm. 
 
 Total 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 34 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 4 
 1 
 
 159 
 
 89 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 44 
 
 4 
 
 270 
 
 28 
 
 25 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 175 
 
 49 
 
 14 
 
 , i . . 
 
 • • • 
 
 243 
 
 24 
 
 11 
 
 88 
 
 11 
 
 168 
 
 16 
 
 24 
 
 197 
 
 27 
 
 82 
 
 19 
 
 8 
 
 32 
 
 11 
 
 270 
 
 39 
 
 52 
 
 118 
 
 25 
 
 529 
 
 175 
 
 63 
 
 191 
 
 12 
 
 266 
 
 43 
 
 26 
 
 277 
 
 41 
 
 239 
 
 37 
 
 42 
 
 132 
 
 12 
 
 549 
 
 152 
 
 136 
 
 241 
 
 58 
 
 549 
 
 28 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 • • • 
 
 171 
 
 23 
 
 7 
 
 91 
 
 10 
 
 121 
 
 21 
 
 35 
 
 188 
 
 80 
 
 '122 
 
 52 
 
 21 
 
 57 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 1 
 
 
 5,844 
 
 | 712 
 
 490 
 
 1,676 
 
 316 
 
 153 
 
 346 
 
 238 
 
 377 
 
 432 
 
 152 
 
 504 
 
 970 
 
 653 
 
 462 
 
 1,136 
 
 598 
 
 302 
 
 445 
 
 268 
 
 2 
 
 Cassinese . 
 
 English . 
 
 Hungarian .... 
 Swiss ......... 
 
 Bavarian . 
 
 Brazilian . 
 
 Gallican ....... 
 
 American- 
 Cassinese .... 
 
 Beuronese ..... 
 
 Swiss-American 
 Cassinese of 
 Prim. Obs... 
 Immaculate 
 Conception .. 
 
 St. Joseph. 
 
 St. Ottilien- 
 
 Belgian . 
 
 75 
 
 ’is 
 
 37 
 
 Total 
 
 130 
 
 4 
 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 40 ! 
 
 141 
 
 9 
 
 52 
 
 39 
 
 • • • 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 . . . 
 
 ... 
 
 25 
 
 
 . . . 
 
 21 
 
 34 
 
 . . . 
 
 . . . 
 
 23 
 
 2 
 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 . . . 
 
 . . . 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 
 19 
 
 35 1 
 
 . . . 
 
 . . . 
 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 • • • 
 
 . . . 
 
 . . • 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 1 
 
 • • • 
 
 • • • 
 
 80 
 
 99 
 
 
 74 
 
 10 
 
 • • • 
 
 • . • 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 • • • 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 
 42 
 
 41 
 
 21 
 
 25 
 
 2 
 
 . . . 
 
 * * * 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 21 
 
 30 
 
 78 
 
 43 
 
 192 
 
 13 
 
 
 57 
 
 153 
 
 • • • 
 
 
 29 
 
 2 
 
 . . • 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 . . . 
 
 . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 ... 
 
 • . • 
 
 . . • 
 
 . . . 
 
 9 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 466 
 
 219 
 
 40 
 
 261 
 
 339 
 
 | 227 
 
 59 
 
 Recent REduLATioNS.—The Benedictine Order is 
 177,267 affected by the recent codification of Canon Law 
 “Hi! as follows (Canons 501, 574, and 964 ): According 
 30,542 to Canon 501 superiors are strictly forbidden to in- 
 86,870 terfere in matters pertaining to the Holy Umce. 
 24 ’An abbot primate and the superior of a monastic 
 congregation do not enjoy all the powers and juris- 
 166,126 diction conferred by common law on highei su- 
 periors; their power and jurisdiction is as set forth 
 in their own constitutions and in special decrees of 
 106,745 t he jjoly See. [However, the moderator of a mon- 
 4 Q 8 937 astic congregation with his council or chapter of 
 75’,323 at least four religious is competent to dismiss pro- 
 I3,ooo fessed religious. The supreme moderator of a 
 10,000 monastic congregation is the judge of appeal from 
 To22 072 decisions rendered by local abbots.] Canon 574 
 
 , ._1 provides that at the end of the novitiate there must 
 
 TV,a Ren ames have charge of the Greek Fon- be a profession with temporary vows for three years 
 
 .■7 1 Cnlleve of St Athanasius, 33 seminaries, 47 a t least before perpetual profession. According t 
 tifical Cohege ol St Atnanas asj j pr0 . Canon g64 ; n the matte r of the ordination of re- 
 
 colleges, l commercial c 11 | o ' o]g oblates , and 20 lieious, a regular abbot de regivune, even if he has 
 
 school^ with^aii^lumnfomb^S^distributed^ among 
 
 - sion, and provided the abbot himself is a priest 
 
 the congregations as follows 
 
 Congregations 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 A 
 
 G 
 
 HI 
 
 a 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 Congregations 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 m 
 
 c 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 Cassinese . 
 
 English . 
 
 Hungarian . 
 
 Swiss . 
 
 Bavarian . 
 
 Braziliai .. 
 
 Amer i can - Cassi¬ 
 nese .. 
 
 Beuronese . 
 
 Swiss-American 
 
 6 ! 
 8 
 7 
 11 
 19 
 
 9 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 605 
 
 864 
 
 2,559 
 
 2,112 
 
 3,066 
 
 1,357 
 
 3,551 
 
 49 
 
 790 
 
 32 ! 2,959 
 
 and has legitimately received the abbatial blessing. 
 Outside these limits, any ordination conferred by 
 the abbot is null and void, any privilege to the 
 contrary being revoked, unless the abbot ordinary 
 has received episcopal consecration. 
 
 Distinguished Benedictines. —Among Benedic- 
 1.454 tines of note living at the present time are: Aldan 
 
 . ., » Gasquet (b. 1846), former Abbot President of the 
 
 °‘" llen . | 5 I PS English Congregation, created cardinal 1914. Ray- 
 
 S College':::: l j “ nufnd Netshammer (b, 1862), monk of Emsmdeto 
 
 , 7*9 ! of the Swiss Congregation, Archbishop of Bukarest 
 
 Total . 162 | 19,608 1905 . Anselm Pecci (b. 1868), of the Cassinese Con- 
 
 Cassinese of Prim. 
 
 Obs. 
 
 Immaculate Con- | 
 
 ception .I 
 
 St. Joseph . 12 
 
BENEDICTINE 
 
 99 
 
 BENEDICTINE 
 
 gregation, Bishop of Tricarico 1903, Archbishop of 
 Acerenza and Matera, 1907. Beda Cardinale (b. 
 1S69), of the Cassinese Congregation of Primitive 
 Observance, Abbot of Praglia 1905, Bishop of Civita¬ 
 vecchia and Corneto 1907, titular Archbishop of 
 Laodicea and delegate Apostolic of Perugia 1910. 
 Romanus Bilsborrow (b. 1862), of the English Con¬ 
 gregation, Bishop of Port Louis 1911, Archbishop of 
 Cardiff 1916, resigned 1920, titular Archbishop of 
 Cius, now at Douai Abbey. Maurus Caruana (b. 
 1867), of the English Congregation, Archbishop of 
 Malta 1915. Gregorio Grasso (b. 1869), of the 
 Cassinese Congregation of Primitive Observance, 
 Abbot of Praglia 1907, Abbot of Monte Vergine 
 1908, Archbishop of Salerno 1915. Leo Haid (b. 
 1849), of the American Cassinese Congregation, 
 Abbot of Belmont 1885, Vicar Apostolic of North 
 Carolina 1887, and titular Bishop of Messene 1888. 
 Medard Kohl (b. 1859), of the Hungarian Congre¬ 
 gation, titular Bishop of Samosata and Auxiliary 
 of Esztergom 1900. Leo de Mergel (b. 1847), of the 
 Bavarian Congregation, Abbot of Metten 1898, 
 Bishop of Eichstiitt 1905. Gerard van Caloen (b. 
 1S53), of the Brazilian Congregation, Abbot of Rio 
 de Janeiro 1905, titular Bishop of Phocsea 1906, 
 Archabbot of the Brazilian Congregation 1908, re¬ 
 signed 1915, now at the Abbey of St. Andrew, 
 Bruges. Thomas Spreiter (b. 1865), of the Ottilien 
 Congregation, Vicar Apostolic of Dar-es-Salaam and 
 titular Bishop of Thaense 1906. Vincent Wehrle 
 (b. 1855), of the Swiss-American Congregation, 
 Abbot of Richardton 1903, Bishop of Bismarck 1910. 
 Hemy Gregory Thompson (b. 1871), of the Cas¬ 
 sinese Congregation of Primitive Observance, Bishop 
 of Gibraltar 1910. Boniface Sauer (b. 1877), of the 
 Ottilien Congregation, Abbot of Seoul 1915, Vicar 
 Apostolic of Ouen-San 1920, and titular Bishop of 
 Appiaria 1921 . Fidelis de Stotzingen, Abbot Primate 
 of the Order (see above). Maurus Maria Serafini 
 (b. 1859), Abbot of Parma 1896, Abbot General of 
 the Cassinese Congregation of Primitive Observance 
 1900-20, Consultor of the Sacred Congregations of 
 the Propagation of the Faith, for Eastern Affairs, 
 and Rites, and Secretary of the Sacred Congrega¬ 
 tion of Religious. David Oswald Hunter-Blair (b. 
 1853), of the English Congregation, author, Abbot 
 of Fort Augustus 1913, resigned 1917, titular Abbot 
 of Abingdon. The abbots nullius are as follows: 
 Gregory Diamare, of Monte Cassino; Ildephonse 
 Schuster, of St. Paul-without-the-Walls; Remigius 
 Bardos, of Monte Pannonia; Placide Nicolini, of 
 Trinita di Cava; Ramirus Marcone, of Monte Ver¬ 
 gine; Anselm Catalan, of New Norcia; Thomas 
 Bossart, of Einsiedeln; Peter Eggerath, of Rio de 
 Janeiro; Leo Haid, of Belmont; Laurence Salvi, of 
 Subiaco; Michael Ott, of Muenster. The abbots 
 presidents are given under each congregation. The 
 prefects apostolic are: John de Hemptinne, of 
 Katanga; Ildephonse Lanslots, of Transvaal; Willi- 
 brord Lay, of Lindi. 
 
 Among noted Benedictines deceased since the 
 year 1906 are: Stefano Gerbino di Cannitello (b. 
 1834; d. 1907), of Monte Cassino, Bishop of Trapani 
 1895. Benedict Pascuttini (b. 1819; d. 1907), monk 
 of Praglia. Wm. Benedict Scarisbrick (b. 1828; 
 d. 1908>, of the English Congregation, Bishop of 
 Port Louis 18/1, resigned 1888, titular Archbishop 
 of Cyzicus. Silvano de Steffano (b. 1835; d. 1908), 
 of the Cassinese Congregation of Primitive Obser¬ 
 vance, Abbot of TrinitA di Cava 1902. Benedict 
 Bellandi (b. 1835) d. 190S), of the Cassinese Con¬ 
 gregation, Abbot of Florence. Frangois Chamard 
 (b. 1828; d. 190S), of the Gallican Congregation, 
 author, Prior of Liguge. Dominic IJoenigl (d. 1908), 
 ol the Austrian Congregation, Abbot of Seiten- 
 
 Athanasius Logerot (b. 1840; 
 a. 1J08), of the Gallican Congregation, Prior of 
 Kergonan. Dominic Machado (b. 1824; d. 1908) 
 of the Beuronese Congregation, named’ Abbot of 
 Bahia in 1896 at the restoration of the Brazilian 
 Congregation, _ Superior General of the Brazilian 
 Congregation m 1900, and Abbot of Rio de Janeiro 
 1903. Benedict Sauter (b. 1835; d. 1908), of the 
 Beuronese Congregation, Abbot of Emmaiis 
 (Prague). Placid Wolter (b. 1828; d. 1908), of the 
 Beuronese Congregation, Abbot of Maredsous 1878 
 Archabbot of Beuron and Abbot President of the 
 Congregation 1890. Boniface Marie Krug (b. 1838* 
 d 1909) of the Cassinese Congregation. Prior of 
 Monte Cassino 1874, Abbot of Cesena 1888, Abbot 
 President of the Cassinese Congregation 1895, Arch- 
 Monte Cassino 1897. Alexander Karl 
 fci. 1909), of the Austrian Congregation of the 
 immaculate Conception, Abbot of Melk 1875-1909. 
 Remigio Guido Barbieri (b. 1836; d. 1910), of the 
 Cassinese Congregation, Abbot of Perugia 1897 
 titular Bishop of Theodosiopolis 1901, and Vicar 
 j of Gibraltar. Hippolyte Feher (b. 1842; 
 
 d. 1910), Abbot President of the Hungarian Con¬ 
 gregation and Archabbot Nullius of Monte Pan- 
 noma 1892 honorary member of the Academy of 
 Sciences, doctor of theology at Budapest, vice- 
 president of the Council of Public Instruction, and 
 royal councilor. Ildephonse Bertran (b. 1827; d. 
 1911), of the Cassinese Congregation of Primitive 
 Observance vicar general and prior of the Abbey 
 Nullius of New Norcia. Joseph Bourigaud (b. 1821; 
 d. 1911), of the Gallican Congregation, Abbot of 
 Liguge 1876, resigned 1906. Bede Coppert (b. 1882; 
 d. 1911), of the Brazilian Congregation, zealous 
 vorker in the territory of Rio Branco. Acharius 
 Demuynch (b. 1878; d. 1911), of the Brazilian Con¬ 
 gregation, vicar general of the prelature nullius of 
 Montserrat (Rio de Janeiro). Peter August O’Neill 
 (b. 1841 , d. 1911), of the English Congregation, 
 Bishop of Port Louis 1896, resigned and transferred 
 to the titular Bishopric of Isionda 1909. Pedro 
 Rueda (b. 1844; d. 1911), of the Cassinese Congre¬ 
 gation of Primitive Observance, Abbot of Samos 
 1893. Vittore-Maria Corvaia (b. 1845; d. 1913), of 
 the Cassinese Congregation of Primitive Observance, 
 coadjutoi of tliG Abbot Nullius of ]VIoiit6 Vcrgmo 
 1879, Abbot Nullius 1884, resigned 1908, titular 
 Bishop of Tripoli 1909. Hildebrand de Hemptinne 
 y?* 1849; d. 1913), of the Congregation of Beuron, 
 Abbot of Maredsous 1890, Abbot Primate of the 
 Benedictine Order 1893-1913. Albert Noel (b. 1830; 
 d. 1913), of the Gallican Congregation, librarian of 
 Solesmes and Clairvaux. Fulgence Torres (b. 1861; 
 d. 1914), of the Cassinese Congregation of Primitive 
 Observance, Administrator Apostolic of New Norcia 
 1901, elected abbot 1902, titular Bishop of Dory- 
 Iseum 1910, administrator of the Vicariate Apostolic 
 of Kimberley. Leoni Allodi (b. 1841; d. 1914), of 
 the Cassinese Congregation of Bishops and Regu¬ 
 lars, titular Abbot of Subiaco 1910, author of mon¬ 
 astic works, distinguished Hellenist. Francois 
 Bucliot (b. 1835; d. 1913), of the Gallican Congre¬ 
 gation, master of lay brothers at Silos. Gilbert 
 Dolan (b. 1853; d. 1914), monk of Downside, ac¬ 
 tively connected with the cause of the English 
 martyrs, with the Catholic Record and Catholic 
 Truth Societies, author of historical, archaeological, 
 and architectural articles. Marius Ferotin (b. 1855; 
 d. 1914), monk of Farnborough, liturgical and his¬ 
 torical writer. Piiul Vannier (d. 1914), of the 
 Gallican Congregation, Prior of St. Benedict of the 
 Lake, Sherbrooke, Canada. Benedetto Bonazzi (b. 
 1840; d. 1915), of the Cassinese Congregation, 
 Abbot of Trinita di Cava 1894, Bishop of Benevento 
 
BENEDICTINE 
 
 BENEDICTINE 
 
 100 
 
 1902. John Cuthbert Hedley (b. 1837; d. 1915), 
 monk of Ampleforth, titular Bishop of Csesaropolis 
 and auxiliary Bishop of Menevia 1873, Bishop of 
 Newport 1881, editor of the Dublin Review 
 author and distinguished preacher. Anselm Caplet 
 (b. 1836; d. 1916), of the Cassinese Congregation, 
 dean of Monte Cassino, compiler of the Index, poet. 
 Mathieu Couturier (b. 1863; d. 1916), of the Gal- 
 lican Congregation, sub-prior, and master of novices 
 at Liguge and Chevetogne. Lucien Fromage (b. 
 1846- d 1916), monk of Solesmes, contmuator of 
 Gueranger’s “L’Annee Liturgique.” Joseph Rabory 
 (b. 1843; d. 1916), monk of Solesmes, became a 
 secular priest at Tours, re-entered Benedictine life 
 in Spain, author of religious works. Omer Graux 
 (b 1858; d. 1917), of the Gallican Congregation, 
 Prior of Wisque (Oosterhout). Ildephonse Guepin 
 (b 1836; d. 1917), of the Gallican Congregation, 
 author, Abbot of Silos 1880, collaborator with Dorn 
 Couturier in the drawing up of the new constitu¬ 
 tions of the Gallican Congregation, approved by 
 Rome. Jules-Marie Mellet (b. 1846; d. 1917), monk 
 of Solesmes, architect of numerous churches, and 
 the Abbey of Solesmes. Edmond Schmidt (b. 1843; 
 d. 1916), monk of Metten, author of several works 
 on the Benedictine rule. Domenico Serafini (b. 
 1852; d. 1918), Abbot General of the Cassinese 
 Congregation of Primitive Observance, ordained 
 1877, master of novices 1882, then prior of Subiaco 
 1891, procurator general of the Congregation at 
 Rome 1892, and consultor of the Congregation of 
 Bishops and Regulars (until 1908), and the Con¬ 
 gregation of the Holy Office, abbot general 1896, 
 Archbishop of Spoleto 1900, Apostolic delegate to 
 Mexico 1905, titular Bishop of Seleucia Plena 1912, 
 consultor of the Propaganda and assessor of the 
 Holy Office 1911, created cardinal 1914. Alphonse 
 Ettinger (b. 1867; d. 1918), of the Cassinese Con¬ 
 gregation, Abbot of Trinita di Cava 1910. Tiburtius 
 Hajdu (b. 1858; d. 1918), of the Hungarian Con¬ 
 gregation, Archabbot Nullius of Monte Pannonia 
 1910. Giovanni del Papa (b. 1850; d. 1918), of the 
 Cassinese Congregation, Abbot of St. Paul-without- 
 the-Walls 1904. Antoine du Bourg (b. 1838; d. 
 1918), of the Gallican Congregation, prior of Our 
 Lady of Victory at Paris, author. Paul Denis (d. 
 1918), of the Gallican Congregation, author of 
 several works on the Congregation of St. Maur. 
 Jerome Hunt (b. 1844; d. 1918), missionary among 
 the Sioux Indians of North Dakota, translator of 
 the Bible into Sioux. Paulin Joumier (b. 1854; 
 d. 1918), of the Gallican Congregation, Prior of 
 Kergonan. Auguste de Meyer (d. 1918), of the 
 Cassinese Congregation of Primitive Observance, 
 Abbot of Affligem. Paul Picard (b. 1848; d. 1918), 
 of the Gallican Congregation, ordained priest in 
 Rouen 1872, professed Benedictine 1904, prior of 
 the Abbey of St. Wandrille (Fontanelle). Do- 
 menico-Gaspare Lancia di Brolo (b. 1825; d. 1919), 
 of the Cassinese Congregation, titular Bishop of 
 Philadelphia and auxiliary of Palermo 1878, Arch¬ 
 bishop of Monreale 1884, died at the venerable age 
 of ninety-four, after an episcopate of thirty-five 
 years. Norbert Birt (b. 1861; d. 1919), monk of 
 Downside,' author of historical works, member of 
 the committee of the Catholic Truth Society and 
 the Council of the Catholic Record Society. 
 Gregory Danner (b. 1861; d. 1919), Abbot President 
 of the Bavarian Congregation and Abbot of Munich 
 1904. Bruno Destree (d. 1919), monk of Maredsous, 
 artist and writer. Bruno Doerfler (b. 1866; d. 1919), 
 of the American Cassinese Congregation, rector of 
 the University of St. John in Minnesota 1899, prior 
 of Muenster 1906, and first abbot 1911, vicar gen¬ 
 eral of the diocese of Prince Albert 1912. Hugo 
 
 Gaisser (b. 1853; d. 1919), of the Beuronese Con¬ 
 gregation, prior of St. Andrew, at Bruges, 1912, 
 retired to Ettal in 1916, author of numerous litur¬ 
 gical works. Wolfgang Steinkogler (d. 1919), of 
 the American Cassinese Congregation, prior of St. 
 Martin’s at Lacey and one of the founders of the 
 college of this monastery. Jean Besse (b. 1861; 
 d 1920), of the Gallican Congregation, founder of 
 the “Bulletin de St. Martin,” the “Revue Mabillon 
 “La Vie et Les Arts Liturgiques,” and director of 
 “L’Univers” during the war, author of numerous 
 works, among them “Le Moine Benedicts ” “Les 
 Moines d’Orient,” “Le Monachisne Afncam, Les 
 Moines de l’ancienne France” (crowned by the 
 French Academy). Augustin Gatard (b. 1861; d. 
 1920), of the Gallican Congregation, active in the 
 restoration of plain chant, formed several Gregorian 
 schools, author of a manual on Gregorian chant, of 
 “La Musique Gregorienne,” and several articles on 
 theology and canon law, collaborator in the “Dic- 
 tionnaire d’archeologie et de liturgie and other 
 works. James Christopher Gauthey (b. 1833; d. 
 1920), of the Gallican Congregation, of great learn¬ 
 ing and sanctity, Abbot of Marseilles 1876, exiled 
 at Chiari. Peter Nugent (b. 1859; d. 1920), or¬ 
 dained priest in Baltimore 1882, professed Benedic¬ 
 tine at Erdington 1902, monk at Beuron, chaplain 
 of English and American prisoners and of the 
 Indian troops during the recent war. Hugh Sprin¬ 
 ger (b. 1872; d. 1920), of the Austrian Congrega¬ 
 tion, Abbot of Seitenstetten. . . 
 
 Nuns.— It is difficult to give complete statistics 
 for the Benedictine nuns as most of them are under 
 the jurisdiction of individual bishops, and, unlike 
 the monks, are not formed into congregations. 
 There are thirteen monasteries under the jurisdic¬ 
 tion of Benedictine abbots. These, with the abbeys 
 upon which they are dependent, are as follows: 
 Amelia (St. Paul-without-the-Walls), Bertholdstem 
 (Beuron), Casino (Monte Cassino), Eibmgen 
 (Beuron), Einsiedeln (Einsiedeln), Fahr (Emsie- 
 deln), Fort Augustus (Fort Augustus), Habsthal 
 (Muri-Gries), Maredret (under the Abbot Primate), 
 Sarnen (Engelberg), Stanbrook (under the Abbot 
 President of the English Congregation), Sao Paulo 
 (Sao Paulo). 
 
 Certain monasteries may be grouped together ac¬ 
 cording to their work or foundation. Those devoted 
 to the perpetual adoration of the Blessed Sacrament 
 are: Amandola, Catania, Milan, Ronco di Ghiffa, 
 Sortino (Italy); Arechavaleta, Guernika, Onate, 
 Port-Bon (Spain); Atherstone, Colwich (England); 
 Bayena, Csen, Craon, Othmarsheim, Pans (two 
 monasteries); Rosheim, Rouen (France); Clyde, 
 Sturgis (United States); Driebergen, Huistenbosch, 
 Princenhage, Oldenzaal, Tegelen (Holland); En- 
 denich, Hamikolt, Herstelle, Johannisberg, Kempen, 
 Koln-Raderberg, Kreitz, Osnabriick, Trier, Varen- 
 sell, Vinnenberg (Germany); Glattburg (Switzer¬ 
 land) ; Houpertingen, Moignelee, Oyghem les Des- 
 selghem (Belgium); Peppingen (Luxemburg); 
 Lemberg, Warsaw (Poland); St. Nicholas de 
 Port (religious driven into exile). The Benedictine 
 Nuns of Our Lady of Calvary, founded in 1618 by 
 Mother Antonio of St. Scholastica, are under the 
 immediate jurisdiction of the Holy See and have 
 houses at Angers, Jerusalem, La Capelle Marival, 
 Landernau, Machecoul, Orleans, Poiters, and Ven- 
 dome (see Calvary, Congregation of Our Lady of). 
 The Benedictine Nuns of the Sacred Heart of Mary 
 have five monasteries: Erbalunga, Jouarre, La 
 Rochette, Pradines, and St. Jean d’Angely. The 
 Sisters engaged in foreign missions are established 
 at: Albay and Manila, in the Philippines; Dar-es- 
 Salaam and Transvaal, in Africa; Olinda and Soro- 
 
BENEDICTINE 
 
 101 
 
 BENEFICE 
 
 caba, in Brazil; Endje, in Bulgaria; Schellenberg, ~— 
 
 Tut zing, and Wcssobrunn, in Bavaria. 
 
 Other Benedictine monasteries of nuns under epis¬ 
 copal jurisdiction may be grouped geographically as 
 follows: 
 
 America. —Allegheny, Erie, St. Mary’s, Pittsburgh , T , -r-—- 
 
 (Penn.); St. Antonio, St. Benedict, Covington IStmlia M " 
 
 (La.); Atchison (Kan.); Bristow (Va.); Chicago Austria ." '. 
 
 (2 convents), Nauvoo (Ill.); Cottonwood (Idaho); ? elgiuin 
 
 Covington (Ky.); Crookston, Duluth, St. Joseph gZi y”: 
 (Minn.); Cullman (Ala.); Elizabeth, Newark (N. Switzerland 
 
 J.); Ferdinand (Ind.); Guthrie, Sacred Heart fe in .. 
 
 (Okla.); Mount Angel (Ore.); Ridgely (Md.); Italy ...V 
 
 Shoal Creek (Ark.); Sioux City (Iowa); Yankton Poland _ 
 
 (S. D.). 
 
 British Isles, Malta, and Australia. —Bicester, East 
 
 Total 
 
 Monas¬ 
 
 teries 
 
 Professed 
 
 Nuns 
 
 Lay 
 
 Sisters 
 
 Oblates 
 
 Novices 
 
 Religious j 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 256 
 
 104 
 
 42 
 
 39 
 
 441 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 
 2 
 
 23 
 
 2 
 
 54 
 
 40 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 104 
 
 8 
 
 161 
 
 83 
 
 3 
 
 31 
 
 278 
 
 14 
 
 636 
 
 160 
 
 19 
 
 125 
 
 940 
 
 4 
 
 124 
 
 89 
 
 2 
 
 38 
 
 253 
 
 4 
 
 169 
 
 14 
 
 
 25 
 
 208 
 
 28 
 
 494 
 
 122 
 
 1 
 
 48 
 
 645 
 
 1 
 
 48 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 66 
 
 104 
 
 950 
 
 620 
 
 59 
 
 209 
 
 1,838 
 
 4 
 
 52 
 
 37 
 
 ... 
 
 26 
 
 115 
 
 288 
 
 8,220 
 
 2,079 
 
 259 
 
 1,121 
 
 11,679 
 
 Cowes, Ryde, Ventnor (Isle of Wight); Ypres (Ire- f li ° an Bcnedict i n ? nuns of St. Bride, Mil- 
 
 land); Notabile, Victoriosa (Malta); Rydalmere L I9n Vnd’ re t C yf 1Ved ^ the Catholic Church 
 (Australia). 1913 and made their solemn profession in 1914. 
 
 Austria. —Gurk, Salzburg. 1 hey removed to Talacre Abbey in 1920. 
 
 Mfn1fosirKol n eri?gh“ m ° nt ’ L ™’ ecStTcaltnefic^s *?. C ° de “ 
 
 France. Argentan, Chautelle, Chemille, Dourgne, erected or constituted in perpetuity J by competent 
 Flavigny sur Moselle Lisieux Mantes Pans, ecclesiastical authority and consistingof a sabred 
 
 PI Gcrmo«« -Chiemsee^ EiSltt^Fulda Tettef' and “l® light *° reCeive the revenues arising 
 
 weis m V ‘ ^ memsee ’ ^ lc Hstatt, iulda, letten- from an endowment annexed to that office This 
 
 thfr'S^r 01 ^’ Maria - Rickenb “ h ’ Mekh - ^^^ca^entity^tself^or^of ^definite° and'obligatory 
 
 Spain .—Alba do Tonnes, Barcelona, Burgos, Cala- and 8, volunterv offePrl Pel f 
 
 tayud, Compostella, Corella Cuenca, Cuntis Estella, the faiihful which accrue to the rector oT the 
 Gciona, Jaca, La Guardia, Leon, Lumbier, IVIadrid, benefice or of the so puller) f oclc , -,i • ,i 
 
 Malaga, Metaro Moral, Oviedo, Palacios de Benal Ssof 
 
 Vallfermoso Vega d| U la’ Serelna T ° ed °’ T ° rt ° leS ’ cholr distributions, excepting a third part of the 
 HoMmd— Oosterhout ^ same , lf tl \ e . entire income of the benefice consists 
 7 ,7 Arto A 1 r a -1 A A • of choir dlstn butions. Benefices are divided by 
 
 Ai?nh^Piptnn ’t 9 A pe °’ ,4 qui A la Y wo Z °’ Ar P in o> the Code into: (a) consistorial, those usually con- 
 scoli-Piceno (- convents), Assisi (2 convents), ferred in the consistory, and non-consistorial* the 
 
 Aversa, Ban Bastia, Bergamo, Bevagna, Boville canons in the Code apply only to the latter except 
 ftrWrln’ Buggiano alto, Camerino, Castel- where the, contrary is apparent; (b) secular or re- 
 
 r ^^ e n lfi p, entm0, r - Cas ^ lr p-f^ „ S * bgious, according as they are bestowed exclusively 
 
 ! C p k ? mgo1 /’ Cltta dl f pastello, on secular or religious clerics; (c) double (residen- 
 Cometo Tarquima, Fabriano (2 convents), Fano, tial) or single (non-residential), according to the 
 eimo, Ferraia, Fiume, Fossano Fossato di Vico, benefice entails the obligation of residence or not* 
 Lapo, Lesina, Lucca (2 convents), Massafra, Maz- (d) manual (temporary; removable) or perpetual 
 zaia del Vallo (2 convents), Modica, Montecatim, (irremovable), according as they are conferred re- 
 
 Mont^^Cnwt^^nSp^q^M 11 ^- S * M m / an S’ Vocably or Perpetually; (e) curata or non-curata, 
 J”?*® A/r Giusto, Monte S. Martino, Monte S. according as they entail the cure of souls or not. 
 
 Stl nilllf p 16 ’ Montughi, Naples, Norcia, Koto, The law does not consider as benefices: (a) parish 
 
 Piipon^o t p b ci PaS ° , p P ? erm °- d 7 com ® nt ®), ^ rug - a ’ vicarships not erected permanently; (b)' lay chap- 
 lacenza Pistoja, Potenza, Piceua, Prato, Reggio, knncies, that is those not erected by competent 
 
 S’n? ae T b ?’ | an Bel ; ede «° dei Marsl > ecclesiastical authority; (c) coadjutorships with or 
 Sun Wn ’I vU - ’• San M a rtin0) SanServermo, without future succession; (d) personal pensions; 
 ^an Seveio, S. \ ittoiia m Mattenano Sant Elpidio ( e ) temporary commenda, that is the concession 
 al mare, Sassoferrato, Sebemco, Senigallia, Sorrento, G f the revenues from a church or monastery made 
 't 0 * Taghacozzo ’ .Terranuova Brae- to a person with the proviso that on his death the 
 v y 1 ’ T° dl > Tmu, Treja, Trevi, Trieste, Uibama, revenues are to revert to the church or monastery. 
 
 \ eglia, Veroli, Zara. . Parishes are usually benefices and are always in- 
 
 Polared.—Lemberg Pi-zraysi, Stamatki, Vilna. eluded under that term in the Code. 
 
 The following table gives the total number of Benefices may be united or transferred, or divided, 
 monasteries of nuns and the number of religious: or dismembered, or converted, or suppressed. The 
 
 union is (a) extinctive when a new or a single 
 benefice is formed from two or more suppressed 
 benefices, or if one or more are united to another 
 in such a way that the former cease to be; (b) 
 ceque principalis, when the united benefices remain 
 as they are, neither being subject to the other; 
 
 (c) minus principalis, when both benefices continue 
 but one is subject to the other. A benefice is 
 (a) transferred when its seat is changed from one 
 place to another; (b) divided, when two or more 
 
 
 Monas¬ 
 
 teries 
 
 Professed 
 
 Nuns 
 
 Lay 
 
 Sisters 
 
 Oblates 
 
 Novices 
 
 Religious 
 
 Under Abbatial jurisdiction 
 
 13 
 
 367 
 
 161 
 
 6 
 
 77 
 
 611 
 
 Perpetual Adoration of the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Blessed Sacrament . 
 
 44 
 
 1,153 
 
 484 
 
 111 
 
 159 
 
 1,907 
 
 Benedictine Nuns of Our 
 
 
 
 
 Lady of Calvary. 
 
 8 
 
 119 
 
 65 
 
 
 6 
 
 190 
 
 Benedictine Nuns of the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sacred Heart of Mary.. 
 
 5 
 
 102 
 
 75 
 
 11 
 
 34 
 
 222 
 
 Foreign Missions . 
 
 10 
 
 306 
 
 
 
 72 
 
 378 
 
 America . 
 
 28 
 
 3,216 
 
 4 
 
 
 240 
 
 3,460 
 
BENEFICE 
 
 BENSON 
 
 102 
 
 benefice or pious cause or ecclesiastical institute; 
 
 (d) converted, when it is changed from one kind 
 of benefice to another; (e) suppressed, when it is 
 entirely extinguished. The extinctive union of 
 benefices, their suppression, their dismemberment in 
 which property belonging to the benefice is taken 
 away without a new benefice being erected, the 
 union of a religious with a secular benefice or of a 
 secular with a religious benefice (Eque or minus 
 principaliter, and the transferring, dividing, or dis¬ 
 membering of a religious benefice, the conversion 
 of a benefice curatum into one without cure of 
 souls, or of a religious into a secular benefice, or 
 of a ’secular into a religious benefice, are reserved 
 
 to the Holy See. . 
 
 A local ordinary, but not a vicar capitular or vicar 
 general, unless delegated, can unit e (Eque or minus 
 principaliter any parish church with anothei, or 
 with a benefice not entailing the cure of souls, 
 when the welfare of the Church demands it or 
 would be greatly promoted by it. Such a union 
 must, however, be perpetual. For the same reasons 
 the bishop can transfer a secular parochial benefice 
 from one place to another within the parish. Other 
 benefices he may not transfer unless the church in 
 which they were established has fallen into ruin 
 and cannot be restored; in that case they are to be 
 transferred with their privileges and their obliga¬ 
 tions to the mother church or to other churches 
 in the same place or vicinity, and altars or chapels 
 are to be erected there under the same titles if 
 possible. Finally, ordinaries can divide up a parish 
 even against the wish of its rector and without the 
 consent of the faithful, and erect a perpetual 
 vicariate or a new parish, or they may dismember 
 a parish. This, however, can be done only when 
 it is too difficult for the parishoners to go to the 
 parish church or when the number of the parish- 
 oners is so great that their spiritual welfare cannot 
 be properly provided for even by increasing the 
 number of vicar co-operators. This new vicariate 
 or parish must be financially provided for, if neces¬ 
 sary, from the funds of the mother church, pro¬ 
 vided the funds are sufficient for that; in the latter 
 case the filial church must pay honor or homage 
 to the mother church in the manner prescribed by 
 the ordinary, but it is entitled to its own baptismal 
 font. Parties interested may always appeal to the 
 Holy See against the ordinary’s decree, but mean¬ 
 while the decree goes into effect. Ordinaries may 
 not burden a benefice with a perpetual tax or pen- 
 sion or with one lasting during the lifetime of the 
 pensioner, but for a just cause they can, when 
 conferring the benefice, encumber it with a pension 
 for the lifetime of the beneficiary, provided that 
 the latter has still a suitable portion remaining. 
 However, parochial benefices may not be encum¬ 
 bered unless in the interest of the rector or vicar 
 of the same parish when he is leaving his post, and 
 even then the possession must not exceed one-third 
 of the revenues of the parish after deducting all 
 expenses and all uncertain income. 
 
 Two benefices, both of which afford a decent 
 living to an incumbent, or which together impose 
 obligations that one beneficiary cannot carry out 
 personally, are incompatible, and so may not be 
 accepted and held simultaneously. If a cleric hold¬ 
 ing a benefice can show that he has held it in good 
 faith peacefully for three years, he enjoys a pre¬ 
 scriptive right to it, even if by chance his title was 
 at first invalid, provided there was no simony in 
 the case. If a beneficiary fails, without a valid 
 excuse, to carry out his obligation of reciting the 
 canonical hours, he is to lose a part of his revenue 
 proportionate to the extent of his omission and 
 
 must bestow it on the church fabric, or the diocesan 
 seminary, or the poor. The law does not decide 
 what a proportionate part for one day’s omission 
 would amount to, but Lehmkuhl considers that 
 between 16% and 30% of the daily income would 
 be a fair estimate. (See Collation.) 
 
 Code , can. 1409-88. 
 
 Benevento, Archdiocese of (Beneventana; cf. 
 
 C. E., II-477c), in the province of Naples, Southern 
 Italy. Rt. Rev. Bishop Bonazzi, appointed to this 
 see 9 June, 1902, died 23 April, 1915, and was suc¬ 
 ceeded by the present incumbent, His Eminence 
 Cardinal Ascalesi. Born at Casalnuovo, 1872, he 
 entered the Order of Missionaries of the Precious 
 Blood, was appointed Bishop of Muro-Lucano, 29 
 April, 1909, transferred to Santa Agata dei Goti 
 19 June, 1911, and promoted 9 December, 1915, 
 being made a cardinal-priest 4 December of the 
 following year. The 1920 statistics credit this terri¬ 
 tory with 590,500 Catholics, 138 parishes, 805 secular 
 and 69 regular clergy, 80 seminarians, 463 churches 
 or chapels, 40 Brothers, and 129 Sisters. 
 
 Bengweolo, Vicariate Apostolic of. See Ban- 
 GUELO. 
 
 Beni (or El Beni), Vicariate Apostolic of (de 
 Beni), in Bolivia, South America. This vicariate, 
 comprising the territory of Beni, and the districts 
 of Colonias, Caupolican and Yuracares, was erected 
 1 December, 1917, and entrusted to the Friars 
 Minor. It is at present (1922) under the adminis¬ 
 tration of its first vicar apostolic, Rt. Rev. Ray¬ 
 mond Calvo, titular Bishop of Cotenna, appointed 
 1 August, 1919. By latest statistics the vicariate 
 comprises 60,000 Catholics, 11 parishes, 30 churches 
 and chapels, 4 missions, 36 mission stations, 3 
 secular and 14 regular clergy. A number oi societies 
 are organized, the most active of which is the 
 League of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, established 
 in four of five parishes and counting about 300 
 members. 
 
 Benin, Vicariate Apostolic of the Coast of 
 (Or.® Benini; cf. C. E., II-480a), includes an ex¬ 
 tensive negro country in Western Africa, with resi¬ 
 dence at Lagos. It covers 96,250 sq. miles and has 
 a total population (1922) of 2,000,000, of whom 
 12,909 are Catholic and 3163 catechumens. It is 
 entrusted to the African Missionaries of Lyons, the 
 present vicar apostolic being Rt. Rev. Ferdinand 
 Terrien, titular Bishop of Gordos, appointed 1 
 March, 1912. There are now. 30 missionary priests 
 laboring in this territory, 27 European religious, 
 and 31 native catechists; 111 churches or chapels 
 have been established, 13 principal stations, 111 
 secondary stations, and 66 schools with 4756 pupils. 
 
 Benson, Robert Hugh, preacher and writer, b. 
 18 November, 1871, at Wellington College, England; 
 d. 19 October, 1914, at Salford, England. He was 
 the son of Edward Benson, Archbishop of Canter¬ 
 bury, and Mary Sedgwick. After his private school 
 days at Clevedon he went to Eton, and having 
 failed in his examinations for the Indian Civil 
 Service completed his classical course at Cambridge 
 (1893). The following year he took orders in the 
 Anglican Church, and after serving parishes in East, 
 London and Kemsing joined the Anglican Com¬ 
 munity of the Resurrection at Mirsfield. 
 
 In 1903, Roman claims becoming more and more 
 insistent, he made his submission and was received 
 into the Church by Father Reginald Buckler at 
 the Dominican Priory at Woodchester, probably the 
 first son of an Anglican archbishop to become a 
 Catholic since Tobie Mathew, son of the Archbishop 
 
BERGAMO 
 
 103 
 
 BERLIN 
 
 of \ ork, did so in 1606. Shortly afterwards lie went 
 to live in Rome to study for the priesthood, and 
 was ordained there in June, 1904, by Archbishop 
 Seton, titular of Heliopolis. 
 
 Father Benson’s distinguished origin was swiftly 
 forgotten in his own originality and achievements. 
 Stationed for several years after his ordination at 
 Cambridge, where he became a power amongst the 
 undergraduates, in 1908 he obtained permission from 
 the archbishop to retire from pastoral work in order 
 to devote his time to preaching and writing. From 
 that time until his death six years later, his life 
 was one of unceasing activity in which all his rare 
 gifts of soul and mind were lavishly spent in the 
 service of the Church. His success in the pulpits 
 of Rome and the United States, as well as in those 
 of his own country, was tremendous. His spiritual 
 insight, his utter sincerity, his burning zeal and his 
 fascinating eloquence drew crowds to his sermons 
 and made many converts. He preached Lenten 
 sermons in Rome in 1909, 1911, and 1913, and the 
 alternate years in the United States. 
 
 He was not less successful with his writings, which 
 he produced with amazing fecundity, and which in¬ 
 clude novels, historical and sentimental, devotional 
 books, controversial works, poetry, and plays. They 
 were all written with an avowed purpose, are marked 
 by charm of style, subtle psychology, originality, 
 and appealing mysticism, many of his novels being 
 the history of a soul’s complete surrender to God. 
 Amongst them are the “Light Invisible” (1903), 
 written while still an Anglican; “By What Author¬ 
 ity” (1904), “Come Rack, Come Rope” (1912), “The 
 King’s Achievement,” “Lord of the World,” “The 
 Sentimentalists,” “The Conventionalists,” “The Nec¬ 
 romancers,” “A Winnowing,” “Non-Catholic Denom¬ 
 inations,” “The- Dawn of All,” “Christ in the 
 Church,” “The Coward,” “The Confessions of a 
 Convert” (1913), “An Average Man” (1913), “Para¬ 
 doxes of Catholicism,” “The Friendship of Christ,” 
 “Initiation” (1914), and the posthumous “Loneli¬ 
 ness?” 
 
 Mgr. Benson was buried in the garden of his 
 home, Hare Street House, Buntingford, which he 
 bequeathed to the Archbishop of Westminster; it 
 is used as a rest house for the clergy. 
 
 Bergamo, Diocese of (Bergomensis; cf. C. E., 
 II-489c), in Lombardy, Northern Italy, suffragan 
 of Milan. Bishop Radini-Tadeschi, appointed to 
 this see 13 January, 1905, d. 22 August, 1914, and 
 was succeeded by the present incumbent, Rt. Rev. 
 Luigi Marelli, b. in Miland, 1858, appointed Bishop 
 of Bobbio, 16 December, 1907, and transferred 15 
 December, 1914. In 1920, 8-12 August, the sixth 
 national eucharistic congress of Italy was held in 
 this diocese, presided over by Bishop Bartolomasi 
 of Trieste. Bergamo to-day (1922) is particularly 
 noted for its Catholic social works; it comprises 
 a Catholic population of 500,000, 371 parishes, 1,163 
 secular and 59 regular clergy, 400 seminarians, 478 
 religious, 84 Brothers, and 512 churches or chapels. 
 
 Berlin (cf. C. E., II-493b), capital of the German 
 Republic and of the Free State of Prussia. It is 
 situated in the heart of the Mark of Brandenburg, 
 on both sides of the Spree above its entrance into 
 the Havel. The city covers an area of 24M> sq. 
 miles and had (8 October, 1919) 1,902,500 inhabi¬ 
 tants, not including the population of the suburbs, 
 which numbered 1,901,500 inhabitants. Since 1 
 October, 1920, the city of Berlin and the suburbs 
 form one city under the name of “Great Berlin,” 
 with 3,804,000 inhabitants. Of the inhabitants of 
 Great Berlin 462,229 are Catholics, about 3,067,000 
 
 are Protestants, 224,200 Jews, and 50,000 belong to 
 other creeds. 
 
 Statistics. —Ecclesiastically Berlin belongs to the 
 Delegation of the Mark of Brandenburg, which is 
 under a delegate of the Prince-Bishop of Breslau; 
 the delegate is the Provost of St. Hedwig’s in Ber¬ 
 lin. The city of Great Berlin is divided for the 
 cure of souls into 42 districts, composed of 32 
 parishes and 10 vicariates or curateships, of which 
 21 belong to the Archipresbyterate of Berlin 
 (Middle Great Berlin), 12 to the Archipresbyterate 
 of Charlottenburg (Great Berlin West), and 9 to 
 the Archipresbyterate of Menkolln (Great Berlin 
 East). Whilst in 1907 Berlin had only 30 Catholic 
 churches and private chapels where public church 
 services were held, the number of churches has 
 now (1921) increased to 62 churches and 25 private 
 chapels (mostly in religious houses). 
 
 To the principal churches the following have 
 been added: Church of the Holy Rosary in Stegliz, 
 a southwest suburb (1900) ; Corpus Christi Church 
 (1904); St. Boniface (1907); St. Peter (1908); St. 
 Joseph (1909). The parishes are for the most part 
 large ones, with large numbers of parishioners, for 
 example: St. Hedwig (28,000); Corpus Christi 
 (13,000); Holy Family (10,000); Sacred Heart (20,- 
 500); St. Joseph (18,000); St. Matthew (22,000); 
 St. Michel (22,000); St. Pane (20,000); St. Pius 
 (24,000); St. Sebastian (18,000); Sacred Heart, 
 Charlottenburg (31,000); Holy Rosary, Steglitz 
 (13,000); St. Louis, Wilmersdorf (32,000); St. Clara, 
 Menholln (26,000); St. Mauritius, Lichtenberg 
 (21,000), etc. 
 
 In 1921 the Catholic clergy consisted of 37 clergy 
 of higher rank (the provost, 36 parish priests), 83 
 assistants, 25 priests in other positions, 30 living in 
 communities, a total of 175 priests. 
 
 Schools.— There is no public Catholic higher 
 school for boys in Berlin, but there is a private 
 higher school for boys with about 130 pupils. There 
 are 7 higher Catholic schools for girls, two of which 
 train teachers. All these schools, with the excep¬ 
 tion of two, are conducted by nuns. There are 
 about 40 Catholic schools for primary instruction 
 ( Gemeindeschuleri ). 
 
 Orders, Congregations, and Charitable Institu¬ 
 tions.— The male orders in Berlin are: Dominicans 
 (2 houses with 12 priests and 7 brothers); Jesuits 
 (2 houses with 11 priests and 1 brother); Salva- 
 torians (1 house with 5 priests); Franciscans (1 
 house with 2 priests); Poor Brothers of St. Francis 
 (1 house with 16 brothers who conduct an orphan 
 asylum for boys); Brothers of St. Alexis (1 house 
 with 14 brothers who conduct a sanatorium for the 
 mentally deranged). 
 
 There are in Great Berlin (1921) 15 female orders 
 and congregations, viz.: the Sisters of St. Charles 
 Borromeo, the Dominicans, the Franciscans, the 
 Grey Sisters of St. Elizabeth, the Sisters of St. 
 Joseph, the Carmelites of the Sacred Heart, the 
 Sisters of St. Catherine, the Servants of Mary, the 
 Sisters of the Divine Saviour, the Sisters of Our 
 Lady, the Nuns of the Good Shepherd, the Sisters 
 of St. Vincent, and the Ursulines, in all 63 houses, 
 of whom the Sisters of St. Charles, the Grey Sisters 
 of St. Elizabeth, the Sisters of St. Vincent, the Sis¬ 
 ters of Maty, the Dominicans and Franciscans have 
 charge of hospitals and institutions of visiting nurses 
 for the poor and sick, kindergartens and day nur¬ 
 series; the Nuns of the Good Shepherd, the Sisters 
 of St. Joseph, and the Grey Sisters conduct rescues 
 and asylums for girls, the Carmelites, orphanages 
 and kindergartens, while the Franciscans, the Sis¬ 
 ters of Our Lady, and the Ursulines are occupied 
 in school work and conduct boarding houses and 
 
BERMUDA 
 
 104 
 
 BERMUDA 
 
 boarding schools where housekeeping is taught. 
 
 There are 8 large hospitals in Berlin in charge of 
 Catholic sisters, 18 institutions for visiting the sick 
 and poor; 6 boarding houses for old people con¬ 
 ducted by nuns. In charge of nuns are 25 kinder¬ 
 gartens for children under six years, and 20 for 
 school children, 3 nurseries, 9 orphanages for children 
 under 6 years, and 10 for school children, 14 houses 
 for girls in employment, and out of employment; 
 
 2 houses of retreat. . . 
 
 Associations— There is much activity among the 
 Catholic societies in Berlin. In 1921, there were 
 4 societies furthering the interests of the foreign 
 missions; 40 societies of Christian ]\4otheis, with 
 about 17,000 members. About 70 Sodalities of 
 Mary for men, women, young men, girls, and chil¬ 
 dren; 32 associations for Catholic young men. 
 Among the local charitable associations there are: 
 the Catholic charity organization of Berlin and 
 suburbs, and association of all the Catholic benevo^- 
 lent institutions, endowments and societies; Soci¬ 
 eties of St. Vincent de Paul, including 33 confer¬ 
 ences for men, and 43 conferences for women; the 
 St. Hedwig’s women’s association; the society for 
 the protection of girls; 4 societies for the care of 
 lying-in women; the Catholic burial association; 
 the society for the care of the .Catholic deaf and 
 dund) of Berlin. The most important associations 
 in connection with the various callings are: the 
 Catholic Journeymen’s Association, having a large 
 building of its own; the Master Workmen’s Union; 
 35 Catholic Workmen’s Unions; 38 unions for 
 Catholic working women, married and unmanned; 
 
 9 groups of the Catholic Business Men’s Society; 
 
 3 associations of Catholic male and female teach¬ 
 ers, 12 associations of Catholic students; 2 Philister 
 societies. Among the political associations should 
 be named: the People’s Union (Patholische Volks- 
 verein ); the Windthorst Union, and the Center 
 party proper, with about 45 organized groups. 
 Besides these there are singing and church choir 
 societies; Catholic social societies, societies for col¬ 
 lecting funds for church buildings (especially for 
 the St. Boniface Association); Catholic societies 
 for sport (Deutsche Jugendkrajt ). 
 
 The most important of the Catholic newspapers 
 are: “The Germania” and the “Markische Zeitung.” 
 
 Since this article went into type word has been 
 received of the erection of a see at Berlin and 
 the appointment of a bishop in the person of the 
 Rev. Dr. Kaas. 
 
 Bermuda Islands, a group of small islands in 
 the West Atlantic, a colony of Great Britain, about 
 580 miles from Cape Hatteras, N. C., and 677 miles 
 from New York, belonging to the West Indies, 
 but detached from the other groups, situated be¬ 
 tween (about) latitude 32° 14' and 32° 25' North, 
 and longitude 64° 38' and 64° 52' West. They lie 
 Southwest and Northeast, based on the edge of a 
 coral bank and occupy a space of only about 18 
 miles by 6, though said to be 300-360 in number. 
 They are separated from one another by very nar¬ 
 row channels and are mostly rocky islets, only six 
 being of any considerable size or importance. These 
 are Bermuda, Somerset, Ireland, St. George, St. 
 David, and Boaz. The total area is 19.3 square 
 miles. They are difficult of access, surrounded on 
 three sides by hidden coral reefs which extend 
 about ten miles under water. The highest point 
 is 260 feet. The climate is delightful, the highest 
 temperature in August, 1919, was 90°, the lowest, 
 46° in February; the mean temperature was 70. 
 There are no extremes of temperature, and malaria 
 is unknown, which makes the islands a popular 
 
 holiday resort for Americans. The civil population 
 on 31 December, 1919, numbered 21,869, including 
 7,441 whites. 
 
 Economic Status. —Of the 12,360 acres, 4,000 are 
 under cultivation. Food supplies are imported 
 chiefly from Canada and the United States, and 
 nearly all the export produce of Bermuda goes to 
 the United States. The chief development in 
 recent years has been in the potato crop, which has 
 increased by nearly thirty per cent since 1915. The 
 Bermuda onion is another important crop. The 
 registered shipping in 1918 consisted of 7 steam 
 vessels of 2,189 tons and 16 sailing vessels of 3,336 
 tons. In 1919 the total tonnage of vessels entered 
 and cleared was 1,258,188 tons, of which 632,212 
 were British. 
 
 The principal exports are potatoes, onions, lily 
 bulbs, and vegetables; in 1919 all the exports 
 amounted to £208,708; the imports to £792,683. Ber¬ 
 muda is an important naval base for the English 
 fleet, with a dockyard, coaling stations, etc., and 
 during the great European War the American navy 
 maintained a depot, largely used by submarine- 
 chasers, mine-sweepers, and other craft on their 
 trans-Atlantic journeys. A telegraph cable connects 
 the islands with Nova Scotia, Halifax, also Turk’s 
 Island and Jamacia. The revenue for the year 
 from all sources totalled £119,091 and the expendi¬ 
 ture, £90,684. Customs duties provide the bulk of 
 the revenue, there being no direct taxation for 
 colonial revenue. A loan of £40,000, raised in 1893 
 for the improvement of the channels leading to 
 Hamilton Harbor, falls due in 1924. The nominal 
 value of the sinking fund on 31 December, 1919, 
 was £39,674. There is no other public debt. Com¬ 
 munications within the islands are maintained by 
 boat and horse-drawn vehicles, the use of motor 
 vehicles being prohibited by law. 
 
 Government. —The laws of the colony are enacted 
 by a Legislature consisting of the Governor, the 
 Legislative Council, and the House of Assembly. 
 The Governor is assisted by an Executive Council 
 of four official and three unofficial members. The 
 Legislative Council consists of nine members, three 
 of whom are official and six unofficial. The House 
 of Assembly consists of thirty-six members, four 
 of whom are elected by each of the nine parishes. 
 There are about 1,413 electors, the electoral qualifi¬ 
 cations being the possession of freehold property of 
 not less than £60 in value. A member of the As¬ 
 sembly must have freehold property rated at £240. 
 
 Education. —There are no government schools in 
 Bermuda, but education is compulsory and Govern¬ 
 ment assistance is given by the payment of grants 
 and, where necessary, school fees. The aided schools 
 must reach a certain standard of efficiency and 
 submit to Government inspection. In 1919, 30 
 aided primary schools, with 2,576 pupils, received 
 Government grants, £2,853 yearly. There are 3 
 garrison schools and 2 naval schools, about 17 
 other primary schools, and 4 secondary schools, 
 having no Government grant. Cambridge local 
 examinations are held in Bermuda. A Government 
 scholarship is provided to enable youths educated 
 in Bermuda to go abroad to prepare themselves 
 for a Rhodes scholarship. 
 
 History. —According to the Spanish navigator and 
 historian, Ferdinand d’Oviedo, who visited these 
 islands in 1515, they were discovered at an earlier 
 date by Juan de Bermudez, who was shipwrecked 
 on a voyage from Spain to Cuba with a cargo 
 of hogs. The exact date of the discovery is not 
 known, but a map, contained in the first edition 
 of the “Legatio Babylonica” of Peter Martyr, pub¬ 
 lished in 1511, shows the Island “La Barmuda” in 
 
 
BERRY 
 
 105 
 
 BESANCON 
 
 appioximately correct position. No aborigines were 
 forma on the islands by the early voyagers, and 
 the Spaniards took no steps to found a settlement. 
 
 i * j? entirely uninhabited until 1609, 
 when Admiral Sir George Sommers’ ship, the “Sea 
 Venture, while on a voyage with a fleet of eight 
 other vessels conveying a party of colonists to the 
 new plantations then being formed in Virginia was 
 wrecked on a coral reef. The beauty and fertility 
 of the islands induced the Virginia Company to 
 seek extension of their Charter, so as to include 
 tne islands within their dominion, and this ex- 
 tensmn was readily granted in 1612 by James I, 
 but shortly afterward the Virginia Company sold 
 the islands for £ 2,000 to a new body of adventurers 
 called The Governor and Company of the City 
 of London for the Plantation of Somers’ Islands.’’ 
 
 Alter twenty-five years of prosperity the original 
 shareholders died, or disposed of their holdings 
 the government was neglected, and the settlers be¬ 
 came subject to many grievances and abuses. An 
 appeal to the Crown for redress in 1679 resulted 
 m the passing of the colony to the Crown in 1684 
 the colony passed through the same social, political* 
 and ecclesiastical struggles which beset England in 
 the seventeenth century. Its population included 
 many elements and many faiths; and each sect 
 and political faction had its dissensions and feuds 
 Catholics were excluded as early as 1615. Secessions 
 liom the Established Church took place early in 
 the colony s history, and although freedom of wor¬ 
 ship was demanded, this did not prevent the Inde¬ 
 pendents and others from persecuting their weaker 
 brethren, particularly the Quakers, whose attempt 
 the slaves met with disapproval. In 
 1646 William Sayle of Bermuda founded a utopian 
 plantation in which “every man might enjoy his 
 own opinion or religion without control or ques¬ 
 tion. In 1650 Parliament declared Bermuda to 
 e m a state of rebellion. At this time persecu¬ 
 tions took place for witchcraft. During the Amer- 
 ican Revolution the inhabitants of the island sym¬ 
 pathized with the colonies, but were forbidden to 
 trade with them. However, from Bermuda came to 
 Ceorge Washington at the most critical period of 
 the Revolution one hundred pounds of gunpowder. 
 During the Civil War the islands were the head¬ 
 quarters of the blockade-runners and prosperity 
 reigned. In 1901 Bermuda was one of the places 
 chosen by England for the exiled Boers. In 1867 
 it was deemed just to exonerate from liability to 
 assessment for the Church of England all persons 
 who contributed toward the maintenance of other 
 churches. Grants by the government to the Church 
 
 hc y e now cease( L During the Great 
 World War, the Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps 
 served in France with the Lincoln Regiment, and 
 out of 125 in the original contingent, only 22 re¬ 
 mained to return.. Another proud record was made 
 by the Royal Garrison Artillery (colored) who num¬ 
 bered 250. In all, between 560 and 600 Bermudians 
 served overseas in the war; of these, 379 were with 
 the Bermuda contingents. Pensions to disabled 
 men and widows and dependents are paid by the 
 Colony on the scale adopted in the United King¬ 
 dom. & 
 
 Ecclesiastically Bermuda is under the jurisdiction 
 of the Archbishop of Halifax, a priest from that 
 diocese being stationed at Hamilton where the 
 bisters of Charity (mother-house, Halifax), conduct 
 a school. 
 
 Berry, John, founder of “Father Berry’s Homes ” 
 d. September, 1921, at Measham, England. Edu¬ 
 cated at Ushaw, in 1884 he was ordained and ap- 
 
 pointed curate at St. Patrick’s, Liverpool He 
 was afterwards rector of the Church of St. Philip 
 
 Listitut fi W of C vvl!vh att i aCh !; d the Liver P°°< Catholic 
 institute of which he became principal. Father 
 
 Berrys great work was the establishing and o" 
 
 gamzing, in Liverpool, of the homes for orphaned 
 
 and destitute boys, which bear his name By the 
 
 request of his bishop in 1892 he took ’over the 
 
 work begun by the Society of St. Vincent de Paul 
 
 Rerrv’s » h {? Care flou " shed until “Father 
 
 hf X S omes ” became one of the foremost Catho- 
 hc charities of the kind in England. They were 
 under his personal direction for five years, during 
 which time he cared for over three thousand boys 
 for whom he had raised the sum of nearly ten 
 thousand pounds. Ill-health compelled his retire¬ 
 ment, but he continued to find a vent for his activ- 
 ity in writing articles and reviews on social 
 religious, and other topics. 
 
 P I0CESE 0F (Brictinoriensis; cf. C. E., 
 II 522d), m the province of Forli, Northern Italy, 
 suffragan of Ravenna, has the perpetual adminis¬ 
 tration of the diocese of Polenta (Polentensis). It 
 is at present under the administration of Rt Rev 
 Fredenco Pollom, b in Ricco, 1841, appointed 28 
 November 1898. The 1920 statistics credit the 
 diocese with 32,300 Catholics, 63 parishes, 100 secu- 
 lar priests and 1 regular priest, 26 seminarians, 1 
 Brother, 65 Sisters, and 93 churches or chapels. 
 
 Besangon, Archdiocese of (Bisuntinensis; cf. 
 f 41-525b), coextensive with the departments 
 ot Eoubs, Haute-Saone and the territory of Belfort 
 in France. Most Rev. Frangois-Leon Gauthey, pro- 
 moted to this see 20 January, 1910, filled it until 
 his death, 25 July, 1918. Just one month before 
 his death the Archbishop visited Haute Alsace, re¬ 
 conquered from the Germans, where he adminis¬ 
 tered confirmation, this territory having been 
 deprived of the sacrament since 1914. Archbishop 
 Gauthey was succeeded by the present incumbent, 
 Most Rev. Louis Humbrecht, b. in Gueberschwir, 
 1853, ordained 1877, appointed Bishop of Poiters 
 1 September, 1911, promoted 14 September, 1918 
 On 9 August,1919, Archbishop Humbrecht was 
 made commander of the Order of the Crown by 
 the King of the Belgians, in recognition of his 
 kindness toward the Belgian refugees, particularly 
 m the diocese of Poitiers. 
 
 During the World War 423 priests were mobilized 
 ^ 11S . diocese and 30 of this number as well 
 as 40 seminarians gave up their lives, 12 were deco- 
 rated with the Legion of Honor, 10 with the 
 meaaille'mihtaire, 160 with the cvoix de guerre and 
 250 received other citations. In thanksgiving for 
 the victory of the Marne, which saved the central 
 and I ranche-Comte sections of France from in¬ 
 vasions, Archbishop Gauthey made a vow to erect 
 a basilica dedicated to the Sacred Heart, on a 
 hill adjoining the city of Besangon. On 8 March, 
 1912, the church of Sts. Ferreol and Ferjeux was 
 raised to the rank of a minor basilica, and 26 May 
 following it was made a collegiate church ad hon. 
 
 In 1920 the population of Doubs numbered 299,935, 
 of whom 57,978 were in Besangon; that of Haute- 
 Saone 257,606; and that of the territory of Belford, 
 88,047. The latest statistics collected in 1908, credit 
 the diocese with 1,224 priests, 7 first class and 351 
 second class parishes, 816 succursal parishes, 80 
 deaneries, 51. professors, 105 dignitaries, chaplains 
 and priests without special duties, 10 diocesan mis- 
 sionaries, 41 priests having degrees in theology and 
 philosophy, 40 priests at the university, and 70 
 missionary priests, originally of this diocese. The 
 principal educational institutions (1922) include a 
 
BESSE 
 
 106 
 
 BHUTAN 
 
 seminary, 9 schools of higher education for boys 
 and 7 for girls. 
 
 Besse, Jean-Martial-Leon, monastic historian, 
 b. 31 October, 1861, at St. Angel, Correze, France, 
 d. 26 July, 1920, at Chevetogne, Namur, Belgium. 
 
 In 1881 he entered the Benedictine Order at Soles- 
 mes, in 1885 was sent to the Abbey of Liguge, 
 Vienna, and in the following year was ordained 
 From 1889 to 1894 he was master of novices and 
 sub-prior at Liguge, whence he went , in the same 
 capacity with the group of religious sent to restore 
 the ancient Abbey of St. Wandrille de Fontenelle 
 in the diocese of Rouen. In 1895 he was appointed 
 professor of history and director of an Apostolic 
 school at the monastery in Silos, Spain. Two years 
 later he returned to Liguge and in 1899 was once 
 more appointed master of novices. In 1902 he 
 removed with his fellow-monks to the new Abbey 
 of Liguge, Chevetogne, in the diocese of Namur, 
 Belgium, where he became librarian. 
 
 Dom Besse was the founder of the “Bulletin de 
 Saint Martin” (1892), of the “Revue Mabillon” 
 (1905), and of “La vie et les arts liturgiques” (1912). 
 During the World War he took over the direction 
 of the newspaper, “l’Univers,” then published week¬ 
 ly. He was well known for his Royalist sympathies 
 which were the inspiration of his book, “L’Eglise et 
 la Monarchic,” and for his social service activities. 
 He was the valued friend of many of the striking 
 personalities of his day, amongst them Joris Karl 
 Huysmans. 
 
 The literary work of Dom Besse includes Le 
 moine benedictin,” “Les moines d’Orient,” “Le 
 monarchisme africain,” “Les etudes ecclesiastiques 
 d’apres la methode de Mabillon,” “Le Cardinal Pie,” 
 “Saint Wandrille,” under the pseudonym “Leon de 
 Cheyssac,” “Page d’histoire politique, le Ralliement, ’ 
 “Les moines de l’ancienne France,” crowned by the 
 French Academy; seven volumes of a^ re-edition of 
 Beaunier’s “Recueil des archeveches, eveches, abbayes 
 et prieures de l’ancienne France.” 
 
 Best, Kenelm Digby, author and poet, b. 1835, 
 d. 14 September, 1914, in London, England. He 
 was the - son of John Richard Digby Best of Bot- 
 leigh Grange, Hants, and the descendant of a 
 distinguished literary family. In this versatile poet, 
 priest and man of letters were united many of the 
 qualities of the two brilliant kinsmen whose name 
 he bore, Kenelm Digby, poet, novelist, philosopher 
 and theologian, and Sir Kenelm Digby, hero of 
 the naval battle of Scanderoon, statesman, political 
 philosopher, and man of fashion. His grandfather, 
 Henry Digby Best, precursor of Newman and Faber, 
 became a Catholic in 1789. 
 
 Father Best was educated by the Benedictines at 
 Ampleforth, amongst his fellow students being the 
 late Bishop Hedley. For some time afterwards he 
 studied at St. Edmund’s College, Ware, and entering 
 the Oratorian novitiate as sub-deacon, was ordained 
 in 1858. His long life was interwoven with the 
 history of the London Oratory, which he joined 
 during the period of its translation to the old Ora¬ 
 tory at Brompton, when many of the illustrious 
 men of its early days were still alive. Some of his 
 notable contemporaries were Father Charles Bow¬ 
 den, Father Philip Morris, and Father Philpin. 
 A preacher of much charm, he united virility of 
 thought with the exuberant and tender imagination 
 of the poet. His writings include, “A Priest’s 
 Poems,” “The Victories of Rome,” “A May Chap¬ 
 let,” “The Catholic Doctrine of Hell,” “Rosa Mys- 
 tica,” translations of Carthusian works, many 
 pamphlets, one of the most notable of which is on 
 
 Socialism; and his final work “The Mystery of 
 Faith,” published only a week before his death. 
 
 Betafo, Vicariate Apostolic of. See Antsirabe. 
 
 Betharramites. See Sacred Heart of Jestjs, 
 Priests of the. 
 
 Betrothal (cf. C. E., II-537c).—The conditions 
 laid down in the decree “Ne Temere” for a valid 
 betrothal (cf. C. E., V-542) are extended in the 
 code to unilateral promises of marriage. However, 
 a valid betrothal no longer gives rises to any matri¬ 
 monial impediment, nor can it form the basis for 
 an action to compel one to marry, though an action 
 will lie for compensation for losses actually sus¬ 
 tained. 
 
 Code , can. 1017; Ayrinhac, Marriage Legislation (New York, 
 1919), n. 19-27; O’Donnell in Irish Eccl . Rec ., XI, 456 sqq. 
 
 Bettiah and Nepal, Prefecture Apostolic of. 
 See Patna, Diocese of. 
 
 Bexhill Library. —Realizing the great work done 
 for the Faith by the distribution of the Catholic 
 Truth Society pamphlets, an English Catholic lay¬ 
 man organized at his own expense a free lending 
 library of Catholic books in connection with St. 
 Mary Magdalene’s Church, Bexhill-on-Sea, Sussex, 
 in 1912. Increased requests for books from readers 
 residing elsewhere led to the development of a 
 postal distributing scheme in 1916. Two years later 
 a new library was erected, which in 1921 has over 
 20,000 volumes. The books, mostly by Catholic 
 authors, are of every character, from fiction and 
 science to Scripture and theology. About 30,000 
 works were sent out last year to borrowers in 
 every part of the world. The books are loaned 
 not merely to individuals, but also to reading 
 circles, sodalities, and institutes. The unique fea¬ 
 ture about the library is that anyone may borrow 
 the volumes without giving a reference; he pays 
 nothing but the postage; he may retain the books 
 as long as he needs them, and the matter of return¬ 
 ing them is left entirely to his sense of honor and 
 justice. 
 
 Bhutan, independent state, lying in the eastern 
 Himalayas, between 26° 45' and 28° North latitude, 
 and between 89° and 92° East longitude, bordered 
 on the north and east by Tibet, on the west by 
 the Tibetan district of Chumbi and Sikkim, and 
 on the south by British India. The area is about 
 20,000 square miles, and its population, consisting 
 of Buddhists and Hindus, has been estimated at 
 300,000. The country formerly belonged to a tribe 
 called Tek-pa, but was wrested from them by some 
 Thibetan soldiers about the middle of the seven¬ 
 teenth century. British relations with Bhutan com¬ 
 menced in 1772, when the Bhotias invaded the 
 principality of Cooch Behar and British aid was 
 invoked by that state. After a number of raids 
 by the Bhutanese into Assa at different periods, 
 an envoy was sent into Bhutan, who was grossly 
 insulted and compelled to sign a treaty surrendering 
 the duars (submontane tracts with passes leading to 
 the hills) to Bhutan. On his return the treaty was 
 disavowed and the duars annexed. This was fol¬ 
 lowed by the treaty of 1865 by which the State’s 
 relations with the Government of India were satis¬ 
 factorily regulated. The State formerly received 
 an allowance of half a lakh a year from the British 
 Government, in consideration of the cession in 1865 
 of some areas on its border. This allowance was 
 doubled by a new treaty concluded in January, 1910, 
 by which the Bhutanese Government agreed to be 
 guided by the advice of the British Government 
 in its external relations, while the British agreed 
 
BIBLE 
 
 107 
 
 BINATION 
 
 not to interfere with the internal administration of 
 the Bhutanese state. 
 
 At the head of the Government there are nomi¬ 
 nally two supreme authorities, the Dharma Raja, 
 known as Shapting Renipoehe, the spiritual head, 
 and the Deb or Depa Raja, the temporal ruler. The 
 Dharma Raja is regarded as a very high incarna¬ 
 tion of Buddha, far higher than the ordinary incar¬ 
 nations in Tibet, of which there are several hundreds. 
 On the death of a Dharma a year or two is allowed 
 to elapse and his reincarnation then takes place, 
 always in the Choje, or royal family of Bhutan. 
 In 1907 the Deb Raja resigned his position and the 
 Tongsa Penlop, Sir Ugven Wangchuk, was elected 
 as the first hereditary Maharaja of Bhutan. 
 
 The chief fortresses or castles are: Punakha, the 
 winter capital, a place of great natural strength; 
 Tasichozong, the summer capital, Paro, Angdupho- 
 rang, Tongsa, Taka, Biagha. Though the people 
 are nominally Buddhists, their religious exercises 
 consist chiefly in the propitiation of evil spirits 
 and the recitation of sentences from the Tibetan 
 scriptures. Tasichozong, the chief monastery in 
 Bhutan, contains 300 priests. The military force 
 consists of local levies under the control of the 
 different chiefs. They are of little military value. 
 The chief productions are rice, Indian corn, millet, 
 lac, wax, different kinds of cloth, ponies, chowries, 
 and silk. Muzzle-loading guns and swords of high 
 tempered steel are manufactured. 
 
 1920 as given in the report for 1921, were 3,825 401 
 
 its work - jt has d,str,b: 
 
 Durmg the war the Society circulated Scriptures 
 among all the belligerent forces in the cantonments 
 in prison camps, in hospitals, in the trenches-wher- 
 ever there was a soldier or a worker that was in 
 need. Its distribution to American soldiers going 
 over to Europe and to those of other nationalities 
 
 ;L?„ U T£fi 7 r «v hed , a t0tal of 6 ' 81 8.301 volumes. Of 
 these, 1,887,758 volumes were distributed in Europe 
 to the belligerent forces of other countries. It may 
 be recorded here that the war distribution of the 
 British and Foreign Bible Society and of other 
 European Bible Societies, and the American Bible 
 Society, and including the Scriptures prepared by 
 Gathohc and Jewish sources, reached an astonish- 
 
 Europe a ° f 20,000,000 on a11 the battlefields of 
 
 2 L His i 0ry - of the American Bible Society 
 j j div , v The American Bible Society • One Nun 
 died and Fifth Annual Report (New York, 1921). 
 
 Bida, (Bida Colonia), a city and colony of 
 Gaesarea Mauntamae, mentioned by Ptolemy. It 
 was the seat of a bishopric and is now a Latin 
 
 FnrM 1 ” wi’ titie by Rt. Rev. Francis 
 
 ofcXe 0meWaSSer ’ auxillary t0 the Archbishop 
 
 Bible Societies (cf. C. E., II-544b).—In its an¬ 
 nual statement for the year 1921 the British and 
 Foreign Bible Society reports 5128 auxiliaries, 
 branches and associations in England and Wales, 
 with 4750 auxiliaries and branches outside of the 
 British Isles, mainly in the British dominions and 
 colonies, making a total of 9878. It has made 
 53S translations of the Scriptures, 160 of these 
 being the work of twentieth-century scholars. In 
 the year covered by the last report 8,655,781 books 
 were .issued, bringing the total number since the 
 organization of the Society up to 319,470,000 vol¬ 
 umes. The expenditures for the year were £18,919,- 
 374 ($91,759,000). 
 
 The National Bible Society of Scotland extends 
 its operations far beyond the confines of that coun¬ 
 try. In 1920 it was working also in Belgium, Czecho¬ 
 slovakia, France, Germany, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, 
 Jugoslavia, Portugal, Africa, China, India, Japan, 
 Korea, and the British Dominions. The funds ex¬ 
 pended by this organization in 1920 amounted to 
 £32,380 ($157,000). 
 
 The American Bible Society has changed its pro¬ 
 gram largely in relation to its work in this coun¬ 
 try, and it now carries on its distribution in the 
 United States through nine home agencies cover¬ 
 ing every part of the United States, and 150 auxil¬ 
 iary societies. It has twelve foreign agencies, six 
 covering Latin-America with headquarters at Porto 
 Rico, Mexico City, Cristobal, for the Caribbean 
 and Upper Andes agencies, Rio de Janeiro, and 
 Buenos Aires, two in the Near East with head¬ 
 quarters at Constantinople and Cairo, and four 
 in the Far East wfith headquarters at Manila, 
 Bangkok, Shanghai, and Tokio. 
 
 The Society has no established agency in Europe, 
 but maintains correspondents in every European 
 country into which the modern map of Europe is 
 divided. In these countries it either co-operates 
 with the National Bible Societies or lends assist¬ 
 ance to local churches in their inner mission and 
 other activities. All told, the copies of the Bible, 
 or parts of the Bible, distributed by the American 
 Bible Society for the year ending 31 December, 
 
 • I l I ? CESE 0F (Bugellensis; cf. C. E., 
 
 nf i le £ rov " Novara > Italy, suffragan 
 
 of Verceili. Bishop Serafino, appointed to this see 
 2 December, 1912, was transferred 22 March 1917 
 and succeeded by the present incumbent, Rt. Rev’ 
 
 ST Gangliano, b. in Pormo, 1872, appointed 
 titulai Bishop of Eucarpia, 9 September, 1911, and 
 transferred 22 March, 1917. Upon his transfer from 
 this see, Bishop Serafind left 10,000 lire to be 
 used for a new church at Oropa. A decree of 12 
 June, 1918, accorded to the cathedral chancery of 
 Oropa the privilege of joining to the cathedral 
 title that of Our Lady of Oropa, a celebrated 
 sanctuary of the Blessed Virgin. The 1920 statis¬ 
 tics credit this diocese with 156,000 Catholics 114 
 parishes, 265 secular and 29 regular clergy 40 
 seminarians, and 270 churches or chapels. 
 
 Bigamy (cf. C. E., II-563c).—Bigamists, in the 
 original sense of the term, namely, individuals who 
 have contracted two or more valid marriages suc- 
 cessively, are in canon law irregular ex defectu, 
 wmcii means that they may not receive or exercise 
 any ecclesiastical orders or dignities. The irregu¬ 
 larity is incurred even if the marriage has only 
 been ratified. Interpretative bigamy, which was a 
 legal fiction, has now disappeared from canon law. 
 Persons who, while they are bound by the bonds 
 of matrimony, attempt to marry again or even to 
 contract a so-called civil marriage become ipso facto, 
 infamous on account of crime; if they continue 
 their illicit union despite the warning of the ordi¬ 
 nary, they are to be excommunicated or placed 
 under personal interdict, according to the gravity of 
 their offense. It should be noted that the crime 
 which is here in question is an attempted second 
 marriage, not concubinage or adulterous relations. 
 
 Bination (cf. C. E., II-568c).—Three Masses may 
 be said by all priests on Christmas Day and on the 
 feast of All Souls. On other days a priest may 
 celebrate only once, except by Apostolic indult or 
 by leave of the local ordinary, when, owing to a 
 lack of priests, a notable number of the faithful 
 could not otherwise hear Mass on a day of obliga¬ 
 tion; the ordinary cannot, however, allow any priest 
 to celebrate more than two Masses on the same day. 
 
 In certain missionary countries the Holy See has 
 
BIRMINGHAM 
 
 108 
 
 BISHOP 
 
 authorized ordinaries to permit their priests for a 
 just cause to accept a stipend for a second Mass 
 when they binate. Ordinarily, however, when a 
 Mass has been said to fulfil an obligation in justice 
 e. g. in return for a stipend, or when the Mass was 
 offered for the parishioners, a priest is forbidden 
 to receive a stipend for a second Mass, though he 
 may be paid something for a reason not intrinsically 
 connected with the celebration of the Mass, for in¬ 
 stance, to recompense him for his traveling expenses. 
 
 Code , 806: Irish Eccl . Rec . (1920), XVI, 58. 
 
 Birmingham, Archdiocese of (Birminghamia, 
 Birminghamiensis; cf. C. E., II-578c).—By the 
 Apostolic Letter of 28 October, 1911, reconstituting 
 the hierarchy of England and Wales, Birmingham 
 was raised to archiepiscopal rank, with the suffragan 
 sees of Clifton, Newport, Plymouth, Shrewbury, and 
 Menevia in Wales. The dioceses of Newport and 
 Menevia have since been constituted a separate 
 province. In 1921 Archbishop Ilsley, who had suc¬ 
 ceeded Bishop Ullathorne, retired, and was succeeded 
 by his auxiliary, Archbishop McIntyre. 
 
 The general population of the diocese (census 
 of 1911) was 3,114,470, the estimated Catholic popu¬ 
 lation, 115,000. There are 166 public churches, 43 
 private and convent chapels, 67 convents. The 
 secular clergy number 199, regulars 223. There are 
 119 public elementary schools, 4 secondary schools, 
 26 convent schools, with an attendance in the 
 public elementary schools of 27,128, in the other 
 schools of 11,460. Among the societies organized 
 among the laity of the diocese are the Catholic 
 Cripples’ Union, the Union of Catholic Mothers, the 
 Catholic Young Men’s Society, and the Catholic 
 Women’s League. 
 
 St. Mary’s College, Oscott, the diocesan seminary, 
 held the fifty-seventh annual meeting of the Os- 
 cotian Society on 13 July, 1920. On 12 March of 
 this year the New Franciscan House of Studies 
 known as Grosseteste House was opened at Oxford, 
 the Salesian Fathers having taken over the house 
 at Cowley. 
 
 In recent years the diocese of Birmingham has 
 lost through death many of its prominent church¬ 
 men, among them: the Rev. Henry Ignatius Ryder 
 (d. 1907), and his brother, Rev. Charles Edward 
 Ryder (d. 1912), pastor of Smethwick and founder 
 of its church; Rev. John J. Ilopwood (1913), for 
 eighteen years professor at Oscott; Rt. Rev. Mgr. 
 Victor J. Schobel, D. D. (d. 1915), professor of 
 philosophy at Oulton (1873-86), lecturer on phi¬ 
 losophy and moral philosophy at Oscott (1886-96) 
 and later chaplain at Oulton Abbey; Very Rev. 
 John Canon Caswell (d. 1917), professor at Oscott 
 (1879-83), vice president of St. Wilfrid’s College 
 (1883-85), vice president of Oscott (1885-89), ap¬ 
 pointed canon of Birmingham (1906) and editor the 
 diocesan “Ordo”; James B. Canon Keating (d. 
 1920), ordained in 1877 and transferred to the staff 
 of St. Wilfrid’s College in 1884, later appointed 
 pastor of St. Patrick’s, Walsall, and Sacred Heart 
 Church, Hanley, appointed rector of St. Austin’s, 
 Stafford, in 1889, and nominated Canon of the 
 Birmingham Chapter in 1911. Served on Stafford 
 School Board and Board of Guardians. 
 
 Birt, Henry Norbert, ecclesiastical historian, b. 
 1861 at Valparaiso, d. at London, 21 August, 1919. 
 He was a fourth son of Hugh Birt, M. D., and on 
 the maternal side was the great-grandson of John 
 Keogh of Mount Jerome, County Dublin, the leader 
 of the Catholic Constitutional party working for 
 emancipation. Educated first at St. Augustine’s, 
 Ramsgate, and later at University College School, 
 in 1880 he entered the Benedictine Order at Down¬ 
 
 side Abbey. In 1889 he was ordained and for some 
 years taught the school and did parochial work 
 in the parish of St. Ogsberg, Coventry. Later he 
 acted as socius and secretary to the then Abbot 
 Gasquet. During the South African War he was 
 acting chaplain to the forces, and during the World 
 War performed the same service for the forces in 
 England, chiefly at the hospital at Netley. He was 
 demobilized only a few weeks before his death. 
 
 Dom Birt’s best known literary work is his “Eliza¬ 
 bethan Religious Settlement”; others of value are 
 “History of Downside School,” “Lingard’s History 
 Abridged,” “Benedictine Pioneers in Australia,” the 
 “Obit Book of the English Benedictines,” and many 
 reviews and articles in leading periodicals. A mem¬ 
 ber of the Committee of the Catholic Truth Society, 
 he took a prominent part in its work, not only by 
 his controversial and historical pamphlets, but by 
 his personal attendance at meetings where his sound 
 advice was greatly valued. He was also a member 
 of the Council of the Catholic Record Society. 
 
 Birth Control. See Population. 
 
 Bisarchio, Diocese of. See Ozieri. 
 
 Bishop (cf. C. E., II-581b).—Before a person can 
 be made bishop now he must have been in priestly 
 orders at least five years, whereas under the Triden¬ 
 tine regime it was sufficient for him to have been 
 six months in Holy Orders. The examination of 
 persons called to the episcopate is now conducted 
 by the Consistorial Congregation. A bishop elect 
 must receive canonical institution from the Holy 
 See, but before being instituted he must make a 
 profession of faith and swear fidelity to the pope 
 in presence of the Holy Father or of his delegate; 
 under the Tridentine legislation he had to make 
 the profession of faith in the first provincial synod 
 held after his election. On being promoted to the 
 episcopacy, a priest even if he is a cardinal, must 
 receive consecration within three months after re¬ 
 ceiving the Apostolic letters, unless he is legiti¬ 
 mately prevented, and he must go to his diocese 
 within four months. 
 
 A bishop now takes canonical possession of his 
 see by showing his Apostolic letters to the cathe¬ 
 dral chapter in presence of the capitular secretary 
 or of the diocesan chancellor. In virtue of the 
 law of residence a bishop must not be absent from 
 his diocese for more than three months, not neces¬ 
 sarily continuous, the time spent on his canonical 
 visits to Rome is not to be counted in this, though 
 it must not come immediately after his vacation 
 period (see Visit ad limina). He must be in the 
 cathedral during Advent and Lent and on Christmas 
 Day, Pentecost, Corpus Christi, and Easter Sunday, 
 unless he is excused for a grave and urgent reason. 
 If he is unlawfully absent from the diocese for more 
 than six months the Holy See must be notified by 
 his metropolitan. 
 
 Among the privileges granted to bishops, whether 
 residential or titular, are the right of saying Mass 
 at sea; of allowing others to say Mass in their 
 presence on a portable altar; of enjoying daily a 
 personally privileged altar; of following their own 
 calendar in all churches and oratories; of visiting 
 their domestic chapels, when a visit to a public 
 church is prescribed for gaining an indulgence; of 
 giving the episcopal blessing everywhere; however, 
 in Rome it may be imparted only in churches, 
 pious places, or at assemblies of the faithful; of 
 selecting for themselves and their household a 
 confessor, who, if he lacks it, is granted jurisdiction 
 by the law and who can absolve them from all sins 
 and censures, except censures reserved very spe¬ 
 cially to the Holy See or those imposed for vio- 
 
BISHOP 
 
 BISHOP 
 
 109 
 
 Iating the secrecy of the Holy Office; of preaching 
 everywhere, with at least the presumed leave of 
 the local ordinary; of celebrating Mass on Holy 
 Thursday or three Masses on Christmas Night or 
 of allowing another to do so in their presence, 
 provided they are not obliged to celebrate in the 
 cathedral; of blessing rosaries, crucifixes, medals, 
 statues, approved scapulars and of clothing with 
 the scapulars without the necessity of enrolment, 
 and of granting the usual indulgences; of erecting 
 Stations of the Cross in churches and all oratories 
 as 'veil as pious places, with the usual indulgences, 
 and of annexing the Way of the Cross indulgences 
 to crucifixes for those who are legitimately pre¬ 
 vented from visiting the Stations. 
 
 Many faculties which were enjoyed formerly by 
 bishops only in virtue of special indults are now 
 granted to them by law. Thus they can appoint 
 examiners and parish priests consultors with the 
 consent of the cathedral chapter when a vacancy 
 occurs in the interval between synods; they can 
 give the papal blessing with a plenary indulgence 
 tvyice a year and also in articulo mortis; they may 
 within limits authorize the alienation of ecclesias¬ 
 tical property; they may allow a priest to binate 
 or to say Mass outside of a church; they may con¬ 
 fer major orders for a serious reason on any Sunday 
 or holiday of obligation. As the ordinary power 
 of bishops has thus been greatly extended (see 
 (Dispensation) Pope Benedict XV, in order to in¬ 
 troduce greater uniformity throughout the Church, 
 withdrew the faculties commonly granted to bishops 
 for a period of three, five, ten, or twenty-five years, 
 for the external forum, except in regions subject 
 to the Congregation of Propaganda, where they are 
 to continue in force for the present. 
 
 Religious who become bishops are subject to the 
 pope alone, and not to the superiors of their order; 
 if they have been solemnly professed, they can 
 nevertheless use and administer temporal goods and 
 acquire property for their territories; they may 
 reside in any house of their order, but have neither 
 active nor passive voice in the affairs of the order. 
 
 Coadjutor Bishops. —A coadjutor is usually 
 granted to a bishop personally with the right of 
 succession (without this right he is termed an 
 auxiliary bishop), but sometimes he is granted to 
 a see. If the bishop is entirely incapacitated the 
 coadjutor has all his rights and duties, unless limited 
 by the letters of appointment; otherwise he has only 
 what the bishop allows him. The bishop should not 
 habitually delegate to another what the coadjutor 
 can and is willing to do, and the latter must, if 
 requested by the bishop, carry out the episcopal 
 duties, unless justly prevented from doing so. A 
 coadjutor granted to a see may exercise all exclu¬ 
 sively episcopal powers within his territory, except 
 the conferring of sacred ordination; in other mat¬ 
 ters he may act only as far as the Holy See or the 
 bishop authorizes him. Coadjutors enter into their 
 office canonically by showing their Apostolic letters 
 to the bishop; if they have the right of succession 
 or have been granted to a see they must exhibit 
 the letters to the chapter also; if the bishop should 
 be incapable of eliciting a human act the letters 
 need be shown only to the chapter. No coadjutor 
 should absent himself from the diocese, except 
 during his vacation, for more than a short time 
 without the bishop’s leave. On the bishop’s death, 
 the coadjutor with right of succession immediately 
 becomes the diocesan ordinary provided he has 
 taken canonical possession; a coadjutor granted to 
 a see retains his office during a vacancy, but an 
 auxiliary’s office would terminate on the bishop’s 
 death, unless his letters provide otherwise. 
 
 t ? EL imr°^i 0 F TT ^SH0PS : -By a decree dated 25 
 ulv, 1916, the Holy See inaugurated a new method 
 of selecting bishops for the United States, as the 
 previous system often resulted in a long delay in 
 filling vacancies and did not secure the secrecy that 
 was desn-ed (c C. E„ 11-584; Eccl. Rev., LXI, 
 ZZD-61). 1 he following is an outline of the new 
 
 procedure. About the beginning of Lent every 
 second year starting from 1917 each bishop is to 
 send to his archbishop the names of one or two 
 pei sons whom he believes from long-continued 
 peisonal intercourse to be suitable for the episcopal 
 office. He may name persons who do not belong 
 to his diocese or even province. To aid the bishops 
 and the archbishops on their selection they are first 
 to ask their diocesan consultors and permanent 
 rectors individually and under the strictest obliga¬ 
 tion of secrecy to suggest a worthy candidate to 
 them. When the archbishop has received the names 
 he adds his own choice and then having compiled 
 an alphabetical list of the candidates proposed he 
 sends it to each of his suffragans, so that they can 
 discreetly inquire about the nominees. No bishop 
 may allow any one except the archbishop to know 
 what persons are on his list. After Easter the 
 bishops of the province meet privately and discuss 
 the merits of the priests who have been listed, 
 paying particular attention to their age, administra¬ 
 tive ability, learning, virtue, and loyalty to the 
 Holy See. When having eliminated those who are 
 opposed unanimously, they vote on the remaining 
 candidates in alphabetical order. Each bishop has 
 three ballots, different in color, white being favor¬ 
 able, black unfavorable, and another color indicating 
 that the bishop does not vote. There are two bal¬ 
 lot boxes, one for the ballots indicating the vote 
 cast, the other for the two remaining ballots. 
 The archbishop votes first and secrecy is observed 
 by all. The archbishop and a bishop acting as sec¬ 
 retary then count the ballots in presence of the 
 others and the result is noted in writing. The 
 bishop should, if possible indicate for what kind 
 of a diocese, e. g., large or small, organized or new, 
 the candidate would be best fitted. A record of 
 the proceedings including the balloting must be 
 drawn up by the secretary and after being read 
 aloud by the archbishop must be signed by all. A 
 copy similarly signed is sent to the Consistorial 
 Congregation, through the Apostolic delegate, while 
 the original is kept in the ^archiepiscopal archives 
 for a year, after which it must be destroyed. The 
 decree invited the bishops to communicate with the 
 Holy See between these biennial meetings if they 
 think it advisable to give any further information 
 about candidates. Needless to say all this pro¬ 
 cedure is merely to assist the Holy See, which 
 remains free to select any person to fill a vacancy, 
 even one whose name was not on the list. 
 
 The new system proved successful and has since 
 been introduced with minor variations into other 
 countries. It was established for Canada and New¬ 
 foundland in 1919, the voting taking place every 
 second year from 1920. The bishops there need 
 not consult anyone about suitable candidates; in 
 their choice they must mention the age, birthplace, 
 residence, and office of the candidates. The bishops 
 of the provinces of Kingston and Toronto vote 
 together, under the direction of the senior arch¬ 
 bishop, so, too do, those of the provinces of Saint 
 Boniface, Regina, and Winnipeg, under the presi¬ 
 dency of the-archbishop of Winnipeg; and finally 
 the bishops of the provinces of Edmonton and 
 Vancouver, under the senior archbishop. The rec¬ 
 ords are forwarded to the Consistorial Congregation 
 by the Apostolic delegate. 
 
BISHOP 
 
 110 
 
 BISMARCK 
 
 In Scotland, all the bishops meet every third 
 year beginning with 1921, after consulting their 
 canons individually and forwarding their list of 
 names to the Archbishop of Edinburgh, or if that 
 see is vacant, to the Archbishop of Glasgow, the 
 presiding officer forwarding the record to the Holy 
 See. In Poland, too, the meeting is triennial and 
 national, not provincial, and is presided over by 
 the senior metropolitan; while in Mexico ana 
 Brazil it is provincial and is held every three to 
 five years beginning with 1922, but these last three 
 countries the bishops need not seek ad\ ice f i om 
 their clergy. 
 
 Dress.— In answer to certain queries regarding 
 episcopal dress the Congregation of Rites leplied on 
 26 November, 1919, that bishops may not have a 
 red tuft on their birettas; that they must not 
 wear silken capes or cassocks unless they are mem¬ 
 bers of the pontifical household, that in Rome their 
 soutanes mantelletas, mozzetas, and birettas must 
 be purple, elsewhere in penitential seasons or at 
 funerals these may be black, except the biretta 
 and skull-cap; that they may never use the stole 
 mitre, and pastoral staff together with their prelatial 
 habit, as had been customary in some places at 
 confirmations or in processions, that they may not 
 wear mitres of silver cloth, which are papal, nor 
 damask mitres with red flaps, which are used by 
 cardinals or prothonotaries Apostolic ad instar. 
 
 Codex juris canonici , 329-55; Vermeersch-Creusen . Epitome , 
 314-30; Acta Ap . Sedis (1920), 177 sqq. Rome , XX (1916). 
 229-31, gives an English version of the decree on the procedure 
 for proposing suitable candidates for bishoprics in the United 
 
 States. _ 
 
 Bishop, Edmund, liturgiologist, b. at Totnes 17 
 May, 1846; d. at Barnstaple 19 February, 1917. His 
 early schooling was received at Ashburton and 
 Exeter, and he was afterwards sent to a Catholic 
 school ’in Belgium. While still very young he began 
 his career as secretary to Thomas Carlyle. In 1864 
 he entered the Education Department of the Rnvy 
 Council Office and was employed there for twenty 
 years. In 1867 he was received into the Church. 
 While in the department the easy office hours gave 
 him leisure for study; he read assiduously, copied 
 documents at the British Museum, and, being 
 gifted with a phenomenal memory and an extiaor- 
 dinary power of acquisition, laid the foundations 
 of his wide and varied learning. At this time he 
 transcribed, analyzed, and annotated the great Gol- 
 lecta Britannica, with copies of three hundred papal 
 letters dating from the fifth to the eleventh century. 
 Failing the means of publishing the collection in 
 England, he presented it to the Monumenta Ger¬ 
 manise. . . , 
 
 In 1885 Mr. Bishop resigned his position and the 
 following year entered the Benedictine Order at 
 Downside. He remained there as a postulant for 
 three years, but his fragile physique prevented him 
 from taking the monastic habit. From 1892 to 
 1901 he lived and worked with his friend Dom, 
 now Cardinal, Gasquet, with whom he was joint 
 author of “Edward VI and the Book of Common 
 Prayer (1890). ,, Gasquet’s “Henry III and the 
 Church” was dedicated to Bishop in words that 
 testify to his worth and the quality of his friend¬ 
 ship. In 1902 he retired to Barnstaple, where he 
 lived until his death; by his own wish he was 
 buried at Downside in the monks’ cemetery. 
 
 In proportion to his knowledge, Mr. Bishop pro¬ 
 duced very little under his own name. Much of 
 his work lies hidden in that of others, for with self- 
 effacement he gave unstintedly of his learning to 
 all who appealed for inspiration and guidance. 
 “The Genius of the Roman Rite” (1899) showed 
 his unrivaled powers as historian and liturgiologist, 
 
 while probably no individual book published by 
 an English scholar has made so valuable a con¬ 
 tribution to the science of liturgiology as the 
 “Liturgica Historica,” Bishop’s collected essays on 
 western historical and liturgical subjects, in prepara¬ 
 tion before his death and published in 1918. He 
 contributed numerous papers to the “Journal of 
 Theological Studies” and other periodicals. 
 
 Bismarck, Diocese of (Bismarkiensis; cf., C. E., 
 XVI-lOd).—The Diocese of Bismarck comprises the 
 following counties: Adams, Billings, Bowman, 
 Burke, Burleigh, Divide, Dunn, Emmons, Golden 
 Valley, Grant, Hettinger, McKenzie, McLean, Mer¬ 
 cer, Morton, Mountrail, Oliver, Renville, Sioux, 
 Slope, Stark, Ward, and Williams in the State of 
 North Dakota. This list is slightly different from 
 that published in 1914, owing to the fact that 
 some counties have been divided. The area, of the 
 diocese is 35,998 square miles. In 1920 Bismarck 
 had 6,797 inhabitants. By count of 31 December, 
 1920, the Catholic population of the diocese was 
 37,343. The diocese contains about 25,000 German¬ 
 speaking people, mostly from Russia and Hungary; 
 1,900 Bohemians, coming mostly from Russia; 180 
 French Canadians; 330 Poles; at least 1,800 Indians; 
 and about 1,300 Ruthenians of the Oriental Rite, 
 not included in the Catholic population. These 
 Ruthenians are centered chiefly in the missions of 
 Wilton and Ukraina-Gorham. By a decree of the 
 Sacred Congregation of the Eastern Church (30 
 May, 1921), Rev. Father Theodore Roessler, and 
 another priest of the diocese, were authorized to 
 follow the Ruthenian Rite whenever expedient, 
 being exacted to first obtain jurisdiction over these 
 faithful, from the Ruthenian Administrator for the 
 United States. By the same decree, the Ruthenians 
 scattered among the Catholics of the Latin Rite 
 are permitted to attach themselves to this rite, 
 and have its priests assist at their marriages and 
 exercise among them all parochial functions. Cath¬ 
 olics born in America of Ruthenian parents, who do 
 not know the Ruthenian Rite or Ruthenian lan¬ 
 guage, but who speak English and are considered 
 American citizens, may receive their definite trans¬ 
 fer to the Latin Rite; however, every individual 
 case shall be referred by the bishop to the Sacred 
 Congregation, and shall have attached to the re¬ 
 quest for the transfer the consent of the Ruthenian 
 Ordinary of the United States. 
 
 There are 29 canonically erected parishes, 28 
 missions with resident priests among whites; among 
 Indians, 2; mission churches without resident priests 
 among whites, 85; among Indians, 8. St. Mary’s 
 Benedictine Abbey at Richardton has in addition 
 to -its abbot, 31 priests, 16 professed clerics, 14 lay- 
 brothers. Some of its priests are working in other 
 dioceses. In connection with the Abbey, is St. 
 Mary’s College with 70 students. Other orders 
 of men in the diocese are the Canons of the Holy 
 Cross, and the Fathers of the Precious Blood; 
 total number of regulars, 36; seculars, 43. There 
 are two convents of women with novitiates, that 
 of the Ursulines at Kenmare, and that of the 
 Benedictines at Garrison; total number of religious 
 women, 211. 
 
 There are 13 elementary parochial schools, and 
 1 industrial school for Indians, while the Govern¬ 
 ment industrial school is partly in care of the 
 Sisters; the school attendance, including Indians, 
 3,167. There are four hospitals. Besides the above 
 mentioned Government Industrial School, the State 
 Prison, the State Reform School and the Govern¬ 
 ment Indian School at Bismarck all admit the 
 ministry of priests. 
 
BLESSED SACRAMENT 
 
 BLOIS 
 
 111 
 
 The Knights of Columbus and the Catholic For¬ 
 esters are organized in the diocese, as also some 
 local societies among German and Bohemian speak- 
 mg people. 1 he Priests’ Eucharistic League is the 
 only society organized among priests. 
 
 In the territory which constitutes the present 
 diocese of Bismarck there were in 1893 two resi¬ 
 dent priests among the whites and two among the 
 Indians, some missions being attended by priests 
 residing in what is now the Diocese of Fargo, 
 the first German-speaking immigrants reached the 
 region in 1889, the largest immigration taking place 
 k^ween 1896 and 1910. It ceased at the outbreak 
 of the \\ orld War, but is once more on the in¬ 
 crease. The diocese is still under the administra¬ 
 tion of Rt. Rev. Vincent Wehrle, O.S.B., the first 
 bishop. 
 
 Blessed Sacrament, Fathers of the (cf. C. E., 
 AIV-lllaL The following houses of the congrega- 
 /Vnio\' ® re p en ^ j? een opened, Brno, Czechoslovakia 
 S^ ebec ’ Canada (1915); Chicago, Ill., U. S. 
 Uyi81; Duren, near Cologne, Germany (1920); 
 Todi, Italy (1920). The novitiate in North America 
 I® a ^ Quebec, Canada. The present superior is 
 Very Rev. Eugene Couet, who succeeded Very Rev 
 Loins Estevenon in 1912. Recently deceased is 
 Rev. Arthur Letellier, one of the pioneer priests of 
 the congregation, who died in Montreal in 1921 
 The congregation at present (1921) numbers about 
 500 priests, scholastics, and lay brothers. 
 
 Blessed Sacrament, Servants of the Most (cf. 
 
 .iT'’’ , XIII-731d).—The congregation has its 
 mother-house at Angers, France, a house in Paris 
 and one in Binche, Belgium. In Canada there are 
 two houses: at Chicoutimi, established 1903 with 
 a community (1921) of 8 professed Sisters and 16 
 novices; and Quebec, opened December, 1920, with 
 a community of 12 professed Sisters. Two houses 
 have been opened in South America: at Rio 
 Janeiro in 1912, and Sao Paulo in 1920. 
 
 Blessed Sacrament, Sisters of the (cf. C. E 
 II-599b). The congregation received the final ap¬ 
 probation of the Holy See in May, 1913. The 
 present superior general is Mother Katherine 
 Drexe! foundress of the congregation. Since 1907 
 tne following new foundations have been made • 
 Philadelphia, Pa.; St. Mark’s, New York- St 
 Anne s, Cincinnati, Ohio; St. Cyprian’s, Columbus,’ 
 Omo; St. Monicas, Chicago, Ill.; St. Augustine’s, 
 Winnebago, Neb.; Our Lady of Lourdes, Atlanta 
 ua., St. Josephs, Boston, Mass, (settlement and 
 social work); St. Elizabeth’s, St. Louis, Mo.; St. 
 r rancis Xavier’s, New Orleans, La. (high school 
 and normal school for colored youth); St. Peter 
 Claver s, Macon, Ga.; St. Catherine’s, Philadelphia, 
 Pa.; Our Mother of Sorrows, Biloxi, Miss.; the 
 Blessed Sacrament, Beaumont, Texas; St. John the 
 Baptists, Montgomery, Ala.; Corpus Christi School, 
 New Orleans, La.; St. Edward’s, New Iberia; Teka- 
 wdha House, Washington, D.C. The sisters num- 
 
 umj 3 ’ a , nd , have imder their care about 5,000 
 children of the colored and Indian races. They 
 conduct 2 boarding schools for colored children 3 
 oarding schools for Indians, and 19 parochial 
 schools for colored children,, having in all 23 
 foundations. 
 
 Blessing ( C f C. E, II-599d) .-All cardinals from 
 tne time of their promotion to the consistory and 
 all bishops from the time they receive official notice 
 ol their canonical provision have power to bless 
 evoiywhere, with the mere sign of the Cross, cruci- 
 xes medals, rosaries, statues, scapulars approved 
 by the Holy See, thereby granting all the usual 
 
 Apostolic indulgences. They may also with a simrlp 
 blessing erect stations of the Cross with the rmSal 
 indulgences m all churches, oratories, even private 
 
 ? pious - P laces » a nd may annex the Way 
 
 of the Ci oss privilege to crucifixes with the usual 
 indulgences in favor of those who by reason of 
 health or other just cause are unable to visit the 
 Stations. According to a reply of the Sacred Pen i 
 
 l«oW h ° P Hann V f San "So, 
 
 18 July, 1919 bishops may not habitually delegate 
 this power , of blessing and indulgencing rosaries 
 etc., to their priests. On 15 May, 1914, the Holy 
 
 B^ C H d i eCla £ Gd E^ leStS who had fac nlties from 
 the Holy See to bless and indulgence different 
 
 religious articles with the sign of the Cross could 
 
 impart all these blessings and annex all the indul- 
 
 ° ne Slg , n °f tIie Cross, except in the 
 case of the scapular medal, which required five 
 
 it P represen?s! mg ^ COrrespondin S to the scapulars 
 
 A reserved blessing, if given by a priest without 
 due permission, is illicit but valid, unless the Holy 
 bee m reserving it decreed otherwise (can. 1147) 
 lough blessings are intended primarily for Catho- 
 
 \hl’ rb 7 h f.f ve P- t0 catechumens, and, unless 
 Church forbids it, to non-Catholics also in 
 order that they may obtain the grace of faith or of 
 faith and bodily health. On 8 March, 1919, the 
 Congregation of Rites declared that catchumens 
 lay receive also the public sacramentals such as 
 the imposition of ashes and the presentation of 
 candles and palms. 
 
 Where vestments and other things to be used in 
 divine worship require a blessing before use it can 
 be given by. (a) cardinals and bishops; (b) local 
 ordinaries, who are not bishops, and parish priests 
 for churches and oratories in their territories; 
 
 ir?/ 1 !’ churches; (d) religious superiors 
 
 and priests of their order delegated by them, for 
 their churches and oratories and for the churches 
 ot nuns with solemn vows subject to them. Local 
 ordinaries can delegate their power to any priest 
 Apostolic Blessing (cf. C. E., 11-602) .-The papal 
 blessing with a plenary indulgence annexed can be 
 given according to the prescribed formula by any 
 bishop in his own diocese twice in the year, namely 
 on Easter Sunday and on any other solemn feast 
 chosen by him even if he himself only assists at 
 the solemn Mass. Abbots or prelates nullius 
 vicars Apostolic, and prefects Apostolic, even when 
 not bishops, can give it in their territories on only 
 one of the more solemn feasts each year. Regulars 
 who are privileged to bestow the blessing must use 
 the prescribed formula; they may not exercise the 
 privilege except in their own churches or in those 
 of nuns or tertiaries lawfully aggregated to their 
 order; they are not allowed, however, to impart it 
 on the same day and in the same place as the 
 bishop Now all priests who are assisting the sick 
 not only may, but must grant them the Apostolic 
 blessing with a plenary indulgence for the moment 
 of death according to the formula. This indul- 
 genced blessing could be given formerly only by 
 priests who were specially authorized. 
 
 Blois, Diocese of (Blesensis; cf. C. E., II-602b), 
 coextensive with the civil department of Loire-et- 
 Cher, and a suffragan of Paris, Rt. Rev. Alfred-Jules 
 Melisson, b. in Parigne-l’Eveque, 1842, has filled 
 this see since 10 October, 1907. During the World 
 War 140 piiests and 30 seminarians were mobilized 
 from this diocese, and of this number 12 priests 
 and 8 seminarians died,. 35 received the croix de 
 guerre, 1 the^ medaille militaire, and a number were 
 given the medaille des epidemies and other decora- 
 
BLUEFIELDS 
 
 BLUE LAWS 
 
 112 
 
 , in Anril 1013 the dignity should kiss his wife, and no wife should kiss her 
 
 tions By a decree of 10 ,\pnh 191c^ the *ig y hugband on Sunday , “the party at fault being 
 
 of a dean was added to the cathedral cnapie y mis u e d at the discretion of the magistrates, 
 a Brief of 30 July, 1921, an ^? ciat !°v ' J! forme | P The laws against persons differing in religion from 
 
 the devotion of the Three Hail Ma y tbe C 0 i 0 nists were fully as severe as Peters repre- 
 
 at Blois, m connection with the chapel o Both in New Haven and Hartford the Massa- 
 
 Lady of the Three Hail Marys. The society has sente, wmm £ew * thege were 
 
 the right to form branch associations in other chusettstewz priSTs£Sl abide in the Dominion, he 
 places, and special pnvdeges accorded to a^ ban ? she d and suffer death on his return. 
 
 ciated pnests, especially Priests may be seized by anyone without a warrant, 
 
 fraternities in their . own parishes The official W D n X stated in the exact terms of the 
 
 organ of the society is the Propagateur des Tro s w * ag true of Connec ticut and Massachusetts 
 
 Ave Maria.” ... ,. -,i 071 9 oi as we ll as New Haven, but it was also true of 
 
 The 1920 statistics credit this diocese with 271 231 as wen abj W hat . g really 
 
 Catholics, 27 first class parishes, 294 s uccur a p t , rU e - n b - g statement that the penal laws of the 
 
 ishes, and 37 vicariates, formerly supported y Ngw Haven Colony “consist of a vast multitude, 
 
 state. and were properly denominated Blue Laws, i. e., 
 
 Bluefields, Vicariate Apostolic of ^“Tgua" cimmuSiolrconfiscrtion, ^Shipping, cutting off 
 
 S^te N r , ^ed d 1 , ^M ml, by a td”ConS 
 
 division of the ancient d'oeese of N icarag-ua a Colonies were much more humane than the laws of 
 comprises the Provinces of Bluehelds Cab ^ England at the time. The number of crimes punish- 
 
 a Dios, Prmzapolcka Siguia, Rio Grande, ana tne b death am6unted to more than one hundred 
 islands in the Atlantic Ocean belonging to N in jw[and while in, the New Haven and Connecticut 
 ragua. So far (1922), no statistics have been pub- exce eded fifteen. Theft was 
 
 fished. The present, and first „ a ^°^ tituki never a capital offense in any part of Connecticut, 
 
 Rev. Augustin Joseph Bernaus y terra., titu a . q England a theft G f property of the value 
 
 Bishop of Milopotamos, appointed -8 May, 191 . ^ twelve pence was punishable by death from the 
 
 Blue Laws.-Connecticut is the State; which gave punishable by death, which gave rise 
 
 rise to the term Blue Laws. The phrase ^P^nts common saying, “One might as well be 
 
 a collection of severe laws hanged for a sheep Is for a lamb.” 
 
 duct and the observance of the Sabbath, w While Peters gave notoriety to the name Blue 
 
 are supposed to have been in force among t « ^ he did not i nve nt it; neither was the name 
 
 early colonists of New Haven and Connecticut ^ “ ^°£ e “ use th ’ were « bloody laws> » 
 By extension the words are used to characterize any g probably because they were printed with 
 
 strict or rigid regulations, espec.ally in regard to ?Cpap«GThe Session laws of Con- 
 
 Sunday. t>i 11q t ■nt pw Haven necticut have always been in pamphlets with blue 
 
 The notoriety of the Blue Lawsi oliNew Haven c so wfaen first applied the nam e did not 
 
 was first occasioned by the work 01 Kev. oamuei present evil significance. 
 
 Peters, an Episcopal clergyman and a ^ hTfimiimr The New Haven code of laws, printed in 1655, 
 who lived in Hebron, Co™., before the begmnmg entire , y from th / codes of M assa- 
 
 of the Revolutionary Wax,^ which work ^ P^ b chusetts and Connecticut but each offence was for¬ 
 ced in England m.1781 as A Genera^ H t y tified with marginal reference s to Scripture passages, 
 of Connecticut. Tvhile it pretended to De a n dpsrrintion of blasphemy and the crimes 
 
 tory it was really a bitter satire, and ofagainst chastity is minute t, a painful degree, as 
 whatever. It was evidently written to grati y designed that no one could positively mis- 
 
 spite or revenge of the authoi’against the Colony ^ty of the offenses . W crime of 
 
 of Connecticut, the religion and politics of whic h , . described and punished: “If any 
 
 hated. Peters hadmadehimselfso ^XTniza- shall in distempered passion, or otherwise, sinfully 
 his neighbors and the Sons of Liberty, an organ _ ^ wound or maim another, such person shall 
 
 tion of young men m Connecticut opposed to t ^ punished by fine, with some valuable recom- 
 
 Stamp Act, by his °f fens ( !,' 0 ? on ^ ts ag °”hT he was pense to the party; and shall pay for the cure, with 
 patriotic efforts of the Colonists, that n time etc. and where the case requires it 
 
 treated by them in a very rough manner court of magistrates are to duly consider the 
 
 obliged to flee from the country His animosity God “s ft is revealed. Exod. 21:18 to the 
 
 was particularly directed against New Haven, p 24 T9 20” This is really better and more 
 
 ably because at that time Benedict Arnold resided 28 Lev 24.1V , 2 lh in « 1S ; of Connecticut, 
 
 there, and was either at the head or was one of punishment of the 
 
 the chief leaders of the Sons of liberty. lhe wn cn u a ,. emedv of the injured per- 
 
 laws made by this independent Dominion,” he says, accused 1 e xp™nsi?e suit. 
 
 “and dominated Slue L aws by the nmghbormg P > h ^ ^ that time a f am ii; ar 
 
 colonies, were never suffered to be printed. T his hment Jn a „ the colonies . Ne w Haven 
 
 statement is not true. The laws of A'ew ila the other countries; but 
 
 were printed as soon as possible but before being was ° nceB made it peculiar. The 
 
 printed they were duly published. Peters cites a reads as follows: “Stripes or whipping is a 
 
 samples forty-five laws, as representing a sma p tion fit and proper in some cases, where the 
 
 of the Blue Laws. Some of these are practically Xnse S^accompaffied 1 ^with chMish or brutal folly, 
 true and others partly true, but stated m such a w f t h r ude filthiness, or with stubborn insolency, with 
 
 f< 5« ot b" 
 
 l dlC tt°tlb f :!h'.or^P^'s-^But o^tha^no^ 
 
 wa S re e q Tally fooli'sh, H P^dtaTthat nolusband pence was laid on anyone “taking tobacco in an un- 
 
BLUE LAWS 
 
 BLUE LAWS 
 
 113 
 
 covered place or on training days.” The law against 
 aking tobacco was in force in Connecticut after 
 the union of the three colonies; and strict provision 
 was made against games of chance and all sports 
 
 nf Kf r K Cqm iJ, ng skl11 or ! uck * In 1650 "the game 
 of shuffle board was especially prohibited, and any 
 
 § ame . 'Y as forbidden. Of course such 
 ndefimte descriptions of offences made it possible 
 
 iL*™ CS f ° r co , urt t0 do S reat injustice. In 
 ganies altogether unlawful” were defined as 
 
 t L,.. t j bleS .’ and ai ^ otker game wherein 
 
 that great and solemn ordinance of a lot is ex¬ 
 pressly and directly abused and profaned.” The 
 early settlers considered that the casting of lots 
 
 ° nl , y f ° r divine P ur Poses, and 
 that to use it for frivolous amusement or purpose 
 
 of gain was forbidden by the word of God. Some- 
 
 rfJ 10WCVe V he Gcneral Court itself provided 
 T1 } 1S was usually where the lottery 
 ? as held for the encouragement of religion or 
 • f n , 1 Prohibition of games was 
 
 fnv U( ? G ¥ mrds > ^uorts, kayle, loggats, "or 
 
 a: Ku ot u e unlawful games or sport.” Of course 
 neither baseball nor lawn tennis was then invented 
 or known and so escaped reproof. 
 
 But the people finally began to see the folly of 
 such legislation. "Common sense eventually as¬ 
 serted its supremacy in such matters,” says Judge 
 S am “ er ^ m fbe case of State vs. Miller, 68 Conn. 
 
 And legislation has ceased to stigmatize inno¬ 
 cent amusements as criminal, and legislative dis¬ 
 cretion is no longer invoked to define those pious 
 
 uses that may be potent to extract its inherent vice 
 from gambling.” 
 
 The chief fault that has been found with the 
 Blue Laws is the severity of Sunday regulations, 
 a fault has not yet been wholly remedied, but 
 the laws of Connecticut, although giving the title 
 “Vi 6 to such acts, were no more severe 
 
 than those of other New England States. Even to 
 the early part of the nineteenth century the laws 
 in force on this subject were as strict as they 
 were in the Puritanic times. Every one was re¬ 
 quired to attend public worship on Sunday, unless 
 
 P re u- e , n J ted a ver y g rave cause, and was not only 
 forbidden to transact upon that day any manner of 
 secular business on land or water, but was also 
 denied all recreation, all traveling, except from 
 necessity or charity; and even the privilege of 
 leaving his house, "Unless to attend upon the public 
 worship of God, or some work of necessity or 
 mercy. These provisions were sternly enforced in 
 tne earlier days, and many attempts were made 
 to avoid their manifest inconvenience. A story is 
 told of three men who had a pressing occasion to 
 drive from Saybrook to Hartford on a Sunday. 
 Constables were always on the watch for travelers 
 and these men knew they could not make the 
 jouiney in the usual way without being arrested* 
 so whenever they approached a village one of the 
 men lay down in the carriage, covered by a blanket, 
 as it very sick, and another went forward making 
 anxmus inquiries where he could dispose of a man 
 suffering from an attack of small-pox, pointing at 
 the same time to his companions in the carriage, 
 l he inhabitants, fearing that their town would be 
 burdened by the care of a case of small-pox, drove 
 the three travelers to the next town. There the 
 same ruse was enacted, and in this w^ay the men 
 arrived in Hartford without being taken for viola¬ 
 tion of the Sunday law. This story may not be 
 historically true, but it illustrates how the inhabi¬ 
 tants sometimes broke their own rigid law with 
 impunity. 
 
 By these early statutes work and pleasure and 
 
 business were forbidden only between the hours of 
 sunrise and sunset. It was not until 1882 that trav¬ 
 eling on Sunday was allowed; but for many years 
 
 Tn ioM P ortl °n of the statute was not observed. 
 In 1883 the owners of vehicles were permitted to 
 use them on Sunday Still any contract made on 
 Sunday was void, and if anybody paid money on 
 account of such contract, he could not recover it in 
 case of breach. This last injustice was cured by an 
 act passed in 1889 providing that "no person who 
 receives a valuable consideration for a contract 
 express or implied, made on Sunday, shall defend* 
 any action upon such contract, on the ground that 
 it was so made, until he restores such consideration ” 
 Like the laws against innocent games of chance 
 the laws against Sunday amusements have been so 
 changed in recent years as to give little cause for 
 cnticism. They are not yet as liberal as they should 
 be, and as they are in some jurisdictions; but 
 common sense has begun to assert itself in regard 
 
 * he Su £ day ln Con ? ecticut i although when, in 
 1889, an effort was made to ameliorate the statute, 
 the hours of Sunday were lengthened and the fine 
 for violation increased. Previous to that time no 
 business could be legally done between sunrise and 
 sunset, under a fine of four dollars. In 1889 Sun- 
 day was made to extend from 12 o’clock Saturday 
 night to 12 o clock Sunday night, and the penalty 
 for violating the law was raised to fifty dollars 
 lhe practice known as putting to the torture, an 
 old and frequent custom in European countries 
 was mistakenly included among the Blue Laws of 
 Connecticut, for the custom, while common in New 
 \ork, was never adopted in any part of Con¬ 
 necticut. Burglary was punished by branding a 
 rule copied from Massachusetts. In New Haven 
 the letter B was burned on the hand, in Hartford, 
 on the forehead. 
 
 The sale of intoxicating liquors was regulated by 
 law, but the laws on this subject were not rigid. 
 
 A reasonable license fee was provided for; but no 
 man was allowed to sell strong drink to an Indian 
 under severe penalties. In New Haven any man 
 might sell beer or ale at a penny a quart or 
 cheaper, without a license. Persons were forbidden 
 the privilege of convening at the tavern on the 
 evening next before and next after the Lord’s day 
 or any public fasting day. Taverners were forbidden 
 to allow persons to sit drinking or tippling for the 
 space of more than half an hour at a time; and it 
 was made the duty of the constable to enter the 
 tavern, by force if necessary, and see that the laws 
 were not violated. 
 
 The adoption of the 18th Amendment to the 
 Constitution of the United States furnishes a ground 
 for the making and enforcing of laws which may 
 well be set in this class. The Volstead Act, fixing 
 the content of one half of one per cent of alcohol 
 in any liquid to characterize it as an intoxicating 
 beverage, makes the law a very rigorous one 
 While the ratio was proper for purposes of excise’ 
 lor which it was intended in the first place, it seems 
 unreasonable for the purpose of characterizing a 
 liquid as intoxicating. Indeed there is nothing in 
 the ancient codes of New England so severe or 
 more in the nature of a Blue Law. And the pun¬ 
 ishments provided are much greater than in the 
 case of crimes which are evil in themselves. A fine 
 of not more than $200.00, or imprisonment of not 
 *P°r e ^" an thirty days or both, is imposed for the 
 first offense of selling, keeping, or offering liquor 
 lor sale, or manufacturing with intent to sell; for 
 the second offense the fine may be $1,000, or im- 
 prisonment for six months or both; and for the 
 third offense, a $2,000 fine, or imprisonment of 
 
BLUE LAWS 
 
 114 
 
 BOHEMIA 
 
 two years or both such fine and imprisonment 
 may be imposed. These penalties are much greater 
 than those provided for many crimes and misde¬ 
 meanors which are mala in se. (See Connecticut 
 
 St The laws of the Commonwealth of England, under 
 the Presbyterians and Independents were of the 
 same character as those of New ’ , 
 
 generally more rigorous and severe. Hu 
 scribes them in his '‘History of England, as f 
 lows: “The gloomy enthusiasm which P^evaile 
 among the Parliamentary party is surely the most 
 curious spectacle presented in any history; and t 
 most instructive as well as entertaining to a philo 
 sonhical mind. All recreations were m a manner 
 suspended by the rigid severity of the Presbyterians 
 and Independents. Horse races and cock matches 
 were prohibited as the greatest enormities. Eh 
 bear-baiting was esteemed heathenish and unchris¬ 
 tian* the sport of it, not the inhumanity, gave of¬ 
 fense. Though the English nation be naturally 
 candid and sincere, hypocrisy prevailed among them 
 bevond any example in ancient or modem times. 
 
 It is possible, and indeed probable, th at th^e was 
 much hypocrisy among the Puritans of New En^ 
 land; but a law in the Connecticut code prepared 
 by Roger Ludlow, and adopted m 1646, seems ^ to 
 show a high sense of humanity. It was this. It 
 is ordered by this Court and authority thereof that 
 no man shall exercise any tyranny or cruelty 
 towards any brute creatures which are usually kept 
 
 f ° The 6 settlers of New England, being nearly all 
 Presbyterians and Independents, which latter a 
 called Congregationalists m America, were ot couise 
 given to the same fanatical religious viewssand go^- 
 lined themselves by a.rigor similar to that found 
 nmnnp' their co-religiomsts m England. The peise 
 
 cution of the Quakers, and other ^ 8 
 themselves was common to all the New itngiana 
 Colonies* and their hatred of the Catholic Religion 
 was nothing less than a mania. But if we consider 
 the persecution of James Naylor, the mad Quaker 
 of Bristol, the cruelty of the English seems much 
 greater than that of the Colonists; and if the phras 
 Blue Laws means, as Peters says, bloody laws, 
 
 then it is more applicable to 01( ^ f E ^ kl } ia ia 
 to New, and although the use of the teim is- 
 chiefly confined to Connecticut, a fair investigation 
 of thJfacts of history shows that it is less applicable 
 there than to other parts of New England. 
 
 As to religious persecutions, there was no plac 
 in North America except the Catholic Colony o 
 Maryland, where they were not at least as rigorous 
 as in Connecticut. Indeed they were a feature of 
 the Protestantism of the time. Phdhmore, m his 
 ‘‘ReHn of George III,” cited by Mr. Trumbull in 
 hH work on the^Blue Laws, says: “To exercise the 
 rieht of private judgment, so far as to quit the 
 Church of Rome, which had governed Christendom 
 for centuries, was the duty ofeverr Chnstianbut 
 to exercise it so far as to differ with the Articles, 
 put out one hundred years before by a church that 
 did not pretend to be infallible and te ^rsJdiat 
 laid no claim to inspiration, was a crime to b 
 punished, in some instances by the stake, in all 
 others by confiscations, by the lash and shears o 
 the hangman, and by the pestilential dungeo , 
 within the walls of which was death. 
 
 Genera, Statutes of Connect^Conn %*i. «<&■ 
 
 necticut (New York 1877) ■ ,^Tmoston M95)TT.S”, 
 and Civil History of Connect_c ( iota'). - Hinman, Blue 
 Blue Laws, True and False (Hartford, 1870), ) ^ ’ C on- 
 
 Laws of New Haven, etc. (Hartford, 1838),. «f BER> 
 necticut Historical Collect,one (New Haven 18 J?V 
 
 Bobbio, Abbey and Diocese of (Bijbiensis; cf. C. 
 E. II-605b), in the province of Pavia, in N°rt hel J 1 
 Italy suffragan of Genoa. Rt. Rev. Luigi Marelli, 
 appointed to this see 16 December, 1907, was trans¬ 
 ferred, 15 December, 1914, and the present incum¬ 
 bent, Rt. Rev. Pietro Calchi-Novati, was appointed 
 to succeed him 21 December of the same yeai. 
 According to 1921 statistics this diocese comprises 
 a Catholic population of 30,100, and has 55 parishes, 
 80 secular priests, 16 sisters, 25 seminarians, and 105 
 churches or chapels 
 
 Bogota, Santa Fe de, Archdiocese of (Bogoten- 
 sis; cf. C. E, 11-6126), in Colombia, South America. 
 This archdiocese is the pnmatial see of Colombia 
 and is at present (1922) under the administration 
 of Most Rev. Bernard Herrera-Restrepo, b. m 
 the city of Bogota, 11 September, 1844 appointed 
 Bishop^of Medellin 27 March, 1855, and promoted 
 4 June, 1891. He is assisted by an auxiliary, Rt. 
 Rev. Leonidas Medina, titular Bishop of Ca- 
 machus. In 1914 a national Eucharistic Congress 
 was held here (8-14 September) and met with great 
 success. Bv the 1921 statistics the diocese com¬ 
 prises 600,000 Catholics, besides 20,000 Indian in¬ 
 fidels, 120 secular and 70 regular clergy, and 210 
 churches or chapels. 
 
 Bohemia (cf. C. E., II-612d), formerly a crown- 
 land and titular kingdom of. Austria, but after the 
 downfall of the dual monarchy a member of the 
 new Czechoslovakia (q.v.), bounded on the north 
 by Saxony and Silesia, on the east by Moravia 
 and Lower and Upper Austria. The area is 20 057 
 so miles and the population, according to the latest 
 census, that of 1910,. 6,769 548 ( 337 to the sqt mile) 
 
 In 1913 it was estimated at 6,860,029. Ihe mu 
 census gives for Bohemia about 4,242,000 Czechs 
 to 2,468,000 Germans, or 63 per cent Czechs to 37 
 
 per cent Germans. . in . A ,v „ 
 
 Rewgion.— According to the census of 1910 there 
 
 were 6,475,935 Catholics, 117,832 Evangelists, 85,826 
 Jews, and 30,005 of other faiths. r .^ TA . 
 
 For further religious statistics see Czechoslovakia , 
 Prague, Archdiocese of; Litomerice, Diocese 
 of; Budejovice, Diocese of; Hradec Kralove, Dio- 
 
 CESE OF# 
 
 Education.— The language question has always 
 been involved in the establishment and mainte¬ 
 nance of schools. The German Schulverem was 
 the first in the field and had the wealth of the 
 Germans behind it. In 1880 the Czechs I-°unde 
 the Matice Skolska (Mother of Schools), which 
 provided schools as soon as there were enough 
 Czech children to need them, and forced the Gov¬ 
 ernment to take over its schools when the number 
 of children entitled them to state support. In the 
 German area of north Bohemia there are, according 
 to the latest statistics, 108 schools educating 10,000 
 Czech children. The Matice is said to have founded 
 56 primary schools in Bohemia and 14 m Moravia, 
 in addition to 61 creches. # In the Czech quarter of 
 Vienna an educational society, the UmonKomen- 
 sky” made great efforts to maintain Czech classes 
 and private schools, as all the public schools were 
 German, even in places of large Czech majorities. 
 In 1914 there were 3,359 Czech elementary schools 
 in Bohemia as against 2,334 German schools. The 
 Czech national movement devoted particulai atten¬ 
 tion to educational problems, and long before the 
 war, Bohemia possessed a- complete network ot 
 schools and colleges, leading up to the famous 
 Caroline University in Prague, and the percentage 
 of illiteracy was as low among the Czechs as among 
 their German neighbors. Ihe latest statistics (19-0) 
 194 middle schools of Bohemia, of which 72 
 
BOHEMIAN 
 
 115 
 
 BOIS-LE-DUC 
 
 arc retained by the Germans; also 22 industrial 
 schools, 9 of which are German. 
 
 REctjNT History (1909-1920).—The year 1909 was 
 marked by an acute racial struggle, accentuated by 
 liea\y delicits in the Bohemian budgets and unem¬ 
 ployment. Measures for the free use of Czech 
 and lor the division of the country into 20 adminis¬ 
 trative and judicial districts, of which 10 were to 
 be Czech, 6 German, and 4 mixed, were submitted 
 to the Diet, but no settlement was made. In 
 January, 1911, Count Francis Thun took office as 
 governor at the emperor's request, but all com- 
 pi omise 1 ailed, and as a result the governor 
 appointed, on 26 July, 1913, an Imperial Adminis¬ 
 trative Commission and dissolved the Diet. With 
 the outbreak of the Great War Bohemia found itself 
 subjected to a political reign of terror, which was 
 supported by military and police espionage and 
 censorship. To the last man, the Czechs were 
 keenly opposed to war with their Slavonic kinsmen 
 on the Eastern and Southern fronts, and with the 
 Western democracies, which represented their po¬ 
 litical ideal. On the Russian front Czech regi¬ 
 ments, like the Jugoslav regiments on the Balkan 
 front, again and again surrendered, either en masse 
 or in part, without firing a shot, to an “enemy” 
 whom they regarded as a deliverer. They even 
 formed whole regiments a.M then brigades to fight 
 on the Entente side. 
 
 For the Czech expedition to Siberia see Czecho¬ 
 slovakia. 
 
 The p aris Peace Conference in 1919 decided to 
 giv e Czechoslovakia a strategic frontier on the 
 northwest, instead of an ethnographic frontier. The 
 line of the Giant Mountains is the natural geo- 
 graphic border between Saxony and Czechoslovakia, 
 and it has the advantage from the Bohemian point 
 of view of being a defensible border; the disad- 
 Yantage is that a solid mass of Germans live on 
 the south side of the mountains in the territory 
 that has come to be known as “German Bohemia.” 
 
 Bohemian Brethren (Moravian Brethren, or 
 Unitas Fratrum; cf. C. E., II-616a).—In addition 
 to the general body in the United States, which 
 owed its organization to the first immigration of 
 Schwenkfelders in 1734, there are two other separate 
 organizations. The first is known as the Evangelical 
 Lnion of Bohemian and Moravian Brethren in 
 North America. Their origin is traced to the im¬ 
 migration of some members of the European Union 
 to the bnited States after the revolutionary dis¬ 
 orders of 1848. The members from eastern Moravia 
 settled in Texas. In 1864 the first congregation was 
 formed, others were formed later, and in 1903 the 
 first assembly of delegates from all the congrega¬ 
 tions met. In 1904 a constitution was adopted and 
 a state charter obtained. In 1921 this organization 
 reported 23 churches, all in Texas, 44 ministers, 
 and 1,714 members. 
 
 The second body is listed in the United States 
 reports as the “Independent Bohemian and Mora- 
 "\ian Brethren Churches.” This is a loose union 
 of three congregations in Iowa which, while claim¬ 
 ing the same origin as the two other bodies of 
 Moravian Brethren, are not ecclesiastically con¬ 
 nected with either. In educational and missionary 
 work they are affiliated with the Central West 
 (Bohemian) Presbytery of the Presbyterian Church 
 in the Tnited States of America. In 1916 they re¬ 
 ported 320 members and 14 officers and teachers. 
 
 The Moravian church is a member of the Federal 
 Council of the Churches of Christ in America. It 
 is also taking part in the preparations for the World 
 Conference on Faith and Order. 
 
 J^abn America, West Indies, Mexico, Central 
 
 in d 19?n U r’r n-n enca tho Amcrioan Moravians had, 
 n commilm cant,8 and 11,812 enrolled 
 
 in schools. I he general missionary work of the 
 Moravians is carried on jointly in 18 fields by 
 t le American and European branches, and it is 
 reported that the proportion of missionaries to 
 members is about 1 to 60, the usual Protestant 
 proportion being 1 to about 5,000. 
 
 the Moravians reported in the United 
 fetates 136 churches, 183 ministers, and 28,000 mem¬ 
 bers, and in 1922 31,767 members. In 1917 the 
 enrolment in the 14 missionary provinces of the 
 church was 109,000, and its grand total in all coun¬ 
 tries was 156,000, besides 70,000 members of the 
 state churches of Europe. 
 
 Hutton , History of the Moravian Church (London 1909V 
 
 &sks i&sn ar ni 1919,; /r: w “ & 
 
 N. A. Weber 
 
 ^ ocese ? f (Boianensis; cf. C. E., 
 li-b22cU, m the province of Campobasso, Southern 
 Italy suffragan > of Benevento. Rt. Rev. Felice 
 Gianfehce, appointed to this see 1897, died 9 June, 
 1J16, and was succeeded by the present incumbent, 
 Kt. R e y. Alberto Romita, b. in Cegli del Campo 
 880, appointed 22 March, 1917. The diocese com- 
 
 ?noi GS ? p at . ho]l ? Population of 90,300, and by the 
 1921 statistics is credited with 40 parishes 175 
 secular and 19 regular clergy, 30 seminarians, 20 
 Brothers, 10 Sisters, and 134 churches or chapels. 
 
 TT B C oon Diocese of (Xylopolitiana; cf. C. E., 
 II-623d), comprises the State of Idaho, U. S A 
 I he first bishop of the diocese, Rt. Rev. Joseph 
 
 . °. a §P?i n i e( * u P° n the erection of the see 
 in 1893, died 2o August, 1917. During his adminis¬ 
 tration, and that of his successor, the present in- 
 cumbent, Rt. Rev. Daniel M. Gorman (conse¬ 
 crated 1 May, 1918), the progress of this diocese 
 has been very rapid. Many new churches and 
 cnapels have been erected and schools and institu¬ 
 tions opened; St. John’s Cathedral at Boise was 
 completed and dedicated 30 May, 1921; hospitals 
 have been opened at Nampa, Pocatello; high 
 schools at Moscow and Pocatello; new parishes at 
 Twin Fulls, Buhl, Caldwell, Hailey, Kellogg, Mul- 
 lan, Thorncreek and Pocatello, as well as many 
 new missions and grade schools. 
 
 The diocese now comprises 43 parishes, 91 
 churches (as against 54 in 1907), 48 missions 115 
 mission stations, 41 secular and 21 regular clergy 
 (as against 31 priests in 1907), 1 monastery for 
 men with 7 religious, 213 religious women, 7 lay 
 brothers, and 25 seminarians. A few years ago 
 there were no high schools, while now there are 6, 
 witli 20 teachers and an attendance of 23 boys and 
 197 girls, and 5 academies with 60 teachers and 427 
 girl students. Among the charitable institutions 
 are 4 Indian missions, 2 homes, 6 hospitals, and 1 
 settlement house. There are 3 organizations formed 
 among the clergy, 3 among lay men, and 6 among 
 lay women. A Catholic monthly is circulated in 
 about 12 of the parishes. 
 
 i t v 6 World War Idaho sent a quota of 
 
 1,000 Catholic men, and one of the most prominent 
 of these, Lt. John M. Regan, was killed at Fismes 
 m ^ r Argonne. One of the nurses from this dio- 
 cese held an important position among the nurses 
 of the American Expeditionary Forces. The total 
 Catholic population of this territory, which num- 
 beis about 19,000, is composed of Americans, 
 Belgians, Dutch, Basques, Mexicans, Swiss, Irish, 
 Germans, Poles, Croatians and Bohemians. 
 
 Bois-le-Duc, Diocese of (Buscoducensis; cf. C. 
 E., II-625b), in Holland, also known as s’Herto- 
 
BOISSARIE 
 
 116 
 
 BOLIVIA 
 
 genboscli, suffragan of Utrecht. Rt. Rev. Willia 
 Van de Ven, appointed to this see 1892, died 24 
 December, 1919, and was succeeded by his coadjutor, 
 Rt. Rev. Arnold Francis Diepen, born in the city 
 of Bois-le-Duc, 1860, ordained 1884, appointed 
 titular Bishop of Danaba, 11 February, 1915. Out 
 of a total population (1921) of 478,960 this diocese 
 has 403,400 Catholics, and counts 600 secular and 
 387 regular clergy, 255 parishes, 18 deaneries, 465 
 churches or chapels, 28 religious orders of men and 
 28 of women. 
 
 Boissarie, Gustave, physician, president of the 
 Bureau des Constatations at Lourdes, b.. at Sarlat, 
 France, 1 August, 1836; d. there 28 June, 1917. 
 He was the son of Dr. Lucien Boissarie and at¬ 
 tained distinction in his preparatory studies m 
 Paris, his professors, men like Jobert de Lamballe 
 and Velpeau, predicting for him a brilliant career. 
 His success as corresponding member of several 
 medical societies, notably the Society of Surgery, 
 confirmed this prognostication, but in spite of their 
 efforts to retain him in Paris, he returned to his 
 own neighborhood, where he took over his fathers 
 practice, married and had five sons, all of whom 
 became men of distinction in their various careeis. 
 
 In the late eighties he became interested in the 
 work of the Bureau des Constatations in Lourdes, 
 and visited the town frequently to take part in its 
 investigations. On the death of the first president 
 of the bureau in 1891, Doctor Boissarie was ap¬ 
 pointed to succeed him, and held the post for the 
 remainder of his life. He developed the work con¬ 
 siderably, attracting to the investigations medical 
 experts from all countries, not a few of whom had 
 to acknowledge the failure of any natural explana¬ 
 tion for the cures they had witnessed. A man of 
 firm faith, he was equally firm in his conviction 
 that true miracles should be able to stand the most 
 rigorous application of scientific tests, and he was 
 often the last in a reunion of physicians to recog¬ 
 nize the evidence of certain extraordinary cures. 
 Doctor Boissarie proved the bad faith of Zola, who 
 in his book “Lourdes” altered facts so as to make 
 the cures appear temporary and unreal. Two years 
 later he brought to Paris three of those thus mis¬ 
 described, and at a public meeting at the Luxem¬ 
 bourg gave ocular demonstration of Zola’s fabrica¬ 
 tion. It is estimated that 7,778 medical men took 
 part in the investigation during the twenty-three 
 years of Doctor Boissarie’s term of office. 
 
 In 1881 he was made a Knight of St. Gregory, 
 and in 1890 a Commander of the same order. In 
 1910 Pius X accorded him an audience during 
 which he said, “I appreciate, my son, all the good 
 you have done at Lourdes; I thank you and bless 
 you.” In 1907 Doctor Boissarie published his “His- 
 toire Medicale de Lourdes,” a work of great value 
 and scrupulous impartiality. 
 
 Bolivia (cf. C. E., II-627b).—The present limits 
 of Bolivia run from north to south between 10° 20' 
 N. and 22° 50' S., and from east to west between 
 57° 47' 40" to about 72°. However, according to the 
 Bolivian claims, asserted in 1916, the limits should 
 be stated as follows: Longitude, 57° 29' 40" west 
 and 69° 33' 35" west; on east side, latitude 90° 34 
 54" S. to 25° 13' S.; and on west side, latitude 10° 
 56' 40" S. to 25° 00' 5" S. The republic covers an 
 area of 514,155 sq. miles (1,233,972 kilometers), and 
 ranks as fifth in size among the South American 
 countries. In 1915 the estimated population was 
 2,889,970, or a little more than six to the sq. mile. 
 Of this 486 were reported as Mestizos and 920,864 
 as Indians. Besides these there were 3,945 negroes. 
 The largest cities with their estimated populations 
 
 (1918) are as follows: La Paz (the actual seat of 
 the government), 107,252; Cochabamba, 31,104; 
 Potosi, 29,785; Sucre (the capital), 29,686; .Tarija, 
 11,644; Oruro, 31,360; Santa Cruz, 25,807; Trinidad, 
 
 6,096. . . 
 
 Religion. —By Article 2 of the Constitution of 
 Bolivia, the Roman Catholic is the recognized re¬ 
 ligion of Bolivia. The public practice of other 
 religions, which was formerly forbidden, is now 
 permitted. For the support of the Church the 
 State pays 121,108 bolivianos ($48,500), 23,820 
 bolivianos ($9,500) being devoted to the propaga¬ 
 tion of the Faith among the Indians. The legal 
 status of marriage, as summed up in Article 99 of 
 the Civil Code of Bolivia, was changed by the law 
 of March, 1912, which states that all marriages in 
 the republic must be celebrated by the civil 
 authorities. Bolivia has an Envoy Extraordinary 
 and Minister Plenipotentiary accredited to the 
 Holy See, while a papal internuncio resides at 
 Sucre. 
 
 For religious statistics see La Plata, Archdiocese 
 of; Cochabamba, Diocese of; La Paz, Diocese of; 
 Santa Cruz, Diocese of. 
 
 Economic Condition. —Bolivia produces one- 
 quarter of the total tin output of the world, rank¬ 
 ing next to the Malay peninsula in the production 
 of this metal. The present demand and high prices 
 have caused a favorable expansion in tin exploita¬ 
 tion. Next in importance is rubber, the annual 
 export value being $5,000,000. Petroleum is now 
 being exploited. The foreign trade in 1918 was: 
 imports, $13,601,092; exports, $71,219,012; to the 
 United States went exports worth $29,636,799; to 
 Great Britain, $35,500,841, exports to Chile and 
 France ranking next. The imports come chiefly 
 from the United States ($4,411,372) and Chile 
 ($3,151,465). It is estimated that 4,940,000 acres are 
 under cultivation, but agriculture is in a backward 
 condition. The public lands have an area of 245,000 
 square miles, of which 104,000 square miles are re¬ 
 served for special colonization. The monetary unit 
 is the boliviano, of a par value in American cur¬ 
 rency of $.3003. The revenue of Bolivia is derived 
 mainly from customs duties, spirit duties, tin, silver, 
 gold, wolfram, antimony, rubber export, patents 
 and stamps. From 1 January, 1912, onwards,. a tax 
 of 3 per cent has been imposed on the liquidated 
 profits of all mineral enterprises, the gross value of 
 whose production and exportation exceeds $40,000 
 yearly. The public debt on 30 June, 1919, amounted 
 to 68,869,161 bolivianos, of which 38,933,525 were 
 external debt. The law of 15 December, 1915, pro¬ 
 vides for a permanent armed force of 3,577 men. 
 
 Communications. —In 1918 the total length of 
 railway lines was 1,354 miles, including the new 
 line opened in July, 1917, from Oruro to Cocha¬ 
 bamba. There are 354 miles under construction. 
 Under the Bolivian-Chilian treaty of 24 October, 
 1904, the Arica-La Paz line, 271 miles in length, of 
 which 143 miles are in Bolivia, was built from La 
 Paz via Lluta to Corocoro. The Bdivian section 
 was handed to the government of Bolivia on 3 May, 
 1913. On 12 May, 1920, the Bolivian Congress 
 granted to an Argentine firm a contract for the 
 construction of the railway from La Quiacaca in 
 Argentine to Turpiza in Bolivia, which makes pos¬ 
 sible easier communication between Buenos Aires 
 and La Paz, and will greatly strengthen commercial 
 relations between the two countries. _ 
 
 Government. —The republic is divided into eight 
 departments, La Paz, Cochabamba, Potosi, Santa 
 Cruz, Chuquisaca, Tarija, Oruro, El Beni, and 
 three national territories, Noroeste, Gran Chaco, 
 and Oriente, 72 provinces and 681 cantons. The 
 
BOLOGNA 
 
 117 
 
 BOLSHEVISM 
 
 r«l nt u as a / . c ^ lnet consisting of six ministers; 
 the Chamber of Deputies consists of 70 deputies. 
 
 „ if] teri ; itories are governed by three officials 
 called delegados nacionales. 
 
 Education .—Primary education, which is free and 
 compulsory, is under the care of municipalities and 
 the state. In 1918 there were 450 elementary 
 schools with 3,960 teachers and 58,400 pupils. For 
 secondary education there were 21 colleges, 5 
 c erical institutions, 5 private lyceums with 180 
 teachers and 2,598 pupils; for higher education 
 there were 19 institutions and 2 universities (at 
 bn ere and La Paz), also a National Conservatory 
 
 fn !Qi7 Pa T Tmo war coIIe S e for officers ^ founded 
 in 1917. In 1918 the State spent 3,020,672 bolivianos 
 
 lor educational purposes. The National School of 
 
 Commerce at La Paz, founded in 1910, is a step 
 
 oflooys the commercial trainin S of girls as well as 
 
 Recent History.— The boundary disputes of 
 Bolivia with Brazil and Chile were settled by 
 treaties in November, 1913, and Octover, 1914. The 
 depute about the Arica territory remains to be 
 sctUed. 1 he controversy is actually between Chile 
 and mu, but Bolivia claimed possession-of a port 
 m this province, a claim which Peru protested, the 
 trouble culminating in 1919 in the attack by a mob 
 on the Peruvian legation. The United States in¬ 
 tervened as peacemaker and the Brazilian Govern- 
 ment offered to arbitrate. During the European 
 VVar Bolivia joined the allies by severing all rela- 
 taons with Germany and was one of the signatories 
 to the Treaty of Versailles. 
 
 During July, 1920, there was a revolution in 
 Bolivia. By a coup d’etat the President, Senor G. 
 bueria, leader of the Liberal party, was driven from 
 power with his government, and several Republican 
 leadeis, with Senor Saavedra at their head, seized 
 control of the capital and of the country. Senor 
 • Saavedra became Provisional President ‘ and de¬ 
 clared that he was in favor of obtaining a Pacific 
 port for Bolivia, but only through an amicable 
 agreement with both Chile and Peru. He was 
 finally elected President for the term 1921-1925. 
 
 Bologna, Archdiocese of (Bononiensis; cf. C. 
 £'*1 “*§??) * m the Province of the same name, in 
 Italy I his see was filled by the late Pope Benedict 
 AV, from 16 December, 1907, until his election to 
 the papacy. He was succeeded by His Eminence 
 Giorgio Cardinal Gusmini, b. at Gazzaniga, 1855, 
 ordained 1878, appointed Bishop of Foligno, 15 
 “P, » promoted to Bologna, 8 September, 
 
 1914, died 24 August, 1921. The Pope appointed 
 his successor upon the feast of the patron qf the 
 archdiocese, St. Petronius, 4 October, 1921, in the 
 person of Mgr. Nasalli Rocca, his private chap¬ 
 lain. Born in Piacenza in 1872, Archbishop Rocca 
 spent the early years of his ministry in Rome at the 
 Accademia dei Nobili Ecclesiastici and as canon of 
 the Patriarchal Basilica of St. Maria Maggiore and 
 ° n 25. January, 1907, he was appointed Bishop of 
 Gubbio, where he served until he was called to 
 the pontifical court. By a decree of the Consistory, 
 3 January, 1917, the limits of the diocese were 
 somewhat changed, and on 15 February of the 
 same year, important indulgences were granted to 
 the church of St. Benedict. By 1921 statistics the 
 diocese counts 185,400 Catholics and comprises 392 
 parishes, 640 secular and 65 regular clergy 640 
 seminarians, 24 brothers, 287 Sisters, 1,175 churches 
 or chapels. 
 
 Bolshevism—-The term derived from the Rus¬ 
 sian word Bolshinstvo, meaning majority; it is used 
 
 mem CS w»dnh th ° cxfrcmc Communist move- 
 ''A' ; 0 *? WIIS °n§>nated in 1903 as a result of 
 
 cm mrt^r ( T rrcd ln the Kussilin Social Demo¬ 
 at iw e u C f 0n . ventlo P of , its delegates held 
 
 thp V’ 1 ? At that tlme the dissension between 
 the two opposing factions was mainly confined to 
 
 croun°of °J i taC \ 1CS a v nd .organization, the outvoted 
 ° • egate ® having assumed the name of 
 
 a lensheviki meaning those adhering to the mi- 
 
 P B r? th fac 7 tlons > however, even in those days, 
 l£ ed SOCl0 } revolution as their fundamental 
 
 H,Y?Ar, B + e i? aU i Se jf ■ Ru ? slas backward economic-con- 
 tion, the leaders of Bolshevism realized that an 
 immediate attempt to put the Communist program 
 into effect would inevitably result in a failure 
 
 Bo Uhf U l* S - T r W n Tactics ’” 1905 )- Therefore, the 
 Bofsheviki, in full agreement with the other So- 
 
 ciahst groups, strove to achieve what was termed 
 le complete liberation of the working classes” 
 through a political revolution; i. e., the overthrow 
 of the imperial regime in Russia. 
 
 In 1905 the first practical endeavor was made to 
 npp y ommumst tactics to the revolutionary 
 movement which broke out in Russia partly be¬ 
 cause of the unfortunate developments of the 
 Kusso-Japanese War. In the fall of 1905 the revo- 
 dements in Petrograd and Moscow, 
 guided by Trotzky (Bronstem), Parvus (Helfandt) 
 and a, number of other aliens and professional 
 revolutionists set up the first Soviet (q. v) in 
 Petrograd, challenging the imperial Government 
 and attempting its overthrow. Since then Bol¬ 
 shevism has become the living expression of “class 
 wai, in accord with the principles outlined by the 
 stepfather of Communism, Karl Marx, in his “Com- 
 mumst Manifesto” (1847). Thus, despite the fact 
 that the leaders of Bolshevism were cognizant of 
 the impossibility of achieving an immediate radical 
 change in the social structure of Russia, the prac¬ 
 tical workings of Bolshevism were mainly directed 
 toward the .abolition of private property, with the 
 ultimate aim of establishing the so-called “dictator¬ 
 ship of the proletariat.” The defeat of the first 
 revolutionary outbreak in Russia drove Bolshevism 
 underground, its activities having been limited pri¬ 
 marily to revolutionary progapanda among the 
 working class in Western Europe. In this connec¬ 
 tion the extreme factions of German Social Democ¬ 
 racy and French Revolutionary Syndicalism, led 
 by Georges Sorel and Lagardelle, came to the assis¬ 
 tance of Bolshevism, paving the way for a revolu¬ 
 tionary Internationale, which later became known 
 
 -uj Thl ^ d Interna tionale,” the inhibition of 
 which dates back to the time of the convocation 
 ol the Zimmerwald Conference in 1916. The lead¬ 
 ing spirits of this Conference, summoned in the 
 °/« ,1 World War, were Lenin (Oulianov), 
 Kadek (Sobelsohn), Rakovsky, Ganetzky (Fursten- 
 an d Martov (Zederbaum). It was there that 
 the first plan was formulated to convert the World 
 War into a world revolution. 
 
 Although in the final draft on the Manifesto, 
 addressed to the laboring classes, the Zimmerwald 
 Conference omitted the appeal for “direct action” 
 and mutiny; nevertheless, one of its theses urged 
 the proletariat to devote its entire energy to “the 
 sacred aims of Socialism, for the liberation of op¬ 
 pressed peoples and enslaved classes by means of 
 an uncompromising proletarian class war.” This 
 practically meant a victory for the left wing ele¬ 
 ments at the Conference, whose motto was thus 
 formulated by Radek: “The struggle for peace 
 simultaneously must assume the shape of a revolu¬ 
 tionary struggle against capitalism.” This pro¬ 
 gram of world revolution was further elucidated 
 
BOLSHEVISM 
 
 118 
 
 BOLSHEVISM 
 
 by the International Socialist Commission at Berne. 
 The Bolshevist proclamation of 1 May, 1916, con¬ 
 tained a direct appeal to “the conquest of political 
 power and abolition of private property by tlie 
 working class” as the only guaranty for immediate 
 peace without annexation.” The economic disturb¬ 
 ances caused by the World War and the general 
 discontent resulting therefrom largely contributed 
 to the impetus of Bolshevist propaganda both m 
 
 Western Europe and Russia. 
 
 The Central Powers, threatened with the growing 
 military preparedness of Russia, decided to use 
 Bolshevism as a weapon for the destruction of the 
 Russian military apparatus On the other hand 
 international German-J ewish finance, whic i 
 decades in the past proved hostile to imperial 
 Russia, threw its influence onto the scale of the 
 Central Powers, contributing its financial support 
 to the organization plans of the German military 
 staff for spreading revolutionary propaganda m the 
 rear of the Russian army. The task of the Bol- 
 sheviki was greatly facilitated by the outbreak in 
 Russia of the March Revolution of 1917. With 
 the formation of the so-called Provisional Govern¬ 
 ment, headed by weak and incompetent politicians 
 (Kerensky, Miliukov, and Prince Lvoff), a revolu¬ 
 tionary apparatus was set up by the extreme revo¬ 
 lutionary factions, namely, Bolsheviks, Mensheviks, 
 and Social Revolutionists. It became known as 
 the Petrograd Soviet of Workers and Soldiers 
 Deputies. While the Provisional Government was 
 engaged in the ruin of Russia’s political structure, 
 the Petrograd Soviet, and later the Soviets in other 
 Russian cities, undertook the violent destruction 
 of social and economic foundations of the Russian 
 State. Although in the beginning the Bolsheviki 
 were in a minority in Soviet organizations, yet 
 because their program was the most radical their 
 influence grew stronger with each succeeding 
 blunder made by the Provisional Government. 
 Appeals for “bread and peace,” launched by Bol¬ 
 shevist and Socialist agitators, met with consider¬ 
 able success among the masses of the Russian peo¬ 
 ple who were tired of the war and believed that 
 with peace economic conditions would improve 
 
 ^Th^dissolution of the Russian front proceeded 
 with ever increasing velocity, and by the fall ot 
 1917 the resistance of the Russian army had prac¬ 
 tically ceased. Tens of thousands of deserting Rus¬ 
 sian soldiers moving eastward abandoned their 
 trenches, seizing the lands of the nobility ana ol 
 the wealthier peasants. With the complete inability 
 of the Provisional Government to cope with the 
 grave situation, Bolshevist tactics grew daily more 
 arrogant. While the first July uprising of the Com¬ 
 munists, staged by Lenin and Trotzky, was quelled 
 by Cossack troops brought from the front, still 
 Bolshevism continued to be an impending danger. 
 The military authorities, having arrested the Bol¬ 
 shevist leaders, including those above mentioned, 
 were thereupon, by the personal interference ot 
 Kerensky, compelled to release them, hor a lew 
 months Bolshevist headquarters were removed to 
 Finland, whence destructive propaganda was 
 directed’. In the meantime economic disintegration 
 continued unhampered, food conditions in the large 
 cities becoming more acute. On 28 October, 1917, 
 Kerensky’s government was overthrown and a 
 Soviet dictatorship was established. Soon after¬ 
 wards similar revolutions occurred in Moscow and 
 in other Russian cities. Almost simultaneously 
 the Soviet Government began to put into effect 
 its program of “nationalization” of industries, banks, 
 and private property in general. Red terror against 
 
 the wealth-owning classes and land-owning peasants 
 came as a natural result of the principle of class 
 war which was proclaimed as the basic credo ol 
 triumphant Communism. Wholesale executions, 
 drastic persecution of the Christian Church m ah 
 its denominations, forced labor imposed upon the 
 so-called bourgeoisie , were the accompanying fea¬ 
 tures of Bolshevist rule. At the same time the 
 motto of Karl Max, “Expropriate the expropria¬ 
 tors,” was applied to the industrial life of Russia. 
 The industrial management of olden times was 
 forcibly replaced by the so-called local Workers 
 Councils,” which took charge of the factories, mills, 
 and mines. The consequences of this measure were 
 alarming. In the course of six months production 
 had almost ceased. In some branches of industry 
 the decrease reached a level of 90%. Because ot 
 the complete stoppage of coal digging railways were 
 left without fuel and the whole transportation sys¬ 
 tem became hopelessly wrecked. 
 
 The effects of civil war contributed to the general 
 economic and social disaster. Organized and ele¬ 
 mental revolts against Soviet rule threw Russia into 
 a continuous civil strife, which has not ceased up 
 to the present time. Vast territories, formerly be¬ 
 longing to the Russian Empire, were broken up 
 and independent states formed with the specific 
 object of evading Bolshevist rule. Aside from that 
 the Brest-Litovsk treaty, concluded between the 
 Bolsheviki and the Central Powers, was a deliberate 
 scheme for the further dismemberment of the 
 Russian Empire. The result of these combined 
 factors was famine, degradation, and an appalling 
 spread of virulent epidemics. As far back as m 
 1918 Trotzky and other Bolshevist leaders were 
 forced to admit that gradual starvation was the 
 fate of millions of Russian citizens, doomed to 
 misery and destitution. It also became apparent 
 that the workers’ management of industries could 
 not succeed and that production would cease en¬ 
 tirely. Lenin soon publicly announced that tne 
 Bolsheviki would have to “take a step backward 
 because of the impossibility of keeping up the 
 processes of production without the active assis¬ 
 tance of experts and skilled labor. The year 1919 
 was the period of hunting for experts to whom in¬ 
 dustry could be entrusted, i hese endeavors, how¬ 
 ever, completely failed for Red terror and starvation 
 had demoralized the nation’s brains. In addition, 
 the continuous struggle against the White, armies 
 and the rebellious peasants opposing Soviet rule 
 made it impossible to effect the least improvement 
 in industrial and economic conditions. The burden 
 of Red militarism and the building up of a huge 
 Red army consumed all the energy of the Soviet 
 leaders. Instead of the promised peace, uninter¬ 
 rupted warfare was inflicted upon Russia. Military 
 operations against Poland terminated in_ 1920 in 
 a humiliating peace concluded at Riga. Vast ter¬ 
 ritories were ceded to Poland, the boundaries of 
 Russia having been restricted to those of the seven¬ 
 teenth century. . . , . 0 . , • _ 
 
 The growing dissatisfaction with the Soviet regime 
 was taken as an excuse for increasing the authority 
 of the so-called “Extraordinary Commission for 
 Combating Counter-Revolution, Speculation, and 
 Sabotage,” familiarly known as the Cheka, this 
 Russian Extraordinary Commission, with its local 
 ramifications ( Goubcheka ), became a notorious ma¬ 
 chine of oppression and its actual power is greater 
 than the power of the Council of the Peoples 
 Commissars, combined with the Central Executive 
 Soviet at Moscow. The Cheka is a kind of revolu¬ 
 tionary tribunal which carries on its mam activities 
 through an elaborate system of secret agents and 
 
bolshevism 
 
 119 
 
 BOMBAY 
 
 sp ! es - ^ nder tj le . rule of this peculiar institution 
 nobody feels safe in Russia and the slightest protest 
 against the Soviet regime results in appearing be- 
 loie the tribunal of the Cheka and thereafter dis¬ 
 appearing from the stage of life. By the year 1922 
 tne Russian famine had assumed such proportions 
 hat the attention of the entire civilized world was 
 attracted to this disaster. The United States, 
 through the American Relief Administration, the 
 International Red Cross, and the League of Nations 
 nave taken active part in endeavoring to arrest the 
 spread of the famine area. By January, 1922, ac- 
 co ? din ® Soviet statements, not less than twenty 
 nnllion Russians were classed as in “a starving 
 condition.” 6 
 
 With regard to Soviet foreign policy, its funda¬ 
 mental aim is the promotion of revolutionary 
 propaganda, both in the West and East. In this 
 task the Soviet Government is assisted by the or- 
 g:a.iiizat.iori known as the “Third Internationale,” 
 tne official birth of which was in December, 1918 
 when the first International Communist Congress 
 w i ls „® lim I llone d in Retrograd, under the presidency 
 of Zinoviev (Apfelbaum). This Congress was at¬ 
 tended by representatives of Communist organiza¬ 
 tions in the United States, England, China, Austria, 
 Holland, Germany, Servia, Bulgaria, Finland, Tur¬ 
 kestan, Persia, India, Corea, and France. In all 
 of these countries the activities of the Bolsheviki 
 are carried on under the jurisdiction of the Execu- 
 tive Committee of the Third Internationale. Every 
 Bolshevist or Communist organization desiring to 
 join the Third Internationale must obey the 
 twenty-one terms of admittance” laid down by 
 Lenm. Iron discipline is imposed upon the ad¬ 
 herents to this international revolutionary organi¬ 
 zation. Much attention is devoted by the Third 
 Internationale to the formation of the Red units 
 within the ranks of the respective armies and 
 navies, as well as to the systematic Communist 
 propaganda among the laboring classes. The chief 
 feature, however, of Soviet foreign policy is the so- 
 called scheme of the “Red East,” which is prac¬ 
 tically an attempt to combine the different rebellious 
 currents in Asia into one gigantic stream which is 
 designed to flood Europe with its “capitalistic” 
 structure. The success of Red propaganda has proved 
 a real menace to Western civilization, and its danger 
 should not be underestimated and cannot be exag¬ 
 gerated. While in 1921 and 1922 the Bolsheviki, m 
 • u- fa £ e °.f the disastrous economic conditions 
 within Russia proper, were compelled to grant minor 
 concessions to the Russian people in the way of 
 partially restoring the freedom of petty trade, which 
 hitherto was considered as a crime against the 
 Communist State (speculation), nevertheless con¬ 
 ditions in Russia by the early part of 1922 had 
 become worse than ever. At the same time obsten- 
 sible changes in Soviet policies and the avowed 
 desire of the Bolsheviki to take part in interna¬ 
 tional conferences are in no way indicative of a 
 sincere intention to abandon their program of world 
 revolution. In January, 1922, the Third Inter¬ 
 nationale issued a manifesto to the workers of the 
 world in which it is frankly declared that the peace¬ 
 ful overtures of the Soviets to the Western World 
 are but a tactical necessity caused by the intolerable 
 internal situation in Russia. The new tactics are 
 described as “a truce” with the capitalist world: 
 
 A truce, thus runs the document, “is a long way 
 off from peace. Peace with capitalists is impossible 
 for the workers. Peace will only be possible when 
 the heavy means at the disposal of the proletariat 
 shall drag down the idol of gold of the middle class, 
 when the modern Baal shall be destroyed and the 
 
 in f the ° f modern times shaI1 be buried 
 
 Bolshevism (New York ^ llmf . a,,d Russia's Revolt Against 
 Urns,a (London 1920>- ’m»» 9 p»/ '’“J' Cond “'°"> in Soviet 
 shevik RussZ “tondi 1920) • Bm™ ?"“/*' »*""** “<*• 
 turn (New York 1920)- T»i m 77 1 ir’ f? claLl *™ vs. Civiliza - 
 (Boston, 1921); Spargo,’ bS’svVZ <N 
 
 kov. Bolshevism. (LYL lilt mint i mini . 11 LIU- 
 
 Alexinsky Economic Russia in 10:0 (New York’ lOwN 
 Gompeks a nd Walling, Out of Their Own Mouths (New York 
 19^1); Calling, Sovietism. (New York 19201 
 in the Shadows ("New Vnrl io<m\ t % , vv tLLS > Russia 
 
 &7- y iSis; Yot 
 
 Oer^ToSjiCc^ 
 
 Memorandum on Certain Atnprfu nf it* 6 iu -J 
 ment (Washington DC iqiqy. e ° f • Bolshev } st Move - 
 
 (London, Blls^T^S^dng^rl 
 
 u - *■ Senate ’ 6stl c °°‘™ 
 Boris Brasol. 
 
 Bom Jesus do Gurgueia, Prelature Nullius of. 
 bee Bom Jesus do Piauhy. 
 
 JG t SUS ?° P ! auhy ’ Prelature Nullius of 
 
 In 18Q?°T JES YTTT n the D J°S ese of Piauhy in Brazil. 
 In 1892 Leo XIII conceded all the rights to erect 
 
 new dioceses in Brazil. On 8 June, 1920, Pope 
 
 5^f 1C ,L X , V ex f rcised these rights for the good of 
 e faithful and separated the provinces of San 
 Raymundo Monneto, Bom Jesus do Gurgueia, 
 a ° agua A Corrente, and St. Filomena, from the 
 Diocese of Piauhy and erected the prelature of 
 Bom Jesus do Piauhy, which will later be erected 
 mto a diocese It is dependent on the Archdiocese 
 of Belem do Para. The seat of this prelature will 
 Jesus do Gurgueia and the head prelate 
 if Li ested ) vl th episcopal jurisdiction; at present 
 it only comprises five parishes, but it promises to 
 grow rapidly, as the territory of Brazil offers ma- 
 tenal for some of the largest dioceses of the Church. 
 
 Bombay Arciimogese of (Bombayensis; cf. C. 
 E., II.-644b), comprises the Island of Bombay, 
 India with several outlying churches in the Island 
 ot balsette, a large portion of the Bombay Presi- 
 
 di ^ ricts of Kathiawar, Cutch, 
 bind, and British Beluchistan. 
 
 In 1720, on political grounds, the Portuguese 
 c ergy vvere expelled by the Government and the 
 Vicar of the Great Mogul was invited to take 
 chaige of the Catholics. In 1786 endeavors were 
 made to restore the jurisdiction of Goa and after 
 some conflict the churches were divided in 1794 
 between the Archbishop of Goa ( Padroado) and 
 the vicar apostolic (Propaganda), thus introducing 
 two jurisdictions With the First Provincial Coun¬ 
 cil m 1898 the Island of Salsette and the coast 
 country as far as the Nerbudda were placed under 
 the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Damaun (Pad- 
 roado), who also received personal jurisdiction in 
 Bombay Island over all subjects of Padroado of 
 Goan or Portuguese origin. 
 
 At the beginning of the World War the Arch¬ 
 diocese of Bombay and the suffragan Diocese of 
 Roona were depleted by over seventy men and is 
 at present working with about fifty where before 
 there were 120, and many of these are men lent by 
 other mission countries, and will eventually have 
 to be returned. During the War Rev. Alban 
 -loodiei, b. J., was sent from England to save the 
 colleges in case the German Fathers should be ex¬ 
 pelled, and later, upon the death of Archbishop 
 
BORDEAUX 
 
 BONAPARTE 
 
 120 
 
 Jurgens in 1916, he was appointed Archbishop of 
 Bombay, and consecrated on 22 December, 1919 
 At the present time (1921) the Catholic popula¬ 
 tion under the archbishop is about 24,000, of which 
 about 9,000 are in Bombay Island; 3,000 m kalsette; 
 2,000 in Gujerat, Kathiawar, and Cu tcl U a T d ° 
 in Sind. The Archdiocese is served by 139 f athers, 
 12 scholastics, and 81 lay brothers of the Society <ol 
 Jesus, and 33 secular priests attending 24 churches 
 and 25 chapels, besides sisters of the Orders ot 
 Jesus and Mary, and the Daughters of the Cross, 
 engaged in educational and charitable woik. 
 
 Among the institutions of the diocese are the 
 University College in Bombay Island which has 
 had a rapid growth and now has 1,177 students, 
 and St. Xavier’s High School, with 1,033 students. 
 There is no diocesan seminary, the secular clergy 
 being trained at the Papal Seminary at Kandy in 
 Ceylon and at Mangalore. With the building of 
 St. Ignatius Church in Bombay one more fine build¬ 
 ing was added to the many beautiful structures ot 
 
 the archdiocese. ...... . , * 
 
 The Examiner Press, which is the property of 
 the archbishop, now publishes “The Examiner,, the 
 “Messenger of the Sacred Heart for India, the 
 “ Messenger of the Sacred Heart in Konkani, and 
 a number of books in the vernacular according to 
 
 need. 
 
 Bonaparte, Charles Joseph, lawyer and states¬ 
 man, b. in Baltimore 9 June, 1851, d. m Bella 
 Vista, Maryland, 28 June, 1921. He was the son 
 of Jerome Napoleon Bonaparte and Susan May 
 Williams and grandson of Jerome Bonaparte, 
 brother of the Emperor Napoleon I. Educated 
 at Harvard he was graduated from the law school 
 in 1874 and devoted the early years of his career 
 to the practice of his profession. In 1904 he be¬ 
 came a legal adviser of the Board of Indian Com¬ 
 missioners and trustee of the Catholic University. 
 Always a staunch republican, m 1905 President 
 Roosevelt appointed him Secretary of the Navy 
 and later (1906) attorney general a post he held 
 until 1909, when he returned to his law practice. 
 
 Mr. Bonaparte was an indefatigable writer and 
 speaker, and was active and prominent m the Civil 
 Service Reform League and allied organizations. 
 His real work was a fearless, uncompromising and 
 untiring battle for higher standards of public life. 
 His own spotless life and character, his disinterested¬ 
 ness and skillful logic made him unsurpassed in 
 his ability to bring home to men the price they 
 were paying in moral degradation for what they 
 were getting out of corrupt politics. 
 
 Bonn, University of (cf. C. E., n-673d).— -In 
 1848 an agricultural academy was founded at Pap- 
 pelsdorf and was leased by the university with all 
 its appurtenances. It is under the direct control ot 
 the Minister of Agriculture, and like the university 
 has the right of autonomy; since 1920 it is called 
 the College of Agriculture (Hochschule ), and is 
 administered by a rector, who is elected annually. 
 It is connected with the university inasmuch as 
 the students are matriculated in the faculty of 
 philosophy and thereby become full members of 
 the university. The college has its own right ot 
 promotion. It is divided into three depaitments, 
 each one of which has its dean, e.g., Political 
 Economy, Surveying, and Agricultural Sciences, 
 Pure and Applied Sciences. The faculty consists 
 of professors in ordinary, honorary docents and 
 private docents (privcit dozenten). During the sum¬ 
 mer term of 1921 the entire student body numbered 
 963, of whom 20 were women. The Catholic theo¬ 
 logical faculty during the winter term 1921-22 num¬ 
 
 bered 12 professors in ordinary (dogma, apologetics, 
 moral theology exegesis (New and Old testament), 
 Church history, canon law, pastoral theology, Ctiris- 
 tian art, and Christian social science). There are two 
 professors emeritus, 1 honorary professor, and 4 privat 
 dozenten with the title of extraordinary. The heads 
 of the chief faculties are also directors of the chief 
 theological seminaries, having a combined budget 
 and in part a special budget. The professors ot 
 this faculty are nominated and appointed in the 
 same manner as the professors of the othei facul¬ 
 ties, but before the final confirmation of such 
 appointments the Archbishop of Cologne must be 
 consulted and has the right to veto such appoint¬ 
 ments because of serious objections to the ortho¬ 
 doxy, or the past conduct of the nominee. Before 
 beginning his activities the newly named candidate 
 solemnly takes the oath “Praferio fidei catholicse 
 in the university chapel, and notification of this is 
 sent to the archbishop as well as to the Govern¬ 
 ment. Before going to press the semi-annual regis- 
 tor is sent to the archbishop for his approval, &frd 
 the faculty is bound to accept any changes which 
 he suggests regarding purely theological matters, 
 and if possible to act upon them. The majority of 
 the theological students live in boarding houses, 
 to meet which need two diocesan hospices have 
 been established at Bonn (Albertinum and 
 Leoninum), but these students do not receive Holy 
 Orders here. The entire theological course covers 
 11-12 semesters; of these 9 are spent at the Uni¬ 
 versity of Bonn, the remainder at. the diocesan 
 seminary at Bonn, where the candidates receive 
 minor orders. The first four semesters are taken 
 up with the study of philosophy, for the most part 
 under the direction of Catholic professors of the 
 philosophical faculty; a few are granted permission 
 to spend several semesters at other universities, 
 e.g., Munster, Innsbruck, Rome, and Freiburg. 
 During the summer term of 1921 the Catholic 
 theological students numbered 5060, of whom 129 
 were foreigners and 510 were women. The uni¬ 
 versity has its own library, which is also the library 
 of the province. At the present time (1921) it 
 contains about 500,000 bound volumes. A change 
 in the constitution of the university is in progress. 
 
 Book of Common Prayer (cf. C. E., IL^d). 
 
 After years of agitation a joint commission of 
 the two Houses of Convocation, in 1915, recom¬ 
 mended a- revision of the Prayer Book, the changes 
 to consist in a rearrangement of the Psalms and 
 permission to omit the “maledictory verses, m a 
 revision of the calendar; and alterations in the 
 Ornaments rubric, the daily office and the litany. 
 The question of revising the Athanasian Creed, or 
 of changing the directions as to its use, is also 
 being agitated. In 1916 the lower House of Convo- 
 cation postponed further action and nothing definite 
 has as yet (1922) been done. The entire question 
 of revision is in reality due to the struggle between 
 the Ritualists and their opponents. The former 
 desire revision along “Catholic” lines, while the 
 latter desire changes, especially in the Ornaments 
 rubric, that will make impossible the practices and 
 
 tendencies of the Ritualists. 
 
 Brightman, The English Rite (London, 1915); Wace, Some 
 Questions of the Day C London, 1912); Beechinc '. Prayer Book 
 Revision in Nineteenth Centiiry, LXIX, (1911), 282, 1,1.14, 
 Manning, Book of Common Prayer in Hibbert Journal, VIII 
 
 (1909-10), 612. _ 0 
 
 Gerald Shaughnessy. . 
 
 Bordeaux, Archdiocese of (Burdigalensis; cf. C. 
 E. IK682b), in the department of Gironde, France. 
 It has as suffragans the dioceses of Agen, Angouleme, 
 La Rochelle, Lu$on, Perigueux and Poitiers. His 
 
borgo 
 
 121 
 
 BORSI 
 
 Eminence Cardinal Lccot, who was appointed to 
 
 i m 1 fi 90, dled 19 December, 1908, and was sue- 
 . by A tl ] Q . present incumbent, His Eminence 
 
 lorn And /o U ’ a PP° mte d this see 2 January, 
 1909. Born at Seysses, 1849, ordained 1874, he was 
 
 5 lsh ^i °u - MarseilIes > 18 April, 1901, which 
 
 nlnJI ifi n Untl hlS P™i notlon > being created car¬ 
 dinal 16 December, 1907. He is assisted by an 
 
 Risd/mw-.f Th' Rev \ J ?n?o M , artil1 . Adam > titular 
 shop of Thmuis. In 1918 the third centenary of 
 
 the Ursuhnes was solemnly celebrated at Bordeaux 
 
 and on o February of the same year Benedict XV 
 
 gi anted a special plenary indulgence to all churches 
 
 and chapels of the order. According to 1921 sta- 
 
 Zl tlCS otiJ 10Cese . co , unts 823,925 Catholics, of 
 ^vhom 261 6/8 are in the city of Bordeaux, where 
 
 J-J 23 P ansbes - .B comprises in all 79 par¬ 
 ishes, 431 succursal parishes, 153 vicarages, and 938 
 priGsts* 
 
 Borgo San Donnino, Diocese of (Burgi Sancti 
 Domnini; cf. C. E II-686a), in the province of 
 Parma, Central Italy, directly dependent on the 
 Holy bee. Rt. Rev. Leonida Mapelli, appointed to 
 this see 4 October, 1907, d. 23 February, 1915, and 
 vas succeeded by the present incumbent, Rt. Rev 
 John Fabbrucn b. in Cancelli, 1861, ordained 1885,’ 
 appointed to this see, 6 August, 1915. The 1921 
 statistics credit the diocese with 58,000 Catholics, 
 54 parishes, 100 secular and 10 regular priests 64 
 seminarians, 14 Brothers, 50 Sisters, and 78 churches 
 or chapels. 
 
 Borgo San Sepolcro, Diocese of (Burgi Sancti 
 bEPULCHRi, or Biturgensis; cf. C. E., II-686b) in 
 the province of Arezzo, Central Italy, suffragan of 
 Florence. Rt. Rev. Raffaele Sandrelli, appointed to 
 tins see 11 June, 1892, was retired and succeeded 
 by the present incumbent, Rt. Rev. Pompeo Ghezzi, 
 b at Gorgonzola, 1870, appointed 27 November, 
 iyil. By 1921 statistics this diocese has a Catholic 
 population of 60,500, and comprises 135 parishes, 190 
 secular and 20 regular priests, 30 seminarians, 11 
 rothers, <0 Sisters, and 280 churches or chapels. 
 
 Borneo, British or Northern, and Labuan 
 Prefecture Apostolic of (Bornaci Anglici; 
 
 •' ? II-687a), is entrusted to the For- 
 
 MQW^fp° nS p f , Mil i HiU. The present prefect 
 (192~) is Rev. Edmund Dunn of this order. Out of 
 
 ?n^ ta Qono PU n a Vi 0n i ° f 700 ’? 00 there are in th is terri¬ 
 tory 3,000 Catholics and 500 catechumens. The 
 
 work of the mission is carried on by 22 priests, 2 
 
 Brothers, 7 catchists, and 20 Franciscan tertiaries* 
 
 it now counts 22 churches or chapels, 10 stations, 
 
 with children. Idren and 2 or P hana 8 es 
 
 s.ibsid a v te frnmtl! 5 ! is , ters; 6 schooIs - "'hich receive a 
 ubsidy from the state, are conducted, caring for the 
 
 educatron of 429 children; 3 homes and 5 orphanages 
 
 mfssfon° /iwvi'f/'f' ? m , ce *i' e fo >»«lation of the 
 mission (190o) it has lost only one of its nriests 
 
 Rev. Honoratus J. van der Voort, d. 1918, while 
 
 caring for the sick at Dajak, during an epidemic. 
 
 P™™* 101 , 111 ’ / ““®? n f , n Denmark, entrusted by 
 Pi opaganda, to the Dutch Dominicans in 1915 pre¬ 
 sided over by Rev. John Melen, superior This 
 imssion comprises the Danish island of Bornholm 
 in the Baltic Sea near the southern coast of Sweden 
 and forms a small part of the Vicariate Apostolic 
 of Denmark and the Island, subject to the juris- 
 diction of Rt. Rev Johannes von Ruch, residing 
 at Copenhagen. With the exception of some im- 
 M 1 fSnl S - and . C0 ? Ve ,? S the P 0 PuDtion of Bornholm 
 
 toT p MV enti r^ Pr °u te ^ ant -, The y belon S mostly 
 to the National Danish Church, but there are more 
 
 than sixteen other sects scattered throughout the 
 
 •® Ia iqf. + P ef £ re ,r% establishment of this mission 
 
 n 1915 the Catholics had to be satisfied with what 
 
 nf lr rvm L ld C0U 1 be g i ven them hy the P riests 
 
 i Copenhagen, who made occasional visits to the 
 
 sland Upon its establishment as a separate mis- 
 sion the Dominicans of the Dutch Province estab¬ 
 lish^ two stations, one at Ronne, the capital of 
 the island, and the other at Aakirkeby, a small 
 effy in the center of the island. The former is 
 used aS the mission center for the Danes, the latter 
 tor the Poles. 
 
 Each year about 250 Poles are found in this 
 territory from the beginning of spring until the 
 nd of the harvest, where they earn their living 
 working the farms, their assistance being greatly 
 appreciated by the Danes, who suffer from a 
 scarci y o labor. The station at Aakirkeby is 
 K de p d , 0 r a r, Dut u h Dominican, who speaks 
 
 nnnL P l h ? nd Damsh ’ and he numerous 
 opportunities for giving instruction to Protestants 
 
 as well as Catholics The station at Ronne is in 
 charge of another Dominican whose whole work 
 is the convers^n of Protestants, and who is assisted 
 by Missionary Sisters of the Precious Blood of the 
 German Congregation, whose mother-house and 
 novitiate are in Holland. There are ten of these 
 Sisters who give their lives to the care of the sick 
 fu 6 ^eachmg °f young Danish girls. Among 
 the fifty pupils who attend their elementary schools 
 there is not one Catholic. 
 
 Borneo, Dutch or Southern, Vicariate Apostolic 
 
 nllD ollanmci; cf. C. E., II-687a), comprises 
 all the Dutch province of Borneo. It was erected 
 into a vicariate from the prefecture apostolic of the 
 same name, 13 March, 1912, remaining under the 
 care of the Dutch Capuchins, to whom it was en¬ 
 trusted upon its foundation, 1905. Rt. Rev. John 
 Bos, who was appointed first prefect apostolic of 
 
 tu i eiT imJ y W J S P romote d to vicar apostolic, 14 
 March 1918 and appointed titular Bishop of Capi- 
 tolias, four days later. p 
 
 A comparison of the 1906 statistics of this ter¬ 
 ritory, with those published in 1922 shows the rapid 
 
 ?n°£ re A S Z h i ch has been made here - There are now 
 VeT Catholics as against 39 6 in 1906; 21 priests and 
 18 brothers where there were only 8 priests and 4 
 brothers; 24 churches and 18 stations where for¬ 
 merly there were 3 chapels and 2 stations. The 
 Franciscan Sisters of Veghel are established in the 
 
 Borsi, Giosue, soldier, poet and journalist, b. in 
 1Q e A orn ’ DMy, 10 June, 1888, d. 10 November, 
 1915; son of Averado Borsi and Verdiano Fabbri 
 From his earliest years Borsi manifested literary 
 ability A poem written to his mother at the age 
 of thirteen has been termed a classic. At fifteen 
 and seventeen he published volumes of poetry 
 while at twenty he was recognized as a foremost 
 COri ] m i ei ? tat ? r , on Dante. At twenty-two he suc¬ 
 ceeded his father as editor of “II Nuova Giomale” 
 ot Florence. 
 
 Borsi had been raised in an irreligious atmosphere 
 as his father was the owner of a chain of anti¬ 
 clerical newspapers, but he had been baptized and 
 received his first Communion at the age of fourteen 
 iu Reference to his mother’s wishes. He studied at 
 the University- of Leghorn, where he received his 
 degree m law, for which he had no particular in¬ 
 terest, so he left the university to become a jour¬ 
 nalist. Three deaths in his family, that of father, 
 sister, and a brother, blasted his hopes of earthly 
 happiness, and in visiting the cemetery where they 
 were puned he became acquainted with the local 
 Franciscans, at whose suggestion he commenced to 
 
BOSA 
 
 122 
 
 BOSNIA 
 
 study religious works. In the interest of his new®- 
 paper he became acquainted with Rev. Guido 
 Ahani P. M., director of the Florentine Observa¬ 
 tory, who satisfied his religious difficulties and 
 received him back into the Church. 
 
 On 18 July, 1914, Borsi received Holy Communion 
 for the second time, and on 29 April, 19 ^» 
 confirmed by Cardinal Maffi, Archbishop of Pisa, 
 and on 4 May following he began writing his 
 “Spiritual Soliloquies,” which are regarded by ^me 
 critics as a twentieth-century version of thes Con¬ 
 fessions” of St. Augustine, and in the opinion ot 
 Cardinal Maffi will stand with them as amongst the 
 greatest ascetical literature produced by the Church. 
 
 Enlisting at once when Italy entered the war, in 
 October 1915, Borsi was sent to the Isonzo front, 
 where he fell, mortally wounded, 10 November, 
 while leading his platoon to attack. After his death 
 his Colloquies, which are fifty-four in number, tie 
 last eighteen having been written at the front, were 
 published, and translated by ftev p asquale Maltese 
 under the title of “Soldier’s Confidences with God. 
 
 A series of letters to his fiancee, entitled Confes¬ 
 sions to Julia,” are in course of publication. I he 
 influence of the spiritual writings of this young 
 Italian, turned from a dissipated darling of the 
 salons of Florence and Rome into an apostle of 
 Catholicism, is a palpable force among the young 
 men in Italy to-day, whose fruits cannot yet be 
 
 reckoned. 
 
 Bosa, Diocese of (Bosanensis; cf. C. E., II-689b), 
 in the province of Cagliari, Sardinia, suffragan of 
 the Archdiocese of Sassari. Rt. Rev. John Baptist 
 Yinati, appointed to this see 19 January, 1906, was 
 promoted to the titular see of Mocessos, 1916, and 
 his successor, Rt. Rev. Angelico Zanetti, G.I.M^, 
 now (1922) fills this see, having been appointed lb 
 December, 1915. In 1921 this diocese had a Catho¬ 
 lic population of 30,200 and comprised 20 parishes 
 55 secular priests, 7 seminarians, and 104 churches or 
 chapels. The church of our Lady of the Snows at 
 Cuglieri, constructed at the beginning of the four¬ 
 teenth century, was erected into a minor basilica, 9 
 September, 1919. 
 
 Bosnia and Herzegovina (cf. C. E., II-694a), for¬ 
 merly provinces in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, 
 now included in Jugoslavia. The census of 1910 
 gave the area and population as follows:_ 
 
 Economic Conditions. —The land question in 
 Bosnia and Herzegovina is a very complicated one. 
 Of ?nulk or freehold proper, there is very little m 
 Bosnia. The greater part of the cultivated land is 
 Tnirie, which is a leasehold tenure, paying tithe to 
 the State as reserved rent. Midk can be disposed 
 of freely, mirie only with the consent of the State. 
 The remaining categories include vakuf or Mahom- 
 medan religious foundations, mevcit , or waste and 
 forest lands, and matruke (roads, etc.), the last two 
 being state property. The result of the Turkish 
 conquest has been the creation of an exclusive 
 Mohammedan landlord class, the conquerors culti¬ 
 vating very little themselves, the bulk of the land 
 being worked by the original Christian owners 
 (kmets ). The peasant always enjoyed the right of 
 pre-emption should the landlord be willing to sell, 
 but until recently the terms on which he was 
 obliged to raise the purchase money were so onerous 
 
 UUllgUU to 1 aiou ^ -_- /. 
 
 that he was usually ruined in the process of 
 
 T - iri11 law came into 
 
 District 
 
 08 
 
 <D 
 
 H 
 
 Population 
 
 Population 
 Per Square 
 Mile 
 
 Serajevo . 
 
 3,245 
 
 288,061 
 
 88 
 
 Tuzla . 
 
 3,443 
 
 425,496 
 
 123 
 
 Banjaluka . 
 
 3,481 
 
 403,817 
 
 116 
 
 Bihac . 
 
 2,163 
 
 229,071 
 
 106 
 
 Travnik . 
 
 3,905 
 
 284,561 
 
 72 
 
 Mostar . 
 
 3,531 
 
 267,038 
 
 75 
 
 Total. 
 
 19,768 
 
 11,898,044 
 
 
 The population of the principal towns was as 
 follows: Serajevo, 51,919; Tuzla, 11,333; Banjaluka, 
 14,800; Bihac, 6,201; Travmk, 6,647; Mostar, l 1 .^ 92 ' 
 The census of 1910 showed an increase of 282,425 in 
 the population of Bosnia since 1895; of 47,527 in 
 the population of Herzegovina. The estimated 
 population in 1920 was 1,931,802, and the area, 20,709 
 square miles. • There are about 35,000 Albanians m 
 the southeast, and 10,000 German and Tyrolese 
 colonists; the rest of the population belongs to the 
 South Slavonic peoples. 
 
 acquiring property. In 1911, a 
 force to enable him to borrow from the State the 
 whole sum required, but since this law contained 
 no provisions for compulsory sale, the process of 
 redemption was slow. However, between 18/9 and 
 1900 about 26,000 kmets became freeholders the 
 largest number of purchasers in one year being 
 1,539 in 1909, at which date some 80,000 kmets still 
 remained. Between December, 1911, and the end 
 of July, 1912, 4,248 redemption loans amounting in 
 the aggregate to £333,000 had been sanctioned, the 
 money being derived from a preliminary advance of 
 £416,000 provided by two financial groups repre¬ 
 sented by the Landesbank and the Agrarban k. 
 
 In 1910, the agricultural population of Bosma-Her- 
 zegovina was 1,668.887, or about 88 per cent of the 
 whole. There were 31,416 free peasants who were 
 also kmets, 151,598 landlords ( agas , begs) and free 
 peasants, 79,677 cultivators of land not their own 
 ( Janets') • 
 
 Education. —According to a Jugoslav authority 
 there were in 1916, 458 elementary schools, giving 
 a proportion of one school to 4,000 inhabitants. 
 Education in the state schools is free. Secondary- 
 education is mainly dependent on 2 gymnasia at 
 Serajevo and Mostar, and upon a realschule m 
 Banjaluka. There are also a technical intermediate 
 school, an institute for training teachers and a mili¬ 
 tary academy. It is one of the grievances of the 
 Jugoslav party that owing to practical exigencies, a 
 knowledge of German is compulsory in secondary 
 
 education. „ . ,. r 
 
 Government. —Two years after the annexation oi 
 
 Bosnia-Herzegovina to Austria, a constitution was 
 granted to the provinces by imperial decree. Ine 
 elective machinery was good, as \Vas shown by the 
 orderly conduct at elections, but the legislative 
 power conferred was too limited to give any real 
 satisfaction and consequently became the subject oi 
 immediate protest and agitation. All the Bills car¬ 
 ried in the local legislature required confirmation m 
 the Parliaments of Austria and Hungary and ap¬ 
 proval by the Austro-Hungarian Common Ministry 
 before they came up for royal assent. After the in¬ 
 clusion of the provinces in Jugoslavia, the pro¬ 
 vincial governments continued with the existing 
 laws. According to the new constitution of Jugo¬ 
 slavia, Bosnia and Herzegovina form an autonomous 
 province with a Diet of its own. It is to be divided 
 into departments within its present limits and until 
 this is enacted by law, the circuits of Bosnia and 
 Herzegovina constitute departments. 4 he union o 
 these departments is to be carried out by the de¬ 
 cision of the Departmental Skupshtmas (Legisla¬ 
 ture) of the departments concerned by a majority 
 
BOSTON 
 
 BOTUCATU 
 
 123 
 
 of two-thirds of the votes cast. Single communes 
 or districts can be separated from one department 
 and annexed to another department within the 
 limit of the present boundaries of Bosnia and Her¬ 
 zegovina, if their autonomous representatives con¬ 
 sent to this by a decision of three-fifths of the votes 
 and the consent of the National Legislature is given. 
 
 Religion.—T he census of 1910 gives the following 
 
 825,418 (43.49%); Moslems, 
 s . (3 2y 25 %) i Roman Catholics, 434,061 
 L mats, 8,136 (.43%); Jews, 11,868 
 
 (.52%); Evangelicals, 6,342 (.33%). The Christians 
 in Bosnia are largely Orthodox, in Herzegovina, 
 Catholic and Orthodox mixed. The Mohammedans 
 torm the majority m Serajevo and Tuzla. The 
 Catholics of the Latin Rite exceed the other two 
 denominations in Mostar and Travnik. At the time 
 ol the annexation to Austria in 1908, the Sultan’s 
 spiritual sovereignty -was recognized by permission 
 to continue the mention of his name in public 
 prayer. For Catholic statistics, see Serajevo, Arch¬ 
 diocese of; Banjaluka, Diocese of; Mostar and 
 
 lvlARKANA-1 REBIN JE, DlOCESES OF 
 
 History the Congress of Berlin, 
 
 the Great Powers had acquiesced in the occupation 
 o these provinces by Austria, as a necessarv police 
 measure, but Austria saw in their possession security 
 against the development of Servia into a powerful 
 state, and on 7 October, 1908, Baron Aehrenthal, 
 without any previous authority from the signatories 
 °! * he T reat yo f Berlin, announced the annexation 
 of Bosnia and Herzegovina to the Austro-Hungarian 
 umpire. 1 he annexation was not unconnected with 
 the Turkish revolution of 24 July, 1908, which 
 pi omised to introduce constitutional government 
 among various nationalities under Turkish rule, and 
 roused in Austria the fear that the return of these 
 provinces might be demanded of her. On 20 Feb¬ 
 ruary, 1910, a constitution was given to the an¬ 
 nexed provinces. At the outbreak of the Great 
 European War, Austria took repressive measures 
 against the inhabitants of Bosnia and Herzegovina 
 e\ en to the extent of wholesale massacres of the 
 Servian population. About 8,000 are stated to have 
 died at Doboj m Bosnia, where a camp had been 
 ormed m December, 1915. Desertions to the enemy 
 from Bosnian regiments were frequent and were 
 often due t<? concerted action. The first Bosnian 
 regiment twice passed en bloc to the enemy, and 
 'vas twice reconstituted. Finally it went over to 
 the Russians at Jassy, with its Mohammedan Serv 
 colonel. Between November, 1915, and July 1917 
 volunteers were enrolled to the number of 46 581 
 of whom the largest proportion was furnished by 
 Bosma-Herzegovma. The corps saw much service 
 an ^; suffere<a heavily in proportion to its numbers. 
 
 The movement for the union of Bosnia and Her- 
 zegoyma, with the other Slavic countries took 
 definite form at a general convention called by the 
 National Jugoslavie Council on 16 August, 1918 at 
 Laibach m the province of Kraina, in which Bosnia 
 and Herzegovina took part. It was furthered by 
 /v a( L tlon tae National Council of Agram 
 (Zagreb), which voted the union of all the Slav 
 states with Seiwia, and on November, 1918, Bosnia 
 and Herzegovina became incorporated with the 
 Kingdom of Greater Servia. 
 
 Boston, Archdiocese of (Bostoniensis; cf. C. E. 
 II-/03b), celebrated its centennial in October, 1908’ 
 and in 1911 its archbishop, Most Rev. William 
 Henry O Connell, was created a cardinal. The 
 Catholic Missionary Congress met in Boston in 
 1913, and in April, 1919, the sixth Diocesan Synod 
 was held here. The division of the New York- 
 
 Maryland Province of I he Society of Jesus was 
 dofint cly begun on 8 December, 1921, with the 
 
 Weston "near’ll 7 a , n 'u Jesuit S(, holasticate at 
 Weston near Boston, to be called Weston Colleee 
 
 served 5 a? " W Wa h' tl i ir - ty priests of the diocese’ 
 Ef » s wmy chaphuns. Rt. R ev . John 
 
 Januarv D imn A Tu llary Blsh °P ? f Boston, died 7 
 Josenh r in8 T PreS ° nt au ? lh ary is Rt, R ov . 
 
 MTt & 25lSl J Tl9S9. COnSeCrated titUlar BlSh0p of 
 
 At the present time the Diocese of Boston com- 
 
 Sonf Itf l qUa u e mi ! eS > has 259 Pushes, 37 mis¬ 
 sions, 296 churches, 1 monastery for men and 2 
 
 for women, 14 convents for men and 100 for women 
 657 secuEr priests and 157 regular, 139 lay brothers,’ 
 1,732 nuns, 3 seminarians with 184 seminarians, 1 
 college for men with 35 teachers and an attendance 
 of 755, 1 college for women with 7 teachers and 
 an attendance of 72, 37 high schools with 276 teach¬ 
 ers and attendance of 3,452 (boys, 233; girls, 1,155), 
 3 normal schools with 42 teachers and an attendance 
 of H3, 4 training schools with 74 teachers and an 
 attendance of 236, 129 elementary schools with 1 664 
 teachers and attendance of 70,842, 5 industrial 
 schools with 84 teachers and attendance of 545. 
 Missionary work is carried on through the Society 
 
 *°Wthe Propagation of the Faith and the Holy 
 Childhood. J 
 
 The various institutions established in the diocese 
 are: 9 homes with 826 inmates, 10 asylums with 
 818 inmates, 6 hospitals caring for 5,317 patients 
 in the year and 22,724 out-patients, 4 diocesan and 
 ^5 parochial settlement houses and 5 day nurseries 
 caring for 1,550 children a year. All the public 
 institutions permit the priests of the diocese to 
 minister m them and the Boston School for the 
 Deaf in Randolph is aided by the State. Among 
 the clergy the societies established are: Clergy 
 Inmd Society and the Eucharistic League; among 
 the laity: Holy Name Society, League of Catholic 
 .~ a< ^ 1€ ; s Catholic Benevolent Association, 
 Catholic Daughters of America, Knights of Colum- 
 bus. Ancient Order of Hibernians, Massachusetts 
 Catholic Order of Foresters, St. Jean Bapiste 
 dAmenque; Catholic Fraternal League, Guilds of 
 St. Luke, St. Apolloma, Infant Saviour, St. Vincent 
 cie Paul Society, Cecelian Guild, Daughters of Isa- 
 befla,,^ Catholic Total Abstinence Union. ‘The 
 Pilot” is the diocesan publication. During 1920 
 1,196 converts were made throughout the diocese! 
 
 Bostra (or Bousra) and Hauran, Archdiocese of 
 (Bostrensis et Auranensis; cf. C. E II-707d) 
 of the Greek Melchite Rite in Syria. This see was 
 vacant for almost thirty years until the appoint¬ 
 ee^ of™ 6 present metropolitan, Most Rev. Nich- 
 olas Cadi, 10 February, 1889. The diocese is under 
 the Patriarchate of Antioch, the archbishop residing 
 at Damascus; he returned to his see in 1918 after 
 having been banished by the Turks. By 1921 sta- 
 tistics there are 9,990 Catholics of the Greek 
 Melchite Rite in this territory, 1,500 Schismatic 
 Greeks, 17 secular priests and 1 regular, 9 churches 
 and 13 schools for boys and girls. The see is titular 
 for the Latin Rite. There are no Catholics of this 
 RRe m Hauran, but about 1,000 reside in Ageloun 
 and Salte, cities which, although in the territory of 
 Hauran, are dependent on the Patriarchate of Jeru¬ 
 salem. 
 
 *" U ’. Diocese of (Botucatuensis ; cf. C. E., 
 KvI—34c), in the State of Sao Paulo, Brazil, was 
 erected on 7 June, 1908, through a division of the 
 Archdiocese of Sao Paulo. It includes a portion of 
 the Atlantic coast called Ponta de Guarani, extend¬ 
 ing irom the rivers Una do Prolado and Riberiao do 
 
BOURGES 
 
 BRANDENBURG 
 
 124 
 
 . .. • , i a. Ttqhim Bowden, Henry Sebastian, oratorian and writer, 
 
 Rruibe, as fur as the: point where ^ ; ‘ W ere b. in London, England, 16 February, 1836; d. in 
 Guassu and Fiete unite, tnese Dounuane t nnrlnn 26 Sentember 1920. He was the son of 
 
 already established for the Archdiocese Captain Henry Bowden of the Scots Guards, a 
 
 Paulo. From here the boundaries of the new dio- Captain nenryBown ^ gt> M » s Church, 
 
 cese follow the line passing the river P 1 ? ® Ghislehurst In 1848 he entered Eton, but on ac- 
 
 mouth Of the Parana aadftomtajpom^totiie CUt f ^ ^reconversion he was n ot allowed 
 
 limits of the States of ^f Guarahm Included also to finish his studies there. Shortly afterwards, in 
 far as the promontory ofSrigo, 1852, he himself entered the Church, and was one 
 
 t^^ Pr On , 1^0^ober ^O^Rt Revlucius^utunes Dublin, foiLdedlby*the\hen Soltov^ewmZ!%tlc 
 
 ssrvss 
 
 f FSaHiS-— 
 
 school with 10 teachers a d . 0 f the Oratorians, acting also for several years as 
 
 Bourges, Archdiocese of (Bituricensis; cf. cengor for t j ie Diocese of Westminster. His work 
 
 II-720b), coextensive with the departments of Cher - n connection wit h the Oratory Middle School for 
 and Indre, France This see was filled by the , g wag Qne of hig great est successes, as were his 
 present Cardinal Dubois, from 30 November 1909, co ^f erences f or ladies held in St. Wilfrid’s Hall, 
 until his transfer to Rouen, 13 March, 191 o. H e jj- g gu idance was much sought by those seeking 
 was succeeded by the present incumbent, Most Rev. Emission into the Church and the number of his 
 Martin-Jerome Izart, b. at Estagel, 1851 appointed ™ yertg wag very great . 
 
 Bishop of Pamiers, 31 May, 1907, promoted 9 May, p a ther Bowden’s literary work includes “The 
 
 1916. During the World War, 274 priests of this p eliK j on Q f Shakespeare,” “The Witness of the 
 
 diocese, and 39 seminarians were mobilized, and g - ^ „ «Q u ide to the London Oratory,” “Dante,” 
 of this number 17 priests and 8 seminarians died, f ac ’ eg to Hettinger’s “Natural Religion,” and 
 6 were decorated with the Legion of Honor, 31 won << Revea i ed Religion,” the translations of which he 
 the military medal, 56 the croix deguerre, 7 the edited “Miniature Lives of the Saints,” a house- 
 medaille des epidemics, and 5 received foreign deco- ^ ord f or over f orty yea rs amongst English 
 
 rations. speaking Catholics, “Mementoes of the English 
 
 In 1919, from 5-8 September, the fifth centenary ^ artyrg an( j Confessors,” and a new edition of 
 of the crowning of Our Lady of the Sacred Heart gj egged Thomas More’s “Crumbs of Comfort.” 
 at Issoudun was celebrated. The ceremonies were j^her Bowden’s preaching was characterized by 
 
 attended by eight archbishops and bishops and cer t a i n tenderness joined to downrightness of fact 
 
 25,000 pilgrims and important indulgences were ^ grea . t earnestness of manner. A book embody- 
 granted by the Pope. • hig sp i r i tua l teaching, edited by the Fathers of 
 
 By the latest statistics (19H) the population of ^ London Oratory, has been recently published 
 the diocese numbers 337,810 for the department of and g i ves evidence of his deep piety and 
 
 Cher, and 287,673 for Indre; there are 65 "jXj shre wdness. 
 
 the State. 
 
 Bova, Diocese of (Bovinensis; cf. C. E., I 1 -/ 2 * 13 '’ da Cunha, who came to this see 22 June, 1899, died in 
 situated in the civil province of Reggio, m Calabria, .j 13 May He was succeeded by the present 
 
 Italy, suffragan of the Archdiocese of Reggio Gala- incumbent Rt. Rev. Manoel Vieira de Mattos, b. 
 bria. Bishop Pugliatti, appointed to this see, 19 p de R a tggi appointed titular Arch- 
 April, 1900, d. 18 November, 1914, and was sue- big , of Mitylene 22 June, 1899, and auxiliary to 
 ceeded by Rt. Rev. Paolo libera, appointed 27 Patriarch of Lisbon, promoted 1 October, 1914. 
 May, 1915. Born in Godiasco, 1871, he was made The cengug of 188 i showed 719,286 Catholics in 
 a secretary of the Apostolic Camera m 1910, rector ^ territory> divided among 689 parishes. 
 
 appoTnted aUrnifrator Apos- Bragan S a Diocese of (Brigatiensis) in rtie dvU 
 
 tolic of Mileto, 14 February, 1919. The 1921 sta- province of T r f-°^° n ‘no• “'Jj' 
 
 at24 000 U and t c?eSt t it°wHri4 U pSe?3 vlraiS July P 1885,’1 26 August, 1912, and was succeeded 
 
 2 3 3 4 fC'^or chap E et r C ‘ ergy ’ 30 T^dde, a^l^Octobet 1915. The latest 
 
 Boyino, Diocese of (Bovinensis; cf. C E, gathoHra, didded among*334 firat°clMs parishes and 
 II-724c), in the civil province of Foggia, faouthern 23Q succursal par i s hes; it counts 583 churches, 581 
 Italy, suffragan of Benevento. Bishop Padula, ap- bUc and 115 r private chapels. 
 
 pointed to this see, 24 March, 1898, was transferred * , . n p n > 7 oo^\ FooUciuoUnQliv 
 
 to Avellino, 2 August, 1908. He was succeeded Brandenburg (cf. C.E., II-738d). Ecclesiastically 
 
 by the present incumbent Rt. Rev. Uberto Maria the former Mark of Brandenburg, with the city of 
 Fiodo, b. in Naples, 1861, made an honorary cham- Berlin and the greater part the 
 
 berlain, 1895, prelate of the Holy See, 1904, ap- Pomerania, forms the Apostolic Delegature for the 
 pointed 9 December, 1910, consecrated, 22 January Mark Brandenburg and Pomerania which is*id- 
 1911. The 1921 statistics credit this diocese with ministered by the Prince-Bishop of Breslau as Apos- 
 30,000 Catholics, 10 parishes, 60 secular priests, 68 tolic Delegate, indirectly t ^° u ^ h .^ e P e “ 1 h ?^ ^ * 
 churches or chapels, 17 Sisters, and 10 seminarians. Hedwig s m Berlin, as delegate of the prmce-bishop. 
 
brann 
 
 125 
 
 brazil 
 
 According to the census of 1920 the number of 
 Catholics was 538 927. The delegature is divided 
 into 7 archipresbyterates with 74 parishes 41 
 J h “; 182 c hmche S and chapels, ^addition to 
 the delegate and the secretary of the delegation 
 lere are 2/2 priests of whom 74 are pastors" 143 
 
 ! and have 11 nt a i SS1StantS ’ • whiIe 55 live in communities 
 and run e other appointments. The following re- 
 
 w?th U li ° r< ^ CI f W foundations: Dominicans 2 
 th 11 priests and 7 lay brothers; Society of the 
 
 with n 9 with 6 Priests/ Francfscans 1 
 
 brn!l 2 pr if tS - ; Je f mts 2 > with 12 priests and 1 lay 
 brother Alexians 1 with 20 brothers; Poor Brothers 
 
 0f ^Iu F ; ancis l > Wlth 15 Brothers. 
 
 VV ith few exceptions the religious orders of women 
 devote themselves to the education of the young 
 and to the care of the sick and poor. They 7 have 
 
 sLlrs^f S? n ri re ? re n nting the follo '™g orders: 
 oisteis ot St. Charles Borromeo (7 houses) • Dom¬ 
 inicans of St. Catherine of Siena (15 houses) • Fran¬ 
 ciscans (6 houses); Grey Nuns of St. Elizabeth (24 
 houses); Sisters of St. Hedwig (1 house)* Sisters 
 
 HeSt J (6 eP ho, (2 ^ OUS ! S) i Carn } ellt es of the Sacred 
 -Heart (6 houses); Sisters of St. Catherine (3 
 
 ouses); Servants of the Immaculate Conception 
 (3 houses); Sisters °f Mary (16 houses); Religious 
 of the Society of the Sacred Heart (2 houses) - Sis 
 ters of Our Lady (2 houses); Sistem of the Divine 
 Saviour (2 houses); Sisters of the Good Shepherd 
 (2 houses); Sisters of St. Vincent de Paul (2 
 houses); Ursulmes (2 houses). K 
 
 The following Catholic schools exist in the de- 
 legature: 2 private high schools for boys, 6 for 
 gn ls, 4 of which are conducted by nuns, 36 primary 
 schools in Berlin, 52 outside of Berlin. In nom 
 Catholic schools catechism is taught to the children 
 by priests and secular teachers; classes in religious 
 instruction are also held in churches, chapels and 
 private houses Religious orders of women conduct 
 32 infant asylums, and 11 schools for domestic 
 economy and manual training. 
 
 Almost all of the charitable institutions are in 
 h rel f lg , lous communities of women. There 
 are 16 hospitals and sanatoria, 10 homes for con¬ 
 valescents, 1 insane asylum, 1 maternity home 42 
 nurses homes 10 homes for invalids, 32 juvenile 
 homes, 14 creches, 4 homes for men, 4 refuges and 
 
 wf dlI f S houses f 2 r V°men, 28 orphan asylums, 6 
 homes for wayw T ard girls, 14 homes for girls seeking 
 employment, several institutions for the instruction 
 of first communicants. In many cases several of 
 these institutions form one establishment and are 
 under the same management. 
 
 The Catholics are well organized in the delega¬ 
 te re / prominent among the 300 associations being 
 the following: Association of the Holy Family (30) • 
 Associations of St. Charles Borromeo (50) * St 
 ^ S1 « S Sodahty and Young Men’s Association 
 (3o), Sodalities of the Blessed Virgin (25) The 
 following charitable political and social organiza? 
 
 frw?^ T th - e del ? g ? ture: Caritas Verband 
 (Charitable Association) for Berlin, Spandau and 
 
 other centers; Society of St. Vincent de Paul, with 
 90 conferences; about 70 Catholic labor unions* 10 
 journey mens unions (Gesellenvereine) ; 8 Masters’ 
 Unions; 5 Associations of teachers; 12 Students’ 
 Associations; 21 National Bureaus (Volksbureaus); 
 the National Union for Catholic Germany- the 
 ; Wlndthorst League, Civic Associations and Choral 
 
 DeKware Ca an°d n il?^ M “y’s College, Wilmington, 
 Vn.-i n*!’ „ S L- Francis Xavier’s College New 
 
 , lt Hls geological studies were followed 
 
 ame year, and was appointed vice-president nnrl 
 
 kg 0 e feS which theol °gy at Seton Hall Col- 
 
 tge, which offices he continued to hold for twn 
 
 .ts k 
 
 Dr tw.* At urgent request of Bishop Whelan 
 Dr. Brann was loaned to him by Cardinal McClos- 
 
 fe y ’ act a . s director of the seminary at Wheeling 
 West Virginia, during the bishop’s absence at the 
 
 New York S'Ts h ^ ^ - Bla ? n burned to 
 i . orJc 111 lo'O, he was appointed pastor at TTnrt 
 
 Washington where he built St. Elizabeth’s Church 
 
 For nineteen years he devoted his priestly labors 
 
 to the people of St. Elizabeth’s, and during that 
 
 time he found ample opportunity for study and 
 
 he acquired fame as a lecturer, preacher and writer 
 
 Numerous articles appeared from his pen during 
 
 those years m various reviews and magazines He 
 
 published many books and small pamphlets among 
 
 them two metaphysical works: ‘'Curious Cues 
 
 tions’ and “Truth and Error.” “The Age of Un 
 
 reason was a reply to Col. Robert Ingersoll in 188o" 
 
 the Sou?” the L Po ^;;; The Immortality of 
 T .? ”Oul, , Purgatory, Martin Luther ” “The 
 
 4t°H-^ rChblS f h0 . P K H . ughes ” “Waifs and Strays” 
 The History of the American College in Rome” 
 
 and a pamphlet on “Christian Education” are 
 among the best known of his works. 
 
 toJ n of a St ar AvnSVP r ’ ? ra ? T n WaS a PP° in ted pas- 
 tor of St. Agnes Church, New York City. For 
 
 thirty-two years, until the day of his death he 
 
 spent his best efforts, with distinction and success 
 
 u?onl^ e and - temporal interests of his 
 
 people, and for the welfare of the Catholic Church 
 In January, 1910, on the Feast of St. Agnes, he was 
 created domestic prelate by His Holiness Pope 
 
 k U ? ?June, 1912, Monsignor Brann cele¬ 
 brated the Golden Jubilee of his ordination to the 
 priesthood Monsignor Brann was gifted with extra? 
 ordinary talents; and with undaunted courage he 
 made use of these talents, as a preacher, professor 
 writer, controversialist, in the defense of truth and 
 the doctrines of the Catholic Church. 
 
 Brann, Henry A., priest and scholar was b 
 15 August 1837 in Parkstown, County West Meath’ 
 treland; d. m New York, 28 December, 1921. He 
 .ame to America in 1849, and received his elemen- 
 
 Brazil, United States of (cf. C. E., II-745d).— 
 The area of the Republic of Brazil is 3,275 510 
 square miles. According to the census of 1920 the 
 population was 30 645 296 (9.3 per square mile). 
 
 \ S J W i e Janeiro with a population 
 
 040 ion 57 ’p 73 in u 1920 ; o?!° Paulo > 504 > 3 °0; Bahia, 
 348,130, Pernambuco, 216,484; Belem, 275,167. 
 
 imn e nu ^fe r immigrants between 1820 and 
 1919 was 3,5/6,275. Between 1908 and 1919 there 
 were 1,015,873 lmimgrants, of whom 386,696 were 
 
 C?? t m gUeSe in 2 ioo 73 J S P amards > 145,709 Italians, 36.246 
 Geimans, 10,498 French. In 1919 there were 5 701 
 
 immigrants. In the southern states of Brazil there 
 are prosperous German, Russian, and Italian col¬ 
 onies. 1 he colonies maintained by Brazil are nine¬ 
 teen; on 31 December, 1918, they had a population 
 
BRAZIL 
 
 126 
 
 BRAZIL 
 
 
 of 37,535 including 372 Germans, 12,209 Brazilians, 
 and 22,154 of other nationalities. In 1920 Brazil was 
 much concerned over the question of immigration 
 and as the settlement of the country was not pro¬ 
 ceeding rapidly enough, measures were taken ior 
 facilitating the entry of Jews from Ukraine in 
 November and settling them on public lands. 
 
 Religion.— The latest religious statistics (191/), 
 E ive 24 373 579 Catholics and 70,268 Protestants. 
 There are about 8,280 churches and 4,005 clergy. 
 The entire republic is divided into twelve Metro¬ 
 politan sees; Sao Salvador do Bahia (diocese 1552, 
 archdiocese 1676); suffragans, Barra do Rio Grande 
 (1913), Caetite (1913), Uheos (1913) ; Belem do 
 Para (diocese 1719, archdiocese 1906), suffiagans, 
 Sao Louis do Maranhao, 1676, Amazonas or Manaos, 
 Piauhy (1902); Cuyaba (diocese 1826, archdiocese 
 1910) suffragans, Sao Luis de Caceres (1910), 
 Corumba (1910); Diamantina (diocese 1854 arch¬ 
 diocese 1917), suffragans, Arassuahy (1913), Montes- 
 claros (1910); Fortaleza or Ceara (diocese 18o4 
 archdiocese 1915), suffragans, Crato (1914), Sorbal 
 (1915); Marianna (diocese 1745, archdiocese 1906), 
 suffragans, Aterrado (1918), Goyaz (1826), Porto 
 Nacional (1915), Pouso Alegre (1900) Uberaba 
 (1907)• Maceio (erected 1900 as diocese ot Alagoas, 
 name changed 1917, archdiocese 1920), suffiagans, 
 Aracaju (1909), Penedo (1916) ; Olmda and Recife 
 (diocese 1676, archdiocese 1910), suffragans, Garan- 
 huns (1918), Nazareth (1918), Pesqueira (erected 
 1910 as diocese of Floresta, name changed 1918), 
 Parahyba (diocese 1892, archdiocese 1914), suffra¬ 
 gans, Cajazeiras (1914) Natal (1909); Porto- Alegre 
 (Diocese of Sao Pedro do Rio Grande do Sul 1848, 
 archdiocese under present name 1910) suffragans, 
 Santa Catharina or Flonanopolis (1918), Pelotas 
 (1910), Santa Maria (1910), Uruguayana (1910), 
 Sao Sebastiao do Rio de Janeiro (diocese 167 , 
 archdiocese 1892), suffragans Spmto Santo (1895), 
 Nictheroy or Petropolis (1893); Sao Paulo (diocese 
 1745, archdiocese 1908), suffragans, Botucatu (1908), 
 Campinas (1908), Curityba- do Parana (1892), Sao 
 Carlos do Pinhal (1908), Ribeirao Preto (1908), 
 Taubate (1908); three prefectures apostolic: Rio 
 Negro (1910), Solimoes Supenore (1910), lelie 
 (1910)* five prelatures nullius: Acre and Purus 
 (1919),’ Bom Jesus de Piauhy (1920), Conceigao 
 or Santa Conceigao do Araguaya (1911), Registro 
 do Araguaya (1914), Santarem (1903). The 
 Brazilian legation to the Holy See was elevated 
 to the rank of an ambassy m 1919. Brazil is an 
 apostolic nunciature of the second class, the nuncio 
 residing at Rio de Janeiro. For Catholic statistics 
 
 see articles on subjects listed above. 
 
 Education. —Education is free, but not compu - 
 sory except in several municipalities m Sao Paulo, 
 which insist on compulsory education (e. g. Ribeirao 
 Preto). It is under the supervision of the Govern¬ 
 ment primary education being controlled by the 
 States and municipalities. In order to make indus¬ 
 trial education more general, the Federal Govern¬ 
 ment under some circumstances, aids a state, 
 municipal or private school which meets require¬ 
 ments, and also aids schools in agricultural colonies, 
 148 such schools being assisted in the State of kanta 
 Catharina and 96 in the State of Parana. The 
 Federal government maintains a secondary school, 
 the Collegio Pedro II, in Rio de Janeiro, which is 
 the standard for state and private secondary insti¬ 
 tutions desiring government recognition. Higher 
 education is given mainly in separate professional 
 schools rather than in universities, but on 7 Septem¬ 
 ber 1920 the Federal Government consolidated 
 into a university the faculties of medicine and law 
 
 and the polytechnic school hitherto maintained as 
 separate institutions in Rio de Janeiro. 
 
 There are faculties of law at Recife, Sao Paulo, 
 Ceara, Goyaz, Para, Bahia, Bello Horizonte, and 
 Porto Alegre; faculties of medicine at Rio de 
 Janeiro, Sao Paulo, Curityba, Bahia, and Porto 
 Alegre; colleges of pharmacy at Ouro Preto, Belem, 
 Juiz de Fora, Porto Alegre, and Sao Paulo; schools 
 of odontology at Bello Horizonte, Porto Alegre, 
 and also attached to the colleges of medicine and 
 pharmacy; engineering colleges at Ouro Preto, 
 Bahia, Recife, Porto Alegre, and Sao Paulo, and 
 since 1916, a school of Economics and Politics in 
 Rio de Janeiro. According to the latest available 
 statistics, there are in the various states 12,744 
 primary schools with 700,120 pupils and 20,590 teach¬ 
 ers. Of the total number 85 were federal, 6,985 were 
 state government schools, and 2,647 municipal 
 schools. There were 327 secondary schools with 
 30,258 pupils and 151 professional schools with 
 19,294 pupils. The National Library in Rio con¬ 
 tains more than 400,000 books and manuscripts. 
 
 Economics.— For 1920-21 the estimated coffee 
 crop was 7,143,000 bags. About half of the world’s 
 supply of India rubber comes from Brazil, the prin¬ 
 cipal rubber growing districts being Ceara, Manaos, 
 and Para. In 1917, the rubber crop was 41,500 tons, 
 the cotton crop, 75,000 tons (119,500 tons in 1919). 
 The yield of cocoa in 1918 was 60,000 tons; the 
 average annual tobacco crop is 50,000,000 kilos; the 
 yield of sugar, 300,000 tons (399,600 in 1919-20). 
 Up to 1916 rice was largely imported but now is so 
 extensively grown, that there were nearly 30,000 tons 
 exported during 1919. There were in 1918, 202 cot¬ 
 ton factories with 1,500,722 spindles and 78,186 work¬ 
 men; and in 1919, 36 woolen factories and 1,400 
 looms. Altogether there are (1920) 11,335 factories 
 in Brazil, with a capital of 665,676,000 milreis and 
 151,841 employees. 
 
 The forest area of Brazil has been estimated at 
 1,500,000 sq. miles, and in 1919 woods to the value 
 of $3,500,000 were exported. Expressed in terms 
 of United States currency, adopting the rate of 
 $1.00 to 3,816 milreis, the trade of Brazil for two 
 years was _ x . 
 
 Imports Exports I otal 
 
 1918 . $247,351,151 $284,275,068 $531,626,219 
 
 1919 . 346,907,226 566,467,038 913,374,264 
 
 Statistics show that 41.39 per cent of the exports 
 
 went to the United States; 21.28 per cent to France; 
 7.24 per cent to the United Kingdom. The import 
 trade by percentages was: 48 per cent _ from the 
 United States; 16.15 per cent from the United King¬ 
 dom; 3.97 per cent from Portugal. 
 
 The recurring famines of northeastern Brazil have 
 called the attention of the government to the neces¬ 
 sity of conserving and utilizing the water supply 
 of the country by means of great dams and reser¬ 
 voirs in order to reclaim by irrigation the arid lands 
 in that section of the country. Brazil possessed 
 on 31 March, 1919, railways open for traffic of a 
 total length of 18,708 miles; of these 9,445 miles 
 were the property of the Union. 
 
 The consolidated foreign debt of Brazil on 31 
 December, 1919, amounted to £116,281,960 and 
 322,249,500 francs; and the total currency was 1,749,- 
 974,000 milreis. In July, 1912, a Bill was introduced 
 into the Senate, making it necessary for the States to 
 obtain Federal authorization before contracting any 
 loans. _ 
 
 Government. —Brazil is a federal republic of 20 
 states, 1 federal district, and a national territory. 
 The site for the Federal capital has been selected in 
 the State of Goyaz, on a table-land between Pyre- 
 
BREBEUF 
 
 127 
 
 BRESCIA 
 
 nopolis, Santa Luzia, and Formosa. In 1912 there 
 were in Brazil 1,233 municipalities, 705 townships, 
 528 villages, and 3,629 districts. 
 
 A new Civil Code came into force on 1 January, 
 1917. Among the most important subjects covered 
 by the code are those referring to legal capacity; 
 the registration of births and marriages, and deaths; 
 juristic persons and organizations; domicile; real 
 and personal property; homestead (a new institu¬ 
 tion in Brazilian Jaw); legal acts; domestic rela¬ 
 tions; copyright; mortgages, contracts, wills and the 
 administration of estates. The decree of banish¬ 
 ment against the ex-imperial family was repealed 
 on 6 August, 1920. 
 
 The last five presidents of Brazil include Affonso 
 Penna, elected in 1906; Hermes da Wonesca, 1910; 
 Wenceslao Braz, 1914; Rodrigues Alves, 1918; 
 Epitacio Sessoa, 1919. 
 
 Recent History. —Brazil’s foreign policy in re¬ 
 cent years has been marked by a tendency towards 
 free relations with her neighbors. A protocol signed 
 with Peru arranged for the organization of a com¬ 
 mission to survey the frontier, in accordance with 
 the treaty of demarcation of 8 September, 1909. 
 On 7 May, 1913, a convention between Brazil and 
 Uruguay on the river San Miguel was signed be¬ 
 tween the two republics. Uruguay recognized the 
 Brazilian navigation rights on the river, which had 
 heretofore been exclusively Uruguayan. On 25 May, 
 1915, the A. B. C. treaty of peace between the 
 three strongest powers of South America, Argentina, 
 Brazil, and Chile, was signed in Buenos Aires. This 
 provided for five years of peace among the three 
 nations, during which time each was pledged not 
 to make war against either of the others until the 
 causes of conflict had been investigated and re¬ 
 ported upon by an important commission. In 1917 
 during the World War the Brazilian government 
 warned Germany that it would hold her responsible 
 for any damage to Brazilian ships. In April the 
 Parana was sunk by a German submarine without 
 warning or any subsequent assistance to the crew. 
 In May the Brazilian vessel Tijuca was sunk off the 
 coast of Brittany, and immediately the neutrality 
 proclamation was revoked. The German vessels in 
 Brazilian ports were seized. The Treaty of Peace 
 between Germany and Brazil was ratified by the 
 President of Brazil on 11 November, 1919, Congress 
 having approved of the same. 
 
 ?mn 17 ° an oU? r , e "i? rhaven ' 22 ' 159 - The “nstia of 
 1910 g t\\° 2 °7,930 1 rotestants, 21,074 Catholics, 1,217 
 other Christians, 1,251 Jews, and 14,243 others. The 
 highest power of the state is exercised by the 
 House ot Burgesses consisting of 120 members 
 elected on a democratic basis by all citizens of the 
 state. I he Burgerschajt elects the Senate of four¬ 
 teen members as the executive body. Two Burger- 
 meister chosen from the members of the Senate 
 preside over the deliberations of that body. Bremen 
 contains two Amtgerichte and a Landgericht, whence 
 appeals lie to the Hanseatische Oberlandesgencht 
 at Hamburg. 
 
 Brebeuf, Jean de (cf. C. E., II-751b). — The cause 
 of his beatification was introduced at Rome, 9 
 August, 1916. 
 
 Breda, Diocese of (Bredana; cf. C. E., II-752b), 
 suffragan of Utrecht, Holland. Rt. Rev. Petrus 
 Hopmans was elected bishop of the see in 1914, 
 upon the death of the former bishop Petrus Leitjen, 
 d. 17 May, 1914. The diocese includes: 107 par¬ 
 ishes, 113 churches, 7 monasteries for men and 7 
 for women, 7 abbeys for men and 7 for women, 26 
 convents for men and 87 for women, 270 secular 
 priests and 180 regulars, 550 lay brothers, 2 semi¬ 
 naries with 210 students, 9 normal schools, 100 ele¬ 
 mentary schools, 7 secondary schools, 22 missionary 
 organizations of various kinds, 28 asylums and 
 orphanages. The schools are supported by the 
 Government, and there are several Catholic period¬ 
 icals published in the diocese. 
 
 Brentwood, Diocese of (Brentwoodensis), in 
 the province of Westminster, England, was erected 
 2 ? March, 191 ?> by a division of the Archdiocese 
 of Westminster, and comprises the county of Essex. 
 The first bishop appointed to this see was Rt. Rev. 
 Bernard Nicholas Ward (q.v.), consecrated titular 
 Bishop of Lydda and made administrator apos¬ 
 tolic of the new diocese 10 April, 1917, being 
 translated to this diocese 20 July following. Bishop 
 Ward died 21 January, 1920, and the present incum¬ 
 bent, Rt. Rev. Authur Doubleday, was appointed 
 to succeed him, and consecrated 23 June, 1920. The 
 Church of the Sacred Heart and St. Helen, erected 
 1836-61 and consecrated 15 June, 1869, was made the 
 cathedral church of the diocese. 
 
 The following religious orders are established in 
 the, diocese; Men: Cistercians and Franciscans 
 (Friars Minor); Women: Canonesses of the Holy 
 Sepulchre, Carmelites of the Sacred Heart, Dames 
 Bernardines, Dominicans, Franciscans, Franciscan 
 Missionaries of Mary, Immaculate Conception Sis¬ 
 ters, Poor Clares, Poor Handmaids of Jesus Christ, 
 Poor Sisters of Nazareth, Sainte-Union, Sisters of 
 Chanty, Irish Sisters of Charity, Sisters of Mercy, 
 of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary, and 
 Ursulme Sisters. By the 1921 census the total popu¬ 
 lation of the diocese is 1,468,341, and of these about 
 41,616 are Catholics. By 1921 statistics there are 
 69 secular and 28 regular priests, 3 convents of men 
 and 32 of women, 41 churches, 40 parishes, 10 
 stations, 25 public elementary schools receiving 
 Government grants and 2 without grants, 3 sec- 
 ondaiy schools for boys and 14 for girls. There 
 are in all 6,428 children in elementary schools and 
 407 in other schools. There are 14 charitable insti¬ 
 tutions, consisting of hospitals, residential institu¬ 
 tions for poor children, orphanages, homes, refuges 
 and poor law, industrial and reformatory schools; 
 1,028 children are cared for in these institutions. A 
 diocesan periodical, “The Warrior,” is published as 
 well as several parish magazines. During the World 
 War 7 priests of the diocese served as chaplains, 
 one of whom died in the service. 
 
 Bremen (cf. C. E., II-756c), formerly a republic, 
 composed of the state and free city of Bremen, 
 now a free state of Germany, with a constitution 
 adopted on 15 May, 1920. The area is 99 square 
 miles; the population, according to the census of 
 1919 was 311,266. The largest cities are Bremen, 
 9 
 
 Brescia, Diocese of (Brixiensis; cf. C. E., 
 II-760a), in Lombardy, Northern Italy, suffragan 
 of Milan. Rt. Rev. Bishop Corna Pellegrini, who 
 came to this see, 1 December, 1883, d. 21 May, 1913, 
 and was succeeded by the present incumbent, Rt. 
 Rev. Giacinto Gaggia, b. in this diocese, 1847, made 
 prelate of the holy see 1907, appointed titular 
 Bishop of Hadrumetum, 29 April, 1909, and auxiliary 
 to the Bishop of Brescia, succeeding 28 October, 
 1913. He is assisted by an auxiliary, Bishop Bon- 
 giorni, titular of Sasima. According to the 1922 
 statistics the diocese comprises: 388 parishes, 900 
 churches, 22 monasteries for men, 181 monasteries 
 for women, 897 secular priests, 195 regulars, and 
 2,153 Sisters. Among the educational institutions 
 are a philosophical and a theological seminary, which 
 together have 380 students, the college of Cesare 
 Arici for boys, conducted by the Jesuit Fathers, 
 
BRESLAU 
 
 128 
 
 BRIDGETINNES 
 
 several secondary schools for girls, a boarding house 
 for boys and four for girls, who attend the public 
 schools, the first conducted by priests, the latter by 
 the Sisters. Besides these the various religious con¬ 
 duct schools for day pupils which are well attended. 
 A mutual aid society, St. Carlo society, and a co¬ 
 operative association are established among the 
 clergy, and various circles of good works are formed 
 among the men and women of almost every parish. 
 Hospitals, homes, and orphanages, although under 
 municipal administration, are conducted by the Sis¬ 
 ters. A number of weekly, fortnightly, and monthly 
 periodicals, are published in the diocese. 
 
 Breslau, Prince-Bishopric of (Vratislaviensis; 
 cf. C. E., II-761a), is dependent directly on the 
 Holy See. This immense diocese is divided into 
 three parts each with distinct administration: 
 (1) the province of Prussian Silesia (part of district 
 of Oppeln has been ceded to Poland), with the 
 exception of a few districts attached to dioceses 
 of Prague and Olmutz in Czechoslovakia, counting 
 (1918) over 2,566,000 Catholics; (2) the Principality 
 of Teschen and the part of the Principality of 
 Neisse, which was formerly Austrian Silesia. The 
 district of Neisse lying in Austria was included in 
 Czechoslovakia and Teschen was divided by Treaty 
 of Versailles between Czechoslovakia and Poland. 
 The Catholics number 362,000 (1918); (3) city of 
 Berlin and the two provinces of Brandenburg and 
 Pomerania, excepting two districts which are at¬ 
 tached to the diocese of Posen (Poland), and con¬ 
 tain 443,000 Catholics. This territory is adminis¬ 
 tered by a delegate who is always the provost of 
 St. Hedwig’s in Berlin. 
 
 The seat of the diocese is the city of Breslau, 
 on the River Oder in the Prussian Province of 
 Silesia. The present bishop is Adolph Cardinal 
 Bertram, b. at Hildesheim 14 March, 1859, student 
 at Hildesheim, Wurzburg, Innsbruck, and Rome, 
 ordained at Hildesheim 31 July, 1881, elected Bishop 
 of Hildesheim 26 April, 1906, transferred to Breslau 
 27 May, 1914, succeeding Cardinal Kopp deceased, 
 named member of Prussian House of Lords in 
 January, 1916, created cardinal in petto 4 Decem¬ 
 ber, 1916, and received the hat with title to St. 
 Agnes-Outside-the-Walls, of which he took posses¬ 
 sion 21 December following. His predecessor, 
 George Cardinal Kopp, Prince-Bishop of Breslau, 
 who had struggled long to safeguard and preserve 
 peace between Church and State, died 4 March, 
 1914. Mgr. Valentine Wolciuh, chancellor of Bres¬ 
 lau, was elected titular Bishop of Danaba and 
 auxiliary of the diocese 8 March, 1920. 
 
 Among the clergy recently deceased are the fol¬ 
 lowing of note: Auxiliary Bishop Charles Augustin, 
 b. in Diocese of Breslau 1 November, 1847, elected 
 titular Bishop of Diocesaraea and auxiliary of the 
 diocese 10 March, 1910, and d. 26 September, 1916; 
 Prelate Adolph Franz, eminent in letters and 
 prominent in administration of the diocese; Prelate 
 Hugo Laemmer, professor at the University of 
 Breslau and author of many books; two laymen, 
 Councillors Dittrich of Breslau and Horn of Neisse, 
 who assisted most commendably in the temporal 
 affairs of the diocese, died recently. 
 
 During the World War many of the clergy were 
 in the army administering to the spiritual needs 
 of the soldiers, while those left at home sent com¬ 
 forts and necessities to the fighting men and 
 attended to the welfare of their families and the 
 wounded in the hospitals. The laity gave them¬ 
 selves and their fortunes to the cause espoused. 
 On 21 October, 1921, that part of Upper Silesia 
 assigned to the Republic of Poland was placed 
 under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Breslau. 
 
 Including the district governed by delegation, 
 the diocese contains over 3,700,000 Catholics, mostly 
 of German descent, with a small minority of Poles. 
 There are actually employed in the diocese 1660 
 secular and 170 regular priests, assisted by a total 
 of 339 lay brothers. There are 11 monasteries for 
 men and 8 for women, 1 abbey for men, 20 con¬ 
 vents for men and 687 for women, 3 universities, 
 6 colleges for men and 10 for women, and 19 normal 
 schools. The prince-bishopric is divided into com- 
 misariates and archipresbyterates, in which there 
 are 1052 cures of various kinds (parishes, curacies, 
 and stations). Besides the theological faculty of 
 the University of Breslau, the diocese possesses as 
 episcopal institutions for the training of the clergy 
 5 preparatory seminaries for boys, 1 home (recently 
 much enlarged), for theological students attending 
 the University of Breslau, and 2 seminaries with 
 50 seminarians. 
 
 The statistics of the houses of religious orders in 
 the diocese are: Benedictines, 2 houses; Domin¬ 
 icans, 1; Franciscans, 10; Jesuits, 4; Piarists, 1; 
 Brothers of Mercy, 10; Order of St. Camillus of 
 Lellis, 2; Redemptorists, 3; Society of the Divine 
 Word, 2; Alexian Brothers, 1; Poor Brothers of St. 
 Francis, 2; Sisters of St. Elizabeth, 6; Magdalen 
 Sisters, 1; Ursulines, 7; Sisters of the Good Shep¬ 
 herd, 5; Sisters of St. Charles Borromeo, from the 
 mother-house at Trebnitz, 226, from the mother- 
 house at Trier, 5; Servants of the Sacred Heart of 
 Jesus, 3; Sisters of the Poor Handmaids of Christ, 
 3; Sister Servants of Mary, 85; German Dominican 
 Sisters of St. Catherine of Sienna, 16; Grey Sisters 
 of St. Elizabeth, 223; Sisters of St. Hedwig, 25; 
 Sisters of Mary, 69; Poor School Sisters of Notre 
 Dame, 23; Vincentian Sisters, 7; Sisters of the Holy 
 Cross, 1; Sisters of St. Joseph, 2. In the above 
 mentioned monastic houses for men there are 509 
 religious, in those for women 7547 religious. The 
 government partly supports the Catholic schools. 
 There are 2 associations for the clergy and a great 
 many for the laity. Among the periodicals pubr 
 lished are 4 Catholic weeklies of note. Since this 
 article went into type word has been received of 
 the erection of a see at Berlin and the appointment 
 of a bishop in the person of Rev. Dr. Kaas. 
 
 Bressanone (or Brixen), Diocese of (Brixi- 
 nensis; cf. C. E., II-793d), formerly a Prince- 
 Bishopric of Austria, embracing the greater part 
 of Northern Tyrol and Vorarlberg, suffragan of 
 Salzburg but now the diocese is directly dependent 
 on the Holy See. Part of the diocese, including 
 the episcopal see, was ceded by Austria to 
 Italy as a result of the treaty of St .-Germain. 
 By a decree of 27 April, 1915, the parochial church 
 of Montichiari was erected into an abbatial church, 
 with a mitred abbot as pastor. Rt. Rev. Francis 
 Egger, appointed to this see 6 November, 1912, filled 
 it until his death, 17 May, 1918. After a vacancy 
 of three years he was succeeded by Rt. Rev. John 
 Rafill b. at Roppen, Austria, 1858, ordained 1883, 
 made an honorary chamberlain 6 April, 1910, ap¬ 
 pointed 28 April, 1921, consecrated 19 June follow¬ 
 ing. He is assisted by an auxiliary at present (1922), 
 Rt. Rev. Sigismond Waitz, titular Bishop of Cibyrra 
 and administrator of Vorarlberg. The population 
 of this diocese is almost entirely Catholic, the 1920 
 statistics counting only 150 Protestants against 
 470,876 Catholics. These latter are divided among 
 28 deaneries, 398 parishes, 72 fillial parishes, 287 
 vicariates, and 71 secondary parishes, cared for by 
 926 secular and 657 regular clergy. 
 
 Bridgetinnes (cf. C. E., II-785d).—This order, 
 founded by St. Bridget of Sweden at Vadstena in 
 
 
 
BRINDISI 
 
 129 
 
 BRITISH COLUMBIA 
 
 io4(>, spread to Denmark, Norway, Finland, Russia, 
 I oland North and South Germany, the Nether¬ 
 lands, England, France, and Italy. France had five 
 foundations: Lille, Douai, Arras, Valenciennes, and 
 Armentieres. In Italy the first house, Porta Para¬ 
 de 8 or Gate of Paradise, dates from 1394- the 
 second at Genoa from 1426; on the death of the 
 donor, in 1428, the house in which St. Bridget lived 
 in Rome passed to the order and became its hos- 
 pme. In Bavaria the foundation at Altomunster 
 stnl lemains; this monastery was plundered and 
 
 w.^' a ^fiQo eSt ‘'°? C L^ ce durin « the Thirty Years 
 War (1632 and 1616), its members fled before 
 
 loreign t roops in 1703, and when suppressed in 1803 
 no purchaser being found for their cloister the' 
 nuns were permitted to remain but not to profess 
 new subjects; after many years the few survivors 
 nad the satisfaction of seeing the restitution of 
 their house, when on 8 October, 1844, the order 
 was reinstated. The monastery of Reval in Russia 
 was burnt by schismatics in 1575. Vadstena, as a 
 labile, notwithstanding the covetousness of Gusta- 
 ^us \ asa, remained untouched for seventy years 
 Ihe nuns after suffering much persecution were 
 favored and sustained by his Catholic son, John 
 
 A1 Ii bu t his younger son coming to 
 
 the throne as Charles IX, a determined Protestant, 
 the nuns were expelled. The last abbess and her 
 eleven daughters in December, 1595, landed at 
 Danzig, and found an asylum in Poland. 
 
 In Poland most of the double monasteries sur¬ 
 vived until the middle of the nineteenth century 
 when with other religious houses thev were sup¬ 
 pressed by the Russian Government. "The last of 
 
 the iSo T nUn ^ d ! ed , m her monastery at Grodno 
 in 1908. in England the celebrated Bridgettine 
 monastery of Syon Abbey (q.v.) is the only pre- 
 Rel ormation house to come down to the present 
 day in unbroken continuity. Venerable Marina de 
 Escobar, foundress of the Bridgettines of the Recol- 
 lection at \ alladolid, had applied for admission to 
 the Carmelite Order, but St. Teresa told her that 
 she knew by revelation that her place was not there, 
 that God would use her to bring the Bridgettine 
 Order into Spam. There, are twelve Bridgettine 
 monasteries now in existence: Syon Abbey at 
 Chudleigh in Devonshire, Altomunster in Bavaria, 
 l den and Weert in Holland, the Monastero S. 
 Birgitta, founded at Rome in 1911, five Spanish 
 houses of the Bridgettines of the Recollection (Val¬ 
 ladolid, v ittoria, Lasarte, Parades de Nava, and 
 Ascoytia) and two in Mexico. 
 
 t? B TT n ^^ ARCHI ! I0CESE 0F (Brudusinensis; cf. C. 
 
 77 ', ii - 78 ^d), in the province of Lecce, Italy, with 
 the perpetual administration of the diocese of 
 Ustum Archbishop Morando, appointed to this 
 see 5 January,1906, died 20 August, 1909, and was 
 succeeded by Rt. Rev. Tommaso Valeri, O. F. M. 
 b. at Santa Fiora, 1865, appointed 22 April 1910* 
 consecrated 5 June following. In July, 1919,’Arch- 
 bishop V alen was made a grand officer of the Order 
 ol Saints Maurice and Lazarus in recognition of 
 
 inorP atriotlC - work d unng the World War. By the 
 1920 statistics this territory counts 110,907 Cath¬ 
 olics, 19 parishes, 170 secular and 15 regular clergy 
 25 seminarians, 22 Brothers, 81 Sisters, and 89 
 churches or chapels. 
 
 F B iT Sl lon?\ Archdiocese of (Brisbanensis; cf. C. 
 thl A4 “' 89b) ’ <comprises about 200,000 sq. miles in 
 the Colony of Queensland, Australia. The second 
 bishop and first archbishop of this see, Most Rev. 
 
 £ isS ^'T% W T h ° was a PP°mted to the diocese 
 hv lfn ’ dled ^ Januar y> 1917. He was succeeded 
 b> the present incumbent, Most Rev. James Duhig, 
 
 consecrated Bishop of Rockhampton 10 December 
 
 coad'iu!or°lo Tl m A . rchbisho P of Amida and 
 
 ,!imo th ° A rchbishop of Brisbane 26 Feb- 
 
 January, 9 191 ^ succeeded to tnc see of Brisbane 13 
 
 nl Th . e religious orders engaged in educational and 
 charitable work in this diocese are: Jesuit Fathers 
 Redemptorist Fathers, Christian Brothers, Sisters of 
 Mercy, Sisters of Perpetual Adoration, Good Samar- 
 
 1 s tai J ^ ls t| rs ’ SlsA ? rs of St Joseph, Religious of the 
 Sacied Heart, Sisters of Our Lady of the Sacred 
 Heart Ursulme Sisters, Sisters of Charity, and Sis- 
 ers of Nazareth. Primary and secondary schools 
 conducted by the Sisters are inspected annually by 
 officers of the state education department/ St 
 Vincents Orphanage, conducted by the Sisters of 
 Mercy receives ten pence a day from the govern¬ 
 ment for the support of each child sent to the 
 institution. 
 
 The total population of this territory is approxi- 
 mately 30°,00° (1922), and of these 70,000 are Cath- 
 
 u lh t dl °of e comprises 52 parochial districts, 
 140 chuiches, 81 secular and 6 regular clergy, 46 
 religious brothers, 510 nuns, 7 male and 95 female 
 lay teachers employed in Catholic schools, 3 board¬ 
 ing schools for boys and 20 for girls, 15 high schools, 
 52 primary schools, 14,031 children attending Cath¬ 
 olic schools, 1 technical school, 1 orphanage, 1 
 asylum, 1 hostel for girls, and 2 hospitals. 
 
 British Columbia (cf. C. E., II-791b).-The area 
 of the province is 355,855 sq. miles, of which 353,416 
 
 are *SS» d >.^ d 2,439 water. The population in 1911 
 was 392,480; an estimate in 1920 gives it as 650,000. 
 
 he largest cities with their respective populations 
 are: Victoria, 38,775; N. Vancouver, 10,584; S. Van¬ 
 couver Municipality, 32,182; Nanaimo, 7,800; New 
 Westminster, 14,400; Vancouver City, 116,700; Point 
 Grey Municipality, 13,654; Comox-Atlin, 7,100. The 
 iigiiios for the total population of the province in- 
 elude 25,694 Indians. In 1911 there were 19 56S 
 Chinese. 
 
 Education.— Education in British Columbia is in 
 charge of a Minister of Education, Deputy Minister 
 superintendent and a Council of Public Instruction 
 composed of the Minister and the other members 
 of the Executive Council. All education is free and 
 compulsory for six months in the year between the 
 ages of seven and fourteen. There is no religious 
 instruction, though the highest morality is incul- 
 cated. For educational purposes the province is 
 divided into municipal and rural school districts, 
 and the schools are of three classes, viz., munici¬ 
 pality schools, rural schools, and assisted schools, 
 r or secondary education there are the superior 
 schools and high schools. Higher education is ob¬ 
 tained in the University of British Columbia, opened 
 a ^ Vancouver with an endowment of two 
 million acres of Crownlands. In 1920 the provincial 
 legislature authorized the establishment of colleges 
 in affiliation with the university. At present there 
 are 1,530 students and 64 members of the faculty 
 In 1919 there were 65,928 children enrolled in the 
 elementary grades, 5,806 in the secondary grades, 
 2,332 teachers in the publicly controlled schools, of 
 whom 197 taught in the 45 high schools. In the 
 same year the expenditure was as follows: provincial 
 government, $1,791,154; cities, municipalities, rural 
 and assisted schools, $2,437,566; total, $4,228,720. In 
 1919 the Children’s Protection Act freed the chil¬ 
 dren in an institution from obligation to attend a 
 religious service of different faith. 
 
 Religion.— The growth of the Church in British 
 Columbia while slow has been continuous. Re¬ 
 cently, however, hostile influences threatened to 
 
BRIXEN 
 
 130 
 
 BROOKLYN 
 
 impede its progress. The provincial law exempts 
 from general taxation “every building set apart and 
 in actual use for the service of God,” but in 1911 
 the province adopted the single tax law on land 
 alone. The town authorities decided that the sites 
 of churches were no more exempt than other sites. 
 Subsequently several Catholic churches in Victoria 
 were sold for non-payment of taxes. The combined 
 pressure of all the religious bodies of British 
 Columbia, with the exception of the Baptists, was 
 not sufficient to make the Government take action. 
 In 1919 the sale of the cathedral of Victoria was 
 threatened, and the bishop obtained a court injunc¬ 
 tion restraining the city of Victoria from further 
 action. The latter won the case in the lower court 
 but lost it in the higher court. An appeal to the 
 Supreme Tribunal of Land resulted in a decision 
 of the Privy Council sustaining that of the higher 
 court. 
 
 For Catholic statistics see Vancouver, Arch¬ 
 diocese of,* Victoria, Diocese of; Yukon, Vicariate 
 Apostolic of. 
 
 Economic Status. —The total value of the min¬ 
 eral production of the province in 1920 was $38,- 
 044,915. In 1919 gold brought $3,457,406; copper, 
 $7,915,324; lead, $1,526,855; silver, $4,126,556. 
 
 In 1919 the province produced lumber worth $70,- 
 285,094; fish to the value of $15,216,397; agricultural 
 produce valued at $65,384,556. The area of timberland 
 is over 100,000,000 acres, containing, roughly speak¬ 
 ing, 400,000 million feet of merchantable timber. The 
 coal supply is estimated at 75 billion tons, of which 
 23,000 millions are in the seams known and 
 measured. In 1919 Vancouver Island and parts of 
 the mainland yielded coal to the value of $11,- 
 337,705. The statistics for 1918 give 1786 industrial 
 establishments, capital, $244,697,000; employees, 48,- 
 779; wages and salaries, $51,051,000; value of prod¬ 
 ucts, $207,678,000. The trade of the Province in 
 1919 showed imports valued at $63,694,697, and 
 exports at $77,247,666. The railway mileage of the 
 province in 1917 was 3,885. Steps are being taken 
 to establish direct shipping communications with 
 the Canadian Atlantic ports, via the Panama Canal. 
 The balance sheets of the province showed that on 
 31 March, 1919, the liabilities totaled $52,288,067, 
 assets $59,642,124. 
 
 Government. —The provincial government is ad¬ 
 ministered by a Lieutenant Governor, appointed 
 and paid ($9,000 per annum) by Ottawa, and a 
 Legislative Assembly of forty-seven members, on 
 the system of executive administration known as 
 “responsible government.” The Assembly is elected 
 for four years, every adult, male or female, having 
 resided six months in the province, duly registered, 
 being entitled to vote. In 1918 the vote was granted 
 to women. In 1920 it was decided that the consent 
 of the court must be obtained to the adoption of 
 an unmarried minor. On 20 October, 1920, a tem¬ 
 perance plebiscite gave the voters the choice of 
 prohibition or of government control of liquor 
 traffic; the latter won. 
 
 Brixen, Diocese of. See Bressanone. 
 
 Brno (German, Brunn), Diocese of (Brunsis; 
 cf. C. E., III-lld), suffragan of Olmutz, in Moravia, 
 which was formerly in Austria, but is now part of 
 Czechoslovakia. This see was filled by Rt. Rev. 
 Paul de Huyn from 14 May, 1904, until his promo¬ 
 tion to the Archdiocese of Prague, 4 October, 1916. 
 He was succeeded by the present (1922) incumbent, 
 Rt. Rev. Norbert John Nepomucene Klein, b. in 
 Moravia 1866, appointed 7 December, 1916, con¬ 
 secrated 28 January following. In 1919 the popu¬ 
 
 lation of this diocese Comprised 1,086,025 Catholics, 
 31,007 Protestants, 21,410 Jews, and 511 of other 
 denominations. The diocese counted 40 deaneries, 
 441 parishes, 809 secular, and 141 regular clergy, 
 and 502 religious. 
 
 Brooklyn, Diocese of (Brooklyniensis; cf. C. 
 E., II-798b).—Bishop McDonnell celebrated the 
 silver jubilee of his appointment to the see in April, 
 1917, when the accomplishments of his administra¬ 
 tion were visible in every section of the diocese. 
 More than a hundred new churches and chapels 
 had been added to the list, with 61 new parish 
 schools. Brooklyn College was opened by the 
 Jesuit Fathers, 15 September, 1908; St. Joseph’s Col¬ 
 lege for Women by the Sisters of St. Joseph, 2 
 October, 1916; and the Cathedral College, for the 
 preparatory seminary in the fall of 1914. The per¬ 
 manent building was erected in the following year 
 mainly through a munificent gift from Mr. George 
 Duval. A summer villa for the seminarians was 
 located at Water Mills and the system of keeping 
 them together during their entire course was suc¬ 
 cessfully inaugurated. A diocesan organ, the “Tab¬ 
 let,” was begun 4 April, 1908, and communities of 
 the Passionist Fathers and the Brothers of Mary 
 and the Brothers of the Sacred Heart were ad¬ 
 mitted to the diocese. As auxiliary bishop, the 
 Rt. Rev. George W. Mundelein was consecrated 
 titular Bishop of Loryma, 12 September, 1909, and 
 ministered as such until his promotion to the arch¬ 
 bishopric of Chicago, 9 December, 1915. A second 
 auxiliary, the Rt. Rev. Thomas Edmund Molloy, 
 was consecrated titular of Loria on 3 October, 
 
 1920. Bishop McDonnell died on 8 August, 
 
 1921, and Bishop Molloy was immediately named 
 administrator of the diocese and transferred in 
 succession as the third bishop of the see, 21 Novem¬ 
 ber, 1921. He was born at Nashua, New Hampshire, 
 4 September, 1885. His collegiate course was made 
 at St. Anselm’s College, Nashua, and St. Francis’, 
 Brooklyn, after which he was sent to the American 
 College, Rome, where he was ordained in 1908. 
 Returning to Brooklyn, he served as an assistant 
 in St. John’s Chapel parish, as secretary to Bishop 
 Mundelein, and as director of the preparatory semi¬ 
 nary and St. Joseph’s College for Women before 
 he was appointed auxiliary bishop. In the first 
 few months of his administration he established 
 six new parishes, admitted to the diocese a founda¬ 
 tion of the Religious of Our Lady of the Cenacle 
 and blessed (27 April, 1922), the Church of St. 
 Peter Claver for the first Brooklyn congregation 
 of colored Catholics. 
 
 When the first Catholic parish in Brooklyn was 
 organized on 7 January, 1882, it was found there 
 were then only 70 persons who could be relied 
 on to give it material support. The immense dio¬ 
 cese that followed from this beginning began its 
 second century with the following statistical evi¬ 
 dences of the splendid progress made in the inter¬ 
 vening hundred years: bishop 1; diocesan priests 
 465; priests of religious orders 122, _ total 587; 
 churches with resident priests 238; missions with 
 churches 23, total 261; seminary for diocesan clergy 
 
 I, students 86; preparatory seminary 1, students 
 324; colleges for boys 3, students 2250; academies 
 for bojrs 5, pupils 217; academies for young ladies 
 
 II, pupils 1424; commercial high school 1, pupils 
 380; high school 1, pupils 190; parishes with paro¬ 
 chial schools 120, pupils 72,398; orphan asylums 
 10, orphans 3718; infant asylum 1, infants cared 
 for 700; industrial schools for girls 2, girls 356; 
 House of Good Shepherd 1, inmates 340; total 
 young people under Catholic care 78,082; hospitals 
 
 
 
 
BROWNSVILLE 
 
 BUDEJOVICE 
 
 131 
 
 10; homes for aged poor 4, inmates 740: Catholic 
 population 821,337. . 
 
 Dui ing the \\ orld War Brooklyn served 
 as an important naval base, and within the dioc¬ 
 esan limits two important camps were located 
 Camp Upton at Yaphank, and Camp Mills at 
 Carden City, Long Island. The latter was used as 
 the aviation center for this section of the country 
 and the army supply station was also located within 
 tins territory. These various activities afforded 
 added opportunities for the zeal of the bishop and 
 
 c jgy, took an active part in all patriotic 
 
 endeavors. 
 
 Brownsville, Vicariate Apostolic of. See Corpus 
 Christi, Diocese of. 
 
 Bruges, Diocese of (Brugensis; cf. C. E., III-5b) 
 suffragan of Malines, contains the province of West 
 I landers in Belgium. The territory of the diocese 
 was occupied by the Germans from 1914-1918 and 
 the section near the French border was the scene 
 of severe and continued fighting. 
 
 Ihe episcopal seat is the city of Bruges, and the 
 present bishop is Rt. Rev. Gustave-Joseph Waf- 
 felaert, born at Rolleghem in the Diocese of Bruges 
 27 August, 1847, priest in June, 1870, elected 28 
 June, 1895, consecrated at Bruges 25 July foliow- 
 
 L ng ' + P 1 ?, 10 A , u , gust >. 1920 > Bishop' Waffelaert cele¬ 
 brated the golden jubilee of his priesthood and 
 his silver Jubilee as bishop in the presence of 
 Cardinal Mercier, four Belgian bishops, three 
 mitered abbots, two ministers of State, and civil and 
 military authorities. After the ceremony in the 
 cathedral of St. Saviour the cardinal placed the 
 pallium a reward of the Supreme Pontiff’s, on the 
 venerable bishop. On this occasion he was also 
 named an officer of the Order of Leopold by the 
 King of the Belgians. 
 
 The diocese of Bruges, like the rest of Belgium 
 was overrun by German soldiers and officials, but 
 a small portion of the diocese remained unviolated 
 k iu ^, nem 3 r > the only spot in Belgium not taken 
 by the German armies. This line from Nieuport to 
 Dixmude to Ypres to the French border was never 
 passed, and throughout the war was the scene of 
 terrific fighting, the three towns mentioned, with 
 their churches, colleges, and convents, were de¬ 
 stroyed, but the little Belgian army, later reinforced 
 by British and French troops, remained on the Yser 
 an £ fought on Flanders fields until the armistice. 
 
 ihe diocese is divided into 15 deaneries 36 
 parishes and 293 sub-parishes, 301 of which are 
 partially supported by the State. Of the 845 732 
 inhabitants /64,8/9 are Catholics. The diocesan 
 seminary at Bruges has more than a hundred stu¬ 
 dents advanced from the preparatory seminary at 
 Roulers. For _ the purpose of general education 
 there is an episcopal college at Bruges, and seven 
 other colleges at large centers of the dioceses. The 
 colleges at Ypres, Dixmunde, and Nieuport, which 
 were directly on the fighting lines where the Ger¬ 
 man ad\ ance was halted, have been discontinued 
 1 or technical education there is the Institute Saint- 
 Leon at Bruges, and four other normal schools 
 throughout the diocese. Many religious orders, both 
 male and female, have houses in the diocese, besides 
 hospitals anc asylums for the aged and poor. 
 
 Briinn, Diocese of. See Brno. 
 
 Brunswick (Braunschweig; cf. C. E., III-19a) 
 formerly a duchy in the mountainous central part 
 oi .Northern Germany, now a republic. Territorially 
 the state is not a unit, but is parcelled into three 
 large and six smaller sections. Both in extent of 
 territory and in population it ranked tenth among 
 
 Stat ° S ° f *¥ German Umpire. The 
 
 whom m° enu I lm y ted 494 ' 339 inhabitants, of 
 
 and 1 7W ItT T Luth mns, 25,888 were Catholics, 
 and l,/o7 weie Jews. Ihe area is 1,418 sq. miles 
 
 and according to the census of 8 October 1919 the 
 population was 480,599 (338 inhabitants to the sq 
 mde) i he government of Brunswick was a con¬ 
 stitutional monarchy hereditary in the male line of 
 
 be? ?9°18 Se th°i £ r —k-Luneburg. On 8 Novem- 
 b< l , 1918, the Duke of Brunswick was deposed and 
 
 the duchy proclaimed a republic. The government 
 was taken over by the Council of People’s Com¬ 
 missioners. The present Constitution bears the date 
 
 A 7 ! Fe mon iy ’ 1919, a ? d the P resent Diet, elected 17 
 mi y nu 2 ?’ consists of GO men, elected for four years, 
 le Cabinet consists of 6 members. See Germany. 
 
 W E “ <?/' C. E III-21b). -During the World 
 V\ ar the city of Brussels was under German 
 dominion. On 19 August, 1914, the burgomaster 
 posted a warning to the effect that the German 
 army was at the walls of the city. The Govern¬ 
 ment found it necessary to remove its offices to 
 Antwerp, and the Civic Guard of the city dis¬ 
 banded. On 20 August the German army arrived 
 
 I or three days the soldiers passed in thousands to 
 the scene of battle; a small force remained in the 
 dty, installed itself in the barracks and in the 
 supeib Palace of Justice, whose halls were turned 
 mto barrack rooms and guard houses. The citv 
 was asked for £8,000,000 as its “war contribution” • 
 the inhabitants were forced to give up their fire¬ 
 arms, and all Belgian newspapers were suppressed 
 During this period the Germans had definite plans 
 to make Brussels the center of Flanders, one of 
 the two subdivisions of Belgium. The German 
 occupation of the city ceased in October, 1918 
 when the great allied advance was in progress. In 
 19^0 was held the International Financial Con¬ 
 ference, to which nearly all the nations sent a 
 representative to discuss the world’s monetary prob¬ 
 lems and German indemnities. 
 
 • Beligious Life.— In 1921 there were 49 parishes 
 m the city and suburbs, and in the city proper 
 71 priests. The religious houses of women num¬ 
 bered about 95. 
 
 TT?o?n° V i? e (Bohemian, Budweis; cf. C. E. 
 
 II 34d), Diocese of (Bofiemo-Budiviensis)_ Bv 
 
 the provismns of the papal Bull of 20 September, 
 ^^thecivU districts of Budweis, Tabor, Prachen 
 and KJattau were separated from the Archdiocese 
 of Prague and erected into the new Diocese of 
 Budweis (Czech, Budejovice). 
 
 Upon the death of the former bishop, Joseph A. 
 Hulka (16 December, 1907-10 February, 1920), the 
 alt airs of the diocese were administered by Joseph 
 Brenner in the capacity of vicar capitular. He was 
 relieved by Simon Barta, formerly professor of 
 Chnstian Doctrine m the Bohemian gymnasium at 
 Budweis who, on 16 December, 1920, was officially 
 appointed the new bishop of the diocese. In 1913 
 a lourth diocesan synod was held. 
 
 . A ? c ?J’ding to the organization of 1857 the diocese 
 is divided mto the vicariate general of Budejovice, 
 on which depend the archdeaconry of Krumau • the 
 provostship of Neuhaus; 5 deaneries: Budejovice 
 Domazhce, RIatory Pisck, and Tabor; and 8 arch^ 
 ipresbyterates: Budejovice Klattau, Krummau, 
 Neuhaus, Taus, and \\ mterberg, with 4 vicariates 
 each, making a total of 34 vicariates. The total pop- 
 the diocese (1920) is 1,135,147, of which 
 are Catholics, consisting of 800 000 Bo¬ 
 hemians and 300,000 Germans. The balance of the 
 population is as follows: 1.790 members of the Augs¬ 
 burg Evangelical Church; 2,590 members of the Hel- 
 
BUDWEIS 
 
 132 
 
 BUFFALO 
 
 vetic Evangelical Church; 10,009 Jews; and 830 of 
 no religious persuasion. The largest parish is Bude- 
 jovice. The total parishes number 431 with 630 
 churches, 10 monasteries for men, 1 abbey, 2 con¬ 
 vents for men, 1 college for boys with 84 students, 
 13 public ayslums with Catholic sisters in attend¬ 
 ance, 9 orphan asylums, and 1 home for the deaf, 
 which is in a small w r ay aided by the support of 
 the Government. Public schools are established in 
 which the Catholic religion is taught. 
 
 The clergy number 816 secular and 130 regular 
 priests, assisted by a total of 30 lay brothers. The 
 regular priests are divided as follows: 57 Cistercians 
 from Hohenfurth with 3 professed clerics, 10 
 Brothers of the Most Holy Sacrament of the Altar 
 with 9 lay brothers, 15 Premonstratensians, 8 
 Knights of Malta, 2 Minorites, 5 Reformed Fran¬ 
 ciscans with 3 lay brothers, 3 Calced and 4 Discalced 
 Augustinians with 3 lay brothers, 7 Servites with 
 3 lay brothers, 4 Capuchins with 3 lay brothers, 
 and 2 Piarists. The cathedral chapter consists of 
 a provost, a dean, a custos, and 14 capitulary canons 
 to which are added 5 honorary canons; the con¬ 
 sistory has 12 members. The seminary at Bude- 
 jovice has 6 professors and 18 students, with 1 
 in the Bohemian College at Rome. 
 
 In the diocese there are 9 orders of women with 
 560 sisters and a total of 56 houses, including 50 
 convents and 4 monasteries. The orders are divided 
 as follows: 285 Poor School Sisters of Notre Dame, 
 149 Sisters of St. Charles Borromeo, 79 Sisters of 
 the Most Blessed Sacrament of the Altar, 8 Sisters 
 of the Holy Cross, 6 Servites, 8 Carmelites, 23 
 Franciscans, 2 Sisters of St. Vincent de Paul. 
 
 The following clergy of note are recently de¬ 
 ceased: Mgr. Anthony Skocdopole, d. 16 January, 
 1919, at the age of ninety years, the author of a 
 catechism and of various scientific works, and editor 
 of the popular weeklies “Anezka,” “Ludmila,” and 
 “Vaclar”; Mgr. John Sweda, dean emeritus of 
 Prachen, d. 7 January, 1921, the editor of books 
 of hymns and canticles. 
 
 Various associations exist for both clergy and 
 laity. There are two Catholic publications, one 
 semi-weekly and one weekly. During the World 
 War the Catholics, both clergy and laity, assisted 
 in every way to relieve the suffering among the 
 soldiers and civilians. 
 
 Budweis, Diocese of. See Budejovice. 
 
 Buenos Aires, Archdiocese of (Bonaerensis; cf. 
 C. E., III-37a), or Santisima Trinidad, in the Ar¬ 
 gentine Republic, South America. This see is now 
 (1922) filled by Most Rev. Mariano Antonio Espi¬ 
 nosa, b. in Buenos Aires 1844, ordained 1868, ap¬ 
 pointed titular Bishop of Tiberiopolis 1893, trans¬ 
 ferred to La Plata 1898, and promoted 24 August, 
 1900. Archbishop Espinosa was made an assistant at 
 the pontifical throne 15 January, 1907. In recent 
 years several of the churches of the archdiocese have 
 been erected into minor basilicas: the Church of the 
 Rosary, 23 August, 1909; that of St. Joseph, 15 
 January, 1912; that of the Blessed Sacrament, 25 
 November, 1916; the Church of Our Lad} 7- of Mercy, 
 w r here are preserved the trophies and colors of 
 Argentina before it became independent, and the 
 Church of St. Ursula, 8 January, 1919. In 1910 a 
 Catholic university was founded here by the bishops 
 of Argentina, and on 23 December, 1915, the semi¬ 
 nary was authorized to confer degrees in philosophy 
 and theology. The archdiocese has jurisdiction over 
 the ancient prefecture of Southern Patagonia, de¬ 
 tached from the Chilean territory at, the time of 
 the erection of the vicariate apostolic of Magal- 
 lanes, 4 October, 1916, and divided into four vica¬ 
 
 riates foraine. In 1916, on 9 July, the centenary 
 of the independence of the republic was celebrated 
 with impressive ceremonies. A National Eucharistic 
 Congress was held whch closed on the twenty-third 
 of the month, with the distribution of Holy Com¬ 
 munion to 5,000 men and a parade of 200,000. 
 
 The 1920 statistics count 1,679,763 Catholics for 
 this territory, 27 parishes in the federal capital, 11 
 mission centers in other districts, and 127 churches 
 or chapels. 
 
 Buffalo, Diocese of (Buffalensis; cf. C. E., 
 III-37c), in New York, has grown rapidly in recent 
 years during the incumbency of Bishop Colton and 
 his successors, Bishops Dougherty and Turner. 
 Bishop Colton’s administration (1903-1915) was dis¬ 
 tinguished by the building of the beautiful marble 
 cathedral designed by Aristides Leonori of Rome. 
 The corner-stone was laid 9 June, 1912, by Cardinal 
 Farley, and was completed before Bishop Colton’s 
 death, 9 May, 1915, his funeral being the first public 
 service held in the new cathedral. The famous 
 carillon of bells purchased in France by Bishop 
 Timon were transferred from the old cathedral to 
 the new building. 
 
 His Eminence Dennis Cardinal Dougherty, then 
 Bishop of Jaro, P. I., was transferred to Buffalo to 
 succeed Bishop Colton, 6 December, 1915, and filled 
 the see until his transfer to the Archdiocese of 
 Philadelphia, 1 May, 1918. He was succeeded .by 
 the sixth and present bishop, Rt. Rev. William 
 Turner, born at Kilmallock, Diocese of Limerick, 
 
 8 April, 1871, made his studies at the American 
 College at Rome, ordained 13 August, 1893, having 
 received his degree of Doctor of Theology shortly 
 before that, completed his studies in the Catholic 
 Institute of Paris, and in 1894 was made professor 
 of philosophy at the Seminary of St. Paul, and in 
 1906 came in the same capacity to the Catholic 
 University in Washington. He was appointed 
 Bishop of Buffalo 10 March, 1919, and consecrated 
 30 March at the Franciscan Monastery, Mount St. 
 Sepulchre, Brookland, Washington, by His Emi¬ 
 nence Cardinal Gibbons. 
 
 During the World War the bishop and priests of 
 the diocese were leaders in all patriotic endeavors; 
 thirteen of the secular priests served as chaplains 
 with the American army and one with the Polish 
 army, and the Franciscans, Vincentians, and Pas- 
 sionists were also represented in the service. The. 
 percentage of Catholic youth was very high and 
 student army training camps were organized in the 
 three colleges, thus enrolling more than a thousand 
 student soldiers. The army posts at Fort Porter, 
 Buffalo, and Fort Niagara were attended by priests 
 of the diocese. 
 
 During recent years a number of prominent clergy 
 of this diocese have died: Rt. Rev. F. Butler, O.F. 
 M., President of St. Bonaventure’s college and 
 seminary, d. 25 July, 1911; Rt. Rev. Michael Con¬ 
 nery, M.R., vicar general and administrator, d. 7 
 August, 1912; Rt. Rev. James A. Lanigan, M.R., 
 vicar general and administrator, d. 20 August, 1912; 
 Rev. John Pitass, pioneer Polish priest in Buffalo, 
 d. 11 December, 1913; Rev. Christopher O’Byrne, 
 pastor of St. Nicholas Church, d. 5 October, 1919; 
 Rev. Daniel Walsh, pastor of the Nativity of the 
 Blessed Virgin Mary, d. 21 February, 1920. By 
 present (1921) statistics the Catholic population of 
 the diocese comprises about 100,000 Poles, 60,000 
 Irish, 50,000 Germans, 40,000 Italians, 3,000 Hun¬ 
 garians, 1,500 Syrians, and a few hundreds of other 
 nationalities. 
 
 There are 345 secular priests and 127 regulars, 
 15 brothers, 205 churches with resident pastors, 33 
 
 
BUILDINGS 
 
 BUKAREST 
 
 133 
 
 missions with churches, and 4 stations. Among tho 
 educational institutions are: 1 university with an 
 attendance of 380, 3 colleges for men with an at¬ 
 tendance of 1,331, 1 college for women, 4 high 
 schools with an attendance of 1,335, 12 academies 
 with an attendance of 2,520, and 1 training school 
 with an attendance of 174. There are 7 homes for 
 women and working girls, 5 orphan asylums, 2 
 foundling asylums, 1 school for deaf mutes, 2 
 refuges for girls, 3 homes for the aged, 2 settlement 
 houses, 2 day nurseries, and 7 hospitals with ac¬ 
 commodations for about 1,000 patients. 
 
 The Clerical Mutual Benefit Society and the 
 Eucharistic League are established for the clergy 
 and among the laity are the Holy Name Society,’ 
 Knights of Columbus, Knights of St. John, National 
 Council of men and women, Federation of Catholic 
 W omen, and various parish societies. 
 
 T ie Catholic Lnion and Times” is the official 
 oigan ot the diocese and is published every Thurs¬ 
 day. 
 
 Buildings, Ecclesiastical (cf. C. E., III-41a) — 
 The Church Fabric (cf. C. E., Ill— 44 ; V-744) __ 
 Except m case of privilege or legitimate custom, 
 the bishop and cathedral chapter, the collegiate 
 chapter, and the rector are the administrators of 
 the temporal property destined for the repairs and 
 decorations and service expenses of the cathedral, 
 collegiate church, and other churches respectively. 
 In some places certain other persons, lay or clerical 
 are co-opted to assist in the administration; in such 
 a case they with the administrator or his delegate 
 as president constitute the church fabric council. 
 
 1 he members of the council, unless otherwise legally 
 Wanted, are named by the bishop or his delegate 
 and they may be removed by him for grave cause. 
 As the council is intended solely for the administra- 
 ti°n ot the temporal property, it must in no way 
 meddle m what belongs to the spiritual office, for 
 instance: the time and manner of ringing the bells, 
 keeping order in the church or cemetery, the man¬ 
 ner of making collections, announcements, the ar¬ 
 rangement of the altar, the location of the organ, 
 seats, offering boxes, the acceptance or refusal of 
 ' sacred lurniture, or the compilation or custody of 
 
 archives* 1, d ° CUments belon S in g to the parochial 
 
 Defilement and Reconciliation. —The sanctity 
 of a church is violated (C. E., III-43c) only by the 
 following acts, which must be certain, notorious, and 
 must have been performed in the church: (a) the 
 crime of homicide; (b) the wilful and culpable 
 spilling of a considerable quantity of blood; (c) the 
 use of the church for impious or sordid purposes; 
 (d) buiial of an infidel or of a person excom¬ 
 municated by a declaratory or condemnatory sen- 
 }f nce : conti g llou s cementry is not affected by 
 
 iV?o^ efi T e r ment of a cburcb and vi ce versa (can. 
 1172). If the defilement takes place before the 
 Eanon of Mass which is being said, or after the 
 Communion, the Mass is to be stopped; otherwise 
 the celebrant is to continue to the end of the Com¬ 
 munion. A church which has been blessed may be 
 reconciled by its rector or by any priest with his 
 consent, at least presumed; but if it has been con¬ 
 secrated it is the duty of the ordinary or, in case 
 ^of exempt religious, of a higher superior, to secure 
 the reconciliation; the rector may reconcile it only 
 in grave and urgent necessity, when it is impos¬ 
 sible to reach the ordinary, who in this case must 
 be notified later. In reconciling a blessed church 
 ordinary holy water may be used; but in case of a 
 consecrated church the water must be blessed for 
 the purpose according to the liturgical laws; this 
 
 blessing may be imparted, contrary to the former 
 practice, not only by bishops but by the priest who 
 is reconciling the church. 
 
 If a church can no longer be used for Divine 
 service and cannot be restored, it may be put to 
 profane but not sordid use by the local ordinary 
 who must thereupon transfer its revenue and 
 parochial title, if it be a parish church, to another 
 church. 
 
 Bukarest (Rumanian, Bucuresti), Archdiocese 
 of (Bucarestiensis; cf. C. E„ III-45b).—The pres¬ 
 ent archbishop is Raymund Netzhammer, O.iS.B 
 born at Erzingen, Baden, 19 January, 1862- pro- 
 fessed m the Benedictine monastery at Einsiedeln 
 in 1881, ordained 1886, honorary Canon of Bukarest 
 superior of the seminary and rector of the Grecian 
 
 7nni ege at Rome > elected archbishop 16 September, 
 1J05, consecrated at Rome in the monastery of St 
 Anslem 5 November, 1905, enthroned 17 Decem¬ 
 ber, 190o, Grand official of the Order of the Ru¬ 
 manian Crown 1 January, 1912. 
 
 The suffering resulting from the World War was 
 extreme. The Catholic schools were destroyed 
 among them those of the Hungarians, which still 
 remain in ruins, many inhabitants were compelled 
 to seek refuge elsewhere; priests were sent into 
 exile, and five who were forced to flee have not 
 yet effected a safe return. Among the recently 
 deceased of note is Fr. Joseph D’Ester, director 
 of the English Ladies, and for thirty years a 
 zealous laborer in the archdiocese (b. 1847; d. 1921). 
 The Italian Catholics erected their own national 
 chapel m the center of Bukarest in 1914, and dedi¬ 
 cated it to the Infant Saviour. 
 
 The Catholic population of the archdiocese is 
 about 70,000, with the greater percentage Austrian 
 and the rest either Hungarian, Italian, Polish, 
 brench or German. The archdiocesan year-book 
 for 1914 gives the cathedral chapter as composed of 
 2 canonnes with existing vacancies, and 5 resident 
 and 3 non-resident honorary canons. The secular 
 priests number 33, and regular priests 3—Passionist, 
 Benedictine, Lazarist. There are 24 parishes with 
 23 parish churches and 13 affiliated churches; an 
 archiepiscopal seminary at Bukarest; a college gym¬ 
 nasium for boys with 19 professors and 300 students ; 
 
 2 aichiepiscopal schools for boys at Bukarest with 
 a total of 18 Christian Brothers as teachers, 19 
 lay teachers, and 1,123 students, of whom about 
 500 are Catholics; 1 archiepiscopal school for boys 
 at Craiova with 226 students and 8 teachers of 
 whom 2 are priests and 4 are Christian Brothers; 
 boarding school for boys attached to the archiepis¬ 
 copal school -with 100 pupils; 2 elementary schools 
 
 Bukarest with 455 pupils; and 10 elementary 
 schools elsewhere with 846 pupils. The English 
 Ladies, numbering 254, have 2 convents in Bukarest 
 and 1 each in Braila, Craiova, and Turn-Severin 
 with a boarding school for girls attached to each 
 foundation, totaling 1,366 pupils; they also con- 
 duct an orphanage with 20 children. The Dames 
 de Sion have 1 foundation in Bukarest with 47 sis¬ 
 ters, and boarding school attached with 318 pupils 
 The Sisters of Mercy have 1 foundation in Bukarest 
 with 6 sisters, who have in charge an attached hos¬ 
 pital. Among the clergy there is an organization 
 for the care of infirm or aged priests, and also a 
 society of perpetual adoration. The Marian Con¬ 
 gregation for the young and adult of both sexes, 
 an organization of Christian Mothers, and the Third 
 Order of St. Francis are established among the 
 laity. A daily Catholic publication called “Albina” 
 is issued. The Government does not contribute to 
 the support of the Catholic institutions. 
 
BULGARIA 
 
 134 
 
 BULGARIA 
 
 Bulgaria (cf. C. E., III-46a).—The frequent 
 changes in the boundaries of Bulgaria make it 
 difficult to determine the general population with 
 any degree of accuracy. By the terms of the treaty 
 of Neuilly the present boundaries of Bulgaria again 
 approach those of 1910, when the official Bulgarian 
 census gave the population as 4,337,513. The esti- 
 mated area (1920) is 42,000 square miles, and the 
 estimated population 5,000,000. The census of 1910 
 gave the following figures: Bulgarians, 3,203,810; 
 Turks, 488,010; Rumanians, 75,7/3; Greeks, 63,487; 
 Gipsies, 98,004; other races, 61,690. Of the new 
 population, added in 1913 after the treaty of 
 Bukarest, 227,598 were Bulgarians, 75,337 Pomaks 
 (Bulgarian Mohammedans), 275,498 Turks, and 58,- 
 709 Greeks, total 637,142; but as about 273,000 m 
 the Dobrudja passed to Rumania, the total gain is 
 about 364,000. According to the Peace Treaty of 
 Neuilly, signed on 27 November, 1919, Bulgaria 
 cedes 'Thrace to Greece, and the Strumitza line 
 and a strip of territory on the northwest frontier 
 to Servia. Bulgaria is deprived of her TSgean 
 littoral, but an efficient economic outlet to the sea 
 is provided for her in the treaty. 
 
 Economic Conditions— The total area of Bul¬ 
 garia is approximately 22,239,000 acres, 6,894,090 
 acres or 31 per cent of which are cultivated and 
 4,892,580 acres or 22 per cent uncultivated, the re¬ 
 mainder being forest land. The chief products are 
 fruit (109,945 acres), wheat (2,080,000 acres), maize 
 (1,376,900 acres). The new Land Law of Bulgaria 
 allows to each person only what he can work with 
 his hands, or about 30 hectares, thus keeping Bul¬ 
 garia the nation of small proprietors that it has been. 
 The Labor Law of 20 September, 1920, forces every 
 man and woman between the ages of twenty and 
 fifty to work a certain length of time for the State; 
 thus the time formerly given to military service, 
 which is now forbidden by the Treaty of Peace, 
 will be turned to useful labor. Every Bulgarian 
 youth of twenty years of age must give the state 
 12 months of labor; every girl of sixteen years of 
 age 6 months of labor. The income tax of Bulgaria 
 is particularly unfortunate, with its drastic impost 
 on large incomes and practical exemption of the 
 great agrarian element from the operation of the 
 law. It deprives the State of a much needed in¬ 
 come from the peasants and by its unequal tax 
 on profitable large-scale business it is driving foreign 
 capital from the country. 
 
 Coal production in 1919 was 18,141 tons, valued 
 at 43,450 1. There are 388 state-encouraged indus¬ 
 trial institutions. . . 
 
 Education. —Elementary education is obligatory 
 and free for all children between the ages <pf seven 
 and fourteen. The following are the statistics of 
 various classes of state schools in Bulgaria for 
 1918-19: 
 
 
 
 Instructors 
 
 Attendance 
 
 Schools 
 
 Num¬ 
 
 ber 
 
 Male 
 
 - —1 
 
 Female 
 
 1 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 Elementary .... 
 
 3,592 
 
 4,172 
 
 5,896 
 
 271,205 
 
 203,037 
 
 Progymnasia ... 
 
 354 
 
 765 
 
 1,623 
 
 50,950 
 
 23,571 
 
 Incomplete 
 Gymnasia .... 
 
 37 
 
 233 
 
 337 
 
 11,835 
 
 8,698 
 
 Complete . 
 
 46 
 
 820 
 
 407 
 
 19,431 
 
 12,460 
 
 Normal Schools. 
 
 437 
 
 1,828 
 
 2,367 
 
 82,216 
 
 44,729 
 
 Professional .... 
 
 78 
 
 551 
 
 156 
 
 7,551 
 
 4,231 
 
 There are besides three superior training colleges 
 with 19 instructors and an attendance of 98 males 
 
 and 93 females. There are also 1,199 private schools 
 with 1,671 male and 276 female instructors and 
 35,948 male and 28,702 females. Private schools 
 are supported by religious communities, societies, 
 and by missionaries. 
 
 Religion. —According to the census of 1910 the 
 population numbered 4,035,575, divided according 
 to religion into 3,643,951 Greek Orthodox, 32,130 
 Catholics of the Latin Rite and Uniat Greeks, 
 12,270 Gregorian Armenians, 40,070 Jews, 602,101 
 Moslems, and 6,252 Protestants. Of the new popu¬ 
 lation added by the Treaty of Bukarest, 286,307 
 were Orthodox (227,598 Bulgarians and 58,709 
 Greeks), and 350,595 Moslems (75,337 Pomaks and 
 275,498 Turks). In the part of the Dobrudja ceded 
 to Rumania by the same treaty there were about 
 90,000 Moslems and 100,000 Orthodox. 
 
 The Bulgarian exarch at Constantinople was 
 transferred to Sofia after the Second Balkan War 
 in 1913. The last exarch, Monsignor Joseph, died 
 at Sofia in 1915 and has not had a successor. It 
 is possible that another may not be appointed. 
 The Greek Orthodox Church of Bulgaria is divided 
 into twenty-two dioceses. For Catholic statistics 
 see Nicopolis, Diocese of; Sofia and Philippopolis, 
 Vicariate Apostolic of. 
 
 Recent History. —On 5 October, 1908, Prince 
 Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Kohary was proclaimed 
 the Tsar of the Bulgarians. With her political 
 ambitions thus aroused, Bulgaria desired to win 
 back the territories acquired by the Peace of San 
 Stefano. This, together with the continued Turkish 
 misrule in Macedonia, the political aggrandizement 
 of Austria, and the territorial ambitions of the 
 Slavs, led to the union of Servia, Greece, Bulgaria, 
 and Montenegro in the Balkan League against 
 Turkey. In 1912 they demanded autonomy for 
 Macedonia under European governors, the conse¬ 
 quence of which demand was war. In the hos¬ 
 tilities with the Turks Montenegro was victorious, 
 but was long baffled by the resistance of Scutari, 
 which eventually fell to her on 23 April, 1913; the 
 Servians captured Prishtina, Kumanovo, Skoplye, 
 Prisrend, and Monastir, Alessio and Durazzo; 
 Greece overran Thessaly and Epirus, _ and took 
 Salonica, Ohio, and other islands; Bulgaria beat the 
 Turks at Kirk Kilisseh and Luleh Burgas. Adrian- 
 ople fell to the Bulgars in 1913. By the treaty of 
 London, Turkey ceded Crete to Greece and gave 
 up all territory west of a line drawn from Enos 
 to Midia. Of this Bulgaria demanded the chief 
 share in virtue of a secret treaty with Servia in 
 1912. Servia, derprived by the allies of Albania, 
 demanded a new apportionment, which Bulgaria 
 refused. A second Balkan War ensued, Servia, 
 Montenegro, Greece, Turkey, and Rumania against 
 Bulgaria. A simultaneous invasion of Bulgaria en¬ 
 sued. Adrianople was re-occupied by the Turks. 
 Closed in from every side the king of Bulgaria 
 sued for peace. By the treaty of Bukarest (1913) 
 Bulgaria surrendered her claims to western Mace¬ 
 donia and ceded Dobrudja to Rumania, but re¬ 
 tained a strip of Macedonia and western Thrace, 
 Turkey holding Adrianople. The Turco-Bulgarian 
 treaty of Constantinople (1913) delimited the new 
 frontier in Thrace. The rest of the territory con¬ 
 quered from Turkey was divided between Greece 
 and Servia. 
 
 By these two Balkan wars Turkey lost four-fifths 
 of her European territory; Rumania, Bulgaria, 
 Servia, Albania, and Greece emerged with greater 
 territory, but with a hatred for one another of 
 indescribable bitterness. Bulgaria was reconciled 
 with Turkey and Austria, and when the Great 
 European War came she was naturally on their 
 
 
 
BURGOS 
 
 135 
 
 BURIAL 
 
 side. In September, 1914, she signed a secret con- 
 ■\ention with Austria-Hungary providing for a joint 
 attack upon Servia and for the territorial rewards 
 to Bulgaria. In October, 1914, she declared war 
 upon Servia. Ihe next day Great Britain declared 
 war against her, and France, Russia, and Italy fol¬ 
 lowed suit. Servia was overwhelmed by the Bul- 
 garian. armies. In January, 1916, they crossed into 
 Albania from Southern Servia and occupied El 
 Bassan. In the spring of 1918, while the Austro- 
 German troops were making their supreme effort 
 in the west, the allies took advantage of the thin 
 Bulgarian line in Macedonia, and, reinforced by 
 Greeks, began on 14 September their great 
 offensive against Bulgaria. They had taken Prilip, 
 Babuna Pass, Ishtib, and Strumitza, when Bulgaria 
 suddenly sued for peace. On 4 October, 1918, King 
 Ferdinand abdicated in favor of his son. By the 
 treaty signed at Neuilly near Paris, 27 November, 
 1919, Bulgaria lost most of the territories which 
 she had appropriated in the Balkan Wars and all 
 her conquests in the Great War. Dobrudja went 
 to Rumania; the greater part of Macedonia to 
 Servia; and the Thracian coast to -the allies. On 
 22 September, 1920, Bulgaria’s great national poet 
 and novelist, Ivan Vazoff, died at the age of 
 seventy-one. Two of his books, the novels “Pod 
 Igoto” (Under the Yoke) and “Virgin Soil” have 
 been translated into English. 
 
 Burgos, Archdiocese of (Burgensis; cf. C. E., 
 III-65d), in Spain. It is at present (1922) under 
 the administration of His Eminence Cardinal Ben- 
 lloch y Vivo, who succeeded Archbishop Cadena, 
 d. 6 June, 1918. Born in Valencia 1864, ordained 
 1888, he was appointed titular Bishop of Greater 
 Hermopohs 16 December, 1901, transferred to Urgel 
 6 December, 1906, and promoted to Burgos 7 
 January, 1919. On 30 April following the Pope 
 entrusted the new archbishop with the task of 
 founding a seminary for foreign missions, an enter¬ 
 prise which was first started by Father Gerard 
 Villota. On 7 March, 1921, the archbishop was 
 created a cardinal-priest, receiving the hat in Rome 
 16 June following. By 1920 statistics this territory 
 has a Catholic population of 324,685, divided among 
 1295 parishes, supervised by 47 archpriests and 1125 
 priests. There are in the diocese 1295 churches, 800 
 chapels, 66 convents with 425 religious, and 175 
 Sisters. 
 
 In July, 1921, the old city of Burgos celebrated 
 the seven hundredth anniversary of the foundation 
 of its famous cathedral, the finest example of 
 Spanish ogival art. Its cornerstone was laid 20 
 Ju'y, 1221, by King St. Ferdinand, who also founded 
 the Cathedral of Toledo. To the many treasures 
 pi eserved here, a relic of its founder, who is buried 
 
 th g cathedral of Seville, and the remains of the 
 Cid, Spam s great hero, were added on the occasion 
 of the celebration, which lasted for fifteen days. 
 Ihe transfer of the relic of San Fernando was a 
 great religious and patriotic event; infantry and 
 cavalry troops garrisoned in the city took part in 
 the procession, and the cardinal pontificated, accom¬ 
 panied by the Apostolic Nuncio, many Spanish 
 bishops, the Archbishop of Valencia and numerous 
 prelates. The Minister of Public Instruction and 
 the Civil and Military Governors took part in the 
 name of the Government, and the populace entered 
 into the festivities with enthusiasm. In the after¬ 
 noon the royal family arrived from Santander to 
 attend the pontifical Mass, celebrated the follow¬ 
 ing morning by Mgr. Tedeschini, the papal nuncio, 
 who also read the papal Brief granting the title 
 and privileges of a basilica to the cathedral. The 
 king himself, surrounded by his royal escort, led 
 
 the processm 11 attendmg the transfer of the remains 
 of the Cid, and it may really be said that all Spain, 
 irrespective of class or creed, took part in the cele¬ 
 brations, even the newspapers least favorably in¬ 
 clined toward the Church publishing special editions 
 
 BuriabCnn 1 ^ ( cf C. E., III-7l).-EccIesias- 
 tical bunal consists in bringing a corpse to the 
 church and after the funeral service has been 
 held there interring the body in a place blessed 
 and tawfully appointed as a resting-place for the 
 dead. Nobody may be buried in churches, even 
 basement or lower churches, except popes, royal 
 personages or cardinals, or residential bishops, or 
 abbots or prelates nullius, who may be interred in 
 their own churches. The Catholic Church has a 
 right to have its own cemeteries. If this right is 
 violated and the majority of those who are being 
 mterred in a cemetery are Catholics, local ordinaries 
 should see that the public cemeteries are blessed, 
 
 ° r j a ^i ea ^ a P a ^ is reserved for Catholics 
 and blessed. Where this cannot be done each grave 
 must be blessed as often as there is a burial. The 
 canonical regulations concerning the interdiction, 
 violation, and reconciliation of churches apply also' 
 to cemeteries. 
 
 Every parish should have its own cemetery unless 
 the ordinary allows one in common for two or more 
 parishes. He may allow moral personalities and 
 private families to have their own places of in¬ 
 terment away from the general cemetery. The 
 faithful may erect private burial-places of vaults 
 for themselves and their families in parochial ceme¬ 
 teries, with the written consent of the ordinary or 
 his delegate, or in the private cemetery of an 
 association, with the written leave of its superior. 
 These private burial-places may be alienated with 
 the consent of the ordinary or superior. The graves 
 of priests and clerics should, if possible, be separate 
 from those of the laity and should be located in 
 a more, respectable place; furthermore, if it can be 
 conveniently done, the graves of priests should be 
 apart from those of the inferior clergy. The ceme¬ 
 tery, should be enclosed and carefully guarded, and 
 the proper authorities should see that no epitaphs, 
 inscriptions, or decorations unworthy of our religion 
 are allowed therein. If possible there should be, 
 in addition to the cemetery that has been blessed’ 
 an enclosed protected place for the interment of 
 those who have not been allowed Christian burial. 
 
 permitted, especially in case of 
 sudden death, until after a lapse of time sufficient 
 to remove all doubt as to the reality of the party’s 
 death, and no remains that have received definitive 
 Christian burial may be exhumed without the ordi¬ 
 nary s consent, which must never be granted if 
 the body cannot undoubtedly be distinguished from 
 the other corpses. 
 
 When a Catholic dies his remains should always 
 be brought to church for the prescribed funeral 
 services, unless there is a serious reason for omitting 
 them; any practice contrary to this is expressly 
 reprobated. The services are to be held in the 
 parish church of the deceased; if he belonged to 
 several parishes they are to be held in whichever 
 of the parishes he died in. If the person died out¬ 
 side of his parish, his remains should be brought 
 to his own parish church, if it is within walking 
 distance and if this can be done conveniently; 
 otherwise the services should be held in the church 
 of the parish where he died. It devolves upon the 
 ordinary to judge if it would be really incon¬ 
 venient, and if the parishes belong to different 
 dioceses it is the ordinary of the place where 
 the death occurred who decides. The family, the 
 heirs, or other interested parties may always bring 
 
BURIAL 
 
 136 
 
 BURIAL 
 
 the body to the church or burial-place, even when 
 it is inconvenient, provided they pay the expenses. 
 If a cardinal dies in Rome the funeral services are 
 to be held in a church selected by the pope; if he 
 dies outside of Rome, they should be held in one 
 of the more important churches of the place where 
 he died, unless he gave other directions. The re¬ 
 mains of a deceased residential bishop, even if he 
 is a cardinal, or of an abbot or prelate nullius, 
 should be brought to his cathedral, abbatial or 
 prelatial church, if this can be arranged conven¬ 
 iently; otherwise they are to be taken to one of 
 the chief churches in the place where the death 
 occurred, unless the deceased chose another church. 
 The body of a residential beneficiary is to be 
 brought to the church in which he held his benefice, 
 unless he selected another. The remains of pro¬ 
 fessed religious and novices are to be brought to 
 the church or oratory of their house, or at least 
 to one belonging to their order, but a novice has 
 the right of selecting another church; the right of 
 removing the body rests with the religious superior. 
 If the death occurs in a place from which it would 
 not be convenient to transport the body to the 
 residence or a house of the order, the corpse should 
 be buried from the parish church of the place where 
 the religious died; though again, a novice may 
 choose another church, and a superior may bring 
 the body home provided he bears the expense. 
 What is here said of novices also applies to ser¬ 
 vants who were living permanently in a religious 
 house at the time of their death. If a person dies 
 in a religious house or college where he has been 
 residing as guest or for purposes of health or educa¬ 
 tion, or in an hospital, the service should be held 
 in his parish church; seminarians, however, are 
 not under the parish priest’s jurisdiction. 
 
 Any person is free to select his funeral church 
 or cemetery, if the canons do npt expressly deprive 
 him of this right; a wife or child who has reached 
 the age of puberty may make this choice even con¬ 
 trary to a husband’s or a father’s desire; but pro¬ 
 fessed religious who are not bishops and children 
 below the age of puberty have not this power of 
 selection. In order, however, for the selection to 
 be made validly, one must choose the parish church, 
 or a church of a regular order (now, however, the 
 church of nuns professed with solemn vows, unless 
 in the case of females residing within the clausura 
 as servants or for purposes of education or health 
 or as boarders), or in case of a patron, the church 
 of which he enjoys the patronage, or any other 
 church authorized to hold funeral services. Reli¬ 
 gious and secular clergy are expressly forbidden to 
 induce anyone to swear or to promise to select 
 their church for his funeral services or their ceme¬ 
 teries for his burial-place, or to bind himself not 
 to change his selection if he has already made a 
 choice; if this injunction is violated the selection 
 is void. If anyone desires to be buried in a ceme- 
 tary other than that of his parish, his wish should 
 be carried out if the administrator of the cemetery 
 in question raises no objection; should one desire 
 to be buried in the cemetery of a religious order, 
 this may be done if the religious superior consents. 
 A deceased person who has a family burial-ground 
 should be buried in it if possible, if he has not 
 selected any place; a widow in a similar case is 
 to be buried with her husband, or if she has had 
 more than one, with the last; if there are several 
 family burial-places, the decedent’s family or heirs 
 are to decide in which of them the interment is 
 to take place. 
 
 The parish priest of the deceased not merely has 
 the right, but is bound, except in case of great 
 
 necessity, to bring the corpse to the parish church 
 and perform the funeral services there, in case the 
 deceased belonged to the parish in which he died. 
 If he did not die in his parish and his remains can 
 be transported conveniently, his parish priest should, 
 after notifying the priest of the place of the death, 
 bring the body to his own church for the funeral 
 services. If the funeral church belongs to regulars 
 or is not under the parish priest’s jurisdiction the 
 latter should bring the body thither, preceded by 
 the cross of the church where the ceremony is to 
 be held; but the rector of the funeral church is to 
 officiate. If, however, the church is not exempt 
 from his jurisdiction the right of officiating belongs 
 to the parish priest of the district where the church 
 is situated, provided the deceased was one of his 
 flock. If a nun or novice dies in a convent her 
 remains are to be carried by the sisters as far as 
 the enclosure; then if the nuns are not under the 
 jurisdiction of the parish priest, the chaplain accom¬ 
 panies the body to the convent chapel or oratory, 
 where he officiates; if the nuns are under the juris¬ 
 diction of the parish priest, the latter holds the 
 services as usual. If a nun dies outside her con¬ 
 vent the ordinary regulations are followed. When 
 the corpse is sent to a place which is not in the 
 parish of the deceased, and no funeral church has 
 been selected, the funeral service, if any, are to be 
 held in the cathedral of that place, or, if there is 
 no cathedral there, _ in the church of the parish 
 where the cemetery is situated, unless local custom 
 or the diocesan statutes provide otherwise. 
 
 The priest who performs the funeral services 
 not only may but must, except in case of grave 
 necessity, either personally or by a delegate priest, 
 accompany the remains to the place of burial. The 
 priest accompanying the body to the church or 
 burial-ground may freely pass through another 
 parish or diocese with his stole and upraised cross 
 without the permission of the parish priest or the 
 ordinary. If the remains are to be buried in a 
 cemetery to which they cannot be earned con¬ 
 veniently, the parish priest or rector of the funeral 
 church has no right to accompany them beyond 
 the limits of the city or district. A parish priest 
 may not, except for a reason approved by the ordi¬ 
 nary, exclude secular clergy, or religious, or mem¬ 
 bers of a pious sodality invited by the family or 
 heirs from attending a funeral service and burial; 
 but the clergy of the church of the family or heirs 
 of the deceased should be invited in preference to 
 any others. Notoriously anti-Catholic societies or 
 their insignia must never be tolerated at Catholic 
 funerals. It is to be remembered, moreover, that 
 clerics are forbidden to carry the coffin of a layman. 
 
 After the burial the minister should enter in the 
 register of the dead the name and age of the de¬ 
 ceased, the names of his parents or spouse, the date 
 of his death, the sacraments administered, the 
 name of the minister, and the place and date of 
 burial. 
 
 Burial Fees .—Local ordinaries should draw up 
 for their territories a schedule of funeral taxes or 
 alms if none already exist; this is to be done after 
 consulting the cathedral chapter, and, if it seems 
 good, the diocesan vicars forane and the parish 
 priests of the episcopal city, and allowing for 
 lawful local customs and the varying conditions 
 of persons and places. The taxation should, how¬ 
 ever, be moderate so as to prevent disputes and 
 remove occasions of scandal. It is strictly for¬ 
 bidden for anyone to demand for funeral services, 
 burials, or anniversary services more than the 
 amount fixed in the diocesan schedule. The poor 
 must have their funeral services and a decent burial 
 
BURKE 
 
 137 
 
 BURMA 
 
 according to the liturgy and diocesan statutes en¬ 
 tirely gratis. It is the general law that when the 
 services are not held iu the parish church of the 
 deceased, his parish priest should receive a parochial 
 stipend, except when the corpse cannot conveniently 
 be brought to that church. If, when the decadent 
 has several parish churches to which his body 
 might easily be brought, the funeral services are 
 held elsewhere, the stipend is to be divided among 
 all his parish priests. The parochial stipend is to 
 be taken only from the money allowed by the 
 cfiocesan schedule of funeral and burial taxes. The 
 payment of the parochial stipend becomes due if, 
 for any reason the first solemn funeral service not 
 having been held at once, takes place within a 
 month from the day of burial, even if on the same 
 day there were other minor public services. The 
 amount of the parochial stipend is to be fixed by 
 the diocesan schedule; if the parish church and the 
 funeral church are in different dioceses the amount 
 fixed for the diocese of the funeral church is the 
 lawful toll. 
 
 Only those persons who have been baptized 
 may receive Christian burial, but catechumens who 
 without any fault on their part die without the 
 sacrament are to be considered as if they had been 
 baptized. The following classes are excluded from 
 ecclesiastical burial unless before dying they have 
 given some sign of repentance: (a) notorious apos¬ 
 tates _ from Christianity, or open members of a 
 heretical or schismatic sect, or of the Freemasons 
 or any similar society; (b) those who have been 
 excommunicated or interdicted by a condemnatory 
 or declaratory sentence; (c) those who knowingly 
 and deliberately committed suicide; (d) those who 
 have been killed in a duel or who die from a 
 wound inflicted in a duel; (e) those who have 
 ordered their bodies to be cremated; (f) other 
 public and notorious sinners. If it is suspected 
 that a deceased person come under any of these 
 classes, the ordinary should be consulted if time 
 permits; should the doubt still remain the person 
 is to receive ecclesiastical burial, steps being taken 
 to avoid scandal. No funeral Mass, not even an 
 anniversary, or other public funeral services may 
 be celebrated for a person who has been excluded 
 from ecclesiastical burial. If the corpse of an 
 excommunicate 'vitandus has, contrary to the 
 canons, been buried in sacred ground, it should be 
 exhumed with the ordinary’s leave and buried in 
 the unblessed section of the cemetery if this can 
 be done without grave inconvenience. 
 
 Burke, Thomas A. See Albany, Diocese of. 
 
 Burlington, Diocese of (Burlingtoniensis; cf. 
 C. E., Ill—Sib), comprising the whole State of Ver¬ 
 mont, U. S., has made very marked progress in 
 recent years, the Catholic population having grown 
 from 75,953 in 1908 to about 90,000 at the present 
 time (1921). 
 
 The second bishop of the diocese, Rt. Rev. John 
 Stephen Michaud, after a long illness died 22 De¬ 
 cember, 1908, and was succeeded by the present 
 bishop, Rt. Rev. Joseph John Rice, D. D. He was 
 born in Leicester, Mass., 6 December, 1871, studied 
 in Leicester Academy, Holy Cross College and the 
 Seminary of Montreal, ordained 29 September, 1894, 
 continued his studies in the College of Propaganda, 
 Gregorian University and University of St. Thomas 
 Aquinas in Rome, returned to America and later 
 became professor of Philosophy at St. John’s Semi¬ 
 nary, Brighton, Mass., being consecrated Bishop of 
 Burlington 14 April, 1910. 
 
 During the World War Bishop Rice was an 
 ardent supporter of all war work and under his 
 
 duection Vermont went far beyond its quota in 
 
 i ? n l g Golumbus War Camp Fund, and 
 
 the hist Knights of Columbus soldiers’ building 
 mi th< L United States was erected in this diocese, 
 the Revs. Ihomas E. McMahon, Arthur J. Le 
 V eer, and George L’Ecuyer served overseas as chap- 
 lams with the American Army. 
 
 The religious communities now represented in 
 the diocese are: the Fathers of St. Edmund 
 Brothers of St. Gabriel, Sisters of Charity of 
 Providence, of the Holy Ghost, of the Seven 
 Dolors, of the Congregation of Notre Dame, of 
 the Presentation, of the Sacred Heart of Jesus of 
 the Assumption, Hospital Sisters of St. Joseph 
 and the Daughters of the Immaculate Heart of 
 Maty. By present statistics there are 69 parishes, 
 27 missions, 96 churches, 94 secular and 12 regular 
 clergy, 30 mission stations, 454 women in religious 
 communities, 21 ecclesiastical students, 3 academies 
 for boys and 6 for girls, 21 parish schools with 
 8,459 pupils, 2 orphanage schools with 300 pupils, 
 2 colleges for boys with an attendance of 160, 250 
 orphans in the diocesan asylum, 2 hospitals and 2 
 homes for the aged; there are in all 8,900 children 
 under Catholic care. The Priests’ Eucharistic 
 League is established among the clergy, and 10 
 different societies among the laity. 
 
 Burma (cf. C. E., III-82b).—In 1919 Burma was 
 excluded from the Government of India Act, for 
 the reasons that her people were in a different 
 stage of political development and that the desire 
 for elective institutions had not yet risen. A 
 promise, however, was given in the Montagu- 
 Chelmsford report (see India) that Burma should 
 have an opportunity of participating in the reforms 
 as far as they were applicable to her circumstances. 
 It was felt that Burma could not be contented to 
 remain in a condition of tutelage while other prov¬ 
 inces were obtaining a larger measure of inde¬ 
 pendence. Accordingly the demands of Burma for 
 a separate legislature and a cabinet responsible 
 thereto were discussed in 1921. Except in imperial 
 matters such as army, navy, foreign relations, etc., 
 the entire separation of the country from the Indian 
 Empire was insisted upon, as the Burmese have 
 always been averse to having Indians placed in 
 authority over them. Burma is divided into the 
 following ecclesiastical divisions: 
 
 Burma, Eastern, Vicariate Apostolic of (Bir- 
 manue orientalis; cf. C. E., III-82d), is entrusted 
 to the Seminary of Foreign Missions of Milan. Rt. 
 Rev. Rocco Tornatore, who arrived in this mission 
 in 1868, was appointed titular Bishop of Castabala 
 and Vicar Apostolic of Eastern Burma 1890, and 
 died on the Karen Hills, 26 January, 1908. He was 
 the first Apostle of the Karens, Commendatore of 
 the Crown of Italy, and of the Knights of Saints 
 Mauritius and Lazarus. Rt. Rev. Emmanuel 
 Segrada, b. at Lodi, 1860, was appointed his suc¬ 
 cessor, and consecrated titular Bishop of Irina 24 
 January, 1909. 
 
 ^Two hundred and forty-five villages on the 
 Karen Hills, having a total population of 19,672, 
 are comprised in this vicariate. The entire popula¬ 
 tion numbers several millions, and of these only 
 20,192 are Catholic. The 1921 statistics credit it 
 with 251 churches or chapels, 14 mission stations, 
 and 241 sub-stations. The work of the mission is 
 carried on by 18 foreign missionaries, and the Sis¬ 
 ters of the Reparation of Nazareth and the Sisters 
 of Charity assist them in educational and charitable 
 works. The various institutions include an Anglo- 
 vernacular school for boys with 190 pupils, a ver¬ 
 nacular school for Karen boys who are being 
 trained as catechists, St. Joseph’s High School for 
 
BURMA 
 
 138 
 
 BURNAND 
 
 girls under the Sisters of Reparation of Nazareth, 
 with 200 pupils, a boys’ school with 60 pupils, 2 
 convent schools for girls, 1 with 51 and 1 with 
 40 pupils, and several other small schools. The 
 parish priests conduct orphanages for boys in their 
 respective parishes, and 3 orphanages for girls are 
 established at Leiktho, Monlaw and Doranko. 
 
 Burma, Northern, Vicariate Apostolic of (Bir- 
 manle Septentrionalis; cf. C. E., III-82d), in 
 India. The entire population numbers at least 
 5,000,000 souls, of whom 10,348 are Catholic, divided 
 as follows: 4,000 Burmese, 3,500 Europeans and 
 Eurasians, 175 Kachins, 147 Shans, 2,500 Tamils. 
 There are 64 churches and chapels, 22 European 
 priests of the Foreign Missions of Paris, who have 
 charge of the vicariate, 5 Burmese priests, 49 
 European nuns, 13 native religious, 17 native lay 
 novices, 5 European lay brothers and 1 native lay 
 brother. A course in philosophy and theology is 
 given at the college in Penang, which is attended 
 by 12 students, and there is a preparatory seminary 
 for boys (15 students). There are also 2 high 
 schools for boys (9 teachers, 90 students), a second¬ 
 ary school for girls (34 students), 12 elemen¬ 
 tary schools for boys (1,005 students), 8 elementary 
 schools for girls (855 students), 20 co-educational 
 schools (374 boys, 290 girls), 2 girls’ normal schools 
 for the training of elementary teachers (21 stu¬ 
 dents) . Twenty-two of these schools receive grants- 
 in-aid or half salary for teachers, all the others 
 are under the care of the missionaries and are 
 village schools in the jungle. The following in¬ 
 stitutions exist in the vicariate: 2 orphanages with 
 533 orphans, 2 homes for the aged (42 inmates), 
 9 pharmacies and 10 dispensaries that cared for 
 5,831 sick (during 1920-21), 1 leper hospital (283 
 inmates; 3 workshops (97 pupils). During the year 
 1920-21, 183 infidels and 412 children of Christians 
 were baptized. A conference of St. Vincent de Paul 
 has been organized by the laity. At the outbreak 
 of the war one missionary was sent to the front 
 and was made chaplain in the hospital at Nantes. 
 The others, with one exception, formed part of the 
 reserve army of the Government. The latter was 
 in active service throughout the war and received 
 the croix de guerre. The present vicar of Northern 
 Burma is Rt. Rev. Eugene Foulquier of the Mis¬ 
 sions Etrangeres de Paris, b. at Luc, 26 November, 
 1866, ordained 7 July, 1889. He went to Burma 21 
 August, 1906, was consecrated at Mandalay 21 No¬ 
 vember, made vicar apostolic of Northern Burma 
 6 December following. 
 
 Burma, Southern, Vicariate Apostolic of (Bir- 
 mania3 meridionalis ; cf. C. E., III-83a), is en¬ 
 trusted to the Seminary of Foreign Missions of 
 Paris, and comprises all that territory of Burma 
 which was subject to the English before the taking 
 of Upper Burma, except the province of Arsacan, 
 attached to the Diocese of Dacca, and part of the 
 Toungoo district. The vicariate is presided over 
 by Rt. Rev. Alexandre Cardot, titular Bishop of 
 Limyra, who succeeded to the vicariate, 19 March, 
 1894. 
 
 In 1921 the population of this territory was esti¬ 
 mated at 6,500,000, and of this number 60,392 are 
 Catholics. The clergy number 40 European and 
 21 native priests, and the vicariate has 259 churches 
 and chapels and 30 head mission stations. Schools 
 and institutions are conducted by the Brothers of 
 the Christian Schools, Sisters of the Good Shepherd, 
 Sisters of St. Joseph of the Apparition, Franciscan 
 Nuns, Missionaries of Mary, Little Sisters of the 
 Poor and Native Nuns of St. Francis Xavier. The 
 vicariate supports 20 schools for boys, 19 for girls 
 and 87 for both boys and girls, thus giving Catholic 
 
 instruction to 5,551 boys and 3,021 girls. Orphan¬ 
 ages numbering 35 and sheltering 694 boys and 821 
 girls are established throughout the vicariate, as 
 well as St. Vincent’s Orphanage for Burmese girls 
 at Rangoon under the Sisters of the Good Shep¬ 
 herd, a leper asylum cared for by the Franciscan 
 nuns, Missionaries of Mary, home for the aged 
 under the Little Sisters of the Poor, and a small 
 home for aged women with 6 inmates. The Society 
 of St. Vincent de Paul has four conferences or¬ 
 ganized, and a preparatoiy seminary is established 
 at Moulmein. A Catholic association, “The Band,” 
 is organized among the laity, and two periodicals 
 the “Voice,” in English, and the “Sower” in 
 Burmese, are published. On 22 April, 1920, Rt. 
 Rev. Felix-Henri Perroy was appointed titular 
 Bishop of Media and named coadjutor to the vicar 
 4 May following. Burma is placed under the juris¬ 
 diction of the Apostolic Delegate for India, His 
 Excellency Dr. Pisani, who paid his first visit to 
 the territory in January, 1922. 
 
 Eumand, Sir Francis Cowley, editor and 
 humorist, b. in England, 29 November, 1836, d. 
 at Ramsgate, 21 April, 1917. His father, a stock¬ 
 broker, was of Huguenot descent; his mother 
 whom he lost in infancy was a descendant of 
 Hannah Cowley, playwright. From Eton he en¬ 
 tered Trinity College, Cambridge, where he made 
 a name for himself by founding the first dramatic 
 •club at the universities. After his graduation he 
 prepared for the Anglican ministry under Canon 
 Liddon at Cuddesdon, but his studies served only 
 to aggravate certain doubts that had arisen in 
 his mind, and after reading Newman’s “Doctrine 
 of Development” and consulting Manning, then 
 superior of the Oblates at Bayswater, he was re¬ 
 ceived into the Church in 1857. Disowned by his 
 father he went to live with the Oblates at Bays¬ 
 water where his love of a joke, verbal or practical, 
 made his stay an eventful one in the life of the 
 community. Convinced that he had no vocation 
 for the priesthood, he left and tried his fortune as 
 an actor, proved a failure and turned to the 
 study of law. He was admitted to the bar in 1860. 
 He then began to write for the stage, and the suc¬ 
 cess of his “Dido” enabled him to marry and 
 brought him so many commissions that he gave 
 up his profession. He wrote about 120 farces, 
 burlesques librettos of opera and adaptations from 
 the French, amongst them “Black-Eyed Susan,” 
 “Betsy,” “Cox and Box,” “Paul Olaudian,” “La 
 Cigale,” and “The Colonel.” In 1862 he began his 
 literary burlesque papers in “Punch,” “Mokeanna 
 or the White Witness,” which won for him a place 
 on the editorial staff. In 1880 he became editor, 
 retiring only in 1906. He possessed the popularity 
 of all Punch’s editors, and there were few more 
 successful contributions than those which emanated 
 from his own pen. His “Happy Thought” series 
 issued separately in 1868, went through fifteen edi¬ 
 tions. 
 
 Burnand’s humor was based on a subtle sense of 
 the incongruities of human nature and social life 
 and was always kindly. A fervent Catholic, his 
 piety was part and parcel of his whole life and 
 in his later days he was a daily communicant. Two 
 autobiographical works are “My Time and What 
 I Have Done with It,” and “Records and Reminis¬ 
 cences” (1904). Knighted in 1902, Sir Frances was 
 for many years editor of the English “Catholic 
 Who’s Who,” an enterprise to which he gave the 
 value of his name when it was a new and daring 
 venture, and which owes largely to him his success 
 as a record of Catholic activities. He was twice 
 married and had six sons and five daughters. 
 
Cabrieres, Fran^ois-Marie-Anatole de Roverie 
 de, Cardinal, Bishop of Montpellier, b. at Beaucaire, 
 Card, France, on 30 August, 1830; d. at Montpel¬ 
 lier on 23 December, 1921. He was a pupil of the 
 noted Peie d Alzon in the College of the Assump¬ 
 tion at Nimes; he entered the seminary of Saint- 
 Sulpice in October, 1849, and was ordained at Nimes 
 on 24 September, 1853. In turn director of the 
 College of the Assumption, private secretary of 
 Mgr. Plantier, canon and vicar general, he was 
 appointed by Pius IX Bishop of Montpellier on 
 16 January, 1874, and was consecrated by Mgr. 
 Plantier on 19 March following. He was appointed 
 an assistant at the pontifical throne by Leo XIII, 
 who sent him the pallium on 15 July, 1890, an 
 honor very seldom conferred on simple bishops. 
 In 1911 he was made a cardinal priest, and at the 
 time of his death he w T as senior by years and 
 service in the ranks of the entire episcopacy and 
 by age in the Sacred College, where he was at¬ 
 tached to the Congregation of Religious and of 
 Ceremonies. Cardinal de Cabrieres, the last scion 
 of a noble family was a scholar, a brilliant writer, 
 a statesman, a royalist by tradition and .inclination, 
 and a great churchman. He played a prominent 
 part in the religious life of France during his forty- 
 seven years episcopacy. Where religious principles 
 were at stake he knew no compromise. As early 
 as 1877 he denounced the de-Christianizing tactics 
 of the politicians of the Third Republic. He elo¬ 
 quently and emphatically proclaimed to Gambetta 
 that the clergy had a right to defend themselves 
 in the political arena when they were assailed. 
 He protested vigorously in 1880 against the school 
 laws of Jules Ferry, upholding the right of Chris¬ 
 tian schools to complete freedom from State autoc¬ 
 racy. When Leo XIII informed French Catholics 
 of their duty to accept the Republic, he gave his 
 adhesion at once, but proclaimed aloud that this 
 did not imply acceptance of the anti-Catholic policy 
 of the Government, a declaration which led the 
 Government to deprive him of the pension which 
 by the Concordat they were pledged to allow 
 him; and when the sectaries were exerting all 
 their efforts in 1901 to drive the congregations into 
 exile, he pronounced a magnificent eulogy of the 
 religious life. Yet when the World War threat¬ 
 ened the existence of France the union sacree had 
 no more fervent adherent, a devotion recognized 
 by President Millerand, who when he visited Mont¬ 
 pellier in 1921 conferred the Cross of the Legion 
 of Honor on the aged Royalist cardinal who had 
 come to pay him homage. 
 
 Cabrlni, Mother Frances Xavier, foundress of 
 the Missionary Sisters of the Sacred Heart of Jesus 
 b at Sant’ Angelo near Lodi, Italy, on 16 July’ 
 1850, of parents belonging to the Lombard nobility • 
 i -fu Chlca S° on 22 December, 1917. From early 
 childhood she gave evidence of great energy, a 
 spirit of piety and religious zeal which character¬ 
 ized her later life. Impressed by the lack of facili¬ 
 ties for the education of the Italian poor, she or¬ 
 ganized a small community for the instruction 
 m poor children and the training of teachers. With 
 
 • OUr ioon terS o She opened her first house at Codogno 
 jn 1880. Soon there was a demand for similar 
 houses from many places and Leo XIII invited 
 
 her to Rome to open a pontifical school, and then 
 in view of the increasing tide of Italian emigration 
 to North and South America he counseled her to 
 go to their aid. Within a few months she was 
 in New York where she took charge of a school in 
 St. Joachims parish for the children of Italian 
 immigrants. Recognizing the necessity of aiding 
 her countrymen in other ways, she ventured on 
 opening a hospital in 1892, Columbus Hospital, 
 New York, which from a lowly beginning is now 
 a large hospital of high standing. The number of 
 adult Italians who were brought back to the prac¬ 
 tice of religion by contact with the Sisters, in¬ 
 spired her to add the hospital work to that of 
 teaching.. In 1905 a Columbus Hospital was 
 founded in Chicago and soon the Sisters were to 
 be found throughout the country. Nothing could 
 cool the ardor or daunt the spirit of Mother 
 Cabrmi, her principle was not to discuss the feasi¬ 
 bility or manner of assisting the immigrant, the 
 smk or the ignorant, but to begin the assistance 
 forthwith, trusting to Providence; and the manner 
 in which apparently insurmountable difficulties dis¬ 
 appeared before her was evidence of Divine assist¬ 
 ance in her work. When this zealous apostle of 
 the immigrant passed away, she had established 
 over seventy houses of her institute, with over 
 three thousand of her religious to carry on her 
 work. Mother Cabrini crossed the Atlantic twen¬ 
 ty-five times, and personally made foundations in 
 Argentina, Brazil, and Nicaragua. 
 While the greatest developments of her sisterhood 
 has been in the United States, her daughters are 
 at work m France, England, and Spain also. When 
 Italy entered the war, she placed all her houses 
 and her communities there at the service of the 
 Italian Government, and three large military hos¬ 
 pitals were confided to them. 
 
 CVn LS (1918) n ii-n le ° f the Italians in The Catholic World, 
 
 Cadiz, Diocese of (Gaditana et Septensis; cf. 
 p- E -> HI-131C), with the united diocese of Cueta 
 is suffragan of Seville, Spain. This see was filled 
 
 iono ' % v * dos ® Maria Ranees y Villanueva, from 
 1898 until 14 June, 1917, when he was succeeded 
 by. the present incumbent. Rt. Rev. Martial Lopez 
 Cnado, b. m Cordone 1868, ordained 1891, prelate 
 °* the Holy See 1903, appointed 18 May, 1918. 
 
 These two dioceses cover an area of 4073 sq. 
 miles, and by 1920 statistics comprise a Catholic 
 population of 268,190, the remainder of the popu¬ 
 lation being made up of about 300 Jews and Moors. 
 Cadiz contains 25 parishes, 190 priests, 58 chapters 
 with 107 religious, and 343 Sisters. Cueta, situated 
 at a point northeast of Africa, comprises 2 parishes, 
 
 21 priests and 5 chapters. 
 
 Caesarea, Diocese of (C^sariensis; cf. C. E., 
 III-133c), a residential see of the Armenian Rite,’ 
 m Cappadocia, Asiatic Turkey. Rt. Rev. Matthew 
 Sislian, appointed to this see 1901, was retired and 
 transferred to the titular see of Ammedara 3 Decem¬ 
 ber, 1909. After a vacancy of about a year and 
 a half, the present incumbent (1922), Rt. Rev. 
 Anthony Bahabaman, b. in Angora 1867, ordained 
 1892, was appointed 27 August, 1911. This diocese 
 comprises 1500 Armenian Catholics, 50,000 Schis¬ 
 matics, 600 Protestants, and a number of Mussul- 
 
CAESAREA 
 
 140 
 
 CAIAZZO 
 
 mans. The Catholics are served by missionary 
 priests who have 4 churches. 
 
 For the Latin Rite this is a titular metropolitan 
 see, at present vacant. 
 
 Caesarea Philippi, Diocese of (Caesariensis 
 Paneasensis; cf. C. E., III-135a), a residential see 
 of the Greek Melchite Rite, in Phoenicia, Asiatic 
 Turkey. The residence of the bishop is at Gedaidat- 
 Margyum, and the see is now (1922) filled by Rt. 
 Rev. Clement Maalouf, b. in Zahle 1862, appointed 
 24 November, 1901. This diocese comprises 6190 
 Greek-Melchites, 17,000 Schismatics, 160,000 infidels, 
 
 8 secular and 13 regular clergy, and 16 churches 
 or chapels. 
 
 For the Latin Rite this is a titular see, suffragan 
 of Tyre, the title being at present filled by Rt. Rev. 
 Antonio Micozzi, appointed 22 July, 1921, and 
 coadjutor in Sabina. He resides in Rome. 
 
 Caetite, Diocese of (Caetitensis), in the State 
 of Bahia, Brazil, South America. This diocese was 
 erected 20 October, 1913, by a division of the Arch¬ 
 diocese of Bahia, from which it took nineteen 
 parishes: Caetite, Monte Alto, Gentio, Ampara de 
 Umbaranas, Duas Barras, Jacaracq, Condenba, 
 Cacule, Bom Jesus dos Meiras, Ituassu, Sincora, 
 Minas do Rio de Contas, Villa Velha de Minas de 
 Rio de Contas, Bom Jesus de Rio de Contas, S. Joa 
 do Paraguassu, Lencoes, Remedios do Rio de 
 Contas, Paramirim, Macahubas, Niacho do S. Anna, 
 Sta Maria do Ouro and Cannabrava. The cathe¬ 
 dral is dedicated to St. Anne. Statistics have not 
 yet been published for his diocese. 
 
 Cagli e Pergola, Diocese of (Calliensis et 
 Pergulensis; cf. C. E., III-140a), in the province 
 of Urbino-Pesaro, Central Italy, suffragan of Urbino. 
 On 5 September, 1908, Rt. Rev. Ettore Fronzi was 
 appointed to this see, and filled it until his promo¬ 
 tion to the Archdiocese of Camerino, 14 December, 
 1918. He was succeeded by the present incumbent, 
 Rt. Rev. Augusto Curi, archdeacon of the Cathedral 
 of Fermo, appointed 23 December, 1918, and named 
 apostolic administrator of Macerato 26 August, 1919. 
 By latest statistics (1920) Cagli has a Catholic 
 population of 19,500, 40 parishes, 60 secular and 3 
 regular clergy, 17 seminarians, 2 Brothers, 70 Sisters 
 104 churches or chapels. Pergola comprises a Cath¬ 
 olic population of 14,000, 12 parishes, 35 secular 
 and 4 regular clergy, 7 seminarians, 5 Brothers, 12 
 Sisters, and 50 churches or chapels. 
 
 Cagliari, Archdiocese of (Calaritana; cf. C. E., 
 IXI-139c), on the Island of Sardinia. Most Rev. 
 Pietro Balestra, appointed to this see 17 December, 
 1900, died here 1 May, 1912, and was succeeded by 
 Most Rev. Francisco Rossi, appointed 9 April, 1913, 
 transferred 15 December, 1919. The following year, 
 8 March, the present incumbent, Most Rev. Ernesto 
 Piovella, was appointed. Bom in Milan in 1867, 
 he served as vicar general of Ravenna, was appointed 
 Bishop of Alghero 15 April, 1907, and promoted to 
 the archdiocese of Oristano 15 April, 1914, where 
 he served until his transfer. 
 
 The latest statistics obtainable (1920) credit this 
 diocese with a Catholic population of 199,859, 81 
 parishes, 160 secular and 40 regular clergy, 100 stu¬ 
 dents in the upper and lower seminaries, 25 Brothers, 
 80 Sisters, and 118 churches or chapels. 
 
 Cahors, Diocese of (Cadurcensis; cf. C. E., 
 III-141a), in France, is a suffragan of the Archdio¬ 
 cese of Albi. It is under the administration of Rt. 
 Rev. Joseph-Lucien Giray, b. in Chanas, Diocese of 
 Grenoble, 21 March, 1864, studied at the petit 
 seminaire of Rondeau and at Grenoble, ordained 
 
 1888, made vicar general 1911 and appointed Bishop 
 of Cahors 15 February, 1918, consecrated 1 May, 
 succeeding Bishop Cezerac, who was promoted to 
 the Archdiocese of Albi. Bishop Cezerac had filled 
 the see from 1911 when he came to it as a suc¬ 
 cessor to Bishop Laurans (d. 15 July, 1911). 
 
 Within recent years the diocese has lost two 
 vicar generals, Rev. Father Pomarel (d. 29 May, 
 1919), and Rev. Father Laporte (d. 21 February, 
 1921). During the World War 180 priests of this 
 diocese were mobilized and of these 16 gave up 
 their lives, as did also 6 seminarians. 
 
 At present (1921) the diocese has 33 churches 
 with pastors, 449 succursal parishes (mission 
 churches), a number of brothers who have been 
 secularized by the Associations Law of 1901, 71 
 elementary schools with 140 female and 12 male 
 teachers and an attendance of 300 boys and 1,600 
 girls. Missionary and charitable work is accom¬ 
 plished through a house of diocesan missionaries 
 at Rocamadour, a home for aged or infirm priests 
 at Souillac, a home for the protection of young 
 girls at Cahors, asylum for the insane, under the 
 Religious of Our Lady of Calvary, 4 Catholic 
 private orphanages at Cahors, 7 hospitals, one of 
 which is still unoccupied, the others are conducted 
 by religious, 1 house of refuge for young girls at 
 Cahors. The public hospitals admit the ministry of 
 priests. The “Fraternal Union,” and “League for 
 Clerical Defense,” are established among the clergy, 
 and agricultural organizations among the laity. The 
 “Defense,” a weekly periodical with a circulation 
 of 11,000, is published as also the “Revue religieuse 
 de Cahors et Roc Amadour,” a diocesan weekly. 
 In 1920 the total Catholic population was approxi¬ 
 mately 205,769. 
 
 Caiazzo, Diocese of (Caiacencis; cf. C. E., III- 
 141d), suffragan of Capua, is situated in the prov¬ 
 ince of Caserta in Italy. The population, for the 
 most part rural, numbers 30,000, all practical Cath¬ 
 olics. There are 35 parishes, 72 churches and chapels, 
 and 70 secular priests. The only religious orders are 
 the Sisters of St. Vincent de Paul, who direct a 
 pious institute, an orphanage, and 2 infant asylums, 
 and the Sisters of the Immaculate Conception, who 
 are in charge of an infant asylum and some ele¬ 
 mentary schools .for girls. The seminary, which 
 was founded shortly after the Council of Trent, 
 has only ten students making preparatory studies, 
 who go to the regional seminary at Posilipo, 
 Naples, for their philosophy and theology. The 
 pious institute has twenty-five students, and to it is 
 attached an elementary school for day scholars. 
 The orphanage has 17 children. There are two 
 almshouses, one for men and one for women. The 
 elementary schools in each commune and rural 
 center are maintained by the State and usually 
 taught by Catholic lay instructors. 
 
 Both the clergy and laity answered the call to 
 arms during the war, and many served on the 
 battlefield, in trenches and in hospitals. At present 
 the see of Caiazzo is vacant, Rt. Rev. Luigi Ermini, 
 b. in Rome 13 December, 1856, elected titular 
 Bishop of Amatha and auxiliary of Porto and 
 Santa Rufina 30 December, 1908, transferred to 
 Sarsina 21 April, 1910; having declined he remained 
 titular of Amatha until 4 December, 1914, when he 
 was transferred to Caiazzo, at the Consistory of 
 13 June, 1921, he was transferred to Fabriano and 
 Matelica. His predecessor was Rt. Rev. Adolfo 
 Turchi, b. at Balignano, Diocese of Cesena, 24 
 October, 1863, elected Bishop of Caiazzo 30 June, 
 1909, named secretary of the Congregation of Re¬ 
 ligious and titular Bishop of Canopus in July, 1914, 
 
CAJAMARCA 
 
 141 
 
 CALI 
 
 taking up his residence in Rome; promoted Arch¬ 
 bishop of Aquilla 17 July, 1918. 
 
 Cajamarca, Diocese of (Cajamarcensis), in 
 Peru, South America, suffragan of Lima (see C. E., 
 XI1-34). This diocese was erected 5 April, 1908! 
 by a division of the dioceses of Chachapoyas and 
 Trujillo, taking a territory of some 20,926 sq. miles, 
 or the whole department of Cajamarca. Rt. Rev! 
 Francis de Paul Grozo, b. in Cajamarca in 1852, 
 and ordained in 1875, was appointed the first bishop 
 21 March, 1910, and still fills the see. According 
 to statistics published in 1920 the Catholic popu¬ 
 lation of the diocese numbers 443*000, and there 
 are 36 parishes and 1 seminary. 
 
 Cajazeiras, Diocese of (Cajazeirasensis or de 
 Cajazeiras), in the State of Parahyba, Brazil, suf¬ 
 fragan of the Archdiocese of Parahyba. This dio¬ 
 cese was erected 6 February, 1914, by a division 
 of the diocese of Parahyba, and has as its limits 
 the stream which flows between the parish of Santa 
 Lucia de Saguly and that of Soldade, as far as the 
 foot of the Teixeira Mountains, and the line which 
 separates the parishes of Patos and Pianco, as far as 
 the State of Pernambuco. The cathedral is dedi¬ 
 cated to Our Lady of Pity. So far no statistics 
 have been published. 
 
 Calabozo, Diocese of (de Calabozo; cf. C. E., 
 III-148a), in Venezuela, suffragan of Santiago de* 
 Venezuela, Venezuela. Rt. Rev. Felipe Neri 
 Sendrea, appointed to this see 25 September, 1891, 
 died 9 May, 1921, and was succeeded by the present 
 incumbent, Rt. Rev. Arthur Celestin Alvarez, b. 
 m Clarines 1870, appointed Bishop of Zulia’ 16 
 August, 1910, transferred to the titular see of 
 Thapsus 18 September, 1919, and made coadjutor 
 to Bishop Sandrea. According to 1920 statistics 
 the Catholic population of this diocese numbers 
 210,430, and there are 38 priests and 70 churches 
 or chapels. 
 
 Calahorra and La Calzada, Diocese of (Cala- 
 guritanen sis et Calcaetensis ; cf. C. E., III-148a), 
 in the province of Logrono, Spain, suffragan of 
 Burgos. The see is under the administration of 
 Rt. Rev. Fidelus Garcia y Martinez, titular Bishop 
 of Hippos, appointed 16 December, 1920. The dio¬ 
 cese comprises a Catholic population of 154,470, 
 393 parishes divided among 19 archpresbyteries, 460 
 priests, 393 churches, 316 chapels, and 47 convents 
 with 116 religious and 428 Sisters. 
 
 Calbayog, Diocese of (Calbayogan.e; cf. C. E., 
 XVI-34c), in the province of Samar, Philippine 
 Islands, suffragan of Manila. The first bishop to 
 fill this see was Rt. Rev. Pablo Singzon, b. in 
 Calbiga Samur, 25 January, 1851, prelate of the 
 Holy See 3 March, 1904, appointed 12 April, 1910, 
 d. 9 August, 1920. During his administration he 
 wisely governed the new diocese, did many good 
 works, and was responsible for the erection of a 
 new seminary. Since his death the vacant see 
 has been under an administrator, Rt. Rev. Sofronio 
 Hacbang y Goborni, titular Bishop of Anemurium, 
 and formerly auxiliary to Bishop Singzon. This 
 diocese comprises a Catholic population of 1,100,000, 
 
 80 parishes, 138 missions, 65 secular and 30 regular 
 clergy, 1 seminary, 20 seminarians, 1 college for 
 boys with 14 professors and 300 students, 2 colleges 
 for girls with 12 professors and 250 students. A 
 Catholic periodical, “Eco de Samar y Leyte,” is 
 published here. 
 
 ?VP hent f - g>um, I March, 1862, appointed Arcli- 
 
 * 21 March, 1902, and consecrated 
 
 TinhVf ?i f th r. Same y f ar -. ° wi “S to the repatria¬ 
 tion of the German Jesuits the archdiocese was 
 
 given the administration of the prefecture apostolic 
 of Assam in June, 1915, and six of the Fathers 
 have been working in that territory. During the 
 war three of the priests of the archdioceses went to 
 r ranee as chaplains with the Labor Corps sent out 
 
 ir( vir + u™ ODg the Chnstian s Of the Chota-Nagpore. 
 
 Within recent years the archdiocese has lost two 
 prominent clergymen, R Alfred Neut, S. J, rector 
 of St. Xavmr s Coflege Calcutta (1883-89), rector 
 S Josephs College Darjeeling (1885-95), editor 
 of the Catholic Herald of India” (1902-17) died 
 4 April, 1921; Rev. John Desmet, S.J., one of the 
 pioneers of the Chota-Nagpore Mission, in which 
 he worked from 1884-1921. 
 
 This territory has been entrusted to the Belgian 
 Jesuits since 1859; the other religious orders estab¬ 
 lished now (1921) are: Irish Christian Brothers, 
 of the Institute of the Blessed Virgin Mary 
 of Rathfarnham (Loretto Nuns), Daughters of the 
 Cl oss of Liege, Little Sisters of the Poor, Ursulino 
 Nuns and Daughters of St. Anne. There are 8 
 parishes, 43 missions, 49 churches, 33 mission sta¬ 
 tions, 2 convents for men and 13 for women 18 
 secular and 149 regular clergy, 26 Jesuit lay brothers 
 and 40 Christian Brothers, 260 Sisters, 1 secular 
 seminary with 17 seminarians, and 1 regular semi¬ 
 nary with 25 seminarians. The Catholic educa¬ 
 tional institutions include 3 colleges for men with 
 90 teachers and an attendance of 2,331, 9 high 
 schools with 250 teachers and an attendance of 2,907, 
 
 2 training schools, 422 elementary schools with 
 1,010 teachers and an attendance of 11,000. The 
 charitable institutions are: St. Joseph’s Home for 
 the Aged under the Little Sisters of the Poor, 
 and at Kidderpore St. Vincent’s Home, St. Cather¬ 
 ine’s Hospital for Incurables, and St. Paul’s Nur¬ 
 sery, all conducted by the Daughters of the Cross. 
 The Gobra Leper Asylum and all the jails and 
 hospitals of the district permit Catholic priests to 
 minister in them. The Apostolic Union of the 
 Secular Priests is established in the diocese, and the 
 Catholic Association of Bengal is organized among 
 the laity. Two periodicals are published: “The 
 Catholic Herald of India,” an English weekly, and 
 “Nishkalank” (Immaculate), a Hindu monthly. 
 The Catholic population is approximately 200,432. 
 
 Caldey, Abbey of. See Benedictine Order. 
 
 Calgary, Diocese of (Calgariensis), in Canada 
 (see C. E., XVI-34). This see, erected 30 Novem¬ 
 ber, 1912, is a suffragan of Edmonton and is under 
 the administration of its first bishop, Rt. Rev. John 
 T. McNally, consecrated 1 June, 1913. The Oblate 
 Fathers of Mary Immaculate are established here, 
 as well as the Grey Nuns, Sisters of St. Louis, 
 Faithful Companions of Jesus, Sisters of Provi¬ 
 dence, and Daughters of Jesus. 
 
 The progress of the diocese during the few years 
 since its foundation is best shown by the latest 
 statistics, published 1921, which credit it with: 
 Catholic population, 30,000; secular priests, 23; 
 regulars, 15; seminarians, 24; churches with resi¬ 
 dent priests, 25; churches without resident priests, 
 36; mission stations, 106; convents with schools, 3; 
 primary Catholic schools, 11; boarding schools for 
 Indians, 3; industrial school for Indians, 1; hos¬ 
 pitals, 2; orphanage, 1. 
 
 (Calcutta ARCHomeESE of (Calcuttensis; cf. C. Cali, Diocese of (Caliensis), in Colombia, South 
 in D dla ’ the 0 a(lminist rafion America, suffragan of Popayan. This diocese. 
 
 Most Rev - Bnce Meuleman, S.J., D.D., b. erected 7 June, 1910 (see C. E., XVI-16), is under 
 
CALIFORNIA 
 
 142 
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 the administration of its first bishop, Rt. Rev. 
 Eladius Perlaza, b. in Cali 1853, appointed 11 
 August, 1911. By a decree of the Consistory 11 
 June, 1920, the region of Balsa was separated from 
 the diocese of Maniziales and united to that of 
 Cali. This was done because this region is now 
 in the civil province of Valle, which is part of 
 the diocese of Cali. By 1920 statistics the diocese 
 counted a Catholic population of 12,000. 
 
 California (cf. C. E., III-170c), the eighth state 
 of the United States in point of population. Ac¬ 
 cording to the official returns of the Federal census 
 of 1920, its total area is 158,297 sq. miles. Of 
 this number 2,645 sq. miles constitute the water 
 area. The capital of the state, Sacramento, has 
 a population (1920) of 65,854. The population of 
 the other chief cities is (1920): San Francisco, 
 506,676; Los Angeles, 576,673; Oakland, 216,361; 
 San Jose, 39,642; San Diego, 74,683; Stockton, 
 40,296; Alameda, 28,806; Berkeley, 56,000; Fresno, 
 45,000. The total population of the state in 1910 
 was 2,377,549, an increase of 60.1 per cent upon 
 that of 1900; in 1920 it was 3,426,861, an increase 
 of 44.1 per cent upon that of 1910. According 
 to the United States census of 1920, the population 
 of California is 3,426,861 or 22 persons per square 
 mile. The census of 1920 also presents the following 
 details of population: (a) White, 3,264,711; African, 
 38,763; Indian, 17,360; Chinese, 28,812; Japanese, 
 71,952; (b) native-born, 2,583,049; foreign-born, 
 
 681,662. Of the total population 68 per cent is 
 urban, 32 per cent is rural. There were 95,592 
 illiterates over 10 years old, or 3.3 per cent. 
 
 Resources. Agriculture. —According to the cen¬ 
 sus of 1910 the total value of all California’s agri¬ 
 cultural products was $146,526,151. The value of 
 the output in 1919 reached the total of $587,600,000. 
 The following table presents the total output of 
 agricultural products in detail for the year 1918: 
 
 Asparagus 
 Almonds 
 Apricots 
 Apples .. 
 Beans ... 
 Barley . 
 Brandy 
 Citrus 
 fruits ... 
 Canned 
 fruits and 
 vegetables 
 
 Corn . 
 
 Cherries .. 
 
 Figs . 
 
 Grapes .... 1 
 
 902,236 cases 
 9,000,000 pounds 
 32,000,000 pounds 
 12,500,000 pounds 
 5,585,000 bags 
 34,321,000 bushels 
 5,295,952 gallons 
 
 11,373,127 boxes 
 
 16,136,410 cases 
 2,975,000 bushels 
 822,367 bushels 
 18,400,000 pounds 
 ,979,686,525 pounds 
 
 Hops .... 45,000 
 
 Hay . 2,970,000 
 
 Lumber 
 Pears . 
 Peaches 
 Plums 
 Prunes 
 Raisins 
 Other dried 
 fruit .. 
 Olive oil. 
 Potatoes. 
 Walnuts , 
 Wool ... 
 Wheat .. 
 Wine ... 
 
 90,584,000 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 41,000,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 90,000,000 
 
 367,400,000 
 
 5,500,000 
 
 2,657,836 
 
 12,870,000 
 
 38,544,000 
 
 12,145,000 
 
 4,590,000 
 
 42,101,971 
 
 bales 
 
 tons 
 
 board feet 
 
 pounds 
 
 pounds 
 
 pounds 
 
 pounds 
 
 pounds 
 
 pounds 
 
 gallons 
 
 bushels 
 
 pounds 
 
 pounds 
 
 bushels 
 
 gallons 
 
 The total annual output of fruit from California 
 farms is $248,000,000. In the year 1919 there were 
 42,000,000 fruit trees in California. Seven million of 
 these trees belong to Santa Clara Valley alone. 
 The principal fruit trees are as follows: Apple, 
 3,128,000; apricot, 3,680,000; cherry, 657,000; peach, 
 9,000,000; pear, 2,400,000; orange, 10,000,000; lemon, 
 2,880,000. In 1920, 26,313 farms reported 153,195,000 
 grape vines producing 2,055,644,612 pounds, worth 
 $65,780,628. The nut crop was valued at $19,000,000. 
 
 Manufactures .—The total value of the output of 
 manufactures in 1914, according to the census, was 
 $712,801,000. In 1919 it amounted to $1,981,443,000. 
 During 1920 about 163,000 tons of beet sugar was 
 produced. In the same year, there was 11,943 manu¬ 
 facturing establishments in California, representing 
 an investment of $1,333,382,000, and giving employ¬ 
 ment to 296,000 persons; the sum paid for labor 
 was $380,135,000, and for materials, $1,218,890,000. 
 
 Mining .—The value of the total mining output 
 in 1918 was $199,753,837. In 1919 it was $196,473,560. 
 Altogether there are about 1,200 producing mines 
 
 in the state. The value of the gold output was 
 $16,529,162; silver, $1,427,861; copper, $11,805,883; 
 quicksilver, $2,579,472; petroleum, $127,459,929. It 
 is estimated that in the petroleum industry alone 
 the total invested is more than $50,000,000; 105,- 
 668,000 barrels of oil were produced in 1920. 
 
 Lumber .—Nearly 20 per cent of the area of the 
 state is forest-clad. San Francisco alone sends 
 50,000,000 feet of lumber to the world each year. 
 The total output of the state for 1917 was 1,227,000 
 m. feet. There are $78,000,000 invested in the 
 industry, 584 mills; and the value of the total 
 output, together with the by-products of the forest, 
 is $49,000,000, the lumber itself amounting to $23,- 
 444,000. 
 
 Commerce .—The harbors of the state now carry 
 on an ocean commerce of about $400,000,000 a year. 
 The precise figures for 1918 being: Imports, 
 $231,979,474; exports, $49,074,000. The total foreign 
 commerce of the state for 1918 was $476,420,000. 
 Five great transcontinental railroads carry her pas¬ 
 sengers and goods to and from her cities, the fifth 
 being recently completed. In 1917 the total rail¬ 
 road mileage of the state was 9,441. 
 
 Educational System .—The State Constitution pro¬ 
 vides for a school board of seven members, ap¬ 
 pointed by the governor, two every second year. 
 The total number of professors, including the vari¬ 
 ous officers of instruction and research in the Uni¬ 
 versity of California, for the year ending 1 
 November, 1919, was 1,053, as follows: Academic, 
 607; art, 14; Lick Astronomical Observatory, 18; 
 law, 9; medicine, 167; pharmacy, 10. The total 
 number of students for the same period was 11,633, 
 of whom 4,507 were men, and 7,126 women, the 
 women being nearly 61 per cent of the total en¬ 
 rollment. The university receives $30,000 annually 
 from the Federal Government for its several experi¬ 
 ment stations. Everyone of the fifty-seven counties 
 of the state has a high school. Three new normal 
 schools have recently been built at Areata, Santa 
 Barbara, and Fresno. 
 
 In the school year ending 30 June, 1918, there 
 were 3,452 primary and grammar schools in the state 
 and 311 high schools. The total number of teach¬ 
 ers in the public schools was 17,276; the total 
 number of pupils, 602,758. The total number of 
 pupils in private schools was 40,000. The total 
 income of her public schools during the scholastic 
 year 1917-18 was $32,017,819. The total value of 
 public school property for the same year was 
 $90,091,819. The total income of the State Univer¬ 
 sity for the same period was $3,732,986. The laws 
 governing private or parochial schools are as fol¬ 
 lows: Private schools (except as noted in last 
 
 paragraph below) shall be taught in the English 
 language. In order to comply with compulsory 
 education requirements, private and parochial 
 schools must teach the branches taught in public 
 schools, viz.: reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, 
 geography, language, grammar, composition, history 
 of the United States, constitution, duties of citizen¬ 
 ship, local civil government, physiology and hygiene, 
 nature study, music, drawing, bookkeeping, humane 
 education. Private school authorities are required 
 to keep an attendance register. No public money 
 shall ever be appropriated for the support of any 
 sectarian or denominational school (IX, 8). 
 
 Any educational institution of collegiate grade 
 within the State of California not conducted for 
 profit, shall be exempt from taxation (XIII, la). 
 Certain part-time schools, which shall not be in 
 session during hours of public schools, nor more 
 than one hour each day, six hours each week, thirty- 
 eight weeks each year, may be conducted in a for- 
 
CALIFORNIA 
 
 143 
 
 CALTAGIRONE 
 
 eign language; provided that no person shall 
 conduct or teach in such a private school, conducted 
 wholly or in part in the language of a foreign 
 nation, in this state unless and until he shall have 
 first applied to and obtained a permit so to do from 
 the superintendent of public instruction or a deputy 
 appointed by the superintendent for such purposes. 
 This shall also be construed to include persons 
 exercising or performing administrative powers in 
 each school. Such permit shall be issued to persons 
 having knowledge of American history and insti¬ 
 tutions and knowing how to read, write, and speak 
 English. Each applicant must file an affidavit to 
 observe this law and to endeavor to make pupils 
 loyal citizens. 
 
 The following figures for the year 1920 will give 
 some idea of the importance of Catholic education 
 in California: 1 archdiocesan seminary, 3 seminaries 
 of religious orders, 1 normal school, 12 colleges, 
 academies and high schools, 97 parochial schools, 
 35,000 young people under Catholic care. 
 
 Recent History.—T he recent political history of 
 the state has had a national complexion, as the 
 result of passage by the legislature of bills limiting 
 the ownership of land by aliens with the purpose of 
 eliminating the Japanese as owners and proprietors 
 of the land. The rapid increase of Japanese immi¬ 
 grants with their strong trend to land ownership 
 and land control, their industry and application, 
 their oriental standards of living, their large birth 
 rate, and their inability to assimilate with the 
 whites has presented a problem of vital importance 
 to the state as well as to the nation. The first 
 intimation of the problem came in 1906, when 
 Japanese laborers, attracted by the scarcity of labor 
 in California and the prevailing high wages, came 
 in great numbers. The Japanese with his strong 
 social race instinct would acquire a piece of land, 
 and within an incredibly short time, large adjoin¬ 
 ing holdings would be occupied by people of his 
 own race. Attempts at anti-Japanese legislation 
 were foiled by the intervention of President Roose¬ 
 velt. The proposed bill, providing for separate 
 schools for the Japanese subjects, caused the United 
 States government to arrange for the limitation of 
 Japanese labor through the “Gentlemen’s Agree¬ 
 ment.” The increase of Japanese in California from 
 41,356 in 1910 to 87,279 in 1920, or of 111 per cent 
 showed the futility of the agreement, for skillful 
 evasions by means of picture brides, smuggling, and 
 illegal importations were resorted to. The realiza¬ 
 tion of this lack of entire good faith on the part 
 of the Japanese led the Legislature of 1913 to pass a 
 law forbidding the ownership of agriculture lands 
 by the Japanese and limiting their tenure to three- 
 year leaseholds. The spirit of this anti-alien land 
 legislation has been evaded and broken by legal 
 subterfuges, such as corporations, trustee stock own¬ 
 ership, trustee land ownership, and the granting of 
 lands to native children. 
 
 Action on the matter was commenced in 1919, 
 but delayed on advice of Secretary of State Lansing, 
 who cabled from the Peace Conference in France 
 that any legislation of this kind would offend Japan, 
 a participant in the conference. However, in 1920 
 an initiative anti-alien land law aiming at restricting 
 the Japanese ownership of land was approved by 
 the people of California, the vote being 668,483 in 
 favor; against, 222,806 in opposition. This initiative 
 measure is more stringent than the former one, for 
 it not only forbids ownership of land, but the leasing 
 of lands by the Japanese, and the purchase of land 
 by American born Japanese minors under their 
 parents’ guardianship. 
 
 During the World War California furnished 112,514 
 
 10 
 
 soldieis, or 2.98 per cent. Two National Guard 
 Camps were established at Fremont and Kearney. 
 
 Religion.— Iho following statistics of religious 
 denominations of California were presented by the 
 United States Census of 1919, published that year: 
 
 Denomination 
 
 » TO 
 i—< C3 
 2 O 
 
 u c3 
 
 0.9 
 
 0) 
 
 <x> 
 
 "o 
 
 Sh 
 
 3 
 
 .G 
 
 o 
 
 >> 
 
 °3 t, 
 ® £? ® 
 3 3 Q. 
 
 nM 2 
 
 U I 
 
 J3 9 l 
 a o •— v) 
 
 z o s i 
 
 Adventist . 
 
 Baptist . 
 
 Catholic . 
 
 Congregational . 
 
 Jewish . 
 
 Lutheran. 
 
 Methodist . 
 
 Presbyterian . 
 
 Protestant Episcopal. 
 
 176 133 
 
 279 
 
 626 
 
 244 
 
 34 
 
 145 
 
 869 
 
 397 
 
 261 
 
 288 
 
 515 
 
 232 
 
 15 
 
 133 
 
 810 
 
 375 
 
 241 
 
 S 404,385 
 3,277,346 
 8,301,361 
 3,419,676 
 1,209,500 
 1,569,313 
 8,413,164 
 5,500,425 
 3,341,629 
 
 11,663 
 
 42,039 
 
 494,539 
 
 34,180 
 
 8,178 
 
 19,207 
 
 102,654 
 
 58,061 
 
 30,018 
 
 The total number of churches was 3,244, total 
 value of church property, $40,510,180; total number 
 of communicants, 893,366. 
 
 The Catholic Directory for 1921 gives the follow¬ 
 ing figures: Archbishop, 1; bishops, 2; total priests, 
 731, secular, 477, regular, 254; total churches, 545; 
 churches with resident priests, 307; missions with 
 churches, 238; stations, 118; seminary, 1; seminaries 
 of religious orders, 3; colleges and academies for 
 boj^s, 9; academies for young ladies, 46; parishes 
 with parochial schools, 108; orphan asylums, 15; 
 total young people under Catholic care, 38,226; 
 Catholic population about 602,800. 
 
 The following^ religious orders of men are now in 
 the state: Jesuits, Dominicans, Franciscans, Paul- 
 ists, Salesians Marists, Christian Brothers, Brothers 
 of Mary, Capuchins, Fathers of the Sacred Heart, 
 Sulpicians, Benedictines, Redemptorists and Vin¬ 
 centians. 
 
 Marriage and Divorce .—The law of California as¬ 
 signs five grounds of divorce: extreme cruelty; 
 wilful desertion; wilful neglect (failure to provide); 
 habitual intemperance, and conviction of a felony. 
 
 Legislative Changes.— The annual appropriation 
 made by the legislature for every institution main¬ 
 taining orphans, has been increased to $120 for each 
 orphan and each half orphan. Recent legislative 
 measures provide for the establishment of a state 
 training school for girls and a new psychopathic 
 state hospital (1913); for a workman’s compensation 
 act, and an eight-hour day for women. Women 
 suffrage had an important bearing on the presi¬ 
 dential election in California in 1912. Owing to 
 the failure of the Taft partisans to nominate the 
 Taft electors on ballot by petition, the Taft voters 
 were practically disenfranchised. The vote was so 
 close that a recount was necessary. California rati¬ 
 fied the federal suffrage amendment, 1 November, 
 1919, the eighteenth state to do so, and the national 
 prohibition amendment, 13 January, 1919, the 
 twenty-fourth state to do so. 
 
 California, Lower, Vicariate Apostolic of (Cali¬ 
 fornia inferioris ; cf. C. E., Ill—177d), includes 
 territory of the same name, in Mexico. Entrusted 
 to the Society of Foreign Missions of Saints Peter 
 and Paul, of Rome, the present administrator is 
 Rev. John Rosso Mapan, who resides at La Paz. 
 It includes a total population of 45,000, of whom 
 43,104 are Catholics; 9 priests, 6 parishes, and 25 
 churches or chapels. 
 
 Caltagirone, Diocese of (Calatayeronensis; cf. 
 C. E., III-190a), on the Island of Sicily, suffragan 
 of the Archdiocese of Syracuse. This see is now 
 
CALTANISETTA 
 
 144 
 
 CAMBODIA 
 
 (1922) filled by Rt. Rev. Damaso Pio de Bono, b. 
 in Bivona 1850, appointed 28 November, 1898. 
 According to the latest statistics (1920) there are 
 115,500 Catholics in this diocese, 25 parishes, 119 
 secular and 48 regular clergy, 15 seminarians, 16 
 Brothers, 43 Sisters, and 112 churches or chapels. 
 
 Caltanisetta, Diocese of (Calathanisiadensis; 
 cf. C. E., III-190a), in Italy, suffragan of Monreale. 
 Rt. Rev. Antonio Augusto Intreccialagli appointed 
 to this see 22 May, 1907, was promoted to the 
 titular see of Sardica, and made coadjutor at Mon¬ 
 reale, 16 March, 1914, succeeding to the archdiocese 
 of Monreale, 31 July, 1919. After his transfer from 
 Caltanisetta, he still acted as administrator of the 
 diocese until the appointment of the present incum¬ 
 bent, Rt. Rev. Giovanni Jacono, b. at Ragusa, 1873, 
 appointed Bishop of Molfetta, 2 July, 1918, trans¬ 
 ferred 18 March, 1921. The most important recent 
 event in this diocese was the opening of a new 
 episcopal seminary in 1912. The territory comprises 
 a Catholic population of 160,000, divided among 17 
 parishes and 95 churches. Present (1922) statistics 
 credit the diocese with 200 secular and 60 regular 
 clergy; 5 convents for men and 9 for women, 2 
 monasteries for women, 98 religious women, 1 semi¬ 
 nary, 40 seminarians, 1 college for women with 5 
 teachers and 40 students, 28 secondary schools with 
 69 teachers, 1,118 boy students and 350 girl students, 
 360 elementary schools with 360 teachers and 1-1,400 
 pupils. The various institutions include 3 homes, 7 
 asylums, and 4 hospitals. One society is organized 
 among the clergy, and 30 among the laity; two 
 weekly papers are published, “Aurora” and “Tolopo.” 
 
 Calvary, Congregaton of Our Lady of (cf. C. E., 
 III-109d).—The twenty monasteries which formed 
 the Congregation of Benedictines of Our Lady of 
 Calvary were despoiled by the revolutionary govern¬ 
 ment in 1792 and the religious dispersed. Some of 
 them managed to live secretly in community during 
 the French Revolution, and these faithful observers 
 of the rule, who survived the destruction of the 
 convents, were the restorers of the congregation. 
 Gradually they re-established their house at Orleans 
 in 1807 and that at Quimper in 1809. Under Louis 
 XVIII the monasteries of Paris, Vendome, Angers, 
 Poitiers, Machecoul were permitted to revive their 
 religious life on condition that they open for public 
 utility a school or boarding school for young girls 
 or give hospitality to lady boarders. Two royal 
 ordinances authorized the reunion of these seven 
 monasteries into a congregation, 3 January and 17 
 January, 1827. On 14 November, 1828, Pope Leo 
 XIII confirmed their re-establishment as a congre¬ 
 gation, according to their Bull of erection by Gregory 
 XV, 22 March, 1621. In 1904 the French Republic 
 forbade teaching in the monasteries, in 1906 modi¬ 
 fied the royal ordinances of 1827, and finally 30 
 June, 1914, decreed the dissolution of the congrega¬ 
 tion, declaring it to be of no public utility. The 
 World War (1914-18) suspended the execution of 
 this decree. 
 
 There are now in France seven monasteries: 
 Orleans, Angers, Vendome, Poitiers, Machecoul, La 
 Capelle Marival, and Landerneau. At Jerusalem, 
 in Palestine, they founded on the Mount of Olives, 
 in 1896, an orphanage for girls of the Greek Catho¬ 
 lic Rite. The foundation made at Sirault (Hainaut, 
 Belgium), in 1903, lasted only sixteen years. After 
 the war, in 1919, the religious of this house returned 
 to France. From 1617 until the time of the French 
 Revolution the congregation had thirteen superior 
 generals. Since its re-establishment it has had eight. 
 The elections are triennial, and the office of superior 
 general may be held for only twelve consecutive 
 
 years. The religious habit is black with a black 
 scapular. The Constitutions of the Congregation 
 were published in 1634, revised and corrected in 
 1901, and approved and confirmed by Leo XIII. 
 The religious follow the primitive observance of 
 the Rule of St. Benedict. Two notable changes 
 in the Constitutions are the nomination of a car¬ 
 dinal protector, and the making of temporary vows 
 three years before final vows are taken. The total 
 number of monasteries is eight, with two hundred 
 religious. The present superior general is Mother 
 Marie de St. Anselme. 
 
 Calvi and Teano, Diocese of (Calvensis et 
 Teanensis; cf. C. E., III-195a), in the province 
 of Caserta, Italy, suffragan of Capua. The usual 
 residence of the bishop is at Teano, but at present 
 (1922) it is temporarily at Pignataro Maggiore. Rt. 
 Rev. Albino Pella, appointed to this see 19 August, 
 1908, was transferred to Casale-Monferrato 12 April, 
 1915. He was succeeded by the present incumbent, 
 Rt. Rev. Calogero Licata, b. at Aragona 1872, 
 honorary chamberlain 12 March, 1912, appointed 
 14 April, 1916. 
 
 Statistics published in 1920 credit the diocese of 
 Calvi with 16,294 Catholics, 17 parishes, 46 secular 
 and 5 regular clergy, 20 religious, and 50 churches 
 or chapels; the cathedral has 12 canons and 6 man- 
 sionaries. There are 30 students at the new semi¬ 
 nary. Teano has a beautiful cathedral with 12 
 canons and 6 mansionaries. It counts a Catholic 
 population of 55,850, 86 parishes, 117 secular and 
 
 19 regular clergy, 20 seminarians, 26 Brothers, 40 
 Sisters, 175 churches or chapels, and 14 religious 
 houses. 
 
 Camagiiey, Diocese of (Camagueyensis), in 
 Cuba, suffragan of Santiago de Cuba. This see, 
 erected 10 December, 1912 (see C. E., XVI-34), 
 is under the administration of Rt. Rev. Valen¬ 
 tino Zubizarreta y Unamunsaga, O. D. C. Bom 
 in Marquina Echevarria, Spain, in 1862, made 
 provincial of Navarre, sent as a papal envoy to 
 Cuba, he was appointed first bishop of this diocese 
 25 May, 1914, and acts as administrator apostolic of 
 Cienfuegos. The statistics published in 1920 credit 
 this diocese with a Catholic population of 200,000, 
 
 20 secular and 21 regular clergy, 15 churches with 
 resident priests, 1 community of religious, and 3 
 communities of Sisters. 
 
 Cambodia, Vicariate Apostolic of (Cambodgi- 
 ensis; cf. C. E., VII-777d), in Indo-China, with 
 episcopal residence at Phnon-Penh. It is entrusted 
 to the Society of Foreign Missions of Paris, the 
 present vicar being Rt. Rev. Jean-Claude Bouchut, 
 b. in Loire 4 March, 1860, ordained 17 February, 
 1883, appointed titular Bishop of Panemotichus, 23 
 July, 1902, and vicar apostolic of Cambodia. This 
 territory comprises about 60,000 Catholics, including 
 Europeans, Annamites, Cambodians, Chinese, and 
 Indians. These are divided among 47 parishes, 183 
 churches, and 173 mission stations, served by 98 
 secular priests and 14 brothers. There are 2 con¬ 
 vents of men with 14 religious, 11 convents of 
 women with 348 nuns and 15 Sisters, 2 seminaries, 
 113 seminarians, 2 colleges for boys with 22 in¬ 
 structors and 520 students, 2 colleges for girls with 
 8 instructors and 150 students, 1 normal school 
 with 2 professors and 25 pupils, 96 elementary 
 schools with 115 teachers, and 7.400 pupils, 5 hos¬ 
 pitals belonging to the mission with 437 beds, con¬ 
 ducted by Sisters, 2 maternity hospitals and 6 
 orphanages with 643 children. In 1921, 6,156 chil¬ 
 dren were baptized while dying in the vivariate. 
 An organization, “Amicale des eleves des Freres,” 
 is formed among the laity. 
 
CAMBRAI 
 
 145 
 
 CAMPION 
 
 Cambrai, Archdiocese of (Camerancensis; cf. 
 C. E., III-209d).—By a pontifical Decree of Novem¬ 
 ber, 1913, the districts of Lille, Dunkeque, and 
 Hazelbrouck were separated from the Archdiocese of 
 Cambrai to form the new Diocese of Lille. In 
 consequence the population of this archdiocese was 
 reduced from 1,866,000 in 1912 to 837,000 in 1914. 
 Owing to the World War the population has further 
 diminished and at the present time (1921) it con¬ 
 sists of 741,000 French inhabitants, with 20,000 Bel¬ 
 gians and 4,000 to 5,000 Poles who work in the 
 mining region. For more than four years the entire 
 country was invaded and laid waste by the enemy. 
 A certain number of parishes near the Hindenburg 
 Line were entirely destroyed. In retreating the 
 Germans seized a large number of church bells 
 and bombarded some of the churches. Of the 
 464 churches in the archdiocese, 84 were destroyed, 
 one of which has been rebuilt, 289 were slightly 
 damaged, 29 of which have been restored. There 
 are 200 churches which are damaged to the extent 
 that they are useless and the work of restoring them 
 has not yet been begun. 
 
 During the war 30 priests and seminarians gave 
 their lives for the cause. The entire clerg3% fore¬ 
 most among whom was the archbishop, nobly sup¬ 
 ported their country and their services were 
 gratefully appreciated and rewarded by the French 
 Government, as well as by the Allies. 
 
 In 1917 the archdiocese suffered a severe loss in 
 the death of Rt. Rev. Henry Monnier, titular 
 bishop of Ludda and auxiliary bishop of Cambrai 
 since 1872. He was an earnest and zealous prelate 
 and had rendered distinguished sendees to the 
 archdiocese. The present incumbent is the Most 
 Rev. John Arthur Chollet, b. at Avocourt, 8 April, 
 1862, ordained 18 September, 1886, appointed to the 
 see of Verdun, 13 April, 1910, consecrated 29 June 
 following, promoted to Cambrai 20 November, 
 1913, installed 22 January, 1914, and published the 
 25 May following. 
 
 An event of special importance in the archdiocese 
 took place in 1920 when Sister Madeleine Fontaine 
 and her three companions, Marie Lanet, Therese 
 Fanton and Jeanne Girard were declared blessed. 
 These holy women were Sisters of Charity and had 
 nursed the sick and poor in a hospital at Arras dur¬ 
 ing the French Revolution. On refusing to take 
 the oath of allegiance, they were imprisoned, tried 
 and sentenced to death. By order of the ex-priest 
 Lebon, they were taken to Cambrai and executed 
 there on 26 June, 1794. The superior, Sister 
 Madeleine Fontaine, then 72 years of age, while 
 awaiting death, declared that she and her com¬ 
 panions would be the last victims at Cambrai. Her 
 prophecy was fulfilled as shortly thereafter the 
 downfall of Robespierre brought to an end the 
 Reign of Terror in France. The cause of these 
 saintly women was introduced at Rome 29 May, 
 1907, they were declared martyrs, with dispensation 
 of miracles, 6 June, 1919, and solemnly beatified 13 
 June, 1920. 
 
 The archdiocese contains (1921) 429 parishes, 35 
 deaneries, 685 secular priests, 12 Jesuits, 3 Marists; 
 
 2 convents of the Poor Clares, 2 of the Redemp- 
 torists; 1 of the Sisters of the Adoration, 2 congre¬ 
 gations who care for the sick and whose mother- 
 house is in the archdiocese. The diocesan seminary 
 has 115 students and the preparatory seminary, 103. 
 The following colleges and schools exist in the 
 archdiocese: 6 ecclesiastical colleges where the 
 teaching staff consists of 90 priests (1,520 students) ; 
 
 19 Catholic primary schools for boys, 81 for girls 
 with 278 teachers and 8,500 pupils. The large offi¬ 
 cial colleges also have a chaplain who gives re¬ 
 
 ligious instruction to those who desire it His 
 influence is unimportant. The Little Sisters of the 
 1 ooi take charge of 5 home's for the aged and 
 neaily all the hospitals, juvenile asylums, orphan- 
 ages, and creches are in charge of Sisters of the 
 various orders. With one or two exceptions these 
 institutions have a regularly appointed chaplain who 
 freely visits the sick. Ihe priests have formed two 
 associations called the Apostolic Union and the As¬ 
 sociation of St. Francis de Sales. The following 
 associations exist among the laity: Association of 
 Fathers of Families, Association of Catholic Com¬ 
 mittees, Association of Young Men, Patriotic League 
 of French Women and Association of Young 
 Women. There are 7 Catholic papers published in 
 the archdiocese. 
 
 Camerino, Archdiocese of (Camerinensis; cf. C. 
 E., HI—216d), in the province of Macerata, Central 
 Italy, directly subject to the Holy See, with the 
 perpetual administration of Treja. Rt. Rev. 
 Camillo Moreschini, appointed to this see 29 April 
 1909, d. 24 October, 1918, and was succeeded by 
 the present incumbent, Rt. Rev. Ettore Fronzi, 
 b. in Ostra, 1862, appointed Bishop of Cagli and 
 Pergola, 12 September, 1908, promoted 14 Decem¬ 
 ber, 1918. 
 
 By 1920 statistics Camerino has a Catholic popu¬ 
 lation of 84,900, 174 parishes, 242 secular and 40 
 regular clergy, 78 seminarians, and 174 churches or 
 chapels. Treja is credited with 9597 Catholics; 8 
 parishes, 30 secular priests, and 46 churches or 
 chapels. 
 
 Campanha, Diocese of (Campanhensis), in the 
 State of Minas Geraes, Brazil, suffragan of Mari¬ 
 anna. This see, erected 19 March, 1908 (see C.. E., 
 XVI-34) is still (1922) under the administration 
 of its first bishop, Rt. Rev. Juan d’Almeida Ferrao, 
 appointed 29 April, 1909. This territory includes 
 a population of 300,000, and 30 parishes. 
 
 Campeche, Diocese of (Campecorensis; cf. C. E., 
 III-222c), in the State of Campeche, Mexico, suf¬ 
 fragan of Yucatan. Rt. Rev. Vincent Castellanos 
 y Nunez appointed to this see 7 February, 1912, 
 was transferred 26 August, 1921, and the see is now 
 (1922) vacant. It comprises a total population of 
 100,000, of whom 80,000 are Catholics; 23 secular 
 priests, 8 seminarians, 14 parishes, 35 churches, 5 
 chapels, and 3 Catholic schools. 
 
 Campinas,^ Diocese of (Campinensis), in the 
 state of Sao Paulo, Brazil, suffragan of Sao 
 Paulo. This diocese, erected 7 June, 1908 (see C. 
 E., XVI-35), includes a territory of 6196 sq. miles 
 takes from the archdiocese of Sao Paulo. The 
 cathedral, dedicated to the Immaculate Conception, 
 was installed with a chapter of ten titular and ten 
 honorary canons, 3 November, 1909. According 
 to the 1916 census the diocese comprises a popula¬ 
 tion of 567,832; the 1920 statistics credit it with 
 39 parishes, 2 colleges, 67 churches, 294 chapels, 1 
 seminary, established in 1914, 7 convents of men 
 with 49 religious, 21 convents of women with 210 
 sisters, and 25 schools with 1454 boys and 1616 girls. 
 
 The present incumbent is Rt. Rev. Juan Bautista 
 Correa-Nery, the first bishop, appointed 3 August, 
 1907. He was named an assistant at the pontifical 
 throne in 1907 and again in 1915. He is assisted 
 by an auxiliary, Rt. Rev. Joachim Mamede da 
 Silva Leite, titular Bishop of Sebaste. 
 
 Campion College, situated in lower town of 
 Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, had its origin in an 
 independent school known as the Prairie du Chien 
 College. The project proved a failure after a very 
 short trial, and in 1871 the building passed into the 
 
CANADA 
 
 146 
 
 CANADA 
 
 i a n f rhristian Brothers who opened a Of the 1920 immigrants, 51 per cent came from 
 
 hands of the Christian tfrotneis, ^ „ ._v the United Kingdom; 42 per cent from the United 
 
 school under the name of St. John’s College. After ----- ~ “ent from other countries. They 
 
 SCUOOl UUUtJl tuc iio-p-xv, .-- - Y, r -l 
 
 five years, St. Johns 9Sl'® ge r I l!!?'„ e _„„ e 3.^ ,L= thon were "classificef according to occupation as follows: 
 
 ure and was closed in 1876. Tire property was then ^ e ““ an ‘d "labored, 317282; general laborers, 7,372; 
 
 Ult; cLJLLU. wa»o v^a - x x . - i non 
 
 purchased by Mr. John I^ler^and m 1880 pre- ^ traders, etc., 3,805; rnine^ 
 
 puruiiaaeu. uj —, - -,v 
 
 sented to the Jesuits, an t ra same^ yea^—^ domestics,’ 6,069;’not classified, 53,180. Of 
 
 Fathers of the Buffalo ’Mission^opened^the “Sacred t Y e 7 e Yhe“ Maritime Provinces received 5,554; Que- 
 
 Heart College” at Prairie du Chfen._ The^opemng g~.~ Qataria,''39,344;" Manitoba, 11,387; 
 
 neart cuiicgc au ~—r— j - 
 
 year there were 61 students, of whom 2o were :y g-^-^an, Alberta, 20,000; British Co- 
 
 lumbia and Yukon Territory, 13,686; total, 117,336 
 
 SC The 18 " first president was the Rev. William 
 Becker, S.J., who had been the founds and first 
 president of Canisius College, Buffalo. The faculty 
 of the new college also numbered among its mem- 
 
 The number of Chinese entering Canada has been 
 much reduced in recent years, owing to the opera¬ 
 tion of the order, renewed every six months since 
 
 bersTheRewforn H^“sXat"^t head of December, 1913,under which the landing in British 
 
 bers the Rev John Hagen 6^ J at prese ^ Columbia of skilled and unskilled artisans and 
 
 the Papal Observatory at Borne. At tne ena . nrohihit _ d _ In the fiscal vea r 1920 the 
 
 Hit; x aycii wuoui v aowij ^^ ~ 1 i • 
 
 Father Becker’s presidency the number had so in 
 creased that in 1884 a new building was added, and 
 that same year saw the first classical graduates o 
 the college. But in spite of this apparent success 
 undergraduate classes were discontinued from 18 
 
 98 U to ailorthe7e°s1rits'to the buddings for the Asiatic immigration, 
 higher studies of members of the order. In 1898 
 
 laborers is prohibited. In the fiscal year 1920 the 
 number of Chinese who paid head tax was 363, 
 as compared with 4,006 in 1919. In November, 1921, 
 British Columbia petitioned the Dominion Gov¬ 
 ernment to take measures for the exclusion of 
 
 nigner siuuies ui mcmuoiu , 
 
 the college again opened its doors and in 1JU1 tne 
 
 Rev. Ulrich Heinzel, S.J., became president, to be 
 
 succeeded in 1904 by the Rev. Joseph L. Spaeth, b. J. 
 Another building was added to the rapidly growing 
 college about this time, and again m 1910, alter 
 the Rev. Jos. M. Homing, S.J., had become 
 president, another wing was added. Upon Earner 
 Horning’s death in 1911, the Rev George R. Kis- 
 ter, S.J., succeeded him and presided over the col¬ 
 lege until March, 1918, when the present head ot 
 the college, the Rev. Albert C. Fox became president. 
 
 In 1913 the corporate name of the school was 
 changed to “Campion College of the Sacred Heart. 
 
 The Indian population by provinces in 1917 was 
 as follows: Prince Edward Island, 292; Nova Scotia, 
 2,031; New Brunswick, 1,846; Quebec, 13,366; On- 
 taria, 26,411; Manitoba, 11,583; Saskatchewan, 10,- 
 646; Alberta, 8,837; British Columbia, 25,694; 
 Yukon, 1,528; Northwest Territories, 3,764; total, 
 105,998. The Eskimos numbered 3,296. Of the 
 total acreage of Indian reservations (4,860,675 acres) 
 2,143,708 acres were cleared but not cultivated, and 
 210,024 acres were cultivated; the value of the 
 lands in 1919 was 51,535,245. During 1919 crops to 
 the value of 3,462,147 were raised by the Indians, 
 the corresponding value for 1918 was $3,142,046. 
 They owned 35,285 horses, 52,522 head of cattle, 
 
 The^isuaf cuSculum 'of ’aU" Jesuit colleges is fol- and; 117,453 poultry, the total,.value of the live 
 
 lowed: the faculty, members, 15, and the total en¬ 
 rollment of students for 1920-21 is 101. 
 
 Canada (cf. C. E., III-227b).—The area of Can¬ 
 ada is 3,603,336 sq. miles of land and 12b,329 sq. 
 miles of water, a total of 3,729,665 square miles. 
 The following table shows the population ot tne 
 
 
 1921 
 
 1911 
 
 Per Cent of Increase 
 
 New Brunswick. 
 
 388,092 
 
 351,092 
 
 10.29 
 
 Nova Scotia ... 
 
 524,579 
 
 492,338 
 
 6.55 
 
 Prince Edward 
 Island. 
 
 88,536 
 
 93,728 
 
 5.54 (decrease) 
 
 Alberta . 
 
 581,995 
 
 374,663 
 
 55.34 
 
 Manitoba. 
 
 613,008 
 
 461,630 
 
 32.79 
 
 British Colum¬ 
 bia . 
 
 523,369 
 
 392,480 
 
 33.34 
 
 Quebec . 
 
 Ontario . 
 
 2,349,067 
 
 2,005,776 
 
 17.11 
 
 2,929,054 
 
 2,523,274 
 
 17.25 
 
 stock and poultry being $4,443,970. For Indian edu¬ 
 cational purposes appropriations were made by 
 Parliament for the year 1919-20, amounted to $1,- 
 057,663. There were 321 schools with 12,196 pupils. 
 The religious census of the Indians 31 March, 1917, 
 is given as follows: Anglican, 20,183; Presbyterian, 
 2,155; Methodist, 12,820; Catholic, 43,986; Baptist, 
 1,297; other Christian beliefs, 1,426; aboriginal be¬ 
 liefs, 8,414. 
 
 Agriculture. —The total value of the annual farm 
 production of Canada in 1920 was $1,455,244,650. 
 The production of wheat was 263,189,300 bushels 
 from 18,232,374 acres, an average of 14.5 bushels 
 per acre. The following list of exports reveals the 
 extent of Canadian commerce: 
 
 lhe largest cities wiui men pupuiauvu.*.... 
 treal, 607,063; Toronto, 293,571; Winnipeg, 178,364; 
 Vancouver, 116,700; Ottawa, 10 7 , 13 7 ; Haimlton, 
 81,969 (1911); Quebec, 94,058; Halifax, 5 ?,674; Cal¬ 
 gary, 63,117; Victoria, 38,682; Edmonton, 58 627. 
 
 Immigration slackened between 1914 and 1920, as 
 the following figures attest:__ 
 
 Total exportation... 
 
 Field products.--- 
 
 Animals and animal 
 
 products . 
 
 Cheese . 
 
 Forest products. 
 
 Mineral products... 
 
 Manufactures . 
 
 Fisheries . 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 $1,586,169,792 
 
 577,750,350 
 
 $1,268,765,285 
 
 292,557,383 
 
 $1,286,658,709 
 
 368,797,221 
 
 179,868,168 
 
 36,277,359 
 
 51,960,349 
 
 75,688,875 
 
 660,840,430 
 
 33,221,175 
 
 207,285,492 
 
 35,223,983 
 
 70,596,199 
 
 80,707,211 
 
 571,498,678 
 
 37,869,394 
 
 266,037,489 
 
 36,336,863 
 
 105,546,780 
 
 62,821,963 
 
 435,121,936 
 
 42,546,979 
 
 United 
 
 Kingdom 
 
 United 
 
 States 
 
 Other 
 
 Countries 
 
 1914. 
 
 142,622 
 
 107,530 
 
 134,726 
 
 1915. 
 
 43,276 
 
 59,779 
 
 41,734 
 
 1916. 
 
 8,664 
 
 36,937 
 
 2,936 
 
 1917 . 
 
 8,282 
 
 61,389 
 
 5,703 
 
 1918. 
 
 3,178 
 
 71,314 
 
 4,582 
 
 1919. 
 
 9,914 
 
 40,715 
 
 7,073 
 
 1920 . 
 
 59,603 
 
 49,656 
 
 8,077 
 
 Total 
 
 384,878 
 
 144,789 
 
 48 ; 537 
 
 75,374 
 
 79,074 
 
 57,702 
 
 117,336 
 
 Forestry.— Statistics of the lumber industry in 
 1917 reveal a capital of $149,266,019; employees on 
 salaries, 3,159; payment of salaries, $4,781,300; em¬ 
 ployees on wages, 53,318; wages, $34,412,411; cost of 
 materials, $58,403,316; value of products, $68,815,472. 
 
 In 1919 the income from the lumber industry was 
 estimated at $122,359,748, distributed as follows 
 Ontario, $33,671,334; British Columbia, $32,540,244 
 Quebec, $30,195,646; New Brunswick, $16,477,477 
 Nova Scotia, $6,262,745; Saskatchewan, $1,326,668 
 Manitoba, $937,679; Alberta, $696,518; Prince Ed 
 ward Island, $238,687; Yukon, $12,680. 
 
CANADA 
 
 147 
 
 CANADA 
 
 The crownlands of Canada are situated in the 
 ITairie Provinces, in the Dominion Railway Belt of 
 British Columbia, and in a block in northern 
 British Columbia, containing 3,500,000 acres, known 
 as the Peace River Block. A total of 120,894,407 
 acres have been alienated from the Crown. In the 
 Maritime Provinces, in Quebec, Ontaria, and British 
 Columbia, the public lands are administered by the 
 provincial governments. In Nova Scotia the total 
 area of the crownlands is 816,862 acres; in New 
 Brunswick, 7,250,000 acres. In Quebec 6,330,751 
 acres of public lands are subdivided and unsold. 
 
 Fisheries.— The capital invested in the sea fish¬ 
 eries of Canada in 1919 was $27,189,212; in the inland 
 fisheries, $4,186,940; in fish-canning and curing es¬ 
 tablishments, $23,200,874; total of capital invested 
 in fisheries, $54,577,026. In the sea fisheries 58,885 
 persons were employed; in the inland fisheries, 
 8,919; in the fish-canning establishments, 18,356. 
 The value of the products of the fishing industry 
 in 1919 was $56,508,479; in 1918, $60,250,544. In 
 1920 the salmon fisheries of British Columbia 
 brought $15,129,348. In the same year the chief 
 exports went to the United Kingdom ($9,890,805), 
 the United States ($18,568,264), Cuba ($2,387,528), 
 Australia ($538,566), British West Indies ($1,662,- 
 398), and Porto Rico ($1,301,354). The value of 
 the fishing boats, nets, traps, and wharves in 1920 
 was $29,893,213. 
 
 Mines.— Mineral production reached $217,775,080 
 in 1920, the highest figure on record. British Co¬ 
 lumbia, with $33,296,313, ranked the highest in the 
 value of minerals produced. Gold brought $15,- 
 853,478; nickel, $24,454,597; copper, $14,166,479; 
 coal, $76,326,853; asbestos, $13,677,841; Portland 
 cement, $14,798,070. 
 
 Manufactures.— The statistics of manufactures 
 in 1918 revealed 678,337 employees, earning in 
 salaries and wages $629,790,644; turning out products 
 worth $3,458,036,975; the capital invested was $3,- 
 034,301,915, and the cost of materials $1,900,252,314. 
 Ontario ranked first in the value of products, 
 $1,809,067,001; Quebec second with $920,621,171; and 
 British Columbia third with $216,175,517. 
 
 Commerce.— The imports from the United King¬ 
 dom into Canada in 1921 totaled in value $213,- 
 944,814; from the United States, $856,613,430; from 
 all other countries, $169,600,638; total, $1,240,158,- 
 882. The exports to the United Kingdom from 
 Canada totaled $489,152,637; to the United States, 
 $464,028,183; other countries, $286,311,278. The 
 total commerce aggregated $2,450,587,001. The 
 duty collected on imports in 1921 was $179,658,474. 
 
 Transportation. —The increase in railroad mile¬ 
 age in 1919 was the smallest in recent years, owing 
 to the scarcity of capital, being 17; in 1918 it was 
 275; 1917, 1,170; 1916, 1,852; 1915, 4,787; 1914, 1,491; 
 1913, 2,577. The total mileage in actual operation 
 in 1919 was 38,896; the total capitalization $2,009,- 
 209,510. In 1903 the Dominion Government under¬ 
 took the construction of the eastern division of the 
 National Transcontinental Railway from Moncton, 
 N. B., to Winnipeg, to be leased to the Grand 
 Trunk Pacific Railway for fifty years. Upon the 
 failure of the latter to take over the operation of 
 the road, when completed, the Government under¬ 
 took its operation. The Prince Edward Island Rail¬ 
 way is also the property of the Dominion Govern¬ 
 ment. In 1917 by an Act of Parliament the Do¬ 
 minion acquired the capital stock of the Canadian 
 Northern Railway Company (9,566.5 miles). In 
 1918 the Quebec and Saguenay Railway (62 miles) 
 was purchased by the Government, and in 1919 
 the Lotbiniere and Megantic Railway (30 miles). 
 The land subsidies granted to railways up to 30 
 
 June, 1919, extends to 56,237,383 acres; the total 
 value of public aid, $275,163,228 (exclusive of the 
 capital of the two government railways), of which 
 $219,077,163 represents aid granted by the Dominion 
 Government, $17,914,836 by municipalities, and $38,- 
 171,229 by Provincial Governments. During the 
 year ending 30 June, 1919, loans of $25,000,000 were 
 made to the Canadian Northern Railway and of 
 $7,500,000 to the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway. 
 
 Finance.— The gross debt on 21 March, 1921, 
 amounted to $3,014,483,774, and the net debt to 
 $1,935,946,313. On 31 July, 1920, the net debt was 
 $2,234,496,916. The total war expenditure down to 
 31 March, 1920, was about $1,670,000,000. 
 
 Education.— Education is more or less com¬ 
 pulsory, but the law is not very strictly enforced. 
 In Ontario, Quebec, Alberta, and Saskatchewan 
 there are separate schools for Catholics; in the 
 other provinces the schools are non-sectarian. The 
 following are the latest statistics: 
 
 Provinces 
 
 Year 
 
 Ended 
 
 Schools 
 
 Teachers 
 
 Pupils 
 
 Expendi¬ 
 
 ture 
 
 Ontario . 
 
 Quebec . 
 
 Nova Scotia.... 
 New Brunswick 
 
 Manitoba . 
 
 British Col’bia 
 P. E. Island... 
 
 Alberta . 
 
 Saskatchewan... 
 
 Total . 
 
 Dec., 1918 
 June,1918 
 July, 1919 
 June, 1919 
 June,1919 
 June,1919 
 June, 1919 
 Dec., 1918 
 Dec., 1918 
 
 6,995 
 
 7,244 
 
 1,797 
 
 1,299 
 
 2,017 
 
 582 
 
 475 
 
 2,966 
 
 4,145 
 
 27,520 
 
 14,357 
 
 16,995 
 
 3,012 
 
 2,107 
 
 3,215 
 
 2,332 
 
 606 
 
 5,652 
 
 6,223 
 
 54,499 
 
 564,655 
 
 475,219 
 
 106,982 
 
 71,029 
 
 114,662 
 
 72,006 
 
 17,865 
 
 111,109 
 
 151,326 
 
 1,684,853 
 
 $18,558,890 
 
 14,482,870 
 
 2,097,593 
 
 1,530,256 
 
 5,313,307 
 
 4,228,720 
 
 285,960 
 
 4,843,890 
 
 6,867,515 
 
 $58,339,001 
 
 
 
 Canada’s recent interest in technical education is 
 evidenced by the Act of 1919, providing for aid to 
 the provinces in promoting and assisting technical 
 education in Canada by annual grants, beginning 
 at $700,000 and aggregating $10,000,000 within a 
 period of ten years. Out of the annual grant each 
 province is to receive $10,000, while the balance is 
 to be divided among the provinces in proportion 
 to their population as shown in the last decennial 
 census. The benefits of the Act are extended to 
 persons over fourteen years who are not provided 
 for by the ordinary day schools, and includes also 
 agricultural studies, the training of nurses and 
 teachers for ordinary schools and all work of uni¬ 
 versity grade. The remarkable growth of expendi¬ 
 ture on public education is seen in the increase 
 between 1901, when it was $11,751,625, and 1919, 
 when it was $72,992,667. For twenty-one of the 
 twenty-two universities in Canada, the total value 
 of the endowments and property in land, buildings, 
 equipment, etc. (1920), amounted to $56,830,727; 
 the total income $7,039,089, of which $1,507,579 was 
 derived from fees and the balance from invest¬ 
 ments, government grants, and other sources. The 
 total expenditure was $6,542,213, and the total num¬ 
 ber of students 28,486. Adding to these the 10,057 
 students attending the professional colleges in the 
 same year, the grand total of students in attend¬ 
 ance at Canadian institutions of higher education 
 was 38,543. 
 
 The successive waves of immigration into Canada 
 during the last decade have created some perplex¬ 
 ing situations in the educational status. Twenty-six 
 racial entities are now represented, whereas there 
 used to be only two, the English and French. In 
 the Maritime Provinces of Prince Edward Island, 
 New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia the religious and 
 educational relations between the English and 
 French have been amicable; in Nova Scotia French 
 readers are provided for French-speaking children 
 
CANADA 
 
 148 
 
 CANADA 
 
 with instruction in English, and English-speaking 
 teachers are not required to know French. I he 
 line of cleavage is very sharp in Quebec where 
 English is taught in Protestant schools and French 
 in Catholic schools, although a confusing element 
 intervenes in the English-speaking Irish population 
 of Quebec and Montreal. The Protestant com¬ 
 mittee of the Provincial Board of Education wisely 
 insisted on French courses of study in the Protestant 
 schools in certain grades; similarly the ^atholic 
 schools are required to use English m the first 
 year In Ontario the English-speaking population 
 ‘(about 2,000,000) has a greater majority over those 
 speaking over languages (500,000). The same lan¬ 
 guage privileges as in Quebec are allowed to the 
 minority, but the people have never succeeded in 
 enacting the same concessions into law. In recent 
 years there has been an influx of French-speaking 
 settlers into Ontario, displacing the English-speak¬ 
 ing farmers. Nevertheless, regulations of increasing 
 severity, requiring the teaching of English m all 
 the schools, passed by the Department of Educa¬ 
 tion, led in 1915 and 1916 to acute and m some 
 localities disastrous situations in French schools 
 and school boards. The trouble was settled in 
 November, 1916, by the judgment of the Privy 
 Council of the Dominion, which held that the right 
 to the use of a certain language concerned only 
 legislative or court use and did not relate to educa¬ 
 tion, but that the right to manage schools as well 
 as that to determine the language to be used in 
 them were alike subject to the regulations of the 
 provincial education departments. The problem in 
 the Prairie Provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, 
 and British Columbia is due to the successive waves 
 of immigration which followed each other too 
 rapidly to be assimilated. Of Manitoba s estimated 
 one million, there are nineteen non-English racial 
 units, six of which number more than 50,000. Each 
 race took advantage of the compromise of 189b, 
 which allowed bilingual teaching in localities where 
 ten pupils spoke French or other language than 
 English. In 1915 nearly one-sixth of the schools 
 of Manitoba were bilingual, 143 teaching French, 70 
 German, 121 Polish or Ruthenian, in addition to 
 English. In 1915 the clause allowing bilingual 
 schools was repealed. In Saskatchewan a new 
 School Attendance Act was passed in 1917, requir¬ 
 ing the parent or guardians to send the children 
 to public school “unless the child was under instruc¬ 
 tion in some satisfactory manner.” In Alberta the 
 refusal of the supervisor of foreign schools in 1914 
 to recognize certain schools, which were considered 
 below the prescribed standard of efficiency, resulted 
 in the closing of almost all the Ruthenian schools 
 and of many German-Lutheran private schools, con¬ 
 ducted by theological students from Lutheran col¬ 
 leges in the United States. The racial groups in 
 British Columbia have been too small to cause any 
 trouble in the matter of language instruction in 
 
 public schools. . . 
 
 Government. —The new status of the Dominion 
 of Canada can be seen in the signing by the 
 Canadian ministers of the Peace Treaties with Ger¬ 
 many and Austria in behalf of Canada and the 
 representation of Canada in Washington by her 
 own resident minister. Women have the vote and 
 are eligible for election to Parliament. In the lattei 
 part of 1920 there was an increasing demand for 
 the right of Canada to amend her own constitution 
 without applying to the king and his advisers. In 
 this Quebec did not participate because her lan¬ 
 guage and civil law rights are guaranteed against 
 aggression so long as the consent of the British 
 Parliament is required for amendments. 
 
 The Naval Service of Canada, established by the 
 Naval Service Act of 1910, is divided into eight 
 branches: naval, fisheries, fisheries’ protection, radio- 
 telegraphy, patrol of northern waters, tidal and 
 current survey, hydrographic survey, and life-saving 
 service. At the outbreak of the war two submarines 
 built at Seattle, U. S. A., for Chile were acquired 
 by the Canadian Government, and were brought to 
 the naval base at Esquimalt, B. C.; the Canadian 
 Naval Service was placed legally at the king’s dis¬ 
 posal, the “Rainbow” being already in commission 
 off the Pacific Coast, and the “Niobe” was rapidly 
 commissioned and put out to sea off the Atlantic 
 coast. In 1920 the nucleus of the Canadian fleet 
 was formed by the gift of Great Britain of the light 
 cruiser “Aurora,” the destroyers “Patriot” and 
 “Patrician,” and two submarines. 
 
 War History. —At the outbreak of the European 
 War in 1914, steps were taken to organize a Ca¬ 
 nadian expeditionary force, and volunteer troops 
 comprising cavalry, artillery, and infantry, num¬ 
 bering, with subsidiary units, upwards of 35,000 
 officers and men, were speedily assembled for pre¬ 
 liminary training at Valcartier, Quebec. Within 
 ten days the first contingent of over 33,000 troops 
 embarked on transports at Quebec and crossed the 
 Atlantic under convoy of the British navy. After 
 the completion of their training on Salisbury Plain 
 they arrived in France in February, 1915. Proceed¬ 
 ing to Flanders they speedily entered into the fight, 
 and during the spring and summer were engaged 
 in four principal battles: Neuve-Chapelle, Ypres, 
 Festubert, and Givenchy. The second division of 
 Canadian troops landed in England on 6 March, 
 and in November a third division was accepted by 
 the imperial authorities. At the end of 1915 
 Canada’s military contribution amounted to 212,- 
 690 troops out of an authorized total of 250,000. 
 Legal measures were taken to increase it to 500,000. 
 In 1916 Lieut.-General the Honorable Sir Julian 
 Byng was appointed to succeed General Alderson 
 in command of the Canadian troops at the front, 
 and in June, 1917, on his promotion to command 
 the Third Army, he was succeeded by Major Gen¬ 
 eral Sir Arthur Currie. After the second battle of 
 Ypres the Canadian troops were occupied for some 
 months chiefly with minor operations and raids, but 
 they also took part in the severe fighting at St. 
 Eloi in April, 1916, at Sanctuary Wood m June, 
 1916, and on the Somme in September, 1916. In 
 1917 the Canadian troops bore a brilliant part in 
 the victory of Vimy (April), and distinguished 
 themselves also at Arleux-en-Gohelle and Fresnoy. 
 Shifting north towards Lens in June and July they 
 battled hard against the Germans, attacking and 
 capturing the famous Hill 70 near Loos. In Sep¬ 
 tember they moved toward Ypres where four at¬ 
 tacks made~ in the last days of October and early 
 in November resulted in the capture of Passchen- 
 daele and the highly important ground on which 
 the village stands. In addition to the combatant 
 troops valuable services were rendered by the 
 Canadian Forestry and Railway Corps, also by the 
 Aviation Corps. In 1918 the Canadian troops dis¬ 
 tinguished themselves in the battle of Amiens 
 (6-10 August), the capture of Monchy-le-Preux 
 (26-28 August), the breaking of the Drocourt- 
 Queant line (2-4 September), the crossing of the 
 Canal-du-Nord and the capture of Bourlon Wood 
 (27-29 September), the capture of Cambrai (1-9 
 October), the capture of Denain (20 October), the 
 capture of Valenciennes (2 November), and the 
 capture of Mons (10 November). Up to 31 De- 
 cember, 1918, the casualties among the Canadian 
 Expeditionary Forces numbered 9,989 officers and 
 
CANADA 
 
 149 
 
 CANADA 
 
 204,397 men, including 2,456 officers and 45,630 
 men who were killed in action or died of wounds; 
 220 officers and 5,185 men who died of diseases; 
 7,130 officers and 148,669 men wounded and 183 
 officers and 4,913 men presumed dead and missing. 
 In addition there were 2,221 deaths in Canada and 
 the prisoners of war numbered 3,575, of whom 2,508 
 were repatriated, escaped, or died while prisoners. 
 
 When the war broke out in August, 1914, Canada 
 had a permanent force of only 3,000 men and an 
 active militia of only 60,000. When hostilities 
 ceased Canada had enlisted 595,441 men and had 
 equipped and sent overseas 418,052 troops. The 
 total value of war orders placed in Canada by the 
 imperial government was about $1,200,000,000, and 
 of this amount half was lent by the Dominion of 
 Canada to the British Government. Up to Novem¬ 
 ber, 1918, the total outlay for the war was approxi¬ 
 mately $1,068,607,000. For the Red Cross and other 
 war charities was raised the sum of $98,714,933. 
 The ship-building contracts aggregated $70,000,000, 
 and the war loans totaled $2,636,000,000, besides the 
 war savings stamp issue of $50,000,000. In 1915 
 munitions to the value of $57,213,688 were exported 
 from Canada; in 1916, $296,505,257; in 1917, $388,- 
 213,553; in 1918, $260,711,751. 
 
 To facilitate the return of the soldier to civil 
 life a Soldiers’ Civil Re-establishment Department 
 was created on 24 May, 1918; to assist him in set¬ 
 tling on the land and to increase agricultural pro¬ 
 duction, the Soldier Settlement Act was passed in 
 February, 1918. Up to 1920 there were 14,072 
 settlers on purchased lands, with loans of $69,- 
 259,608, 1,964 on encumbered lands with loans of 
 $4,742,778, and 3,735 settlers on Dominion lands 
 with loans of $6,369,364. By order of Council all 
 Dominion lands within a radius of fifteen miles of 
 any railway were reserved for returned soldiers. 
 The total area already occupied by soldier settlers 
 under the Act is 4,854,799 acres. Canada’s pension 
 bill for the year, from 1 September, 1920, to 31 
 August, 1921, amounted to $34,000,000, there being 
 approximately 85,000 disability and dependent pen¬ 
 sions and gratuities paid, and 177,000 persons bene¬ 
 fited. A special preference in respect to vacancies 
 in the service of the Dominion Government was 
 extended to returned soldiers in February, 1918. 
 
 Ecclesiastical History.— In 1910 the Interna¬ 
 tional Eucharistic Congress was held in Montreal, 
 attended by the Papal Legate, Cardinal Vannutelli, 
 all the bishops of Canada and the United States 
 and many from Europe, about 4,000 priests and 
 more than 500,000 visitors. Two years later the 
 Congres de la Langue Frangaise en Amerique was 
 convened in the same city, and a permanent com¬ 
 mittee formed to safeguard the use of French in 
 
 the schools. On 25 May, 1914, Mgr. Louis-Nazaire 
 Begin, Archbishop of Quebec, was raised to the 
 cardinalate by Pope Pius X with the title of Sts. 
 Vitale, Gei vasius and Protasius. The following 
 > ear the National Congress of Priests Adorers of 
 the Blessed Sacrament was held at Montreal, in 
 which twenty-four bishops and hundreds of priests 
 participated. 
 
 In Octobei, 1916, the Bishops of Canada received 
 a letter from the pope regretting the division 
 amongst Canadian Catholics concerning the use of 
 French in schools and parishes of provinces in which 
 the majority is English, and affirming the right of 
 the French to insist on their rights in this respect. 
 In the same year a monument commemorating the 
 third centenary of the establishment of the Faith 
 in Canada was erected on the site of the convent 
 and Church of the Recollets, the first missionaries 
 to Canada. 
 
 . I* 1 January, 1917, the twelve bishops of the prov¬ 
 ince of Ontario, French and English, signed an im¬ 
 portant document begging the majority in the 
 province to consider in a sympathetic way the 
 aspirations and demands of their French fellow- 
 citizens with regard to the establishing and func¬ 
 tioning of bilingual schools, permitting them to 
 obtain a suitable knowledge of French with a per¬ 
 fect knowledge of English. By disregarding the 
 French minority, politicians threatened to undo the 
 work of union accomplished in the Catholic Con¬ 
 federation of Canada. Since 1913 the school laws 
 for the province of Ontario permitted the inspector 
 of Catholic bilingual schools to be a Protestant and 
 made such restrictions in the teaching of French 
 that the situation became intolerable. A second 
 papal letter recognized the right of the French in 
 the province to demand the use of their mother- 
 tongue in primary education, the faculty of desig¬ 
 nating by elected commissioners the schools which 
 should be under bilingual regime, and normal 
 schools for the formation of bilingual teachers, and 
 permitted an appeal to the civil authorities with 
 the approbation of the bishop. 
 
 During the course of the year 1919 the Dominion 
 entertained three distinguished visitors in the per¬ 
 sons of General Pau, Cardinal Mercier, and the 
 Prince of Wales, and celebrated the centenary of 
 the birth of Georges-Etienne Cartier. The first 
 Semaine Sociale was held in Canada 21-25 June 
 1920. In 1918 Mgr. Petrus di Maria, formerly 
 bishop of Catanzaro in Calabria, was appointed 
 titular Archbishop of Iconium and Delegate Apos¬ 
 tolic to Canada and Newfoundland to succeed Mgr. 
 Stagni. The Dominion is divided ecclesiastically 
 into eleven provinces. For statistics see following 
 table and separate articles on listed dioceses: 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL STATISTICS 
 
 
 Vicariates Apostolic 
 
 Archdioceses, Dioceses, 
 
 Date of 
 
 Erection 
 
 
 Catholic 
 
 Population 
 
 Secular 
 
 Priests 
 
 Regular 
 
 Priests 
 
 Communities 1 
 
 of Men 
 
 Communities 
 of Women 
 
 Parishes 
 
 Churches 
 and Chapels 
 
 Convents and 
 Academies 
 
 Charitable 
 
 Institutions 
 
 Colleges and 
 Seminaries 
 
 Quebec < 
 
 [Vic. Ap. 
 
 Bishopric . 
 
 1657' 
 
 1674 
 
 ► 
 
 404,000 
 
 541 
 
 103 
 
 20 
 
 29 
 
 234 
 
 260 
 
 190 
 
 37 
 
 6 
 
 [Archbishopric . 
 
 Three Rivers. 
 
 1844 
 
 1852 
 
 
 108,067 
 
 131 
 
 24 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 56 
 
 80 
 
 17 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 Rimouski . 
 
 1867 
 
 
 145,085 
 
 164 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 98 
 
 135 
 
 26 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 Chicoutimi . 
 
 1878 
 
 
 94,475 
 
 141 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 63 
 
 68 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 IN icolet 
 
 
 1885 
 
 
 90,304 
 
 164 
 
 • • • 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 68 
 
 70 
 
 38 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 Gulf of St. Lawrence, Vic. Ap. 
 
 1906 
 
 
 9,650 
 
 ... 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 • • • 
 
 11 
 
 19 
 
 1 
 
 
 
CANADA 150 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL STATISTICS—Continued 
 
 CANARY 
 
 Vicariates Apostolic 
 
 Archdioceses, Dioceses, 
 
 Date of 
 
 Erection 
 
 Catholic 
 
 Population 
 
 Secular 
 
 Priests 
 
 Priests 
 
 Regular 
 
 Communities 
 
 of Men 
 
 Communities 
 
 of Women 
 
 Parishes 
 
 - . 1 
 
 Churches 
 and Chapels 
 
 Convents and 
 
 Academies 
 
 Charitable 
 
 Institutions 
 
 ."Inllpcrps and 
 
 
 1836* 
 
 633,538 
 
 530 
 
 219 
 
 358 
 
 23 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 191 
 
 138 
 
 188 
 
 92 
 
 Montreal j Archbishopric . 
 
 1886) 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 >7 a 
 
 *79 
 
 A4 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 
 1852 
 
 120,254 
 
 100,000 
 
 61,366 
 
 64,500 
 
 4 
 
 o 
 
 4 
 
 a 
 
 /O 
 
 q£ 
 
 /2 
 
 Q 1 
 
 04 
 
 22 
 
 bt>. il}' ctClilXilC . 
 
 18/ 4 
 
 123 
 
 18 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 A 
 
 50 
 
 qq 
 
 41 
 
 IQ 
 
 4 
 
 
 1892 
 
 96 
 
 1 z 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 Q 
 
 
 41 
 
 £Q 
 
 ±i/ 
 
 23 
 
 14 
 
 
 1904 
 
 1847* 
 
 1886) 
 
 130 
 
 19 
 
 3 
 
 O 
 
 40 
 
 OO 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 137,900 
 
 38,500 
 
 41,179 
 
 38,826 
 
 10,000 
 
 154 
 
 175 
 
 11 
 
 19 
 
 91 
 
 105 
 
 21 
 
 1 ) .DloIlU J J11C . 
 
 58 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 07 
 
 za 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 
 1898 
 
 • • • 
 
 A 
 
 • • • 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 X 
 
 64 
 
 4ft 
 
 04 
 
 4ft 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 
 1915 
 
 54 
 
 err* 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 7 
 
 QQ 
 
 49 
 
 17 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 xlaiieyDuiy . 
 
 1913 
 
 1919 
 
 oZ 
 
 11 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 o 
 
 G*J 
 
 Q 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 u 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 Ontario, lNortnein, nei. avp. 
 
 1841* 
 
 1870) 
 
 85,000 
 
 65,000 
 
 70,000 
 
 113 
 
 46 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 80 
 
 112 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 y i ^ i \ ijlSIlOpi lb 
 
 45 
 
 OQ 
 
 ar 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 K 
 
 (ArcnDi&iiopi ic . 
 
 1856 
 
 25 
 
 oo 
 
 3 
 
 OO 
 
 7Q 
 
 OU 
 
 86 
 
 ly 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 
 1855 
 
 1826* 
 
 1889) 
 
 oo 
 
 OO 
 
 1 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 43,000 
 
 27,000 
 
 21,000 
 
 45,000 
 
 57 
 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 41 
 
 69 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 Kingston < Amhhishopric . 
 
 33 
 
 OO 
 
 1 
 
 
 i 
 
 99 
 
 sn 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 1882 
 
 1890 
 
 1904 
 
 1842* 
 
 1852) 
 
 • • • 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 17 
 
 OU 
 
 93 
 
 • • • 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 ZZ 
 
 OI 
 
 OQ 
 
 • • • 
 
 1 
 
 & 
 
 A 
 
 1 4 
 
 4ft 
 
 87 
 
 
 31 
 
 33 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 4U 
 
 O 4 
 
 
 
 bciUlt OillIllG .. 
 
 55,000 
 
 50.000 
 
 65.000 
 
 87,000 
 
 75,249 
 
 70 
 
 24 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 37 
 
 86 
 
 16 
 
 • • • 
 
 
 69 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 qq 
 
 
 Q 
 
 9 
 
 
 1829 
 
 
 1 
 
 O 
 
 Q 
 
 oo 
 
 ac. 
 
 OU 
 
 Iftft 
 
 u 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 Enariottetown . 
 
 1842 
 
 57 
 
 1 AO 
 
 2 d 
 
 i 
 
 u 
 
 K 
 
 40 
 
 72 
 
 1UU 
 
 7ft 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 
 1844 
 
 1852 
 
 1847* 
 
 lUo 
 
 >70 
 
 A O 
 
 Q 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 4 £ 
 
 KQ 
 
 107 
 
 13 
 
 
 73 
 
 43 
 
 6 
 
 o 
 
 Oo 
 
 1U 4 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 35,000 
 
 61 
 
 56 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 43 
 
 103 
 
 5 
 
 St. Boniface ] Archbishopric . 
 
 1871) 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 OO 
 
 
 
 (Axl CIlDloIlupi. 
 
 1910 
 
 5,100 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 • • • 
 
 33 
 
 • • • 
 
 • • • 
 
 Keewatm, vicai. .. 
 
 1890* 
 
 38,000 
 
 20 
 
 35 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 29 
 
 122 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 
 1908) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1847) 
 
 10,000 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 OQ 
 
 7 
 
 a 
 
 
 1903) 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 23 
 
 
 U 
 
 V ictoria i Arcnoisnopi io . 
 
 1908J 
 
 7,100 
 
 12 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 0*7 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 1916 
 
 • • • 
 
 3 
 
 • • • 
 
 27 
 
 3 
 
 i 
 
 Yukon ana Prince rtupeit, v io. rvy . 
 
 1910* 
 
 72,500 
 
 72 
 
 43 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 
 76 
 
 76 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 -j-w • ) JDlSllOpi 1C . 
 
 1915) 
 
 1 
 
 54 
 
 i r*A 
 
 1 O 
 
 c 
 
 
 1907 
 
 32,000 
 
 28 
 
 48 
 
 IZ\) 
 
 AA 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 q 
 
 
 1915 
 
 40,000 
 
 39 
 
 20 
 
 84 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 60 
 £ £ 
 
 yu 
 
 ii n 
 
 11 
 
 IQ 
 
 o 
 
 19 
 
 
 1912 
 
 40,526 
 
 33 
 
 / 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 o 
 
 33 
 
 25 
 
 i a 
 
 I IU 
 
 61 
 1 £ 
 
 iy 
 
 *7 
 
 q 
 
 Edmonton, ArciiDisnopiie. 
 
 1912 
 
 30,006 
 
 23 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 *7 
 
 3 
 
 Calgary .... 
 
 1862 
 
 12,006 
 
 1 
 
 25 
 
 IS 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 ID 
 
 IC 
 
 1 r 
 
 4 
 
 A 
 
 • • • 
 
 o 
 
 AtnaDasKa, vie. .. 
 
 Mackenzie, Vic. Ap . 
 
 . 1901 
 
 4,506 
 
 ... 
 
 ] 
 
 • • • 
 
 L 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Canary Islands (cf. C. E., III-243b).—The Canary 
 Islands, with an area of 3342 square miles, consist 
 of the following: Teneriffe, 919 square miles; Grand 
 Canary, 631 square miles; Palma, 318 square miles; 
 Lanzarote, 380; Gomera 172; Fuereventura, 788, 
 Hierro 122. The population m 1914 was esti¬ 
 mated’ at 478,500, including about 300 British m 
 Las Palmas. The chief towns are Santa Cruz 
 (population 61,000), the capital of the Canaries, San 
 Cristobal de la Laguna (population 16,000), Las 
 Palmas (population 60,000), the chief commercial 
 town and the judicial capital of the archipelago, 
 and Arucas (population about 9500), the chief 
 center of the cochineal and sugar industries, ror 
 administrative purposes the Canary" Islands are 
 treated as a province of Spain, under a governor 
 
 who resides at Teneriffe. 
 
 The Diocese of Canaries (Canariensis), com¬ 
 prises the whole archipelago of the Canary Islands, 
 is suffragan of the archdiocese of Seville and was 
 erected by the anti-pope, Benedict XI11 in 14U4, 
 
 with the episcopal residence at Lanzarote. Two 
 years later, 1406, the true pope, Innocent VII, 
 erected the see, and in 1435 changed the residence 
 to Las Palmas, but the change did not become 
 effective until 1485. From 1353 until 1485 there was 
 a Bishop of Rubicond (Lanzarote), but this senes 
 is independent of the Bishops of Las Palmas. The 
 diocese comprises the islands of Grand Canary, 
 Fuerta-Ventura, and Lanzarote, a territory of 
 2465 square miles. The patroness of the diocese 
 is Nuestra Senora del Pino, and the church at Las 
 Palmas, dedicated to her, was raised to a minor 
 
 basilica, 13 January, 1916. 
 
 On 22 April, 1919, took place the first diocesan 
 synod held here for two hundred years, at which 
 time the Pope sent a message of approval to the 
 bishop and recommended to him the full applica¬ 
 tion of all canonical rights, as far as the present 
 circumstances of the diocese would permit, this 
 synod was held under the present incumbent, xvt. 
 Rev. Angelo Marquina Corrales, who was appointed 
 
CANDIA 
 
 CANONESSES 
 
 151 
 
 18 July, 1913, to succeed Rt. Rev. Adolfo Perez 
 y Munoz, transferred to Badajoz the same day 
 
 By 1920 statistics these islands count a Catholic 
 population of 150,052, 50 Protestants, 8 Jews, and 
 23 other faiths; 53 parishes divided among 5 arch¬ 
 priests and 139 priests, 46 churches, 67 chapels and 
 lo convents with 34 religious and 194 sisters. 
 
 Candia, Diocese of (Candiensis; cf. C. E, 
 III-244d), pn the Greek Island of Crete or Candia, 
 suffragan of Smyrna. This ancient see was re-estab¬ 
 lished under its present status, as a Latin See, 21 
 December, 1874. The bishop resides in the city of 
 Candia, on the north shore of the island. The 
 present incumbent is Rt. Rev. Francesco Giuseppe 
 Semina ra, b. in Gangi, Sicily, 1863, entered the 
 Order of Capuchins, 1887, ordained 1891, sent to the 
 Candia Mission 1896, made apostolic administrator 
 of the mission 2 April, 1908, and appointed bishop 
 "i 1910 > succeeding Bishop Canavo, retired. 
 
 counts only 800 Catholics, against 
 260,000 infidels and Schismatics. The mission is 
 served (1922) by 7 Capuchin missionaries, 5 Broth- 
 ers, 17 Sisters of St. Joseph of the Apparition, 3 
 Parishes, 8 churches and chapels, 6 schools with 265 
 children, 3 secondary schools with 180 students, and 
 1 orphanage with 12 orphans. 
 
 Canelos and Macas, Vicariate Apostolic of 
 (Equateur Orientals; cf. C. E., III-249c), one of 
 the four vicariates of Eastern Ecuador, South 
 America. This territory, entrusted to the Domin- 
 1C f ai ^D 1S P^ esen ^ (1922) under the administration 
 2, Enrique Vacas-Galindo, and comprises a 
 
 Catholic population of 200,000. No statistics of the 
 vicariate are published. 
 
 benefices or eanonries (even honorary) in the cathe- 
 
 1 fV 0I K C L legia n e church es-a right now belonging 
 the bishop, all contrary customs being reprobated 
 and contrary privileges being revoked (this modifies 
 C. E., Ill 253c). The Holy See does not now re¬ 
 serve the collation of benefices rendered vacant in 
 special months. He must obtain the consent of 
 the chapter: to revive extinct dignities or to in¬ 
 crease the number of canonical or beneficial pre¬ 
 bends; or to alienate ecclesiastical property valued 
 between 1,000 and 30,000 francs, or to lease the 
 same for over nine years; but he does not require 
 their consent or counsel to appoint a special feast- 
 day on a particular occasion. A canon must make 
 his profession of faith in presence of the local ordi¬ 
 nary or his delegate and the chapter, before taking 
 possession of his benefice (no fixed time is now 
 mentioned as in C. E., Ill—254a); if he negligently 
 omits doing so, he is to be warned, and if after a 
 reasonable time he fails to carry out his obligation 
 he is guilty of contumacy and may be deprived 
 of his benefice; in the meantime he is not to re¬ 
 ceive the income. Canoae are obliged to take the 
 anti-Modernist oath, are not exempt eo ipso from 
 the yearly examinations in clerical sciences pre¬ 
 scribed for priests in the three years following the 
 completion of. their studies. Canonries should be 
 conferred only on priests noted for virtue and 
 learning. Bishops should take into account the re¬ 
 sults obtained in the examinations just referred to. 
 Other things being equal, a preference should be 
 given to doctors of theology or canon law or to 
 those who have worked successfully either in semi¬ 
 nary or in the cure of souls. 
 
 • nis Vis College, Buffalo, New York, was opened 
 U t ^J at t, ers of tile Society of Jesus in Septem¬ 
 ber, 18/0. On 27 April, 1872, the feast of Bl. Peter 
 Gamsius, patron of the new institution, the first 
 corner-stone was laid by the Rt. Rev. Bishop 
 Stephen V. Ryan, D. D. In 1911 the erection of 
 a new building was begun and on 6 January, 1913, 
 the four college classes were transferred to this 
 building, leaving the original building for the high 
 school, which is conducted in connection with the 
 college. This high school and the academic de¬ 
 partments were added to the college upon the 
 amendment of the charter to include them, on 25 
 October, 1906. The educational system followed is 
 substantially that of all colleges conducted by the 
 Society of Jesus based on the “Ratio Studiorum 
 Societatis Jesu, a system outlined by the most 
 pi ominent Jesuit educators in 1599 and revised in 
 1832. 
 
 The faculty library comprises about 10,000 
 volumes, the students' library 4,000, and there is a 
 scientific reference library of 2,000. Since January, 
 1915, the Canisius seismological observatory has be¬ 
 come one of two hundred stations co-operating with 
 the I nited States Weather Bureau, Department of 
 Seismology. The college possesses valuable collec¬ 
 tions of minerals and numerous biological and 
 floral specimens as well as the Ottomar Reinecke 
 collection of coleoptera and many famous manu¬ 
 scripts and Bibles, including the Antwerp Polyglot. 
 ■The Rev. Michael J. Ahern, S.J., was appointed 
 president of the college in 1919. There were 364 
 students registered for 1921. 
 
 Canon (cf. C. E., III-252b).—A bishop must con¬ 
 sult the cathedral chapter when he wishes: to unite 
 simple benefices to prebends or to suppress pre¬ 
 bends on account of the smallness of the revenues; 
 or to fix the time for the canon theologian to ex¬ 
 plain the Scriptures in church, to appoint to 
 
 Canonesses Regular (cf. C. E., III-296b).—Of the 
 older congregations of canonesses only a few com¬ 
 munities remain. In Italy, France, and Spain they 
 have suffered severe losses through political diffi¬ 
 culties, but are found in a flourishing condition in 
 the communities of Bruges, Belgium, Hayward's 
 Heath, Newton Abbot, and Hoddesdon, England. 
 The two first named have gained a well merited 
 reputation for their educational work. The latter 
 have maintained perpetual adoration for about 
 seventy years. The well known community of Eng¬ 
 lish Canonesses of Neuilly are now well established 
 with an excellent school at Ealing. All these rank 
 under the designation of Canonesses Regular of 
 the Lateran. 
 
 The Canonesses Regular of St. Augustine, of the 
 Congregation of Notre Dame, founded by St. Peter 
 Fournier possess houses spread over France, Bel¬ 
 gium, England, Holland, Italy, Luxemburg, Ger¬ 
 many, Hungary, and Brazil. Each community num¬ 
 bers between forty and one' hundred members 
 divided into choir sisters, lay sisters, and tourieres. 
 The choir sisters take a fourth vow binding them 
 to the institution. They sing office in choir and 
 are enclosed. 
 
 Canonesses Regular of the Holy Sepulchre 
 (cf. C. E., VIII-427a). Due to the zeal of Jean Van 
 den Broeck, first Prior of Ste Odile, and restorer 
 of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre in Lower Ger¬ 
 many, the Canonesses Regular were established in 
 1480 at the convent of Kinroy, and thence spread 
 to many other convents. Clemence Van den Broeck 
 (sister of the prior), and two other religious (Cath¬ 
 erine van Brugge and Catherine van Weert) from 
 the convent of Godsboomgaars at Roermond went 
 at the request of Jean Van den Broeck to Ste 
 Odile where they were admitted to profession as 
 canonesses 8 October, 1480, and on the following 
 day, with three novices who had received the habit 
 of the order, repaired to Kinroy. They observed 
 
CANONESSES 
 
 152 
 
 CANONS 
 
 the constitutions of the canonesses sent them from 
 Perugia, recited and sang the Divine Office accord¬ 
 ing to the rite of the patriarchial church of Jeru¬ 
 salem, and gave instruction to little children and 
 young girls. The canonesses remained at Kinroy 
 near Thorn, from 1480 till 1495, and from there 
 founded Haeseyck (1495-1520). Kinroy became 
 the mother-house for all the convents of canonesses 
 established in the Low Countries, in France and m 
 Germany, until the French Revolution. These 
 were: Nieuwstad near Sittard (1486—96), from 
 where they removed to Ste Elizabeth at Liege, re¬ 
 maining there till the end of the eighteenth century, 
 Gartzen St. Antoine (Juliers), established in 1490, 
 canonesses from here occupying Henegomve near 
 Hasselt in 1507; St. Trond (1539-1798); Vise (1616- 
 1822); Ste Walburga at Liege (1622); Huy (1619); 
 Tongres (1640-1797); Bouillon (1626); Malmedy 
 (1627); Waremme (1640); Mariembourg (1629); 
 Marchienne-au-Pont (1637); Verviers (1635); Char- 
 leville (1622-1792), re-established in 1818, sup¬ 
 pressed in 1904; Aix-la-Chapelle (1626-1805); 
 Maestricht (1627-1797); *Paris (Belle-Chasse), re¬ 
 maining there from 1635 till the end of the 
 eighteenth century; Luyennes (in Touraine) Juliers 
 (1644); Neuss; Ste Agathe at Liege (1634-1814); 
 Hasselt (1638-1798); Turnhout (1622-1798); Jupille 
 (1658-1823); Liege (1642), English community 
 which repaired to England in 1793; Baden (1698); 
 Bovigne (1699). Of these Warenime, Huy, Verviers, 
 Ste Walburga and Ste Agathe at Liege, Aix, and 
 Jupille were engulfed and annihilated in the devas¬ 
 tating flood of the French Revolution. In con¬ 
 sideration of their educational work all the convents 
 were allowed to continue in existence until the 
 death of the last member of the community. Baden 
 was never suppressed and exists to-day. After the 
 Revolution four former religious re-established 
 themselves at Charleville in 1818. The English 
 community of Liege has since 1799 been established 
 in England at New Hall, near Chelmsford. Here 
 they have at the present day a large and flourishing 
 community of fifty-three members, under a superior, 
 elected for life, assisted by a council, the members 
 of which are elected annually. The canonesses, 
 after a year’s novitiate, take temporary vows for 
 three years, and are then admitted to final pro¬ 
 fession. They maintain a boarding-school for the 
 daughters of gentlemen. 
 
 Since the French Revolution the canonesses have 
 been restored in Belgium through two different 
 foundations. That of Turnhout, re-established in 
 1826, by the reunion of seven religious, formerly 
 professed canonesses of Turnhout, who wished to 
 restore it as a mother-house; and Bilsen, founded 
 in 1837 by four religious—2 formerly professed 
 canonesses of Hasselt, one of Ste Agathe (Liege), 
 and one of Maestricht. Turnhout has. ten affilia¬ 
 tions: Meerhout (1885), Baelen-sur-Neithe (1878), 
 Blauqput (1879), Vosselaer (1895), Meir (1900), 
 Sacred Heart at Turnhout (1902), Tongerloo (1904), 
 Mont Ste Odile (1912), Beeringen (1917), Ste Mar¬ 
 guerite at Li£ge (1917). Bilsen has four affiliations: 
 Aiken (1853), Kinroy (1881), St. Trond (1886), 
 Cozen (1903). In 1888 Bilsen restored the convent 
 of Mont Ste Odile, which later became independent, 
 but deprived of its resources, entered under the 
 dependence of Turnhout in 1912, through Mgr. 
 Drehmans, Bishop of Roermond. The organizations 
 of Turnhout and Bilsen are similar. Each has a 
 prioress general aided by a council composed of 
 four members and a procurator general. The 
 prioress and her council are elected by the capitular 
 sisters every three years, though they may be 
 elected for life. The superior of each mother-. 
 
 carries the title sub-prioress Each house lias its 
 own government, the local superiors being assisted 
 by a council, an economist, and a mistress of lay 
 sisters appointed by the prioress general every three 
 years. The directors of both organizations meet 
 from time to time at Bilsen, at Turnhout, or at 
 one of the dependent houses. 
 
 The canonesses are distinguished by their spirit 
 of prayer and sacrifice. They devote one hour each 
 day to meditation, chant the Divine Office or sing 
 it in choir, spend a half hour of recollection daily 
 in the silence of their cells. The mother-house 
 at Turnhout is especially devoted to education, hav¬ 
 ing an intermediate school with preparatory section, 
 courses in ancient humanities and preparatory 
 classes, a primary and intermediate normal school, 
 and a school for lace-making with primary classes; 
 the institute numbers about 600 pupils. The de¬ 
 pendent houses all give primary instruction, and 
 Liege has intermediate and professional courses. 
 The convent of the Sacred Heart at Turnhout gives 
 primary instruction to more than 1000 students of 
 the working class and has also a school for lace- 
 making. The Institute of the Holy Sepulchre at 
 Turnhout occupies a prominent place in education 
 in Belgium. Impelled by pedagogical and ethical 
 reasons, the institute, established in a Flemish coun¬ 
 try, has Flemicized its higher education for young 
 girls, so that the students may now reach the higher 
 grades without giving up their mother-tongue, which 
 required redoubled efforts, and heretofore made 
 many decide to limit their studies to primary 
 grades The institute has thus rendered a great 
 service to the Flemish population, and set an exam¬ 
 ple which many other schools have followed. A 
 new foundation is to be made by the canonesses 
 in Holland, where the religious intend to establish 
 a catechumenate in order to devote themselves more 
 fully and more directly to the Apostolate. . 
 
 Canonesses distinguished for the sancLty of their 
 lives and their zeal for the advancement of the 
 order are: Claude de Moy (b. 15/2; d. 1627), widow 
 of the Comte de Chaligny, founded the convent at 
 Charleville in 1622; Helene d’Enckevoert,^ entered 
 at Vise in 1616, founded Maesstricht, Liege (Ste 
 Agathe), and Hasselt, d. 1658; Bl. Alverna von 
 Virmund (b. 1617), professed at Aix-la-Chapelle m 
 1635, founded Juliers in 1644. Among the prioresses 
 of Turnhout were: Sister Marie-Therese de. St. 
 Joseph (Montens), prioress for more than thirty 
 years, d. 1778; Sister Marie-Agnes des Sts. Anges 
 (Coomans), prioress for thirty years, organized the 
 young community according to ancient traditions, 
 d. 1882; Sister Marie-Josephine du St. Sacrament 
 (Smeyers), elected prioress at the age of thirty, 
 go\ r emed the community for twelve. years, during 
 which time the number of religious doubled, 
 founded several houses, affiliated Mont Ste Odile to 
 Turnhout, d. 1914. The present prioress is Sister 
 Marie Clara du Sacre Coeur (Van Goubergen), who 
 founded the houses of Liege (Ste Marguerite) and 
 Buringen. The present number of members in 
 the community of Turnhout is 165. 
 
 Canons Regular of the Lateran (cf. C. E., 
 III-293b).—The Congregation at present consists of 
 eight provinces, of which four are in Italy, and the 
 others divided according to nationality: French, 
 English, Spanish-American, and Polish. The abbot 
 general exercises jurisdiction throughout the Con¬ 
 gregation and holds, office for six years. Each 
 provincial has a visitor general, also elected for 
 six years, whose jurisdiction is limited and variable 
 according to the discretion of the general chapter. 
 In effect, the visitors are representatives of the 
 general each in his own province, and all together 
 
CANONS 
 
 153 
 
 CANTON 
 
 form the Definitorium or general chapter. The 
 chapter is convened every six years, and besides 
 those mentioned all abbots of the Congregation 
 have a vote in the election of the abbot general 
 and the visitors. The principal local superiors, 
 whose office runs for three years, are appointed in 
 this chapter. A diet is held at the period of three 
 years between the chapters for the appointment of 
 local superiors as well as to discuss matters relating 
 to the whole congregation. The change is now 
 contemplated of extending to each community the 
 faculty of electing its own superiors, as was the 
 ancient custom in the Order. The actual member¬ 
 ship of the Congregation (excluding the Austrian 
 Canons) is roughly 250. In Italy there are ten 
 houses. The French province has one abbey in 
 France and four houses in Belgium. In England 
 there are four, besides dependencies. The Spanish- 
 American Province consists of one house in Spain 
 and two in South America. In Poland there is 
 one house with several dependencies. 
 
 For the most part the Canons are occupied in 
 parochial, ministerial, and liturgical work. In some 
 instances a mother-house forms the center of a 
 group of parishes served by them. The communi¬ 
 ties of Verres (Val d’Aosta), Cracow (Poland), 
 Salta (Argentina), Bodwin (England), have several 
 parishes on this system. In Rome the two large 
 parishes of Sant’ Agnese fuori le mura and S. 
 Giuseppe at Porta Pia are in the charge of the 
 Canons. 
 
 A very flourishing college at Salta, in the Argen¬ 
 tine Republic, has been under the direction of the 
 Canons for some years. The students number some¬ 
 thing over 300, and the community in charge about 
 fifteen or sixteen. A new foundation has recently 
 been made at Buenos Aires. 
 
 The Church of S. Agnese, Rome, is the head¬ 
 quarters of the Primaria sodality of the Children 
 of Mary, which has affiliations in every part of the 
 world, and at the Church of S. Pietro in Vincoli 
 the Canons direct the Confraternity of St. Peter’s 
 Chains. 
 
 Austrian Canons Regular of the Lateran (cf. 
 C. E., III-296a).—In Austria there exists a congre¬ 
 gation of six houses of Lateran Canons in ncr way 
 connected with those whose abbot general resides 
 in Rome. According to the catalogues of this 
 year these Canons number altogether 336. All the 
 houses have a number of parishes attached to them; 
 that of St. Florian has as many as thirty-three. 
 When we mention that this house has 102 mem¬ 
 bers in community, it may be realized that it is 
 these Canons who have preserved something of the 
 ancient splendor of the Order, though it is to be 
 feared that they also are now sharing the extreme 
 difficulties with which Central Europe is beset. Car¬ 
 dinal Piffl was Abbot of this congregation before his 
 elevation to the Archiepiscopal See of Vienna in 
 1914. 
 
 upon the See ol Sion. The superior general is called 
 piovost, and is elected for life; other superiors are 
 elected every three years. The parish priests are 
 nominated by the provost. 
 
 Canons Regular of St. Augustine ( c f. C. E., 
 111-2880 have under their charge the hospices of 
 the Great St. Bernard and Simplon and the Abbey 
 Nullius of Agaunum (q.v.). 
 
 Canons Regular of the Great St. Bernard (cf. 
 C E., III-295b), number about sixty. The tradition 
 of affording hospitality to travelers is still main¬ 
 tained at the two hospices of the Great St. Bernard 
 and the Simplon, but besides this work they have 
 various activities to engage them, having charge of 
 a school of agriculture for the district of the Valais, 
 and nine parishes dependent upon their monasteries. 
 1 hey have besides the direction of a sanatorium for 
 consumptives, and four other parishes dependent 
 
 Canton (Kuam-tom), Vicariate Apostolic of, in 
 China. This territory, erected into the prefecture 
 apostolic of Kwang-tung in 1848, was raised to a 
 vicariate apostolic, and its name changed to Canton 
 (Kuam-tom), by a Decree of 6 April, 1914. At the 
 same time part of its territory was taken from it 
 to erect the Vicariate Apostolic of Swatow (Chao- 
 Chiou). Rt. Rev. Jean-Marie Morel, of the Foreign 
 Missions of Paris, to whom this vicariate is en¬ 
 trusted, former prefect apostolic of Kwang-tung 
 and titular Bishop of Orcistus, was promoted to 
 vicar apostolic by the decree of erection. In 1908 
 Bishop Merel traveled to Canada and induced the 
 Missionaries of the Immaculate Conception, a 
 newly founded order in Montreal, to open a house 
 at Canton. They established the school of the 
 Holy Ghost which, like their other works, flourished 
 under the zealous guidance of the first superior, 
 Rev. Mother Marie de Lourdes. In 1911 the 
 Chinese Re\ olution somewhat interfered with the 
 work of evangelization. The Republican party, 
 however, favored religious freedom and the Gov¬ 
 ernment confided to the missionaries the care of 
 J e P e j S . # Rev * Father Conrardy was made 
 the first director, and under his wise and prudent 
 administration a small hospital was soon built 
 which was later enlarged and united to the Govern- 
 ment hospital. The institution cared for one thou¬ 
 sand lepers. The establishment planned by Fathers 
 Conrardy and Fourquet, and the director of Ho- 
 Ko-tsun, was regulated by an agreement signed by 
 Bishop Merel and the superintendent of Police at 
 Chang-Kmg-Wa. Later on a similar contract gave 
 to the missionaries the direction of the nurseries 
 and Government . orphanages. In 1921 Father 
 Fourquet was officially charged with the charitable 
 works of the city of Canton. Bishop Merel re¬ 
 signed and . became an humble missionary in a 
 ^ par * s k * n Diocese of Malacca in 1914, 
 and his successor, Bishop Guebriant was not 
 appointed until February, 1917. During the interim 
 the vicariate apostolic was ably administered by 
 Father Fourquet and also by Father Rayssac, who 
 later became vicar apostolic of Swatow. A Decree 
 of 9 April, 1920, took another portion of this vast 
 territory to erect the vicariate apostolic of Shiu- 
 Kow, entrusted to the Salesian Fathers of Dorn 
 Bosco, with Rt. Rev. Luigi Versiglia as vicar apos- 
 • u*' t> e erec ti° n of Kwang-tung and Hainan, 
 with Bishop Gautier as administrator, took place 
 ^r •«-f°Dowing August.. The American Missionaries 
 of Maryknoll have joined the Foreign Missionaries 
 of Paris, and are awaiting the time when the region 
 entrusted to their care will be made a separate 
 vicariate. 
 
 Since the proclamation of the Republic the 
 educational system has been improved and de¬ 
 veloped. The Sisters of the Immaculate Concep¬ 
 tion (Chinese), founded by Father Fourquet in 
 1897, have done splendid w T ork in directing the 
 schools and in giving religious instruction to women. 
 The Little Sisters of the Poor established them¬ 
 selves in the vicariate in 1913. After having suc¬ 
 cessively served as apostolic visitor to China and 
 Siberia, .Bishop Guebriant was elected Superior of 
 the Society of Foreign Missions of Paris, and left 
 China to take up his residence in Paris; his suc¬ 
 cessor has not yet been appointed. During the 
 period between 1911 and the present time the peo¬ 
 ple have often chosen the missionaries to act as 
 
CAP HAITIEN 
 
 154 
 
 CAPUCHIN 
 
 intermediaries between them and the invading 
 forces. According to 1920 statistics Canton has a 
 total population of 20,000,000, of whom 35 773 are 
 Catholics, 7000 catechumens and 15,000 Protestants 
 The mission is served by 72 missionary and 2b 
 native priests, 258 churches, chapels and oratories 
 1190 stations, 1 seminary with 50 students, 143 
 schools for boys and 51 for girls with a total of 
 4300 pupils, 1 college with 300 students, 14 o* Pl¬ 
 ages, 5 Little Brothers of Mary, 16 Sisters of St 
 Paul of Chartres, 16 Canadian Missionary Sisters of 
 Mary Immaculate, 25 Chinese religious, and 2 leper 
 hospitals caring for 750 cases. 
 
 Cap Haitien, Diocese of (Capitis Haitiani; cf. 
 
 C E., III-308c), in the Republic of Haiti. After 
 the destruction of the episcopal residence by hre 
 the present administrator, Bishop Kersuzan bunt a 
 new and equally imposing edifice which with the 
 exception of the chapel, was completed m 1908 ine 
 seminary for the ecclesiastical province of Haiti had 
 been carried on at Pont-Chateau, m Brittany, . but 
 when the French Government outlawed the religious 
 orders, Bishop Kersuzan succeeded m installing his 
 present seminary (Saint-Jacques) at Lampaul m t e 
 Diocese of Quimper. It is under the care of former 
 missionaries of Haiti, a superior and 4 professors 
 and has 30 students. The same bishop has also 
 founded at Cap Haitien the College of Our Lady 
 of Perpetual Help, which has 17 teachers and 300 
 students. In addition there are: a normal school 
 for boys with 2 teachers and 30 students, a boys 
 school conducted by 10 Christian Brothers and some 
 Haitian lay professors, and 22 elementary parish 
 schools with 75 teachers and 1800 pupils. Every 
 month the government gives a very small sum of 
 money to some of the schools. .... . _ 
 
 As a consequence of the revolution the American 
 army has occupied Cap Haitien since 1915. At nrst 
 the Americans were well liked by the natives, but 
 the arrogance of the civic functionaries has made 
 them very unpopular. At the outbreak of the World 
 War 14 missionaries left the diocese and joined the 
 army. Of these 2 were killed and others returned 
 home invalided. Nearly all of them were decorated 
 and 3 received the Medaille militaire. Several lay¬ 
 men also joined the ranks, of whom 1 died and 3 
 
 were decorated. „ 
 
 The diocese contains 500,000 Catholics, ^5 panshes, 
 30 churches, 83 missions, 1 convent of Christian 
 Brothers, 5 convents of the Daughters of Wisdom 
 and Sisters of St. Joseph of Cluny, 1 hospital con¬ 
 ducted by the Daughters of Wisdom. The laity of 
 the diocese have formed the following associations: 
 Rosary Society, Society of the Children of Mary, 
 Association for Perseverance, Bona Mors Associa¬ 
 tion, and the Sacred Heart Sodality for men. Since 
 1907 the diocese has lost two zealous priests. Mgr. 
 Ribault, who as vicar-general and prothonotary 
 apostolic labored in the diocese for 40 years, and 
 Canon Chatte, who as vicar-general unselfishly 
 worked in the country for nearly 50 years. I he 
 fiftieth anniversary of the priestly ordination and 
 arrival in Haiti of Bishop Kersuzan was celebrated 
 in the diocese 17 November, 1921. In 1909 the 
 bishop received the pallium, and in 1921 was named 
 assistant at the pontifical throne and Roman Count. 
 
 Capaccio and Vallo, Diocese of (Caputaquensis 
 et Vallensis; cf. C. E., III-307d), in the province 
 of Salerno, Southern Italy, suffragan of Salerno 
 Rt. Rev. Paolo Iacuzio, appointed to this see 17 
 December, 1900, was promoted to Sorrento 9 July, 
 1917, and the present incumbent, Rt. Rev Francesco 
 Cammarota, succeeded him. Born m Maiori 1874 > 
 he was made vicar general of Iserma and honorary 
 
 chamberlain 1905, and appointed bishop 22 Decern- 
 1917. 
 
 The 1920 statistics credit this diocese with 122,400 
 Catholics, 102 parishes, 156 secular and 14 regular 
 clergy, 10 seminarians, 9 Brothers, and 282 churches 
 
 or chapels. 
 
 Capizana, Diocese of (Capizanensis), in the 
 Philippine Islands, suffragan of Manila. This dio¬ 
 cese was erected by a decree of 17 December, 1902, 
 which, however, was not put into effect. .The name 
 does not appear in the decree of 10 April, 1910, by 
 which Pius'X created some new dioceses in the 
 Philippines, and the territory which was originally 
 intended for this diocese has been divided between 
 the dioceses of Calbayog and Zamboanga. 
 
 Capocci, Filippo, musician, b. in Rome, 1840; d. 
 there on 24 July, 1911. He studied harmony under 
 the direction of his father Gaetano (1871-90), a 
 composer of merit, and in 1861 obtained his diploma 
 as a pianist from the Accademia di Santa Cecilia. 
 
 In 1875 he became organist in St. John Lateran 
 and in 1898 succeeded his father there as maestro di 
 cappella. Later he was made a commander of the 
 order of St. Gregory, and a member of the pontifical 
 Commission of Sacred Chant.. Among his numei- 
 ous compositions are five striking sonatas and a 
 magnificent oratorio, “Sant’ Anastasio (18b3). 
 
 Capua, Archdiocese of (Capuanensis; cf. C. E., 
 319c) in the province of Naples, Southern Italy. 
 This’see is filled (1922) by Most Rev Gennaro 
 Cosenza, b. in Naples 1852, appointed titular Bishop 
 of Diocleea 1890, transferred to Caserta 1892, made 
 an assistant at the pontifical throne 20 July, 1899 
 promoted 4 March, 1913, succeeding Cardinal 
 Capecelat.ro de Castelpagano, who had been ap¬ 
 pointed 20 August, 1880, created cardinal 27 July, 
 
 1885, d. 14 November, 1912 monno 
 
 The 1920 statistics credit this diocese with 109,UUU 
 
 Catholics, 57 parishes, 235 secular and 18 regular 
 clergy, 180 seminarians, 129 religious women, and 
 96 churches or chapels. 
 
 Capuchin Friars Minor (cf. C. E., Ill— 320 b) .—-In 
 
 the pontifical legislation affecting the Capuchin 
 Friars Minor in recent years, the first place must 
 be given to the legislative acts of Pius X concern¬ 
 ing the various families which constitute the Order 
 of Friars Minor, whereby the relation of these 
 families to each other was explicitly determined 
 and what might be termed “a union of charity 
 
 set forth. , , „ e . 
 
 In the Letter “Septimo jam pleno sseculo _ of 4 
 October, 1909, Pius X reiterated the declaration of 
 his predecessors that the Order of Friars Minor is 
 constituted by three “families”: the Friars Minor 
 of the Leonine Union (formerly known as of the 
 Strict Observance”), the Friars Minor Conventual, 
 and the Friars Minor Capuchin. The mimsters- 
 general of the three families, are equally the vicars 
 and successors of St. Francis, each for his own 
 family and for the members of the Second and 
 Third Franciscan Orders, under the respective juris¬ 
 dictions. In assemblies of ministers-general, pre¬ 
 cedence is granted to the minister general of the 
 Leonine Union as 'primus inter pares. To emphasize 
 the fundamental unity of the order, the Letter 
 declares that the two basilicas of St. Francis and 
 St Mary of the Angels at Assisi, are quasi commune 
 patrimonium of the three families, where all Friars 
 Minor may meet “as in their paternal home ; and 
 the Friars who have the care of these basilicas 
 are to hold them in trust, not merely for the mem¬ 
 bers of their own family but for the entire order. 
 All indulgences and privileges granted to one fam¬ 
 ily of the order are granted equally to the other 
 
CAQUETA 
 
 155 
 
 CARDIFF 
 
 families, except such concessions as mitigate the 
 Seraphic Rule or affect the constitutions of the 
 respective families. 
 
 In the Letter “Faucis ante dictus” of 1 November, 
 1909, Pius X condemned the proposition that the 
 Capuchins do not represent the direct line from 
 St. Francis; and declared that the Capuchins 
 equally with the Observants and Conventuals rep¬ 
 resent, and have their origin in, the original un¬ 
 divided Order of Friars Minor; and equally with 
 the Observants and Conventuals may claim the 
 Saints and Beati of the undivided order as their 
 
 own. 
 
 Like other religious orders, that oif the Capuchins 
 has had to bring its constitutions into harmony 
 with the more recent legislation of the Church. 
 At the General Chapter of 1908 a revision of the 
 constitutions was ordered to be made. This re¬ 
 vision was completed by Easter, 1909. Substan¬ 
 tially the revised constitutions remain the same as 
 the original constitutions, even the very wording 
 being maintained. The modifications chiefly con¬ 
 cerned the studies of those destined for the priest¬ 
 hood and the discipline of the junior members of 
 the order. 
 
 The foreign missions accredited to the order in 
 1920 comprised 7 dioceses, 8 vicariates apostolic, 
 6 prefectures apostolic, and 21 missions governed 
 by regular superiors. The number of Capuchins 
 serving these missions was 1011; the number of 
 Catholics served by the missionaries was 1,886,504. 
 There were 795 mission stations, 584 schools and 
 59 colleges for higher education, and 65 orphanages. 
 The number of baptisms registered in 1920 was 
 51,853. In 1921 a new mission field was taken over 
 by the Swiss Capuchins in British East Africa. 
 According to the general statistics of 1920, the 
 order is divided into 54 provinces comprising 824 
 convents and hospices. The number of Friars in 
 that year was 9650, of whom 5320 were priests. The 
 European War of 1914-18 tended to reduce the 
 number of religious, both because of the closing of 
 the novitiates in many provinces and by the losses 
 incurred on the battlefields. During the war 3082 
 Capuchins served in the various armies, of whom 
 506 served as chaplains and the others either as 
 combatants or as members of the Red Cross staff. 
 Of these 187 lost their lives. Twelve convents were 
 totally destroyed within the war area. 
 
 Analecta Ord. Min. Capp.: Collectio Actorum SS. D. N. 
 Pit. Pp. X Minoriticas Familias respicientium (Rome, 1910). 
 
 Caqueta, Prefecture Apostolic of (Caquetensis; 
 cf. C. E., III-328a), in Colombia, South America, 
 is dependent on the Congregation of Extraordinary 
 Ecclesiastical Affairs. It is entrusted to the Ca¬ 
 puchins, the present prefect apostolic being Rev. 
 Mgr. Fidelio de Montclar, b. at Montclar, province 
 of Catalonia, 1867, entered the Order of Capuchins 
 1882, appointed 25 January, 1905. This prefecture 
 should be raised to the rank of a vicariate, but 
 circumstances make such a change inadvisable at 
 the present time (1922). 
 
 Carabobo, Diocese of (de Carabobo; cf. C. E., 
 II-307b); also known as Barquisimeto, although the 
 name was changed by a decree of the consistory of 
 12 February, 1907, in Venezuela, South America, 
 suffragan of Santiago de Venezuela. After the death 
 of Rt. Rev. Bishop Rodrigiez, about 1901, the see 
 was left vacant until the appointment of Rt. Rev. 
 Agaton Felipe Alvarado, b. at Bopare, 1845, or¬ 
 dained 1871, appointed 16 August, 1910, and con¬ 
 secrated 6 November following. By 1920 statistics 
 this diocese is credited with a Catholic population 
 of 60,000, 74 parishes and 49 chapels. 
 
 Caracas or Santiago de Venezuela, Archdiocese 
 of (bANTi Jacobi de Benezuela; cf. C. E., III-328c) 
 in the Republic of Venezuela, South America. This 
 see is now filled (1922) by Rt. Rev. Feline Rincon 
 Gonzales, b m Clnnquinquiva 1861, prelate of the 
 
 7n?r * See 24 4 u £ ust G 1915 > a PP oi nted 10 August, 
 1916, to succeed Rt. Rev. Juan Bautista Castro, d. 
 
 7 August, 1915. .The population of this territory 
 numbering 600,000, is almost entirely Catholic. The 
 1920 statistics credit it with 183 priests, 86 parishes, 
 257 churches or chapels, 49 religious, and 224 Sisters! 
 
 Caratinga, Diocese of (Caratingensis), in 
 Brazil, South America. This diocese was erected 
 P, ec ^ m ^ er > by a division of the archdiocese 
 of Mariana, the whole eastern part, comprising 13 
 parishes, being taken to form the new diocese. It 
 comprises the civil provinces of Caratinga, Man- 
 huassu, Carangola and the communes of Jose- 
 Pedro, Sao-Manuel do Motum and Aymores. The 
 western boundary line of these territories forms 
 the division line for the Diocese of Caratinga. 
 
 The first bishop appointed to this see, 28 January, 
 1918, was Rt. Rev. Joachim Maurede da Salva Leite! 
 titular Bishop of Sebaste, but he refused the ap¬ 
 pointment. Rt. Rev. Manuel Nogueira Duarte, 
 b. in Rio Preto, was then appointed, 4 April, 1918, 
 but after a short administration he retired, and the 
 present incumbent, Rt. Rev. Carlos Fernao da Silva 
 Tavora, was appointed, 18 December, 1919. No 
 statistics have yet been published for this diocese. 
 
 Carcassonne, Diocese of (Carcassonensis; cf. C. 
 E., III-331c), in the province of Aude, France, 
 suffragan of Toulouse. This ancient see is now 
 filled (1922) by Rt. Rev. Paul Felix Beuvain de 
 Beausejour, b. in Vesoul 1839, ordained 1863, made 
 vicar general of Besangon 1892, member of the 
 Academy of Besangon from 1875, and for some time 
 president of it, appointed 9 June, 1902. This dio¬ 
 cese has in its possession one of the winding-sheets 
 which enveloped the sacred body of Christ. It was 
 brought to Carcassonne in 1289 by two Augustin ian 
 monks driven from Palestine by the Turks, who 
 had obtained it from a noble Jewish family. The 
 authenticity of the relic was confirmed by King 
 Charles VI and Pope Benedict XIII, and many 
 miracles have been performed through it. It re¬ 
 poses in the cathedral. 
 
 In 1915 there were thirty principal establishments 
 of religious women in this territory, belonging to 
 the Dominicans, Sisters of Charity, Sisters of the 
 Holy Family of Nevers, of Our Lady of Sorrows, 
 of St. Aignan, of St. Francis of Assisi, of St. Joseph 
 of Lyons, of St. Joseph of Cluny, of Bon Secours 
 of Troyes, Little Sisters of the Poor, Sisters de 
 l’Action de Grace, of the Holy Name of Joseph, 
 of the Angel Guardian, of Our Lady of Refuge, 
 Dominican Sisters of the Sick and Poor Clares. 
 
 The 1920 statistics credit this diocese with a popu¬ 
 lation of 300,537, almost all of whom are Catholic, 
 and 30,689 of whom are in Carcassonne proper. 
 There are 37 first class parishes, 378 succursal 
 parishes, 70 vicariates formerly supported by the 
 State, 600 secular priests, 20 seminarians, 450 
 churches or chapels, 3 secondary schools with 550 
 pupils, and 60 primary schools with 3,200 pupils. 
 One Catholic periodical is published. 
 
 Cardiff, Archdiocese of (Cardiffensis; cf. C. E., 
 XI-18a), in Wales, was formerly known as the 
 Diocese of Newport. It was erected into an arch¬ 
 diocese 7 February, 1916, and the name changed 
 to Cardiff, with Menevia as a suffragan see. At the 
 same time the Most Rev. James Romanus Bils- 
 borrow, O.S.B., was appointed the first archbishop, 
 
 7 February, 1916, to succeed Rt. Rev. John Cuth- 
 
CARDINAL 
 
 156 
 
 CARDINAL 
 
 bert Hedley, O.S.B., who had filled the see of 
 Newport and Menevia (changed to Newport 189b) 
 from 1881, died 11 November, 1915. Archbishop 
 Bilsborrow was bom 27 August, 1862, ordained 1889, 
 consecrated Bishop of Port Louis 24 February, 1911, 
 and translated from that see to Cardiff, which he 
 resigned, owing to illness, 1 September, 1920. 
 
 The second archbishop and present incumbent, 
 Most Rev. Francis Mostyn, born 6 August, 1860, 
 ordained 14 September, 1884, consecrated Vicar 
 Apostolic of Wales 14 September, 1895, translated 
 to Menevia 14 May, 1898, was promoted to the 
 Archdiocese of Cardiff 19 March, 1921. * 
 
 On 12 March, 1920, a secular chapter consisting 
 of eight canons was erected and the regular chapter 
 ceased to exist. During the World War few of the 
 clergy could be spared, but five of the secular and 
 five regular priests entered the service as chaplains, 
 and the Catholic men enlisted out of all proportion 
 to their numbers and many of them were killed. 
 
 By present (1921) statistics the archdiocese num¬ 
 bers: 53 missions, 53 churches, 32 stations, 1 abbey 
 of men, 22 convents of women, 53 secular and 52 
 regular clergy, 5 high schools with 50 teachers and 
 an attendance of 899, 1 training school with 4 
 teachers and an attendance of 60, 39 elementary 
 schools with 408 teachers and an attendance of 
 12,604, 3 industrial schools with 12 teachers and 
 an attendance of 314, one secondary and all the 
 elementary schools are aided by the government. 
 There are 3 homes for children, one of which cares 
 for the aged as well, 1 hospital in charge of the 
 Sisters of the Sacred Heart of Jesus and Mary, and 
 3 refuge homes for women. A fund for infirm 
 secular clergy is established and there is a Catholic 
 Young Men’s Society among the laity; one parish 
 magazine and the il Welsh Catholic Herald (a 
 weekly) are published. 
 
 Cardinal (cf. C. E., III-333b)—Cardinals are 
 priests or bishops chosen freely by the pope to 
 aid him by their advice and co-operation m the 
 government of the Church. They may be chosen 
 from any nation, but the Code now provides that 
 only those who have received priestly orders are 
 to be selected. The college of cardinals is now 
 limited to 70 members, 6 cardinal bishops, 50 cardi¬ 
 nal priests, and 14 cardinal deacons. The official 
 “Annuario Pontificio” for 1921, however, gives a 
 list of 53 cardinalitial titles and 16 cardinalitial 
 deaconries: S. Maria della Scala and S. Maria in 
 Cosmedin are now permanent deaconries, but bb. 
 Cosma e Damiano and S. Maria in Aquino have 
 been raised for this occasion to the rank of presby- 
 teral titles. The following persons are excluded 
 from the cardinalate: (a) those who are of illegiti¬ 
 mate birth, and those who are irregular or pre¬ 
 vented by canonical descipline from exercising their 
 sacred orders, notwithstanding the fact that by 
 Apostolic authority they may have been dispensed 
 so as to receive orders and dignities not excluding 
 the episcopal; (b) those who have a living legiti¬ 
 mate child or grandchild, or (c) those who are 
 related by blood in the first or second degree to 
 any living cardinal. 
 
 Clerics who are promoted to the sacred purple 
 by the very fact not only vacate their dignities, 
 churches, and benefices, but lose their ecclesiastical 
 pensions, unless the Pope provides otherwise in a 
 particular case. By an option made in the con¬ 
 sistory and approved by the Pope, cardinal priests, 
 while respecting priority of order and promotion, 
 can take another title; so, too, cardinal deacons 
 may select another deaconry, and if they have 
 been cardinal deacons for ten years can become 
 cardinal priests. In the last case the cardinal ranks 
 
 ahead of all the cardinal priests who received the 
 sacred purple after him. If a suburbicarian see 
 becomes vacant, cardinal priests who at that time 
 are in the Curia or are temporarily absent from 
 it transacting business for the pope, can exercise 
 the right of option regarding the vacant see, observ¬ 
 ing priority of promotion. Cardinals to whom a 
 suburbicarian see has been assigned cannot exercise 
 an option on another; however, the dean of the 
 cardinals, that is the cardinal who has held a subur¬ 
 bicarian see longest, is always appointed Bishop of 
 Ostia, while retaining his old see. Cardinals are 
 obliged to reside at the papal court and may not 
 absent themselves without the pope’s leave; how¬ 
 ever, the cardinal suburbicarian bishops require no 
 permission to go to their dioceses; those who are 
 bishops of non-suburbicarian dioceses are exempt 
 from residence at court, but when they come to 
 Rome they must present themselves before the 
 Sovereign Pontiff and may not leave the City 
 without asking his permission. 
 
 Privileges. —Among the privileges which every 
 cardinal enjoys from the time of his promotion in 
 the consistory are the right: of hearing confes¬ 
 sions, even those of religious of either sex any¬ 
 where, and of absolving from all sins and censures, 
 except censures reserved very specially to the Holy 
 See, and those arising from a violation of the 
 secrecy of the Holy Office; of choosing for himself 
 and his attendants any confessor who, if he lacks 
 jurisdiction, obtains it by being thus selected, even 
 in regard to all sins and censures, except the cen¬ 
 sures just mentioned as being beyond the com¬ 
 petence of a cardinal; of preaching everywhere; of 
 celebrating Mass on Holy Thursday and three 
 Masses at night on Christmas, or of permitting 
 a priest to do so in his presence; of celebrating 
 Mass on a portable altar not only at home, but 
 wherever he is, and of allowing another Mass to 
 be said on it in his presence; of saying Mass at 
 sea, on taking the proper precautions; of saying 
 Mass according to his own calendar in any church 
 or oratory; of enjoying a personally privileged 
 altar daily; of gaining in his private chapel all the 
 indulgences which are conditioned on a visit to a 
 church or public building in the place where he is 
 stopping, a privilege which may be enjoyed by his 
 attendants also; of bestowing the episcopal bless¬ 
 ing everywhere, but if he is in Rome this may be 
 given only in churches and holy places and at 
 gatherings of the faithful; of carrying a pectoral 
 cross over his mozzetta, and of using, the mitre and 
 pastoral staff; of celebrating Mass in any private 
 chapel, but without prejudice to the individual 
 holding the indult; of pontificating with a throne 
 and canopy in any church outside of Rome; how;- 
 ever, if the church is a cathedral, the cardinal must 
 first inform the ordinary; of sharing eveiywhere 
 the honors usually accorded to local ordinaries; 
 of speaking with authority in the external forum, 
 when testifying as to papal pronouncements;, of 
 having a chapel exempt from the ordinary s visita¬ 
 tion; of freely disposing, even by will, of what has 
 been acquired with the income from his benefices— 
 however, a cardinal having a domicile in Rome 
 must leave to the pontifical treasury his sacred 
 equipment, except his rings and pectoral cross— 
 and all things intended permanently for Divine 
 worship, no matter with what funds they were pur¬ 
 chased, unless he bequeaths them to a church, pub¬ 
 lic oratory, pious place, ecclesiastic or member of 
 a religious institute; of consecrating and blessing 
 churches, altars, altar equipment, abbots, etc., any¬ 
 where, but observing the due formalities; however, 
 he may not consecrate the sacred oils if he is not 
 
CARDINAL 
 
 i r>7 
 
 Lrv 1 ^’ n a he must get the consent of the ordi- 
 
 naiy to bless or consecrate a sacred place- of 
 precedence over all prelates and patriarchs ’and 
 even papal legates, unless the legate be a cardinal 
 resident in his own territory—outside of Rome a 
 cardinal legate a latere precedes all others; of con- 
 fernng first tonsure and minor orders, provided the 
 candidates have the proper dismissorial letters- of 
 admmistenng confirmation, but in this case he must 
 make the proper entries in the parochial register- 
 of granting indulgences of two hundred days, to 
 b( gamed as often as the conditions are fulfilled 
 n places or institutes and by persons under his 
 jurisdiction or protection—he can also grant the 
 same to be gained in other places by those who 
 aie present there, though not toties quoties’ of 
 entering the cloister of convents; of conferring on 
 his own and even private oratories all the rights 
 and privileges of semi-public oratories; of keeping 
 
 t eal tv g f0lb1 ^ by the mer ^ 
 
 tical law. Finally, cardinals are exempt from penal- 
 
 mduded° Se<1 ^ Can ° n laW UnIeSS they are exP^ssly 
 
 Anyone who without permission of the Holy See 
 daies to bring a cardinal before a lay tribunal on a 
 matter arising out of his office incurs an excom¬ 
 munication specially reserved to the Holy See- a 
 simdar excommunication is imposed on anyone who 
 
 • a ^ S ^ 1 -?- ent - bands on a cardinal, such a culprit is 
 in addition ipso jure rendered infamous and is de- 
 
 no n it^n 0f t^ 1S nK ne^ u e •V 0 l ffic ^ di S nities > pension and 
 po&ition, the Church if he held any 
 
 It is the privilege of the dean of the cardinals to 
 ordain and consecrate the pope-elect, if he is not 
 already a priest or bishop; in doing so he wears the 
 pallium m lus absence the sub-dean enjoys this 
 right, but if he also is unable to officiate the cere¬ 
 mony is to be performed by the oldest submbi- 
 carian oaidmal bishop. The cardinal proto-deacon 
 
 entitled To P ° Pe 2?? oses the P allium those 
 ntitled to it or on their representatives; it is he 
 
 nontiff h to a ?r UnCeS i the * ame ° f the ne wly elected 
 K - 1 - tb P eo P le : A cardinal promoted to a 
 subuibicarian see and sent into it canonically is 
 e tme bishop of the diocese, enjoying in it all 
 the powers of a residential bishop. The other 
 cardinals after taking canonical possession of their 
 titles or deaconnes enjoy there all the rights which 
 local ordinaries have in their own churches but 
 they have not the power of holding trials or of 
 exercising jurisdiction over the faithful; they may 
 
 suZ-vS fu gulate .discipline, correct morals and 
 supervise the service of their own churches A 
 
 cardinal priest can pontificate in his own title with 
 
 as T a “d c anopy and a cardinal deacon can 
 assist pontifically in his own deaconry and no one 
 
 sent P e - rmit / ed d ° so there without his con- 
 sent, but mother churches in Rome the cardinals re- 
 quire p ap a l penmssjon to have throne and canopy 
 ran ° d 249 IT C °"*’ 23(M1 ' Vermeersch-Creusen, 
 
 CARMELITE 
 
 u’untiMiis promo^n 2 to 1 ’the r T y i f 911 ’ “ d ’ lillad 
 sano, 13 December 1918 Th Archd,oce ? e of R°s- 
 Rt. Rev. Giusepoe Anfonio r. 6 prcsent »««w>be n t, 
 to succeed him 10 March 191Q U& Th' VUS a PP°* nted 
 1920 count the Catholic popula,don o'f ml'T* ° l 
 
 64 Sr^rieTte^ 1 W “ h 30 pai ' ia 'hes. 4 vicariates! 
 or chapels. 30 seminanans > and 70 churches 
 
 Cardinal Protector ( c f. C. E„ III-341a)—Reli¬ 
 gious orders and institutes have their cardinal pro¬ 
 tectors whose only office is to help them by Ids 
 
 w!!e nS !!n!Hsl t0 P r °tcct their rights. Unless other- 
 
 cardin-rt f r0 '‘dod for m particular cases the 
 
 ardmal protector has no jurisdiction over the in- 
 
 llte or members, and cannot interfere in its 
 
 property. dlsclp ne « the administration of Rs 
 
 „?£•**• ■ Dio ? ese of (Cariatensis; cf. C E 
 
 It»lv 47 . d fr m the , g rovince of Cosenza, Southern 
 .j -J' ’ -’Ohragan of Santa Severina. The bishop of 
 this see boars the titles of Baron of Santo NicoSo 
 
 t.;: ja= sii-rwtg 
 
 Fr GabrieTw enCe i hoW .? Ver - has been foundby 
 
 . r* v-rabnel Wessels in the writings nf tto u • ^ 
 loan Stephen de Salanhaco. b. about 1210 became' 
 Poor of Limoges in 1249, of Toulouse ’in S 
 Visitor in Scotland in 1261 and died -it Z;™ 1259, 
 8 January 1291. He asserts that the Patriarch^? 
 Antioch Aymencus de Malafayda, wrote a ruh 
 
 A3S5r 
 
 XLIV ^o'rtore 6 of° 
 
 salem in the fourth centurv Tt w?? f J ? ru ~ 
 
 WOTk ° 0 b f Serve ^ b y critias that it could not ' beThe 
 Latin who‘ wSrte^'^! bu ‘ f ,«•“* by a 
 
 With the Greek lan^uag! and that ft fTT d 
 
 Mi« a ? £ S&Jss 
 
 difficulties with which tfe^whole °qi!esrion he of^he 
 antiquity of the order is beset Perh!!f Ib» 8 
 Joseph of Antioch, author of the f?n^% d r” 
 inscribed “Speculum perfect* milifeVmlt iZ 
 eccles,®” may have been a contemporary of Avmer 
 
 tn U « l?A Ce ■ Po ] s . sev l n ’ s contention that he belonged 
 to sub-Apostohc times, is clearly impossible. 
 
 Among the recent Generals of the Discalced 
 Carmelites must be mentioned Cardinal Jeromp 
 Mary Gotti, born at Genoa 29 March 1834 mpnT 
 
 till 1881 he A rde b Sin i, Ce 1850> P r °™rator-gener’al 1872 
 88became general, which office he 
 
 fn ?8Ql Dt ‘ TT» 1S nommatlon a ? internuncio to Brazil 
 p .ok ,/ \'' as consecrated titular Archbishop of 
 Petra 22 March, 1892, recalled to Rome in 1895 and 
 elevated to the cardinality dignity. For about 
 
 pretect y o e f a 7he e r h o e n d the . mos f important office of 
 died 19 March, of Propaganda. He 
 
 CaTmelite OS lito" 1 J POr ‘ ant ”T ent contributions to 
 meUtarnm ” STa™ n Analecte Ordinis Car- 
 
 Sin of Fr Coh b r ifro m ??T (under the editor- 
 
 Sn i * ^ r ‘ ^ a P n el Wessels), by order of the Gpn- 
 eral Chapter of the Calced Carmelites of 1908 Tn 
 ^nnection wRh this periodical was edited in 1912 
 the first volume of “Acta Capitulorum ” containing 
 
 by G Fr a Wp rS f ? r ° m !? 18 t0 1593 ’ the text bein g edited 
 y r. Wessels, and practjcally all the notes bv Fr 
 
 Benedict Zimmerman, O.C.D. The DRcalced Car' 
 
 melites publish, since 1911. “Etudes Carmelitaffies’ 
 
 b fn lTgll, crit '9»cs” (Paris, Gabalda). 
 
 r n ^ ere ^ Provinces and 112 convents 
 
 ber? a ffi d 19^3 r H, e er te WHh ab ° Ut 2800 mRm “ 
 
 provinces whh n5 e / ere l 4 P ro / inces and 3 gemi - 
 calce^CGrrirnol ’} 72 r, c 9 nven ts and residences of Dis- 
 
 The ntimbor nf G ^ nars a P d a bout 1900 religious. 
 
 16e number of convents of Discalced Nuns in 1912 
 
CARMES 
 
 158 
 
 CARPI 
 
 was 375, with over 5000 religious. There are: (1921) 
 
 16 convents of nuns m England and 12 m IrelanO. 
 In the United States there are communities at 
 Baltimore, St. LouisJ, New Orleans^ Boston Phila¬ 
 delphia, Brooklyn Santa Clara. (Ca .), 
 
 Los Angeles (two houses), Seattle, Bett t t L 
 
 Grand Rapids, and New 
 foundation was made 16 July, 19-0, by 
 melite nuns from Baltimore. On May, 1^5,so 
 nuns from Reims established a convent at nocne 
 laga near Montreal and another Canadian fomMa- 
 made at St. Boniface 26 July, luif- yie 
 American Province of Calced Carmelite Friars has 
 a novitiate and scholasticate at Niagara Falls Ont 
 nnd nriories in the Archdioceses of Chicago ana 
 Toronto and Dioceses of Newark Pittsburgh, 
 Altoona’and Leavenworth. The Ratisbon Province 
 of Discalced Carmelite Fathers has a foundation at 
 Milwaukee, Wis., and the Cataluna Province has a 
 foundation at Tucson, Arizona. Fathers oi the 
 
 Irish Province of Calced Carmelites are repre^nted 
 
 in the Archdiocese of New York. 0n , 1 /*™ a ; r n y „’ 
 1921 the Holy See issued a decree of dissolution 
 of the convent of Marienthal in Alsace, and of 
 secularization of the religious guilty of insubordi¬ 
 nation to ecclesiastical authority. 
 
 Cannes, Martyrs of the. —On 26 January, 1916, 
 the cause of beatification or declaration of martyr- 
 dom of Jean Marie du Lau, archbishop of Aries 
 Francois-Joseph de la Rochefoucauld, bishop o 
 Beauvais, Pierre-Louis de la Rochefoucauld, Bishop 
 of Saintes and their 210 companions, martyrs of 
 the Carmes, was introduced and signed by His 
 Holiness Pope Benedict XV. The three preaes 
 and their companions were victims of then > y 
 to the Church in their refusal to subscribe to the 
 civil consthution of the clergy which at the end 
 of the eighteenth century the infidel g° ver TT e ^ 
 of France sought to impose on her. Jean Mane 
 du Lau b. in Perigeaux in 1738, was distinguished 
 for his piety and love of learning from his youth. 
 He received his philosophical and theological tram- 
 ins at the Seminary of St. Sulpice and as Arch¬ 
 bishop of Arles devoted himself P a f rtl ^ la ^ to 
 studies spirit and discipline of his clergy. 
 Refusing to’take the oath to the civil constitution 
 he was brought to Paris and cast into the prison of 
 the Carmes, formerly a Carmelite monastery, w e 
 Uo mos nssTssinated. Francois-Joseph de la Kocne 
 foucauld b. in Angouleme in 1736, studied theology 
 in the seminary of St. Sulpice and the College of 
 Navarre “nd in 1772 was appointed bishop of 
 Beauvais. He wrote and worked m the defense of 
 the Faith and was noted for his to tb , e 
 
 poor. His brother PierrerLouis de la Rochefoucauld 
 b. in Angouleme m 1744, studied at St. bulpice 
 and passed from one ecclesiastical dignity 
 another being finally promoted to the see o 
 Santes. His principal care was the education o 
 v’outh and he was a vigorous antagonist of Jan- 
 serism As president of the States Provincial of 
 sSntonge and deputy of the States General hs 
 signed the principles set forth against the civil con- 
 stftidion of 3 the dergy; Together with h.s brother 
 the bishop of Beauvais, he was imprisoned m the 
 Carmes, where persisting m their refusal to ta 
 the oath, they were put to death. 
 
 Caroline Islands, formerly a German possession, 
 now under the mandatory of Japan, according o 
 the Treaty of Versailles (1919). The chief islands 
 are Ponape, Yap, Truk, and Kusai. For administra¬ 
 tive purposes, the islands were divided into two 
 groups: (a) the Eastern Carolinas, with Truk and 
 
 Ponape as centers of administration, and (b) the 
 Western Carolinas with Palau and Yap as admin s- 
 trative centers. In Yap there are /6 Japanese, 8,537 
 
 natives, and 3 Europeans. , . 
 
 The world wide interest which has 
 the tiny island of Yap is due to the fact that the 
 cable lines connecting San Francisco, Shanghai, 
 New Guinea, and the East Indian Islands cross at 
 this point which is the crux of the Pacific cable com- 
 munition After the outbreak of the Euro p an 
 War in October, 1914, the Japanese fleet took pos¬ 
 session of the Caroline Islands and by a special 
 
 arrangement effected in N ovember^U^bfe! 
 the sole administrators of the island. The cables 
 connecting New York and Germany were cut and 
 diverted respectively by France to Brest and by 
 Great Britain to Halifax, so that American press 
 dispatches must be sent by way of Manila. A 
 Japan was awarded the mandate over the foimer 
 German islands north of the equator, she claimed 
 that Yap was included m the mandate. This 
 award put Japan in control of the cable communi¬ 
 ons also and to this the United States vigor¬ 
 ously protested. At the Congress of Communications 
 called in Washington in 1920, mainly to determm 
 the disposition of the cables taken from Germany 
 during \he war, the United States insisted that 
 fhe™bove two cables should be restored to Germany 
 and that the Far East line crossing the Pacific by 
 wav of Yap be internationalized. . 
 
 The controversy rising froin this T^ion 
 settled at the Disarmament Conference m Wash¬ 
 ington in 1921 and the following agreements were 
 made- The United States was to have free access 
 to yap and as Japan was to maintain on the island 
 an adequate radio-telegraphic station co-operating 
 effectively with the cables a nd other radio stations 
 the United States gave up its right to estaon 
 radio-telegraph stations in Yap. N° cable censor- 
 ship was to be exercised by Japan, the tree entry 
 and exit of all persons and property was to be 
 guaranteed: no taxes, port, harbor, or landing 
 charges ^r exactions, either in the operation of the 
 cables or pertaining to property, persons or vessels 
 were to be levied. Traffic m arms and ammunition 
 was to be controlled. The supplying of intoxicating 
 spirits and beverages to natives was prohibited, also 
 military training of natives, except for police and 
 local defense. No military or naval base h ° ould b * 
 established or fortifications erected With .respect 
 to missionaries, Japan was to msur n comj f 
 dom of conscience and the free exercise of all forms 
 of worship, consonant with public order and moral- 
 itv and freedom of .access to all missionaries who 
 could acquire and possess property, erect religious 
 buildings^ and open schools throughout the coun¬ 
 try The above clause regarding the mi^ionaries 
 will reopen more than one hundred Christian 
 schools throughout the mandated area, as under a 
 ruling of the League of Nations, the Japanese had 
 closed these mission schools and established thei 
 own secular instruction in accordance with the laws 
 
 of Japan. The United States Senate ratified the 
 
 treaty with Japan, 1 March, 1922. r> qr o1me 
 
 In 1911 the Prefecture Apostolic of the Caroline 
 
 Islands was suppressed with that of Mariana 
 Islands their territory except the island of Cuam, 
 being then erected into the Vicariate Apostolic of 
 the Mariana and Caroline Islands (q.v.L 
 
 Carpi, Diocese of (Carpensis; cf. C. E., 
 III-374c), in the province of Modena, Italy, su - 
 fragan of Modena. This see is at pre^nt (1922) 
 filled by Rt. Rev. Andrea Righetti, b. m San Colom 
 bano Cornice, 1843, appointed 14 December, 1891, 
 
CARR 
 
 159 
 
 CARTHAGE 
 
 made an assistant at the pontifical throne, 1C May, 
 1916. J he 1920 statistics credit the diocese with 
 78,005 Catholics, 31 parishes, 78 secular and 4 regu¬ 
 lar clergy, 18 seminarians, 4 Brothers, 54 Sisters, and 
 50 churches or chapels. 
 
 Carr, James, educationist, b. at Preston, Eng¬ 
 land, November, 1826, d. at Formby, England, 
 9 November, 1913. Entering Ushaw in his eleventh 
 year, he was ordained in 1850, two years before his 
 time, owing, to the need for priests in the Diocese 
 of Liverpool, as a result of the typhus plague. He 
 was at once appointed to St. Nicholas’ pro-cathe¬ 
 dral and with a fellow-curate founded a school for 
 the children of the Whitechapel district. In 1854 
 he was made rector of Douglas, Isle of Man, where 
 he built the Church of St. Maiy, said to be the 
 most remarkable building on the island. During 
 his eight years there, besides erecting a presbytery 
 and school, he founded missions at Ramsey and 
 Peel. Recalled to England in 1862 to become 
 rector of Formby, a small country parish near 
 Southport, where he soon erected the beautiful 
 Church of Our Lady of Compassion to replace the 
 small chapel that had been used since penal days. 
 In 1866 he was raised to the Liverpool chapter. 
 
 Ten years later through the generosity of a 
 benefactor, Canon Carr was able to begin the 
 erection of the present well-equipped Formby 
 Schools, and in 1880 the bishop, wishing to sys¬ 
 tematize the work of religious instruction, ap¬ 
 pointed Canon Carr the first diocesan inspector of 
 the training colleges for England and Scotland, a 
 post entailing years of uphill work. Some time 
 previously he and Mgr. Richards of Westminster, 
 seeking to improve the Catholic school system, 
 invited the Sisters of Notre Dame at Namur to 
 come to England, knowing they had English pos¬ 
 tulants in their community. They were established 
 in a house in Mount Pleasant, Liverpool, the be¬ 
 ginning of the Mount Pleasant foundation, which 
 today includes the most notable training college 
 for teachers in the United Kingdom. 
 
 In addition to his other work, Canon Carr found 
 time to write twelve doctrinal manuals, two of 
 which “The Catholic Pupil Teacher” and “The 
 Lamp of the Word,” are still standard works of 
 their class. In recognition of these services to 
 the Church, Pope Leo XIII made him a domestic 
 prelate. From 1885 to 1895 Mgr. Carr was presi¬ 
 dent of St. Edward’s Ecclesiastical College, Liver¬ 
 pool, and on the death of Bishop O’Reilly in 1892 
 was appointed vicar capitular. The new bishop 
 chose him as his vicar general; he was also chair¬ 
 man of the Liverpool Catholic Truth Society and 
 the Liverpool Catholic Reformatory Association. 
 A gifted preacher, his lofty panegyric on Pope 
 Leo XIII was one of the most remarkable sermons 
 delivered in Liverpool. At the time of his death 
 Mgr. Carr had been a priest for sixty-four years 
 and a generation ago was considered the greatest 
 Catholic educationist of the English speaking world. 
 
 Cartagena, Archdiocese of (Cathagena in 
 Indus; cf. C. E., III-384b), in Colombia, South 
 America. The present and first archbishop is the 
 Most Rev. Pedro Adan Brioschi of the Foreign 
 Missions of Milan, b. at Tradate, 7 April, 1860, 
 elected bishop of Cartagena 15 April, 1898, made 
 archbishop 27 July, 1901, when the see was erected 
 into an archbishopric. The following important 
 religious events have taken place in the archdio¬ 
 cese since 1907: the third diocesan synod was held 
 in 1912, the second provincial council in 1915 and 
 the fourth diocesan synod in 1918, all during the 
 administration of the present archbishop. 
 
 ll 
 
 The inhabitants of the diocese number more 
 than 400,000. 1 here are 84 parishes, 1 seminary 
 
 under the care of the Eudist Fathers, with 8 pro¬ 
 fessors and about 50 seminarians. As the churches 
 are built of straw, and are only temporary edifices 
 it is difficult to determine their number. There 
 is only one mission, which is in the vicinity of the 
 St. George River and has two houses, one of the 
 German Fathers of the Society of the Divine 
 Savior for the pueblo of Ayapel, and the other of 
 native missionary priests for the pueblo of Ure. 
 A university has been established which is sup¬ 
 ported by the government, but has very few stu¬ 
 dents. At Cartagena and at Barranquil there are 
 two high schools for boys and girls. Four hospitals 
 and 2 asylums exist in the archdiocese. Religious 
 orders and congregations having foundations in 
 the archdiocese are: Capuchin Fathers (1 house); 
 Augustinians (2); Eudists (3); Fathers of the Di¬ 
 vine Savior (3); Missionary Sons of the Sacred 
 Heart of Mary (1); Christian Brothers (2); Jesuits 
 (2); Salesians (2); Sisters of the Presentation of 
 Tours (5); Franciscan Tertiaries of Our Lady of 
 Perpetual Help (5); Franciscan Tertiaries of the 
 Holy Family (1); Little Sisters of the Poor of 
 St. Peter Claver (2); Missionary Sisters of the 
 Immaculate Conception of St. Catherine (1). 
 
 Cartagena, Diocese of (Carthaginensis; cf. C. 
 E., III-384c), in Spain, suffragan of Granada. This 
 see is filled by Rt. Rev. Vicente Alonso y Salgado, 
 of the Pious Schools, b. in the Diocese of Orense, 
 1895, appointed Bishop of Astorga 1894, transferred 
 25 June, 1903. The principal events of this diocese 
 during recent years have been: the holding of two 
 general councils, the consecration of the diocese to 
 the Sacred Heart, and the organization of a rural 
 federation of Catholic syndicates. During the influ¬ 
 enza epidemic of 1919, 14 priests died while per¬ 
 forming their parochial duties. Other clergymen 
 of prominence deceased in recent years are: Rev. 
 Pedro Gonzalez Adalid, Rev. Francesco Orsonu 
 Bautista, and Rev. Pedro Belando, who was active 
 in Catholic social work and labored unceasingly 
 among the poor. 
 
 By latest statistics (1922) the diocese contains 
 302 parishes, 713 churches, 30 monasteries for men, 
 93 convents for women with 1,040 Sisters, 560 
 secular priests, 86 regulars, 125 lay brothers, 1 semi¬ 
 nary and 235 seminarians. The institutions include 
 1 university, 2 normal schools, 24 asylums, 11 hos¬ 
 pitals, and 36 other charitable institutions of various 
 kinds. Two dailies, 1 weekly, and 11 monthly 
 periodicals are published here. The following re¬ 
 ligious associations have been organized among the 
 clergy: L T nio Apostolica, Association of secular 
 missionary priests, League for the defense of the 
 clergy, Monte Pio del Clero Cartaginense, and Asso¬ 
 ciation Sacerdotal de Sufragio. 
 
 Carthage, Archdiocese of (Carthaginensis; cf. 
 C. E., III-385b), including the entire Regency of 
 Lunis, Africa. This ancient see, founded in the 
 first century, and re-established as a metropoli¬ 
 tan see in 1884, was filled by Rt. Rev. Bar¬ 
 tholomew Clement Combes, b. in the diocese of 
 Carcassonne (France), 1839, ordained 1864, made a 
 Knight of St. Gregory, 6 September, 1879, ap¬ 
 pointed Bishop of Constance, 13 May, 1881, pro¬ 
 moted 15 June, 1893. In 1908 he was made apostolic 
 administrator of Algiers, and on 22 January, 1909, 
 he was made Archbishop of that see as well as of 
 Carthage; he resigned from the former see 11 
 March, 1917. In 1914 Archbishop Combes cele¬ 
 brated the golden jubilee of his priesthood and 
 died 12 February, 1922. Mgr. Alexis Lemaitre, 
 
CARUSO 
 
 160 
 
 CASTELLAMARE 
 
 titular archbishop of Cabasa, was his coadjutor 
 
 with right of succession. 
 
 The statistics of 1911 are the latest published for 
 this archdiocese; these count the population at 
 1 600 000, of whom 148,776 are Europeans (french, 
 Italians, and Maltese), and of this number about 
 35 000 are Catholic. The cathedral was made a 
 minor basilica, 5 August, 1918. A seminary was 
 opened in October, 1917, at Sidi-ben-Said, and had 
 an enrollment of 23 students in 1920. The aichdio- 
 cese comprises 54 parishes and 14 vicariates. 
 
 Caruso, Enrico, operatic tenor, b. at Naples, 25 
 February, 1873; d. there on 2 August, 1921. As a 
 youth he sang in his parish church choir, and 
 after three years’ study under Vergine he appeared 
 in opera at the Teatro Nuova, Naples m 1894 m 
 “L’Amico Francesco.” His Marcello in La 
 Boheme,” at Milan in 1898, placed him definitively 
 in the rank of great tenors, and his success as 
 Loris in Giordano’s “Fedora” in 1899 was followed 
 by engagements in Petrograd, Moscow, Paris, Lis¬ 
 bon and Buenos Aires. He won fresh laurels with 
 Melba in “La Boheme” at Monte Carlo m 1902 and 
 then appeared at London as the Duke in Rigo- 
 letto.” In the autumn of 1903 he made a success¬ 
 ful debut in the same role at the Metropolitan 
 Opera House, where his extraordinarily beautiful 
 and powerful voice was soon to make him the ehiet 
 attraction till his death. Caruso who commanded 
 an unprecedented salary during his later years, was 
 noted for his charity. He was made a membei 
 of the Royal Victorian Order (British) in 1907, and 
 in 1918 he married Miss Dorothy Benjamin in St. 
 Patrick’s Cathedral, New York. Shortly before his 
 death he made a pilgrimage to the sanctuary of 
 Our Lady of Pompeii. Caruso sang in all the cur¬ 
 rent Italian and French operas and created the 
 leading tenor role in “Fedora,” < La Masclieie, 
 “Adriana Lecouvreur,” “Germania,” Madame But¬ 
 terfly,” and “La Fanciulla del West.” 
 
 Casale-Monferrato, Diocese of (Casalensis), in 
 the province of Alessandria, Northern Italy, suf¬ 
 fragan of Vercelli. This see is now (1922) filled 
 by Rt. Rev. Albino Pella, b. in Valdengo 1865, 
 appointed to the see of Calvi and Leano, 4 August, 
 1908, promoted 12 April, 1915, succeeding Rt. Rev. 
 Lodovico Gavotti, promoted to Genoa, 22 January, 
 1915 The diocese comprises a Catholic population 
 of 180,000 (1920), 140 parishes, 312 secular and 45 
 regular clergy, 80 seminarians, 25 Brothers, 280 Sis¬ 
 ters, and 562 churches, chapels, or oratories. 
 
 Casanare, Vicariate Apostolic of (Casanaren- 
 sis), in the Republic of Colombia, South America. 
 By a Consistorial decree of 26 May, 1915, the north- 
 cm part of this vicanato was detached, and erected 
 into the prefecture apostolic of Arauca. The present 
 (1922) vicar apostolic of this territory is Rt. Rev. 
 Santos Ballesteros, Augustinian Recollect, titular 
 Bishop of Caphamaum, appointed 22 April, 1920. 
 No statistics are published for this vicariate 
 
 Caserta, Diocese of (Casertanensis; cf. C. E., 
 III-399d), in the province of the same name, m 
 Southern Italy. Rt. Rev. Gennaro Cosenza now 
 (1922) Archbishop of Capula, filled this see from 
 12 June, 1893, until his promotion 4 March, 1913. 
 His successor, Rt. Rev. Mario Palladino, b. in 
 Campobasso, 1842, appointed Bishop of Ischia, 15 
 April, 1901, and transferred to Caserta, 2 June, 
 1913, died 17 October, 1921. No successor has as 
 yet been appointed. Caserta is a suffragan of 
 Capua, and has 96,800 Catholics, 51 parishes, 21o 
 secular and 36 regular clergy, 90 seminarians, and 
 176 churches or chapels. 
 
 Cashel, Archdiocese of (Casaliensis or Cassili- 
 ensis ' cf. C. E., III-401a), includes the principal 
 part of Tipperary, and part of Limerick counties, 
 and holds the perpetual administration of the dio¬ 
 cese of Emly. Most Rev. Thomas Jennelly who 
 succeeded to this see in 1902, aftei serving as 
 coadjutor for a year, retired 7 May, 1913, and was 
 appointed to the titular see of Methymna His 
 successor was appointed in the person of Most 
 Rev. John Harty, who now (1922) fills the see 
 He is a native of Cashel, born 1867, and educated 
 in the Jesuit College, Limerick; St. Patrick’s Col¬ 
 lege, Thurles, and Maynooth. After completing his 
 studies at the Gregorian University, Rome, he re¬ 
 turned to Maynooth as Professor of Dogmatic 
 Theology, and at the time of his appointment, 
 
 4 December, 1913, was senior Professor of Moral 
 Theology. In 1906 he assisted in founding the 
 “Irish Theological Quarterly,” and since that time, 
 has acted as one of its editors. 
 
 In 1918 the people of County Cashel, Tipperary, 
 pledged themselves to erect a statue to the Blessed 
 Virgin, if the national struggle against conscription 
 was successful. In fulfillment of this promise the 
 Lourdes Grotto was erected by the townspeople, 
 
 9 October, 1921, with impressive ceremonies, m 
 the presence of the archbishop, who delivered a 
 short address. On 4 July-of the same year, at a 
 conference of the archbishop and clergy of the 
 dioceses of Cashel and Emly, a resolution was 
 passed to send a message of encouragement and 
 good wishes to the conference of Irish leaders, 
 
 meeting in Dublin. . ,. 
 
 The religious orders represented m the archdio¬ 
 cese include: Augustinian Monks, Christian Broth¬ 
 ers, Brothers of St. Patrick, Ursulme Sisters, Sisters 
 of the Presentation, and Sisters of Mercy. I he 
 1911 census credits this territory with a Catholic 
 population of 106,000, and 3,655 non-Catholics. 
 According to 1922 statistics there are 46 parishes 43 
 parish priests, 3 administrators, 71 curates, 117 
 secular clergy, 85 parochial and district churches 
 3 houses of regular clergy, 17 convents with 322 
 religious, 6 monastic houses, 2 colleges for boys, 
 
 1 superior school for girls, and 195 primaiy schools. 
 
 Casimir, Saint, Sisters of. See Saint Casimir, 
 Lithuanian Sisters of. 
 
 Cassano all* Ionio, Diocese of (Cassanensis; 
 cf. C. E., III-403d), in the province of Cosenza, 
 Italy, suffragan of Reggio. Rt. Rev. Giuseppe 
 Rovetta, appointed to this see 29 March, 1911, was 
 transferred to the titular see of Ephestum, 16 
 December, 1920, and the present incumbent, Rt 
 Rev Brunone Occhiuto, was appointed his suc¬ 
 cessor, 11 November, 1921. Religious communities 
 which formerly flourished in great numbers m this 
 diocese, have been almost entirely abolished by the 
 Italian Government. There are now (1922) only 
 1 convent of Capuchins with 3 priests, 1 con\ ent 
 of Poor Clares with 2 Sisters, and 1 convent of 
 the Sisters of Reparation. The 1920 statistics credit 
 this diocese with 130,300 Catholics, 51 parishes, 37 
 vicariates, 253 secular and 10 regular clergy, 50 
 seminarians, 42 Sisters, and 200 churches or chapels. 
 
 Cassovia, Diocese of. See Kosice. 
 
 Castellamare di Stabia, Diocese of (Stabien- 
 sis); cf. C. E„ III-408b), in the province of .Naples 
 Italy, suffragan of Sorrento. This see is filled (1922) 
 by Rt. Rev. Michele de Jorio, born in Mont-Cassin, 
 1845, appointed Bishop of Bovino, 25 November, 
 1887, transferred 4 February, 1898, named an as¬ 
 sistant at the pontifical throne, 9 July, 1906. Most 
 Rev. Paolo Iacuzio, Archbishop of Sorrento, was 
 appointed administrator of this diocese, 23 January, 
 
CASTELLANETA 
 
 CaTANZARO 
 
 m 
 
 1920. On 15 July, 1916, the Church of Our Lady of 
 Pozzano was erected into a minor basilica. By 
 1920 statistics this diocese comprises 70,500 Catho¬ 
 lics, 27 parishes, 200 secular and 20 regular clergy, 
 10 seminarians, 13 Brothers, 70 Sisters, and 100 
 churches or chapels. 
 
 Castellaneta (Castania), Diocese of (Castel- 
 lanetensis; cf. C. E., III-408b), in Southern Italy, 
 is suffragan to the Archdiocese of Taranto. 
 
 The Rt. Rev. Bishop de Nittis who had filled 
 this see for twenty-two years, died 27 February, 
 1908, and was succeeded by Bishop de Martino, 
 whose administration lasted for only five months 
 when he died, 26 August, 1909. He was succeeded 
 by the present incumbent, Rt. Rev. Augustus Taera, 
 who was pro-vicar general of the prelature nullius 
 of Acquaviva before his appointment as Bishop of 
 Castellaneta, 23 June, 1910, consecrated 24 June 
 of the same year. 
 
 By present (1921) statistics this diocese numbers 
 6 parishes, 46 churches, 2 monasteries for men and 
 1 for women, 36 secular priests and 6 regulars, 4 
 brothers, 50 sisters, 1 seminary with 35 seminarians, 
 
 1 elementary school with 3 teachers and 70 pupils, 
 
 1 home, 3 asylums, and 3 hospitals. In 1920 the 
 total Catholic population was 38,600. 
 
 1910, Catalonia had a population of 2,084,868 an 
 average of 185.8 to the square mile. It is divided 
 into four provinces. The province of Barcelona 
 lias an area of 2,965 square miles, including 316 
 municipalities, its capital Barcelona, has a popula¬ 
 tion of 582,240. The 185 municipalities of P the 
 second province, Taragona, aggregate 2,505 square 
 miles m area. Its capital, Taragona contains 23,195 
 inhabitants. _ Lerida, the largest, but the least 
 wealthy, province of Catalonia has an area of 4 690 
 square miles, divided into 325 municipalities. The 
 fourth province, Gerona, area 2,261 square miles, 
 is divided into 247 municipalities, and has for its 
 capital, Gerona with a population of 14,929. For 
 further statistics, see Spain. 
 
 Catamarea, Diocese of (Catamarcensis; cf. C. 
 E., XVI-35a), in the Republic of Argentina, South 
 America, suffragan of Buenos Aires. This diocese 
 v as erected 21 January, 1910, embracing the prov¬ 
 ince of Catamarca, an area of 84,461 sq. miles 
 
 e de P. artment ?f the Andes, a district of 
 40,57o sq. miles. It is under the administration 
 of its first bishop, Rt. Rev. Barnabe Piedrabuena 
 b at Tucuman, 10 November, 1863, appointed 
 Bishop of Castrus, 16 December, 1907, transferred 
 8 November, 1910. 
 
 Castle, Egerton, author, b. 12 March, 1808, in 
 London; d. there 16 September, 1920. He was 
 the grandson of Egerton Smith, founder of the 
 Liverpool “Mercury,” and was educated at Cam¬ 
 bridge and at the Universities of Paris and Glas¬ 
 gow. He also passed through all the courses of 
 submarine mining at Chatham and Gosport, quali¬ 
 fying as Captain in the Royal Engineer Militia. 
 4 hough a Londoner to the core, a clubman of the 
 “Athenaeum’’ and the “Garrick,” he was a cosmo¬ 
 politan in interest and in bearing. A noted swords¬ 
 man, in 1884 he wrote his “Schools and Masters of 
 France,” and later the “Story of Swordsmanship,” 
 the latter delivered as a lecture at the Lyceum 
 Theater under Sir Henry Irving, and subsequently 
 repeated at the request of the Prince of Wales. 
 In 1908 he was Captain of the British epee and 
 saber teams at the Olympic games. He was like¬ 
 wise a lover of book-plates, and in 1892 published 
 “English Book-plates.” 
 
 However, it is as a writer of romance that Castle 
 is best known in contemporary literature. With his 
 fellow-fencer, Walter Pollock, under whose editor¬ 
 ship he contributed to the “Saturday Review,” he 
 wrote “Saviola,” a play for Sir Henry Irving, and 
 later composed “Desperate Remedies” for Richard 
 Mansfield. He also translated Stevenson’s “Prince 
 Otto” into French. Castle married Agnes Sweet- 
 man, sister of Mrs. Francis Blundell, and in col¬ 
 laboration with her wrote many clever romantic 
 novels, deservedly popular and meriting a high 
 place in modern fiction. Amongst them are the 
 “Pride of Jennico,, and “The Bath Comedy” (both 
 dramatized and produced in New York, the latter 
 under the name “Sweet Kitty Bellairs”); “French 
 Nan,” “The Incomparable Bellairs,” “If Youth But 
 Knew,” “A Little House in War Time,” “Pamela 
 Pounce,” and many others. His marriage proved 
 a very happy one and through it he was brought 
 into close contact with the Catholic religion, which 
 he embraced before his death. 
 
 Catacombs, Recent Excavations in. See De 
 Waal, Anton. 
 
 Catalonia (cf. C. E., III-428a), a principality 
 within the Spanish monarchy, occupying an area 
 of 12,427 square miles in the northeast corner of 
 the Iberian peninsula. According to the census of 
 
 In April, 1916, the celebration of the twenty-fifth 
 anniversary of the crowning of the statue of Nuestra 
 Senora del Valle, was celebrated in the diocese. 
 Mgr. Locatelli attended the ceremonies, as papal 
 delegate, and the Pope granted special indulgences 
 in honor of the anniversary. On 22 May, 1920, 
 upon the request of the bishop, the territory of Los 
 Andes was separated from this diocese, and united 
 to the diocese of Salta. During recent years the 
 diocese lost two prominent members; Dr. Rafael 
 Castillo, deputy to the National parliament, and 
 one time minister of the Interior, and Mgr. Rafael 
 D Amico, vicar general of the diocese, and largely 
 instrumental in the erection of the sanctuary of 
 Nuestra Senora del Valle, and the seminary. By 
 present statistics (1922) the diocese comprises 15 
 parishes, 112 churches and chapels, 2 convents of 
 men, 25 secular and 20 regular clergy, 4 Brothers, 
 1 seminary, 40 seminarians, 1 college for men with 
 6 professors and 120 students, 2 colleges for women 
 with 7 teachers and 235 students, 2 asylums, and 5 
 hospitals. Catholic schools, colleges, asylums, and 
 hospitals are assisted financially by the Govern¬ 
 ment. Various societies are formed among the 
 laity, and 2 periodicals are published. 
 
 Catania, Archdiocese of (Cataniensis; cf. C. 
 E., III-429d), in Sicily, directly subject to the Holy 
 See. This see is filled by His Eminence Cardinal 
 Francica-Nava di Bontife, born in this diocese, 
 1846, ordained 1869, named a papal chamberlain, 
 1876, vicar general of Caltanisetta, 1877, appointed 
 titular Bishop of Alabanda and auxiliary at Cal¬ 
 tanisetta, 1883, promoted to the titular metro¬ 
 politan see of Heraclea, 1889 and made nuncio to 
 Belgium, transferred 18 March, 1895, made nuncio 
 to Madrid, 1896, and created Cardinal, 19 July, 
 1S99. He is assisted by an auxiliary, Rt. Rev. 
 Emilio Ferrais, titular Bishop of Lystra. By 1920 
 statistics the archdiocese counts a Catholic popula¬ 
 tion of 376,653, of whom 90,000 are in Catania 
 proper; 43 parishes, 374 secular and 112 regular 
 clergy, 140 seminarians, 40 Brothers, 159 Sisters, 
 and 223 churches or chapels. 
 
 Catanzaro, Diocese of (Catacensis; cf. C. E., 
 III-430c), in the province of Calabria, Italy, suf¬ 
 fragan of Reggio. Rt. Rev. Pietro di Maria, ap¬ 
 pointed to this see 6 December, 1906, was promoted 
 to the titular see of Iconium, 11 June, 1918, and 
 
CATENIAN 
 
 162 
 
 CATHOLIC 
 
 the present incumbent, Rt. Rev. Agapito Augusto 
 Giovanni Fiorentini, was appointed his successor 
 25 September, 1919. Born in Castrocaro, 1867, he 
 was appointed Bishop of Tncanco, 27 June, 1909 
 and filled that see until his transfer. A regional 
 seminary was erected in Catanzaro by _rius A 
 and conferred degrees for the first time, 7 January, 
 1918. Eight seminarians received the degree ot 
 Bachelor of Theology, and at the same time a 
 feast was solemnly celebrated in honor of Pius; A, 
 Pope Benedict XV blessed the reunion, and Car¬ 
 dinals Gasparri, Bisleti, and de Lai sent telegrams 
 of congratulation to the rector, Mgr. Goccia. 
 
 The 1920 statistics credit this diocese with 85,000 
 Catholics, 48 parishes, 5 vicariates 80 secular and 
 6 regular clergy, 21 seminarians, 5 Brothers, 3b bis¬ 
 ters, and 97 chinches or chapels. 
 
 Catenian Association, The, which takes its 
 name for the Latin word catena a chain, is a 
 British fraternal organization, strictly Catholic, con¬ 
 stitutional, and non-political. Membership is con¬ 
 fined to laymen of the professional and co ™urercial 
 classes. Founded in Manchester m June, 1908, the 
 association now has “circles” (symbolized by an 
 endless chain), in London and most of the Pf m " 
 cipal towns of Great Britain. The primary object 
 of the association is the cultivation of social inter¬ 
 course amongst its members in the belief that 
 such friendly union is conducive not only to the 
 individual and collective prosperity of Catemans, 
 but also to the general advancement of the Catho¬ 
 lic cause. A certain portion of each circle s annual 
 revenue is allocated to a central benevolent fund 
 from which practical aid is given to such membeis 
 who “in the strenuousness of life have fallen dis¬ 
 tressed by the wayside.” A special feature of 
 Catenian activity is the furtherance of the interests 
 of Catholic youths entering professional and com¬ 
 mercial life. Applicants for memberships must have 
 reached their twenty-fifth year, except sons of 
 members who are admitted at twenty-one. Ac¬ 
 cording to its present constitution, membeiship is 
 reserved to those who have attained to lecognized 
 positions of definite responsibility (members sons 
 excepted). There is a tendency, however, to relax 
 the original restrictions, and to adapt the organiza¬ 
 tion to the needs of the times. Normally, the 
 association, as such, does not identify itself with 
 any work outside its own special province, but two 
 exceptions (understood not to be precedents) have 
 been made: (1) In 1915 at a meeting of the 
 “Grand Circle” of the Association held m London, 
 a resolution was unanimously adopted by virtue of 
 which the Association undertook the sponsorship 
 of a special issue of the Catholic Encyclopedia 
 (this was published as the “Catenian Edition, 
 and by its effective circulation, much useful 
 work was accomplished in overcoming Protestant 
 prejudices and misconceptions of Catholic teach¬ 
 ing.) (2) At the request of the English hier¬ 
 archy, personally voiced by Cardinal Bourne (1920) 
 and subsequently renewed by Pope Benedict XV, 
 the Catenian Association undertook to raise 
 amongst its members funds to enable the Collegio 
 Beda, Rome, to tide over a period of financial 
 stringency; this purpose having been accomplished, 
 the association is now concerned with a scheme to 
 enable the college to be re-established, free from 
 debt, in a new and permanent home. During the 
 war the Catenian Association co-operated, on their 
 own territory, with the Knights of Columbus m 
 their work for the temporal and spiritual welfare 
 of men on active service. 
 
 E. Vincent Wareing. 
 
 Cathedraticum (cf. C. E., Ill—441b)—All 
 churches or benefices under the jurisdiction of the 
 bishop, as well as all lay confraternities have to 
 pay the cathedraticum annually. The amount of 
 this tax, if not fixed by ancient custom, is to be 
 determined by a provincial council or a meeting of 
 the bishops of the province; the decision of the 
 bishops, however, has no force uqtil it has been 
 
 approved by the Holy See. 
 
 Code jur. can., 1503-07. 
 
 Catholic Actors’ Guild of America, The, was 
 organized in March, 1914, by Rev. John Talbot 
 Smith and a number of prominent Catholic actors 
 in order “to bring the Catholic actor and playgoer 
 together in social intercourse, to stimulate the one 
 by encouragement and the other to a deeper inter¬ 
 est in the stage, to assist the Catholic actors in any 
 proper way and to prepare for the Catholic theater 
 and drama of the future.” At the time of its insti¬ 
 tution the Church had let down the barriers erected 
 against the modern stage. Since in the days of 
 morality plays, the drama was an effective teacher 
 in moral and religious training, it was deemed 
 advisable to bring this great and beneficent force 
 into modern Catholic life and thought, and by so 
 doing rescue this important social institution from 
 the secularism that had so completely absorbed it 
 and lowered its standards. Tlie logical way to 
 bring this about was to devise ways and means to 
 aid the members of the theatrical profession and 
 direct their influence into proper channels. They 
 were no longer frowned upon, but were considered 
 as human beings. Many of them were Catholics, 
 and of this number, some by reason of their 
 nomadic existence, had grown out of touch with 
 Catholic ideals and principles. 
 
 The aims and work of the Guild comprehend all 
 phases of helpful care for the spiritual and tem¬ 
 poral welfare of the theatrical profession. Although 
 not a religious organization in the restricted sense 
 of the word, it is conscious of its obligation to pro¬ 
 vide all possible means by which the members of 
 the profession may keep in touch with their re¬ 
 ligious duties. Through its chaplain, specially de¬ 
 signated by the Archbishop of New York, many 
 avenues have been developed by which this is pos¬ 
 sible. Every year during Holy Week a spiritual 
 retreat for Actors is held, and at a later date a 
 solemn Mass of requiem for the deceased members 
 of the profession. Through the courtesy of the 
 pastor of St. Malachy’s Church, a special Mass 
 for actors is said every Sunday at 11:30, at 
 which the ushers, singers, etc., are all connected 
 with the profession. The Guild has met a long- 
 felt need in placing in every theater and theatrical 
 hotel in the country a decorative placard contain¬ 
 ing information as to the situation of the nearest 
 Catholic church, the hours of Masses, confessions, 
 etc. Arrangements have been made with New 
 York hospitals whereby the office of the Guild is 
 to be notified on admission of a Catholic member 
 of the profession. It co-operates actively with all 
 theatrical relief organizations and cares for all cases 
 where Catholics are concerned. Its burial plot in 
 Calvary Cemetery offers a solution of the problem 
 of Christian burial of Catholic members of the 
 profession. Its affiliation with the National Catho¬ 
 lic Welfare Council has opened avenues by which 
 actors who are taken ill en tour may be cared for, 
 and this by reason of their constant travel has 
 made a special appeal to the actor of every denomi¬ 
 nation, and has impressed upon the profession the 
 interest of the Church in their temporal as well as 
 their spiritual welfare. . 
 
 As New York is the mecca of all aspirants to the 
 
CATHOLIC 
 
 163 
 
 CATHOLIC 
 
 stage, and as so many hundreds of Catholic young 
 men and women are constantly arriving there to 
 pursue the study of the arts, the Guild is desirous 
 of having all Catholics register at its office. There 
 the stranger in the metropolis will find a welcome 
 and a bureau of information and guidance through 
 which he or she may be helped in the realization 
 of worthy ambitions. The Guild in this way is a 
 broadly based effort to supply a practical and pro¬ 
 tective influence to our young Catholics who desire 
 to enter the theatrical profession. It acts also in 
 the spirit of guidance and direction for managers 
 and producers who desire the Catholic viewpoint 
 on any given subject. 
 
 It is planned to open branch offices in the larger 
 theatrical centers and to establish organizations of 
 a similar nature throughout the country under the 
 supervision of chaplains to be appointed by the 
 bishops of the various dioceses. Eventually a large 
 building capable of affording living accommoda¬ 
 tions for members will be erected in New York. 
 Included in its membership of 2,700 are many non- 
 Catholics and social members. The office of the Guild 
 is situated at 220 West 42nd Street, New York City. 
 
 Martin E. Fahy. 
 
 Catholic Big Brothers.—This organization was 
 founded in New York in 1914 by Rev. Thomas 
 J. Lynch as a preventive and protective agency 
 in regard to juveniles just beginning to become 
 delinquent or who had already appeared in the 
 Children’s Court. Its object was not to coddle or 
 countenance ill behavior on the part of the boy 
 through any mistaken leniency because of his of¬ 
 fense; but to bring home to him the necessity of 
 doing what was right by having some one outside 
 of his family interest himself in him and exercise 
 a beneficial influence upon him. Its measure of 
 success has varied with the years; but its value 
 as a boy-saving agency cannot be disputed, de¬ 
 pending upon the efficiency and zeal of those who 
 seriously take up its work. Statistics are not 
 available m regard to its success. 
 
 Catholic Boys Brigade of the United States 
 
 (C. B. B.U. S.), a semi-military organization intro¬ 
 duced into New York in 1916 with the approval 
 and special recommendation of his Eminence, Car¬ 
 dinal Farley by the Rev. Thomas J. Lynch, with 
 the assistance of Michel Lonergan, who brought 
 from Ireland experience in this kind of work. The 
 movement was completely re-organized in Novem- 
 bei, 1919, and the best features found in other bovs’ 
 organization were worked into a varied but well 
 regulated program, including simple military drill, 
 a k etacs, games, sports, contests, outings, parades, 
 exhibitions, camping, procuring of employment and 
 promotion of higher Catholic education. The regu¬ 
 lar weekly meetings are divided into a recreational, 
 a military and an educational period of 30-40 
 minutes each. Everything is subject to the selec¬ 
 tion of the reverend director. 
 
 Many pi elates and prominent educators have 
 approved of the Brigade, which is entirely under 
 ecclesiastical control and exclusively Catholic. The 
 Holy See blessed it and granted a plenary indul¬ 
 gence for the monthly corporate Communion and 
 an indulgence of 300 days for each pious recital 
 of the following Brigade Pledge: “We pledge alle¬ 
 giance to Jesus Christ, our invisible Head, to His 
 Vicar and other representatives on earth, our lead¬ 
 ers in the battle against our outward and inward 
 enemies, and to Mary our Immaculate Queen under 
 whose protection we hope to gain the victory and 
 an eternal triumph in heaven.” To which is added: 
 Equally sincere we pledge allegiance to our flag, 
 and loyalty to the country over which it waves; 
 
 obedience to authority and to the Constitution 
 upholding 1‘berty, religious freedom, justice and 
 equality for all. Finally the National Catholic 
 Welfare Council made the national extension of 
 the Brigade one of its activities. 
 
 The special aims of the Brigade are: (1) to 
 reach boys not attending parochial schools and 
 therefore m no immediate contact with their cleivv • 
 (2) to draw Catholic boys away from non-Catholic 
 organizations by providing something which is at¬ 
 tractive, really Catholic and within the reach of 
 nearly every parish; (3) to reach through the boys 
 their families, especially those who are in need of 
 pastoral care; (4) to keep pupils of parochial 
 schools longer under the influence of the priest 
 by promoting higher Catholic education and pro¬ 
 curing suitable positions for those who desire to 
 work; (5) to lead boys to join religious societies 
 or sodalities and to the regular reception of the 
 bacraments. In a word, having the motto “For 
 God and Country,” the Brigade seeks to make 
 b( Wf Catholics and patriotic citizens. 
 
 he Bngade has a neat uniform. It has chosen 
 the Immaculate Virgin as its primary patroness 
 and has adopted a special standard consisting of 
 two square fields of papal yellow and white, with 
 a blue circular field surrounding a white star in the 
 center. A cross surmounts the pole. The stand¬ 
 ard symbolizes the pledge of the Brigade. The 
 indulgences granted by the Sacred Penitentiary 
 °? 19 April, 1921, can be gained only by members 
 ot duly chartered branches, who are registered at 
 New lork General Headquarters. The continual 
 extension of the Brigade and its welcome reception 
 by the hierarchy prove its need, usefulness and 
 adaptability. Affiliated cadet corps although re¬ 
 taining their original scope, name, government and 
 outfit, participate in all present and future privi¬ 
 leges of membership in the Brigade. 
 
 Father Kilian. 
 
 Catholic Colonization.—Colonization is here as¬ 
 sumed as the grouping of a class of people in one 
 place to promote their mutual interests. In Catho- 
 Hc Colonization the religious feature is emphasized, 
 without, however, neglecting the temporal aspect 
 of the work. Religious instruction, the Sacraments 
 and the Mass, are of such importance that the 
 settlers, or at least their children, lose the faith 
 if they are long left without these influences. Catho¬ 
 lic example and. a Catholic atmosphere are equally 
 important. It is a recognized law of history that 
 immigrants scattering broadcast over churchless 
 districts first greatly miss the religious practices 
 in which they formerly engaged, but soon get ac¬ 
 customed to live without them. It is also a matter 
 of experience that Catholics grouped together grow 
 in number and in fervor, and gradually form strong 
 Catholic settlements. Catholic colonization en¬ 
 deavors to group Catholics together, so that they 
 can strengthen one another in their faith. It makes 
 sure of church and school facilities, and supplies 
 priests and Sisters, and by systematically grouping 
 Catholic settlers in certain well defined districts 
 it multiplies Catholic parishes and communities. 
 Besides providing for the religious needs of the 
 Catholic settler, Catholic colonization endeavors to 
 guide and protect him in the choice of lands suited 
 to his means and his other personal qualifications. 
 
 General History. —There were two kinds of 
 colonies established in North America, political and 
 social. Political colonies were organized by Euro¬ 
 pean powers for the benefit of their respective 
 nations. These colonies generally shared the for¬ 
 tunes of the mother country, some prospering, others 
 gradually dying out. The result of the Colonial wars 
 
CATHOLIC 
 
 164 
 
 CATHOLIC 
 
 was that the English secured most of the colonies. 
 The Latin colonies were Catholic. The first white 
 settlers in the United States were the Spanish and 
 French immigrants, coming with their families and 
 also inter-marrying with the Indians. 1 he Indian 
 reductions were social colonies, founded by tne 
 Franciscan Fathers in the Southwest. They were 
 situated in the best sites of California, New Mexico, 
 and Arizona. Anyone acquainted with the tacts, 
 and looking for good lands, will first direct his 
 attention to the ancient Indian colonies. ine 
 Indians increased and prospered. There were as 
 many as 5000 individuals in a village, and they 
 produced everything they wanted for their own 
 use. As proof of their efficiency they built sub¬ 
 stantial churches and schools, which to this day 
 form conspicuous landmarks of the country. Ihese 
 colonies have disappeared, partly for political 
 reasons, but mainly because of economic factors, 
 the chief of which was the fact that the baibanan 
 and the half civilized man cannot compete with the 
 fully civilized man and commercial enterprises and 
 colonies organized by him. 
 
 Protestant Colonization. —In the English colonies 
 the practice of the Catholic religion was forbidden, 
 except in Maryland and Pennsylvania. From Mary¬ 
 land a number of Catholic colonists went to Ken¬ 
 tucky and other Southern states, forming there 
 incipient Catholics colonies. The number of Catholic 
 Irishmen who were deported to the Southern States 
 from Great Britain was very great, as is testified 
 by the names of many towns found in various parts 
 of the South. No doubt these martyrs deported 
 on account of their faith died in the Faith, but 
 the same cannot be said of their children. Without 
 priest or religious ministrations their descendants 
 were lost to the Faith and their religious affiliations 
 were entirely obliterated, even in their own minds. 
 The French and Spanish colonies founded in the 
 South retained their racial and religious characteris¬ 
 tics in a very marked degree. These Latin colonies, 
 wherever they were not destroyed by rival influ¬ 
 ence, developed into great communities and cities, 
 such as St. Augustine, New Orleans, and others. _ 
 Irish Catholic Colonization Association.— Heroic 
 attempts were made in the latter part of the nine¬ 
 teenth century to group that immense number of 
 Catholic immigrants from Europe who were scat¬ 
 tering throughout the churchless regions of the 
 United States. The railroads were building through 
 the great basin of the Mississippi and opening im¬ 
 mense territories to settlers. People of every de¬ 
 nomination and especially Catholics, flowed into 
 those new fields, the more so that they were the 
 men who built the new lines. There was neither 
 church nor priest for hundreds of miles. It was 
 just at that time that the Irish immigration, brought 
 on by the great famine in Ireland, was most numer¬ 
 ous. There was a new world forming without tem¬ 
 ple or sacrifice, many being wholly lost to the 
 church in this way. The only remedy was seen 
 to be a grouping together of these people, and 
 many individual efforts were made to colonize this 
 vast army in quest of homes on the virgin soil 
 of America. 
 
 Finally in 1879 there was formed the Irish Catho¬ 
 lic Colonization Society of America, which founded 
 such flourishing settlements as the colonies at Adrian 
 and Ghent, Minnesota, Greeley and Spaulding, 
 Nebraska, and others. The success of the Irish 
 Catholic Colonization Society was demonstrated on 
 a glorious occasion when Archbishop Ireland, who 
 was the soul of this enterprise, consecrated at one 
 time six bishops for the dioceses of his province. 
 These dioceses were the direct offspring of the 
 
 colonization endeavors of the Irish Catholic Coloni¬ 
 zation Society. The immigrants who came to this 
 country from Germany and other European coun¬ 
 tries, because of economic and religious reasons, 
 wore also settled in colonies throughout the Middle 
 West through the individual enterprises of zealous 
 bishops and priests. 
 
 Catholic Colonization Society of the United 
 States. —In our day the Catholic Colonization Soci¬ 
 ety, U. S. A., represents the organized National 
 Catholic Colonization endeavors in the United 
 States. It is the only national colonization society, 
 and the only organization of its kind which has 
 received the recommendation and encouragement 
 of the Board of North American Archbishops. At 
 their annual meeting, held in Washington in 1912 
 the late Archbishop of Chicago, Most Reverend 
 Edward Quigley, presented the following resolution 
 which was accepted by all the Archbishops: 4his 
 body has heard with great satisfaction that there 
 is to be called a meeting of Bishops and Priests at 
 St. Louis, to consider a movement with the idea 
 of completely organizing the Catholic Colonization 
 Society, now in existence, and give it responsible 
 direction. The Archbishops are deeply interested 
 in the development of the work designed to aid 
 Catholic immigrants, and to direct them to Catholic 
 localities where their faith may be safeguarded by 
 church, school, and pastor.” 
 
 A special promotion meeting, called by the Arch¬ 
 bishop of St. Louis, Most Reverend John J. Glen- 
 non, was held at St. Louis, 4 and 5 May, 1911. It 
 was attended by twenty-three representatives 
 (bishops and delegates of bishops). Archbishop 
 Glennon presided over the meeting. A National 
 Society of Colonization was established and a work¬ 
 ing organization formed. It was a convention of 
 capable minds and auspicious prospects. On 11 
 July, 1911, a second general convention of the 
 Society was held in Chicago. It was honored by 
 the presence of the four metropolitans of Middle 
 America, Archbishops Quigley, Ireland, Glennon, 
 and Messmer. At this convention the constitu¬ 
 tions, by-laws, and other regulations for the guid¬ 
 ance of the executives and officers of the Society 
 were drawn up and adopted. These resolutions gave 
 the central organization the power of initiative in 
 starting colonies, with a proviso to co-operate with 
 diocesan bureaus of colonization wherever they 
 existed. The work was centralized in the national 
 bureau established at Chicago. Thus the society, 
 as the National Catholic Colonization Society of 
 the United States, came into being under most 
 worthy and promising auspices, and was imme¬ 
 diately placed in the Catholic Directory as a 
 national organization of the Catholic Church. This 
 society was saluted by both the secular and re¬ 
 ligious press as a long felt want. 
 
 Character and Policy.— The Catholic Coloniza¬ 
 tion Society is not a financial or money making 
 concern. It neither buys, sells, nor owns lands 
 in any of its colony projects. Through the Catholic 
 Land Information Bureau, U. S. A., associated with 
 it, the Catholic Colonization Society seeks to cover 
 the entire United States in search of suitable lands, 
 so that there may be a wide range of choice for 
 its clients. Such lands are carefully investigated 
 by this bureau, some of the best known and most 
 reliable agriculturists and land experts in the United 
 States being employed by it for this work of 
 investigation. In the case of every colony project, 
 the business standing and responsibility of the 
 company handling the lands are carefully investi¬ 
 gated to ascertain whether the prospective colonists 
 may be safely entrusted to these parties. Then the 
 
CATHOLIC 
 
 165 
 
 CATHOLIC 
 
 bureau proceeds to examine the particular tract 
 of land in question, as to its agricultural merits, 
 special attention is given to climatic and sanitary 
 conditions, quality and productiveness of the soil, 
 its adaptability for special cultivation (fruit, grain, 
 vegetable, dairying, cattle raising, etc.), facilities of 
 transportation, marketing, supply of wood, lumber, 
 fuel, drinking water, etc. Only when the afore¬ 
 mentioned examination of the land is thoroughly 
 satisfactory, and when other matters intended for 
 the welfare of the settler have been properly ar¬ 
 ranged, will the Catholic Colonization Society issue 
 a formal recommendation of the project and bring 
 it before the public here and in Europe. Such a 
 recommendation will be given only when the soci¬ 
 ety is fully satisfied as to the adaptability of the 
 project for the Catholic settler. While it is clearly 
 impossible to give an absolute guarantee in under¬ 
 takings of this kind, which depend largely on human 
 conduct, yet once the Catholic Colonization Society 
 has recommended land, the settler may rest as¬ 
 sured that every precaution which may be reason¬ 
 ably demanded, has been used in the investigation 
 of such a project. Naturally, so far as the future 
 is concerned, it will rest entirely with the colonist 
 to make his land bear fruit and profit. Here, as 
 elsewhere, labor is the source of wealth. The shift¬ 
 less, and careless settler, who may eventually come 
 to grief on land recommended by the society, must 
 blame himself, not the Catholic Colonization Soci- 
 ety. In order to protect the religious interests of 
 the settlers, it is the fixed policy of the Catholic 
 Colonization Society not to recommend any land 
 project unless a church with regular divine services 
 is established on the spot to care for the religious 
 needs of the incoming settlers. 
 
 Reports which describe the actual merits and 
 limitations of any colony, project and which tell 
 how the land should be handled in any particular 
 Place, are made by expert agriculturists, working 
 especially for the Catholic Colonization Society. 
 Thus the society puts at the disposal of every 
 man of small means the service of land experts, 
 ^hich up to the present time could be secured only 
 by the man of wealth or the rich institution. The 
 small land-seeker was without such expert and 
 practical guidance until the society found means 
 and ways to distribute the benefits of this expen¬ 
 sive talent and experience without cost to the 
 inquirer. By bringing a great number of settlers 
 mto the land in a short time, the danger of isolation 
 which so often discourages the individual settler 
 and causes him to fail is overcome. Archbishop 
 Sebastian Messmer, of Milwaukee, is at present 
 Director General of the Catholic Colonization Soci¬ 
 ety? Ttev. Julius E. de Vos of Chicago, President, 
 and Rev. Peter J. Cichozki, Secretary. Its head- 
 quarters are at Chicago. Projects recommended by 
 the Catholic Colonization Society are made known 
 to the public by a wide and efficiently planned 
 system of publicity and advertising. The happy 
 result has been a number of prosperous and steadily 
 increasing Catholic communities located in various 
 states of the Union. Among these may be men¬ 
 tioned three Catholic colonies in the Riviera dis¬ 
 trict of Texas on the Gulf of Mexico, the colony 
 at Fruitland in Northwestern New Mexico, the 
 nourishing colony at Ladysmith in upper Wiscon- 
 a number of other Catholic settlements 
 which have been built up in recent years. A 
 great summer colony at Victory Heights in the 
 Aorth "VY oods of Wisconsin was opened recently 
 to the Catholic population of the cities, where they 
 may spend their summer outdoors, in clean healthy 
 amusement, and attend Mass and divine services 
 
 regularly. These colonies amply demonstrate that 
 systematic Catholic colonization work, carried on 
 along practical lines, is a factor of the utmost im¬ 
 portance for the religious and temporal good of the 
 himself, and in a larger sense for the good 
 and of the Catholic Church in the 
 United States. Julius E. deVos, 
 
 Peter J. Cichozki. 
 
 Catholic Evidence Guild, The, is a part- 
 time voluntary organization of the laity for the 
 purpose of teaching their religion to non-Catho- 
 
 Iics. Its (active) members are ordinary lay-folk men 
 
 and women, who devote part of their leisure time to 
 the work; it thus differs radically from the mis¬ 
 sionary orders, although, in spirit and outlook it 
 seeks to copy them. In method it is largely 
 original, partly on account of the new present-day 
 setting of the problem of preaching the Gospel 
 and partly on account of the peculiarities of struc¬ 
 ture rendered possible, or necessary, by the char- 
 acter of its membership. Together with its main 
 object, 1 . e., that of preaching the Church as the 
 Message of God, are bound up as subsidiary ob¬ 
 jects those of preaching the utility and beauty of 
 various doctrines and practices of the Church, taken 
 separately, of supporting whatever remains of Chris- 
 tianity outside of the Church, and of confirming 
 the faith of Catholics in the crowd. 
 
 The methods adopted are those of studying the 
 topics m the Catholic system upon which non- 
 Cathohc interest is livelist, and of using them as 
 at least, jumping off spots for discourse. All sub¬ 
 jects are treated positively, i. e., by means of ex¬ 
 planatory description. The aim is to build roads 
 into the wilderness, from the City on the Hill so 
 that men may not only see the City but also, 
 close to hand, the highway leading to it. Hence 
 negative and sterile argumentation is avoided- and 
 also abstract disquisitions and matter suitable’ only 
 lor Catholic audiences. The actual state of mind 
 ol the crowd addressed is throughout, uppermost in 
 the speakers thoughts. The common material of 
 Catholicism is accordingly variously shaped to meet 
 the varying needs of different audiences. A popular 
 style of oratory is aimed at, e. g., talks are preferred 
 to set speeches or formal lectures. 
 
 As regards the Catholic community, the Guild 
 aims at increasing whatever degree of apostolic 
 spirit the laity may already possess; at the mass 
 production of speakers; and at the wise employ¬ 
 ment of the forces thereby brought into action. 
 Its organization is planned to subserve these ends; 
 there are outdoor training, propaganda and finance 
 departments. The outdoor work is the root of the 
 matter; everything else is subordinate to success 
 out-of-doors. The outdoor organization is in 
 bquads of speakers and literature sellers (usually 
 about ten to twelve in all), in charge of the meet¬ 
 ings held usually at three “Pitches.” The squad 
 leaders form the Outdoor Committee (chairman, 
 the master of the Guild), in general charge of the 
 work. The training system is built up from the 
 practical experience gained in the outdoor work 
 and, so far as regards its more rough-and-ready 
 side is in the hands of the (mainly lay) Practical 
 Training Committee, composed of the leading suit¬ 
 able speakers of the guild. More advanced work 
 is under the personal control of the Director of 
 Studies. The Propaganda Committee advertises the 
 work among Catholics and recuits new members. 
 Finally, the financial needs, general amenities, and 
 administration of the Guild, headquarters, etc., are 
 in the hands of a special Finance, etc., Committee. 
 The governing body is the Council, which decides 
 
CATHOLIC 
 
 166 
 
 CATHOUC 
 
 general policy, and in effect is a meeting ground 
 for the special Committees. . inio 
 
 The Guild was founded at Westminster in 1918. 
 Its Masters have been Vernon C. Redwood 
 (1918-1920), Mark Symons (1920-1922). Its speak¬ 
 ers in Westminster now (March, 1922) number 
 about seventy, with forty auxiliary members (litera¬ 
 ture-sellers, etc.); it conducts thirty meetings 
 weekly, totalling seventy hours speaking. ine 
 Guild is diocesan in organization, and acts under 
 the close direction of the bishop: it now exists in 
 Westminster, Birmingham, Portsmouth, Plymouth, 
 Liverpool, Brentwood and many other dioceses, 
 and is in process of formation in various places 
 
 OVPTSPELS 
 
 C. E. G. Handbook (London, 1922); Browne, Catholic 
 Evidence Movement (London, 1921). 
 
 James Byrne. 
 
 Catholic Guardian Society—The Catholic Guar¬ 
 dian Society of the Archdiocese of New York 
 supervises the children discharged from the Catho¬ 
 lic institutions for dependent children, and co¬ 
 operates with similar societies in other parts of the 
 United States. The children under its care are m 
 two groups, those returned to relatives and those 
 discharged directly to the Society. The service 
 rendered the first group consists of visiting them 
 in their homes at least twice a year for at least 
 three years, following up their school and church 
 attendance, their reception of the Sacraments, 
 their work, and their general conduct. They are 
 given the use of the Society’s employment bureau 
 
 and recreational activities. . , ,, 
 
 The important work of the Society is for the 
 boys and girls who have no relatives to take them. 
 Towards these the Society stands in loco parentis. 
 The director of the Society visits every child-carmg 
 institution of the archdiocese at least once every 
 year in order to become acquainted with the boys 
 and girls before their discharge. The children look 
 upon him as their medium of contact with the 
 outside world. They appeal to him when they 
 think that they should come out and they consult 
 him about the kind of work they would like to 
 take up. Upon their discharge they are brought to 
 the Society’s office where the director interviews 
 them at length, takes their history, explains to 
 them that the Society has been established for 
 their protection and care and asks them to do their 
 part by always consulting him before making any 
 change in boarding place or work. An approved 
 boarding place is procured, the board is paid, money 
 is given for carfare and lunches, and employment 
 is secured. The boy or girl is followed up very 
 closely for a while and after being given a good 
 start the supervision narrows down to a monthly 
 interview either in the office or at the boarding 
 home. This supervision is continued until the 
 twenty-first year, but is not so frequent towards 
 the end. For this group the Society is exerting 
 itself to the utmost, providing for the girls evening 
 entertainments, a scout troop, and the visitation 
 of two trained nurses; for the boys, boy scouts, 
 baseball teams, social evenings, and frequent meet¬ 
 ings in its offices. Two men are employed for the 
 work with the boys. The Society is constantly try¬ 
 ing to teach thrift to these boys and girls who 
 have at present in its care bank books, Liberty 
 Bonds, War Savings Stamps, and cash amounting 
 to many thousands of dollars. The Society boards 
 most of its boys and girls in small groups of two 
 or three in family homes in Manhattan and the 
 Bronx, but it has several larger places conducted 
 solely for its boys or girls. 
 
 The Society takes care of its boys or girls when 
 
 they become sick and pays their board when they 
 are out of work, advances money for clothes and 
 shoes, and has a loan fund and a relief fund. It 
 arranges for dental care and medical examinations, 
 also for mental examinations and, when necessary, 
 for commitment to proper institutions. It has had 
 to bury several of its charges who had no one else 
 to perform that last service for them. 
 
 The staff of the Society consists of the director, 
 the chief clerk, five assistant clerks, a supervisor 
 of case work, four women agents, two men agents, 
 and three women who give part time to the work. 
 Last year over 12,000 visits were made by the 
 Society’s agents, nearly 4,000 children visited the 
 Society’s offices, and over 2,000 boys and girls at¬ 
 tended the Society’s annual reunion. The president 
 of the Society is His Grace Archbishop Patrick J. 
 Hayes, the director Rev. Samuel Ludlow. The 
 offices of the Society are at 480 Lexington Avenue, 
 New York City. 
 
 Catholic Guild of Israel, The. —This movement 
 was initiated by a Hebrew Catholic and established 
 at its present headquarters, the Convent of Our 
 Lady of Sion, Bayswater, London, on 18 December, 
 1917, as an extension of the Archconfraternity of 
 Prayer which for over half a century has been 
 supplicating the conversion of Israel. The Guild 
 was approved and blessed by Pope Benedict XV, 
 and partakes in the indulgences granted to the 
 Archconfraternity by Pope Pius X, on 22 March, 
 1906. In addition its activities have been wel¬ 
 comed and are being supported by the Cardinal 
 Archbishop of Westminster, the Cardinal Arch¬ 
 bishop of Paris, and other prominent ecclesiastics 
 throughout the world. The hundreds of Masses 
 which are said every year in practically every coun¬ 
 try for the Guild’s intention prove the widespread 
 recognition of its importance. 
 
 The object of the Guild is the conversion of 
 Israel. The means adopted are: (I) Prayer. 
 (II) Sermons and lectures to Catholics on the work 
 of the Guild, and articles in Catholic newspapers 
 and magazines. (Ill) Correspondence center for 
 inquiring Jews, and for collecting and spreading in¬ 
 formation. (IV) Publication of literature in Eng¬ 
 lish, Yiddish and other tongues. (V) A Reference 
 Library of Hebrew and Catholic books for the use 
 of lecturers and students to qualify as such. 
 (VI) Public lectures to Jews in the Ghetto dis¬ 
 tricts from the Guild’s own platforms (the emblem 
 chosen for the platforms consists of Crucifix in 
 center, on the left the Shield of David, and on 
 the right the Keys of St. Peter). The public lec¬ 
 tures already delivered have given the Guild great 
 encouragement. The Guild of Our Lady oi Ran¬ 
 som and the Catholic Evidence Guild are giving 
 valuable assistance in this particular branch. The 
 president of the Guild is Very Rev. Bede Jarrett, 
 O.P., Chairman Mr. Hugh Israelowicz-Angress, 
 Hon. Sec. Mrs. Murray. The principal members 
 of the Executive Committee are members of the 
 community of Our Lady of Sion, Bayswater, who 
 through their unceasing energy have helped to bring 
 the Guild to its present flourishing position. 
 
 Hugh I. Angress. 
 
 Catholic Laymen’s Association, an organization, 
 the first of its kind, composed entirely of laymen 
 and women, formed in 1916 to counteract the in¬ 
 fluence of bigotry in Georgia, where, after years of 
 agitation, hatred of Catholics had been stirred to 
 the point that in 1915 the state Leglisature pro¬ 
 vided for the inspection by grand juries of Catholic 
 schools and convents. Following the enactment of 
 this law, its sponsors began to agitate other anti- 
 
CATHOLIC 
 
 CATHOLIC 
 
 167 
 
 Catholic measures, including the abrogation of con¬ 
 vents, the inhibition of clerical celibacy, the dis¬ 
 franchisement of Catholics, and similar barbarisms, 
 when, at the instance of a number of laymen from 
 Macon and Augusta, the Bishop of Savannah, Rt. 
 Rev. Benjamin J. Keiley, D. D., invited two lay 
 representatives from each parish in the diocese to 
 convene for action. At the resultant meeting the 
 Catholic Laymen’s Association of Georgia was 
 formed. It was decided to use all the channels of 
 publicity available to inform the people of Georgia 
 with regard to Catholic teaching and practice. The 
 assistance of the Religious Prejudice Commission of 
 the Knights of Columbus was secured, a central 
 bureau was created, with a trained newspaper man 
 in charge, advertisements were inserted in all the 
 papers of the State, inviting questions about Cath¬ 
 olics and their belief. Every unfavorable reference 
 to things Catholic, appearing in any of the two 
 hundred papers in Georgia, was promptly corrected 
 from the central office. In a short time the Asso¬ 
 ciation had built up a large mailing list. Its file of 
 correspondence in reply to inquiries reached huge 
 proportions and dealt with every possible phase of 
 Catholic teaching and practice. The work attracted 
 the attention of Catholics throughout the country. 
 It became known in Rome and was approved and 
 blessed by Pope Benedict XV. During one year 
 the Association sent out 500,000 pieces of literature, 
 answered 2,500 inquiries, wrote 5,500 letters and 
 published numerous articles in the press. 
 
 Since the Association was formed the Diocese 
 of Savannah has had the greatest proportion of 
 converts of any diocese in the province of Balti¬ 
 more. When the Convent Inspection Law was 
 passed in 1915, only one paper in all Georgia con¬ 
 demned the anti-Catholic sentiment exhibited, while 
 a large percentage of Georgia’s two hundred papers 
 were outspoken in favor of it, and more than a 
 score of papers regularly carried anti-Catholic 
 diatribes. In 1921 anti-Catholic articles in legiti¬ 
 mate newspapers in Georgia numbered less than a 
 dozen for the entire year.. The secret of this suc¬ 
 cess is found in three main features of the work, 
 viz.: (1) it is persistent, like the constant drop of 
 water on a hard rock; (2) it is personal and local, 
 every letter being written for the one occasion and 
 every article being prepared with Georgia condi¬ 
 tions in mind; (3) it is patient, kind, free from 
 controversy, based on the duty of loving one’s 
 neighbor as one’s self. In addition to its other 
 activities the Association promotes lay retreats and 
 publishes a paper, “The Bulletin,” which issues fort- 
 nightly and circulates in every State and in many 
 foreign countries. Branch Associations exist in all 
 the principal cities of Georgia. The Central Bureau 
 is at Augusta. 
 
 Catholic Protective Society, The, of the Arch¬ 
 diocese of New York, founded^ March, 1911, by 
 the Rev. Thomas J. Lynch, with the approval of 
 Cardinal Farley, who appointed him Supervisor of 
 Correction Work for Catholics for the diocese. The 
 charter of the Society was granted the following 
 June for the purpose of separating the work for 
 delinquents from that for purely dependant sub¬ 
 jects, the care of whom still remained under the 
 direction of the Supervisor of Charities. The 
 Society has grown to be the largest and only fully 
 equipped Catholic Church agency for court and 
 prison work in the United States. Its activities 
 cover the Magistrate’s, Special Sessions and Domes¬ 
 tic Relations Courts, also the special Night Court 
 for Men and the Women’s Court, in all of which 
 its efforts are confined to purely missionary en¬ 
 
 deavors for adult misdeameanants, the probation 
 voik being in charge of civil service appointees, 
 with whom the society’s officers co-operate. 
 
 , u ^sro^sionary field its greatest part has proved 
 to be the Childrens Court, where it looks after the 
 inteiests of the Catholic juveniles arraigned there 
 and through its Children’s Bureau has kept each 
 pastor in touch with every case brought there from 
 his parish, informing him of the nature of the 
 offense, etc., with the request that home conditions 
 be inquired into and if necessary remedied. It has 
 dealt with 40,000 children, and when required placed 
 « ; ir services a paid legal representative. Its 
 staff of officers has been maintained entirely through 
 individual charity. In the General Sessions and 
 Supreme Courts, however, the society was given, 
 through the will of the united judges, complete con¬ 
 trol of probation matters, as the various religious 
 societies were favored rather than any irresponsible 
 civil agency to investigate and supervise those 
 adjudged guilty of felonies. It has covered this 
 ground most commendably for eleven years, having 
 made over 20,000 investigations for the judges of 
 the General Sessions and Supreme Court, with over 
 o22? sl * s P end ed sentences as the outcome, of which 
 87 % of those committed to it for oversight have 
 proved faithful to the trust reposed in them by 
 the judges who placed them on probation. All of 
 this involved the securing of positions for the men 
 and women probationers, the amelioration of home 
 conditions and the bringing of these subjects under 
 the immediate spiritual care of their pastors. 
 
 A most, practical evidence of the value of proba- 
 tion both as a cure and a future deterrent may be 
 seen fiom the fact that through the Society’s efforts 
 complainants who were damaged in their goods, 
 restitution from probationers to the extent 
 of $45,509.47 paid through the Society’s office. Be- 
 s *~ e ? . say i n g from the convict’s brand and the loss 
 ol citizenship these men who were thus committed 
 to its care, the Society has saved the tax payers 
 in its eleven years of probation work, an amount of 
 not less than $2,000,000. As the average cost per 
 year of a State prisoner is not less than $400 the 
 amount saved to the State bjr the 5000 probationers 
 that have been kept out of its institutions, aggre¬ 
 gates the huge sum mentioned above, all of which 
 work has been done without one penny of com¬ 
 pensation from the State; and all through the 
 charity of the friends of the Society. Another 
 feature of the Society’s work has been its parole 
 system, done voluntarily and without compensa¬ 
 tion from the State, for the men and women re¬ 
 leased from the four State prisons of New York. 
 It has had paroled to it nearly 4000 men and 
 women of all nationalities and colors, Catholics at 
 least by Baptism, and so effectively has it dealt 
 with the problems of these difficult cases that it has 
 not lost of them, either by disappearance from 
 oversight or by new offenses against the law, more 
 than 15% in any year and sometimes as low as 7%. 
 Despite the trying economic conditions and other 
 elements militating against success, as every priest 
 in the State acts as a parole officer in regard to 
 those who come from his parish, the rehabilita¬ 
 tion of the paroled man has been steadily and 
 consistently brought about. It has also taken care 
 of prisoners from the Federal prisons of Atlanta and 
 Leavenworth. 
 
 Its work for women has been most fruitful. 
 Since 1916 it has maintained a shelter for women 
 charged with offenses by the courts and for the 
 unmarried mothers, who were given pre-natal and 
 maternity care in their need; so that during the 
 four years preceding November, 1920, it cared for 
 
CATHOLIC 
 
 168 
 
 CATHOLIC 
 
 1632 unmarried mothers with babies; women and 
 girls 1820; returned 273 girls to their homes and 
 supplied 40,800 meals. This is but a part of the 
 work accomplished, which will be continued 
 at the permanent quarters procured for the 
 Catholic Big Sisters through the generosity of 
 Archbishop Hayes, by the purchase of a house at 
 457 West 22nd" Street, New York, which will be 
 maintained by the Catholic Big Sisters for the pur¬ 
 pose already mentioned. Its industrial department 
 since 1911 has been gathering clothing, furniture, 
 etc. Its aid in re-constructing homes and getting 
 families together again has been most marked and 
 practical. Besides the departments already men¬ 
 tioned, there was inaugurated under the charter of 
 the society the Catholic Boys’ Protective League 
 afterwards known as the Catholic Big Brothers and 
 also the Catholic Boys’ Brigade, which had for 
 its purpose the welfare of the Catholic boys in 
 the public schools, both of which are now inde¬ 
 pendent organizations. Since its inception until 
 January, 1921, all the expenses incurred by the 
 Society in its various lines of activity were borne 
 by funds supplied by private charity. 
 
 Catholic Social Guild, an organization whose aim 
 is to excite a keener interest among Catholics in 
 social questions, and to assist in working out the 
 application of the Church’s principles to actual 
 social conditions. At the annual conference of the 
 Catholic Truth Society, held in Manchester in 1909, 
 a small private meeting was convened, in which the 
 view was unanimously accepted that the time was 
 ripe for Catholics to take an active part in the 
 great social movement of the day. A provisional 
 executive was appointed which met at Oscott in 
 the following October and framed a constitution. 
 Early in 1910 the first of the series of “Year Books” 
 of the Guild appeared, wherein the field and forces 
 of Catholic social action were displayed. The 
 Encyclical of Leo XIII “On the Condition of the 
 Working Classes” was published at once as the 
 charter and programe of the society’s work. Other 
 pamphlets speedily followed. In the publication 
 of these early studies the Guild was indebted to 
 the co-operation of the Catholic Truth Society. On 
 th$ retirement of the first secretary, Mrs. V. M. 
 Crawford, after nearly ten years of successful or¬ 
 ganization, the office of the Guild was removed to 
 Oxford. 
 
 The Guild is a teaching service. It produces 
 books and pamphlets, organizes meetings, confer¬ 
 ences, study clubs, and examinations, gives lectures 
 and acts as a medium of information both national 
 and international. Besides the pamphlets of a more 
 general character, there are volumes under the gen¬ 
 eral heading of “Catholic Studies in Social Reform,” 
 embracing such burning topics as “Sweated Labor 
 and the Trade Board Act,” “The Housing Prob¬ 
 lem,” “The Church and Eugenics,” “Christian 
 Feminism.” “The Primer of Social Science” is now 
 in its fourth edition. The regretted Father Plater’s 
 “Primer of Peace and War” was pronounced by a 
 non-Catholic contemporary to be far the ablest 
 textbook on War from the Christian standpoint 
 which had appeared in English. Nearly 100,000 
 copies have been sold of “The Nation’s Crisis,” by 
 Cardinal Bourne, “The Pope’s Peace Note,” and 
 Fr. Bernard Vaughan’s pamphlet on “The Worker’s 
 Right to Live.” A quarterly Bulletin was com¬ 
 menced in 1911, giving an account of the activities 
 of the Guild and its publications. At the urgent 
 instance of workingmen this was superseded in 
 January, 1921, by “The Christian Democrat,” which 
 is published monthly. 
 
 From the outset study clubs were founded in 
 various parts of the country. At the present there 
 are some 140 such clubs in connection with the 
 Guild, using chiefly as their textbooks “The Primer 
 of Social Science,” “The Christian Citizen,” and 
 “The Christian Social Crusade.” Cprrespondence 
 tuition is carried on in social science, industrial his¬ 
 tory, and political economy. An examination board 
 has been formed in connection with the secondary 
 schools. Adult candidates are examined in the 
 same subjects, and diplomas of merit are granted 
 on certain conditions. Much excellent work has 
 been produced by this class of candidates. Progress 
 has hitherto been delayed by the shortage of avail¬ 
 able tutors and lecturers, but this deficiency is 
 being gradually remedied. As a means of special 
 instruction and social intercourse a summer school 
 was held at Oxford in 1920 and 1921 which will 
 probably become an annual event. Most con¬ 
 spicuous among the recent achievements of the 
 Guild is the establishment of a college at Oxford 
 for Catholic workingmen. The college is in effec¬ 
 tive working order with its head and professors. 
 The men in residence are maintained on scholar¬ 
 ships provided by fellow-workers in Preston and 
 Liverpool. Arrangements are being made to found 
 a Westminster scholarship, and a second is to fol¬ 
 low at Liverpool. This significant advance will 
 doubtless lead very shortly to the establishment of 
 a similar college for Catholic women. 
 
 As the movement promoted by the C. S. G. was 
 to some extent antagonistic to prevailing notions 
 as to capital, employer and worker, it is no cause 
 for wonder that in some quarters the C. S. G. 
 aroused suspicion. It was blamed by some for 
 being too advanced, and by others for not being 
 advanced enough. It may here be stated that not 
 a line written by the Guild has incurred censure, 
 nor a single one of its speakers been called to order 
 by ecclesiastical superiors. “Its attitude towards 
 Socialism was explained by the President at Cardiff 
 (1914) with a clearness and thoroughness that met 
 with the express and emphatic approval of H. E. 
 Cardinal Gasquet and Bishop McIntyre, both pres¬ 
 ent on the platform.” (Year Book, 1919). 
 
 Henry Parkinson. 
 
 Catholic Theater Movement —A society founded 
 in New York City on 18 December, 1918, to coun¬ 
 teract the evil tendencies in the modern drama by 
 furnishing correct information about current 
 theatrical productions. The first meeting was called 
 at the instance of Miss Eliza O’Brien Lummis, and 
 was presided over by John Cardinal Farley, first 
 honorary president. The cardinal’s successor, Arch¬ 
 bishop Patrick J. Hayes, has likewise been emphatic 
 in his endorsement of the movement, the direction 
 of which from the first has remained in the hands 
 of Mgr. M. J. Lavelle, rector of the cathedral. In 
 the initial number of the “Bulletin,” the official 
 publication of the Catholic Theater Movement, 
 Cardinal Farley asked for its “campaign of educa¬ 
 tion,” not only the support of the Catholic public, 
 but the co-operation of all God-fearing people in 
 a concerted effort to defend themselves, their fam¬ 
 ilies and their children from the evil tendencies of 
 amusements opposed to Christian standards of right 
 thinking and right living. The best known and 
 perhaps distinctive activity of the movement has 
 been the publication of a “White List” of plays. 
 This list is put forward as a suggested, not an im¬ 
 posed guide, to plays which in the main are 
 adjudged to be free from objectionable features. 
 Counsels of perfection are not insisted upon, and 
 plays are included in the White List which must 
 be tolerated rather than approved. Reports on 
 
CATHOLIC 
 
 1G9 
 
 CEBU 
 
 
 plays, other than those submitted for the White 
 Lists, are also made in the “Bulletin,” coming under 
 three heads: plays which because of some objec¬ 
 tionable feature cannot receive even qualified com¬ 
 mendation; plays with an assumed serious purpose, 
 the support of which must be left to the conscience 
 of the adult playgoers; and plaj^s which in effect are 
 part of a propaganda in the interest of social and 
 moral anarchy, ranging from problem plays with 
 anti-Christian bias down to the lowest forms of 
 salacious farce. 
 
 Catholic University of America (cf. C. E., 
 III-455a), formally opened in Washington, D. C.’ 
 on 13 November, 1889, has made marked progress 
 in recent years, the number of professors and in¬ 
 structors having grown since 1907 from 32 to 86, 
 and the t 9 tal number of students from 210 to 1,834. 
 With a view to providing the teaching Sisterhoods 
 with the necessary training for this work, a teachers’ 
 college was established in 1911, and approved by 
 Pope Pius X in his letter to the Cardinal Chancellor 
 on 5 January, 1912. On 22 April, 1914, the college 
 was incorporated as a separate institution under 
 the title of “The Catholic Sisters’ College.” 
 
 With the authorization of the trustees of the 
 university, other colleges, high schools and novitiates 
 may be affiliated with the university, the affiliated 
 institution preserving its autonomy. At the present 
 time (1921) the institutions affiliated with the uni¬ 
 versity number: colleges, 15; high schools, 177; 
 novitiates, 46. 
 
 Owfing to numerous endowments received, the 
 university has been able to add substantially to its 
 libraries and the law library now numbers over 
 14,000 volumes. 
 
 In 1919 several scholarships were established in 
 the university by the War Activities Committee 
 of the Knights of Columbus, with a view to pro¬ 
 viding educational facilities for men returned from 
 war service. 
 
 In 1908 the Rt. Rev. Dennis J. O’Connell, Bishop 
 of Sebaste and rector of the university, was made 
 auxiliary bishop of San Francisco, and the Rt. Rev. 
 Thomas J. Shahan succeeded him as rector 1909. 
 That same year Monsignor Shahan was appointed 
 a domestic prelate, and in 1915 was made Bishop 
 of Germanicopolis. Bishop Shahan is still (1921) 
 rector of the university. 
 
 Catholic Writers’ Guild, The, was organized at 
 a meeting held at the residence of the Most Rev. 
 Patrick J. Hayes, Archbishop of New York, on 12 
 December, 1919. Its first meeting was held on 25 
 March, 1920, at which the organization was per¬ 
 fected and a constitution adopted. The idea of a 
 Catholic Writers’ Guild was that of the Rev. Dr. 
 John Talbot Smith who at the first meeting out¬ 
 lined the objects of such an association, these being 
 the mutual aid which Catholic authors, journalists, 
 artists, illustrators, and playrights can be to each 
 other if organized in a body and the value such 
 a body can be to the Church. Archbishop Hayes 
 was asked to accept the honorary presidency, and 
 he graciously accepted. The second meeting was 
 a reception in honor of His Grace. 
 
 The first president of the guild was Mr. Thomas 
 F. Meehan, the “dean of Catholic journalists.” He 
 was succeeded in 1921 by Arthur Benington of 
 the editorial staff of the New York World. The 
 present officers are as follows: Honorary president, 
 His Grace the Most Rev. Patrick J. Hayes, Arch¬ 
 bishop of New York; president, Arthur Benington; 
 vice-presidents, Dr. Conde B. Pallen, Miss Eliza¬ 
 beth Jordan, Thomas F. Woodlock; treasurer, Hugh 
 A. O’Donnell; secretary, Thomas C. Quinn; spiritual 
 director, Rev. John B. Kelly. 
 
 ..Board of Governors: Rev. John Talbot Smith, 
 Mrs. Ihomas A. McGoldrick, Austin J. Ford, James 
 Blaine Walker, Rev. John J. Wvnno, S.J., Daniel 
 L. Ryan^ Edward P. McNamec, Dr. Harold Beckett 
 Gibbs, Rev. John J. Burke, C.S.P., Augustin Mc¬ 
 Nally, Patrick T. Rellihan, Dr. Joseph H Wade 
 Eleanor Rogers Cox, John Tyrone Kelly, Nathaniel 
 I. Babcock, Miss Mary Sullivan, John F. O’Neil 
 Rev. Francis P. Duffy. 
 
 The Guild’s early activities have included an im¬ 
 posing commemoration of the 600th anniversary of 
 the death of Dante. This so impressed the National 
 Dante Committee that it awarded one of the com¬ 
 memorative medals, issued by the Casa di Dante 
 in Rome, to the guild. 
 
 Cattaro, Diocese of (Catarensis; cf. C. E., 
 III-456d), in Jugoslavia, suffragan of Zara. This see* 
 is now (1922) filled by Rt. Rev. Francesco Ucellini, 
 born in Lopud 1847, appointed titular Bishop of 
 Benda 18 May, 1894, transferred 18 March, 1895, 
 and named an assistant at the pontifical throne 
 28 February, 1914. In 1920 this diocese had a Cath¬ 
 olic population of 14,294, 15,000 non-Catholics, 19 
 parishes, 10 vicariates, 29 secular and 8 regular 
 clergy. 
 
 Cava and Sarno, Diocese of (Cavensis et 
 Sarensis; cf. C. E., III-467c). in the province of 
 Salerno, Southern Italy, directly subject to the 
 Holy See. Rt. Rev. Giuseppe Izzo, whio succeeded 
 to this see 3 December, 1890, was made an assistant 
 at the pontifical throne 18 March, 1906, died 15 
 January, 1914, and was succeeded by the present 
 incumbent, Rt. Rev. Luigi Lavitrano. Born in 
 Forio 1874, made an honorary canon 3 March, 1904, 
 director of the Leonine College at Rome 1901, ap¬ 
 pointed 25 May, 1914. The diocese of Cava, accord- 
 ing to 1920 statistics, has a Catholic population of 
 28,000, 18 parishes, 118 secular and 7 regular clergy, 
 54 seminarians, 6 Brothers, 20 Sisters, and 100 
 churches or chapels. Sarno is credited with 36,204 
 Catholics, 8 parishes, 95 secular and 9 regular clergy, 
 40 seminarians, 7 Sisters, and 40 churches or chapels. 
 
 Cayes, Diocese of (Cajesensis; cf. C. E., 
 III-469d), in Haiti. The Catholic population of 
 528,000 is mostly made up of negroes from various 
 parts of Africa and originally brought into the 
 diocese as slaves; the balance of a small minority 
 is European or American. There are 39 secular 
 priests, 34 parishes, 98 churches, 3 convents for 
 men and 11 for women, 1 seminary for the natives 
 with 9 seminarians, 55 elementary schools with 61 
 teachers and 3,000 pupils, many primary schools 
 with 130 teachers and 7,000 pupils, 1 home, 2 asy¬ 
 lums and 1 orphanage. The government contributes 
 in part to the support of the Catholic institutions. 
 For the clergy there are a Society of Perpetual 
 Adoration and a fund for infirm priests. Many 
 religioiis societies exist among the laity. One 
 periodical is published for the entire province. 
 
 Of the 23 priests who fought in the army as 
 soldiers during the war, 1 was killed and many 
 were wounded, 21 returned to their former diocesan 
 duties. On 17 August, 1911, the diocese was swept 
 by a cyclone which did great damage. The Amer¬ 
 ican soldiers were at one time quartered in the 
 region. Two of the ordinaries of the diocese re¬ 
 cently resigned and two others were elected. There 
 was an epidemic of small-pox during 1919 and 1920. 
 
 Cebu (Diocesis Nominis Jesu), Diocese of 
 (Cebuanensis; cf. C. E., III-471a), in the Philip¬ 
 pine Islands. By decree of 10 April, 1920, a portion 
 of the diocese was taken to form the new diocese 
 of Calboyog. The first American bishop to fill this 
 see was Rt. Rev. Thomas Augustine Hendrick, b. in 
 
CEFALtJ 
 
 170 
 
 CELEBRET 
 
 Penn-Yan N Y., 29 October, 1849, consecrated in 
 Rome 23 August, 1903, d. of cholera 28 November, 
 1909. He was succeeded by his auxiliary, Kt. Rev. 
 Juan Bautista Gorordo, b. in Barili, Cebu, 20 April, 
 1862, made prelate of the Holy See 17 October, 
 1905, appointed titular Bishop of Nilopolis and 
 auxiliary at Cebu 24 April, 1909, succeeded 27 
 
 November, 1911. „ , .. .' . 
 
 The principal events of the diocese in recent 
 years were the celebration of the golden jubilee of 
 the coming of the IVIission Fathers, and on 16 
 March, 1921, the four hundredth anniversary of the 
 discovery of the Philippine Islands. The following 
 persons of note have died in the diocese in recent 
 years: Rev. Juan Alcoseba, author of popular Cath¬ 
 olic books; Rev. Domingo Javier, author of a 
 popular theology; Rev. Filigonio Solon, editor, 
 Hon. Segundo Singzon, ex-Governor of Samar and 
 judge of the Court of First Instance; Seftor Leoncio 
 Alburo, ex-member of the Cebu Provincial Board; 
 Senor Mariano A. Cuenco, Catholic controver¬ 
 sialist and poet. The diocese comprises a wholly 
 Catholic population, chiefly Filipinos, numbering 
 1 368 274. These are served through 93 parishes, 
 96 churches, 2 mission stations, 2 convents of men 
 and 3 of women, 90 secular and 47 regular clergy, 
 6 lay brothers, 26 Sisters, 1 seminary 30 semi¬ 
 narians, 1 college for men with 23 professors and 
 500 students, 1 college for women with 18 profes¬ 
 sors and 300 students, 1 dormitory for young girls 
 attending the public schools, and 1 orphan ay slum. 
 The government hospital, the jail, and all the public 
 schools permit the priests to minister in them. A 
 society “Pia Union de Misa” is organized among 
 the clergy and the “Federation Catolica” among 
 the laity; two periodicals, “El Boletin Catolica 
 and “El Precursor,” are published. 
 
 Cefalu, Diocese of (Cephaludensis; cf. C. E., 
 HI_476b), in Sicily, suffragan of Palermo. Rt. Rev. 
 Anselmo Evangelista Sansoni, born m Terranova- 
 Bracciolini, 1859, entered the Order of Friars Minor, 
 and was appointed to this see 11 November, 1907. 
 He died 18 June, 1921, and up to this time (1922) 
 no successor has been appointed. This diocese is 
 one of the richest in Italy, receiving an annual 
 revenue of 139,284 lire from rents and royalties. 
 In 1920 it had a Catholic population of 160,320, 22 
 parishes, 301 secular priests, 50 seminarians, 90 
 Sisters, and 265 churches or chapels. 
 
 Celebes, one of the four great Sunda Islands in 
 the Dutch East Indies between Borneo on the west 
 and the Moluccas on the east, extending from 
 latitude 1° 45' North to 5° 45' South, and from 
 longitude 118° 45' to 125° 17' East. It has an area 
 of 72,070 sq. miles, and consists of four great penin¬ 
 sulas stretching east and south, and separated by 
 three gulfs of Tomini or Gorontolo, Tolo or 
 Tomaiki, and Boni. Though completely in the 
 torrid zone, the maritime tropical climate is health¬ 
 ful, the temperature ranging generally between 77° 
 and 80°, the extremes being about 90° and 
 70°. Vegetation is remarkably rich, the most im¬ 
 portant foods grown being rice, maize, coffee, coco¬ 
 nuts, sage, obi or native potato, bread fruit, and 
 tamarind. Indigo, cotton, and tobacco are also 
 grown, the bamboo and rattan palm are common 
 in the woods and among the larger trees are sandal¬ 
 wood, ebony, sapan, and teak. The products of 
 the forest supply more than half the total exports. 
 Gold, copper, tin, and iron are found on the island. 
 
 The native population is of Malayan stock: the 
 three most important peoples are the Bugis, the 
 Macassars, and the Mandars. Though nominally 
 Mohammedan their religion is largely mingled with 
 
 superstition. The Macassar language is spoken m 
 parts of the southern peninsula, but Beguinese has 
 a much larger area, and is the most cultivated 
 and copious. 
 
 For administrative purposes the Dutch have di¬ 
 vided the island into the Government of Celebes, 
 with dependencies, and the Residence of Menado, 
 administered by a Dutch governor. According to 
 the official estimate the population in 1917 was 
 3,094,074. The capital is the town of Macassar, 
 where all the products of the neighboring islands, 
 as well as those of Celebes itself, are sold. The 
 chief harbor of the north is that of Kema. 
 
 Celebes was first discovered by the Portuguese 
 in 1512. In 1607 the Dutch formed a connection 
 with Macassar and in 1618 obtained a definite 
 establishment there. By the treaty of Bongo (or 
 Banga) in 1666 the Dutch were recognized as pro¬ 
 tectors, and have gradually extended their influence 
 till in the nineteenth century they made their 
 supremacy complete. A series of revolts of various 
 chiefs in 1905-6 was quelled after considerable 
 fighting. 
 
 The Celebes Islands (de Celebes), Prefecture 
 Apostolic of, erected 19 November, 1919, compris¬ 
 ing the Island of Celebes and eight adjacent islands. 
 These islands were evangelized in the sixteenth 
 century by Portuguese missionaries, but after the 
 Dutch occupation Calvinism destroyed the work 
 they had accomplished. On 4 April, 1808, two 
 secular priests returned to the mission, and in 1859 
 the Dutch Jesuits arrived. The territory, which is 
 five times as large as Holland, covering an area 
 of 116,196 sq. miles, was formerly a part of the 
 vicariate apostolic of Batavia, from which it was 
 separated in 1919. It is separated from the Philip¬ 
 pines, lying north of it, by the Celebes Sea. Besides 
 the mission station of Macassar, which has 506 
 Catholics, mostly Europeans, the chief center is the 
 mission of Minahassa, which in 1920 was served by 
 6 Jesuit Fathers, 60 native catechists, 31 Sisters of 
 Bois-le-Duc, 3 churches and stations, 36 chapels (2 
 of which belong to the Sisters), 34 Catholic schools 
 with 57 teachers and 1138 Catholic pupils and 631 
 non-Catholic pupils, 6 schools conducted by Sisters 
 with 12 religious and 5 lay teachers, with 176 Cath¬ 
 olic and 315 non-Catholic pupils, 1 normal school 
 for teachers and catechists at Wolsan with 50 pupils, 
 1 Catholic periodical, “Geredja Katolite,” and a 
 number of pamphlets on apologetics. Minahassa 
 counts a total population of 742,026, of whom 10,763 
 are native Catholics and 10 Asiatic Catholics. 
 According to the 1918 census these islands com¬ 
 prise a total population of 3,131,984, of whom 
 3,061,758 are natives, 42,223 Europeans, and 28,003 
 Asiatics, mostly Chinese and Arabs. This mission 
 is entrusted to the Holland Province of the Mis¬ 
 sionaries of the Sacred Heart of Issondun. The 
 first and present prefect apostolic is Rev. Gerard 
 Vesters, appointed in January, 1920, and embarked 
 for Brindisi 23 June following. 
 
 Celebret (cf. C. E., III-477a).—A strange priest 
 should be allowed to say Mass in a church on 
 presenting certified and still valid commendatory 
 letters from his ordinary, if he be a secular priest, 
 or from his superior if he be a religious, or from 
 the Sacred Congregation for the Eastern Church 
 if he belong to an Oriental Rite, unless it is cer¬ 
 tain that he has committed an offense that deprives 
 him of the right to say Mass. If he has not got 
 his letters, he may be admitted if his moral standing 
 is well known to the rector of the church; should 
 he be unknown to the rector he may be allowed to 
 say Mass once or twice, provided he is dressed as 
 a cleric, receives no compensation at all from the 
 
CENACLE 
 
 171 
 
 CENSORSHIP 
 
 church for saying Mass there, and signs his name, 
 office, and diocese in a book kept specially for that 
 purpose. Bishops may issue further regulations on 
 this subject which must be obeyed by all rectors, 
 even by exempt religious, except where there is 
 question of allowing a religious to say Mass in a 
 church of his own order. 
 
 Code jur. can., 804. 
 
 Cenacle, Religious of the (cf. C. E., III-518c).— 
 The Society has houses in Belgium, France, Italy, 
 England, Holland, Switzerland, and the United 
 States. The mother-house is at Brussels, and the 
 continental novitiate at \ voir, Belgium. The houses 
 in France are at: Paris, Versailles-, Lyons, Paray-le- 
 Monial, Marseilles, Montpellier, Nancy, Amiens, 
 Bordeaux, Toulouse, and Mulhouse (Alsace). In 
 Italy there are houses at Rome, Naples, Turin, 
 Milan, where for a number of years the present 
 Holy Father, Pope Pius XI, was director of the 
 community; and San Georgio; in England at Liver¬ 
 pool, Manchester^ London and Grayshott; in Hol¬ 
 land at Tilburg; in Switzerland at Fribourg. The 
 total number of foundations is thirty, four of which 
 are in the United States, where an American Prov¬ 
 ince has been established with Mother Marie 
 Majoux as vicar-provincial. From the Cenacle of 
 St. Regis in New York, which is the novitiate for 
 the United States, the Society has made three other 
 foundations: Newport, R. I. (1906); Brighton, Mass. 
 (1910); Chicago, Ill. (1920). There are 151 Reli¬ 
 gious of the Cenacle in the United States. The 
 present superior general is Mother Marie Aimee 
 Lautier, who resides at Brussels, Belgium. 
 
 Ceneda (or Vittorio Veneto), Diocese of 
 (Cenetensis; cf. C. E., III-519b), in the province 
 of Treviso, Italy. Since 1818 a suffragan of Venice. 
 
 In 1797 Ceneda was part of the Cisalpine Re¬ 
 public; in 1805 of the Kingdom of Italy, founded 
 at the Peace of Pressburg; became Austrian terri¬ 
 tory from 1815 until 1866, when it was liberated 
 from foreign domination and united with the neigh¬ 
 boring city of Serravalle, made a commune in the 
 Kingdom of Italy under Victor Emanuel II, who 
 re-named the city Vittorio Veneto. 
 
 Vittorio Veneto underwent a further hostile in¬ 
 vasion during the last war (October, 1917-October, 
 1918). The whole diocese, being occupied by Aus¬ 
 trian troops, suffered heavily, as the seat of battle 
 for long months lay between the Piave and the 
 Livenza on a front that stretched from Monte 
 Grappa to the sea. Vittorio Veneto again proved 
 true to its name when a great Italian victory and 
 rout of the Austrian army took place there (24 
 October-4 November, 1918). This was the last vic¬ 
 tory of the war and was conducive to the armistice 
 which followed. 
 
 The present bishop of Ceneda is Rt. Rev. Eugenio 
 Beccegato, b. at Fossalta Padovana, diocese of 
 Treviso 23 December, 1862; ordained 10 April, 1866; 
 elected titular bishop _ of Sinope and apostolic 
 administrator of Ceneda 19 May, 1917, consecrated 
 m Treviso 17 June following, publish 10 March, 
 1919, to succeed to the see in place of Mgr. Caroli, 
 promoted. Mgr. Caroli was born in Rome 16 
 December, 1869, ordained 1 April, 1893, rector of 
 the Lombard Seminary in October, 1911, elected 
 Bishop of Ceneda 18 June, 1913, consecrated in 
 Rome by Cardinal de Lai 19 October following, 
 promoted to titular archbishopric of Tyre 8 May, 
 1917, named internuncio to Bolivia 28 April, 1919’ 
 and died at La Paz 25 January, 1921, after having 
 great service there for religion and the nation. 
 The clergy of the diocese rendered efficient service 
 during the war, and especially during the invasion 
 
 of the diocese. They strove to keep up the morale 
 ot the people, to give material assistance and dis¬ 
 tribute food to the needy. Many priests were re¬ 
 warded for their services by the Government, first 
 among them Bishop Beccegato, who was created a 
 commander of the Order of Saints Maurice and 
 Lazarus. 
 
 x- T £ e P t 7P u !ation of the diocese is 250,000, prac¬ 
 tically all of whom are Catholics. There are 118 
 parishes, 167 sacramental churches, 361 non-sacra- 
 mental churches and stations, 192 secular and 35 
 regular priests, 10 Brothers, 1 Cistercian monastery 
 310 nuns, 1 seminary with 14 professors and 130 
 seminal lans, 3 colleges for boys with 25 instructors 
 an34 ° students, and 3 for girls with 30 instructors 
 and 330 students, 1 school of agriculture with 10 
 instructors and 80 pupils, 1 professional school w r ith 
 8 instructors and 60 pupils, 1 bureau of emigration 
 6 refuges, 60 asylums for infants, 10 hospitals, 6 
 orphanages, 3 associations among the clergy and 
 various unions among the laity; 1 Catholic weekly, 
 
 L Azione, is published. 
 
 Censorship of Books (cf. C. E., 111-523). -Pub¬ 
 lishers must obtain ecclesiastical permission before 
 printing sacred pictures with or without prayers. 
 Permission to publish books or pictures may be 
 gi anted by the local ordinary (a) of the author, 
 or (b) of the place of printing, or (c) of the place 
 ot. publication; but if one of these refuses per¬ 
 mission another is not to be asked unless he is 
 informed of the refusal of the other ordinary. 
 Religious must obtain the permission of their 
 higher superiors before approaching the local ordi¬ 
 nary. Secular clergy require the consent of their 
 ordinary and religious of both the ordinary and 
 their higher superior to publish books treating of 
 profane matters, or to write for or edit newspapers 
 or periodicals; and Catholic laymen must not write 
 for newspapers or periodicals hostile to Catholicism 
 or morality, unless for a just and reasonable cause 
 approved by the local ordinary. Authentic collec¬ 
 tions of prayers and pious works to which the 
 Holy See has annexed indulgences, or schedules of 
 Apostolic indulgences, or summaries of indulgences 
 formerly collected but never approved, or those 
 now for the first time collected, must not be pub¬ 
 lished without the express permission of the Holy 
 See. In publishing liturgical books, wholly or in 
 part, and also litanies approved by the Holy See, 
 the ordinary of the place of printing or publica¬ 
 tion must first certify that the work agrees with 
 the approved editions. Vernacular translations of 
 the Holy Scripture must not be printed unless they 
 are approved by the Holy See, or unless they 
 are published under the supervision of the bishops, 
 with annotations taken chiefly from the Fathers 
 and learned Catholic writers. Approval is also re¬ 
 quired for translations or new editions of a work 
 already approved in the original text; but articles 
 from periodicals when re-issued separately are not 
 considered new editions and do not need a new 
 approbation. 
 
 The diocesan curia should have its ex-officio 
 censors, secular or religious clergy of suitable age, 
 men of prudence and learning who will observe a 
 just mean in approving or condemning doctrine. 
 In examining works the censors must disregard 
 personalities, keeping before their eyes only the 
 dogmas of the Church, the common teaching of 
 Catholics as shown by the decrees of general coun¬ 
 cils, the constitutions and ordinances of the Holy 
 See and the consent of approved learned writers. 
 The censor, whose name is never to be made known 
 to the author unless he has passed a favorable 
 
CENSORSHIP 
 
 172 
 
 CENSURES 
 
 judgment, must make his report in writing. If the 
 censor approves of the work the ordinary is to 
 authorize its publication with the censors decision 
 signed by his name; the censor’s name must never 
 be omitted, except in a very rare and extraordinary 
 case when the ordinary deems the omission prudent. 
 
 If the ordinary refuses to authorize the publication 
 of a work, the author on inquiring must be told why 
 approval has been refused, unless there is a grave 
 reason to the contrary 7 . 
 
 Authors and publishers who without the requisite 
 leave cause books of the Holy Scripture or Scrip¬ 
 tural annotations or commentaries to be printed 
 thereby incur excommunication reserved to no 
 one. This is a modification of the canon, law, as 
 under the older discipline the censure was incurred 
 not only by those who caused the works to be 
 printed/but by the printer also 
 
 Prohibition of Books (cf. C. E., IlI-5-nD;. 
 Not only may the Holy See for just reason forbid 
 any member of the Church to read, keep, or sell 
 certain books, but local councils and bishops may 
 impose similar restrictions on their own subjects, 
 though in the latter case an appeal without sus¬ 
 pensive effect may be made to the Holy See. I he 
 abbot of a monastery sui juris and the general of 
 an exempt clerical religious order with his chapter 
 or council may forbid certain books to their sub¬ 
 jects for just reasons; when there would be danger 
 if action were not taken promptly the other higher 
 superiors also with their councils may do so, but 
 in such a case they must notify the head of the 
 order as soon as possible. When a book is con¬ 
 demned by the Holy See it is thereby forbidden m 
 all places and in all languages. If it has been 
 prohibited it may not be published, read, kept, 
 sold, or translated without permission of the proper 
 authorities, nor may it be republished before the 
 necessary corrections have been made and permis¬ 
 sion has been granted by the person who issued, 
 the prohibition or by his successor or superior. 
 Booksellers must not supply, sell or keep pro¬ 
 fessedly obscene books; as to other forbidden books, 
 they should obtain permission from the Holy See; 
 but they must not sell them except to those who 
 they believe have a right to ask for them. Persons 
 who have obtained permission of the Holy See to 
 read and retain prohibited books are not authorized 
 to read or keep books condemned by their oidi- 
 naries, unless this is expressly stated in the Apos¬ 
 tolic indult granted to them. 
 
 The following general classes of works are for¬ 
 bidden by law: (a) editions of the original text 
 and of ancient Catholic versions of the Scriptures, 
 including those of the Eastern Church, made by 
 non-Catholics; also translation's into any language 
 made or edited by non-Catholics; (b) books of any 
 writers which upheld heresy or schism, or under¬ 
 mine the foundations of religion; (c) books attack¬ 
 ing religion or morality; (d) books written by non- 
 Catholics treating professedly of religion, unless it 
 is clear that they contain nothing contrary to the 
 Catholic Paith; (e) certain books which have not 
 obtained the requisite imprimatur before publica¬ 
 tion, namely, the Bible, Scriptural annotations and 
 commentaries, vernacular translations of the Bible, 
 books or booklets relating new. apparitions, revela¬ 
 tions, visions, prophecies or miracles,, or proposing 
 new devotions, even when they are intended only 
 for private use; (f) books attacking or ridiculing 
 any Catholic dogma, or defending errors condemned 
 by the Holy See, or detracting from Divine wor¬ 
 ship, or intended to upset Church discipline, or 
 attacking the hierarchy or the clerical or religious 
 state; (g) books teaching or recommending any 
 
 kind of superstition, charms, divination, magic, or 
 evocation of spirits; (h) books upholding the law¬ 
 fulness of duelling, suicide, or divorce, or which m 
 treating of the Masonic societies and others of the 
 same kind declare them to be useful and not in¬ 
 jurious to the Church and civil society; (i) books 
 professedly treating of, narrating, or teaching ob¬ 
 scene and lascivious things; (j) editions of liturgical 
 works approved by the Holy See, in which there 
 has been made any change which causes them to 
 vary from the authentic editions approved by the 
 Holy See; (k) books containing indulgences that 
 are apocryphal or have been proscribed or revoked 
 by the Holy See; (1) all representations of Christ, 
 the Blessed Virgin, angels, saints or servants of God 
 not consonant with the mind or decrees of the 
 
 Church. . 
 
 The Scriptural works just referred to under (a), 
 as well as translations that have not received the 
 requisite imprimatur, may be used only by. those 
 engaged in any way in theological or Scriptural 
 studies, provided they are edited faithfully and 
 in their entirety, and that the introductions or 
 annotations make no attack on Catholic dogma. 
 Ordinaries may grant permission to their subjects 
 in case of urgency to read individual books pro¬ 
 hibited by the general law or by Apostolic decree. 
 Cardinals, residential and bishops, and other ordi¬ 
 naries, if they take the necessary precautions, are 
 not bound by the ecclesiastical regulations pro¬ 
 hibiting books. 
 
 Codex jur. can., 1385-1405. 
 
 Censures, Ecclesiastical (cf. C. E., III-527d). 
 
 In stating the relation of the Code of Canon Law 
 to the earlier discipline and practice, canon 6 de¬ 
 clares that all penalties, spiritual or temporal, 
 medicinal or vindictatory , latce or jerendee sentential, 
 which are not mentioned in the Code, are abolished. 
 So too, are disciplinary laws not contained ex¬ 
 pressly or implicitly in the Code, unless those that 
 are laid down in the approved liturgical works or 
 such as are of positive or natural Divine law. . 
 
 Censures latce sententice are multiplied: (a) ii 
 different offenses, each of which entails the censure, 
 are committed, by the same or distinct acts, (b) it 
 the same offense, entailing the censure,, is repeated 
 so as to form a distinct offense; (c) if the crime 
 when punished by different superiors with different 
 censures is committed once or oftener. Censures 
 ab homine are multiplied if several precepts or 
 several sentences or more than. one distinct part 
 of the same precept or sentence imposes a separate 
 censure. 
 
 Censures may be reserved to the Holy See simply, 
 or specially, or very specially. A censure latce 
 sententice is not reserved unless the law or precept 
 expressly so states; in case of doubt, whether ot 
 law or fact, the reservation does not hold. Igno¬ 
 rance which is not affected or crass excuses from 
 censures latce sententi-ce when perfect deliberation 
 is required, that is when the law uses the words 
 dare, knowingly, rashly, or the like. In ordinary 
 cases, however, it excuses from medicinal but not 
 from vindicatory censures. . ' 
 
 Reservation of censures is. justified only in very 
 grave circumstances, and is to be interpreted 
 strictly. In case of a censure which prohibits the 
 reception of the sacraments (excommunication and 
 personal interdict), it implies reservation of the 
 sin to which it was annexed (absolution from 
 the censure must precede absolution from the sin); 
 whereas in the case of other censures (suspension 
 and local interdict), the sin may be forgiven while 
 the censure remains; but the reservation of the 
 
CENSURES 
 
 173 
 
 CESENA 
 
 sin ceases as soon as one is excused or absolved was reserved; but lie must impose on the penitent 
 irom the censure, with one exception: accusing a under penalty of re-incurring the same censure the 
 priest to his superiors on a false charge of solicita- obligation of having recourse within a month at 
 tion is a sin reserved to the Holy See independently least by letter and by confessor, if this be possible 
 of the censure now attached to it. The reservation without grave inconvenience (the culplit’s name of 
 of a censure in a particular territory ceases when course, being suppressed) to the Sacred Penitenti’arv 
 the offender is outside of that territory even if he or a bishop or other superior having the requisite 
 has left in order to obtain absolution; but a cen- faculties, and of carrying out his instructions. The 
 sure ad nomine if reserved is reserved everywhere, penitent, however, after receiving absolution in this 
 If a confessor who does not know of the reserva- manner and submitting his case to the superior in 
 tion absolves a penitent from the censure and sin, the manner just described, may go to another con- 
 the censure is validly absolved, provided it is not fessor who has the requisite faculties and receive 
 ah homine or one verjr specially reserved to the absolution from him, after confessing to him at 
 Holy See. . least the sin to which the censure was annexed 
 
 It several censures have been incurred, the culprit when he has been thus absolved the confessor must 
 may be absolved from. one and not from the others, impose on him the usual injunctions (such for in- 
 u * or ^solution all the cases of censures stance as to repair the injury done or scandal given, 
 
 should be mentioned, otherwise, onfy the case men- or to remove the occasion of the sin). As result 
 *i? n i -* S a k s °b r ed; however, if only a particular of this, his case being now closed, he may disregard 
 absolution has been asked and the absolution given any instructions he may receive later from the 
 was general, the censures omitted in good faith are superior to whom he first submitted the case. If 
 remitted provided they are not very specially re- in an extraordinary case, except when the censure 
 served to the Holy See. In the extra-sacramental has been incurred from the crime of solicitation, 
 forum no particular formula is necessary in absolv- this recourse to a competent authority is morally 
 ing from censures, but in case of excommunication impossible, the confessor may, after imposing the 
 it is better to use the formula given in the ritual usual obligations, absolve the penitent without 
 (can. 2250). Absolution from a censure in the ex- obliging him to have recourse to the higher authori- 
 ternal forum is valid also for the internal; if a ties, and impose on him a fitting penance and 
 person has been absolved in the internal forum, satisfaction for the censure which are to be per- 
 he may act as if he had been absolved in the ex- formed within a reasonable time under penalty of 
 ternal, provided there is no scandal; but unless the re-incurring the censure. 
 
 absolution is proved or at least legitimately pre- Codex can. jur., 2241-88; O’Donnell in Irish Theol. Quart. 
 sumed in the external forum, the superior of that nl^c'enfiiris '' (T^™ H m 9 ) Penal Legidation > 74 ' 155: Cappew >« 
 forum to whom the. culprit owes obedience may con¬ 
 sider the censure in force until absolution in the Cervia, Diocese of (Cerviensis- cf. C. E. 
 external forum has been given. When a person is III-545b), in the province of Ravenna, Italy, 
 in danger of death any priest can absolve him from suffragan of Ravenna. The present incumbent 
 all censures; but if the censure was ab homine or (1922) is Rt. Rev. Pasquale Morganti, b. at Lesmo 
 was very specially, reserved to the Holy See, the 13 January, 1853, appointed Bishop of Bobbio 9 
 culprit on recovering is obliged, under penalty of June, 1902, promoted to the archdiocese of Ravenna 
 re-mcurrmg the censure, to have recourse to him 14 November, 1904, and named also Bishop of 
 who imposed it, if it be a censure ab homine, or Cervia 7 January, 1909, succeeding Rt. Rev. 
 to the.Sacred Penitentiary or the bishop or other Frederico Foschi, d. 7 October, 1908. He is as- 
 authorized person, within a month at least by letter sisted by a coadjutor, Rt. Rev. Antonio Lega, 
 or by his confessor if that can be done without titular Bishop of Attalia, who has right of suc- 
 grave inconvenience, and to obey their order, if cession. 
 
 the censure was a jure. When there is no danger During the World War all the priests of this 
 01 death absolution can be given: (a) from un- diocese served at home by lending aid to the 
 reserved censures by any confessor in confession; families of the soldiers, securing news of the scat- • 
 or extra-sacramentally by anyone possessing juris- tered men or those fallen in the field, and by giving 
 ~ 111 external forum over the culprit; shelter to the refugees from invaded countries; in 
 (b) from censures ab homine, by him who inflicted the army many filled positions in the ranks, or as 
 the censure, or who passed sentence, or by his law- military chaplains. 
 
 ful superior, successor, or delegate, and this even if The most important development in the diocese 
 the culprit should have acquired a domicile or quasi- in recent years was the erection of four infant 
 domicile elsewhere; (c) from reserved censure a asylums, conducted by the Sisters. According to 
 jure, by him who created the censure or to whom it present statistics the diocese now comprises 13 
 is reserved, or by their successors or lawful superiors parishes, 26 churches, 35 secular priests, 30 Sisters, 
 or delegates. Consequently if the censure is reserved 1 seminary, 1 seminarian, 20 communal schools with 
 to the bishop or ordinary, any ordinary may absolve 30 teachers and 2,000 pupils, 5 asylums, and 1 hos- 
 his own subjects, and a local ordinary may absolve pital. Five of the public institutions permit the 
 “peregrini also; if it is reserved to the Holy See, the priests to minister in them, and all the communal 
 • bee can absolve and so may those who have schools are supported by the Government. An 
 obtained .from it general power of absolving, if the association is formed among the clergy for deceased 
 censure, is simply reserved, or who have special priests, and the “Giunta Diocesana” among the 
 power, if the censure is reserved specially, or very laitv. 
 special power if the censure is reserved very 
 
 specially. Cesena, Diocese of (C^senatensis; cf. C. E„, 
 
 In more urgent cases when censures latcesententice III-546d), in the province of Forli, Central Italy, 
 cannot be observed exteriorly without danger of suffragan of Ravenna. This see was filled by Rt. 
 grave scandal or loss of good name,, or if it would Rev. Giovanni Cazzani from 5 August, 1904, until 
 be hard on the penitent to remain in the state of his transfer to the diocese of Cremona, 19 Decem- 
 sin until the authority to absolve could be obtained ber, 1914. The present incumbent, Rt. Rev. Fabio 
 any confessor may absolve a person in the tribunal Berdini, born in San Elpidio 1865, was appointed 
 of confession from any censure no matter how it to succeed him 4 June, 1915. The latest statistics 
 
CEYLON 
 
 174 
 
 CHAMBERLAIN 
 
 of this diocese, 1920, credit it with 66,700 Catholics, 
 59 parishes, 131 secular and 40 regular clergy, 31 
 seminarians, 30 Brothers, 90 Sisters, and 99 churches 
 or chapels. 
 
 Ceylon (cf. C. E., III-547c), an island in the 
 Indian Ocean, off the southeast coast of India. It 
 is a Crown Colony of Great Britain, administered 
 by a governor, an executive council of seven 
 members, and a legislative council of twenty-one 
 members. The executive council includes the officer 
 commanding the troops, the colonial secretary, 
 the attorney-general, the controller of revenue, the 
 colonial treasurer, the government agent of the 
 Western Province, and one member nominated by 
 the governor. The legislative council includes the 
 executive council, four other office holders, and 
 ten unofficial members (six nominated by the gov¬ 
 ernor and four elected) representing different races 
 and classes in the colony. It is proposed to in¬ 
 crease the membership of the legislative council to 
 thirty-seven. 
 
 The estimated population of Ceylon in 1919 and 
 census returns for 1911 were as follows, distributed 
 according to races: Europeans, 7,349 (8,524); 
 
 Burghers, 29,336 (26,673); Singalese, 2,989,380 
 
 (2,715,686); Tamils, 1,424,649 (1,060,167); Moors, 
 276,631 (267,054); Malays, 14,105 (12,992); Ved- 
 dahs and others, 16,146 (19,271); making a total 
 of 4,757,596 estimated in 1919, and 4,110,367 accord¬ 
 ing to the 1911 census. 
 
 Education is under the Department of Public 
 Instruction. In 1919 government schools numbered 
 884, with an attendance of 130,389; aided schools 
 numbered 1,855 with 207,676 pupils; unaided schools 
 1,363 with 28,649 children. English and Anglo- 
 vernacular schools numbered 265, with an attend¬ 
 ance of 46,888. There were 84 industrial schools. 
 
 Religious statistics for 1919 give: 2,866,560 Budd¬ 
 hists, 1,087,063 Hindus; 328,613 Mohammedans, 
 474,060 Christians. Estimates for the distribution 
 of the Christian population are as follows: Cath¬ 
 olics, 366,327; Anglicans, 14,733; Presbyterians, 
 3,500; Wesleyan . Methodists, 29,680; Baptists, 
 28,821; Congregationalists, 11,099. 
 
 Ecclesiastically Ceylon comprises the Archdiocese 
 of Colombo and suffragan sees of Galle, Jaffna, 
 Kandy, and Trincomali. Colombo and Jaffna are 
 entrusted to the Oblates of Mary Immaculate, 
 Galle and Trincomali to the Society of Jesus, and 
 Kandy to the Benedictines of the Congregation of 
 St. Sylvester. In Ceylon there are 245 priests, both 
 European and native, and religious communities of 
 the Sisters of the Good Shepherd, Sisters of the 
 Holy Family, Franciscan nuns, Missionaries of 
 Mary, Little Sisters of the Poor, Sisters of Charity 
 of Jesus and Mary, and several congregations of 
 native sisters. The present delegate apostolic is 
 Mgr. Pietro Pisani (1920), with residence at Banga- 
 lore. 
 
 General ecclesiastical statistics for 1919 are: 
 churches and chapels, 673; schools, 736, with 67,573 
 pupils; seminaries, 5, with 160 students (in the 
 central or “Leonianum” Seminary at Kandy there 
 are 81); orphan asylums, 18, with about 1,000 
 orphans; 9 European secular priests, 21 native 
 priests, and 225 religious (Oblates, Jesuits, Bene¬ 
 dictines) ; and about 650 sisters in the various edu¬ 
 cational and charitable institutions. 
 
 Chabanel, Noel (cf. C. E., III-551a).—The cause 
 of his beatification was introduced at Rome, 9 
 August, 1916. 
 
 Chachapoyas, Diocese of (de Chachapoyas; cf. 
 C. E., III-551b), in Peru, suffragan of Lima. Rt. 
 
 Rev. Emilio Lisson, now Archbishop of Lima, filled 
 this see from 16 March, 1909, until his promotion 
 25 February, 1918. The see was left vacant for 
 more than three years, until the appointment of 
 his successor, the present incumbent, Rt. Rev. 
 Octavio Ortiz Arrieta, Salesian, appointed 21 
 November, 1921. The census of 1876, the last col¬ 
 lected, credits this territory with a population of 
 95,370. In 1920 these were divided among 6. dean¬ 
 eries, comprising 35 parishes. 
 
 Chaco, Vicariate Apostolic of (de Chaco), in 
 Bolivia, South America, was erected 22 May, 1919. 
 It is bounded on the east by the frontiers of 
 Brazil and Paraguay, and on the south by those of 
 Paraguay and Argentina. Contrary to the usual 
 ruling, which places a vicariate apostolic in charge 
 of the Congregation of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical 
 Affairs, the decree of erection placed Chaco under 
 the Congregation of Propaganda, and entrusted it 
 to the Friars Minor. The official residence is at 
 Santa Rosa di Cuevo Taraija, Granchaco. The first 
 and present (1922) vicar apostolic is Rt. Rev. 
 Ippolito Ulivelli, born in Castelfiorentino, Italy, 
 1879, appointed vicar 1 August, 1919, and titular 
 Bishop of Orthosias 13 August of the same year. 
 No statistics are published for this vicariate. 
 
 Chalons-sur-Marne, Diocese of (Catalaunensis; 
 cf. C. E., III-566b), in the department of Marne, 
 France, suffragan of Reims. Upon the promotion 
 of Rt. Rev. Hector-Irenee Sevin, appointed to this 
 see 11 March, 1908, the present incumbent, Rt. Rev. 
 Joseph-Marie Tissier, was appointed to succeed him 
 20 December, 1912.' Bom in La Ferte-Beauharnais, 
 1857, he was ordained in 1880, and has published 
 a number of books. . ; 
 
 This territory figured prominently in the World 
 War, and saw some of the heaviest fighting. On 
 
 6 October, 1918, its bishop was made a chevalier 
 of the Legion of Honor by M. Poincare in the 
 presence of Marshal Petain and Generals Maistre 
 and Gouraud. Of the priests and seminarians 114 
 were mobilized, and of this number 4 priests and 
 
 7 seminarians gave up their lives, 1 was decorated 
 with the legion d’honneur, 3 with the medaille 
 militaire, and many received the croix de guerre. 
 
 By 1920 statistics this diocese comprises a Cath¬ 
 olic population of 436,310, 25 first class parishes, 
 312 succursal parishes, and 6 vicariates formerly 
 supported by the state. On 13 January, 1914, the 
 Church of Notre Dame de l’Epine was made a 
 minor basilica. 
 
 Chamberlain, Papal. —The title of chamberlain is 
 given to certain distinguished officials attached to 
 the private apartments or the person of the pope. 
 As at present constituted, papal chamberlains date 
 from the sixteenth or seventeenth century, though 
 the institution goes much further back. They are 
 members of the papal court and of the official papal 
 family or household. Their numerous duties and 
 privileges are laid down in their letters of appoint¬ 
 ment. Papal chamberlains are divided into the 
 following classes: (a) privy chamberlains parted - 
 panti, that is, active—laymen and clerics; (b) privy 
 chamberlains supernumerary—clerics only;, (c) 
 privy chamberlains of sword and cape partedpanti 
 —laymen only; (d) privy chamberlains of sword 
 and cape, who may be (1) di numero or (2) super¬ 
 numerary—laymen only; (e) chamberlains of honor 
 with the violet costume—clerics only; (f) chamber¬ 
 lains of honor extra urbern-- clerics only; (g) cham¬ 
 berlains of honor of the sword and cape, who are 
 either (1) di numero or (2) supernumerary—lay¬ 
 men only. 
 
CHAMBERLAIN 
 
 175 
 
 CHAMBfiRY 
 
 The privy chamberlains partecipanti carry out 
 their duties under the supervision of the papal 
 majordomo and the maestro di camera. 
 
 They comprise both clergy and laymen. The 
 first in rank among them is the papal almoner, 
 who is always an archbishop; his tenure of office 
 continues during a papal vacancy but terminates 
 after the election, if he is not re-appointed. After 
 him in rank come the secretary of Briefs to rulers, 
 the secretary of the Private Code, the Regent of the 
 Datary, the secretary of Latin Letters, the Pincera 
 or cup-bearer who assists the Holy Father at table, 
 the Secretary of the Embassy, the Master of the 
 Wardrobe, and the Prefect of the Apostolic Sacristy. 
 
 In 1921 there were about 1,160 supernumerary 
 privy. chamberlains, all clerics, ranking as mon¬ 
 signori. They are appointed from all over the 
 world, the title being generally accorded as a re¬ 
 ward for zeal and virtue. The members of the 
 College of the Masters of Pontifical Ceremonies, 
 excepting the prefect, are supernumerary privy 
 chamberlains, their office does not cease with the 
 death of the pope and during the vacancy they 
 act as chamberlains partecipanti. The honorary 
 chamberlains of the violet robe number about 500; 
 they are all clerics, and have the same insignia and 
 privileges as the supernumerary privy chamber¬ 
 lains, but rank lower at court. Their dignity ceases 
 on the death of the pope. Finally the honorary 
 chamberlains extra urbem, 47 in number, all clerics, 
 have the same insignia and titles as the chamber¬ 
 lains of the violet robe, but they may enjoy these 
 only when residing outside of Rome. Their office 
 also ceases on the death of the pontiff. 
 
 The privy chamberlains of sword and cape were 
 instituted in the sixteenth century. They are all 
 laymen. Four of them are chamberlains di numero 
 and take charge in turn of the antechamber to the 
 pope’s private room, where they are assisted by 
 the supernumeraries (who numbered about 380 in 
 1921) in regulating the admission to audiences with 
 the Holy Father. There are also honorary cham¬ 
 berlains of sword and cape who rank below the 
 preceding class, and in 1921 comprised 5 chamber¬ 
 lains di numero and 130 supernumeraries; the latter 
 but not the former lose their office and dignity on 
 the death of the pope.. The privy chamberlains of 
 sword and cape partecipanti are the Quartermaster 
 Major of the Sacred Palaces, who is second in com¬ 
 mand to the papal majordomo and who has care 
 of the buildings and the furnishings; the Master 
 of the Stables, whose office terminates on the death 
 of the pope; the papal Postmaster; the colonels 
 and higher officers of the Noble Guard, and the 
 colonel of the Swiss Guards. 
 
 The chamberlains of sword and cape have two 
 court dresses. The first is a sixteenth century 
 Spanish dress comprising: (1) a black cloth tunic 
 reaching to slightly above the knee; the skirt is 
 pleated and has a bank of black velvet reaching 
 from the neck to the extremity and running round 
 the lower end; the cuffs of the tunic are trimmed 
 with lace. The collar is of batiste a la Henri IV; 
 (2) short black cloth trousers, closed below the 
 knee with a black rose centered with a large 
 aquamarine button; (3) black silk stockings with 
 patent leather shoes, having a black velvet rose 
 bow with a aquamarine button center; (4) a 
 black velvet mantle lined with black silk, attached 
 oyer the left and under the right shoulder; (5) a 
 gilt silver triple chain united by ten enamel medal¬ 
 lions, with an enamel tiara and keys hanging from 
 the middle. The distinctive enamel medallion 
 of the privy chamberlains is red with the letters 
 C.S.N. ( camerarius secretus di numero) inter- 
 
 12 
 
 laced; that of the chamberlains of honor being 
 blue with the interlaced initials C. H. N. ( camerarius 
 honorarius di numero) ; (6) an ebony-handled sword 
 with a black patent leather scabbard, hanging from 
 a black velvet belt; (7) a black velvet cap orna¬ 
 mented with a black ostrich feather. 
 
 The other dress comprises a black cloth coat with 
 a standing velvet collar and velvet cuffs, a cravat, 
 a white vest, and long black trousers with gold 
 braid on the outer seam. The velvet, red in the 
 case of chamberlains of honor and blue in the case 
 of privy chamberlains, is embroidered with golden 
 olive leaves. The city dress comprises: (1) an 
 open red cloth swallow-tail coat, lined with red 
 silk. The cuffs and standing collar are black velvet 
 embroidered with golden olive leaves and buds’. 
 I he buttons are gilt and have a tiara and crossed 
 keys in the center; (2) a white cravat; (3) a white 
 cashmere vest with similar but smaller buttons; 
 
 (4) long black cloth trousers with gold braid seam; 
 
 (5) a sword with gilded guard, mother-of-peal 
 
 from a golden galloon cincture. 
 
 I he Spanish costume is worn only in the chapels 
 and during solemn service, at which times the 
 chamberlain wears his triple chain with its sus¬ 
 pended white enameled tiara and keys. When the 
 other service, costume is worn the chamberlains 
 carry white kid gloves in their hand. Except when 
 the chamberlains are in presence of His Holiness 
 or in seivice, the city dress is de rigueur. However, 
 it is now customary for chamberlains of sword and 
 cape when in Rome, if not engaged at the Vatican, 
 to wear a black coat with the golden chain and 
 the tiara and keys. By a special concession of 
 Pius X supernumerary chamberlains, both privy 
 and of honor, may wear an oval medallion enameled 
 red or blue respectively, with the name of the 
 pope in golden letters. It is only half the size of 
 the medallion of the chamberlain di numero. The 
 distinctive insignia of the chamberlains di numero 
 is woin .^ e right breast of their official costumes 
 and of their frock coats; the supernumeraries may 
 wear theirs only on their frock coats and on the 
 left breast.. When there are no solemn receptions 
 at the Vatican the chamberlains in service wear a 
 black coat and the chain as just mentioned. When 
 a chamberlain comes to Rome and wishes to go on 
 duty, he arranges with the maestro di camera for 
 a week’s service. At the end of this period he is 
 received by the Holy Father. The supernumerary 
 privy chamberlains and chamberlains of honor of 
 sword and cape are employed by the papal major¬ 
 domo to keep order in the galleries or corridors of 
 the chapels or the pontifical apartments. They may 
 be called upon by the papal maestro di camera to 
 assist in the antichamber to the pontifical apart¬ 
 ment. They do so uncovered, the privy chamber¬ 
 lains doing duty in the privy autichamber and the 
 others in the throne, room. They aid the maestro 
 di camera in receiving the persons about to have 
 an audience with the sovereign pontiff. 
 
 Chambery, Archdiocese of (Chamberium; cf. 
 C. E., III-566d), in the Department of Savoie, 
 France, is under the direction of Most Rev. Domin¬ 
 ique Castellan, who was promoted from the see 
 of Digne on 26 May, 1915, to succeed His Eminence 
 Frangois-Virgile Cardinal Dubillard, Archbishop of 
 Chambery, from 1907 until his death, 1 December, 
 1914. 
 
 The diocese now (1921) shows a record of: 171 
 parishes, 2 monasteries for women, 2 abbeys for 
 men, 1 convent for men, 334 secular priests and 30 
 regulars, 1 higher seminary and 1 lower with 45 
 grand seminarians, 4 colleges for boys with 60 pro- 
 
CHAMPAGNAT 
 
 176 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 fessors and 650 students, 2 colleges for girls with 
 30 teachers and 250 students, 1 high school with 
 10 professors and 80 students (girls), 12 elementary 
 schools with 30 teachers and 600 students. 
 
 The various institutions throughout the diocese 
 include: 1 home for the aged, 3 orphanages, 2 anti¬ 
 tuberculosis hospitals, 3 public hospitals under the 
 direction of religious, 1 refuge home with 18 re¬ 
 ligious and 120 assistants, the “Drop of Milk 
 Society” ( Oeuvre de la goutte de lait) y and one 
 Government lycee which permits the ministrations 
 of a Catholic chaplain. 
 
 There are various societies for young people in 
 the diocese, also a Catholic Union and a Diocesan 
 League; the periodicals are: “Semaine Religieuse, 
 “Croix de Savoie,” “Rosier de St. Frangois, and 
 
 parish bulletins. , . 
 
 In 1910 the.diocese lost one of its most valuable 
 workers by the death of M. le Canon Coster de 
 Beauregard, who founded the orphanage for boys; 
 in 1921 the centenary of the death of Joseph de 
 Maistre was celebrated. During the World War 
 9 priests and 12 seminarians of the diocese of 
 Chambery were killed, and 4 priests decorated with 
 the Legion of Honor. 
 
 Champagnat, Marcellin-Joseph-Benoit, Vener¬ 
 able, religious founder, b. at Marlhes, Loire, France, 
 20 May, 1789; d. near St. diamond, 6 January, 
 1840. It is said that a wonderful light shone around 
 his cradle on several occasions, leading observers to 
 believe that he was to be remarkable for sanctity. 
 He studied in the grand seminaire of Lyons and on 
 23 June, 1815, was ordained, two of his companions 
 on that occasion being Blessed Jean Baptiste 
 Vianney, popularly known as the Cure d’Ars, and 
 Venerable Jean Claude Colin, the founder of the 
 Marist Fathers. Champagnat was appointed to the 
 little parish of Lavalla lying, below Mont Puat. 
 The ignorance of the population and the lack of 
 moral training of the young which confronted him 
 there in his daily ministry inspired him with the 
 idea of founding the Congregation of the Little 
 Brothers of Mary for the Christian education of 
 children. In this he was aided by the advice and 
 counsel of Venerable Jean Colin, who with him and 
 Blessed Pierre-Louis-Marie-Chanel were later to be 
 among the first professed members of the Marist 
 Fathers. The cause of Champagnat’s canonization 
 was introduced on 9 August, 1896, and on .11 July, 
 1920, the Holy See issued a decree declaring that 
 he had practiced virtue in an heroic degree. 
 
 Changanacherry, Vicariate Apostolic of (Chan- 
 gan acheren sis; cf. C. E., III-573a), in Travancore, 
 British India, a vicariate of the Syro-Malabar Rite. 
 The present (1922) vicar apostolic is Rt. Rev. 
 Thomas Kurialacherry, born in Kalluread, 1873, 
 studied in the College of Propaganda and ordained 
 in Rome, 1899, appointed titular Bishop of Pella 
 and vicar apostolic of Changanacherry 28 August, 
 1911. By a Brief of Pius X, 29 August, 1911, this 
 territory was divided into two vicariates, the ancient 
 vicariate of Kottayam being re-established. The 
 boundaries of the new vicariate have not been 
 determined, but it comprises all the Sudist Cath¬ 
 olics scattered through the two vicariates of 
 Changanacherry, and Ernaculam. The Sudists. are 
 descendants of fourth century immigrant Syrians, 
 thus called to distinguish them from the Nordists 
 or descendants of native Malabar castes. The latest 
 statistics of the vicariate credit it with a Catholic 
 population of 159,024; 116 parish churches, 72 
 chapels, 254 secular priests, 111 seminarians, 1501 
 neophites, 18 catechumenates, 415 catechumens, 1 
 college, 4 high schools for boys and 1 for girls, 
 
 8 middle schools, 8 vernacular high schools, 151 
 vernacular elementary schools, 12 boarding houses 
 for students, 12,702 boys and 7530 girls receiving 
 Catholic education, 4 Carmelite monasteries with 
 99 nuns, 9 Carmelite convents with 142 Sisters, 7 
 Adoration convents with 103 Sisters, and 7 Clarist 
 convents with 153 Sisters. Four Catholic periodicals 
 are published. 
 
 Chaplain (cf. C. E., III-579d).—The Council of 
 Trent allowed parish priests to appoint whatever 
 chaplains were necessary for their parishes, but the 
 Code reserves their appointment to the ordinary 
 who is to consult the rector. The rights and obliga¬ 
 tions of chaplains are fixed by diocesan statutes or 
 by the bishop or parish priest. Navy chaplains 
 seem to fall under the general law concerning the 
 jurisdiction that may be granted to priests who 
 are traveling by sea and. so they could enjoy the 
 power of hearing confessions not only aboard ship, 
 but also on shore at any intermediate port of call. 
 
 Chapter (cf. C. E., Ill—252b; 582b).—The erec¬ 
 tion, modification and suppression of collegiate and 
 cathedral chapters is entrusted by the pope to the 
 Congregation of the Consistory. In each capitular 
 church there should be dignataries and canons, 
 among whom the offices are to be distributed; 
 there may be also other minor beneficiaries of vary¬ 
 ing rank, but the chapter consists only of the 
 canons and dignitaries—unless the capitular statutes 
 provide. The appointment of dignitaries is re¬ 
 served to the Holy See: the chief dignitary of 
 the cathedral chapter should, if possible, be a 
 doctor of theology or canon law. A bishop has a 
 right to appoint honorary canons, not necessarily 
 his own subjects, after consulting the chapter to 
 which they are to be nominated. To act validly, 
 however, if the person to be thus honored is not 
 his subject, the bishop must ask the consent of 
 the nominee’s bishop, informing him also of the 
 insignia and privileges attached to the honorary 
 office. The number of extra-diocesan honorary 
 canons must be less than one-third of the number 
 of titular canons. Honorary canons. of churches 
 outside of Rome can enjoy their insignia and 
 privileges only in the diocese in which they were 
 appointed, except when they accompany the bishop 
 or represent him or the chapter at councils or other 
 solemn assemblies. Chapters draw up their own 
 statutes, which are to be submitted for approval 
 to the bishop, without whose leave they cannot 
 later be abrogated or changed. . If a chapter should 
 fail to draw up statutes within six months after 
 the bishop has so ordained, the bishop may formu¬ 
 late them himself and impose them on the canons. 
 
 In certain cases canons may absent themselves 
 from choir without losing the fruits of the benefits 
 or the daily distributions, e. g. when they are pre¬ 
 vented from attending by illness or other physical 
 impediment; or when they are representing the 
 bishop at councils, or assisting him in solemn ser¬ 
 vices or on visitation; or when with the consent 
 of the chapter they are absent in the interests of 
 the chapter or of their church; or while making a 
 retreat, but not more often than once a year; or, in 
 the case of the canon penitentiary, when he is hear¬ 
 ing confessions. On the other hand, if they be 
 absent teaching theology or canon law, or while 
 acting as vicar general, vicar capitular, official, 
 chancellor, or episcopal secretary, they do not share 
 in the distributions, however, if the fruits of a 
 prebend consist only of distributions or are less 
 than one-third of the amount of the distributions, 
 they are to share in two-thirds of the prebendary 
 income and the distributions. After forty years 
 
CHAPTER 
 
 177 
 
 CHARITY 
 
 continuous faithful attendance at choir in the same 
 church or at least in the same diocese a prebendary 
 may ask the Holy See for an indult jubilationis; 
 if it be granted he can receive both the fruits and 
 the distributions, even those restricted to digni¬ 
 taries actually present in choir, unless the express 
 will of the founders or donors, or the statutes or 
 customs of the church in question forbid it. 
 
 When the cathedral or collegiate church is also 
 a parish church the general regulations governing 
 the relations of the chapter and the parish priest 
 are as follows: It is the right or duty of the parish 
 priest: (a) to offer Mass for the parishioners, to 
 preach to and catechize his flock; (b) to keep the 
 parochial registers and make official abstracts from 
 them; (c) to perform the parochial duties that are 
 reserved to parish priests, such as baptizing 
 solemnly, giving communion to the dying, blessing 
 marriages, holding funeral services, the chapter 
 having the right of holding such services only in 
 case of funerals of dignitaries, canons (including 
 honorary canons) or beneficiaries; (d) to perform 
 other customary services not strictly parochial, pro¬ 
 vided they do not interfere with the choir service 
 or are not performed by the chapter; (e) to collect 
 alms for the parish; to receive, administer, and 
 distribute offerings, according to the wishes of the 
 donors. On the other hand, the chapter: (a) takes 
 care of the Blessed Sacrament, but the parish priest 
 must have a second key to the tabernacle; (b) sees 
 that the parish priest observes the liturgical regula¬ 
 tions ' while officiating in the capitular church; 
 (c) takes care of the church, administering its 
 property and pious bequests. Neither party must 
 interfere in the other’s duties; if a dispute arise 
 it must be referred to the local ordinary; the 
 chapter, moreover, is bound in charity to assist the 
 pastor in his parochial work, especially if he lacks 
 assistants, in accordance with the arrangements of 
 the local ordinary. 
 
 There must be a canon theologian, and if pos¬ 
 sible a canon penitentiary in every cathedral 
 church, and similar appointments may be made for 
 collegiate churches also. The canon penitentiary 
 should preferably be a doctor of theology or canon 
 law, and at least thirty years of age; he must not 
 at the same time hold any other office in the dio¬ 
 cese entailing jurisdiction in the external forum; 
 he has by law ordinary power, which, however, 
 he cannot delegate, of absolving strangers in the 
 diocese and diocesan subjects outside of the diocese 
 from sins and from censures reserved to the bishop; 
 he must be ready to hear confessions in the 
 capitular church at whatever time the bishop con¬ 
 siders convenient for the people, and also during 
 Divine service; he must not hold the office of vicar- 
 general, and is exempt from officiating as sub-deacon 
 or deacon at the chapter services. If he neglects 
 his duty he may be warned by the bishop and 
 punished by a curtailment of his revenue; if he 
 does not amend within a year after being warned, 
 he may be suspended, and if he remains recalcitrant 
 for six months longer he may be deprived of his 
 benefice. 
 
 The cathedral chapter is to be invited to plenary 
 and provincial councils; it sends two deputies as 
 representatives, but they have only a consultive 
 vote. When a see is vacant the chapter must, if 
 necessary, appoint an ceconomus and notify the 
 Holy See as soon as possible about the death of 
 the bishop; the new selected vicar capitular must 
 similarly announce his own election. If the bishop 
 is not dead, but is prevented entirely from com¬ 
 municating with his subjects, his place is taken by 
 the vicar general or other delegate, if the Holy See 
 
 has not provided otherwise; if these should be 
 similarly impeded thq cathedral chapter appoints its 
 vicar to act with the powers of a vicar capitular. 
 can°^357-77' 391 ' 422 ’ Verm eersch-Creusen, Epit. jur. 
 
 Charcas, Archdiocese of. See La Plata. 
 
 Charity (cf. C. E., III-604d), Congregation of 
 the Brothers of. —At present the Brothers con¬ 
 duct numerous schools and institutions in Belgium. 
 They also have three houses in England, one in 
 Ireland, three in Holland, and two in the Belgian 
 Congo. In Canada they have six houses and in 
 Boston, Mass., one flourishing institution. A census 
 taken of the congregation in 1920 showed that, 
 despite the ravages wrought in the ranks by the 
 World War, it numbered 1,100 brothers. These 
 were divided among 50 communities, which shel¬ 
 tered and provided for 7,000 insane men, with some 
 hundreds of men rendered helpless and dependent 
 by age and senility, 13,000 orphan, deaf and dumb, 
 blind, and feeble-minded boys. At the Montreal 
 Reformatory there are 500 boys under the care of 
 36 brothers, the St. Benedict-Joseph Labre Insane 
 Asylum near Montreal has 120 patients, the Mount 
 St. Bernard s College and Scientific school at Sorel, 
 P. Q., has 250 students taught by 16 brothers, the 
 Sacred Heart Academy, at Sorel, has 600 pupils 
 taught by 20 brothers. In Drummondville, P. Q„ 
 the brothers teach all the boys of the district. 
 They also teach all the boys of the St. Guillaume 
 d’Upton district. In Boston, Mass., they conduct 
 the house of the Angel Guardian, a home and 
 school for orphan, half-orphan, and destitute boys, 
 with an industrial department attached to it, where 
 the boys, after passing through the grades, are 
 taught useful trades. 
 
 Charity, Sisters of (cf. C. E., III-605b).—The 
 various sisterhoods included under this general title 
 are treated of below under their respective names. 
 
 Sisters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul, with 
 mother-house in Paris, are under the jurisdiction of 
 the Superior General of the Congregation of the 
 Mission. Prominent among these successors of St. 
 Vincent # are John Baptist Etienne, whose generalate 
 ended in 1874, and Antoine Fiat, who resigned at 
 the age of eighty-two years (1914) and died in 
 1915. The present Superior General is Frangois 
 Verdier, elected 30 September, 1919, succeeding 
 Emile Villette. The Mother General is elected 
 every three years and can be re-elected only once. 
 She alone bears the title of Mother; the Superioress 
 of each house is addressed simply as Sister. The 
 community is divided into over thirty provinces 
 outside France, in which a Director represents the 
 Superior General and a Sister Provincial the Mother 
 General; but all matters of importance are referred 
 to the Council of the Community at the mother- 
 house in Paris. 
 
 A candidate for admission to the congregation 
 spends three months in one of the Sisters’ houses 
 before she enters the novitiate or seminary, and 
 after five years she takes her vows, which are re¬ 
 newed every year. The novices from Germany, 
 Austria, North and South America, and China do 
 not go to the mother-house for their novitiate, but 
 are trained in local seminaries. Those from Eng¬ 
 land and Italy make the first part of their seminary 
 in their own countries, but in times of peace go 
 to the mother-house to receive the habit. 
 
 The English Province, erected in 1885, includes 
 all the houses of Great Britain and Ireland. In 
 Ireland there are 16 houses, 7 of which are in Dub¬ 
 lin; there are 15 houses in London and 47 in other 
 
CHARITY 
 
 178 
 
 CHARITY 
 
 parts of England; in Scotland there are 14 houses. 
 In the entire Province the Sisters have 53 institu¬ 
 tions, including industrial and poor-law schools, 
 special schools for the blind, deaf-mutes, and crip¬ 
 ples, orphanages, and homes of different kinds. 
 They teach 48 elementary schools and 1 secondary 
 school. They visit the poor and have charge of 
 various parish works and associations in 70 parishes. 
 They also visit 5 prisons, and nurse the poor in 9 
 hospitals. 
 
 During the Franco-German War the Sisters nursed 
 both French and German wounded and in the re¬ 
 cent war about 5,000 Sisters nursed the wounded in 
 hospitals and ambulances, and even on the field of 
 battle. 
 
 The following figures give some idea of the work 
 of the Sisters in foreign missions. In one mission 
 in China, w T here there are 104,983 Christians, 400,000 
 patients seek assistance from the Sisters in hos¬ 
 pitals and dispensaries, and were there accommoda¬ 
 tions the number could be increased tenfold. Also 
 in China, in a vicariate where there are 40 Sisters, 
 of whom 25 are Europeans and 15 Chinese: in 8 
 hospitals 3,175 men and 440 women have been re¬ 
 ceived; there are 165 old men and women in homes, 
 and 1,074 children are being educated; in 5 dis¬ 
 pensaries 198,806 remedies have been distributed, 
 and 25,126 visits have been made to the sick in 
 their homes. The missions at Jerusalem, Bethlehem, 
 and Nazareth include. the care of lepers, blind, 
 cripples, and deserted infants, both Christians and 
 Turks receiving like ministrations. These works 
 were threatened with destruction by the recent war, 
 but a few Syrian and Maronite Sisters have carried 
 them on in spite of evety difficulty. In Constan¬ 
 tinople and other eastern missions from which 
 French Sisters were banished,. a few Syrian mem¬ 
 bers of the community continue their works of 
 charity. 
 
 The beatification of Louise de ManllaC, foundress 
 of the Sisters of Charity, took place at Rome, 9 
 May, 1920. The four Sisters martyred at Cambrai 
 in 1794, Sisters Madeleine Fontaine, Jeanne Gerard, 
 Therese Fantou, and Marie Lanel, were beatified 
 13 June, 1920. Two other Sisters martyred during 
 the French Revolution were Sister Mariapne and 
 Sister Odile, who were shot by the revolutionists 
 1 February, 1793. 
 
 The Province of these Sisters of Charity in the 
 United States was divided in 1910 into an Eastern 
 Province and Western Province. Very Rev. J. J. 
 Sullivan, C. M., Director of the Sisters and Sister 
 Eugenia Fealy, Sister Assistant at Emmitsburg, 
 opened the Central House of the Western Province 
 at St. Louis, Mo. Fr. Sullivan was named Director, 
 and Sister Eugenia Fealey, Visitatrix. Veiy Rev. 
 J. P. Cribbons, C.M., succeeded Fr. Sullivan as 
 Director of the Eastern Province (Central House 
 at Emmitsburg), and Mother Margaret O’Keefe 
 was retained as Visitatrix. 
 
 There are in the Eastern Province 1,033 Sisters 
 and 76 houses, 11 of which have been opened since 
 1908. These institutions include: 32 hospitals, of 
 which 21 are general hospitals, 8 maternities, and 
 
 3 for nervous patients only; 24 schools, of which 
 21 are day schools and 3 asylums and schools; 1 
 college, St. Joseph’s, at Emmitsburg, Md.; 9 infant 
 asylums; 19 orphan asylums; 3 industrial schools; 
 
 4 day nurseries. In several of the establishments 
 two or three works are carried on. For example, 
 Providence Hospital, Detroit, is a general hospital; 
 it is also a maternity hospital and an infant asylum. 
 St. Vincent’s Asylum, Buffalo, is known also as St. 
 Vincent’s Technical School; and so of others. St. 
 Margaret’s Hospital, Dorchester, Mass., is connected 
 
 with St. Mary’s Infant Asylum. Columbia Day 
 Nursery, Boston, is taken care of by Sisters from 
 Carney Hospital, Boston. Therefore, although the 
 number of houses in the Eastern Province is but 
 76, the number of works is much greater. A boys’ 
 school was recently opened (1918) in connection 
 with St. Mary’s School, Troy, N. Y. There are 
 social service departments at St. Joseph’s Hospital, 
 Philadelphia, Pa., and Providence Hospital, Wash¬ 
 ington, D. C. 
 
 In the Western Providence, on 31 December, 1910, 
 there were 744 Sisters in charge of 58 houses. On 
 31 October, 1921, there were 849 Sisters in charge 
 of 66 houses. Nine houses have been opened since 
 1910, and one house (infant asylum in San Fran¬ 
 cisco) has been closed. During 1920 the com¬ 
 munity took charge of a boys’ school in Mobile, 
 and during 1921 of a boys’ school in Santa Cruz, 
 as well as St. Patrick’s School, St. Louis; but these 
 three schools are attached to old works, and are 
 not counted above as new houses opened. In New 
 Orleans, during 1921, two asylums were consoli¬ 
 dated; a new work, a settlement, was opened in 
 the house formerly occupied by one of these asy¬ 
 lums, but it is not counted above as a new house. 
 The different works of the province include: 30 
 hospitals, of which 22 are general hospitals, 6 
 maternities, and 2 for nervous patients only, with 
 100,000 patients cared for during the year, 23,000 
 free patients in hospitals, and 156,000 treatments 
 in clinics; 20 schools with 7,200 pupils; 7 infant 
 asylums sheltering 3,300 children; 11 orphan asy¬ 
 lums sheltering 2,800 children; 3 industrial schools; 
 and 6 settlements. During the World War ten 
 Sisters went to Italy, in charge of the nursing in 
 Hospital Unit No. 102. 
 
 The total number of institutions throughout the 
 world is 3,359, including all sorts of charitable 
 works, from infant asylums to homes for the aged 
 and schools of all grades. These are under the 
 charge (1 January, 1919) of 37,234 Sisters. 
 
 Sisters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul 
 (Mount St. Vincent, Ne v York; cf. C. E., III- 
 607d).—The mother-house of this community, the 
 novitiate with a finely equipped training school, 
 the College of Mt. Saint Vincent (founded 1910), 
 a high school, and academy are situated at Mount 
 St. Vincent, N. Y. The superior general is the 
 Archbishop of New York, and the community is 
 governed by a council consisting of the mother 
 general and her four assistants, all residing at the 
 mother-house, to which the ninety missions are 
 subordinate. The present general superior is 
 Mother Vincentia McKenna, elected in 1922 to suc¬ 
 ceed Mother Josepha Cullen. The community 
 numbers about 1500 members and has the follow¬ 
 ing establishments in the Archdiocese of New York 
 and the dioceses of Brooklyn, Albany, and Harris¬ 
 burg: 1 college, 8 high schools, over 85 parochial 
 schools, 1 vocational school, 5 homes for children, 
 including a foundling hospital with more than 3000 
 children and 500 homeless and needy mothers, 1 
 day nursery, 9 hospitals, 3 convalescent homes, 
 1 home for the aged, 1 retreat for nervous and 
 mental diseases. 
 
 Sisters of Charity (Halifax, Nova Scotia).—The 
 congregation of the Sisters of Charity in the Arch¬ 
 diocese of Halifax, whose mother-house is at Mount 
 St. Vincent, Rockingham, N. S., is a branch of the 
 Sisterhood founded in 1809 at Emmitsburg, Mary¬ 
 land, by the venerated Mother Seton. In 1846 there 
 were in the Archdiocese of New York several missions 
 of the institute, and in that year a separate mother- 
 house was established for New York. In 1849, just 
 three years later, the superiors of the new congrega- 
 
CHARITY 
 
 179 
 
 CHARITY 
 
 tion, at the earnest solicitation of Archbishop Walsh 
 °f Halifax, sent four Sisters to establish a mission in 
 his metropolitan see, the purposes of which were 
 the education of youth, the care of orphans, and 
 the visitation of the sick. The rapid growth of 
 these works, coupled with the impossibility on the 
 part of the young mother-house in New York to 
 furnish the necessary help, led Archbishop Walsh 
 to formulate a plan for a separate mother-house, 
 in which the superiors in New York graciously con¬ 
 curred. This plan' met with the approval of the 
 Holy See, and on 8 December, 1855, the Halifax 
 mission became a separate mother-house endowed 
 with the same privileges conferred on previous 
 foundations. Sister M. Basilia McCann, who had 
 governed the mission from its establishment, was 
 elected mother superior of the new foundation. She 
 had been educated at Emmitsburg and received as 
 a member of the community at St. Joseph’s by 
 Mother Seton. Notwithstanding the many diffi¬ 
 culties which the Halifax mother-house had to 
 encounter in the process of its development, it 
 flourished, and at present counts 35 houses, 6 of 
 which are in the Diocese of Boston, and 1 in 
 Bermuda. In the scope of its works the institute 
 embraces grammar school and higher education, the 
 care of orphans, the sick, aged, and infirm ladies, 
 and the protection of working girls. It has 8 
 academies, and is in charge of 14 public schools 
 and 7 parochial schools. It has 3 hospitals, a 
 home for working girls, one for aged ladies, an 
 orphanage for boys, one for girls, and a foundling 
 asylum. On the completion of the first building 
 at Mount St. Vincent on Bedford Basin the mother- 
 house was translated to it 15 August, 1873. By an 
 act of legislature Mount St. Vincent enjoys the 
 privilege of a normal school for the training of its 
 own members for positions in the public schools 
 of the provinces. The novitiate is attached to the 
 mother-house, and the institute numbers about 700 
 members. 
 
 Sisters of Charity of Nazareth (cf. C. E., 
 X-724d) celebrated the centennial of their founda- 
 kpV 11 1912 ' In tile same year occurred the death 
 of Mother Eutropia McMahon, the first Mother 
 General elected, in 1911, according to the new 
 Constitution of the Order. She devoted her ener¬ 
 gies to many good works, encouraged educational 
 activities, and improved the Academy. She was 
 succeeded by Mother Rose Meagher, elected 19 
 July, 1912, and re-elected in 1918 for a second term 
 ox six years. Since 1911 the following foundations 
 have been made: Nazareth School, South Boston, 
 Mass.; St. Ann’s School, Morganfield, Ky. (1912); 
 St. Agnes’ Sanitarium, St. Agnes’ Parochial School, 
 and St. Helena’s Commercial College, Louisville, 
 Ky. (1913); St. Dominic’s School, Columbus, Ohio 
 (1914); St. Peter’s Parochial School, Lexington, 
 Ky. (1915); Nazareth School, Roanoke, Va. (1916); 
 Sacred Heart Academy, Klamath Falls, Oregon 
 (1917); St. Theresa House, Lynn, Mass., a gift of 
 Mgr. Teeling to St. Mary’s Parish and a real home 
 for working girls (1918); Hinde-Ball Mercy Hospi¬ 
 tal, Mount Vernon, Ohio (1919). In 1911 the Sis¬ 
 ters resumed teaching at St. Patrick’s School, 
 Louisville, Ky., and in 1914 they reopened St. 
 Thomas’ Parochial School on the site of Old 
 Nazareth. Nazareth Academy was affiliated with 
 the State University in 1913 and with the Catholic 
 University of America in 1914. The opening of 
 Nazareth College at Louisville, Ky., on 4 October, 
 1920, was to meet the demand for higher education 
 of women, and it is the first woman’s Catholic 
 college in Louisville. 
 
 The mother-house of the Society, situated at 
 
 Nazareth, Kentucky, lias 65 branch houses in the 
 Aichdioceses of Baltimore and Boston and the 
 Dioceses of Louisville, Covington, Nashville, Little 
 Rock, JNatchez, Columbus, Baker City, and Rich¬ 
 mond. The order is thus represented in Kentucky, 
 1 ennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, Ohio, Massa¬ 
 chusetts, Maryland, Virginia, and Oregon. The Sis¬ 
 ters conduct the following institutions: 3 colleges, 
 one of which is a commercial college and another 
 a junior college; 15 academies; 58 parochial schools; 
 5 hospitals and infirmaries, caring yearly for 10,349 
 patients; 6 orphanages, having in all about 856 
 orphans; 1 liome for aged men; 1 home for work¬ 
 ing girls; 1 sanitarium. The society numbers 978 
 members with 20,180 pupils under their instruction. 
 Educational work is not their only activity, for 
 they care also for the sick, invalids, prisoners, and 
 the insane. The governing body of the society con¬ 
 sists of a Mother General and five assistants, one 
 of whom is treasurer general and another secretary 
 general. During the last decade thirty-two golden 
 jubilarians have died, besides many other members. 
 Among the deceased are: Mother Alphonsa Kerr 
 (d. 1913), Sister Marie Menard (d. 1914), Sister 
 Aurea O’Brien (d. 1916), Sister Euphrasia Stafford 
 (d. 1917). 
 
 Sisters of Charity of Cincinnati, Ohio (cf. C. 
 E., XI\-28a).—Mother Mary Florence Kent suc¬ 
 ceeded Mother Mary Blanche Davis in 1911 and 
 held the office of Mother Superior until 1917. Dur¬ 
 ing the first years of her term the foundation of 
 the new Good Samaritan on Dixsmyth and Clifton 
 Avenues was laid and two wings of the hospital 
 were built. The community took charge of the St. 
 William School, Price Hill, Cincinnati, and of the 
 Corpus Christi School, Dayton, Ohio, in 1912; of 
 the St. Sebastian School, Chicago, in 1913; of the 
 Holy Name School, Cleveland, Ohio, and of the An¬ 
 nunciation School, Clifton, Cincinnati, in 1914. The 
 St. Rita Institute, a boarding school for the deaf 
 at St. Rita Heights, near Lockland, Ohio, was 
 founded on 17 October, 1915, when the Sisters took 
 their pupils thither from the school in Cincinnati. 
 In 1916-17 the Sisters had temporary charge of St. 
 Teresa’s Home for the Aged. 
 
 Mother Mary Bertha Armstrong succeeded to 
 the office of Mother Superior in July, 1917, and 
 was re-elected in 1920. During her first term of 
 office the influenza following the World War spread 
 over the country and she imitated the example of 
 her predecessors of cholera and Civil War periods 
 by permitting the Sisters to serve as volunteer 
 nurses in the infected districts of Ohio, Kentucky, 
 Michigan, Colorado, and New Mexico. As in the 
 earlier days, the community enrolled names of 
 martyrs to the cause. The new Code of Canon 
 Law coming into effect at this time made but one 
 change in the constitutions of the community, 
 that of requiring the heads of institutions to be 
 changed at the end of six years. The College of 
 Mount St. Joseph-on-the-Ohio with its normal de¬ 
 partment was chartered under the laws of Ohio in 
 April, 1920, and opened to students in September 
 of the same year. The community numbers 
 between 900 and 1,000 members, teaching 50 
 parochial schools, 3 academies for girls, 1 for boys, 
 
 1 college, 1 boarding institute for the deaf, 1 day 
 school for colored children. It has 9 hospitals and 
 sanitariums, 1 infant asylum and maternity hos¬ 
 pital, 1 Italian Institute for welfare work, and a 
 day nursery. It has charge of domestic affairs 
 of Mount St. Mary’s of the West and of the 
 diocesan orphanage and owns and conducts an 
 orphanage in Santa Fe, New Mexico. The school 
 in connection with the Church of the Resurrection, 
 
CHARITY 
 
 180 
 
 CHARITY 
 
 Price Hill, Cincinnati, was opened by the Sisters 
 in 1919. 
 
 Sisters of Charity of Leavenworth.— A pioneer 
 band of Sisters, several of whom had been schooled 
 at Nazareth, determining to venture forth into 
 the unexplored West, in 1858 offered their services 
 to Bishop Miege of Leavenworth, who was glad to 
 have their assistance in his extensive Kansas vica¬ 
 riate. The guiding spirit of the community was 
 Sister Xavier Ross, whom they elected Superior. 
 Her conversion and entrance into the Nazareth 
 Sisterhood had been bitterly opposed by her parents 
 and their relentless hostility was her great sorrow 
 She governed the order through twenty years of 
 missionary ventures and financial difficulties. A 
 little cottage in the frontier town served the first 
 Sister as a convent. This gave place to St. Mary s 
 Mother-house and Academy, built at the cost of 
 infinite pains. The beautiful chapel, just recently 
 completed, is an exact facsimile of the Church of 
 San Alphonso at Rome. 
 
 In 1869 at the insistent urging of Fr. De bmet, 
 their staunch friend and wise adviser, the Sisters 
 undertook to establish a colony in the Rocky 
 Mountain Mission. They settled in Helena, Mon¬ 
 tana, and there found a field peculiarly their own. 
 They accompanied the adventurous pioneers and 
 railroaders to teach their children, to care for their 
 sick, or mother their orphans. Foundation followed 
 foundation, until today these nuns have forty houses 
 in the Archdiocese of Santa Fe, and the Dioceses of 
 Cheyenne, Denver, Great Falls, Helena, Kansas 
 City, Leavenworth, and Lincoln. They direct 30 
 parochial schools and 9 high schools and academies, 
 with an aggregate enrolment of 8,000 pupils;, 12 
 hospitals caring for 15,415 patients, and 3 orphan¬ 
 ages with 500 inmates. The Society numbers 462 
 professed Sisters, 9 novices, and 12 postulants. 
 
 The Sisters are well , trained for their _ important 
 work of teaching, being under the direction of 
 trained supervisors and attending each year sum¬ 
 mer normal courses at the mother-house or the 
 universities. This annual reunion of the teachers 
 promotes the community spirit as well as educa¬ 
 tional efficiency, and they are spiritually rehabili¬ 
 tated by the annual retreat. By the provisions 
 of the papal Decree, approving the Constitutions 
 of the community, the Sisters administer their own 
 affairs, subject directly to the control of the Con- 
 gregation of the Religious at Rome. Cardinal 
 Donato Sbarretti is the Cardinal. Protector of the 
 community. The time of probation for admission 
 to the Sisterhood is six months postulancy and one 
 year of noviceship, and the vows are perpetual. 
 The Rule is, in the main, that of St. Vincent. 
 
 Sisters of Charity of St. Elizabeth (cf. C. E., 
 III-608c), with mother-house at Convent Station, 
 N. J., were founded by Mother Mary Xavier 
 Mehegan, who died 24 June, 1915, after fifty-six 
 years as superior of the community. She was 
 ninety-one years of age, and had consecrated her¬ 
 self to God at the age of twenty-two as a member 
 of the community of the Sisters of Charity in New 
 York. Mother Mary Cecilia Casey, the second and 
 present superior, succeeded the saintly foundress. 
 The community numbers 1,300 professed Sisters 
 and 90 novices and postulants, having 97 founda¬ 
 tions, with 110 institutions under their care, the 
 greater number of institutions being explained by 
 the fact that 13 are expansions of foundations long 
 established. New foundations since 1908 include 
 1 hospital, 1 academy, 8 high schools, 10 parochial 
 schools, and 1 home for working girls. The total 
 number of institutions includes: 1 college, 7 acade¬ 
 mies, 77 parochial schools, 8 high schools, 1 prepara¬ 
 
 tory school for small boys, 5 orphanages, 6 hospitals, 
 
 1 home for the aged, 1 home for incurables, 1 
 foundling asylum, 2 day nurseries, and 1 home for 
 working girls. The academies offer classical, scien¬ 
 tific, and commercial courses, while each of .20 of 
 the parochial schools has, in addition to an ele¬ 
 mentary grammar school course, a free commercial 
 department. During the year 1920-21 there were 
 1,895 students in the colleges and academies and 
 42,963 in the parochial and high schools; 18,976 
 patients were cared for in the hospitals; 341 in¬ 
 mates of homes for aged and incurables, 234 chil¬ 
 dren in foundling asylums and nurseries, 597 
 orphans, and 195 working girls were under the care 
 of the Sisters. 
 
 Sisters of Charity of the Blessed Virgin Mary 
 (cf. C. E., III-609a).—Since the establishment of 
 the mother-house at Dubuque, Iowa, in 1843 the 
 Sisters have answered calls to conduct schools in 
 eighteen diocese in twelve States of the United 
 States. In 1914 Pius X authorized the erection of 
 four provinces in the institute, rendered necessary 
 by its growth and development. In 1911 he had 
 appointed Cardinal Merry del Val their Cardinal 
 Protector. The constitutions of the congregation 
 are based upon the rule of St. Ignatius and pro¬ 
 vide for a central government under a superior 
 general, assisted in the administration of her office 
 by four councillors. All these officials, together 
 with the secretary and treasurer general, are elected 
 for a term of six years. The postulantship lasts 
 six months, the novitiate two years. The mem¬ 
 bers of the congregation are given every opportu¬ 
 nity to meet modern educational requirements in 
 professional training and state certification. Con¬ 
 nected with the mother-house and novitiate are 
 schools for normal and college extension courses. 
 In all the institutions under their direction the 
 Sisters aim at the highest standards of discipline, 
 religious training, and scholarship. A work to 
 which they attach great importance is that of 
 the parochial grade and high schools and they 
 have met with remarkable success. St. Mary’s, 
 the first Catholic central high school for girls in 
 Chicago, was begun in 1899 with 72 girls under 
 the instruction of 5 Sisters. A new building has 
 been erected, added to, and furnished with all 
 modern equipment, and in 1921 there were 30 
 teachers in the faculty and 800 girls were in at¬ 
 tendance from 47 parishes. The Immaculata, a 
 central high school, which promises to be for the 
 North Side of Chicago what St. Mary’s is for 
 the West Side, was opened by the Sisters in 1921 
 with a registration of 210. 
 
 By special rescript of the Holy See the foundress 
 of the congregation, Mother Mary Frances Clarke, 
 remained superior general until her death in 1887. 
 Under her 50 schools were opened. She was suc¬ 
 ceeded in 1888 by Mother Mary Gertrude Regan, 
 who had entered the Sisters’ novitiate at Phila¬ 
 delphia in 1841, the community then numbering 
 only 14 members. Mother Gertrude celebrated her 
 diamond jubilee in 1916 and died in 1919. The 
 third superior general was Mother Mary Cecelia 
 Dougherty, who three times held the office. She 
 died before the expiration of her third term, in 
 1919. It was through her formal petition that 
 the Catholic University opened university courses 
 to the teaching sisterhoods, and the Sisters’ Col¬ 
 lege in Brookland, Washington, D. C., was inaugu¬ 
 rated as an integral part of the Catholic University 
 of America. The first students to matriculate 
 were six Sisters of Charity of the Blessed Virgin 
 Mary from Dubuque. Mother Mary - Lilly, who 
 became superior general in 112, obtained from 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
CHARITY CHARITY 
 
 the Holy See, in 114, perpetual vows for the sis- tember, 1845, chevalier of the Order of the Crown 
 terhood. The installation of provincial govern- elected superior 2 September, 1899, and re-elected 
 inent and the revision of the constitutions, ren- three times consecutively in 1905, 1911, and 1919 
 dered necessary by the change, were ably conducted celebrated the golden jubilee of her profession in 
 under her supervision. The present superior gen- 1919, and died 17 November, 1920 
 eral is Mother Mary Isabella Kane. Other notable members recently deceased are- 
 
 Since its foundation in 1833, 2,000 young women Mother Mary of the Trinity (Teresa Lockens) 
 have entered the congregation. At present there superior at Lahore (Punjab), where she founded 
 are 1,400 members, conducting 95 schools which the school for Parsees, d. 1908; Mother Corine 
 include 1 college, 8 academies, 13 high schools, and (Margaret Frederix), superior at St. Trudon 
 73 parochial schools, with a total enrollment of (Congo) where she took care of the victims of 
 33,220 pupils. These schools are located in Iowa, the sleeping sickness, contracted their disease and 
 Illinois, Wisconsin, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, died at the mother-house in 1910; Sister Ancina 
 South Dakota, Colorado, California, Montana, (Elizabeth Dicteren), contracted the sleeping sick- 
 Oregon, Washington. ness at St. Trudon, d. at St. Trond, Belgium, 1910 * 
 
 Sisters of Charity of the Immaculate Con- Mother Amalia (Van der Stegen), one of the first 
 ception, St. John, New Brunswick, (cf. C. E., caravan of Sisters who went as missionaries to the 
 lll-608d).—The rules given the community by the Congo in 1891, returned to Belgium 1912, d. 1913, 
 founder have been revised, and as Constitutions chevalier of the Order of Leopold; Sister Edith 
 conform to the new code of Canon Law. The (De Blauwe), author of an account of her "trips 
 affairs of the community are administered by a to India and Ceylon (edited 1901 and 1905), began 
 mother general with four assistants, a general secre- the review “Caritas,” d. 1914; Sister Fmnbarr 
 tary, and a general treasurer. The first mother gen- (Hammond), with Senior Oxford certificate and 
 eral under the revised Constitutions was Rev. Mother the degree of LL.A. St. Andrew’s, head-mistress of 
 Mary Thomas, who was succeeded by Rev. Mother the boarding school of Claremont, d. 1915 of an 
 Mary Alphonsus, the present mother general. Under epidemic which broke out among "the Belgian 
 their wise guidance the charitable and educational refugees to whom she ministered; Mother Idonie 
 works of the community have been greatly ex- (M. Ottevaere), superior of the institute for abnor- 
 tended. Hospitals have been opened in the west mal children of Lokeren, consecrated twenty-seven 
 at Prince Albert, Sask., and in St. John, N. B. A years to the education of mentally deficient chil- 
 home for destitute infants is another great charity dren, d. 1917; Mother Josepha (Clara Hellebaut), 
 undertaken by the Sisters. A modern boarding- one of the ten first missionaries for the Congo’ 
 school and academy has recently been opened, and decorated chevalier of the Order of Leopold for 
 in 1921 the Sisters opened in Regina, Sask., a Girls’ her services at the hospital of Kinkanda, founded 
 Guild (called Rosary Hall) for the accommodation for Belgians working at the first railway/ returned 
 of young women living away from home and earn- to Belgium 1905, d. 1917; Sister Gamaliel (Lucie 
 ing their own livelihood. Thus the 18 houses of Delaye), for twenty-five years teacher of the deaf 
 the Institute number over 200 Sisters who care and dumb at the Royal Institute of the Rampart 
 for the poor, the sick, and infirm from infancy des Moines, Brussels, d. 1917; Mother Mary of 
 to old age. The community is engaged in all the Cross (Clemantine van Driessche), former 
 the educational activities of the times from the superior general, d. 1918; Mother Colette (Hor- 
 primary, intermediate, through the high school tense Grosse), superior of St. Trond, which shel- 
 grades. Their pupils pass with honors the matricula- tered many refugees during the war, the sick and 
 tion, State, and all departmental examinations. unfortunate, d. 1918; Mother Pacifique (Caroline 
 Sisters of Charity of the Incarnate Word. Janssens), successively superior at Mons, Eecloo, 
 See Incarnate Word, Sisters of Charity of the. Courtrai, and Beirlegem, d. at Lockeren 1919; 
 
 Sisters of Charity of Jesus and Mary (cf. C. Mother Felicite (Stephanie Van Durme), superior 
 E., III-609c).—This congregation with mother- at St. Genois near Courtrai, d. at the civil hospital 
 house at Ghent, is administered by a superior gen- of Manseron where she was obliged to seek refuge 
 eral, a secular priest nominated by the Bishop a few days before the armistice, 6 November, 1918; 
 of Ghent, and a mother general, elected for six Sister Flore (Marie Bauwens), professor at the 
 years from among the members of the congrega- Institute of Notre Dame aux Epines at Eecloo, 
 tion. The superiors general are assisted by their author of a history of Notre Dame aux Epines 
 council, residing at the mother-house. Each affilia- and of the institute (edited 1921), d. 1918; Sister 
 tion is administered by a superior nominated for Frederique (M. Verstraeten), professor of religion 
 three years by the general superiors. All the and philosophy at the Institute of Notre Dame 
 affiliations depend on the mother-house. The con- aux Epines, d. 1919; Sister Seraphine (Amelie 
 stitutions are taken from the Rules of St. Bernard Janssens), for thirty-three years teacher of deaf 
 and St. Vincent de Paul, to suit the mixed life and dumb children at the mother-house, decorated 
 of contemplation and active works. The work in 1912 with the first class Civil Cross, d. 1918; 
 of revision of the constitutions will be sent to Mother Rosalie (M. Van Goethem), foundress of 
 Rome.. The new Canon Law has been put into the house at Tottington, England, superior at 
 execution since 1920. Tournai, died at Ghent where she had retired dur- 
 
 The present superior general is Canon Eugene ing the war. 
 van Rechem, b. at Beveren-Audenarde in April, At present (1921) the congregation numbers 1,600 
 1858, appointed superior general, 1 November, 1903, members with 45 foundations, of which 30 are in 
 created titular Bishop of Carpasia, 26 March, 1914, Belgium, 1 in Holland, 1 in England, 6 in Belgian 
 consecrated auxiliary Bishop of Ghent 14 May, Congo, 4 in India, and 3 in Ceylon. Under the 
 1914, chevalier of the Order of Leopold. The care of the Sisters there are in Europe: 1 normal 
 mother general is Mother Bemardette (Clemence school, 9 boarding schools, 15 day schools, 18 
 Van Reeth), b. at Antwerp, 1 November, 1853, for- primary schools, 10 professional schools, 1 institute 
 merly Superior of Mons, elected general superior for the blind, 3 institutes for the deaf and dumb, 
 
 11 December, 1920, entitled chevalier of the Order 4 institutes for mentally deficient children, 1 insti- 
 of Leopold in 1921. She succeeded Mother Ghis- tute for the disabled, 2 institutes for incurables, 
 laine (Rosalie Spillemackers), b. at Boom in Sep- 1 asylum for the abandoned, 1 house of preserva- 
 
CHARITY 
 
 CHARITY 
 
 182 
 
 tion 1 poor law school, 1 house for young woiking 
 eirls, 1 model nursery, 7 lunatic asylums, 1 sana¬ 
 torium for tuberculous patients, 1 sanatorium for 
 little girls having symptoms of consumption, 6 
 hospitals, 11 hospitals for incurables and old men, 
 
 1 hospital for old blind men, 4 refuges for blind 
 adults, 3 refuges for deaf and dumb, 13 houses 
 of retreat; in India (Punjab): 1 school for parsees 
 and Indian girls, 3 boarding schools and day 
 schools for Europeans, 2 industrial schools tor 
 natives, 1 nursery, 2 dispensaries for natives; in 
 Ceylon: 3 boarding schools and day schools for 
 Europeans, 1 nursery, 3 English and Sinhalese 
 schools, 3 industrial schools, 3 industrial schools tor 
 native girls; in Belgian Congo: 1 school for white 
 children, 4 schools for native children, 2 hospitals 
 for Europeans, 1 hospital for contagious diseases, 1 
 hospital for incurables, 2 hospitals for sleeping sick¬ 
 ness, 2 dispensaries for natives. The congregation 
 thus had the following pupils under instruction 
 (1912): guardian' schools, 2,769; primary classes, 
 6,118; secondary classes, 781; secondary teaching, 
 55; normal school, 285; humanities, 16; commer¬ 
 cial school, 50; domestic economy schools, 241; 
 Sunday schools, 2,239; abnormal children, 805. 
 The Sisters take care of 1,502 sick, infirm, and 
 old men, 2,632 lunatics, 115 blind adults, 71 deaf 
 and dumb adults, 406 paying guests, 80 tuberculous 
 patients, 42 with symptoms of tuberculosis. 
 
 The expropriation of the Asylum of Ghent was 
 an occasion of establishing the Pavilion System, 
 the “open doors” unknown in Belgium. The Cantas 
 asylum was inaugurated at Melle near Ghent, 27 
 October, 1908, by the late Bishop Stillemans, M. 
 Renkin, Minister of Justice, and about fifty notable 
 personages interested in the organization of the 
 new asylum. At present there are 6/1 patients 
 and 82 Sisters. At the same time Holland asked 
 for an institute like the one at Venray and the 
 pavilions were erected on an estate of 125 acres. 
 The first Sisters were introduced there November, 
 1908, and on 11 June, 1911, the official opening 
 took place. The Diocese of Galle, Ceylon, wa3 
 endowed with two new missions in 1908, at Matara, 
 and in 1909, at Kegalle. There the Sisters have a 
 boarding school, a day school, schools for English 
 and Singalese pupils, and an industrial school. In 
 1909 the hospital for the blind on Boulevard du 
 Midi, in Brussels, was given in charge of the 
 Sisters of Charity. In 1910 the Institute of Notre 
 Dame aux Epines, at Eecloo, opened its pavilion 
 for young ladies who are completing their educa¬ 
 tion, and in 1913 that of St. Teresa, which is a 
 center for Oxford examinations and has. Greek- 
 Latin and commercial sections. In the institute 
 there are 1,588 pupils and nearly 200 Sisters. At 
 Renaix in 1911 the Sisters took charge of the 
 Canfyn Hospital, near which a new civil hospital 
 was begun in 1914 and completed in. 1920. The 
 Sisters have been in charge of the civil hospital 
 at Renaix since 1825. 
 
 In 1911 a mission was founded at Ehzabeth- 
 ville (Katanga). There the Sisters have a board¬ 
 ing school, day school, the State hospital, the 
 hospital of the'blacks, and the dispensary of the 
 “Drop of Milk” for the protection of black chil¬ 
 dren. In May, 1912, was laid the foundation stone 
 of the Ave Maria, a sanatorium for insane people 
 at St. Servais-lez-Namur, opened in January, 1914, 
 and on the way to completion. It shelters almost 
 600 patients, taken care of by 72 Sisters of Charity. 
 In 1916 the Sisters took possession of an estate at 
 Lovenjoul, belonging to the University of Louvain, 
 an ideal place of convalescence for ladies with non- 
 contagious disease. In 1917 the French Dominican 
 
 Sisters gave over to the Sisters of Charity the 
 direction of the institute for deaf and dumb boys 
 and girls at Bouge-lez-Namur. In 1921, at the re¬ 
 quest of Bishop Heylen of Namur, the Sisters took 
 charge of the sanatorium for tuberculous patients 
 at Mont-sur-Meuse. 
 
 Sisters of Charity of our Lady Mother of 
 Mercy (cf. C. E., III-610b).—According to the 
 changes made in the constitutions of the com¬ 
 munity by the new Code of Canon Law the 
 General Superior, elected for six years, may be re¬ 
 elected only once. Previously mother generals, 
 re-elected many times, often held their office until 
 death. Local superiors are appointed for a term 
 of three, instead of six years. Mother General 
 Teresinia Favier had succeeded Mother Leocritia 
 in 1909, at the latter's resignation due to failing 
 health. She had been Superior of St. Mary’s Con¬ 
 vent, Willimantic, Conn. In 1910 she visited the 
 houses in the United States, and appointed Mother 
 Alphonsa Superior of the Holy Family Academy, 
 Baltic, Conn., as successor to Mother Aloysia 
 Spight, who had been recalled to Europe in 1909. 
 Under Mother Alphonsa a new wing was added to 
 the academy buildings. In 1920 Mother Favier again 
 visited the houses in the United States, changing, 
 according to the new regulations, local superiors 
 whose term of three years had expired. In 1921 
 Mother Favier resigned, and canonically elected 
 as superior general Mother Christine Borsten who 
 had been assistant to the governing faculty for 
 many years. In 1916 the former superior general, 
 Mother Leocritia, died at Tilburg. Previous to 
 her election as mother general, she had been 
 superior of three different houses in Holland, 
 superior of St. Joseph’s Convent, •'Willimantic, 
 Conn., for four years, and assistant to the mother 
 general in 1887. The Cardinal Protector of the 
 Congregation is Cardinal Van Rossum. 
 
 Three foundations have been made in different 
 parts of the world since 1908. In 1910 a hospital 
 was founded in Utrecht, Holland, and a second 
 house of the congregation was opened in Para¬ 
 maribo, Dutch Guiana, South America, for the 
 twofold purpose of nursing the sick and teaching 
 the native children. In the leper colony located 
 at some distance from Paramaribo the Sisters are 
 engaged in caring for these unfortunate people who 
 belong to various creeds and nationalities. Num¬ 
 bers of these poor victims, by the charitable minis¬ 
 trations of priests and Sisters, have been brought 
 into the Church. In 1909 one of- the nursing Sis¬ 
 ters contracted the dreadful malady, but the doc¬ 
 tors succeeded in arresting the progress of the 
 disease, so that she is able to continue her labors 
 among the lepers. The third recent # foundation 
 was made in the East Indies at Tondjong, Sakti, 
 where the Sisters give catechetical instruction and 
 training in household work, sewing, etc., to the 
 half-civilized women and girls and teach the native 
 children. . 
 
 Previous to the World War the congregation 
 had eight houses in Belgium, some of which were 
 situated in the war zone. These institutions had 
 sheltered and cared for the sick among the troops 
 of the invading army, when on their way to the 
 front, so that out of regard for these charitable 
 services the convents were spared when those of 
 various other orders were destroyed. In 1917 the 
 Belgian Sisters suffered much, and as many fell 
 sick for want of proper nourishment, they were 
 recalled to Holland. Two of the Belgian houses 
 were subsequently closed on account of post-war 
 conditions. 
 
 From the first year of the war until November, 
 
CHARLESTON 
 
 183 
 
 CHATHAM 
 
 1919, the houses on the Belgian frontier in Holland 
 were taxed to the utmost to accommodate the 
 refugees who poured in from France and Belgium. 
 When Antwerp was besieged most of the women 
 and children who escaped from that city fled to 
 Tilburg, which is but twenty miles distant; here 
 numbers arrived in a pitiable condition. The Sis¬ 
 ters in Tilburg did all they could to relieve the 
 sufferers. In several houses the parochial school 
 buildings became improvised hospitals for soldiers 
 and civilians. The inmates of an orphan asylum, 
 about 100 children and their teachers, were received 
 by the Sisters at the Hague. It was a difficult 
 problem to provide sufficient food and clothing 
 for these refugees, but Divine Providence watched 
 over the community in a special manner, and they 
 never lacked the necessities of life. 
 
 The principal aim of the congregation is to 
 nurse the sick in hospitals and teach parochial 
 schools. Many of the communities in Holland 
 devote themselves to the twofold work of hospital 
 and school. The Sisters also direct institutions for 
 the aged, asylums for orphan girls, and schools for 
 the blind and for the deaf and dumb. They conduct 
 3 normal schools and 7 academies. The total num¬ 
 ber of houses in 1921 was 100; professed members, 
 3,608; children taught, 57,732; sick and aged cared 
 for, 3,980. In the United States there are 105 Sis¬ 
 ters in charge of schools and hospitals in the 
 Diocese of Hartford, with 1,997 pupils under their 
 instruction. 
 
 Charleston, Diocese of (Carolopolitana; cf. C. 
 E., III-630e).—The present bishop of Charleston, 
 Rt. Rev. William T. Russell, who was consecrated 
 15 March, 1917, succeeded Bishop Northrop, who 
 died 7 June, 1916. The Catholic population of the 
 diocese is 10,000. There are 21 parishes with 
 churches, 17 missions, 95 stations, 31 secular 
 priests and 2 regulars. There are 110 sis¬ 
 ters in the diocese and 12 seminarians; 1 high 
 school with 9 teachers and an attendance of 180; 
 5 academies with an attendance of 750; 9 elemen¬ 
 tary schools with an attendance of 1,221; 1 hos¬ 
 pital; 1 settlement house. All the public institu¬ 
 tions in the state admit the ministry of priests. 
 
 Deaths among the clergy since 1908 include those 
 of Rt. Rev. P. L. Duffy and Rev. J. D. Budda. 
 Diocesan clergy administered to the spiritual needs 
 of the soldiers and sailors at the recreation centers 
 which were established during the war in Charles¬ 
 ton, Columbia, Spartanburg, Greenville, Moul- 
 trieville, and Beaufort, S. C. 
 
 Charlottetown, Diocese of (Carolinapolitana; 
 cf. C. E., III-632b), comprises Prince Edward 
 Island, Canada, and is suffragan to the Archdiocese 
 of Halifax. The Rt. Reverend James Charles McDon¬ 
 ald, who had filled this see since 1891, died 1 
 December, 1912, and was succeeded by Rt. Reverend 
 Henry J. O’Leary. Bishop O’Leary was consecrated 
 25 May, 1913, and filled the see of Charlottetown 
 until his transfer to the Archdiocese of Edmonton 
 in 1920. He was succeeded by his brother, Rt. 
 Reverend Louis James O’Leary, the present incum¬ 
 bent, who was consecrated titular Bishop of Hier- 
 apolis and made auxiliary to the Bishop of 
 Chatham 29 January, 1914, and transferred to the 
 diocese of Charlottetown 10 September, 1920. 
 
 Prominent clergy of this diocese who have died 
 within recent years are: Rev. James McDonald, 
 Rev. Peter McCarvill, Rev. Father Brisco, Rev. J. 
 T. Murphy, Rev. Augustus McDonald, Rev. James 
 Phelan, and Rev. Stephen Phelan. During the 
 World War two of the priests of the diocese served 
 as chaplains. 
 
 The principal events of the diocese during recent 
 years have been the erection of a new cathedral 
 a new orphanage, a home under the Sisters of 
 St. Martha and the burning of the hospital of 
 Charlottetown. 
 
 By present statistics there are: 40 parishes, 40 
 churches, 10 missions, 10 mission stations, 59 secular 
 priests, 1 university with 12 professors and an 
 attendance of 200, 2 academies for girls with 35 
 teachers and 250 girls, 2 academies for boys with 
 100 boys, 1 elementary school with 12 teachers and 
 450 pupils, 1 home,, and 1 hospital. St. Bernard’s 
 Society is established among the clergy, and the 
 Knights of Columbus, League of the Cross and 
 B. I. S. among the laity. The total Catholic popu¬ 
 lation is 49,200 composed of Irish, Scotch, and 
 French. 
 
 Chartres, Diocese of (Carnutensis; cf. C. E., 
 III-635b), comprising the whole department of 
 Eure et Loir, in France, suffragan of Paris. This 
 see, founded in the third century, is now filled 
 by Rt. Rev. Henri-Louis-Alfred Bouquet, born in 
 Paris, 1839, ordained 1864, professor to the Faculty 
 of Theology in Paris, administrator of the church 
 of the Sorbonne, appointed Bishop of Mende 18 
 April, 1901, transferred 21 February, 1906. He is 
 a chevalier of the legion d’honneur and an officer 
 of public instruction. In 1917 the centennial of the 
 re-establishment of the diocese of Chartres was cele¬ 
 brated, the see having been suppressed from 1801-17. 
 Bishop de Latil, the first bishop after the re-estab¬ 
 lishment, was granted the personal privilege of 
 wearing the pallium. With his promotion, how¬ 
 ever, the privilege was discontinued, but it was 
 given back to the see by Benedict XV 15 Novem¬ 
 ber, 1917. 
 
 In 1906 the Upper Seminary was expelled from 
 the house which had sheltered generations of priests, 
 and from that time until 1920 it took refuge in the 
 Carmelite monastery, from which the Sisters had 
 departed for Holland. In 1920 it became perma¬ 
 nently established in a house at 1 Rue St. Eman, 
 which belonged to the Religious of Providence, 
 and which for centuries before the spoliations of 
 the Revolution was the property of the Abbey of 
 St. John. In 1914 the Apostolicity of the Church 
 of Chartres and the ancient foundation of the 
 famous statue of the Virgin, which is said to have 
 been there in the time of the Druids, was con¬ 
 firmed by a decree of the Congregation of the Con¬ 
 sistory, in refutation of an article written by Dom 
 Leclercq, in which he questioned the authenticity 
 of these facts and mentioned them as mere legends. 
 
 During the World War 142 priests and 35 semi¬ 
 narians were mobilized from this diocese, and of 
 this number 8 priests and 14 seminarians gave up 
 their lives, 2 were decorated with the legion 
 dlionneur, 5 with the medaille militaire, and 36 
 with the croix de guerre. According to 1920 statistics 
 the total population of this territory numbers 
 273,823, of whom 272,255 are Catholic, the diocese 
 comprises 24 deaneries, 25 first class parishes, 351 
 succursal parishes, 40 vicariates, 4-50 secular and 
 4 regular clergy, 35 seminarians, 4 communities of 
 religious women, and 70 Catholic schools with 4500 
 pupils. A number of charitable institutions and 
 societies are established, and a periodical, “Voix 
 de Notre Dame de Chartres,” is published. 
 
 Chatham, Diocese of (Chathamensi3; cf. C. E., 
 III-642a), Canada.—In 1913 Mgr. Henry O’Leary, 
 then pastor of Bathurst in the Diocese of Chatham, 
 was consecrated Bishop of Charlottetown. In 
 1914 Mgr. Louis O’Leary, chancellor of the diocese 
 and author of the article on “Chatham” in the 
 
CHAUVANCE 
 
 184 
 
 CHE-KIANG- 
 
 Catholic Encyclopedia, was consecrated titular 
 bishop of Hierapolis and auxiliary to Bishop Barry 
 of Chatham, who died in January, 1920. In the 
 following August Bishop O’Leary was transferred 
 to the see of Charlottetown, and Bishop Patnce- 
 Alexandre Chiasson, Vicar Apostolic of the Gulf 
 of St. Lawrence, succeeded to that of Chatham. 
 The Catholic population of the diocese is 184,000, 
 of whom 92,000 are French and Irish Acadians, 
 75,000 French-Acadians and 17,000 Irish. There 
 are 59 parishes, 113 churches, 54 missions, 1 mon¬ 
 astery of men (Trappist) and one of women (Trap- 
 pistines), 75 secular priests, 25 regulars, 9 brothers, 
 15 convents of women, 298 sisters, 18 seminarians. 
 The educational institutions include 2 colleges for 
 boys with 20 professors and 400 pupils, 10 high 
 schools with 30 teachers and an attendance of 
 450 (150 boys, 300 girls), 12 parochial elementary 
 schools with 35 teachers and an attendance of 700. 
 There are two asylums for orphans and one for the 
 aged; 4 hospitals, one of which is for lepers and 
 is under government support, as. are also two 
 schools. Two public hospitals admit the ministry 
 of priests. The Societe St. Michel is organized 
 among the clergy. 
 
 Chauvance, Louise-Therese de Montaignac de, 
 religious foundress, daughter of Aime, and Anne 
 de Ruffin, b. at Le Havre de Grace, Normandy, 
 14 May, 1820; d. 27 June, 1885. She was educated 
 at Montlucon by an aunt, after whose death she 
 devoted herself to works of charity, in particular 
 aiding poor churches. In 1852 she founded an 
 orphanage near her own home and established in 
 connection with it an association of pious women 
 to join in visits of reparation to and adoration 
 of the Blessed Sacrament every Thursday. On 
 21 December, 1874, her Pious Union of the Oblates 
 of the Sacred Heart of Jesus received episcopal 
 approbation, and in 1879 she opened the Little 
 School of the Child Jesus as a nursery for priestly 
 vocations. As the Oblates had already spread into 
 many other dioceses a general congregation was 
 held and she was elected general on 17 May, 1880. 
 The union received its decree of praise from the 
 Holy See in 1881, and in 1895 its rule was definitely 
 approved. On 23 December, 1914, the Pope con¬ 
 firmed the decision of the Congregations of Rites 
 introducing the cause of canonization of the found¬ 
 ress. 
 
 Che-Kiang, Eastern, Vicariate Apostolic of 
 (Ce-Kiam Orientalis; cf. C. E., III-677d), in 
 the third ecclesiastical region of China, with 
 official residence at Ning-po. This vicariate, 
 first erected in 1698, was re-established in 1846 
 and entrusted to the Lazarists. The present 
 vicar apostolic, Rt. Rev. Paul-Marie Reynaud, born 
 in the department of Loire, France, 1854, entered 
 this congregation 1873, was ordained 1879, and ap¬ 
 pointed titular Bishop of Fussola and vicar apos¬ 
 tolic, 7 March, 1884. He is Dean of the Chinese 
 bishops. On 28 May, 1919, Bishop Reynaud re¬ 
 ceived a letter from His Holiness congratulating 
 him on his thirty-five years in the episcopate, and 
 on the splendid work he had carried on for forty 
 years in the Chinese mission. At the same date 
 the president of the Chinese Republic decorated 
 him with the Epi d’ or of the second class, in recog¬ 
 nition of his devotion to the people of China during 
 forty years, and in particular for the moral and 
 financial aid which he gave during the inundations 
 of 1917-18. At this time he offered his fur cloak 
 for sale, and it brought over 10,000 piastres for 
 the sufferers; the cloak has since been placed in 
 the museum. He also obtained 40,000 francs from 
 
 the Pope and 20,000 from Propaganda to be used 
 for relief work. Other decorations were conferred 
 on some of the priests who assisted the bishop 
 during the famine of 1912 or the floods; Revs. J. 
 B. Lepers, A. Buch, C. Arond, A. Defehvre, 
 Lazarists; and J. Ing, M. Ou, and J. Chu, native 
 priests, as well as two sisters; Sister Gilbert, of 
 the Sisters of Charity, superior of St., Joseph’s 
 Hospital, at Ning-po, and Sister Helene de 
 Shaohing, a Chinese religious of the Sisters of 
 Purgatory. 
 
 The 1920 statistics credit this territory with a 
 total population of 11,000,000, of whom 38,460 are 
 Catholic, 12,577 catechumens, and 17,000 Prot¬ 
 estants. There are 17 European and 7 native 
 priests, 5 lay brothers, 401 catechists 28 churches, 
 131 chapels, 2 seminaries with 117 students, 16 hos¬ 
 pitals, 136 schools, 4 secondary schools, 9 orphan¬ 
 ages, 10 homes for the aged, and 11 dispensaries. 
 The Sisters of Charity, numbering 44, and the' 
 Sisters of Purgatory, numbering 67, are established 
 here. The following statistics of the spiritual fruits 
 of the mission for the year 1920-21 give an idea 
 of the progress being made; conversions of heretics 
 or schismatics, 88; baptisms, of adults 1,526, of 
 sick or dying, 372, of children of Christian par¬ 
 entage 1,673, of children in danger of death, 6,396; 
 confirmations, 1,259; confessions, annual, 15,823; of 
 devotion, 98,959; communions, annual, 14,965; of 
 devotion, 275,421; extreme unctions, 396., A weekly 
 review “Le Petit Messager de Ningpo,” is pub¬ 
 lished in French. In 1917 the mission celebrated 
 the jubilee of one of its oldest missionaries, Rev. 
 Dominic Procacci, C. M., who had labored in this 
 territory for forty years, never leaving it. On this 
 occasion he received a letter of congratulation from 
 His Holiness, Benedict XV. In 1919 Bishop Rey¬ 
 naud launched a drive for the establishment of a 
 fund for the maintenance of Chinese priests, and 
 on the 13 December the Pope sent word that in 
 order to encourage this work, he had deposited 
 50,000 lire, the interest of which would be used for 
 the support of a Chinese priest who should be 
 called the Pope’s missionary. 
 
 Che-Kiang, Western, Vicariate Apostolic of (cf. 
 C. E., XVI-82b), in China, comprises the civil 
 prefectures of Kia-Shing, Hu-chow, Hang-chow, 
 Yen-show, Chuchow, and King-wa. The present 
 Vicar Apostolic (1922) is Rt. Rev. Paul Albert 
 Faveau, titular bishop of Tamassus, appointed 10 
 May, 1910. This vicariate covers a territory of 
 26,250 sq. miles, and comprises a Catholic popu¬ 
 lation of 21,161, 7,750,000 infidels and 15,000 
 heretics. The missionary work is carried on by 10 
 European, 15 native priests, and 1 lay brother 
 of the Congregation of the Mission; 9 secular 
 priests, 17 Daughters of Charity, 36 Daughters of 
 the Sacred Heart, 127 male teachers, and 35 female 
 teachers and baptizers. The missionaries have 
 established 14 residences, 5 sub-stations, 13 churches, 
 106 chapels, 110 oratories, 1 upper seminary with 
 26 seminarians, 2 lower seminaries with 50 semi¬ 
 narians, 1 normal school with 12 pupils, 54 primary 
 schools for boys with 1,050 pupils, 18 primary 
 schools for girls with 843 pupils. The various 
 charitable institutions include arms and work shops, 
 6 industrial schools for girls with 324 girls, 2 orphan¬ 
 ages for boys with 10 inmates, 3 for girls with 
 346 inmates, 2 hospitals for men in which 806 cases 
 were treated, 2 for women in which 79 cases were 
 treated, 2 homes for aged men with 17 inmates, 
 2 for women with 19 inmates, 9 dispensaries from 
 which 266,169 cases were treated and 5,198 visits 
 made to homes, and 3 pharmacies. The following 
 
 
CHELMNO 
 
 185 
 
 CHIAVARI 
 
 statistics for the past year show the spiritual 
 progress of this mission; conversion of heretics and 
 schismatics 5; catechumens 2,870, baptisms of adult 
 catechumens 1,017, of adult pagans in the hospitals 
 or at the point of death, 114; of children of Chris¬ 
 tian parents, 707, of infidels, in danger of death, 
 3,817; confirmation, 1,605; confessions of devotion 
 70,656, annual, 11,029; communions of devotion, 
 193,926, annual, 10,395; extreme unctions, 253, 
 marriages 177, men and boys making retreats, 301, 
 women and girls, 630. 
 
 Chelmno (German, Culm), Diocese of (Cul- 
 mEnsis; cf. C. E., IV-566b), in the regency of 
 Marienwerder, Poland, suffragan of Gniezno. The 
 official residence was at Lobau, but since 1824 the 
 bishop resides at Pelplin. The see is at present 
 (1922) filled by Rt. Rev. Augustin Rosentreter, 
 bom in the diocese in 1844, ordained in 1870, and 
 appointed 23 February, 1899. He is assisted by an 
 auxiliary, Rt. Rev. John Klunder. Appointed 
 titular Bishop of 'Selymbria, 6 July, 1907. The 
 cathedral is at Pelplin, as well as a theological 
 seminary which, in 1909, had 95 students and one 
 boarding house for collegians. The diocese is 
 divided into 26 deaneries; the 1920 statistics credit 
 it with 267 parishes, 36 filial parishes, 502 secular 
 priests of whom 279 are pastors, 835,585 Catholics, 
 'and 716,863 non-Catholics. There are no religious 
 orders of men in the diocese, but there are four 
 congregations of women distributed through 21 
 religious houses. 
 
 Chesterton, Cecil Edward, publicist, b. at Ken¬ 
 sington, England, on 12 November, 1879; d. in 
 the military hospital, Boulogne, France, on 6 
 December, 1918. He was the son of Edward and 
 Marie Chesterton, and the brother of the noted 
 writer, Gilbert Keith Chesterton. After studying 
 at St. Paul’s School he entered the journalistic 
 field in which he soon made his mark. His sympathy 
 with the oppressed classes led him into the Socialist 
 camp and he became a member of the Executive of 
 the Fabian Society. However, he was received into 
 the Church in 1912, and subsequently as editor of 
 the “Eye-Witness” and of its successor “The New 
 Witness,” he was associated with his brother and 
 Hilaire Belloc in an exposure of the corruption of 
 British politicians. In 1917 he married Miss Ada 
 E. Jones (“John K. Prothero”). The previous year 
 he had volunteered as a private in the Highland 
 Light Infantry for service on the Continent; shortly 
 after the Armistice he was carried off by a brief 
 illness resulting from exposure in the trenches. 
 Among his writings are: “The Prussian hath said 
 in his Heart,” “Party and People,” and “Nell 
 Gwynne.” His “History of the United States,” 
 written after a visit to that country during the 
 War, but published after his death, though written 
 with brilliancy and charm was received in the 
 United States as an essay written by an Englishman 
 primarily for Englishmen. 
 
 Cheyenne, Diocese of (Cheyennensis; cf. C. E., 
 III-651c), comprises the State of Wyoming and 
 all the territory of Yellowstone Park, an area of 
 101,262 sq. miles. The first Mass recorded in this 
 territory was celebrated by the Rev. Peter J. De 
 Smet, S. J., on 5 July, 1840, and on 9 August, 1887, 
 the district was erected into the Diocese of Chey¬ 
 enne, Rev. Maurice F. Burke of Chicago, being 
 appointed bishop. At this time the diocese had a 
 Catholic population of about 4,500 and about 300 
 more at the Indian Mission, only 5 secular priests 
 and 1 religious and 8 churches, 1 hospital, 1 
 academy and 2 parochial schools. The new bishop, 
 tfter studying conditions decided that the estab¬ 
 
 lishment of the see had been premature and made 
 an unsuccessful effort to have it suppressed. How¬ 
 ever a few years later (1893), lie was transferred 
 and the see was allowed to remain vacant for sev¬ 
 eral years, its affairs being managed by Very Rev. 
 Hugh Cummiskey, administrator. 
 
 In 1897, on 24 February, a second bishop, Rev. 
 Thomas M. Lenihan was consecrated and during 
 the few years of his administration the new diocese 
 made rapid progress and the state law, taxing prop¬ 
 erty used for religious and educational purposes, 
 was repealed largely through his efforts. Bishop 
 Lenihan died 15 December, 1901, and his successor 
 Rt. Rev. James J. Keane, D. D., was named bishop 
 on 10 June, 1902. Feeling that Wyoming was still 
 but a missionary field he put every effort into the 
 spreading of the Faith, building new churches, ap¬ 
 pealing to Catholics in more prosperous parts of 
 the country for money to carry on his work, and 
 finally succeeding in establishing a fund which has 
 been of permanent benefit in furthering the cause 
 of religion throughout the diocese. He was also 
 responsible for the building of the new cathedral 
 of Cheyenne, which was dedicated on 31 January, 
 1909, and the new bishop’s residence. On 11 August, 
 1911, Bishop Keane was promoted to the archiepis- 
 copal see of Dubuque, and Rt. Rev. Patrick A. Mc¬ 
 Govern, the present bishop, was appointed to the 
 Diocese of Cheyenne on 19 January, 1912, being 
 consecrated 11 April of the same year. 
 
 The following statistics for 1921 show the rapid 
 growth of this diocese: it now comprises a Catholic 
 population of 23,661; secular priests 19, religious 
 priests7; churches 55 including 36 mission churches; 
 resident pastors 19; ecclesiastical students, 13; 1 
 academy; 2 parochial schools; 1 Indian school with 
 50 boys; 1 Indian schools with 51 girls; total stu¬ 
 dents in Catholic schools 506; baptisms; infants, 
 780; adults (converts) 104. 
 
 Chiapas, Diocese of (de Chiapa; cf. C. E., 
 III-652b),in the state of the same name, in Mexico, 
 suffragan of Antequera, with residence at San Cris¬ 
 tobal las Casas. Rt. Rev. Maximino Ruiz; ap¬ 
 pointed to this see 8 July, 1913, was transferred 
 8 March, 1920, and succeeded by the present in¬ 
 cumbent, Rt. Rev. Gerardo Avaya y Diez de 
 Bonilla, b. in Tepetpan 1881, appointed 8 March, 
 1920. By 1922 statistics this diocese comprises 
 32 parishes, 21 secular priests, 6 Brothers, 2 col¬ 
 leges for men with 9 professors and 110 students, 
 2 for girls with 12 professors and 115 students. Four 
 societies are organized among the laity. 
 
 Chiavari, Diocese of (Clavarensis; cf. C. E., 
 III-652c), in the province of Genoa, Northern 
 Italy, suffragan of Genoa. Rt. Rev. Giovanni Gam- 
 beroni, appointed to this see 10 April, 1911, was 
 promoted to Vercelli, 22 March, 1917, and Rt. Rev. 
 Natale Serafino was appointed his successor, on 
 the- same day, but he was permitted to retire 
 4 August following, to enter the house of the 
 Fathers of Cottolengo. The present incumbent 
 (1922), Rt. Rev. Amedeo Casabona, was then ap¬ 
 pointed, 3 November, 1917. 
 
 During the World War thirty-nine clerics in 
 minor orders, and sixty-one priests from this dio¬ 
 cese, entered the army. Of this number eleven 
 were officers, eight military chaplains, five were 
 killed, three wounded and six decorated. The 
 clergy at home were active in all patriotic works, 
 tracing men in the service and those missing, as¬ 
 sisting refugees, etc. By 1922 statistics this diocese 
 comprises 144 parishes, 3 convents of men, 275 
 secular priests, 1 seminary, 80 seminarians, 5 sec¬ 
 ondary schools for boys, 10 for girls and 1 pro- 
 
CHICAGO 
 
 186 
 
 CHICOUTIMI 
 
 fessional school. Charitable institutions such as 
 homes, hospitals and asylums are established in all 
 the principal centers. One society is organized 
 among the clergy and two among the laity; two 
 periodicals, “La Sveglia” and “II popolo,” are pub¬ 
 lished. 
 
 Chicago, Archdiocese of (Chicagiensis; cf. C. 
 E., III-653b), comprises 3;620 sq. miles of the 
 State of Illinois, U. S. A. Most Rev. James Edward 
 Quigley, promoted to this see 8 January, 1903, died 
 10 July, 1915. He was succeeded by the present 
 incumbent, Most Rev. George W. Mundelein, b. 
 in New York, 2 July, 1872, ordained in Rome, 8 
 June, 1895. made chancellor to the Bishop of 
 Brooklyn, prelate of the Holy See, 21 November, 
 1906, appointed titular Bishop of Loryma, 30 June, 
 1909, and auxiliary to the Bishop of Brooklyn, 
 promoted 9 December, 1915, and made an assistant 
 at the pontifical throne, 8 May, 1920. 
 
 The rapid growth of the Archdiocese of Chicago 
 in recent years has been very remarkable. “Chi¬ 
 cago, Yesterday, To-day, To-morrow,” published 
 by the Chicago Association of Commerce, says, 
 “It’s system of charity under the direction of Arch¬ 
 bishop George W. Mundelein and the Associated 
 Catholic Charities, is one of the best and most 
 effective, and its educational plans are as far-reach¬ 
 ing as is the vision of the greatest industrial and 
 commercial leaders.” 
 
 Archbishop Mundelein made a notable departure 
 from precedent, in appointing Jesuit professors for 
 his School of Philosophy, at St. Mary of the Lake, 
 to be opened in September, 1922. This will be the 
 only theological school in the country under dioc¬ 
 esan control, in which Jesuits teach. The presi¬ 
 dent will be Rev. John B. Furay, S.J., former 
 president of Loyola University, Chicago, and the 
 administration will be in charge of diocesan priests 
 from the Quigley Memorial Seminary, Rev. Gerald 
 A. Kealy, D.D., acting as rector and prefect of 
 discipline. The school will open with the first year 
 of philosophy, with an enrollment of fifty students. 
 
 On 21 November, 1921, Bishop Alexander Joseph 
 McGavick, titular Bishop of Marcopolis and aux¬ 
 iliary of Chicago, since 2 December, 1898, was 
 transferred to the see of La Crosse. While in the 
 Chicago diocese Bishop McGavick accomplished a 
 work for the Holy Name Society and for welfare 
 organizations, particularly among the boys of the 
 Big Brother Movement, which is probably unsur¬ 
 passed. He increased the Holy Name Society from 
 thirty-three branches, in 1915, to 200 with a mem¬ 
 bership of 90,000, and some twenty junior branches. 
 The Big Brother Movement was developed so that 
 each parish now has a Big Brother committee, and 
 some 20,000 Catholic boys have been advised and 
 assisted, while 1,200 from other sections of the 
 country have been helped back to their homes. 
 An employment bureau, a legal aid society, and a 
 lecture bureau composed of priests, and profes¬ 
 sional and business men, have been organized, and 
 the interests of the Catholic press, greatly advanced. 
 
 A new auxiliary was appointed to the archdiocese, 
 21 November, *1921, in the person of Rt. Rev. 
 Edward Hoban, appointed, at the same time, titular 
 Bishop of Colonia. He is a native of Chicago, 
 educated in the parochial schools and St. Ignatius 
 College, making his ecclesiastical studies at St. 
 Mary’s Seminary, Balitmore, and the Gregorian 
 University, Rome. At the time of his appointment 
 the new bishop was serving as chancellor of the 
 archdiocese« 
 
 During the past year (1921) the Catholics of 
 Chicago contributed over one million dollars to 
 
 charities here and abroad. Ihe Peter’s pence col¬ 
 lection alone amounting to $130,000, a level, says 
 the archbishop’s pastoral letter, never before at¬ 
 tained by any church in Christendom. The latest 
 census, taken in 1909, counts the Catholic popula¬ 
 tion of the archdiocese at 1,150,000. 
 
 A comparison of some statistics published after 
 the great fire, 1872, with those of 1921, shows the 
 rapid growth of the Church in the city. There 
 are now 227 churches where there were only 28; 
 202 parochial schools against 23; 130,000 pupils in 
 these schools, against 10,000; 643 diocesan priests 
 against 138; 350 priests of religious orders against 
 31. The 1921 statistics also credit the archdiocese 
 with: 111 country churches with resident priests, 
 19 mission stations, 50 chapels, 144 diocesan eccle¬ 
 siastical students, 5 seminaries for religious with 
 206 students, 1 preparatory seminary with 450 
 students, 12 colleges and academies for boys with 
 7,291 students, 25 academies for girls with 5,375 
 students, 22 high schools with 2,172 students, 72 
 country parochial schools with 19,488 pupils, 1 
 school for mutes with 118 pupils, 4 training schools 
 and orphanages for boys with 1,705 pupils, 5 indus¬ 
 trial schools and orphanages for girls with 1,120 
 pupils, 3 infant asylums caring for 267 children, 
 1 working boys’ home with 445 inmates, 3 working 
 girls, homes with 365 inmates, 5 homes for the 
 aged, 18 hospitals, and 2 communities nursing the 
 sick. 
 
 Chicoutimi, Diocese of (Chicoutimiensis; cf. C. 
 E., III-658b), Canada, is under the direction of Rt. 
 Rev. Michel-Thomas Labrecque, appointed 8 April, 
 1892, made an assistant at the pontifical throne 14 
 May, 1917. During recent years the diocesan semi¬ 
 nary and the Cathedral of Chicoutimi were de¬ 
 stroyed by fire, but they have both been replaced 
 by fire-proof buildings. With the death of Mon¬ 
 signor F. X. Belley on 1 October, 1919, Chicoutimi 
 lost a prominent clergyman who had been at one 
 time vicar-general of the diocese. 
 
 A most important event occurred in 1920 when 
 the industrial congress of Chicoutimi, was held 
 from 19-21 July. The success of this congress 
 was largely due to the efforts of Mgr. Lapointe, 
 Abbe Fortin and Abbe Hebert, and a decision was 
 made to form a national confederation of Caholic 
 workingmen of Canada. The object of this con¬ 
 federation is: (1) To establish a central body 
 to lend support to, and to study the interests of 
 different groups of workers affiliated with the con¬ 
 federation. (2) To assist organized Catholic move¬ 
 ments as far as possible by means of an open press 
 and salaried organizers. (3) To render all possible 
 assistance to groups affiliated to the confederation 
 by the foundation of food and credit centers and 
 pensions for the aged, whenever their particular 
 circumstances show them to be deserving, in times 
 of sickness or enforced idleness. This confederation 
 will have representatives in various public organi¬ 
 zations and start negotiations to obtain an annual 
 allotment of money toward its support. The execu¬ 
 tive committee was charged to prepare a constitu¬ 
 tion and by-laws and to submit them on 15 March, 
 1921, to all groups of workers eligible to be affil¬ 
 iated. This constitution will be fully enforced 
 upon its adoption at the next convention. 
 
 At the present time (1921), the diocese com¬ 
 prises 97,500 French Canadian Catholics and has: 
 64 parishes, 69 churches, 10 missions, 1 monastery 
 for men, 7 convents for men and 30 for women, 142 
 secular priests and 17 regulars, 85 brothers, 780 
 religious (women), 1 seminary with 600 students 
 in the higher and 50 in the lower semipary, 15 
 
CHIETI 
 
 187 
 
 CHILE 
 
 
 
 colleges for boys with 28 professors and 1,500 stu¬ 
 dents, 8 academies with 68 teachers and 500 stu¬ 
 dents (girls), 1 normal school with 11 teachers and 
 100 girls, 426 elementary schools with 600 teachers 
 and 28,854 students; the normal school receives 
 financial aid from the Government. There are 3 
 Catholic hospitals and 3 homes in the diocese, 2 
 societies organized among the clergy and several 
 among the laity, and 2 Catholic periodicals are 
 published. 
 
 Chieti, Archdiocese of (Theatensis; cf. C. E., 
 III-659a), in the province of Naples, Southern 
 Italy, with the perpetual administration of the 
 diocese of Vasto (Vastensis). This see was filled 
 by Rt. Rev. Gennaro Costagliola, from 15 April, 
 1901, until his death,-15 February, 1919. He was 
 succeeded by the present (1922) incumbent, Rt. 
 Rev. Nicolas Monterisi, bom in Barletta, 1867, 
 appointed Bishop of Monopoli, 22 August, 1913, 
 promoted in November, 1919. In 1920 this archdio¬ 
 cese counted a Catholic population of 300,500, 115 
 parishes, 263 secular and 32 regular clergy, 90 
 seminarians and 442 churches or chapels. 
 
 Chihuahua, Diocese of (Chihuahuensis; cf. C. 
 E., III-659b), in Mexico, suffragan of Durango. 
 Rt. Rev. Nicolas Gavilan y Echeverria, appointed 
 to this see 20 February, 1902, d. 3 December, 1919, 
 and was succeeded by the present incumbent, Rt. 
 Rev. Antonio Guizar y Valencia, b. in Cotijo, 28 
 December, 1879, appointed 30 July, 1920. During 
 the disasters of 1917, the suffering people of this 
 diocese chose the Patriarch St. Joseph as their 
 special patron and intercessor, and on 9 January, 
 1919, His Holiness Benedict XV confirmed their 
 choice. By 1922 statistics the diocese comprises 31 
 parishes, 117 churches, 120 chapels, 10 shrines, 5 
 of which are dedicated to Our Lady of Guadalupe, 
 
 1 mission, 43 priests, 1 seminary, 25 seminarians, 
 
 2 secondary schools for girls with 20 teachers and 
 280 pupils, 1 asylum for boys and 3 for girls, and 
 1 hospital under construction. The religious com¬ 
 munities established here include: Men: Jesuits, 
 Lazarists, and Dominicans. Women: Servants of 
 the Sacred Heart and of the Poor, and Sisters of 
 Calvary. Various brotherhoods and confraterni¬ 
 ties are organized, the “Pacto Josephino,” among 
 the clergy and 4 syndicates of good works among 
 the laity. A periodical “El Defensor del Obrero,” 
 is published here. 
 
 Chilapa, Diocese of (de Chilapa: cf. C. E., 
 III-659b), comprising the State of Querrero, Mex¬ 
 ico. This diocese erected in 1863, is under the ad¬ 
 ministration of its fourth bishop, Rt. Rev. Francisco 
 Campos y Angeles, born in St. Nicolas de Actopan, 
 Mexico, 1860, entered the seminary of Lulacingo, 
 of which he became rector, appointed Bishop of 
 Tabasco, 7 November, 1897, and transferred 12 
 October, 1907. In 1920 this diocese comprised 
 361,239 Catholics, 64 parishes, 94 priests, 585 
 churches, and 58 chapels. 
 
 Chile (cf. C. E., III-660c).—The area of the 
 country is 289,829 square miles. According to the 
 census of 1920 (15 December), there were in Chile 
 3,754,723 inhabitants, an increase of 505,444 over 
 the census of 1907. This denotes an annual in¬ 
 crease of 1.20% during the last thirteen years. 
 Of the population, 46.6% was urban (1,749,562); 
 53.4% was rural (2,005,161). The proportion of 
 urban population has shown a marked increase from 
 census to census, and reflects the tendency to con¬ 
 centrate in cities. The total number of foreigners 
 included in the census of 1920 was 115,763, as against 
 134,524 in 1909, a decrease of 18,761; the greatest 
 
 decline was among the Peruvians, 15,088 of whom 
 emigrated. They were followed by the Bolivians, 
 numbering 6,011. There are about 100,000 
 Araucanians, 1,550 of whom are in Tierra del 
 Fuego. The largest cities are: Santiago 424,993; 
 Valparaiso 218,465; Concepcion 74,808; Iauiaue 
 47,677; Talca 43,044. ’ 4 4 
 
 Education. Education has been compulsory 
 since 26 August, 1920. There were in 1919, 3,061 
 public primary schools with 320,898 pupils and 
 7,038 teachers; and 293 private primary schools with 
 1,012 teachers and 41,143 pupils; 15 public normal 
 schools with 1,955 pupils and 409 teachers; 90 
 public and 136 private secondary schools with 
 32,598 and 22,295 pupils respectively; 11 public 
 commercial schools with 179 teachers and 2,974 
 pupils. The cost of maintaining the public primary 
 schools in 1919 was £715,138, that of the national 
 normal schools, £98,075, and that of the Govern¬ 
 ment secondary schools, £357,496. An industrial 
 university was opened at Valparaiso and another at 
 Concepcion in 1920. The State University had 
 4,138 matriculated students in 1919. 
 
 Government. —For judicial purposes, there are 
 seven Courts of Appeal, one in each judicial sec¬ 
 tion, in addition to a High Court of Justice in 
 the capital, tribunals of First Instance in the de¬ 
 partmental and subordinate courts in the districts. 
 
 Economic Status— The total area of the agri¬ 
 cultural land is 42,183,663 acres; of forest area, 
 9,495,483 acres; of fruit trees, 276,704 acres; of 
 meadows, 18,393,252 acres. The number of farms 
 in 1919 was 96,794. The principal crops of Chile 
 in 1919 were, wheat, 1,235,400 acres, 11,459,500 cwts; 
 barley, 110,500 acres, 1,596,775 cwts; and beans, 
 109,000 acres, 932,602 cwts. Extensive natural forests 
 are found, the largest being in the province of 
 Valdivia (1,885,406 acres), in Llanquihue (1,406,024 
 acres), and Chiloe (1,188,572 acres). Chile’s chief 
 mineral wealth lies in its nitrate, of which, in 1920, 
 2,606,571 tons were produced and 2,870,809 tons were 
 exported. Chile has almost a complete monopoly 
 of the production of nitrate, and the Government 
 therefore was able to levy a heavy export tax with¬ 
 out directly curtailing the sale of the product. 
 From this tax was drawn 40 per cent of the total 
 revenue of the national Government. The im¬ 
 mediate and direct effect of the war in 1914 was to 
 cut off almost completely the shipment of nitrate, 
 resulting in a sharp decline in the revenue of the 
 Chilean Government. After the first five months, 
 however, the Powers’ demand for nitrates in their 
 munition-making caused prosperity to reign again 
 in Chile, which lasted until the war ceased, and 
 with it munition-making. To provide against the 
 inevitable deficit in the national budget which fol¬ 
 lows a cessation of nitrate export, the Chilean Gov¬ 
 ernment is now considering tax reforms. Chile 
 ranks second in the world production of copper 
 and has an enormous coal output (1,516,524 tons 
 in 1919). 
 
 On 1 January, 1921, the foreign debt amounted 
 to 29,675,080 and the internal debt to 59,794,092 
 pesos. In 1918 Chile had 2,320 manufacturing es¬ 
 tablishments, using raw material to the value of 
 403,707,096 gold pesos, which were manufactured 
 into merchandise to the value of 766,776,872 pesos. 
 The number of workmen employed was 70,920. 
 
 Recent History.— After the declaration of war 
 in Europe in 1914, Chile declared that she would 
 adopt the conventions of the Second International 
 Conference of The Hague relating to the rights 
 and duties of neutrals in time of war, even though 
 she had not ratified them, and as proof ordered 
 all wireless apparatus on all ships to be dismantled. 
 
CHILE 
 
 188 
 
 CHI-LI 
 
 This neutrality was often endangered by the pres¬ 
 ence of belligerent warships in Chilean waters, by 
 the torpedoing of the French ship “Valentine” by 
 the cruiser “Leipzic” and the sinking of the German 
 cruiser “Dresden” on 4 July, 1915, by a British naval 
 division at Juan Fernandez. The latter case caused 
 international complications. On 2 April, 1915, the 
 British squadron appeared in Chilean waters and 
 opened fire on the German cruiser Dresden. 
 Rather than lose his ship the captain of the Dresden 
 blew up his vessel. Chile demanded an apology 
 from Great Britain for the intrusion of the British 
 squadron and its violation of Chilean neutrality. 
 This was granted and accepted, to the intense dis¬ 
 pleasure of Germany, who protested, denying all 
 the allegations in the British note of apology and 
 demanding satisfaction. On 25 May, 1915, Chile 
 signed the A. B. C. treaty in Buenos Aires (see 
 
 Brazil). , _ . ,, 
 
 Chile’s conflict with Peru and Bolivia over the 
 territories of Tacna and Arica still continues. The 
 Treaty of 1883, which took from Peru the depart¬ 
 ment of Tarapaca and provided that Chile’s occupa¬ 
 tion of the provinces of Tacna and Arica was to 
 be temporary and was to terminate, subject to a 
 plebiscite in 1893, has not been carried out as re¬ 
 gards its essential provisions. The conditions of 
 the plebiscite have never been agreeable to both 
 sides and the plebiscite, therefore, has never been 
 carried out. In the meantime Chile has remained 
 in possession of the territory by force of arms. 
 In the Treaty of 1904 Bolivia ceded Antofogasta 
 to Chile, and in return Chile began the construe- 
 tion of a railroad from Arica to La Paz at her own 
 expense ($25,000,000). This railroad was completed 
 in 1913 Peru protested against the construction of 
 this line, saying that it was to cross Tacna, part 
 of the territory subject to a plebiscite decision. 
 This resulted in the suspension of diplomatic rela- 
 tions between Peru and Chile in 1910. After the 
 European War Peru supposed that the League of 
 Nations w’ould annul the Treaty of 1883 and return 
 to Peru all she lost in the war of 1879 (Tarapaca), 
 and Peruvian sympathizers rejoiced at the possi¬ 
 bility of the League’s annulling the treaty of 1904 
 with Chile. This policy tended toward influencing 
 Bolivia against the Chilean project of making a 
 Bolivian port in Tacna and Arica, and instead 
 presented to the Bolivians the expectation of re¬ 
 conquering without effort the rich littoral of Anto¬ 
 fogasta. The movement was resisted by Senor 
 Gutierrez Guerra- of the Bolivian Government, who 
 desired to keep the national faith pledged by the 
 treaty of friendship with Chile. This caused a 
 revolution in Bolivia. The new Government de¬ 
 clared the treaty null and void. This concerted 
 action of Peru and Bolivia to provoke Chile brought 
 on a crisis in 1919. Peru brought the question be¬ 
 fore the League of Nations, which, however, did 
 not desire to engage in treaty revision, fearing to 
 establish dangerous precedents for other countries. 
 It must not be forgotten that Bolivia enjoys in 
 practice all the advantages of having seaports. By 
 the treaty Chile granted her the right to have her 
 own custom houses in the Chilean ports and at 
 present there are Bolivian custom houses in both 
 Arica and Antofogasta. The final settlement of 
 the dispute is expected at the conference to be held 
 in March, 1922, in Washington between the pleni¬ 
 potentiaries of Chile and Peru. 
 
 Religion.— In 1920 the Chilean legation to the 
 Holy See was raised to the rank of embassy. In 
 1916 the Vicariate Apostolic of Magellan (q.v.) 
 was erected from the Chilean territoiy of the for¬ 
 mer Prefecture Apostolic of Southern Patagonia. 
 
 For Catholic statistics see Santiago, Archdiocese 
 of; Concepcion, Diocese of; San Carlos de Ancud, 
 Diocese of; Serena, Diocese of; Tarapaca, Vica¬ 
 riate Apostolic of; Antofogasta, Vicariate Apos¬ 
 tolic of; Araucania, Prefecture Apostolic of. 
 
 Chi-li, Central, Vicariate Apostolic of (Ce-li 
 Centralis), erected 14 February, 1910, comprising 
 the civil Prefectures of Pao-ting-fu and Ychien in 
 China, formerly part of the Vicariate of Northern 
 Chi-li (see C. E., XVI-82). It is entrusted to the 
 Lazarists with the official residence at Pao-ting-fu. 
 The present (1922) vicar apostolic is Rt. Rev. 
 Joseph-Sylvain Fabregues, titular Bishop of Alali, 
 born in Montpellier 1872, ordained 1896, and joined 
 the mission at Northern Chi-li, director of the 
 district of Pao-ting-fu 1905, appointed 22 February, 
 1910. He is the first vicar apostolic of this vicariate. 
 The following statistics show how rapidly the Faith 
 has spread in this territory: in 1880 there were 
 5,463 Catholics; 1890, 7,970; 1899, 12,026; 1902, 
 12,700; 1905, 26,283; 1910, 72,531; 1913, 84,196; 
 and in 1920 out of a total population of 3,000,000, 
 85,836; this growth is particularly remarkable in 
 consideration of a massacre of 2,000 Christians 
 which occurred in this mission in 1900. The 
 statistics of 1920 also credit the vicariate with 37 
 mission stations, 720 villages where a mission is 
 given each year, 61 missionary priests, 140,000 con¬ 
 fessions, and 200,000 communions for the year, 22 
 students in the upper seminary, 85 in the lower 
 seminary, and 60 in the preparatory seminary. In 
 1920 Pope Benedict XV addressed a letter to Bishop 
 Fabregues commending the splendid work he has 
 done in recruiting and training native clergy. 
 
 Chi-li, Eastern, Vicariate Apostolic of (Ce-li 
 orientalis; cf. C. E., III-677b), is one of six 
 vicariates dividing the territory of Chi-li in North¬ 
 ern China. It is under the care of the Lazarist 
 Fathers of Holland, to whom it was entrusted upon 
 its erection in 1899. 
 
 The present vicar apostolic is Rt. Rev. Ernest 
 Francis Geurts, titular Bishop of Rhinocolura, born 
 
 9 December, 1862, ordained at Cheng-Ting 1887, 
 consecrated 4 February, 1900. The episcopal resi¬ 
 dence is Yungpingfu. 
 
 An important event in this diocese w r as the erec¬ 
 tion in 1920 of a higher seminary at Chala near 
 Peking, to be used as a central seminary for the 
 five vicariates of Northern China in charge of the 
 Lazarists: Central, Eastern, Northern, Southwest¬ 
 ern, and Maritime Chi-li. 
 
 By present statistics (1921) this vicariate counts: 
 
 10 parishes, 45 chapels and churches, 224 missions, 
 10 mission stations; 17 regular clergy, 30 Sisters, 1 
 seminary with 31 seminarians, 1 college for boys 
 with 6 teachers and 91 pupils, 1 normal school with 
 3 teachers and 44 students, 74 elementary schools 
 with 75 teachers and 1,102 pupils and 3 orphanages 
 with 55 orphans. The Catholic population num¬ 
 bers 15,600, all Chinese, out of a total population 
 of 4,000,000. 
 
 Chi-li, Maritime (Tien-tsin), Vicariate Apos¬ 
 tolic of (Ce-li maritimus), erected 27 April, 1912, 
 comprising the civil prefecture of Tien-tsin-fu, for¬ 
 merly part of the Vicariate of Northern Chi-li or 
 Peking (see C. E., XVI-82). This vicariate, terri¬ 
 torially one of the smallest, but numerically one 
 of the largest in China, is entrusted to the Lazarists 
 with the episcopal residence at Tien-tsin. Rt. Rev. 
 Paul Dumond, bom in Lyons 1864, ordained 1888, 
 made director of the district of Pao-ting-fu 1898, 
 was appointed titular Bishop of Curubis and first 
 vicar apostolic of this vicariate, 27 April, 1912. 
 
CHI-LI j 
 
 In 1920, upon the creation of the Vicariate of 
 Kiang-si, Bishop Dumond was made its apostolic 
 administrator. The present (1922) administrator 
 of Maritime Chi-li is Rt. Rev. Jean de Vienne de 
 Hautefeuile, titular Bishop of Abrytus and coad¬ 
 jutor at Northern Chi-li. In 1920 this vicariate 
 counted a total population of 2,000,000, of whom 
 38,118 are catechists and 2,000 catechumens. The 
 mission is served by 9 European and 11 native 
 priests. 
 
 Chi-li, Northern or Pekin, Vicariate Apostolic 
 of (Ce-liseptentrionalis; cf. C. E., III-677a ),com¬ 
 prises two prefectures of Choun-tien-fu and Suan- 
 hao-fu in China, and has a Catholic population of 
 300,000, out of a total population of 4,324,175. 
 
 The present vicar apostolic is the Rt. Rev. 
 Stanislaus Francis Jarlin, a Lazarist, b. in the dio¬ 
 cese of Montpellier 20 January, 1856, ordained 
 1889, consecrated titular Bishop of Pharbaetus 29 
 April, 1900, and made coadjutor to Bishop Favier, 
 vicar apostolic of Northern Chi-li, with the right 
 of succession; succeeded as vicar apostolic 4 April, 
 1905. His coadjutor is Rt. Rev. Jean de Vienne de 
 Hautefeuille, titular bishop of Abrytus and adminis¬ 
 trator of Maritime Chi-li. The cathedral and epis¬ 
 copal residence are at Pekin. 
 
 The various religious orders established in this 
 territory now (1921), besides the Lazarists, who 
 have 19 European and 23 Chinese priests and 2 
 brothers, are: the Cistercians with 23 priests, 22 
 choir religious and 45 brothers, the Marist Brothers 
 with 22 Europeans and 26 Chinese, the Daugh¬ 
 ters of Charity with 5 homes and 58 religious, 
 Franciscan Missionaries of Mary with 1 house and 
 9 religious, Daughters of St. Joseph with 27 houses 
 and 70 native religious. In addition to the mis¬ 
 sionary Fathers there are 2 European secular priests 
 and 69 Chinese; 62 parishes, 69 European churches, 
 465 public chapels, and 69 oratories; 1 higher 
 seminary with 37 students (philosophical and theo¬ 
 logical), 1 lower seminary with 131 Latin students, 
 
 1 normal school with 68 students, 9 catechism 
 schools with 182 pupils, 8 schools for European 
 sciences and languages with 1,022 pupils, 6 Chinese 
 schools w r ith 114 pupils, 554 schools for boys with 
 12,567 pupils, 258 schools for girls with 7,756 pupils, 
 927 schools for catechumens with 19,936 adult pupils 
 and 1529 children. 
 
 There are 3 hospitals and in addition to these 
 care is given to the sick in their homes and through 
 9 dispensaries, 1 home for the aged and 3 asylums 
 for orphan girls and 1 nursery. None of these in¬ 
 stitutions receive any aid from the Chinese gov¬ 
 ernment, but the French government allots them 
 a certain sum annually. The mission has estab¬ 
 lished a very active press which publishes a num¬ 
 ber of religious and educational books in Chinese 
 and Latin, not only for this mission but for many 
 of the others in China. The “Catholic Bulletin of 
 Pekin” and the “Sacerdos in Sinis” are also pub¬ 
 lished, as well as a Catholic Directory “Catholic 
 Missions of China and Japan,” published annually, 
 in French, since 1916. A recent event of interest in 
 the vicariate, was the conversion of His Excellency 
 Rene Lou-Tseng-Tsian, former Minister Plenipo¬ 
 tentiary, and since 1912 serving the government in 
 various capacities such as Minister of Foreign Af¬ 
 fairs, Premier, and delegate and high commissioner 
 at the conference of Versailles. The city of Pekin 
 has entrusted the Daughters of Charity with the 
 administration of its largest hospital, giving it the 
 name of “Central Hospital,” and religious services 
 are permitted here just as in a religious institution. 
 Since the revolution the Bishop is received once a 
 
 89 CHI-LI 
 
 year by the President of the Republic and accorded 
 the same honors as a member of the diplomatic 
 Corps, but given a private conference. During 
 the World War, out of all the missionaries who 
 were mobilized only a few were called to France, 
 and of this number none were killed but several 
 wounded; two were decorated with “Croix de 
 Guerre,” and “Legion d’Honneur ” 
 
 Chi-li, Southeast, Vicariate Apostolic of (Ce-li 
 Meridio-orientalis), comprises the 5 prefectures of 
 Hokienfu, Scheuchow, Kichow, Kwangpinfu and 
 Tamingfu and 37 sub-prefectures. It is entrusted 
 to the Jesuit Fathers, the present vicar apostolic 
 being the Rt. Rev. Henri Lecroart, titular Bishop of 
 Anchialos. 
 
 The Catholic population at present (1921) num¬ 
 bers 105,291 baptized Chinese and 45,000 catechu¬ 
 mens out of a total population of 8,300,000. There 
 are 1,085 parishes and missions, 114 churches, 761 
 public chapels and oratories, 2 convents for men, 
 24 secular and 55 regular clergy, 38 Sisters, 1 semi¬ 
 nary with 20 seminarians, 2 colleges for men with 
 30 teachers and 420 students, 3 colleges for girls 
 with 15 teachers and 135 pupils, 2,085 elementary 
 schools with 2,344 teachers and 40,134 pupils. The 
 various charitable institutions include 40 homes of 
 different kinds, 5 asylums, and 3 refuges. There 
 is a Catholic press which publishes the necessary 
 Catholic literature. 
 
 Chi-li, Southwest, Vicariate Apostolic of (Ce-li 
 Meridio occidentals), is entrusted to the care of 
 the Lazarist Fathers, the present vicar apostolic 
 being Rt. Rev. Hubert-Frangois Schraven, titular 
 Bishop of Amyclsea, who came to the see as suc¬ 
 cessor to Bishop de Vienne de Hautefeuille (trans¬ 
 ferred 1919), who had been made coadjutor to 
 Bishop Coqset (1915) and succeeded him as vicar 
 (1917) when he was transferred to Kiang-si. The 
 episcopal residence is at Chengtingfu. Within recent 
 years the vicariate has lost 8 of its European mis¬ 
 sionaries, 5 of these having died during an epidemic 
 of typhoid in 1917, which also took 13 of the native 
 missionaries. This epidemic was brought on by the 
 great flood which occurred in 1916, and was followed 
 in 1920 by a severe drought which brought famine 
 to over 20,000,000 people. During these calamities 
 the missionaries took an active part in helping the 
 afflicted and their w r ork went far toward making 
 them better known and destroying the existing 
 prejudice against them, and to this they attribute 
 the remarkable increase in the number of catechu¬ 
 mens (20,000 in all) during the present year, an 
 increase of 4,000 to 5,000 on previous years. 
 
 In addition to the Lazarists, who number 17 
 European and 21 native priests and 3 brothers, the 
 other religious communities established are: Paulist 
 Sisters (with 46 members), Daughters of Charity 
 (26), and Josephine Sisters (124). By present 
 statistics (1921) there are 21 native secular priests, 
 17 parishes, 86 churches, 484 public chapels, 88 
 oratories, 926 mission stations, 1 higher seminary 
 with 28 students, 1 lower seminary with 100 students, 
 
 2 normal schools with 116 students, 1 school for 
 foreign languages w T ith 35 pupils, 18 native schools 
 with 646 pupils, 143 elementary schools for boys 
 with 3,777 pupils, and 98 for girls with 4,943 pupils. 
 Among the charitable institutions are 12 asylums 
 with 715 children, 5 farms and workhouses with 
 72 inmates, 4 workshops with 654 inmates, 3 orphan¬ 
 ages for boys with 180 orphans, and 4 for girls 
 with 656 orphans, 2 hospitals for men with 1,194 
 patients, 2 for women with 708 patients, 2 homes 
 for aged men with 163 inmates and 2 for aged 
 women with 135 inmates. 
 
CHINA 
 
 CHINA 
 
 190 
 
 China (cf. C. E., III-663b) Area and Popula¬ 
 tion _The Chinese Republic, situated m Eastern 
 Asia, includes China proper or the Eighteen Prov¬ 
 inces (She-pa-sheng), the so-called New Dominion 
 of Sinkiang (including East lurkestan), Man¬ 
 churia, Outer Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and 1 ibet, 
 with a total area of 3,913,560 square miles, of which 
 China proper extends over 1,532,420 square miles. 
 These figures are given by the Government Gazette 
 (27 February, 1911), which estimates the total popu- 
 lation at 320,650,000. The “Almanach de* Gotha 
 (1914) and the “Statesmans Year-Book (1921) gi\e 
 for the Eighteen Provinces an estimated population 
 of 325,817,760 and 302,110,000 respectively. The 
 population of each province 1S as ^Hgws: Chi-h, 
 32,571,000; Shan-tung, 29,600,000; Shan-si 60700,- 
 000; Ho-nan, 25,600,00; Kiang-su, 17,300,000; Ngan- 
 hwei, 17,300,000; Kiang-si 14,500,000; Che-kiang 
 17,000,000; Fu-kien, 13,100,000; Hu-pe 24,900,000, 
 Ilu-nan, 23,600,000; Kwang-tung, 27,700,000; Kwang- 
 si, 6,500,000; Yun-nan, 8,500,000; Kwei-chou 11 " 
 300,000; Shen-si, 8,800,000; Kan-su, 5,000,000, 
 Sze-ch’wan, 23,000,000. 
 
 Government.— The government of China is re¬ 
 publican in form. The source of all executive 
 powers is the president (elected for five years, 
 and eligible for one re-election), who promulgates 
 the laws, issues orders for their execution, is com¬ 
 mander-in-chief of the army and navy, and appoints 
 all civil and military officials. If he dles in <?:Ihce 
 he is succeeded by the vice-president. The National 
 Assembly, the legislative branch of the Govern¬ 
 ment, is made up of a Senate (Tsan, I Y uan) and 
 a House of Representatives (Chung I Yuan), lhe 
 Cabinet is composed of a Premier ( Kuo W uTsung 
 Li) and the ministers of nine executive depart¬ 
 ments, or Ministries (Pu) of Foreign Affairs (R ai 
 Chiao), Interior (Nei Wu), Finance (Tsai Cheng), 
 War (Lu Chun), Marine (Hai Chun), Justice (Ssu 
 Fa), Education (Chiao Yu), Agriculture and Com¬ 
 merce (Nung Shang), and Communications (Chiao 
 Tung). Eight councillors are attached to the Cab- 
 inet Office, also a number of semi-mdependent 
 bureaus, as the Bureaus of Laws, of Statistics, of 
 Printing, the Civil Service Bureau, etc Chiang 
 Chun Fu is a military advisory board of the Presi¬ 
 dent The Central Salt Administration was or¬ 
 ganized in 1913, comprising a Chief Inspectorate of 
 salt revenues under a Chinese chief inspector 
 
 (Tsung Pan) and a foreign associate chief inspector 
 
 (Hui Pan). The Revenue Council (Shut Wu Chu), 
 formed in 1906, supervis 6 the maritime customs 
 through the foreign Inspectorate General of Cus¬ 
 toms at Peking and the Chinese superintendents ° 
 customs at the different ports. The General Staff 
 is organized on the same basis as a ministry under 
 a Chief of Staff. The Supreme Court, is the highest 
 judicial tribunal in the country. The Administra¬ 
 tive Court (P’ing Cheng Yuan) tries the impeach¬ 
 ment of officials. The Department of Tibetan and 
 Mongolian Affairs (Meng Tsang Yuan) has charge 
 of the affairs of the outlying Chinese territories of 
 
 Mongolia and Tibet. 
 
 At the beginning of the Republic many of the 
 provinces under their military governors were slql- 
 ping from the control of the Central Government. 
 In 1914 a new system of provincial administration 
 was promulgated. In each province there is a cm 
 governor (Seng Chang) , appointed by the presiden , 
 and controlling the civil officials, police, and militi . 
 He also exercises direct control over the lesser 
 territorial officials in the province, the Taoyms 
 and district magistrates. The military 
 (Tu Chun) has authority over military matters, 
 subject to the orders of the president, the Ministry 
 
 of War, and General Staff. A special envoy for 
 foreign affairs (Wai Chiao Pu Te Pai Chiao) is 
 stationed in each province to conduct the relations 
 with foreigners. The Chief of the Department of 
 Finance supervises the collection of taxes. There 
 are also the Departments of Education aind In¬ 
 dustry. The chief judge of the Higher Court (Kao 
 Teng Shen P’an Ting) is the principal judicial 
 authority in the province. Each province is divided 
 into a number of large circuits, varying between 
 two and seven, and called Tao, each under the 
 jurisdiction of an official, called a Taoyin, who acts 
 under the supervision of the governor, of the 
 province. These circuits are subdivided into dis¬ 
 tricts (Hien), authority over which is vested in 
 district magistrates, also subject to the governor. 
 Rival factions within the Republic during recent 
 years have united under the leadership of the mili¬ 
 tary governors, whose power in their respective 
 spheres has thus become supreme. The Unification 
 Mandate, issued in 1920, attempted to restore cen¬ 
 tral control. , , 
 
 Calendar.— According to a resolution passed by 
 the Tze Cheng Yuan on 20 November, 1911, China 
 adopted the western calendar. The old method of 
 reckoning dates has not been entirely abolished in 
 the provinces, but all official documents are marked 
 according to the European calendar. 
 
 Education.— Great progress has been made in 
 education in China since the change in the educa¬ 
 tional system in 1905, and especially of recent years. 
 A phonetic script system, invented in 1913, serves 
 to unify the spoken dialects, help. the study of 
 Chinese characters, and educate the illiterate. The 
 Board of Education supervises higher . education, 
 and primary education is under provincial control. 
 Schools have been established in every town, and 
 an attempt has been made to make primary educa¬ 
 tion compulsory. Thirty-four technical colleges and 
 six higher normal schools have been founded, lhe 
 Peking Government University, completely reor¬ 
 ganized in 1917, has 1,500 students and 90 teachers. 
 There are many missionary schools and colleges. 
 The extension of medical science in recent years 
 is noteworthy. Since 1900 China has sent about 
 400 students to be educated in the United States, 
 a special preparatory institution in Peking having 
 been established. In 1920 there w T ere 175 students 
 in the United States receiving support from the 
 Chinese government, 168 in Europe, and 1,241 in 
 Japan. There were altogether 1,600 Chinese 
 students in the United States. The total number 
 of schools in China in 1919 was 134,000, with 5,500,- 
 
 000 students. . 
 
 Religion.— The native religions of China are 
 Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. Proposals 
 to make Confucianism the state religion have tailed, 
 though it is the basis of ethical teaching m national 
 education. The Constitution accords freedom of 
 worship to the people. In an audience S iv e n *° 
 the Bishop of Peking on 26 February, 1912, the 
 president assured full religious liberty to all, and 
 the abolition of old disabilities. A Presidential 
 Mandate of 30 August, 1918, appointed the Minister 
 of the Interior to reverently perform, m behalf ot 
 the president, the ceremonies connected with the 
 worship of Confucius. . 
 
 Mohammedans are numerous m China, but ac¬ 
 curate statistics for them are unavailable. Accord¬ 
 ing to Broomhall there are in China 8,500,000 
 Mussulmans, of whom 3,500,000 are in Kan-su and 
 over 1,000,000 in Yun-nan. D’Ollone brings the 
 total down to 5,000,000. The Chinese Year Book 
 (1919) gives from 15,000,000 to 20,000,000. Accord¬ 
 ing to the last source there are 600 Jews in China. 
 
CHINA 
 
 101 
 
 CHINA 
 
 The Russian Ecclesiastical Mission in 1918 con¬ 
 sisted of a monastery, a hermitage, a nunnery, 5 
 convents, and 32 churches, with 5,587 baptized 
 Chinese adherents. The bishop is resident at 
 Peking. 
 
 Protestant missions date from 1807 and at various 
 times no less than 138 societies have had representa¬ 
 tives in China. According to the “World Statistics 
 of Christian Missions” in 1916 there were 108 
 Protestant missionary societies active in China, with 
 a total foreign staff of 5,750 and a total native staff 
 of 15,680; 4,082 organized churches and 4,037 other 
 places where regular services were held; 257,431 
 communicants, 77,925 baptized non-communicant 
 adults and children, 114,525 others under Chris¬ 
 tian instruction; 3,003 Sunday schools with 166,054 
 teachers and pupils. Attached to Protestant mis¬ 
 sions in 1915 were 24 colleges, 120 normal and 
 training schools, 29 theological schools, 216 middle 
 schools, 5,212 elementary schools, and 386 hospitals 
 and dispensaries. In 1915 the publications of the 
 Chinese agencies of the three Bible societies (British 
 and Foreign, American, and th J e National Society 
 of Scotland) amounted to 6,301,522 copies of the 
 whole Bible or portions thereof. Of these 2,875,000 
 are in Mandarin, 265,000 in simple Wen-li, and 
 98,000 in classical Chinese. 
 
 Catholic Missions .—By decree of Pope Leo XIII, 
 23 June, 1876, China was divided into five ecclesias¬ 
 tical regions, which are made up of the following 
 vicariates apostolic. 
 
 First Region.—In the Chi-li province: (1) South¬ 
 eastern Chi-li, erected 1856; under the care of the 
 Jesuits; residence, Chang-kia-chwang, in the Prefec¬ 
 ture of Hokien; vicar apostolic, Henri Lecroart, 
 titular Bishop of Anchialos. (2) Northern Chi-li, 
 erected 1856; under the Lazarists; residence, 
 Peking; vicar apostolic, Stanislas Jarlin, titular 
 Bishop of Pharbaetus; coadjutor, Jean de Vienne, 
 titular Bishop of Abrytus. (3) Southwestern Chi-li, 
 erected 1856; under the Lazarists; residence, Cheng- 
 ting; vicar apostolic, Hubert-Frangois Schraven, 
 titular Bishop of Amyclaea. (4) Eastern Chi-li, 
 erected 1899; under the Lazarists;’residence, Yung- 
 ping; vicar apostolic, Ernest Francis Geurts, titular 
 Bishop of Rhinocolura. (5) Central Chi-li, erected 
 1910; under the Lazarists; residence, Pao-ting; vicar 
 apostolic, Joseph Fabregues, titular Bishop of Alalis. 
 (6) Maritime Chi-li, erected 1912; under the 
 Lazarists; residence, Tien-tsin; vicar apostolic, Paul 
 Dumond, titular Bishop of Curubis. In the Ho-nan 
 province: (7) Northern Ho-nan, erected 1869; 
 under the Foreign Missions of Milan; residence, 
 Wei-hwei; vicar apostolic, Martin Chiolino, titular 
 Bishop of Calama. In Manchuria: (8) Southern 
 Manchuria, erected 1838; under the Foreign Mis¬ 
 sions of Paris; residence, Mukden; vicar apostolic, 
 Felix-Marie Choulet, titular Bishop of Zela. (9) 
 Northern Manchuria, erected 1898; under the For¬ 
 eign Missions of Paris; residence, Kirin; vicar apos¬ 
 tolic, Pierre-Marie Lalouyer, titular Bishop of 
 Rhaphansea; coadjutor, Auguste Ernest Peter Gas- 
 pais, titular Bishop of Canopus. In Mongolia: 
 (10) Eastern Mongolia, erected 1883; under the 
 Missionaries of Scheutveld (near Brussels); resi¬ 
 dence, Sung-hui-tsoei-tze; vicar apostolic, Conrad 
 Abels, titular Bishop of Lagania. (11) Central 
 Mongolia, erected 1883; under the Missionaries of 
 Scheutveld; residence, Si-wan-tze; vicar apostolic, 
 Jerome Van Aertselaer, titular Bishop of Zarai. 
 (12) Southwestern Mongolia, erected 1883; under 
 the Missionaries of Scheutveld; residence, Eul-she- 
 sze-king-ti; vicar apostolic, Louis Van Dyck, titular 
 Bishop of Abbir. 
 
 Second Region.—(1) Northern Kan-su. ere^d 
 13 * 
 
 1878; under the Missionaries of Scheutveld; resi¬ 
 dence, Liang-chou; vicar apostolic, Geoffrey Frede- 
 rix, titular Bishop of Thagaste. (2) Southern 
 Kan-su (Prefecture Apostolic), erected 1905; under 
 the Missionaries of Scheutveld; residence, Ts’in- 
 chou; prefect apostolic, Constantin Daems. (3) I-li 
 or Kuldja (Mission), erected in 1888; under the 
 Missionaries of Scheutveld; residence, Sui-ting; 
 superior of the mission, Joseph Hoogers. (4) North¬ 
 ern Shen-si, erected 1844; under the Franciscans; 
 residence, Yen-an-fou; vicar apostolic, Celestin 
 Ibanez y Aparicio, titular Bishop of Bagi. (5) South¬ 
 ern Shen-si, erected 1887; under the priests from the 
 Seminary of Sts. Peter and Paul, Rome; residences, 
 Ku-lu-pa and Hanchung-fu; vicar apostolic, Antonio 
 Capettini, titular Bishop of Evaria. (6) Central 
 Shen-si, erected 1911; under the Franciscans; resi¬ 
 dence, Si-ngan-fu; vicar apostolic, Eugene Massi, 
 titular Bishop of Jaffa. (7) Northern Shan-si, 
 erected 1844; under the Franciscans; residence, 
 Tai-yuan; vicar apostolic, Agapito ‘Augusto Fio- 
 rentini, titular Bishop of Rusaddir. (8) Southern 
 Shan-si, erected 1890; under the Franciscans; resi¬ 
 dence, Lu-ngan; vicar apostolic, Albert Oderic Tim- 
 mer, titular Bishop of Drusipara. (9) Northern 
 Shan-tung, erected 1839; under the Franciscans; 
 residence, Tsi-nan; vicar apostolic, Adalbert 
 Schmucker, titular Bishop of Elearchia. (10) Eastern 
 Shan-tung, erected 1894; under the Franciscans; 
 residence, Che-fu; vicar apostolic, Adeodat Wittner, 
 titular Bishop of Miletus. (11) Southern Shan¬ 
 tung, erected 1885; under the Society of the Divine 
 Word of Steyl; residence, Yen-chou; vicar apostolic, 
 August Henninghaus, titular Bishop of Hypaepa. 
 
 Third Region.—(1) Eastern Che-kiang, erected 
 1696; reestablished 1846; under the Lazarists; resi¬ 
 dence, Ning-po; vicar apostolic, Paul-Marie Rey- 
 naud, titular Bishon of Fussola. (2) Western 
 Che-kiang, erected 1910; under the Lazarists; resi¬ 
 dence, Hang-chow; vicar apostolic, Paul Faveau, 
 titular Bishop of Tamassus. (3) Southern Ho-nan. 
 erected 1882; under the Foreign Missions of Milan; 
 residence, Nan-yang; vicar apostolic, Flaminius 
 Bellotti, titular Bishop of Sufetula. (4) Western 
 Ho-nan, erected 1906; under the Congregation of 
 St. Francis Xavier of Parma; residence, Siang- 
 cheng; vicar apostolic, Lodovico Calza, titular 
 Bishop of Termessus. (5) Eastern Ho-nan, erected 
 1916; under the Foreign Missions of Milan; resi¬ 
 dence, Kai-feng-fu; vicar apostolic, Noe Tacconi, 
 titular Bishop of Aradus. (6) Southern Hu-nan, 
 erected 1856; under the Franciscans; residence, 
 Heng-chou; vicar apostolic, Pellegrino Luigi Mon- 
 daini, titular Bishop of Svnaus. (7) Northern 
 Hu-nan, erected 1879; under the Augustinians; resi¬ 
 dence, Li-chu; vicar apostolic, Angelo Diego y 
 Carbajal, titular Bishop of Caloe. (8) Northwestern 
 Hu-pe, erected 1870; under the Franciscans; resi¬ 
 dence, Lao-ho-kou; pro-vicar apostolic, Fr. Ermene- 
 gild Ricci. (9) Southwestern Hu-pe, erected 1870; 
 under the Franciscans; residence, Ichang; vicar 
 apostolic, Modestus Everaerts, titular Bishop of 
 Tadama. (10) Eastern Hu-pe, erected 1870; under 
 the priests of the Irish Maynooth Mission; resi¬ 
 dences, Wuchang and Hankow; vicar apostolic, 
 Gratien Gennaro, titular Bishop of Jericho. (11) 
 Kiang-nan or Nanking, erected 1660; reestablished 
 1856; under the Jesuits; residence, Shanghai; vicar 
 apostolic, Prosper Paris, titular Bishop of Silandus. 
 (12) Kiu-kiang (formerly Northern Kiang-si), 
 erected 1696; reestablished 1838; under the Lazar¬ 
 ists; residence, Kiu-Kiang; vicar apostolic, Louis 
 Fatiguetj titular Bishop of Aspendus. (13) Yii- 
 Kiang, formerly Fu-Chow (formerly Eastern 
 Kiang-si), erected 1885; under the Lazarists; resi- 
 
 
CHINA 
 
 192 
 
 CHINA 
 
 dence, Fu-chow; vicar apostolic, Louis Clerc- 
 Renaud, titular Bishop of Elea. Southern Kiang-si 
 (erected 1869) divided in 1920 into two vicariates 
 as follows: (14) Ki-anfu; under the Lazarists; resi¬ 
 dence, Ki-anfu; vicar apostolic, Nicholas Ciceri, 
 titular Bishop of Dausara. (15) Kan-chow, under 
 the Lazarists; residence, Kan-chow; administrator, 
 Paul Dumond, vicar apostolic of Maritime Chi-li. 
 
 Fourth Region, under the Foreign Missions of 
 Paris _(1) Kwei-chou, erected 1708; reestablished 
 1847; residence, Kwei-yang; vicar apostolic, Fran- 
 gois-Lazare Seguin, titular Bishop of Pinara. 
 (2) Northwestern Sze-chwan, erected 1696; resi¬ 
 dence, Cheng-tu; vicar apostolic, Jacques-Victor 
 Rouchouse, titular Bishop of iEgea. (3) Eastern 
 Sze-chwan, erected 1860; residence Chung-king; 
 vicar apostolic, Celestin-Felix Chouvellon, titular 
 Bishop of Dansara. (4) Southern Sze-chwan, erected 
 1860; residence, Sui-fu; vicar apostolic, Marie-Pierre 
 Fayolle, titular Bishop of Lampa. (5) Yun-nan, 
 erected 1702;* reestablished 1840; residence, Yun¬ 
 nan; vicar apostolic, Charles-Marie de Gorostarzu, 
 titular Bishop of Aila. (6) Tibet, erected 1846; 
 residence, Khanting; vicar apostolic, Pierre-Philippe 
 Giraudeau, titular Bishop of Thynias. (7) Kien- 
 tchang, erected 1910; residence, Ning-yuan-fu; vicar 
 apostolic, Joseph Bourgain, titular Bishop of 
 Archela'is. 
 
 Fifth Region.—(1) Fu-kien, erected 1696; under 
 the Dominicans; residence, Fu-chou; vicar apos¬ 
 tolic, Francis Aguirre, titular Bishop of Bothrys. 
 (2) Amoy, erected 1883; under the Dominicans; 
 residence, Amoy; vicar apostolic, Emmanuel Prat, 
 titular Bishop of Mactaris. (3) Hong-Kong, erected 
 1874; under the Foreign Missions of Milan; resi¬ 
 dence, Hong-Kong; vicar apostolic, Domenico 
 Pozzoni, titular Bishop of Tavia. (4) Canton (until 
 1914 prefecture of Kwang-tung), erected 1858; 
 under the Foreign Missions of Paris; residence, 
 Canton; vicariate vacant. (5) Western Kwang- 
 tung, erected 1920; under the Foreign Missions of 
 Paris; residence, Fort-Bayard; vicar apostolic, 
 Auguste Gauthier, titular Bishop of Doberus. 
 
 (6) Swatow, erected 1914; under the Foreign Mis¬ 
 sions of Paris; residence, Swatow; vicar apostolic, 
 Adolphe Rayssac, titular Bishop of Cotiseum. 
 
 (7) Kwang-si, erected 1875; under the Foreign 
 Missions of Paris; residence, Nan-ning; vicar apos¬ 
 tolic, Mauriee-Frangois Ducoeur, titular Bishop of 
 Barbalissus. (8) Shiu-kow, erected from Canton 
 in 1920; under the Salesians; residence, Shiu-kow; 
 vicar apostolic, Aloysius Versiglia, titular Bishop of 
 Carystus. (9) Macao (Diocese), erected 1516. The 
 diocese, suffragan of Goa, India, includes the Portu¬ 
 guese colony of Macao, the prefecture of Chaoking 
 and sub-prefecture of Siangchan in China; while 
 outside of China it includes the Island of Timor 
 and the Portuguese missions of Malacca and Singa¬ 
 pore. The vicar capitular is Mgr. Jose da Costa 
 Nunes with residence at Macao, a city of 40,000 
 opposite Hong Kong. 
 
 Religious Orders .—At the outbreak of the Euro¬ 
 pean War many of the missionaries of French 
 orders and missionary societies returned to France. 
 It is estimated that one-third of the French mis¬ 
 sionaries at this time were mobilized. We can 
 realize the effect of this when we remember that 
 the majority of the missionaries in China at the 
 outbreak of the war were of French nationality. 
 The Jesuits, Vincintians, and Foreign Missionaries 
 of Paris, who hold between them 25 of the 53 
 vicariates into which China is divided, are almost 
 entirely French. This depletion of missionary 
 ranks, owing to war and its after effects, has been 
 the incentive in other countries for many far- 
 
 reaching missionary movements. Since 1910 no 
 less than eleven new organizations have been ap¬ 
 pointed to missions in China. These particularly 
 come from America and Ireland. From America 
 we have the Foreign Mission Society of Maryknoll, 
 the Society of the Divine Word, the Chinese Mis¬ 
 sion Society of Omaha, the Dominicans, the Vin¬ 
 centians, and the Passionists. From Ireland have 
 come the Fathers of the Society for Chinese Mis¬ 
 sions and the Christian Brothers of Ireland. In 
 
 1920 the American Dominicans were appointed by 
 the Holy See to a mission in the Province of 
 Fukien. This province is under the care of Spanish 
 Dominicans who set aside a portion of their terri¬ 
 tory for the American province. The American 
 Vincentians took over a new mission in Southern 
 Kiang-si in 1921, and Mgr. Dumond, formerly Vicar 
 Apostolic of T’ien-tsin, was appointed as vicar 
 apostolic. The Passionists were appointed to North¬ 
 west Hu-nan in 1921. In 1918 the first band of 
 missionaries from the Foreign Mission Society of 
 Maryknoll reached China, following their appoint¬ 
 ment by the Holy See to a section of the Province 
 of Kwangtung. Recently they obtained further 
 territory in the Province of Kiang-si with mission 
 headquarters at Wu-chou on the borders of the 
 two provinces. The Chinese Mission Society re¬ 
 ceived its appointment to the Province of Hu-pe 
 in 1919 and the following year its first band of mis¬ 
 sionaries reached China. The headquarters of 
 the Society are at Han-yang, in the Province of 
 Hu-pe. The Society of the Divine Word was ap¬ 
 pointed to a new vicariate in Kansu during 1921 
 as a compensation for the missions they lost dur¬ 
 ing the war. The American province of the Society 
 with headquarters at Techny, Ill., sent its first 
 missionaries to Shan-tung in 1919. In addition to 
 these missionary forces we must also add the Irish 
 Vincentians who have opened schools in Pekin, and 
 two American secular priests who have gone to 
 engage in educational work in the Vicariate of 
 Eastern Ho-nan under the direction of the Foreign 
 Missionaries of Milan. 
 
 Two orders of Sisters opened institutes in China 
 during 1920 and 1921. In 1920 the Sisters of Divine 
 Providence of St. Mary’s of the Woods, Ind., sent 
 six Sisters to open schools in the Vicariate of 
 Eastern Ho-nan. The following year the first band 
 of the Missionary Sisters of St. Dominic, organized 
 by the Foreign Mission Society of Maryknoll, New 
 York, reached China and will work in the missions 
 of the Society in Kwang-tung and Kiang-si. In 
 
 1921 the Christian Brothers of Ireland arrived at 
 Han-yang, Hu-pe. This order has taken over the 
 educational work for the Chinese Mission Society 
 in the Province of Hu-pe. The China Mission 
 College at Almonte, Canada, sent its first mis¬ 
 sionaries to Kwei-chou in 1919. 
 
 The native orders of men are the Paulists and 
 the Brothers of the Sacred Heart. Two unsuccess¬ 
 ful attempts have been made in the last half cen¬ 
 tury to establish the Congregation of the Mother 
 of God. The first was made by Mgr. Languillat, 
 who established the Congregation of St. Joseph. 
 This was to be a native order of catechists and 
 teaching brothers. It was unsuccessful and the few 
 brothers who remained after its dissolution were 
 received into the Congregation of the Mother of 
 God, then in its infancy. The latter congregation 
 was founded by Mgr. Gamier at Nan-king. In 
 1909 this order was united with the Marist Brothers 
 by Mgr. Paris, Vicar Apostolic of Kiangnan. The 
 union lasted three years, and difficulties arose. The 
 Marists believed these difficulties to arise from a 
 difference in spirit and training and required all 
 
CHINA 
 
 193 
 
 CHINA 
 
 the members of the old congregation to make their 
 novitiate over again under the Marist rule. This 
 ruling was refused by all the members except 
 thirty-six, who accepted. The others left the com¬ 
 munity and went back into the world. The Con¬ 
 gregation of the Mother of God was dissolved, but 
 is now again under consideration for reorganiza¬ 
 tion. The Paulist Institute was founded by Mgr. 
 Bruguiere, Vicar Apostolic of Southwestern Chi-li, 
 in 1894 as a teaching order for his vicariate. This 
 order still exists with its motherhouse at Cheng- 
 ting-fu, and numbers at present thirty-five religious. 
 The Brothers of the Sacred Heart were founded 
 in Eastern Mongolia in 1911. This congregation is 
 entirely religious with three vows. The members 
 take vows for a period of five years, after which 
 they may renew them for a further period of five 
 years, then for ten years, and after this latter 
 period they are admitted to perpetual vows. At 
 present they number sixteen professed brothers. 
 They wear a Chinese costume of black material. 
 
 The native orders of women have made far 
 more progress than native orders of men. The 
 men are usually absorbed by foreign missionary 
 orders while the native women have developed 
 their own organizations. It is a common thing in 
 China to find women making vows of virginity in 
 early life, as in the early Church. These women 
 live in their own homes and sometimes adopt the 
 rule of some community as far as possible. The 
 Community of Chinese Virgins in Zechewan was 
 the first attempt to organize a native Sisterhood. 
 They do not live in community, but scattered 
 among the Christians whom they instruct. The 
 Chinese Virgins of Tibet follow a rule drawn up 
 by Mgr. Giraudeau, and live in community. The 
 Religious of the Sacred Heart of Mary were founded 
 in 1858 in Northern Manchuria and have made 
 great progress and rendered many services to the 
 missions of Manchuria during the last half century. 
 After a novitiate of three years they devote them¬ 
 selves to teaching and works of mercy. The mother- 
 house of the order, is at Siaopakiatze, Manchuria. 
 The mother-house is elected annually. At present 
 this congregation numbers 105 members, including 
 novices. The Sisters of St. Joseph were estab¬ 
 lished after the persecutions of 1872 by Mgr. Dela- 
 place. Vicar Apostolic of Pekin, and the first postu¬ 
 lants were trained by the Daughters of Charity. 
 They have one or two establishments in almost 
 every parish of the Vicariate of Pekin, numbering 
 at present seventy-four religious. From this order 
 have branched off the Marist Sisters of Yung- 
 ping-fu (1901), the Josephines of Cheng-ting-fu 
 (1878), the Josephines of Pao-ting-fu (1910), and 
 the Josephines of Tien-tsin (1912), all of whom 
 follow the same rule and were detached when these 
 new vicariates were established. The Josephines 
 of Pao-ting-fu number 34 religious, and the 
 Josephines of Tien-tsin number 14 religious. The 
 Josephines of Cheng-ting-fu had their constitutions 
 changed somewhat in 1910. The superior general 
 resides at the principal house at Cheng-ting-fu. 
 This congregation at present numbers 133 religious. 
 From them were established, in 1914, by Mgr. Calza, 
 Vicar Apostolic of Western Honan, the Josephines 
 of Honan, who now number 25 religious. The Sis¬ 
 ters of the Immaculate Conception -were detached 
 from the Josephines of Peking by Mgr. Geurts, 
 first Vicar Apostolic of Eastern Chi-li. This branch 
 comprises four establishments and 30 religious, in¬ 
 cluding novices. Its principal house is at Yung- 
 ping-fu. The Institute of the Immaculate Con¬ 
 ception was founded by the Belgian Fathers in 
 Eastern Mongolia in 1884. They spend six years 
 
 of study in preparation for their work, and num- 
 bers at present 191 members. Their novitiate is 
 at oung-shut-suitze. Their habit consists of the 
 Chinese women’s dress of black cotton. The Sis- 
 
 u erS Sacred H , eart were formed in Decem¬ 
 
 ber, 1919, by a wealthy lady in Central Mongolia 
 and approved by the Vicar Apostolic. The Daugh¬ 
 ters of the Sacred Heart were established in 1914 
 m the vicariate of Western Che-kiang by Mgr. 
 Faveau, Vicar Apostolic, as a teaching order The 
 society numbers 30 members. Its principal house 
 is at Hang-chou. These Sisters dress in the ordi¬ 
 nary Chinese women’s costume. The Congregation 
 of the Pi esentation, founded in 1869 in the Prov- 
 mce of Nan-king, conducts schools in the missions 
 of the Vicariate of Nan-king and at the present 
 time numbers 189 members, of whom 32 are novices. 
 They have 89 establishments throughout the vica¬ 
 riate. The mother-house is at Sicawei. Another 
 branch has been established in the Vicariate of 
 Southeast Chi-li. Both of these vicariates are under 
 the care of the Jesuits (French). The Daughters 
 of St. Anne, founded in 1895 in Southern Kiang-si, 
 have 10 foundations and a community of 32 reli¬ 
 gious. The Virgins of Our Lady of Good Counsel 
 were founded in 1907 by Mgr. Paul Ferant, Vicar 
 Apostolic of Northern Kiang-si. They teach the 
 young and work in orphanages, and have four es¬ 
 tablishments in Kiang-si with a total of 25 mem¬ 
 bers. The servants of the Sacred Heart, founded 
 in 1910 in Eastern Sze-chwan, is a teaching com¬ 
 munity with principal house at Chung-king and a 
 total of 26 religious. The Virgins of Purgatory 
 were founded in Che-Kiang in 1892 by Mgr. Rey- 
 naud, present Vicar Apostolic of Eastern Che-Kiang. 
 The order comprises 80 members, of whom 15 are 
 novices. They wear a religious habit. The mother- 
 house and novitiate is at Ning-po. The Religious 
 of the Immaculate Conception were founded in 
 1918 at Canton by Mother Angeline of the Sacred 
 Heart, and now number 26 professed Sisters and 
 25 novices. The Sisters of the Third Order of St. 
 Francis were under the direction of the Canossan 
 Sisters at Wu-Chang from 1908 to 1917, when they 
 were made an independent society. The mother- 
 house is at Wu-Chang, Hu-pe. The members take 
 three vows. The society numbers 25 professed Sis¬ 
 ters, 4 novices, and 24 postulants. The Franciscan 
 Tertiaries of the Holy Childhood were organized 
 in 1905 at King-chou-fu by Mgr. Everaerts of 
 Southwest Hu-pe. The first postulants were Chinese 
 Virgins who had lived the religious life in their 
 own homes and worked among the young. They 
 took their vows in the new congregation in 1907. 
 The mother-house is at King-chou-fu. The society 
 has three establishments and 39 members, of whom 
 6 are novices. The Oblates of the Holy Family 
 were founded in 1910 by Mgr. Henninghaus, Vicar 
 Apostolic of South Shang-tung. They take annual 
 vows of poverty and obedience. The principal 
 house is at Yen-chou-fu. The society numbers 22 
 professed Sisters, 23 novices, and 7 postulants. 
 
 Catholic Press .—There are two monthlies pub¬ 
 lished at Shanghai in China, “Yesou Cheng-Sin- 
 Pao” and “Cheng-Kia-Tsa-Dje,” “Tchoung-Che-Pao” 
 is a Chinese weekly published at Chung-king, 
 Sze-chwan, with a French supplement, “La Verite.” . 
 A Latin theological monthly review, “Sacerdos in 
 Sinis,” is conducted by the Vincentian Fathers at 
 Peking. The only Catholic publication in the 
 English language in the Far East is “The Rock,” 
 published monthly at Hong-Kong by Catholic lay¬ 
 men. French publications are: “Le Bulletin Cath- 
 olique de Pekin,” monthly organ of the Vincentian 
 missions at Peking; “L’Echo de St. Michel,” parish 
 
CHINA 
 
 194 
 
 CHINA 
 
 monthly of the Legations at Peking; Petit Mes- 
 sager de Mingpo,” monthly organ of the Vincentian 
 missions in Che-Kiang; “L’Echo du Chantung 
 Oriental,” organ of the Franciscan mission m 
 Eastern Shan-tung, issued every two months^; 
 “L’Ami des Missionaires du Kiangsi Septentrional, 
 oro-an of the Vincentian missions at Kiu-kiang, 
 published irregularly; “La Verite,” supplement of a 
 weekly paper in Chinese, the “Tchoung-Che-Pao, 
 published at Chung-k’ing, Sze-ch’wan; LEcho de 
 Tientsin,” a daily sympathetic towards Catholic 
 interest; “Calendrier-Annuaire de L’Observatoire 
 de Zi-ka-wei,” annual, published by the Jesuit 
 Fathers at Sikawei. The “Bolotin do Governo 
 Eclesiastico da Diocese de Macau” is a Portuguese 
 monthly of the Diocese of Macao. 
 
 Trade .—The revenue of the customs in 1919 was 
 Haikwan taels 46,009,160 (1 Haikwan tael=$139 
 U. S.), as against Haikwan taels 22,742,104 in 1897. 
 
 It included import duties, taels 19,631,697; export 
 duties, tls. 19,835,823; coast trade duties, tls 2,582,- 
 059; tonnage dues, tls. 1,443,891; transit dues in¬ 
 coming, tls. 1,490,304; transit dues outgoing, tls. 
 
 1025,886. The gross value of the foreign trade 
 was Hk. tls. 1,361,735,698 in 1919, as against Hk. 
 tls. 385,142,721 in 1897, the net value being Hk. tls. 
 1,277,807,092, as against tls. 366,329,983 in 1897. The 
 value of the direct trade was: Continent of Europe 
 (Russia excepted), tls. 178,552,712; Russian Euro¬ 
 pean ports, tls. 47,612; Russia and Siberia by land 
 frontier, tls. 7,241,120; Russian Pacific ports, tls. 
 24,899,586; Korea, tls. 32,049,404; Japan (including 
 Formosa), tls. 441,947,029; Philippine Islands, tls. 
 4,538,165; Canada, tls. 23,068,899; United States 
 (including Hawaii), tls. 211,355,383; Mexico and 
 Central America (including Panama), tls. 4,919; 
 South America, tls. 196,514; Australia, New Zea¬ 
 land, etc., tls. 1,367,230; South Africa (including 
 Mauritius), tls. 49,907; total tls. 925,318,120 (net 
 imports, tls. 70,089,866; exports, tls. 108,462,846). 
 The chief imports are: opium, tls. 246,000 (weighing 
 156.00 piculs); cotton goods, tls. 221,114,198; woolen 
 and cotton mixtures, tls. 3,382,737; woolen goods, 
 tls. 3,936,585; miscellaneous piece goods, tls. 6,914,- 
 276; copper, iron, steel, etc., tls. 57,307,814; 
 cigarettes, tls. 21,442,328; cigars, tls. 892,392; fish 
 and fishery products, tls. 11,253,572; flour, tls. 
 1,249,965; matches, tls. 5,575,912; machinery, tls. 
 14,100,000; medicines, tls. 5,880,614, etc. The chief 
 exports are: beancake, tls. 44,173,118; beans, tls. 
 38,835,441; bristles, tls. 4,748,890; camphor, tls. 
 1,595,313; cattle, tls. 864,388; raw cotton, tls. 30,- 
 253 447; fire-crackers, tls. 2,849,173; matting, tls. 
 1,039,838; medicines, tls. 3,404,562; raw white silk, 
 tls. 2,242,541; steam filature raw white silk, tls. 
 3,480,811; yellow silk, tls. 5,842,445; wild silk, tls. 
 10,516,709; silk cocoons, tls. 2,660,861; silk waste, 
 tls. 7,982,445; silk cocoons refuse, tls. 765,714; silk 
 piece goods, tls. 15,744,583; Shantung pongees, tls. 
 7,515,645; silk products unclassed, tls. 415,142; un¬ 
 dressed skins and hides of cows and buffalos, tls. 
 10 361,381; of horses, asses, and mules, tls. 510,335; 
 of goats, tls. 8,588,740; of sheep, tls. 370,416; un¬ 
 classed, tls. 14,918; straw braid, tls. 7,717,587; vege¬ 
 table tallow, tls. 1,979,333; black tea, tls. 8,796,928, 
 green tea, tls. 11,055,610; black brick tea, tls 2,345,- 
 * 258; green brick tea, tls. 108,766; tea tablet, tls. 
 33,941; tea dust, tls. 53,767; sheep’s wool, tls. 11,- 
 609,979; china ware, tls. 3,780,285, etc. 
 
 Shipping. —In 1919, 112,565 steamers (89,844,371 
 tons) and 97,190 sailing vessels (5,881,564 tons), in 
 all 210,755 vessels (95,725,935 tons) entered and 
 cleared Chinese ports, of which Chinese shipping 
 vessels (foreign type) numbered 49,043 (22,553,448 
 tons), Chinese junks 88,532 (4,536,314 tons), British 
 
 36,074 (36,284,312 tons), Japanese 27,182 (27,532,449 
 tons), French 471 (414,161 tons), German 298 (53,142 
 tons), American 4,433 (2,569,887 tons), Norwegian 
 311 (302,959 tons), Portuguese 118 (50,292 tons), 
 Danish 93 (185,697 tons), Swedish 18 (53,650 tons), 
 
 Railways. —China now possesses 6,835 miles of 
 railway, with 2,000 miles under construction. An 
 imperial edict of 9 May, 1911, ordered that all 
 trunk lines under construction or projected be taken 
 over by the government, while branch railways 
 were “to be allowed to be undertaken by the people 
 according to their ability.” Under the Republic 
 steps have been taken to nationalize railway ex¬ 
 pansion in China. The Chinese government rail- 
 wavs comprise fourteen lines: Peking-Han-kan 
 (810,821 miles), Peking-Mukden (563,030), Tien- 
 tsin-Pu-kow (687,348), Shanghai-Nan-kmg (193- 
 127), Shanghai-Hang-chou-Nmg-po (177,853), 
 Peking-Sai-yuan (304,540), Cheng-Tai (150,872), 
 Tao-ku-Ching-hwa (94,672), Kai-feng-Honan (114,- 
 885), Kirin-Chang-chun (79,301), Chuchou-Pmg- 
 hiang (56,200), Canton-Kow-loon (88,85/), Canton- 
 San-shui, Chang-chou-Amoy (17,388). In addition 
 to these are the provincial and private railways, 
 with a total of 424,143 miles, making the total 
 subject to the Ministry of Communications 4,431,- 
 614 miles. The Concessioned Railways have a 
 total of 2,400,165 miles, and include the Chinese 
 Eastern (1069), South Manchurian (714), Shan¬ 
 tung (306), Yun-nan (289), Canton-Kow-loon 
 
 (British section, 22). # ...... 
 
 The railway system now in operation m China is 
 located principally north of the Yang-tse River. 
 The Shanghai-Nanking line, with the recently con¬ 
 nected up Shanghai-Hang-chou-Ningpo line, extends 
 the system into south China. China has approxi¬ 
 mately 460 square miles of territory and 107,000 
 population for each mile of railway, in contrast 
 with the United States, with 12 square miles of 
 territory and 3,800 population for each mile of 
 railway. The extent-of waterways will probably 
 always serve to keep these average figures higher 
 in China than in countries not so favored. Yet 
 railways tend to become more an integral part of 
 the industrial machinery of a nation, and these 
 averages therefore measure to a certain extent the 
 advance of industrial progress. 
 
 Projected Railways. —Yam-chou via Nan-nmg, 
 Po-shan, Sin-yi to Yun-nan-fu, thence via Weinmg 
 to Chung-king (1,000 miles); Nan-king via Ning- 
 koe, Hui-chan, Nan-chang, Ping-hiang (1,000 miles); 
 Heng-chou-fu-Chin-chou (560 miles); Chu-kiao- 
 Yen-cheng-Nan-yang-Siang-yang (225 miles); Sm- 
 yang-chou (227 miles); Yun-yang-Han-chung-fu 
 (360 miles); Chin-chou-Aigun (800 miles); Peking- 
 Jehol-Chihfeng-Chingchow-Kalgan - Dolonor - Chih- 
 feng (780 miles); Harbin-Mergen-Aigun-Blagovest- 
 chensk (660 miles); Ta-tung-fu-Cheng-tu (960 miles); 
 Canton-Nan-ning-Lang-son (550 miles); Shansi-Sm- 
 yi-fu (760 miles); Yun-nan-Sze-chwan (450 miles); 
 I-li-Lan-chou-Sian-fu - Tung-kwan - Hqnan-fu - Kai- 
 fend-Heng-chou-fu-Tsing-kiang-pu-Hai-chou (3,000 
 miles); Sui-yuan-Kiakhta (750 miles); Kao-mi- 
 Yihsien (200 miles); Yen-chou-fu-Kai-feng-fu via 
 Tsao-chou-fu (230 miles). 
 
 Telegraph System. —On 30 September, 1920, 
 there were 49,259 miles of land lines, 73,873 miles 
 of wires, 1,002.53 miles of submarine cables, 46 
 miles of river cables, 837 telegraph offices. In 
 1918 the Government contracted with the Marconi 
 Wireless Company for the purchase of 200 wireless 
 telephones for the Chinese army, and for the erec¬ 
 tion of three powerful wireless stations at Kashgar, 
 Urumchi, and Lanchowfu. In 1921 the American 
 
CHINA 
 
 195 
 
 CHINA 
 
 Federal Telegraph Company was given the right the end of 1915 he engineered a campaign to revert 
 to erect five powerful stations in the largest cities to a monarchial form of government, and as a 
 of China in consideration of a loan, payable in result of elections, was invited to ascend the throne 
 ten years. Among China’s demands at the Paris as Emperor. The southern provinces, however 
 Peace Conference and the Disarmament Conference immediately rose in revolt. The movement failed 
 was the demand that no foreign wireless or tele- and finally ended in the death of Yuan Shih-kai in 
 graphic installations of any kind shall be set up June, 1916. In accordance with the constitution 
 on Chinese territory, and that such installations Li Yuan-hung became President. The provisional 
 as have been established shall be handed over to Constitution of Nan-king (10 March, 1912) was 
 China upon due compensation being given. restored; Parliament which had been suspended by 
 
 Postal System— At the end of 1917 there were Yuan Shih-kai was formally opened. Yet the 
 9,103 localities open to postal business, and the constitutional differences between Parliament and 
 number of articles dealt with had increased to the Cabinet continued and resulted in the dismissal 
 nearly 260,233,000. The number of parcels reached of the Premier,' Tuan Chi-jui and the dissolution 
 2,640,355 and money orders about $21,523,300. of Parliament in June, 1917. In the next month 
 
 Recent Politics.— As early as 1906 preparations there was an attempt to restore the Ching dynasty, 
 were made in China for the introduction of con- with the Manchu Emperor, Hsuan Fung on the 
 stitutional government. In 1908 an edict promised Dragon Throne. Chang-Hsun, the military com- 
 the convocation of a Parliament and the proclama- mander of the Yang-Tze provinces, who had come 
 tion of a Constitution, drawn in the ninth year to Peking with a number of troops, was bombarded 
 from the date of the edict, i. e., 1917. Until then, in Peking. His defeat, and flight to a foreign legion, 
 certain measures of reform were to be undertaken ended the Manchu restoration, and Tuan Chi-jui 
 each year. In October, 1910, the Senate convened was premier once more, with Feng Kuo-chang as 
 in Peking to form the nucleus of the future Parlia- acting President in the place of Li Yuan Hung who 
 ment, it however had only deliberative power and had resigned. 
 
 the Throne refused to yield to its demand that the In the meantime the Radical party of the Parlia- 
 Grand Council be made responsible to it. A most ment which had been dissolved by Li Yuan Hung 
 determined demand for an earlier opening of a in June, 1917, gathered in Canton and under the 
 Parliament resulted in the edict commanding that leadership of Sun Yat Sen, set up an independent 
 the Parliament be convened in 1913. A rebellion military government and declared a state of war 
 in the autumn of 1911 precipitated matters; in between the South and the North, claiming that 
 October Wuchung was taken by the revolutionaries it alone represented the constitutional government 
 and an independent military government declared, established by the treaty of Nan-king after the 
 The provinces seceded, one by one, until fourteen revolution of 1911. Military operations continued 
 out of twenty-two including Manchuria, Kiang-si, intermittently until November, 1918, when Hsu- 
 Hu-pe, Hu-nan, and the viceroyalty of Liang- Shih-Chang who had been unanimously elected 
 Kwang, had thrown off their allegiance to the President by the Parliament in Peking ordered 
 Manchu government. The learned Dynasty offered a cessation of hostilities. The Canton government 
 to grant every demand of the people, retaining did likewise, and a conference of the two parties 
 for itself the mere title of sovereignty. A consti- was called at Shanghai, but failed to establish an 
 tution was immediately drawn up and sanctioned entente. 
 
 by edict issued on 3 November, 1911, and on 26 The Northern Military party which has had con- 
 November the Regent in behalf of the emperor trol of the Peking government for the last four 
 took the Oath of Constitution. He summoned years has from the first been divided into two 
 Yuan Shih-kai former viceroy of Chi-li, whom he factions, known as the Chilhli and the Anhui fac- 
 had dismissed in 1909, granted him the powers of tions. The increasing supremacy of the Anhui 
 dictator, and appointed him Prime Minister and faction, aided by the An Fu (pro-Japanese) party, 
 General of the forces. A constitutional monarchy was resented by the Chilhli faction and friction 
 with the Manchus as a figurehead was decided upon, between the two developed into open warfare, in 
 and accepted by most of the northern provinces, July, 1920. The Anhui faction was defeated. The 
 but not by the southern provinces, whose aims government ordered the disbanding of the troops 
 were more anti-dynastic. A truce was called to but instead they were incorporated into the armies 
 decide on the exact form of government. On 6 of the rival military governors and the central gov- 
 December the Regent abdicated and the young ernment was powerless to enforce its decision. 
 Emperor was provided with two guardians, one a The only real power and authority in China is 
 Manchu and the other a Chinese. On 29 December in the hands of the Tuchuns or Military Governors 
 the Nan-king (Republican) Assembly, a provisional of the separate provinces, each acting for himself in 
 convention in which the 14 provinces only were his own field, and taking advantage of the weakness 
 represented, unanimously elected Dr. Sun Yat of the central government to raise large armies to 
 Sen President of the Republic of China and adopted serve their own ends and thus to usurp complete 
 a provisional constitution. In February, 1912, the autocratic local power. China is now, therefore a 
 Manchu dynasty abdicated. Under the provisional conglomeration of separate states under the auto- 
 constitution, a provisional Parliament was assem- cratic control of Military Governors who tax their 
 bled in Peking and in due time passed laws for the people to the limit and who have raised large loans, 
 election of a bi-cameral legislature, at the same for the support of their armies and their own 
 time determining its powers and functions. The enrichment principally from the Japanese, for which 
 new Parliament met on 8 April, 1913, and appointed the provincial resources are pledged. These armies 
 a Committee to draft a permanent constitution for are a horrible incubus upon the people, and the 
 the Republic. The Committee sat from 21 July to system which keeps them up is intolerable, but 
 25 October, and completed a draft of the Constitu- there is no force in China strong enough to compel 
 tion consisting of 113 articles, of which only those their disbandment. At present (1922) there are 
 dealing with the election and term of office of three super Tuchuns or “Inspectors General,” who 
 President and Vice-President became law by the aim for supremacy in the Peking government: 
 act of Parliament. By virtue of these, Yuan Chang Tso-lin, the uncrowned King of Manchuria, 
 Shih-kai was celebrated president for five years. At who controls the Peking-Mukden railway; Tsao- 
 
CHINA 
 
 196 
 
 CHINA 
 
 kun, war lord of the Chihli party, with head¬ 
 quarters at Pao-ting-fu; and Wu Pei-fu, former 
 chief lieutenant of Tsao-kun, in charge of the 
 Yang-tze regions. The main factor in the south is 
 the Canton government under Dr. Sun Yat-sen. 
 Another political division exists in the three south¬ 
 west provinces of Yun-nan, Kwei-chou and 
 Sze-chwan, but these are fluctuating between Dr. 
 Sun and Wu Pei-fu. 
 
 Foreign Relations. —Soon after the outbreak of 
 the European War, China proclaimed her neutrality 
 by a Presidential Mandate of 6 August, 1914. A 
 week later Japan delivered an ultimatum to Ger¬ 
 many demanding the surrender of the leased ter¬ 
 ritory of Kiao-chou “with a view to eventual 
 restoration of the same to China.” Failing to 
 receive a reply to her ultimatum, Japan declared 
 war on Germany, 23 August, 1914. The first con¬ 
 tingent of Japanese troops, 20,000 strong, despatched 
 to attack Tsing-tao, landed unexpectedly at Lung- 
 khau, and on their way across the peninsula to 
 Kiao-chou, occupied cities and towns en route, 
 even Wei-Hsien and Tsi-nan. With the help of 
 the British they forced the Germans to surrender 
 the bombarded Tsing-tao and their garrison on 
 8 November, 1915. Eight days later they entered 
 the city. Seeing that with the complete surrender 
 of the Germans, hostilities had terminated and mili¬ 
 tary measures had been abandoned, the Chinese 
 demanded the withdrawal of the Japanese from 
 the interior of Shan-tung to Tsing-tao, but the 
 latter had assumed possession of all administrative 
 authority exercised by the Germans, had taken 
 possession of the Shan-tung railway, and had ex¬ 
 tended their authority to certain cities outside and 
 leased territory. At this time (18 January, 1915), 
 the Japanese government, to the dismay of China, 
 presented twenty-one demands, including the fol¬ 
 lowing: China was to give full assent to all mat¬ 
 ters upon which the Japanese government may 
 hereafter agree with Germany, relating to the dis¬ 
 position of all rights, interests, and concessions in 
 Shan-tung. Negotiations lasted until 7 May, when 
 Japan sent an ultimatum to China, demanding a reply 
 within forty-eight hours. In face of the increasing 
 Japanese garrisons in Manchuria and Shantung, 
 China was forced to yield. In the treaty signed on 
 25 May, 1915, she agreed never to alienate any ter¬ 
 ritory on or near the coast of Shan-tung to a foreign 
 power, to give the Japanese a free hand in South 
 Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia, to extend 
 the leases of Port Arthur and Dairen for a period 
 of ninety-nine years, also the leases of the South 
 Manchurian Railway, and the Antupg-Mukden 
 Railway. At the Peach Conference at Versailles 
 in 1919, Japan claimed, on the ground of conquest, 
 the leased territory of Kiao-chou and all Ger¬ 
 many’s economic privileges in Shantung; whereas 
 China asked the Conference for a settlement which 
 would secure to her the restitution of the leased 
 territory and the cancellation of Germany’s eco¬ 
 nomic privileges. Japan, however, obtained recog¬ 
 nition of her claim in the treaty, which China flatly 
 refused to sign, the indignation of the whole 
 nation being promptly expressed by a boycott of 
 Japanese goods. 
 
 The controversy was brought up again at the 
 Washington Disarmament Conference in 1922. In 
 a treaty signed between the two powers, China 
 and Japan, on 4 February, 1922, Shan-tung with 
 all the former German properties, concessions, rail¬ 
 way, port, mining, maritime customs, and other 
 rights, was finally returned to China, who was to 
 pay the assessed value of the properties taken by 
 the Japanese from the Germans during the World 
 
 War, plus the value of the improvements added by 
 Japan, making allowance for depreciation. Japan 
 promised to withdraw all her military forces from 
 Shan-tung, as soon as China sent her own troops 
 to guard the railway there. Great Britain offered 
 to return her concessions, Wei-hai-wei, and France, 
 Kwang-chou-wan. Other matters concerning China’s 
 welfare were also settled in the Conference. Under 
 the nine-power treaty of 4 February, a complete 
 revision of China’s revenues was made, and instead 
 of the arrangement adopted in 1843 under which 
 China was technically to receive a 5 per cent 
 quota of the revenues, but under which she actually 
 received a scant 3% per cent ad valorem, a new 
 arrangement was effected so that China will receive 
 5 per cent of the revenues and a surtax of 2V-2 
 per cent on some goods; and the likin will be 
 abolished. The nine-power pact also declared for 
 the integrity of Chinese sovereignty and for equal 
 opportunity in trade intercourse. Each of the 
 powers (United States, Belgium, the British Empire, 
 China, France, Italy, Japan, Holland, and Portugal) 
 was pledged to refrain from seeking any unfair or 
 special advantages, to respect Chinese neutrality, 
 and to come together in a conference with China, 
 if any situation should rise to involve the applica¬ 
 tion of the stipulations of the treaty. China, on 
 her part, undertook not to alienate or lease any 
 portion of her territory or littoral to any power. 
 China was requested to reduce her armies and to 
 reveal all her secret treaties (one of these was a 
 secret treaty of alliance with Russia in 1896). 
 There are plans to finance China’s present trans¬ 
 portation needs by an International Consortium, 
 formed by the bankers of the United States, Great 
 Britain, France, and Japan, as the country is too 
 large to be financed by one power. 
 
 The World War. —At the outbreak of the World 
 War China preserved the strictest neutrality, but 
 with the entrance of the United States into the 
 struggle, China sided with that country in her 
 protest against the submarine warfare and declared 
 war against Germany and Austria-Hungary on 14 
 August, 1917. The allies responded by agreeing to 
 the postponement of the Boxer indemnity for a 
 period of five years, commencing from 1 January, 
 1918, Russia, however, consenting to the suspension 
 of only one-third of its annual share. The internal 
 condition of China forbade anything like active 
 participation, but in the end China joined the 
 Allied Expedition to Siberia to stem the tide of 
 Bolshevism and the Interallied Railway Technical 
 Commission to help reorganize Russia’s railways. 
 In January, 1918, Peking concluded with Tokio the 
 socalled Arms Pact under which Japan agreed to 
 supply China with arms and ammunition to the 
 amount of 40,000,000 yen—the ostensible object 
 being to equip the Chinese expedition to Europe, 
 but in reality both the proceeds and arms went to 
 help the Northern militarists to crush the Consti¬ 
 tution-defending South. One month before the 
 Armistice, on 3 October, 1918, the Republic ex¬ 
 tended its recognition to the Czechoslovaks oper¬ 
 ating in Siberia, and allowed them passage on the 
 Chinese Eastern Railway. If circumstances such 
 as a lack of transportation facilities prevented the 
 Chinese soldiers from serving in France, their place 
 was nobly taken by the Chinese laborers, of whom 
 two thousand perished in France. They also served 
 in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and South Africa, in all, 
 no less than 150,000. China signed the Treaty of 
 Peace with Germany on 10 May, 1921; the Bul¬ 
 garian Peace treaty at Neuilly on 27 November, 
 1919; the Hungarian Peace Treaty at Trianon on 
 4 June, 1920. 
 
CHIOGGIA 
 
 197 
 
 CHRISTIAN 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chioggia, Diocese of (Clodiensis; cf. C. E., 
 III-689b).—Chioggia is a seaport on the Gulf of 
 Venice in Italy. The present bishop is Rt. Rev. 
 Domenico Mezzadri, b. in San Rocco al Porto, 
 diocese of Lodi, 30 January, 1867, elected bishop 
 2 July, 1920, took possession of the see 22 October, 
 1920, in succession to Rt. Rev. Antonio Bassani, 
 resigned. Bishop Bassani was born in Chioggia 3 
 January, 1854, elected titular Bishop of Delcos and 
 coadjutor of the bishop of Chioggia 22 January, 
 1905, succeeded to the bishopric 21 November, 1908, 
 resigned and transferred 1 October, 1918, to the 
 titular see of Troas. 
 
 In the diocese there are 31 parishes, 52 churches, 
 
 2 convents for men and 5 for women, 110 secular 
 and 8 regular priests, 2 clerics, 70 nuns, 1 seminary 
 with 30 seminarians, 3 colleges for girls with 20 
 students in each, 2 refuges, 1 for men and 1 for 
 women, 3 asylums, 3 hospitals. There is a clerical 
 federation, and among the laity a mutual aid or¬ 
 ganization and Popular Union. A diocesan bulletin 
 is published, and also “Annali della B. V. della 
 Navicella.” There are about 100,000 inhabitants 
 in the diocese, all Catholics. 
 
 Bellemo Cav. Vincenzo, famous Italian historian, 
 died 30 January, 1917, leaving his library to the 
 seminary. Twelve priests and all the clerics took 
 up arms for their country, 1 being severely wounded. 
 In recognition of special service the Government 
 made Papal Chamberlain Rossetti archpriest of 
 Cavarzere, and Carlo Lorenzi chaplain of St. Pietro 
 in Volte, Knights of the Crown of Italy. 
 
 Chios, Diocese of (Chiensis; cf. C. E., III-689c), 
 comprises the islands of Chios, Chesme, Samos, 
 and other small islands in the Greek archipelago, 
 off the coast of Asia Minor, suffragan of Naxos. 
 The see is at present (1922) filled by Rt. Rev. 
 Nicolas Charichiopoulo, born in the diocese of Tinos, 
 1866, studied at Propaganda, Rome, served as chan¬ 
 cellor of the Cathedral of Constantinople and was 
 appointed 3 Janiiary, 1917, to succeed Rt. Rev. 
 Dionisio Nicolosi, died 24 January, 1916. The 
 Catholics of this diocese, who number only 170, are 
 descended from the first settlers of the islands; 
 about eighty are Italians and the rest Greeks or 
 French. In 1912, on 11 December, the Turks were 
 expelled from the islands and the Greeks took 
 possession, those Greeks already there joining the 
 army to help their fatherland. During the war 
 the poor suffered severely, especially from famine. 
 In recent years the diocese lost three of its small 
 number of clergy by the deaths of Revs. Antonius 
 Sigola,. Thomas Rostand, and Canon Pantaleo 
 Cochini. It now comprises 2 parishes, 5 churches, 
 
 3 at Chios and 2 at Samos, 2 convents of religious, 
 
 1 at Chios and the other at Samoo, 1 mission 
 station, 3 secular and 3 regular clergy (1 capuchin 
 and 2 French missionaries). The Sisters of St. 
 Joseph of the Apparition and Sisters of St. Joseph 
 of Lyons, conduct schools for girls with 180 pupils, 
 of whom 25 are Catholic, and young Catholic 
 boys also attend schools conducted by the Sis¬ 
 ters, and complete their studies in other cities. 
 The Children of Mary and other associations of 
 women are organized. 
 
 Chiusi-Pienza, Diocese of (Clusinensis et 
 Pientinensis; cf. C. E., III-690d), in Tuscany, 
 Central. Italy, Chiusi is suffragan of Sienna and 
 Pienza is directly subject to the Holy See. These 
 united sees were filled by the Rt. Rev. Giacomo 
 Bellucci from 30 December, 1889, until his death, 
 19 February, 1917. The present (1922) incumbent, 
 Rt. Rev. Giuseppe Conti, was appointed to succeed 
 him 22 March following. Born in the diocese of 
 
 Fiesole, Italy, 1871, he served as vicar general of 
 that diocese, was made a papal chamberlain, 3 
 October, 1903, and prothonotary apostolic, 22 
 December, 1914. These sees have a Catholic popu¬ 
 lation of 36,000, 56 parishes, 91 secular and 50 
 regular clergy, 31 seminarians, 19 Brothers, 55 Sis¬ 
 ters, and 125 churches or chapels. 
 
 Choco, Prefecture Apostolic of (de Choco), in 
 Colombia, South America. This prefecture, erected 
 28 April, 1908, is entrusted to the Sons of the 
 Immaculate Heart of Mary, the present (1922) 
 prefect apostolic being Rev. Francois Gutierrez, 
 of this congregation. No statistics are published 
 for this territory. 
 
 Christchurch, Diocese of (Christopolitanensis; 
 cf. C. E., III-699b), in Canterbury, New Zealand, 
 suffragan of Wellington. The first bishop of this 
 diocese, Rt. Rev. J. J. Grimes, S. M., born in 
 Bromley, England, 1843, consecrated 26 July, 1887, 
 died in Sydney, 15 March, 1915. His successor was 
 appointed in the person of the present bishop, Rt. 
 Rev. Matthew J. Brodie, born in Coromandel, New 
 Zealand, 1864, ordained 1888, made a prelate of the 
 Holy See, 1912, appointed 27 November, 1915. 
 
 The religious orders established in this diocese 
 include: Society of Mary with 23 Fathers, Marist 
 Brothers with 5 Brothers, Missionary Sisters of 
 Notre Dame with 90 Sisters, Sisters of Mercy 
 numbering 148 Sisters, Religious of the Sacred 
 Heart with 29 nuns, Sisters of Good Shepherd with 
 30 religious, Sisters of St. Joseph of the Sacred 
 Heart with 16 Sisters, Sisters of Nazareth with 16 
 Sisters, and Nursing Sisters of the Little Company 
 of Mary with 14 Sisters. This diocese counts a 
 Catholic population of 30,000, and comprises 21 
 districts, 63 churches, 22 secular and 28 regular 
 clergy, 8 boarding and high schools, 29 primary 
 schools, 1 asylum, 1 industrial and preservation 
 school, 1 orphanage, 1 home, and 2 girls’ hostels. 
 
 Christian Brothers of Ireland (cf. C. E., 
 III-710b), have 200 houses in Ireland, England, 
 Australia, and India. The first foundation in the 
 United. States was made in All Saints’ parish, New 
 York, in 1906, and was soon followed by others in 
 the United States and Canada, all of which, together 
 with the houses in Newfoundland, were formed in 
 1916 into the American province. The provincial 
 novitiate is near West Park in Ulster Co., N. Y., 
 and is known as St. Mary’s on the Hudson. In 
 Newfoundland the Brothers have charge of St. 
 Bonaventure’s College and St. Patrick’s School at 
 St. John’s, Holy Cross College at Riverhead, and 
 a boy’s orphanage and industrial school at Mount 
 Cashel. In Canada there is a novitiate at Longueil, 
 P. Q., and the Brothers have two schools in Mon¬ 
 treal, St. Patrick’s Academy in Sherbrooke, P. Q., 
 and Saint Colomban College at Cornwall, Ont. In 
 1921 a community of four Christian Brothers sailed 
 for Han Yang, China, to establish a high school in 
 connection with the work of the Maynooth Mission 
 to China. The superior general of the institute 
 is Br. Patrick Jerome Hennessy, elected in 1920. 
 
 Christian Charity, Sisters of (cf. C. E., 
 III-711a), also called Daughters of the Blessed 
 Virgin Mary of the Immaculate Conception, a 
 congregation whose principal activity is the educa¬ 
 tion of youth, but which does not exclude any of 
 the other works of Christian charity, founded at 
 Paderborn, Germany, on 21 August, 1849, by 
 Pauline von Mallinckrodt (b. 3 June, 1817, at Min- 
 den, Westphalia; died 30 April, 1881), sister of 
 the famous Hermann von Mallinckrodt. Mother 
 Pauline’s first field of labor was the care of the 
 
CHRISTIAN 
 
 198 
 
 CHRISTIAN 
 
 
 
 blind. The institute, which was confirmed 4 
 February, 1888, by Leo XIII, had attained great 
 success throughout Germany when, in 1873, the 
 Kulturkampf deprived it of its principal activity— 
 Christian education. Some of the Sisters went to 
 South America, where there are now many flourish¬ 
 ing communities. Others emigrated to New Orleans, 
 La., -U. S. A., where, in May, 1873, they founded 
 a house and took charge of a parochial school. A 
 provincial mother-house was erected in Wilkes- 
 Barre, Penn., in 1874. The institute spread rapidly, 
 and the Sisters now have houses in the Archdioceses 
 of Baltimore, Chicago, Cincinnati, New York, 
 Philadelphia, St. Louis, and St. Paul, and in the 
 Dioceses of Belleville, Brooklyn, Detroit, Harris¬ 
 burg, Newark, Scranton, Sioux City, and Syracuse. 
 They have in these establishments 784 Sisters, 41 
 novices, and 20 postulants, conducting 4 academies, 
 51 parochial schools, and 1 orphan asylum. In 1916 
 the mother-house of the North American province 
 was transferred to Wilmette, Ill. The Sisters have 
 houses not only in Germany but also in Bohemia, 
 and in 1920 they opened a house in Rome, Italy. 
 The total membership of the congregation in the 
 three provinces, the European, North and South 
 American, is 1,900. 
 
 Christian Church (American Christian Con¬ 
 vention) is the name of a small American sect, 
 which is perhaps the most logical of the numerous 
 forms of Protestantism, in that it sets forth abso¬ 
 lutely no creed or statement of doctrine (except 
 the Bible), and in that no differences of theological 
 belief, due to different interpretations of the Bible, 
 constitutes a bar to membership, providing one is 
 a “follower of Christ.” Although the general ten¬ 
 dency of this church is “evangelical” it is not clear 
 that denial of the Divinity of Christ would exclude 
 a member provided he accepted Christ as Master 
 and Leader. Baptism is not considered necessary 
 for members, although some preach its reception as 
 a duty. Immersion is the form generally used, but 
 any form is admitted. Open communion (admis¬ 
 sion of non-members to reception of the com¬ 
 munion) is practiced, sincq no religious test is 
 required even of members. In organization this 
 sect is congregational, the bond of union being 
 conferences whose functions are chiefly administra¬ 
 tive. 
 
 This denomination is the result of the fusion of 
 defections from the Methodists in Virginia, the 
 Baptists in New England and the Presbyterians in 
 Tennessee and Kentucky between 1792 and 1803, 
 under the respective leadership of James O’Kelley, 
 Abner Jones, and Barton Stone (and others), who 
 desired more freedom of private interpretation 
 than was possible in the churches which they left. 
 A general organization was effected in 1819, but 
 the name “Christian” (adopted because they 
 claimed to be the exponents of the true doctrine 
 of Christ), dates from 1794 when O’Kelley'and his 
 followers dropped the name “Republican Metho¬ 
 dists,” which they had at first adopted. The quali¬ 
 fying phrase “American Christian Convention” is 
 the title of their quadrennial conference. The 
 present official title of the church dates from 1916, 
 previous to that the title being “Christians (Chris¬ 
 tian Connection)” in official reports. This sect is 
 often confused with the Disciples of Christ (Camp- 
 bellites) owing to the fact that Barton Stone and 
 many of his associates joined the latter in 1832, 
 retaining, however, the name “Christian.” A 
 division in the church occurred in 1854 due to the 
 slavery question, the two factions uniting again 
 in 1890. 
 
 Foreign missionary work is carried on in Porto 
 Rico and in Japan, the mission in the latter coun¬ 
 try forming a conference independent of control by 
 the American conference. In the two countries 
 there were in 1920, 12 American missionaries, 22 
 native helpers and 1,639 communicants. In the 
 United States this church controls seven educa¬ 
 tional institutions (including one for negroes), with 
 about 1,500 students. The headquarters of the 
 church are at Dayton, Ohio, where are issued the 
 “Herald of Gospel Liberty,” a weekly, founded in 
 1808, and claiming to be the oldest English-language 
 religious newspaper in the United States, the “Chris¬ 
 tian Missionary” (monthly), the “Christian Van¬ 
 guard” (monthly), and the “Christian Annual.” 
 This sect reported in 1920, 1,204 churches, 1,037 
 ministers, 105,310 members (118,000 in 1916). In 
 1922 the statistics of the Federal Council of 
 Churches of Christ gave the membership _of this 
 church as 97,084, terming it a gain of 21,653 over 
 the figures for 1921. The various statistics are 
 not entirely reliable; it is safe to conclude that 
 the membership is about 100,000. This denomina¬ 
 tion has its greatest strength in Ohio., North Caro¬ 
 lina, Virginia, Illinois, and Indiana. 
 
 Riggle, The Christian Church, Its Rise and Progress (Ander¬ 
 son, Ind., 1912); Meagher, History of the Protestant Religions 
 (New York, 1914); Religious Bodies, 1916 (Washington, 1919); 
 Year Book of the Churches (New York, annual). 
 
 Gerald Shaughnessy. 
 
 Christian Science (Church of Christ, Scien¬ 
 tist), an American sect, chartered in 1879 by Mrs. 
 Mary Baker Glover (Patterson) Eddy, is a theo- 
 sophic, therapeutic religious system of “healing’ 
 which rejects doctrinal belief as a religious basis 
 and claims, through a revival of the apostolic 
 healing of Christ (hence the name Christian) to 
 depend on the application of scientific rules (hence 
 Science) in the accomplishment of its work. 
 
 Tenets, Government, Ritual. —No creed as such 
 is recognized in this church, but the official text¬ 
 book, Mrs. Eddy’s “Science and Health, with Key 
 to the Scriptures,” contains the teachings and the 
 rules for healing of the sick and saving the sinner, 
 and in the “Manual” are found the tenets which 
 must be subscribed to by one obtaining membership 
 in the church. These tenets are as follows: 1. As 
 adherents of Truth we take the inspired Word of 
 the Bible as our sufficient guide to eternal Life. 
 2. We acknowledge and adore one supreme and 
 infinite God. We acknowledge his Son, one Christ; 
 the Holy Ghost or divine Comforter; and man in 
 God’s image and likeness. 3. We acknowledge 
 God’s forgiveness of sin in the destruction of sin 
 and the spiritual understanding that casts out evil 
 as unreal. But the belief in sin is punished so 
 long as the belief lasts. 4. We acknowledge Jesus’ 
 atonement as the evidence of divine efficacious love, 
 unfolding man’s unity with God through Christ the 
 Way-shower; and we acknowledge that man is 
 saved through Christ, through Truth, Life, and Love 
 as demonstrated by the Galilean Prophet in heal¬ 
 ing the sick and overcoming sin and death. 5. We 
 acknowledge that the crucifixion of Jesus and His 
 resurrection served to uplift faith to understand 
 eternal life, even the allness of Soul, "Spirit, and 
 the nothingness of matter. 6. And we solemnly 
 promise to watch and pray for that Mind to be 
 in us which was in Christ Jesus; to do unto others 
 as we would have them do unto us; and to be 
 merciful, just, and pure. _ 
 
 Explanatory of the foregoing is the “scientific 
 statement of being”: “There is no life, truth, in¬ 
 telligence, nor substance in matter. All is infinite 
 Mind and its infinite manifestation, for God is 
 
 
 
CHRISTIAN 
 
 199 
 
 CHRISTIAN 
 
 All-in-all. Spirit is immortal Truth; matter is 
 mortal error. Spirit is the real and eternal; matter 
 is the unreal and temporal. Spirit is God, and 
 man His image and likeness. Therefore man is 
 not material; he is spiritual.” 
 
 Christian Science claims to be essentially a 
 method of healing; of curing both body and soul; 
 it seeks “the mental, moral, and physical regenera¬ 
 tion of mankind.” Power to heal sickness and 
 sin is the sign of true discipleship of Jesus, and 
 Mrs. Eddy asserted that He gave a command, bind¬ 
 ing on all His followers, to preach and heal. Sick¬ 
 ness, sin, matter, pain, pleasure, death, evil in 
 general, are declared to be nothing, to be “mortal 
 mind,” while only Mind (immortal, infinite Mind) 
 is real, and God is Mind. Disease being mental 
 error, the cure consists in convincing the patient 
 of the error. There are no sacraments in Christian 
 Science; there is no prayer, properly so-called, for 
 “man cannot influence God; God influences man.” 
 
 The organization is highly centralized, the “First 
 Church of Christ, Scientist” in Boston, the “Mother 
 Church,” being the center. This center is governed 
 by the “Manual of the Mother Church” (by Mrs. 
 Eddy), which contains “the Church Tenets, Rules, 
 and By-Laws, as prepared by Mrs. Eddy.” Until 
 her death Mrs. Eddy was at first Pastor and later 
 Pastor Emeritus with practically unlimited power. 
 There are besides a Board of (5) Directors, who 
 elect also a President, a Clerk, a Treasurer, and 
 two Readers. In addition there is a Board of 
 Trustees who conduct the business of the Christian 
 Science Publishing Society, the Board of Directors 
 having power to declare vacancies in this Board. 
 The branch churches are forbidden to use the 
 “Manual,” and while they are declared to have 
 each its own form of government, subordination 
 to the Mother Church is obtained through the 
 regulation requiring at least 16 members, four of 
 whom must be members of the Mother Church, 
 before a branch can be organized, while in addition 
 every Reader in a branch church must be a mem¬ 
 ber of the Mother Church. Since Mrs. Eddy’s 
 death the question of the possession of supreme 
 authority has been disputed by the two boards, 
 and is not yet definitely settled. 
 
 There are no pastors in the usual sense of the 
 term in Christian Science, the Bible and “Science 
 and Health” taking their places according to the 
 decree issued by Mrs. Eddy in 1895: “Humbly, 
 and as I believe, divinely directed, I hereby ordain 
 the Bible and ‘Science and Health, with Key to 
 the Scriptures’ to be hereafter the only pastor of 
 the Church of Christ, Scientist, throughout our 
 land, and in other lands.” Services are conducted 
 in accordance with the “Order of Service” con¬ 
 tained in the “Manual,” and consist of fourteen 
 exercises: a hymn, a Scriptural selection, silent 
 prayer, followed by the audible repetition of the 
 Lord’s prayer with its “spiritual interpretation,” 
 another hymn, a “solo” the lesson-sermon (a correla¬ 
 tion of Scriptural texts and excerpts from “Science 
 and Health,” indicated in advance by the central 
 authorities and read alternately by the Readers, the 
 first Reader, as being the most important reading the 
 “Science and Health” passages), then after the col¬ 
 lection another hymn is followed by the reading of the 
 “scientific statement of being” (see above), and the 
 meeting closes with a benediction, which consists 
 in reading a verse from Scripture. This service is 
 conducted on Sunday morning and evening. There 
 is also a Wednesday evening service of a similar 
 nature, characterized by the giving of “testimony” 
 in regard to cures performed or experienced. The 
 
 Lord’s Prayer, with its “interpretation'” is as fol¬ 
 lows : 
 
 Our Father which art in Heaven, 
 
 Our Father-Mother God, all harmonious, 
 Hallowed be Thy name, 
 
 Adorable one, 
 
 Thy Kingdom come, 
 
 Thy Kingdom is within us, Thou art ever 
 present, 
 
 Thy will be done on earth as it is in Heaven. 
 
 Enable us to know—as in Heaven, so on earth 
 —God is omnipotent, supreme. 
 
 Give us this day our daily bread; 
 
 Give us grace for today; feed the famished 
 affections; 
 
 And forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors; 
 
 And Love is reflected in love; 
 
 And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us 
 from evil, 
 
 And God leadeth us not into temptation, but 
 delivereth us from sin, disease, and death, 
 For thine is the Kingdom, and the power, and the 
 glory for ever. 
 
 For God is infinite, all-Power, all-Life, Truth, 
 Love, over all and All. 
 
 For the convenience of its members and the 
 propagation of its teachings among visitors, every 
 Christian Scientist Church conducts a free reading 
 room, in which are to be found books and publica¬ 
 tions issued by the Publication Society. 
 
 Healing.— Actual treatment of cases to be healed 
 is generally carried on (or supposed to be) in con¬ 
 nection with the Church, and a regular fee is 
 charged. Individual practitioners also treat cases, 
 having offices and office hours after the manner of 
 physicians. According to “Science and Health” the 
 human mind (since it is unreal) is not a healing 
 agent, is not a factor in the principle of Christian 
 Science which denies that it cures by mental sug¬ 
 gestion or human will-power or by any form of 
 faith cure. Healing is attributed to Mind (that is, 
 God), through the mere knowledge of or belief in 
 this Mind on the part of the patient. “Human will¬ 
 power,” according to Mrs. Eddy, is not science. 
 “Human will belongs to the so-called material 
 senses, and its use is to be condemned. Willing 
 the sick to recover is not the metaphysical practice 
 of Christian Science, but is sheer animal mag¬ 
 netism.” “The efficient remedy is to destroy the 
 patient’s false belief by both silently and audibly 
 arguing the true facts in regard to harmonious 
 being—representing man as healthy instead of 
 diseased, and showing that it is impossible for 
 matter to suffer, to feel pain or heat, to be thirsty 
 or sick. Destroy fear, and you end fever.” “Mind 
 [capitalized] has no affinity with matter, and 
 therefore Truth is able to cast out the ills of the 
 flesh.” The following excerpt illustrates somewhat 
 the principles of Mrs. Eddy: “You say a boil is 
 painful; but that is impossible, for matter without 
 mind is not painful. The boil simply manifests, 
 through inflammation and swelling, a belief in 
 pain, and this belief is called a boil. Now admin¬ 
 ister mentally to your patient a high attenuation 
 (sic) of truth, and it will soon cure the boil. The 
 fact that pain cannot exist where there is no mortal 
 mind to feel it is proof that this so-called mind 
 makes its own pain—that is, its own belief in pain.” 
 Surgical cases, as Mrs. Eddy decreed after several 
 unfortunate experiences, are not to be treated by 
 Christian Scientists: “Until the advancing age 
 admits the efficacy and supremacy of Mind, it is 
 better for Christian Scientists to leave surgery and 
 the adjustment of broken bones and dislocations to 
 the fingers of a surgeon, while the mental healer 
 
CHRISTIAN 
 
 200 
 
 CHRISTIAN 
 
 confines himself chiefly to mental reconstruction 
 and to the prevention of inflammation. Christian 
 Science is always the most skillful surgeon, but 
 surgery is the branch of its healing which will be 
 the last acknowledged.’* Carrying its principles to 
 their logical conclusion Christian Science conducts 
 no charitable or philanthropic work, and naturally 
 maintains no hospitals. However, the Mother 
 Church founded, in 1919, for the benefit of its 
 members, “The Christian Science Benevolent Asso¬ 
 ciation.” 
 
 History— Mary A. Morse Baker, who was to 
 become the founder of Christian Science, was born 
 in Bow, New Hampshire, 16 July, 1821, of Con¬ 
 gregational parents who were of a humble station 
 in life. Of a peculiar “mystical” temperament, the 
 young girl imagined at the age of eight that she 
 heard “voices” calling her, an experience which she 
 later compared to the call of Samuel. Subject to 
 hysterical and even cataleptic attacks, and of a 
 quarrelsome and petulant nature, it was said of 
 her by her father, “If Mary Magdalene had seven 
 devils, our Mary has ten.” She received a very 
 meager common school education, regular attend¬ 
 ance often being prohibited by her sickness. She 
 joined the Congregational (Trinitarian) Church at 
 the age of seventeen (Mrs. Eddy herself claims at 
 the age of twelve), though denying the doctrine of 
 Calvinistic predestination. In 1843 she married 
 George Washington Glover, by whom she had one 
 son (born after his father’s death). This son she 
 sent away when he was four years of age, not 
 to meet him again for thirty years. In 1853 she 
 married Daniel Patterson, became separated from 
 him in 1866, and divorced him in 1873. In 1877 
 she married Asa G. Eddy, who died in 1882 of 
 heart disease, but according to Mrs. Eddy of 
 “arsenic” or “mesmeric poison mentally adminis¬ 
 tered.” In the meanwhile, before her last mar¬ 
 riage, her life for many years had been one of 
 poverty, sickness, and trouble. Friends and rela¬ 
 tions with whom she sought refuge were repeatedly 
 forced to send her away because of the discord 
 and trouble which she caused in their families, 
 so that in the course of a few years she had had 
 nine dwelling places, being charged at the last 
 place with attempting to set the house on fire. 
 
 The age and the locality in which Mrs. Eddy 
 passed her young womanhood were characterized 
 by a religious unrest which gave rise to many cults. 
 New England Transcendentalism, the Shakers, 
 various seers and healers who gathered about them¬ 
 selves communities of followers, Joseph Smith and 
 his product Mormonism, Mesmerism, the spirit 
 rappings of the Fox sisters—these are a few 
 examples of the riot of individualism in religion, 
 all of which could hardly have passed unnoticed by 
 one of Mrs. Eddy’s temperament and character, 
 situated as she was in the very midst of the excite¬ 
 ment which they occasioned. In 1862 Mrs. Eddy 
 (Mrs. Patterson) applied for treatment for her ills 
 to Dr. P. P. Quimby, who at one time had been a 
 follower of Charles Poyen, a French Mesmerist, 
 but who had at this time adopted a “mental treat¬ 
 ment” of healing, discarding all medicines, and 
 declaring “Truth” to be the healer. Declaring her¬ 
 self cured after three weeks’ treatment, she began 
 to study Quimby’s methods and ideas, and from 
 1864 to 1870 she taught the “Quimby science of 
 healing” from a manuscript said to have been 
 written by him, although later she absolutely denied 
 that her “science” was in any way derived from 
 or dependent on that of Quimby’s. She herself 
 places the “discovery” of her “science” in 1864 in 
 the first edition of “Science and Health,” and in 
 
 1866 (after Quimby’s death) in later editions. This 
 “discovery” in 1866 she laid to a wonderful recovery 
 from the effects of an injury caused by an'accident, 
 “an injury neither medicine nor surgery could reach, 
 which was the falling apple that led me to the 
 discovery how to be well myself and how to make 
 
 others so.I could only assure him [the 
 
 physician] that the Divine Spirit had wrought a 
 miracle which later I found to be in perfect scien¬ 
 tific record with divine law” (that is, natural and 
 not really miraculous). Doctor Cushing, who at¬ 
 tended her for this injury, in an affidavit made in 
 1907, absolutely denied that there took place any 
 wonderful or immediate cure at this time. From 
 1864 to 1870, while busy teaching “Quimby’s 
 Science,” Mrs. Eddy (Patterson) was also preparing 
 her manuscript for which she tried to find a pub¬ 
 lisher in 1870. In 1875 the first edition of “Science 
 and Health” appeared, meeting with a very poor 
 reception on the part of the public. Nevertheless, 
 through her students which she had gathered around 
 her, she fanned the smouldering embers of the 
 movement and succeeded in issuing a second edi¬ 
 tion in 1877; and thereafter edition followed edition 
 in quick succession, so that to-day nearly five hun¬ 
 dred have been issued, the number of the edition 
 no longer being indicated, the only identification 
 now being the year of publication. In 1884 the 
 “Key to the Scriptures” was added. 
 
 Although apparently not intending at first to 
 found a church, Mrs. Eddy gathered about her, in 
 1875, eight students under the title of “Christian 
 Scientists,” and in 1876 these formed the “Christian 
 Scientists’ Association.” Trouble was brewing, how¬ 
 ever, and having previously “excommunicated” 
 Richard Kennedy, one of her younger students 
 who had helped her financially, she also ejected 
 Daniel Spofford, whom she brought to trial at 
 Salem (fitting place!) on the charge of witchcraft 
 in 1878. Acquitted, he in turn accused Mr. and 
 Mrs. Eddy and one of her students of conspiracy 
 to murder him (Spofford), but the case was nolle 
 prossed, Mr. Eddy paying the costs. In 1879 Mrs. 
 Eddy founded, under a state charter, her first 
 church organization, “The Church of Christ, Scien¬ 
 tist,” in Boston, with 26 charter members. Mrs. 
 Eddy became “pastor” in 1881, built the original 
 “Mother Church” in Boston in 1894-5, and in 1906 
 the “Annex” with a seating capacity of 5000 was 
 dedicated in the presence of 40,000 (so it is claimed) 
 Christian Scientists. The “Mother Church” and 
 “Annex” are said to represent an investment of 
 about $2,000,000. In 1895 when the Bible and 
 “Science and Health, with Key to the Scriptures” 
 were “ordained” as the pastor of the church, Mrs. 
 Eddy became Pastor Emeritus, which position she 
 held until her death, 3 December, 1910. 
 
 Previous to her death dissension had been ram¬ 
 pant in the church, owing to Mrs. Eddy’s efforts 
 to retain in her own hands supreme control not 
 only of the Mother Church, but also of all the 
 branches. Since her death there has been almost 
 continuous contention among the various authori¬ 
 ties in control; the Board of Directors and the 
 Board of Trustees of the Publication Society. 
 Since 1919, particularly, lawsuits have been re¬ 
 sorted to and the entire organization may be said 
 to be in a precarious condition in regard to the 
 question as to where the authority in the church 
 really rests. 
 
 Statistics. —Because of the vast number of edi¬ 
 tions which “Science and Health” has reached, 
 because of the, at times, widespread interest, dis¬ 
 cussion, and controversy due to the very peculiar 
 doctrines of Christian Science, and because of the 
 
CHRISTIAN 
 
 201 
 
 CHRISTIAN 
 
 centralized and, formerly at least, highly efficient 
 organization, and its reputedly enormous wealth, 
 the impression has rather generally prevailed that 
 Christian Science boasts a vast number of fol¬ 
 lowers. Actually it ranks in membership about 
 fiftieth in the list of the denominations existing 
 in the United States at the present time (1922). 
 In the United States census of 1890 the Church 
 of Christ, Scientist, reported 221 churches and 8724 
 members, an average of 40 members to each church. 
 In the United States religious report for 1906 they 
 reported 638 organizations, Nevada and New 
 Mexico alone being without an organization. 
 Nearly one-half of the members were in the north 
 central group of States, Illinois having the largest 
 number with 54. There were 85,717 members, less 
 than 120 to each organization; 28 per cent of the 
 members were males, 72 per cent females. There 
 were 253 church edifices, 551 Sunday schools, 3155 
 teachers, and 16,116 pupils. The Readers numbered 
 1276. The value of the church property was $8,806,- 
 441. In computing the membership, however, it 
 must be remembered that there is much duplication 
 in the church records, since many members belong 
 both to a branch church and to the Mother Church. 
 Thus in 1906 nearly one-half the membership 
 (41,309) belonged to the latter, so that, deducting 
 for this duplication, the real net membership in all 
 the organizations was probably somewhere between 
 fifty and sixty thousand. 
 
 Since 1906 Christian Scientists have refused to 
 make public their membership statistics in accord¬ 
 ance with the following article which Mrs. Eddy 
 inserted in the ‘‘Manual”: “Christian Scientists 
 shall not report for publication the number of the 
 members of the Mother Church, nor that of the 
 branch churches. According to Scripture they shall 
 turn away from personality and numbering the 
 people.” Probably a decrease in the previous rapid 
 growth caused this order, but whatever its reason 
 since then no statistics have been published and 
 the Christian Scientists were not enumerated in the 
 government religious report for 1916. However, a 
 fairly accurate estimate based on the list of their 
 churches and societies in the world as published in 
 the “Christian Science Journal” has been made by 
 a recent writer (see bibliog., Snowden). In 1919 
 there were 1702 organizations in the world, 1504 
 (840 churches and 664 societies) in the United 
 States (a total of 1589 in 1922), and 198 (122 
 churches and 76 societies) in foreign countries. 
 The estimate of total membership on this basis 
 may be placed at about 1 Id 1 ,000 in 1922, but deduc¬ 
 tions for duplication make it probable that the 
 total membership in the world is under 100,000. 
 Outside the United States the sect is located in 
 England, Scotland, Ireland, France, Germany, Hol¬ 
 land, Switzerland, Norway, Sweden, Canada, 
 Mexico, Argentina, Australia, China, and the Trans¬ 
 vaal. The apparent discrepancy between the small 
 number of members and the vast number of copies 
 of “Science and Health” issued (there have ap¬ 
 peared as many as nine editions in one year) is 
 explained by the fact that each new edition be¬ 
 comes the standard and authentic one for use by 
 the members, who accordingly are supposed to 
 discard the “old” and buy a “new” edition, even 
 though the latter differed at times from the 
 previous edition merely by the addition of one or 
 two lines. 
 
 Criticism.— There is no clear and precise state¬ 
 ment of philosophy and theology in “Science and 
 Health,” the textbook of Christian Science, and a 
 criticism of its doctrines and tendencies is rendered 
 doubly difficult by the confusion of thought, “the 
 
 quasiphilosophical language of the book, the abuse 
 of terms, the employment of ambiguous words at 
 crucial points, the character of the exegesis, the 
 broken-backed paradoxes, the astonishing language, 
 the egotism,” and the contradictions which abound 
 on nearly every page. Tested by Catholic doc¬ 
 trine, however, sufficient statements can be gleaned 
 from it to prove that it is the ne plus ultra of 
 heresy and error. We shall first subject its doc¬ 
 trine to a parallel comparison with the statements 
 contained in the Apostles’ Creed: I believe. Faith, 
 or intellectual acceptance of revealed truth on the 
 authority of God revealing it, is not admitted by 
 Mrs. Eddy according to her question and answer: 
 “Have Christian Scientists any religious creed? 
 They have not, if we accept the term as doctrinal 
 beliefs.” She does, however, speak of being fitted 
 by God “for the reception of a final revelation of 
 the absolute divine Principle of scientific being and 
 healing.” In God, the Father Almighty, Creator 
 of heaven and earth. Mrs. Eddy teaches a form 
 of Pantheism, in which she identifies a non-per¬ 
 sonal God with man. Thus she says: “God is all 
 
 in all, but all things are not God.He is an 
 
 infinite Man and we are men by virtue of our 
 derivation and conception from Him.” “God is 
 Principle and not person, Mind, and not matter. 
 ... . God, which (sic) is the perfect Mind or 
 Principle, including the perfect idea, is all that is 
 real or eternal.” “Like the ray of light that cometh 
 from the sun, man is the outcome of God.” “All 
 is Mind, and Mind is God.” “God, without the 
 image and likeness [man] of Himself, would be a 
 nonentity or Mind unexpressed.” The Trinity she 
 misunderstands and rejects. “Who,” she says, “can 
 conceive either of three persons as one person or 
 of three infinities in one infinity?” And again, the 
 Trinity she says, “is suggestive of polytheism.” As 
 for the Creation, it “consists of the unfolding of 
 spiritual ideas and their identities, which are em¬ 
 braced in the infinite Mind and forever reflected.” 
 Matter according to Mrs. Eddy is error, mortal 
 mind, and the 2nd chapter of Genesis, she tells 
 us, “contains a statement of this material view of 
 G 9 d and the universe,” which “is a lie.” Mortal 
 mind, matter, she explains originated from a mist 
 which went up from the earth. 
 
 And in Jesus Christ, His only Son, our Lord. 
 Mrs. Eddy tells us that “there is a dual personality 
 in Christ, the unseen and the seen, the spiritual 
 and material, the Christ and Jesus.” “Christ is 
 eternal, Jesus is mortal,” while she states in another 
 passage that Christ is “Truth,” “the divine mani¬ 
 festation of God, which comes to destroy incarnate 
 error,” and “Jesus is the highest human corporeal 
 concept of the divine idea.” Again she tells us, ; 
 “Christ is the Holy Ghost, the Comforter.” The 
 chief error which Mrs. Eddy resurrects in her treat¬ 
 ment of our Lord is Nestorianism (holding two per¬ 
 sons in Christ) against the Catholic teaching that 
 there is only one person (the Divine) in Christ. At the 
 same time she goes further and denies His divinity, 
 and his position in the Trinity since she admits no 
 such doctrine. Who was conceived by the Holy 
 Ghost, born of the Virgin Mary. Mrs. Eddy admits 
 the Virgin birth of our Lord, but merely because 
 she blasphemously denies its miraculous character, 
 considering “His birth what everyone’s should be,” 
 and “explaining” it by saying that in the birth of 
 Jesus “the Science of being overshadowed the sense 
 of the Virgin mother, with a full recognition that 
 Spirit is the basis of being.” She taught further 
 that any woman with “sufficient science” can con¬ 
 ceive a child through mental generation, and in 
 fact at least one of her disciples claimed to have 
 
CHRISTIAN 
 
 202 
 
 CHRISTIAN 
 
 thus conceived, ineptly styling it an “immaculate 
 conception” not understanding the signification of 
 this term, but intending to convey the idea that her 
 child was an instance of genesis without physical 
 generation. Suffered under Pontius Pilate, was 
 
 crucified, died, and was buried . He shall come 
 
 to judge the living and the dead. It must be re¬ 
 membered that Christian Science holds that pain, 
 suffering and sin are “mortal mind,” error, unreality, 
 a “delusion,” “nothing.” “The only reality of sin 
 .... is the awful fact that unrealities seem real 
 to human belief until God strips off their dis¬ 
 guises.” “In Christian Science the fact is made 
 obvious, that the sinner and the sin are alike noth¬ 
 ingness.” “God never made man capable of sin. 
 
 .... Man is incapable of sin.For he derives 
 
 his essence from God, and does not possess a single 
 or underived power.” Hence according to this 
 teaching Christ could not and did not suffer; He 
 could not and did not atone for our sins. Yet 
 inconsistently as ever, Mrs. Eddy in other passages 
 declares that “the atonement of Christ reconciles 
 man to 'God, not God to man,” for “to remit the 
 penalty due to sin [which she claims does not 
 exist] would be for Truth to pardon error”; and 
 “Sin is not forgiven; we cannot escape its penalty. 
 .... Suffering [which is unreality] for sin is all 
 that destroys it.” Whichever passages we take as 
 her real interpretation we find that she has rejected 
 the central doctrines of Christianity. Nor did 
 Jesus die for death, too, is unreal and non-existent: 
 “When you waken yourself out of the belief that 
 all must die, you can then exercise Jesus’ spiritual 
 power to reproduce the presence of those who have 
 thought they have died—but not otherwise.” How¬ 
 ever, within the tomb, Mrs. Eddy says, our Savior 
 solves the problem of being and through this 
 solution He later appears to His disciples: “The 
 lonely precincts of the tomb gave Jesus a refuge 
 from His foes, a place in which to solve the great 
 problem of being. His three days’ work in the 
 sepulchre set the seal of eternity on time. . . . . 
 He met and mastered on the basis of Christian Sci¬ 
 ence, the power of mind over matter, all the claims 
 of medicine, surgery, and hygiene.” Apparently 
 she intends to teach in this passage that Jesus 
 was alive in the tomb; incidentally she denies His 
 omniscience for He had to seek a refuge in which to 
 solve the problem of being! The Resurrection, then, 
 did not take place since Jesus did not really die, 
 and the Ascension Mrs. Eddy explains away by 
 teaching that He merely rose above the material 
 senses of His disciples, as her own disciples will 
 be able to do when they conquer “mortal mind.” 
 “In His final demonstration, called the Ascension, 
 r He rose above the physical knowledge of His 
 disciples, and the material senses saw Him no 
 more.” The Last Judgment Mrs. Eddy relegates 
 also to the realm of unreality by teaching that 
 the next world is merely a state in which sense 
 knowledge, pleasure and pain will have disappeared 
 and there will be no personality or existence apart 
 from God. This denial of the Last Judgment is 
 merely another aspect of her Pantheism (although 
 she strenuously denied that her system was Pan¬ 
 theistic). 
 
 I believe in the Holy Ghost. As stated above 
 Mrs. Eddy denies the Trinity and hence the 
 divinity of the third Person of the Blessed Trinity. 
 In one place she identifies the Holy Ghost with 
 “divine Science” (i. e., Christian Science!) She 
 says, “In words of St. John: ‘He shall give you 
 another Comforter, that he may abide with you 
 forever.’ This Comforter I understand to be divine 
 Science.” Yet in another passage we are told that 
 
 Christ is the Holy Ghost! “Jesus demonstrated 
 Christ; he proved that Christ is the divine idea 
 of God—the Holy Ghost, or Comforter, revealing 
 the divine Principle, Love, and leading into all 
 truth.” 
 
 As for the Holy Catholic Church Mrs. Eddy’s 
 ideas on this point are clear from the unchristian 
 and uncatholic church which she took the trouble 
 to found. The Communion of Saints is rejected, 
 too, whether in this world or in the next since the 
 only reality is God. Prayer is useless, for Mrs. 
 Eddy says, “Prayer is unnecessary, as the All 
 has already decreed what is good for us,” and, “a 
 mere request that God will heal the sick has no 
 power to gain more of the divine presen ’,e than 
 is always at hand.” Yet we are told that Christian 
 Scientists heal sickness through prayer, a prayer 
 however of “affirmation,” for “the prayer that heals 
 the sick is an absolute understanding of God.” 
 What Mrs. Eddy taught on the forgiveness of sins 
 is clear from her treatment of Christ and the 
 Atonement, while the resurrection of the body and 
 the eschatological doctrine of life everlasting have 
 also been touched upon in the same connection. 
 
 The sacraments naturally are rejected by Mrs. 
 Eddy but a word is necessary on her treatment of 
 marriage to which she devotes a chapter of “Sci¬ 
 ence and Health.” Marriage, because its very 
 nature would seem to give the lie to her denials 
 of matter, Mrs. Eddy publicly characterized as 
 “synonymous with legalized lust” (“C. S. Journal,” 
 July, 1906). Inferentially she declares in “Miscel¬ 
 laneous Writings” that there will come a time when 
 marriage will be prohibited in Christian Science. 
 “Until Time matures human growth, marriage and 
 progeny will continue unprohibited in Christian 
 Science. We look to future generations for ability 
 to comply with absolute Science when marriage 
 shall be found to be man’s oneness with God. To 
 abolish marriage at this period and maintain moral¬ 
 ity and generation would put ingenuity to ludicrous 
 shifts [it certainly would!] yet this is possible in 
 Science, though to-day it is problematic.” In “Sci¬ 
 ence and Health” she states, “Proportionally as 
 human generation ceases, the unbroken links of 
 eternal harmonious being will be discerned, and 
 man not of the earth earthly, but co-existent with 
 God, will appear.” 
 
 It is hardly necessary to dwell at length on the 
 immoral tendencies apparent throughout the teach¬ 
 ings of Christian Science, apart from their evident 
 denial of all Catholic dogma. Freedom of the will 
 is denied for man is but a reflection of God. Sin 
 furthermore is unreality, and hence there can, 
 according to Mrs. Eddy, be no such thing as im¬ 
 morality ayd therefore there is no means afforded 
 against the onslaughts of temptation. Finally, if 
 not directly, at least indirectly, the evils of birth 
 control are inculcated in her teaching on marriage 
 when she teaches that “a wife need not esteem the 
 privilege of becoming a mother,” and that children 
 are “errors.” 
 
 As for the cures which Christian Science purports 
 to perform, a lengthy discussion is out of place 
 here. That some cures are performed is unques¬ 
 tionable, but they must be attributed to “faith 
 healing,” or suggestion, despite the denials of Mrs. 
 Eddy that such factors enter in. Some, too, may 
 be providential cures permitted by God to those 
 who approach Him in good faith, even though they 
 be in error. Officially, however, the fundamental 
 point on which Mrs. Eddy based her teaching on 
 this question is that the miracles of Christ were 
 mere natural phenomena within the control of 
 anyone who rises above “mortal mind,” and that 
 
CHRISTIAN 
 
 203 
 
 CHURCH COLLECTIONS 
 
 Christian Science places this power within the 
 reach of its adherents. (For discussion of the 
 Catholic doctrine on miracles, etc., see C. E. arti¬ 
 cles: Miracles; Lourdes. See also especially, Bell- 
 wald, “Christian Science and the Catholic Faith,” 
 in which this point is treated in extenso.) 
 
 A brief statement of Mrs. Eddy’s exalted claims 
 to divine guidance in her life-work will suffice to 
 indicate, when compared with the information ad¬ 
 duced in this article, the utterly misguided efforts 
 of that woman whom, all things considered, it is 
 difficult not to brand as an imposter. As related 
 above she claims divine revelation in her “discov¬ 
 ery” of Christian Science. Repeating this state¬ 
 ment she says, “In the year 1866 I discovered the 
 Christ Science or divine laws of Life and named it 
 
 Christian Science.For I neither received it of 
 
 man, neither was I taught it, but by the revelation 
 of Jesus Christ.” She also informs us that, “No 
 person can take the place of the Virgin Mary. No 
 person can compass or fulfil the individual mission 
 of Jesus of Nazareth. No person can take the 
 place of the author of ‘Science and Health/ the 
 discoverer and founder of Christian Science.” Her 
 book she 'placed on a par with, even above, the 
 Holy Bible and she did not refuse to be identified 
 with the Woman of the Apocalypse and so high 
 was she raised in the estimation of her followers 
 that when she “died” many denied her death, 
 while her resurrection was for some time hourly 
 expected. Truly her ego had impressed itself on 
 her works and her followers, so that not inaptly did 
 she place on the flyleaf of “Science and Health” 
 the peculiar, yet viewed in this light, the significant 
 inscription: 
 
 “I,I,I,I itself, I 
 
 The inside and outside, the what and the why, 
 The when and the where, the low and the high, 
 
 All I,I,I,I itself, I.” 
 
 Revelation does not come to such as Mrs. Eddy, 
 nor is it proved by her works. The entire criticism 
 of Christian Science may be summed up in the 
 statement that it is neither Christian nor scientific. 
 
 Works by Christian Scientists: Eddy, Science and Health 
 with Key to the Scriptures (Boston, 1875, and innumerable 
 later editions); Idem, Retrospection and Introspection (Bos¬ 
 ton, 1891); Idem, Unity of Good and Unreality of Evil (Bos¬ 
 ton, 1915); Idem, No and I’es (Boston, 1917); Idem, Christian 
 Science versus Pantheism (Boston, 1917); Idem, Miscellaneous 
 Writings, 1883-1898; Idem, The Manual of the Mother Church 
 (Boston, 1919); Hanna, Christian Science History (Boston, 
 1899); Caporn, Awake, Christian Scientists! (Boston, 1921); 
 Legal Aspects of Christian Science (Boston, 1899); Wilbur, 
 Life of Mary Baker Eddy (New York, 1908); Periodicals: 
 Christian Science Quarterly (contains the “lesson-sermons”); 
 Christian Science Journal (monthly); Christian Science Sen¬ 
 tinel (weekly); Christian Science Monitor (daily). 
 
 Non-Catholic Criticisms: Buckley, Christian Science and 
 Other Superstitions (New York, 1899); Idem, Faith-healing, 
 Christian Science and Kindred Phenomena (New York, 1892); 
 The Quimby Manuscripts, ed. Dresser (New York, 1921); 
 Snowden, The Truth About Christian Science (Philadelphia, 
 1920); Powell, Christian Science, the Faith and the Founder 
 (New York, 1907): Dresser, History of the New Thought 
 Movement (New York, 1919); Paget, The Faith and Works 
 of Christian Science (London, 1909); Milmine, The, Life of 
 Mary Baker Glover Eddy and the History of Christian Sci¬ 
 ence (New York, 1909), very important; Marsten, The Mask 
 of Christian Science (New York, 1909); Peabody, The Religio- 
 medical Masquerade (New York, 1915); Clemens (Mark 
 Twain), Christian Science with Notes Containing Corrections 
 to Date (New York, 1917); Putnam, Christian Science and 
 Its Real Author (Chicago, 1921); Campbell, What Christian 
 Science Means and What We Can Learn from It (New York, 
 1920); for 1906 statistics see Religious Bodies, 1906 (Wash¬ 
 ington, 1909). 
 
 Catholic Works: Bellwald, Christian Science and the 
 Catholic Faith (New York, 1922), contains copious treatment 
 and bibliography on the question of Christian Science 
 cures; Benson, Non-Catholic Denominations (New York, 
 1915); Idem, A Book of Essays (St. Louis, 1916); Idem, 
 Christian Science (review of Science and Health) in Dublin 
 Review, CXLIII (1908), 61, reprinted in Catholic Mind' (No. 
 
 23 of 1908); Lambert, Christian Science Before the Bar of 
 
 Reason (New York, 1908) ; Coakley, Christian Science and the 
 
 Catholic Church (Pittsburgh, 1912); Searle, The Truth About 
 
 Christian Science (New York,1916); Campbell, The Delusion 
 
 of Christian Science m Catholic Mind (No. 24 of 1906)- 
 
 Thurston, Christian Science in Lectures on the History of 
 
 Religions, V (St Louis 1911); Woods, Christian Science in 
 
 T/° f s en es, XLH of whole series (1904), 
 
 WorW M I YYYTY lnSt T / ci ? nce m Catholic 
 
 World, LXXXIX (1909) 373; Duffy, Reflections on Christian 
 
 Science, ibid., XCII (1911), 721; Fevehel, Christian Science 
 
 ibid., XCVI (1912-13), 180, 360, 466, 655. 
 
 . Gerald Shaughnessy. 
 
 Chur (anciently Curia Rh^etorum, Ital. Coira, 
 Fr. Coire, in the local Romance language Cuera), 
 Diocese of (Curiensis; cf. C. E., III-743b), in 
 Switzerland, directly subject to the Holy See. The 
 see is now (1922) filled by Rt. Rev. Georges Schmid 
 de Gruneck, b. at Surrhein 1851, ordained 1875, 
 appointed 7 May, 1908, acted as administrator apos¬ 
 tolic of Lausanne ffom 3 September to 6 Decem¬ 
 ber, 1915, named assistant at the pontifical throne, 
 9 July, 1921. The most important events of this 
 diocese in recent years were, the burning of the 
 famous boys’ college at Schwyz, 3 April, 1910, which 
 was rebuilt during the four years following, and 
 the celebration in 1922 of the centenary of the 
 death of Saint Fidelis, O. M.C., martyr at Sig- 
 maringa. Twenty-five new churches have been 
 erected in the diocese since 1908, and ten great 
 meetings of Catholics from the seven different can¬ 
 tons of the diocese, have been held. Several promi¬ 
 nent clergy have died; Rev. Ferdinand Math, D.D., 
 d. 17 March, 1909; Rev. Christian Tuor, Dean, d. 
 1912; Rev. Martinus Marty, parish priest of Schwyz, 
 brother of Bishop Marty of St. Cloud, d. 1 Septem¬ 
 ber, 1916; Dr. Caspar Decurtius, professor at the 
 University of Fribourg, and a great social scholar, 
 d. June, 1916; Rev. Gaudenz Willi, and Rev. 
 Hieronymus Lovetz, D. D., provosts of the cathe¬ 
 dral, d. 19 November, 1920, and 14 September, 1921. 
 During the World War the clergy and laity as¬ 
 sisted the sick and wounded of all nations, in every 
 way possible; the bishop visited them in their 
 homes in different parts of the diocese, particularly 
 in Davos, Canton of Grisons, where large numbers 
 were suffering from phthisis. 
 
 The Catholic population of this diocese numbers 
 about 300,000, of whom 270,000 speak German, 
 22,000 Romantsch, the total Romance language, and 
 from 7,000 to 8,000 Italian. The remainder of the 
 population, 400,000, are Protestants. By 1922 statis¬ 
 tics the diocese comprises 220 parishes, 542 churches, 
 402 secular and 274 regular clergy, 3 abbeys for 
 men, 7 convents for men and 19 for women, 42 
 lay brothers, 217 religious women, 1 seminary, 
 69 seminarians with 6 professors. The various in¬ 
 stitutions include 8 secondary schools for boys with 
 108 teachers and 2,800 pupils, 6 secondary schools 
 for girls with 36 teachers and 1,110 pupils, 1 normal 
 school with 6 teachers and 50 students, 310 elemen¬ 
 tary schools with 332 teachers and from 12,000 to 
 15,000 pupils, 1 industrial school with 4 teachers 
 and attendance of 70, 1 apostolic school, 5 homes, 
 22 asylums or refuges, 33 hospitals, and 2 day 
 nurseries. All the public institutions permit the 
 priests to minister in them, and four or five of the 
 Catholic schools are aided by the Government. 
 Eight societies are formed among the clergy, and 
 about twenty, many of them inter-diocesan, among 
 the laity. Twenty-seven Catholic periodicals are 
 published here. 
 
 Church Collections.—Admission to services in 
 the church must be entirely gratuitous, all cus¬ 
 toms to the contrary being now reprobated. 
 
 Codex jur. can., 1,181; 1,263; Irish Eccl. Rec., XIII (1919), 
 1,462-65. 
 
CHURCH UNITY OCTAVE 
 
 204 
 
 CIENFUEGOS 
 
 Church Unity Octave —The Church Unity 
 Octave, the observance of which was by Papal 
 Brief of His Holiness Pope Benedict XV extended 
 to the Universal Church and enriched with indul¬ 
 gences on 25 February, 1916, had its inception under 
 the Rev. Paul James Francis, S. A., when he was a 
 “Pro-Roman” Anglican of the Protestant Episcopal 
 Church in the United States of America, in 1908. 
 At that time it was Father Paul’s custom to recog¬ 
 nize the authority of the Chair of Peter by for¬ 
 warding Peter’s Pence to the Apostolic See. The 
 first practical result of the observance of the 
 Church Unity Octave was the submission and 
 corporate reception of seventeen members of the 
 Society of the Atonement, of which Father Paul 
 was the founder and superior, into the Catholic 
 Church on 30 October, 1909. On this date, Father 
 Paul and sixteen of his followers were received 
 in the convent chapel at Gray moor, Garrison, N. 
 Y., by Monsignor Conroy, Auxiliary Bishop of 
 Ogdensburg, acting for His Eminence Cardinal 
 Farley, Archbishop of New York. 
 
 In December, 1909, the Octave received the sanc¬ 
 tion and blessing of Pope Pius X. This was fol¬ 
 lowed by that of their Eminences, Cardinals Farley, 
 O’Connell, Gibbons, and Falconio. Still later Car¬ 
 dinal Bourne of Westminster. Cardinal Logue of 
 Armagh, the Cardinal Archbishop of Quebec and 
 His Grace the Archbishop of Montreal gave their 
 approval to the Octave. Meantime many arch¬ 
 bishops and bishops of the United States, Canada, 
 and England gave the Octave their endorsement 
 and support. Finally, His Holiness Pope Benedict 
 XV, by the above mentioned Brief, extended its 
 observance to the Universal Church, enriching it 
 with indulgences. At the Annual Conference of 
 the American Hierarchy in Washington, D. C., 
 22 September, 1921, Cardinal Dougherty of Phila¬ 
 delphia, presented a resolution to the hierarchy 
 providing that “the Unity Octave be held through¬ 
 out all the dioceses of the United States.” “It 
 was unanimously adopted by the Hierarchy,” Car¬ 
 dinal Dougherty informed the Central Office of 
 the Church Unity Octave, Gray moor, Garrison, N. 
 Y., the day following. 
 
 The Observance of the Octave consists in the 
 daily recitation of the Antiphon: “That they all 
 may be one, as Thou, Father, in Me and I in Thee; 
 that they also may be one in Us; that the world 
 may believe that Thou hast sent Me (St. John, 
 xvii, 21) V. I say unto thee, that thou art Peter; 
 R. And upon this Rock I will build My Church”; 
 followed by the Prayer: O Lord Jesus Christ Who 
 saidst unto Thine Apostles, etc., during the eight 
 days of the Octave from St. Peter’s Chair at Rome, 
 18 January to the Conversion of St. Paul, 25 
 January. A plenary indulgence has been granted 
 on the first or last day of the Octave under the 
 usual conditions. 
 
 Churches of Christ. See Disciples of Christ, II. 
 
 Cienfuegos, Diocese of (Centumfocencis; cf. 
 C. E., III-770c), dependent on Havana, includes 
 all of the province of Santa Clara in Central Cuba. 
 The inhabitants of the diocese number 650,000, of 
 whom 600,000 are Cubans, both whites and negroes; 
 the remainder are emigrants, mostly from Spain, 
 and nearly all are nominal Catholics, excepting 
 small colonies of Chinese, Jamaicans, and Haitians 
 (among whom are many Catholics). In reality the 
 number of men who comply with their religious 
 duties is very much less, as indifferentism reigns. 
 Masons are numerous, and Protestants supplied 
 with abundant money from the United States are 
 
 working to de-christianize Cuba with but small 
 success. The Catholics have improved very much 
 in recent years and work with enthusiasm in many 
 parishes. 
 
 There are 35 parishes, 16 non-parochial churches, 7 
 parishes are served by religious communities: Fran¬ 
 ciscans (2), Carmelites (1), Dominicans (2), Capu¬ 
 chins (1), and Passionists (1), 34 secular and 54 
 regular priests, 4 seminarians at Havana and 2 at 
 the Latin-American College in Rome. 
 
 The colleges and religious establishments in Cien¬ 
 fuegos are: Montserrat College, 25 Jesuits, 400 
 students; French College, 16 Marists, 350 students; 
 Bartolome las Casas College, 7 Dominicans, 100 
 students. For girls: College of the Apostolate of 
 Sacred Heart, 13 religious and 100 students, College 
 of the Incarnate Word, 6 religious, 80 students; 
 College of the Most Holy Rosary, 7, Dominican 
 Sisters, 60 students. Little Sisters of the Poor (15 
 religious) care for 100 aged of both sexes in an asy¬ 
 lum; Servants of Mary are engaged in caring for the 
 sick in their homes (14 religious). There is an asso¬ 
 ciation of Children of Mary directed by Jesuits, with 
 600 members; also in charge of the same Fathers an 
 association of young men, “Anunciata,” with 100 
 members, and an association of workers with 80 
 members. In the Jesuit College there are night 
 classes for workers, also in the Dominican College, 
 where a course in chemistry relating to the sugar 
 industry is given. A council of Knights of Colum¬ 
 bus with 43 members is established in the city. 
 
 In Santa Clara, the capital of the province, there 
 are the following establishments: College of San 
 Pablo de La Cruz, 10 Passionists with 100 stu¬ 
 dents. For girls: Teresian College, 8 religious, 70 
 students; College directed by 6 Sisters of the Love 
 of God with 58 students; in Trinidad a Dominican 
 College for boys with 3 religious and 35 students; 
 College of the Holy Rosary for girls with 8 Domin¬ 
 ican Sisters and 63 students; in Sancti Spiritus the 
 College of the Nativity in charge of 13 Brothers of 
 Christian Doctrine with 200 students; College of 
 the Apostolate of Sacred Heart with 11 religious 
 and 90 girl students; also an asylum for the aged 
 with 14 Little Sisters of the Poor and 60 aged; 
 in Placetas a College of San Antonio, with 4 Fran¬ 
 ciscans and 108 students; in Caibarien, College of 
 the Sacred Heart, 7 Marists and 170 students, Col¬ 
 lege of the Apostolate of Sacred Heart with 9 
 religious and 82 students; in Remedios: College 
 of the Love of God with 6 religious and 82 stu¬ 
 dents. In Sagua la Grande: College of the Sacred 
 Heart directed by Jesuits taught by 9 Brothers of 
 Christian Doctrine with 170 pupils, and night classes 
 given by Jesuit Fathers; College of the Apostolate 
 of the Sacred Heart with 14 religious and 140 stu¬ 
 dents; home for aged with 14 religious and 85 aged; 
 a sanatorium for the Spanish colony is in charge of 
 the Daughters of Calvary with 10 religious and 80 
 patients. In Aguada de Psajeros there is a free col¬ 
 lege for girls supported by the bishop, with 3 
 teachers and 60 girls. In all the churches there are 
 catechism classes in charge of Catholic ladies. 
 There are many associations for men and women 
 in each parish. In all the parishes a Sunday review 
 called “Cultura” is distributed gratis. 
 
 The diocese is administered by an Apostolic 
 administrator, Rt. Rev. Valentin Zubizarreta, D. C., 
 bishop of Camagiiey. The first bishop of Cienfuegos 
 was Aurelio Torres y Sanz, D.C., born in Havana 
 3 January, 1861, elected to Cienfuegos 9 April, 
 1904, transferred 19 January, 1916, as titular Bishop 
 of Argilas when he had renounced his see on 
 account of infirmity, died in 1920. 
 
CILICIA OF THE ARMENIANS 
 
 205 
 
 CINCINNATI 
 
 The native clergy of the diocese are few in num¬ 
 ber and have not been prominent in the recent 
 political struggles. In the civil element, however, 
 are the famous ‘‘Villas,” who meant so much in 
 the War of Independence and in politics following 
 the founding of the republic. The second president 
 of Cuba, Jose Miguel Gomez, who died the past 
 year in New York, was a native of Sancti Spiritus. 
 Near Cienfuegos, in the parish of Cruces, was 
 fought the famous battle of “Mai Tiempo,” when 
 the revolutionary forces were in command of Gen¬ 
 eral Maximo Gomez y Maceo, most valorous of 
 all the Cubans who fought for independence. 
 
 Cilicia of the Armenians, Patriarchate of 
 (Cilicia Armenorum). —In 1830 the Armenians, 
 who received the Faith from the apostles, obtained 
 their civil emancipation by the erection of a 
 primatial see at Constantinople, the titular of 
 which was recognized by an imperial berat of 
 the chiefs of the Armenian Catholic colony in 
 Turkey. The two sees, that of the Patriarchate 
 of Cilicia, and the primatial see of Constantinople, 
 were reunited by Pius IX in 1867, to be governed 
 by the Patriarch of Cilicia who resides at Con¬ 
 stantinople, the patriarchal archdiocese. The 
 present (1922) patriarch is His Excellency Mgr. 
 Paul Terzian, bora in Kiutahia, Asiatic Turkey, 
 1855, studied at Propaganda College, was appointed 
 Bishop of Adana, 8 April, 1892, and promoted to 
 the patriarchate 23 April, 1910, taking the name of 
 Paul Peter XIII. His appointment was confirmed 
 in special form by Pius X, who also conferred the 
 pallium on him in solemn audience, 26 April, 1911, 
 and publicly confirmed by the consistory, 27 
 November following. The patriarch’s chief as¬ 
 sistants are, Mgr. Nasilian, Bishop of Trebizond; 
 a patriarchal vicar in Constantinople, Mgr. Rokos- 
 sian, titular Archbishop of Achrida; a procurator 
 in Rome, Mgr. Kojunian, titular Bishop of 
 Chalcedon; the administrator apostolic of the 
 Armenians in Russia, Rev. Serge Abraamian; and 
 the vicar general for the Armenians of Tiflis, Rev. 
 Denis Kalalozoff. 
 
 In 1920 Mgr. Terzian went to Rome, to one of 
 the conferences organized by the new oriental 
 institute, where he spoke on the origin and develop¬ 
 ment of the Patriarchate of Cilicia for the Arme¬ 
 nians. He later went to Paris and London to defend 
 the interests of his people in the peace negotia¬ 
 tions. In 1920 Cilicia comprised 600,000 Mahom- 
 medans, 150,000 Greek schismatics, the same number 
 of Armenian schismatics, 16,000 Armenian Catholics, 
 85 priests, 13 parishes, 13 churches and chapels, and 
 8 schools with 300 children. 
 
 Cimbebasia, Prefecture Apostolic of (Cim- 
 bebasiensis; cf. C. E., II-773a), is bounded on the 
 North by the degree of latitude determined by the 
 lower course of the Kunene River and the 
 Okawanga River; on the East by the 22nd degree 
 of longitude east' of Greenwich; on the South by 
 the 23rd degree of south latitude in such manner 
 that the border of the civil districts of Windbroek, 
 Gobabis, Kavibib, and Swakopmund constitute also 
 the border of the ecclesiastical territory; on the 
 west by the Atlantic Ocean. As a result of the 
 ‘war this region which was formerly a German 
 colony, is now under the control of the Union of 
 South Africa. The prefecture was erected by a 
 decree of Propaganda, 1 August, 1892, under the 
 n:ime of Lower Cimbebasia which was changed to 
 Cimbebasia by a decree of 10 January, 1921. The 
 Oblates of Mary Immaculate have charge of the 
 mission under the Prefect Apostolic, who resides at 
 Windbroek, the principal station. The other mis¬ 
 
 sion stations are: Little Windbroek, Docbra, 
 Swakopmund, Usakos, Aminuis, Epukiov, Golabis, 
 Omaruru, Okambahe, Grootfontein, Tsumeb, 
 Kokasib, Andara, Njangana. In January, 1921, the 
 former Prefect Apostolic, Rt. Rev. Eugene Klaeyle, 
 resigned, and the present prefect apostolic, Rt. Rev! 
 Joseph Gotthardt, was appointed. The prefecture 
 celebrated its silver jubilee on 8 December, 1921. 
 Practically all eligible males fought in the’ army 
 during the World War. The clergy and religious 
 devoted themselves to the relief of suffering and 
 to the spiritual welfare of the soldiers. 
 
 Of the Catholic population of 3,144, about 800 
 are Europeans. A large percentage of the former 
 German population returned to their own country 
 in 1919, and many more emigrated elsewhere. 
 There are 22 priests, 20 lay brothers, 17 Benedictine 
 Nuns, and 20 Franciscan Sisters who are leaving for 
 Europe; 6 parishes and 18 churches; 15 missions 
 and 15 stations; 6 convents for men and 6 for 
 women; 1 high school for European girls with 6 
 teachers and 125 pupils; 5 primary schools for 
 natives with 15 teachers and 380 pupils; 2 industrial 
 schools with 2 teachers and 10 pupils; 1 missionary 
 work for the conversion of infidels; 2 orphanages 
 with 21 children; 5 asylums; 1 day nursery. The 
 government does not contribute to the support of 
 the Catholic institutions, but admits the ministry 
 of priests in all the public schools and asylums. The 
 laity have 2 religious associations: Marian Sodality, 
 and the Sodality of the Infant Jesus. (For Upper 
 Cimbebasia, see Cubango in Angola, Prefecture 
 Apostolic of.) 
 
 Cimbebasia, Upper, Prefecture Apostolic of. 
 See Cubango. 
 
 Cincinnati, Archdiocese of (Cincinnatiensis; 
 cf. C. E., III-773b), Ohio, is under the direction of 
 Archbishop Henry Moeller, D. D., who succeeded to 
 the archiepiscopal see upon the death of Archbishop 
 Elder, 31 October, 1904. One of the most notable 
 events of this diocese within recent years was the 
 breaking of ground early in 1921 for the erection of 
 a new Mount St. Mary’s Seminary, which is ex¬ 
 pected to be completed in 1922, the centenary of 
 the diocese. The recent organizing of a Bureau of 
 Catholic Charities, and the Fenwick Club for young 
 men has also been of importance in the work of 
 the diocese. 
 
 In 1908 the archdiocese lost a prominent clergy¬ 
 man by the death of Rt. Rev. John Mackay, rector 
 of Mount St. Mary’s Seminary of the West for the 
 last three years of his life, and in 1920 the death of 
 the vicar general of the Archdiocese, Rt. Rev. John 
 B. Murray, brought another loss. During the World 
 War the archdiocese furnished 13 chaplains for work 
 at home and overseas, and the laity responded 
 willingly to all calls made upon them. 
 
 At the present time (1922) the archdiocese com¬ 
 prises an area of 12,043 sq. miles and includes: 
 188 parishes, 219 churches, 31 missions and 2 sta¬ 
 tions, 2 monasteries for men, 262 secular priests and 
 147 regulars, 2 seminaries with 245 seminarians, 5 
 colleges for men with an attendance of 2,368, 2 
 colleges for women, 15 academies, 1 for boys and 14 
 for girls, 124 elementary schools with attendance of 
 34,683, 4 industrial schools taught by brothers with 
 attendance of 360. 
 
 Among the various institutions of the diocese are: 
 
 1 home for the aged with 40 inmates, 3 homes for 
 working girls with 137 inmates,1 home for young 
 men with 160 inmates, 4 orphan asylums with 812 
 children, 1 infant asylum with 60 infants, 8 hospitals 
 with a yearly record of 16,271 inmates, 3 refuges 
 
CISTERCIANS 
 
 206 
 
 CISTERCIANS 
 
 for boys with 318 boys, 2 houses of Good Shepherd 
 with 203 girls, and 2 day nurseries. 
 
 All the public institutions allow the priests of the 
 diocese to minister in them whenever it is requested, 
 but the Catholic schools and institutions do not re¬ 
 ceive any aid from the government. The various 
 organizations of the diocese include, among the 
 clergy, the Clergy Relief Union, among the laity, 
 the National Catholic Welfare Association, made 
 up of men and women. The “Catholic Telegraph” 
 is the diocesan organ. 
 
 Cistercians in the British Isles (cf. C. E., XVI- 
 25c) —The full and complete history of mon- 
 asticism and its ancient abodes in these islands 
 is still unwritten. In many cases there is a great 
 divergence of opinion among writers on various 
 aspects and incidents touching the monasteries, and 
 there is a lamentable dearth of chartularies and 
 records, due no doubt to the convulsions, dis¬ 
 turbances, and vandalism attending their suppres¬ 
 sion. The information available is often obtained 
 only after extensive research among many widely 
 separated sources. 
 
 England. —Various computations of Cistercian 
 monasteries in England at the time of the suppres¬ 
 sion are found in different authorities, some giving 
 the number at 75, others at 66. There were, 
 besides, 26 convents of Cistercian Nuns. By the 
 act suppressing the lesser monasteries, which num¬ 
 bered 376 in all, about half or two-thirds of the 
 Cistercian houses were dissolved, the yearly income 
 of these not being above £200 according to the 
 value of money at that time. Between 1538 and 
 1540 the remaining Cistercian houses fell among 
 the 645 greater monasteries, all victims of Henry 
 VIII’s rapacity and greed. The calumnies heaped 
 upon these monasteries in the past are now almost 
 effaced by the ever-growing light of truth. The 
 many beautiful monastic ruins, to be found in 
 almost every English shire to-day, testify to the 
 existence of upwards of 1000 monasteries and reli¬ 
 gious houses, in the greater number of which, at 
 the time of the suppression, even on the testimony 
 of Henry VIITs own visitors, “religion was right 
 well kept and observed.” The seed of religious 
 life had therefore not been planted in uncongenial 
 soil. . * 
 
 The first Cistercian foundation in England was 
 made in 1129 at Waverley, Surrey. This was the 
 36th foundation from the parent Citeaux. The 
 founder was William Gifford, Bishop of Winchester. 
 Pope Eugene III in 1147 granted the Waverley 
 monks exemption from tithes for land and cattle. 
 A similar privilege was granted to various Cistercian 
 houses by different popes. Tintern Abbey, in Mon¬ 
 mouthshire, was founded in 1131 by Walter de 
 Clare. In 1132 Rievaulx Abbey was founded in 
 Yorkshire. Among the many privileges granted by 
 the popes to the monks of this monastery was 
 that granted by Alexander III of celebrating the 
 Divine Office, even during a general interdict. 
 Garendon Abbey in Leicestershire marked a new 
 growth in 1133, testifying to the rapid success of 
 Waverley, which could in four years give enough 
 monks to people this monastery. Fountains 
 Abbey became Cistercian in 1135, and was in the 
 course of time the mother of many daughter- 
 houses. Ford Abbey in Devonshire dates from 
 1136, and in the same year arose Wardon Abbey 
 in Bedfordshire, one of the most influential of the 
 Cistercian houses. Thame Abbey in Oxfordshire 
 and Bordesley Abbey in Worcestershire are chron¬ 
 icled for the year 1137. The Empress Maud, 
 daughter of Henry I and mother of Henry II, was 
 
 the foundress of Bordesley. In 1139 arose: New- 
 minster in Northumberland, which owed its origin 
 to the generosity of Ranulf, Baron of Merley; 
 Dirksted Abbey in Lincolnshire, which was raised 
 in fulfilment of a vow made by Baron Hugh de 
 Breton and was the mother of the remarkable 
 monastery of Hovedoa- in Norway; Louth Park 
 Abbey, also in Lincolnshire, founded by Alexander, 
 Bishop of Lincoln; and Kingswood in Gloneester- 
 shire, founded by William de Berkeley. Another 
 foundation was made in Lincolnshire in 1143 at 
 Revesby, through the instrumentality of William, 
 Earl of Lincoln. Pipewell Monastery in North¬ 
 amptonshire was founded in 1143, its monks dis¬ 
 persed after 150 years, and later re-established. 
 Woburn Abbey in Bedfordshire dates from 1145 
 and was descended from Fountains. Boxley Abbey 
 in Kent, founded 1146, was the 47th filiation of 
 Clairvaux. 
 
 Dorl Abbey in Herefordshire was the only 
 daughter-house in England of Morimund, one of 
 the first four Cistercian houses. It was founded 
 by Robert, Earl of Ferrars, in 1147, a year very 
 remarkable in Cistercian history as the date of 
 foundation of 21 Cistercian houses in England and 
 Wales, and of the incorporation of the Order of 
 Savigny with that of Citeaux. In 1147 arose: Kirk- 
 statt Abbey in Yorkshire, sprung from Fountains, 
 an ex-voto offering made by Robert de Lacey, the 
 second abbot Radulph Haggith being a man of 
 conspicuous sanctity, and some of the lands of 
 which were later confiscated by King John; Vaudey 
 Abbey in Lincolnshire, founded by William, Earl 
 of Albemarle; Bitlesden Abbey in Buckingham¬ 
 shire, sprung from Garendon; Bruerne Abbey in 
 Oxfordshire; Roche Abbey in Yorkshire; Saltrey 
 Abbey in Huntingtonshire, which owed its origin 
 to Simon, Earl of Northampton, and obtained 
 special privileges through Judith, Countess of Hunt¬ 
 ington and niece of William the Conqueror; Furness 
 Abbey in Lancashire, which began its career under 
 the Order of Savigny in 1127 and became Cistercian 
 in 1147; Quarr Abbey in the Isle of Wight, which 
 was of Savignian birth and embraced the rule of 
 Citeaux in 1147, as did also Cumbermere Abbey 
 in Cheshire, Calder Abbey in Cumberland, Rushen 
 Abbey in the Isle of Man, Swineshead Abbey in 
 Lincolnshire, Stratford-Langton in Essex, Bildwas 
 in Shropshire, Buckfast in Devonshire, Byland in 
 Yorkshire, and Coggeshale in Essex. Sawley Abbey 
 in Yorkshire was founded in 1148, and in the same 
 year abbeys were founded at Rufford in Notting¬ 
 hamshire and at Mereval in Warwickshire. The 
 year 1150 was marked by the foundation of Sibton 
 in Norfolk, Jerval in Yorkshire, and Combe in 
 Warwickshire. Four foundations were made in the 
 year 1151: Meaux in Yorkshire, Stanley in Wilt¬ 
 shire, Flexley in Gloucestershire, and Holm-Cultram 
 in Cumberland. The last is sometimes assigned to 
 the Kingdom of Scotland, Henry, son of King 
 David of Scotland, being claimed as founder; and 
 again King Henry II of England is claimed as 
 founder. Meaux was founded by William, Earl of 
 Albemarle, whose vow to visit the Holy Land was 
 commuted by Eugene III into that of erecting a 
 monastery. Tiltey Abbey in Essex and Stonely 
 in Warwickshire are assigned to the years 1153 
 and 1154 respectively. Dieulacres in Cheshire fol¬ 
 lowed in 1158. 
 
 After so rapid and extensive a growth of the 
 Cistercian Order in England (46 foundations in 
 25 years) there was some slight cessation, for not 
 until 1172 were the next foundations made. These 
 were at Bindon in Dorsetshire and Whalley Abbey 
 in Cheshire. The Abbey of Roberts Bridge in 
 
CISTERCIANS 
 
 207 
 
 CISTERCIANS 
 
 Sussex was founded in 1176. Its abbot and the 
 Abbot of Boxley were sent to seek King Richard I, 
 when he was imprisoned in Germany on his return 
 from tlie Holy Land. Crokesden Abbey in Staf¬ 
 fordshire was founded in 1178. The Abbey of Clive 
 in Somersetshire, founded in 1198, is sometimes 
 claimed as Benedictine, but on the authority of 
 most chronicles seems to have been Cistercian. In 
 1201 Dunkeswell Abbey in Devonshire was founded. 
 Tanner wrongly assigns it to the Premonstratensians. 
 Beaulieu Abbey in the New Forest, Hampshire, 
 was founded from Citeaux by King John in 1204, 
 in satisfaction for his ill-treatment of some Cis¬ 
 tercian abbots, “with whom he was offended and 
 whom he caused to be trodden under his horses.’’ 
 Mendham Abbey in Buckinghamshire, Hilton in 
 Staffordshire, Grace-Dieu in Monmouthshire, and 
 Nelley in Hampshire arose respectively in 1212, 
 1219, 1226, and 1239. Hayles Abbey in Gloucester¬ 
 shire dates from 1246, and Newhau Abbey in 
 Devonshire arose in the following year. Vale-Royal 
 Abbey, formerly Dernhall, in Cheshire, has a re¬ 
 markable history. Edward, Prince of Wales, son 
 of Henry III, being in danger of shipwreck during 
 his return from the Holy Land, vowed in case he 
 and his came safe to land to erect a monastery 
 and'endow the same for 100 Cistercian monks. The 
 monastery was in due course erected at Dernhall, 
 but afterwards, when Edward became king, that 
 place was abandoned and a new monastery built 
 at Vale-Royal, the first stone of the new founda¬ 
 tion being laid by the king himself. A relic of 
 the true Cross, brought by the king from Pales¬ 
 tine, was given to the monastery. So great 
 were the benefactions of the king and queen that 
 after their demise the monks used a special Collect 
 for their welfare, not only at all the Masses, but 
 also at all the canonical hours. The solemn con¬ 
 secration of this house was made by the Patriarch 
 of Jerusalem, at which a sentence of greater excom¬ 
 munication was pronounced against anyone who 
 should enter the monastery “any other ways than 
 by the gate of the same.” Edward paid in all for 
 the erection of this monastery £32,000 in the money 
 value of that time. Henry III requested all the 
 religious houses of England to furnish Vale-Royal 
 with books. The date of foundation was 1274. The 
 Countess of Devonshire founded Buckland Abbey 
 in Devonshire in 1278. Rewley Abbey in Oxford¬ 
 shire followed in 1281. In 1350 the Abbey of Our 
 Lady of Graces was founded near the Tower of 
 London by Edward III. This was the 708th founda¬ 
 tion in the annals of the whole order, after which, 
 until the close of the eighteenth century, there 
 seems to have been no new foundation made in 
 England, though there were many in other coun¬ 
 tries. 
 
 Nevertheless, the religious institutions already 
 established, so many in number, so various in char¬ 
 acter, continued their good work until the upheaval 
 of the sixteenth century, when between the years 
 1535 and 1540 Henry VIII overthrew the whole 
 religious and monastic life of England. It is 
 reckoned that 8000 religious of all orders, men and 
 women, not to speak of the dependents of the 
 monasteries, were thus expelled from their cloisters. 
 Leaving aside the religious and spiritual loss to 
 England by the suppression of the monasteries, 
 the loss from a merely humane and economic point 
 of view was very great, for they exercised great 
 hospitality towards the poor, received the sick, 
 nursing and curing them, and taught poor children, 
 being also centers of art, science, and literature. 
 
 Not until 1794 do we again hear of the Cister¬ 
 cians as a community in England, when through 
 14 
 
 the generosity of Thomas Weld of Lulworth a 
 small body of monks from the monastery of La 
 \ al-Sainte, intended for Canada, found it possible 
 to establish themselves at Lulworth in Dorsetshire. 
 For twenty-one years they remained in this new 
 settlement, but owing to certain restrictions put 
 upon them by the government, which they found 
 it impossible to accept, they left England and re¬ 
 turned to Melleray in Brittany, where they suc¬ 
 ceeded in finally establishing themselves. From 
 this French monastery the present Mt. Melleray 
 in Ireland was established, and from it in 1835 a 
 filiation was made at Mt. St. Bernard’s, Coalville, 
 in Leicestershire, which continues to the present 
 day the monastic life according to the rule of 
 Citeaux. Mr. Ambrose Phillipps de Lisle was the 
 generous donor who thus helped to revive the Cis¬ 
 tercian Order in England. He was descended from 
 the de Lisles, who were formerly such charitable 
 beneficiaries to the ancient Abbey of Garendon. 
 To him as well as to the Earl of Shrewsbury the 
 monks are indebted for their present abbey, of 
 which Augustus Welby Pugin, Esq., was the archi¬ 
 tect. In 1849 Rt. Rev. Bernard Palmer received 
 the abbatial blessing and was the first mitred 
 abbot in England since the Reformation. 
 
 At the time of the suppression there were 26 
 houses of Cistercian Nuns in England. Eleven of 
 these were situated in Yorkshire, viz., Sinning- 
 thwaite, Eshalt, Hampole, Swine, Hoton, Basedale, 
 Nunappleton, Kildeholm, Wickham, Elreton, and 
 Kirklees. Lincolnshire had six, viz.: Greenfield, 
 Legburn, Nuncoton, Goykwell, Hevening, Stixwold. 
 Others were at Cokehill and Wliiston in Worcester¬ 
 shire, at Grace-Dieu in Leicestershire, at Brewood, 
 Salop, at Marham, Norfolkshire, at Pinley, War¬ 
 wickshire, at Sewardesley, Northamptonshire, at 
 Wintney, Hampshire, and at Tarent in Dorsetshire. 
 All these convents and their inmates shared the 
 same fate as the monks. Yet for the last 120 
 years England has not been without its convents 
 of Cistercian nuns, for there is at Stapehill in 
 Dorsetshire a Cistercian convent whose early his¬ 
 tory is of interest. The original community be¬ 
 longed to the Royal Abbey of St. Antoine in Paris. 
 During the troubles in France in 1793 the convent 
 was suppressed and the nuns imprisoned. After 
 months of imprisonment they were released in 
 1794, and feeling they could not promise themselves 
 security on French soil they retired to Switzerland, 
 which had a short time previously given shelter to 
 the exiled monks of La Trappe, at whose head was 
 Dom Augustine Lestrange. Both monks and nuns, 
 however, were forced to flee before the French 
 army which was beginning to invade Switzerland. 
 Accordingly they moved into Austria, and on their 
 journeys met with much hospitality in Austrian 
 monasteries and convents. Through the influence 
 of Princess Louise de Conde, who had become a 
 Cistercian nun, the then Tsar of Russia, Paul I, 
 offered them a home within his territory, and 
 thither they went, Dom Augustine still courageously 
 leading his monks and Madame de Chabannes, in 
 religion Sister Maiy Augustine, at the head of her 
 party of nuns. But owing to the Tsar’s alliance 
 with the French, whose Constituent Assembly had 
 so recently suppressed religious houses, they did 
 not long have Russian protection. After many 
 arduous and laborious journeys through Russia, 
 Poland, and Prussia they were able to take ship 
 for London, where they arrived in 1801. There they 
 were received with hospitality and remained a short 
 time, Mr. Weld and others being their generous 
 hosts. In 1802 Lord Arundel offered them a resi¬ 
 dence at Stapehill, which they gladly accepted. 
 
CISTERCIANS 
 
 208 
 
 CISTERCIANS 
 
 Since then the nuns have led tranquil lives of con¬ 
 templation and penance in their secluded house in 
 East Dorsetshire. There is at present a flourishing 
 community of 42 members. 
 
 Ireland. —The early religious history of Ireland 
 is, very largely, the history of Irish monasticism, 
 for the early Irish Church was, in great part, a 
 monastic church. It is not clear that any other 
 nation, in so short a time after its conversion, 
 exhibited so remarkable a picture of monastic life, 
 whether in its eremitical or cenobitical aspect, as 
 the Irish nation. In the course of time Irish 
 monasticism became a distinct and well-defined 
 system, with rather austere tendencies, and exer¬ 
 cised a very great influence, both in the sanctifica¬ 
 tion of the Irish people at home and in the con¬ 
 version of heathen nations abroad. Its great 
 number of saintly men and women, so thorough a 
 novitiate in religion and sanctity were none too 
 great, in view of the subsequent trials and persecu¬ 
 tions for the faith, to which the nation was sub¬ 
 jected for over ten centuries. The Danish wars 
 were not mere expeditions of plunder, they were 
 wars of religious persecution as well. Their pagan 
 fury spared neither church nor cloister, and monastic 
 seats of learning were plundered and destroyed. 
 The loss of faith in England, through the so-called 
 Reformation in the sixteenth century, was followed 
 by a methodic and calculated effort to rob the 
 Irish nation of that same gift. “But neither Eng¬ 
 lish persecutor nor Danish invader could disturb 
 the constancy, nor shake the hearts, nor unsettle 
 the faith of the Irish.” And this faith they carried 
 abroad, seeking the conversion of other nations. 
 Sts. Columbanus, Kilian, Virgilius, and Gall were 
 men of heroic sanctity, apostles of the Gospel, 
 benefactors to Europe, and the glory of Ireland. 
 According to a Belgian writer of the seventeenth 
 century 46 Irish saints were propagators of the 
 Gospel in Belgium alone. Reputed for four cen¬ 
 turies as the Island of Scholars, as well of Saints, 
 foreign students went to Ireland as to “a literary 
 emporium.” But persecutions and ravages of war 
 robbed the nation of her ancient glory, and this 
 St. Malachy endeavored in some degree to restore 
 when he sought the co-operation of St. Bernard in 
 establishing the Cistercians in Ireland. 
 
 On a journey to Rome St. Malachy left some 
 companions at Citeaux to be instructed in its rules 
 and discipline. When sufficiently trained they were 
 commissioned to return to Ireland under the leader¬ 
 ship of St. Christian, afterwards Bishop of Lismore. 
 With St. Malachy and under his guidance they 
 founded the first Cistercian monastery at Mellifont, 
 Co. Louth, in 1142. The generous founder of Melli¬ 
 font, after St. Malachy, was Donough O’Carroll, 
 Prince of Uriel. The first abbot was St. Christian. 
 In the course of time there were eight foundations 
 made from this abbey. Bective Abbey, Co. Meath, 
 on the banks of the Boyne, not far from the town 
 of Trim, was founded by O’Melaphlin, King of 
 Meath, probably in 1147. In that same year St. 
 Mary’s Abbey, Dublin, of Savignian origin and 
 supposed to have been founded by the Danes 
 about 948, embraced the rule of the Cistercians. 
 Boyle Abbey, Co. Roscommon, taking its name 
 from the River Boyle, was originally founded at 
 Grelacdinach and transferred to Boyle in 1161. 
 Peter O’Morra was the first abbot, and later became 
 Bishop of CHonfert. Nenay Abbey, Co. Limerick, 
 was founded in 1148 by Turlogh O’Brien, King of 
 Thomond. Cistercian historians state that the 
 abbot and forty monks were put to death by the 
 satellites of Elizabeth. Battinglass Abbey, Co. 
 Wicklow, owes its origin to Dermont McMurrogh, 
 
 King of Leinster, in either 1148 or 1151. In 1185 
 the abbot, Albinus Malloy, was made Bishop of 
 Ferns. Shrule Abbey, Co. Langford, was founded 
 about 1150 by the family of O’Ferrall. Inislought 
 Abbey, Co. Tipperary, founded in 1151, is attributed 
 to Donald O’Brien, King of Limerick. It seems, 
 however, that the original foundation was on the 
 banks of the Suir, whence it was called de Surio, 
 and in 1185, in Donald’s time, transferred to Inis¬ 
 lought. Abbot Congan of this monastery is sup¬ 
 posed to have supplied St. Bernard with the matter 
 for his famous “Life of St. Malachy.” 
 
 Newry Abbey, Co. Down, was founded, according 
 to some in 1144, according to others in 1153. Both 
 St. Malachy and Murtogh McLochlain, King of 
 All Ireland, are claimed as founders. Abbot Finn 
 was Bishop of Kildare. Odorney or Kyrie Eleison 
 Abbey, Co. Kerry, was founded in 1154 by the Fitz- 
 maurice family. Here St. Christian, the first Cis¬ 
 tercian abbot in Ireland, died in 1186. In 1288 
 Abbot Nicholas became Bishop of Ardfert. Fermoy 
 Abbey, Co. Cork, was founded supposedly by the 
 Roche family, who seem, however, to have been 
 benefactors rather than founders. Patricius, the 
 prior, became Bishop of Cloyne in 1226. Maure 
 Abbey, Co. Cork, was founded in 1172 by Dermot 
 McCormac McCarthy, King of Desmond. Astrath 
 or Assaroe Abbey, Co. Donegal, dates from 1178. 
 Roderick O’Cananan, • Lord of Tyrconnel, and 
 Flaherty, Lord of Kinel-Connell, are claimed as 
 founders. Holy Cross Abbey, Co. Tipperary, was 
 founded in 1180 by Donald Mor O’Brien, King of 
 Limerick. The abbot of this house was styled Earl 
 of Holy Cross, and acted as vicar general of the 
 Cistercian Order in Ireland. Considerable remains 
 of this abbey are still to be seen, and the archi¬ 
 tecture is said to have been remarkably fine. The 
 abbey takes it name from the relic of the true 
 Cross, formerly preserved with great veneration 
 there, but now in the Ursuline convent at Black- 
 rock, Cork. Holy Cross enjoyed great pre-eminence 
 among the Cistercian houses. 
 
 Middleton Abbey, Co. Cork, had as founders in 
 1180 either the Fitzgerald or the Barry family. 
 Jerpoint Abbey, Co. Kilkenny, was founded in 1180 
 by Donald O’Donoghue, King of Ossory. Felix 
 O’Dulany was the first abbot, afterwards Bishop of 
 Ossory, a man famous for sanctity, at whose tomb 
 it is related many miracles took place. The early 
 foundation of St. Canice’s Cathedral is attributed 
 to him. Dunbrody Abbey, Co. Wexford, was 
 founded in 1182 by Hervey de Montemarisco, mar¬ 
 shall of King Henry II and seneschal of Strongbow, 
 Earl of Pembroke. Strongbow was a great bene¬ 
 factor to this monastery, which was one of the 
 largest in Ireland, the church being nearly 200 feet 
 in length. Leix Abbey, Queen’s Co., was founded 
 in 1184 by Corcheger O’More. Kilcooly Abbey, 
 Co. Tipperary, was founded in the same year by 
 Donald O’Brien, King of Thomond. Glandy Abbey, 
 supposed to have been in Co. Cork, was founded 
 probably in 1185. Little is known about it. Inis- 
 courcy Abbey on Juch Island, Strangford, Lough, 
 was founded by John de Courcy in 1187. It seems 
 to have been formerly either Benedictine or 
 Savignian. Monasterevan, Co. Kildare, owes its 
 origin to Dermot O’Dempsey, Prince of Offaly, 
 in 1189. The first abbot became Bishop of Leighlin. 
 Knockmoy Abbey, Co. Galway, was founded by 
 Cathal Crovderg, King of Connaught, in 1190. He 
 afterwards became a Cistercian monk. In 1290 
 Abbot Laurence became Bishop of Kilmacdaugh. 
 Leigh or Gray Abbey, on the shore of Strongford 
 Lough, was founded in 1193 by Africa, daughter of 
 the King of the Isle of Man, The ruins indicate 
 
CISTERCIANS 
 
 CISTERCIANS 
 
 the abbey’s former beauty and magnificence. Cor- 
 comroe Abbey, Co. Clare, founded in 1194, is 
 attributed to Donald Mor O’Brien, King of Lim¬ 
 erick. A great monument shows that Donough 
 O’Brien, King of Thomond, was buried here 1267. 
 John, Abbot of Corcomroe, became Bishop of Kil- 
 macduagh in 1418. Kilshare, Co. Clare, was founded 
 in 1198 by the same Donald Mor. It seems to 
 have been annexed to Concomroe. Abbot Florence 
 OTigcrnach became Bishop of Kilfenora in 1273. 
 
 Comber Abbey, Strangford Lough, is attributed 
 to Brian O’Neill for the year 1200. Its site was 
 supposed to be that of a former monastery founded 
 by St. Patrick. Tintern Abbey, Co. Wexford, was 
 erected in fulfilment of a vow made by William, 
 Earl of Pembroke, while in peril at sea. Its 
 foundation dates from 1200. Being a daughter- 
 house of Tintern in Monmouthshire, it is called 
 Tintern Minor. Glangrah Abbey, Co. Cork, or 
 The Vale of Charity, as it was called, is "supposed 
 to date from 1200. Much uncertainty exists about 
 this monastery. Some writers say it was in Ulster, 
 others in Westmeath, others again in King’s Co., 
 and others in Cork. Kilbeggan Abbey, Co. West¬ 
 meath, was founded by the Dalton family 1200. 
 Abbot William became Bishop of Clonmaconoise 
 in 1298. Graiguemanach Abbey, Co. Kilkenny, was 
 founded in 1204 from Stanley Monastery, England. 
 It is related that twelve monks with the prior (the 
 abbot had just died) were slain, because they 
 would not take off their ecclesiastical vestments 
 and yield obedience to Elizabeth. Woney Abbey, 
 Co. Limerick, founded 1206 by the Butler family, 
 was formerly Savignian. Abbeylaragh or Granard, 
 Co. Longford, was founded in 1214 by Richard 
 Tuile, Baron Palatine of Moyashel. In 1315 
 Edw r ard Bruce burned the town and despoiled the 
 abbey. In this place a monastery had already been 
 founded by St. Patrick. The first abbot whom 
 St. Patrick appointed was St. Guasacht, son of 
 Milcho, w T ho is called a saint, St. Patrick’s old 
 master. In 1398 Abbot Peter became Bishop of 
 Clonmacnoise, and in 1541 Richard, the last abbot, 
 was raised to the see of Ardagh. Moycoscane, Co. 
 Derry, was founded in 1218. John, third abbot, 
 became Bishop of Derry in 1401. Tracton Abbey, 
 Co. Cork, was erected in 1225 by the MacCarthy 
 family. There was a relic of the true Cross here, 
 which was venerated by great crowds on Holy 
 Thursday. Hore Abbey, Co. Tipperary, formerly 
 Benedictine, became Cistercian in 1272 at the in¬ 
 stance of MacCarvill, Archbishop of Cashel. There 
 were also monasteries at: Monkstown, Co. Dublin; 
 Athlone, Co. Roscommon; Helfothur, Co. Donegal; 
 Juchrie, Co. Cork; Abbeyfeale, Co. Limerick; and 
 at Kilkenny; but very little is known about them. 
 Two Cistercian convents of nuns are known to 
 have existed, one at Derry, founded by Turlogh 
 O’Neill in 1218, the other at Down. 
 
 In some of the monasteries the odious practice 
 of exclusion from profession on grounds of nation¬ 
 ality was carried on, as we learn from the con¬ 
 demnation of the practice by the general chapter 
 of 1323, which issued a warning to all abbots, espe¬ 
 cially those of Ireland, to remove all walls of 
 separation and to admit indifferently all persons, 
 no matter of what nation. The evil practice here 
 condemned seems to have originated with houses 
 of English monks in Ireland, as we gather from 
 the complaint of the Irish chiefs in their letter to 
 John XXII. In 1638 the Irish Cistercians estab¬ 
 lished a congregation known as that of Sts. Bernard 
 and Malachy in connection with the new observance 
 founded by de Vargas. Among the Cistercian 
 abbots those of Mcllifont, St. Mary’s in Dublin, 
 
 Baltinglass, Tintern, Graiguemanagh, Tracton, 
 Dunbrody, Nenay, Woney, Monasterevan, and 
 Bective had seats in parliament. 
 
 At the time of the suppression of the monasteries 
 there were in Ireland 42 Cistercian monasteries and 
 2 convents. Henry VIII did what he could to 
 overthrow religious houses in Ireland, and up to 
 1541, 78 religious houses had been surrendered, but 
 outside the pale the monasteries seem to have con¬ 
 tinued until the defeat of the Irish princes at the 
 opening of the seventeenth century. Although the 
 monks were often driven from their monasteries 
 they appear to have returned whenever a lull in 
 the persecution permitted. Thus we read of Holy 
 Cross “that the monks continued for a considerable 
 time after the monastery was legally dissolved, if 
 not to dwell in the abbey, at least to remain in 
 the neighborhood, hoping against hope that better 
 times would come.” As late as 1700 Bernard Lahy 
 is chronicled as holding at least the name, if not 
 the office, of abbot. The last of the monks of 
 this abbey died in 1752, having his cell amidst the 
 abbey ruins. 
 
 From the early part of the eighteenth century 
 the Cistercian order in Ireland seems to have 
 ceased to exist. Its revival dates from the founda¬ 
 tion of Mt. Melleray Abbey, Cappoquin, Co. Water¬ 
 ford, in 1832. The foreign religious of the Cistercian 
 Abbey of Melleray in France were forced to sepa¬ 
 rate from their brethren, through the hostility of 
 the French authorities, and the predominance of 
 the Irish section in that community gave good 
 hopes of a successful foundation in their native 
 land, which alone at that time seemed to present 
 a congenial soil and welcome atmosphere for such 
 a purpose. Principally through the instrumentality 
 of Dom Vincent Ryan, then prior of Melleray, this 
 work was immediately undertaken, and in company 
 with another religious Brother Malachy set out for 
 Ireland to begin his task. After many labors and 
 hardships these zealous pioneers found a holding 
 in Rathmore, Co. Kerry, through the influence of 
 Rev. Mother Kelly of the Presentation Convent 
 in Killarney and her nephew. Later on the Irish 
 members of the French community arrived, and 
 once again regular Cistercian life began in Ireland. 
 Subsequently, in 1832, through Sir Richard Keane, 
 who held extensive property in the Cappoquin dis¬ 
 trict, Dom Vincent succeeded in obtaining posses¬ 
 sion of the present holding, which he called Mt. 
 Melleray, from the mother-house in France. By 
 the labors of the monks it was transferred from 
 a rough barren mountain to a fertile and delightful 
 region. 
 
 Since Dom Vincent’s time up to now Cistercian 
 life has continued in this place, even as of old in 
 Boyle and Mellifont. There is a flourishing com¬ 
 munity numbering about 70, almost equally divided 
 between choir religious and lay brethren. Of the 
 -choir religious between 20 and 30 are in Holy 
 Orders. The present abbot, Dom Maurus O’Phelan, 
 was blessed in the abbey church by Most Rev. Dr. 
 Sheehan, 15 August, 1908. He continues the good 
 work of his predecessors in the erection of new 
 buildings, the enlargement and ornamentation of 
 portions of the original edifice, and the furthering 
 of virtue and learning among the brethren. A 
 notable feature of Mt. Melleray is the up-to-date 
 school which provides the youth of Ireland, to the 
 number of about 200, with a thorough and excellent 
 education. The greater number of the students are 
 aspirants to the priesthood. A large number of 
 students are prepared as well for civil and com¬ 
 mercial posts, while special attention is devoted to 
 agriculture. Mt. Melleray counts three filiations: 
 
CITATION 
 
 210 
 
 CIVITAVECCHIA AND CORNETO 
 
 Mt. St. Bernard's, Leicester, England, founded 1135, 
 of which the present superior is Very Rev. Louis 
 Carew; New Melleray, Dubuque, Iowa, U. S. A., 
 founded 1848, of which the present superior is 
 Very Rev. Bruno Ryan; and Mt. St. Joseph’s, 
 Roscrea, Co. Tipperary, founded in 1878. The 
 personnel of the latter community is approximately 
 the same as at Mt. Melleray. The present abbot 
 is Dom Justin MacCarthy, who received the ab- 
 batial benediction in October, 1911. There is also 
 an efficient school attached to the monastery. Both 
 at Mt. Melleray and Roscrea are large guest houses, 
 much frequented by clerics and lay gentlemen, 
 where retreats may be made. 
 
 Citation (cf. C. E., III-791d).—All citations in 
 
 ecclesiastical suits are now peremptory, and need 
 not be renewed, unless when the judge wishes to 
 overcome the contumacy of the person involved by 
 threatening spiritual penalties. They are made by 
 means of a summons (the Code does not mention 
 verbal citations) signed by a judge or his auditor 
 and notary, and containing in general terms, at least, 
 the reason of the lawsuit, the plaintiff’s and the de¬ 
 fendant’s name, and the time and place of appear¬ 
 ance. The summons is delivered to the defendant 
 at his home with any member of his family or a 
 servant if he accepts it and promises to deliver 
 it as soon as possible. If, however, he refuses or 
 it is otherwise difficult for the cursor to reach the 
 defendant, the judge makes an order authorizing 
 the sending of the summons by registered mail with 
 request for a receipt or by whatever is considered 
 the safest way in different localities. If even then 
 the defendant cannot be found the citation is made 
 by edict or publication, the summons being posted 
 at the entrance to the court for a reasonable time 
 and also published in a newspaper; in case of neces¬ 
 sity either method would suffice. 
 
 Codex jur. can., 1,711-25. 
 
 Citta della Pieve, Diocese of (Civitatis Plebis; 
 cf. C. E., III-793a), in the province of Perugia, 
 Central Italy, directly subject to the Holy See. 
 Rt. Rev. Domenico Fanucchi, appointed to this see 
 2 September, 1907, died after two years of zealous 
 service, 23 July, 1910. He was succeeded by the 
 present incumbent, Rt. Rev. Giuseppe Angelucci, b. 
 in Genazzano, 1868, appointed 29 August, 1910. 
 
 During the World War the clergy and laity of 
 the diocese showed great zeal in all civil and char¬ 
 itable works at home, and about one-fifth of the 
 total number served in various branches in the 
 field, many of them winning great honors. Present 
 (1922) statistics credit this diocese with 33 parishes, 
 90 churches, 2 monasteries for women, 2 convents 
 for women, 55 secular clergy, 74 Sisters, 1 seminary, 
 6 seminarians, 1 secondary school for girls with 6 
 teachers and 50 pupils, 1 elementary school with 
 2 teachers and 90 pupils, 1 industrial school for 
 girls with 2 teachers (Sisters) and 100 pupils, and 
 1 infant asylum. All the civil hospitals permit the 
 ministry of priests. A mutual aid society is formed 
 among the clergy, and an official diocesan bulletin 
 is published. 
 
 Citta di Castello, Diocese of (Civitatis Castelli 
 or Tifernatensis; cf. C. E., III-793b), in the 
 province of Perugia, Central Italy, directly subject 
 to the Holy See. This see is now (1922) filled by 
 Rt. Rev. Carlo Liviero, born in Vicenza, 1866, 
 studied at the Seminary of Padua, incorporated into 
 the diocese of Citta di Castello as a diocesan mis¬ 
 sionary, served as archpriest of Agna, and was ap¬ 
 pointed bishop 8 January, 1910. The 1920 statistics 
 credit this diocese with 50,250 Catholics, 156 parishes, 
 
 162 secular and 10 regular clergy, 40 seminarians, 
 
 4 Brothers, 105 Sisters, and 200 churches or chapels. 
 
 Ciudad Real, Diocese of (Ecclesia Cluniensis; 
 cf. C. E., III-793c), Bishopric-Priorate of the Mili¬ 
 tary Orders of Spain, directly subject to the Holy 
 See. It is perpetually united to the titular see of 
 Dora and to the territory of the province of Ciudad 
 Real, where the bishop resides. The see is at pres¬ 
 ent (1922) filled by Rt. Rev. Francisco Xavier 
 Irastorza y Loinaz, born in San Sebastiano, Spain, 
 1875, studied in the seminaries of Larressore and 
 Louvain, served as secretary to the Bishop of 
 Ciudad Real in 1905, chancellor of the cathedral, 
 then archpriest, vicar general and protonotary 
 apostolic, named Prior of the Spanish Military 
 Orders and prelate of Ciudad Real by the king 28 
 March, 1914, appointed by the Pope 11 July fol¬ 
 lowing, and made an armed knight by the king 23 
 January, 1915. The diocese comprises a territory 
 of about 12,254 sq. miles and a Catholic popula¬ 
 tion of 383,988. By 1920 statistics it counts 127 
 parishes, 11 archpriests, 367 priests, 179 chapels, and 
 13 convents with 151 religious and 440 Sisters. 
 
 Ciudad Rodrigo, Diocese of (Civitatensis; cf. 
 C. E., III-793d), comprising almost all of the 
 province of Salamanca, Spain, is suffragan of Val¬ 
 ladolid. This diocese, erected anew in 1175, was 
 governed by a vicar capitular in 1835. Suppressed 
 by the Concordat and united to Salamanca, it has 
 since 15 February, 1884, been governed by an ad¬ 
 ministrator apostolic. At present (1922) he is Rt. 
 Rev. Manuel Maria Vidal y Boullon, titular 
 Bishop of Birta, named a prelate of the Holy See, 
 8 October, 1904, and appointed 25 February, 1915. 
 This diocese covers an area of 182 sq. miles, and 
 comprises a Catholic population of 120,130; 106 
 parishes divided among 12 archpriests and 172 
 priests, 17 chapels and 11 convents with 35 religious, 
 and 122 Sisters. 
 
 Civita Castellana, Orte and Gallese, Diocese of 
 (Civitatis Castellano, Hortan et Gallesinensis; 
 cf. C. E., III-798b), in the province of Rome, Italy, 
 directly subject to the Holy See. The two sees of 
 Civita Castellana (with which Gallese is incorpo¬ 
 rated) and Orte were united 5 October, 1917. Rt. 
 Rev. Giacomo Ghezzi, O. F. M., born in Castel- 
 madama, 1842, ordained 1865, custodian of the Holy 
 Land, appointed to this see 29 November, 1895, died 
 26 January, 1920. He was succeeded by the present 
 incumbent, Rt. Rev. Goffredo Zaccherini, born in 
 Imola, 1871, served as vicar general of Subiaco, 
 and was appointed 8 March, 1920. These united 
 dioceses comprise 40,200 Catholics, 20 parishes, 105 
 secular and 27 regular clergy, 36 seminarians, and 
 202 churches. 
 
 Civitavecchia and Corneto, Diocese of (Cen- 
 
 TUMCELLARUM ET CoRNETANENSISJ cf. C. E., 
 
 III-79Sc), in the province of Rome, Italy, directly 
 subject to the Holy See. In ancient times, when 
 Corneto (Corneto-Tarqninia) was under pontifical 
 government, a prison was established here for priests, 
 guilty of crimes against the holiness of their state. 
 Different popes accorded indulgences to the pris¬ 
 oners and on 18 and 21 July, 1759, Clement VIII 
 confirmed these indulgences and added new ones, 
 ordering that they should be put into table form 
 and bung in the prison corridors. They are both 
 plenary and partial indulgences, applicable to the 
 Souls in Purgatory. The united sees of Civitavecchia 
 and Corneto are now (1922) filled by Rt. Rev. Luca 
 Piergiovanni, born in Novelara, 1876, archdeacon of 
 the Chapter of Pesaro, appointed 10 November, 
 1917, to succeed Rt. Rev. Pacifico Fiorani who 
 
CLANDESTINITY 
 
 211 
 
 CLERIC 
 
 fill od this see from 1911 until his transfer to Osimo, 
 12 May, 1917. 
 
 According to 1920 statistics Corneto counts a 
 Catholic population of 11,000; 6 parishes, 15 secular 
 and 8 regular clergy, 7 Brothers, 50 Sisters, and 34 
 churches or chapels. Civitavecchia is credited with 
 27,000 Catholics; 6 parishes, 27 secular and 17 regu¬ 
 lar clergy, 14 seminarians, 14 Brothers, 30 Sisters, 
 and 14 churches or chapels. 
 
 Clandestinity (cf. C. E., IV-1).—Many important 
 modifications regarding clandestine marriages were 
 made by the decree “Ne Temere” (1907), which was 
 binding on Catholics throughout the world, though 
 later a dispensation was granted in Germany and in 
 Hungary. Some further changes have been made 
 since then by the Code. Only those marriages are 
 now valid which are contracted before the parish 
 priest—or a pastor who in canon law is regarded 
 as a parish priest—or the local ordinary of the 
 place of contract (Ne Temere had “of the parties 
 contracting”), who may act only from the day of 
 taking formal possession of or being canonically in¬ 
 stalled in their office, or if there is no installation 
 from the day they begin to exercise their office, or 
 by a priest delegated by one of them and at least 
 two witnesses. The parish priest or ordinary re¬ 
 quired for validity must not have been by a par¬ 
 ticular decree excommunicated or interdicted, or 
 suspended from office or declared to be such—other 
 censures apparently would not effect validity—they 
 can validly assist at all marriages, even of persons 
 not subject to them, within their own territory; 
 their presence, however, must not have been ob¬ 
 tained by force or grave fear, and they must both 
 ask and receive the consents of the parties con¬ 
 tracting—under the Tridentine regime it did not 
 matter whether or not the priest’s presence was 
 free. While the pastor or ordinary may delegate 
 another priest to assist at a marriage within their 
 territory, the permission given must be expressed 
 to a specified priest, for a particular marriage, thus 
 excluding all kinds of general permissions, except 
 to priests appointed as parochial assistants (viccirii 
 cooperatores ) and then only for the parish to which 
 they "are attached. This permission should not be 
 granted until the freedom of the parties to marry 
 has been duly established. While the priest or 
 ordinary of the place of contract might validly as¬ 
 sist at any marriage within his territory, he cannot 
 do so lawfully unless at least one of the parties 
 has a domicile, quasi-domicile or has resided in that 
 territory for a month—or less in case of a vagus — 
 or unless he has been authorized by the parish 
 priest or ordinary of one of the parties, but in the 
 case of vagi having no actual residence or where a 
 grave reason excuses one from asking the permission, 
 the priest of the place of contract can assist lawfully. 
 It may be noted that the question of domicile now 
 affects only the liceity, not the validity, of a mar¬ 
 riage. 
 
 The bride’s parish priest is the proper priest to 
 assist at a marriage but for a just cause the bride¬ 
 groom’s or another priest may be chosen. If the 
 parties belong to different Catholic Rites, the man’s 
 parish priest has first claim, unless there is a law 
 to the contrary—such a law exists in the United 
 States when one of the parties belongs to the Greco- 
 Ruthenian Rite. If it is not morally possible for 
 the parties to go before the parish priest, the ordi¬ 
 nary, or a delegated priest as mentioned above, 
 or for one of these to come to the parties, the 
 latter can contract a valid and lawful marriage 
 merely before two witnesses; (a) if there is danger 
 (Ne Temere said “imminent danger”) of death; 
 
 no special reason is mentioned as necessary; for¬ 
 merly the marriage was allowed only to set consci¬ 
 ences right or to legitimize offspring; and also 
 (b) if there is no danger of death, but it is pru¬ 
 dently judged—certainty is not needed—that the 
 impossibility of having the proper assistant priest 
 will last for a month (Ne Temere required this 
 condition actually to have existed for a month). 
 If any priest could be obtained in either of the 
 cases just mentioned this should be done, though a 
 neglect to do so would not affect the validity of 
 the marriage. 
 
 These regulations bind (1) all Catholics of Latin 
 Rite, Catholic here means all those who have been 
 baptized in the Catholic Church, and all converts 
 to Catholicism from heresy or schism, even if they 
 fell away later, but it does not include the children 
 of non-Catholic parents who may have been bap¬ 
 tized in the Catholic Church, but have always been 
 brought up outside of the Church; (2) all such 
 Catholics marrying non-Catholies even where a 
 dispensation has been obtained on account of dif¬ 
 ference in religion—under the Tridentine regime on 
 the contrary the exemption of one party was com¬ 
 municated to the other; (3) all other Catholics who 
 marry a Latin Catholic. In conclusion it may be 
 well to add that all these restrictions do not apply 
 to other Christian or non-Christian marriages. 
 
 Codex jur. can., 1094-99; Ayriniiac, Marriage Legislation, 
 235-60. 
 
 Cleric (cf. C. E., IV-49).—Clerics should not, 
 merely go frequently to confession but should make 
 an examination of conscience, a meditation, a visit 
 to the Blessed Sacrament, and recite the Rosary 
 daily. In view of their mission they must not 
 volunteer for military service, unless when this is 
 done with the permission of their ordinary, in coun¬ 
 tries where the service is imposed on clerics, in 
 order to finish their period of service the sooner; 
 nor may they take any part in internal wars or 
 public disturbances. A dleric in minor orders who 
 volunteers for military service, except when he is 
 duly authorized by the law or his ordinary, loses his 
 clerical status thereby, he is dropped from the ranks 
 of the clergy, also, if on his own authority he 
 abandons the clerical dress and tonsure without just 
 cause and after being warned by his ordinary re¬ 
 mains recalcitrant for a month. Clerics even if not 
 bound by the law of residence must not absent 
 themselves from this diocese for a notable time 
 without leave of the ordinary. They are forbidden 
 when they assist at funerals to help to carry the 
 body of any lay person whatsoever; they must 
 assist at the customary processions of their churches, 
 and are obliged to aid their parish priest in teach¬ 
 ing catechism; they must not publish works on 
 secular subjects or write for newspapers or period¬ 
 icals, or edit them without the ordinary’s consent. 
 If a cleric is made trustee of property for pious 
 purposes he must notify his ordinary and give him 
 details of the property and its obligations. It is ab¬ 
 solutely forbidden to compel any one to become a 
 cleric and those who are guilty of such an offense 
 incur thereby unreserved excommunication. 
 
 Clerics must not act as sureties or pledge prop¬ 
 erty without their ordinary’s consent. They must 
 refrain entirely from whatever is unbecoming the 
 clerical state, from exercising certain indecorous 
 arts, from gambling, carrying arms without neces¬ 
 sity, hunting, especially if it is noisy, entering drink¬ 
 ing-houses and other such places, except in case of 
 necessity or for a just cause approved by the local 
 ordinary. They should avoid certain other things 
 which are foreign to the clerical state: thus, they 
 are not to practice medicine or surgery without 
 
CLERMONT 
 
 212 
 
 CLIFTON 
 
 permission of the Holy See, nor may they act as 
 notaries or scriveners, except in ecclesiastical pro¬ 
 ceedings, or accept a public office which entails 
 lay jurisdiction or administration; they must not 
 engage in secular business or accept lay positions 
 in which they should have to render a public ac¬ 
 counting, unless the ordinary authorizes them; 
 neither may they act as advocates or procurators 
 in civil courts, unless in protection of their own or 
 their church’s interests, nor may they take part in 
 secular criminal trials even by giving evidence, ex¬ 
 cept in case of necessity, if the defendant would be 
 liable to severe personal punishment. They must 
 not seek or accept legislative rank, such as that of 
 senator or deputy, without leave of the Holy See in 
 places where a pontifical prohibition is in force, or 
 in other places unless they have received the per¬ 
 mission both of their own ordinary and of the ordi¬ 
 nary of the place where the election is to be held. 
 Finally, they are forbidden to be present at dances, 
 pageants, and shows, where their presence would be 
 unbecoming or would cause scandal, especially if 
 they are held in public theaters. 
 
 Codex jur. can., 108-486; Vermeersch-Creusen, Epit. jur. 
 can., 184-207. 
 
 Clermont (Clermont-Ferrand), Diocese of 
 (Claromontensis; cf. C. E., IV-53d), comprising 
 the department of Puy-de-Dome, France, suffragan 
 of Bourges. Rt. Rev. Pierre-Marie Belmont, born in 
 Lyons 1838, was appointed to this see 19 January, 
 1893, and filled it until his death, 19 March, 1921. 
 He was succeeded by his auxiliary, the present in¬ 
 cumbent, Rt. Rev. Francisque Marnas, born in 
 Lyons 1859, served as vicar general of Osaka, Japan, 
 made an honorary chamberlain 1907, prothontary 
 apostolic 1916, appointed titular Bishop of Sura and 
 coadjutor, with right of succession, at Clermont, 
 10 March, 1919. Since 1894 the titular of this see 
 has had the privilege of wearing the pallium. The 
 1920 statistics credit the diocese with 525,916 Cath¬ 
 olics, of whom 65,386 are in Clermont-Ferrand 
 proper, 5 first class parishes, 447 succursal parishes, 
 and 175 vicariates formerly supported by the state. 
 
 Cleveland, Diocese of (Clevelandensis; cf. C. 
 E., IV-55a), comprises 8034 sq. miles in the State 
 of Ohio, U. S. A., and is suffragan of the Arch¬ 
 diocese of Cincinnati. Almost a year after the 
 death of Bishop Horstmann, 13 May, 1908, Mgr. 
 John Patrick Farrelly, spiritual director of the 
 American College in Rome, was consecrated his 
 successor by Cardinal Gotti in the chapel of that 
 college, on 1 May, 1909. His diocese was divided 
 along the west line of Erie, Huron, and Richmond 
 counties, separating sixteen counties to create the 
 Diocese of Toledo, 15 April, 1910. The services of 
 Rt. Rev.. Joseph Mary Koudelka, who had been 
 made auxiliary bishop for the Slavs in 1908, were 
 transferred to the see of Milwaukee in 1911, and 
 two years later he was named second bishop of 
 Superior on 6 August, 1913. 
 
 Bishop Farrelly followed a deliberate rather than 
 strenuous policy, and the benefit of his cautious 
 statesmanship was felt only gradually. His in¬ 
 fluence, nevertheless, was progressive and profound. 
 His artistic taste had something to do with the 
 fact that the best architecture of the diocese, in 
 churches, schools, and hospitals, belongs to his 
 eleven years. His special pride was the Cathedral 
 Latin School which he built himself in 1918, and 
 which now accommodates 750 students. He made 
 a larger use of native priests in bilingual congre¬ 
 gations, reorganized the charities of the diocese 
 under a clerical director, and availed himself of 
 efficient lay co-operation in caring for dependents. 
 
 He relieved the Sisters of the odious task of beg¬ 
 ging alms for their charitable projects, and by the 
 appointment of a superintendent for the primary 
 schools aided them in bringing order into texts, 
 curriculum and methods of instruction. Bishop 
 Farrelly died at the age of sixty-five in Knoxville, 
 Tennessee, on 12 February, 1921. He was succeeded 
 on 16 June of the same year by Rt. Rev. Joseph 
 Schrembs, transferred from Toledo, where he had 
 served as first bishop of the new see from 11 
 August, 1911. Born in Ratisbon, Germany, in 1866, 
 he studied under the Sulpicians in Montreal, was 
 ordained in 1888 and incorporated into the diocese 
 of Grand Rapids as rector of St. Mary’s Church. 
 After being named a prelate of the Holy See 25 
 January, 1906, he was appointed titular Bishop of 
 Sophene and auxiliary at Grand Rapids 8 January, 
 1911. 
 
 In a polyglot population of half a million, drawn 
 from sixteen different nationalities, the diocese has 
 329 secular priests, and 98 regulars with 50 lay 
 brothers, besides 25 Brothers of Mary. The Sisters, 
 distributed through 20 communities, count 1690 
 members. Of the 205 residential parishes, 147 have 
 their own schools and teach the elementary branches 
 to 56,349 pupils. The diocese has a seminary at 
 Cleveland which, though now exclusively theo¬ 
 logical, has, by its nearness to the higher schools, 
 drawn candidates with a steady increase. Of all 
 the secular priests now in the diocese, two-fifths 
 were ordained from the diocese under the adminis¬ 
 tration of Bishop Farrelly. There are now 100 
 students for the priesthood, 58 in theology at 
 Cleveland and most of the rest in philosophy at 
 St. Bernard’s, Rochester, New York. Twenty 
 academies and high schools give secondary educa¬ 
 tion to 1513 boys and 2959 girls. In addition there 
 are 2 colleges for boys. For the service of the sick 
 there are 8 hospitals with a total of 1300 beds; for 
 dependents there are 7 asylums and 4 homes; for 
 other charitable charges there are 3 refuges, 1 settle¬ 
 ment house and 1 day nursery. In recent years 
 the diocese lost three prominent members of its 
 clergy by the deaths of Msgr. Houck, chancellor 
 of the diocese for thirty-five years; Father Boff, 
 seven times administrator of the diocese; and 
 Father Moes, rector of the seminary for a number 
 of years. 
 
 Clifton, Diocese of (Cliftoniensis; cf. C. E., 
 IV-58c), England, was left vacant for a long time 
 upon the death of Bishop Burgess, second bishop 
 of the diocese, owing to a controversy which was 
 going on over the fate of the seminary of Prior 
 Park, the crux of the infant diocese. During this 
 period the administration of the diocese was given 
 provisionally to Archbishop Errington, coadjutor 
 to Cardinal Wiseman. After the closing of Prior 
 Park in 1856 a new bishop was appointed in 1857, 
 and the work of the diocese proceeded as usual. 
 Prior Park was re-opened in 1867, but was finally 
 closed in 1904 and is now the property of the Irish 
 Christian Brothers, who use it for an industrial 
 school. The present Bishop of Clifton, Rt. Rev. 
 George Ambrose Burton, was consecrated 1 May, 
 1902. At the present time (1921) the diocese in¬ 
 cludes 42 parishes, 52 churches, 20 missionary sta¬ 
 tions, 1 abbey for men, 5 convents for men and 37 
 for women, 49 secular priests and 84 regulars; these 
 latter include the Benedictines, Carmelites, Domin¬ 
 icans, Jesuits, and Franciscans. The Franciscans 
 include both Observants and Conventuals. 
 
 There are 20 high schools, 35 elementary schools, 
 3 industrial schools, 10 homes, 1 reformatory school, 
 and 13 hospitals. All the public institutions per- 
 
CLOGHER 
 
 COCHABAMBA 
 
 213 
 
 rait the ministry of Catholic priests and 20 of the 
 elementary and 1 secondary school are aided by 
 the government. The St. Vincent de Paul Society 
 is organized among the laity. 
 
 Clogher, Diocese of (Clogheriensis; cf. C. E., 
 IV-59d), in Ireland, suffragan of Armagh. This 
 diocese includes almost all of Fermanagh, a large 
 portion of Tyrone, and portions of Donegal, Louth 
 and Cavan. The present incumbent is Rt. Rev. 
 Patrick McKenna, born in Cerrigal, Truagh, 1868, 
 professor of theology at Maynooth College, ap¬ 
 pointed 1 June, 1909, to succeed Rt. Rev. Richard 
 Owens (d. 5 March, 1909). Various religious orders 
 are established in this diocese, including the Pas- 
 sionist Fathers, Christian Brothers, Presentation 
 Brothers, Brothers of St. Patrick, Brothers of the 
 Christian Schools, Sisters of St. Louis and Sisters 
 of Mercy. According to the latest census, collected 
 in 1911, the total population of this territory num¬ 
 bers 151,730, and of this number 98,690 are Catholic. 
 The 1922 statistics credit the diocese with 40 
 parishes, 38 parish priests, 3 administrators, 60 
 curates and other priests, 8 clergy in colleges, 87 
 churches, 4 colleges, 8 convents, 1 School of the 
 Christian Brothers, 1 Presentation Monastery, 1 
 Patrician Monastery, and a diocesan seminary, be¬ 
 sides a number of charitable institutions. 
 
 Cloister (cf. C. E., IV-60).—No one, whether 
 male or female, old or young, except those men¬ 
 tioned below, may enter the enclosure of nuns hav¬ 
 ing solemn vows, without leave of the Holy See; 
 if they do, they and those admitting or introducing 
 them incur excommunication reserved simply to 
 the Holy See; clerics in addition are to be sus¬ 
 pended temporarily by the ordinary. Children 
 below the age of puberty, however, are exempt from 
 all censures under the Code regime. Those who 
 may go within the enclosure are (a) local ordinary 
 or regular superior when engaged in visitation or 
 other visitors delegated by them to inspect; they 
 should, however, be accompanied by one or more 
 clerics or religious men of mature age; (b) con¬ 
 fessor, for the purpose of administering the sacra¬ 
 ments to the sick or of assisting the dying; (c) 
 reigning sovereigns, their wives and suite; also 
 cardinals; (d) finally, mother superiors should get 
 at least habitual approbation from the local ordi¬ 
 nary to allow physicians, surgeons, and workmen to 
 enter when they are needed; in case of urgency, the 
 ordinary’s approbation may be presumed. No pro¬ 
 fessed nun may go outside the enclosure, even for 
 a short time, without a special indult of the Holy 
 See, except in imminent danger of death or other 
 very grave evil, recognized in writing as such by 
 the local ordinary if time permits. The local ordi¬ 
 nary is to see that the regulations concerning the 
 enclosure are observed, even in the case of convents 
 under the direction of regulars, and may punish all 
 delinquents even if they are regulars; the regular 
 superior may, too, punish the nuns and his own 
 subjects if the regulations are violated. 
 
 The enclosure should be observed in all houses 
 belonging to religious congregations, whether pon¬ 
 tifical or diocesan; no person of the other sex be 
 admitted, except those mentioned above, or others 
 when the superior sees a just and reasonable cause 
 for so doing. The extent of the enclosure is not 
 fixed by the Code. If there are boarding students 
 in the houses of these congregations or of an in¬ 
 stitute of male regulars, at least a part of the 
 building should, if possible, be marked off as en¬ 
 closed. Plans outside of the enclosure reserved 
 for extern or intern pupils, or for works proper to 
 the institute, must not be entered by persons of the 
 
 other sex, except for a just cause and with the 
 superior’s permission. The bishop in particular 
 cases and for grave reasons may enforce the ob¬ 
 servance of this enclosure by censures, except in 
 the case of exempt regular clerics. Except when 
 lawfully engaged in seeking alms, superiors may 
 not allow their subjects to dwell outside their own 
 houses, unless for a just grave reason and for as 
 short a time as possible and in accordance with 
 their rule; if the absence exceeds six months the 
 leave of the Holy See is required, except when the 
 religious is pursuing a course of studies. 
 
 Codex jur. can., 597 - 606 ; Vermeersch-Creusen, Epit. jur 
 can., 604 - 13 . 
 
 Clonfert, Diocese of (Clonfertensis, Irish 
 Clauin-fearta Brenainn; cf. C. E., IV-64d), in 
 the province of Tuam, Ireland, suffragan of Tuam. 
 This diocese includes portions of Galway, Roscom¬ 
 mon, and King’s County, and is ft present (1922) 
 under the administration of Rt. Rev. Thomas 
 O’Doherty, consecrated 14 September, 1919, to suc¬ 
 ceed Most Rev. Thomas P. Gilmartin, who filled 
 this see from 1910 until his promotion to the 
 Archdiocese of Tuam, 9 July, 1918. 
 
 During the World War four priests of this diocese 
 served as military chaplains, one of whom remained 
 with the army and another, having lost a limb, is 
 serving as a professor of theology in Manly Col¬ 
 lege, Australia. Large members of the laity, well 
 over a thousand, joined the fighting forces, and 
 many of them were killed. By present statistics 
 the diocese numbers a Catholic population of 
 40,000, all Irish, 24 parishes, 46 churches, 1 mon¬ 
 astery for men and 1 for women, 50 secular priests, 
 5 convents of the Sisters of Mercy, 1 seminary, 80 
 seminarians, 2 high schools, taught by the Sisters, 
 with 60 girl students, 2 technical schools with 6 
 teachers and 70 pupils, 85 elementary schools with 
 170 teachers and 6,800 pupils, 2 industrial schools, 
 under the Sisters, with 60 pupils, 1 home for aged 
 and infirm with 450 inmates, and 1 asylum for 
 Galway and Roscommon Counties with 1,400 in¬ 
 mates. The technical and industrial schools receive 
 financial aid from the government. The Pia Unio 
 Cleri and the Father Matthew Union are estab¬ 
 lished among the clergy, and the Sacred Heart 
 and Holy Family Sodalities, and temperance socie¬ 
 ties among the laity. 
 
 Cloyne, Diocese of (Cloynensis; cf. C. E., 
 IV-72c), comprising a large portion of County Cork, 
 Ireland, is suffragan of Cashel. This see is now 
 (1922) filled by Rt. Rev. Robert Brown, born in 
 Charleville, 1844, appointed 26 June, 1894. On 24 
 August, 1919, the new Cathedral of St. Colman was 
 consecrated by Cardinal Logue in the presence of 
 70,000 people, and a set of chimes with forty bells 
 was afterwards installed. The Presentation, de la 
 Salle, Patrician and Irish Christian Brothers are 
 established in this diocese, as well as the Presenta¬ 
 tion nuns, Sisters of Mercy, Loreto Sisters, Sisters 
 of Charity, Sisters of the Little Company of Mary, 
 Bon Secours Sisters, and Poor Servants of the 
 Mother of God. According to the 1911 census the 
 Catholic population of the diocese counts 128,488, 
 non-Catholics 9,426. In 1920 there were 44 parish 
 priests, 3 administrators, 78 curates, 7 chaplains, 5 
 priests at St. Colman’s College, 47 parishes, 103 
 parochial and district churches, 19 convents with 
 410 members in the communities, and 8 schools 
 conducted by Christian Brothers, besides orphan¬ 
 ages, industrial schools and homes. 
 
 Cochabamba, Diocese of (Cochabambensis; cf. 
 C. E., IV-75c), in Bolivia, South America, suf¬ 
 fragan of La Plata. After the death of Rt. Rev. 
 
COCHIN 
 
 214 
 
 COCHIN CHINA 
 
 Jacinto Anaya, appointed 18 August, 1897, d. 17 
 December, 1915, this see was vacant for a year 
 before the appointment of the present incumbent, 
 Rt. Rev. Luigi Francesco Pierini, b. at Bagnaia 
 1871, appointed 20 February, 1918. In 1914 this 
 diocese was solemnly united with the Eucharistic 
 Congress of Lourdes, and the people took part in 
 the devotions with great fervor. During recent 
 years it lost a prominent member by the death of 
 Dr. Mariano Baptista, ex-President of the Republic, 
 founder of the Catholic Union, and zealous de¬ 
 fender of the Catholic institutions. 
 
 By latest (1922) statistics the population of the 
 diocese numbers 550,000, made up of Spanish- 
 Americans and half-breeds, about 60% of the total 
 population being Indians, 30% half-breeds, and 10% 
 whites. There are 53 parishes, 74 churches, 100 
 public chapels, 1 mission, 3 monasteries of women, 
 
 4 convents of men, 129 secular and 32 regular clergy, 
 
 6 Brothers, 95 Sisters, 1 seminary, 22 seminarians, 
 
 2 colleges for boys with 6 teachers and 240 students, 
 
 1 college of women with 9 teachers and 340 
 students, 1 asylum and 1 hospital. All the state 
 colleges and charitable institutions permit the 
 priests to minister in them, and the seminary, one 
 college and the orphanage receive state aid. The 
 Apostolic Union is organized among the clergy, 
 and a Catholic Center, and the Knights of the 
 Sacred Heart among the laity. Two periodicals, 
 "Bolivia Eclesiastico” and “Informacion Catolica, 
 are published. 
 
 Cochin, Denys-Marie-Pierrb-Augustin, Baron, 
 statesman and author, b. at Paris on 1 September, 
 1851; d. there on 24 March, 1922. He was the son 
 of Pierre-Susana-Augustin Cochin, member of the 
 French Academy of Moral and Political Sciences, 
 and Adeline, daughter of Count Benoist d’Azy. He 
 belonged to one of the oldest known Paris families, 
 one of his ancestors having been an alderman there 
 in the days of St. Louis, King of France, while 
 another held a similar position under Francis II m 
 1562. His father was elected Prefet of the Seine-et- 
 Oise in 1871. Denys Cochin was studying at the 
 Lycee Louis-le-Grand, with Brunetiere, Becquerel, 
 and Paul Bourget, when the war of 1870 broke out. 
 He fought with the Eighth Lancers, taking part in 
 Bourbaki’s campaign, being twice wounded, and re¬ 
 ceiving the medaille militaire for bravery. On being 
 mustered out of the army he continued his studies, 
 graduating in law and science. He then entered the 
 diplomatic service and for a time was an attache 
 at the Embassy in London, but soon he returned 
 to his scientific studies and for several years carried 
 out research work under Pasteur. In 1878 he en¬ 
 gaged in politics, and was elected to the municipal 
 council of Paris. True to the religious spirit of 
 his family he protested vigorously against the 
 secularization of the schools and hospitals, par¬ 
 ticularly against the violation of the religious pro¬ 
 visions in the charter of the Hopital Cochin which 
 was established in the eighteenth century by his 
 great-uncle, Abbe Jacques-Denys Cochin. At a 
 later period he was elected to the French Chamber, 
 where, distinguished by his powers of oratory, he 
 vigorously opposed the anti-Catholic policy of 
 Combes and Waldeck-Rousseau. When, after the 
 separation, the Government expelled the Arch¬ 
 bishop of Paris from his palace, Denys Cochin 
 placed his magnificent residence in the rue de 
 Babylone at the disposal of Cardinal Richard. 
 M. Cochin was a recognized authority on Near- 
 Eastern questions, and was an ardent pleader on 
 behalf of the Armenians and Greeks. In 1914, when 
 the French Government withdrew from Paris to 
 
 Bordeaux, he remained behind to direct the mobil¬ 
 ization of the chemical industries in the capital. 
 He was an active promoter of the Union Sacree 
 during the war, being the official representative of 
 the Catholics, and he played no small part in 
 bringing about the reconciliation of France and the 
 Holy See. In 1911 he was elected to the French 
 Academy. Among his writings may be mentioned 
 “L’Evolution et la Vie” (1885) and “Le Monde 
 exterieur” (1895), crowned by the academy, “Contre 
 les Barbares” (1899), “L’Esprit nouveau” (1900), 
 and “Ententes et ruptures” (1905). With his 
 brother Henri-Denys (b. 1854 at Paris), who is a 
 distinguished lawyer, politician, and authority on 
 Italian poetry and art, he published several of the 
 works of his father (b. at Paris 1823; d. at Ver¬ 
 sailles 1872), whose “Abolition de Tesclavage” 
 (1861) was crowned by the academy. 
 
 Cochin, Diocese of (Coccinensis; cf. C. E., 
 IV-76c), in India, is suffragan to the Archdiocese 
 of Goa. It is at present (1921) under the adminis¬ 
 tration of Rt. Rev. Jose Bento Martin Ribeiro, 
 b. at Laurigal do Campas, Portugal, 22 August, 
 1859, professor at the College of Missions, Portugal, 
 appointed bishop 28 February, 1909, consecrated 
 15 August of the same year. He succeeded Rt. 
 Rev. Matheus d’Oliveira Xavier, who was promoted 
 to the archdiocese of Goa. 
 
 At present time (1921) the population of this 
 diocese is approximately 450,000, of whom 108,700 
 are Catholics, and the yearly conversions average 
 about 300. The religious communities established 
 are: the Society of Jesus with 10 priests and 3 
 brothers, the Franciscan Missionaries of Mary with 
 a novitiate for Indian nuns with 9 religious and 
 17 novices, Canossian Sisters with 20 religious. 
 There are: 42 parishes, 77 churches and chapels, 63 
 secular clergy, 62 of whom are natives, 11 regulars 
 (10 Jesuits and 1 Carmelite), a preparatory semi¬ 
 nary conducted by the Jesuits at Alleppy with 26 
 students, besides 14 seminarians from this diocese 
 who are studying in higher seminaries in other 
 parts of India, 2 high schools for boys with 1,780 
 pupils, 2 for girls under the Canossian Sisters with 
 438 pupils, 10 Anglo-vernacular parochial schools 
 with 1,156 pupils, 86 vernacular parochial schools 
 with 7,065 pupils. 
 
 The charitable institutions comprise: 2 orphan¬ 
 ages for girls with 124 orphans, 1 for boys with 
 15 orphans, 2 industrial schools for girls with 88 
 pupils, 2 catechumenates and a printing office. 
 There are 66 different confraternities established 
 throughout the diocese, 3 congregations of the Third 
 Order of St. Francis, 1 Association of Holy Family, 
 2 conferences of St. Vincent de Paul, 2 societies 
 for the relief of the souls in purgatory, 15 sodalities 
 of the children of Mary, 1 Misericordia Confra¬ 
 ternity. The Apostleship of Prayer and the Asso¬ 
 ciation of Christian Doctrine are established in all 
 the parishes and the confraternity of Mount Carmel 
 in almost all of them. 
 
 Cochin China, Eastern, Vicariate Apostolic of 
 (Cocincinn,® orientalis; cf. C. E., VII-777d), one 
 of the three ecclesiastical divisions of the French 
 possession of this name in Indo-China. By a decree 
 of 1 July, 1907, the most northerly province of this 
 vicariate, the region of Phan-thiet, was united to 
 the vicariate apostolic of Western Cochin China 
 because of the difficulty the bishop had in visiting 
 it. The present vicar apostolic is Rt. Rev. Damien 
 Grangeon, of the Foreign Missions of Paris, b. in 
 Gelles, France, 1857, ordained 1883, appointed 21 
 March, 1902, titular Bishop of Utina. He was as¬ 
 sisted by Rt. Rev. 'Constante-Philomene Yean- 
 
COCHIN CHINA 
 
 215 
 
 CODE OF CANON LAW 
 
 ningros, his coadjutor, titular Bishop of Havara 
 from 1912 until his death, 21 March, 1921. 
 
 During the World War 18 missionaries were 
 mobilized from the vicariate, some of whom re¬ 
 turned to France, others remaining here; two were 
 decorated with the croix de guerre, and many won 
 other citations. The (1922) statistics credit this 
 territory with a total population of 2,800,000, of 
 w T hom 68,880 are Catholics (Annamites and Bahnar 
 natives). The vicariate comprises 56 parishes, 489 
 churches, 518 missions, 121 secular priests, 3 brothers, 
 8 European and 260 native sisters, 2 seminaries, 
 132 seminarians, 82 elementary schools with 1,480 
 pupils, 2 schools of catechists with 169 pupils, 168 
 catechists in employment, 1 hospital, and 2 printing 
 presses. A monthly bulletin is published. 
 
 Cochin China, Northern, Vicariate Apostolic of 
 (Cocincinnte septentrionalis ; cf. C. E., VII-777d), 
 comprising part of the district of this name in 
 Indo-China. It is under the administration of Rt. 
 Rev. Eugene-Marie-Joseph Aliys, b. in Paimpont, 
 France, 1852, ordained 1875, appointed titular Bishop 
 of Phacusa and vicar apostolic, 30 January, 1908. 
 In recognition of his work in this mission, Bishop 
 Aliys was decorated Chevalier of the Legion of 
 Honor, 5 February, 1921, and on 16 April of the 
 same year the Emperor of Annam conferred on 
 him the decoration of Kim-Khanh hors classe in 
 acknowledgment of the work the bishop had been 
 doing in the kingdom of Annam for over forty 
 years. This honor was likewise recently conferred 
 on Marshal Joffre. Among the religious orders rep¬ 
 resented in this territory are: Brothers of the 
 Christian Schools, with 10 European and 18 native 
 members; Sisters of St. Paul with 15 members, 
 conducting schools, hospitals and orphanages; and 
 Carmelites -with 11 members. Besides these must 
 be counted 419 native women who live under a 
 common rule, but up to the present time have 
 not taken any vows. They teach in the parochial 
 schools, baptize dying children, and take part in 
 other good works; these women are of great assis¬ 
 tance in the mission. 
 
 The statistics published for this vicariate (1920- 
 21) credit it with a Catholic population of 66,829; 
 26 quasi-parishes for Europeans and 48 for natives, 
 306 mission stations, 36 missionaries and 79 native 
 priests, an upper seminary with 34 students, a 
 lower seminary with 78 students, 42 schools for 
 boys with 2,080 pupils, 37 schools for girls with 
 1,683 pupils, 4 orphanages with 144 boys and 149 
 girls, and 2 hospitals, one of which cares of lepers. 
 The following statistics show the spiritual progress 
 of the mission: Baptisms of children of Christian 
 parents, 1,850; of pagan children, 1,735; of catechu¬ 
 mens, 1,447; annual confessions, 39,269; annual com¬ 
 munions, 38.342; communions of devotion, 464,925; 
 confirmations, 2,478; viaticums, 708; extreme 
 unctions, 757. - 
 
 Cochin China, Western, Vicariate Apostolic of 
 (Cocincinn^ occidentals; cf. C. E., VII-777c), 
 one of the ecclesiastical divisions of Cochin China 
 in Indo-China. Entrusted to the Foreign Missions 
 of Paris, it is at present (1922) under the adminis¬ 
 tration of Rt. Rev. Victor-Charles Juinton, b. in 
 Carelles 1866, ordained 1899, appointed titular 
 Bishop of Laranda and coadjutor to the vicar 
 12 December, 1912, succeeding as vicar apostolic 
 upon the death of Rt. Rev. Lucien-Emile Mossard, 
 12 February, 1920. 
 
 During the World War two of the missionaries 
 and about ten Catholic laymen of the vicariate 
 died on the battlefield. In 1911 a new residence 
 
 imo^ e ^Jshop was constructed at Saigon, and in 
 1913, on 16 April, the five hundredth anniversary 
 of the foundation of the seminary was celebrated. 
 This mission lost one of its greatest benefactors 
 through the recent death of Madame Laphab Dab. 
 
 By latest statistics (1921) this territory counts 
 a Catholic population of 78,672, comprising about 
 6,000 French, 71,172 Annamites, 800 Indians, and 
 700 Chinese. These Catholics are divided among 
 72 parishes and 162 missions, served through 234 
 churches, 1 monastery of women, 1 convent of men, 
 5 of women, 129 secular priests, of whom 92 are 
 natives, 37 catechists, 41 Brothers of the Christian 
 Schools, 442 Sisters, 2 seminaries, 117 seminarians, 
 2 secondary schools of boys with 55 teachers and 
 1,409 pupils, 7 secondary schools for girls with 
 28 teachers and 346 pupils, 1 normal school with 
 2 teachers and 20 pupils, 199 elementary schools 
 with 219 teachers and 10,003 pupils, and 1 industrial 
 school with 1 teacher and 19 pupils. Among the 
 charitable institutions established are: 1 home for 
 the aged with 49 old men, 12 hospitals in which 
 15,341 cases were treated (1920-21), and 24 nur¬ 
 series caring for 4,486 baptized children. The 
 priests are allowed to minister in all the govern¬ 
 ment hospitals, and the children in the schools 
 attend catechism classes in their parishes. A society 
 of apostolic works is organized among the clergy, 
 and mutual aid societies are established in almost 
 all the parishes for the laity. The religious orders 
 represented in this territory include: Christian 
 Brothers, Carmelite Sisters, Sisters of St. Paul, and 
 Native Sisters. A press for the printing of reli¬ 
 gious literature has been founded, and a “Semaine 
 Religieuse” is published in Annamite. 
 
 The progress which is being made in this mis¬ 
 sion is best shown by the following statistics which 
 were published for the year (1920-21): Baptisms 
 of adults, 1,244 (714 dying); baptisms of children 
 of Christian parents, 2,781; baptisms of pagan chil¬ 
 dren, 4,487; confirmations, 2,087; annual confes¬ 
 sions, 42,784; confessions repeated, 300,936; Easter 
 communions, 42,260; communions of devotion, 
 701,769; extreme unctions, 1,242; ordinations, 2 
 deacons, 2 priests, 1 subdeacon, 5 exorcists, 5 lectors 
 and 5 porters. 
 
 Code of Canon Law (cf. C. E., IX-56d).—For 
 
 many centuries a multitude of ecclesiastical laws 
 had been enacted, not a few of which had in the 
 course of time been abrogated or had fallen into 
 desuetude, while others had become either difficult 
 to enforce or less useful for the common good. 
 These laws, moreover, were to be found only in 
 incomplete scattered compilations, so that many 
 of them were unknown even to the learned. Pius 
 X, realizing how helpful it would be for the restora¬ 
 tion and permanency of Church discipline to end 
 this inconvenience, decided in March, 1904, to 
 codify the ecclesiastical laws, abolishing obsolete 
 decrees, adapting others to the needs of the age, 
 and enacting new ones where expedient. The arch¬ 
 bishops of the entire world were directed to confer 
 with their suffragans and the other ordinaries who 
 are obliged to assist at provincial synods and to 
 inform the Holy See what modifications and cor¬ 
 rections of the laws they deemed especially neces¬ 
 sary. The work was carried out under the direc¬ 
 tion of Cardinal Gasparri, and a commission of 
 cardinals was appointed to examine, modify, and 
 correct the proposed canons. The five original 
 members of the commission were Cardinals Ferrata, 
 Gennari, Cavicchioni, Vives y Tuto, and Cavagnis, 
 with Cardinal Gasparri as ponens; these five 
 scholars having died during the course of the 
 
CODE OF CANON LAW 
 
 216 
 
 COLLATION 
 
 undertaking their work was continued by Cardinals 
 Vincenzo Vannutelli, de Lai, Martinelli, Pompili, 
 Bisleti, Van Rossum, Giustini and Lega. A copy 
 of the Code as completed and corrected was sent 
 before its promulgation to all the bishops and to 
 those superiors of religious orders who are legiti¬ 
 mately invited to oecumenical councils, in order 
 that they might freely express their views in re¬ 
 gard to the canons. After the death of Pius X 
 the completed work was ratified, approved, and 
 sanctioned by His Holiness Pope Benedict XV, 
 as announced by his Bull “Providentissima Mater 
 Ecclesia” (27 May, 1917), which decreed that the 
 prescriptions of the Code should have the force 
 of law from Pentecost, 19 May, 1918. The work, 
 which was published by the Vatican Press, opens 
 with the Bull of promulgation, “Providentissima 
 Mater Ecclesia,” followed by the Profession of 
 Faith of Pius V, with the addition of Pius IX. 
 Then begins the Code proper, comprising 2,414 
 canons, occupying 456 octavo pages; the canons 
 are followed by reprints of eight papal constitu¬ 
 tions dealing with Church government during a 
 vacancy and with papal elections, examinations for 
 vacant parishes, solicitation, and marriages in the 
 Indies, Brazil, and Ethiopia, and by a short gen¬ 
 eral index, since supplemented by a detailed alpha¬ 
 betical index filling sixty-three octavo pages. This 
 second index, published as an appendix to the 
 “Acta Apostolicse Sedis,” IX, part 2, is preceded 
 by a list of corrigenda and addenda signed by 
 Cardinal Gasparri, 17 October, 1917, and by a Motu 
 Proprio of Benedict XV, dated 15 September, 1917, 
 appointing a commission for the exclusive authori¬ 
 tative interpretation of the canons of the Code 
 and for the compilation and addition of any pro¬ 
 visions that in the course of time might be found 
 necessary. In 1918 a new edition was published 
 with a preface giving a summary account of earlier 
 canonical collections and a history of the compila¬ 
 tion of the new Code. Each page of the text of 
 the canons is provided with footnotes indicating the 
 sources from which the different canons were de¬ 
 rived ; the notes, like the analytical index and 
 the preface, are the work of His Eminence Cardinal 
 Gasparri. 
 
 The Code is divided into five books. The first 
 book (can. 1-86) deals with certain general regula¬ 
 tions, the relation of the Code to the Oriental 
 Church, to concordats, to the liturgy, to custom, to 
 statutory law, and to privileges. The second book 
 (can. 87-725) treats of persons: clerics, religious, 
 and laics; the third book (can. 726-1551) of things: 
 sacraments, sacred places, and times, Divine service, 
 teaching authority of the Church, benefices and 
 church property; the fourth book (can. 1552-2195) 
 with ecclesiastical procedure: trials, beatifications 
 and canonizations, special proceedings against 
 clerics; and the fifth book (can. 2195-2414) with 
 crimes, punishments, and special offenses. 
 
 Among the commentaries or treatises on the new 
 legislation are: Blat, “Commentarium textus” 
 (Rome, 1919- ); Leitner, “Handb. des kathol. 
 Kirchenrechts” (1919); Maroto, “Institutiones juris 
 Canon” (Madrid, 1921); Noval, “Commentarium 
 Codicis: de Processibus” (Turin, 1920); Cappello, 
 “Tractatus canonico-moralis de sacramentis” (Turin, 
 1921); Sole, “De delictis et pcenis” (Rome, 1920); 
 Vermeersch-Creusen, “Epitome juris ca-nonici” 
 (Malines, 1921); and in English, Augustine “Com¬ 
 mentary” (in 6 vols., 1918- ); Ayrinhac “Marriage 
 Legislation” (1919), and “Penal Legislation” 
 (1920); Petrovits, “On Matrimony” (1921); Papi, 
 “Religious Profession.” 
 
 Vermeersch-Cbeusen, Epit . jur . can ., 17-20. 
 
 Coimbatore, Diocese of (Coimbaturensis; cf. C. 
 E., IV-95a), in the district of the same name in 
 Madras, British India, suffragan of Pondicherry. 
 This diocese, which counts a Catholic population 
 of 43,792 out of a total population of 2,796,000, is 
 entrusted to the Society of Foreign Missions of 
 Paris. The present (1922) bishop is Rt. Rev. 
 Augustin Roy, born in the diocese of Poitiers 1863, 
 ordained 1888, appointed 12 February, 1904. The 
 Brothers of St. Patrick, Indian Brothers of the 
 Sacred Heart, Franciscan Missionaries of Mary, 
 Sisters of St. Joseph of Tarbes and Indian Nuns 
 of the Presentation Order are established here. 
 By latest statistics this mission is served by 31 
 European priests, of whom 4 are in France, and 
 23 Indian priests, 1 seminary, 126 churches and 
 chapels, 74 elementary schools and an orphanage 
 and industrial school. 
 
 Coimbra, Diocese of (Conimbricensis; cf. C. 
 E., IV-95b), in the province of Beira, Portugal, 
 suffragan of Braga. This see is now (1922) filled 
 by Rt. Rev. Manuel-Aloys Coelho da Silva, born 
 in Busteclo, Portugal, 1859, appointed 31 October, 
 1914, to succeed Rt. Rev. Manuel Correa, died 
 19 November, 1913. The bishop of this see bears 
 the title of Count of Arganil. He is assisted by 
 an auxiliary, Rt. Rev. Antonio Antunes, appointed 
 titular Bishop of Rhittymna 12 September, 1919. 
 The 1920 statistics credit this diocese with 539,836 
 Catholics, divided among 319 parishes. 
 
 Coira, Diocese of. See Chur. 
 
 Coire, Diocese of. See Chur. 
 
 Colima, Diocese of (Colimensis; cf. C. E., 
 IV-lOOc), comprising the state of the same name 
 and part of the State of Jalisco, in Mexico, suf¬ 
 fragan of Guadalajara. This diocese covers an area 
 of 3,386 sq. miles, and in 1920 counted a population 
 of 72,500 divided among 31 parishes and vicariates. 
 The present incumbent is Rt. Rev. Jose Amador 
 Velasco, born in this diocese 1856, served as vicar 
 general of the diocese, appointed 17 July, 1902. 
 
 Collation (cf. C. E., 11-475).—Benefices may be 
 granted by cardinals in their own titles or deacon- 
 ries, but not by vicar-generals. Besides all con- 
 sistorial benefices and all dignities of cathedral or 
 collegiate churches, the following are reserved to 
 the Holy See (even during a vacancy): (a) all 
 benefices rendered vacant by the death, promotion, 
 renunciation or transfer of cardinals, papal legates, 
 higher officials of the Sacred Congregations, tribu¬ 
 nals, and offices of the Roman Curia, and of those 
 who are members, even honorary, of the papal 
 family at the time of vacating the benefice; (b) 
 which, though founded outside of the Roman Curia, 
 have become vacant by the death of the beneficiary 
 in Rome; (c) which have been invalidly conferred 
 owing to simony; (d) benefices which the pope 
 has taken under control when he has personally 
 or by proxy declared the election void or forbidden 
 the electors to hold it, or accepted the renuncia¬ 
 tion, or promoted or transferred the beneficiary or 
 deprived him of the benefice, or given the benefice 
 in commendam. If an ordinary fails to grant a 
 benefice within six months after learning of the 
 vacancy—except when he judges it prudent under 
 special circumstances not to fill a parochial benefice 
 —the right of collation devolves on the Holy See. 
 
 No one can grant a benefice to himself; all bene¬ 
 fices must be granted for the lifetime of the holder, 
 unless the terms of the foundation, or immemorial 
 custom, or a special indult provides otherwise. 
 Clerics or laymen knowingly presenting or nominat- 
 
COLLE DI VAL D’ELSA 
 
 217 
 
 COLOMBIA 
 
 ing an unworthy person lose by the very fact the 
 right of nomination or presentation for that time, 
 and under analogous circumstances a cbllege loses 
 temporarily its right of electing; those guilty of 
 simony in connection with the granting of benefices, 
 lose in consequence thereof their right of election, 
 presentation, or nomination, and incur excommuni¬ 
 cation and, if they are clerics, suspension. Anyone 
 who assumes an ecclesiastical benefice, office, or 
 dignity on his own authority, or who takes pos¬ 
 session of or administers a benefice or office before 
 he receives the necessary letters and show them 
 to the proper authorities, incurs canonical dis¬ 
 ability and is to be punished suitably bv the ordi¬ 
 nary; moreover, he must give up the benefice, 
 office, or dignity; any chapter or body admitting 
 such individuals before they exhibit their letters 
 is by the very fact deprived of the right of elec¬ 
 tion, nomination, or presentation, during the 
 pleasure of the Holy See; finally, anyone accepting 
 an office, benefice, or dignity not legally vacant 
 and allowing himself to be inducted becomes by 
 that fact incapable of acquiring it later and should 
 be suitably punished. 
 
 Codex jur . can ., 1431-47. 
 
 Colle di Val d’Elsa (Collis Hetruscus), Diocese 
 of (Collensis; cf. C. E., IV-107a), in the province 
 of Siena, Tuscany, suffragan of Florence. Rt. Rev. 
 Massimiliano Novelli, appointed to this see 22 June, 
 1903, retired in 1921 and was succeeded by the 
 present incumbent. Rt. Rev. Andrea Giovanni 
 Masera, transferred to this see 13 June, 1921. Born 
 in the diocese of Turin, 1867, he served as vicar 
 general and chancellor of Fossano and Chaplain 
 to Princess Clotilda, was appointed Bishop of Biella 
 19 August, 1906, transferred to the titular see of 
 Himeria 2 December, 1912, and made auxiliary at 
 Sabina, 27 June, 1914, where he served until his 
 transfer. From February to October, 1921, he acted 
 as administrator of the diocese of Leghorn. In 
 1920 this diocese counted a Catholic population of 
 50,200, 72 parishes, 605 secular and 20 regular priests, 
 35 seminarians, 14 Brothers, 10 Sisters, and 117 
 churches or chapels. 
 
 College (cf. C. E., IV-111).—Unless otherwise 
 provided by common law or the statutes, the de¬ 
 cision of a collegiate body is given by a majority 
 vote; if two scrutinies fail to give a majority, a 
 plurality suffices in the third voting; but if the 
 voting is then equal, the president has a deciding 
 vote, or in case of elections if he does not wish 
 to exercise it the candidate who is senior in orders, 
 or by first profession, or age, is to be considered 
 elected. Decisions of collegiate moral persons which 
 affect the members as individuals require the ap¬ 
 proval of all. Colleges like other moral personalities 
 are by nature perpetual; they become extinct, how¬ 
 ever, if they are suppressed by lawful authority or 
 if they have been one hundred years out of exis¬ 
 tence. 
 
 vember, 1910, promoted 8 March, 1920, named 
 president of the Union of German Clergy for the 
 Missions 3 December, 1920, and created Cardinal- 
 priest 7 March, 1921. He is assisted by two auxil¬ 
 iaries, Rt. Rev. Franz Rodolph Bornewasser, titular 
 Bishop of Bida, appointed 23 April, 1921, and Rt. 
 Rev. Peter Joseph Lausberg, titular Bishop of 
 Thyatira, appointed 1 May, 1914. 
 
 During the World War the city of Cologne suf¬ 
 fered severely from areo attacks, and since Decem¬ 
 ber*. 1918, it has been the headquarters of the 
 British army of occupation. By the incorporation 
 of neighboring tpwns and villages (the largest of 
 which is Mulheim) the limits of the city have 
 been greatly extended in recent years, and it now 
 covers a territory of 19,726 hectares, and includes 
 a population of 663,935, of whom 533,680 are Cath¬ 
 olics. The metropolitan chapter includes a provost 
 and dean, 10 numerary and 4 honorary canons, and 
 10 assistant priests; the enlarged city counts 64 
 parishes and many churches, chapels and convents 
 of religious orders. By a Letter of His Holiness, 
 Benedict XV, 29 June, 1921, Cardinal Schulte was 
 authorized to found, in Cologne, an Institute of 
 Catholic Philosophy. The same year, the newly 
 erected diocese of Eupen-Malmedy (see Liege) 
 took from the archdiocese 42 parishes, 61,000 Cath¬ 
 olics, and 65 diocesan priests. 
 
 A most important portion of the archdiocese is 
 the Prussian administrative district of Aachen (Aix- 
 la-Chapelle), which was a diocese for a short period 
 under the reign of Napoleon I, but was suppressed 
 in 1821. However, in consideration of the great 
 desire of the people of the district to have it 
 erected into a diocese the archbishop ordered his 
 auxiliary, Bishop Bornewasser, to reside here, 29 
 May, 1921. He is Provost of the collegiate chapter, 
 founded by Charlemagne in 804, which consists 
 of six numerary and four honorary canons. 
 
 According to the latest (1922) statistics the Arch¬ 
 diocese of Cologne comprises 52 deaneries, divided 
 into 1,003 parishes, of which 7 were newly erected 
 in 1921. The secular priests number 2,254, of whom 
 1,872 are working in parishes, 37 in diocesan ad¬ 
 ministration, 40 in diocesan institutes, 16 as pro¬ 
 fessors of Catholic theology, in the University of 
 Bonn, 17 as officers of ecclesiastical organizations, 
 12 as prison chaplains, 4 as reformatory chaplains, 
 and 201 as instructors in high schools; the regular 
 clergy number 450. The various educational insti¬ 
 tutions include: the archiepiscopal seminary, where 
 ecclesiastical candidates receive their final training, 
 which counted 132 students in 1921; 2 theological 
 colleges in Bonn with 578 students, 3 colleges in 
 Neuss, Munstereifel and Rheinbach with 225 
 students, the greater number of whom plan to 
 enter the priesthood, 104 high schools for boys, 
 69 for girls, 6 intermediate schools, 10 training 
 schools for teachers and 12 sectors of small second¬ 
 ary schools. 
 
 Cologne, Archdiocese of (Coloniensis; cf. C. 
 E., 117d), in Germany. This see was filled by 
 His Eminence Anthony Cardinal Fischer, from 6 
 November, 1902, until his death, 30 July, 1912, 
 when he was succeeded by His Eminence Cardinal 
 von Hartmann, appointed 12 December, 1912, d. 11 
 November, 1919. (See Hartmann.) The present 
 incumbent, His Eminence Charles Cardinal Schulte, 
 was appointed his successor. Born in Valbert, 14 
 September, 1871, he studied at Essen and was a 
 pupil of Doctor, later Cardinal, Fischer, ordained 
 22 March, 1895, appointed Bishop of Paderbom 30 
 November, 1909, vicar Apostolic of Anhalt 12 No- 
 
 Colombia (cf. C. E., IV-121d).—The area of the 
 republic is estimated at about 440,846 sq. miles. 
 According to the census of 1918 the population 
 included 2,745,748 males, 2,941,307 females exclusive 
 of 160,436 Indians, a total of 5,847,491. The capital, 
 Bogota, has 143,994 inhabitants; the chief com¬ 
 mercial towns are Barranquilla (66,107), Manizales 
 (39,643), Cartagena (51,382), Medellin (79,146), Cali 
 (45,524), Bucaramanga (25,919). 
 
 Economic Conditions. — Agriculture. — Coffee is 
 the principal export of Colombia, the production 
 having doubled since 1906. In 1918 it was 1,102,677 
 sacks; the estimate for 1919 was 1,300,000 sacks. 
 About 67 per cent of the coffee exported from 
 
COLOMBIA 
 
 218 
 
 COLOMBIA 
 
 Colombia goes to the United States. The cotton 
 area in 1918 was 24,000 acres; production, 2,750,000 
 pounds. The value of the tobacco exported in 1918 
 was $1,004,692. The cultivation of rice on a large 
 scale was first attempted in 1918-19. 
 
 Manufacturing .—The Panama hat industry is 
 making great strides; some 86 per cent of the hats 
 manufactured are sent to the United States. The 
 total number of factories in Colombia in 1915 was 
 121, in which $12,406,000 was invested. The prin¬ 
 cipal manufacturing centers are Bogota, Medellin, 
 Barranquilla, and Cartagena. The petroleum in¬ 
 dustry has become of great prospective importance. 
 
 Commerce. —Colombia’s foreign trade for 1918 
 included imports valued at $22,034,004 (Colombian 
 dollars); exports, $37,728,559. In 1918 56.72% of 
 the imports were from Great Britain; of the ex¬ 
 ports, 82.5% ($31,134,000) went to that country. 
 The United States received 92% of all the exports 
 in 1916, and furnished 56% of the imports. At 
 Cartagena in 1918 there entered 263 vessels of 
 428,625 tons; of these 110 of 320,971 tons were 
 American, and 26 of 66,242 tons Were British. In 
 1920 there were 15 lines of railway (10 national 
 and 5 British companies), with a total mileage of 
 891 miles. The roads of Colombia are generally 
 simple mule tracks, but are being improved for 
 the use of automobiles. Much of the inland traffic 
 is by river; the work of canalizing the lower and 
 upper Magdalena is being carried on. This river 
 is navigable for 900 miles, steamers ascending as 
 far as La Dorada, 592 miles from Barranquilla. 
 In July, 1920, there were 13,640 miles of govern¬ 
 ment telegraph lines. At the end of 1920 the 
 consolidated debt amounted to $2,848,260, and the 
 floating debt to $10,840,654. The budget estimates 
 for the same year were: revenue, $23,855,253; ex¬ 
 penditures, $27,792,581. The main sources of reve¬ 
 nue, were the customs and next, the salt tax. The 
 leading items of expenditure were for the Depart¬ 
 ment of the Interior and the national debt service. 
 The following items were allowed in January, 1919: 
 
 Public instruction . 
 
 Charitable institutions . 
 
 Hospital of San Juan de Dios- 
 
 Various ecclesiastical foundations 
 Non-religious foundations. 
 
 $660,662 
 
 149,500 
 
 269,592 
 
 854,048 
 
 436,680 
 
 The redemption of paper currency and the 
 restoration of metallic money has been undertaken 
 by the Government. A special law has fixed the 
 rate of exchange between the paper and gold at 
 10,000 per cent, making the value of the paper 
 pesos equal to one cent gold. The monetary unit 
 is a gold dollar equal to one-fifth of a pound 
 sterling or $0.97 United States money. The first 
 gold was coined in 1913 and in 1916 a law allowed 
 the Government to coin gold pieces in the mints 
 of Bogota and Medellin free of charge. The silver 
 coins minted before 1911 ceased to be legal tender 
 on 1 May, 1918. 
 
 Education. —According to law, attendance in the 
 public school is gratuitous, but not compulsory. 
 The school system is under the supervision of the 
 Minister of Public Instruction and .the national 
 Government furnishes the textbooks, supplies, and 
 appliances, while the departments and municipalities 
 furnish the buildings and pay the teachers. Educa¬ 
 tion is divided into primary, secondary, profes¬ 
 sional, artistic, and industrial. In 1919 there were 
 5,236 primary schools with 32,696 pupils, 75 second¬ 
 ary schools with 6,716 pupils, 24 professional schools 
 
 with 2,317 pupils, and 24 art and trade schools 
 with 1,203 pupils. In 1920 there were altogether 
 4,422 public and private elementary schools with 
 333,658 pupils; also 27 normal schools with 1,359 
 pupils. The universities of Medellin, Cartagena, 
 Popayan and Pasto had an attendance of 2,488 in 
 1917. In 1919 the State spent 1,096,810 pesos. A 
 university for women has been opened. In 1918 
 the pupils in the public schools of the municipality 
 of Medellin included 17.1% of the population, 
 which, compared with 19.65% in the United States, 
 speaks very favorably for primary education in this 
 progressive district of Colombia. In 1918, 7.31% 
 throughout the Department of Antioquia were at¬ 
 tending school, as compared with an average of only 
 3% for the rest of the country outside the De¬ 
 partments of Caldas and El Valle. 
 
 Government. —At present there are 14 depart¬ 
 ments, 2 “intendencies,” and 7 commissaries. The 
 legislative power rests with a Congress of two 
 Houses, called the Senate and House of Repre¬ 
 sentatives. The Senate contains 34 senators elected 
 for 4 years indirectly by electors chosen for the 
 purpose. The House of Representatives consists 
 of 92 members elected by the people in 17 electoral 
 circumscriptions (one for every 50,000 of popula¬ 
 tion). Senators are elected for 4 years, one for 
 every 120,000 inhabitants; representatives for 2 
 years. The President is elected by direct vote of 
 the people for a term of 4 years and has two sub¬ 
 stitutes (designados ), a first and second, elected 
 annually by Congress to succeed the President 
 respectively, in case of his absence, death, or in¬ 
 ability to serve. There is no vice-president. Ap¬ 
 pointed bjr the President and freely removable by 
 him are the Ministers of War, Finance, Foreign 
 Affairs, Public Instruction, Treasury, Agriculture, 
 and Commerce and Public Works. The Supreme 
 Court judges (9) are elected for five years, four 
 by the Senate, five by the House. General Pedro 
 Nel Aspina was elected President in February, 1922. 
 The Presidents since 1910 have been Senor Carlos 
 E. Restrepo (1910-1914), Don Jose Vincente Concha 
 (1914—18), and Senor Marco Fidel Suarez (1918-22). 
 
 Army and Navy.— There is compulsory military 
 service for a year and a half or. a year. The per¬ 
 manent army of Colombia consists of about 6,000 
 men. The President is, however, authorized to 
 increase this number to 20,000 men in case of public 
 necessity. The total war strength of the armed 
 force, including trained reserves, is estimated at 
 120,000. 
 
 Ecclesiastical History. —In March, 1908, the pre¬ 
 fectures apostolic of Piani di S. Martino and In- 
 tendencia Orientale were united and erected into 
 a vicariate. On 28 April, 1908, the prefecture apos¬ 
 tolic of Chaco was erected, and entrusted to the 
 care of the Sons of the Immaculate Heart of Mary. 
 The vicariate apostolic of Casanare was. divided in 
 1915, and the Prefecture of Arauca formed from 
 that part of its northern territory west of the 
 Casanare River. In the same year the Diocese 
 of Antioquia was dismembered, the southern por¬ 
 tion being erected into the Diocese of Jerico. In 
 1917 the latter was reunited aeque principaliter to 
 Antioquia and the Diocese of Santa Rosa de Osos 
 erected from territory in the northeastern part of 
 Antioquia. The mission of Uraba became a pre¬ 
 fecture in June, 1917, and was put in charge of the 
 Discalced Carmelites. For Catholic statistics see 
 articles on subjects! mentioned above; Bogota, 
 Archdiocese of; Cartagena, Archdiocese of; 
 Medellin, ArchdioLese of; Popayan, Archdiocese 
 of; and their suffragans. 
 
COLOMBO 
 
 219 
 
 COLORADO 
 
 
 
 
 On August, 1920, the Republic of Colombia by 
 legal enactment was solemnly consecrated to the 
 Sacred Heart of Jesus, the first nation to give this 
 public testimony of faith. The ceremony took place 
 in the National Temple, Bogota, in presence of the 
 President, members of his cabinet, the Auxiliary 
 Bishop of Bogota, the auditor of the Apostolic 
 Nunciature and many other important ecclesiastical 
 and civil personages. Colombia has an Envoy 
 Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary ac¬ 
 credited to the Holy See. 
 
 Recent History.— In 1903 Colombia rejected the 
 Hay-Herran treaty, a convention made between 
 the United States and Colombia, for the construc¬ 
 tion of a ship canal connecting the Atlantic and 
 Pacific oceans. The French Company, which in 
 1894 succeeded the French Panama Company, 
 formed in 1881, offered to sell all its property and 
 rights to the United States for $40,000,000. The 
 rejection of this treaty in 1903 was immediately 
 followed by the secession of Panama, which on 3 
 November, 1903, proclaimed its independence and 
 imprisoned all the Colombian army and navy offi¬ 
 cials in the principal city. The new provisional 
 government of Panama immediately opened negotia¬ 
 tions with the United States. In 1909 there was 
 an attempt to negotiate a treaty between Colombia, 
 the United States and Panama, exonerating the 
 United States and Panama from any charge of 
 injustice to Colombia. This Colombia rejected 
 also, claiming that she had isthmian rights in 
 Panama and demanding the payment of $20,000,000 
 from the United States for Colombia’s rights in 
 the Panama railway. Finally, on 6 April, 1914, 
 Colombia signed a treaty with the United States 
 at Bogota, agreeing to recognize the independence 
 of Panama and receiving in return $25,000,000 and 
 certain rights in the Panama Canal Zone. This 
 treaty, after a long delay, was ratified by the 
 United States Senate on 20 April, 1921. 
 
 A new fiscal code was published on 4 March, 1913, 
 and a penal colony was established in Magdalena. 
 In 1915 a gold basis was adopted in place of the 
 silver standard which had been used for twenty- 
 one years. During the war the falling off of cus¬ 
 toms receipts wrought great havoc with the nation’s 
 finances, and the President with the extraordinary 
 powers voted him doubled the duty of stamped 
 paper, doubled the stamp tax, decreed coinage of 
 9,000,000 pesos in silver, reduced the salaries of the 
 officials of the country, and taxed the imports of 
 gold and valuable wood. 
 
 Colombo, Archdiocese of (Columbensis; cf. C. 
 E., IV-124b), comprises two of the nine ecclesias¬ 
 tical provinces of the Island of Ceylon, and is 
 entrusted to the Oblates of Mary Immaculate. It 
 has as its suffragans the dioceses of Galle, Jaffna, 
 Kandy and Trincomalie. Since 1905 this see has 
 been filled by Most Rev. Antoine Coudert, born 
 in Manglieu, France, 1861, ordained 1886, appointed 
 titular Bishop of Balansea and coadjutor to the 
 Archbishop of Colombo 28 June, 1898, succeeding to 
 the see 17 June, 1905. A number of religious orders 
 are established in the diocese: the Oblates of Mary 
 Immaculate (104 priests and 8- lay brothers), 
 Brothers of the Christian Schools (22), Marist 
 Brothers, Indian Franciscan Brothers (40), Sisters 
 of the Good Shepherd (51), Sisters of the Holy 
 Family (30), Little Sisters of the Poor (16), Fran¬ 
 ciscan Nuns, Missionaries of Mary (90), Ceylonese 
 Nuns of St. Francis Xavier under the direction of 
 the Sisters of the Good Shepherd (144), and Sisters 
 of the Immaculate Conception (155). Various edu¬ 
 cational and charitable institutions are conducted 
 
 by these orders: 1 seminary, 23 English schools 
 for boys with an attendance of 5,481, 17 for girls 
 with an attendance of 2,576; 231 vernacular schools 
 for boys, total registration 20,507; 228 vernacular 
 schools for girls, total registration 17,804; 6 orphan¬ 
 ages for girls caring for 449 children, an industrial 
 school for girls with 212 pupils, 1 home for the 
 aged with 200 inmates, and a government hospital, 
 entrusted to the Franciscan Nuns, Missionaries of 
 Mary. A Catholic press is established which pub¬ 
 lishes two semi-weekly newspapers, “Nanarantha 
 Pradigaya” in Sinhalese, and the “Ceylon Catholic 
 Messenger” in English, and a monthly magazine 
 called the “Messenger of the Sacred Heart for 
 Ceylon,” besides other religious literature in Eng¬ 
 lish and Sinhalese. The diocese comprises 340 
 churches and chapels, 62 head-stations, and 300 sub¬ 
 stations. 
 
 Colorado ( c f. C. E., IV-129a).-The area of the 
 State of Colorado is 103,948 sq. miles. 
 
 Population. —By the census of 1920 the popula¬ 
 tion was 939,376. Denver, the state capital and 
 largest city, had a population of 256,369. Accord¬ 
 ing to the statistics of 1919 the suicide death rate 
 for the state was 14.2 per 100,000 population, which 
 is a large decrease compared with 18.8 in 1915. 
 
 Resources.— In 1920 gold to the value of $10,- 
 249,300 and 5,966 ounces of silver were mined. The 
 coal output for 1918 was 10,484,237 tons bituminous 
 and 12,483,336 tons anthracite. The average wheat 
 yield (1919) was about fourteen bushels to the acre. 
 The value of output of agriculture, dairy and poul¬ 
 try for 1919 was $193,761,245; fruit, $16,978,412. In 
 1920 the irrigated acreage was 3,348,385, yielding 
 a total crop value of $486,000,000. The estimated 
 value of the manufactures, outside of smelting, for 
 1919 was $275,391,000. The railway mileage in 1920 
 was 5,610. 
 
 Education.— In 1918 the State University at 
 Boulder had 1,953 students and 219 professors and 
 instructors. A second normal school has recently 
 been opened at Gunnison. School district owner¬ 
 ship is over $16,000,000. The total number of pupils 
 enrolled in 1918 was 200,763. The teachers num¬ 
 bered 7,219 and the schoolhouses 3,089. The ex¬ 
 penditure for that year was $9,733,763. 
 
 The state laws affecting private and parochial 
 schools are as follows: No child of school age 
 who has not completed the eighth grade shall be 
 permitted to attend any school where the common 
 branches are not taught in the English language; 
 no appropriation shall be made for educational 1 
 purposes to any person or institution not under 
 the absolute control of the state, nor to any denom¬ 
 inational or sectarian institution or association. 
 (IV, 34); lots with the buildings thereon, if said 
 buildings are used exclusively for schools, shall be 
 exempt from taxation (X-5). All teachers in public 
 and private schools must take oath of allegiance; 
 compulsory school law requires that children attend¬ 
 ing private schools shall receive such instruction 
 as will be an equivalent to that given in the public 
 schools. For Catholic school statistics see Denver, 
 Diocese of. 
 
 Legislative Changes. —Colorado’s recent legisla¬ 
 tion has displayed the same modern tendency as 
 other state legislation, as in the creation of a 
 public service commission, of a Mothers’ Pension 
 Act (1912), a Bill providing the recall of all elec¬ 
 tive officers, including judges, a pure-seed law 
 (1919), a minimum wage commission, a workmen’s 
 compensation law JL1915), and gtatute providing 
 for the investigation and control of smelters. The 
 school-fund-farm-loan law, whereby moneys derived 
 
COLUMBUS 
 
 220 
 
 COMO 
 
 from school funds can be drawn upon for loans to 
 farmers, was upheld as constitutional. 
 
 Recent History. —The Colorado mine strike of 
 1914 will always be remembered for the extreme 
 bitterness displayed by the strikers. They de¬ 
 manded an eight-hour day, a ten per cent advance 
 in wages, the abolition of the guard system and 
 the recognition of unions. The arrival, of the militia 
 smoothed matters until it was suspected that in 
 its makeup many of the mining companies’ own 
 men were included. There were pitched battles 
 and the Federal troops were called to the scene. 
 After ineffective attempts at mediation President 
 Wilson appointed a commission, which submitted 
 a three-year truce. This the operators rejected and 
 the miners accepted. In December the strikers 
 went back to work without gaining their points. 
 
 Prohibition under the state constitution became 
 effective on 1 January, 1916. Three boards of great 
 importance have been recently organized—the Tax 
 Commission, State Public Utilities Commission, and 
 Industrial Commission. Each is composed of three 
 members appointed by the governor and confirmed 
 by the senate for six years. The State Board of 
 Correction, consisting of three members, was created 
 in 1915 to control the penitentiary, reformatory 
 and insane asylum. Colorado ratified the Federal 
 suffrage amendment 12 December, 1919, and the 
 prohibition amendment 15 January, 1919. 
 
 During the European War Colorado contributed 
 34,393 soldiers, or .92% of the United States Army. 
 The Colorado members of the National Guard 
 joined the 40th Division at Camp Kearney, Cali¬ 
 fornia. The summary of casualties of Colorado 
 members of the expeditionary forces is as follows: 
 deceased, 34 officers, 533 men; prisoners, 2 officers, 
 15 men; wounded, 87 officers, 1,088 men. 
 
 Columbus, Diocese of (Columbensis; cf. C. E., 
 IV-149c), comprises 13,685 sq. miles of the State 
 of Ohio, U. S. A. It is at present (1922) under the 
 administration of Rt. Rev. James J. Hartley, b. in 
 Columbus, 1853, ordained 1882, appointed 23 Decem¬ 
 ber, 1903. On 3 March, 1918, the golden jubilee 
 of the diocese was celebrated. During the World 
 War it gave 6 priests and 6,262 laymen to the 
 service. 
 
 By present statistics there is a Catholic popula¬ 
 tion of 109,024 in this territory, comprising 75,843 
 Americans, 13,212 Italians, 6,719 Poles, 7,026 Slovaks, 
 1,864 Syrians, 574 Lithuanians, and 3,354 Ruthenians 
 of the Greek Rite. These are served through 101 
 parishes, 152 churches, 37 missions, 45 mission sta¬ 
 tions, 2 monasteries for men, 144 secular and 37 
 regular clergy, 5 lay brothers, 841 sisters, 1 seminary, 
 170 seminarians, 1 college for men with 14 profes¬ 
 sors and 375 students, 2 colleges for women with 20 
 teachers, 27 high schools with 67 teachers, 254 boys 
 and 286 girls; 3 academies with 32 teachers, 480 
 boys and 403 girls; 1 normal school with 4 teachers 
 and 30 students; 61 elementary schools with 427 
 teachers and 15,919 pupils. The various charitable 
 works include the Home and Foreign Mission 
 Society, 4 homes with 537 inmates, 6 hospitals, and 
 2 settlement houses. The Eucharistic League and 
 a society for infirm priests are organized among 
 the clergy, and three periodicals, the “Catholic 
 Columbia,” “Josephium Weekly” and “Ohio Waisen- 
 freund,” are published here. 
 
 Comacchio, Diocese of (Comaclensis; cf. C. E., 
 IV-151a), in the province of Ferrara, Italy. This 
 see was formerly suffragan of Ravenna, but by a 
 Decree of 7 January, 1909, it was made directly 
 subject to the Holy See. Rt. Rev. Alfonso Archi, 
 appointed to the see 28 September, 1902, was trans¬ 
 
 ferred to Como 8 September, 1905, and the see was 
 left vacant for a long period. In 1909, however, 
 His Eminence Cardinal Boschi, Archbishop of 
 Ferrara, was named Bishop of Comacchio also, and 
 administered the diocese until his resignation in 
 1919. The following year Comacchio was again 
 given a bishop of its own in the person of Rt. Rev. 
 Gherardo Sante Menegazzi, F. M.Cap., born in 
 Rovereto di Goa, Italy, 1866, appointed 16 Decem¬ 
 ber, 1920. This diocese comprises a Catholic popu¬ 
 lation of 40,909, 14 parishes, 36 secular and 5 regular 
 clergy, 14 seminarians, 14 Sisters, and 14 churches 
 or chapels. 
 
 Comayagua, Archdiocese of. See Tegucigalpa. 
 
 Communion of Children (cf. C. E., IV-170).—In 
 
 danger of death young children ought to receive 
 Holy Communion if they know how to distinguish 
 Christ’s Body from ordinary bread and adore It 
 reverently. If there is no danger of death they 
 should have a certain knowledge of the mysteries 
 of Faith that are to be believed as a necessary 
 means to salvation, and be prepared to receive with 
 such devotion as might be expected of children of 
 their age. The Code says that the confessor and 
 the parents or guardians are to decide if the child 
 is sufficiently advanced and prepared to receive its 
 first communion; but it also requires the parish 
 priest to exercise vigilance lest the child should go 
 too soon or should refrain too long from communion 
 when sufficiently prepared. 
 
 Codex jur . can ., 854; cf. Irish Eccl . Rev ., XVII (1921), 
 609-11, for a case where the confessor and parish priest 
 disagree. 
 
 Communion of the Sick (cf. C. E., IV-174).— 
 
 Persons who have been confined to bed by illness 
 for a month and who have no sure hope of a speedy 
 recovery may on the advice of their confessors re¬ 
 ceive Holy Communion once or twice a week after 
 taking medicine or some liquid food (modifying 
 C. E., VI-279d). 
 
 Codex jur . can ., 858-66. 
 
 Communism (cf. C. E., IV-179b).—There has 
 been no increase in the number of communistic 
 societies in the last decade. In fact, the few that 
 were in existence ten years ago have either declined 
 or disappeared. The name “Communism,” how¬ 
 ever, has been frequently on men’s lips since the 
 year 1918. It has been applied by both friend and 
 foe to the Bolshevist regime in Russia. (See Bol¬ 
 shevism.) In this connection it has about the same 
 meaning as Socialism. This usage indicates a re¬ 
 turn to Marx and Engels; for the document in 
 which they first set forth their system was called 
 “The Communist Manifesto.” 
 
 John A. Ryan. 
 
 Como, Diocese of (Comensis; cf. C. E., 
 IV-183c), in Lombardy, Northern Italy, suffragan 
 of Milan. This diocese is under the administration 
 of Rt. Rev. Alfonso Archi, b. at Faenza, 1864, ap¬ 
 pointed titular Bishop of Gaza, 19 June, 1901, trans¬ 
 ferred to Comacchio, 29 September, 1902, to Como, 
 8 September, 1905, and appointed an assistant at 
 the pontifical throne, 11 March, 1912. 
 
 During the World War the clergy and laity of 
 this diocese distinguished themselves in the patriotic 
 and charitable works at home, as well as in active 
 service in the field. On 15 August, 1919, the papal 
 delegate, Cardinal Ferrari, solemnly crowned the 
 statue of Nostra Signora del Sacra Cuore di Gesu, 
 in the church of Santa Giorgia in Borgo Nico. 
 
 By latest statistics (1922), this diocese com¬ 
 prises a Catholic population of 377,873; 337 parishes, 
 1,000 churches, 1 monastery of women, 9 convents 
 
COMPLEX 
 
 221 
 
 CONCLAVE 
 
 of men, 530 secular and 45 regular clergy, 23 broth¬ 
 ers, about 600 sisters, 2 seminaries, 200 seminarians, 
 2 secondary schools for boys, 7 for girls, 7 elemen¬ 
 tary schools, 23 homes, 63 asylums, 12 hospitals, 
 and 1 day nursery. About 10 of the public institu¬ 
 tions permit the priests to minister in them, and 
 2 of the schools are assisted by the government. 
 Besides the Propagation of the Faith, and various 
 other missionary works, 2 societies are formed 
 among the clergy, and about 250 among the laity of 
 different parishes. Six Catholic periodicals are pub¬ 
 lished here. 
 
 Complex, Psychological. See Psychoanalysis. 
 
 Compostela (or SantiagodeiGalicia), Archdiocese 
 of (Compostellanensis; cf. C. E., IV-187d), in 
 the province of Galicia, Spain. The archbishop of 
 this ancient see bears the title of major chaplain 
 of his majesty, judge ordinary of the royal chapel, 
 house and court, and major notary of Leon. At 
 present (1922) the see is filled by His Eminence 
 Cardinal Martin de Herrera y de la Iglesia, born 
 m Aldeadavila de la Ribera, Spain, in 1835, ap¬ 
 pointed Archbishop of Santiago de Cuba, 5 July, 
 1875, transferred 14 February, 1889, Senator and 
 member of the Royal Council, created cardinal 19 
 April, 1897. He is assisted by an auxiliary, at 
 present Rt. Rev. Ramir Fernandez y Valbuena, 
 appointed 7 July, 1911, titular Bishop of Scillium. 
 This archdiocese which covers an area of 5,341 
 sq. miles and comprises a Catholic population of 
 900,000, is credited by the 1920 statistics with 1,137 
 parishes, 980 priests, 1,137 churches, 837 chapels, 
 14 convents with 212 religious, and 664 Sisters. 
 
 Compromise ( c f. C. E., IV-189) .—Compromise 
 by option is the only kind mentioned in the Code. 
 If the person chosen to settle the controversy is to 
 decide by the principles of the law he is known as 
 an arbiter, if by the principles of equity, he is an 
 arbitrator. Only those suits that may be settled 
 by transaction (q.v.) may be compromised. Lay¬ 
 men or those who have been judicially declared 
 excommunicated or infamous cannot act validly as 
 arbiters; religious must not accept the office without 
 leave of their superiors. At an election by com¬ 
 promise the person delegated to vote in the name 
 of all cannot declare himself elected; and if several 
 have been so delegated none of them can of his 
 own accord procure his own election by voting with 
 the other delegates wishing to elect him. If the 
 election is in connection with a clerical college the 
 delegates must be priests, otherwise the election 
 would be invalid. 
 
 Codex jur . can ., 1929-32. 
 
 • Vii V? Ilgl0US communities of men established 
 in the diocese include: Franciscans (12 convents, 
 M lellg . lol ? s )» Dominicans (3 convents, 12 religious); 
 Mercedarians (3 convents, 28 religious); Augl 
 ustiamans (1 convent 5 religious); Capuchins (3 
 convents 25 religious); Jesuits (2 residences, 15 
 rehgious); C erks Regular of the Pious Schools 
 (1 college, 11 religious); Salesians (1 house, 20 
 religious); Redemptonsts (2 residences, 22 re- 
 hgmus); Missionaries of the Immaculate Heart 
 of Mary (2 residences, 17 religious); Discalced 
 Irmitarians (1 residence, 19 religious); Discalced 
 Carmelites (1 residence, 11 religious); Fathers of 
 Picpus (8 religious), and Brothers of the Christian 
 Schools (2 colleges, 18 Brothers). Eighteen con- 
 gregations of religious women are established here- 
 ce i Trinitarians, Conceptionists, Religious 
 of the Sacred Heart, Sisters of Providence, Daugh¬ 
 ters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul, Sisters of 
 the Immaculate Conception, Sisters of the Good 
 Shepherd of Angers, Little Sisters of the Poor 
 Sacramentines, Hospital Sisters of the Sacred 
 Heart, Sisters of Providence of Corenc (Grenoble) 
 Mercedarians, Servants of Jesus, Sisters of the 
 
 Sisters of St. Joseph, Protectors 
 of Childhood, Sisters of the Infant Jesus of Aurillac 
 Franciscan Sisters of the Immaculate Conception! 
 and Sisters of the Holy Cross. These congrega- 
 tions have in all 56 houses and 599 religious. By 
 the latest census (1907) the total population of 
 this territory, which comprises 45,000 sq. miles, 
 numbered 1,113,000, of whom all were Catholic 
 except a few thousand Araucan infidels and a 
 if 1 a L n n Um ° e - have strayed from the Faith. 
 By 1920 statistics the diocese is credited with 68 
 parishes, 6 sub-parishes, 3 seminaries, and 122 secular 
 priests. Numerous charitable institutions and soci¬ 
 eties are established. 
 
 Conaty, Thomas J. See Monterey and Los 
 Angeles, Diocese of. 
 
 Concepcion, Diocese of (Sanctissim.® Con- 
 cepcionis; cf. C. E., IV-190b), in Chile, South 
 America, suffragan of Santiago de Chile, Rt. Rev. 
 Luis Enrique Izqierdo y Vargas, appointed to this 
 see 26 January, 1906, died 7 August, 1917, and was 
 succeeded by the present incumbent, Rt. Rev. Gil¬ 
 bert Fuenzalida y Guzman, born in Talca, 1868, he 
 made his studies at the seminaries of Talca, Santiago 
 and the Latin-American College at Rome, served as 
 rector of the seminary of Talca, and then of San¬ 
 tiago, member of the council of public instruction, 
 dean of the faculty of theology of the state in 1905, 
 and was appointed 20 February, 1918. In 1920 a 
 new parish was erected in the diocese, under the 
 title of Our Lady of Mercy, and entrusted to the 
 Mercedarians, and the following year a new church 
 of St. Joseph was entrusted to the Capuchins, 
 
 Conclave (cf. C. E, IV-192) .-Papal elections 
 are held in accordance with the Constitution 
 Vacante Sede Apostolica” of Pius X, dated 25 
 December, 1904. At the first of the general pre¬ 
 paratory meetings which are to take place from 
 the day of the pope’s death till the day when the 
 cardinals enter the conclave, the “Commissum No¬ 
 bis” of Pius X abolishing the Veto and the “Prae- 
 decessores Nostri” of Leo XIII, with the annexed 
 instructions concerning elections, are to be read and 
 the cardinals present must swear to observe them 
 and the prescriptions of the “Vacante Sede Apos¬ 
 tolica,” and also if they are elected never to cease 
 vindicating the rights of the pope, especially the 
 civil power of the Holy See; furthermore, they 
 must swear that they and their assistants will ob¬ 
 serve secrecy, even after the election, as to all that 
 takes place in the conclave, unless in as far as they 
 are expressly dispensed by the pope. Inspiration, 
 compromise, and balloting are the only three meth¬ 
 ods of election now recognized as valid, accession 
 having been abolished. Neither the violation of 
 the enclosure nor the crime of simony now invali¬ 
 dates an election, a provision adopted to eliminate 
 any occasion for disputing the validity of the pro¬ 
 ceedings. As the interval of ten days between the 
 death of the pope and the beginning of the con¬ 
 clave proved to be insufficient to enable cardinals 
 from distant countries like Brazil, Canada, and 
 the United States to reach Rome in time for the 
 election, Pius XI meeting the wishes of the car¬ 
 dinals at the recent conclave, has modified certain 
 prescriptions laid down in the “Vacante Sede.” 
 The interval of ten days has been extended to 
 fifteen full days; cardinals are empowered to add 
 two or three days more, but they must enter the 
 
CONCORDAT 
 
 222 
 
 CONFIRMATION 
 
 conclave and proceed at once to the election after 
 the eighteenth day at the latest. The prescription 
 for the three more solemn final funeral Masses is 
 to be observed; but the cardinals at their first 
 meeting are to fix the days on which the six other 
 Masses are to be celebrated. The cardinals, more¬ 
 over, though they 4 may have two assistants, can 
 bring only one into the conclave, and he must 
 be a layman—but this is not to modify the pro¬ 
 visions already made for cardinals who are ill. 
 Furthermore, the cardinals may celebrate Mass dur¬ 
 ing the conclave but if for any reason anyone does 
 not do so he is to hear Mass and receive Holy 
 Communion in a designated chapel. Finally the 
 Motu proprio in which these changes are made is 
 to be read at the first general meeting of the 
 cardinals after the death of the pope. 
 
 The clerics present at the conclave of 1922 in 
 attendance on the cardinals from dioceses outside 
 of Italy were granted the privilege of a private 
 oratory, provided it was first visited and approved 
 by the ordinary. It was formerly customary to be¬ 
 stow life pensions on the clerics attendant on the 
 cardinals from Italian sees, but owing to the pov¬ 
 erty of the Holy See to-day, this practice was dis¬ 
 continued; however, each of those who had been 
 present received a donation of 300 lire. 
 
 Concordat (cf. C. E., IY-196).—The canons of 
 the Code in no way abrogate or modify the con¬ 
 cordats already existing between various nations 
 and the Apostolic See. On 24 June, 1914, Servia, 
 desiring to be free from the religious protectorate 
 of Austria, arranged a concordat with the Holy 
 See, which was after approved by the Skuptchina 
 and ratification by King Peter was published on 
 18 September, 1914, and ratified by Benedict XV 
 on 20 March, 1915. Codex jur. can., 3; for text 
 of Servian Concordat cf. Rome, XV, and Annuaire 
 pontifical (1916), 69. 
 
 Concordia, Diocese of (Concordiensis; cf. C. E., 
 IV-206d), in the province of Venice, Northern 
 Italy, suffragan of Venice. This see was filled by 
 Rt. Rev. Francesco Isola from 22 June, 1896, until 
 his transfer to the titular see of Adrianople, 14 
 February, 1919. He was succeeded by the present 
 incumbent, Rt. Rev. Luigi Paulini, born in For- 
 miaso, 1862, made a prelate of the Holy See 11 
 September, 1911, appointed 10 March, 1919. The 
 episcopal residence is at Portogruaro; the chancel¬ 
 lors of the cathedral are ipso facto, prothonotaries 
 apostolic supernumerary. The 1920 statistics credit 
 this, diocese with 302,481 Catholics; 131 parishes, 
 255 secular and 2 regular clergy, 112 Sisters, 142 
 seminarians, and 287 churches or chapels. 
 
 Concordia, Diocese of (Concordiensis; cf. C. E., 
 IV-206d), comprises an area of 26,685 sq. miles 
 in the State of Kansas, and a Catholic population 
 of 35,179. Since the death of the last bishop, Rt. 
 Rev. John Francis Cunningham, D.D., who was 
 consecrated 21 September, 1898, and died 23 June, 
 1919, the see has been vacant and the progress 
 of the diocese retarded on this account. The 
 present records (1921) show the following statis¬ 
 tics: churches with resident priests, 59; missions, 
 36; stations, 10; secular priests, 60, regulars, 34; 
 ecclesiastical students, 5; 1 college for boys with 
 95 students; 1 academy with 110 students; 33 
 parochial schools with 4,713 students; 3 hospitals, 
 and 1 orphan asylum. The various religious orders 
 represented in the diocese are the Capuchin Fath¬ 
 ers; the Oblate Fathers; the Sisters of St. Joseph, 
 and Sisters of St. Agnes. 
 
 Concubinage (cf. C. E., 1V-207).—Persons who 
 live in public concubinage are to be excluded from 
 all legal ecclesiastical acts until they give proof of 
 real repentance; if the culprit has received minor 
 orders he should be punished by dismissal from 
 the clerical state if necessary; if he has received 
 major orders, and disregards the ordinary’s warn¬ 
 ing he is to be forced by suspension and priva¬ 
 tion to end the association and repair the scandal. 
 Clerics are presumed to be concubinaries, if they 
 are contumacious when they have been forbidden 
 by the local ordinary on account of the moral 
 danger or scandal to retain in their service, or 
 associate with, any woman. The manner of dealing 
 with such cases is as follows: If the cleric after 
 being duly warned neither obeys nor replies, when 
 he could do so, he is to be suspended a divinis by 
 his ordinary, and is to be deprived immediately 
 of his parish, should he have one; if he holds only a 
 benefice without cure of souls and does not amend 
 within two months after his suspension he is to 
 lose half of his revenue, three months later he loses 
 the remainder, and three months later is to be de¬ 
 prived of the benefice. If, however, the accused has 
 excused himself to the ordinary, his answer is to 
 be sent to two examiners; if the ordinary after con¬ 
 sulting them judges the alleged excuse insufficient, 
 he must at once notify the cleric and command 
 him formally to obey within a short specified time. 
 If the disobedient culprit is a removable parish 
 priest he may be coerced at once as stated above; 
 where, however, the culprit hold a permanent 
 benefice and gives new reasons instead of obeying, 
 the ordinary should submit them to examination 
 as before; if the excuses are then deemed insuffi¬ 
 cient the ordinary is to command obedience within 
 a fitting time, and if the culprit remains recalcitrant, 
 he is to be dealt with as above. 
 
 Codex jur . can ., 2,176-81. 
 
 Concursus (cf. C. E., IV-208).—In places where 
 appointments to parishes are made by concursus, 
 this practice is to be continued until the Hoty See 
 decrees otherwise. 
 
 Conferences, Ecclesiastical (cf. C. E., IV-213).--- 
 Ecclesiastical conferences have now been made obli¬ 
 gatory and are to be held in the episcopal city and 
 each vicariate forane frequently. They are to be 
 attended by all secular priests, regulars, even ex¬ 
 empt, having care of souls, and other religious who 
 hold diocesan faculties for hearing confessions if 
 they have no conferences in their own houses. 
 Those who are obliged to attend but are unable 
 to do so must send written solutions of the ques¬ 
 tions under discussion, unless they have been ex¬ 
 pressly exempted by the local ordinary. Similar 
 conferences are to be held in clerical religious 
 houses, and are to be attended by all the professed 
 who are engaged in or have completed their theo¬ 
 logical studies, excepting those who are exempted 
 by the constitutions. 
 
 Codex jur . can ., 131, 591. 
 
 Confirmation (cf. C. E., IV-215).—Even without 
 special delegation Confirmation may be adminis¬ 
 tered by cardinals and also by abbots or prelates 
 nullius, vicars and prefects Apostolic, who can act 
 validly, however, only within their own territory 
 and while holding office. Priests of the Latin Rite, 
 who administer the sacrament by special indult, can 
 validly confirm only persons of the Latin Rite, un¬ 
 less their indult expressly asserts otherwise. Eastern 
 priests enjoying the faculty or privilege of con¬ 
 firming children of their Rite at baptism are for¬ 
 bidden to confirm children of the Latin Rite; if 
 they did confirm their act would be valid, though 
 
CONFIRMATION 
 
 223 
 
 CONGO 
 
 sinful. They may administer confirmation with 
 baptism to their own people everywhere except in 
 Bulgaria, Albania, Cyprus, Italy, and the adjacent 
 islands, the Maronite districts of Mount Lebanon 
 and the Ruthenian districts in the United States. 
 Private baptism and confirmation in other Rites 
 may be given anywhere without special leave but 
 solemn baptism requires at least the presumed 
 leave of the ordinary if the priests wish to act 
 outside of their own districts. A bishop, or priest 
 having a local Apostolic privilege, can licitly con¬ 
 firm externs in his territory, unless their own ordi¬ 
 nary has expressly forbidden it; the bishop, more¬ 
 over, may confirm his own subjects outside of his 
 diocese privately, without using his pastoral staff 
 or mitre; but he would require at least the reason¬ 
 ably presumed permission of the local ordinary to 
 confirm others; hitherto no one might be confirmed 
 without the permission of the local bishop. A 
 bishop is obliged to administer the sacrament to his 
 subjects who lawfully and reasonably ask for it, 
 especially during the diocesan visitation, and a 
 similar duty is incumbent on a specially privi¬ 
 leged priest; ordinaries must see that their subjects 
 have an opportunity at least every five years of 
 being confirmed—formerly every eight or ten years 
 was often deemed sufficient; if an ordinary is guilty 
 of grave negligence in this matter now, the metro¬ 
 politan is to inform the Holy See. 
 
 When a subject has attained the use of reason he 
 should be instructed to receive confirmation; he 
 must not neglect to receive it, even though it is 
 not a necessary means of salvation, and his parish 
 priest should see that he receives the sacrament 
 in due time. W here several are to be confirmed 
 all must be present at the first imposition or exten¬ 
 sion of hands, and none may depart until the rite 
 has been completed. The sacrament may be ad¬ 
 ministered at any time, but preferably in Pentecost 
 week. Though it should be given in a church, any 
 other suitable place may be selected for a reason¬ 
 able cause; moreover, as far as the bishop’s right 
 to administer confirmation is concerned there are 
 . no exempt localities in his diocese. The chrism for 
 confirming should be consecrated by a bishop— 
 the Code neither affirms nor denies that a priest 
 would be delegated by the pope for this function. 
 
 If possible there should be a sponsor at con¬ 
 firmation; unless the minister believes there is a 
 reasonable excuse, each sponsor should stand for 
 only one or two subjects. To act validly as spon¬ 
 sor, a person (a) must be confirmed, have attained 
 the use of reason, and intend to assume the obliga¬ 
 tion; (b) must not belong to a heretical or schis- 
 matical sect or be excommunicated by condemnatory 
 or declaratory sentence, or have incurred infamy of 
 law, or be incapable of legal acts, or be a deposed 
 or degraded cleric; (c) must not be the father, 
 mother, or spouse of the subject; (d) must be 
 chosen by the subject, parents, guardians, or if 
 there are none or if they refuse, by the minister 
 or parish priest; (e) must personally or by proxy, 
 touch the subject physically at the act of confirma¬ 
 tion. To act licity as sponsor, one (a) should be 
 other than the baptismal sponsor, unless the min¬ 
 ister decides there is a reasonable excuse, or unless 
 the confirmation takes place lawfully immediately 
 after baptism; (b) should be of the same sex as 
 the subject, except for a just cause; (c) should 
 possess the qualifications required for acting licitly 
 as a baptismal sponsor. Spiritual relationship arises 
 only between the sponsor and the subject, and is no 
 longer an impediment to matrimony. 
 
 d he parish priest is to record in a special book 
 the names of the minister, recipients, parents and 
 
 sponsor, and also the date and place of confirma¬ 
 tion; he should record the fact also in the bap¬ 
 tismal register. If he was not present at the cere- 
 mony the minister must personally or by proxy 
 notify him as soon as possible that the sacrament 
 has been conferred. To establish the fact of con¬ 
 firmation, if no one’s interests are endangered, the 
 testimony of one unexceptionable witness, or the 
 oath of the recipient, unless he was confirmed as 
 as infant, suffices. 
 
 Codex jur . can ., 780-800; O'Donnell in Irish Eccl . Rec . 
 
 XI (1918); 206-16. 
 
 Confraternity ( c f. C. E., IV-223) .—Members of 
 confraternities may not assist as such in sacred 
 functions unless wearing their habit or insignia: 
 Women can be enrolled as members, but only for 
 the purpose of gaining the indulgence and spiritual 
 favors granted to the associates. Local ordinaries 
 are to see the confraternities of the Blessed Sacra¬ 
 ment and of Christian Doctrine are erected in 
 every parish; on being legitimately erected they 
 are thereby aggregated to the corresponding arch¬ 
 confraternities in Rome erected by the cardinal 
 vicar. Religious can and should communicate to 
 confraternities erected by them the spiritual favors 
 which are expressly jnentioned as communicable in 
 the faculties received from the Holy See; but 
 confraternities erected by religious may not assume 
 a habit or insignia to be worn at public processions 
 or other sacred functions without special leave of 
 the ordinary. No confraternity may change or 
 abandon its habit or insignia without the local ordi¬ 
 nary’s consent. Confraternities must be present 
 with their insignia and their own standards at the 
 usual processions unless they have been excused by 
 the ordinary. See Associations, Pious. 
 
 Codex jur . can ., 701-25. 
 
 Congo, Belgian (cf. C. E., IV-228b).—The area 
 is estimated at 909,654 square miles, with a popula¬ 
 tion of Bantu origin officially estimated at eleven 
 millions. The European population in January, 
 1920, numbered 6,971. Of these 3,588 were Belgians, 
 818 English, 239 Americans, 657 Portuguese, 298 
 Italians, 53 Russians, 87 Swedish, 153 French, 183 
 Dutch, 75 Swiss, 308 Greeks, 22 Luxemburgers, 21 
 Danish, 14 Norwegians, and 11 Spaniards. 
 
 Education.— So far comparatively little has been 
 done for native education. The first schools 
 founded by the state were charity schools in which 
 orphans, children abandoned by their parents, and 
 the children freed by the dispersal of slave convoys 
 were cared for. These schools were situated at 
 Boma and New Antwerp and their management was 
 entrusted to Catholic priests, who prepared the 
 pupils for the military or civil service of the colony. 
 For other natives there are professional schools at¬ 
 tached to the workshops which the State possesses! 
 at Boma, Leopoldville, and Stanleyville. These . 
 are open to youths from twelve to twenty years of 
 age, who have the consent of their parents and 
 have been recommended by their chiefs to the 
 commissioner of their district. In addition there 
 are primary schools taught by members of religious 
 orders and a school for the sons of chiefs, which 
 was opened at Stanleyville in 1913. Some of the 
 mission schools are organized like state schools 
 and are under the general control of the Governor 
 General; some have obtained additional grants of 
 land and are under partial control; others are 
 completely free. The first two must follow the 
 general program arranged by the heads of the 
 missions, in consultation with the Governor Gen¬ 
 eral. The only scientific establishments of impor¬ 
 tance are the medical laboratory at Leopoldville 
 and the botanic gardens of EalsS. In 1920 the 
 
CONGO 
 
 224 
 
 CONGO 
 
 Government grant to the missionaries for education 
 amounted to 887,100 francs, while the total expendi¬ 
 ture on education was 1,297,880 francs. 
 
 Economic Status. —The gold mines in 1919 em¬ 
 ployed some 8,000 natives, the output being 3,356 
 kilos. The copper mines produced 22,130 tons of 
 copper. The exportation of diamonds in 1919 
 amounted to 215,532 carats. The chief exports 
 in 1919 were: Palm nuts, 34,350,030 kilograms; rub¬ 
 ber, 3,797,440 gr.; palm oil, 6,404,510 kilogs; cop¬ 
 per, ore, and crude, 23,028,000 kilogs. Of the special 
 imports in 1918, the value of 28,712,502 francs came 
 from Great Britain; 1,224,856 francs from France; 
 2,056,017 francs from Angola; 1,824,238 francs from 
 the United States. The rubber industry was revived 
 in 1915, and the following year 2,232 tons of rubber 
 were exported. 
 
 Communications. —The Congo is navigable for 
 nearly 100 miles above its mouth, as far as Matadi, 
 and again above the Stanley Pool for a distance 
 of 1,600 miles. The railway mileage on 1 January, 
 1920, was 1,250, the longest lines being those from 
 Bukama by way of Elizabethville to the frontier 
 of Rhodesia (456 miles), the Kindu-Kongolo line 
 (327 miles) and the Matadi-Leopoldville line (248 
 miles). Within the Congo system are included two 
 sections of the Cape-to-Cairo Hailway. The tele¬ 
 graph mileage is 2,065. 
 
 Government. —As a result of the international 
 situation created by the charges of misgovernment 
 against the Congo Free State, the Belgian Congo 
 was annexed by Belgium in 1908, the annexation 
 becoming more effective November 15 of that year. 
 The government of the country is now carried on 
 according to the Constitution finally approved by 
 King Leopold on 18 October, 1908, modified to 
 some extent by subsequent Acts of the Belgian 
 Parliament, of which the more important are those 
 of 29 March, 1911, 5 March, 1912, and 9 December, 
 1912. 
 
 By these enactments, Congo is placed under the 
 legislative control of the King of the Belgians, 
 but he must act on the advice of the Colonial 
 Minister, who is responsible to Parliament. His 
 legislative power he exercises by decree, and his 
 executive power by regulations, subject, however, 
 to any laws passed by the Belgian Parliament. 
 The King is aided by a Colonial Council of four¬ 
 teen members, eight of whom are nominated by 
 the King, three by the Senate, and three by the 
 Chamber. Parliament retains the control of the 
 Colonial Budget. In addition to the Colonial 
 Council there are two other bodies of a consulative 
 character at Brussels, the Conseil superior du 
 Congo, which created in 1899, and acts as a court 
 of appeal, and the Commission des terres, which 
 was created in 1910, and consists of five members, 
 government officials, who examine all questions 
 relative to the concession or sale of land. 
 
 By a royal decree in 1912, the territorial divisions 
 of the colony were reorganized, the number of dis¬ 
 tricts being increased from twelve to twenty-two. 
 Each district is administered by a commissioner 
 who is in charge of the military and police. The 
 twenty-two districts are: Lower Congo, Middle 
 Congo, Kwango, Sankuru, Kassai, Lake Leopold II, 
 Equator, Lulonga, Baugala, Ubangi, Lower Uele, 
 Upper Uele, Ituri, Stanleyville, Aruwimi, Lowa, 
 Kivu, Maniema, Lomami, Tanganika-Moero, Lulua, 
 and Upper Luapula. By a royal decree of 1914, the 
 last four districts form the Province of Katanga; 
 the first five districts form the Province of Congo- 
 Kassai, the next five form the Province of Equator, 
 and the remaining eight districts form the Eastern 
 Province, with Stanleyville as its capital. Each 
 
 of the provinces is administered by a vice-governor 
 general, to whom is entrusted the care of its inter¬ 
 nal affairs. The governor general has full executive 
 authority in the colony, except in so far as he is 
 restrained by laws and royal decrees. 
 
 Judicial Power. —For the administration of civil 
 and criminal cases there are seven Courts of First 
 Instance, each with a judge, procureur d’Etat to 
 represent the people, and a greffier; there are two 
 courts of appeal composed of a president, two 
 judges, a procureur general and a greffier. Under 
 the new regime (1913) the territorial administrator 
 sits as a police court with power over minor of¬ 
 fences. From this an appeal can be made to the 
 Court of Public Prosecutor, w r hich deals with all 
 offenses by natives and consists of a judge, the 
 royal prosecutor, and a registrar. A crime com¬ 
 mitted by a native is judged by the chief of the 
 place where it is committed. An appeal can be 
 made to the court of a superior chief, and to 
 a European court only when the defendant is 
 aggrieved and demands that the case be heard 
 anew. In civil matters natives may always have 
 recourse to European courts. Despite the de¬ 
 fendant’s reluctance the chief’s judgment holds 
 between non-matriculated natives. There are also 
 military courts ( conseil de guerre, conseil de guerre 
 d'appel). At the head of this administration of 
 justice is the conseil superior de Bruxelles, which 
 constitutes the cour de cassation. 
 
 Defense. —The colony possesses a force of native 
 troops amounting to about 16,000 men, all infantry, 
 organized into thirty companies and recruited by 
 voluntary enlistment. The officers and non-com¬ 
 missioned officers (365) are Europeans, for the 
 most part Belgians, and are enlisted for seven years. 
 The territorial force numbers about 6,000 men. 
 
 Recent Changes. —In the Franco-German Con¬ 
 vention of 1911, Germany promised not to oppose 
 the establishment of a French protectorate over 
 Morocco, and France agreed to maintain the open 
 door in Morocco and to cede two strips of the 
 French Congo to Germany. In 1918, however, 
 the districts of Ruanda and Urundi, together with 
 the territory around Lake Kivu (formerly in Ger¬ 
 man East Africa) were ceded to Belgium as manda¬ 
 tory of the League of Nations. The total area is 
 about 19,000 square miles. In order to obtain a 
 practicable railway route to join the Tanganyika 
 Territory to Uganda, the British acquired by trans¬ 
 fer the eastern strip of the Province of Ruanda 
 and a small part of Urundi. 
 
 Missions. — Non-Catholic. — The Episcopalian 
 Methodists of the Northern States of America re¬ 
 cently came from Rhodesia into this region where 
 in the past two years the Pentecostal Mission and 
 the Heart of Africa Mission have also opened 
 stations. The African Mission, finding itself cramped 
 in British East Africa, also moved into the Congo. 
 In 1918 some members of the Brethren persuasion 
 from America began the Ubangi-Shari Mission. In 
 all there are fifteen Protestant societies with a 
 staff of 400 missionaries in seventy-eight stations; 
 five are British, one is Swedish, and the rest are 
 American. 
 
 Catholic. —Ecclesiastically Belgian Congo is 
 divided into five vicariates apostolic: Leopoldville, 
 New Antwerp, Upper Kassai, Stanley Falls and 
 Upper Congo; and seven prefectures apostolic: 
 Katanga, Northern Katanga, Matadi, Belgian 
 Ubanghi, Western Uele, Eastern Uele, and Kwango. 
 For statistics see articles under these titles. 
 
 Congo, Lower or Portuguese, Vicariate Apos¬ 
 tolic of. See Loango. 
 
CONGO 
 
 CONGRESSES 
 
 Congo, Upper, Vicariate Apostolic of (Congi 
 Superioris), erected 10 December, 1895 (see C. E., 
 XVI-82). This vicariate, entrusted to the White 
 Fathers, is under the direction of its first vicar 
 apostolic, Rt. Rev. Victor Roelens, titular Bishop 
 of Girba, appointed 30 March, 1895. He resides 
 at Beaudoinville and is assisted by an auxiliary, 
 Rt. Rev. Auguste-Leopold Huys, titular Bishop of 
 Rusicade, appointed 24 March* 1909. By the 1918 
 census the total population of this territory was 
 300,000, of whom 16,012 were Catholic and 5,419 
 catechumens. The vicariate comprises (1920), 11 
 principal stations, 27 chapel-schools, 52 missionaries, 
 1 upper seminary with 2 students, 1 lower seminary 
 with 12 students, 8 Brothers, 19 White Sisters of 
 Our Lady of Africa, 161 native catechists who are 
 charged with 79 schools with a total attendance of 
 8,211 boys and 5,826 girls, thus carrying on the' 
 work of evangalizing 300 pagan villages; 14 orphan¬ 
 ages with 540 children, 7 hospitals, 22 dispensaries, 
 and 1 refuge for widows. In 1918 there were 2,590 
 baptisms of adults in this vicariate besides 3,514 
 at the hour of death. 
 
 Congregationalism (cf.C.E., IV-239c).—A move¬ 
 ment toward organic union among the congrega¬ 
 tions, and toward union with other churches; a 
 loss, of members in various localities, of ministers 
 quite generally, and an intensive attempt to stay 
 the adverse tide mark this sect during recent years. 
 The triennial national council of 1913 (the last of 
 the triennial councils, the body now meeting bien¬ 
 nially) marked the definite recognition of the Con¬ 
 gregational Churches as an organized religious body 
 with specific purposes which are set forth in what 
 may be called a Congregational platform, including 
 a preamble, and statements of faith, probity and 
 wider fellowship. 
 
 Along the line of union or co-operation with 
 other sects the Congregationalisfs have been promi¬ 
 nent workers. In April, 1911, as a result of pre¬ 
 liminary work in preparation for the World Con¬ 
 ference on Faith and Order, an agreement was 
 entered into with the Church of the Disciples 
 whereby consolidation of local churches of the .two 
 sects is allowed where deemed advisable. Several 
 instances have been reported where such consolida¬ 
 tion has taken place. 
 
 In Canada a movement has for some ten or 
 fifteen years been under way having for its object 
 the union of the Congregationalists, Methodists, 
 and Presbyterians. In 1916 progress was reported, 
 but final negotiations were deferred until the end 
 of the war and since then complete arrangements 
 have not been made. The Baptists were to have 
 been included in the union but finally withdrew 
 from the movement. As the Northern Baptist Con¬ 
 vention of the United States in 1919 said, “There 
 is no centralized body which could deliver the Bap¬ 
 tist churches to any merger. If Baptist churches 
 do not have unity among themselves they obviously 
 cannot have organic unity with other denomina¬ 
 tions.” 
 
 There has been also a movement toward union 
 or rapprochement with the Protestant Episcopal 
 Church. In 1918 the latter church reported un¬ 
 favorably on a proposal by the Congregational and 
 various other churches, suggesting joint ordination, 
 as a war measure, of chaplains for the army and 
 navy. In October, 1919, the General Convention 
 of the Protestant Episcopal Church drew up a 
 tentative concordant with the Congregational 
 Church whereby ministers of the latter might under 
 certain conditions, receive ordination in the Epis¬ 
 copal Church and yet continue to minister in their 
 
 own churches. Already in 1915, during the General 
 Council of the Congregational Churches held in 
 New Haven, a number of the pulpits of the Prot¬ 
 estant Episcopal Church in that city were, with 
 the express approval of the bishop of the diocese, 
 open to members of the Congregational Council! 
 
 In Massachusetts at a meeting of the IVlassachu- 
 setts General Convention of Congregational minis¬ 
 ters a Unitarian minister urged that the 
 Congregational and Unitarian churches be reunited, 
 the name Unitarian to be dropped and the Congre¬ 
 gationalists to relinquish their doctrinal and creedal 
 statements. The proposal was welcomed by the 
 Rev. Samuel Bushnell on the part of the Congre¬ 
 gationalists, but it led to no actual results. 
 
 The Congregational Church also co-operated in 
 the Pan-Protestant Panama conference of 1916, 
 and is a member of the Federal Council of Churches 
 of Christ in America, and after the Episcopalians, 
 has been especially prominent in the preparation 
 for the World Conference on Faith and Order. 
 
 There were about 2,000,000 Congregationalists in 
 the world in 1922. In the United States there 
 were 6,019 churches, 5,772 ministers, and 819,225 
 members. In 1920 there were in Great Britain 
 492,968 members, 13,000 in Canada, 18,000 in Japan, 
 21,000 in Australia, and 20,000 in South Africa. 
 The number of ministers in the United States has 
 decreased considerably since 1907 and in the Gen¬ 
 eral Council in 1917 the president of the Chicago 
 seminary characterized the situation as the most 
 critical since the Civil War. There was also a 
 falling in membership in Great Britain. In Mace¬ 
 donia, in January, 1922, according to press des¬ 
 patches, the Congregational Church lost control of 
 the twenty-five Protestant missionary churches 
 which it had founded and maintained there. This 
 loss is due to alleged leanings toward Unitarianism, 
 and according to reports the Methodists have taken 
 charge of these churches. 
 
 To rouse greater interest in Congregationalism 
 and its works the “tercentenary plan” (Plymouth, 
 1620-1920) was devised, the aim being to seek new 
 members, to add to the ministerial force, and espe¬ 
 cially to raise a fund of $50,000,000 principally for 
 missions. Late reports indicate satisfactory progress 
 in raising this fund. 
 
 The widespread movement of Congregationalism 
 toward internal organic union, and toward union 
 or at least co-operation with other sects, would 
 Seem to lead to the logical conclusion that in 
 the future this sect should gradually lose its cor¬ 
 porate identity and merge with some other sect, 
 for hitherto its distinctive tenet (and theoretically 
 it still retains it) has been that each congregation 
 is a complete organization, independent of all 
 others; by practically abandoning this tenet the 
 sect seems to lose its raison d’etre. 
 
 Keeler, The Reunion of Christendom , in America , XXIV 
 (1921), 303; Idem, The Living Church in Controversy , ibid. 
 571 ; Religious Bodies , 1916 (Washington, 1919) ; Year Book 
 of the Churches (New York, annual). 
 
 N. A. Weber. 
 
 Congresses, Catholic (cf. C. E., IV-242a).—The 
 first International Eucharistic Congress held since 
 the beginning of the World War, and the twenty- 
 seventh of the series, opened in Rome on Ascension 
 Thursday, 25 May, 1922, and continued in session 
 until 29 May, when the Holy Father, Pius XI, 
 carried the Blessed Sacrament in solemn proces¬ 
 sion from the Sistine Chapel to the Vatican 
 Basilica. The Pope presided at the general open¬ 
 ing meeting on 24 May, and responded to the 
 addresses of Cardinal Vincenzo Vannutelli, honorary 
 president of the Congress. The general theme 
 
CONNECTICUT 
 
 226 
 
 CONNECTICUT 
 
 developed at the Congress was “The Peaceful King- of which was derived from basalt or trap rock, 
 ship of Our Lord Jesus Christ through the Educational Facilities— The libraries of Yale 
 Eucharist.” Addresses were delivered each day in University contain about 1,000,000 volumes. In 
 Italian, the official language of the gathering, and 1919 its property and funds amounted to twenty- 
 in English, French, Spanish, and German. On the five millions of dollars in value, and it expended 
 closing day solemn ceremonies were held in every in that year one and a half million dollars in its 
 diocese of the Catholic world in spiritual conjunc- operations. Upwards of 400 Catholics are numbered 
 tion with those in Pome. The twenty-six preceding among its students. The total enrollment in 1920 
 Congresses were held as follows: Lille, 1881; was 3,896, and the^faculty numbered 569. The 
 Avignon, September, 1882; Liege, June, 1883; Fri- endowment amounts to $24,049,730. Especially 
 bourg, September, 1885; Toulouse, June, 1886; notable was the recent bequest of John Sterling, 
 Paris,’ July, 1888; Jerusalem, May, 1893; Reims, a New York lawyer amounting from $16,000,000 to 
 July, 1894 ; Paray-le-Monial, September, 1897; Brus- $20,000,000. A beautiful memorial quadrangle of 
 sels,’ July, 1898; Lourdes, August, 1907; Angers, dormitories, containing six campuses and covering 
 September, 1900; Namur, September, 1902; An- an entire city square has recently been completed, 
 gouleme, July, 1904; Rome, June, 1905; Tournai, one of the finest groups of buildings of this sort 
 August, ’ 1906; Metz, August, 1907; London, Sep- in the world, the gift of Mrs. Stephen Harkness, 
 tember, 1908; Cologne, August, 1909; Montreal, in memory of her son. Wesleyan University has 
 September, 1910; Madrid, June, 1911; Vienna, about 426 students, and forty-eight professors and 
 September, 1912; Malta, April, 1913; Lourdes, 1914. instructors. The Connecticut Agricultural College 
 The Marian Congress, held in India 13-16 January, has an enrollment of 354 students. The public 
 1921, was attended by a papal delegate, 24 bishops, schools have a total enrolment of 243,880 pupils 
 and 12,000 of the laity. At Paris, 4-11 December, with 5,987 teachers. The total expenditure for the 
 1921, the first International Democratic Congress, maintenance of these schools for the year 1919 was 
 organized by Marc Sangnier, had for its purpose $11,280,097. For statistics of Catholic schools see 
 the promotion of international peace and was Hartford, Diocese of. 
 
 notable for the attendance of delegates from all State laws relative to private and parochial 
 the recently warring nations, who manifested the schools are as follows: attendance of children at 
 most harmonious and fraternal relations with each a school other than a public school shall not be 
 other. The Catholic Bible Congress, in which the regarded as compliance with the laws of the state, 
 leading biblical scholars took part, held its sessions unless the teachers or persons having control of 
 at Cambridge, England, 16-19 July, 1921. such school shall keep a register of attendance in 
 
 the form and manner prescribed by the state board 
 Connecticut (cf. C. E., IV-253c).—According to of education for the public schools, which register 
 the federal census of 1920 the population of the shall at all times during school hours be open to 
 State of Connecticut was 1,380,631. the inspection of the secretary and agents of the 
 
 Wealth and Resources. —Manufacturing had an state board of education; compulsory education 
 early beginning in Connecticut. Iron products law requires that children in private schools be 
 were manufactured in the eighteenth century; nails taught same subjects as in public schools; state 
 were made before 1716; and the cannon for the board may examine incorporated or endowed sec- 
 Continental troops made to block the channel of ondary schools, and shall aprove them if course of 
 the Hudson River to British ships, was manufac- studies and equipment are satisfactoryBible read- 
 tured in Connecticut. Tinware was made in Berlin ing is neither permitted nor excluded in the public 
 as early as 1770; Connecticut clocks were well schools of state. 
 
 known * in the eighteenth century. In 1732 the Recent History.— The Constitution of 1918 was 
 London hatters complained of the competition of amended to permit an annual or biennial election 
 Connecticut hats in their trade. Brass works were of town selectmen, the use of voting machines, to 
 in operation in Waterbury in 1749; paper mills at allow the lieutenant-governor to exercise the author- 
 Norwich in 1768; in Hartford in 1776. In 1900 ity of the governor in case of the death or disability 
 Connecticut led all the states in the manufacture of the latter, and to provide for the adjournment 
 of ammunition, bells, brass, and copper. According of the legislature, sine die, not later than the first 
 to the census of manufactures of 1919, there were Wednesday after the first Monday in June, 
 in Connecticut 4,104 manufacturing establishments, During the World War, Connecticut was given 
 with an aggregate capital amounting to $620,194,000, over to war work. Munition factories, metal work- 
 employing 25,112 salaried officials, and on the aver- ing concerns in Hartford, New Haven, Bridgeport 
 age of 226,264 wage earners. The cost of raw mate- and Naugatuck Valley and textile manufactures 
 rial used annually was $228,511,000, and the value brought an increase of population to the state, 
 of the output was $545,472,000. # Connecticut was the first state in preparation for 
 
 The latest agricultural census shows a decrease in war, in the formation of its Home Guard and its 
 the number of farms from 26,815 in 1910, to 22,655 Council of Defense, and was the first to have 
 in 1920. Of the total land area of the state, 3,084,800 soldiers sent abroad. 
 
 acres, 1,898,980 are in farms and of this, 701,086 Legislative Changes— In 1913 the Sunday law 
 acres are improved land. In 1920 the value of all was slightly relaxed to permit free concerts and 
 farm property was $226,991,617; of live stock, $23,- athletic sports in public parks with the consent 
 472,693. The crops in 1919 brought a total value of the authorities, if no prizes were to be offered, 
 of $44,492,385, of which $4,457,809 came from cereals, The exemption of charitable bequests from a suc- 
 $13,711,567 from hay and forage, $7,218,194 from cession tax was repealed in 1917. In the same year 
 vegetables, and $15,189,551 from tobacco. The dairy a law was passed requiring the approval of the 
 products brought $14,923,971. State Board of Charities before support for different 
 
 In 1919, Connecticut ranked forty-fourth of all religious and charitable causes could be solicited, 
 the states in the Union in the total number of Other legislative measures included the creation 
 persons engaged in the mining and quarrying indus- of a state Civil Service Commission, Workmens 
 tries and in the average number of wage earners Compensation Act, registration of voters, tax ex- 
 employed. The total value of products from all emption of bonds of state, counties, and munici- 
 mines and quarries in 1919 was $1,649,003, 76.6% palities, a teachers’ retirement Act, old age pension 
 
CONSANGUINITY 
 
 CONSTANTINOPLE 
 
 227 
 
 law, and child labor laws. In 1919 the governor 
 was authorized to suspend the child labor law in 
 cases of emergency. In 1921 the marriage law was 
 changed to stop the bigamous marriages that were 
 permitted through a loop-hole in the statute. 
 
 Prisons.— In 1911 all male prisoners under twenty- 
 five years of age, sentenced to less than five years 
 imprisonment were transferred from the state prison 
 to the new reformatory at Cheshire. 
 
 Church Statistics. —For Catholic statistics see 
 Hartford, Diocese of. The Congregationalists are 
 the most numerous of the Protestant denominations, 
 having according to the religious census of 1916 
 71,188 members. The same census disclosed 48,854 
 Protestant Episcopalians, 38,581 Methodists, and 
 26,243 Baptists and 3143 Presbyterians. 
 
 Consanguinity (cf.C. E., IV-264).—Consanguinity 
 is a diriment impediment of marriage between per¬ 
 sons related by blood in the direct line, and also 
 between those who are related in a collateral line 
 to the third degree inclusive. The impediment is 
 multiplied only as often as the common stock is 
 multiplied. Formerly it was multiplied when there 
 was more than one line of descent from the com¬ 
 mon stock (e.g. two cousins whose grandparents 
 ■were also cousins). The Congregation of the Sacra¬ 
 ments grants dispensation from consanguinity; if 
 it is in the third degree it is considered an impedi¬ 
 ment of minor rank from which the prosecretary 
 of the Congregation can dispense. Formerly dis¬ 
 pensaries were obtained through the Datary. Propa¬ 
 ganda, of course, still deals with petitions in this 
 matter forwarded by persons subject to its juris¬ 
 diction. 
 
 16^70^ JUr ' Can '’ 1,076 ’ Aybinhac ’ M a rr iage Legislation , 
 
 college for boys with 4 teachers and 190 students; 
 2 high schools with 1,600 girl pupils; 3 elementary 
 schools; 2 orphan asylums; 2 hospitals; 3 day 
 ui series. The Government contributes nothing 
 toward support of the Catholic schools. The Jesuit 
 lathers have 2 missions and 2 stations established 
 and have under headway 5 missionary projects! 
 lor the clergy there is an association of reparation- 
 and for the laity the Society of St. Vincent d4 
 Paul, the Third Order of St. Francis; Congrega- 
 ^ the blessed Sacrament, and of St. John 
 of the Cross. One Catholic weekly under episcopal 
 auspices is published. Among the recently deceased 
 is Rev. Ludovico Bozzo, who had charge of the 
 bociety of Saint Vincent de Paul and lived an 
 exemplary life. The Government gave public 
 acknowledgment of the meritorious work of the 
 clergy during the World War. 
 
 Consecration ( c f. C. E, IV-280) .—While the ordi¬ 
 nary minister of consecration of a church is the 
 diocesan bishop, a cardinal may consecrate the 
 church or altar of his title or deaconate. The con- 
 secrator and those who asked for the consecration 
 for themselves are bound to fast on the day before 
 the ceremony. When a church or an altar is conse¬ 
 crated, the officiating bishop, even if he has no 
 jurisdiction over the locality, is to grant an indul¬ 
 gence of one year to all those who visit the church 
 or the altar on that day. At the same time another 
 indulgence, to be gained on the same condition on 
 each anniversary of the consecration, is to be pub¬ 
 lished; this indulgence is for fifty, or a hundred, 
 or two hundred days, according as it is granted by 
 . a bishop, an archbishop or a cardinal. 
 
 Regarding loss of consecration, under the Code 
 a church loses its consecration only when it has 
 been completely destroyed, or when the greater 
 part of the walls have been demolished; of course 
 the consecration or benediction disappears when the 
 church is entirely unfitted for Divine worship and 
 cannot be repaired and has been legitimately turned 
 over to profane purposes by the local ordinary. A 
 chalice or paten does not now lose its consecration 
 on being regilt. 
 
 Codex jur . can ., 1,147; 1,161-78. 
 
 Consolata, Missionaries of the. See Mis¬ 
 sionaries of the Consolata. 
 
 Constantine, Diocese of (Constantiniensis; cf. 
 C. E., IV—295a), in Algeria. The Catholic popula¬ 
 tion is 121,000, made up of French, Italians, Spanish, 
 and Maltese. Their spiritual needs are attended by 
 75 secular and 10 regular priests, assisted by 12 lay 
 brothers. There are 18 parishes and 19 churches; 
 
 1 convent of the Sisters of the Good Shepherd; 1 
 seminary, recently built, with 30 seminarians; 1 
 
 Constantinople, Patriarchate of (Constanti- 
 nopolitana; cf. C. E, IV-301c), in Turkey. The 
 Batnarcn of Constantinople resides in Rome, but 
 the Catholics of the Latin Rite have a patriarchal 
 vicar, who is also delegate apostolic for the Orien- 
 tals, residing m the city of Constantinople. Until 
 1911 those Catholics of the Greek Rite who are 
 united to Rome, were governed by an apostolic 
 vicar, but in that year Pope Pius X gave a bishop to 
 this community, Rt. Rev. Isias Papadopulos, with 
 ordinary jurisdiction over the Greek Catholics 
 within the limits of the Vicariate Apostolic, includ¬ 
 ing Constantinople, Thrace, Macedonia, and the 
 Asiatic litoral of the Black See and of the See of 
 Marmora. After the Balkan war, Macedonia was 
 attached to the Archdiocese of Athens. Before 
 the World War there were three parishes in Con¬ 
 stantinople, one at Para, conducted by the secular 
 clergy, one at Kadi-Keui (Chalcedonia), and the 
 third m Koum-Kapou (Stamboul), conducted by 
 the Assumptions Fathers of the Greek Rite. The 
 parish of Constantinople had missions at Malgara 
 and Daudeh m Thrace with flourishing schools; that 
 of Koum-Kapou had missions at Gallipoli (Thrace) 
 and at Cesarea in Capadocia. During the war the 
 Assumptionist Fathers being French, were forced 
 to abandon their missions, except the parish of 
 Kadi-Keui which they still hold, while the native 
 clergy remained in possession of all the missions. 
 Upon the establishment of the new Congregation 
 for the Oriental Churches in 1917, the late Pope 
 Benedict XV called Bishop Papadopulos to Rome 
 and appointed him Assessor of this Congregation, 
 and in 1920 appointed the Rev. George Calavassy 
 to succeed him. Born in Turkey, he made his 
 studies, in the Greek College in Rome, and was 
 later given the direction of the Greek missions in 
 Thrace, where he served until 1914, when he was 
 sent to Rome by the Apostolic Delegate to plea 
 the cause of the Greek missions. The Sacred Con¬ 
 gregation of Propaganda later sent him to Belgium 
 to seek funds for the necessary development of 
 the missions, but upon the German invasion he 
 was compelled to go back to Rome. Sent to the 
 United States by the Holy See in behalf of the 
 same missions he carried on a very successful 
 campaign here, and upon his return to Rome in 
 1918 was appointed administrator of the Greek 
 missions. On 13 July, 1920, he was elected bishop 
 with ordinary jurisdiction over the Greek Catholics 
 of the Vicariate of Constantinople and was conse¬ 
 crated titular Bishop of Theodoropolis in Rome, 
 at the Greek Church of St. Athanasius on 15 August 
 of the same year. 
 
 or 8 an i za tion of the Greek missions started 
 by Bishop Papadopulos and interrupted by the war 
 
CONSULTORS 
 
 228 
 
 CONVENTUALS 
 
 in 1914, was resumed in 1918. Recent progress has 
 proved the efficacy of native works in schismatical 
 countries, if they are provided with sufficient means 
 and with zealous missionaries. During the last 
 three years the number of the Greek missionaries 
 has been increased from eight to thirteen; the 
 work has been provided with proper buildings for 
 bishop’s residence, presbytery, seminary, convent, 
 and schools frequented by hundreds of Schismatic 
 children to whom is given an entirely Catholic 
 education. Conversions have averaged about one 
 hundred a year and there is every reason to believe 
 that this average is going to be much higher in the 
 near future, if only this important work is provided 
 with more schools and a greater number of Mis¬ 
 sionaries. Last year (1921) Bishop Calavassy 
 founded a Congregation of Sisters of the Greek 
 Rite, the first founded among the Greeks, and to 
 whom he gave the name “Sisters of the Pam- 
 macaristos.” This new congregation is under the 
 direction of an Ursuline nun, Rev. Mother Magdalen 
 Photiades, of a prominent family of Athens, who 
 was requested by Pope Benedict XV to embrace 
 the Greek Rite and take up this work. The semi¬ 
 nary founded in 1919 is directed by the secular 
 clergy of Bishop Calvassy; the building has a 
 capacity of thirty seminarians. The Melchites, or 
 Arabic-speaking Syrians of the Greek Rite, have a 
 church with a priest subject to the jurisdiction 
 of the Greek Catholic Patriarch of Antioch. As 
 the Syrians and Chaldean patriarchs have no juris¬ 
 diction whatever in Constantinople, the Chaldean 
 and Syrian priests in this territory, as well as the 
 very few faithful of those rites are subject to the 
 jurisdiction of the Greek Catholic Bishop. There 
 is no church of either rite in Constantinople. Dur¬ 
 ing recent years several of the prominent clergy 
 of this diocese have died. Father Polycarp 
 Anastasiades, one of the founders of the Greek 
 Catholic community of Constantinople in 1861, the 
 year of his conversion, and for over forty years 
 director of this work, died in 1911, at the age of 
 seventy-two; Father Sophronios Petrides, Assump¬ 
 tion^ of the Greek Rite, editor of “Echos 
 d’Orient,” and contributor to the Catholic Ency¬ 
 clopedia, died in 1911; Father Silvain Barthassat, 
 Assumptionist of the Greek Rite, Rector of the 
 Oriental Seminary of Koum-Kapou, now closed, 
 died in 1917; Father Maximos Malatakis, author 
 of the confutation of the encyclical letter written 
 by the Orthodox Patriarch of Constantinople in 
 answer to Leo XIIPs invitation to re-unite with 
 Rome, died in 1910; Father Christophore Papa- 
 dopulos, Vicar General under Bishop Papadopulos, 
 died in 1920. 
 
 Bishop Calavassy counts about 1500 Greek Cath¬ 
 olics (1922) under his jurisdiction, and has 1 
 secondary school for boys with 220 students, 1 for 
 girls with 100 students, and 2 elementary schools 
 with 160 pupils. Two associations are formed 
 among the laity, “Unio Grsecorum Catholi'corum 
 Constantinopolus” and the sodality of the Immacu¬ 
 late Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary. 
 
 Consultors, Diocesan (C. E., IV-323—There 
 must now be diocesan consultors in all dioceses, 
 and likewise in all secular prelatures in which there 
 are no cathedral chapters. The consultors have the 
 same rights and duties as the cathedral chapter 
 in the government of members of the diocese and 
 at councils. They should number at least six, or 
 four in dioceses where priests are few, and should 
 live in or near the episcopal city. Before taking 
 office they must swear to act faithfully and with¬ 
 out favor. They are all appointed first by the 
 
 bishop without consultation, but if during their 
 three-year period of office one of them dies, the 
 bishop is to consult the others concerning his sub¬ 
 stitute,—if this happen during an episcopal vacancy 
 the vicar capitular with the consent of the other 
 consultors appoints the substitute, who must be 
 confirmed by the new bishop if he is to remain in 
 office. 
 
 Codex jur . can ., 423-28. 
 
 Consultors, Parochial. —The rules governing the 
 appointment, number, duties and removal of 
 parochial consultors are the same as those relating 
 to synodal examiners. The two offices may be held 
 by the same person, who cannot, however, act in 
 both capacities in the same case. 
 
 Conventuals, Order of Friars Minor (cf. C. E., 
 IV-344d).—A steady and solid growth of the order 
 has set in since the eighties, so that there are 
 almost 2000 members at present, with bright pros¬ 
 pects of a more prosperous future. There are 20 
 provinces with about 200 convents. The instruc¬ 
 tions, both religious and educational, are imparted 
 in the numerous colleges of the order, of which 
 every province possesses, as a rule, one or more 
 for the philosophical and theological formation of 
 its clerics. There is one International College at 
 Rome which supplies, to some extent, the lacuna 
 caused by the suppression of the once famous St. 
 Bonaventure College. Besides the assistance at 
 choir and other spiritual practices, customary to 
 religious, the members devote themselves to study, 
 to giving missions, preaching, and hearing confes¬ 
 sions. In some countries, as for instance in the 
 United States, they have charge of numerous 
 parishes, missions, and stations. They have also 
 the honor to provide the penitentiaries in the 
 Basilica of St. Peter, Rome, and in the Holy House 
 of Loreto, and have besides 12 penitentiaries ad 
 instav in the Basilica of Assisi, 3 in Padua, and 1 in 
 Osimo. The order has also the right to have a 
 Consultor of the Holy Office, who is ipso facto 
 the dean of the consultors, and likewise a perma¬ 
 nent Consultor on the Congregation of Sacred 
 Rites. To its missions in Moldavia and the Orient 
 the order added a house in Damascus in 1912. It 
 also founded a convent in Spain, and .increased its 
 foundations in Denmark; its steady growth in the 
 United States is evident from the fact that it has 
 added 11 houses since 1910, of which the seminary 
 at Rensselaer, N. Y., and the shrine at Carey, Ohio, 
 are the most important. The order directs also the 
 nuns of the “Giglio,” founded in Assisi in 1702 
 with branches in the Orient. Aggregated to it, 
 with the right of participation in its spiritual priv¬ 
 ileges, are numerous communities of nuns, of which 
 nine are in the United States. Many thousands of 
 secular tertiaries are under the direction of the 
 order; over 5000 in the United States alone. A 
 variety of institutions are in charge of the religious 
 of the order, such as chaplaincies of prisons, orphan¬ 
 ages, hospitals, homes for the aged, etc. 
 
 The order has produced many distinguished men 
 in the various branches of learning. A few of the 
 more recent literary authors are: Balthassar Lom¬ 
 bardi (d. 1802), the famous commentator of Dante; 
 Laurence Fusconi (d. 1814); Louis Pungileoni (d. 
 1844); Anthony Brandimarte (d. 1838), the librarian 
 of Leo XII and hymnographer of the Congregation 
 of Rites; William della Valle (d. 1805); Francis 
 Villardi (d. 1833); Francis Detti (d. 1885); Alphonse 
 Consoli (d. 1879). In a very special manner the 
 order has cultivated the art of music, having pro¬ 
 duced more than 300 masters distinguished in this 
 art. Those deceased since 1800 are: Louis Anthony 
 

 CONVERSANO 
 
 229 
 
 COPUS 
 
 
 
 Sabatini (d. 1809); Stanislaus Mattei (d. 1825), 
 who had such eminent disciples as Morlacchi, Ros¬ 
 sini, and Donizetti; Alexander Borroni (d. 1896); 
 and Emil Norsa (d. 1919). Louis Palomes (d. 1906) 
 and Conrad Eubel, still living, are important names 
 in Franciscan historical studies. In the field of 
 pedagogy one of the most celebrated educators of 
 the past century was Gregory Girard of Fribourg, 
 Switzerland (d. 1850), to whom his native city 
 erected a public monument. Of painters of recent 
 note Paschal Sarullo (d. 1892) is worthy of special 
 mention. The early centuries, especially, produced 
 many theologians and philosophers; in the nine¬ 
 teenth century died Andrew Sgambati (1805), 
 Gregory Girard (1850) and Angelus Bigoni of 
 Corfu (1860). Recent generals of the orders are: 
 Dominic Reuter, of Trenton, N. J. (1904-10), who 
 reintroduced the order in Spain and England; Vic¬ 
 tor Sottaz of Fribourg, Switzerland (1910-13); and 
 Dominic Tavani of Apulia, at first vicar general 
 (1913-19), and now minister general since 1919. 
 
 Contemporary history of the order may be 
 gleaned from its periodicals of which, for this 
 purpose, the main ones are the “Commentarium 
 Ordinis Minorum Conventualium” (SS. XII Apos- 
 toli, Rome), and the “Miscellanea Francescana” 
 (Sacro Convento, Assisi). 
 
 / T^ l ? gnami > H B - Paolucci Trinci e i Minori Osservanti 
 (Assisi, 1920); Sparacio, Dalla leggenda alia Storia-Censura 
 di una Nuova Storia dell ’ Ordine Franciscano (Perugia, 1921). 
 
 Conversano, Diocese of (Conversanensis; cf. C. 
 E., IV-346c), in the province of Bari, Southern 
 Italy, suffragan of Bari. Rt. Rev. Antonio Lam- 
 berti, appointed to this see, 1897, died 17 August, 
 1917, and was succeeded by the present incumbent, 
 Rt. Rev. Domenico Lancelloti, b. at Montegallo, 
 1858, secretary of the camereria, 1904, prelate of the 
 Holy See, 1908, appointed titular Bishop of Delcos, 
 29 April, 1909, transferred to Troja, 21 April, 1911, 
 transferred to Conversano, 14 March, 1918. In July, 
 1911, the cathedral of the diocese was destroyed 
 by fire, but its reconstruction was begun, with 
 funds contributed chiefly by the government, and 
 after being interrupted by the war, it was continued 
 under the present bishop. During the World War 
 18 priests of this diocese were mobilized, and the 
 clergy at home, as well as the laity, took an active 
 part in patriotic and charitable works. The 1922 
 statistics credit this diocese with a population of 
 80,954; 7 parishes, 130 churches, 7 mission stations, 
 
 2 convents of men and 1 of women, 100 secular 
 and 5 regular clergj^ 5 brothers, 1 seminary, 30 
 seminarians, 1 college of men with 30 teachers and 
 400 students, 1 for girls with 10 teachers and 100 
 students, 7 elementary schools with about 60 teach¬ 
 ers, 1 home for the poor, 7 asylums, and 5 hospitals. 
 
 Conza, Archdiocese of (Compsana; cf. C. E., 
 IV-350a), with the perpetual administration of 
 Campagna, in Southern Italy. This see is at 
 present (1922) under the administration of 
 Most. Rev. Carmine Caesarano, b. at Pagani, 
 1869, appointed Bishop of Azieri 8 April, 
 1915, promoted 30 September, 1918, to suc¬ 
 ceed Most Rev. Nicolas Piccirilli, transferred to 
 Lanciano 25 April, 1918. These united dioceses 
 count a total population of 122,861, 37 parishes, 230 
 churches, 2 monasteries for men and 12 for women, 
 194 secular and 12 regular clergy, 1 interdiocesan 
 seminary, 30 seminarians. All the elementary 
 schools are supported by the government. The 
 Sursum Corda Association is formed among the 
 clergy, and the Unione popalare fra i Catholici 
 among the laity. A decree separating the two 
 dioceses of Campagna and Conza is expected at 
 
 any time now; this decree will make the diocese 
 of Campagna self-governing, and unite the diocese 
 of Sant’ Angelo dei Lombardi to Conza. 
 
 Cooktown, Vicariate Apostolic of (Cookopoli- 
 tanen sis; cf. C. E., IV-350b), comprises North 
 Queensland, Australia, from 18° 30' south latitude 
 to Cape York. It is entrusted to the Irish Augus- 
 tinians. Rt. Rev. James D. Murray died 13 Feb¬ 
 ruary, 1914, and was succeeded by the present vicar 
 apostolic, Rt. Rev. John Hearey, born in Wicklow, 
 Ireland, 1868, ordained in Rome 1891, served as 
 Prior of New Ross and was appointed, 3 May, 1914, 
 titular Bishop of Coracesium; he resides at Cairns. 
 The Sisters of Mercy (50) and the Sisters of the 
 Good Samaritan (6) are established here. By the 
 latest statistics (1921) the vicariate is divided into 
 6 districts and comprises 40 stations, 9 regular clergy, 
 22 churches, 56 nuns, and 3 boarding schools. The 
 total Catholic population numbers 7,000, and there 
 are 1,200 children attending Sunday schools. Six 
 primary schools, which are conducted in Cook- 
 town proper, have an attendance of 900 children. 
 All district and private hospitals permit the ministry 
 of the priests, and although the Catholic schools 
 do not receive any aid from the government, state 
 scholarships may be worked out in the secondary 
 schools. 
 
 Coppens, Charles, educationist and author, b. at 
 Turnhout, Belgium, on 24 May, 1835; d. in Chicago 
 on 14 December, 1920. He received his classical 
 training in the Jesuit College of his native town, 
 and, desiring to devote himself to the growing 
 Church in America, he entered the society in 1853. 
 After studying philosophy at St. Louis and theology 
 at Fordham he was ordained by Cardinal Mc- 
 Closkey in 1865. Father Coppens spent close on 
 sixty years in the cause of Catholic education, 
 teaching rhetoric for seventeen years at Florissant 
 and St. Louis, and philosophy for more than twenty 
 years, principally in Detroit College and Creighton 
 University. His “Practical Introduction to English 
 Rhetoric” (1885), a pioneer work in Catholic 
 schools, enjoyed immense popularity, as did his 
 excellent “Act of Oratorical Composition” (1886); 
 while his “Moral Principles and Medical Practice” 
 (1898) was the first Catholic treatise in English on 
 medical jurisprudence. In addition to numerous 
 articles in Catholic magazines and reviews we are 
 indebted to Father Coppens for several textbooks, 
 “Logic and Metaphysics” (1892), “Moral Phi¬ 
 losophy” (1896), a brief “History of Philosophy” 
 (1909); and two important historical studies: “Who 
 are the Jesuits?” (1911), and “Protestantism, How 
 it was brought about” (1907). His “Mystic Treas¬ 
 ures of the Holy Mass” (1904) and “Spiritual In¬ 
 structions for Religious” reveal him as a ascetic 
 writer of merit. 
 
 Copus, John Edwin, writer, b. at Guilford, Eng¬ 
 land, on 24 January, 1854; d. at Milwaukee, Wis. 
 on 19 June, 1915. He was born of Protestant 
 parents and was educated at the Archbishop Abbot 
 and Lydgate schools in Guilford. After teaching 
 at Broughton-under-Blean, Kent, and Western 
 College, Somersetshire, he became a Catholic in 
 1876. In days gone by some of his kinsmen had 
 gained renown in the Church, among them being 
 Father John Copus, who was imprisoned for the 
 Faith by Queen Elizabeth, and Alan Copus, who 
 wrote a “Syntaxis historiae evangelicae,” and died 
 in 1568 a canon of St. Peter’s, Rome. 
 
 In 1877 Copus emigrated to Canada and later to 
 the United States, where he engaged in journalism, 
 becoming commercial editor of the “Detroit News” 
 in 1882. Five years later he joined the Society of 
 
CORDOVA 
 
 230 
 
 CORK 
 
 Jesus, and after studying philosophy in St. Louis 
 and theology at Woodstock, Maryland, he was 
 ordained by Cardinal Gibbons in 1899. His work 
 as a Jesuit did not diminish his enthusiasm for 
 journalism, and he established the School of Jour¬ 
 nalism in Marquette University, Milwaukee, acting 
 as its first director from 1910 till his death. Father 
 Copus is well known as a writer of fiction for boys, 
 his "Harry Russell” (1903), "St. Cuthbert’s” (1903), 
 "Shadows Lifted” (1904), "Tom Losely, Boy” (1906), 
 and "The Making of Mortlake” (1909) is still enjoy¬ 
 ing great popularity. In addition he is the author 
 of more serious fiction like "The Month of Nison,” 
 "Lydgate’s Call,” "Andros of Ephesus,” "Sana Teip- 
 sum,” and "The Son of Siro.” As a playwright he 
 revealed his skill in "The Chancellor,” "Malagrida,” 
 and a dramatization of Longfellow’s "Robert of 
 Sicily.” 
 
 Cordova, Diocese of (Cordubensis in America; 
 cf. C. E., IV-360c), comprises the states of Cordova 
 and Rioja in the Argentine Republic, and is 
 suffragan of Buenos Aires. This see is filled 
 by Rt. Rev. Zeno Bustos y Ferreyra, O. F. M., 
 born in Cordova 1850, ordained 1874, served as 
 Provincial of the Argentine Republic and was ap¬ 
 pointed 27 March, 1905. He is assisted by two 
 auxiliaries, Rt. Rev. Innocent Davila y Matos, 
 titular Bishop of Ostracine, and Rt. .Rev. Jose 
 Anselm Lugue, titular Bishop of Forni. In 1918 
 the bishop published a vigorous pastoral letter pro¬ 
 testing against the violent manifestation and anti¬ 
 clerical organizations which were spreading through 
 the country under pretext of defending universal 
 rights. This territory, which covers an area of 
 156,584 sq. miles, embraces a population of 780,000. 
 The diocese is divided into 40 parishes and counts 
 numerous churches and chapels. 
 
 Cordova, Diocese of (Cordubensis; cf. C. E., 
 IV-359b), in Spain, comprises the province of Seville 
 and some parishes in the provinces of Badajoz 
 and Malaga. It covers an area of about 18,871 
 sq. miles, and is suffragan of Seville. Rt. Rev. 
 Ramon Guillamet y Coma, born in San Esteban 
 de Olof 1856, ordained 1878, served as secretary 
 to the Bishop of Gerona, chancellor of Tarragone, 
 vicar general and chancellor maestrescuola, ap¬ 
 pointed Bishop of Leon 29 April, 1909, was trans¬ 
 ferred to this see 18 July, 1913, to succeed Rt. Rev. 
 Jose Pozuelo y Herrero, died 23 March, 1913. He 
 was transferred to the diocese of Barcelona 22 
 April, 1920, and the present incumbent, Rt. Rev. 
 Adolfo Perez y Munoz, succeeded him. Born in 
 Soto de Campos 1864, made a prelate of the Holy 
 See 1899, appointed Bishop of the Canaries 29 April, 
 1909, transferred to Badajoz 18 July, 1913, he was 
 again transferred to Cordova 11 July, 1920. The 
 1920 statistics credit the diocese with a Catholic 
 population of 525,000, 130 parishes divided among 
 17 archpriests, 447 priests, 269 chapels, and 110 
 convents with 107 religious and 1,256 Sisters. 
 
 Corea. See Seoul; Taiku; Wonsan. 
 
 Corfu, Zante, and Cephalonia, Archdiocese of 
 (Corcyrensis, Zacynthiensis et Cephaloniensis ; 
 cf. C. E., IV-362d).—The archdiocese consists of 
 several islands in the Ionian sea belonging to 
 Greece. By Apostolic decree of 3 June, 1919, 
 the suffragan sees of Zante and Cephalonia, 
 formerly administered by Corfu, were united 
 to the metropolitan see. The present archdio¬ 
 cese is made up of 5 parishes, 2 of which are 
 in Corfu, as are 4 of the 8 churches. There is 1 
 convent for men in Cephalonia and 1 in Santa 
 Maura, and 2 for women in Corfu, 1 in Zante, 
 
 and 1 in Cephalonia. There are 1 college for men 
 with about 100 students, 4 for women with about 
 GOO students and a combined total of 36 teachers; 
 also 1 orphan asylum, 7 confraternities for the' 
 laity, and 2 juvenile societies. In the public 
 asylums, etc., the ministry of the priests is per¬ 
 mitted. There are 12 secular and 3 regular priests 
 and 1 lay brother for a Catholic population of 
 5,000, of whom 4,000 are in Corfu, and which is 
 made up of 1,000 Greeks, 2,000 Italians, 1,500 
 Maltese, with the remainder English, French, etc. 
 
 Archbishop Teodore Antonio Polito (1901—11) 
 was succeeded by Archbishop Dominic Darmanin, 
 who died in 1919. The present archbishop is Most 
 Rev. Leonardo Brindisi, formerly Bishop of Naxos, 
 consecrated at Athens 2 May, 1909, succeeding to 
 the see of Corfu 3 July, 1919. 
 
 Coria, Diocese of (Cauriensis; cf. C. E., 
 IV-363c), in the province of Caceres, Spain, suffra¬ 
 gan of Toledo. This see was filled by Rt. Rev. 
 Ramon Peris y Mencheta, born in Valencia in 
 1851, and appointed to this see 21 May, 1894, until 
 his death, 6 January, 1920. The present incumbent, 
 Rt. Rev. Pedro Segura y Saenz was appointed to 
 succeed him 10 July of the same year. Born in 
 Darazo, Spain, 1880, he was ordained in 1906, be¬ 
 came professor of canon law at the University of 
 Burgos in 1909, and was appointed titular Bishop 
 of Appolonia and auxiliary at Valladolid 14 March, 
 1916, where he served until his transfer. This 
 diocese covers an area of about 8,091 sq. miles, 
 and embraces a Catholic population of 193,000. 
 The 1920 statistics credit the diocese with 135 
 parishes, 10 archpriests, 400 priests, 138 churches, 
 85 chapels and 25 convents with 40 religious and 
 250 Sisters. 
 
 Cork, Diocese of (Corcagiensis; cf. C. E., 
 IV-370c), in the province of Munster, Ireland, 
 suffragan of Cashel. The long administration of 
 Rt. Rev. Thomas Alphonsus O’Callaghan over this 
 diocese ended with his death, 14 June, 1916. Born 
 in Cork in 1839 he entered the Dominican novitiate 
 in 1857, studied in Rome and was ordained in 1863. 
 He was made Prior of Saint Clement’s in Rome 
 in 1881, and was appointed titular Bishop of Lam- 
 bese (a see since suppressed) 13 June, 1884, and 
 made coadjutor at Cork, where he succeeded Bishop 
 Delaney 13 November, 1886. In 1914 Bishop 
 O’Callaghan, greatly handicapped by age and in¬ 
 firmity, was given an auxiliary in the person of 
 Rt. Rev. Daniel Cohalan, appointed titular Bishop 
 of Vaga 25 May, 1914. He was bom in the diocese 
 1858, and studied at Maynooth, where he later 
 served as professor of dogma, was ordained in 1882, 
 and has since written a number of theological 
 works. Upon the death of Bishop O’Callaghan he 
 was transferred to succeed him, and now (1922) 
 fills the see. From the time of his appointment 
 as auxiliary, Bishop Cohalan has taken an active 
 part in local social and administrative work, and 
 it was largely due to his efforts, assisted by those 
 of the Nationalist Lord Mayor of the city, that 
 peace was preserved in Cork during the tragic 
 Easter week of 1916. However, Cork has been the 
 scene of some of the most violent demonstrations 
 during the recent struggle, and in May, 1921, one 
 of its priests, Rev. James O’Callaghan of the North 
 Cathedral, was murdered by a band of armed men, 
 who broke into the home of one of the aldermen 
 where he had his lodgings. 
 
 By the latest census (1911) the diocese includes 
 a total population of 192,313, of whom 169,335 are 
 Catholic. It comprises 35 parishes, 33 parish priests, 
 2 administrators, and 86 curates and chaplains, 74 
 
CORNETO-TARQUINIA 
 
 231 
 
 COSTA RICA 
 
 regular clergy, 70 churches, 7 monasteries, 12 houses 
 of regulars, 25 convents of nuns, 4 schools under 
 Christian Brothers, 7 under Presentation Brothers, 
 4 directed by Presentation Nuns, 6 by the Sisters 
 of Mercy, and 1 by the Sisters of Charity, 1 French 
 community and 1 French institute. 
 
 Corneto-Tarquinia, Diocese of. See Civitavecchi 
 
 AND CORNETO. 
 
 Corpus Christi, Diocese of (Corpus Christi; cf. 
 
 C. E., XVI-35a), in Texas, was erected out of the 
 Vicariate Apostolic of Brownsville, 23 March, 1912, 
 the boundaries remaining the same. The first 
 bishop of the new diocese was Rt. Rev. Paul 
 Joseph Nussbaum, C.P., b. Philadelphia, 7 Septem¬ 
 ber, 1870, appointed Bishop of Corpus Christi 4 
 April, 1913, retired and made titular Bishop of 
 Gerasa 22 April, 1920. He was succeeded by the 
 present incumbent, Rt. Rev. Emmanuel B. Ledvina, 
 
 D. D., appointed 30 April, 1921. 
 
 By present (1921) statistics the Catholic popula¬ 
 tion of this diocese numbers about 98,000, of whom 
 92,000 are Mexican and the remainder chiefly 
 American with a small percentage of German, 
 Bohemian and Spanish. There are 31 parishes, 75 
 churches, 83 mission stations, 14 secular priests and 
 31 regulars, 189 Sisters, 1 college for boys with 6 
 teachers and 176 students, 4 academies, namely, 
 Brownsville, Corpus Christi, Laredo and Rio Grande 
 City, with 62 teachers and 1,617 pupils, 1 orphan 
 asylum and 3 hospitals. The Knights of Columbus 
 and Catholic Daughters of America are organized 
 in the diocese. 
 
 Cosenza, Archdiocese of (Cusentinensis; cf. 
 C. E., IV—403a), in the province of Naples, southern 
 Italy directly subject to the Holy See. Rt. Rev. 
 Camillo Sorgenti, who filled this see for thirty- 
 seven years died 2 October, 1911, and was suc¬ 
 ceeded by the present incumbent, Rt. Rev Tom- 
 maso Trussoni, b. in Chiavenna 1856, papal cham¬ 
 berlain 13 June, 1911, appointed 14 December, 1912. 
 In 1920 the diocese lost its vicar general, who had 
 served in this capacity for thirty-five years, through 
 the death of Mgr. Federico Piragino. 
 
 By latest statistics (1922) this diocese comprises 
 111 parishes, 164 secular and 37 regular clergy, 13 
 convents of men, 80 monks, 1 monastery of womeh, 
 Dominicans of the second order, 1 seminary, 80 
 seminarians, 1 normal school for girls with ’ 100 
 pupils. All the superior schools, lyceums, technical 
 and industrial schools are under the control of the 
 government. One periodical, “LTJnione,” is pub¬ 
 lished; 2 societies are organized among the clergy, 
 and 4 among the laity, besides numerous rural 
 federations. 
 
 Corrientes, Diocese of (Corrientensis), in the 
 Argentine Republic, suffragan of Buenos Aires. 
 This see, erected 21 January, 1910 (see C. E., 
 KVI-35), is filled by its first bishop, Rt. Rev. 
 Louis Niella, bom in this province 1854, or¬ 
 dained 1879, appointed 3 February, 1911. By a 
 Decree of the Sacred Congregation of the Council, 
 13 November, 1920, the jurisdiction of the bishops 
 of the Argentine over the female societies of St. 
 Vincent de Paul, in all dioceses where they are 
 organized, was established. Although not canon¬ 
 ically erected confraternities or pious unions, the 
 Decree nevertheless defines them as coming under 
 the bishop’s jurisdiction, as do all local societies 
 and affiliations formed among the faithful. The 
 diocese covers an area of 88,844 sq. miles and com¬ 
 prises 370,000 inhabitants. It is dedicated to the 
 Holy Cross of Milagros, and includes 26 parishes, 
 48 chapels and 3 convents. 
 
 Cortona, Diocese of (Cortonensis; cf. C. E., 
 IV-401b), in the province of Arezzo, Central Italy, 
 is directly subject to the Holy See. This see is 
 filled (1922) by Rt. Rev. Michael Baldetti, born in 
 the diocese in 1854, after ordination incorporated 
 in the Diocese Perugia, and appointed to this see 
 16 December, 1901. The territory embraces a 
 Catholic population of 30,200, scattered through 
 50 parishes, served by 81 secular and 36 regular 
 clergy, 22 seminarians, 34 Brothers, 90 Sisters, and 
 60 churches or chapels. 
 
 Corumba, Diocese of (Corumbensis), in Brazil, 
 suffragan of Cuyaba, was erected 10 March, 1910 
 (see C. E., XVI-35). The first bishop, Rt. Rev. 
 Cyril de Paula Freitas, retired and was transferred 
 to the titular see of Antipatris, 8 February, 1918. 
 The present incumbent, Rt. Rev. Maurice Da 
 Rocha, then serving as secretary to the Bishop of 
 Maceio, was appointed to succeed him 10 March, 
 1919. The cathedral is dedicated to the Holy 
 Cross. No statistics are yet published. 
 
 Costa Rica, Republic of (cf. C. E., IV-417d)._ 
 
 The area of the Republic is estimated at 23,000 
 English square miles, divided into seven provinces, 
 San Jose, Alajuela, Heredia, Cartago, Guanacaste, 
 Punta Arenas, and Limon. According to an esti¬ 
 mate made on 31 December, 1918, the population 
 was 459,423, of which approximately 300,000 were 
 of the peon class with a small daily wage. There 
 are some 18,000 colored British West Indians, mostly 
 on the banana farms in the Limon Province. The 
 largest cities are: San Jose (38,016), Alajnela 
 (9,177), Cartago (14,398), Heredia (9,328), Liberia 
 (2,639), Limon (7,790), Punta Arenas (5,283). 
 
 Economic Status. —The principal agricultural 
 products are coffee (24,000,000 pounds estimated 
 production in 1920-21) and bananas, 95,400 acres 
 (7,129,655 bunches valued in 1918 at about $3,100,- 
 000 ). About 2,700 acres are under tobacco. The 
 United States furnished more than half of the 
 imports (59.9%) in 1918 and took a still larger 
 share of the exports (90.46%). Coffee represented 
 more than one-third of the total exports of Costa 
 Rica, and bananas amounted to only a little less. 
 Cocoa, hides and woods are also important items 
 in the export trade. The total foreign trade in 
 1919 was 54,337,255 colones (1 colone equals $.4653 
 at par); imports, 16,167,718 colones; exports, $38,- 
 169,537. 
 
 Communications. —Costa Rica has in actual 
 operation 338 miles of railway, including branches 
 and sidings, all of 3 ft. 6 in. gauge. Of this mileage 
 82 miles are the property of the Government, 67 
 miles belong to the Northern Railway Co., and 
 189 miles to the Costa Rica Railway. As a matter 
 of fact, the Costa Rica Railway is leased to the 
 Northern, so that the whole system of some 256 
 miles, having its local focal point at Port Limon, 
 is under one general management. In 1919 there 
 entered the ports of the Republic 479 vessels of 
 486,131 tons. 
 
 Manufactures. —There are officially enumerated 
 3,296 factories in the Republic, including coffee 
 drying establishments, starch, broom, and wood¬ 
 work factories. In 1919 the first attempt was made 
 at labor organization throughout the country. 
 There is a pronounced opposition to the continua¬ 
 tion of the national liquor business. Liquor manu¬ 
 facturing is a government monopoly, and its exis¬ 
 tence is temporarily prolonged by the fact that it 
 stands as security to the loan of 35,000,000 francs 
 made by France to Costa Rica in 1911, France 
 having first mortgage on the revenues of the alcohol 
 
COSTA RICA 
 
 232 
 
 COUNCILS 
 
 and liquor manufacture. There is also an export 
 tax which, in the opinion of many, tends to dis¬ 
 courage agricultural development. The two per 
 cent tax which was levied in 1918 on the monthly 
 gross sales of all large business and commercial 
 houses was abolished at the end of January, 1920. 
 
 The largest sources of income are the export 
 taxes, customs, liquor, and direct taxes, including 
 2% on business and 6% on banks. The largest 
 items of expenditures are finance, public instruction, 
 and internal development. At the end of 1919 the 
 internal debt was $7,440,000, and the foreign debt 
 about $14,752,280. 
 
 Education. —In 1918 there were 315 .elementary 
 schools, the teachers numbered 950 and the enrolled 
 pupils25,857, the average attendance being 19,672. For 
 secondary instruction there are at San Jose a 
 lyceum for boys, with 357 pupils in 1918, and a 
 college for girls with 350 pupils. A normal school, 
 established in 1915 at Heredia, has 220 pupils. 
 The towns of Cartago, Alajuela, and Heredia have 
 each a college. 
 
 Government. —By the election law of 18 August, 
 1913, universal suffrage was adopted for all male 
 citizens who are of age and able to support them¬ 
 selves, except those deprived of civil rights, crim¬ 
 inals, bankrupts and the insane. The voting for 
 president, deputies and municipal councilors is 
 public, direct and free. According to the election 
 law of 28 October, 1918, the election of president 
 and vice-president of the Republic is made by an 
 electoral college, composed of those who at any 
 time of the election are senators and deputies, and 
 by those, what at any time within a period of six 
 months, may have been president of the Republic. 
 The legislative power is vested in a chamber of 
 representatives elected for four years, one-half re¬ 
 tiring every two years. The presidents in the last 
 decade were: Ricardo Jimenez, 1910-1914; Alfredo 
 Gonzales, 1914-1918; Don Julio Acosta, 1918—1922. 
 
 A new penal code was adopted in 1918. Capital 
 punishment cannot be inflicted. On 23 August, 
 1921, the right of suffrage was granted to all citizens 
 of Costa Rica, including women. _ They must be 
 able to read and write and be citizens by birth, 
 naturalization or adoption. 
 
 Recent History (1910-1921).—The boundary be¬ 
 tween Costa Rica and Panama, which had been in 
 dispute for many years, was fixed by the arbitration 
 of President Loubet of France in 1900. It begins at 
 Monkey (Mona) Point on the Atlantic, follows 
 a ridge of hills overlooking the valley of the Sixola 
 River, westward to Mount Chirripo and Mount 
 Pando. Thence the line strikes southeast along 
 the crests of the Talamanca Mountains as far as 
 nine degrees north latitude, where it turns sharply 
 south to Burica Point, cutting Burica Peninsula 
 in half. West of this peninsula is the Golfito River, 
 near the mouth of which is Coto. This territory 
 has been in possession of Panama ever since the 
 Republic was founded, and of Colombia before that. 
 The Golfito River empties into the Golfo Dulce 
 about thirty miles west of Burica Point Ridge and 
 the point where its headquarters rise is fifty miles 
 inland. The river, the ridge, and the gulf coast 
 form a triangle which is the territory in dispute. 
 
 It was awarded to Costa Rica by President 
 Loubet in compensation for a considerable area of 
 land given to Panama on the Atlantic side between 
 the Sixola River and the ridge north of its valley 
 extending west to Mount Chirripo. Nevertheless, 
 Costa Rica, since 1881, has occupied the Sixola 
 River Wedge, despite President Loubet’s decision, 
 asserting that the Loubet award was not clear. In 
 1914 Chief Justice White of the United States 
 
 Supreme Court was asked to render a legal inter¬ 
 pretation of it, but Panama declined to accept his 
 interpretation; Costa Rica held the Sixola watershed 
 and Panama retained the Coto triangle until the 
 recent invasion. This occurred on 21 February, 
 1920, after which time the United States warships 
 were ordered to Costa Rica to protect American 
 lives and property. The dispute was finally given 
 to the United States to arbitrate, as agreed in the 
 treaty of 1915, whereby Panama and Costa Rica 
 agreed to submit disputes to the United States as 
 mediator. 
 
 In March, 1916, Costa Rica brought action against 
 Nicaragua for violation of her rights under the 
 Canal Treaty with the United States, and the Cen¬ 
 tral Court of Justice gave a decision in her favor. 
 A bloodless revolution occurred on 27 January, 
 1917, when President Gonzales Flores was deposed 
 by the military forces at the capital. After the 
 overthrow a provisional chief executive was created 
 in the person of the minister of war, Frederico 
 Tinoco Granados, who on 11 April, 1917, was elected 
 president. The United States Government, how¬ 
 ever, refused to recognize his government unless 
 it proved that it had been elected by legal and 
 constitutional means. In August, 1919, Tinoco left 
 the country and Julio Acosta was elected president. 
 During the presidency of Tinoco, Costa Rica was 
 refused admittance to the League of Nations, but 
 after his overthrow she was admitted, the fact in 
 her favor being her declaration of war against Ger¬ 
 many in 1917. Her activities included the placing 
 of the waters and ports at the disposal of the 
 United States for war purposes, the canceling of 
 the letters patent of all Germans in the consular 
 service, and the organization of a guard service 
 along the coast and boundaries as a protection 
 against German activities. 
 
 For ecclesiastical history see San Jose de Costa 
 Rica, Diocese of. 
 
 Cotrone, Diocese of (Cotronensis; cf. C. E., 
 IV-422d), in the province of Catanzaro, Southern 
 Italy, suffragan of Reggio di Calabria. Rt. Rev. 
 Saturnino Peri, appointed to this see 22 October, 
 1908, was transferred to Iglesias 16 December, 1920, 
 and as no successor has yet been appointed the 
 diocese is now (1922) governed by an apostolic 
 administrator in the person of Most Rev. Carmelo 
 Pujia, Archbishop of Santa-Severina. By 1920 
 statistics this diocese is credited with 15,000 Cath¬ 
 olics, 9 parishes, 1 vicariate, 30 secular priests, 30 
 Sisters, 3 seminarians, and 30 churches or chapels. 
 
 Cottolengo, Joseph Benedict. See Joseph Bene¬ 
 dict CoTTOLENGO, BLESSED. 
 
 Councils, General (cf. C. E., IV-423).—No coun¬ 
 cil is oecumenical unless it has been convoked by 
 the pope, who has the exclusive right of presiding 
 over it personally or by proxy, of deciding what 
 questions are to be debated, of transferring, sus¬ 
 pending, or dissolving the council, and of confirm¬ 
 ing its decrees. If any of those who by law are 
 to be called to an oecumenical council cannot come, 
 they must send a deputy and give a satisfactory 
 reason of their absence. The deputy can be pres¬ 
 ent, as such, only at public sessions; he has no 
 vote, but on the conclusion of the council he may 
 sign the acts. None of those who should be present 
 may leave before the end of the council, unless with 
 the permission of the president, to whom he shall 
 have made known the reason necessitating his de¬ 
 parture. The decrees of a general council are not 
 definitely binding until they have been confirmed 
 by the pope and promulgated by his order. If a 
 pope dies during a general council, it is interrupted 
 
COURTS 
 
 COURTS 
 
 until his successor orders it to be continued. 
 
 Codex jur . can ., 222-29. 
 
 Courts, Ecclesiastical (cf. C. E., IV-447).— 
 Cases brought before the ecclesiastical courts for the 
 infliction or declaration of a penalty are called 
 criminal, otherwise they are termed contentious. 
 The pope alone may deal judicially with all suits 
 involving rulers, their children and the heirs ap¬ 
 parent to the throne, cardinals, papal legates, and 
 residential or titular bishops in criminal cases. The 
 tribunals of the Holy See have exclusive jurisdic¬ 
 tion over (a) residential bishops in contentious 
 suits—but disputes concerning the rights or tem¬ 
 poral property of a bishop, or the mensa, or dioc¬ 
 esan curia, may with the bishop’s consent be tried 
 before a diocesan tribunal consisting of the official 
 and two of the older synodal judges or by the 
 judge immediately higher; (b) dioceses or moral 
 ecclesiastical persons subject immediately to the 
 pope, for instance, exempt religious orders. Only 
 a judge appointed by the pope has jurisdiction in 
 a case which the sovereign pontiff has taken up. 
 The suit is to be decided in the defendant’s forum, 
 but if the defendant has several fora, the plaintiff 
 may choose between them. A peregrinus in Rome 
 may be cited to appear there, but he has the right 
 of returning home and of asking that the case be 
 remitted to his own ordinary; on the other hand 
 a person who has been stopping a year in Rome 
 may insist on being cited before a Roman tribunal. 
 
 Court of first instance. —Usually a case is first 
 heard in the diocesan court, where the local ordi¬ 
 nary is ex-officio the judge; he may act, person¬ 
 ally or through others. Each bishop must appoint 
 an official, other than the vicar general—unless 
 owing to the small size of the diocese it is prefer¬ 
 able that one priest should hold both offices—with 
 ordinary power of deciding litigation. He and the 
 bishop form one tribunal, and he may adjudicate in 
 all cases except those that the bishop reserves to 
 himself. The official, who may have vice-officials 
 as assistants, should be a priest, not less than thirty 
 years old and skilled in law; he may be removed 
 by the bishop; during a vacancy he continues in 
 office, and cannot be removed by the vicar capitu¬ 
 lar; but he requires confirmation by the new 
 bishop. If the vicar general happens to be the 
 official during a vacancy, he ceases to be vicar, 
 but continues as official. If the official is chosen 
 vicar capitular, he is to appoint a new official. In 
 addition each diocese should have a number of 
 priests, not more than twelve, to act as judges 
 with power delegated by the bishop; they are ap¬ 
 pointed usually in the synod and are known as 
 synodal judges; they hold office for ten years, and 
 can be removed only for grave cause by the bishop 
 after consulting the cathedral chapter. It is now 
 laid down, all customs to the contrary being repro¬ 
 bated and all contrary privileges revoked, that (a) 
 contentious cases concerning the bond of holy or¬ 
 ders, matrimony, the rights or temporalities of the 
 cathedral and all criminal cases entailing loss of 
 permanent benefices or excommunications are to 
 be tried before a collegiate tribunal of three judges; 
 (b) crimes involving deposition, perpetual loss of 
 the right to wear clerical dress, and degradation 
 are reserved to a tribunal of five judges. The local 
 ordinary may have any other case tried before 
 three or five judges, and must do so in cases of 
 serious moment. These collegiate tribunals decide 
 by a majority vote. Though the bishop may pre¬ 
 side over the diocesan tribunal, except in the in¬ 
 stances mentioned above, he is strongly advised not 
 to do so, particularly in criminal and grave con¬ 
 tentious suits. The judge of first instance for dis¬ 
 
 putes between exempt clerical religious or in a 
 monastery sui juris, is usually the provincial or 
 local abbot respectively; in suits between two 
 provinces or two monasteries, the general or head 
 of the monastic congregation respectively, or their 
 delegate, but between different orders or between 
 non-exempt or lay religious, or between a religious 
 and secular cleric or layman, the local ordinary 
 acts as judge. 
 
 Court of second instance.—An. appeal is ordi¬ 
 narily taken from the court of a suffragan to the 
 metropolitan ( see Appeals). If the first decision 
 was handed down by a collegiate tribunal, at least 
 the same number of judges must hear the appeal. 
 
 Court of third instance.— From the two preced¬ 
 ing courts an appeal may be taken, if the dispute 
 has not become res judicata, to the Sacred Roman * 
 Rota for final decision (C. E., XIII-205). If a 
 litigant is dissatisfied with the proceedings in the 
 Rota on the grounds of violation of secrecy, or par¬ 
 tiality of an auditor, or if he contests the validity 
 of the judgment, he can address himself to the 
 Apostolic Signature (C. E., XIII-149), which may 
 examine his complaint and, if equitable, refer the 
 matter back to the Rota for its consideration. The 
 Apostolic Signature, moreover, can decide questions 
 of competency,. if the judges between whom the 
 conflict of opinion has arisen are not subject to a 
 higher tribunal, and further it is delegated to ex¬ 
 amine and answer petitions addressed to the sov¬ 
 ereign pontiff asking to have a suit sent before the 
 Rota. The Apostolic Signature is never bound to 
 state the reason for its decision, but it may do so. 
 
 Delegated Courts. —A judge delegated by the 
 Holy See may avail himself of the services of the 
 curial officers of the diocese in which he is to ad¬ 
 judicate, or of any other persons (unless restricted 
 by the rescript); but those delegated by a local 
 ordinary must employ the officers of the diocesan 
 curia, unless the bishop for grave cause decrees 
 that special assistants should be engaged. 
 
 Procedure. —The judge proceeds with the case 
 only at the request of the litigants if the dispute 
 is merely personal, but in criminal suits or those 
 involving the interests of the Church or the salva¬ 
 tion of souls he proceeds in virtue of his office. 
 Dilatory exceptions, particularly those regarding 
 persons, must be taken before the pleading (con- 
 testatio litis), unless the grounds for objecting arise 
 later or the party swears that they had not come 
 to his notice earlier; the competency of the judge, 
 however, may be questioned at any stage of the 
 case, and an exception based on excommunication 
 may be raised at any time before the definitive 
 judgment. Peremptory exceptions known as litis 
 finitce, which would stop the suit entirely if upheld, 
 are to be taken and decided before the pleading; 
 they may be taken later, but the party objecting 
 must pay the costs, unless he proves that he was 
 not responsible for the omission; other peremptory 
 objections are to be made during the course of 
 the trial. Counterclaims may be made after the 
 pleadings; they are to be tried ordinarily along 
 with the original suit. The question of surety for 
 costs and other similar matters are generally to 
 be discussed before the pleadings. Extension of 
 time may be granted to either party by the judge 
 if it is requested before the customary period has 
 elapsed, except when the law has laid down a limit 
 after which it recognizes no legal claim to relief; 
 if the last day is a feast-day, the period is extended 
 to the morrow. 
 
 The diocesan court is as a rule to be held in a 
 hall near the bishop’s residence, which should con- 
 
COURTS 
 
 234 
 
 COURTS 
 
 tain a crucifix prominently displayed and a copy of 
 the Gospels; the bishop is to issue a public decree 
 stating the day and the hour, when the court can 
 ordinarily be approached. No one should be ad¬ 
 mitted to the trial unless the judges believe his 
 presence to be necessary. The record of the pro¬ 
 ceedings is as far as possible to be drawn up in 
 Latin, but the questions and answers of witnesses 
 should be recorded in the vernacular. The actuary’s 
 signature and the seal of the court should appear 
 on each leaf; when the signatures of the litigants or 
 witnesses are required, if they cannot or will not 
 sign, the fact should be recorded in the record and 
 the judge and actuary should declare that the state¬ 
 ments were read to the party or witness and that 
 he could not or would not sign. In cases of ap¬ 
 peal, indexed copies of the record, authenticated 
 . by the actuary or chancellor, are forwarded to the 
 higher court; in case of necessity the original record 
 could be sent. If they are sent to a place where 
 the vernacular language is unknown the records 
 should be translated into Latin; if they have not 
 been properly prepared, they may be rejected by 
 the higher court. 
 
 Parties .—The plaintiff and defendant may be 
 compelled to appear personally; minors appear 
 through their parents or guardians, but in suits 
 involving spiritual interests they can act without 
 leave of the parents or guardians, if they have at¬ 
 tained the use of reason, and if they are fourteen 
 years of age can appear personally, otherwise they 
 are to be represented by a guardian chosen by the 
 ordinary or a procurator named by them with the 
 ordinary’s permission. Religious can engage in law¬ 
 suits without their superior’s consent only (a) in 
 vindication of the rights they acquired against their 
 order by profession; (b) when it is necessary in 
 order to defend their rights while they are living 
 with permission outside of the houses of their 
 order; (c) when they wish to denounce their 
 superior. A bishop can appear on behalf of the 
 cathedral church or episcopal mensa; but to do so 
 lawfully, he must listen to the cathedral chapter 
 or council of administration or have their consent 
 or advice, when such a sum of money as would 
 necessitate their consent or advice for valid aliena¬ 
 tion is involved. Beneficiaries may prosecute or 
 defend suits on behalf of their benefice, but to 
 act licitly they should have the written consent 
 of the ordinary or, if there is not time to obtain 
 it, of the vicar forane. Prelates and superiors of 
 chapters, sodalities, and colleges require the con¬ 
 sent of these bodies; and the local ordinary may 
 appear personally or by proxy in the name of a 
 moral body whose administrator neglects to take 
 action. Excommunicates vitandi or others after 
 declaratory or condemnatory sentence cannot ap¬ 
 pear personally except to contest the justice or 
 legitimacy of their excommunication; they may 
 appear by a procurator to avert any other spiritual 
 danger; otherwise they have no standing in court. 
 Other excommunicates can generally appear in 
 court. 
 
 In criminal cases the defendant must always 
 have an advocate; and in contentious cases involv¬ 
 ing the public welfare or the interests of minors, 
 the judge must appoint one to assist a litigant who 
 has none, and may even provide a second advocate 
 if the circumstances demand it. 
 
 The right of action in contentious suits, both 
 real and personal, may be lost by prescription; but 
 the question of personal status may always be 
 raised. Criminal actions are terminated by the 
 death of the defendant, by condonation by a law¬ 
 ful superior, and by delay in starting the suit; 
 
 actions for affronts are barred in a j^ear, trials for 
 special crimes against the sixth and seventh com¬ 
 mandments in five years; trials for simony or 
 homicide in ten years; all other criminal actions 
 in three years; suits, however, reserved to the 
 Holy Office are governed by the special regulations 
 of that body. Even if a criminal action has been 
 barred by lapse of time, a suit may at times be 
 brought to recover damages, and a legitimate 
 superior may be obliged to refrain from promoting 
 a cleric if a doubt remains as to his fitness, and 
 even to prohibit him from exercising his ministry 
 if scandal would result. In contentious suits the 
 time for prescription begins to run from the moment 
 the action could have been begun; in criminal cases 
 it runs from the date of the offense, unless the 
 crime is continuous in its nature or is one of a 
 series, in which cases it begins after the last act. 
 
 For procedure followed in the court cf. C. E., 
 IV-452. The witnesses should ordinarily testify 
 under oath, but those who have not reached 
 puberty, the feeble-minded, those declared or con¬ 
 demned as excommunicated, perjurers, or infamous, 
 persons of depraved morals, and known bitter 
 enemies of one of the litigants are usually not 
 sworn, their testimony being accepted merely as 
 corroborative. In private suits, however, the parties 
 may allow a witness to testify without being sworn; 
 the judge may oblige the witness by oath to ob¬ 
 serve secrecy till the proceedings are made public, 
 or even never to make them known where there is 
 danger of scandal or discord. Though the wit¬ 
 nesses should ordinarily testify in court, cardinals, 
 bishops, and distinguished persons who by civil law 
 are exempt from appearing before a judge as wit¬ 
 nesses, can select another place for giving their 
 evidence, but they should notify the judge. Nuns 
 professed with solemn vows and persons who are ill 
 may testify at home. A witness who lives in a re¬ 
 mote district and cannot reach the judge without 
 grave inconvenience may testify before a com¬ 
 mission; and those living in another diocese under 
 similar circumstances may give their evidence be¬ 
 fore a local tribunal. The litigants may not be 
 present at the examination of the witnesses with¬ 
 out the judge’s permission, nor may the witnesses 
 be examined in one another’s presence. However, 
 when all the testimony has been taken, the judge 
 may confront two witnesses or a witness and a 
 litigant if the witnesses differ seriously and sub¬ 
 stantially from one another or from a litigant, and 
 if, at the same time, this is the easiest way of 
 getting at the truth and can be done without dan¬ 
 ger of scandal or discord. 
 
 The witness is questioned only by the judge; if 
 the litigants, the promoter of justice, or the de¬ 
 fender of the bond are present at the examination 
 and wish to get his answer on any point, they must 
 submit their questions to the judge to be asked 
 by him. The questions asked of the witness should 
 be short, candid, uncomplicated, pertinent, and 
 should not suggest the answer; if any facts have 
 slipped from his memory the judge may assist him 
 in recalling the circumstances, if this can be fairly 
 done. The witness may not read his testimony,, 
 except when there is question of complicated 
 figures; his evidence is to be taken down verbatim 
 by the actuary, unless the judge deems anything 
 too trivial to be recorded; before leaving the court¬ 
 room the transcript of the testimony is to be read 
 to the witness so that he may add, suppress, cor¬ 
 rect, or vary what is necessary; the transcript is 
 then signed by the witness, the judge, and the 
 notary. When the parties or the procurators have 
 not been present at the examination, the judge 
 
COURTS 
 
 235 
 
 COURTS 
 
 
 may order the publication of the evidence as soon 
 as the testimony is complete. When this has been 
 done exception cannot be taken to a witness, unless 
 a party can prove or, at least, swears that he was 
 not aware of the disqualification of the witness in 
 time to object; he may, however, challenge the 
 validity of the examination or of the evidence itself. 
 The witness is entitled to be reimbursed for his 
 traveling and hotel expenses and for loss of time, 
 the judge fixing the amount. If the party who 
 called him does not pay within the time fixed 
 the evidence given on his behalf by the witness is 
 considered stricken out. The testimony of one 
 witness is not considered sufficient proof, except 
 regarding matters done by him ex-officio; the con¬ 
 current testimony of two unexceptionable witnesses 
 is necessary but sufficient to establish a point, 
 though occasionally the judge may demand more 
 ample proof on account of the gravity of the issue 
 or if some doubt still remains. 
 
 An incidental suit sometimes occurs, as when 
 after the citation a question arises which, though 
 not contained expressly in the bill, is so connected 
 with the main controversy that it should be set¬ 
 tled first. It may be raised verbally or by writ¬ 
 ing and is decided by an interlocutory sentence of 
 the judge, which for just cause may be corrected 
 or revoked by him before the conclusion of the 
 main case. These suits deal with contumacy, the 
 intervention of a third party to protect his own 
 interests, and attentates or attempts of either party 
 or of the judge to do anything during the suit, 
 against the interests of one of the litigants and. 
 without his consent. 
 
 The next step before the discussion of the case is 
 the publication of the acts, by which is meant that 
 each party and his advocate may inspect the acts 
 which up to this point have been kept secret and 
 may obtain copies of them. When the judge has 
 ascertained that all necessary matters have been 
 set forth or that the legal time for adducing proofs 
 is over, he issues a decree declaring the case con¬ 
 cluded, and fixes a date for the parties to bring 
 forward their defense or claim. The defense is 
 made in writing, copies being exchanged between 
 the parties and also prepared for each of the judges, 
 though the president of the court may order them 
 to be printed. Each party is entitled to reply 
 once in writing to the allegations of his adversary. 
 If he thinks it advisable the judge may allow a 
 brief address to be made, but only to clear up some 
 obscure point. The judgment must be based on 
 the acts and proofs; if the judge cannot attain 
 moral certainty he should announce that the 
 plaintiff has not proved his claim and uphold the 
 defendant, except in a causa favorabilis —or when 
 there is a doubt about the right of two claimants 
 to possession, in which case he should leave both 
 parties in undivided possession. Before a collegiate 
 tribunal decides, its members meet and each reads 
 his decision and the reasons therefor; a discussion 
 takes place and any judge may change his opinion; 
 if no agreement is reached another meeting may 
 be called within a week for further discussion. The 
 judgment must give the main details of the pro¬ 
 ceedings and decide for or against the defendant; 
 prescribe what the loser is to do, and how, when, 
 and where he must do it; give the reasons for 
 the judgment, and settle the question of costs; 
 and be dated and signed by the judge or judges and 
 the notary. The sentence is to be published as soon 
 as possible; this may be done by citing the parties 
 to hear it read, or by informing them that they 
 can obtain copies of it from the chancery, or by 
 sending them a copy by registered mail. 
 
 Expenses. In contentious suits the parties may 
 be compelled to pay something towards the ex¬ 
 penses of the court, unless they are excused by rea¬ 
 son of their poverty. The usual costs are fixed by 
 the provincial council or by a meeting of the 
 bishops, and the judge may insist on security for 
 the costs being lodged in the chancery. The loser 
 usually pays all the costs, but in very intricate 
 cases or in suits between relatives or for a just 
 cause a pro rata payment may be ordered in the 
 sentence. The decree of execution becomes opera¬ 
 tive when the suit has been definitively settled; in 
 cases of necessity, however, a provisional execution 
 may be ordered. The ordinary of the court of first 
 instance, or if he refuses or neglects the appellate 
 judge is the executor. The judgment in real actions 
 is to be executed at once; in personal actions, how¬ 
 ever, a delay of not less than two, or more than six 
 months is allowed. 
 
 Criminal cases. —Criminal courts deal only with 
 public offenses; if the offense is a violation also of 
 the civil law the ordinary usually does not insti¬ 
 tute proceedings if the accused is a lay person and 
 the civil authorities have taken the case in hand. 
 When the offense is certain, spiritual punishment 
 such as penance, excommunication, suspension, and 
 interdict can be imposed by precept irrespective of 
 a trial. The right of action is reserved to the 
 promoter of justice, but a private individual may 
 and sometimes is obliged to denounce the offender 
 to the bishop, chancellor, vicar forane, or parish 
 priest, and must then aid the promoter. If the 
 offense is not public and certain there must be a 
 special inquisition to insure that an innocent party’s 
 reputation will not suffer by his being summoned 
 to answer a criminal charge. If the accused when 
 cited to appear confesses his guilt, the ordinary 
 may confine himself to a judicial correction. This 
 correction may be administered only twice, and 
 never when the offense entails excommunication 
 very specially or specially reserved to the Holy 
 See, or infamy, deposition, degradation, or privation 
 of a benefice, or when it is necessary to pronounce 
 a vindicatory punishment or censure, or when it 
 would not be sufficient to repair the scandal and 
 the wrong done. When there may be no correc¬ 
 tion or if it has been administered in vain, the 
 record of the inquisition is turned over to the 
 promoter of justice, who at once draws up a bill 
 and the case proceeds along the lines of contentious 
 suits already described. 
 
 Matrimonial Suits. —Matrimonial suits of rulers, 
 their children, and heirs apparent are to be tried 
 only before the Sacred Congregation, tribunal, or 
 special commission which the pope selects for the 
 purpose; the Congregation of the Discipline of the 
 Sacraments has exclusive jurisdiction over dispensa¬ 
 tions from ratified unconsummated marriages; the 
 Holy Office decides all questions of the Pauline 
 Privilege. In other cases the competent judge is 
 the local judge where the marriage was celebrated 
 or where the party lives, or where the Catholic 
 party has a domicile or quasi-domicile, if the other 
 party is not a Catholic 
 
 Ordination Suits. —To begin a suit on the validity 
 of ordination or its obligations, a libellus should 
 be forwarded to the Congregation of the Disci¬ 
 pline of the Sacraments or if the question of a 
 substantial defect of rite is involved, to the Holy 
 Office; the congregation decides if the case is to 
 be sent to the tribunal of the diocese of the cleric 
 at the time of ordination, or to the diocese where 
 he was ordained, if the suit is based on a defect 
 of rite or if it may decide the question itself. The 
 defender of the bond of ordination must intervene 
 
COUSERANS 
 
 236 
 
 CREMA 
 
 in these suits, which, in general, follow a procedure 
 similar to that of matrimonial cases, including 
 appeals and the sentence of nullity. 
 
 Couserans, Diocese of. See Pamiers. 
 
 Coutances, Diocese of (Constantiensis; cf. C. 
 E., IV-455c), suffragan of Rouen, comprises all of 
 the department of La Manche, France, and carries 
 the united title of Avranches (Abrincensis). Since 
 
 28 November, 1898, this see has been filled by Rt. 
 Rev. Joseph Guerard, born in Loudeac 1846, or¬ 
 dained in 1869, and served as titular chancellor of 
 Rennes, where he was later consecrated. The 
 activity and generosity of Bishop Guerard during 
 his long administration have been largely re¬ 
 sponsible for the complete restoration of the ancient 
 cathedral. In 1903 the choir was repaired according 
 to its original form, the high altar, stalls and epis¬ 
 copal throne were restored, a new floor was laid 
 and the beautiful tower in the centeirtook on its 
 old beauty. Two years later the Chapel of St. 
 John, abandoned since 1755, was opened and given 
 the title of Chapel of the Sacred Heart, and 1916 
 saw the restoration of the chapel and the devotion 
 of Notre Dame des Puits. An unused apartment 
 in the south wing of the cathedral was converted 
 into a chapel for relics, and new windows were 
 added and blessed. In 1919 the restoration was 
 completed with the repairing of the great organ, 
 constructed in 1720 and originally belonging to the 
 Abbey of Sarigny-le-Vieux. The same year, on 3 
 July, the Government gave permission for the prac¬ 
 tice of religion in the abbatial basilica, which had 
 been denied this privilege for thirty years. On 
 
 29 January, 1917, upon the request of Mgr. Lemon- 
 nier, Bishop of Bayeux, the authenticity of the 
 relics preserved in the episcopal chancellery was 
 established. In 1913 the Upper Seminary was trans¬ 
 ferred to the Chateau of Coigny, generously placed 
 at the disposal of the bishop by a noble English 
 lady, Madame la Contesse de Beauchamps, of the 
 family of the Dukes of Coigny. By 1920 statistics 
 the diocese Counts 476,119 Catholics, 16 first class 
 parishes, 612 succursal parishes, and 284 vicariates 
 formerly supported by the state. 
 
 Covington, DioceseJ^ (Covingtonensis; cf. C. 
 E., IV-462c), Kentucky, comprises an area of 
 17,286 sq. miles and a Catholic population of 
 some 60,600, chiefly of German or Irish descent. 
 Upon the death of Rt. Rev. Camillus P. Maes, 
 third Bishop of Covington, 11 May, 1915, Rt. Rev. 
 Ferdinand Brossart was consecrated his successor 
 25 January, 1916. Bishop Brossart was born in 
 Bavaria, 19 October, 1849, but was brought to this 
 country in his infancy and made all his studies 
 here, spending all of his priestly career in the 
 Diocese of Covington. Before his appointment as 
 bishop he was vicar general of the diocese for 
 twenty-eight years. During his administration he 
 has liquidated the debt on the old cathedral and 
 raised large sums for the erection of the present 
 cathedral. 
 
 The diocese of Covington at present comprises: 
 64 parishes, 81 churches, 17 missions with 25 sta¬ 
 tions, 84 secular priests and 10 regulars, 4 lay broth¬ 
 ers, 584 religious (women), 23 seminarians, 1 high 
 school with 50 boys, 10 academies with attendance 
 of 2,130, 2 normal schools for sisters with 10 teach¬ 
 ers and an attendance of 46, a hospital training- 
 school with an attendance of 24, 44 elementary 
 schools with 226 teachers and an attendance of 
 8,413. Among the institutions are: 1 Good Shep¬ 
 herd home with 105 penitents and 59 children, 2 
 orphan asylums with 192 children and 2 hospitals 
 
 with a yearly record of 6,887. The priests of the 
 dioceses are permitted to minister in all the public 
 institutions, but no support is received from the 
 Government in supporting the Catholic institutions. 
 
 Cracow (Polish, Krakow), Diocese of (Cracovi- 
 ensis; cf. C. E., IV-464c), in Poland, directly sub¬ 
 ject to Rome. This see, founded in the tenth cen¬ 
 tury, is now (1922) filled by Rt. Rev. Adam Stephen 
 Sapieha, a member of the Polish nobility, born in 
 Krasiczyn in 1867, studied at the Gregorian Col¬ 
 lege in Rome, and ordained in 1893, served ys vice- 
 rector of the Seminary of Lemberg, made £ private 
 chamberlain in 1906 and appointed 27 November, 
 
 1911, to succeed Cardinal Puzyna (d. 8 September, 
 1911). He is assisted by an auxiliary, Rt. Rev. 
 Anatolius Nowak, titular Bishop of Irenopolis, ap¬ 
 pointed 17 December, 1900. In 1920 the population 
 of the diocese numbered 975,525 Catholics, about 
 3,489 Protestants and 64,811 Jews. The territory 
 is divided into 18 deaneries, 184 parishes, and 34 
 fillial parishes, and comprises 557 secular and 313 
 regular clergy, an upper and a lower seminary at 
 Cracow, 42 convents with 712 religious, and 1,499 
 Sisters distributed through 119 religious houses. 
 
 Crato, Diocese of (Cratensis), erected by a De¬ 
 cree of 20 November, 1914, which divided the 
 Diocese of Fortaleza, in the State of Ceara, 
 Brazil, and took the southern portion to form 
 the new diocese. It is bounded on the east by 
 the boundary lines of the States of Ceara, Rio 
 Grande, Norte, and Parahyba; on the sout h by 
 the limits of the States of Ceara and Poj^Mpdto; 
 on the west by the boundary lines of ti^^Pftes of 
 Ceara and Piauhy. These limits were slightly 
 changed on 24 January, 1919. The diocese com¬ 
 prises parishes a cathedral dedicated to 
 
 Our Lady of Penhc^Plt is under the direction of 
 its first bishop, Rt. Rev. Quintin-Rodrigues de 
 Oliveira e Silva, born in Guixeramobim (now part 
 of this diocese) in 1863, ordained 188?n?rofessor 
 and then rector of the Seminary of Crato, founder 
 of the CathQUcjournal, “La Cruz,” named an hon¬ 
 orary prival^ppamberlain extra urbem, 27 January, 
 
 1912, and ap^ipted to the see of Piauhy, which he 
 declined 17 ^bruary, 1913, and again appointed 
 Bishop of Crato, iO March, 1915. Statistics are not 
 yet published for this diocese. 
 
 Creighton University (cf. C. E., IV-480b), a free 
 institution locat^fct-Omaha, Nebraska, U. S. A., 
 and conducted bythe Society (^^lesus. In 1913 
 a summer school was opened in connection with the 
 university; in 1920, the College of Commerce was 
 established and in 1921 fwo new buildings were 
 completed, to be used for law and dentj^ry. The 
 institution is steadily growing, the totarregistra- 
 tion for 1921 being 1,230; 707 men and 523 women, 
 under a faculty of 161 members, 21 religious and 
 140 lay professors. A high school with a registra¬ 
 tion of 415 boys, is conducted in connection with 
 the university. The president is Rev. John F. 
 McCormack, S. J. 
 
 Crema, Diocese of (Cremensis; cf. C. E., 
 XV-481b), in the province of Cremona, Italy, suf¬ 
 fragan of Milan. Rt. Rev. Bernardo Pizzorno, now 
 titular Bishop of Flaviopolis, filled this see from 4 
 January, 1911, until he retired 6 December, 1915. 
 He was succeeded by Rt. Rev. Dalmazio Minoretti, 
 born in San Dalmazio in 1861, professor in the 
 Seminaries of Monza and of Milan, appointed 6 
 December, 1915. The statistics of 1920 credit the 
 diocese with 66,900 Catholics; 53 parishes, 70 secular 
 and 4 regular clergy, 44 seminarians, 4 Brothers, 
 150 Sisters, and 78 churches or chapels. 
 
CREMATION 
 
 237 
 
 CRIME IN CANON LAW 
 
 Cremation (cf. C. E., IV-481).—The practice of 
 cremation is reprobated by the Church, and no 
 attention must be paid to any request for it. If a 
 person has asked to be cremated he may not re¬ 
 ceive Christian burial, unless he repented before 
 dying; unreserved excommunication is incurred 
 ipso facto by those who order or compel the Chris¬ 
 tian burial of such persons, while those who give 
 it voluntarily are interdicted from entering church, 
 the censure being reserved to the ordinary. 
 
 Codex jur . can ., 1,552-2,194; Noval, Commentarium . 
 
 Cremona, Diocese of (Cremonensis; cf. C. E., 
 IV-483b), in Lombardy, Northern Italy, suffragan 
 of Milan. Mgr. Bonomelli, appointed to this see 
 27 October, 1871, although an active and zealous 
 worker, merited the disapproval of the Church by 
 his uncompromising attitude on the question of 
 temporal power. He desired a union between the 
 Church and State, but a union w r hich w r ould be to 
 the advantage of the latter, and maintained very 
 close relations with the Italian court. When the 
 Pope condemned the separation of Church and 
 State, Bishop Bonomelli published a pastoral letter 
 directly opposed to the pronouncement of the Holy 
 Father, causing a great scandal throughout the 
 country. He afterwards w r ent to Home to justify 
 himself, but Pius X refused to receive him. In 1889 
 he published a well known pamphlet, ‘‘Roma, 
 1’ Italia et la realta della cose,” setting forth the 
 necessity of a reconciliation between the two; it 
 was published annonomously, but was known to be 
 ttofe^Mj^)f Bishop Bonomelli. He later declared 
 him^^BBbe its author and, to avoid direct con¬ 
 demnation, announced submission to the judgment 
 of authority, thus gaining wider publicity for his 
 book. He died in NigoliM^^ Augus^B^14, after 
 a long illness and was moUPd by all the Liberal 
 press, which fact was in itself the bitterest criticism 
 of the man and the prelate. However two accom- 
 plishmeate still stand to his credit; the reorganiza¬ 
 tion of the Upper Seminary in new buildings which 
 have a capacity of 300 students, but which so far 
 have never housed more than 35^BL the founda¬ 
 tion of an aid association for I^ffan emigrants. 
 This provides moral protection forWlians in foreign 
 countries and enables them to procure material 
 assistance as w T ell. 
 
 He was succeeded by Rt. Rev. Giovanni Cazzani, 
 transferred to Cremona, 22 J anua ry, 1915. Born in 
 the diocese o^J*avia in 18^BB e studied at the 
 university, -waWrdained in 1889, became a profes¬ 
 sor, and then vice-rector of the seminary, and 
 later secretary to the jpishop whom he followed to 
 Ravenna in 1901. He returned to Pavia-the follow¬ 
 ing yea^fcgnd became rector of the seminary, chan¬ 
 cellor oT the cathedral, apostolic visitor to the 
 seminary of the province of Benevento, and private 
 chamberlain, and was appointed Bishop of Cesena, 
 5 August, 1904. The diocese comprises a Catholic 
 population of 377,790 and is credited by the 1920 
 statistics with 230 parishes, 541 secular and 40 regu¬ 
 lar clergy, 200 seminarians, 20 Brothers, 1,475 Sis¬ 
 ters, and 530 churches or chapels. 
 
 Crime, Impediment of (cf. C. E., IV-489).— 
 According to the Code of Canon Law a valid mar¬ 
 riage cannot be contracted between two parties: 
 (1) who, while one of them was legitimately mar¬ 
 ried, have committed adultery together and prom¬ 
 ised to marry one another or have attempted to 
 do so even civilly—this impediment is one of the 
 minor grade; or (2) who while one was legitimately 
 married have committed adultery together and in 
 addition one of them has committed conjugicide; 
 or (3) who by mutual co-operation, whether physi¬ 
 
 cal or moral, have caused the death of one of their 
 spouses, even if no adultery has been committed. 
 It may be noted that the Code in treating of cases 
 (2) and (3) makes no mention of any intention 
 to contract marriage. Before the Code apeared, 
 such intention was not laid down expressly in the 
 law as necessary, yet the necessity of it was empha¬ 
 sized by the standard moralists and canonists. 
 Ignorance of the existence of this impediment pre¬ 
 vents it from arising. One may note, however, that 
 (a) when a dispensation is granted by the Holy 
 See from a ratified but unconsummated marriage, 
 or (b) when permission is given to contract a new 
 marriage on account of the presumed death of a 
 spouse, there is always implied, when necessary, a 
 dispensation from the impediment of crime arising 
 from adultery, but it is never implied in cases 
 (2) or (3) that is, from adultery and conjugicide 
 or from conjugicide alone. 
 
 Codex jur . can ., 988; 1053. 
 
 Crime in Canon Law.—By the word crime is 
 meant an external sinful violation of a law to 
 which at least an indeterminate canonical sanction 
 has been annexed; unless the contrary is appar¬ 
 ent what the Code says about crimes applies also 
 to the violation of a precept imposed with a penal 
 sanction. Its quality depends on the object of the 
 law; its gravity on the importance of the law vio¬ 
 lated, the degree of imputability, and the injury 
 caused. It is (a) public, if it is commonly known 
 or has taken place under such circumstances that 
 a prudent person must easily know that the fact 
 is about to become public; (b) notorious noto- 
 rietate juris, after a lawful judgment or after con¬ 
 fession in court; (c) notorious notorielate facti, if 
 publicly known and committed under such circum¬ 
 stances that it cannot be explained away or legally 
 excused; (d) hidden or occult, if it is not public; 
 materially occult, if the crime is secret; formally 
 occult, if the imputability is so. 
 
 The degree of imputability depends t>n the mal- 
 ice^of the agent and his responsibility for being 
 ignorant of the law or for not exercising proper 
 diligence. If the law has been violated externally, 
 deliberate ill-will is presumed in the external 
 forum until the contrary is proved. Ignorance of 
 the penalty annexed diminishes somewhat but does 
 not prevent imputability; so, too, do inadvertence 
 and error. If the law has been violated through 
 lack of proper diligence, prudence will dictate to 
 what extent imputability has decreased. In case 
 of merely ecclesiastical laws, relatively grave fear, 
 necessity, or great inconvenience will often prevent 
 an act from being criminal. Crime is aggravated 
 by the higher rank of the offender or of the party 
 wronged, and also by abuse of authority in com¬ 
 mitting it. A recidivist is one who after condemna¬ 
 tion commits a crime of the same nature under such 
 circumstances and within such time as preclude one 
 from judging prudently that his evil will was 
 changed. 
 
 As a general rule all those who have concurred in 
 a crime as conspirators, or necessary accomplices, 
 or those but for whose influence the crime would 
 not have been committed share equally in the 
 guilt with the principal offender; those, however, 
 who w T ere superfluous accomplices, or who partially 
 withdrew their influence, or who participated only 
 by neglecting their duty are less guilty. Accessories 
 after the fact, e.g., those who praise the evil done, 
 or share in its fruits, or conceal the culprit do 
 not share the guilt of the principal, if, before the 
 commission of the crime, they had no agreement 
 with him to act thus; their acts may, however, 
 
CRIME IN CANON LAW 
 
 238 
 
 CRIMMINS 
 
 constitute distinct crimes. These provisions about 
 co-operation have a special importance inasmuch as 
 certain co-operators mentioned expressly as cen¬ 
 sured in the Constitution “Apostolicae Sedis” are 
 passed by in silence in the provisions of the Code 
 imposing excommunications and suspensions. 
 
 An attempted crime occurs when one does or 
 omits something that would naturally result in an 
 actual crime, which, however, does not happen 
 either because the agent has changed his mind or 
 has made use of insufficient means. If the means 
 employed were sufficient but the crime was pre¬ 
 vented by the intervention of a cause independent 
 of the agent’s will, we have what is called a frus¬ 
 trated crime. The nearer an attempted crime 
 approaches to fruition the greater is its imputa- 
 bility; but other things being equal it is less blame¬ 
 worthy than a frustrated crime. Nothing, however, 
 is to be imputed to one who, having set about 
 committing a crime, -voluntarily desists before its 
 accomplishment, provided no injury or scandal was 
 caused by the attempt. 
 
 Punishments. —The Church has an innate right, 
 independent of any human authority, of controlling 
 its delinquent subjects by both spiritual and tem¬ 
 poral penalties. These penalties are: (a) medicinal, 
 or censures; (b) vindicatory; (c) remedial. There 
 should be a just proportion between the punishment 
 and a crime; whatever excuses from grave guilt 
 excuses from all penalty, and the milder view is to 
 prevail in doubtful cases, except when there is ques¬ 
 tion of the justice or injustice of a penalty inflicted 
 by a competent superior. Only those who may 
 enact laws or impose precepts can annex pun¬ 
 ishments for the violation of these; a vicar general, 
 therefore, cannot inflict a penalty without a special 
 mandate. Those who legislate may under certain 
 circumstances annex or increase penalties to se¬ 
 cure the observance in their own territory of ex¬ 
 isting laws, whether divine or enacted by a higher 
 superior. When a law has no sanction annexed a 
 lawful superior may impose a just punishment on 
 a subject violating it, even without previous warn¬ 
 ing, in case of scandal or of an unusually grave 
 infraction; otherwise the culprit must not be pun¬ 
 ished unless the offense took place after due warn¬ 
 ing of the impending penalty. A judge may not 
 increase the penalty imposed by law, except where 
 the crime was committed under extraordinarily 
 aggravating circumstances, but he may often re¬ 
 mit it, partially or entirely, especially where the 
 culprit has sincerely repented and repaired the 
 scandal given or has been or is to be sufficiently 
 punished by the evil authorities. When the num¬ 
 ber of crimes is very great the number of penalties 
 need not be increased proportionately; the judge 
 might for instance, inflict the heaviest punishment 
 annexed to any of the offenses, with or without any 
 additional remedial penalty. If a penalty latce sen- 
 tentioe or ferendoe sententioe is imposed as a deter¬ 
 rent in an individual case it should ordinarily be 
 declared in writing or in presence of two witnesses, 
 the reasons for the punishment being given, though 
 these may be kept private if the superior so de¬ 
 sires. If after a crime has been committed the 
 penal law is changed, the milder law is to be ap¬ 
 plied in punishing; when a later law abolishes a 
 penalty there is to be no punishment, except that 
 censures already incurred continue. A penalty binds 
 the offender everywhere, unless the contrary is 
 clearly stated. 
 
 In regard to punishments latce sententioe, (a) af¬ 
 fected ignorance, whether of law or the penalty 
 alone, never excuses; (b) any diminution of re¬ 
 sponsibility, arising from the intellect or the will, 
 
 excuses when the law employs the words "pre¬ 
 sume,” "dare,” “knowingly,” “deliberately,” “rash¬ 
 ly,” or similar terms implying full knowledge and 
 deliberation; (c) when such expressions are not 
 found in the law, crass or supine ignorance does 
 not excuse; other degrees of ignorance excuse from 
 medicinal but not from vindicatory punishments; 
 drunkenness, want of care, mental weakness, pas¬ 
 sion, do not excuse from the penalty if the action 
 is grievously sinful; nor does grave fear, if the 
 offense involves public spiritual danger or contempt 
 of the Faith or ecclesiastical authority. When not 
 expressly mentioned, cardinals are not subject to 
 penal laws, nor are bishops subject to suspension 
 or interdict latce sententioe. Those who have not 
 reached the age of puberty are excused from penal¬ 
 ties latce sententioe, but they are to be corrected 
 by the ordinary methods used in training the young 
 rather than by censures or other more serious vin¬ 
 dicatory penalties; their older accomplices or co- 
 operators, however, incur the full punishment. 
 
 A medicinal or vindicatory punishment latce 
 sententioe binds an offender conscious of his fault 
 in both fora; before a declaratory sentence has 
 been pronounced, however, he is excused from ob¬ 
 serving the censure as often as his reputation would 
 suffer, and in the external forum he need not heed it 
 unless the fault was notorious. No punishment can 
 be imposed unless it is certain that the crime was 
 committed and also that judgment has not been 
 barred by lapse of time; furthermore, when there is 
 question of inflicting a censure, the offender must 
 first be reprimanded, warned to recede from' his 
 contumacy, and given suitable time to repent, should 
 the case admit of delay; if he then remains con¬ 
 tumacious. the censure may be imposed. A judge 
 who in the exercise of his office has imposed _ a 
 penalty laid down by a superior cannot remit it. 
 An ordinary, however, has wide powers(a) in 
 public cases, he can remit all penalties latoe 
 sententioe laid down by common law, except in 
 cases which are still in court, or if the censure is 
 reserved to th^ v r Holy See, or in case of inability 
 to hold ecclesiastical offices, benefices, dignities, 
 or of loss of active and passive voice, perpetual 
 suspension, infamy of law, loss of the right of 
 patronage and Apostolic privileges or favors; (b) in 
 occult cases, he can personally or by a delegate 
 remit all censures laid down in the common law, 
 except those reserved specially or very specially 
 to the Holy See. See Censures; Excommunica¬ 
 tion; Suspension. 
 
 Codex jur. can., 2195 - 2414 ; Ayrinhac, Penal Legislation. 
 
 Crimmins, John Daniel, contractor, patron of 
 arts, and philanthropist, b. at New York on 18 
 May, 1844; d. there on 9 November, 1947. He 
 was the son of Thomas and Joanna (O’Keefe) 
 Crimmins, his father being a native of Limerick 
 City, Ireland, who had emigrated to New York in 
 1837. After studying in the Jesuit College of St. 
 Francis Xavier, New York, he joined his father in 
 the contracting business, and in 1873 he succeeded 
 as head of the firm, with his younger brother as 
 partner. Among the notable city works he executed 
 were the renovation of Broadway, the construction 
 of the Broadway Cable road, the first subways for 
 the telegraph and telephone, and the changing of 
 the street railways into the present electric railway 
 with its underground power apparatus. In 1868 he 
 married Miss Lily Louise Lalor, and at the time of 
 his death was survived by five sons and five daugh¬ 
 ters. He was buried by tha side of his wife, who 
 died in 1888, in a mortuary chapel erected by him 
 in the convent of the Dominican Nuns of the 
 Perpetual Adoration, Hunts Point, New York. 
 
CRIMMINS 
 
 239 
 
 CROSS 
 
 Crimmins’ interest in national and eivic affairs 
 was recognized by his appointment as Democratic 
 presidential elector on three occasions, as a member 
 of the Special Panama Committee, as Commis¬ 
 sioner of Parks of New York City from 1883 till 
 1888, and as a member of the New York Constitu¬ 
 tional Convention of 1894. But it was for his zeal 
 in promoting the welfare of the Church and of 
 Catholic charities that he was best known—numer¬ 
 ous colleges, schools, hospitals, homes, and refuges, 
 both in America and abroad, being beneficiaries of 
 his generosity. In recognition of this spirit he was 
 created a, Knight Commander of the Order of St. 
 Gregory in 1901 by Leo XIII. He was a trustee of 
 the Catholic University of America, and of St. 
 Patrick’s Cathedral, the Roman Catholic Orphan 
 Asylum, and the Foundling Hospital of New York. 
 He was a noted patron of art. His love for America 
 and for the Irish race and tradition was unbounded, 
 and he was one of the most active members of the 
 Friendly Sons of St. Patrick, and of the American 
 Irish Historical Society. He is the author of two 
 works: “Irish American Historical Miscellany,” and 
 “St. Patrick’s Day—Its Celebration in New York 
 and other American Places, 1737-1845.” 
 
 Crisium, Diocese of. See Kri2?eva6ke. 
 
 Croatia. See Jugoslavia. 
 
 Crookston, Diocese of (Crookstoniensis), 
 erected 31 December, 1909, by a division of the 
 diocese of St. Paul (see C. E., XVI-35). It com¬ 
 prises 17,210 sq. miles in the State of Min¬ 
 nesota, and is under the administration of its first 
 bishop, Rt. Rev. Timothy Corbett, appointed 9 
 April, 1910. Born in Mendota, Minnesota in 1858, 
 he studied in France at the lower seminary of 
 Meximieux, and was ordained in Boston in 1886 
 and served as vicar in Minneapolis, then chancellor 
 to the Bishop of Duluth and pastor of the cathe¬ 
 dral, and was consecrated in ’St. Paul 19 May 
 following his appointment. The diocese is dedicated 
 to the Immaculate Conception; the Benedictine 
 Fathers, Sisters of St. Benedict, Sisters of St. Joseph, 
 and Sisters of St. Francis are established here. Out 
 of a total population of 27,621 this territory counts 
 24,103 Catholic whites and 3,518 Catholic Indians. 
 The 1921 statistics credit the diocese with 41 secular 
 and 13 regular clergy, 44 parishes, 35 missions, 20 
 mission stations, 2 academies for girls with 110 
 pupils, 8 parochial schools with 1,358 pupils, 2 
 Indian Industrial Schools with 244 pupils, a total 
 of 1,602 children under Catholic care, and 3 hospitals. 
 
 Cross, Daughters of the (La Louviere, Belgium; 
 cf. C. E., XVI-31a), a French institute first es¬ 
 tablished in 1625 at Roy, Picardy, by Fr. Guerin, 
 Frangoise Wallet, and Marie Samier, to provide for 
 the Christian education of girls. Charlotte and 
 Anne de Lancy jointed the good work, and Fran- 
 goise Wallet was named “First Sister.” They were 
 not bound by vows, and became known as Daugh¬ 
 ters of the Cross, meeting many misfortunes. In 
 1639 the capture of Roy by the Spaniards com¬ 
 pelled the Sisters to seek refuge in Paris, where 
 they were received by Madame de Villeneuve, and 
 several foundations were started. St. Vincent de 
 Paul gave them every encouragement to overcome 
 all obstacles. Later on, two branches of the insti¬ 
 tute were established, when Mme. de Villeneuve 
 introduced certain innovations which were accepted 
 by some of the members, while the others adhered 
 to their original purpose and under Fr. Guerin re¬ 
 turned to the cradle of the institute. The Bishop 
 of Noyon, Mgr. de Rochebonne, in 1728 drew up 
 the Constitutions of the community who pledged 
 
 themselves to religious life, taking simple vows and 
 adopting religious enclosure. 
 
 The mother-house at St. Quentin was in a flour¬ 
 ishing condition at the outbreak of the French 
 Revolution in 1789 when the Sisters were expelled 
 and their convent seized and converted into a 
 prison. Sister Hunegonde Duplaquet refusing to 
 leave the convent, hoping thus to prevent its sale, 
 was locked up in her cell and made a prisoner. 
 After the fall of Robespierre, though the convent 
 continued to be a house of detention, Sister Hune¬ 
 gonde opened a school in her room and gradually 
 gathered around her some of her former religious 
 Sisters. _ In 1837 Mgr. Simony, Bishop of Soissons, 
 reorganized the institute by obtaining from Mgr. de 
 Bruillard, Bishop of Grenoble, five Sisters from his 
 diocese, who agreed to be affiliated to the Daughters 
 of the Cross. The Society received the final decree 
 of papal approbation from Leo XIII, 12 June, 1899. 
 
 The first Mother General was Mother Mary 
 Henrietta Rimey, the second. Mother Caroline Got, 
 the third, Mother Marguerite de St. Preux, and 
 fhe fourth and present Superior General is Mother 
 Helene Afchain who, with her council, resides at 
 La Louviere, Belgium. Owing to the laws against 
 religious teaching in France a few of the nuns were 
 secularized for a time. Branch houses of the order 
 are at Bar-le-Duc, Soissons, Paris, Ryde, Southsea, 
 and Boscombe. An English novitiate has been be¬ 
 gun at the Convent of the Cross, Boscombe, and 
 it is the intention of the superior general to make 
 further foundations when the number of members 
 has sufficiently increased. 
 
 Cross, Daughters of the (Liege, Belgium; cf. C. 
 E., XVI-30b).—At the outbreak of the World War, 
 as early as 5 August, 1914, the Belgian Congrega¬ 
 tion of the Daughters of the Cross opened at Liege 
 a temporary hospital for the wounded soldiers, in 
 which about 700 were received. In nearly all the 
 houses of England a very large number of Belgian 
 refugees found hospitality until the end of the war. 
 Four Daughters of the Cross met with tragic 
 deaths while on their way to the Indian Missions 
 on board the “Persia,” which was torpedoed near the 
 Island of Crete, 30 December, 1915. The congre¬ 
 gation now has a Cardinal Protector, granted to 
 them by Pope Pius X. The present and sixth 
 Superior General is Mother Marie-Victorine, elected 
 8 April, 1920, to succeed Mother Marie-Augustine, 
 who had governed the congregation for twenty 
 years. The late Provincial of the English Prov¬ 
 ince, Sister M. Theophile, died 26 June, 1921. New 
 foundations of the order are: a dispensary at 
 Kindu, Belgian Congo (1911); hospital for Euro¬ 
 peans and natives, orphanage, and dispensary at 
 Lubunda, North Kabanga, Belgian Congo (1912); 
 Institution of St. Michael, for feeble-minded chil¬ 
 dren, at Spa, Belgium (1912); sanatorium for con¬ 
 sumptives at Haslemere, Surrey, England (1917); 
 school for young ladies at Waltham-Cross, Herts, 
 England (1919); Central School at Jarrow, Northum-* 
 berland, England (1919); Donaghmore House, 
 Tyrone, Ireland (1920), where a hospital will be 
 opened. The present number of foundations is 86, 
 and the number of members is 1,610. The religious 
 have under their care: 77 schools with 14,152 chil¬ 
 dren, 18 orphanages with 1,667 orphans, 2 foundling- 
 homes, 7 homes for preservation with 1,301 refugee 
 girls, 11 homes for the aged with 325 inmates, 11 
 hospitals with 6,042 patients, 5 sanatoriums, 6 semi¬ 
 naries, 3 homes for epileptics with 631 inmates, 1 
 prison. 
 
 Cross, Daughters of the (Shreveport., Loui¬ 
 siana.—The main object of this institution, 
 
CROWLEY 
 
 240 
 
 CSANAD 
 
 founded by Mme. Villeneuve under the direction of 
 St. Francis de Sales, is the sanctification of its mem¬ 
 bers whilst devoting themselves to Christian educa¬ 
 tion. The time of probation is two years of 
 novitiate and three years of temporary vows, after 
 which the members take perpetual vows. The first 
 house of the congregation was founded in Paris in 
 1640, and the institution spread rapidly through 
 different parts of France. Among the bishops who 
 asked the Sisters to establish schools in their dio¬ 
 ceses was Bishop Balthazar Grangier of Treguier. 
 This convent in Treguier, founded in 1666, was very 
 prosperous till 1793, when the Reign of Terror com¬ 
 pelled the community to disperse. The Sisters con¬ 
 tinued their work as religious teachers in their 
 families and among their acquaintances, and when 
 peace was restored to the Church of France, they 
 reassembled in their former house at Treguier, soon 
 regaining their prosperity. 
 
 It was from this community that the first foun¬ 
 dation of the Daughters of the Cross was made in 
 America. In 1854 Bishop Martin of Natchitoches, 
 while on a voyage to France in quest of missionary 
 laborers, became acquainted with the community 
 and requested their establishment in his diocese. 
 A missionary band of ten Sisters from Treguier, 
 with Mother Mary Hyacinth as Superior, embarked 
 at Havre, 24 October, 1855. Bishop Martin met 
 them in New Orleans and they reached their desti¬ 
 nation at Cocoville, Avoyelles, Louisiana, 26 
 November. In spite of many hardships and diffi¬ 
 culties, the Sisters opened their school 2 February, 
 1856. The population of Avoyelles parish were 
 mostly of French descent and Catholic, though for 
 lack of religious instruction an indifference to re¬ 
 ligious matters prevailed. The school, however, was 
 well patronized and soon others were established: 
 He Brevel (1857), Alexandria (1858), and Shrevo 
 port (I860). 
 
 The Civil War spread ruin and desolution 
 throughout the South, and the new convent schools 
 were closed. Other teaching congregations aban¬ 
 doned the field, but when peace was restored, the 
 Daughters of the Cross reopened their schools with 
 the exception of that at Alexandria, and in 1866 
 founded a new school at Monroe. In 1868 the 
 mother-house was transferred from Cocoville, 
 Avoyelles parish, to the suburbs of Shreveport. 
 This is now known as St.-Vincent’s College and 
 Academy. In the Dioceses of Alexandria and Sioux 
 Falls the Sisters conduct eight academies with 1,285 
 pupils. The number of professed religious is 80; 
 novices, 5; postulants, 2. In 1873 during the yellow 
 fever epidemic in Shreveport the Sisters nursed the 
 sick and the dying and three of them fell victims 
 to the terrible disease, which was a great loss for 
 the little community. 
 
 Crowley, Mary Catherine, author and lecturer, 
 b. in Boston, U. S. A., d. in New York 4 May, 1920, 
 granddaughter of Daniel Crowley, one of the first 
 Catholics of Boston, and on the maternal side a 
 direct descendant from Lochiel, the famous Cath¬ 
 olic chieftain of Scotland. She was educated at 
 the Academy of the Sacred Heart, Manhattanville, 
 and began her literary work in 1877 as a contributor 
 of poems and short stories to “Wide Awake,” “St. 
 Nicholas,” “Ladies’ Home Journal,” the “Pilot,” etc. 
 In 1892 she went abroad and on her return lived 
 for ten years in Detroit, where she was a col¬ 
 laborator on the Memorial History of the city. 
 Miss Crowley was a recognized authority on the 
 early history of Detroit, and a leader in its bi¬ 
 centennial celebration in 1901, the pageant being 
 founded on descriptions in her book “A Daughter 
 of New France.” Her later years were spent in 
 
 New York, where since 1907 she edited the “Cath¬ 
 olic Missions Magazine” and the “Annals of the 
 Propagation of the Faith.” Miss Crowley lectured 
 extensively on art and literature, and was the author 
 of the following novels: “Merry Hearts and True” 
 (1889), “Happy-Go-Lucky” (1890), “Apples Ripe 
 and Rosy” (1893), “The City of Wonders” (1894), 
 “The Sentinel of Metz” (1897), “An Every Day 
 Girl” (1900), “Tilderee” (1900), “A Daughter of 
 New France” (1901), “The Heroine of the Straits” 
 (1902), “Love Thrives in War” (1903), “In Treaty 
 with Honor” (1906). 
 
 Cruise, Sir Francis, physician and scholar, b. in 
 Dublin, 1834; d. there 26 February, 1912, was a 
 descendant of an historic Meath family, which 
 settled in Ireland in the twelfth century and lost 
 lands and fortune for their open fidelity to the 
 Faith. He was educated at Clongowes and Trinity 
 College, Dublin, where he graduated in arts in 
 1856 and in medicine two years later. When the 
 Mater Misericordiae Hospital was opened in 1861 
 he was appointed junior physician, and the same 
 year obtained his degree in medicine from the 
 University of Dublin. He was a prolific writer 
 on medical topics, among his subjects being the 
 endoscope as a means of diagnosis, cholera, and the 
 mode of propagation of that malady, and hyp¬ 
 notism. His investigations into the medicinal 
 springs of Europe, especially those of Coutrexeville, 
 are of great importance. From 1884 to 1886 he 
 was president of the Royal College of Physicians 
 of Ireland, and in 1896 was knighted. Five years 
 later he was appointed Physician in Ordinary to 
 the king in Ireland, and later .was offered a 
 baronetcy, which he declined. To the general 
 reader he is best known by his critical work 
 “Thomas a Kempis and the Authorship of the 
 Imitation,” a subject to which he devoted all his 
 leisure time and in the preparation of which he 
 visited all the foreign libraries wherein original 
 manuscripts were to be found. The municipality 
 of Kempen has named a street after this Irish 
 doctor, who vindicated the claims of their famous 
 townsman. His work in the great Catholic hos¬ 
 pitals as well as his labors and writings in honor 
 of a Kempis were recognized, in 1905, by Pope 
 Pius X, who conferred on him the Knighthood of 
 St. Gregory. 
 
 Crusade, Bull of the (cf. C. E., III-543).—On 
 31 December, 1914, Benedict XV withdrew the privi¬ 
 lege and favors granted to the Portuguese in the 
 Bulla Cruciatse and the Labbatine and Lenten in- 
 dults, replacing them by a new series of favors 
 contained in indults which are to be published 
 yearly, till 31 December, 1924. There are seven 
 separate indults, summaries or schedules of which 
 have to be obtained each year by those who wish 
 to enjoy the favors; the price of each summary 
 is fixed and the proceeds of the sales must be de¬ 
 voted to the clerical seminaries, poor churches, and 
 other pious works. The summaries may be ob¬ 
 tained by any one resident in Portuguese territory; 
 and the indult regarding fast and abstinence may 
 be used in any part of the world, provided there is 
 no scandal. The Cardinal Patriarch of Lisbon is 
 executor of the indults and can subdelegate to the 
 different ordinaries the faculties granted to him. On 
 12 August, 1915, in practically the same terms the 
 Bulla Cruciatse were renewed for Spaniards and 
 these living in Spanish territory for twelve years 
 beginning from 28 November, 1915. 
 
 Csanad, Diocese of (Csanadiensis; cf. C. E., IV- 
 558b), suffragan of Kalocsa. According to the Treaty 
 of Versailles in 1919, the diocesan area now lies within 
 
CUBA 
 
 241 
 
 CUBA 
 
 three separate kingdoms—two-fourths in Rumania, 
 one-fourth in Hungary, one-fourth in Jugoslavia. The 
 episcopal seat remains in Temesvar, Rumania. In 
 1920 the Jesuits founded a house in Szeged with a 
 novitiate attached, towards which work Mr. Joseph 
 Varhelyi made a munificent gift. During the World 
 War Bishop Julius Glattfelder converted the epis¬ 
 copal residence into a hospital, and for two years 
 taught canon law in place of the former professor 
 who was called to the army. Of the 50 priests 
 assigned to the spiritual needs of the soldiers, some 
 were wounded and one was taken captive. The 
 seminarians to the number of about 100 fought in 
 the army, many being wounded, while others were 
 killed or taken prisoner. Among the recently de¬ 
 ceased are the following persons of note: Canon 
 Anthony W ittenberger (d. 1916), for sixteen years 
 director of the diocesan chancery; Joseph Nemeth 
 (b. 1831, d. 1916), titular Bishop of Isaura and for¬ 
 merly administrator of the diocese; Dr. Alexander 
 Wekerle (d. 1921), Prime Minister of Hungary, who 
 befriended the Church as governor of Zlapodia. 
 
 The Catholic population (1921) is 970,944, for 
 the most part German; the minority are Hun¬ 
 garians, Bulgarians, Bohemians, Croatians, or 
 Rumanians. The priests number 401 seculars and 
 673 regulars. There are 273 parishes, 13 monasteries 
 for men and 38 for women; 1 university with 5 
 professors and 32 students; 5 colleges for boys and 
 15 for girls; 4 normal schools with 28 teachers; 19 
 training schools with 108 teachers; 135 elementary 
 schools with 375 teachers; 2 orphan asylums, 1 in 
 Temesvar and 1 in Nagybeeskerek; 3 day nurseries, 
 in Szeged, Arad, and Temesvar, respectively. The 
 asylums are in charge of the Government which 
 contributes nothing towards the support of the 
 Catholic institutions. ‘For the clergy there is a con¬ 
 gregation of Mary, and a sodality for the laity, the 
 Congregation of Mary, Sodality of the Sacred 
 Heart, Rosary Society, an apostleship for the men, 
 a society for social welfare, Society of St. Vincent 
 de Paul, a charitable organization of the women, 
 and a social organization of the Catholic people. 
 The Catholic publications are numerous, totalling 
 11, of which 5 are political, 1 religious, 2 social, 1 
 devoted to music, and 2 for youth. 
 
 Cuba (cf. C. E., IV-558d).—Latin American re¬ 
 public in the West Indies, comprising the island of 
 Cuba, the Isle of Pines and small adjacent islands. 
 The area is 44,215 square miles, and the population, 
 according to an estimate of November, 1919, was 
 1,898,905. The area, population, and density of each 
 of the six provinces were as follows: 
 
 Province 
 
 Area 
 
 Population 
 in 1919 
 
 Population 
 Per Square 
 Mile 
 
 Havana . 
 
 3,174 
 
 697,583 
 
 219.77 
 
 Pinar del Rio. 
 
 5,212 
 
 266,198 
 
 51.07 
 
 Matanzas . 
 
 3,260 
 
 312,704 
 
 95.09 
 
 Santa Clara . 
 
 8,266 
 
 657,697 
 
 70.95 
 
 Camagiiey . 
 
 10,076 
 
 228,913 
 
 22.71 
 
 Oriente . 
 
 14,227 
 
 735,810 
 
 51.31 
 
 
 44,215 
 
 2,898,905 
 
 65.34 
 
 The population in 1919 increased 261,369 over 
 that of 1916. The whites formed 74.3 per cent and 
 the colored 25.7 per cent of the total population. 
 The immigrants in 1919 numbered 80,485, of whom 
 39,573 were Spanish, 24,187 Jamaicans, 1,236 Chinese, 
 and 745 English. The chief cities are Havana, 
 363,506; Cienfuegos, 95,865; Camagiiey, 98,193; 
 Santiago de Cuba, 70,232; Guantanamo, 68,883; 
 
 Matanzas, 62,638; Santa Clara, 63,151; Manzanillo, 
 56,570. 
 
 Education.— Each municipality has a board of 
 education, and government schools are being estab¬ 
 lished in all towns and rural districts, as education 
 is compulsory. In 1919 there were 334,671 children 
 enrolled in the government schools, which had 
 6,151 teachers. In 1919, 223 new schools were estab¬ 
 lished. In each province there is maintained a 
 Government Institute for Advanced Education, to 
 which are annexed the normal schools for training 
 teachers. University instruction is given in the 
 University of Havana, which is divided into the 
 three Faculties of Liberal Arts and Sciences, of 
 Medicine and Pharmacy, and of Law. According 
 to the latest census statistics, illiteracy has been 
 reduced to 31 per cent and is now rapidly disap¬ 
 pearing. 
 
 Government. —The Provincial Government es¬ 
 tablished by the United States in 1906 continued 
 until 24 January, 1909, when the national govern¬ 
 ment was resumed after the institution of electoral 
 reforms. The present government is republican in 
 form; the president is chosen by popular suffrage 
 and serves four years. He appoints his own Cabi¬ 
 net. The National Congress consists of a Senate 
 (24 members, 4 for each province) and a House of 
 Representatives (118 members, 1 for every 25,000 
 inhabitants). A new electoral code was adopted in 
 1919. 
 
 Economic Conditions. —The total foreign com¬ 
 merce of Cuba during the fiscal year 1919-20 ex¬ 
 ceeded $1,290,000,000, which, compared with 1918-19, 
 shows an increase of $504,000,000 or of 64%. This 
 included imports, valued at $435,257,727, and ex¬ 
 ports, valued at $855,138,341. The chief articles of 
 export were sugar and honey ($376,000,000) and 
 tobacco ($13,500,000), most of which went to the 
 United States and the United Kingdom. In 1918 
 the tobacco manufactured in Cuba consisted of 
 331,705,125 cigars, 341,803,669 boxes of cigarettes and 
 378,426 pounds of cut tobacco. In 1918 the produc¬ 
 tion of tobacco amounted to 508,980 bales (81,436,240 
 pounds), and in 1919-20 the sugar crop was 3,735,425 
 tons, valued at $1,005,451,080. The total area of 
 the sugar plantations was 1,384,812 acres. In 1918-19 
 there were 211 sugar mills. The State owns about 
 1,250,000 acres of forest lands. In 1919 there were 
 3,200 miles of railway, connecting the principal 
 towns and seaports from Pinar del Rio in the west 
 to Santiago de Cuba in the east. The question of 
 nationalizing the railways is under consideration. 
 There are 1,285 miles of cart roads open to traffic. 
 
 Ecclesiastical History. —In 1912 the dioceses of 
 Camagiiey and Matanzas were erected, each com¬ 
 prising the province of the same name. In 1921 
 Mgr. Pietro Benedetti was made Apostolic Delegate 
 for Cuba and Porto Rico. For Catholic statistics 
 see Santiago de Cuba, Archdiocese of and its suf¬ 
 fragans. 
 
 Civil History.— Cuba’s career as a republic has 
 been successful, except on one occasion, 11 Feb¬ 
 ruary, 1917, when two companies of soldiers out¬ 
 side the walls of Havana mutinied and the next 
 day the entire force of government troops in Ciego 
 de Avila, Santiago de Cuba and towns of the 
 eastern part of the island revolted and forcibly 
 took possession of those districts. The United 
 States fleet was sent to Key West in readiness for 
 any emergency, but found the Cuban Government 
 able to control the situation. The revolution was 
 suppressed in less than two months. Since 1909 
 the following have been presidents of Cuba: Jose 
 Miguel Gomez (1909-13), General Mario Gracia 
 Menocal (1913-21), and Alfredo Zayas (1921-25). 
 
CUBANGO 
 
 242 
 
 CURACAO 
 
 In 1919 Provost-Marshal Crowder was sent to Cuba 
 to advise with the Government in regard to the 
 revision of the electoral law. The law establishing 
 obligatory military service, promulgated in 1918, 
 was repealed in 1919. 
 
 Cubango in Angola, Prefecture Apostolic of 
 (cf. C. E., III-772d), formerly known as Upper 
 Cimbebasia, was given its present title by a decree 
 of 10 January, 1921. It comprises a Portuguese 
 colony in Southern Africa and is entrusted to the 
 Holy Ghost Fathers, the present prefect being Mgr. 
 Louis Keiling, appointed 30 November, 1909, who 
 resides at Catoco. The 1921 statistics credit this 
 territory with a population of about 4,000,000, of 
 whom 9,200 are Catholics, 8,000 natives and 1,200 
 Europeans, and about 1,000 catechumens. Mis¬ 
 sionary work is carried on by twenty missionary 
 priests, assisted by 5 Sisters of St. Joseph of Cluny. 
 The mission comprises 12 churches or chapels, 7 
 stations, 8 schools, and 7 orphanages. 
 
 Cuenca, Diocese of (Conchensis in Indus; 
 cf. C. E., IV-562a), in the Republic of Ecuador, 
 South America, suffragan of Quito. It embraces a 
 territory of 18,305 sq. miles and has a population 
 of 147,634, according to the last census of 1885. 
 Rt. Rev. Manuel Maria Polit, appointed to this 
 see 11 January, 1907, was promoted to the arch¬ 
 diocese of Quito 7 June, 1918, and Rt. Rev. Daniel 
 Hermida was appointed to succeed him 10 March, 
 1919. No statistics are published for this diocese. 
 
 Cuenca, Diocese of (Conquensis or Conchen¬ 
 sis; cf. C. E., IV-562c), in the province of New 
 Castille, Spain, suffragan of Toledo. This diocese 
 is now vacant. Rt. Rev. Wenceslas Sanguesa y 
 Guia, b. at Madrid, 1840, ordained 1864, appointed 
 19 April, 1900, and consecrated 5 August following, 
 died 15 February, 1922. On 13 April, 1902, the tower 
 of the beautiful cathedral church of this diocese col¬ 
 lapsed and it was only through the generosity of the 
 citizens, who looked upon this work of the twelfth 
 century as a national monument, that it was pos¬ 
 sible to rebuild it. In 1908 the centenary of St. 
 Julian, second bishop of the diocese and its patron, 
 was solemnly celebrated, with a triduum and civil 
 ceremonies. 
 
 This diocese comprises a population of 400,000, 
 326 parishes and 79 sub-parishes, 654 churches and 
 chapels, 44 monasteries, 86 monks and 580 religious 
 women, 494 secular and 54 regular clergy, 32 
 brothers, 125 sisters, 2 seminaries, an upper and 
 a lower seminary, 194 seminarians, 2 normal schools 
 with 18 teachers and 160 students, 297 elementary 
 schools with 1 teacher and 12,500 pupils. Various 
 missionary works are organized, as well as 5 homes 
 for the aged and infirm, 5 hospitals, 1 refuge, and 
 1 lay charitable center. Societies are formed among 
 the clergy and laity and 4 periodicals, “El Centro,” 
 “Voz de Catecismo,” “El Segrario” and “La Viva,” 
 are published. 
 
 Cuera, Diocese of. See Chur. 
 
 Cuernavaca, Diocese of (Cuernavacensis; cf. 
 C. E., IV-562c), in the State of Morelos, Mexico, 
 suffragan of the Archdiocese of Mexico. Rt. Rev. 
 Francisco Plancarte y Navarrette filled this see 
 from 1898 until his transfer to Linares, 27 Novem¬ 
 ber, 1911, when he was succeeded by the present 
 incumbent (1922), Rt. Rev. Manuel Fulcheri y 
 Pietrasanta, bom in the Archdiocese of Mexico 
 1874, studied at the Latin-American college, Rome, 
 where he was ordained in 1898, and served as vice¬ 
 rector and rector of the seminary in Mexico, and 
 then chancellor of the diocese until his appointment^ 
 6 May, 1912. The diocese comprises 150,000 Cath¬ 
 
 olics, 42 secular priests, 40 seminarians, 34 parishes, 
 284 churches or chapels, and 10 Catholic schools 
 with 2,500 pupils. 
 
 Cueta, Diocese of. See Cadiz. 
 
 Culm, Diocese of. See Chelmno. 
 
 Cuneo, Diocese of (Cuneensis; cf. C. E., 
 IV-569b), in Piedmont, Northern Italy, suffragan 
 of Turin. This see was filled by Rt. Rev. Andrea 
 Fiore, from 1895 until his death, 20 January, 1914. 
 when he was succeeded by the present incumbent, 
 Rt. Rev. Gabriele Moriondo, b. in Turin, 1870, 
 entered the Dominican Order 1888, ordained 1893, 
 superior of the mission at Constantinople 1900, 
 appointed 25 May, 1914. During the World War 
 2 priests, 1 deacon and 3 minor clerics were killed, 
 2 were wounded and 12 won medals of honor. The 
 laity were well represented in the army, where they 
 bravely did their duty. At home many associations 
 were formed to aid the poor, the wounded and 
 refugees. In 1917 the first centenary of the founda¬ 
 tion of the diocese was celebrated, and in 1919 the 
 diocese rejoiced upon the news that His Eminence 
 Teodoro Valfre di Bonzo, bishop of this diocese 
 (1885-95), had been created a cardinal. 
 
 The diocese comprises a Catholic population of 
 111,122; the entire population, with the exception 
 of 250 Jews and Protestants. The 1922 statistics 
 credit it with 67 parishes, 250 churches, 1 monastery 
 of men, 4 convents of men and 32 of women, 210 
 secular and 22 regular clergy, 6 Brothers, 170 Sisters, 
 1 seminary, 80 seminarians, 1 secondary school for 
 boys with 12 teachers and 130 pupils, 2 secondary 
 schools for girls with 210 pupils, 1 state normal 
 school with 22 teachers and 450 students, 1 state 
 technical school with 16 teachers and 340 students, 
 6 homes, 24 infant asylums, and 10 hosnitals. Homes 
 for war orphans are maintained by the state, as 
 well as all the elementary schools. Three organiza¬ 
 tions are formed among the clergy, and about 110 
 in different parishes among the. laity. A weekly 
 journal and seven monthly bulletins are published. 
 
 Curagao, Vicariate Apostolic of (cf. C. E., 
 IV-569d).—In 1920 the fiftieth anniversary of the 
 coming of the Dominican Fathers to the vicariate 
 was celebrated. In the same year a new congrega¬ 
 tion of teaching Sisters was established within the 
 mission. J. J. A van Baars, O.P., former vicar 
 Apostolic and a zealous defender of the faith, upon 
 his death in 1910 was succeeded by M. A. M. 
 Vuylsteke, created vicar Apostolic in the same year. 
 Among the recently deceased especially deserving 
 of note are: Rev. P. Poiesz, who died in 1919, for 
 fifteen years noted Catholic editor, poet, man of 
 letters and friend of the people, and Rev. T. J. A. 
 van den Donk, who died in 1920, able Catholic 
 editor and contributor, for ten years lay teacher in 
 the schools, ordained priest in 1896. 
 
 The Catholic population of the vicariate is 
 50,000, the greater part of whom are negroes and 
 Indians; about 5,000 are either Spanish, Dutch, or 
 Jews. Their spiritual needs are attended by secular 
 and 34 regular priests, principally Dominicans, 44 
 Brothers, and 205 Sisters, of whom 139 teach in 
 the parochial schools and 66 attend the sick and 
 infirm. In the schools taught by the Brothers there 
 is a total of 1,026 pupils, and in those taught by 
 the Sisters 5,462 made up of both sexes. There 
 are 19 parishes and 19 churches, 5 convents for 
 men and 10 for women, 2 training schools for girls 
 with 14 teachers and 53 pupils, 1 industrial school 
 with 7 teachers and 35 pupils, 3 hospitals or homes 
 besides 1 leper hospital, 2 orphan asylums, 1 insane 
 asylum, 5 day nurseries. The men and the women 
 
CURATES 
 
 243 
 
 CUYPERS 
 
 of tho vicariate have an association called the 
 “Roman Catholic League of the People of Curasao.” 
 There are 3 Catholic publications. The Catholic 
 schools and institutions are supported by the Gov¬ 
 ernment. 
 
 Curates ( c f. C. E., IV-570).—The right of se¬ 
 lecting curates belongs not to the parish priest but 
 to the local ordinary, who, however, should first 
 consult the parish priest before making an appoint¬ 
 ment (cf. C E., XI-538). Curates may be ap¬ 
 pointed either in the entire parish or in a particular 
 part of it. They must reside in the parish, and as 
 a rule they should live with the parish priest, who 
 is to assist in training them in the ministry and 
 report their progress to the ordinary at least yearly. 
 They may be removed at will by the bishop or 
 vicar capitular, but not by the vicar general with¬ 
 out a special mandate. 
 
 Codex jur. can., 471-78; Vermeersch-Creusen, Epit. jur. 
 can., 4i9-30. 
 
 Curityba do Parana, Diocese of (Curytibensis 
 de Parana; cf. C. E., IV-572d), in the State of 
 Parana, Brazil, suffragan of Sao Paulo. This dio¬ 
 cese, comprising a territory of 184,672 sq. miles, 
 is under the administration of Rt. Rev. Joao Fran¬ 
 cisco Braga, born in Pelotas, Brazil, 1868, ordained 
 1900, served as secretary to the Bishop of Rio 
 Grande do Sul, appointed Bishop of Petropolis 1 
 March, 1902, transferred 25 August, 1907. Accord¬ 
 ing to 1920 statistics the population of this territory 
 comprises 496,538 Catholics, 36,638 Protestants, and 
 1000 infidels. The diocese is credited with 70 
 parishes, 58 secular and 30 regular clergy, and 302 
 churches and chapels. 
 
 Cusack, Thomas F., Bishop of Albany, b. in 
 New York City on February 22, 1862; d. at Albany 
 on 12 July, 1918. He was educated at Saint Francis 
 Xavier’s College, and received his theological train¬ 
 ing at the archdiocesan seminary at Troy, New 
 York. 
 
 He was ordained on 30 May, 1885, and before 
 his appointment as auxiliary to Cardinal Farley, 
 he acted as superior of the New York Apostolate, 
 the archdiocesan mission band. He was conse¬ 
 crated titular Bishop of Theniscyra on 25 April, 
 1904, by Cardinal Farley and was transferred to 
 the Diocese of Albany on 5 July, 1915. 
 
 Corrigan, Episcopal Succession in The United States in The 
 Cath. Hist. Rev., II, 141; The Catholic News (New York, 
 July 20, 1918). 
 
 Custom (cf. C. E., IV-576).—If any customs, uni¬ 
 versal or particular, at present existing and con¬ 
 flicting with the canons of the Code, are expressly 
 reprobated by the canons they are to be corrected, 
 even if they be immemorial, and they must not 
 be revived in future; others, if centennial and im¬ 
 memorial, may be tolerated if the ordinary judges 
 thought under the circumstances it would not be 
 prudent to abolish them; the remainder are abol¬ 
 ished unless the Code provides otherwise. This 
 canon refers expressly to customs contra legem, not 
 to those preeter legem. The period required to 
 legalize any custom is forty years; but if the law 
 contains a clause prohibiting future customs to 
 the contrary, only a reasonable centennial or im¬ 
 memorial custom can become lawful. A law does 
 not revoke centennial or immemorial customs nor 
 does a general law abolish particular customs with¬ 
 out express mention; but any legalized custom may 
 be revoked by a contrary custom. 
 
 Among the regulations laid down in the Code 
 which expressly reprobate customs to the contrary 
 are the following: A bishop may select any two 
 clerics he desires to accompany and assist him on 
 
 visitation; neither he nor any of his suite may 
 on account of the diocesan visitation ask or ac¬ 
 cept for themselves or friends any kind of gift; 
 the right of option in connection with dignities in 
 cathedral or collegiate chapters is prohibited unless 
 where it is enjoined by the deed of foundation; 
 when a see is vacant only one vicar capitular can 
 be lawfully chosen; in a parish there should be 
 only one parish priest having care of souls; each 
 parish church must have its own baptismal font, 
 however, the vested rights of other churches are 
 to be respected; a priest celebrating Mass must 
 observe the rubrics and beware of adding other 
 ceremonies or prayers arbitrarily; no one, without 
 special leave of the pope, may receive minor orders 
 with the subdiaconate or two major orders on the 
 same day; without express leave of the Holy See 
 local ordinaries or their officials may not ask any 
 payment, when dispensations are being sought, ex¬ 
 cept a small fee to cover the expenses of the chan¬ 
 cery; admission to church for the purposes of 
 Divine service must be absolutely free; lay and 
 clerical administrators of any church or canonically 
 erected pious place or confraternity must give an 
 account of their administration to the local ordinary 
 yearly; finally, any custom introducing a new 
 matrimonial impediment or contrary to the existing 
 impediments is reprobated. 
 
 Codex jur. can., 25-30; Vermeersch-Creusen, Epit. jur 
 can., 85-93. 
 
 Cuyaba, Archdiocese of (Cuyabensis; cf. C. E., 
 IV-580c), in the State of Matto Grasso, Brazil. 
 This see was raised to the dignity of a metropolitan 
 19 March, 1910, by a Decree which divided the 
 diocese and created two new sees as its suffragans, 
 San Luiz do Caceres and Corumba. Rt. Rev. Carlos 
 Luiz d’Amour, born in Sao Luiz de Maranhao 1836, 
 who made his studies in the diocesan seminary, 
 and was ordained 30 November, 1860, filled this 
 see from 21 September, 1877, until his death, 8 
 July, 1921. He was succeeded by Rt. Rev. Fran¬ 
 cisco Agnino Correa, a Salesian, appointed to this 
 see 26 August, 1921. Born in Cuyaba 1885, he 
 studied in Rome, was ordained in 1909, became 
 editor of the review “Matto Grasso,” and when 
 only twenty-nine years of age was appointed titular 
 Bishop of Prusiade and auxiliary at Cuyaba, 2 
 April, 1914. As a result of his efforts a civil war 
 which threatened the state was prevented, and the 
 president of the Republic named him civil governor 
 of Matto Grasso in September, 1917. On 25 October, 
 1919, he was made an assistant at the pontifical 
 throne. Before the division of this diocese it 
 covered a territory of about 862,282 sq. miles and 
 had a Catholic population of 199,559. There were 
 9 parishes, 3 secular and 17 regular clergy, 27 
 churches and chapels, 4 religious communities 
 (Third Order Regular of St. Francis, Salesians, Sis¬ 
 ters of the Immaculate Conception, and Daughters 
 of Mary Auxiliat.rice), 7 Catholic schools with 500 
 pupils, and a Catholic journal, “A Cruz,” published 
 since 1910. 
 
 Cuyo, Diocese of. See San Juan de Cuyo. 
 
 Cuypers, Peter J. H., architect and Catholic 
 revivalist, b. in Roermond, Holland, 1827; d. 3 
 March, 1921. He graduated from the Academy of 
 Antwerp in 1850 with highest honors, and returned 
 to his native country to begin his battle for truth 
 and fitness in architecture, for a Christian and 
 national as against a pagan and foreign style. The 
 definite establishment of an episcopal hierarchy in 
 Holland in 1853, attendant upon the general Cath¬ 
 olic revival, demanded more dignified centers of 
 
CUZCO 
 
 244 
 
 CZAPLICKA 
 
 public worship, and on these Cupyers impressed the 
 seal of his art, drawn from the best medieval tradi¬ 
 tions. For years his conception of art was virulently 
 opposed, but finally he won official recognition in 
 his own country and abroad. In 1897 his seventieth 
 birthday was celebrated with national honors, and 
 at that time he had already built 64 churches and 
 restored 570 others, besides designing many secular 
 buildings, and his active work continued for many 
 years later. 
 
 In 1870 Doctor Cuypers was entrusted with the 
 restoration of the Mainz cathedral, and the Gov¬ 
 ernment placed him on the Advisory Board of 
 Historical and Artistic Monuments. In 1876 he 
 designed the National Museum of Amsterdam, his 
 greatest achievement in secular architecture. Among 
 the churches built or restored by him are St. 
 Willibrod’s and the Church of the Sacred Heart in 
 Amsterdam, the church at Eindhoven, the cathe¬ 
 dral of Breda, St. James’ and Church of Our Lady 
 at The Hague, the Church at Jutphass, the minster 
 of Roermond, and his crowning work, the beautiful 
 cathedral at Haarlem. Doctor Cuypers was an 
 officer of the French Legion of Honor, a,ssociate 
 member of the Institute of American Architecture, 
 of the Institute of British Architecture, and of like 
 bodies in Petrograd, Vienna, Stockholm, Madrid, 
 etc. He presided at the International Congresses 
 of Architects in Brussels in 1897, in Paris in 1900, 
 in Madrid in 1904, in Liege in 1905, in Vienna in 
 1908, honors which he valued for the sake of his 
 faith and his principles of art. 
 
 Cuzco, Diocese of (Cuschensis; cf. C. E., 
 lV-580d), suffragan of Lima, Peru, South America. 
 This see is filled by Rt. Rev. Pedro-Paschasio 
 Farfan, born in Cuzco 1870, studied at the diocesan 
 seminary, served as fiscal promoter and chancellor 
 of the cathedral, and was appointed Bishop of 
 Huarez 5 March, 1907, transferred 19 April, 1918, 
 to succeed Rt. Rev. Jose Gregorio Castro, retired, 
 and transferred to the titular see of Clazomenes 13 
 November, 1917. The 1920 statistics credit the 
 diocese with 480,680 Catholics, 14 deaneries com¬ 
 prising 37 parishes, 90 secular priests, 313 churches, 
 833 public chapels, and 4 seminarians at the semi¬ 
 nary of Lima. 
 
 Cyclades (cf. C. E., IV-581a).—The area of the 
 Cyclades is about 1,050 square miles; 24 of the 
 islands possess an area of more than 9 square 
 miles. The latest census gives a population of 
 130,206, but the latest estimate gives 146,000, the 
 densest population, 156 per square mile, being 
 found in Tinos. In recent years there has been 
 a good deal of emigration, mostly to the mainland 
 or to America. After the Balkan Wars the Cyclades 
 were included among the four general administra¬ 
 tions set up by Greece in Macedonia, Epirus, Crete, 
 and the islands of the archipelago, receiving gen¬ 
 eral instructions from the central government in 
 Athens, but otherwise enjoying a large measure of 
 independence. Owing to the disturbances of the 
 World War, this abnormal arrangement has held 
 good up to the present. 
 
 Cyprus (cf. C. E., IV-589d), island in the Med¬ 
 iterranean formerly administered by Great Britain 
 under a convention concluded with the Sultan of 
 Turkey at Constantinople, 4 June, 1878. After the 
 outbreak of hostilities with Turkey, the island was 
 annexed by Great Britain, 5 November, 1914. The 
 area is 3,584 square miles; the population (census 
 of 1911), 274,108, including 144 military population. 
 The estimated population in 1919 and 311,108. The 
 principal towns are Nicosia (the capital), 18,461; 
 Lamaca, 10,652; Limasol, 11,843; Famagusta and 
 
 Varoshia, 6,127; Paphos and Ktema, 3,946 ; Kyrenia, 
 1,986. There are six administrative districts named 
 after these towns. 
 
 Education. —In 1919-20 there were 741 schools 
 open with 935 teachers and 41,887 scholars, an in¬ 
 crease of 571 schools and 35,111 pupils since 1881. 
 These schools were maintained at an expense of 
 £40,829, which was raised by assessments on the 
 villages supporting schools, and includes grants from 
 religious bodies and private persons, as well as a 
 grant of £12,000 from the Government. There are 
 two secondary Moslem schools for boys and one 
 for girls; the Greek Christian community supports 
 seven secondary schools for boys and one for girls, 
 on which a sum of £13,447 was expended, the Gov¬ 
 ernment grant being £670. The English school at 
 Nicosia (undenominational), which is conducted on 
 the lines of an English grammar school, and the 
 American Academy at Larnaca (attached to the 
 Reformed Presbyterian Mission) have continued 
 their work, as have also a commercial school, 
 founded at Lamythou in 1912 by Mr. D. Mtzis. 
 The secondary schools are chiefly classical. The 
 Moslem Idadi school’s program is arranged to pre¬ 
 pare boys for higher education at Constantinople, 
 and the Greek Christian schools prepare their pupils 
 for the university at Athens. The secondary school 
 at Larnaca is a commercial lyceum. 
 
 Government. —The High Commission of Cyprus 
 has the usual powers of a colonial governor. There 
 is an executive council consisting of the chief secre¬ 
 tary, the king’s advocate, the treasurer, with three 
 locally resident additional members. The Legis¬ 
 lature consists of eighteen members, six being office 
 holders, including the chief secretary, the king’s 
 advocate, and the treasurer, and twelve elected 
 (for five years), three by Mohammedan and nine 
 by non-Mohammedan voters. 
 
 Religion. —In the Archdiocese of Cyprus, a 
 Maronite see, there were (1921) 30,300 Catholics, 
 of whom 1,300 belonged to the island of Cyprus, 
 72 villages, 20 churches, 120 priests, 14 convents of 
 Antonines with 140 monks, 5 convents of Aleppines 
 with 100 monks, 1 convent of Antonine nuns with 
 20 religious, and 1 convent of missionaries of the 
 Latin rite. A seminary with 30 students is annexed 
 to the archiepiscopal palace, and every parish has 
 a primary school. In 1911 Mgr. Paul Aouad suc¬ 
 ceeded Mgr. Pierre Zoghhe, deceased, as Archbishop 
 of Cyprus. He is the author of several works in 
 Arabic, amongst them the translation of the Summa 
 of St. Thomas Aquinas. 
 
 The Blue Book of Cyprus gives the following 
 statistics of other denominations represented on 
 the island: Autocephalous Church of Cyprus (Greek 
 Orthodox), 252,000 followers, 657 churches, 11 
 cenobitical monasteries, 84 non-cenobitical monas¬ 
 teries; Moslem, 62,000 members, 202 mosques,. 15 
 tekyes or convents of dervishes, 8 seminaries; 
 Armenian Gregorians, 640 members, 2 churches, 1 
 monastery under the Gregorian Patriarch of Jeru¬ 
 salem ; Church of England, 400 members, 3 churches, 
 2 church rooms, under the Bishop in Jerusalem; 
 Presbyterians, etc., 100 members, 1 church, chiefly 
 attached to the Reformed Presbyterians at Larnaca; 
 Jews, 200 members, 1 synagogue, 1 settlement at 
 Margo and a few scattered communities. No de¬ 
 nomination receives state aid. 
 
 Czaplicka, Marie Antoinette, scientist and 
 author, b. near Warsaw, Poland; d. in England, 
 June, 1921. In 1910 she came to London, with the 
 Mianowski Research scholars from Warsaw, and 
 studied at Somerville College, Oxford, specializing 
 in anthropology and taking the Oxford diploma in 
 
CZECHOSLOVAKIA 
 
 245 
 
 CZECHOSLOVAKIA 
 
 1^12. Two years later the Oxford University Press 
 published her Aboriginal Siberia/’ with a preface 
 by Doctor Marett. As the Mary Ewart Traveling 
 Scholar of Somerville, she went with the anthropo¬ 
 logical expedition organized by Oxford University 
 and the Philadelphia University Museum to the 
 \enisei \ alley in Siberia, living for a year with 
 the Samoyed and Tungus tribes within the arctic 
 circle. In 1916 she published an account of her 
 travels in her book “My Siberian Year/’ a serious 
 contribution to the knowledge of the primitive 
 tribes of Northern Asia. This was followed in 1919 
 by "The Turks of Central Asia in History and at 
 the Present Day/’ a volume that is used as a 
 reference book by the Foreign Office. Miss Czap- 
 licka was an accomplished linguist, and her essays 
 on Asiatic and anthropological subjects were written 
 in English, Russian, and Polish. She was an 
 honorary member of Lady Margaret Hall, Mary 
 Ewart lecturer in Ethnology, and a Fellow of the 
 Royal Geographical Society. 
 
 Czechoslovakia, new republic formed after the 
 dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian empire, of 
 Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Slovakia, and autono¬ 
 mous Ruthenia. It is bounded by Germany and 
 Poland on the north, by Germany, Austria, Hungary 
 and Rumania on the south, and by Germany on 
 the west. 
 
 The area and population of the various provinces, 
 according to the census of 1919, were: 
 
 
 Area 
 
 Square 
 
 Miles 
 
 Population 
 
 Bohemia . 
 
 20,065 
 
 8,584 
 
 1,596 
 
 19,173 
 
 4,670 
 
 359 
 
 6,768,548 
 
 2,622,271 
 
 608,128 
 
 2,952,846 
 
 572,028 
 
 111,569 
 
 Moravia . 
 
 Silesia . 
 
 Slovakia . 
 
 Ruthenia. 
 
 German and Austrian territories 
 assigned to Czechoslovakia by 
 the Peace Conference. 
 
 Total . 
 
 54,438 
 
 13,636,390 
 
 
 For the area and population of the various 
 provinces comprising Czechoslovakia, no late 
 statistics are available, except for Slovakia, which 
 in November, 1919, showed a population of 2,940,374, 
 including 2,141,000 Slovaks, 665,000 Magyars, and 
 140,322 Germans. The principal cities, with their 
 estimated population on 30 June, 1914, are: 
 Prague and environs, 550,000; Brno, 135,000; Pilsen, 
 85,000; Pressburg, 85,000; Kosice, 48,000; Ostrava, 
 42,000; Liberec, 40,000; Usti, 40,000; Budejovice, 
 40,000. In all Czechoslovakia there are about 
 6,700,000 Czechs, 2,000,000 Slovaks, 900,000 Magyars, 
 3,800,000 Germans, 400,000 Russians and Ruthenians, 
 and 130,000 Poles. 
 
 Economic Situation.— Agriculture is highly de¬ 
 veloped in Czechoslovakia. The crop yield has 
 almost come up to the pre-war standard. In the 
 crownlands formerly Austrian, but now belonging 
 to Czechoslovakia, about half the entire area is 
 devoted to agriculture. Cattle raising is carried 
 on on a large scale; in spite of this, however, the 
 country is unable to supply all its own foodstuff 
 requirements, as during the war the yield of the 
 soil diminished, and the stocks of cattle suffered 
 severely. The country contains both pit coal and 
 lignite. The pit coal output comprises about five- 
 sixths of the total output of what was once Austria. 
 Before the war it averaged 12.2 million tons, dur¬ 
 
 ing the war it fell off considerably, but in 1920 
 it increased again to 11.1 million tons. In the 
 Jattei yeai 1.4 million tons of coke were produced. 
 
 e ou fput, which before the war averaged 
 
 21 million tons, in 1920 amounted to 19 7 million 
 tons. In consequence of the reduced activities of 
 the industries induced by the world’s economic 
 crisis, Czechoslovakia has a surplus of lignite and 
 has reduced the export duties to stimulate its ex- 
 portation. In 1919 the number of coal mines was 
 366; of employees, 110,233. The iron ore deposits 
 are not very rich and may well be exhausted in 
 fifty years. The gold and silver output of old 
 Austria has fallen almost exclusively to Czecho¬ 
 slovakia. The output of radium-containing ores is 
 of great importance, and in Bohemia and Moravia 
 there are large deposits of kaolin and clay. The 
 kaolin is of great importance to the German porce¬ 
 lain industry, 68,000 tons of the entire output 
 (91,000 tons) going to Germany. 
 
 Of the entire industries of the former Austria- 
 Hungary four-fifths are now to be found in Czecho¬ 
 slovakia. On account of the large decrease in 
 population, all branches are forced to rely to a 
 large extent on export. The number of factories in 
 1920 was 8,833, of which 2,000 were textile mills, 
 1,755 glass works and precious stone factories, 1,358 
 for food production, 674 for furniture and bent wood 
 manufacture, 595 machine factories, 592 for metal 
 manufacture, 297 paper mills, 458 chemical fac¬ 
 tories. A considerable part of the industries are 
 in the hands of the Germans; in Bohemia nearly 
 47% of the industrial workers and 45% of the home 
 workers are found in German districts. For 1919 
 the imports amounted to 6,555,418,562 kronen and 
 the exports to 5,323,621,196 kronen. The imports, 
 which consisted chiefly of cereals, cottons, woolens, 
 and leather, came principally from Italy, the United 
 States, Jugoslavia, Germany, Austria, and Switzer¬ 
 land; the exports, consisting chiefly of sugar, tim¬ 
 ber, fruit, glass, and iron, went to Austria, France, 
 Germany, Poland, Great Britain, and Norway. 
 
 There are 8,297 miles of railway line in Czecho¬ 
 slovakia, of which 4,928 miles are owned by the 
 State and the remaining 3,369 miles are privately 
 owned. 
 
 It was the policy of the Austrian and Hungarian 
 governments to separate Slovakia from its kindred 
 countries, Bohemia and .Moravia, and to bind it 
 by a net of railways to the center of Hungary. The 
 old government therefore constructed railway lines 
 extending from Budapest, from north to south; only 
 here and there were tracks built in a different direc¬ 
 tion, but without any interconnection, the only aim 
 being to increase the traffic towards the Magyar 
 center. The new Czechoslovakian government has 
 plans not only to change this system in order to 
 bind Moravia, Slovakia, and Bohemia more closely, 
 but to improve the bad condition of the rolling 
 stock. The Peace Treaty gave the Czechoslovak 
 state the right to use certain wharves in the ports 
 of Hamburg and Stettin. The chief port on the 
 Danube is Bratislava (Pressburg); on the Elbe, 
 Usti (Aussig) and Decin Testchen). 
 
 The debts of Czechoslovakia fall into five cate¬ 
 gories: (1) debts resulting from the war; (2) the 
 nation’s share of Austria-Hungary’s pre-war debts; 
 (3) tax of liberation, i. e., contribution to the war 
 expenses of the allies; (4) internal debt; (5) loans 
 of the new republic, totaling on 31 December, 1919, 
 3,500,000,000 francs of foreign debt and 25,000,000,000 
 crowns of internal debt. A Board of Audit and 
 Control was constituted in March, 1919, to take 
 charge of state economy, state property, and the 
 national debt. At the beginning of 1922 the krone 
 
CZECHOSLOVAKIA 
 
 246 
 
 CZECHOSLOVAKIA 
 
 ($0,202 at par of exchange) had emancipated itself 
 from the German mark and its fluctuations and 
 had risen to its normal value. 
 
 Education. —The first task of the new Czecho¬ 
 slovak government was to free over 50,000 Czech 
 children from German schools and to give them 
 the opportunity to acquire an education in their 
 mother tongue. Though the Magyars formed only 
 22% of the population of Slovakia, 90% of the 
 schools were Magyar, there being but 300 Slovak 
 schools for 2,000,000 Slovaks, and not a single Slovak 
 secondary school. In one year alone the new re¬ 
 public established about 500 new elementary schools 
 in Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia. In 1918-19 there 
 were in Slovakia 3,931 elementary schools with 4,953 
 teachers and 390,764 pupils; of the total number 
 of schools in the district, 756 were state institutions, 
 the rest were denominational. In other parts of 
 the republic the elementary schools are all state 
 schools. Czechoslovakia has 74 gymnasia, 71 real 
 gymnasia, 71 real schools, making a total of 216. 
 Of the 178 secondary schools in Bohemia and 
 Moravia, 114 were Czech and 64 German. In 1920 
 there were opened 2 gymnasia, 20 real gymnasia, 
 
 1 lyceum, 6 real schools, and 8 teacher’s institutes. 
 There are 4 universities in Czechoslovakia and 4 
 technical high schools. The law of 7 February, 
 1919, provided for the establishment of popular 
 courses in civic education, and the law of 22 July, 
 1919, for the compulsory establishment of public 
 libraries; another on 23 May, 1919, placed public 
 school teachers on equality with governmental offi¬ 
 cials who possess a secondary school education. 
 
 Militia. —The system prevailing in the Austro- 
 Hungarian army at the time of its collapse was 
 adopted for a time, but the army was used pri¬ 
 marily for defense and maintenance of internal 
 order. On 20 March, 1920, Parliament adopted a 
 bill to establish a militia and an army of 150,000 
 men. 
 
 Government. —The Provisional Constitution, pro¬ 
 mulgated as the Law of 13 November, 1918, was 
 superseded on 29 February, 1920, by a new con¬ 
 stitution passed by the National Assembly. Accord¬ 
 ing to its terms Czechoslovakia is a republic, with 
 an elected president as its head. The National 
 Parliament has two chambers, the House of Repre¬ 
 sentatives with 300 members, and the Senate with 
 150 members, the former elected for six years, the 
 latter for eight years, by a universal, equal, direct 
 and secret suffrage according to the principles of 
 proportional representation, the election to be on 
 a Sunday chosen by the Ministry of the Interior. 
 Voting is a civic duty which must be exercised per¬ 
 sonally, not by proxy. The Parliament meets in 
 two regular sessions every year, and in electing the 
 President both houses unite into a National As¬ 
 sembly. It has the legislative initiative, and when 
 it is not in session a Permanent Committee, com¬ 
 posed of sixteen members of the House of Repre¬ 
 sentatives and eight of the Senate, is in office to 
 make necessary provisions having the force of law, 
 and to control the Executive. It cannot, however, 
 change the constitutional laws, elect the President 
 or impose a lasting financial burden, enlarge the 
 military obligation, or alienate state property. The 
 President, elected for seven years, is supreme com¬ 
 mander of the armed forces and can declare war 
 with the consent of Parliament, appoints the higher 
 officers and officials, exercises the right of reprieve 
 and is himself amenable to the laws only on a 
 charge of high treason. All governmental and 
 executive powers not explicitly given to the Presi¬ 
 dent are vested in the government, i. e., collective 
 body of ministers (sixteen in all), which has 
 
 the same responsibility as the British cabinet. 
 There is a Constitutional Court modeled on 
 the United States Supreme Court. Carpathian Rus¬ 
 sia, enjoying home rule, is an inseparable part of 
 Czechoslovakia, which is divided for electoral pur¬ 
 poses into 23 districts for the House of Representa¬ 
 tives and 16 for the Senate. The official language 
 is Czechoslovak, but the minority, numbering over 
 20%, may choose its official language and have its 
 own schools. Freedom of speech and of the press, 
 the protection of racial minorities, etc., are guar¬ 
 anteed. 
 
 Religion. —The population is 90% Catholic, the 
 percentage of religious affiliations being divided 
 approximately as follows: Catholics, 85.6%; Uniats, 
 4.3%; Lutherans, 4.5%; Calvinists, 2.5%; Jews, 
 2.7%. By the terms of the Treaty of Peace all 
 inhabitants are entitled to th6 free exercise, whether 
 public or private, of any creed, religion or belief, 
 whose practices are not inconsistent with public 
 order or public morals; the Czechoslovak nationals 
 who belong to racial, religious, or linguistic minor¬ 
 ities are to enjoy the same treatment and security 
 in law and in fact as other Czechoslovak nationals, 
 and in particular have an equal right to establish, 
 manage and control at their own expense charitable, 
 religious, and social institutions, schools and other 
 educational establishments, with the right to use 
 their own language and to exercise their religion 
 freely within them. The minorities shall be assured 
 an equitable share of the public funds for educa¬ 
 tional, religious, or charitable purposes. Marriage, 
 the family and motherhood are under the special 
 protection of laws. Such are the chief provisions 
 of the Constitution of Czechoslovakia in matters 
 touching directly upon religion, which work out 
 in an unexpected way. In the first election (1920) 
 the principle of proportional representation gave rise 
 to 16 parties, 8 Czechoslovak, 5 German, and 3 
 Magyar. The following results give a clear idea 
 of the composition of the population: 
 
 Name of Party 
 
 Seats 
 
 in 
 
 Chamber 
 
 Seats 
 
 in 
 
 Senate 
 
 Czechoslovak Parties 
 
 
 
 1. Social Democrats. 
 
 74 
 
 41 
 
 2. Socialists . 
 
 24 
 
 10 
 
 3. Progressive Socialists . 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 4. National Democrats . 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 5. Agrarians . 
 
 28 
 
 14 
 
 6. Slovak National Peasants- 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 7. Popular (Catholic) . 
 
 8. Tradesmen’s . 
 
 33 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 German Parties 
 
 
 
 9. Social Democrats . 
 
 31 
 
 16 
 
 10. Bourgeois . 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 11. Farmers . 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 12. Christian Socialists (Catholic) 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 13. Freethinkers . 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 Magyar Parties 
 
 
 0 
 
 14. Socialists . 
 
 4 
 
 15. Farmers . 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 16. Christian Socialists . 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 Total . 
 
 281 
 
 142 
 
 Although the population is over 85% Catholic, 
 the socialistic parties obtained over 50% of the 
 available seats, while the Catholic parties obtained 
 only 17%, to be increased, perhaps, when the re¬ 
 maining 19 deputies and 8 senators were up for 
 election. This indicated that the vast majority 
 of Catholics were affiliated with parties other than 
 
CZECHOSLOVAKIA 
 
 247 
 
 CZECHOSLOVAKIA 
 
 the expressly designated Catholic parties. More- 
 over, the Catholics obtained only one representa¬ 
 tive in the first Cabinet, appointed by the National 
 Assembly in 1918, and none at all in the second, 
 appointed by President Masaryk, seven months 
 later. The ministers of the two Governments, as 
 they are called, were divided among the parties 
 as follows: 
 
 Name of Party 
 
 First 
 
 Gov’t 
 
 Second 
 
 Gov’t 
 
 Social Democrats . 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 National Democrats . 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 Agrarians . 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 Socialists . 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 Slovaks . 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Popular (Catholic) . 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 Non-party . 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 With the National Assembly and Government 
 frankly socialistic, it is not surprising that anti- 
 Catholic measures should be the order of the day, 
 such as the law passed 22 May, 1919, abolishing the 
 indissolubility of marriage and providing for divorce 
 for a number of reasons. A Bill for the separation 
 of the Church and State was introduced, its main 
 points being the elimination of all expense items 
 in the budget for religious work, the declaration 
 of all church property as State property, and the 
 performance by civil authorities of all marriage 
 ceremonies. The passage of such a Bill would be 
 contrary to the stipulations of Article I of the 
 Treaty of Peace, but its very introduction shows 
 the trend of the present Government. President 
 Masaryk, formerly a Catholic, now an agnostic, is 
 subservient to the anti-clerical Jewish elements in 
 the government, and only Archbishop Kordac’s 
 determined defense of his rights, the growing 
 strength of the Catholic party and the realization 
 of the weight of papal influence in the world have 
 checked the campaign of Church spoliation at first 
 inaugurated. In September, 1921, an agreement 
 between the bishops and the Government was 
 reached, whereby high schools and colleges were 
 to remain under the jurisdiction of the former, 
 subject to the inspection of the latter. In 1920 
 Mgr. Clement Micara, consecrated titular Arch¬ 
 bishop of Apamea, presented his credentials as 
 papal nuncio to Czechoslovakia to President 
 Masaryk. Doctor Krofta, Minister from Czecho¬ 
 slovakia to the Vatican, was present at his conse¬ 
 cration in Rome. In the new Cabinet (1921) Mgr. 
 Francis Sramek, a papal chamberlain from the 
 diocese of Olmutz, is minister of railways. 
 
 In 1918 after Czechoslovakia had gained its in¬ 
 dependence, and with every national instinct fanned 
 to white heat, a small group of Catholic priests 
 broke away from their allegiance to the Holy See 
 and endeavored to found a national church. The 
 use of the vernacular in their worship and the 
 marriage of the clergy were the first distinctive 
 changes. Many of those who, under the Austrian 
 regime, when Catholicism was the established reli¬ 
 gion, had been nominal adherents for reasons of 
 Convention, tradition, facility, and personal advan¬ 
 tage, and others to whom it was an appeal for 
 Czech liberty, joined the new Church. In 1920 its 
 members were excommunicated by the Pope, who 
 appointed to such dioceses as were then vacant 
 Slovakian priests who were at the same time loyal 
 Republicans, and permitted the use of the Czech 
 language in the administration of the Sacraments. 
 The schism is rapidly disintegrating, its faith, liturgy, 
 and discipline alike being in a state of flux and 
 
 ^ now seeks un i°n with the Servian 
 • F inoi° X -^^ urc ^ rs i ; national census taken 
 in 1921 it was shown that the majority of the 
 apostates profess no religion and are not now 
 adherents of the National Church. The change 
 from autocracy to democracy, from a friendly gov- 
 ernment to a hostile one, has been efficiently coped 
 with by the Church, and in spite of a hostile gov- 
 f^nment, a small schism, many apostasies, much 
 indifference, a vigorous Servian propaganda, and 
 a still more influential propaganda emanating from 
 wealthy Protestants in America, the Church in 
 Czechoslovakia has become better organized and 
 far more active in the space of ttvo years than 
 she was for three centuries under the Austrian 
 regime. 
 
 The Church in Czechoslovakia is divided into 
 tke following sees: the prince bishopric of Olomouc 
 L 1 ^ 2 '’ Wltk lts su ff ra gan Brno (Briinn); the 
 archdiocese of Prague with its suffragans Bude- 
 jovice (Budweis), Hradec Kralove (Konniggratz) 
 and Litomence (Leitmentz); the diocese of Kosice 
 (Cassovia), dependent on Eger; Banska Bystrica 
 (JNeusohl), dependent on Esztergom; Nitra, de- 
 penuent on Eger; Roznava (Rosenau), dependent 
 on Eger; Spisz (Zips), dependent on Eger. The 
 diocese of Munkacs and Prjasev (Eperies) follow 
 fhe Greek Ruthenian Rite and are dependent on 
 Esztergom. 
 
 History.— -The history of Czechoslovakia as a 
 republic dates from 28 October, 1918, when the 
 Narodni Vybor (N dional Council) took over the 
 government of the Czechoslovak countries, includ- 
 Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, and Slovakia, which 
 had hitherto belonged to the Austro-Hungarian 
 monarchy. This, however, was the culmination of 
 a movement which dated back to 1848, when the 
 European upheaval strengthened the Czech move- 
 ment winch assumed a political shap > with the 
 establishment of the Czech language press. The 
 outbreak of the World War found the Czechs united 
 and ready for liberty. The bulk of them had 
 fought for autonomy within a federalized empire, 
 but the reign of terror with which the people’s 
 reluctance to take part in the war was met, 
 strengthened those who demanded complete inde¬ 
 pendence. The thousands of military executions, 
 the numberless confiscations and arbitrary im¬ 
 prisonments, angered the people, whose soldiers were 
 going over to the Russians and Servians in great 
 numbers. Finally in Paris in November, 1915, a 
 committee of. exiles demanded complete indepen¬ 
 dence and unity of race. Formal action severing 
 Bohemia from Austria-Hungary was taken by the 
 provisional government on 18 October, 1918, when 
 it adopted a declaration of independence. On the 
 same day the Czechs seized control of Prague, the 
 capital of Bohemia, and the Czech flag was raised 
 over Hradschin Castle. A general strike was pro¬ 
 claimed throughout the country. The Austrians 
 made little attempt at resistance and after a few 
 days fighting the Czechslovak National Council 
 gained full control. The Czech Nationalists took 
 over the functions of the local government in 
 Prague on 28 October. The Austrian Government 
 fled to Vienna and the imperial military authorities 
 handed over their power to the local head of the 
 National Council. The republic was immediately 
 proclaimed. Two delegations of Czech leaders, one 
 from Prague and another from the Provisional 
 Government at Paris, met in Geneva, Switzerland, 
 to formulate a new constitution for the republic. 
 On 14 November, 1918, the Czechoslovak National 
 Assembly met in Prague and formally declared the 
 Czechoslovak state to be a republic with Professor 
 
CZECHOSLOVAKIA 
 
 248 
 
 CZECHOSLOVAKIA 
 
 Thomas G. Masaryk as the first president. The 
 Constitution was passed by the National Assembly 
 on 29 February, 1920. In the general elections 
 following, Masaryk was elected president (28 May, 
 1920). 
 
 In the meantime the Czechoslovak army was 
 fighting gallantly in Siberia. It had been organized 
 in Russia from the Czech and Slovak prisoners of 
 war and fought side by side with the Russian army, 
 keeping up the advance even after the Russian 
 debacle. When the Bolshevist Soviet Government 
 signed the peace treaty at the beginning of March, 
 1918, the Czechoslovak army of 50,000 men was in 
 Ukrainia near Kiev. With the advance of the 
 Austrian and German armies into Ukrainia and 
 the continual surrender of the Ukrainians into their 
 hands, there was nothing for the Czechs to do but 
 to retreat, despite their lack of lines of communica¬ 
 tion, of stores of materials, and of reserves. They 
 decided to transport the army over Siberia and 
 America to France, and with this purpose began 
 the difficult retreat from Kiev. As proof of their 
 loyalty to the Bolshevik government they sur¬ 
 rendered all their arms, and in return the Bolsheviks 
 guaranteed them unmolested passage through 
 Siberia. Soon, however, came the order counter¬ 
 manding the permission and in May, 1918, Trotzsky 
 of Russia declared war on Czechoslovakia. By this 
 time the soldiers were strung out in a thin line 
 from the Volga to Vladivostok. Assisted by Cos¬ 
 sacks and Czechs, Colonel Kadlets, then commander 
 of the Czech forces west of Irkutsk, fought his 
 way west to Omsk, taking towns en route. Owing 
 to the keen hostility of the Bolsheviki, the situa¬ 
 
 tion of the Czechoslovak forces became desperate, 
 as they were hard pressed and near to the end of 
 their resources. A frantic appeal to the allies was 
 made. Japanese and American Expeditionary 
 Forces landed at Vladiovostok and fought their 
 way far into the region of the Amur and the 
 Trans-Baikal Provinces to protect the railway lines, 
 which afforded the sole means of transportation of 
 the Czechoslovak troops from the interior of Siberia 
 to the Port of Vladiovostok. In January, 1920, the 
 United States decided to terminate its military un¬ 
 dertaking in Siberia and ordered the withdrawal of 
 its forces. The last of the Czechoslovak troops 
 safely embarked from Vladiovostok in September, 
 1920, returning home via the United States. 
 
 Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, a 
 plebiscite was to be held in the district of Austrian 
 Silesia surrounding the town of Teschen, in order 
 to decide whether that district should be united 
 with Poland or with Czechoslovakia. The Czechs 
 claimed the Teschen district in the first instance 
 on historical grounds, since the province had been 
 part of the Kingdom of Bohemia, which they 
 claimed to be indivisible. On the other hand there 
 was a large Polish majority in the northeastern 
 part of the district. In 1919 actual hostilities broke 
 out. The controversy was settled at the Spa Peace 
 Conference in July, 1920, where it was decided to 
 partition the Teschen province forthwith instead of 
 holding a plebiscite. The agreement gave a large 
 moiety of territory, including the city of Teschen, 
 to Poland, but Czechoslovakia had the better of 
 the bargain in the matter of coal fields, receiving 
 as its share valuable mines and railways. 
 
D 
 
 Dacca, Diocese of (Dacchensis; cf. C. E., IV- of the Family of the Sacred Heart (5). There 
 601b), in Bengal, India, suffragan of Calcutta, is a seminary in the Vicariate with 9 students, also 
 The population (1921) of this diocese numbers 1 normal school for teachers and catechists (12 
 18,123,300, of.whom 11,730 are Catholics, exclusive students), 18 elementary schools (3,000 students of 
 of Catholics under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of both sexes), 9 workshops (619 children), 91 cate- 
 Mylapore. Rt. Rev. Francis Frederick Linneborn, chists. Instruction was given to 362 children in the 
 C.S.C., D. D., died 21 July, 1915, and was sue- mission; there were 1,160 baptisms in a year, 51,758 
 ceeded by lit. Rev. Joseph Legrand, C.S.C., D.D., confessions, 137,190 communions, and 62 marriages, 
 born at Laigle, France, 1853, elected 16 August, The following important events have taken place 
 1916, consecrated 5 November, 1916. There are in in the vicariate since 1918: the Cathedral of the 
 the diocese 18 priests and 13 Brothers of the Con- Immaculate Conception was consecrated in 1909; 
 gregation of the Holy Cross, 2 secular priests, and a seminary for the training of a native priesthood 
 40 Sisters of Our Lady of the Mission of Lyons, was opened in 1914; a normal school in 1918; a 
 The educational institutions under the care of the Congregation of native Sisters was founded in 1912. 
 religious orders established in the diocese are St. Since 1920 there has been a widespread move- 
 Gregory’s School, a higher elementary boarding ment in favor of Catholicism, 
 and day school for European boys, and St. Francis Soon after the declaration of the World War 
 Xavier’s convent, a higher elementary boarding the majority of the missionaries offered themselves 
 and day school lor girls. The charitable institu- for ambulance sendee and by their tact, self-sacrifice 
 tions consist of 2 orphanages for boys and girls, and earnestness rendered invaluable services to their 
 Dispensaries and day nurseries are under the care country. Those who remained at home took up 
 
 of the Sisters of Our Lady of the Mission; there the work of the absent priests and continued the 
 
 also are hostels for Catholic boys and girls, and institutions which had previously been established 
 St. John the Baptist’s Training School for Cate- and which signally helped to maintain order 
 echists. ... . throughout the country. It is noteworthy that 
 
 The statistics of the diocese (1921) gives 13 head throughout the war not a single tribe revolted in 
 stations, 30 churches and chapels, and the Cathedral any place where there was a residential priest. Dur- 
 of the Holy Cross in Dacca. The stations between ing these years of misery and distress, the Catholics 
 Dacca and Bahadurabad and Jagannathgunj, and were among the first who generously and willingly 
 jute stations on the Brahmaputra are attended from gave their services to their country. The teachers 
 Dacca. The Holy Cross Bengali Booklet Series and and catechists spontaneously gave a part of their 
 the ‘‘Dharma Joyoti,” a Bengali monthly, are pub- monthly salary to the bishop to compensate for 
 
 lished in this diocese. the decrease in his revenues, while a great number 
 
 of Catholics voluntarily joined the army. When 
 
 Dahomey, vicariate Apostolic of (Dahomensis; the Government issued the first war loan, the 
 ct C. E. I\-603d), a French colony in West Africa, natives, prominent among whom were the Cath- 
 The Faith was first preached hereby the Franciscans olics, clearly understood their duty and were among 
 in 1660, but with littlo success. Subsequently the the first to subscribe. 
 
 attempts made by the Dominicans and the Angus- The present Vicar Apostolic is Rt. Rev. Francis 
 tinians also met wit 1 ', failure. It was not until 1861, Steinmetz, of the Lyons Society of African Mis- 
 when Fathers Borghero and Fernandez of the newly sions, b. at Morschwiller in the diocese of Stras- 
 founded Society of African Missions > of Lyons burg, 10 January, 1868, ordained 13 July, 1890, and 
 arrived, that the mission began to flourish. Porto named missionary to Dahomey, elected bishop 20 
 Novo, the principal mission station, is now an June, 1906, and consecrated at Lyons 21 October 
 active and prosperous parish with a flourishing following, 
 school for boys and girls with 1400 students. More 
 
 than 40,000 communions were given here in 1920. Dail Eireann. See Ireland. 
 
 Wydah is the second most important mission and 
 
 the seat of the Vicar Apostolic. It contains 12,000 Dallas, Diocese of (Dallasensis), Texas, U. S. 
 inhabitants. Formerly a notorious center of Fetish- A., suffragan of New Orleans, created 16 July, 1890, 
 ism, it has now become a thriving mission. The subdivided through the erection of the diocese El 
 negro chieftains have been won over by the Cath- Paso, January, 1915, comprises North Texas, em- 
 olics and frequent the church and even the idola- bracing an area of approximately 96,000 sq. miles, 
 trous priests are becoming reconciled to the Catholic In 1915 Bishop Lynch, the present (1922) incum- 
 religion. The station at Agme is less important bent, petitioned the Holy See to be relieved of 
 than formerly, as two new posts have been estab- the western portion of the diocese, a request which 
 lished in the vicinity, those of Grand-Popo and resulted in the formation of the Diocese of El 
 Koutonou, the latter of which is particularly pros- Paso, composed of parts of the dioceses of Dallas, 
 perous and will soon rival Wydah. San Antonio, and Tucson. 
 
 The population numbers more than a million The city of Dallas has a population of 159,960 (of 
 inhabitants, of whom 15,000 are Catholics and whom 40,000 are Catholics), and is surrounded 
 belong to the Fons, the Gorubas and Minas tribes, within a radius of fifty miles by two-fifths of the 
 There are 11 principal stations with resident pas- population of Texas. In forming the new diocese, 
 tors, 32 missionary stations, 32 churches and chapels, Dallas contributed thirty-six churches and a Catho- 
 25 priests, 2 lay brothers, 5 communities of Euro- lie population of 42,000. It is an important dis- 
 pean nuns, 1 community of native Sisters with 11 tributing center, rich in mineral resources, products 
 members. The religious orders represented are the of the soil, and has recently become an oil center. 
 Sisters of the Queen of the Apostles (19), Sisters Rt Rev. Joseph P. Lynch, the present (1922) and 
 
 249 
 
DALMATIA 
 
 250 
 
 DAN 
 
 the third bishop of the diocese, was appointed as 
 successor of Rt. Rev. Edward Joseph Dunne (b. 23 
 April, 1848; d. 5 August, 1910). Born 16 November, 
 1872, in the Diocese of Detroit, ordained 9 June, 
 1900, appointed vicar general of the diocese by 
 Bishop Dunne, he was appointed Bishop of Dallas 
 by Pope Pius X, and consecrated 12 July, 1911. 
 
 The latest statistics of the diocese give 60 parishes, 
 120 churches, 60 missions with churches, 62 stations, 
 61 secular and 39 regular priests, 2 convents for 
 men, 14 for women, 483 Sisters in the various com¬ 
 munities, 1 university with 27 professors and 186 
 students,, 14 seminarians, 1 college for men with 72 
 boys, 12 academies with an attendance of 4253 in 
 parish schools, 1 industrial school with 8 teachers 
 and 50 pupils. The charitable institutions number: 
 1 home for business women, 2 Orphanages, 6 hos¬ 
 pitals, free clinic and care is given to the sick in 
 5 hospitals, 1 refuge. Good Shepherd Home, and 1 
 medical mission. All institutions receive no com¬ 
 pensation from the government. < 
 
 Societies organized in the diocese, among the 
 clergy: Priests’ Eucharistic League; among the laity: 
 Sacred Heart League, Confraternity of Blessed 
 Sacrament, Catholic Daughters of America, Holy 
 Family Sodality, Holy Name Society, Sodality of 
 the B. V. M., St. Aloysius Sodality, and Knights of 
 Columbus. .Two Catholic periodicals are published 
 in the diocese, ‘'Cathedral Parish Monthly” and 
 "St. Mary’s Parish Monthly,” Fort Worth. _ 
 
 During the World War the clergy and laity co¬ 
 operated in all war activities, especially at Dallas 
 and Forth Worth. Under the auspices of the clergy, 
 the laity co-operating, considerable sums were ex¬ 
 pended for recreating the soldiers and assisting them 
 in the matter of religious helpfulness. Since 1900 
 the diocese lost three zealous workers by the deaths 
 of Rt. Rev. Msgr. J. Martiniere, pioneer priest of 
 the district, ministering in the early days to all the 
 territory of 96,000 sq. miles, d. 10 April, 1910; Rt. 
 Rev. Mgr. Louis Granger, d. 12 Jan., 1918, and 
 Rt. Rev. Mgr. Joseph Blum, d. 1 October, 1918, both 
 of whom labored zealously in the missions of Texas. 
 
 Dalmatia. See Jugoslavia. 
 
 Damao (Daman, Damaun), Diocese of (cf. C. E., 
 IV-610a), is suffragan to Goa, in Portuguese India. 
 This territory comprises four districts with a Cath¬ 
 olic population of 87,842, of whom 39,966 are in 
 the city of Bombay, 26,814 in the vicariate forane 
 of Thana, 19,527 in the vicariate forane of Bassein, 
 926 in Damao, and 609 in Diu. Rt. Rev. Anthony 
 Peter da Costa, the first Bishop of Damao, was suc¬ 
 ceeded by Most Rev. Sebastiao Jose Pereira, 
 b. 4 October, 1857, appointed titular Bishop of 
 Epiphania and prelate nullius of Mozambique 7 
 November, 1897, proclaimed 24 March, 1898, trans¬ 
 ferred 17 July, 1900. He is the Bishop of Damao 
 and Archbishop ad honorem of Cranganore. There 
 are 5 European and 89 Indian priests aided by 
 Franciscan Missionary Brothers and the Francis¬ 
 can nuns. The educational institutions under the 
 care of the missionaries consist of primary schools 
 for boys and girls under the management of the 
 parish priests, 2 high schools, 3 schools for boys 
 and girls, a Catholic institute, and a diocesan semi¬ 
 nary. The charitable institutions of the diocese 
 consist of 3 homes for the poor, conducted by the 
 Society of Nossa Senhora da Piedade, 2 orphanages 
 with 120 orphans, a widows’ home with a school 
 for girls, a confraternity of O. L. of Piety for the 
 benefit of old and invalid priests of the diocese. 
 By 1921 statistics there are 50 churches, 21 chapels, 
 and 71 head-stations. 
 
 Damaraland (cf. C. E., IV-610d), the middle part 
 of the protectorate of Southwest Africa, formerly 
 a German colony, now administered by the Union 
 of South Africa, under a mandate from the League 
 of Nations, dated 17 December, 1920. The country 
 was captured from the Germans in July, 1915. Up 
 to 1920 the German law was in force; new legisla¬ 
 tion has been effected by proclamations under 
 martial law. In January, 1920, Roman Dutch 
 was made the common law of the country and a 
 number of Union Acts have since been applied by 
 proclamations. Civil Courts have beun established 
 and all troops withdrawn, and although martial 
 law has not been repealed, the government has 
 been conducted on a civil basis for some time. For 
 Catholic statistics see Cimbebasia, Prefecture Apos¬ 
 tolic of. 
 
 Damascus, Archdiocese of (Damascensis; cf. C. 
 E., IV-611d), in Syria, was founded by the Apostles. 
 The diocese comprises three rites, namely, the 
 Greek Melchite (Damascensis Melchitarum), the 
 Maronite (Damascensis Maronitarum), and the 
 Syrian Rite (Damascensis Syrorum). 
 
 Damascus is the Patriarchal Diocese of the Greek 
 Melchite Rite, and the episcopal residence of the 
 Patriarch of Antioch, and has jurisdiction over the 
 sees of Alexandria and Jerusalem, whose titulars 
 are still schismatic. As the result of an indult 
 it carries the title of these patriarchates and has 
 three patriarchal vicars at Damascus, Alexandria, 
 and Jerusalem. Since 1895 it also has jurisdiction 
 over the Greek Catholics of Constantinople. 
 
 The Most Rev. Joseph-Demetri Cadi, b. 18 
 January, 1861, studied in Paris, entered the semi¬ 
 nary of Issy in 1883, was ordained priest in 1888, 
 professed, made prefect of the patriarchal College 
 of Damascus, patriarchal vicar of Jerusalem, rector 
 of St. Julien le Pauvre in Paris, 1898, appointed 
 bishop 27 October, 1903, enthroned in Aleppo 22 
 December of the following year, elected patriarch 
 and confirmed 3 July, 1919. He resides at Damascus 
 and governs his diocese through the Patriarchal 
 Vicar, Mgr. Homsi, titular Bishop of Tarsus. 
 
 According to the 1921 census the population num¬ 
 bers 200,000 Mussulmans, 10,835 Greek Catholics, 
 19,000 Greek Orthodox, 11 secular and 15 regular 
 priests, 14 churches or chapels. 
 
 The Maronite Rite with the episcopal residence 
 at Reyfoun, in ancient Lebanon, is administered 
 by Rt. Rev. Richard Scemaly, appointed bishop 
 1920, succeeding Rt. Rev. Bishop Massad (b. 6 
 January, 1859; d. March, 1919). This diocese com¬ 
 prises 85,000 Maronite Catholics, about 15,000 
 Schismatics and 200,000 Mussulmans, 52 parishes, 
 95 secular and 27 regular clergy, 89 churches or 
 chapels. 
 
 The Syrian Rite, administered by Most Rev. 
 Clement Michael Baccasce, born 6 October, 1865, 
 in Aleppo, student of the College of the Propaganda 
 in Rome, appointed bishop 3 June, 1900, conse¬ 
 crated 24 September following. According to 1921 
 statistics the diocese numbers 3,000 Catholics; 9 
 secular priests, 4 churches or chapels, 4 schools 
 with 68 pupils. 
 
 For the Latin Rite Damascus is a titular see, the 
 title being held by Mgr. Carlo Sica, former bishop 
 of Foligno, now resident in Rome. 
 
 Dan (or Gian), Cochin-Chinese martyr, b. at 
 Biuho Cang, eastern Cochin-China, about 1845; d. 
 at Cho-moi, about 1860. The child of honest 
 Christian parents, she was remarkable for her filial 
 obedience, respect, and love, not less than for her 
 sweetness and strength of character. When only 
 
DANIEL 
 
 251 
 
 DELAWARE 
 
 thirteen years of age she was imprisoned during the 
 persecution by which Tu-duc, King of Annam devas¬ 
 tated the province from 1858-1862. For two years 
 she underwent excruciating tortures rather than 
 renounce her faith, her sufferings finally causing 
 her death. It was not until several years later 
 that she was given proper burial, when her re¬ 
 mains, together with those of eight other martyrs, 
 were collected and buried in the cemetery at Cho- 
 moi by Van, a native priest. The cause of her 
 canonization was introduced and signed by Pope 
 Benedict XV, 25 May, 1921. 
 
 Daniel, Anthony (cf. C. E., IV-621c).—The 
 cause of his beatification was introduced at Rome, 
 9 August, 1916. 
 
 Danzig, formerly an important commercial city 
 of Germany, now a free state by the terms of the 
 Treaty of Versailles (1919). The area is about 709 
 square miles, and the population on 8 October, 
 
 1919, was 351,380, of which about 7 per cent are 
 Poles. To the west, five miles distant, is the near¬ 
 est Polish district. Danzig’s importance as a port is 
 shown in the latest register of shipping: in 1918,1,237 
 vessels of 455,127 tons with a total cargo of 76,436 
 tons entered, and 1,223 vessels of 439,473 tons, with 
 a total cargo of 109,785 tons cleared the port. The 
 city is connected with Poland by three main rail¬ 
 way lines: Danzig to Warsaw, 204 miles; Danzig 
 to Lodz, 263 miles; and Danzig to Posen, 192 miles. 
 The educational system of the city in 1919 included 
 38 common schools with 517 classes, 322 male and 
 218 female teachers, and 24,288 pupils; 3 inter¬ 
 mediate schools with 44 classes, 46 teachers and 
 1,858 pupils; 5 higher schools with 81 classes and 
 2,464 pupils; and a technical high school with 
 65 teachers and 864 students. The government of 
 the city is laid out in the new Constitution, ap¬ 
 proved by the League of Nations on 17 November, 
 
 1920, wdiich provides for a Volkstag or Diet of 120 
 members elected for four years, and a Senate, con¬ 
 sisting of a president, vice-president and twenty 
 senators. The president and nine senators are 
 elected by the Volkstag for six years; the vice- 
 president and the other eleven senators for the 
 duration of the Volkstag. The sittings of the 
 Senate are not public. The President is the chief 
 administrative officer. The elections are universal, 
 direct, and secret on the basis of proportional repre¬ 
 sentation, suffrage being granted to those of both 
 sexes over twenty years of age. The official lan¬ 
 guage is German, but the Polish-speaking element 
 is to have freedom to develop its own nationality, 
 and to use its mother-tongue in the schools, law 
 courts, and government offices. Danzig is not to' 
 serve as a naval or military base, and in case of 
 attack is to be defended by Poland. The public 
 school system is to be “organically developed on the 
 principles of undenominationalism.” The procla¬ 
 mation of the freedom of the city and adjacent 
 territory as well as the announcement of the Dan- 
 zig-Polish treaty took place on 20 November, 1920. 
 
 Dar-es-Salaam, Vicariate Apostolic of. See 
 Zanzibar, Southern. 
 
 Dark Ages. See Middle Ages. 
 
 Davenport, Diocese of (Davenportensis; cf. C. 
 E., LV-640b), Iowa, comprises an area of 12,000 
 sq. miles, and has a Catholic population of 
 51,253. Rt. Rev. James Davis, D. D., is still the 
 bishop of the diocese. According to 1921 statistics 
 the diocese numbers 135 secular and 8 regular 
 clergy, 92 churches with resident priests, 31 missions 
 with churches, 13 chapels, 23 seminarians, 1 college 
 
 for boys (300 students), 1 college for young ladies, 
 6 academies for girls, 49 parishes and missions with 
 schools, 1 orphanage (101 orphans), 12 hospitals, 
 lhe clergy are aided by the various religious com¬ 
 munities of men and women established in the 
 diocese. 
 
 Dax, Diocese of. See Aire. 
 
 Dayton Uuiversity, in the State of Ohio, 
 formerly known as St. Mary College, was incor¬ 
 porated under that name in 1878, and in July, 
 1920, an amendment was made to the original arti¬ 
 cles of incorporation and the name changed to 
 “University of Dayton.” It is a boarding and day 
 college for young men under the direction of the 
 Society of Mary, and comprises three distinct de¬ 
 partments; the collegiate, the pre-medical, and the 
 preparatory or high school. The collegiate depart¬ 
 ment comprises the schools of arts, letters, science, 
 education, commerce and finance, and engineering. 
 The school of engineering was organized in Septem¬ 
 ber, 1910. The pre-medical department comprises 
 a two-year course for high school graduates desiring 
 to prepare for medical college. 
 
 In 1920 the university organized an extension 
 course to be given evenings in any of the usual col¬ 
 lege subjects, whenever the number of registrants 
 is sufficient to warrant it. Since 1907 a number of • 
 scholarships have been founded in the university. 
 The total registration of students in the collegiate 
 and pre-medical departments for 1920-21 was 131, 
 and the faculty numbered 49. The Rev. Joseph A. 
 Fetzlaff, S. M., is president of the university. 
 
 Deacons (cf. C. E., IV-647b).—No one may re¬ 
 ceive the diaconate unless he has begun his fourth 
 year’s theological studies. Deacons may as a mat¬ 
 ter of course be authorized to preach, but can ad¬ 
 minister solemn baptism only by permission and in 
 exceptional cases; they can expose the Blessed 
 Sacrament at Benediction, but may not bless with 
 the Sacred Host, except when in case of necessity 
 they bring the Viaticum to the sick. 
 
 Defender of the Matrimonial Tie (cf. C. E., 
 IV-675.)—Every diocese must have a priest to act 
 a£ defender of the matrimonial tie. If he is not ap¬ 
 pointed merely for a special case he continues in 
 office during an episcopal vacancy, but he requires 
 confirmation by the new bishop. He is usually 
 charged with defending the validity of ordinations 
 ^nd frequently acts as diocesan promoter of justice. 
 Codex jur. can., 1,586. 
 
 Delaware (cf. C. E., IV-692a).—The population 
 of-the State of Delaware according to the United 
 States census of 1920 was 223,003, an increase of 
 10.2% over that of 1910. The population of the 
 city of Wilmington was 110,168. Of the total popu¬ 
 lation, 192,615 were whites, 30,335 were negroes, and 
 the rest (53) included Indians, Chinese, and Japa¬ 
 nese. Of the native whites, there were 172,805 
 (native parentage, 139,876) and of the foreign-born 
 white, 19,810. The urban population was 120,767; 
 the rural population, 102,236. The . number of il¬ 
 literates over ten years of age was 10,508, or 5.9 per 
 cent. Of the negroes, over ten years of age, 19 per 
 cent were illiterate. 
 
 Agriculture and Industry.— Delaware is mainly 
 an agricultural state, 85 per cent of the land being in 
 farms, which in 1920 numbered 10,140 and had a total 
 area of 944,511 acres, 653,052 acres being improved 
 land. The total value of farm property was $80,- 
 137,614. The chief crops are maize and wheat, but 
 fruit and tomato growing are important. The state 
 has oyster and other fisheries which are receiving 
 
DELAWARE 
 
 252 
 
 DELUIL-MARTINY 
 
 increasing attention. The capital invested in manu¬ 
 facturing industries in the state in 1919 was $148,- 
 207,598, an increase of 113 per cent over that in 
 1914. The number of establishments was 668, of 
 persons engaged in manufacture, 32,972; of the 
 value of the products, $165,073,009. The tanning, 
 currying, and finishing of leather is the most im¬ 
 portant manufacturing industry. During the war, 
 Wilmington experienced the greatest boom of its 
 history, on account of the powder works situated 
 there. There is an important coastwise trade, par¬ 
 ticularly with New York, which is connected with 
 Wilmington by a line of steamers. Chesapeake 
 Bay and Delaware Bay are connected by a canal. 
 
 Education. —The present school law was passed 
 in 1919 and provides for a minimum school tax of 
 $100 yearly in each district to support the schools 
 therein, and grants $250,000 derived each year from 
 the income tax to the elementary schools (from 
 first to seventh grade). The State Board of Educa¬ 
 tion consists of five members appointed by the gov¬ 
 ernor for five years. Six months continuous school 
 attendance in each year is compulsory for all chil¬ 
 dren between the ages of seven and fourteen. In 
 1920 the total attendance in the free schools of the 
 state was 37,135; the total expenditure for school 
 purposes was $1,738,884. In 1914 the Women’s Col- 
 , lege of Delaware was established by the state. The 
 * laws relative to private and parochial schools are 
 as follows: in every elementary school, both public 
 and private, of and in the state, there shall be 
 taught at least reading, writing, arithmetic, spelling, 
 oral and written English, history of the United 
 States and Delaware, civics, elementary science, 
 hygiene, sanitation, and physical training. All of 
 these subjects shall be taught in the English lan¬ 
 guage; no public money shall be appropriated in 
 aid of any denominational school (X-3); all real 
 or personal property used for school purposes, where 
 the tuition is free, shall be exempt from taxation 
 and assessment for public purposes (X-3); session 
 of private schools must be the same as that of 
 public schools; private schools must annually report 
 to State Board regarding enrollment and attendance. 
 They must also submit a monthly attendance record, 
 and furnish such records as required by laws regu¬ 
 lating child labor. 
 
 Recent History. —During the European War 
 Delaware contributed 7,487 soldiers or .2 per cent 
 of the United States Army. In the expeditionary 
 force, 7 officers and 80 men died; 12 officers and 200 
 men were wounded; 4 were taken prisoners. Dela¬ 
 ware ratified the Federal prohibition amendment 
 on 18 March, 1918, the ninth state to do so; the 
 woman suffrage amendment was defeated in the 
 state, 2 June, 1920. 
 
 Catholic Progress. —The Catholic population of 
 the state in 1920 was 30,000. There are 50 churches 
 in the diocese of Wilmington, of which 25 are in 
 Delaware. The number of priests in the diocese is 
 57, and the number in the state is 42; of the latter 
 15 belong to religious orders. There are 13 parochial 
 schools in the state, with 4,635 pupils. The active 
 church membership of the leading Protestant 
 denominations are (1916): Methodist Episcopal, 
 28,004; Protestant Episcopal, 4,656; Baptist, 3,651; 
 Presbyterian, 6,197. In 1919 Dr. Frederic Joseph 
 Kinsman, the Protestant Episcopal bishop of Dela¬ 
 ware, resigned his see to become a Catholic. 
 
 Recent Legislation. —Recent legislation includes 
 the regulation of child labor by means of a com¬ 
 mission (1913), change in administration of the 
 state government by the consolidation of several 
 departments, a budget system, a provision for the 
 commitment and care of the feeble-minded or 
 
 criminally inclined persons, and a new school code. 
 
 Delta of the Nile, Vicariate Apostolic (Delta 
 Nili; cf. C. E., IV-701d), Egypt, was raised to the 
 rank of a vicariate 17 September, 1909, with resi¬ 
 dence at Choubra. It is entrusted to the African 
 Missions of Lyons, Mgr. Auguste Duret, titular 
 bishop of Bubastis, being appointed first Vicar 
 Apostolic 24 February, 1910. In 1911, Baron Em- 
 pain, promoter of the Company of the Oasis of 
 Heliopolis, offered the Society two pieces of land 
 and the building of a church and residence gratui¬ 
 tously, with the condition of making Heliopolis 
 the residential see. It was partially agreed, and 
 Mgr. Duret with Jwo Fathers of the African Mis¬ 
 sions took his residence there as simple occupant. 
 
 The vicariate comprises (with the four provinces 
 under its jurisdiction and a part of the government 
 at Cairo), a total population of, by the (1920) 
 statistics, 3,500,000 inhabitants; Catholics of the 
 Latin Rite, 12,000; Oriental Catholics, 12,000; 
 heretics and schismatics, 20,000; and the rest 
 Mohammedans. At the start of the Delta Mission, 
 there were hardly a thousand Catholics of all the 
 rites, attended by the Franciscan Fathers, who 
 had only two stations. In 1920 there were 7 im¬ 
 portant stations with 7 parochial churches, 35 public 
 chapels of the Latin Rite, 10 schools for _ boys, 
 directed by the three Congregations of men in the 
 Vicariate; African Mission Fathers, Jesuit Fathers, 
 and Christian Brothers with 2,211 pupils; 13 schools 
 for girls directed by the Religious of N. D. des 
 Apotres, Good Shepherd, Sacred Heart, Charity of 
 Bescangon, and St. Vincent de Paul, with an attend¬ 
 ance of 4,046 pupils. A comparison of the statistics 
 between 1915 and 1920 show a steady growth in 
 the attendance of Catholic schools, which num¬ 
 bered 3,360 in 1915 and 6,256 in 1920. The charitable 
 institutions comprise 7 dispensaries, 1 home . for 
 the aged with 100 inmates kept by the Religious 
 of N. D. des Apotres, 3 workshops for the poor, 
 1 refuge, 2 orphanages for girls, 1 for boys, 1 nurs¬ 
 ery, 2 hospitals, and 1 house of the Religious de 
 Marie Reparatrice, a contemplative order of women 
 who conduct several pious works for ladies and 
 young people. The vicariate is administered by 40 
 priests of the African Missions, 3 brothers; 29 Jesuit 
 Fathers, 13 brothers, 3 auxiliary priests and 33 
 Christian Brothers, aided by 372 religious of the 
 various congregations. 
 
 The present (1922) vicar apostolic is Rt. Rev. 
 Jules Girard of the African Missions, titular Bishop 
 of Bulla, b. 25 May, 1863, in the diocese of Puy, 
 ordained priest 19 September, 1886, founder of St. 
 Mark’s parish in Cairo, administrator of the Vica¬ 
 riate Apostolic of Delta of the Nile, 1916, appointed 
 Vicar Apostolic, 28 June, 1921, succeeding Rt. Rev. 
 Auguste Duret (b. 2 January, 1846; d. 29 August, 
 1920). 
 
 Deluil-Martiny, Mary of Jesus, foundress of 
 the Congregation of the Daughters of the Sacred 
 Heart, b. in Marseilles, France, 28 May, 1841; d. 
 there 27 February, 1884. She was educated at the 
 Visitation Convent in her native city and at the 
 convent of the Sisters of the Sacred Heart in 
 Lyons. For several years she remained at home 
 and devoted herself to the spread of the devotion 
 of the “Guard of Honor of the Sacred Heart of 
 Jesus.” In 1867 with the permission of her director 
 she took a vow of perpetual chastity, and soon 
 after set about the foundation of a congregation 
 of women to be devoted to the reparation of the 
 faults of the faithful and of priests. She put her¬ 
 self under obedience to the Archbishop of Malines, 
 
DENMARK 
 
 DENMARK 
 
 253 
 
 who, on 9 December, 1872, approved the new 
 institute to be known as the Congregation of the 
 Daughters of the Sacred Heart of Jesus. 
 
 Sister Mary of Jesus built the first house of 
 the Society at Berchem near Antwerp, and adjoin¬ 
 ing it erected the Basilica of the Sacred Heart. 
 She then established her religious in Aix-en- 
 Provence and at La Servianne, near Marseilles. 
 Many houses were founded after her death, amongst 
 them the mother-house in Rome. The constitu¬ 
 tions were finally approved by the Holy See 2 
 February, 1902. The foundress was assassinated by 
 the gardener of La Servianne, as she walked in 
 the grounds with her community. On the expulsion 
 of the Congregation from France, her body was 
 removed to the Basilica of the Sacred Heart at 
 Berchem. She had ruled her institute with great 
 prudence and charity and given an example of 
 the highest virtue to the perfection of her life. 
 The introduction of her cause of canonization was 
 signed by Pope Benedict XV, 25 May, 1921. 
 
 Denmark ( c f. C. E., IV-722d)The census held 
 on 1 February, 1921, gives the area of Denmark 
 as 16,566 square miles and the population as 
 3,268,807, including 184,133 in North Schleswig. In 
 1916 the population, excluding the Faroes, consisted 
 of 1,415,833 males and 1,505,540 females. The 
 largest cities with their population in 1916 are: 
 Copenhagen 506,390 (with suburbs, 605,772), 
 Aarhuus 65,858, Odense 45,303, Aalborg 38,102, 
 Horsens 25,149, Randers 24,428. 
 
 Economic Conditions. —Of the total area of 
 Denmark 80 per cent is productive; about one- 
 sixth of the unproductive area is peat bogs. Of 
 the productive area 6 per cent is forest and of 
 the remainder less than one-half is arable, and 
 the residue pasture and meadows. The acreage 
 and production of the chief crops in 1920 were as 
 follows: wheat 156,405 acres, 189,000 tons; rye 525,- 
 512 acres, 319,700 tons; barley 596,292 acres, 512,- 
 700 tons; oats 1,012,787 acres, 684,100 tons. During 
 the first three years of the World War, Denmark 
 was called upon to furnish food supplies in greater 
 quantities than ever before in her history, but 
 the submarine campaign in 1917 cut off the supply 
 of raw materials from abroad and the lack of 
 fertilizers resulted in decreased production of the 
 land. On 15 July, 1920, there were in Denmark 
 proper 563,467 horses, 2,286,408 head of cattle, 
 504,241 sheep, 1,007,861 swine, and 13,997,015 hens. 
 Denmark owes her prominent position in dairying 
 and agriculture chiefly to the Co-operative System. 
 The divisions of land are so small and stocks of 
 animals are so great—nearly 60 per cent of the 
 Danish farms consist of less than thirteen acres 
 each—that, without an organization to combine 
 scientifically the productive capacity of the dif¬ 
 ferent farms, the country could hardly have gained 
 the rank that is now holds. The Central Co¬ 
 operative Committee has general powers of super¬ 
 vision over the entire country. The total value 
 of the fisheries in 1919 was £3,006,222. The fleet 
 in 1919 consisted of 15,422 boats. In 1920 the 
 value of the exports was about $430,000,000; of 
 the imports, $800,000,000. In 1918 most of Den¬ 
 mark’s trade was with Germany, Sweden, Great 
 Britain, and Norway. The country proper (exclud¬ 
 ing Copenhagen) had in 1919, 4197 miles of road, 
 besides 23,654 miles of by-ways. In 1918 there 
 were 2635 miles of railway, of which 1283 miles 
 belong^ to the State. In 1920 the state debt was 
 £51,458,894, divided into an internal and a foreign 
 debt. The latter amounted to £14,130,282. The 
 public debt was incurred in part by large annual 
 
 deficits of former years before the establishment 
 of parliamentary government, and in part by rail¬ 
 way undertakings and construction of public works. 
 
 > Xpen ^ t f ure . °ld-age pensions was 
 33,71 i,000 kroner, of which one-half was expended 
 by the State. An important feature in the adminis¬ 
 tration of the finances of Denmark is the main¬ 
 tenance of a large reserve fund. In weights and 
 measures the country has now adapted itself to 
 
 the decimal system of Central and Southern 
 Europe. 
 
 Education.— There are 3466 public elementary' 
 schools of which 63 are in Copenhagen, 158 in 
 other towns and 3245 in the rural districts. The 
 number of pupils in 1918 was 406,000. Be¬ 
 sides the elementary schools, there were 13 gov¬ 
 ernment schools and 150 private schools and 
 certain unclassified private schools, which had in 
 1918 an attendance of 60,000. For higher in¬ 
 struction there are furthermore (1919): a veterinary 
 and agricultural college at Copenhagen with 58 
 professors and teachers and about 600 pupils; 203 
 technical school with 23,000 pupils; 21 training 
 colleges for teachers with 1600 pupils; 81 commer¬ 
 cial schools with 12,500 pupils; 21 agricultural or 
 horticultural schools, and 58 popular high schools 
 (adult schools of about 9000 pupils); a college of 
 pharmacy with 80 students; a dental school, an 
 art school, and a polytechnical institute. The 
 adult schools are all private, but to them and the 
 agricultural schools the State makes an annual 
 grant of about 706,000 kroner. Grants are made 
 to the grammar and middle-class schools amount¬ 
 ing annually to about 4,000,000 kroner. The Uni¬ 
 versity of Copenhagen has about 100 on the faculty 
 and a total attendance of about 3200 students. 
 
 Recent History.— In 1916, a plebiscite in Den¬ 
 mark favoring the step, the Virgin Islands were 
 sold to the United States for $25,000,000. At the 
 same time the United States agreed to recognize 
 Danish sovereignty over the whole of Greenland. 
 In 1918 Iceland became a sovereign state of Den¬ 
 mark; this new status is the culmination of long 
 agitation on the part of Iceland for greater equality 
 between the two countries. The Bill granting 
 autonomy was first submitted to the Legislature 
 of Iceland, ratified by a plebiscite among the 
 people of the island, and finally passed by the 
 Danish Parliament. During the World War Den¬ 
 mark maintained a position of impartial neutrality, 
 although the war had adverse economic effects on 
 the people, as the British Government, in their 
 policy of blockading Germany, restricted imports 
 into contiguous neutral states. At the Peace Con¬ 
 ference at Versailles in 1919 it was decided that 
 the portions of Schleswig which had been taken 
 away from Denmark by Germany as a result of the 
 war of 1864, should decide by a plebiscite whether 
 or not they should be attached to Denmark, and 
 provision for this was made by the Treaty of 
 Versailles. Schleswig was accordingly divided into 
 three zones; the first, including the territory to 
 the north of the line reaching from the south of 
 Tondern to the north of Flensburg; the second 
 comprising the center of the German population, 
 namely the city of Flensburg; the third, including 
 both banks of the Kiel Canal. The first voted 
 for union with Denmark; the second to remain 
 with Germany; and the third, being completely 
 German, was excluded from the plebiscite. Den¬ 
 mark in turn was to recompense Germany for rail¬ 
 road property and all state buildings, also make 
 restitution to Danish citizens for loss sustained in 
 exchange in crowns; and to assume responsibility 
 for the pensioning of widows and orphans, and 
 
DENMARK 
 
 254 
 
 DENVER 
 
 disabled soldiers. In 1922 the Danish Parliament 
 discussed the living apart of married couples for 
 a year and a half as sufficient ground for divorce. 
 
 The present Constitution of Denmark is founded 
 on the Grundlov (charter) of 5 June, 1915, as 
 amended on 10 September, 1920. It provides for 
 a Diet ( Rigsdag ), composed of two houses: the 
 Folketing (House of Commons) and the Landsting 
 (Senate). The King must be a member of the 
 Evangelical-Lutheran Church, the official Church 
 of the state; he has not the right to declare war 
 or to sign peace without the consent of the Rigsdag. 
 The present ruler is Christian X, who succeeded 
 to the throne at the death of his father on 14 
 May, 1912. The new election law was passed on 
 11 April, 1920, to secure fair representation in this 
 small country of many political parties. The 
 old Danish law was based upon the absolute 
 majority principle and single member-district 
 method. The method was revised in 1915, when 
 another electoral law retained the single-member 
 seats, but added for distribution 23 supplementary 
 seats among the parties which did not obtain a 
 representation in proportion to the number of 
 votes cast. Under the new law the principle of 
 proportional representation is introduced. All 
 single-member districts are replaced by large con¬ 
 stituencies which elect members by the list 
 ballot (scrutin de liste) method according to the 
 proportional representation system. To make the 
 representation of the different parties conform to 
 their voting strength, supplementary seats are re¬ 
 tained. Copenhagen is divided into three con¬ 
 stituencies, each of which elects six members by 
 proportional representation. To the 18 members 
 thus elected are added six supplementary seats 
 distributed to parties which may not have obtained 
 a representative in proportion to the number of 
 votes cast for them. The country outside Copen¬ 
 hagen is divided into 20 constituencies which elect 
 93 representatives by the proportional system. In 
 addition there are 23 supplementary seats, 13 of 
 which go to Jutland and 10 to the Islands of 
 Seeland, Funen, etc., for distribution to parties 
 which have not obtained a proportional representa¬ 
 tion. 
 
 Denmark, Vicariate Apostolic of (Danioenen- 
 sis), with residential seat at Copenhagen, comprises 
 a Catholic population of 27,000, of whom 7000 are 
 Poles, and about 100 Germans, the rest being 
 Danes. In 1921 the northern part of the prefecture 
 apostolic of Schleswig-Holstein was annexed to the 
 vicariate Apostolic of Denmark and the southern 
 part left to the care of the Diocese of Osnabruck. 
 
 According to statistics for 1922 there are in the 
 vicariate 29 parishes, 20 secular and 55 regular 
 priests, 25 Brothers, 4 seminarians, 33 churches 
 or chapels, 16 stations, 1 high school and 1 training 
 school aided by the Government, 11 religious con¬ 
 gregations of men, 11 of women with 600 sisters, 
 1 home, 8 asylums, and 20 hospitals. In the city 
 of Copenhagen there are 6000 Catholics; 5 parishes 
 and 6 chapels; a new church was consecrated in 
 June, 1917. The Jesuit College of St. Andrew 
 at Odrupshoi has been closed and its buildings are 
 now occupied by the Sisters of the Assumption. 
 The Cistercians of Bohemia have recently made a 
 foundation in the vicariate. 
 
 The Sodality of the Blessed Virgin and the St. 
 Vincent de Paul Society are established among 
 the laity. New missions have been opened at 
 Aakirkeby, Holbak, Haderslev, Horsholm, Allerslev, 
 Naestved, Nykobing, Maribo, Nakskoo. and 
 Svendborg. Catholic journals include, “Nordisk 
 Ugeblad,” “Katolsk Ungdom,” and “Jesu Hjertes 
 
 Budbringer.” The Church in Denmark continues 
 to advance and there are many yearly conversions, 
 chiefly amongst the wealthier tradespeople. A 
 genuine respect for Catholicism is prevalent every¬ 
 where, and the recent canonization of Joan of 
 Arc was celebrated by a public ceremony and her 
 statue placed in a central square of the city, the 
 first time a saint was publicly honored in Denmark 
 since the Reformation. Among the recent promi¬ 
 nent converts are Har Scavenius, Minister of For¬ 
 eign Affairs, and his wife, and Count Knuth- 
 Knuthenborg. In 1919 Mgr. Dieppen, Bishop of 
 Bois-le-Duc, was appointed Apostolic Visitor to the 
 Scandinavian countries by Pope Benedict XV, in 
 order to study their condition and report on the 
 most efficacious means for the spread of the Faith. 
 King Christian visited the Pope in 1921, and on 
 his return reported his visit to the vicar apostolic, 
 a thing unprecedented in Denmark. 
 
 The first vicar apostolic Mgr. Johannes Von 
 Euch, the apostle of Denmark, died in March, 1922. 
 He was born at Meppen, Hanover, in 1834, studied 
 at Mainz, and in 1860 was sent as vicar to the 
 church of St. Anschaire, Copenhagen. Two years 
 later he went to Fredericia in Jutland, where he 
 created one of the most flourishing parishes in the 
 country; on the death of Mgr. Gruder he returned 
 to Copenhagen to succeed him as prefect apostolic. 
 When Denmark was made a vicariate (1892) he be¬ 
 came vicar with the title of Bishop of Anastasiopolis, 
 and the steady progress of the Church .in this 
 country where he was universally loved is due 
 to his tireless labor. The Holy See bestowed upon 
 him the dignity of assistant to the pontifical throne, 
 domestic prelate and Roman count, while King 
 Christian X made him a Commander of the Order 
 of “Dannebrog,” the Danish Legion of Honor. 
 
 Denunciation (cf. C. E., IV-733b).—Clerics and 
 religious joining the Freemasons or other like soci¬ 
 eties are to be denounced to the Congregation of 
 the Holy Office (Codex jur. can., 2336). 
 
 Denver, Diocese of (Denveriensis; cf. C. E., 
 IV-733d), comprises the entire State of Colorado, 
 an area of 103,645 sq. miles. The second bishop of 
 this diocese, the Rt. Rev. Nicholas C. Matz, who 
 had filled the see since 1889, died on 9 August, 
 1917, and was succeeded by the present bishop, 
 Rt. Rev. J. Henry Tihen, D.D. Bishop Tihen was 
 born in Oldenburg, Ind., in 1861 and ordained in 
 1886, after which he accompanied the Rt. Rev. 
 John J. Hennessy to Wichita when he took charge 
 of that see, and acted as chancellor of the diocese 
 and rector of the cathedral until his promotion to 
 the episcopacy. He was consecrated Bishop of Lin¬ 
 coln, Neb., on 6 July, 1911, and filled that see until 
 his transfer to Denver, 21 December, 1917. 
 
 The Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception, 
 erected at a cost of over half a million dollars, was 
 consecrated by Bishop Tihen on 23 October of the 
 present year (1921). The liquidation of the debt 
 which had remained on the cathedral as well as the 
 erection of a home for the aged, completed in 1918, 
 and entrusted to the Little Sisters of the Poor, was 
 due to the generosity of Mr. and Mrs. John K. 
 Mullen. Mr. Mullen was appointed a Knight of 
 St. Gregory by Pontifical Brief dated 10 August, 
 1921. This honor was also conferred on Captain 
 John J. Lambert of Pueblo, who was largely re¬ 
 sponsible for the erection of the Sacred Heart 
 Orphanage in that city, and who died 5 January, 
 1916, at the age of 79. In 1907 St. Thomas Theo¬ 
 logical Seminary was erected by the priests of the 
 Congregation of the Mission and opened the follow¬ 
 ing year. During the war, however, the Benedictine 
 
DE ROALDES 
 
 DESECRATION 
 
 255 
 
 College at Pueblo was forced to close because of He was educated in the Lycee Louis-le-Grand 
 lack of funds to support it, and where formerly Bonaparte, and Versailles, studied law and was 
 there were 10 academies in the diocese there are called to the bar in 1870. Shortly afterwards he 
 now 5, the others having given way to, or been enlisted in a regiment of zouaves was taken 
 transformed into parochial schools. prisoner at Sedan, escaped and returning to France 
 
 At present the religious orders established in the was made a chevalier of the Legion of Honor 
 
 diocese are: Men: Jesuits, Benedictines, Francis- After devoting a number of years to literary per- 
 cans, Dominicans, Redemptorists, Servites, Thea- suits, he entered politics and founded the League 
 tines, and Augustimans. Women: Sisters of of Patriots, an association noted for its hostility 
 Loretto, Charity, St. Joseph, Mercy, the Good Shep- to Germany. In 1883 he went to Russia to further 
 
 herd, Third Order of St. Dominic, St. Francis, St. a Franco-Russian alliance, and later supported 
 
 Benedict, Charity of the B. V. M., St. Francis of the General Boulanger during his temporary rise to 
 
 Perpetual Adoration, Missionary Sisters of the Sa- power. His anti-Semitism was marked durim- the 
 
 cred Heart, St. Benedict, St. Joseph, St. Francis Dreyfus case. In 1890 he was a member of the 
 
 of Assisi, Little Sisters of the Poor, Servants of Chamber of Deputies, and ten years later was 
 
 Mary, Holy Cross, Presentation, Capuchin, Third banished for having tried to substitute the Re- 
 Order of St. Francis, School Sisters of St. Francis, publican Plebiscite for the Parliamentary Constitu- 
 and School Sisters of Charity. There are 119 secular tion. He was pardoned in 1905. During the last 
 and 78 regular priests in the diocese, 101 churches years of his life M. Deroulede was a fervent Cath- 
 with resident pastors and 148 missions with chapels, olic, and died fortified by the rites of the Church 
 The various educational and charitable institutions His literary productions include the popular “Songs 
 include, 5 academies with 855 pupils, 36 parochial of the Soldier” (1872), “More Songs of the Soldier” 
 schools with 8,778 children, a theological seminary (1875), “Marches and Alarms” (1881), “The Tower 
 with 29 students, 19 of whom are from this diocese, of Auvergne,” “Military Songs” (1888) a patriotic 
 a Jesuit college for boys with 281 students, 5 drama “L’Hetman” (i877); other dramas “The 
 orphan asylums with 873 children, an industrial Moabites” (1880) prohibited by the censor ’ “Mes- 
 and reform school with 248 inmates, a home for the sire Duguesclin” (1895), and “The Death of Hoche” 
 aged with 120 inmates, a home for girls and busi- (1897), “Sons of the Peasant” (1894), “The Most 
 ness women, and 13 hospitals with 22,189 patients Beautiful Girl in the World” (1897), “Writings bv 
 annually. The Catholic population numbers 113,722. the Way” (1907), “More Writings’by the Way” 
 
 De Roaldes, Arthur Washington, surgeon, b. etc * 
 
 at Opelousas, Louisiana, 25 January, 1849; d. in twy-it 
 
 New Orleans, 12 June, 1918. He was educated in n/ Diocese of (Derriensis; cf. C. E., 
 
 France by the Jesuits and graduated from the , reland, suffragan of Armagh, is at 
 
 University of France in letters in 1865 and in arts Lfn (1922) administered -^ ev - Charles 
 
 in 1866. Three years later he received his degree f a ,i ^ August, 1852, in the diocese, rector 
 
 in medicine from the University of Louisiana and q ~ semmaiy vicar general, prelate cf the Holy 
 in 1870 from that of Paris. During the Franco- , V „ Tn/v? er ’ 1906, consecrated bishop, 29 Sep- 
 German war he was assistant surgeon with the er, 1907, succeeding Rt. Rev. John Keys 
 6th International Ambulance Corps, was mentioned rp, 0 ei • v ’ , ^ September, 1833, d. February, 1907. 
 for bravery and subsequently decorated with the 010 i e 0 population according to 1911 census was 
 Cross of the Legion of Honor. He served as ’ v*’ whom 122,528 were Catholics. There 
 surgeon with the Red Cross during the French ale , P r c seai t (1922) 39 parishes, 82 churches, 120 
 Commune, and in 1872 returned to New Orleans, secu y a r priests, 8 convents, 200 nuns of various com- 
 where from 1880 to 1883 he was in charge of the P^umties, 1 seminary, high class boarding-schools. 
 Charity Hospital of Louisiana. In 1889 Dr. De Roaldes a t lona l and primary schools are under clerical 
 founded the Eye, Ear, Nose, and Throat Hospital ^ iana g emc ^f- Gie charitable institutions include, 
 
 of New Orleans, of which he was trustee and ** homes, 2 °f which are for young girls and old 
 
 surgeon-in-chief until his death. He was emeritus W0I hen, and the other for boys and old men, are 
 professor of diseases of the ear, nose and throat by the Sisters of N azareth, 1 home kept by the 
 at the Post Graduate Department of Tulane Uni- Asters °* the Good Shepherd, for penitents and 
 
 versity, Louisiana, a member of many medical a P lese U ra . lor ];. shelter. In county hospitals and 
 
 congresses and an officer of numerous medical • . e institutions supported by public votes, the 
 societies. In 1905 the Progressive Union of New of priests is unrestricted. 
 
 Orleans awarded Dr. De Roaldes the “Picayune 1 he events of special importance in the diocese 
 Loving Cup” for the most meritorious services are , : e ^ e ^ on °f the Church of St. Columcille; 
 
 rendered the community during that vear, the a c h[ uc h at Maghera, the laying of the cornerstone 
 French Government offering at the same time a °* , e c lll , rc i °* P ur Lady of Lourdes, and the 
 
 magnificent Sevres vase to his foundation, which P U1 chase of extensive grounds for charitable pur- 
 subsequently received like gifts from Italy, Spain, P oses > the foundation of a diocesan society for the 
 Germany, and Russia for gratuitous services ren- ® l )PP 01 t sick priests and the promotion of various 
 dered their indigent sick. In 1906 he was promoted diocesan interests. 
 
 'to be a commander of the Legion of Honor, ~ ^ ^ „ , , 
 
 and Pope Pius X conferred on him the title of , ^ c /.* E ‘ A fixed altar 
 
 Commander of the Order of St. Gregory the Great. I? ses lts consecration if the table is separated from 
 Three years later the King of Italy made him a ^ j- su PP or t even momentarily; in this case the 
 knight of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus, oidmary can permit a priest to reconsecrate it by 
 Before his death Dr. De Roaldes lost his sight as the short formula; hitherto an ordinary required a 
 the immediate result of his work for the blind. P a P a l in dult to authorize this. Both fixed and 
 He wrote much on surgical topics. In 1921 the mo y. e altars lose their consecration (a) if a large 
 enlargement and renovation of the hospital estab- Potion or an anointed part is broken off; (b) it the 
 lished by him was begun as a memorial to him. le ^ ies are removed or the sepulchre cover is broken 
 , . . . ° r removed, unless when the cover is removed by 
 
 IJ rouiede, Paul, poet and politician, b. in Paris the bishop or his delegate in order to repair it or to 
 2 September, 1846; d. in Nice, 30 January, 1914. examine the relics—this exception being an innova- 
 
DES MOINES 
 
 256 
 
 DETROIT 
 
 tion; a slight fracture of the cover, however, does 
 not destroy the consecration, and any priest may 
 repair it with cement. The desecration of a church 
 does not affect an altar, and vice versa. (Code 
 juris canonici, 1,170 sqq.) 
 
 Des Moines, Diocese of (Desmoinensis; cf. C. 
 E., XVI-35c), of which was erected August 12, 1911, 
 comprises 12,446 sq. miles of the State of Iowa and 
 is under the administration of Rt. Rev. Thomas 
 W. Drumm, D. D., consecrated bishop of this dio¬ 
 cese 21 May, 1919. He is the second bishop of the 
 diocese, his predecessor having been the Rt. Rev. 
 Austin Dowling, D.D., who was consecrated the 
 first Bishop of Des Moines on 25 April, 1912, and 
 later promoted to the See of St. Paul, January, 
 1919.. The present (1921) statistics of the diocese 
 show the following record: secular priests, 76; regu¬ 
 lars, 7; parishes, 57; missions, 32 and stations, 6; 
 
 1 college for boys; 2 academies for girls; 22 paro¬ 
 chial schools with an attendance of 2,918. Various 
 institutions included in the diocese are: 1 monas¬ 
 tery (Passionist Fathers); 2 homes for working 
 women; and 3 hospitals. Three religious orders 
 are represented: the Passionists, the Benedictine, 
 and the Sisters of Mercy. The number of Cath¬ 
 olics is 37,977. 
 
 Detroit, Diocese of (Detroitensis; cf. C. E., 
 IV-758b), established 8 March, 1833, comprises a 
 part of the lower peninsula of the State of Michi¬ 
 gan, U. S. A. Rt. Rev. John S. Foley, D.D., the 
 third bishop of this diocese, who had filled the see 
 since 1888, died 5 January, 1918, and was succeeded 
 by the present incumbent, Rt. Rev. Michael James 
 Gallagher, transferred to this diocese 18 July, 1918. 
 Bishop Gallagher was ordained a priest 19 March, 
 1893, appointed titular Bishop of Tipasa and coad¬ 
 jutor to the Bishop of Grand Rapids, 5 July, 1915, 
 and on 17 November, 1918, he arrived in Detroit 
 and was escorted to the episcopal residence by a 
 parade of 50,000 men, while 100,000 more lined the 
 streets to welcome him. In May, 1920, the bishop 
 called upon the people of the diocese to contribute 
 four million dollars to found and endow Sacred 
 Heart Preparatory Seminary, and within three 
 months over nine million had been subscribed and 
 the seminary is now opened in temporary quarters 
 with an enrollment of more than two hundred stu¬ 
 dents. The faculty is composed of secular priests, 
 but the Congregation of the Holy Cross and the 
 Trappist Fathers have arranged to open houses 
 of study for their candidates, in connection with 
 the seminary. The vigorous leadership and fear¬ 
 less attitude of Bishop Gallagher in fighting the 
 anti-parochial school bill, which came up at the fall 
 elections of 1920, was responsible for its defeat and 
 the state records show that within his diocese the 
 issue was defeated two to one. Since the elections 
 an act of the Legislature was passed undertaking 
 a certain amount of state supervision of parochial 
 schools and the diocesan authorities are co-oper¬ 
 ating, the bishop having appointed a diocesan super¬ 
 intendent of schools. 
 
 During the World War the diocese supplied 10 
 chaplains, and over 18,000 men went into the ser¬ 
 vice, of whom about 1,000 gave up their lives. 
 
 Since Bishop Gallagher’s incumbency 30 new par¬ 
 ishes have been established and 12 new schools 
 opened and the statistics now (1921) show: 202 
 parishes, 274 churches, 72 missions, 1 monastery for 
 men and 1 for women, 13 convents for men and 4 
 for women, 336 secular and 70 regular clergy, 34 
 lay brothers, 1,103 Sisters, 2 seminaries with 345 
 seminarians. Among the educational institutions 
 are: 1 university with 90 professors and 1,343 stu¬ 
 
 dents, 2 colleges for women with 15 teachers and 
 75 students, 51 high schools with 127 teachers and 
 an attendance of 1,143 boys and 1,796 girls, 6 
 academies with 68 teachers and attendance of 480 
 boys and 904 girls, 4 normal schools with 180 stu¬ 
 dents, 131 elementary schools with 1,140 teachers 
 and 65,887 pupils. The charitable institutions com¬ 
 prise homes for the aged poor, the aged and the 
 feeble minded, 5 orphan asylums, 1 insane asylum, 
 
 2 infant asylums, 9 hospitals, 2 refuges, and 3 set¬ 
 tlement houses. The Eucharistic League and 
 “Pactum Sacerdotum,” are established among the 
 clergy, and the Holy Name and St. Vincent de 
 Paul societies, National Catholic Welfare Council 
 of men, National Catholic Council of women, 
 League of Catholic women, Association of Holy 
 Childhood, Catholic Study Club and Salve Regina 
 are organized among the laity. A periodical, “The 
 Michigan Catholic,” is published. The Catholic 
 population numbers 492,767. 
 
 Detroit, University of. —This institution, under 
 the care of the Fathers of the Society of Jesus, 
 was founded in 1877 and incorporated 27 April, 
 1881, according to the general law of the State of 
 Michigan, under the corporate title of “Detroit 
 College,” with power to grant such literary honors 
 and confer such degrees as are usually conferred 
 by similar colleges in the United States. The 
 growth of the institution and the advancing promi¬ 
 nence of its alumni, and most of all the almost 
 unprecedented progress of the city in population 
 and extent and diversity of industrial and com¬ 
 mercial enterprise, constituted at once a warrant 
 and a demand for new development in its educa¬ 
 tional work. For this reason, on the expiration of 
 the original charter in 1911, the authorities effected 
 a new organization on a broader basis, and incor¬ 
 porated under the title of “The University of 
 Detroit.” At present (1922) the different depart¬ 
 ments of the university, along literary, philosophical, 
 Family Sodality, Holy Name Society, Sodality of 
 
 The School of Law was established in 1912, carries 
 on instructions in two courses: a day course and an 
 evening course. Total registration (1921-22) 275 
 students. 
 
 The School of Engineering offers a five-year co¬ 
 operative course in civil, chemical, electrical, me¬ 
 chanical, and aeronautical engineering. It includes 
 alternate bi-weekly periods at the university and 
 in actual engineering practice in the shops. This 
 practice is made possible by an arrangement of 
 the university with the engineering, manufacturing 
 and public service establishments of the city. The 
 employment is under the united control of the 
 university and the employer. Total registration, 
 236. 
 
 The School of Commerce and Finance was or¬ 
 ganized in 1916 to meet the demand for supple¬ 
 mentary training along commercial and industrial 
 lines. The course covers a four-year period. 
 Studies and lectures in economics, law, business 
 administration, accounting, cost accounting, soci¬ 
 ology, advertising, salesmanship, ethics, languages, 
 etc., are arranged to develop careers as certified 
 public accountants, business analists, advisors or 
 executives. Total registration, 679. 
 
 The College of Arts and Sciences extends through 
 four years and embraces instruction in the depart¬ 
 ments of religion, philosophy, economics, political 
 science, sociology, education, language, literature, his¬ 
 tory, science, and mathematics. The aim of the course 
 is to give the student a complete liberal education, 
 which will train and develop all the powers of the 
 mind, and will cultivate no one faculty to an 
 
DEVINE 
 
 257 
 
 DIAKOVU 
 
 exaggerated degree at the expense of the others, 
 lotal registration, 115. 
 
 The university also maintains a standard high 
 school. Ihe law department has a very complete 
 library, numbering about 15,000 volumes, the School 
 ot Commerce and Finance about 10,000 volumes 
 and the high school library about 30,000. The 
 Law Review and “\ arsitj^ News” are published 
 m the university, and “The Cub” in the high school, 
 thefaculty comprises: the president, Rev. William 
 1. Doran, S. J., 70 professors, 63 lecturers, 7 in¬ 
 structors, 18 associate professors, 3 assistant pro¬ 
 feasors and 4 laboratory assistants. 
 
 Devine, Arthur, theologian and devotional 
 writer, b. at Kilmactiege, Sligo, Ireland, 1 
 December, 1849; d. at St. Paul’s Retreat, Mount 
 Argus, Dublin, 20 April, 1919. He was educated 
 at home, entered the Passionist Order in 1865 
 and made his ecclesiastical studies at St. Paul’s 
 Retreat, Mount Argus. He was professed in 1866 
 and was professor of theology at Mount Argus 
 for two years preceding his ordination in 1872. The 
 greater part of his priestly life was spent in Eng- 
 land and Scotland, principally at St. Joseph’s, 
 -bugugate Hill, London, where he was lector of 
 geology for nearly thirty years. From 1884 to 
 1887 he was consultor to the Provincial of his Order. 
 The last twelve years of his life were spent as 
 professor of theology, Scripture, and canon law 
 at Mount Argus. 
 
 Father Devine was - greatly interested- in the 
 revival of the Irish language, preached many ser¬ 
 mons m Irish, and instituted a course of Sunday 
 instructions for Irish speakers at Mount Argus. 
 During intervals of parish and literary work he 
 gave many missions and retreats to religious He 
 was the author of “Convent Life,” “The History 
 of the Passion,” “The Creed Explained,” “The 
 Sacraments Explained,” “The Commandments 
 Explained,” “A Manual of Ascetical Theology” 
 A Manual of Mystical Theology,” “The Ordinary 
 of the Mass Explained,” “Frequent and Daily 
 Communion,” “The Law of Christian Marriage,” 
 and “Pentecostal Sermons,” several articles in the 
 Catholic Encyclopedia and various contributions 
 to the “Homiletic Monthly,” “The Passionist 
 Record, and other Catholic magazines. 
 
 De Waal, Anton Maria, archaeologist, b. at Em- 
 mench-am-Rhein, Prussia, 4 May, 1837; d. in 
 Rome, 23 February, 1917. He was educated at the 
 gymnasium of his native town and at the Academy 
 of Munster and was ordained in 1862. The fol¬ 
 lowing six years were spent as professor in the 
 seminary at Gaesdonk; he then went to Rome 
 where he was successively curate at Santa Maria 
 dell Amma, chaplain at the German College, Santa 
 Maria dell’Amma; assistant rector and rector of 
 Campo Santo de’Tedeschi (C. E, III-224d), which 
 he organized in its present form in 1876; and con¬ 
 sult^ of the Commission for Historical Studies. 
 During the siege of Rome (1870) he served as chap- 
 lain with the Papal army. For over seventy years 
 Father de Waal was president of the German 
 Reading Association in Rome and presided at the 
 hirst Archaeological Congress at Salona, Dalmatia 
 He was magister of the Collegium Cultorum Mar¬ 
 cum and a member of the French Archaeological 
 Society. In 1896 Pope Leo XIII made him a prel- 
 a £ e Holy See, and in 1900 conferred on him 
 
 aa d J lg 1 mty of Prothonatary Apostolic, to which was 
 added later the decoration Pro ecclesia et pontifice. 
 Ihe civil honors accorded him include those of 
 Commander of the Austrian Order of Franz Joseph, 
 Rmght of the Prussian Order of the Eagle (2nd 
 
 thc Saxon Order of Albertus (2nd class) 
 of the Prussian Order of the Crown (2nd class). 
 Mgi. de Waal was a contributor to the Catholic 
 ^ clopedia, editor of the archaeological section 
 °v , R - “ 1Sche Quartaschrift” and the author of 
 Valeria a novel (5 eds.), “Die Blinde vom 
 Aventin, ( “Komgin Serena,” “Die Swanzigste Sep- 
 
 pX b r e ”’“-R? ie alten „ fromr ?en Stiftungen bei Sankt 
 Peter Rompilgor, a guide for pilgrims to Rome 
 ^ ds,) T7 ; , Katakombenbilder,” a novel (3 eds.) 
 Judas Ende, a novel (3 eds.), “Der Campe Santo 
 der Deutschen zu Rom,” “Roma sacra” (2 eds.) 
 etc.; several short plays and novels. 
 
 Ihe excavations of St. Sebastian on the Appian 
 Way in Rome begun in 1915 by the Commission 
 of Sacred Archaeology at the request and with the 
 help of Mgr. de Waal, and continued by the exca¬ 
 vation office have led to the most important 
 discoveries. It was in the hope of settling the con¬ 
 troversies concerning “La Platonia” that Mgr. de 
 Waal inaugurated this work. Ancient liturgical 
 hagiographical and historical documents attest the 
 existence in Rome of a triple memoria of the Apos¬ 
 tles Sts. Peter and Paul. The first two are their 
 ambs undei the altars of the basilicas respectively 
 dedicated to them. The third is on the Appian 
 Way ad Latacumbas, on the spot where today the 
 basilica of St. Sebastian, originally a basilica of the 
 Apostles, stands. Opinions differ about the founda¬ 
 tion of this third liturgical commemoration, but 
 ? ne . fi n . a dy adopted by the majority of 
 archaelogists is that the bodies of the saints were 
 translated there by the Christians of Rome to save 
 them from profanation during the persecution of 
 Valerian. Since the Middle Ages scientists believed 
 that the exact spot where the bodies reposed was 
 in a subterranean chapel called “La Platonia” un¬ 
 der the basilica of St. Sebastian. In 1894 the dis¬ 
 covery of an inscription revealed the fact that 
 this chapel had served as the tomb of St. Quirinus, 
 Bishop of Siscia, whose remains had been trans- 
 *® rred , Home Whence arose bitter disputes, 
 Mgr. de Waal holding in opposition to those who 
 believed the chapel had held the three bodies, 
 that the bodies of the Apostles were elsewhre prob- 
 a bly under an altcfr called “the altar of relics ” 
 
 • Ur u e U discoveries complicated matters and it was 
 in the hope of finding something conclusive on the 
 subject that Mgr. de Waal inaugurated the excava¬ 
 tions of St. Sebastian. On this precise point they 
 ^ realize his hopes, but they led to many 
 
 other most important discoveries, uncovering the 
 oldest of Christian tombs yet known in Rome, and 
 the ruins of “la Triclia,” the walls of which are 
 covered with inscriptions in the names of St. 
 Peter and St. Paul. They give a new and valuable 
 proof of the sojourn and death of the two apostles 
 in Rome. The construction in 1919 of a large garage 
 in the Viale Mazoni, between the Lateran and the 
 Porta Tiburtina led to the discovery of one of the 
 most curious funeral monuments ever found in 
 Rome, of very ancient origin, containing many 
 paintings, seemingly Christian in origin. The exca¬ 
 vation office which conducted the works has 
 decided to give over the monument to the Commis¬ 
 sion of Sacred Archaeology. In 1920 building oper¬ 
 ations northeast of the Villa borghese led to the 
 discovery of the cemetery of St. Pamphilius, of 
 the clearance of which the Commission took charge. 
 From day to day new monuments of great 
 archaelogical value are being unearthed. 
 
 Edith Donovan. 
 
 Diakovu, Diocese of (Diakovarensis; cf. C. E., 
 IV-769d), suffragan to the see of Zagrab. After 
 
DIAMANTINA 
 
 258 
 
 DIGBY 
 
 the long administration of Bishop Strossmayer 
 (1849-1905) the see of Diakovu was left vacant 
 until 1911, when Rt. Rev. John Baptist Krapac 
 was elected bishop. After Bishop Krapac s death 
 (16 July, 1916), the see was again left vacant until 
 1920, when Rt. Rev. Antonius Aksamovic was ap¬ 
 pointed (22 April) to succeed him. Since 1918 the 
 diocese has belonged to the kingdom of the Croats, 
 Serbs, and Slovenes. In 1913 a new seminary was 
 erected- in 1920 the diocese lost one of its most, 
 prominent clergy by the death of Canon Michael 
 Cepelic; and in 1921 (23 August) occurred the 
 death of Rt. Rev. Engelbertus Yorsak, titular Bishop 
 of Zenopolis, who resided at Diakovu. 
 
 The present (1921) records of the diocese show a 
 Catholic population of 310,600 classified as follows:- 
 Croats, 87%; Germans, 8%; Hungarians, 2%; 
 Slovenes and others, 3%. There are: 98 parishes, 
 98 parish churches and 115 missionary churches, 8 
 monasteries for men and 1 for women, 12 convents 
 for women, 171 secular priests and 25 regulars, 21 
 lay brothers, 1 seminary with 5 professors and 16 
 seminarians, 1 college for men with 4 teachers and 
 an attendance of 50, 1 college for women with 17 
 teachers and 120 students. The diocese maintains: 
 
 1 home for the destitute in Osjek, 10 orphanages 
 and 6 day nurseries; 7 of the public institutions per¬ 
 mit the ministry of priests. Among the clergy two 
 societies are organized, one for Perpetual Adora¬ 
 tion and the other, the “Urajamnost.” Among the 
 laity there is also a society for Perpetual Adoration 
 as well as the League of the Sacred Heart, the 
 Society of the Holy Rosary, the Third Order of 
 St. Francis, the Congregation of Mary, societies 
 for young girls and associations for young men. 
 Four periodicals are published in the diocese. 
 “Hrvatska Obzana,”published at Osjek; “Djakovaeke 
 Pucke Slovine,” published at Diakovu; Glasnik, 
 published at Diakovu, and i Christliche Volks- 
 zeitung,” published at Osjek. 
 
 Diamantina, Diocese of (Adamantina; cf. C. E., 
 IV-772b), in the State of Minas Geraes, Brazil. 
 This diocese was erected in 1854 as a suffragan of 
 Marianna and included the northern part of the 
 State, but on 10 December, 1910, the Diocese of 
 Montes Claros was created from its northern sec¬ 
 tion, and on 25 August, 1913, the Diocese of 
 Arassuahy was cut off on the east, while on 28 June, 
 1917, Diamantina became an archdiocese, with 
 Montes Claros and Arassuahy as suffragans. 
 
 The archdiocese has about 440,000 inhabitants, 
 mostly Catholic, and is divided into 7 ecclesiastical 
 districts, 59 parishes, and 1 curato with 66 secular 
 and 17 regular priests, 6 lay brothers, and 13 nuns. 
 There are two missionary orders of men, the 
 Lazarists and Redemptorists. The Lazarists have 
 charge of the archiepiscopal seminary and college, 
 which has 79 seminarians and 60 students, and 
 their church of the Sacred Heart is renowned 
 throughout Brazil, being magnificently constructed 
 and decorated and having a large congregation. In 
 connection with it Leo XIII erected an archconfra¬ 
 ternity and established there a guard of honor of 
 the Sacred Heart, and Benedict XV accorded it the 
 rights of a minor basilica. The Redemptorists have 
 a convent attached to their beautiful church of Sao 
 Geraldo in Curvello. The orders of women are 
 the Sisters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul, and 
 the Poor Clares. There are 3 colleges for girls 
 with 21 instructors and 240 students. The most 
 important of these is the College of Our Lady of 
 Sorrows at Diamantina, in charge of Sisters of 
 Charity, and- the other schools are at Serro, one 
 under Sisters of Charity and the other in charge 
 
 of the Franciscans. These schools prepare girls for 
 the state normal schools. There are 2 orphan 
 asylums attached to colleges of Sisters of Charity, 
 and 1 asylum for the poor; 3 hospitals (2 Charity; 
 
 1 Franciscan), 2 in Diamantina, 1 in Serro. 
 
 The Archbishop of Diamantina is Most Rev. 
 Joachim Silverio de Sousa, bom in San Miguel, 
 Diocese of Marianna, 20 July, 1859, ordained 4 
 March, 1889, elected titular bishop of Bagi 16 
 November, 1901, and coadjutor at Diamantina, suc¬ 
 ceeded Mgr. Dos Santos 5 May, 1905, promoted 
 29 January, 1909, titular archbishop of Axum and 
 auxiliary of Rio de Janeiro; transferred to Dia¬ 
 mantina 25 January, 1910, succeeding himself and 
 retaining his titular archbishopric; then made arch¬ 
 bishop 27 June, 1917. Archbishop de Sousa received 
 the pallium 18 October, 1919, from hands of Arch¬ 
 bishop Pimenta of Marianna. The archbishop is 
 the author of many well known books published in 
 Brazil. On 13 December, 1918, Jose Antonio dos 
 Santos, C. M., born at Cacheira, Diocese of 
 Marianna, was elected titular bishop of Croia and 
 auxiliary of Diamantina. 
 
 Diano (or Teggiano), Diocese of (Dianensis; 
 cf. C. E., IV-773b), province of Salerno, Southern 
 Italy, has a population of 100,000 Catholics. The 
 bishop is Rt. Rev. Orazio Caldarolo, born 12 Novem¬ 
 ber, 1871, in Bitonto, appointed bishop 8 May, 1916, 
 proclaimed 4 December following, succeeding Rt. 
 Rev. Tiberio (b. 24 October, 1850; d. suddenly 26 
 April, 1915). According to the census of 1922 the 
 diocese numbers 44 parishes, 171 secular priests, 73 
 churches or chapels. 
 
 Diego Suarez, Vicariate Apostolic of (cf. C. E., 
 XVI-83a), Madagascar. Erected in 1896 under the 
 name of Madagascar, it was changed to the present 
 name 20 May, 1913, and is confided to the Fathers 
 of the Holy Ghost. It covers an area of 77,220 sq. 
 miles, with a total population of 430,000, of whom 
 21,000 are Catholics, 1,500 catechumens, 3,000 Prot¬ 
 estants. The diocese at present (1922) is adminis¬ 
 tered by Rt. Rev. August Fortineau, C.S.Sp., 
 titular Bishop of Chytri. He was born in 1873 in 
 Machecoul, France, where he studied and left for 
 Madagascar, 1898; chaplain of the military hospital 
 of Diego Suarez, founder of the missions in Fen- 
 erive, later in Merimandrado, rector of the cathe¬ 
 dral and coadjutor to the vicar apostolic 17 July, 
 1914, proclaimed 8 September following, succeeding 
 as vicar apostolic 26 April, 1914, Mgr. Corbet (b. 9 
 November, 1836; d. 26 July, 1914). According to 
 (1920) statistics the diocese includes 11 stations 
 with chapels, 17 schools, 5 orphanages, 21 Fathers 
 of the Holy Ghost, 5 Brothers, 4 Premonstra- 
 tensians, 35 Sisters of St. Joseph of Cluny, 6 Fran¬ 
 ciscan missionaries of Mary, 24 Daughters of Mary. 
 
 Digby, Mabel, Superior General of the Society 
 of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, b. at Ashford House, 
 near Staines, Middlesex, 7 April, 1835; d. at 
 Ixelles, Brussels, 21 May, 1911. She was the 
 daughter of Simon Digby of Osbertstown, Kildare, 
 Ireland, and Elizabeth Anne Morse, only daughter 
 of Mr. John Morse of Sprowston Hall, Norfolk. 
 She belonged to the Protestant branch of the Digby 
 family, but in 1852 her mother and elder sister 
 were received into the Church at Montpellier, 
 France, where the family resided for several years. 
 Her conversion followed two years later under 
 circumstances that seemed to foreshadow the call 
 to some special mission, and worked an extraor¬ 
 dinary change in her character. In 1857 she was 
 admitted into the Society of the Sacred Heart 
 by its foundress, Blessed Madeleine Sophie Barat, 
 
DIGNE 
 
 259 
 
 DIOCESAN CHANCERY 
 
 and ^two years later made her vows at the novitiate 
 in Conflans. She was then sent to Marmoutiers, 
 Tours, where she worked for thirteen years, the 
 last eight of which were spent in the position of 
 superior. In 1872 Mother Digby went as superior 
 vicar to Roehampton, the House of her order in 
 England, a post which she filled for twenty-two 
 years. The Society flourished under her wise 
 guidance and six new houses were opened in 
 England; she also made the first foundation in 
 Australia, where the Society now has many houses. 
 
 In 1894 on the death of the superior general 
 Mother Digby became one of the assistants general 
 and took up her work at the mother-house in Paris. 
 The newly elected superior general died the fol¬ 
 lowing year, and Mother Digby was unanimously 
 chosen to succeed her. One of her first works in 
 this new position was to visit the houses of the 
 Order in Canada, the United States and Mexico, 
 where no superior general had ever been. The 
 great work of her generalate, however, was the 
 conducting of the retreat of her order from France, 
 where by the nefarious Laws of Suppression forty- 
 six houses were closed in .rapid succession. The 
 crisis found her prepared, for with characteristic 
 insight she seemed to have realized from the 
 beginning what the outcome would be. For every 
 house closed in France a new one was opened 
 elsewhere, so that when the work of destruction 
 had been completed the Society as a whole counted 
 a larger number of centers than it has possessed 
 in the days of peace. Every member of the 
 Society found another home in other lands alike 
 in spirit and rule to the one from which she had 
 been expelled. In 1909 Rev. Mother Digby trans¬ 
 ferred the mother-house of the Society to Ixelles, 
 Brussels, and it was there that she died. Her 
 body was taken to Roehampton where she had 
 worked for so many years. 
 
 dOr in France, and is suffragan of Lyons. This 
 see is filled by Rt. Rev. J. R. Maurice Landrieux, 
 born in Tnquy France, 1857, ordained 1883, served 
 as secretary to Cardinal Langeuieux, made an 
 honorary canon in 1888, vicar general in 1894, titular 
 canon in 1901, archpriest of the cathedral 1912, 
 appointed bishop 6 December, 1916, to succeed Rt. 
 Rev Jacques-Louis Monestes, who was appointed 
 
 w d ’. 31 March > 1915. During the 
 
 World War 211 priests and 65 seminarians were 
 mobilized from this diocese, and of this number 
 priests and 11 seminarians gave up their lives 
 3 were decorated with the legion d’honneur, 2 with 
 the medmlle militaire, and 81 with the croix de 
 guerre. By latest statistics the diocese is divided 
 m r? <a ? aner l es , comprising 520 parishes and counts 
 
 % • 0 1C Population of 350,044. A former bishop 
 
 of this see, Bishop Dadolle, was honored by Car- 
 dmal Maurm in 1919, when he placed a bust in the 
 church of Villemontais, the bishop's native town, 
 in the diocese of Lyons. 
 
 Digne, Diocese of (Diniensis; cf. C. E., IV-793b) 
 Basses-Alpes, France, includes the titles of the sup¬ 
 pressed dioceses of Riez and Listeron in the de¬ 
 partment of Aix. The present (1922) incumbent 
 of the see, Rt. Rev. Jean Joseph Martel, was born 
 21 September, 1860, at St. Benoit in the diocese, 
 studied at Aix and Digne, was ordained priest 29 
 June, 1885, was professor at the Lower Seminary, 
 went to Paris in 1885, made preceptor, general 
 secretary of the bishopric and the director of the 
 “Semaine religieuse” in 1891; honorary canon in 
 1893; superior of the Institute of the Immaculate 
 Conception and vicar general, appointed bishop 27 
 November, 1917; proclaimed 10 March, 1919, suc¬ 
 ceeding Mgr. Lenfant (b. 6 January, 1858; d. 6 
 August, 1917). According to the (1922) statistics 
 the diocese comprises a population of 107,231; 292 
 parishes, of which 94 have no resident priests, 367 
 priests in the parishes and 75 others, 12 convents, 
 diocesan missionaries established in 1918. In 1917 
 the late Bishop Lenfant restored the public daily 
 prayer in the chapter. 
 
 Dignities, Ecclesiastical (cf. C. E., IY-794).—A 
 capitular dignity is a canonry, which not merely 
 is entitled to precedence but confers, or formerly at 
 least conferred, jurisdiction in the internal forum, 
 e. g. the archdiaconate, or archipresbyterate. 
 Though the erection of the office of capitular dig¬ 
 nity and appointments thereto are reserved to the 
 Holy See, a bishop may, with the consent of the 
 chapter, restore the office if it has fallen into abey¬ 
 ance. 
 
 Dijon, Diocese of (Divionensis; cf. C. E., IV- 
 794c), comprises the entire department of Cote 
 
 Dimissorial Letters ( c f. C. E., IV-797b) can be 
 granted for the ordination of a secular by his 
 proper bishop, provided he have taken possession 
 ot nis see, even if he be not yet consecrated. By 
 the term proper,’’ so far as seculars are here con- 
 
 Ce vvu’xu S mear }t only the bishop of the diocese in 
 which the candidate has a domicile together with 
 origin or a simple domicile without origin; in the 
 latter case the candidate must swear that he intends 
 to remain perpetually in the diocese, unless he is 
 a cleric already incardinated in another diocese by 
 fu st tonsure, or is. a student for the service of 
 another diocese, or is a professed religious. Letters 
 may be granted by a vicar general, authorized by 
 his bishop. A vicar capitular with the consent of 
 the chapter can grant letters if the bishop has been 
 dead a year; before that time they can *e granted 
 only to those who have received or are about to 
 receive a benefice, or to one who is to occupy an 
 office which the needs of the diocese require to be 
 filled without delay. A vicar capitular granting 
 dimissorial letters in violation of these provisions 
 incurs ipso facto suspension a divinis; he is for¬ 
 bidden moreover to grant the letters to one who 
 uj ,. een re j e °ted by the bishop. Anyone who 
 had himself ordained without letters or with forged 
 dimissorial letters would be ipso facto suspended 
 from the order received. Vicars and prefects apos¬ 
 tolic, abbots or prelates nullius, even non-episcopal, 
 can grant letters for minor and major orders to 
 seculars under their jurisdiction. Letters are not 
 to be granted until the prescribed canonical exami¬ 
 nation into the candidate’s antecedents has been 
 made. . Letters for exempt religious are granted by 
 the major superiors, but only for tonsure and minor 
 orders in the case of those who are professed of 
 simple vows; non-exempt religious are treated like 
 seculars. The regular superior must address his let¬ 
 ters to the bishop of the diocese in w r hich the 
 religious house is situated, except when that bishop 
 grants permission, or belongs to another rite, or is 
 absent, or is not holding ordinations at the pre¬ 
 scribed time, or is dead and has left no one with 
 episcopal orders to take his place. On the other 
 hand, a bishop in granting letters may direct them 
 to any bishop in communion with the Holy See 
 who is of the same rite as the candidate, the re¬ 
 strictions placed formerly on the suburbicarian car¬ 
 dinals and clerics who had remained more than four 
 months in Rome having been removed. 
 
 Diocesan Chancery ( c f. C. E., IV-799).—In each 
 curia a priest is to be appointed by the bishop ♦ 
 as chancellor; his chief duty is to take charge of 
 
DIOCESE 
 
 260 
 
 DISPENSATION 
 
 the diocesan archives, arranging them in chrono¬ 
 logical order and compiling an index of their con¬ 
 tents. He is by the very fact a notary, and if 
 necessary should have an assistant or vice-chan¬ 
 cellor. He can be removed or suspended by the 
 bishop, his successors or superior, but not by the 
 vicar capitular without the consent of the chapter. 
 Codex juris canonici, 372-84. 
 
 Diocese (cf. C. E., V-l).—In canon law the word 
 diocese includes abbeys and prelatures nullius, and 
 the word bishop includes abbots and prelates nullius 
 unless the context shows otherwise. Without a par- 
 titular apostolic indult special parishes for the 
 faithful of different races or speech living in the 
 same city or territory may not be created in future; 
 no change is to be made, however, in those already 
 existing without consulting the Holy See. The 
 bishop is to group the parishes of his diocese into 
 larger units known as vicariates forane, deaneries, 
 archpresbyterates, etc. If this seems impossible or 
 inopportune, he is to consult the Holy See, un¬ 
 less it has already provided for the difficulty. If the 
 bishop’s rule is entirely impeded by captivity, exile, 
 or legal disability, ordinarily the vicar general or an 
 ecclesiastic delegated by the bishop takes his place; 
 if the delegate is similarly impeded the cathedral 
 chapter is to nominate its vicar to act with the 
 powers of a vicar capitular; if the bishop should 
 become excommunicated, interdicted, or suspended 
 the metropolitan, or if he is unable or is the bishop 
 in question, the oldest of the suffragan bishops is to 
 notify the Holy See. 
 
 Codex juris canonici, 215-17; 429. 
 
 Disciples of Christ (cf. C. E., IV-29c).—I. Since 
 the death of the founder, Alexander Campbell 
 (1866), in the expansion of this Church, disagree¬ 
 ment arose on the two points of ecclesiastical or¬ 
 ganization and the use of instrumental music in 
 the churches, th‘e two parties being termed the 
 “Progressives” and the “Conservatives.” In the 
 United States report for 1890 all were included 
 under one head, but in 1906 and 1916 the objec¬ 
 tions of the “Conservatives” led to their classifi¬ 
 cation as a separate denomination known as 
 Churches of Christ. The “Progressives” (Disciples 
 of Christ) reported in 1916, 1,226,028 members, 
 6,815 church edifices and 5,938 ministers. It is 
 especially flourishing in the middle-western states. 
 Although the Disciples of Christ are known also as 
 “Christians” they are not to be confused with the 
 “Christian Church” (American Church Convention). 
 
 II. Churches of Christ. —As noted above this 
 sect is listed separately now in the United States 
 reports. In 1916 it reported 317,937 members, 
 4,342 church edifices and 2,507 elders (ministers). 
 
 H. K. Carroll’s statistics for 1921 listed for the 
 two bodies 8,506 ministers, 14,416 church edifices 
 and 1,493,515 members in the United States (“Chris¬ 
 tian Herald,” 7 March, 1921). 
 
 Religious Bodies, 1906 (Washington, D. C., 1909); Religious 
 Bodies, 1916 (Washington, D. C., 1919); Year Book of the 
 Churches (New York, 1920). 
 
 N. A. Weber. 
 
 Discussions, Religious (cf. C. E., V-34).—Catho¬ 
 lics are warned not to engage in religious or moral 
 discussions or conferences, especially public, with 
 non-Catholics, without leave of the Holy See, or, in 
 urgent cases, of the local ordinary. 
 
 Codex juris canonici, 1,325. 
 
 Disparity of Worship (cf. C. E., V-37).—The 
 Church grants no dispensation from the impediment 
 of disparity of worship unless (1) there are jusfl 
 and grave causes; (2) the non-Catholic party gives 
 guarantees that the danger of perversion for the 
 
 Catholic party will be removed, and both parties 
 promise that all the children will be baptized and 
 brought up only in the Catholic faith; (3) there 
 is a moral certainty that the promises will be ful¬ 
 filled. Regularly the promises should be in writing. 
 The impediment now arises only between an un¬ 
 baptized person and a person baptized in the Cath¬ 
 olic Church or converted to the Catholic Church 
 from heresy or schism. Formerly it arose also if 
 the baptized person had received baptism in a 
 heretical or schismatical Church and had never 
 embraced Catholicism. If at the time of marriage 
 one of the parties was commonly reputed to have 
 been baptized or if his baptism was doubtful, the 
 marriage is to be considered valid until it is proved 
 with certainty that one of the parties had been 
 baptized and the other had not. If a parish priest 
 is certain that a Catholic who has received a dis¬ 
 pensation from this impediment has either per¬ 
 sonally or by proxy gone before a non-Catholic 
 minister to be married, or is about to do so later, 
 he may not assist at the marriage, unless for very 
 grave reasons, and then only after the removal of 
 the danger of scandal and after consulting the ordi¬ 
 nary. If a dispensation for the marriage has been 
 granted it is forbidden to observe any sacred rites, 
 unless very serious evils would result, in which case 
 .the ordinary may allow some ceremony but never 
 the celebration of Mass. 
 
 Codex juris canonici, 1070-71 ; Ayrinhac, Marriage Legisla¬ 
 tion, s. v.; for a discussion of the question of guarantees cf. 
 Harrington in Reel. Review, LXV (1921), 257-62, and O’Don¬ 
 nell in Irish Eccl. Rec., XVIII (1921), 411-18. 
 
 Dispensation (cf. C. E., V-41). —Though the pope 
 can dispense from all ecclesiastical laws, he rarely 
 does so personally, as he usually acts through the 
 Roman Congregations. Applications are to be made 
 therefore to the Congregation of the Council for 
 dispensations from the disciplinary laws governing 
 the clergy and laity; to the Congregation of the 
 Sacraments in matters regarding the disciplinary 
 laws of the sacraments; to the Holy Office in ques¬ 
 tions of the Pauline privilege, mixed marriages, 
 disparity of worship, or the Eucharistic fast of 
 priests celebrating Mass; and to the Sacred Peni¬ 
 tentiary for all dispensations regarding the internal 
 forum, both sacramental and extra-sacramental. 
 
 No one except the pope personally or through 
 the Congregations can dispense from the general 
 laws of the Church, even in a single case, unless 
 he is explicitly or implicitly authorized to do so; 
 thus ordinaries are empowered to dispense when 
 it is difficult to have recourse to the Holy See and 
 at the same time delay would likely result in serious 
 evil, but this is permitted only in cases in which 
 the Holy See is wont to grant a dispensation. The 
 power of the bishops, parish priests, and vicars- 
 general are now of ordinary jurisdiction. The in¬ 
 clusion of the vicars-general among the ordinaries 
 involves an important change, as their power of 
 dispensing now arises from a general mandate, 
 whereas heretofore it was conferred only by special 
 mandate. The power of dispensation granted in 
 the Code belonging generally as it does to ordinary 
 jurisdiction can be delegated in accordance with the 
 general rules governing delegation. 
 
 Local ordinaries may dispense from diocesan 
 laws, and also from the laws of national and pro¬ 
 vincial synods, in particular cases and for just cause, 
 but not from pontifical laws, especially passed for 
 their dioceses, except when it is difficult to com¬ 
 municate with the Holy See and at the same time 
 there is danger of serious evil in delay. Where 
 a doubt of fact arises they may dispense from 
 laws imposing nullity or incapacity, provided the 
 
DISPENSATION 
 
 261 
 
 DISPENSATION 
 
 pope is wont to dispense from them. A dispensa¬ 
 tion granted by an inferior without a cause that is, 
 considering the circumstances, just and reasonable, 
 is neither licit nor valid. 
 
 In canon 4 of the Code is stated that “acquired 
 rights, privileges and indults which have been hith¬ 
 erto granted to physical or moral persons by the 
 Apostolic See and which are still in use and un¬ 
 recalled, remain in vigor, unless they are expressly 
 revoked by the canons of this Code.” On 25 April, 
 1918, a decree was issued by the Consistorial Con¬ 
 gregation. After pointing out that many of the 
 powers of ordinaries formerly acquired only by 
 special concession were now granted by the general 
 law, the decree provided among other things that 
 except in places subject to the Sacred Congregation 
 for the Propagation of the Faith—for which suit¬ 
 able regulations will be issued at an opportune 
 time—in all dioceses subject to the common law, 
 all faculties granted to ordinaries for the external 
 forum, and contained in twenty-five-year briefs, 
 and ten-year, five-year, three-year formulae, will 
 cease from 18 May, 1918. However, local ordinaries 
 in America, the Philippine Islands, the East Indies, 
 Africa—except the territories along the coast of the 
 Mediterranean Sea—and Russia, may, for a period 
 of five years from 18 May, 1918, dispense from the 
 minor impediments to marriage; they may also 
 grant sanationes in radice for marriages contracted 
 invalidly on account of one of these minor impedi¬ 
 ments, but the party who is aware of the impedi¬ 
 ment is to be warned of the effect of the sanatio. 
 Moreover, they can dispense for the same period 
 from the major impediments of the ecclesiastical 
 law, whether public or occult, even when multiple 
 (except impediments arising from priesthood or 
 affinity in the direct line when the marriage has 
 been consummated) and also from the prohibitory 
 impediment of mixed religion, if the petition for 
 the dispensation has been sent to the Holy See, 
 and in the meanwhile an urgent necessity for the 
 dispensation arises. 
 
 Irregularities (cf. C. E., VIII-173).—Any ordi¬ 
 nary may personally or by another dispense his 
 subjects from all irregularities arising from occult 
 crimes, except those arising from crimes brought 
 into the judicial forum and those arising from vol¬ 
 untary homicide or the efficacious abortion of a 
 human foetus or from co-operation in these crimes. 
 No mention is made of the power of dispensing 
 from the irregularity of illegitimacy for the recep¬ 
 tion of tonsure and minor orders, hitherto enjoyed. 
 Confessors have the same power in urgent secret 
 cases in which it is impossible to reach the ordinary 
 and there is danger of serious evil or scandal, but 
 this power is granted to them only to enable the 
 penitent to exercise licitly the orders he has already 
 received. In asking for a dispensation from irregu¬ 
 larities or impediments, all must be mentioned; a 
 general dispensation, however, removes all those 
 that have been omitted bona fide (with the ex¬ 
 ceptions just mentioned), but not those omitted 
 mala fide. In the case of voluntary homicide, the 
 number of offenses must be given, under penalty of 
 nullity. A general dispensation to receive orders 
 is valid for major orders, and those who have been 
 dispensed can obtain non-consistorial benefices, even 
 with the cure of souls annexed; but for appoint¬ 
 ment as cardinal, bishop, abbot or prelate nullius, 
 or higher superior in an exempt clerical religious 
 order a special concession is required. Dispensa¬ 
 tions granted in the extra-sacramental internal 
 forum are to be in writing and an entry concern¬ 
 ing them should be made in the secret archives 
 of the curia. 
 
 Ordination.— -Ordinaries can dispense for a just 
 cause: from the publication of the names of secular 
 candidates for orders which is to be made in their 
 parochial churches; also from the intervals of time 
 that should elapse between the reception of dif¬ 
 ferent orders, not, however, so that two sacred 
 orders, or minor orders and the subdiaconate should 
 be received on one day, or the four minor orders 
 or tonsure and minor orders together. 
 
 Parishes.— With the consent of the synodal ex¬ 
 aminers ordinaries may dispense candidates of 
 known ability from an examination in theology etc 
 before giving him a parish. ’ 
 
 Vows and Oaths. —Local ordinaries can dispense 
 tneir own subjects and even peregrini from un- 
 reserved vows or oaths, provided the rights of a 
 thud party are not injured thereby. 
 
 Index.—In urgent cases the ordinary can allow 
 one of his subjeets to read a book forbidden by 
 the Holy See. 
 
 Feasts, fasting, and abstinence.—Local ordinaries 
 and even parish priests, in particular cases and for 
 just cause, can dispense their subjects, even when 
 away from their territory, and peregrini in their ter¬ 
 ritory from the common law regarding feasts, fast¬ 
 ing and abstinence. Superiors in exempt clerical 
 religious orders have the same power over their 
 subjects and those who live in their houses by day 
 and night, such as guests, servants, students. Ordi¬ 
 naries, moreover, can dispense a whole diocese or 
 a place from the laws of fast and abstinence for 
 reasons of health or on an occasion of a great gath¬ 
 ering of the faithful. 
 
 Penalties.— Ordinaries can remit the penalties 
 latcB sentential imposed by the general law, in pub¬ 
 lic cases, except: (a) when the case has come into 
 the judicial forum; (b) censures reserved to the 
 Holy See; (c) incapacity to receive benefices, of¬ 
 fices, dignities, or positions of trust in the Church, 
 or privation of active and passive voice, perpetual 
 suspension, infamy of law, privation of the right of 
 patronage and of privilege or favor granted by 
 the Holy See. In occult cases, the ordinary can 
 personally or by another, remit all penalties latce 
 sententuB of common law, except censures reserved 
 very specially or specially to the Holy See. Hitherto 
 he could dispense only in the case of light crimes 
 and of suspension for certain occult offenses. In 
 more urgent occult cases if by the observance of 
 a vindicatory punishment latce sententice a culprit 
 would betray himself and thus incur infamy and 
 give scandal, a confessor can suspend in the sacra¬ 
 mental forum the obligation of undergoing the 
 penalty, but he must impose on the culprit the 
 obligation of having recourse, at least within a 
 month, by letter and by his confessor, to the Sacred 
 Penitentiary or to a bishop having power to deal 
 with the case, if this can be done without grave 
 inconvenience, and of submitting to the orders he 
 receives. If in any extraordinary case this recourse 
 is impossible the confessor himself may dispense, 
 but subject to those conditions under which he 
 may absolve from censures in similar circumstances. 
 This is a notable change in the extent of powers 
 granted to confessors. 
 
 Cause for granting dispensations (cf. C. E., V-45). 
 
 —There must be a sufficient just cause for the licit 
 granting of a dispensation. If a person alleged a 
 false cause or concealed part of the truth, it would 
 not invalidate a dispensation granted from a minor 
 matrimonial impediment, even if the sole motive 
 for granting it were false; but in any other case 
 at least one true motive cause is necessary, but 
 
DISPENSATIONS 
 
 262 
 
 DIVINE CHARITY 
 
 sufficient, for validity, even when the rescript con¬ 
 tains the words “motu proprio.” 
 
 Codex jurid canonici, 80-86; Vermeersch-Creusens, Epitome 
 jur. can., 136-56. 
 
 Dispensations, Matrimonial (cf. C. E., V-44a).— 
 A local ordinary may dispense from the publication 
 of the banns of marriage of his subjects for a just 
 cause anywhere; if the parties have different local 
 ordinaries the right belongs to the ordinary in 
 whose territory the marriage is to take place; if it 
 is to be celebrated in a third territory, either of 
 the ordinaries mentioned may dispense. When 
 there is imminent danger of death local ordinaries, 
 in order to secure peace of conscience of the party 
 or parties concerned and to legitimize their off¬ 
 spring where necessary, should that be necessary, 
 may dispense their own subjects in any place and 
 all others residing at the moment in their territory 
 from the formalities to be observed in contracting 
 marriage (presence of a priest and two witnesses), 
 and from each and every impediment, public or 
 occult, whether simple or multiple, of ecclesiastical 
 origin, except those arising from the priesthood or 
 from affinity in the direct line if the marriage has 
 been consummated; scandal must be avoided, and 
 if there is question of disparity of worship or of 
 mixed religion the usual guarantees must be given. 
 When a case of this kind arises and it is impossible 
 to go to the ordinary, the same dispensing power 
 is enjoyed by the parish priest or any priest law¬ 
 fully assisting at the marriage; or by the confessor, 
 but the latter’s power is only for the internal forum 
 in sacramental confession. A local ordinary can 
 dispense from any of the impediments just men¬ 
 tioned if it is discovered (that is, made known to 
 the priest or ordinary, Acta A. S., 1921, 178) when 
 everything is ready for the marriage and the cere¬ 
 mony cannot be deferred until a dispensation is 
 obtained from the Holy See, without probable dan¬ 
 ger of grave evil; he is empowered likewise to use 
 these faculties to validate a marriage already con¬ 
 tracted, if there is the same danger in delay and 
 time does not allow an application to the Holy 
 See. Under the same circumstances a like power is 
 enjoyed by the parish priest, assistant priest and 
 confessor, as mentioned above, but only for occult 
 cases, when it is not possible to reach the local 
 ordinary or at least not without danger of violating 
 secrecy. The parish or assistant priest in this case 
 should, however, notify the local ordinary at once 
 about the dispensation granted in the external 
 forum, and the fact should be recorded in the 
 marriage register. 
 
 Unless it is ordered otherwise by the. sacred 
 penitentiary a dispensation from an occult impedi¬ 
 ment granted in the extra-sacramental internal 
 forum is to be recorded in the secret archives of 
 the curia; no other dispensation is necessary for 
 the external forum, even if the occult impediment 
 should ever become public, though another would 
 be required if the dispensation had been granted 
 only in the sacramental internal forum. As regards 
 marriage contracted or to be contracted, whoever 
 enjoys a general indult for dispensing from a given 
 impediment can, unless the indult explicitly states 
 the contrary, dispense from it when it is multiple. 
 Whoever has a general indult for dispensing from 
 several impediments of different kinds, whether 
 diriment or impedient, can dispense from these 
 impediments even if they are public, occurring in 
 one and the same case (modifying C. E., V-749a). 
 But if an impediment from which he cannot dis¬ 
 pense coexists with one or more over which he has 
 control in virtue of an indult, recourse must be 
 
 had to the Holy See in connection with all of 
 them; however, if after obtaining the dispensation 
 from the Holy See, one or more impediments from 
 which he can dispense are discovered, he may use 
 his power to dispense from it. When a dispensa¬ 
 tion has been granted from a diriment impediment 
 by ordinary power or power delegated by a general 
 indult, though not by a rescript in particular cases, 
 the offspring, already born or conceived, of those 
 who are dispensed are thereby legitimized, excepting 
 adulterous or sacrilegious offspring. 
 
 A dispensation from the impediment of consan¬ 
 guinity or affinity in any degree, if granted, is 
 valid, even if any error as to the degree chanced 
 to be made in the petition or concession, provided 
 the real degree is more remote, or even if another 
 impediment of the same kind in an equal or more 
 remote degree was not mentioned. A dispensation 
 granted by the Holy See in case of an unconsum¬ 
 mated marriage or permission granted to contract 
 a new marriage on the presumption of the death 
 of a spouse, always contains a dispensation from 
 the impediment of crime due to adultery with a 
 promise of or attempted marriage, if necessary, but 
 not from the impediment of crime arising even 
 in part from conjugicide. While an application 
 for a dispensation from public impediments may 
 be made directly to Rome by the parties concerned, 
 it is customarily made through the ordinary (the 
 bishop or vicar-general) of the place of domicile or 
 quasi-domicile, of either party, but usually of the 
 bride, or of the Catholic party if the impediment 
 affects him directly. Such dispensations when en¬ 
 trusted to the ordinary of the petitioners shall be 
 executed by the ordinary who has given the testi¬ 
 monial letters or wdio transmitted the petition to 
 the Holy See, even if the parties, at the time when 
 the dispensation is to be put into effect, have given 
 up their domicile or quasi-domicile and gone into 
 another diocese m ver to return, but he is to notify 
 the ordinary of the place where the parties wish 
 to marry (Ayrinhac, n. 102). 
 
 Expenses.—Except a small contribution to meet 
 the chancery expenses in obtaining a dispensation 
 for one who is not poor, local ordinaries or their 
 officials cannot exact any payment for the dis¬ 
 pensation without the express permission of the 
 Holy See. Any custom to the contrary is now 
 reprobated; formerly it was customary to levy a 
 tax approved by bishop of a province; if eccle¬ 
 siastics exact anything now in violation of this 
 law they are bound to restitution. Whoever dis¬ 
 penses in virtue of power delegated to him by the 
 Holy See is to make express mention of his pon¬ 
 tifical indult in using it. . 
 
 Codex juris canonici, 1043-56; Ayrinhac, Marriage Legisla¬ 
 tion, n. 76 sqq.; Petrovits, The New Church Law on Matri¬ 
 mony, pp. 80-108; Vlaming, Prael. juris matrimonii, 11, pp. 
 1-138; de Smet, De spons . et matrim., II (1920), pp. 190-345. 
 
 Divine Charity, Daughters of (cf. C. E., 
 V-52a).—The foundress and first superior general 
 of this congregation was Mother Franziska Lechner, 
 who died 14 April, 1894. She was succeeded as 
 superior general by Mother M. Ignatia Egger, who 
 was born 25 February, 1844, and entered the order 
 in 1869. She celebrated the jubilee of her pro¬ 
 fession in October, 1920, and still performs the 
 duties of her office, notwithstanding her advanced 
 age, having been re-elected superior at the last 
 general chapter of the order in July, 1918. Sisters 
 Xavier Egger, Helene Banard, Valeria Morvay, 
 and Ludovika Binder were named assistants gen¬ 
 eral. The International Eucharistic Congress, held 
 in Vienna in 1912, was solemnly celebrated in the 
 houses of the Order in Vienna, and in preparation 
 
DIVINE CHARITY 
 
 263 
 
 divine charity 
 
 for it a solemn Eucharistic triduum was held in 
 the mother-house. The golden jubilee of the 
 order was celebrated in November, 1918. The 
 cardinal protector of the order is Cardinal Januarius 
 Granito Pignatelli de Belmonte, who succeeded 
 Cardinal Serafjno Vanutelli in this office upon the 
 latter’s death in 1915. The apostolic visitation of 
 the congregation was begun in August, 1921, by 
 Mgr. Franz Hlawati, replacing Cardinal Friedrich 
 Gustav Piffl. . In October, 1920, the congregation 
 was divided into provinces. The then existing 
 Austrian province was divided and from it four 
 provinces were erected, one in each of the following 
 countries: Czechoslovakia, Jugoslavia, Hungary 
 and Poland. Permission was received for the erec¬ 
 tion of an American province in January, 1921. 
 
 The first foundation in America was made in 
 1913, when Sister Valeria Morvay, general of the 
 order, and Sister Kotska Bauer established in New 
 York St. Mary’s Home for servants out of em¬ 
 ployment, positions being secured for them. The 
 Sisters also gave religious instruction at various 
 places. There was a wide field for activity, and 
 on several occasions Sisters were called from the 
 branch houses in Hungary to the American foun¬ 
 dation. After the foundation was well established 
 Sister Valeria Morvay returned to Hungary, and Sis¬ 
 ter Kotska Bauer was made superior of the North 
 American houses. Since then she has been made 
 provincial superior of the American province of 
 the congregation. At the present time there are 
 seven foundations in the United States: St. Joseph’s 
 Hill, Arrocher, Staten Island, provincial house, 
 novitiate, day^ and boarding school; St. Mary’s 
 Home, New York City, for servants seeking em¬ 
 ployment ; Convent of Our Lady of Hungary 
 Perth-Amboy, N. J., school; Convent of St’. 
 Ladislaus, New Brunswick, N. J., school, kinder¬ 
 garten, and day nursery; St. Stephen’s Convent, 
 Trenton, N. J., school; St. Stephen’s Hungarian 
 Convent, Bridgeport, Conn., kindergarten and 
 classes for religious instruction; South Bethlehem, 
 near Philadelphia, Penn., school and kindergarten. 
 Permission to establish a novitiate in North 
 America was granted in July, 1913. In June, 1920, 
 a foundation was made in South America at Serro- 
 Azul, Diocese of Uruguayana, Brazil, with a day 
 school, boarding school, and kindergarten. 
 
 Many, new foundations have been made in 
 Europe in the last thirteen years. A new Marian 
 Institute was opened in Trappan in April, 1909, 
 the old institute being bought by the city authori¬ 
 ties for a charitable institution. The new institute 
 cares for poor servants and is also a home for 
 ladies; the Church of the Sacred Heart, erected in 
 connection with it, was dedicated in June, 1910. 
 The home for children at Alt Dejvitz, near Prague, 
 was taken over by the Sisters in April, 1909, and 
 a Sunday school for girls was later established 
 there. The Sisters were obliged to give up the 
 establishment in September, 1921, when the pro- 
 vostship was requisitioned by the Czech Govern- 
 ment and taken from the bishop. During the 
 period of its existence 699 children were cared for 
 in the home and 281 were taught in the Sunday 
 school. A home for children was erected at 
 Hochstrass-Stassing in 1908 and dedicated 25 May 
 1909 ; 40 foundlings are educated there. The train¬ 
 ing school for women of the Marian Institute at 
 Cracow was granted its charter in June, 1909. The 
 secondary and boarding school at Szepesszombat, 
 Hungary, was taken over by the Sisters in August, 
 1909, and opened the following October, the chapel 
 being dedicated in September, 1910; it is the only 
 Catholic school in the vicinity. A new building 
 
 was added in August, 1909, to the Sisters’ estab¬ 
 lishment at Biala, Galicia, where they conduct a 
 secondary and primary school where German and 
 Polish are taught, a training school for female 
 teachers industrial school, kindergarten at Wolkes- 
 dorf enlarged and dedicated in 1909, was given 
 to the Sisters and consecrated in 1914. The culinary 
 department at the house of correction and agri¬ 
 cultural institute at Korneuburg, Lower Austria 
 was placed in charge of three Sisters of Divine 
 Charity in March, 1910. A new chapel and addi¬ 
 tion to the home for aged and infirm Sisters and 
 invalided servants at Breitenfurt was built in May 
 
 1910, and dedicated 3 November, 1911. The Marian 
 Congregation for young women was established 
 at the Empress Elizabeth Home for Girls and 17 
 new members received 8 December, 1910. A poor- 
 house with 12 inmates at Lichtenegg, Lower Aus- 
 JUJb wa& u tak fn over by the Sisters 30 January, 
 
 1911. lhe addition to the kindergarten at Hoch- 
 stetten was dedicated in September, 1911. An 
 institute and home for servants erected at Budapest 
 by the League of Catholic Housewives was opened 
 by the Sisters, 9 September, 1911, the Sisters giving 
 up their work there in June, 1912. In September, 
 1911, a school for girls was opened at Marczali, 
 Hungary. The Sisters at Unter-Stinkenbrunn took 
 up the work of caring for the sick in their homes 
 in October, 1911. A villa and extensive woodlands 
 were purchased 5 October, 1911, at Pale near 
 Serajevo; where a school was built and dedicated 
 5 August, 1913. The new kindergarten and work 
 school at Gerasford was dedicated in March, 1912. 
 The charter for the women’s training school at 
 Serajevo as received in March, 1912. The new 
 foundation of St. Cecilia’s Home for children at 
 Aspersdorf, near Oberhollabrunn, was blessed 15 
 June, 1913; the principal work there is the kinder¬ 
 garten. The new country house at Wola-Fustowska 
 near Cracow, was blessed 12 July, 1913. A rural 
 housekeeping school at Maria Frost, near Graz 
 was opened in October, 1913. A house in Vienna 
 was purchased in January, 1914, for the Marian 
 Institute, serving also as a home for old ladies 
 and civil service employees, and the institute was 
 further enlarged m October, 1916, by the purchase 
 of another house in Vienna. A school and board¬ 
 ing house was opened at Swaffham, Diocese of 
 Northampton, England, in June, 1914, and the 
 chapel was opened 30 October, 1920. A home for 
 children of reservists at Serajevo was taken over 
 by the Sisters in September, 1915. The children’s 
 home at Hochwolkersdorf, Lower Austria, was 
 managed by the Sisters from June, 1918, to June, 
 
 The Marian Home for homeless girls, estab¬ 
 lished by the Women’s Association of Graz was 
 taken over by the Sisters from September, 1918, 
 till July, 1920. In August, 1919, the Sisters took 
 oyer the kindergarten founded by Baroness Mayer- 
 Melnhof at Schloss-Weyer in Styria, and later on 
 opened an industrial school. A branch was opened 
 in September, 1919, at Koberwitz, Czechoslovakia, 
 where the Sisters nurse the sick in their homes, 
 and they plan to open a kindergarten there. The 
 children’s home founded by the Children’s Pro¬ 
 tective and Aid Association, Vienna, was taken 
 over by the Sisters in October, 1919, with 40 boys. 
 The Sisters extended their sphere of activity in 
 November, 1919, to Pabjanice, Russian Poland, 
 where they established a school for girls, a kinder¬ 
 garten, and religious instruction in various schools. 
 Permission was received in March, 1920, to open 
 a secondary school at the Convent of Maria 
 Loretto at St. Andra in Carinthia. The boarding 
 school of St. Maria in Weltrus, near Prague, was 
 
DIVINE PROVIDENCE 
 
 264 
 
 DIVINE PROVIDENCE 
 
 purchased 30 June, 1921, to be used as a boarding 
 school and novitiate for the province of Czecho¬ 
 slovakia. In July, 1913, the Sisters withdrew from 
 the creche at Wernstadt in Northern Bohemia, 
 where they had been established since 1907 and 
 where 162 children were cared for. In January, 
 1919, the Sisters withdrew from the Convent of 
 St. Anthony at Schwarzen, where they had been 
 established since 1898, and since when 1485 children 
 were taken care of in the kindergarten and 2171 
 children were instructed in the industrial school. 
 During the war most of the institutions were used 
 as hospitals for the sick and disabled soldiers, of 
 whom about 25,000 were cared for. 
 
 At present there are 1005 members of the congre¬ 
 gation; 386 members have died since the foun¬ 
 dation of the order. The sisters own 36 institutions 
 and in addition have 31 other institutions under 
 their care, making a total of 67 institutions. These 
 are training schools for women teachers, secondary 
 and elementary schools, housekeeping schools, com¬ 
 mercial schools, Sunday schools, industrial schools, 
 kindergartens, day nurseries, homes for children, 
 boarding places for orphans and other girls, homes 
 for ladies, homes and employment bureaus for poor 
 servants, homes for invalided and incapacitated 
 servants, and hospitals for sick and mentally defec¬ 
 tive children. Among those under the care of the 
 Daughters of Divine Charity are 3694 servants, 410 
 orphans, and 9509 school children. There are 163 
 commercial school students, 1690 industrial school 
 students, 192 boarding school pupils, 2454 kinder¬ 
 garten children, 456 private pupils, and 372 train¬ 
 ing school students. In the hospitals are 103 sick 
 and 56 weak-minded and crippled. 
 
 Divine Providence, Sisters of. I. Sisters of 
 Divine Providence (St. Jean-de-Bassel, Lorraine; 
 cf. C. E., V-52d).—The reverting of Lorraine to 
 France at the close of the World War restored the 
 general mother-house of the Sisters of Divine Provi¬ 
 dence to its mother-country. During the war the 
 common destinies of the conflict were felt more or 
 less at the mother-house, but no damage or ruin 
 was suffered in the property. Early in the war, 20 
 August, 1914, the French and German troops met 
 in sharp conflict on the grounds of the convent of 
 St.-Jean-de-Bassel; those slain in that engagement, 
 116, are buried in a common grave on the convent 
 grounds, while more than 800 wounded in the same 
 engagement were cared for by the Sisters in the 
 convent itself. In the change from the German 
 to the French tongue in the school throughout 
 Lorraine and Alsace, the Sisters experienced but 
 little difficulty, and everything has prospered. The 
 boarding and normal school in Pecq, Belgium, which 
 was the most important establishment held by the 
 congregation in that country, was destroyed com¬ 
 pletely by the bombardment by the Allies, October, 
 1918, in the great drive to push the Germans from 
 the country; the Belgian Government has since 
 rebuilt the school, King Albert himself having taken 
 active interest in its re-establishment. There are 
 (1921) 566 professed Sisters in Lorraine, 294 in 
 Alsace, 91 in Belgium. They have charge of board¬ 
 ing schools, industrial schools, primary and second¬ 
 ary schools, and also nurse the sick. 
 
 The history of the American Province of the Sis¬ 
 ters of Divine Providence of St.-Jean-de-Bassel 
 since 1909 is one of expansion. In that year Mother 
 Maria Houlne, provincial, was appointed superior 
 general of the entire congregation, with residence 
 at St.-Jean-de-Bassel, Lorraine, and Mother Mary 
 Lucy Damidio, one of the three original members 
 of the American foundation, succeeded to the office 
 
 of provincial. In 1909 there were 11 parochial 
 schools in 2 dioceses and 1 archdiocese; in 1921 
 there are 24 in 6 dioceses and 1 archdiocese. In 
 1909 there was 1 academy; ten years later there 
 are 3, all in the home-diocese of Covington. St. 
 Camillus Academy, Corbin, was completed in 1915 
 and named in memory of Bishop Maes, who had 
 strongly encouraged its erection. The academy is 
 beginning to realize the great hopes he had for 
 its future. Situated in the heart of the famed 
 mountain region, which is anti-Catholic, though the 
 people have the kindest natural impulses, the 
 academy trains the Catholic girls of the mountains 
 in new ideals, fitting them to return to their people 
 to reshape conditions and assume the responsibilities 
 of Catholic womanhood. The majority of the 
 pupils enrolled are non-Catholics, and every year 
 there are conversions to the Faith. The removal 
 of prejudice, the kindly attitude of the people 
 towards the school, and the interest manifested in 
 it by all classes of people are altogether admirable. 
 The attendance approximates 200, of whom 48 are 
 boarders and mostly Catholics; only a small per¬ 
 centage of the day pupils are Catholics, for Corbin 
 is a small town with few Catholic families. 
 
 In 1919 the provincial house of the congregation 
 was transferred from Newport to Melbourne, Ky. 
 The erection of the new St. Anne Convent at Mel¬ 
 bourne was begun in 1918, and on 11 November, 
 1919, it was solemnly blessed as the provincial house 
 by Bishop Brossart of Covington. Mt. St. Martin’s 
 Convent at Newport was then remodeled and con¬ 
 verted into a young woman’s home with resident 
 chaplain. The present condition of the American 
 Province is this: 302 professed Sisters, 7 novices, 
 39 aspirants, 3 academies, 24 parochial schools, 1 
 infant asylum, the domestic departments of 6 in¬ 
 stitutions, 1 home for aged women, Staten Island; 
 
 1 home for French emigrant girls, New York City; 
 
 1 home for Catholic ladies, Baltimore; the Y. W. I., 
 Mt. St. Martin, Newport, Ky. The Sisters work in 
 the Archdioceses of Cincinnati, Baltimore, and New 
 York, and in the Dioceses of Covington, Columbus, 
 Cleveland, Toledo, Providence, and Wheeling. 
 
 II. Sisters of Divine Providence of St. Vincent 
 de Paul (Rappoltsweiler, Alsace; cf. C. E., V-52b). 
 —The present superior general of the congregation 
 is Mother Josepha Kleinhans, who succeeded Mother 
 Marie Aimee Schaeffer in 1919, the latter being in 
 poor health. Mother Marie Aimee was exiled dur¬ 
 ing the World War (1917-19) and decorated with 
 the Legion of Honor in 1919. She had been vicar 
 general from 1905. The superior since 1912 is Abbe 
 Ignace Fahmer. The following is a list of institu¬ 
 tions of the congregation with the number of Sis¬ 
 ters in each. In Alsace: mother-house (236 Sisters) 
 and boarding school (26 Sisters) at Rappoltsweiler; 
 boarding and day school, Colmar (42 Sisters); 
 boarding school, Hagenau (20); industrial school, 
 Herrlisheim (13); girls’ orphanage, Hilsenheim (19); 
 preparatory school for normal school, Issenheim 
 (11); day school, Mulhouse (39); boarding school, 
 Rouffach (32); boarding and day school, Strass- 
 burg (45); vacation and convalescent home, Soultz- 
 bach (10); boys’ orphanage, Willerhof (21); re¬ 
 formatory for girls, Bavilliers near Belfort (16). In 
 Upper Saone: reformatory for boys (34 Sisters) 
 and house of retreat (12 Sisters) at Frasne-le- 
 Chateau. In 1916 the Sisters opened a vacation 
 and convalescent home at Marlenheim; in 1917 ten 
 Sisters undertook the direction of the bureau of 
 the departmental orphanage at Bischwiller; in 1919 
 the convalescent home at Bennwihr was founded. 
 The industrial normal school opened at Rappolts¬ 
 weiler in 1913 was transferred in 1920 to the large 
 
divind providence 
 
 DIVINE PROVIDENCE 
 
 265 
 
 buildings of the Deaf-Mute Institution at Issen- 
 heim, which were vacated when the deaf-mutes 
 were transferred to the care of the Sisters of the 
 Holy Cross. In May, 1921, the direction of the 
 Orphanage of St. Francis at Douvaine, Upper Savoy 
 was given to the Sisters of Divine Providence. The 
 fibers direct 314 primary public schools in Alsace 
 and have about 44,000 children under instruction 
 i he congregation numbers 1,740 members. The re¬ 
 vision of the Code of Canon Law affects only minor 
 details of the Constitutions. 
 
 III. Society of Divine Providence (Friederichs- 
 burg, Germany; cf. C. E., V-52c).—Since 1909 the 
 activity of this congregation has extended to the 
 follow ing recently established works: management 
 of the household of the workmen’s home, Muenster 
 (1911), 6 Sisters; management of the household of 
 a boarding school, kindergarten, St. Joseph’s House, 
 Muenster (1920), 3 Sisters; in Muenster and at 
 other places the infant schools have been changed 
 into kindergartens, and to these have been added in 
 Muenster 3 shelters for children, 1 crib, and 2 cook¬ 
 ing schools (1915), 76 Sisters; advanced school for 
 women, St. Mauritz (1920), 8 Sisters; kindergarten, 
 
 /\ e <viicf"'c°cv sc k°°b ambulant nursing, Aldenarde 
 (1915), 6 Sisters; kindergarten, needle-work school 
 ™gber school for girls, school for cooking, Beckum 
 (1919), 11 Sisters; management of the household 
 of the workmen’s hospice, Bochum (1919), 4 Sisters; 
 mgher school for girls, kindergarten, needle-work 
 school Borghorst (1910), 8 Sisters; young girl’s 
 home, housekeeping school, Cleve (1919), 8 Sisters- 
 management of the household of St. Maurus, Coes- 
 feld (1918), 3 Sisters; kindergarten, needle-work 
 school, Datteln (1910), 6 Sisters; kindergarten 
 needle-work school, boarding house for ladies, Din- 
 slaken (1912), 5 Sisters; kindergarten, needle-work 
 school, Duisburg Hochfeld (1911), 6 Sisters; Sunday 
 school, ambulant nursing, Duisburg St. Peter; kin¬ 
 dergarten, needle-work school, Emmerich (1920), 3 
 Sisters; kindergarten, needle-work school, cooking 
 school, Ennigerlok; kindergarten, needle-work 
 school, ambulant nursing, Erkenschwick (1913), 4 
 Sisters; kindergarten, needle-work school, work¬ 
 womens society, Gronan (1910), 4 Sisters; man¬ 
 agement of the household of the workmen’s 
 house and Kolping-house, kindergarten, needle-work 
 - chddTen’s shelter, day shelter, lyceum, Hamm 
 (1914), 13 Sisters; kindergarten, needle-work school, 
 Hamm St. Joseph (1916), 7 Sisters; kindergarten, 
 needle-work school, Haltern (1915), 6 Sisters; kin¬ 
 dergarten, needle-work school, ambulant nursing, 
 Heefsen (1915), 5 Sisters; kindergarten, needle-work 
 school, Horstermark (1911), 4 Sisters; kindergarten, 
 needle-work school, orphanage, higher school for 
 girls, Lobberich (1917), 7 Sisters; kindergarten, 
 needle-work school, ambulant nursing, Marien- 
 baum (1916), 4 Sisters; kindergarten, needle-work 
 school, ambulant nursing, Mesum (1910), 6 Sis¬ 
 ters, kindergarten, needle-work school, ambulant 
 nursing, Meerbeck (1918), 6 Sisters; kindergarten, 
 needle-work school, ambulant nursing, Moers (1918) 
 
 4 Sisters; lyceum, Osterfeld (1921); kindergarten] 
 needle-w'ork school, cooking school, Oelde (1912), 
 
 5 Sisters; management of the household of the 
 workmen’s house,_ Recklinghausen Hillerheide 
 (1916), 3 Sisters; kindergarten, needle-work school, 
 boarding house for ladies, Recklinghausen St. 
 Paulus (1913), 5 Sisters; kindergarten, needle- 
 school, boarding house for ladies, Recklinghausen 
 St. Paulus (1913), 5 Sisters; kindergarten, needle- 
 work school, refuge for girls, Rechlinghausen Sud 
 (1911), 4 Sisters; kindergarten, needle-work school, 
 Recklinghausen Ost (1921), 4 Sisters;, kindergarten, 
 needle-work school, boarding house for ladies, Rhein- 
 
 berg (1913), 4 Sisters; housekeeping school, nursing 
 /°, r ,. S1 i C -k ^ lsters > Telgte Marienheim (1913), 
 20 Sisters; kindergarten, needle-work school, nurs- 
 mg home for the aged, Warendorf Franz H. (1916) 
 o Sisters; orphanage, needle-work school, cooking 
 school, Sunday school, Werne (1912) 7 Sisters- 
 
 lyceum, Wesel (1918), 17 Sisters. ’ 
 
 At Steyl, in the Diocese of Roermond, Holland, 
 St Josephs Convent, till now a German boarding 
 school has become the provincial mother-house for 
 Holland, with the novitiate and a higher Dutch 
 school establishment, Mulo school. The provincial 
 superior is Sister Vincentia (Oldemeyer). Other 
 foundations in the Diocese of Roermond are: nurs¬ 
 ing home for the aged and kindergarten, at Helden 
 Hanmngen; elementary schools, kindergarten, and 
 needle-work school, Maasniel (1913); elementary 
 schools (8-10 classes), kindergarten, needle-work 
 school, Speckholzerheide (1910), 9 Sisters; elemen- 
 tary schools kindergarten, needle-work school, 
 Velden (1913), 4 Sisters. Recent foundations in 
 the Diocese of Hertogenbosch are: elementary 
 ™ o s > kindergarten, needle-work school, Bergharen 
 (1910), b Sisters; country housekeeping school, ele¬ 
 mentary schools, boarding house for gentlemen and 
 ladies, needle-work school, nursing of the aged 
 kindergarten, Lierop (1911), 12 Sisters. In g fhe 
 Archdiocese of Utrecht works recently undertaken 
 are - e ^ er n en tary schools, housekeeping school 
 needle-work school, boarding house for ladies, nurs- 
 t n e aged, ambulant nursing, Lent (1910), 14 
 oisters; boarding house for ladies, Arnheim. 
 
 In Brazil the provincial mother-house with 
 novitiate is the Convent of the Sacred Heart, at 
 Ilorianopohs, where the Sisters also have a board¬ 
 ing school and a higher school. The provincial 
 superior is Sister Benvenuta (Rohling). Works 
 undertaken by the Sisters in Brazil since 1909 are: 
 elementary schools, needle-work school, ambulant 
 nursing, Santo Amaro (1910); elementary school, 
 Faragua (1917), 3 Sisters; elementary school 
 needle-work school, kindergarten, Sao Jose (1913) ;’ 
 elementary school, ambulant nursing, Pelotas (1918)’, 
 
 5 Sisters; elementary school, Tijucas (1918), 3 Sis¬ 
 ters; elementary school, Gaspar (1920), 3 Sisters- 
 management of the hospital, elementary school. 
 Laguna (1912), 4 Sisters; kindergarten, needle-work 
 school, elementary school, Rio Negro (1913), 5 
 
 OI0L61s. 
 
 . The total number of members of the congrega¬ 
 tion is 2038, and the total number of houses 156. 
 there are 104 houses in Germany, 22 houses in 
 Holland, and 30 houses in Brazil. Sister Bertha 
 superior general for over twenty years, died in 1912 
 and was succeeded by Sister Hildegundis (Dill- 
 mann), who died three years later. The present 
 superior general is Sister Berthilde (Engelbert), 
 who was elected at the general chapter in 1916 and 
 has safely guided the congregation through difficult 
 years. 
 
 IV. Sisters of Divine Providence (Mainz Ger- 
 many; cf. C. E., V-52d).—The first superior of this 
 order, Mother Mary de la Roche, governed but 
 seven years, when she was superseded by Mother 
 M. V mcentia, who filled this important office for 
 twenty-fiv e years. Then followed in succession 
 Mothers Walburga, Athanasia, and Sebastian, the 
 last of whom died recently. At present the direc- 
 taon of the community is under the guidance of 
 
 i irul ier J° se pha. The Sisterhood numbers about 
 1,000 members actively engaged in 100 branch 
 houses m the diocese of Mainz and Limburg. In 
 recent years several large institutions have been 
 established: the Ketteler Institute, for aged in¬ 
 valids; the St. Hildegarde Hospital, a training 
 
DIVINE SAVIOR 
 
 266 
 
 DIVINE SAVIOR 
 
 school for nurses. In conformity with the revised 
 code of Canon Law the general superior is elected 
 for a term of six years, which may be extended to 
 another term only by the consent of the Holy See. 
 
 Since 1909 the number of members in the Amer¬ 
 ican Province has increased to 300. The provincial 
 house is at Pittsburgh, Pa. Several new branch 
 houses have been opened in the last decade.. The 
 activity of the community consists mainly in the 
 education of youth. The number of Sisters actively 
 engaged in educational work is about 200, and the 
 entire enrollment of pupils is about 8,000. In addi¬ 
 tion to the parish schools the Sisters conduct a 
 boarding and day school for young ladies. The" 
 course of instruction embraces three distinct depart¬ 
 ments: academic, commercial, and industrial. In 
 1916 Toner Institute, commonly known as the 
 “Seraphic Home for Destitute. Boys,” was taken 
 over. In recent years the activity of . the Sisters 
 has been extended to the care of the sick; and at 
 present St. John’s General Hospital, Northside, 
 Pittsburgh, Pa., Gadsden General Hospital, Gads¬ 
 den, Ala., and St. Elizabeth Hospital, Granite City, 
 Ill., are the property of the community. Since the 
 introduction of this Sisterhood into the United 
 States it has been successively governed by Mothers 
 Xavier, Frances, Theresia, and Aloysia. 
 
 V. Sisters of Divine Providence (San Antonio, 
 Texas; cf. C. E., V-53b).—The first foundation was 
 made at Austin, Texas, U. S. A., in 1866, but in 
 1868 was removed to Castroville, Texas. In 1896 
 the mother-house was transferred to San Antonio, 
 Texas. The Constitutions received final papal ap¬ 
 probation from Pope Pius X, 12 December, 1912. 
 The Sisters, now numbering 500, have charge of 
 one college—Our Lady of the Lake—and 79 schools 
 and academies in Texas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, and 
 New Mexico, attended by 12,000 pupils. The con¬ 
 gregation has erected a house of studies known as 
 Providence House of Studies on the Sisters’ college 
 grounds at Washington, D. C. 
 
 Divine Savior, Daughters of the (cf. C. E., 
 V-54a).—The congregation follows the Rule of St. 
 Augustine, and is under the direction of a superior, 
 Canon Franz Kamprath, the superior general, 
 Mother Cecily Wehner, and six councillors general. 
 The mother-house is at Vienna and has 75 depen¬ 
 dencies, of which the following are property of the 
 congregation: a house of convalescence, 4 houses 
 for Sisters who attend the sick in their own homes, 
 4 educational establishments (a seminary for female 
 teachers, primary and Burger-school, kindergarten, 
 school for housekeeping), 3 kindergartens in connec¬ 
 tion with a needle-work school and private care of 
 the sick. The Sisters are also active in the follow¬ 
 ing institutions: 15 hospitals (5 of which are in 
 Vienna), 9 houses for Sisters who attend the sick 
 in their dwellings, 7 poorhouses, 15 kindergartens 
 in connection with a needle-work school and private 
 care of the sick, 10 homes for children, 8 other 
 various charitable institutions. The congregation 
 numbers 1,234 members who work in the Arch¬ 
 diocese of Vienna, the Dioceses of St. Polten and 
 Linz (Austria), Brun (Moravia), Parenzo-Pola 
 (Italy), Trier (Germany), Hertogenbosch (Hol¬ 
 land). 
 
 Divine Savior, Sisters of the (cf. C. E., V-53d). 
 —On 18 August, 1911, the community received the 
 first papal approbation, the “Decretum laudis.” In 
 1912 a new novitiate was opened at Obermais- 
 Meran, Tyrol; in 1918 another at Budapest, Hun¬ 
 gary; in 1919 one at Berlin, Germany; and in 1921 
 one at Boerwang, Bavaria. From 1914 to 1919 the 
 
 Sisters undertook the nursing of wounded soldiers 
 in hospitals at Meran, Munich, Vienna, in Hungary 
 and Jugoslavia. Mother Liboria Hansknecht, for¬ 
 mer provincial-vicaress at Milwaukee, Wis., was 
 elected superior general of the Congregation 27 
 July, 1921, succeeding Mother Ambrosia Vetter, who 
 had been at the head of the community since the 
 death of the first superior general, Mother Maria 
 de Willenweber, in 1907. The founder of the con¬ 
 gregation, Fr. Francis Jordan, died 8 September, 
 1918, and was succeeded by Fr. P. Pfeiffer. The 
 community lives according to the rule given them 
 by their founder. Since 1909 new foundations have 
 been made in Italy, Belgium, Germany, and Aus¬ 
 tria. In the United States the Sisters have houses 
 at: Milwaukee (provincial hoase), St. Nazianz, 
 Wausau, Columbus, and Portage, and conduct 
 schools at Almena, Bloomer, Cross Plains, Dickey- 
 ville, Edson, Sheboygan, Schoolhill, and Cadott. 
 The congregation has a total membership of 400, 
 with 34 foundations. The Sisters are in charge of 
 schools, kindergartens, orphan asylums, homes for 
 the aged, and hospitals, and also nurse the sick 
 in their homes. 
 
 Divine Savior, Society of the (Societas Divini 
 Salvatoris; Salvatorians; cf. C. E., V-53c), founded 
 at Rome 8 December, 1881, by Rev. John Baptist 
 Jordan (b. 1848 at Gurtweil, Baden, Germany; d. 8 
 September, 1918, at Tavel, Ct. Fribourg, Switzer¬ 
 land), who took in religion the name Francis Mary 
 of the Cross, and was superior general of the 
 Society until his death. The Society’s original 
 name, “Die Katholische Lehrgesell&chaft,” i. e., 
 Society of Catholic Instruction, was, upon the 
 advice of the Sacred Congregation for Religious, 
 changed by the founder, in 1894, to its present name, 
 the S. D. S. Fr. Jordan had in his youth been 
 apprenticed to decorative painting; he began to 
 take up his studies for the priesthood when about 
 twenty years old. Having been ordained in Frei¬ 
 burg (Baden) in 1878, he continued to pursue his 
 studies in Rome, particularly those of Oriental lan¬ 
 guages, in which he distinguished himself. He was 
 more or less acquainted with eleven ancient and 
 twenty-seven modern tongues. Before definitely 
 turning to the founding of his work he went, with 
 the blessing of Pope Leo XIII, on a pilgrimage to 
 the Holy Land, and having returned thence, with 
 the same pope’s blessing, he applied himself to the 
 difficult task which he recognized as his vocation 
 and God’s holy will. The saintly man’s life was 
 one of prayer, struggle, and suffering for his life- 
 work, which he saw crowned by the Church with 
 the seal of approval. The steadfast companion, 
 firm support, and prudent adviser of Fr. Jordan 
 from the first beginnings of the Society was the 
 learned and saintly Fr. Bernard Luethen, in religion 
 Fr. Bonaventure, who therefore may rightly be 
 called the co-founder of the Society with Fr. Jordan. 
 He was born at Paderbom, Westphalia (Germany), 
 in 1846, and ordained there in 1872. Having left 
 his home diocese on account of circumstances pre¬ 
 vailing in those troublous times of the Kultur- 
 kampf, he became chaplain of the Cassianeum of 
 Ludwig Auer, at Donauwoerth, Bavaria, and was 
 at the same time for several years the able and 
 forceful editor of “Ambrosius,” an influential Cath¬ 
 olic review for the clergy, which was published 
 there. For the remainder of his life, his thirty 
 years in religion (d. 1911), he was the intimate asso¬ 
 ciate of Fr. Jordan. 
 
 The Society of the Divine Savior is a religious 
 congregation with the ordinary three simple vows 
 of poverty, chastity, and obedience, which for the 
 
DIVINE SAVIOR 
 
 267 
 
 DIVINE WORD 
 
 first few years are pronounced as temporal vows, 
 and afterwards in perpetuity. The Society’s aim 
 is “religious enlightenment,” viz., to spread God’s 
 kingdom on earth by every possible means, both 
 in civilized countries and in foreign missions. The 
 distinctive habit of the Salvatorians is a black robe, 
 Ihe loose folds of which are held in place by a’ 
 girdle of the same color, the ends of the latter 
 hanging down at the side. The rosary is worn sus¬ 
 pended from the girdle. This costume is completed 
 by the clerical Roman collar. When going out an 
 upper garment consisting of a mantle with cape is 
 usually worn. The Society obtained its final ap¬ 
 probation from the Holy See in 1911. At present 
 the Society numbers about 500 members, of whom 
 about 200 are priests, the others being scholastics, 
 lay brothers, and novices; these are distributed over 
 32 Salvatorian houses and colleges in Italy, Ger¬ 
 many, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Rumania, 
 Switzerland, Belgium, England, the United States 
 of America, Colombia, and Brazil. The mother- 
 house of the Salvatorians, where the superior gen¬ 
 eral with his staff resides, is in Rome, near St. 
 Peter’s. In this, the greatest church of the world, 
 the care of the Chapel of the Blessed Sacrament 
 was entrusted to the S. D. S. in 1920 by the cathe¬ 
 dral chapter with the approval of the late Pope 
 Benedict XV, by formally handing over the keys 
 of the chapel to the superior general, who appointed 
 one of the Fathers as chaplain for the time being. 
 The Society’s spacious mother-house serves also for 
 the time being the social needs of both the parish 
 of St. Peter’s and another neighboring parish, offer¬ 
 ing accommodations for social gatherings and per¬ 
 formances. The present superior general, successor 
 to Fr. Jordan, is Rev. Pancratius Pfeiffer, S. D. S., 
 a native of southern Bavaria, who made all his 
 studies at the Gregorian University. Previous to 
 his present office he had been procurator general 
 of the Society for a number of years. In the 
 Society’s fourth general chapter, which was cele¬ 
 brated in Rome in 1921, he-was re-elected to the 
 office of superior general for a second term of six 
 years. 
 
 In England the Society has a mission center with 
 a parish attached to it at Wealdstone, Middlesex, 
 near London. This house belongs to the Anglo- 
 American Province of the S. D. S., the provincial 
 of which resides at St. Nazianz, Wis., U. S. A., 
 where the Salvatorian Fathers conduct the Salva¬ 
 torian College, a preparatory seminary for both 
 aspirants to the secular priesthood and postulants 
 of the S. D. S. The Fathers there, besides doing 
 parish work, also publish a monthly for young folks, 
 the “Manna,” the “Manna Almanac,” and the 
 “Apostelkalender,” this latter in German. In the 
 German-speaking countries of Europe the Society 
 is likewise doing its share in the apostolate of the 
 press. Besides several books of individual members 
 that have been published on ascetic, biographical, 
 missionary, belletristic topics, the Society is pub¬ 
 lishing the “Manna” (“Ulustrierte katholische 
 Jugendschrift”), “Der Missionaer” (“Ulustrierte 
 Monatshefte fuers christliche Haus”), the “Apos¬ 
 telkalender,” the “Manna-Kalender,” the “Salvator- 
 Kalender.” The two monthlies are going out in 
 about 100,000, and the three year-books in about 
 300,000, copies from the German center of the 
 Society’s press endeavors, the Salvator-Verlag, in 
 Bavaria. Another field of activity that the Salva¬ 
 torians are engaged in is social work. In Vienna 
 (Austria), besides instructing many thousands of 
 children in the public schools in Christian doctrine, 
 the Fathers conduct and foster various associations 
 and institutions for the young and the working 
 
 To the Rev. Gregory Gasser, S.D.S. 
 (d. 1913), who spent his life in this worthy cause, 
 is due the organization of the “Katholische Volks- 
 bund in Austria. In Berlin six Salvatorian Fathers 
 are engaged in different branches of social work, 
 one of them having been appointed Director of 
 the “Charity Association for Greater Berlin.” He 
 also acts as official Berlin correspondent of the 
 National Catholic Welfare Council News Service 
 of the U. S. A. In Westphalia the Salvatorian 
 Fathers and Brothers conduct an institute for home¬ 
 less and endangered boys, to whom they impart a 
 good school education and whom they train in 
 different trades and handicrafts, thus placing them 
 on a sound basis for an honest life in human society. 
 The institution is considered a model of its kind. 
 
 In all their houses and colleges .the Salvatorian 
 Fathers exercise the care of souls, either as their 
 main occupation or as secondary, viz., by conduct¬ 
 ing parishes or doing parish work at the place of 
 their residence or in the surrounding neighborhood, 
 by supporting parish work, by giving missions and 
 spiritual retreats to both religious communities and 
 lay people, by supplementary parish work at special 
 occasions, or by taking the place of parish priests 
 during the time of their absence. The first foreign 
 mission placed in charge of the S. D. S. was the 
 Prefecture Apostolic of Assam (British India), then, 
 in 1889, newly erected. In this promising vineyard 
 there labored 13 Salvatorian missionaries, aided by 
 4 Christian Brothers of Ireland, 6 Loretto Sisters 
 of Ireland, 4 Missionary Sisters, and 46 native 
 catechists, extending their activity over 9 principal 
 and 56 secondary stations with 23 churches and 
 chapels, and as many elementary schools, 1 middle 
 English school, 1 boarding and day school for girls, 
 1 college, 4 orphan asylums, 2 homes for old people, 
 6 dispensaries. Several books and one periodical 
 in the Khasi tongue had been published by them. 
 At the beginning of the World War all the Salva¬ 
 torian Fathers, Brothers, and Sisters were obliged 
 to leave the mission on account of their German 
 nationality, and were later on deported to Europe. 
 Neither were they allowed to return to their loved 
 field of labor after the war, despite the entreaties 
 of their bereft Christians. For this reason the 
 Sacred Congregation of the Propaganda was forced 
 to transfer this mission to another religious congre¬ 
 gation, and its choice fell on the Salesians of the 
 Italian Province. The same Propaganda has in the 
 meantime assigned the Salvatorian missionaries a 
 new mission field in the province of Fokian, in 
 Southeast China. 
 
 Divine Word, Society of the (Steyl, Holland; 
 cf. C. E., V-54a).—The founder of the Society, 
 Arnold Janssen, died at the age of seventy-three, 15 
 January, 1909. He had lived to see the membership 
 of the organization number 500 priests and 600 
 brothers. He was succeeded by Nicholas Blum, 
 under whose efficient management new missions 
 were founded in South America, the Philippine 
 Islands, the Dutch East Indies, and Japan. He 
 directed the society through the adversities of the 
 war and died 29 October, 1919. The third general 
 of the society is William Gier, elected at the 5th 
 general chapter, the most important and far-reach¬ 
 ing assembly of the society. The rule was here 
 made to harmonize with the new Canon Law, and 
 provisions were made for greater expansion of the 
 mission work. New impetus is given the work 
 among Greek Catholics, in Ukrania, missions are 
 contemplated in different parts of the world, and a 
 new era of prosperity seems to be dawning for 
 the society. Recent activities are given in the fol¬ 
 lowing paragraphs. 
 
DIVINE WORD 
 
 .268 
 
 DIVINE WORD 
 
 United States. — St. Mary’s Mission House. —One 
 of the last important works blessed by the founder 
 was the erection at Techny, Ill., of St. Mary’s Mis¬ 
 sion House for the training of American boys for 
 the foreign missions. Pope Pius X gave his Apos¬ 
 tolic Blessing to the new foundation, and on 2 
 February, 1909, the mission house was opened with 
 six boys in attendance. On 26 April Archbishop 
 Quigley, of Chicago, dedicated the mission college. 
 The first six boys were graduated from the college 
 course on 24 June, 1915. The following fall saw 
 them ready to enter the newly erected American 
 novitiate of the society, and on the feast of Our 
 Lady’s Nativity they received the habit of clerics. 
 The first scholastics made their vows on 8 Septem¬ 
 ber 1916, and the first ordination of priests took 
 place 1 May, 1921. After twelve years of progress 
 St. Mary’s reports the following figures: 33 priests, 
 29 scholastics, 51 Brothers, 20 brother-novices, 7 
 postulants, 20 candidates for the brotherhood, 190 
 candidates for the priesthood. 
 
 The society is responsible, to a great extent, for 
 the present missionary spirit in the Middle West. 
 Through its Mission Press about 5,000,000 mis¬ 
 sionary pamphlets have been printed and dis¬ 
 tributed throughout the country within the past ten 
 years. The “Christian Family,” a monthly family 
 Catholic magazine, was first issued in 1906. It has 
 at present more than 100,000 subscribers. The Ger¬ 
 man Catholic monthly, “Familienblatt,” reaches 
 about 15,000 subscribers. The “Little Missionary” 
 first appeared in September, 1915. It is issued in 
 each school month, and is read by 100,000 school 
 children and adults. The official organ of the 
 society in the United States is “Our Missions,” 
 launched on 15 January, 1921. It contains mis¬ 
 sionary information from all the fields of the 
 society, and is sent to about 40,000 friends, bene¬ 
 factors, and subscribers. The society also fostered 
 the “Catholic Students’ Mission Crusade,” the first 
 convention being held at Techny 27—30 July, 1918. 
 
 An event of far-reaching importance for the. Mis¬ 
 sion House was the sending forth of the first mission 
 band, which sailed from Seattle 3 December, 1919. 
 The first American missionaries of the society were 
 Rev. Fred Gruhn, Rev. Clifford King, and Rev. 
 Robert Clark. The latter two went forth as 
 scholastics, and after spending a year in the semi¬ 
 nary at Yenchowfu, S. Shantung, were ordained to 
 the priesthood 10 October, 1920, being the first 
 American boys taken into the society as priests. 
 
 Sacred Heart Mission House. —In 1912 the society 
 established its second American mission house at 
 Girard, Erie Co., Pa. The work has progressed 
 well. Reports of 1921 show: 8 priests, 5 Brothers, 
 70 students preparing for the priesthood. 
 
 Sacred Heart Novitiate.— 1 The third foundation of 
 the society is located at East Troy in the diocese 
 of Milwaukee, on the shores of beautiful Lake 
 Beulah. The novitiate was transferred from Techny 
 to East Troy 8 September, 1921. At present there 
 are 10 novices, with 2 priests and 2 Brothers. 
 
 Negro Missions.— At the suggestion of Archbishop 
 Quigley the society undertook to work among the 
 negroes of the South. Mother Katherine Drexel 
 came to the aid of the first missionaries and made 
 their pioneer efforts a success. The first mission 
 was opened at Vicksburg, Miss., in 1906. To-day 
 there are 260 Catholic negroes in the congregation 
 and about 300 children in the well equipped school. 
 Jackson, Miss., was the scene of the second mission 
 in 1909. Among a negro population of 11,000 there 
 was not a single Catholic. In spite of enormous 
 difficulties, the work has made progress and to-day 
 
 120 Catholic negroes attend the church. There are 
 350 children attending school, about 80 being Cath¬ 
 olic; 10 Sisters and 2 priests are working in this 
 mission. In May, 1910, the mission at Meridian 
 was opened. The Catholics number about 100; 
 school children, 250; Sisters, 9; priests, 2. At Little 
 •Rock, Ark., a start was made in October, 1910. 
 There are 2 priests, 8 Sisters, 210 Catholics, 300 
 school children.' Greenville, Miss., welcomed the 
 missionaries in 1913. The first Catholic high school 
 for negroes was opened in this mission in 1917. The 
 first seminary for negro priests is another note¬ 
 worthy foundation. These negro priests will be 
 religious, affiliated with the Society of the Divine 
 Word, but having their own specific work in the 
 missions among their own people. The seminary 
 has been transferred to Bay St. Louis, Miss., and is 
 known as St. Augustine’s Mission House. There 
 are 30 candidates at present. In 1917 the society 
 took charge of St. Monica’s parish in Chicago, the 
 only parish for negroes in the archdiocese. There 
 are about 250 children in the school, taught by the 
 Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament. The number of 
 Catholics is difficult to estimate, owing to peculiar 
 conditions, and constant moving. 
 
 Europe. —In 1906 the society had 6 mission houses 
 in Europe. The number has grown to 22, distributed 
 as follows: 4 in Holland, 11 in Germany, 2 in Aus¬ 
 tria, and 1 in Poland, Spain, Hungary, Switzerland, 
 and Italy. 
 
 Foreign Missions. — Philippine Islands. —On 15 
 August, 1909, the first two missionaries landed 
 in the Philippine Islands and opened a mission in 
 Abra, Northern Luzon. The religious condition in 
 the province was deplorable at that time. Abra 
 was the stronghold of Aglipayism and had no Cath¬ 
 olic school. To these difficulties were added the 
 severe poveily of the missionaries, the long journeys 
 on foot, the difficult Ilocano dialect that had to be 
 mastered, and hard living conditions. It is not 
 surprising that five missionaries succumbed in a 
 short time. But the fruits of these sacrifices were 
 sweet: Aglipayism is all but dead in Abra, many 
 pagans have embraced the Faith, an effective sys¬ 
 tem of Catholic schools has been established. The 
 report of the mission for 1920 shows: 28 schools 
 wrth 2,007 pupils, 49 teachers, 12 churches and 
 chapels, 15 priests, 8 residences of missionaries, 3 
 Brothers, 23 Sisters, 50,000 Catholics, 12,500 heathen. 
 
 Nygata, Japan.—In 1907 the district of Nygata 
 was given to the society. The mission lies 100 miles 
 northwest of Tokyo. It was erected into a pre¬ 
 fecture apostolic in 1912 There is a population of 
 6,206,000, of whom only 466 are Catholics. A seminary 
 with 10 candidates has been opened. An orphanage 
 and hospital are successfully maintained. Figures 
 for 1920 show: 14 priests, 12 Sisters, 10 residences 
 of missionaries, 6 churches and chapels. In a new 
 territory assigned to the missionaries there is a 
 population of 5,000,000 and scarcely any Catholics. 
 The capital of this new district is the famous city 
 of Nagoya. 
 
 Sonda Islands , Dutch East Indies. —The mission 
 is known as the Endeh-Flores mission and com¬ 
 prises also the Dutch part of the Island of Timor, 
 besides many intervening groups of islands lying 
 to the east of Java. The district was taken over 
 from the Jesuits in 1912, erected into a prefecture 
 apostolic in 1913, and to-day it is one of the most 
 flourishing mission fields of the society. The 1920 
 report shows: 26 priests, 12 Brothers, 30 Sisters, 10 
 catechists, 5653 boys in 75 elementary schools, 1151 
 girls in 10 schools, 601 boys in 4 boarding schools, 
 349-girls in 2 boajding schools, 171 teachers, 18 
 
DIVINE WORD 
 
 DIVORCE 
 
 269 
 
 churches and chapels, 40 oratories, 50,000 Catholics, 
 and 4000 catechumens. 
 
 South Shantung , China .—During the war the mis¬ 
 sion of South Shantung was in great danger. Eleven 
 missionaries were deported, while the remaining 52 
 were permitted to keep up their work only after 
 the Washington administration made a vigorous 
 protest against their deportation. This protest had 
 been induced by enterprising American Catholic 
 prelates. Three American missionaries were then 
 sent to China and the danger ceased. In 38 years 
 this mission has made over 98,000 converts. On 
 1 September, 1921, the mission reported 77 Euro¬ 
 pean and 3 American priests, 20 native priests, 97 
 Sisters, 33 seminarians, 92 collegians preparing for 
 priesthood, 13 Brothers, 2 hospitals, 13 dispensaries, 
 743 orphans cared for, 10,800 children baptized in 
 1921, of whom 7700 were in articulo mortis, 6 high 
 schools, 98 elementary schools, 185 prayer and 724 
 winter schools, 5735 pupils, 98,190 Catholics and 
 43,680 catechumens in a population of 12,000,000. 
 New mission fields have been assigned to the society 
 in Kansu, Hi, and Honan. 
 
 Australian New Guinea .—The Prefecture Apostolic 
 of New Guinea has come nearest to the self- 
 supporting stage. Through large cocoanut planta¬ 
 tions a fair income is assured to the mission. Figures 
 for 1920 show: 27 priests, 22 Brothers, 35 Sisters, 
 6467 Catholics, 47 schools, 2170 pupils, 31 chapels, 
 23 main stations and 23 substations. On 6 Decem¬ 
 ber, 1921, the first American Sisters left San Fran¬ 
 cisco for this, mission. The pioneer band numbers 
 four. The first American priest and Brother left 
 the United States 3 March; the New Guinea mis¬ 
 sion thus has 6 American missionaries. 
 
 South America .—In the Argentine Republic at 
 Buenos Aires a mission college has been opened for 
 
 STATISTICS OF THE SOCIETY OF THE DIVINE WORD 
 
 (March, 1921) 
 
 Countries 
 
 GO 
 
 4-3 
 
 CO 
 
 <D 
 
 • pH 
 
 Ph 
 
 85 
 
 158 
 
 66 
 
 4 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 • pH 
 
 4— 1 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 m 
 
 23 
 
 i39 
 
 CO 
 
 O 
 
 • pH 
 > 
 
 O 
 
 £ 
 
 13 
 
 o 
 
 • H 
 
 u. 
 
 o> 
 
 5 
 
 17 
 
 49 
 
 48 
 
 to 
 
 Sh 
 
 0) 
 
 4-> 
 
 o 
 
 u 
 
 n 
 
 <D 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 a> 
 
 <4-< 
 
 o 
 
 f-4 
 
 PL, 
 
 248 
 
 173 
 
 83 
 
 l 
 
 ' | Brother Novices 
 
 OCaa | 
 
 tn 
 
 C5 
 
 J3 
 
 3 
 
 +? 
 
 m 
 
 O 
 
 Ph 
 
 u 
 
 <D 
 
 o 
 
 t-, 
 
 « 
 
 43 
 
 25 
 
 23 
 
 Students (Candidates 
 for Priesthood) 
 
 Brother Aspirants 
 
 TOTALS 
 
 Holland . 
 
 Germany . 
 
 Austria . 
 
 Hungary . 
 
 268 
 
 673 
 
 53 
 
 24 
 
 12 
 
 754 
 
 1155 
 
 452 
 
 4 
 
 Poland . 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Italy . 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Australia . 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 
 
 47 
 
 United States.... 
 
 49 
 
 28 
 
 7 
 
 54 
 
 i3 
 
 9 
 
 157 
 
 7 
 
 324 
 
 Argentina . 
 
 74 
 
 
 4 
 
 42 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 61 
 
 2 
 
 189 
 
 Chile . 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 41 
 
 Paraguay . 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 Brazil . 
 
 70 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 102 
 
 China . 
 
 72 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 82 
 
 Japan . 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 Philippine Islands 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 Dutch E. Indies. 
 
 38 
 
 0 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 Togo . 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 
 1 
 
 Grand totals... 
 
 718 
 
 192 
 
 125 
 
 686 
 
 | 
 
 167 
 
 103 
 
 1219 
 
 45 
 
 3255 
 
 the training of young men for the society. There 
 are 100 candidates. The missions report: 185,000 
 Catholics, 7 colleges with 1783 students, .2 semi¬ 
 naries with 73 seminarians, 73 parochial schools with 
 4112 pupils, 87 priests, and 57 Brothers. 
 
 In Chile two colleges have been established and 
 a parish erected at Osorno in 1911. There are 35,000 
 Catholics in this parish. Of 6000 school children 
 
 only 600 are in school. The mission shows 35 
 priests and 6 Brothers. 
 
 In the Indian missions of Paraguay the society 
 conducts 2 schools with 24 boys and 19 girls in 
 attendance. There are 2 mission stations with 5 
 priests and 6 Brothers. This mission is a relic of 
 the old Jesuit Reductions. It belongs to the Diocese 
 of Asuncion, and the superior of the mission is 
 the delegate of the bishop to the Indians. Diffi¬ 
 culties in. the mission are numerous, owing to the 
 nomadic instincts of the people. 
 
 The society is working in 6 dioceses in Brazil 
 with the care of 200,000 Catholics. There are 5 
 colleges with 600 students, 1 seminary with 40 stu¬ 
 dents, and a mission house with 17 candidates of 
 the society. Some of the parishes have as many 
 as 40,000 Catholics. There are 70 priests and 25 
 Brothers working in Brazil. 
 
 Statistics.— Figures for the United States for 1922 
 show 56 priests, 29 scholastics, 11 clerical novices, 
 62 Brothers, 20 Brother novices, 7 Brother postu¬ 
 lants, 230 students for the priesthood, 15 Brother 
 aspirants, total 430. The appended chart shows the 
 figures for March, 1921, throughout the world. 
 
 Divorce, Declaration of Nullity (cf. C. E., 
 V“£>9a). Those who, are permitted to impugn the 
 validity of a marriage by complaint before the 
 ecclesiastical courts are: (a) the married parties, 
 in all cases of separation or declaration of nullity, 
 unless they are responsible for the impediment; 
 (b) the promoter of justice when the impediment 
 is public in its nature; all other parties are re¬ 
 stricted to denouncing the marriage as null to the 
 ordinary or promoter of justice. If from a trust¬ 
 worthy, unimpeachable, authentic document it is 
 evident that there has existed an impediment of 
 disparity of worship, orders, solemn vow of chastity, 
 ligamen, consanguinity, affinity or spiritual rela¬ 
 tionship, and it appears equally certain that no 
 dispensation has been granted from the impedi¬ 
 ment, the ordinary, after citing the parties and 
 calling in the defender of the bond, can declare the 
 nullity of the marriage without the necessity of the 
 usual ecclesiastical trial. Unless the defender of 
 the bond is certain that the declaration is justified 
 he must appeal, and the judge of appeal having 
 heard him is to decide whether to confirm the 
 declaration or send the matter back to the court 
 of first instance to follow the regular procedure. 
 
 Pauline Privilege (cf. C. E., \M>0a)—Before the 
 privilege can be used the baptized convert must 
 ask the unbaptized partner (a) whether he or she 
 is willing to be converted and to receive baptism, 
 and (b) if he or she, at least, consents to live in 
 peace without insulting God. Usually these de¬ 
 mands are to be made with the authorization of 
 the convert’s ordinary; but they are valid if made 
 privately by the convert, and even licit if the usual 
 procedure cannot be followed, though they would 
 be worthless in the external forum unless cor¬ 
 roborated by at least two witnesses or in some other 
 authorized manner. The convert would lose the 
 right to marry again if after baptism he or she 
 gave the unbaptized party just cause for separating. 
 The decrees regarding marriage contained in the 
 Constitutions of Paul III, Pius V, and Gregory 
 XIII for certain foreign mission territories have 
 been extended to the adjoining regions. In case of 
 doubt the law favors the Pauline privilege. The 
 Code states that the dissolution of a marriage, even 
 consummated, between unbaptized persons in virtue 
 of this privilege is in favor of the Faith, that is it 
 favors the liberty of. the baptized party, but it does 
 not restrict the word baptized to Catholics. 
 
DOCTOR 
 
 270 
 
 DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 
 
 Separation (cf. C. E., V-63b) .—Tacit condonation 
 of adultery takes place if the innocent party after 
 learning of the sin freely continues relations with the 
 culprit; moreover, condonation is presumed unless 
 within six months the guilty party has been dis¬ 
 missed, left, or duly accused. The Code does not 
 uphold the view of certain theologians that if the 
 innocent party later committed adultery, he would 
 be bound to receive back his guilty spouse. It 
 mentions as other causes for separation (a) adhesion 
 to a non-Catholic sect; (b) giving a non-Catholic 
 education to the children; (c) leading an igno¬ 
 minious or criminal life; (d) a grave danger to body 
 or soul which can be avoided only by separation. 
 For these and similar causes the party may separate 
 with the ordinary’s approval, or even without it, 
 if there is danger in delay. When the reason for 
 the separation is at an end, married life is to be 
 resumed, but if the separation was authorized by 
 the ordinary for a given or an indefinite time, the 
 innocent party need not return until the time ex¬ 
 pires or until the ordinary tells him to do so. 
 
 Codex juris canonici , 1118-32; Ayrinhac, Marriage Legisla ¬ 
 tion , nn. 291-323; Petrovits, The New Church Law on Matri ¬ 
 mony (Philadelphia, 1921), pp. 386-423; Vlaming, Praelectiones 
 juris matrimonii (Bussum, 1921), II, pp. 288-344. 
 
 Djakovo. See Diakovu. 
 
 Doctor (cf. C. E., V-72).—Those who have ob¬ 
 tained the degree of doctor are entitled to wear 
 a ring and stone, but not at sacred functions. Other 
 things being equal, doctors and licentiates are to be 
 preferred in the collation of ecclesiastical offices and 
 benefices. Auditors of the Rota must be doctors 
 in both canon and civil law, the chancellor of the 
 Congregation of Rites a doctor of canon law, and 
 advocates and procurators in processes cf beatifica¬ 
 tions and canonizations before the same congrega¬ 
 tion must be doctors of canon law, and also at least 
 licentiates of theology. Honorary degrees may be 
 conferred by the Congregation for Seminaries and 
 Universities of Studies. 
 
 Doctrine, Christian (cf. C. E., V-83).—Priests 
 and other clerics, unless legitimately prevented, 
 must assist their parish priest in teaching Christian 
 doctrine, and if the local ordinary judges it neces¬ 
 sary to utilize the services of religious, their 
 superiors, even if exempt, on being requested by 
 him, must personally or by their subjects teach 
 the catechism especially in their own churches, 
 without detriment, however, to religious discipline. 
 Exempt religious, if they teach non-exempt per¬ 
 sons, must observe the bishop’s regulations con¬ 
 cerning religious instruction. Religious superiors 
 should see that the lay brothers and servants re¬ 
 ceive a catechetical instruction at least twice a 
 month. 
 
 Codex juris canonici , 1329-36. 
 
 Domicile (cf. C. E., V-103).—Domicile is acquired 
 by residence in a parish or quasi-parish, or at least 
 in a diocese, vicariate or prefecture apostolic; this 
 residence, however, should either be conjoined with 
 an intention of remaining there permanently if no 
 reason for departing arises, and should be continued 
 for a period of ten years. Before the publication 
 of the Code domicile was only parochial, and was 
 never acquired by residence alone. Quasi-domicile 
 is acquired in the same way as domicile, if the 
 residence is either conjoined with the intention of 
 remaining for at least the great part of a, year, or 
 has actually been prolonged for that time. By 
 quasi-domicile also one acquires full parish rights 
 and a proprius parochus. A minor who has ceased 
 to be an infant, that is, who has completed his 
 seventh year, can acquire a quasi-domicile of his 
 
 own, as can a wife not legitimately separated from 
 husband; if she is legitimately separated, however, 
 she can acquire a domicile also. Those who are 
 insane have necessarily the same domicile as their 
 guardians, but the Code does not state what hap¬ 
 pens w T hen the guardian has only a quasi-domicile. 
 
 Though not referred in the Code as a domicile 
 of origin, a child’s place of origin is fixed by the 
 place where his father had his domicile or, in defect 
 of domicile, his quasi-domicile when the child was 
 born, or where the mother had hers if the child 
 was illegitimate or posthumous; if the parents were 
 vagi, it is the place where the child was born; if 
 the child was a foundling, the place where it was 
 discovered. 
 
 Codex juris canonici , 90-94; Farren, Domicile and Quasi- 
 Domicile (Dublin, 1920); Vermrsrsch-Creusen, Epit . jur. can., 
 164-71; Kinane in Irish Eccl . Rec ., XI (1918), 217-31. 
 
 Dominican Republic (Santo Domingo; cf. C. E., 
 V-llOc, is the eastern division of the island of Haiti. 
 The area is estimated at 19,332 square miles and the 
 population at 1,000,000. According to the census 
 of 1919 the city of Santo Domingo had 26,812 in¬ 
 habitants and the city of Puerta Plata 7370, San¬ 
 tiago de los Caballeros 14,744, San Pedro de 
 Macoris 10,000, La Vega about 8000, Samana and 
 Sanchez about 2000 each. 
 
 Education. —The expenditure on education in 
 1919-20 was $943,880. In 1920 there were 972 public 
 schools in the Republic (6 secondary), with 105,000 
 pupils (51,585 in 1918), and 1544 teachers. The 
 Professional Institute was formed by presidential 
 decree on 29 November, 1914. A commission 
 appointed by the Government thoroughly investi¬ 
 gated the educational situation and prepared and 
 recommended the following laws, based on its 
 findings: Compulsory School Attendance, School 
 Administration, General Studies, University, Theo¬ 
 logical Seminary, Organic Law of Public Education, 
 School Revenues. The first six laws were promul¬ 
 gated in April, 1918, and constitute the school code 
 of the country. There are also 6 industrial schools 
 for girls, 2 schools of fine arts, 2 correctional schools, 
 and the Central University at the capital. The 
 country is divided into six school departments and 
 each department into school districts. There is also 
 a Board of Education in each school district and 
 a General Board of Education and a General Super¬ 
 intendent for the whole country. The establish¬ 
 ment of obligatory education has brought the 
 number of school children from 18,000 to 100,000. 
 Prior to the United States occupation there were 
 30 rural schools; on 1 January, 1920, there were 647 
 rural schools. 
 
 Government. —The constitution of the Domin¬ 
 ican Republic provides for a National Congress, 
 consisting of a Senate of 12 members and a Cham¬ 
 ber of 24 Deputies. The executive power is vested 
 in the president (chosen for six years, by an elec¬ 
 toral college), and in seven ministers. This system 
 of government has been in abeyance since 1916, 
 w r hen a military government by United States naval 
 officers was proclaimed. The military governor 
 combines, for the time being, the functions of a 
 president and Congress. United States naval officers 
 are administering the different government depart¬ 
 ments. 
 
 Economic Conditions. —The foreign trade of the 
 Dominican Republic reached a new high record in 
 1920, amounting to $105,257,117, an increase of 
 $43,636,09S, or 71% over the 1919 trade, and 535% 
 greater than the trade in 1913. The imports, valued 
 at $46,768, 258, came chiefly from the United States 
 (90%); the exports, $58,767,041, went chiefly to the 
 United States also (88%). Of the total area about 
 
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 
 
 271 
 
 DOYLE 
 
 15,500 square miles is cultivable and about 3,000,000 
 acres suitable for grazing. Tobacco is grown in the 
 northern part, the production in 1918 being 33,- 
 439,648 pounds. The production of sugar from 
 17,000,000 acres in 1920 was 1,326,438 bags (320 
 pounds each); of cocoanut, about 1,500,000. The 
 railways of the Republic have an extent of approxi¬ 
 mately 150 miles; in addition there are about 255 
 miles of private lines on the large estates. The 
 Dominican Central Railway, which formerly be¬ 
 longed to an American company, became, by virtue 
 of a contract made by the Government in February, 
 1908, the property of the Republic. The vigorous 
 continuance of the extensive road-building cam¬ 
 paign marks the Government’s chief attainment in 
 recent years. Up to the end of 1918 the revenue of 
 the government was derived chiefly from customs 
 duties on imports and exports and from internal 
 revenues. A property tax was inaugurated in 1919. 
 The customs collections for 1920 were estimated at 
 $7,500,000. The national debt is about $13,100,000. 
 A treaty between Santo Domingo and the United 
 States, ratified on 8 February, 1907, authorized an 
 issue of $20,000,000 in 5% bonds, secured as to prin¬ 
 cipal and interest by a first lien on the customs rev¬ 
 enues of the Republic, the general receiver being ap¬ 
 pointed by the President of the United States. The 
 interest of this has been regularly paid and it is 
 expected that in 1925 the whole debt will be regu¬ 
 lated. 
 
 History (1910-20).—In 1911 President Ramon 
 Caceres was assassinated. The new president was 
 forced by revolutionary outbreaks the next year 
 to resign, and until the constitution could be re¬ 
 vised and the general elections held, Archbishop 
 Alejandro Nouel, Metropolitan of the Republic, 
 was asked to serve as provisional president. He 
 resigned, however, early in 1913,^md was succeeded 
 by Jose Nordas Valdes. A revolution broke out in 
 Puerta Plata and was quelled by the threats of 
 the United States to refuse the payment of the 
 custom collections to the rebellious party. At the 
 regular elections of 1914 Jimenez was elected to 
 succeed Ramon Baez (elected provisional president 
 in place of Valdes, who resigned). He was im¬ 
 peached and on 26 July, 1916, Francisco Henriquez 
 y Carvajal was chosen provisional president. The 
 United States would not recognize him because he 
 refused to accept the continuance of American con¬ 
 trol over the customs and the constabulary. The 
 deadlock and disorders that followed caused the 
 intervention of the United States and the establish¬ 
 ment of temporary military government for “the 
 purpose of restoring order.” There was desultory 
 fighting between the natives and the United States 
 marines, and the latter finally reached Santiago, 
 where on 6 December, 1916, the American flag was 
 raised. Since then order has been maintained by 
 the American forces, numbering 5000 marines. 
 There was an American military provost marshal 
 in the capital of each province, who attended to 
 the policing of each province. At the head of 
 the administration was a military governor and 
 rear admiral of the United States Navy. The ad¬ 
 ministration continued mainly in the hands of the 
 Dominicans, who directed their school system, their 
 courts, and their town governments. To the United 
 States authorities was reserved the control of the 
 treasury and customs and the appointment of the 
 governors of the provinces. On 14 June, 1921, a 
 proclamation was issued by the United States Mili¬ 
 tary Commission setting a date eight months ahead 
 for the withdrawal of the American forces and the 
 restoration of the national Dominican Government, 
 but the conditions of withdrawal were such that the 
 18 
 
 Dominicans refused to accept them. In January, 
 1922, Archbishop Nouel, in answer to a request 
 from the managing editor of the New York 
 “Nation,’ stated that in his opinion, and that of 
 prelates from all parts of South and Central 
 America, the American occupation was in no way 
 based on any principles of right and justice, and 
 the intervention was unjustified. 
 
 Down and Connor, Diocese of (Dunensis et 
 Connorensis; cf. C. E., V-147b), in Ireland, in¬ 
 cludes Antrim, the greater part of Down and the 
 Liberties of Coleraine, in Londonderry. On 20 
 September, 1908, Most Rev. John Tohill was con¬ 
 secrated Bishop of Down and Connor to succeed 
 Most Rev. Dr. Henry, who had died in March of 
 that year. Doctor Tohill, d. 4 July, 1914, and the 
 present bishop, Most Rev. Joseph McRory, was 
 consecrated his successor 14 November, 1915. Be¬ 
 fore being appointed bishop, Doctor McRory was 
 professor of Sacred Scripture and Oriental languages 
 at Maynooth College irom 1887 and elected vice- 
 president of the college in 1912. A diocesan chapter 
 was organized on 20 December, 1920, by the 
 authority of Pope Benedict XV, but in general 
 the growth of Catholicity in this diocese has been 
 retarded during the past year by the violent in¬ 
 tolerance of the Orangemen in Belfast. 
 
 At the present time (1921) the Irish Catholic 
 population numbers 180,000, and the diocese com¬ 
 prises 60 parishes, 116 churches, 5 monasteries, 2 
 convents for men and 16 for women, 160 secular 
 priests and 22 regulars, 30 lay Brothers, 160 nuns, 
 1 seminary with 200 seminarians, 7 high schools 
 with 45 teachers and attendance of 1028 boys and 
 379 girls, 1 training school with 9 teachers and 
 attendance of 100, 245 elementary schools with 570 
 teachers and attendance of 27,154, 2 industrial 
 schools with 10 teachers and attendance of 270. 
 Among the institutions of the diocese are: 1 orphan 
 asylum, 1 home for the aged, 1 home for the blind, 
 Mater Infirmorum hospital in Belfast, 3 refuge 
 homes, and 1 day nursery. Practically all the public 
 institutions allow the priests to minister in them, 
 and the Catholic industrial schools receive aid from 
 the government. Various Gaelic and temperance 
 societies are organized among the clergy and the 
 St. Vincent de Paul Society and Catholic Truth 
 Society among the laity. 
 
 Doyle, William, b. at Dalkey, Ireland; killed 
 in battle near Ypres on 16 August, 1917. He made 
 his collegiate studies under the Rosminian Fathers 
 at Ratcliffe, England, and became a Jesuit at Tul- 
 labeg, Ireland, on March 31, 1891, where his elder 
 brother was a novice. He studied philosophy at 
 Enghien, Belgium, and Stonyhurst, England, and 
 theology at Milltown Park. He followed the usual 
 course as professor and prefect of discipline in 
 various colleges, and was a missionary for a time 
 at Dublin and Limerick. On November 10, 1914, 
 he offered himself as a military chaplain but it 
 was not until a year later that he was appointed 
 to the Royal Irish Fusileers. Later he was attached 
 to the 8th Dublins. As a chaplain in the World 
 War Father Doyle attracted attention by his heroic 
 devotion to duty, by the holiness of his life and by 
 the influence he exerted over Protestant as well as 
 Catholic soldiers. 
 
 His biography by Alfred O’Rahilly, reveals a 
 most wanning personality, and a priest of great 
 holiness of life, but at the same time portrays him 
 as following a form of asceticism w r hich can scarcely 
 be considered the normal method of the Order 
 to wdiich he belonged. 
 
DREAMS 
 
 272 
 
 DUBUQUE 
 
 Dreams, Freudian Theory of. See Psycho¬ 
 analysis. 
 
 Drisdale River (cf. C. E., XVI-68b).—A mission 
 in Australia under the jurisdiction of the Benedic¬ 
 tine Abbey of New Norcia (q. v.). The present 
 administrator, Rt. Rev. Anselm Catalan, O.S.B., 
 abbot nullius of New Norcia, b. 16 November, 1878, 
 professed 24 March, 1895, ordained 20 September, 
 1902, was appointed abbot of New Norcia 30 June, 
 1915, and appointed that same day apostolic ad¬ 
 ministrator of Drisdale River. 
 
 Dromore, Diocese of (Dromorensis; cf. C. E., 
 V-160c), in Ulster, Ireland, is suffragan of 
 Armagh with residential see at Violet Hill, Newry. 
 Rt. Rev. Henry O’Neill, late bishop of the diocese 
 (b. 3 January, 1843; d. 9 October, 1915), was suc¬ 
 ceeded by Most Rev. Edward Mulhern, b. 29 
 January, 1863, in the Diocese of Clogher, studied 
 in the seminary of St. Macarten, ordained priest 
 1888, professor, then president of St. Macarten 
 Seminary, rector of Bundoran, canon of Clogher, 
 consecrated Bishop of Dromore 31 January, 1916, 
 which see he still occupies, and under whose capable 
 administration the advancement in Catholic life 
 has been maintained and quickened. 
 
 According to an estimate made in 1922 the diocese 
 numbers a Catholic population of 43,069, non- 
 Catholics 68,905; there are 19 parishes, 17 parish 
 priests, 2 administrators, 39 curates, 4 regulars, 6 
 monks, 76 nuns, 42 public churches, 1 seminary, 1 
 priory, 1 monastery, and 7 convents. Under com¬ 
 plete Catholic control are 7 church, 1 technical, and 
 2 industrial schools, 64 elementary schools attended 
 by 7113 pupils, while religious education in schools 
 has been modeled on a scheme which produces 
 satisfactory results. 
 
 Drummond, Lister Maurice, convert, b. in Eng¬ 
 land 1856; d. at Hampstead, London, 27 February, 
 1916; was the grandson on his mother’s side of 
 the second Baron Ribblesdale. In 1875 he was 
 received into the Church, and for the rest of his 
 life was a most zealous, active Catholic. He studied 
 law, in 1879 was called to the bar at the Inner 
 Temple, and for several years served as revising 
 barrister on the Southeastern Circuit. In 1892 he 
 acted as secretary to the Irish Evicted Tenants’ 
 Commission, and in the same capacity in 1906 to 
 the Worcester Election Commission. In 1913 he 
 was appointed metropolitan police magistrate, a 
 position in which his powers of sympathy and 
 practical kindness won him universal esteem and 
 affection. With his friend, Father Philip Fletcher, 
 Mr. Drummond founded in 1887 the Guild of Our 
 Lady of Ransom, a union of intercession by prayer 
 and good works “for the Conversion of England 
 and of individuals; for apostates and for those in 
 danger of apostasy; and for the forgotten dead.” 
 For years he was chairman of the Central Council 
 of the Westminster Catholic Federation, and in 
 1913 and 1914 chairman of the Central Council of 
 the Catholic Confederation. His favorite works 
 were tract distribution and lecturing on the Cath¬ 
 olic religion; for many years he was the Guild’s 
 chief lecturer in Hyde Park in the summer months. 
 In recognition of his apostolic work Pope Leo XIII 
 presented him, in 1901, with the insignia of the 
 Order of St. Gregory. 
 
 Dublin, Archdiocese of (Dublinensis; cf. C. E., 
 V-171d), includes nearly all Wicklow and portions 
 of the Counties Kildare and Wexford in Ireland, 
 and has three suffragan dioceses: Kildare and 
 Leighlin, Ferns, and Ossory. The present year 
 (1921) saw the death of the Archbishop of Dublin, 
 
 Most Rev. William J. Walsh (q. v.), who had filled 
 the see from 2 August, 1885, until his death on 9 
 April. On 27 October, 1920, the Most Rev. Edward 
 J. Byrne, D.D., Bishop of Spigaz, was consecrated 
 auxiliary to Archbishop Walsh, and upon the death 
 of the latter he succeeded him as Archbishop of 
 Dublin. Before his consecration as bishop, Doctor 
 Byrne had been vicar general of the Irish College 
 in Rome, to which position he was appointed in 
 1901, and later, upon his return to Ireland, he was 
 appointed to the pro-cathedral in Dublin, and a 
 vicar general of the diocese. 
 
 The present records of the diocese of Dublin 
 show the following statistics: 77 parishes; 193 
 churches; 8 novitiates for men; 16 convents for 
 men and 102 for women; 305 secular priests and 
 317 regulars; a few lay brothers with each religious 
 community of men; 1 seminary with 67 seminarians. 
 The various institutions under the care of religious 
 orders are: 2 asylums for the blind; 2 asylums for 
 the deaf; 10 hospitals; 5 orphanages for girls; 6 
 orphanages for boys; 2 homes for the aged; 1 home 
 for widows; 5 homes for working women; 4 indus¬ 
 trial schools for girls and 3 for boys; 1 reformatory 
 for boys and 1 for girls; and 4 penitentiaries. The 
 Catholic population numbers 434,586. 
 
 Certain public institutions: 7 workhouses, 2 lunatic 
 asylums, 2 prisons, and 9 military barracks permit 
 the ministry of the priests of the diocese. The 
 Government assists in the support of the University 
 College and intermediate and primary schools. 
 Among the clergy of the diocese the Eucharistic 
 League and the Priests Social Guild are organized, 
 and among the laity the Society for the Propaga¬ 
 tion of the Faith, Society of the Blessed Virgin 
 Mary, Catholic Truth Society of Ireland, St. Vin¬ 
 cent de Paul Society, Aid Society for Catholic 
 discharged male prisoners, and boys clubs. 
 
 The brothers are very active in the educational 
 work of the diocese, the following orders being rep¬ 
 resented throughout the diocese: Christian Broth¬ 
 ers in charge of 19 schools have their novitiate at 
 St. Mary’s, Marino; de la Salle Brothers in charge 
 of 2 schools; Carmelite Brothers with 2 houses; 
 Hospital Brothers of St. John of God with 1 house 
 and the Presentation Brothers in charge of 2 
 schools. 
 
 Dubuque, Archdiocese of (Dubuquensis; cf. C. 
 E., V-179c), in the State of Iowa. Upon its promo¬ 
 tion to an Archdiocese in 1893 Dubuque was given 
 the suffragan sees of Davenport, Lincoln, Cheyenne, 
 and Omaha. In 1911 Clinton County, comprising 
 a large Catholic population and many parishes and 
 schools, was taken from the Archdiocese of 
 Dubuque and attached to the Diocese of Daven¬ 
 port. 
 
 The fourth bishop and second archbishop of 
 Dubuque, Most Rev. John J. Keane, resigned from 
 the see on account of failing health, 3 April, 1911, 
 and died 22 June, 1918. He was succeeded by the 
 present incumbent, Most. Rev. James John Keane, 
 then Bishop of Cheyenne, born in Pine Island, Min¬ 
 nesota, 26 August, 1857, studied at St. John’s College, 
 Collegeville, Minn., and in the Grand Seminary, 
 Montreal, where he was ordained in 1882. For some 
 years he was president of St. Thomas College, St. 
 Paul, and later pastor of the Church of the Im¬ 
 maculate Conception, Minneapolis. In 1902 he was 
 appointed to the see of Cheyenne, where he led the 
 life of an active missionary bishop, traveling much, 
 ministering to the spiritual needs of his people and 
 even visiting various parts of the country, giving 
 lectures to Catholics and non-Catholics, with the 
 proceeds of which he endowed his struggling dio- 
 
DUHEM 
 
 273 
 
 DUNEDIN 
 
 cese. In Dubuque he has systematized the adminis¬ 
 trative work of the archdiocese, multiplied its 
 schools and churches, and established a diocesan 
 paper. A persistent advocate of temperance, he 
 was for years president of the Catholic Total Ab¬ 
 stinence Lnion of America. His distinctive work, 
 however, has been the upbuilding of higher educa¬ 
 tion, and several buildings have been added to the 
 diocesan college and an adequate endowment se¬ 
 cured for it through his work. His leadership in 
 the Church is widely recognized, and he is well 
 known as an able speaker. In his public utterances 
 he has never ceased to plead for the larger Catholic 
 spirit that looks beyond local needs to the interests 
 of the universal Church. 
 
 The (1921) statistics of the archdiocese show 176 
 parish churches, 56 mission churches and 52 chapels, 
 257 diocesan and 14 regular clergy, 1 college for 
 men with 615 students, 2 high schools for women 
 with 225 students, 2 high schools for boys with 
 400 pupils, 7 academies for girls with about 2000 
 pupils, 92 parochial schools with over 15,000 pupils. 
 Among the charitable institutions are: 1 orphanage 
 with 250 inmates, 10 hospitals each accommodating 
 from 30 to 150 patients, 1 industrial home with 100 
 inmates and 1 Home of the Good Shepherd. About 
 200 Sisters of various communities are engaged in 
 conducting the hospitals and other charitable works, 
 and about 700 are engaged in the schools. The 
 Catholic population of the archdiocese is 111,500, 
 out of a total population of 700,000. During the 
 World War more than 5000 Catholic men entered 
 the service from this territory and six of the clergy 
 served as chaplains. 
 
 Duhem, Pierre Maurice Marie, was b. in Paris, 
 10 June, 1861; d. at Cabrespine, France, 14 Sep¬ 
 tember, 1916. He was a pupil of the College 
 Stanislas and the higher Normal School of Paris, 
 and was connected with the Universities of Lille, 
 Rennes, Bordeaux, and Louvain. He was also Cor¬ 
 responding Member of many scientific societies; 
 and the author of several voluminous works on 
 physics. He founded the Association of Catholic 
 Students at Bordeaux in 1913, for with him religion 
 and science always went hand in hand. He was 
 not merely a physicist; his purpose was to build 
 a solid foundation for all science. His reputation 
 was world-wide and his confreres place him on the 
 same plane as M. Henri Poincare. He remodeled 
 the history of science. He was profoundly Catholic, 
 and said in his article, “Physique de croyant”: 
 “Assuredly I believe with my whole soul all the 
 truths that God has revealed and the Church 
 teaches. I have never concealed my faith, and 
 I trust from the bottom of my heart that He from 
 Whom I have received it will prevent me from ever 
 being ashamed of it.” 
 
 Questions Scientifiques (October, 1922; January, 1922) - 
 Eymieu, La Part des Croyants (Paris, 1920) I. 
 
 by Cardinal Boggiani 8 September, taking posses- 
 ^ ls see 15 November following. Born in 
 Kiltimagh, Ireland, 15 December, 1877, ordained 
 It) October, 1901, later made master of novices 
 professor at the House of Studies and National 
 director of the Holy Name Society. He was serv¬ 
 ing as Socius to the Master General of the Order 
 
 vr 5? I1 [ ie I at the time of his appointment. Bishop 
 McNicholas immediately began an active campaign 
 ipr more priests, and at present (1922) 50 ecclesias- 
 trnal students are preparing for work in this diocese. 
 
 Ihe Cathedral parish was divided and plans for 
 a large school and new cathedral in the east end 
 of the city are already partially realized. A united 
 effort of all the parishes and missions has been 
 successfully made to secure a substantial sum for 
 education and the needs of parishes and institu¬ 
 tions. Twenty-three new parishes have been or¬ 
 ganized since the division of the diocese in 1910 
 
 A house of the Third Order of St. Dominic has 
 been established and is occupied by the Sisters of 
 Corpus Christi Chapter. These women from the 
 English Province undertake any welfare work de¬ 
 sired by the bishop and teach catechism in missions 
 and stations. A boarding house for working girls 
 under their direction has also been established. 
 
 The Benedictine Sisters have made extensive addi¬ 
 tions to St. Mary’s Hospital and to the mother- 
 house in Duluth. The statistics of the diocese at 
 present are as follows: Priests, diocesan and reli¬ 
 gious, 72; churches with resident pastors 49; mis¬ 
 sions with churches 43; stations 37; college and 
 academy for young women 1, with 130 pupils; high 
 school for boys 1, with 200 pupils; high school for 
 girls 1, with 150 pupils; parish schools 11, with 3304 
 pupils; orphanage 1, with 117 children; hospitals 2; 
 home for the aged 1, with 74 inmates; ecclesiastical 
 students 50; total number of children under Cath¬ 
 olic care 3901; total Catholic population 64,215, of 
 whom 3000 are Slavs, 1520 Indians, 5000 Italians, 
 2000 Germans, 4000 Poles, 8000 French Canadians, 
 and the remainder Americans. 
 
 Duluth, Diocese of (Duluthensis; cf. C. E., 
 V-188c), suffragan of the Archdiocese of St. Paul’ 
 comprises the counties of Aitkin, Carlton, Cass’ 
 Cooke, Crow Wing, Itasca, Lake, Pine, Koochiching’ 
 and St. Louis, in the State of Minnesota, U. S. A., 
 covering an area of 22,354 square miles. In 1910 
 part of the original diocese was taken to ?rect the 
 Diocese of Crookston, thus making possible a more 
 intensive cultivation of the field in both jurisdic¬ 
 tions. The golden jubilee of the ordination of 
 Rt. Rev. James MeGoldrick, first bishop of the 
 diocese, was celebrated June, 1917, and the following 
 year Bishop MeGoldrick died, 2 January. His suc¬ 
 cessor, Rf. Rev. John. T. McNicliolas, O. P„ was 
 appointed 18 July, 1918, and consecrated in Rome 
 
 Dunedin, Diocese of (Dun^densis; cf. C. E., 
 V-191a), in New Zealand, Oceania, comprises the 
 districts of Otago, Southland and Stewart Island, 
 and is suffragan of Wellington. Rt. Rev. Joseph 
 Whyte, the present (1922) administrator of the see, 
 b. in 1868 in the Diocese of Dublin, studied at St. 
 Kieran’s College, was ordained in 1893, arrived in 
 New South Wales in 1894, where he became pro¬ 
 fessor at St. Patrick’s College, appointed Bishop of 
 Dunedin 22 April, 1920, succeeding Rt. Rev. Michael 
 Verdon (b. 31 May, 1839; d. 22 November, 1918). 
 
 The diocesan statistics for 1922 are: parishes 24; 
 churches 71; stations 45; secular priests 43, regular 
 28; Brothers 11; nuns 240; 1 seminary with 60 
 seminarians; boarding schools and high schools 8; 
 primary schools 29; Magdalen asylum 1; industrial 
 and preservation school 1; orphanage 1; Nazareth 
 house 1; girls’ hostels 2; all under the care of the 
 religious communities established there, receiving 
 practically no grants from the Government. The 
 diocese numbers a Catholic population of 26,000, 
 nearly all of Irish descent or Irish born. 
 
 In February, 1921, the golden jubilee of the dio¬ 
 cese was celebrated, together with the arrival of 
 the first nuns (Dominicans); Mgr. Cerretti, the 
 apostolic delegate, visited the diocese in 1916, and 
 Mgr. Cattaneo, his successor, in November, 1921. 
 
 Societies organized in the diocese are: Eucharistic 
 League among the clergy, and Hibernian Society, 
 Celtic Clubs, Children of Mary, and Sacred Heart 
 Associations among the laity. The diocesan news¬ 
 paper, “New Zealand Tablet,” established since 
 
DUNKELD 
 
 274 
 
 DURAZZO 
 
 1873, has done great work in extending religious 
 and educational facilities among the people. 
 
 Dunkeld, Diocese of (Dunkeldensis; cf. C. E., 
 V-193d), in Scotland. Since the revival of this see 
 it has been held by five bishops. The third bishop, 
 Rt. Rev. Angus MacFarlane, d. 24 September, 1912, 
 was succeeded by Rt. Rev. Robert Fraser, conse¬ 
 crated 25 May, 1913. After a very short adminis¬ 
 tration Bishop Fraser died 28 March, 1914, and the 
 present bishop of Dunkeld, Rt. Rev. John Toner, 
 was appointed to succeed him (consecrated 15 Octo¬ 
 ber, 1915). 
 
 The total number of secular priests in the diocese 
 (1921) is 37; regulars (Redemptorists), 12; missions 
 and chaplaincies, 17; churches, chapels, and stations, 
 31; and parochial schools, 15. There are two 
 monasteries for men (Redemptorists and Marist 
 Brothers); 3 convents of women (Sisters of 
 
 Mercy, Little Sisters of the Poor and Sisters 
 of Charity); the Catholic institutions comprise a 
 home for aged poor, a House of Mercy for servants, 
 a working girls’ home and a children’s refuge in 
 charge of the Sisters of Charity. The Catholic 
 population of the diocese is estimated at between 
 35,000 and 40,000. 
 
 Dunkers (cf. C. E., XV-90d).—Although in recent 
 years an attempt has been made to unite the Pro¬ 
 gressives (officially, Brethren Church) and the Con¬ 
 servatives (officially Church of the Brethren), on 
 the other hand another sect of Dunkers, The Church 
 of God (New Dunkers), organized in 1848, was first 
 listed in the United States reports in 1916. It 
 has a membership of less than a thousand. The 
 Church of the Brethren carries on foreign mis¬ 
 sionary work in India, China, Sweden, and Den¬ 
 mark, reporting (1916) 19 stations, 66 American 
 missionaries, and a membership of 1803. The 
 Brethren Church has missions in Argentina, and 
 in Central Africa, employing 10 missionaries. The 
 body known as “German Seventh Day Baptists” 
 affiliates regularly with the Seventh Day Baptist 
 General Conference. The five bodies of Dunkers 
 reported in 1921 in the United States 1262 churches, 
 3767 ministers, and 122,932 members. 
 
 Religious Bodies , 1916 (Washington, 1919); Year Book of 
 the Churches (New York, annual). 
 
 N. A. Weber. 
 
 Dunne, Sarah Theresa. See Amadeus of the 
 Heart of Jesus, Mother Mary. 
 
 Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, Pa., was 
 founded in 1878 and incorporated in 1882 under the 
 title of “The Pittsburgh Catholic College of the 
 Holy Ghost,” with power to confer the usual col¬ 
 lege degrees. On 30 March, 1911, the charter was 
 amended and under the title of “The University 
 of the Holy Ghost” it was authorized to give 
 degrees in Law, Medicine, Dentistry, and Phar¬ 
 macy. On 27 May following the title was changed 
 to that of “Duquesne University,” The present col¬ 
 
 lege building was dedicated in April, 1885, the origi¬ 
 nal building being abandoned at that time. In 
 1894 a Gothic chapel was built adjoining the univer¬ 
 sity; the library comprises several thousand vol¬ 
 umes. The schools of law, oratory, social service, 
 and accounts are conducted in a part of the Van- 
 dergrift Building awaiting the erection of new col¬ 
 lege buildings. 
 
 The university is conducted by the Fathers of 
 the Congregation of the Holy Ghost, but the faculty 
 includes a number of lay professors as well. A 
 board of advisers, composed of business and pro¬ 
 fessional men, chosen irrespective of creed or politi¬ 
 cal affiliation, works in conjunction with the uni¬ 
 versity faculty, and no steps of importance are 
 taken without the approval of this board. In 1920- 
 21 over 2500 students were registered in all depart¬ 
 ments of the university. The president is the Very 
 Rev. Martin A. Hehir, C. S. Sp. LL.D. 
 
 Durango, Archdiocese of (Duranguenensis; cf. 
 C. E. V-208d), in Mexico. Bishop Francesco Mendoza, 
 the present (1922) incumbent was born 14 November, 
 1852, in the diocese of Zamora, professor and rector of 
 the seminary, chancellor and archdeacon of the 
 cathedral, appointed Bishop of Campeche, 11 
 December, 1904; consecrated 2 February, 1905, pro¬ 
 moted to the Archdiocese of Durango, 7 August, 
 1909, proclaimed 27 November, 1911, succeeding 
 Mgr. Santiago Zuriba y Manzanera, b. 29 Novem¬ 
 ber, 1834, d. 26 January, 1909. According to 1920 
 census reports the archdiocese comprises a total 
 population of 351,600 of wffiom 350,000 are Catholic; 
 there are 50 parishes, 250 churches or chapels, 125 
 secular and 9 regular priests, 3 monasteries for men, 
 properly so called, with churches, Carmelite, Au- 
 gustinian and a Franciscan monastery in Sombrete; 
 7 for women, 1 seminary with 50 seminarians, 9 
 colleges, 4 for boys with 10 teachers and 350 boys, 
 5 for girls with 25 teachers and 450 pupils; the 
 charitable institutions include, 1 home, 1 hospital 
 conducted by nuns, 1 asylum. There are several 
 societies organized among the laity, one among the 
 clergy. The Catholic press is represented by three 
 periodicals. The events of special importance in 
 the archdiocese since 1908 are the ravages done to 
 all ecclesiastical institutions by the revolutionists, 
 the destruction of the Sagrario, and the beautiful 
 church of St. Francis, as well as other beautiful 
 edifices, and the entire confiscation of church goods, 
 seminaries, colleges, etc. 
 
 Durazzo, Archdiocese of (Dyrrachiensis; cf. C. 
 E., V-209a), in Albania, is directly dependent on 
 the Holy See; it has a total population of nearly 
 200,000, of whom 12,500 are Catholics. The present 
 incumbent, Most Rev. Primo Bianchi (b. 16 March, 
 1852), has occupied this see since 1893. According 
 to the (1922) statistics the diocese numbers 10 
 secular and 7 regular priests and 46 churches and 
 chapels. 
 
E 
 
 Ecuador, Republic of (cf. C. E., V-278c).—Owing 
 to the unsettled boundary line, the area of the 
 South American republic is uncertain, but it is esti¬ 
 mated at 116,000 square miles. The last census was 
 in 1903, when the population was 1,323,590; the 
 latest estimate in 1915 gave a population of 2,000,- 
 000. The chief towns are Quito, the capital, with 
 70,000 inhabitants; Guayaquil, 93,851; Cuenca, 
 50,000; Riobamba, 18,000; Ambato, Loja, and 
 Latacunga, each about 10,000; Bahia, 8000; Esmer- 
 aldas, 4000. There has been some discussion about 
 selling the Galapagos islands (2400 square miles in 
 area, population, about 400). These form the 
 Archipelago of Galapagos, officially called “Colon.” 
 
 Education. —In 1912 public instruction was im¬ 
 proved. During the school year 1919-20 there were 
 1664 schools in operation in the Republic, 1359 of 
 which were government schools, 168 municipal, and 
 137 private schools. The total attendance in 1919-20 
 was 92,512 (50,502 males and 42,010 females). The 
 attendance at the government schools was 63,395; 
 at the municipal schools, 16,055; in the private 
 schools, 13,062. The total expenditure on elemen¬ 
 tary education in 1920 was £200,401, on secondary 
 education, £90,817, and for the universities, £72,435, 
 making a total of £313,707. The number of students 
 at the universities was 744. 
 
 Economic Conditions. —The staple produce of 
 Ecuador is cocoa, the production in 1919 being 
 22,474 cwts. The coffee exports in 1919 were 3,729,- 
 451 pounds. The export* of rubber in 1919 were 
 886,373 pounds, but are now declining, on account 
 of the destructive methods used in the collection 
 of the product. The chief imports come from the 
 United States, Great Britain, and Peru. According 
 to a report made by the director of statistics in 
 1920, the 1918 trade included imports valued at 
 £16,690,720 and exports at £27,449,536. There were 
 in 1920, eight factories for cotton and woolen tex¬ 
 tiles, giving an annual production of 610,000 yards 
 of cotton cloth and 100,000 yards of woolen cloth; 
 also 13 sugar works, flour mills, breweries, and 
 chocolate factories. 
 
 Communications. —In 1918 the steam vessels en¬ 
 tering the ports of Ecuador numbered 160 with a 
 tonnage of 195,537; clearing 153 with a tonnage of 
 181,537. There is now discussion of a proposed 
 line between Quito and the coast, which will render 
 accessible a fertile area of some 1,000,000 acres. 
 A concession of half of the land has been granted 
 the railway by the Government. In 1917 Ecuador 
 had 365 miles of railway and 4360 miles of tele¬ 
 graph. 
 
 The foreign debt on 31 December, 1919, amounted 
 to £3,558,861 and the internal debt to £2,262,448, 
 making a total of £5,821,309. About 70 per cent of 
 the revenue comes from customs duties, 15 per cent 
 from taxes on cocoa, real estate, white rum, and 
 tobacco; 6 per cent from salt, and the rest from 
 excise, rents, and postal rates. 
 
 Government. —The new constitution dates from 
 28 December, 1906. The executive power is vested 
 in a president elected for four years. The legislative 
 power is given to a Congress of tw T o Houses, the 
 first consisting of thirty-two senators, two for each 
 province chosen for four years, and the second of 
 forty-eight deputies, on the basis of one deputy for 
 each 30,000 inhabitants, chosen for two years, both 
 
 elected by adults who can read and write. From 
 1833 to 1908 Ecuador had twenty presidents. The 
 President in 1912 was Gen. Leonidas Plaza Gutierrez, 
 who had also been president from 1901-05; in 1916, 
 Dr. Alfredo Baquerizo Moreno; in 1920, Senor Luis 
 Tamajo. 
 
 Until October 20, 1918, most of the Indians were 
 virtually in bondage and peonage, and debt servi¬ 
 tude in its worst forms existed on the landed estates, 
 but by a legislative decree on that date, peonage 
 was abolished. Military service was made com¬ 
 pulsory on 24 May, 1921. The boundary dispute 
 with Colombia was settled by a treaty in 1917; 
 that with Peru still remains unsettled. 
 
 Religion. —The State recognizes no religion but 
 grants freedom of worship to all. For Catholic 
 statistics see Quito, Archdiocese of, and its suf- 
 ragans. 
 
 Edmonton, Archdiocese of (Edmontonensis; cf. 
 C. E., XIII-329d), in the Province of Alberta, 
 Canada, was formerly known as the Diocese of St. 
 Albert. It was divided first to form the vicariate of 
 Saskatchewan, and again (30 November, 1920) to 
 form the see of Calgary. At the same time the remain¬ 
 der of the diocese was made an archdiocese and the 
 name changed to Edmonton. The present boundaries 
 of the archdiocese are as follows: on the north the 
 55th degree of latitude, on the east the 110th degree 
 of longitude, on the south the northern boundary 
 of Township 30 in the province of Alberta, and on 
 the west the Rocky Mountains. Rt. Rev. Emile J. 
 Legal, Bishop of St. Albert, was made archbishop of 
 Edmonton and filled the see until his death, 10 
 March, 1920. He was succeeded 7 September of 
 the same year by the present incumbent, Rt. Rev. 
 Henry Joseph O’Leary, who had been consecrated 
 Bishop of Charlottetown 22 May, 1913. Archbishop 
 O’Leary was born at Richibucto, Diocese of Chatham, 
 13 March, 1879, studied at the Seminary of Montreal 
 and Canadian College, Rome, was ordained 21 Sep¬ 
 tember, 1901, and installed as Archbishop of Ed¬ 
 monton 8 October, 1920. 
 
 At the present time (1921) the archdiocese has a 
 Catholic population of 55,000, attended by 93 regu¬ 
 lar and 37 secular priests. There are 61 parishes, 
 128 churches, 139 missions, 45 stations, 3 communi¬ 
 ties of men and 16 of women, with a total of 474 
 Sisters, 15 lay brothers, 14 boarding schools, 34 
 primary schools, 8 hospitals, and 2 orphan asylums. 
 The Royal Alexandria Military Hospital permits 
 the priests of the diocese to minister in it. During 
 Archbishop O’Leary’s incumbency a seminary, 
 j uni orate and college have been established, and a 
 Catholic paper, “The Western Catholic,” has been 
 put into circulation. The Priests' League and 
 Knights of Columbus are established. During the 
 World War many of the French priests returned 
 to fight for their native land, the laity enlisted 
 in large numbers, and the Knights of Columbus 
 took a prominent part in the C. A. H. Campaign. 
 
 Edmund, Congregation of Saint (cf. C. E., 
 V-293b).—The congregation is dedicated to St. 
 Edmund, Archbishop of Canterbury, whose body 
 is preserved incorrupt at Pontigny Abbey. There 
 are about 100 priests. Before the laws of spoliation 
 in France the mother-house was at Pontigny Abbey 
 and the congregation also possessed the Abbey of 
 
EDUCATION 
 
 276 
 
 EGER 
 
 Mont-St .-Michel and colleges at Laval, Chateau 
 Gontier, and Sens. The mother-house is now at 
 Hitchin, Herts, England. At St. Michael’s College, 
 Hitchin, there are 150 students. St. Michael’s at 
 Winooski, Vermont, U. S. A., has 200 students. 
 There is an Apostolic School and novitiate at Swan- 
 ton, Vermont, and the Fathers also have houses at 
 Forsyth and St. Labre’s Mission, Diocese of Great 
 Falls, Montana, U. S. A. In the United States there 
 are 15 priests, 4 scholastics and novices, 20 juvenists, 
 and 2 lay brothers. Many of the French Fathers 
 are working in France. 
 
 Education (cf. C. E., V-304).—As the education 
 of one’s children is a primary end of matrimony, giv¬ 
 ing a child a non-Catholic education is a sufficient 
 reason for granting a matrimonial separation. When 
 a matrimonial separation is granted for any cause, 
 the education of the children is normally to be 
 entrusted to the innocent party; if one of the 
 parties is a non-Catholic,,it is to be confided to the 
 Catholic; however, in either case if the good of the 
 children demand it, and their Catholic education is 
 properly provided for, the ordinary may decide 
 otherwise. Catholic parents or guardians who know¬ 
 ingly entrust their children to be educated or in¬ 
 structed in a non-Catholic religion incur excom¬ 
 munication latce sententice reserved to the ordinary, 
 and are, furthermore, suspected of heresy. 
 
 Educational Association, Catholic, of the United 
 States, a voluntary organization of Catholic edu¬ 
 cators and other persons who have an interest in 
 the welfare of Catholic education in the United 
 States of America. The association was formed 
 at St. Louis, Mo., in July, 1904. In May, 1898, 
 representatives of the seminaries and Catholic col¬ 
 leges of the country met at St. Joseph’s Seminary, 
 Yonkers, N. Y., for a conference on the conditions 
 and problems of Catholic higher education. A 
 second meeting of these representatives was held 
 at Philadelphia in September, 1899. The work of 
 this conference lapsed until April, 1904, w T hen repre¬ 
 sentatives of several seminaries met and decided to 
 revive the conference and to hold a meeting in St. 
 Louis in July, 1904. An Association of Catholic 
 Colleges and Universities of the United States was 
 formed in Chicago, Ill., in April, 1899. Annual 
 meetings were held and printed reports of the pro¬ 
 ceedings and addresses of each meeting have been 
 issued. The Parish School Conference was formed 
 in Chicago in July, 1902. A second meeting was 
 held in Philadelphia, and at this meeting a com¬ 
 mittee was appointed and empowered to bring 
 about a union of the various educational con¬ 
 ferences on a basis that would preserve the purely 
 voluntary character of the movement. This result 
 was accomplished at St. Louis in 1904, when repre¬ 
 sentatives of the three conferences met and decided 
 to form the Catholic Educational Association of 
 the United States. Rt. Rev. D. J. O’Connell, D.D., 
 was elected first president general of the associa¬ 
 tion, and Rev. Francis W. Howard was elected 
 secretary general. 
 
 Annual meetings have been held since the year 
 1904. The meetings are held at the invitation and 
 under the patronage of the bishop of the diocese 
 in whose see the conference takes place. The fol¬ 
 lowing are the places and years in which meetings 
 have been held: St. Louis, Mo., 1904; New York, 
 N. Y., 1905; Cleveland, Ohio, 1906; Milwaukee, 
 Wis., 1907; Cincinnati, Ohio, 1908; Boston, Mass., 
 1909; Detroit, Mich., 1910; Chicago, Ill., 1911; 
 Pittsburgh, Pa., 1912; New Orleans, La., 1913; 
 Atlantic City, N. J., 1914; St. Paul, Minn., 1915; 
 Baltimore, Md., 1916; Buffalo, N. Y., 1917; San 
 
 Francisco, Cal., 1918; St. Louis, Mo., 1919; New 
 York, N. Y., 1920; Cincinnati, Ohio, 1921; Phila¬ 
 delphia, Pa., 1922. Printed reports of the proceed¬ 
 ings and addresses have been issued each year con¬ 
 taining valuable information and discussions relat¬ 
 ing to the important phases and current problems 
 of Catholic education, and many pamphlets and 
 reprints of papers read at the meetings have been 
 circulated. 
 
 The principal purpose of the association is to 
 provide a suitable means whereby representative 
 Catholic educators of the country can meet in 
 conference for the discussion of their problems. 
 While the educational policy of Catholics has been 
 formed to a very marked degree by the influence 
 of these conferences, there is no binding force in 
 the resolutions of the association, and it can have 
 no legislative authority to enforce its recommenda¬ 
 tions. In the constitution the aims of the associa¬ 
 tion are stated as follows: “The objection of this 
 association shall be to keep in the minds of the 
 people the necessity of religious instruction and 
 training as the basis of morality and sound educa¬ 
 tion; and to promote the principles and safeguard 
 the interests of Catholic education in all its depart¬ 
 ments; to advance the general interests of Catholic 
 education, to encourage the spirit of co-operation 
 and mutual helpfulness among Catholic educators, 
 to promote by study, conference, and discussion the 
 thoroughness of Catholic educational work in the 
 United States; to help the cause of Catholic educa¬ 
 tion by the publication and circulation of such 
 matters as shall further these ends.” 
 
 The association is composed of three depart¬ 
 ments: the Seminary Department, the Department 
 of Catholic Colleges and Secondary Schools, the 
 Parish School Department. Each department regu¬ 
 lates its own affairs, but the governing body of the 
 association is the executive board, in which each 
 department has equal representation. Each depart¬ 
 ment may form sections to care for special phases 
 of its own work. The general officers are elected 
 annually at a general meeting of the association, 
 and the executive board elects a secretary general, 
 who is the executive officer of the board and of 
 the association. 
 
 The association has had the good will and gen¬ 
 erous patronage of the bishops of the country, and 
 many of its recommendations have been received 
 with favor by them. Each year Catholic educators 
 have been honored and encouraged by a paternal 
 message from the Holy Father, and the Apostolic 
 blessing. At the present time (1922) there are 
 26 members in the Seminary Department, 106 mem¬ 
 bers in the Department of Catholic Colleges and 
 Secondary Schools, and 2000 members in the Parish 
 School Department. Rt. Rev. Thomas J. Shahan, 
 D. D., is now the president general of the associa¬ 
 tion. The general office of the association has 
 been located at Columbus, Ohio, since 1904. In 
 all the years of its existence, the association has 
 defended the right of the Church to found and 
 maintain her own schools, colleges, and seminaries; 
 and through the medium afforded by the association 
 Catholic educators have been able to promote in 
 a substantial manner the thoroughness of Catholic 
 educational work in the United States in all its 
 departments. 
 
 Francis W. Howard. 
 
 Eger (Agria, Erlau, Jager), Archdiocese of (cf. 
 C. E., I-230c), in Hungary. His Eminence Cardinal 
 Samassa, who was appointed Archbishop of Agria 
 1873 and created a cardinal in 1905, died 20 August, 
 1912, and was succeeded by his coadjutor, Most 
 
EGYPT 
 
 EGYPT 
 
 Rev. Louis Szmrecsanyi, the present (1921) incum¬ 
 bent. Born in the diocese of Cassovia, 1851, and 
 ordained 1873, Archbishop Szmrecsanyi was ap¬ 
 pointed to the titular see of Magydos 14 November, 
 1904, and made auxiliary to the Archbishop of 
 Zagrab, and on 26 March, 1912, he was promoted 
 to the titular see of Cvraa and made coadjutor. 
 In 1910 there were in this territory 661,579 Latin 
 Catholics, 83,619 Greek Catholics, 492 Orthodox 
 Greeks, 455,205 Protestants, 69,279 Jews; 200 
 parishes, 348 secular and 51 regular clergy. 
 
 Egypt, an independent sovereign state in alliance 
 with Great Britain. The total area of Egypt 
 proper, including the Libyan Desert, the region 
 between the Nile and the Red Sea and the Sinai 
 Peninsula (excluding the Sudan), is about 350,000 
 square miles, but the civilized area includes only 
 12,226 square miles. Here the population is 12,- 
 750,918, or 1061 persons to the square mile. The 
 principal towns with their populations according 
 to the census of 1917 are: Cairo, 790,939; Alexandria, 
 444,617; Port Said, 91,090; Suez, 30,996; Damietta, 
 30,984. The natives numbered 12,512,257; English, 
 24,356; French, 21,270; Italians, 40,198; Turks, 
 30,796; Greeks, 56,735. Of the population in 1917, 
 4,044,324 were engaged in agriculture and fishing, 
 489,296 in industries, 280,561 in commerce, 142,386 
 in professional pursuits, 2,579,577 in domestic work, 
 and 4,302,259 in unproductive or unknown occupa¬ 
 tions. 
 
 Religion— In 1917 the population consisted of 
 11,653,148 Moslems, 854,773 Orthodox, 59,581 Jews. 
 Of the Christians 47,481 were Protestants, 107,687 
 Catholics, and 14,416 of various Christian creeds. 
 Thus the Moslems formed 91.43% of the com¬ 
 munity, and the Christians 8.03%. The “Egyptian 
 Almanac” for 1917 gives the following data con¬ 
 cerning the Coptic Orthodox Community: “The 
 head is the Patriarch, Kyrollos V, who lives in 
 Cairo and is assisted by twelve Mutrans and two 
 bishops. There are numerous Coptic convents, 
 among the most important being Deir el Azra, Deir 
 Amba Samuel, Deir Antonius, Deir Amba, Deir el 
 Azra, Deir el Surian, Deir Amba Bishoi, Deir 
 Makarios el Misri, all for men. There are five 
 convents for women in Cairo. The Coptic churches 
 in Egypt number about 600, some of them being 
 over 1000 years old. The high Court of the Com¬ 
 munity, or MegUs el Milli el Ala, is presided over 
 by the Patriarch and eight others elected by the 
 Community. The Meglis was instituted by Decree 
 of 14 May, 18S3, and was modified by Law No. 3 
 of 1912. It has branches in all the Mutrianias and 
 bishoprics. There are two other courts: a court 
 which looks into the personal complaints of the 
 clergy, and an Assembly (El Magma), whose mem¬ 
 bers consist of the Mutrans and certain of the 
 higher clergy to amend the existing laws and to 
 initiate fresh legislation. Ecclesiastical education is 
 given in three special schools, two of w T hich (Cairo 
 and Alexandria) are for the training of young men 
 for the priesthood, and the third for arifs, or blind 
 young men who desire to devote themselves to 
 the Church.” 
 
 Education.— The lack of education among the in¬ 
 habitants is revealed in the illiteracy statistics of 
 1917, the proportion of native Egyptians able to 
 read and to write being, males 120 per 1000, females 
 18 per 1000. The effects of the Government to 
 correct this state of affairs is seen in the increase 
 in the budget of the Ministry of Education from 
 £ E. 685,203 in 1919-20 to £E. 1,013,503 in 1920-21. 
 Even thus the budget still amounts to only 2 per 
 cent of the State budget, and further liberal in¬ 
 
 creases are necessary in order to cope with the 
 growing educational demands. In 1921 there were 
 under the management of the Ministry of Educa¬ 
 tion 165 vernacular schools and 61 Europeanized 
 schools with a total attendance of 40,423; under its 
 inspection 3790 vernacular schools and 182 Euro¬ 
 peanized schools, with a total attendance of 279,310 
 (41,711 girls). In 1920 there were 53 provincial 
 council* schools and 60 private schools for 18,174 
 primary pupils; the total attendance in the Gov¬ 
 ernment primary schools was 10,749. The provincial 
 councils maintain 517 elementary schools, and also 
 gave grants-in-aid in 1920 to 2714 elementary 
 schools ( maktabs under inspections). There are 
 8 Government secondary schools and 32 private 
 secondary schools, the latter under the inspection 
 of the Ministry of Education and varying greatly 
 in efficiency. Progress is being made toward the 
 establishment of a state university at Cairo. Under 
 other Government departments are the school of 
 law (353 students), the military school (90 cadets), 
 the veterinary school (19 students), the higher 
 school of agriculture (99 students), the inter¬ 
 mediate school of agriculture (108 students), the 
 police school (95 cadets), and 2 reformatories. 
 
 Government.— The present status of Egypt 
 (1922) is that of a sovereign state in alliance with 
 Great Britain. To Great Britain are reserved for 
 its own discretion the following matters: (1) Se¬ 
 curity of British imperial communications in Egypt; 
 (2) defence of Egypt against all foreign aggression 
 or interference, direct or indirect; (3) protection 
 of foreign interests and foreign communities in 
 Egypt. The British protectorate, which was estab¬ 
 lished in 1914, has been terminated, and the coun¬ 
 try is left free to work out such national institutions 
 as may be suited to the aspirations of her people. 
 There is uncertainty about the future Legislative 
 Assembly of Egypt. The Law of 1883 created a 
 Legislative Council, a General Assembly, and Pro¬ 
 vincial Councils, which were consultative rather 
 than legislative. In 1913 the first two were amal¬ 
 gamated into a new body called the Legislative 
 Assembly. The Government, however, was not 
 bound by the resolutions of the Assembly, and 
 moreover, never called the Assembly after 1913. 
 
 The Capitulations, i. e., concessions or extra¬ 
 territorial rights secured by resident foreigners 
 from the Sultans of Turkey, have presented a hard 
 problem to the Egyptians. The multiplicity of 
 jurisdictions arising out of them, and the facilities 
 which they give to men of uncertain nationality to 
 escape the local jurisdiction, greatly complicate the 
 problem of law and order, while the exemption of 
 foreigners from direct taxation, other than land 
 and house tax, cripples the Government in raising 
 revenue, since in practice it is impossible to impose 
 on Egyptians taxes from which foreigners are 
 exempt. The capitulations of Germany and Aus¬ 
 tria were terminated by the recent Treaties of 
 Versailles and St. Germain; those of Greece by 
 an agreement signed with Great Britain at Athens 
 in 1920. 
 
 Economic Status. —The cultivable area of Egypt 
 proper was estimated, in 1919, at 7,691,793 feddans 
 (1 jeddan— 1.038 acres), and of this 2,829,215 were 
 uncultivated for want of reclamation. Forced labor 
 (corvee) has been abolished, but the inhabitants 
 may be called out to guard or to repair the Nile 
 banks in flood'time. The agricultural population 
 (Fellahin) forms about 62 per cent of the whole. 
 A large proportion of them are land-holders on a 
 small scale, and the others are laborers, the relation 
 between employer and employee being hereditary. 
 The economic prosperity of Egypt is regulated by 
 
EGYPT 
 
 278 
 
 EICHSTATT 
 
 the demand for the finer qualities of cotton, and 
 to avoid any recurrence of the financial depression 
 that invariably follows when the demand for the 
 product ceases, the Government took steps to 
 encourage the production of foodstuffs and to 
 restrict the cotton area to one-third of each holding. 
 In 1919 the area and production of cotton was 
 1,574,000 jeddans and 5,572,000 qantars (1 qantar= 
 99.05 lbs.). The area under cotton in 1920 was 
 1,827,868 jeddans; the area under wheat, 1,146,715 
 jeddans. In 1919 the sugar exported amounted to 
 12,689 tons, valued at £ E. 654,656, and the cotton 
 exported to 6,708,906 qantars, valued at £E. 65,- 
 441,901. The foreign trade in Egypt in 1920 was 
 valued at $914,233,898, an increase of $298,910,281, 
 or of 48 per cent over 1919. The increase, how¬ 
 ever, is due largely to advanced prices rather than 
 to increased quantities. The imports in 1920 were 
 valued at $507,701,557. The United Kingdom comes 
 first in the amount of trade with Egypt, the United 
 States a close second. In 1920 the mineral produc¬ 
 tion included 110,000 tons of phosphate; in 1918 
 282,000 metric tons of petroleum and 27,000 tons of 
 iron ore. 
 
 In March, 1920, there were (exclusive of sidings) 
 2330 miles of rails w r orked by the State and 721 
 miles of rails of agricultural light railways owned 
 by private companies. In May, 1918, Cairo was 
 connected by railway with the Palestine system by 
 the completion of a swing-bridge over the Suez 
 Canal at Kantara. The working expense of the 
 railways represents an average of about 72 per cent 
 of the gross receipts. By a decree of 18 October, 
 1916, the monetary unit of Egypt was made the 
 gold Egyptian pound of 100 piastres. On 1 April, 
 1920, the debt of Egypt amounted to £93,198,140 
 sterling. Work is proceeding on the Blue Nile 
 Weir, but is suspended on the White Nile Dam, 
 which was begun in 1914, forty miles south of 
 Khartum. The raising of the Assuan Dam was 
 completed in 1912. The dam was raised sixteen 
 feet and the thickness increased about an equal 
 amount. The capacity of the dam is increased 
 from 1,000,000,000 cubic meters to 2,423,000,000 cubic 
 meters, its depth from 65 feet to 88 feet, and the 
 extent of the river affected from 140 miles to 185 
 miles. 
 
 Recent History. —Egypt declared war on Ger¬ 
 many in August, 1914, and with the entrance of 
 Turkey into the war, the English replaced the 
 Turkish suzerainty by a protectorate placed over 
 the country. During the struggle the borders of 
 Egypt, especially around the Suez Canal, were the 
 scene of several military conflicts. In January, 1916, 
 the Sennusi along the western border involved the 
 defenders of Egypt in several minor military en¬ 
 gagements near Mersa-Matruh and near Barani. In 
 March of that year the British captured Solium, 
 which the Arabs had held since their invasion of 
 Egypt in 1915, organized the conquered province 
 into a separate administrative area and named^ it 
 the Western Governate. On the eastern frontier, 
 around the Canal, the Turkish armies under Ger¬ 
 man leadership were particularly active, engaging 
 in several encounters near Tussum (2 February, 
 1915), and at Quatia Oases (23 April, 1916). At 
 Kati (4 August, 1916) the British troops, composed 
 of Australians and New Zealanders, under Sir Archi¬ 
 bald Murray, succeeded in inflicting a decisive de¬ 
 feat on the Turks. The year 1918 witnessed the 
 great outbreak of the revolutionary movement 
 which had been simmering in Egypt for several 
 years. Throughout the war Egypt was the training- 
 ground of the British territorial regiments, the 
 Indian, Australian, and New Zealand troops. 
 
 "Egypt for the Egyptians” became the rallying 
 cry even before the war, which, on account of the 
 obnoxious protectorate, enhanced the movement 
 against British dominion. The movement spread 
 to the Bedouins of the desert, who joined the towns¬ 
 folk and fellahan in making trouble for the British. 
 The Egyptians complained of the cruel treatment 
 of native soldiers, the prohibition of the meetings 
 of the Legislature during the war, harsh censorship 
 of newspapers and political discussion in the state 
 schools, and the suppression of nationalistic activ¬ 
 ities. They resented the increasing number of 
 British officials in the Egyptian Government, dis¬ 
 liked the idea of the political subordination of the 
 Moslem to Christian rule, as contrary to the spirit 
 of Islam, and in view of the scant consideration 
 received after the war, felt that their nation had 
 made too many sacrifices during the struggle. 
 Their delegates decided to present their case to the 
 Peace Conference at Versailles, and after several 
 months of delay caused by their arrest and deporta¬ 
 tion by the British officials were not permitted to 
 state their case at all. In the meantime the in¬ 
 creasing disorders in Egypt caused the British 
 Government to send General Allenby as High Com¬ 
 missioner to Egypt with full military and civil 
 powers to restore order. He declared promptly that 
 the policy of Great Britain was to develop the 
 autonomy of Egypt under British protection. A 
 mission was sent to the country in 1920 under the 
 presidency of Lord Milner to formulate plans for 
 the practical application of this policy. On 28 
 February, 1922, an announcement was made, declar¬ 
 ing the British protectorate in Egypt at an end, 
 and on 16 March Egypt was declared to be a con¬ 
 stitutional monarchy with the Sultan Ahmed Fuad 
 Pasha as King. 
 
 Catholic History. —In 1921 Mgr. Andrea Cassulo, 
 titular Archbishop of Leontopolis, was appointed 
 Apostolic Delegate to succeed Mgr. Birante. There 
 are two vicariates apostolic in Egypt for Catholics 
 of the Latin Rite, the Vicariate of the Delta of the 
 Nile (q. v.) and the Vicariate of Egypt, erected 
 in 1839, and comprising at the present time Upper 
 Egypt and the mission of Lower Egypt. In 1920 it 
 contained 61,117 Catholics of the Latin Rite and 
 17,416 of other rites, 1382 of whom were served by 
 missionaries of the Latin Rite. Inhere were 94 
 Latin priests, 245 Brothers, 469 Sisters, 17 parishes, 
 8 succursal parishes, 27 residential stations, 55 
 churches, and 27 chapels. 
 
 For statistics of the Uniat Coptic Church see 
 Alexandria, Patriarchate of; Alexandria, Diocese 
 of; Hermopolis, Diocese of; Thebes, Diocese of. 
 
 Eichstatt (Eystadium), Diocese of (Eystel- 
 lensis or Aystellensis; cf. C. E., V-364c), in 
 Bavaria, lies north of the Danube and is suffragan 
 to Bamberg. The diocese comprises about 200,000 
 Catholics. There are 214 parishes, 488 churches, 10 
 mission stations, 1 abbey and 8 monasteries for 
 men and 1 abbey and 58 monasteries for women, 
 with 816 Sisters. The secular priests number 
 375, regulars 43, of whom 22 are in monasteries. 
 There is 1 seminary at Eichstatt, which has a 
 philosophico-theological academy with 10 professors 
 and 66 students. In the diocese there are 2 Latin 
 high schools (Vollgymnasium with 9 years’ course), 
 2 high schools (Hath gymnasium with 6 years’ 
 course), 5 scientific high schools ( Realschulen, 150 
 to 250 students; one has over 350 students), 1 nor¬ 
 mal school (6 years’ course, 112 students), 1 normal 
 school for girls conducted by the English Ladies 
 (6 years’ course, 96 students). All these schools 
 receive support from the Government. In every 
 
EINSIEDELN 
 
 279 
 
 EL PASO 
 
 
 parish there are from 1 to 3 common elementary 
 schools with 50 to 70 pupils. In the cities and in 
 outlying districts throughout the diocese there are 
 30-40 hospitals and 16 day nurseries. 
 
 The following societies exist among the clergy: 1 
 diocesan union, 4 Marian Congregations, 1 scientific 
 association for all Bavaria. Among the laity there 
 is an association for Catholic workingmen in every 
 city, 1 Catholic Men’s Association, 8 Journeymen’s 
 Associations, 30 boys’ clubs. Parents’ associations 
 for the support of Christian schools have been es¬ 
 tablished in many places. Twelve Catholic news¬ 
 papers and periodicals are printed in the diocese. 
 Since 1907, 9 churches were built and many were 
 enlarged and repaired, 8 parishes were founded, 4 
 hospitals erected, and 10 convents were established. 
 
 The present bishop is Rt. Rev. Leo de Mer- 
 gel, O. S. B., b. at Rohrbach, Bavaria, 9 December, 
 1847, ordained 29 March, 1873, made president gen¬ 
 eral of the Bavarian Benedictine Congregation, ap¬ 
 pointed to the see of Eichstatt, 28 October, 1905, 
 and consecrated 27 December following. 
 
 Einsiedeln, Abbey of (cf. C. E., V-367b), a Bene¬ 
 dictine monastery in the Canton of Schusyz, Switz¬ 
 erland. Eighteen of the priests care for 9 parishes 
 which are incorporated in the monastery, 14 are 
 spiritual fathers and confessors at various convents 
 and institutions, 8 are custodians of the monastery 
 property, while those who live in the monastery 
 are engaged in teaching. Connected with the mon¬ 
 astery there is a theological school for the Benedic¬ 
 tines, also a gymnasium with a lyceum (8 classes), 
 attended by 320 students, 250 of whom are boarders. 
 Lately an agricultural school has been established. 
 The present abbot, Rt. Rev. Thomas Bossart, b. at 
 Altishofen, near Lucerne, 16 September, 1858, was 
 ordained 20 April, 1884, elected 30 May, 1905, blessed 
 11 July, 1905, and published 11 December following. 
 
 Election (cf. C. E., V-374).—If the right of elec¬ 
 tion belongs to a college, and the president neglects 
 to notify more than one-third of the electors, the 
 election is thereby invalid, unless those who were 
 neglected have taken part in it. Convocation of 
 the electors before the vacancy of an office which 
 is to be held for life is null in canon law. Voting 
 by letter or by proxy is forbidden, unless there is 
 a private law authorizing this procedure. Voting 
 must be free, secret, and unconditioned; no one 
 can vote for himself validly. After each scrutiny 
 or each session, if more than one ballot has been 
 taken, the votes must be burned. The party elected 
 must signify his acceptance or refusal within eight 
 days after receiving notification of the result, other¬ 
 wise the election is null; formerly the period al¬ 
 lowed was one month. Unless common law or a 
 private statute expressly declares otherwise, the 
 decision of a collegiate body is to be obtained as 
 follows in order to have the force of law: when 
 the invalid ballots have been eliminated an absolute 
 majority of the votes decides the election; if two 
 polls have failed to secure an absolute majority, a 
 relative majority suffices at the third poll; if that 
 has resulted in a tie, the presiding officer may cast 
 a deciding vote; if he should be unwilling to do so, 
 the candidate among those who have obtained the 
 highest vote and who is senior in orders, or by first 
 profession, or by age, is selected. 
 
 The election of the mother superior of a monas¬ 
 tery of nuns ( moniales ) is presided over by the 
 local ordinary or his delegate with two assistants 
 to count the votes, who must remain outside of the 
 enclosure. If the nuns are subject to regulars, the 
 regular superior presides; however, in this case 
 timely notice should be sent to the ordinary, so 
 
 that, if he wishes, he may assist personally or by 
 proxy with the regular superior, and, if he assists, 
 preside. The ordinary confessors of the nuns may 
 not act as the assistants referred to above. In case 
 of the election of a mother general of a congrega¬ 
 tion the local ordinary of the place of election is to 
 preside personally or by proxy, and may confirm 
 or rescind the election as he thinks proper if the 
 congregation is diocesan. 
 
 Elizabeth, Sisters of Saint (cf. C. E., V-388b).— 
 To facilitate its management the congregation was 
 divided into 10 provinces by resolutions of the gen¬ 
 eral chapter, 14 November, 1898. The principal 
 province has its mother-house and novitiate at 
 Breslau. Other provincial houses with provinces 
 are: Konigsberg (East and West Prussia); Halle 
 (Saxony and Thuringia); Stockholm (Sweden and 
 Norway); Christiania (Norway and Denmark); 
 Rome (Italy); Berlin (Brandenburg-Pomerania); 
 Reinbek (Schleswig-Holstein); Posen (Gnesen- 
 Posen); Neisse (Upper Silesia). The present 
 superior general is Mother Mercedes Rother, ap¬ 
 pointed 1 September, 1920. The congregation has 
 403 settlements and 3456 members. Besides their 
 original task of nursing the sick, the Sisters have 
 other spheres of activity, listed in the following 
 statistical record. 
 
 In 1920 they were in charge of 44 hospitals and 
 infirmaries with 1006 patients; 39 orphan asylums 
 and houses of refuge with 1836 inmates; 1 asylum 
 caring for 23 mentally deficient girls; 20 homes 
 accommodating 1442 working women; 18 houses for 
 communicants with 1087 wards; 24 pump-rooms and 
 convalescent houses caring for 2237; 213 kinder¬ 
 gartens with 8631 children; 44 schools for house¬ 
 keeping and needle-work with 1847 pupils; 61 as¬ 
 sociations of maid-servants and working women 
 with 3060 members; 10 creches with 359 infants; 
 11 day nurseries with 780 nursing infants; 4 milk 
 kitchens caring for 717 nursing infants; 30 public 
 kitchens distributing 156,048 meals; 15 primary 
 schools with 3709 pupils; 8 boys’ lunch rooms, and 
 homes for retired working men and priests, accom¬ 
 modating 437. The Sisters have charge of public 
 schools only in the mission stations. Of the 131,835 
 sick people cared for in 1920, 74,062 were nursed 
 in their own dwellings, 57,773 in 84 infirmaries and 
 5 military hospitals. This required 1,397,685 days 
 of nursing and 309,282 night-watches. Dispensary 
 help was given to 257,496 persons. There were 
 587,993 meals given to the poor and poor sick. 
 
 El Paso, Diocese of (Elpasensis), in Texas, U. 
 S. A., suffragan of Santa Fe, which was erected by 
 Decree of 3 March, 1914, covers an area of 68,394 
 sq. miles, comprising the counties of El Paso, Cul¬ 
 berson, Hudspeth, Presidio, Jeff-Davis, Reeves, 
 Brewster, Terrel, Pecos, Crane, Ward, Loving, 
 Winkler, Ector, Andrews and Gaines in the State 
 of Texas, and the counties of Grant, Luna, Dona 
 Ana, Otero, Eddy, and a part of Sierra and Lea 
 in the State of New Mexico. 
 
 The material condition of the diocese is some¬ 
 what difficult, owing to the moderate fortune of 
 the Catholic Mexicans. The moral condition is 
 generally good, and greater progress is anticipated 
 for the future. The number of priests has increased, 
 and their growth in holiness of life gives confidence 
 of a bright future. During the past five years there 
 have been erected more than 45 churches and 
 chapels, 10 parochial schools, and 2 orphanages, 
 without increasing the diocesan debt, due to the 
 generosity of the people, who are generally poor. 
 Five years ago there were only 13 canonically 
 erected parishes; there are now (1922) 39 parishes, 
 
ELPHIN 
 
 280 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 39 churches, 84 missions, and about 25 mission 
 stations, 28 secular and 36 regular priests; 15 ele¬ 
 mentary schools with 4535 pupils, 3 academies, 1 
 training school for nurses, 2 industrial schools, 2 
 orphanages, and 1 day nursery; about ten of the 
 public institutions admit the ministry of the priests. 
 The religious communities represented in the dio¬ 
 cese are: men, 6 (Jesuit and Franciscan Fathers), 
 women, 9, with 110 nuns in the various communities, 
 which are Sisters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul, 
 Sisters of Loretto, Sisters Servants of the Sacred 
 Heart of the Poor, Sisters of the Incarnate Word 
 of San Antonio, Texas, Sisters of the Precious Blood, 
 Sisters of St. Joseph, and Sisters of the Immaculate 
 Heart of Mary, all in charge of the various institu¬ 
 tions in the diocese. There are two houses of 
 novices, one for the Jesuits, and the other in Silver 
 City for the Sisters of St. Joseph. 
 
 The Catholic population in the confines of the 
 diocese is 112,504, Spanish and English-speaking, 
 and they are administered at present (1922) by 
 Rt. Rev. Anthony Joseph Schuler, S. J., first Bishop 
 of El Paso, b. 20 September, 1869, in the diocese of 
 Erie, ordained 27 June, 1901, rector of the Sacred 
 Heart Church in Denver, appointed bishop 17 June, 
 1915, consecrated 28 October, 1915, succeeding Rt. 
 Rev. John J. Brown, preconized Bishop of El Paso 
 22 January, 1915, resigned the same year. Events 
 of special importance in the diocese since 1915 are: 
 the visit ad limina of the bishop, the dedication 
 of the new cathedral, and the general building up of 
 the diocese. One periodical, “La Regista catolica, 
 is published in the diocese. 
 
 Elphin, Diocese of (Elphinensis; cf. C. E., 
 V-394c), in Connaught, Ireland, includes nearly the 
 whole of the county of Roscommon, and a large 
 portion of Sligo and Galway, with cathedral church 
 and residence at Sligo. Bishop John Clancy, b. 23 
 December, 1856, d. 19 October, 1912, was succeeded 
 by Most. Rev. Bernard Coyne, b. 1854, educated 
 at Summerhill and Maynooth, ordained priest 1879, 
 rector of Boyle 1890, canon theologian of Elphin 
 1896, vicar general 1910, consecrated Bishop of 
 Elphin, 30 March, 1913. In the census of 1911 the 
 total population numbered 122,128, of whom 115,262 
 Catholics and 6866 were non-Catholics. There are 
 at present (1922) 33 parishes, 101 secular and 4 regu¬ 
 lar priests, 86 churches, 14 chapels, 10 convents, 4 
 monasteries, 1 college, 3 intermediate schools. Soci¬ 
 eties of St. Vincent de Paul are organized through¬ 
 out the diocese. 
 
 Emesa (or Homs), Diocese of (Emesensis), a 
 residential see for the Greek-Melchite and Syrian 
 Rites. It is an archdiocese of the Greek-Melchites 
 with the united title of Hama or Apama (Apamen- 
 sis), and the archbishop resides at Yabrud, by 
 which name the diocese is sometimes called. The 
 present incumbent is Most Rev. Flavian Kfoury, 
 born in Lebanon, served as Abbot General of the 
 Basilians of the Baladite Congregation, and ap¬ 
 pointed bishop 21 November, 1901. The 1920 
 statistics credit this diocese with approximately 
 7230 Catholics of the Greek-Melchite Rite, 7000 of 
 other rites, 10,000 Schismatics, and 180,000 Moham¬ 
 medans; 12 secular and 4 regular clergy, 12 churches, 
 and 8 schools with 215 pupils. 
 
 It is also an archdiocese for the Syrian Rite, 
 with the united titles of Hama and Nebek. At 
 present (1922) it is administered by a patriarchal 
 vicar, Rt. Rev. Theophilus Joseph Giorgi, titular 
 Bishop of Arethusa. There are 2200 Catholics of 
 this Rite, 4 secular priests, and 5 churches or 
 chapels. Emesa is a titular see for the Latin and 
 Maronite Rites; the Latin titular is Most Rev. 
 
 Alberto Vassallo di Torre Grossa, appointed 3 
 December, 1913, Internuncio to Argentina, residing 
 in Buenos-Aires. The Maronite titular is Rt. Rev. 
 Joseph Sakr, consecrated 11 February, 1911, patri¬ 
 archal vicar at Bikorka. 
 
 Emigration Societies —An act to limit immigra¬ 
 tion of aliens into the United States was passed 
 19 May, 1921, by which the number of aliens of 
 any nationality who might be admitted during any 
 fiscal year should be limited to 3 per cent of the 
 number of foreign-born persons of such nationality 
 resident in the United States as shown by the 
 census of 1910. This was the culmination of the 
 agitation for restrictive immigration that had been 
 going on for the previous decade. The law was 
 to continue in force until 20 June, 1922, but it was 
 further extended for two years from that date. 
 This, with the results of the great World War, 
 during which period the old time immigration ac¬ 
 tivities almost ceased, seriously impaired the tradi¬ 
 tional work of the older emigrant aid societies. 
 The large number of Italians and Polish immi¬ 
 grants, however, were well cared for by their 
 respective societies. In 1921 the National Catholic 
 Welfare Council established a Bureau of Immigra¬ 
 tion at New York and sent a commissioner abroad 
 to develop the aspect of the work which was thus 
 taken up on an international scope. 
 
 Emmet, Thomas Addis, physician and writer, b. 
 29 May, 1828, at the University of Virginia; d. 
 in New York, 1 March, 1919. He was the son of 
 John Patten Emmet, and the grandson of the 
 Thomas Addis Emmet, physician, patriot and exile, 
 and brother of Robert Emmet. His mother was 
 Mary Byrd Farley Tucker. He was educated in 
 St. Thomas Hall, Flushing, L. I., and in the Uni¬ 
 versity of Virginia and received his degrees of M.D. 
 and LL. D. in Jefferson, Pa., in the year 1862. He 
 was the president of various medical societies and 
 of the Irish Federation of America. The medical 
 body of New York regarded Dr. Emmet as one of 
 their chief glories, though the method he advocated 
 in obstetrics was for a long time a subject of severe 
 criticism, but he lived to enjoy his complete vindi¬ 
 cation. He was so intense in his Irish patriotism 
 that he found great difficulty in obtaining a pub¬ 
 lisher for “The Irish Under English Rule.” He be¬ 
 came a convert to the Faith by listening to a 
 single sermon of a Redemptorist missionary who 
 was explaining the necessity of submitting one’s 
 intelligence to the authority of the Divine Teacher 
 in order that proper homage might be made by 
 that supreme faculty to the Creator. He was so 
 thoroughly acquainted with the doctrines of the 
 Faith that he needed no instruction, having lived 
 all his life with Catholics and having married a 
 Catholic. He was baptized a quarter of an hour 
 after hearing the sermon which swept away the 
 only difficulty that he had about the Faith. His 
 “Incidents of My Life” was published in 1911. His 
 last literary work was the life of his two great 
 ancestors, Thomas Addis and Robert Emmet. 
 
 England (cf. C. E., V-431b).—The area of Eng¬ 
 land in statute acres (land and inland water) in 
 1921 was 32,559,868 acres, of which 594,185 were 
 included in the county boroughs and 31,965,683 
 in administrative counties. In 1921 the population 
 of England was 35,678,530, of whom 16,984,087 
 were males, and 18,694,443 were females. The 
 increase in the period between 1911 and 1921 was 
 4.8%. In 1921 Greater London had an acreage of 
 443,449 statute acres; of this, 74,850 acres belonged 
 to the administrative county and City of London; 
 
ENGLAND 
 
 281 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 368,599 acres to the outer ring. The population 
 of the administrative county and city was 4,483,249; 
 of the outer ring, 2,992,919, a total of 7,476,168. 
 The other large cities with their respective popula¬ 
 tions are: Birmingham 919,438; Liverpool 803,118; 
 Manchester 730,551; Sheffield 490,724; Leeds 458,- 
 320. Of these, Birmingham, Manchester, and Shef¬ 
 field made the greatest gains in population since 
 1911. Blackpool made a gain of 64%, its population 
 in 1921 being 99,640. The movement of the popula¬ 
 tion of England and Wales is seen in the following 
 statistics: 
 
 Year 
 
 Estimated 
 
 Population 
 
 Total 
 
 Births 
 
 Illegiti¬ 
 
 mate 
 
 Births 
 
 Deaths 
 
 Mar¬ 
 
 riages 
 
 1910 
 
 1920 
 
 35,791,902 
 
 37,609,600 
 
 896,962 
 
 957,994 
 
 36,635 
 
 44,267 
 
 483,247 
 
 466,213 
 
 267,721 
 
 379,658 
 
 In 1919 the total immigration was 201,504, com¬ 
 pared with 22,824 the year before; the total emi¬ 
 gration in 1918, was 25,970; in 1919, 193,601; in 
 1920, 283,705. The destinations of British subjects 
 leaving the United Kingdom for non-European 
 countries in 1920 were mainly the United States 
 (90,429), British North America (134,079), Aus¬ 
 tralia (49,357), British South Africa (20,019), India 
 and Ceylon (19,326). 
 
 Education.— The war had important and far- 
 reaching effects on the educational institutions 
 and educational system of Great Britain, and has 
 also led to important measures for the organiza¬ 
 tion and development of educational methods. It 
 was estimated that 500,000 school children under 
 fourteen were employed before the war; 600,000 
 others were estimated to have withdrawn from school 
 during the first three years of the war. Attendance 
 at colleges fell off, compulsory school attendance 
 laws were suspended, and many school buildings 
 were taken over for military purposes. Reorgani¬ 
 zation was urgently needed. The matter was taken 
 over by the Reconstruction Committee, later the 
 Reconstruction Ministry, which introduced a Bill 
 in May, 1918, requiring children up to fourteen 
 years of age to give full time to school education 
 and requiring compulsory part-time education for 
 children between fourteen and eighteen. According 
 to the provisions of this Education Act of 1918, 
 elementary and secondary education in England 
 and Wales is under the control of the Board of 
 Education. The local administration is vested in 
 the councils of counties, of county boroughs, of 
 non-county boroughs with a population of over 
 10,000, and of urban districts with a population of 
 over 20,000. The local authorities maintain all 
 public schools and control the expenditure neces¬ 
 sary for the purpose. “Non-provided” schools 
 simply furnish the building, but must comply with 
 the directions for secular instruction. Education 
 funds are derived from State grants (to the extent 
 of at least half the net expenditure recognized by 
 the Board of Education), local rates, etc.; the 
 education authorities have borrowing powers. Ele¬ 
 mentary education is free and compulsory for 
 those between the ages of five and fourteen, which 
 may be extended to fifteen. All children under 
 the age of eighteen must attend a continuation 
 school for 320 hours in the year, unless they have 
 received full time education up to the age of 
 sixteen. The student’s employment may be sus¬ 
 pended during the day on which attendance is 
 necessary at these schools. No child under twelve 
 years of age may be employed, and children over 
 that age may be employed on school days only 
 
 after school-hours and before 8 p. m. In schools 
 provided by them the local authorities must not 
 pay for religious instruction; in schools not pro¬ 
 vided by them, they can neither forbid nor impose 
 religious instruction. 
 
 In 1919 the elementary schools in England and 
 Wales numbered 21,473, and the attendance was 
 7,100,000. In 1920 there were 12,266 voluntary 
 schools for ordinary public elementary education 
 with 2,730,000 pupils, and 8705 council schools 
 with 4,355,000 pupils; total ordinary elementary 
 schools, 20,971 with 7,085,000 pupils. The average 
 attendance at these schools in 1918-19 was 5,108,000 
 and the number of teachers 168,000. The higher 
 elementary schools numbered 44 with 11,550 regis¬ 
 tered pupils. Of the special schools 57 were for 
 the blind (3200 pupils), 50 for the deaf (4600 
 pupils), 198 for the mentally defective (15,500 
 pupils), 162 for physically defective children 
 (11,400), and 53 were “certified efficient” schools. 
 
 In 1917-18 1061 recognized secondary schools 
 (with 238,314 full-time pupils) were on the grant 
 list; in addition there were 134 other secondary 
 schools with about 26,000 pupils; 10 preparatory 
 schools with 1140 pupils, and a number of technical 
 institutions, art schools, nautical schools, and part- 
 time schools. Of the continuation schools, 56 re¬ 
 ceived grants in 1918-19, and the attendance was 
 21,628. There are also provisions for nursery 
 schools, holiday and school camps, playing fields, 
 physical training, and the medical inspection of 
 places of higher education. On 31 March, 1919, 
 there were 59 poor-law schools, and in 1920, 87 
 training colleges for teachers for elementary schools 
 in England with accommodation for 13,542 students. 
 The following table taken from the Statesman’s 
 Year Book (1921) shows the number of students 
 and professors at the Universities of England, 
 1920-21: 
 
 Universities 
 
 Professors. 
 
 etc. 
 
 Students 
 
 Oxford . 
 
 100 
 
 4200 
 
 Cambridge . 
 
 160 
 
 4360 
 
 Durham . 
 
 174 
 
 1250 
 
 London . 
 
 1250 
 
 7000 
 
 Manchester . 
 
 265 
 
 3000 
 
 Birmingham . 
 
 187 
 
 1880 
 
 Liverpool . 
 
 224 
 
 2540 
 
 Leeds . 
 
 250 
 
 1930 
 
 Sheffield . 
 
 169 
 
 3100 
 
 Bristol . 
 
 210 
 
 1006 
 
 Total . 
 
 2989 
 
 30,260 
 
 The members of the Board of Education are: 
 a president appointed by the Crown, the lord presi¬ 
 dent of the privy council, the principal secretaries 
 of State, the first commissioner of the treasury, 
 and the Chancellor of the Exchequer. The presi¬ 
 dent or secretary may sit in Parliament. 
 
 Government.— The supreme.power of the British 
 Empire is vested in Parliament, which is summoned 
 by the sovereign, by advice of the Privy Council, 
 at least twenty days before its assembling. Under 
 the Parliamentary Act of 1911, its duration is 
 limited to five years, but during the war it was 
 extended to eight years. It consists of a House of 
 Lords and a House of Commons. To the House of 
 Lords belong the peers of the realm, who hold 
 their seats by hereditary right, or by creation of 
 the sovereign, or by virtue of office (Law Lords), 
 or by election for duration of Parliament (Scottish 
 peers), or by election for life (Irish peers). In 
 
ENGLAND 
 
 282 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 1920 the voting strength of this house was 709. 
 The House of Commons consists of members repre¬ 
 senting county, borough, and university constitu¬ 
 encies in the three divisions of the United King¬ 
 dom. English or Scottish peers are ineligible for 
 the House of Commons, but Irish peers can be 
 admitted. Under the Parliament (Qualification of 
 Women) Act, 1918, women are also eligible, and 
 the first woman took her seat in December, 1919. 
 Under the Parliament Act of 1911, all money Bills 
 passed by the House of Commons, may become 
 law, even without the consent of the House of 
 Lords, and any Bill introduced by the House of 
 Commons and passed three times may become law 
 despite the opposition of the House of Lords. 
 According to the Act of August, 1911, members 
 of the House of Commons, hithertp receiving no 
 salary for their services, now are paid. 
 
 The Representation of the People Act, 1918, ex¬ 
 tended the franchise so that in 1920 over one-half 
 of the population (21,776,000) qualified for regis¬ 
 tration, including 8,856,000 women. For every 
 70,000 of the population, a member is elected to 
 the House of Commons, which now has a total 
 membership of 707. The suffrage is given to all 
 male electors twenty-one years of age or over, 
 and to women electors of thirty years of age or 
 over. There is also the university franchise to 
 be qualified, for which a man must be twenty-one 
 and a woman thirty, and each must have taken a 
 degree, or in the case of a woman, have fulfilled 
 the conditions which would entitle a man to a 
 degree. 
 
 The unity of the Cabinet is expressed by the 
 Prime Minister, although it is but a short time 
 (since January, 1906), that the existence of the 
 Prime Minister has been formally recognized, and 
 special precedence accorded him. He is usually 
 the leader of his party, and the cabinet members 
 chosen by him are chosen for their general political 
 importance, although each is responsible for the 
 conduct of some department of the State, and ready 
 to answer any questions or give any information 
 on any point of its administration, in the House 
 of Commons and the House of Lords. A cabinet 
 defeated on an actual vote of the House of Com¬ 
 mons must resign or persuade the king to dissolve 
 Parliament. With the approval of the sovereign 
 the Prime Minister also nominates the Privy Coun¬ 
 cil, which includes the following classes: All cabinet 
 ministers, ex-cabinet ministers, diplomatic corps, 
 honorary members, as princes and bishops, learned 
 and scientific men, the Lord Chancellor, Master 
 of the Rolls, Lord Chief Justice, Judges of the 
 Supreme Court, and Judge Advocate General. 
 From it have developed the Ministry of Health 
 and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, also 
 the Board of Trade, and the Board of Education. 
 The Privy Council possesses also judicial functions, 
 being the Final Court of Appeals for the Colonies, 
 India, and the Ecclesiastical Courts of the country. 
 Its number is unlimited, at present about 300, but 
 at its meeting only a few members are present, 
 usually members of the Government. The Ministry 
 of Health, newly organized in 1919, has charge of 
 the Poor Laws, the Unemployed Workingmen’s 
 Act, the Old Age Pensions Act, and sanitary legis¬ 
 lation; the National Treasury is under a Commis¬ 
 sion, consisting of the First Lord of the Treasury, 
 the Chancellor of the Exchequer, and three Lords 
 Commissioners. 
 
 Since January, 1918, the Board of Trade has been 
 organized in two main divisions: the Department 
 of Commerce and Industry and the Department 
 of Public Service and Administration. The Min¬ 
 
 istry of Labor, created under the Act of 1916, com¬ 
 bines the powers and duties of the Board of Trade 
 under the Conciliation Act (1896), the Labor Ex¬ 
 change Act (1909), the Trade Board Act (1909), 
 the National Insurance Unemployment Acts 
 (1911-18), and Part I of the Ministry of Munitions 
 of War Act (1915). In 1919 the Board of Agri¬ 
 culture was reorganized into five departments: 
 Intelligence, Land and Supplies, Finance and 
 Economics, Fisheries, and Welsh. The first three 
 form the Minister’s Administrative Council. The 
 Home Office has five secretaries: the Home Secre¬ 
 tary, the Foreign Secretary, the Secretary for War, 
 the Secretary for the Colonies, and the Secretary 
 for India, but legally they all share the same office, 
 and each can perform the duties of the others. 
 There must always be one secretary in the metrop¬ 
 olis, and all sit in the cabinet. The Charity Com¬ 
 missioners assist in carrying out the War Charity 
 Act (1916), and the Blind Persons Act (1920). A 
 Ministry of Pensions was constituted in 1916 to 
 administer the pensions and grants awarded for 
 disablement sustained in war service. In 1917 it 
 took over from the statutory committee the direct 
 administration of medical treatment. In 1919 a 
 Ministry of Transport was set up to improve the 
 means of locomotion and transport. 
 
 Under the National Insurance Acts (1911 to 1920), 
 provision is made for compulsory insurance against 
 loss of health, for the prevention and cure of sick¬ 
 ness, and for compulsory insurance against unem¬ 
 ployment. The National Health Insurance Act is 
 administered by the Ministry of Health in England 
 and Wales, and concerns all persons between the 
 ages of sixteen and seventy, employed by the time 
 or piece, and earning less than £250 a year, whether 
 or not they are British subjects. In 1919 fifteen 
 million and a half workers were insured; the total 
 income in 1918-19 was about £30,500,000 (including 
 £8,500,000 contributed by the state), and the total 
 expenditure, £20,250,000. The Unemployment Act 
 is administered by the Board of Trade through 
 Employment Exchanges, Trade Unions, and 
 Friendly Societies. By the Unemployment Acts 
 of 1920 and 1921 all persons insured under the 
 National Insurance Acts except agricultural work¬ 
 ers, domestics, and outworkers, are compulsory in¬ 
 sured against unemployment. About twelve mil¬ 
 lion persons were insured under these Acts (8,500,- 
 000 men and 3,500,000 women). The total income 
 (1918-19) was £4,600,000 (including £1,100,000 from 
 state funds); total expenditure, £600,000. Under 
 the Old Age Pensions Acts (1908-19) there were 
 in 19-19, 920,198 pensions payable in the United 
 Kingdom; the estimated cost in 1920-21 was £25,- 
 969,000. The Poor Law, which relieves paupers in 
 their homes, or in the workhouses, or poorhouses, 
 is administered by the local government board 
 through boards of guardians. A board of guardians 
 is elected for each of the 653 poor law unions. The 
 amount expended in 1917-18 in England and Wales 
 was £18,423,883. 
 
 For purposes of local government, England is 
 divided into sixty-two administrative counties, in¬ 
 cluding the county of London. Each county is 
 governed by justices, and a popularly elected coun¬ 
 cil, aided by a prescribed number of aldermen, 
 elected for six years. The county councillors, 
 elected for three years, are also the local educa¬ 
 tional authorities. The counties, with the excep¬ 
 tion of the County of London, are subdivided into 
 county districts, which are either urban or rural; 
 each has a district council. In each civil parish in 
 a rural district there is a parish meeting, or if the 
 town has over 300 inhabitants, a parish council. 
 
 
 
 
ENGLAND 
 
 283 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 In all the great towns local business is administered 
 by a municipal corporation, which derives its 
 authority from charters granted by the Crown. 
 There are three kinds of boroughs: county boroughs, 
 quarter session boroughs, and small boroughs of 
 special and ancient jurisdiction. The first are out 
 of the jurisdiction of the county councils, but all 
 have a mayor, aldermen, and burgesses. The 
 ecclesiastical parish is now of slight importance in 
 the sphere of local government. The National 
 Assembly of the Church of England Act, however, 
 conferred increased privileges on the laity and pro¬ 
 vided for the institution of a Parochial Church 
 Council, a Parochial Church meeting, and a 
 National Assembly of the Church of England. 
 
 The Government and the War. —During the 
 World War the Privy Council and Parliament both 
 played an important part in the conduct of affairs. 
 The whole administration was deeply affected. Acts 
 of Parliament were numerous, as well as Royal 
 Proclamations and Orders in Council. Legislative 
 action was necessary not only to secure success in 
 the field and on the seas, but also to preserve a 
 national life immune from social and economic dis¬ 
 turbance. New Duties were imposed on many old 
 established departments, and the policy of other 
 departments considerably affected. A temporary 
 mortatorium was authorized; a Currency and Bank 
 Notes Act, providing for the issue of paper bank 
 notes, was passed; also Acts for the control of 
 foreign trade, the defense of the realm, trading 
 with the enemy, hoarding of supplies, the estab¬ 
 lishment of prize courts, an increase of the army 
 to one million men, a new system of registration, 
 the restriction of the sale of liquor, compulsory 
 military service, and the creation of new ministries. 
 
 In the meantime there was a remarkable series 
 of developments in the British cabinet and ministry, 
 involving not only many changes of personnel, but 
 also fundamental changes in the constitution of 
 the cabinet and its relation to Parliament. At the 
 outbreak of the war two members of the cabinet 
 and one under-secretary resigned because of their 
 objections to taking an active part in the war. In 
 February, 1915, action was taken which emphasized 
 the control of the cabinet over the proceedings of 
 Parliament, for the government proposed taking 
 the entire time of the House of Commons for the 
 discussion of its measures, formally taking away 
 from the English Parliament the so-called “Parlia¬ 
 mentary initiative.” The new cabinet was reor¬ 
 ganized into the new Coalition Cabinet, a total of 
 twenty-three members—something new in English 
 history. This, however, was not satisfactory, and 
 so there came into existence the War Cabinet of 
 five members, which took over the active functions 
 of the old War Committee, and which was the 
 superior deciding body over the whole group of 
 ministers. The constitution of the “Imperial War 
 Cabinet” may be taken as a formal recognition 
 of the equality of status between the various parts 
 of the British Empire. In July, 1918, the prime 
 minister of each dominion was given the right to 
 maintain a cabinet minister, either as a resident 
 or as a visitor to London, to represent him at the 
 meetings of the cabinet held between the plenary 
 sessions. In 1919 the “Standing Committee of 
 Home Affairs” (established in 1918 to discuss ques¬ 
 tions of imperial policy and domestic questions 
 requiring the co-operation of several departments) 
 and the War Cabinet was dissolved, and a full 
 cabinet of twenty members constituted. A meet¬ 
 ing of prime ministers was summoned for June, 
 1921, to act along the lines of the Imperial War 
 Cabinet and to deal with pressing problems. 
 
 Army and Navy. —The land forces of the United 
 Kingdom consist of the regular army and the terri¬ 
 torial army. The regular army is paid for by 
 the imperial exchequer (and by some dominions), 
 and serves both at home and overseas. The terri¬ 
 torial army serves only at home in peace time, but 
 is liable to service overseas in time of war, subject 
 to the consent of Parliament. Only volunteers 
 serve. For military purposes the kingdom is divided 
 into seven districts (commands), and the London 
 district. The land forces are administered by an 
 army council presided over by the Secretary of 
 State for War; the territorial army to a large 
 extent by county associations. The soldiers are 
 trained chiefly at the Royal Military Academy, the 
 Royal Military College, and the Staff College. The 
 total, personnel on 1 March, 1921, was 341,000, of 
 whom 201,000 were British troops, 55,600 emergency 
 soldiers, and 84,200 Indian and colonial troops. The 
 garrison on the Rhine includes 15,000 men; 9300 
 British soldiers are stationed in Constantinople, 
 18,000 in Palestine, 77,000 in Mesopotamia. The 
 home garrison numbers 140,500, the territorial army 
 100,000. In 1920 the estimated enrollment in the 
 British navy was 127,500, as against 415,000 at the 
 date of the armistice on 11 November, 1918. The 
 administration of the navy is in the hands of the 
 First Lord of the Admiralty, a cabinet minister. 
 In the Disarmament Conference of 1921-22 at 
 Washington, United States, it was decided that the 
 limit of Britain’s navy should be 22 major ships 
 with a net tonnage of 580,458, but she was given 
 the right to construct two new ships, provided she 
 scrap four old ones, thus making a total of 558,950 
 tons to her credit after the new ships are com¬ 
 pleted. The ‘reorganization of a Far Eastern fleet, 
 the East Indian Squadron, and the Australian, 
 Canadian, and New Zealand navies is in process. 
 In May, 1912, the Royal Flying Corps came into 
 existence. In 1918 an Air Ministry was formed, 
 and the control of the air forces was vested in 
 an Air Council. In April, 1921, a separate Secretary 
 of State for Air was appointed. The Air Force at 
 that time numbered 30,880 men, and the gross 
 expenditure (estimated) in 1921 was £19,033,400. 
 
 Justice. —The different courts or sessions are 
 graded according to the importance of the case 
 w r ith which they have to deal. In criminal matters, 
 beginning with the lowest, the gamut runs through 
 petty sessions, quarter sessions, high court, court 
 of criminal appeal. Civil disputes between private 
 citizens are tried at the county court, divisional 
 court, the high court, or the court of appeal. 
 Supreme above all other courts and able to hear 
 appeals from all is the tribunal of the House of 
 Lords, consisting of the Lord Chancellor, the Lord 
 Chief Justice, ex-Lord Chancellors, and eminent 
 peers holding life peerages only, and known as 
 Law Lords. There are besides two other divisions 
 of the high court: the Court of Chancery, and the 
 Court of Probate, Divorce, and Admiralty. There 
 is in addition the Bankruptcy Court, and also 
 special commissions dealing with railways and 
 canals. 
 
 Internal Communications. —The railway mile¬ 
 age in 1919 was 23,725; total capital paid up at 
 end of year, £1,325,000,000; number of passengers 
 carried, 1,551,700,000; working expenses, £187,058,- 
 000; net receipts, £53,070,000. The Government 
 control of the railways as a war measure lasted 
 from August, 1914, to August, 1921. In 1918-19 
 there were in the United Kingdom 2720 miles of 
 tramways and light railways open for public traffic, 
 of which 2647 miles were operated by electric trac¬ 
 tion. Of the total mileage 1705 miles were worked 
 
ENGLAND 
 
 284 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 by local authorities and 1015 miles by companies. 
 In England and Wales the total length of canals, 
 according to the latest statistics, was 3641 miles. 
 
 Financial Status. —The revenue in 1920-21 was 
 £1,425,984,666 (£=$4.55), of which £134,003,000 came 
 from customs; £199,782,000 from excise; £7,073,000 
 from motor vehicle duties; £47,729,000 from estate, 
 legacy, succession, corporation, etc., duties; £26,- 
 591,000 from stamp taxes; £650,000 from land taxes; 
 £1,900,000 from house duties; £394,146,000 from 
 property and income taxes; £219,181,000 from excess 
 profit taxes; £650,000 from corporation profits tax; 
 £20,000 from land value duties. The total non-tax 
 revenue was £394,259,666. The total consolidated 
 fund services, which are mainly bestowed on the 
 national debt, cost £378,047,000 in 1921; and the 
 total supply services, including the army, navy, 
 and civil service, cost £817,381,000; total expendi¬ 
 ture chargeable against revenue, £1,195,428,000. In 
 the civil service estimates for 1921-22 the expendi¬ 
 ture for public education was £63,518,000; old age 
 pensions and Ministry of Pensions, £137,707,000; 
 civil demobilization and resettlement, etc., £18,325,- 
 000; loans to dominions and allies, £5,000,000; 
 others, £123,265,000. The estimated expenditure, 
 chargeable against capital in 1921-22, was £10,- 
 472,500. The excess profits tax, which was 50% in 
 1915, was increased to 60% later, and finally to 
 80%, producing £223,116,090 in 1917-18, £283,976,861 
 in 1918-19, and £289,208,046 in 1919-20. From April, 
 1915, to April, 1920, incomes of and below £130 a 
 year were exempt from the income tax. From 
 April, 1920, exemption is allowed to bachelors with 
 earned incomes below £150 (or unearned below 
 £135), and to married person with earned incomes 
 below £250. The income from the supertax, i. e., 
 that paid by persons with incomes exceeding £2500 
 a year, in 1919-20 was £340,000,000, and the esti¬ 
 mated number of persons chargeable 48,000. On 30 
 November, 1920, the approximate national debt of 
 Great Britain was £7,735,628,000. 
 
 Production and Industry. —The general distribu¬ 
 tion of the surface of England in 1920 was as 
 follows: mountain and heath grazing land, 2,732,000 
 acres; permanent pasture, 12,667,000 acres; arable 
 land, 11,181,000 acres; woods and plantations (1913), 
 2,697,000 acres; total surface, excluding water, 32,- 
 386,000 acres. The acreage and yield of the prin¬ 
 cipal crops in 1920 was: wheat, 1,875,000 acres, 
 6,669,000 quarters; barley, 1,637,000 acres, 6,335,000 
 quarters; oats 2,266,000 acres, 10,746,000 quarters; 
 turnips and swedes, 988,000 acres, 14,193,000 tons; 
 hay, 6,069,000 acres, 8,211,000 tons. In 1920 the 
 live stock included 1,884,902 horses (for agriculture 
 only), 11,770,274 cattle, 23,407,072 sheep, 3,113,314 
 pigs. In England and Wales in 1920 there were 
 80,737 holdings between one and five acres; 194,059 
 holdings between 5 and 50 acres; 129,703 holdings 
 between 50 and 500 acres; and 13,492 holdings of 
 over 300 acres. Up to the end of 1914 the total 
 quantity of land acquired for small holdings by 
 the various local authorities in England and Wales, 
 according *to the Small Holdings and Allotments 
 Act (1908), was 198,104 acres, let to 13,327 in¬ 
 dividual tenants and 5 associations; and the land 
 acquired for allotments was 33,522 acres, let to 
 130,526 individual tenants and 52 associations. On 
 1 May, 1918, there were estimated to be about 
 1,400,000 allotments in England and Wales (500,000 
 before the war). The Board of Agriculture makes 
 grants for scientific research in agriculture, under 
 the Development and Roads Improvement Funds 
 Act, 1909 and 1910, which provides for a national 
 fund for the development of agriculture, forestry, 
 fisheries, and analogous resources of the United 
 
 Kingdom. The forestry area of England is 1,720,330 
 acres. 
 
 On 31 December, 1918, there were registered in 
 the United Kingdom 6857 sailing boats and 11,334 
 steam vessels with a total tonnage of 10,100,945. 
 
 Textiles. —In 1920 1,560,000,000 pounds of cotton 
 were used in the textile industry, 865,000,000 pounds 
 of wool, 67,000,000 pounds of flax. The value of 
 the products exported (in thousands of pounds) 
 was: cotton, 401,700; woolen, 135,000; linen, 23,900. 
 The home production of wool in 1920 was estimated 
 at 108 million pounds, and of flax at 27 million 
 pounds. The fall in the price of cotton and the 
 break in Far Eastern Exchange had a depressing 
 effect on the cotton production; in the year 1920 
 the exports were 4,436,557 yards as against 7,075,252 
 yards in 1913, but the value of the 1920 exports 
 was three times greater. The value of the woolen 
 exports was five times their value in 1913. The 
 volume of production in most industries is below 
 that of 1913, owing to lack of foreign markets, 
 shortening of hours of labor, government inter¬ 
 ference, and other conditions. 
 
 Commerce. —In 1919 the imports free of duty (ex¬ 
 clusive of bullion, specie and diamonds) amounted 
 to £1,381,634,807, 84.9 per cent. In 1920 the value 
 of the exports was £1,557,974,984, of which £1,335,- 
 569,027 was the value of British goods. In 1913 the 
 total was much less, £634,820,326, but values have 
 risen greatly since that year. Trade with Russia 
 has come to a standstill; that with Germany has 
 been slowly increasing. The outstanding feature 
 in the recent trade statistics has been the heavy 
 buying from and the light selling to the United 
 States. 
 
 The total loss of United Kingdom merchant ves¬ 
 sels from the outbreak of the war in August, 1914, 
 to the end of October, 1918, was 9,031,828 tons; 
 new construction in that period amounted to 4,342,- 
 296 tons; purchases abroad, 530,000 tons; enemy 
 tonnage captured, 716,520 tons, causing a net loss 
 of 3,443,012 tons. 
 
 Mining. —The recent miners’ strikes emphasize 
 the close connection of the coal industry with the 
 industrial life of the nation. During the war the 
 Government fixed the prices, guaranteed a certain 
 amount of profits to the mine owners, and retained 
 the remaining profits. After the war the Govern¬ 
 ment’s surplus was enormous, owing to the sale of 
 coal abroad at famine prices in response to the 
 enormous demands of the continent. To this the 
 miners objected, saying that it should go into lower¬ 
 ing the price of coal and raising their wages. The 
 quarrel between the miners who insisted on keeping 
 the mines nationalized and the Government, which 
 desired a return to normal conditions, had a decided 
 influence on the coal exports of 1920, which was 
 only 25,000,000 tons as against the yearly average 
 of 73,000,000 tons in 1909-13. In 1920 the produc¬ 
 tion was 58,000,000 tons less than the production 
 of 1913. However, the depreciation of mine equip¬ 
 ment, the run-down condition of the coal transport 
 equipment, and the reduction of the working day 
 are factors to be considered, as well as the loss of 
 foreign markets. In 1913 5,993,000 tons went to 
 Russia, in 1920 only 92,000 tons; to Germany, 
 4,563,000 tons in 1913 as against 13,000 tons in 
 1920; to South America, 6,892,000 tons in 1913 
 compared with 556,000 tons in 1920. The steel pro¬ 
 duction of 1920 was greater than that of any pre¬ 
 war year. In 1920 8,000,000 tons of pig iron and 
 9,055,000 tons of steel ingots and castings were pro¬ 
 duced. 
 
 Religion. —The Established Church of England 
 is Protestant Episcopal. The King, as Supreme 
 
ENGLAND 
 
 285 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 Governor of the Church of England, nominates all 
 the bishops and archbishops. There are three arch¬ 
 bishops at the head of the three provinces of 
 Canterbury, York, and Wales, and 43 bishops and 
 39 suffragan and assistant bishops. The latest statis¬ 
 tics give 14,614 civil parishes. Of the marriages 
 celebrated in 1919, 59.7% were in the Established 
 Church, 5.2% in the Roman Catholic Church, 11.5% 
 were Nonconformist marriages, 0.04% were Quaker 
 marriages, 0.5% Jewish, and 23.1% civil marriages 
 in the Registrar’s office. The Unitarians have about 
 350 places of worship; ^ the Catholic Apostolic 
 Church about 80; the New Jerusalem about 75. 
 The Salvation Army included (1919) about 24,600 
 officers and employees, 11,170 corps and outposts, 
 and 71,400 local officers. 
 
 In 1914 an act was passed disestablishing and 
 disendowing the Church in Wales; it came into 
 force 31 March, 1920. 
 
 By Apostolic Letters of Pope Pius X, 28 October, 
 1911. the Catholic Church in England and Wales, 
 which had previously consisted of one province, was 
 divided into three; on 17 February, 1916, a fourth 
 province, that of Cardiff, was added; on 22 March, 
 1917, the new diocese for Essex was erected, receiv¬ 
 ing the name of Brentwood, on 20 July, 1917. As 
 at present constituted the dioceses are divided as fol¬ 
 lows : Westminster (1850), consisting of the Archdio¬ 
 cese of Westminster and five suffragans, Brentwood, 
 Northampton, Nottingham, Portsmouth, and South¬ 
 wark; Birmingham (1911), consisting of the Arch¬ 
 diocese of Birmingham and three suffragans, Clifton, 
 Plymouth, and Shrewsbury; Liverpool (1911), con¬ 
 sisting of the Archdiocese of Liverpool and four 
 suffragans, Hexham and Newcastle, Leeds, Middles¬ 
 brough, and Salford; Cardiff (1916), consisting of 
 the Archdiocese of Cardiff and one suffragan, 
 Menevia.. The number of priests, secular and 
 regular in England, according to the English 
 “Catholic Directory” for 1922, is 3962; the number 
 of churches and chapels, 1933. There are 1196 
 Catholic elementary schools with 316,917 pupils, and 
 431 secondary schools with 43,695 pupils. The Cath¬ 
 olic population is approximately 1,931,990. For 
 further statistics see articles on the dioceses men¬ 
 tioned above. 
 
 England in the World War.— When the World 
 War broke out between Austria-Hungary and 
 Servia, and between Germany, Russia, and France, 
 England’s position was uncertain, until the Ger¬ 
 mans commenced the invasion of Belgium on 2 
 August, 1914, whereupon the British Foreign Secre¬ 
 tary, Sir Edward Grey, dispatched an ultimatum 
 to Germany, requiring assurance that Germany 
 would respect Belgian neutrality. Germany re¬ 
 fused on the ground of military necessity, and 
 the German Chancellor rebuked England for mak¬ 
 ing war for “a scrap of paper.” The next day (5 
 August, 1914) war was declared between Germany 
 and England. In September England, along with 
 the great powers, France and Russia, mutually en¬ 
 gaged in the Pact of London not to conclude peace 
 separately, nor to demand terms of peace without 
 the previous agreement of each of the others. As 
 soon as was possible a British expeditionary force 
 under Field Marshal Sir John French was dis¬ 
 patched to aid the French and the Belgians. 
 Stationed north of Maubeuge they were forced by 
 the fall of Namur and a hot contest at Mons to 
 retreat from Mons to avoid a flanking movement 
 of General Von Kluck’s cavalry. Outflanked again 
 on 26 August, 1914, they were driven from Cambrai, 
 and in two days expelled from St. Quentin. Aban¬ 
 doning Amiens, Laon, and Reims they fell back 
 to the Marne on a line extending from Soissons 
 
 to Compiegnc. The British force sent to save 
 Antwerp was too small to be of any avail, and on 
 5 October, 1914, was forced to evacuate the city. 
 
 In the meantime the British army was reinforced 
 by volunteers from England and a strong con¬ 
 tingent from India, and was moving up to Ypres. 
 Determined to capture the seaport towns the Ger¬ 
 mans fiercely assailed the allied line along the 
 Yser River, at Ypres, at La Bassee and before Arras. 
 The German attempt failed, and the Battle of 
 Flanders subsided into a dreary process of trench¬ 
 digging with intermittent cannonading. The orig¬ 
 inal British force of 150,000 was augmented until 
 it numbered 750,000 men, without counting the 
 colonial troops, which were arriving from Canada, 
 Australia, and India. With its lines thus strength¬ 
 ened the British began a formidable offensive at 
 Neuve Chapelle, but from want of ammunition and 
 failure of reinforcements the first British drive, 
 in 1915, turned out to be a victory “that halted 
 half way through lack of prompt support and co¬ 
 ordination.” They, however, took part in the great 
 offensive under Foch, and penetrated the German 
 lines to a depth of two miles. In December, 1915, 
 Sir Douglass Haig succeeded Sir John French in 
 command of the British troops in France. Those 
 on the Somme front were commanded by Sir Henry 
 Rawlinson, who directed the second British drive. 
 Their objective was now Bapaume. In the first 
 fortnight of the battle of the Somme they advanced 
 three miles and took 10,000 prisoners. In the 
 second phase of the battle they joined the French 
 in taking Combles and Thiepval. In the battle of 
 Arras in 1917 they took Bapaume, Peronne, and 
 Chaulnes, and shortened the line by 25 miles, and 
 carried Vimy Ridge. Renewing the offensive after 
 a lull of several months the British concentrated 
 their fire on Passchendaele Ridge. This battle of 
 Flanders strengthened their hold on Ypres, and 
 soon they were engaged in the battle cf Cambrai. 
 In March, 1918, came the great German offensive 
 against the British lines, which, owing to the in- 
 completed battles of Flanders and Cambrai and 
 the allied failures at St. Quentin and La Fere in 
 1917, were relatively weaker and could be out- 
 manceuvered with superior forces of men and muni¬ 
 tions. The line extending from Arras to St. Quentin 
 was held by the third British army under Sir Julian 
 Byng, and that from St. Quentin to the Oise by 
 the fifth army under Sir Hubert Gough. The Ger¬ 
 man Jdea was to drive a wedge between the French 
 and British armies, a design which was almost 
 realized, as Sir Hubert Gough’s army, outnumbered 
 four to one, lost contact with the French at its 
 right and gave way at several points. Retreat 
 became rout, and the Germans swept forward, took 
 Peronne and Ham, and crossed the Somme on 24 
 March, 1918. In the north the army of Sir Julian 
 Byng was forced to yield Bapaume and finally 
 Albert. On 26 March, 1918, the gap between the 
 French and British lines was closed by the arrival 
 of the French army under General Fayolles, who 
 joined the British' at Moreuil, and by the new 
 British army improvised from sappers, laborers, and 
 engineers under General Sandeman. In this Battle 
 of Picardy the Germans regained nearly all the 
 ground they held at the beginning of the Battle 
 of the Somme in 1916, and besides gained an area 
 of about 1500 sq. miles. The British losses were 
 severe, but their line was intact. In April, 1918, 
 the British were forced to yield Armentieres, Mes- 
 sines Ridge, Merville, and to withdraw from Pas¬ 
 schendaele Ridge, which they had captured at such 
 tremendous cost the previous year. 
 
ENGLAND 
 
 286 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 In the midst of the German drive against the at the Cocos Islands, and the “Koenigsberg” was 
 British the Government at London, on 8 April, bottled up in the Rufigi River in German East 
 1918, passed a new Military Service Bill, imposing Africa and destroyed on 11 July, 1915. 
 military service on every British subject between In January, 1915, the British squadron encoun- 
 the ages of eighteen and fifty-five, withdrew im- tered the German squadron on its way to attack 
 munity from ministers of religion, and extended a British port, sunk the “Blucher” and drove off 
 the service to Ireland. In the meantime the the remainder in a damaged condition. In Feb- 
 Americans had arrived in France and the allied ruary, 1915, the British fleet joined the French in 
 advance began (August, 1918). The British a naval attack on the Dardanelles. Though they 
 under General Rawlinson attacked the Germans on succeeded in silencing the forts they lost three 
 the southern side of the salient. Bapaume was battleships by mine explosions and gunfire. The 
 regained on 29 August, Peronne on 1 September, British themselves lost their cruiser the ‘‘Lion,” 
 and farther north in Flanders the British army of and the destroyer the “Meteor” was temporarily 
 General Plummer launched an offensive against the disabled. On 4 February a proclamation issued 
 salient between Arras and Ypres, and forced the by the German Admiralty declared all the waters 
 Germans to yield Mount Kemmel. East of Arras surrounding Great Britain and Ireland as a war 
 the British broke the line between Drocourt and zone after the eighteenth of the month, in which 
 Queant. In September St. Quentin was taken by every hostile ship would be destroyed by their 
 General Haig. Cambrai was occupied by Generals submarines. In pursuance of their policy they 
 Byng and Horne on 9 October, Passachandaele destroyed many vessels and thousands of lives, in- 
 Ridge was recovered, and Roulers, Menin, Courtrai, eluding the Cunard liner “Lusitania,” the largest 
 Valenciennes, and Maubeuge fell into British ship in the Atlantic service, sunk on 7 May, 1915, 
 hands. On 11 November, 1918, the last day of with a loss of 1153 lives. The submarine campaign, 
 fighting, the British gained Mons, the scene of their however, failed to interrupt the commerce between 
 defeat and retreat in August, 1914. the British Islands and the rest of the world, or 
 
 The British army, however, did not play a merely to interfere materially with the transport of troops 
 defensive role on the blood-soaked plains of France and supplies in the several theaters of war. British 
 and Belgium. It fought in a dozen different places, submarines, on the other hand, succeeded in enter- 
 in various parts of Europe, Africa, and Asia. It ing the sea of Marmora and the Baltic and destroy- 
 conquered all the German colonies overseas; with ing hostile vessels. In June, 1916, the British 
 Russia out of the war the Britishers had to fight cruiser, the “Hampshire,” with Field Marshal Earl 
 the Turkish army single-handed in Mesopotamia Kitchener on his way to Russia with his staff, was 
 and Palestine. They helped rout the Bulgarians in sunk. In that year two British battleships and a 
 Macedonia, they rushed to the help of Italy when the light cruiser were torpedoed. Foiled in the effec- 
 Austrians broke the Italian front; they sent troops tive use of commerce raiders by the British Grand 
 across northwestern Persia to occupy Baku so that Fleet, which dominated the North Sea and had its 
 the Russians might not make it a base in their pos- base in the harbor of Scapa Flow, the German 
 sible operations against India; in northern Russia authorities decided to risk their own high seas fleet 
 British troops were landed to prevent Germany’s in a naval battle off Jutland on 31 May, 1916. The 
 seizure of Russia’s one gateway to the Atlantic. British lost 113,000 tons, including the battle cruisers 
 At Vladivostock, on the Pacific coast, British troops “Queen Mary,” the “Indefatigable,” and the “In- 
 fought beside American, Japanese, and Czecho- vincible,” and eight destroyers. The German losses 
 Slovak contingents to preserve Siberia. England’s were proportionally more. With the exception of 
 protectorate in Egypt, declared in 1914, was recog- a few raids, the German fleet remained during the 
 nized, but in 1922 Egypt was declared a sovereign rest of the war at anchor in Kiel Canal, but the 
 state. Ireland was declared a free state in the German submarine activity increased and did great 
 same year. damage. With the idea of curbing this submarine 
 
 Naval Activity. —With the entry of Great Britain activity by attacking the German submarine bases, 
 into the World War, the command of the seas a British squadron bombarded Zeebrugge on 12 
 passed into the hands of the Allies. Early in the May, 1917, and a few months later another made 
 war the British fleet achieved much. Although it an attack on the docks and harbor of Ostend. In 
 could not altogether prevent the Germans from the same year the Germans made another unsuc- 
 planting mines and torpedoes along the coasts of cessful raid on Dover, and a German submarine 
 the North Sea and bombarding Russian ports in shelled Scarborough. After the signing of the armis- 
 the Baltic, it compelled the German squadron to tice the first division of the German high fleet was 
 lie idle at its moorings in Wilhelmshaven, Cux- delivered to an Allied fleet commanded by Admiral 
 haven, and Kiel. The first encounter of any mag- Beatty off the Firth of Forth; and the German 
 nitude took place in the Bight of Heliogoland on submarines, numbering 122, were surrendered to a 
 28 August, 1914, and resulted in the destruction of British squadron at Harwich. 
 
 three German cruisers and two torpedo boats. The total loss of British merchant tonnage was 
 Small German squadons made flying raids on Eng- stated by the admiralty to amount to 15,053,386 
 lish ports, bombarding Yarmouth (3 November, gross tons, valued at $3,000,000,000. According to 
 1914), Scarborough (16 December, 1914), Hartle- this official statement 2475 British ships were sunk 
 pool, and Whitby, and killing a few inhabitants, with their crews and 3147 sunk and their crews set 
 On 3 November the British lost the “Mon- adrift, and 670 fishing boats destroyed. The total 
 mouth” and the “Good Hope” off the harbor of loss in lives exceeded 15,000. The British losses 
 Coronel in Chile, and took speedy revenge on the included 13 battleships, 3 battle cruisers, 64 de- 
 German ships by dispatching another squadron un- stroyers, 10 torpedo boats, 50 submarines, and 27 
 der Admiral Sturdee, which destroyed four German small craft, a total tonnage of 550,000. A. large 
 ships. The sole survivor of the combat was the number of British fast vessels were utilized in the 
 “Dresden,” which was overtaken at Juan Fernandez transportation of American troops to France, and 
 on 14 March, 1915, and sunk. The German cruisers in many cases these were escorted by British 
 which remained at large were able to inflict con- cruisers and destroyers. The action of the British 
 siderable damage on British and allied shipping, fleet was one of the most decisive factors in the 
 The “Emden” was destroyed on 9 November, 1915, war, as the blockade had brought the Central 
 
ENGLISH 
 
 287 
 
 ERIE 
 
 Powers to the verge of famine and deprived them 
 of the most essential supplies for a continuation 
 of hostilities. It also kept the seas free for the 
 transportation of troops to the important theaters 
 of war. 
 
 The loss of British life from the World War was 
 appalling. The whole number of casualties among 
 all military forces and in all theaters of war was 
 as follows: 
 
 
 Killed 
 
 Wounded 
 
 Officers 
 
 Other 
 
 Ranks 
 
 Officers 
 
 Other 
 
 Ranks 
 
 British. 
 
 Colonials and 
 Indians .... 
 Totals . 
 
 30,807 
 
 7602 
 
 466,831 
 
 168,703 
 
 76,132 
 
 17,125 
 
 1,532,552 
 
 421,402 
 
 38,409 
 
 635,534 
 
 93,257 
 
 1,953,954 
 
 673,943 
 
 2,047,211 
 
 The missing numbered 64,000, and those dead 
 from various causes 97,000; these figures included 
 the losses of the Royal Naval Division and of the 
 Royal Flying Corps up to 1 April, 1918, making a 
 grand total of casualties from all causes of 2,882,954. 
 The casualties due to hostile air raids and bom¬ 
 bardments were as follows: killed, 1570; injured, 
 4041. The casualties in the Royal Air Forces 
 between 1 April, 1918, and the date of the armis¬ 
 tice included: killed, 1551 officers and 1129 men; 
 wounded, 2357 officers and 631 men; missing, 1612 
 officers and 225 men; interned, 45 officers and 39 
 men. 
 
 English College, Rome (cf. C. E., V-472c), 
 known as the Venerable, is composed of students 
 who are admitted upon application from a bishop 
 of England or the Colonies for the purpose of 
 training for the English Missions. At the present 
 time there a' e about 65 students registered with 
 only one for any diocese outside of England, viz., 
 the Archdiocese of Malta. 
 
 The students are obliged to follow the course 
 of studies prescribed by the Gregorian University 
 and attend most of their lectures, philosophy, 
 archeology, history, Greek, Hebrew, mathematics, 
 science, Scripture, dogmatic theology, asetica and 
 moral theology, at this university. This leaves only 
 the studies which have, a practical bearing on the 
 missionary or parochial work, such as pastoral 
 theology, ceremonies or ritual, church music, etc., 
 to be given in the English College. 
 
 The faculty of the college consists of a rector, 
 at present Rt. Rev. Mgr. A. Hinsley, a vice-rector, a 
 repetitore, an ecomus, and a spiritual director. The 
 college possesses a library of 40,000 volumes. 
 
 Eperies, Diocese of. See Prjasev. 
 
 Ephraem, Saint (cf. C. E., V-498a), was declared 
 a Doctor of the Universal Church, by pontifical de¬ 
 cree, 5 October, 1920, and his feast fixed for 18 June. 
 
 Erdely, Diocese of. See Transylvania. 
 
 Erdington Abbey (cf. C. E., V-517d).—Due to 
 the war the community of Erdington Abbey had 
 become so depleted that it was impossible to re¬ 
 store it. Therefore, in 1922 the community was 
 disbanded, and the work of their mission taken 
 over by the Redemptorists. This abbey was 
 founded in 1876 by German Monks of the Beurmese 
 Congregation, and attracted to it certain Englishmen 
 who felt called to a monastic life of more conventual 
 observance than was possible under the conditions 
 of the time in the houses of the English Congre¬ 
 gation. High Mass and the Divine Office were 
 solemnly and beautifully celebrated daily, much 
 19 
 
 of the pre-Reformation splendor of liturgical wor¬ 
 ship being restored in the monastic church. Erected 
 into an abbey in 1896, the first and last abbot was 
 Dorn Ansgar Hockelmann. Attached to the abbey 
 was the parish of Erdington, in the Archdiocese of 
 Birmingham, with 2300 sbuls and 2 public oratories. 
 Under the stress of war the enemy nationality of 
 some of the monks made their position difficult 
 but by arrangement between the British Govern¬ 
 ment and Cardinal Bourne the community, in part 
 at least, was able to be kept together, until the 
 depletion of their number made necessary their 
 disbanding. 
 
 Erie, Diocese of (Eriensis; cf. C. E., V-518c), 
 comprises an area of 9936 sq. miles in the State of 
 Pennsylvania, U. S. A. The fourth bishop of Erie, 
 Rt. Rev. John E. Fitzmaurice, died 18 June, 1920, 
 after a prolonged illness, and the auxiliary bishop’ 
 Rt. Rev. John Mark Gannon, D. D., who had been 
 consecrated titular Bishop of Nilopolis 6 February, 
 1918, was appointed to succeed him, and installed 
 16 December, 1920. Bishop Gannon was born and 
 received his early education in Erie, finally com¬ 
 pleting his studies at the Catholic University in 
 Washington, the University of Munich, and the 
 College of S. Apollinare at Rome. Up to the time 
 of his consecration he was superintendent of the 
 parochial schools and has at all times promoted 
 education. His most recent work for this cause 
 was the establishment of a Catholic preparatory 
 school for boys. 
 
 N Since 1909 a new cathedral and 3 new churches 
 have been consecrated in the city of Erie. During 
 the World War the clergy of the diocese were rep¬ 
 resented by five chaplains, three of whom went 
 overseas, while many others acted as four-minute 
 men. The laity were equally active giving up 
 many young men to the service and over-subscrib¬ 
 ing every welfare loan ordered by the Government. 
 
 Since 1909 the diocese has lost many prominent 
 members, among them: Rt. Rev. Msgr. P. J. Sheri¬ 
 dan, vicar general of the diocese for nearly thirty 
 years; Msgr. Bernard McGivney, pastor at Du Bois 
 for over a quarter of a century; Rev. Joseph M. 
 Cauley, Rev. J. F. Donnellan, chancellor and secre¬ 
 tary of the diocese; Rev. B. J. Raycroft, scholar 
 and writer; Msgrs. Michael Decker and James 
 Dunn; Deans Winter and Coonan and Mr. Bernard 
 Veis, Mayor of the City of Erie; and Dr. and Mrs. 
 M. C. Dunnigan. 
 
 The religious orders in the diocese are: the Bene¬ 
 dictines, Redemptorists, Brothers of Mary, Society 
 of the Divine Word, Congregation of the Mission, 
 Benedictine Nuns, Sisters of St. Joseph, Sisters of 
 Mercy, Felician Sisters, and Sisters-Servants of the 
 Holy Ghost. The Redemptorists, who conduct a 
 seminary and college for young men who intend to 
 join their order, now have 240 students. 
 
 The Sisters of St. Joseph have charge of the boys’ 
 protectory, the orphan asylum, home for the aged, 
 
 2 hospitals, Academy of Villa Maria and 13 paro¬ 
 chial schools. The Sisters of Mercy besides having 
 an academy at the mother-house in Titusville, have 
 charge of 8 parochial schools, a hospital in Du Bois, 
 and a home for working girls in Erie. The Sisters 
 of St. Benedict are about to found a hospital in 
 St. Mary’s, in addition to the academy which they 
 now have there; they teach in 13 parochial schools. 
 
 There are in the diocese 110 churches with resi¬ 
 dent priests; 55 missions with churches and 12 
 chapels; 181 priests, 142 seculars and 39 regulars; 
 46 parochial schools; 7 academies for young ladies, 
 with an attendance of 840; 4 monasteries for men; 
 
 5 convents for women; 15 lay brothers; 530 sisters; 
 
ERITREA 
 
 288 
 
 ERNAKULAM 
 
 27 seminarians; 2 colleges for men with 24 teachers 
 and an attendance of 340; 1 high school for boys 
 with 6 teachers and an attendance of 100. There 
 are 3 homes; 1 orphan asylum and 3 hospitals, two 
 of which receive a small appropriation from the 
 government. Three societies are organized among 
 the clergy and about ten among the laity. “The 
 Lake Shore Visitor” is the diocesan periodical. At 
 the present time (1921) the Catholic population 
 is estimated at 114,695, including Irish, Germans, 
 Poles, Slavs, Lithuanians, Hungarians, Italians, and 
 French. 
 
 Eritrea, Vicariate Apostolic of, comprises an 
 Italian colony in East Africa. The present vicar 
 apostolic is the Rt. Rev. Francesco Carrara, a 
 Capuchin of the province of Rome, appointed 
 titular Bishop of Agathopolis and vicar apostolic 
 7 February, 1911. Due to his zeal and energy the 
 Capuchins, in 1912, founded a well equipped print¬ 
 ing establishment, where they publish works in 
 Italian and native languages, which are greatly 
 appreciated in the colony and in the different coun¬ 
 tries to which they are sent. The principal works 
 hitherto published are a collection of books of 
 instruction, eight volumes printed in Italian and 
 Tigre, a grammar, dictionary, and devotional books 
 in various languages for the use of the native clergy 
 and laity. In 1921 they brought out the New Testa¬ 
 ment, - printed in the Ghez language and edited by 
 Rev. Francis Bassano, O. M.Cap., in accordance 
 with the most authentic Ethiopian code. The work 
 merited the praise of Benedict XV, and of the 
 Sacred Congregation of Eastern Churches. A Cath¬ 
 olic magazine called “Parole buone,” which contains 
 mission news, is printed every month, and is dis¬ 
 tributed among the Italians of the colony. They 
 also publish the lives of the saints and pious stories 
 for the instruction of the natives. 
 
 There are about 3500 European Catholics in the 
 colony. Since 1912 the native Catholics have in¬ 
 creased from 14,000 to 25,000. The majority belong 
 to the Bileni and Abyssinian races, while a few 
 are scattered among the Assaortini and Cunama 
 races. The latter are fast becoming converted to 
 the Faith. Among the events of special importance 
 since 1914 are the conversion of the Bileni, who 
 live in the northwest of Asmara among the Mussul¬ 
 mans, and incline towards Islamism. They are well 
 disposed toward the Catholic Church, and are eager 
 to become Christians, to build chapels, and to have 
 their own native priests. During the past six years 
 the number of baptisms varied from 800 to 850 a 
 year. A house-to-house visitation was made by the 
 vicar apostolic, which in a great measure con¬ 
 tributed to their rapid conversion. Fifteen churches 
 and chapels have been erected, the principal ones 
 being at Asmara, and one which was built over the 
 tomb of the Venerable De Jacobis at Elbo. A 
 circulating library has been established and a young 
 men’s club at Asmara, in connection with which 
 there are a gymnasium, dramatic society, music 
 hall, and theater. On 3 July, 1912, the cornerstone 
 of the new church for the white people of Asmara 
 was laid, an event which was celebrated by the 
 civil as well as the religious authorities. Two 
 spacious and imposing school buildings for boys 
 and girls have been erected at Asmara, which are 
 attended by nearly all the children of that place. 
 At Asmara the custom has been established to 
 dedicate the family to the Sacred Heart. 
 
 In 1921 the vicariate apostolic contained 2 quasi¬ 
 parishes for the Italians, 53 quasi-parishes for the 
 natives, 60 churches, 10 mission stations, 2 convents 
 for women founded by the Daughters of St. Ann 
 
 (38 Sisters), and the Pie Madri della Nigrizia (12 
 Sisters), who have charge of the hospital at Asmara, 
 
 1 secular priest who is the army chaplain, 20 regu¬ 
 lar priests, and 9 lay brothers (Capuchins), 60 
 native priests, all of whom belong to the Coptic 
 Catholic Rite, 1 seminary, and 43 seminarians. The 
 following educational institutions have been estab¬ 
 lished in the vicariate: 2 secondary schools for 
 men, 4 teachers, 72 students, 1 secondary school 
 for women, 4 teachers, 20 students, 2 professional 
 schools, 3 teachers, 40 students, 1 elementary school 
 for the Italians with 390 pupils, 40 elementary 
 schools for the natives with 1300 pupils The Gov¬ 
 ernment supports two schools, one at Saganeiti for 
 the natives and the other at Asmara for the whites. 
 The following charitable institutions exist in the 
 vicariate: 2 orphanages for boys at Cheren and 
 Asmara, 3 for girls at Saganeiti, Cheren, and 
 Asmara, 6 agricultural schools for the natives, 1 
 medical dispensary, 3 asylums, 1 at Asmara for the 
 whites, 1 at Saganeiti, and 1 at Cheren. Among 
 the natives the following societies have been estab¬ 
 lished: the Association of St. Michael, Association 
 of St. George, Third Order of St. Francis, and 
 Sodality of the Children of Mary. Among the 
 whites there are the: Societies of the Children of 
 Mary, of St. Aloysius, of the Sacred Heart, and 
 of the Blessed Sacrament. 
 
 Erlau, Archdiocese of. See Eger. 
 
 Ermland (or Warmia), Diocese of (Varmiensis; 
 cf. C. E., V-522a), in East Prussia, is directly depen¬ 
 dent on the Holy See. The episcopal residence, cathe¬ 
 dral and chapter are at Frauenburg, as also the 
 Upper Seminary with 60 students in 1914, for the 
 last three years of theology, 1 ecclesiastical lyceum, 
 and 1 hostel for university students. 
 
 Bishop Andrew Thiel (b. 28 September, 1826; d. 
 17 July, 1908), was succeeded by the present (1922) 
 incumbent, Rt. Rev. Augustin- Bludau, b. 6 March, 
 1862, ordained 13 March, 1887, vicar at Marienveder 
 and Braunberg, later sub-rector of the Upper Semi¬ 
 nary, 1895, professor of Biblical exegesis at Munster 
 University, author of numerous works of New Tes¬ 
 tament exegesis, appointed bishop by the chapter, 
 26 November, 1909, consecrated and enthroned 20 
 June following. According to 1921 statistics the 
 diocese is divided into 17 deaneries with 118 par¬ 
 ishes and rectories, 67 vicariates served by 171 
 rectors and 98 assistants, 66 other priests are also 
 engaged in teaching. There are in all 319 secular 
 and 4 regular clergy. The population of the diocese 
 includes 327,277 Catholics, and 1,044,418 non-Catho- 
 lics. There are 557 Sisters in 69 houses. 
 
 i 
 
 Ernakulam, Vicariate Apostolic of (Ernacula- 
 mensis) , in Malabar, India, of the Syro-Malabar 
 Rite. The present (1922) Vicar Apostolic is Rt. Rev. 
 Augustine Kandathil, titular Bishop of Arad, b. 24 
 August, 1874, nominated Bishop of Arad, and co¬ 
 adjutor with right of succession to the vicar Apos¬ 
 tolic of Ernakulam 29 August, 1911; consecrated 
 3 December following, succeeding Rt. Rev. Aloysius 
 Pareparambil (b. 25 March, 1847; d. 9 December, 
 1919). According to the 1920 statistics the total 
 population of this territory is 1,029,000, of whom, 
 by the census of 1919, 113,936 are Catholics of this 
 rite; the chief language spoken is Malayalam. 
 There are 9 parish churches, 6 chapels with resi¬ 
 dent pastors, 143 secular priests, 29 seminarians, and 
 37 Jacobite churches with about 30,000 members. 
 Besides these there are native Carmelite Nuns of 
 the Third Order with 198 professed nuns, 25 postu¬ 
 lants, and 2 catechumenates. The various institu¬ 
 tions include 10 boarding schools with 268 pupils, 
 1 high school, 198 primary and secondary schools 
 
ERROR 
 
 289 
 
 ERZERTJM 
 
 with 6,G32 pupils, and 1 orphanage with 12 orphans. 
 The Mar Louis Memorial Press, which prints books 
 in Malayalam, English, and Latin, was lately started 
 in honor of the late Bishop Pareparambil. “The 
 Ernakulum Mission,” a diocesan gazette, contains 
 the pastoral letters of the bishop as well as items 
 of interest regarding the history and work of the 
 mission. A Society for the Propagation of the 
 Faith has lately been organized, as well as the St. 
 Joseph’s Provident Fund, for the benefit of aged 
 and infirm clergy. The Syro-Chaldaic Carmelite 
 Congregation of Malabar has 4 convents and 41 
 members attached to this vicariate. 
 
 Error (cf. C. E., V-525).—Error may be presumed 
 about the private acts of another until the contrary 
 is proved, but as a rule not about a law or penalty 
 or about one’s own act or another’s notorious act. 
 A rescript containing an error as to the name of the 
 grantor or grantee, or of the place, or of the thing 
 in question is not void, if the ordinary judges that 
 there is no doubt about the identity of the person 
 or thing. A dispensation from the impediments of 
 consanguinity or affinity is valid even if an error 
 about the degree occurred in the petition or con¬ 
 cession, provided the real degree was more remote. 
 A single error about the unity, indissolubility, or 
 sacramental dignity of marriage, even if it were a 
 cause of the contract, does not vitiate matrimonial 
 consent (can. 1084). 
 
 Erythrea, Vicariate Apostolic of. See Eritrea. 
 
 Erzberger, Matthias, statesman and publicist, b. 
 in the village of Buttenhausen, Wiirtemberg, 20 
 September, 1875; murdered by his political ene¬ 
 mies at Griesbach in the Black Forest on 26 August, 
 1921. His father was a teacher in the village school’ 
 and Matth as determined to follow in his father’s 
 footsteps. After two years in a training college 
 he began his work as a pedagogue at nineteen, 
 but two years later he was at the university in 
 Fribourg studying law and economics, only to be 
 engrossed soon in journalism and politics, editing 
 the “Deutschen Volksblatt” from 1896 to 1903, when 
 he was elected a member of the Center Party 
 as a representative from Wiirtemberg. In 1908 
 he removed to Berlin and took up the editorship 
 of some of the official publications of the Center. 
 His extraordinary talents immediately made him 
 a leading figure in the Reichstag. His friends and 
 enemies called him “a living volcano,” because 
 of the active perfervid energy he created around 
 him by the vastness of the interest in which he 
 was concerned, his abnormal power of rapidly grasp¬ 
 ing a situation in all its aspects, combined with 
 a remarkable fluency and facility in expressing 
 his views. He was quick and certain in his deci¬ 
 sions, fearless in facing difficulties, and confident 
 in the ultimate success of his plans. He kept the 
 House in perpetual amazement at the extent and 
 diversity of his knowledge, but he is credited with 
 having thrown the Center into confusion by his 
 vanity and overbearing manner as well as his 
 utter disregard for discipline. He quarreled with 
 its leader, Dr. Spahn. 
 
 At the beginning of the war, he was sure of vic¬ 
 tory and vied with the most ambitious Junkers 
 in fixing the boundaries of the New Germany. 
 Three years later, he had shifted completely around, 
 and he began a system of German Propaganda in 
 the neutral countries and in Rome. He inter¬ 
 fered in army affairs and Ludendorff denounced 
 him as “a burdensome busybody.” His political 
 activities in connection with the Orient, Alsace- 
 Lorraine, Poland, and Italy all ended in failure. 
 
 He endeavored to arrange terms of peace with 
 Belgium and at least stopped the deportation of 
 Belgians. He was a bitter opponent of the U-boat 
 wart are, but once it was decided upon he multiplied 
 the ships with amazing rapidity. In 1918 van 
 Capelle announced the failure of the submarines 
 and when Erzberger let it be known to the public 
 he so exasperated the army leaders that he nar¬ 
 rowly escaped imprisonment. 
 
 connection with the Peace Resolutions of 
 1917 brought‘him into the greatest discredit and 
 evoked a new storm on the part of the Junkers. 
 All the German authorities were agreed that hos¬ 
 tilities should cease in that year, and Erzberger 
 then began a great diplomatic campaign to effect 
 that result. He won over a majority of the Parlia¬ 
 mentarians to that view, and a peace resolution 
 was introduced in the Reichstag, but it aroused 
 such indignation that Erzberger came near being 
 tried for high treason. The Kaiser considered 
 him an erratic, vulgar demagogue.” Count von 
 Hertling, his fellow-Catholic and colleague, treated 
 him with contempt, but his chief enemies were 
 in the military party. To Ludendorff he was “the 
 most unspeakable of German traitors; the Ethio¬ 
 pian whom no scrubbing could wash white.” 
 
 In August, 1918, Ludendorff was wondering how 
 he could save his armies, though a month before he 
 was sure of victory. On 1 October a war cabinet 
 was formed and Erzberger appeared again in public 
 life as a minister. Finally, on 26 October, Luden¬ 
 dorff gave up his command, and a Commission with 
 Erzberger as its spokesman was formed to negotiate 
 with the Allies. The Commission met Marshal 
 Foch at Compiegne on 7 November, but Foch 
 had nothing to offer except what Erzberger con¬ 
 sidered inhuman conditions.” During the discus¬ 
 sions, news of the Kaiser’s abdication arrived; the 
 Red Flag had appeared at Berlin, and Erzberger 
 went back to a chaotic Germany beaten. When 
 at last the German delegates went to Versailles 
 and were presented with the conditions they were 
 struck mute with amazement. At Weimar, Erz¬ 
 berger was the only minister who would sign them. 
 The Reichstag was therefore dissolved, and a new 
 Government consisting of Social Democrats and 
 the Centre was called into existence and agreed 
 to sign the treaty. It aroused the country and that 
 night an attempt was made to murder Erzberger; 
 a few nights later a bomb was thrown into his 
 bedroom; a third attempt equally unsuccessful 
 was made later. 
 
 In the new Cabinet he was Minister of Finance 
 and succeeded in amazing many of the capitalists 
 by his attack on war profits and his imposition of 
 a heavy tax on the rich. Those affected then began 
 to attack his private character, which was irre¬ 
 proachable, for he was a most practical Catholic. 
 Finally he met his death, as we have already 
 said, in the Black Forest at Griesbach on 26 August, 
 1921. He had received Holy Communion that 
 morning. The general consensus about him is that 
 “he was one of most gifted men of his time, but 
 that most of his schemes ended in failure. The 
 reason is that he talked too much. He claimed to 
 be a specialist in every branch and was regarded 
 as being a specialist in none. Incessant airing of 
 his opinions caused him to be regarded as a bab¬ 
 bler. That he meant well for his country can 
 scarcely be doubted. That his death was a gain 
 or loss for Germany is a matter for future specu¬ 
 lation.” 
 
 Erzerum (or Garin), Diocese of (Erzerumiensis 
 Armenorum), Armenia, Asia Minor, a diocese of 
 
ESPOUSALS 
 
 290 
 
 ESTHONIA 
 
 \ 
 
 the Armenian Rite. Rt. Rev. Joseph Melkisedekian, 
 b. 22 July, 1848, ordained 2 April, 1874, was 
 appointed to this see 27 August, 1911, and filled 
 it until his death, 23 January, 1920. Froin 1915 
 until 1918 he was interned by the Turks atLghm. 
 Out of a total population of 500,000 inhabitants, 
 10,000 are Catholics. The 1920 statistics credit the 
 diocese with 41 missionary priests, 2 regular priests, 
 and 66 churches or chapels. The see is at present 
 (1922) vacant. 
 
 Espousals (cf. C. E., V-542) .—A promise of mar¬ 
 riage, whether unilateral or bilateral, if it is not ex. 
 conted as prescribed in the decree “Ne temere, is 
 void in both the internal and the external forum. 
 The text of the canon makes provision for the 
 inability of either or both of the parties to write 
 whether that arises from illiteracy or from a 
 physical cause. A promise of marriage, even if 
 valid and inexcusably violated, cannot be the basis 
 of an action to compel one to marry, though it 
 gives a just claim for damages if any resulted. 
 Espousals do not now create a matrimonial impedi¬ 
 ment ; they may be dissolved by mutual consent, 
 or for the reasons that sufficed before 1918. 
 
 Vlaming, Prael. juris matrimonii (Bussum, 1919), I, 86-119, 
 Petrovits, The New Church Law on Matrimony (Philadelphia, 
 1921), 34-41; de Smet, De Sponsalibus et Matrimomo (Bruges, 
 1920)’, I, 3-31. 
 
 Esthonia, an independent republic, formed from 
 the former Russian Estland, the northern part of 
 Livland, the northwestern portion of the Pskoff 
 Government, and the islands of Saaremaa (Oesel), 
 Hiiumaa (Dago), and Muhumaa in the Baltic Sea. 
 It is bounded on the east by Peipus Lake and 
 Russia, on the south by Latvia, on the west by 
 the Baltic Sea, and on the north by the Gulf of 
 Finland. The country is 217 miles long and about 
 124 miles broad, the total area being about 23,160 
 sq. miles. The population, about 1,750,000, is com- 
 posed of Esthonians (95%), Germans (Balts, 1%), 
 Russians (9%), Letts (0.9%), Swedes (.08%), and 
 Jews (05%). The republic is divided into nine 
 districts: Harju (Tallinn-Reval), Wiru (Rakwere- 
 Wesenberg), Jarva (Paide-Wrisenstein), Laane- 
 Weik (Hapsal), Tartu (Tartu-Dorpat), Woru, 
 Wiljandi (Wiljandi-Fellin), Parnu (Pernau), Saar- 
 emaa-Oesel (Kuresaare-Arensburg). The capital, 
 Tallin (Reval), was founded in 1219 and has 160,000 
 inhabitants. Parnu, on the Gulf of Riga, has 
 23,000, and Narva 35,000. The Esthonians (Ehsts) 
 in nationality, speech, and customs belong to the 
 Ugro-Finnish family and therefore to the Ural- 
 Altaic branch of the race. They first appear in 
 history as a predatory-piratical race in the Northern 
 Baltic province, who are supposed to have mi¬ 
 grated from the interior of Russia to the Baltic 
 coast, in advance of the two Finnish tribes of 
 Tavasti and Koreli. In physiognomy the Esthon¬ 
 ians closely resemble the Finns of Tavastland, a 
 Ural-Altaic Mongolian type. 
 
 Religion. —When Esthonia was incorporated with 
 Russia the whole population, German and native, 
 belonged to the Lutheran Church, but with the 
 government of the Tsar (1721) came also the Orth¬ 
 odox Church, of which he was the titular head. 
 He at once granted religious freedom, and there 
 was henceforward a new religious influence which 
 tended to identify _ itself with the movement for 
 spreading Russian institutions in the Baltic prov¬ 
 inces. Orthodoxy and Lutheranism competed for 
 the religious allegiance of the people, and after 
 1883 the Orthodox Church was represented as being 
 endangered by Lutheran propaganda. Mixed mar¬ 
 riages were prohibited (1886), except when written 
 guarantees were given that the children should be 
 
 brought up in the Orthodox faith, and at the same 
 period proceedings were taken against Lutheran 
 pastors who recognized converts from the Orthodox 
 Church. Five-sixths of the people are Lutherans. 
 According to the new constitution (15 June, 1920) 
 there is no state religion in Esthonia; freedom of 
 religion and conscience prevails. Ecclesiastically 
 Esthonia belongs to the archdiocese of Mohileff 
 (q.v.). On 11 April, 1919, the Holy See recognized 
 provisionally the National Council of Esthonia as 
 an existing independent organization. In August 
 the Foreign Minister of Esthonia asked for de jure 
 recognition, which was accorded by the Cardinal 
 Secretary of State 10 October, 1921. 
 
 Education. —In 1919 there were in Esthonia 1257 
 elementary schools with four years’ course. Of 
 these 1227 were supported by community, town, 
 or state, and 30 were private schools. The num¬ 
 ber of higher schools with seven years’ course 
 amounted to 211, seven of which were private. 
 There were also 65 middle-class schools for general 
 education; 32 of these were private schools, mostly 
 supported by the government. There are teachers’ 
 seminaries in Tallin, Tartu, and Rakwere, naviga¬ 
 tion schools in Tallin, Kasmu, Kuresaare, and 
 Parnu, as also commercial schools, agricultural 
 schools, and industrial schools. Since 1721 the 
 educational system of the province has been in the 
 hands of the Russian administration, and has not 
 differed from that prevailing in other “Govern¬ 
 ments,” but the earlier period of German domi¬ 
 nance has left its impression on higher education. 
 The University of Dorpat, founded in 1632 by Gus- 
 tavus Adolphus, was a center of German culture, 
 and although it disappeared for a time during the 
 wars of the eighteenth century, it was re-established 
 in 1802 by Alexander I on the model of a German 
 university, and the monopoly of the Germans was 
 not seriously challenged until the establishment of 
 the German Empire antagonized the Russian Gov¬ 
 ernment. In 1889 Russian influence prevailed in 
 the university, and in protest the Germans closed 
 their higher educational establishments. After the 
 revolution of 1905 German institutions were again 
 regarded with favor, and a German union was 
 formed to found schools, German being again recog¬ 
 nized as a permissible language in private schools. 
 The University of Dorpat was re-opened on 1 
 December, 1919, as an Esthonian seat of learning, 
 maintained by the Government. The attendance 
 in 1920 was 2127. The Technicum at Tallin is 
 a higher professional school with 500 students 
 (1920). 
 
 Economic Education. —Even without the com¬ 
 plications brought about by the European War, 
 the province of Esthonia was in an extremely dis¬ 
 turbed state and became the scene of destructive 
 revolutionary struggles. The Russian authorities 
 were trying to Russianize the country by force, the 
 inhabitants were struggling for land possession and 
 better industrial conditions, and the Germans were 
 aiming at industrial dominion. At the present 
 time industries of all kinds, as well as agriculture, 
 to a large extent, are in a state of suspension. 
 Agriculture is the chief occupation, half the area 
 of Esthonia being taken up by large landed prop¬ 
 erties of more than 2000 hectares each. An agrarian 
 law, passed on 10 October, 1919, gave the Govern¬ 
 ment the power to take over, “for the purpose of 
 creating a land reserve,” any estates belonging to 
 the Balt nobility, and any arable land, except that 
 owned by charitable institutions or by farmers, not 
 noble, holding less than about 400 acres of land. 
 Compensation for the land itself was to be fixed 
 later by special legislation. The purpose of the law 
 
ESTHONIA 
 
 291 
 
 ESZTERGOM 
 
 was to give land to the peasants, to parcel them 
 out into small farms, special preference being given 
 to soldiers. The theoretical compensation for the 
 inventory, however, amounted to almost nothing. 
 The arable land is divided as follows: fields 
 2,318,004 acres; meadows 2,408,840 acres; pastures 
 1,671,837 acres. Twenty per cent of the surface is 
 forest land. The principal crops, with acreage and 
 yield, as follows: rye 376,004 acres, 6,435,488 
 bushels; wheat 37,351 acres, 612,930 bushels; barley 
 297,453 acres, 5,968,308 bushels; potatoes 155,518 
 acres, 25,240,705 bushels. In 1920 Esthonia had 
 363,263 head of cattle, 436,259 sheep, 213,002 pigs, 
 and 155,262 horses. Owing to the low purchasing 
 value of the Esthonian mark (375 marks to the 
 dollar in 1920), there is but little foreign trade. 
 The chief exports are flax, timber, cellulose, and 
 meat. The trade in 1920 amounted to 3,912,394 
 poods (61 poods —one ton) of imports and 7,675,- 
 508 poods of exports. Of the total imports 
 1,142,759 poods came from the United Kingdom 
 and 1,298,670 from Germany; of the total exports 
 3,531,262 went to the United Kingdom and 275,905 
 to Germany. 
 
 Government. —According to the constitution of 
 15 June, 1920, the supreme power in the State is 
 the people, who delegate its execution to the Con¬ 
 stituent Assembly, and the legal representative of 
 the country is the President of the Assembly. By 
 order of the Constituent Assembly the Government 
 exercises the supreme executive power, and the 
 Supreme Court of Justice the supreme judicial 
 power. The people have the power of the initiative 
 and referendum. The Government, consisting of 
 11 departments, but no fixed number of ministers, 
 is the ir ^trument of the Constituent Assembly, 
 holds office for one year and must always have a 
 quorum of fifty per cent of its members. Serfdom 
 is abolished and the peasant becomes the proprietor 
 of his land with the right of sale. Suffrage is 
 universal, the voting age for both sexes being 
 twenty. The death penalty and the total confisca¬ 
 tion of goods are forbidden. There is no censorship. 
 The Assembly is composed of 100 members, elected 
 for three years on the basis of proportional repre¬ 
 sentation. The members are not the representa¬ 
 tives of the districts which elect them, but of the 
 whole nation. The Assembly is governed by a 
 Presidium (one of whom is chairman) elected at 
 the first meeting of the Assembly, and chosen by it. 
 The Premier-President is head of the State, repre¬ 
 sents the republic, presides over meetings, but 
 executive power belongs to the Government, which 
 holds office at the discretion of the Assembly. The 
 Supreme Court of Justice watches over the execu¬ 
 tion of the laws and treaties, and if necessary elects 
 the judges. Every Esthonian citizen may, without 
 prejudicing his right as a citizen, declare the 
 nationality to which he considers himself to belong, 
 the four recognized nationalities being Russian, 
 Swedish, Lettish, and German; he has the right 
 to education in his language, and to the use of 
 it in his daily life. Military service is made uni¬ 
 versal. 
 
 History.— Esthonia was conquered and Chris¬ 
 tianized by the Germans of the Teutonic Order 
 overseas for trading and missionary purposes. It 
 was invaded in 1558 by Ivan the Terrible, and 
 finally submitted to Sweden. In 1710 it was seized 
 by Russia, who confirmed her new position by the 
 treaty of Nystad in 1721. In this treaty religious 
 freedom hitherto denied was claimed for the mem¬ 
 bers of the Greek Church. Under Russian rule 
 Esthonia retained her own laws (provincial law) 
 and her own special system of administration. Up 
 
 to 1887 she enjoyed a certain autonomy, but with 
 the advent of Alexander III (1881-94) the policy 
 ol Kussiamzing the province was introduced, and 
 ^ e . Germans struggled to defend their privileged 
 position against the Russian Government and the 
 native races. In 1905 a violent revolution broke 
 out, which assumed the form of an anti-German 
 war, directed against pastors and other Germans 
 as well as the great proprietors. The outbreak, put 
 down by military force, resulted in the strengthen¬ 
 ing of the German position, and the representa¬ 
 tion of the province in the Duma (1906-07). 
 
 In April, 1917, the Russian Provisional Govern¬ 
 ment promulgated the law of Esthonian autonomy 
 and provided for local self-government, under a 
 JNational Council, elected by universal, secret, 
 equal and proportional suffrage. This council met 
 tor the first time on 14 July, 1917, and Esthonia 
 virtually became a federal state in a Russian con¬ 
 federation. In October Bolshevism appeared in 
 Esthonia, and after a coup d’etat in November the 
 National Council declared itself the sovereign 
 power in Esthonia until a Constituent Assembly 
 could meet. On 28 January, 1918, the Balts for¬ 
 mally invited Germany to occupy the country, to 
 which after protesting the council replied (24 
 February) by declaring Esthonia an independent 
 state, and constituting a provisional government 
 under M. Paets; the National Council maintained 
 itself by missions abroad, and was recognized as a 
 de facto governing body by Britain (3 May), 
 France (15 May), and Italy (29 May), a recogni¬ 
 tion amplified by the British declaration of 10 
 September. As soon as the German evacuation 
 began the National Council resumed power, re¬ 
 constituted the provisional government and held 
 elections for the Constituent Assemblv which was 
 opened on 23 April, 1919, and on 19 May pro¬ 
 claimed Esthonia an independent republic. A 
 treaty of peace was signed with Russia at Tartu 
 (Dorpat) on 2 February, 1920, by which the land 
 frontiers of Esthonia were fixed. Another treaty 
 in July, 1920, with Latvia fixed the southern 
 boundaries. Finland recognized the republic as de 
 jure independent, and by 7 June, 1920, de facto 
 recognition had been accorded by practically all 
 the powers. 
 
 Esztergom (German, Gran), Archdiocese of 
 (Strigomensis), situated in Lower Hungary, the 
 primatial see of that country. This see is filled 
 by His Eminence John Cardinal Csernoch, born in 
 Szalkolcza, Hungary, 1852, ordained 1874, served 
 as a pastor and chancellor of the archdiocese, went 
 as a deputy to the Hungarian Parliament, appointed 
 Bishop of Csanad 16 February, 1908, transferred to 
 Kalocsa 20 April, 1911, promoted to Gran 13 Decem¬ 
 ber, 1912, and made a cardinal-priest 25 May, 1914. 
 He is assisted by an auxiliary, Rt. Rev. Joseph 
 Medardus Kohl, titular Bishop of Samosata. On 
 11 September, 1919, the cardinal received a letter 
 from the Pope deploring the Hungarian Revolution, 
 which had despoiled many of the dioceses and 
 hindered the work of the clergy. He congratulated 
 the bishops, priests and faithful on their courageous 
 resistance to the religious persecution, an impor¬ 
 tant factor in the revolution, which was by no 
 means entirely political. He assured them that he 
 would take a keen interest in Hungarian affairs, 
 and expressed his desire that the Hungarian bishops 
 should do the same. The canons of the cathedral 
 of Esztergom are prothonotaries apostolic ad instar, 
 durante munere. The Catholic population is 
 counted at 1,594,515 bv the 1920 statistics, as 
 against 2456 Schismatics, 329.727 Protestants, 334 
 
EUCHARIST 
 
 292 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 Oriental Greeks, and 258,222 Jews. The archdiocese 
 is divided into 40 deaneries, 480 parishes, 200 second 
 class parishes and vicariates, 1024 secular priests 
 and 221 regular clergy. 
 
 Eucharist (cf. C. E., V-572d) —Under the Code 
 for a grave cause a local ordinary or parish priest 
 may permit a deacon to give Holy Communion. 
 In case of necessity this permission may be pre¬ 
 sumed. Provided there is some one to take care 
 of the consecrated host and that Mass is celebrated 
 regularly at least once a week; (a) the Blessed 
 Sacrament should be kept in a cathedral, the prin¬ 
 cipal church of a vicariate apostolic, a prefecture 
 apostolic, an abbey or prelature nullius, in every 
 parish, or quasi-parish church, and in churches an¬ 
 nexed to exempt religious houses; (b) on the other 
 hand it may be kept with the principal public 
 or semi-public oratory of pious places or religious 
 houses, and of ecclesiastical colleges directed by the 
 secular clergy or religious. To keep it in other 
 churches or oratories an Apostolic indult is re¬ 
 quired; a local ordinary, however, can grant per¬ 
 mission for it to be reserved in churches or public 
 oratories, but only for just cause and incidentally. 
 No one may keep the Blessed Sacrament or bring 
 it with him on a journey. The churches in which 
 the Blessed Sacrament is kept, particularly parish 
 churches, should be open to the public for at least 
 a few hours each day. All privileges to the contrary 
 being revoked, the Blessed Sacrament cannot be 
 kept in religious or pious houses except in the 
 church or principal oratory; nor can it be kept 
 within the choir or enclosure of a nun’s monastery. 
 It may not be kept continuously or habitually on 
 more than one altar in the same church, and rectors 
 are to see that this altar is more adorned than any 
 other, so that the faithful may be excited to greater 
 piety and devotion. It should be kept in a fixed 
 tabernacle in the middle of the altar. The taber¬ 
 nacle should be artistically constructed, securely 
 closed, adorned according to liturgical regulations; 
 it must contain nothing but the Blessed Sacrament, 
 and must be guarded carefully against all danger 
 of profanation. The priest in charge, of the church 
 or oratory is bound gravely in conscience to guard 
 the tabernacle key most carefully. For grave reason 
 the Holy Eucharist may be removed from the altar 
 and kept during the night with the local ordinary’s 
 permission, in a fitting, safer place, in which case it 
 is to be laid on a corporal, and a light must be kept 
 burning before it. 
 
 A sufficient number of consecrated hosts to meet 
 the wants of the sick and the faithful are to be kept 
 constantly in a solidly constructed, tightly closing 
 pyx, with a white silk embroidered cover. In 
 churches or oratories in which the Blessed Sacra¬ 
 ment is kept there may be private exposition in 
 the pyx for any just cause without the ordinary’s 
 leave. In private exposition the ciborium is visible 
 in the open tabernacle, and is taken out only for 
 the Benediction. There may be public exposition 
 in the monstrance in all churches during the Masses 
 and continuing to Vespers on Corpus Christi and 
 within the octave; at any other time this is for¬ 
 bidden without a just grave cause, especially a 
 public cause, and the ordinary’s leave, even in a 
 church belonging to exempt religious. The Forty 
 Hours’ Devotion is to be held yearly in churches 
 in which the Blessed Sacrament is reserved; if 
 for any special reason this cannot be done with due 
 reverence the local ordinary should arrange to have 
 exposition with greater solemnity than usual for 
 some hours on stated days. 
 
 EugSnie, Empress (Eugenie Marie de Monttjo 
 
 de Guzman y de Porto-Carrero) , wife of Napoleon 
 III, b. at Granada, Spain, 5 May, 1826; d. at 
 Madrid, 11 July, 1920. Her father Count de 
 Monti jo, was Spanish, and her mother was a Kirk¬ 
 patrick of Scotch extraction. She married Napoleon 
 III on 29 June, 1853, when he was Emperor of the 
 French and the prince imperial was born 16 March, 
 1856. When the war with Germany broke out in 
 1870 she was made regent, but the Communist 
 Revolution, that followed the defeat of the em¬ 
 peror, forced her to leave France. She repaired 
 to England, and was followed by the prince and 
 emperor. On 9 January, 1873, the emperor died 
 under a surgical operation, and six years later the 
 prince was killed in the war with the Zulus. After 
 that, her life was passed in seclusion. 
 
 Eupen and Malmedy, Diocese of. See Liege. 
 
 Europe (cf. C. E., V-607a).—The result of the 
 World War (1914—18) in Europe has been to sweep 
 away the old boundaries of'states, political parties, 
 and social classes. New states have risen, old states 
 have changed their character, and others are ex¬ 
 periencing a national re-birth. Among the latter, 
 the most conspicuous example in Poland. The new 
 states include Jugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Latvia, 
 Esthonia, and Lithuania. Germany has lost 5600 
 square miles and nearly 2,000,000 inhabitants by the 
 recession to France of Alsace and Lorraine, in addi¬ 
 tion to the great Saar Valley coal field. Fifteen 
 years hence the inhabitants of the Saar Basin will 
 decide by plebiscite who shall rule them. Belgium 
 has acquired full sovereignty over Moresnet, and 
 possession of Eupen and Malmedy, surrendered by 
 Germany, and now has an area of 11,630 sq. miles 
 and a population of 7,600,000. Germany also gave 
 up to Poland an area equal to 30,000 square miles 
 with a population of 6,000,000, and in order to pro¬ 
 vide Poland with an outlet to the ocean surren¬ 
 dered Danzig, which became the free city of Danzig 
 under the protection of the League of Nations. 
 In addition to the Saar Basin six areas in the Ger¬ 
 man Territory were placed under plebiscites: two 
 in East Prussia (Marienwerder and Allenstein) 
 voted to stay with Germany; Northern Schleswig 
 to return to Denmark; Holstein and Southern 
 Schleswig to become re-incorporated into the Ger¬ 
 man State; and Upper Silesia was divided between 
 Poland (1300 sq. miles) and Germany (2800 sq. 
 miles). As a guarantee for the faithful execution 
 of her contracts under the treaty of Versailles, Ger¬ 
 many consented to the military occupation of ter¬ 
 ritory to the west of the Rhine, designated as 
 “Zone of Allied Occupation.” The Kiel Canal was 
 internationalized, and Helgoland dismantled. Thus 
 Germany is reduced to an area of about 172,000 
 sq. miles and a population of about 55,080,000. 
 Austria proper has shrunk from 134,000 sq. miles 
 to 32,000 sq. miles; its population from 29,000,000 
 to 6,500,000. The Klagenfurt district voted by 
 plebiscite to remain with Austria. By the loss of 
 Transylvania (22,000 sq. miles) to Rumania, and 
 Croatia, Slavonia, and portions of Banat to Jugo¬ 
 slavia. Hungary was reduced from 125,000 sq. miles 
 with more than 20,000,000 subjects to 36,000 sq. 
 miles with 8,000,000 people. 
 
 To the Greeks Bulgaria renounced Bulgarian 
 Thrace; to the Jugoslavs, a strip of territory in¬ 
 cluding the town of Strumitsa, also two fragments 
 along the West Bulgarian front, one of which con¬ 
 tains the town of Tsaribrod; a total loss of about 
 2000 sq. miles out of her 43,000 sq. miles. To the 
 Turks only a small tract in Europe remains, the 
 Chatalja district, west of Constantinople. The Dar¬ 
 danelles, Bosphorus, and shores of the Sea of Mar- 
 
EUROPE 
 
 293 
 
 EUTHANASIA 
 
 
 mora became the “Zone of the Straits,” controlled 
 and governed by an Inter-Allied Commission and 
 a small area known as the Suvla Reservation was 
 set aside as a cemetery for the Allies who fell in 
 the attempt to take Constantinople. Greece re¬ 
 ceived Turkish Thrace and numerous islands of the 
 ^Egeim Sea. After being united to the Russian 
 Empire as an autonomous grand duchy, Finland 
 proclaimed its independence as a republic in Decem¬ 
 ber, 1917. She was awarded the Aland Islands, by 
 the League of Nations in 1920. The three Baltic 
 States of Esthonia, Latvia, and Lithuania declared 
 their independence under republican forms of gov¬ 
 ernment, Esthonia (area, 23,160 sq. miles; popula¬ 
 tion, 1,750,000), and Lithuania (59,633 sq. miles; 
 population, 4,800,000) in February, 1918, and Latvia 
 (25,000 sq. miles; population, 1,503,193) in Novem¬ 
 ber of the same year. Soviet Russia with its 95,000,- 
 000 inhabitants is still in a chaotic condition. The 
 reconstituted Poland, now a republic, with its seat 
 of government in the ancient capital of Warsaw, 
 derives its territory from the three powers, who 
 profited in the former partitions of the country; 
 from Germany was acquired parts of Posen, West 
 Prussia, East Prussia, and Silesia; from Austria- 
 Hungary, most of Galicia and a part of Bukowina, 
 and from Russia all of Russian Poland. The 
 probable area of the republic is 100,000 sq. miles. 
 
 The new republic of Czechoslovakia, with an area 
 of about 52,000 sq. miles and a population of 
 14,000,000, includes Bohemia, Moravia, and parts 
 of Silesia and Slovakia, united in October, 1918. At 
 the same time the Kingdom of Jugoslavia, formed 
 by the union of Croatia, Slovakia, and Dalmatia, was 
 proclaimed, a total area of 101,254 sq. miles, with 
 a population of about 15,000,000. By the terms 
 of the Treaty of Rapallo in 1920 Jugoslavia was 
 awarded the Dalmatian coast and islands, while to 
 Italy fell the towns of Zara and the islands of 
 Cherso and Lagosta. The city of Fiume and the 
 outlying territory was declared internationalized. 
 Montenegro is no more, having been absorbed by 
 Jugoslavia. Albania (11,000 sq. miles), the bone of 
 contention in the Balkans, remains independent, 
 Italy, however, keeping the island of Saseno. Italy’s 
 acquisition of the islands of the Adriatic constitutes 
 a small part of her territorial gains as a result of 
 the war; the redeemed region of Trentino, Gorizia, 
 and Istria together with Trieste, now belong to 
 Italy, and insure her control of the Gulf of Venice 
 and all the North Adriatic littoral. All this area 
 constitutes about 17,000 sq. miles. Italy also ad¬ 
 ministers the island of Rhodes, which in fifteen 
 years is to decide by plebiscite whether or not it is 
 to be ceded to Greece; and also the island of Kas- 
 telorizo, near Kekova Bay, acquired by the Turkish 
 Treaty of Sevres. 
 
 By its recovery of Bessarabia and parts of Hun¬ 
 gary, mentioned above, Rumania became the largest 
 of the Balkan States, with 17,000,000 inhabitants, 
 and 122,282 sq. miles. To the northeast is the 
 nascent republic of Ukraine, whose boundaries are 
 still vague, and which has a probable area of 200,000 
 sq. miles and a population of 30,000,000. The most 
 recent change in boundary has been in the district 
 of Teschen, Silesia; in 1921 Teschen was awarded 
 to Poland, but the territory containing mines was 
 awarded to Czechoslovakia. The acquisition of 
 new territories by Greece as a result of the Balkan 
 Wars gave the country a total area of 41,933 sq. 
 miles and an estimated population of 4,821,300; 
 add to this, all of Greece’s acquisitions in the World 
 War, the iEgean Islands, Western Thrace, and the 
 greater part of the province of Aden in Asia Minor, 
 all that was loft of Turkey in Europe, west of the 
 
 Chataija lines, and the Dodecanese Islands, and it 
 will be seen that no nation has profited more than 
 Greece in proportion to its pre-war importance, 
 with its present population of six million. Luxem¬ 
 burg, formerly a Grand Duchy of Germany, has 
 placed herself under the protection of Belgium. 
 
 The following countries remained unaffected by 
 the World War as far as area is concerned: 
 
 Country 
 
 Area 
 
 Square 
 
 Miles 
 
 Population 
 
 Holland . 
 
 12,582 
 
 194,783 
 
 173,035 
 
 35,490 
 
 15,976 
 
 121,633 
 
 125,001 
 
 6,831,231 (1920) 
 20,783,844 (1920) 
 5,847,037 (1920) 
 5,957,985 (1911) 
 3,861,508 (1920) 
 45,516,259 (1911) 
 2,691,855 (1920) 
 
 Spain . 
 
 Sweden . 
 
 Portugal . 
 
 Switzerland . 
 
 United Kingdom . 
 
 Norway . 
 
 
 Euthanasia (cf. C. E., V-630a), means a good or 
 painless death. Its advocates would apply it in 
 certain severe cases to (1) the sick, (2) the insane, 
 and (3) the criminal. These three classes of un¬ 
 fortunates, according to the advocates of euthanasia, 
 are doomed to a life of suffering and are a useless 
 expense to the State, and for these reasons should 
 not be permitted to live. Committees of experts 
 would be appointed to visit the wards of hospitals 
 and to decide what patients may possibly be cured. 
 Those who have no prospects of recovery and suffer 
 from severe maladies are to be given some drug or 
 opiate which will render them unconscious and 
 gradually bring on death. Other committees would 
 visit insane asylums and penal institutions and 
 destroy the lives of those who have no chance of 
 a cure, or who can in no way become dependable 
 members of society. “Euthanasia is just now being 
 made the subject of nationwide discussion among 
 physicians, ministers, philanthropists and criminolo¬ 
 gists. Efforts are being made in New York, Massa¬ 
 chusetts, Ohio, and Missouri to have it legalized by 
 law. Many physicians favor it. Many lawyers 
 believe that as a legal issue the state possesses the 
 moral and constitutional right to practice euthan¬ 
 asia” (Chicago Inter-Ocean, 16 March, 1913). “As 
 the author has stood by the beds of consumptive 
 or syphilitic children, he has wondered if it were 
 kindness to keep life in the pain-racked body. Cure 
 was out of the question so far as medical science 
 now knows, and one wonders why days of pain 
 should be added to days of pain. The same ques¬ 
 tions recur as one passes through the incurable 
 wards of an almshouse, especially as one studies 
 the cases of the cancer patients” (Werner’s “Amer¬ 
 ican Charities,” revised ed., p. 26). George Ives, 
 in his “History of Penal Methods,” concludes that: 
 “All [criminals] who cannot ultimately lead useful, 
 human, tolerably happy lives should be destroyed 
 as soon as their condition has been determined.” 
 
 The principal objection to this vicious doctrine 
 is that God alone has the supreme dominion over 
 human life. No committee of social workers or 
 legislators may presume to trespass upon this right 
 of the Creator. God is the author of life and it is 
 for Him to decide when the service of His creatures 
 in this world terminates. Any law authorizing a 
 committee of physicians to enter institutions and 
 do away with the lives of inmates would be invalid 
 as it contravenes the higher law of God. A second 
 argument against the application of this doctrine is 
 +he mental anguish and fear which it would bring 
 to the unfortunate sick and suffering. Every in¬ 
 mate of a hospital or other institution for the sick 
 and suffering would be in continual fear of death, 
 
EVANGELICAL 
 
 294 
 
 EVANGELICAL 
 
 and the mental suffering thus brought about would 
 far exceed any physical pain to which the inmates 
 are now subjected. It opens an avenue, too, for 
 all forms of injustice towards the sick under the 
 plea of ridding them of useless pain. Doctors and 
 nurses who may become insane or sick owing to 
 their devoted care to humanity, soldiers wounded 
 or rendered insane by the terrible sacrifices for 
 their country, civilians in every walk of life who 
 have broken their health by their daily routine of 
 duty; all these would be helplessly in the power 
 of the committee of physicians. No physician or 
 social worker has any moral right over life. They 
 are to prolong life, lessen human suffering and pro¬ 
 mote the general welfare of the community. 
 Human life is from God and belongs to God. No 
 one may under any conditions directly take the 
 
 life of an innocent person. 
 
 Coppens and Spalding, Moral Principles and Medical Prac¬ 
 tice (New York, 1921); Spalding, Talks to Nurses, (New 
 York, 1920). ^ ^ 
 
 Henry S. Spalding. 
 
 Evangelical Association. See Albright Breth¬ 
 ren. 
 
 Evangelical Church (in Prussia; cf. C. E., V- 
 642d), has in recent years continued to disintegrate 
 internally and has ceased to be a state church. 
 
 I. Internal Disintegration. —Many scholars, 
 officially members of the Evangelical Church, re¬ 
 ject almost all dogmatic belief and deny the Divine 
 origin of the Bible. They have adopted and teach 
 some sort of creedless, Christless Christianity. 
 Owing to the spread of their radical opinions and 
 to the success of Socialist propaganda the tendency 
 to secession has become very pronounced in the 
 denomination. Before the separation of Church 
 and State was effected thousands seceded annually 
 and thousands more omitted to follow the same 
 course, merely owing* to the petty restrictions and 
 formalities with which the State surrounded the 
 proceedings leading to official secession. Within 
 the denomination itself such profound antagonism 
 exists between the liberal and the conservative 
 element in theological disputes and religious prac¬ 
 tice that German Protestantism seems to be divided 
 into contending factions. The conservatives insist 
 on the acceptance by all church members of the 
 confessions of faith and doctrinal standards hitherto 
 considered as authoritative expressions of orthodox 
 evangelical doctrine. The rejection of these should, 
 according to them, entail exclusion from the church, 
 for a church devoid of internal cohesion and held 
 together solely by external means obviously con¬ 
 stitutes a very peculiar religious society. Briefly, 
 the conservatives look upon creeds and other doc¬ 
 trinal standards as binding on all members of the 
 Evangelical Church. 
 
 The Liberals, however, emphatically dissent from 
 this view. They hold confessions of faith to be in 
 no wise obligatory, freely reject articles of belief 
 and nevertheless refuse to give up their church 
 membership. In their eyes creeds drawn up by 
 fallible men must yield before the private inter¬ 
 pretation of the Bible and no man who has pos¬ 
 sessed himself of a more “modern and progressive” 
 understanding of the Scriptures can be forced out 
 of the church by an appeal to written denomina¬ 
 tional tests. They pertinently cite the Evangelical 
 Union as an instance where Calvinists and Luther¬ 
 ans were brought together in one state church and 
 conclude that Liberals and Conservatives should 
 find it possible to live together in the same or¬ 
 ganization. The Evangelical church is, in their 
 opinion, not a society whose members hold identical 
 beliefs, but an organization composed of persons 
 
 who follow the dictates of their individual con¬ 
 science and oppose the power of the Church of 
 Rome. Although, as one of them stated, in 
 point of belief it could only be said of them with 
 certainty that they were not Catholics, they held 
 that, without their own consent, they could not be 
 excluded from the church. 
 
 In religious practice liberal or conservative minor¬ 
 ities in certain parishes took matters into their own 
 hands to secure the occasional services of ministers 
 acceptable to them. The Liberals in certain pre¬ 
 dominantly conservative parishes invited Liberal 
 clergymen to conduct services in public halls or 
 other secular buildings. The conservative minority 
 took similar action in some parishes to which they 
 belonged. The competent ecclesiastical authorities 
 either tolerated the innovation or protested without 
 success. These divisions led some to the conclu¬ 
 sion that the separation of the Church from the 
 State would be the most practical solution of 
 existing difficulties. The great majority of Evan¬ 
 gelical Christians, however, held fast to the ex¬ 
 isting union, because as one Protestant writer 
 frankly stated, union with the State was the only 
 effective means to preserve the Evangelical Church 
 from dissolution. 
 
 II. Separation. —The World War seemed at first 
 to have solidified Protestant sentiment in Ger¬ 
 many. As it progressed, however, the bickerings of 
 former days were again heard. With its issue 
 so disastrous for Germany, separation from the 
 State was suddenly forced on the Evangelical 
 Church. The revolution which on 9 November, 
 1918, forced the abdication of the Kaiser and over¬ 
 turned the imperial government, also suppressed 
 the official connection of the Evangelical Church 
 with the Prussian State. Until then that Church 
 represented the governing class of Prussia and 
 formed a constituent part of the state organiza¬ 
 tion. It was a denomination composed of govern¬ 
 ment officials and out of touch with the masses. 
 By the revolution the former political protection 
 and financial assistance were withdrawn, the Church 
 was thrown on its own resources and its members 
 were given complete freedom to secede from it. 
 According to the constitution of the German Re¬ 
 public published on 11 August, 1919, “there is no 
 state religion. All inhabitants enjoy complete free¬ 
 dom of belief and of*conscience. The free exercise 
 of religion is guaranteed by the constitution and 
 placed under the protection of the State” (articles 
 135, 137). 
 
 These clauses have made secession easy where it 
 was formerly difficult; they have removed con¬ 
 straint so long in use in favor of the Evangelical 
 Church; they have placed the latter in legal matters 
 on a footing of equality with other denominations. 
 The strength of the Church has been immensely 
 impaired. While there is small likelihood that 
 Evangelicals will in large numbers accept Catholi¬ 
 cism, separation probably means disruption of a 
 formerly centralized body. The World War and 
 consequent German revolution have eliminated 
 the Prussian state as the official protector of Prot¬ 
 estantism at home a~d its unofficial leader abroad. 
 
 Since the introduction of separation attempts 
 have been made in the German states to reorganize 
 the Protestant Church. In Prussia they have not 
 led to definitive results at the present writing. 
 In Bavaria the Lutheran and Reformed Churches, 
 after a century-old union, have given themselves 
 separate church governments. In Baden also the 
 ecclesiastical reorganization has been completed 
 and the right attributed to a sufficiently numerous 
 minority in a parish to select its own minister 
 
EVORA 
 
 295 
 
 EXCOMMUNICATION 
 
 and hold separate services. In other States a new 
 church constitution has likewise been adopted. A 
 curious feature of the Brunswick and Mecklenburg- 
 Schwerin constitutions is the institution of “bishops’’ 
 as heads of these churches. 
 
 III. Statistics. —The German Empire had, in 1914, 
 66 million inhabitants, of whom 41 million were Prot¬ 
 estants and over 24 million were Catholics. Owing 
 to the losses sustained in the war and cessions im¬ 
 posed by the peace treaty the German Republic 
 was reduced to 60,900,000 inhabitants, according to 
 the census returns of 8 October, 1919. Further 
 losses have since been incurred by the cession of 
 part of Silesia to Poland in accordance with the 
 decision of the League of Nations. The population 
 of Germany is now scarcely 60,000,000, approxi¬ 
 mately 39,000,000 of these being Protestants and 
 19,000,000 Catholics. The decrease of several mil¬ 
 lion in the Catholic population is accounted for 
 by the cession of predominantly Catholic provinces 
 to France and Poland through the treaty of Ver¬ 
 sailles (1919). 
 
 M’Laren, Creeds, Heresy-Hunting and Secession in German 
 Protestantism To-Day in Hibbert Journal, XII (1913-1914), 
 721-732; Kissling, Der deutsche Protestantismus 1817-1917 
 (Munster, 1918); Rade, The Present Situation of Christianity 
 in Germany in American Journal of Theology, XXIV, 1920, 
 339-367 ; Rost, Der Protestantismus nach protestantischen 
 Zeugnissen (Paderborn, 1920); Schneider, Kirchliches Jahr- 
 buch (annual); Lempp, Church and Religion in Germany in 
 Harvard Theological Review, XIV (1921), 30-52; Grisar, Die 
 Neugrilndung des Kirchenwesens im deutschen Protestantismus 
 in Allgemiene Rundschau (Munich, January 14 and 21, 1921); 
 Idem, Die neuen protestantischen Landeskirchen, loc. cit., 
 4 February, 1922. N A Weber 
 
 Evora, Archdiocese of (Elborensis), in the 
 Province of Alemtejo, Portugal. This see is filled 
 by Most Rev. Manuel Mendes Da Conceigao 
 Santos, b. in the Diocese of Lisbon 13 December, 
 1873, chancellor of the cathedral at Guarda, doctor 
 of divinity, appointed Bishop of Portalegra 9 
 December, 1915, promoted to the titular metropoli¬ 
 tan see of Philippopolis and coadjutor of Evora 
 4 June, 1920. Upon the death of Agustin Eduardo 
 Nunez (b. 31 March, 1849, d. 14 July, 1920) he 
 succeeded to Evora 24 July following. In 1921 the 
 Portuguese Government decorated him with the 
 Cross of the Order of Christ. The census of 1900 
 showed the diocese to have a Catholic population 
 of 206,518, 176 parishes, and 176 priests, while the 
 statistics of 1903 credited it with 313 churches and 
 297 chapels. 
 
 Evreux, Diocese of (Ebroicensis), in the de¬ 
 partment of Eure, France, suffragan of Rouen. 
 Upon the death of Rt. Rev. Philippe Meunier, 11 
 January, 1913, Rt. Rev. Louis-Jean Dechelette was 
 transferred to succeed him 7 February, 1913. On 9 
 August, 1919, Bishop Dechelette was named by the 
 Belgian king commander of the Order of Leopold. 
 He died the following year, on 11 April, and was 
 succeeded by Rt. Rev. Constantin Chauvin, born 
 in Cosse-le-Vivien 1859, made his studies at 
 Mayenne, Laval, and St. Sulpice in Paris, and was 
 ordained in 1882. He served as professor of Holy 
 Scripture at the Seminary of Laval, and rector of 
 the lower seminary, and was named an honorary 
 canon in 1900, a member of the Biblical Commis¬ 
 sion in 1903, titular chancellor and vicar general in 
 1907, and appointed bishop 30 July, 1920. The 
 1920 statistics credit the diocese with 323,651 Cath¬ 
 olics, 73 parishes, 545 succursal parishes, and 41 
 vicariates formerly supported by the State. The 
 diocese is dedicated to St. Taurin, and the cathe¬ 
 dral and chapter to the Blessed Virgin. 
 
 Examination (cf. C. E., V-673d).—A local ordi¬ 
 nary or religious superior w T ho has granted a priest 
 
 a license to preach after the required examination, 
 may insist on a second examination later, if a 
 doubt arises in connection with the orthodoxy of 
 the preacher s teachings. Before appointing a priest 
 to a parish, the local ordinary should test his knowl¬ 
 edge by an examination held in his own and the 
 synodal examiners’ presence; but, with the synodal 
 examiners’ consent, he may dispense from the 
 examination in case of a priest who is known to be 
 skilled in theology; where, however, the provision 
 of parishes is made by a concursus, that practice 
 is to be continued until the Holy See decrees other¬ 
 wise. If a parish priest is transferred at the request 
 and wish of the ordinary, he should be re-examined; 
 if the transfer is at his own request, the examination 
 is optional; but no examination is needed when 
 the transfer is forced. An ordinary may examine 
 anyone before confirming or instituting him in any 
 ecclesiastical office. All priests must, unless ex¬ 
 empted by the local ordinary for just cause, be 
 examined yearly in sacred science, for the three 
 years following the completion of their studies; 
 the matter for the examination and the manner 
 in which it is to be held are determined by the 
 ordinary; priests in religious orders are to be exam¬ 
 ined similarly by some of the fathers for a period 
 of five years, after completing their studies, unless 
 they are exempted by their higher superiors or 
 when they are teaching theology, canon law, or 
 scholastic philosophy. 
 
 Examiners, Synodal (cf. C. E., V-676).—In each 
 diocese there are to be not less than four nor 
 more than twelve synodal examiners, the Code 
 leaving the exact number in each instance to the 
 discretion of the bishop. The names of the exam¬ 
 iners are proposed in the synod by the bishop and 
 approved by the synod. If any of them should 
 die or vacate his position in the interval between 
 two synods, the bishop, on consulting the cathedral 
 chapter appoints a substitute. Formerly, if the 
 number of examiners fell below six more than a 
 year after the synod was held, the bishop had to 
 obtain leave from the Holy See to fill the vacancies. 
 After holding office for ten years or less, if a new 
 synod occurs sooner, their tenure of office ceases, 
 but they may complete any work they have begun, 
 and may be re-appointed. They cannot be removed 
 by the bishop, except for grave cause and after 
 consulting the cathedral chapter. The chief duties 
 of the synodal examiners are to examine candidates 
 for parochial benefices, and to assist the bishop 
 in the proceedings concerning the removal or trans¬ 
 ference of parish priests; they may be appointed 
 also by the bishop to conduct examinations for 
 faculties and for the recently ordained priests. An 
 examiner may be a parochial consultor, but he 
 may not act in both capacities in the one case. 
 
 Excommunication (cf. C. E., V-678).—The sixth 
 canon of the Code of Canon Law, which came into 
 force in 1918, declares that all former ecclesiastical 
 punishments, whether spiritual or temporal, medicinal 
 or vindicatory, latse or ferendae sententiae, not men¬ 
 tioned in the Code have been abolished. The 
 excommunications contained in the Constitution 
 “Apostolicae Sedis,” for instance, and set forth in 
 detail in the Catholic Encyclopedia, V-686 sqq., 
 have now lost their force, except in as far as they 
 have been re-enacted in the Code. 
 
 Excommunications are now divided into five 
 categories, according as they are reserved: (a) very 
 especially to the pope; (b) specially to the pope; 
 (c) simply to the pope; (d) to the bishop; (e) to 
 no one. Of these the first class, though hitherto 
 
EXCOMMUNICATION 
 
 296 
 
 EXCOMMUNICATION 
 
 admitted by canonists, was not formally recognized 
 by the law. 
 
 I— Excommunication very specially reserved to 
 the pope is incurred by: (a) Those who throw 
 away the consecrated species or carry them off or 
 retain them for an evil purpose (can. 2320). This 
 is a new excommunication. 
 
 (b) Anyone who lays violent hands on the pope ; 
 such a culprit is, moreover, by the very fact of his 
 crime, an excommunicate vitandus (can. 2343). 
 Under the Code, attacks on the person of the pope 
 are punished more severely than before. It may 
 be noticed also that this is the only case in which 
 a culprit becomes an excommunicate vitandus (i. e., 
 one to be shunned) without a sentence or denuncia¬ 
 tion. 
 
 (c) A confessor who absolves or pretends to 
 absolve an accomplice in a sin against chastity, 
 except when there is a really grave danger of death 
 (in articulo mortis, at the point of death, usually 
 so interpreted in this matter by canonists) and no 
 other priest is present, even one lacking approba¬ 
 tion, who could hear the confession without great 
 danger of giving scandal or of ruining the reputation 
 of either or both of the culprits, or if the dying 
 person refuses to confess to another priest. Further¬ 
 more, the same penalty would be incurred if the 
 guilty priest heard the confession of his accomplice, 
 who at his direct or indirect instigation omitted 
 mentioning the sin from which he or she had not 
 been already absolved (can. 2367). 
 
 (d) A confessor who presumes to violate the 
 seal of confession directly (can. 2369). This is a 
 new censure, enacted not to correct an abuse, as 
 violation of the seal of confession has occurred 
 only extremely rarely in history, but to reaffirm to 
 the world the sanctity of the secret of any penitent 
 mentioned in the confessional. 
 
 II— Excommunication specially reserved to the 
 pope is incurred by: (a) All apostates from the 
 Christian faith, all heretics and schismatics (can. 
 2314). Those who gave credence to, received, coun¬ 
 tenanced, or defended apostates or heretics for¬ 
 merly incurred this penalty expressly; they are now 
 immune, except in so far as they have incurred 
 guilt as co-operators. Though absolution from this 
 censure is reserved in the forum of conscience to 
 the pope, yet, if the crime of apostasy, heresy, or 
 schism has been brought before a local ordinary 
 in the external forum in any way, even by volun¬ 
 tary confession, he but not a vicar-general without 
 a special mandate, may by his ordinary power, 
 absolve the culprit in the external forum, and then 
 any confessor can absolve him from the sin. Before 
 the local ordinary grants absolution from the cen¬ 
 sure the culprit must abjure his error in the presence 
 of the ordinary or of his delegate and of at least two 
 witnesses. This power of the bishop to absolve 
 in the external forum is ordinary and can be 
 delegated; in the United States it is customary to 
 delegate it to priests who receive converts to re¬ 
 lieve them from the necessity of asking for faculties 
 in each case. If a person is suspected of heresy, 
 he is to receive a canonical admonition; and if he 
 stubbornly neglects the warning and minor penal¬ 
 ties that may be imposed, he is finally to be deemed 
 a heretic, and as such he incurs this form of 
 excommunication. • 
 
 (b) Those who publish books written by apos¬ 
 tates, heretics, or schismatics, advocating apostasy, 
 heresy, or schism—the censure is incurred only when 
 the work has been actually published—and all who 
 defend or knowingly and without due permission 
 read or keep those books or others prohibited by 
 name by Apostolic letters (can. 2318). The former 
 
 legislation mentioned the printers, but not the 
 publishers, of these forbidden books as incurring 
 excommunication, and made no reference to writings 
 of schismatics or to works upholding apostasy or 
 schism. It should be noted that the authors whose 
 works may not be published, or knowingly defended, 
 read or kept, in virtue of this particular canon 
 without the incurring of excommunication are those 
 only who are or have been Christians. 
 
 (c) Anyone who not being a priest pretends to 
 celebrate Mass or hear sacramental confession (can. 
 2322); a new censure. 
 
 (d) Those who are guilty of certain crimes in 
 connection with papal elections referred to by 
 Pius X in his Constitution “Vacante Sede Apos- 
 tolica” of 25 December, 1904 (can. 2330). The fol¬ 
 lowing persons are therein mentioned as incurring 
 excommunication: Cardinals who during the con¬ 
 clave, if not prevented by ill-health, do not obey the 
 signal when given for the third time to assemble 
 for a scrutiny (§37); any person who sends into or 
 more specially out from the conclave any written 
 or printed matter which has not been submitted for 
 examination to the secretary of the Sacred College 
 and of the prelates in charge of the conclave; it is, 
 moreover, absolutely forbidden for anyone to send 
 daily papers or periodicals from the conclave (§50); 
 cardinals or attendants present at the conclave who 
 violate the obligation of secrecy regarding the elec- 
 tion-or what takes place in the conclave or place 
 of election (§51); cardinals who reveal to their 
 attendants or anyone else matters relating directly 
 or indirectly to the voting, or to the proceedings 
 or decrees of the assemblies of the cardinals held 
 before or during conclave (§52); those who are 
 guilty of simony (§79); any persons, even cardinals, 
 who, during the lifetime of the pope and without 
 his knowledge, presume to treat of the election of 
 his successor or to promise their vote, or who discuss 
 the matter or come to any decision regarding it 
 at private meetings (§80); anyone taking part in 
 the conclave who, even as the result of a mere 
 desire, has undertaken to propose the Veto on be¬ 
 half of any civil power in any way to any or all 
 of the cardinals before or during the conclave; and 
 what is said of the Veto applies to every kind of 
 attempt by a lay person or by the secular power 
 to meddle in a papal election (§81); cardinals who 
 agree or promise or in any way bind themselves 
 to give or refuse their vote to anyone—this, of 
 course, does not refer to the discussions that take 
 place during the vacancy (§82); and finally, anyone 
 who dares to disregard letters written by the pope 
 after his acceptance of office but before his con¬ 
 secration (§88). Except where there is danger of 
 death absolution from the excommunication in¬ 
 flicted for these offenses can be given by the pope 
 alone, even the major penitentiary being without 
 faculties for granting it. 
 
 (e) All those, not excluding even sovereigns, 
 bishops, and cardinals, who appeal from the laws, 
 decrees, or mandates of a reigning pontiff t<p a 
 general council (can. 2332). The new legislation, 
 unlike the old, makes no distinction between pres¬ 
 ent and future councils; it may be noted, too, that 
 nothing is said expressly in the canon about those 
 who co-operate by giving aid, counsel, or counte¬ 
 nance to such appeals. 
 
 (f) Those who have recourse to any lay power 
 to impede the letters or documents of the Holy 
 See or of its legate, or who directly or indirectly 
 prohibit their promulgation or execution, or who 
 on account of these letters or documents injure 
 or intimidate those interested in them or any other 
 person. 
 
EXCOMMUNICATION 
 
 297 
 
 EXCOMMUNICATION 
 
 (g) Those who publish laws, mandates, or de¬ 
 crees against the liberty or rights of the Church; 
 or who, directly or indirectly, impede the exercise 
 of ecclesiastical jurisdiction in the internal or ex¬ 
 ternal forum, having recourse for that purpose to 
 any lay power (can. 2334). This varies from the 
 former censure by including mandates; again, the 
 impeding of ecclesiastical jurisdiction referred to 
 must result from the recourse to the civil authority; 
 if it resulted from threats or violence on the part 
 of the offender it would not come under this canon. 
 
 (h) Those who, without due permission of the 
 Holy See, dare to cite before a lay judge, a cardinal, 
 a papal legate, or a higher official of the Roman 
 Curia in matters pertaining to their own office, or 
 who thus cite their own ordinary (can. 2341). There 
 are fewer persons protected by this enactment than 
 under the old legislation. The censure may be 
 incurred not merely by a plantiff, but also by a judge, 
 though the latter would ordinarily be immune as 
 having usually no discretion in the matter; being 
 compelled by law to act when requested, his action 
 would not come within the category of those re¬ 
 ferred to when the expression “dare,” ausus fuerit 
 is used. 
 
 (i) Those who lay violent hands on cardinals, 
 legates, patriarchs, archbishops or bishops, whether 
 residential or titular (can. 2343). 
 
 (j) Those who usurp or retain personally or 
 otherwise the property or rights of the Roman 
 Church (can. 2345). While accomplices are not 
 mentioned in this canon, as they were in the Con¬ 
 stitution “Apostolicse Sedis,” they, too, may, at 
 times, still incur this penalty (can. 2209; 2231). 
 
 (k) Those who forge or falsify letters, decrees, 
 or rescripts of the Holy See, or who knowingly 
 make use of such letters (can. 2360). By forgery 
 is meant the fabrication of an entire document or 
 the affixing of the official seal to a document fabri¬ 
 cated by another; falsification, on the other hand, 
 means the alteration of an authentic document by 
 suppression, erasures, writing over, or substitution, 
 in a way that notably modifies its meaning. Under 
 the pre-Code legislation forgery did not entail this 
 excommunication, though the publication of the 
 falsified letters did; on the other hand, those who 
 knowingly made use of the falsified documents in¬ 
 curred only excommunication reserved to the ordi¬ 
 nary. 
 
 (l) Those who directly or indirectly denounce 
 a confessor to his superiors on a false charge of 
 solicitation (can. 2363). This is a new censure, 
 from which absolution cannot be given until the 
 culprit formally retracts the charge, makes all the 
 reparation possible, and accepts a severe penance. 
 
 Ill —Excommunication simply reserved to the 
 pope is incurred by: (a) Those who traffic in in¬ 
 dulgences (can. 2327); formerly traffickers in other 
 spiritual favors besides indulgences were similarly 
 punished. 
 
 (b) Those who join the Freemasons or other 
 associations of the same kind that plot against 
 the Church or the legitimate civil authorities (can. 
 2335); the penalty was formerly directed also ex¬ 
 pressly against all who countenanced these sects in 
 any way and all who did not inform against the 
 secret chiefs or leaders. 
 
 (c) Those who presume to absolve from excom¬ 
 munications specially or very specially reserved to 
 the Holy See without having the requisite faculty 
 (can. 2338). 
 
 (d) Those who help or favor anyone in connec¬ 
 tion with a crime for which he was declared an 
 excommunicate vitandus, and all clerics who know¬ 
 
 ingly and freely communicate with him in divinis 
 and admit him to the Divine offices (can. 2338) 
 
 (e) Those who, without leave of the Holy See, 
 dare to cite before a lay judge a titular of resi¬ 
 dential bishop (other than their own), or an abbot 
 
 prelate nullius, or any ot the highest superiors 
 of religious orders approved or lauded by the Holy 
 See (can. 2341). y y 
 
 (f) All persons of whatever kind, condition, or 
 sex, who violate the canonical enclosure or cloister 
 of nuns having solemn vows ( moniales ), by pene¬ 
 trating into their monasteries without lawful per¬ 
 mission, and those who introduce or admit them; 
 also all women who enter the enclosure of a regular 
 older of men, and superiors and all others who in¬ 
 troduce or admit them, or girls whatever their age 
 may be; and, finally, nuns with solemn vows who 
 leave their enclosure unlawfully, that is even for a 
 short time under any pretext, without leave of the 
 Holy See, except when they are in imminent danger 
 of death or of some very grave evil (can. 2342). 
 The wording of this section varies slightly from 
 that of the old law; the censure for violating con¬ 
 vent enclosure was formerly incurred by those who 
 had not attained puberty; they are now, however, 
 exempt from all censures. This canon, it may be 
 noted, refers to papal enclosure exclusively. 
 
 Those who presume to usurp and convert 
 to their own use, directly or indirectly, church 
 property of any kind, or who prevent those who 
 have a right to receive the income from obtaining 
 it (can. 2346). The excommunication cannot be 
 removed till the culprit restores the property or 
 removes the obstacle to the reception of the in¬ 
 come. 
 
 (h) Those who fight duels or who challenge or 
 accept challenges thereto or who aid or countenance 
 duelling, or who are present designedly at such com¬ 
 bats and permit them to. take place or do not pre¬ 
 vent them as far as lies in their power (can. 2351). 
 
 (i) Clerics in major orders and regulars and nuns 
 having a solemn vow of chastity who presume to 
 contract marriage, even civilly, and also all per¬ 
 sons who presume to attempt marriage with them 
 (can. 2388); formerly this censure was reserved to 
 the ordinary. 
 
 (j) Those who are guilty of simony in connec¬ 
 tion with any ecclesiastical office, dignity, or bene¬ 
 fice (can. 2392). 
 
 (k) A vicar capitular or any other person who, 
 directly or indirectly, takes away, destroys, con¬ 
 ceals or substantially changes any document belong¬ 
 ing to the episcopal curia (can. 2405); this is a new 
 censure. 
 
 IV— Excommunications reserved to the ordinary 
 are incurred by: (a) Catholics who, even when a 
 Catholic service has preceded or is to follow, renew 
 or give their matrimonial consent personally or by 
 proxy before a non-Catholic minister, unless when 
 for the procuring of merely civil effects in accord¬ 
 ance with the civil law they go before him purely 
 as a civil registrar; or who marry with an explicit 
 or implicit agreement to educate any or all of the 
 children outside the Catholic Church; or who know¬ 
 ingly presume to offer their children to non-Catholic 
 ministers for baptism; or parents or guardians who 
 knowingly hand over their children to be educated 
 or instructed in a non-Catholic religion (can. 2319). 
 Some of these parties may, through stubbornness 
 in their evil conduct, become suspected of heresy 
 and so ultimately incur excommunication specially 
 reserved to the pope (see above, II [a]). 
 
 (b) Those who manufacture or who knowingly 
 sell, distribute or expose false relics for public 
 veneration (can. 2326); this is a new censure. 
 
EXEMPTION 
 
 298 
 
 EXTENSION 
 
 (c) Those who lay violent hands on religious 
 of either sex, or on clerics not mentioned above as 
 protected by severer censures (can. 2350); the cen¬ 
 sure was formerly reserved simply to the pope. 
 
 (d) Those who efficaciously procure abortion, the 
 mother not excepted (can. 2350); the censure has 
 now been extended to include the mother. 
 
 (e) Religious of lay or non-exempt communities 
 who leave their houses unlawfully with the inten¬ 
 tion of not returning (can. 2385); this is a new 
 censure; if the religious belongs to an exempt order 
 the censure is reserved to one of his higher superiors. 
 
 (f) Those who are members of a religious order 
 or congregation and, who being professed with sim¬ 
 ple perpetual vows presume to contract even civil 
 marriage; their partners also incur excommunica¬ 
 tion (can. 2388); this is a new censure. e . 
 
 V— Excommunication reserved to no one is in¬ 
 curred by: (a) Authors and publishers who have 
 books of Scripture or annotations or commentaries 
 thereon printed without due permission (can. 2318); 
 formerly it was the printers, not the publishers, who 
 were expressly censured. 
 
 (b) Those who dare to order or compel the 
 granting of ecclesiastical burial to infidels, apostates, 
 heretics, schismatics or any other persons excom¬ 
 municated or interdicted by a declaratory or con¬ 
 demnatory sentence (can. 2339); formerly this 
 censure was imposed only in connection with the 
 burial of notorious heretics or of persons excom¬ 
 municated or placed under interdict by name. 
 
 (c) Those who knowingly omit obtaining the 
 consent of the Holy See, when it is required by law, 
 for alienating church property, and all those who 
 take part in such a transaction by giving or receiv¬ 
 ing the property or authorizing its transfer (can. 
 2347). 
 
 (d) Anyone, no matter how exalted he may be, 
 who in any way forces a person to become a cleric 
 or to enter religion or to make his religious pro¬ 
 fession, whether simple or solemn, temporal or 
 perpetual (can. 2352). 
 
 (e) Anyone w r ho knowingly refuses to denounce 
 to the proper ecclesiastical superiors within a month 
 a priest by whom he or she has been solicited in 
 confession; absolution from this censure must be 
 refused until the party makes the formal charge 
 or at least seriously promises to do so (can. 2368). 
 
 Under the Code regime no excommunicated per¬ 
 son is a vitandus, that is, one to be shunned or 
 boycotted, unless he has been excommunicated by 
 name by the Holy See and the decree of excom¬ 
 munication has been made public, and unless, 
 •further, the decree or sentence declares him to be 
 a vitandus. To this there is only one exception, 
 namely, a person who lays violent hands on the 
 pope becomes ipso facto excommunicated and a 
 vitandus. It may be noted that not merely the 
 reception of the sacraments, but also the use of 
 the sacramentals, such as holy water or blessed 
 candles, are forbidden to a vitandus, and even to 
 any other excommunicated person after a con¬ 
 demnatory or declaratory sentence. 
 
 Ayrinhac, Penal Legislation (New York,. 1920); O’Donnell, 
 Crimes and Penalties in the New Code in the Irish Theol. 
 Quart... XIII (1918), 33-53; Noldin-Schonegger, De poems 
 ecclesiastici (Innsbruck, 1921). 
 
 Exemption (cf. C. E., V-706b; XII-754b).—All 
 regulars, including novices, but excluding nuns 
 with solemn vows who are not subject to regular 
 superiors, together with their houses and churches, 
 are exempt from episcopal jurisdiction, except in 
 the cases mentioned expressly in the Code. Among 
 these exceptions we find that the bishop is entitled 
 to pontificate, confirm and preach in exempt 
 
 churches; he may investigate the moral and reli¬ 
 gious teaching given in their schools for externs, 
 their oratories, and charitable or educational cen¬ 
 ters; he consecrates their holy places, their bells 
 and their fixed altars; he acts as judge of first 
 instance in suits between religious orders and settles 
 urgent questions of collegiate precedence between 
 them. Exempt religious have to obey his instruc¬ 
 tions regarding certain church matters, for instance, 
 special prayers for the public weal, catechetical or 
 Gospel instructions, public processions; they must 
 obtain his permission to erect houses, to hear con¬ 
 fessions of or preach to externs, to have public 
 exposition of the Blessed Sacrament, to erect pious 
 associations, to solicit alms, to publish books or to 
 write for papers. Finally, it is the duty of the 
 bishops to examine all female postulants, novices 
 or temporarily professed before they take the next 
 step in religion to see if they are acting freely and 
 if they thoroughly understand the obligations they 
 are about to assume. If a regular who is legiti¬ 
 mately outside of his house returns after com¬ 
 mitting an offense he may be punished by the local 
 ordinary, if his superior on being notified does 
 not do so. A local ordinary must notify the Holy 
 See if the superior of an exempt religious house 
 fails to reform abuses, after his attention has been 
 drawm to them; if the house is not yet fully formed 
 and the abuses occur which cause scandal the local 
 ordinary" may, pending the reply from Rome, inter¬ 
 vene to correct them. In the case of pontifical 
 lay religious institutes, the local ordinary may and 
 should see if the constitutions are enforced, the reli¬ 
 gious spirit upheld, the enclosure observed, and the 
 sacraments duly received. He may and ought to 
 visit hospitals, orphanages, and other such charit¬ 
 able institutions, even if they have been constituted 
 legal persons and granted exemption, and, all cus¬ 
 toms to the contrary being reprobated, he has the 
 right to an accounting from such institutes, even 
 if they are exempt from his jurisdiction and right 
 of visitation by the terms of their foundation or 
 by prescription or apostolic privilege. A cardinal’s 
 chapel is exempt from episcopal visitation, as is a 
 seminary from the jurisdiction of the parish priest. 
 
 Vermeersch-Creusen, Epit. jur. can., 618-24. 
 
 Extension Society of the United States of 
 America, The Catholic Church (cf. C. E., 
 XIV-78c), an organization which collects in, and 
 confines its benefits to, the United States of America 
 and territory under the American flag, having been 
 founded “to foster and extend the Catholic Faith; 
 to develop the missionary spirit in the clergy and 
 people; to assist in the erection of parish buildings 
 for needy places; to contribute to the support of 
 priests living in out-of-the-way localities • and 
 poverty-stricken districts; to extend the comforts 
 of religion to pioneers; to supply, altar plate and 
 vestments for poor missions; to circulate Catholic 
 literature; to educate or assist in the education of 
 students who intend becoming missionary priests; 
 to direct Catholic colonists to suitable localities.” 
 
 Origin and Development. —The Society was 
 founded at a meeting held in the archiepiscopal 
 residence in Chicago on 18 October, 1905, under the 
 auspices of the late Archbishop Quigley. Four mem¬ 
 bers of the hierarchy, nine priests and six laymen, 
 who had become convinced of the necessity of an 
 organization which would act as a channel between 
 the charity of the cities and the needs* of scattered 
 Catholics, were present at the inaugural meeting, at 
 which the Archbishop was appointed chancellor, and 
 the Rev. Francis Clement Kelley, president. No 
 money was available for the purposes of establish- 
 
EXTENSION 
 
 299 
 
 EXTENSION 
 
 ment, and the recto^ at Lapeer, Michigan, where 
 Father Kelley was pastor, became the first head- 
 ® 0C ^ e ^y* The late Bishop Hennessy, 
 of \\ 1 chit a, was the first member of the hierarchy 
 to give his encouragement to the plan which sub¬ 
 sequently developed, of which Rev. F. C. Kelley 
 was the originator. His mission at Lapeer was 
 handicapped by poverty, and in order to support 
 jus work he undertook a lecture tour which brought 
 him into touch with priests in the West and South, 
 who were struggling against even more adverse con¬ 
 ditions. He saw that there was no one to plead 
 their cause, and that their constant anxiety con¬ 
 cerning the problems of existence was minimizing 
 the effectiveness of their apostolic labors. He 
 wrote an article on the situation, which was pub¬ 
 lished in the ‘‘Ecclesiastical Review,” and evoked 
 Bishop Hennessy’s encouragement, which in turn 
 brought about the inaugural meeting. 
 
 The Society met with an immediate and generous 
 response, and at the second meeting of officers it 
 was determined to move the headquarters to Chi¬ 
 cago, where they would be more readily available, 
 better able to cope with the increasing mass of 
 work, and where the Society could claim serious 
 attention as a national work. The president was 
 released from parochial duties to devote his ex¬ 
 clusive attention to the growth of the Extension 
 movement. 
 
 The Holy See gave recognition to the Society, 
 when it was less than two years old, in the form of 
 a letter (7 June, 1907), addressed to its chancellor, 
 and in which Pope Pius X spoke of the work as 
 most opportune in a country where, owing to the 
 multitudes of immigrants of various nationalities, 
 a great and extending field lies open for the up¬ 
 building of the Kingdom of God. And the more 
 so as the endeavors of associations hostile to the 
 Catholic name are so active and so widespread. 
 This hostile influence, unless coped with unceasingly 
 and prudently, will do no little harm, especially 
 among the simple folk of rural districts, to the 
 happy growth of the Church in America.” The 
 Pope approved and ratified the Society and granted 
 perpetually the following privileges and indulgences: 
 
 (1) St. Philip Neri shall be the patron of the 
 Society; (2) a plenary indulgence to each member 
 on the day of admission, on the feasts of St. Philip 
 Neri, St. Francis of Sales, St. Rose of Lima, the 
 Holy Apostles, and at the hour of death; (3) to 
 every member of the Society an indulgence of seven 
 years and seven quarantines for every good work 
 done in the interests of the Society; (4) an indul¬ 
 gence of 300 days to all the members, as often as 
 they piously recite the formula, “St. Philip, pray 
 for us”; (5) the above indulgences, plenary and 
 partial, may be applied to the souls in purgatory; 
 (6) priests who are moderators or directors of the 
 Society may enjoy a privileged altar three times a 
 week; founders and life members, six times a week. 
 
 By an Apostolic Brief (9 June, 1910) Pius X 
 erected the Society into a canonical institution, 
 appointed a Cardinal Protector, fixed the head¬ 
 quarters in Chicago, appointed the Archbishop of 
 Chicago the Society’s chancellor ex officio, and re¬ 
 served to the Holy Father the appointment, every 
 five years, of the Societ}^ president. 
 
 In a letter (12 April, 1919), signed by the Cardinal 
 Secretary of State, Pope Benedict XV, “desiring to 
 give to your Society a new mark of his particular 
 consideration and esteem,” granted the privilege of 
 the use by the Society in its official emblem of the 
 papal insignia. 
 
 Organization. —Membership in the Society and 
 participation in the privileges extended to it are 
 
 secured by contributing to the Society’s funds 
 directly, or indirectly b}' subscribing to “Extension 
 agazine. 1 he magazine was established a year 
 alter the foundation of the Society, “to foster the 
 missionary spirit, ’ and through it the needs of the 
 missions and missionaries in America have been 
 made known and, to some extent, supplied. In 
 addition to subscribing membership,” the Society 
 has annual memberships ($10 a year), life mem- 
 eiships ($1,000 in cash or in ten equal annual 
 payments), and founderships ($5,000 in cash or 
 e A ua \ ann ual payments). Founderships 
 and life memberships may be established through 
 wills. Founderships bestow the privilege of mem¬ 
 bership in the Board of Governors. The Society 
 has one thousand Masses offered annually for its 
 membeis, living and dead. ^Extension Magazine” 
 began as a quarterly and developed into a monthly. 
 Its circulation and influence increased steadily, and 
 reac hed a certified circulation of 
 287,000, and employed nearly 300 circulation agents 
 Auxiliaries were formed in the “Order of Martha” 
 and the “Child Apostles” to encourage personal 
 011 ■.of the home missions. The “Order 
 of Martha” is organized in “households,” and its 
 members have been responsible for building many 
 chapels and schools, besides supplying vestments 
 and linens of home workmanship for the missions. 
 nooo? enmeS c ^^ c ^ ren have built ten chapels 
 
 A church goods department was created for the 
 collection of used vestments and other church fur- 
 nishings, and for their distribution after suitable 
 repair. In one year (1921) goods estimated at the 
 value of $25,000 were thus salvaged for use in poor 
 missions. 
 
 A Mass intention department was opened to sup¬ 
 ply the machinery necessary for the passing of 
 surplus intentions from the city priests to the poor 
 missions where they were needed, and where they 
 
 a L 6 ’ 7 e I y , often ’ fh e only means of subsistence 
 afforded the missionaries. The Mass intentions 
 which passed through the Society in 1921 totaled 
 $147,044.14. In 1919, in a period of national anxiety, 
 they reached $240,164.10. Mass intentions are dis¬ 
 tributed through diocesan ordinaries and through 
 provincials of communities, and no deduction ^is 
 made for administration. 
 
 Extension Press was created to meet the demand 
 for an efficient Catholic mail order house for the 
 supply of books and articles of devotion. Of the 
 goods despatched 95% are shipped to points at 
 which there are no Catholic book stores. Extension 
 Press has published several books, and prints illus¬ 
 trated calendar for which the annual sale is about 
 200,000. The profits of this department and of 
 “Extension Magazine” benefit the Society’s general 
 work. 
 
 Government. —The Society is governed bv its 
 chancellor (the Archbishop of Chicago). A Board 
 of Governors, consisting of bishops, priests, and 
 laymen, for a place on which any member of the 
 American hierarchy is eligible, meets annually in 
 November to review work and discuss policies. The 
 priests and laymen on the board are chosen for 
 their representative character, and founders are en¬ 
 titled to membership. An executive committee is 
 elected at the annual meeting, and consists, besides 
 the chancellor and the president, who are ex oljicio 
 members, of one bishop and four business men. 
 This committee alone has power to allocate the 
 Society’s funds. No member of the board or of 
 the executive committee receives remuneration for 
 such service. The immediate direction of the 
 Society and of “Extension Magazine” is in the hands 
 
EXTENSION 
 
 300 
 
 EXTREME UNCTION 
 
 of the president, who is assisted by priests and drawn during the great war. Motor chapels were 
 laymen The books of the Society and of the also used experimentally, but though successful in 
 magazine are audited quarterly by a certified public their mission it was found that automobiles were 
 accountant, and annually by an auditing committee, unsuited to the rough usage to which they were 
 Work Accomplished.— The Societj^’s annual col- subjected by the necessity of journeying long dis- 
 
 lections were: 
 
 1905 .$ 1,934.00 1913.$282,879.87 
 
 1906 . 34,080.79 1914. 265,531.08 
 
 1907 . 41,338.93 1915. 335,899.58 
 
 1908 . 75,481.64 1916. 343,921.30 
 
 1909 . 121,809.16 1917. 384,316.97 
 
 1910 . 176,395.20 1918. 465,360.53 
 
 1911 . 307,967.15 1919. 530,701.62 
 
 1912 . 268,984.13 1920. 575,561.18 
 
 These figures include the Mass intentions handled 
 
 by the Society. . 
 
 To the end of the fiscal year of 1921 the Society 
 had assisted in the building of 2074 structures, of 
 which 1932 were churches, 98 schools and convents 
 for the accommodation of teaching Sisters, and 44 
 priests’ houses. The Society’s policy is to assist 
 the local Catholics to help themselves, and to foster 
 in them a spirit of responsibility. Thus a portion 
 of the cost of erection is guaranteed by the Society 
 when the need of a structure has been demonstrated, 
 and the money is paid when the roof is on the 
 building. Buildings assisted in this way have been 
 erected in forty-three states of the Union, and also 
 in the Philippines, Porto Rico, Alaska, and Canada. 
 Texas stands first (1921) with 313, and South 
 Dakota, Louisiana, New Mexico, Oregon, Montana, 
 and Minnesota have each over one hundred. About 
 half of all Catholic churches erected in America in 
 recent years have been assisted by the Society, in 
 1919, the percentage aided being as high as 88.04. 
 The reports of the missionaries, submitted with ap¬ 
 plications for assistance, show that nearly half a 
 million Catholics have benefited by this construc¬ 
 tional work. 
 
 Mission schools have been helped to some extent. 
 Missionary grants have been made to bishops for 
 the development of poor dioceses. Students for 
 the priesthood are being assisted, the method found 
 most practical being that of working through the 
 bishops of missionary dioceses. Chapel cars have 
 been used with success in the West and South, the 
 plan being to send the cars to churchless places, 
 where a halt is made and a mission given. Where 
 experience shows the need of a chapel, efforts are 
 made toward that end, and dozens of chapels mark 
 the trail of the chapel car. The Society has three 
 chapel cars named “St. Anthony,” “St. Peter,” and 
 “St. Paul.” At first they were transported free bv 
 the railroad companies, but the privilege was with- 
 
 tances. . 
 
 The headquarters officials of the Society are 
 (1922): President, Rt. Rey. Msgr. Francis C. Kelley, 
 D. D., LL. D.; vice-presidents, Rev. William D. 
 O’Brien (general secretary); the Rev. Eugene J. 
 McGuinness (director of Order of Martha and Child 
 Apostles). 
 
 The Catholic Church Extension Society of 
 Canada, which has headquarters in Toronto, was 
 inspired by the success of the American movement. 
 It works on lines identical with those of the parent 
 body, but is autonomous. Cf. “The Story of Ex¬ 
 tension,” by Rt. Rev. F. C. Kelley, published 
 serially in “Extension Magazine,” from May, 1920, 
 to April, 1922. 
 
 Extreme Unction (cf. C. E., V-716).—Any priest, 
 but only a priest, can administer extreme unction 
 validly; the ordinary minister is the parish priest 
 of the place where the invalid is, but in case of 
 necessity any priest can act with the reasonably 
 presumed leave of the parish priest or local ordi¬ 
 nary, and, indeed, is bound in charity to do so. 
 The chief cathedral dignitary or canon available 
 is to administer extreme unction to a sick bishop; 
 a clerical religious superior is the proper minister 
 for those who live day and night in his house, as is 
 the confessor or his substitute, for nuns with solemn 
 vows (rnoniales), but in other lay communities 
 extreme unction is to be given by the local parish 
 priest or a chaplain specially appointed by the 
 bishop. 
 
 Extreme unction cannot (non potest ) be repeated 
 in the same illness, unless the invalid after being 
 anointed rallies and later again falls into danger 
 of death. It is not lawful to neglect extreme 
 unction, and the greatest care should be taken in 
 order that the sick may receive it while fully con¬ 
 scious; it should be administered unconditionally 
 to those who are unconscious, if they have pre¬ 
 viously asked for it at least implicitly. In case 
 of necessity the anointing of one sense, or more 
 correctly of the forehead, with the prescribed shorter 
 formula is sufficient, but when the danger is passed 
 the separate anointings are to be supplied. The 
 anointing of the feet may for good cause, but the 
 anointing of the loins must always be omitted. 
 Except in a case of grave necessity the holy oil 
 must be applied by the minister’s hand, and not 
 by means of an instrument. 
 
Fabre, Jean-Henri-Casimir, entomologist and 
 natural historian, b. at St. Leons, France, in Sep¬ 
 tember, 1823; d. at Serignan 11 October, 1915; son 
 of Antoine and Victoire (Salgnes) Fabre. He re¬ 
 ceived his elementary education at a school in 
 his native village kept by his godfather, and later 
 entered the lycee at Rodez, where he made rapid 
 progress, being especially attracted by Virgil’s 
 “Bucolics” and “Georgies.” He then proceeded to 
 the Normal College of Vaucluse, where he received 
 his diploma'at the age of eighteen; a little later 
 began liis career as teacher at Carpentras. While 
 thus occupied he won his licentiate in mathematical 
 sciences and was appointed professor of physics and 
 chemistry in the lycee of Ajaccio. Fabre had dis¬ 
 played a deep interest in plants and animals from 
 his earliest youth. While in Corsica he met Esprit 
 Requien, director of the museum of Avignon, and 
 accompanied him on his scientific expeditions. By 
 Requien he was introduced to Horace Moquin-Tan- 
 don, director of the botanical gardens at Toulouse, 
 who gave him his first and only lesson in natural 
 history, and counselled him to devote himself to 
 the study of plants and animals. It was, how¬ 
 ever, a pamphlet by Leon Dufour, the naturalist 
 Les Landes, that led him to devote himself 
 to the study of insects. In 1852 he w r as trans¬ 
 ferred to the lycee of Avignon, where his every 
 spare ^ moment was devoted to natural history. 
 In 1858 he won his licentiate in natural sciences 
 m the Faculty of Toulouse and a little later 
 the doctorate. He had hoped to win a uni¬ 
 versity chair, but it was not so decreed. In 1870 
 mainly through the hatred of the secretaries and 
 the envious he lost his position at the lycee, and 
 retired to Orange. In 1879 he withdrew to Serignan, 
 where he lived till his death, carrying on his won¬ 
 derful experiments and observations, and writing 
 his immortal works. Fabre, who was mainly self- 
 taught, had a brilliant mind, and was possessed of 
 wonderful perseverance, and keenness of observa¬ 
 tion. Unlike so many scientific writers, he dwelt 
 and conversed with nature, and read her book in¬ 
 cessantly. As a result his Catholic faith grew only 
 stronger“I can]t say I believe in God,” he says: 
 
 I see Him. Without Him I understand nothing; 
 without Him all is darkness. Not only have I 
 retained this conviction, I have aggravated or 
 ameliorated it, whichever you please. Every period 
 has its manias. I regard atheism as a mania. It 
 is the malady of the age. You could take my skin 
 fr °m me more easily than my faith in God.” 
 
 Fabre speaks with great respect and sympathy 
 of Darwin, who admired his entomological knowl¬ 
 edge; but his theory of evolution he rejected em¬ 
 phatically as mere theory incompatible with the 
 evidence of the facts he had discovered. He had 
 hoped to convert Darwin, but the great English 
 scientist > died before the second volume of the 
 Souvenirs” was published. Until 1910 Fabre’s 
 name was little known outside scientific circles; 
 to-day his fame is worldwide. In that year Sweden 
 ^od France paid him honor long due. He received 
 the Linnaean medal of the Royal Academy of 
 Sweden; the French Academy conferred on him its 
 literary award, the Nee prize, and France unani¬ 
 mously recommended him for the Nobel Prize, and 
 Rostand wrote of him as “one of the purest glories 
 
 of France, the profound and racy poet, the Vir¬ 
 gil of the insects, who has brought us to our knees 
 
 in the press.” His hermitage at Serignan 
 
 became a pilgrimage for the political, literary and 
 scientific world, and he was granted a pension of 
 2000 francs a year. His wife, who had borne eight 
 children, his collaborators, died in July, 1912. 
 
 Fabre’s first publication was a memoir in the 
 “Annales des sciences naturelles” on the predatory 
 hymenoptera, which merited him one of the prizes 
 of the Institute of France and excited the aston¬ 
 ishment of Darwin and Dufour, and was the fore¬ 
 runner of many other brilliant essays. Meanwhile 
 he 'wrote an enormous number of elementary 
 treatises on mathematics and natural science. In 
 1879 appeared the first volume of his great 
 entomological masterpiece, his “Souvenirs entimo- 
 logiques,” which reveal his acuteness of observation, 
 his vigor of thought and enthusiasm, and wherein 
 he studies the insect living its life, and examines 
 its instincts, its habits, its passions, its aptitudes, 
 and replaces the prevalent standpoint of morphology 
 and physiology by that of biology and psychology. 
 Unlike so many moderns his method is strictly 
 experimental, to a large degree it was original, 
 aiK j J^ S i nves tigating he devised most delicate 
 and difficult procedures, by which he made the 
 insects reveal their secrets. The “Souvenirs” have 
 appeared in English in separate volumes under the 
 following title “The Life of the Spider,” “The 
 Life of the Fly,” “The Mason-Bees,” “Bramble 
 Bees and Others,” “The Hunting Wasps,” “The Life 
 of the Caterpillar,” “The Life of the Grasshopper,” 
 The Sacred Beetle and Others”; “The Mason- 
 Wasps,” “The Glow-Worm and Other Beetles”; 
 “More Hunting Wasps”; “The Life of the Weevil”; 
 ‘Insect Adventures” (all published by Dodd Mead, 
 of New York). 
 
 1921) BRE ’ Tke Li e Jean Henri Fabre Vr. Miall, New York, 
 
 Fabriano and Matelica, Diocese of (Fabrianen- 
 sis ET Mathelicensis; cf. C. E., V-744a), re¬ 
 established and united to the see of Matelica by 
 Pius VI 8 July, 1785, situated in the province of 
 Ancona (Central Italy), directly subject to the Holy 
 See. The bishop, Rt. Rev. Louis Ermini, b. in 
 Rome 13 December, 1856, made a private cham¬ 
 berlain 27 November, 1903, prothonotary apostolic 
 supernumerary 25 October, 1905, coadjutor canon 
 at the church of St. John Lateran, deputy to the 
 monasteries of Rome in 1905, assistant secretary 
 at the Council 20 October, 1908; spiritual director 
 of the Pius Seminary, appointed titular Bishop of 
 Amatha 30 December, 1908, and auxiliary of Porto 
 and Santa Rufina, consecrated bishop by Cardinal 
 Respighi 31 January, 1909, transferred to Caiazzo 
 4 December, 1914; proclaimed 22 January, 1915; 
 transferred to Fabriano at the Consistory of 30 
 June, 1921, succeeding Rt. Rev. Andrea Cassulo, 
 retired. There are at present (1922) in the diocese 
 35 parishes, 103 churches, 40 secular and 10 regular 
 priests, 3 monasteries for women, 1 abbey, 1 con¬ 
 vent for men, 10 lay brothers, 34 Sisters' 1 semi¬ 
 nary with 18 seminarians, 1 elementary school with 
 120 pupils, 1 asylum with 180 inmates. Four public 
 institutions receive Government aid. Fifteen asso¬ 
 ciations are organized among the clergy and laity, 
 and a weekly journal, “L’Azione,” is published. 
 
 301 
 
FACULTIES 
 
 302 
 
 FANO 
 
 During the World War three chaplains served in 
 the army, one of whom was decorated; war orphans 
 were cared for by the clergy and laity. 
 
 Faculties, Canonical (cf. C. E., V-748a).—For 
 nearly three centuries it has been customary for 
 the Holy See, owing to the distance of so many 
 of the dioceses from Rome, as well as to varying 
 local conditions, to grant bishops, vicars apostolic, 
 and prefects apostolic throughout the world, accord¬ 
 ing to their needs, extra faculties or powers set forth 
 in special forms or schedules and valid for various 
 definite periods. As Canon 4 of the Code stated 
 that acquired rights, privileges, and indults, hitherto 
 granted to physical or moral persons by the Apos¬ 
 tolic See, which were still in use and had not been 
 recalled, were to remain in force unless they had 
 been expressly withdrawn in the Code, it was con¬ 
 cluded that the various formulae were to remain 
 unaffected. However, on 25 April, 1918, a few weeks 
 before the Code went into effect, the Congrega¬ 
 tion of the Consistory issued the decree “Proxima 
 sacra,” which said that in as much as the general 
 law expressed in the Code now conferred on ordi¬ 
 naries very many of the powers conceded hereto¬ 
 fore as a privilege through the formulae, sufficient 
 certainly to meet the average needs of a diocese, 
 the indults previously granted by the Holy See in 
 Brief or formulae for periods of three, five, ten, or 
 twenty-five years, would cease from 18 May, 1918. 
 -It was provided the faculties granted to ordinaries 
 for special reasons and those given by the Sacred 
 Penitentiary were not to be affected by the decree. 
 Furthermore, notwithstanding the dispensing power 
 granted by the Code in regard to matrimonial im¬ 
 pediments when death was imminent or in a casus 
 perplexus, local ordinaries in America, the Philip¬ 
 pines, the East Indies, Russia, and Africa, excluding 
 the Mediterranean litoral, were authorized to dis¬ 
 pense during five years, beginning 18 May, 1918, 
 from all the minor and all but two of the major 
 matrimonial impediments of ecclesiastical law, and 
 to grant sanationes in radice for marriages invalid 
 through any of the impediments of minor grade. 
 
 Gearin, The Faculties of Ordinaries in Eccl. Review, LIX 
 (Philadelphia, 1918), 337-54; Ayrinhac, Marriage Legislation 
 (New York, i919). 
 
 Faenza, Diocese of (Faventinensis; cf. C. E., 
 V-751b), in the province of Ravenna, suffragan of 
 Bologna, has a Catholic population of 103,962. The 
 present (1922) bishop, Rt. Rev. Vincenzo Bacchi, b. at 
 Castelfranco dell’ Emilia in the Diocese of Bologna 
 1 August, 1854, served as Secretary of the episcopal 
 council, archdeacon of the cathedral, and pro-vicar 
 general, named a prelate of. the pontifical throne 
 1905, consecrated titular Bishop of Myndos. 16 
 September, 1906, proclaimed 6 December following, 
 and made auxiliary at Bologna, transferred to 
 Faenza 2 December, 1912, succeeding Mgr. Gioa- 
 chino Cantagalli (b. 18 August, 1825; d. 13 August, 
 1912), who was dean of the bishops of Italy. The 
 statistics for 1920 credit the diocese with 116 
 parishes, 40 seminarians, 20 Brothers, 290 Sisters, 
 164 churches or chapels. 
 
 Fage, Antoinette. See Assumption, Little Sis¬ 
 ters of the. 
 
 Faguet, Emile, author and academician, b. at 
 La Roche-sur-Yon, Vendee, France, 1847; d. in 
 Paris in 1916. He was educated at the Lycee 
 Charlemagne and l’Ecole Normale. After teaching 
 for some time at Bordeaux and La Rochelle he 
 went to Paris, and in 1890 became professor of 
 poetry at the university. In 1900 he was elected a 
 member of the French Academy. He was the 
 author of: “La Tragedie au XVI e Siecle,” “Le 
 
 Theatre Contemporaine,” “Dixhuitieme Siecle,” 
 “Histoire de la Litterature frangaise,” “Tropos Lit- 
 teraires,” “Les Prejuges Necessaires,” “Monseigneur 
 Dupanloup, un Grand Eveque,” and others. He 
 directed his criticisms especially to the literatures 
 of the seventeenth century, interest in which he 
 did much to revive. He also wrote on the modern 
 drama, politics, and philosophy. 
 
 Faith Movement, Apostolic. See New Thought. 
 
 Falconio, Diomede, Cardinal, b. at Pescocotanzo 
 in the Abruzzi, 1842; d. in Rome, 17 February, 
 1917. He became a Franciscan in Italy but was 
 ordained priest in the United States and subse¬ 
 quently became professor, vice-president and presi¬ 
 dent of St. Bonaventure’s College, Allegheny, Pa., 
 and at a later period diocesan chancellor of Harbor 
 Grace, Newfoundland, and administrator. He re¬ 
 turned to Italy in 1883, and was elected Provincial 
 of the Franciscans in the Abruzzi. In 1889 the 
 general chapter in Rome chose him as procurator 
 general and in 1892 he was consecrated Bishop of 
 Lacedonia and three years later was translated to 
 the Archbishopric of Acerenza. In 1899 he was 
 sent as Apostolic Delegate to Canada and received 
 a third archiepiscopal title of Larissa and from 
 1902 till 1911 he occupied the post of Apostolic 
 Delegate at Washington, was made cardinal priest 
 in 1911 and cardinal bishop in 1914. During his 
 stay in the United States he became a naturalized 
 citizen of the Republic. 
 
 Fall River, Diocese of (Riverormensis; cf. C. 
 E., V-771b), comprises an area of 1194 sq. miles in 
 the State of Massachusetts, U. S. A. On 19 Septem¬ 
 ber, 1907, the second bishop of the diocese, Rt. 
 Rev. Daniel Francis Feehan, was consecrated, and 
 still fills the see. During recent years the diocese 
 lost by death several active workers among its 
 clergy: Rev. Simon A. O’Rourke, Jr. Lt. in the 
 U. S. Navy and chaplain of the Charlestown Navy 
 Yard, d. 20 September, 1918; Chaplain John B. 
 De Valles, d. 12 May, 1920; and Rt. Rev. Hugh J. 
 Smith, pastor of St. Lawrence’s Church, New Bed¬ 
 ford, d. 4 February, 1921. 
 
 The Catholic population of the diocese numbers 
 about 177,000, comprising a cosmopolitan com¬ 
 munity, largely French and Portuguese. Various 
 charitable institutions are conducted: St. Ann’s 
 hospital at Fall River, directed by the Dominican 
 Sisters of Charity of the Presentation; 3 orphan 
 asylums under the Sisters of Mercy, Sisters of 
 Charity (Grey Nuns), and Sisters of St. Francis 
 respectively; and a home for the aged, as well as 
 much charitable work done by the St. Vincent de 
 Paul Society. There are 76 parishes, 22 missions, 
 2 monasteries, 147 secular and 24 regular clergy, 
 321 nuns, 2 high schools, 4 academies with an 
 attendance of 600 girls, and 30 elementary schools 
 with an attendance of 13,215. 
 
 Falsity. See Forgery. 
 
 Fano, Diocese of (Fanensis; cf. C. E., V-785a), 
 in the province of Pesaro, Central Italy, directly 
 subject to the Holy See. The present incumbent, 
 Rt. Rev. Giustino Sanchini, b. 1 November, 1860, 
 in Saluccio in the Diocese of Rimini, served as 
 professor of moral theology in the seminary, be¬ 
 came chancellor and rector of the Cathedral at 
 Rimini, appointed Bishop of Citta di Castello, 12 
 July, 1909, declined, and was re-elected Bishop of 
 Fano, 6 June, 1916; proclaimed 7 December fol¬ 
 lowing, succeeding Mgr. Vincenzo Franceshini, b. 
 26 December, 1844, d. 29 March, 1916. The dio¬ 
 cesan statistics for 1920 are as follows: 45 parishes, 
 101 secular and 15 regular clergy, 35 seminarians, 
 
FARGO 
 
 303 
 
 FAURIE 
 
 20 lay Brothers, 70 sisters, 144 churches and 
 chapels; the Catholic population numbers 65,273. 
 
 Fargo, Diocese of (Fargensis; cf. C. E., V-786d), 
 in North Dakota, suffragan of St. Paul, formerly 
 embraced the whole State of North Dakota. A 
 portion of this territory was taken in 1909 to form 
 the Diocese of Bismarck, leaving an area of 34,899 
 sq. miles to the Diocese of Fargo. The first bishop 
 of the diocese, Rt. Rev. John Shanley (b. 4 January, 
 1852, d. 16 July, 1909), was .succeeded by Rt. Rev. 
 James O’Reilly, b. 10 October, 1857, ordained 24 
 June, 1882, appointed bishop 18 December, 1909, 
 consecrated 19 May, 1910. 
 
 According to 1922 statistics it has a Catholic 
 population of 69,872, 97 parishes, 177 churches, 79 
 missions, 57 stations, 111 secular priests, 1 lay 
 brother, 19 seminarians, 5 high schools with 503 
 pupils, 7 academies, 26 elementary schools, 1 
 orphanage, 5 hospitals; the ministry of the priests 
 in public institutions is unrestricted. The Indian 
 Industrial School, in charge of the Grey Nuns, re¬ 
 ceives government rates. The Knights of Columbus 
 and various parish societies are established in the 
 diocese. The men of the diocese were well repre¬ 
 sented in the service, and 102 gave up their lives 
 for the cause. 
 
 Farley, John Murphy, Cardinal, Archbishop of 
 New* York, b. at Newtown Hamilton, County 
 Armagh, Ireland, on 20 April, 1842; d. at New York 
 on 17 September, 1918. He emigrated to the 
 United States in 1859, and continued his education 
 at Saint John’s College, Fordham, New York, 
 and at the seminary in Troy. In 1867 he entered 
 the American College in Rome, and on 11 June, 
 1870, he was ordained there to the priesthood. 
 Upon his return to the United States that year he 
 was appointed assistant pastor at Saint Peter’s 
 Church, New Brighton, Staten Island. Pope Leo 
 XIII created him a domestic prelate in 1884, and 
 seven years later he w r as made Vicar-General of the 
 Archdiocese of New York. He was appointed titular 
 Bishop of Zeugma and auxiliary of New York on 
 
 21 December, 1895, and he was consecrated by 
 Archbishop Corrigan on 21 December, 1895. He 
 succeeded to the archiepiscopal see, after serving 
 as administrator sede vacante , on 25 September, 
 1902, and he was created cardinal-priest with the 
 title of Sancta Maria super Minervam on 27 
 November, 1911. He w r as the author of “The Life 
 of Cardinal McCloskey” (New York, 1918), and 
 of “History of Saint Patrick’s Cathedral,” New 
 York, 1908 (cf. C. E., XI-25b). 
 
 Reuss, Biographical Cyclopedia of the Catholic Hierarchy 
 of the United States 1784-1898, p. 40, Milwaukee 1898; Cor¬ 
 rigan', Episcopal Succession in the United States in the Catholic 
 Historical Review II, 140; Guilday, John Cardinal Farley, in 
 the Catholic World cvii, 183-93. 
 
 Faro, Diocese of (Pharaonensis; cf. C. E., 
 V-789a), in the province of Algarve, Portugal, suf¬ 
 fragan of Evora, has a Catholic population of 
 228,384, and 50 Jews. The bishop, Rt. Rev. Marcel- 
 lino Antonio Maria Franco, b. 17 April, 1871, in 
 this diocese, became vicar capitular, and was ap¬ 
 pointed bishop 15 May, 1920, succeeding Mgr. 
 Antonio Barbosa-Leas, transferred to the Diocese 
 of Oporto in November, 1919. There are in the 
 diocese (1920) 66 parishes, 112 priests, 66 churches, 
 and 152 chapels. 
 
 Fast (cf. C. E., V-789d).—The law of fasting is 
 now obligatory on Ember days, the vigils of Pente¬ 
 cost, the Assumption, All Saints’, and of Christmas, 
 but if the vigil falls on Sunday there is no fast, 
 nor is it anticipated; all days in Lent, except Sun¬ 
 day and Holy Saturday afternoon. There is no 
 fast on feast-days of obligation, except when they 
 20 
 
 occur during Lent. In addition to the principal 
 meal, at which, if the day is not one of abstinence, 
 flesh may be eaten without an indult, the law of 
 fasting allows some food to be taken both in the 
 morning and in the evening, the quantity and kind 
 of food being determined by the various approved 
 local customs; it is lawful also to interchange the 
 time of taking dinner and the light meal. Fish 
 and flesh are no longer forbidden at the same 
 meal. The changes introduced by the Code re¬ 
 garding fasting do not affect special indults or 
 obligations imposed by vow or by the rules of 
 religious orders or of men or women living in com¬ 
 munity without vows. There is no mention of the 
 Advent fast. The Advent fast, formerly observed 
 in certain countries, has been abolished. Finally, 
 the law of fasting is binding on those who have 
 completed their twenty-first year, but not their 
 fifty-ninth, consequently a person would not be 
 bound to fast on the former, but would on the 
 latter of those birthdays. 
 
 Faurie, Urbain, missionary and botanist, b. at 
 Dunieres, Le Puy, France, on 1 January, 1847; d. 
 at Tai-hoku, Formosa, on 4 July, 1915. In his early 
 childhood no one suspected he would embrace the 
 priesthood, as he suffered from an apparently in¬ 
 curable deafness, but on a pilgrimage to La 
 Louvesc, he was miraculously cured through the 
 intercession of St. John Francis Regis. He received 
 his elementary education from the De La Salle 
 Brothers and later attended the petit seminaire 
 of Monistozol. He entered the Seminary of the 
 Foreign Missions of Paris in September, 1869, and 
 and having been ordained in 7 June, 1873, he set 
 out for Japan on 2 July following. His first assign¬ 
 ment was as a teacher in the ecclesiastical college at 
 Tokio. A little later he was deputed to aid in estab¬ 
 lishing Christiantiy in Niigata. From the beginning 
 he was deeply interested in natural science, and 
 his brilliant work in the then untrodden field of 
 Japanese botany repeated once more the proofs 
 given so often by Catholic missionaries that the 
 Church, far from being _ opposed to science, is its 
 mother. His frequent journeyings in out of the 
 way places gave him unwonted opportunity for col¬ 
 lecting and he laid Japan, Corea, part of Saghalien, 
 Hawaii, and Formosa under contribution. He sent 
 specimens of many new species to the great 
 herbariums in Europe and America; some of these 
 bear the appelative Faurici or Fauriana; as does 
 the Fauria japonica, a new genus discovered on a 
 mountain near Aomori. Faurie was recognized as 
 the father of Japanese botany. After his death his 
 herbarium at Tokio was presented by the Marianists 
 to the Imperial University of Kyoto, which has 
 named one of its halls after him; and under the 
 inspiration of Dr. Hayata of Tokio, the botanists 
 of Japan have erected his bust in bronze in Tai- 
 hoku. France honored her missionary scientist by 
 appointing him an officer of the Academy and a 
 corresponding member of the Museum of Paris. 
 
 The salvation of souls was, however, Faurie’s 
 first thought. From 1882 till 1894 he was engaged 
 in evangelizing the northern regions of Japan- 
 Aomori, Hokkaido and the Kurile Islands, seeking 
 for scattered Christians, and undertaking the 
 pioneer work that was to facilitate the labors of 
 future apostles in these inhospitable regions. His 
 perfect mastery of Japanese, together with his zeal, 
 bore fruit, £ind where in 1882 there were only a 
 few dozens of Christians there are to-day ten well- 
 established missionary stations. In 1895 ill health 
 forced his return to France. This gave him an 
 opportunity of conveying to Europe his 25,000 
 
FEAR 
 
 304 
 
 FENWICK 
 
 botanical specimens, which he arranged while en 
 route and during his stay in his native village. 
 These he presented, before leaving, to French, 
 Swiss, English, and Italian societies. He returned 
 again to Japan at the end of 1896. After seventeen 
 years’ fresh labors he proceeded to Formosa, partly 
 to rest and partly to complete his collection for 
 the European societies; while he had thus an oppor¬ 
 tunity of aiding the scattered Japanese Catholics, 
 thus relieving the Spanish Dominicans whose flock 
 was composed mainly of Formosans and Chinese. 
 He had spent eighteen months on this scientific 
 and evangelical work, when he was stricken with 
 apoplexy and died^ in the residence of the 
 Dominican Fathers. 
 
 Hayata, in The Botanical Magazine, Tokio, XXX (1916), 
 267-272. 
 
 Fear (cf. C. E., VI-20).—Any act done as the 
 result of grave fear unjustly caused is valid unless 
 the law provides otherwise; if it is valid it can, 
 however, be rescinded by judicial authority. While 
 relatively grave fear excuses one for violating a 
 merely ecclesiastical law it only decreases im- 
 putability if an act is intrinsically wrong or mili¬ 
 tates against public good, ecclesiastical authority 
 or the faith; in as far as, however, the fear excuses 
 from imputability in the external forum, it excuses 
 likewise from penalties latce sententice. 
 
 Feasts, Ecclesiastical (cf. C. E., VI-21d; XIV- 
 342).—The only feast days of obligation for the 
 entire Church, apart from Sundays, are: the 
 Nativity, Circumcision, Epiphany, Ascension of Our 
 Lord, the Immaculate Conception, the Assumption, 
 Sts. Peter and Paul, All Saints,. Corpus Christi, 
 and St. Joseph’s, the last two being additions to 
 the list announced by Pius X in 1911. Where any 
 of these feasts has been lawfully abolished or trans¬ 
 ferred, no change is to be made without consulting 
 the Holy See. Local ordinaries can appoint certain 
 days as feasts in their own territories, but only 
 incidentally; they and parish priests can, in in¬ 
 dividual cases and for just cause, dispense indi¬ 
 viduals or a particular family from the obligation 
 of observing feasts; exempt clerical superiors have 
 the same power in regard to those subject to them. 
 On holidays of obligation the faithful must hear 
 Mass, and abstain not merely from servile work, 
 but from legal proceedings, and, unless otherwise 
 authorized by legitimate custom or special indult, 
 from public trading. 
 
 Federal Council of Churches of Christ in 
 
 America. See Union of Christendom. 
 
 Federation of College Catholic Clubs, an Asso¬ 
 ciation established in 1915 in the city of New York, 
 whose object is “to join together organizations of 
 Catholic students in non-Catholic colleges and edu¬ 
 cational institutions for the purpose of mutual help¬ 
 fulness and united effort in promoting their re¬ 
 ligious, intellectual, moral and social standards.” 
 It began with seven Catholic students’ clubs from 
 Hunter College, Columbia University, Teachers 
 College, New York University, Adelphi College, 
 the College of the City of New York, and Barnard 
 College. It now numbers thirty-one clubs in its 
 membership and publishes an official organ called 
 the “Newman Quarterly.” Through the kindness of 
 the Archbishop of New York, the Federation now 
 has its own quarters in the vicinity of Columbia 
 University, with a resident chaplain. 
 
 Felician Sisters, O. S. F. (cf. C. E., VI-27c).— 
 This community was founded in 1854 at Warsaw, 
 Poland, by Sophia Truszkowska, in religion Mother 
 Mary Angela, under the direction of Father 
 
 Honorat, O.M.Cap. Its members observe the Rule 
 of the Third Order of St. Francis, with constitu¬ 
 tions adapted to their special work. In 1864 the 
 Russian Government, owing to political unrest and 
 insurrection in Poland, compelled the Sisters to 
 disperse and five years later they established their 
 home in Cracow, where the general mother-house 
 is now located. Mother Mary Angela, elected 
 general superior for life, resigned in 1870 because 
 of ill health. She died in 1899. After a short in¬ 
 terval Mother Mary Magdalena was elected and 
 served four successive terms of twelve years each. 
 Through her efforts the community was first ratified 
 by Pope Pius IX (Decretum laudis) in 1874. The 
 Sisters were cloistered, but as there was a general de¬ 
 mand for their services among the poor they changed 
 their mode of life, combining the active with the 
 contemplative. In 1874 they were called to America 
 by Rev. Joseph Dabrowski, who labored here among 
 the Polish emigrants, and Mother Mary Monica 
 with five companions established the first school in 
 Polonia, Wis. After many hardships and privations 
 a provincial house with novitiate was established in 
 Detroit, Mich. (1882), and Mother Mary Monica 
 was appointed provincial superior. The community 
 grew in number and (1900) a second province of 
 about 200 members was founded in Buffalo, N. Y. 
 The constitutions were ratified for the second time 
 by Pope Leo XIII in 1899 for a trial period of seven 
 years. In 1907 Mother Mary Magdalena went to 
 Rome to solicit a final ratification of the constitu¬ 
 tion. This was granted, after the constitution had 
 been revised, and the community was definitely 
 approved by Pius X. In the last decade four new 
 provinces, each with a novitiate, have been estab* 
 lished: one in Milwaukee, Wis. (1910), numbering 
 at present 504 members; Lemberg, Poland (1913), 
 205 members; Lodi, N. J. (1913), 541 members; and 
 McKeesport, Pa. (1920), 120 members. 
 
 In 1916 the community suffered a great loss 
 through the death of Mother Mary Magdalena. It 
 was during the World War, and as communication 
 was impossible there was a vacancy until 1920, 
 when at the General Chapter held in Cracow, 
 Mother Mary Bonaventura was elected general 
 superior. Novice mistress for many years in the 
 province of Detroit, she had been transferred to 
 Cracow as one of the general councillors, and sev¬ 
 eral years later sent as a commissary to the United 
 States, where she remained until 1920. The gov¬ 
 ernment of each province is vested in the provin¬ 
 cial superior and four councillors, who serve for a 
 term of six years. Each province is subject to the 
 mother general residing at Cracow. The novitiate 
 lasts two years, after which the Sisters make the 
 vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience for one 
 year. These vows they renew annually for six 
 years, when they are permitted to make simple 
 perpetual vows. The Sisters in Poland are chiefly 
 occupied with charitable works; they nurse the sick 
 poor in their homes, keep day nurseries, provide 
 daily meals for hundreds of poor children and stu¬ 
 dents, and solicit the help of others for them. They 
 take charge of retreat centers for the seculars, teach 
 in elementary schools, and instruct girls in prac¬ 
 tical arts. The Sisters in the United States labor 
 mostly in parochial schools, conduct orphan asylums, 
 homes for working girls, day nurseries, and several 
 private academies. In Poland the Felician Sisters 
 number 455, and in the United States there are 
 2021 Sisters in charge of 167 parochial schools with 
 78,940 pupils, and 8 orphanages with 1897 orphans. 
 
 Fenwick, Edward Dominic, Dominican, first 
 bishop of Cincinnati, called the Apostle of Ohio, 
 
FENWICK 
 
 305 
 
 FERMO 
 
 b. 19 August, 1768, St. Mary’s County, Md., of 
 Col. Ignatius Fenwick and Sarah Taney; d. at 
 Wooster, Ohio, 26 September, 1832. The work 
 of the exiled English Dominicans at their College 
 of the Holy Cross, Bornheim, Belgium, whither 
 he went for his humanities in the fall of 1784, 
 inspired young Fenwick with the idea of founding 
 a similar institute in his beloved Maryland. With 
 this object in mind he took the habit of the 
 Friar Preachers 4 September, 1788, and became a 
 professed religious 26 March, 1790. Though he 
 never wavered a moment in his lofty design, more 
 than ten years elapsed since his ordination, 23 
 February, 1793, before the obstacles to his project 
 had yielded sufficiently to allow of his return to 
 America. On his arrival there in November, 1804, 
 with Fr. Angier, O.P., one of the three companions 
 he had secured for the enterprise, Bishop Carroll 
 succeeded in persuading him that Kentucky, with 
 its several thousand Catholics and its lone mis¬ 
 sionary, Fr. Badin, was in more desperate need 
 of his services than Maryland. October, 1805, saw 
 the arrival of the coveted decree of Pius VII ap¬ 
 pointing Bishop Carroll delegate Apostolic to es¬ 
 tablish a Dominican Province anywhere in his 
 diocese. With it came the letters patent of the 
 Dominican superior general, Most Rev. Pius J. 
 Gaddi, designating Fenwick as head of the Province 
 of St. Joseph directly it was founded. Fathers 
 Wilson and Tuite, the two other members of 
 the little band who had meanwhile landed, were 
 immediately hurried to the field of their future 
 labors. Delay in the sale of his Maryland estate 
 kept Fenwick from joining his confreres till June, 
 1806. The proceeds of the sale were presently 
 sunk in the property now known as “St. Rose’s 
 Farm,” near Springfield, Ky., in the heart of the 
 Catholic settlement along Cartwright Creek. The 
 convent and church of St. Rose and St. Thomas 
 College were erected as quickly as the straitened 
 circumstances of the Friars and their parishioners 
 would permit. The time that could be spared from 
 his duties as superior at St. Rose Fr. Fenwick spent 
 in the saddle, visiting the scattered families and 
 distant settlements that saw a priest only at rare 
 intervals. From the day that the burdens of 
 superior were shifted to Fr. Wilson’s able shoulders 
 the zealous Dominican devoted himself exclusively 
 to the missions, traversing Kentucky on horse¬ 
 back in every direction. He even ventured into 
 the fastnesses of the infant State of Ohio, to which, 
 touched by the constant pleading of the settlers 
 for a priest, he made semi-annual trips, seemingly, 
 from 1808-16. In 1816, the ordination of four 
 Dominicans at St. Rose enabled him to leave the 
 Kentucky missions, in which he had become such 
 a familiar and w r ell-loved figure, and to give his 
 undivided attention to his Ohio apostolate. His 
 nephew, Fr. Dominic Young, O.P., was assigned 
 to assist him in this formidable undertaking. Near 
 Somerset, Ohio, on land donated for the purpose 
 by the pious frontiersman, Jacob Dittoe, a primi¬ 
 tive log-cabin and a crude church dedicated to 
 St. Joseph were built. Making this his headquar¬ 
 ters, Fenwick began the arduous campaign for 
 Christ that has won him the ^veil-merited title 
 of Apostle of Ohio. 
 
 The rapidly developing State soon required the 
 guidance of an ordinary. At the suggestion of 
 Bishop Flaget of Bardstown, Pius VII erected the 
 promising city of Cincinnati into an episcopal see 
 by the “Bull Inter Multiplices” (19 June, 1821). 
 Fr. Fenwick failed to escape the honor of being 
 its first bishop; at the same time he was ap¬ 
 pointed Apostolic Administrator of Michigan and 
 
 the Eastern portion of the Northwest Territory. 
 The ceremony of consecration was performed by 
 Bishop Flaget 13 January, 1822, in St. Rose’s 
 Church. The new prelate took up his residence 
 in the course of the year in Cincinnati at the 
 corner of Ludlow and Lawrence streets in a little 
 dwelling which had to serve for some time in the 
 double capacity of an episcopal palace and a house 
 of worship. After the withdrawal of the city ordi¬ 
 nance forbidding the erection of Catholic churches 
 within the corporate limits of Cincinnati, the cathe¬ 
 dral, a barn-like frame building on the outskirts 
 of the town, was put on rollers and hauled to 
 the site now occupied by the College of St. Francis 
 Xavier. This sorry makeshift had to be borne 
 with until the bishop, having borrowed money 
 enough to carry him to Europe in search of aid, 
 returned with generous donations from the reigning 
 Pontiff, Leo XII, and the French nobility. With 
 the fund thus raised he bought the property on 
 Sycamore Street now occupied by the Church of 
 St. Francis Xavier; ther (19 May, 1825), he laid 
 the corner-stone of the old St. Peter’s Cathedral 
 and dedicated it 17 December, 1826. In the spring 
 of 1829 the Athenaeum, dedicated to St. Francis 
 Xavier, opened with four theological and six pre¬ 
 paratory students. From the printing-press with 
 which the bishop had been presented by a European 
 benefactor, came the first edition (October, 1831), 
 of “The Catholic Telegraph,” one of the oldest 
 Catholic papers in the country. 
 
 But these monuments of Bishop Fenwick’s in¬ 
 dustry in his episcopal city form a very small 
 portion of the efforts he made for the welfare of 
 his diocese. His territory extended from the Ohio 
 to the Lakes. To look after his scattered flock 
 he traveled to the most distant sections on horse¬ 
 back, by boat or afoot. During the last two years 
 of his life, in spite of continued ill-health, the 
 saintly man must have journeyed over 6000 miles 
 in this way, and a third of that distance was cov¬ 
 ered in the last three months of his earthly sojourn. 
 While returning from a last pastoral visit to the 
 North he was stricken with the cholera then ravag¬ 
 ing his diocese and died unattended. The remains 
 were brought to Cincinnati, 11 February, 1833, 
 and laid in the old cathedral, from which they 
 were transferred to the new cathedral in 1846. On 
 23 March, 1916, they were again moved to the 
 beautiful mausoleum in St. Joseph’s cemetery, Price 
 Hill, in which a compartment is reserved for the 
 bishops of the diocese. 
 
 O’Daniel, The Right Rev. Edward Dominic Fenwick, O. P. 
 (Washington, 1920); Hammer, Eduard Dominik Fenwick, der 
 Apostel von Ohio (Freiburg, 1890). 
 
 Ferentino, Diocese of (Ferentinensis; cf. C. E., 
 
 VI- ^2c), in the province of Rome, Central Italy, 
 immediately subject to the Holy See, with a regular 
 list of bishops since 721. The bishop, Rt. Rev. 
 Domenico Bianconi, b. in Piperno, 7 May, 1852, 
 was appointed 19 April, 1897, succeeding Mgr 
 Facciotti, deceased. There are in the diocese (1920 
 statistics) 45,000 Catholics; 19 parishes, 68 secular 
 and 32 regular clergy, 55 seminarians, 9 Brothers, 
 89 sisters, 56 churches or chapels. 
 
 Fermo, Archdiocese of (Firmanensis; cf. C. E., 
 
 VII- 43d), in the province of Ascoli-Piceno, Central 
 
 Italy. The see is filled by Most Rev. Carlo Cas* 
 telli, b. 20 March, 1863, in the Diocese of Milan, 
 ordained in November, 1885, vicar forane and rector 
 of Busto-Arsizio; appointed Bishop of Bobbio, 14 
 November, 1904; promoted 10 July, 1906, to the 
 Archdiocese of Fermo, proclaimed 6 December fol¬ 
 lowing, succeeding Mgr. Papiri, deceased. The dio¬ 
 cese numbered (1920 ) 200,000 Catholics; 147 
 
FERNANDO PO 
 
 306 
 
 FERRARI 
 
 parishes, 368 secular and 86 regular clergy, 208 
 seminarians, 40 Brothers, 189 Sisters, 660 churches 
 and chapels. 
 
 Fernando Po (or Fernando Poo), Vicariate Apos¬ 
 tolic of (Insularum Hannobom, Corsico et 
 Fernando Poo; cf. C. E., XVI-83b), a Spanish 
 colony, West Africa, is the most important of the 
 Annabon Islands and covers an area of 695 sq. 
 miles, with residence at Santa Isabel. It is en¬ 
 trusted to the Spanish Congregation of the Sons 
 of the Immaculate Heart of Mary. The present 
 (1922) vicar Apostolic, also titular Bishop of 
 Ionopolis, is Rt. Rev. Nicolas Gonzalez y Perez, 
 F. C. Im. M., b. 3 February, 1863, in La Nuez de 
 Arriba in the Diocese of Burgos; missionary for 
 twenty-five years, appointed bishop 24 August, 1918, 
 and vicar Apostolic of Fernando Po, 10 September 
 of the same year, consecrated at Madrid, 7 Decem¬ 
 ber following, succeeding Mgr. Pedro Armengaudio 
 Coll, F. C. Im. M., the first vicar Apostolic of Fer- 
 nado Po. There are in the vicariate (1920) 38 
 priests and 25 Brothers (F. C. Im. M.), and 39 native 
 catechists, 4 Fathers of the Holy Ghost, 12 churches, 
 16 chapels, 56 stations, 12 colleges for boys with 
 901 pupils, 4 for girls with 409 pupils, 1 high school 
 with 40 pupils, 1 professional school with 41 pupils, 
 54 elementary schools with 1250 boys and 901 girls, 
 1 seminary with 2 seminarians, 4 go-out hospitals, 
 all the others in charge of the Sisters, 30 Spanish 
 Sisters of the Immaculate Conception; 120,000 in¬ 
 habitants. The Spanish government supports 14 
 missions and dispenses an annual sum of 26,000 frs. 
 for the schools. “La Guienea Espanola” is pub¬ 
 lished in the vicariate. Mgr. Armengol Coll, 
 vicar Apostolic died 21 April, 1918, after twenty- 
 eight years of administration, helping the people 
 spiritually and materially. He invented an agri¬ 
 cultural apparatus. Events of importance are: the 
 internment of more than 20,000 people, both Euro¬ 
 peans and natives coming from German Kamerun; 
 the dedication of the cathedral 23 January, 1916. 
 
 Ferns, Diocese of (Fernensis; cf. C. E., VI-45b), 
 in the province of Leinster, Ireland, including 
 almost all of Wexford and a part of Wicklow coun¬ 
 ties, is suffragan of Dublin, with residence at Sum- 
 merhill, Wexford. Rt. Rev. William Codd, Lord 
 Bishop of Ferns, the present incumbent, b. 6 July, 
 1864, studied at St. Peter’s College, and at the Irish 
 College, Rome, ordained 1889, president of St. 
 Peter’s College, Wexford, 1907; appointed bishop 7 
 December, 1917, consecrated 25 February, 1918, suc¬ 
 ceeding Rt. Rev. James Browne (b. 28 August, 1842; 
 d. 21 June, 1917). The diocesan statistics for 1921 
 are: 41 parishes, 130 secular and 20 regular priests, 
 92 parochial and district churches, 1 seminary with 
 100 seminarians; 1 college, higher schools for boys 
 and girls, 150 Catholic primary schools, all run by 
 the religious communities established in the dio¬ 
 cese; 14 convents, 2 orphanages, 1 industrial school, 
 1 refuge. Five workhouses and 1 mental hospital 
 admit the. ministry of priests, and all the national 
 and technical schools of the diocese receive govern¬ 
 ment rates. The total population of the diocese 
 numbers 106,850, Catholics 98,134, non-Catholics 
 8816. The missionary work is carried on by priests 
 living in community for the giving of missions at 
 home and abroad. The societies organized in the 
 diocese are the Ui Ceinnsealaigh Historical Society, 
 and the conferences of St. Vincent de Paul. The 
 Catholic press is represented by “The Past,” a 
 periodical published in the diocese. Canon Michael 
 Kavanaugh spent a substantial sum for the new 
 church, new presbyteries and schools in New Ross. 
 
 During the World War four priests of the diocese 
 served as chaplains at the front. 
 
 Ferotin, Marius, Benedictine writer, d. on 16 
 September, 1915; he had been a Benedictine monk 
 of the Abbey of Farnborough, England, for forty 
 years. He was highly esteemed as a historian and 
 his studies of the mozarabic liturgy of Southern 
 Spain are considered to be authoritative, as are 
 those of the cartularies of the Abbey of Silos, which 
 form a part of the history he wrote of that estab¬ 
 lishment. 
 
 Ferrara, Archdiocese of (Ferrariensis; cf. C. 
 E., VI-46c), in Italy, immediately subject to the 
 Holy See. From 29 December, 1908, to 7 July, 
 1920, the diocese of Comacchio was united to the 
 Archdiocese of Ferrara, and administered by the 
 Archbishop of Ferrara as Bishop of Comacchio. 
 His Eminence Cardinal Boschi, who had filled this 
 see from 1900, retired and was transferred to the 
 see of Frascati 3 July, 1919, and was succeeded by 
 the present incumbent, Rt. Rev. Francesco Rossi, 
 b. at Thiene 1836, appointed Archbishop of Cag¬ 
 liari 9 April, 1913, transferred to the Archdiocese of 
 Ferrara 15 December, 1919. According to 1922 
 statistics the diocese numbers 91 parishes, 159 
 churches, 153 secular and 25 regular priests, 10 lay 
 brothers, 78 Sisters, 1 seminaiy with 45 seminarians, 
 1 university with 501 students, 4 colleges for boys, 
 5 for girls, 1 high school with 40 boys, 25 girls, 2 
 academies, 1 normal, 1 professional, 100 elementary 
 and 2 industrial schools, 3 homes, 19 asylums, 3 
 hospitals, 1 refuge, 1 day nursery. Twenty-five 
 public institutions in the diocese admit the min¬ 
 istry of the priests. The following institutions, 
 academies, lyceums, elementary, technical, indus¬ 
 trial, commercial, evening, music, drawing, and 
 ^normal schools receive government support. Two 
 associations are organized among the clergy, and 
 a “Circolo Popolare Catolica,” a Mutual Aid 
 Society, and the Society of St. Vincent de Paul 
 among the laity. A weekly journal and a monthly 
 bulletin are published in the diocese. During the 
 World War the clergy distinguished themselves as 
 chaplains, and in the care of the poor and the war 
 orphans of the diocese. His Eminence the late 
 Cardinal Giulio Boschi gave his archiepiscopal 
 palace as a home for the soldiers, and the citizens 
 manifested their gratitude by erecting a commemo¬ 
 rative tablet to his memory. The laity co-operated 
 with the clergy in all patriotic works meriting 
 praise and decorations. 
 
 Ferrari, Andrea Carlo, Cardinal, b. at Lalatta, 
 district of Pratopiano in the Diocese of Parma, 
 Italy, 13 August, 1850; d. 2 February, 1921, the 
 son of Giuseppe Ferrari and Maddalena Langarini. 
 Andrea Ferrari studied at the episcopal seminary 
 of Parma and was ordained there 20 December, 
 1873, became vice-rector of the seminary and in 
 1876 was made rector, in 1878 canon of the cathe¬ 
 dral of Parma, elected Bishop of Guastalla in 
 1890, transferred to Como 1891, promoted to be 
 metropolitan of Milan 21 May, 1894, received the 
 hat with the title of Sant’ Anastasia 21 May, and 
 the pallium 3 June following. 
 
 At, the conclave of 1903 Cardinal Ferrari was 
 one of the Papabili most in view. During his long 
 episcopate the diocese conducted three diocesan 
 synods, a Eucharistic Congress, a Catholic Congress, 
 the Centenary of St. Charles Borromeo, and a 
 provincial council. Many churches and institutions 
 were constructed in the city and diocese. During 
 the war the cardinal organized a committee of 
 Religious Assistance, a Secretariate for Soldiers, a 
 Notification Bureau for Prisoners, and every pos- 
 
FERRATA 
 
 307 
 
 FIESOLE 
 
 sible aid for the combatants. He was decorated 
 with the Grand Cross of Sts. Maurizio and Lazarro 
 15 October, 1919. On November 5 following he 
 celebrated the twenty-fifth anniversary of his en¬ 
 thronement at Milan, on which occasion he was 
 presented with a purse of 330,000 lire, which was 
 later increased to 1,500,000 lire and was devoted 
 to the founding of the Casa del Popido for the peo¬ 
 ple of Milan. Shortly before his death his long 
 dreamed-of Catholic University became an actuality. 
 
 In the course of the Church’s history there have 
 been few death-bed scenes comparable to that of 
 His Eminence Cardinal Ferrari. Prolonged for over 
 three months, quite consciously dying from a 
 cancer in the throat, the successor of St. Ambrose 
 and St. Charles received the daily pilgrimage of 
 thousands of his flock. The suffering prelate would 
 allow no one to be turned away. During this ill¬ 
 ness he wrote a pastoral letter of farewell, many 
 instructions, directions, replies, and he died on 
 Candlemas Day, 1921, leaving behind him two 
 monuments which show his deep interest in reli¬ 
 gious and social work, the Catholic University of 
 the Sacred Heart, and his ■wonderfully conceived 
 Casa del Populo, called L'Opera Cardinale Ferrari. 
 Several books were published by him which will 
 perpetuate the memory of one of the greatest of 
 Italian cardinals, including: “Breve trattato della 
 religione,” “Summula theologise dogmatic® gen- 
 eralis,” “Ambrosiana,” “Dopo la visita pastorale,” 
 and “La Vita sacerdotale secondo il vangelo,” a 
 beautiful manual of meditations. Amid scenes of 
 extraordinary emotion throughout the city and dio¬ 
 cese, the cardinal was buried in the great Duomo, 
 not far from the shrine of his predecessor, St. 
 Charles Borromeo. 
 
 Samuel Fowle Telfair, Jr. 
 
 Ferrata, Domenico, Cardinal, b. at Gradoli, 4 
 March, 1847; d. in Rome, 10 October, 1914, re¬ 
 ceived his classical education at the Jesuit College 
 of Orvieto and from there went in 1860 to the 
 seminary of Montefiascone. In 1867, he was at 
 the Gregorian in Rome, where he devoted himself 
 to theology and to canon law at the Appolinare. 
 He became professor of canon law at the latter 
 place in 1876 and on the following year at the Propa¬ 
 ganda, where his eminent gifts of conciseness, com¬ 
 pleteness and clearness made him so famous that 
 in 1877 he was made Consultor to the Congrega¬ 
 tion of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs. His 
 secretary, Mgr. Czaski soon perceived his unusual 
 ability and when sent as nuncio to Paris in 1879 
 he took Ferrata with him as auditor and cameriere 
 segreto. Returning to Rome three years later, Fer¬ 
 rata resumed his place in the Bureau of the Secre¬ 
 tary of State, meantime going on special missions, 
 the most important of which was that to Switzer¬ 
 land, where he had to rearrange the division of 
 dioceses and settle the political strife that was 
 raging there. On his return he was advanced to 
 other ecclesiastical honors and in 1885 was made 
 Nuncio to Belgium to repair the damages done to 
 religion by Frere-Orban, who had broken off rela¬ 
 tions with the Vatican, was consecrated Archbishop 
 of Thessalonica and then passed four years at Brus¬ 
 sels. We find him next as nuncio at Paris, an 
 exceptionally difficult post because of the unfriendly 
 attitude of the Government, but he met with such 
 success that the Republic asked to have him made 
 cardinal. He received the red hat on 22 January, 
 1896. 
 
 According to Cardinal Mathieu, Ferrata was the 
 cleverest member of the Sacred College. He had 
 a power of grasping a subject which with his mar¬ 
 velous memory enabled him to present a question 
 
 to the assembled cardinals in such a way that it 
 was hard to determine in which respect, he excelled, 
 the thoroughness of his knowledge or the form in 
 which it was presented. His power of persuasion 
 was such that he won his case almost as soon 
 as he began to speak. He was so well known for 
 this, that the postulates of the causes for beatifi¬ 
 cation and canonization were always anxious to 
 have him to defend their case before the tribunal. 
 His ability was so marked that office after office 
 was assigned to him from 1900 to 1913. No one 
 knows whether Cardinal Ferrata received any votes 
 as successor of Pius X for Benedict XV kept the 
 proceedings of the Conclave a profound secret. At 
 all events, Benedict chose him as Secretary of 
 State on 4 September, 1914, but death came shortly 
 after. The Cardinal had to undergo surgical oper¬ 
 ation for some intestinal trouble and in October he 
 was in his coffin. 
 
 Fianarantsoa, Vicariate Apostolic (de Fiana- 
 rantsoa, cf. C. E., XVI-83c), in Madagascar, previ¬ 
 ously formed the southern part of the Vicariate 
 Apostolic of Central Madagascar, but was erected 
 into a separate vicariate on 10 May, 1913, and 
 entrusted to the Jesuits. The present (1922) and 
 the first vicar apostolic is Rt. Rev. Charles Givelet, 
 S. J., titular bishop of Gindaris, b. 18 July, 1857, in 
 Reims, studied at Vaugirard in Paris, and at the 
 lower seminary of Reims, novice at St. Acheul in 
 1877, ordained in Enghien Belgium, 8 September, 
 1889, prefect of studies, president of various mis¬ 
 sionary houses in 1902, appointed bishop, and 
 Vicar Apostolic of Fianarantsoa 16 May, 1913, con¬ 
 secrated at Lugon 2 October of the same year, and 
 proclaimed 28 May, 1914. There are in the vicariate 
 (1920 statistics) 110,000 Catholics, 36 missionary 
 priests, 12 lay brothers, 12 Brothers of the Chris¬ 
 tian Schools with 2 colleges, 24 Sisters of St. Joseph 
 of Cluny, 637 catechists, 577 stations with chapels, 
 52 schools with 5300 pupils, 1 dispensary, and 1 
 leper hospital. 
 
 • 
 
 Field, Michael, the pseudonym under which two 
 noted English writers, Katherine Harris Bradley 
 and her niece, Edith Emma Cooper, produced many 
 dramatic works and volumes of lyrical poetry, the 
 excellence of which won the admiration and praise 
 of Browning, Pater, and Meredith. The first fruits 
 of this literary partnership was the drama “Cal- 
 lirhoc” (1884), which like “Brutus Ultor” (1887) is 
 based on classical history. Besides these, however, 
 Miss Cooper and Miss Bradley wrote romantic 
 plays such as “Fair Rosamund” and “William 
 Rufus” on British themes. Among their poetical 
 works are “Long Ago” (1889), “Sight and Song,” 
 and “Underneath the Bough” (1893). In 1907, like 
 so many other women writers, the joint authors 
 entered the Catholic Church. Thereafter their 
 poetry revealed their deep religious spirit, reflecting 
 the soul of the church as appears in their “Poems 
 of Adoration” (1912), “Cedar and Hyssop,” and 
 “Mystic Trees” (191.3), the latter being almost en¬ 
 tirely from the pen of Miss Bradley. Miss Cooper 
 died in December, 1913, and Miss Bradley at 
 Hawkesyard, England, on 26 September following. 
 
 Fiesole, Diocese of (Fesulanensis; cf. C. E., 
 VI-70b), in the province of Florence, Central Italy, 
 suffragan of Florence. By a special decree of the 
 Consistory, 24 August, 1917, the boundaries of the 
 diocese were modified. The bishop bears the title 
 of Count of Turicchi; the see is filled by Rt. Rev. 
 Giovanni Fossi, b. in Gambellara in the diocese 
 of Vicenzo, 17 January, 1853, prothonotary apostolic 
 5 January, 1901, archpriest at Lonigo, appointed 29 
 April, 1909, consecrated at Lonigo, 27 June of the 
 
FIJI ISLANDS 
 
 308 
 
 FINLAND 
 
 same year, succeeding Mgr. David (Jamilli, b. 15 
 January, 1847, d. 13 February, 1909. According 
 to 1920 statistics the diocese numbers 155,800 Catho¬ 
 lics; 254 parishes, 300 secular and 93 regular priests, 
 90 seminarians, 62 Brothers, 210 Sisters, 329 churches 
 or chapels. On 26 April, 1914, the diocesan chapter 
 was reorganized with archdeacon and primicerius. 
 
 Fiji Islands, Vicariate Apostolic of (Insulce 
 Fidzis), Central Oceania. The first and present 
 Vicar Apostolic is the Right Rev. Julian Vidal, S. M., 
 Titular Bishop of Abydos, who was elected on 
 the 13 May, 1887, and consecrated 27 December 
 of the same year. Right Rev. Charles Joseph 
 Nicolas, S.M., Titular Bishop of Panopolis, was 
 elected Coadjutor to Bishop J. Vidal, on 22 August, 
 1918, and consecrated on 2 February, 1919. Mis¬ 
 sions have been established in all the principal 
 islands, Viti Levu, Vanua Levu, Ovalau, Taviuni, 
 Kadavu, and Rotuma. The*official residence of 
 the vicar apostolic is at Suva, which is the capital 
 of Fiji, and seat of the government. 
 
 The latest (1922) statistics for the vicariate show: 
 27 priests (Marist Fathers), who tend 20 central 
 stations, and about 300 villages; 1 lay brother of 
 the Society of Mary, who supervises the construc¬ 
 tion of new buildings, schools, churches, convents, 
 etc.; 14 Little Brothers of Mary (Marist Brothers), 
 who have charge of a large boarding and day 
 school for Europeans, a boarding and day school 
 for half-castes and natives, < at Suva, an English 
 school for natives at Cawaci and Rewa; 31 Euro¬ 
 pean and 63 native Sisters of the Third Order 
 of Mary, with 16 houses (novitiate for the native 
 Sisters, at Solevu, Vanua Levu), who conduct the 
 majority of schools for native girls; 11 Sisters of 
 St. Joseph of Cluny, who conduct at Suva a large 
 boarding and day school for Europeans, and a 
 day school for half-castes and natives; 14 Sisters 
 of the Holy Name of Mary (Marist Sisters), who 
 have charge of a boarding and day school for 
 Europeans and half-castes, of a day school for 
 natives, and of an orphanage at Levuka, schools 
 for natives at Cawaci and Ba, 20 native Brothers 
 (novitiate at Loreto), in 6 communities. In the 
 central stations Brothers and Sisters (European 
 and native) teach about 1000 children, while in 
 the villages 230 catechists give elementary instruc¬ 
 tion to about 1700. The churches and chapels 
 number 67 and the Catholic population is about 
 12,000 (400 Europeans). 
 
 The Fiji Government (British) has established 
 in the island of Makogai a lepers’ settlement, where 
 under the direction of a European doctor 8 Euro¬ 
 pean and 6 native Sisters of the Third Order of 
 Mary nurse about 350 lepers. A chapel has Just 
 been built for the lepers. A Marist Father is in 
 charge of the station as chaplain. 
 
 Finland (cf. C. E., VI-76c), formerly a grand 
 duchy of the Russian Empire, now a republic, 
 proclaimed an independent sovereign state on 6 
 December, 1917. The area of the republic is 129,549 
 sq. miles; the population (1919), 3,331,814. The 
 chief towns with their population in 1919, are: 
 Helsinki (Helsingfors) with Sveaborg, 187,544; 
 Turku (Abo), 56,168; Tampere (Tammerfors), 
 46,353; Viipuri (Viborg), 29,753; Oulu (Uleaborg), 
 21,949; Pori (Bjorneborg), 17,603; Waasa (Vasa), 
 24,776; Kuopio, 18,106. Finns who amalgamated 
 with the Swedes to form the present population, 
 came from farther east; ethnologists class them 
 with the Hungarians. About 78 per cent are blue¬ 
 eyed and about 57 per cent are light-haired. Of 
 this population 522,608 or 15.69 per cent reside in 
 towns, and 2,809,206 or 84.31 per cent in the country 
 
 districts; 87.73 speak Finnish; 11.79 per cent, 
 Swedish. 
 
 Religion. Vicariate Apostolic .—In June, 1920, 
 the vicariate apostolic of Finland was erected from 
 territory taken from the diocese of Mohileff and 
 entrusted to the Congregation of Picpus. The first 
 vicar apostolic is Mgr. J. M. Buckx, appointed 17 
 March, 1921. The Catholics number 1000 and are 
 for the most part Finns; the minority are either 
 Poles, Germans, French, or Italian. There are 
 2 secular and 3 regular priests and 1 lay brother; 
 
 2 parishes; 3 churches; 1 mission. The women have 
 an association of St. Anne for work among the 
 poor. Other religious bodies in Finland in 1917 
 numbered: Lutherans, 3,283,035; Greek Catholics 
 and Raskolniks, 56,815; Baptists, etc., 6397. 
 
 Education. —Notwithstanding the vast and thinly 
 populated areas of the country Finland is well 
 advanced in the matter of education. A Bill making 
 it compulsory was introduced into the Diet in 
 1919. Every parish has at least one folk-school, 
 or elementary school. At the beginning of the 
 1919-20 school year, there were 3639 ordinary rural 
 folk-schools, of which 3172 were Finnish and 456 
 Swedish, with 4951 teachers. There were also 549 
 primary folk-schools in the rural districts, with 
 1351 teachers. The total number of folk-school 
 teachers was 6302, of whom 5448 were Finnish and 
 839 Swedish; the number of pupils in rural folk- 
 schools was 173,869 and in city folk-schools, 
 42,026, a total of 215,895. The amount spent by the 
 State for folk-schools in 1919 was 38,390,000 marks 
 ($2,492,857 at 15.40 marks to the dollar). Of the 
 55 State secondary schools, 37 were Finnish and 
 18 Swedish. The government expenditure on these 
 was 16,074,300 marks ($1,043,786). There is one 
 State University, which was founded in Abo in 
 1640 and removed to Helsingfors, after having been 
 burned down in 1827. There is a technical high 
 school in Helsingfors and private high schools 
 and academies in the larger cities. A Swedish 
 university was opened in Abo in 1919. Since 1918 
 the Finnish reformatory and _ industrial schools 
 have been under the supervision of the school 
 administration; formerly the reformatory schools 
 were under the prison administration and the indus¬ 
 trial schools under the Senate civil administration. 
 In 1919 the State had 8 reformatory and industrial 
 schools for boys and 2 for girls and subsidized 
 12 privately owned institutions for boys and 7 for 
 girls; total expenditure, $197,408. Of the 75 kin¬ 
 dergartens in Finland, 4 are State, 8 communal, 
 49 owned by associations, and 14 by individuals, 
 with a total number of 5932 children and an ex¬ 
 penditure of $140,140. In addition to the homes 
 for war orphans which were under the jurisdiction 
 of the Ministry of Social Affairs, there are 81 
 children’s homes, 21 day homes and work homes, 
 8 reception homes, and 30 nurseries, also 16 schools 
 for the deaf, dumb, and feeble-minded, of which 
 11 were State schools and 5 private schools, some 
 of which receive state aid. On the special schools, 
 the state expenditure was $164,338. The school age 
 in the primary schools is from seven to fifteen 
 years. 
 
 Economic Condition. —The bulk of the popula¬ 
 tion is engaged in agriculture and farming, leaving 
 a very small proportion employed in commerce 
 and industry. The following statistics show the 
 acreage sown and the yield of the principal crop3 
 in 1920: Wheat, 19,275 acres, 7500 tons; rye, 580,593 
 acres, 233,000 tons; barley, 278,241 acres, 108,000 
 tons; oats, 976,496 acres, 356,500 tons; potatoes, 
 192,888 acres, 486,000 tons; hay, 2,386,989 acres, 
 1,900,000 tons. The home production of grain is 
 
FINLAND 
 
 309 
 
 FINLAND 
 
 barely enough to meet one-half of the requirements 
 of the country, and Finland therefore is obliged to 
 import largely from abroad. In 1920 the butter 
 produced amounted to 10,000,000 kilog. and the 
 cheese to 2,000,000 kilog. 
 
 The cultivated ^rea of Finland covers only 8.5 
 per cent of the land, divided in 1910 into 284,188 
 farms. In 1918 the Crown forests covered 12,540,296 
 hectares, about 33 per cent of the area of the 
 country. Their maintenance cost (1919) 33,250,000 
 marks, and the income derived from them 65,690,000 
 marks. In 1915 the 139 sawmills with water-motors 
 and 510 steam and 317 motor mills gave occupation 
 to 17,661 workers. In 19T Finland had 4389 large 
 factories, employing an aggregate of 178,987 work¬ 
 ers, and yielding an aggregate product of 1,458,107,- 
 500 marks; in 1919, 5252 factories, employing 99,843 
 workers, turning out a product worth 2,345,200,000 
 marks. The eight-hour day was instituted on 17 
 April, 1917, but previous to this the working day 
 at private factories and works was nine and a half 
 hours. In 1920 the imports amounted to 3,620,400 
 Finnish marks; the exports to 2,906,600 Finnish 
 marks. The principal imports are cereals and other 
 food-stuffs, textile materials, colonial products, 
 metals, machinery, and minerals; the chief exports, 
 timber and paper products, which constituted in 
 1919 more than 88 per cent of the total. The 
 closing of the Russian markets have had a detri¬ 
 mental influence on dairy exports. 
 
 The Finnish railways have always been built 
 and owned by the State. On 31. December, 1920, 
 there were 2685 miles of railway, all but 186 miles 
 belonging to the State. There are also 19,000 miles 
 of main roads and 1250 miles of secondary roads. 
 The total revenue from the State railways in 1919 
 was about $19,146,500; the total expenditures were 
 $13,770,000. The canals are also of great importance 
 as means of communication in Finland, the fore¬ 
 most being the Saima Canal, which has 28 sluices 
 and is 38 miles in length. This canal con¬ 
 nects the extensive Saima Lake system with the 
 sea. Finland’s debts are comparatively small, 
 amounting to less than 2,000,000,000 marks ($100,- 
 000,000 at the rate of 20 marks to the dollar). The 
 national debts on 31 May, 1921, amounted to 1,812,- 
 911,411 marks ($90,645,571 at the rate of 20 marks 
 to the dollar). 
 
 Government.— According to the Finnish Consti¬ 
 tution, ratified at Helsingfors on 21 June, 1919, the 
 legislative power is exercised by Parliament, to¬ 
 gether with the president of the Republic, who 
 is elected for a term of six years, and who has 
 the right of initiative in formulating new legislation, 
 also the right of veto. The general government 
 is entrusted to a Council of State, composed of 
 the prime minister and a fixed number of other 
 ministers. The judicial power is exercised by inde¬ 
 pendent courts of 'ustice, chief of which are the 
 Supreme Court and the Highest Administrative 
 Court. The president is elected by 300 electors, 
 chosen by popular vote, and is limited in power 
 by the Council of State. The official languages 
 are Finnish and Swedish, which can be used in the 
 national courts. The linguistic, religious, and 
 minority rights of all citizens are assured; free 
 speech and free assembly are granted under all 
 normal conditions. 
 
 History.— Finland was acquired by Russia from 
 Sweden by the Treaties of Fredrikshamn (Septem¬ 
 ber, 1809), which confirmed the decision of the Diet 
 of Barga a few months earlier. In 1811 territories 
 taken from Sweden, which had been incorporated 
 in Russia before 1809, were added to the State thus 
 constituted. The Swedish constitution was, however, 
 
 retained, dating from 1772, but recast in 1789, modi¬ 
 fied in 1869, and again fundamentally altered in 
 1906. The country, then an autonomous grand 
 duchy under the sovereignty of the Czar of Russia, 
 was considered by the inhabitants a separate state 
 with inalienable rights; but it was the policy of 
 Russia to promise to respect the national institu¬ 
 tions of her newly acquired territories and later, 
 step by step, proceed in her course of centralization 
 and assimilation without regard to her agreement. 
 That this did not immediately happen in Finland 
 was due to a strong insistence upon her rights; yet 
 during the period 1899-1914 Russia’s intention to 
 Russianize the country was evident. 
 
 By the law of 15 February, 1899, all matters of 
 legislation were to be referred to the Czar of Rus¬ 
 sia; again in 1910 there were attempts to curtail 
 the power of the Diet; in 1912 the Russian subjects 
 were given the same rights as the Finns themselves, 
 enabling the Russians to hold office in Finland, 
 thus preparing the way for Russian bureaucracy; 
 the Russian language was prescribed in the Finnish 
 courts and public offices, and the Russian courts 
 given jurisdiction over political offenses committed 
 in Finland. By this time the Finnish constitution 
 was virtually annulled and the Diet little better 
 than a figurehead. 
 
 When the Russian revolution broke out the Diet 
 decided on 9 November, 1916, to declare that as 
 the Provisional Russian Government no longer 
 existed, the Diet entrusted the government to a 
 committee of three persons, including a banker, 
 magistrate, and privy councillor. It was considered 
 a free and independent state in a Russian federa¬ 
 tion, but at the fall of Kerensky’s Government, it 
 declared itself a republic (9 December, 1917). Its 
 independence was recognized by Russia, Sweden, 
 Norway, France, Spain, Denmark, and Germany, 
 with the understanding that an arrangement be 
 reached between Finland and Russia in regard to 
 a formal separation. On 9 January, 1918, the Rus¬ 
 sian central executive committee of the Soviets, 
 acting in behalf of the Russian Provisional Govern¬ 
 ment, unanimously recognized the republic as free 
 and independent. Meanwhile, the Red Guards 
 (Bolsheviki) and White Guards (pro-German) 
 were arrayed against each other and civil war broke 
 out. It ended in the triumph of the latter and 
 the signing of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty between 
 Germany and the Bolshevist Government on 3 
 March, 1918. Four days later Germany signed a 
 treaty with Finland, having invaded Finnish terri¬ 
 tory and occupied the Aland Islands which she used 
 to enable her soldiers to cross by ice to the main¬ 
 land of Finland to support the White Guards. By 
 April, 1918, there were 40,000 German soldiers at 
 Helsingfors and a German squadron in the harbor. 
 The Russian ships escaped to Kronstadt. The Fin¬ 
 nish Landtag in October, 1918, elected Prince Fred¬ 
 erick Charles of Hesse, brother-in-law of the 
 German emperor, as King of Finland. Later, how¬ 
 ever, Finland requested Germany to withdraw her 
 troops from Finnish territory, but it was not until 
 after the collapse of Germany that she was able 
 to rid herself of German influence. In December 
 a peaceful revolution paved the way to recognition 
 by the United States and Great Britain, 5 May, 
 1919. First the Bolsheviki were forced out of the 
 country, then the Russian Reds. Finland claimed 
 Petchenga, a strip of land in Russian possession, 
 cutting off Northern Finland from Varanger Fiord 
 and Finland’s natural outlet on the Atlantic Ocean; 
 also the islands in the Gulf of Finland, including 
 Hogland,. which controlled the waters leading from 
 the Baltic to the Russian fortress of Kronstadt 
 
FIUME 
 
 310 
 
 FLORIDA 
 
 and to Petrograd (under the Czar these islands had 
 been administered by Russia as a part of the 
 Finnish duchy); and finally, Karelia, a province 
 to the north of Lake Ladoga, where a large Finnish 
 population existed. These claims were granted in 
 a treaty signed between Soviet Russia and Finland 
 on 14 October, 1920, at Dorpat, Esthonia. In 1920 
 Finland was also given the Aland Islands by the 
 League of Nations. The majority of the population 
 is Swedish, but the islands were nearer the coast 
 of Finland and had been ruled by Russia as a part 
 of the Grand Duchy of Finland. In the same year 
 there was a vain attempt at a conference at -tiel- 
 singsfors to form a Baltic League among the small 
 Baltic States as a defense against Russia. 
 
 Fiume, an independent state created by the 
 Treaty of Rapallo, signed on 12 November, 1920, 
 between Italy and Jugoslavia. The area is 8 square 
 miles, and the population 49,806. Article 5 of 
 the Treaty of Rapallo proposes that the area of 
 Fiume be delimited by a special commission com¬ 
 posed half of Italian and half of Jugoslav dele¬ 
 gates. Fiume owes its commercial importance to 
 its location at the only real break in the mountain 
 range running down the eastern coast of the 
 Adriatic. While it has not a naturally fine harbor, 
 its facilities have been well developed by Hungary 
 and are susceptible of further improvement, and 
 while not logically serving the same territory as 
 Trieste, it is a commercial rival of that city. In 
 1914 the trade of Hungary found its political and 
 natural outlet at Fiume, and its surrounding coun¬ 
 try and neighboring hinterland was wholly Slav. 
 If the suburb of Susak, which is part of the port, 
 is included in the city, the Italians, although the 
 largest group in Fiume, are not a majority of the 
 population. Fiume w r as not included in the terri¬ 
 torial gains of Italy promised by the Allies in the 
 Pact of London in 1915; nevertheless, after the 
 World War Italy claimed the city, despite the 
 protests of Jugoslavia. The Peace Conference at 
 Versailles (1919) refused to recognize Italy s de¬ 
 mand. On 13 September, 1919, Gabriele D'An¬ 
 nunzio, an Italian poet and soldier, at the head of 
 a Volunteer force seized the city, negotiations 
 for the disposition of which were then pending. 
 His action was disapproved by the Allies, and 
 the Italian Government issued an ultimatum 
 ordering his return to Rome; upon his refusal 
 the city was declared blockaded and military 
 forces were sent to dislodge him. The blockade, 
 however, was laxly enforced, and the troops sent 
 against him mutinied. The situation became so 
 grave that the Crown Council was summoned. 
 D’Annunzio reaffirmed his intention of retaining 
 Fiume, and declared himself to be at war with 
 Jugoslavia, threatening to extend his sway over the 
 entire Dalmatian coast, and while the Italian popu¬ 
 lace seemed to give him its enthusiastic support, 
 the Government insisted that the Adriatic ques¬ 
 tion should be adjusted by the Peace Conference. 
 The question was adjusted in Rapallo, Italy, on 
 12 November, 1920, by a treaty signed by Jugo¬ 
 slavia and Italy. According to its provisions Fiume 
 was made an independent city linked by a “cor¬ 
 ridor” to Italian Istria. Gabriele D’Annunzio, the 
 self-styled “Rector of the Regency of the Quarnero,” 
 who on 20 September, 1920, had declared Fiume 
 to be an independent State, vehemently denouncea 
 the treaty, and declared war on Italy on 3 Decem¬ 
 ber. Fiume was bombarded by the Italian regulars 
 and D’Annunzio was forced to leave the city. On 
 6 October, 1921, the Constituent Assembly of 
 Fiume elected Professor Riccardo Zanella as Presi¬ 
 
 dent of the Provisional Government. In March, 
 1922, the city was siezed by the Fascisti, the Zanella 
 Government overthrown, and Deputy Giurati 
 chosen head of the Government. To quell the 
 disturbance, the Italian Government ordered the 
 occupation of Fiume by Italian troops. President 
 Zanella and forty-nine members of the Constituent 
 Assembly continued to meet in Jugoslavia, where 
 they had taken refuge. 
 
 Flanders. See Belgium. 
 
 Florence, Archdiocese of (Florentinensis; cf. 
 C. E., VI-105d), in the province of Tuscany, Cen¬ 
 tral Italy. This see is filled by His Eminence Car¬ 
 dinal Alfonso Maria Mistrangelo, b. 26 April, 1852, 
 entered the Congregation of the Clerks Regular 
 of the Pious Schools at the age of nineteen, 
 preacher, rector of Ovado College in 1880, and ap¬ 
 pointed 19 June, 1899, taking possession 17 Decem¬ 
 ber following, succeeding Cardinal Bausa, deceased. 
 He was made superior general of the Pious Schools 
 in 1900, named apostolic visitor of the order, and 
 created cardinal-priest 6 December, 1915, with the 
 title St. Mary of the Angels, of which he took 
 possession 11 December following. In the beginning 
 of 1918 he celebrated his episcopal jubilee and re¬ 
 ceived a letter of congratulation from the pope. 
 
 rBy 1920 statistics there are in the archdiocese 
 500,000 Catholics; 477 parishes, 800 secular and 
 400 regular priests, 200 seminarians, 150 Brothers, 
 1600 Sisters, 1900 churches or chapels; the chancel¬ 
 lors of the cathedral are prothonotaries apostolic 
 supernumerary, durante munere. By a decree of 
 the Consistory of 24 August, 1917, the limits of the 
 archdiocese were altered, and on 15 January, 1918, 
 the Church of Monte Senario was made a minor 
 basilica. 
 
 Floresta, Diocese of. See Pesqueira. 
 
 Florida (cf. C. E., VI-115b).—The area of the 
 State of Florida is 58,666 sq. miles, of which 3805 
 is lake and river area. The State is divided politi¬ 
 cally into fifty-two counties. 
 
 Resources. Agriculture .—In 1920, 41,051 farms 
 were operated by whites; 12,954 by negroes; farm 
 acreage in 1920 was 6,046,491, 2,297,271 acres being 
 improved. The total value of all farm property 
 in 1920 was $330,331,717; operating expenses, $37,- 
 071,977; products, $80,256,806; cereal crops, $14,528,- 
 809; fruits crops, $23,216,209; live stock, $33,304,627. 
 The statistics of corn and cotton crops were: Cot¬ 
 ton, 110,562 acres, 19,358 bales, value $3,440,593; 
 corn, 811,737 acres, 9,103,549 bushels, value $14,528,- 
 809. There were 3,645,811 orange-bearing trees, 
 producing 5,930,422 boxes, value $15,715,618. Live 
 stock included 38,570 horses, 42,046 mules, 153 asses, 
 638,981 cattle, 755,481 swine, 64,659 sheep, 45,890 
 goats. . 
 
 Commerce and Industries .—In 1919 there were in 
 the State 2582 manufacturing establishments, capital 
 $206,294,000, wage earners 74,400, wages $67,581,000, 
 value of products $213,327,000. In 1919 the value 
 of oversea exports was $72,842,179; the value of 
 imports was $15,275,615. The fisheries of the State 
 give employment to over 9000 men and yield an 
 annual product valued at $3,500,000. _ The total 
 assessed valuation of taxable property in the State 
 for 1920 was $304,923,946; State debt $601,567. In 
 1917 there were nineteen railroads with a total 
 mileage of 6060, main track 3833. The Florida East 
 Coast Railway Extension to Key West was opened 
 
 in 1912. . 
 
 Population. —In 1920 the population was 968,470, 
 an increase of 28.7 per cent since 1910. Of this, 
 36.7 per cent was urban; 63.3 rural. The average 
 
FLORIDA 
 
 311 
 
 FOGARAS 
 
 number of inhabitants to the square mile was 17.7 
 as against 13.7 in 1910. There are 967 election 
 precincts and 2 military reservations. Florida has 
 48 cities, of which Jacksonville with a population 
 of 91,558, is the largest. The other large cities 
 are Tampa with a population of 51,608; Pensacola, 
 31,035; Key West, 18,749. There are 638,153 w T hites, 
 of whom 43,008 are foreign born, and 329,487 
 negroes. Of the native -whites, 532,295 are of native 
 parentage, 35,751 are of foreign parentage, and 
 27,099 are of mixed parentage. The population of 
 ten years of age and over numbered 751,787, of 
 whom 71,811 were illiterates (9.6%). Of these, 55,639 
 were negroes (21.5%). Most of the foreign-born 
 came from Cuba, Spain, England, Germany, and 
 the West Indies. 
 
 Education.— The State school fund in 1919 was 
 about $2,000,000. Statistics from the latest biennial 
 report (1920) of the State superintendent show: 
 total public schools, 2996; white, 2128; colored, 837; 
 enrolment, white, 137,826, or 70 per cent of school 
 population; colored, 58,579, or 30 per cent of school 
 population; total expenditure for school year 
 ending June, 1918, $4,383,445. There are 5062 
 white and 1288 colored teachers. Annual grants 
 from the Federal treasury for higher educational 
 institutions aggregated in 1918 about $75,000. The 
 faculty of the University of Florida numbers forty- 
 three, the experiment station staff seventeen, enrol¬ 
 ment (1919) 988. The Florida Female College has 
 54 professors and instructors and 598 students. The 
 colored normal school at Tallahassee reports a 
 faculty of 10. The productive endowment funds 
 of the John B. Stetson University, Deland, amount 
 to $1,023,000; its enrolment in 1919 -was 649, faculty, 
 32. The faculty of Rollins College, Winter Park, 
 numbers 25, enrolment, 175; of Southern College, 
 Southerland, 20, enrolment, 258; of Columbia Col¬ 
 lege, Lake City, 15, enrolment, 93; St. Leo’s Col¬ 
 lege, St. Leo, has 70 students, the Sacred Heart 
 College, Tampa, 125 students. The Sisters of St. 
 Joseph have academies at St. Augustine, Jackson¬ 
 ville, Loretto, Orlando, Palatka, Miami, Fernandina, 
 and Ybor City; the Sisters of St. Benedict at St. 
 Leo; the Sisters of Mercy at Apalachicola; the Sis¬ 
 ters of Perpetual Adoration at Pensacola. 
 
 The State laws relative to private and parochial 
 schools are as follows: no school fund or any part 
 thereof shall be appropriated or used for the sup¬ 
 port of any sectarian school. (XII, 13); property 
 held and used exclusively for religious, scientific, 
 municipal, educational or charitable purposes shall 
 be exempt from taxation (XVI, 16). Bible reading 
 is neither permitted nor excluded in the public 
 schools. 
 
 Religion.— The Catholic population of the State 
 of Florida (1916) was 24,650. For Catholic statis¬ 
 tics see St. Augustine, Diocese of ; Mobile, Diocese 
 of. 
 
 Of the other religious denominations the Baptist 
 National Convention has the largest membership: 
 69,865; next comes the Southern Baptist Conven¬ 
 tion, with 57,732 members; the Methodist Episcopal 
 Church South comes third, and in 1916 reported 
 590 churches and 155 parsonages; estimated mem¬ 
 bership 51,500. The Episcopalian denomination had 
 (1916) 10,399 communicants, 95 Sunday school or¬ 
 ganizations, and 59 parsonages. The Episcopalians 
 maintained 132 parishes and missions, 8 churches 
 and 4 schools for colored people and have an enrol¬ 
 ment of 315 teachers and 2491 students in their 
 Sunday schools; their church property is valued 
 at $728,038. Presbyterians, North and South, num¬ 
 ber 10,170 with 61 parsonages; Congregationalists, 
 2878. Among the colored people, five distinct 
 
 branches of Methodists report 436 preachers, 1434 
 churches, and 14,821 members. 
 
 Florida Indians.— Descendants of the few defiant 
 Indians who refused to withdraw to reservations 
 after the Indian War in 1842 were assigned a reser¬ 
 vation by the Legislature in 1917 and granted 
 100,000 acres near the Ten Thousand Islands. 
 
 Legislative Changes. —Armistice Day, 11 Novem¬ 
 ber, has been added to the number of legal holidays. 
 The State prison is now permanently located at 
 Bradford Farms. The custom of leasing prisoners 
 was abolished in 1913, when the Legislature provided 
 for the new prison. On 1 January, 1917, there 
 were 1620 State prisoners, 82 per cent of whom were 
 colored, 643 in prison, 979 employed outside. 
 
 In recent times the political situation of Florida 
 has been marked by unfortunate religious bigotry. 
 Governor Sidney J. Catts put through the Legis¬ 
 lature a Convent Inspection Bill, under the terms 
 of which in every county in Florida, there is a 
 committee of three men and women, who shall 
 at least once a year visit and inspect all convents 
 and Catholic institutions. He also put through a 
 Compulsory Education Bill, compelling all the chil¬ 
 dren of school age to attend the public schools. 
 Not satisfied with the feeling of bigotry which he 
 stirred in Florida, he stumped the State of Michigan 
 in favor of the anti-parochial school amendment to 
 the State constitution, which later failed to pass. 
 In 1921 reports accusing Governor Catts of graft 
 were circulated and on 16 April, the Florida Senate 
 adopted a resolution authorizing investigation. In 
 May he was indicted for peonage by the Grand 
 Jury and arrested, but in June he was acquitted. 
 Florida ratified the Federal prohibition amendment, 
 14 December, 1918, the fifteenth State to do so. 
 The State did not take any action on the Federal 
 suffrage amendment which went into effect without 
 Florida’s ratification. 
 
 Fogaras and Alba-Julia, Archdiocese of (cf. C. 
 E., VI-123a), of the Greek-Rumanian Rite, in 
 Rumania, with residence at Blaj. The suffragan 
 sees are: Oradea-Mare (Grosswardein or Nagy- 
 Varad), Gherla (Armenopolis or Armenierstadt or 
 Szamos-Ujvar), and Lugoj (Lugos). Through exist¬ 
 ing political agitation a prominent part of the 
 archdiocese was taken away by the Hungarian ele¬ 
 ment in 1912 and erected into the new diocese of 
 Hajdu-Dorogh (q.v.). On 1 December, 1918, the 
 exertions of the national union of Alba-Julia in 
 bringing about the incorporation of the archdiocese 
 into the kingdom of Rumania were crowned with 
 success. The present Archbishop Basil Suciu (b. at 
 Capocel 13 January, 1873) w T as elected in May, 1918, 
 in succession to Archbishop Victor Mihalyi de Apsa 
 (d. 1918), who was a learned scholar and defender 
 of the Church, and bequeathed all his possessions 
 to the archdiocese. During the World War most of 
 the clergy were subjects of Hungary, and they 
 succeeded in confirming the people in their hope 
 of a future incorporation in the kingdom of Ru¬ 
 mania. Some sought refuge within Rumania itself, 
 and there labored to bring about the desired union. 
 The Hungarians either imprisoned or interned 
 many priests and laymen, and some died during 
 their imprisonment. Of special note are the fol¬ 
 lowing recently deceased: Rev. Johannes M. Moldo- 
 vanu, cathedral provost, and Canon Augustine 
 Bunea, member of the Rumanian Academy. 
 
 The Catholic population of 500,000 is Rumanian. 
 There are 570 secular and 2 regular priests; 706 
 parishes; 1 monastery for men and 1 for women; 
 
 1 abbey for men; 1 convent for men; 1 theological 
 seminary with 7 professors and 75 students; 3 col- 
 
FOGAZZARO 
 
 312 
 
 FOREIGN MISSION 
 
 leges for boys with 27 teachers and 800 students; 
 
 1 college for girls with 14 teachers and 300 students; 
 
 1 normal school with 7 teachers and 60 pupils; 408 
 elementary schools with 432 teachers and 70,245 
 pupils; 1 industrial school with 3 teachers and 40 
 pupils; 1 orphanage with 180 orphans. The Cath¬ 
 olic institutions are supported by the Government. 
 Among the clergy there is an organization for the 
 advancement of the missions; and among the 
 women the Marian Congregation. The Catholic 
 publications number two weeklies, “Unirea,” founded 
 in 1890, and “Unirea Poporului,” founded 1919, and 
 a monthly review, “Cultura Crestina.” 
 
 Fogazzaro, Antonio, b. at Vicenza, Italy, in 1842; 
 d. on 7 March, 1911. His name is associated with 
 the Modernist movement which was condemned by 
 Pius X in his Encyclical “Pascendi.” He was a 
 writer of verse and romance, beginning his literary 
 career as early as 1874. His heroes in several of 
 his novels are himself, notably in “II Santo,” the 
 story that brought him to grief when it was put 
 on the Index at the time Modernism, which it 
 portrayed, was condemned. Fogazzaro submitted 
 to the condemnation and is even said to have 
 been exasperated by the defiant attitude of his 
 quondam friends. He criticized them severely in 
 his last novel, “Leila,” but at the same time did 
 not please the opposite side. At last sickness over¬ 
 took him and that with failure brought serenity 
 of spirit. He died in a hospital after a serious 
 surgical operation. 
 
 Foggia, Diocese of (Fodianensis; cf. C. E., 
 VI-123b), in the province of Foggia in Apulia, 
 Southern Italy, immediately subject to the Holy 
 See. The present (1922) bishop, Rt. Rev. Pietro 
 Pomaresy Morant, a former chancellor and primice- 
 rius of the metropolitan see of Ancona, named 
 private chamberlain, 25 June, 1909, appointed 27 
 August, 1921, consecrated at Rome 1 November, 
 and proclaimed 21 November of the same year, to 
 succeed Mgr. Salvatore Bella, transferred to the 
 Diocese of Aci-Reale, in Sicily. There are within 
 the confines of the diocese 98,000 Catholics; 9 par¬ 
 ishes, 98 secular and 13 regular priests, 45 semi¬ 
 narians, 13 Brothers, 72 Sisters, 74 churches or 
 chapels. 
 
 Foley, John S. See Detroit, Diocese of. 
 
 Foligno, Diocese of (Fulginatensis; cf. C. E., 
 VI-124d), in the province of Perugia, Central Italy, 
 immediately subject to the Holy See. The bishop, 
 Rt. Rev. Stefano Corbini, b. in Siena, 21 May, 1859, 
 canon penitentiary, appointed 18 June, 1918, pro¬ 
 claimed 10 March, 1919, succeeding Mgr. Carlo 
 Sica, transferred to the titular see of Damascus in 
 Phoenicia. The diocese numbers 56 parishes, 41,000 
 Catholics, 71 secular and 40 regular clergy, 35 semi¬ 
 narians, 135 Sisters, and 173 churches or chapels. 
 In 1914 Mgr. Faloci-Pulignani, head of the cathe¬ 
 dral chapter, published “I priori della cattedrale di 
 Foligno, Memorie.” 
 
 Forbes-Leith, William, Jesuit writer, b. at Aber¬ 
 deen Scotland, in 1833; d. at Roehampton, Eng¬ 
 land, on 30 April, 1921. He became a Jesuit at 
 Issenheim, Alsace, in 1851; studied theology in 
 France and England, and was ordained at St. 
 Beuno’s in Wales. He lectured on philosophy and 
 literature in Paris from 1865 till 1880, a period, 
 however, which was interrupted by the Franco- 
 Prussian War, in which he saw service as chaplain. 
 He is the author of “The Scots Men-at-Arms and 
 Life Guards in France,” “The Gospel Book of St. 
 Margaret, Queen of Scotland,” “The Life of St. 
 
 Cuthbert,” “Historical Memoirs of Scotch Catholics 
 During the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries,” 
 “Pre-Reformation Scholars in Scotland During the 
 Sixteenth Century.” 
 
 Fordham University (cf. C. E., XIV-203b), com¬ 
 prises the school of arts and sciences known as 
 St. John’s College, the college of pharmacy, school 
 of law, school of social service, graduate school 
 and department of education. The medical school, 
 founded in 1905, was discontinued in 1921, owing to 
 a deficit in the running expenses. The schools of 
 law and social service are conducted in the Wool- 
 worth Building, New York City. 
 
 The school of social service, founded in 1917, has 
 as its object the training of students for social and 
 charitable work and occupies two academic years. 
 The training comprises field work and actual case 
 work, as well as lectures, and includes as its basic 
 course: family welfare, child welfare, social inves¬ 
 tigation, criminology, medical social service, com¬ 
 munity work and industrial problems. 
 
 The graduate school and department of education 
 was founded in 1918 and offers advanced courses in 
 philosophy, history, literature and science to per¬ 
 sons who have finished the normal college course 
 and are desirous of continuing their studies along 
 these lines. Extension courses in connection with 
 this department are given in the Woolworth Build¬ 
 ing. 
 
 The total number of students registered in the 
 university for 1920-21 was 2184 under 180 professors. 
 The academic department registered 502 students 
 with a faculty of 31; the school of law, 845 students 
 with a faculty of 21; the school of social service, 94 
 students with a faculty of 21; the college of phar¬ 
 macy, 125 students with a faculty of 19. In 1916 
 the Rev. Jos. A. Mulry, S.J., succeeded the Rev. 
 Thomas J. McCluskey, as president of the univer¬ 
 sity, and presided until 1919, when he was succeeded 
 by the Rev. Edward P. Tivnan, S. J., now president. 
 
 Foreign Mission Society of America, Catholic, 
 
 was approved by the National Council of Arch¬ 
 bishops, Washington, D. C., 27 April, 1911, and 
 authorized by Pope Pius X at Rome on the Feast 
 of Sts. Peter and Paul, 29 June, 1911. Maryknoll, 
 in honor of the Queen of the Apostles, has become 
 the popular designation of the Society. It was 
 founded by Fr. James Anthony Walsh and Fr. 
 Thomas Frederick Price (d. 1919) for the purpose 
 of training Catholic missioners for the heathen, and 
 of arousing American Catholics to a sense of their 
 apostolic duty. The ultimate aim is the develop¬ 
 ment of a native clergy in lands now pagan. The 
 priests of the Society are secular, without vows. 
 They are assisted by auxiliary brothers and by the 
 Foreign Mission Sisters of St. Dominic, more com¬ 
 monly known as the Maryknoll Sisters. In the 
 ten brief years of its existence Maryknoll has 
 achieved a remarkable development. The seminary 
 and administration is situated on the Hudson, about 
 thirty miles north of New York City, at Maryknoll, 
 N. Y. Students in the seminary make the usual 
 six year course in philosophy, theology, Scripture, 
 etc. The Auxiliary Brotherhood of St. Michael 
 was established for those who wish to devote them¬ 
 selves to foreign mission work, but are not inclined 
 to pursue higher studies or to assume the responsi¬ 
 bilities of the priesthood. The general management 
 of the Society and the publication of its two 
 periodicals, “The Field Afar” and “The Maryknoll 
 Junior,” are carried on at this center. Here, too, 
 is the mother-house of the Maryknoll Sisters. 
 Although not a corporate part of the Society, the 
 Sisters have worked with it from the beginning, 
 
FOREIGN MISSIONS 
 
 313 
 
 FOREIGN MISSIONS 
 
 first as lay helpers, and now as recognized religious, 
 known officially as the Foreign Mission Sisters of 
 St. Dominic, Inc. These Sisters devote themselves 
 exclusively to work for foreign missions. The Mary¬ 
 knoll Preparatory College, The Venard, at Clark’s 
 Summit, near Scranton, Pa., admits to a five year 
 classical course fmeign mission aspirants who have 
 completed the eight grammar grades. Connected 
 with this institution is a group of the Maryknoll 
 Sisters. Their convent is dedicated to Our Lady 
 of the Missions. The Maryknoll Medical Bureau, 
 New York City, was founded in 1920 to interest 
 the medical profession in mission needs, to secure 
 the services of physicians and nurses, and to pro¬ 
 vide medical supplies for hospitals and dispensaries 
 in the missions. The Maryknoll Procure in San 
 Francisco, Cal., is the center of Maryknoll activities 
 on the western coast, and the depot of supplies 
 for the missioners in China. It is also the head¬ 
 quarters of the Maryknoll Society of the Pacific, 
 Inc. The Maryknoll Japanese Missions at Los 
 Angeles, Cal., and Seattle, Wash., are conducted 
 by the Maryknoll Sisters for the education and 
 religious instruction of the Japanese in those cities. 
 The personnel of the Society in 1922 consisted of 
 38 priests, 162 students, 23 auxiliary Brothers and 
 128 Sisters, of whom 38 were professed, 64 novices, 
 and 26 postulants, making a total of 351. 
 
 in September, 1918. There are now 16 priests and 
 1 auxiliary brother in the Maryknoll Mission. In 
 the fall of 1921 the first mission group of Mary¬ 
 knoll Sisters arrived at their Chinese convent, 
 Kowloon, Hongkong. The Maryknoll Procure at 
 Kau-lung is the center of communications and sup¬ 
 plies for the missions at Wu-chou, Yeung-kong, 
 Tung-chan, Kao-chau, Loting, Shi-lung, Tungon, 
 Chetung, Dosing, and Ping-nam, in the provinces 
 of Kwang-tung and Kwang-si. Kau-lung is on the 
 mainland, a few moments by ferry from Hong¬ 
 kong. The mission was visited in 1921 by the 
 founder and superior of the Society, Very Rev. 
 James A. Walsh, who arrived in China in Novem¬ 
 ber and spent six weeks studying conditions and 
 conferring on plans for mission development. A 
 report for 1921 of the mission gives a population 
 of 6,000,000 pagans and 2010 Catholics, adminis¬ 
 tered to by 16 American missionaries, 1 auxiliary 
 brother (American), 6 Sisters (American), 4 semi¬ 
 narians, 50 men catechists and 30 women catechists. 
 There were 2018 catechumens, 111 baptisms of 
 adults, 723 baptisms of children, 2196 annual con¬ 
 fessions, 5236 confessions of devotion, 2093 annual 
 communions, 7008 communions of devotion, 7 who 
 received Extreme Unction, and 46 marriages. The 
 Maryknoll missionaries had the following estab¬ 
 lishments: 8 districts staffed, 70 stations, 7 churches, 
 
 Districts 
 
 Christians 
 
 Catechu¬ 
 
 mens 
 
 Confes¬ 
 
 sions 
 
 Com¬ 
 
 munions 
 
 Adults 
 
 Baptisms 
 
 Infants 
 
 Total 
 
 Yeung-kong . 
 
 618 
 
 405 
 
 1500 
 
 OA(\A 
 
 
 549 
 
 566 
 
 Fr. Ford 
 
 Fr. Vogel 
 
 Fr. Taggart 
 
 
 1 i 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kao-chau . 
 
 807 
 
 395 
 
 997 
 
 972 
 
 OA 
 
 42 
 
 66 
 
 Fr. Meyer 
 
 Fr. Paschang 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tung-chan . 
 
 432 
 
 302 
 
 2385 
 
 3200 
 
 OK 
 
 28 
 
 63 
 
 Fr. Dietz 
 
 Fr. Meehan 
 
 oO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Loting . 
 
 43 
 
 408 
 
 258 
 
 
 oc 
 
 101 
 
 136 
 
 Fr. McShane 
 
 Fr. Sweeney 
 
 
 OO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tungon . 
 
 100 
 
 97 
 
 42 
 
 42 
 
 Q 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 Attended from Wu-chou 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 6 
 
 Wu-chou . 
 
 10 
 
 107 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 Fr. O’Shea 
 
 Fr. Donovan 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ping-nam . 
 
 
 96 
 
 (Missic 
 
 >n opened 
 
 this year) 
 
 
 
 Fr. Wiseman 
 
 Fr. Murray 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Shi-lung . 
 
 
 208 
 
 
 
 
 Fr. Hodgins 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2010 
 
 2018 
 
 5232 
 
 7008 
 
 111 
 
 723 
 
 834 
 
 The work of the Society is maintained and 
 developed by the co-operation of its associate or 
 “spiritual” members. For these members weekly 
 Masses are offered by the priests, and they are 
 remembered in the communions and prayers of the 
 students and Sisters. The same spiritual benefits 
 may, if desired, be applied to departed souls. 
 Spiritual membership in the Society, with a per¬ 
 sonal share in its good works and merits, is secured 
 by all benefactors and by subscribers to the Mary¬ 
 knoll mission monthly, “The Field Afar.” Asso¬ 
 ciate membership for one year is fifty cents; in 
 perpetuity, fifty dollars, payable on enrolment or 
 within two years. 
 
 A mission of 25,000 square miles in South China 
 has been assigned to the Maryknoll Society by 
 the Sacred College of Propaganda Fide, Rome. The 
 first band of Maryknoll priests left for this field 
 
 30 chapels, 4 infant asylums and orphanages, 20 
 schools for boys with 359 pupils, 8 schools for girls 
 with 124 pupils, 1 industrial school, and 3 dis¬ 
 pensaries. It is proposed that in addition to the 
 industrial school Maryknoll conduct a boys’ high 
 school and a university hostel at Hong-kong. A 
 catechist or normal school has been opened re¬ 
 cently at Kochow, with Fr. Meyer in charge. The 
 accompanying table gives the details of the districts 
 assigned to the Foreign Mission Society of 
 America. 
 
 Foreign Missions, Saint Joseph’s Society for 
 (cf. C. E., VIII-521d).—Besides St. Joseph’s Mis¬ 
 sionary College at Mill Hill London, there are 
 three branch colleges: St. Joseph’s Missiehuis at 
 Pozendaal, Holland (erected 1890); St. Josef’s Mis- 
 sionhaus at Brixen, Tyrol (1891); and St. Joseph’s 
 
FOREIGN MISSIONS 
 
 314 
 
 FOREIGN MISSIONS 
 
 Studiehuis at Tilburg, Holland (1912). At Vryland, 
 near Arnhem, Holland, there is a sanatorium for 
 old, sick, and disabled missionaries. The superior 
 general, resident at Mill Hill, is Very Rev. Francis 
 Henry. The Society comprises (1922) about 260 
 priests and 15 lay brothers. About 220 of these 
 priests are engaged as missionaries, the others as 
 teachers in the colleges or in the sanatorium. There 
 are 10 mission stations in the Belgian Congo. In 
 1912 the Caribbean mission, including San Andres, 
 Old Providence, and Corn Island, was confided by 
 the Holy See to the Society, and in 1921 the portion 
 of the Cameroons under British control. 
 
 Sisters of St. Joseph's Society for Foreign Mis¬ 
 sions of the Third Order Regular of St. Fiancis 
 have a novitiate at Patricroft, Manchester, England. 
 The Sisters also have establishments at Mill Hill, 
 boarding schools and an orphanage at Blackburn, 
 where there are 10 Sisters in charge of 80 to 100 chil¬ 
 dren; Freshfield (Liverpool); Waterford and Cork 
 in Ireland; Rozendaal and Tilburg in Holland. In 
 Borneo there are 20 Sisters at various mission sta¬ 
 tions. The total number of professed Sisters in the 
 congregation is 200. 
 
 Foreign Missions of Milan, Society of, founded 
 in the year 1850, under the patronage of Pope Pius 
 IX by the late Father Angelo Ramazzotti, then 
 an’Oblate Father of Rho (Milan), who was after¬ 
 wards consecrated Bishop of Pavia, and subse¬ 
 quently elected Patriarch of Venice. The Society 
 is a “Pious Association of Secular Priests,” who 
 devote themselves freely to the work of missionaries 
 on the mission field in heathen countries (India, 
 Burma, and China), for the conversion of infidels. 
 They are directed in their life work by a rule 
 approved by the Sacred Congregation of Propa¬ 
 ganda. At present there are entrusted to this 
 Society seven large missions: the Dioceses_ of 
 Hyderabad-Deccan and Krishnagar and the Vica¬ 
 riates Apostolic of Eastern Burma, Hong-Kong, 
 Northern Ho-nan, Southern Ho-nan, and Eastern 
 Ho-nan. 
 
 The Fathers have under their care about 60,000,- 
 000 infidels. The mother-house, to which the 
 seminary for the students of theology is attached 
 and where at present there are 40 students, is at 
 Milan. Besides this seminary the Society had an 
 apostolic school at Monza with 33 students of 
 philosophy, another at Genoa with 37 alumni, and 
 a fourth recently opened at Aversa (near Naples) 
 with a few alumni. From the last statistics (1920) 
 the Catholics in all seven missions number 141,000, 
 besides 36,000 catechumens. There are in all 247 
 churches and 1001 chapels. The missionaries work¬ 
 ing in the missions at present are 121 in number, 
 aided by 35 native priests; and with 25 lay brothers 
 on the teaching staff. There are also 528 nuns of 
 different religious orders, who have charge of 
 orphans, of schools for girls, of hospitals, and other 
 charitable institutions. There are 1881 catechists 
 and teachers in the 712 colleges and schools of the 
 missions. In 1920 there were 29,500 baptisms, of 
 which 7934 were of adults. 
 
 Foreign Missions of Paris, Society of (cf. C. E., 
 XIV-79d).—Part of the vast territory in Japan 
 evangelized by the Society of Foreign Missions of 
 Paris has been confided to other congregations, this 
 being necessary because of the extent of territory, 
 the density of population, and the diversity of 
 languages. In 1912 the Congregation of the Divine 
 Word was entrusted with 3 departments of the 
 Diocese of Hakodate and two departments of the 
 Archdiocese of Tokio, but no canonical erection 
 of prefecture or vicariate was made; on 12 February, 
 
 1915, was erected the Prefecture Apostolic of Sap¬ 
 poro, comprising Hokkaido (Yezo), the Chishima 
 islands (Kruile), Karafuto (Sakhalin), detached 
 from the Diocese of Hakodate and confided to the 
 German Franciscans of the Province of Thuringia; 
 finally the Jesuits of the German province have 
 been assigned the departments of Yamaguchi, 
 Shimane, Hiroshima, Tottori, and Okayama, though 
 no canonical erection has yet been made of an 
 ecclesiastical division. The Society retains the 
 Archdiocese of Tokio, and the three dioceses of 
 Nagasaki, Osaka, and Hakodate, diminished m ex¬ 
 tent by the loss of the departments mentioned. 
 The province of Kwang-tung, which formed a single 
 vicariate, was divided in 1914 into 2 vicariates. 
 Canton and Swatow. In 1920 the Vicariate of Can¬ 
 ton was again subdivided into the 2 vicariates of 
 Canton and Western Kwang-tung and Hainan. 
 These last two vicariates Apostolic and also Swatow 
 remain under the direction of the Society; the 
 Vicariate of Siu-chow has been confided to the 
 Salesians. Since 1918 the American Foreign Mis¬ 
 sions of Mary knoll have labored in Yeung-kong 
 under the authority of the Vicar Apostolic of Can¬ 
 ton, in preparation for the erection of an eccle¬ 
 siastical division under their care. The Society of 
 Foreign Missions of Paris at present (1921) has 
 under its direction 36 dioceses and vicariates apos¬ 
 tolic, of which 6 are in Japan and Corea, 11 in 
 China, 9 in Eastern Indo-China, 4 in Western Indo- 
 China, and 4 in the south of India. The Japanese 
 missions are Tokio, Nagasaki, Osaka, and Hakodate, 
 Seoul and Taiku are in Corea. The Chinese ^mis¬ 
 sions are: Western Sze-ch’wan, Eastern Sze-chwan, 
 Southern Sze-ch’wan, Kien-chang, Yun-nan, Kwei- 
 chou, Canton, Western Kwang-tung, and Hainan, 
 Swatow, Kwang-si, Southern Manchuria, Northern 
 Manchuria, and Tibet. In Eastern Indo-China are: 
 Western Tong-king, Southern Tong-king, Upper 
 Tong-king, Maritime Tong-king, Eastern Cochin 
 China, Western Cochin China, Northern Cochin 
 China, Cambodia, and Laos. In Western Indo- 
 China are Siam, Malacca, Southern Burma and 
 Northern Burma. In India are: Pondicherry, 
 Mysore, Coimbatore, and Kumbakonam. 
 
 The World War seriously affected the Society 
 and the missions. Among those who enlisted at 
 the beginning were 5 directors, 103 Aspirants, and 
 2 lay brothers from the Seminary at Paris, and 
 150 priests and 1 bishop from the missions. Of the 
 55 missionaries in Eastern Sze-ch’wan, _ 14 were 
 mobilized; in Canton, 12 out of 40; 16 in Pondi¬ 
 cherry; 17 in Eastern Cochin China; in Seoul, 13 
 out of 26. In the following December there were 
 already among these 9 killed, 7 prisoners, and 
 about 20 wounded. By the end of the war, in 
 November, 1918, 46 priests and seminarians had 
 given their lives for France. To insure the care 
 of souls the bishops reassigned their districts, they 
 themselves undertaking the direction of one or 
 more parishes and also teaching in the seminaries, 
 so that spiritual needs might be met^ When the 
 war was over the mobilized missionaries returned 
 to their missions, where death ^ had left many 
 vacancies among the veterans of the apostolate. 
 In August, 1914, the Society numbered 1385 mem¬ 
 bers and in November, 1918, only 1222, this being 
 a loss of 163 members. At the same time financial 
 resources had greatly diminished, due to the depre¬ 
 ciation in value of French money. The high rate 
 of exchange affected charitable institutions, such as 
 orphanages and hospitals. Though far from good, 
 financial conditions are now improved. 
 
 In 1918 the cause of the Martyrs of Corea was 
 introduced at Rome, These were 2 bishqps (Mgr. 
 
FOREIGN MISSIONS 315 FOREIGN MISSIONS 
 
 Berneux and Mgr. Daveluy), 7 missionaries, and 
 17 faithful all beheaded in 1866, and 20 Christians 
 martyred in 1860 and 1862. The Apostolic Letter 
 “Maximum Illud,” issued by Benedict XV in 1919, 
 called attention to the need for native clergy. Mgr. 
 Petrelli had been sent to Japan as Apostolic dele¬ 
 gate in 1916 and 1917 and Mgr. Fumasoni-Biondi 
 in 1920. In 1919 Mgr. de Guebriant, of the Society 
 of Foreign Missions of Paris, Vicar Apostolic of 
 Canton, was named apostolic visitor in China. The 
 Holy See thus took a particular interest in the 
 extension and cultivation of the missionary field. 
 To meet the needs of the situation, the bishops 
 of the Society, which heretofore had no superior 
 general, met at Hong-kong in April, 1921, and elected 
 as first superior of the Seminary and of the Society 
 of Foreign Missions of Paris, Mgr. de Guebriant. 
 Born in Paris, 11 December, 1860, ordained priest 
 5 July, 1885, the same year Mgr. Jean-Baptiste- 
 Marie Budes de Guebriant went as a missionary 
 to Southern Sze-ch’wan, in 1894 was made pro¬ 
 vicar, and in 1910 Bishop of Eurcea and Vicar Apos¬ 
 tolic of Kien-Chang, in 1916 Vicar Apostolic of 
 Canton and in December, 1921, Archbishop of 
 Marcianopolis. 
 
 The missionaries are assisted in their labors by 
 the native clergy, the catechists, and religious. In 
 1912 there were 889 native priests in all the missions 
 of the Society; in 1915 there were 984; in 1918, 
 1073; and 1920, 1109. In 1912 in Southern Tong- 
 king 11 priests were ordained; in 1916 in Western 
 Tong-king, 8; in 1918 in Eastern Sze-ch’wan, 4; in 
 1910 in Siam, 6; in 1920 in Western Cochin China, 
 6. The missions possessing the greatest number of 
 native priests in 1920 were: Western Tong-king, 
 136; Southern Tong-king, 127; Western Cochin 
 China, 91. According to countries they may be 
 listed (1920) as follows: Japan and Corea, 62; 
 Chian, 251; Eastern Indo-China, 660; Western 
 Indo-China, 60; India, 76. Among the native clergy 
 recently deceased are: Fr. Joseph Tong (d. 1913), 
 of Eastern Sze-ch’wan; Fr. Trinn (d. 1915), curate 
 of Hanoi for thirty-five years; Frs. Andre Vai 
 (d. 1916), and Jacques Ichang (d. 1916), of Man¬ 
 churia; Fr. Huyen (d. 1916), of Western Tong-king, 
 ninety years of age and fifty-eight years a priest, 
 the last survivor of the great persecution of Tu-duc, 
 during which he ministered to the confessors of 
 the faith imprisoned at Nam Dinh, hearing their 
 confessions, bringing them Holy Communion, and 
 giving them final absolution; Fr. Tin (d. 1918), 
 former confessor of the faith, imprisoned during 
 the persecution of 1859; Frs. Doanh Chan and 
 Chuong (d. 1918), of Northern Cochin China; Frs. 
 Duong, Chinh, Khu, Tan, Duoc, Qui, Due, Van, 
 and Le (d. between 1912 and 1916), of Western 
 Cochin China; Frs. Chien, Tsung, and Vien (d. 
 1918), of Western Cochin China; Frs. Giang and 
 Hoc (d. 1918), of Cambodia; Fr. Araya (d. 1918), 
 the first priest of Hakodate. In 1912 the catechists 
 numbered 3330; in 1920 there were 3449. Schools 
 for catechists have been founded at:. Chang-Chun, 
 in Northern Manchuria (1912), Thai in Maritime 
 Tong-king (1913); Taiku, in Corea (1915) for 
 women catechists; Southern Sze-ch’wan and Kwei- 
 chou (1916); Kai-nhum, in Western Cochin China 
 (1920). In 1920 Nagasaki had 578 catechists; West¬ 
 ern Tong-king, 449; and Southern Tong-king, 215. 
 The native religious are very few, not more than a 
 hundred men. Religious orders of native women are 
 more numerous: in Eastern Indo-China the lovers 
 of the Cross number over 3000; in China there 
 are many Christian Virgins. In Eastern Sze-ch’wan 
 in 1912 Fr. Derouin established the Chinese con¬ 
 gregation of the Servants of the Sacred Heart for 
 
 the instruction of young girls. In Manchuria the 
 native religious of the Holy Heart of Mary have 
 installed several convents. Carmelite convents 
 have been founded at Hue (1912), Pnom-Penh 
 (1919), and Chung-king (1920). The European 
 congregations have received into their congregations 
 about 1500 natives. The religious orders of both 
 men and women of all nationalities numbered 7630 
 members in 1920. 
 
 Since 1912 there has been a total of 274,333 con¬ 
 versions in the missions confided to the Society of 
 Foreign Missions of Paris, with an annual average 
 of 30,482; in 1920 there were 28,883. There have 
 been (1912-20) 3120 abjurations of Protestants; 
 1,096,650 baptisms of pagan children in articulo 
 mortis; the number of confessions and communions 
 has been very high. Of recent years several asso¬ 
 ciations have been organized and others re-estab¬ 
 lished, such as the Confraternity of the Holy and 
 Immaculate Heart of Mary in Siam, the Children 
 of Mary at Pondicherry, the Confraternity of Chris¬ 
 tian Mothers at Kwei-chou. Nocturnal adoration 
 has been organized at Maritime Tong-king. On 26 
 July, 1914, a Eucharistic feast, in union with the 
 international Eucharistic Congress at London, was 
 celebrated at Kien-chang. The Enthronement of 
 the Sacred Heart in the schools and families has 
 been established in Burma, Cochin China, Tong- 
 king, Japan, Sze-ch’wan. Pilgrimages, especially 
 that of the Blessed Virgin at La-Vang in Northern 
 Cochin China and that of St. Anthony at Kolar, 
 in Mysore, are much frequented. Weeks of reli¬ 
 gious conferences and the association called the 
 Catholic Bond have been organized in Burma. The 
 Catholic Association, founded at Tien-tsin, has 
 spread throughout the Chinese missions. The Soci¬ 
 ety for Catholic Youth is established at Taiku 
 in Corea. Many reviews and bulletins are pub¬ 
 lished such as “Le Semeur,” “The Friend,” and 
 “The Voice” in Southern Burma, parochial bulletins 
 at Taiku in Corea, “La Verite” published in Chinese 
 at Chung-king, the “Petit Messager Paroissial” 
 in Coimbatore, the “Recherche de la Verite” in 
 Northern Manchuria, the “Echo de l’Assomption” 
 in Siam. 
 
 In 1912 the Society of Foreign Missions had 5950 
 churches, oratories, and chapels; in 1920 there were 
 6393. All the older missions have seminaries and 
 some of those recently created have established 
 them. Maritime Tong-king opened its seminary in 
 1912, as did also Kien-chang. Taiku opened a 
 seminary in 1914. In 1920 seminarians from Japan, 
 Corea, China, and Cochin China were sent to Rome 
 to make their theological studies at the College of 
 Propaganda. The general seminary established 
 at Penang to receive seminarians from all the mis¬ 
 sions had 74 pupils in 1912 and 97 in 1920. Colleges, 
 boarding and day schools of good standing have 
 also been established. These totaled 326 with 19,818 
 pupils in 1912, and 357 with 24,037 pupils in 1920. 
 Printing presses have been established to supply 
 the necessary books. There were 6 in 1912 and 
 since then one has been installed at Ninh-Binh in 
 Maritime Tong-king and another at Ghirin in 
 Northern Manchuria. The largest printing press 
 of the Society is at Hong-Kong. Nearly all the 
 missions have orphanages for boys in charge of 
 the missionaries and orphanages for girls directed 
 by nuns. In 1912 these numbered 452 with 24,009 
 children; in 1920 there were 429 with about the 
 same number of children, the decrease in the num¬ 
 ber of institutions being due to diminution of 
 resources. For the same reason there were fewer 
 hospitals, hospices, leper-hospitals, and dispensaries 
 (582) in 1920 than in 1912 (636). Most of these 
 
FOREIGN MISSIONS 
 
 316 
 
 FORLI 
 
 institutions were constructed by the missionaries 
 from their personal means or at the expense ot tne 
 mission, and put under the charge of the Sisters of 
 St. Paul of Chartres, Sisters of Providence, French 
 Missionaries of Mary, or the Little Sisters of the 
 Poor 
 
 Among notable members of the Society recently 
 deceased are: J. B. Guerlach (b. 1858; d* 1® ), 
 
 missionary in Eastern Cochin China; Jules 
 Lemarechal (b. 1842; d. 1912), missionary m Japan 
 vicar general at Tokio in 1888, author of several 
 
 devotional works in Japanese and* J 5 P iq 19V 
 French dictionary; Jean Bruyere (b. 1852; d. WU), 
 missionary in Western Cochin China, reformed and 
 developed the religious congregation o: the Lovers 
 of the Cross; Francois Belleville (b.1860, d. 1912), 
 Vicar Apostolic of Southern Tong-kmg m 1911-and 
 Bishop of Amisus; Edouard Gourdm (b. 1838, d. 
 
 1912) , missionary in Southern Sze-chwan, authoi 
 of a Chinese-French dictionary and other works; 
 Pierre Cazenave (b. 1834; d. 1912), director of the 
 seminary at Paris in 1867, assistant to the superior 
 in 1880, and procurator general at Rome fr ° m 
 
 till his death; Auguste Desgodm (b. 1826; d 1913), 
 missionary in Tibet, explorer and geographei, re¬ 
 ceived academic honors for his geographic work, 
 one of the compilers of a Tibetan-Latin-French 
 dictionary, author of “Le Thibet” “Bouddhisme 
 d’apres les Bouddhistes”; Armand Dessamt (b. 
 1831; d. 1913), missionary in Mysore, founder of 
 the Sisters of Pity, a religious community of young 
 widows, who, according to the custom of India are 
 not permitted to remarry, author and translator 
 of works in Canara and of “A Manual of Medi¬ 
 cine”; Hugues Bottero (b. 1837; d. 1913), mis¬ 
 sionary in Pondicherry, professor at the Colonial 
 College and the College of St. Joseph at Cuddalore, 
 Bishop of Kumbakonam (1889), conversant in 
 French, English, Italian, Tamul, Bengalese and 
 Hindoustan, orator and writer, translator of the 
 Bible into Tamul; Jacques Vissac (b 1848; d. 
 
 1913) , missionary in Mysore, principal ot the Col¬ 
 lege of St. Joseph at Bangalore; Jean-Frangois 
 Genibrel (b. 1851; d. 1914), missionary in Western 
 Cochin China, director of the printing press at 
 Tandinh, composer of Annamite-French dictionaries 
 and lexicon; Joseph Grosjean (b. 1859; d. 1914), 
 missionary in Northern Cochin China, professor at 
 the preparatorv seminary where he composed a 
 method of harmony in Annamite, founder of twelve 
 mission stations in Quang-tri, director of the semi- 
 narv at Paris (1892), procurator general at Rome 
 (1912); Henri Pianet (b. 1852; d. 1915), missionary 
 in Cambodia; Eugene Luce (b. 1863; d. 1915), mis¬ 
 sionary in Southern Burma, member of the council 
 of public instruction, founder of ‘The Voice, 
 a monthly review; Marie Dunand (b. 1841; d. 
 1915), Vicar Apostolic of Western Sze-ch’wan m 
 1893 and Bishop of Caloe; Urbain Faurie (b 1847; 
 d 1915), missionary in Japan, evangelized the dis¬ 
 trict of Hiroshima, director of the seminary at 
 Paris, chaplain in the French army, killed in action; 
 Joseph-Adolphe Klinger (b. 1852; d. 1916), mis¬ 
 sionary in Southern Tong-king; defended over 
 2000 faithful at Xa-doai during the Annamite perse¬ 
 cution; Charles-Emile Lesserteur (b. 1841, d. 1916), 
 missionary in Western Tong-king, superior of the 
 seminary at Paris, author of several works; Jean 
 Darras (b. 1835; d. 1916), missionary in Pondi¬ 
 cherry, baptized over 35,000 m India, published 
 an account of part of his apostolate; Marius 
 Guiraud (b. 1876; d. 1916), missionary in Mysore, 
 professor at the seminary of Pondicherry, superior 
 of the seminary at Bangalore, director of the semi¬ 
 nary at Paris, military infirmarian during the war, 
 
 prisoner in Germany for a year, published an ac¬ 
 count of his imprisonment (Paris, 1915), was re¬ 
 stored to liberty and returned to the front, killed 
 in the Argonne; Frangois Bonnetraine (b. 1843; d. 
 
 1917) , missionary in Mysore, founder of orphan¬ 
 ages and hospitals, superior of the sanatorium at 
 Wellington; Jules Chatron (b. 1844; d. 1917), 
 Bishop of Osaka; Marius-Antoine-Louis Caspar (b. 
 1841; d. 1917), Vicar Apostolic of Western Cochin 
 China in 1880 and Bishop of Canatha, author of 
 several works; Paul Vial (b. 1855; d. 1917), mis¬ 
 sionary in Yun-nan, composed prayers and a 
 catechism in Lolo and published several works; 
 Louis-Philippe Montmayeur (b. 1836; d. 1917), 
 missionary in Eastern Cochin China; Albert Pelu 
 (b. 1848; d. 1918), missionary in Japan in charge 
 of the Goto islands; Frangois Guego (b. 1855; d. 
 
 1918) , missionary in Siam, at Laos; Jacques Drouhm 
 (b. 1872; d. 1918), missionary in Pondicherry; 
 Eugene Murcier (b. 1880; d. 1918), missionary in 
 Pondicherry; Noel Rondy (b. 1848; d. 1919), mis¬ 
 sionary in Coimbatore; Joseph Ferrie (b. 1856; d. 
 
 1919) , missionary in Japan, secretary and inter¬ 
 preter of the French legation, received honorary 
 decorations, vicar general of the Archbishop of 
 Tokio; Yves le Page (b. 1850; d. 1919), missionary 
 in Western Tong-king, formerly pontifical zouave 
 at Rome and soldier in the Franco-Prussian War 
 of 1870; Marie Aubazac (b. 1871; d. 1919), mis¬ 
 sionary in Kwang-tong, author of several works in 
 Chinese and of a French-Canton dictionary; Lucien 
 Mossard (b. 1851; d. 1920), Vicar Apostolic of 
 Western Cochin China in 1899 and Bishop of Medea, 
 collaborated with the Vicar Apostolic of Cambodia 
 in the publication of a directory, was sent to Rome 
 to look over the rule of the Society; Joseph Charge- 
 bceuf (b. 1867; d. 1920), missionary in Corea, 
 superior of the seminary at Kyong-wan (1897), 
 later superior of the seminary at Taiku, evangelized 
 the Mokfo islands, author of several works; Con¬ 
 stant Prodhomme (b. 1849; d. 1920) Vicar Apos¬ 
 tolic of Laos and Bishop of Gerasa. 
 
 Forgery (cf. C. E. VI-135).—All those who forge 
 letters, decrees or rescripts of the Holy See incur 
 excommunication; if they are clerics they are to be 
 further punished as the ordinary thinks fitting, 
 even by depriving them of their benefice, office, 
 dignity, and ecclesiastical pension; if they are reli¬ 
 gious they are to be deprived of their office and 
 of active and passive voice, and may be subjected 
 to other penalties provided by their constitutions. 
 In case of other ecclesiastical documents, the ordi¬ 
 nary is to inflict suitable punishment on the same 
 parties, depriving the guilty one of his office if he 
 falsified documents which he was charged with 
 
 drawing up or preserving. 
 
 Codex juris canonici , 2360-63; Ayrinhac, Penal Legislation , 
 
 320-23. 
 
 Forli, Diocese of (Foroliviensis; cf. C. E., VI- 
 137a), in the province of Emilia, Northern Italy, 
 suffragan of Ravenna. The present bishop, Rt. 
 Rev. Raimundo Jaffei, has filled this see since 1895; 
 b. in Bagnaia in the diocese of Viterbo I Novem¬ 
 ber, 1847, ordained at Fermo, appointed bishop 18 
 March, 1895, and made an assistant to the pon¬ 
 tifical throne 17 April, 1920. According to 1922 
 statistics the diocese numbers 61 parishes, 102 
 churches, 101 secular and 15 regular priests, 2 semi¬ 
 naries, 1 in Forli, 1 in Bologna, and 26 seminarians; 
 1 university in Bologna, 1 college for men with 150 
 boys, 4 for women with 250 girls, 1 normal school 
 with 450 pupils, 4 training schools, 50 elementary 
 schools with 15,000 pupils, 1 industrial school, 4 
 missionary organizations, 1 home, 10 asylums, 1 
 hospital. The gymnasium, lyceum, normal, and 
 
FORMOSA 
 
 317 
 
 FORUM 
 
 technical schools receive Government support. The 
 societies organized in the diocese include the 
 Mutual Aid Society among the clergy, and twenty 
 different associations among the laity. A diocesan 
 synod was held in April, 1920. Patriotic works 
 were organized in the diocese during the World 
 War by Mgr. Adamo Pasini, and met with zealous 
 co-operation from both the clergy *and laity; war 
 orphans were cared for, an association for soldiers’ 
 families was formed, and a home for soldiers estab¬ 
 lished in the diocese. 
 
 Formosa, Prefecture Apostolic of (Insult 
 Formosa), comprises the island of the same name 
 and the twelve civil prefectures known as the 
 Pesadores, subject to Japan. It was evangelized 
 in 1626, later in 1860, and by a decree of 19 July, 
 1913, it was erected into a prefecture apostolic and 
 separated from the Vicariate Apostolic of Amoy 
 and entrusted to the Dominicans of the Philip¬ 
 pines, with official residence at Taipeh. Rt. Rev. 
 Clemente Fernandez, b. in Penemdes, in the Dio¬ 
 cese of Oviedo, 17 October, 1879, professed 17 
 November, 1895, ordained priest 8 September, 1903, 
 was appointed first Prefect Apostolic of Formosa, 
 2 September, 1913. He was succeeded by Rev. 
 Thomas de la Hoz, 0. P., appointed 1 August, 
 1921. There were in 1912 out of a total population 
 of 3,290,978, 3533 Catholics, 10 Spanish Dominicans, 
 31 catechists, 30 churches and chapels, and 3 
 Dominican Sisters. 
 
 Fort-Dauphin, Vicariate Apostolic of (de Fort- 
 Dauphin; cf. C. E., XVI-83b), in Southern 
 Madagascar, with residence at Fort-Dauphin. 
 Erected 16 January, 1896, under the name of South¬ 
 ern Madagascar, it was changed to Fort-Dauphin, 
 20 May, 1913; it is entrusted to the Lazarists. The 
 vicar apostolic is Rt. Rev. Jean-Jacques Crouzet, a 
 Lazarist, b. in Lansargue in the Diocese of Mont¬ 
 pellier, 1 April, 1849, entered the Congregation of 
 the Mission 12 October, 1868, was appointed titular 
 Bishop of Zephyrium, 11 September, 1886, conse¬ 
 crated at Paris, 28 October, 1888, named Vicar 
 Apostolic of Abyssinia (16 January, 1896), and later 
 of Fort-Dauphin. According to 1920 statistics the 
 vicariate has approximately 800,000 inhabitants, 
 20,000 of whom are Catholics; 18 missionary priests, 
 12 churches, 25 schools, and 15 Sisters of Charity. 
 
 Fort Wayne, Diocese of (Wayne Castrensis; 
 cf. C. E., VI-150c), in Indiana, U. S. A., suffragan 
 of Cincinnati, has a Catholic population of 151,000. 
 It is at present under the administration of Rt. 
 Rev. Herman Joseph Alerding, born 13 August, 
 1846, in the Diocese of Covington, ordained 22 
 September, 1868, curate at Terre Haute, rector at 
 Cambridge, and for 26 years at St. Joseph’s in 
 Indianapolis, elected bishop 30 August, 1900, con¬ 
 secrated 30 November following, succeeding Rt. 
 Rev. Joseph Rademacher (b. 8 December, 1840; 
 d. 12 January, 1900). 
 
 The diocesan^statistics for 1922 are: 138 parishes, 
 33 missions, 179 secular and 152 regular priests; 
 convents : men 1, women 4, with 2052 in the various 
 communities; Holy Cross Seminary with 39 semi¬ 
 narians, 1 university with 90 professors, 1800 stu¬ 
 dents; 1 college for men with 20 teachers, 340 stu¬ 
 dents; 1 college for women with 434 students; 2 high 
 schools, 8 academies with 450 pupils, 6 normal 
 schools, 7 training schools for nurses, 104 elemen¬ 
 tary schools with an attendance of 25,582 pupils. 
 
 The different nationalities represented in the dio¬ 
 cese with their approximate numbers are: American- 
 born, 100,000; Polish, about 20,000; Lithuanian, 
 30,000; Slovaks, 8000; Italians, 1000; Greeks, 2000; 
 
 Croatians, 5000; and others Spanish, Mexican, Hun¬ 
 garian, etc. 
 
 -Th e missionary work is carried out by the Fort 
 Wayne Apostolate. I he charitable establishments 
 include 2 homes for the aged, 2 diocesan orphan 
 asylums, 15 hospitals, 1 settlement house (Bishop 
 Alerding-Judge Gory Settlement house). All pub¬ 
 lic institutions are self-supporting, and the priests 
 are never forbidden to minister in these institu¬ 
 tions. 
 
 A weekly paper, “Our Sunday Visitor,” founded 
 by Rt. Rev. Mgr. John F. Noll in 1912, is published 
 in the diocese, and has at present a subscription 
 of more than half a million. In December, 1921 
 the founder and editor was honored by the Holy 
 See with the title of domestic prelate. A society 
 for the relief of infirm priests is organized among 
 the clergy. During the World War six priests 
 served as chaplains in the army and navy, and 
 the Catholics in the service held the same propor¬ 
 tion as in other parts of the country. 
 
 Fortaleza (or Ceara), Archdiocese of (For- 
 talexiensis; cf. C. E., VI-145d), in the State of 
 Ceara, Brazil, was raised to metropolitan rank 10 
 November, 1915. By decrees of 20 October, 1914, 
 and 10 November, 1915, the dioceses of Crato and 
 Sobral, its suffragans, were erected from this ter¬ 
 ritory; the new boundaries established 24 January, 
 1919, include an area of about 11,882 sq. miles. The 
 bishop, Rt. Rev. Manuel Da Silva Gomez, b. 
 in Bahia, 14 March, 1874, studied in the Seminary 
 of Bahia, was ordained 15 November, 1896, pro¬ 
 fessor at the seminary 3 February, 1893, chancellor 
 of Bahia, 15 November, 1899, appointed titular 
 bishop of Mopsuestia and auxiliary at Fortaleza, 
 11 April, 1911, consecrated 29 October following, 
 transferred 16 September, 1912, enthroned 8 Decem¬ 
 ber, succeeding Mgr. Joachim Joseph Vieira. He 
 was named first Archbishop of Fortaleza, 10 
 November, 1915. There are in the diocese (1920) 
 771,120 Catholics, 832 Protestants, 12 Jews, 78 par¬ 
 ishes, 106 secular and 5 regular priests, 234 churches 
 or chapels. 
 
 Forty Hours’ Devotion (cf. C. E., VI-151).—The 
 
 Forty Hours’ devotion is to be held each year on 
 appointed days in all the churches in * which the 
 Blessed Sacrament is kept, with greater solemnity 
 than usual. If for a grave reason this cannot be 
 done, the local ordinary is to have solemn exposi¬ 
 tion for a few hours at least. 
 
 Forum (cf. C. E., VI-153c).—The following rules 
 are laid down in the Code for determining the 
 proper forum for ecclesiastical suits. The plaintiff 
 is to sue in the forum of the defendant, but if the 
 defendant has several fora the plaintiff is entitled 
 to make the choice. Actions de spolio must be 
 tried before the local ordinary of the place where 
 the object is situated, as must actions about 
 benefices; administration suits come before the or¬ 
 dinary of the place of administration; suits regard¬ 
 ing inheritance or pious bequests come before the 
 local ordinary of the place where the testator had 
 his domicile. By reason of his domicile or quasi¬ 
 domicile anyone can be summoned before the local 
 ordinary, who, moreover, has jurisdiction over his 
 subjects even when they are absent. A traveler 
 who is in Rome can be summoned there just as if 
 it was his home; but he has the right of going 
 home and requesting that the suit be sent before 
 his own ordinary. If a person, however, has been 
 in Rome for a year, he may insist on being cited 
 before the Roman courts. The proper forum of a 
 religious is where his house is situated; the forum 
 of a vagus is wherever he chances to be. If an 
 
FOSSANO 
 
 318 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 action is in rem the suit may be brought before 
 the local ordinary of the place where the thing is. 
 In virtue of a contract one may be cited before 
 the local ordinary, either of the place where it was 
 made or where it is to be executed, though the 
 parties may stipulate in a contract what is to be 
 the forum in case of a dispute. A culprit is to be 
 cited in the place where the crime was committed, 
 and the local judge may pass sentence on him 
 even if he has left. If there should be two judges 
 of equal competence, a suit is to be tried by him 
 
 who first took cognizance of it. 
 
 Codex jur . can ., 1559-68. 
 
 Fossano, Diocese of (Fossanensis; cf. C. E., 
 VI-154c), in the province of Cuneo, Northern Italy, 
 a suffragan of Turin. The bishop, Rt. Rev. Quirico 
 Travaini, who was archpriest of Trecata, in the 
 Diocese of Novara at the time of his appointment, 
 16 January, 1919, was proclaimed 10 March follow¬ 
 ing, to succeed Mgr. Giosue Signori, transferred 
 to the Diocese of Alessandria della Paglia, 23 
 December, 1918. The, diocese comprises (1920) 
 36,000 Catholics; 25 parishes, 100 secular and 20 
 regular priests, 32 seminarians, 9 Brothers, 95 Sis¬ 
 ters, 45 churches or chapels. 
 
 Fossombrone, Diocese of (Forosemproniensis; 
 cf. C. E., VI-154d), in the province of Pesaro, 
 Italy, suffragan of Urbino. The present bishop, 
 Rt. Rev. Pascal Righetti, b. at Cornice m the dio¬ 
 cese of Brugnato 29 May, 1868, served as vicar 
 general, canon of the archpresbytery of Brugnato 
 appointed bishop 19 February, 1914, consecrated 
 14 May following, as successor to Rt. Rev. Aehille 
 Quadrozzi (b. 22 March, 1846; d. 5 December, 
 1913). There are at present (1922) in the diocese 
 40 parishes, 71 churches, 51 secular and 3 regular 
 priests, 1 lay brother, 4 nuns, 1 convent for men, 
 
 1 seminary with 20 seminarians, 2 asylums. A civil 
 hospital and an orphanage for girls admit the min- 
 istry of the priests; several societies are organized 
 among the laity. During the war thirteen clergy¬ 
 men of the diocese served in the army; four 
 asylums were established; shelter was given to the 
 refugees, and relief work was carried out by two 
 committees. 
 
 Foundation (cf. C. E., VI-157c)—Bequests for 
 religious and charitable purposes are valid and 
 binding in conscience even if they are null accord¬ 
 ing to civil law, and the Code says that the heirs 
 are to be admonished to fulfil the testator’s wishes. 
 “Foundations.” See Anglicanism. 
 
 France (cf. C. E., VI-166b).— Population.— Ac¬ 
 cording to the census of 1921 France has 39,402,739 
 inhabitants, of whom 37,852,280 were French and 
 1,550,459 were foreigners. The chief departments 
 with their population in 1921 are as follows: Seine, 
 4,411,691; Nord, 1,787,918; Pas-de-Calais, 989,967; 
 Rhone, 956,566; Seine-et-Oise, 921,673; Seme- 
 Inf erieure, 880,671; Bouches-du-Rhone, 841,996; 
 Gironde, 819,404; Finistere, 762,514; Bas-Rhin, 
 651,686. 
 
 In spite of the return of Alsace and Lorraine, 
 France has now 400,000 fewer inhabitants than in 
 1911. This loss is due principally to war casualties, 
 to the reduction of the birth-rate, and to the 
 epidemics of influenza. There has also been a 
 pronounced movement to the cities and a conse¬ 
 quent increase in the urban population, especially 
 in Lyons, which showed an increase in the last 
 decade of 37,796; Marseilles, 35,722; Havre, 27,215; 
 Toulouse, 25,858; Saint-Etienne, 19,311. 
 
 The largest cities with their populations are as 
 follows: Paris, 2,906,472; Marseilles, 586,341; Lyons, 
 561,562; Bordeaux, 267,409; Lille, 200,952; Nantes, 
 
 183,704; Toulouse, 175,434; St-Etienne, 167,967; 
 Strasburg, 166,767; Havre, 163,374; Nice, 155,839; 
 Rouen, 123,742; Nancy, 113,266. 
 
 Vital Statistics— The birth rate, which was 3.16 
 per 100 during the period 1806-1816 and 2.89 dur¬ 
 ing the period 1831-1841. fell to 2.56 per 100 in the 
 period 1872-1882, to 1.88 per 100 in 1913 and to 
 1.21 in 1918. In seventy-seven departments the 
 total excess of deaths over births for 1914 to 1919 
 was 1,490,227. The number of divorces was 3668 
 in 1916; 5572 in 1917; 8121 in 1918; and 11,657 in 
 1919 (77 departments only). To encourage the 
 growth of large families an Act was passed on 14 
 July, 1913, making the relief of large families 
 obligatory with the parishes and the State, and 
 providing for a bonus of 60 francs minimum or 90 
 francs maximum for each child after the third. 
 Owing to the immense war losses the allowance 
 was supplemented, in the Act of 28 June, 1918, by 
 an additional ten francs per month for each child. 
 This still being inadequate, the Departmental Coun¬ 
 cil of the Seine raised the annual allowance of 
 each child to a minimum of 240 francs and a 
 maximum of 300 francs, and moreover, from Jan- 
 uary, 1921, offered, independently of the parish, 
 bounties to mothers for each child in excess of 
 two still living, 300 francs for the third child, and 
 an increase of 50 francs for each additional child. 
 In 1921 there were in Paris and suburbs about 
 18,000 beneficiaries receiving 24,000 allowances. The 
 population of France showed signs of recovery 
 during the first half of 1920, when the births ex¬ 
 ceeded the deaths by 67,946, the former numbering 
 424,668 and the latter numbering 386,722 in all the 
 90 departments. Marriage is also on the increase. 
 Besides government bounties there are the marriage 
 and child bonuses given by the Employers’ Asso¬ 
 ciation of 2 francs a day for each married man in 
 addition to his wages, and 2 francs a day for each 
 child. Each member of the association contributes 
 in proportion to the number of his employees. 
 
 Economics and Agriculture. —Of the total area 
 of France (132,381,447 acres) in 1912, 24,716,752 
 acres were under forests, 9,403,625 acres were re¬ 
 turned as moor and uncultivable land, and 98,181,- 
 070 acres, of which 59,127,750 were arable, were 
 returned as under crops, fallow and grass. In 1920, 
 12,135,000 acres were devoted to wheat, 8,160,000 
 acres to oats, 2,022,000 acres to rye, 1,512,000 acres 
 to barley. The chief crops in that year were 
 potatoes, 10,315,000 metric tons; wheat, 6,271,000 
 metric tons; oats, 4,223,000 metric tons; and beet 
 sugar, 2,055,000 metric tons. The production of 
 wine in 1920 was 1,310,719,000 gallons. The war 
 cost France many of her farmers, besides rendering 
 temporarily useless some 9,775,000 acres of farm 
 land, but since the end of the war she has redeemed 
 3,755,920 acres. By furnishing the farmers with 
 fertilizer, machinery, and seed the Office of Recon¬ 
 struction has greatly assisted the economic recovery 
 
 of the country. . . _ 
 
 Industry. —The effect of the invasion of France 
 was to reduce the production in the damaged area 
 in a proportion varying from 25% for machine 
 shops to 74% for coal mines, 81% for iron and steel 
 works, and as high as 93% for some branches of 
 technical industry. Before the war France con¬ 
 sumed over 63,000,000 tons of coal annually, of 
 which she produced, roughly, 42,000,000 tons, leav¬ 
 ing 21,000,000 tons to be imported. By the terms 
 of the Peace Treaty, France acquired control of 
 the Saar Basin, containing coal deposits estimated 
 at 12,500,000,000 tons. Actual production from 
 these fields in 1913 was 17,000,000 tons. This new 
 source of coal will supply the additional demand 
 
FRANCE 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 319 
 
 °n Franee from the industries of Alsace-Lorraine 
 and mli lessen the French normal shortage, but 
 it will not onset the loss of output in the damaged 
 mines of the departments of Nord and Pas-de- 
 Calais. To make reparation for the damage done 
 to the mines and to other property, Germany was 
 to deliver approximately 25,000,000 tons of coal 
 annually to 1 ranee for ten years. The Germans, 
 however, have not paid the exact amount. As a 
 result of the Spa conference, held in July, 1920, 
 of the 2,000,000 tons promised to the allies, begin¬ 
 ning August, 1920, 'France was to receive 1,600,000 
 tons monthly. 1 o obtain even these shipments 
 France was obliged to pay Germany 200,000,000 
 francs monthly for six months for the feeding of 
 the Ruhr workers. The production of the Saar 
 Basin in 1920 was 9,410,433 tons. This lack of coal 
 has greatly hampered production, especially that of 
 iron and steel, which in the first five months of 
 1920 was half the pre-war quantity. 
 
 During the war the French textile plants, how¬ 
 ever, kept up production to a remarkable degree; 
 in 1916 and 1917 the production of cotton and silk 
 goods passed its pre-war level. The chief handicap 
 of the textile industries at present is the lack of 
 raw materials. Of the 456 textile mills in the 
 de\ astated district of Lille, 75% had resumed pro¬ 
 duction on 1 March, 1920. The return of Alsace- 
 Lorraine will double the production of France, for 
 the textile industries of Alsace are of great im¬ 
 portance and employ over 78,000 persons. Silk 
 culture is carried on with government encourage¬ 
 ment, most extensively in Gard, Drome, Ardeche, 
 and Vaucluse. By law of 23 April, 1919, an eight- 
 hour day prevails in France. 
 
 Foreign Trade.— For the five years preceding the 
 war France had an average annual unfavorable 
 visible balance of trade of some billion and a 
 half francs. This was more than offset by “in- 
 \ isible items, such as the interest on foreign invest¬ 
 ments accruing to France as a creditor nation. 
 During the war the purchase of vast amounts of 
 war materials caused a great increase in the un¬ 
 favorable balance, which continued after the war. 
 During 1919, however, the exports reached the 
 record figure of 8,713,000,000 francs, some 2 billions 
 above the previous high figure in 1913. Since 1919 
 the exports have shown a steady increase. The 
 imports for home use were valued, in 1920, at 
 35,404,000,000 francs; the exports of French origin 
 22,434,700,000 francs. 
 
 Railways.— In France there are 25,167.8 miles of 
 railway in operation. In October, 1918, the govern¬ 
 ment assumed control of the railroads during the 
 war and for a year after its termination. In 1920 
 the lines were reorganized and co-ordinated to form 
 one national system. Rolling stock and other 
 equipment suffered during the war, and a large 
 Part of the lines on the Nord and Est railways 
 required entire rebuilding. In twenty months after 
 the signing of the armistice, 1353 miles of the 1407 
 destroyed were put back in service, and in 1920, 
 as a result of this effort, transportation in devas¬ 
 tated regions was practically restored to normal. 
 Electrification is now receiving the attention of 
 the railway officials. In 1921 the railway deficit 
 amounted to 1,500,000,000 francs. There are air 
 lines from Paris to Warsaw, London, Lausanne, 
 Copenhagen, Brussels, Bucarest, and Havre. Half 
 the cost of the initial outlay for construction is 
 provided by the Government. State subsidies, 
 amounting to three-fourths or four-fifths of the 
 receipts, have been necessary to keep the service 
 in operation. 
 
 Education.— French education is divided into 
 
 21 
 
 three classes primary, secondary, and superior It 
 is directed by the Minister of Instruction aided 
 
 ^rs h g e e£X 1 TT n V dUCat, °^ al bureaux and inspec- 
 tors-general I he Superior Council of 52 members 
 
 has deliberative, administrative, and judiciary func" 
 ions, and a Consultative Committed IdtiJs £ 
 the school system. For purposes of local adminis¬ 
 tration France is divided into 17 circumscription 
 
 Councif Ca F Cn r S ’ e * C A ° { Which has an Academic 
 a \. Lach , 1S under a rector an d each is pro¬ 
 vided with academy inspectors. Each department 
 
 iQiQ for primai 'y educational matters. In 
 
 1919-20 there were in France and Algiers (exclud- 
 ^^ce-Lorrame) 20 63 public kindergartens with 
 5242 teachers and 189,762 pupils; 786 private kinder¬ 
 gartens5 with 999 teachers and 37,394 pupils; 56,503 
 
 whh a ? d f Vf 12 *- ?no r !to a o 1 priI ? ary and hi ^her schools 
 of 102 433 teachers and 3,835,816 pupils 
 
 (3002,666 lay and 833,150 clerical). Secondary edu¬ 
 cation is given in the State lycees or communal 
 col eges which in 1919 had 100,230 boys and 45,16S 
 
 • fu U> lg • ed ^ atlon supplied by the State 
 in the 16 universities, divided into the four tradi- 
 tional faculties: law, medicine, science, and letters 
 with an enrollment of about 40,000. These figures 
 show that secondary education, which in France is 
 not free, is restricted to the minority of children 
 and that a large majority of the French children 
 cease to go to school altogether too early. In 1919 
 a College of the United States” was established 
 in Pans for American students. There are also 
 technical schools, dependent on the Ministry of 
 Commerce, industrial schools, municipal profes¬ 
 sional schools, schools of commerce, schools of arts 
 and trades, and schools of horology. By an enact¬ 
 ment m July 1919, compulsory physical education 
 
 bo 5 h / exes , was > instituted, for boys 
 Irom 6 to 16, and for girls during the period of 
 
 £ r i? a Y , s econd ary education. Out of the 
 6445 schools which existed in the devastated regions 
 
 , war ’ 4500 were destroyed between 1914 
 and 1915 but since 1918 no less than 5345 have 
 
 mn St / bhshe r d ' T , he 1920 fr ud get includes 1,176,- 
 600,000 francs for education. 
 
 Government.— The executive power of France is 
 vestea in a President elected for seven years, and 
 a Ministry; the legislative power in the Chamber 
 
 at — e f and tbe ^nate. The President chooses 
 the Ministry, generally from the two Chambers 
 and with the consent of the Senate can dissolve 
 the Chamber of Deputies. Each minister is in 
 charge of an administrative department, and each 
 is responsible the Chambers for his acts, while 
 the whole ministry is responsible for the policy 
 of the Government. The Chamber of Deputies 
 is elected for four years, by the scrutin de liste 
 with proportional representation (in elections in 
 which no party list has secured an absolute majority 
 * votes cast), a method adopted in the new 
 Electoral Reform Bill of 1919. There are now 610 
 deputies The Senate, composed of 314 members, 
 is elected for nine years, one-third retiring every 
 three years. The Council of State is presided over 
 by the Minister of Justice, is the last resort in 
 administrative units, and prepares the rules for the 
 public administration. For administrative purposes 
 France is divided into 90 departments, 385 arrondis- 
 sements, 3019 cantons, and 37,963 communes. The 
 three new departments, Moselle, Bas-Rhin, and 
 Haut-Rhin, contain 23 arrondissements, 97 can¬ 
 tons, and 1703 communes. Three cantons and 19 
 communes have been erected since 1911. Each de¬ 
 partment is placed under the prefect, nominated 
 by the Government, and assisted by a Prefecture 
 Council. Each commune has a municipal council, 
 
PRANCE 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 320 
 
 which elects the mayor. The canton, which is 
 generally composed of 12 communes, is the seat 
 of a justice of the peace, but is not an administra¬ 
 tive district. The districts or arrondissements have 
 an elected council, with as many members as there 
 
 11 Justice. —The Courts of lowest jurisdiction are 
 those of the justices of the peace in each canton. 
 The Correctional Courts pronounce on all the 
 graver offences; each includes three J^ges belong¬ 
 ing to tribunals of first instance. The Court of 
 Assizes is assisted by 12 jurors and dead'es the 
 guilt of the persons concerned. The highest courts 
 are the 26 Courts of Appeal, and one Court of 
 Cassation for criminal cases In each arrondvsse- 
 ment there is a tribunal of first instance, 
 commercial cases there are Tribunals of Commerce 
 and Councils of Experts. All judges are nominated 
 bv the President of France and can be removed 
 only by a decision of the Court of Cassation. 
 
 Colonies.— The colonies and dependencies of 
 France, including Algeria and Tunis, have an area 
 of about 5,119,138 sq. miles, with a population ot 
 about 53,582,905. Algeria, however, is not regarded 
 as a colony, but as a part of u Fr ^ ce .i and f T ^' s 
 and Morocco are attached to the Ministry oi hor 
 eign Affairs. The administration of the colonies 
 is directed by the Ministry of Colonies, borne 
 colonies have direct representation in the hrencn 
 Legislature, but most of them are represented on 
 the Conseil Superieur des Colonies, by delegates 
 or deputies and other officials. Some colonies have 
 a revenue sufficient for the cost of administration. 
 In 1919 France spent on the colonial services 201,- 
 835110 francs, of which 18,001,210 francs were for 
 civil administration, 173,791,000 francs for military 
 services, and 10,042,900 francs for penitentiary 
 services. The most recent acquisitions of France 
 are: the Niger Territory, acquired in 1912; 
 Kamerun and Togo, acquired in 1919 under a man¬ 
 date of the League of Nations, the protectorate 
 of Morocco, acquired in 1912, Mayotte and Comoro 
 Islands in 1914. The French Sudan Territory was 
 made a colony in 1920; the Upper Volta in 1919; 
 Mauritania and Chad in 1920. In 1918 the imports 
 and exports of the various dependencies of I ranee 
 showed a value of 2,412,227,827 francs (imports, 
 1,287,276,937 francs; exports, 1,124,950,890 francs). 
 During the war the colonies contributed largely to 
 the success of France, for on 1 July, 1918, they had 
 furnished 1,918,000 men, of whom 680,000 took 
 active part in the fighting. Algeria conti lbuted 
 510,000,000 francs toward the cost of the struggle. 
 
 By a decree of 29 June, 1919, the Ministry of 
 the Colonies was reorganized. In 1911 the service 
 had been divided geographically, but was found 
 inadequate and cumbersome. The new decree of 
 1919 removed the administrative services, attached 
 them to a general agency of the colonies; re¬ 
 grouped the colonies according to the conditions 
 prevailing in them instead of geographical vicinity, 
 and established new technical services for banks, 
 education, economic questions, merchant marine, 
 and justice. 
 
 Finance— The financial position of I ranee 
 (1922) is rather serious. Expenditure exceeds 
 revenue; the public debt is colossal and the tax 
 burdens are very heavy. Before the war the public 
 expenditure of the State approximated 5,200,000,000 
 francs; in 1915 it was 22,804,000,000 francs; in 1916, 
 32,945,000,000 francs; in 1917, 41,679,000,000 francs; 
 in 1918, 54,537,000,000 francs. Since the war ended, 
 the expenditures have increased slightly. For 1919, 
 49,029,000,000 francs were voted in appropriations. 
 From 1914 to 1917 there were no annual budgets, 
 
 the financial requirements of the country being pro¬ 
 vided for by votes of credit. lor 1918, 1919, and 
 1920 budgets were introduced. In 1918 the military 
 and special expenditure was 44,047,748,089 francs; 
 in 1919, it was 35,811,389,662 francs; the total ex¬ 
 penditure in 1918 was 54,537,105,100 francs; in 1919, 
 49,026,587,140 francs. The French budget of 1922 
 provided for appropriations and revenue of 24,700, 
 
 000 000 francs, the principal items of expenditure 
 being ■ service of public debt, 12,653,000,000 francs, 
 military expenditures, 3,709,000,000 francs; naval 
 expenditures, 844,000,000 francs;’other executive de¬ 
 partments, 5,224,000,000 francs; administration ot 
 monopolies and tax collecting, 2 475,000,000 francs 
 The special budget is estimated at 14,000,000,000 
 francs, of which 8,000,000,000 are to be spent on 
 reconstruction, 4,000,000,000 on pensions, and 2,000,- 
 000,000 on interest on reconstruction loans, which 
 it is the intention of France to meet by Germany s 
 reparation payments. The principal items oi 
 revenue are as follows i Taxes and recepits, 15,boo,- 
 000,000 francs; monopolies and state 
 2,911,000,000 francs; war profits tax 3,050,000,000 
 francs; and liquidation of war stocks, 500,000,000 
 francs. On 1 October, 1921, the public debt stood 
 as follows: internal debt, 237,867,000,000 francs 
 (paper); and external debt, 86,000,000,000 francs 
 (paper); 35,525,000,000 francs (gold). Of the latter, 
 29,534,000,000 francs, gold, represents the political 
 debt, i. e., the war loans by Great Britain and the 
 United States. To add to the financial strain, the 
 Algerian budget showed a deficit for the first time 
 
 in years. ^ . . , 
 
 Recent History. —When Germany declared war 
 on Russia in July, 1914, she demanded to know 
 the attitude of France in eighteen hours, instructing 
 the German ambassador in the event of the French 
 Government’s repudiation of its alliance with Russia 
 to demand that the fortresses of Toul and Verdun 
 be handed over to Germany for the duration of the 
 war. The French Government gave a non-com¬ 
 mittal answer to the German ultimatum and began 
 mobilization. On 3 August, 1914, Germany de¬ 
 clared war on France. The attitude of France 
 upset the calculations of her enemies. They had 
 counted on two great causes of her inferiority, 
 want of artillery, and internal disturbance. I he 
 first deficiency was remedied by the hasty produc¬ 
 tion of howitzers and long range cannon in addition 
 to her light artillery guns, the manufacture of which 
 had been carried on in secrecy. Internal distur¬ 
 bances disappeared before the common danger and 
 the solid unity of the nation gave birth to that 
 immortal “spirit of France,” which was to sustain 
 her during the fateful years ahead. The Chambers 
 at once authorized the Government to issue degrees 
 in Council of State opening the supplementary and 
 extraordinary credits required for the defense of 
 the nation, and decided to remain in continuous 
 session. The French plan of defense had been 
 originally based on the assumption that the neu¬ 
 trality of Belgium and Luxemburg would be re¬ 
 spected. The eastern half of the frontier, from 
 Luxemburg to Switzerland was defended by the 
 Vosges Mountains and by a line of fortified towns 
 from Verdun through Toul and Epinal to Beliort. 
 French Flanders was at the very first left unde¬ 
 fended. , , 
 
 As events proved, the Germans poured througn 
 Belgium and Luxemburg, violating the neutrality 
 of the latter. Fortunately for France, the Belgians 
 resisted and gave the French troops, time to 
 mobilize. The Germany army of invasion advanced 
 upon France in three grand divisions, the right 
 wing attempting to enter France at Maubeuge, 
 
FRANCE 
 
 321 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 necessitating the crossing of Belgium, the center 
 entenng at Sedan, and crossing Luxemburg, and 
 the left wing entering at Nancy. The right wing 
 was delayed longer than had been anticipated in 
 ., erman Pl ans by the resistance of the fortress 
 of Liege and after its fall on 7 August, by the 
 resistance of the Belgian field army, supplemented 
 bv a small French force. Its advance through 
 Belgium was steady, however, Brussels being occu- 
 P* ec * on August. 1 he invasion of France along 
 the branco-Belgian border from Lille to Maubeuge 
 was immediately attempted, and with complete 
 success the French army which had been re-en¬ 
 forced by the vanguard of the British expeditionary 
 4 - 1C ? / a m g back hastily toward the second line 
 of defense, the inferior British forces on the left 
 bemg in constant danger of envelopment. Mean¬ 
 while the German army of the center, encountering 
 
 n °j 1 j S1 f^ al ^ ce * n P r .°g ress through Luxemburg, 
 and defeating the inferior French forces which op¬ 
 posed it, was now in contact on its right with the 
 advancing right wing, while its left was attempting 
 to thrust itself between the retreating French army 
 and Paris. Menaced thus on both flanks, the allied 
 armies retreated in such haste as to make im¬ 
 practicable a firm stand on the second line of de¬ 
 fense. On 29 August that line was passed by the 
 Germans. Pans was now put under martial law 
 and every preparation was made for an extended 
 siege, the government retiring to Bordeaux. South 
 of the Marne the allied forces halted, and for the 
 first time in the war gave vigorous battle to the 
 invaders over the entire front, eventually com¬ 
 pelling the falling back beyond the Marne of the 
 entire German line, pursued by the allied forces. 
 On 13 September the Germans halted and en¬ 
 trenched themselves on their right on the line of 
 hills running from Soissons to Rheims. Suddenly, 
 in the closing days of September the city of Ant¬ 
 werp fell, the major portions of the Belgian army 
 escaping to the west where they were re-enforced 
 by the allied armies. The battle lines of both 
 armies now extended to the coast, flanking opera¬ 
 tions were at an end, and the conflict along the 
 whole line assumed the character of a field siege. 
 The Germans still persisted in the offensive how¬ 
 ever particularly along the Yser River and canal, 
 southwest of Ostend, with the alleged object of 
 foremg the allied lines beyond Calais, which could 
 then be used as a base for naval and military 
 attacks on the British Islands. 
 
 south the French had in the beginning 
 °u- t u war attem Pted a vigorous counter invasion, 
 which was for a time successful, Alsace and Ger- 
 Lorraine being entered and Saarburg and 
 Muelhausen occupied. The attack was, however 
 quickly repulsed by the German forces. Following 
 the battle of the Marne, the German forces began 
 an attack on the whole southern barrier of forts, 
 known as the Verdun-Toul barrier, and met with 
 varying success. The German offensive was aban¬ 
 doned early in December, 1914. The French gov¬ 
 ernment which had removed to Bordeaux in 3 Sep¬ 
 tember, 1914, returned to Paris in December. The 
 next four months witnessed a series of frontal at¬ 
 tacks, the success of which varied. Deadlock 
 continued through the summer. For some reason 
 the long heralded Spring drive did not occur in 
 tyio, which seemed remarkable because of the 
 numerical superiority of the Allies (the Germans 
 naving transferred forces to the eastern front) and 
 because of the relief which a successful forward 
 movement would have brought to the hard-pressed 
 Russians The Germans, indeed, took the initiative 
 at the close of April. They directed against the 
 
 Ypres region an attack in which massed artillery 
 and poison gas played a conspicuous role. The 
 Bntish, suffering from lack of artillery ammunition, 
 had to shorten their line by three miles on 3 May. 
 In June the brench made progress in the country 
 north of Arras and west of Lens. About a quarter 
 of a million men were employed along a front 
 of twenty miles, the assault being preceded by a 
 concentrated artillery fire which flattened the whole 
 countryside. The highway between Arras and 
 Betnune was cleared; more prisoners and guns were 
 taken than on any other occasion since the battle 
 of Marne, but the French lost heavily. As the 
 months went on, the resources of the Allies steadily 
 augmented. Large stores of munitions arrived from 
 America and the reorganized English factories. 
 By the end of September, Sir John French had a 
 million men under his command. On 25 Septem¬ 
 ber, 1915, after the German positions had been 
 neavily bombarded for some days, a vigorous offen- 
 
 fu e /4 Vas se ^ * n The British, penetrated 
 
 ttie German lines to a distance of 4000 yards and 
 captured several strong positions, including Loos 
 and Hill 70. lhe French made substantial gains 
 m Artois and in Champagne pushed the enemy 
 back two miles. 
 
 Geneial Joftre, commander of all the armies in 
 b ranee, was promoted on 2 December to the 
 supieme command of all the French armies ex¬ 
 cepting those in the colonies and in North Africa. 
 
 1 his step was taken in accordance with the plans 
 of the Anglo-French War Council, which met in 
 aris on 27 March, and not only made plans for 
 a concerted general Summer offensive, but also re- 
 
 on Ve T t0 estabIish tlle stringency of the blockade 
 the Entente Powers’ Economic Conference on 14 
 June, formulated a program which increased the 
 severity of the economic measures against the Cen¬ 
 tral Powers during the war but also indicated a 
 determination to continue the struggle after the 
 conclusion of peace by establishing an economic 
 of the Entente Powers. General de Curieres 
 de Castlenau, able commander of the French armies 
 , center, was appointed chief commander of 
 the General Staff. 
 
 The winter of 1916 witnessed no major operations 
 on the western front. Spasmodic local events ad- 
 \ anced the German line at Hooge (Belgium), at 
 Vimy (Artois), at Frise (on the Somme), and on 
 the Butte-de-Tahure (in Champagne). In com¬ 
 pensation the French won the La Courtine 
 entrenchment in Champagne and the peak of Hart- 
 mannsweilerkopf in Alsace. This desultory fighting 
 occupied the interval between the cession of the 
 allied offensive in September, 1915, to the begin¬ 
 ning of the terrific German assault on Verdun, 
 
 21 February, 1916. Eight German army corps, un¬ 
 der the general command of the Crown Prince, and 
 enormous quantities of heavy artillery were con¬ 
 centrated against the secondary fortifications seven 
 or eight miles north of Verdun. Then suddenly 
 on 19-20 February a bombardment of unprece¬ 
 dented intensity announced the beginning of the 
 greatest battle in the war. On 21 February, under 
 cover of incessant artillery fire, German infantry 
 in irresistible masses was hurled against the de¬ 
 molished fortifications. The French line yielded; 
 within a week the commanding hill-fort of Douau- 
 mont (4 miles from Verdun) had succumbed to 
 headlong infantry and pulverizing artillery attacks. 
 During the second week, the French line east of 
 Verdun was crushed back to the strong line of 
 the heights of the Meuse and a savage struggle was 
 waged in the outskirts of Vaux village. Then the 
 storm center shifted to the west bank of the 
 
FRANCE 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 322 
 
 Meuse. Forges, Regneville, Malancourt, Haucourt, 
 and Bethincourt were captured in rapid succession, 
 but in April the German drive west of the Meuse 
 slackened. Further progress was barred by a 
 French salient of great natural strength, resting on 
 Hill 304 and the bicuspidate ridge called Le Mort 
 Homme (Hills 265 and 295). Moreover, General 
 Joffre was able to stiffen his line with remfoi ce¬ 
 ments, since the British had replaced the French 
 troops north of the Somme River and now held 
 ninety miles of the western front. The arrival 
 of Russian contingents, though numerically incon¬ 
 siderable, stimulated confidence. Consequently on 
 22 May, 1916, General Joffre struck a counterblow. 
 The heaviest fighting was around Fort Douaumont, 
 which was taken and retaken by the Germans. 
 The opening of the Anglo-French drive (battle ot 
 the Somme) forced the Germans to shift their 
 forces and the battle of Verdun flickered out. 1 he 
 great drive beginning on 1 July, 1916, advanced the 
 French front to a maximum depth of six miles 
 and netted the French 80 square miles of terri¬ 
 tory. In the fourth week it came to a standstill; 
 the summer w'as spent in series of futile but furious 
 battles around the ruined villages of Thiaumont 
 and Fleury. The failure of the Germans at Verdun 
 proved that the tide of war had tinned at last in 
 favor of the allies. Henceforth the Germans were 
 on the defensive, and their line was battered back 
 mile by mile. The battle of the Somme (1 July 
 to 1 November, 1916), resulted in heavy losses 
 for the allies, but it had relieved Verdun, worn 
 down German man-power, and created such an 
 embarrassing salient in the German line that the 
 French were tempted to make a counter-offensive 
 at Verdun. By two brilliant attacks in November 
 and December General Nivelle regained Forts 
 Douaumont and Vaux, and was rewarded by the 
 appointment to the command of all the French 
 forces in France in succession to General Joffre, 
 who was retired with the title of ‘‘Marshal of 
 France.” In Februarv the British advanced two 
 miles, wiping out the Ancre salient. In Maich a 
 general retirement of the Germans to the Hin- 
 denburg line commenced. About 1000 square miles 
 of French territory were regained, but the country 
 was devastated, the towns laid in ruins, and all 
 railroads destroyed. A terrific drive against the 
 Hmdenburg Line near Arras (battle of Arras) was 
 launched by the British under General Allenby. 
 The French under Nivelle and Haig attacked in 
 April along the Aisne with remarkable success. 
 In June, 1917, a contingent of American troops led 
 by General Pershing arrived in France to take its 
 place with the Belgian, British, Italian, Russian, 
 and Colonial troops on the front. In France a War 
 Council was created. It repudiated the German 
 peace offer, decided for bread-cards, and for the 
 minimum prices for dairy products, for the volun¬ 
 tary calling of the 1918 class, and industrial 
 mobilization. The new war minister provoked un¬ 
 usual opposition by his Bill providing for the in¬ 
 corporation of priests into the army. The Allied 
 advance continued, with remarkable results, espe¬ 
 cially at Chemin-des-Dames, Passchendaele Ridge, 
 and Cambrai. The Germans replied with their 
 great offensive on 21 March; created an opening 
 between the Oise and Somme and broke the English 
 front, which was saved by the French cavalry. The 
 Germans continued in the direction of Amiens. 
 Noyon, Bapaume, Albert, and Montdidier had to 
 be evacuated. The shattering of the English Fifth 
 Army compelled the French to send re-enforcements 
 and to extend their lines. On 1 April the Germans 
 were within six miles of the main railway from 
 
 Amiens to Paris. To meet the patent need for 
 man-power, General Pershing offered all his foice 
 to General Foch, who had been appointed gener¬ 
 alissimo of the allied armies on 28 March, and 
 when on 4 April, the Germans renewed the con¬ 
 flict, they were met by unified command. With 
 the* aid of American troops and French rein¬ 
 forcements, the line became stabilized, but the 
 Germans, after a brief respite continued the ^offen¬ 
 sive until 2 June, when they were at Chateau- 
 Thierry, forty miles from Paris. At Chateau- 
 Thierry their advance was checked by the Amer¬ 
 icans, who took Belleau-Wood and Torcy. On 
 15 July came the fifth German offensive, the in¬ 
 fantry pressing on toward Chalons. ^ The Marne 
 was crossed in several places and Chateau-Thierry 
 occupied. A counter-offensive under Marshal Foch 
 aimed to cut the enemy communications at Sois- 
 sons, La Fere, and Fismes. With the aid of the 
 Americans he succeeded in clearing Chateau-Thierry 
 of Germans, and in flattening out the German 
 salient existing since the attack at Verdun. On 
 26 September the American army again came 
 prominently into action, and aided General Gou- 
 raud in carrying out a great combined offensive 
 in the Argonne. In the north the British Second 
 Army and the Belgians under the command of 
 King Albert took Dixmunde, Passchendaele, and 
 Messines, after which a deadlock never occurred 
 again in Belgium. During October the German 
 retreat all along the line became a rout. St. 
 Quentin, Ostend, Lille, Cambrai, Le Cateau, 
 Bruges, Valenciennes, and Sedan fell to the allies. 
 Meanwhile negotiations for an armistice were 
 opened, but this did not cause a halt in the of¬ 
 fensives. The armistice was signed on 11 Novem¬ 
 ber, 1918. 
 
 Never in all its history did the French nation 
 display greater courage or unanimity than during 
 the wearisome years of war. Not only were the 
 French troops engaged with the enemy in France, 
 but also in Salonika, Italy, and Asia Minor. Their 
 land was ravaged in the north and their loss in 
 men was terrific. One man out of six in the entire 
 population had served in the army. The French 
 army is reported to have lost 1,089,700 killed and 
 265,000 missing, or 16.2% of the immense mobilized 
 force of 8,410,000. The number of French prisoners 
 was 446,300. Naval losses included 5421 killed 
 and 5214 missing. The loss suffered by the coun¬ 
 try amounted to a total of 119,801,000,000 francs, 
 and included damages to landed property, 35,446,- 
 000 000 francs; loss of household effects, cattle, 
 securities, 32,352,000,000 francs; raw materials and 
 provisions, 28,861,000,000 francs, and loss to revenue 
 or trade, 23,242,000,000 francs. 
 
 The terms of the armistice which the Germans 
 were given to accept or to reject within seventy- 
 two hours, when they met Marshal Foch and his 
 victorious army at Rethondes, six miles east of 
 Compiegne were as follows: thp Germans were to 
 evacuate Belgium, France, Alsace-Lorraine, and 
 Luxemburg within 14 days, and all the territory 
 on the left bank of the Rhine within a month. 
 The allied troops were to occupy those areas to¬ 
 gether with the bridge-heads at the principal cross- 
 ways of the Rhine (Mainz, Coblenz, and Cologne) 
 to a depth of 30 kilometers on the right bank. 
 The treaties of Brest-Litovsk and Bukarest were 
 to be denounced and German troops withdrawn 
 from Russia, Rumania, Austria-Hungary, and Tur¬ 
 key. German submarines and warships were to 
 be surrendered, also 5000 locomotives, 5000 motor 
 lorries, and 150,000 railway cars. The economic 
 blockade of Germany was to continue. The terms 
 
FRANCE 
 
 323 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 of the armistice, originally agreed upon for thirty 
 days, were subsequently renewed from time to 
 time and remained in effect until the signing of 
 the Treaty of Peace at Versailles on 28 June, 1919. 
 The French entered Alsace-Lorraine and the terri¬ 
 tory surrounding Mainz. 
 
 By the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, Ger¬ 
 many yielded Alsace-Lorraine to France and by 
 way of reparation and economic settlement, ac¬ 
 cepted full responsibility for all damages caused 
 to the allied and associated governments and na¬ 
 tions, and promised to reimburse all civilian dam¬ 
 age, beginning with an initial payment of $5,000- 
 000,000, subsequent payments being secured by 
 bonds to be issued at the discretion of an Inter¬ 
 national Reparations Commission. Until repara¬ 
 tion is made and the treaty fully carried out, allied 
 occupation of German territory on the left bank of 
 the Rhine and of the bridge-heads at Cologne, 
 Coblenz, and Mainz, will continue. In compensa¬ 
 tion for the destruction of coal mines in Northern 
 France, and as payment on account of repara¬ 
 tion, Germany surrendered full ownership of the 
 coal mines in the Saar Basin, the territory to be 
 governed by a Commission of five appointed by 
 the League of Nations. After fifteen years a plebis¬ 
 cite is to be held by the communes to decide as to 
 the continuance of the existing regime, union with 
 France, or union with Germany. Germany also re¬ 
 nounced all her rights under the Franco-German 
 agreements of 1909 and 1911 regarding Morocco. 
 
 The provision in the Treaty of Versailles that 
 Germany, subject to certain deductions, was to pay 
 £1,000.000,000 (gold) before 1 May, 1921, was 
 so remarkably wide of facts and possibilities that it 
 was totally abandoned in the London Agreement 
 of 5 May, 1921. From 11 November, 1918, to 30 
 April, 1921, however, Germany delivered to the 
 allies 99,334,000 gold marks, ships worth 270,331,000 
 gold marks, coal worth 437,160,000 gold marks, dye¬ 
 stuffs, 36,823,000 gold marks; other deliveries, 937,- 
 040,000 gold marks, immovable property and assets 
 not yet cashed, 2,754,104,000, a total of 4,534,792,000 
 gold marks, or £284,500,000. The immovable prop¬ 
 erty consists chiefly of the Saar coalfields, surren¬ 
 dered to France, State property in Schleswig 
 surrendered to Denmark, and State property in the 
 territory transferred to Poland. Still the sums 
 received were not available for reparation, as under 
 the Spa agreement, 360,000,000 gold marks were 
 returned to Germany and the costs of the Armies 
 of Occupation had to be paid. The situation 
 thereby created has been irritating to the French, 
 especially as the financial schemes of France in 
 recent years have been based on the hope of re¬ 
 habilitating the country with German reparations 
 and easing the financial burdens of France, and 
 especially as the tax per capita in France is much 
 heavier than the head tax in Germany. 
 
 In the various conferences which- have followed 
 the signing of the treaty, France has always stood 
 for a thorough-going application of the terms of 
 the Versailles Treaty, Italy for a virtual revision, 
 and England for the adaptation of the terms to 
 the changing situation. The question of repara¬ 
 tions has been very complicated. As soon as 
 schemes are devised and accepted, for “making 
 Germany pay,” there are frantic efforts to get 
 them altered. The Versailles Conference estab¬ 
 lished the principles of reparations and determined 
 such sums to be paid, but postponed the details 
 and regulations until a later date. The problem 
 in all its aspects was discussed at various con¬ 
 ferences, at San Remo (19 April, 1920), at Hythe, 
 England (15 May and 19 June, 1920), in Boulogne 
 
 (21 June, 1920), Brussels (2 July, 1920), the Spa 
 (o-6 July, 1920), again at Boulogne (16-21 Decem¬ 
 ber, 1920), at Paris (24 January, 1921), at London 
 (1 March, and 5 May, 1921), at Wiesbaden (6 
 October, 1921), at Cannes (6 January, 1922), and 
 at Pans (21 March, 1922). Of these, the Spa, 
 Weisbaden, and the last London conferences were 
 most successful. Under the Spa agreement, the 
 terms of the Versailles Treaty regarding the deliv¬ 
 ery of 3,400,000 tons of coal per month to the 
 allies, were found incapable of realization, and 
 the demand was reduced to 2,000,000 tons a month 
 from August, 1920. The allies agreed to pay Ger¬ 
 many something for the coal, the sums thus re- 
 utilized in purchasing from abroad 
 additional food for the miners. It was also decided 
 to apportion the reparations made by Germany 
 as follows: France 52%; Great Britain 22%; Italy 
 10%; Belgium 8%; and the rest to Japan, Portugal, 
 Jugoslavia, Greece, Rumania, and other powers not 
 signatories to the Agreement. At the Boulogne 
 Conference it was agreed to finance the Spa coal 
 agreement through the Reparations Commission. 
 At the London Conference in May, 1921, the total 
 bill against Germany was fixed at 132,000,000,000 
 gold marks ($33,000,000,000), $12,500,000,000 to be 
 paid m bonds bearing 5% interest, $3,000,000,000 
 by 1 July, 1921, $9,500,000,000 by 1 September, 1921. 
 To provide for interest and sinking fund of 1 per 
 cent on these bonds, Germany was to pay annually 
 $500,000,000 (2,000,000,000 gold marks) in two in¬ 
 stallments, plus a levy of 25% on all her exports. 
 For the remaining $20,500,000,000 Germany was to 
 turn over to the Reparations Commission blank 
 bonds to be issued by the Commission at such 
 times as the return from the export tax should 
 warrant. The fall of the value of the mark and 
 the accompanying economic disturbances in Ger¬ 
 many led to the Wiesbaden Pact, which was a 
 scheme to stimulate payment of reparation in the 
 form of actual materials for the reconstruction of 
 devastated regions and other raw material until 
 May, 1936. At Cannes the French held tentatively 
 to the Wiesbaden Pact, arranging for the payment 
 by Germany of 720,000,000 marks in 1922, payment 
 in kind, not to exceed a value of 1,450,000,000 marks 
 in gold (950,000,000 to France). The agreement was 
 ratified by the allies but owing to the sudden with¬ 
 drawal of France from the conference, nothing was 
 done to put. the scheme into operation. A limita¬ 
 tion of the issue of German paper money and the 
 reform of German currency was ordered, and an 
 international finance corporation was formed, to 
 be composed of two British, two French, one Bel¬ 
 gian, one Italian, and one Japanese member, whose 
 purpose was to be the economic rehabilitation of 
 Europe. • In the meantime there were threats of 
 excursions by the French army into Germany east 
 of the Rhine. In March, 1920, France without the 
 approval of her Allies, occupied Frankfort and 
 Darmstadt. In March, 1921, Duisburg, Ruhrort, and 
 Dusseldorf were occupied. 
 
 The war revealed the loyalty of the Royalists, 
 conservatives, and clericals, who had been bitterly 
 accused of enmity to the Republic. Most remark¬ 
 able was the patriotism shown by thousands of 
 members of religious orders who returned from 
 exile and promptly offered themselves to their 
 country. Thousands of priests volunteered, either 
 for active. fighting or as chaplains. There was a 
 great revival of religious enthusiasm not only 
 among the women but also among the men who, 
 in the face of death abandoned their religious 
 indifference. Anti-clericals and Catholics, Republi¬ 
 cans and royalists, all formed a union sacree to 
 
FRANCE 
 
 324 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 defend the country against attack. The Unified 
 Socialists, who had long opposed co-operation with 
 the b our geois parties, sent their leaders, Guesede 
 and Sembat, into a Coalition Cabinet headed by 
 Viviani. Jaures, the leader of the French Socialists, 
 was assassinated in August, 1914, because he had 
 opposed the three-year military law. The failure 
 of the Balkan campaign overthrew the Viviani 
 Ministry, which was succeeded on 29 October, 1915, 
 by one headed by Briand. The administrative sys¬ 
 tem was thoroughly organized and a War Council 
 of five members was appointed, with full authority 
 to direct affairs. In March, 1917, Ribot succeeded 
 as premier, and declared unflinchingly for the 
 return of Alsace-Lorraine. In September, Painleve 
 became premier. A German Peace propaganda was 
 organized by a financier, Bolo Pasha, who had suc¬ 
 ceeded in bribing several newspapers in the interest 
 of Germany. Caillaux, former premier and Min¬ 
 ister of Justice was suspected of treasonable cor- 
 erspondence with Germany. For three years no 
 Government ventured to attack Caillaux openly, 
 but in November, 1917, Clemenceau became premier 
 and succeeding in convicting Bolo of high treason. 
 Caillaux was found not guilty, but was convicted 
 of “dangerous correspondence with the enemy. 
 
 International. Relations. —In the treaty of 
 Peace between France and Turkey (10 August, 
 1920), the French protectorates of Morocco and 
 Tunisia were recognized, although the dispute over 
 the internationalized territory of Tangier remained, 
 the French demanding in 1922 that the sovereignty 
 of the Sultan be extended over Tangier, which is 
 virtually a demand that the sovereignty of France 
 be recognized, as (in the Morocco Agreement of 
 1912) the Sultan had accepted the French pro¬ 
 tectorate. By a decision of the Supreme Council 
 in March, 1920, Kamerun and Togoland were 
 divided between Great Britain and France as man¬ 
 dataries. By an Anglo-French agreement of 15 
 September, 1920, Syria was allotted to France. 
 Cilicia was to be occupied by the French but 
 they were to abandon Damascus, Hama, Homs, 
 and Aleppo, these cities having previously been 
 promised by Great Britain to the Kingdom of 
 Hej az. On 19 February, 1921, a defensive alliance 
 between Poland and France was concluded. An 
 amicable understanding with Italy had also been 
 reached in a conference between the Italian and 
 French premiers at Aix-les-Bains in September, 
 1920. In July, 1921, a defensive alliance was formed 
 between Belgium and France, the former reserving 
 the right to remain neutral in all disputes respecting 
 French colonial possessions between France and 
 other nations. England had already agreed in the 
 treaty of Versailles to come to the assistance of 
 France, if she were again attacked. In November, 
 1920, the world became aware of an Italo-Franco- 
 British agreement for maintaining spheres of influ¬ 
 ence in Asiatic Turkey, signed secretly at Sevres 
 on 10 August, 1920. It assigned to France the 
 Syrian and Cilician coasts, the hinterland extend¬ 
 ing across the middle reaches of the Euphrates, 
 through southern Kurdistan to the undefined fron¬ 
 tiers of Armenia, omitting Mossul. The French 
 Government had the privilege of exchanging its 
 rights in the Bagdad Railway for the exclusive 
 exploitation of railroads within its area of special 
 interest. The opposition of the people in France 
 to the maintenance of such a large French army 
 in the Near East and the unnecessary military 
 expenditure induced the French Government to 
 negotiate a secret treaty with the Angora Govern¬ 
 ment, on 9 March, 1921. In return for extensive 
 economic concessions the French agreed to with¬ 
 
 draw from Cilicia, and the boundary between Syria 
 and the Turkish territory as arranged in the Sevres 
 Treaty was altered. In the Disarmament Confer¬ 
 ence held in Washington, D. C., the French re¬ 
 vealed their lack of faith in Germany and held 
 tenaciously to the maintenance of a large auxiliary 
 fleet if their ratio of capital ships was as low as 
 1.75. No decision as to the auxiliary fleet was 
 reached, but France was reduced to 10 ships with 
 a total tonnage of 221,170. France was also one of 
 the participants in the nine-power treaty declaring 
 for the integrity of China, for equal opportunity 
 in trade intercourse, and for the revision of Chinese 
 customs, and proved her faith by renouncing Kwang- 
 chau-wan to China from whom in 1898 she had 
 leased it for ninety-nine years. 
 
 The Church. —The Catholic Church in France 
 faced the delicate work of reorganization attendant 
 upon the Separation Laws with a courage and a 
 tact that are by degrees re-establishing her moral 
 and spiritual ascendancy. During the war Catholics 
 gave splendid proof of their patriotism, 20,000 
 priests having served under the flag. Statistics 
 published by the Documentation Catholique of 
 Paris show that the number of French religious 
 mobilized was 8928, the majority of whom be¬ 
 longed to congregations established outside of 
 France, who returned as volunteers. Of these 1464 
 died in the war. This number included 42 As- 
 sumptionists, 34 Benedictines, 40 Capuchins, 28 
 Dominicans, 280 Brothers of the Christian Schoffis, 
 165 Jesuits, 41 Lazarists, 53 priests of the Foreign 
 Missions, 81 Fathers of the Holy Ghost, 100 Little 
 Brothers of Mary, 39 Redemptorists and 54 Trap- 
 pists. Two hundred twenty crosses of the Legion 
 of Honor, 346 military medals and 4722 citations 
 in orders were won by members of religious con¬ 
 gregations. The Bishops of France took an active 
 part in the Sacred Union, and conquered the respect 
 of associates of every creed. Since the war there is 
 evidence of a desire on the part of the Govern¬ 
 ment to be more generous and just in its dealings 
 with the Church. Its attitude is conciliatory, as 
 shown by a return of ecclesiastical properties seized 
 and held by the civil authorities under the law 
 of separation. Some of the Catholic schools have 
 been opened unofficially, and many men have real¬ 
 ized the mistakes committed by the rabid secre¬ 
 taries of the Left in forcing the religious 
 communities out of the country, and opening the 
 way to disruptive teaching in the State schools. 
 Negotiations have been entered into with the Holy 
 See seeking some arrangement for the congrega¬ 
 tions as a measure of necessity and in response to 
 the political requirements of France. Catholic 
 social service organizations, patronages, etc., are 
 increasing in numbers and effectiveness. Catholic 
 artists have combined their forces in organizations 
 suggestive of the ancient guilds in the production 
 of religious art for new and rebuilt churches and 
 Catholics in general are prominent pioneers in 
 France’s reconstruction. It has been estimated 
 that out of the 34,000,000 people in France, outside 
 of Paris and its suburbs, some 10,000,000 are prac¬ 
 ticing Catholics in the strict sense of the word 
 as compared to 2,000,000 out of 32,000,000 seventy 
 years ago. For Catholic statistics see articles on 
 the archdioceses and dioceses of France. 
 
 On 14 March, 1920, diplomatic relations between 
 the Vatican and the French Government which 
 had been broken in 1904, were resumed. The sen¬ 
 timent of France was that the national interest 
 required the resumption of such relations and that 
 French diplomacy must have its official share in 
 the discussion at the Vatican of questions involving 
 
FRANCISCAN ORDER 
 
 FREIBURG 
 
 QOK 
 
 OtmJLJ 
 
 French interests; that it could not remain absent 
 from the seat of spiritual government at which 
 the greater number of states were careful to be 
 represented; that the enforcement of the various 
 peace treaties made timely the resumption of these 
 relations with the Holy See. The Peace Treaty 
 of Versailles presented problems that must be 
 solved, such as the application of the old Concordat 
 in Alsace-Lorraine, the fate of the former German 
 missions in the colonies in Togoland, Kamerun, and 
 elsewhere, and also the safeguarding of the Catholic 
 religion in Morocco. 
 
 When Alsace-Lorraine was given over to France 
 in the Fall of 1918, the French Government was 
 faced with two alternatives of denouncing the 
 Concordat governing the religious policy of the 
 German Government in Alsace-Lorraine, or of 
 recognizing it and assuming its obligations. There 
 are over 1,400,000 Catholics there, opposed to the 
 French separatist regime and to the anti-clerical 
 spirit. On 22 April, 1920, the Government issued 
 decrees, naming Mgr. Ruch as Bishop of Strasburg 
 and Mgr. Pelt as Bishop of Metz. Such a decision 
 entailed negotiations with Rome. There was be¬ 
 sides the desire to permanently remove the issue 
 of “clericism” from French politics. From the 
 formation of the Radical-Socialist Party in 1901 to 
 November, 1919, with the exception of a few min¬ 
 isters, the Government has been in the hands of the 
 parties of the Left, who were united on one issue— 
 hostility to the Catholic Church. The result of 
 this anti-clerical intolerance upon the political life 
 of France has been largely to remove the very 
 type of men needed to give stability and character 
 to the Republic. 
 
 Mgr. Bonaventuro Ceretti, titular Archbishop of 
 Corinth, was appointed nuncio to France, 20 May, 
 1921, and presented his letters of credit to the 
 President of the Republic 6 August following. He 
 was born at Orvieto, 17 June, 1872, ordained 31 
 March, 1895, and attached to the Congregation 
 of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs. In 1904 he 
 was made a papal chamberlain and Apostolic Dele¬ 
 gate to Mexico; later he was auditor of the dele¬ 
 gation at Washington, and in April, 1914, was 
 appointed titular Archbishop of Philippopolis and 
 Apostolic delegate to Australia, and New Zealand. 
 He was consecrated in St. Peter’s, Rome, by Car¬ 
 dinal Merry del Val, 19 July and solemnly received 
 at Sydney the following year. In May, 1914, he 
 was transferred to the see of Corinth. Recalled 
 to Rome he was appointed Secretary of Extraor¬ 
 dinary Ecclesiastical Affairs, 1917, and the following 
 year named Consultor of the Congregation for the 
 Eastern Churches. Mgr. Cerretti was entrusted 
 with very important missions in the United States 
 and Ireland in 1919, and later in Paris, where 
 through his negotiations advantages were obtained 
 for Catholic Missions in the Treaty of Versailles. 
 M. Charles Jonnart, senator, represents France at 
 the Vatican, having been appointed Ambassador 
 Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary 18 
 May, 1921. 
 
 Franciscan Order. See Friars Minor. 
 
 Frascati, Diocese of (Tusculanensis; cf. C. E., 
 VI-243a), in the province of Latium, Central Italy, 
 a suburbicarian see, at present filled by His Emi¬ 
 nence Cardinal Giovanni Cagliero, a Salesian, b. 
 11 January, 1838, in the Diocese of Turin, pupil of 
 Don Bosco, ordained 14 June, 1862, missionary to 
 Patagonia in 1875, was appointed Vicar Apostolic 
 of Patagonia, 30 September, 1884, and titular bishop 
 of Magydos 13 November following, consecrated at 
 Turin 7 December; promoted as titular archbishop 
 
 of Sebaste, 24 March, 1904. He was named Apostolic 
 Delegate to Costa Rica, 10 June, 1908. Created 
 cardinal priest 6 December, 1915, he received the 
 hat and the title of San Bernardo alle Terme three 
 days later. On 16 December, 1920, he was trans¬ 
 ferred to Frascati, of which he took possession 16 
 January, .1921, to succeed His Eminence Cardinal 
 Cassetta, appointed 27 November, 1911, d. 23 
 March, 1919. He resides in Rome. The diocese 
 comprises (1920) 35,000 Catholics, 8 parishes, 38 
 secular and 115 regular clergy, 40 seminarians, and 
 numerous monasteries representing all the great 
 orders. 
 
 Free Church of Scotland ( c f. C. E., VI-257b) — 
 For many years previous to the World War the 
 question of union with the Established Church of 
 Scotland had been a burning one. The war put 
 a stop to the negotiations, which many thought 
 were on a fair way to success, and since then no 
 definite action has been taken. On 31 December, 
 1919, the Free Church had 1489 congregations, 
 528,000 members (communicants and connections) 
 2050 Sunday schools, with 21,647 teachers and 
 201,000 pupils. These figures seem to indicate a 
 loss in most particulars, and a lack of healthy 
 growth in number of members, when compared 
 with statistics taken from the same source (States¬ 
 man’s Year-Book), according to which there were, 
 in 1903, 1675 congregations, 501,000 members, 2475 
 Sunday schools, with 26,541 teachers and 344,000 
 children. This condition is due in part to defec¬ 
 tions to the “Wee Frees,” who rose from 26 con¬ 
 gregations to 150 in the same period. 
 
 Stephens, The Presbyterian Churches, Divisions and Unions 
 m Scotland, Ireland, Canada, and America (Phila., 1910); 
 Balfour An Historical Account of the Rise and Development 
 of Presbyterianism in Scotland (Cambridge University, 1911); 
 Selbie, Free Church and Lambeth Appeal in Constructive 
 Quarterly IX (1921), 645; Statesman’s Year-Book (London, 
 annual) ; Orr, The Scottish Church Question in IJibbert Jour¬ 
 nal, XII (1913-14), 306. n c 
 
 Gerald Shaughnessy. 
 
 Freiburg, Archdiocese of (cf. C. E., VI-264b), 
 in the former archduchy of Baden, which has been 
 a republic since 9 November, 1918. According to 
 the latest, census the population of the city of 
 Freiburg is 90,000. Within the city limits there 
 are 8 parishes and 3 parochial curacies, and 18 
 Catholic churches and chapels. At the present time 
 there are 80 priests stationed at Freiburg, seven of 
 whom are Franciscans.. The Vincentian Sisters 
 (200) have charge of 21 institutions, the Franciscan 
 Sisters (81) have 5 institutions, the Sisters of the 
 Holy Cross (180) have 6 institutions. During the 
 Summer term of 1921 the University of Freiburg 
 was attended by 3931 students and has a teaching 
 body of 175. The members of the Catholic theo¬ 
 logical faculty numbered 14, and the students of 
 theology 379. Since 1911 the university classes are 
 held in an imposing new building, in which there 
 is a so-called mensa academica where the students 
 can procure cheap, wholesome meals. Mention 
 should also be made of the Sapienz, a residence 
 for priests who are continuing their studies, and a 
 students’ home, called “Albertus burse.” The Arch¬ 
 diocese of Freiburg embraces Baden and the prop¬ 
 erty of the Hohenzollerns in Prussia. The Cath¬ 
 olics in the archdiocese number 1,340,722. The 
 civil powers no longer have a voice in the appoint¬ 
 ment of a bishop. There are in the archdiocese 
 44 deaneries, 894 parishes, 40 parochial curacies and 
 14 chaplaincies with 813 pastors, 37 parochial ad¬ 
 ministrators, 40 curates, 310 vicars who are active 
 in parish work, and 161 priests employed in other 
 capacities. The entire number of secular clergy 
 in the archdiocese is 1472, of regulars 120. 
 
FREIBURG 
 
 326 
 
 FREJUS 
 
 The following monasteries for men are situated 
 in the diocese: Beuron (Benedictine) 65 priests, 
 17 scholastics, 12 lay brothers; Gorheim (Sigmarin- 
 gen Franciscans), 13 priests, 17 scholastics, 15 
 lay brothers; Freiburg (Franciscans), 7 priests, 3 lay 
 brothers; Sackingen (Capuchins), 6 priests, 3 lay 
 brothers; Zell (Capuchins), 5 priests, 1 lay brother; 
 Waghausel (Capuchins), 5 priests, 3 lay brothers; 
 Bickesheim (Redemptorists), 3 priests, 4 lay 
 brothers; Birnau (Cistercians), 8 priests, 4 lay 
 brothers; Bronbach (Cistercians), 6 priests, 4 
 lay brothers. Since 1918 male orders and congre¬ 
 gations are permitted to have foundations in Baden 
 and the following orders are now established there: 
 White Fathers at Haigerloch (10 priests, 8 brothers); 
 Pallotini Fathers at Bruchsal; Fathers of the Holy 
 Ghost at Donaueschingen. There are also Brothers 
 of Charity at five stations. The entire number of 
 monasteries for men in the archdiocese, inclusive of 
 3 missionary establishments, is 12, including 1 abbey 
 with 360 regulars (including lay brothers). The 
 total number of lay brothers is 114. The entire 
 .mmber of monasteries and convents for women is 
 8, situated as follows: Sisters of the Holy Sepulchre 
 (40 members), Benedictines at Habstal (30), Domin¬ 
 icans at Constance (60), Cistercians at Lichtental 
 (65), Ursulines at Villingen (75). The total num¬ 
 ber of nuns exceeds 300. 
 
 The following congregations devoted to charitable 
 works are active in the archdiocese: Sisters of St. 
 Vincent de Paul, mother-house at Freiburg, 327 
 establishments, 1199 Sisters; Sisters of St. Francis 
 from Gengenbach, 317 establishments, 1037 Sisters; 
 Sisters of the Holy Cross from Ingenbohl at Hegne, 
 304 establishments, 1134 Sisters; Sisters of the Third 
 Order of St. Dominic at Neusatzeck, 4 foundations; 
 Sisters of St. Joseph of St. Mark (Alsace), provin¬ 
 cial house St. Trudpert, 45 convents, 114 Sisters; 
 Sisters of St. Francis of Milwaukee, 104 convents, 
 400 Sisters, provincial house at Erlenbad; Sisters of 
 the Holy Redeemer of Oberbronn (Alsace), pro¬ 
 vincial house at Buhl, 68 convents, 574 Sisters; 
 Sisters of St. Vincent de Paul, mother-house Stras- 
 burg, 12 convents, 75 Sisters; Sisters of the Holy 
 Cross, Strasburg-Neudorf, 10 convents, 36 Sisters; 
 Sisters of St. Francis of Mallersdorf, Bavaria, 5 con¬ 
 vents, 32 Sisters; Sisters of the Divine Infant Jesus, 
 Wurzburg Oberzell, 3 convents, 6 Sisters; Sisters 
 of Christian Charity, Paderborn, 2 convents, 9 Sis¬ 
 ters; Sisters of the Divine Redeemer, Wurzburg, 3 
 convents, 7 Sisters; Sisters of the Holy Cross, 
 Menzingen, 4 convents, 9 Sisters; Sisters of St. 
 Vincent de Paul, Augsburg, 1 convent, 2 Sisters. 
 The following institutions and charitable organiza¬ 
 tions are in charge of the various orders of Sisters: 
 560 homes for visiting nursing Sisters; 125 hospitals 
 in charge of the Sisters of Charity; 30 homes and 
 alms houses; 7 foundling asylums; 400 day nur¬ 
 series; 20 asylums; 4 refuges for wayward girls; 
 1 asylum for the feeble-minded; 2 homes for crip¬ 
 ples; several soup kitchens; 7 convalescent homes 
 for children; 1 convalescent home for mothers; 1 
 convalescent home for war veterans; 5 homes for 
 working women and employees; 1 convalescent 
 
 home for priests. 
 
 Aside from the above mentioned schools, educa¬ 
 tional institutions and university, there are in the 
 archdiocese of Freiburg: the University of Heidel¬ 
 berg with 2481 students and 188 professors and a 
 Protestant theological faculty, an Institute of 
 Technology at Karlsruhe, an Institute of Commerce 
 in Mannheim, altogether 43 high schools, gymnasia, 
 6 obereaJschulen and girls’ high schools, 6 training 
 schools, 5 gymnasial boarding schools at Freiburg, 
 Rastatt, Constance, Sigmaringen, and Tauber- 
 
 bischofscheim; 3 boarding schools for high school 
 students, 1 home for theological, students (Col¬ 
 legium Sapientise), 1 home for students (Albertus 
 burse), 1 home for girl students (Hildegardisheim), 
 2 schools for the training of women social workers, 
 
 1 training school for kindergarten teachers, 1 caritas 
 school, 1 creche, 5 housekeeping schools, 1187 sew¬ 
 ing and needle-work schools. In the archdiocese 
 there are 4 homes for shop-girls, 12 for servants, 
 4 for apprentices, and 7 for journeymen. 
 
 Mention may be made of the following societies 
 among the clergy: the Unio Apostolica, the Unio 
 cleri pro missionibus, the Assecurantia clericorum, 
 and the Association for the support of sick priests. 
 The following societies and organizations are under 
 the care of the clergy: Marian Association of 
 Priests, St. Bonifatiusverein (its income during the 
 past year was 516,453 m.); Bonifatiusverein for 
 poor children and for missionary works in the arch¬ 
 diocese; society of the Holy Childhood, St. Francis 
 Xavier Association, Marian Congregation for young 
 women (420 branches), Marian Congregation for 
 boys and young men (60 branches), Marian Con¬ 
 gregation for men (20 branches), Marian Congre¬ 
 gation for students (3 branches), Association of 
 Christian Mothers (620 branches), Catholic Jour¬ 
 neymen’s Unions (70 branches), Workingmen’s 
 Unions (120 branches), boys and young men’s asso¬ 
 ciations (240 branches), working women’s associa¬ 
 tion (30 branches), servant girls’ associations (35 
 branches), association for women and civil service 
 employees (12 branches), People’s Union ( Volk - 
 verein, 490 branches), Borromausvereine, Catholic 
 Women’s League (10 branches), Catholic Students’ 
 League, Association of High School Students of 
 New Germany (15 branches), Association of Cath¬ 
 olic Social Workers (13 branches). The confra¬ 
 ternities include the Association of the Holy 
 Family, the Caritas Association with 8 bureaux 
 and committees in all parishes, St. Vincent de 
 Paul Society (25 branches), Elizabeth Verein, Girls’ 
 Protective Associations (14 branches), Association 
 of asylums and day nurseries. 
 
 There are 11 periodicals published within the 
 limits of the archdiocese, and 39 Catholic news¬ 
 papers. 
 
 The following distinguished clergymen have died 
 since 1915: Most Rev. Thomas Norber, Archbishop 
 of Freiburg; Rt. Rev. Justus Knecht, auxiliary 
 bishop of Freiburg; Rt. Rev. Mgr. Lorenz Werth- 
 mann, founder of the Caritas Association for 
 Catholic Germany and organizer of the charity 
 organizations throughout the country; Rev. Theo¬ 
 dore Wacker, for many years the distinguished 
 leader of the Center Party of Baden. 
 
 Archbishop Norber, born in Waldstetten 1846, 
 ordained 1870, served as vicar at Schwetzingen and 
 Mannheim and pastor at Seckach, Hardheim Lich- 
 tenthal, Thiergarten and Baden-Baden, was ap¬ 
 pointed archbishop 5 September, 1898, named an 
 assistant at the pontifical throne 9 May, 1900,. and 
 died 27 July, 1920, having celebrated the golden 
 jubilee of his priesthood. He was succeeded by 
 the present incumbent, Most Rev. Charles Fritz, 
 born in Adelhousen 1864, appointed 12 October, 
 1920. 
 
 Frejus, Diocese of (Forum Juliensis; cf. C. E., 
 VI-269d), suffragan of Aix. The present diocese 
 comprises the territory of the ancient Diocese of 
 Frejus, as well as that of the ancient Diocese 
 of Toulon. The most important events which have 
 taken place in the diocese since 1909 were the 
 solemn canonical coronation of the statue of Notre 
 Dame de Consolation at Hveres, and the centenaries 
 
FRENCH ACADEMY 
 
 FRIARS MINOR 
 
 327 
 
 of the churches of Notre Dame-des-Graces and of 
 bt. Joseph at Golignac. Throughout the war both 
 clergy and laity willingly and unselfishly gave their 
 services for their country. Among those who espe¬ 
 cially distinguished themselves was Abbe Rodie, 
 captain in the artillery, who was awarded the 
 Legion of Honor and received the croix de guerre 
 with three citations. The diocese is at present 
 administered by the Rt. Rev. Felix Guillibert, b. 
 at Aix, 1 November, 1842, ordained 24 December, 
 1805, appointed to the see of Frejus 21 February, 
 1906, consecrated at Rome 25 February following, 
 appointed inspector general of the chaplains, of 
 the French Navy 30 April, 1918, named chevalier 
 of the Legion of honor in August, 1921, for excep¬ 
 tional services rendered during the war. 
 
 In 1921 there were 322,945 Catholics in the dio¬ 
 cese, not including the black troops, namely, the 
 Senegalese, Moroccans, Algerians, and Malagasy. 
 There were 179 parishes with 28 parish churches 
 and 151 succursal churches, 1 monastery, 1 convent, 
 
 1 abbey for men, 2 Carmelite, 2 Dominican, 2 Capu- 
 chiness monasteries for women, 1 diocesan semi¬ 
 nary (60 seminarians), 1 seminary conducted by the 
 Dominicans for the training of missionaries, 1 
 preparatory seminary for boys, 2 colleges for boys. 
 
 Throughout the diocese there are numerous pub¬ 
 lic institutions, including lyceums, asylums, refuges, 
 naval and civil hospitals, day nurseries, all of which 
 admit the ministry of priests. Since the war the 
 government has founded an institution which edu¬ 
 cates and cares for those children who were left 
 orphans in consequence of the war. Three Catholic 
 periodicals are published in the diocese. Among 
 the clergy there is a co-operative association for 
 the purpose of ecclesiastical vestments. The prin¬ 
 cipal societies among the laity are the Association 
 chretienne de la jeunesse catholique and the Cath¬ 
 olic Workingmen’s Association. 
 
 French Academy, The (cf. C. E., I-89a), which 
 from 1635 up till the present day has included many 
 faithful sons of the Church, now has nine Cath¬ 
 olics among its thirty-five members. The list of 
 Academicians given in the order of priority of elec¬ 
 tion, with the names of the Catholic members 
 italicized, follows: le Comte d’Haussonville; Pierre- 
 Louis de Freycinet; Pierre-Louis Loti-Viaud; Ernest 
 Lavisse; Paul Bourget; Anatole France; Gabriel 
 Hanotaux; Henri Lavedan; Paul Deschanel; 
 Frederic Masson; Rene Bazin; Alexandre Ribot; 
 Maurice Barres; Maurice Donnay; Jean Richepin; 
 Raymond Poincare; Eugene Brieux; Rene Doumic; 
 Marcel Prevost; Mgr. Duchesne; Henri de Regnier; 
 General Lyautey; Etienne Boutroux; Alfred Capus; 
 Pierre de la Gorce; Henri Bergson; Marechal Joffre; 
 Louis Barthou; Henry Bordeaux; Mgr. Baudrillart; 
 Rene Boylesve-Tardiveau; Frangois de Curel; Jules 
 Cambon; Georges Clemenceau; Marechal Foch. 
 French Indo-China. See Indo-China. 
 Freudianism. See Psychoanalysis. 
 
 Friars Minor, Order of (cf. C. E., VI-281c; also 
 \I-217a).—By the Constitution “Quo Magis” of 23 
 October, 1911, Pope Pius X introduced important 
 changes into the order. He also relieved Fr. Schuler 
 of his responsibility, making him titular Archbishop 
 of Nazianzus, and appointed Pacificus Monza of 
 Vicenza (Venice) general of the order. At the 
 general chapter in 1915 Seraphine Cimino of Ischia 
 (Naples) became head of the order, and in 1921 
 the general chapter elected Bernardine Klumper of 
 Amsterdam (Holland) minister general. The tenure 
 of this last office was restricted by the Constitution 
 Quo Magis” to six years; re-election for one other 
 f crm, however, may be made by a simple (absolute) 
 
 majority of votes at the general chapter, which 
 must now be held every sixth year. By the same 
 Constitution the division of the order into cir¬ 
 cumscriptions was abolished, and only six definitors 
 general or counsellors are elected at the general 
 chapter, according to language (English, French 
 German, Hungarian-Slavic, Italian, Spanish), for a 
 term of six years. The procurator general’ holds 
 office for the same length of time, and, according 
 to the new regulations, he is delegatus a jure when¬ 
 ever the general is absent from Rome, and in case 
 of the latter’s death or cessation from office during 
 his term, the procurator ipso facto becomes vicar 
 general of the order and governs with full authority 
 until the general chapter convenes at the regular 
 sexennial period. In Spain all the provinces of the 
 order are governed by a vicar general and four 
 mter-provmcial counsellors who are elected for a 
 term of six # years and reside at Madrid. The 
 congregatio intermedia _ for the whole order and 
 the capitulum intermedium in the single provinces 
 have been abolished. As to head-dress, custom 
 permits the use of a hat with the habit in many 
 provinces of the order, and the great tonsure is 
 given only in some countries. 
 
 In October, 1920, the order had 16,248 members 
 of whom 8891 were priests and 2251 clerics* the 
 number of provinces was 99, with 837 convents and 
 801 residences (i. e., domus non formates). In the 
 United States the 5 provinces and 2 commissariats 
 (Polish at Pulaski, Wisconsin; Slovenian and 
 Croatian at New York) of the order (besides the 
 Commissariat of the Holy Land at Washington, 
 D. C.) comprised 35 convents, 108 residences, 654 
 priests, 256 clerics, and a total membership of 1236. 
 After the United States and several other countries 
 were removed from the jurisdiction of the Propa¬ 
 ganda and thereby lost their status as missionary 
 countries, the number of religious classified as mis¬ 
 sionaries was also considerably reduced. Thus, in 
 October, 1920, the statistics of the order showed 
 1120 missionary priests, 64 clerics, and about 200 
 lay brothers working in the foreign field. In 1921 
 the three Franciscan cardinals, Aguirre, Neto, and 
 Falconio, who had been raised to the purple in 
 November, 1911, being deceased, the order still in¬ 
 cluded among its members 8 archbishops, 34 bishops 
 (of whom 14 are vicars apostolic), and 2 prelates 
 nullius (of Santarem in Brazil and Mozambique in 
 Africa), besides 2 prefects apostolic and 3 superiors 
 of the missions in the Holy Land, in Upper Egypt, 
 and in Constantinople. Among notable members 
 recently deceased are: David Fleming (d. 1915) ■ 
 Agostino Gemelli, first rector of the Catholic Uni¬ 
 versity of Milan; and the celebrated composer of 
 many classic oratorios, Hartmann von An-der-Lan 
 Hochbrunn (d. 1914). 
 
 Owing to the reform of the Breviary under Pope 
 Pius X the dates assigned in the calendar for the 
 feasts of several of the saints and of a number of 
 the Blessed have been changed. Since 1909 sixteen 
 Friars Minor have been added to the catalogue of 
 Beati whose feasts are celebrated throughout the 
 order, viz.: Gerard Cagnoli, d. 1342 (2 January); 
 Roger of Todi, d. 1237 (28 January); Giles of 
 Lorenzano, d. 1518 (28 January); John Baptist of 
 Fabriano, d. 1539 (11 March); Christopher of 
 Milan, d. 1485 (11 March); Mark of Montegallo, 
 d. 1497 (20 March); Hippolytus Galantini, d. 1619 
 (20 March); Gandulphus of Binasco, d. 1260 (3 
 April); Julian Cesarrelli, d. c. 1350 (11 May); John 
 of Aragon and Peter of Duenas, martyred at 
 Granada, 1397 (22 May); Timothy of Monticulo, 
 d. 1504 (26 August); Bonaventure of Barcelona, d. 
 1684 (11 September); Christopher of Romandiola, 
 
FRIARS MINOR 
 
 FRIARS MINOR 
 
 328 
 
 d 1272 (31 October); Anthony Bonfadini, d. 1482 
 (i December); Nicholas of Dalmatia, martyred at 
 
 Jerusalem, 1391 (5 December) . _ 
 
 Friars Minor in America (cf. C. E., Vl-298a). 
 
 On 11 September, 1885, the Province of Cincinnati, 
 Ohio, was established under the invocation of St 
 John the Baptist. In October, 1897, at the request 
 of the Most Rev. Peter Bourgade, this province 
 accepted missions in New Mexico and northern 
 Arizona among the Navajo and Pueblo Indians, 
 and a little later their activity was al s° extended 
 to the Mexican and Spanish settlers ofthat terri¬ 
 tory To - further their work among the Navajo 
 tribe, the Fathers made a special study of that 
 language and with much difficulty and labor suc¬ 
 ceeded 8 in editing a “Vocabulary” in 2 volumes 
 and an “Ethnologic Dictionary of the Navajo 
 language, together with a short catechism and 
 Bible History in the same tongue. With the eleva¬ 
 tion of one of their brethren, Rev. Albert Daeger, 
 to the Archbishopric of Santa Fe (consecrated 7 
 Mav 1919), a new impetus was given to their mis¬ 
 sionary zeal, and many new parishes and missions 
 were undertaken with great success. At present the 
 province numbers 5 monasteries, 43 residences, 1 
 bishop, 172 priests, 54 professed clerics (22 m 
 philosophy and 32 in theology), 9 novice clerics, 
 53 professed lay brothers, 10 tertiaries professed, 
 and 2 tertiary novices. The Fathers conduct a 
 preparatory seminary, attended by 96 students, and 
 are in charge of 46 parishes, 143 missions and 
 stations, including the Indian missions m New 
 Mexico and Arizona, 45 parish schools attended by* 
 12 000 pupils, 2 Catholic Indian schools, and a 
 number of Indian Government schools are also 
 attended by the Fathers. Eight Fathers on the 
 missionary band are continually engaged m preach¬ 
 ing missions to the people. The Friars of this 
 province also publish “Der Sendbote, a German 
 monthly periodical for the Apostleship of Prayer, 
 the “St. Anthony Messenger” for the members^of 
 the Third Order of St. Francis, ' The Sodalist, a 
 monthly for the young people, and the Franciscan 
 Missions of the Southwest,” an annual for the mem¬ 
 bers of the Indian Preservation Society. 
 
 The Province of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, with 
 provincial house in St. Louis, Mo., numbers 219 
 priests, 73 clerics, 100 lay Brothers, 23 Fathers in 
 Indian missions, 1 in China, 2 at the Catholic Uni¬ 
 versity, Washington, D. C., 10 monasteries, 23 resi¬ 
 dences, 81 parishes, 56 missions, stations, and 
 institutions, 4 houses of studies, 1 college for 
 aspirants to the order, 1 college with commercial, 
 classical, and philosophical course. On 7 November, 
 1915, the convents and missions, which had con¬ 
 stituted the commissariat of California, were 
 detached from the Province of the Sacred Heart 
 and formed into a separate. province under the 
 patronage of St. Barbara, virgin and martyr. lfns 
 province now embraces the Franciscans in Cali¬ 
 fornia, southern Arizona, southern New Mexico 
 Oregon, and Washington, with provincial resident 
 in San Francisco. The status of the province is as 
 follows: 99 priests, 17 professed clerics, 6 novices, 
 57 lay brothers, 1 novice, 14 tertiaries regular, 5 
 monasteries, 10 residences among whites, 6 resi¬ 
 dences among Indians, 21 parishes, 40 mission sta¬ 
 tions among Indians, 1 seminary with 70 students 
 for the order, 4400 children in parochial schools, 
 and about 400 Indian children in mission schools. 
 
 The Province of the Most Holy Name, with 
 provincial house in New York City, has 6 monas¬ 
 teries, 8 residences, 102 priests, 59 professed clerics, 
 21 novices, 52 lay brothers. The Fathers have 
 charge of 12 parishes, 31 missions, 4 houses of 
 
 studies, 1 seraphic seminary, 1 ecclesiastical semi¬ 
 nary, 1 classical, commercial, and pre-medical col¬ 
 lege 2 high schools, 11 parish schools attended by 
 about 3000 pupils. They publish “The Franciscan,^ 
 a monthly, “St. Anthony’s Almanac The Laurel 
 and “The Seminary Year Book.” The Province of 
 the Immaculate Conception, with provincial house 
 in New York, comprises 3 monasteries, 10 residences, 
 
 48 priests, 13 professed clerics, 6 novices 6 professed 
 lay brothers, 4 tertiaries regular, 7 students for the 
 priesthood, 12 parishes, 1 college with 25 students, 
 
 6 parish schools with 4200 children, 1 asylum for 
 
 b °The Polish Franciscans in Wisconsin constitute a 
 commissariat, under the title of the Assumption of 
 the Blessed Virgin Mary, composed of 22 priests, 
 
 20 professed clerics, 5 novices, 31 professed lay 
 brothers, 2 novices, 11 tertiaries regular 1 postulant, 
 
 1 monastery, 1 seraphic college, 2 residences, and 2 
 mission stations. On 2 August, 1912, the commis¬ 
 sariat of the Holy Cross was established in New 
 York City for Slovenian and Croatian Friars. It 
 embraces 15 priests, 6 professed clerics, 5 novices 
 
 7 postulants, 7 professed lay brothers, 2 novices, 10 
 residences, 10 parishes, and 2 mission stations. 
 
 The first Franciscan friary in Canada was founded 
 in Montreal 24 June, 1890, exactly 275 years after 
 the first Mass celebrated on Canadian land (24 June, 
 1615), and that by a Franciscan Recollect, Fr. Joseph 
 Le Caron, and more than a century since the last 
 Recollet died in Canada. The foundator was Very 
 Rev. Otho Ransan de Pavie, Minister Provincial 
 of the Province of St. Louis d’Anjou, m France, 
 sent directly bv the Minister General, Most Rev'. 
 Aloysius of Parma. He had, however, been preceded 
 by Rev. Frederic of Ghyvelde (1881), who made a 
 short stay in Canada where he became very popular 
 and where he returned in 1888 to found the Com¬ 
 missariat for the Holy Land. He died at Mon¬ 
 treal in 1916, and many favors are attributed to 
 his intercession. Until 23 March, 1920, when the 
 Franciscan friaries in Canada were erected into an 
 independent commissariat with Very Rev. ” e an- 
 Joseph Deguire as first commissary provincial, the 
 Franciscans in Canada had been subjects of the 
 French provinces of the order. After the expulsion 
 from France of religious orders, the provincial tem¬ 
 porarily took up his residence in Montreal. Ihree 
 monthly reviews are published in Canada, two in 
 French, “La Revue Franciscaine” and “La Tem¬ 
 perance,” and one in English, “The Franciscan 
 Review and St. Anthony’s Record”; and also a 
 yearly calendar in French, “L’Almanach Franciscam 
 The Fathers of the province have also published 
 many books on all kinds of subjects, making a 
 total of 278 for the period 1890-1915. They are 
 the leaders of the Temperance League, for which 
 during the first two years, besides many single ser¬ 
 mons and 78 lectures with luminous projections, 160 
 triduums and retreats were preached. Persons 
 known to have taken the pledge number over 
 80,000. Members of the Third Order under the 
 obedience of the Franciscans in Canada number 
 over 75,000 with a church of their own in Montreal, 
 six houses in different places, and two libraries. 
 
 Statistics for the order in Canada are as follows: 
 70 priests, 46 professed clerics, 14 novice clerics, 2 
 novice lay brothers, 45 professed lay brothers, 23 
 postulants, 3 Tertiary Brothers Regular, 2 parishes, 
 3 mission centers (New Brunswick, Alberta, and 
 Japan), with numerous stations and outposts, 5 
 monasteries (guardianates), 4 residences or hospices, 
 1 college with 110 seraphic students. Another col¬ 
 lege for the education of future missionaries is to 
 be founded as soon as circumstances permit. 
 
FRIENDS 
 
 329 
 
 FUNFKIRCHEN 
 
 Friends, Society of (Quakers; cf. C. E., VI- 
 304d). I. Orthodox .—In recent years there has 
 been a strong tendency toward greater unity of 
 effort in the fields of home and foreign missions, 
 Bible schools, education, evangelistic work, phi¬ 
 lanthropy, and social reform. The Friends have 
 joined the Federal Council of the Churches of 
 Christ in America, and are taking part in the prepa¬ 
 rations for the World Conference on Faith and 
 Order. The official position of the Friends in the 
 World War was practically the same as that taken 
 in the American Revolution. Their position was 
 recognized by Congress in the Selective-Draft Act, 
 which provided for assignment of drafted Friends 
 to noncombatant service. They organized the 
 American Friends Service Committee (participated 
 in by the four branches of Friends), carrying out 
 its work as a part of the civilian branch of the 
 American Red Cross, for the purpose of furthering 
 reconstruction work in France. They were also 
 prominent in relief work in Central Europe after 
 the war. 
 
 II. Primitive .—Since 1906 the meetings of the 
 Primitive Friends in New England and New York 
 have become component parts of the “Wilburite” 
 yearly meetings in New England and Canada. 
 
 The four bodies (Orthodox, Hicksite, Wilburite, 
 and Primitive) reported, in 1921, 1331 ministers, 
 985 church edifices, and 119,294 members in the 
 United States (Christian Herald, 7 March, 1921). 
 
 Religious Bodies , 1916 (Washington, D. C., 1919); Year 
 Book of the Churches , 1920 (New York, 1920). 
 
 N. A. Weber. 
 
 Fu-chow, Vicariate Apostolic of. See Yii-Kiang. 
 Fu-kien, Vicariate Apostolic of (Fokiensis), in 
 China, with residence at Fu-ohow. The present 
 vicar apostolic also is Rt. Rev. Francisco Aguirre, 
 0. P., titular Bishop of Botrys or Botra, b. 22 
 February, 1863, in Elgaibar in the Diocese of 
 Vitoria, professed. 14 September, 1883, ordained 
 24 April, 1887, arrived in China, December follow¬ 
 ing, provincial vicar 31 May, 1910, appointed 13 
 December, 1911, consecrated at Buichu, 16 June, 
 1912. 
 
 rhere are in the vicariate (1920) a total popu- 
 
 ation of 17,000,000 souls of whom 49,160 are Catho¬ 
 lics 25,800 catechumens. There are 31 missionary 
 2 } + natlve P|' iests > 175 churches or chapels, and 
 112 stations. The work of the Holy Childhood is 
 flourishing in this vicariate, where there are three 
 establishments run by the Spanish Dominican Sis¬ 
 ters of the Philippines. In 1913 they received 4518 
 little girls and more than 6000 in 1914. 
 
 Fulda, Diocese of (Fuldensis; cf. C. E 
 VI-313c), in Germany. In 1920 the Catholics num¬ 
 bered 216,000. The diocese contains 120 parishes, 
 40 curacies, 15 deaneries, 245 secular priests, 216 
 of whom are charged with the care of souls and 
 39 are otherwise occupied. The diocesan institu¬ 
 tions are: the episcopal seminary at Fulda with 8 
 professors of theology, a hospice at Fulda under 
 the care of the bishop for students attending the 
 state gymnasium or the city Oberrealschule (8 
 years scientific course), the episcopal Latin schools 
 at Amoneburg, Geisa, Hunfeld, Orb, and Grossau- 
 heim. The present bishop is the Rt. Rev. Adam 
 Schmitt, b. at Marbach 22 April, 1858, ordained 
 22 October, 1882, elected bishop 29 December, 1906, 
 consecrated and enthroned 19 March, 1907, and 
 published 18 April following. 
 
 Funchal, Diocese of (Funchalensis; cf. C. E., 
 VI-318d), comprising the Madeira Islands, the three 
 islands of Las Deserta, Porto-Santo, Falcon-Baio, 
 and Selvagern, a total of about 314 sq. miles, is 
 suffragan of Lisbon. The bishop, Rt. Rev. Antonio- 
 Emmanuel Pereira Ribeiro, b. 16 February, 1879, 
 doctor of theology and vicar capitular of Funchal, 
 appointed 2 October, 1914, proclaimed 22 January, 
 1915, succeeding Mgr. Barreto, deceased. There 
 are no statistics later than 1900. Charles, former 
 Emperor of Austria and apostolic king of Hungary 
 (born in 1887) was exiled to Madeira and arrived 
 at Funchal 19 November, 1921, where he died 1 
 April, 1922. 
 
 Funeral Dues. See Burial. 
 
 Funfkirclien, Diocese of. See Pecs. 
 
G 
 
 Gaboon, Vicariate Apostolic of (Gabonensis), 
 in Central Africa, originally known as the Vicariate 
 Apostolic of the Two Guineas. A part of the terri¬ 
 tory comprised in this vicariate, the mission of the 
 Estuary of Mouni, founded in 1894, was ceded to 
 Germany by the Franco-German treaty of 4 Novem¬ 
 ber, 1911. The mission, which at that time counted 
 500’ Christians and 1000 Catechumens, had 2 priests, 
 
 2 Brothers, and 1 school. Gaboon, which is en¬ 
 trusted to the Fathers of the Holy Ghost, has its 
 official residence at Sainte Marie du Gabon. Ht. 
 Rev. John Martin Adam, who was appointed to 
 this vicariate 16 February, 1897, retired 7 May, 
 1914, and was appointed auxiliary at Bordeaux. 
 Rt. Rev. Louis Martrou, born in Riom-es-Mon- 
 tagnes, France, 1876, entered the Congregation of 
 the Holy Ghost 1 )7, and made superior of the mis¬ 
 sion of Gaboon in 1909, was appointed .titular 
 Bishop of Corycus and coadjutor to the vicar 10 
 December, 1911, and succeeded as vicar apostolic 
 upon the resignation of Bishop Adam. 
 
 According to 1920 statistics this territory has a 
 total population of 10,000,000, of which 14,939 are 
 Catholics and 4200 heretics. The mission is served 
 by 20 missionary priests, 26 Brothers, 58 catechists, 
 
 6 stations, 16 chapels, 1 seminary, 25 schools, 12 
 hospitals, and 44 Sisters of the Immaculate Concep¬ 
 tion of Castres. 
 
 Gabriel, Brothers of Saint. See Saint Gabriel, 
 Brothers of. 
 
 Gabriel Possenti, Saint (cf. C. E., VI-330a), 
 whose canonization, the first in the reign of Bene¬ 
 dict XV, took place on 13 May, 1920. Present at 
 the ceremony was his brother, Dr. Michele Pos¬ 
 senti, of Camerino. His feast is celebrated on 27 
 
 April. 
 
 Gaeta, Archdiocese of (Caietanensis), in the 
 province of Caserta, Southern Italy, directly sub¬ 
 ject to the Holy See. By a pontifical Decree of 
 21 March, 1921, the boundaries of this diocese were 
 slightly changed, the town of Vallecorsa being in¬ 
 corporated in the Diocese of Veroli. Most Rev. 
 Francesco Niola, promoted to this see 14 Decem¬ 
 ber, 1891, died 14 August, 1920, and was succeeded 
 by Rt. Rev. Pasquale Berardi, born in the diocese 
 of Trivento 1861, appointed Bishop of Ruvo 24 
 March, 1898, and promoted 21 April, 1921. ibe 
 diocese comprises a Catholic population 
 statistics) of 83,600, 42 parishes, 193 secular and 
 10 regular clergy, 30 seminarians, 4 Brothers, oU 
 Sisters, and 97 churches or chapels. 
 
 Galatians, Epistle to the (cf. C. E., VI-336a).—- 
 The historical setting and the precise meaning of 
 St Paul’s Epistle to the Galatians continue to be 
 the subject of interesting discussion. We give below 
 only the principal works which have appeared since 
 Father Aherne’s article in 1909. Father Lagrange, 
 whose commentary is the most important contribu¬ 
 tion to the recent literature of the subject-, defends 
 the North Galatian theory and the late date. fc. 
 a. d. 53 to 57). He is sure that the “Galatian coun¬ 
 try” of Acts xvi, 6, and xviii, 23, can only be the 
 ancient home of the Gauls of Asia, in the horthem 
 part of the Province Galatia; and that St. raul 
 could not designate as “Galatians” the Phrygians 
 and Lycaonians of the southern part of the province, 
 
 3 
 
 whom he and Barnabas had converted during the 
 first missionary journey (c. 47^49). “With the 
 immense majority of interpreters,” he regards Gal. 
 ii, 1-10, as St. Paul’s account of the meeting at 
 Jerusalem related by Acts xv, written several years 
 after it took place. Dom Hopfl defends similar 
 views in his Introduction to the New Testament. 
 
 So does Father Prat in his recent revision of his 
 “Theologie de St. Paul.” On the other hand, 
 Fathers Levesque and Keogh, with Sir W. M. 
 Ramsay, contend that the Epistle was addressed 
 to the Churches of Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, and 
 Derbe, in South Galatia, before the Council of 
 Jerusalem. It would be the earliest of St. Paul’s 
 Epistles, written c. a. d. 49. Professor Burton 
 favors the South Galatian theory, but agrees with 
 Father Lagrange concerning the date of the Epistle. 
 
 In the interpretation of the Epistle Fathers La¬ 
 grange and Levesque maintain that the opponents 
 of St. Paul in Galatia advocated circumcision and 
 the observance of the Mosaic law as necessary 
 for salvation, as did the Judaizers of whom St. 
 Luke tells us in Acts xv. Like the Pharisees, they 
 would have counted on the works of the law as 
 a principle of justification, so attributing to human 
 efforts effects which belonged exclusively to Gods 
 mercy and the merits of Christ’s death. It is, 
 indeed, hard to understand on any other supposi¬ 
 tion St. Paul’s arguments, his emotions, his fear 
 for his converts, his denunciation of those who 
 disturb them. The Judaistic teachers are accused 
 of perverting the Gospel; those who accept cir¬ 
 cumcision are said to cut themselves off from 
 Christ. St. Paul would not so speak of the obser¬ 
 vance of the Mosaic law if it were not based on a 
 subversive error. It is obvious that this view of 
 the Judaizers’ error should incline one to think 
 of the Epistle as written before the Council of 
 Jerusalem. After it the Judaizers could not appeal 
 to the authority of Pete; and James; nor could 
 they wield such dangerous authority over the 
 .Galatians, who were clearly desirous of persevering 
 in the doctrine of the Apostles. Writing after the 
 Council St. Paul would, we should think have 
 simply told the Galatians that the thesis defended 
 by the Judaizers had been submitted to the Apos¬ 
 tles and Elders at Jerusalem and there condemned 
 promptly, solemnly, and decisively. Father Prat, 
 however, still holds as more likely that the Judai¬ 
 zers only advocated circumcision as a means of 
 becoming more perfect Christians; and so much 
 can be said in favor of this view and in favor of 
 bringing together in point of time the Epistle to 
 the Galatians and the Epistle to the Romans that 
 no consensus of opinion may be expected among 
 the doctors in the near future. 
 
 Williams, The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Galatians 
 in Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges (Cambridge 
 1911); Ramsey, The Date of the Galatian Letter in Ihe 
 Expositor (1913) pp. 127 ff.; Loisy L Epitre ™xGalate*_ 
 (laris, 1916); Lagrange, Epitre aux Galates m Etudes Bib 
 liques (Paris, 1918); Idem, Apropos des destmataires de 
 VEpitre aux Galates in Revue Pratique d Apo/o£feaQue (Aug , 
 1920); Revue Biblique (1922), p. 148; Levesque Les desjtna- 
 taires de VEpitre aux Galates loc. cit., (Jan and Feb. 1920^, 
 1 Aug., 1921); Prat, La Theoloque de S. Paul (W20), Blr * , 
 The Epistle to the Galatians in Intemotional Critical ( r ° 
 mentary (New York, .1920); Keogh, The EjnsOe to ^ 
 tians in The Westminster Version o/ the Sacred Scriptures 
 (1920); Hopfl, Introductio Specialis in Libros Novi lesta 
 menti (Subiaco, 1922). 
 
 30 
 
GALGANI 
 
 331 
 
 GALELLI-NTJORO 
 
 Galgani, Gemma, Stigmatic, b. at Camigliano 
 in Tuscany on 12 March, 1870; d. 11 April, 1903. 
 On her mother’s side she was descended from the 
 noble family of the Landi. Unfortunately, there 
 was consumption in the whole family and for 
 that reason, when Gemma was two years old 
 she was cared for by two pious women named 
 Vallini and remained with them till she was six. 
 At the age of nine she made her First Com¬ 
 munion and from that time her life was one of 
 continual suffering. At the age of twenty the 
 death of her father left her and the rest of the 
 children in absolute destitution. She was at this 
 time at the point of death but was miraculously 
 saVed from the grave by the apparition of the 
 Blessed Gabriel Possenti (canonized 1920). She 
 was then taken into the household of a pious 
 woman in spite of the menace to its members on 
 account of her tuberculous condition. Her occu¬ 
 pations were mostly of a menial character and 
 entailed considerable mental as well as physical 
 suffering, all of which contributed to her sanctifi¬ 
 cation. She was the recipient of w r onderful spiritual 
 illuminations, ecstacies and visions, and on 8 June, 
 1899, was marked with the stigmata of the Passion 
 on the hands, feet, head and heart, not perma¬ 
 nently but at various intervals. Thenceforth her 
 sufferings increased in intensity until her death. 
 The cause of her beatification was introduced on 
 20 April, 1920. 
 
 Galla, Vicariate Apostolic of (Africa inter 
 Populos Galla), embraces the territory of the Galla 
 or Ormo tribes, in Abyssinia, Northern Africa. 
 Founded in 1846, the limits of this vicariate were 
 somewhat changed in 1906, and by a Decree of 28 
 April, 1914, a portion of its territory was taken 
 to form the prefecture apostolic of Jibuti (q.v.). 
 The vicariate of Galla is entrusted to the Capuchins 
 with the official residence at Harar. The present 
 vicar is Rt. Rev. Andre-Marie-Elie Jarosseau, born 
 in the diocese of Lugon, France, 1858, entered the 
 Congregation of Capuchins in 1876, and appointed 
 titular Bishop of Savatra 4 April, 1900. This terri¬ 
 tory embraces a population of 8,017,608 (1920 
 statistics), of whom about 17,608 are Catholics, 
 2,000,000 Schismatics and Monophysites, and most 
 of the remainder Mohammedans. The mission is 
 served by 20 Capuchin and 8 native priests, 21 
 churches, 23 chapels, an upper and lower seminary 
 with 41 students, 12 schools for boys and 4 for 
 girls, 4 orphanages, 7 Brothers of St. Gabriel, and 
 16 Franciscan Sisters of Calais. On 6 March, 1919, 
 one of the missionaries, Rev. Julien-Marie, a mem¬ 
 ber of this mission since 1902, was assassinated by 
 a band of Abyssinian brigands, at Minne among 
 the Aroussis tribes. 
 
 Galle, Diocese of (Gallensis; cf. C. E., VI-349d), 
 in Ceylon, has been making steady progress under 
 its first bishop, Rt. Rev. Joseph Van Reeth, who 
 was consecrated 19 March, 1895. At the present 
 time (1921) the total population-is about 1,037,086, 
 of whom 12,853 are Catholic. The number of con¬ 
 fessions has risen from 6381 (1897) to 46,065, and 
 the number of communions from 7196 to 183,868. 
 In 1897 only 335 boys and 376 girls attended the 
 14 Catholic schools; there are now some 3039 boys 
 and 1930 girls in 39 schools. St. Aloysius College, 
 under the Jesuit Fathers, now has an attendance of 
 500, and the Belgian Sisters of Charity of Jesus 
 and Mary have erected a third convent in the dio¬ 
 cese at Kegalla. Attached to each convent is a 
 room for lace-making. There are now 10 parishes, 
 27 churches and 32 chapels, 5 secular priests and 22 
 Jesuit Fathers, 4 lay brothers, 48 Sisters, 36 of whom 
 
 are Europeans and 12 natives. The Government 
 assists in the support of all the schools, and various 
 clubs, sodalities, and the Society of St. Vincent de 
 Paul are organized in the diocese. 
 
 In 1918 and 1919 the mission lost two zealous 
 workers by the deaths of Rev. Joseph Cooreman, 
 S.J., who joined the Ceylon mission 16 October’ 
 1895, and was later made vicar general of the dio¬ 
 cese, d. suddenly in Calcutta 1 March, 1918; and 
 Rev. Paul Cooreman, S.J., parish priest of Ham- 
 bantota, who joined the mission 5 December, 1899, 
 d. stricken by cholera while ministering to the sick 
 8 July, 1919. 
 
 Gallipoli, Diocese of (Gallipolitana; cf. C. E., 
 VI-366d), in the province of Lecce, Southern Italy, 
 is under the administration of Rt. Rev. Bishop 
 Muller, b. in Naples 1850, and appointed to this 
 see 29 July, 1898. During the World War all the 
 clergy of this diocese from the bishop down per¬ 
 formed numerous patriotic works, particularly in 
 the hospitals, which were filled with the English 
 and French wounded. 
 
 At the present time (1921) the diocese counts 
 7 parishes, 24 churches, 1 monastery for men, 1 
 convent for men, 35 secular and 2 regular clergy, 
 2 colleges for women with 45 students and 2450 
 children in elementary schools. One technical 
 school with 13 professors and a student body of 300 
 is supported by the Government. Among the 
 charitable institutions are 1 poorhouse, 1 infant 
 asylum, 1 home for the aged, 1 hospital and 1 
 orphan asylum and work-house. Eight societies 
 are established among the laity. The Catholic 
 population numbers approximately 25,000. 
 
 Galloway, Diocese of (Gallovidiana; cf. C. E., 
 VI-370a), underwent an interesting change in its 
 educational system when, in 1918, a law was placed 
 in the statutes of Great Britain whereby all the 
 Catholic schools of Scotland were incorporated in 
 every respect, financial and otherwise, in the Scot¬ 
 tish National system of education. At the same 
 time a guarantee was given to the effect that 
 Catholics should have separate schools with Cath¬ 
 olic teachers and supervised, with regard to reli¬ 
 gious education, by Catholic authorities. 
 
 On 19 January, 1914, Rt. Rev. William Turner, 
 who had filled the see from 1899, died, and was 
 succeeded by the present bishop, Rt. Rev. James 
 McCarthy, consecrated 9 June, 1914. 
 
 The diocesan statistics for 1921 show a Catholic 
 population of 16,469; 40 priests, 39 secular and 1 
 regular; 42 churches and chapels; 22 missions and 
 17 stations; 1 college under the Marist Brothers; 
 
 2 charitable institutions; 25 congregational schools 
 with an attendance of 3285. 
 
 Various religious orders of women are represented 
 in the diocese: the Benedictines, Poor Sisters of 
 Nazareth, Sisters of Charity, Sisters of St. Joseph, 
 Sisters of the Most Holy Cross and Passion, and 
 the Sisters of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary. 
 Among the laity the following societies are or¬ 
 ganized : Children of Mary, Young Men’s Society, 
 societies of St. Vincent de Paul, Holy Angels, 
 Mount Carmel, Propagation of the Faith, and 
 Sacred Heart and Needle-work Guild. 
 
 Galtelli-Nuoro, Diocese of (Galtellinensis 
 Norensis), in Sardinia, Italy, suffragan of Cagliari. 
 This see is filled by Rt. Rev. Luca Canepa, born 
 in Cagliari 1853, appointed 15 February, 1903. He 
 resides at Nuoro. The 1920 statistics credit the 
 diocese with 66,300 Catholics, 25 parishes, 66 secular 
 and 3 regular priests, 16 seminarians, and 213 
 churches or chapels. 
 
GALVESTON 
 
 332 
 
 GARNIER 
 
 Galveston, Diocese of (Galvestoniensis; cf. C. 
 E., VI-372b).—This diocese lost its fourth bishop, 
 Rt. Rev. Nicholas Aloysius Gallagher, on 21 Jan¬ 
 uary, 1918, after an incumbency of thirty-six years. 
 Born in Temperanceville, Ohio, 19 February, 1846, 
 he was consecrated titular Bishop of Canopus 30 
 April, 1882, and succeeded as Bishop of Galves¬ 
 ton 16 December, 1892. His successor is Rt. Rev. 
 Christopher Edward Byrne (b. in Byrnesville, Dio¬ 
 cese of St. Louis, 21 April, 1867), who was appointed 
 to the see 8 July, 1918, and consecrated by Arch¬ 
 bishop Glennon in St. Louis, 10 November, 1918. 
 During the past few years the Catholic population 
 of the diocese has increased from 56,000 (1909) to 
 98,178 in 1922. St. Mary’s Seminary at La Porte 
 has been taken over by diocesan priests (1911) and 
 new buildings, of a modern and complete sort, 
 erected (1919). Also a House of the Good Shep¬ 
 herd has been founded at Houston and a day 
 nursery opened at Austin, while throughout the 
 diocese Holy Name societies have been organized. 
 On March 14, 1922, the diocese of Galveston cele¬ 
 brated its diamond jubilee at St. Mary’s Cathedral, 
 Archbishop Shaw of New Orleans, pontificated, Arch¬ 
 bishop Glennon of St. Louis delivered the sermon, 
 and many prelates from other dioceses attended 
 the ceremonies. 
 
 For the duration of the war Rev. Marius S. 
 Chataignon was chaplain and liaison officer of the 
 36th Division, U. S. Army. The religious com¬ 
 munities of men in the diocese are: the Jesuits, 
 who have charge of St. Mary’s University, Galves¬ 
 ton; the Basilians (from Canada), managing St. 
 Thomas College, Houston; the Fathers of the Con¬ 
 gregation of the Holy Cross at Austin; the Paulist 
 Fathers at Austin; the Oblate Fathers, and the 
 Josephite Fathers. The religious communities of 
 women are: Sisters of Charity of the Incarnate 
 Word, Sisters of Charity (Emmitsburg), Sisters of 
 St. Dominic, Sisters of the Holy Cross, Sisters of 
 St. Mary, Sisters of Divine Providence, Ursuline 
 Sisters, Sisters of the Holy Family, Sisters of the 
 Blessed Sacrament. 
 
 Statistics for 1922 show the diocese to have 66 
 parishes, 79 missions, 145 churches, 32 stations, 86 
 secular and 35 regular priests, 5 lay brothers, 495 
 nuns and Sisters, 1 seminary with 31 seminarians, 1 
 university with 9 professors and 115 students, 3 col¬ 
 leges for men with 20 teachers and 437 students, 
 10 academies with 198 teachers and 2607 pupils, 
 5 training schools with 90 teachers and 275 pupils, 
 43 elementary schools with 197 teachers and 7928 
 pupils, 1 home for the aged, 1 orphanage, 6 hos¬ 
 pitals, 1 refuge, and 1 day nursery. There are one 
 organization ■ among the clergy and twenty-seven 
 among the laity, and one Catholic periodical is 
 published. 
 
 Galway and Kilmacduagh, Diocese of (Gal- 
 viensis et Duacensis), in County Connaught, Ire¬ 
 land- has the perpetual administration of Kilfenora 
 (Fenaborensis). Rt. Rev. Francis MacCormack re¬ 
 tired from this see in 1909, and was succeeded 
 by the present incumbent, Rt. Rev. Thomas O’Dea, 
 transferred from Clonfert 29 April, of the same 
 year. Born in Clonfert in 1858 he was appointed 
 bishop of that diocese 10 June, 1903, and conse¬ 
 crated 30 August following. On 21 May, 1921, 
 Bishop O’Dea appointed a diocesan chapter of 
 twelve on the authority of the Holy See. The reli¬ 
 gious orders of men established in this diocese in¬ 
 clude the Franciscans, Dominicans, Augustians, 
 Jesuits, Christian Brothers, and Patrician Brothers; 
 of women: Presentation Sisters, Sisters of Charity, 
 of Mercy, Poor Clares, and Dominicans. By the 
 
 1911 census the total population of these united 
 dioceses is 68,703, of whom 67,271 are Catholic. 
 The latest statistics (1922) credit them with 30 
 parishes, 79 secular and 22 regular priests, 53 
 churches, 4 houses of regular clergy, 16 convents, 
 
 2 colleges, 3 monasteries, and 2 homes of mis¬ 
 sionaries. The charitable institutions include 5 
 workhouses, 1 infirmary, 1 hospital, 2 industrial 
 schools, and 1 asylum. 
 
 Gap, Diocese of (Vapincensis; cf. C. E., VI- 
 378a), suffragan of Aix, includes the department of 
 Hautes-Alpes (France). The retreat for the clergy 
 of the diocese is a famous place of pilgrimage, 
 Notre Dame du Laus. The Catholic population 
 numbers 87,000 and is bound together with many 
 organizations for both clergy and laity. For the 
 former there is the Association of Priestly Per¬ 
 severance, a society for mutual aid called Mutualite 
 ecclesiastique, and an Association for Priestly De¬ 
 fence. Among the laity in practically every parish 
 there are pious societies of divers sorts, including 
 the Sodality of the Blessed Virgin, the Confra¬ 
 ternity of the Holy Rosary, Christian Mothers, etc. 
 
 Rt. Rev. Prosper-Amable Berthet, born at Heres 
 in Diocese of Gap, 17 February, 1838, ordained 
 23 June, 1861, elected Bishop of Gap 27 May, 1889. 
 While visiting the wounded in the military hos¬ 
 pital Bishop Berthet caught cold and died 25 
 October, 1914. His successor was Rt. Rev. Gabriel 
 de Llobet, born at Perpignan 19 January, 1872, 
 student at French Academy in Rome, where he 
 was ordained 30 May, 1896, and elected Bishop of 
 Gap at the consistory of 22 January, 1915. Mobil¬ 
 ized as an “auxiliary,” Bishop de Llobet was made 
 a military chaplain at his own request and was sent 
 to the front in March, 1916. Cited in orders of 
 1 November, 1918, awarded croix de guerre (2 cita¬ 
 tions), made chevalier of Legion of Honor 4 Sep¬ 
 tember, 1918, nominated with Mgr. Ruch, Bishop 
 of Strasbourg, by decree of consistory of 19 Novem¬ 
 ber, 1917, as inspector of chaplains and mobilized 
 clerics. The bishop was dismissed from the army 
 and re-entered his own diocese in January, 1919. 
 
 Since the war only “La croix des Hautes-Alpes” 
 has been published, besides the religious bulletin 
 issued twice a month by the bishop. There are 
 23 parishes in the diocese, with 23 churches, 221 
 missions, 221 stations, 3 convents for women with 
 280 religious, 195 secular priests, 2 seminaries (upper 
 and preparatory), the upper having 14 seminarians 
 and the lower 45, 8 free elementary schools with 
 25 teachers and 500 pupils, 1 home for the aged, 
 1 orphanage, and 3 hospitals. In the colleges at 
 Gap, Embrun, and Briangon a priest with the title 
 of chaplain is stationed to give religious instruction. 
 
 Garanhuns, Diocese of (Garanhunensis or 
 Geranhunensis), in the State of Pernambuco, 
 Brazil. This diocese was erected by a Consistorial 
 decree of 2 August, 1918, which took the southern 
 part of the diocese of Olinda for the new diocese, 
 making it suffragan of Olinda and giving it fifteen 
 parishes. The church of St. Anthony of Padua at 
 Garanhuns was made the cathedral, and the diocese 
 was given the privilege of sending two clerics to 
 the Latin-American College in Rome. Rt. Rev. 
 Joao Tavares de Moura, born in the diocese of 
 Olinda 1863, was appointed the first bishop 3 July, 
 1919. No statistics are yet published. 
 
 Garcia, Anne. See Anne of St. Bartholomew, 
 Blessed. 
 
 Gamier, Charles (cf. C. E., VI-388c).—The 
 cause of his beatification was introduced at Rome, 
 9 August, 1916. 
 
GARROLD 
 
 333 
 
 GEORGETOWN 
 
 Garrold, Richard Philip, English Jesuit and 
 writer, b. 2 February, 1874, at Hereford, England,; 
 d. 7 Jul}', 1920. He was educated at Hereford 
 Cathedral School and Pope’s Hall, Oxford, and 
 became a Catholic in 1896. He was the author of 
 the following popular stories for boys: “The Man’s 
 Hands and Other Stories,” “The Boys at St. Batts,” 
 “A Fourth Form Boy,” and “The Black Brother¬ 
 hood,” several of which have been translated into 
 French and German. He served as a chaplain with 
 the British forces in the World War. 
 
 Garzon, Diocese of (Garzoi^ensis), in the Re¬ 
 public of Colombia. This diocese, erected in 1900, 
 comprises the provinces of Neiva and Sur, and is 
 suffragan of Popayan. It is under the administra¬ 
 tion of its first bishop, Rt. Rev. Esteban Rojas, born 
 in Hato, Colombia, 1859, made his studies at the 
 Latin-American College at Rome, was ordained in 
 1883, appointed Bishop of Tolima (since suppressed) 
 18 March, 1895, and transferred 20 May, 1900. No 
 statistics are published. 
 
 Gatard, Augustine, Benedictine scholar, b. at 
 St. Brevin, near Nantes, France, 18 May, 1852; 
 d. at London, England, 22 November, 1920. He 
 was educated at the petit seminaire of Guerande, 
 St. Sulpice, and the Institut Catholique of Paris, 
 and was ordained at Nantes in 1886. After teach¬ 
 ing for some years in the Enfants Nantais he was 
 professed at Solesmes in 1894, and the following 
 year he assisted in founding St. Michael’s Abbey, 
 Farnborough, England. Dom Gatard was a zealous 
 exponent of religious music, in particular of the 
 Solesmes method of plainsong, which he introduced 
 at the Southwark Diocesan Seminary and West¬ 
 minster Cathedral. He took part in the Gregorian 
 Congress at Rome and Strassburg, and was director 
 of the Congress held at New York in 1920. Dom 
 Gatard is the author of: “Manual of Gregorian 
 Chant,” “A Primer of Plainsong,” “La musique 
 gregorienne,” and “Plain Chant,” a technical and 
 historical treatise, published after his death. In 
 addition he was a contributor to the “Dictionnaire 
 de theologie catholique” and “Dictionnaire d’arch- 
 eologie et de liturgie.” 
 
 Gavin, Michael, Jesuit, b. at Kilpeacon, Lim¬ 
 erick, Ireland, on 5 January, 1845; d. at Rochamp- 
 ton, England, on 28 June, 1919; son of Michael 
 and Eliza (Galhvey) Gavin. After preliminary 
 studies at Astleknock College, Ireland, and Stony- 
 hurst College, England, he entered the Society of 
 Jesus at the novitiate of Saint An,drea, Rome, on 
 23 April, 1864. He studied philosophy at Stony- 
 hurst and theology at Montauban (France), and 
 St. Bueno’s in Wales, where later he held a chair 
 of theology from 1878 to 1881. After his tertianship 
 he was appointed to the Jesuit church at Farm St., 
 London, where he spent the remaining thirty-five 
 years of his active life, highly esteemed as a 
 preacher and spiritual director, being in charge of 
 the men’s Sodality of the Immaculate Conception 
 for a quarter of a century. Among his publications 
 are “The Sacrifice of the Mass,” “The Memoirs of 
 Fr. Galhvey, S. J.,” and a collection of sermons. 
 
 Gennari, Casimiro, Cardinal, b. at Maratea, 20 
 December, 1839; d. in Rome, 31 January, 1914. He 
 was ordained in 1863 and then employed in minis¬ 
 terial work in the diocese of Conversano. In 1875 
 he founded the monthly review “II Monitore Eccle- 
 siastico,” whose purpose was to make known the 
 various legislative enactments and judicial pro¬ 
 nouncements in the life of the Church and also to 
 give the solutions and moral and canonical cases 
 which were of especial interest in that part of the 
 
 Peninsula. This publication became very popular 
 all through Italy and revealed the editor as an 
 accomplished theologian and canonist. He was 
 made Bishop of Conversano 13 May, 1888, and in 
 1897 was promoted to Rome by Pope Leo XIII, 
 who made him titular Bishop of Lepanto and As¬ 
 sessor of the Holy Office. He was promoted to the 
 cardinalate in 1900 and in 1908 was chosen as 
 Prefect of the Congregation of the Council, a post 
 which he occupied until his death. He was the 
 forty-fifth cardinal who died during the pontificate 
 of Pius X. 
 
 Genoa, Archdiocese of (Januensis), in the prov¬ 
 ince of Liguria, Northern Italy. This archdiocese, 
 which was the birth place of the late pope, Benedict 
 XV, was especially honored by him on 1 November, 
 
 1920, when he delegated the archbishop, Cardinal 
 Boggiani, to crown the statue of Our Lady de 
 Vineis with a crown of gold. The Madonna was 
 crowned in 1616 by Cardinal Spinola, who decreed 
 that every centenary of the crowding should be 
 celebrated. However, in 1916 the war prevented 
 the celebration of the feast and so the Holy Father, 
 born in the parish, and baptized in the shrine 
 church, ordered the feast to be celebrated four 
 years later, and granted special indulgences to those 
 who assisted at the crowning. On 29 April, 1912, 
 Most Rev. Andrea Caron was promoted to this 
 see and filled it until he retired, 23 December, 1914. 
 The Italian government refused to give its 
 exequatur to this appointment until 17 December, 
 1914, and as a result the diocese was forced to 
 remain practically under interdict for almost two, 
 years. Archbishop Caron was succeeded by Most 
 Rev. Lodovico Garotti 22 January, 1915, who died 
 three years later 23 December, 1918. His Eminence 
 Pio Tommaso, Cardinal Boggiani, was then pro¬ 
 moted to fill the see 10 March,. 1919. Born in 
 Bosco-Marengo, 1863, he entered the Dominican 
 Order in 1878, served as a missionary in Con¬ 
 stantinople, became prior of Raguse 189i, professor 
 in the Seminary of Genoa, administrator of the 
 diocese 1908, named apostolic visitor of the dioceses 
 of Northern Italy, and appointed Bishop of Adria, 
 16 October, 1908. In 1910, upon the occasion of 
 the transfer of the archives and curia of Adria 
 to Rovigo, he was the victim of a riot in which 
 he was seriously wounded. On 9 January, 1912, he 
 was promoted to the titular metropolitan see of 
 Edessa and made apostolic delegate to Mexico, 
 10 January following, and two years later he was 
 named apostolic administrator of Genoa, assessor 
 of the Congregation of the Consistory and secre¬ 
 tary of the Sacred College, attending the Conclave 
 which elected Benedict XV. He was created a 
 cardinal-priest 4 December, 1916, and in August, 
 
 1921, he retired from Genoa and now lives in Rome. 
 The see is now (1922) filled by Most Rev. Giosue 
 Signori, born in Commenduno, 1859, made an hpn- 
 orary chamberlain in 1901 and again in 1903, ap¬ 
 pointed Bishop of Fossano, 15 April, 1910, 
 transferred to Alessandria, 23 December, 1918, and 
 promoted 21 November, 1921. He is assisted b} r 
 an auxiliary, Rt. Rev. Giacomo Maria de Amicis, 
 titular Bishop of Sinope. According to 1920 statis¬ 
 tics Genoa counts 470,900 Catholics; 200 parishes, 
 956 secular and 270 regular priests, 250 seminarians, 
 110 Brothers, 1100 Sisters, and 400 churches or 
 chapels. 
 
 Georgetown University ( c f. C. E., VI-458b), 
 Washington, District of Columbia, made an impor¬ 
 tant addition to its various departments, when on 
 25 November, 1919, the School of Foreign Sendee 
 was included among the established departments 
 
GEORGIA 
 
 334 
 
 GERALDTON 
 
 of the university. Convinced that foreign service 
 is to dominate the new American era, and that 
 to be properly fitted for such service a man should 
 have a systematic training, Georgetown University 
 launched a provisional semester of the new school, 
 opening on 17 February, 1919, and ending on 17 
 June, 1919. The trial gave such promise of ulti¬ 
 mate success that the establishment of the school 
 followed immediately, with all the customary rights 
 and privileges, particularly that of presenting can¬ 
 didates for academic degrees. The first graduation 
 took place on 14 June, 1921, the degree “Bachelor 
 of Foreign Service” being conferred for the first 
 time in the history of education in the United 
 States on 18 candidates, and certificates of pro¬ 
 ficiency awarded to 64. 
 
 The school was established under the direction 
 of Rev. John B. Creeden, S.J., who was appointed 
 President of the University in 1919, succeeding 
 Revs. Joseph J. Himmel, S.J., 1909-12, and Al- 
 phonsus J. Donlan, S.J., 1912-19. 
 
 The number of students registered at present 
 (1921) is: college, 445; medical, 172; dental, 163; 
 law, 1153; foreign service, 427; total, 2360. The 
 faculties, including officials, professors, special lec¬ 
 turers, assistants, and associates are distributed as 
 follows: college, 117; medical school, 9; dental 
 school, 13; school of law, 40; school of foreign 
 service, 51. The hospital staff numbers 8 physicians- 
 in-chief, 15 associates, and 16 assistants. 
 
 Decrees have been conferred from 1817-1920 in¬ 
 clusive as follows: Doctors: D. D., 27; LL. D., 137; 
 Ph.D., 52; Litt.D., 3; Sc. D., 2; M.D., 1151; DD.S., 
 336; Phar. D., 3; Mus. D., 7; total, 1718. Licen¬ 
 tiates: Ph.L., 1; LL. M., 1143; L. D. M., 395; A.M., 
 458; M.S., 5; total, 2002. Bachelors: LL.B., 3895; 
 A.B., 1152; Ph.B., 32; Phar.B., 6; B.S., 19; 
 Mus. B., 1; B.S. in Med., 34; total, 5139. 
 
 Georgia (cf. C. E., VI-460b).—The area of the 
 State is 59,265 sq. miles. In 1920 its population 
 ■was 2,893,601, as compared with 2,609,121 in 1910. 
 Savannah, the largest city, had a population of 
 83,252. The State is divided into 12 congressional 
 districts, 44 senatorial districts, and 155 counties. 
 In 1919 Georgia produced 1,730,000 bales of cotton, 
 10,800,000 bushels of oats, 69,890,000 bushels of corn, 
 and 2,520,000 bushels of wheat. In the same year 
 the value of its products of manufacture was $80,- 
 510,749, the capital employed being about $96,061,709. 
 The value of foreign commerce is estimated at 
 $247,079,176, In 1918 the mileage of Georgia rail¬ 
 roads was 7,404.22. 
 
 Education.— In 1919 the State University at 
 Athens had 71 instructors and 1131 students; Atlanta 
 University at Atlanta had 29 instructors and 521 
 students; Clark University at Atlanta, 18 instructors 
 and 536 students; Morris Brown College at Atlanta, 
 24 instructors and 305 students; Emory College at 
 Oxford, 143 instructors and 509 students; Shorter 
 College at Rome, 26 instructors and 275 students; 
 the Wesleyan Female College at Macon, 31 in¬ 
 structors and 496 students. In the common schools 
 of Georgia there were enrolled, in 1918, 937,742 
 pupils and 15,054 teachers. 
 
 Recent Legislative Changes. —The Legislature 
 of 1907 enacted an amended suffrage law which 
 had the effect of practically eliminating the negro 
 vote in the state. In 1917 the establishment and 
 maintenance of two agricultural schools, a home 
 guard or state constabulary, and primary election 
 by candidates for certain offices by county unit sys¬ 
 tem w r ere provided for. In 1918 Cook County was 
 created, a budget system provided, and tipping was 
 declared illegal. The Torrens system of registering 
 
 land titles, known as the “Land Registration Act,” 
 became effective in Georgia 1 January, 1918. State¬ 
 wide prohibition went into effect in 1916. In 1919 
 a Department of Fish and Game, also a Depart¬ 
 ment of Commerce and Labor, and a Department 
 of Insurance were created. The sale of habit¬ 
 forming drugs is prohibited. 
 
 Excise and Wills. —The inheritance tax is 1% 
 on bequests to parents, husband, child, lineal 
 descendants, brother, sister, daughter-in-law, $5000 
 exempt; on others 5%. In the year 1916 1339 
 divorces were decreed. In that year the divorce 
 rate per 100,000 was 54, as compared to 26 in 1900. 
 
 Religion. —For Catholic statistics see Savannah, 
 Diocese of. Anti-Catholic bigotry, encouraged by 
 a certain section of the press, the Watson publica¬ 
 tions, has been particularly virulent in Georgia. 
 As a consequence the state passed a convent in¬ 
 spection bill in 1916, which, with the bitter attacks 
 made on the Church, led to the formation of the 
 Catholic Laymen’s Association (q.v.) “for the pur¬ 
 pose of maintaining the civil rights of all persons 
 regardless of their religious belief.” 
 
 Recent History. —In 1915 the Frank case took 
 on a national interest. Leo Frank, a Jew, was 
 convicted of murder and sentenced to death. It 
 was charged that the atmosphere outside and inside 
 the court-room was so hostile that a fair and im¬ 
 partial verdict was impossible, and the prisoner 
 was absent by request when the verdict was an¬ 
 nounced. An appeal was taken to the U. S. 
 Supreme Court, which refused a writ of habeas 
 corpus. Frank’s sentence, however, was commuted 
 to life imprisonment, barely twenty-four hours be¬ 
 fore execution. He was removed to the State Farm 
 at Milledgeville, from which he was kidnapped later 
 by a posse, taken to a nearby town, and hanged. 
 
 Georgia’s contribution of soldiers to the European 
 War was 85,506, or 2.28 per cent of the U. S. Army. 
 Many of her soldiers were quartered with the 1st 
 Division at Wheeler, Georgia (National Guard 
 Camp), or with the 82d Division of the National 
 Army at Gordon, Georgia. Of all the Georgia men 
 who went with the Expeditionary Force, 85 officers 
 and 1445 men died, 8 officers and 36 men were taken 
 prisoners, and 223 officers and 2628 men were 
 wounded. 
 
 Georgia, Republic of. See Armenia. 
 
 Gerace, Diocese of (Hieraciensis), in the 
 province of Reggio-Calabria, Italy, suffragan of 
 Reggio. On 4 May, 1910, Pius X accorded the title 
 of domestic prelate to the rector of the Sanctuary 
 of Santa-Maria de Polsi, in this diocese. Benedict 
 XV wishing to do something further to honor this 
 ancient shrine, which was founded in 1144 by Roger 
 I, king of the Normans, after an apparition of 
 the Blessed Virgin, re-established the abbatial title 
 which existed under the Basilians, and accorded 
 to the abbot the power to confer under certain 
 conditions, the sacrament of confirmation. His 
 privileges are defined in six articles, the last of 
 which states that if the abbot confirms without 
 the permission of the bishop of the diocese the 
 act is invalid. Rt. Rev. Giorgio Delrio, appointed 
 to this see 6 December, 1906, was transferred to 
 Oristano, 16 December, 1920, and the diocese is 
 now under the direction of an administrator, Rt. 
 Rev. Antonio Galati, Bishop of Oppido-Mamertina. 
 In 1920 this diocese counted 135,000 Catholics; 70 
 parishes, 20 vicariates, 250 secular and 3 regular 
 clergy, 25 seminarians, and 80 churches or chapels. 
 
 Geraldton, Diocese of (Geraldtonensis), in Aus¬ 
 tralia, suffragan of Perth. The first bishop of this 
 diocese, Rt. Rev. William Bernard Kelley, born 
 
GERARD 
 
 GERMANY 
 
 335 
 
 in the W est colony of Australia, 1855, and appointed 
 
 the erection of the see, 21 March, 
 1898, died 28 December, 1920; his successor has 
 not yet been appointed. The Presentation Nuns 
 and bisters of St. Dominic conduct schools in the 
 diocese. By the latest statistics (1922) it comprises 
 Id districts, 28 churches, 11 priests, 85 religious, 
 5 boardmg and 14 elementary schools with an 
 attendance of 845 children. 
 
 ,., G ^ ard ’ Jesuit scholar, b. in Edinburgh, 
 
 30 May, 1840; d. at London, 13 December, 1912. 
 lie was the son of Colonel Archibald Gerard of 
 Lanarkshire. He was educated at Stonyhurst and 
 ?Lo L0nd ? n Unr versity; was ordained a priest in 
 18/3, and was twice editor of “The Month,” from 
 1894 to 1897 and later from 1900 to 1912. Between 
 these two periods he had been superior of the 
 Lnglish Province. He was the author of several 
 books, among them “The Old Riddle and the New¬ 
 est Answer,” a reply to Haeckel (q.v.). 
 
 Germany (cf. C . E„ VI-484d), a republic, 
 bounded on the west by France, Belgium, and 
 Holland; on the south by Switzerland, Austria, 
 and Czechoslovakia; on the east by Czechoslovakia 
 and Poland; on the north by the North Sea, the 
 rialtic oea and Denmark. According to the returns 
 of the census of 8 October, 1919, the area of the 
 German Republic is about 183,381 sq. miles, and the 
 population 60,900,i97 (29,012,000 males and 31,888,- 
 197 females). The largest towns with their respec- 
 tive populations m 1919 are: Berlin 1,902,509, Ham¬ 
 burg 985,779, Munich 630,711, Leipzig 604,380, 
 Dresden 529,326, Cologne 633,904, Breslau 528,260, 
 
 S?^l° rt "° n " Main 433 ’ 002 - In 1917 there were 
 308,446 marriages, 939,938 births, 1,082,334 deaths 
 (exclusive of military casualties). The number of 
 
 inn non S - 'u . in 1914 was 17,740 (26.2 per 
 
 100,000 inhabitants); in 1917 (exclusive of Alsace- 
 
 Lorraine), 11,603 or 17.3 per 100,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Lduca ti °n.— Education in imperial Germany was 
 an affair of the State. The German “system” was 
 usually the Prussian system which other states 
 adopted In the new Germany there is a national 
 system of education, m the establishment of which 
 tne states and local communities co-operate. The 
 schools are free to all, taught by teachers who are 
 state officials and supervised by technically trained 
 officials with administrative ability. This last 
 phrase reveals the end of clerical supervision. The 
 great difference between the education of the 
 classes and the education of the masses is also a 
 thing of the past. For the classes there were the 
 V orschule (preparatory school), then one of the 
 three types of the secondary school ( Gymnasium, 
 Kealgyrnnamim, and Oberreolschule) , and finally 
 the university. The masses went to a Volkschule. 
 or if they were able to afford the fees, to a Mittel- 
 scniue. lo the graduates the various vocational 
 and con.muation schools were open, but the sec¬ 
 ondary schools and the universities were closed to 
 • 10 i m j new ,change in the educational system 
 includes the establishment of an intermediate and 
 higher school system. The exclusive private pre- 
 paratory schools (V orschulen) are abolished. 
 
 v\ ithin the local communities public schools, to ac¬ 
 cord with a certain belief or philosophy of life, can 
 be established by the parents, provided they con¬ 
 form in organization to the public school system, 
 in all schoo s, except the secular schools, religion is 
 to be taught according to the principles of the 
 religious denominations concerned, but parents have 
 the right to withdraw their children from school 
 during the period of religious instruction. Physical 
 education has been deprived of its military char- 
 
 2 3 
 
 tp'!cher/ n |nrf e iQSK9 teChni r al / Schools there were 929 
 reacners and 19,862 pupils (summer of 1920) 
 
 n i m u ril i Ctl o n , in a griculture there are Agri- 
 
 192n7 a H;Kl Scho ?iLf £ erlin < 662 students in 
 11920) ,:, Hohenheim (599), Bonn-Poppelsdorf (652) 
 
 and Weihenstephan (358). In 1920 there were Agri¬ 
 cultural Institutes at eight of the universities, fnd 
 
 Jehnok'°t 9 K the o ’ 1,ub l p there were various farming 
 schools (26 in Prussia), agricultural winter schools 
 
 architLt., r . USSla a I s f, hools of mining, 15 schools of 
 cmtecture and building, 4 academies of forestry, 
 
 27 schools °f art and art-industry, 429 commercial 
 schools, 100 textile schools, 11 public music schools, 
 9 navigation schools, 11 naval architecture schools' 
 and numerous other trade schools. There are also 
 M German universities, besides the various lyceums 
 Agriculture.—T he chief crops in 1919, with their 
 acreage and total yield in metric tons, were as fol¬ 
 lows: wheat 2,828,150 acres and 2,169,169 metric 
 tons; rye 10 789 235 acres and 6,100,144 metric tons; 
 
 toV 7 acres , and 1 . 91 °. 36 3 metric tons; 
 .its 7,48-,197 acres and 4,453,688 metric tons; pota- 
 
 toes o,451,98w acres, 21,449,688 metric tons. In 1921 
 the area under beets was 273,826 hectares, and the 
 number of mills was 270. 
 
 Industries.— In 1920 Germany produced 97,465 
 z } nc ’ 17,255 metric tons of copper, 
 and 54,400 metric tons of lead. The source of a 
 considerable part of Germany’s mineral wealth was 
 m the regions lost in the war, especially Luxemburg 
 and Lorraine. The highest producing capacity of 
 
 19 nnnonn a +^ Ste ^ - plants left to Germany is about 
 12,000 000 tons of iron or about 8,000,000 tons less 
 
 than her former output. The eight-hour day has 
 i educed the coal miner’s shift to seven or seven 
 
 ^ bou F s - The total production of coal 
 for 19i9 was only 108,000.000 tons, or 57 per cent 
 of the former output (1913). Moreover, according 
 to the bpa agreement, Germany must deliver to 
 the A1 hes 24,000,000 tons of coal a year. Owing 
 to the lack of coal, German industries are carried on 
 at halt speed, although in some cases the output has 
 increased, as in the glass industry which during the 
 war was restricted to about 40 per cent of its pre¬ 
 war activity and since then has increased its output 
 50 per cent. In 1913 there were 23,339 breweries in 
 Germany a number which, at present has been re¬ 
 duced to 7500. The lack of coal and the eight-hour 
 day have also reduced production in the paper and 
 textile industries. Thus Germany is forced to make 
 reparations in such a way as to diminish her ulti¬ 
 mate capacity for full payment. (See France.) 
 
 Finances— The German government financed the 
 war chiefly by issuing loans. Owing to the blockade 
 customs brought in very little, and owing to the 
 scarcity of goods, consumption could not be fairly 
 taxed. The result was a huge increase of the 
 debt, winch rose from 22,000,000,000 marks, Reich 
 and States combined, to 247,000,000,000 marks for 
 
 ^nnnSf 1Gh, i More than half of this debt > 132,000,- 
 000,000, is short—termed floating debt, which cannot 
 
 be funded at present, as there is little chance of plac¬ 
 ing a big loan with the public. On 30 August, 1920, 
 the total paper circulation was over 72,000,000 000 
 marks including over 14,000,000,000 marks in loan 
 certificates. It is still increasing rapidly, since public 
 income does not meet public expenditures and also 
 because of the necessity forced upon the bank of 
 buying foreign bills of exchange for payment of 
 foreign debts. The value of the imports in 1919 
 32,000,000,000 marks, that of the exports, 
 10,000,000,000 marks, leaving an unfavorable balance 
 of over 22,000,000,000 marks to settle. In 1920 the 
 unfavorable balance was still greater. The value 
 of the mark which was $23,797 per 100 marks before 
 
GERMANY 
 
 336 
 
 GERMANY 
 
 the war (March, 1913), has fallen as low as 29 
 cents per 100 marks (March, 1922). On 1 March 
 1919, the total funded debt of Germany amounted 
 to 92,396,411,300 marks, of which 76,275,230,500 
 marks bear interest at 5 per cent; 1,126,230, iUU 
 marks at 4 per cent; 1 , 622 , 554,200 marks at 3 
 per cent; the Treasury bills amounted to 2,315,- 
 137,000 marks at 5 per cent; 9 093 001,500 mai^s 
 at 4V2 per cent. There is also a debt of 63,696,000 - 
 000 marks free from interest. On 1 March, 1921, 
 the total debt amounted to 300 , 000 , 000 ,0(K) marks. 
 Between 4 August, 1914 and 31 March, 1920 Ger¬ 
 many issued loans to the total value of 222,151,- 
 465,980 marks. On 30 November, 1920, ^he floating 
 debt was 165,918,235,629 marks. The budget tor 
 1920-21 included a revenue of 90,612,306,340 marks 
 and an expenditure of 57,501,670,140 marks 
 
 Railways. —On 1 April, 1920, all the German 
 railways were transferred to the Central Goa em¬ 
 inent. The total length of railway line, on 31 
 December, 1918, was 38,809 miles, of which 36,006 
 miles were state lines. Though the railway rates 
 have been raised to nearly six times their toimer 
 standard, the systems are worked at a loss, as tne 
 high rates have reduced traveling and the cost ot 
 
 operating is rising rapidly. . , 
 
 Army.— The terms of the Armistice required the 
 surrender by Germany of 5000 guns, 25,000 machine 
 guns, 3000 trench mortars, and 1700 aeroplanes but 
 did not specify the size of the German army or 
 the degree of demobilization. In 1919 the Prudent 
 was authorized by the Reichstag to disband the 
 existing army and to raise a provisional national 
 defense army pending the creation of a permanent 
 defense force. On 8 May, 1919, the demobilization 
 of the German army was completed and the deiense 
 force came into being. By the terms of the treaty 
 of Versailles, the number of effectives was to be 
 reduced to 100,000 men; universal compulsory 
 service is abolished, also the German Great General 
 Staff and all similar organizations The Public 
 Safety Police (50,000), Emergency Volunteers (150,- 
 000)/and Civic Guards (350,000) formed m 1919 
 on the claim that they were needed to maintain 
 order, were ordered disbanded, as being contrary 
 to the terms of the Versailles Treaty. In January, 
 1921, 30,500 guns had been surrendered, 6000 guns 
 in process of manufacture had been destroyed, 
 10,000 trench mortars, 63,100 machine guns, and 
 2,524,000 rifles had been surrendered. 
 
 Navy. —As a fighting force the German navy 
 ceased to exist under the terms of the Armistice 
 and the Treaty of Versailles. Only a navy re¬ 
 cruited and maintained on a volunteer basis is 
 allowed to Germany, the total personnel not to 
 exceed 15,000, including a maximum of 1500 officers 
 and warrant officers. The naval expenditure_m 1921, 
 including mine-sweeping, is estimated at 221,000000 
 marks. All the capital ships of the former IP? 
 Fleet of Germany left afloat have been or will be 
 
 broken up. ^ 
 
 Recent History.— In Germany during the years 
 
 1911-1914 the chief internal issues, outside regular 
 financial measures, were concerned with- Alsace- 
 Lorraine, the increase in the German army, the Bag¬ 
 dad Railway, and the continued opposition of the 
 Socialist Party to the Government. Since its annex¬ 
 ation to Germany Alsace-Lorraine had proved a 
 continual embarrassment to the Government, the in¬ 
 habitants in the western part being strongly French 
 in sympathy, and thwarting every effort of Germany 
 to placate them. In 1911 it was granted a constitu¬ 
 tion with universal suffrage and the privilege of 
 sending three members to the Bundesrath. In 1912 
 the forced acknowledgment by Germany of the 
 
 French protectorate in Morocco in return for part of 
 the French Congo made many Germans feel that 
 her diplomatic defeat was due to lack of a sufficient 
 military strength to overawe France, and led to 
 a prompt increase of the German army to 870J)00 
 men. In an agreement signed m August, 1911, 
 Russia withdrew its opposition to the completion 
 of the Bagdad railway and agreed to link up the 
 German line, when finished, to the Persian lines 
 in the Russian sphere of influence; and Germany 
 in return recognized Russia’s predominant inter¬ 
 ests in Northern Persia and pledged herself not to 
 seek concessions therein. In May, 1913, Great 
 Britain recognized the German economic and 
 financial control of the railway as far as Bagdad, 
 and made tentative plans for the extension sout - 
 ward to Bassona under international control, 
 with both German and British members on the 
 governing board. The growth of German mui- 
 tarism was vigorously combated by the Socialist 
 party in Germany but militarism meant a greater 
 Germany and had the absolute approval and en¬ 
 couragement of the Kaiser. ... , 
 
 European War. —When Austria declared war on 
 Servia (28 July, 1914), Russia immediately mobil¬ 
 ized her armies against Austria, and Germany 
 commenced mobilizing against Russia and prance. 
 On 1 August Germany declared war against Russia. 
 Germany then asked of France a statement ot 
 her attitude and demanded the fortresses of Verdun 
 and Toul as pledge of her neutrality. Frances 
 reply was such that Germany felt sure that she 
 would support her ally, Russia, and declared war 
 against her on 3 August, 1914. Germany planned 
 to crush France by a swift march on Pans before 
 Russia’s armies were ready for an attack m the 
 east; France crushed, she would then turn on 
 Russia with all her forces. Belgium was promptly 
 invaded and German armies were on their way 
 to France. The route taken by the German armies 
 in 1870 was so strongly fortified all the way from 
 Verdun to Belfort as to make a rapid march in 
 this direction impossible. In Belgium they first 
 attacked Liege, which surrendered in three days. 
 The Belgian army made a desperate stand at 
 Louvain, but this place was taken. On 20 August 
 the Germans entered Brussels without firing a 
 shot. The road to France, however, was not yet 
 open; the Belgians were joined by the French 
 and by an expeditionary force of British under 
 General Sir John French, who together opposed 
 the German forces. At Namur and again at Mons 
 (22 August, 1914), the Allies were defeated by 
 General von Kluck, the commander of the German 
 forces, and were compelled to retreat from Mons 
 to the main French line. Nothing seemed to stop 
 von Kluck’s march to Paris. City after city was 
 taken, and at one time the Germans were only 
 fifteen miles from the capital. A new French army 
 was suddenly launched at the German right flank. 
 Bv this time the Germans were across the Marne 
 River Von Kluck turned back to meet the new 
 attack and at the same time the French General 
 Foch drove back the center of the German line. 
 The battle of the Marne which followed (6 Sep¬ 
 tember) was a severe defeat for the Germans, who 
 retired to the Aisne River. Having dug themselves 
 in trenches and fortified their line, the Geimans 
 now finished the conquest of Belgium, taking 
 
 Antwerp on 9 October. - 
 
 The Russian mobilization was very rapid, lhc 
 first army invaded East Prussia, where it gained sev¬ 
 eral victories. A large German army under the com-l 
 mand of General von Hindenburg was sent to meet 
 it. On 29 August the great Battle of Tannenberg 
 
GERMANY 
 
 GERMANY 
 
 337 
 
 was fought, which resulted in victory for the Ger¬ 
 mans. The invasion of Galicia by the Russians 
 vas more successful. Lemberg was captured on 20 
 August and the Austrians were forced to yield 
 Galicia by March, 1915. To relieve the Russian 
 pressure on the Austrians the Germans began a 
 counter-offensive by invading Poland. Warsaw fell 
 on 4 August, 1915. The Germans prepared to march 
 ?V° Retrograd (St. Petersburg) but they were 
 halted by the Russian trenches in front of Riga. 
 Under General von Mackensen the Russians were 
 driven out of Galicia during May-June, 1915 
 .°.n th ® western front the repulse of the Germans 
 at the Marne was followed by a period of unre¬ 
 mitting trench warfare. The battle line, six hun¬ 
 dred miles long, seemed impregnable, but the 
 Germans decided on another great effort to break 
 it. 1 or six months the Crown Prince and his 
 troops struggled m vain to take Verdun. In July 
 19i5 a counter-offensive on the part of the Allies 
 on the Somme relieved the pressure on Verdun. 
 
 In the east the Russians were attempting to re- 
 tneve some of their losses by a "drive” under Gen¬ 
 eral Brusilov and though they conquered Bukowina 
 they were unable to do more than push the Teu- 
 
 ;w C t? i e bacl f f f 01 , n twent y to fifty miles. Now 
 that Bulgaria had declared war against Servia (14 
 
 October, 191o), Servia was invaded from two sides 
 by Germans and Austrians under von Mackensen 
 and by Bulgarians. Her conquest was soon com¬ 
 plete, and nearly all her army captured. The route 
 irom Berlin to Constantinople was now open Tur¬ 
 key having in November, 1914, cast her lot with 
 Germany. In March, 1916, Germany declared war 
 against Portugal because the latter had seized Ger¬ 
 man ships interned in her harbors. Upon Rumania’s 
 declaration of war on Austria on 27 August, 1916, 
 le Gei mans and Austrians retaliated by a prompt 
 invasion of the country under von Mackensen and 
 \ on : ^mkenhayn. In three weeks Rumania was at 
 them feet. In 1916 occurred the long drawn out Bat¬ 
 tle of the Somme on the western front between the 
 British under Haig, and the Germans under Hin- 
 denburg. It resulted in the withdrawal of the 
 Germans to the Hindenburg line and the surrender 
 ot a thousand square miles of devastated French 
 territory During April-June, 1917, the Germans 
 iought all the British offensives by a series of 
 counter offensives. In February, 1915, the Germans 
 declared that the waters around the British Isles 
 constituted a war zone, wherein enemy merchant- 
 men would.be subject to destruction. What German 
 ships remained on high seas after the withdrawal of 
 the fleet to Kiel Canal were either destroyed or 
 sunk, off the coast of Chile in November, 1914 and 
 oi Ga i'ir tbe Falkland Islands, in December,’1914.’ On 
 31 May, 1916, the German High Seas Fleet under 
 Admiral von Scheer slipped out of Kiel Harbor and 
 vas met by the British battle-cruiser squadron 
 under Admirals Jellicoe and Beatty. Losses were 
 ® 1( U on b°ffi sides and the Germans returned to 
 Kiel Harbor. Deprived of the opportunity to use 
 their navy, the Germans were forced to watch the 
 seizure of the German colonies in West Africa, Togo 
 and Kamerun without much opposition. Japan had 
 on 23 August, 1914, ordered Germany to give up 
 Kiau-chau which she had leased from China, and 
 upon the refusal, bombarded the port, forcing the 
 German, force to surrender in November, 1914. 
 Lngland s naval blockade was returned by a Ger¬ 
 man blockade of the English coast by the sub¬ 
 marine. 1 he unremitting German submarine 
 warfare led to the entrance of the United States 
 into the war (6 April, 1917). 
 
 In the meantime there was revolution in Russia. 
 
 bJv 1 ° K Ialcb / 19 fJ> tbe Tsar abdicated and on 22 
 
 Gov4n^ent Sk ThB e p ame head of the Visional 
 boumment,. I he Germans took advantage of the 
 
 isorders that followed to capture Riga on 2 Sep¬ 
 tember without striking a blow. The Kerensky 
 
 who 6 oTTfi n aS T rthrOWn , by the Bolsheviks 
 who on 16 December signed an armistice with 
 
 Germany at Brest-Litovsk. While the negotiations 
 
 were going on, the Russian armies were being 2e! 
 
 mobilized; the Germans on the other hand, g con- 
 
 tinued their advance in Russia and on 19 February, 
 
 918, occupied Dwinsk. On 9 February they signed’ 
 
 a treaty of peace with Ukraine. They overran 
 
 Livonia and were marching on Petrograd, when the 
 
 on S 4March 1918® ““ Tleaty ° f Brest - Lito ^k 
 
 On the western front in November, 1917 the 
 British made a counter-attack on the German line 
 n the direction of Cambrai, but before they could 
 consolidate their positions, the Germans launched 
 
 f,' cou 2 t ^" a f tack and the British had to yield more 
 than half the territory which they had won. 
 
 On 6 May 1918, Rumania signed a treaty of 
 peace with Austria and Germany. The peace 
 on the eastern front gave Germany a free hand 
 in fae west, and the Germans decided to break 
 through the allied line before America had time 
 to send large armies to France. Their object was 
 to split the British and French forces, to capture 
 the Channel ports, and force the French to make 
 peace In the battles of Flanders, of the Aisne, 
 
 a ? d ° f tbe 0ls .G they gamed 1130 square miles 
 ot French territory, and again approached the 
 Maine. Again they were hurled back by the 
 trench aided by the Americans. In the French 
 counter-offensive they were forced to retire and 
 m the battle of St. Mihiel, lost many men and 
 much booty to the American army. The Hin¬ 
 denburg line was now broken and a general retreat 
 trom France and Belgium began. Austria, over¬ 
 whelmed at the Piave, sued for peace. Germany 
 now stood practically alone in her fight. Turkey 
 was suing for peace (31 October, 1918), and the 
 following nations had declared war on Germany 
 ?ni C of C tt 23 November, 1916), Guatemala (21 April, 
 J 918 ’ ?? a , ytl ,o ( o 12 A July ’ 1918) ’ Honduras (19 July, 
 J 918) > (28 August, 1916), Liberia (4 August, 
 
 i 917 im?? ai ? a (7 Apn1 ’ 1917 ), Portugal (23 Novem- 
 ber 19 14) Sema (9 August, 1914), United States 
 April 1917). Bolivia severed diplomatic rela- 
 
 h 0nS TVT n \ 4 Apnl > 1917 J Brazil 11 April, 1917; China 
 14 March, 1917; Ecuador 7 December, 1917; 
 Guatemala and Nicaragua 19 May, 1917; Peru 5 
 October,1917; Uruguay 7 October, 1917. With 
 her line broken and the conquering Allies marching 
 rapidly towards Germany, the only course was to 
 negotiate for peace. The negotiations lasted until 
 5 November, when President Wilson informed the 
 Germans of the readiness of Marshal Foch to 
 conclude an armistice with accredited German 
 agents, and that the allies were ready to make 
 peace. The armistice wassignedon 11 November, 1918. 
 
 In the meantime there were rumblings of a ’revo¬ 
 lution in Germany. The Kaiser hurriedly left 
 Berlin and sought refuge at Spa. News came that 
 Liebnecht and the Minority Socialists were openly 
 inciting to rebellion and that mutinies were occur- 
 
 rin ^ in t , he navy - 0n 8 November the Socialists 
 at Munich under Kurt Lisner deposed King Ludwig, 
 and transformed Bavaria from a monarchy into a 
 republic. The next day saw the flight of the 
 Kaiser into Holland, on 9 November, 1918, the 
 German Imperial Chancellor announced the ap¬ 
 pointment of Friedrich Ebert as Chancellor and 
 the plans for a German Constitutional Assembly. 
 
GERMANY 
 
 GERMANY 
 
 338 
 
 The flight of the Kaiser was followed by the 
 abdication or deposition of practically all the rulers 
 of the sovereign states of Germany, control passing 
 in most cases peaceably into Socialist hands. Un 
 28 November, 1918, the Kaiser signed at Amerongen 
 a formal abdication of the crowns of Prussia and 
 the German Empire, and the Crown Prince Fred¬ 
 erick William at Wieringen in Holland on 1 Decem¬ 
 ber definitely renounced all claims to the suc¬ 
 cession. The legislative power of the new # pro¬ 
 visional government was vested in a Soldiers ana 
 Workmen’s Council until a constituent Assembly 
 should be summoned, and the executive power in 
 a cabinet with Friedrich Ebert as Prime Munster. 
 The cabinet of six was composed chiefly ol Majority 
 and Independent Socialists. A movement ot the 
 Spartacides headed by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa 
 Luxemburg was started to prevent the meeting 
 of the National Assembly (see Spabtacus Group). 
 On 15 January, 1919, the leaders were killed and 
 after desultory fighting, the uprising subsided. 
 Weimar was chosen as the seat of the National 
 Assembly which convened 6 February, 1919. A 
 provisional constitution was adopted and Ebert was 
 chosen as the first president. A smouldering reac¬ 
 tionary revolt in Bavaria was fanned into flame by 
 the assassination of Kurt Eisner, Bavarian Premier. 
 
 In Saxony the Spartacans launched a movement 
 to overthrow the bourgeois Government. A Soviet 
 Republic was even set up in Munich on 6 April, 
 but the new government was short-lived. Attempted 
 revolts in Baden, Brunswick, Dresden, and other 
 centers were crushed. A similar attempt was made 
 in the Rhenish provinces to establish a Rhine 
 republic under the protection of the French troops. 
 Unsupported by the overwhelming German popula¬ 
 tion, the movement collapsed. 
 
 The Peace Treaty of Versailles, signed by Ger¬ 
 many on 28 June, 1919, and ratified by the German 
 Assembly on 7 July, 1919, revolutionized the posi¬ 
 tion of Germany territorially, economically, and 
 militarily. By the terms Germany ceded Alsace- 
 Lorraine to France, Eupen and Malmedy to Bel¬ 
 gium, Memel to Lithuania, and a large part of 
 the provinces of Posen and West Prussia to Poland, 
 to Poland, moreover, she agreed to cede Upper 
 Silesia, the southern part of East Prussia, and a 
 strip west of Vistula, if in a plebiscite to be con¬ 
 ducted under international auspices, the popula¬ 
 tion of these districts should express the desire 
 for incorporation within the Polish Republic; and 
 in order to provide Poland with a convenient ac¬ 
 cess to the Baltic, she consented to the establish¬ 
 ment of Danzig (q.v.) as an internationalized free 
 city. Furthermore, she was willing to acquiesce 
 in' the cession to Denmark of such districts of 
 Schleswig as should vote accordingly in a plebiscite, 
 and likewise she would submit for fifteen years to 
 the economic exploitation by France, and the 
 political control by an international commission of 
 the rich Saar Basin, and would abide by the decision 
 reached by popular plebiscite at the end of fifteen 
 years as to whether the Saar region should belong 
 to Germany or to France. 
 
 Germany also surrendered all her overseas 
 colonies and protectorates, her lease of Kiao-Chou 
 and her Shantung privileges to Japan, Samoa to 
 New Zealand, her other Pacific possessions south 
 of the Equator to Australia, German Southwest 
 Africa to the British Union of South Africa, Ger¬ 
 man East Africa to Great Britain; Kamerun and 
 Togoland were partitioned between Great Britain 
 and France, generally under mandates. Besides, 
 Germany renounced all special rights and privileges 
 in China, Siam, Liberia, Morocco, and Egypt. 
 
 Politically, Germany recognized the complete inde¬ 
 pendence and sovereignty of Belgium, likewise of 
 German Austria, Czechoslovakia, and Poland; ana 
 denounced the treaties of Brest-Litovsk. Mili¬ 
 tarily, she promised to reduce her army to 100,000 
 men, to raze all forts fifty kilometers east of the 
 Rhine and to abolish conscription; also to demolish 
 fortifications at Heligoland, to open the Kiel Canal 
 to all nations, to refrain from building forts on 
 the Baltic, and to surrender her fourteen submarine 
 cables. She agreed to the trial of the ex-Kaiser 
 for violation, of tho laws and customs of war. By 
 way of reparation and economic settlement, she 
 accepted full responsibility for all damages caused 
 to the allied governments, agreed to pay shipping 
 damage on a ton-for-ton basis by cession of her 
 merchant, coasting and river fleet, and new con¬ 
 struction, to aid in the rebuilding of the devastated 
 area, to return the works of art taken from Belgium 
 and France as well as the manuscripts and prints 
 equivalent in value to those destroyed at Louvain. 
 Until reparation was fully made the allied troops 
 were to occupy the left bank of the Rhine, evacu¬ 
 ating the regions gradually, as Germany fulfilled 
 
 her obligations. , . , 
 
 In the negotiations of the Supreme Council which 
 followed, Germany assumed a passive attitude, 
 except in the matter of reparations. The sum 
 demanded by the allies was too great to be given 
 up by Germany in such a brief space of time, 
 and to make matters worse, the allies demanded 
 coal by way of reparations, thus crippling the in¬ 
 dustrial ability of Germany to pay. 
 
 In July, 1921, a separate peace treaty was nego¬ 
 tiated with China, in which Germany renounced 
 all her treaty rights in that country. On 25 August, 
 1921 a treaty of peace between Germany and 
 the United States was signed which was ratified 
 by both countries 11 November, 1921. 
 
 The war losses of Germany were astounding. 
 Of the 11,000,000 men mobilized, 1,611,104 were 
 killed, 3,683,143 were wounded, 772,522 were taken 
 prisoners or missing, the total casualties being 
 6,066,769. The losses of the German navy were 
 very small, owing to the fact that the greater part 
 of her fleet remained in port during the war and 
 as she had no mercantile marine at sea the service 
 of scouting vessels and patrol boats to protect her 
 shipping was unnecessary. The total loss m tons 
 
 was only 350,000. c ~ 
 
 Government. —The new constitution ot Ger¬ 
 many, adopted by the National Assembly at Wei¬ 
 mar' on 31 July, 1919, and promulgated on 11 
 August, 1919, declares that the new German Gov¬ 
 ernment is a Republic, and that the power of the 
 state is derived from the people. The head ot 
 the Government is the President. The legislative 
 branches are the Reichstag and the National Coun¬ 
 cil, or Reichsrat. The real authority of the state is 
 vested, however, in the Reichstag, subject to the 
 direct control of the people. The President is 
 elected by the people for seven years, and appoints 
 a Chancellor, and at his suggestion, other ministers, 
 through whom the Government is administered. 
 The President represents the nation in its foreign 
 relations, but his acts require the approval of the 
 Reichstag , and war can be declared and peace made 
 only by a national law. The Reichstag consists 
 of delegates chosen for four years by the people 
 on the principle of proportional representation. The 
 National Council ( Reichsrat ) is a body in which 
 the various German states ( Lander ) have represen¬ 
 tation according to size. Each has at least one vote 
 and the larger ones have one vote for each million 
 inhabitants. They are represented through mem- 
 
GERMANY 
 
 GERMANY 
 
 bers of their respective governments. All Bills re¬ 
 quire the assent of the Reichsrat before they are 
 introduced into the Reichstag. There is provision 
 for a budget system, which is compulsory, and for 
 referendum elections. All Germans are declared 
 equal before the law and all privileges or disadvan¬ 
 tages of birth, class, or creed are abolished. Free¬ 
 dom of speech and of the press and religious liberty 
 are guaranteed. The State church is abolished. 
 Labor power is placed under the special protection 
 of the nation and the right of combination for the 
 defense and promotion of labor and economic con¬ 
 ditions is guaranteed. A comprehensive system of 
 labor insurance is provided for—health/mother¬ 
 hood, unemployment, old age, and industrial. A 
 National Economic Council is established to pass 
 on drafts of social, political, and economic political 
 laws of fundamental importance. Each state ob¬ 
 tains a republican constitution. 
 
 During 1920 the German Assembly worked on the 
 new constitution, while the state was swept by 
 serious political and economical disturbances. A 
 counter-revolutionary movement under the leader¬ 
 ship of Dr. Wolfang von Kapp took the Govern¬ 
 ment by surprise on 13 March, 1920, when the revo¬ 
 lutionists marched into Berlin and took possession 
 of all the public buildings, forcing President Ebert 
 to flee. The coup failed, however, owing to the 
 resistance of the Socialists. Elections took place in 
 accordance to the new franchise bill providing for 
 one member of the Reichstag for every 60,000 votes 
 cast, on the basis of proportional representation. 
 In February, 1920, Coburg was united to Bavaria, 
 and the new federal State of Thuringia (includ¬ 
 ing Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, Saxe-Meiningen-Reuss, 
 Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Gotha, Schwarzburg-Rudo- 
 stadt, and Schwarzburg-Sondershausen), was recog¬ 
 nized on 24 April, 1920. Northern Schleswig voted to 
 join Denmark, Southern Schleswig to remain German. 
 The plebiscite in Upper Silesia on 20 March, 1921, 
 resulted in 716,408 votes for Germany and 471,406 
 for Poland. The peculiar distribution of the votes 
 caused the question to be submitted to the League 
 of Nations, which partitioned the country so that 
 Poland obtained the eastern part, the frontier line 
 being east of the German towns of Beuthen, 
 Glewitz, Ratibor, Guttentag, Tost, and Gr. Strehlitz. 
 
 In the Reichsrat, 1922, Prussia has 22 representa¬ 
 tives, Bavaria 7, Saxony 5, Wiirttemberg 3, Baden 
 3, and the other states 15. According to the elec¬ 
 tions of 6 June, 1920, the Reichstag is composed of 
 113 Majority Socialists, 81 Independent Socialists, 
 69 Center Party, 66 German National People’s 
 Party, 62 German People’s Party, 45 German 
 Democratic Party, 20 Bavarian People’s Party, and 
 10 minor parties; total, 466. 
 
 The Church.— The Constitution of the new Re¬ 
 public of Germany provides for entire liberty of 
 conscience and for complete equality among all 
 religious denominations. According to a statistical 
 survey for 1920, published by the Bureau of 
 Statistics of Cologne and covering Germany, in¬ 
 cluding Polish Upper Silesia but excluding the Saar 
 District, the total Catholic population was 20,822- 
 503. To provide for the spiritual wants of this 
 great number there were 19,076 secular priests, or 
 one priest for every 1346 Catholics. There were 
 258,366 Catholic marriages, and 29,658 mixed mar¬ 
 riages, in 11,436 of which the husbands were Cath¬ 
 olic. The number of children baptized in the 
 year was 538,248, of whom 38,241 were born of 
 mixed marriages. The children born of Catholic 
 mothers and non-Catholic fathers numbered 22,903, 
 and those of Catholic fathers and non-Catholic 
 mothers 15,338. A total of 476,3S9 children received 
 
 O t 
 
 their First Communion, an increase of 17,132 com¬ 
 pared with the preceding year. The total number 
 of communions for the year was 189,072,854. About 
 12,000,000 Catholics made their Easter duty, or 
 moie than i5 per cent of all those under obligation 
 to do so. Conversions numbered 9351, which was 
 1552 in excess of those reported in 1919. The Saar 
 District, now under French control, has 142 parishes 
 with 21 cuiacies, 293 secular priests, and a Catholic 
 population of 507,831. 
 
 It is an undeniable fact that in Germany since 
 the war there has been a marked movement towards 
 the Catholic Church. Since the downfall of the 
 empire Protestantism has no official head, and sin¬ 
 cere Protestants feel the lack of any supreme and 
 final authority. (See Evangelical Church.) The 
 disinterested motives and impartial conduct of the 
 Sovereign Pontiff in endeavoring to secure peace, 
 the close contact brought about by the war between 
 the Catholic army chaplain and the Protestant 
 minister, the devotion of the priests to all, whether 
 they were their own spiritual children or not, have 
 dissipated anti-Catholic prejudices that were cen¬ 
 turies old. Many of the old religious orders and 
 congregations excluded under the imperial regime 
 are returning. In some instances they are even 
 recovering their former buildings; the Cistercians, 
 for example, have regained their monastery in 
 Bamberg, and the old barracks at Ingolstadt, 
 originally the Jesuit College, founded by Blessed 
 Peter Canisius in his great work of the Counter- 
 Reformation, are to be restored to their former 
 purpose. On the other hand the situation of the 
 German nursing Sisters is most disquieting. There 
 are 33,000 in Germany engaged in hospitals, homes 
 for the sick, and dispensaries. Many of them are 
 dying of tuberculosis, owing to the hard conditions 
 of their service and the inadequate pay they receive. 
 In one community in Southern Germany having 
 160 nuns, 70 are sick and there is an average of 
 two deaths a month. There is a tendency to replace 
 them with high-salaried secular nurses. Several im¬ 
 portant diplomatic and political posts have been 
 and are held by Catholics, amongst them Matthias 
 Erzberger (q.v.), Count von Hertling (q.v.), and 
 Dr. Andreis Hermes, Minister of Food and Acting 
 Minister of Finance in the cabinet of Dr. Joseph 
 Wirth, also a Catholic. In spite of the split in the 
 Center Party caused by the formation of the 
 Bavarian Popular Party, the former retains much 
 of its power. Though Catholics are still deprived 
 of many of the rights taken from them by the 
 German Nationalists under Bismarck, they hope to 
 regain them in the near future. There is a splendid 
 spirit of organization amongst Catholic young 
 people. 
 
 In 1920 Germany was given the rank of Apostolic 
 nunciature with Mgr. Pacelli, titular Archbishop of 
 Sardes, as nuncio. The Ambassador Extraordinary 
 and Minister Plenipotentiary representing Ger¬ 
 many in Rome is Dr. Jacobus von Bergen. The 
 embassy was formerly the Prussian legation. For 
 Catholic statistics see articles on the archdioceses 
 and dioceses of Germany. 
 
 Germany, Northern Missions of, Vicariate 
 Apostolic of (cf. C. E., VI-529a).—In the broad 
 sense the jurisdiction of this Vicariate Apostolic 
 covers the free and Hanse towns of Bremen, Ham¬ 
 burg, Lubeck, the Oldenburger free state of Liibeck, 
 the free state of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklen- 
 berg-Strelitz, Schaumburg-Lippe, and the Apostolic- 
 Prefecture of Schleswig-Holstein. The bishop of 
 Osnabriick is also Vicar Apostolic of the Northern 
 Missions, and prefect Apostolic of Schleswig-Hol- 
 
GERONA 
 
 340 
 
 GHENT 
 
 stein. The vicariate Apostolic has a Catholic popu¬ 
 lation of 113,945. There are 29 parishes, 39 mission 
 stations, 63 secular priests and 7 regulars. In 1921 
 the following orders and congregations had founda¬ 
 tions: Jesuits at Hamburg; Sisters of Mercy of 
 St. Charles Borromeo at Hamburg; Franciscans 
 (mother-house in Munster), at Bremen and Bremer- 
 haven; Franciscans (mother-house in Ihuine), at 
 Bergedorf (2), at Bremen (3), also at Bremerhaven, 
 Neustrelitz, Niendorf, and Rostock; Sisters of St. 
 Elizabeth (Grey Nuns) at Eutm, Hamberg (8), 
 Liibeck (2), Schwerin and Wismar; Ursulmes at 
 Hamburg and Eutin. The prefecture Apostolic 
 contains 48,752 Catholics, 24 parishes, 32 missaon 
 stations, 35 secular priests and 3 regulars. _ The 
 following orders are represented: Franciscans 
 (mother-house in Aix-la-Chapelle), at Flensburg 
 and Causlund; Franciscans (mother-house in 
 Thuine), at Wordstrand, Oldesloe and Ottenser; 
 Sisters of St. Elizabeth (Grey Nuns) at Altona, 
 Kiel, Neumiinster and Reinbeck. _ 
 
 In the Vicariate Apostolic and in the prefecture 
 Apostolic together there are 614 nuns. The Ursu- 
 lines have a lyceum and a realschule (6 years scien¬ 
 tific course) at Hamburg and at Eutin. There are 
 22 institutions of various kinds, including 8 hos¬ 
 pitals, 4 homes for children, 1 reformatory, 2 day 
 nurseries, several asylums and preparatory institu¬ 
 tions for first communicants. There is one Catholic 
 periodical. 
 
 Gerona, Diocese of (Gerundensis), in Spain, 
 suffragan of Tarragona. Rt. Rev. Francisco de 
 Pablo Mas y Oliver, appointed to this see 10 April, 
 1915, to succeed Bishop Pol y Baralt, died 16 
 April, 1920, and the see is now vacant. This ter¬ 
 ritory which extends over 1916 sq. miles, com¬ 
 prises 390,000 Catholics; 386 parishes, 6 archpriests, 
 985 priests, 386 churches, 593 chapels and 176 con¬ 
 vents with 176 religious, and 1754 Sisters. 
 
 Gerrard, Thomas John, author, b. at Wigan, 
 England, in 1871; d. in Southhampton on 14 
 December, 1916. He began his studies for the Bar 
 but on becoming a Catholic in 1891 he entered 
 Oscott College and was ordained in 1896. He 
 served on the missions of Chelsea and Southalt 
 in the Archdiocese of Westminster, and later owing 
 to ill health he acted as assistant chaplain to the 
 Canonesses of the Holy Sepulchre, at New Hall, 
 Essex. Father Gerrard collaborated in the Catholic 
 Encyclopedia and also contributed frequently to 
 Catholic periodicals, his writings whether spiritual, 
 philosophical, or literary being of a high standard. 
 His principal published works are: “The Way¬ 
 farer’s Vision,” “The Cult of Mary”; “Marriage and 
 Parenthood,” “The Church and Eugenics” and 
 “Bergson: an Exposition and Criticism.” 
 
 Gezireh, Diocese of (Jazirensis), the seat of two 
 Catholic residential sees, one Chaldean, the other 
 Syrian, in Mesopotamia. The Chaldean diocese has 
 been vacant since 26 August, 1915, when the bishop, 
 Rt. Rev. Philip Abraham, together with the Syrian 
 bishop and ten Chaldean priests, were shot to death 
 by the Turks, in the prison of Gezireh. At the 
 same time about 5000 of the faithful were massacred 
 out of hatred of the Catholic Faith. In 1920 there 
 were in this diocese about 6400 Chaldean Catholics; 
 17 priests, 14 churches or chapels, 1 station, and 7 
 schools. 
 
 Since the massacre of the Syrian bishop, Rt. 
 Rev. Flavian Michael Malke, this see has also 
 been vacant. Born near Mardin in 1856, of Jacobite 
 parents, Bishop Malke entered the Jacobite convent 
 of Zapharan in 1876, and had become a deacon, 
 
 when in 1877 he embraced the Catholic Faith. 
 He then studied at the seminary of Charfet, where 
 he was ordained in 1883 by the Patriarch of Antioch. 
 He served in a number of different missions con¬ 
 verting many Jacobites, was named patriarchal 
 administrator of Mardin in 1910, and was appointed 
 Bishop of Gezireh, 14 September, 1912. For the 
 Syrians the diocese comprises 1300 Catholics, 7 
 secular priests, and 7 churches or chapels. 
 
 Ghardaia in Sahara, Prefecture Apostolic of 
 (Ghardaiensis in Sahara), in the French Sahara. 
 This territory was formerly known simply as 
 Ghardaia, but a Decree of Propaganda, 10 January, 
 1921, added the words “in Sahara” to its title. 
 In 1920, by a consistorial Decree of 2 July, somi 
 important changes were made in the prefecture, 
 giving it a portion of the territory (Geryville and 
 A'in-Sefra), formerly belonging to the Diocese of 
 Oran. The same year two new stations, at Laghouat 
 and Djelfa in Southern Algiers, were created at the 
 suggestion of the military authorities, who wished 
 to have the White Fathers established in these 
 regions. In Laghouat, with the exception of the 
 soldiers, there are few Europeans, the region being 
 chiefly populated with natives and nomadic tribes. 
 Rev. Henri Bardou, of the White Fathers, ap¬ 
 pointed prefect apostolic of this territory 3 January, • 
 1911, retired in 1919, and was succeeded by Rev. 
 Gustave Joseph-Marie Nouet, born in the Diocese 
 of Nantes, 1878, appointed 8 April, 1919. The 
 natives of this territory are all Mohammedans 
 and number about 300,000. Conversions are very 
 difficult and most of the Catholics at the present 
 time are Europeans, chiefly soldiers. In 1920 the mis¬ 
 sion had 14 priests, 3 churches, 3 stations, 3 schools, 
 
 3 orphanages, 1 hospital, and 12 White Sisters. 
 
 Ghent, Diocese of (Gandensis; cf. C. E., VI- 
 542d), comprises the Belgian province of East 
 Flanders. The cathedral chapter is the beautiful 
 church of St. Bavon, whose famous altarpiece, “The 
 Adoration of the Lamb,” is the work of the Van 
 Eyck brothers. The side panels of this triptych, 
 which had been in museums of Berlin and Brussels, 
 were returned to Ghent in 1920 amid great rejoicing. 
 
 Rt. Rev. Antoine Stillemans, born at St. Nicholas, 
 10 December, 1832, ordained in 1858, was elected 
 Bishop of Ghent 30 December, 1889, assistant at 
 the papal throne 14 November, 1901, received the 
 personal privilege of the pallium 12 May, 1910, in 
 1915 celebrated his diamond jubilee of priesthood 
 in St. Bavon. Bishop Stillemans was the dean of 
 the Belgian bishops and the second to die (4 
 November, 1916) during German occupation. In 
 1914 Bishop Stillemans was given an auxiliary, 
 Rt. Rev. Eugene Van Rechem, chevalier of the 
 Order of Leopold, b. at Audenarde 8 April, 1858, 
 named Bishop of Carpasia 26 March, 1914, and 
 consecrated at Ghent 17 May following. The suc¬ 
 cessor of Bishop Stillemans is Rt. Rev. Emile-Jean 
 Seghers, licentiate in theology and chevalier of the 
 Order of Leopold, born at Ghent 3 September, 1855, 
 elected twenty-fifth bishop of Ghent 22 March, 1917, 
 and consecrated there 1 May, 1917. 
 
 The diocese is divided into 28 deaneries, with 
 329 parishes and 1,142,347 inhabitants. There is a 
 seminary at Ghent and a preparatory one at St. 
 Nicholas. The episcopal college of Saint-Lievin at 
 Ghent and 7 similar schools in the diocese, also 7 
 institutes for technical education, take care of the 
 higher education. There are numerous schools, hos¬ 
 pitals, homes and refuges maintained by the reli¬ 
 gious of the diocese, several of these orders, such 
 as Sisters of the Holy Childhood of Jesus, having 
 been founded there for the relief of misery. 
 
GHERLA 
 
 341 
 
 GILLOW 
 
 Gherla (Hungarian, Szamos-Ujvar; Lat., Szamos- 
 Ujvariensis; cf. C. E., I-739d), a diocese of the 
 Greek Rumanian Rite, formerly known as Arme- 
 nierstadt, embracing the northern part of Transyl¬ 
 vania, suffragan of Fagaras. Rt. Rev. John Szabo, 
 who came to this see in 1879, died 2 May, 1911, and 
 was succeeded by Rt. Rev. Basil Hosszu, appointed 
 15 December, 1911, d. 13 January, 1916. The present 
 incumbent, Rt. Rev. John Hosszu, succeeded him 
 in January, 1919. By 1920 statistics the total popu¬ 
 lation of this territory is 683,314, of whom 432,915 
 are Greek Catholic Rumanians, 41,116 of the Latin 
 Rite, 1500 Armenians. There are 502 parishes, 500 
 secular and 3 regular priests, and 685 churches or 
 chapels. 
 
 m . England, 1871, studied at College 
 
 0 • s ^ ln * Rome, and became prefect of 
 
 studies in the College of St. Augustine in Ramsgate, 
 appomted to the see of Gibralter, 10 November, 
 1910. In 1920 there were 15,600 Catholics in this 
 diocese out of a total population of 25 760- 19 
 
 chapels 27 regUkr Clergy ’ and 7 churches ’ and 
 
 Gibail and Batrun, Diocese of (Gebailensis et 
 Botryensis Maronitarum), a residential see of the 
 Maronite Rite in Syria. It is a patriarchal diocese 
 of the Maronites with residence at Bekorki, 
 Lebanon, where the Maronite Patriarch of Antioch 
 resides. At present (1922) the see is filled by His 
 Excellency Mgr. Elie-Pierre Hoyek, born in Le¬ 
 banon, 1842, studied at the colleges of Ghazer, and 
 Propaganda in Rome, ordained in 1870, served as 
 secretary general of the patriarchate and conse¬ 
 crated titular archbishop of Area and named 
 patriarchal vicar 14 December, 1889, became director 
 of the Maronite College in Rome in 1897, and 
 was appointed patriarch 6 January, 1899. By latest 
 statistics (1920), the three districts of Gitail, 
 Batrun, and Jubbe count 85,000 Maronite Catho¬ 
 lics; 470 priests, 277 churches and chapels, 5 semi¬ 
 naries at Batrun, Ai'n-Warca, Mar-Habda-Harharaia, 
 Reyfoun, and Roumie, 12 monasteries of Baladites 
 with 177 Monks, 2 monasteries of Aleppines with 
 30 Monks, 2 monasteries of Antonians of St. Isaias 
 with 9 Monks, 1 monastery of Baladite Nuns with 
 18 religious, and 2 convents of native Sisters of 
 the Holy Family with 21 religious. 
 
 Gigot, Francis Ernest, biblical scholar, b. 
 at Lhuant, Indre, France, on 21 August, 1859; 
 ch at Yonkers New York, on 14 June, 1920; son of 
 Denis Wenceslas and Madeleine (Pelletier) Gigot 
 He studied in the Petit Seminaire of Le Dorat 
 (Haute-Y ienne), the Grand Seminaire of Limoges 
 and the Catholic Institute of Paris. He was or- 
 darned in 1883, and passed his remaining years, 
 alter a brief tenure of chairs of dogmatic theology 
 and philosophy, in teaching Hebrew and the Sacred 
 scriptures in American seminaries at Boston Balti¬ 
 more (1899-1904) and St. Joseph’s Seminary, Yonkers, 
 from 1904. Gigot, who collaborated in Vigouroux’s 
 Dictionnaire de la Bible” and contributed many of 
 the Scriptural articles in The Catholic Encyclo¬ 
 pedia is the author of “Causes which Entailed the 
 Multilations of St. Mark’s Gospel”—an essay crowned 
 by the Catholic Institute, Paris; “General Introduc¬ 
 tion to the Study of Holy Scripture” (1900), “Special 
 Introduction to the Study of the Old Testament” 
 (2 vols., 1901, 1906); “Christ’s Teaching Concerning 
 Divorce in the New Testament,” and “Outlines of 
 New Testament History.” He is the author also of 
 the translation of the Apocalypse in the Westminster 
 Version of the Bible. 
 
 Gibbons, James, Cardinal, Archbishop of Balti¬ 
 more, b. there on 23 July, 1834; d. there on 24 
 March, 1921. He received his early education in 
 Ireland, but returned to the United States and 
 was ordained priest 30 June, 1861. He was Arch¬ 
 bishop Spalding’s secretary, and subsequently made 
 Vicar Apostolic of North Carolina and consecrated 
 Bishop of Adramytum 16 August, 1868, and on 
 30 July, 1872, was translated to the see of Rich¬ 
 mond. On 25 May, 1877, he was named Bishop of 
 Junopolis and made coadjutor of Baltimore, suc¬ 
 ceeding to the archbishopric at the death of Mgr. 
 Bayley, 3 October, 1877. He occupied a conspicuous 
 place in American public life, and was constantly 
 looked for as a mediator in labor troubles. His 
 episcopal life synchronizes with an enormous growth 
 of the Church in the United States. When he 
 ,was Bishop of Richmond he was rejoiced in the 
 fact that there were 5,000,000 Catholics in the 
 United States, with 67 bishops, 6500 churches, and 
 1700 schools with 500,000 pupils. Before his death 
 he saw a hierarchy with a Delegate Apostolic, 2 
 cardinals, 15 archbishops, 100 bishops, and 6048 
 schools with 1,774,448 pupils. He is the author of 
 three widely read books, “The Faith of Our 
 Fathers,” “Our Christian Heritage,” and “The Am¬ 
 bassador of Christ.” 
 
 Gilbert, Lady, better known to the world at 
 large as Rosa Mulholland than by the title which 
 her marriage to Sir John T. Gilbert brought her 
 in 1891; b. in Belfast, Ireland; d. at Blackrock, 
 Dublin, in April, 1924. Her literary contributions 
 were always welcome to the Catholic public. They 
 were mostly stories, but we find in the list a volume 
 of poems entitled “Spirit and Dust,” besides a Life 
 of her husband, Sir John Gilbert. 
 
 Gilbert Islands, Vicariate Apostolic of (Gil- 
 bertinen sis Insulensis), comprises the group of 
 that name, and the islands of Ellice and Panapa, 
 in the Pacific Ocean. Geographically these islands 
 cover about 390 miles, but the length of the in¬ 
 habited islands is only about 279 miles. They have 
 a population of about 40,000, of whom 14,200 are 
 Catholics. The vicariate is entrusted to the Con¬ 
 gregation of the Sacred Heart of Issondun, the 
 present (1922) vicar being Rt. Rev. Joseph Leray, 
 appointed titular Bishop of Remesiana, 27 July, 
 1897. From 1888 until 1917 this mission averaged 
 about 20,000 baptisms and 300 conversions annually. 
 There are now 22 priests in the vicariate, 20 
 churches or chapels, 14 Brothers, 18 Sisters of Our 
 Lady of the Sacred Heart, 105 catechists and 96 
 primary schools teaching 1549 boys and 2576 girls. 
 
 Gibraltar, Diocese of (Giblatariensis), com¬ 
 prising the English Colony of Spain, directly sub¬ 
 ject to the Holy See. This territory, erected into 
 a vicariate apostolic in 1806, was raised to a diocese 
 by a Decree of 19 November, 1910. It is under 
 the administration of its first bishop, Rt. Rev. 
 Henry G. Thompson, O.S. B., of Monte Cassino. 
 
 Gillow, Joseph, historian and biographer, born 
 in 1850; died at Hale, England, on 17 March, 1921. 
 He was the son of Joseph Gillow, justice of the 
 peace of Preston and Ribby, and was educated at 
 Sedgeley Park and Ushaw College, and in 1878 
 married Miss Ella McKenna, of Dunham Massey. 
 On completing his education Gillow devoted himself 
 to the history of the English Catholics from the time 
 of Henry VIII. As the fruit of his herculean energy 
 and undaunted perseverance he has given us a 
 monumental “Biographical Dictionary of English 
 Catholics,” in five volumes, the first of which ap¬ 
 peared in 1885 and the last in 1902. His record of 
 those who labored for, wrote for, and suffered for 
 
GIOVINAZZO 
 
 342 
 
 GNIEZNO-POZNAN 
 
 the Faith in England has won Gillow the title 
 of “Plutarch of the English Catholics”—and justly 
 so. Interested in the cause of education he was 
 twice elected a member of the Manchester School 
 Board. He assisted in founding the Catholic Record 
 Society (of England) and was chosen as its honorary 
 recorder. In addition to his magnum opus Gillow 
 published “The Tyldesley Diary,” “The Haydock 
 Papers,” “St. Thomas’ Priory,” “The Story of a 
 Staffordshire Mission,” "Lancashire Recusants, 
 “A Catalogue of the Martyrs in Englande for Pro¬ 
 fession of the Catholique Faith since the Yeare of 
 Our Lord 1535,” and, in collaboration with R. 
 Trappes-Lomax,” “The Diary of the Blue Nuns of 
 Paris.” 
 
 Giovinazzo, Diocese of. See Molfetta, Terlizzi 
 and Giovinazzo. 
 
 Girgenti, Diocese of (Agrigentinensis), in 
 Sicily, suffragan of Monreale. This diocese, the 
 richest in Italy, is under the administration of lit. 
 Rev. Bartolomeo Maria Lagumina, born m 
 Palermo, 1850, appointed 28 April, 1898. ^ In 1920 
 it counted a Catholic population of 415,043; 67 
 parishes, 485 secular and 50 regular priests, 138 
 seminarians, 115 Sisters, and 369 churches and 
 chapels. 
 
 Giustini, Filippo, Cardinal, b. at Cinete Romano, 
 8 May, 1852; d. in Rome, 17 March, 1920. He was 
 professor of Canon Law at the Roman Seminal v 
 in 1878; then prefect of studies at the Apollinare. 
 He was made Auditor of the Rota 20 February, 
 1S97, secretary of the Congregation of Bishops 
 and Regulars 1902, Secretary of the Holy Office in 
 the same year, and of the Council and the Com¬ 
 mission of Canon Law in 1904, which office he 
 retained until 1917. He was created cardinal deacon 
 25 May, 1914. On 14 October, 1914, he was 
 appointed prefect of the Sacred Congregation of 
 the Sacraments, and presided as pontifical legate 
 at the seventh centenary celebration of St. Francis 
 Assisi in the Holy Land. While there he visited 
 all the missions of Palestine and Egypt. 
 
 Glasgow, Archdiocese of (Glasguensis). —On the 
 death of Archbishop John Aloysius Maguire, 14 
 October, 1920, the affairs of the diocese were ad¬ 
 ministered by the Administrator-Apostolic Rt. Rev. 
 John Toner, Bishop of Dunkeld, until the appoint¬ 
 ment (22 February, 1921), of Rt. Rev. Donald 
 Mackintosh, rector of the Scots College, Rome, 
 since 1913. Bishop Mackintosh was born at Glas- 
 nacardoch, Inverness, Scotland, in 1877, studied at 
 Blairs College, the Paris lower seminary and the 
 Scots College, where he was ordained in 1900. He 
 was made a privy chamberlain in 1907 and a domestic 
 prelate in 1914. The archdiocese lost its coadjutor 
 upon the death of the Most Rev. Donald Aloysius 
 Mackintosh, 8 October, 1919. During the World 
 War practically all the men of the diocese under 
 forty, served in some capacity and ten of the clergy 
 served as military chaplains, two of them giving 
 up their lives, one at the front, the other by drown¬ 
 ing from a hospital ship. 
 
 The 1921 statistics for this diocese show: 94 
 quasi-parishes, 94 churches, 18 mission stations, 9 
 religious houses for men, 20 convents for women, 
 265 secular priests and 48 regulars, 500 nuns, 1 
 diocesan seminary wfith 40 seminarians, 1 training 
 college for women with 12 teachers and an attend¬ 
 ance of 200, 14 high schools with 148 teachers and 
 an attendance of 4233, 2 academies with an attend¬ 
 ance of 726, 2 training schools, 96 elementary schools 
 with 1504 teachers and an attendance of 16,927, and 
 3 industrial schools with 12 teachers and an at¬ 
 
 tendance of 690. The various charitable works 
 carried on in the diocese include the Apostleship 
 of the Sea, 4 homes, 3 orphanages, 1 hospital, and 
 2 refuges. All but one or two of the public institu¬ 
 tions permit the ministry of priests and all the 
 schools are supported by the Government. There 
 are 3 organizations established among the clergy, 
 and several among the laity, such as the Knights 
 of Columbus; the only periodicals published in 
 the diocese are the diocesan calendar and parish 
 magazines. 
 
 Glasgow University (cf. C. E., VI-578c).—One 
 of the most striking developments of modern times 
 in Glasgow University is the steady growth of the 
 women’s department, known as Queen Margaret 
 College. The college, founded in 1883, now shows 
 a record *of 2103 graduates, of whom 1627 have 
 obtained the degree of M.A., 82 that of B.Sc.; 1 
 that of B.D.; 2 that of B.L.; 1 that of LL.B.; 358 
 graduated M.B.; C.M.; 26 are now M.D.; 5 are 
 D. Sc.; and 1 D.Litt. During 1920-21 a woman 
 took a degree in agriculture for the first time in 
 Glasgow. This same year the number of students 
 registered in the college was 1132, of whom 565 
 were students in the faculty of arts, 124 in that of 
 science, 432 in medicine, 5 in law, and 6 in educa¬ 
 tion. 
 
 The medical department has also had a remark¬ 
 able growth, the number of students registered in 
 1919 being 3420 as against a registration of only 
 1600 in 1914. 
 
 In 1912 a change was made in the regulations 
 governing the degree of B. L., when an ordinance 
 was passed making it compulsory for a candidate 
 for the degree to possess a degree in arts, science 
 or economics, or to have passed an examination 
 in arts, or such other examination as the board of 
 examiners might accept. 
 
 The university library includes some very valu¬ 
 able collections, among them the Hunterian, Hamil¬ 
 ton, and Euing collections; the Hunterian Museum, 
 a storehouse of treasures, is also one of the pos¬ 
 sessions of the university. 
 
 Among the numerous societies and clubs formed 
 in the university are the Catholic Students Sodality 
 and the Ossianic Society. The first named was 
 founded in 1911 with the object of providing for 
 its members opportunities of social intercourse as 
 well as to promote interest in literary, scientific, and 
 sociological subjects. The Ossianic Society is one 
 of the oldest in the university, as well as one of 
 the most successful. The objects of this society 
 are the discussion of subjects bearing on the lan¬ 
 guage, literature and customs of the Highlands, and 
 the promotion of social enjoyment among the High¬ 
 land students. The meetings are conducted entirely 
 in Gaelic, and the society has numbered many dis¬ 
 tinguished Gaels among its members. 
 
 Sir Donald MacAlister is the present head of the 
 university. 
 
 Glastonbury Abbey (cf. C. E., VI-579b).—The 
 ruins of Glastonbury Abbey were purchased in 1907, 
 on behalf of a body of Anglican trustees, and in 
 1921 the “Abbot’s Kitchen” was also acquired by 
 them. Recent excavations have laid bare the foun¬ 
 dations of the cloister, on the south side of the 
 abbey church, and also of some chapels attached 
 thereto, but nothing of special architectural or 
 historical importance has been found. 
 
 Gnesen-Posen, Archdiocese of. See Gniezno- 
 POZNAN. 
 
 Gniezno-Poznan, Archdiocese of (Gnesnensis 
 et Posnaniensis), in Poland. This see carries 
 
GOA 
 
 GONAIVES 
 
 343 
 
 with it the titles of Primate and Legatus-Natus of 
 roland and the privilege of wearing cardinalitial 
 vestments without the hat. It is now filled by His 
 Eminence Edmund Cardinal Dalbor, born in 
 Ostrowo, Poland, 1869, ordained 1893, made a pre¬ 
 late of the Holy See 23 November, 1914, served 
 as chancellor and vicar general of Poznan, and 
 was appointed Archbishop of Gniezno-Poznan, 30 
 June, 191o, and consecrated 21 September follow- 
 
 succeed Rev. Edward Likowski, died 
 
 20 February, 1915. He was created a cardinal priest 
 15 December, 1919. In 1916 Cardinal Dalbor pub¬ 
 lished a stirring pastoral letter, on the occasion of 
 the Dine hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the 
 introduction of Christianity into Poland, in which 
 he spoke of it as the anniversary of the historical 
 and political as well as the religious birth of the 
 country,- and his sentiments met with an immediate 
 and enthusiastic response from the people and the 
 national press During the pontificate of Pius IX 
 the Canons of the two chapters of Gniezno and 
 iroznan were accorded the privilege of wearing 
 the soutane and violet mantelletta, and Leo XIII 
 gave them the right to the ring. 
 
 A national council of all the bishops of Poland 
 was held in Gniezno in 1919, presided over by 
 Cardinal Dalbor.. After the closing session all the 
 members went in an impressive procession, to 
 v enerate the relics of St. Adelbert, patron of Poland 
 preserved in the cathedral. The cardinal is as- 
 sisted by two auxiliaries, Rt. Rev. William Kloske, 
 titular Bishop of Theodosiopolis, and Rt. Rev. 
 Stanislas Rostka Lukomski, titular Bishop of Sicca- 
 venena. The former lives in Gniezno, the latter 
 in Poznan, where the cardinal also resides. There 
 are two cathedrals, one in each of these cities, two 
 upper seminaries, and three hostels for collegians, 
 the third being at Ostrowo. By 1920 statistics the 
 diocese comprises 43 deaneries, 554 parishes, 200 
 vicariates and auxiliary parishes, 44 posts of admin¬ 
 istration or teaching, 550 pastors and 200 curates 
 besides 44 other priests, making a total of 837 
 + 'V Brothers °f Christian Charity are es¬ 
 
 tablished here with 60 houses, as well as 6 congre- 
 gations of religious women. The latest census 
 (1914) credits the diocese with 1,392,692 Catholics 
 and about 750,000 non-Catholics. 
 
 Valencia, pro-vicar apostolic and founder of two 
 orphanages died and also Fathers Tomas de Ori- 
 
 heroL^v for the °c ^ Pinarej f °’ who h ad worked 
 neroicaliy for the conversion of the Indians of the 
 
 Sierra Nevada in Colombia. Four orXnLes in 
 
 sine? 1M9.° T^e^f»cification U of^natives r in ^a'terrf 
 
 mil S es n io r n^V° r - llSe of , autos and auto-trucks 25 
 miles Jong has improved commerce a great deal 
 
 twc^^erfl 1 <^ he ? bc T e + , im P rov ements a hospital and 
 , °deges for both sexes have been constructed 
 at the expense of the Capuchin mission, 
 lwo periodicals, “Ecos de la Mision” and “Hoiita 
 
 rCE ar fr W ' a “ d fifty organizations 
 T a Jf be en smarted among the laity. About 4000 
 Inchans have become Catholics, 2800 since 1909 
 1^,7 vicariate there are 20 parishes, 30 churches, 
 12 stations, 4 secular and 14 regular priests 11 lav 
 brothers, 26 Sisters 2 colleges for ^oys ’with 5 
 eachers and 200 students, 2 colleges for girls with 
 
 WWnT 80 ? lldents > 4d elementary schools 
 with 40 teachers and 2500 pupils, and 1 hospital. 
 
 Gobmeau, Joseph Arthur, Count de, ethno¬ 
 grapher and philosopher, b. at Ville d’Avray, near 
 Pans, on 14 July 1816; d at Turin, on 13 October" 
 1882. He entered the French diplomatic service 
 and was successively minister to Persia, Greece 
 Brazil, and Sweden. He is the author of “Religious 
 et philosophies de l’Asie centrale,” “Traite des 
 mscnptions cuneiformes,” and “Histoire des Perses” 
 
 (Fna- ?r Sa ii ir me S T allt e des races humaines” 
 (Eng.^tr by Collins, London, 1915), “La Renais- 
 
 sance (tr Cohn, 1913), and “Les Pleiades" 
 are particularly noteworthy as having had an 
 
 Stewnrf rh N ' et ? s ? he and .writers like Houston 
 Stewart Chamberlain, votaries of the Germanic 
 
 superman. Gobmeau attributes the progress and 
 
 no£ a; thp f n ^ 10ns ? ot to theory of the milieu 
 
 even Pbr;«r tl0I l ° f u T°/ a 1 forces and ideals—not 
 stocks^Tstiamty—but to the mingling of-particular 
 f;° C h Ur T i e Predominance of the Aryan and par¬ 
 ticularly Germanic blood means progress, decay 
 
 unde? When the Alyan eIement is be ing driven 
 
 Goa, Archdiocese of (Goanensis), Patriarchate 
 of the East Indies, the chief see of the Portuguese 
 dominions in the East. The archbishop of this 
 see bears the honorary titles of Primate of the 
 East and Patriarch of the East Indies. The see 
 is filled by His Excellency Mgr. Mateo de Oliveria 
 Xavier, born in Valle da Urra, Portugal, 1858, ap¬ 
 pointed Bishop of Cochin, 11 October, 1897, and 
 promoted 26 February, 1909. The territory com¬ 
 prised in the diocese covers an area of'1449 sq 
 miles and embraces a total population of 2,349 110 
 
 3 f? ,( lno are Catholics. The 1920 statistics 
 cre d, t !t with 102 parishes, 23 missions, 131 churches, 
 364 chapels 349 confraternities, 322 pious associa- 
 !qiq Vi? n< l- 3105 chlJ dren in Catholic schools. In 
 J 91 ? bne diocese was divided into 12 districts, and 
 had 629 priests, more than 119 of whom were in 
 Portuguese India, and 58 convents. 
 
 „ n( ? oajira ’ Vicariate Apostolic of (cf. C E VI- 
 ^ V5 a peninsula belonging to Colombia and 
 entrusted to the Capuchins for spiritual care. 
 
 AtanaS10 Maria Vincenzo Soler-Royo, 
 O M. Cap appointed 18 April, 1907, as vicar apos- 
 hc and titular Bishop of Citharizum, and Rev. 
 Bienvenido de Chilches as pro-vicar, are in charge 
 ot twelve Capuchin priests who are working among 
 the Indians. In recent years Very Rev. Antonio de 
 
 CLI xmli m-Uo! d SupC7 " RaCe in Th * D ^Un Review, 
 
 Gold Coast, Vicariate Apostolic of (Littoris 
 
 coa st ’nf OT \F F ses a f English colony on the west 
 coast of Africa. It is entrusted to the African 
 missionaries of Lyons and has its episcopal resi- 
 dence at Cape Coast. The present vicar is Rt. 
 
 Ig »t lus Pummel, born in Sufflenheim, Ger- 
 manj^, 1870 ordained 1896, joined the mission at 
 
 f re #T 0f , th ® Niger > and was ap- 
 d titular Bishop of Trapezopolis, 6 March, 
 
 n!!f/?ii d n e - V S r apostolic. This territory 
 counts 2,130 000 inhabitants, of whom 28,500 are 
 
 Catholics and 23,805 catechumens, according to the 
 latest statistics (1920). The mission is served by 
 
 +lL P oS tS ’ J- 5 rehglo \ ,s . of 0ur Lady of the Apos¬ 
 tles, 265 native catechists, 234 churches or chapels 
 8 principal stations, 316 secondary stations, and 82 
 schools with 4715 pupils. 
 
 Gonaives Diocese of (Gonayvesensis), com- 
 
 of 1S AtnTnn i an n 0t G ° naive " and the government 
 ♦tiff* 6 * U ereCted m 186 L suffragan of 
 the Archdiocese of Port-au-Prince, and has never 
 
 had a residential bishop of its own, but is adminis- 
 tered by the archbishop at present the Most Rev. 
 Julian Comm Through the agreement signed on 
 4 August, 1914, between the Archbishop of Port-au- 
 Innce and the Haitian Government, a number of 
 
GONZAGA UNIVERSITY 344 
 
 CORIZIA 
 
 primary schools, supported by the Government and 
 under its inspection, have been added to the dio¬ 
 cese. A beautiful church, built at St. Mark and 
 paid* for partly by the Haitian Government and 
 partly through the generosity of the faithful, was 
 completed during the present year (1921). 
 
 Owing to the general mobilization during the war, 
 the total number of priests and religious has 
 diminished noticeably since 1911. Seven of the 
 priests of the diocese entered the service during 
 the war, and of these two were killed, two received 
 the croix de guerre, and three others received other 
 citations. At present the diocese includes 9 parishes 
 and 13 priests, and charitable and educational work 
 is carried on by the two religious orders, the Chris¬ 
 tian Brothers and the Sisters of St. Joseph of Cluny. 
 The former conduct 2 government primary schools, 
 
 1 at Gonaives and 1 at St. Mark, and have m all 
 8 Brothers and 700 pupils. Under the direction ol 
 the Sisters there are 2 hospitals and 4 government 
 primary schools for girls. In all there are 1500 chil¬ 
 dren in Catholic schools. 
 
 Gonzaga University is situated in the city of 
 Spokane, Washington, and conducted by members 
 of the Society of Jesus. It originated in 1881 when 
 the Rev. Joseph Cataldo, superior of the Jesuit 
 Missions in the Rocky Mountains, bought a half¬ 
 section of land from the Northern Pacific Railroad 
 Co., and in 1883 began the erection of the first 
 Gonzaga building. It was formally opened on 15 
 September, 1887, and incorporated on 22 April, 
 1894, and empowered to grant literary honors and 
 confer degrees. The rapid growth of the city so 
 increased the value of the land that the sale of 
 portions of it made possible the erection of new 
 buildings in 1898 and 1903. _ . 
 
 The system of education is substantially that ot 
 all universities conducted by the Society of Jesus. 
 It includes the following departments: graduate 
 school of philosophy and science, school of com¬ 
 merce and finance, law school, college of arts and 
 sciences, including pre-engineering and pre-medical 
 courses, and the preparatory high school. For the 
 year 1920-21 the school of philosophy and science 
 registered 121 students, law school 40, arts &nd 
 sciences 102, and the high school 721. The Rev. 
 John A. McHugh, S.J., is president of the uni¬ 
 versity. 
 
 Good Hope, Eastern, Vicariate Apostolic of 
 the Cape of (Districtus Orientalis Promontorii 
 Bon^i Spei), one of the divisions of the original 
 vicariate of the Cape of Good Hope, divided in 
 1847. The bishop resides at Port Elizabeth. It is 
 at present administered by Rt. Rev. Hugh 
 McSherrv, born in Loughgilly, Ireland, 1852 ap¬ 
 pointed titular Bishop of Justinianapolis, 2 June, 
 1896, and made coadjutor to the vicar of Eastern 
 Good Hope, whom he succeeded 1 October, 1896. 
 The population of this territory numbers 163,210 of 
 European origin and 432,270 natives: about 13,295 
 of these are Catholics and 466,621 Protestants. 
 The 1920 statistics credit the vicariate with 27 
 secular and 15 Jesuit priests, besides 2 missionaries 
 of Marianhill, 74 churches and chapels, 20 houses 
 of religious, 43 Brothers, 407 Sisters, and 48 schools 
 with 3400 pupils. 
 
 Good Hope, Western, Vicariate Apostolic of 
 the Cape of (Districtus Occidentals Promontorii 
 Bon,® Sepi), one of the two vicariates in the 
 Cape of Good Hope. The official residence is 
 at Cape Town. It is at present administered 
 by Rt. Rev. John Rooney, born in Edenderry, 
 Ireland, 1844, and appointed titular Bishop of 
 
 Sergiopolis and coadjutor to the vicar apostolic of 
 Western Good Hope, 29 January, 1886, succeeding 
 as vicar 19 February, 1909. He is also administrator 
 apostolic of the prefecture of Central Cape .of 
 Good Hope. The total population of the ter¬ 
 ritory according to 1920 statistics, numbers 
 209,580, of whom are 6500 Catholics. The mission 
 is served by 25 secular priests and 6 Salesian 
 Fathers, 8 Salesian and 12 Marist Brothers, 78 
 Dominican Sisters, 48 Sisters of the Holy Cross 
 and 16 Sisters of Nazareth, 46 churches or chapels, 
 and 32 schools. 
 
 Good Samaritan, Sisters of the (cf. C. E., 
 VI-647a), founded by Archbishop Polding, O.S.B., 
 in Sydney, Australia, 2 February, 1857. In 1902 
 the Decree of Praise was granted by Pope Leo 
 XIII. In 1920 the constitutions, haying been re¬ 
 vised in accordance with the prescriptions of Canon 
 Law, were confirmed by Pope Benedict XV. The 
 institute is governed by a mother general and her 
 council, who are elected every six years. The 
 mother-house, to which is attached a training col¬ 
 lege for teachers, is in Sydney, N. S. W. The 
 novices and postulants are trained in one central 
 novitiate house, which is also in the Archdiocese 
 of Sydney. The Sisters devote themselves to works 
 of charity, such as education, the care of penitent 
 women and orphans, and the visitation of the sick. 
 There have been 17 new foundations since 1909. 
 The present number of members is 440, with a total 
 number of 46 foundations, of which 24 are in N. S. 
 Wales, 12 in Queensland, 8 in Victoria, 2 in South 
 Australia. The Sisters have under their care the 
 following institutions: 2 homes for penitent women, 
 
 1 orphanage, 1 domestic training school, 62 schools. 
 In the homes 200 women are provided for. In the 
 orphanage there are at present 80 children, but an 
 additional building, which will accommodate 200, is 
 being erected. The children attend school until 
 they are fourteen years of age, after which they 
 are taught domestic work, needlecraft, or trades. 
 In the domestic training school 30 poor girls are 
 boarded, receive religious instruction, and are 
 trained in domestic work and needlecraft. The 
 schools include boarding schools, secondary and 
 primary day schools. The pupils number over 
 12 ,000.' 
 
 Gorizia, Archdiocese of (Gorz; cf. C. E., VI- 
 6540).—Gorizia was formerly the capital of the 
 Austrian crownland of Gorz and Gradisca, which 
 province is now the extreme northeastern part of 
 Italy. The archbishop has the title of prince and 
 his archdiocese is composed of the united sees of 
 Gorizia and Gradisca, and has for its suffragans 
 the dioceses of Parenzo and Pola, Trieste and 
 Capo d’lstria, and Veglia. The prince archbishop 
 is Most Rev. Francesco Borgia Sedej, born at 
 Cerkno, 10 October, 1854, elected 21 February, 1906, 
 to succeed Mgr. Andreas Jordan, deceased. The 
 war between Austria and Italy which broke out 
 in 1915 devastated all the countries bordering on 
 the Isonzo River; 43 churches were totally de¬ 
 stroyed, 42 more or less damaged. The inhabitants, 
 including the clergy, dispersed throughout Austria 
 or were interned by the Italians. According to the 
 Treaty of Rapallo, the archdiocese of Gorz was 
 annexed to the Kingdom of Italy. The new cir¬ 
 cumscription gives to the archdiocese three rural 
 deaneries, those of Lubiano and Klagenfurt with 
 an addition of 60,000 inhabitants. During the war 
 the clergy by their zeal and unselfishness made 
 themselves much beloved by the Government and 
 the people. While in exile in Austria and Italy 
 they shared the hardships of the faithful, adminis- 
 
GORZ 
 
 GOYAU 
 
 tcrcd to their spiritual needs and assisted the local 
 priests wherever possible. They received a testi¬ 
 mony of commendation from the ordinaries of the 
 various places. 
 
 The archdiocese has a Catholic population of 
 260,000 inhabitants, of whom two-fifths are Italians 
 and three-fifths Slovenes. It contains 86 parishes, 
 44 curacies, 63 vicariates, 78 chaplaincies, 316 
 churches, 1 mission station, 8 monasteries for men, 
 6 for women with 180 Sisters and 47 lay sisters, 
 263 secular priests, 35 regulars and 66 lay brothers. 
 There is a diocesan seminary with 18 students. The 
 latter institution is destitute, which accounts for 
 the small number of students. Two colleges for 
 women with 18 teachers and 280 students have been 
 established in the archdiocese. All the schools and 
 institutions are in the hands of the Government 
 and religious instruction is prohibited in private 
 schools. There exists four associations among the 
 clergy and 220 among the laity. The following 
 charitable institutions have been founded: 4 or¬ 
 phanages, 2 shelters, 3 asylums, 3 hospitals, 4 
 hospices. The Sisters of Charity of St. Vincent de 
 Paul have left Gorizia and have been replaced by 
 the Sisters of Providence of St. Cajetan, who have 
 charge of the orphan asylum at Contavalle. The 
 Sisters of Mercy of the Holy Cross are no longer 
 in charge of the domestic management of the 
 archiepiscopal seminary, but minister to the sick 
 in their homes. 
 
 Gorz, Archdiocese of. See Gorizia. 
 
 Gotti, Girolamo Maria, Cardinal-Prefect of 
 Propaganda, b. at Genoa on 29 March, 1834; d. at 
 Rome on 19 March, 1916. He was the son of a 
 dock-laborer of Genoa, and after his ordination as 
 a Carmelite he taught mathematics and the sciences 
 at the Genoa Naval Academy. His knowledge of 
 theology may be appreciated by the fact that he 
 was at the Vatican Council as theologian of the 
 General of his Order, to whose place he succeeded 
 in 1881, and by special dispensation was reelected 
 to the same post in 1889. He was given charge of 
 the Oriental Missions, and was consecrated Arch¬ 
 bishop of Petra in 1892, when he was sent as Inter¬ 
 nuncio to Brazil. In 1895 he was elevated to the 
 cardinalate. Subsequently he was Prefect of the 
 Institute of Simple Vows, which was composed of 
 members of unusual learning and experience; he 
 also presided over the Congregation of Relics and 
 Indulgences which, under his direction, issued a 
 series of decrees of the utmost importance. In 1899 
 he passed to the Congregation of Bishops and 
 Regulars, and while there settled the very grave 
 controversy between Annecy and Bourges, which 
 might have had grave consequences in the Church. 
 At the death of Cardinal Ledochowski he was 
 given the prefectship of the Propaganda, and it 
 was probably he who induced Pius X to withdraw 
 England, the United States, and Canada from the 
 jurisdiction of Propaganda. Amid all his ecclesias¬ 
 tical dignities he remained preeminently a friar, 
 observing the rules of his Order almost as if he 
 were in a monastery. He received a certain num¬ 
 ber of votes as the successor of Leo XIII, who 
 indeed expressed the wish that the conclave would 
 so decide, but some of the cardinals feared that 
 the austerity of his life might show itself too 
 strongly in his government of the Church. 
 
 Goulburn, Diocese of (Goulburnensis), in 
 Australia, suffragan of Sydney. The limits of the 
 diocese were somewhat changed by a decree of 
 the Consistory 28 July, 1917, which cut off fifteen 
 parishes to form the new diocese of Wagga-Wagga. 
 
 The see is now filled (1922) by Rt. Rev. John 
 
 March '' r i8Q? r] V? , Cast £ lb ^ appointed 29 
 
 March, 1895, titular Bishop of Adrassus and 
 
 coadjutor at Goulburn, where he succeeded Bishop 
 
 t-ihlifhcd 13 ^h G> i 900, The reli S ious orders es- 
 uithpr! d r thG diocese include the Passionist 
 bathers, Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer 
 Christmn Brothers, De La Salle Brothers, Sisters 
 of Mercy, Presentation Nuns, Sisters of St. Joseph 
 ^rsing S.ters of the Sacred Heart, Nursing Sisters 
 of St John of God, Sisters of St. Joseph of the 
 Sacred Heart, Sisters of St. Brigid, of Charity and 
 of the Good Samaritan of the Order of St. Bene- 
 clict. By latest statistics the diocese is divided 
 into 30 districts, and comprises 113 churches, 54 
 secular and 12 regular clergy, 21 Brothers, 374 Sis¬ 
 ters, 7 novitiates, 2 secondary schools, 8 girls’ 
 boarding schools, 7 superior day schools, 76 primary 
 schools, 3 orphanages, and 2 hospitals. The total 
 
 ? c ll $ 9 n r C , hlId ^ en , rGCei ving Catholic education 
 is o/zv out of a Catholic population of 43,077 (1911 
 census/. 
 
 Goupil, Rene (cf. C. E., VI-684b).—The cause 
 ot ms beatification was introduced at Rome 9 
 August, 1916. 
 
 Goyau, Lucie Felix-Faure, author and lecturer, 
 b. at Amboise in Touraine, France, in 1866* d. at 
 Paris in June, 1913. She was the daughter of a 
 modest merchant who had settled in Havre but 
 who later became President of the French Repub¬ 
 lic She received a very careful private education 
 and soon revealed her two most striking character- 
 lstics, a deep religious instinct and a love of letters. 
 
 e „ agG j °Jk was enchanted with 
 
 Esther and Athahe. In 1881 her father was 
 appointed assistant secretaiy of the Foreign Office 
 arid this brought her to Paris, where she studied 
 the ancient Classics and the chief modern tongues 
 of Europe, gaining a deep knowledge of their lead¬ 
 ing writers. Her favorite authors were Shakespeare, 
 Pascal, Dante, and a Kempis. She traveled through 
 Europe and with her father visited Algeria, Egypt, 
 Palestine, and Greece. Her impressions are partly 
 recorded m “Une excursion en Afrique,” “Prome¬ 
 nades florentines,” “Mediterranee”; her visit to 
 Greece inspired her “Melancholie de Nausicaa ” a 
 romance founded on the seventh canto of ’the 
 Odyssey. In 1895 her father became president, and 
 she utilized the new opportunities offered to engage 
 m social work. Felix Faure was assassinated in 
 -February, 1899, and his daughter for nearly three 
 years lecorded her inner life in her “Journal intime ” 
 In writing her “Newman, sa vie, ses ceuvres” (1900) 
 and in meetings connected with the patriotic and 
 social League des enfants de France , she made the 
 acquaintance of M. Georges Goyau, the distin¬ 
 guished Catholic publicist and historian of modern 
 Germany, whom she married in 1903. Later she 
 wrote “Les femmes dans Poeuvre de Dante” and 
 a volume of poetry, “La vie nuancee” (1905) 
 After her marriage Mme Goyau took a prominent 
 part in the Continental feminist movement, which 
 she inspired with Christian principles; she delivered 
 numerous conferences dealing with family life and 
 woman under Christianity: such (e.g.) as “La cul¬ 
 ture de la femme au moyen age,” “Les femmes 
 
 A? L a .-,? e ," als !r ance ’” ,“, Sainte Gertrude” “Sainte 
 Mechtilde. Her conference “Sainte Radegonde” 
 
 was the first delivered by a woman in the Institut 
 Cathohque of Paris. In 1908 she wrote “Ames 
 paiennes, ames chretiennes,” a little book in praise 
 of the despised Christian virtues of obedience, 
 humility, patience, and self-denial, which was very 
 well received. In 1910 she published “La vie et la 
 
GOYAZ 
 
 GRAND ISLAND 
 
 346 
 
 mort de fees,” a charming, excellent history of the 
 
 sa vie e t see vuvres 
 
 (Paris, 1918). 
 
 Goyaz, Diocese of (Goyasensis), includes the 
 state of the same name and a part of the state o 
 Minas, Brazil, suffragan of Marianna. A P art 
 the original territory of this diocese was separated 
 from it by a Decree of 29 September, 1907, to 
 form the new Diocese of Uberaba. It now comprises 
 about 288,160 sq. miles. Rt. Rev. Prudencio Gome 
 da Silva, appointed to this see 17 November, 1907, 
 died 19 September, 1921, and his successor has not 
 vet been appointed. The population is chiefly 
 Catholic counting 300,748 Catholics against 
 
 Protestants and 10,000 infidels. Th ^ 10 “!? £“ OT 39 
 ing to 1920 statistics, comprises 36 P^hes, 39 
 secular and 38 regular priests, and 158 ohmches 
 and chapels. The secular clergy are gradually dis 
 appearing owing to the great difficulty in obtaining 
 
 & to maintain the seminary,, and now more ton 
 
 half of the parishes are administered by priests o 
 religious orders. 
 
 Gozo, Diocese of (Gaudisiensis; cf. C. E., VI- 
 687c), comprising the Island of Gozo m the Med - 
 ranean. The present bishop is Giovanni Maria 
 Camilleri (b. 1843), elected 1889 succeeding the 
 late Rt. Rev. Pietro Pace (b. 9 April, 1831, d. 2y 
 July 1914). Educated at Rome Bishop Pace 
 there took first honors in theology and canon law. 
 Ordained priest in 1853, he was at one time secre¬ 
 tary to the Cardinals Vincenzo Santucci and An 
 tonio Panebianco. He became vicar general and 
 administrator of Gozo m 1864, and was created 
 bishop of that diocese by PwsIX m 1877. in 
 1889 he was appointed by Leo XIII, Archbishop of 
 Malta, where he had at one time been pro es 
 in the university and seminary. Made> a Knight 
 of Malta he was decorated with the Order of Vic¬ 
 toria bv King Edward VII of England. He m 
 creased the teaching faculty and the number of 
 students at the seminary opened houses for nuns, 
 and under the care of the Sisters of Charity ie 
 stored in its entirety the orphan asylum, after add¬ 
 ing a nursery. He purchased from the Government 
 the episcopal residence and lands, and provided 
 for daily communication with the Sisters of the 
 
 diocese. , • ^ 
 
 The spiritual needs of the Catholic population oi 
 
 23,000 are looked after by a total of 180 secular 
 and 18 regular priests, assisted by 14 lay brothers 
 There are 13 parishes and 42 churches, 14 convents 
 for men and 6 for women, 1 seminary with 14 pro¬ 
 fessors and instructors, 100 boarders and 100 day 
 students, 1 college for girls with 20 students taught 
 by 7 Sisters of Charity, 1 high school for boys with 
 2 teachers and 40 students, 9 normal schools for 
 boys with 6 teachers and 196 students, and 9 for 
 girls with 10 teachers and 240 students, 1 college 
 with 7 missionary priests, 1 orphan asylum, the 
 120 boys and 50 girls in the kindergartens are m 
 charge of 4 teachers. Some of the priests enlisted 
 in the services of the army during the World War, 
 and many soldiers of the diocese were decorated. 
 
 Gran, Archdiocese of. See Esztergom. 
 
 Granada, Archdiocese of ( Gran aten sis), in 
 Spain. This see was filled by Most Rev Jose 
 Meseguer y Costa from 27 March, 1905, until his 
 death 9 December, 1920. He was succeeded by 
 Most Rev. Vicente Casanova y Marzol, born in 
 Borja, Spain, 1854, served as a pastor and visitor 
 of the religious communities, appointed Bishop oi 
 
 v 
 
 Almeiria, 19 December, 1907, promoted 7 March, 
 1921 In 1919 he was appointed a corresponding 
 member of the Royal Academy of History. Tim 
 Church of St. John of God was erected into a minor 
 basilica 20 December, 1916, and granted special in¬ 
 dulgences 12 June following. The archdiocese com¬ 
 prises an area of about 3261 sq. miles and a Catho¬ 
 lic population of 454,000. The 1920 statistics credit 
 it with 246 parishes divided among 16 archpriests 
 and 450 priests, 247 churches, 312 chapels or sanc¬ 
 tuaries, 66 convents with 180 religious and 935 
 Sisters, 1 university and 1 seminary founded by bt. 
 Ccecilius in 1492, with 150 pupils, and a seminary 
 of theologv and canon law at the Abbey of bacro 
 Monte (founded in 1610), with 150 students. 
 
 Granada, Diocese of (Granadensis), in the Re¬ 
 public of Nicaragua, Central America, is dependent 
 on Managua. On 2 December, 1913, the diocese 
 of Nicaragua, hitherto dependent on Guatemala, 
 was dismembered and three dioceses and a vicariate 
 apostolic were formed, one of which, comprising 
 four civil provinces, was Granada, where the epis¬ 
 copal seat is situated in the province of the same 
 name. The first bishcp of Granada was Rt. Rev. 
 Jose Candida Pinol y Batres, b. in Guatemala 2 
 February, 1878, elected 10 December, 1913, resigned 
 and transferred 10 July, 1915, and published 9 
 December following as titular bishop of Phaselis. 
 The second and present bishop is Rt. Rev. Canuto 
 Jose Reyes y Balladares, b. at Leon, Nicaragua, 
 24 September, 1863, ordained in 1887, and elevated 
 to the bishopric 12 July, 1915. . , .. 
 
 There are twenty-five parishes, three of which lie 
 in the episcopal citv and which include the church 
 of St. Francis, in use as a temporary cathedral 
 while the cathedral proper is being erected There 
 are no permanent missions established, but the 
 Jesuit Fathers hold missions in those places where 
 there is no parish priest. There are 4 houses for 
 religious communities of men, the Jesuits having 
 2, the Salesians 1, and the Capuchins 1. There 
 are 5 convents for women, 2 of the Sisters of Our 
 Lady of Help, and 3 of the Sisters of St. Joseph 
 of Mexico. There are a diocesan seminary and 5 
 colleges, 2 for boys, one of which is conducted by 
 the Jesuits and the other by the Salesians,. and 
 3 for girls, 2 of which are in charge of the Sisters 
 of Our Lady of Help, and 1 of the Sisters of St. 
 Joseph of Mexico. There are 2 hospitals, 1 in 
 Granada and 1 in Rivas. The Government con¬ 
 tributes to the support of some of the Catholic 
 schools and institutions, especially the colleges. 
 Practically all of the inhabitants of the diocese are 
 Catholics, except a few Protestants, who have come 
 from other places. There are 4 religious organiza¬ 
 tions among the laity and 4 monthly papers are 
 published, one of which has as its aim the fostering 
 of religious vocations. 
 
 Grand Island, Diocese of (Insulae Grandis), 
 was erected as the Diocese of Kearney 27 January, 
 1913, out of a portion of the Diocese of Omaha. 
 Owing to the lack of a suitable railroad center for 
 the episcopal see, and to apportion more equally 
 the scattered Catholic population, the boundaries 
 of the diocese had to be extended, and in May, 
 1916 the Holy See decreed that the mother diocese 
 should cede four additional counties (Arthur, 
 Wheeler, Greeley, and Howard), including the city 
 of Grand Island. This was made the see city in¬ 
 stead of Kearney, and the name of the diocese 
 was changed to Grand Island. It is still adminis¬ 
 tered by the first bishop, the Rt. Rev. James Albert 
 Duffy, who, while still resident at Kearney, suc¬ 
 ceeded in erecting a parochial school there, through 
 
GRAND RAPIDS 
 
 347 
 
 GREAT FALLS 
 
 offerings from Cardinals Gibbons and Farley and 
 several bishops and congregations of other dioceses. 
 
 On 5 July, 1918, the diocese lost one of its oldest 
 clergy by the death of Rev. Dean Wunibald Wolf, 
 pastor of St. Mary’s Church in Grand Island for 
 over thirty years. During the World War the laity 
 were creditably represented in military service, and 
 one of the small number of clergy, the Rev. James 
 P. McMahon, gave his services as a chaplain. The 
 women of the diocese worked enthusiastically for 
 the Red Cross, and all patriotic appeals for funds 
 were met with a generous response. 
 
 By the present (1921) statistics the Catholic 
 population of the diocese numbers 22,000, of whom 
 about 4000 are Polish and 3000 Mexicans, scattered 
 over an area of some 40,000 sq. miles. It com¬ 
 prises 45 parishes, 46 missions and 22 stations, 91 
 churches, 49 secular priests, 128 Sisters, 5 high 
 schools with 23 teachers and an attendance of 358, 
 3 academies with 23 teachers, 1 normal school, 12 
 elementary schools with 50 teachers and an attend¬ 
 ance of 1374. Charitable work is carried on by 
 the Sisters of St. Francis, who have two hospitals, 
 and the Holy Name Society and Knights of Colum¬ 
 bus are organized in the diocese. 
 
 with 126 teachers 4 academies, 2 normal schools, 
 92 elementary schools, 1 industrial school. The 
 
 o at it ndc l nCe ° L f , W 1 ! 8 111 Catholic schools is 
 21,olo. 1 he charitable institutions comprise: 1 home 
 
 for the aged conducted by the Little Sisters of the 
 Poor, with 148 inmates, 1 House of the Good Shep¬ 
 herd, 2 orphan asylums with 315 children, 1 home 
 lor infants, find 7 hospitals. The priests are per¬ 
 mitted to minister in many of the public institu- 
 tions The Holy Name Society is established in 
 this diocese. 
 
 Grand Rapids, Diocese of (Grandormensis; cf. 
 C. E., VI-726c), comprises a portion of the lower 
 peninsula of the State of Michigan, U. S. A., an 
 area of 22,561 sq. miles. 
 
 Rt. Rev. Henry Joseph Richter, D.D., first bishop 
 of the diocese, after an administration of thirty- 
 three years, died 26 December, 1916, known as a 
 very careful administrator and a particularly active 
 promotor of the parochial school system. He was 
 succeeded by his coadjutor, Rt. Rev. Michael 
 Gallagher, D. D., who was in charge until his trans¬ 
 fer to Detroit, 18 November, 1918. The present 
 bishop, Rt. Rev. Edward D. Kelly, D. D., appointed 
 16 January, 1919, assumed charge of the diocese 
 20 May following. Bishop Kelly was consecrated 
 in Ann Arbor, Michigan, 26 January, 1911, by the 
 late Cardinal Gibbons, titular Bishop of Cestra and 
 Auxiliary to the Bishop of Detroit, and was admin¬ 
 istrator of the diocese of Detroit after the death 
 of Bishop Foley until the arrival of his successor. 
 Immediately upon his arrival in this diocese he 
 instituted a building program and within eighteen 
 months opened a new preparatory seminary, 
 churches, schools, hospitals, and has under way a 
 college for young women which will be under the 
 direction of the Sisters of Saint Dominic of the 
 diocese. A Catholic weekly, the “Catholic Vigil,” 
 was founded by him in 1919. 
 
 During the World War the following priests of the 
 the diocese served as chaplains: Revs. A. Golden, 
 Joseph Kaminski, J. A. Mulvey, J. F. Drew, F. W. 
 Ryan, A. M. Fitzpatrick, D. D., J. D. Kenny. For 
 his works in the Knights of Columbus activities Mr. 
 Martin H. Carmody, a prominent layman of the 
 diocese. A Catholic weekly, the “Catholic Vigil,” 
 diocese, W'as knighted by His Holiness, Benedict 
 XV. 
 
 A convent of Discalced Carmelite Nuns, refugees 
 from persecution in Mexico, was established in 1916 
 by Bishop Richter. 
 
 The Catholic population of the diocese (1921) 
 is 149,919, comprising besides the American-born, 
 Irish, Germans, Poles, Canadian-French, Hollanders, 
 Belgians, and Indians. There are: 119 parishes, 230 
 churches, 111 missions, 35 stations, 1 monastery for 
 women (Carmelite), 4 convents of women, 143 secu¬ 
 lar and 26 regular clergy, 2 lay brothers, 834 Sis¬ 
 ters; 1 seminary, 126 seminarians, 21 high schools 
 
 Gravma and Montepeloso (or Irsina), Diocese of 
 (GRAV iNENsm et Montis Pelusii), in the province 
 of Ban, Southern Italy, directly subject to the Holy 
 See. Rt. Rev. Nicola Zimarino, born in Casaboldino 
 Italy, 1847, was transferred to this see 6 December’ 
 1906, and filled it until his death in July, 1920’. 
 His successor has not yet been appointed. The 
 latest statistics of 1920 credit Gravina with 22 000 
 Catholics and Montepeloso with 8000. Gravina has 
 5 parishes, 40 secular priests, 39 Sisters, and 25 
 churches and chapels; Montepeloso counts 4 par¬ 
 ishes 15 secular priests, 6 Sisters, and 10 churches 
 or chapels. 
 
 „ Gr ®? t ^ Fa \ ls ’ Diocese of (Greatormensis; cf. C. 
 
 JrL V r~ 7 , c) ’ ^ under the administration of the 
 hist bishop, Rt. Rev. Mathias Clement Leni- 
 han D. D., who has filled the See since 1904. Since 
 1909 the number of priests and hospitals and the 
 Catholic population of the diocese has been doubled, 
 ^ ooinber of Catholic schools and teachers tripled 
 while the number of churches and missions has 
 giown to four times its previous size. On account 
 of the salubnous climate, the millions of irrigated 
 farms, the natural mineral resources and the ex¬ 
 haustless coal, gas and oil lands that are being 
 v oiTed there is every prospect of greater prosperity 
 and a rapid growth of Catholicity. 
 
 On 13 April, 1917, the chancellor of the diocese 
 Rev. James Molyneux died at Glasgow, Montana’ 
 and on 2 June, 1920, the diocese lost one of its 
 most prominent citizens by the death of Dr. Francis 
 J. Adams, prominent citizen and United States sur¬ 
 geon at Fort Assiniboine for six years. He had 
 served as a major in the Spanish-American War 
 and the World War and was on the staff of General 
 Otis at Manila. During the World War another 
 member of the diocese, the Rev. Wm. P. Callahan, 
 served as a United States Army chaplain and went 
 overseas as a lieutenant, while each parish gave its 
 quota of young men to the service. 
 
 At the present time the Catholic population of 
 the diocese is 33,000, made up of Americans, Irish, 
 Austrians, Poles, Germans, and a few hundred Ital¬ 
 ians and Bohemians. It includes 86 parishes; 146 
 churches; 124 missions with 159 stations; 46 secular 
 and 17 regular clergy; 6 lay brothers; 237 nuns; 22 
 ecclesiastical students; 1 college for women with 26 
 teachers and an attendance of 306, 4 high schools 
 with 48 teachers and an attendance of 180 boys 
 and 508 girls, 1 normal school with 8 teachers and 
 attendance of 32, 13 elementary schools with 117 
 teachers and attendance of 2843, and 4 Indian Mis¬ 
 sion schools. The various charitable institutions are: 
 St. Thomas Orphans’ Home under the direction of 
 23 Sisters of Providence with 206 orphans, 8 hos¬ 
 pitals and 8 maternity homes. The state industrial 
 school for boys and girls at Miles City, permits the 
 ministry of the priests of the diocese and St. Labre’s 
 Indian School is supported by the Government from 
 the tribal funds of the Cheyenne Indians. Among 
 the clergy the Priests’ Eucharistic League, and 
 among the laity the Association of the Holy Child¬ 
 hood and the Apostleship of Prayer, the Sodality 
 
GREECE 
 
 348 
 
 GREECE 
 
 of the Immaculate Conception of the B. V M., 
 Women’s Catholic Order of Foresters St. Anns 
 Altar Society, St. Mary’s Aid, Men’s Catholic Order 
 of Foresters, Ancient Order of Hibernians, and K. 
 
 of C. are organized. . „ . 
 
 The Great Falls “Catholic Monthly Magazine is 
 
 published in the diocese. 
 
 Greece (cf. C. E., VI-735b).-The present coun¬ 
 try of Greece includes Old Greece (25,014 sq. 
 miles), which comprises contmentalGreece the 
 Peloponnesus to the south of the Gulf of Connth, 
 the AEgean Island of Euboea, the Cyclades, 
 Sporades, and islands in the Ionian Sea, including 
 Corfu, Zante, Santa Maura, and Cephaloma; New 
 Greece (16,919 sq. miles), which comprises Mace¬ 
 donia, Epirus, Crete, and the other /Egean Islands; 
 and the territorial acquisitions of the recent war, 
 which according to the Treaty of London and of 
 Athens, 30 May, 1913, are all those iEgean Islands 
 occupied by Greece during the war, except lm- 
 bros, Tenedos, and Castellonzzo, and according 
 to the Treaty of Sevres, 1 May, 1920 all that was 
 left of Turkey in Europe west of the Cnatalja 
 lines western Thrace, and the Dodocanese Islands. 
 
 The Ministry of National Economy has given the 
 following estimates of population (31 March, 1921). 
 Population of Old Greece 2,897,000; of new prov¬ 
 inces acquired in 1913, 2,110,000; of Thrace acquired 
 in 1920 , 600,000; total 5,607,000 No figures for 
 the Smyrna district are given in the return. Den- 
 nite figures for the following important towns have 
 been obtained in the census of December, 19J). 
 Athens 300,462; Pirseus 130,082; Salomca 158,000 
 (District 396,958); Adnanople 145,490; Crete 
 96,309; Patras 46,500. In 1918-19 the number of 
 emigrants to the United States was 813. Ihe 
 number would have been larger, but for the pro¬ 
 hibition of the departure of men of several classes 
 of the reserve, and also on account of the political 
 situation. Emigration constitutes an asset in Greek 
 finance on account of the large remittances sent 
 
 annually to Greece. , . „ . 
 
 Education.— Greek education has been chieny in 
 tliG hands of the ecclesiastical authonties and yet 
 has tended to be of a too practically commercial 
 type. At the present time the Ministry of Public 
 Education recognizes three classes of schools 
 (a) Demotic or Primary Schools; (b) Hellenic or 
 Intermediary Schools; (c) Gymnasia, or Superior 
 Schools. For purposes of administration the coun¬ 
 try (Old Greece) is divided into twelve school dis¬ 
 tricts, with a chief inspector of education in each 
 center. All inspectors are appointed by the Min¬ 
 ister of Education. School attendance is compul¬ 
 sory for all children between the ages of six and 
 twelve. In 1917-18 there were 6799 primary schools 
 with 8641 teachers and 476,695 pupils (174,805 girls). 
 For secondary education there were 76 high 
 schools, 425 middle schools, having 55,408 pupils 
 (50,997 boys). There are two agricultural schools 
 in Greece, besides a Trade and Industrial Academy 
 and Government Commercial Schools in Athens, 
 Volo, Salonica, and Patras; also two universities at 
 Athens, the National University and the Capodis- 
 tria University and a Polytechnical Institute. The 
 cost of primary education is borne by the State 
 and amounts to about 10,000,000 drachmai annually. 
 The Ministry of Education is also charged with 
 the Service of Antiquities, managed by an Archeo¬ 
 logical Council, which is responsible for the con¬ 
 servation and repair of ancient monuments. The 
 British School of Archeology in Athens has been 
 responsible for the excavations at Knossos in Crete, 
 Milo, Sparta, and Thessaly. There are also similar 
 
 French, American, Italian, Austrian, and German 
 
 institutions. ' _ 
 
 Economic Conditions. —Within a decade Greece 
 has trebled her area and population and the ques¬ 
 tion naturally arises as to whether she is in a 
 position economically to incorporate the new ter¬ 
 ritory and to develop it culturally. In Greece 
 proper, owing to the increasing despoliation of 
 the forests, which have almost entirely disappeared, 
 the soil cannot retain water and the agricultural 
 yield suffers severely from, drought. For this 
 reason large districts remain uncultivated. Large 
 estates are in the hands of peasant proprietors 
 and metayer farmers. In 1918, 37,346,770 metric 
 tons of wheat were produced on 1,104,608 acres; 
 31,738,560 metric tons of new wine on 411,130 acres; 
 15,803,250 metric tons of barley on 418,435 acres, 
 16423,500 metric tons of maize on 423,807 acres. 
 About 717,500 acres of olives were under cultiva¬ 
 tion; the production of olive oil was 31,702,800 
 gallons. In 1919 the nut crops were estimated at 
 4,486,185 tons. There are now in force about 
 35 mining concessions, embracing a total area of 
 nearly 20,000 acres. Under the pressure of war 
 every effort was made to develop lignite deposits. 
 In 1915 the output was 39,745 tons; in 1916, 
 116,946 tons; in 1917, 157,956 tons; and in 1918, 
 208,797 tons. As an industrial nation, Greece is at a 
 disadvantage, since, owing to the despoliation of 
 her forests, water power is lacking and lumber 
 is inadequate. In 1917 the country had 2213 
 factories, employing 36,124 hands, and valued at 
 260,363,647 drachmai. The imports in 1919 (valued 
 at 1,608,324,000 drachmai (1 drachma = .193 normal 
 exchange) came for the most part from England, 
 France, and the United States, while the exports 
 (valued at 726,536 drachmai) also went to those 
 countries. The staple article of export is currants. 
 In 1920 the Greek mercantile marine comprised 
 228 steamships and 1048 sailing vessels. In 1920 
 the railway mileage totaled 1507 miles. Before 
 the war with Turkey (1912-13), Greece was com¬ 
 pletely isolated by land from the rest of Europe, 
 but on 8 May, 1916, the railway was completed 
 between Gida on the Salonica-Monnstir line and 
 Papapuli on the Thessalian frontier, a distance of 
 fifty-six miles, whereby Greece was linked with 
 the European railroads. The railway system has 
 been extended by the inclusion of the lines m 
 Western and Eastern Thrace. The Government, 
 has also purchased from England for 2,000,000 
 francs the Salonica-Angista-Stavros line, seventy- 
 five miles long, which was built by the British 
 during the war. All the lines are State-owned and 
 
 State-controlled. , , 
 
 Finance. —After the national bankruptcy in 
 1898 an International Finance Commission was ap¬ 
 pointed, without whose permission the country 
 could issue no uncovered notes and no loans. The 
 result was that the currency came into compara¬ 
 tively good order. The last wars and the Asia 
 Minor Expedition, however, caused such huge 
 demands to be made on the treasury that the Gov¬ 
 ernment found itself compelled to borrow 500,000,- 
 000 drachmai from the National Bank against 
 Treasury Bills. The unfavorable trade balance and 
 the serious depreciation of currency have increased 
 the financial stringency. On 10 February, 1918, the 
 Governments of Great Britain, the United States, 
 and France agreed to advance to the Greek Gov¬ 
 ernment credits as follows: Great Britain £14,700,- 
 000, France 410,000,000 francs, and the United States 
 $48 239,267. The control of the fund thus created 
 was lodged in an Interallied Financial Commis¬ 
 sion and an Interallied Military Commission sitting 
 
GREECE 
 
 349 
 
 GREECE 
 
 at Athens. In 1920-21 the estimate of revenue was 
 597,011,196 drachmai ; expenditure, 2,005,303,578 
 drachmai, leaving a deficit of 1,408,292,382 drachmai 
 (over £28,000,000). According to the Minister of 
 Finance, the Greek public debt on 31 December, 1920, 
 was: internal debt 1,821,834,247 drachmai; foreign 
 debt 2,241,676,806 drachmai; loan made to the 
 Greek Government for the purchase of the 
 Salonica-Constantinople Railway 144,752,500 drach¬ 
 mai; total, 4,208,263,553 drachmai. With an esti¬ 
 mated total Greek population of about 6,000,000, 
 this represents an average per head of about drs. 
 702, which cannot be considered as excessive. 
 
 Army and Navy.— Military service in Greece is 
 compulsory and universal with a few exemptions. 
 In 1918 the approximate strength of the army was 
 200,000 men, organized in four army corps and a 
 reserve. Demobilization has not been completed 
 on account of the large number of troops engaged 
 in Asia Minor. The navy consists of two warships 
 of 13,000 tons each, one of 10,118, three of 5000 
 each, and one of 2600 tons, besides thirteen de¬ 
 stroyers, two submarines, and miscellaneous craft. 
 
 Government.— Greece is a constitutional mon¬ 
 archy, hereditary in the male line, or in case of its 
 extinction in the female line. The Legislative 
 Chamber of the Bide consists of 316 representa¬ 
 tives elected by manhood suffrage, one for every 
 16,000 inhabitants, for four years. The new con¬ 
 stitution of 1911 re-established the Council of 
 State whose functions are the; examination of 
 projets de loi and the annulling of official de¬ 
 cisions and acts which may be contrary to law. 
 About this time the quorum necessary for the 
 transaction of business by the Buie was reduced, 
 reforms of procedure introduced, the electoral law 
 widened, and future revision of the non-funda¬ 
 mental provisions of the Constitution facilitated. 
 The king or heir apparent must belong to the 
 Orthodox Greek Church. For administrative pur¬ 
 poses Greece is divided into nomoi (provinces), 
 each under a nomarches, an officer whose position 
 corresponds to a French prejet, and demoi and 
 koinotetes (communes) with demarchoi and 
 poedroi, or mayors. In Old Greece there are 16 
 nomoi; in the territory acquired by the Balkan 
 Wars fourteen. The nomarches are appointed by 
 the Minister of the Interior. 
 
 Recent History (1908-1921).—On 7 October, 
 1908, the Greek population in Crete repudiated all 
 connection with Turkey and declared for union 
 with Greece. An executive committee of five per¬ 
 sons was appointed to carry on the government 
 provisionally in the name of the King, until his 
 officials took it over. The interference of the 
 powers and the prolonged opposition of Turkey 
 produced a strong feeling of disgust and the young 
 officers, convinced that the national interests had 
 been sacrificed to the exigencies of party politics, 
 began to form a “Military League,” in 1909, mak¬ 
 ing it the organ of the people in their struggle 
 against the politicians. They demanded radical 
 reforms, the reorganization of the army and navy, 
 the exclusion of the royal princes from their mili¬ 
 tary commands, and the bestowal of the Ministries 
 of War and Marine upon officers. At this moment 
 a new and powerful figure arrived upon the stage 
 °f Greek politics, M. Venizelos, a native of Crete. 
 The political adviser of the League, he proposed 
 the summons of a National Assembly to revise 
 the Constitution. Upon the resignation of M. 
 Dragoumes, after the opening of the National As¬ 
 sembly, he became prime minister to King George. 
 The “Second Revisionary National Assembly” 
 which met on 21 January, 1911, adopted the re¬ 
 
 vised Constitution on 11 June. From this time the 
 regeneration ol the country is dated. Venizelos 
 inio 31u 1 u ^^ lt about the Greco-Bulgarian treaty in 
 1J12 and in the same year a declaration of war on 
 iurkey. The Greeks obtained a victory at 
 barantaporon in Southern Macedonia on 22 Octo¬ 
 ber, took Preveza, Metsovo, and Khimara in 
 Kpirus, hoisted the 2 r flag over Mount At.hos and 
 prevented the Turkish fleet from leaving the’Dar¬ 
 danelles and the Turkish transports from crossing 
 They also took possession of most of 
 Vi® urklsh , islands in the ^Egean, including 
 Mytilene and Chios, but not ol the Southern 
 bporades (Dodecanese). Samos declared its union 
 with Greece. A two days’ struggle at Yenitsa 
 ended in another Greek victory. On 8 November 
 1912, the Greeks anticipated the Bulgarians bv 
 entering Salonica and ending the Turkish domina- 
 tion of 482 years over the city. Even after her 
 three allies signed the armistice at Chatalja on 
 3 December, Greece continued hostilities, although 
 participating in the Balkan Conference at London. 
 Outside the Dardanelles the Greeks defeated the 
 1 urkish fleet; in Epirus they took Parga. Finally 
 Yanina surrendered to them. The Greek forces 
 occupied Samos and entered Argyrokastron. In 
 the midst of these triumphs King George was 
 assassinated at Salonica, 18 March, 1913, and was 
 succeeded by his eldest son, Constantine. 
 
 By the treaty of London (30 May, 1913)', Greece 
 obtained all the Turkish territories west of the 
 Enos-Midi a line, except Albania and Crete. The 
 dissatisfaction caused by the division of spoils led 
 to a renewal of the war (30 June) by simultaneous 
 Bulgarian attacks on the Servians and the Greeks, 
 with the object of separating the two allies who 
 on 1 June had signed the treaty of alliance, ac¬ 
 companied by a military convention which King 
 Constantine, subsequently violated during the 
 European War. The general staff ordered the Bul¬ 
 garian troops garrisoning Salonica to lay down their 
 arms and upon their refusal besieged their houses. 
 A three days battle ended in a complete defeat of 
 the Bulgarians. Advancing further, the Greeks 
 took Doiran and Strumitsa and entered Seres, while 
 their navy took Kavala and sent up a detachment 
 to Drama. Soon Macedonia, wfith a large strip 
 of the Thracian coast, including Dedeagatch, Makri, 
 and Porto Lagos, was in their hands. The Treaty 
 of Bukarest in 1913 made the mouth of the Mesta 
 the eastern frontier of Greece, thus securing for 
 her Kavala but leaving Xanthi for Bulgaria. 
 By the decision of a commission appointed by the 
 Powers, Greece lost part of northern Epirus, in¬ 
 cluding Santi Quaranta, Khimara, Delvino, Premeti 
 Argyrokastron, and Koritsa, captured by the Greeks 
 during the first Balkan War, together with the islet 
 of Saseno in the Bay of Valona, which had be¬ 
 longed to Greece since 1864. The Powers recog¬ 
 nized Greek sovereignty over the captured islands 
 (except Tenedos, Imbros, and Castellorrizo, which 
 were to be restored to Turkey) and those still 
 occupied by the Italians, contingent upon the evac¬ 
 uation of the south of the new Albanian princi¬ 
 pality by the Greek forces. The northern Epirots, 
 however, declared themselves autonomous, and 
 formed a separate government. Although the 
 Greek troops evacuated northern Epirus before 
 the end of April, fighting continued between the 
 Albanians and the autonomous forces. Finally a 
 convention was signed on 17 May, 1914, entrusting 
 the administration of the two provinces of 
 Argyrokastron and Koritsa to the International 
 Commission of Control for Albania. 
 
 The opening of the European War found Greece 
 
GREECE 
 
 350 
 
 GREECE 
 
 in the throes of a nationalistic feeling, hoping that 
 by her timely aid she might be rewarded by the 
 Greek-speaking cities of Asia Minor, then oppressed 
 by Turkey. During the critical time at the Dar¬ 
 danelles, however, when the Allies would have 
 welcomed the addition of Greek troops and ships, 
 she hesitated, being dissatisfied with the promises 
 of the Allies. Venizelos was ardently in favor 
 of the Entente and eager to enter the war. On 
 the other hand King Constantine, the husband of 
 Queen Sophia, sister of the German emperor, de¬ 
 clined to cede any territory to Bulgaria to satisfy 
 the Bulgarian demand from the Allies and parted 
 with his premier (15 March, 1915). In August, 
 however, Venizelos came into power, for the ques¬ 
 tion now concerned Servia, who was being over¬ 
 whelmed by Mackensen’s forces, and to whom 
 Greece was under treaty obligations. The Allies 
 landed at Salonica 150,000 troops ready to strike 
 at the Bulgarians. But Venizelos had reckoned 
 without his king and was for the second time 
 forced to resign. Armed neutrality was proclaimed. 
 Throughout October and November the Allies con¬ 
 tinued to bargain with King Constantine and his 
 puppet ministers. In November the king dissolved 
 his troublesome pro-Venizelos Parliament. The 
 armed neutrality made the situation of the Allies 
 at Salonica very precarious, situated as they were 
 between the Bulgarian troops and the uncertain 
 Greek forces. Finally the Allies resorted to coer¬ 
 cion and seized the Greek telegraphs and postal 
 system, the navy being seized in October by the 
 French, who landed troops at Pirseus. Greece was 
 blockaded. Venizelos repudiated his king, estab¬ 
 lished a provisional government in Crete and Mace¬ 
 donia and on his own account declared war 
 against Bulgaria (1916). In June, 1917, French 
 and British troops entering Thessaly occupied Volo 
 and Larissa and seized the Isthmus of Corinth. 
 On 11 June Charles Jonnart, formerly French gov¬ 
 ernor of Algeria and now named high commis¬ 
 sioner of Greece, demanded the immediate abdica¬ 
 tion of King Constantine and the renunciation of 
 the Crown Prince’s right of succession. And so 
 on 12 June Constantine abdicated the throne of 
 Greece in favor of his second son, Alexander, and 
 later Venizelos became Prime Minister. In July 
 all diplomatic relations between the Central Powers 
 were ruptured, and the Greek army stood ready 
 for the great advance from Salonica. In September 
 the troops attacked Bulgaria, seized Strumitza, and 
 opened the way to the triumphant Allies. Bul¬ 
 garia suddenly sued for peace. The attention of 
 the Greeks was now turned to national unity. At 
 the Peace conference at Versailles in 1919 the 
 Greek claim to the greater part of Aidin, includ¬ 
 ing Smyrna in Asia Minor, was recognized and 
 Greek troops were landed at that port with the 
 approval of the powers. To her were also given 
 the Dodecanese Islands which voted for union 
 with Greece. With the consent pf the Powers 
 she has occupied part of Bulgarian (Western) 
 Thrace. 
 
 The treaty of Sevres which was handed to the 
 Turkish delegates at Paris on 1 May, 1920, added 
 greatly to Greek territory, as the Turks were to 
 cede Thrace to Greece, except the sanjak (dis¬ 
 trict) of Chatalja and the Derkos water-supply 
 area, together with Tenedos and Imbros; to recog¬ 
 nize as Greek those islands in the iEgean at 
 present occupied by Greece; to abandon the ad¬ 
 ministration of a considerable area in Asia Minor 
 comprising Smyrna, Tireh, Odemish, Manisa, 
 Akhissar, Bergama, and Aivali to Greece. The 
 territory in question was to have a parliament of 
 
 its own and could annex itself to Greece after five 
 years, a plebiscite to be held after two years. The 
 Nationalists under Mustapha Kemal refused to sub¬ 
 mit to the treaty in any form ’and drove the 
 French out of Cilicia. So grave did the situation 
 become that a Greek army, supported by French 
 and British fleets, undertook to suppress the Turks 
 in Asia Minor. The Allies refused to alter the 
 Treaty of Sevres and gave the Turks, under threat 
 of ejection from Europe, ten days in which to sign 
 it. The period was further extended because of the 
 differences between Greece and Italy over Albania, 
 Adalia, and the islands of the Dodocanese. In 
 1919 the two countries had entered into a con¬ 
 vention defining their aspirations with regard to 
 the Balkans and the Orient. If either failed to 
 realize her aspirations, the convention was to be 
 void. When Greek troops crossed into Adalian 
 territory, on 22 July, 1919, Italy was aroused and 
 denounced the convention. The matter was settled 
 by the appointment of a special commission to 
 delimit the Adalian boundary. Another conven¬ 
 tion signed on 10 August, 1920, between Italy and 
 Greece, the two designated the Dodocanese as 
 Greek with the exception of Castellorizzo and 
 Rhodes, possession of which would be determined 
 by a plebiscite at the end of fifteen years. Al¬ 
 though the treaty of Sevres was signed by Greece 
 on the same day, the dissatisfaction which it caused 
 was so profound that the Allies, together with 
 delegations from Greece and the rival governments 
 of Turkey, met in London on 21 February, 1921, 
 to consider the advisability of revising the treaty. 
 Their proposal to give the Sultan sovereignty over 
 Smyrna on condition that he respect its rights and 
 liberties and grant local autonomy to each nation¬ 
 ality in its population and allow the Greeks to 
 retain a garrison in the town, was spurned by 
 Greece who in March, 1921, launched a new of¬ 
 fensive in Asia Minor in a single handed effort 
 to force the Turks to conform to the terms of the 
 original treaty of Sevres. She was unsuccessful 
 and the war still continues, with hardly a hope 
 of a military decision. The theater of war is so 
 vast and so ill-provided with means of communica¬ 
 tion, compared with the maximum forces and trans¬ 
 port that either side can muster that there is little 
 prospect that either will be able to defeat its 
 opponent Greece is waging war overseas, plunging 
 herself deeper into debt in order to purchase sup¬ 
 plies for her army, while the Turks are fighting 
 for their home and living off the land for their 
 supplies. 
 
 Events in Greece during 1920 revolved about 
 dynastic and imperialistic problems. The attempted 
 assassination of M. Venizelos in Paris (12 August, 
 1920), which was part of a scheme to restore Con¬ 
 stantine to the throne, led to severe rioting in 
 Greece. On 25 October, 1920, King Alexander died 
 as a result of a bite from a monkey. His younger 
 brother Paul was designated as his successor, but 
 he refused the throne, much to the consternation 
 of the Allies and of Premier Venizelos, who was 
 driven from power in the new elections. On 5 
 December the Greek people voted overwhelmingly 
 for the return of Constantine, their exiled king. 
 The Allies, especially France and Italy, chagrined 
 at the turn of events, promptly cut off their financial 
 support from Greece with the idea of throttling 
 the nation. In 1922 Italy and France withdrew 
 from Asia Minor, leaving Greece alone in the field. 
 
 Constitution of the Church of Greece. —The 
 organization of the Greek Church is at present 
 in a transitional state, since there has not yet 
 (1922) been time or opportunity to adapt or to 
 
GREECE 
 
 351 
 
 GREEN BAY 
 
 modify its Constitution, as suited to the country 
 before 1912, to meet the requirements of a popula¬ 
 tion nearly twice as numerous and less homogeneous. 
 According to the revised Constitution of 1911, “the 
 religion prevailing in Greece is the religion of the 
 Orthodox Eastern Church. Toleration is extended 
 to all other recognized forms of worship; their 
 services may be held freely and will enjoy the 
 protection of law. Proselytism and all other activi¬ 
 ties . detrimental to the prevailing religion are 
 forbidden.'’ An addition was made to Article 2, 
 forbidding the translation of the Scriptures without 
 the consent of the Church in Greece and the 
 (Ecumenical Patriarch. 
 
 For some years past the bishops, in pursuance 
 of a policy of raising the social and intellectual 
 standard of the clergy, have been slow to ordain 
 new priests. A fund for ecclesiastics was established 
 in 1910, and receives steadily increasing contribu¬ 
 tions toward securing a regular salary for parochial 
 clergy and since the accession of the new Metro¬ 
 politan of Athens (1918) no candidate is eligible 
 for ordination unless he has a diploma from a 
 theological school, of which four now exist in 
 Greece. Parish priests must be married and are 
 not as a rule, eligible to the higher offices of the 
 Church, which are filled from the monastic or 
 celibate orders. 
 
 The addition of Macedonia, Epirus, Crete, and 
 the Asiatic Islands to Greece has seriously affected 
 the religious conditions of the State. In the new 
 p^ inces about 18 per cent were Moslems and 
 5 per cent Jews, the latter mainly in Salonica. 
 Ot the 76 per cent, who belonged to the Orthodox 
 Church a considerable portion in Macedonia 
 acknowledged the Bulgarian Exarch and were sub¬ 
 let to Exarchist bishops; while others, the Koutso- 
 V achs were claimed by the Rumanian Church. 
 
 1 he \ lachs were recognized by the Turks in 1905 
 as forming a separate millet, or religious nationality, 
 and had schools and churches of their own. On 
 the other hand those who belonged to the Greek 
 Church were under the (Ecumenical Patriarch at 
 Constantinople. The relation of these to the Greek 
 r U v, 0 j e ^ a ^ 0US Church in Greece is not finally estab¬ 
 lished, nor has any complete assimilation taken 
 place The provinces added after the Balkan Wars 
 brought the total number of dioceses up to seventy- 
 four. During the war instead of a single synod 
 there were two Synods working independently at 
 Athens and Salonica, besides the independent 
 Metropolitan of Crete. 
 
 . commiss ^ on of clergy and laymen was 
 established in 1914 ‘‘for revising and collating eccle¬ 
 siastical legislation,” and published “a Draft of a 
 Constitution for the Orthodox Church of Greece.” 
 By this draft the members of the Synod which 
 administers the Greek Church were increased from 
 81 j twelve, the dioceses were remodeled and 
 reduced from seventy-four to forty-six, the powers 
 ^ (oe loyal Commissioner to the Synod were 
 denned so as to obviate friction, and various other 
 reforms were indicated, but further action was de¬ 
 lated by the Great War. Additional confusion 
 was caused by the dissension between the two pro¬ 
 visional Synods, that of Athens, under the influence 
 of the King Constantine, having excommunicated 
 and cursed M. \ enzileos, while that of the new prov¬ 
 inces, meeting at Salonica, upheld the Venizelirt Pro¬ 
 visional Government, After the deposition of Con¬ 
 stantine, the Metropolitan of Athens and other 
 members of the Synod were relegated to monas¬ 
 teries; and the unusual step was taken of appoint¬ 
 ing as successor of the Metropolitan the Bishop 
 
 <>i Kit ion, who belonged to the distinct auto¬ 
 cephalous Church of Cyprus. 
 
 In August, 1920, the Preliminary Meeting of 
 the World Conference on Faith and Order was 
 held at Geneva, and rendered eventful by the offi¬ 
 cial participation of the Eastern Churches in its 
 sessions. For the first time after centuries of isola- 
 ^jnn they came in contact with the Anglican 
 churches and the Protestant denominations and 
 labored with them on the problem of the restora¬ 
 tion of Christianity. The Greek Orthodox Churches 
 were represented by seven bishops, monks, and 
 laymen. The document on the relations between 
 the Eastern and Anglican churches issued by the 
 three delegates of the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate 
 ° u- if Xan< ^ r ^ a ^ ves an . idea of the conditions under 
 vhich an understanding among the churches is 
 possible; in the actual reunion of Christianity they 
 seem to see a problem belonging to a far-distant 
 future. They advocate a League of Churches, the 
 very conditions of which onty emphasize the irrec¬ 
 oncilable barriers and the radical differences that 
 preclude any union other than a theoretical one. 
 I o them the reunion of the churches requires a re¬ 
 turn to the ancient beliefs rather than a hare- 
 bramed adhesion to new and unsound systems, 
 t he League of Churches, by leaving untouched 
 theological problems, could foster feelings of mutual 
 friendship among the churches and make them useful 
 to one another in social works, but it will not in 
 the slightest degree promote the solution of the 
 problem of reunion. 
 
 The Catholic Church in Greece. —Greece in¬ 
 cluded (1922) the Catholic Archdiocese of Athens 
 directly subject to the Holy See; the Archdiocese 
 of Corfu to which the suffragan see of Zante and 
 Cephalonia was united in 1919; the archdiocese of 
 Naxos and Tinos with its suffragans Santorin 
 (Thera), and Syra,. and Chios in Asiatic Turkey; 
 the diocese of Candia in Crete, suffragan of Smyrna. 
 In 1919 the sees of Tinos and Myknos were united 
 to the archdiocese of Naxos. Thie Catholics in the 
 country number 44,265 (1921). For detailed statis¬ 
 tics see articles on dioceses mentioned above. 
 
 Green Bay, Diocese of (Sinus Viridis; cf. C. E., 
 VI-777a), is now under the administration of its 
 sixth bishop Rt. Rev. Peter Paul Rhode, D. D., who 
 was transferred to the diocese on 5 July, 1915, upon 
 the retirement of Bishop Fox. Bishop Rhode was 
 consecrated 29 July, 1908, when he was given the 
 title of Bishop of Barca and appointed auxiliary 
 Bishop of Chicago. He was born in the village 
 of Wejherowo, Poland, on 16 September, 1871, and 
 was brought to the United States when only nine 
 years old. He received his early education at St. 
 Stanislaus parochial school, Chicago, finishing at St. 
 Mary’s College, St. Mary’s, Kv., St. Ignatius Col¬ 
 lege, Chicago, and St. Francis Seminary. 
 
 The religious communities located in the diocese 
 of Green Bay are: men: Capuchins Fathers, 
 Franciscans, Premonstratensians, Alexian Brothers, 
 Fathers of the Society of the Divine Saviour, and 
 Oblate Fathers of Mary Immaculate; women: Sis¬ 
 ters of the Good Shepherd, Sisters of St. Joseph, 
 Sisters of Notre Dame, Sisters of Misericorde, Sis¬ 
 ters of St. Francis, Franciscan Sisters of Christian 
 Charity, Felician Sisters, Sisters of the Sonwful 
 Mother, and Sisters of the Divine Saviour. The 
 diocese comprises an area of 11,583 sq. miles and 
 has a Catholic population of 149,675. The present 
 (1921) statistics show: 174 parishes; 44 missions; 
 218 churches; 4 monasteries for men and 4 for 
 women; 198 secular and 58 regular clergy; 800 nuns; 
 
 2 colleges for men with 30 teachers and an attend- 
 
GREENE 
 
 352 
 
 GREY NUNS 
 
 ance of 400, 1 academy for girls with 18 teachers 
 and attendance of 225, 1 Indian school with 20 
 teachers and attendance of 225, 109 parochial schools 
 with 800 teachers and attendance of 22,000. The 
 various charitable institutions are: the McCormick 
 Memorial House for Aged, 3 orphan asylums, 9 
 hospitals, 1 refuge, the Allouez Community House, 
 and 1 day nursery. 
 
 Greene, Edward Lee, botanist, b. at Hopkinton, 
 Rhode Island, on 20 August, 1843; d. at Washing¬ 
 ton, D. C., on 10 November, 1915; son of William 
 M. and Abby (Crandall) Greene, descendants of 
 the original white settlers in Massachusetts. About 
 1856 his family moved West and settled at Janes¬ 
 ville, Wisconsin, when he came under the scientific 
 influence of Knure Kumlein, the Swedish botanist. 
 After serving in the Civil War in the 63d regiment 
 of Wisconsin, he graduated in arts from Albion 
 College and in philosophy from Jarvis College, 
 Denver. Brought up a Baptist, he embraced the 
 Episcopal Church about this time and entered its 
 ministry in 1871, continuing meantime his botanical 
 studies. Deep study of the history of the collapse 
 of Luther’s scheme of religion led him into the 
 Catholic Church on 5 February, 1885. The repu¬ 
 tation he acquired by his botanical review 
 “Erythea,” founded in 1883, won for him a place in 
 the faculty of natural science in the University of 
 California. In his writings Greene established indis¬ 
 putably that the real founder of modern scientific 
 botany was not Linnaeus, but the Italian Cesalpino, 
 who preceded Linnaeus by more than a century. 
 In 1887 he published his “Manual of Botany for San 
 Francisco Bay,” and the first volume of his “Pit- 
 tonia” (completed in 5 vols. in 1903). In 1894 
 he was made chairman of an international com¬ 
 mission for the reform of botanical nomenclature; 
 in his researches he himself had discovered and 
 named more than 5000 new species. He taught 
 at the Catholic University of America from 1895 
 till 1904, when he became an associate in the Smith¬ 
 sonian Institution. Among his many other notable 
 writings may be mentioned: “Some West American 
 Oaks,” “Flora Franciscana,” “Leaflets of Botanical 
 Observation,” and his “Landmarks in Botanical 
 History,” only partly completed when he died. 
 Downing, in The Catholic World, CVI (1918), 12-24. 
 
 Greenland (cf. C. E., VI-777d), a colonial pos¬ 
 session of Denmark, has an area of 46,740 sq.^miles 
 and a population (census of 1911) of 13,459, of 
 whom 384 were Europeans. Under Danish rule 
 the population has more than doubled in the last 
 100 years. The affairs of the colony are in the 
 hands of the Royal Greenland Board of Trade, a 
 Government department, whose privileges were 
 defined by a royal statute 18 March, 1776, which 
 also closed the western coast to foreign ships from 
 latitude 60 to 73. The object was to prevent the 
 ruin of the natives through the introduction of 
 infectious diseases and the importation of spirituous 
 liquors and like goods. Strangers, including Danes, 
 unless they are employed in the country, are for¬ 
 bidden to land without special permission from the 
 Danish Government, which is granted only to 
 applicants for scientific purposes. The country is 
 divided into two provinces, North.and South Green¬ 
 land, each presided over by an inspector, the one 
 for North Greenland residing at Godhavn on Disko 
 Island, and the other at Godthaab. These provinces 
 are subdivided into districts, the chief towns of 
 which are called kolonier, where directors reside 
 who are at the same time the political chiefs of 
 the districts and trade managers. There are also 
 district councils, which are composed of the mis¬ 
 
 sionary of the chief station, officials of the trade 
 and mission, and members elected by the people. 
 They meet twice a year and look after the needy 
 poor, for whom they raise a fund by a tax of one- 
 sixth on goods purchased from the natives within 
 each district. Almost all the natives can read and 
 write, and besides other elementary subjects .they 
 are taught the Danish language, in which, how¬ 
 ever, few are proficient, the majority adhering to 
 their own Eskimo tongue with a few Danish words 
 added. There is only one church in Greenland, 
 the Lutheran Church of Denmark, which is sup¬ 
 ported by grants of £2000 a year from the Greenland 
 Board of Trade and £880 from the Danish Govern¬ 
 ment. It has churches and schools all over the 
 colony and at Angmagsalik, and a station has been 
 established at Melville Bay. All the Greenland 
 Eskimos, except the Arctic Highlanders m the 
 northwest, are nominally members of the Lutheran 
 Church. As fishing is the chief industry, the ex¬ 
 ports consist largely of fish, although cryolite figures 
 largely (3,573,900 kilograms valued at 1,009,000 
 kronen in 1919). The total imports in 1920 
 amounted to 3,229,000 kronen; the total exports, 
 in 1919, to 2,358,000 kronen. The entire trade of 
 Greenland is a government monopoly, and with the 
 exception of cryolite is in the hands of the Royal 
 Greenland Board of Trade. In 1921 King Christian 
 of Denmark visited Greenland in commemoration 
 of the two hundredth anniversary of the landing of 
 Hans Egede, the Norwegian missionary, on its coast 
 in 1721, where he founded the first colony of the 
 second Scandinavian occupation in that country. 
 This was the first royal visit to Greenland. 
 
 Grenoble, Diocese of (Gratianapolitanensis; 
 cf. C. E., VII-26b), in the department of Isere, 
 France, suffragan of the Archdiocese of Lyons. This 
 see was filled by the present Archbishop of Lyons 
 and Primate of Gaul, His Eminence Louis-Joseph 
 Cardinal Maurin, from 1 September, 1911, until 
 his promotion 1 December, 1916. He was the 
 eightieth bishop of Grenoble, and the second to 
 pass from this see to the primatial see of France. 
 His successor was appointed in the person of Rt. 
 Rev. Alexander Caillot, 22 March, 1917. Born in 
 Doyet, France, 1861,. he studied at the College of 
 Izeure and the upper seminary, was ordained in 
 1884, served as a professor in the lower seminary 
 of Paris, chaplain of the general hospital, inspector 
 and director of liberal teaching and vicar general, 
 and archdeacon of Moulins and La Palisse. By 
 1920 statistics the population of the diocese is 
 555,911, of whom 77,438 are in Grenoble proper; 
 there are 51 first-class parishes, 530 succursal par¬ 
 ishes and 130 vicariates formerly supported by the 
 state. 
 
 Grey Nuns (cf. C. E., VII-31b).—The mother- 
 house of the Sisters of Charity of the Hopital 
 General of Montreal, called Grey Nuns because 
 of the color of their attire, shelters 981 inmates, 
 and is composed of the community, the novitiate, 
 a home for the indigent poor, and industrial school 
 for young girls, and a nursery for foundlings or 
 abandoned children, where hundreds of infants are 
 received yearly. There are also in the city of 
 Montreal nineteen charitable institutions under 
 the care of the Grey Nuns, namely orphanages, 
 infant schools, homes for the aged and infirm, hos¬ 
 pitals with training schools, working girls’ homes, 
 and an academy for the blind. They have houses 
 in nine different parishes outside the city of Mon¬ 
 treal, and nine others in different parts of the 
 United States as follows: Boston, Lawrence Cam¬ 
 bridge, Worcester (Mass.); Nashua (N. H.); Toledo 
 
GREY NUNS 
 
 353 
 
 GUADALAJARA 
 
 (Ohio); New Brunswick (N. Y.); Fort Totten 
 (N. D.) In Northwestern Canada they have nine 
 houses in Manitoba; six in Alberta; six in 
 Saskatchewan; two in Ontario; four in North¬ 
 western Territories. These include orphanages, 
 hospitals with training schools, and parochial, board¬ 
 ing, and industrial schools. The present number 
 ?f foundations under the Grey Nuns of Montreal 
 is 64, with a membership of 1166 Sisters. The 
 Grey Nuns of Quebec, of Ottawa, of St. Hyacinthe, 
 of Nicolet, who are independent of the Montreal 
 Institution (headquarters), have under their con¬ 
 trol 141 houses with a membership of 2734 Sisters. 
 
 Grey Nuns of the Cross ( c f. C. E., VII-31d).— 
 Since 1910 the educational and charitable work of 
 the congregation has increased notably, and build¬ 
 ing space is not sufficient to accommodate the 
 aged poor and orphans. Some 21,000 patients yearly 
 receive treatment in the hospitals, to several of 
 which are attached training schools for nurses. 
 In a dispensary attached to the mother-house, 
 three Sisters daily serve meals and give out bas¬ 
 kets of food and clothing; they also make a 
 daily visitation of the sick and poor in their 
 homes. There are 20,045 pupils in the schools 
 taught by the Sisters. The congregation is adminis¬ 
 tered by a mother general, mother assistant, and 
 three councillors. The present Mother General 
 is Mother St. Albert, elected in March, 1918. 
 Among distinguished members deceased are- 
 Mother Teresa Hagan (b. 1828; d. 1912), the first 
 postulant of the Grey Nuns at Ottawa (then By¬ 
 town), professed 1847, teaching until 1869, when 
 she was appointed Superior of the educational 
 institute on Rideau Street, golden and diamond 
 jubilarian; Sister St. Teresa (d. 1914), for twenty- 
 six years Superior of the City Orphanage in Ogdens- 
 burg, established the present hospital in that city; 
 Sister Mary Camper (d. 1915), educator, founded 
 the dlouville Reading Circle at Rideau Street 
 convent and organized the alumnae; Sister Rocque 
 (d. 1915), principal of the French parochial schools 
 in Ottawa; Mother Demers (d. 1920), fifth Gen¬ 
 eral Superior; Sister Stanislaus (d. 1921), Superior 
 of Bishop Conroy’s schools in Ogdensburg, N. Y, 
 and founder of d’Youville College, Buffalo, N. Y. 
 At present there are 1112 members, with 47 foun¬ 
 dations. The Sisters educate young girls free of 
 charge and train them in household work; they 
 board young boys going to college or Brothers’ 
 schools and assist them in many ways. In the 
 houses of refuge and orphanages more than three- 
 fourths are not able to defray their expenses; the 
 Government of Ontario gives seven or ten cents 
 a day for the board and clothing of the inmates, 
 and charitable societies lend a helping hand. The 
 Sisters have under their charge 9 boarding schools, 
 
 7 academies, 1 normal school, 4 industrial schools, 
 
 60 parochial schools, 1 bilingual model school, 9 
 hospitals, 4 homes for the aged, and 3 orphanages. 
 
 Gronberger, Sven Magnus, research worker in 
 anthropology and zoology, b. at Soderkoping, 
 Sweden, 19 August, 1864; d. in Washington, 24 
 April, 1916. He was the son of a highly cultured 
 iamily, all the members of which knew several 
 languages and in W’hich French was familiarly used. 
 He received a broad education at home, but being 
 ambitious to get on he came to America when 
 about twenty. He worked for his living in a drug 
 store, but proceeded with his studies and took up 
 
 f ‘ i. i e that vocation was in the line 
 o; scholarship and research, so he accepted a posi¬ 
 tion on the library staff of the Smithsonian Insti¬ 
 tution, Washington, where his knowledge of the 
 
 Scandinavian languages as well as French, German, 
 Latin, and Greek made him very valuable. While 
 working as librarian he devoted his leisure hours 
 o research work in science. He w r rote an exhaus- 
 tive monograph on “The Frogs of the District of 
 Columbia, and another on “Palearctic Birds of 
 Greenland His own experience as a librarian and 
 student of the sciences enabled him to write a 
 very valuable paper on “The Use of Museums for 
 Popular Education,” which attracted wide attention 
 and had much to do with giving fresh impetus to 
 the naovement for taking advantage of our museums 
 lor educational purposes. He became very much 
 interested in the origins of modern civilization and 
 wrote a lengthy monograph on “The Origin of 
 the Goths. I he value of his work was recognized 
 by the scientific groups conected with the Govern- 
 ment institurions in Washington, and he himself 
 felt the need of further education, so he devoted 
 himself to graduate work. He was just about to 
 receive his degree of Doctor of Philosophy from 
 
 George Washington University when he died of 
 cancer. 
 
 In his early years in America he had been drawn 
 to fhe Catholic Church, in spite of the very deep 
 piejudices which he had inherited in his native 
 Sweden. The life and example of a Catholic em¬ 
 ployer who had been extremely kind to him and 
 had taken almost a paternal interest in him while 
 he was working as a drug clerk, had led him to 
 study the history and dogmas of the church with a 
 rather open mind. The final impulse to his con¬ 
 version came while he was ill at St. Catherine’s 
 Hospital m Brooklyn, wffiere the unfailing kindness 
 of the Dominican Sisters, as he himself told, fairly 
 won his heart. In the midst of his scientific work 
 his faith instead of being weakened was strength¬ 
 ened, and he felt that the greatest consolation in 
 life come to him as the result of his conversion. 
 As a f oi m of thank-offering for this benefit he wrote 
 a lengthy sketch of the life of one of the patron 
 saints of his native country, St. Bridget of Sweden 
 As the Bngitmes, founded by St. Bridget, had a 
 number of foundations in England in the pre- 
 refoimation days, the subject of the sketch was 
 especially interesting for English speaking people. 
 
 I he sketch was published with some preliminary 
 notes on Gronberger’s life in the “American Catho¬ 
 lic Quarterly Review” (January, 1917), and re¬ 
 printed in the Publications of the Writers’ Club of 
 Washington (Vol. I, ii). 
 
 Science (1916); Walsh, Sven Magnus Gronberger in Are 
 Marie, 18 - 25 November, 1916; Idem, Americal Catholic Quar¬ 
 terly Review, January, 1917. 
 
 James J. Walsh. 
 
 Grosseto, Diocese of (Grossetanensis), in Tus¬ 
 cany, Central Italy, suffragan of Siena. Rt. 
 Rev. Ulysses Bascherini, born in Corvaia, Italy 
 1844, and appointed to this see 8 July, 1907, retired 
 and was transferred to the titular see of Amathonte, 
 
 8 March, 1920. He was succeeded by Rt. Rev. 
 Gustavo Matteoni, born in Santa-Maria della 
 Inercia, Italy, 1877, served as vicar general of San 
 Mmiato, and was appointed to this see 8 March, 
 1920. The 1920 statistics credit Grosseto with 30.250 
 Catholics; 26 parishes, 42 secular priests, 13 Sisters, 
 
 19 seminarians, and 57 churches or chapels. 
 
 Grosswardein, Diocese of. See Nagy-Varad. 
 
 Guadalajara, Archdiocese of (cf. C. E., VII-42c; 
 Guadalaxara), in the state of Jalisco, Mexico. The 
 metropolitan has as its suffragan sees the dioceses 
 of Aguas Calientes, Colima, Tepic, and Zacatecas. 
 The present archbishop in Francisco Orozco y 
 Jimenez, b. in Zamora 18 November, 1864, studied 
 
GUADALAJARA 
 
 GUAM 
 
 354 
 
 at the Latin-American College, Rome, ordained 17 
 December, 1887, elected bishop of Chiapas 29 May, 
 1902, promoted at the Consistory of 2 December, 
 1912’ to succeed Mgr. Ortiz at Guadalajara, ihe 
 archbishop was forced to go into exile in 1914 when 
 the Revolution put a price on his head. His cathe¬ 
 dral was profaned, his palace converted into a bar¬ 
 racks and 135 priests were imprisoned and later 
 freed at the cost of 200,000 crowns. In 1917, in 
 a pastoral letter, he addressed a vigorous protest 
 against the new Mexican constitution which seized 
 property of the Church. The Mexican .bishops 
 were allowed to return to their dioceses in 1919, 
 where they were well received, and events m 
 Guadalajara are gradually returning to their old 
 status. Since then a Catholic workingmans con¬ 
 gress has been held there for live days. . 
 
 Mgr. Francisco Uranga y Saenez, b. in Santa 
 Cruz de Rosales, Chihuahua, 14 November, 1863, 
 ordained 5 March, 1886, elected Bishop of Sinaloa, 
 
 25 June, 1903, resigned and transferred 18 Decem¬ 
 ber, 1919, is auxiliary to the archbishop. 
 
 In the archdiocese there are 1,350,000 inhabitants; 
 a cathedral chapter of 18; 106 parishes, 10 in the 
 capital; 539 secular and 37 regular priests; 350 
 churches. There is a large seminary in Guadalajara 
 which in 1914 had 1200 seminarians, two prepara¬ 
 tory seminaries at Zapotlan and San Juan de los 
 Lagos, besides 4 auxiliary ones founded by the 
 present archbishop. Many of the churches have 
 old and miraculous images which are venerated 
 by the faithful, some of which have been crowned 
 by papal authority; the sanctuary of Our Lady 
 of San Juan de los Lagos is to have a collegiate 
 church erected there. There are 7 hospitals in 
 Guadalajara (1 under care of Hospitallers of St. 
 John of God and 6 under Sisters), and 2 m neigh¬ 
 boring towns. Among the Catholic social organiza¬ 
 tions are the Catholic Association of Mexican Youth 
 and the Association of Catholic Ladies, both of which 
 played such a brilliant role during the last revolu¬ 
 tion and which have centers in almost every parish. 
 There are also the National Association of Fathers 
 of Families with 28 centers, the Court of Honor 
 of Our Lady of Guadeloupe, and the Order of 
 Knights of Columbus. There are other social orders 
 and many pious ones throughout the arch¬ 
 diocese. Among the Catholic papers published are 
 “La Epoca,” “Restauragion,” “El Obrero,” La 
 Mujer Catolica,” “La Voz de Maria,’; “La Sernilla 
 Eucaristica,” and various others, besides the bul¬ 
 letins of the different associations. 
 
 The religious communities of men in the arch¬ 
 diocese are the Franciscans with 5 houses, 
 Augustinians, 1; Hospitallers of St. John of God, 
 2 hospitals; Jesuits, Institute of Sciences in Jalisco 
 and Church of San Felipe; Josephites, 1; Salesian 
 Fathers, 1; Marist Brothers, 2 colleges. 
 
 The religious communities of women are Adora- 
 trices 2 convents; Sisters of Perpetual Adora¬ 
 tion 1; Discalced Carmelites 1; Carmelites de la 
 Hoguera 1; Dominicans 2 convents; Sisters of 
 Divine Providence 1; Sisters of Our Lady of 
 Guadeloupe 2; Josephites 2; Salesians 1; Minims 
 1; Religious of the Orfanatorio de la Luiz 1; 
 Reparatrices 1; Sisters without vows in 3 hospitals; 
 Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament of Sayula 1; 
 Servants of the P<Dor 11; Servants of Mary 1; 
 Servants of Jesus in the Blessed Sacrament 11; 
 Third Order Regular of St. Francis 4; Third 
 Order Regular of Carmel 1; Teresians 1; Sisters 
 of the Incarnate Word 1; Sisters of the Eucharistic 
 HcRit 1 
 
 The Catholic colleges are (1914): School of 
 Jurisprudence of Catholic Society; normal schools 
 
 (1 for boys and 7 for girls), 6 elementary night 
 schools for adults (3 for men and 3 for women), 
 and 1 day school for girls; 7 private colegiostor 
 boys and'14 for girls; 3 mixed colegios; 1 school 
 of trade and business attached to an orphanage 
 for boys, 4 orphanages for girls; and other various 
 asvlums and orphanages for both girls and boys. 
 Before the Revolution each parish had a primary 
 school, all of which were closed during the Revolu¬ 
 tion but most of them have been reopened, many 
 new schools have been founded, including a Teresian 
 colegio, in which girls of the upper classes are 
 educated. 
 
 Guadeloupe (or Basse-Terre), Diocese of 
 (Guadalupensis; Im^ Telluris), in the West 
 Indies, directly subject to the Holy See, with resi¬ 
 dence at Basse-Terre. This diocese comprises four 
 islands and the French portions of the islands of 
 St. Martin and St. Bartholomew. The see is now 
 (1922) filled by Rt. Rev. Pierre Genoud, C.S.bp., 
 born in Douvain, France, in 1860, studied at Evian- 
 les-Bains, served as professor of theology in the 
 colonial seminary in Paris, then as master of novices 
 at the Scholasticate at Chevilly, and was appointed 
 31 May, 1912. By a Brief of 10 November, 1919, 
 the canons of the diocese were authorized to wear 
 a gold pectoral cross suspended on a red ribbon. 
 The diocese comprises a population of 212,430 
 (1920 statistics), 37 parishes, 1 chaplaincy, 2 chapels 
 of ease, 13 alms houses, 61 priests, and 38 churches. 
 
 Guadix, Diocese of (Gaudicensis), in the 
 province of Granada, Spain, suffragan of Granada. 
 Rt. Rev. Timoteo Hernandez y Mulas, born m 
 Morales del Vino 1856, and appointed to this see 
 19 December, 1907, died 19 March, 1921, and his 
 successor has not yet been appointed. The diocese 
 covers an area of about 1828 sq. miles and com¬ 
 prises a Catholic population of 189,098. The 1920 
 statistics credit it with 80 parishes, 5 archpriests, 
 160 priests, 62 churches, 88 chapels and 10 convents 
 with 11 religious and 110 Sisters. 
 
 Guam, Vicariate Apostolic of (cf. C. E., 
 IX-660d, Mariana). The island of Guam is the 
 largest and most populous of the Mariana group 
 discovered by Magellan in 1521. As a result of 
 the Spanish War Guam was ceded to the United 
 States and has since been used as a naval station 
 with naval commander serving as governor, while 
 Spain sold the other islands in the group to Ger¬ 
 many (1899). The island is thirty miles long and 
 from four to eight miles wide. Situated in the 
 Bay of Apia, latitude, N. 13° 26' 22"; longitude, 
 E.' 144° 39' 42"; Guam is 3428 miles from San 
 Francisco, 1506 miles from Yokohama. The aver¬ 
 age temperature is 81° F., varying only slightly, 
 with the highest point at 90° and the lowest 72 . 
 The natives are called Chamorros and are of 
 Malayan, Tagal, and Spanish blood. They are a 
 peaceful, amicable people, respectful towards strang¬ 
 ers and apt in learning the arts and sciences. The 
 inhabitants number 14,090 natives and 498 Ameri¬ 
 cans and foreigners. The capital, San Ignacio de 
 Agana, has about 10,000 inhabitants. 
 
 The principal agricultural products are the coco¬ 
 nut which serves many purposes, maize, suni (sweet 
 potato), bananas, federico from which they extract 
 starch, and manga, a delicious fruit. 
 
 Since March, 1911, Guam has constituted a 
 vicariate apostolic, entirely in the hands of the 
 Spanish Capuchins. Formerly the island was part 
 of the vicariate Apostolic of the Mariana Islands, 
 but owing to the difference of nationality since 
 the Spanish War, and to avoid future dissensions, 
 
GUARDA 
 
 355 
 
 GUAYAQUIL 
 
 the Vicariate Apostolic of Guam was created. The 
 vicariate has been taken from the Apostolic Dele¬ 
 gation of Australasia and added to that of the 
 Philippines, 20 October, 1921. 
 
 The first vicar apostolic was Rt. Rev. Francisco 
 Xavier Ricardo Vila y Maten, O.M.Cap., born 
 in Arenys a Mar, Spain, elected titular Bishop of 
 Adraa and vicar Apostolic of Guam, 25 August, 
 1911, died 5 January, 1913. His successor was Rt. 
 Rev. Augustin Bernaus y Serra, O.M. Cap., born 
 at Artesa de Segre, 16 August, 1863, missionary in 
 Costa Rica in 1906, elected titular Bishop of 
 Milopotamus and Vicar Apostolic of Guam, 9 May, 
 1913, and transferred to the Vicariate Apostolic of 
 Bluefields in October, 1914. The present Vicar 
 Apostolic of Guam is Rt. Rev. Joachim Felipe 
 Olaiz y Zabalza, O.M. Cap., born in Pampluna, 
 6 June, 1S72, elevated to the titular bishopric of 
 Docimum, and made Vicar Apostolic of Guam, 20 
 July, 1914, and consecrated 30 November following. 
 
 Rev. Jose Palomo Tones, a native of Agana and 
 son of one of the principal Chamorra families, 
 exercised the functions of the priesthood there for 
 fifty-seven years. He was pastor at Agana and 
 during his long priesthood he was called upon to 
 defend the Faith against the dangers of Protestant 
 heresies, showing his zeal for the faith and his care 
 of his flock in such a manner that Pope Pius X 
 * rewarded him with the title of Monsignor. Re¬ 
 spected by natives and foreigners, especially the 
 Americans, whom he served in many ways, Mgr. 
 Palomo died in July, 1918. Governor Smith ex¬ 
 pressed his thanks to the bishop for the aid ren¬ 
 dered by the missionaries in the activities of the 
 government during late war. In Guam there are 
 6 parishes, 10 churches, 6 stations, 8 regular priests, 
 and 4 lay brothers. Six Sisters are expected to 
 take a parish school in Agana. Practically all 
 the 14,000 natives are Catholics, as well as most 
 of the 500 Spaniards, Americans, and Japanese. 
 
 vicariate, with metropolitan at Managua. San Sal- 
 created an archdiocese on 11 February 
 
 1913, Honduras was divided 2 February, 1916, with 
 metropolitan at Tegucigalpa; finally Costa Rica 
 on 16 February, 1921, was divided into two dioceses 
 whh metropolitan at San Jose de Costa Rica 
 
 Ricardo Casanova y Estrada, born in Guatemala, 
 10 November, 1844, studied civil law, canon law 
 and medicme, ordained 1876, was elected Archbishop 
 ol Guatemala, primate of Central America 25 
 January, 1886, and died 14 April, 1913. His suc¬ 
 cessor Was Julio Ramon Riveiro y Jacinto, O.P 
 born at Coban, Guatemala, 17 February, 1854, ex¬ 
 pelled fr ° n ? the convent where he studied 7 June 
 18/2, ordained 1877, elected archbishop 8 April' 
 
 1914, consecrated in Rome, 10 May following and 
 resigned in 1921. The present archbishop of Guate¬ 
 mala is Rt. Rev. Aloysius Munoz, S. J., who was 
 born m Guatemala in 1859 and elevated to the 
 archbishopric 30 July, 1921. 
 
 ^ capital city of Guatemala there are a 
 cathedral and 22 churches. In the entire country 
 there are 115 parishes with 125 secular and 7 regular 
 priests, the scarcity of clergy causing nearly 40 
 parishes to be vacant. The population of about 
 two million is almost entirely Catholic. The Church 
 maintains a preparatory seminary, 4 colleges for 
 boys, 7 for girls, 1 high school, 1 normal school, 
 6 professional schools and some elementary schools. 
 Besides, there are 4 asylums and 3 hospitals. 
 
 There are two societies organized among the 
 clergy and many among the laity, while five 
 periodicals and reviews are published under ecclesi¬ 
 astical auspices. There is no aid from the Gov¬ 
 ernment in any ecclesiastical work and the estab¬ 
 lishment of monastic and conventual institutions 
 has been prohibited since 1872, when much church 
 property was confiscated and disestablished. 
 
 Guarda, Diocese of (/Egitaniensis or ^Egitianen- 
 sis), in Portugal, suffragan of Lisbon. Rt. Rev. 
 Manoel Vieira de Mattos, appointed to this see 26 
 June, 1903, was promoted to the Archdiocese of 
 Braga, 1 October, 1914, and was succeeded by Rt. 
 Rev. Jose Alves Mattoso, born in Coja, Portugal, 
 1870, served as chancellor of Coimbre and named 
 bishop 3 October, 1914. The 1920 statistics credit 
 the diocese with 289,774 Catholics, 357 parishes, 
 531 priests, and 936 churches or chapels. 
 
 Guastalla, Diocese of (Guastallensis), in the 
 province of Reggio-Emelia, Northern Italy, suf¬ 
 fragan of Modena. This see is filled by Rt. Rev. 
 Agostmo Cattaneo, born in Crema, 1853, served as 
 secretary and episcopal chancellor, then professor of 
 theology in the seminary of Crema and vicar gen¬ 
 eral, was made a private chamberlain 21 Septem¬ 
 ber, 1901, and appointed bishop 15 March, 1910, 
 to succeed Rt. Rev. Andrea Sarti, transferred to 
 Pistom and Prato, 29 April, 1909. According to 
 1920 statistics the diocese comprises 65,000 Catho¬ 
 lics; 26 parishes, 75 secular priests, 51 Sisters, 25 
 Seminarians, and 58 churches and chapels. 
 
 Guatemala, Archdiocese of (Sancta Jacobi 
 
 majoris de Guatemala; cf. C. E., VII-54a)_ 
 
 Since 16 December, 1743, the diocese of Guatemala 
 nas been raised to metropolitan rank, having four 
 suffragans assigned to it. T o-day the metropolitan 
 bas no suffragans, the dioceses of Nicaragua, Hon¬ 
 duras, Costa Rica, and San Salvador having been 
 raised to metropolitan rank. On 2 December 1913 
 Nicaragua was detached as suffragan from 
 Guatemala and divided into three dioceses and a 
 
 Guaxupe, Diocese of (Guaxupensis), erected 3 
 February, 1916, from the northern part of the dio¬ 
 cese of Pouso Alegre in the state of Minas Geraes, 
 j Z tx V Pushes °f Poqos de Caldas, Campestre, 
 and Machado form the southern boundary. It com¬ 
 prises an area of 9432.4210 sq. miles, and has 300,000 
 inhabitants. The first bishop was Rt. Rev. Antonio 
 Augusto de Assis, consecrated titular Bishop of Sura 
 and auxiliary of Pouso Alegre in 1907, succeeding 
 to the see of Pouso Alegre in 1909, and transferred 
 to Guaxupe in 1916. He resigned in 1919, and was 
 succeeded 3 July, by Antonio Correa, the present 
 Bishop of Guaxupe. 
 
 Within the diocese there are 300,000 Catholics, 
 37 secular and 12 regular priests; 50 churches, 10 
 convents for women, 2 colleges for men with 10 
 teachers and 90 students, 8 colleges for girls with 
 50 teachers and 600 students, 2 high schools with 
 12 teachers and 70 pupils, 7 homes, about 70 organi¬ 
 zations or societies for the laity, and three Catholic 
 periodicals. A seminary is at present under con¬ 
 struction. By special legislation of the state of 
 Minas Geraes the priests are permitted to teach the 
 Catholic religion in their own homes to the pupils 
 of the public schools, commonly called “Grupos 
 Escolares.” About 10,000 pupils of these schools are 
 thus receiving Catholic instruction. 
 
 Guayaquil, Diocese of (Guayaquilensis; cf. C. 
 E., VII-54d), suffragan of Quito, in Ecuador, South 
 America. The diocese contains 208.000 inhabitants, 
 including 93,370 Catholics and 2000 Protestants, 34 
 parishes, 52 churches and chapels, 30 secular priests, 
 and 2S regulars. In the city of Guayaquil there are 
 80,000 inhabitants, 5 city parishes, 7 rural parishes, 
 
 6 rural deaneries. The following orders of men 
 and women have foundations in the diocese: 
 
GUBBIO 
 
 356 
 
 GUIANA 
 
 Dominicans (1 house), Franciscans (1), Augustmians 
 (1), Fathers of Mercy (1), Jesuits (1), Lazarists 
 (1), Christian Brothers (1), Sisters of Charity (8 
 houses in Guayaquil, 1 at Babahoyo, 1 at Macha a), 
 Sisters of Providence and of the Immaculate Con¬ 
 ception (1 house), Sisters of Marie Auxiliatrice 
 (1), Sisters of the National Congregation of Blessed 
 Mariana of Jesus (1 house at Guayaquil, 1 at 
 
 The present bishop is the Rt. Rev. Andres 
 Machado, S.J., b. at Cuenca, 16 August, JL850, en¬ 
 tered Society of Jesus 19 July, 1866, provincial of 
 Ecuador, elected bishop of Riobamba 12 Novem¬ 
 ber 1907, published 19 December following, trans¬ 
 ferred to Guayaquil, 26 April, 1916 published 4 
 December following. He succeeded Rt. Rev Juan 
 Maria Riera, O.P., who administered the diocese 
 1912-1915. At the present time Mgr. Machado, like 
 Bishop Riera before him, is administrator of the 
 diocese of Porto-Viejo. 
 
 Gubbio, Diocese of (Eugubinensis; cf. C. E., 
 VII-55b), in the province of Perugia, in Umbria 
 (Central Italy). This diocese was originally directly 
 subject to the Holy See, but in 1563 became a suf¬ 
 fragan of Urbino. In 1918 Gubbio reverted to the 
 direct jurisdiction of the Holy See. . 
 
 In 1907 Giovanni Battista Nasalli-Rocca, b. m 
 Piacenza, 27 August, 1872, was elevated to the 
 bishopric of Gubbio. On 7 December, 1916 Mgr. 
 Nasalli-Rocca was appointed titular Archbishop oi 
 Thebes and succeeded by Carlo Tacetti, b. in San- 
 niniatello, 19 November, 1861, consecrated Bishop 
 of Gubbio on 22 March, 1917. Mgr. Tacetti died 
 6 April, 1920, and was succeeded by Leonardo 
 Navarro Pio, b. in Segni, 22 September, 1877, who 
 was elevated to the bishopric 16 December, 1921. 
 
 During the years of the war a casa del soldato 
 was founded in Gubbio and both clergy and laity 
 were always foremost in assisting and organizing 
 the various undertakings that arose from needs of 
 war. The most notable event of the diocese in 
 recent years was the translation in 1919 of the 
 incorrupt body of the diocesan patron, Saint Ubaldo, 
 from his church on Mount Ingino to the cathedial, 
 the restoration of the church on the mountain and 
 the conferring of the title of basilica by Pope Bene¬ 
 dict XV. On 21 August, 1919, the body of Saint 
 Ubaldo was again solemnly translated to his church, 
 just as it had been moved there 725 years before, 
 and was buried under the new main altar. 
 
 The see has 65 parishes, 43,606 souls, 1 monastery 
 for men, 1 abbey for men, 4 convents for men, 79 
 secular priests, 16 regular priests, 7 monasteries for 
 women, 7 convents for women, 97 nuns, 4 lay broth¬ 
 ers, 259 churches, 1 seminary with 15 seminarians, 1 
 college for men, 2 colleges for women, and 4 ele¬ 
 mentary schools. The missionary work of the dio¬ 
 cese includes 2 homes, 3 asylums, and 5 hospitals. 
 
 Guiana, British (or Demerara), Vicariate Apos¬ 
 tolic of (cf. C. E., VII-62d), comprises British 
 Guiana and Barbados and is under the care of the 
 Jesuits. Rt. Rev. Compton Galton, S.J., titular 
 Bishop of Petenissus and vicar Apostolic since 
 1901-1902, resides at Georgetown. 
 
 The Catholic population, numbering about, 25,000 
 (1922), is composed of British, Portuguese, blacks 
 mixed, East Indians, Chinese, and aboriginal 
 
 Indians. , 
 
 Gregorio Bettencourt, great benefactor to the 
 cathedral, Knight of St. Gregory, died in 1919. Rev. 
 Paul Miller, S. J., head master of St. Stanislaus Col¬ 
 lege died in 1921 and Rev. Francis O’Donnell, S.J., 
 who had been laboring for thirty-two years in the 
 missions died in 1921. 
 
 In 1910 a mission was started among the Macushi 
 Indians in the far interior. That year the Vicar 
 Apostolic visited the Indian missions in the interior. 
 The cathedral was destroyed by fire in 1913. In 
 1915 the foundation stone of the new cathedral was 
 laid and by 1921 a portion of the edifice was opened 
 for service on Passion Sunday. The priests of the 
 vicariate are admitted to minister in the three 
 public hospitals, Leper and Lunatic Asylums Gov¬ 
 ernment Industrial Schools and the Penal Settle¬ 
 ment'. Twenty-eight elementary schools are aided 
 by the government and also the girls’ orphanage. 
 Three conferences of St. Vincent de Paul have been 
 organized among the laity, and a periodical 1 he 
 Catholic Standard of British Guiana” is published. 
 
 The vicariate has 12 parishes, 3 missions, 37 
 churches, 10 stations, 4 secular priests, 17 regular 
 priests, 10 convents for women, 40 nuns, 30 sisters, 
 
 1 high school with 60 boys attending, 
 elementary schools with 135 teachers and 5237 
 pupils. There are two orphanages, one for boys 
 and one for girls. 
 
 Guiana, Diocese of. See Saint Thomas of 
 Gihana. 
 
 Guiana, Dutch (or Surinam), Vicariate Apos¬ 
 tolic of (cf. C. E., VII-63a), has a spiritual jurisdic¬ 
 tion over 20,900 Catholics under the charge of Rt. 
 Rev. Theodore Van Roosmalen, C. SS.R., titular 
 Bishop of Antigone, who resides in Paramaribo. 
 Bishop Van Roosmalen, born at Bois-le-Duc, 27 
 July, 1875, and elevated 23 August, 1911, was ap¬ 
 pointed by decree the following November to suc¬ 
 ceed Bishop Meeuwissen, C. SS.R., who had resigned 
 and retired to a convent at Amsterdam. The colony 
 is entirely in the hands of the Redemptorists and 
 the schools and other Catholic institutions receive 
 government support. Among the laity the Asso¬ 
 ciation of the Holy Family has been organized with 
 194 men and 766 women members; also the Asso¬ 
 ciation of the Blessed Sacrament with 626 mem¬ 
 bers, the Confraternity of the Living Rosary with 
 1057 members; the Sodality of the Sacred Heart 
 with 1517 members, and the Confraternity of Our 
 Lady of Perpetual Help and St. Alphonsus with 
 1795 members. In the vicariate two periodicals are 
 published, “De Surinamer,” which is issued twice 
 a week and “De Katholiche Waarschuwer,” every 
 
 two weeks. 4 . , 
 
 In the city of Paramaribo there are 4 parishes 
 and outside of the city 4 quasi-parishes. In the 
 whole vicariate there are 10 convents for men and 
 6 for women, 53 churches and chapels, 8 stations, 
 33 regular priests, 35 lay brothers, 109 Sisters, 2 
 high schools with 21 teachers and 624 students, 2 
 normal schools with 6 teachers and 10 students, 29 
 elementary schools with 90 teachers and 3680 stu¬ 
 dents, 2 industrial schools with 5 teachers and 134 
 pupils, 1 home for the aged, 2 orphanages, 1 asylum, 
 and 9 schools for the poor with 675 pupils. 
 
 Guiana, French (or Cayenne), Prefecture 
 Apostolic of (Guyan.e Gallic^® seu Cayenne), 
 in South America. This territory was entrusted 
 to the Fathers of the Holy Ghost in 1816, but 
 owing to the hostility of the Government they 
 were forced to abandon it. A large portion of the 
 Catholic population are convicts, as Cayenne, the 
 residence of the prefect apostolic is a penal set¬ 
 tlement, no longer used for white convicts however, 
 owing to the frequency of yellow fever. Rev. 
 
 Fabre was named prefect apostolic in January, 1914, 
 after having served as administrator apostolic. The 
 Catholics number about 36,000, of whom 12,000 are 
 convicts, and the remainder of the population is 
 
GUINEA 
 
 357 
 
 GYOR 
 
 made up of 8000 to 10,000 pagans (Indians, Red¬ 
 skins, and Negroes), and 4000 to 5000 heretics. 
 The mission is served by 21 priests, there being 
 15 churches with resident priests and 15 without 
 priests, 26 stations and 9 schools with 1300 pupils. 
 
 Guinea, French, Vicariate Apostolic op 
 (Guine.e Gallicae), comprises a French colony of 
 the same name in Western Africa. By a Decree 
 of 17 April, 1920, this territory was raised from a 
 prefecture apostolic; it is entrusted to the Fathers 
 of the Holy Ghost, Rt. Rev. Raymond-Rene Le 
 Rouge being vicar apostolic. Born in Chaise- 
 Baudouin, France, 1876, he came to French Guinea 
 in 1901, was made prefect apostolic in 1911, pro¬ 
 moted to be first vicar apostolic and consecrated 
 titular Bishop of Selga, 22 April, 1920. He re¬ 
 sides at Konakiy, which has developed into one 
 of the most important cities of the western Coast 
 of A.frica, connected by railway with Niger and 
 the Sudan, and ranking among the first commercial 
 cities of that country. Mohammedanism was 
 brought into this country many centuries ago, but 
 numerous Fetishist tribes remain, among the most 
 important of which Christianity has been estab¬ 
 lished. Bishop Le Rouge has been largely instru¬ 
 mental in the religious progress, but he is handi¬ 
 capped by the lack of a church in Konakry in 
 keeping with the importance of the city and the 
 colony, however he hopes to accomplish this 
 soon. One of the great difficulties that has to be 
 overcome by the missionaries in this country is 
 the diversity of language, where every tribe and 
 every village has a different dialect. In spite of 
 the war the missionaries have founded a new station 
 at Kurussa in the northeastern part of the vicariate, 
 a position of great importance. The native city 
 is divided into clans, each under a Mussulman mas¬ 
 ter. Their captives, according to the Koran, are not 
 allowed to practice the religion of Islam, and con¬ 
 sequently many thousands of these pagans will be 
 given to the Christians if the masters can be com¬ 
 pensated. The remainder of the territory served 
 by this new station, the region between Baffa and 
 Boke, includes more than 200,000 souls, the tribes 
 of Baga, entirely Fetishist and the Fulah Mussul¬ 
 mans. 
 
 According to latest statistics there are 2,000,000 
 people included in this vicariate and of this number 
 5600 are Catholics, 4127 catechumens, 700 heretics, 
 300,000 mussulman, and 700,000 pagans. The mis¬ 
 sion comprises 9 principal stations, 5 secondary 
 stations, 65 posts of catechists, and 319 Christianized 
 villages; it is served by 22 priests, 66 native 
 catechists, 6 stations, 14 French schools, 1 school 
 of catechists, 12 orphanages, 1 lower seminary, 3 
 .agricultural schools, 3 industrial schools, 7 phar¬ 
 macies, 1 village of freedmen, 3 Brothers, 9 Euro¬ 
 pean Missionary Sisters, and 4 native Sisters. 
 
 Guiney, Louise Imogen, poet and essayist, b. 
 Boston, Mass., 7 January, 1861; d. at Chipping 
 Campden, England, 2 November, 1920. She was 
 the daughter of Gen. Patrick Robert Guiney, a 
 soldier in the Lhiion Army during the American 
 Civil War, and was educated at a private school 
 in Boston and at the Convent of the Sacred Heart, 
 Elmhurst, Providence, R. 1., from which she was 
 graduated in 1880. Her earliest literary work 
 appeared in the Boston ‘Tost” and the‘ Boston 
 Courier.” In 1887 she was a contributor to 
 Harper’s,” “Scribner’s,” and “The Atlantic Monthly.” 
 The last sixteen years of her life were spent at 
 Oxford, England. Among her best known writings 
 are Patrins,” “The White Sail,” “Monsieur Henri,” 
 “Edmund Campion,” and “Robert Emmet.” She 
 
 edited the works of Mathew Arnold, Mangan, 
 Henry Vaughan, and other writers. Her poetry was 
 delicate and elevated, and yet virile, and her prose 
 had a rare distinction of thought and diction 
 Guisasoia y Menendez Victoria™, Cardinal, 
 Archbishop of Toledo, and Patriarch of the East 
 Indies b. at Oviedo, Spain, April 21, 1852; d. at 
 Madrid on 2 September, 1920. He was first a 
 lawyer and then a priest, and was appointed secre¬ 
 cy j , e B is liop of Orihuela and head of the 
 cathedral school of the diocese. In 1884 he was 
 
 5 an °to^ f , Compostella ; in 1893 Bishop of Osina. 
 In .1897 he was transferred to Madrid, then to 
 Valencia, and finally to the Archbishopric of 
 loledo. He was created cardinal in 1914, receiving 
 the biretta at the hands of Alphonso XIII; the 
 hat was conferred later (8 September). He was 
 the cardinal of the factory-lands and country-folk 
 and devoted himself especially to them, founding 
 a number of guilds for their spiritual and material 
 betterment. As he was the national chaplain of 
 the Spanish army he was buried with military 
 honors. 
 
 Gulf of St. Lawrence, Vicariate Apostolic of 
 (S m us San cn Laurentii), in Canada, suffragan 
 of Quebec. This territory first erected into a pre¬ 
 fecture apostolic, in 1882, was entrusted to the 
 Eudists in 1903 and raised to a vicariate apostolic 
 12 September, 1905. The official residence is at 
 Seven Islands, Saguenay County, Canada, but as 
 yet no vicar has been appointed to succeed Rt. 
 Rev. Patrice-Alexandre Chiasson, who was ap¬ 
 pointed titular Bishop of Lydda and vicar apostolic 
 10 March, 1919, and transferred to the diocese of 
 Chatham, 9 September, 1920. This vicariate covers 
 an area of 54,000 sq. miles and comprises a total 
 population of 11,000, of whom 9650 are Catholics, 
 including 2000 Indians. According to 1920 statis¬ 
 tics it counts 19 regular priests, 12 stations with 
 resident priests, 28 stations without priests, 19 
 chapels, 19 oratories, 950 children in Catholic schools, 
 and 19 religious of the Infant Jesus. 
 
 Gurk, Diocese of (Gurcensis; cf. C. E., 
 VII-88c), a prince-bishopric of Carinthia, Austria, 
 suffragan of Salzburg, with residence at Klagenfiirt. 
 This see is filled by Rt. Rev. Adam Hefter, born 
 m Prien, Bavaria, 1871, appointed 5 Februaiy, 1915, 
 succeeding Rt. Rev. Balthazar Kaltner, promoted 
 to Salzburg, 25 May, 1914. According to 1921 
 statistics the diocese comprises a Catholic popula¬ 
 tion of 376,051; 19,668 Protestants, 244 Jews, and 
 596 of other religions; 200 parishes, 380 secular and 
 128 regular clergy. 
 
 Gyor (German Raab), Diocese of (Jaurinensis; 
 cf. C. E., \TI-94c).—The diocese of Gyor, suffragan 
 to the Archdiocese of Esztergom, lies in the former 
 Kingdom of Hungary with two cathedral chapters, 
 one at Gyor and the other at Sopron. By the 
 treaty of St. Germain the Odenburg or Sopron dis¬ 
 trict was lost by Hungary to Austria, and to-day 
 the diocese is divided between the two Govern¬ 
 ments, with a cathedral chapter in each country. 
 
 During the late war twenty-seven priests and 
 most of the clergy were called to the colors, some 
 were chaplains for the troops on the front, others 
 cared for the wounded in hospitals, and some took 
 up arms for the defence of the country. Those who 
 remained at home worked for those at war, con¬ 
 soled widows and orphans, and nursed the wounded 
 and sick. Ladislaus Prince Batthany-Strattmann 
 and Prince Elemer Lonyay during the whole time 
 of the war, and the cathedral chapter of Gyor, for 
 a year and a half, with their own resources sup¬ 
 ported a hospital for wounded and sick soldiers. 
 
GYOR 
 
 358 
 
 GYOR 
 
 The bishop supported in the Szany orphanage 
 twelve orphans, whose fathers died for the country. 
 
 During the Communistic dictatorship the press 
 of the diocese, although not strictly Catholic, bound 
 the various Christians together in defense against 
 the common foe and the leading papers, especially 
 the “Dunantuli Hirlap” of Gy or and the “Soproni 
 Hirlap” presented a united Christian opinion against 
 the dangers of Communism. 
 
 Rt. Rev. Nicholas Szechenyi, born at Sopron, 6 
 January, 1868, elected Bishop cf Gyor, 16 Decem¬ 
 ber, 1901, was transferred to the diocese of Nagy- 
 Varad, 20 April, 1911, and on 18 June, 1911, Rt. 
 Rev. Leopold Arpad Varady, bom in Temeswar, 
 Diocese of Csanad, 18 June, 1865, was consecrated 
 bishop of Gyor in the cathedral, which post he 
 held until 25 March, 1914, when he was promoted 
 to be Archbishop of Kalocsa. After a few months 
 Rt. Rev. Anthony Fetser, born at Nagy Karolydior, 
 in the Diocese of Szathmar, 14 January, 1862, 
 elected titular Bishop of Paleopolis and auxiliary 
 at Nagy-Varad was transferred 20 April, 1911, to 
 the diocese of Gyor. Under Bishops Szechenyi and 
 Varady (1907-1913) the greater part of the cathe¬ 
 dral at Gyor was restored. A new seminary for 
 the clergy of the diocese was erected in 1910. 
 
 On 21 October, 1913, Rt. Rev. Ernest Kutoratz, 
 titular Bishop of Martiana and auxiliary of Gyor, 
 born at Siglo in the diocese and elevated to the 
 bishopric 19 April, 1897, died. Nicholas Prince 
 Esperhazy, patron of 81 parishes in the diocese 
 and leader of the noblemen of Hungary, who 
 had always labored for the Church and had been a 
 good example to all Christians, died in Sopron in 
 1920. His wife, born Countess Margarita Czuraky, 
 who died in 1910, a real mother of the poor and 
 patron of the Church, is still remembered with 
 benediction. In 1914 occurred the death of Anthony 
 Ruschek, titular abbot and canon of the cathedral 
 of Gyor, and in 1916 that of Anthony Mobl, bishop- 
 elect of Serbia; both were the authors of many 
 books and translations. During the days of the 
 Communist strife in Hungary two priests perished. 
 Anthony Szemelliser, pastor of Fiiles, was shot 9 
 April, 1919, and Francis Wohlmuth, pastor of 
 Csaszar, was hung 5 June, 1919, martyrs to the 
 Catholic religion and to their country. 
 
 The diocese includes 241 parishes with 379 
 churches and 296 chapels. There are, however, in 
 
 the diocese 48 Lutheran churches, 27 Calvinists 
 churches, 35 Jewish synagogues, and 1 Greek Ortho¬ 
 dox church. The religious orders of men include: 
 
 1 congregation of Premonstratentians, 2 monasteries 
 of Benedictines, 2 houses of the Order of Pious 
 Schools, 1 convent of Dominicans, 2 convents of 
 Franciscans (O.F. M.), 1 convent of Capuchins, 1 
 convent of Discalced Carmelites, 1 convent of 
 Servants of Mary, 1 convent of Hospitallers of 
 St. John of God. The religious orders of women 
 have: 2 monasteries of Ursulines, 1 convent of 
 Discalced Carmelites, 10 houses of Daughters of 
 St. Vincent de Paul, 1 house of Franciscan Sisters, 
 
 1 house of Sisters of the Holy Cross, 26 congrega¬ 
 tions of Daughters of the Divine Redeemer, with 
 a mother-house in Sopron and 1 house of Sisters 
 of the Divine Savior. There are 82 regular and 
 390 secular priests, 20 lay brothers, 147 nuns, and 
 307 Sisters. The number of Catholics is 495,000, 
 of whom the greater part are Hungarians, although 
 about 150,000 speak German, 50,000 Croatian and 
 4000 Slovakian. 
 
 There are in the diocese 2 seminaries with 72 
 seminarians, 379 normal or elementary schools with 
 511 laymen, 147 laywomen, and 96 religious in¬ 
 structing 67,900 pupils. There are so-called public 
 schools for girls with 25 teachers and 660 pupils; 
 5 preparatory schools in which teachers are trained 
 for work in elementary and public schools and 
 taking care of children with 41 ecclesiastical in¬ 
 structors and 380 scholars; 5 gymnasia, two for 
 boys under the Benedictines, two for boys under 
 the Order of Pious Schools, and one for girls under 
 the Ursulines with 48 religious as instructors and 
 1470 scholars. There are 27 day nurseries in charge 
 of the Sisters, who also conduct 10 hospitals and 
 orphanages. 
 
 The elementary, public, and preparatory schools 
 supported by the Government come under the rule 
 of a local board, whose members are nearly always 
 pastors or other priests, so that in this way the 
 clergy have influence in the schools. Moreover in 
 the gymnasia, normal and business schools, sustained 
 by the Government, the pupils are instructed by 
 catechists named by the bishop, who are either en¬ 
 tirely supported or receive some salary from the 
 Government. Two ecclesiastical papers, “Evan- 
 gelium,” a theological paper, and “Eucharistikus 
 Ertesito,” are published in the diocese 
 
H 
 
 yn% sSfegfn of .KS ofmrecht S^f^ “ 
 
 in Holland. Augustin Joseph Callier, bom at Fles- and vicar apostolic of Temiskaming 1 October* 1908* 
 singue m this diocese 20 May 1849, for eleven consecrated 30 November following, transferred to 
 
 K GaiS iin5 ar ?? n ? ra ’ ^ as r eIc< ; tcd £ lshop 11 Septem- Haileybury 17 January, 1916. In May 1919 the 
 ber, 1J03. Bishop Callier had been instrumental Diocese of Haileybury was divided and a portion 
 for many years m the erection of the new cathedral, of it erected into the Vicariate Apostlic of Northern 
 which is the glory of the diocese of Haarlem. The Ontario. nern 
 
 Sth^Jdwl-J3S?. are T ‘ w V emi - At the present time (1921) the Catholic popula- 
 nanes witn 1ZU and 300 students. The diocese tion of the diocese is nrinrovimatoKr ai rqq a ; a a 
 
 count* (1921) 261 parishes 290 churches 60 convents as follows: French-Canadian 37945• English speak 
 for men, 195 for women, 584 secular and 187 regular ine - 3731 • TnrHnrvs id 07 - ’ +i ’ s P- ( 7 . 
 
 priests, two colleges with 1091 students 37? ele- 500 The dkTcese lost a 
 
 mentary schools with 84,490 pupils, 184 training the death of the Abbe Wdfrid CaLi wh by 
 
 an Cat ar nbutes to the — ° f 
 
 Haeckel, Ernst Heinrich, zoologist and phi- nar ^ ans » 8 secondary schools for girls with 90 teach- 
 losophic writer, b. at Potsdam, Prussia, on 16 Feb- ers and 800 PPPds, .1 academy for boys with 13 
 ruary, 1834; d. at Jena on 9 August, 1919. He ^ a ^ ers an ^ 800 pupils, 115 elementary schools with 
 studied in Berlin and Wurzburg under Virchow, ® . * pupds; some of these elementary schools re- 
 Kolliker, and Miiller, graduating in medicine in ^ eive a small appropriation from the Government. 
 Berlin in 1857. After practicing medicine for a the charitable institutions are 4 hospitals 
 
 short time he gave himself up to natural history and ^ orphanages and all the public institutions 
 and in 1861 was appointed lecturer in zoology at a *^ open to the priests. 
 
 Jena, and full professor in 1865. The fruit of a Haiti ( c f. C. E., VII-114b) a republic embrac- 
 
 6 ^? e j Sma ^jj XS a ' mon °g ra ph on radiolaria ing the western portion of the' island of Haiti has 
 
 which attracted considerable attention. Among the an estimated area of 10,204 sq. miles and a n’oou- 
 
 thpT fi C l entlflC dp| dl ,f by H aeckel ma y be cited lation of about 2,000,000, ninety per cent of whom 
 
 °? Dee P" Sea are negroes. The largest city, pSrt-au-Prfnce hZ 
 Medusae, Padiolana, Siphonophorse,” and an estimated population of 101,272- Cap Haitien 
 
 » Pafx 2 10 000 yeS 12 ’ 00 ° ; G ° DaiVeS Xfi0 ° ! P ° rt - de - 
 
 s 
 
 ^896 Haeckel, wandering ImmThe realm* brofog“ «“o"bSi; 
 
 \hich was welcomed by the free-thinkers and the no provision was made for the Department of 
 mass of untrained readers This atheistic attack Education as there was for thesanitaryand enet 
 
 Gemrd° m S P jt ^The Old Riddle ^n/rt^NT ^ ^tments. Although education is com- 
 
 Wr In mw o? Ip S’« the Newest pulsory, there is insufficient money to maintain an 
 
 Answer. in many ol Haeckel s writings his dis- efficient system of education. The Catholics are 
 
 f. ar ^ ; f °r tr uth led bim to manipulate facts to the most frequent benefactors and are doing by 
 suit, his theories and in this way he succeeded in far the greater part of the work of education in 
 
 ffifl!S! Z pd g ^ 1S heOTy ° f , Evoll ! tlon - Eut because the way of private schools under religious or part.i- 
 s ha tied was reseived for religion, because his religious supervision. In 1918 there were 854 public 
 forgei les were favorable to atheism and free- primary schools with 61,956 pupils 29 secondarv 
 thought because he denied free-will and yet advo- schools with 4816 pupils, 1 normal school a school 
 cated the emancipation of man from the fetters of of law and one of medicine with 102 students 
 dogma and morality, his dishonest methods were Economic Conditions— The revenue of Haiti is 
 condoned by the universities and the press in derived almost exclusively from customs mid in 
 
 Ge many, England and America. There was a American gold on exports and imports. On 1 
 
 }i5 \ however, to this prostitution of, science in January, 1920, the debt of Haiti consisted of gold 
 ° f a few scientists, and finally loans amounting to 149,894,087 francs; the internal 
 
 Wasmann f Q Th “7 c , lIessly ^Pfsed by Erich debt amounted to $2,918,080. The total interest 
 • «ix A , expose of his deceit is of the foreign debt now due is 28,417,632 francs. 
 
 in , Haeckel s Frauds and Forgeries,” by In 1918-19 the revenue amounted to $5,115,930- 
 A^smuth and Hull. the expenditure to $2,918,080. From 1 October, 
 
 Haileybury, Diocese oe (HATTFVRTTRr'M'-'ToV ^ dline » 1920, the foreign trade of the re- 
 
 Canada, is suffragan to the gof *m 
 
 y e aiocese, ±tt. Kev. Elie-Amcet stitution dating from 12 June, 1918. The legisla- 
 
 359 
 
HAITI 
 
 360 
 
 HAITI 
 
 tive power is vested in a Chamber of Deputies on 
 the basis of one member for each 60,000 inhabitants, 
 the 42 members being chosen for two years by 
 direct popular vote, and in a Senate of 15 mem¬ 
 bers, chosen for 6 years, also by popular vote. Ihe 
 president is elected for four years by the two 
 Chambers, and receives an annual salary oi $ 2 _ 4 ’ U , UU : 
 Under the protectorate established by the United 
 States in November, 1915, there is an armed con¬ 
 stabulary, both urban and rural (established m 
 1916) which is drawn from the United States Marine 
 
 History (1911—1921).—From the establishment of 
 the Dominican Republic in 1843 to 1914 Haiti was 
 the scene of constant revolutions. Corrupt politics, 
 incompetency and bad faith in public business 
 brought about a deplorable state of affairs. *m a Jly> 
 in 1915 a new revolution occurred in which the 
 government of Davilmar Theodore was overthrown 
 and General Vilbrun Guillaume was elected presi¬ 
 dent. Civil war broke out again in a few months, 
 the president fled to the French Legation, where 
 he was killed, and 150 political prisoners were put 
 to death. The United States intervened, landing 
 the United States Marine Corps to preserve order. 
 In November, 1915, a convention was signed 
 between the United States and. Haiti, and a re¬ 
 ceivership of customs and Haitian resources lor 
 ten years was established under the control of the 
 United States, and a native constabulary under 
 United States officers was formed. 
 
 Ecclesiastical History.— Ecclesiastically the Re¬ 
 public of Haiti is divided into the Archdiocese of 
 Port-au-Prince and the dioceses of Gonaives, Cayes, 
 Cap Ha'itien, and Port-de-Paix. Gonaives is admin¬ 
 istered by Archbishop Conan of Port-au-Prmce; 
 Cayes is administered by Archbishop Pichon, aux¬ 
 iliary of Archbishop Conan; and Port-de-Paix is 
 administered by Bishop Kersuzan of Cap Haitien. 
 The Holy See is represented in Haiti by Mgr. 
 Frederico Fioretti, charge d’affairs since the papal 
 nuncio was transferred to Belgrade in 192(1 
 
 The Church has been the one creative force in 
 Haiti since the signing of the Concordat with 
 Rome in 1860. In a country hampered by poverty, 
 illiteracy, and an unstable administration, the Cath¬ 
 olic Church has striven for education and progress. 
 The clergy and religious have suffered great hard¬ 
 ships due to the system of graft prevalent in the 
 republic, and the extreme poverty of the people. 
 In the years 1906 to 1919 fifteen Christian Brothers 
 died from starvation or its effects, because they had 
 received no salaries and had no. means of sub- 
 gistence. Frequently the destruction of churches 
 and schools by fire has been due to revolutionary 
 incendiarism. In spite of these obstacles great 
 strides have been made. This is evidenced by 
 statistics for Port-au-Prince in 1864, giving 14 
 parishes, 1 annex, and 9 priests, and m 1920 giving 
 28 parishes, 28 priests, and a Catholic population of 
 736 920 Throughout the republic there are now 
 KM)’ parishes and 350 chapels. These chapels have 
 no resident priest, but are served about once every 
 month by the parish priest, or one of his assistants, 
 who spend one to two weeks instructing the people. 
 To about 100 chapels are attached rural schools. 
 Churches are built by an appropriation of the gov¬ 
 ernment, and furnished by the clergy, which last 
 is a difficult task in the face of great poverty. 
 Masses are said at four o’clock and at eight, the 
 former to suit the convenience of the poorer people, 
 and the latter for the higher classes. The clergy 
 are held in great respect by the people. A semi¬ 
 nary established at Petionville for native clergy 
 has been turned to other ecclesiastical uses, as 
 
 there were no students, but Archbishop Conan is 
 now conducting a theological school for nativ es and 
 has educated Haitian priests. _ 0 
 
 Tho minister of education of the Haitian (jrov- 
 ernment estimates illiteracy at 80 per cent, and 
 only 8 per cent of the population of school age 
 attend school. Against this condition the Catholic 
 Church has labored unceasingly. The Christian 
 Brothers opened their first school at Port-au-Prince 
 in 1864; of the 300 boys who applied for admission 
 only 150 could be accommodated. A second school 
 was opened at Jacmel in 1866, in which year the 
 school at Port-au-Prince was burned down. Another 
 school opened in 1867 was also destroyed by fire. 
 The Brothers were obliged to abandon their educa¬ 
 tional work in Haiti until 1871, when a school was 
 again opened at Jacmel. This was followed by 
 foundations at Port-au-Prince and elsewhere, until 
 in 1881 there were 46 Brothers teaching 12 schools 
 with an average attendance of 2700 boys. By 1887 
 they were assisted by 9 native teachers. Meantime 
 the Brothers were suffering untold hardships from 
 lack of food, clothes, and books, and many had 
 died from yellow fever and other causes. But the 
 work of education continued. In 1897 there were 
 98 Brothers teaching 5467 boys. A succession of 
 hardships, such as incendiarism and entire lack of 
 funds, required the closing of many schools from 
 1902 to 1912, when the St. Louis de Gonzague 
 College and chapel were partly wrecked in the 
 blowing up of the National Palace. In 1914, 26 
 Brothers of military age enlisted in the World War. 
 In 1917 there were 57 Brothers, assisted by 23 
 native teachers, conducting 8 Government schools 
 and the St. Louis de Gonzague attended by 3078 
 boys. After the armistice (1918) 6 schools were 
 reopened. According to a convention signed by 
 the Brothers and the Haitian Government in 1921 
 and approved by the financial adviser under the 
 treaty of 1915, the Brothers are now receiving a 
 salary of $50 a month, which will enable them suc¬ 
 cessfully to condnue their work. There are three 
 Catholic colleges in Haiti: Our Lady of Perpetual 
 Help at Cap Haitien; Little Seminary and College, 
 of St. Martial; and St. Louis de Gonzague at Port- 
 au-Prince. There are 12 schools for boys, 11 sup¬ 
 ported by the Government, and the primary de¬ 
 partment of St. Louis de Gonzague for pupils wl^o 
 pay for tuition. These schools are conducted by 
 about 80 Christian Brothers and 31 laymen. The 
 average attendance at the colleges is 1100 to 1200; 
 Christian Brothers schools from 2900 to 3000. 
 
 The Sisters conduct 45 schools. Under the direc¬ 
 tion of the Sisters of St. Joseph of Cluny are 21 
 schools and 3 Government hospitals. The Daugh¬ 
 ters of Wisdom have 23 schools and 5 Government 
 hospitals. The Daughters of Mary conduct 2 
 domestic science schools. The average attendance 
 at the girls intermediate or high schools is 1000 to 
 1100; Sisters’ schools from 4000 to 4100. General 
 ecclesiastical statistics for the Republic of Haiti 
 are: secular clergy 152, priests and Brothers of the 
 Congregation of the Holy Ghost 19, priests and 
 Brothers of the Company of Mary 18, Christian 
 Brothers 73, Sisters of St. Joseph of Cluny 171, 
 Daughters of Wisdom 203, Daughters of Mary 8. 
 
 An event of recent interest was the testimony 
 of Fr. Louis Marie Le Sidaner, rector of Thoma- 
 zeau, before the hearings of the Senate Committee 
 2 December, 1921. He testified against the occupa¬ 
 tion of Haiti, and cited numerous incidents of 
 importance. The temporary chaplain of the U. S. 
 Navy and Marine Corps in Haiti (of whom one- 
 third are Catholic) is Fr. Marcas, C. S.Sp. General 
 religious statistics give: Episcopalians 2500, Wes- 
 
HAJDU-DOROGH 
 
 361 
 
 HAMBURG 
 
 ley a ns 2o00, Baptists 2000, Methodists 1500, Seventh 
 Day Adventists 300. 
 
 Hajdu-Dorogh, Diocese of (Hajdu-Doroghensis; 
 cf. C. E., XV I-35d), Greek Rite, suffragan of 
 Esztergom, Hungary. The episcopal see is at 
 Hajdu-Dorogh, but the residence is at Debreczin; 
 the liturgical language is ancient Greek. The first 
 and present bishop is Rt. Rev. Stephen Miklossy, 
 b. at Rakoez, 22 August, 1857, ordained 1884, pastor 
 of Satoraljanjhely, diocese of Munkacs, dean of 
 the countslnp of Zenplen, elected bishop 23 June, 
 
 1913, and consecrated the following October. In 
 
 1914, an assault having been made upon the bishop 
 he transferred his residence to Nyiregyhaza. In 1913 
 there were m the diocese 73,225 Catholics, of whom 
 14,220 were Rumanians. 
 
 Diocese of (Hacodatensis; cf. C. E., 
 'r rn i • a ' > ^ ^ a P an » suffragan to the Archdiocese 
 of Tokio. On 12 February, 1915, this diocese ceded 
 part of its territory to the Prefecture Apostolic of 
 Sapporo and part to the Prefecture Apostolic of 
 Nygata. It now (1921) comprises 1 province and 
 4 departments; Oshima, of which province Hako¬ 
 date is the capital, Aomori, Iwate, Niyugi, and 
 Iukushima, and extends from 37° to 42° north lati¬ 
 tude, and from 139 to 142° east longitude The 
 total population numbers 4,500,000, all Japanese 
 with the exception of a few families of Russian 
 refugees and a, few foreign business representatives 
 • u® j. no abon g ines > who were originally found 
 in this diocese, belonged to the territory which is 
 now a part of the Prefecture of Sapporo The 
 present incumbent and first bishop of Hakodate, 
 Rt. Rev. Alexander Berlioz, member of the Society 
 of foreign Missions, to whose care this diocese is 
 entrusted, was born in the Diocese of Chambery 
 France, 1852, ordained 1875, went as a missionarv 
 to Japan, 18/9, appointed titular Bishop of Calinda 
 and Vicar Apostolic of Hakodate 24 April 1891 
 and made bishop of Hakodate 15 June following’ 
 consecrated at Tokio, 25 July, 1891. 
 
 The two principal events of the diocese during 
 recent years have been the return of the mis¬ 
 sionaries who were mobilized during the World 
 V\ ar, and the visit of the papal delegate, Mgr. 
 humasom-Biondi, in August, 1920. This event hap- 
 pily coincided wfith the celebration of the tercentary 
 .of the sending of Hasekura Tsunenega in 1620 
 as envoy from the Japanese court to the courts 
 oi Spain and the Vatican, where he was baptized, 
 the papal delegate was invited by the civil authori- 
 to participate in this celebration, which was 
 religious as well as patriotic, since the seventeenth- 
 century hero thus honored was called upon to pub¬ 
 licly defend the Faith, and his son died for it 
 A most prominent member of this mission, and 
 a noted botanist as well, Rt. Rev. Urbain Faurie 
 (q.v.), d. in the Island of Formosa, 4 July, 1915. He 
 was one of the pioneers in the study of Japanese 
 plant life and was held in high esteem by the 
 personnel of the Botanical Garden of Tokio, as well 
 as in other countries to which he sent specimens 
 the religious communities established in this dio- 
 cese, in addition to the members of the Society 
 of the Foreign Missions, are: the Trappists with 54 
 rehgious, Trappistines with 60 religious, the Sisters 
 of St. Raul of the Cross with 18 religious, and the 
 Cistercians with 60 religious; all of these orders 
 have a number of native members. By present 
 statistics the Catholics of the diocese number 2718 
 showing a slight diminution since 1919, owing mostly 
 to emigration caused by the poverty in this terri¬ 
 tory. There are 17 parishes, 17 distinctly Chris¬ 
 
 tian districts, but in general the Christians are 
 scattered, 20 churches and chapels, 17 of which 
 are blessed, 1 preparatory seminary, 2 seminarians, 
 21 European and 3 native priests. The State re¬ 
 serves all jurisdiction over primary schools, and 
 obliges all other schools to teach the classics, but 
 the universities are allowed comparative liberty. 
 How e\ er, there is 1 Catholic school for boys w’hich 
 is tolerated because of the almost deserted region 
 m which it is located, and in this there are 12 
 pupils. There are three schools for girls under 
 the Sisters of St. Paul of the Cross, which follow 
 the official program and which are practically self- 
 supporting; 1 of these schools is situated at Hako¬ 
 date with 162 pupils, 1 at Morioka with 230 pupils 
 1 at Sendai with 220 pupils. Various charitable 
 institutions include, 1 orphanage under the Trappist 
 Fathers with 14 children, 1 under the Trappistines 
 with 3o children, 3 dispensaries conducted by the 
 F*atil of the Cross which cared for 
 46,224 cases in 1921, and two farms. During the 
 past year (1921—22) there were in this diocese 116 
 baptisms of pagans, 78 of whom were at the point 
 of death, 146 baptisms of infants at the point of 
 death 67 Christian children, 1128 first confessions 
 and 1111 first communions. 
 
 Halicz, Archdiocese of. See Lwow. 
 
 Halifax, Archwocese of (Halifaxiensis; cf. C. 
 E., yll-117c), comprises the peninsula of Nova 
 Scotia, with the exception of three counties, and 
 the Bermuda Islands. There are 300,000 inhabi¬ 
 tants, 55,000 Catholics, 74 secular priests, 26 regu¬ 
 lars, 32 seminarians, 37 parishes, 86 churches, 10 
 chapels, 2 congregations of men and 4 of women 
 300 religious, and 4000 children in the Catholic 
 schools The present archbishop is Most Rev. 
 Edward J. McCarthy, consecrated 1906. On 15 
 December, 1920, was celebrated the centenary of 
 the diocese; the actual date of erection was 1842, 
 but the Acadian territory was separated from 
 Quebec in 1817, and the first vicar apostolic, Mgr. 
 Burke, was consecrated in 1818. 
 
 Hamburg ( c f. C. E., VII-121b).-A city in the 
 former empire of Germany and now called the 
 Free City of Hamburg in the Republic of Hamburg. 
 According to the census of 1919 there were 1,064,000 
 inhabitants in the state and 999,000 in the city. 
 In 1910 there were 51,200 Catholics and 19,500 Jews 
 m the state. The state of Hamburg consists of 
 the Hanseatic Free City itself and 4 Landherren- 
 schaften: 1 Landherrenschaft der Geestlande, 2 
 Landherrenschaft der Marschlande, 3 Landherren- 
 schaft Bergedorf, 4 Landherrenschaft Ritzelbuttel. 
 I he Protestant population is divided into 5 church 
 districts with 33 parish churches, 6 chapels and about 
 100 clergymen. The Catholics in the Vicariate 
 Apostolic number 50,000. There are 8 Catholic 
 parishes, the oldest of which is St. Ansgar, which 
 dates from the seventeenth century and is generally 
 known as Little St. Michael’s. Next comes St 
 Boniface’s Church, dating from 1910. About 25 
 priests are engaged in caring for the needs of these 
 cniirclies. Until 1920 the State refused to support 
 the Catholic schools. According to the new consti¬ 
 tution the state is compelled to contribute to their 
 maintenance, which it does in a considerable meas¬ 
 ure, the deficiency being made up by the Catholics 
 of the vicariate. 
 
 There are altogether 173 elementary or public 
 schools ( V olkschulen ), and of these 11 are Catholic 
 parochial schools. The secondary schools include 
 I Catholic high school for boys, 1 Hohere Schule 
 (9 year curriculum, mainly classics, for boys); 1 
 
HAMILTON 
 
 362 
 
 HARRISBURG 
 
 Realschule (Latin, science, and modern ianguages) 
 
 1 Progymnasium (6 year classical course). Among 
 the 50 girls’ high schools one is Catholic, and is 
 conducted by the Ursuline Sisters. A Catholic 
 lyceum has been opened at Holzdamm. Hambu g 
 belongs to the Vicariate Apostolic of the Northern 
 Missions under the Bishop of Osnabruck (q.v.). 
 
 Hamilton, Diocese of (Hamiltonensxs; cLC. E., 
 VII-123a), in Ontario, suffragan to the Archdiocese 
 of Toronto, is under the administration of its fourt 
 bishon Rt. Rev. Thomas Joseph Dowling, D.D. 
 Bishop Dowling has filled the see since 1889, having 
 been transferred from Peterborough, where he was 
 consecrated in 1887. On account of >s great num¬ 
 ber of years in the episcopate he is Dean. ol the 
 Canadian bishops, and on the occasion of the gol¬ 
 den jubilee of his priesthood m 1914 he was made 
 an assistant at the Pontifical Throne. 
 
 During the World War the scarcity of priests in 
 the diocese was so great that a number had to be 
 borrowed from London. Only one of the euhsted 
 priests, however, was sent overseas, but the Oatr o- 
 lics of the diocese went far beyond their percentage 
 in enlistments, the number from the Cathedral 
 parish alone being 676 before conscription went into 
 effect, and all the other parishes show similar 
 
 1 C On9May, 1918, the diocese lost its vicar general 
 by the death of Rt. Rev. Mgr John M. Maho¬ 
 ney D.C.L., and domestic prelate. He was one 
 of Ontario’s most distinguished priests and a well 
 known authority on school law as well as a public 
 spirited citizen, active in charitable and patriotic 
 
 W The present statistics of the diocese (1921) show 
 50 parishes, 93 churches, 43 missions with 10 sta¬ 
 tions, 1 convent of Christian Brothers, 12 convents 
 for women, 56 secular and 20 regular clergy 200 
 nuns, 21 seminarians, 1 college for men with 15 
 teachers and attendance of 250, 1 high school 'with 
 10 teachers and attendance of 250 (110 boys and 140 
 girls) 2 academies with 18 teachers and attendance 
 of 300 50 elementary schools wfith 700 teachers and 
 attendance of 8000. The various charitable institu¬ 
 tions of the diocese are: 1 Infants Home at Ham¬ 
 ilton, 1 orphanage at Hamilton and 1 at fet. Agatha, 
 1 hospital at Hamilton and 1 at Guelph, 1 refuge 
 home at Dundas, 1 at St. Agatha, and 1 at Guelph. 
 All the public institutions admit the priests ol the 
 diocese to minister in them and a government grant 
 is made to the Catholic hospitals, homes and or¬ 
 phanages. Among the clergy the Priests Eucha¬ 
 ristic League is organized, and among the laity the 
 Holy Name Society and the Catholic Womens 
 League. The “Catholic Magazine” is published 
 monthly in the diocese. 
 
 have been published widely in America, as serials 
 in secular weeklies, and are representative of Hans- 
 iacob’s style and his charmingly original method 
 in the village story. The Dorjgeschichte - was per¬ 
 haps, first introduced by Jeremias Gotthelf and 
 Alexander Weill, and later made popular by the 
 great success of Berthold Auerbachs Schwarz- 
 waelder Dorfgeschichte” (1843) and now has its 
 most original representative m Heinrich Hansjacob, 
 whose striking and entertaining character sketches 
 of Das Volk, in which he excels, are always from 
 life and in their real names and locations, these 
 sketches are so remarkable in the simple straight¬ 
 forward, good humored manner of the people he 
 describes, and are so reliable, that they have ger ^ed 
 as sources of information to students of the 
 sociology and political economy of the romantic 
 Schwarzwald. Hansjacob follows no school of writ¬ 
 ing and recognizes no principles of narration. He 
 will have none of the “gray theory” of books of 
 rhetoric, but insists that he will follow only life 
 and custom as he finds them among the people. 
 His point of view is consistently idealistic, but m 
 his treatment, which is so personal as to be almost 
 universally biographical, he is an unerring realist. 
 The restraint and dignity of his language, and his 
 chaste and unembellished sentences, are suggestive 
 of the classics. Hansjacob represents, as perhaps 
 no other living writer, the very soul of the people 
 
 of the German highlands. . , _ , T . 
 
 A. Geiger, Das Badner Land in Das Literansche Echo, 1, co . 
 871 ff.; Roedder, Introduction (in English) to Schwarzwaldeut 
 (New York, 1913); Bischoff , Heinrich Hansjacob, derSchwarz- 
 wadder Dorfdichter, Eine literansche Studie (Stuttgart), 
 Hansjacob, Der Theodor, Einleitung von Heinrich Bischoff, 
 with portrait of author (Leipsig, 1918). 
 
 Vincent Henry Huck. 
 
 Harbor Grace, Diocese of (Portus Gratis; cf. 
 C. E., VII-133c), suffragan of St. John’s, New¬ 
 foundland, comprises the northeast portion of the 
 Island of Newfoundland, and Labrador. The Indian 
 missions in the interior of Labrador are attended 
 from Harbor Grace. There are 23 secular priests 
 in the diocese, 40 churches, 94 stations, 5 convents 
 (3 of the Sisters of the Presentation and 2 of the 
 Sisters of Mercy), 2 academies, and a total of 115 
 schools with 129 teachers. The Catholic population 
 is 24,000, and the Protestant population is 74,000. 
 The present bishop is Rt. Rev. John March, con¬ 
 secrated 1906. 
 
 Hansjacob, Heinrich, writer of Black Forest 
 village stories ( Schwarzwaelder Dorfdichter), b. at 
 Haslach, Baden, 19 August, 1836; ordained priest 
 at twenty-six; for fifteen years pastor at Hagnau, 
 a small village' on the Bodensee; transferred to 
 Freiburg, 1884, where he has since remained as 
 Stadtpjarref in charge of Saint Martins. Eiom 
 1871 to 1881, Hansjacob was a member ol the 
 Landtag of the Grand Duchy of Baden, and twice, 
 in 1870 and in 1873, suffered imprisonment because 
 of his staunch defense of liberty during the Baden 
 Kulturkamp. His writings comprise over thirty 
 volumes, mostly narratives and memoirs, with 
 travels and two historical novels.'The most .pop¬ 
 lar are “Ausmeiner Jugendzeit” (Heidelberg, 1880), 
 “Wilde Kirschen” (1888); “Schneeballen (31vol., 
 1892-93), and “Waldleute” (Stuttgart, 1897). These 
 
 Harrisburg, Diocese of (Harisburgensis; cf. C. 
 E. VII-143a), ceded three of its original counties, 
 Fulton, Center, and Clinton, to the Diocese of 
 Altoona, which was formed in 1901. It now com¬ 
 prises 15 counties with an area of 7565 sq. miles, 
 and where it originally contained 25,000 Catholics 
 with 22 priests and 40 churches, it now contains a 
 Catholic population of 80,252, comprising English- 
 speaking people, German, Croatian, Polish, Slovak, 
 Magyar, Lithuanian, and Italian. 
 
 After seventeen years m the See ol Harrisburg, 
 the Rt. Rev. John Walter Shanahan, third bishop 
 of the diocese, died on 19 February, 1916. At the 
 time of his death the number of parishes had in¬ 
 creased to 74 and 120 priests were administering 
 to approximately 80,000 Catholics. Bishop Shana¬ 
 han was succeeded by the Rt. Rev. Philip R. 
 McDevitt, consecrated 21 September, 1916. He was 
 born in Philadelphia on 12 July, 1858, and was 
 superintendent of the parish schools of that diocese 
 from 1899 to 1916. On 30 January, 1917, occurred 
 the death of Rt. Rev. Mgr. John Jos. Koch, D.D., 
 vicar general of the diocese, pastor of St. Edward s 
 Church, Shamokin, and for fifty-three years a pio¬ 
 neer missionary in Central Pennsylvania. Born in 
 
HARTFORD 
 
 363 
 
 HARTMANN 
 
 the province of Lorraine, France, on 5 February, 
 1840, he came to America early in 1862, after com¬ 
 pleting his preparatory studies in the college of 
 Pont-a-Mousson and the Grand Seminaire of Nancy. 
 He received minor orders from Mgr. Darboy, after¬ 
 wards Archbishop of Paris, and later assassinated 
 in the time of the Commune, and after completing 
 his studies at St. Charles Borromeo Seminary, 
 Philadelphia, was ordained to the priesthood bv 
 Bishop Wood 27 February, 1863. 
 
 On 29 September, 1918, the golden jubilee of the 
 diocese was celebrated, and a memorial to Bishop 
 Shanahan erected in the cathedral was unveiled by 
 the Most Rev. John Bonzano, D. D., Apostolic 
 Delegate. During the World War the diocese gave 
 four chaplains and two auxiliary chaplains to the 
 service, and the laity responded promptly to all 
 patriotic calls. 
 
 Religious in the diocese of Harrisburg include: 
 Men: Franciscans, Minor Conventuals, Fathers of 
 the Holy Ghost, Redemptorists, Irish Capuchins, 
 and Friars Minor; Orders of women: Sisters of 
 Mercy, Sisters Servants of the Immaculate Heart 
 of Mary, Sisters of St. Joseph, of the Holy Cross, 
 of Charity (of Mt. St. Aincent), of Christian 
 Charity, of Third Order of St. Francis, of St. Fran¬ 
 cis, O.M.C., Felician Sisters, O.S. F., of Sts. Cyril 
 and Methodius, of St. Casimir, and Sisters Adorers 
 of the Most Precious Blood. Priests number 103 
 secular and 20 regular' ecclesiastical students 37; 
 churches with resident priests 75; missions 18; 
 parish schools 48 with 12,450 pupils; orphan asylums 
 3 with 297 inmates; hospital 1; academies 3 with 
 243 pupils, 2 high schools with 8 teachers and 
 attendance of 144 (51 boys, 93 girls), 2 training 
 schools with 11 teachers and attendance of 43. All 
 public institutions admit Catholic priests. Among 
 the Clerical Purgatorial Association and 
 the Priests’ Eucharistic League are organized, and 
 among the laity the K. of C., A. O. H., K. of St. 
 George, Blessed Virgin’s Sodality, Holy Name 
 Society, St. Vincent de Paul, and Altar Guilds 
 
 Hartford, Diocese of (Hartfordiensis; cf. C. E., 
 ^I~144a).—John J. Nilan, the seventh and present 
 Bishop of Hartford, was born at Newburyport., 
 1 August, 1855. lie received his early education 
 in the elementary and high schools of his native 
 town, made his classical studies at Nicolet, Canada, 
 and his course of philosophy and theology at St. 
 Joseph’s Seminary, Troy, New York, where' he was 
 ordained 21 December, 1878. He exercised the 
 sacred ministry in several parishes of the Arch¬ 
 diocese of Boston, where his zeal and efficiency won 
 m a P rom °ti ori to the permanent rectorship 
 of St. Joseph’s Church in Amesbury. It was during 
 his pastorate in Amesbury that he was chosen to 
 fill the vacancy in the see of Hartford. He was 
 consecrated in the cathedral at Hartford on 28 
 April, 1910, the diocese having been vacant since 
 the death of Bishop Tierney (5 October, 1908). 
 
 From the very outset of his episcopal career he 
 ^ idence of that zeal and energy which always 
 characterized his work in the sacred ministry. 
 Lnder his leadership and direction the diocese has 
 been enriched by 1 large infant asylum, 2 academies 
 for young ladies, 40 parishes, 17 parochial schools, 
 and splendidly equipped additions to 4 hospitals. 
 He established a Diocesan Bureau of Social Sendee, 
 with headquarters in Hartford and branches in 
 several of the large industrial centers, and he has 
 infused new life and vigor into the Holy Name 
 and St. Vincent de Paul Societies. He applied for 
 an auxiliary in 1919 and received Rt. Rev. John 
 Gregory Murray, D.D., titular Bishop of Flavias, 
 
 who had been his chancellor for nine years. Bishop 
 
 H^ ay ^ W ol b T? r i n at Waterbury in the diocese of 
 Haitford, 26 February, 1877, student at Louvain, 
 
 '™ re , h w , was ° r( ^ ined , 14 April, 1900, and was 
 3 ected bishop 18 December, 1919, and consecrated 
 at Hartford by Mgr. Bonzano 28 April, 1920. 
 
 Present Condition of the Diocese.— Within the 
 limits of the State of Connecticut there are at 
 present _ 545,147 Catholics, while the non-Catholic 
 population is 859,924 (1921). They are ministered 
 to by 450 priests. The number of parishes in the 
 diocese is 211; of these 157 are English-speaking 
 churches, 13 French, 6 German, 2 Hungarian, 10 
 Italian, 6 Lithuanian, 1 Maronite, 19 Polish, 4 
 olovak, 1 Slovenian. There are also missions for 
 the Syrians and Chaldeans. There is a preparatory 
 seminary with 163 students, while 150 students are 
 making their course of philosophy and theology in 
 Canada, Europe, and the United States. The reli¬ 
 gious orders of men are represented by the Domin- 
 lca ?_ Friars at New Haven, Franciscan Friars Minor 
 at Winsted, Franciscan Conventuals at Bridgeport, 
 Jesuits at South Norwalk, Missionaries of La Salette 
 at Hartford and Danielson, Fathers of the Congre¬ 
 gation of St. Charles Borromeo at New Haven, 
 Vmcentian Fathers at Derby and New Haven, and 
 me Fathers of the Holy Ghost at Darien and 
 Ridgefield. There are two seminaries of religious 
 orders with 54 students. 
 
 There are 1680 religious women in the diocese, 
 representing 24 communities. The Sisters of Mercy 
 (721 in community) conduct 2 academies, 37 
 parochial schools, 1 infant asylum, 1 orphan asylum, 
 and 1 home for the aged. They care for arid in¬ 
 struct 22,900 persons. The Sisters of Charity of 
 Our Lady Mother of Mercy (105 in community) 
 conduct 1 hospital, 1 academy, and 4 parochial 
 schools. The total number of people under their 
 care is 2954. The Sisters of Charity of Emmitts- 
 burg (46 in community) have the care of 1 hos¬ 
 pital, 1 day nursery, and 3 parochial schools; they 
 care for 2010 persons. The Sisters of St. Joseph 
 (243 m community) have charge of 2 hospitals, 1 
 academy, 1 school for boys, and 8 parochial schools; 
 they are responsible for the care of 3700 persons. 
 The Sisters of the Congregation de Notre Dame 
 have 1 academy in which they train 200 pupils. 
 
 1 he Sisters of St. Dominic conduct 1 academy and 
 1 parochial school, having under their charge 333 
 pupils. The Little Sisters of the Poor maintain 
 1 home for the aged poor, which has accommoda¬ 
 tion for 168 inmates. The Sisters of the Holy 
 Ghost (168 in community) conduct 2 homes for 
 working girls and 8 parochial schools. They also 
 care for the sick poor in their homes. They are 
 responsible for the care of about 4000 people. The 
 Daughters of St. Vincent de Paul conduct 1 hos¬ 
 pital and 1 day nursery. The Sisters of the Good 
 Shepherd have charge of 1 house of correction for 
 wayward girls. The Missionary Apostolic Zelatrices 
 Sisters of the Sacred Heart conduct 1 orphanage 
 and 2 day^ nurseries, in which they care for and 
 instruct 265 children. Other religious communities 
 which furnish teaching staffs for parochial schools 
 in the diocese are: the Felician Sisters of St. 
 Francis, Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius, Sisters 
 of Divine Charity, Sisters of the Holy Family of 
 Nazareth, Sisters of the Holy Cross ‘ and of'the 
 Seven Dolors, Sisters of the Assumption, Schools 
 Sisters of Notre Dame, Polish Sisters of St. Joseph, 
 Sisters of the Resurrection, and Sisters of St. 
 Francis. 
 
 Hartmann, Felix von, Cardinal, b. in Westphalia 
 15 December ; d. at Cologne on 11 November, 1919; 
 he was ordained priest in 1874, and then became 
 
HAURAN 
 
 HEALY 
 
 364 
 
 chaplain of Santa Maria dell’Anima in Rome In 
 1880 lie was Vicar at Havizbech and then private 
 secretary of Mgr. Dingelstadt at Emmerich and 
 subsequently Vicar General, Dean and Prothonotary 
 in 1907, and consecrated Bishop of Munster 6 June, 
 1911. In 1913 he succeeded Cardinal Fischer m the 
 see of Cologne, receiving the Grand Cross of Ma 
 in 1914. He was a member of the Prussian House 
 
 of Lords in 1916, and was created Cardinal Priest 
 
 25 May, 1914, with the title of St. John at the 
 Latin Gate. He died on the first anniversary of 
 the signing of the armistice. 
 
 Hauran, Archdiocese of. See Bostra and 
 Hauran. 
 
 Havana (San Cristobal de la Habana), Diocese 
 of (Avanensis; cf. C. E., VII-153c), suffragan of 
 Santiago de Cuba, comprises the provinces of^ La 
 Habana and Matanzas, with an area of 2818 square 
 miles. The Catholic population is 500,000 and 
 there are: 100 secular priests, 80 regulars, 8 col¬ 
 leges for boys with 1730 pupils; 14 boarding schools 
 for young girls with 2200 pupils; 5 asylums, includ¬ 
 ing‘l home for old people; 1 hospital; 2 houses of 
 the Good Shepherd; 60 schools for catechumens, 
 
 57 parishes; and 55 churches and chapels, i 
 present bishop is Rt. Rev Pedro Gonzales y 
 Estrada, born in Havana, 1865, appointed 16 Sep¬ 
 tember, 1903, and consecrated 28 October following. 
 
 Hawaii, Vicariate Apostolic of (cf. C. E., 
 XIII-438a), formerly known as Sandwich Islands 
 (Sandwigiensis in Oceania), comprises the Ha¬ 
 waiian Islands which now belong to the United 
 States. According to the last census the entire 
 population numbered approximately 256,912, com¬ 
 prising native Hawaiians, Portuguese, Spamaids, 
 Porto Ricans, Filipinos, Chinese, Koreans Japanese, 
 Caucasians. About 50 per < cent of the native 
 Hawaiians are Catholic and in all there are from 
 70 000 to 75,000 Catholics in the vicariate. _ 
 
 At the present time (1921) the vicariate is under 
 the administration of Rt. Rev. Libert Hubert 
 Boeynaems, consecrated 25 July, 1903. The Church 
 is constantly gaining ground in this territory, bu 
 the many different tongues spoken on the islands 
 is one of the greatest handicaps. On 20 November, 
 1921, word was received that the pope had approved 
 the transfer of the Hawaiian Islands by the Con¬ 
 gregation of the Propaganda to the jurisdiction of 
 the Apostolic Delegation at Washington. ihe 
 islands were formerly under the jurisdiction of 
 the Apostolic Delegation of Australia, Since 1912 
 the vicariate has lost many zealous workers fromthe 
 ranks of the clergy. Among these _ was Rev. 
 Wendelin Moeller, of the Congregation ot the 
 Sacred Hearts, successor to Father Damien m the 
 Leper Settlement, born in Germany 21 March, 
 1850, ordained in Paris 26 May, 1877, transferred 
 to Hawaiian Islands 1884, died 1 Septembei, 1914. 
 During the World War many of the citizens were 
 drafted and one of the priests of the territory 
 served as their chaplain, but none of these men 
 were sent overseas. However, numbers of the men 
 volunteered, and of these many gave up their lives. 
 
 In all there are 30 churches and about 95 chapels 
 and missions, attended by 39 Fathers of the Sacred 
 Hearts and 1 priest of the Society of Mary. W orks 
 of education and charity are conducted by the 
 Brothers of Mary (from Dayton, Ohio) numbering 
 58, Franciscan Sisters (from Syracuse, N. Y.) num¬ 
 bering about 24, and 7 Brothers of the Sacred 
 
 JJ ear tS 
 
 Very marked progress has been made in educa¬ 
 tion in recent years, and now St. Louis College 
 in Honolulu, under the Brothers of Mary, has an 
 
 enrollment of 1015 boys, their school m Hilo 
 (Island of Hawaii) has 319 boys, and in Wailuku 
 (Island of Maui) 359 boys; under the Sisters of 
 the Sacred Hearts there are, in Honolulu a tree 
 school for the poor and a select school and board¬ 
 ing department with 552 girls; in Kaimuki an 
 academy with 250 girls; under the Franciscan Sis¬ 
 ters a school for girls in Hilo with 325 children. 
 Among the charitable institutions there ai e. 2 
 orphanages, the Kapiolani Home for non-leprous 
 girls the Bishop Home in Molokai for leprous girls 
 and women, and the Baldwin Home for boys and 
 men on the same island, the Father Louis Home 
 for boys in Hilo, and the Malulam Hospital 
 (County Hospital). In addition to these institu¬ 
 tions there is a colony in Honolulu of 55 girls, bom 
 of leper parents but not themselves afflicted, under 
 the care of the Franciscan Sisters, and m Hilo 
 Rev. Father Aloys has gathered together some 53 
 orphan or suffering boys. All the public institutions 
 admit the priests and they are permitted to give 
 religious instruction to the Catholic children mthe 
 public schools after classes are dismissed. ihe 
 government gives financial support to the leper 
 homes and the home for children of leper parents. 
 
 The Apostleship of Prayer, Confraternities of the 
 Holy Rosary and Holy Scapular Sodality of the 
 Blessed Virgin, Propagation of the Faith, Society 
 of the Holv Childhood, Third Order of St. Francis, 
 Columbus 'Welfare Club, Ytmng Men’s and Young 
 Ladies’ Institutes, Holy Name Society and Catholic 
 Ladies Society are established in the islands. 
 
 Healing Associations. See Christian Science; 
 New Thought. 
 
 Healy, John, Archbishop of Tuam, historian, b. 
 at Ballinafad, Sligo, Ireland, on 14 November, 1841; 
 d. at Tuam on 16 March, 1918. He entered the 
 diocesan college at Summerhill, Athlone in 1860, 
 and proceeding thence to Maynooth for philosophy 
 and theologjq was ordained in 1867. He next taught 
 for two years at Summerhill, and then spent seven 
 years in pastoral work. In 1879 he qualified for 
 the chair of classics and the chair of theology at 
 Maynooth College; selecting the latter he lectured 
 there till 1883, when he was appointed prefect ot 
 the Dunboyne Establishment. The following years 
 he was made titular Bishop of Macra and coadjutor 
 to Dr Duggan of Clonfert, whom he succeeded in. 
 1896- and in 1903 he was transferred to Tuam. 
 Archbishop Healy, who was only less interested m 
 the temporal than in the spiritual welfare of e 
 Irish people, was an able administrator. He was 
 a member of the commission that reported to 
 Parliament on the Irish University question, and 
 it was largely due to him in conjunction with Arch¬ 
 bishop Walsh that a solution of that problem, satis¬ 
 factory to Catholics, was reached. # He was also a 
 member of the Senate of the National Univeisity 
 of Ireland, a Governor of University College, Cal- 
 way, vice-president of the Society of Antiquaries 
 of Ireland, a member of the Irish Board of Agricul¬ 
 ture and of the Royal Irish Academy. Brought in 
 touch with nature in its wild and varied moods m 
 Connaught, his natural gift of oratory rendered him 
 a charming extempore speaker, while some of his 
 studied addresses, like his speech on the occasion 
 of. Edmund Burke’s centenary and his address at 
 the Eucharistic Congress in London were brilliant. 
 
 From his boyhood Archbishop _ Healy had an 
 enthusiastic devotion for St. Patrick, and to this 
 love we owe his excellent “Life and Writings of 
 St. Patrick,” and the revival of the ancient pil¬ 
 grimage to the summit of Croaghpatiick, ov erlook¬ 
 ing the Atlantic, where St. Patrick prayed and 
 
HEART OF MARY 
 
 365 
 
 HEART OF MARY 
 
 fasted forty days and nights (cf. C. E., 509-10). In 
 addition he is the author of “Ireland’s Ancient 
 Schools and Scholars,” a work which has enjoyed 
 great popularity; “A Record of the Maynooth Cen¬ 
 tenary Celebrations,” and a volume of “Papers and 
 Addresses.” His “Irish Essays, Literary and His¬ 
 torical,” contain invaluable information about Ire¬ 
 land’s ruined monasteries and shrines. Though he 
 was conservative in his politics, as in his theology, 
 one of his poems, “Red Hugh’s Address to his 
 Soldiers before the Battle of the Curlew Moun¬ 
 tains,” is so full of patriotic fervor that the chil¬ 
 drens reader in which it was printed was banned 
 from the National Schools by the authorities. Arch¬ 
 bishop Healy, as the founder and president of the 
 Catholic Truth Society of Ireland, did excellent 
 work in helping to popularize good healthy litera¬ 
 ture in his country. 
 
 Heart of Mary, Congregations of the— 
 
 Congregation of the Immaculate Heart of Mary 
 (Congregation of Scheutveld; cf. C. E., VII-167c). 
 
 The Constitutions of the Congregation, approved 
 ad experimentum in 1888, were definitively approved 
 by papal decree, 20 July, 1900. The Congregation 
 came under the jurisdiction of the Sacred Congre- 
 gation of Propaganda, 18 March, 1921. Yen. 
 Theophile Verbiest, founder of the order, was suc¬ 
 ceeded by Mgr. Vranckx, who remained at the head 
 of the Congregation until 1888. The general supe¬ 
 riors since 1888 are: Van Aertselaer (1888-98); Van 
 Hecke (1898-1908); Albert Botty (1908-09); Florent 
 Mortier (1909-20); Joseph Rutten (1920- ). The 
 Congregation now numbers 680 members. There 
 are 171 Fathers in the Vicariates Apostolic of Cen¬ 
 tral, Eastern, and Southwestern Mongolia and in 
 the \icariate Apostolic of Northern Kansu and the 
 Prefecture Apostolic of Southern Kansu, China. 
 They are assisted by 46 native priests and in charge 
 of 122,904 Catholics and 44,201 catechumens, 469 
 churches and chapels, and 733 elementary schools 
 with 18,297 children. The three Vicariates Apos¬ 
 tolic of Mongolia have each a seminary with a 
 total of 195 seminarians. There are 5 normal schools 
 with 202 aspirant-teachers, and 10 colleges and 
 boarding schools with 373 pupils. 
 
 . In Africa, in Belgian Congo, the Congregation is 
 m charge of the three Vicariates Apostolic of Leo¬ 
 poldville, New Antwerp, and Kassai, where 114 
 priests and 47 lay brothers attend 157,716 Catholics 
 and 155,372 catechumens. There are 270 schools 
 with 7,381 children and 39 churches and chapels. 
 At the hospital in Kangu 250 sick people are at¬ 
 tended daily, and 33 lazarets are established, espe¬ 
 cially for those afflicted with the sleeping sickness. 
 In 1907 the first band of Scheut Fathers landed 
 in Manila, Philippine Islands. They were on their 
 way to the Mountain Province, to start the evan¬ 
 gelization of the pagan tribes. They now number 
 45 priests and 7 lay brothers in charge of about 
 10,000 Christians and 500 catechumens from the 
 hill tribes, and also of about 92,000 Catholics con¬ 
 verted by the Spanish Friars and living in the 
 lowlands in some parishes around Manila and in 
 the Dioceses of Nueva Segovia and Tuguegarao in 
 Northern Luzon. They have 75 churches and 
 chapels and 56 schools with an attendance of 7,654 
 pupils. At the end of 1919 the Congregation sent 
 a missionary to the Indians on the Mississippi; two 
 Fathers are established at Philadelphia, in the 
 Diocese of Natchez, Miss.; and a procurator of 
 the Congregation is living in New York City. 
 
 During the war many Fathers and students took 
 refuge in England, and devoted themselves to the 
 spiritual care of the numerous Belgian refugees. 
 
 At the invitation of the Cardinal Archbishop of 
 u estminster three Fathers have remained in Eng- 
 land and do some parish work among the Belgians 
 of London. In recent years the Congregation lost 
 two of its distinguished members: Rt. Rev. Bishop 
 Bermyn (d. 1915), Vicar Apostolic of Southwest 
 Mongolia and immediate successor of the martyred 
 Bishop Hamer; and Rev. Albert Botty (d. 1919) 
 former superior general. The organ of the Congre¬ 
 gation is edited in Flemish (“Missien van Scheut”) 
 and in French (“Missions de Scheut”). 
 
 Daughters of the Immaculate Heart of Mary 
 (cf. C. E., VII-167b).—This association is resident 
 in six or seven small communities at Peunes, 
 France. 
 
 Daughters of the Most Holy and Immaculate 
 Heart of Mary (cf. C. E., VII-167b).—Founded 2 
 July, 1848, at Olot in the Diocese of Gerona, Spain, 
 by Very Rev. Joaquin Mosmitja y Puig, for the 
 Christian education of young girls, and approved 
 by the Holy See in 1849. The community pros¬ 
 pered and houses were established in the Diocese 
 of Gerona. In 1870 Rt. Rev. Thaddeus 
 Amat, C. M., D.D., Bishop of Monterey and Los 
 Angeles, in quest of a teaching sisterhood for his 
 diocese, visited Gerona and appealed to the vener¬ 
 able founder of the Sisters of the Immaculate 
 Heart. In the summer of the following year a 
 party of ten Sisters left Spain, and in August of 
 that same year began their work in California 
 at Gilroy, the northernmost parish of Monterey 
 and Los Angeles. The congregation achieved great 
 success in the educational field and now numbers 
 about 125 members in California, conducting the 
 Immaculate Heart College in Hollywood, to which 
 the mother-house is attached, two academies, one 
 at San Luis Obispo and the other at San Ber¬ 
 nardino, the cathedral high school and seven 
 parochial grammar schools in Los Angeles and 
 vicinity, the total enrollment in all being about 
 5,000. 
 
 Handmaids of the Most Pure Heart of Mary, 
 a congregation of colored Sisters founded by Fr. 
 Ignatius Lissner in 1916. In September of that 
 year Fr. Lissner gathered together a few pious 
 young women, gave them a little house next to St. 
 Benedict’s School in Savannah, and instructed and 
 directed them in the missionary work intended for 
 them. Three years later he drafted a permanent 
 constitution which received the approval of Bishop 
 Keily of Savannah, 12 March, 1919. The Sisters 
 follow the Rule of St. Augustine, adapted to their 
 works of charity and mercy. Their occupation is 
 the practical education of colored children, visiting 
 the sick and assisting them in every way if they 
 are in need. They carefully watch over unprotected 
 children, and provide work and employment for 
 them, to enable them to become self-supporting. 
 The Sisters at present teach children at St. Mary’s 
 School and St. Anthony’s, West Savannah. The 
 community numbers 6 professed Sisters, 4 novices, 
 and 3 postulants. Mother Mary Theodore is the 
 first Superior. 
 
 Sisters of the Sacred Heart of Mary (cf. C. E., 
 VII-167d).—The Sisters’ houses in Portugal were 
 vacated by order of the Government in 1910. Three 
 new foundations replaced these in 1911: two in 
 Brazil (at Rio de Janeiro and Ciudad D’uba) and 
 one at? Tuy in Spain. All are flourishing academies. 
 The nuns who had been secularized re-entered their 
 convent at Oporto in October, 1920, and at Braga 
 in May, 1921. A foundation was made at Cambrai 
 in France, October, 1913, and on 1 October, 1921, 
 an academy was opened in London. A Marymount 
 Annex is in process of construction in Paris and is 
 
HEART OF MARY 
 
 366 
 
 HELPERS 
 
 to be opened 1 October, 1922. The Sisters have 
 under their care colleges, finishing schools, acad¬ 
 emies, training schools for teachers, technical 
 schools, parochial schools, and orphanages. The 
 terms of office of general and local superiors are in 
 accordance with the new Code of Canon Law. 
 
 Heart of Mary, Sisters Servants of the Im¬ 
 maculate. —See Immaculate Heart of Mary, Sis¬ 
 ters Servants of the. 
 
 Heart of Mary, Holy, Congregation of Augus- 
 tinians of the. See Letellier, Victoire. 
 
 Hebrews, Epistle to the (cf. C. E., VII-181c).— 
 On 24 June, 1914, the Pontifical Biblical Commis¬ 
 sion issued, on the subject of the authorship of the 
 Epistle to the Hebrews, a decision which, whilst 
 reaffirming, on the one hand, the canonical char¬ 
 acter of this epistle, declares, on the other hand, 
 that it ought to be held as the genuine work of 
 St. Paul. The reasons adduced in some quarters, 
 namely, the absence of the apostle’s name and 
 customary introduction, the remarkable purity of 
 diction and elegance of style, the manner of quot¬ 
 ing and arguing from the Old Testament, and the 
 alleged differences of doctrine with the well authen¬ 
 ticated letters of St. Paul, afford no solid basis 
 to a denial of the Pauline authorship; they are, 
 moreover, outweighed by far by the striking simili¬ 
 tude of the teaching and its wording and of the 
 warnings and exhortations, nay even by the close 
 resemblance in the wording and sentences with 
 those of the other Pauline writings. To say that 
 St. Paul is the author is, of course, to attribute to 
 the apostle under Divine inspiration the concep¬ 
 tion and expression of all the ideas; but not neces¬ 
 sarily the elaboration of the outward form of the 
 epistle. 
 
 Acta Apostolicae Sedis, VI (1914), 417-418; Jacquier, Etudes 
 de critique et de philologie du Nouveau Testament (Paris, 
 1920). 
 
 Hedley, John Cuthbert, Bishop of Newport, b. 
 at Morpeth, England, 15 April, 1837; d. at Llan- 
 ishen, near Cardiff, 11 November, 1915. He was 
 the son of Edward A. Hedley, a physician, and 
 at the age of thirteen was sent to the Benedictine 
 College at Ainpleforth in Yorkshire. On the com¬ 
 pletion of his college education he joined the 
 English Congregation of Benedictines and was 
 professed at St. Lawrence’s Abbey, Ainpleforth, on 
 10 November, 1855. Sevea years later he was raised 
 to the priesthood (19 October, 1862), and shortly 
 afterwards he was sent to lecture in the house of 
 studies at Belmont. On 29 September, 1873, he 
 was consecrated by Archbishop Manning as Bishop 
 of Csesaropolis in partibus as auxiliary to his fellow- 
 Benedictine, Dr. Brown, Bishop of Newport and 
 Menevia, whom he succeeded on 18 February, 1881. 
 In 1891 he was appointed assistant at the papal 
 throne, and in 1896 was named president of the 
 Catholic University Board; to him is largely due 
 the approval given to Catholics attending Oxford 
 and Cambridge. Bishop Hedley’s influence on the 
 Catholic life of England was important, for his 
 advice was constantly sought by the members of 
 the English hierarchy. He was sympathetic with 
 those whose modern ways of thought rendered reli¬ 
 gious belief difficult. His great openness of mind 
 is attributed by Wilfrid Ward—whose predecessor 
 he had been for a time as editor of the “Dublin 
 Review”—to the influence of Newman’s works. 
 “It needs a very rare and very sympathetic imag¬ 
 ination to realize without personal contact an in¬ 
 tellectual world wholly dissimilar to that in which 
 you live. It is one of Bishop Hedley’s triumphs 
 
 that he did so to a remarkable extent.” Dr. Hed¬ 
 ley’s sermons, which he was accustomed to deliver 
 by reading, are real literature; they have been 
 published in three volumes under the titles “Our 
 Divine Saviour,” “The Light of Life,” and “The 
 Christian Inheritance.” Among the most memorable 
 of his addresses are the funeral panegyrics on 
 Cardinals Manning and Vaughan, and his oration 
 at the opening of the*Central Seminary of Oscott. 
 The treatise “Lex Levitarum,” as a commentary 
 of the Regula Pastoralis of St. Gregory the Great, 
 is of interest chiefly to religious, but “The Holy 
 Eucharist” and “The Retreat” seem destined to 
 enjoy a continued popularity among the laity as 
 well. 
 
 Heidelberg, University of. See Freiburg, Arch¬ 
 diocese of. 
 
 Hej az. See Arabia. 
 
 Helena, Diocese of (Helenensis; cf. C. E., 
 VII-203c), suffragan of Oregon, comprises an area 
 of 51,922 square miles and is one of the two sees 
 in the State of Montana, U. S. A. Rt. Rev. John 
 P. Carroll, the second bishop, was consecrated 21 
 December, 1904. He was born at Dubuque, Iowa, 
 22 February, 1864, and ordained 7 July, 1889. Under 
 Bishop Carroll’s direction the St. Helena Cathedral 
 has been built (1908-1914), Mount St. Charles Col¬ 
 lege and Preparatory Seminary has been erected 
 and rapidly grown (1909-1921) and Catholic central 
 high schools have been established in all important 
 centers. The Jesuits who were pioneer priests in 
 this territory, have several missions for Indians in 
 this diocese. 
 
 During the late war Rev. J. G. Tongas and R,ev. 
 J. H. Ready rendered splendid service as chaplains. 
 It is interesting to note that the percentage of vol¬ 
 unteers exceeded that of other faiths and many 
 men from the Diocese of Helena died on the 
 battlefields. The State of Montana allows the 
 ministry of priests in its public institutions, which 
 are attended by a chaplain. There is a St. John’s 
 Ecclesiastical Society for infirm priests in the dio¬ 
 cese and many organizations among the laity. Vari¬ 
 ous parishes publish parish monthlies, and the 
 college has a paper, the “Prospector.” The House 
 of the Good Shepherd, the Orphans’ Home and the 
 Infant Home receive compensation from the State 
 for some of their inmates. 
 
 The communities of men in the Hele.na diocese 
 are the Jesuits and the Premonstratentians, while 
 the orders of women are Sisters of Charity of the 
 
 B. V. M., Ursulines, Sisters of the Third Order of 
 St. Dominic, Sisters of St. Francis of Perpetual 
 Adoration, Sisters of Mercy and Sisters of the Good 
 Shepherd. The diocese counts 50 parishes, 48 mis¬ 
 sions, 96 churches, 140 stations, 36 convents for 
 women, 85 secular and 15 regular priests, 8 lay 
 brothers, 330 nuns and sisters, 1 college and prepara¬ 
 tory seminary with 12 priests and 5 laymen as 
 professors, 27 seminarians and 126 students, 6 high 
 schools with 54 teachers and 1038 pupils, 4 
 academies, 1 training school for nurses, 20 elemen¬ 
 tary schools with 5649 pupils, 1 orphan home, 1 
 House of the Good Shepherd, 1 Infant Home, 8 
 hospitals. 
 
 Helpers of the Holy Souls, Society of the (cf. 
 
 C. E., VII-213a).—The Helpers offer up for the 
 Holy Souls all the satisfactory part of their works 
 of mercy among the poor, their vows and prayers, 
 as well as indulgences applicable to themselves. 
 Their chief work of merc}^ is visiting and caring 
 for the sick poor. They also have numerous other 
 works of zeal and charity, such as religious in- 
 
HEMPTINNE 
 
 HERBERMANtf 
 
 367 
 
 struction for children and adults, and sewing classes 
 from which the girls are allowed to take home the 
 garments they have made. In 1921 over 84,000 
 general instructions were given to these sewing 
 classes in New York. Here a modern settlement 
 house was erected in 1914 on the site of the three 
 old dwelling houses formerly used for the work in 
 East 85th Street. There is a consequent enlarge¬ 
 ment of activities. The Marian Club for girls was 
 organized in 1919 and now (1922) numbers 500 
 ■ i—, . 1^ the new convent and chapel 
 
 in East 86th Street were erected. In San Fran¬ 
 cisco they have a hew convent oh Haight Street. 
 In the past ten years new foundations have been 
 made at Glasgow in Scotland, Bergamo in Italy, 
 Lyons, Valence, and Rennes in France, Cheli in 
 China. 
 
 A novitiate for England has been established 
 at Marnhull, Dorset, and for Belgium at Overysche, 
 near Brussels. An Italian novitiate has also been 
 opened at San Remo, and the year 1922 will prob¬ 
 ably ^ witness the beginnings of an American 
 novitiate in the Diocese of New York. The Helpers 
 do not engage in institutional work of any kind, 
 although throughout the World War they operated 
 ambulances in France and Belgium, and, as in 1870, 
 ministered untiringly to the wounded as long as 
 necessity required. At the general congregation of 
 1921 Rev. Mother Mary of St. Magdalen of Pazzi 
 was re-elected superior general of the Society for 
 a term of twelve years. The revised Code of Canon 
 Law required few changes except a lengthened 
 probation for postulants, six months being now the 
 term instead of three as formerly. At present (1922) 
 the Helpers have 43 houses in various parts of the 
 world, with about 1000 members composing their 
 communities. 
 
 Hemptinne, Hildebrande de, first Abbot Primate 
 of the Benedictines, b. at Ghent on 10 June, 1849; 
 d. at Beuron on 13 August, 1913. After serving in 
 the papal army as a lieutenant of the Zouaves, he 
 joined the sons of St. Benedict and was professed 
 in the Abbey of Beuron on 15 August, 1870. He 
 was ordained in June, 1872, and eighteen years later 
 was elected Abbot of Maredsous, receiving the 
 abbatial blessing at Monte Cassino on 5 October, 
 1890. Six years later he was appointed by Leo 
 XIII primate of his order with the title of Abbot 
 of San Anselmo de Urbe, with his residence in the 
 new Benedictine international house on the Aven- 
 tine, Rome. He was named consultor of several 
 of the Sacred Congregations, procurator of the 
 Greek College de Urbe and representative at Rome 
 of the Greek Melchite patriarch of Antioch. 
 
 Herbermann, Charles George, teacher, author, 
 and editor, b. at Saerbeck, Westphalia, Germany, 
 8 December, 1840; d. in New York 24 August, 1916. 
 His father was George Herbermann of Glandorf, 
 Hanover, the proprietor of the general country 
 store at Saerbeck, and his mother was Elizabeth 
 Stipp, born at Osnabriick, Hanover. At the age of 
 nine Charles had completed the course at the local 
 school, taught by a young priest, Vicar Hermes, 
 and had commenced the study of Latin. To better 
 the economic condition of the family, his father 
 decided to become a citizen of the United States, 
 and accordingly he emigrated with his family from 
 Bremerhafen on 1 November, 1850, taking passage 
 on the ship “Agnes.” The family landed in New 
 xork on 21 January, 1851. During the unusually 
 severe and protracted voyage the two youngest 
 children had died. Charles was sent to the 
 parochial school of St. Alphonsus in Thompson 
 Street, which had been established by the Re- 
 
 demptonst Fathers for German-speaking Catholics. 
 On 17 April, 1853, he enrolled as a student at the 
 Jesuit College of Saint Francis Xavier in West 
 Fifteenth Street, New \ork City. On the com¬ 
 pletion ol the classical course in July, 1858, he was 
 awarded the degree of A.B., not by St. Francis 
 Xavier College which, founded only in November 
 185 0 % had not yet received its charter, but bv St! 
 Johns College, Fordham. From 185$ to 1869 he 
 was a member of the teaching staff of his Alma 
 Mater. His duties were first with the commercial 
 department, in which instruction in arithmetic 
 bookkeeping, English, French, secondary mathe- 
 inatics and physics Was given. Later he also taught 
 the Classics. He had a splendid baritone voice 
 which, together with a considerable love for music, 
 caused him to become a member of the choir of 
 the Church of Saint Francis Xavier and at times 
 to take part in the public recitals of the Men¬ 
 delssohn Union, a notable organization composed 
 chiefly of amateur musicians. He studied and re¬ 
 ceived the degree of A. M. from St. John’s in 1860 
 and that of Ph.D. from St. Francis Xavier in 1865. 
 In later years he often spoke of his association 
 with the distinguished members of the college 
 faculty, Fathers de Luynes, Durthaller, Loyzance, 
 Daubresse, Monroe, and Thebaud. 
 
 On 20 October, 1869, Dr. Herbermann, then 
 barely twenty-nine years of age, was appointed 
 Professor of the Latin Language and Literature at 
 the College of the City of New York. The presi¬ 
 dent of the college at that time was General Alex¬ 
 ander’ S. Webb, who had distinguished himself 
 on the field of Gettysburg. On 1 November, 1869, 
 Professor Herbermann began his duties which were 
 to last lor forty-five years and to bring honor both 
 to himself and to the college. As a teacher in the 
 classroom, as an administrator of a department, 
 and as a councillor in the faculty, he was success¬ 
 ful from the beginning. In 1873 he added to his 
 other tasks the congenial one of librarian of the 
 college. The regard in which he was held by his 
 ‘boys,” men of different races and different creeds, 
 many of whom had won distinction in professional 
 or business life, was evidenced by a complimentary 
 banquet tendered to him at the Hotel Astor on 
 12 January, 1911, at which his portrait in oil was 
 presented to the college. Dr. Herbermann was a 
 founder and the first president (1863) of the 
 Xavier Alumni Sodality. He was also president 
 of the Xavier Alumni Association, the Catholic 
 Club, which he helped to establish, and of the Ger¬ 
 man Catholic Congress, convened at Newark, New 
 Jersey, in 1892. He lectured on German Literature at 
 the Catholic Summer School, Cliff Haven, New 
 York, in 1896, and again on the Kulturkampf in 
 1910. The United States Catholic Historical Society, 
 projected by prelates and laymen attending the 
 Third Plenary Council of Baltimore, had, after the 
 death of John Gilmary Shea, suspended activity. 
 In 1898 a group of zealous Catholics undertook 
 the restoration of the Society. Dr. Herbermann 
 became president and also editor of the series of 
 monographs and of the “Historical Records and 
 Studies.” Both of these positions he occupied 
 until his death. Under his presidency the Society 
 grew and under his editorship it made important 
 contributions to the field of Americana, such as 
 the “Unpublished Letters of Charles Carroll of 
 Carrollton,” and to the Church History of America. 
 
 In January, 1905, Dr. Herbermann was called to 
 the editorship-in-chief of The Catholic Encyclo¬ 
 pedia, to be “an international work of reference on 
 the constitution, doctrine, discipline, and history 
 of the Catholic Church” in fifteen volumes with 
 
HERBERMANN 
 
 368 
 
 HERESY 
 
 an index. To the performance of this task he 
 brought a scholarship broad in content, often called 
 “old-fashioned” on that account, and modern in 
 method. His specialties were the classical Latin 
 language and literature. He was learned in the 
 English, French, German, and Greek literatures 
 and in history, both civil and ecclesiastical. He 
 had a good knowledge of philosophy, art, music, 
 and general,science. From 11 January, 1905, to 
 19 April, 1913, he presided over approximately one 
 hundred and thirty-four formal sessions of the 
 Board of Editors. He himself was in direct charge 
 of the departments of literature, archaeology, art, 
 civil history and civil law, music, national topics, 
 and science. The first volume of the Encyclopedia 
 appeared in the spring of 1907, and the fifteenth 
 volume was copyrighted in 1912. The index volume 
 was issued in 1914. Afflicted with glaucoma, Dr. 
 Herbermann had suffered partial and finally com¬ 
 plete loss of eyesight. His daughters, assisted some¬ 
 times by their brothers and occasionally by a friend, 
 performed the task of readers and amanuenses for 
 him in his labor as editor-in-chief. 
 
 Many academic and other honors were conferred 
 on Dr. Herbermann in the course of his years of 
 activity as a scholar. In 1882 his Alma Mater 
 bestowed on him the degree of Doctor of Laws 
 and in 1906 Holy Cross College of Worcester, 
 Massachusetts, made him a Doctor of Letters, an 
 honor repeated by the Catholic University in 1915. 
 He received the Lsetare Medal from the University 
 of Notre Dame in 1913. He was twice honored by 
 the Holy Father, Pius X; in 1909, when he was 
 invested with Knighthood in the Order of Saint 
 Gregory and, upon the completion of the Catholic 
 Encyclopedia in 1913, when he received the medal 
 Pro Ecclesia et Pontifice. 
 
 In July, 1873, he married Miss Mary Theresa 
 Dieter, a native of Baltimore. She died in 1876, 
 leaving two little daughters, the older of whom 
 died in 1887. In 1880 he married Miss Elizabeth 
 Schoeb of New York City, a native of Marburg in 
 Hesse. She became the mother of seven children, 
 one of whom died in early childhood. She died 
 in 1893. 
 
 In September, 1914, while teaching a class at the 
 college, Dr. Herbermann was stricken with an 
 attack of aphasia. Although he quickly recovered 
 from this, he was unable again to resume his 
 academic duties, and he was made professor 
 emeritus on 1 February, 1915. He still continued 
 to study in his library, to take his habitual daily 
 walks with his children or friends, to contribute 
 articles on American Church history to the “His¬ 
 torical Records and Studies.” He took pleasure in 
 the visits of his friends, many of whom were asso¬ 
 ciates of a lifetime, and he enjoyed the constant 
 care and companionship of his children and the 
 caresses of his little grandchildren. An attack of 
 bronchial pneumonia, in January, 1916, left him 
 in an enfeebled condition. He died fortified by 
 the rites of the Church. 
 
 Dr. Herbermann was the author of many papers, 
 chiefly on educational and historical topics, which 
 appeared in various magazines, including the 
 “Catholic Quarterly Review,” “Catholic World,” 
 the “Messenger,” “America,” and the “Catholic 
 Historical Review.” He edited nine volumes of 
 “Historical Records and Studies” issued by the 
 U. S. Catholic Historical Society (New York, 1898- 
 1916). For the Society he also wrote numerous 
 articles (see index to Vol. XI of “Historical Records 
 and Studies” for a partial list), translated Torfa- 
 son’s “History of Ancient Vinland” (1888, “Catholic 
 Historical Magazine”), and, as editor, brought out 
 
 the following monographs: “Unpublished Letters of 
 Charles Carroll of Carrollton” (New York, 1902), 
 Thebaud’s “Three-Quarters of a Century,” in three 
 parts (New York, 1904, 1912, 1913), “Historical 
 Sketch of St. Joseph’s Provincial Seminary, Troy, 
 N. Y.” (New York, 1905), Waldseemiiller’s “Cos- 
 mographiae Introductio” (New York, 1907), Lord 
 Russell’s “Diary of a Visit to the United States” 
 (New York, 1910). He was the author of “Business 
 Life in Ancient Rome” (New York, 1880). He 
 edited Sallust’s “Bellum Jugurthinum” (New York, 
 1886), and “Bellum Catilinse” (Boston, 1890). He 
 wrote “The Sulpicians in the United States” (New 
 York, 1916). He was editor-in-chief of the Cath¬ 
 olic Encyclodedia (New York, 1907-1914). 
 
 United States Catholic Historical Society, Historical 
 Records and Studies , Vol. X (New York, 1917); City College 
 Quarterly , Vol. XII, No. 4 (New York, 1916). 
 
 Paul H. Linehan. 
 
 • Heresy (cf. C. E., VII-256a).—In the Code of 
 Canon Law the term heretic means a baptized per¬ 
 son who, while retaining the name of Christian, 
 stubbornly denies or calls in doubt any truth which 
 is to be accepted on Divine and Catholic Faith. 
 All heretics incur ipso facto excommunication 
 specially reserved in the internal forum to the 
 Holy See; furthermore, unless they repent after 
 being admonished, they are to be deprived of any 
 ecclesiastical benefices, dignities, pensions or offices 
 they have; they are to be declared tainted with 
 infamy, and, if they be clerics, after a further 
 fruitless warning they are to be degraded. Again, 
 a similar excommunication is incurred by those 
 who publish books written by heretics upholding 
 and commending heresy, and by all who defend 
 or knowingly and without due permission read or 
 keep these or any other books prohibited by name 
 by letters Apostolic. Formerly this censure was 
 directed not against the publishers, but the printers. 
 A “book” here means a volume of a certain size 
 and unity (cf. III-524c); the word “knowingly” 
 implies the knowledge that the book is by a heretic 
 in defense of heresy and that it is prohibited; 
 “letters Apostolic” means documents emanating 
 directly from the pope, but not decrees of Roman 
 Congregations, even if approved by the pope. Ex- 
 communication is no longer incurred by those who 
 receive favor, or defend heretics. Those who favor 
 heresy incur excommunication, which is, however, 
 reserved to the Catholic ordinary and not as 
 formerly reserved specially to the Holy See; they 
 are: Catholics (a) who personally or by proxy go 
 through the marriage ceremony before a non-Cath- 
 olic minister, whether after or before the Catholic 
 service, except where the minister is acting merely 
 as a civil official, and the civil formality must be 
 complied with and the parties intend merely a 
 civil effect; (b) who marry with an agreement ex¬ 
 pressed or implied to bring up any of the children 
 as non-Catholics; (c) who knowingly presume to 
 hand over their children to a non-Catholic for 
 baptism; and (d) who knowingly send their chil¬ 
 dren or wards to be educated in a non-Catholic 
 religion. The suspicion of heresy is attached (1) to 
 the groups (b), (c), and (d) just mentioned, also 
 to those (2) who knowingly and willingly aid in 
 propagating heresy or who communicate with 
 heretics in non-Catholic rites—for instance, joining 
 in the singing of prayers at a Protestant service; 
 merely passive or material presence, e. g. at funerals, 
 may be tolerated for grave cause, as a mere act of 
 courtesy or civil respect. Non-Catholics, of course, 
 are admitted to all Catholic services, but not to the 
 reception of the sacraments, or (3) who desecrate 
 the Sacred Species; or (4) who appeal from the 
 
HERMOPOLIS MAGNA 
 
 369 
 
 HEXHAM 
 
 decrees of the reigning pope to a general council; 
 or (5) who obstinately remain for a year under 
 excommunication; or (6) who are guilty of simony 
 in administering or receiving the sacraments. If 
 persons who are suspected of heresy on being 
 warned do not remote the grounds for suspicion 
 they are incapacitated from performing canonical 
 ‘‘legal acts,” and if they be clerics and do not heed 
 a fresh warning they are to be suspended a divinis; 
 when six full months have passed after they have 
 been penalized, if they are still recalcitrant, they 
 are to be deemed heretics and punished accordingly. 
 
 Heresy renders a person irregular ex delicto; it 
 is an impediment to marriage with a Catholic, and 
 where such a marriage has been allowed by dis¬ 
 pensation the offspring would be prohibited by law 
 from receiving orders as long as the parent re¬ 
 mained in his or her error—though, of course, this 
 prohibition could be removed by dispensation. It 
 also renders one incapable of acting as sponsor, or 
 of receiving ecclesiastical burial or of acquiring 
 or retaining the right of patronage. 
 
 Hermopolis Magna, Diocese of (Hermopoli- 
 tanensis Coptorum; cf. C. E., VII-289b), a see for 
 the Coptic Rite, erected in 1895, with residence at 
 Minieh in Upper Egypt. There are in the diocese 
 11 parishes, 11 churches, 2 missions, 3 stations, 3 
 convents of religious orders of men, 3 convents 
 of nuns, 15 secular priests, 7 regulars, 5 lay broth¬ 
 ers, 12 seminarians in the national seminary at 
 Tahta, 16 elementary schools with 38 teachers and 
 1130 pupils. The schools receive no government 
 aid. There are two associations among the laity. 
 The Catholic population is 7565, of whom 5000 
 are Catholic Copts and 2565 Catholics of other 
 rites. Mussulmans number 2,046,377; Orthodox 
 Greeks 182,289, Protestants 10,258, Jews 826, other 
 non-Christian sects 660, other Christians 1589. The 
 first and present bishop is Rt. Rev. Joseph Maxime 
 Sedfaoui, bom in Akmim, 1863, studied at Bey¬ 
 routh, and was ordained 1889, served as a pastor, 
 professor at the College of St. Francis Xavier at 
 Alexandria, and appointed 6 March, 1896; named 
 vicar general of the Patriarchate of Alexandria in 
 1908. This see is titular for the Latin Rite and the 
 present bishop is Rt. Rev. George Glossauer, aux¬ 
 iliary Bishop of Prague, consecrated 8 September, 
 
 1917. 
 
 Hertling, Georg F., Count von, Catholic phi¬ 
 losopher and Chancellor of the German Empire, 
 b. at Darmstadt on 31 August, 1843; d. at Ruhpold- 
 ing, Bavaria, on 4 January, 1919; son of Jakob 
 and Antonie (von Guaita) Hertling. After study¬ 
 ing in Munster, Munich, and Berlin, he passed some 
 time in Italy, and in 1869 married Anna von 
 Biegeleben. He obtained a lectureship and later a 
 professorship in philosophy in Bonn, and in 1880 
 was called to a similar position in Munich. From 
 1875 till 1890 and again in 1896 he was a member 
 of the Reichstag. In 1909-11 he was leader of the 
 Center Party, and in 1912 he was appointed first 
 Centrist president of the Bavarian ministry. He 
 refused the imperial chancellorship when von Beth- 
 mann Holhvcg fell during the war, but after the 
 failure of Michaelis he accepted. His appointment 
 was an innovation, as the preceding German chan¬ 
 cellors had all been Prussians and Protestants. In 
 his.initial speech he discussed President Wilson’s 
 “fourteen points,” and professed Germany’s readi¬ 
 ness for a peace of reconciliation based on a recog¬ 
 nition of the integrity of the empire. Having 
 failed to persuade the Allies to negotiate on terms 
 of equality, he resigned his office on 30 September, 
 
 1918. He was active in the promotion of Catholic 
 
 interests and social legislation in Germany, and 
 secured the establishment of a Catholic theological 
 faculty in Strasburg. He was a founder and later 
 president of the Gorres Gesellschaft and the Ger¬ 
 man Society of Christian Art, and was a member 
 2* the Bavarian Academy of Science from 1899. 
 With Clemens BHumker ho founded, the Beitrnge 
 zur Geschichte der Philosophic dcs M.A. Among 
 von Hertling’s writings the following are note¬ 
 worthy: “Materie und Form, und die Definition 
 der Seele bei Aristoteles” (1871), “Uber die Grenzen 
 der median. Naturerklarg” (1875), “Hvpothese 
 Darwins” (1879), “Albertus Magnus” (1880), “Aus- 
 satze und Reden sozialpolit. Inhalts” (1884), “John 
 Locke und die Schul'c von Cambridge” (1892), 
 “Descartes’ Beziehungen zur Scholastik” (1897-99)! 
 “Das Prinzip des Katholizismus und die Wiss,” 
 “Augustin” (1902), and “Erinnerungen aus meinen 
 Leben.” 
 
 Hesse (cf. C. E., VII-298c), a free state in the 
 Republic of Germany, has an area of 2968 sq. 
 miles, and a population of about 1,291,249 (1919). 
 The largest cities are (1919): Mayence (Mainz), 
 with a population of 107,930; Darmstadt, the capi¬ 
 tal, 82,368; Offenbach 75,380; Worms 44,290; Gies¬ 
 sen 33,409. 
 
 Education.— In 1920 there were 979 public ele¬ 
 mentary schools, with 4282 teachers and 204,709 
 pupils; the continuation schools had 28,259 pupils. 
 Hesse had 11 gymnasia, 3 progymnasia, 3 realgym- 
 nasia, 9 oberrealschulen, 18 realschulen, 1 agricul¬ 
 tural college, and 22 incomplete realschulen, 7 
 higher girls’ schools with 4408 pupils, and 49 private 
 schools with 5029 pupils. The University of Giessen 
 had 2143 students and the Technical High School 
 at Darmstadt 2206 students. 
 
 Economics and Agriculture.— Of the area 63.4% 
 is under cultivation; 31.5% is forests; 5.1% is un¬ 
 cultivated. Arable land occupies 923,403 acres; 
 meadows and pastures 252,602 acres; vineyards 
 36,087 acres, and forests 599,790 acres. Of the lat¬ 
 ter, 186,382 acres belong to the State, 123,155 acres 
 to the communes. In 1919 rye was the principal 
 crop, with a yield of 99,717 tons from 135,070 acres. 
 The 33,245 acres under vines yielded 7,388,480 gal¬ 
 lons of wine valued at 213,021,796 marks. 
 
 Recent History.— Hesse with the other terri¬ 
 tories acquired by Prussia in 1866 formed the Prus¬ 
 sian province of Hesse-Nassau until 1918, when 
 after the overthrow of the Empire it was pro¬ 
 claimed a State ( lander ) in the Republic of Ger¬ 
 many. Its constitution was adopted on 20 
 December, 1919, and provides for a Landtag of 70 
 members. For administrative purposes, the repub¬ 
 lic (state) is divided into 3 provinces, 18 circles, 
 and 983 communes. 
 
 Religion.— Ecclesiastically Hesse belongs to the 
 Diocese of Mainz (q.v.). 
 
 Hexham and Newcastle, Diocese of (Hagul- 
 stadensis et Novocastrensis; cf. C. E., VII-318c), 
 comprises the counties of Northumberland, Dur¬ 
 ham, Cumberland, and Westmoreland, in the North 
 of England. The present bishop is Rt. Rev. 
 Richard Collins, born in Newbury, England, 1857, 
 studied at Ushaw and was ordained in 1885, served 
 in various missions and was made administrator 
 of the cathedral at Newcastle in 1895, chancellor 
 of Hexham in 1897, and appointed titular Bishop 
 of Selenus and auxiliary bishop 1905, elevated to 
 the see 1909; the episcopal residence is at New- 
 castle-on-Tyne. The total population of the diocese 
 (1911 census) is 2,396,380, and the Catholic popula¬ 
 tion is 227,486. The Benedictines, Dominicans, 
 and Redemptorists are established in the diocese, 
 
HIJAZ 
 
 370 
 
 HILGARD 
 
 as are also the Carmelites, Daughters of Wisdom, 
 Daughters of the Cross, Dominican Nuns, Faithful 
 Companions of Jesus, Sisters of the Good Shep¬ 
 herd, Little Sisters of the Poor, Poor Clares, Poor 
 Sisters of Nazareth, Sisters of Charity, Sisters of 
 Charity of St. Paul, Sisters of Marie Reparatnce, 
 Sisters of Mercy, Sisters of St. Thomas of Villanova, 
 Sisters of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary, 
 Society of the Sacred Heart, and Ursulines. St. 
 Cuthbert’s College is at Ushaw, and St. Cuthbert s 
 Grammar School at Newcastle-on-Tyne. There are 
 boarding schools for girls at Darlington, West Hastle- 
 pool, Berwick-on-Tweed, Sunderland, and Newcastle. 
 The Society of the Sacred Heart conducts a train¬ 
 ing school for teachers at Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
 The Central School at Jarrow is under the Daugh¬ 
 ters of the Cross. There are in the diocese 270 
 clergy, of whom 221 are secular priests and 49 
 regulars; 188 churches; 46 convents; 2 industrial 
 schools for boys; 1 industrial school for girls; 1 
 poor-law school for girls from workhouses; 29 
 elementary schools for girls conducted by re¬ 
 ligious; 119 public elementary schools receiving 
 government grant; 2 secondary schools for boys; 
 
 9 secondary schools for girls; 1 hospital conducted 
 by Dominican Sisters; 2 houses of mercy in charge 
 of the Sisters of Mercy; 1 orphanage for boys con¬ 
 ducted by the Sisters of Charity; 1 orphanage for 
 girls conducted by the Sisters of Nazareth; 2 
 refuges for penitents; 3 homes for the aged poor 
 under the care of the Little Sisters of the Poor. 
 The following associations are represented in the 
 diocese: Catholic Needlework Guild, Catholic 
 
 Women’s League, Catholic Truth Society, Society 
 for the Propagation of the Faith, and Society of 
 St. Vincent de Paul. 
 
 Hijaz. See Arabia. 
 
 Hildesheim, Diocese of (Hildesheimensis; cf. 
 C. E., VII-353b), in Germany. Since 1915 the 
 see has been administered by the Rt. Rev. Joseph 
 Ernst, b. at Grossalgermissen 8 November, 1863, 
 ordained 2 August, 1886, elected 26 May, 1915, con¬ 
 secrated 26 September following. In 1920 there 
 were 213,850 Catholics in the diocese and 2,000,000 
 inhabitants who belonged to other denominations. 
 It contains 120 parishes, 16 deaneries, 27 curacies, 
 230 churches and chapels, 230 secular priests, 10 
 regulars, of whom 3 are Augustinians, and 7 Fran¬ 
 ciscans. The Ursulines have convents at Duder- 
 stadt, Hildesheim, and Hanover, with 49 professed, 
 27 lay nuns, and 9 novices; the Sisters of Charity 
 of St. Vincent de Paul have 53 establishments 
 (mother-house at Hildesheim), with 475 Sisters 
 and 35 novices. 
 
 Hilgard, Eugene Woldemar, pioneer in scientific 
 agriculture in the United States, b. in Bavaria in 
 1833; d. in California in 1916. The youngest of a 
 family of four sons and five daughters he came to 
 this country with his father, Judge Hilgard, at 
 the age of three, when they settled on a farm near 
 Belleville, St. Clair County, Illinois. _ So many 
 Germans of good education, which included a 
 knowledge of Latin, had settled there that it was 
 called “the Latin settlement.” Eugene and his 
 brothers received their early education from their 
 father, who prepared them for entrance to the uni¬ 
 versity. At the age of sixteen Eugene went to the 
 University of Heidelberg. When just past twenty 
 he graduated there, receiving the degree of Doctor 
 of Philosophy with honor summa cum laude. This 
 degree was reissued to him in 1903 as a “golden 
 degree” in recognition of a half century’s good work 
 
 for science. He made some graduate studies at the 
 University of Zurich and at Freiberg in Saxony. 
 After this he spent nearly two years in Spain, and 
 then returned to America at the age of twenty-three 
 to take up scientific work here. He had specialized 
 in geology and chemistry, and accepted the position 
 of assistant State geologist of Mississippi 1856. 
 He remained in the South but for two years, but 
 his genius for observation impressed itself deeply 
 on the geology of the region, and he laid the 
 foundation upon which is built the knowledge of 
 Gulf Coastal Plain Geology. Professor E. A. Smith, 
 State Geologist of Alabama, says that Doctor Hil¬ 
 gard “laid the foundation on which most subse¬ 
 quent work in the ‘Mississippi Embayment,’ as he 
 named it, securely rests.” Later He was to come 
 back to the study of this region when he was put 
 in charge of the Cotton Culture Reports of the 
 tenth census. This for the first time introduced 
 scientific principles into cotton growing, and his 
 reports are still consulted with confidence by those 
 who are interested in the subject. His favorite 
 subject was chemistry, however, so when offered 
 the position of chemist in charge of the laboratory 
 of the Smithsonian at Washington he accepted and 
 spent some two years there. During this time he 
 became a convert to the Catholic Church, and re¬ 
 mained ever after an ardent Catholic. 
 
 During the Civil War he was employed as a 
 chemist in charge of certain work required by the 
 Southern Confederacy, and immediately after the 
 war he was offered the position of State geologist 
 of Mississippi and professor of science at the Uni¬ 
 versity of that State. He spent some six years 
 there, when his growing reputation led to an invita¬ 
 tion to teach at the University of Michigan, where 
 better opportunities for research were afforded him 
 at a much higher salary. Here he developed the 
 department of agriculture and became the pioneer 
 exploiter of the doctrine that agricultural studies 
 must count correspondingly to other subjects in the 
 university curriculum. From Michigan he went to 
 the newly organized agricultural department of the 
 University of California, where he spent all the 
 rest of his life. He made a series of most important 
 investigations on the soils of that State in con¬ 
 nection with their native vegetation and the 
 prospect they provided for the growth of other 
 plants. He published a book, “Soils of Arid and 
 Humid Regions,” and came to be the recognized 
 expert in the United States on “alkali soils,” and 
 especially on their reclamation. Through him the 
 regions that used to be set down in the geographies 
 of two generations ago as desert regions were trans¬ 
 formed into fertile lands and the so-called Great 
 American Desert disappeared. 
 
 He was a very broadly educated man, knowing 
 Latin and Greek as well as most of the modem 
 languages very well. He kept closely in touch with 
 foreign work in his specialty and related scientific 
 investigations. He was looked up to as the most 
 distinguished authority in scientific agriculture. The 
 universities of Mississippi, Michigan, and California, 
 in recognition of his work in those states, as well 
 as Columbia, conferred on him the degree of Doctor 
 of Laws for agricultural science. The Royal Acad¬ 
 emy of Sciences of Munich awarded him the Liebig 
 medal. The International Exposition at Paris 
 (1900) awarded him a gold medal. During a long 
 life of successful devotion to science there was 
 only one rival in his interest, and that was his 
 devotion to the Church, of which he was a very 
 faithful member and to which he gave considerable 
 time, for charitable and other religious interests. 
 He declared toward the end of his life that nothing 
 
HILGERS 
 
 371 
 
 HISTORICAL 
 
 had given him more satisfaction than his member¬ 
 ship in the Church. 
 
 Science (1916); Walsh in Ave Marin (1916); Who’s Who 
 in Science in America . 
 
 James J. Walsh. 
 
 Hilgers, Joseph, theological writer, b. at Kuck- 
 hoven, Rhenish Province, Germany, on 9 Septem¬ 
 ber, 1858; d. at Rome in 1918; son of Joseph and 
 Josephine Hilgers. He was educated in the German 
 College in Rome, and w r on his doctorates of phi¬ 
 losophy and theology. He w r as ordained in 1882, 
 and a year later entered the Society of Jesus. 
 After teaching for ten years he devoted himself 
 entirely to writing, being an authority on indul¬ 
 gences and the Index. He was a frequent con¬ 
 tributor to the “Stimmen aus Maria-Laach,” “Linzer 
 theologische Quartalschrift,” “Civilita Cattolica,” 
 “Zentralblatt fur Bibliothekswesen,” and collabo¬ 
 rated on Herder’s “Kirchenlexikon” and “Konver- 
 sationslexikon,” and the “Catholic Encyclopedia ” 
 Among his most notable works are “Der Index der 
 verbotenen Bucher” (1904), “Maria der Weg zu 
 Christus” (1907), “The Roman Index and Its Latest 
 Historian,” “Das Goldene fur Priester und Volk,” 
 “Die katholische Lehre von den Abliissen” (1913); 
 lie succeeded Beringer in publishing “Die ablasse,” 
 his last edition of which contains a valuable history 
 of indulgences. 
 
 Historical Societies, Catholic, the United 
 States.— So far as is known, eight such Societies 
 have been organized since 1884, with the object of 
 making better known the Catholic past of the 
 L nited States. They are: The American Catholic 
 Historical Society, founded at Philadelphia in 1884; 
 the United States Catholic Historical Society, 
 founded in New York in 1884; the Ohio Valley 
 Catholic Historical Society, founded in 1884—now 
 disbanded; the Brooklyn Catholic Historical 
 Society, founded in 1901—now disbanded; the New 
 England Catholic Historical Society, founded in 
 1901 inoperative; the Catholic Historical Society 
 of St. Paul, Minn., founded in 1905; the Maine 
 Catholic Historical Society, begun in 1913; the 
 Catholic Historical Society of St. Louis, founded 
 in 1917. All these societies limit the field of their 
 study to American History. 
 
 American Catholic Historical Society of Phila¬ 
 delphia.— This Society, the oldest Catholic historical 
 society in the United States, was established on 
 22 July, 1884, at the hall of the Cathedral Total 
 Abstinence Beneficial Society. The call for the 
 organization of the Society was dated 4 July, and 
 was signed by the Rev. P. A. Jordan, S.J., the 
 Rev. John J. Elcock, the Rev. Dr. Thomas Middle- 
 ton, O.S. A., the Rev. Ignatius F. Horstmann, D.D., 
 P. Beresford, Charles N. A. Esling, Francis T. 
 Furey, W. J. Campbell, M.D., J. Carroll McCaffery, 
 F. N. Reuss, John H. Campbell, and Martin I. J. 
 Griffin. A charter was granted to the Society on 
 26 December, 1885, by Judge Russell Thayer. Pope 
 Leo XIII extended his blessing to the Society on 
 10 January, 1886, and on 6 September, 1886, Arch¬ 
 bishop Ryan gave it his formal approbation. The 
 Society’s first public meeting was held on 30 April, 
 1885, with Archbishop Ryan presiding. 
 
 Early in 1887 came the first fruit of the Society’s 
 promise to publish Catholic historical papers, volume 
 I of its “Records”; the year 1889 saw the appear¬ 
 ance of the second volume, and 1891 brought the 
 third volume—in all, up to that time, over 1200 
 pages of American Catholic historical sources. With 
 volume IV the “Records” became a quarterly pub¬ 
 lication, and in 1921 it completed its thirty-second 
 volume. Meantime, in 1913, the Society took over 
 
 and combined with its “Recoids” the “American 
 Catholic Historical Researches,” which had been 
 started by Dr. A. A. Lambing, of Scottdale, Pennsyl- 
 vama, in 1884, and which had been issued by Martin 
 1. J. Griffin from 1886 to the time of his death. 
 Sets of the Records” have been placed in nearly 
 all the reference libraries of the United States thus 
 preserving against loss and making available for 
 students of history a great wealth of American 
 Catholic chronicles and documents theretofore 
 unpublished. 
 
 Until early in 1889 the Society’s work was carried 
 on in a small room of the Philadelphia Philopatrian 
 Institute. These quarters were then found inade¬ 
 quate, and the Society migrated to the Athenaeum 
 Building, where it occupied the room which for 
 forty years had been the abode of the Pennsyl¬ 
 vania Historical Society. Within six years the 
 Catholic Historical Society had again outgrown its 
 quarters and in 1895 moved into a home of its own 
 at 715 Spruce Street, a spacious old Colonial struc- 
 tuie of many historical associations. The occasion 
 was celebrated by a reception to His Excellency, 
 Archbishop Satolli, first Apostolic Delegate to the 
 United States. Each of the four succeeding Apos¬ 
 til 1 ? delegates has been publicly received at the 
 Society’s headquarters and presented to the promi¬ 
 nent people, Catholic and non-Catholic, of the city 
 and State. 
 
 The Library and Cabinet of the American Cath- 
 one Historical Society, housed in its own building, 
 is reputed to be among the foremost collections 
 of Catholic Americana. It contains, besides books, 
 many valuable manuscripts and documents bearing 
 on the early history of America and the contribu¬ 
 tion of Catholics and Catholicity to our best 
 American traditions and civilization. It has also 
 a cabinet of historical relics of interest to Cath¬ 
 olics, and prints and paintings of kindred value. 
 The library is in part classified and catalogued 
 and available for research work. The reading-room 
 is open to the public, who have access there to a 
 rich file of Catholic newspapers and magazines. 
 
 Many activities akin to its immediate Catholic 
 historical purposes have been sponsored by the 
 Society. In 1892 it led the movement for the cele¬ 
 bration of the quadricentennial of the discovery 
 of America, in which all the organizations of the 
 Archdiocese of Philadelphia took part. In 1895 a 
 course of illustrated Catholic historical lectures were 
 given under the Society’s direction in the Academy 
 of Music, Philadelphia’s ranking public hall. Other 
 series of lectures by leading European and American 
 scholars have been given by the Society in its own 
 hall or in the Academy of Music. In 1896 the 
 Society established an archivist in Rome in the 
 person of the Rev. F. Kittell, who copied for pub¬ 
 lication in the “Records” a series of invaluable State 
 and Vatican papers bearing on the foundation and 
 development of the Church in America. This im¬ 
 portant work had to be suspended on account of 
 the Society’s inadequate resources. In 1906 the 
 president and board of managers lodged a vigorous 
 and scholarly protest against the use of certain 
 mural paintings in the capitol at Harrisburg, on 
 the ground of the historical misrepresentations of 
 the pictorial decorations. 
 
 In its constitution the Society states its object 
 to be the preservation and publication of Catholic 
 American historical documents, the investigation of 
 American Catholic histoiy, especially that of Phila¬ 
 delphia, and the development of interest in Catholic 
 historical questions. Its accomplishments may be 
 categorically enumerated as follows: first, it has 
 created the nucleus of a reference library and 
 
HISTORICAL 
 
 372 
 
 HISTORICAL 
 
 cabinet; second, it has established and published a 
 Catholic historical magazine; third, it has en¬ 
 couraged the foundation of similar societies by its 
 example; fourth, it has maintained the idea of 
 American Catholic history in concrete form before 
 the world; fifth, it has stimulated the production 
 of Catholic literature. 
 
 The list of presidents of the American Catholic 
 Historical Society, with their term of office, follows: 
 
 Very Rev. Thomas Cooke Middleton, D. D., 
 O.S.A., 1884, 1885, 1886, 1887, 1888, 1889, 1890; 
 Rev. Ignatius F. Horstmann, D. D., 1891-1892; Dr. 
 Lawrence F. Flick, 1893, 1894, 1895, 1896. The Rt. 
 Rev. Mgr. Hugh T. Henry, Litt. D., 1897-1898; Mr. 
 Walter George Smith, 1899-1900; Mr. Samuel Cast- 
 ner, Jr., 1901; The Rt. Rev. Mgr. H. T. Drumgoole, 
 1902-1903; Mr. Francis A. Cunningham, 1904-1905; 
 Mr. William V. McGrath, Jr., 1906-1907; Mr. 
 Ignatius J. Dohan, 1908-1909; The Right Rev. 
 Philip R. McDevitt, D.D., 1910, 1911, 1912; Dr. 
 Lawrence F. Flick, 1893, 1894, 1895, 1896; The Rt. 
 J. Lallou, 1915-1916; Mr. James M. Willcox, 1917- 
 1918; Mr. Edward J. Galbally, 1919, 1920, 1921; 
 The Rev. John E. Flood, LL. D., 1922. 
 
 Catholic Historical Society of St. Louis. —The 
 Church of the Middle West, centering in St. Louis, 
 has an eventful history, but the whole story of 
 toil, sacrifice and glorious achievement has yet to 
 be told. The historical archives of the Archdiocese 
 of St. Louis hold a rich and varied treasure of 
 material for the making of that story. With these 
 things in mind, the Most Rev. John J. Glennon, on 
 February 7, 1917, suggested the foundation of an 
 historical society and invited the following clergy¬ 
 men of the diocese to become charter members of 
 the new association: Right Rev. Mgr. J. A. Con¬ 
 nolly, V. G., Right Rev. Mgr. J. J. Tannrath, Right 
 Rev. Mgr. Patrick W. Tallon, Very Rev. M. S. 
 Ryan, C. M., Revs. Charles L. Souvay, C. M., Francis 
 Gilfillan, Joseph Wenker, F. G. Holweck, John 
 Rothensteiner, F. X. Wilmes, E. J. Lemkes, Joseph 
 Selinger, J. T. Shields, and Henry Hussman. The 
 proposition met with unanimous and enthusiastic 
 support. Within a few weeks the organization of 
 the Catholic Historical Society of St. Louis was 
 perfected, with Archbishop Glennon as president, 
 and Revs. Dr. Charles L. Souvay and F. G. Hol¬ 
 weck librarians and archivists. 
 
 The object of the Society is: “To collect and 
 preserve materials of all kinds, such as books, 
 pamphlets, papers, manuscripts, maps,_ documents, 
 pictures, and other objects of historical interest 
 relating to the Catholic history of the Diocese of 
 St. Louis and of whatever territories and places 
 were at any time associated with St. Louis in the 
 same ecclesiastical division; to institute, carry on 
 and foster historical research on subjects pertaining 
 to the field of inquiry above described and dis¬ 
 seminate such information.” Any person of good 
 character, in sympathy with the work and aims of 
 the Society, is eligible to membership on payment 
 of $5.00 annual dues, or $100 for life membership. 
 In its sixth year the Society has 94 members, of 
 whom 2 are life members. Regular meetings of 
 the Society are held in January, March, May, 
 September, and November. At these meetings 
 original papers on historical subjects are read and 
 discussed. As the Society has no building of its 
 own at present, the archives are kept at the diocesan 
 chancery, 209 Walnut Street, where a fire-proof 
 filing cabinet has been provided for the documents, 
 letters, and other manuscripts. 
 
 In order to promote the objects of the Society 
 it was decided to issue an historical publication 
 quarterly, and in 1918 the Rev. Dr. Charles L. 
 
 Souvay was elected editor-in-chief of the “St. Louis 
 Catholic Historical Review.” The first number of 
 the “Review” appeared October, 1918. Each num¬ 
 ber devotes space to some constructive historical 
 essays on subjects appertaining to the special field 
 of the Society. Under the general caption of 
 “Notes,” historical news, current events of interest 
 to readers, and the recent activities of the Society 
 are chronicled. To this set of “Notes” another is 
 added, strictly bibliographical, in the form of an 
 index of historical items and articles on subjects 
 written within the Society’s sphere, published in 
 current literature. 
 
 “Documents” from the archives of the Society 
 complete each number. These documents are given 
 in their original text, with an English translation. 
 Volume I of the “Review” contains a catalogue 
 of the more important documents, petitions and 
 letters in the historical archives of the Archdiocese of 
 St. Louis, which His Grace the Archbishop placed in 
 the care of the Society. The series of letters 
 exchanged between Bishop Dubourg and the Con¬ 
 gregation of Propaganda is published in the first 
 three volumes of the “Review.” This series is 
 being followed by the publication of Bishop Rosati’s 
 “Diary,” in which daily events in the prelate’s life 
 are recorded for more than fourteen years. 
 
 Illinois Catholic Historical Society. —This 
 Society was established in Chicago 28 February, 
 1918, and w T as indirectly inspired by the celebration 
 that year of the one hundredth anniversary of the 
 admission of the State of Illinois into the Union. 
 For this event the Illinois Centennial Commission, 
 appointed by the governor, prepared a series of 
 celebrations and a six volume original history of 
 the State. In this history, which was in preparation 
 for several years, the achievements of Catholics 
 and the Church were conspicuous principally by 
 their absence, although for the first hundred, years 
 of Illinois history Catholics were pioneers ana later 
 played a prominent part in the development of 
 the State. Rev. Frederic Siedenburg, S.J., and 
 Judge Thomas F. Scully, both of Chicago, were 
 members of this commission, and found that due to 
 the scarcity of Catholic historical material and the 
 inaccessibility of documents it was impossible to give 
 adequate representation of Catholic achievement. 
 
 By accident it was learned that Mr. Joseph J. 
 Thompson of Chicago had in preparation a “Cath¬ 
 olic History of Illinois,” and after several con¬ 
 ferences with him it was proposed to organize an 
 historical society, with the chief purpose of publish¬ 
 ing a quarterly review which would collect docu¬ 
 ments and publish monographs and encourage Cath¬ 
 olic Illinois history. With the approbation of the 
 Archbishop of Chicago and the suffragan bishops 
 the Society was organized in the School of Sociology 
 of Loyola University, and Mr. William J. Onahan 
 was elected the first president of the Society, and 
 Mr. Joseph J. Thompson was chosen the first editor 
 of the “Illinois Catholic Historical Review.” 
 
 The Society, although only in its fourth year, 
 has over 600 members and has already made a 
 permanent contribution in the historic field of the 
 old Illinois country, inasmuch as it has stimulated 
 original .research and prompted the conservation 
 and publication of reliable historic data and records. 
 It has also begotten a new interest and appreciation 
 among Catholics for their own history. Up to 
 April, 1922, the Society published four volumes of 
 528 pages each, concerned primarily with the earlier 
 periods of the Illinois country. At the present 
 time Rev. Frederic Siedenburg, S.J., is president 
 of the Society, with offices in the Ashland Block, 
 Chicago. 
 
HOBART 
 
 373 
 
 HOLLAND 
 
 ^ Hobart, Archdiocese of (Hobartiensis; cf. C. 
 E., \III-380d), comprises Tasmania, Bruni Island, 
 Maria Island, and the islands in Bass Straits. The 
 present archbishop is Rt. Rev. Patrick Delany, b. 
 at^ Tonacor, Ireland, 1 February, '1853, ordained 
 1879, left for Australia 1885, elected titular bishop 
 of Laranda and coadjutor to the Archbishop of 
 Hobart 15 June, 1893, succeeding to the see 29 
 December, 1907. Increased labors caused the arch¬ 
 bishop to petition the Holy See for a coadjutor, 
 and in August, 1919, Most Rev. William Barry, b. 
 in Middleton, Ireland, 1 January, 1872, ordained 
 1898, elected 7 April, 1919, titular bishop of Pes- 
 sinus, was consecrated in Syndey. 
 
 The population of Tasmania is estimated at 
 218,000, and the Catholics number about 35,000. 
 The archdiocese is divided into 22 parishes with 72 
 churches and 39 stations. Besides the archbishop 
 and his coadjutor there are 29 secular and 2 regular 
 (M.S.H.) priests, 13 Irish Christian Brothers, and 
 169 nuns. There are 2 colleges in charge of the 
 Christian Brothers, St. Virgil’s at Hobart with 157 
 students, St. Patrick’s at Launceston with 120 stu¬ 
 dents, 1 boarding school for boys and 3 for girls, 
 4 superior day schools and 25 primary schools with 
 3450 children, 1 orphanage with 51 children, 1 Mag¬ 
 dalen Home under the care of Sisters of the Good 
 Shepherd with 130 inmates. Two convents are 
 registered for the training of teachers. The com¬ 
 munities of Sisters, who have charge of every 
 school but one, are Sisters of Charity, Order of the 
 Presentation B.V. M., Sisters of St. Joseph, Sisters 
 of Mercy, Sisters of the Good Shepherd, and Sisters 
 of the Sacred Heart. 
 
 The “Catholic Standard,” the official organ of 
 the archbishop, is Tasmania’s Catholic paper. The 
 Government does not support the Catholic schools, 
 which are subject to inspection and examination 
 by State school inspectors, and every school and 
 teacher must be registered. State endowments to 
 religion were withdrawn in 1869, but sums of money 
 were voted according to the number of adherents 
 to the churches, and that set aside for Catholics 
 yields about £1400 a year. Allowance is made for 
 children sent to the orphanage by the Government. 
 The usual sodalities are organized among the laity 
 and several societies, including the Hibernian, St. 
 Vincent de Paul, and Catholic Federation. One 
 priest went to war as a chaplain, and the Catholics 
 had more than their proportion of volunteers and 
 active men in the service. Monsignor Gillevan, 
 vicar general for many years, died in 1919, and 
 Archpriest Henneboy, who arrived in 1866, died in 
 1921. The Catholics are mostly of Irish origin, but 
 native born, but there are also some English and 
 Scotch. 
 
 Hogan, Edmund Ignatius, historian and Gaelic 
 scholar, b. near Cobh, Ireland, 23 January, 1831; 
 d. at Dublin on 26 November, 1917. Entering the 
 Society of Jesus at the age of sixteen he was 
 ordained nine years later. Endowed with a phe¬ 
 nomenal memory, a keen historical sense, and un¬ 
 tiring energy he devoted himself to the history, 
 antiquities, and language of Ireland. He was one 
 of the small body of brilliant scholars, grouped 
 around Eugenne O’Curry and John O’Donovan, 
 who laid a scientific foundation for the present-day 
 revival of the Irish language and culture, the 
 source of inspiration of Ireland’s recent fight for 
 independence. As the youngest of these savants, 
 Edmund Hogan w r as the connecting link between 
 them and the twentieth century workers who are 
 now holding up a rigorous Gaelic culture. After 
 teaching in the Sacred Heart College, Limerick 
 (of which he was one of the original staff), from 
 
 1859 to 1865, he went to Rome to gather material 
 for the story of the Jesuits in Ireland in the penal 
 days. For twenty years he filled the chair of Irish 
 in the Royal University of Ireland, and for three 
 years he delivered the Todd Memorial Lectures 
 in the Royal Academy of Ireland, of which he was 
 a council member and honorary secretary of foreign 
 correspondence. He was likewise an original gov¬ 
 ernor of the School of Irish Learning, and was one 
 of the commissioners for the publication in the 
 Rolls Series of the Brehon Laws, the ancient laws 
 and institutes of Ireland. In the linguistic field 
 Hogan’s most notable achievement was probably 
 his contribution to our knowledge of neuter nouns 
 in Old Irish, of which he identified more than 
 three thousand, at a time when they were almost 
 unknown to scholars. Hogan’s writings, "which all 
 relate to Ireland, are authoritative and are the fruit 
 of deep research. His magnum opus is his in¬ 
 valuable “Onomasticon Gcedelicum Locorum et 
 Tribuum Hiberniae et Scotia,” a dictionary of 
 Gaelic names of places and tribes, compiled from 
 all the old Irish manuscripts and published early 
 texts, with identifications based on the citations 
 from the texts. On this work he spent the last 
 ten years of his active literary career. Among his 
 other writings (a bibliography of which is given bv 
 John MacErlean in “Studies,” 1917, pp. 668-671) 
 may be mentioned as specially interesting and im- 
 important: “Ibernia Ignatiana, seu Ibernorum 
 Societatis Jesu Patrum monumenta” (1880), “Life, 
 Letters and Diary of H. Fitzsimon, S. J.,” “Dis¬ 
 tinguished Irishmen of the Sixteenth Century” 
 (1894), “Irish Phrase Book” (1891), “A Handbook 
 of Irish Idioms” (1898), “Outlines of the Grammar 
 of Old Irish” (1900), “Luibhleabhran” (1900), a 
 dictionary of Gaelic names of herbs, plants, etc., 
 “History of the Irish Wolf Dog” (1897), “The Irish 
 People: Their Height, Form and Strength” (1899), 
 and his editions of “Vita Sancti Patricii” (1882), 
 from the Book of Armagh, “Cath Ruis na Rig for 
 Borim” (1892), and “The Irish Nennius” (1895). 
 
 An Craoibhin (Douglas Hyde), A Great Irish Scholar in 
 Studies , VI (1917), 661-68. 
 
 Holland ( c f. C. E., VII-386d).—The area of Hol¬ 
 land is 12,582 sq. miles, and according to the census 
 taken in December, 1920, the population was 6,841,- 
 155. The largest towns with their populations on 31 
 December, 1919, are: Amsterdam 647,120; Rotter¬ 
 dam 506,067; the Hague 359,610; Utrecht 138,334; 
 Groningen 89,030. In 1919 there were 164,447 births, 
 89,646 deaths, 58,270 marriages. In the same year the 
 emigration, mostly to North America, was 2439. On 
 14 June, 1918, a law was passed for the purpose of 
 forming a new province by the draining of the 
 Zuiderzee to the extent of 523,000 acres, a work 
 which is expected to take fifteen years and to cost 
 66,250,000 florins (1 florin=$0.402 normal exchange). 
 
 Government.— Holland is a constitutional mon¬ 
 archy, with executive power vested in the sover¬ 
 eign, Queen Wilhelmina, and legislative power in 
 the Sovereign and the Parliament or States-General, 
 which consists of two chambers, the upper chamber 
 having 50 members elected for nine years by the 
 states, and the second or lower chamber of 100 
 deputies elected directly for four years. The Elec¬ 
 toral Reform Act, passed 12 December, 1917, pro¬ 
 vides for universal suffrage and proportional 
 representation. According to the electoral reform 
 act, passed 9 August, 1919, the members of the 
 lower house directly elected by citizens of both 
 sexes who are Dutch subjects not under twenty- 
 three years old. It was stipulated, however, that 
 until further regulations are introduced, the mem¬ 
 bers of the second chamber will be elected only 
 
HOLLAND 
 
 374 
 
 HOLLAND 
 
 by the male citizens of the kingdom who are dependent entirely on imports conditioned on an 
 twenty-live years of age. The Government and exchange of exports and was generally viewed with 
 the second chamber only may introduce new Bills, suspicion by the opposing nations. Within her bor- 
 the function of the upper chamber being restricted ders unscrupulous profiteers did not hesitate to sell 
 to approving or rejecting them without the power available food stocks to foreign buyers to an extent 
 of inserting amendments. The executive authority, that threatened depletion and famine. There are 
 vested in the sovereign, is exercised by a responsible four principal railroad lines in Holland, all pri- 
 Council of Ministers. There is a State Council, vately operated and owned, with the exception of 
 Raad van State, of fourteen members appointed by one which is Government owned but operated by 
 the sovereign, of which the sovereign is president a private company. A movement is now on foot to 
 and which is consulted on all legislative and a great consolidate all four roads in one organization, to be 
 number of executive matters. The territory is publicly supervised but privately operated. In 
 divided into 11 provinces and 1110 communes. 1919 the total mileage was 1830, and the revenue 
 Each province has its own representative body, the amounted to 36,606,000 guilders. 
 
 Provincial States, the members of which are elected Finance.— In 1919 the total revenue was 760,- 
 
 for four years directly from among the Dutch 091,000 guilders; the total expenditure, 1,024,- 
 inhabitants of the province. The provinces are 676,000 guilders. It is estimated that the deficit of 
 allowed to make ordinances concerning the welfare the Netherlands budget will be approximately 
 of the people and to raise taxes, but the ordinances 250,000,000 guilders in 1922, some 20,000,000 higher 
 must be approved by the Crown. Each commune than the deficit in 1921. In 1921 the total funded 
 has a council. national debt was about 2,575,000,000 guilders; a 
 
 Education. —The new educational provisions of little over half of this amount arises from direct 
 the constitution which have recently come into and indirect war costs, called “crisis expenditures.” 
 force in Holland provide that private general ele- Recent History. —During the World War the 
 mentary education shall be paid for by public position of Holland as a neutral nation was ex¬ 
 money on the same basis as public education, and tremely difficult. At the outbreak of the war in. 
 that the freedom of private education in the choice August, the Government issued a proclamation 
 of books and equipment and the appointment of of neutrality and mobilized its army of 125,000 men 
 teachers shall be respected. Thus the private church in order to be ready for any emergency that might 
 schools are placed on a par with the State schools, arise. Thousands of Belgian refugees poured across 
 The law of 1917 forbids school children under six- the frontiers into Holland, and with 22,000 interned 
 teen years of age to do any farm work between Belgian soldiers and 1560 British Marines to sup- 
 9 in the evening and 5 in the morning. The school port, the Government was involved in great ex¬ 
 age is from six to thirteen. In 1918-19 there were pense. Holland’s shipping losses were large, and 
 3424 public elementary schools with 19,757 teachers her trade suffered greatly during the World War 
 and 620,737 pupils; 2466 private elementary schools due to the system of control exercised by Great 
 with 14,795 teachers and 443,258 pupils; 208 pub- Britain, the United States and Germany. England 
 lie kindergartens and 1147 private kindergartens, stopped all Dutch vessels carrying contraband, de- 
 Besides there are 6 universities, and 34 classical manded that they be used in certain ways. Ger- 
 (public) schools, 525 schools for working people, 13 many retaliated by refusing safe-conduct to Dutch ' 
 navigation schools, and 139 middle class schools, vessels which conformed to English rules and 
 Economic Conditions. — Production .—In 1919 the when the United States entered the war, she backed 
 total cultivable and forest area was 6,078,947 acres; England in taking drastic steps to prevent the im- 
 there were 141,340 acres under wheat, with a pro- portation of cereals in order to prevent Germany 
 duction of 774,918 quarters; under rye 502,676 acres from obtaining any food during the blockade. Most 
 with 1,296,293 quarters; barley, 57,784 acres and of the present trade consists of goods on transit 
 311,833 quarters; oats 380,270 acres and 2,388,823 from and to Germany, notably the imports of silk 
 quarters. Owing to lack of coal to operate the goods and metal goods. In 1919 relations between 
 factories, in 1919 the output of beet sugar was only Holland and Belgium became strained when the 
 175,000 tons, compared with 259,550 tons in 1916-17. latter demanded that Limburg, Zeeland, and a 
 The coal output in 1919 was 3,401,346 tons, valued part of Staats Vlaanderen be surrendered to it. 
 at 70,909,000 guilders (1 guilder = $0,402, normal This demand was finally presented to the Peace 
 exchange). Most of the mines belong to the State. Conference and was refused. At the same time the 
 On 24 October, 1920, a law went into effect estab- Dutch ships which had been seized in the United 
 fishing as the legal maximum of labor 45 hours States during the war were returned, 
 a week, an eight-hour day with half holiday on In April, 1915, the International Congress of 
 Saturdays. Sunday labor is permitted only by order Women to denounce war and to demand peace was 
 of the government and the employment of chil- held at the Hague. After the Revolution in Ger- 
 dren under the age of thirteen is prohibited. The many, Holland became the refuge of the abdicating 
 result has been to curtail production. Industry has Emperor Wilhelm II. On 15 January, 1920, the 
 suffered also from the fall in foreign exchange, Supreme Council demanded that the former Em- 
 German competition, and excessive wages. The peror of Germany be surrendered to the Allies for 
 total imports of the country (not including the trial, in accordance with the Versailles Treaty, 
 transit trade) had in 1920 a value of $1,122,490,600 Holland firmly refused, on the ground of the inter- 
 as compared with $1,318,434,000 in 1919 (including national law of asylum for political refugees, and 
 the transit trade). The total exports had in 1920 said that she would take necessary precautions to 
 a value of $582,837,800 (not including the transit prevent the ex-Kaiser from endangering the world’s 
 trade). The imports of the country in the past four peace. 
 
 years have reached a total of 7,730,954,200 guilders, Colonial Empire.— Holland’s colonial possessions 
 and its exports only 4,313,219,600 guilders, leaving include the following: Java and Madura, 51,000 
 an adverse balance of 3,417,734,600 guilders, or at square miles; Sumatra, 163,000 square miles; Dutch 
 normal exchange, $1,459,189,800. During the war Borneo, 214,000 square miles; Celebes Islands, 
 Holland held geographically the position of lying 73,000 square miles; Molucca Islands, 44,000 square 
 across the path of traffic between the belligerent miles; Timor Archipelago, 154,000 square miles; 
 countries and the world’s food resources. She was other islands, 27,000 square miles. The colonies are 
 
HOLLAND 
 
 375 
 
 HOLY CHILD 
 
 administered in the name of the ruler of Holland 
 b} r a Governor-General, who has his headquarters 
 in Java. He has both legislative and executive 
 Powers but is subject to the acts of the States 
 General and the regulations and instructions of his 
 home Government. In 1916 was created the 
 Peoples Council ( Volksraad ) of 39 members, of 
 whom 19 are nominated by the Governor General 
 and the others elected by members of local coun¬ 
 cils. For administrative purposes the colonies are 
 divided into 2 sections: Java with Madura and the 
 outlying islands. Dutch enterprise has for three 
 centuries benefited enormously from the island em¬ 
 pire; the sale of the products of Government indus¬ 
 try yielding a handsome surplus over the expenses 
 of administration, but the withdrawal of the Gov¬ 
 ernment from business, the cost of native wars, and 
 the necessity of carrying out public works and in¬ 
 troducing reforms have converted a profit into a 
 loss which has to be made good by the tax-payer. 
 
 The Church in Holland.— On 20 May, 1915, 
 Premier Cort Van den Linden, realizing the impor¬ 
 tance of the Pope as a political and international 
 power, presented to Parliament a project for tem¬ 
 porary representation to the Holy See, which was 
 approved the following month and Jonkheer Octave 
 Van Nispen Tot Sevenave, member and former 
 president of the Second Chamber of the States 
 General was appointed Envoy Extraordinary and 
 Minister Plenipotentiary to the Holy See. Later 
 the representation was made permanent and in 
 May, 1921, Mgr. Roberto Vincentini, titular Arch¬ 
 bishop of Eleonopolis, was sent as internuncio to 
 Holland. 
 
 In the general election of 1918, held for the 
 first time on the principle of proportional repre¬ 
 sentation, the Catholics were numerically the 
 strongest faction in the Second Chamber and were 
 called upon to form a Cabinet, in which five out of 
 nine members are Catholic. They have proved 
 themselves skilful leaders and statesmen of high 
 purpose and have made many economic reforms. 
 To-day in Holland those who fifty years ago were 
 treated as social and political outcasts are now 
 counted as the strongest props of law and order 
 and the most resolute defenders of constituted 
 authority. 
 
 The passage of the new Education Law 30 June, 
 1920, marked for Catholics the end of a struggle 
 for equality before the law that had lasted for 
 fifty-two years, and that was won by tenacity of 
 purpose, firm convictions, and prayer. Slight gains 
 had been made in 1905 and 1912, and by the 
 provisions of the new De Visser Law no handicap 
 of whatever sort exists for private denominational 
 schools, which are to receive the same support as 
 the State schools. A day of thanksgiving for the 
 favorable outcome of this fight for children’s souls 
 was appointed by the archbishop of Utrecht. Three- 
 quarters of the expenses of private high schools are 
 to be borne by the State, and Catholics are now 
 turning their resouroes to the founding of a Catho¬ 
 lic University, for which large sums are already 
 pledged and which is to be situated at Nymegen. 
 The project has been blessed by the Holy Father. 
 Another evidence of the progress of the Church in 
 ^Holland is the splendid organization of Catholic 
 laboring men, who instead of falling a prey to Social¬ 
 ism are carefully organized in exclusively Catholic 
 unions, and are thus in the main safeguarded from 
 radicalism. The Dutch League of Peasants, estab¬ 
 lished to champion the cause of the farmer and 
 owing its prosperity largely to the priests, attends 
 to every aspect of the peasants’ well-being. The 
 League banks number 1147, with deposits in 1918 
 
 of $189,596,000; there are co-operative dairy plants 
 and the co-operative marketing of produce, pur¬ 
 chasing of seeds, farm implements, cattle-feed, 
 breeding stock, and insurance of all kinds. In 
 August, 1921, 4000 delegates from all the active 
 sodalities of the Blessed Virgin in Holland held 
 a Congress at Maestricht, celebrating at the same 
 time the fiftieth anniversary of the Workingmen’s 
 Sodality of Maestricht, which has 1800 members. 
 There is an effort being made in Holland to develop 
 Catholic missions in her overseas possessions. 
 Though she has 935 missionary priests, 391 Brothers, 
 and 971 Sisters in the foreign mission field, only 
 about 200 of them are ministering in her own 
 colonial possessions, owing to Calvinisitic bigotry on 
 the one hand and Masonic hatred of all things 
 Catholic on the other, which have never ceased to 
 antagonize the Church and in spite of the broad¬ 
 minded spirit animating the home Government 
 continue to do so. Prominent among the Catholic 
 statesmen of Holland is Mgr. Nolens, who, the 
 acknowledged leader of a political party, brought 
 together the strongest and best coalition ministry 
 Holland has ever known. He was a delegate to 
 the International Labor Conference in Washington, 
 1919, and brought about the triumph of sane demo¬ 
 cratic claims when the Conference seemed about to 
 break up without reaching any practical conclusion. 
 Later he was the preponderant influence as Hol¬ 
 land’s delegate to th& Sailors’ International Confer¬ 
 ence in Genoa. In the death (1922) of Father De 
 Groot, O. P., saintly priest, brilliant orator, director 
 of the Catholic intellectual elite of his country, and 
 professor of Thomistic philosophy at the University 
 of Amsterdam, the Church in Holland sustained a 
 severe loss. From his lecture hall as well as from 
 his cell he exercised a fruitful apostolate, especially 
 amongst the youth of his country. One of his most 
 recent converts was Dr. Frederic Van Eeden, well- 
 known physician, novelist, poet, playwright, lec¬ 
 turer, and socialist leader. For Catholic statistics 
 see articles on the Archdiocese of Utrecht and its 
 suffragans. 
 
 Holy Child Jesus, Society of the (cf. C. E., 
 VII-400c).—The work of the Society in the past 
 decade, both in England and America, has been 
 more on the line of consolidation than of expan¬ 
 sion, owing to the changes in educational programs 
 and the pursuit of studies for the reception of 
 degrees. The succession of the general superiors 
 since the death of the foundress in 1879 has been 
 as follows: Mother Angelica Croft, under whom the 
 rules and constitutions were approved and con¬ 
 firmed (1893); Mother Gonzaga Snow, who founded 
 the house of Cherwell Edge, Oxford, intended as a 
 house of studies for Catholic women; and the 
 present superior, Mother Mary Tolhurst. The 
 houses opened since 1910 are as follows: Portland, 
 Oregon; Waukegan, Ill.; Holy Child College, Rose- 
 mont, Penn, (established 1921). The present num¬ 
 ber of foundations (1921) is twent}^. Of these eight 
 are in England: Mayfield (mother-house), St. 
 Leonards-on-Sea, Mark Cross, London, Oxford, 
 Preston, Blackpool, Harrogate. The twelve houses 
 in the United States are in Pennsylvania, New 
 York, Massachusetts, Illinois, Wyoming, and Oregon. 
 There are 300 members of the Society in England 
 and 271 in America. 
 
 In addition to the work of education in parochial 
 schools, high schools, and academies, the Sisters 
 have undertaken evening classes for domestic science 
 and needlework, and extension courses for those 
 otherwise engaged during the day. They also have 
 Sodalities of Children of Mary, Alumnae Societies, 
 
HOLY CHILDHOOD 
 
 HOLY COMMUNION 
 
 37 
 
 and Christ Child meetings, while their alumnae in 
 both countries have undertaken settlement work 
 in London and New York. With regard to college 
 work, the first woman in Oxford to receive her 
 M.A. was one of the Sisters of the Holy Child 
 Jesus, while the first B.A. was a student of their 
 Oxford house. A great loss to the Society in 
 America was the death, in 1903, of Mother Mary 
 Walburga White, first provincial in the United 
 States. Two young sisters gave their lives nursing 
 the sick in their homes and in hospitals during the 
 epidemic of influenza in 1918. They were Mother 
 Marie Aloysia and Sister Mary Immaculata. 
 
 Holy Childhood, Association of the (cf. C. E., 
 VIl-299d).—Three years after its foundation, that 
 is, in 1846, the Holy Childhood was introduced 
 into New Orleans and Baltimore, from which cities 
 it slowly branched out and took root in a number 
 of other places in the United States. In the in¬ 
 terests of this Association the founder, Bishop 
 Forbin-Janson, traveled and lectured in France, Bel¬ 
 gium, and in England, but not in the United States, 
 though he may have had this in mind, for he 
 died unexpectedly at his home near Marseilles 12 
 July, 1844, at the age of fifty-nine years. In 1866 
 Rev. Theodore Thiry, S.J., was appointed by his 
 superiors to undertake to extend the Association 
 in the United States. At this.time he was attached 
 to St. Francis Xavier’s Church, New York City. He 
 succeeded in introducing the society in many new 
 parishes, edited the “Annals,” made the annual re¬ 
 ports, and accounted for the money received and 
 transmitted to the Paris headquarters. Associated 
 with him were Rev. B. Piott, of Baltimore, Rev. 
 Edward Joos, V.G., of Michigan, Mgr. Henry 
 Muehlsiepen, V. G., of St. Louis, and Rev. Andrew 
 Daniel, Agent for the Sulpician Fathers in the 
 United States and Canada. The total amount col¬ 
 lected by Fr. Thiry during the twenty-three years 
 that he supervised the work was $162,601.85. His 
 last work was to compile the report of the Holy 
 Childhood for the year 1888. He died in New York 
 City, 13 March’, 1889, at the age of sixty-six years. 
 After his death a number of centers continued the 
 work, but as they lacked leadership and inspira¬ 
 tion, interest began to wane and the receipts greatly 
 diminished. At the urgent request of the director 
 general of the Association, Mgr. Demimuid, Very 
 Rev. Joseph Strub, C. S. Sp., undertook to reor¬ 
 ganize the work in 1889. In February, 1890, he 
 appointed Rev. Anthony J. Zielenbach, C.S. Sp., 
 director of the German branches. He was assisted 
 in an executive capacity by Mr. Charles J. Jaegle, 
 who later in 1916 was knighted by Pope Benedict 
 XV for his services to the Church and the Catholic 
 press. With the appointment Fr. Zielenbach, Pitts¬ 
 burgh became the central bureau of the Association 
 in America. Rev. Andrew Daniel, S.S.S., remained 
 director for Canada and the English branches. In 
 1893 the entire work was entrusted to the Holy 
 Ghost Fathers. In August, 1897, Rev. John Wilms, 
 C.S.Sp., succeeded Fr. Zielenbach. He extended 
 the society to 32 dioceses, had it incorporated in 
 New York City in 1912, and raised during his 
 directorship over $417,900. He died 3 January, 
 1914. The work was continued by Rev. Francis 
 Retka, C.S.Sp., until the following October, when 
 Rev. Edward J. Knaebel, C.S.Sp., was placed in 
 charge. He greatly extended the sphere of the 
 Holy Childhood and put system into its manage¬ 
 ment. During the six years of his directorship he 
 raised $664,888.95. The work increased so rapidly 
 that in 1920 an assistant director became necessary, 
 and Rev. Joseph Rossenbach, C. S. Sp., was ap- 
 
 6 
 
 pointed. He continues to labor in this capacity. 
 In 1920 Fr. Knaebel, wishing to labor directly in 
 the missions, resigned the directorship and departed 
 for old Calabar, Nigeria, B.W.A. Rev. Lawrence 
 A. Farrell, C.S.Sp., succeeded him in office in 
 October, 1920, but owing to ill health had to resign 
 the following year. In September, 1921, Rev. Wm. 
 F. Stadelman, C.S.Sp., succeeded to the national 
 directorship. The work is now established in 55 
 dioceses in the United States, and the membership 
 is over 500,000. The amount collected from March, 
 1921, to March, 1922, amounted to $168,005.70. 
 
 It is estimated that at the present time there are 
 enrolled in the Association throughout the world 
 about 20,000,000 Catholic children. The total num¬ 
 ber of pagan infants rescued and baptized from 
 1843 to 1921 is 24,411,701. The total amount con¬ 
 tributed for this noble purpose by the children of 
 all countries for the same period is 194,125,435.03 
 francs, which at pre-war rate of exchange amounted 
 to $38,825,087. In the various heathen countries 
 285 missions are assisted, 1550 orphanages are main¬ 
 tained, and 11,750 workshops are operated. During 
 1913 the last normal year before the war, there was 
 collected in the whole world $862,094.12. In 1914 
 the amount dropped to $295,363.13. During the 
 war (1914-19) Germany and Austria discontinued 
 to contribute, which in part explains the decrease. 
 In 1920 the total sum collected in the whole world 
 was 8,001,441.71 francs, which at the rate of pre-war 
 exchange amounted to $1,600,288, but in reality was 
 less on account of the fluctuating values of French 
 money. Of this there were contributed in francs 
 by: North America, 2,347,013.20; France, 1,547,- 
 806.69; Germany, 1,030,080; Holland, 670,483.48; 
 Belgium, 633,022.74; Italy, 427,048.14; Switzerland, 
 327,037.76; South America, 233,760.93; Ireland, 228,- 
 285; Spain, 154,494.55; England, 108,625; Scotland, 
 104,500; Asia, 68,011.79; Oceania, 57,855.80; Malta, 
 28,976.25; Africa, 18,920.34; Denmark, 6320; Portu¬ 
 gal, 4375.75; Norway, 3201.29; Greece, 1623. 
 
 On 17 December, 1913, Pius X said of the Asso¬ 
 ciation: “We desire greatly that all Catholic chil¬ 
 dren join the pious and beneficial Association of 
 the Holy Childhood. This would contribute much 
 to their education, and bring upon them and their 
 homes Heaven’s choicest gifts. We heartily bless 
 them and their beloved parents.” On 13 September, 
 1914, Benedict XV said: “Like our regretted pre¬ 
 decessors of blessed memory, we are anxious to see 
 the membership of the Holy Childhood increased.” 
 And Pius XI likewise encouraged and blessed the 
 Association. 
 
 Holy Communion (cf. C. E., VIII-402).— Any 
 
 Driest may bring Holy Communion to a sick per¬ 
 son privately with the leave—at least presumed— 
 of the priest who has care of the Blessed Sacra¬ 
 ment. Holy Communion should be given under 
 the form of unleavened or leavened hosts accord¬ 
 ing to the lUte of the minister, except in case 
 of necessity, when there is no priest of the proper 
 Rite present; under such circumstances, however, 
 the minister is to observe the ceremonies of his 
 own Rite. Secret sinners who desire to receive 
 Holy Communion privately are to be refused if 
 the minister knows they are unrepentant, but not 
 if they approach publicly and cannot be passed by 
 without scandal. All those who have reached the 
 use of reason are obliged to receive Holy Com- 
 their spiritual director for just reasons tells them 
 munion at least about Easter each year, unless 
 to refrain temporarily.. This Easter precept is to 
 be fulfilled between Palm Sunday and Low Sun¬ 
 day, but the local ordinary may extend the time 
 
HOLY CROSS 
 
 3 
 
 from the fourth Sunday of Lent to Trinity Sunday, 
 if circumstances so demand. The Paschal Com¬ 
 munion may be received in any parish, but prefer¬ 
 ably in the recipient’s; those who receive it out¬ 
 side of the parish should tell their pastor that they 
 have fulfilled their duty. If for any reason the 
 Paschal Communion has not been receive^ within the 
 proper time, the obligation of going to communion 
 still remains; the precept, of course, is not fulfilled 
 by a sacrilegious communion. The faithful may re¬ 
 ceive Holy Communion according to any Rite, but 
 it is desired that they should fulfil the Easter 
 precept in their own Rite. Holy Communion, 
 which may be distributed only during the hours 
 may now be received by the faithful on Holy 
 Saturday, but only during Mass or immediately 
 after. A priest saying Mass must not give Holy 
 Communion during Mass to persons at such a 
 distance that he cannot see the altar; it may be 
 given wherever it is permitted to say Mass, even 
 in a private oratory, unless the local ordinary for 
 just causes prohibits that in particular cases. 
 
 Holy Cross, Congregation of (cf. C. E., VII- 
 403a).—The history of the congregation during the 
 
 Holy Cross, Congregation of (cf. C. E., VII- 
 403a).—The history of the congregation during the 
 second decade of the twentieth century is a story 
 of continuous development and gratifying progress. 
 In the province of Eastern Bengal there has been 
 a notable increase, both in the number of mis¬ 
 sionaries engaged in the work and in the material 
 resources upon which that work largely depends. 
 A monthly magazine, “The Bengalese,” published 
 in Washington, D. C., is successfully enlisting the 
 sympathy of thousands of readers in behalf of the 
 missionaries and their flocks; and a foreign mission 
 seminary, soon to be established in Detroit, Mich., 
 will have for its exclusive end the training of youth¬ 
 ful Americans for service in Bengal. In the prov¬ 
 ince of Canada the outstanding feature of the 
 decade has been the somewhat remarkable develop¬ 
 ment of the “Oratory of St. Joseph” at Mount 
 Royal Ward, Montreal. The crypt of a proposed 
 magnificent basilica has been completed at a cost 
 of more than a quarter of a million dollars, the 
 gift of thousands of pilgrims to the shrine made 
 famous by hundreds of miracle-like cures, which 
 have been secured through the intercession of St. 
 Joseph, invoked by his devoted client, Brother 
 Andre. The work of the Oratory has the fullest 
 approbation of the ecclesiastical authorities; and, 
 as a place of pilgrimage, St. Joseph’s shrine on the 
 flank of Mount Royal already bids fair to rival the 
 Canadian shrine par excellence, Ste. Anne de 
 Beaupre. Development in the province of the 
 United States has taken the form of an increase 
 in the number of high schools conducted by the 
 Brothers of Holy Cross, and the establishment of 
 Moreau Seminary at Notre Dame, Indiana. The 
 severest blow to fall upon the congregation for the 
 past quarter of a century was the death, in 1921, 
 of the Very Rev. Andrew Morrissey, Coadjutor- 
 General of the Congregation. Father Morrissey had 
 been president of the University of Notre Dame 
 for a dozen years, and Provincial Superior of the 
 province of the United States for a subsequent 
 period of a decade and a half. His lamented death 
 occurred less than a year after his appointment as 
 Coadjutor-General by the General Chapter, held 
 at Notre Dame, Indiana, in 1920. At this same 
 General Chapter, the rules and constitutions of 
 Holy Cross were thoroughly revised and brought 
 into complete harmony with the New Code of 
 Canon Law. The members of the congregation in 
 
 1 ' HOLY CROSS 
 
 the opening year of the century’s third decade in- 
 elude some 240 priests, 140 professed seminarians 
 and ecclesiastical novices, 375 professed brothers, 
 and 50 novice brothers. 
 
 Holy Cross, Sisters of the (cf. C. E., VII-405c). 
 —The work of the Holy Cross Sisters is chiefly 
 educational, but they also devote themselves to 
 the care of orphanages and hospitals for the sick. 
 They had charge of military and naval hospitals 
 during the Civil War, and cared for the soldiers 
 in the camps during the Spanish-American War. 
 On 30 November, 1919, with appropriate ceremonies 
 marble markers, ordered by the Federal Govern¬ 
 ment, were placed on the graves of the Sisters 
 who had been nurses during the Civil War. On 22 
 December, 1920, Mile. Louise d’Orbessains, in reli¬ 
 gion Sister M. Eugenie, C.S. C., professor of French 
 language and literature at St. Mary’s, was declared 
 a member of the French Academy by the Depart¬ 
 ment of Public Instruction and Fine Arts of the 
 French Republic. Commandant G. E. Dubreuil, 
 military attache of the French Embassy at Wash¬ 
 ington, D. C., presented her with the decoration, 
 awarded 26 June, 1921. 
 
 The Sacred Congregation of Religious approved 
 of the changes made in the constitutions in con¬ 
 formity with the revised Code of Canon Law, 28 
 April, 1921. The mother-house of the community 
 is St. Mary’s College and Academy, Notre Dame 
 P. O., near South Bend, Indiana. The present 
 Superior General is Mother M. Aquina, elected 25 
 July, 1919, succeeding Mother Perpetua (1901-19), 
 Mother Annunciata (elected 1895; d. 1900), Mother 
 Augusta (1882-95), and Mother Angela, the virtual 
 foundress of the order in the United States. Fifty 
 seven Sisters, of whom 38 are dead and 19 living, 
 are Jubilarians, having lived fifty years after their 
 religious profession. There are 1055 Sisters working 
 in the Archdioceses of Baltimore, Chicago, Cin¬ 
 cinnati, Dubuque, New York, Oregon City, Phila¬ 
 delphia, San Francisco, Santa Fe, and in the various 
 dioceses. They conduct 74 institutions, including 
 1 college, 2 normal schools, 19 boarding schools, 44 
 parochial schools with 13,290 pupils, 7 hospitals 
 with 14,662 patients, and 4 orphan asylums with 
 169 orphans. 
 
 Holy Cross, Sisters Marianites of the (cf. C. 
 E., VII-405b).—This congregation, with mother- 
 house and novitiate in New Orleans, La., numbers 
 150 Sisters, who are in charge of 2 orphanages, 1 
 home for boys, 19 academies and schools in the 
 Archdiocese of New Orleans and in the Diocese of 
 Natchez, and have under their care 5500 children. 
 Attached to the mother-house in France is the 
 novitiate in New York, in which archdiocese there 
 are 70 professed Sisters and 1 novice, in charge of 
 5 schools with 832 pupils. 
 
 Holy Cross College —The oldest Catholic college 
 in New England was founded in the year 1843, by 
 the Rt. Rev. Benedict Joseph Fenwick, second 
 bishop of Boston. The bishop was aided by the 
 Rev. James Filton, who in 1838 had established 
 the Seminary of Mt. St. James on the hill which 
 now bears that name, but was then known as 
 Pakachoag, “Hill of Pleasant Springs.” Father 
 Filton presented this institution to the bishop in 
 1842, and on 2 November, 1843, classes were or¬ 
 ganized in what was still known as the Seminary 
 of Mt. St. James, and on 13 January, 1844, the 
 first college building was completed. 
 
 The Fathers of the Society of Jesus were invited 
 by the bishop to organize the courses of study 
 
HOLY FAMILY 
 
 378 
 
 HOLY FAMILY 
 
 according to the curriculum of their college at 
 Georgetown. Bishop Fenwick died 10 August, 184b, 
 and was buried in the college cemetery. A few 
 days before his death, however, on 6 August, he 
 had ceded full control and possession of the in¬ 
 stitution with buildings and grounds free of incum¬ 
 brance to the Fathers. 
 
 On 14 July, 1852, a fire destroyed the entire cen¬ 
 tral building, and the very existence of the institu¬ 
 tion was threatened by this serious loss. However, 
 the Rt. Rev. John B. Fitzpatrick, then Bishop ot 
 Boston, determined that the college should not 
 perish, and on 3 October, 1853, it was ready, en¬ 
 larged, and remodeled to receive students. JNever- 
 theless, the effect of the calamity on the young 
 institution is evident in the interruption of graduat¬ 
 ing classes from 1852 to 1858. . 
 
 The new college encountered difficulties m ob¬ 
 taining a charter, and although the petition was 
 presented in 1849 the charter was not granted until 
 1865, when the influence of the Civil War had 
 caused all differences of opinion regarding it to be 
 set aside. However, during this period the stu¬ 
 dents were not deprived of the benefits of gradua¬ 
 tion, as Georgetown College conferred degrees on 
 all who were graduated from 1849—52 and from 
 1858-65. In 1895 a new building was completed 
 containing a thoroughly equipped gymnasium, and 
 in 1905 and 1913 two more buildings were added 
 to the college. The graduates of the college from 
 1849 to 1920 inclusive number 2165, and in 1920-21 
 the college registered 733 students. The Rev. James 
 J. Carlin, S.J., president of the college, is assisted 
 by a faculty of 54 members. 
 
 Holy Family, Congregation of the (cf. C. E. ; 
 VII-407d).—This institute, founded by Abbe 
 Noailles in 1820, now comprises three branches 
 which have their own government and their own 
 life. They are: (1) Sisters of St. Joseph, whose 
 special aim is the adoption and education of young 
 orphans. This congregation, which has at all times 
 met with the warmest sympathy from all classes 
 of society, directs orphanages in France and Spam. 
 The mother-house is in Bordeaux. (2) Sisters of 
 the Immaculate Conception, whose principal work 
 is the education and instruction of youth of the 
 different classes of society. In France, Spain, Eng¬ 
 land, Belgium, Asia, and Africa they direct houses 
 of higher education, boarding schools for the middle 
 class, high schools, elementary and kindergarten 
 schools, houses of refuge, and workrooms. In some 
 localities they visit the sick and the poor. The 
 mother-house is in Bordeaux. (3) Sisters of Hope, 
 whose chief end is the nursing of the sick, either 
 in their homes or in hospitals and clinics. To 
 these chief works is added another entirely charit¬ 
 able work: the Sisters visit the sick poor, nurse 
 them, and watch by them as far as the case requires. 
 In populous centers they associate with themselves 
 charitable ladies whose co-operation enables them 
 to help a greater number of poor. They are estab¬ 
 lished in the chief towns of France, Spain, England, 
 Italy, Ceylon, South Africa, and the two Americas. 
 The mother-house is in Bordeaux. 
 
 The last establishment of the founder was the 
 work of the Solitary Sisters, devoted to contempla¬ 
 tion. He founded them with a view to setting up 
 a living and permanent votive offering of thanks¬ 
 giving for the great Eucharistic miracle of 3 Feb¬ 
 ruary, 1822. On this date the officiating priest at 
 Benediction in the Convent of the Ladies of Loreto, 
 at Bordeaux, beheld an apparition of Our Lord 
 within the monstrance which held the Sacred Host, 
 this miraculous appearance being testified to by the 
 
 altar-boy, the superioress of the house, and the 
 majority of those present during Benediction. 
 The Sisters keep up perpetual adoration and recite 
 every day in Latin the liturgical office of Our Lady. 
 By their life of piety and solitude they constitute 
 the praying portion of the Holy Family, which is 
 a wholly active congregation. 
 
 In communities requiring it, lay Sisters, designated 
 by the name of Sisters of St. Martha, are especially 
 devoted to manual labor. They share in all the 
 privileges of the religious state and of community 
 life in the same way as all the members of the 
 Holy Family. 
 
 To supply these works with subjects qualified to 
 secure the aim the founder had in view in institut¬ 
 ing them, novitiates are established at Talence, 
 near Bordeaux; Hortaleza, near Madrid; Rock 
 Ferry, England; Rome, Italy; Bellair, Africa; and 
 in Canada. As a consequence of persecution and 
 war, a certain number of houses having been closed 
 in France, the institute has at present (1921) 202 
 houses with 3618 Sisters in charge of 30,000 children 
 and 15,000 poor and sick. 
 
 Holy Family, Little Sisters of the (cf. C. E., 
 VII-408b).—This congregation, with mother-house 
 at Sherbrooke, P. Q., Canada, numbers 44 missions, 
 794 professed Sisters, 49 novices, and 21 postulants. 
 There are 8 establishments in the United States. 
 
 Holy Family, Sisters of the (New Orleans; 
 cf. C. E., VII-408a).—This congregation of colored 
 Sisters, with novitiate at New Orleans, La., con¬ 
 ducts establishments in the Archdiocese of New 
 Orleans and the Dioceses of Galveston, San 
 Antonio, and Mobile. There are 145 Sisters, 11 
 novices and 2 postulants with 3100 pupils under 
 their instruction. 
 
 Holy Family, Sisters of the (San Francisco; 
 cf. C. E., VII-408c), founded in San Francisco in 
 1872 by Miss Elizabeth Armer, who became in reli¬ 
 gion Sister M. Dolores, under the guidance of the 
 Most Rev. J. S. Alemany, then Archbishop of San 
 Francisco, and the Very Rev. J. J. Prendergast. The 
 special work of the Sisters is: the catechetical in¬ 
 struction of public school children, the assisting of 
 pastors in Sunday schools, the seeking out of children 
 of neglectful or indifferent parents to induce them to 
 attend classes of Christian Doctrine, and the estab¬ 
 lishment of day homes for the care of little children 
 whose mothers are obliged to work during the day. 
 At the present time the Sisters have under their 
 spiritual care thousands of children. They assist 
 in 23 Sunday schools in the city and suburbs of 
 San Francisco, besides conducting several large day 
 homes. Houses were established in San Jose in 
 1907 and in Oakland in 1911. The Los Angeles 
 foundation in 1921 is the first established in 
 Southern California. 
 
 Holy Family of Nazareth, Sisters of the (cf. 
 C. E., VII-408a).—The mother-house of this con¬ 
 gregation is at Rome, Italy, and the provincial 
 house for America is at Des Plaines, Ill. In the 
 United States the Sisters conduct institutions in 
 the archdioceses of Boston, Chicago, and Phila- 
 . delphia, and in the dioceses of Brooklyn, Cleveland, 
 Columbus, Detroit, Erie, Fort Wayne, Hartford, 
 Peoria, Pittsburgh, Scranton, Springfield, and Syra¬ 
 cuse. There are in the United States 1030 pro¬ 
 fessed Sisters, 75 novices, and 40 postulants, in 
 charge of 57 parochial schools with 50,000 pupils, 
 2 orphanages, 2 hospitals caring for 186 patients 
 daily and 4957 during the year, 1 academy with 
 32 boarders and 307 day scholars, and 1 day nursery. 
 
HOLY GHOST 
 
 379 
 
 HOLY SAVIOR 
 
 Holy Ghost, Congregations of the.—I. Congre¬ 
 gation of the Holy Giiost and of tile Immaculate 
 Heart of Mary (cf. C. E., VII-416d).—The mother- 
 house and house of general administration of the 
 congregation is at Paris, where the superior general 
 lesides. Mgr. Le Roy, Archbishop of Alinda, has 
 been superior since 1896. At Rome the Fathers direct 
 the French Seminary. The congregation numbers six 
 provinces: France, Ireland, Germany, Portugal, the 
 United States, and Belgium-Holland, and the vice¬ 
 province of England. The dioceses, vicariates apos¬ 
 tolic, and prefectures apostolic confided to it number 
 25. They are, in Africa: Angola and Congo, Lower 
 Congo, Senegal and Senegambia, Sierra Leone, 
 Zanzibar, Upper Cimbebasia, Lower Niger, Loango, 
 Gaboon, Kamerun, Ubanghi, French Guinea, Baga- 
 moyo, Ubanghi-Shari, Kilima-Najaro, Southern 
 Katanga; near the African continent: Diego 
 Suarez (Northern Madagascar), Mayotte Islands 
 and Nossi-Be and Comoro, Reunion, Port Louis 
 (Mauritius); in America: Saint-Pierre and Mique¬ 
 lon, Guadeloupe, Martinique, French Guiana, and 
 Teffe. The congregation also has important col¬ 
 leges near Ottawa, Canada, at Port au Prince, Haiti, 
 and at Port of Spain, Trinidad, and directs at 
 Pittsburgh, Penn., the Duquesne University with 
 more than 2000 students. In the United States 
 the Fathers are established in 15 dioceses and have 
 38 houses, of which 16 are especially devoted to 
 work among the colored people. The preparatory 
 college is at Cornwells Heights, Penn., and the 
 novitiate is at Ferndale, Conn. According to the 
 latest statistics (1921) the congregation comprises 
 2888 members, of whom 1726 are professed and 1162 
 aspirants, with a total of 272 houses. In March, 
 1922, the Holy Ghost Order was officially recognized 
 by the Colonial Office of the British Government. 
 
 II. Congregation of the Daughters of the 
 Holy Ghost (cf. C. E., VII-417d).—At the death 
 of Mother Saint George, Superior General from 
 1913 to 1919, her predecessor, Mother Marie-Alvarez, 
 was re-elected and actually governs the congrega¬ 
 tion. Previous to the publication, in 1918, of the 
 new Code of Canon Law, the Daughters of the Holy 
 Ghost made perpetual vows after having completed 
 two years of religious novitiate. Now the duration 
 of the probation is one year, at the completion of 
 which they make temporary vows for three years 
 and then perpetual vows. The number of members 
 is over 2000. 
 
 III. Missionary Sisters, Servants of the Holy 
 Ghost (cf. C. E., VII-418a).—This congregation 
 was founded at Steyl, Holland, in the year 1889, 
 by the late Very Rev. Arnold Janssen, founder of 
 the Society of the Divine Word. Its principal aim 
 is work in home and foreign missions, especially 
 in those which are in charge of the above mentioned 
 society. Its chartered title is “Missionary Sisters, 
 Servants of the Holy Ghost.” It numbers (1920) 
 1034 professed Sisters, 119 novices, 67 postulants, 
 and 70 candidates. The congregation possesses 7 
 novitiates, as follows: 2 in Holland, at Stejd and 
 at Uden; 1 in Germany, at Vallendar, Rid.; 1 in 
 Austria, at Stockerau, near Vienna; 1 in Argentina, 
 at Crespo; 1 in the U. S. A., at Techny, Ill.; 1 in 
 Yen-chou-fu, South Shantung, China. In the home 
 and foreign missions the Sisters take up all kinds 
 of work suitable to their state: the teaching in 
 schools for elementary and higher education, the 
 conducting of hospitals, dispensaries, orphanages, 
 boarding schools, homes for the aged, asylums, 
 sanatoria, etc. They have 14 houses in Holland, 
 
 9 in Germany, 6 in Austria, 19 in Argentina, 10 in 
 Brazil, 14 in the U. S. A., 3 in the Philippine Islands, 
 
 5 in China, 4 in New Guinea, 2 in Japan, 2 in 
 
 Dutch E. Indies. Up to 1918 the congregation was 
 represented also in the mission of Togo, West 
 Africa, and in Mozambique, on the east coast of 
 Africa. These two missions, comprising four and 
 three stations respectively, are forsaken at the 
 present time, by reason of the deportation and 
 repatriation of the priests as well as the Sisters. 
 At the first General Chapter of the congregation 
 which convened in 1910 at Steyl, Holland, Mother 
 Theresia was elected Superior General. At this 
 time the first constitutions were revised and 
 adapted according to the then published decrees 
 of the Sacred Congregation of the Affairs of the 
 Religious. A change was made in the color of the 
 religious garb from light blue to dark blue, except 
 for the missionaries in the tropics, who continue 
 to wear white habits. In 1920 the formation of 
 the European houses into provinces took place, and 
 the following provinces were erected: Holland, Ger¬ 
 many, and Austria. The next General Chapter is 
 in preparation for May, 1922, when the Superior 
 General will be elected and another revision of the 
 constitution will be made to conform to the new 
 Canon Law. 
 
 The first provincial superior of the United States 
 was Sister Leonarda. The present Provincial 
 Superior is Sister Willibalda. The Holy Ghost 
 Institute, Techny, Ill., is the provincial house, the 
 seat of the novitiate and postulate. Connected 
 with it is a boarding school for girls. The number 
 of religious in the United States is 199, including 
 169 professed Sisters, 19 novices, and 11 postulants. 
 The Sisters conduct five schools for colored chil¬ 
 dren in Jackson, Meridian, Vicksburg, Greenville, 
 Miss., and in Little Rock, Ark. They have an 
 average of 1500 pupils in the elementary grades, in 
 high school, commercial and music departments. 
 The community is in charge of two hospitals, at 
 Watertown, Wis., with a training school for nurses 
 in connection, and at New Hampton, Iowa, with 
 500 and 300 patients per annum. At the St. Ann’s 
 Home at Techny, Ill., 130 aged people are cared 
 for. Since 1910 up to 15 Sisters left Techny to 
 go to the missions among the Igorots on the island 
 Luzon, P. I. On 24 November, 1921, the first four 
 American Sisters departed from Techny for the 
 mission among the Papuans, in New Guinea, 
 Oceania. 
 
 Holy Humility of Mary, Institute of Sisters of 
 the (cf. C. E., VII-418b).—The Sisters devote 
 themselves to the care of the sick, orphans, and 
 homeless children. The postulantship of six months 
 is followed by a novitiate of two years, at the end 
 of which time triennial vows are made. At the 
 expiration of these vows the Sisters make perpetual 
 vows. The mother-house is at Villa Maria, Law¬ 
 rence Co., Penn., and the community is attached 
 to the Diocese of Cleveland. In 19il the Sisters 
 were given charge of a new diocesan hospital opened 
 at Youngstown, Ohio. At present 18 Sisters are 
 assigned there. The congregation numbers (1921) 
 about 275 members. They conduct two high schools 
 and a school for poor children, the latter situated 
 at the mother-house, and also have under their 
 care parochial schools, one hospital, the diocesan 
 seminary, and St. Anthony’s Home for Working 
 Boys. 
 
 Holy Savior, Sisters of the Most. —This con¬ 
 gregation, called also the Daughters of the Divine 
 Redeemer or Sisters of Niederbronn, was founded 
 in 1849 for the care of the sick and poor at Nieder¬ 
 bronn (Alsace) by Elizabeth Eppinger, a peasant 
 girl. The foundress was in poor health and thirty- 
 five years of age. She was aided in her work by 
 
HOLY SEPULCHRE 
 
 380 
 
 HOLY UNION 
 
 the zealous and prudent devotion of Fr. Jean David 
 Reichard, pastor of Niederbronn, who later resigned 
 his parish to devote himself entirely to the con¬ 
 gregation. The Bishop of Strasburg, Msgr. Raess, 
 gave his paternal interest and entire sympathy to 
 the work from its beginning. The congregation 
 obtained legal rights and recognition by imperial 
 decree of 6 November, 1854. The Holy See granted 
 it the decree of praise 7 March, 1863, the decree of 
 approbation 11 April, 1866, and approved its con¬ 
 stitutions 30 July, 1877. By decree of the Sacred 
 Congregation of Religious of 3 December, 1919, it 
 was divided into four provinces, two French and 
 two German. The constitutions, changed to con¬ 
 form to this new division and to the new Code 
 of Canon Law, have been submitted to the Holy 
 See for approbation. 
 
 The congregation spread rapidly in the Diocese 
 of Strasburg, and since 1851 has been established 
 in other dioceses of France, in Germany, Austria, 
 Belgium, and Luxemburg. In 1866 a schism sep¬ 
 arated from the mother-house of the congregation 
 the houses in the Dioceses of Wurzburg in Bavaria, 
 Vienna in Austria, and Oedenburg in Hungary, 
 which the respective bishops constituted as inde¬ 
 pendent and autonomous congregations. In 1880 
 the mother-house with the novitiate was transferred 
 from Niederbronn to Oberbronn. The congregation 
 has at the present time three novitiaties; one at 
 Oberbronn in the Diocese of Strasburg for the two 
 French provinces of Alsace-Lorraine and of the 
 Interior; another at Buhl in the Diocese of Frei- 
 burg-im-Breisgau for the German province of 
 Baden-Hesse; the third at Neumarkt in the Diocese 
 of Eichstatt for the German province of Bavaria. 
 The three novitiates have a total of 207 novices. 
 The number of members of the congregation has 
 steadily increased since its origin. Professed Sis¬ 
 ters numbered 600 in 1872, 1800 in 1900, 2424 in 
 1910, 2871 in 1922. The number of houses in the 
 four provinces is 367. There were 268 in 1900, 122 
 in 1880, 72 in 1860, and 9 in 1850. The primary 
 work of the congregation is the care of the sick, 
 especially the sick poor, in their homes, in hos¬ 
 pitals, and in convalescent homes. The Sisters also 
 have under their care orphanages, hospices, and 
 refuges for the poor, workrooms for young girls, 
 housekeeping schools, kindergartens, and day 
 nurseries. 
 
 Holy Sepulchre, Canonesses Regular of the. 
 See Canonesses Regular. 
 
 Holy Sepulchre, Franciscan Guardians of the 
 (cf. C. E., VII-427b).—A band of six or seven 
 Franciscan Fathers and as many Brothers chosen 
 from the community of St. Saviour to keep watch 
 over the Hofy Sepulchre and the sanctuaries of the 
 basilica, to which they conduct a daily pilgrimage. 
 The Friars lead a difficult confined life. At mid¬ 
 night, while chanting their Office, they go in pro¬ 
 cession to incense the tomb of the Saviour whilst 
 they intone the Benedictus. The rest of the com¬ 
 munity of St. Saviour, which generally numbers 
 about 25 Fathers and 55 Brothers, are engaged in 
 the various activities of the convent, which com¬ 
 prise, besides the church of St. Saviour (the Latin 
 parish church of Jerusalem), an orphanage, a parish 
 school for boys, a printing office, carpenter’s and 
 ironmonger’s shops, a mill run by steam, and the 
 largest library in Palestine. While the taking of 
 Jerusalem from the Turks by the British forces on 
 9 December, 1917, tended to alleviate the severe 
 privations suffered by the Guardians of the Holy 
 Sepulchre in common with their brethren through¬ 
 
 out the Custody of the Holy Land, it nevertheless 
 failed to mark the end of their humiliation in hav¬ 
 ing Mohammedan doorkeepers at the Tomb of 
 the Saviour. General Allenby, on assuming formal 
 possession of the Holy City, regarded this galling 
 condition in the light of a quasi-religious right 
 belonging traditionally to certain Turkish families, 
 and confirmed their position until such time as the 
 status of the religious questions in Palestine should 
 be defined. This difficult task was entrusted by the 
 Treaty of Versailles to a commission to be appointed 
 for the purpose. Remarkable deliberation has been 
 manifested in this important matter, for after two 
 years’ delay no visible progress has been made 
 toward the bare nomination of the commission. 
 Until the decisions of this future body are approved 
 by the League of Nations, the many injustices to 
 Catholic rights that came into being during the 
 long Turkish rule in the Holy Land are to remain 
 unremedied. 
 
 Holy Union of the Sacred Hearts, Congregation 
 of the, founded in France, in Cambrai, by Jean 
 Baptiste Debrabant, secular priest of that diocese. 
 As early as the year 1824 the work had been begun 
 in Douai, under the protection of Monsignor Wicart, 
 afterwards Bishop of Laval. In 1826 the Abbe 
 Jean Baptiste Debrabant, animated with zeal for 
 the glory of God and deeply affected by the great 
 moral evils brought about by the principles of the 
 French revolution, accepted the spiritual and tem¬ 
 poral responsibility of the work already begun in 
 1824, and established in the Diocese of Cambrai a 
 pious Congregation of Sisters who should procure 
 the glory of God and the salvation of souls, by 
 the sanctification of its members and the Catholic 
 and social education of youth. Thus the Abbe 
 became the founder of the congregation to which 
 he gave the name of “The Holy Union of the 
 Sacred Hearts.” The congregation spread rapidly, 
 and at the present day it has convents in several 
 parts of the world. After a laudatory brief, given 
 on the recommendation of the bishops, the congre¬ 
 gation received its first decree of approbation from 
 the Sacred Congregation of Bishops and Regulars, 
 30 May, 1853. On 18 December, 1877, another 
 decree of the same sacred congregation granted the 
 final approbation of the Holy See. This important 
 decree facilitated its extension in foreign countries. 
 Already established in France, Belgium, England, 
 and Ireland, it was in 1882 introduced into South 
 America, in 1886 into North America, and in 1890 
 into the West Indies. 
 
 It was on the recommendation of Rt. Rev. J. 
 McNamee, of Brooklyn, that this congregation was 
 introduced into the United States. This worthy 
 priest, having a near relative a member of the 
 congregation, advised the late Rev. M. McCabe, 
 of Fall River, Mass., to invite the Sisters to take 
 up the work of the parochial school in his parish 
 of the Sacred Heart. The invitation was accepted, 
 and the Sisters came to Fall River from Douai in 
 October, 1886. In December of the same year a 
 young ladies’ academy was opened on Prospect 
 Street, and later on a boarding school was estab¬ 
 lished. Other foundations succeeded each other in 
 due course: in Taunton, Mass., Pawtucket, R. I., 
 North Cambridge, Mass., South Lawrence, Mass., 
 and Chelsea, Mass. The novitiate for the American 
 province is in Fall River, Mass. The congregation 
 is placed under the authority of a superior general, 
 who is elected by the general chapter and who 
 resides in Tournai, Belgium. Before the expulsion 
 of the religious from France, in 1902, the mother- 
 house was situated in Douai. The superior is 
 
HOMICIDE 
 
 381 
 
 HO-NAN 
 
 assisted by a council of six members, besides a 
 secretary^ general and a bursar general. 
 
 Homicide (cf. C. E., VII—422c).—A member of 
 the laity who is guilty of homicide is thereby 
 rendered incapable of legal ecclesiastical acts and 
 is excluded from any office he may have held in 
 the Church. 
 
 Ho-nan, Eastern, Vicariate Apostolic of (Ho- 
 nanensis Orientalis), in China. The vicariate 
 was erected 21 September, 1916, when Ho-nan was 
 divided for the third time into four instead of 
 three dioceses as hitherto, the new vicariate being 
 directly east of Western Honan. Bishop Noe 
 Giuseppe Tacconi of the Foreign Missions of Milan, 
 born at Pavia 23 September, 1873, came to China 
 27 September, 1895, was named Bishop of Aradus 
 and vicar Apostolic of Southern Ho-nan, 18 Septem¬ 
 ber, 1911, and was transferred on 20 November, 
 1916, to the new see. With seven priests, five of 
 whom were from the Foreign Missions of Milan, 
 and two natives, the new vicar organized the 
 vicariate. An imposing cathedral has been built 
 in Kai-feng-fu, the episcopal seat. 
 
 On 24 November, 1920, six Sisters of Divine Provi¬ 
 dence from the United States of America arrived 
 in Kai-feng for purpose of founding schools for 
 girls and caring for orphans. In the same year 
 three priests from America arrived to teach the 
 boys of the vicariate, and in a few months had 
 opened flourishing schools. The 8262 Catholics are 
 Chinese and are attended by 11 secular priests. 
 The vicariate has 8 parishes, 8 missions, 7 churches, 
 8 stations, 1 seminary with 25 seminarians, 2 normal 
 schools with 15 teachers and 340 boys and 60 girl 
 students, 32 elementary schools with 32 teachers 
 and 459 boys and 215 girls, 144 catechumens, 1 
 home for the aged, 1 orphanage with 30 children. 
 
 Ho-Nan, Northern, Vicariate Apostolic of ( Ho¬ 
 nan en sis Septemtrionalis) , is one of the four 
 vicariates in the territory of Ho-Nan, China. It 
 is entrusted to the seminary of Foreign Missions 
 of Milan, and the present vicar apostolic is Rt. 
 Rev. Martino Cholino, born in Volchiusella, diocese 
 of Ivrea, in 1877, left for Northern Ho-Nan after 
 having been appointed titular Bishop of Calama 
 and Vicar Apostolic of Northern Ho-Nan 23 
 February, 1921, succeeding Rt. Rev. Giovanni 
 Memcatti, born in Milan-18 September, 1866, came 
 to China 1 April, 1889, was elected Bishop of Tanis 
 and Vicar Apostolic of Northern Ho-Nan 12 Sep¬ 
 tember, 1903, consecrated in Pekin 23 November, 
 1903. On the occasion of his sacerdotal jubilee, 
 in 1913, the pope accorded him the usage of the 
 throne and of the cappa magna, and the privilege 
 to be named in The Canon of the Mass as if he 
 were a resident bishop. In 1920 the bishop resigned 
 from the vicariate and is now living in Milan. 
 
 By present (1921) statistics the Catholic popula¬ 
 tion of the vicariate numbers 20,967, all Chinese, 
 and there are: 15 parishes, 22 churches, 396 mission 
 stations, 1 convent of women with 12 Chinese Sis¬ 
 ters, 4 lay brothers, 1 seminary, 17 seminarians, 6 
 secondary schools for boys with 324 pupils, 1 second¬ 
 ary school for girls with 40 pupils, 1 professional 
 school with 1 professor and 7 pupils, 1 French school 
 with 9 teachers and 250 pupils, 447 elementary 
 schools with 6900 pupils, 1 orphanage for boys with 
 24 orphans, 1 orphanage for girls with 92 orphans, 
 and 1 infant asylum with 363 orphan children. 
 
 Ho-nan, Southern, Vicariate Apostolic of (cf. 
 C. E., III-677d).—Before 1844 the missions in Ho¬ 
 nan were cared for by the Jesuits, but in 1844 a 
 
 vicariate apostolic was created and placed in charge 
 Vo™ i ^azarist lathers, they being succeeded in 
 1869 by the priests of the Foreign Missions ol 
 Milan, directed by Bishop Simeone Volontieri, who 
 greatly increased the number of Christians and mis¬ 
 sions. r lhe vicariate was divided in 1882, all the 
 territory of Ho-nan north of the Yellow River being 
 formed into the \icanate of Northern Ho-nan and 
 that south of the river into the vicariate of Southern 
 Ho-nan. It was 1884 before the bishop for Northern 
 Ho-nan took over his territory and the vicar apos¬ 
 tolic of Ho-nan became vicar apostolic of Southern 
 Ho-nan. In 1911 Southern Ho-nan was divided and 
 the additional vicariate of Western Ho-nan was 
 formed. Still another separation occurred in 1916, 
 when the vicariate of Eastern Ho-nan was created! 
 
 At present the vicariate of Southern Ho-nan is 
 under the direction of Rt. Rev. Flaminius Belotti, 
 born at Senna, diocese of Bergamo, 9 February 
 1874; ordained 8 October, 1899; entered the semi¬ 
 nary of Foreign Missions at Milan 9 September 
 1909; arrived at the mission of Southern Ho-nan 
 17 September, 1908, and was consecrated on 6 
 January, 1918, bishop of Sufeta and vicar of South¬ 
 ern Ho-nan to succeed Rt. Rev. Noe Giuseppe Tac¬ 
 coni, who was appointed 20 November, 1916, to 
 take charge of the new vicariate of Eastern Ho-nan. 
 
 Important events since 1909 were the pacification 
 of the Chinese during the revolution of 1911, and 
 assistance rendered during the famine of 1919-20, 
 in which American priests were of great aid to 
 the missionaries from Milan. In the vicariate 
 to-day there are 18 European and 13 native Chinese 
 priests, 12 European nuns, and 1 convent with 30 
 Chinese Sisters. The population of the district is 
 8,000,000, of whom 17,782 are Catholics and 13,081 
 catechumens. There are 1 seminary with 7 theo¬ 
 logians and philosophers and 50 Latinists, 139 
 schools for boys, with 1563 pupils, 66 schools for 
 girls with 885 pupils, 1 foundling home with 335 
 infants, 2 orphanages with 358 orphans, 22 churches, 
 180 chapels, 317 primary stations, and 623 secondary 
 ones. 
 
 Ho-Nan, Western, Vicariate Apostolic of (Ho- 
 nanensis Occidentals; cf. C. E., XVI-83d), is 
 one of the four divisions of the district of Ho-Nan, 
 in China. It is bounded on the north by the Yel¬ 
 low River, on the west by the Shen-si, on the south 
 by the vicariate of Southern Ho-nan, on the east by 
 that of Eastern Ho-nan. The present Vicar Apos¬ 
 tolic is Rt. Rev. Luigi Calza, b. at Rocco, Italy, 
 1879, ordained 24 May, 1902, appointed Prefect 
 Apostolic of Western Ho-Nan 21 June, 1906, and 
 Vicar Apostolic 18 September, 1911, consecrated 
 titular Bishop of Termessus 21 April, 1912. 
 
 During the World War one missionary of this 
 vicariate returned home to join the Italian Army 
 and was wounded and decorated with the Italian 
 war cross. In 1920—21 there occurred an invasion 
 by the Peland and a terrible famine, which was 
 especially severe in the western and southwestern 
 part of the vicariate. 
 
 By present (1921) statistics there are 10 missions, 
 197 churches and mission stations, 2 convents of 
 women, 1 Chinese and 1 European, 29 Chinese and 
 9 European Sisters of the Order of Josephines, 1 
 seminary, 18 seminarians, 1 college for boys with 
 9 professors and 50 students, 1 college for girls with 
 9 professors. Among the missionary works are: 
 
 83 catechism schools for boys with 1167 pupils, 16 
 catechism schools for girls with 567 pupils, 1 orphan¬ 
 age with 118 children, 119 men and 28 women under 
 religious instruction, 2 dispensaries. Two societies 
 are organized among the laity. The Chinese Cath- 
 
HONDURAS 
 
 382 
 
 HRADEC 
 
 olic population numbers approximately 11,093, be¬ 
 sides 6279 catechumens and about 100 Italians, 
 French, and Belgians. 
 
 Honduras, British, Vicariate Apostolic of (Hon- 
 durensis; cf. C. E., VII-449d), is the only English 
 dependency in Central America. It is attached to 
 the Missouri Province of the Society of Jesus, and 
 the episcopal residence is at Belize, the capital 
 of the colony. The second and present vicar apos¬ 
 tolic is Rt. Rev. Frederick Hopkins, S.J., conse¬ 
 crated in St. Louis, titular Bishop of Athribis, 5 
 November, 1899. The same year Father William 
 Wallace, S.J., was appointed regular superior and 
 pro-vicar of the bishop. He was followed by Father 
 William Mitchell, S. J. (1910), Father John Neenan, 
 S.J. (1918), and Father Joseph Hammerer, S.J. 
 
 (1921). , 1 . , 1 
 
 In 1918 a disastrous fire occurred in the colony 
 
 which destroyed the principal Government build¬ 
 ing and resulted in the death of the governor. On 
 8 September of the same year the fiftieth anni¬ 
 versary of Bishop Hopkins’ entrance into the 
 Society of Jesus was celebrated; there was a semi¬ 
 public celebration of the event in Belize, in which 
 the acting governor and ministers of various reli¬ 
 gious denominations took part. The same year an 
 epidemic of influenza spread throughout the vica¬ 
 riate and caused many deaths. A riot, attended 
 by serious destruction of property, which occurred 
 in July, 1919, caused troops to be sent from 
 Jamaica and quartered in Belize until October, 
 1921, and also caused a heavy increase in taxation 
 to compensate for the loss of property. An epi¬ 
 demic of yellow fever, which started in St. John’s 
 College, Belize, although it claimed only eight vic¬ 
 tims, brought great harm to the institution, as 
 most of the boarding students went back to their 
 homes and their return upon the reopening of the 
 college in 1922 is* doubtful. At its opening in 1921 
 the college had registered 244 students. 
 
 A great drawback to the spiritual progress of 
 the mission is the language; outside of Belize and 
 the two residences in the south, the language of the 
 school is English, that of the church Spanish, while 
 three-fourths of the Catholic population are either 
 Spanish or Indian speaking. The result is that the 
 missionaries, who, with the exception of two, are 
 English-speaking, have to learn two or more lan¬ 
 guages before they can be of real service. 
 
 By present statistics the total population of this 
 colony is about 45,317, the Catholic population 
 about 25,000, and there are 19 priests, all Jesuits 
 except 1, 4 scholastics and 4 lay brothers. There 
 are 9 residences, 7 mission stations, and 5 convents 
 of religious women, Sisters of Mercy, Sisters of the 
 Holy Family, and Sisters of the Pious Missions, all 
 of whom teach in the elementary schools. Besides 
 St. John’s College and 1 academy with 230 pupils, 
 there are 32 public schools, so called because they 
 accept the Government standards for the lay 
 branches of instruction, submit to inspection, and 
 receive government grants-in-aid; during the last 
 year these amounted to $18,908. 
 
 The fruitful result of the missionaries’ work for 
 the past year is shown by the following record: 
 1120 baptisms of infants, 68 baptisms of adults, 
 209 marriages, 70,051 confessions, 982 confirmations, 
 98,290 Easter communions, 29,853 communions of 
 devotion, 1714 catechists, 1521 boys and 1532 girls 
 in parochial schools. There are 32 sodalities with 
 a membership of 1737, the Apostleship of Prayer 
 alone have 6659 associates. 
 
 Hong Kong, Vicariate Apostolic of (cf. C. E., 
 VII-450d), consists of an island which belongs to 
 
 Great Britain and is situated at the mouth of the 
 Canton River in China. The vicariate Apostoiic 
 contains about 24,945 Catholics, of whom 4000 are 
 Europeans in Hong Kong. It has 54 churches with 
 33 principal mission stations, 233 smaller stations, 
 18 European secular priests, 13 lay brothers, 158 
 Sisters of whom 103 are Europeans and 55 natives, 
 1 seminary and 24 seminarians. The following col¬ 
 leges and schools exist in the vicariate: 2 colleges 
 for boys (120 students), 3 colleges for girls (260 
 students), 8 secondary schools (1220 boys and 1030 
 girls), 74 common elementary schools (1464 boys 
 and 1072 girls), 1 school for catechists (10 students), 
 3 schools for catechumens (93 students). Schools 
 under the grant-in-aid system are assisted by the 
 Government. In 1921 the following charitable in¬ 
 stitutions existed in the vicariate: 4 hospitals, 6 
 refuges with 248 inmates, 11 day nurseries. The 
 hospitals and jails admit the ministry of priests 
 and allow Catholic visitors. Two monthly maga¬ 
 zines (“The Rock” and “Religiao Patria”) are 
 published in the vicariate, and 3 associations exist 
 among the laity: Catholic Men’s Club (English), 
 Catholic Union (Portuguese), St. Joseph’s Society 
 (Chinese). One of the principal benefactors of the 
 Catholic Church in Hong Kong was Dr. A. S. 
 Gomez, who died in 1921. He built the church of 
 Our Lady of the Rosary and St. Anthony’s Asylum, 
 and had the distinction of being a Knight of St. 
 Gregory. The vicariate is under the care of the 
 Seminary of Foreign Missions of Milan and is 
 administered by the Rt. Rev. Dominic Pozzoni, 
 b. at Paderno d’Adda 22 December, 1861, joined 
 the mission in 1885, elected bishop 19 July, 1905, 
 consecrated at Hong Kong 1 October, made vicar 
 apostolic of Hong Kong 26 May preceding. 
 
 Hospital Sisters of the Mercy of Jesus (cf. C. 
 E., VII-488d), a cloistered institute and branch 
 of the order founded by St. Augustine to care for 
 the sick. The choir religious go daily to the hos¬ 
 pitals to render some service to the sick poor. 
 Two to six or more of their number, according 
 to the case, take in turn the night-watch in each 
 hospital. The chapter is formed of all who are 
 ten years professed. They elect a superior trien- 
 nially, but her charge may not be prolonged beyond 
 six years. They also elect the principal officers 
 and the council, which is composed, with the 
 superior, the assistant, and the mistress of novices, 
 of four other advisers. • The officers may be re¬ 
 tained as long as they have the majority of votes 
 in the chapter. The Hospitallers have communi¬ 
 ties in France, at Dieppe, Rennes, Eu, Vitre, 
 Chateau-Gontier-St. Julien, Chateau-Gontier-St. 
 Joseph, Malestroit, Auray, Treguier, Lannion, Guin- 
 gamp, Morlaix, Pont-l’Abbe, Gouarec, Fougeres, 
 Harcourt, and Bayeux; in England, at Waterloo 
 (Liverpool); in Canada, at Quebec (3 communi¬ 
 ties), Levis, Chicoutimi, and Roberval; in Africa, 
 at Estcourt (Natal), Durban, Ladysmith, and 
 Pietermaritzburg. 
 
 Hours, Canonical (cf. C. E., VII-500).—In reli¬ 
 gious houses of men or women who are bound to re¬ 
 cite the office in choir, it must be said in common if 
 there are present four members so bound and not 
 at the time excused, or even when fewer are present, 
 if it is so provided in the Constitutions. In such 
 institutes solemnly professed members who have 
 been absent from choir, except lay brothers, must 
 recite the hours privately. 
 
 Hradec Kralove (Koniggratz), Diocese of 
 (Reginze Hradecensis; cf. C. E., VIII-688c), suf¬ 
 fragan of Prague, Bohemia. The present bishop is 
 
HUAJUAPAM 
 
 HU-NAN 
 
 3813 
 
 jlvu. uv,v. wearies Raspar, b. 18/0, elected titular 
 Bishop of Bethsaida 8 March, 1920, and transferred 
 to the Diocese of Hradec Kralove 13 June, 1921, 
 succeeding Bishop Doubrava, who died 22 February, 
 1921. In 1918 the diocese comprised 475 parishes, 
 32 deaneries, 869 secular priests, 90 regular priests, 
 and 495 Sisters. There are in the diocese 147,546 
 Catholics, 59,128 Protestants and other sectarians, 
 57 Schismatics, 10,062 Jews, and 2101 without any 
 creed. 
 
 Huajuapam de Leon, Diocese of (Huajua- 
 patamensis; cf. C. E., VII-505c), suffragan of 
 Puebla, Mexico. The first and present bishop is 
 Rt. Rev. Raphael Amador, consecrated 1903. There 
 are in the diocese 30 parishes, 220 churches and 
 chapels, 60 priests, and 1 seminary. 
 
 Huamanga, Diocese of. See Ayacucho. 
 
 Huanuco, Diocese of (Huanucensis; cf. C. E., 
 VII-t506a), suffragan of Lima, Peru. Rt. Rev. 
 Pedro Pablo Drinot y Pierola, appointed to this see 
 8 June, 1904, retired and was transferred to the 
 titular see of Basilinopolis 21 October, 1920, and 
 his successor has not yet been appointed. The 
 population of the diocese is 600,000, of whom the 
 majority are Catholics. There are in the diocese: 
 8 deaneries comprising 58 parishes, 82 secular 
 priests, 21 regulars, of whom 17 are Franciscans and 
 4 Canons Regular of the Immaculate Conception, 
 3 Marist Brothers, over 500 churches and chapels, 
 2 preparatory seminaries at Huanuco and Jauja, 9 
 seminarians at Lima, and 1 at the Latin-American 
 College at Rome. 
 
 Kuaraz, Diocese of (Huaracensis; cf. C. E., 
 VII-506c), suffragan of Lima, Peru. The present 
 bishop is Rt. Rev. Dominic Vorgas, O.P., b. 1869, 
 professed 1887, lecturer in theology, master of 
 novices at Lima and at Arequipa, elected bishop 
 26 August, 1920, succeeding Bishop Fanfan, ap¬ 
 pointed 5 March, 1907, transferred to Cuzco, 19 
 April, 1918. There are in the diocese: 1 rectorate 
 and 16 deaneries comprising 52 parishes; over 1000 
 churches and chapels; 5 private oratories; 50 secular 
 priests; 14 regulars (Franciscans); 2 preparatory 
 seminaries at Huaraz and Carhuaz; 9 seminarians 
 at Lima. Franciscan tertiaries with simple vows, 
 founded at Huaraz in 1886, direct a college there, 
 numbering about 80 young girls as students. Four 
 Franciscan tertiaries are at the hospital at Huaraz. 
 The Sisters of Providence of Vitteaux have 9 
 members in Huaraz, where they direct a college, 
 numbering about 180 pupils. The total number 
 of Sisters in the diocese is 24. 
 
 Huesca, Diocese of (Oscensis; cf. C. E., 
 VII-513b), suffragan of Saragossa, Spain. The 
 present bishop is Rt. Rev. Zacharius Martinez y 
 Nunez, O. S. A., born in Banos de Valdearados, 
 Spain, in 1864, provincial of the Province of the 
 Sacred Heart, and professor at the College of 
 Alphonso XII at Escurial, elected 1918 to succeed 
 Bishop Supervia y Lostale, deceased. The area 
 of the diocese is 1940 square miles and it has a 
 population of 88,000 Catholics. There are 173 par¬ 
 ishes, 12 annexes, 240 priests, 245 churches and 
 chapels, 23 convents with 62 members of religious 
 orders of men and 356 Sisters. 
 
 Hughes, John J., superior-general of the Paulists, 
 b. at New York on 6 December, 1856; d. there on 
 6 May, 1919. He was educated at St. Charles Col¬ 
 lege, Maryland, and St. Francis Xavier’s College, 
 New York, graduating in 1878, and was ordained in 
 1884. He was assistant superior under Father 
 
 25 
 
 Generals Deshon and Searlc, and was himself chosen 
 general twice, in 1909 and 1914 During his gen- 
 eralate new houses of the community were founded 
 in Toronto, Canada; in New York, Portland, Ore¬ 
 gon, and Minneapolis; and St. Paul’s novitiate at 
 Washington, D. C., established. He founded the 
 Paulist Monthly Calendar,’’ which is now a feature 
 of so many parishes in the United States. He was 
 a man of keen perception and of a fine personality, 
 uniting strength and simplicity, that attracted men 
 to him and kept them at his side, bound by ties 
 of admiration and affection. Such accounts for his 
 success as director of the Spalding Literary Union 
 and as vice-president of the Catholic Converts 
 League of New York, of which he was one of the 
 founders. 
 
 Hummelauer, Franz von, exegete, b. in Vienna 
 on 14 August, 1842; d. at Heerenberg, Holland, on 
 12 April, 1914. He entered the Society of Jesus 
 and on completing his studies devoted himself 
 entirely to Scriptural, particularly Old Testament, 
 Exegesis. He collaborated with Comely and his 
 associate on the great Jesuit “Cursus Scripturae 
 Sacrae,” for which he wrote commentaries on 
 Samuel (1897), Judges and Ruth (1888), Genesis 
 (1895), Exodus and Leviticus (1897), Josue (1903), 
 and I Paralipomenon (1905). In a second edition 
 he modified some of the views he expressed earlier 
 on the historicity of certain narratives in Genesis 
 and Exodus, which were considered too advanced. 
 Von Hummelauer was a member of the Pontifical 
 Commissions for Biblical Studies, from its estab¬ 
 lishment in 1902 until his death. In addition to 
 the work mentioned above, he is the author of: 
 “Der biblische Schopfungsbericht,” “Das vor- 
 mosaische Priestertum in Israel” (1899), and 
 “Exegetisches zur Inspirations frags mit bsd. Riick- 
 sicht auf das alte Testament” (1904). 
 
 Hu-nan, Northern, Vicariate Apostolic of, 
 (Hu-nanensis Septentrionalis), was erected 19 
 September, 1879, by a division of the original 
 vicariate of Hu-nan into two vicariates. It is 
 entrusted to the Augustinian Monks, its present 
 vicar being Rt. Rev. Angel de Diego y Cartajal, b. 
 at Nava, 1867, entered the Augustinians 1885, went 
 to China 1894, appointed titular Bishop of Caloe 
 and Vicar Apostolic of Northern Hu-nan 13 March, 
 1917; up to the present time he has refused epis¬ 
 copal consecration. In recent years the vicariate 
 has lost three able missionaries through the deaths 
 of Revs. Benito Gonzalez, Augustin de la Paz, 
 and Ignatio Magaz. By latest statistics this terri¬ 
 tory counts 12,876 Christians, 19,051 catchumens, 
 23 churches, 111 chapels, 31 European and 2 native 
 priests, 67 elementary schools with 71 teachers 
 and 1766 pupils, and 3 asylums. During the past 
 year (1921) 1070 adults, 498 children of Christian 
 parents and 1419 children of pagans were baptized. 
 A Catholic periodical is published. 
 
 Hu-nan, Southern, Vicariate Apostolic of (Hu- 
 nanensis Meridionalis), was erected 19 Septem¬ 
 ber, 1879, by a division of the Vicariate Apostolic 
 of Hu-nan in China. It is entrusted to the Italian 
 Friars Minor, the present vicar apostolic being Rt. 
 Rev. Jean-Pellerin Mondaini, O. F. M., b. a': Veruc- 
 chio 15 January, 1868, ordained 1890, w T ent to China 
 1891, appointed titular Bishop of Synaos and Vicar 
 Apostolic of Southern Hu-nan 23 January, 1902, 
 consecrated 20 April of the same year. 
 
 The almost continuous civil war which has been 
 waged in this part of China since 1916 has retarded 
 the progress of religion. In spite of this, however, 
 the number of Catholics in the vicariate has grown 
 
HUNGARY 
 
 384 
 
 HUNGARY 
 
 to about 23,562, and by present (1921) statistics 
 there are: 40 churches, 202 chapels, 250 mission 
 stations, 10 secular and 22 regular clergy, 1 convent 
 of women, 9 Sisters, 2 seminaries, 29 seminarians, 
 
 8 secondary schools for boys with 24 teachers and 
 155 pupils, 2 secondary schools for girls with 6 
 teachers and 50 pupils, 1 normal school with 2 
 teachers and 20 pupils, and 68 elementary schools 
 with 220 teachers and 2474 pupils. Among. the 
 charitable institutions are 1 asylum, 1 home, and 
 3 nurseries. 
 
 Hungary (cf. C. E., VII-574b), a monarchy, 
 formed in 1918 after the fall of the Austrio-Hun- 
 garian Empire. Its area, formerly 109,188 sq. 
 miles is at present 35,164 sq. miles, and its popula¬ 
 tion, formerly 18,264,533, is now, according to the 
 census of 1921,7,840,832. New Hungary is bounded on 
 the north by Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Ukraine; 
 on the east by Rumania and Ukraine; on the south 
 by Jugoslavia, and on the west by Austria. The 
 principal towns with their population are Budapest 
 184,616; Szeged 118,328; Debreczen 92,729; 
 Kecskemet 68,424. It is estimated that 56% of the 
 population live from agriculture and 30% from 
 industry. 
 
 Religion.— In recent years there has been some 
 anti-Jewish legislation, prohibiting Jews to own 
 or to lease landed property, or to own more than 
 one house, debarring all foreign Jews from en¬ 
 tering the country and expelling those who had 
 entered since 1914, forbidding Jews to hold posi¬ 
 tions in any school or theater, in the army, 
 editorial office, or in the government or to have 
 Gentile servants, limiting the Jewish enrollment 
 in the universities to 5 per cent, and retiring or 
 dismissing all professors of Jewish ancestry. For 
 religious statistics see Church in Hungary below. 
 
 Economic Conditions. —The assets of Hungary 
 lie almost entirely in its capacity to produce food¬ 
 stuffs. Owing to the lack of proper maintenance of 
 the soil during the war the land has become to 
 some extent impoverished, while for want of agri¬ 
 cultural implements and fertilizers production has 
 dropped off. The following is the official crop re¬ 
 port for 1920: harvested area of wheat 1,463,731 
 jochs (1 joch=1.16 acres) production, 7,930,270 
 quintals (1 quintal = 100 pounds), maize 1,331,937 
 jochs, 12,273,770 quintals; rye.877,649 jochs, 4,196,- 
 430 quintals; barley 844,733 jochs, 4,364,350 quin¬ 
 tals; oats 588,270 jochs, 3,355,960 quintals. An 
 Agrarian Reform Bill was passed in December, 
 1920, with the purpose of increasing the number of 
 small-holders, but up to the present very little 
 advantage has been taken of the measure. The 
 coal production in 1920 amounted to 4,956,285 tons, 
 equivalent to 78% of the output in 1913. Of this 
 quantity, 4,458,694 tons were distributed, one-third 
 used for transport, another third for industrial pro¬ 
 duction, and the remainder for light, power, and 
 domestic purposes. About 63,800 tons of coal and 
 151,970 tons of coke were imported. With the 
 exception of five small mines, all the pits are 
 privately owned, but are under official supervision. 
 The partition of the former monarchy has so far 
 had a disastrous effect on all Hungarian manufac¬ 
 ture. Iron ore, timber, oil, hemp, flax, and cereals 
 are now cut off from Hungary. There are about 
 4378 miles of standard gauge track (of which 
 1861 miles are owned by the state), 1717 loco¬ 
 motives, 2348 passenger coaches, 1048 luggage 
 trucks, and 18,832 freight trucks. In order to meet 
 the loss caused by depreciation of currency, rail¬ 
 way passenger rates have increased 200 per cent 
 and freight 300 per cent. The present condition 
 
 of the track is adequate only for the requirements 
 of the reduced traffic, and buildings and bridges 
 are in urgent need of restoration. Traffic on the 
 Danube is now internationalized. 
 
 Finance. —There has been no Hungarian State 
 Budget since 1914-15. During the war thirteen 
 interim provisions were made for the financial ad¬ 
 ministration of a Special Act, but this simply meant 
 the re-application of the 1914—15 budget. The 
 Budget of 1917-18 did not receive legislative sanc¬ 
 tion. The Karolyi Government (30 October, 1918, 
 to 21 March, 1919), spent 4,800,000,000 korona (1 
 korona=$0.2026) and received in revenue 400,000,- 
 000 korona; the Bolshevik Government spent 
 4,889,000,000 korona in five months and obtained 
 473,000,000 korona. The public debt of Hungary 
 at the end of July, 1914, was 8,287,800,000 korona; 
 debts contracted during the war, 32,631,000,000 
 korona, and debts contracted after the war, 13,524,- 
 100,000 korona, bring the total amount of debts to 
 nearly 60 milliards of korona, equal to 7500 korona 
 per head. 
 
 Education. —Public education in Hungary com¬ 
 prises infant schools, elementary schools, industrial 
 and commercial apprentice schools, higher primary 
 and primary schools, training colleges for teachers, 
 middle or secondary schools, academies of law, 
 institutions for religious education, universities, 
 technical high schools, economic, mining, industrial, 
 and commercial special schools. School attendance 
 is compulsory for children between six and twelve. 
 In Old Hungary, the prevailing language in 12,503 
 schools was Hungarian; in 428 German, in 304 
 Slovak; in 1707 Rumanian, in 1767 Croatian and 
 Serb. In the middle schools the curriculum extends 
 over eight years. 
 
 Recent History. —For events up to 1918, see 
 Austria. The collapse of the Dual Monarchy led 
 Hungary to sever relations with Austria, and on 
 17 October, 1918, the Hungarian Diet declared Hun¬ 
 gary to be entirely independent, except for the 
 personal union through the Emperor. On 2 Novem¬ 
 ber the Hungarian Parliament styling itself a 
 National Assembly decided for a republic with 
 Count Michael Karolyi as Prime Minister. King 
 Charles abdicated on 13 November, 1918, and the 
 republic was proclaimed on 16 November, 1918. 
 Unstabilized, with utter lack of cohesion between 
 the various political factions and menaced by the 
 encroachments of her neighbors, the new Hungarian 
 Republic faced tremendous difficulties from its in¬ 
 ception. The Rumanians and Serbs advanced for 
 some distance into Hungarian territory, while the 
 Czechs occupied Slovakia and the Danube district. 
 Through these activities, Hungary lost the Banat 
 region, the great source of her food supply and 
 her northern coal mines, upon which her industrial 
 life depended. Meanwhile Bolshevism was spread¬ 
 ing and a Communist revolt under the leadership 
 of Bela Kun broke out with such violence that 
 the Government was forced to declare martial law 
 and use troops to retake parts of the capital which 
 had fallen under the control of the rebels. The 
 Interallied Supreme Council in Paris decided to 
 subject Hungary to military occupation and 
 directed the Hungarians to withdraw to the 
 Rumanian boundary, as fixed by the Ruma¬ 
 nian Treaty of 19i6, and established a neutral 
 zone on the Hungarian-Rumanian border, 140 
 miles long and 40 miles wide, to be occupied by 
 the Allied troops. On 22 March, 1919, the Allies 
 announced that the Allied troops had occupied 
 the greater part of Hungary, for the purpose of 
 suppressing plundering bands of Bolsheviki. 
 Angered by these actions. Count Karolyi appealed 
 
HUNGARY 
 
 385 
 
 HUNGARY 
 
 to the proletariat ol the world for justice and sup¬ 
 port. the Budapest Workmen’s Council immedi¬ 
 ately 1 omied a Radical ministry with Alexander 
 Garbai as President and Bela Kun as Minister of 
 foreign Affairs, this Soviet Government carried 
 on almost continuous warfare with Rumania, Jugo¬ 
 slavia, and Czechoslovakia, all three of which sent 
 troops intq Hungarian territory. On 2 April the 
 Paris Conference sent General Smuts to Budapest 
 with power to negotiate a new armistice. In May 
 the Hungarian troops had won numerous successes 
 against the Czechs, but following an appeal for help 
 by President Masaryk of Czechoslovakia, the Allies 
 in an ultimatum on 9 June threatened to use “ex¬ 
 treme measures to constrain Hungary to cease 
 hostilities,” if it did not refrain from further at¬ 
 tacks on the Czech forces. After an ill-fated in¬ 
 vasion of Rumania in July, 1919, the Radical gov¬ 
 ernment established under the leadership of Bela 
 Kun came to an end, and was succeeded bj^ that 
 composed of moderate Socialists, headed by Jules 
 Peidll. The new government was paralyzed when, 
 in defiance of the Supreme Council, the Rumanians 
 occupied Budapest on 5 August, 1919. Two days 
 later it was overthrown by a monarchist coup d’etat, 
 Archduke Joseph proclaiming himself governor. 
 The Archduke had the support of the monarchists 
 and the peasantry, but was opposed by all the So¬ 
 cialist and Liberal groups. An ultimatum from the 
 Supreme Council brought about the Archduke’s 
 retirement on 23 August. His Government con¬ 
 tinued, however, but was later forced to retire. 
 In the plebiscite of 25 January, 1920, Admiral 
 Nicholas Horthy was elected Viceregent (Lord Pro¬ 
 tector). In March, 1921, ex-King Charles made an 
 attempt to regain his throne. Aided and abetted 
 by the landed aristocracy and by the higher clergy, 
 Charles entered Hungary on 26 March, 1921. Two 
 days later the Council of Ambassadors (Allies) sent 
 an ultimatum to Budapest demanding Charles’ 
 deposition and delivery to the Entente representa¬ 
 tives. His fate, however, had been settled by the 
 quick and determined action of Horthy. In an 
 engagement near Budapest, Charles was completely 
 defeated, and after ordering his troops to surrender 
 to avoid further bloodshed, was himself taken 
 prisoner with Queen Zita while in flight. Charles 
 was exiled on 3 November by the Council of Am¬ 
 bassadors to Madeira. His death on 1 April, 1922, 
 at Funchal, Madeira, resulted in the proclamation 
 signed by eighteen prominent Legitimist leaders an¬ 
 nouncing the succession to the Hungarian throne of 
 Prince Otto, his eldest son, and the regency of Queen 
 Zita pending his coming of age. Cardinal Czernoch, 
 the Prince Primate, endorsed the proclamation, but 
 Horthy’s Government refused to take cognizance 
 of it. The Dethronement Act of 6 November, 
 1921, deposed the Hapsburgs from all future title 
 to the throne of Hungary, cancelled the Pragmatic 
 Succession Sanction contained in Acts I and II of 
 the year 1723, which determined the successor of 
 the throne of the House of Austria, thereby giving 
 to the nation the right of free election to the 
 throne; retained unchanged the ancestral constitu¬ 
 tion of a kingdom, but postponed the choice of a 
 king until a later date. 
 
 In the Treaty of Peace between Hungary and 
 the Allies, signed at Versailles on 4 July, 1920, it 
 was provided that Hungary should formally waive 
 claim to Fiume, and to all former Austro-Hungarian 
 territory awarded to Italy, Rumania, Jugoslavia, 
 and Czechoslovakia; limit her army to 35,000 men, 
 assume a proportional share of the Austro-Hun¬ 
 garian debt, place no restriction upon the export 
 of food-stuffs into Austria, and insure to Austrian 
 
 purchasers terms as favorable as those given to 
 Hungarians I lie treaty with Austria ceded West 
 Hungary (Burgenland) to Austria, but the Hun- 
 garians did not accept the decision. The protocol 
 
 ° f .r e ?i Ce ^ 3 ?. Ct0 ^. 1921 > was an attempt to 
 settle the difficulty, for it provided for the transfer 
 
 9: the territory to Austria and for a plebiscite in 
 Oedenbuig and its environs. The plebiscite re¬ 
 sulted in a majority for union with Hungary. In 
 the meantime the territory was governed by an 
 international commission. On 29 August, 1921, a 
 treaty establishing friendly relations between the 
 United States and Hungary was signed. 
 
 The Church in Hungary.— Before the war there 
 were 9,011,000 Catholics in the kingdom of Hun- 
 Lniat Greeks, 2,600,000 Calvinists, 
 
 ii°Hl? 00 T Lutherans ’ 2 > 004 >°00 Orthodox Greeks, and 
 912,000 Jews. Since the signing of the Treaty of 
 Versailles there are 4,708,000 Catholics, 158,000 
 Uniat Greeks and 466,000 Lutherans, 77,000 Orth¬ 
 odox Greeks and 466,000 Jews. In 1914 Catho¬ 
 lics formed 48.3 per cent of the total population; 
 to-day they are in the majority as they form 63 
 per cent of the total population. As a result of 
 a4)0U t 2,113,000 Catholics became subjects 
 of Czechoslovakia, while 1,008,000 went to Rumania, 
 821,000 to Jugoslavia, 316,000 to Austria, and 45,000 
 s ^ a t e of Fiume. Catholic priests and nuns 
 suffered much in Hungary during the Bolshevist 
 legime of Bela Kun; unspeakable atrocities were 
 committed by this Government, whose leaders were 
 almost exclusively Jewish. More than $82,000,000 
 worth of ecclesiastical property was confiscated and 
 liquidated; convents, hospitals, orphanages, and 
 asylums, in addition to churches, were included 
 among the institutions which the Bolshevists seized. 
 Great sums in cash were taken from benevolent, 
 social, athletic and charitable organizations operat¬ 
 ing under religious auspices. Tlie Catholic Church 
 fared worst of all, and it is estimated that the 
 liquidations of Catholic property aggregated $44,- 
 / 34,000. Amongst the difficulties that the newly- 
 constituted Christian government of. Hungary had 
 to deal with was an excessive antipathy against 
 the Jews; acts of retribution were committed 
 against them in the period of rehabilitation by 
 those who, inflamed by the memory of their suffer¬ 
 ings, did not distinguish between Judaism as a 
 whole and the excesses of some perverse Jews. 
 Leading Catholics in political life and the Hun¬ 
 garian Catholic bishops lifted their voices in behalf 
 of Judaism, but nevertheless the unscrupulous 
 Masonic press raised a cry against the new Chris¬ 
 tian Government and by misrepresentation sought 
 to prejudice world opinion against it. A most 
 effective weapon of defence in Catholic hands is 
 the Catholic press which, after ten years of effort 
 on the part of few zealous Hungarian priests, was 
 well established in 1918. A stock company with 
 a capita] of $2,000,000 had been formed to carry 
 on its work, nearly all the bishops being share¬ 
 holders, though the greater part was subscribed by 
 the middle and poorer classes. During the revolu¬ 
 tion this Central Press Association was suspended, 
 and under the Bela Kun Government its archives, 
 records, and books were destroyed. When Chris¬ 
 tian principles finally triumphed in Hungary, the 
 people clamored for a Christian press, managed on 
 truly national lines. The Central Press Association 
 met the demand and a month after the fall of 
 Bela Kun (1919) had founded four journals and 
 several reviews. In the following years it managed 
 to buy the “Pallas” of Budapest, one of the largest 
 printing presses fn the world, and soon began to 
 play an important part in the life of the country 
 
HTJ-PE 
 
 386 
 
 HU-PE 
 
 and to break tlie power of the anti-religious and 
 anti-Christian press, which has tempered its lan¬ 
 guage and abated much of its insolence. Without 
 counting provincial sheets and reviews, the Central 
 Press Association now issues the following dailies: 
 “Uj Nemezedek” (the New Generation), “Nemzeti 
 Ujsag” (the National Journal), “Uj Lap” (the New 
 Sheet), “Pester Zeitung” (Pest Journal), for Ger¬ 
 man-speaking Hungarians. Catholic leaders in 
 Hungary include Mgr. Molnar, deputy, who died m 
 1920; M. Haller, Minister of Ecclesiastical Affairs 
 and Public Instruction; the former Premier Charles 
 Huszar; and Margrave Palavinci, men highly 
 respected even by their opponents. 
 
 The Apostolic Nunciature of Hungary was 
 created in 1920, and Hungary is represented at 
 the Vatican by Count Sonissich as Envoy Ex¬ 
 traordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary. Mgr. 
 Schioppo, titular Archbishop of Mocissos and 
 auditor of the nunciature at Munich, was named 
 nuncio to Budapest, and presented his ciedential 
 letters 6 October, 1920, on which occasion he gave 
 50,000 crowns to the municipality for the poor. 
 There are in New Hungary the following sees: the 
 Archdiocese of Eger (or Erlau), the Archdiocese of 
 Esztergom, with suffragans, Gy or, Pecs, Szekes- 
 fehervar (or Stuhlweissenburg), Szombathely, vacz, 
 Veszprem; and the Archdiocese of Ralocsa-Bacs. 
 For further statistics see articles on the above. 
 
 Hu-pe, Eastern (Hu-pe Orientalis), in China, 
 was erected in 1870 from a division of the original 
 Vicariate Apostolic of Hu-pe. Rt. Rev. Epitanio 
 Carlassara, O.F. M., who had filled this see for 25 
 years, died 24 April, 1909. He was born at Mon- 
 tecchio 1844, ordained priest 1866, sent to China 
 1870, appointed titular Bishop of Madaura and 
 vicar apostolic of Eastern Hu-pe 18 June, 1884. 
 He was succeeded by the present vicar apostolic, 
 Rt. Rev. Bishop Genaro, titular Bishop of Jericho, 
 and also a member of the Order of Friars Minor, 
 to whose care this vicariate is entrusted. 
 
 Since the Revolution which broke out m Wu¬ 
 chang in October, 1910, causing the final overthrow 
 of the Ta-Tsing dynasty, and the establishment of 
 the republic, there have been constant small revolu¬ 
 tions and internal wars which have retarded the 
 progress of religion. . 
 
 In addition to the 32 Friars Minor and 24 native 
 priests in the vicariate, there are 8 Marist Brothers, 
 12 Franciscan Sisters of Mary, 44 Sisters of Chanty 
 of Canossa, 50 members of the Third Order of St. 
 Francis, and 109 Catechists. By present (1921) 
 statistics there are 267 churches and public ora¬ 
 tories, 332 mission stations, 4 convents, for men, 
 2 seminaries, 88 seminarians, 2 secondary schools 
 for boys with 40 teachers, one of these, conducted 
 by the Marist Brothers, is maintained by the 
 French Government, 2 secondary schools for girls 
 with 33 teachers and 275 pupils, 5 high schools 
 with 18 teachers and 184 boys and 34 girls, 3 normal 
 schools with 9 teachers and 120 pupils, 80 elemen¬ 
 tary schools with 462 teachers and 2710 boys and 
 1526 girls. The charitable institutions include 4 
 hospitals, one of which is an international hospital 
 under the Franciscan Sisters of Mary, 5 dispensaries, 
 6 orphanages, and 2 asylums. The Catholic popula¬ 
 tion numbers 43,914, all of whom are Chinese with 
 the exception of about 205 French, Irish, Italians, 
 Belgians, and Americans. During the past year 
 there were 1729 baptisms of adults, 360 of these 
 at the point of death, and 1232 baptisms of Catholic 
 children. 
 
 Hu-pe, Northwestern, Vicariate Apostolic of, 
 in China. Among those of note recently deceased 
 
 are: Rev. Francesco Luzi, O.F. M., d. 30 April, 
 1916, at the age of forty-three, sixteen years of 
 which were devoted to the mission. For many 
 years he was pro-vicar, director of the Holy Child¬ 
 hood, and superior of the Franciscan Missionaries. 
 He supervised the building of the hospital at 
 Laohokow; and with contributions from America 
 enlarged the orphan asylum of the Holy Childhood. 
 Rev. Fabian Landi, O.F. M., died 30 June, 1920, at 
 tlie age of forty-eight, twenty-six years of which 
 were devoted to the mission; for sixteen years he 
 was titular Bishop of Taenarum and Vicar Apos¬ 
 tolic of Hu-pe; the development of the vicariate 
 since 1900 may be attributed largely to his personal 
 efforts. A man of great goodness and kindness, he 
 won the hearts of even the pagans. His example 
 stirred everyone to labor, for he performed at the 
 same time the duties of bishop and missionary, 
 hearing confessions and preaching whenever occa¬ 
 sion arose. He compiled an Italian-Chinese dic¬ 
 tionary, which was published by the Jesuits at 
 Shanghai in 1920. Until the appointment of a new 
 vicar the vicariate is being administered by Rev. 
 Hermenegildus Ricci, O.F.M. _ 
 
 The following is the report of the activities of 
 the mission from 1 August, 1920, to 1 August, 1921: 
 Catholics 35,012, catechumens 18,000, missions 315, 
 churches and chapels 145, 19 Franciscan priests from 
 Europe, 18 native priests, of whom 3 are regulars, 
 lay brothers 2, sermons to Catholics 3358 and to 
 non-Catholics 2537, adult baptisms 1340, infant bap¬ 
 tisms 950, annual confessions 17,057, and of devo¬ 
 tion 62,915, annual communions 16,383 and of devo¬ 
 tion 145,064, confirmations 122, marriages 181, ex¬ 
 treme unctions 306, adult deaths 430 and of minors 
 244, elementary schools 89, 1 high school for boys 
 with 24 pupils, 1 normal school for girls with 35 
 pupils, 1 college recognized by the Government 
 with 5 professors and 54 students, 1 upper seminary 
 with 14 seminarians, 1 lower seminary with 33 stu¬ 
 dents, total number of students in the schools 1559 
 boys and 955 girls. The statistics affecting infants 
 are: administrations of baptism 146, infants of non- 
 Catholics baptized 4710, abandoned infants taken 
 in charge 45, placed in the care of nurses 110; in 
 the 2 orphan asylums for girls there are 43 natives 
 belonging to the Third Order of St. Francis, 300 
 girls, 196 inmates placed in the care of nurses, 7 
 catechumens; 36 old and infirm, 57 deaths; in the 
 hospital there are 7 Franciscan Sisters from Egypt, 
 606 infirm, 33,807 externs, to whom medical care 
 was given, 90 adult baptisms, 397 infant baptisms, 
 383 deaths. 
 
 Hu-pe, Southwestern, Vicariate Apostolic of, 
 (Hu-pe Occiduo-Meridionalis; cf. C. E., III-678a), 
 in China. The vicariate is confided to the Belgian 
 Franciscans, and the present vicar apostolic is Rt. 
 Rev. Modestus Everaerts, O.F. M., consecrated 
 titular Bishop of Tadama in 1905. The Franciscan 
 Missionaries of Mary have an orphanage, catechu- 
 menate, hospital, and dispensaries at I-chang; in¬ 
 dustrial schools, home for old people, 2 dispensaries, 
 18 foreign Sisters and 16 Chinese Sisters of this 
 order, and an orphanage at King-chau. Thirty- 
 eight native Franciscan tertiaries are engaged in 
 teaching at King-chau, Chang-kin-ho, and Hwa-li- 
 lin. The population of the vicariate is 9,000,000, 
 of whom 32,192 are Catholics. There are (1922) 
 9919 catechumens,* 43 European priests, 11 Chinese 
 priests, 4 lay brothers, 5 convents, 136 churches and 
 chapels (in 1920), 2 seminaries with 8 students of 
 theology and 21 in preparatory courses, 1 college 
 with 23 students, 5 primary schools with 108 pupils, 
 93 parochial, schools with 1846 pupils, 2 hospitals, 
 
HYDERABAD-DECCAN 
 
 387 
 
 HYDERABAD-DECCAN 
 
 6 dispensaries, 5 orphanages with 498 orphans, 2 
 homes for old women with 43 inmates. Fr. Van 
 Ruytegem, director of the orphanage at I-chang, 
 died in 1917 in attempting to save some children 
 from drowning. 
 
 Hyderabad-Deccan, Diocese of (Hyderabadensis; 
 cf. C. E., VII-592c), erected in 1886, suffragan of 
 Madras, India. The diocese is entrusted to the 
 Foreign Missions of Milan, and the present bishop 
 is Rt. Rev. Dionisio Vismara, M.E. M., born in 
 
 Milan 1867, ordained in 1890, joined the Indian 
 mission immediately and was appointed bishop 11 
 May, 1909, succeeding Rt. Rev. Pietro Andrea 
 Vigano, retired, and transferred to the titular see 
 of Ezam. The population of the diocese is 12,000,- 
 000, of whom 21,017 are Catholics. There are: 9416 
 catechumens, 20 European missionaries, 8 native 
 priests, 8 seminarians, 98 churches and chapels, 17 
 principal stations, 110 substations, 20 schools with 
 605 children, 6 orphanages with 317 orphans. 90 
 Sisters. 
 
 < 
 
 -V 
 
 
 
 
 
I 
 
 Ibague, Diocese of (Ibaguensis; cf. C. E., VII- 
 613a), suffragan of Bogota, Colombia. The first 
 and present bishop is Rt. Rev. Ismael Perdomo, 
 consecrated 1903. The diocese, founded in 1901, 
 has mourned the deaths of several of the clergy who 
 took part in building it up; Rev. Jesus M. 
 Restrepo, who served as vicar general of the dio¬ 
 cese of Tolima before its division into Ibague 
 and Garzon, Revs. Fausto Pardome, Francisco 
 Hurtado, Francisco Gonzalez, Demetrio Luque, 
 and Jose J. Villar. A new church is under con¬ 
 struction in the city of Guame, financed through 
 the generosity of the family of Caicedo Ibanez, 
 which promises, when completed, to be one of the 
 most beautiful in the diocese. The Salesian Fathers 
 have also undertaken the construction of a church 
 which will be dedicated to Our Lady of Mount 
 Carmel. Latest statistics credit the diocese with 
 42 parishes, 74 churches, 42 secular and 17 regular 
 clergy, 10 Marist and 11 Christian Brothers, 43 
 Brothers of the Presentation and 4 Vincentian 
 Brothers, 10 seminarians making higher studies and 
 35 making preparatory studies, 2 official higher 
 schools for boys with 139 students, 7 for girls with 
 223 students, 2 intermediate schools with 60 pupils, 
 
 1 normal school for men ’with 26 pupils, 1 normal 
 school for women with 46 pupils, 2 technical schools, 
 one with 122 male students, the other with 72 female 
 students, 1 conservatory of music, 1 private school, 
 364 official elementary schools with 9021 boys and 
 10,022 girls, 1 asylum under construction and 12 
 hospitals. The Society of St. Vincent de Paul i® 
 organized, and two periodicals, El Meridiane and 
 “El Carmen/’ are published here. 
 
 Ibarra, Diocese of (Ibarrensis; cf. C. E., VII- 
 613b), in Northern Ecuador, suffragan of Quito. 
 The present bishop is Rt. Rev. Alberto Ordonez, 
 born in Cuenca 2 November, 1872, elected 4 Decem¬ 
 ber to succeed Mgr. Perez y Quinones, transferred 
 to Riobamba. On 8 December, 1917, the bishop 
 entered his see. On 1 October, 1921, a school under 
 the direction of Christian Brothers was opened in 
 Ibarra, while another school is being prepared for 
 the same Brothers in Tulcan. The Sisters of 
 Charity have founded a school in Atuntaqui. The 
 second semana social of all the Catholic circles 
 in the diocese was held in Ibarra in 1921. Accord¬ 
 ing to 1920 statistics the diocese has 100,420 Cath¬ 
 olics, 40,000 of whom are Indians, 28 parishes, 40 
 churches, 2 monasteries for men and 1 for women, 
 41 secular priests, 4 Christian Brothers, 17 Beth- 
 lehemites, 30 Sisters of Charity, 2 seminaries with 
 105 seminarians, 1 college for boys with 96 stu¬ 
 dents, 2 for girls with 60 students, 5 elementary 
 schools with 1500 pupils, 1 asylum, 1 hospital in 
 Ibarra and 1 in Tulcan, 1 orphanage, 5 circles of 
 Catholic workers, 1 Catholic paper, and organiza¬ 
 tions of the laity in all the centers of population. 
 
 Idaho.—The area of the State of Idaho is 83,888 
 sq. miles. 
 
 Population. —In 1921 the population of the State 
 was estimated at 431,866, and that of its capital, 
 Boise, at 36,900. 
 
 Resources. —The Idaho mines in 1918 produced 
 minerals valued at $36,522,158; lead yielded $20,- 
 923,416; silver, $9,172,340; copper, $1,613,870; gold, 
 $1,373,131.40; zinc, $4,109,716. 
 
 Agriculture. —The latest irrigation project in the 
 State, involving an expenditure of $100,000,000, will 
 utilize the waters of the Snake River in reclaiming 
 the desert of the southern portion of the State, and 
 guarantee a supply of water to 2,500,000 acres. 
 Statistics for 1919 give the value of farm products 
 as over $126,000,000; wheat, being valued at $36,- 
 648,087; hay at $50,802,765; potatoes at $13,546,798. 
 The alfalfa yield (1917) was 1,500,000 tons; oat 
 yield (1919) 7,700,000 bushels. 
 
 Other Industries. —In 1919 there were 194 saw 
 mills and planing mills, with an output valued at 
 $30,088,000. The State forest lands, including barren 
 or grazing lands, young timber growth or mer¬ 
 chantable timber, cover 723,000 acres. The total 
 merchantable timber belonging to the State is 
 approximately 10,130,000,000 bd. ft., valued at $30,- 
 000,000 In Idaho there were, in 1918, eight great 
 sugar factories producing from sugar beets grown 
 on irrigated lands 88,200,000 pounds of sugar. The 
 total output of manufacturing plants in 1919 was 
 $80,414,000, and 13,917 workmen were employed. 
 
 Communication. —In 1915 the Celilo Canal on 
 the Oregon side of the Columbia River was opened, 
 giving Idaho a seaport, Lewiston. Vessels can pass 
 for 480 miles from the Pacific to Lewiston. The 
 railroad mileage in 1918 was 2,861.13 miles. 
 
 Education. —The State University has a faculty 
 of 90 and a student body of 1330. In 1918 there 
 were 3118 teachers in the public schools, and 93,236 
 pupils enrolled; the total expenditure for all educa¬ 
 tion in that year was $5,369,965. For statistics of 
 Catholic schools see Boise, Diocese of. 
 
 State laws relative to private and parochial 
 schools are as follows: no public money shall be 
 used to help support any school or any other 
 literary or scientific institution controlled by any 
 church, or sectarian or religious denomination 
 (IX-5); certificates are issued only to citizens or 
 declarants; all holders of certificates must attend 
 institutes. 
 
 Recent History. —Recent legislative measures in 
 the State provide for the initiative, referendum, and 
 recall of State officers, excepting judicial officers, 
 an increase in the membership of the House of 
 Representatives, the creation of a public utilities 
 commission (1913), the adoption of mothers’ pen¬ 
 sions, non-partisan judicial primary elections, the 
 creation of a State highway commission, and the 
 passing of an eight-hour law for public employees. 
 By legislative enactment, approved on 3 March, 
 1915, Idaho became, on 1 January, 1916, a prohibi¬ 
 tion State. In 1914 a Workmen’s Compensation 
 Bill was passed, also a measure providing for the 
 employment of convicts in the building of roads 
 in mountainous districts. Under the Carey Act a 
 new irrigation system and a parallel railroad lead¬ 
 ing from Boise into Bruneau County was developed, 
 with the purpose of claiming about 75,000 acres for 
 agricultural purposes. An Anti-Alien Bill was in¬ 
 troduced in 1917 with the purpose of preventing 
 the Japanese from owning land in the State. At 
 the protest of the U. S. Secretary of State the bill 
 was withdrawn. On 10 December, 1917, the U. S. 
 Supreme Court upheld the prohibition law of the 
 State, holding that a citizen has no constitutional 
 right to possess liquor for his private use if the 
 State wishes to forbid it. Idaho ratified the national 
 
 388 
 
IGLESIAS 
 
 389 
 
 ILLINOIS 
 
 prohibition amendment 8 January, 1919, and the 
 woman’s suffrage amendment 11 February, 1920. 
 The budget in 1920 was 84,737,739, and the net 
 debt $3,880,750. 
 
 During the European War Idaho contributed 
 19,016 soldiers, or .51 per cent of the U. S. Army. 
 Its national guard formed a part of the 41st Divi¬ 
 sion at Fremont, Cal.; its national army, of the 
 91st Division at Camp Lewis, Washington. Of all 
 the force sent to France, the casualties were: 
 deceased, 15 officers and 394 soldiers; prisoners, 9; 
 wounded, 18 officers and 915 men. In 1918 Idaho 
 sent 472 men to the U. S. Naval Reserve; 1234 to 
 the U. S. Navy; 6 to the National Naval Volun¬ 
 teers; a total of 489. 
 
 Religious Factors.— The membership of the 
 Mormon Church in the State is 72,439; Catholics 
 number 17,947; Presbyterians 6943; Methodists 
 11,3/3; Christian 5065; Baptist 5682; Episcopalians 
 2404; Congregational 2827. 
 
 In May, 1920, there were eleven councils of the 
 order of the Knights of Columbus in Idaho. For 
 Catholic information see Boise, Diocese of. 
 
 State Government.— One of the most far-reach¬ 
 ing reforms ever made in State administrative 
 organization was effected in Idaho in 1919 by the 
 enactment of the Administration Consolidation Bill. 
 By this act the civil administration of the State is 
 divided into nine departments, agriculture, com¬ 
 merce and industry, finance, immigration, labor and 
 statistics, law enforcement, public welfare, public 
 works, and reclamation. At the head of each de¬ 
 partment is a commissioner, appointed by the 
 governor, and removable by him. The governor is 
 authorized to devise a practical working basis for 
 co-operation of work, eliminating duplication and 
 overlapping of functions. The commissioner of 
 each department is empowered to prescribe regula¬ 
 tions not inconsistent with law for the government 
 of his department. Of peculiar significance, is the 
 Department of Law Enforcement. 
 
 Prisons and Reformatories. —On 30 November, 
 1920, the State penitentiary had 218 inmates, but 
 the average for the year was 230. The Idaho in¬ 
 dustrial school has 221 inmates (1918). 
 
 Iglesias, Diocese of (Ecclesiensis; cf. C. E., 
 VII-638d), suffragan of Cagliari, Sardinia. The 
 present bishop is Rt. Rev. Saturnino Peri, elected 
 bishop of Cotrone 16 June, 1909, transferred to this 
 see 16 June, 1909, succeeding Bishop Dallepiane. 
 The Catholic population of the diocese is 100,000. 
 There are 24 parishes, 41 secular priests, 12 semi¬ 
 naries, 39 churches and chapels. 
 
 Ignorance (cf. C. E., VII-648) .—Ignorance of 
 invalidating or inhabilitating laws never excuses 
 from their effects, in Canon law unless this is stated 
 expressly. Ignorance or error about a law, penalty, 
 one’s own act, or the notorious act of another is 
 as a rule not presumed; but till the contrary is 
 proved it is presumed in regard to a non-notorious 
 act of another. Affected ignorance of a law or of 
 & penalty only does not excuse from penalties latce 
 sententioe. If the law contains the words “pre¬ 
 sumes,” “dares,” “knowingly,” “of set purpose,” 
 “rashly,” or other such terms implying full knowl¬ 
 edge and deliberation, whatever would lessen im- 
 putability, either on the part of the will or of the 
 intellect, would excuse from penalties lata sent entice. 
 
 If the law does not contain such words, however, 
 crass or supine ignorance of the law or of the 
 penalty alone would not excuse from penalties latce 
 sententioe; if the ignorance were not crass or supine 
 it would excuse from medicinal (as in excommuni¬ 
 
 cation), but not from vindicatory, punishments latce 
 sententioe. Ignorance of irregularities or impedi¬ 
 ments does not prevent one from contracting them. 
 
 Hheos, Diocese of (Ilheosensis), in Brazil, 
 e r e o- A n , 1913 by dismemberment of the Diocese 
 ot bao Salvador de Bahia de Todos os Santos, of 
 which it is now a suffragan. It comprises the 28 
 parishes of Ilheos, Olivenga, Cannarieiras, Belmonte, 
 Santa Cruz, Porto Seguro, Villa Verde, Tramoso, 
 Nossa Senhora de Lourdes do Angelim, Prado, Alco- 
 baca, Carayellas, Villa Vigosa, S. Jose de Porto 
 Alegie, Itabima, Barra de Rio de Contas, Marahie, 
 Barcellos, Camanni, Igrapiuna, Santarem, Nova 
 Boipeba, Boipeba Velha, Cayru, Taperoa, Serapuhy, 
 Guerem, and Valenga. The cathedral is dedicated 
 to St. George. The first and present bishop is Rt. 
 Rev. Emmanuel-Antonio de Paiva, consecrated 1915. 
 
 (° r Kul-Dia), a mission in China with resi¬ 
 dence at Sui-ting. This mission, which originally 
 formed a part of the Vicariate Apostolic of Kan-su 
 (comprising the Chinese province of Sin-Kiang), 
 was separated from it in 1888. The superior resides 
 the principal city of the I-li district of 
 the province. It comprises about 579,150 sq. miles, 
 and is entrusted to the Congregation of Scheutveld, 
 Rev. Joseph Hoogers being the present superior. 
 Born in Horst, Holland, in 1867,' he was professed 
 in 1891, ordained in 1894, joined the Chinese mis¬ 
 sion in 1895, was named procurator at Shanghai in 
 1909, and superior of I-li 8 June, 1918. Out of a 
 total population of 1,200,000 the mission counts 
 only 300 Catholics, owing to the serious difficulties 
 of evangelization in this part of China. According 
 to 1920 statistics there are 75 catechumens, 4 Euro¬ 
 pean priests, some catechists, and 2 chapels. 
 
 Illinois (cf. C. E., VII-653c).—The population 
 of the State of Illinois in 1920 was 6,485,280. 
 
 Resources. — Agriculture and Coal. —The total 
 acreage of the state is 35,867,520 acres. In 1919 
 31,974,775 acres were under cultivation. The total 
 value of farm property in Illinois in 1919 was 
 $6,666,767,235, and the value of the produce in 1919 
 was $864,737,833, and in the same year the acreage 
 given to the leading crops was as follows: wheat, 
 4,103,035 acres; oats, 4,291,066 acres; corn, 7,908,385 
 acres; hay, 4,013,476 acres; rye, 319,636 acres; bar¬ 
 ley, 176,792 acres. 
 
 The total coal output in 1918 was 89,291,105 
 tons; the number of mines was 967; the total value 
 of the coal at the mines was $206,860,291. The 
 coal field area is 42,900 sq. miles. 
 
 Banks and Communication .—The total number 
 of national banks in Illinois in 1919 was 473, with 
 a capitalization of over $83,937,000, and a surplus 
 of $59,823,000; while there were 905 State banks 
 with a capitalization of $101,189,000 and a surplus 
 of $67,135,000. 
 
 In 1911 Illinois awoke to the necessity of good 
 roads in the State, and in 1913 the Tice law pro¬ 
 vided for a $60,000,000 bond issue for the construc¬ 
 tion and maintenance of a 16,000 mile system of 
 State aid roads out of a total of 95,000 miles of 
 country highways in the State. The bonds and 
 interest are to be retired from the proceeds of 
 the motor license fees. In addition, the State and 
 Federal governments have appropriated $6,600,000. 
 Only one state in the Union, Texas, has greater 
 railway mileage than Illinois, in 1917 its total track 
 mileage being 12,132 miles of steam railway track¬ 
 age compared with 15,931 miles in Texas. 
 
 Manufactures .—In 1919 the amount of money 
 invested in manufactures was $3,513,700,000; the 
 
ILLINOIS 
 
 390 
 
 ILLINOIS 
 
 number of wage earners was 653,900, End to these 
 $801,610,000 was paid as wages. The manufactured 
 products had a value of $5,874,007,000; the cost of 
 materials was $3,490,021,000, and the number of 
 establishments 18,596. Thirty-five cities in the 
 State are the seats of manufacturing establishments. 
 The value of manufactured products in Chicago in 
 1919 was $3,658,740,000, as against $1,483,498,000 in 
 1914. In 1919 the Lake traffic in Chicago was 12,- 
 194,194 tons in and out, as against a tonnage of 
 9,582,000 for London (excluding coastwise trade), 
 13,671,000 for Liverpool (including Birkenhead), 
 and 8,918,667 for Hamburg. There were 5,048,780 
 tons of iron ore received at the port of Chicago 
 during the year 1919. Illinois had 5898 oil wells 
 1 January, 1918, with a total product in 1917 of 
 
 15,770,641 barrels. „ , „ , 0 
 
 Education. —The endowment fund of the State 
 University amounted to $649,012 in 1918. It has 51 
 buildings, 751 professors, and a student body of 
 7157. There are six normal schools at Carbondale, 
 Normal, Chicago, De Kalb, Charleston, and 
 Macomb. In 1918 there were in Illinois 11,889 
 public elementary schools, in which there were 
 33,653 teachers, of whom 4656 were men and 28,997 
 were women. The male teachers received (1916) 
 about $106.24 per month, and the females $88.18. 
 In the year 1918 the total cost of the public schools 
 was $51,506,043, which is a cost of $39.29 for every 
 pupil. In the same year there were 651 high schools, 
 enrolling 112,557 pupils and 4476 teachers. Recent 
 legislative changes include statewide pensioning of 
 teachers and a free public high school education 
 for every pupil in Illinois (1915). Bible reading 
 in the public schools is excluded by decree of the 
 Supreme Court (20 July, 1910). The assets of the 
 University of Chicago are $32,000,000. In the 
 scholastic year 1919-20 the number of enrolled stu¬ 
 dents was 9032. The university has a library of 
 570,000 volumes. In 1919 Northwestern University 
 had 4759 enrolled students. In the same year there 
 were in Illinois 35 collegiate institutions with 2495 
 instructors and 24,875 students. 
 
 Catholic Education. —For parochial school statis¬ 
 tics see Chicago, Archdiocese of; Belleville, Dio¬ 
 cese of; Alton, Diocese of; Peoria, Diocese of; 
 Rockford, Diocese of. Loyola University (q.v.) 
 Chicago, is the largest Catholic educational institu¬ 
 tion in Illinois. De Paul University, Chicago, is 
 conducted by the Vincentians. These and other in¬ 
 stitutions around the city will be affiliated with the 
 University of St. Mary’s of the Lake, now under 
 construction at Area, a Chicago suburb, which is 
 planned to be the greatest Catholic educational 
 center in America. This university, founded 1844, 
 went out of existence during the Civil War, but its 
 charter was never revoked, and it is being revised 
 in the $10,000,000 project now in course of execu¬ 
 tion. The Augustinians, Benedictines, Franciscans, 
 Resurrectionists, Carmelite Fathers, Clerics of St. 
 Viator, and Fathers of the Order of Charity also 
 conduct colleges in Illinois. The total number of 
 colleges and academies for boys in the State is 17, 
 with an attendance of 8007; for girls 41, attendance 
 7894; there are 533 parochial schools with 180,652 
 pupils. Figuring the cost of educating every Cath¬ 
 olic pupil at $39.29, which is the cost under the 
 public school system, there is an annual saving to 
 the State by the Catholic educational system of 
 $7,097,817.08. 
 
 The State laws governing private and parochial 
 schools are as follows: no public appropriation shall 
 ever be made in aid of any school controlled by 
 any church or sectarian denomination (VIII. 3); 
 instruction in the elementary branches of education 
 
 in private schools shall be in the English language; 
 every organized university, college, academy, semi¬ 
 nary, or other educational institution, whether in¬ 
 corporated or unincorporated, shall submit such 
 report to superintendent of public instruction as 
 he may require. 
 
 Recent History.— The year 1911 will always be 
 remembered in Illinois history for the political 
 bitterness rising out of the accusation of election 
 bribery brought against Senator Lorimer. A resolu¬ 
 tion was offered in the United State Senate to 
 declare his seat vacant on the ground that he had 
 not been duly or legally elected. The Senate re¬ 
 fused to unseat him by a vote of 46 to 40. Later 
 the investigation was re-opened and Senator Lori¬ 
 mer was finally deprived of his seat in July, 1912. 
 Partial woman suffrage was granted in 1913, also 
 mothers’ pensions, ownership of public utilities, and 
 workmen’s compensation. In 1917 a fierce race riot 
 broke out in East St. Louis between the whites 
 and the negroes who had immigrated into the 
 North from the South to take advantage of war- 
 stimulated industries in the manufacturing district. 
 In 1920 a referendum from the voters brought a 
 decision in favor of making the initiative and refer¬ 
 endum, as well as municipal ownership of public 
 utilities, a part of the State constitution. The State 
 Legislature ratified the national prohibition amend¬ 
 ment 14 January, 1919, the twenty-sixth State to 
 do so. The Federal suffrage amend. lent was rati¬ 
 fied 10 June, 1919, but an error in the State’s certifi¬ 
 cation caused a re-ratification 17 June, 1919. 
 
 Illinois put into the national service a total of 
 314,504 men and boys; 24,663 in the navy, 3,678 
 in the marines, and 286,163 in the army, the thou¬ 
 sand volunteers who entered the service as officers 
 through the various training camps being excluded. 
 While the Selective Draft Act was adopted, 56.6 
 per cent of the men who went from Illinois (178,- 
 143) volunteered, and only 43.3 per cent (136,361) 
 were drafted. With but 5.5 per cent of the popu¬ 
 lation of the United States, Illinois took 7 per 
 cent of the nation’s loan. Of the expeditionary 
 force 201 officers and 4065 men died, 12 officers 
 and 192 men were taken prisoners and 504 officers 
 and 13,290 men were wounded. The 1918 war 
 crop was the greatest in money value ever produced 
 by any State in America. 
 
 Ecclesiastical History.— In the ecclesiastical 
 province of Chicago, co-extensive with the State 
 of Illinois, there were (1921): 1 archbishop, 6 
 
 bishops, 1,680 priests, 230 ecclesiastical students, 
 972 churches, 63 missions without churches, about 
 120 chapels, 4 training schools for boys, 5 industrial 
 schools for girls; 1 school for mutes, 8 infant asy¬ 
 lums, 1 industrial and reform school, 187,136 young 
 people under Catholic care, 1 working boys home, 
 3 working girls homes, 14 homes for the aged, 55 
 hospitals and a Catholic population of 1,486,216. 
 
 Principal Religious Denominations .—The re¬ 
 ligious census of 1916 gives a total population of 
 6,152,257, of whom 3,629,884 did not attend any 
 church. Members of all denominations numbered 
 2,522,373, of whom 1,171,381 were Catholics; of 
 Greek Orthodox there were 15,050; Methodists of 
 all kinds, 324,783; Lutherans of all kinds, 223,874; 
 Baptists, 180,807; Presbyterians, 170,271; Disciples, 
 116,639; German Evangelists, 71,274; Congrega- 
 tionalists, 57,926; Protestant Episcopalians, 40,725; 
 Unitarians, 1593; Quakers, 1849; others, 1,201,299. 
 The total number of church organizations (parishes, 
 etc.), in Illinois in 1916 was 9294; church edifices 
 8584; value $103,613,316; debt $12,953,904. 
 
 Public Institutions. —The two new hospitals for 
 the insane were recently opened at Dunning and 
 
ILLITERACY 
 
 391 
 
 IMMACULATE CONCEPTION 
 
 Alton; a colony for epileptics lias been established 
 in the town of Dixon. 
 
 Legislative Changes. —The Legislature passed an 
 act in 1915 authorizing the construction of the Illi- 
 nois. Waterway. Of greater importance is the new 
 administrative Code Bill (1917), consolidating the 
 many boards and commissions of the State govern¬ 
 ment into nine departments. The same Legisla¬ 
 ture passed the constitutional resolution which 
 placed the proposition of the calling of such a 
 convention before the voters in 1918. In 1917 
 was created the Department of Public Welfare, 
 with one man as director over all the charities, the 
 three penal institutions and the courts of Pardons 
 and Paroles, 
 
 Illiteracy. See Americanization. 
 
 Images, Veneration of (cf. C. E., VII-664).— 
 Extraordinary images may not be exposed in any 
 church or other holy places unless with the approval 
 of the local ordinary; .he must not, however, 
 authorize for public veneration images out of har¬ 
 mony with the approved custom of the Church. 
 If the images represent erroneous dogma, or are 
 unbecoming, or might lead the unlearned into dan- 
 gerous errors, they must be forbidden or removed. 
 The blessing of images exposed for public venera¬ 
 tion is reserved to the ordinary, but he may dele¬ 
 gate this power to any priest. Images, noted for 
 their antiquity, art, or as objects of devotion, if 
 exposed in churches or public oratories for the 
 veneration of the faithful, must not be restored or 
 renovated without the written consent of the ordi¬ 
 nary, who before granting it is to consult with the 
 persons of good judgment and experts in art. Such 
 images cannot be validly alienated or transferred 
 perpetually to another church without leave of the 
 Holy See. 
 
 Immaculate Conception, Congregations of the.—• 
 I. Mission Priests of the Immaculate Concep- 
 tion (cf. C. E., VII-681b).—This congregation, 
 called the Missionaries of Rennes, has ceased to 
 exist since the dissociation of religious orders in 
 France. 
 
 II. Servites of the Immaculate Conception 
 (cf. C. E., VII-681c).—The second general superior 
 and successor of. the founder, Peter Carisciarian, 
 was Stephen Ghiorogadze, who was succeeded in 
 1905 by Benedict Vardize, now pastor of Our Lady 
 of Lourdes in Constantinople. The fourth and 
 present general superior is Pius Balize, elected in 
 1911, to remain superior until the rule of the con¬ 
 gregation is approved by Rome. The congregation 
 is considered Oriental and is consequently not sub¬ 
 mitted to the . Latin Code of Canon Law, although 
 most of its members are Latins, Rome not having 
 yet decided what Rite they must follow. Distin¬ 
 guished members deceased are: Fr. Michael Tas- 
 siarati (d. 1911), historian; he published in French 
 the history of the Georgian Church. Fr. Dominic 
 Mughasasvili (d. 1912), editor of the first Catholic 
 paper in Georgia; Fr. Anselm Mghetrisvili (d. 
 1921), a good preacher; he built a beautiful church 
 at Batoum, and translated the “Imitation of Christ” 
 into Georgian. There are fifteen members of the 
 congregation, and they have under their care 4000 
 parishioners of the Latin parish of Ferikeuy 
 (mother-house) in Constantinople, three parishes 
 in Georgia, and two in Russia. 
 
 III. Sisters of the Immaculate Conception, 
 founded at Labadieville, Louisiana, in the Assump¬ 
 tion parish 11 July, 1874, by Fr. Cyprien Venissat. 
 " ea °us for the advancement of the kingdom of 
 God and aware of the great need of a religious 
 
 community in the parish which he had founded, 
 . Venissat endeavored to secure religious from 
 hrance to instruct the young children of Labadie- 
 ville. Alter many fruitless endeavors he, with the 
 consent of Archbishop Perche, resolved to found 
 a community bearing the name Sisters of the Im¬ 
 maculate Conception, and composed principally of 
 virtuous young girls and pious widows of Louisiana 
 who would strive to imitate the humility, purity 
 a ?AT^ er ^ ec ^ . 0 ^dience °f the Immaculate Queen 
 at Nazareth. The foundress, Miss Elvina Vienne 
 of New Orleans, La., a woman of great ability and 
 sanctity, was a pupil of the Ladies of the Sacred 
 xleart and had had a private school in New Orleans 
 prior to becoming Superior General of the new 
 °™ er the Sisters of the Immaculate Conception, 
 the chief work of the community lies in the educa¬ 
 tional field. Its religious inculcate solid Christian 
 principles in the young children confided to their 
 care, preparing them also to earn a livelihood. 
 ■v r ‘ _yenissat s desire to establish an orphan asylum 
 at Labadieville has not yet been realized, due to 
 a lack of finances. To-day the Sisters are found 
 in Labadieville, New Orleans, which is the mother- 
 house, Lockport, White Castle, and Church Point. 
 
 IV. Missionary Sisters of the Immaculate 
 Conception, founded in 1902 at Notre Dame des 
 N eiges, . near Montreal, by Abbe Bourassa, and 
 erected into a religious community in 1904 by Mgr 
 Bruchesi, Archbishop of Montreal, with the 
 approval , and blessing of Pope Pius X. The 
 specific aim of the institute is the conversion of 
 pagan nations through a life of prayer, of love of 
 God and zeal for His glory, sacrifice and labor 
 i an< ^ s&lvation of souls, especially 
 
 infidels., lhe Sisters undertake the following works 
 in the infidel.countries: formation of Chinese reli- 
 gious; formation of virgin catechists who go among 
 the families in the districts teaching Christian 
 doctrine; organization of “baptizers,” who go every¬ 
 where baptizing the dying, especially children in 
 danger of death; nurseries, caring for babies found, 
 ransomed, or entrusted; orphanages where orphans 
 are gi\ en religious instruction and education; 
 houses of refuge for aged women, blind, idiots, 
 cripples, etc.; schools where there are taught the 
 elements of letters, sciences, and arts; instruction 
 of catechumens and neophytes; assistance of the 
 dying, pagans or Christians; hospitals, dispensaries, 
 lazarettoes, etc.; workrooms where domestic econ¬ 
 omy, trades, and arts are taught. In Christian 
 countries the Sisters spread the devotions to the 
 Childhood of Our Lord, the Blessed Eucharist, the 
 Holy Ghost, and the Immaculate Conception; 
 endeavo r to obtain members of the Associations 
 of the Holy Childhood and the Propagation of 
 the Faith; circulate publications making known the 
 missions; procure resources for the missions by 
 the reception of alms and gifts, and by certain 
 industries, such as the making of Church vestments, 
 sacred linens, and artificial flowers; conduct schools 
 for pagan children; give courses of religious in¬ 
 struction for pagans; and assist those dying. 
 
 The Sisters have the following foundations in 
 Canada: at Outremont, near Montreal, are the 
 mother-house, novitiate, procure for the missions, 
 diocesan office of the Holy Childhood, workrooms 
 for painting and the making of Church vestments 
 for . the maintenance of the mother-house and 
 novitiate; at Montreal are a school for Chinese 
 children of both sexes (founded 1916) and a hos¬ 
 pital for the Chinese (founded 1918), and the Sis¬ 
 ters also give language and catechism courses for 
 Chinese adults, and visit the Chinese sick in Cath¬ 
 olic and Protestant hospitals, when they are called, 
 
IMMACULATE HEART 
 
 392 
 
 IMMACULATE HEART 
 
 teaching them Christian doctrine or serving as 
 interpreters; at Rimouski (founded 1918) are a 
 postulate, diocesan office of the Holy Childhood, 
 closed retreats for young girls, and apostolic school 
 for aspirants to the missions; at Joliette (founded 
 1919) are a postulate, diocesan office of the Holy 
 Childhood, and adoration of the Most Blessed 
 Sacrament; at Quebec (founded 1919) are a postu¬ 
 late, diocesan office of the Holy Childhood, and 
 closed retreats; at Vancouver (founded 1921) is a 
 school for Chinese sick in their homes' and m hos¬ 
 pitals. In China the Sisters have schools for 
 Christian and pagan children, nurseries, an orphan¬ 
 age, a dispensary, refuge for aged women, and 
 catechumenate at Canton (founded 1909), a lazar¬ 
 etto caring for 900 male and female lepers at 
 Sheklung near Canton (founded 1912), and a 
 nursery caring for 3200 babies annually at Tong- 
 Shan, near Canton (founded 1916). The Sisters 
 opened a Chinese general hospital at Manila, 
 Philippine Islands, in 1921. 
 
 Immaculate Heart, Sisters Servants of the 
 (cf. C. E., VII-167c).—One of the pioneer 
 
 educational orders of the United States, first estab¬ 
 lished in Monroe, Michigan, by Fr. Louis Gilet, a 
 Redemptorist. Bishop Lefevre, of Detroit, had 
 asked the Redemptorists of Baltimore for aid m 
 work among the French Canadians, and Fr. Gilet 
 was appointed to found a mission at Monroe, a 
 French Canadian settlement without priests. Nor 
 were there any schools, and realizing this need 
 Fr. Gilet asked Teresa Maxis, of Baltimore, who 
 had signified to him her desire to consecrate her 
 life to God, to undertake the education of the chil¬ 
 dren of Monroe. She arrived in the summer of 
 1845 and was soon joined by Charlotte Ann Schaaf, 
 also of Baltimore, who was desirous to undertake 
 the same work. Their modest dwelling was a log 
 cabin, and here they earnestly prepared for the 
 religious life. They made their vows 30 November, 
 and were established under the patronage of the 
 Immaculate Conception as Sisters of Providence. 
 They were given a rule founded on the rule of 
 St. Alphonsus, prepared by Fr. Gilet and approved 
 by Bishop Lefevre. Their habit was patterned on 
 that of the Notre Dame Sisters, with scapular 
 added. The third member of the community was 
 Teresa Renauld, whose home was nearby, and 
 who made her vows 8 December. The school was 
 opened in a log cabin adjoining the Sisters’ dwel¬ 
 ling on 15 January, 1846. Their first benefactor 
 was Mme. Josette Godfroy Smith, sister of the 
 mayor of Monroe, who disposed of her estate in 
 favor of the community, and became a member of 
 it as Sister M. Alphonsine 26 May, 1846. This 
 gift and the proceeds of a mission given by Fr. 
 Gilet in New Orleans enabled the Sisters to erect 
 a new convent in 1847. Two more novices were 
 received in 1849, and gradually the number of 
 members was increased to twelve in 1855 and 
 twenty-six in 1863. The Sisters were under the 
 spiritual direction _ of Fr. Gilet, and sustained a 
 great loss upon his return to Baltimore in 1847. 
 He later crossed to Europe, and as Fr. Mary 
 Celestine became a Cistercian (1858) in the Abbey 
 of Hautecombe, Savoy, where he died in 1892. 
 His co-laborer in the foundation of the young 
 community in Monroe was Fr. Francis Poilvache, 
 who succumbed to the epidemic of fever in 1849. 
 His cause of beatification is being advanced in 
 Rome. The Sisters came under the spiritual direc¬ 
 tion of Fr. Smulders (d. 1900). They petitioned 
 him in 1847 to give them a title that would dis¬ 
 tinguish them in their devotion to the Immaculate 
 
 Conception. The unanimous choice of the com¬ 
 munity was the name Sisters Servants of the Im¬ 
 maculate Heart of Mary, by which they were 
 henceforth known. In April, 1855, the Redemp¬ 
 torists left Monroe, and there was no stationary 
 priest for seven months. In November, 1857, Fr. 
 Joos was appointed director of the Sisters. 
 
 Their first parochial school was opened in con¬ 
 nection with St. Michael’s Church, and their first 
 mission outside Monroe was at Vienna, Michigan, 
 where they labored from 1855 to 1858. In the 
 latter year they were called to the Pennsylvania 
 missions. At the request of Fr. Vincent O’Reilly 
 and with the permission of Bishop Neumann of 
 Scranton, and Bishop Lefevre of Detroit, the Sisters 
 under Sister M. Magdalen took charge of St. 
 Joseph’s Academy, Penn., and opened a novitiate 
 there. A novitiate, parochial school for boys and 
 girls were established at Reading, Penn., in 1859. 
 In that same year the Sisters became diocesan. 
 Reading remained the mother-house and novitiate 
 for all the Sisters of the Immaculate Heart in 
 Pennsylvania, until 1871, when a new foundation 
 was made in the Scranton Diocese under Bishop 
 O’Hara. The novitiate and mother-house for 
 Scranton, temporarily located at Laurel Hill 
 Academy, Susquehanna, was transferred to St. 
 Cecilia Academy, Scranton (1872), and to St. Rose’s 
 Convent, Carbondale (1876), and permanently fixed 
 at Mt. St. Mary’s in 1902. The novitiate and 
 mother-house for Philadelphia were transferred from 
 Reading in 1872 to Villa Maria Academy, West 
 Chester, erected in that year. In an effort to 
 effect a reunion of the houses in Pennsylvania with 
 the mother-house at Monroe, Mother M. Teresa, 
 foundress of the congregation, went to the convent 
 of the Grey Nuns of Ottawa, where she remained 
 eighteen years, but finally rejoined her community 
 at Villa Maria, where she died in 1892. 
 
 The first orphan asylum was erected at Monroe 
 in 1860; St. Patrick’s Orphanage at West Scranton 
 was erected in 1875. The Sisters’ work was thus 
 extended to the care of orphans, and in 1890 they 
 established St. Joseph’s Foundling Home in Scran¬ 
 ton. The care of children of Slovak and Lithuanian 
 immigrants, who had come in large numbers to the 
 United States during the latter part of the nine¬ 
 teenth century, was also included in their work, 
 and with their aid were founded the Daughters of 
 Sts. Cyril and Methodius (q.v.) for the Christian 
 education of Slovak children, and the Lithuanian 
 Sisters of St. Casimir (q.v.). The Sisters also 
 undertook the aid of foreign missions in training 
 the Teresian Sisters in religious life. For this pur¬ 
 pose three of the community, with Sister M. 
 Stanislaus (d. 1917) as mistress of novices, spent 
 two years at Maryknoll. The work was then given 
 over to Dominican nuns. Novices of the Oblates 
 of Divine Providence vq.v.) are received into the 
 novitiate at Marywood, and are there trained as 
 efficient teachers and religious to labor among their 
 own colored people. The Sisters are now asked 
 to co-operate in the foundation of a new congrega¬ 
 tion of religious to care for foreigners, to follow 
 the Passionists’ rule, conduct homes for foreign 
 girls, take care of orphanages, and teach catechism 
 to children, preparing them for the Sacraments. 
 
 In the pursuit of higher education the §isters 
 take summer courses at universities, and a very 
 large percentage of them hold degrees from col¬ 
 leges and universities of international standing. 
 They conduct St. Mary’s College for women (char¬ 
 tered 1906) at Monroe, Mich., Marywood College, 
 Scranton (chartered 1917), and Villa Maria College, 
 Immaculata (chartered 1920). The Sisters opened 
 
IMMIGRANTS 
 
 IMPEDIMENTS 
 
 393 
 
 their first house in New York in 1913, when they 
 took charge of St. Alphonsus’ School St. Michael’s 
 Industrial School at Falls, Wyoming Co., Penn, 
 was erected in 1916 for the care, education, and 
 geneial training of the homeless, dependent boys 
 of the Scranton Diocese. The care of the Most 
 Blessed Sacrament School in Trenton, N. J. was 
 j 7 listers Villa Maria for January, 
 1922, and during the summer of 1921 arrangements 
 were completed for the opening of an academy at 
 Lima Peru. Their social service work includes the 
 establishment by the Scranton community at 
 Altoona, Penn., of the Casa Regina, a home for 
 self-supporting girls. St. Joseph’s Shelter for 
 VVomen, founded in Scranton in 1915, was given in 
 charge of the Sisters in 1920, and a day nursery 
 The Sisters aided in the influenza epidemic 
 m 1918 by nursing the sick in their homes. For 
 a few dajs in the early summer young women’s 
 retreats are held. 
 
 on mother-house at Monroe are 
 establishments in the dioceses of Cleveland and 
 Detroit. These are in charge of 461 Sisters and 
 i no \ Ices and postulants, and comprise 1 college 
 1 academy 1 boys’ boarding school, 33 parochial 
 high schools, 1 normal school, 1 orphan asylum, 
 4i paroclnal elementary schools, with 22,239 pupils. 
 
 There are 748 Sisters, 92 novices, and 26 postu- 
 lants m the community with mother-house at Villa 
 Maria, West Chester. They have a summer-house 
 in the Diocese of Trenton and the following estab¬ 
 lishments m the Archdiocese of Philadelphia and 
 the Diocese of Harrisburg : 1 college, 3 academies, 
 
 4 high schools, 62 parochial schools, 2 nurseries 2 
 houses for settlement work, a Catholic Children’s 
 Home Bureau. They have 32,000 pupils under 
 instruction. 
 
 The community with mother-house at Scranton 
 numbers 438 Sisters 48 novices, and 13 postulants, 
 with the following foundations in the Archdioceses 
 of New York and Oregon City and the Dioceses of 
 Altoona, Boise Harrisburg, Pittsburgh, Syracuse, 
 Scranton and Seattle: 1 college, 6 academies, 14 
 parochial high schools, 32 parochial elementary 
 schools 1 boys industrial school, 3 orphan asylums, 
 
 1 miT n t> , me » \ day nursery, 1 sodality home. 
 
 ihe Rules and Constitutions approved in 1889 
 received the “Decretum laudis” in 1913, and were 
 finally approved by the Holy See, 26 July, 1920. 
 The Diamond Jubilee of the Congregation (10 
 November, 1920), was publicly celebrated in May, 
 
 (’anon Sante Minganti, Jiturgist; Rev. Eduardo 
 Jietelh, famous Latinist and Giovanni Gambetti, 
 doctor of sociology. 
 
 ioJ n 19 - 2 i th ^ diocese contained 125,000 Catholics, 
 123 parishes, 154 churches, 5 monasteries and 1 con¬ 
 vent lor men, 4 monasteries and 18 convents for 
 women with 246 Sisters, 236 secular priests 28 
 regulars and 10 lay brothers. There is in the 
 diocese 1 diocesan and interdiocesan seminary 
 with 30 seminarians, also 4 colleges for men (154 
 students), 17 for women (257 students). The fol- 
 charitable institutions exist in the diocese* 
 10 hospitals, 5 asylums, 5 refuges all of which per¬ 
 mit the ministry of priests. Two Catholic papers 
 are printed in the diocese. 
 
 Immigrants, Catholic Care of. See Ameri¬ 
 canization. 
 
 of (Imolensis; cf. C. E 
 \II-692d), in Central Italy, suffragan to Bologna! 
 Ihe present administrator of the diocese is the 
 Rt. Rev. Giovanni Tnbbiolli, b. at Cortona, 13 
 December 1868, ordained 28 June, 1891, elected 
 r April 1913, consecrated at Rome 4 May follow- 
 rng, published 25 May, 1914. During the World 
 VVar 60 priests and 11 seminarians joined the army. 
 
 these 4 were killed, many wounded and divers 
 J'cre decorated. A permanent home was estab¬ 
 lished for the soldiers, also an asylum for the war 
 orphans. The following clergymen of note have 
 died since 1910: Francesco Baldassari, Bishop of 
 lmola, distinguished scholar and art critic in 
 ■November, 1912; Rev. Domenico Selvatici, well 
 Known theologian and man of letters; Rev. Marco 
 Morelli, writer and founder of the Society of the 
 Handmaids of the Agonizing Heart of Jesus; Canon 
 ^uigi Albcrtazzi, writer and theologian; Rev. 
 viiovanm Biondi, a zealous and saintly pastor; 
 
 Impediments, Canonical (cf. C. E., VII-695b).— 
 Matrimonial impediments can be abrogated, 
 derogated from, or dispensed from only by the 
 Holy bee, or by inferiors enjoying that power by 
 common canon law or special Apostolic indult. Any 
 custom introducing a _ new impediment—this hap¬ 
 pened, for instance, in the case of disparity of 
 worship—-or opposed to those now existing is repro¬ 
 bated. The following impediments have been abol¬ 
 ished by the Code of Canon Law: (a) consanguinity 
 degree of the collateral line; (b) law¬ 
 ful affinity, in the third and fourth degree of the 
 collateral line; (c) unlawful affinity in all cases; 
 and (d) public honesty or decency arising from 
 betrothal or valid marriage. Important changes 
 have been introduced also regarding the impedi- 
 rnents of forbidden times, age, adoption, disparity 
 ot worship, abduction, spiritual relationship and 
 crime. Formerly an impediment to marriage was 
 called public or occult, according as there was 
 little or much difficulty in proving it; but now, if 
 it can be proved in the external forum, irrespective 
 of the case or difficulty of doing so, it is considered 
 public, otherwise it is occult. 
 
 Some matrimonial impediments are of the minor 
 grade, others of the major: those of the minor 
 grade are. (a) consanguinity in the third degree 
 r collateral line; (b) affinity in the second degree 
 of the collateral line; (c) public honesty or decency 
 
 t h( ; 1 SeC ?? d J degree; . ma Y be noted in passing 
 that the Code has introduced new concepts of 
 afhmty and public honesty, the former now arising 
 only from any valid marriage, while the latter arises 
 only Rom any invalid marriage, or from notorious 
 or public concubinage; (d) spiritual relationship; 
 (e) crime arising from adultery with a promise of, 
 or an attempt at, marriage, even by a merely civil 
 contract, with the associate in sin. All other impe¬ 
 diments are of the major order. The distinction 
 between the two orders of impediments is a matter 
 of importance only when a dispensation (q.v.) is 
 being sought. 
 
 While the supreme ecclesiastical authorities have 
 the exclusive right of establishing prohibitive or 
 diriment impediments for baptized persons, by way 
 of universal or particular law, bishops may forbid 
 marriage to any person residing in their territory 
 and to their own subjects while away from their 
 diocese, but they can do so only in a particular 
 case, temporarily, and as long as a just cause lasts. 
 A|S examples of just causes canonists cite the prob- 
 able exist ence of a hidden impediment, the danger 
 of scandal, the fear of stirring up enmities. °A 
 bishop, however, can only forbid the marriage under 
 penalty of sin; he can not render it invalid, unless 
 he has been specially authorized to do so by the 
 Holy See. (Cf. also the separate articles on the 
 different impediments.) 
 
 Ayrinhac, Marriage Legislation (New York, 1919); O’Don¬ 
 nell, Jmpedient Impediments in Irish Eccl. Rec., Xfl (1918), 
 
INCAPACITY 
 
 394 
 
 INDIA 
 
 481-94; Idem, Diriment Impediments loc. cit., XII (1919), 
 121-140* Petrovits, The New Church Law on Matrimony 
 ^Philadelphia 1921) pp. 67-108; de Smet, De sponsahbus et 
 matnmomo (Bruges, 1920), II; Vlaminc Prwlectwnes juris 
 matrimonii, pars iv (1919), and for dispensations fiom im¬ 
 pediments, op. cit., pars v (1921). 
 
 Incapacity, a vindicatory punishment, which can 
 be inflicted by the Holy See alone on the faithtul, 
 in virtue of which a culprit is disqualified from re¬ 
 ceiving or holding an ecclesiastical office or benefice, 
 or from enjoying ecclesiastical favors not exclu¬ 
 sively clerical, or from obtaining academic degrees 
 conferred by ecclesiastical authority. It can be re¬ 
 mitted only by the Holy See, except under the cir- 
 stances in which an ordinary is permitted to a k so )ve 
 in occult cases from censures reserved simply to the 
 pope. It is incurred by a person by the very fact 
 that he becomes infamous by law; or by one who 
 knowingly consents to his election to a benefice or 
 office in which a laic or the secular power has 
 illegally intervened; or who usurps an ecclesiastical 
 office or benefice or takes possession thereof befoie 
 showing his letters of confirmation to the proper 
 authority; or who knowingly accepts a benefice or 
 office and allows himself to be put m possession 
 before it becomes legally vacant; or who, being a 
 cleric, usurps or retains personally or by another 
 the property or rights of the Roman Church; or by 
 anyone who presumes to convert to his own use any 
 ecclesiastical property, or to prevent the lawful 
 holder from enjoying its fruits; or by a priest gui y 
 of solicitation. The penalty is to be imposed on a 
 reverend mother or any of her subjects, whoinduces 
 any member of the community to conceal the truth 
 when she is questioned by the visitor or who 
 annoys a member for having answered the visitor, 
 and, likewise, on a reverend mother who after the 
 visitation transfers a member of the community to 
 another house against the wish of the visitor. 
 
 Incardination and Excardination (cf. C. E., 
 VII-704).—Every cleric must be attached to some 
 diocese or religious institute, incardination in a 
 pious place being now forbidden. By first tonsure 
 he is incardinaled in the diocese for the service of 
 which he has been promoted. Letters of excardina¬ 
 tion and incardination are invalid unless signed by 
 the ordinaries authorized to grant them; a vicar 
 general requires a special mandate to issue them; 
 so does a vicar capitular, unless the see has been 
 vacant more than a year; and even then he re¬ 
 quires the consent of the chapter. However, it a 
 cleric receives a residential benefice from the ordi¬ 
 nary of another diocese, and has the written consent 
 of his own ordinary either to accept it or to leave 
 the diocese permanently, he is thereby lncardinated 
 in the new diocese. A cleric is excardinated from 
 his diocese by perpetual religious profession If a 
 religious in sacred orders has thus lost his diocese 
 and afterwards in virtue of an indult of seculariza¬ 
 tion gives up the religious state he may be received 
 by a bishop unconditionally or on trial for three 
 years. In the former case he is thereby mcardinated; 
 in the latter at the end of the time of trial, which 
 the bishop may extend, but not beyond another 
 three years, if he has been dismissed he is by the 
 very fact incardinated in the diocese. A religious 
 who has thus left his order or institute legitimately 
 may not exercise his orders until he has 
 found a bishop to receive him, unless the Holy 
 See has provided otherwise, but this prohibition 
 does not now bind religious who have made only 
 temporary vows and who have been seculanzed or 
 did not renew their vows—they are to return to 
 their own diocese and are to be received by their 
 bishop. This right of the bishop to receive, on 
 
 trial a former religious, even one who has been 
 
 expelled, is an innovation. 
 
 Codex, jur. can., 111-117. 
 
 Incarnate Word, Sisters of Charity of the (cf. 
 C. E., VII-705c).—The Constitutions of the congre¬ 
 gation with mother-house at San Antonio, Texas, 
 received the decree of final approbation of the Holy 
 See, in April, 1910. Mother M. Alphonse was then 
 the superior general, and in 1912 was re-elected 
 for another period of six years. In 1918 she was 
 succeeded by Mother Mary John, the present 
 superior general, who was elected at the General 
 Chapter of the Congregation held that year. 
 Mother Mary John had been the assistant general 
 since 1906, and for thirteen years previous had been 
 mistress of novices. The congregation has grown 
 rapidly as evidenced by the number of its institu¬ 
 tions and its personnel. Since 1910, 21 new foun¬ 
 dations have been made. At present, the institution 
 numbers 700 members, and has care of 69 houses, 
 namely 1 college, 18 academies, 31 schools, 5 orphan¬ 
 ages, i2 hospitals, and 2 homes for the aged. There 
 are 4940 students in actual attendance at the educa¬ 
 tional institutions of the congregation; 400 orphan 
 children instructed and cared for; a total yearly 
 average of 6450 sick persons in the aforesaid hos¬ 
 pitals; and 110 inmates of the homes for the aged. 
 These foundations are distributed throughout the 
 States of Texas, Missouri, Oklahoma, Louisiana, 
 and the Republic of Mexico. 
 
 Incarnate Word and Blessed Sacrament, Order 
 of the (cf. C. E., VII-706a).—The houses of this 
 order are independent of one another. There are 
 in the United States 154 Sisters, 10 novices, and 
 14 postulants in charge of 4 academies and 7 
 schools. These are all in the State of Texas. 
 
 Incest (cf. C. E., VII-717).—Lay persons who 
 have been legally declared guilty of this crime are 
 thereby infamous; if the culprits are clerics in 
 minor orders they may be expelled from the clerical 
 state, while those in major orders may be deprived 
 of their benefices and deposed. 
 
 India (cf. C. E., VII-722d), consisting of the 
 whole Indian peninsula and certain countries which 
 are beyond that area, and which are in close rela¬ 
 tion with India. Including only the native states, the 
 area is about 1,802,629 sq. miles. According to the 
 census of 1921 the population was 319,075,132, an in¬ 
 crease of 1.2% since 1911. Of this 164,056,191 were 
 males and 155,018,941 were females. The ratio of 
 births in British India per thousand of the population 
 under registration in 1919 was 30.24; of deaths, 35.87. 
 Th4 registered deaths in 1919 numbered 8,554,178, 
 of which cholera accounted for 578,426; plague 
 74,284; dysentery and diarrhoea 291,643. The num¬ 
 ber of coolie emigrants from India in 1917-18 was 
 869. The emigration of unskilled labor has been 
 prohibited. The only colony in which indentured 
 emigration still prevails is Trinidad, the system 
 for various reasons having almost come to an end. 
 There has been discussion of assisted emigration. 
 The largest cities in India, with their respective 
 populations, are: Calcutta 1,222,313; Bombay 979,- 
 445; Madras 518,660; Hyderabad 500,623; Rangoon 
 293,316; Lucknow 259,798. 
 
 Education. —In 1910 a Department of Education 
 was established in the Government of India with 
 an office of its own and a member to represent it 
 in the Executive Council. Thanks to the free in¬ 
 struction imparted in the monasteries and the 
 absence of the pardah system which hampers the 
 education of females in other parts of India, Burma 
 
INDIA 
 
 395 
 
 INDIA 
 
 has 222 literate persons to each 1000 of the popula¬ 
 tion. In the Central Provinces and Berar the pro¬ 
 portion ranges from only 6 per thousand in the 
 Chota Valley to 54 in the Nerbudda Valley. Ben¬ 
 gal’s rate is 77 and Madras’s 75. Education is 
 more widely diffused in British provinces than in 
 native states. Of the different religious communi¬ 
 ties, excluding the Brahmans and Aryas, the Parsis 
 rank the highest with 711 literates per 1000. The 
 total number of literate persons has risen during 
 the last decade from 15,700,000 to 18,600,000, or 
 18%. In 1918-19 there were in India for males, 
 134 arts colleges, students 49,815; 1803 high schools, 
 students 584,270; 129,805 primary schools, students 
 4,821,611; for females, 12 arts colleges, students 
 915; 183 high schools, students 29,980; and 20,468 
 Primary schools, students 1,119,871. The total ex¬ 
 penditure from public funds was 71,726,000 rupees 
 (1 rupee=$0.324); from fees and other sources 58,- 
 137,000 rupees; total 129,863,000 rupees. There are 
 eight universities, at Patna, Calcutta, Madras, Bom¬ 
 bay, Allahabad, the Punjab, and Mysore, all or¬ 
 ganized on the examining body system, having 
 affiliated to them a large number of teaching col¬ 
 leges. A Hindu University for students from all 
 India has been established at Benares. In 1922 
 the University of Visva-bharati Parishat at Shan- 
 tinketan, Bengal, was founded by Sir Rabindranath 
 Tagore. Its purpose is to bring together the scat¬ 
 tered cultures of the East and to provide for the 
 exchange of knowledge between the East and the 
 V est. In 1917 the commission appointed to inquire 
 into the conditions and prospects of the University 
 of Calcutta made drastic recommendations in regard 
 to the position of the Government in the matter of 
 education. Thq one every serious defect of the edu¬ 
 cational system is that, in conformity with the 
 neutrality of the State in all matters of religion, 
 it has addressed itself almost exclusively to the 
 intellectual development of the young Indian. The 
 result is that, whilst Western knowledge necessarily 
 shook the foundations of his old beliefs, it substi¬ 
 tuted no wholesome restraints for those that it 
 loosened. Nor was any attempt made to bring his 
 Western education into direct relation with his 
 home life, which continued to move on an alto¬ 
 gether different plane, so that his home influences 
 either insensibly defeated the educational purpose 
 in the shaping of character, or else he cast them 
 off prematurely without having anything to put in 
 their place. The same conditions were discussed 
 in the report of the Industrial Commission (1919), 
 which summed up its findings as follows: “The 
 Commission finds that India is a country rich in 
 raw materials and in industrial possibilities, but 
 poor in manufacturing accomplishments. Her labor 
 is inefficient, but for this reason capable of vast 
 improvement. The non-existence of a suitable edu¬ 
 cation to qualify the Indians for posts requiring 
 industrial or technical knowledge was met by the 
 importation of men from Europe, who supervised 
 and trained illiterate Indian labor in the mills.” 
 The educational system may be judged from the 
 fact that while the expenditure of the United States 
 on education per head is $4.00 and that of England 
 and Wales, $3.20, India is allowed only 2V 2 cents. 
 With the introduction of the new constitution in 
 1921 education, with the exception of the univer¬ 
 sities becomes a provincial subject. 
 
 Economics.— About 72% of the population or 
 226,000,000 people in India are engaged in agri¬ 
 culture. The total acreage under the chief crops 
 and the production in 1919-20 was: wheat, 29,976,000 
 acres, 10,092,000 tons; rice, 78,394,000 acres, 34,199,- 
 000 tons; cotton, 23,063,000 acres, 5,845,000 bales; 
 
 i'ror no /? 21 ’ 000 a< A r i^> 8,428,000 bales; sugar cane, 
 2,69o,000 acres, 2,989,000 tons. During 1919-20 the 
 total area irrigated by all classes of works in India, 
 excluding the areas irrigated in the Indian states, 
 amounted to over 28,000,000 acres. Thirteen per 
 cent of the cropped area was irrigated by Govern¬ 
 ment irrigation works and the estimated value of 
 the crops so irrigated amounted to nearly 2!4 
 times the total capital expended on the works* 
 
 ioi nnn 0a undei \ tea Packed in 1920-21 was about 
 001,000 acres, and the production was about 377,055 - 
 600 pounds. The cultivation of opium, which is a 
 government monopoly, has diminished as a result 
 
 imo ag ^ eer i lent with China t0 restrict the output. 
 - 111 .,, 1918 - 1 ? the £ e were in British India, 235 cotton 
 mills with 267,669 persons employed daily; 575 
 rice mills with 47,724 persons employed; 1405*cotton 
 rfo? aning ’ and P ress ing mills and factories 
 100,981 P ersons - On 31 March, 1919, there were 
 2789 joint stock companies incorporated in India 
 under the India Companies Act of 1913, and the 
 Mysore Companies Regulation III of 1895 (re- 
 pealed in 1917), and in operation with a capital 
 of £71,076,000. The total value of the minerals 
 produced in British India and the Indian states 
 during 1918, was £15,771,085; of this, £6,017,089 
 came from coal, £2,060,152 from gold, £1,131,904 
 irom petroleum. In 1919 the production of petro¬ 
 leum was 305,651,816 gallons; of coal, 22,628 037 
 tons. In 1918 practically all the coal trade was 
 undei the Coal Controller. In the same year the 
 average number of persons working in or about 
 
 oA? ™ mes , re S ulated b y the Indian Mines Act was 
 237,738, of whom 150,064 worked underground. The 
 
 C ? I ®c^ eiCe lncda 1920 included imports valued 
 at $674,819,900, and exports valued at $1,060,986,599 
 iS d !?^ g? ods > $1 >003,308,500, foreign goods, $57,- 
 677 800), thus leaving a balance of $386,166,600 in 
 India’s favor. 
 
 Finance. The total revenue in the fiscal year 
 
 inlo'oi 1 ! 1 was £134,825,900; the total expenditure 
 £132,311,100. In addition there was an estimated 
 capital expenditure on State railways and irrigation 
 woiks of £13,852,100 and £735,000 initial expendi¬ 
 ture on the new capital at Delhi. In 1917-18 India’s 
 contribution to the war was £100,000,000, which was 
 met partly by making over to the British Govern¬ 
 ment the proceeds of the Indian war loans raised 
 m 1917 and 1918, and partly by taking over a 
 portion of the British war debt. 
 
 Defence.— At the outbreak of the World War 
 the Indian Army consisted of 76,953 British troops 
 and 239,561 native troops. Up to the date of the 
 armistice, 1,161,789 troops were recruited during 
 the war. The Defence Act, passed in 1917, was 
 abandoned in 1920 as a result of the Esher report j 
 the army was reorganized in four commands instead 
 of two and in place of compulsory service for Euro¬ 
 pean British subjects, an Auxiliary Force was raised 
 on a voluntary basis. 
 
 Religions— The following statistics are taken 
 from the India Year Book (1921): Hindus, 217,- 
 586,892; Brahmans, 217,337,943; Aryas, 243,445; 
 Brahmos, 5504; Sikhs, 3,014,466; Jains, 1,248,182; 
 Buddhists, 10,721,453; Zoroastrians (Parsis), 100,096; 
 Mussulmans, 66,647,299; Christians, 3,876,203; Jews, 
 20,980; Animists, 10,295,168; minor religions and 
 religion not returned, 37,101; not enumerated by 
 religion, 1,608,556. 
 
 Catholic troops are allowed the ministrations of 
 Catholic priests, but the expenditure is very small, 
 in that respect, amounting only to Rs. 430,923 per 
 annum (the rupee varies from 30 to 32 cents). An 
 instructive commentary on this part of the subject 
 is furnished by the figures of expenditure in the 
 
INDIA 
 
 396 
 
 INDIA 
 
 Bombay presidency. The Church of England costs 
 Rs. 296,734; the-Church of Scotland Rs. 45,881; 
 while the Catholic Church receives only Rs. 35,252. 
 
 CHRISTIANS 
 
 
 Europeans 
 
 Eurasians 
 
 Natives 
 
 T otal 
 
 Church of England.... 
 
 Presbyterians . 
 
 Baptists . 
 
 ]V[ (' t h or] i st.s . 
 
 125,392 
 
 15,150 
 
 2816 
 
 6904 
 
 736 
 
 1469 
 
 40,119 
 
 7 
 
 1233 
 
 34,553 
 
 1911 
 
 2239 
 
 2573 
 
 289 
 
 189 
 
 57,024 
 
 6 
 
 872 
 
 332,807 
 
 164,069 
 
 332,171 
 
 162,367 
 
 134,240 
 
 216,842 
 
 1,393,720 
 
 628,291 
 
 15,849 
 
 492,752 
 
 181,130 
 
 337,226 
 
 171,844 
 
 135,265 
 
 218,500 
 
 1,490,863 
 
 728,304 
 
 17,954 
 
 Congregationalists . 
 
 Latin Catholics . 
 
 Syrians . 
 
 Sect not returned. 
 
 In some respects, it is true, the Government 
 has departed from a strict neutrality, as in the case 
 of giving a guaranteed number of posts in Govern¬ 
 ment service to Moslems. The Mohammedans 
 were given special representation with separate elec¬ 
 torates in 1909, and regard these as their only ade¬ 
 quate safeguards. The Hindus’ acquiescence was 
 embodied in an agreement between the political 
 leaders of the two communities. To be fair to the 
 Sikhs, a distinct and important people, supplying 
 a valuable element to the British army, but forming 
 a minority and virtually unrepresented, the 
 Montagu-Chelmsford report recommended one con¬ 
 stituency. - 
 
 The Government and the People. — there has 
 arisen in India of late years a wave of national 
 aspiration, which is by some viewed with alarm, 
 and by others with indifference. It originated or 
 first manifested itself by the formation of the 
 Indian National Congress in 1886, which began to 
 hold annual meetings wherein “to give voice to our 
 aspirations and to formulate our wants” (Gokhale 
 in 1905). In 1904 a party-protest against the parti¬ 
 tion of Bengal was followed by an attempt to force 
 the hand of the Government by the boycott of 
 imported goods in favor of Indian manufactures 
 (Lwadeshi movement), which in turn developed 
 into an effort after “national revival.” This move¬ 
 ment caused a certain amount of seditious writ¬ 
 ing, systematic spread of disaffection among the 
 masses and even resort to antiarchistic methods 
 such as the use of bombs, etc. Outside of Bengal 
 attempts to quell the disaffection by the ordinary 
 law were successful, and though recourse was had 
 to the deportation of persons without reason as¬ 
 signed to it under an Act of 1818, special Acts had 
 to be passed to meet the situation, viz:—an Explo¬ 
 sives Act, a Prevention of Seditious Meeting Act, 
 etc. Concurrently with these, steps were taken to 
 extend representative institutions. In 1907 a Hindu 
 and a Mohammedan were appointed to the Secre¬ 
 tary of State’s Council, and in 1909 a Hindu was 
 appointed to the Viceroy’s Council. The legislative 
 Councils were reconstituted and given wider powers 
 of discussion. More trouble occurred in September, 
 1914, when a riot at Budge-Budge among a number 
 of Sikh emigrants returned by unwilling Canada, 
 revealed the wide influence of the “Ghadir” con¬ 
 spiracy and its German affiliations. That plot had 
 little influence on the general attitude of India to 
 the Great European War. The Indian Expedi¬ 
 tionary Forces, including the British garrisons and 
 native troops served in good stead during the critical 
 winter of 1914-15. Again, the brilliant victory of 
 Armageddon in Palestine was largely the triumph 
 of Indian troops. For the first time Indians were 
 admitted into the innermost councils of the Empire 
 
 and sat at the war conferences in London. How¬ 
 ever, India was at no time included in the theatre 
 of war except when the “Emden” bombarded 
 Madras, though shipping off Bombay was severely 
 affected by mines laid by the enemy. 
 
 In 1917 Mr. Montagu, who succeeded Mr. Cham¬ 
 berlain as Secretary of State, visited India with 
 the purpose of determining what steps should be 
 taken in the direction of establishing government 
 responsible to the peoples of various provinces. 
 The result was shown in a joint scheme of reform 
 evolved, for the Secretary of State, Mr. Montagu, 
 and the Viceroy, Lord Chelmsford, aimed at carry¬ 
 ing into effect the announcement made in Parlia¬ 
 ment 20 August, 1917, that “the policy of His 
 Majesty’s government is that of the increasing 
 association of the Indians in every branch of the 
 administration and the gradual development of self- 
 governing institutions with a view to the progressive 
 realization of responsible government in India as 
 an integral part of the Empire.” Shortly after this 
 •report there was issued another by the Special 
 Committee of Inquiry into seditious crime in India, 
 over which Mr. Justice Rowlatt presided. The 
 Committee recommended that the Government of 
 India should arm itself with special powers to deal 
 with such crime, to come into operation when it 
 attained proportions dangerous to public safety. 
 The result was the Rowlatt Act (1919) introduced 
 into the Legislature and carried against the solid 
 opposition of the unofficial members. This was the 
 signal for violent agitation throughout the country. 
 Riots occurred at Calcutta, Delhi, and Amritsar, 
 the sacred city of the Sikhs. At Bombay the Pas¬ 
 sive Resistance League (Satyagraha) was formed 
 under the leadership of Mahatma Ghandi, who had 
 successfully championed the cause of Indian 
 laborers in South Africa. 
 
 In the meantime the Montagu-Chelmsford report 
 was bearing fruit. It advocated immediate estab¬ 
 lishment of responsible government in the prtiv- 
 inces, through committing certain branches of the 
 administration to Indian Ministers chosen from the 
 Legislative Councils and the eventual liberalization 
 of the government of India. A Bill framed on the 
 lines of this report passed both Houses of Parlia¬ 
 ment and received the Royal Assent in December, 
 1919. This Government of India Act (1919) makes 
 several important constitutional changes more par¬ 
 ticularly in the government of the provinces. The 
 various functions of government are classified as 
 Central and Provincial subjects, the latter being 
 practically definitely committed to the Provincial 
 Governments, which for purposes of convenience, 
 Central subjects, such as the collection of income 
 tax, are to be dealt with by the Provincial Govern¬ 
 ment at the discretion of the Central Government. 
 The inauguration of the new Government, met 
 with determined opposition from the Nationalists 
 under the leadership of Mahatma Ghandi, anti- 
 English agitator and disciple of Tolstoy. At the 
 Indian National Congress held 8 September, 1920, 
 Ghandi’s program of passive resistance to the Brit¬ 
 ish included gradual withdrawal of Indian children 
 from British schools and colleges, gradual boycott 
 of British courts and the establishment of private 
 arbitration courts for the settlement of industrial 
 disputes, refusal to serve in the Government 
 service, or army, or in any of the Reformed Coun¬ 
 cils, and boycott of British goods. Despite all 
 obstacles, the new Government was organized, ap¬ 
 pointment of governors made in August, 1921, and 
 Sir William Meyer became first High Commissioner 
 of India. On 8 February, 1921, the Parliament or 
 Advisory Assembly was opened at Delhi by the 
 
INDIA 
 
 397 
 
 INDIA 
 
 Duke of Connaught.. The visit of the Prince of 
 Wales to India in 1922 was the occasion of rioting 
 in Bombay which drew the attention of the whole 
 world to conditions in that country and to the 
 extensi\ e hatred of British rule. Ghandi was 
 arrested on 18 March, 1922, sentenced to six year’s 
 imprisonment. The war between India and 
 Afghanistan was ended with the treaty of peace 
 signed on 8 August, 1920. It began in 1919 with the 
 declaration of Amanullah of Afghanistan to free 
 India from the horrors of revolution and from the 
 tyranny of British rule. Despite the treaty, the 
 W azira and Mnhsuds, two frontier tribes, renewed 
 their attacks in October, 1920, and since that time 
 desultory fighting has ensued. The war cost India 
 about £14,736,000. 
 
 Present Political Organization.— India is at 
 present divided into British territory and native 
 states. British India has eight large provinces and 
 six lesser charges, each of which is termed a local 
 government. The eight major provinces are the 
 Presidencies of Madras, Bombay, and Bengal; the 
 Lieutenant-governorships of the United Provinces, 
 the Punjab, Burma, and Mehar; and the Chief 
 Commissionerships of the Central Provinces. The 
 - minor provinces are Assam, the North-West Fron¬ 
 tier Province, Baluchistan, Coorg, Ajmer, Merwara, 
 and the Andaman Islands. The status and area of 
 these provinces have been varied from time to time 
 to meet the changed conditions of the day, the 
 final adjustment being made in 1911 when the newly 
 created province of Eastern Bengal and Assam dis¬ 
 appeared, and Bengal -was divided into the Presi¬ 
 dency of Bengal, and the Lieutenant-Governorship 
 of Behar and Orissa, and the Chief Commissioner- 
 ship of Assam, wffiilst the Government seat was 
 moved from Calcutta to Delhi and the city of 
 Delhi with ar enclave of territory was taken under 
 the direct administration of the Government of 
 India. The native states vary in size from petty 
 states at Lawa in Rajputana with an area of 19 
 square miles to states like Hyderabad as large as 
 Italy with a population of 13,000,000. They include 
 the inhospitable regions of Western Rajputana, 
 Baroda, Mysore, and Kashmir. The control which 
 the Supreme Government exercises over the Indian 
 States varies considerably in degree, but they are 
 all governed by Indian princes, ministers, or coun¬ 
 cils. The princes have no right to make war or 
 peace, or to send ambassadors to each other or to 
 external States; they are not permitted to main¬ 
 tain a military force above a certain specified 
 limit; no European is allowed to reside in their 
 courts without special sanction; and the Supreme 
 Government can exercise control in case of mis- 
 government. Within this limit the more important 
 princes are autonomous in their own territories. 
 Some are required to pay tribute. They have 
 freedom of trade with British India, except in rare 
 cases and levy their own customs. The political 
 powers of the British Government are exercised 
 through the Political officers who reside in the 
 States. The Governor-General in Council retains 
 certain powers of control over the Provincial Gov¬ 
 ernments, where it is necessary to safeguard Central 
 subjects or to decide questions where two or more 
 provinces are concerned. Certain sources of revenue 
 are to be definitely allocated to the provinces which 
 will be required to contribute to the Central Gov¬ 
 ernment certain annual sums which are to be the 
 first charge on their revenues. The new Provincial 
 Governments, consisting of an Executive Council 
 and a Legislative Council, are to be based on a 
 dualized form of government. Under this plan 
 official acts will be carried out by the Governor-in- 
 
 Council, while on the popular side the Government 
 will consist of the Governor and Ministers who are 
 to be elected members of the Legislative Council, 
 these ministers will have charge of certain depart- 
 ments of Government, known as “transferred sub¬ 
 jects while others, the “reserved subjects,” are to 
 be administered by the Governor-in-Council The 
 Governor’s Executive Council must include a mem¬ 
 ber qualified by twelve years’ public service. The 
 Legislative Council, meeting for three years con¬ 
 tains not more than 20 per cent of official members 
 and at least 70 per cent elected members and 
 exercises general financial control. The provinces 
 are usually formed in divisions under Commis- 
 sioners and then divided into districts, at the head 
 of which is an executive officer, responsible to the 
 governor of the province. The central administra- 
 tion of India is entrusted to a High Commissioner 
 and a Secretary of State, assisted by a Council’ 
 of not less than eight and not more than twelve 
 members, appointed for five years by the Secretary 
 of State. At least half must have resided in 
 °r ^ en y ears - d he Under-Secretaryship is 
 l 1 b 3f Lord Smha of Raipur, the first Indian to 
 nold office. The supreme executive authority is 
 vested in the Governor-General in Council, or 
 Viceroy, appointed by the English Crown. There is 
 an Indian Legislature consisting of the Governor- 
 General and two Chambers, the Council of State 
 and the Legislative Assembly. The Council of State 
 consists of 60 members (33 elected, 27 nominated 
 by the Governor-General). The Legislative Assem¬ 
 bly consists of 142 members, 40 nominated by the 
 Governor and 102 elected, and is presided over by 
 a President appointed by the Governor-General. 
 
 I his legislature has power, subject to restrictions, 
 to make laws for all persons within India and the 
 Native States. The salary of the Secretary of State 
 and the cost of the India Office for other than 
 agency services, may now be borne by the British 
 and not as formerly, by the Indian Exchequer. 
 After ten years’ trial a committee will go out to 
 India and advise on the success of the experiment. 
 If its report is favorable the progress will go on 
 until further responsible government is established, 
 and the transitional system of dualism is superseded 
 by a unified popular administration. The success 
 of these reforms depends largely on the attitude 
 of the native intellectual leaders. The task of the 
 government is that of educating the people to 
 autonomy without sharpening religious jealousies. 
 
 The Church in India.— There are (1921) 3,000,- 
 000 Catholics in India, speaking more than two hun¬ 
 dred different languages and five hundred dialects. 
 These are ministered to by priests from thirteen 
 religious orders and foreign mission societies, by 
 Brothers from twelve orders and congregations, and 
 by Sisters from sixty-four orders and societies. The 
 national spirit now awakened in India is in one 
 way detrimental to the success of the missionaries, 
 who are looked upon as foreigners and share in the 
 hostility shown towards everything not purely 
 Indian. The different pagan religions are united 
 against the Church, even certain Christians are in¬ 
 fluenced by the Buddhist leaders and recognize in 
 the Church only a vague authority. On the other 
 hand the unrest is forcing Catholics to better 
 organization, and in causing the crumbling of the 
 Hindu caste system is doing away with a hitherto 
 impregnable barrier to India’s evangelization. The 
 future of the Church in this country will be in the 
 hands of the native priests, the training of whom 
 is one of the chief tasks of the foreign missionaries. 
 To that end there are 26 preparatory and 26 theo¬ 
 logical seminaries for native secular priests, 10 
 
INDIA 
 
 398 
 
 INDIANA 
 
 novitiates and seminaries for natives aspiring to 
 become religious. The native clergy number 1500 
 and are already in charge of three dioceses. The 
 appointment of Mgr. Francis Vazapilly, the first 
 purely native bishop, as Vicar Apostolic of Trichur, 
 is the first step in the formation of a native 
 hierarchy, the establishment of which was promised 
 to India by Benedict XV. In spite of divergent 
 opinions as to the missions in India, statistics prove 
 that they are by no means at a standstill, and 
 that the rate of missionary progress has increased 
 enormously in recent years. The average number 
 of yearly conversions is 14,000, and the chief means 
 of apostolate are educational and social service 
 work. There are 28 colleges for boys, 2 for girls, 90 
 orphanages for boys and 119 for girls, and 100 
 foundling asylums. With the authorization of the 
 Congregation of the Propaganda children of un¬ 
 believers are admitted to the schools and colleges, 
 thus procuring for Catholics a social influence other¬ 
 wise unattainable and introducing their doctrines 
 into circles where they destroy prejudices and make 
 converts, even amongst the Brahmins. In fact, non- 
 Christians form the major portion of the students 
 in these schools and colleges, due to the poverty 
 of the Catholics. Educational leagues have been 
 formed to help Catholic students, notably that of 
 Bengal, which in six years spent 107,567 rupees for 
 the education of 843 students. 
 
 The missionary priests are greatly aided in their 
 work by the medical missionaries, whose work in 
 India is the most highly developed of Catholic 
 foreign missionary medical work in the world. Yet 
 there are only one foreign male doctor, four foreign 
 women doctors, and 200 native Catholic women 
 doctors. There are many missionary Sisters, how¬ 
 ever, engaged as nurses in the hospitals and dis¬ 
 pensaries. Women doctors are essential in India, 
 and a movement in their favor has been inaugurated 
 by Dr. Margaret Lamont, and the first contribution 
 of Americans to the work will be in behalf of the 
 medical apostolate. The Catholic press established 
 by the missionaries in this country is well organized. 
 In 1912 there were 6 establishments and 2 have 
 since been added. From 1919-20, 400,000 pamphlets 
 and about 300 works in one or several volumes were 
 published, many of them translations into Annamite 
 and other native tongues. 
 
 The most significant event from a Catholic point 
 of view that has recently taken place in India was 
 the Marian Congress held in Madras, January, 1921, 
 its object being the conversion of India and the 
 Orient. It was the first Marian Congress ever held 
 on the continent of Asia. A hall was especially 
 built for the occasion, and it was crowded with 
 12,000 people of many races. The Apostolic Dele¬ 
 gate, Mgr. Pisani, presided, surrounded by thirty 
 bishops and about three hundred priests. It is esti¬ 
 mated tliat 50,000 Catholics participated in this 
 notable demonstration of love for the Mother of 
 God, which gave a new impetus to religion. In 
 November, 1921, the golden jubilee of St. Joseph’s 
 Cathedral at Allahabad was celebrated. The Dele¬ 
 gate Apostolic again presided, assisted by four 
 bishops, Father Albert, the Provincial of the Eng¬ 
 lish Province of the Capuchin Order and represen¬ 
 tatives from all the Capuchin missions of Northern 
 India. Protestant missionaries are active in India, 
 having 125 societies, 50 of which are from the 
 United States, chiefly Baptists. The white mis¬ 
 sionary evangelists number 500, the native evan¬ 
 gelists 1500, and native catechists about 7000. There 
 are 100,000 Protestant educators, 65,000 pupils m 
 the colleges and high schools, 200,000 grade pupils, 
 and a Protestant population of 2,000,000. 
 
 Indiana (cf. C. E., VII-738b).—The area of 
 Indiana is 36,453 sq. miles or 23,167,560 acres, which 
 places it thirty-seventh among the states of the 
 Union. In 1920 the population was returned as 
 2,930,544. 
 
 It now ranks seventh in the production of wheat 
 and fifth in that of corn and oats. In 1919 it pro¬ 
 duced 46,020,000 bushels of wheat from 2,886,000 
 acres; 60,225,000 bushels of oats from 1,825,000 acres; 
 175,750,000 bushels of potatoes from 100,000 acres; 
 60,000,000 tons of hay from 50,000 acres, besides 
 an important yield of other crops such as tomatoes, 
 clover, tobacco, peas, onions, clover-seed, butter,- 
 cheese, poultry, eggs, and apples. The assessed 
 valuation of its farms is $1,089,135,238. In 1917 
 its total taxable property equalled $2,305,392,201. In 
 the same year there were 31,000 miles of gravel 
 and macadamized roads, of steam railroads 7475 
 miles and 2463 miles of electric interurban roads. 
 
 In 1919 there were 7918 factories representing an 
 investment of $1,335,851,000 with 277,600 wage 
 earners. In 1918 the bituminous coal output was 
 28,244,498 tons; its oil wells produced 877,558 bar¬ 
 rels of oil valued at $2,028,129; the product value 
 of oolitic limestone was $1,961,154. 
 
 Education. —According to the latest estimates - 
 (1918), the total value of public school property 
 is $67,675,607, the number of teachers is 19,928, of 
 enrolled pupils 557,376. The state public school 
 fund (including the university) is $12,253,938. The 
 State University at Bloomington now has a faculty 
 of 140 and about 3200 students. Purdue Univer¬ 
 sity at Lafayette has 183 professors, over 2600 stu¬ 
 dents, and 29 buildings, the campus and farm 
 covering 692 acres. It is estimated that by its 
 various courses and features including its regular 
 course Purdue gave instruction to about 1,500,000 
 people in 1919. 
 
 In 1918 Wabash College at Crawfordsville had 
 219 students; Earlham College near Richmond had 
 400 students; De Pauw University at Greencastle 
 had 1062 students; Butler University near Indi¬ 
 anapolis had 756 students, and Hanover College 
 near Madison had 224 students. 
 
 A statute enacted in 1919 increased to fifty acres 
 the untaxable land on which is situated any build¬ 
 ing used and set apart for educational, literary, sci¬ 
 entific, or charitable purposes, and to fifteen acres 
 the untaxable land owned by a church and used 
 for religious purposes. All property belonging to 
 the Young Men’s Christian Association, the Knights 
 of Columbus, the Young Men’s Hebrew Association 
 and the Young Women’s Christian Association is 
 tax exempt, as are all dormitories owned by any 
 Church and used by students of any university. 
 Sunday baseball is permitted by statute after 
 1 o’clock, and not within 1000 feet from a church. 
 There are strict statutes against obscene pictures 
 or literature. 
 
 State laws relative to private and parochial 
 schools are as follows: In every city of this state 
 having a population of more than one hundred 
 thousand, it shall be the duty of the board of 
 public health and charities to make a medical in¬ 
 spection from time to time of all persons attending 
 or employed in or about all public, private, and 
 parochial schools in such city; inspectors shall 
 confer with private school authorities and advise 
 them for the purpose of improving and standardiz¬ 
 ing schools; all private and parochial schools shall 
 be taught in the English language only. The teach¬ 
 ing of religion in German is prohibited; no money 
 shall be draw-n from the treasury for the benefit of 
 any religious or theological institution; the general 
 assembly shall provide for the taxation of all prop- 
 
INDIANA 
 
 399 
 
 INDIANA 
 
 erty, excepting such only for municipal, educa- dal occurred in 1915, when the mayor, sheriff, and 
 tional, literary, scientific, religious or charitable chief of police were convicted of election frauds, 
 purposes as may be specially exempted by law In recent times Indiana has furnished many 
 . v county superintendents are, expected to prominent names to the literary history of America, 
 furnish statistical and other reports relative to the poets, Joaquin Miller, John Hay, James Whit- 
 private high schools, elementary schools, colleges, comb Riley, and the fiction writers, General Lew 
 and other institutions of learning; to comply with Wallace, Meredith Nicholson, Booth Tarkington 
 regulations of the Compulsory Education Act, the and Annie Fellows Johnston, 
 term or period of private and parochial schools 
 may not be shorter than that of public schools; 
 the Board of Education may prescribe courses of 
 physical education lor all private, elementary and 
 high schools (ed. Laws, 1919, p. 31); the state board 
 
 Denominations 
 
 may refuse to admit to the accredited list a normal Adventists of the Church of God 
 
 institution not requiring a suitable course of physi- Adventists, Seventh Day. 
 
 cal education, according to an opinion of the attor- Baptists, Northern Convention, 
 ney general of the state, members of the Catholic Baptists, National Convention. 
 
 Sisterhoods are eligible to teach in the public Baptists, Regular . 
 
 schools; after September 1, 1921, all youths between Baptists, General . 
 
 the ages of 14 and 17 years or 14 and 18 years, Baptists, Separate . 
 
 who are regularly employed, may be compelled to Baptists, Primitive . 
 
 attend part-time school not less than four nor more Catholics (Latin Rite) . 
 
 than eight hours per week, between 8:00 a. m. and Catholics (Greek) .. . 
 
 5:00 p. m, during the school term. Christians. .....I..:::.:: 
 
 For statistics of Catholic schools and colleges see: Christian Missionary Alliance. 
 Indianapolis, Diocese of; Fort Wayne, Diocese Christian Union 
 of; Notre Dame, University of. Church of Christ 
 
 Recent Legislative Changes.—T he legislature of Church of God . 
 
 1909 pio\ides for the abolition of the convict sys- Church of the Living God.... 
 
 tern ot contract labor in 1920. In 1913 a tract of Congregationalists . 
 
 1584 acres in Putnam County was purchased for Dunkards (German Baptists).. 
 
 a state farm for male offenders, not felons. By Episcopalians . 
 
 an Act (1917) the General Assembly provided for Evangelical Association. 
 
 the election of delegates to a convention for the Evangelicals, German . 
 
 revision of the constitution, which Act was declared Evangelicals, Christian Congre- 
 
 null and void, since the Legislature had exceeded gation . 
 
 its authority, inasmuch as the question of calling French Conservation . 
 
 a constitutional convention had not been submitted Friends, Hicksite . 
 
 to referendum vote. In 1918 the governor was Friends, Orthodox. 
 
 authorized to appoint an unpaid commission of five Hebrews . 
 
 persons to investigate child welfare and social in- Holiness Bands. 
 
 surance. Prohibition and woman suffrage became Lutherans, Evangelical Synodi- 
 
 enective that year. Later legislation provides for cal. 
 
 the establishment of a farm colony for the feeble- Lutherans, General Synod .... 
 
 minded, the registration of voters, the extension Mennonites, Amish . 
 
 of workmen s compensation to include coal miners, Mennonites, Old Order. 
 
 and a grant to the counties giving them the right Mennonites, Defenseless. 
 
 to construct and maintain highways. The new Mennonites, Proper . 
 
 tax code limits the amount of annual taxes in any Mennonite Brethren in Christ, 
 taxmg unit to a sum not greater than the tax Mennonite Old Order (Wisler) 
 yield of the preceding years, and the total rate Methodists, African Episcopal. 
 
 for all purposes to one and a half per cent, unless Methodists, Episcopal . 
 
 the tax commissioners permit a higher rate. Methodists, Free . 
 
 Religion.—T he accompanying table shows the Methodists, Episcopal, South.. 
 
 latest statistics for the various forms of religion Methodists, Colored . 
 
 represented in the State. Methodists, Protestant . 
 
 Recent History.—I n 1911 Indianapolis, the capi- Methodists, Wesleyan . 
 
 tal, was the scene of wholesale indictments of Moravians . 
 
 the officials of the International Association of Pentecost Church of the Naza- 
 
 Bridge and Structural Workers of America for rene . 
 
 dynamiting several large buildings in the United Presbyterians of the United 
 
 States. These acts were a part of the warfare States . 
 
 against employers who refused to accede to the Presbyterians, United. 
 
 demands for closed shops. The climax came in Reformed, Christian . 
 
 Pi® destruction of the Los Angeles Times, by the Reformed in America . 
 
 MciSamara brothers, who were in the employ of Reformed in United States_ 
 
 the union, which had its headquarters at Indi- Scandinavian Evangelical Bodies 
 
 anapohs. In 1914 it was discovered that certain Salvation Army . 
 
 Bills had been signed by the governor under a Spiritualists . 
 
 misinterpretation. They had been passed in one Swedenborgians . 
 
 house and defeated in another and presented to Unitarians . 
 
 the governor as having passed both houses. Indict- United Brethren in Christ. 
 
 ments of the Lieutenant-Governor and of the Universalists . 
 
 Speaker of the House followed, but no intention Volunteers of America. 
 
 to defraud was discovered. Another election scan- 
 26 
 
 Churches 
 
 Members 
 
 9 
 
 663 
 
 42 
 
 1800 
 
 502 
 
 75,374 
 
 54 
 
 10,412 
 
 11 
 
 1214 
 
 75 
 
 7497 
 
 17 
 
 1698 
 
 85 
 
 5432 
 
 365 
 
 272,288 
 
 1 
 
 2530 
 
 195 
 
 20,253 
 
 4 
 
 130 
 
 13 
 
 1366 
 
 202 
 
 16,512 
 
 28 
 
 2064 
 
 2 
 
 316 
 
 39 
 
 5768 
 
 205 
 
 20,125 
 
 60 
 
 8848 
 
 111 
 
 10,876 
 
 93 
 
 25,403 
 
 5 
 
 645 
 
 6 
 
 232 
 
 6 
 
 829 
 
 165 
 
 26,658 
 
 21 
 
 5461 
 
 1 
 
 343 
 
 124 
 
 38,309 
 
 87 
 
 10,505 
 
 2 
 
 101 
 
 • • • • 
 
 1942 
 
 3 
 
 315 
 
 17 
 
 2903 
 
 8 
 
 493 
 
 6 
 
 155 
 
 68 
 
 493 
 
 1626 
 
 261,228 
 
 44 
 
 1128 
 
 2 
 
 428 * 
 
 2 
 
 258 
 
 128 
 
 10,367 
 
 90 
 
 4511 
 
 3 
 
 440 
 
 22 
 
 1141 
 
 340 
 
 59,209 
 
 24 
 
 2844 
 
 4 
 
 719 
 
 4 
 
 267 
 
 62 
 
 10,642 
 
 5 
 
 216 
 
 28 
 
 963 
 
 17 
 
 1161 
 
 1 
 
 72 
 
 2 
 
 297 
 
 525 
 
 59,955 
 
 24 
 
 1656 
 
 1 
 
 134 
 
INDIANAPOLIS 
 
 400 
 
 INDOCHINA 
 
 During the European War Indiana furnished 
 106,581 soldiers or 2.83 per cent of the United States 
 Army, and 5516 to the United States Navy. In the 
 number of volunteers for the Navy she led all the 
 other States on the basis of population. Besides 
 these the State raised and drilled an extra regi¬ 
 ment of artillery for the National Guard and 
 offered it to the Federal Government. For some 
 unknown reason it was rejected as a unit, but went 
 into active service through volunteer enlistment. 
 The first American soldier killed in battle in France 
 was an Indiana man, Corporal James Bethel 
 Gresham, of Evansville. The first shot fired against 
 the Germans by an American gunner was fired by 
 Sergeant Alex. Arch, of South Bend, Indiana. The 
 summary of casualties among the Indiana members 
 of the American Expeditionary Force is as follows: 
 deceased, 57 officers and 1453 men; prisoners, 3 
 officers and 53 men; wounded, 146 officers and 5054 
 men. 
 
 Indiana ratified the Federal suffrage amendment 
 16 January, 1919, the twenty-sixth State to do so, 
 and the prohibition amendment 14 January, 1919, 
 the twenty-seventh State to do so. 
 
 Indianapolis, Diocese of (Indianapolitana ; cf. 
 C. E., VII-744a), comprises the southern half of 
 Indiana. The population of the diocese (1920) is 
 1,531,458, of wdiom 133,719 are Catholics, and of 
 these 1000 are Italians and 3000 are Slovenians and 
 Slovaks. During the war most of the parishes were 
 active in welfare work, such as the Red Cross, 
 Liberty Bond sales, comfort kits, and books for 
 soldiers. The honor roll of the diocese shows 6738 
 enlisted in the war, of whom 95 were killed or died. 
 Five diocesan priests were chaplains in the service 
 of the United States. Rt. Rev. Denis O’Donaghue, 
 auxiliary Bishop of Indianapolis, was transferred 
 to Louisville in 1910. Bishop Francis Silas Chatard 
 died 8 September, 1918, and was succeeded by Rt. 
 Rev. Joseph Chartrand, b. 1870, ordained 1892, 
 consecrated titular Bishop of Flavias and coadjutor 
 Bishop of Indianapolis 15 September, 1910, elevated 
 to the see of Indianapolis 25 September, 1918. 
 Established in the diocese are the Benedictines, 
 Franciscans, Friars Minor Conventuals, Brothers of 
 the Sacred Heart, and Brothers of the Holy Cross. 
 Religious orders of women are: Sisters of St. Bene¬ 
 dict, Sisters of Charity, Poor Clares, Sisters of St. 
 Francis, Sisters of the Good Shepherd, Sisters of 
 St. Joseph, Little Sisters of the Poor, Sisters of 
 Providence, Ursulines, and Sisters of Mercy. The 
 diocese comprises: 145 parishes, 222 churches, 54 
 missions, 11 stations, 1 Benedictine Abbey (St. 
 Meinrad’s) with 107 religious, 2 convents of men 
 with 56 religious, 191 secular priests, 82 regulars, 
 21 lay brothers, 2763 Sisters, 3 seminaries with 83 
 seminarians, 2 colleges for men with 17 teachers and 
 174 students, 1 college for women with 16 teachers 
 and 185 students, 4 high schools for boys with 17 
 teachers and 724 students, 8 academies for young 
 ladies with 40 teachers and 973 students, 2 normal 
 schools with 17 teachers, 122 elementary schools 
 with an attendance of 20,163, 1 industrial school 
 with 20 teachers and 200 students, 2 homes for 
 the aged, 2 orphan asylums, 5 hospitals. The Cath¬ 
 olic Community Center at Indianapolis is a settle¬ 
 ment house. Public institutions admitting the 
 ministry of priests and Catholic visitors are the 
 state prison, state reformatory, and insane hos¬ 
 pitals. Organizations among the clergy are St. 
 Michael’s, for deceased members, and the Clergy 
 Relief Union for the support of disabled priests. 
 Many of the laity belong to the Knights of Colum¬ 
 bus. Catholic periodicals are the “Indiana Cath¬ 
 
 olic,” of Indianapolis, and “The Grail,” published 
 at St. Meinrad. 
 
 Indies, East, Patriarchate of the (I-ndiarum 
 Orientalium; cf. C. E., VII-758d), erected in 1886. 
 The present patriarch is His Excellency Mateo de 
 Oliveira Xavier, who succeeded His Excellency 
 Antonio Sebastiano Valente, deceased 1909. 
 
 Indies, West, Patriarchate of the (Indiarum 
 Occidentalium), erected in 1520, and in 1886 united 
 to the Archdiocese of Toledo. The purely honorary 
 title of Patriarch of the West Indies was transferred 
 from the Archbishop of Toledo to the Bishop of 
 Sion, Chaplain General of the Spanish Army, by 
 Apostolic Letter of 9 December, 1920. 
 
 Indo-China (cf. C. E., VII-765b).—The territory 
 of this peninsula of Southern Asia is divided 
 politically into Upper and Lower Burma, the Malay 
 Peninsula, the Empire of Siam, and French Indo- 
 China. For particulars concerning the first three 
 see Burma; India; Siam. 
 
 French Indo-China, a colony of France, with 
 an area of 256.000 sq. miles and a population of 
 16,990,229 (1914), of whom 23,700 were European 
 (excluding military forces), consists of the colony 
 of Cochin-China and the protectorates of Tong- 
 king, Annam, Cambodia, and Laos. The territory 
 of Kwang-chau-wan, which was leased from China 
 for 99 years, is to be returned to China (1922). 
 The inhabitants of Indo-China consist largely of 
 Annamites (12,000,000), who are numerous in 
 Cochin-China, Annam, and Tong-king; Cambodians 
 (1,500,000) in Cambodia, and in provinces west of 
 Cochin-China; the Thai's in Tong-king and Laos, 
 where they still form a large portion of the moun¬ 
 tain population; and the Chinese whose superior 
 commercial aptitude has given them command of 
 the trade and minor industries. 
 
 Government .—The French power is represented 
 in the colony by the governor-general, who is also 
 supreme military authority. He is assisted by the 
 Superior Council of thirty-two members, which 
 meets once a year, generally at Hanoi, and con¬ 
 siders the budget of Indo-China and the five dif¬ 
 ferent states; when not in session the council dele¬ 
 gates its functions to a permanent commission of 
 thirteen members. It corresponds to a legislative 
 council, and is composed of the governor-general 
 as president, the military and naval commanders- 
 in-chief, the secretary-general of Indo-China, the 
 governor of Cochin-China, the residents superior of 
 Tong-king, Annam, Cambodia, and Laos, the heads 
 of departments of the government-general, the 
 president of the Colonial Council of Cochin-China, 
 the presidents of the various chambers of commerce 
 and agriculture, two high native officials, and the 
 chief of cabinet of the governor-general, who acts 
 as secretary to the council. Each of the five states 
 has its own organization, at the heads of which 
 are the residents superior, who are answerable to 
 the governor-general. Throughout Indo-China 
 Europeans can only be tried for serious criminal 
 offenses by French judges at specified centers. 
 There are native tribunals from which there is an 
 appeal to the two courts at Saigon and Hanoi. 
 In these two courts the European judges, in matters 
 affecting the natives, are assisted by Annamite 
 mandarins. Each state, province, and municipality 
 has its budget. The revenue and expenditure of 
 the general budget in 1920 balanced at 57,092,640 
 piastres. The outstanding debt in 1920 was 403,- 
 000,000 francs. The military force totals 25,514 
 men, and the naval force 2 gunboats, 4 torpedo 
 boats, and 21 dispatch vessels. The recent policy of 
 
INDOCHINA 
 
 401 
 
 INDOCHINA 
 
 France has been to give the natives as large a 
 share in the government as they are capable of 
 bearing. During the World War France received 
 from Indo-China not only an important contingent 
 of troops, but large supplies of money, boats, pro¬ 
 visions, and raw materials. After the war the 
 native judicial code was reorganized, and new legis¬ 
 lation introduced. A recrudescence of the revolu¬ 
 tionary movement took place in Annam in 1917, 
 but in general the natives have accepted with 
 apparent placidity the rule of the French. 
 
 Economics and, Agriculture. —The tenure of the 
 land is either in the hands of the natives who pay 
 a tax to the State as rent, or in the hands of the 
 I rench colonists who have received concessions 
 amounting to over one million acres. The con¬ 
 cessionaries lease the land to the natives, and 
 provide them with the necessary materials for 
 agriculture, receiving in return a percentage of the 
 products; or if they directly exploit the lands them¬ 
 selves, they pay a certain percentage of profit to 
 the State and reward the natives with a proportion 
 of the produce. Mining concessions are granted by 
 the government (218 in 1918) foreigners being 
 forbidden to own mines. Foreign capital does not 
 directly play a conspicuous part in the develop¬ 
 ment of Indo-China. The chief minerals are coal 
 (636 tons in 1918), lignite, antimony, tin (604 tons 
 in 1918), wolfram and zinc (28,000 tons in 1918). 
 The chief error in the past has been too exclusive 
 a concentration on the cultivation of rice to the 
 neglect of the many other possibilities of the coun¬ 
 try. It is the chief export, forming about 70 per 
 cent of the total (1,475,775 tons in 1918). In 1918 
 2714 vessels of 2,241,746 tons entered, and 2568 
 vessels of 2,196,064 tons cleared. Of those entered 
 332 were French, 281 English, and 258 Japanese. 
 
 ‘ The oldest railroad is that from Saigon to Mytho; 
 at the end of 1918 the total length of line, two- 
 thirds Government owned, was 1300 miles. 
 
 Cochin-China, a direct colony of France, has an 
 area of about 20,000 square miles, and a population 
 (1919) of 3,452,248, of whom 6301 were Europeans. 
 In 1919 Saigon, the capital, had a population of 
 64,496, of whom 4161 were Europeans, exclusive of 
 2200 troops. Cholon, the largest city, had 190,085, 
 of whom 97,211 were Chinese. As a French colony 
 Cochin-China is represented in France by a deputy 
 elected by the French citizens. It is directly 
 administered by a governor, assisted by a privy 
 council. The Colonial Council of sixteen members, 
 of.whom six are Annamites and the rest French, 
 decides the law of the colony and votes on the 
 budget. The head of each province is assisted by 
 a provincial council of natives, and votes on the 
 budget of the province. The cantons are adminis¬ 
 tered by the chiefs, and are divided into communes, 
 each directed by a council of twelve notables. The 
 towns of Saigon and Cholon form a separate com¬ 
 munity. In Saigon the mayor, who is elected, 
 heads a municipal council, composed of twelve 
 French residents and four natives. In Cholon he 
 is nominated by the governor-general, and his 
 Commission Munidpale is composed of three 
 French notables, chosen for three years by the 
 governor from a list of ten, selected bv the Cham¬ 
 ber of Commerce; four Annamites (elected) and 
 three Chinese; chosen by the governor from a 
 list presented to him by the Chinese congregation. 
 Justice is administered in French courts by French 
 justices. There are five magistrates, nine Courts 
 of First Instance at different centers, and a branch 
 of the Court of Appeal for Indo-China, sitting at 
 Saigon. The judges of the Courts of First Instance 
 also exercise the functions of magistrates. There 
 
 are, in addition, four criminal courts. Natives are 
 not allowed to sit as judges. 
 
 Education .— There are about 867 schools with 
 1325 teachers and 51,452 pupils. Secondary educa¬ 
 tion is given at the College Chasseloup-Loubat of 
 Saigon, at College of Gia Dinh, and at the College 
 of Mytho. In 1918 was created the Scientific In¬ 
 stitute at Saigon, to which was united the Botanical 
 Institute, the agricultural stations at Girai, and the 
 arboretum _ at Tranybuum. 
 
 Economics and Agriculture .— The total area of 
 Cochin China is 5,011,277 hectares (1 hectare=2.47 
 acres), of which 1,975,725 hectares are cultivated 
 and 3,488,611 hectares are uncultivated (1,748,694 
 hectares being forest). About 1,665,000 hectares 
 are devoted to the culture of rice. In 1920 the 
 farm animals comprised 12,383 horses, 435,489 buf¬ 
 faloes, 277,473 pigs, 2553 sheep and goats. There 
 are 10 rice mills at Saigon and Cholon, turning 
 out from 450 to 900 tons a day, also 2 sawmills, 2 
 soap factories, and a varnish factory. Cochin- 
 China has a Department of Agriculture and a 
 Chamber of Commerce. During 1919, 589 steamers 
 of 895,592 tons entered the port of Saigon, 114 of 
 which were British. The total exports in 1919 were 
 valued at 980,777,780 francs; the imports, 84,202,744 
 francs. In the same year the local budget balanced 
 at 9,086,358 piastres. For Catholic statistics see 
 Cochin China, Western, Vicariate Apostolic 
 
 OF. 
 
 Annam, a kingdom under French protectorate, 
 has an area of 52,100 square miles. In 1919 the 
 population was 5,592,000, including 2117 Europeans 
 (exclusive of military forces). The population is 
 mainly Annamite. The ports of Tourane, Qui- 
 Nhon, and Xuan Day are open to European com¬ 
 merce, and the customs revenue conceded to France. 
 French troops occupy part of the cidatel (Manga- 
 Ca) of Hue, the capital (population 60,611). Binh- 
 Dinh, the largest town, has 74,400 inhabitants. 
 
 Education— At the end of 1920 the official schools 
 of Annam were reorganized and placed under the 
 direct control of the French Protectorate. There 
 were 685 village schools with 14,438 pupils, 98 
 elementary schools with 5985 pupils, 16 secondary 
 schools with 5058 pupils, 1 higher secondary school 
 at Hue with 562 pupils, 1 higher secondary school 
 for native girls with 289 pupils, 1 professional 
 school with 125 pupils, and 1 school of law and 
 administration with 55 pupils. Higher education 
 is given at the college of Quoc-Hoc at Hue. 
 
 Economics and Agriculture .— The Phanrang River 
 has been utilized to irrigate 100,000 acres, and 
 similar works are being carried on in Central 
 Annam. Cattle raising is an important industry, 
 there being in Annam, in 1919, 681,000 head of 
 cattle. In the same year the exports, which con¬ 
 sisted chiefly of rice, cotton, silk, tea, and pepper, 
 were valued at 51,556,788 francs; the imports at 
 9,243,059 francs. In 1919, 117 ships, totaling 97,942 
 tons, cleared the port of Tourane. 
 
 Government.— The King of Annam, who is 
 an absolute sovereign, is assisted by a Conseil 
 secret (comat), composed of seven ministers, each of 
 whom is assisted by a council of three mandarins. 
 A conseil de censure, nominated by the king, con¬ 
 trols the work of the functionaries. The kingdom 
 is divided into provinces, circumscriptions, cantons, 
 and communes. The provinces are controlled by 
 the tong-doc, assisted by the quan-bo (chief of 
 the administrative service), the an-sat (chief of the 
 judiciary service), the doc-hoc (inspector of schools), 
 and the lanh-binh (military commander). The cir¬ 
 cumscriptions are directed by the quan-huyen, or 
 quan-fu, who are at once administrators and judges. 
 
INDOCHINA 
 
 402 
 
 INDULGENCES 
 
 Then come the canton chiefs and sub-chiefs and 
 the communal councils. The resident general, who 
 represents the French Government to the king, 
 presides over the co-mat, and also directs the great 
 public services depending upon the French adminis¬ 
 tration (agriculture, customs, and excise duties, 
 post and telegraph, public works, etc.). He is 
 assisted by a conseil de protectorat; he is the mas¬ 
 ter of the budget of the protectorate, and himself 
 defines the receipts and expenditures. He also 
 oversees the native provincial administration 
 through his intermediaries, one of whom is placed 
 at the head of each of the thirteen provinces, 
 several being French delegates. Annam has a 
 mixed Chamber of Commerce and Agriculture. 
 
 Recent History— In 1908 occurred the revolt of 
 the “Tondus” against the excessive taxation, and 
 in 1916 that of Duy-Tan against French rule. The 
 latter ended in the dethronement and exile of the 
 king, who was succeeded by Khai-Dinh, a cousin 
 of Thanh-Thai. Under his rule the country pros¬ 
 pered greatly, and during the European War the 
 Annamites showed their loyalty to France by send¬ 
 ing soldiers for the great struggle. Annam has its 
 own budget, which is drawn up by the resident 
 general and approved by the conseil des ministres. 
 The assessed taxes include chiefly those payable on 
 alcohol, mineral oils, matches, opium, salt, and the 
 customs revenues. The budget for Annam in 1919 
 was 5,723,139 piastres (1 piastre equals about 2.50 
 francs). 
 
 For Catholic statistics see Cochin-China, East¬ 
 ern, Vicariate Apostolic of; Cochin-China, 
 Northern, Vicariate Apostolic of. 
 
 Laos has an area of 98,000 sq. miles. In 1914 
 the population was 640,877. In the country there 
 are three protected states, Luang-Prabang, Bassac, 
 and Muong-Sing. The king is assisted in his gov¬ 
 ernment by a French administrator (resident 
 superior), who resides at Vien-tian and is assisted 
 by twelve commissioners. Each province is admin¬ 
 istered by the tiao-munong, who is assisted by three 
 mandarins. The canton is ruled by the tasseing, 
 and the commune by the phoban. The cost of the 
 Laos administration is borne by Cochin-China (six- 
 thirteenths), Tong-king and Annam, (five-thir¬ 
 teenths), and Cambodia (two-thirteenths). The 
 local budget for 1918 was 1,747,000 piastres. The 
 prevailing religion is Buddhism, with traces of 
 Brahmanism in court circles. The temples are not 
 so numerous as in Cambodia, the priests are more 
 ignorant, and in practice Buddhism is reduced to 
 external signs of deference to the priests and sacred 
 places. For Catholic statistics see Laos, Vicariate 
 Apostolic of. 
 
 Tong-king, French protectorate, has an area of 
 46,400 sq. miles, and is divided into 21 provinces. 
 The population in 1919 was 6,470,250, of whom 
 6875 were Europeans (exclusive of military forces). 
 The chief town is Hanoi, which had, in 1919, a 
 population of 109,500. 
 
 Government. —The chief French official is desig¬ 
 nated as resident superior, and is assisted by a 
 Protectorate Council, composed of the heads of 
 departments and delegates of the Chambers of 
 Commerce and Agriculture. He represents the 
 governor-general and carries out the execution of 
 the laws and decrees. The French judges with 
 extensive powers sit at Hanoi, Hai-fong, and Nam- 
 dinh. The resident of each province exercises the 
 jurisdiction of a magistrate, but he takes cognizance 
 only of cases in which Europeans, French subjects, 
 and foreigners are concerned. The local budget for 
 1921 balanced at 13,131,390 piastres. 
 
 Education —There are 14 grammar schools (1920) 
 with 4967 pupils. The University of Hanoi, 
 founded on 28 April, 1918, includes schools of 
 medicine and pharmacy, education, science, engi¬ 
 neering, agriculture, forestry, maritime engineering, 
 navigation, and veterinary science. 
 
 Economics and, Agriculture. —The enormous lime¬ 
 stone quarries made possible in 1917 the large ex¬ 
 portation of 67,567 tons of cement. In the same 
 year 290,000 tons of hard coal were exported. In 
 1919 186,685 tons of rice, valued at 117,045,000 
 francs, were exported, chiefly to Hong-Kong. The 
 principal port, Haiphong, was visited in 1919 by 
 588 steamers (187 British). 
 
 For Catholic statistics see Vicariates Apostolic of 
 Central, Maritime, Southern, Western, Eastern, 
 Northern, and Upper Tong-king. 
 
 Cambodia, a French protectorate, has an area of 
 45,000 sq. miles, and is divided into 42 provinces. 
 In 1919 the population was estimated at 2,000,000, 
 of whom 1100 were Europeans, 100,500 were Anna¬ 
 mites, and 140,000 were Chinese. The chief towns 
 are Pnom-Penh (population 85,000), the capital, 
 Battambang, and Kampot. 
 
 Government. —The present king, Sisowath, is 
 assisted by a council of five ministers and of 
 thirteen assistants. Each province is ruled by a 
 governor, each commune by a municipal council, 
 presided by a mekhum. France is represented by 
 the resident general, who presides over the Council 
 of Ministers and the Council of Protectorate, pre¬ 
 pares the budget and sees to the execution of the 
 laws. The budget for 1920 balanced at 6,500,000 
 piastres, including a sum of 525,000 piastres, 
 allowed for the civil list of the king and princes. 
 There are 60 schools with 4000 pupils. 
 
 Economics and Agriculture. —The chief product 
 is rice, of which 300,000 tons are exported yearly.' 
 Pepper is extensively grown in 61 villages by 4800 
 planters, the production being 800,000 kilogrammes 
 annually. In 1920, 4236 vessels of 179,874 tons 
 entered, and 10,806 vessels of 312,166 tons cleared 
 the ports of Cambodia. The export trade is carried 
 on mostly through Saigon. 
 
 For Catholic statistics see Cambodia, Vicariate 
 Apostolic of. 
 
 Kwang-chau-wan, on the eastern coast of China, 
 was leased from China by France in 1898. In 1900 
 it was placed under the authority of the governor- 
 general of Indo-China and divided into 3 adminis¬ 
 trative districts, the Chinese communal organization 
 being, however, maintained. It has an area of 
 190 sq. miles, and a population of about 168,000. 
 The port is a free port. The budget for 1918 was 
 404,960 piastres. The French have developed the 
 resources of the territory, and when China recovers 
 Kwang-chau-wan she will get back a country 
 greater in value than the territory she leased to 
 France. At the Washington Disarmament Con- 
 turned the territories which they had leased from 
 ference in 1922 the French offered to return the 
 territory to China, provided the other powers re- 
 China. 
 
 Indulgences (cf. C. E., VII-783).—All matters re¬ 
 lating to indulgences are now under the jurisdiction 
 of the Sacred Apostolic Penitentiary. No one but 
 the pope can (a) grant others the power of con¬ 
 ceding indulgences, unless that privilege has been 
 conceded expressly by Apostolic indult; or (b) grant 
 indulgences applicable to the dead; or (c) annex 
 indulgences to pnv pious act, thing or sodality 
 membership to which other indulgences have been 
 granted by the pope or other person, unless new 
 conditions to be fulfilled for gaining them are im- 
 
INDULGENCES 
 
 403 
 
 INFAMY 
 
 posed. Those who have obtained from the pope 
 a concession of indulgences for all the faithful are 
 obliged to present an authentic copy of the con¬ 
 cession to the sacred penitentiary, otherwise the 
 concession becomes invalid. New indulgences 
 granted to churches, even to those of regulars, 
 which have not been promulgated in Rome must 
 not be made public without the local ordinary’s 
 knowledge; so, too, in publishing in books, 
 pamphlets, etc., collections of indulgences for 
 prayers or pious works must the license of the 
 ordinary or of the Holy See be obtained, as is 
 required by the law of censorship. 
 
 Plenary indulgences granted for the feasts of Our 
 Lord or the Blessed Virgin can be gained only on 
 the feasts that are contained in the universal cal¬ 
 endar; so, too, those granted for the feast of an 
 Apostle can be gained only on the feast commemo¬ 
 rating his death. A plenary indulgence granted as 
 quotidiana perpetua or ad tempus (daily and per¬ 
 petually, or temporarily) for visiting a church or 
 public oratory can be gained by each of the faithful, 
 on any day, but only once a year, unless it is other¬ 
 wise expressly stated in the decree. Indulgences 
 granted for feasts or for pious practices performed 
 for three days, a week, or for nine days, before or 
 after a feast, or during the octave are transferred 
 to any day to which the feast has been legally 
 transferred, if the feast transferred has an office 
 with a Mass without solemnity and external cele¬ 
 bration and if the translation is perpetual, or if the 
 solemnity and the external celebration are trans¬ 
 ferred either temporary or perpetually. If a visit 
 to a church or oratory is annexed as a condition 
 for gaining an indulgence on any day, the visit 
 can be made any time between noon on the preced¬ 
 ing day and midnight terminating the day men¬ 
 tioned. If a church to which an indulgence has 
 been annexed is entirely destroyed the indulgence 
 does not cease if the church be rebuilt within fifty 
 years in the same or almost the same spot and 
 under the same title. Indulgenced beads or objects 
 lose their indulgence only when they are entirely 
 destroyed or sold. 
 
 A plenary indulgence is so granted, that if one 
 fails to gain it entirely, he can gain a partial in¬ 
 dulgence according to his disposition. A plenary 
 indulgence for a given pious exercise can be gained 
 only once in a day, whereas a partial indulgence 
 can be gained as often as the exercise is repeated, 
 unless in either case the contrary is expressly stated. 
 Unless the contrary is expressly stated indulgences 
 granted by a bishop can be gained by any one 
 actually within his diocese. No one can gain indul¬ 
 gences for another living person, but all papal indul¬ 
 gences are applicable to the dead, unless the con¬ 
 trary is stated. To gain indulgences one must be 
 baptized, not excommunicated, and in the state of 
 grace at least when finishing the works prescribed; 
 moreover, one must have at least a general intention 
 of gaining them and must perform the works pre¬ 
 scribed at the time and in the manner laid down. 
 Those who for religious purposes or for the sake of 
 education or even health are living in community 
 life in houses erected with the ordinary’s consent, 
 but which have no church or public chapel, and all 
 others living there in their service, may fulfil the 
 obligation of visiting a church or a public oratory, 
 when no special one has been mentioned as a 
 condition for gaining an indulgence, by visiting 
 their own domestic chapel in which they can satisfy 
 the precept of hearing Mass. If confession is a 
 condition for gaining an indulgence it can be 
 made within the octave immediately preceding the 
 day for which the indulgence is granted, and the 
 
 Communion may be received on the vigil; or either 
 condition may be fulfilled within the octave follow¬ 
 ing the appointed day. In like manner the con¬ 
 fession and Communion required for gaining the 
 indulgences granted for the pious exercises of a 
 tnduum, novena, etc., may be made within the 
 octave immediately following the exercises. The 
 faithful who are accustomed to go to confession 
 at least twice a month unless lawfully prevented, 
 or who receive Holy Communion in the state of 
 grace with a right intention daily, even though 
 they may refrain once or twice a week, may gain 
 all indulgences without the actual confession an¬ 
 nexed as a condition, except indulgences granted 
 for the ordinary or an extraordinary jubilee or for 
 some similar case. An indulgence cannot be gained 
 for doing anything that is already enjoined by 
 law or precept, unless the contrary is expressly 
 stated in the concession; however, if in sacramental 
 confession a work to which perchance an indulgence 
 is attached is imposed as a penance, it is possible to 
 gain the indulgence and perform the penance at 
 the same time. More than one indulgence may 
 be annexed to one and the same thing or place 
 on divers grounds; but more than one indulgence 
 cannot be gained for performing one and the same 
 work to which the indulgences have been annexed 
 on divers grounds, unless the work enjoined is 
 confession and Communion, or unless the contrary 
 has been declared. If prayers for the pope’s inten¬ 
 tions are a condition for gaining an indulgence, 
 mental prayer alone is not sufficient, but any vocal 
 prayer will satisfy the obligation unless a specific 
 prayer has been ordered. If a particular prayer is 
 assigned the indulgences may be gained no matter 
 in what language it is said, provided the fidelity of 
 the translation is declared by the sacred penitentiary 
 or by one of the local ordinaries of the place where 
 the language is spoken; but any addition, omission, 
 or interpolation nullifies the indulgence. For gain¬ 
 ing indulgences the prayers may be said alternately 
 by those praying together, or one mav say the 
 prayers and the other fellow them mentally. If 
 without fault on one’s part it is impossible to per¬ 
 form the works enjoined for gaining an indulgence, a 
 confessor is empowered to commute them into 
 others. Those who are dumb can gain indulgences 
 annexed to public prayers, if they are present with 
 the other faithful at the prayers and raise up their 
 thoughts and affections to God; in the case of 
 private prayers it suffices for them to repeat them 
 mentally or peruse them with their eyes. 
 
 Infamy (cf. C. E., VIII-1).—Infamy is the loss 
 of one’s good name. In canon law infamy is 
 twofold: (a) infamy by law, that is when the 
 Church declares one infamous on account of a 
 crime which he has committed; (b) infamy by act 
 or of fact, when one owing to his ill deeds loses 
 his reputation in the sight of prudent serious per¬ 
 sons. Neither species of infamy affects one’s kin¬ 
 dred; however, the Code provides that a parish 
 priest who lives with relatives who have lost their 
 good name may be transferred from his parish 
 if he refuses to send them away. Infamy by law 
 is incurred ipso facto by those who profane the 
 sacred species, or who desecrate the bodies or 
 graves of the dead, or lay violent hands on a 
 pope, cardinal, or papal legate, or who participate 
 in duels as principals or seconds, or who marry 
 again even civilly in disregard of their valid mar¬ 
 riage bond, or who are guilty of certain immoral 
 deeds; it is to be imposed by sentence on recal¬ 
 citrant apostates, heretics, or schismatics after due 
 warning, and on clerics guilty of certain vices. 
 
INFANT JESUS 
 
 404 
 
 INNSBRUCK 
 
 Infamy by law can be removed only by permission 
 of the Holy See, but infamy by act ceases when 
 in the opinion of the ordinary the sinner has by 
 his continued good life regained the esteem of pru¬ 
 dent serious-minded persons. 
 
 Infamy by law constitutes an irregularity ex 
 defectu; it disqualifies entirely for benefices, pen¬ 
 sions, offices, dignities, for ecclesiastical legal acts, 
 for the exercise of ecclesiastical rights, for any 
 ministry in sacred functions, or for sponsorship. 
 Infamy by act impedes one temporarily from re¬ 
 ceiving holy orders, or benefices, offices or dignities, 
 and from the exercise of sacred ministry or of eccle¬ 
 siastical legal acts. Furthermore, after a sentence 
 pronouncing infamy the culprit cannot vote at 
 elections, or exercise the right of patronage, or 
 validly act as sponsor. Finally, no one who is 
 tainted with infamy may testify in ecclesiastical 
 suits, and if he is notoriously infamous he must not 
 even be allowed to receive Holy Communion. 
 
 If any one fears that his testimony will entail 
 infamy on himself or on his kindred in the direct line 
 or in the first degree collateral, he is exempted ex¬ 
 pressly by law from confessing the truth to a judge 
 who questions him in an ecclesiastical court. If by 
 observing a vindicatory penalty or censure lat(B 
 sentenice a guilty person would betray himself and 
 incur infamy and cause scandal, in an urgent case 
 any confessor can in the forum of confession 
 suspend the obligation of observing the penalty, 
 on condition that he imposes on the culprit the 
 obligation of having recourse at least within a 
 month by letter and by his confessor, if possible 
 without grave inconvenience, his name being con¬ 
 cealed, to the sacred penitentiary or to a bishop 
 possessing the requisite faculties and of obeying 
 his commands; if in any extraordinary case such 
 recourse is impossible the confessor, except in case 
 of the censure for solicitation, can grant the dis¬ 
 pensation, but he must impose a fitting penance and 
 satisfaction with the penalty of again incurring 
 infamy if the penance or satisfaction is unduly de¬ 
 layed. 
 
 Infant Jesus, Sisters of the. —Founded at 
 Neufchatel (Sarthe), 1835, and transferred to Le 
 Mans, 1888, the Congregation of the Infant Jesus 
 is approved for teaching and nursing, non-clois- 
 tered. They came to America, 21 October, 1905, 
 and are incorporated under the title Nursing Sis¬ 
 ters of the Sick Poor, with mother-house in Brook¬ 
 lyn. At present the community numbers 63, and in 
 the past fifteen years has served over 4000 patients. 
 The novitiate has been transferred to St. Joseph’s 
 Villa, Hempstead, L. I., where the Sisters are 
 trained in the hospital and prepared for their 
 work. A small branch house was recently opened 
 in Long Island City and ministers to the poor of 
 that section. The works of the congregation are 
 the education of children in orphanages, industrial 
 schools, and homes for working girls; the conducting 
 of clinics, hospitals, homes for the aged; and the 
 nursing of the sick in their homes. In America the 
 work of the Sisters is the nursing of the sick poor 
 in their homes. The Sisters form a family without 
 distinction, wear the same religious habit, and 
 observe the same discipline, regardless of their 
 origin or education. For the continuance and ex¬ 
 tension of their work they depend solely on the 
 charity of others, for they accept no remuneration 
 whatever for their services. During the year 1921 
 the Sisters attended 392 new cases, spent 1592 whole 
 days, 1044 half days, and 72 nights on cases, made 
 1700 visits to cases new or still pending, attended 
 41 at the hour of death, procured admission to 
 
 hospitals for 35, gave food supplies to 3320, dis¬ 
 tributed 3363 new garments, 4865 used garments, 
 179 Christmas red stockings, and gave 85 Christmas 
 dinners. 
 
 Innsbruck, University of (cf. C. E., VIII-24b).— 
 The war and its aftermath have produced a great 
 many problems in the solution of which the Uni¬ 
 versity of Innsbruck was involved. The award of 
 a substantial portion of the Province of Austrian 
 Tyrol to Italy under the Treaty of St. Germain, 
 when under the pressure of the first great economic 
 crisis it was proposed, in order to create credits in 
 foreign countries, to sell the national works of art, 
 the Academic Senate of the university entered 
 vigorous protest, laying stress upon the fact that 
 such means should be adopted only after all the 
 resources of the State had been directed toward 
 forcing the profiteers and their accomplices and 
 conscienceless manufacturers to disgorge that which 
 was really due to the Government. The university 
 opposed the establishment of the compulsory asso¬ 
 ciation of university professors, which was directed 
 by an order of the Ministry of Education, on the 
 ground that such action on the part of the Govern¬ 
 ment constituted an undermining of the basic 
 autonomy granted by law to the universities. The 
 Academic Senate also opposed an increase in the 
 tuition fees, as well as re-introduction of the prac¬ 
 tice of payments by students direct to the pro¬ 
 fessors as an additional fee for attendance upon 
 the courses given by such professors. An attack 
 was also made upon the time-honored practice of 
 using Latin formulas in the conferring of Academic 
 Degrees. While the university recognized that the 
 language of such promotion formulae were anti¬ 
 quated, and in many instances did violence to the 
 scientific feelings of the philologists, nevertheless 
 because of the fact that the question is by no means 
 of basic importance, and because the Academic 
 Senate in these times of radical change felt it de¬ 
 sirable to adhere to a conservative course, the 
 movement to abolish such formulae and standards 
 has not thus far been successful. 
 
 For the first time in decades an academic celebra¬ 
 tion, which hitherto had been impossible because 
 of the political and religious cleavage in the student 
 body, was held on 4 December, 1919, to celebrate 
 the return of the students who had participated 
 in the war. The university and the Ministry of 
 Education vied with one another in order to find 
 ways and means to facilitate the education and 
 instruction of these returning soldiers. As a con¬ 
 sequence credit was given to such students for 
 service in the army as far as possible, an extra 
 semester was added and the requirements of exami¬ 
 nations were reduced as far as it was compatible 
 with the feeling of responsibility of the academic 
 teacher. The lightening of the financial burdens 
 of the students was accomplished through the estab¬ 
 lishment of a Mensa Academica, where meals are 
 served to needy students, either without charge or 
 for a nominal consideration. Support was given to 
 this undertaking through large donations on the 
 part of the professors, through suitable contribu¬ 
 tions, and principally by the National Auxiliary 
 Council of Tyrol, as well as a large gift from the 
 Convention of German Cities through the instru¬ 
 mentality of the Municipal Councils and the Gov¬ 
 ernment of Tyrol. However, these means were not 
 sufficient to relieve the great needs of the students 
 and help from abroad was necessary. As the result 
 of a gift from Holland it was possible to provide 
 the students a daily breakfast prepared by their 
 female fellow students. Contributions from Sweden, 
 
INQUISITION 
 
 INSTITUTE OF MARY 
 
 Switzerland, and America, as well as from the 
 Quakers, provided means for furnishing luncheon 
 and dinner to the students. In addition to the 
 above a contribution which arrived in the summer 
 of the year 1920 from Rochester, New York, and 
 Chicago, Illinois, consisting of lard, bacon, flour, 
 rice, corn beef and condensed milk, valued at 
 100,250,000 cronin, relieved anxiety, supply of neces¬ 
 saries _ for months, and removed a tremendous 
 financial burden. Free meals at the Mensa 
 Academica tvere supplied during the winter semester 
 to eighty students, and during the summer semester 
 to ninety-three students. 
 
 Below is given a table showing the apportionment 
 of the instructional staff at the university: 
 
 
 Professors 
 
 Ordinary 
 
 Professors 
 
 Extraordinary 
 
 Private 
 
 Dozenten 
 
 Dozenten 
 
 Lecturer 
 
 Instructors 
 and Assistants 
 
 Theology . 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 Law. 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 Medicine . 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 
 40 
 
 Philosophy . 
 
 33 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 Totals . 
 
 72 
 
 16 
 
 21 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 48 
 
 Entire total, 168. 
 
 During the year 1919-1920 the following was 
 the attendance at the lectures given by the various 
 faculties: 
 
 
 Winter 
 
 Semester 
 
 Summer 
 
 Semester 
 
 Theology . 
 
 85 
 
 66 
 
 Law . 
 
 117 
 
 114 
 
 Medicine . 
 
 185 
 
 195 
 
 Philosophy . 
 
 290 
 
 304 
 
 Total . 
 
 677 
 
 679 
 
 The university has also undertaken a series of 
 popular lectures which are open to the public 
 without charge. These lectures were given on a 
 variety of subjects, for instance, philosophical, 
 social, historical, scientific, medical and legal. The 
 total attendance at these courses was 1428. 
 
 Inquisition, Canonical (cf. C. E., VIII-38b).— 
 Though the special inquisition preliminary to enter¬ 
 taining a charge of crime against a cleric may be 
 held by the local ordinary, it is usually entrusted 
 to one of the synodal judges, or for special reasons 
 to another priest. The inquisitor must be dele¬ 
 gated specially on each occasion and for a single 
 case only, and can never act in the same trial as 
 judge. When his report indicates that the denuncia¬ 
 tion is without solid foundation, a record of this 
 fact is to be kept in the secret archives; if, how¬ 
 ever, there are indications of a crime having been 
 committed which are insufficient for citing the cleric 
 for trial, the record is to be similarly preserved 
 and the conduct of the suspected party is to be 
 kept under supervision; finally, if the evidence is 
 certain or at least probable and sufficient for 
 formulating an accusation, the cleric should be sum¬ 
 moned to appear. 
 
 Institute of the Brothers of the Christian 
 
 Schools ( C f. C. E., VIII-56a).—Members of this 
 congregation take annual vows at the end of their 
 
 novitiate, triennial vows at tw r cnty-two years of 
 age, and are admitted to perpetual profession at 
 the age of twenty-five. The present superior gen- 
 erid is Brother Imier de Jesus Lafabregue, born in 
 18,>o entered the institute in 1869, provincial visitor 
 to the United States, assistant general in 1907, and 
 ?J e u te , superior general in 1913, replacing Brother 
 uabnel-Mane, who resigned because of his ad¬ 
 vanced age. There are: in Belgium 85 establish¬ 
 ments conducted by the Brothers, comprising about 
 do popular free schools, boarding schools, official 
 normal schools, and trade schools known as St. 
 Luke schools; 35 houses in Germany, Austria Hun¬ 
 gary, Bohemia, Galicia, Albania, Bulgaria, and 
 Rumania; in Spain, including the Canaries and the 
 Balearic Isles, 136 houses of the institute, of which 
 about 111 are popular gratuitous schools; in Italy 
 37 houses of which 9 are in Rome; in the Levant, 
 Tui key, Syria, and Egypt, 50 houses which are 
 centers of Christian education and influence and 
 are liberally patronized by the people of those 
 countries; in the district of England and Ireland 
 3o houses, the Brothers for the most part being 
 engaged in the national schools; 95 houses in 
 Mexico, Cuba, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama, Argen- 
 Venezuel a, Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil; 
 and 66 houses with nearly 24,000 pupils in Canada. 
 In the United States the institute has four prov¬ 
 inces, Baltimore, New York, St. Louis, and San 
 Irancisco. In the Baltimore province the Brothers 
 conduct establishments in the Archdioceses of 
 Baltimore and Philadelphia, arid in the dioceses of 
 Newark, Richmond, Savannah, Scranton, and 
 Wheeling. The Brothers number 225, novices 30 
 scholastics 9, junior novices 33, pupils 7136, orphans 
 720, pupils in industrial schools 839. In the New 
 York province the Brothers conduct 38 establish¬ 
 ments in the archdioceses of New York, Boston 
 and Halifax, and in the dioceses of Albany, Buffalo’ 
 Brooktyn, Detroit, Manchester, Fall River, Syracuse 
 and Providence. There are 460 Brothers, 15 novices’ 
 
 7 scholastics, 40 postulants, 16,000 pupils. In the 
 St. Louis province the Brothers conduct establish¬ 
 ments in the archdioceses of Chicago, St. Louis, 
 and St. Paul, and in the dioceses of Kansas City’ 
 St. Joseph, Duluth, Nashville, and Winona. The 
 Brothers number 208, novices 13, postulants 37, 
 scholastics 9, pupils 3300, colleges 2, high schools 12, 
 parochial schools 2. In the San Francisco province 
 the Brothers conduct establishments in the arch¬ 
 dioceses of Oregon City and San Francisco, and 
 in the dioceses of Sacramento and Los Angeles. 
 There are 80 Brothers, 1 scholastic, 4 novices, 18 
 postulants, 2562 pupils, 1 college, 4 high schools, 
 
 3 parochial schools, 1 orphanage and industrial 
 school, 1 scholasticate and normal training school, 
 
 1 novitiate, 1 j uni orate. 
 
 J- B. de la Salle, Etude pedagogique (Avignon. 
 1914); Wolters, De H. Johannes Baptista de la Salle, stichter 
 der Congregatie de Broeders der Christelijke Scholen (’s Gra- 
 venhage, 1919); Brug, Der heilige Johannes Baptist de la Salle 
 wid seme padagogigische Stiftung (Ratisbon, 1918); Revue 
 Beige de Pedagogie, Manuel du Catecjiiste, methodologie de 
 l enseignement de la religion (Paris, 1907); Histoire de la 
 pedagogie (Gembloux, 1919). 
 
 Institute of Mary ( c f. C. E., VIII-54a).—Owing 
 to the political disturbances in Europe during the 
 last three centuries, the Institute of Maiy has 
 been split up into several generalates. At the 
 present day (1922) there are subject to the Insti¬ 
 tute in Bavaria 126 houses: 107 in Bavaria itself, 
 
 5 in England, 3 in Italy, 5 in Rumania, and 6 in 
 India. Of these 13 are new foundations. The 
 total number of members is 3345. In Bavaria the 
 number of pupils is 38,860; in Rumania, 3300; in 
 India, 980; in England, 580; in Italy, 490. In 1911 
 
INSTITUTE OF MARY 
 
 406 
 
 INTERDICT 
 
 Mother Elise Blume was succeeded as general 
 superior in Nymphenburg by Mother Isabella Wild. 
 Mother Magdalen Gremion, foundress of the first 
 house in Rome in modern times, died in 1913. 
 The Austrian branch of the Institute consists at 
 present (1922) of 12 houses, 3 of which are new 
 foundations. It has 739 members, 52 schools with 
 7800 pupils. The house in Prague had to be sold 
 to the Government during the World War; the 
 house at Zara was taken over by another Congrega¬ 
 tion in 1921. In 1913 Mother J. Castiglione was 
 succeeded by Mother Barbara Gottlieb as general 
 superior in Austria. Mainz, a separate generalate 
 since the time of Napoleon, has now 8 dependencies 
 with 277 members, 25 educational establishments, 
 and 3759 pupils. Mother Thaddae Lechner was 
 succeeded in 1919 by Mother Paula Rang as gen¬ 
 eral superior. 
 
 In 1913 new Constitutions according to the 
 Normas were approved for the Irish branch of the 
 Institute, which is now divided into provinces. 
 In 1919 Mother Raphael Deasy succeeded Mother 
 Michael Corcoran, who for thirty years governed 
 as mother general the houses dependent on Rath¬ 
 farnham. Distinguished members deceased were: 
 Mother Teresa Ball (d. 1911), assistant general for 
 nineteen years; Mother Gonzaga Barry (d. 1915), 
 foundress of the Institute in Australia and first 
 provincial; Mother Stanislaus Murphy (d. 1919), 
 foundress of the Institute in Spain and first pro¬ 
 vincial; Mother Attracta Coffey (d. 1920), who 
 devoted her musical talent to the perfecting of 
 Church music, leaving a tradition in Rathfarnham as 
 to the correct singing of plain chant. Rathfarnham 
 has 49 dependencies, 6 of which are new founda¬ 
 tions. In 1911 a hostel in Dublin, and in 1918 one 
 in Melbourne were established for students attend¬ 
 ing the respective universities. The number of 
 members subject to Rathfarnham is 1031. The 
 number of pupils is 14,153. 
 
 There are four houses of the Institute in the 
 United States. Canada has 12, four of them 
 being new foundations. Since 1910 it has had four 
 general superiors: Mother Ignatia Lynn, the con¬ 
 necting link between the pioneers of the Institute 
 in America and their successors of the present day; 
 Mother Victorine Harris; Mother Stanislaus 
 Liddy; and Mother Pulcheria Farrelley, the present 
 mother general. In 1911, at Toronto, the seat of 
 the Generalate, Loreto Abbey College was founded 
 as a woman’s department of St. Michael’s College, 
 one of the four federated colleges of the University 
 of Toronto. Of these four, University College is 
 undenominational, Victoria is Methodist, Trinity 
 is Anglican, and St. Michael’s is Catholic. The 
 first three are co-educational, and each maintains 
 a woman’s residence in connection with it. At 
 St. Michael’s a principle of segregation prevails, 
 consequently Loreto students enrolled there, attend 
 lectures at Loreto Abbey College, thus enjoying 
 the unique advantage of pursuing their studies in a 
 Catholic college and of obtaining their degree from 
 a university whose high standing is recognized both 
 throughout the British Empire and in the United 
 States. The number of members subject to Tor¬ 
 onto is 350. They have 33 schools with 7804 
 pupils. 
 
 Among prominent ecclesiastics anxious to advance 
 at Rome the cause of Mary Ward, foundress of 
 the Institute, are Cardinal Bourne and Cardinal 
 Gasquet. In the preface to “Mary Ward, a Sketch,” 
 recently published by the Catholic Truth Society, 
 Cardinal Bourne expresses the hope that “an in¬ 
 creased knowledge of her life may lead to a greater 
 appreciation of her work; may it be the means of 
 
 uniting into one great organization the widely scat¬ 
 tered branches of her Institute; may it bring about 
 in God’s own day her publicly authorized invoca¬ 
 tion.” 
 
 Institution, Canonical (cf. C. E., VII-65).— The 
 right of instituting parish priests belongs to the 
 bishop, unless the parish has been reserved to the 
 Holy See, all customs to the contrary being 
 reprobated. Canonical institution to a benefice 
 cannot be granted by a vicar general without a 
 special mandate. 
 
 Intendencia Oriental y Llanos de San Martin, 
 
 Vicariate Apostolic of (cf. C. E., VIII-69a), in 
 Colombia. The present vicar apostolic is Rt. Rev. 
 Jose Maria Guiot, consecrated titular Bishop of 
 Augustopolis in 1908. The vicariate comprises 
 34,749 square miles, and has a population of about 
 30,000 Indians. There are 5 residences or parishes, 
 2 vice-parishes, and 14 religious. Several Sisters of 
 Wisdom are active in the vicariate. 
 
 Inter-Church World Movement. See Protes¬ 
 tantism. 
 
 Interdict (cf. C. E., VIII-73b).—The right of im¬ 
 posing any general interdict, affecting a diocese 
 or state is reserved to the Holy See; but a general 
 interdict affecting a parish or its parishioners, or a 
 particular local or personal interdict may be im¬ 
 posed by the bishop also. Extems and exempted 
 individuals are obliged to observe a local interdict. 
 
 The sacraments and sacramentals can always be 
 administered to the dying in spite of a local inter¬ 
 dict; moreover, except it is expressly forbidden, 
 if the interdict is general and local: (a) priests not 
 personally indicated may perform all Divine services 
 in any church or public oratory privately, in a 
 low voice, without bells, and with closed doors; 
 (b) in the cathedral church, parish churches or in 
 the only church in a town, and only in these, it is 
 lawful to say a daily Mass, reserve the Blessed 
 Sacrament, administer baptism, Holy Communion, 
 penance, assist at marriages, though the nuptial 
 blessing is prohibited, hold funeral services 
 without any solemnity, bless baptismal water and the 
 sacred oils, and preach. In these ceremonies there 
 must be no music, singing, or pomp; the Viaticum 
 is to be carried privately to the sick. Though local 
 interdicts are suspended on certain great feasts, still 
 the prohibition against ordination or the solemn 
 blessing of marriage remains in force. Interdiction of 
 a church involves neighboring chapels, but not the 
 cemetery; interdiction of a cemetery involves the 
 oratories in it, but not the neighboring church. 
 
 The following interdicts are incurred ipso facto: 
 (1) Universities, colleges, chapters, and all other 
 legal persons who appeal from laws, decrees or 
 mandates of the reigning pope to a general council; 
 this interdict is reserved specially to the Holy 
 See. (2) Those who knowingly celebrate or cause 
 to be celebrated the Divine offices in interdicted 
 places; and those who admit clerics who have been 
 excommunicated, interdicted, or suspended by a 
 declaratory or a condemnatory sentence, to cele¬ 
 brate the Divine offices from which they have been 
 excluded by censure, incur ipso jure an interdict 
 against entering the church, which remains in force 
 until in the judgment of the person whose.authority 
 was condemned they have made due satisfac¬ 
 tion. It should be noted that what is penalized 
 here is the admission to celebrate the Divine offices, 
 not attendance at them. By “Divine offices” is 
 meant those functions of the power of orders which 
 by the institution of Christ or of the Church are 
 ordained for the worship of God and can be exer- 
 
IOWA 
 
 407 
 
 IOWA 
 
 ciscd only by clerics. The interdict would not 
 be incurred unless the reason why the party should 
 have been excluded was that he had been cen¬ 
 sured by sentence, formerly the motiye for exclu¬ 
 sion was excommunication by name. (3) A 
 personal interdict falls on those who have furnished 
 cause for a local interdict or for an interdict 
 affecting a community or college. This interdict 
 not being reserved, the party affected can be ab¬ 
 solved sacramentally by any confessor. (4) An 
 interdict .from entering the church, reserved to the 
 ordinary, is incurred by anyone who willingly gives 
 ecclesiastical burial to infidels, apostates from the 
 Faith, heretics, schismatics, or other persons who are 
 excommunicated or interdicted, in violation of the 
 ecclesiastical regulations governing Christian burial. 
 Naturally, as the pastor or rector of the church 
 is the only person who authorizes the ceremonies 
 of Christian burial, it is he alone, and not those 
 who request him, that incurs this censure, which is 
 reserved to the ordinary. 
 
 In addition to these four cases in which interdict 
 is explicitly mentioned we may note that Catholics 
 who dare to contract mixed marriages, even if the 
 marriage is valid, without a dispensation from the 
 Church are ipso facto excluded from the sacraments 
 until a dispensation has been granted by the ordi¬ 
 nary. Moreover, a personal interdict is to be im¬ 
 posed on those who mutilate corpses or violate 
 graves for an evil purpose, and also on those who 
 while still bound by the marriage bond have at¬ 
 tempted to contract another marriage, even a civil 
 marriage, and who continue this unlawful union 
 after being warned by the ordinary. 
 
 Formerly, the Council of Trent in order to 
 force bishops to reside in their dioceses imposed 
 on metropolitans the duty of denouncing those who 
 failed to do so to the Holy See, if they had absented 
 themselves for more than a year. If the metro¬ 
 politan did not do so, he incurred an interdict 
 against entering his church. Chapters, also, were 
 forbidden under penalty of interdict to grant dimis- 
 sorial letters during a vacancy—except in the case 
 of those who had to be ordained on account of a 
 benefice; and, later, an interdict against entering 
 church was imposed on bishops who illegally took 
 over the administration of their dioceses. These 
 penalties, however, are no longer in force. 
 
 Ayrinhac, Penal Legislation, 124-144. 
 
 Iowa (cf. C. E., VIII-93c).—The State of Iowa 
 has an area of 56,147 sq. miles or 35,934,080 acres. 
 During the ten years from 1908 to 1918 the average 
 extremes of temperature were 106° above and 34° 
 below zero. During the same period the average 
 rainfall was 27 inches. For the year 1918 the mean 
 temperature was 49.2°; the highest temperature was 
 113° (4 August), in Clarinda, Knoxville, and 
 
 Shenandoah in the southern part of the State; the 
 lowest temperature was 40° below zero (20 Decem¬ 
 ber) in Washta, Cherokee County, in the northern 
 part of the state. The average amount of rain 
 and melted snow for the year was 32.78 inches. 
 
 Industrial and General Social Conditions.— 
 The value of the agricultural products of the State 
 in 1919, according to the United States Department 
 of Agriculture, was $861,338,000. This includes 
 416,000,000 bushels of Indian corn, valued at $499,- 
 200,000, and 196,182,000 bushels of oats, valued at 
 $125,556,000. The state now ranks first in the pro¬ 
 duction of oats and corn and in the number of 
 swine and horses. The value of dairy products 
 for the year 1919 was $100,000,000. The mineral 
 output for the same year was 8,192,195 tons, valued 
 at $24,703,232. In the year 1918 the value of clay 
 
 products was $5,313,394. The value of the output 
 
 0t m iKl?££i ures for the last statistical year, 1919, 
 was $746,774,000. 1 he total mileage of railways in 
 
 the State in 1918 was 9,837.7, and the total mileage 
 of electric mterurban railways was 887.1. According 
 to the Federal Census of 1920, the population of 
 Jlowa was 2 403,630; that of Des Moines, the largest 
 city, 126,468. The next largest cities in order are 
 Sioux City, Davenport, and Dubuque. The Federal 
 Census of 1916 gives the membership of the various 
 churches as follows: Methodist Episcopal, 325,959- 
 Catholic, 206,701; Lutheran, 107,523; Presbyterian, 
 47,159. 
 
 Education is compulsory for children between 
 the ages of seven and sixteen years inclusive. In 
 1917 the number of school houses was 13,227, the 
 number of teachers, 27,227; the enrollment of pupils. 
 532,060, and the total appropriation for educational 
 purposes for the year $32,395,988. There are 905 
 high schools in the State. In 1919 the State Univer¬ 
 sity had 260 professors and instructors, and 2889 
 students enrolled. There are in the State 226 
 ^private denominational and higher educational in¬ 
 stitutions. The State laws relative to private and 
 parochial schools are as follows: the medium of 
 instruction in all secular subjects taught in all the 
 schools, public and private, shall be the English 
 language, and the use of any language other than 
 English in secular subjects in said schools is hereby 
 prohibited, provided, however, that nothing herein 
 shall prohibit the teaching and studying of foreign 
 languages as such; private schools must furnish 
 attendance reports; the common branches of ele¬ 
 mentary education must be taught in private 
 schools. Instruction in citizenship must also be 
 given; private high schools may be designated to 
 conduct normal training courses. 
 
 Catholic Education .—In the year 1920 there were 
 in the State 33,845 pupils attending parochial 
 schools, and 6929 students in academies and high 
 schools. Dubuque College, diocesan, formerly St. 
 Joseph’s, has 165 students and St. Ambrose College, 
 also diocesan, has 302 students. 
 
 Recent History.— During the European War, 
 Iowa contributed 98,000 soldiers, 10,000 sailors, and 
 600 marines, all of whom accredited themselves 
 honorably. Headquarters First Iowa Brigade was 
 reorganized into the 67th Brigade Headquarters, 
 34th Division, entrained at Camp Cody, New 
 Mexico, and arrived in France, where they were 
 skeletonized at Le Mans, along with the First Iowa 
 Infantry (133rd Infantry) and the Second Iowa 
 Infantry. The Third Iowa Infantry (168th U. 
 S. Infantry) 42d or Rainbow Division, arrived 
 at Rimaucourt, France, on 12 December, 1917, en¬ 
 tered the line in February, and participated in the 
 battles of Badonviller, Lorraine, Champagne, 
 Chateau Thierry, Sergy, St. Mihiel, and Argonne. 
 The rest of the Iowa men, organized into the 34th 
 Division entrained at Camp Cody, arrived in France 
 in 1918 and saw little service. The summary of 
 casualties of the Iowa members of the American 
 Expeditionary Force was as follows: deceased, 42 
 officers and 2199 men; prisoners, 8 officers and 86 
 men; wounded, 106 officers and 4950 men. 
 
 For details of the Church in Iowa see Dubuque, 
 Archdiocese of; Sioux City, Diocese of; Daven¬ 
 port, Diocese of; Des Moines, Diocese of. 
 
 In the state there were (1921) 586 churches, 621 
 priests, 34 different religious orders, 35 hospitals 
 and asylums, and a Catholic population of about 
 262,690. 
 
 Legislative Changes. —The Legislature of Iowa 
 was one of the first to organize the commission 
 form of government for cities and the system of the 
 
IRELAND 
 
 408 
 
 IRELAND 
 
 city government adopted by Des Moines in 1907, 
 became known as the Des Moines system. In 1911 
 it created the office of commerce counsel to inves¬ 
 tigate railroad rates and matters pertaining to com¬ 
 merce. In the same year the office of dairy and 
 food commissioner was created. A stringent child 
 labor law was passed in 1915. The contract prison 
 labor system was recently abolished. Iowa has a 
 workman’s compensation law and laws providing 
 for safety in coal mines. There is a pure food 
 law, conforming in its requirements to the national 
 law. There are statutory provisions for direct 
 primaries, for direct election of senators, and for 
 non-partisan nomination of judges of the supreme 
 district, and superior courts. The property rights 
 of husbands and wives are equal, each upon the 
 death of the other inheriting one-third of his or her 
 real estate, while neither is responsible for the debts 
 of the other. The State ratified the Federal suf¬ 
 frage amendment, 2 July, 1919, and the prohibition 
 amendment, 15 January, 1919, the thirty-first State 
 to do so. 
 
 * 
 
 Ireland (cf. C. E., VIII-98b).—The history of 
 Ireland since 1913 centers chiefly around the death 
 of the Home Rule movement and the sanguinary 
 struggle for independence during and after the 
 European War, which was professedly fought to 
 dethrone might as the basis of right and to liberate 
 subject nationalities. Ireland is a distinct and 
 separate nation, the oldest in Europe, except Greece. 
 It has a population of more than 4,500,000, and in 
 that surpasses Norway, Denmark, and Switzerland. 
 It has an area of 32,531 sq. miles, and is larger 
 than Belgium, Holland, Denmark, or Switzerland, 
 or any two of them combined. In 1918-19 the 
 British Government collected $170,000,000 in taxes 
 in Ireland, and spent there $65,000,000, reaping a 
 net profit of $105,000,000. The cost of government 
 in other small countries before the war was: 
 Servia, $26,000,000; Greece, $27,000,000; Switzer¬ 
 land, $35,000,000; Bulgaria, $35,000,000; Norway, 
 $36,000,000; Denmark, $47,500,000. In 1917 Portugal 
 did a business of $115,000,000; Norway, $210,000,000; 
 Denmark, $325,000,000; Sweden, $375,000,000; while 
 Ireland did a business of $820,000,000. In view of 
 these figures and of the fact that the Irish had 
 never voluntarily accepted any union with England, 
 it was but natural for the Irish to accept the state¬ 
 ments and professions of the governments of the 
 world and insist on their right to freedom. The 
 present movement in Ireland for independence was 
 linked up with an unending series of wars and 
 revolts against English rule, since the first attempt 
 to subdue the island. It originated at the moment 
 when the agitation for Home Rule had failed in 
 circumstances of extreme humiliation. The many 
 times reiterated promise of a very limited measure 
 of self-government had been violated and the 
 British Government had virtually pledged its word, 
 on the contrary, to divide Ireland for the first time 
 in history. When it seemed probable that some 
 measure of Home Rule would have to be given to 
 Ireland, the British supporters in N. E. Ulster had 
 been encouraged and permitted to organize Well- 
 armed volunteer forces to resist Home Rule. When 
 the Irish, to meet this menace, began their volun¬ 
 teer movement and attempted to secure arms, the 
 British interfered and peaceful citizens were wan¬ 
 tonly fired on by the" British military bn the last 
 Sunday in July, 1914. Meanwhile the workingmen 
 of Dublin were forming their citizen army, while 
 Countess Markiewicz had founded the Fianna na 
 h-Eireann or Irish boy scouts, two bodies that made 
 the 1916 revolt possible. When the war broke out 
 
 a few days later, the Irish, forgetting the past, 
 enlisted voluntarily in the British Army, in re¬ 
 sponse to a plea by the British imploring them 
 to enlist to help Belgium, where the nuns and 
 priests were being slam, they declared, and the 
 churches destroyed by the German Protestants. 
 When it was believed that the war would not last 
 long, the parties responsible for the arming of N. E. 
 Ulster against Home Rule made vigorous efforts to 
 discourage the Irish Catholics from enlisting, lest 
 they should learn the use of arms, and so be in a 
 position to meet any pro-British rising in N. E.. 
 Ulster in case Home Rule was granted. The author¬ 
 ities at the War Office in London refused Redmond’s 
 offer of his Irish volunteers as an Irish unit for a 
 similar motive. Dazzled by the thought of fighting 
 to liberate small nationalities, Ireland had come near 
 losing her own soul, when on Easter Monday, 24 
 April, 1916, Patrick Pearse, James Connolly, Thomas 
 Clarke, Joseph Plunkett, and their associates, 
 rose in sudden revolt in Dublin, proclaimed the 
 independence of Ireland, and unfurled the Irish 
 tricolor. For a week a bitter fight was staged, the 
 British violating the internationally accepted Red 
 Cross regulations. The revolt was crushed, but only 
 after heavy losses had been inflicted on the British. 
 Less than 1100 Irish soldiers, and these included 
 women like Countess Markiewicz in their ranks, 
 participated in the active fighting; of these 58 
 were killed, while 16 leaders were court-martialed 
 and shot. The revolt took the populace by sur¬ 
 prise, and was not in general approved at first. 
 Archbishop Harty and Bishops Hoare, Gilmartin 
 and Morrisroe condemned it severely. Bishop 
 O’Dwyer, however, and later Archbishop Mannix of 
 Melbourne, won the affection of Irish race by their 
 protests against the cruelty of the British com¬ 
 mander-in-chief and by upholding Ireland’s rights 
 to self-determination. The public was shocked by 
 the method of executing the leaders by twos or 
 threes over an extended period, and particularly by 
 the execution of James Connolly, the noted labor 
 leader, who, having been severely wounded in the 
 fighting, was nursed back to health sufficiently to 
 allow him to be carried out on the chair to face 
 the rifles of the firing squad. 
 
 About 4,000 Irishmen, mostly leaders of the 
 patriotic party, were deported to England after 
 the suppression of the revolt. An attempt made 
 by the Irish Nation League in August, 1916, to 
 induce the people to consent to remain in the 
 British Empire failed. The national consciousness 
 of the nation was awakening. In February, 1917, 
 Count Plunkett, father of Joseph Plunkett, won a 
 striking victory at an election in which his plat¬ 
 form was complete Irish independence. This vic¬ 
 tory was followed by a convention of the public 
 bodies in Ireland, which re-asserted the nationality 
 of Ireland and pledged itself to use every means 
 to secure independence. The British premier, 
 Lloyd George, thereupon proposed a convention 
 of Irishmen exclusively to arrange a settlement of 
 the Irish question and pledged the British Govern¬ 
 ment to accept any solution of the Irish question 
 upon which the convention could reach a substantial 
 agreement, with the sole exception that Ireland 
 must remain within the empire. The proposal was 
 accepted by the Unionists and Parliamentarian 
 Nationalists, but was rejected by the Sinn Fein 
 party, who refused to be present unless all the 
 delegates should be elected by adult suffrage, and 
 unless the convention should be free to decree 
 independence. The term Sinn Fein, meaning “out- 
 selves,” was originally given by Arthur Griffith to 
 his movement to have Irishmen abandon the British 
 
IRELAND 
 
 409 
 
 IRELAND 
 
 Parliament and rely on themselves to improve their 
 conditions, but it had come to mean the patriotic 
 party that demanded complete national indepen¬ 
 dence. The convention met without the Sinn Fein 
 party on 25 July, 1917. There were 101 delegates, 
 none of whom was chosen by election. Meanwhile 
 Eamonn do Valera, who had made a brilliant 
 defence of his position in the revolt of 1916, and 
 who had been sentenced to death, a penalty com¬ 
 muted later to penal servitude for life, was elected 
 for East Clare on the Irish Republic ticket. On 
 25 October, 1917, he was chosen president of the 
 Sinn Fein organization, which pledged itself to 
 make it impossible for England to hold Ireland. 
 As was expected, Lloyd George, on 25 February, 
 1918, intervened in the convention and declared 
 that Great Britain must control the Irish customs 
 and excise. The convention failed, partly because 
 of the attitude of the Unionists of N. E. Ulster, 
 and partly because of the new limitations imposed 
 by Lloyd George in violation of his pledge. The 
 Nationalists and the other Unionists, had agreed 
 to accept limited self-government; but before 
 reading their report Lloyd George announced he 
 had decided to conscript the Irish. His threat 
 ■was met at once by a union of the Sinn Fein, 
 Labor and Parliamentary parties to defeat this 
 attack on the nation’s prerogative, and an appeal 
 to the Irish to resist by force. The answer was 
 unanimous, and the hierarchy declared their resis¬ 
 tance by force to be morally justified. A month 
 later the British replied, deporting and imprisoning 
 about 100 of the leading Irishmen without any 
 legal formality. To justify himself in the eyes of 
 the world, especially of America, Lloyd George 
 said he had discovered an Irish-German plot. He 
 was at once challenged by the Irish to substantiate 
 his charge, but he failed to do so; the British 
 viceroy in Ireland at the time, Lord Wimborne, 
 admitting publicly that the plot was a mere fiction. 
 It was seen soon that the enforcement of con¬ 
 scription would be a physical impossibility, and 
 Sinn Fein continued to spread rapidly. 
 
 In December, 1918, a general election was held in 
 Ireland. The nation had a chance to make a 
 deliberate choice. The result was phenomenal: 
 the Republicans triumphed everywhere, except in 
 the N. E. corner of Ulster, where the British 
 “planters” were in a majority. The Republicans, 
 however, refused to sit in the British Parliament, 
 as that would have involved an oath of allegiance 
 to England, and forfeited thereby a deposit of 
 $700 for each of their members. The Republicans 
 established a parliament of their own—the Dail 
 Eireann—issued a declaration of independence and 
 elected De Valera president of the Irish Republic. 
 
 In 1919 the British began a policy of brute 
 force. Republican leaders were seized and their 
 organizations declared illegal; but the local elec¬ 
 tions in 1920 showed the country was solid for 
 independence. The Republican victories in the 
 rural elections in June were followed by a Reign 
 of Terror. For nearly a year the lives and property 
 of the Irish were at the mercy of the constabulary 
 and a body of special auxiliaries from England 
 (popularly called Black and Tans, from their uni¬ 
 forms), some of whom were criminals specially 
 pardoned on condition that they would go to Ire¬ 
 land and do what they were told without ques¬ 
 tioning. The Irish volunteers, whose supplies had 
 to be smuggled into Ireland in spite of the vigilance 
 of the British Navy, and transported through it, 
 despite the fact that the country was swarming 
 with British soldiers, adopted guerilla tactics and 
 carried on a magnificent fight for over a year. 
 
 I heir success was due to the fearless cooperation 
 ol the peasantry and the heroism of the women 
 and girls of Ireland. I he atrocities reported from 
 Eui opean countries during the war were now re¬ 
 enacted in Ireland in cold blood with the knowledge 
 and cooperation of the British authorities. Cork 
 City with its library was burned, as were large areas 
 * n Limerick, Granard, and Balbriggan and a hun¬ 
 dred villages and hamlets; 1355 stores or shops* 
 52 cooperative creameries; 31 factories; 985 private 
 residences; and 139 halls and clubs were among 
 the buildings destroyed by the British without mili¬ 
 tary necessity, merely as reprisals or intimidation 
 between January, 1920, and July, 1921. The 
 destruction of property was surpassed by the 
 atrocities committed on non-combatants—a mas¬ 
 sacre at Croke Park, Dublin, druing a football 
 game, of women and girls assaulted; young mothers 
 slam; priests assassinated; prisoners tortured before 
 execution; unprintable, unnatural tortures inflicted 
 on the prisoners in the Irish gaols; the assassina- 
 tion of the Lord Mayor and ex-Lord Mayor of 
 murder of Lord Mayor MacCurtain 
 of Cork, which was followed by the remarkable 
 sacrifice made by Lord Mayor Terence MacSwiney, 
 who, refusing to eat while a prisoner of the 
 British lest his doing so should be accepted as a 
 sign that he acknowledged their right to hold him 
 a prisoner, died in Brixton prison, England, after 
 a fast of more than 70 days. Thousands of young 
 Irishmen were flung into unsanitary, vermin-infected 
 concentration camps, without being told the why or 
 wherefore. In August, 1920, Archbishop Mannix 
 was seized on the high seas by the British Navy 
 and excluded from Ireland. 
 
 It had become apparent in the middle of 1921 
 that England could not suppress the guerilla war¬ 
 fare except by exterminating the whole Irish peo¬ 
 ple. Foreign nations were becoming outspoken in 
 their condemnation of her cruelty. An American 
 commission had declared that England had sub¬ 
 stituted an organized anarchy for the orderly gov¬ 
 ernment of the people’s choice, justly established 
 in face of opposition. Vigorous protests were made 
 by British generals, like Major-General Sir Herbert 
 Gough, British women like Lady Mark Sykes and 
 Mrs. Annan Bryce, sister-in-law of Viscount Bryce, 
 by the Anglican hierarchy and leading noncon¬ 
 formist clergymen. While the Irish hierarchy has 
 repeatedly protested against the injustice and 
 atrocities being committed by the British Govern¬ 
 ment, and condemned the excesses of some of the 
 Republicans, they refused formally to recognize 
 Ireland’s independence or the legitimacy of the 
 Dail Eireann. On 12 December, 1920, Bishop 
 Cohalan decreed the censure of excommunication 
 ipso facto on anyone who should “within the diocese 
 of Cork organize or take part in an ambush or in 
 kidnapping,” which practically forbade the Irish to 
 conduct their guerilla warfare in the district; and 
 in January, 1921, Archbishop Gilmartin of Tuam 
 declared the fight against the British to be a viola¬ 
 tion of the moral law and therefore sinful. 
 
 At last a truce was called. Lloyd George and 
 De Valera met, but failed to agree. Meanwhile 
 the Dail Eireann assembled openly, and on 16 
 August, 1921, all its members swore allegiance to 
 the Irish Republic in the following terms: “I . . . . 
 do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I do not and 
 shall not yield a voluntary support to any pretended 
 Government, Authority, or Power within Ireland 
 hostile and inimical thereto; and I do further 
 swear (or affirm) that to the best of my knowl¬ 
 edge and ability I will support and defend the 
 Irish Republic and the Government of the Irish 
 
IRELAND 
 
 410 
 
 IRELAND 
 
 Republic, which is the Dail Eireann, against all 
 enemies, foreign and domestic; that I will bear 
 true faith and allegiance to the same; and that 
 I take this obligation freely, without any mental 
 reservation or purpose of evasion, so help me God.” 
 The oath was administered in the Irish language. 
 
 A new conference was arranged a little later, and 
 Messrs. Griffith, Collins, Barton, Duggan and 
 Gavan Duffy were authorized by the Dail on 7 
 October “as envoys plenipotentiary from the elected 
 government of the Republic of reland to negotiate 
 and conclude on behalf of Ireland with the repre¬ 
 sentatives of His Britannic Majesty, George V, a 
 treaty or treaties of settlement, association, and 
 accommodation between Ireland and the community 
 of nations known as the British Commonwealth.” 
 This parley took place and on 6 December, 1921, a 
 series of articles of agreement were signed by the 
 plenipotentiaries. As the articles provided for the 
 inclusion of the Irish within the British Empire 
 and accepted the partitioning of the country, the 
 delegates in affixing their signatures acted contrary 
 to their instructions. They explained later, how¬ 
 ever, that they had done so only after Lloyd 
 George had confronted them with the alternatives 
 of immediate signature or immediate renewal of 
 the Reign of Terror in an intensified form. Under 
 the proposed agreement Ireland is to accept the 
 position of a Free State within the British Empire, 
 with N. E. Ulster remaining a separate state. 
 The Irish Government is to have control of con¬ 
 stabulary, army, education, taxes, excise, postoffice, 
 telegraph and telephone; the British Government 
 is to be permitted the use of certain Irish ports for 
 navy purposes and sites for aeroplane stations; 
 the members of the Irish Parliament are to swear 
 allegiance to the Irish Free State as by [British] 
 law established and fidelity to the British king; 
 finally, the king is to be represented by a Governor 
 appointed by the British Cabinet. A constitution 
 is to be drawn up by the Irish Provisional Govern¬ 
 ment, and if it is in conformity with the articles 
 of agreement, and approved at an Irish general elec¬ 
 tion, the British Parliament will incorporate it in 
 a bill and enact it by law. The terms of the 
 December agreement were accepted later by the 
 Dail by a small majority, in spite of the opposition 
 by President De Valera. Meanwhile the Provisional 
 Government is preparing to hold the election in 
 the twenty-six counties, of which the future Irish 
 Free State is to be composed. Just when a radical 
 and dangerous difference of opinion regarding the 
 election had manifested itself between the Free 
 State and the Republic adherents Collins and De 
 Valera reached an agreement which secured an 
 equitable and peaceful solution. 
 
 By the acceptance of partition, which Archbishop 
 Walsh and the hierarchy had opposed so vigorously 
 in 1917 the Catholics in N. E. Ulster, without 
 being consulted or given any guarantee of civil or 
 religious liberty, have been handed over to the 
 mercy of fanatical Orangemen, over 20,000 of whom 
 in Belfast alone have been armed • to crush 
 Catholicism. During the Reign of Terror the con¬ 
 vent in Lisburn had been wrecked and the nuns 
 forced into exile in England, the parochial home 
 was burned to the ground, and the houses of 
 Catholics destroyed, all in one outbreak when 
 £500,000 damage was done. Since July, 1920, over 
 8000 Catholic workingmen in Belfast, more than 
 1500 of whom had fought for the Allies in the 
 World War, have been driven from their work 
 under threat of death, without any redress; while 
 their wives and children have been saved from 
 starvation only by the generosity of the Irish 
 
 abroad especially in the United States. Conditions 
 in Belfast have steadily grown worse. Under the 
 auspices of the Orange authorities a systematic 
 program has been carried on without government 
 interference. Catholic houses have been burned, 
 Catholic men, women, and children have been 
 murdered, merely because they were Catholics; 
 repeated attempts have been made to destroy 
 Catholic churches; if the Catholics are found armed 
 for defense they are liable to be flogged; they have 
 been flung into gaol in such numbers that the N. E. 
 Ulster government has been obliged to lease an 
 additional gaol in Scotland to which they are to be 
 transported. The Sisters of Mercy and of Nazareth 
 cannot appear in the streets for fear of assassina¬ 
 tion ; and the Catholic schools have been threatened 
 with secularization. All the while in virtue of the 
 acceptance of partition the other Irish Catholics 
 have been rendered incapable of helping them by 
 political measures. 
 
 Among the events of religious importance or inter¬ 
 est in Ireland in recent years, in addition to the an¬ 
 nual pilgrimage to Croaghpatrick are the following: 
 
 The grant of special plenary and partial indul¬ 
 gences and privileges to members of the Irish 
 League of Daily Mass (16 September, 1915), and 
 the Catholic Truth Society of Ireland (12 April, 
 1917). The establishment of a feast of All the 
 Saints of Ireland on 6 November (23 February, 
 1916); the extension of the feast of St. Columbanus, 
 26 November, to all the Irish dioceses (29 January, 
 1916); the restoration of St. Patrick’s Day as a 
 holy day of obligation, with a dispensation from 
 fast and abstinance (13 May, 1919). The intro¬ 
 duction on 12 February, 1915, of the causes of 
 canonization of 258 Irish servants of God, slain 
 by the English, and of Fathers Fiacre Tobin and 
 John Baptist Dowdall, Franciscans (23 July, 1919), 
 similarly done to death in the penal days; the 
 beatification of Oliver Plunkett, martyred Arch¬ 
 bishop of Armagh (27 March, 1920). The approval 
 of the Holy See given (13 June, 1917), to the 
 project of establishing a mission house to prepare 
 candidates for an Irish mission in China; departure 
 of the first band of Irish priests on 27 March, 
 1920, for that mission, and their arrival at their 
 headquarters, Hang Yang in Houpe, on 29 June 
 following. The approval given by the Holy See 
 on 9 March, 1921, of a litany of the Saints of 
 Ireland for public use in all Irish churches. The 
 formation of the League of St. Brigid on 10 Jan¬ 
 uary, 1920, to combat the attempt to popularize 
 immodest foreign fashions in dress. The opposi¬ 
 tion offered by the Irish hierarchy to the Bill 
 proposing to place Irish education under the con¬ 
 trol of an English board subject only to the British 
 Parliament, which would have been most harmful 
 from an educational, national, or religious point 
 of view. . 
 
 Among the prominent Irishmen who have died 
 since 1914, besides those who fell in the fight for 
 independence, may be mentioned: Archbishop 
 Walsh (Dublin), Archbishop Healy (Tuam), Bishop 
 O’Dwyer (Limerick), Fr. James A. Cullen, S. J., the 
 Apostle of Temperance, Dr. Walter McDonald, 
 theologian and philosopher, Fr. Matthew Russell, 
 S.J., poet, Fr. Edmund Hogan, S. J., Irish historian, 
 Canon Peter O’Leary, the leading Gaelic writer and 
 scholar. 
 
 MacNeill, Phases of Irish History (Dublin, 1920); 0’Kelly, 
 Ireland: Elements of Her Early Story (Dublin, 1921); Fitz¬ 
 patrick, Ireland and the Making of Britain (New York, 1922); 
 Hayden and Moonan, Short Hist, of the Irish People from 
 the Earliest Time (London, 1921); Gleeson, Hist, of the 
 Ely O’Carroll Territory (Dublin, 1915); MacInerney, Hist, 
 of the Irish Dominicans (Dublin, 1916) ; Fitzmaurice and 
 
IRELAND 
 
 411 
 
 ISERNIA 
 
 I.iTTLE, Material for the Hast, of the Franciscan Province 
 of Ireland, 1280-14&0 (Manchester, 1920); Maguire, Hist, of 
 the Diocese of Raphoe (Dublin, 1920); Butler, Confiscation 
 in Irish Hist. (Dublin, 1917); Corcoran, State Policy in 
 Irish Education (Dublin, 1916); MacManus , 1 Story of the 
 Irish Race (New York, 1922); Lockington, The Soul of 
 Ireland (London, 1920). 
 
 Henry, Evolution of Sinn Fein (Dublin, 1921); Jones, 
 Hist, of the Sinn Fein Movement and the Irish Rebellion 
 of 1916 (New York, 1918); Creel, Ireland’s Fight for Free¬ 
 dom (New York, 1919); DAlta, An Irish Commonwealth 
 (Dublin, 1920); Good, Ulster and Ireland (Dublin, 1919); 
 Lynd, Ireland a Nation (London, 1919); MacSwiney, Princi¬ 
 ples of Freedom (New York, 1921); Maloney, The Irish Issue 
 (New York, 1919); Report of the American Commission on 
 Conditions in Ireland (New York, 1921); Martin, Ireland in 
 Insurrection (London, 1921). 
 
 Chart, Economic Hist, of Ireland (Dublin, 1920); O’Brien, 
 Economic Hist, of Ireland in the 18th Century (London, 
 1919); Idem, Economic Hist, of Ireland from the Union to 
 the Famine (London, 1921); Idem, Modern Irish Trade and 
 Industry (London, 1921); Riordan, Modern Irish Trade and 
 Industry (London, 1921); Webb, Municipal Government in 
 Medieval and Modem Ireland (Dublin, 1918); Hogan, Ireland 
 in the European System (London, 1920). 
 
 Ireland, John, Archbishop of St. Paul, Minnesota, 
 b in Kilkenny, Ireland, 11 September, 1838; d. at 
 St. Paul, 25 September, 1918. He made his ecclesias¬ 
 tical studies (1853-1864) at the Little and Grand 
 Seminary of Belley, France. In 1861 he was chap¬ 
 lain of the 5th Minnesota Civil War regiment, 
 during the Civil War in the United States. He 
 was then successively Vicar Apostolic of Nebraska 
 and Coadjutor Bishop of St. Paul, having been 
 consecrated on 21 December, 1875. In 1884, when 
 Archbishop Grace resigned, his coadjutor took his 
 place as head of the diocese, but was made arch¬ 
 bishop only in 1888. # At one time there was con¬ 
 siderable talk about his promotion to the cardinalate 
 which President Roosevelt is said to have been very 
 anxious to obtain for him. 
 
 Irregularity (cf. C. E., VIII-170).—No perpetual 
 irregularity is now contracted except in the cases 
 mentioned in the Code. The persons who are irregu¬ 
 lar by reason of defect (ex defectu) are: (a) Illegiti¬ 
 mates, unless they have been legitimized or sol¬ 
 emnly professed; (b) those whose bodily defects 
 render them too feeble to minister at the altar with 
 safety or who are too deformed to do so with due 
 decorum; however, to exercise orders already re¬ 
 ceived more serious defects may be tolerated than 
 where there is question of receiving orders; (c) 
 epileptics, the insane, and those who are or have 
 been possessed; if these defects occur after ordi¬ 
 nation, the ordinary may allow his subjects to 
 minister again if it is certain that they have been 
 cured; (d) those who have contracted two succes¬ 
 sive marriages whether the marriages have been 
 consummated or not; (e) those who have incurred 
 infamy of law; (f) a judge who has imposed a 
 death sentence—jurors, witnesses and others are no 
 longer mentioned; (g) executioners and their vol¬ 
 untary and immediate assistants. 
 
 Those who become irregular by reason of a crime 
 are: (a) Apostates from the Faith, heretics, and 
 schismatics; (b) those who have allowed themselves 
 to be baptized by non-Catholics except in cases of 
 extreme necessity—nothing is now said about the 
 unconditional reiteration of baptism; (c) those who 
 have presumed to marry even civilly, while they 
 were themselves bound by the marriage bond or 
 were in sacred orders, or had religious vows even 
 , simple and temporary, as well as those who have at¬ 
 tempted to marry a woman bound by similar vows 
 or by the matrimonial bond; (d) those guilty of 
 voluntary homicide or who have efficaciously pro¬ 
 cured abortion of a human foetus—formerly the 
 , expression animated foetus was used—and all their 
 co-operators; (e) those who have mutiliated them- 
 ; selves or others, or who have attempted suicide— 
 
 the latter clause is new; (f) clerics practicing medi¬ 
 cine or surgery when forbidden, if death results 
 from their action—mutilation is no longer men¬ 
 tioned in this case; (g) whoever performs an act 
 reserved to clerics in sacred orders if he has not 
 received that order or who has been prohibited 
 from exercising it, as a personal, medicinal, vindi¬ 
 catory or local canonical punishment. These of¬ 
 fenses do not beget irregularity unless they are 
 external mortal sins committed publicly or secretly 
 after ^baptism, except in the case of baptism by 
 non-Catholics; mere ignorance of an irregularity 
 based on defect or crime or of an impediment never 
 excuses a person from incurring them. Irregularities 
 are multiplied not by repetition of the same cause, 
 except in case of homicide, but by different kinds of 
 crime. 
 
 The following are prevented by impediment 
 from receiving orders: (a) Sons of non-Catholics, 
 as long as one of the parents at least remains in 
 error; (b) men whose wives are living; (c) those 
 who are still holding positions forbidden to clerics 
 and who have to render an account of their ad¬ 
 ministrations; (d) unfreed slaves—these four classes 
 were formerly irregular; (e) those who have not 
 yet completed their military service, when it is 
 obligatory by civil law; (f) recent converts, until 
 the ordinary believes them to have been suf¬ 
 ficiently tested; (g) those who are infamous by 
 fact, as long as the ordinary judges the infamy to 
 continue—they were formerly irregular by reason 
 of crime. 
 
 O’Donnell in Irish Eccl. Rec., XI (1918), 368-76. 
 
 Irremovability. See Pastor. 
 
 Ischia, Diocese op (Isclana; cf. C. E., VIII- 
 185a), suffragan of Naples, has for its territory the 
 island of Ischia in the Bay of Naples. The present 
 bishop is Pasquale Ragosta, born at Naples 30 
 April, 1861, elected 25 May, 1914, to succeed Rt. 
 Rev. Mario Palladino, who was transferred to 
 Caserta. On 29 October, 1910, Ischia underwent a 
 disastrous eruption, the damages resulting were 
 inspected by King Victor Emmanuel III. In 
 October, 1914, the new bishop. Mgr. Ragosta, took 
 possession of his diocese. His Imperial Highness 
 Don Francesco Giuseppe di Bracanza, prisoner of 
 war, died 15 June, 1919. From 17 August to 2 
 September, 1920, Cardinal de Lai was a visitor at 
 the episcopal palace. The seminary was tendered 
 to the Government for the use of troops, and the 
 convent of Monte della Misericordia was turned 
 over for use of the wounded. Assistance was also 
 rendered widows and children of the slain, a secre¬ 
 tariate was established for communicating with the 
 prisoners of war, monuments were placed over the 
 fallen, and other works of mercy were performed 
 by the clergy and laity of the diocese. 
 
 The diocese counts about 35,000 Catholics, 15 
 parishes, 82 churches, 104 secular and 5 regular 
 priests, 4 lay brothers, 12 Sisters, 2 convents for 
 men and 3 for women, 1 seminary with 20 semi¬ 
 narians, 94 elementary schools with 3631 pupils, 4 
 asylums, 2 homes, 2 hospitals. A monthly paper, 
 “La Cultura,” is published. 
 
 Isernia and Venafro, Diocese of (Iserniensis 
 and Venafransis; cf. C. E., VIII-185b), in the 
 province of Campobasso, in Molise (Southern 
 Italy), suffragan of Capua. On 26 March, 1916, 
 the present bishop, the Rt. Rev. Nicolo Rotoli, 
 D.D., O. F. M., was elected to the see to suc¬ 
 ceed Rt. Rev. Nicolas Maria Merola, who had 
 filled the see from 1893 until his death 24 Sep¬ 
 tember, 1915. During the World War the many 
 good and patriotic works done by this diocese are 
 
ISPAHAN 
 
 412 
 
 ITALY 
 
 testified to in the publication of the Holy See 
 “Cor Paternum 
 
 The present (1921) statistics of the diocese show 
 39 parochial schools 105 churches 1 convent for 
 men and 5 for women 88 secular priests and 5 
 regular 2 lay brothers 21 sisters 1 seminary with 
 27 seminarians; 1 college for men with 5 professors 
 and 80 students 1 elementary school with 2 teach¬ 
 ers and 53 students 3 asylums, and 2 hospitals, 
 There are two societies organized among the clergy 
 and 22 among the laity. 
 
 Ispahan, Diocese of (Hispahanensis; cf. C. E., 
 VIII-192c) — Out of a total population of 8,000,000 
 there are 3500 Catholics of the Latin Rite and 
 7600 Catholic Armenians. Ispahan was erected into 
 a Latin archepiscopal residence 1 July, 1910, and 
 the present administrator apostolic is Rt. Rev. 
 Aloysius Martin, O.C.D., appointed 11 February, 
 1922. Under the Latin Rite there are 22 Lazarist 
 priests, 5 stations, 62 churches and chapels, 2 semi¬ 
 naries, 65 schools, 38 Daughters of Charity with 3 
 hospitals, 5 orphanages, and dispensaries. The 
 Catholic Armenian diocese, erected in 1850, has 11 
 priests and 4 churches and chapels. The adminis¬ 
 trator apostolic is His Excellency Paul Terzian, 
 Armenian Patriarch of Cilicia. 
 
 Istria. See Jugoslavia. 
 
 Italy (cf. C. E., VIII-208b).—The area of Italy 
 exclusive of accessions resulting from the war is 
 110,632 sq. miles. By the Treaty of St. Germain 
 (10 September, 1919) Italy acquired 7350 sq. miles. 
 On 1 December, 1921, the total population was 
 38,835,184, including 1,564,691 persons in the re¬ 
 deemed provinces. In 1917 there were 96,649 mar¬ 
 riages, 691,207 births, and 682,311 deaths; in 1918, 
 107,226 marriages, 634,389 births, 1,143,447 deaths; 
 in 1919, 314,113 marriages, 754,685 births, and 677,- 
 040 deaths. The total number of emigrants in 1919 
 was 243,417, of whom 144,524 went to other Euro¬ 
 pean countries or those bordering on the Mediter¬ 
 ranean, and 98,893 to countries overseas. The num¬ 
 ber of Italians who returned to Italy in 1919 was 
 89,081, of whom 9025 were from the United States. 
 
 Education. —The state regulates public instruc¬ 
 tion and maintains, either entirely or in conjunc¬ 
 tion with the communes and provinces, public 
 schools of every grade. Schools are classified under 
 four heads, according as they provide: (1) ele¬ 
 mentary instruction; (2) secondary instruction, 
 classical; (3) secondary instruction, technical; 
 (4) higher education. The elementary schools in 
 1915 enrolled 3,692,024 children between the ages 
 of six and eleven years, employed 75,993 teachers 
 (17,243 men and 58,750 women), and cost the nation, 
 combining central and local expenses, approximately 
 $18,000,000. A new type of school, scuole popolare, 
 introduced in 1917, offers instruction of special and 
 vocational character to those who complete the fifth 
 and sixth elementary classes. Elementary schools 
 of agriculture, which now number twenty-nine, were 
 established by royal decree in 1907. The law of 
 1912, providing for a complete system of vocational 
 training and the establishment of one elementary 
 vocational school in each commune of 10,000 or 
 more inhabitants, has not been very successful, 
 the aggregate expense of $2,600,000 being from the 
 first a deterrent to the execution of the law. In 
 1917-18 there were in Italy about 1235 government 
 secondary schools, including 124 supplementary 
 schools for girls, with 30,401 pupils, 164 normal 
 schools with 35,228 pupils, 296 ginnasi with 54,274 
 pupils, 165 licei with 10,943 pupils, 399 technical 
 schools, 122,980 pupils; 87 technical institutes, 25,996 
 
 pupils. The private schools in the same period 
 numbered 646 with 27,657 pupils. The universities 
 in 1917-18 had an enrollment of 33,798 students. 
 Besides the universities there are also three institu¬ 
 tions of university rank, the Institute of Higher 
 Education in Florence, the Royal Scientific and 
 Literary Academy in Milan, and the Higher Tech¬ 
 nical Institute of Milan. There were also six higher 
 institutes for commercial education with 2554 stu¬ 
 dents in 1917-18; three higher schools of agriculture, 
 a naval college, a school of forestry, a school of 
 social science, a school for Oriental languages, 3 
 veterinary colleges, 3 women’s training colleges. In 
 1919 a national institute for the instruction of 
 illiterate adults was established. 
 
 Economics. —The principal crops for 1920 and 
 their acreage is as follows: wheat 11,362,000 acres, 
 76,932,000 cwts. (1 cwt.=100 lbs.); oats 1,172,500 
 acres, 7,032,000 cwts.; maize 3,753,250 acres, 45,366,- 
 000 cwts.; beans 1,068,000 acres, 5,190,000 cwts. 
 Owing to the great density of population wheat 
 has been cultivated on land which would in reality 
 be more adapted for woods and pasture. The. 
 average annual production of wine from 1915 to 
 1919 was 35,628,000 hectolitres (1 hectolitre=22 gal¬ 
 lons), and the export in 1919 was 638,911 hectolitres 
 valued at 148,097,000 lire (1 lira=$.193). The pro¬ 
 duction of olive oil in 1918 was 260,100,000 pounds. 
 In the breeding of silk worms Itaty holds the first 
 position in Europe. Lemons constitute 52% of the 
 production of citrus fruits. At present Italian agri¬ 
 culture is unable to meet the national requirements 
 of her consumers. In Sicily and the South of Italy 
 the movement has been for the resumption by the 
 community of common land appropriated in the 
 past, for the division of the large estates and large 
 farms, and for the compulsory occupation of un¬ 
 cultivated land. Industrial conditions in the past 
 two years have been disturbed by strikes, there 
 being in 1920 a total of 1847 strikes, with a loss of 
 a milliard of lire. The last Italian industrial census 
 (1911) gave 243,926 industrial establishments having 
 2,304,438 employees and possessing 1,620,404 horse¬ 
 power. In 1919 Italy produced 15% of the fuel 
 (coal, lignite, and petroleum) consumed in the 
 country, an increase of 11% since 1913. The co¬ 
 operative movement is spreading in Italy; the prin¬ 
 cipal organizations are the Conjederazione Co¬ 
 operativea Italiana and the Lega Nazionale delle 
 Cooperativa, representing the Catholics and Social¬ 
 ists respectively, and the Sindicato Nazionale and 
 the Federazione Italiana Generate Cooperativa dei 
 Combattenti, which represent the neutral party and 
 which have recently formed a coalition, including 
 more members than either of the other two bodies. 
 
 In August, 1921, the long period of social and 
 industrial unrest, following the World War, culmi¬ 
 nated in a serious upheaval. Anticipating a lock¬ 
 out, the metallurgical workers took possession of 
 their plants, organized workingmen’s councils, and 
 as far as possible continued operations. On 11 
 September the workmen took over 200 chemical 
 plants and several textile mills. The next day the 
 National Labor Convention voted for the organiza¬ 
 tion of Italian industry on a Soviet basis, while 
 those who opposed Sovietism demanded syndicalism. 
 At first the Government declared the movement 
 to be merely a new form of struggle between 
 capital and labor, and one not warranting Govern¬ 
 ment interference, as long as property was not 
 damaged or lives sacrificed, but the inability of 
 labor organizations to agree caused the Govern¬ 
 ment to offer a compromise in the form of the 
 “Controllo Act” (1921), a plan allowing employees 
 to participate in plant- management. It was, how- 
 
ITALY 
 
 ITALY 
 
 41.°, 
 
 e\er, never puf in force. The Socialists seceded 
 irom the Third International Party and the revolu¬ 
 tionary movement in Italy, from want of coherence 
 among the Socialists, failed to put, through a 
 revolutionary program. The lack of geographical, 
 political, and industrial unity in Italy, too, made 
 B it impossible. I he revolution, in order to succeed, 
 \\ould have meant not merely a dictatorship of 
 the proletariat party, but a dictatorship of factory 
 workers of Northern Italy, a condition of affairs 
 which the agricultural peasants of the South and 
 the small shopkeepers of Italy would not accept. 
 
 Commerce. In 1913 the total imports of Italy 
 
 VoV3,645,600,000 lire; the total exports 
 
 ic °i- ire; \ n 1919 tlle im P° rts were worth 
 
 10,516,600 000 lire, the exports 5,188,600,000 lire. 
 
 Between 1913 and 1919 the total value of imports 
 i^^ GaSC< ^ mor ? than four times, while exports were 
 little more than doubled. The result was that 
 im adverse trade balance of 1134 million lire in 
 - 1913 increased to almost exactly ten times that 
 amount in 1919. In that year the United States 
 supplied nearly 50% of the Italian imports and 
 i took in return only 9% of her exports. 
 
 Iinance.— The public debt, excluding short dated 
 treasury bills but including paper money guaran¬ 
 teed by the State, amounted 31 October 1920 to 
 98,072,000,000 lire. On this sum the Stfte is pay¬ 
 ing interest at the rate of over 3,500,000,000 lire 
 
 KS,™ J he tr j a ? ury , bllls amoun t to about 
 9,250,000,000 lire, and together with other obliga- 
 
 tl01 ^ the treasury the total debt probably ex¬ 
 ceeds 100 000,000,000 lire, or about 2500 lire per 
 head of the population. From 1 July, 1919, to 30 
 June, 1920 the revenue was 8,955,000,000 lire and 
 
 If 6 1 ^^vfn^njv, 2 !-’ 21 ^' 000 ’ 000 - br8 ’ showin « a deficit 
 
 • iU 0 ’^!? lire ’. as against 20,835,000,000 lire 
 
 in 1918-19. 1 he principal items of expenditure 
 
 vere. army, 9,538,000,000; pensions and interest on 
 floating debt, 5,207,000,000 lire; navy, 1.222,000 000 
 lire; labor and provisioning, 1,289,000,000 lire. The 
 principal items of revenue were: government 
 monopolies (principally tobacco), 2,443,000,000 lire* 
 
 2 > 2 ^>000,000 stamp duties, 1,378,- 
 000,000 lire; and consumption taxes (including cus¬ 
 toms and excise), 1,255,000,000 lire. 
 
 Railways.— On 30 June, 1919, there were 8761 
 miles of railway in Italy. Of these 80% are owned 
 and operated by the State, the remaining being 
 operated by private companies. At present the 
 btate railways are operated at a loss, the deficit 
 being due to increase in personnel and to costs 
 ol material and supplies. The deficit in 1920 was 
 reported to be 8 16 3, 40 °,000. It is proposed to 
 electrify 2750 miles. 
 
 • G( i v ernMENT.— Italy, a constitutional monarchy, 
 is ruled by the king, in whom is placed all executive 
 ?r c J> and ky Parliament composed of two houses, 
 the Senate and the Camera de’ Deputati (Chamber 
 of Deputies). The Senate is composed of the 
 princes of the royal house and of an unlimited 
 number of members nominated by the king for 
 hie. On 1 January, 1921, there were 368 senators 
 and 9 members of the royal family. The new 
 Electoral Law of December, 1920, made the suffrage 
 universal for men and women twenty-one years 
 of age The Electoral Reform Act of 1919 in- 
 roduced the principle of proportional representa- 
 l l ° n C Ao e scrutin de liste. In the chamber there 
 are 508 deputies. The duration of Parliament is 
 
 • Y® hears, and it must meet annually. For admin¬ 
 istrative purposes there are 69 provinces, 214 terri- 
 ° r 'i CS co°Y> wrcondari, 1805 districts or mandamenti, 
 
 8346 communes. According to the law of 4 
 ebruary, 1915, each commune has a communal 
 
 a *f 11U u 1Cip , al counci1 ’ and a syndic. The 
 syndic is the head of the communal government 
 and is a Government official. Each province has 
 ? : Wovmcml council and provincial commission. 
 For judicial purposes Italy has five Courts of 
 Cassa tlo n, aa d is divided into 20 appeal court dis¬ 
 tricts. In 1918 there were 167 central and arron- 
 dissement prisons, 70 penal establishments, 34 re¬ 
 formatories, and 8 colonies, besides 1414 cantonal 
 prisons. In Italy legal charity, in the sense of an 
 obligation on the commune to relieve the poor 
 does not exist. Public charity is exercised by the 
 permanent charitable foundations, which on 1 Jan- 
 numbered 29,995 with a capital of 
 S 64 > 72 1- 0n . 12 August, 1912, a law was 
 passed, establishing life insurance as a State 
 monopoly. The existing insurance companies were 
 allowed to continue their operations for ten years 
 under certain conditions. 
 
 Defence.— The strength of the Italian field army 
 at the end of 1919 was placed at 800,000 and 
 9 “ res proposed to reduce it gradually to 
 250,000. At the end of 1920 the permanent Italian 
 army numbered 350,000, while the number of its 
 
 non 6 t S ’ + 1 . ncl u dm g 7 reserves, was placed at 
 f’ 163 ’ 000 * In the Five Power Treaty of February, 
 1922, signed between Great Britain, Italy, France 
 Japan, and the United States, it was decided that 
 m view of the reduced condition of the Italian 
 navy Italy could not be fairly asked to “scrap” 
 ner ships in the same proportion as Japan, Great 
 Britain,, and the United States, but could retain 
 
 *5 ™ a i°Y ® hlps of , an aggregate tonnage of 182,- 
 8UU with future replacement tonnage of 175 000. 
 
 Recent- History.— War with Turkey (1911-1912) 
 —At the Algeciras Conference (1909) the Powers 
 had recognized Italy’s interests in Tripoli, as well 
 as those m the Adalia regions where she had 
 secured railway and incident concessions. Everv- 
 where, however, she found her enterprises ob¬ 
 structed, her citizens persecuted, and her progress 
 impeded by the Turkish government officials. On 
 26 September Italy sent an ultimatum to the 
 lurkish Government concerning her rights in 
 inpoli, stating her grievances against Turkish mis- 
 government m Tripoli, and claiming the occupation 
 ol Inpoli. The unsatisfactory nature of-Turkey’s 
 iq? 7 caased Jtaly to declare war on 29 September, 
 
 L j hre e torpedo boats were sunk off Previsa by 
 the Italian fleet; Tripoli was bombarded and taken 
 on 5 October and Bengazi was seized later. On 
 f 1^11, Italy proclaimed the annexation 
 
 of Inpoli and Cyrenaica. Desultory fighting con- 
 tmued, however, and the Italian fleet appeared in 
 the Dardanelles. On 4 May Rhodes was occupied, 
 and by the middle of June eleven of the 2Egean 
 Islands were seized. The trouble ended with the 
 peace treaty signed at Ouchy, Switzerland, on 15 
 October, 1912, by the terms of which Italy’s 
 sovereignty over Libya (the Tripolitaine and 
 Cyrenaica) was recognized, but the ^Egean Islands 
 were restored to Turkey. 
 
 . The Triple Alliance .—From recent disclosures it 
 is possible to understand the nature of Italy’s con- 
 nection with Austria and Germany culminating in 
 the famous Triple Alliance. A secret treaty 
 negotiated in 1882, when Italy was full of resent¬ 
 ment against France for her seizure of Tunis 
 renewed in 1887, 1891, 1903, and 1912, bound Italy 
 to the Central Powers in the defence of the Triple 
 Alliance. 'The chief object of the alliance was 
 protection against France on one side and Russia 
 on another. 
 
 European War .—It was soon to be repudiated, 
 however, for when Austria-Hungary desired to 
 
ITALY 
 
 ITALY 
 
 414 
 
 attack Servia in 1914 and appealed to the Triple 
 Alliance, Italy, as was disclosed later, refused her 
 aid. She maintained her neutrality, her reason 
 being that the causus foederis had not risen, inas¬ 
 much as Austria and Germany had brought the 
 situation to the point where it stood by their 
 initiative alone. The provisions of the treaty stated 
 that if either or both of her allies, “without 
 provocation on their part,” should be attacked by 
 another power, Italy would be obliged to join the 
 war against the attacking power. If either ally 
 should be forced to declare offensive war against 
 a Great Power which menaced its security, the 
 other members of the Triple Alliance would either 
 join in the war or “maintain benevolent neu¬ 
 trality towards their ally.” At first this neutrality 
 was construed as benevolent to Germany, but as 
 the war progressed and after the accession as 
 Minister of Foreign Affairs of Baron Sidney Son- 
 nino, in whose ancestry were British and Jewish 
 elements, the spirit of Italy’s neutrality became 
 less and less' “benevolent” and the Italian Gov¬ 
 ernment began to accuse Austria-Hungary of 
 violating a clause of the Triple Alliance treaty 
 concerning the status quo in the east and to de¬ 
 mand “compensation” for the advantages which 
 the attack on Servia would probably give the 
 Dual Monarchy. As “compensation” Italy de¬ 
 manded not only the port of Avlona on the 
 Albanian coast, whither an Italian expedition had 
 been sent in December, 1914, but also direct 
 cessions of Hapsburg territory to Italy. Negotia¬ 
 tions went on with Austria and ^finally on 21 
 February, 1915, Italy forbade further Austrian 
 operations in the Balkans until an agreement con¬ 
 cerning compensations was reached. On 9 March 
 Austria acceded in principle to Italy s threat. Then 
 on 8 April, 1915, Italy formulated the following 
 demands: (1) the cession of' Trentino up to 
 
 the boundary of 1811, the towns of Rovereto, 
 Trent, and Bozen: (2) an extension of the eastern 
 Italian frontier along the Isonzo River to include 
 the strong positions of Tolmino, Gorizia, Gradisca, 
 and Montefalcone; (3) the erection of Trieste into 
 an autonomous state: (4) the cession of several 
 Dalmatian islands; (5) the recognition of Austria- 
 Hungary’s disinterestedness in Albania and in the 
 twelve iEgean Islands. Austria-Hungary absolutely 
 refused the second, third, and fourth demands, and 
 modified the first by reserving Bozen. Moreover, 
 Austria was averse to making any concessions till 
 after the war and demanded in return a strict 
 observation of Italy’s neutrality during the war. 
 Germany at once promised to guarantee cessions 
 of Austrian territory at the conclusion of hostili¬ 
 ties. However, the Allies could bid higher than 
 the Central Powers and in fact could promise 
 Italy slices of Austria, without any injury to 
 t hern solves. 
 
 On 4 May, 1915, Italy denounced her treaty of 
 alliance with Austria-Hungary. Already on 26 
 April, Italy had signed a secret agreement at Lon¬ 
 don by which she was to receive Trentino, all 
 southern Tyrol to the Brenner, Trieste, Gorizia, 
 and Gradisca, the provinces of Istria and Dal¬ 
 matia, and all the Austrian islands in the Adriatic. 
 Italy, moreover, was to annex Avlona and its neigh¬ 
 borhood although she was not to object, if it were 
 later decided to apportion parts of Albania to 
 Montenegro, Servia, and Greece. Besides, Italy 
 was to strengthen her hold on Libya, and, in the 
 event of an increase of French and English 
 dominion in Africa at the expense of Germany, 
 she was to have the right of enlarging hers. Finally 
 Italy was to retain the twelve Greek-speaking 
 
 islands in the iEgean and on the partition of 
 Turkey to secure a share in the basin of the 
 Mediterranean and more specifically in that part 
 contiguous to the Turkish province of Adalia, 
 commensurate with those of France, Great Britain, 
 and Russia. By an additional article, “France, 
 England, and Russia obligated themselves to sup¬ 
 port Italy in her desire for the non-admittance of 
 the Holy See to any kind of diplomatic steps 
 for the conclusion of peace and the regulation of 
 questions arising from the present war.” Before the 
 final rupture, Austria, unaware of the final agree¬ 
 ment of the Allies, made another bid. The war 
 spirit, however, prevailed among the Italians and 
 on 23 May, 1915, the Italian Government declared 
 war against Austria. The resentment caused by 
 this “betrayal” on the part of Italy was very acute 
 in Germany and still more so in Austria. 
 
 The character of the Italian boundary, with its 
 high mountain passes, its flowing torrents, and its 
 precipitous snow-clad peaks required a slow and 
 careful preparation of the army for the invasion 
 of Austria. General Cadorna concentrated the 
 main strength of his armies at the railheads along 
 the southeastern portion of the Austro-Italian 
 frontier. In a week the Isonzo was reached, but. 
 the Italians were confronted with strongly fortified 
 heights east of the river, from Monte Nero in the 
 north to Montefalcone and the Carso plateau on the 
 coast. All summer the Italians struggled bravely 
 but vainly to master these heights. Meanwhile, 
 against the middle sector of the Austro-Italian 
 frontier, General Cadorna sent only a compara¬ 
 tively thin line of troops with instructions to guard 
 the passes and prevent an Austrian counter-invasion. 
 The third or western, sector of the frontier was 
 formed by the irregular triangle of Trentino, jut¬ 
 ting southward into Italy. With the object of 
 liberating Trentino and of forestalling an Austrian 
 offensive from the commanding heights of this 
 district, the Italians moved up to the valley of 
 the Adige and the basin of Lake Garda towards 
 Rovereto, while small parties assailed the moun¬ 
 tain passes on both sides of the triangle. The 
 odds in men, however, were about five to one 
 against them and they made but meagre progress. 
 The Austrians who had acted strictly on the de¬ 
 fensive with their 300,000 troops, began with¬ 
 drawing their men from the Russian front and 
 the Balkans, bringing up their military strength 
 to half a million men. The main force concentrated 
 at Rovereto which the Italians had approached but 
 had not been able to storm. After a terrific bom¬ 
 bardment the Austrian infantry rushed forward 
 along the front from Rovereto to Borgo. Arsiero 
 and Asiago fell to the Austrians and there was 
 great rejoicing in Vienna. The Italians fell back 
 to Monte Ciove, which they held fast. Likewise 
 they stood unflinchingly on Monte Pasubio against 
 odds of four to one under a nerve-shattering 
 bombardment. The Austro-Hungarian lines at the 
 Russian front were too thinly held and the troops 
 from the Italian front were recalled to meet Brus- 
 silof’s onslaughts in the east. Thus the Austrian 
 offensive on Tyrol was checked. The Italians dealt 
 a counterblow and once more Asiago, Arsiero, and 
 Posina were occupied by Italian troops. The drive 
 for Gorizia had begun. The heights on the 
 western bank of the Isonzo, overlooking Gorizia, 
 were taken the first day, as were the heights farther 
 north. South of Gorizia, on the left bank of the 
 Isonzo, the Italians stormed the summit of Monte 
 San Michele, the key to the Gorizia position. In 
 two days the heights of the Isonzo were carried 
 and on 9 August, 1916, the Italian infantry escorted 
 
ITALY 
 
 ITALY 
 
 415 
 
 King Victor Emmanuel into Gorizia. After the 
 capture of Gorizia further violent fighting occurred, 
 the Italians were unable to make any serious 
 breaches in the new Austrian lines. •, From a ter¬ 
 ritorial point of view the Italians won slight ad¬ 
 vantages over their enemy in the campaigning of 
 1916. 
 
 In May, 1917, the Italians once more took the 
 offensive in the direction of Trieste. During the 
 winter they had increased their military strength 
 by the addition of numerous British guns and 
 gunners. The Austrians fortified their formidable 
 mountain positions still further, and withdrew a 
 number of divisions from the Galician front. The 
 ensuing battle, therefore, was to be of unparalleled 
 fury. I he Italian line ran southwards from Plezzo 
 to the sea, along the left bank of the Isonzo. After 
 three days’ violent artillery preparation General 
 Cadorna launched a general assault on 14 May 
 along the whole front from Tolmino to the sea. 
 On 18 May the topmost peak of Monte Vodice 
 was in his hands, and a few days later Hudi Log 
 and Jamiano were captured. The Austrian de¬ 
 fenders reinforced by Hungarian troops from the 
 eastern frontier, carried out some very creditable 
 counter-attacks. From 24 May on the whole line 
 from Plava to the sea swayed to and fro repeatedly 
 and the casualties on both sides were extremely 
 heavy. On 19 August General Cadorna again at¬ 
 tacked along the whole of the front from Tolmino 
 to the sea and on 24 August the Italians performed 
 the remarkable feat of storming Monte Sante, a 
 position of redoubtable strength. This drive, like 
 the others, ended in a standstill, with great losses 
 on both sides. 
 
 On 1 August, Pope Benedict XV addressed a 
 note to all the Belligerent Powers, inviting all 
 these Governments to come to an agreement on 
 the points which he set forth as the fundamental 
 basis of a permanent Peace. They included the 
 moral right of justice” as a substitute for “the 
 material might of arms”; the introduction of arbi¬ 
 tration according to an agreed standard; and the 
 <( true freedom and common enjoyment of the seas” 
 under the guarantee of definite rules.” The note 
 was endorsed by the clergy and the clerical press, 
 and the Central Powers promptly availed them¬ 
 selves of the opportunity to attempt a “peace 
 offensive.” The Allies on the other hand felt that 
 under the existing conditions it was less favorable 
 to their aims. The United States defined its 
 grounds for peace and declared the necessity of 
 continuing the war until these were realized, in 
 which the Allies concurred. The defensive atti- 
 Austrians, assumed from the beginning 
 of the war, was now given up. Germany’s hand 
 began to be felt, for early in October unknown to 
 the Italians, German and Austro-Hungarian divi¬ 
 sions were withdrawn from the east and concen¬ 
 trated in the southwest, as a reserve force. The 
 defenses, being ruptured at Caporetto and Tol¬ 
 mino, the whole Italian line from Plezzo to Tol¬ 
 mino collapsed. On 27 October the German 
 commander, von Below, entered Cividale. This 
 defeat involved a prolonged and disastrous retreat. 
 
 1 he troops to the south, the Italian “Third Army” 
 occupying the Bainsizza Plateau, Gorizia, and the 
 Carso, were obliged to fall back. Gorizia was 
 evacuated on 28 October. On 29 October, Udine, 
 tne seat of the Italian main headquarters was cap¬ 
 ped o the Austrians. At Latisana the rear guard 
 01 . thf L S £ cond Army, consisting of 60,000 men, was 
 cut off by von Below’s rapid advance and being 
 surrounded, surrendered without further resistance. 
 
 Un 5 ISovember General Boroevic’s army (the large 
 2 7 
 
 and purely Austro-Hungarian Army operating on 
 von Belows left), forced a passage of the Taglia- 
 mento near Pinzano. The Livenza was crossed 
 three days later. Asiago fell to the Austrians 
 on 10 November. After retreating to the Piave 
 River the Italians stood firm, despite the numerous 
 Austrian attacks. The disaster of the Isonzo caused 
 .French and British troops to be hastily despatched 
 to the assistance of Italy. Finding all efforts to 
 cross the Piave futile, the Austro-Germans sought 
 to outflank the new Italian lines by striking at 
 the Asiago Plateau and the range of mountains 
 between the upper courses of the Brenta and Piave 
 Rivers. In December desperate assaults were made 
 by the Austrians on the Asiago Plateau and on 
 the upper reaches of the Brenta; Monte Asolone 
 was captured by the Teutons, and likewise the 
 lower summit of Monte Tomba. The Italian out¬ 
 look now brightened, for on 30 December Monte 
 iomba was recovered, and in January the Teutons 
 evacuated Monte Asolone and the bridgehead on 
 the Piave at Zenson. 
 
 The final Austrian drive in 1918 was a flat failure. 
 
 I his time the Italians were prepared. The advance 
 of the Austrians over two areas, in the plains be¬ 
 tween the Montello and San Dona di Piave, and 
 m the hills between Monte Grappa and Canove, 
 was checked at the outset. The more successful 
 General Boroevic, crossing the Piave, seized the 
 eastern end of the Montello, but was stopped by 
 the arrival of Diaz’s reinforcements and the flood- 
 mg of the Piave. A counter-offensive by General 
 hh az ^suited in the retreat of Boroevic’s forces 
 to their old positions, and also secured ground 
 which had been lost in 1917, especially the delta 
 at the mouth of the Piave. The Austrian army 
 was decomposing,-and when on 24-25 October the 
 the Italian armies smote the Austrians in the 
 Monte Grappa region, between the Brenta and 
 Piave Rivers, they were incapable of making an 
 effective defense. A British unit under Lord Cavan 
 attacked along the Lower Piave and a French unit 
 took Monte Seismol on the Asiago Plateau. By 30 
 October the Italians had captured Monte Grappa, 
 and were driving the Austrians along the whole 
 
 ?n nt / r< S? the A1 P S to the Adriatic. With the 
 tall of Monte Grappa, the enemy army in the 
 mountains was cut off from those in the plains. 
 On 1 November the Austrians were in utter rout. 
 Irent and Trieste fell to the Italians and Udine 
 was entered. Durazzo, an important Austro-Hun¬ 
 garian naval base, had been entered on 15 October. 
 The morale of the Austrians had vanished and on 
 31 October they sued for peace. On 3 November, 
 an armistice was signed and hostilities ceased. The 
 terms included the complete demobilization of the 
 Austro-Hungarian armies, the evacuation of all ter¬ 
 ritory occupied by the Austrian armies and of all 
 territory in dispute; the withdrawal of all German 
 troops from the Austrian, Balkan, and Italian fronts, 
 the surrender of a number of Austrian ships, the 
 liberation of all captured merchant ships, the allied 
 occupation of Poland and the control of the 
 Danube. 
 
 Peace Negotiations .—When the war ended, 
 confusion rose as to Italy’s territorial aims, re- 
 K^ding which there had never been any agreement. 
 The demands of the extremists and imperialists of 
 not only the Trentino and Trieste, but also Fiume 
 and the entire Dalmatian coast, brought the Ital- 
 1ans i n to a position of sharp antagonism towards 
 the Servians, and later towards the new Jugoslav 
 state (see Fiume). In 1920 the question was set¬ 
 tled by negotiations at Santa Margherita Ligure, 
 which gave the whole of Istria .to Italy as well as 
 
ITALY 
 
 416 
 
 IVORY COAST 
 
 the islands of Cherso, Lussin, and Unie. Fiume 
 Was to be independent, but was brought into ter¬ 
 ritorial contiguity with Italy. Zara was to have 
 an autonomous government, but was to be under 
 Italian suzerainty. The island of Lagosta was 
 also given to Italy. On the other hand the Jugo¬ 
 slavs obtained Northern Dalmatia. The new agree¬ 
 ment between Italy and Jugoslavia was embodied 
 in the Treaty of Rapallo, signed on 12 November, 
 1920. This agreement was vigorously denounced by 
 Gabriele d’Annunzio, who had seized Fiume and 
 declared it an independent state. War was there¬ 
 upon declared on Italy, and Fiume bombarded. 
 
 In the negotiations following the Treaty of Ver¬ 
 sailles concerning German reparations, Italy was 
 awarded 10% of any reparations Germany could 
 give. The difficulties between Greece and Italy 
 following their convention of 1919, were -settled 
 by a convention appointed in 1920 to delimit the 
 Adalian frontier (see Greece). In a protocol 
 signed between Albania and Italy on 2 August, 
 
 1920, at Tirana, Albania, Italy agreed to recognize 
 the independence of Albania and to surrender 
 Avlona, withdrawing her troops as soon as public 
 order permitted. Italy was to retain and fortify 
 the island of Saseno at the entrance to the Bay 
 of Avlona and also Punta Linguetta on the main¬ 
 land. In November, 1920, were published the terms 
 of the Italo-Franco-British agreement for maintain¬ 
 ing respective spheres of influence in Asiatic Tur¬ 
 key, a pact which was secretly signed at Sevres 
 on 10 August, the date of the Turkish treaty. It 
 defined the areas of special interest to France and 
 Italy, recognized as supreme the Italian interests 
 westward of the French sphere between Cilicia and 
 the coast facing Rhodes, also the right of Italy 
 to exploit the Heraclea coal basin. On 12 March, 
 
 1921, Italy concluded a secret pact with the Turkish 
 Nationalists, pledging herself to support the Turkish 
 demands for the restitution of Thrace and Smyrna. 
 In return for this and the withdrawal of all Italian 
 troops from Ottoman territory, Italy was guaranteed 
 certain economic concessions and monopolies, in¬ 
 cluding the right of priority in the coal basin of 
 Heraclea. 
 
 In June, 1920, Pope Benedict XV issued an 
 encyclical rescinding the veto on official visits of 
 Catholic sovereigns to the King of Italy in Rome. 
 
 The Church. —In no European country is the 
 social organization of Catholics going forward in 
 more comprehensive fashion than in Italy. Its 
 methods are both interesting and businesslike; the 
 entire field is divided into three distinct sections: 
 first, the Catholic Movement strictly so-called; 
 second, the Economic Social Action, and third, the 
 Political Action. The first, Movimento Catholico 
 is made up of the following organizations: the 
 Popular Union among Catholics of Italy; the 
 Society of the Catholic Youth of Italy; the Union 
 of Catholic Women of Italy. The first of these was 
 instituted by Pius X in June, 1905, by the Ency¬ 
 clical “II Fermo Proposito,” and is the mother 
 organization of the Catholic movement in Italy, 
 on which all other associations depend. It has 
 committees in all the dioceses composed of paro¬ 
 chial societies, the diocesan committees depending 
 upon the Central Direction Committee of the 
 Catholic Movement, which has its seat in Rome 
 and whose President is nominated by the Holy 
 See. This central Directive Committee functions 
 by means of three secretariates, the Secretariate 
 for Propaganda, the Secretariate of Culture (or 
 formation of the social conscience), the Secretariate 
 for Liberty of Schools, each thoroughly equipped 
 for work in its special field. The Society of the 
 
 Catholic Youth of Italy is an organization for 
 the moral and intellectual formation of Italian 
 youths to habituate them to profess their faith 
 openly, and to educate them for its defense. The 
 parochial and diocesan clubs and associations are 
 also under a president general in Rome. In 1921 
 these clubs numbered 2300, with a membership 
 of 70,000. The Union of Catholic Women of Italy 
 is the third great organization and has for its 
 purpose the education of the Catholic woman of 
 Italy for the full observance of her duties, religious, 
 civil, and social. The Economic Social Action com¬ 
 prises the Movimento Sindicale Cristiano and the 
 Movimento Cooperativo Cristiano, the first the 
 Italian Confederation of Workingmen, with a mem¬ 
 bership of 1,500,000; the second the largest and 
 most important of Italian Catholic organizations, 
 conducted on a vast scale, embracing all industries, 
 and comprising about 7000 societies scattered all 
 over Italy. 
 
 Since the encyclical “Non Expedit” of Pius IX, 
 Catholics in Italy were debarred from candidacy 
 for the Chamber of Deputies and from voting at 
 political elections. Piux X gave permission to 
 Catholics in specific cases to participate in political 
 life and in time there came to be about thirty 
 Catholic deputies in the Chamber, constituting, 
 however, neither a party nor a group. A change 
 came in 1919 with the formation of the Popular 
 Party, which, though not a Catholic party in that 
 its object is not pre-eminently religious and its 
 members not necessarily Catholics, is inspired by 
 Christian principles and is in intent directly social 
 and political. It is not dependent on ecclesiastical 
 authority and receives as members any citizens 
 who accepts its program. The “Rerum Novarum” 
 of Leo XIII is its leading text-book. It was formed 
 under the leadership of Don Luigi Sturzo, a Sicilian 
 priest, formerly vice-president of the Association of 
 Italian Communes, who became convinced that 
 with the end of the war the time had come to line 
 up for defense and reconstruction of society the 
 great forces of the Catholic organizations that had 
 developed. With personal disinterestedness and 
 firm discipline he has guided it through the inevi¬ 
 table first vicissitudes until it has become in Italy 
 what the German Center Party was in Bismarck’s 
 day, the arbiter of the situation. As the Socialist 
 party refused to collaborate with any other party, 
 no side could govern without the Popular party. 
 In electoral tactics it decided on a policy of in- 
 transigency and in political elections of 1921 ob¬ 
 tained 1,345,305 votes and elected one hundred 
 and seven of its candidates. It was recently re¬ 
 sponsible for the downfall of the Giolitti ministry. 
 Its members hold (1922) three of the most im¬ 
 portant portfolios, Grace and Justice, Public Works 
 and Agriculture. With the Hon. Anile as Under¬ 
 secretary of Public Instruction, it has penetrated 
 what was formerly the stronghold of Masonry. The 
 present Minister of Public Instruction is a Moderate 
 and a man of practical religious faith. Other under¬ 
 secretaries from the Popular Party are in the Min¬ 
 isters of Labor, of War, of Liberated Territories 
 and the Treasury. Its success has meant the loss 
 of prestige for both Socialists and Liberals. To 
 its strength as well as to the example of France 
 is due the attitude which the Italian press as a 
 whole has adopted in favor of a permanent recon¬ 
 ciliation between the Holy See and Italy. 
 
 Ivory Coast, Vicariate Apostolic of (Littoris 
 Eburnei; cf. C. E., XVI-84a), comprises a French 
 colony in Equatorial Africa. This vicariate is under 
 the care of the Society of African Missions of 
 
IVREA 
 
 417 
 
 IVREA 
 
 Lyons, and the present and first vicar apostolic is 
 the Rt. Rev. Jules Joseph Maury, appointed titular 
 Bishop of Anassus 17 November, 1911. This terri¬ 
 tory was first erected into a prefecture apostolic in 
 1895, but by a Decree of 17 November, 1911, it was 
 raised to a vicariate. In 192J the Catholic popula¬ 
 tion consisted of 9100 Catholics, who belong to 
 twenty different tribes, and 8083 catechumens. The 
 vicariate contains 11 quasi-parishes, 10 churches 84 
 chapels, 1 convent with 6 Sisters, 18 secular priests, 
 1 home for the aged, 3 dispensaries, 1 orphanage 
 for gills, which is supported by the Government. 
 I he hospitals admit the ministry of priests. 
 
 Ivrea, Diocese of (cf. C. E., VIII-258b), suf¬ 
 fragan of Turin in Northern Italy. The present 
 bishop is Rt. Rev. Matteo Angelo Filipello, bora 
 . nuo , va d’Asti, diocese of Turin, 12 April, 
 1859, elected 24 March, 1898, to succeed Mgr. 
 Richelmy who was promoted to the Archdiocese of 
 lurm and later created cardinal. Mgr. Francesco 
 Gnavi of Calusa, founder of the Catholic economic 
 social institute, in Piedmont, died 31 January, 1918. 
 Mgr. Giovanni Clerico, archdeacon of the‘ Cathe¬ 
 dral of Ivrea, professor of morals, litterateur, his¬ 
 torian, and hagiographer, died 17 March, 1919. 
 
 hrom 8-10 October, 1910, a solemn festival was 
 held at Ivrea with the inauguration of the cathe¬ 
 dral, newly. decorated and restored, enriched with 
 a new baptismal font and chapel dedicated to Our 
 Lady of Lourdes; with the celebration of the ninth 
 centenary of Blessed Warmundo attended by Cardi¬ 
 nal Richelmy, the Archbishop of Vercelli, ‘and the 
 Bishops of Aosta and Casale; and with the opening 
 of an oratory for the monks of St. Joseph. On 3 
 feeptember, 1911, a diocesan Eucharistic Congress 
 (the first in Italy) was held at Caluso, and after 
 
 that, except in time of war, the congress was held 
 each year. The Marian Congress met at Strambino 
 ^ober 19M. A monastery for women (Bethania 
 
 vLpn d Hear L fi J , esus) was founded at 
 Vische Canavese 19 March, 1914. The fourth cen¬ 
 tenary of the coronation of the Madonna of the 
 Holy Rosary m Strambino was celebrated in the 
 presence of Cardinal Richelmy and the bishops of 
 Ivrea Aosta, and Biella. In 1919 a Catholic Union 
 was started in the diocese with a school of propa¬ 
 ganda attached; also a Casa del Populo was 
 organized. 
 
 In every parish during the war the pastor formed 
 a committee for aiding soldiers, their families and 
 prisoners. One hundred priests were called to the 
 colors, 23 serving as chaplains and 77 enlisting as 
 soldiers, 4 were killed, 14 #ere decorated; 36 out 
 ?-n j se ^ inarians served in the army and 5 were 
 killed. During the last few months of the war a 
 committee of clergy published a paper, T1 Fra- 
 termtas, which was intended especially for priests 
 and clerics in the army. 
 
 The diocese contains 138 parshes, 516 succursal 
 churches, chapels and oratories, 2 monasteries for 
 women, 3 convents for men and 3 for women, 177 
 secular and 31 regular priests, 14 lay brothers, 
 35 nuns and 257 Sisters, 4 seminaries with 153 
 seminarians, 1 international theological university 
 with 80 students, 1 college for men with 84 students, 
 4 tor,women with 320 students, 1 normal school 
 for women with 180 students, 2 professional schools 
 with 120 students, 2 elementary schools with 312 
 pupils, 4 missions, 3 refuges, infant asylums in 
 every parish, 6 hospitals, 2 case per bambini, 5 
 associations among the clergy and 7 among laity, 
 
 2 Catholic papers. The normal school is supported 
 by the Government, 
 
Jaca (or Xaca), Diocese of (Jaccensis; cf. C. E., 
 VIII-260a), in the province of Huesca, Spam, suf¬ 
 fragan of Saragossa. Rt. Rev. Emmanuel de Castro 
 y Alonso, appointed to this see 28 October, 1913, 
 was transferred to Segovia, 9 July, 1920. He was 
 succeeded by Rt. Rev. Francisco Frutos y Valiente, 
 canon and chaplain major of the king at the 
 cathedral of Toledo, appointed 21 September, 1920. 
 The diocese embraces a territory of about 1081 sq. 
 miles and by 1920 statistics comprises a Catholic 
 population of 71,659, 8 archpresbyteries, 251 par¬ 
 ishes, 100 filial parishes, 1206 priests, 137 chapels 
 and 9 convents with 82 nuns and 60 Sisters. 
 
 Jaen, Diocese of (Giennensis; cf. C. E., 
 VIII-267b), in the province of Andalusia, Spain, 
 suffragan of Granada. Rt. Rev. John Emmanuel 
 Sanz y Saravia, appointed to this see 29 April, 
 1909, died 22 June, 1919, and was succeeded by Rt. 
 Rev. Emmanuel Basulto y Jimenez, born in 
 Adanero, Spain, 1867, studied at the Seminary of 
 Avila, served as vice-rector and canon of Leon, 
 canon of the Cathedral of Madrid in 1905, ap¬ 
 pointed Bishop of Lugo, 4 September, 1909, trans¬ 
 ferred 18 December, 1919. This diocese embraces 
 a territory of some 873 sq. miles and a Catholic 
 population of 437,783, with only 190 Protestants. 
 By 1920 statistics it comprises 12 archpresbyteries, 
 159 parishes, 8 filial parishes, 475 priests, 16 chapels, 
 and 33 convents with 67 religious and 659 Sisters. 
 
 Jaffna, Diocese of (Jaffnensis; cf. C. E., 
 VIII, 269a), in the northern part of the Island of 
 Ceylon, suffragan of Colombo. In 1919, on 7 Feb¬ 
 ruary, the bishop of this diocese, Rt. Rev. Henri 
 Joulain, O. M.I., who was appointed to the see 
 20 July, 1893, died, and was succeeded by Rt. Rev. 
 Jules Andre Brault, O.M.I., who was consecrated 
 15 February, 1920. The diocese comprises a Catho¬ 
 lic population of 51,750 Tamils, and by latest statis¬ 
 tics there are: 26 missions, 236 stations, 2 convents 
 for men and 3 for women, 5 secular and 48 regular 
 clergy, 3 Brothers of the Oblates of Mary Immacu¬ 
 late, 36 Brothers of St. Joseph, 14 European and 
 66 native Sisters, 1 seminary with 21 seminarians, 
 1 college for boys with 36 professors and 700 stu¬ 
 dents, 1 college for girls with 12 teachcn and 360 
 students, 7 high schools with 43 teachers and an at¬ 
 tendance of 852 b - s tr ining schools with 9 
 teachers and 33 pupils, 126 elementary schools with 
 338 teachers and 8400 pupils, 3 industrial schools 
 with 10 teachers and 122 pupils. There are 4 Gov¬ 
 ernment hospitals in which the priests are per¬ 
 mitted to minister and all the schools are aided 
 by the Government. A Catholic club is organized 
 among the laity and two periodicals, “The Jaffna 
 Catholic Guardian” and the “Lattica Veda Padu 
 Kavalan” are published. 
 
 Jamaica, Vicariate Apostolic of (Jamaica; cf. 
 C. E., VIII-270d), an island of the West Indies, 
 and British colony. The vicariate is entrusted to 
 the Jesuits, and has its official residence at King¬ 
 ston, Winchester Park. It was administered by Rt. 
 Rev. John Collins, S.J., titular Bishop of 
 Antiphellos, from 9 March, 1906, when he was 
 appointed vicar apostolic until he retired in 1919. He 
 was succeeded by Rt. Rev. Wm. F. O’Hare, S.J., 
 born in South Boston, U. S. A., 1870, ordained in 
 
 1903, named superior of the Jamaica mission in 
 1915, and appointed titular Bishop of Maxi- 
 mianopolis, 2 September, 1919, and vicar apostolic 
 18 September following. On 5 February, 1912, the 
 new cathedral, built to replace the old one, which 
 had been destroyed by an earthquake in 1907, was 
 dedicated, and is considered the finest cathedral in 
 the West Indies. Five years later St. Joseph’s Sam- 
 torium was opened. During the World War none 
 of the clergy from the island went abroad, but a 
 number served as chaplains for the military stations 
 and internment camp at home. About 500 of 
 the faithful saw service abroad and many won 
 distinctions for their bravery. 
 
 During recent years the mission has lost three 
 able clergymen by the deaths of Rev. John Harper, 
 S.J., superior of the mission and distinguished 
 for the establishment of many sodalities and church 
 organizations; Rev. Maurice E. Prendergast, S.J., 
 a victim of zeal and charity during the influenza 
 epidemic; Rev. John A. Pfister, S.J., director of 
 public pageants and musical activities, and noted 
 for his zeal among the poor. The vicariate counts 
 about 40,000 native Catholics (colored), and about 
 200 of other nationalities. Latest statistics credit 
 it with 34 churches, 10 missions, 67 stations, 19 
 Jesuit Fathers, 2 Jesuit Brothers, 47 Sisters of 
 Mercy, 11 Dominicans and 36 Franciscans, 1 high 
 school with 8 teachers and 214 pupils, 2 academies 
 with 13 teachers and 21 boys and 299 girls, 1 normal 
 school with 2 teachers and 12 pupils, 1 training 
 school with 2 teachers and 70 girl students, 33 
 elementary schools with 91 teachers and about 
 6000 boys and girls, and 2 industrial schools with 
 10 teachers and 425 boys and girls. The various 
 charitable institutions include 1 home for girls in 
 charge of Sisters of Mercy, 1 sanitorium under the 
 Dominican Sisters, and 1 refuge for girls in charge 
 of the Sisters of Mercy. The public prison, alms 
 houses, hospitals, insane asylums, and _ military 
 stations permit the priests to minister in them, 
 and the two industrial schools and thirty-one of the 
 elementary schools are aided by the Government. 
 The St. Vincent de Paul Society, a Catholic club, 
 and the Knights of St. John are organized, and 
 a periodical, “Catholic Opinion,” is published. 
 
 Japan (cf. C. E., VTII-297a), consists of six large 
 islands, Honshiu or Hondo, Kiusiu, Shikoku, Hok¬ 
 kaido (Yezo), Taiwan or Formosa, the southern 
 part of Karafuto, Corea (Chosen), and about six 
 hundred small islands. The total area amounts to 
 260,738 sq. miles. According to the census of 1920 
 the population of Japan is 77,005,570, apportioned 
 as follows: Japan, 55,961,100; Corea, 17,284,207; 
 Formosa, 3,654,398. For the first time in 1920 
 Japan’s census-taking was carried out according to 
 the Occidental method, the renewal to be made 
 every ten years. More than 10 per cent of the 
 population live in towns containing 100,000 or over. 
 The density is about 392 to the sq. mile, except in 
 Hokkaido, where it is 65 to the sq. mile. The 
 number of Japanese resident abroad in 1918 was 
 447,706; in China 159,677; in the United States 
 108,216; in Hawaii and the Philippines 109,452; in 
 Europe 1243. The number of foreigners resident 
 in Japan was 20,793; Chinese 13,793; English 2388; 
 Americans 1770; Germans 650; French 455; Russians 
 468; Portuguese 222; Dutch 108. 
 
 418 
 
JAPAN 
 
 419 
 
 JAPAN 
 
 Economic Status.— About three-fifths of the 
 arable land is cultivated by peasant proprietors 
 and the remaining portion of it by tenants. The 
 forest area in 1918 was about 46,000,000 acres, one- 
 eighth of which belonged to the Imperial House¬ 
 hold. The chief crops with their acreage (in 1917) 
 were: rice, 7,761,527 acres; wheat, 1,371,267 acres; 
 barley, 1,335,697 acres; rye, 1,615,906 acres; tobacco, 
 61,097 acres; tea, 122,107 acres. The mineral pro¬ 
 duction for the year was valued at 710,520,488 yen 
 (1 j r en=$0.4985 normal exchange); the number of 
 mine workers was 464,724. The industrial census 
 on 31 December, 1918, revealed 22,391 factories with 
 1,409,196 employees. The principal manufactures in 
 the same year were: woven goods valued at 1,189- 
 275,699 yen; Japanese paper, 53,932,699 yen; 
 matches, 39,272,285 yen. In 1920 the majority of 
 the exports went to China, Great Britain, and the 
 United States. 
 
 • ^?m municati on.—T he railway mileage of Japan 
 in 1919 was 8014, including 1941 miles of railways 
 owned by private companies. The decision of the 
 government to make the standard gauge 4.85 feet 
 will cost the government about 1,408,000,000 yen 
 before it is completed in 1943. Japan has also the 
 right to build five railway lines in Manchuria and 
 Mongolia. A railway tunnel under the Moji- 
 bhimonoseki Straits was commenced in 1920 and 
 will be completed in about eight years. Its length 
 is seven miles, one mile of which will be completely 
 under the sea. There are 1659 miles of electric 
 tramway in Japan. 
 
 Government. —The present emperor is Yoshihito, 
 who was born 31 August, 1879, and succeeded his 
 father, Mutsuhito, 30 July, 1912. Hiro-Hito, his 
 son, b. 26 April, 1901, was proclaimed heir apparent 
 9 September, 1912. The law of December, 1910, 
 divides the emperor’s lands into hereditary and per¬ 
 sonal property, and provides that for all the judicial 
 proceedings affecting the property, the Minister of 
 the Imperial Household is responsible. The ordi¬ 
 nary civil or commercial law can be applicable to 
 the property only when it does not conflict with 
 the Imperial House Law and the present law. No 
 hereditary landed estate can be newly used for pur¬ 
 poses other than those of public utility or under¬ 
 takings sanctioned by the emperor. The court owns 
 about 5,425,000 acres of dwelling land, forests, and 
 plains, shares of different banks and industrial enter¬ 
 prises, also 20,000,000 yen transferred out of the 
 Chinese Indemnity Fund, 20,000,000 yen in war 
 bonds subscribed by the court in 1905. The civil 
 list was increased in 1910 to 4,500,000 yen. All 
 these proporties are estimated at 500 million yen. 
 
 I he Munster of the Imperial Household is assisted 
 by 24 councillors; the chief of these are the cham¬ 
 berlain, the keeper of the seal, the empress’s steward, 
 the master of rituals, the director of the Peer’s 
 school, and the director of the treasury bureau. 
 
 I he emperor shares the legislative power with two 
 political bodies, the Chamber of Peers and the 
 House of Representatives. In 1918 the Chamber 
 oi Peers was composed as follows: members of the 
 imperial family, 14; princes, 13; marquises, 37; 
 counts, 20; viscounts, 73; barons, 72; appointed for 
 hte by the emperor, 124; chosen amongst the citi¬ 
 zens paying the largest taxes, 46; total, 399. 
 
 ioio C iA r( j- n ^ new Election Law, passed in the 
 1918-19 diet and put into force in the general elec- 
 
 i° n tbe House is composed of members 
 
 elected by male Japanese subjects of not less than 
 twenty-five years of age and paying a direct tax of 
 
 i A rru^ ^ y en as a S a i ns t the previous limit 
 ot 10. The incorporated cities containing not less 
 than 30,000 inhabitants form independent electoral 
 
 districts and are entitled to return one member, 
 while cities containing more than 100,000 inhabi¬ 
 tants elect one member for every 130,000 people. 
 1 he rural districts are to send one member for 
 every 130,000 inhabitants approximately. Each 
 prefecture was formerly regarded as one electoral 
 district, but in the new law the one member for 
 one constituency system has been adopted Elec¬ 
 tion is carried on by secret ballot, one vote for one 
 man, and a general election takes place every four 
 years. Every Japanese subject over thirty years of 
 age is eligible, except the mentally unfit or those 
 who have been deprived of civil rights. The mem¬ 
 bership of the House is increased thereby. 
 
 At present the members are divided into four 
 parties: (1) the Government party (Seiyukwai; 
 f Eansm-kai, formed in 1916, formerly of seceders 
 rom the Nationalist party and members of the 
 Central Club (dissolved); (3) Kokumin+o (Nation¬ 
 alists), organized in 1910 by members identified with 
 .Progressives, historically the remnants of the Pro¬ 
 gressive party of 1882; (4) Independents. The most 
 noteworthy features of Japanese politics are the 
 absence of Conservative, Labor, and Socialistic ele¬ 
 ments as organized power. The new election law 
 increases the number of members from 381 to 464. 
 Number of members in the different parties: Seiyu¬ 
 kwai, 162; Kensei-kai, 122; Kokuminto, 36; Inde¬ 
 pendents, 61. 
 
 Education. Education in Japan is compulsory 
 and non-religious. There were (1917) 325 secondary 
 schools for boys with 6702 teachers and 147,467 
 pupils, 247 private schools. There were 378 second¬ 
 ary schools for girls with 4758 instructors and 101,- 
 965 pupils; 295 were public and 83 private schools. 
 
 •.u n ????«£ of Py bllc primary schools was 25.445 
 with 165,190 teachers and 7,621,951 pupils. The 
 average number of children receiving instruction 
 was 98.61. There were 164 private primary schools 
 and 635 infant schools. The government plans to 
 devote 44,000,000 yen to extend higher education, this 
 sum to be a continuing expenditure extending over 6 
 years from 1919-20 to 1924-25. Of the total 39,500,- 
 000 yen were spent on the training of teachers, espe- 
 cially abroad. The emperor has contributed 10,000,- 
 000 yen toward the necessary funds; balance is to be 
 met by public bonds or loans. There are eight higher 
 schools which prepare for the university and are 
 located at Tokio, Sendai, Kyoto, Kanazawa, 
 Okayama, Kumamoto, Nagoya, and Kagoshima. 
 Ihe imperial universities are located at Tokyo, 
 Kyoto, Sendai (Tohoku), Fukuoka (Kyushu Uni¬ 
 versity), and Hokkaido (formerly the Agricultural 
 Department of Tohoku University). The eighteen 
 technical schools comprise institutions that give 
 necessary instruction to those desiring to pursue 
 practical business such as industry, agriculture, 
 trade, etc. The special schools include the five 
 schools of medicine, Tokio School of Foreign Lan¬ 
 guages, Fine Art Academy, Academy of Music. 
 For the blind, deaf, and dumb there are 71 schools. 
 
 Educational Work in Formosa .—The administra¬ 
 tion of the schools in the island of Formosa by 
 the Japanese Department of Education has con¬ 
 stituted throughout a remarkable record of progress 
 in the face of serious obstacles. Formosa passed 
 to Japan by cession from China in 1895 and im¬ 
 mediately racial and religious problems asserted 
 themselves, taking shape in uprisings and forays 
 on the part of rebellious natives. After two months 
 of military activities the condition of the island 
 was sufficiently settled to allow the initiation of a 
 system of education. The provisional office of the 
 department was opened in the city of Taihoku 
 and schools established in temples, generally the 
 
JAPAN 
 
 420 
 
 JAPAN 
 
 only structures left intact. Recognizing as the 
 immediate task the teaching of the Japanese lan¬ 
 guage to native children, the department called for 
 Japanese teachers, who received intensive training 
 in the Formosan language. With the pacification of 
 the island the growth of the elementary schools was 
 so rapid that the government could not wait for 
 the first graduates of the newly established normal 
 schools and seven times the policy of training 
 Japanese volunteers was repeated. By logical steps 
 the administration of educational affairs came 
 finally, in 1911, under the control of the educational 
 department of the imperial Government, which is 
 its present status. 
 
 For compelling reasons of race diversities the 
 practical educational work in Formosa is grouped 
 under three headings, named in order of their 
 establishment by the Japanese authorities: (1) 
 Work for the natives of Chinese descent; (2) work 
 for the aborigines, and (3) work for Japanese chil¬ 
 dren. In the schools for natives of Chinese descent, 
 the six compulsory years are identical with those 
 of the imperial schools. Industrial education is 
 provided for. Only four years’ attendance is re¬ 
 quired in the schools for aborigines, the subjects 
 taught being only morals, Japanese, and arith¬ 
 metic. The education of Japanese children whose 
 parents are residents of Formosa is conducted sub¬ 
 stantially along the same lines as prevail in imperial 
 Japan proper. Encouragement is offered to promis¬ 
 ing pupils to proceed to the imperial schools and 
 an increasing number of native Formosan students 
 complete their education in Japan every year. 
 
 Recent History. —In 1908 Japan negotiated an 
 arbitration treaty with the United States and 
 exchanged notes with the same power regarding 
 the preservation of the territorial integrity of 
 China. The United States proposed the neutraliza¬ 
 tion of the Manchurian railways in 1919, but was 
 refused, Japan and Russia agreeing to main¬ 
 tain the status quo in Manchuria and in case of 
 its being menaced to take in concert what steps 
 were necessary. The treaty of alliance with Great 
 Britain in 1911 provided that nothing in the new 
 agreement should entail upon the other contracting 
 party the obligation to go to war with a power 
 with whom a treaty of arbitration was in force, 
 thus making it impossible for Great Britain to be 
 drawn into a war with the United States and 
 Japan. By a treaty concluded between Japan and 
 Corea, 23 August, 1910, the Corean territory was 
 formally annexed to Japan. Under its new appela- 
 tion, Chosen, it was placed under a Japanese 
 governor-general. 
 
 Japan entered the European War at an early 
 date. On 15 August she demanded the withdrawal 
 of all German warships from Chinese and Japanese 
 waters and the surrender of Kiao-chou “with a view 
 to its eventual restoration to China.” Upon Ger¬ 
 many’s refusal Japan declared war on 23 August, 
 1914, giving as one of its reasons its alliance with 
 Great Britain with the object of maintaining gen¬ 
 eral peace in Eastern Asia and freeing allied vessels 
 for activity in foreign waters. The Japanese navy 
 established a blockade of Kiao-chou, and 10,000 
 Japanese troops were landed on the Shantung 
 peninsula outside the German leased territory, thus 
 violating China’s neutrality. A small British Indian 
 force co-operated with the Japanese landing party 
 under the command of General Kamio. After a 
 short siege Tsing-tao surrendered on 7 November, 
 1914. The casualties were light; only 248 were 
 killed and 1082 were wounded. In the meantime 
 the Japanese naval forces aided the British in the 
 conquest of Germany’s island possessions in the 
 
 Pacific and performed special service against the 
 hostile submarines in the Mediterranean. 
 
 In 1915 China consented to all the arrangements 
 that might be made in the Treaty of Peace between 
 Germany and Japan as to the disposal of the rights 
 of the former, and promised that no other power 
 could establish a naval base on the coast of Fu-kien. 
 Japan then promised the return of Kiao-chou sub¬ 
 ject to the establishment of a Japanese concession. 
 The United States refused to countenance any such 
 action impairing the integrity of China, although 
 it recognized that by territorial proximity, Japan 
 had special interests in China. At the peace con¬ 
 ference it was revealed that Great Britain had made 
 a secret pact with Japan, promising her all the 
 German concessions in China upon her entry into 
 the war. The agreement was incorporated into the 
 Peace Treaty which the two countries refused to 
 sign. The same treaty gave Japan the mandates 
 of Germany’s former possessions in the Pacific, 
 the Marshall Islands, the Caroline Islands, and the 
 Mariana Islands. In 1917 Macao was purchased 
 from Portugal. 
 
 The virtual anarchy in Siberia under the Bol- 
 sheviki regime, the release of 300,000 German 
 prisoners in Russia, and the dire straits of the 
 Czechoslovak army led to the intervention of Japan 
 in Siberia. In 1918 the United States, Great Britain, 
 and Japan sent 7000 troops there, Japan immediately 
 adding 93,000 in order to fulfill the terms of the 
 Sino-Japanese military agreement. Kharavosk was 
 captured, Biagiovestchensk was entered, and Rufulor 
 was taken. After the withdrawal of the allied forces 
 the Japanese remained, for the country was still 
 chaotic. The massacre of 700 Japanese at Niko- 
 laevsk in March, 1920, led to the annexation of 
 northern Sakhalin despite the protest of the powers. 
 
 The difficulties created between Japan and 
 America in 1913 by the introduction of the Webb 
 Bill into the California Legislature were repeated 
 in 1920, when the people of California refused to 
 sanction the ownership or lease of any property by 
 Japanese or American-born minors under their 
 parents’ guardianships. In the Shantung treaty 
 signed in Washington, D. C., on 4 February, 1922, 
 during the Disarmament Conference, China is to 
 receive back from Japan the. German property, 
 concessions, railways, and all rights in Shantung; 
 China is to pay Japan 53,406,141 gold marks as 
 assessed value of the property plus the improve¬ 
 ments; Japanese troops are to be withdrawn as 
 soon as Chinese troops are sent. In the same con¬ 
 ference Japan assented to a reduction in naval 
 disarmament to ten capital ships. The agreement 
 between Great Britain and Japan, entered into on 
 13 July, 1911, was terminated. The budget for 
 1921-22 was approximately $778,000,000 (1,562,000,000 
 yen), $369,000,000 for armament: army $122,500,000, 
 navy $247,000,000, including $72,000,000 for new 
 construction. 
 
 Church in Japan. —The religious liberty incor¬ 
 porated by the Emperor Meijo Tenno in the Con¬ 
 stitution he gave his people was not of such benefit 
 to Catholics as had been hoped. The question of 
 religion occupied the attention of the intellectual 
 classes in the Empire, and in 1912, at the invita¬ 
 tion of the Minister of the Interior, Baron Hara, a 
 conference was held, attended by the representatives 
 of all religious bishops. The result seemed to be 
 public recognition of the right of religion in educa¬ 
 tion. It was a question of religion in general, how¬ 
 ever, and when practiced details were _ considered 
 it was found to apply only to Shintoism, grown 
 more powerful since the Japanese victory over 
 Russia, attributed by the heads of the army to the 
 
JARO 
 
 421 
 
 JASSY 
 
 protection of the Jinga or deceased emperors and 
 heroes of the tutelary gods of the nation. In May, 
 1918, at the general reunion of Shintoist dignitaries] 
 the study of Shintoism was made obligatory in 
 secondary and higher education as it already was 
 in the primary schools. Religion thus became a 
 matter of patriotism, and in its name pressure 
 was brought to bear on the pupils of schools which 
 did not take part in the official festivals of Japan. 
 The Christians refused to do so in virtue of their 
 faith, which forbids participation in superstitious 
 ceremonies, and the pagans, in the name of the 
 religious liberty guaranteed by the constitution. 
 Newspapers and periodicals took the stand that 
 one could be at the same time a Christian and 
 a loyal citizen of Japan. A Japanese Catholic, Cap¬ 
 tain Yamagata, was sent to Rome by the Govern¬ 
 ment to explain the full import of Juiga worship, 
 and a delegate apostolic, Mgr. Petrelli, was sent to 
 Japan to study this important question. The re¬ 
 sults of both missions are not yet available, but 
 the pressure formerly exercised on non-Shintoists 
 has been noticeably weakened. Another division 
 exists amongst the intellectuals, for some of whom 
 Shintoism is in decadence, Buddhism stagnant, 
 Chi istianity without strength, and who seek in 
 eclecticism to rebuild a spiritual edifice in Japan. 
 This thinking element has no antagonism towards 
 the Church, and does not refuse to at least examine 
 her doctrines. The same conditions prevail in 
 Corea (Chosen), where the strict enforcement of 
 the school laws raises obstacles to Catholicism 
 hitherto unknown. The principal marks of the 
 present religious situation then are on the one hand 
 a greater esteem for the Church and on the other 
 a war against her in the name of patriotism and 
 of badly defined ideas of religion. 
 
 The Apostolic Delegation of Japan with Corea, 
 Fomosa, the Caroline, Mariana, Marshall Islands 
 was erected 26 November, 1919. Mgr. Fumasoni 
 Biondi, titular Archbishop of Dioclea, formerly 
 Apostolic delegate to the Indies, was the first head 
 of the Japanese delegation. He was recalled to 
 Rome in 1921 and named secretary of the Propa¬ 
 ganda 16 June, counsultor of the Holy Office 25 
 June, and a month later consultor of Extraordinary 
 Ecclesiastical Affairs. He was succeeded in Japan 
 by Mgr. Giardini, Barnabite, b. in Milan, 1877, 
 entered the novitiate in 1893, elevated to the epis¬ 
 copate in 1915, as titular Archbishop of Edessa. 
 
 Mill Hill missionaries, 40 regular clergy (Augus- 
 tinians and Recollects), 2 lay brothers, 75 Sisters, 
 1 seminary, and 65 seminarians. The educational 
 institutions include 1 college for men in connection 
 with the seminary, which is in charge of the 
 Lazansts with several hundred students, 1 college 
 for men under the Augustinians, also with several 
 hundred students, 5 academies for young ladies 
 w ith 60 teachers and 1000 students, 35 elementary 
 schools with 175 teachers and 3000 pupils. There 
 is 1 asylum with 125 girls and 1 hospital; the 
 Knights of Columbus are organized and a Catholic 
 periodical, “Cabuhisang Banua,” is published. 
 
 Jaro, Diocese of (Jarensis; cf. C. E., 
 VIII-323d), in the Philippine Islands, is suffragan 
 to the Archdiocese of Manila. Until 1910 it in¬ 
 cluded the present diocese of Zamboanga* which 
 was erected on 10 April of that year. The islands 
 of Panay and Negros, together with the Romblon 
 group, are comprised within the limits of the Dio¬ 
 cese of Jaro, and there are scattered throughout 
 some Aglipayan Schismatics, and on the mountains 
 the semi-civilized Negritos. The Catholic popula¬ 
 tion is about 1,000,000. The first American bishop, 
 Rt. Rev. Frederick Zadok Hooker, d. 18 September, 
 1907, and was succeeded in 1908 by the present 
 Cardinal Dougherty of Philadelphia, who was bishop 
 'of this see until his transfer to the Diocese of 
 Buffalo in 1915, when he was succeeded by Bishop 
 Foley, d. 12 August, 1919. The present incumbent, 
 Rt. Rev. James P. McClosky, b. in Philadelphia, 
 1870, ordained 1898, prelate of the Holy See 1913, 
 appointed Bishop of Zamboango, consecrated 1 
 May, 1917, was transferred to Jaro, 8 March, 1920. 
 
 By present (1921) statistics there are 115 parishes, 
 12 missions, 150 churches, 1 monastery for men, 
 95 secular clergy, 70 of whom are native, and 25 
 
 Jassy, Diocese of (Jassiensis; cf. C. E, 
 \III-325b), in Rumania. In 1921 by apostolic de¬ 
 cree the province of Bessarabia in Moldavia was 
 separated from the diocese of Tiraspol and incor- 
 
 i n „ diocese of Jassy. After the death 
 (1915) of the former Bishop Joseph Camilli 'the 
 episcopal seat remained vacant until 15 August 
 1920, when Alexander Th. Cisar was consecrated 
 Bishop of Jassy in the Cathedral at Bucarest by 
 Archbishop Netzhammer, O.S.B. Among the recent 
 events of importance within the diocese are: the 
 reopening of the theological seminary at Jassy; the 
 publication of a new diocesan catechism, prayer 
 book, and of the periodical “Catholic Sentinel’'; 
 the institution of the Sodality for the Protection 
 of ^oung Girls, and of the Association of Christian 
 Mothers. Of special note are the following clergy 
 recently deceased: Daniel Pietrobono (d. 1915), for 
 forty years stationed in Galatz, provincial of the 
 Conventuals in Moldavia, Vicar General of Jassy, 
 built the parish house and wholly restored the 
 church, afforded every assistance to the Sisters of 
 Notre Dame of Sion in founding a flourishing com¬ 
 munity in Galatz. Nicholas Joseph Camilli (d. 
 1915), Bishop of Jassy for twenty-five years, founded 
 the theological seminary and the schola cantorum, 
 edited both a large and small diocesan catechism 
 and the diocesan Acts; Joseph Malinovski (d. 
 1917), Vicar General and Apostolic Administrator 
 of Jassy, edited many books and in particular a 
 practical prayer book and a hymn book: Gratiano 
 Carpati (d. 1919), a zealous missionary and founder 
 of the parochial library, of the periodical “Viata,” 
 and of the Society of Honorable Youth. 
 
 During the war the Catholic soldiery merited the 
 special commendation of their superiors and of 
 King Ferdinand I. Ulderico Cipolloni, O.M.C., 
 who was at that time Apostolic Administrator of 
 the diocese, besides giving every assistance to the 
 priests in the army, and providing for the care of 
 the prisoners, and the sick and wounded, built a 
 refuge for the orphaned and founded two such 
 asylums, and erected a monument to the dead 
 Catholic soldiers. 
 
 The diocese numbers 100,000 Catholics in Mol¬ 
 davia and Bessarabia, of whom 85 per cent are 
 Hungarians, 10 per cent Poles, 4 per cent Germans 
 or Austrians, and 1 per cent Italians. There are 
 24 secular and 26 regular priests; 5 deaneries and 
 33 parishes with 217 affiliated stations, and 148 
 churches and 10 chapels; 4 convents for men and 
 4 for women with 136 Sisters of Notre Dame of 
 Sion and 40 Franciscan Nuns; 1 theological semi¬ 
 nary at Jassy and 2 preparatory seminaries at 
 Jassy and Halaucesti with 49 students; several day 
 schools for boys and girls; 2 boarding schools for 
 girls at Jassy and Galatz directed by the Sisters of 
 Notre Dame of Sion with 1086 students; 4 ele¬ 
 mentary schools with 794 pupils; 2 orphan asylums 
 with 35 boys and 56 girls. The Government does 
 not contribute to the support of the Catholic in- 
 
JAY 
 
 422 
 
 JESUS AND MARY 
 
 stitutions. In Jassy and Husi there is established 
 a flourishing Catholic mutual aid society. The 
 following associations exist among the laity: Rosary 
 Society, Society of Catholic Young People, Apostle- 
 ship of Prayer, Third Order of St. Francis, Con¬ 
 gregation of Mary, Association of Christian Mothers, 
 Sodality for the Protection of Young Girls. There 
 are 2 Catholic weeklies, “Lumina Crestinului” and 
 the “Catholic Sentinel,” and 2 monthlies, “Viata” 
 and the Franciscan “Aurora.” 
 
 Jay, Marie-Raoul, economist, b. at Paris on 1 
 June, 1856; d. there in July, 1921. A devout Cath¬ 
 olic and a follower of Count de Mun, he was one 
 of the most prominent sociologists in France, and 
 was consulted on almost every social law adopted 
 there during the first two decades of the twentieth 
 century. He was especially interested in such ques¬ 
 tions as the weekly day of rest, the protection of 
 women workers at home, unnecessary employment 
 of workers at night. He was a chevalier of the 
 Legion of Honor, one of the founders of the Union 
 of Social Catholics, the secretary of the French 
 Association for the Legal Protection of the Work¬ 
 ingmen, a member of the Supreme Council of 
 Labor, and a professor in the faculty of law in 
 the University of France, where his lectures were 
 enthusiastically received. Among his principal 
 writings may be mentioned: “L’assurance ouvriere 
 et la solidarity dans l’industrie,” “Le repos hebdo- 
 madaire et la nouvelle loi frangaise” (1906), “La 
 limitation legale de la journee de travail en 
 France” (1906). 
 
 Jean, Auguste, Jesuit missionary and educa¬ 
 tionist, b. in France on 15 October, 1833; d. at 
 the Sacred Heart College, near Kodaikanal, Madura, 
 India, on 16 September, 1921. After entering the 
 Society of Jesus and studying at Lyons and Rome, 
 he was sent to Negapatan, India, in 1875. A little 
 later he was named rector of St. Joseph’s College, 
 and in January, 1883, secured the transference of 
 the college from Negapatan to Trichinoply, where 
 it flourished to such a degree that at the time of 
 his death it had in the college department 1031 
 students (210 Catholics), and in the school depart¬ 
 ment 1245 (530 Catholics). Just previously he had 
 been nominated by Lord Ripon to the first Indian 
 Educational Commission, as an associate of Sir 
 W. W. Hunter and Dr. Miller, whom he accom¬ 
 panied in their official tour of India. Jean’s mastery 
 of Latin was unique; his scholarship was so well 
 appreciated by Madras University that till he re¬ 
 tired as a septuagenarian to the Sacred Heart Col¬ 
 lege he was chairman of the board of studies in 
 Greek, Latin, and French, and university examiner 
 in these subjects. Latin verse was his favorite 
 pastime, and he could write Horatian lyrics with 
 as much ease and classic grace as an Addison. For 
 many years after his retirement he was engaged 
 teaching Latin and Tamil to the Jesuit novices. 
 Father Jean is the author of a Latin grammar 
 widely used in India. 
 
 Jeanne d’Arc Home, at 253 West 24th St., New 
 York, was established in 1896 by the present pastor 
 of the Church of St. Vincent de Paul, Rev. 
 Thoephile Wiicher, S.P. M., for the protection of 
 French girls who come to America to eran their liv¬ 
 ing as teachers, governesses, stenographers, seam¬ 
 stresses, maids, etc. They can live at the home for a 
 moderate sum in private rooms or in dormitories 
 accommodating six. There is a beautiful chapel 
 in the house where holy Mass is offered every 
 morning at seven o’clock, assistance at daily Mass 
 being optional. The boarders have also at their 
 
 disposal a large recreation hall provided with piano, 
 victrola, and library, where they can amuse them¬ 
 selves, also sewing machines for their own use or 
 to use in sewing for the poor in their spare 
 moments. 
 
 Adjoining the home is a public school where the 
 girls receive instruction in the English language 
 during the evening sessions of winter months. The 
 house is open until ten o’clock every evening, but 
 with permission the girls may remain out until 
 eleven. 
 
 The home is under the direction of the Sisters 
 of Divine Providence, whose provincial house is in 
 Newport, Kentucky. Rev. Mother M. Clotilde has 
 been the Superioress since the beginning. The Sis¬ 
 ters meet the girls at their request on their arrival 
 at the different piers and stations, they watch over 
 the welfare of their charges with a maternal solici¬ 
 tude, and are often in constant correspondence with 
 their families abroad concerning their well being. 
 The Sisters find work for them, take care of them 
 when they are sick, visit those who are in hospitals, 
 attending to their spiritual needs; when they die 
 they see to their burial, and after the religious 
 services at the Church of St. Vincent de Paul they 
 accompany their remains to their last resting place 
 (their own plot) in St. Mary’s Cemetery, Staten 
 Island. 
 
 The first establishment of the home could only 
 accommodate twelve boarders. In 1911 a spacious 
 building was erected which, with an annex, can 
 accommodate 150. Since there is not room enough 
 for all who now apply daily, they are directed to 
 other homes or to recommended private families. 
 The home receives equally girls of all nationalities, 
 without regard to creed, provided the applicants 
 are of good moral character. More than 2000 girls 
 receive hospitality at the home yearly, 30,859 hav¬ 
 ing passed through the house since the beginning. 
 
 Jerico, Diocese of. See Antioquia and Jerico. 
 
 Jesus, Daughters of (cf. C. E., VIII-374a).— 
 The mother-house is at Kermaria, France, and the 
 provincial house for Canada is at Three Rivers. 
 There are 260 professed choir religious, 74 lay sisters, 
 10 novices, and 16 postulants, with 30 establish¬ 
 ments in Canada. There are 2 establishments in 
 the United States. 
 
 Jesus and Mary, Sisters of the Holy Child¬ 
 hood of (cf. C. E., VIII-374a).—The congregation 
 called Sisters of Our Lady of Mercy of the Good 
 Shepherd, a teaching and nursing order in Dra- 
 guignan, France, was authorized by the government 
 29 April, 1853. Their official title is Sisters of the 
 Holy Childhood of Jesus and Mary. Since the 
 decrees of 1901 and 1904 the Sisters have limited 
 their work to care for the sick and orphans. 
 
 Jesus and Mary, Sisters of the Holy Child¬ 
 hood of (of Ste. Chretienne; cf. C. E., VIII-374a). 
 —Mother Marie Seraphine, elected as general 
 superior of the institute for the first time in 1906, 
 was re-elected in 1912. She died in January, 1914, 
 and was succeeded by Mother Marie Appoline, 
 elected April, 1914, and re-elected in 1920 for six 
 years. Cardinal Billot, S. J., was appointed by the 
 Holy See, in 1919, as Cardinal Protector of the 
 institute. In June, 1914, St. .Joseph’s Convent 
 School was wholly destroyed by the big Salem fire; 
 the Sisters remained in Salem and St. Joseph’s 
 parochial school was temporarily installed in the 
 church buildings, partially rebuilt. The novitiate 
 for America, previously in Salem, was transferred 
 to Giffard, near Quebec, Canada, in 1914; the Sis¬ 
 ters undertook the direction of two schools there. 
 
JESUS MARY 
 
 423 
 
 JOLIETTE 
 
 Two other foundations were made at the same 
 time at Rumford, Maine, and St. Malachie, Canada. 
 In 1918 Ste. Chretienne Academy was founded at 
 Loring Villa, Salem, where a number of girls attend 
 the grammar school and the different departments 
 of the high school. 
 
 The vows are made annually for six years, after 
 which perpetual vows are taken, according to the 
 revised Code of Canon Law, which effects other 
 changes in the government of the institute. Dur¬ 
 ing the World War the Sisters in Europe cared 
 for the wounded in the hospitals or in their con¬ 
 vents turned into hospitals. Many of them were 
 received in the Legion of Honor and were awarded 
 medals by the French and foreign governments. 
 The works of the institute are the direction of 
 elementary and high schools, academies, industrial 
 schools, orphanages, hospitals. 
 
 In the United States and Canada about 100 Sis¬ 
 ters have charge of 9 schools in the Archdiocese of 
 Boston and the Dioceses of Portland, Providence, 
 and in Canada, with a total attendance of 3200. 
 
 Jesus Mary, Religious of (cf. C. E., VIII-385c). 
 —In 1860 the first school of the Sisters of Jesus 
 Mary, from Lyons, was opened at Ipswich, Eng¬ 
 land. The seeds of faith there sown rapidly bore 
 fruit, and soon another house was opened at Willes- 
 den, London. From these two houses branched 
 off a number of flourishing schools on English soil 
 and one in Ireland. The schools at Ipswich, Willed 
 den, and Thornton College are affiliated to the 
 Universities of Cambridge and Oxford. In 1842 
 Lyons sent a colony to India, where twelve houses 
 now exist. The most important are at Simla, now 
 seat of the provincialate, at Agra, Bombay, Poona, 
 Lahore, Mussoon. The St. Bede Training School 
 is at Simla, and also a high school, both attended 
 by over 100 students. In 1850 the first house of 
 the Spanish province was opened at San Andre, 
 a suburb of Barcelona.. To-day the provincial house 
 ns that of San Gervasio, having under its control 
 the houses of Barcelona, Valencia, Tarragona, and 
 others. In 1913 the Spanish province sent a colony 
 to Buenos Aires, Argentine Republic. This was 
 the second colony from Spain, the first having been 
 sent to Mexico and Yucatan, which now form the 
 Mexican province. A school is still open in Cuba 
 where the Sisters found a refuge in 1914 when 
 fleeing from the persecutions of the Mexican Con¬ 
 stitution. 
 
 The first house of the congregation in America 
 was founded at St. Joseph, Levis, in Canada, in 
 1855. In 1870 Sillery, Quebec, became the provincial 
 house of America, with six other houses under 
 its control. Sillery has a large boarding school, 
 and will open, in the near future, a residence for 
 ladies, similar to that in New York. The houses 
 in the United States are at Fall River, Mass., Man¬ 
 chester and Goffstown, N. H., Woonsocket, R. I., 
 Providence, R. I. and New York, N. Y. The estab¬ 
 lishments in New York are a school in Kingsbridge, 
 Bronx, and a house on 14th Street called “Our 
 Lady of Peace,” which is a residence where 190 
 ladies in the literary profession can find every 
 comfort and convenience. The latter was founded 
 by nuns from Rome in 1902. In 1911 a novitiate 
 and boarding school were opened at Highland Mills, 
 Oran ge Co , N. Y. The congregation now has about 
 1400 members at work in the different institutions 
 scattered over Europe, Asia, and North and South 
 America. . More than 15,000 students receive in¬ 
 struction in their schools. The mother-house is 
 at Rome, transferred there from Lyons in 1901. 
 
 Jette, Sir Louis Amable, K. C. M. G., Canadian 
 
 lawyer and statesman, b. at L’Assomption, Quebec, 
 on 15 January, 1836; d. at Quebec in May, 1920; 
 son of Amable and Caroline (Gauffreau) Jette. 
 He was called to the bar in 1857, and at the same 
 time was engaged in journalism, becoming the 
 e^tor of “L’Ordre.” In 1862 he married Mile. 
 Berthe Laflamme (their son, Father Jules Jette, a 
 noted mathematician, who has been a Jesuit mis¬ 
 sionary in Alaska since 1898, is a well-known 
 authority in the language and folk-lore of the 
 lena Esquimaux of Central Alaska). Louis Jette 
 represented East Montreal in the Dominion Parlia¬ 
 ment in 1872 and 18/4, and four years later was 
 appointed professor of civil law in Laval University 
 and puisne judge for Quebec, resigning the latter 
 position to become lieutenant-governor of the prov¬ 
 ince from 1898 till 1908. In the former year he 
 was made a commander of the Legion d’honneur, 
 and in 1903 was a member of the Alaskan Boundary 
 Commission, and from 1909 to 1911 he was chief 
 justice of the province of Quebec. 
 
 Jibuti, Prefecture Apostolic of (de Djibouti) in 
 French Somaliland, South Africa. Somaliland has 
 been a mission since 1894, but the missionaries being 
 expelled from their original stations, took refuge in 
 Jibuti, and this was erected into a prefecture apos¬ 
 tolic 28 April, 1914. It comprises all the territory of 
 French Somaliland and is entrusted to the French 
 Capuchins. The present prefect apostolic is Rev. 
 Pascal de Luchon Lombard, O. M. Cap., born in 
 Luchon, France, 1874, ordained in 1900, joined the 
 mission of Somaliland in 1908 and was appointed pre¬ 
 fect apostolic 27 April, 1914. The territory counts only 
 62 Somali Catholics and 352 Europeans. By latest 
 statistics there are 3 churches, 3 missions, 3 mission 
 stations, 5 regular clergy, 1 lay brother, 5 elemen¬ 
 tary schools with 6 teachers and 220 pupils, and 
 3 homes. One public institution permits the priests 
 to minister in it and the Catholic schools and insti¬ 
 tutions are assisted by the Government. 
 
 Joan of Arc, Saint (cf. C. E„ VIII-409d), canon¬ 
 ized by Benedict XV 16 May, 1920. Her feast is 
 kept on 30 May. 
 
 Jogues, Isaac (cf. C. E., VIII-420b).—The cause 
 of his beatification was introduced at Rome 9 
 August, 1916. 
 
 Joliette, Diocese of (Joliettensis; cf. C. E, 
 VIII-496c), comprises three counties, Joliette’ 
 Berthier, and Montcalm, and five parishes of 
 L Assomption County in the province of Quebec. 
 
 It is a suffragan of Montreal. 
 
 The total population (1921) is 65,000, of whom 
 62,600 are Catholic, and it is divided into 43 
 canonically erected parishes and 3 missions with 
 resident priests. The various societies organized 
 m these parishes are: the Third Orders of St. 
 Fr ancis and St. Dominic, the League of the Sacred 
 Heart of Jesus for men and children, Congregation 
 of the Most Blessed Virgin Mary for men, youths, 
 and young women, Sodality of St. Ann for married 
 women, Confraternities of the Holy Rosary, Bona 
 Mors, Holy Angels, Association for Daily Adoration 
 pf the Most Blessed Sacrament, Association of the 
 Way of the Cross; Society of St. Vincent de Paul, 
 and the Temperance Society. There are 5 vicariates- 
 forane, 12 titular canons assisting the bishop, 104 
 secular and 16 regular clergy, 134 religious men and 
 500 women. 
 
 The religious institutions of men are: the Clerics 
 of St. Viateur (novitiate at Joliette and juniorate 
 at Berthierville), Brothers of the Sacred Heart, 
 Brothers of Christian Instruction, and Brothers of 
 St. Gabriel; of women: Sisters of Charity of Provi- 
 
JONES 
 
 424 
 
 JUDGE 
 
 dence, Sisters of the Congregation of Notre Dame, 
 of the Holy Names of Jesus and Mary, of bt. 
 Anne of the Holy Cross, of the Seven Dolors, of 
 the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary, Sisters 
 Adorers of the Precious Blood, and Missionary Sis¬ 
 ters of the Immaculate Conception. 
 
 The diocese contains 1 seminary, 1 normal school 
 for girls, 3 commercial colleges, 3 commercial acade¬ 
 mies, 24 boarding schools for young women, 12 
 academies, 30 model schools, and 230 elementary 
 schools.. There are in these 314 institutions, 725 
 professors, 22 of whom are priests or seminarians 
 119 religious, 329 nuns, and 255 lay persons; 16,500 
 pupils receive instruction in the various institutions. 
 Education is in the hands of the religious com¬ 
 munities mentioned above, with the exception of 
 the Sisters Adorers of the Precious Blood, who lead 
 a contemplative life, and the Missionary Sisters of 
 the Immaculate Conception, who are engaged in the 
 diffusion of the works of Holy Childhood and the 
 Propagation of the Faith. 
 
 The charitable institutions of the diocese in¬ 
 clude: 2 hospitals 5 homes for the aged, 7 orphan¬ 
 ages for girls and 1 for boys, as well as 6 associa¬ 
 tions of Ladies of Charity and 3 societies of St. 
 Vincent de Paul. 
 
 On 25 April, 1913, the first bishop of Joliette, 
 Rt. Rev. Joseph Alfred Archambault, died, and 
 was succeeded by the present bishop, Rt. Rev. 
 Joseph Gillaume Forbes, consecrated 9 October, 
 1913. He was bom at Isle Perrol 10 August, 1865, 
 educated at Montreal College and the grand 
 seminarie of Montreal, ordained priest 17 March, 
 1888, missionary at Caughnawaga Iroquois Mission 
 (1888-1903), pastor of St. Anne de Bellevue (1903— 
 1911), of St. Jean Baptiste (1911-13), and appointed 
 Bishop of Joliette 6 August, 1913. 
 
 Jones, Arthur Edward, ethnologist, b. at Brock- 
 * ville, Canada, 17 November, 1838; d. 19 June, 1918. 
 He was a pupil at St. Mary’s College, Montreal, 
 and from there went to the Jesuit novitiate at 
 Amiens, France. He made his philosophical and 
 theological studies at Vais, Boston, and Woodstock, 
 was a professor at Montreal and Fordham, and 
 after various occupations in the ministry at Guelph 
 and Montreal was made President of the English 
 College of Loyola in the latter city. Later he was 
 appointed Archivist of St. Mary’s, and from that 
 till the end of his life was a valuable aid to Dr. 
 Reuben J. Thwaites, who published the monumental 
 work known as the “Jesuit Relations” in seventy- 
 two volumes. He was corresponding member of 
 several learned societies of Canada and the United 
 States, and won the grand prize for his archaeolog¬ 
 ical exhibit at the St. Louis Exposition at St. 
 Louis in 1904. He verified many of the sites of 
 the Huron country, and his latter works were pub¬ 
 lished by the Ontario Government. 
 
 Joseph, Saint, Congregations of. See Saint 
 Joseph, Congrerations of. 
 
 Joseph Benedict Cottolengo, Blessed, founder 
 of the House of Providence, Turin, b. at Bra 3 May, 
 1786; d. at Chieri 29 April, 1842. He completed his 
 theological studies at the diocesan seminary of Asti, 
 where he was ordained. Appointed curate first in 
 Bra, then in Corneliano, in 1818 he was made a 
 canon of the collegiate Church of Corpus Christi in 
 Turin. The perusal of the life of St. Vincent de 
 Paul discovered to him his real vocation: to do in 
 Turin the work that Saint had done in Paris. He 
 began by renting several rooms in a house near 
 the Church of Corpus Christi, where he sheltered 
 and nursed the destitute sick of the parish, assisted 
 
 by several young women whom he called the 
 Daughters of Charity and to whom he gave a rule 
 of life. At this time there was an outbreak of 
 cholera in the city and the authorities, who feared 
 that Father Cottolengo’s hospice would become a 
 center of contagion, ordered it closed. Nothing 
 daunted, its founder in 1832 established himself 
 on property farther from the city near the Church 
 of Our Lady of Consolation, renovated the build¬ 
 ings he found there, and as the sick and the out- 
 cast flocked to him in ever-increasing numbers, 
 gradually extended them, dividing them into sec¬ 
 tions and created the miniature city, well-planned, 
 the House of Divine Providence, called by Pius X 
 the House of the Miracle. Human misery in every 
 form of degradation was relieved there by the 
 members of the various institutes founded by 
 Father Cottolengo to supply the many needs of 
 the work. The institutes, include the Sisters of St. 
 Vincent de Paul, of St. Thais, of Carmel, of Suffrage, 
 of Mary of the Seven Dolors, of the Good Shep¬ 
 herd, the Brothers of St. Vincent de Paul, the 
 Monks of Gassin, the preparatory seminary of St. 
 Thomas, the Fathers of the Holy Trinity and 
 others, in all thirty-four religious families. He 
 was their superior general and gave to each ap¬ 
 propriate rules, assuring to God the service of 
 perpetual praise, to which the marvelous success of 
 his work was due. He refused the proffered aid 
 of the king and endowment from other sources 
 in order to be completely dependent on Divine 
 Providence, and his undertaking prospered so well 
 that in fourteen years numerous buildings of the 
 House of Providence were completed, including, 
 besides the hospitals, workshops, schools, refuges, 
 cloistered monasteries, convents, hospices for old 
 men and for idiots, families of epileptics and crip¬ 
 ples, of the blind, the deaf and dumb, orphanages 
 and seminaries. In. 1917, eighty years after its 
 foundation, it contained 8000 people living from 
 day to day without other revenue than the charity 
 of the faithful. Its legal existence was recognized by 
 public act in 1883,. and it is dispensed by the Gov¬ 
 ernment from giving any financial account. The 
 cause of Father Cottolengo’s canonization was in¬ 
 troduced 19 July, 1877; he was declared Venerable 
 10 February, 1901, and his beatification took place 
 27 April, 1917. By a special concession of the Holy 
 Father, the Mass celebrated in his honor has not 
 only a special Collect, Secret and Postcommunion, 
 but its entire liturgy has been chosen to express 
 the admirable character of the founder of the 
 House of Providence. 
 
 Edith Donovan. 
 
 Josephites. See Saint Joseph, Missionaries of; 
 Saint Joseph, Sons of. 
 
 Judge, Ecclesiastical (cf. C. E., VIII-545).—If 
 the relative competency of a judge is questioned, 
 he himself decides the question with appeal. If 
 the question arises among two or more judges 
 themselves, the decision rests with the court im¬ 
 mediately higher; if the judges are under different 
 higher tribunals, the dispute is to go before the 
 higher tribunal of the judge before whom the case 
 was first brought; if there be no higher tribunal it 
 is decided by the papal legate if he is present, 
 otherwise by the Apostolic Signature. Kinship with 
 either of the parties to a suit in the direct line 
 or in the first or second (formerly the fourth) 
 degree collateral renders a judge, the promoter of 
 the faith, or the defender of the bond incompetent 
 to act in their case. If the ordinary is acting as 
 judge and is objected to as suspected he is to 
 refrain from adjudicating or should refer the ques¬ 
 tion of his fitness to the next higher tribunal; if 
 
JUGOSLAVIA 
 
 JUGOSLAVIA 
 
 425 
 
 the exception is taken against the promoter of 
 justice, the defender oi the bond or other adminis¬ 
 trators of the court, the president of the college 
 of judges, or the judge himself, if He be the only 
 one, is to decide. If the plaintiff does not adduce 
 the proofs which he might give, or if the defendant 
 does not make competent objections, the judge 
 should not interfere unless the public good or the 
 welfare of souls is in question; under such circum¬ 
 stances he not only may but must intervene. Ex- 
 cept in the case of a bishop who exercises his 
 judicial power personally, all judges must swear 
 to act faithfully; this oath involves the invocation 
 of God; priests at the same time must touch their 
 breasts while the other faithful are sworn in on 
 the Gospels. Judges and assistants are strictly 
 bound to secrecy regarding criminal trials, and even 
 other suits if, otherwise, either of the litigants 
 might suffer. 
 
 Codex jur. can., 1608-26". 
 
 Jugoslavia, a new State formed out of the com¬ 
 ponent parts of the old Austro-Hungarian Mon- 
 archy, consisting of Croatia, Slovakia, Dalmatia, 
 Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Karniola, 
 Karmthia, Styria, Istria, Gorizia-Gradisca, Quarnero 
 Islands, southern Hungary (Banat, Batchka, and 
 Baranya). The area is about 95,628 sq. miles. The 
 population in 1920 was 11,590,000 divided as fol¬ 
 lows: Servia (limits of 1914) 4,157,000; Monte¬ 
 negro 173,000; Bosnia-Herzegovina 1,877,000; Croatia 
 232 , 000 ; Slovenia 1,056,000; Batchka 836,000; 
 Banat 480,000; Dalmatia 301,000; Madjoumourie, 
 Veglia, 118,000. The principal towns (1919) are: 
 Belgrade (120,000 inhabitants), Zagreb (Agram) 
 80,000; Ljubliana (Laibach) 60,000; Sarajevo 50,000; 
 Novi Sad 40,000; Spert 30,000; Nish 24,949 (1910). 
 
 Economics.— The total production of wheat in 
 Jugoslavia in 1919 was 24,694,726 cwts. (1 cwt. = 100 
 lbs.), of barley 4,251,692 cwts.; of oats 6,164,247 
 cwts.; of maize 36,575,315 cwts; potatoes 15,136,749 
 cwts. In 1920 the output of sugar was 35,000 metric 
 tons. There are about 4,940,000 acres of vineyards 
 in the country and the production of wine is about 
 66,000,000 gallons yearly, of which quantity two- 
 thirds is consumed in the country and the rest 
 exported. The mining industry of the country 
 is very little developed. In 1920, 341,950 tons of 
 coal were mined in Servia, 387,390 tons in Croatia 
 and Slavonia, 1,193,874 tons in Slovenia, 826,669 
 tons in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and 473,850 tons 
 m Pecs. Servia suffered much during the war 
 by the devastation of her forests by the enemy and 
 the destruction of the sawmills. In Bosnia timber 
 is the chief export, half of the area being covered 
 by forests. The imports of Jugoslavia in the first 
 nine months of 1920 were valued at 2,577,709,123 
 dinars (1 dinar = $0,193 normal exchange); the 
 exports for the same period, 716,393,284 dinars. The 
 commercial balance which showed a deficit in 1919 
 of 2,364,855,000 dinars had a depreciating influence 
 on the value of the dinar. In 1920 Jugoslavia 
 had 5684 miles of railway, of which 3732 are of 
 normal gauge and 1952 of narrow gauge. Direct 
 traffic is in operation with all the neighboring 
 states, except Rumania and Hungary. The total 
 length of the waterways, including the Danube, 
 Save, Drave, and Tisa, is 1322 miles. River traffic 
 is under the control of the Navigation Syndicate, 
 in which the Government holds 51% of the shares 
 and the syndicate 49%. It is planned to make the 
 Morava River navigable, in order to connect the 
 productive land in Central Servia with the Danube. 
 The exterior debt before the war of 1914 was 
 903,810,000 francs; during the war, approximately 
 1,863,212,500 francs; after the war, 434,900,000francs, 
 
 rL 3 l 201,922 ’?2? f , rancs i < hc interior debt, 
 331,/Jl,o00 francs. 1 he budget for 1921 estimated 
 the levenue at 3,884,177,798 dinars and the ex¬ 
 penditure at 3,994,366,343 dinars. 
 
 Army.—I n 1919 the organization of the army of 
 Jugoslavia was commenced. The strength of the 
 army in peace time is 150,000. Compulsory service 
 is m force for men between the ages of twenty-one 
 and forty-five. 
 
 Education.— During 1920 about eight million 
 dinars were spent on repairing the schools; about 
 eighty in all have been repaired and many new 
 schools have been opened. Practically all schools 
 have been taken over by the State and in a short 
 s ^ a ^ s their pay will be standardized, 
 ine state pays the teachers’ salaries in elementary 
 schools and the municipalities provide for all other 
 expenditure. Elementary education is compulsory 
 and free in all the primary schools under the 
 Mimstei of Education. In 1919 there were in 
 elementa ry schools with 3867 teachers 
 and 154,9/6 pupils, also 49 colleges for boys 5 for 
 gills, and 2 modern schools. There were 158 
 special schools for illiterates and 9 higher elemen¬ 
 tary schools. In 1920 Belgrade University had 
 an enrolment of 80 professors and 7250 students. In 
 that year a new university was established at 
 Ljubliana Medical faculties have been established 
 at Belgrade; a philosophical faculty at Skoplje and 
 a law faculty at Subotica are branches of the 
 Belgrade University. Eight million dinars are spent 
 annually in the country on students’ scholarships 
 and seven millions for students studying abroad 
 under chairs non-existent in the Kingdom. The 
 new constitution of Jugoslavia provides that re¬ 
 ligious instruction be given according to the wish 
 of the parents or guardians; the pupils are divided 
 into groups according to their confession and in 
 harmony with their religious beliefs. 
 
 . Government. —The new constitution, which went 
 into effect on 28 June, 1921, owes a great deal 
 to the Servian constitution of 1888, which was 
 re-enacted in 1903. According to its provisions, 
 Jugoslavia is a constitutional monarchy, with the 
 Crown passing in the male line by order of 
 primogeniture. The executive power is vested in 
 the king, who names the officials and promulgates 
 the laws, but all acts issued by him must be 
 countersigned by the responsible minister. He also 
 nominates the members of the Council of State, 
 which is the highest administrative court. The 
 legislative power is entrusted to the National 
 Skupshtina (Assembly) elected by universal ballot, 
 direct and secret, in the ratio of one deputy to 
 each 50,000 inhabitants, about 280 in all, with 
 representation of the minorities. For judicial pur¬ 
 poses there is a Court of Cassation at Zagreb. 
 Part III of the constitution is composed of social 
 and economic regulations as to the protection of 
 labor, health, marriage, insurance against accident, 
 illness, unemployment, incapacitation, old age and 
 death. It also contains two significant provisions: 
 No one is obliged to take part in religious acts, 
 celebrations, rites, and practices, except on State 
 holidays and celebrations. Religious leaders may 
 not employ their spiritual authority for partisan 
 aims outside their houses of worship, or beyond 
 prescripts of a religious character, or otherwise in 
 the fulfillment of their official duty. 
 
 In May, 1914, a Concordat was concluded between 
 Servia and the Vatican, under which a Catholic 
 Archbishopric of Belgrade was to be established 
 with jurisdiction over the Catholics within the old 
 frontiers of Servia. Servia proper was almost en¬ 
 tirely Orthodox until after the Balkan Wars, when 
 
JUGOSLAVIA 
 
 426 
 
 JUGOSLAVIA 
 
 she was ceded a part of Macedonia with a large 
 Catholic population. By Article IV of the Con¬ 
 cordat the Holy See grants the use of the Glagolitic, 
 or Old Slav Liturgy in those regions where the 
 need is felt. After the union of all the Orthodox 
 Servs in the Kingdom, the Church becomes a 
 patriarchate under the rule of the Patriarch and 
 Holy Synod for ecclesiastical purposes. The Servian 
 Orthodox Church is governed by the Synod of 
 Bishops. All the ecclesiastical officials are under 
 the control of the Ministry of Public Worship. 
 There is unrestricted liberty of conscience. 
 
 The State budget which is assigned to the re¬ 
 ligious denominations, is repartitioned among the 
 confessions pro rata to the number of communi- 
 
 History. —The creation of the Jugoslav State in 
 1917 was the culmination of long agitation on the 
 part of the Slav peoples for nationality, a move¬ 
 ment which was hastened by the World War. 
 The conception of Jugoslav unity was in part the 
 outcome of the literary and linguistic movement 
 which developed in the first half of the nineteenth 
 century under Vuk Karadzic. The Jugoslavs shared 
 in the revolutionary spirit of 1848 and 1866, but 
 for various reasons, the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes 
 were unable to unite. The Balkan Wars brought 
 a closer co-operation, however, and their animosity 
 seemed to die out. During the World War, a very 
 large proportion of the Jugoslavs were imprisoned 
 and interned, a severe censorship was established, 
 the Provincial Diets in which the Jugoslavs were 
 represented were suspended, a condition of affairs 
 which intensified the already apparent determina¬ 
 tion of the Jugoslavs to secure their separation 
 from the Habsburg monarchy. In May, 1917, the 
 Jugoslavs in the Austro-Hungarian Reichsrat de¬ 
 manded that all provinces in the monarchy should 
 be united under the Habsburg Crown in a single 
 autonomous and democratic State, free from all 
 foreign domination. On 20 July, 1917, after the 
 fall of Russia, a pact was signed at Corfu between 
 Doctor Anton Trumbitch, the head of the Jugoslav 
 party, and Nikola Pashitch, the premier of Servia, 
 whereby it was agreed to constitute an independent 
 unified State of the five million Servians of Servia 
 and Montenegro and the Serbs, Croats, and 
 Slovenes, subjects of Austria-Hungary. On 8 April, 
 1918, the Congress of Oppressed Nationalities at 
 Rome declared in favor of the State, and the 
 movement for unity took definite form at the 
 meeting of the Jugoslav Council at Ljubliana on 
 16 August, 1918. In the following nrnnth the 
 National Council elected a Central Executive Com¬ 
 mittee to undertake the creation of the govern¬ 
 ment and establishment of a sovereign State with 
 the purpose of reuniting the Serbs, Croats, Slovenes 
 on the basis of race without regard to political 
 frontiers. In October, 1918, Croatia severed rela¬ 
 tions with Hungary. At Geneva in November, 
 1918, the representatives of Servia, the Jugoslav 
 National Council, and the Jugoslav Committee of 
 London, proclaimed a common ministry for a united 
 State. Later in the month, the National Council, 
 representing all the Jugoslavs, voted for union 
 with Servia and Montenegro, and the bestowal 
 of the regency on the Prince Regent of Servia. 
 On 1 December, 1918, the Jugoslav National Coun¬ 
 cil announced the fact to the Prince Regent and 
 called for the creation of a representative body 
 by the agreement between the National Council 
 and popular representatives of Servia, which was 
 to meet until a constituted assembly had met and 
 the Government should be responsible to it. Prince 
 Alexander at once proclaimed the new State. The 
 
 Montenegro Assembly voted to depose King 
 Nicholas and to unite with the new State. There 
 was some doubt, however, about the legality of 
 the proceedings, as King Nicholas never accepted 
 his forcible removal, but upon his death on 1 
 March, 1921, the country was definitely joined to 
 the new State. The Treaty of Rapallo between 
 Italy and Jugoslavia, signed 12 November, 1920, 
 delimited the frontiers of Jugoslavia, giving to the 
 country part of Dalmatia, including the portion 
 assigned to Italy by the Treaty of London (1915). 
 The work on the new constitution unfortunately 
 caused dissension, the Croats refusing to acquiesce 
 in the new arrangement of political divisions, and to 
 take part in the elections of 1920. In the plebiscite 
 in the district of Klagenfurt (10 October, 1920), 
 Jugoslavia lost to Austria, but invaded the district, 
 claiming fraud in the elections. Upon the demand 
 of the Council • of Ambassadors their troops were 
 withdrawn. At the death of King Peter of Servia, 
 Prince Alexander ascended the throne. 
 
 The Church. —On 24 June, 1914, the Concordat 
 between Servia and the Holy See was signed in 
 Rome by Cardinal Merry del Val and the Servian 
 delegate, M. Milenko R. Vesnia. Its general tenor 
 was favorable to religious freedom and the re¬ 
 ligious development of the Catholic subjects of 
 the King of Servia, although in the Servian Con¬ 
 stitution Orthodoxy was the State religion and con¬ 
 versions to Catholicism were severely forbidden. 
 Following the World War Jugoslavia has acquired 
 a larger Catholic population than any other Eastern 
 State. The number of Catholics in Croatia, 
 Slovenia, Dalmatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and 
 Servia exceeds 6,000,000. Before the war Belgrade 
 had 15,000 Catholics who were deprived of a church 
 because of the intolerance of the Servian Govern¬ 
 ment, and could only attend Mass in the chapel 
 of the Austrian legation. Now under new condi¬ 
 tions which are gradually overcoming prejudices 
 in this Orthodox city, the erection of a suitable 
 place of worship is being planned, to be dedicated 
 to SS. Cyril and Methodius. Contributions were 
 received from Pope Benedict XV and from prelates 
 from all parts of the world. In the new Jugoslav 
 State Catholicism is independent, while Orthodoxy 
 is still a State institution. The strongest Catholic 
 element is amongst the Slovenes (1,500,000) who, 
 while not so numerous as the Croats, are more 
 Catholic, and strongly influenced by their priests. 
 According to the plan of reorganization of the 
 churches in Jugoslavia, it will be divided into fifty 
 dioceses, half of which will be Catholic and half 
 Orthodox. The great bulk of the Slovenes, 600,000, 
 form the diocese of Ljubljana (Laibach) whose 
 bishop, Mgr. Jeglic, is venerated even by the 
 Servians as a valiant pioneer of South Slavic 
 political unity. It has a flourishing ecclesiastical 
 seminary and preparatory school, and in 1919 its 
 desire for a university charter hitherto frustrated 
 by German opposition, was fulfilled by decree of 
 the Regent, Prince Alexander. The university was 
 endowed with two theological faculties, one Catho¬ 
 lic faculty in 1920, and the other Orthodox. _ The 
 Catholic numbered 13 professors for the chairs of 
 theology of the Old and New Testaments, Biblical 
 archeology, systematic dogma, historic dogmatics, 
 comparative history of religions, fundamental 
 theology, moral and pastoral theology, canon law, 
 philosophy, patrology, history of the Eastern 
 Churches, and general ecclesiastical history. There 
 are also courses of liturgy, ecclesiastical art, homi¬ 
 letics and ecclesiastical pedagogy. 
 
 Amongst the priestly leaders of the Slovenes was 
 the late Dr. Janez Krek, the father of Christian 
 
JURISDICTION 
 
 427 
 
 JURISDICTION 
 
 Socialism in Slovenia, and one of the finest figures 
 in the history of modern Slavdom. He had repre¬ 
 sented Karniola in the Austrian Parliament and 
 was an exemplary pastor, a wise political coun¬ 
 sellor, and an indefatigable worker for the welfare 
 ol the masses. He inaugurated a strong cultural 
 movement amongst the Slovenes and after his death 
 in 1917 his work was ably carried on by his friend 
 Dr Anton Korosec, vice-president of the Servian 
 Cabinet in 1919, and a man of liberal views, who 
 embodies the democratic ideals of his countrymen. 
 Catholic expectations, based on the unfulfilled 
 promises of Servian promoters of the Jugoslav 
 movement, have been largely frustrated, and in 
 the consequent disillusionment the Church passed 
 through several internal crises. In Croatia the 
 Belgiade Government appointed as governor Dr. 
 Lanjuja, a Croat politician conspicuous for his 
 liberal, unecclesiastical proclivities, who attempted 
 to impose the marriage laws of the Orthodox 
 Church on Catholics and was vigorously opposed 
 by the Archbishop of Agram. A so-called reform 
 movement amongst the Catholic clergy in Croatia 
 similar to that > which disturbed the Church in 
 Czechoslovakia, is now practically dead, owing to 
 the loyal stand taken by the overwhelming majority 
 of the clergy. In spite of these unheavals, which 
 eventually will serve to strengthen Catholic organi¬ 
 zation, the future of Catholicity in Jugoslavia is 
 bright. Contact with the essence of Catholic teach¬ 
 ing will serve to dissipate racial and political ha¬ 
 treds. A pioneer in this work of rapprochement is 
 Mgr. Francesco Cherubino, titular archbishop of 
 Psicosia, first Papal Nuncio to Belgrade, appointed 
 ^tt^' I n ^15 Servia sent a special mission to 
 the Holy See and in 1919 the legation of Jugoslavia 
 was erected. M. Louis Bakotic is the Envoy 
 Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary. 
 
 Jurisdiction (for confessions; cf. C. E., VIII- 
 567b).—No confessor can give valid absolution from 
 sin unless he has expressly received either in writing 
 or verbally ordinary or delegated jurisdiction over 
 the penitent. The pope and the cardinals have 
 ordinary jurisdiction over all the faithful, local 
 ordinaries, parish priests, and those who are in 
 place of parish priests have jurisdiction within the 
 limits of their respective territories; so too has 
 
 a canon penitentiary for the whole diocese, or an 
 exempt religious superior over his own subjects. 
 Cardinals have no jurisdiction in cases in which 
 there is a censure very specially reserved to the 
 Holy See or attached to the violation of the Holv 
 See secrecy. A priest who is approved for hearing 
 confessions, and who has ordinary or delegated 
 jurisdiction, can licitly and validly absolve anv 
 vagus or person coming to him from another dio¬ 
 cese or parish, even if the person be a Catholic 
 belonging to any Eastern Rite. No one should be 
 granted faculties to hear confessions unless after 
 examination; this does not apply, however, in the 
 case oi a priest who is known to be well qualified. 
 Any priest who has been granted jurisdiction may 
 be required to undergo another examination, if a 
 doubt arises as to his present skill as a confessor— 
 tins applies even to parish priests and canon peni- 
 tentaries. Delegated jurisdiction is conferred by 
 the ordinary of the place where the confessions are 
 to be heard; but religious must not exercise this 
 power without at least the presumed permission of 
 eir supenors. No priest, whether he be a secular 
 or a regular, can validly or licitly hear the confes¬ 
 sions of female religious or novices without special 
 authorization, and all privileges or private laws to 
 the contrary are now expressly revoked. This does 
 not, however, apply to cardinals; nor does it affect 
 the permission that has been granted to nuns or 
 casters, of going to confession in any church or 
 oratory, even semi-public (this has been interpreted 
 officially as including any place designated in ac¬ 
 cordance with the law for the hearing of women’s 
 confessions), to a confessor authorized by the local 
 ordinary to hear the confessions of women; nor 
 finally does it limit the right which female religious 
 enjoy, when they are seriously ill, of calling in as 
 confessor any priest authorized to hear womens 
 eonfessions. 
 
 A confessor loses his jurisdiction when his office 
 terminates, or if he is excommunicated, interdicted, 
 or suspended from office by a declaratory or con¬ 
 demnatory sentence. Holders of ordinary jurisdic¬ 
 tion may delegate it wholly or in part, unless this 
 is expressly forbidden by the law; but neither parish 
 priests nor canon penitentiary can delegate their 
 jurisdiction. 
 
K 
 
 Kadi-Keu'i (Chalcedon; cf. C. E., III-554d).— 
 This mission was created 2 July, 1895, and 25 May, 
 1898, and confided to the Augustinians of the 
 Assumption, for the Latins, Greeks, and Slavs, with 
 parishes at Kadi-Keui, Stamboul, Gallipoli, and 
 elsewhere in Asia Minor. An Archconfraternity of 
 Our Lady of the Assumption, prima primaria, was 
 erected by Leo XIII 25 May, 1898, to promote 
 the union of churches. A secular priest was ap¬ 
 pointed parish priest at Scutari in 1908. In the 
 same year a church of the Armenian Rite was 
 erected in Kadi-Keui'. A church of the Latin 
 Rite was erected at Haidar Pacha in 1912, and a 
 public chapel was built at Pendik. In November, 
 1914, the French religious congregations were ex¬ 
 pelled by the Turks, who seized all the buildings 
 in use as orphanages, schools, etc., turned one chapel 
 into a mosque and one church into a moving pic¬ 
 ture theater, and burned the Armenian Mechitarist 
 College and two other buildings. These congrega¬ 
 tions returned in 1918 and 1919. The Carmelite 
 nuns settled at Phanaraki 15 December, 1919. The 
 church and parochial school at Scutari were burned 
 in July, 1921. Many religious and laymen in the 
 mission were called to the colors by their respective 
 Governments in the World War; among those 
 killed were 1 priest and 11 lay brothers, as well as 
 many laymen. The clerics and pious laymen 
 formed an association to assist the needy, and 
 several Sisters devoted themselves to nursing the 
 typhus sufferers. Among the latter was Sister 
 Amelia, of the Congregation of the Immaculate 
 Conception of Lourdes, who died 1916 as a result 
 of her labors among the plague-stricken. Other 
 noteworthy persons who have died are: Fr. Soph- 
 rone Rabois-Bousquet, A. A., rector of the Greek 
 Rite parish of Chalcedon, and contributor to the 
 “Echos d’Orient,” d. 18 April, 1911; Fr. Armand 
 Trannoig, A. A., vicar of the Latin parish of Chalce¬ 
 don, d. 8 November, 1918; Fr. Jerome Frassier, 
 A. A., missionary of the Slavic Rite, who had 
 labored many years in Bulgaria, d. 25 November, 
 1920; Fr. Louis Dimitrof, A. A., who labored more 
 than thirty years in Bulgaria, d. 18 January, 1921; 
 Brother Prudentius, superior of the College of the 
 Brothers of the Christian Schools in Kadi-Keu'i, 
 d. 19 March, 1913; Sisters M. Constance (d. 1912), 
 M. Chantal (d. 1915), and M. Fidelia (d. 1921), 
 all superiors of the Sisters of Notre Dame de Sion 
 at Kadi-Keu'i; Fr. Corneyre, of the Congregation 
 of Notre Dame de Sion, chaplain of the Sisters of 
 Kadi-Keui, d. in June, 1920; Jacques de Beaufort, 
 a French nobleman of remarkable piety, d. 16 Jan¬ 
 uary, 1919. 
 
 The Catholic population of the mission is 2300, 
 of whom 1355 belong to the Latin Rite and 915 to 
 the Eastern Rite. Catholics of the Latin Rite in¬ 
 clude 490 Italians, 265 Greeks, 155 French, 135 
 Ottomans, 125 Maltese, 110 Jugoslavs, and 75 others. 
 Since 1918 there have been British troops, with a 
 military chaplain, in the mission, some of the 
 soldiers, Europeans and Indians, being Catholics. 
 Catholics of the Armenian Rite number 820, almost 
 all Ottomans; of the Melchite Greek Rite there 
 are 55 Syrians; of the Syrian Rite, 45 Syrians; of 
 the Pure Greek Rite, 25 Ottomans and Greeks. 
 There are 5 parishes, of which 2 are Armenian and 
 1 Greek; 5 churches, 2 of which are Armenian; 5 
 
 public chapels; 2 missions; 1 station; 1 monastery 
 of monks, and 1 monastery of nuns; 7 convents of 
 religious and 6 convents of Sisters; 83 lay brothers; 
 
 4 secular priests, 24 regular priests, of whom 15 are 
 Latins, 5 Armenians, 3 Bulgarians, and 1 Greek; 1 
 seminary with 15 seminarians, of whom 11 are Bul¬ 
 garians, 3 Russians, and 1 Rumanian; 5 colleges for 
 boys with 102 teachers and 1245 students; 4 colleges 
 for girls with 65 teachers and 1010 students; 6 ele¬ 
 mentary schools with 12 teachers and 245 pupils; 1 
 commercial school with 5 teachers and 65 pupils; 1 
 orphan ayslum; 1 hospital; 1 settlement house. All 
 hospitals admit Catholic visitors and ministry of 
 priests. The Catholic institutions receive some aid 
 from the French Government, but none from the 
 Turkish Government. The “Echos d’Orient,” a 
 review of Oriental studies, is published at Kadi- 
 Keu'i. The Third Order of St. Francis is estab¬ 
 lished in the mission, as are also honorary guards 
 of the Sacred Heart, the St. Vincent de Paul Society 
 for men, the Association of Christian Mothers, and 
 the Children of Mary for young girls. The present 
 superior of the mission is Rev. Gervais Quenard, 
 A. A., appointed in 1920. 
 
 Kaffa, Southern, Prefecture Apostolic of (cf. 
 C. E., XVI-68b), erected 28 January, 1913, from 
 part of the Vicariate Apostolic of Galla, in Abys¬ 
 sinia, and confided to the Missionaries of the Con- 
 solata of Turin. In the persecution of 1904 mis¬ 
 sionaries had been banished from Kaffa, and no 
 Catholic priest was allowed to return there until 
 12 November, 1917, when the Missionaries of the 
 Consolata of Turin got five installations newly 
 erected in the prefecture, but only as civilians. 
 Their spiritual work is still clandestine. The pres¬ 
 ent apostolic is Rt. Rev. Gaudens Barlassina, 
 brother of the Patriarch of Jerusalem, appointed 
 6 May, 1913. The new boundaries of the prefecture 
 are as follows: on the north the Blue Nile River 
 from the British-Abyssinian frontier, to 38° long.j 
 on the east the 38° long, from the Blue Nile to 4° 
 N. lat.; on the south from 38° long, and 4° N. lat. 
 to Lake Rudolph; on the west the British-Abys¬ 
 sinian frontier from Lake Rudolph to the Blue 
 Nile. 
 
 Kafiristan, Prefecture Apostolic of. See 
 Kashmir and Kafiristan. 
 
 Kaiserwilhelmsland, Eastern and Western, 
 Prefectures Apostolic of (cf. C. E., VIII-592d), in 
 the island of New Guinea. The various tribes in 
 New Guinea are numerically small, especially those 
 on the coast; inland their numbers increase and 
 their language is more or less uniform. With few ex¬ 
 ceptions the places on the sea coast have been reached 
 by the missionaries. The island stations of Tumlio 
 and Ali are Catholic. The work of. conversion is 
 progressing as the natives are taking an active part 
 in it. Spirit-worship is gradually losing its hold 
 on the people and public worship is finding favor, 
 so that the effects of grace are everywhere being 
 felt. The number of Christians and catechumens 
 is increasing from year to year. In 1910 the rice 
 industry was established as a means of support 
 in the mission, to enable the natives to earn a 
 better living, to provide adequate nourishment, and 
 in general to raise the standard of the people. The 
 first attempts proved satisfactory and the mission 
 
 428 
 
KAUSZ-KUJAWY 
 
 429 
 
 KAMERUN 
 
 was beginning to flourish when the war broke out. Hermits of St. Paul at Czestochowa, the residence 
 It was then impossible to obtain the machinery of the general of the order. At Czestochowa is the 
 and . the undcitciking w&s abandoned. In 1913 2 b f&mous shrine of Our Lcidy, the miraculous image 
 mission was established on the Sepik River. The of the Virgin having been ornamented in 1910 with 
 first station was at Marienberg. In the same year a gold crown given by Pope Pius X. Other con- 
 Kaiserwilhelmsland was erected into two separate vents in the diocese are: Friars Minor 5* Friars 
 prefectures apostolic of Western and Eastern Kaiser- Minor Conventuals, 3; Dominicans, 1 • Salesmans 1 • 
 wilhelmsland and the Congregation of the Sacred Lazarists, 1; Jesuits, 1; Olivetans, 1; Dominican 
 Hearts of Jesus and Mary was to be placed in Nuns, 1; Daughters of Charity, 12; other religious 
 charge of the former territory. This has not yet congregations, 8. The Catholic population of the 
 been accomplished. Rt. Rev. Adalbert Otto diocese is about 1,600,000. 
 
 Rielander, C.SS.CC. was appointed prefect apos¬ 
 tolic in 1914 to succeed Rt. Rev. Mgr. Gellings, and Kalocsa-Bacs, Archdiocese of (Colocensis et 
 resigned in 1921. Eastern Kaiserwilhelmsland is con- Bachiensis; cf. C. E., VIII-594d).—By the Treaty 
 tided to the Society of the Divine Word, and the °f Versailles, in 1919, the whole region of Bacs, 
 present prefect apostolic is Rt. Rev. Andrew Puff, formerly Hungarian, with its 88 populous parishes, 
 S. D. V., with residence at Tumleo. which comprises the greater part of the archdiocese, 
 
 In 1914 the first mission stations in the interior was included in the kingdom of Jugoslavia, and so 
 of Alexishafen were established and in 1917 two a new diocese may be erected. There would then 
 
 more were founded at a distance of two days inland 
 journey from the former. In 1915 Rt. Rev. Evrad 
 Limbrock, Prefect Apostolic of Eastern Kaiser¬ 
 wilhelmsland and founder of the mission, resigned. 
 The wisdom and foresight which he showed in 
 laying out the settlement so as to insure the mate¬ 
 rial success of the undertaking, made him one of 
 the greatest benefactors of the mission. The pro¬ 
 tracted war evinced the inestimable value of this. 
 The large herds of cattle were especially useful and 
 proved a source of real blessings. In 1916 as a 
 political precautionary measure, the mission station 
 west of Eitape, the government station, was sup¬ 
 pressed. The stations of Malol and Aissano suf¬ 
 fered greatly. It was impossible to take care of the 
 parishes as no priest was permitted to go there 
 until 1919. In 1921 all the priests who were willing 
 to take the oath of loyalty were given permission 
 to remain for seven years longer. All voluntarily 
 complied with this requirement. 
 
 In 1921 the prefecture apostolic contained 35 
 churches and chapels, 47 stations, 21 regular priests, 
 19 Brothers, 34 Sisters, 25 catechists, 55 elementary 
 schools with 3119 pupils, 3 orphanages, and 2 hos¬ 
 pitals. During the war the sick and wounded were 
 cared for at all the mission stations. Formerly the 
 schools and institutions received a small sum, about 
 1000 marks, from the government. The present 
 government does not contribute to their support. 
 Since 1910, 5 Fathers, 3 Brothers, and 12 Sisters 
 belonging to the prefecture apostolic have died. 
 
 Kalisz-Kujawy or Wloclawek (Wladislaw), Dio¬ 
 cese of (Calissiensis; Cujaviensis seu Vlocla- 
 viensis; cf. C. E., XV-680c), suffragan of Warsaw, 
 Poland. The diocese is under the patronage of St. 
 Joseph. In 1918 it comprised nearly 13districts; new 
 boundaries were fixed in 1919. The area is about 
 7632 square miles. The present bishop is Rt. Rev. 
 Stanislaw Zdzitodiecki, b. 1854, ordained 1877, 
 consecrated 1902, succeeding Bishop Beresniewicz, 
 who was transferred, appointed assistant at the 
 pontifical throne 1920. The auxiliary bishops are: 
 R-t. Rev. Wladyslaw Krynicki, b. 1861, preco- 
 nized 1918, consecrated titular Bishop of Acanthus 
 1919; Rt. Rev. Wojciech Owczarek, b. 1875, preco- 
 mzed 1918, consecrated titular Bishop of Ascalon 
 1918. The bishop resides at Wloclawek, where 
 is the Cathedral of the Assumption, the cathedral 
 chapter comprising 4 prelates and 8 canons. To 
 the collegiate Church of St. Mary at Kalisz are 
 also attached 4 prelates and 8 canons. The diocese 
 comprises 39 deaneries with 377 parishes, 419 
 churches, and 179 chapels. The number of con¬ 
 vents of religious has considerably increased since 
 the restoration of Poland. There is a convent of 
 
 remain but 52 parishes in the original archdiocese, 
 which comprises 140 parishes and has 289 secular 
 and 65 regular priests, 15 lay brothers, 6 convents 
 for men and 32 for w r omen, 2 seminaries with 45 
 theologians and 31 seminarians, 4 colleges for men 
 and 4 for women, 13 high schools, 163 normal schools 
 with 687 teachers and 53,605 students, 1 home for 
 the aged poor, 5 orphanages, 1 hospital, and 140 
 day nurseries. There is a Society of Perpetual 
 Adoration for the clergy, and for the laity there 
 are the following organizations or societies: Most 
 Sacred Heart, Third Order of St. Francis, Rosary 
 Society, Altar Society, Marian Congregations, 
 Workmen’s Societies, Economical Associations for 
 Young Men. Four Catholic dailies and three 
 periodicals are published. The government con¬ 
 tributes to the support of Catholic schools and 
 institutions. The Catholic population numbers 
 620,945, and, in round numbers, is composed of 
 334,000 Hungarians, 190,000 Germans, who emi¬ 
 grated into Bacs after the expulsion of the Turks 
 (1723-90), and 96,000 Slavs who were driven out 
 of Dalmatia and Servia by the Turks (1689-1700). 
 The present archbishop, appointed in 1914, is Leo¬ 
 pold Arpad Varady. He succeeded John Csernoch 
 (1911-13), who, transferred to the Archdiocese of 
 Esztergom, crowned King Charles and Queen Zita of 
 Hungary. The preceding archbishop, Julius Varosy 
 (1905-10), restored the cathedral church, established 
 perpetual adoration within the archdiocese, and 
 organized societies for both religious and laity. 
 
 Kamenetz (Kamieniec), Diocese of (Camene- 
 censis; cf. C. E., IX-465b), suffragan of Mohileff, 
 Russia. The diocese was founded in the fourteenth 
 century, and administered by the Bishop of Luck 
 and Zhitomir from 3 June, 1866, till 24 September, 
 1918, when it was reestablished as an independent 
 diocese. Rt. Rev. Peter Mankowski, b. 1866, 
 ordained 1899, rector of the cathedral of Kamieniec 
 1902, removed from this post in 1911 by order of 
 the Russian government, vicar general and official 
 in that part of the Diocese of Luck occupied by 
 German and Austrian troops 1917-18, honorary 
 canon of Luck, was elected 24 September, 1918, 
 Bishop of Kamieniec, after the long vacancy of 
 that see, consecrated 30 November, 1918, and took 
 possession of the see 26 August, 1919, succeeding 
 Mgr. Fijalkowski, promoted in 1870. According to 
 latest statistics Kamieniec had 312,087 Catholics, 
 128 secular priests, 3 regular priests, and 101 
 parishes. For the diocese of the Ruthenian Rite 
 see Lwow. 
 
 Kamerun, Vicariate Apostolic of (Cameronen- 
 sis; cf. C. E., VIII-596a), comprises the former 
 German colony of Kamerun, now divided between 
 
KAMIENIEC 
 
 430 
 
 KANSAS 
 
 the British and French since its capture from the 
 Germans in February, 1916. It has an area of 
 191,130 square miles, and a population of 2,540,000. 
 The present vicar is Rt. Rev. Francis Hennemann, 
 P. S. M., titular Bishop of Coptos. During the 
 absence of the vicar the administrator apostolic is 
 Rev. Jules Douvry, C.S.SP., appointed 3 February, 
 1917. The vicariate was confided to the Pious 
 Society of Missions, but during the war they were 
 expelled and the vicariate was given in charge of 
 the Fathers of the Holy Ghost; this decision was 
 renewed by Propaganda 26 June, 1920. Protestant 
 propaganda is very active in the vicariate, there 
 being 7500 adherents to Protestantism before the 
 war. Catholics numbered 4489 and there were 
 1396 catechumens, 16 priests, 9 churches and chapels, 
 13 stations, 24 lay brothers, 21 Pallotin Fathers, 37 
 schools with 2120 boys, and 12 schools with 368 
 girls. These pre-war figures are the latest statistics 
 available. 
 
 Kamieniec, Diocese of. See Kamenetz. 
 
 Kan-chow, Vicariate Apostolic of, erected 25 
 August, 1920, by dismemberment of the former 
 Vicariate Apostolic of Southern Kiang-si, and con¬ 
 fided to the Lazarists. This new vicariate com¬ 
 prises the three civil provinces of Kow-chow-fu, 
 Nan-an-fu, and Ning-tu-chow, with an area of 20,077 
 square miles. It takes its name from the principal 
 city, which is the residence of the vicar apostolic. 
 The administrator is Mgr. Dumond, titular Bishop 
 of Curubis, and Vicar Apostolic of Maritime Chi-li. 
 The population of the vicariate is about 5,000,000 
 infidels, and 9287 Catholics. There are in the 
 vicariate: 8 Lazarists Fathers, of whom 3 are Euro¬ 
 peans and 5 Americans; 9 Daughters of Charity, 
 both foreign and native; 28 native Virgins of Our 
 Lady of Good Counsel; 46 male teachers, 25 female 
 teachers; 143 places visited once a year by mis¬ 
 sionaries; 8 stations, 7 churches, 19 public chapels, 
 12 oratories; 1 theological seminary with 13 semi¬ 
 narians; 1 preparatory seminary with 25 students; 
 25 schools for boys with 819 pupils; 11 schools for 
 girls with 318 p pils; 1 orphanage for girls with 
 62 orphans; 7 catechumenates for men and boys 
 with 318 catechumens; 6 catechumenates for women 
 and girls with 154 catechumens; 5 dispensaries with 
 21,123 remedies distributed and visits made to the 
 sick during the year 1920-21; there were baptized 
 434 adult catechumens, 350 children of Christians, 
 3151 pagan children in danger of death. 
 
 Kandy, Diocese of (Kandiensis; cf. C. E., VIII- 
 596c), suffragan of Colombo, in the Island of 
 Ceylon. The present bishop is Rt. Rev. Bede 
 Beekmeyer, O.S.B., born in 1873, elected 19 April, 
 and consecrated 30 June, 1912, succeeding Bishop 
 Pagnani, who died 27 June, 1911. The area of the 
 diocese is 6040 square miles, and the total popula¬ 
 tion is 889,685, of whom 30,228 are Catholics. The 
 diocese is confided to the Silvestrine Benedictines, 
 who number 21 priests, and there are also 5 secular 
 priests and 1 Jesuit. At the general seminary for 
 India at Ampitiya, Kandy, there are 13 Jesuit pro¬ 
 fessors and 97 students. Rt. Rev. A. Pancrazi, 
 O.S.B., is abbot of the Kandy monastery of Silves¬ 
 trine Benedictines, with a community of 25 monks, 
 of whom 4 are scholastics and 3 lay brothers. At 
 the monastery of the Oblates of St. Sylvester at 
 Wahacotte there are 3 Oblates and 2 postulants. 
 The Sisters of the Good Shepherd number 30, with 
 3 houses as Kandy, Nuwara Eliya, and Badulla. 
 The Sisters of St. Francis Xavier, under the direc¬ 
 tion of the Mother Superior of the Sisters of the 
 Good Shepherd, have 2 houses at Natale and 
 Navalapitiya. There are 3 Franciscan Missionaries 
 
 of Mary at Nuwara Eliya. St. Anthony’s College 
 at Kandy is under the Benedictines, and there are 
 24 lay teachers, with 85 boarders and a total of 
 460 pupils. St. Clement’s Elementary School, with 
 a vernacular department for poor boys, has 58 
 pupils. The Sisters of the Good Shepherd have an 
 English day and boarding school for girls at Kandy 
 with 345 pupils in the English school, 100 in the 
 vernacular school, and 97 in the industrial school, 
 and they also have charge of St. Scholastica’s School 
 for girls with 90 pupils. There are in the diocese: 
 3 schools for boys with 245 pupils, and St. Mary’s 
 School for girls with 80 pupils, at Ampitiya; an 
 elementary school with 241 boys and an English 
 day and boarding school, under the Sisters of St. 
 Francis Xavier with 162 girls, at Matale; a ver¬ 
 nacular school, under the Oblates of St. Sylvester, 
 with 121 boys, and a vernacular school with 38 
 girls at Wahacotte; St. Mary’s School with 151 
 boys and 39 girls at Nawalapitiya; Holy Cross 
 School for boys with 34 pupils, at Hatton; St. 
 Joseph’s School for girls, with 68 pupils, at Gam- 
 pola; St. Francis Xavier’s School, with 95 boys, an 
 English day and boarding school, under the Sisters 
 of the Good Shepherd, with 83 girls, and an in¬ 
 dustrial vernacular school, under the Franciscan 
 Missionaries of Mary, with 70 girls, at Nuwara 
 Eliya; St. Joseph’s School for boys, with 68 pupils, 
 at Bandarawela; St. Mary’s school, with 34 girls, 
 and an English day and boarding school, under the 
 Sisters of the Good Shepherd, with 58 girls at 
 Badulla. There are orphanages for boys at Kandy 
 and Wahacotte, orphanages for girls at Kandy, 
 Matale, Nuwara Eliya, and Badulla, and a benevo¬ 
 lent association at Kandy. The diocese has 36 
 churches, 35 chapels, and 12 head stations. 
 
 Kansas (cf. C. E., VIII-597c).—The State of 
 Kansas has an area of 82,158 square miles and 
 ranks thirteenth among the States of the Union. 
 
 Economics. —In 1919 Kansas raised 69,362,000 
 bushels of corn with a value of $97,107,000; 151,— 
 001,000 bushels of wheat with a value of $324,652,000. 
 The value of sorghums was $26,802,000; of tame 
 hay, $71,211,000; oats, $32,287,000; of barley, $16,- 
 200,000; Irish potatoes, $9,819,000. The field prod¬ 
 ucts from 22,249,594 acres under cultivation had 
 a value of $442,091,198 in 1918. The value of 
 animals slaughtered or sold for slaughter was $108,- 
 073,032; poultry and eggs sold, $14,792,000; milk 
 sold, $15,098,844; garden and horticultural products 
 marketed, $4,061,009. The total value of farm 
 products in 1918 reached the sum of $592,017,250, 
 without considering the live stock retained by the 
 farmers and returned by assessors to the value of 
 $361,868,765. In 1918 the value of farm products 
 and live stock aggregated $953,886,015, which was 
 $93,737,345 in excess of 1917. 
 
 The annual salt production is about 2,000,000 
 barrels. Kansas ranks fourth in the production of 
 lead and zinc. According to the United States 
 census of 1919 the manufactured products of the 
 State attained a value of $909,897,000. In 1917 its 
 mineral production had a value of $106,763,055, its 
 natural gas a value of $5,701,436. 
 
 Kansas has 9383 miles of railroads on which a 
 three-cent fare obtains. The Board of Railroad 
 Commissioners was succeeded in 1910 by the Public 
 Utilities Commission, and in 1920 the Industrial 
 Board was formed. 
 
 Population. —The fourteenth Federal census of 
 1920 gave 1,769,257 as the total population of the 
 State’s 105 counties: males, 909,221; females, 860,036. 
 There are sixty-two towns with a population of 
 more than 2500 each; seventeen of them have more 
 
KANSAS 
 
 431 
 
 KANSAS CITY 
 
 than ten thousand people. Atchison has 12,630; 
 Leavenworth, 16,912; Wichita, 72,217; Kansas City, 
 101,177; and Topeka, 50,022. In 1920 the aggregate 
 in cities of above 10,000 was 417,749, or 13.6% 
 of .the total population. The latest statistics show 
 2618 divorces and 18,162 marriages in one year. 
 
 Education.— If the majority of the electors of 
 the county favor it, a high school may now be estab¬ 
 lished at the discretion of the county commissioners 
 and on petition of one-fourth of the electors. Four 
 years are now required for completion of the high 
 school courses of instruction. The Legislature of 
 1917 was authorized to levy a permanent tax for 
 the support of educational institutions. The total 
 school population in 1918 was 620,991, and the enrol¬ 
 ment 405,319. The average daily attendance was 
 288.286. There were 16,395 teachers. The total 
 cost of the public schools in 1918 was $17,102,644. 
 The State School Book Commission was established 
 in 1913. 
 
 . The student membership at the State educational 
 institutions in 1919 was as follows: University of 
 Kansas, Lawrence, 3915; Kansas State Agricultural 
 College, Manhattan, 2171; Kansas State School 
 for the Deaf, Olathe, 223. Non-Catholic denomina¬ 
 tional colleges have invested in equipment and 
 endowment about $16,000,000. They represent 
 faculties of 250 persons, instructing 3500 students 
 at an annual expense of $607,000. In 1920 there were 
 310 private and denominational schools in Kansas. 
 
 The laws of 1915 empower the counties having 
 & population of more than 60,000 and less than 
 /5,000 to establish public service institutions, includ¬ 
 ing a county home, county hospital, and a tuber¬ 
 culosis hospital. In 1917 a State Board of Adminis¬ 
 tration was created to constitute the Board of 
 Trustees for the control of educational, benevolent, 
 and penal institutions. For this purpose the board 
 appoints a business manager to manage such institu¬ 
 tions with the advice of the board, and to purchase 
 supplies. A Workman’s Compensation Law has 
 been adopted.. The establishment at Topeka of a 
 State Industrial Farm for women prisoners was 
 provided for by the Legislature in 1917. 
 
 According to the United States census of 1916 
 all the church property in the State was valued 
 at $23,808,000. The Catholic population in 1921 
 was 134,220, an increase of nearly 70% in' forty 
 years. For details with regard to ecclesiastical his¬ 
 tory see Leavenworth, Diocese of; Concordia, Dio¬ 
 cese of; Wichita, Diocese of. 
 
 Legislation.— Property passing to direct descend¬ 
 ants is tax exempt; to brothers or sisters $5000 
 exempt; to near kindred the tax is graduated; to 
 others more remote the rates are higher. This 
 does not apply to constitutional exemptions. 
 Columbus Day (12 October) and Election Day 
 (first Tuesday in November) are now included 
 among the legal holidays. In 1912 the full exercise 
 of suffrage was conferred upon women, a right 
 which in 1918 was restricted to citizens of the 
 United States. 
 
 Recent History.— An important step in the* in¬ 
 dustrial progress of the United States was taken 
 when the Kansas Court of Industrial Relations was 
 established as a court to find solution for industrial 
 controversies and to protect the public against 
 waste and danger of industrial war. It was meant 
 as a court of human relations, not as a public 
 utilities commission, but the public utilities cases 
 so increased that the court was robbed of the 
 opportunity to do more than care for the acute 
 industrial cases. Kansas ratified the federal suffrage 
 amendment 16 June, 1919, and the prohibition 
 amendment 14 January, 1919, the twenty-eighth 
 
 state to do so. The recent adoption of the farm- 
 homes-amendment was aimed at checking the 
 growth of land tenantry in the State and to 
 strengthen agricultural conditions as to farm labor 
 
 ? ,n '9 or ! ser , va ^ on - The good roads amendment 
 in 19^0 limited the State’s help to 25 per cent of 
 the cost of the road, and to $10,000 per mile for 
 more than 100 miles in any county. 
 
 Kansas contributed during the World War 
 63,428 soldiers, or 1.69 per cent of the total furnished 
 by the United States. Camp Funston was estab¬ 
 lished in the State for the troops of the 89th and 
 92d divisions. 
 
 Kansas City (Kasanopolitana), Diocese of (cf. 
 y ■ VIII-602a), in Missouri, suffragan of St. 
 
 Louis The first bishop of this diocese, Rt. Rev. John 
 Joseph Hogan, who had filled the see from 1880, 
 died 21 February, 1913, and was succeeded by his 
 coadjutor, Rt. Rev. Thomas Francis Lillis, who 
 had been consecrated Bishop of Leavenworth 27 
 December, 1904, transferred to Kansas City as 
 coadjutor with right of succession 14 March, 1910, 
 taking possession of the see 21 February, 1913. 
 
 Two diocesan synods have been held since 1910, 
 one April 9, 1912, and the last April 20, 1920, to 
 effect to the instructions and legislative acts 
 of the Iloly See as provided in the New Canon 
 r W i- The sixteenth (and last) annual convention 
 of the American Federation of Catholic Societies 
 was held at Kansas City August 26-29, 1917, the 
 Papal Delegate, His Excellency John Bonzano, and 
 twenty-five archbishops and bishops attending. 
 
 During the decade 1910-20 the Kansas City dio¬ 
 cese has enjoyed a steady growth in the number 
 of priests, parishes, educational and charitable in¬ 
 stitutions. . The number of priests has increased 
 from 101 in 1910 (70 secular and 31 religious) to 
 146 (102 secular, 44 regular) at present (1921). 
 The total number of Sisters now working in the 
 diocese is 530, compared with 350 ten years ago; 
 eight new parishes were established during this 
 period, and in many instances the first church, 
 rectory or school has been replaced by a modern 
 structure. The number of parochial schools has 
 grown from 42 to 50, and the number of children 
 attending them from 5543 to 7873. There are 10 
 academies for girls attended by about 600 pupils. 
 A desire for a higher education for boys than that 
 afforded in the parish school found its realization 
 m the establishment of two colleges, De La Salle 
 Academy (1910), in charge of the Christian Brothers, 
 and Rockhurst College (1914), conducted by the 
 Jesuit Fathers, both in Kansas City; their present 
 enrollment is 565. There are three orphan homes 
 in the diocese, two in Kansas City (one for girls 
 with 150 and one for boys with 145 inmates), and 
 St. Francis Convent at Nevada, Mo., attended by 
 125 children. Two new hospitals have been added 
 to the six already existing in 1910, and the Catholic 
 League Hotel (1911) and St. Catherine’s Convent 
 (1921) provide a home for young women employed 
 in stores, offices, etc. St. Vincent’s Maternity Hos¬ 
 pital was established in 1914. The new $400,000 
 House of the Good Shepherd was completed last 
 year. The total number of children under Catholic 
 care has increased from 5773 in 1910 to 8000 in 
 1920, and the total Catholic population from 55,000 
 in 1910 to 75,500^ in 1920. The number of parishes 
 in the city of Kansas City has grown from 28 to 
 32, including one for the Mexicans (1915), one for 
 the Polish Catholics (1913), and St. Monica’s, in 
 charge of the Franciscan Fathers (1910), for the 
 Catholic negroes. There are 26 missions with 
 churches, 108 churches, and 30 chapels. 
 
KAN-SU 
 
 432 
 
 KASSAI 
 
 During the W orld War about 3000 Catholic young 
 men of this diocese entered the service, of whom 
 84 gave up their lives. 
 
 Kan-Su, Northern, Vicariate Apostolic of (de 
 Kan-su Septentrionalis; cf. C. E., VIII-602d), in 
 China. The vicariate contains about 8,000,000 inhabi¬ 
 tants ; among this number there are 6250 Catholics 
 and 7200 catechumens, all of whom»are Chinese, with 
 the exception of a few Tangouses and Tibetans. 
 In 1921 the mission had 55 chapels, 18 mission resi¬ 
 dences, 2 secular priests, 16 regulars, 18 native Sis¬ 
 ters who live in community, 1 preparatory seminary 
 with 10 students, 1 college for boys with 12 teachers 
 and 52 students, 36 elementary schools, 51 teachers, 
 and 1063 pupils, 28 catechists and 10 catechu- 
 menates. The following institutions exist in the 
 vicariate apostolic: 3 asylums in charge of 18 
 Sisters with 230 children, 3 small homes for old 
 people, several day nurseries. Of late the number 
 of missionaries has diminished, some of them having 
 died and others being recalled to the mother- 
 house. The present bishop is the Rt. Rev. Geoffrey 
 Frederix of the Congregation of the Immaculate 
 Heart of Mary of Scheutveld, b. at Afferden, 17 
 July, 1866, elected 8 March, 1920, appointed vicar 
 apostolic of Kan-Su 5 March preceding, consecrated 
 29 June following. He arrived at Kan-Su in March, 
 1921, succeeding Rt. Rev. Hubert Otto, deceased. 
 
 Kan-su, Southern, Prefecture Apostolic of (cf. 
 C. E., VIII-602c), in China. The present prefect 
 is the Rt. Rev. Constantine Benedict Daems of 
 the Congregation of the Immaculate Heart of Mary 
 of Scheutveld, b. at Westmalle, Belgium, 13 May, 
 1872, ordained 21 July, 1895, departed for China the 
 following September, and was named prefect 5 May, 
 1914. In 1921 the prefecture apostolic contained 11 
 European regular priests, 1 native secular priest, 
 2703 baptized Christians, 3931 registered catechu¬ 
 mens, 12 principal missions, 22 outlying missions, 
 1 theological seminary, 1 preparatory seminary at 
 Trinchow (29 students), 12 parochial schools (167 
 boys, 81 girls), 12 teachers, 11 native Sisters who 
 are teachers, 3 orphanages with 76 ransomed 
 orphans. 
 
 Karinthia. See Jugoslavia. 
 
 Karniola. See Jugoslavia. 
 
 Kaschau, Diocese of. See Kosice. 
 
 Kashmir and Kafristan, Prefecture Apostolic 
 of (Cashmirensis et Kafristanensis; cf. C. E., 
 VIII-591b), created by Pope Leo XIII in 1887. 
 The territory embraces a large portion of the ex¬ 
 treme north of India and includes part of the 
 Punjab, the whole of Kashmir Kafristan, and many 
 free tribes around Chitral Waziristan and the Swa^t 
 Valley bordering Afghanistan. Roughly the inhabi¬ 
 tants number 15,000,000. The northern boundaries 
 are the Hindu Kush mountains, and the Pamir 
 Range—“the roof of the world.” The mission was 
 taken over from the Capuchins by the English 
 Mill Hill Fathers in 1887. The prefecture includes 
 some of the most important British military stations 
 in India. Peshawar guards the mouth of the Khy- 
 ber Pass, Nowshera is a large base near the Indus, 
 whilst Rawalpindi, “the Aldershot of India,” is the 
 headquarters of the Northern Army Command in 
 India. In all there are about 20 permanent stations, 
 besides innumerable summer stations in the hills, 
 served by the Mill Hill Fathers, 15 in number. 
 Besides military work the priests are engaged on 
 native missions, in which work they are very mate¬ 
 rially helped by the Franciscan Missionary Sisters 
 of Mary, assisted by Dr. Anne Dengel, who have 
 
 hospitals for native women and children in Raw¬ 
 alpindi and at Baramulla in Kashmir. The Irish 
 Presentation Sisters have convent day schools in 
 Rawalpindi and Peshawar, and a boarding school 
 for small boys at Murree, a summer station o.ver 
 7000 feet above sea level. At Baramulla Fr. de 
 Ruyter has a successful high school and an orphan¬ 
 age for native boys, with a total of 250. The Sisters 
 of the Congregation of Jesus and Mary have a 
 large boarding school for girls, open only in the 
 summer. _ 
 
 The present prefect apostolic is Rt. Rev. R. J. 
 Winkley, who succeeded Rt. Rev. D. Wagner in 
 1916. Born in Preston and educated at Kelvedon, 
 Freshfield, and Mill Hill, he was one of the pioneer 
 priests in the Mill Hill mission in north India. 
 On arriving, he was sent to Kashmir, where no 
 priest had ever been, and he commenced the now 
 established missions of Baramulla, Srinagar, and 
 Gulmarg. He returned to the Punjab in 1914 and 
 was posted at West Ridge, where he built a large 
 church and presbytery. He served for a time on 
 the frontier of India, and at the outbreak of the 
 war in 1914 he was in England for the Mill Hill 
 General Council, and entered the service imme¬ 
 diately as a chaplain. He went to France, was 
 invalided home, and then proceeded to the Mediter¬ 
 ranean, working in Salonika, Gallipoli, Egypt, and 
 on the Arabian frontier. In 1916 he was nominated 
 prefect and returned to India to direct the labors 
 of the Mill Hill priests in British North India. 
 Other clergy who saw service in the war were: 
 Rev. J. Mullen, who was with the army which 
 defended Kut, was taken prisoner, and awarded 
 the military cross; Rev. Hubert Janssen, who served 
 with the armies on the frontier and was mentioned 
 in dispatches for bravery and devotion to duty; 
 Rev. W. Bolton and Rev. A. Malden, B. A., who 
 served in the Khyber and on the frontier; and 
 Rev. W. White, who was chaplain in Egypt and 
 Palestine 
 
 The Catholic population of the prefecture is 
 about 5000 native Hindus and British. There are 
 in the prefecture: 11 churches, 4 missions, 18 sta¬ 
 tions, 4 convents of nuns, 35 Sisters, 15 secular 
 priests, 2 hospitals for native women under the 
 Franciscan Missionaries of Mary, and an orphan¬ 
 age for native boys in Baramulla. The priests 
 have charge of native missions in Rawalpinda, 
 Baramulla, and Srinagar. The schools are partially 
 supported by the government. 
 
 J. M. Clarke. 
 
 Kassa, Diocese of. See Kosice. 
 
 Kassai, Vicariate Apostolic of Upper (cf. C. E., 
 VIII-609a).—On 13 June, 1917, the Prefecture Apos¬ 
 tolic of Upper Kassai was erected into a vicariate, 
 comprising at that date 18 principal mission stations 
 and a Catholic population of 60,000. The bound¬ 
 aries of the vicariate are: on the west the course of 
 the River Loange in the Congolese territory, and 
 the boundaries of the colony; on the south the 
 boundaries of the colony as far as the source of 
 the Lualaba; on the east the Lualaba from its 
 source to Kikondja, the course of the Lovoi to the 
 source of the Lomami, the Lomamie from its source 
 to Bena Kamba; on the north the boundaries of 
 the vicariates of New Antwerp and Leopoldville. 
 The climate is salubrious and the soil generally 
 fertile. The recent discovery of diamond beds has 
 brought to the locality mining exploitations, ana 
 these as well as the establishment of a railroad 
 and the improvement of other ways of communica¬ 
 tion are of great importance in the development ox 
 the country. The most widely spread language is 
 
 / 
 
KATANGA 
 
 433 
 
 KEEWATIN 
 
 Luba, which is used by the missionaries for teach¬ 
 ing and preaching, except in the region of Batetela, 
 where the idiom of the country is in usage. The 
 approximate number of natives is 1,200,000. The 
 vicariate comprises four civil districts,' and the four 
 principal towns are Luebo, Lusambo, Kabinda, and 
 Sandoa; the last, of recent foundation, is in the 
 Lunda country, and the other three, each of which 
 has a Catholic mission, are in the Luba country. 
 The character of the people evangelized is gen¬ 
 erally peaceful, and the greatest progress in evan¬ 
 gelization is i among the Luba. According to the 
 statistics of 1 July, 1921, the number of native 
 Catholics was 111,277, with a total of 8843 Catholic 
 families. The vicariate has 18 principal stations, 
 each of which serves an extensive territory, some¬ 
 times comprising several hundred villages. These 
 stations are: Luluabourg St. Joseph, Hemptinne, 
 St. Benoit, Ndekesha, Ndemba, Mushenge, Luebo, 
 Mayi, Munene, Kalende, St. Trudon, Lusambo, 
 Mcrode Salvator, Tielen St. Jacques, Kabinda, 
 Tshumbe Ste. Marie, Katako Kombe, Lodja, 
 Lubefu, Kanzeuze. There is also a residence at 
 St. Antoine (Lusambo). The number of missionary 
 priests attached to the vicariate is 55 Missionaries- 
 of Scheutveld and 4 Franciscan Fathers of the 
 Belgian province, who are established at Kanzeuze. 
 The Missionaries of Scheutveld are aided by 23 
 coadjutor brothers of their congregation and 3000 
 native catechists and assistant catechists. Each 
 mission station has an elementary school, the total 
 daily regular attendance being 2857 boys and 1101 
 girls. There is a normal school at Luluabourg St. 
 Joseph with 130 pupils; the course of studies is four 
 years. Another normal school at Tshumbe has at 
 present 60 pupils and a two-year course of studies. 
 Since 1917 a preparatory seminary has been estab¬ 
 lished at Luluabourg St. Joseph for the formation 
 of a native clergy; there are at present 11 students, 
 all graduates of the normal school. The Sisters of 
 Charity of Ghent, numbering 21 religious, are estab¬ 
 lished at Luluabourg St. Joseph, Hemptinne St. 
 Benoit, and St. Trudon, where they instruct and 
 educate young girls. The Brothers of Charity, in 
 the service of the government of the colony, direct 
 at Lusambo and Kabinda an official professional 
 school where they teach various European trades 
 to young men. The religious instruction given by 
 the Brothers is under ecclesiastical authority. The 
 vicariate publishes in the native language a small 
 monthly called “Nkuruse” (“The Cross”). The 
 vicar apostolic resides at Luluabourg St. Joseph. 
 The present vicar is Rt. Rev. Auguste De Clercq, 
 born in 1870, ordained 15 July, 1893, missionary at 
 Luluabourg St. Joseph from 1894 to 1897, provincial 
 superior of the missionaries from 1897 to 1906, re¬ 
 turned to Belgium where he filled various posts 
 and was named Vicar Apostolic of Upper Kassai 
 and titular Bishop of Thignica in 1918, consecrated 
 12 January, 1919, and arrived in the vicariate in 
 September of that year. 
 
 Katanga, Prefecture Apostolic of (cf. C. E., 
 XVI-68c), in Belgian Congo, Africa. This prefec¬ 
 ture, formerly in charge of the Brazilian Congre¬ 
 gation of the Benedictines of the Abbey of St. 
 Andre, is now cared for by the Belgian Congrega¬ 
 tion of Benedictines, who founded a house at 
 Katanga in 1919. The present and first prefect 
 apostolic is Dom Jean de Hemptinne, appointed 
 in August, 1910. The Catholics number 3000, of 
 whom 500 are Europeans and 2500 are natives. 
 The prefecture apostolic contains 8 missions, 2 sec¬ 
 ular priests, 12 regulars, 5 lay brothers, 18 Sisters 
 of Charity, 1 hospital for white and colored patients. 
 
 ie government supports the schools and missions, 
 there is a primary school for European boys and 
 one lor gnls, and 1 professional school conducted 
 by 14 Salesmans. A monumental church is being 
 erected at Elizabethville, the funds for which were 
 donated ~y the pope, the king, the Belgian govern¬ 
 ment, and by a national subscription in Belgium. 
 
 Katanga, Northern, Prefecture Apostolic of 
 (cf. C. E., XVI-68c), in Belgian Congo, Africa, 
 erected in 1911 by dismemberment of the Prefec¬ 
 ture Apostolic of Upper Kassai. It was confided 
 to the Fathers of the Holy Ghost, and the first 
 and present prefect apostolic is Rt. Rev. Emile 
 Callewaert, C.S.Sp. The Catholic population com¬ 
 prises 4500 blacks and several European officials 
 and merchants. . J here are in the prefecture: 3 
 parishes, 3 missions, 6 churches, 42 stations with 
 catechists, 12 regular priests, 4 lay brothers, 12 
 Daughters of the Cross, 1 seminary with 11 semi¬ 
 narians, 10 elementary schools with about 500 
 pupils, schools for catechists with 1000 pupils, 2 
 refuges for widows and fallen women, 1 hospital 
 for Europeans and 1 for blacks, and 4 orphan asy¬ 
 lums (2 for boys, 2 for girls). The hospitals are 
 under the care of the Sisters. Associations among 
 the laity are the Confraternity of the Sacred Heart 
 for men and the Confraternity of the Holy Family 
 for women. 
 
 Kearney, Diocese of. See Grand Island. 
 
 Keewatin, Vicariate Apostolic of (Koevatinen- 
 sis; cf. C. E., XVI-49b), suffragan of the Arch¬ 
 diocese of Saint Boniface, was erected 8 August, 
 1910. It includes the northern half of the two 
 provinces of Manitoba and Saskatchewan, and is 
 bounded on the north by the North Pole, on the 
 south by the Archdiocese of Saint Boniface and 
 Winnipeg, on the east by the Diocese of Sault Ste. 
 Marie and the Vicariate Apostolic of Northern 
 Ontario, and on the west by the Archdiocese of 
 Edmonton and Vicariates Apostolic of Athabaska 
 and Mackenzie. 
 
 The country, which is sparsely inhabited by 
 Indians, half-breeds, and a few whites, is chiefly 
 forest land of a swampy or very rocky nature and 
 improper for cultivation, but it possesses some 
 valuable mineral resources. It was first visited by 
 pioneer missionaries in the nineteenth century, 
 when Mgr. Provencher, Bishop of St. Boniface, 
 sent Abbe Thibaut to Ue-la-Crosse and Abbe 
 Lafleche, later Bishop of Trois Rivieres, to explore 
 the Cumberland district (1845). In 1846 Father 
 Tache (later Archbishop of St. Boniface) was sent 
 to join them, and they visited Lake Caribou (1847). 
 These and surrounding missions were subsequently 
 served by Oblate Fathers of the Alberta-Saskatche- 
 wan and Manitoba Provinces. Prominent among 
 these, since 1887, was Father Ovide Chariebois, 
 whose successful work during sixteen years ministry 
 at Fort Cumberland led, in 1900, to his nomination 
 as visitor of the Cumberland District Indian mis¬ 
 sions, and in 1903 to his appointment as director 
 of Duck Lake Industrial School. In 1910, upon 
 the erection of the Vicariate of Keewatin, he was 
 appointed titular Bishop of Bernice and vicar apos¬ 
 tolic of the new vicariate with residence at Le Pas. 
 
 The vicariate comprises a population of 13,000 
 Indians, Montagnais, Crees, and Esquimaux, of 
 whom 6000 are Catholic and 7000 non-Catholic, 
 some being pagan, chiefly Esquimaux. The mis¬ 
 sionary work is carried on by 18 Oblate Fathers of 
 Mary Immaculate, 9 Brothers of Mary Immaculate, 
 
 3 secular priests, 14 Grey Nuns (of Montreal), 10 
 Oblate Sisters of the Sacred Heart and of Mary 
 
KELLY 
 
 434 
 
 KENTUCKY 
 
 Immaculate (St. Boniface), and 12 Grey Nuns (St. 
 Hyacinthe). There are 11 churches with 16 out- 
 stations; 1 Indian boarding school at Cross Lake 
 with 10 Oblate Sisters and 95 pupils, 1 at Lac La 
 Plonge with 8 Grey Nuns and 60 pupils; a general 
 hospital under the Grey Nuns with 30 beds; a 
 boarding school at Ile-la-Crosse with 4 Grey Nuns 
 and 40 pupils; a French-English school at Le Pas 
 with 8 Sisters of the Presentation of Mary and 160 
 pupils, and 2 other day schools at Cumberland and 
 Lac Caribou with 45 pupils under lay teachers. 
 
 Kelly, Hugh, M. A., LL.D., merchant, b. in Chi¬ 
 cago, Illinois, 24 September, 1858; d. in New York, 
 30 October, 1908, son of James and Sarah Belle 
 (O’Brien) Kelly, of Sligo County, Ireland. Educa¬ 
 tion: public schools and College of the City of 
 New York. He began his business career in 1871, 
 and was successively in the employ of Gomez and 
 Monjo; Gomez, Rionda and Co.; Rionda, Ben¬ 
 jamin and Co., commission merchants, and in 1883 he 
 formed a partnership with Manuel Rionda, engag¬ 
 ing in the West Indian trade. In the same year 
 he married Mary E., daughter of Thomas McCabe; 
 associated with Franklin Farrel, establishing the 
 house of Hugh Kelly, sugar merchants of New 
 York and Havana, Cuba, 1884. He became school 
 commissioner and trustee of the • city and normal 
 colleges of New York (1895-1898); president of 
 the Maritime Exchange, 1896-1898; State commerce 
 commissioner, 1898-1900; member of the board of 
 managers, Central Islip State Hospital, 1905-1908. 
 He devoted much of his time to the study and 
 research of sugar-cane culture and modern sugar 
 house engineering, and was considered one of the 
 foremost scientific engineers in that industry. At 
 the time of his death he was a member of the 
 Board of Directors of the Catholic Encyclopedia, 
 the United Fruit Co., the Seventh National Bank, 
 the Third National Bank, the North American 
 Trust Co., the City Trust Co., the Oriental Bank, 
 trustee of: the Emigrants’ Industrial Savings Bank, 
 St. Patrick’s Cathedral, the New York Catholic 
 Protectory, the Roman Catholic Orphan Asylum, 
 President of the Parvenir, Central Teresa and Cen¬ 
 tral Ansonia sugar companies, West Indies; a mem¬ 
 ber of: Xavier Alumni Society (president two 
 years), Catholic Club, New York; Society of the 
 Friendly Sons of St. Patrick, Catholic Historical 
 Society, Catholic Benevolent Legion, the Educa¬ 
 tional Alliance, Lebanon Hospital Association, 
 United Trust Co., Boston, and honorary member 
 of the Marine Society of New York, a life mem¬ 
 ber of the Catholic Summer School. 
 
 Kentucky (cf. C. E., VIII-620b).— Population 
 and Wealth. —According to the federal census for 
 1920 the population of Kentucky was estimated at 
 2,416,630, of whom 40,053 were of foreign birth 
 and 235,938 negroes. Thirteen other States have a 
 larger negro population, and the increase in this 
 race is materially less than among the whites. 
 There are 57 Indians, and the number of Chinese 
 and Japanese is probably less than 100 in the entire 
 State. 
 
 The 1920 census shows an increase in the popula¬ 
 tion of 126,725, or 5.5 per cent since 1910, making 
 it the fifteenth in the United States in size of 
 population. The largest cities are: Louisville, 234,- 
 891; Covington, 57,121; Newport, 29,317; Paducah, 
 24,735; Owensboro, 17,427; Henderson, 12,160; 
 Lexington, 41,534; Ashland, 14,729. 
 
 Material Resources. —The total assessed valua¬ 
 tion of property in 1919 was $1,997,446,000, of which 
 $1,028,128,532 was real estate and $969,318,159 was 
 personalty. The net revenue of the State for that 
 
 year was $12,324,620. In 1919 there were 129 
 national banks in Kentucky, with an aggregate capi¬ 
 tal stock of $16,256,000, an aggregate surplus of 
 $10,102,000, and individual deposits amounting to 
 $131,867,000. There are 446 state banks and trust 
 companies with a capital stock of $19,706,000, an 
 aggregate surplus of $9,239,000, and deposits aggre¬ 
 gating $163,921,000. 
 
 Mining. —The total mineral output for 1917 
 amounted in value to $77,177,421. 
 
 Agriculture. —Of the total area of Kentucky in 
 1919, farm lands occupied 86.4 per cent, and of this 
 64.7 per cent was improved. More than 70 per 
 cent of the farms are operated by owners of the 
 land. In 1919 the total area planted in Indian corn 
 was 3,247,167 acres; in wheat 839,987 acres, in oats 
 229,464 acres, in hay 2,084,909 acres, in tobacco 
 640,000 acres. The total value of the principal 
 crops in 1920 was $348,654,000. Kentucky pro¬ 
 duces nearly all the hemp grown in the United 
 States, but the demand for this product has so far 
 decreased that in 1920 only 721 acres were planted 
 in the State. Kentucky, formerly the first State 
 in the production of tobacco, is now superseded by 
 North Carolina, not only in acreage, but also in 
 value of the product. Kentucky grows more than 
 one-fourth of the total production of the United 
 States. In 1920, 550,000 acres were planted and 
 produced 467,500,000 pounds of tobacco, worth $70,- 
 125,000, a great drop from the value of tobacco 
 produced in 1918, $190,236,000. 
 
 Grazing. —On account of the climate the large 
 production of grain, and the excellence of the 
 pasturage, stock raising is very extensively carried 
 on. The total value of live stock in 1920 was $165,- 
 000,000; horses, $43,329,000; mules, $29,106,000; 
 horned cattle, $23,896,000; other live stock, $57,- 
 257,000. 
 
 Manufactures. —A comparison of industrial con¬ 
 ditions in 1914 and 1919 shows an increase in the 
 later year of 43.0 per cent in capital invested, 
 110 in wages paid, and 71 in value of output. There 
 were in the State 3957 manufacturing establish¬ 
 ments, 69,300 wage earners, and an invested capital 
 of $276,535,000. The value of products was $395,- 
 660,000. 
 
 Transportation. —There were 4118 miles of rail¬ 
 road in 1919, the principal lines being the Louis¬ 
 ville and Nashville, the Chesapeake and Ohio, the 
 Illinois Central, and the Southern. There are over 
 500 miles of electric railway. 
 
 Education. —In 1921 the total number of students 
 in all departments in the University of Kentucky, 
 at Lexington, was 2284, and there were 110 pro¬ 
 fessors and assistants. In 1916 a State Board of 
 Education was created. The Legislature of 1920 
 established in each county a county board, con¬ 
 sisting of five members, and a county superinten¬ 
 dent, which has general supervision over all educa¬ 
 tional matters in the county. The county is 
 required to levy a tax on the general school district, 
 not exceeding 30 cents on every $100 of the assessed 
 value of property in the district, to meet the re¬ 
 quirements of the County Board of Education. 
 According to the last school census the total num¬ 
 ber of children of school age was 648,307. The 
 actual number enrolled in the public schools was 
 535,332, and the average daily attendance was 
 342,669. In 1920 there were 27,981 Catholic children 
 attending the Catholic schools of the State. For 
 public school purposes, exclusive of expenditures 
 for the state university, normal schools, schools 
 for the blind, deaf, and dumb, $8,628,475 were ex¬ 
 pended in the last fiscal year by the State and 
 local taxing districts. 
 
KENTUCKY 
 
 435 
 
 KETCHAM 
 
 Charities and Correction.— In 1920 a state 
 board of charities and corrections for the manage¬ 
 ment of benevolent, correctional, and penal institu¬ 
 tions was created. It is composed of eight members, 
 appointed by the governor, and has for its agent 
 a commissioner of public institutions. A house of 
 reform for boys and girls was established at Pine 
 Bluff in 1919. 
 
 Legislation Directly Affecting Religion.— 
 Clergymen are not required to serve on petit juries, 
 though they may do so; there is no such exemp¬ 
 tion from services on grand juries. In actual prac¬ 
 tice militia sendee is, of course, purely voluntary, 
 but clergymen are not exempt in the event of 
 enforced enlistment. An appropriation of $300. to 
 be distributed by the chief clerks of the Houses of 
 the Legislature, is made for all those who open 
 the sessions of the House and Senate with prayer. 
 By recent legislation, Columbus Day (12 October) 
 and Lincoln’s Birthday (12 February) have been 
 made holidays. 
 
 Recent Legislative Changes. —The Constitution 
 has been recently amended (1) to permit a county 
 to assume a limited indebtedness to the common¬ 
 wealth for public roads; (2) to provide for an 
 annual tax for government expenses; (3) to make 
 peace officers liable to prosecution in lynching 
 cases; (4) to prohibit the sale and manufacture 
 of liquor for any other than sacramental, medical, 
 scientific, or mechanical purposes. Further changes 
 included the establishment of a Department of 
 Banking, a Department of Public Roads, and a 
 Board of Forestry (1912), the regulation of female 
 employment, the organization of the State Militia, 
 and the establishment of a State Board of Charities 
 (1920). 
 
 Wills and Testaments. —A collateral inheritance 
 tax was imposed in 1906, but this law was amended 
 by Act of 1916, providing for a progressive tax on 
 direct and collateral inheritances. There are 5 
 degrees of relationship, with 5 rates for each, 1, 2, 
 3, 4, 5% on inheritances not over $25,000. Exemp¬ 
 tions vary from $10,000 to $500. On large inheri¬ 
 tances the tax is multiplied from 1 to 3 times. 
 
 Recent History.—A vexing problem in 1915 had 
 to do with the “night-riders,” who terrorized the 
 western part of the State under the guise of hun¬ 
 ters, whipping men and women, and killing one 
 negro. Their purpose was “to regulate conduct,” 
 to replace the blacks with whites in labor, and to 
 fix the prices in the stores of western Kentucky. 
 On 5 November, 1917, the United States Supreme 
 Court declared invalid a race segregation ordinance, 
 forbidding either the blacks or whites from moving 
 into resident blocks in which the majority were of 
 the opposing color. This had the effect of nullify¬ 
 ing ordinances of a similar kind in other States. 
 In 1918 women were admitted to the bar. A State 
 tuberculosis sanatarium was provided for in 1920, 
 and the employment of convict labor on roads was 
 allowed. Kentucky was the third State to ratify 
 the prohibition amendment, 14 January, 1918; the 
 woman’s suffrage amendment was adopted 6 Jan¬ 
 uary, 1919. 
 
 Kentucky’s contribution to the United States 
 Army during the European War was 75,043 men, 
 or 2.00 per cent of the force. A summary of 
 casualties among the Kentucky members of the 
 American Expeditionary Force included: deceased, 
 43 officers and 1393 men; prisoners, 2 officers and 
 58 men; wounded, 94 officers and 3790 men. The 
 Majority of Kentucky men belonged to the 38th 
 division, quartered at Camp Shelby, Mississippi, 
 
 >r to the 84th Division at Camp Zachary Taylor, 
 
 in the State. For Catholic statistics see Louisville, 
 Diocese of; Covington, Diocese of. 
 
 Kenya, Vicariate Apostolic of (cf. C. E., VIII- 
 616c), in the East African Protectorate, situated 
 between 36° 6' and 37° 6' E. long, and 0° and 1° 2' 
 S. lat., was erected into a vicariate 12 July, 1909, 
 and confided to the Missionaries of the Consolata* 
 of Turin. The vicariate has a population of 1,000,- 
 000. There are 14 stations served by 60 priests, 
 Brothers, and Sisters, with a school in each station. 
 The Fathers have a large industrial establishment 
 at Tusu, 4 orphanages, a college of catechists, a 
 seminary with 60 native students, and a farm at 
 Fort Nyere. The present vicar apostolic is Rt. 
 Rev. Filippo Perlo, titular Bishop of Maronia, b. 
 1873, ordained 1895, elected and consecrated 1909. 
 
 Kerkuk, Archdiocese of (Chercensis; cf. C. E., 
 VIII-626c), a Chaldean Uniat archdiocese, in Asia 
 Minor. The present archbishop is Very Rev. Hor- 
 misdas Stephen Djibri, b. 1870, ordained 1893, vicar 
 general of the patriarchate in 1900, elected to the 
 titular see of Nisibis in 1902, promoted to Kerkuk 
 in 1917, succeeding Very Rev. Messaieh, who died 
 26 May, 1917. The archbishop has also the title 
 of Archbishop of Suleimanieh. There are in the 
 archdiocese 5000 Catholic Chaldeans of Assyrian 
 origin, numerous schismatics and mussulmans, 15 
 secular priests, 3 regular priests, 9 churches, 7 
 parishes, and 9 elementary schools with 20 teachers 
 and 420 pupils. The government aids some of the 
 schools. Notable for his charity was Rev. Echaia, 
 pastor of Ainkawa, who died in 1915. 
 
 Kerry and Aghadoe, Diocese of (Kerriensis et 
 Aghadoensis; cf. C. E., VIII-627b), suffragan of 
 Cashel, Ireland. The present bishop is Most Rev. 
 Charles O’Sullivan, elected 10 November, 1917, suc¬ 
 ceeding Most Rev. John Mangan, who died 1 July, 
 1917. Religious orders in the diocese are: Francis¬ 
 cans of the Irish province, Dominicans, Presenta¬ 
 tion Brothers, Christian Brothers, Presentation 
 Nuns, Sisters of Mercy, Bon Secours Sisters, and 
 Sisters of the Holy Infant Jesus. There are 52 
 parishes, 50 parish priests, 3 administrators, 72 
 curates and others, 99 churches, 2 friaries, 5 mon¬ 
 asteries, 18 convents, 1 industrial school, 1 mental 
 hospital, 8 convents in workhouses. The population 
 of the diocese in 1911 was 173,861, of whom 169,427 
 were Catholics and 4434 non-Catholics. 
 
 Ketcham, William Henry, director of the 
 Bureau of Catholic Indian Missions, b. 1868 in 
 Summer, Iowa; d. 14 November, 1921, in Tucker, 
 Mississippi. Of Puritan ancestry, he became a con¬ 
 vert in 1885, while a student at St. Charles College, 
 Grand Coteau, Louisiana. After graduation, in 
 1888, he entered the theological seminary of Mount 
 St. Mary’s of the West, Cincinnati, and in 1892 
 was ordained priest. He had the happiness of bap¬ 
 tizing his mother and sister who followed him into 
 the Church. Father Ketcham’s work for the Indian 
 missions began with his appointment as missionary 
 to the Creek and Cherokee tribes, and the Quapaw 
 Agency in what was then Indian Territory. In 
 1897 he extended his missions to the eastern part 
 of the Choctaw tribes, building churches, and estab¬ 
 lishing mission centers and boarding schools for 
 boys and girls. After laboring with untiring zeal 
 for ten years amongst the various tribes, baptizing 
 hundreds of Indians, he was appointed Director of 
 the Bureau of Catholic Indian Missions, Washing¬ 
 ton, D. C. He established cordial co-operation 
 between the missionaries and the United States 
 Government officials, and secured the abolition of 
 the Browning rule whereby the choice of a school 
 
KETTLE 
 
 436 
 
 KIANG-SU 
 
 for an Indian child was taken from the parent and 
 vested in the government agent. The right of 
 Catholic pupils in government schools to attend 
 their own Catholic services was also recognized and 
 proper religious instruction secured for them. He 
 obtained the use of the Indian Tribal funds for the 
 education of Indian children in the mission schools, 
 thereby bringing a revenue of $100,000 a year to 
 Catholic mission contract schools, having an enrol¬ 
 ment of 1500 pupils. 
 
 In 1919 Father Ketcham was made a domestic 
 prelate by Pope Benedict XV. He was the per¬ 
 sonal friend of President Taft and President Roose¬ 
 velt, as well as of many of the Indian chiefs of 
 the United States. He translated a catechism and 
 many hymns into the Choctaw language, and was 
 visiting the missions of this tribe at the time of 
 his death. 
 
 Kettle, Thomas Michael, writer and politician, 
 b. in Co. Dublin, Ireland, in 1880; killed in the 
 World War at Ginchy, France, on 9 September, 
 1916; son of Andrew J. and Margaret (McCourt) 
 Kettle. He was educated by the Christian Brothers 
 (Dublin) and by the Jesuits at Clongowes Wood 
 College, and later graduated with honors in mental 
 and moral science from University College, Dublin. 
 In 1906 he was admitted to the Irish Bar after 
 winning the Victoria prize. In the same year, 
 while he was editor of “The Nationist,” he was 
 elected to Parliament, where he represented East 
 Tyrone until 1910. In 1909 he was called to. the 
 chair of National Economics in the National Uni¬ 
 versity of Ireland, and in 1913 was elected one of 
 the governors of University College, Dublin. He 
 married Miss Mary E. Sheehy, who like himself 
 belonged to a family that played a prominent part 
 in Ireland’s political struggles in the nineteenth 
 century. In 1914 he helped to organize the Irish 
 National Volunteers as a precaution against Sir 
 Edward Carson’s threatened rebellion. When the 
 war of 1914 broke out Kettle, believing that the 
 cause of justice called for his support of the Allies, 
 enlisted in the British Army, and as a lieutenant 
 in the Seventh Battalion of the Leinster Regiment 
 fell two years later. He translated “Contemporary 
 Ireland” from the French of Paul Dubois, and 
 “Christianity and the Leaders of Modern Science” 
 from the German of Alois Kneller. His essays, 
 “The Day’s Burden,” reveal his literary charm and 
 Catholic, patriotic spirit, and place him high among 
 the essayists of the early twentieth century. A 
 short collection of fugitive poems published after 
 his death contain, besides powerful satire, a beau¬ 
 tiful sonnet written in the field near Guillemont 
 to his baby daughter. 
 
 Kharput (cf. C. E., VIII-633b), an Armenian 
 Uniat diocese, bounded on the east by the Diocese 
 of Mush, on the west by the dioceses of Melitene 
 and Sebastia, on the south by the Diocese of Amida, 
 and on the north by the Diocese of Erzerum. The 
 population of the diocese is 600,000, of whom 
 100,000 are Christians of all sects and about 4000 
 Catholics. There are 8 parishes or stations, with 
 7 churches and 4 chapels, administered by 8 native 
 clergy, 6 Capuchin priests, and several lay brothers. 
 There is no seminary, aspirants to the priesthood 
 being sent to Rome or to Constantinople. The 
 residence of the bishop is at Mansuret-el-Azin. 
 The instruction of young girls is confided to the 
 Armenian Congregation of the Immaculate Con¬ 
 ception, the center of which is at Gile, and there 
 are also Franciscan nuns in the diocese. There are 
 15 Catholic schools with 1200 children, all Catholics 
 
 with the exception of a few Mohammedans. Two 
 Catholic periodicals are published: one in Arme¬ 
 nian, “Luzachavigh,” is directed by the native 
 clergy; the other in French, “Joyeux Noel,” is 
 directed by the Capuchins. 
 
 Khartum, Vicariate Apostolic of (cf. C. E., 
 XVI-84a), in the Sudan. Established as a mission 
 in 1635 it was constituted a vicariate apostolic in 
 1846 under the name of Sudan, which was changed 
 in 1913 to Khartum, and the boundaries were 
 modified in 1894 and in 1913 when it embraced part 
 of the Prefecture Apostolic of Bahr-el-Gazal. It 
 was confided to the Missionaries of Verona. The 
 population of the vicariate is about 15,000,000, of 
 whom 1027 are Catholics, 72 catechumens, and 3600 
 Protestants. There are 24 missionary priests, 11 
 churches and chapels, 12 stations, 10 schools, 5 
 orphanages, 18 lay brothers of the Institute of 
 Verona, and 31 Sisters. Rev. Anthony Stoppani, 
 Vicar Apostolic of Bahr-el-Gazal, was appointed 
 administrator of the Vicariate Apostolic of Khar¬ 
 tum 17 February, 1922. 
 
 Ki-an (or Kingan), Vicariate Apostolic of; (cf. 
 C. E., III-678a), in province of Kiang-si, China. 
 This province was divided into four vicariates in 
 October, 1920, instead of three (Northern, Southern, 
 and Eastern Kiang-si), as formerly. Ki-an was 
 erected from the two civil prefectures of Northern 
 Kiang-si and one (the episcopal seat) of Southern 
 Kiang-si, with residence at the latter place, Ki-an-fu 
 (Kingan). The vicar apostolic is Msgr. Nicolas 
 Ciceri, titular Bishop of Dausara and vicar apostolic 
 of Southern Kiang-si until the erection of the new 
 vicariate. Bishop Ciceri was born at Bruciano, 
 Italy, 26 May, 1854, entered the Congregation of 
 the Mission 1874, ordained 1878, left for China the 
 same year, named bishop and vicar 1907. The 
 vicariate is entrusted to the Lazarists. 
 
 There are in the vicariate 14 churches, 365 mis¬ 
 sions, 27 stations, 8 convents of Sisters, 14 regular 
 and 10 secular priests, 16,279 Catholics, 3 seminaries 
 with 36 seminarians, 22 schools for boys with 983 
 pupils, 16 for girls with 389 pupils, 3 high schools 
 with 135 pupils, 1 normal school with 25 pupils, 
 
 1 industrial school with 12 pupils, 5 homes for the 
 aged poor with 39 inmates, 2 hospitals, 8 orphan¬ 
 ages, 6 refuges, and 2 asylums. 
 
 In 1915 the Kan-Kiang overflowed its banks and 
 flooded the district causing great damage to the 
 mission. Many churches, residences, hospitals, and 
 all crops were destroyed. Since then the vicariate 
 has remained in great poverty. All of the European 
 priests (8 French, 3 Italian) were called for war, 
 4 were sent to Europe, one of whom died returning 
 from the war, another remained in Europe on 
 account of infirmities contracted in the army, and 
 
 2 returned to the mission. 
 
 Kiang-nan, Vicariate Apostolic of. See Kiang- 
 su; Ngan-hoei. 
 
 Kiang-si, Vicariate Apostolic of. See Kan- 
 chow; Ki-an; Kiu-kiang; Yii-kiang. 
 
 Kiang-su, Vicariate Apostolic of (cf. C. E., VIII- 
 633b), in China, erected, according to papal Brief 
 of 8 August, 1921, by division of the former Vica¬ 
 riate Apostolic of Kiang-nan into the two vicariates 
 of Kiang-su and Ngan-hoei, comprising the respec¬ 
 tive provinces of those names and confided to the 
 Jesuits. The Vicar Apostolic of Kiang-nan, Rt. 
 Rev. Prosper Paris, S.J., became Vicar Apostolic 
 of Kiang-su, with residence at Shanghai. Before 
 the division the mission (1 July, 1921) had an 
 approximate population of 50,000,000 inhabitants. 
 
KIELCE 
 
 437 
 
 KILDARE 
 
 and comprised the two provinces of Kiang-su in 
 the east and Ngan-hoei in the west, with 120 sub¬ 
 prefectures, GO in each province, grouped in 8 
 intendancies, of which 5 were in Kiang-su and 3 in 
 Ngan-hoei. There were laboring in the mission 
 208 Jesuits, including 153 priests, of whom 19 were 
 natives, 13 scholastics, of whom 7 were natives, 
 and 41 lay brothers, of whom 23 were natives. The 
 secular priests numbered 61, and there were 35 
 students at the theological seminary, 27 at the 
 preparatory seminary, and 92 students in prepara¬ 
 tory courses at the college of Zi-ka-wei. Religious 
 congregations included 43 Little Brothers of Mary, 
 of whom 3 were natives; 21 Carmelite Nuns, of 
 whom 17 were natives; 134 Helpers of the Holy 
 Souls, of whom 64 were natives, 37 Franciscan 
 Missionaries of Mary, of whom 1 was native; 71 
 Sisters of St. Vincent de Paul, of whom 42 were 
 natives; 27 Little Sisters of the Poor, of whom 7 
 were natives, and 237 Presentandines, all of whom 
 were natives. The Presentandines occupied 38 posts 
 in I£iang-su and 51 in Ngan-hoei, a total of 89. 
 There were 279 catechists, 675 men teachers, 846 
 women teachers, and about 910 native Virgins, who 
 aided the missionaries. 
 
 In the year 1920-21 there were in Kiang-su 769 
 Christian communities; 195,863 Catholics, 27,087 
 catechumens, 5220 baptisms of adults, 45,944 bap¬ 
 tisms of children, 7811 confirmations, 116,716 annual 
 confessions, 113,854 annual communions, 929,042 
 confessions of devotion, 2,143,837 communions of 
 devotion, 2703 who received Extreme Unction, 1857 
 marriages, 225 schools for boys with 9387 Catholic 
 and 4612 pagan pupils, 524 schools for girls with 
 8538 Catholic and 2172 pagan pupils, 458 men 
 teachers, and 722 women teachers. There are 18,000 
 Catholics in the city of Shanghai, of whom 1000 are 
 Europeans and Americans. The hospice in Shanghai, 
 called the Pou yen dang, is not dependent on the 
 missions, but is supported by donations and alms 
 of Chinese Christians and pagans, especially the 
 latter. The director is a Catholic and he has asked 
 the Sisters of Charity to take charge of the hospice 
 and has erected a chapel there, where many bap¬ 
 tisms have taken place. This hospice has at least 
 1500 boarders, with all kinds of illnesses and infirm¬ 
 ities. A priest says daily Mass and administers 
 the sacraments. In 1920 the director of the hospice, 
 Mr. Dohpahong, was made a Knight of St. Gregory 
 the Great by Benedict XV for his devotion to the 
 Church and Catholic works. 
 
 Kielce, Diocese of (Kielcensis; cf. C. E., VIII- 
 636b), suffragan of Warsaw, Poland. After the 
 death of Bishop Kulinski, in 1907, the see was 
 vacant until 1910, when the present bishop, Augus¬ 
 tin Losinski, was appointed. The diocesan semi¬ 
 nary, which had been closed in 1893 and four of 
 the professors deported to Siberia, was reopened 
 in 1897 and now (1921) has 12 professors and 104 
 seminarians. The seminary was made larger and 
 more commodious by the erection of new build¬ 
 ings between 1912 and 1921. About 20 new churches 
 have also been erected in the diocese; the largest 
 church in the diocese is to be Holy Cross Church, 
 begun in 1904 and not yet (1922) completed. 
 Kielce contains the old monastery church of 
 Karczowka, formerly belonging to the Benedictine 
 Order. There are 2 hospitals in charge of the Sis¬ 
 ters of Charity, one for children and the other the 
 town hospital of St. Alexander, founded in 1745 by 
 Cardinal John Alexis Lipski, Bishop of Cracow. 
 Bartosz Gtowacki, the famous leader of the peasants 
 under Thaddeus Kosciuszko, died in this hospital 
 and is buried in the cemetery near the cathedral. 
 
 The Catholic population of the diocese are all of 
 Polish origin, except a few French, Germans, and 
 Russians, not exceeding 3000 in number. During 
 the World War the bishop and priests of the dio¬ 
 cese zealously promoted charitable works to relieve 
 the great suffering brought on the whole of Poland 
 by the war. Some of the clergy were harassed by the 
 enemy and others deported to Russia. Here within 
 recent years many religious congregations have 
 been established in the diocese, notably the Sales- 
 ians, heretofore banned by the Russian government. 
 Many associations of Catholics have been formed, 
 especially for young people and the w T orking classes. 
 These are: Association of Laborers, Young Men’s 
 Association, Club of Organists, Club of Firemen, 
 Association of Catholic Women, Association of 
 Christian Mothers, Sodality of the Blessed Virgin, 
 Society of Servants, and others. Among the clergy 
 four great associations have been formed: Associa¬ 
 tion of Mutual Succor of the Priests of the Diocese 
 of Kielce, Union of the Diocesan Clergy, “Praca” 
 (Labor), Homiletic Association. Two diocesan 
 printing presses have been founded, and the popular 
 daily, “Ojczyzna” (Fatherland), and monthly 
 periodical “Przeglad djecezalny” (Diocese Review) 
 are published on Catholic principles. A large book¬ 
 shop is distributing Catholic books and newspapers 
 among the people. Recently deceased clergy of note 
 are: Fr. Sawicki, director of the diocesan seminary, 
 and Frs. Michael Staweta and Casimir Bochnis, 
 professors, who for their faith and country were 
 exiled to Siberia by the Russian government in 
 1893; Fr. Lucian Maciejski, canon of the cathedral 
 chapter, who during the Russo-Japanese War 
 (1904-5) exercised great zeal in the care of souls 
 in the Russian army and during the World War 
 (1914-18) assiduously cared for the great number 
 of refugees in Petrograd, especially the children. 
 Eustachius Dobiecki, a member of the Imperial 
 Council of Petrograd and a layman of the Diocese 
 of Kielce, also died recently. The diocese, divided 
 into 25 deaneries, has (1921): 1,169,220 Catholics, 
 a few Orthodox, 3560 Protestants, and 103,759 Jews; 
 258 parish churches, 21 other churches, and 141 
 chapels; 325 secular clergy, 8 Franciscan Reformati, 
 6 Salesians, 2 monasteries, 1 convent of Norbertines 
 with 12 nuns, 10 establishments of the Sisters of 
 Charity with 47 Sisters, 1 emerit-house for aged and 
 retired priests, 65 hospitals and orphan asylums, 26 
 homes, 1 settlement house, 6 grammar and other 
 schools, 1 industrial school with 5 teachers and 60 
 pupils. All the schools are supported by the gov¬ 
 ernment, and _ Christian institutions permit the 
 ministry of priests and admit Catholic visitors. 
 
 Kien-chang, Vicariate Apostolic of (cf. C. E., 
 XVI-84a), in China. In 1916 the vicar apostolic, 
 Mgr. de Guebriant, was transferred to Canton, and 
 the Vicariate Apostolic of Kien-chang remained 
 vacant until the appointment to it in 1918 of Rt. 
 Rev. Joseph Bourgain, b. 1872, ordained 1896, con¬ 
 secrated titular Bishop of Archelais 3 November, 
 1918. The population of the vicariate is 2,000,000, 
 of whom 7400 are Catholics. There are 13 Euro¬ 
 peans priests, 4 native priests, 43 churches and 
 chapels. 
 
 Ki-han-fu, Vicariate Apostolic of. See Ki-an. 
 
 Kikuyu. See Anglicanism. 
 
 Kildare and Leighlin, Diocese of (Kildarensis 
 et Leighlinensis; cf. C. E., VIII-637c), suffragan 
 of Dublin, Ireland. The present bishop is Most 
 Rev. Patrick Foley, consecrated 1896. Religious 
 orders in the diocese are the Jesuits, Dominicans, 
 Carmelites, Oblates of Mary Immaculate, Christian 
 
KILIMANJARO 
 
 438 
 
 KIMBERLEY 
 
 Brothers, Brothers of the Christian Schools, 
 Brothers of St. Patrick, Presentation Nuns, Bridget- 
 tines, Sisters of Mercy, Sisters of Mary Immacu¬ 
 late, Sisters of St. John of God, and Poor Clares. 
 The population of the diocese (1911) is 147,781, of 
 whom 127,013 are Catholics and 20,768 non-Cath- 
 olics. There are 49 parishes, 46 parish priests, 3 
 administrators, 73 curates, 10 priests in colleges, etc., 
 
 1 diocesan examiner, 3 military and naval chap¬ 
 lains, total secular clergy 136, total regular clergy 23, 
 total priests 159, churches 164, convents 21. 
 
 Kilima-Njaro, Vicariate Apostolic of (cf. C. E., 
 XVI-84b), in East Africa. Kilima, the residence 
 of the vicar apostolic and the most ancient of the 
 missions of the vicariate, was founded in 1891, and 
 numbers about 1500 Catholics and as many catechu¬ 
 mens. Kilomeni, the most recent mission, was 
 founded in 1910, and numbers about 1000 catechu¬ 
 mens. The vicariate comprises the districts of 
 Tanga, Pangani, Usambara, Pare, Kilimanjaro, 
 Neru, Ufioni, and Trangi. It numbers nine mis¬ 
 sions with a personnel of 20 Fathers of the Holy 
 Ghost, 12 Brothers, 25 nuns, and more than 4500 
 Catholics. Rev. Henry Gogarty, C.S.Sp., was 
 appointed administrator of the Vicariate Apostolic 
 of Kilima-Njaro 18 February, 1922. 
 
 Killala, Diocese of (Alladensis; cf. C. E., VIII- 
 640c), suffragan of Tuam, Ireland. The present 
 bishop is Most Rev. James Naughton, born in 
 1873, consecrated in 1912, succeeding Bishop Conmy, 
 who died 26 August,. 1911. Religious orders in the 
 diocese are the Sisters of Mercy with 3 convents, 
 and Sisters of Jesus and Mary with 1 convent. 
 There are 22 parishes, 20 parish priests, 3 adminis¬ 
 trators, 19 curates, 4 college priests, 1 chaplain, 
 44 churches and chapels, and 1 college. The popu¬ 
 lation of the diocese is (1911) 63,238, of whom 
 60,142 are Catholics and 3096 non-Catholics. 
 
 Killaloe, Diocese of (Laonia; cf. C. E., VIII- 
 641b), suffragan of Cashel, Ireland, is under the 
 administration of Most Rev. Michael Fogarty, 
 D. D., consecrated 4 September, 1904. By the 1911 
 census the total population of the diocese was 
 135,646, of whom 128,628 were Catholic and 7018 
 non-Catholic. There are 57 parishes, 142 secular 
 clergy, 143 parochial and district churches, 2 houses 
 of regular clergy, 13 convents with 198 members 
 in the community, 6 monastic houses with 63 mem¬ 
 bers, 9 secondary schools with an attendance of 
 495 boys and 214 girls, 290 elementary schools with 
 attendance of 22,202, and 2 industrial schools. 
 
 Kilmer, Alfred Joyce, poet, essayist, and jour¬ 
 nalist, b. at New Brunswick, N. J., 6 December, 
 1886; d. in France 30 July, 1918. He was the son 
 of Frederick Barnett Kilmer, a distinguished 
 chemist, and Annie Ellene (Kilburn) Kilmer. Edu¬ 
 cated at Rutgers College, New Brunswick, N. J. 
 (1904-6), and at Columbia University, New York 
 City (A.B., 1908), he became editorial assistant of 
 the Standard Dictionary 1909-12, literary editor of 
 the “Churchman” 1912-13; member of the staff 
 of the New York Times Sunday Magazine and 
 Review of Books from 1913 till his enlistment. In 
 1908 he married Aline Murray, likewise a poet of 
 distinction. In the latter part of 1913 he became 
 a Catholic and was received into the Church in 
 New York City. He contributed to several 
 periodicals, delivered literary lectures, was the 
 author of “Summer of Love” (1911), “Trees and 
 Other Poems” (1915), “Main Street and Other 
 Poems” (1917), “Literature in the Making” (1917), 
 “The Circus and Other Essays” (1916), and com¬ 
 piled “An Anthology of Catholic Poets” (1917). 
 
 His poetical work was characterized by a deep ' 
 simplicity and straightforwardness. He took the 
 commonplace and spun out of it golden strands. 
 As a soldier in the famous 69th Regiment of New 
 York City he saw service in France during the 
 World War, and was killed in action near the 
 Ourcq. 
 
 Kilmore, Diocese of (Kilmorensis; cf. C. E., 
 VIII-642d), includes a Catholic population of 102,- 
 254 (1911 census) and a non-Catholic population 
 of 22,045, showing a decrease of some 7000 Catholics 
 since the previous census in 1901. The former 
 bishop, Rt. Rev. Andrew Boylan, died 25 March, 
 1910, and was succeeded by Rt. Rev. Patrick Fine- 
 gan, who now fills the see. He was born at Corlun- 
 gan on 16 August, 1858, and elected to the Diocese 
 of Kilmore on 4 July, 1910, being consecrated 11 
 September of the same year. 
 
 During recent years there has been considerable 
 activity in building and remodeling throughout the 
 diocese, and an imposing site has been obtained 
 for a new cathedral, but its erection awaits* the 
 collection of sufficient funds. Six of the clergy of 
 the diocese served as chaplains during the World 
 War, and since then two others have joined the 
 Maynooth Mission to China. 
 
 There are in the diocese 115 priests, 42 parishes, 
 90 churches, and 100 nuns. The Marist Brothers 
 have established a Juniorate at Bailieborough, and 
 the Sisters of Mercy have charge of 3 public hos¬ 
 pitals. Elementary education is provided by 275 
 schools, which are supported by the state and 
 which were attended by 16,110 children in 1920. 
 A good course in religious instruction is given, the 
 parish priest being manager of all schools in his 
 parish, and an annual examination is held by 
 diocesan examiners. St. Patrick’s College, with an 
 attendance of 140 students, provides secondary 
 education. The Diocese of Kilmore took its part 
 in preventing the objectionable Education Bill of 
 1920 from becoming a law. The diocese is depen¬ 
 dent on Armagh, with residence at Cavan. 
 
 Kimberley, Vicariate Apostolic of (Kimber- 
 liensis; cf. C. E., VIII-645b), suffragan of Perth, 
 Australia. The area of the vicariate is 120,000 
 square miles. It was confided to the Trappists in 
 1890, and they abandoned the mission in 1891 
 and were replaced by the Pallotines, who in turn 
 were replaced in 1910 by the Benedictines of New 
 Norcia, and they in 1920 by the Redemptorists. 
 The present administrator of the vicariate is Rt. 
 Rev. John Creagh, C.SS.R., appointed in 1920, 
 replacing Abbot Catalan, of New Norcia. The Cath¬ 
 olic population of the vicariate is 5000. There are 
 at Beagle Bay the residence of the vicar, 4 priests, 
 9 Brothers, 11 Sisters, and 110 children in 2 Catholic 
 schools. 
 
 Kimberley in South Africa, Vicariate Apostolic 
 of (Kimberliensis in Africa Meridionalis ; cf. C. 
 E., VIII-645c), formerly called Kimberley in 
 Orange, the name having been officially changed 
 by decree of 28 November, 1918. The vicariate 
 comprises the whole of the Orange Free State, 
 Griqualand West, and Bechuanaland south of the 
 Tropic of Capricorn. The population consists ap¬ 
 proximately of 5270 Catholics, 224,000 Europeans of 
 non-Catholic sects, 371,000 natives, 5000 Jews, mak¬ 
 ing a total of 605,270. Bloemfontein, the capital 
 of the Orange Free State, contains 17,516 Europeans 
 and 36,113 natives and colored persons. The 
 smaller towns of the vicariate are visited from the 
 large centers, the isolation of small groups of Cath¬ 
 olics in these smaller towns causing the clergy much 
 
KING 
 
 439 
 
 KIU-KIANG 
 
 anxiety. I he present administrator of the vicariate 
 apostolic is Rt. Rev. Charles Cox, O.M.I., titular 
 Bishop of Dioclea and Vicar Apostolic of the 
 Transvaal, succeeding Rt. Rev. Matthew Gaughren, 
 O.M.I., who died 1 June, 1914. There are in the 
 vicariate 9 Oblate Fathers, 1 retired Oblate Father, 
 2 secular priests, 1 military chaplain, retired, 15 
 Christian Brothers, 3 Oblate Brothers, and 130 Sis¬ 
 ters of the Holy Family of Nazareth, of Mercy, 
 of the Holy Cross, of Notre Dame, and Dominican 
 Nuns. There are 18 churches and chapels, 2 semi¬ 
 public oratories, 1 college under the Christian 
 Brothers, with 103 boarders and 385 day scholars, 
 and 16 convent schools, with 537 boarders and 1479 
 day pupils, making a total of 2504 pupils, of whom 
 924 are Catholics. The Christian Brothers will, in 
 1923, build a college at Bloemfontein, the site for 
 the purpose having been granted by the munici¬ 
 pality. The Sisters of Nazareth in 1921 opened a 
 new building on their premises in order to make 
 room for more inmates, their work for orphan chil¬ 
 dren and the aged poor being much appreciated. 
 There are flourishing native missions at Tawngs 
 and Bloemfontein, a native school at Kroonstad, 
 an Indian school at Kimberley, and a colored school 
 (Indians and others) at Mafeking. The Sacred 
 Heart Confraternity, Children of Mary Sodality, 
 and St. Vincent de Paul Society are established in 
 the vicariate. 
 
 Redemptorist Fathers. The Hotel Dieu and orphan 
 asylum are in charge of the Hospital Bisters of 
 fet. Joheph, and two other hospitals and a Home 
 of Providence are also maintained by the diocese 
 in the interest of charity. All the elementary 
 schools are aided by the Government. The Priests’ 
 Eucharistic League is organized among the clergv 
 and the Holy Name Society, Knights of Columbus,’ 
 Ancient Order of Hibernians, Catholic Men’sBenev- 
 olent Association are established among the laitv 
 1 he diocese publishes the “Canadian Freeman ” a 
 Catholic weekly. • 
 
 King, Harriet Eleanor Baillie Hamilton, Eng¬ 
 lish poetess, d. on 10 May, 1920, in London, at 
 the age of eighty; daughter of Admiral W. A. 
 and Lady Bailie Hamilton. From early life Miss 
 Hamilton displayed her interest in the welfare of 
 humanity and her enthusiasm after meeting Maz- 
 zini in London found expression in “The Disciples,” 
 a work which led to her marriage with its pub¬ 
 lisher, Henry Samuel King, J. P., of Cligwell, Essex. 
 In her special work for the poor she met Cardinal 
 Manning, who received her into the Catholic 
 Church. By her poetry Mrs. King has won a 
 permanent place in English literature. “The Hours 
 of the Passion” are reminiscent of the seventeenth 
 century. Among her other writings are “Aspro- 
 monte”; “A Book of Dreams”; “Ballads of the 
 North,” and “Letters and Reminiscences of Maz- 
 zini.” 
 
 Kingan, Vicariate Apostolic of. See Ki-an. 
 
 Kingston, Archdiocese of (Kingstoniensis or 
 Regiopolitana; cf. C. E., VIII-658d), in Canada. 
 On 6 September, 1910, Most Rev. C. H. Gauthier, 
 Archbishop of Kingston, was transferred to Ottawa 
 and the present archbishop, Rt. Rev. Michael 
 Joseph Spratt, D. D., became his successor, being 
 consecrated 30 November, 1911. During the World 
 War this diocese was distinguished by having one 
 of the three chaplains which it supplied for military 
 service, Capt. Rev. J. F. Nicholson, decorated with 
 the Military Cross. Father Nicholson is now Dean 
 of Regiopolis College. 
 
 The Catholic population of the archdiocese 
 approximates 45,000, of whom a great number are 
 of Irish descent. The diocese comprises 40 parishes, 
 40 churches, 23 missions, 56 secular priests and 8 
 Redemptorists, 300 nuns, and 30 seminarians. The 
 various educational institutions include: 1 college 
 for men with 5 professors and 150 students, 2 high 
 schools with 12 teachers and an attendance of 200 
 girls, ^1 academy with 6 teachers and an attendance 
 of 265 girls, 54 elementary schools with 250 teachers 
 and a total attendance of 47,500. In addition to 
 these, St. Mary’s College for boys at Brockville, 
 Ontario, is established under the direction of the 
 
 ’ S * MT ? EL A sc T ulptor ’ b - at Huddersfield, 
 
 Vn^ b n ire, Q aud L 1 Januar y> 1848; d. at New 
 York on 9 November, 1906. In his boyhood he 
 
 showed unmistakable signs of talent in art and 
 at the age of sixteen went to Leeds, where he 
 studied anatomy and architectural sculpture for 
 rv e years. In 1871 he went to Rome, entering 
 the Royal Academy of St. Luke’s, where during 
 his two years study he won four prizes—two for 
 bas-reliefs a third for the study of the Barberini 
 .baun, and a fourth for modeling from life. He 
 won the Papal prize, a gold medal. In 1873 Kitson 
 opened a studio m the Holy City. His first com- 
 nnssion was for a life size statue of “Rebecca at 
 the Well, and soon thereafter he received com¬ 
 missions from Sir Thomas Brooke for “Nydia ” and 
 from Lord Truro for the “Greek Spinning Girl ” 
 then followed “Abel Waiting for the Bfessing/’ 
 Young Ambitmn” “Miriam” “HagarandIshmaeJ,” 
 
 £? d . D J a <?rf 'li 16 o m T?, 0me he did a marble 
 “f? _sized David for Sir Edward Acroyd. In 1879 
 
 Kitson made a tour of the United States and 
 Canada He produced “Ole Bull” and “Longfellow ” 
 after which he returned to Rome. A little later 
 he was called to the United States to execute the 
 sculptural decorations of the W. K Vanderbilt 
 y- den fie in New York, and panels of “Music” and 
 . be iP ra ma for the Marquand home, together 
 with thiee Greek busts in marble. Then followed 
 sterling example of character portraiture from 
 life, Samuel J. Tilden.” In 1885 he modeled the 
 north frieze of the Soldiers’ and Sailor;;’ Monument 
 at . Hartford, Connecticut, which has been termed 
 ^ Miniature Gettysburg.” In 1884 he had married 
 Miss Meredith of New York, a fellow-sculptor, who 
 became his helper and inspiration in all his later 
 work. About this time he opened a studio at Bos¬ 
 ton, where his later work was done. Then followed 
 a series of notable creations: General Sheridan 
 for Arlington Cemetery, busts of Cardinal Gibbons, 
 Archbishop Williams, John Boyle O’Reilly, and a 
 number of the New England clergy. While in 
 Rome Kitson had been attracted by the ceremonies 
 of the Catholic Church, and during a visit to Wash¬ 
 ington, in connection with the work of the Sheridan 
 monument, he applied to Father Clark, S.J., for 
 instruction, and was received into the Church at 
 Boston, 8 December, 1889. His busy life was pro¬ 
 ductive of such splendid spiritual compositions as 
 Christ, the Light of the World,” “The Sacred 
 Heart,” “Our Lady of Lourdes,” and a marble bust 
 of Christ, executed for the late Mrs. Thomas F. 
 Ryan, of New York. This latter was carved frgm 
 a block of the finest Carrara marble. His large 
 figure of “Christ, the Light of the World” is placed 
 before the entrance of St. Joseph’s Seminarv, Yon¬ 
 kers, on an eminence overlooking a wonderful vista 
 of country. 
 
 Kiu-kiang, Vicariate Apostolic of (cf. C. E., 
 VIII-634a), in China, formerly the Vicariate Apos¬ 
 tolic of Northern Kiang-si, which comprised 6 civil 
 prefectures: Kin-Kiang-fu, residence of the vicar 
 
KNIGHTS OF COLUMBUS 
 
 440 
 
 KNOPFLER 
 
 apostolic, Nan-chang-fu, Nan-kang-fu, Jui-chow-fu, 
 Lin-kiang-fu, and Yuan-chow-fu, with approxi¬ 
 mately 9,000,000 inhabitants and an area of 24,040 
 square miles. In spite of persecutions ano Efris- 
 fortunes the number of Catholics in the vicariate 
 had steadily increased since 1885, the date of its 
 foundation, as follows: 3211 Catholics and 744 
 catechumens in 1885; 5382 and 4098 in 1900; 15,063 
 and 7972 in 1910; 31,927 and 13,066 in 1921. By 
 the Apostolic Letter, “Divmse Sponsiones, of 25 
 August, 1920, Pope Benedict XV established m 
 Kiang-si the new Vicariate Apostolic of Kan-chow, 
 formed from two-thirds of the former Vicariate oi 
 Southern Kiang-si, and confided it to the Lazansts 
 of the Eastern Province of the United States, lo 
 the former Vicariate of Southern Kiang-si, thence¬ 
 forth known as the Vicariate Apostolic of Ki-ngan, 
 the Holy Father attached the territory of the 
 two civil prefectures of Lin-kiang-fu and Yuan- 
 chow-fu, detached from Northern Kiang-si, which 
 was thenceforth called Kiu-kiang. Thus dimin¬ 
 ished, the new Vicariate Apostolic of Kiu-kiang 
 comprises (1921) 17,553 square miles and a popula¬ 
 tion of approximately 6,000,000. Having ceded to 
 the Vicariate Apostolic of Ki-ngan 3331 Catholics 
 and 1400 catechumens, it had remaining (1921) 
 28,596 Catholics and 11,666 catechumens. There 
 are 14 European priests and 14 Chinese priests, 
 25 Daughters of Charity, and a diocesan congre¬ 
 gation of Chinese Sisters, founded in 1907 by Mgr. 
 Ferrant, under the name of Virgins of Our Lady 
 of Good Counsel, and comprising 25 members with 
 4 houses. A large hospital has been erected at 
 Nan-chang, the care of the sick being inaugurated 
 there in February, 1921, by four Daughters ot 
 Charity and a French doctor. A college, confided 
 to the Marist Brothers, is also to be built at 
 Nan-chang, and a central seminary of philosophy 
 and theology for the four vicariates of Kiang-si 
 will be erected at Kiu-kiang. _ The present vicar 
 apostolic is Rt. Rev. Louis-Elisee Fatiguet, C. M., 
 b. 1855, ordained 1881, consecrated titular Bishop 
 of Aspendus 11 June, 1911, appointed Vicar Apos¬ 
 tolic of Northern Kiang-si in 1911 and of Kiu- 
 kiang in 1920. He succeeded Mgr. Ferrant, who 
 died 5 November, 1910. The Catholic population 
 of the vicariate is all Chinese except 14 Euro¬ 
 peans in the port of Kiu-kiang. Two missionaries 
 were mobilized in France during the World War 
 and one of them decorated with the croix de 
 
 guerre. x _ . . 
 
 The vicariate comprises (1921) 22 parishes; 17 
 churches; 142 chapels; 31 missions; 481 Christian 
 communities; 21 Daughters of Charity with 3 con¬ 
 vents; 25 Chinese Virgins of Our Lady of Good 
 Counsel with 4 convents; 9 secular priests; 19 
 regular priests; 1 seminary with 7 philosophy and 
 theology students and 27 in preparatory courses, 
 1 college for boys with 2 teachers and 14 pupils; 
 
 1 college for girls with 2 teachers and 21 pupils; 
 
 1 normal school with 2 professors and 18 pupils, 
 
 33 elementary schools, with 50 teachers and 543 
 pupils; retreats given to 629 people during the 
 year; 3 orphanages for girls with 297 orphans; 4 
 hospitals caring for 1849; 2 homes for old people 
 with 68 inmates; 107 catechumenates with 1850 
 catechumens; 2 creches with 40 children; 3 indus¬ 
 trial schools with 270 girls; 6 associations and 
 confraternities among the laity. 
 
 Knights of Columbus in Peace and War (cf. C. 
 E., VIII-670d).—When the United States of Amer¬ 
 ica declared war against Germany in April, 1917, 
 the Knights of Columbus, through their Supreme 
 Board of Directors, passed the following resolution: 
 
 “The Supreme Board of Directors of the Knights 
 of Columbus, at a regular meeting, held the 14th 
 day of April, 1917, in the City of Washington, 
 realizing that the crisis confronting our country 
 calls for the active co-operation and patriotic zeal 
 of every true citizen, hereby reaffirms the devotion 
 of 400,000 members of the Order in this country 
 to our Republic and its laws, and pledges their 
 continued and unconditional support to the Presi¬ 
 dent and the Congress of the Nation, in their 
 determination to protect its honor and its ideals 
 of humanity and right.” In keeping with the spirit 
 of this resolution the Knights of Columbus offered 
 the services of the Order as a unit to the Govern¬ 
 ment in war work. An appeal was issued to the 
 public for SI,000,000 for this purpose, and an assess¬ 
 ment of $2.00 per capita levied against its mem¬ 
 bership. In time the war fund in response to this 
 appeal far exceeded the expectations of the Knights, 
 amounting in the end to something over $14,000,000. 
 Later on the Knights of Columbus participated 
 in the fund from the general “drive” made jointly 
 by the seven officially recognized welfare organiza¬ 
 tions doing war work, its share, out of $170,000,000, 
 being $30,000,000, which in turn was shared with the 
 National Catholic War Council. The first task 
 was the establishment of a Knights of Columbus 
 service in the United States and its insular posses¬ 
 sions. Secretaries and chaplains were placed in all 
 the camps and cantonments; buildings were erected 
 and community centers were established. In all 
 260 buildings were erected, 1134 secretaries were 
 placed, and 309 camps were operated. Headquar¬ 
 ters were established in Paris for the Order’s over¬ 
 seas activities, with branches in London covering 
 the British Isles, and after the Armistice in Cob¬ 
 lenz, for the Army of Occupation. The number 
 of secretaries sent overseas was 1075; 36 chaplains 
 and 126 clubs were established in camps along the 
 front, and among the various military divisions. 
 The work of the Knights at home and overseas 
 won the highest encomiums from both soldiers, 
 commanding officers, and Governments themselves. 
 Its motto “Everybody Welcome, Everything Free,” 
 was exemplified in every respect. After peace was 
 effected, the Knights immediately devoted their 
 energies and their resources to reconstruction work. 
 Employment bureaus to the number of 254 were 
 opened, and in the first twelve months 300,000 
 service men were placed in employment, 498 
 scholarships in colleges were given to service men, 
 150,000 service men and 1100 service women were 
 enrolled in 48 schools then established for that 
 purpose. By August, 1920, there were 150 Knights 
 of Columbus Schools in operation with an at¬ 
 tendance of 500,000 pupils. The Knights have 
 devoted the $7,000,000 of their war fund to this 
 educational work which, like the employment work, 
 is absolutely free to all former service men. 
 
 Knin, Diocese of (Tinnensis or Tinianensis; 
 cf. C. E., XIV-736b), in Dalmatia, suffragan of 
 Kalocsa. This see is filled by Rt. Rev. Joseph 
 Lanyi, born in Nemet-Prona, .Slovakia, in 1868, 
 ordained in 1891, named a private chamberlain 8 
 October, 1900, prothonotary apostolic 1 April, 1903, 
 became abbe of Holy Savior of Leber and canon 
 of Gross-Wardein, and was appointed bishop 7 
 November, 1906. The “Annuario Pontificio” places 
 this see among the titular sees. No statistics are 
 now published for it. 
 
 Knopfler, Alois, Church historian, b. at Schom- 
 burg, Wiirtemberg, on 29 August, 1847; d. in July, 
 1920. He studied at Tubingen and was ordained in 
 1874, and devoted himself thereafter to the cause 
 
KONIGGRATZ 
 
 441 
 
 KRIZEVACKE 
 
 of education. He was editor of “Kirchengeschicht- 
 lischen Studien” from 1891, and of “Veroffent- 
 lichungen aus dem kirchenhistorischen Seminar 
 Miinchen” from 1899; and translated Rohrbacher’s 
 “Histoire de TEglise” into German. His “Lehrbuch 
 der Kirchengeschichte” lias been very widely used 
 by students. Among his other writings are “Die 
 Kelchbewegung in Bayern unter Albrecht V,” 1891; 
 “Johann Ad. Mohler, Gedenkblatter,” 1896; “Das 
 Vaterunser im Geiste der altesten Kirchenvater in 
 Bild und Wort.” 
 
 Koniggratz, Diocese of. See Hradec Kralove. 
 
 Kopp, Georg, Cardinal, b. at Duderstadt, in the 
 Diocese of Hildesheim, on 25 July, 1837; d. at 
 Breslau on 4 March, 1915. Like Pius XI, Cardinal 
 Kopp had the distinction of being the son of a 
 weaver. After studying at Duderstadt and later 
 at Hildesheim, he had entered the employment of 
 a telegraph company (1856-58), when he heard the 
 call to the ecclesiastical state and he became a 
 priest in 1862. In 1871 Father Kopp \Vas made 
 Vicar General of Hildesheim. The Kulturkampf 
 was just then inaugurated, and Mgr. Kopp set him¬ 
 self to stop its ravages. In 1878 Bismarck found 
 that he made a mistake and began to approach 
 Leo XIII about filling a number of vacant dioceses 
 and Mgr. Kopp was named for Fulda. Mgr. Kopp’s 
 opposition was so marked that Bismarck frequently 
 consulted him. In 1886 the bishop was a member 
 of the Prussian House of Lords and was so suc¬ 
 cessful in getting rid of the remnants of the Falk 
 Laws that Bishop Kopp was transferred to the 
 Diocese of Breslau, one of the most extensive of 
 Europe. It embraced Silesia, Brandenburg, Pome¬ 
 rania and vast territories in Austria. He occupied 
 that see for twenty-seven years; repaired the dam¬ 
 ages wrought by the Kulturkampf; supplied the 
 vacant parishes with priests; created industrial cen¬ 
 ters; founded the Seminary of Wednare and called 
 in the religious orders. He figured largely in all 
 social movements, and was a staunch upholder of 
 the papacy. He insisted on keeping the guilds 
 strictly Catholic and so opposed the Cologne move¬ 
 ment in the opposite direction. He was elevated 
 to the Cardinalate in 1904, which brought him into 
 collision with the Italian Government in its attempt 
 to secularize St. Agnes extra muros. He had cele¬ 
 brated his jubilee in 1912 and received as a tribute 
 of admiring affection an album with the photo¬ 
 graphs of 650 churches, charitable institutions and 
 monasteries, founded by him in the Diocese of 
 Breslau during his episcopate. 
 
 v ^ otta y ai ?> Vicariate Apostolic of (cf. C. E., 
 
 i ^ nc ^) a » comprises all the churches and 
 
 chapels of Suddbist Syrians on the Malabar Coast. 
 1 he present vicar apostolic is Rt. Rev. Mar Alexan- 
 dei Chulaparambil, b. 1877, ordained 1906, named 
 titular Bishop of Busiris and Vicar Apostolic of 
 Kottayam 16 July, 1914, and consecrated 1 Novem¬ 
 ber 1914, succeeding Rt. Rev. Mathew Makil, who 
 o Ja , nuar y > 1914. There are in the vicariate 
 2J,530 Catholics; 30 secular priests, 12 seminarians, 
 62 churches or stations, 19 native Sisters of the 
 Third Order of the Visitation and 16 postulants, 
 5 convents, 14 parochial schools, 4 English schools 
 for boys, 1 English school for girls, 17 grant-in- 
 aid lower grade vernacular schools for boys, 1 
 higher grade and 2 lower grade vernacular schools 
 for girls, 1 orphanage, and catechumenates. 
 
 Koudelka, Joseph M., b. at Chlistovo, Bohemia, 
 9?L December 8, 1852; d. in Superior on June 26, 
 1921. His collegiate education was received at the 
 College Klattan in his native country; in 1868 he 
 came to the United States, and soon after entered 
 Saint Francis Seminary at Milwaukee. He was 
 ordained to the priesthood on October 8, 1875, and 
 he served as pastor of several churches in the 
 Diocese of Cleveland before his appointment as 
 titular Bishop of Germanicopolis and auxiliary of 
 that see on November 29, 1907. He was conse¬ 
 crated by Bishop Horstmann on February 25, 1908, 
 and he was transferred to Milwaukee as auxiliary 
 bishop on September 4, 1911. He was appointed 
 Bishop of Superior on August 6, 1913. Bishop 
 Koudelka was the author of several readers for 
 Bohemian parochial schools, and also of a “Short 
 History of the Catholic Church for Schools” (in 
 German) (1905). 
 
 Corrigan, Chronology of the Catholic Hierarchy in The 
 Catholic Historical Review, III 29. 
 
 KSsice (Hungarian Kassa, German Kaschatj), 
 Diocese of (Cassoviensis; cf. C. E., III-407c), 
 suffragan of Eger. Since the new division of terri¬ 
 tory subsequent on the World War, this diocese is 
 divided between Czechoslovakia and Hungary, with 
 152 parishes in the former, and 47 in the latter. 
 The government of Czechoslovakia, however, wishes 
 to have the boundaries changed in order to make 
 the limits of the diocese coincide with those of the 
 republic. The present bishop, Rt. Rev. Augustin 
 Fischer-Colbrie, was born in Zseliz 1863, ordained 
 1886, appointed titular Bishop of Domitiopolis 16 
 October, 1904, and coadjutor to Bishop Bubics of 
 Cassovia, whom he succeeded upon his retirement 
 6 August, 1906. 
 
 The latest census of this diocese was taken in 
 1900, and counts the Latin Catholics at 307,186; 
 Greek Catholics, 160,527; Oriental Greeks, 15; 
 Protestants, 898,727; Jews, 55,475. Statistics of 1920 
 credit the diocese with 197 parishes, to which 2 
 have been added since, 84 vicariates, 310 secular 
 and 62 regular clergy. 
 
 Krishnagar, Diocese of (Kishnagrensis; cf. C. 
 E., VIII-702a), in India, suffragan of Calcutta. 
 The present bishop is Rt. Rev. Santino Taveggia, 
 born 1855, consecrated 1906. The Catholics of 
 the diocese (August, 1921), number 13,981, besides 
 1723 catechumens. With the exception of about 
 500 Eurasians and Europeans, all the Catholics 
 are native converts. Working in the diocese are 
 16 Foreign Missionaries of Milan, residing in 9 
 stations, and 19 Sisters of Charity of Lovere (Italy), 
 with 4 houses. There are: 25 churches and 101 
 mud huts in the villages which are used as places 
 of worship, as shelters for the visiting missionary, 
 and sometimes as schoolrooms; 3 orphanages for 
 native boys and 3 for native girls, with over 200 
 children entirely supported by the mission and 
 under the direction of the Sisters of Charity; 60 
 mission schools attended by 1090 Christian and 
 pagan children; 1 public hospital and 3 mission 
 free dispensaries, 2 homes for widows and catechu¬ 
 mens, and 1 home for incurables under the Sisters 
 of Charity. 
 
 Krizeva6ke, Diocese of (cf. C. E., IV-490c), 
 (Graeco-Slavonic Rite), in Croatia. The events of 
 recent years have made great changes in the diocese. 
 The parishes are at present 30 in number and are now 
 known as either Croatian or Ruthenian, all included 
 in what is to-day called The Kingdom of Jugoslavia. 
 Some of the former Ruthenian parishes have been 
 placed under the jurisdiction of the Apostolic Ad¬ 
 ministrator in Bosnia, and some of the Bulgarian 
 parishes in southern Servia under the Archbishop of 
 Scopia. Nothing definite is as yet determined with 
 regard to the disposition of these. The question 
 of two parishes now jn Jugoslavia and formerly 
 under the Bishop of Lugos also remains to be finally 
 
KRK 
 
 442 
 
 KTJRTH 
 
 passed upon. Between the years 1908-12 five new 
 parishes were erected within the diocese. 
 
 The Catholic population is now (1921) 40,000, 
 speaking either Croatian or Ruthenian. There are 
 43 secular priests, 44 churches, 30 of which have 
 resident priests, 2 chapels, 1 monastery for men, 2 
 convents for women, 1 seminary, and 1 college for 
 women with 20 students. A Society of Saint Joseph 
 exists for the clergy. The Sisters of the Order of 
 Saint Basil the Great and the Servants of the 
 Blessed Virgin Mary have recently been established 
 within the diocese. 
 
 Among the recently deceased are the following 
 clergy and laity of note: Andreas Labos (d. 3 
 January, 1918),‘parish priest, greatly esteemed by 
 the Ruthenian people; Andreas Labos the younger 
 (d. 1920), parish priest; Nicolaus Radic (d. 25 Jan¬ 
 uary, 1918), parish priest, held in great respect 
 among the Croatians; Elias Hranilovic (d. 25 July, 
 1921), parish priest, esteemed throughout the dio¬ 
 cese; Andreas Segedi (d. 12 February, 1920),assessor 
 of the diocesan consistory, distinguished for his 
 services to sacred music in the diocesan seminary; 
 Tadeus Smiaklas (d. 8 June, 1914), an eminent 
 scholar, professor at the University of Zagreb, 
 prominent as a Catholic and Croatian patriot, the 
 author of historical and other works. 
 
 Mgr. Denis Nyardi, born in Krizevacke m 1874, 
 was elected titular bishop of Abila and apostolic 
 administrator of Krizevacke 5 December, 1914, and 
 transferred as bishop of the see 22 April, 1922, 
 succeeding Mgr. Drohobetzki, resigned. 
 
 Krk (Veglia), Diocese of (Veglensis; cf. C. E., 
 XV-321a), in Istria, Jugoslavia, suffragan of Zagreb; 
 Parallel to the Dinaric Alps are the rocky islands 
 of Krk, Rab, and Pag (with the Plavmk and 
 Irstenik reefs). Separated from the mainland by a 
 deep though narrow strait, Krk, Rab, and two 
 parishes in Pag form the Diocese of Krk. The 
 largest island is Krk (Greek Kurykta), which 
 probably had a bishop in the fourth century, though 
 the first bishop whose name is known is Vitalis, 
 who occupied the see about 1000. The see of Rab 
 is as ancient as that of Krk, its first bishop com¬ 
 memorated by history being Ticyanus, who was 
 present at the Synod of Solin (Salona) in 530. The 
 last Bishop of Rab, Galzigna, died in 1822 and 
 his diocese was merged in that of Krk. The Dio¬ 
 cese of Krk originally a part of the Croatian main¬ 
 land and the islands of Krk, Cres (Cherso), Losinj 
 (Lossin), etc. The Diocese of Osor, for the islands 
 of Cres and Losinj, was probably founded at 
 the Synod of Solia (530). The first bishop com¬ 
 memorated is Laurentius who was present at the 
 Council of Nicea (787). The last Bishop of Osor, 
 Rakmaric, died in 1815 and the diocese was again 
 united to the Diocese of Krk. By the Treaty 
 of Rapallo (1920) the islands of Cres, Losinj, and 
 the minors came under Italy’s dominion and are 
 now temporarily administered by the Apostolic 
 Administrator of Rijeka (Fiume). Following 
 political events, the Diocese of Krk has been suc¬ 
 cessively suffragan of Solin-Split (Spoleto), Zadar 
 (Zara), Grado (1155), Venice (1450), again Zadar 
 (1820), then Gorcia (Gorizia) in 1831, and finally 
 (since Rapallo) Zagreb. The diocese, as now re¬ 
 duced, contains 28,000 inhabitants, all Catholics. 
 There are: 26 parishes, 3 monasteries of nuns, 5 
 convents of religious orders of men, 1 convent of 
 Sisters, 1 training school with 3 teachers and 65 
 students, 28 elementary schools with 57 teachers 
 and 3200 pupils, and 1 asylum. An association of 
 the clergy is called “Svecenicka Zajednica,” and 
 there are 121 lay confraternities and associations 
 
 of adults and boys and girls. At present the see 
 is vacant. The last bishop, Rt. Rev. Anthony 
 Mahnic, born 1850, died at Zagreb, 14 December, 
 1920, was one of the most representative figures 
 in Jugoslavia. As professor in the theological semi¬ 
 nary at Goriza, he was the founder of the Catholic 
 movement among the Slovenes. Coming to the see 
 of Krk he did the same work among the Croats. 
 The whole Catholic Organization in Jugoslavia rec¬ 
 ognizes him as its founder. He was the deepest 
 philosopher of the time in his country, founded 
 and in part directed various ecclesiastical reviews, 
 and was one of the first to struggle for his people’s 
 liberty and the union of the South-Slavs. During 
 the Italian occupation of his diocese (1918-21) he 
 strenuously defended religious and national liberty 
 and was therefore interned in Frascati. He was 
 set at liberty in March, 1920, but died some months 
 later, in his seventy-first year. 
 
 Kuhn, Bela. See Hungary. 
 
 Kumbakonam, Diocese of (Kumbakonensis; cf. 
 C. E., VIII-710c), in India, is entirely on British 
 territory, although suffragan to the Archdiocese of 
 Pondicherry, the capital of French India. Kum¬ 
 bakonam is a town of 68,000 inhabitants, while 
 the total population of the whole diocese was 
 counted at 3,350,000 in 1919, and in 1921 the Cath¬ 
 olic population numbered 103,118 Tamilians. 
 
 The first bishop, Rt. Rev. H. M. Bottero, con¬ 
 secrated 30 November, 1899, died 21 May, 1913, and 
 was succeeded by the present incumbent, Rt. Rev. 
 M. A. Chapuis, consecrated titular Bishop of Cas- 
 toria and made coadjutor to Bishop Bottero 25 
 July, 1911. 
 
 During the World War 13 of the clergy of this, 
 diocese did service in France and Belgium, and 
 2 in Macedonia, and of these 2 were killed in 
 action, 2 wounded, 1 awarded the medaille militarie, 
 and 3 the croix de guerre. 
 
 The language generally used in this territory is 
 Tamil, a Dravidian language with many words 
 borrowed from Sanscrit; the educated people, how¬ 
 ever, also speak English. By present statistics there 
 are 40 parishes, 25 churches, 470 chapels, 1115 mis¬ 
 sion stations, 47 secular priests, 41 European and 
 89 native Sisters, and 39 seminarians. Besides the 
 college, which is under the management of an 
 Indian gentleman, assisted by a staff of native 
 teachers, there are 3 high school and 65 elementary 
 schools with 183 teachers and 3664 pupils, and 1 
 industrial school with 5 teachers and 51 pupils. A 
 school for girls, known as the “big school,” is under 
 the management of the mission with a staff of 11 
 native Sisters. About 50 of the schools are aided 
 by the Government. The charitable institutions 
 comprise 1 home for the aged with 77 inmates, 1 
 home for lepers with 202 inmates, 1 refuge for 
 women with 36 inmates, and 1 nursery with 96 
 children. The Apostolic Union and League of 
 Priestly Holiness are established among the clergy, 
 and 5 temperance societies among the laity. 
 
 Kurth, Godefroid, historian, b. at Arlon, Belgium, 
 11 May, 1847; d. at Assche, on 4 January, 1916. He 
 went to Louvain for his higher studies and there 
 laid the foundation of that painstaking and accurate 
 scholarship and fascinating literary expression which 
 characterize him as a writer. He is credited with 
 having introduced into Belgium a new school of 
 historical and apologetic exposition. His favorite 
 theme was the Middle Ages, especially the role 
 his country played during that period. He co¬ 
 operated with Henri Joly in his “Psychologie des 
 Saints.” His “Beginnings of Christianity” went 
 through six editions. In fifteen years 10,000 copies 
 
KWANG-CHAU-WAN 
 
 443 
 
 KWEI-CHCW 
 
 of his “Church at the Turning Points of History” 
 were sold. He was endowed with the gift of elo¬ 
 quence and was in constant demand as a lecturer. 
 He was the founder and editor of the “Archives 
 beiges.” Among his other important writings are 
 “La Frontiere linguistique en Belgique,,” “Histoire 
 poetique des Merovingiens,” “Clois,” “Notger de 
 Liege et la civilisation an X e siecle,” and “La Cite 
 de Liege au moyen age.” 
 
 Kwang-chau-wan. See Indo-China. 
 
 ^ Kwango, Prefecture Apostolic of (cf. C. E., 
 VII1-7lid), in Belgian Congo, Africa. The center 
 of the mission is at Bergeyck St. Ignace (Ki-Santu), 
 where there is a large Gothic church, the dwelling 
 of the missionaries, the convent of the Sisters of 
 Notre Dame de Namur, a normal school for 
 catechists, workshops, and a printing press. There 
 are in the prefecture: 4 stations and 300 Jermes- 
 chapelles, 13 Jesuit missionaries and 8 lay 
 Brothers, 1/ Sisters of Notre Dame of Namur, 
 3 churches, and 16 chapels. The Catholics number 
 2778. The present prefect apostolic is Rt. Rev. 
 Stanislas de Vos, S.J., elected 25 September, 1911. 
 
 Kwang-si, Vicariate Apostolic of (cf. C. E., 
 VIII-712a), in China, erected into a vicariate apos¬ 
 tolic 6 April, 1914, and confided to the Foreign 
 Missions of Paris. The present vicar apostolic is 
 Rt. Rev. Maurice-Francois Ducoeur, M.E., b. 1878, 
 ordained 1901, named titular Bishop of Barbalissus 
 and Prefect Apostolic of Kwang-si in 1910, conse¬ 
 crated 1911, named vicar apostolic in 1914. The 
 establishment of the Sisters of St. Paul of Chartres 
 has been closed for lack of personnel, the last 
 Sisters having left Lung-chow, 5 February, 1918, for 
 
 the hospital of Hanoi. The population of the 
 diocese is 9,000,000, of whom 4716 are Catholics and 
 3216 catechumens. There are 26 missionary priests, 
 4 native priests, 23 churches, 27 chapels, 47 oratories, 
 156 stations, a theological and preparatory seminary 
 with 16 students, 31 schools for boys, 10 schools 
 for girls, 2 colleges, 11 orphanages, 5 hospitals, 17 
 Little Brothers of Mary, 19 Chinese nuns. 
 
 Kwang-timg. See Canton. 
 
 Kwei-chou, > icariate Apostolic of (cf. C. E., 
 yiH—713d), in China. The present vicar apostolic 
 is Rt. Rev. Francois-Lazare Seguin, M. E., b. 1868, 
 ordained 1891, vicar coadjutor and titular Bishop of 
 Pinara 1907, vicar apostolic in 1913, succeeding Rt. 
 Rev. Mgr. Guichard, deceased. There were thirty 
 odd missionaries mobilized in 1914, all of whom 
 returned to the mission in the first months of the 
 war, except four, of whom three returned in 1919 
 and the fourth died of exhaustion in the service 
 of the wounded. During recent years there has 
 been a recrudescence of brigandage in Kwei-chou, 
 a cholera epidemic, and a terrible famine which 
 still continues. The population of the vicariate is 
 9,000,000, of whom 34,034 are Catholics and about 
 35,000 catechumens. There are 50 parishes or dis¬ 
 tricts divided^ into 250 stations; 123 churches and 
 chapels, 40 missionary priests and 29 native priests, 
 2 preparatory schools with 50 pupils, 1 preparatory 
 seminary with 19 students, 1 theological seminary 
 with 23 students, 44 elementary schools for boys 
 with 1062 pupils, 41 elementary schools for girls 
 with 609 pupils, 3 orphanages, a hospital which has 
 neither medicines, nurses, or remedies, but is merely 
 a refuge for the sick poor, 84 of whom have re¬ 
 ceived baptism in articulo mortis. 
 
Labor and Labor Legislation (cf. C. E., VIII- 
 
 719b).—The most important developments in Amer¬ 
 ican labor legislation during the last decade relate 
 to workmen’s compensation, child labor, and the 
 adjustment of industrial disputes. In the great 
 majority of our States the old employer’s liability 
 statutes and practices have been supplanted by 
 laws which enable an injured workman or his heir3 
 to obtain compensation without a lawsuit and 
 through administrative commissions. The word 
 “compensation,” instead of “liability,” connotes a 
 complete change in both the theory and the prac¬ 
 tice of dealing with occupational injuries. Under 
 the old system the employer was “liable” for such 
 injuries, but only when he was at fault. In the 
 present system the industry is made accountable, 
 whether or not any blame attaches to the employer. 
 Hence the employee is not required to show that 
 he did not mean to assume the risk of injury, nor 
 that his “fellow servants” are free from blame, nor 
 (as a rule) that his injury was not due to his own 
 negligence. All that is necessary is to establish 
 the fact of injury. The new conception is that the 
 majority of accidents are not anybody’s “fault,” 
 but are, in the existing circumstances, unavoidable. 
 Hence the injured man receives “compensation” 
 instead of “damages,” the extent of the injury 
 determining the amount of compensation. In some 
 of the States the rates of compensation are still 
 too low, but even in these. States the injured 
 workers secure a far greater indemnity than was 
 possible under the old system. 
 
 The child labor laws have been improved in 
 many States. At present not more than half a 
 dozen States are grievously backward in this re¬ 
 spect. To meet their obstinacy two statutes were 
 enacted by Congress. The first forbade the ship¬ 
 ment in interstate commerce of the products of 
 establishments employing children under fourteen 
 years of age. This law was declared unconstitu¬ 
 tional by five of the nine justices of the United 
 States Supreme Court. The second national statute 
 imposes a tax of ten per cent on the net profits of 
 such industrial establishments. Its constitutionality 
 has not yet been determined. 
 
 The National War Labor Board was composed of 
 six persons representing the employers of the coun¬ 
 try, an equal number representing employees, with 
 an impartial person as chairman of each group. 
 The board possessed effective powers of investiga¬ 
 tion, but its decisions were not compulsory. Never¬ 
 theless, it was able to prevent the occurrence of 
 any important strike or lockout. Unfortunately it 
 was abolished by Congress a few months after the 
 armistice. 
 
 The Railroad Labor Board is a legal body, con¬ 
 sisting of three men representing the companies, 
 three representing the employees, and three repre¬ 
 senting the general public. While it has adjusted 
 many minor disputes and prevented one great 
 strike, it lacks an industrial code, or set of prin¬ 
 ciples, such as that provided for the guidance of 
 the National War Labor Board. 
 
 The Kansas Industrial Court is a tribunal of 
 three judges having power to adjust all disputes 
 in four industries, namely, food, fuel, clothing, and 
 
 transportation. Its decisions are legally binding 
 upon both parties. Nevertheless, it has not pre¬ 
 vented all strikes, nor proved satisfactory even to 
 all employers. Most probably it will not be copied 
 by many other States, nor long survive in its pres¬ 
 ent form in Kansas. 
 
 Aside from workmen’s compensation laws, no 
 form of social insurance has yet been enacted in 
 the United States. All competent students of 
 industrial conditions realize that the wage earning 
 classes will not have sufficient security until they 
 are protected by insurance against sickness, acci¬ 
 dents, invalidity, old age, and unemployment. All 
 these contingencies and liabilities should be met by 
 industry, since industry is at once the beneficiary 
 of the wage earner’s life work, and the only source 
 of provision for his life needs. 
 
 The general condition of the laboring classes 
 cannot be regarded with any degree of complacency. 
 The best statistical estimates show that, measured 
 by purchasing power, wages in the United States 
 have rather steadily declined since the beginning 
 of the present century (see articles in the “American 
 Economic Review,” December, 1914, June, 1917, and 
 September, 1921). While the right of labor to at 
 least a living wage is more frequently recognized 
 than was the case twenty-five, or even ten years 
 ago, it has not been formally adopted, either in 
 theory or in practice, by the majority of industrial 
 concerns. Labor organizations have steadily in¬ 
 creased in numbers and power, but they have been 
 unable to secure recognition from some of our 
 greatest industrial corporations. Nor have they 
 yet begun to show anything like an adequate appre¬ 
 ciation of their . industrial responsibilities. Class 
 antagonism has increased greatly in the ranks of 
 both employees and employers. From present con¬ 
 ditions and tendencies it seems clear that industrial 
 peace, stability, and justice will not be approxi¬ 
 mated until such changes are made in labor’s status 
 as will make the worker more interested in his 
 work, through participation in management, profits, 
 and ownership. John A. Ryan. 
 
 Lacedonia, Diocese of (Laquedoniensis; cf. C. 
 E., VIII-732c), in the province of Avellino, South¬ 
 ern Italy, suffragan of Conza. Rt. Rev. Gaetano 
 Pizzi appointed to this see 21 July, 1907, was trans¬ 
 ferred to San-Severo, 5 November, 1912. The see 
 remained vacant until 22 September, 1915, when 
 Rt. Rev. Cosma Agostino, Bishop of Ariano, was 
 appointed administrator apostolic and governed the 
 diocese until 22 May, 1916. A new bishop was then 
 appointed in the person of Rt. Rev. Francesco 
 Maffei, bora in Bisaccia, 1855, and serving as canon 
 penitentiary at the time of his appointment. The 
 statistics of 1920 credit the diocese with 27,300 
 Catholics, 11 parishes, 95 secular and 2 regular 
 clergy, 10 seminarians, 2 Brothers, 4 Sisters, and 
 51 churches or chapels. 
 
 Lacombe, Albert, Apostle of the Cree and Black- 
 feet Indians, b. at Saint-Sulpice, Quebec, on 28 
 February, 1827; d. at Midnapore, Alberta, on 12 
 December, 1916. He was ordained at St. Hyacinthe 
 on 13 June, 1850, and two years later he joined 
 
LA CROSSE 
 
 445 
 
 LAFAYETTE 
 
 Mgr. Tache in the mission of the Northwest. He 
 evangelized the Pembina metis and the Crees in 
 the mission of Lake St. Anne, and in 1855 he joined 
 the Oblates of Mary Immaculate. In I860 he was 
 among the Blackfeet, and three years later founded 
 a mission, which he named Albert after his patron 
 saint and which has since given its name to the 
 province of Alberta. About this time he went 
 among the nomadic Crees and established the mis¬ 
 sion of St. Paul on the Saskatchewan in 1866; 
 later he gave himself up to the wandering Black- 
 feet; among both tribes his efforts met with great 
 success. In 1876 he became the agent for Catholic 
 and French immigration into Manitoba; and a 
 few years later he devoted himself to the spiritual 
 interests of the workers engaged in constructing 
 the Canadian Pacific railroad. In 1882 he was again 
 laboring for the Indians around Calgary, McLeod, 
 and Pincher Creek. He rendered great service to 
 the Government by securing the neutrality of the 
 powerful Blackfeet tribe during the Rebellion of 
 1885. He was sent to Europe many times in the 
 interests of his congregation, and visited Austria 
 in 1900 and 1904 in behalf of the Ruthenian Cath¬ 
 olics. Father Lacombe was a master of several 
 Indian languages, and among his works are a Cree 
 grammar and lexicon, a New Testament and a 
 prayer-book in Cree, and a catechism and prayer- 
 book in Santeux. 
 
 La Crosse, Diocese of (Crossensis; cf. C. E., 
 VHI-735b), in State of Wisconsin, suffragan of 
 Milwaukee, lost its third bishop on 6 June, 1921, 
 through the death of Rt. Rev. James Schweback, 
 D.D., who had filled the see since 1892. He was 
 succeeded by Rt. Rev. Alexander J. McGarick, 
 D. D., who was appointed to the see 21 November, 
 1921. He was born in Chicago in 1863 and educated 
 m the district school of Fox Lake, and at St. 
 Viateur’s College, Kankakee, Ill. He was conse¬ 
 crated titular Bishop of Marcopolis and auxiliary 
 to the Bishop of Chicago on 1 May, 1899. He is 
 the author of ‘‘Some Incentives to Right Living." 
 
 By present statistics the Catholic population of 
 this diocese is approximately 116,608, and the fol¬ 
 lowing religious communities work among the faith¬ 
 ful, men: Jesuits, Dominicans, Fathers of the Holy 
 Ghost, and Missionary Fathers of the Sacred Heart; 
 women: Franciscan Sisters of Perpetual Adoration, 
 Sisters of the Third Order of St. Dominic, of the 
 Sorrowful Mother, Hospital Sisters of St. Francis, 
 School Sisters of Notre Dame, Sisters of St. Dom¬ 
 inic, Franciscan Sisters of Charity, School Sisters 
 of St. Francis, Sisters of the Third Order of St. 
 Francis of Assisi, Sisters of St. Benedict, Polish 
 Sisters of St. Joseph, and Sisters of the Society 
 of ^ the Divine ^Saviour. There are 156 parishes, 
 235 churches, 79 missions, 1 monastery for men 
 and 1 for women, 189 secular priests, 53 regu¬ 
 lar, 3 convents for women with 1450 Sisters, 1 
 college for men with 24 teachers and an attendance 
 of 400, 2 colleges and academies for women with 
 an attendance of 380, 4 high schools with an attend¬ 
 ance of 320 boys and 125 girls, and 90 elementary 
 schools. The charitable institutions include St. 
 Michael’s Orphanage and 7 hospitals, 4 of which 
 have training schools for nurses. Practically all 
 the public institutions admit the ministry of Cath¬ 
 olic priests. St. Joseph’s Priests’ Fund Association 
 and the Eucharistic League for Priests are organized 
 in the diocese and various parish societies are estab¬ 
 lished among the laity. 
 
 Lafayette, Diocese of (Lafayettensis), was 
 erected by Pope Benedict XV on 11 January, 1918. 
 lhe territory assigned to it was taken from the 
 
 Archdiocese of New Orleans, and comprises all the 
 civil parishes (counties) of the State of Louisiana, 
 west of the Atchafalaya River, i. e., St. Mary, 
 Iberia, St. Martin, St. Landry, Evangeline, Acadia, 
 Lafayette, Vermilion, Cameron, Jefferson Davis, 
 Calcasieu, Allen, and Beauregard, these parishes 
 forming the southwestern part of the State. Rt. 
 Rev. Jules B. Jeanmard was appointed its first 
 bishop and consecrated in New Orleans 8 Decem¬ 
 ber, 1918. He was born on 15 August, 1879, in the 
 territory of his future diocese, and therefore has 
 the distinction of being the first Louisianian to be 
 elevated to the episcopal dignity. 
 
 Possibly nowhere in the continental United States 
 can there be found a population so homogeneous 
 m racial character and religion as one finds in this 
 part of Louisiana. The vast majority of the 170,000 
 Catholics of the territory are descendants of the 
 Acadian refugees, who were driven out of Nova 
 Scotia and who,'after many vicissitudes and migra¬ 
 tions, found new homes in southwest Louisiana, 
 where they gradually congregated in the latter half 
 of the eighteenth century (1764-1788). There were 
 then a few French settlements in this territory 
 and while the Acadians built their habitations 
 around the existing points of civilization, they did 
 not hesitate to found villages of their own, and 
 gradually spread along the water courses (bayous) 
 and throughout the vast prairies. Hence very early 
 in this part of the United States we find distinc¬ 
 tively Catholic settlements, which at present (1921) 
 can look back on a hundred years and more of 
 organized Catholic parish activity; the century old 
 church records of St. Martinville, Opelousas (1777), 
 Grand Coteau (1819), and Lafayette (1821) have 
 few equals in the United States, in historical value 
 and interest. Acadian families are usually very 
 large, and so we need not wonder that the descend¬ 
 ants of the original few thousand settlers form 
 to-day by far the major portion of the inhabitants 
 of thirteen civil parishes (counties). 
 
 The language of the people is mostly French, 
 with a fair knowledge of English in the larger 
 places, and while the western parishes received 
 in the eighties and nineties a considerable influx 
 of settlers from the Middle West, it is only in the 
 new towns that. English has superseded the lan¬ 
 guage of the original inhabitants. 
 
 The rapid growth of the schools, parochial as 
 well as public, and commercial necessity have also 
 been responsible for the gradual spread and grow¬ 
 ing importance of English in church and mart. 
 
 With the language they retained the religion of 
 their ancestors, although priests were few and their 
 territory so extended that the outlying districts saw 
 the missionary but a few times a year. The new 
 cities, such as Crowley, Jennings, and Lake 
 Charles, are prosperous communities with flourish¬ 
 ing Catholic congregations, surrounded by a terri¬ 
 tory whose well cultivated rice fields are mostly 
 owned by the old Acadian settlers. New methods 
 in agriculture, together with the native aptitude 
 and industry of the Acadians, have already pro¬ 
 duced a state of affluence that seems to guarantee 
 still greater material prosperity for the ever increas¬ 
 ing population. 
 
 Ecclesiastically the new diocese is well organized, 
 having 52 parishes with resident priests, while 50 
 missions and 11 stations are visited at regular 
 intervals. In many of these missions conditions 
 are so favorable that only the dearth of priests 
 prevents their being made parishes with resident 
 pastors. Since the creation of the diocese seven new 
 parishes have been erected. More priests is the 
 crying need of the Diocese of Lafayette, and there- 
 
LAFON 
 
 446 
 
 LAMEGO 
 
 fore the energetic Bishop Jeanmard is putting forth 
 his best efforts to foster native vocations, to secure 
 more priests, and to systematize the work of recruit¬ 
 ing and financing the education of the prospective 
 students. At present there are 32 students prepar¬ 
 ing for the holy priesthood. . , 
 
 As one of his first administrative measures the 
 bishop appointed a superintendent of schools, and 
 set out to co-ordinate the efforts of the existing 
 institutions and to inspire pastors and people with 
 the ideal of Catholic school activity. The super¬ 
 intendent was directed to systematize the work m 
 the elementary grades, and lay down the lines for 
 the standardization of the high schools, and to-day 
 a system is in operation which only awaits the 
 multiplication of the schools to produce great re¬ 
 sults for the Catholic life of the coming generation 
 The lack of teachers is a serious handicap, and 
 several places are only awaiting the arrival of reli- 
 gious to open schools that would be patronized by 
 hundreds of pupils. At present there are 30 elemen¬ 
 tary schools directed by 354 teachers with 5805 
 pupils attending; 18 parish high schools have en¬ 
 rolled 374 pupils. A state-approved normal school 
 is being conducted by the Religious of the Sacred 
 Heart, who also conduct an academy with 79 young 
 ladies in attendance. St. Charles College at Grand 
 Coteau, with an attendance of 150 students, is m 
 charge of the Jesuit Fathers, and is the only insti— 
 tut6 of higher learning for men in the diocese. St. 
 Patrick’s Sanitarium at Lake Charles is being con¬ 
 ducted by the Sisters of Charity of the Incarnate 
 Word. 
 
 During the World War the diocese furnished a 
 large quota of men for the service of the country, 
 and three of its priests served with the colors. 
 
 As within the confines of the diocese there is a 
 large colored population, many of whom axe Cath¬ 
 olics, it is the aim of the bishop to provide them 
 with their own churches and priests, and to-day 
 there are 5 parishes for the colored people with 
 resident pastors in the larger centers of population, 
 i e., Lafayette, New Iberia, Opelousas, Crowley, 
 and Lake Charles. The Fathers of the Holy Ghost 
 and the Josephite Fathers are in charge of these 
 churches, and are doing splendid work in church 
 and school. In Lafayette there is an industrial 
 institute for colored pupils, which has an attendance 
 of 116 children, while the colored parish schools of 
 the diocese have about 2000 pupils enrolled. 
 Parishes, 52; churches, 102; missions, 50; stations, 
 11; convents: men 2, women 1; priests: secular 51, 
 regular 26; Sisters, 425; seminarians, 32; colleges: 
 men 1, teachers 14, attendance 150; high schools 
 18, teachers 22, attendance 374; academy 1, teachers 
 6, attendance 71; normal school 1, teachers 3, at¬ 
 tendance 18; elementary schools 30, teachers 354, 
 attendance 5805; industrial school 1, teachers 5, 
 attendance 116. 
 
 them were Vallery-Radot, Jammes, and especially 
 Mauriac, a fellow-Girondin. His association with 
 Mauriac was followed by remarkable progress in 
 the spiritual life as is revealed in his private 
 correspondence. ‘‘La Maison Pauvre,” a volume 
 of poems depicting the daily humble peasant life, 
 and containing many frankly religious effusions, 
 appeared shortly after his arrival in Paris and 
 secured his reputation as a poet. In 1912 the 
 French Academy crowned his first novel, “L’Eleve 
 Gilles,” awarding it the new 10,000 francs prize 
 for literature. It is the portrayal 9 f the soul of 
 a poor child, and is in part a reflection of his own 
 life. His second novel, “La Maison sur la Rive,” 
 an attempt to reveal the soul of a girl, appeared 
 in 1914, and is full of charm, but was not so suc¬ 
 cessful. When the war broke out he volunteered 
 again and again for active service, despite his ill- 
 health, but he never got beyond the training camp 
 at Souge, as he was stricken. with scarlatina and 
 died in the military hospital at Bordeaux. 
 
 Lagos, Vicariate Apostolic of. See Benin. 
 
 Lahore, Diocese of (Lahorensis; cf. C. E., 
 VIII-742d), in Northern India, suffragan of Simla. 
 Formerly suffragan of Agra, this see has been a 
 part of the ecclesiastical province of Simla since 
 13 September, 1910, when, in order to form this 
 new archdiocese, the districts of Kulu, Lahul, 
 Mandi, Spiti, and Suket were taken from Lahore. 
 The present bishop is Rt. Rev. Fabian Anthony 
 Eestermans, O. M.Cap., to whom this territory is en¬ 
 trusted. Born in Meerles, Belgium, 1858, he entered 
 order in 1878, and was ordained in 1883, served as 
 a professor at Bruges, was sent to the Indian mis¬ 
 sion in 1889, and was appointed bishop 11 April, 
 1905. Out of a total population of 15,836,000 the dio¬ 
 cese counts a Catholic population of 26,591 (3277 
 Europeans, 23,314 Indians), and 16,453 catechumens. 
 It is served by 36 Capuchin Fathers, 50 churches 
 and chapels, 23 stations with resident priests, 8 
 convents with 60 Sisters, 1 preparatory seminary 
 with 16 boys, a college for boys under the Patrician 
 Brothers with 10 teachers and 170 students, 3 high 
 schools with 10 teachers and 130 girl and 40 boy 
 students, an academy for Indian children with 15 
 teachers and a total attendance of 400, 23 elemen¬ 
 tary schools with three or four teachers in each, 
 teaching 1600 children, and 2 industrial schools 
 conducted by the nuns with 80 pupils. The gov¬ 
 ernment asylum for insane women is in charge of 
 the Franciscan Sisters, and 8 dispensaries are es¬ 
 tablished. Nearly all the schools receive aid from 
 the Government. A Catholic Association is formed 
 in Lahore, and a small weekly paper, “Catholic 
 News,” is published for the Catholics of the dio¬ 
 cese only. 
 
 Laibach, Diocese of. See Ljubljana. 
 
 Lafon, Andre, poet and novelist, b. in 1883 at 
 Bordeaux; d. there in May, 1915. In his early 
 childhood his family, which was in lowly circum¬ 
 stances, moved from Bordeaux to Blaye, where he 
 studied at the municipal school, in which, after 
 completing his education, he secured a position as 
 prefect of discipline. Later he became a teacher 
 in the lycee at Bordeaux, and while there he pub¬ 
 lished a small volume of poems entitled “Poemes 
 Provinciaux.” He next obtained a transfer to the 
 Lycee Carnot at Paris, but shortly secured a more 
 congenial position in the Catholic College of Ste 
 Croix at Neuilly. In Paris he was welcomed by a 
 group of young Catholic writers associated with 
 “L’Amitie de France,” a quarterly review; among 
 
 Lalemant, Gabriel (cf. C. E., VIII-752b).—The 
 cause of his beatification was introduced at Rome 
 9 August, 1916. 
 
 Lamego, Diocese of (Lamacensis; cf. C. E., 
 VIII-761c), in the province of Beira, Portugal, 
 suffragan of Braga. The see is filled by Rt. Rev. 
 Francisco Jose Ribeiro de Vieira Britto, born in 
 Rendufinho, Portugal, 1850, appointed Bishop of 
 Angra 27 February, 1892, and transferred 9 June, 
 1902. On 4 August, 1921, a coadjutor bishop was 
 appointed in the person of Rt. Rev. Augustin de 
 Jesus e Souza, canon theologian, made prothonotary 
 apostolic 30 September, 1920, consecrated titular 
 Bishop of Hauara 21 November of the following 
 year. With the exception of Braga, Lamego is the 
 oldest diocese in Portugal, and counts 266,000 
 
LAMENNAIS 
 
 447 
 
 LANG-SON 
 
 Catholics, a few Protestants, 287 parishes, 4G5 
 priests, 310 churches, 1144 public chapels and 110 
 private oratories (1920 statistics). 
 
 Lamennais, Jean-Marie-Robert de (cf. C. E., 
 yill-765c) .—The cause of his beatification was 
 introduced at Rome 22 March, 1911. 
 
 Lamp, The, a Catholic monthly devoted to 
 Church unity and missions, founded under Anglican 
 auspices by Very Rev. Paul James Francis, S.A., 
 and making its first appearance on Candlemas, 1903! 
 \\ hen the Society of the Atonement was received 
 into the Catholic Church on 30 October, 1909, with 
 its name and institute, “The Lamp” continued to 
 make its monthly appearance without interruption 
 Its average circulation for the first six months of 
 was 160,000 monthly. “The Lamp” is the organ 
 • ^ q Society of the Atonement and of its activi¬ 
 ties, St. John’s Atonement College which prepares 
 T° r ,j^ e friar-priesthood, the Rosary League of Our 
 Lady of the Atonement, the Union That Nothing 
 lie Lost, which is the missionary agency of the Soci¬ 
 ety, and of the Church Unity Octave in the propa¬ 
 gation of the observance of which it was the first 
 to be interested. “The Lamp” is edited bv The 
 Friars of the Atonement, at Graymoor, Garrison, 
 
 Lamy, Etienne-Marie-Victor, author and 
 secretary of the French Academy, b. at Cire, Jura, 
 on 2 June, 1845; d. on 9 January, 1919. He studied 
 under the Dominicans at Sorreze, and later at the 
 College Stanislas. Subsequently he won his doc¬ 
 torate of law with a thesis on the Bourse in ancient 
 medieval, and modem days. In his youth in- 
 spired by Pere Lacordaire he took the resolution, 
 vhich he cairied out in later manhood, of serving 
 France through the religion of Christ. Nominated 
 to the National Assembly at the age of twenty-five 
 he \oted against the peace with Germany in 1871. 
 By his gift of eloquence and especially by his re¬ 
 markable Report on the Natfy Budget, 1878, he 
 established his position as a parliamentarian of first 
 a P. to assure his early inclusion in 
 
 the Cabinet. But this was not to be. Lamy was 
 a Catholic; he stood for the liberty of higher edu¬ 
 cation and so fought the anti-Catholic monopolistic 
 school law of Jules Ferry in 1879, with the conse¬ 
 quence that in 1881 he was defeated for re-election. 
 
 1 hereafter he fought his fight for Christian France 
 in the literary field. He became editor of “Le 
 Correspondant” and wrote for the “Journal des 
 Debats, La Revue des Deux Mondes,” and won a 
 great literary reputation. In 1905 he was elected to 
 the French Academy and on the death of Thureau- 
 Dangin succeeded as perpetual secretary. Startled 
 by the increasing decline in French natality conse¬ 
 quent on the spread of non-Catholic principles of 
 morality, he enabled the French Academy through 
 his generosity to offer annually the two Etienne 
 Lamy prizes of 10,000 francs each, for large families. 
 For many years he began his day’s work by hearing 
 early Mass. Among his chief works are: “La France 
 du Levant” (1898), “Le second Empire” (1895), 
 
 La Femme du demain” (1899), “Aimee de Coigny” 
 (1900), “Fausses republiques,” Temoins de lours 
 passes” (1909; 1913). 
 
 !f° f U o C o Ce ? d Most Rev - Au S eI ° della Cioppa, 
 appointed 22 June 1896, d. 29 January, 1917. On 
 
 March, 1919, Archbishop Piccirilli was named 
 admmistrator of Vasto. On 5 February, 1909, the 
 cathedral was erected into a minor basilica 
 According to 1920 statistics Lanciano counts 37,209 
 Catholics Ortona, 60,400 Catholics; there are in 
 the two dioceses, 20 parishes, 100 secular and 8 
 regular priests 12 seminarians, 5 Brothers, 25 Sis¬ 
 ters, and 102 churches or chapels. 
 
 P I0C ^ SE ? F (Lingonensis; cf. C. E., 
 ViII-780d) in the department of Haute-Marne, 
 France suffragan of Lyons. Rt. Rev. Marie- 
 Augustin de Durfort de Civrac de Lorge was 
 appointed to this see 9 February, 1911, to succeed 
 Bishop Herscher (retired 24 December, 1910), and 
 
 imo J ^u ntl1 hls tr . ansfer t0 Poitiers 3 September, 
 1918. The present incumbent, Rt. Rev. Theophile- 
 
 b °uvard, born in P ad on, France, 1858, or¬ 
 dained 1882 was a professor and then superior of 
 the school of St. Francis de Sales at Alengon (1898) 
 named an honorary vicar general and appointed 
 bishop 10 March, 1919. A decree of 4 September, 
 1918, gave to the cathedral chapter the dignity of 
 a deaconate; the right of nomination is reserved to 
 the , R?ly See. During the World War 158 priests 
 and 29 seminarians were mobilized from this dio¬ 
 cese, and of this number 25 gave up their lives, 
 
 4 were taken prisoners, 2 were decorated with the 
 Legion dhonneur, 4 with the medaille militaire, 47 
 With the croix de guerre, a number with the 
 
 5 inon de f ^demies, and 84 with other citations. 
 By 1920 statistics the diocese counts a Catholic 
 population of 214,785, 444 parishes, 3 archpresby¬ 
 teries and 29 deaneries, 540 priests, of whom 307 
 are pastors, 29 vicars, 55 professors, 23 vicars gen¬ 
 eral, canons and chaplains, 58 priests serving in 
 other dioceses, 23 vicariates, 1 lower seminary 1 
 upper seminary, 2 ecclesiastical institutes, and ’ 16 
 religious communities. 
 
 Lanciano, Archdiocese of (Lancianensis; cf. C. 
 E., \TII-774d), in the province of Cheti, Southern 
 Italy, with the perpetual administration of Ortona 
 (Ortonensis). This see is now filled (1922) by Most 
 Rev. Nicola Piccirilli, born in Chieti, 16 October, 
 1855, appointed Archbishop of Santa Severina. 30 
 May, 1896, transferred to Conza, 14 November, 
 1904, and again transferred to this see 25 April, 
 29 
 
 Lang-son and Kao-bang, Prefecture Apostolic 
 of (de Lang-son et Caobang). —This prefecture 
 was erected by a Decree of 13 December, 1913, 
 and comprises a vast mountainous territory in the 
 northeastern part of Tonkin, along the Chinese 
 frontier. Originally the bed of a primitive sea, 
 about three-fourths of this territory is rock, some 
 of the rocks being 4000 feet high. It extends over 
 an aiea of 7722 sq. miles, but owing to its peculiar 
 formation is very sparsely populated, the principal 
 inhabitants being a few old tribes such as the Thos 
 
 Lalos, with a few thou¬ 
 sand Chinese and Annamites who have migrated 
 from China and Annam. Until its erection into a 
 prefecture this territory had only three poor chapels 
 and three Dominican Fathers who had worked 
 there for seven or eight years and gathered together 
 a community of 514, some of them converts, but 
 for the most part Annamites who had come from 
 the Delta. The territory was left in charge of 
 the Dominicans (of the province of Lyons), who 
 now number 10, and are assisted by 4 secular 
 priests, 19 catechists, 45 student catechists, 27 semi¬ 
 narians and 23 native Sisters. The number of 
 Christians has increased remarkably considering the 
 almost insurmountable difficulties, the total number 
 now being 1854. About 200 of these, how ever, 
 are orphans or infirm people who are totally de¬ 
 pendent on the charity of the priests who are 
 piactically without resources. The first and present 
 prefect apostolic is Rev. Bertrand Cothonay, ap¬ 
 pointed 7 January, 1914. Latest statistics credit 
 the mission with 10 quasi-parishes, 6 churches, 8 
 chapels, 15 mission stations, 1 seminary, 6 elemen- 
 
LAOS 
 
 448 
 
 LATVIA 
 
 tary schools with 6 teachers and 75 pupils, 1 home 
 for the blind, and 2 orphanages. 
 
 Laos, Vicariate Apostolic of (Laotiensis; cf. C. 
 E., VII-773c), in the province of Nakhon-Phanom, 
 Siam, with episcopal residence at Nong-seng. It is 
 entrusted to the Foreign Mission of Paris. The 
 last vicar apostolic was Rt. Rev. Constant- 
 Jean-Baptiste Prodhomme of this congregation, 
 born in Garron, France, 1849, appointed titular 
 Bishop of Gerrha, 2 June, 1913, died 19 August, 
 1920. His successor has not yet been appointed. 
 The territory includes a population of 2,500,000, of 
 whom 32,858 are Catholics, and 1172 catechumens. 
 The 1920 statistics. credit the vicariate with 52 
 European missionaries, 19 native priests, 8 semi¬ 
 narians, 54 churches and chapels, 33 catechists, 22 
 orphanages with 304 children, 15 native religious, 
 and 35 schools with 797 pupils. 
 
 La Paz, Diocese of (Pacensis; cf. C. E., 
 VIII-795b), in Bolivia, South America, suffragan of 
 La Plata. Rt. Rev. Manuel-Jose Pena, appointed 
 to this see 24 October, 1911, died in 1915, and was 
 succeeded by Rt. Rev. Dionisio Avila, appointed 
 27 January, 1916, d. 3 July, 1919. The present 
 incumbent Rt. Rev. Celestino Loza, was then ap¬ 
 pointed 20 June, 1920. This diocese, which has a 
 population of 500,000, is credited by the 1920 statis¬ 
 tics with 90 parishes, 4 houses of religious, 8 con¬ 
 vents of Sisters, 2 hospitals and 3 asylums for 
 orphans and the aged. 
 
 La Plata (or Charcas), Archdiocese of (de 
 Platensis; cf. C. E., VIII-798d), in Bolivia, South 
 America, with episcopal residence at Sucre. Most 
 Rev. Sebastiano Pifferi, who was appointed to this 
 see 30 April, 1906, died 4 February, 1912, and 
 was succeeded by the present incumbent Most Rev. 
 Victor Arrieu, born in Sucre 1867, served as vicar 
 capitular of the diocese and was appointed 13 Jan¬ 
 uary, 1914. The 1920 statistics credit the diocese 
 with 366,560 Catholics; 134 parishes, 200 priests, 
 and 515 churches or chapels. 
 
 La Plata, Diocese of (de Platensis; cf. C. E., 
 VIII-798b), in the states of Buenos Aires and 
 Pampa, in the Argentine Republic, S. A., suffragan 
 of Buenos Aires. This see was filled by Rt. Rev. 
 Juan Nepomucene Terrero y Escalada, from 7 
 December, 1900, until his death 10 January, 1921. 
 He was succeeded by Rt. Rev. Francisco Alberti, 
 born in Buenos Aires 1865, appointed titular Bishop 
 of Siunia and auxiliary in this diocese 21 February, 
 1899, then named auxiliary at Buenos Aires, and 
 transferred to the See of La Plata, 13 July, 1921. 
 The diocese extends over an area of 174,141 sq. 
 miles and comprises a population of 2,300,000; 101 
 parishes and 128 churches or chapels. 
 
 Larino, Diocese of (Larinum; cf. C. E., IX-4a), 
 in the province of Campobasso, Southern Italy, 
 shows a slight increase in Catholic population, the 
 number of Catholics in the diocese now (1921) being 
 80,000 as against 79,000 in 1910. The present bishop, 
 Rt. Rev. Antonio Lippolis was born at Alberobello, 
 Diocese of Bari on 19 January, 1865, and was elected 
 to the See of Larino, January, 1915, to succeed Rt. 
 Rev. Bishop Trenta, who was transferred in 1914 to 
 the See of Viterbo. 
 
 The present statistics of the diocese show 21 par¬ 
 ishes, 57 churches, 2 monasteries for men and 1 
 for women, 64 secular and 6 regular clergy, 4 lay 
 brothers, 9 religious houses for men and 3 for 
 women, 1 seminary with 8 seminarians, 1 college 
 for men with 6 instructors and 50 students, 3 tech¬ 
 nical schools with 8 instructors and 200 students, 10 
 elementary schools with 10 instructors and 300 
 
 students. The various charitable institutions include 
 1 home, 2 asylums, 1 hospital, settlement houses 
 and day nurseries; 1 society is organized among 
 the clergy, and 1 among the laity. 
 
 La Rochelle, Diocese of (Rupellensis; cf. C. E., 
 IX-6a), comprises the entire department of 
 Charente-Inferieure, in France. It carries the 
 united title of Saintes (Santonensis) and is suffra¬ 
 gan of the Archdiocese of Bordeaux. The see is 
 filled by Rt.Rev. Jean-Auguste-Frangois Eyssautier, 
 born in Entrevaux 1844, studied at Digne and 
 La Rochelle, was ordained in 1S68, served as a pro¬ 
 fessor at the College of Pons, made an honorary 
 canon in 1878, vicar general in 1893, superior of 
 the College of Pons in 1894, appointed 27 Novem¬ 
 ber, 1906, and made an assistant at the pontifical 
 throne 11 April, 1918, on the occasion of his 
 sacerdotal jubilee. In 1920 in accordance with in¬ 
 structions from the minister of agriculture, Bishop 
 Eyssautier was made a member of the wheat com¬ 
 mittee in Charente-Inferieure. The same year a 
 social diocesan congress of the Catholic Union of 
 Aunis and Saintonge was held at La Rochelle, 6 
 and 7 July, with the bishop presiding. The upper 
 seminary, closed since July, 1913, was reopened in 
 October, 1920, and now has forty students. The 
 lower seminary was re-established some years be¬ 
 fore and in 1915 had 71 students. However, this 
 diocese, like most of the others in France is suffer¬ 
 ing from a scarcity of vocations which becomes 
 particularly serious in view of the depleted ranks 
 of the clergy caused by the World War. During 
 the war 254 of the clergy were mobilized and of 
 this number 34 gave up their lives, 3 were deco¬ 
 rated with the legion d’honneur, 3 with the medaille 
 militaire, and 48 with the croix de guerre. In 
 all 83 priests of this diocese died during the war. 
 In 1921 there were 121 priests less than in 1891, 
 and 226 parishes were without resident priests. The 
 diocese counts 450,871 Catholics, of whom 36,371 are 
 in La Rochelle proper; according to 1920 statistics 
 it has 46 first class parishes, 326 succursal parishes, 
 and 49 vicariates, formerly supported by the state. 
 
 La Salette, Missionaries of (cf. C. E., IX-9a).— 
 The provincial house for America is at Hartford, 
 Conn., where 46 Fathers have charge of 6 parishes 
 and an apostolic school where boys from twelve 
 to eighteen years are received. There is a similar 
 school at Tournai in Belgium. 
 
 Lateran Canons. See Canons Regular of the 
 Lateran. 
 
 Latter Day Saints, Church of Jesus Christ of. 
 
 See Mormons. 
 
 Latvia, a republic along the southern part of 
 the Baltic littoral, consisting of the former Rus¬ 
 sian Province of Courland (10,435 sq. miles), four 
 southern districts (Riga, Wenden, Wolmar, Walk) 
 of the former Russian province of Livonia (8715 
 sq. miles), and three western districts (Dvinsk, 
 Reshitza, Lutsin) of the former Russian province 
 of Vitebsk (5292 sq. miles), a total of about 24,440 
 sq. miles or including inland lakes, about 25,000 
 sq. miles. The chief towns are Riga, the capital, 
 with a population of 569,100 (1914), Libau (90,744), 
 Mitau (46,860), Windau, Wenden, Wolmar. The 
 first three are important ports on the Gulf of 
 Riga. The census taken on 15 June, 1920, showed 
 a population of 1,503,193 in Latvia. Of these, 
 1,416,090 are Latvian citizens and 87,103 foreigners. 
 Of the Latvian citizens, 80.41% were Letts, 8.86% 
 Russians, 4.29% Jews, 3.23% Germans, 2.19% Poles, 
 .52% Lithuanians, .25% Esthonians, and .25% other 
 nationalities* 
 
LAU 
 
 449 
 
 LAUSANNE 
 
 Religion.— -The new Constitution of Latvia pro¬ 
 vides for religious freedom, there being no State 
 Church. In Riga, \Y indau, and southeast of Livonia 
 there are about 200,000 Greek Orthodox Letts. 
 
 Education.— Before the war there were 98 sec¬ 
 ondary schools in Latvia with 22,000 pupils, or 1 
 secondary school for every 20,000 inhabitants. The 
 percentage of illiterates, including children under 
 the age of ten, is 21.5. In 1919 the Riga Poly- 
 technical Institute became a Latvian University 
 with over 3000 students. A Musical Academy has 
 also been reopened in Riga. 
 
 Economic Conditions— About 12,680 sq. miles 
 of the area are in forest, 11,760 sq. miles in pasture 
 land, 11,080 in arable land, 4280 in waste land, and 
 200 in gardens. Before the war the Latvian flax 
 crop was about 35,000 tons per annum, but in 
 1919-20 only 16,000 tons were available for export. 
 The forest lands yield about 172,500,000 feet of 
 timber annually, 14% of which is exported. On 
 1 July, 1920, there were 1242 industrial enterprises 
 in Latvia, employing 12,000 Lands. During the 
 German offensive against Russia, the Russians 
 devastated the country in order to leave nothing 
 but the bare land for the invaders, thus completely 
 destroying the economic life of the country. In 
 1920, 119 works were subsidized and the amount 
 of subsidy was 19,211,461 rubles (1 ruble = $0.51 
 normal exchange). Before the war Riga was the 
 leading port of the Russian Empire, the total turn¬ 
 over of its trade being over $18,000,000. In 1920 
 the export trade, most of which (67%) went to 
 Great Britain was valued at 1,075,500,000 rubles: 
 the imports, 2,061,100,000 rubied. 
 
 Railways .—Three Russian steam lines converge on 
 Latvian ports, viz.: the Riga-Tsaritsin line, the 
 Windau-Moscow line and the Libau-Romni line. 
 On 1 January, 1921, 10 steamboats of 9003 tons 
 and 29 sailing vessels of 7789 tons, making a total 
 of 39 vessels of 16,892 tons were sailing under 
 the Latvian flag. The railway mileage is 1715, 
 of which 516 miles are of Russian gauge; 595 of 
 European gauge, and 426 miles of narrow gauge. 
 Three main lines connect the country with Russia. 
 
 Recent History.— The free state of Latvia was 
 proclaimed at Riga on 18 November, 1918, and 
 was recognized de facto by Great Britain, Japan, 
 and Italy, and several of the smaller states. The 
 Constituent Assembly met on 1 May, 1920, and 
 after the resignation of the Provisional Govern¬ 
 ment, which consisted of a State council of 102 
 members, a Coalition Government, responsible to 
 the Assembly, was formed, all parties participating, 
 with the exception of the Social Democrats. A 
 Peace Treaty was signed with Moscow on 11 August 
 and ratified by the Assembly on 2 September. It 
 provided for the return to Latvia of public property, 
 and for the release of Latvia from the liabilities 
 of the former Russian Empire. 
 
 Lau, Jean Marie, and Companions. See Carmes, 
 Martyrs of the. 
 
 Laurier, Sir Wilfred, statesman, b. 20 November, 
 1841, at St. Lin, Province of Quebec; d. on 17 
 February, 1919, at Ottawa; received his primary 
 education in the parish school of St. Lin and 
 then studied at Assumption College, in the Arch¬ 
 diocese of Montreal. He was a law student in 
 McGill Lmiversity at Montreal and was admitted 
 to the bar in 1864. Seven years later he entered 
 political life as a member of the Assembly for 
 Drummond and Athabaska and was elected to 
 the House of Commons in 1874; and in 1877 be¬ 
 came Minister of Inland Revenue in the Mackenzie 
 Administration. After a defeat by a very small 
 
 majority in Quebec East, he was again and again 
 
 e e f t ^ na ? lcly ’ in , 1878 > 1882 > 1887, 1891, 1896, 
 and 1900. In 1904 he went to the House of Com- 
 mons and was chosen again in 1908, 1911, and 
 19i7 He had been leader of the Opposition in 
 the House ever since 1887, and on the defeat of the 
 1 upper Ministry in 1896 was called by Lord Aber- 
 deoil to form ci Ministry and bocomo Pr6sidont 
 of the Privy Council and in that capacity took 
 part in settling the Manitoba Question about 
 separate Catholic schools, not, however, by repeat¬ 
 ing the odious legislation but by diminishing the 
 evil results of the measure. At the Queen’s Jubilee 
 in 1897, he was created a Knight of the Most 
 Distinguished Order of St. Michael and St. George, 
 and was accorded the leading place among the 
 colonial representatives in the Jubilee procession, 
 was made a member of the Imperial Privy Council, 
 and received from the President of the French 
 Republic the star of a grand officer of the Legion 
 Honor, the highest rank but one of the national 
 order. On his return to Canada public honors 
 were accorded to him in all of the principal cities 
 and decorations of every description were bestowed 
 upon him. Edinburgh and Glasgow were especially 
 insistent on honoring him. In 1907 he attended 
 the Imperial Conference at London as one of the 
 representatives of Canada and was granted the 
 freedom of the cities of London, Bristol, Liverpool, 
 and other cities. In 1911 he represented Canada 
 at the convention of King George. He finally fell 
 from power in September, 1911, when the Liberals 
 were beaten. 
 
 Lausanne and Geneva, Diocese of (Lausan- 
 nensis et Genevensis; cf. C. E., IX-40b), in 
 Switzerland immediately subject to the Holy See. 
 Rt. Rev. Joseph Deruaz, appointed to this see in 
 1890, died 26 September, 1911, and was succeeded 
 by Rt. Rev. Andre Bovet, born in Autigny, 1865, 
 ordained 1891, served as first doctor of theology 
 m the University of Fribourg in 1893, vicar at 
 Neufchatel, professor in the college of St. Michel 
 in 1894, federal chaplain of the Swiss army, director 
 of the seminary, appointed bishop 30 November, 
 1911. In 1912 he was made president of the perma¬ 
 nent committee of the international Marian Con¬ 
 gress. Under his patronage various relief and 
 charitable associations were organized during the 
 World War, notable among them the Catholic 
 mission for prisoners of war. Bishop Bovet died 
 3 August, 1915, and was succeeded by Rt. Rev. 
 Placide Colliard, born in Attelens, Switzerland, 
 1876, appointed 6 December, 1915. He filled the 
 see until his death 10 February, 1920, and the 
 present incumbent, Rt. Rev. Marius Benson, was 
 appointed to succeed him. Born in Turin in 1876 
 he made his studies at the seminary of St. John 
 at Lyons and the University of Fribourg, was or¬ 
 dained in 1899, served as vicar at La Chaux-de- 
 Fonds, professor of history at the seminary in 
 1907, at the university in 1908, superior of the 
 seminary in 1919, and appointed bishop 7 May, 
 1920. In 1921 the first stone of a lower seminary 
 now under construction at Geneva, was blessed. 
 
 During the World War the Catholic Mission of 
 Switzerland, organized in this diocese, was the cen¬ 
 ter of many activities in behalf of the warring 
 countries. Bureaux were organized for investigating 
 cases of persons who had disappeared, for visiting 
 prisoners held in Germany, and in the Central 
 Empires, for rendering religious service to those 
 interned in Switzerland, for giving food and clothes 
 to refugees, and for dispensing books of study and 
 conducting lectures. The International Catholic 
 Union was also established for the protection ol 
 
LAUSITZ 
 
 450 
 
 LAW 
 
 young girls, for supplying the prisoners’ needs, 
 for taking charge of correspondence with invaded 
 countries, and to assist the civil prisoners in Austria 
 and Hungary. 
 
 The statistics of 1920 credit the canton of Fri¬ 
 bourg with a total population of 143,055, of whom 
 123,039 are Catholics, and about 19,000 Protestants. 
 The diocese comprises 192 parishes, of which six 
 are in the city of Geneva, a number of succursal 
 parishes, 397 secular and about 100 regular priests, 
 
 1 upper seminary at Fribourg, 1 Catholic University 
 and a number of ecclesiastical colleges. The city 
 of Fribourg is rich in churches and religious houses. 
 In making excavations in the cathedral in 1911 the 
 tombs of three of the bishops were found, which 
 had escaped the Bernese who had destroyed the 
 original building. The tombs were those of Berthold 
 of Neuchatel (1220), Henri de Bourgogne (1029), 
 and Blessed Amedee de Clermont-Tonnerre, a Cis¬ 
 tercian and ecclesiastical writer. 
 
 Lausitz (or Lvsatia), Prefecture Apostolic of 
 (Lusatle), in Saxony. This prefecture was erected 
 in 1560 and its administration entrusted to the 
 Chapter of Bautzen. On 24 June, 1921, the prefec¬ 
 ture was suppressed and' incorporated in the diocese 
 of Meissen (q.v.). 
 
 Laval, Diocese of (Vallis Guidonis, or Valle- 
 gudonensis; cf. C. E., IX-45a), in the department 
 of Mayenne, France, suffragan of Tours. This see 
 is filled by Rt. Rev. Eugene-Jacques Grellier, born 
 in Joue, France, 1850, studied at Combree and 
 Angers, ordained in 1873, served as a vicar, chap¬ 
 lain of the retreat at Angers, pastor and vicar 
 general, superior of the upper seminary, and ap¬ 
 pointed bishop 21 February, 1906, to succeed Bishop 
 Gaey, retired. On the occasion of the five-hundreth 
 anniversary of the apparition of Our Lady of Pont- 
 main in 1921, celebrations were held in January, 
 and again in June, in the presence of many arch¬ 
 bishops and bishops. The same year, on 22 Novem¬ 
 ber, the cathedral of the Holy Trinity was 
 consecrated by the bishop. This cathedral was 
 begun in the eleventh century by the Benedictines 
 of Le Mans, enlarged in 1150, the spire destroyed 
 by fire in 1383 and again in 1563, and enlarged by 
 the addition of the chapel of the Sacred Heart 
 in 1575; in 1789 it had twenty altars served by 
 more than sixty priests. By the 1911 census there 
 were 350,637 Catholics in the diocese, of whom 
 30,225 were in Laval proper. The 1920 statistics 
 credit it with 31 first class and 265 succursal par¬ 
 ishes, and 210 vicariates formerly supported by the 
 State. 
 
 Laval, Jacques-Desire, missionary, b. at Croth, 
 in the diocese of Evreux, France, on 18 Septem¬ 
 ber, 1803; d. in the Isle of Mauritius on 9 Sep¬ 
 tember, 1864. From early childhood he was noted 
 for his love of the poor and his gentleness. He 
 studied at Evreux and the College Stanislas, Paris, 
 and in J830 graduated in medicine. He practised 
 his profession at St. Andre and St. Ivry-la-Bataille, 
 Eure, with his usual charity, but not uncontami¬ 
 nated with the spirit of the world in which he 
 mixed. Suddenly his view of life changed, and 
 entering St. Sulpice he was ordained in 1838, and 
 had charge successively of the parishes of Pinter- 
 ville and Acquiguy. In 1841, filled with a desire 
 to consecrate himself to the missions, he entered 
 the Congregation of the Immaculate Heart of 
 Mary, then recently founded by Ven. Fr. Liber- 
 mann, and after its union with the Congregation 
 of the Holy Ghost he was sent to Mauritius on 14 
 September, 1861, wher^ he reproduced the life of 
 
 St. Peter Claver. During these twenty-three years 
 he brought into the Church about 67,000 negroes, 
 then only recently emancipated. In addition he 
 utilized his earlier professional experience to effec¬ 
 tuate important sanitary and agricultural reforms. 
 He died with a reputation for sanctity which has 
 only increased since his death. The cause of his 
 beatification and canonization was introduced at 
 Rome on 26 June, 1918. _ 
 
 Lavant, Diocese of (Lavantinensis; cf. C. E., 
 IX-49a), situated in the southern part of Styria, 
 Jugoslavia, suffragan of Salzburg. This see is filled 
 by Rt. Rev. Michel Napotnik, born in Gonoblitz, 
 this diocese, 1850, appointed 26 October, 1889, and 
 made an assistant at the pontifical throne 8 March, 
 1901. In 1911 a diocesan synod was held here. By 
 latest statistics the bishopric is divided into 4 arch¬ 
 deaneries and 24 deaneries and comprises 221 par¬ 
 ishes, 203 chaplaincies (68 unoccupied), 6 unoccu¬ 
 pied offices and benefices, 356 priests engaged in 
 the cure of souls, 35 secular priests and 68 regular 
 clergy in other positions, 40 clergy without office, 
 728 churches and chapels, and 508,232 souls. The 
 episcopal priests’ seminary numbers 4 classes with 
 1151 students, and the “Maximilianum-Viktorinum,” 
 an episcopal seminary for boys has 8 classes with 
 48 students. The School Sisters of the Third Order 
 of St. Francis of Assisi have 1 mother-house and 
 29 affiliated houses with 325 Sisters. They conduct 
 a training school for women teachers, 14 girls’ 
 schools, 14 boarding schools, 5 kindergartens, 9 
 orphan asylums, 5 schools of domestic economy, 2 
 homes for servant girls, and 5 houses teaching 
 housekeeping and sick-nursing. The Salesmans of 
 Don Bosco were established in the diocese in 1912, 
 at Verzej, and number 5 priests, 5 clerical novices, 
 and 3 lay brothers. 
 
 Law (cf. C. E., IX-64).—The laws of the Code 
 do not bind the Oriental Church except when deal¬ 
 ing with matters which from the very nature of the 
 case affect it also; such, for instance, would be 
 dogmatic laws, disciplinary laws merely declarative 
 of the Divine law or those expressly including the 
 Oriental Church. Acquired rights, privileges or 
 indults granted by the Holy See to legal or physical 
 persons and all liturgical laws are unaffected unless 
 the contrary is expressly stated. All laws, whether 
 universal or particular, opposed to the prescriptions 
 of the Code have been abrogated, unless where 
 the contrary is expressly stated regarding a par¬ 
 ticular law. Canons restating the old law are to 
 be explained by the interpretations already given 
 by approved authors. In cases of doubt whether 
 any prescription of the canons differs from the old 
 law, no departure from the old law should be made. 
 All penalties, whether spiritual or temporal, medi¬ 
 cinal or vindicatory, latoe or ferencloe sententice, if 
 not mentioned in the Code are abolished. General 
 disciplinary laws not explicitly or implicity con¬ 
 tained in the Code lose all their force, unless they 
 are found in the approved liturgical books or are 
 merely confirmatory of the natural or positive Di¬ 
 vine law; however, the punishments imposed by 
 national, provincial, or diocesan synods and the 
 penalties inflicted by particular legislation of the 
 Holy See remain in vigor; so, too, do the dogmatic 
 decrees of the Holy Office, the Biblical Commission, 
 and other- such bodies. 
 
 Laws of the Holy See are as a rule promulgated 
 by publication in the “Acta Apostolicse Sedis.” 
 Episcopal laws bind from the time of promulga¬ 
 tion, if the contrary is not stated, the manner of 
 their promulgation being left to the bishop. Merely 
 ecclesiastical laws do not bind the unbaptized, or 
 
LEAD 
 
 451 
 
 LEAVENWORTH 
 
 the baptized who do not enjoy a sufficient use of 
 reason, or those who, though they have the use 
 of reason have not completed their seventh year, 
 unless the law expressly states otherwise, thus they 
 are obliged to go to confession at least once a year, 
 and to make their Easter duty. 
 
 Pcregnni are not bound by the particular laws 
 of their territory when they are absent from it, 
 unless the laws are personal or unless the viola¬ 
 tion injures some one in their own .territory; neither 
 are they subject to the laws of the place where 
 th ey . except laws enacted for the public welfare 
 or those that determine the validity or liceity of 
 legal acts performed there; on the other hand, they 
 are bound by the general ecclesiastical laws, even 
 u ^®se are not effective in the locality in which 
 they are. Vagi, however, are bound by the general 
 laws and the particular laws of whatever place they 
 are m. 
 
 Where there is a doubt of law, laws even invali¬ 
 dating and disqualifying do not take effect; if the 
 doubt is one of fact the ordinary can dispense, if 
 the case is one in which the pope is wont to dis¬ 
 pense. No ignorance of invalidating or disqualify- 
 mg laws excuses, unless the contrary is expressly 
 stated. An authentic interpretation of a law, if 
 restrictive or extensive or explanatory of a doubt, 
 is not retroactive and requires promulgation; an 
 interpretation given in a judgment or in a rescript 
 concerning a particular thing has not the force of 
 law and binds only the persons or affects only the 
 thing in question. Laws containing an exception 
 to the general law are to be interpreted strictly. 
 Laws passed to provide against a general danger, 
 bind even if in a particular instance the danger is 
 absent. A law enacted by a competent authority 
 abrogates an antecedent law if it expressly says 
 so, or if it is directly contrary to it, or if it deals anew 
 with the entire subject matter of the former law; but 
 as a rule a general law does not derogate from the 
 statutes of special territories or of individuals un¬ 
 less the contrary is expressly stated. In case of 
 doubt an earlier law is not to be presumed revoked, 
 and the later law is as far as possible to be read 
 agreement with it. A precept given to any 
 individual binds him everywhere, but it cannot be 
 urged judicially; it ceases with the jurisdiction of 
 the person who imposed it, unless it was imposed 
 by an authentic document or in the presence of 
 two witnesses. See also Code of Canon Law. 
 
 26 C 93* eX JUr ‘ CaH '’ 1-30 ’ Vermeersch - Creusen > Epit. jur. 'can., 
 
 Lead, Diocese of (Leadensis; cf. C. E., IX-98c), 
 during the administration of its present bishop has 
 had a remarkable growth, and has developed into 
 a diocese with many well established parishes where 
 formerly it was almost purely a missionary dis- 
 tnct. On 21 February, 1915, the second bishop of 
 the diocese, Rt. Rev. Joseph F. Busch, D. D., was 
 transferred to St, Cloud, Minn., and Rt. Rev. John 
 J. Lawler, D. D., Titular Bishop of Hermopolis 
 Magna, and auxiliary to the Archbishop of St. 
 Raul, was appointed to succeed him. He was 
 born at Rochester, Minn., in 1862 and completed 
 his classical studies at the seminary of St. Francis, 
 Milwaukee, going from there to Flanders, Belgium, 
 where he studied philosophy and was ordained at 
 the University of Louvain in 1885. He was conse¬ 
 crated bishop 19 May, 1910, and succeeded to the 
 Diocese of Lead, 29 January, 1916. 
 
 Immediately upon his succession to the see, after 
 studying the situation, Bishop Lawler became con¬ 
 vinced that the mission system, which had been 
 in operation in the diocese since its foundation, 
 must, be supplanted by a system of established 
 
 parishes. He was confronted with many difficulties; 
 a widely scattered Catholic population, few priests 
 and very little money, but by untiring efforts and 
 financial assistance from the Church Extension Soci¬ 
 ety and other sources, a church was erected in 
 every mission The priests and people of the 
 diocese entered into the new plan with energy and 
 » an i, parochial residences were shortly 
 added. The scarcity of priests, however, was still 
 the great drawback to the development of the 
 diocese, and the bishop met this difficulty by mak- 
 mg yearly visits to some of the seminaries, and ap¬ 
 pealing to Eastern candidates for the priesthood 
 to work with him m ministering to the neglected 
 Catholics of this Western territory. The diocese 
 of Lead includes all of the State of South Dakota 
 west of the Missouri River and is suffragan to St 
 Paul, Minnesota. 
 
 j 1 . 11 th 65 years 55 new priests have been 
 
 added to the diocese, making a total of 75; 52 new 
 parishes have been created, 131 churches erected 
 54 parochial residences acquired and 10 schools 
 opened. The religious communities in the diocese 
 include the Jesuit and Benedictine Fathers the 
 Benedictine Sisters and the Sisters of St. Francis. 
 Ihe Catholic population is about 35,200. 
 
 On 26 October of the present year (1921) the 
 entire community of this district was shocked by 
 the murder of Rev. A. B. Belknap, rector of St. 
 Patricks Cathedral at Lead. Father Belknap 
 started out at 3:15 in the morning with a man 
 who was apparently taking him on a sick call 
 and never returned; his body was found by the 
 ^*1 j i- road three hours later. No motive 
 couid be found for the crime, as the relations 
 between Catholics and Protestants throughout the 
 State have never been more cordial than at the 
 present time, and Father Belknap was not known 
 to have any enemies. He was born in Jackson 
 County, Iowa, on 4 July, 1891, educated at 
 Dubuque, Montreal, and Baltimore, and ordained a 
 priest five years ago. He had been rector of the 
 cathedral for the last three years. 
 
 Leavenworth, Diocese of (Leavenworthensis; 
 cf - ?;.?•’ , IX - 102c L suffragan of St. Louis. When 
 established, 22 May, 1877, this diocese comprised 
 the State of Kansas, U. S. A., with the Right Rev 
 Louis Mary Fink, O.S.B., as its first bishop. At 
 his request, ten years later the Holy See divided 
 the diocese into three: Wichita, Concordia, and 
 Leavenworth. Leavenworth was then restricted to 
 the 43 counties lying east of Republic, Cloud, 
 Ottawa, Saline, McPherson, Harvey, Sedgwick, and 
 Sumner Counties. The diocese had an area of 
 28,687 sq. miles, with a total population in 1890, 
 of 901,536. Authorized by the Holy See, Bishop 
 Fink on 29 May, 1891, took lip his residence in 
 Kansas City, Kan., and for some years the diocese 
 was named after that city. Apostolic letters dated 
 1 July, 1897, further diminished the territory of 
 the diocese in favor of Concordia and Wichita and 
 it now includes only the counties of Anderson, 
 Osage, Pottawatomie, Shawnee, Wabaunsee, Wyan¬ 
 dotte,. Jackson, Jefferson, Linn, Lyon, Marshall, 
 Miami, Nemaha, Atchison, Brown, Coffey, Doni¬ 
 phan, Douglas, Franklin, Johnson, and Leaven¬ 
 worth; an area of 12,594 sq. miles. The greater 
 part of the Indian country now known as Kansas 
 was included in the so-called “Louisiana Purchase.” 
 From the days of the great explorers of the Missis¬ 
 sippi the whole territory from the Gulf of Mexico 
 to the Canadian line belonged to France, and was 
 designated as Upper and Lower Louisiana. The 
 See of Quebec, erected in 1674, had jurisdiction 
 over the whole territory until 1763, when Louisiana 
 
LEAVENWORTH 
 
 452 
 
 LEAVENWORTH 
 
 was ceded to Spain, and the ecclesiastical juris¬ 
 diction passed to the Diocese of Santiago de Cuba. 
 In 1789 it was attached to the Diocese of Havana, 
 and in 1793 became a separate diocese under the 
 title of “Saint Louis of New Orleans.” Its first 
 bishop was nominated by the King of Spain, and 
 was consecrated in the cathedral of Havana in 1793, 
 and installed in New Orleans, 17 June, 1795. After 
 six years of heroic effort in Louisiana, Bishop 
 Penalver y Cardenas was promoted to the See of 
 Guatemala. In October, 1800, the King of Spain 
 retroceded Louisiana to the French Republic and, 
 finally, Napoleon Bonaparte disposed of the owner¬ 
 ship of the whole territory to the United States 
 on 30 April, 1803. By this transaction Louisiana 
 became subject to the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of 
 the Bishop of Baltimore and, in due time, acting 
 under authority from Rome, Bishop Carroll ap¬ 
 pointed Rev. Louis William Valentine Dubourg, 
 Administrator Apostolic of the Diocese of New 
 Orleans which embraced Louisiana, Upper and 
 Lower. 
 
 Dr. Dubourg assumed his duties 18 August, 1812, 
 and going to Rome soon afterwards he was conse¬ 
 crated Bishop of Louisiana by Cardinal Joseph 
 Pamfili. He was granted permission to establish 
 his residence in St. Louis, Missouri, where he was 
 finally installed by Bishop Flaget on 6 January, 
 1818. The Religious of the Sacred Heart and the 
 Lazarist Fathers arrived from France the same 
 year. A band of six Jesuit scholastics with their 
 two superiors, Father Charles Van Quickenborn 
 and Father Peter J. Temmermans, all Belgians, 
 arrived from White March, Maryland, 31 May, 
 1823, and the Kansas Indian Missions were there 
 and then projected. On 18 July, 1826, the Diocese 
 of Louisiana was divided, and the sees of St. 
 Louis and New Orleans w’ere erected. 
 
 Bishop Dubourg resigned the see of Louisiana in 
 1826, and the same year the see of St. Louis was 
 created, and Bishop Rosati became its first incum¬ 
 bent, while at the same time administering the 
 Diocese of New Orleans. He died while on a visit 
 to Rome, 25 September, 1843, and his coadjutor 
 Right Rev. Peter Richard Kenrick succeeded him 
 the same year and was made archbishop in 1847. 
 Archbishop Kenrick was the first bishop to visit 
 the Indian country beyond Missouri. 
 
 In 1851, before the vast prairie country was 
 opened to homesteaders, Bishop Kenrick conse¬ 
 crated Rev. John Baptist Miege, S.J., Bishop of 
 Messenia and Vicar Apostolic of all the territory 
 from Kansas to the British possessions, and from 
 the Missouri River to the Rocky Mountains. A 
 new vicariate was formed out of Nebraska and a 
 part of Wyoming and Montana in 1857, but Bishop 
 Miege’s jurisdiction remained until May, 1859. The 
 vicariate at first had five little churches, eight 
 priests and a Catholic population of nearly 5000 
 souls, of whom 3000 were Indians. _ Bishop Miege 
 was an indefatigable missionary, visiting the Indian 
 villages, forts, trading posts, and growing towns 
 such as Omaha, Denver, and other hamlets that 
 have since become great cities. In August, 1855, 
 there were seven Catholic families in Leavenworth, 
 and he moved his residence from the Pottawatomie 
 mission, at St. Mary’s on the Kaw, to that city, 
 for a permanent location to minister to the fast 
 increasing tide of immigration that had turned 
 towards Kansas. In 1856 the Benedictines began 
 a foundation at Doniphan, near Atchison, but a 
 short time afterwards they established a priory and 
 a college in the latter city. At the invitation of 
 the Bishop, the Sisters of Charity of Nazareth, 
 Kentucky, came to Kansas in 1858 and the Car¬ 
 
 melite Fathers in 1864. All of these were of im¬ 
 mense assistance during the on-rush of new set¬ 
 tlers which began in 1854 and continued up to the 
 commencement of the Civil War. These orders, as 
 well as the great pioneer Society of Jesus, have 
 continued to flourish in Kansas far beyond the 
 most sanguine hopes of their founders. Bishop 
 Miege began the building of the cathedral of Leav¬ 
 enworth in the spring of 1864 and it was conse¬ 
 crated by Archbishop Kenrick on 8 December, 
 1868. Built in the Romanesque style it has no 
 superior of that type in this country. Financial 
 difficulties arose in connection with this great un¬ 
 dertaking, which necessitated a begging trip to 
 South America to obtain funds for the liquidation 
 of the debt. Soon after his return in December, 
 1874, with the permission of the Holy See, he laid 
 aside his dignity of bishop and retired to St. Louis 
 University. Thence he withdrew to Woodstock 
 College, Maryland, where he acted as spiritual 
 director. In 1877 he was sent to Detroit, Michigan, 
 to found a College of the Society of Jesus, and 
 greatly endeared himself to the people there. In 
 1880 he retired once more to Woodstock, where he 
 died. 
 
 John Baptist Miege was bom 18 September, 1815, 
 at La Foret, Upper Savoy, Italy. He studied 
 classics and philosophy at the Seminary of Mon- 
 tieri, Italy, entered the Society of Jesus at Milan, 
 23 October, 1836; was ordained 7 September, 1847, 
 at Rome, where he was made professor of philoso¬ 
 phy in the Roman College. Driven from Italy by 
 the political troubles of the time he was sent, at his 
 own request, to the Indian Missions of the United 
 States. In 1849 he was assistant pastor of St. 
 Charles’ Church at St. Charles, Missouri; in 1850 
 he was socius of the Master of Novices at Floris¬ 
 sant, where he taught the class of moral theology, 
 and from there he went to the University of St. 
 Louis, where he stayed until his consecration. In 
 1871 he had been given a coadjutor in the person of 
 Very Rev. Louis Mary Fink, prior of the Benedic¬ 
 tine monastery at Atchison, and with some experi¬ 
 ence in the missions of Pennsylvania, Kentucky, 
 New Jersey and Illinois. He was consecrated titular 
 Bishop of Eucarpia, on 11 June, by Rt. Rev. Thomas 
 Foley, D.D., Coadjutor Bishop and Administrator 
 of the Diocese of Chicago. Upon the retirement 
 of Bishop Miege, Bishope Fink assumed his duties 
 and, although weakened by ill health, he never 
 spared himself during a period of unusual financial 
 difficulties. There was lacking that organization of 
 forces which belongs to a diocese, Kansas and 
 all the rest of the Western country remaining a 
 vicariate until six years later. On 22 May, 1877, 
 the Diocese of Leavenworth was created by Pope 
 Pius IX and Bishop Fink was transferred to the 
 new see as its first bishop, with authority over the 
 State of Kansas alone. When he assumed jurisdic¬ 
 tion there were within the boundaries of Kansas 65 
 priests, 88 churches, 3 colleges, 4 academies, 1 
 hospital, 1 orphan asylum, 13 parish schools with 
 1700 pupils; communities of Benedictine, Jesuit, 
 and Carmelite priests; Religious of the Sacred 
 Heart, Sisters of St. Benedict, Sisters of Charity, 
 and Sisters of Loretto; and a Catholic population 
 of nearly 25,000. In 1887 there were in Kansas 
 137 priests and 216 churches. This rapid progress 
 testifies to the zeal and activity of the priests and 
 people through all this period. Like his pre¬ 
 decessor, Bishop Fink did much to encourage 
 Catholic immigration into the State and a number 
 of Catholic settlements were formed under his 
 influence and guidance. He sought out young eccle¬ 
 siastics in the seminaries of Europe and America 
 
LEAVENWORTH 
 
 453 
 
 LEAVENWORTH 
 
 and augmented the secular clergy a hundredfold. 
 He had Catholic schools established everywhere, 
 except where absolute poverty prevented. He 
 lived to see the State of Kansas dotted over with 
 churches and institutions of every kind, with a 
 fine body of clergy and a loyal and generous people. 
 He established many new parishes and urged the 
 building of substantial churches, schools, and pas¬ 
 toral residences, encouraged the founding of sodali¬ 
 ties, confraternities, and religious associations of 
 various kinds, and especially encouraged Catholic 
 home life. It was he who introduced into Kansas 
 the Franciscans, Capuchins, and Passionists; the 
 Sisters of St, Joseph* Ursuline Nuns, Sisters of Mercy, 
 Sisters of the Poor of St. Francis, Sisters of St. Francis, 
 Sisters of St. Agnes, and the Oblate Colored Sisters 
 of Providence. The Apostleship of Prayer-League 
 of the Sacred Heart, St. Vincent de Paul Society, 
 Holy Family and Holy Childhood Associations were 
 also organized by him. Besides being noted for his 
 missionary zeal, Bishop Fink was regarded in his 
 day as a learned churchman and a master canonist. 
 The statutes of the second synod of Leavenworth 
 are most admirable, and his set of catechisms is not 
 excelled. He is the author of a great number of 
 pastoral letters and his innumerable epistles to 
 priests and religious are models of strict discipline 
 and w r ise counsel. After the division of the diocese 
 by the erection of the sees of Wichita and Con¬ 
 cordia (2 August, 1887), he enjoyed a respite from 
 his many cares. He had already moved his resi¬ 
 dence from Leavemvorth to Kansas City, Kansas, 
 in order to be more accessible to the priests and 
 people of the diocese because of the converging of 
 all railroads at that point. At the time of his 
 death, 17 March, 1904, the statistics of the diocese 
 show all the details of a well organized ecclesiastical 
 establishment. The laws of the Baltimore Council 
 and the statutes of the diocese were in full force. 
 All financial affairs were well in hand and a peace 
 and unity existed that made the Leavenworth Dio¬ 
 cese the admiration of the entire West. There 
 were then 110 priests, 100 churches, 13 stations and 
 chapels, 37 parochial schools, 4000 pupils, and 35,000 
 Catholics. 
 
 Michael Fink was bom in Triftersberg, Bavaria, 
 on 12 June, 1834, and after studying in 
 the Latin school and gymnasium at Ratisbon, came 
 to this country at the age of eighteen. Called to a 
 religious life, he sought admission among the Bene¬ 
 dictines of St. Vincent’s abbey in Westmoreland 
 County, Pennsylvania. He was* received by the 
 founder, Abbot Wimmer, and made his profession 
 January, 1854, taking the name of Louis Maria. 
 After completing his theological studies he was 
 ordained priest on 28 May, 1857, by Bishop Young 
 of Erie. His missionary labors were at Bellefonte, 
 Pa., and Newark, N. J. He was then made pastor 
 of a congregation at Covington, Ky., where he 
 completed a fine church. He introduced into 
 the parish Benedictine nuns to direct a girls’ school, 
 which was one of his earliest cares. Appointed to 
 St. Joseph’s, Chicago, he aroused a spirit of faith 
 in his flock at that place and gathered so many 
 around the altar that a new church was required, 
 which he erected at a cost of $80,000, planting a 
 large and well arranged school house beside it. As 
 prior of the house of his order in Atchison, Kan., 
 he showed the same zeal and ability, and when 
 Bishop Miege wished to obtain a coadjutor to 
 whom he could resign his charge, he solicited the 
 appointment of the prior of St. Benedict. 
 
 The successor of Bishop Fink was the Very Rev. 
 Thomas F. Lillis, vicar-general of the Diocese of 
 Kansas City, b. at Lexington, Missouri, in 1862, 
 
 and ordained in 1885. He was consecrated Bishop 
 of Leavenworth, in Kansas City, 27 December, 1904. 
 His episcopal administration of the Leavenworth 
 Diocese was eminently successful. The growth of 
 the church under his jurisdiction was marked by 
 the foundation of new congregations, and the build¬ 
 ing of churches and parochial schools. Catholic 
 societies were strengthened, and the diocesan 
 statutes revised to enforce the decrees of the Third 
 Plenary Council of Baltimore under present condi¬ 
 tions. He adopted practical means of enforcing 
 the papal “Motu Proprio,” on the Church music. 
 In March, 1910, he was appointed coadjutor to the 
 Bishop of Kansas City, Missouri, cum jure succes¬ 
 sions. 
 
 1 he third incumbent of the See of Leavenworth, 
 Rt. Rev. John Ward, D. D., was appointed 24 
 November, 1910, and consecrated by His Excel¬ 
 lency, Most Rev. Diomido Falconio, Apostolic 
 Delegate to the United States, 22 February, 1911. 
 He had been chosen from the clergy of the diocese 
 and on that account the event was one of special 
 significance to the priests and people of Kansas. 
 As a priest, Bishop Ward had for twenty-seven 
 years, labored in the diocese and endeared himself 
 to the people of every parish where he served. His 
 first permanent appointment after ordination 17 
 July, 1884, was to a little church on the wild 
 prairies of Marshall County, twelve miles from a 
 store or postoffice. Here he remained for four 
 years and lent his youthful energy and zeal to the 
 welfare of a scattered farming community along 
 what was known as Irish Creek. His next appoint¬ 
 ment was as pastor of the then small town of 
 Parsons, where he spent seven years, and from 
 there he went to St. Thomas’ Church, Kansas City, 
 Kansas, then known as Armourdale. When Very 
 Rev. John F. Cunningham, V. G., became Bishop of 
 Concordia, Septembt •, 1898, Father Ward was ap¬ 
 pointed rector of the cathedral, which important 
 charge he held for eleven years. Finally, when the 
 irremovable rectorship of St. Mary’s Church, Kan¬ 
 sas City, Kansas, became vacant by the retirement 
 of its venerable pastor, Rt. Rev. Mgr. Kuhls, Father 
 Ward won the prize at the concursus ordered by 
 Bishop Lillis in the Spring of 1909. As rector 
 of St. Mary’s, his administration soon proved 
 financially successful and his interest in the chil¬ 
 dren resulted in crowded parochial schools. The 
 subsequent story of his life as a bishop has been in 
 keeping with his early record. Bishop Ward was 
 born 23 May, 1857, in the vicinity of Cleveland, 
 Ohio. He attended the parish school at Olmstead, 
 Ohio, and passed through the high school at Berea. 
 He continued his classical studies at Mount St. 
 Mary’s, Cincinnati, and completed his collegiate 
 course at Sandwich College, Ontario. He took up 
 his studies of science, philosophy and theology 
 under the Benedictine Fathers at the famous insti¬ 
 tution of learning at St. Meinrad’s, Indiana. He 
 was ordained to the priesthood in the cathedral 
 of Leavenworth, 17 July, 1884, bv his saintly pre¬ 
 decessor, Rt. Rev. Louis Mary Fink, O.S.B. The 
 religious _ orders now (1922) established in the 
 diocese include: men, Jesuit Fathers (Missouri 
 Province) St. Mary’s’ College, St. Marj's, Kansas, 
 Fathers 25; scholastics 15; Brothers 15; lay pro¬ 
 fessors 10; students 500; Benedictine Fathers: 
 priests 40; clerics 20; Brothers 10; students 325. 
 Franciscan Fathers: priests 10; Kansas Citj', Em¬ 
 poria, and Olpe. Carmelite Fathers: American 
 Province; priests 5, Leavenworth and Mt. Carmel. 
 Fathers of the Sacred Hearts: Louvain, Belgium; 
 priests 1, Kansas City, Kansas; women, Sisters 
 of Charity: founded 1858; conducting academies, 
 
LECCE 
 
 454 
 
 LEHMKUHL 
 
 hospitals, asylums, and schools in six dioceses. 
 Sisters 475; novices 15; postulants 15; mother-house, 
 Mount St. Marys’ Academy, Leavenworth, Kansas. 
 Benedictine Sisters: founded over fifty years; 
 academy and school work; Sisters 325; novices 20; 
 postulants 15; mother-house, St. Scholastica’s 
 Academy, Atchison, Kansas. Ursuline Sisters: 
 founded 1895; academy and school work; Sisters 
 60; postulants 10; novices 10; mother-house, Ursu¬ 
 line Academy, Paola, Kansas; Sister Servants of 
 Mary, nurses of the sick; Sisters of St. Joseph; 
 Sisters of St. Francis of Perpetual Adoration; 
 Sisters of th@ Poor of St. Francis; Sisters of the 
 Third Order of St. Francis; Oblate Sisters of Provi¬ 
 dence (colored); School Sisters of St. Francis. By 
 latest statistics the diocese comprises 100 diocesan 
 priests, 90 priests of religious orders, 100 
 churches with resident priests, 29 missions with 
 churches, 25 diocesan students, 35 clerics and 
 scholastics, 35 Brothers, 15 chapels, 1025 religious 
 women, including novices and postulants belonging 
 to, and having work in the diocese, 2 colleges for 
 boys 800 students, 3 academies for girls 500 stu¬ 
 dents, 70 parishes with schools 10,000 pupils, 12 
 high schools 600 students, 4 orphan asylums 300 
 orphans; total young people under Catholic care 
 12,200; 6 hospitals 9000 patients; Catholic popula¬ 
 tion 70,000. Thos. H. Kin sella. 
 
 Lecce, Diocese of (Lyciensis; cf. C.E., IX-107d), 
 in the province of Apulia, Southern Italy, suffragan 
 of Otranto. Rt. Rev. Gennaro Trama, born in 
 Naples, 2 January, 1857, and appointed to the 
 titular see of Capharnum 16 December, 1901, was 
 transferred to this see 10 February, 1902, and still 
 fills it (1922). A consistorial decree of 25 Novem¬ 
 ber, 1915, united to this diocese the parish of St. 
 Caesarius, which had been partially subject to the 
 Archdiocese of Otranto. By 1920 statistics the dio¬ 
 cese has a Catholic population of 113,000 and 
 counts 32 parishes, 220 secular and 70 regular 
 clergy, 180 seminarians, 30 Brothers, 125 Sisters, 
 and 123 churches and chapels. 
 
 Leeds, Diocese of (Loidensis; cf. C. E., IX-112b), 
 in the province of Liverpool is under the adminis¬ 
 tration of Rt. Rev. Joseph Robert Cowgill, the 
 fourth Bishop of Leeds. He was born in Broughton, 
 23 February, 1860, and consecrated as Coadjutor 
 Bishop of Leeds, 30 November, 1905, and upon the 
 death of Rt. Rev. Wm. Gordon, third Bishop of 
 Leeds, 7 June, 1911, he succeeded to the see. 
 Another prominent clergyman of the diocese who 
 died within recent years was Mgr. Canon Glover, 
 domestic prelate, d. 13 March, 1918. During Bishop 
 Cowgill’s incumbency many new missions have 
 been opened in the diocese, and there has been 
 extensive development in rescue work. The Victoria 
 Cross was won by several Catholic soldiers of this 
 diocese during the World War, and many of the 
 clergy who served as chaplains won minor decora¬ 
 tions. 
 
 The 1911 census of the diocese shows a total popu¬ 
 lation of 3,086,897, of whom 122,652 are Catholic, 
 many of German or Italian descent. At the present 
 time (1921) there are 90 parishes, 140 churches, 3 
 convents for men and 38 for women, 158 priests, 
 secular, and 31 regular, 1 seminary with 10 semi¬ 
 narians, 7 secondary schools and 7 academies, 103 
 elementary schools and 2 industrial schools. All 
 the public elementary and secondary schools re¬ 
 ceive aid from the Government, but some few 
 private schools do not. 
 
 Among the charitable institutions are 12 homes 
 of various kinds, for orphans, for deaf and dumb, 
 and for working girls and boys, 2 hospitals under 
 
 the Little Sisters of the Poor, several night shelters 
 under Catholic supervision, and 1 day nursery at 
 Bradford. All the public institutions permit the 
 ministry of Catholic priests. The Eucharistic 
 League, Apostolic Union and Society of Yorkshire 
 Brethren are organized among the clergy, and among 
 the laity the Catholic Federation, Knights of St. 
 Columba, Catholic Women’s League, St. Vincent 
 de Paul Society, Rescue Society, and Catenian 
 Society are established. 
 
 Legacies (cf. C. E., IX-115).—In willing property 
 to the Church the requirements of the civil law are 
 to be observed as far as possible; but if any of 
 these have been omitted the heirs must be warned 
 to carry out the wash of the testator. 
 
 Legate (cf. C. E., IX-118).—In 1922 there were 
 papal nunciatures in Argentina, Austria, Bavaria, 
 Belgium, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Czechoslovakia, 
 France, Germany, Hungary, Jugoslavia, Paraguay, 
 Peru, Poland, Portugal, Rumania, Spain, Switzer¬ 
 land, and Venzuela; and internunciatures in Bolivia, 
 Costa Rica, Haiti, Holland, Honduras, Luxemburg, 
 and Nicaragua. There were five Apostolic Delega¬ 
 tions depending on the Consistorial Congregation: 
 in Canada and Newfoundland, Cuba, Mexico, the 
 Philippine Islands, and the United States; and ten 
 depending on the Congregation for the Eastern 
 Church or on Propaganda: in Turkey, Albania, 
 Greece, Egypt, Syria, Persia, India, Japan, Meso¬ 
 potamia, Kurdistan and Armenia Minor, and Aus¬ 
 tralia. 
 
 Leghorn, Diocese of (Liburnensis; cf. C. E., 
 IX-131a), in the province of Tuscany, Central 
 Italy, suffragan of Pisa. Rt. Rev. Sabatino Giani, 
 appointed to this see 17 December, 1900, died 18 
 February, 1921, and was succeeded by Rt. Rev. 
 Giovanni Piccioni. Born in the diocese of Narni, 
 he studied and was ordained at Pistoia, served as a 
 professor and prefect of studies in that seminary, 
 was made vicar general in August, 1920, and ap¬ 
 pointed bishop 13 June, 1921. The diocese com¬ 
 prises a Catholic population of 160,512, and by 
 1920 statistics is credited with 33 parishes, 85 
 secular and 56 regular clergy, 20 seminarians, 67 
 churches or chapels, 16 Brothers, and 219 religious 
 women. 
 
 Le Gras, Louise de Marillac, Blessed. See 
 Louise de Marillac, Blessed. 
 
 Lehmkuhl, Augustine, moral theologian, b. on 
 23 September, 1834, at Hagen, Westphalia; d. at 
 Valkenburg, Holland, 1 July, 1918. He entered 
 the Society of Jesus on 15 October, 1853; was 
 ordained on 20 August, 1862, and after teaching 
 Scripture (1 year) and dogmatic theology (6 years) 
 filled the chair of moral theology at Maria Laach. 
 Exiled from Germany during the Kulturkampf, 
 he continued to teach at Ditton Hall, England, 
 till 1880, when owing to ill-health he returned to 
 Holland, where he completed his “Theologia 
 Moralis” (1883), which has since remained the 
 standard manual. He supplemented this work with 
 his “Casus Conscientise” (1902). Lehmkuhl made 
 a thorough study of the application of moral prin¬ 
 ciples to the new problems and conditions arising 
 in our modern complex world, and his advice in 
 solving difficult problems was constantly sought and 
 accepted from every comer of the globe. He was 
 a contributor to the “Stimmen aus MaVia Laach” 
 (now “Stimmen der Zeit”), “The American Eccles¬ 
 iastical Review,” “Der Katholik,” and other pub¬ 
 lications, and wrote among other works: “Herz- 
 Jesu Monat,” “Die sociale Frage und die staatliche 
 
LEIRIA 
 
 LE MANS 
 
 A ** r~ 
 
 4 oo 
 
 Gewalt, Der christliche Arbeiter,” “Probabilismus 
 vmdicatus. ’ He edited De Ponte’s “Meditations”: 
 Schneider, “Manuale sacerdotum”; Hausherr, “Com¬ 
 pendium caeremoniarum”; Bona, “De sacrificio 
 missae , Reuter, Neo-confessarius practice instruc¬ 
 ts ; Herder, “Bibliotheca ascetica mystica”; and 
 otheis, and collaborated on the “Kirchenlexicon,” 
 “Konversationslexicon,” “Kirchliches Handlexicon” 
 and the Catholic Encyclopedia (cf. articles on 
 Di\orce; Theology, Moral ; Marriage, Sacrament 
 of ; Mariana) . 
 
 Leiria, Diocese of (Leiriensis), Portugal, suf¬ 
 fragan to the Patriarchate of Lisbon, was erected 
 by 1 aul III, 22 May, 1552. Owing to adverse cir¬ 
 cumstances the diocese was suppressed by Leo XIII 
 30 September, 1881, and 25 of its parishes were 
 united to the See of Lisbon, the other 25 to the 
 See of Coimbra. In answer to the wishes of the 
 bishops of Portugal, particularly those of Lisbon 
 and Coimbra, Benedict XV re-established the* dio¬ 
 cese of Leiria by his Apostolic Letter of 17 January, 
 1918. The fifty parishes which had constituted the' 
 original diocese were taken back from Lisbon and 
 Coimbra and re-united, with Leiria as the episcopal 
 city A revenue fund of 5000 francs was offered 
 by the priests from revenues of indults, the chan¬ 
 cellery treasury and from offerings of the faithful, 
 and plans were made for the erection of a diocesan 
 seminary as soon as circumstances should permit. 
 f 1 t • l bishop should be appointed the Patriarch 
 of Lisbon was appointed apostolic administrator 
 of the new see. The first bishop, Rt. Rev. Jose 
 Alves Correia da Silva, was appointed to the newly 
 erected diocese on 15 May, 1920, and consecrated 
 in Oporto, the diocese of his birth, 25 July of the 
 same year.' 
 
 , Jj 16 diocese comprises 150,000 Catholics and now 
 (1921) includes 51 parishes, 51 churches, 1 monas¬ 
 tery for men, _ 80 secular priests, 3 regulars, 1 lay 
 brothei, 1 seminary with 36 seminarians, 4 hospitals, 
 and 1 day nursery. Two Catholic periodicals, 
 Mensageiro and “Portomosense” are published in 
 the diocese. 
 
 >ear his bitter article on Renan placed" him in the 
 1 m elight, and a little later lie became literary critic 
 in the Journal des Debats,” though he contributed 
 also to the Revue des deux mondes” and daily 
 papers like LEcho de Pans,” and “Le Gaulois.” 
 His criticisms, in which he displays a keenness of 
 observation and great power of analysis, reprinted 
 under the title of ‘Les contemporains” (6 vols.) 
 are his masterpiece. Notable among these studies 
 are the articles on Hugo, Ohnet, Zola, and 
 Lamartine. His theatrical criticisms re-united in 
 Les impressions de theatre” (10 vols.) are also 
 biilliant, but less permanent. These essays won for 
 him a chair in the French Academy in 1895. 
 Lemaitre was more than a theatrical critic he 
 wrote a number of plays like the psychological 
 La Revoltee, the political satire “Le depute 
 Levean, Manage blanc,” and “Le Pardon.” His 
 plays stirred up a good deal of criticism, and were 
 undoubtedly of a high order, but the public was 
 unable to appreciate their novelty as it deserved. 
 Among his other noteworthy writings are his 
 treatises on Corneille, Rousseau, Racine, Fenelon, 
 Chateaubriand. Lemaitre was a royalist and a 
 patriot, and to this we owe his “Opinions a 
 repandre,” La campagne nationalists,” “Theories et 
 impressions,” “Discours royalistes,” and “La 
 francmagonnerie,” as well as the foundation of the 
 Ligue de la Patrie Frangaise, of which he was a 
 founder and a director. 
 
 Leitmeritz, Diocese of. See Litomerice. 
 
 Lejay, Paul, classical scholar, b. at Dijon, France 
 on 3 May, 1861; d. in July, 1920. This voluminous 
 contributor to The Catholic Encyclopedia was 
 educated at Paris in the School of Higher Studies. 
 He was ordained to the priesthood in 1890, and in 
 that year was made professor of Latin philology 
 +u tt . a ^bolic Institute, Paris. He was fellow of 
 the University of France, vice-president of the 
 Section of Philology at the International Catholic 
 Congress, Fribourg, Switzerland. He was a col¬ 
 laborator with Vacant in his “Dictionnaire theo- 
 Jogique, . and the author of many linguistic, 
 archaeological and theological articles which ap¬ 
 peared in the scientific reviews of Europe. 
 
 Lemaitre, Franqois-Elie-Jules, French author 
 and literary critic, b. at Vennecy, Loiret, on 27 
 April, 1853; d. at Tavers near Beaugency, on 5 
 August, 1914. He was educated in the petit semi- 
 nmres of La Chapelle-Saint-Mesnin near Orleans, 
 and A otre-Dame-des-Champs, Paris, and after 
 ^ rom the Ecole normale superieure in 
 87o, he taught at Le Havre and Algiers, and sub¬ 
 sequently was appointed to the chair of French 
 literature in the faculties of Besangon and Grenoble. 
 As early as 1878 he had begun contributing literary 
 essays to the “Revue bleue”; these were followed 
 
 t ic > W0 , V0 ^ ume s °f pleasing and delicate verse. 
 In 1884 he resigned his university chair to devote 
 himself exclusively to literature. The following 
 
 Le Mans, Diocese of (Cenomanensis; cf. C. E., 
 IX-143b), is under the administration of the Most 
 Rev. Georges-Francois-Xavier-Marie Grente, who 
 was elected Bishop of Le Mans on 30 January, 1918, 
 to succeed Bishop de La Porte, who had retired 
 on account of poor health, and had been made 
 Titular Bishop of Berisa. Bishop de La Porte came 
 to the See of Le Mans in 1912 as successor to the 
 Most Rev. Marie-Prosper-Adolphe de Bonfils, who 
 had filled the see from 1898 until his death on 2 
 June, 1912. 
 
 Bishop Grente was born at Percy in 1872 and 
 made his studies^ at the diocesan college of St. Lo 
 and the grand seminaire of Coutances. He was a 
 professor at the petit seminaire of Mortain, later 
 director of the diocesan college of St. Lo in 1903, 
 and in 1912 was chosen for the vice-rectorship of 
 the Catholic Institute of Paris, but was retained 
 by his bishop. However, in 1916 he was made 
 Superior of the Institute of St. Paul at Cherbourg, 
 and on 30 April, 1918, he was elected Bishop of 
 Le Mans and consecrated 17 April of the same 
 year. 
 
 During the World War 33 of the priests of this 
 diocese gave up their lives, 6 were named 
 chevalier of the Legion of Honor, 10 received the 
 medaille militaire, 3 the medaille des epidemics, 
 and 100 the croix de guerre. 
 
 By the present (1921) statistics the diocese in¬ 
 cludes 394 parishes, 400 churches, 33 convents for 
 women, 400 religious women, 600 secular priests, 
 
 2 seminaries with 150 seminarians, 5 colleges for 
 men with 110 professors and 1000 students, 4 high 
 schools with 40 teachers and 250 girl students, 149 
 elementary schools with 160 teachers and 4470 
 pupils. > Among the charitable institutions main¬ 
 tained in the diocese are, 1 home, 5 asylums, 30 
 hospitals, 1 refuge, and 2 nurseries. Four of the 
 public institutions allow the priests of the diocese 
 to minister in them. Various parish bulletins are 
 published as well as two others papers, the “Semaine 
 du Fidele” and the “Pays Sarthois.” The Catholic 
 population of the diocese numbers approximately 
 400,000. 
 
LEMBERG 
 
 456 
 
 LERIDA 
 
 Lemberg, Archdiocese of. See Lwow. 
 
 Leon, Diocese of (Leonensis, in America Cen¬ 
 tralis), in the Republic of Nicaragua, Central Amer¬ 
 ica, suffragan of Managua. The whole territory 
 of the republic was originally comprised in the dio¬ 
 cese of Nicaragua, but by a decree of 2 December, 
 1913, Leo XIII divided this diocese and erected 
 the new diocese of Leon. It comprises the prov¬ 
 inces of Leon, Chinandega, Esteli, and Nueva 
 Segovia. It is bounded on the North by the 
 Archdioceses of Tegucigalpa and Honduras, on the 
 South and West by the Pacific Ocean, and on the 
 East by the Archdiocese of Managua and the 
 Vicariate Apostolic of Bluefields. The first bishop 
 was Rt. Rev. Simeon Pereira y Castellon, born 
 in this territory in 1863, appointed titular Bishop 
 of Diocsesarea 2 December, 1895, at the age of 
 thirty-two, and made coadjutor to tjie Bishop of 
 Nicaragua, succeeded to that see 31 July, 1908, 
 and was transferred to Leon 2 December, 1913, and 
 was also named titular Archbishop of Cyzicus 15 
 January, 1914. He was made an assistant at the 
 pontifical throne 20 December, 1920, and died 2 
 February, 1921. He was succeeded by Rt. Rev. 
 Nicolas Tijerino y Loaiciga, appointed 21 Decem¬ 
 ber, 1921. The diocese comprises a population of 
 199,000; no statistics are yet published. 
 
 Leon, Diocese of (Leonensis; cf. C. E., 
 IX-177.c), in the Statfe of Guanajuato, Mexico, 
 suffragan of Michoacan. This see is filled by Rt. 
 Rev. Emeterio Valverde y Tellez, born in Villa 
 del Carbon, Mexico, 1864, canon of the archdio¬ 
 cese and secretary to the archbishop, appointed 7 
 August, 1909, to succeed Archbishop Moray del 
 Rio, promoted. The 1920 statistics credit the dio¬ 
 cese with 800,000 inhabitants, 12 canons, 6 chapters, 
 1 seminary with 24 professors, 25 parishes, 2 vicar 
 pastors, 243 secular and 39 regular clergy, and 503 
 churches and chapels. 
 
 Leon (Legionensis), Diocese of (cf. C. E., IX- 
 175a), suffragan of Burgos, in Spain. The present 
 bishop of the diocese is the Rt. Rev. Joseph Alvarez 
 y Miranda, b. at Minera, 11 December, 1851, or¬ 
 dained 18 December, 1875, elected 18 July, 1913, 
 consecrated 21 November, enthroned 7 December fol¬ 
 lowing and published 25 May, 1914. The population 
 of the diocese consists of Europeans, all of whom are 
 Catholics. In 1921 the diocese contained 863 par¬ 
 ishes, 1312 churches, 5 monasteries, and 1 convent 
 for men, 15 monasteries, 27 convents for women, 
 985 secular priests, 90 regulars, 2 seminaries with 
 382 seminarians. The following educational institu¬ 
 tions exist in the diocese: 4 colleges for men with 
 83 professors, 850 students, 52 for women, 77 pro¬ 
 fessors, 1325 kudents, 5 secondary schools, 16 teach¬ 
 ers, 800 students (720 boys and 80 girls), 8 acad¬ 
 emies, 74 professors, 962 students (850 boys, 112 
 girls), 2 normal schools, 24 teachers, 250 students, 
 a training school, 15 teachers, 225 students, 1044 
 elementary schools, 3 industrial schools, 9 teachers, 
 180 students. The schools are all supported by the 
 Government. The diocese has the following insti¬ 
 tutions: 7 hospitals, 6 asylums, 8 homes for the 
 aged and infirm, 2 day nurseries, 9 charitable insti¬ 
 tutions of various kinds. The principal events 
 which have taken place since 1913 are the follow¬ 
 ing: the royal collegiate church of St. Isidor was 
 completely restored and opened to the faithful, six 
 new religious communities were established. The 
 ninth centenary of the Fuero, or charter of rights 
 of Leon was celebrated, a magnificent hospital was 
 opened under the patronage of the bishop and the 
 cathedral chapter, the Federation of Catholic rural 
 syndicates was established and is now in a flourish¬ 
 
 ing condition, as is also the Federation of Catholic 
 students. Since the war a yearly collection has 
 been taken up in the diocese for the benefit of the 
 children of Central Europe. 
 
 Leopold, Archdiocese of. See Lwow. 
 
 Leopoldville, Vicariate Apostolic of (Leopoldo- 
 politanensis), in the Belgian Congo. This terri¬ 
 tory erected in 1888 under the name of Belgian or 
 Independent Congo, had its boundaries slightly 
 changed in 1911, and by a decree of 3 April, 1919, 
 it was erected anew under its present name. 
 Another Decree of 31 May, 1921, changed its bound¬ 
 aries again, taking the northeastern part of the 
 region of Mayomba and annexing it to the Pre¬ 
 fecture Apostolic of Matadi. It now comprises that 
 part of the Congo between Boma and Kionza ex¬ 
 tending as far as the French Congo. It is entrusted 
 to the Congregation of the Immaculate Heart of 
 Mar# of Scheutveld, the present vicar apostolic 
 being Rt. Rev. Camille Van Ronsle, appointed 
 titular Bishop of Lymbrias, 5 June, 1896. The 
 episcopal residence is at Leopoldville. By latest 
 statistics the vicariate comprises 11 missions or 
 stations, 11 churches, 4 chapels, 4 convents of Sis¬ 
 ters, 33 regular clergy, 2 houses with 20 Brothers 
 and 8 other Brothers scattered through the various 
 missions, 1 preparatory seminary with 25 students, 
 11 elementary schools with 925 pupils, 2 industrial 
 schools with 70 pupils, 1 dispensary, 1 orphanage 
 for boys and 2 for girls. The Government gives a 
 certain amount of financial assistance to the Catho¬ 
 lic institutions. 
 
 Le Puy, Diocese of (Aniciensis; cf. C. E., 
 IX-185d), in the department of Haute-Loire, France, 
 suffragan of Bourges. The see is filled by Rt. Rev. 
 Thomas Boutry, born in Neuvy, France, 1845, or¬ 
 dained 1869, studied at the French seminary in 
 Rome, made a titular chancellor in 1883, vicar gen¬ 
 eral in 1893 and appointed bishop 31 May, 1907, to 
 succeed Bishop Guillois, retired. The jubilee of 
 Our Lady of Le Puy, one of the oldest in the 
 church, celebrated during the Middle Ages when¬ 
 ever Ascension Thursday fell on the feast of the 
 Immaculate Conception, was celebrated in 1921, 
 Ascension Day following on 24 March, the day 
 before the feast, and the jubilee opened on that 
 day and lasted for eighteen days, closing on 10 
 April, the second Sunday after Easter. The 1920 
 statistics credit the diocese with a population of 
 303,838, 280 parishes, 202 vicariates, 30 chaplains 
 and chaplaincies, 649 priests, of whom 37 are pro¬ 
 fessors, 78 retired and 22 filling various other posts, 
 3 houses of Brothers, 5 cloistered convents, and 15 
 religious communities. 
 
 Lerida, Diocese of (Illerdensis; cf. C. E., IX- 
 188c), suffragan of Tarragona in Spain. According 
 to the statistics of 1921 the Catholics number 189,- 
 700. The diocese contains 257 parishes, 326 
 churches, 4 convents for men, 33 for women with 
 381 sisters, 450 secular priests and 67 regulars. 
 Through the initiative of the Rt. Rev. Joseph 
 Mirailles y Sbert, the episcopal heraldic gallery of 
 Lerida, after a thorough search of its archives, has 
 been placed in the hall of the episcopal palace. 
 Due to the influence of the above mentioned prel¬ 
 ate the ancient cathedral was declared a national 
 monument by royal order on 12 June, 1918. The 
 present incumbent is the Rt. Rev. Joseph Mirailles 
 y Sbert, b. at Palma de Mallorca (Balearic Islands), 
 14 September, 1860, ordained 7 June, 1884, elected 
 28 May, 1914, to succeed Mgr. Ruano y Martin, 
 deceased. 
 
LESCHER 
 
 457 
 
 LIBYA 
 
 Lescher, Francsi Mary, educationist, b. in 1825; 
 d. in 1901. She entered the Institute of the Sisters 
 of Notre Dame of Namur, in which she was known 
 as Sister Mary of St. Philip. She was thirty years 
 old and she had been a mother to her brothers 
 and sisters after their mother’s death, when she 
 entered religion. She became a brilliant teacher 
 and it was chiefly through her remarkable ability 
 that the school which she founded and over which 
 she presided at Mt. Pleasant achieved its reputation. 
 
 Lesina, Diocese of (Pharensis; cf. C. E., IX- 
 191b), with the united titles of Brazza and Lissa 
 (Brachiensis et Lissensis), in Dalmatia, Jugoslavia, 
 suffragan of Zara. Rt. Rev. Jordan Zaninovic, O.P., 
 appointed to this see 7 January, 1903, died 22 
 October, 1917, and was succeeded by Rt. Rev. Luca 
 Pappalafa. Born in Lesina in 1851, he served as 
 pastor dean of San-Pietro-Brazza, was appointed 
 Bishop of Sebenico 27 November, 1911, and was 
 transferred 14 September, 1918. By 1920 statistics 
 the Catholic population of the diocese numbers 
 59,026, divided among 60 parishes served by 82 
 secular and 18 regular clergy. 
 
 Letellier, Victoire, in religion Mere Ste. Angele, 
 foundress, b. at Mortain, Normandy, on 24 October, 
 
 , 1778, d. at Paris, 1859. She was the daughter of 
 an inspector of the Due d’Orleans domain at Mort¬ 
 main and studied at the convent of Barenton. 
 During the Revolution, her father having become 
 warden of Mortmain prison, Victoire seized her 
 many opportunities to exercise her charity. At 
 the age of twenty-eight she joined the Dames 
 Augustmes du Tres-Saint Coeur de Marie, who had 
 charge of the hospital at Saumur. In 1816 she was 
 mistress of novices, and in 1823 superioress. Owing 
 to the persecution of the local civil officials, the 
 Sisters had to quit the hospital, and by the favor 
 of Archbishop de Quelen of Paris they reorganized 
 in the capital under the name of Augustinians of 
 
 MooS° ly Heart of Mary in the Rue de l’Arbalete 
 (1828) Eleven years later they moved to the 
 
 Rue de la Sante, where provision was made not 
 merely for the aged and sick, but for young widows 
 and girls without protection. The institute received 
 papal approbation after Mere Ste. Angele’s death, 
 and new foundations have been made, as at St! 
 Leonards in England and Angers and Nice in 
 France. 
 
 1916 F ) RNAKD ’ Vie de la R ^ rende Mdre Sainte Angele (Paris, 
 
 Lettonia. See Latvia. 
 
 Liberia, Prefecture Apostolic of (Liberiensis; 
 w m the province of Liberia, 
 
 West Africa, with residence at Monrovia. This 
 territory was first entrusted to the Fathers of the 
 Commny oi Mary, and in August, 1906, transferred 
 inii • African Missionaries of Lyons and again in 
 1911 it was made over to the Irish branch (Cork) 
 of the African Missions. The present prefect apos¬ 
 tolic is Rt. Rev. Jean Oge, born at Ettendorf, Alsace, 
 m 1868, studied at the seminary of the African Mis¬ 
 sionaries of Lyons, ordained in 1890, served for sev¬ 
 enteen years in the mission of the Gold Coast, was 
 named superior of the native seminary of Ibadan 
 (vicariate of Benin), and appointed Prefect of 
 Liberia 3 January, 1910. By the 1920 statistics the 
 * territory counts a total population of 1,700,000, of 
 whom 2400 are Catholic,, and 5594 catechumens; 
 these are served by 12 European priests, 2 churches, 
 
 in Pri i nclpa ^ staRons > 6 missions and 10 sub-stations, 
 
 10 elementarj^ schools with 15 teachers and 1200 
 pupils and 5 dispensaries. During the World War 
 religious meetings were held at Monrovia for the 
 
 purpose of raising funds in behalf of war orphans, 
 and all the allied consuls assisted; the Syrians sent 
 large sums to England, France, and the United 
 otates to be used for charitable purposes. During 
 the whole war period starvation was very prevalent 
 on the Kroa coast and in order to save its numerous 
 school children the prefecture was obliged to incur 
 a debt of £2000. 
 
 Libya, Vicariate Apostolic of (Lybue; cf. C. E., 
 XV-58d), in Africa, erected 23 February, 1913! 
 from the prefecture apostolic of Tripoli, to which 
 it corresponds, with Mgr. Ludovico Antomelli as 
 first Vicar Apostolic. Following his transfer to 
 the episcopal see of Bagnorea, Mgr. Giacinto 
 Tomzza, O.F.M., formerly Vicar General of the 
 Apostolic Delegation of Syria and late superior 
 general of the Franciscans of Constantinople, was 
 appointed Vicar Apostolic of Lybia in October, 
 
 1919. He arrived in Tripoli, in the early part of 
 
 1920, equipped with thirty years’ experience in the 
 mission work of the Orient. The newly appointed 
 vicar apostolic instilled new life into the vicariate. 
 Four new stations were founded: Zuara in Tripoli, 
 Cyrene-Marsa Susa, Merg-Tolmetta, and Tobruk 
 in Cyrenaica. He advanced the scholastic institu¬ 
 tions, erected new parishes, rejuvenated the exist¬ 
 ing religious organizations for the young or else 
 founded new ones, installed religious instruction in 
 the public schools, and distributed with equity the 
 responsibilities of the different parishes. The vica¬ 
 riate is at present occupied with the obligation of 
 raising the necessary funds for the building of the 
 cathedral church and presbytery, towards which the 
 Pope donated 100,000 libellas. 
 
 The World War greatly retarded the progress of 
 the mission. Ten of the priests served with dis¬ 
 tinction as chaplains in the army, and three w T ere 
 cited and decorated for bravery. Among the re¬ 
 cently deceased of note are: Sister Mary Simplicia 
 Vecchiotti, of Cremona of the Franciscan Mis¬ 
 sionary Sisters of Egypt, d. 12 April, 1916, aged 
 thirty years, after a life of unusual sanctity; Valen¬ 
 tino Cagnocci de Faltona of Arezzo, O. F'. M., died 
 30 July, 1921, after forty years of untiring labor 
 among the missions of Lybia; founded and directed 
 the mission at Homs, where he built an imposing 
 church; Bonaventura Rosselti, O.F.M., from 1907 
 to 1913 Prefect Apostolic of Lybia, later Prefect 
 Apostolic of Rhodes, wffiere he died 9 August, 1921; 
 Brother Paul Liekens, whose death in November, 
 1921, crowned a life of unselfish devotion to duty; 
 Giovanni De Martino, Italian senator and governor 
 of Cyrenaica, devoted to furthering the interests 
 of the Church and a true benefactor of the vicariate, 
 died 23 November, 1921. 
 
 The Catholic population of 20,000 is increasing 
 daily, and is largely made up of those of Italian 
 or Maltese descent. Mohammedans and Jews are 
 numerous. There are 3 secular priests, 20 Fran- 
 cisan priests, 12 Franciscan lay brothers, and 11 
 Christian Brothers; 7 .parishes with 7 churches, 
 
 4 missions, 18 chapels, 6 stations, 2 convents foi 
 men and 13 for women, 1 college for girls with 3 
 teachers and 30 students, 6 elementary schools for 
 boys and 11 for girls with a combined total of 35 
 teachers and 1400 pupils, 1 hospital, 3 orphanages, 
 
 7 day nurseries, 1 refuge for poor girls, 5 classes 
 of catechetical instruction. The numerous Catholic 
 primary schools are flourishing, and are under the 
 direction of the Vicar Apostolic, who supplies the 
 teachers and some of the poorer pupils with 
 the necessities of life. The Government contributes 
 also to the support of the Catholic institutions. 
 There are other Catholic schools which are sup¬ 
 ported by the Italian National Association for the 
 
LIEBRNECHT 
 
 458 
 
 LILLE 
 
 Missions. Not only the pupils of the Catholic 
 schools, but also those of the public grammar schools 
 receive daily religious instruction from appointed 
 priests and Sisters. The public hospitals have Sis¬ 
 ters in attendance and also a Catholic chaplain. 
 There are 10 religious associations for the young, 
 3 of which are allied with the National Association, 
 "Catholic Italian Youth.” 
 
 Liebknecht, Karl. See Spartacus Group. 
 
 Liege, Eupen, and Malmedy, Diocese of 
 (Leodiensis; cf. C. E., IX-236a), in Belgium, 
 dependent on Malines. After the establishment of 
 the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the diocese com¬ 
 prised the Provinces of Liege and Limburg. On 
 6 May, 1833, Mgr. Van Bommel divided the 
 Province of Liege into eleven deaneries. In 1839 
 the diocese lost those parishes which were situated 
 in Dutch Limburg. In 1921 the new diocese of 
 Eupen-Malmedy, formerly a German possession 
 belonging to the archdiocese of Cologne and con¬ 
 taining 70,000 inhabitants, w r as united to the Dio¬ 
 cese of Liege. The present bishop is Rt. Rev. 
 Martin-Hubert Rutten, b. at Geystingen, 18 Decem¬ 
 ber, 1841, ordained 28 April, 1867, elected bishop 
 16 December, 1901, consecrated at Liege 6 January, 
 1902, made assistant to the pontifical throne, 12 
 November, 1920. The diocese contains 1,215,000 
 Catholics; of w r hom 350,000 are Flemish, 850,000 
 Walloons, and 15,000 speak German. There are 
 685 parishes, 40 deaneries, about 700 churches and 
 chapels including 44 curacies, 2 abbeys and 30 
 convents for men, 10 monasteries, 1 abbey and 
 450 convents for women with 5000 Sisters and about 
 150 lay brothers. The secular priests number 1500, 
 regulars about 200. The diocesan seminary is at 
 Liege w 7 ith 160 seminarians. The following educa¬ 
 tional institutions exist in the diocese: 19 colleges 
 for men, 200 teachers and 5000 students; 3 normal 
 schools, 27 teachers, 200 students; elementary 
 schools in every parish. Nearly all the normal 
 and elementary schools are supported by the 
 Government. There are many public hospitals in 
 care of various orders of Sisters, also 3 refuges 
 for girls. A great number of periodicals are printed 
 in the diocese. Liege was the first province of 
 Belgium which was invaded by the Germans. 
 Ruin and devastation followed in their path. 
 Numberless churches and villages were destroyed 
 and the population was subjected to great misery 
 and suffering. Mgr. Rutten distinguished him¬ 
 self during the siege and occupation of Liege by 
 his fearless attitude towards the conquerors and 
 his continued protests against their treatment of his 
 people. 
 
 Liguge (cf. C. E., IX-247a).—The present abbot 
 of the Benedictine Abbey of Liguge, France, is 
 Dom Leopold Gougain, O.S.B. The community, 
 still resident at Chevetogne, numbers 34 priests, 
 2 clerics, and 9 lay brothers. 
 
 Lilienfeld (cf. C. E., IX-247c).—The present 
 number of monks in this Cistercian abbey is 40, 
 all priests, most of whom- are occupied in the care 
 of souls in the 17 incorporated parishes. The 
 present abbot is Justin Panschab, b. 1859, and 
 elected 1899, to succeed Alberic Heinmann, d. 1898. 
 
 Lille, Diocese of (Insulensis; cf.C.E., IX-251 c), 
 in the department du Nord, France, is suffragan 
 to the Archdiocese of Cambran The territory in¬ 
 cluded in this diocese was originally, before the 
 French Revolution, divided among four bishoprics; 
 Tournai, Ypern, Saint Omer, and Cambrai. After 
 the Revolution the whole department du Nord was 
 
 made the Diocese of Cambrai, and in 1842 it was 
 raised to an archdiocese. 
 
 By a pontifical decree of 5 February, 1913, the 
 General Vicariate of Lille was founded, including 
 the civil districts of Lille, Hazebouch, and Dun¬ 
 kerque under a vicar general having the title of 
 bishop (Auxiliary of Cambrai, Vicar General of 
 Lille), and endowed with extensive powers. On 25 
 October, 1913, it was constituted a diocese and 
 officially erected by Cardinal Lugon on 10 Decem¬ 
 ber of the same year. The diocese comprises the 
 same territory as the original general vicariate; 
 the cathedral is Notre Dame de la Treille and 
 the episcopal seat is at Lille. 
 
 The first and only Vicar General of Lille was 
 Mgr. Alexis Charost, who was bom at Le Mans 
 in 1860, ordained a priest in 1883 and later re¬ 
 ceived his degrees of Doctor of Divinity* and of 
 Canon Law. He also won the title "Agrege de 
 lTJniversite,” which is the highest title conferred 
 by the French University, and which since the anti¬ 
 clerical persecution is no longer obtainable by 
 Catholic priests. He Was a professor at the College 
 of Saint-Croix at Le Mans, director of the day 
 school of Notre Dame de Couture and in 1894 
 became secretary to Bishop Laboure of Rennes. 
 In 1896 he was made chancellor of the Diocese 
 of Rennes, in 1899 vicar general, and in 1913 he 
 was appointed titular Bishop of .Miletopolis, auxil¬ 
 iary Bishop of Cambrai and Vicar General of Lille. 
 He was consecrated 13 May, 1913, at Rennes, by 
 Bishop Dubourg, and transferred to the diocese of 
 Lille in November of the same- year. He is a 
 Knight of the Legion of Honor and a Knight of 
 the Order of Leopold. Bishop Charost was pro¬ 
 moted to the Titular See of Chersonese and made 
 coadjutor to the Bishop of Rennes in 1920. 
 
 The Most Rev. Hector Raphael Quilliet, D.D., 
 succeeded him as the second and present Bishop of 
 Lille, 18 June, 1920. He was born at Bois-Bernard, 
 11 March, 1859, and ordained in 1883. He was a 
 professor and dean of the faculty of theology at 
 the Catholic University of Lille, and director, with 
 Mgr. Chollet, now Archbishop of Cambrai, of the 
 "Revue des sciences ecclesiastiques” and of "Ques¬ 
 tions ecclesiastiques.” He was appointed Bishop 
 of Limoges on 24 December, 1913, and consecrated 
 19 March. He was later transferred to Lille, taking 
 possession of his new see 29 September, 1920. 
 
 The present (1921) statistics of the diocese of 
 Lille show 358 parishes, 1 abbey for men, 1200 
 secular priests, 1 theological seminary with 106 
 seminarians, 1 philosophical seminary with 81 stu¬ 
 dents, 1 academic seminary with 38 students and 
 1 lower seminary with 318 students, 13 secondary 
 colleges for men with 300 teachers, and 12 for 
 women, 1 university (University of Lille), 2 high 
 schools, 1 normal school for girls, 330 elementary 
 schools with 1228 teachers. The diocesan mis¬ 
 sionaries of Cambrai take care also of the missionary 
 work of Lille and in addition to their work there 
 are: 12 homes for working women, 51 homes for 
 aged men and women, 27 orphan asylums, 21 hos¬ 
 pitals, 3 refuge homes, 6 dispensaries, and 2 day 
 nurseries. A daily newspaper, "La Croix du Nord,” 
 and a diocesan weekly are published. For the war 
 record of this diocese see Lille, University of. 
 
 Lille, University of (cf. C. E., IX-252d).—At 
 the beginning of the World War (August, 1914), 
 the University of Lille was transformed into a vast 
 hospital under the direction of the French Red 
 Cross, assisted by those members of its medical 
 faculty whose duties retained them in Lille. Many 
 of its halls were filled with wounded from the bat¬ 
 tlefields of Cambrai and Artois, and later from the 
 
LILLE 
 
 459 
 
 LIMBURG 
 
 siege oi Lille, those who succumbed to their injuries Mer F,mi]p T ocr > Q 
 
 SK" "—• — — - “»» -SVi”ii.SK 
 
 The university was about to resume its courses 
 in the unoccupied halls, when the bombing of the 
 city began. Several of the buildings were struck 
 and the city found itself in the hands of its German 
 jailers, cut off by a steel wall from the rest of 
 France. Notwithstanding the apparently insur¬ 
 mountable drawbacks of such a situation, the Uni¬ 
 versity decided to continue its work. Its students, 
 134 at the opening, were drawn from the cities of 
 Lille, Roubaix and Tourcoing, until 1917, when 
 Lille was completely isolated. This situation was 
 met by the sectioning of the work of the university, 
 certain schools being maintained in each city! 
 Many lasting benefits resulted from the labor of 
 these troubled times; a school of applied chemistry 
 was added to the school of advanced industrial 
 studies; women preparing for liberal careers were 
 admitted to the various faculties and schools of the 
 university; lectures on current history were given 
 to large audiences, wherein the lecturers were able 
 to second the efforts of the clergy in preaching 
 the invincible confidence that sustained the people 
 throughout the days of the occupation. A Latin 
 grammar was published as well as several numbers 
 of “La voix de l’eglise.” 
 
 At the same time the hospital work continued, 
 40,602 consultations being held at the dispensary 
 of St. Raphael from 1915-19. The Sisters of Mater¬ 
 nal Charity and the Franciscan Sisters opened their 
 doors to the sick women and children expelled by 
 the enemy from the municipal hospital. 
 
 The most wonderful of all the work accomplished 
 was that of Professor Joseph Willot. For two years 
 he was the soul of a secret publication “La Patience” 
 or “L’Oiseau de la France,” which at great peril 
 sustained public confidence. Inevitably discovered 
 and imprisoned he died from the results of the 
 hardships of his captivity, the victim of his heroism. 
 
 The university was not less distinguished on the 
 battlefield; 242 of her sons were killed; 70 received 
 the cross of the legion of honor; 26 the military 
 medal; 460 the war cross, and 15 the medal of 
 epidemics. 
 
 In 1921 the School of Advanced Commercial 
 Studies was separated from that of Advanced Indus¬ 
 trial Studies and joined to the faculty of law. The 
 number of students in the schools in that year were: 
 faculty of theology and philosophy, 35; faculty of 
 law, 120; school of social and political sciences, 25; 
 faculty of letters, 34; faculty of medicine and of 
 pharmacy, 90; faculty of sciences, 45; school of ad¬ 
 vanced^ industrial and commercial studies, 170; 
 total, 519. To this number should be added 2000 
 of both sexes who follow the public courses or¬ 
 ganized by the faculty of letters and the school of 
 social and political sciences. 
 
 The university publications include the following 
 periodicals: “Les facultes Catholiques de Lille” 
 
 , La revue de Lille,” “Le pretre,” “La voix de 
 1 eglise, Journal des sciences medicales de Lille.” 
 Memoirs and works of original scientific research 
 are published by the professors of the Catholic 
 faculties. 
 
 Lidy* William Samuel, English author and pub- 
 iqiq’ b f‘ l^ 40 a t Iifehead, England; d. 29 August, 
 19 9 , at West Kensmgton, London. He was edu¬ 
 cated at Cambridge. He was Under-Secretary to 
 India, 1869, and was received into the Church 
 at that time. Among his works are: “Ancient 
 Religion and Modern Thought,” “Chapters in 
 £S°P ean History,” “A Century of Revolution,” 
 
 I he Great Enigma,” “Christianity and Modern 
 Civilization,” “Many Mansions,” and “New France ” 
 He was Secretary of the Catholic Union of Great 
 Britain for nearly fifty years. Mr. Lilly was es¬ 
 sentially a controversialist with a wide range of 
 reading. He wrote with grace and fluency, but 
 in controversy could be trenchant. His writings 
 exercised considerable influence in the religious 
 and historical controversies of his time. 
 
 Lima, Archdiocese of (Limanensis; cf. C. E., 
 IX-255a), in the Republic of Peru, South America. 
 1 his see was filled by Most Rev. Pedro Manuel 
 Garcia-Naranjo from 16 December, 1907, until his 
 death, 17 September, 1917. He was succeeded by 
 P r ^ sen ^ incumbent, Most Rev. Emilio Lisson, 
 C. M., born in Arequipa 1872, entered the Congre¬ 
 gation of the Mission in 1892, was appointed Bishop 
 °I Chachapoyas 16 March, 1909, but was never 
 published in the Consistory, and was promoted 25 
 February, 1918. He is assisted by an auxiliary, Rt. 
 Rev. Manuel Segundo Ballon, titular Bishop of 
 Arabissus. A Brief of 23 May, 1921, erected the 
 chuich of St. John the Evangelist into a minor 
 basilica. The population, numbering 450,000, is 
 almost entirely Catholic, with the exception of a 
 small percentage of Chinese and Protestants. The 
 1920 statistics credit the diocese with 66 first class 
 and 7 succursal parishes, 498 churches and chapels, 
 and 18 seminarians. 
 
 The number of consultations held at the chil¬ 
 dren s hospital of St. Anthony of Padua (1919-20), 
 was: medical department, 3957; surgical depart¬ 
 ment, 402. Americans made a generous response 
 to the appeal by Canon Dimmet for aid in this 
 work, notably Mrs. Lucius Swift and others from 
 the city of Indianapolis. 
 
 Limburg, Diocese of (Limburgensis; cf. C. E., 
 IX-260a), in Germany, suffragan of Freiburg. In 
 1913 occurred the death of Rt. Rev. Dominicius 
 Willi, former abbot of the Cistercian monastery at 
 Marienstatt, who was elected Bishop of Limburg 
 on 3 September, 1898. During the fifteen years of 
 his administration he worked incessantly for the 
 welfare of the diocese. Many parishes and mis¬ 
 sions were erected by him, two theological semi¬ 
 naries were rebuilt, and a large number of founda¬ 
 tions were made. The present administrator of 
 the diocese is Rt. Rev. Charles Augustine Kilian, 
 b. 1856, ordained 1881, consecrated bishop 1913. In 
 1921 the diocese celebrated the one hundredth anni¬ 
 versary of its foundation. A collection taken up 
 for the support of seminarians amounted to 500,000 
 marks. In August, 1921, the Catholic Congress was 
 held at Frankfurt, the first one since the outbreak 
 of the war. Under the patronage of the Apostolic 
 Nuncio a large number of Church dignitaries, and 
 prominent Catholics, the event proved a brilliant 
 success. During the war many of the younger 
 priests served as military chaplains in the army 
 or in field hospitals. The religious congregations, 
 as also the laity, cared for the sick and wounded 
 soldiers. Many Catholic organizations were actively 
 engaged in distributing religious books and articles 
 at the front and in the hospitals. 
 
 At the present time (1921) the Catholics number 
 469,000. The diocese contains 215 parishes and 
 mission stations, and 376 secular priests. The fol¬ 
 lowing monasteries for men exist in the diocese: 
 the Cistercian Abbey at Marienstatt, 27 priests, 9 
 
LIMERICK 
 
 460 
 
 LINCOLN 
 
 clerics, 19 lay brothers, 4 Franciscan monasteries 
 (Bornhofen, Hadamar, Kelkheim, and Marienthal), 
 18 priests, 26 lay brothers; Capuchin monastery at 
 Frankfort, 6 priests, 3 lay brothers; monastery of 
 the Oblates of the Immaculate Conception on the 
 Allerheiligenberg, near Niederlahnstein, 4 priests, 4 
 lay brothers; mother-house of the Missionary Con¬ 
 gregation of the Pallottines at Limburg, 34 priests, 
 26 scholastics, 73 lay brothers; Jesuits at Frankfort, 
 
 5 priests; Fathers of the Sacred Heart of Jesus and 
 Mary, 3 monasteries: at Arnstein, 5 priests, 15 lay 
 brothers, 10 novices; at Niederlahnstein, 6 priests, 
 
 4 lay brothers; at Walderbach, 5 priests, 3 lay 
 brothers, 35 pupils; Brothers of Mercy, mother- 
 house at Montabauer, 55 professed brothers, 35 
 novices, and 5 branch houses in the diocese. The 
 following congregations of women have foundations 
 in the diocese: Benedictines, abbey of St. Hilde- 
 gard at Eibingen, 38 professed Sisters, 25 lay Sis¬ 
 ters; Benedictines of the Perpetual Adoration at 
 Johannisberg in Rheingau (formerly in Neider- 
 lahnstein), 29 Sisters, 15 lay Sisters, 8 extern 
 Sisters; Congregation of St. Vincent de Paul, 
 branch of the mother-house at Mainz in Limburg, 
 
 18 Sisters; Poor Handmaids of Jesus Christ, mother- 
 house at Dernbach, 332 Sisters, 86 postulants, and 
 about 100 branch houses in the diocese; Francis¬ 
 cans, mother-house at Marienheim-Erlenbad, near 
 Achern in Baden, 2 houses, 10 Sisters; Association 
 of the Sisters of Providence of Mainz, 6 houses, 
 44 Sisters; Poor Sisters of St. Francis, mother- 
 house at Aachen, 2 houses, 45 Sisters; Sisters of 
 the Christian Schools of Mercy, mother-house at 
 Heiligenstadt, 5 houses, 35 Sisters; Ursulmes, 5 
 houses, 113 Sisters; English Ladies, 2 houses, 59 
 Sisters; Sisters of Charity of the Good Shepherd, 
 mother-house at Munster, Westphalia, 1 house, 41 
 Sisters; Congregation of the Servants of the Sacred 
 Heart of Jesus, mother-house at Vienna, 3 houses, 
 15 Sisters; Pallottine Sisters, mother-house at Lim¬ 
 burg, 75 Sisters, 25 postulants, and 4 branch houses 
 in the diocese with 17 Sisters; Sisters of the Holy 
 Ghost, mother-house at Coblenz, 1 foundation, 24 
 Sisters; Alexian Nuns, 2 houses, 27 Sisters. The 
 following religious associations have been estab¬ 
 lished: 73 Young Men’s Societies, 23 Journeymen’s 
 Unions, 37 Working Men’s Associations, 91 Marian 
 Congregations for Young Women, 10 Servant Girls’ 
 Associations, and various associations for mothers. 
 Also the following charitable societies: St. Boniface 
 Association, Mission Society for Catholic Women 
 and Young Women, Guardian Society for Women 
 and Young Women, Association for the Making of 
 Vestments. There are 20 charitable institutions 
 under the care of religious, including orphanages, 
 girls’ homes, and educational institutions for 
 orphans. 
 
 Limerick, Diocese of (Limericiensis; cf. C. E., 
 IX-262a), in the province of Munster, Ireland, 
 suffragan of the Archdiocese of Cashel. Rt. Rev. 
 Edward Thomas O’Dwyer, born in Holy Cross, Ire¬ 
 land, in 1842 and appointed to this see 18 May, 
 1886, filled it for over thirty years, until his death, 
 
 19 August, 1917; during his long administration he 
 was known as an ardent defender of the national 
 rights of Ireland. His successor was appointed in 
 the person of Rt. Rev. Denis Hallinan, born in 
 Limerick in 1849, studied at Limerick and at the 
 Irish College in Rome, was ordained in 1874 and 
 served as a pastor, administrator, and vicar general, 
 was named a prelate of the Holy See in 1900, a 
 canon in 1912, vicar capitular in 1917, and appointed 
 bishop 10 January, 1918. The religious orders estab¬ 
 lished in this diocese include: men, Augustinians, 
 Dominicans, Franciscans, Jesuits, Redemptorists, 
 
 Salesians, Oblates of Mary Immaculate, and Broth¬ 
 ers of the Christian Schools; women, Presentation 
 Sisters, Sisters of Mercy, of the Good Shepherd, of 
 Marie Reparatrice, of Charity, of St. Paul, Faithful 
 Companions of Jesus, Nursing Sisters of the Little 
 Company of Mary, and Salesian Nuns. By the 
 latest census (1911) the total population of the 
 diocese is 116,558, of whom 110,305 are Catholic. 
 According to 1920 statistics there are 48 parishes, 
 121 secular and 65 regular clergy, 94 parochial and 
 district churches, 19 convents with 490 members in 
 the communities, and 4 monastic houses with 38 
 members in the communities. 
 
 Limoges, Diocese of (Lemoricensis; cf. C. E., 
 IX-263c), in the department of Haute-Vienne, 
 France, suffragan of Bourges. This ancient see is 
 now filled by Rt. Rev. Alfred Flocard, born in 
 Jorquenay, France, 1866, ordained in 1889, served 
 as vicar at St. Jean de Chaumont, and professor 
 at the upper seminary, editor of the “Semaine 
 Religieuse,” director of charities, and made vicar 
 general in 1912, appointed 16 December, 1920, to 
 succeed Rt. Rev. Hector-Raphael Quilliet, trans¬ 
 ferred to Lille 18 June, 1920. In 1921 he was elected 
 a member of the departmental office of the “Pupilles 
 de la Nation.” During the World War 245 of the 
 clergy of this diocese were mobilized, and of this 
 number 24 died, 3 won the legion d’honneur, 7 the 
 medaille militaire, 54 the croix de guerre, and 4 
 foreign decorations. By latest statistics the diocese 
 comprises 384,736 Catholics, of whom 92,181 are in 
 Limoges proper, 52 deaneries, 476 first and second 
 class parishes, and 107 vicariates formerly supported 
 by the state. A diocesan periodical, “La Semaine 
 Religieuse,” is published. 
 
 Linares (or Monterey or Nuevo Leon), Arch¬ 
 diocese of (de Linares; cf. C. E., IX-265d), in 
 Mexico, with episcopal residence at Monterey. 
 Most Rev. Francesco Plancarte y Navarrete, pro¬ 
 moted to this see 27 November, 1911, died in 
 Monterey 8 July, 1920, and was succeeded by Most 
 Rev. Jose Juan de Jesus Herrera y Pina after a 
 vacancy of a year. Born in Valle de Bravo, Mexico, 
 in 1865, he studied at the South American College 
 in Rome, was ordained in 1888, returned to Mexico 
 in 1890, and served as rector of the seminary and 
 prefect of studies, was made an honorary canon, 
 prothonotary apostolic in 1904, and appointed 
 Bishop of Tulancingo 16 September, 1907, from 
 which see he was promoted 7 March, 1921. The 
 1920 statistics credit the archdiocese with a Catholic 
 population of 357,000, 39 parishes, 80 secular priests, 
 20 seminarians, 75 churches or chapels, and 4690 
 children in Catholic schools. 
 
 Lincoln, Diocese of (Lincolniensis; cf. C. E., 
 IX-266b), in Nebraska, is suffragan to the 
 Archdiocese of Dubuque. The first bishop of the 
 diocese, the Rt. Rev. Thomas Bonacum, who was 
 appointed upon the erection of the diocese in 1887, 
 died on 4 February, 1911. He was largely respon¬ 
 sible for the rapid development of the young dio¬ 
 cese, and although his rigid discipline and strict 
 enforcement of canonical legislation often brought 
 him into conflict with certain of the clergy and 
 their lay supporters, and forced him to have re¬ 
 course to the secular tribunals, he was usually vin¬ 
 dicated and the purity of his motives cannot be 
 doubted. The chief monument of his labors is the 
 St. Thomas Orphanage, housing 120 inmates, for 
 which he personally gathered all the funds. At 
 his request he was buried before the main entrance 
 of this institution. 
 
 Bishop Bonacum was succeeded by the Rt. Rev. 
 Henry Tihen, chancellor of the Wichita diocese, 
 
LINDI 
 
 461 
 
 LINZ 
 
 who took possession of his see in July, 1911, and 
 ruled over it until 21 September, 1917, when he 
 was transferred to Denver. 
 
 The third and present Bishop of Lincoln is Rt. 
 Rev. Charles F. O'Reilly who, as first Bishop of 
 Baker City, had for fifteen years been doing pioneer 
 missionary work in that churchless section. During 
 his incumbency in Lincoln there have been added 
 to the diocese, 9 parishes, 5 parochial schools, 
 and 1 hospital, while the services of the Capuchin 
 Fathers (Irish Province) and of several Sisterhoods 
 have been enlisted. 
 
 The present (1921) statistics of the diocese show 
 87 parishes, 137 churches, 50 missions, 94 secular 
 and 12 regular priests, 215 nuns, 11 seminarians, 1 
 high school with 5 teachers and an attendance of 
 60 boys and 74 girls, 3 academies with 42 teachers 
 and an attendance of 55 boys and 215 girls, 32 
 elementary schools with 126 teachers and an at¬ 
 tendance of 2800. In addition to the St. Thomas 
 Orphanage, the Lincoln and McCook hospitals are 
 maintained in the diocese; all the public institutions 
 permit the priests of the diocese to minister in 
 them. The Catholic population of the diocese is 
 approximately 37,000. The Knights of Columbus, 
 Catholic Order of Foresters, Daughters of America, 
 National Council of Catholic Men are established 
 among the laity. 
 
 Lindi, Prefecture Apostolic of (de Lindi), in 
 East Africa. This prefecture was erected by a 
 decree of 12 November, 1913, which divided the 
 vicariate apostolic of Dar-es-Salaam. It is bounded 
 on the north by the Rivers Mbenkuru and Ruhuje, 
 on the west by Nyassa Lake, on the south by 
 German Mozambique, and on the east by the 
 ocean. The town of Lindi, where the official resi¬ 
 dence is situated, is a flourishing port about fifty 
 miles from Delgado. It is entrusted to the Bene¬ 
 dictines of St. Odile; Rev. Galium Steiger, O.S.B., 
 was appointed the second prefect apostolic 22 
 February, 1922, to succeed Rev. Willibrord Lay. 
 The 1920 statistics credit the territory with 11 
 Benedictine Fathers, 13 Brothers, and 12 Sisters of 
 the Sacred Heart. 
 
 Lindsay, Lionel St. George, author and editor, 
 b. at Montreal, Canada, 1849, d. at Quebec, Canada, 
 1900. He was educated at Laval University, 
 Quebec, the Gregorian University, the Academy of 
 St. Thomas, and the Minerva, Rome. He was 
 ordained priest in 1875, was chaplain of the Ursu- 
 line Monastery, Quebec (1894-98), diocesan in¬ 
 spector of academies and convent schools (1898- 
 1905), secretary (1905-1907), and archivist (1905- 
 1921) of the Archdiocese of Quebec. . He was the 
 author of “Notre Dame de Lorette en la Nouvelle 
 France,” and editor of “La Nouvelle France,” from 
 1902 to the time of his death. He was also the 
 contributor of a number of biographical articles 
 to The Catholic Encyclopedia. 
 
 Linz, Diocese of (Linciensis; cf. C. E., IX-273c), 
 suffragan of the Archdiocese of Vienna, includes 
 a part of Upper Austria and some townships in 
 Lower Austria. The downfall of the Austro-Hun¬ 
 garian Monarchy in 1918 and the establishment of 
 a republic in accordance with the Treaty of Ver¬ 
 sailles brought many severe trials upon the diocese. 
 Prosperity decreased, famine and intense misery 
 oppressed the larger part of the nation. The mid¬ 
 dle classes, the children, the numerous institu¬ 
 tions and above all the religious communities 
 suffered great privations. Only the generous con¬ 
 tributions of the Catholics of foreign countries, 
 especially America, made existence possible. The 
 steady depreciation of the Austrian exchange causes 
 
 daily increase in the cost of living and makes the 
 problem of supporting the numerous hospitals and 
 charitable institutions more and more difficult. The 
 religious and political conditions have grown stead¬ 
 ily worse. The destruction of the monarchy has 
 given the revolutionary Labor Party unlimited 
 power, which they try to increase by terror and 
 force. They constantly wage opposition to the 
 Church and by inciting fear and distrust cause great 
 harm throughout the country. 
 
 At the present time the diocese is governed 
 by Rt. Rev. John Maria Gfollner, b. at Waizen- 
 kirchen, 17 December, 1867, for some time professor 
 of theology and rector of the seminary at Linz, 
 appointed bishop 19 August, 1915, consecrated 18 
 October following. The diocese is divided into 
 35 deaneries with 420 parishes, 4 mission stations 
 and 49 benefices. There are 658 active seculars, 14 
 of whom for divers reasons are stationed in other 
 parishes, 59 have no regular duties, 310 regulars 
 of whom 36 are principally occupied in caring for 
 souls in other dioceses. Of the religious orders 
 of men there are the following establishments: 
 the Canons Regular of St. Augustine have 2 mon¬ 
 asteries, 1 at St. Florian near Linz (87 priests, 
 10 clerics, 5 novices), 1 at Reichersberg (21 priests, 
 3 clerics, 1 novice), Premonstratensian Canons at 
 Schlagl (38 priests, 4 clerics, 1 novice), Benedictines 
 at Kremsmunster (89 priests, 8 clerics, 1 novice), 
 and Lambach (16 priests, 1 cleric, 6 lay brothers, 
 
 1 novice), Cistercians at Schlierbach( 21 priests, 3 
 clerics, 2 novices), at Wilhering (38 priests, 5 clerics, 
 
 1 novice). Besides there are in the diocese 135 
 priests who belong to other orders and congrega¬ 
 tions, namely: Franciscans of the North Tyrol 
 Province, 7 establishments (35 priests), Capuchins 
 of the Eastern Hungarian Province, 2 establishments 
 (13 priests), Capuchins of the North Tyrol Province, 
 
 2 establishments (16 priests), Discalced Carmelites 
 (8 priests), Jesuits, 3 establishments (27 priests), 
 Redemptorists, 2 establishments (9 priests), Con¬ 
 gregation of the Divine Redeemer (8 priests in 1 
 convent), Oblates of St. Francis de Sales, 3 estab¬ 
 lishments (6 priests). 
 
 The following religious communities of women 
 are now represented in the diocese: Ursulines at 
 Linz (54 Sisters), Sisters of St. Elizabeth (46 Sis¬ 
 ters), Discalced Carmelites (46 Sisters), Salesian 
 Nuns (33 Sisters), Redemptorists (35 Sisters), 
 Ladies of Charity of the Good Shepherd (48Sisters), 
 Sisters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul (33 Sisters 
 in 20 houses), Sisters of Mercy of St. Charles 
 Borromeo (90 Sisters in 17 houses), Sisters of the 
 Holy Cross (443 Sisters in 76 houses), School Sisters 
 of the Third Order of St. Francis (124 Sisters in 
 32 houses), Sisters of the Third Order of St. Francis 
 of Hallein, Archdiocese of Salzburg (7 Sisters, 3 
 branch houses), School Sisters of St. Augustine 
 of Munich (12 Sisters, 2 branch houses), Sisters of 
 the Third Order of Mt. Carmel (143 Sisters, 28 
 houses) Oblates of St. Francis de Sales (17 Sis¬ 
 ters) Sisters of the Congregation of Christian Char¬ 
 ity (14 Sisters), Daughters of the Divine Saviour 
 (6 Sisters in 1 house). 
 
 The Brothers Hospitallers of St. John of God 
 have a hospital at Linz (15 Brothers), the Congre¬ 
 gation of Mary (Brothers of Mary) conduct a 
 theological seminary, a private normal school, a 
 boarding school and an industrial continuation 
 school at Freistadt (3 priests, 34 Brothers), besides 
 a small establishment in the parish of Tragwein 
 at the Greisinghof with a novitiate (11 novices). 
 
 I he Brothers of the Christian Schools have a 
 school and an asylum at Goisern (10 Brothers). 
 The diocese has a seminary (4 years’ course) with 
 100 students, which is under the care of the secular 
 
LINZ 
 
 462 
 
 LISMORE 
 
 clergy, all the professors being secular priests. It 
 has likewise a diocesan private gymnasium under 
 the direction of the secular clergy, with 256 stu¬ 
 dents, who have the privilege of continuing their 
 studies at the preparatory seminary, “Collegium 
 Petrinum.” The bishop also has charge of a train¬ 
 ing college for teachers, a boarding place for teach¬ 
 ers and students called the “Salesianum.” There 
 are 2 Realschulen (scientific high schools; Latin in 
 curriculum), 2 Realgymnasia (9 to 6 years’ curricu¬ 
 lum, Latin, science, and modem languages), 3 
 gymnasia (9 years’ classical course), which are all 
 under the care of the Government but in which 
 religious instruction is given; 600 state elementary 
 schools, in which the resident priest instructs the 
 students in Christian Doctrine. In larger towns 
 there are also secondary schools, various indus¬ 
 trial and agricultural schools for boys and girls 
 (2 winter agricultural schools), 1 art school, 1 
 gymnasium (girls), 1 training school for male and 
 female teachers, housekeeping schools. Secular 
 priests have charge of the following institutions: 
 1 orphan asylum with which a school is connected, 
 1 asylum and school for the blind, 1 asylum and 
 school for the deaf and dumb, 1 asylum for idiots, 
 1 House of the Good Shepherd, 1 asylum for 
 epileptics and crippled children and several institu¬ 
 tions which care for children. 
 
 The following associations have been organized 
 among the clergy: Association of Mission Priests, 
 Association of Perpetual Adoration, and Association 
 of Catechists. Besides the several religious soci¬ 
 eties such as the League of the Sacred Heart, the 
 Holy Rosary Society, and the Association of Chris¬ 
 tian Families, there is the Catholic People’s League, 
 which is the political organ of the Catholics 
 throughout the country. Connected with the latter 
 are the societies of the various classes, such as 
 the Association of Farmers, Workingmen’s Unions 
 and Mechanics’ Unions, which have branches in the 
 towns throughout the diocese. The Zentralverein 
 (Central Union) is the important organization for 
 Catholic women. It has branches and many mem¬ 
 bers in all parts of the country. Affiliated with this 
 union are the Associations of Catholic Working- 
 women, Association of Christian Nurses and Asso¬ 
 ciation of Young Girls. These organizations have 
 planned a course of lectures and have engaged 10 
 teachers who travel through the country, holding 
 meetings and lecturing to the people. This organi¬ 
 zation conducts a home with which are connected 
 an industrial school, a housekeeping school, a home 
 for children, primarily for those of invalided sol¬ 
 diers, a farm with an agricultural housekeeping 
 school. Its members dispense charity and do all 
 in their power to mitigate the Existing misery and 
 destitution. Of late many shelters for children 
 have been established. Mention should be made 
 of the Catholic School Association, the Piusverein 
 (for a clean press), various young men’s associa¬ 
 tions, journeymen’s associations (Gesellenvereine ), 
 the Marian Congregation, with more than 200 
 branches, the Union of Christian Workers and 
 Accountants, and a Union of Christian Housemaids 
 and Servants. Besides these denominational soci¬ 
 eties there are associations to improve the economic 
 conditions of the workingmen, with a central bureau 
 at Linz and branches in the smaller cities and 
 towns. All the workingmen’s associations have 
 formed one central organization which publishes 
 a weekly journal. 
 
 The Catholic Press Association is the official 
 organ for the Catholic press. It owns several 
 presses and has a large book-selling and publishing 
 establishment at Linz. A Catholic daily and sev¬ 
 
 eral weekly and semi-weekly periodicals are printed 
 in other parts of the diocese. The Association 
 also publishes “Die theologische praktische Quar- 
 talschrift” (The Practical Theological Quarterly), 
 a scholarly journal which has a large circulation 
 and is well known in America. 
 
 Lipa, Diocese of (Lipanensis; cf. C. E., XVI- 
 36a), in the Philippine Islands, suffragan of Manila. 
 This diocese was first erected by a Bull of 17 
 September, 1902, but the Bull was not put into 
 execution and so Pius X erected the diocese anew 
 10 April, 1910. It comprises ^territory which was 
 formerly a portion of the Archdiocese of Manila, 
 and the province of Fayabas, formerly part of 
 the Diocese of Nueva Caceres. Rt. Rev. Giuseppe 
 Petrelli was appointed the first bishop 12 April, 
 1910. Born in Montegiorgio, Italy, 11 February, 
 1873, he made his studies in the seminary of 
 Fermo and the college of Capranica in Rome,' was 
 appointed secretary of the apostolic delegation to 
 Manila in 1903, and a private chamberlain in 1904. 
 He was promoted to the titular metropolitan see of 
 Nisibis 30 May, 1915, and appointed Apostolic 
 delegate to the Philippines 10 June following. His 
 successor is Rt. Rev. Alfred Verzosa, born in Vigan, 
 in the Philippines, in 1877, appointed 6 September, 
 1916. By the 1911 census the diocese has a Catholic 
 population of 650,000 and 10,000 non-Catholics. It 
 is served by 75 priests and 72 churches. 
 
 Lisbon, Patriarchate of (Lisbonensis; cf. C. E., 
 IX-281c), the primatial see of Portugal. The 
 patriarch is always named a cardinal. At present 
 the see is filled by His Eminence Cardinal Mendes 
 Bello, born in Gouvea, Portugal, 1842, appointed 
 titular archbishop of Mitylene 24 March, 1884, 
 transferred to Faro 13 November following, and 
 promoted to the Patriarchate of Lisbon 19 Decem¬ 
 ber, 1907, to succeed Cardinal Netto, retired. He 
 was named cardinal in petto at the consistory of 
 27 November, 1911, and his nomination made public 
 25 May, 1914. In 1917 the cardinal was ordered to 
 leave the city within five days, and forbidden to 
 live in the district of Lisbon or the neighboring 
 districts for one year. However, on 10 December 
 following a new revolution abolished his exile and 
 he was enabled to return to the city. The cardinal 
 is assisted by an auxiliary, Most Rev. Joao Evan¬ 
 gelista Maria de Lima Vidal, titular Archbishop of 
 Mitylene. In 1918 fifty parishes were taken from 
 the archdiocese of Lisbon to reestablish the diocese 
 of Leiria. The population comprises 728,739 Cath¬ 
 olics and about 5000 Protestants and Jews. By 
 1920 statistics there are in the archdiocese 662 
 priests, 341 parishes, and 1555 churches or chapels. 
 
 Lismore, Diocese of (Lismorensis; cf. C. E., 
 IX-283d), in Australia, suffragan of Sydney. This 
 see, erected in 1887 under the name of Grafton and 
 changed to its present title in 1900, is under the 
 administration of its second bishop, Rt. Rev. John 
 Carroll. Born in Brenor, Ireland, in 1865, he served 
 as a professor at the English college in Rome, and 
 was appointed bishop 2 December, 1909, to succeed 
 Rt. Rev. Jeremiah Doyle, died 4 June, 1909. The 
 religious orders now-established in this diocese in¬ 
 clude the: Marist Brothers, Presentation Nuns, 
 Sisters of St. Joseph, Sisters of Mercy, Sisters of 
 Our Lady of the Sacred Heart, Sisters of the Good 
 Samaritan, and Ursuline Nuns. By 1922 statistics 
 the diocese comprises 69 churches, 20 districts, 32 
 secular priests, 4 Religious Brothers, 181 nuns, 9 
 boarding schools for girls and 3 for boys, 3 superior 
 day schools, 31 primary schools, 1 orphan asylum, 
 3711 children attending parochial schools, and 128 
 attending superior schools. According to the 1911 
 
LITHUANIA 
 
 LITOMfiRICE 
 
 463 
 
 ? e ^n l i s A Ji le 'vliite population of the diocese 
 
 is 106,000, and the total Catholic population 26,000. 
 
 Lithuania (cf. C E IX-292b).-An independent 
 Republic which includes the former Russian prov- 
 °{ Kaunas (Kovno), the province of Vilnius 
 (\ llna), minus the districts of Disna and Vileika, 
 part of the province of Gardinos (Grodno), the 
 province of Suvalki minus the southern parts of 
 the Suvalki district and Augustovo and parts of 
 the piownce of Courland and the district of 
 llluksta. The boundaries of the country are still 
 in dispute, I oland claiming certain important ter- 
 i it ones not ceded to her by the conference. The 
 latest statistics (1914) give an area of 59,633 sq. 
 miles and a population of 4,800,000; of the inhabi- 
 r G i Lithuanians are most numerous, forming 
 d)% of the total^ population; the Poles, 8%, the 
 Russians and White Russians, 7%; and other 
 nationalities, 2%. Memel with an area of 1080 sq. 
 miles is claimed by the Lithuanians, although at 
 present it is administered by the Allied Powers. 
 
 Religion.— The Catholics form 75% of the popu- 
 latmn m Vilna, Kovno, and Suvalki, the Jews, 12% • 
 
 Greek Orthodox, 9%; Protestants and Calvinists, 
 4%. 
 
 Education —Present statistics record about 1630 
 grammar schools, 31 secondary schools, 42 public 
 high schools, and several technical and agricultural 
 schools. The opening of Vilna University is now 
 under consideration. 
 
 Finance.— The , budget for 1920 which planned 
 for a revenue of 684,000,000 marks (1 mark = 24 
 cents) and an expenditure of 768,050,000 marks, 
 revealed a deficit of 84,050,000 marks. In the recent 
 treaty with Russia at Moscow, in place of the in- 
 ' demnity for the damage done by the Russian army 
 ^ Lithuania, Russia took over the whole of the 
 old Russian debt devolving on Lithuania: in addi¬ 
 tion, Russia was to give Lithuania 3,000,000 rubles 
 m gold and to concede to her over 100,000 hectares 
 forest. During the war, the finances of the 
 country were under the control of the Germans 
 who issued paper money and exploited the resources 
 of the country. 
 
 PRO D «cn°N.- 0 f the land area, 45.8% is arable; 
 '■y° consists of meadow and pasture; 20 3% 
 of forest; 3.1% is unproductive, and 6.5% is waste 
 End. 1 he chief crops in 1920 were rye, 1,000,000,- 
 
 SSn&°^ ds; W ¥ at ’ 150,000,000 pounds; barley, 
 300,000,000 pounds; oats, 500,000,000 pounds; pota¬ 
 toes, 2,000,000,000 pounds; peas, 120,000,000 pounds; 
 flax seed, 70,000,000 pounds. 
 
 Commerce. —In 1920, the export trade of this 
 country was valued at 521,797,163 marks; the im¬ 
 port trade, 428,728,541 marks (the Lithuanian 
 mark is equal to the German mark), but owing 
 to fluctuations in the. exchange the itemized values 
 are not converted into United States currency, 
 mthuama has 1550 miles of railway lines, of which 
 1178 miles are broad gauge. 
 
 Recent History.— Lithuania was ruled by Russia 
 until 1915, when the Germans invaded the land. 
 
 As a part of the Russian Empire she shared in the 
 revolutionary outbreaks of 1905. The Lithuanian 
 mtional Assembly then met for the first time, two 
 thousand delegates being present to demand 
 autonomy, with the continuance of federation with 
 Russia. This attitude continued until 1917, when 
 the idea of complete independence was substituted 
 for federation. In February, 1918, a proclamation 
 oi independence was issued, and by April, 1919, a 
 provisional constitution was adopted, to remain in 
 force until a permanent constitution was framed. In 
 July, 1919, Poland agreed to recognize the new state, 
 
 and a few days later a treaty of peace was signed 
 3 0 
 
 with Russia at Moscow, defining the boundary. 
 1 his treaty gave to Lithuania territories claimed 
 y the Poles, who asserted their rights over the 
 old province of Suvalki, a part of Grodno, the 
 y °£ YRself, and certain other portions, cut¬ 
 ting oft Lithuania from Russia by a corridor running 
 between Russian and Lithuanian territories to 
 Latvia. Hardly had this treaty been concluded, 
 when the Lithuanians came in conflict with the 
 Poles, who insisted on boundary rectifications, and 
 also on occupying Vilna and using Lithuania’s rail- 
 roads m their offensive against the Bolsheviki. Hos¬ 
 tilities ceased for a while pending a settlement by 
 the League of Nations. In the meantime the Polish 
 adventurer, General Zeligowski, decided to seize 
 Vilna on 9 October. At present there are two 
 governments: the Kovno Government (Lithuanian 
 Government, which functions at Kovno, a short dis¬ 
 tance south of V ilna), and the Vilna provisional 
 Government, which declared on 20 February, 1922, 
 for union with Poland, abrogated all treaties with 
 Soviet Russia, and claimed the right to administer 
 the Vilna territories by the Polish constitution of 
 May, 1921. The Lithuanian Army includes about 
 50,000 men. 
 
 Litomerice (Leitmeritz), Diocese of (Litomer- 
 icensis; cf. C. E., IX-141b), in Bohemia, Czecho¬ 
 slovakia. At the conclusion of the World War 
 the Catholics assembled in large numbers at 
 seven different conventions to insist upon the indis¬ 
 solubility of the marriage state, the Catholic edu¬ 
 cation of the young in the schools, and to preserve 
 intact the union of Church and State. The defec¬ 
 tion from the faith of thirty-five priests and several 
 thousands of former adherents to embrace a recent 
 Czechoslovakian heresy is a matter of great regret. 
 During the War the Catholic churches raised large 
 sums of money for the care of the wounded who, 
 together with the destitute and orphaned, were 
 sedulously attended by clergy, religious and laity. 
 Provision was made also for the spiritual care of 
 the combatants. Valuable consecrated church prop¬ 
 erty and lands were confiscated by the Government 
 for military purposes and the present poverty of 
 the Catholics makes it impossible to buy them back 
 at the price demanded. Of special note are the fol¬ 
 lowing recently deceased: Mgr. Jacob Kasper of 
 Georgswalde, honorary canon, through whose benefi¬ 
 cence 30 young men were educated for the priest¬ 
 hood; the learned Dr. Otto Willmann of Leitmeritz, 
 professor emeritus of philosophy in the University 
 of Prague, author of various works of philosophy 
 and pedagogy, among which are: “Didaktik 
 als Bildungslehre,” “Philosophia Propadeutik,” 
 Geschichte des Idealismus”; the Stadthalter Prince 
 Franz von Thun, who served the Church in 
 Bohemia in word and deed. The present bishop of 
 the diocese is Rt. Rev. Joseph Gross, consecrated 
 5 June, 1910. Recently 3 larger (in Semily, Reichen- 
 berg, Warnsdorf) and 4 smaller churches were 
 built and consecrated by Bishop Gross. 
 
 The Catholic population is 1,644,014, of whom 
 two-thirds are German and the rest Czechoslovakian. 
 The secular priests number 822, regular priests 144, 
 lay brother* 37. There are 444 parishes with 585 
 churches, 21 monasteries for men and 4 for women, 
 
 1 abbey for men and 1 for women, 2 convents for 
 men and 84 for women, 1 seminary, 1 theological 
 university with 6 professors and 57 students, 1 col¬ 
 lege for boys with 14 teachers and 210 students, 
 
 13 colleges for girls pensioned by the Government, 
 
 13 normal schools in the care of the Sisters, 1 train¬ 
 ing school, 14 homes, 31 hospitals, 24 orphan asy¬ 
 lums controlled by the Sisters, 1 deaf and dumb 
 asylum, 27 day nurseries. The normal schools were 
 
LITTLE PLOWER 
 
 464 
 
 LITURGICAL 
 
 erected by and are under the Government super¬ 
 vision, which contributes nothing towards the sup¬ 
 port of the strictly Catholic institutions. The fol¬ 
 lowing Catholic associations exist: for the clergy, 
 Verband der Deutschen geistlichkeit, Ceicilien- 
 Verein, Kirchenbau-Verein, Marian Congregation, 
 Association for Priestly Perseverance, Adoration 
 Society; for the laity, Mariascheiner Association for 
 the support of Students, Press Association, Young 
 Men’s and Journeymen’s Association, Catholic 
 National League, Catholic School Association, 
 Marian Congregations, League of the Sacred Heart. 
 There are 1 Catholic daily and 5 periodicals pub¬ 
 lished. 
 
 Little Tlower of Jesus. See Teresa of the 
 .Child Jesus, Sister. 
 
 Little Nellie of Holy God. See Organ, Nellie. 
 
 Little Rock, Diocese of (Petriculanensis; cf. 
 C. E., IX-295a), comprises the State of Arkansas, 
 an area of 53,045 sq. miles. The _ see is 
 filled by Rt. Rev. John B. Morris, born in Hen¬ 
 dersonville, Minnesota, 1866, ordained in 1892, 
 served as vicar general of Nashville, and was 
 appointed titular Bishop of Acmonia and coadjutor 
 to Bishop Fitzgerald of Little Rock 6 April, 1906, 
 succeeding to the see upon the death of his pre¬ 
 decessor, 21 February, 1907. The episcopal resi¬ 
 dence is at Little Rock, and the cathedral is dedi¬ 
 cated to St. Andrew. In 1920 two important events 
 occurred in the diocese, the opening of a boys’ 
 protectory at Armstrong Springs, and the founding 
 of the Diocesan Catholic Lay Council, 8 September, 
 for the purpose of looking after poor missions. The 
 following year St. John’s Seminary was opened at 
 Little Rock on 28 September. The new Little Rock 
 College has also been opened at a cost of $250,000. 
 
 The diocese counts a total Catholic population 
 of 25,000, comprising about 1275 Italians, 700 Poles, 
 500 Lithuanians and Slovaks, and 455 negroes; the 
 remainder are Americans of German and Irish 
 descent. By latest statistics there are in the diocese 
 48 parishes, 113 churches, 65 missions, 122 mission 
 stations, 1 monastery for men (Carmelite), 1 abbey 
 for men, 1 house of Brothers, 14 convents of women, 
 47 secular and 45 regular clergy, 10 lay Brothers, 
 505 nuns, 1 seminary, 40 seminarians, 2 colleges for 
 boys with 28 professors and 500 students, 8 acad¬ 
 emies, 1 normal school with 10 teachers and 100 
 students, 45 elementary schools with 700 teachers 
 and attendance of 2940, and an industrial school, 
 which will open this year, with 7 teachers and 50 
 pupils. The charitable institutions include St. 
 Joseph’s Orphanage, 5 hospitals, and 1 home at 
 Hot Springs; all the State institutions permit the 
 priests to minister in them. The Apostleship of 
 Prayer and the Eucharistic League are established 
 among the clergy, and the Knights of Columbus 
 and Diocesan Lay Council among the laity. “The 
 Guardian,” the official diocesan organ, was founded 
 in 1911 and now has a circulation of 3000. 
 
 Liturgical Music, Pius X Institute of, founded 
 in 1918 and established at the College of the Sacred 
 Heart, Manhattanville, New York City, by Mrs. 
 Justine B. Ward, author of the Justine Ward Method 
 of Teaching Music, for the purpose of concentrating 
 on the systematic working out of the reform in 
 church music decreed by Pope Pius X in his Motu 
 Proprio on the subject. At the request and through 
 the inspiration of the late Rev. Dr. Thomas Edward 
 Shields, Dean of the Catholic Sisters College, Wash¬ 
 ington, D. C., one of whose great desires was to 
 restore music to its true place in the field of Cath¬ 
 olic education, and finally by means of a thorough 
 
 musical education in parochial schools to enable the 
 people to take part in the liturgical singing, Mrs. 
 Ward, with the help and guidance of the Rev. J. B. 
 Young, S.J., wrote her method of teaching music 
 in which she has accomplished the simplification of 
 a great art. This work forms the basis of the work 
 of the Pius X Institute of Liturgical Music. The 
 first volume of the Justine Ward Method of Teach¬ 
 ing Music was brought out in 1913. In this volume 
 and in those which followed, music is treated as a 
 basic element in the development of intellect and 
 in the formation of character. Throughout Mrs. 
 Ward has carried out the principles and methods 
 which Dr. Shields embodied in his Catholic Educa¬ 
 tion Series of Primary Text Books, and she has 
 correlated as closely as possible with all the ele¬ 
 ments of the curriculum, always stressing those 
 aspects of music which would enable the child and 
 older student to appreciate and take an effective 
 part in liturgical singing. Her idea is that music 
 being basic must not be reserved for the gifted few, 
 but must be brought within the grasp of every child 
 to use with ease and joy. To accomplish this result, 
 children in the primary grades begin with the basic 
 principles of music itself, at first in germinal form, 
 but gradually unfolding in greater richness and com¬ 
 plexity, according to the child’s developing capacity. 
 In the plan of the Justine Ward Method, music 
 takes its place from the very first as a natural form 
 of expression. It is not to be something arbitrarily 
 imposed from without, arrived at through imitation 
 and memorized by dreary repetition, but it is pre¬ 
 sented in such- a way as to become part of the 
 child’s own thought. He is t-s^ight to read music 
 as naturally as he reads and trunks in his native 
 language. The work begins with a single note, 
 always sung, for all music comes from singing. This 
 original note, out of which the whole system 
 develops, must be pure in quality, that the voice 
 may be well placed and the tone beautiful from 
 the start. The importance of the vocal work in the 
 method can hardly be over-emphasized, for where 
 there is no beauty of tone, there is no music, and 
 therefore the vocal exercises, through which the 
 smoothness, flexibility and beauty of tone are 
 derived, are one of the important studies of the 
 method. 
 
 The vocal training achieved in schools where the 
 method is used has won for it much renown. The 
 vocal exercises used are the work of the Rev. J. B. 
 Young, S.J., whose thorough acquaintance with 
 voice training and long practical experience in this 
 field entitles him to be regarded as a leader in any 
 movement directed to the improvement of musical 
 education and liturgical singing. Father Young 
 gave his constant assistance to the author of the 
 Justine Ward Method of Teaching Music and placed 
 at her disposal material which he had already copy¬ 
 righted and which he had tested by actual use in 
 the service of the Church. He comes frequently 
 to the courses given at the Institute, to hear and 
 aid the vocal work of the students. 
 
 In 1918, when Mrs. Ward founded the Pius X 
 Chair of Liturgical Music (the term “Chair” was 
 changed to that of “Institute” when the scope of its 
 work was no longer that of a Chair), at the Col-, 
 lege of the Sacred Heart, little headway had been 
 made toward carrying out the Motu Proprio of 
 Pope Pius X. The Supreme Pontiff had urged that 
 music be restored to the people as a means of 
 sanctification; that such music as was used by the 
 Church must adequately express the content of her 
 message and that these things be done, not in a 
 spirit of blind obedience but with that alacrity of 
 will that springs from interior conviction of its 
 
LITURGICAL 
 
 465 
 
 LITURGICAL 
 
 necessity. But the people could not sing—nor could 
 they understand a type of music so different from 
 anything they had ever heard. The task of the 
 Pius X Institute was therefore a vast one, but as 
 the only hope of any great movement is in the ris- 
 i n f? generation, the field for the work was obviously 
 in the parochial schools. 4 he teaching of music 
 had. been largely controlled by a highly specialized 
 group which knew its own subject but was more or 
 less out of touch with those elements of general 
 culture which would enable its members to teach 
 their art according to the laws of psychological 
 development. The rigid didactic methods of the past 
 had served their purpose because they attempted 
 little more than to reach the pupils with special 
 aptitude for music. The Pius X Institute of 
 Liturgical Music wished to reach a wider field, and 
 has done so. The work of the Institute was first 
 developed by training the children of the Annuncia¬ 
 tion School for Girls, taught by the Religious of 
 the Sacred Heart, and thus securing practical re¬ 
 sults which might be used in the training of teachers. 
 In the summer of 1917 courses for teachers were 
 first given, for lasting results cannot be achieved 
 through any method of instruction, however excel¬ 
 lent in itself unless it be used by competent 
 teachers with adequate training in the method in 
 question. Under the direction of Mother G. Stevens, 
 Religious of the Sacred Heart, who has been from 
 the first the chief teacher and interpreter of Mrs. 
 W ard’s work, the Institute has flourished and won 
 for itself a unique place in education and art. This 
 is due primarily to the phenomenal results obtained 
 with the children in the schools that have adopted 
 the method, and do the work while keeping in close 
 touch with its development at the center. The 
 zeal with which teachers and educators have taken 
 up Mrs. Ward’s work and carried it on is in itself 
 a proof of its value. It is these teachers, for the 
 most part bodies of women of many different reli¬ 
 gious orders, who had realized the object to be 
 attained and who are pushing the work in their 
 schools. Practically every instance of its adoption 
 in a school has been the result of popular acclaim; 
 rarely has it been enforced from without. With 
 such splendid co-operation, the work of the Insti¬ 
 tute has progressed healthily and normally. In 
 June, 1920, two years after it was established, many 
 people in the United States witnessed the beginning 
 of the liturgical revival in this country when thirty- 
 five hundred children, trained by teachers of the 
 normal school of the Pius X Institute, took part 
 in the International Congress of Gregorian Chant 
 held in New York City in St. Patrick’s Cathedral, 
 under the auspices of the Most Reverend Patrick 
 J. Hayes, Archbishop of New York. The beauty of 
 the children’s singing was praised by the Monks of 
 Solesmes, Dom Andre Mocquereau and Dorn Gatard, 
 who led the Congress. The children, drawn from 
 forty schools of New York City and suburbs, and 
 several groups from Philadelphia and suburbs, sang 
 the Missa de Angelis on the opening day of the 
 Congress. They had had but three ensemble re¬ 
 hearsals before the event, yet they sang in perfect 
 unison and with a purity of tone and an enthusiasm 
 that brought tears to many eyes. For many years 
 before the founding of the Pius X Institute of 
 Liturgical Music, the Society of St. Gregory, an 
 organization of Catholic organists and choirmasters 
 and others interested in the advancement of the 
 cause of sacred music, together with the Auxiliary 
 Committee of the Pontifical Institute of Sacred 
 Music, had been laying the foundation for a Con¬ 
 gress such as this, but it was the work done by the 
 school children that made the event possible. The 
 
 Congress was a milestone in the history of the 
 liturgical revival in the New World. 
 
 people were not always silent onlookers at 
 the liturgical drama. Their part originally was akin 
 to that oi the chorus in the Greek drama; they 
 responded to the prayers of the priest with a shout 
 of appi-ovai “ A mca”; with a burst of joy, 
 Alleluia! The Kyne was their own plea for 
 mercy; the Credo their own act of faith. But for 
 generations the voice oi the people had been 
 hushed. I he . Church is restoring to them their 
 musical birthright. Since the Renaissance, public 
 worship has suffered a gradual deterioration 
 btealthily the principle of art for art’s sake has 
 crept into our churches through the choir. Music 
 j u treated as an end rather than as a means 
 and both music and prayer have suffered. To com¬ 
 bat this and to make it possible to obey the Motu 
 Proprio have been Mrs. Ward’s aim and sole desire. 
 Ine liturgy, the complex of public worship through 
 words, through gesture, through color, through 
 sound is the most powerful means towards con- 
 \ eision and sanctification. The arts, as humble 
 handmaids of the Lord, are admitted, not for their 
 °' VI1 u to add life and efficacy to the 
 
 thoughts and by so doing, to “train and form the 
 minds of the faithful to all sanctity” (Pius X). 
 Music must be primarily prayer, and furthermore, 
 liturgical prayer, vesting itself with the exact form 
 and spirit of the liturgy. “These qualities are to 
 be found m the highest degree in Gregorian Chant, 
 which is consequently the chant proper to the 
 Roman Church” (Pius X). Gregorian Chant, being 
 unison music, can be sung by the entire people and 
 even by little children. Besides the thirty-five hun¬ 
 dred school children who sang during the Congress 
 in St. Patrick’s Cathedral, there were many adults 
 delegates from all over the United States and 
 Europe. The seminaries of Baltimore, Rochester 
 and other cities co-operated with those of Dun- 
 woodie, in singing the offices. Hundreds of dele¬ 
 gates from religious communities from all over the 
 country took part in the singing, and for a number 
 of weeks before the event, evening rehearsals both 
 in churches and at the College of the Sacred Heart 
 were conducted under the auspices of the Pius X 
 Institute of Liturgical Music, . in order that the 
 laity might fit themselves to join in the singing 
 of the Psalms. For three days the body of St. Pat¬ 
 rick s Cathedral was filled with these singers under 
 the direction of the greatest living authority on 
 Gregorian Chant, the venerable Dom Andre Moc¬ 
 quereau, with his late pupil Dom Gatard, then 
 prior of Farnborough Abbey, England. No more 
 rapid and effective method could have been devised 
 to further this great educational movement in the 
 Church than the bringing together of those groups 
 for the Congress which gave not only a model of 
 what the Holy See desires, but a practical illustra¬ 
 tion of how these desires can most easily be fulfilled. 
 
 Through the new interest and enthusiasm aroused 
 by- the. overwhelming success of the Congress, 
 greater impetus was given to the work of the Pius 
 X Institute, and in two years following the Con¬ 
 gress the work broadened in scope. Besides the 
 teaching of the method to the children of the 
 Annunciation Parish School and those of the Acad¬ 
 emy of the Sacred Heart, the work of the Institute 
 is divided into three departments: (1) the training 
 of teachers in the normal school; (2) the super¬ 
 vision of the teaching of music in all the schools 
 that have adopted the Justine Ward Method; 
 (3) Extension Work, from which department teach¬ 
 ers are sent out all over the country to give 
 normal courses in schools and colleges to bodies of 
 
LITURGICAL 
 
 466 
 
 LIVERPOOL 
 
 teacher-students in the Justine Ward Method. 
 This extension teaching is carefully followed up by 
 the faculty of the Institute. Written examinations 
 are required and certificates are awarded upon the 
 successful passing of these examinations, which are 
 conducted on the plan of the State Regents’ tests. 
 Sealed questions are sent out from the Institute and 
 the examination papers are returned to the center 
 for correction and rating. Records are kept, and the 
 work of all teachers trained through the Extension 
 Work Department, as well as that of teachers who 
 come to the Institute, is carefully followed up from 
 the center through its staff of supervisors. Diplomas 
 are awarded for practical work. In this way the 
 work has been made a living thing, constantly being 
 developed to meet new needs discovered in the ex¬ 
 perience of teaching it. Two sessions a year are 
 conducted by Mrs. Ward and Mother G. Stevens in 
 the normal school, a summer session and a winter 
 session. The courses given include the Justine 
 Ward Method, harmony, psychology, pedagogy and 
 elementary and advanced Gregorian Chant. The 
 courses in the Chant are always given by well 
 known authorities on the subject. In the summer 
 session of 1922, advanced Gregorian Chant was 
 given by the great master, Dom Andre Mocquereau, 
 and a course in Gregorian Chant Accompaniment 
 was given by Dom Desroquesttes, organist of Quarr 
 Abbey, Isle of Wight, England. As an aftermath of 
 the* Congress, widespread interest in the movement 
 showed itself in the greatly increased attendance at 
 the courses of study given in the Normal School of 
 the Institute. The student body includes Sisters of 
 almost every teaching order, priests and seminarians, 
 organists and choirmasters, as well as many pianists 
 and singing teachers among the laity who are in¬ 
 terested in new and progressive methods. Although 
 the work of the Institute is distinctly Catholic in 
 aim and purpose, the phenomenal musical results 
 obtained everywhere in the schools that are working 
 under its supervision, have aroused the interest of 
 non-Catholic educators. The Justine Ward Method 
 has been adopted in many of their private schools 
 and the directors of these schools are working in 
 close co-operation with the faculty of the Pius X 
 Institute. This branching out into the non-Catholic 
 field of education was partly brought about by a 
 number of influential ladies who attended the In¬ 
 ternational Congress of Gregorian Chant and were 
 deeply impressed by the beauty of the children’s 
 singing and who witnessed at a public demonstration 
 given in Cathedral Hall during the days of the Con¬ 
 gress an exhibition of the method as it is conducted 
 in the class room. The beautiful quality of the 
 children’s voices and their power of sustaining an 
 absolutely true pitch without the support of an in¬ 
 strument have amazed all who have heard them, 
 among whom have been many musicians of inter¬ 
 national reputation. The children can read at sight 
 a new melody with as much ease as they read a 
 printed statement. They can write down a melody 
 at first hearing with equal facility. They analyze 
 intelligently the melodies they hear, both as to 
 content and form. They improvise phrases and 
 responses with ease and delight and compose orig¬ 
 inal melodies of musical value in two and three 
 parts as well as in unison. After the meeting of 
 the Congress, these ladies under the leadership of 
 Mrs. Adrian Iselin, formed themselves into a com¬ 
 mittee to work for the spread of the Justine Ward 
 Method of Teaching Music in both public and 
 private schools, for they recognized in it an educa¬ 
 tional movement of power, i. e., this bringing of 
 a great art into the lives of the people instead of 
 to the cultured few alone. For this purpose they 
 have given the Institute substantial financial sup¬ 
 
 port as well as lending to it valuable influence. 
 But in spite of financial aid secured from various 
 sources, the work of the Institute is not yet self- 
 supporting. This will probably take years to accom¬ 
 plish ana at present its needs arising from the 
 mass of work connected with the movement, are 
 great. Established as a Chair of the College of the 
 Sacred Heart, it has long since outgrown the space 
 allotted to it by the College and an adequate build¬ 
 ing and funds for supervisors are greatly needed. 
 
 Through its extension work, schools in many im¬ 
 portant cities from Maine to California are working 
 in close co-operation with it in methods and pur¬ 
 pose. In May, 1922, the Society of Saint Gregory 
 held its fifth annual convention at Rochester, N. Y., 
 under the auspices of the Rt. Rev. Thomas F. 
 Hickey, Bishop of Rochester. The Institute was 
 represented by a class of children from the parochial 
 school of the Annunciation, New York City, taught 
 by Mother G. Stevens, who gave a demonstration 
 in the advanced work of the Justine Ward Method. 
 School children of Rochester also took part in the 
 demonstration of the Method. 
 
 Mrs. Ward has completed three volumes of her 
 work and the fourth is nearly finished. The latter 
 deals exclusively with Gregorian Chant and has 
 been written in close collaboration with Dom Moc¬ 
 quereau, who gives it the highest possible praise in 
 the introduction which he himself has written. 
 Dom Mocquereau, more than any single figure, has 
 contributed by his researches to the restoration of 
 the Gregorian melodies to their original purity in 
 the form now embodied in the Vatican edition of 
 the Gradual, which since its publication has become 
 a matter of musical dogma to the Church. He 
 is the authoritative interpreter of his own dis¬ 
 coveries of rhythmic principles, which break away 
 from some of the rules which musicians of the last 
 few centuries have held as axiomatic, but from 
 whose' shackles modern musicians are gradually free¬ 
 ing themselves. Like Vincent d’lndy and other 
 composers of our day, Dom Mocquereau denies the 
 dominance of the first beat of the measure as being 
 of necessity a stressed beat; the stressed beat for 
 the first measure he considers suitable only to the 
 most obvious types of music. Those who have been 
 privileged to hear the Gregorian melodies as they 
 are sung at Quarr Abbey realize that they are shorn 
 of their charm when they move with a heavy beat, 
 when they crawl or ascend with painful jerks. They 
 only become themselves when they rise and fall like 
 clouds or like the flight of a bird. When our 
 musical perceptions are lifted into a seraphic region 
 where the art of singing becomes a matter of the 
 spirit rather than the vocal organs, then it is that 
 we begin to understand the meaning of that art 
 which the Holy Spirit whispered into the ear of 
 St. Gregory and we realize why it is that the 
 Church preserves for us one of her holiest treasures 
 —the traditional phrases of her Gregorian melodies. 
 “What is more pleasing to God than to hear the 
 whole Christian people sing to Him in unison?” 
 (St. Clement of Alexandria). To teach the people 
 to sing to God is the task that the Pius X Institute 
 of Liturgical Music aims to carry on under the 
 inspiration of Mrs. Ward to whom it owes its 
 foundation and life. 
 
 Liverpool, Archdiocese of (Liverpolitanensis; 
 cf. C. E., IX-314a), in Lancaster County, England. 
 On 28 October, 1911, Most Rev. Thomas Whiteside 
 was promoted to this see and filled it until his 
 death, 28 January, 1921. During his administration 
 he made an energetic campaign against the three 
 great evils which he found in the diocese—mixed 
 marriages, drinking, and poverty. He was sue- 
 
LJUBLJANA 
 
 LOBBEDEY 
 
 467 
 
 cceded by Most Rev. Frederick William Keating, 
 born in Birmingham, England, in 1859, made his 
 studies there and at Sedgley Park, Douai, and 
 Olton, where lie was ordained in 1882, served as a 
 professor at Oakmoor, Oscott, and Olton, pastor 
 at Wednesbury, administrator of the cathedral of 
 Birmingham, made a canon in 1900, and appointed 
 Bishop of N orthampton 5 Febmary, 1908, from 
 which see he was promoted 13 June, 1921 The 
 religious orders established in the Archdiocese of 
 lav ei pool include: men, Benedictines, Franciscans 
 (briars Minor), Jesuits, Oblates of Mary Immacu¬ 
 late, Passiomsts, Redemptorists, Holy Ghost Fa¬ 
 thers, society of St. Joseph for Foreign Missions, 
 Brothers of Charity, and Christian Brothers; 
 women, Sisters of Adoration Reparatrice, Augus¬ 
 ts man Sisters, Benedictines, Bon Secours, Carmelites, 
 Daughters of Wisdom, Faithful Companions of 
 "fsus, Sisters of the Good Shepherd, of the Holy 
 Child Jesus, of the Holy Cross and Passion, Insti¬ 
 tute of Our Lady of the Retreat in the Cenacle, 
 Little Sisters of the Poor, Sisters of Mercy, of 
 Notre Dame, Poor Servants of the Mother of 
 Good, Poor Clares, Poor Sisters of Nazareth, Pre¬ 
 sentation Nuns, Sisters of the Sacred Heart of 
 Mary St. Joseph Missionary Sisters, various 
 branches of the Sisters of Charity, and Sisters of 
 the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary. 
 
 The last civil census of this territory, taken in 
 19il, counts a total population of 2,069,854, and 
 the last Catholic census (1917) gives the total num- 
 /fnoo 3 / Catholics as 390,173. The latest statistics 
 (1922) credit the archdiocese with 322 secular and 
 182 regular clergy, 74 convents, 204 public churches, 
 chapels, and stations, 69 private chapels with Sun¬ 
 day Mass, 182 public elementary schools receiving 
 Go\ ernment aid, and 2 not receiving aid, 6 second¬ 
 ary schools for boys and 24 for girls, 86,486 children 
 in elementary schools, 6981 children in other schools, 
 
 4 hospitals, 33 residential institutions for poor chil¬ 
 dren, and 9 othef homes and refuges caring in all 
 for 3850 children. 
 
 Gotschce. The cathedral chapter consists of 12 
 regular and 6 honorary canons. 
 
 . k -^ nco 1493 a collegiate chapter has existed also 
 in connection with the parish church of St. Nikolaus 
 at Novomesto (New City); it consists of a mitred 
 provost and 4 members. The consistory of the 
 prince-bishop is made up of the cathedral chapter, 
 2 honorary canons, and 2 other members. The 
 training of the clergy is provided for by a diocesan 
 clerical seminary with 92 students; and a seminary 
 for boys, the College of St. Stanislaus, with gym¬ 
 nasium, founded in 1900, which has 340 students 
 which is affiliated the smaller seminary 
 called Collegium Aloysianum, founded in 1846. The 
 University of Ljubljana, which was founded in 1919 
 provides for theological study with 15 professors 
 and instructors and 112 theological students. Eccle¬ 
 siastical professors give religious instruction in the 
 gymnasium of St. Vid near Ljubljana (340 stu- 
 dents), in the 3 gymnasia and the upper high school 
 at Ljubljana, also in other schools. 
 
 • Ti 16 j?^§^ ous orders and congregations for men 
 m the diocese are: Cistercians, 1 abbey at Sittich, 
 10 pnests, 3 clerics, 14 lay brothers; Carthusians, 
 
 1 monastery at Pletrije, 29 priests, 31 brothers; 
 brandscans, 5 monasteries, 48 priests, 15 clerics, 
 32 lay brothers; Capuchins, 2 monasteries, 9 priests, 
 6 brothers; Brothers of Mercy, 1 monastery, 1 
 priest, 18 brothers; Jesuits, 1 residence, 8 priests, 
 
 3 lay brothers; Society of St. Vincent de Paul, 1 
 mission house, 21 missionaries, 9 brothers; Priests 
 oi the Teutonic Order, 1 branch monastery, 10 
 priests, 2 clerics, 1 lay brother; Salesians, 2 houses, 
 12 priests, 24 clerics, 33 novices, 7 brothers. The 
 total number of Sisters of Christian Charity is 
 340 in 17 houses. 
 
 . The Cathedral of St. Nikolaus was built 1700-07 
 in Barocco style by the Jesuit Andrea Pozzo. Other 
 fine examples of Barocco architecture are the Fran¬ 
 ciscan Church at Ljubljana (1628), the Church of 
 St. Peter (eighteenth century) at the same place, 
 and the Church of St. Jakob (1615) also at Ljubljana. 
 
 Ljubljana (Lubiana, German Laibach), Dio¬ 
 cese of (cf. C. E., VIII-743c), bishopric in Jugo¬ 
 slavia, rightfully still a suffragan of Gorizia (Gorica, 
 Gorz), but in fact now separated from that metro¬ 
 politan see which belongs to Italy. The diocese 
 embraces the territory of the former Austrian 
 crown-land of Carniola (Kranjsko; Krain). 
 t ^ ocese divided into 5 archdeaneries; 
 Ljubljana, Upper Krain Interior Krain, Middle 
 Krain, and Lower Krain. These are subdivided into 
 22 deaneries. Beginning with 1922 the see contains 
 12 cathedral and 5 collegiate prebends, 301 parishes 
 (of which 30 are vacant), 1 vicarship, 1 ancient 
 chaplaincy 17 Exposituren (i. e., filial churches 
 joined to the mother church only by some unim¬ 
 portant link to recall their former relations), 235 
 positions for assistant clergy (86 vacant), 36 other 
 benefices, 321 parish churches, 1000 dependent 
 churches, 11 monastery churches, 230 chapels, 4 
 deaneries (with 44 curates and 45 priests) ad¬ 
 ministered by the Archdiocese of Gorzia, since 
 according to the treaty of St. Germain and Rapallo 
 they belong to Italy, and a new partition of the 
 diocese has not yet been made. Besides the prince- 
 bishop there are 16 canons, 457 parish priests, 72 
 ecclesiastics in other positions, 68 priests retired 
 on pensions, 127 regulars. The population con¬ 
 sists of 500,000 Catholics, 200 Protestants, 1000 
 Orthodox Greeks, 200 Jews. The language spoken 
 by about 97 per cent of the inhabitants is Slo- 
 venian. German is spoken in the larger cities like 
 Ljubljana, and in the German-speaking center of 
 
 Loango (or French Lower Congo), Vicariate 
 Apostolic of (de Loango or Congi gallici in- 
 ferioris; cf. C. E., IX-317a), erected in 1890, had 
 its boundaries somewhat changed in 1894 and again 
 m 1911. By this second change the mission of 
 Linzolo was detached and joined to the vicariate of 
 brench Upper Congo. It is entrusted to the Fathers 
 of the Holy Ghost and includes a population of 
 1,500,000, of whom 5117 are Catholic, and 3000 
 catechumens. The mission is served by 24 mis¬ 
 sionary and 1 native priests, 15 Brothers, 45 cate¬ 
 chists, 11 Sisters, 8 stations, 13 chapels, 62 second¬ 
 ary stations, 6 schools, and 6 orphanages. Rt. 
 Rev. Leon-Charles-Joseph Girod, appointed titular 
 Bishop of Obba and vicar apostolic of Loango died 
 at Mayumba, 13 December, 1919, and his successor 
 has not yet been appointed. 
 
 Lobbedey, Emile-Louis-Cornil, heroic Bishop of 
 Arras, b. at Bergues in the Diocese of Lille, on 29 
 February, 1856; d. at Boulogne on 26 December, 
 1916. He studied at Rome, winning a doctorate in 
 theology and a licentiate in canon law as in 
 philosophy, and served in the mission at Cambrai, 
 Pradelles, and Hazebrouck, being named vicar 
 general in 1857. On 5 August, 1906, he was ap¬ 
 pointed to the see of Moulins and on 5 May, 1911, 
 was transferred to Arras. When the war broke 
 out he was the personification of the bravery that 
 characterized the French clergy, both secular and 
 regular. He was decorated by the President with 
 the cross of the Legion d’honneur with the follow¬ 
 ing citation in the “Journal Officier (17 October, 
 
LODZ 
 
 468 
 
 LORETTO 
 
 1916)): “From October, 1914, till June, 1915, he 
 remained at Arras within the first French lines 
 exposed at times to violent bombardment, devoting 
 himself to his ministry without counting the cost, 
 visiting our soldiers, burying the dead, aiding the 
 ambulance department, giving everyone an inspir¬ 
 ing example of calm, coolness, energy and duty well 
 done in imminent danger from the enemy.” 
 
 Lodi, Diocese of (Laudensis; cf. C. E., IX-322c), 
 in the province of Milan, Northern Italy, suffragan 
 of Milan. This see is filled by Rt. Rev. Pietro 
 Zanolini, born in Merlara, Iffily, 1866, served as 
 professor of moral theology in the seminary, 
 appointed Bishop of Fabriano 4 March, 1910, and 
 transferred * 6 July, 1913, to succeed Rt. Rev. 
 Giovanni-Battista Rota, died 24 February, 1913. 
 During the World War 142 priests and clerics of 
 this diocese served in the army, 15 as officers, 5 as 
 chaplains; of this number 8 were killed and 5 re¬ 
 ceived decorations. Those at home joined the citi¬ 
 zens in zealously assisting in all patriotic works, 
 serving in the hospitals, homes for refugees, and 
 other charitable organizations. _ By latest statistics 
 the diocese comprises 109 parishes, 7 convents of 
 men and 61 of women, 268 secular and 27 regular 
 priests, 19 Brothers, 1 seminary, 100 seminarians, 
 4 secondary schools for boys, 7 for girls, 7 high 
 schools, and 2 normal schools. The charitable in¬ 
 stitutions include a missionary union of the clergy, 
 9 homes, 6 orphanages, asylums in all tl-t parishes, 
 7 hospitals, and 2 day nurseries. Most of the public 
 institutions permit the clergy to minister in them, 
 and all the public schools, but no religious schools, 
 are assisted by the government. A mutual aid 
 society is formed among the clergy, and a number 
 of Catholic periodicals are published. 
 
 Lodz, Diocese of (Lodzensis), in Poland, suf¬ 
 fragan of Warsaw. This diocese was erected by a 
 consistorial Decree of 10 December, 1920, which 
 took the western part of the archdiocese of Warsaw, 
 comprising three deaneries, and formed it into the 
 new diocese. The church of St. Stanislas Kostka 
 was made the cathedral and granted a chapter. The 
 former pastor of this church, Rt. Rev. Vincent 
 Tymieniecki, born in 1872 and ordained in 1895, 
 private chamberlain and prelate of the Holy See, 
 was appointed the first bishop 11 April. 1921. Statis¬ 
 tics are not yet published. 
 
 Loja, Diocese of (Lojanensis; cf. C. E., IX- 
 332b), suffragan of Quito in Ecuador, South America, 
 includes the greater part of the provinces of Loja 
 and El Oro. Rt. Rev. Carlos Maria Xavier de La 
 Torre, appointed to this see 30 December, 1911, was 
 transferred to the diocese of Riobamba 21 August, 
 1919. He was succeeded by Rt. Rev. William Harris,, 
 who was born in this diocese, served as chancellor 
 and rector of the seminary and was appointed 7 
 May, 1920. Statistics of 1920 credit the diocese 
 with 80,530 Catholics, 61 secular and 20 regular 
 clergy, 38 parishes, and 84 churches or chapels. 
 
 London, Diocese of (Londinensis; cf. C. E., 
 IX-353c), in Canada, has as its present bishop 
 Rt. Rev. Michael Francis Fallon, who was ap¬ 
 pointed fifth Bishop of London in December, 1909. 
 In 1920 a society called “The Catholic Unity League 
 of Canada” was established by the bishop, having 
 as its object the propagation of Catholic truth 
 and the refutation of errors and slanders against 
 the Church. The work is carried on by the dis¬ 
 tribution of pamphlets prepared or procured by 
 the society as the need arises. 
 
 During the World War seven of the priests of 
 this diocese acted as chaplains, going overseas with 
 
 the troops, and at home both clergy and laity 
 united in all patriotic endeavors. 
 
 The religious communities now established in the 
 diocese are: Men: Basilians, Franciscans, and Re- 
 demptorists. Women: Sisters of St. Joseph, of the 
 Precious Blood, Ursuline Sisters, Sisters of the Holy 
 Names of Jesus and Mary, Loretto Nuns and Hos¬ 
 pital Sisters of St. Joseph. 
 
 The present (1921) statistics of the diocese show 
 a Catholic population of approximately 77,000. 
 There are 63 parishes, 25 missions with churches, 
 88 churches, 1 monastery for women, 3 convents for 
 men, 29 for women, 99 secular and 33 regular 
 clergy, 5 Brothers of the Christian Schools, 486 
 Sisters, 1 seminary with 10 seminarians and 2 uni¬ 
 versities, Sandwich College for men and Brescia 
 Hall for women, which are affiliated with Western 
 University, London. There are 23 professors and 
 68 students in these colleges and in addition to 
 these are 5 academies with 40 teachers and 600 
 girl students and 80 elementary schools with 260 
 teachers and 12,000 students. The charitable in¬ 
 stitutions of the diocese comprise 1 orphanage with 
 180 children, 3 hospitals, 1 home for the aged and 
 indigent; all the public institutions admit the 
 priests to minister in them. 
 
 The Priests’ Eucharistic League and Total Ab¬ 
 stinence Association are organized among the clergy 
 as well as the Knights of Columbus, Holy Name 
 Society, and various parish societies among the 
 laity. The “Catholic Record” is published in 
 London. 
 
 Longhaye, Georges, literary historian, b. at 
 Rouen, 8 September, 1839; d. at Paris, 17 January, 
 1920. Having studied at Brugelette and Vaugirard, 
 Paris, and won his baccalaureate with distinction, 
 he entered the Society of Jesus at Issenheim, Alsace. 
 As a scholastic he began to write his college dramas, 
 like “Campion” and “Bouvines,” which are of high 
 merit in their genre, and cultivated the lyric muse. 
 His active life after ordination was, owing to the 
 anti-Catholic laws of France, mostly passed in Great 
 Britain, as professor of Classics and literature to the 
 young Jesuits. To this we owe his “Theorie des 
 belles-lettres” (1885), a philosophy of rhetoric, a 
 work of permanent value; “La predication: grands 
 maitres et grandes lois” (1888), which we followed 
 by his more ambitious “Histoire de la litterature 
 frangaise au dix-septieme siecle” (4 vols., 1895-96), 
 crowned by the French Academy, and “Dix- 
 neuvieme siecle. Exquisses litteraires et morales” 
 (5 vols., 1901-08), which has the special merit of 
 dealing thoroughly with the Catholic writers like 
 Veuillot, Ozanam, and de Maistre. 
 
 Loreto, Diocese of. See Recanati and Loreto. 
 
 Loretto, Sisters of, at the Foot of the Cross 
 (cf. C. E., IX-360d).—Within the last ten years of 
 the Loretto Society has established eighteen new 
 schools, and the Sisters are now located in the 
 three Archdioceses of St. Louis, Chicago, and Santa 
 Fe, and the fourteen Dioceses of Louisville, Rock¬ 
 ford, Belleville, Columbus, Cleveland, Mobile, Kan¬ 
 sas City, St. Joseph, Wichita, Lincoln, Oklahoma, 
 Denver, El Paso, and Tucson. Recognizing the need 
 of higher education for women, the Society has also 
 opened two colleges. The first of these, Loretto 
 College, Webster Groves (a suburb of St. Louis), 
 was erected in 1915-16, opening its doors to stu¬ 
 dents in the fall of the latter year. Two years 
 later, Loretto Heights College, Loretto, Colorado, 
 opened with a good enrollment. Both institutions 
 were early placed upon the list of standard col¬ 
 leges by the Catholic Educational Association. On 
 the teaching staff of each are the Vincentian Fath- 
 
LORETTO 
 
 469 
 
 LOUISIANA 
 
 ers, and the Sisters of the faculty hold degrees from 
 the leading universities. Loretto College is affiliated 
 W j J;he. Catholic I Diversity, St. Louis University, 
 and Creighton, and has a preparatory department 
 at Webster Groves, called Loretto College Academy 
 Loretto Heights College is affiliated with the Catho¬ 
 lic University and De Paul University. Fifteen 
 academies, fifty-six parochial schools, and five public 
 schools, totaling an enrollment of nearly 18,000 
 pupils, complete the number of educational institu¬ 
 tions conducted by the Sisters. Their work in the 
 public schools^ under their charge in Kentucky, 
 Kansas, and New Mexico is held in high regard 
 At Bernalillo, N. M., and Pawhuska, Okla., the 
 Sisters have industrial schools for Indian girls, in 
 which work they have met with great success. 
 
 The mother-house is at Loretto, Kentucky, sixty 
 miles from Louisville. Every Sister of Loretto is 
 an educator in some true sense of the word, for 
 aside fi om the actual duties of teaching there are 
 many tasks about a convent which, assigned-by 
 good judgment, aid the work of the order as a 
 whole. The postulate is six months, followed by a 
 novitiate of one year spent exclusively in the study 
 of the spirit and rules of the Order. At the com¬ 
 pletion of the novitiate simple vows are taken and 
 renewed annually until at the end of the third 
 year they are taken in perpetuity. After profession 
 a normal course of training as teachers is given, 
 and each year the Sisters are given opportunity to' 
 advance in educational excellence. The Society 
 now numbers 819 members. The rules have been 
 revised in accordance with the new Code of Canon 
 Law, and the corrections ratified by the Sacred 
 Congregation of Religious, 29 July, 1920. The most 
 important change, noted above, is the taking of 
 perpetual vows at the end of three years, instead of 
 five as formerly. On 25 April, 1912, Loretto Order 
 celebrated the centennial of its foundation. The 
 destruction by fire in January, 1919, of the Loretto 
 Academy, Florissant, Missouri, was a great disaster. 
 The aged Sisters of the community were trans¬ 
 ferred to the mother-house, only seven of the 
 younger members remaining to conduct St. Ferdi¬ 
 nands parochial school which adjoins the Sister’s 
 property. The Sisters took up their residence in 
 one of the buildings near the old historic convent, 
 formerly occupied by the Ladies of the Sacred 
 Heart, who were succeeded there in 1847 by the 
 Sisters of Loretto. A disastrous flood, a few years 
 previous to the fire, had necessitated the vacating 
 of . the convent. To provide suitable accommoda¬ 
 tions for the Sisters, it was decided to discontinue 
 the high school grades at Florissant, limiting the 
 school to the eight grammar grades, and to erect 
 Within the environs of St. Louis a boarding academy 
 and college. This was the origin of Loretto Col¬ 
 lege. 
 
 Since 1896 the Society has been under the direc¬ 
 tion of Mother Praxcdes Carty, superior general. 
 She was born in Bawnboy, County Cavan, Ireland, 
 and came with her parents to St. Louis in May’ 
 1865, there received her education, and entered 
 Loretto Order in 1874. Volunteering for the west¬ 
 ern missions, she made the journey by caravan to 
 Santa Fe, where she made her first vows, was 
 appointed superior at Bernalillo, N. M., in 1880 as¬ 
 signed to the same office at Las Cruses, later called 
 east to fill the superiorship at Florissant, Mo., and 
 elected superior general in 1896. She was ably 
 assisted in the beginning of her administration by 
 Mother Francisca Lamy (d. 1912), a native of 
 France, and niece of Archbishop Lamy. Mother 
 Wilfrid La Motte, vicaress of the society since 
 1910, formerly directress of studies and mistress of 
 
 voices, is the author of many poems published in 
 periodicals under the pen name “Balbus,” and 
 ° ui b ?° , ° f ve i SG entitled “Flowers of the Cloister,” 
 published in 1913. Mother Rosine Green, second 
 assistant to the superior general, has filled the 
 offices of local superior, directress of studies, prefect 
 of Loretto training school, secretary general, assis¬ 
 tant general, and supervisor of schools. 
 
 Among notable deceased members of the order 
 are: Mother Bridget Spalding, cousin of Arch- 
 bishop Spalding b. near Calvary, Ky., received the 
 habit from Fr. Isennckx, 25 March, 1824, at the age 
 ot thirteen mother superior of the society 1825-58: 
 Mothers Magdalen, Bridget, and Elizabeth Hart- 
 liayden, three sisters, of whom Mother Magdalen 
 
 °u ne i° f the P 10neer . Sisters of Santa Fe, Mother 
 Elizabeth was successively local superior, general 
 treasurer and superior general, and Mother Bridget 
 labored long among the Indians at Osage Mission, 
 Kansas, and upon the removal of the Osage Indians 
 turther west continued her zealous labor at St. Ann’s 
 Academy for young ladies, established on the mis- 
 sion site, and died in 1890, at the age of seventy- 
 six, 'oeing among the hardy pioneers of the State 
 whose Pictures hang in the capitol at Topeka, 
 Kansas; Mother Generose Mattingly, diamond 
 jubilanan and the last Sister of Loretto to receive 
 the habit from Father Nerinckx; Mother Bertha 
 Bowles, superior general 1864-70; Mother Dafrosa 
 Smythe, superior general for two terms; Mother 
 Ann Joseph Mattingly, superior general 1882-88; 
 Sister Joanna Walsh, one of the early western 
 pioneers, later assistant to mother superior and 
 twice elected mistress of novices; Mother Catherine 
 Connor, successively filled high offices until her elec¬ 
 tion as superior general in 1894; Mother Evangelista 
 Eindewald, for many years assistant general (d. 
 1916); Mother Victorine Kelly, elected secretary 
 general in 1910 (d 1914); Mother Pancratia Bonfels, 
 erected Loretto Heights Academy (d. 1915); Mother 
 Elaget HiH, efficient manager, niece of Rev. Walter 
 Hdl S.J and sister of Rev. Joseph Hill, S.J.; 
 Mother Austin Gough, mistress of novices. 
 
 Los Angeles, Diocese of. See Monterey and 
 Los Angeles. 
 
 Louise de Marillac, Blessed (cf. C. E., IX-133c), 
 beatified 9 May, 1920, by Benedict XV. Her feast 
 is celebrated on 15 March. 
 
 Louisiana (cf. C.E., IX-378c) .-The area of the 
 fetate of Louisiana is 48,506 sq. miles of which 3097 
 are water surface. There are 5363 miles of railroad 
 besides 318 miles of electric railway. The popula¬ 
 tion of the State in 1910 was 1,656,388; in 1920 it 
 had increased to 1,798,388. 
 
 Industries.— The report of the United States De¬ 
 partment of Agriculture for 1919 gives the agricul¬ 
 tural output as follows: 
 
 Cotton . 
 
 Com . 
 
 Sugar ... 
 
 Molasses .. 
 
 Cleaned Rice . 
 Sweet Potatoes 
 Irish Potatoes . 
 Hay . 
 
 302,224 bales 
 32,375,000 bushels 
 15,142,290 pounds 
 28,049,000 gallons (1918) 
 19,712,000 pounds 
 6,300,000 bushels 
 1,600,000 bushels 
 450,000 tons 
 
 1,445,000 acres 
 1,850,000 acres 
 264,000 acres 
 
 560,000 acres 
 70,000 acres 
 25,000 acres 
 250,000 acres 
 
 Total area under cultivation, 5,095,000 acres. 
 
 . Manufactures.— 1 he value of manufactures has 
 increased remarkably in the last five years. In 
 1914 there were 2211 manufacturing establishments, 
 employing about 77,665 wage earners; the capital 
 invested was 8261,635,000, and the value of products 
 $255,313,000. In 1919 the number of establishments 
 
LOUISIANA 
 
 470 
 
 LOUVAIN 
 
 was 2617; wage earners, about 98,344; capital in¬ 
 vested, $463,860,000; value of products, $676,190,000. 
 
 Recent History. —The Constitutional Convention 
 of 1913 was so limited in power that all it accom¬ 
 plished was to take the constitution of 1898 and 
 insert in its proper place each amendment that had 
 been adopted since that time, the continuous text 
 thus produced being the constitution of 1913. Re- 
 cents amendments limit the state tax rate to 3 
 mills and the local tax rate to 5 mills, and require 
 every parish and the city of New Orleans to levy 
 a tax of one and a half mills annually for public 
 schools. In a decision of the Supreme Court of 23 
 March, 1915, reading of the Bible and recitation 
 of the Lord’s prayer in the opening of the public 
 schools in Caddo Parish was prohibited. The case 
 was brought by the Catholics and the Jews. In 
 1916 a State Board of state affairs was created. 
 More recent legislation has dealt mainly with prob¬ 
 lems rising from the World War. Louisiana’s con¬ 
 tribution was 65,988 soldiers or 1.76 per cent of the 
 United States Army, stationed either in the 39th 
 Division at Camp Beauregard, Louisiana, or in the 
 87th Division at Camp Pike, Ark. The summary of 
 casualties among the Louisiana members of the 
 American Expeditionary Force was as follows: de¬ 
 ceased, 27 officers and 796 men; prisoners, 1 officer 
 and 26 men; wounded, 71 officers and 2098 men In 
 August, 1918, Louisiana ratified the national prohibi¬ 
 tion amendment, the fourteenth state to do so. The 
 state refused to adopt the federal suffrage amend- 
 mend 15 June, 1920. The Constitutional Conven¬ 
 tion met in 1921 to revise the State Constitution. 
 
 Principal Religious Denominations. —The latest 
 available statistics of religious denominations are 
 given in the United States Census bulletin for 1916, 
 from which we take the following figures, except 
 the number of Jews which is taken from the “Jewish 
 Year Book” for 1920: Catholics, 509,910; Baptists, 
 213,692; Methodists, 88,566; Jews, 12,723; Protestant 
 Episcopalians, 11,632; Presbyterians, 11,820; Luth¬ 
 erans, 8247; German Evangelicals, 4,009; Disciples, 
 3615; Congregationalists, 1765; all other denomina¬ 
 tions 4662. 
 
 Catholicism.— The State now comprises the Arch¬ 
 diocese of New Orleans and the Dioceses of Alex¬ 
 andria (formerly Natchitoches) and La Fayette. 
 The Catholic Directory for 1921 gives the following 
 figures: 1 archbishop; 3 bishops; 1 abbot; 188 
 secular and 205 regular priests; 197 churches with 
 resident priests; about 235 missions, stations and 
 chapels; 1 preparatory seminary with 44 students; 
 11 colleges and academies for boys with 3216 stu¬ 
 dents; 18 academies for young ladies with 3266 
 students; 110 parishes with parochial schools. The 
 Catholic population is 537,851; the baptisms in 
 1920 were 21,042. 
 
 Education.— Educational statistics are as follows: 
 Educable youth: white 335,854; colored 228,939; 
 total, 564,793. Enrollment in schools: white,223,308; 
 colored, 99,757; total, 323,065. Teachers employed 
 in public schools: white, 6732; colored, 1500; total, 
 8232. Teachers employed in agricultural schools: 
 white, 16; colored, 21. Pupils in agricultural 
 schools: white, 237; colored, 323; total, 560. Num¬ 
 ber of public schools: white, 2113; colored 1168; 
 total, 3281. Number of private colleges: white, 7; 
 colored, 2. Receipts from public school funds in 
 1919: $7,849,779; the non-revenue receipts were 
 $3,332,090; disbursements, $6,465,549. The Louisiana 
 State University has 73 instructors and 1860 stu¬ 
 dents. Tulane University, with an endowment of 
 $5,162,243, has 348 instructors and 2908 students. 
 In 1919 the State Normal School had 36 instructors 
 and 1649 students; the Ruston Industrial Institute 
 
 had 36 instructors and 1027 students; Lafayette In¬ 
 dustrial Institute had 21 instructors and 931 stu¬ 
 dents; the Southern University for colored youth 
 had 564 students. 
 
 State laws relative to private and parochial 
 schools are as follows: No funds raised for the 
 support of the public schools of the state shall be 
 appropriated to or used for the support of any 
 private or sectarian schools (Art. 253); all buildings 
 and property used exclusively for colleges and other 
 school purposes shall be exempt from taxation, pro¬ 
 vided that the property so exempted be not leased 
 for purposes of private or corporate profit or income 
 (Art. 230); the state board may prescribe teacher 
 training courses for public and private school doing 
 work two years in advance of high schools. Graduates 
 of normal schools offering a two-year course and 
 operating a practice school with sufficient teaching 
 force may be certified without examination; the 
 branches of spelling, reading, writing, drawing, 
 arithmetic, geography, grammar, United States his¬ 
 tory, the laws of health, including the evil effects 
 of alcohol and narcotics, shall be taught in every 
 elementary school; the teaching of German is for¬ 
 bidden in all schools, colleges, and universities. 
 
 Louisville, Diocese of (Ludovicopolitanensis; 
 cf. C. E., IX-386b), comprises 22,714 sq. miles in 
 the State of Kentucky. Rt. Rev. William 
 George McCloskey, who came to this see in 1868, 
 as its fourth bishop, died 17 September, 1909. He 
 was succeeded by Rt. Rev. Denis O’Donahue, born 
 in Daviess, Indiana, 1848, ordained 6 September, 
 1874, consecrated titular Bishop of Pomario and 
 auxiliary at Indianapolis 25 April, 1900, and trans¬ 
 ferred 7 February, 1910. The year 1912 witnessed 
 several important events in the diocese: in April 
 the centenary of the Sisters of Loretto at the Foot 
 of the Cross was celebrated, in August, the national 
 convention of the Federation of Catholic Societies 
 met here, and in October the Sisters of Charity of 
 Nazareth celebrated their centennial. The one hun¬ 
 dredth anniversary of the dedication of the old 
 cathedral (St. Joseph’s Church) at Bardstown took 
 place in 1916, and in 1920 the Sisters of Charity 
 of Nazareth celebrated the centenary of their 
 academy, St. Vincent’s, in Union County, Ken¬ 
 tucky. During the World War 5 priests of the 
 diocese served as chaplains, 3 of them going over¬ 
 seas. 
 
 By latest statistics the Catholic population num¬ 
 bers 120,289, chiefly of Irish or German descent, 
 with a small number of Italians. The diocese com¬ 
 prises 108 parishes, 163 churches, 55 missions, 3 
 monasteries for men, 1 abbey for men, 4 convents 
 for men, 9 mother-houses of religious congregations 
 of women, 114 secular and 96 regular clergy, 32 
 seminarians, 1 college for women, 4 high schools 
 with 44 teachers and 907 boy students, 14 academies 
 with 227 teachers and 605 boy and 2266 girl students, 
 88 elementary schools with 388 teachers and a total 
 attendance of 15,972, and 2 industrial schools with 
 40 teachers and 308 pupils. The charitable institu¬ 
 tions include 3 homes, 3 asylums, and 4 hospitals, 
 and a number of the public institutions permit the 
 priests to minister in them. Six schools taught by 
 Sisters receive financial assistance from the State. 
 A Clerical Aid Society is organized, and a diocesan 
 paper, “The Record,” is published. 
 
 Lourdes, Diocese of. See Tarbes and Lourdes. 
 
 Louvain, University of (cf. C. E., IX-391c).— 
 The destruction of the University of Louvain is one 
 of the outstanding features of the Great War. On 
 the night of 25 August, 1914, the invading Germans 
 set fire to the city of Louvain, and three of the 
 
LOW CHURCH 
 
 471 
 
 LOYOLA 
 
 University buildings were destroyed—the Ecole 
 commerciale et consulaire, the ancient and world 
 famous library—which according to the Hague Con¬ 
 vention was inviolable—and the administration of¬ 
 fices situated in Les Halles. The conflagration 
 destroyed 300,000 volumes, a thousand incunabula, 
 and hundreds of manuscripts, as also the University’s 
 title of nobility and its charter of foundation, dating 
 from 1425. On 27 August the faculty and students 
 were dispersed. Classes were not resumed until 
 21 January, 1919, when Mgr. Ladeuze, rector 
 magmficus, delivered the opening discourse in the 
 auditorium of the .College du Pope Adrian IV. 
 Meanwhile the interest and sympathy of the intel¬ 
 lectual world had been aroused in behalf of the 
 University and a movement was set on foot in 
 Europe and America to assist in the work of re¬ 
 storing the library. In the Peace Treaty it was 
 provided that Germany should repair to the full 
 the damage done to the University, which benefited 
 further by being the recipient of a share of the 
 150,000,000 francs distributed among the four Bel¬ 
 gian universities by the American Committee of 
 Relief at the conclusion of its activities. On 2 
 August, 1921, the cornerstone of the new library 
 was laid in the presence of the King and Queen, 
 the Cardinal of Malines, bishops, ambassadors, gen¬ 
 erals, and representatives of institutions of learning, 
 President Nicholas Murray Butler of Columbia lay¬ 
 ing the stone. At the end of 1921 about 500,000 
 volumes had been received, about half by gift, and 
 the other half by German reparation. The number 
 of students enrolled in 1920-21 was 3248, divided 
 as follows: theology 57, law 478, political and social 
 sciences 22, school of commerce 218, medicine 845, 
 philosophy and letters 357, Thomistic philosophy 68, 
 science 477, special courses 444, Ecole de Brasserie 
 10, preparatory institute 40. The University has 
 announced its intention of admitting women to the 
 full course of studies. 
 
 !X“? Upi ? d , wU1 : purel y Catholic interests, his 
 r 1 ” activities lessened. His wife died in 1899. 
 
 HnirfnM he Joined the Dominicans at Venlos in 
 an f, was ordained on 8 December, 1908, 
 being thereafter known as Father Raymundus. At 
 £ IS Sonera held in the chapel of the castle of Klein- 
 neubach the officiating priest was a convert a 
 former army captain, one of the princes of the 
 
 famil y> the Lowenstein- 
 
 Wertheim-Freudenbergs. 
 
 Low Church. See Anglicanism; Book of Com¬ 
 mon Prayer; Ritualists. 
 
 Lowenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg, Prince Karl 
 H. von, statesman and Dominican, b. on 31 May, 
 1834, at the Castle of Haid, Bohemia; d. in the 
 Dominican convent at Cologne on 16 November, 
 1921. His mother was Princess Agnes of Hohenlohe- 
 Langenburg, and his father the head of the junior 
 branch of the Lowenstein family, with its chief 
 German residence at Kleinheubach, the elder 
 branch being Protestant. He married Princess 
 Adelheid of Isenburg in 1859, who died two years 
 later, and later (1863) took as wife Princess Sophie 
 of Liechtenstein. Two of his daughters became 
 religious, Franziska de Paula joining the Sisters of 
 bt. Francis at Aachen, and Agnes entering the 
 Benedictine convent in the Isle of Wight; a third 
 daughter became Princess Miguel of Braganza. 
 Prince Lowenstein was a Knight of the Golden 
 Ileece, and a hereditary member of the Bavarian 
 Parliament and of the Upper House in Wiirtem- 
 burg, Baden, and Hesse. He was a leader in the 
 most intensely Catholic element in Germany, and 
 was active in social reform. He was the founder 
 and president of the Anti-duelling League. For 
 years he had been in charge of the committee pro¬ 
 moting Catholic congresses; he was Windthorst’s 
 chief associate in forming the Center Party, and 
 fought Bismarck energetically during the Kultur- 
 kampf. \\ hen Bishop Blum of Limburg was exiled 
 in 1876 for refusing to obey the anti-Catholic legis¬ 
 lation, Prince Lo\venstein invited him to his castle 
 at Haid in Bohemia, and kept him there during his 
 seven years’ exile. When the Center Party became 
 
 T oyol , a University in Chicago, Illinois, con¬ 
 ducted by the Jesuit Fathers, is the outgrowth of 
 bt. Ignatius College, founded 1869. In June, 1921 
 the golden jubilee of the university was celebrated! 
 Durmg half a century it had grown from a strug- 
 ghng high school with two classes and ninety-nine 
 students to a university with six departments and 
 more than two thousand enrolled in over fifty 
 classes The growth since 1906 has been phe¬ 
 nomenal. The last fifteen years have been marked 
 by the purchase of a splendid site on Lake Michi¬ 
 gan, in Rogers Park, the erection of Loyola Acad¬ 
 emy and the Cudahy Engineering Building, the 
 opening of the departments of law, medicine, en¬ 
 gineering, and sociology, and the inauguration of 
 an Extension Department with fifteen centers in 
 various parts of the city, and an enrollment of 
 over a thousand students. 
 
 t department of Arts and Sciences, at Blue 
 Island Avenue and Roosevelt Road, is the oldest 
 m the university. For half a century it has fur- 
 3 ri t0 i Dwyers, doctors, engineers, and priests 
 the libeial education which was a necessary pre¬ 
 requisite for their postgraduate studies. The locality 
 , W ( " 1C ,, ^ , 1S situated has become the city’s 
 Lrhetto ; and present plans contemplate moving 
 the college to the site on the lake front at Devon 
 Avenue and Sheridan Road as soon as the necessary 
 funds are available. At present the college has 
 about 150 students, and there are about 5000 alumni 
 in or near Chicago. The dean of this department 
 
 rinon V 'i ooc°’ ^hanley, S.J. Total registration 
 viy^l) 1825. 
 
 , Th ® Department of Law, established in Septem- 
 Jer, 1908, was due to the persevering energy of 
 Mr. Patrick H. O’Donnell, who had urged the 
 opening <af a law school for several years, and had 
 actively interested himself in securing a represen¬ 
 tative faculty. With the co-operation of Rev 
 Francis Cassilly, then vice-president of St. Ignatius 
 College, the project was launched in the fall of 
 1908 in the Ashland Block under the name of “The 
 Lincoln College of Law.” This name was subse¬ 
 quently changed to “The Loyola Law School.” For 
 thirteen years it has maintained a night school, 
 with a four-year course leading to the degree of 
 LLD., and the present year marks the opening of 
 a three-year day course with a prerequisite of two 
 y ea _rs of A colle g e work - The dean of the law school 
 is Mr. Arnold McMahon, and the faculty regent 
 Rev. Frederick Siedenburg, S.J. Total registra¬ 
 tion (1921) 155. 
 
 The Department of Medicine represents the 
 fusion of no less than four pre-existing medical 
 schools, the Illinois Medical College, the Bennet, 
 Reliance, and Chicago Colleges of Medicine. These 
 schools were for the most part what are known as 
 “proprietary schools,” and the long and difficult 
 task of raising them to a standard which complied 
 with the exacting Class A requirements of the 
 American Medical Association is a story of splendid 
 achievement in medical education. The credit for 
 this successful accomplishment is due in large 
 measure to the faculty regent of the department, 
 Rev. Patrick J, McMahon, S.J., the dean, Doctor 
 
LUBLIN 
 
 472 
 
 LUCERA 
 
 Louis Moorhead, and the energetic and devoted 
 staff which they have gathered around them m 
 medicine and surgery. Total registration, 193. 
 
 The School of Sociology was founded m 1914 by 
 the Rev. Frederick Siedenburg, S. J., after his return 
 from several years of post-graduate work in soci¬ 
 ology in various European universities. Quarters 
 were secured in the Ashland Block in connection 
 with the law department, and the first school in 
 the United States under Catholic auspices for the 
 training of social workers was opened. Its success 
 from the beginning was marked. Students with a 
 high school training are granted a certificate ol 
 social economy at the conclusion of a two-year 
 course; those who have finished two years of col¬ 
 lege work are given the degree of Ph.B. As m all 
 professional schools of sociology, the time is divided 
 between the history and theory of sociology and 
 
 actual field work. ' 
 
 Shortly after the School of Sociology was estab¬ 
 lished, extension courses, with full academic credit, 
 were offered in the Ashland Block, in philosophy, 
 pedagogy, English, history, and modern languages. 
 As the quarters became too small to accommodate 
 the number of’students, centers were opened in 
 various parts of the city, and the staff of lecturers 
 increased. In this way opportunities for educa¬ 
 tional work are afforded members of the teaching 
 Sisterhoods in Chicago. Rev. Frederic Siedenburg, 
 S.J., is also dean of this department, assisted by 
 Rev. Claude J. Pernin, S.J. 
 
 There are two preparatory high schools in con¬ 
 nection with the university: St. Ignatius High 
 School on the West Side, with an attendance of 
 about 600, and Loyola Academy in Rogers Park, 
 with an attendance of some 350. These figures 
 represent the capacity of the two schools. Hun¬ 
 dreds must be turned away because of the lack of 
 accommodations. 
 
 Rev. Wm. H. Agnew, S. J., former editor of “The 
 Queen’s Work,” has been appointed president of 
 Loyola University and St. Ignatius College to re¬ 
 place Rev. John Furay, S.J., who is resigning to 
 become director of St. Mary’s of the Lake, which 
 will open in September (1922). For the last few 
 years Father Agnew has been in St. Louis, but 
 his new appointment will continue for six years. 
 
 Lublin, Diocese of (Lublinensis; cf. C. E., 
 IX-403a).—The Diocese of Podlachia, suppressed 
 by the Russian Government in 1867 and placed 
 under the administration of the Bishop of Lublin 
 and subsequently incorporated in that diocese, was 
 restored to its original dignity in 1918 following 
 upon the expulsion of the Russians from Poland 
 in 1915 and the recent re-establishment of Polish 
 independence. The first bishop of the restored dio¬ 
 cese is Henry Przezdziecki, born 1873, consecrated 
 1918. The building of the Catholic University of 
 Lublin was completed in 1918. It was founded by 
 Charles Jaroszyiski and /Egidius Radzizzewski, the 
 latter of whom was appointed its first rector. In 
 the same year the houses and convents of the 
 religious were restored. Both clergy and laity re¬ 
 sponded patriotically to the call of their country 
 during the World War. The clergy remaining at 
 home devoted themselves to the care of the desti¬ 
 tute and orphaned, and in every parish stations 
 were erected for the relief of suffering. In this 
 work the Jesuits, Redemptorists, Lazarists, and 
 Franciscans deserve special mention. One priest 
 was unjustly put to death by the Hungarian soldiers, 
 and one was exiled into Austria. 
 
 The present bishop is Marianus Leo Fulman, 
 born 27 March, 1866, ordained 1 May, 1889, pre- 
 conized 24 September, 1918, consecrated 17 Novem¬ 
 
 ber, and enthroned 1 December of the same year. 
 The present auxiliary bishop is Adolph Jelowicki, 
 born 25 February, 1863, ordained 7 December, 1890, 
 preconized 9 November, 1918, consecrated 23 March, 
 1919, vicar general and domestic prelate of His 
 Holiness, titular Bishop of Loryma. Among the 
 clergy of note recently deceased are: Francis Jac- 
 zewski, Bishop of Lublin, born 9 May, 1832, or¬ 
 dained 1855, administrator of the diocese 1885, 
 consecrated bishop 18 May, 1890, domestic prelate, 
 assistant at the pontifical throne, died 23 July, 1914; 
 Anthony Nojszewski, rector of the diocesan semi¬ 
 nary, d. 10 September, 1921; Victor Suski, Dean of 
 Zaklikow, d. 22 April, 1919; Anthony Komorow- 
 skii, Dean of Lubartow, d. 14 June, 1919; Adolph 
 Majewski, prelate of the collegiate chapter of 
 Zamosc, d. 7 December, 1919; Adam Decjusz, canon 
 of the collegiate chapter of Zumosc, dean of Krasny- 
 staw, d. 25 December, 1920; Venceslaus Koscielnia- 
 kowski, honorary cathedral canon, dean of Krasny- 
 staw, d. 7 March, 1920. 
 
 The diocese is divided into 21 deaneries. The 
 Cathedral chapter consists of 4 prelates, 8 canons, 
 and 3 honorary canons; there is also a collegiate 
 chapter at Zamosc with 3 prelates, and 12 canonries, 
 of which 3 are vacant. The Catholic population 
 numbers 909,912 Poles. There are 325 secular and 
 20 regular priests, and 10 lay brothers; 190 parishes 
 with 249 churches; 5 convents for men and 20 for 
 women; 1 diocesan seminaiy at Lublin with 11 
 professors and 102 students; 1 university at Lublin 
 with a teaching faculty of 38 professors and a 
 student body of 1250; 1 college for girls with 350 
 students; 11 asylums; 2 hospitals. The Govern¬ 
 ment does not contribute to the support of the 
 Catholic institutions. Among the clergy there is 
 an association called “Unitas.” The religious organi¬ 
 zations among the laity are numerous, totaling 
 about 400. One Catholic monthly is published, 
 called “Wiadamosci Diecezjalue Lubelskie.” The 
 statistics of religious orders within the diocese are 
 are follows: 2 Jesuits, 3 Discalced Carmelites, 4 
 Capuchin Friars Minor, 6 of the Observance, 17 
 Ursulines, 44 Sisters of Charity with 7 establish¬ 
 ments; 6 Sisters of Divine Providence; 16 Sisters 
 of the Third Order of St. Francis with 3 orphan¬ 
 ages, 10 Little Servants of the Blessed Virgin with 
 2 orphanages. 
 
 Lucca, Archdiocese of (Lucanensis; cf. C. E., 
 IN-405a), in the province of the same name, in 
 Tuscany, Central Italy, directly dependent on the 
 Holy See. This see was filled by His Eminence 
 Benedetto Cardinal Lorenzelli from 14 November, 
 1904, until April, 1910, when he retired. His suc¬ 
 cessor was appointed in the person of Most Rev. 
 Angelo Arturo Marchi, born in Copparo, Italy, in 
 1846, ordained in 1868, made canon and pastor of 
 the cathedral of Bologna, appointed archbishop of 
 Reggio-Emilia 16 December, 1901, and transferred 
 27 November, 1911. The 1920 statistics credit the 
 archdiocese with 221,432 Catholics, 246 parishes, 
 512 secular priests, 120 seminarians, and 623 churches 
 or chapels. 
 
 Lucera, Diocese of (Lucerinensis; cf. C. E., 
 IX-406b), in the province of Foggia, Southern 
 Italy, suffragan of Benevento. This see is filled 
 by Rt. Rev. Giuseppe di Girolamo, born in Val- 
 lecorsa, Italy, 1872, was made an assistant in the 
 office of the Congregation of the Council in 1917, 
 was named an honorary chamberlain in 1918, and 
 appointed 21 April, i920, succeeding Rt. Rev. 
 Lorenzo Chieppa, transferred to this see 23 June, 
 1909, died 15 October, 1918. During the vacancy 
 the diocese was administered by His Eminence 
 Cardinal Ascalesi, Archbishop of Benevento. The 
 
LUCK 
 
 473 
 
 LUNI SARZANA 
 
 Catholic population of the diocese numbers 76,870, 
 and by 1920 statistics there are 18 parishes, 187 
 secular and 20 regular clergy, 40 seminarians, 12 
 Brothers, 40 Sisters, and 110 churches or chapels. 
 By a Decree of 1908 the diocese was united to that 
 of Troia, and a Decree of 4 March, 1914, gave to 
 it the territory of Roseto Valforte, while another 
 Decree of 23 February, 1916, gave it another parish. 
 
 Luck and Zytomierz, Diocese of (Luceoriensis 
 et Zytomeriensis; cf. C. E., IX-463d), in the 
 Russian provinces of Volhynia and Kiev (part of 
 Volhyma is now in the new republic of Poland), 
 suffragan of Mohileff. It is a diocese of both the 
 Latin and Ruthenian Rites, but for the latter rite 
 it is a suffragan of Lwow. From 1866 until 24 June, 
 1918, the Bishop of this see also administered the 
 diocese of Kamenetz-Podolski. The Latin see is 
 filled by Rt. Rev. Ignatz Dubowski, born in the 
 diocese in 1874, ordained in 1899, made an honorary 
 canon of Mohileff, pastor and vice rector of the 
 cathedral of Zytomierz, named an honorary cham¬ 
 berlain in 1910 and again in 1914, appointed bishop 
 16 October, 1916, to succeed Rt. Rev. Charles An¬ 
 thony Niedzialkowski, died 7 April, 1911. The 
 bishop is usually assisted by three auxiliaries resid¬ 
 ing at Luck, Zytomierz, and Kiev, but at present 
 there is only one, Rt. Rev. Michel Godlewski, titular 
 Bishop of iEgea, who resides at Luck. The 1920 
 statistics credit Zytomierz with 8 deaneries 76 
 parishes, and 242,917 Catholics, while Luck has 10 
 deaneries, 92 parishes, 1 collegiate chapter at Olyka, 
 the provost of which is mitred, and 303,683 Cath¬ 
 olics. 
 
 As a bishopric of the Ruthenian Rite this see is 
 of very ancient origin, but it was suppressed in 
 the^ eighteenth century and only re-established in 
 1915. Its re-establishment had not yet been ap¬ 
 proved by the Polish Government. Rt. Rev. Joseph 
 Bocian was appointed and consecrated for the see 
 in 1915 by Most Rev. Andrew Szeptyski, Arch¬ 
 bishop of Lwow, in virtue of special powers con¬ 
 ferred by Pius X. The appointment was confirmed 
 by the Holy See 23 February, 1921. Statistics are 
 not published for this Rite. 
 
 Bishop of Amatha 1917, and administrator apostolic 
 
 ber Ja i919 tranSferred t0 the See ° f Lug0 18 Decem - 
 
 The seminary at Lugo was founded in 1591, and 
 the present building was erected by Rt. Rev 
 Gregorio Mario Aguirre, then Bishop of Lugo! 
 afterwards Cardinal Archbishop of Toledo. The 
 cathedral is dedicated to the Blessed Virgin. 
 
 ,, P resent G921) statistics the inhabitants of 
 this diocese number 392,500 ; there are 950 priests 
 63o parishes, 452 missions, 5 religious orders of 
 men, 5 cloistered orders of women, and 6 other 
 orders of women. 
 
 Lugoj (or Lugos), Diocese of (Lugosiensis 
 Rumenorum; cf. -C. E., IX-419b), a diocese of 
 Greek Rumanian Rite, in Rumania, suffragan of 
 Fogaras The see is filled by Rt. Rev. Valerius 
 1 raj an krentiu, bom in this diocese in 1875 named 
 vicar forain, and appointed bishop 14 December, 
 1912, succeeding Bishop Hosszu, transferred to 
 Gherla 15 December, 1911. On 12-13 August, 1920, 
 a diocesan synod was held and the following sub¬ 
 jects weie brought up for discussion: a diocesan 
 seminary, diocesan boarding houses in connection 
 with the secondary schools, a diocesan normal 
 school for young girls, the recruiting of priests, 
 the association of priests adorers, singing schools 
 associations for women, etc. By 1920 statistics the 
 diocese comprises 5 deaneries and 1 vicariate forain 
 divided mto 15 archpresbyteries and 174 parishes! 
 of which three are outside of the newly established 
 frontier 2 being in Jugoslavia and 1 in Hungary 
 186 secular priests, and 188 churches or chapels 
 
 Lugon, Diocese of (Lucionensis; cf. C. E., IX- 
 413a), in the province of La Vendee, France, suf¬ 
 fragan of the Archdiocese of Bordeaux. Rt. Rev. 
 Clovis-Nicholas-Joseph Catteau, appointed to this 
 see 21 September, 1877, filled it for over thirty- 
 seven years, until his death, 28 November, 1915. 
 He was succeeded by Rt. Rev. Gustav-Lazare Gar- 
 mer, born m Chatillon-en-Bazois 1857, made his 
 studies at Pignelin and Nevers, ordained in 1881, 
 served as a professor in the lower seminary, pastor, 
 vicar general, and made superior of the upper 
 seminary in 1903, named a prothonotary apostolic 
 m 1911, and appointed bishop 27 May, 1916. By 
 1920 statistics the diocese has a total population 
 of 438,520, 301 parishes, 4 archpriests, 30 deaneries, 
 271 succursal parishes, 146 vicariates, and 10 annexes 
 or stations. 
 
 Ludden, Patrick A. See Syracuse, Diocese of. 
 Lugano, Diocese of. See Basle-Lugano. 
 
 Lugo, Diocese of (Lucensis; cf. C. E., IX-417d), 
 
 ^ a ^ c ^ a > Spain, is suffragan to the Archdiocese 
 oi Compostela. Rt. Rev. Bishop Basulto y Jimenez, 
 who came to this see in 1909, was transferred to 
 the diocese of Jaen 18 December, 1919, and was 
 succeeded by the present incumbent, Rt. Rev. 
 Placido Angel Rey-Lemos, O. F. M. Bishop Rey- 
 Lemos was born at Lugo 1867, ordained 1890, en¬ 
 tered the Order of Friars Minor 1892, made procur¬ 
 ator general of the Order 1911, appointed titular 
 
 Lungro, Diocese of (Lungrensis), a diocese of 
 tne Greek Rite, in the Province of Calabria, Italy, 
 directly subject to the Holy See. This diocese 
 wa ? , erec ^ e( ^ by a. Decree of 13 February, 1919, 
 which took the eighteen Greek parishes included 
 in the Latin dioceses of Rossano, Bisignano, Cas- 
 sano, and Anglona, to form the new diocese. The 
 bishop, Rt. Rev. Giovanni Mele, of the Greek 
 Jk° rn in Calabria in 1888 and appointed 10 
 March, 1919, has jurisdiction over all the Greek 
 Catholics scattered through the Latin parishes of 
 Rossano. The church dedicated to St. Nicholas of 
 Myra, at Lungro, was made the cathedral. The 
 seminary is at Grotta Ferrata. Latest statistics 
 credit the diocese with 21 parishes, 21 churches, 30 
 secular priests and a Catholic population of 35,000; 
 four associations are organized among the laity 
 During the World War about 400 men from this 
 diocese gave up their lives for their country, and 
 those at home took an active part in all patriotic 
 works. 
 
 Luni-Sarzana and Brugnato, Diocese of (Lunen- 
 sis) Sarzanensis et Brugnatensis ; cf. C. E., IX- 
 436a), in the province of Genoa, Italy. The first 
 of these dioceses is directly dependent on the Holy 
 See, while the second is suffragan of the Arch¬ 
 diocese of Genoa. The episcopal residence is at 
 Sarzana. These united sees are filled by Rt. Rev. 
 Bernardo Pizzorno, born in Varazza, Italy, 1861, 
 canon provost of the cathedral, professor of moral 
 theology in the seminary, and vicar general, 
 appointed titular Bishop of Comana 29 April, 1909, 
 and auxiliary to the Archbishop of Sassari, named 
 administrator apostolic of the diocese 12 April, 
 
 1910, transferred to the see of Crema 14 January,’ 
 
 1911, retired and transferred to the titular see of 
 Flaviopolis 6 December, 1915, and again transferred 
 to Luni Sarzana and Brugnato 7 March, 1921. 
 According to statistics of 1920 Luni Sarzana counts 
 a Catholic population of 161,755, 91 parishes, 225 
 secular and 70 regular clergy, 94 seminarians, 30 
 
LUTHERANISM 
 
 474 
 
 LUXEMBURG 
 
 Brothers, 136 Sisters, and 300 churches or chapels. 
 Brugnato is credited with 19,403 Catholics, 27 
 parishes, 53 secular and 14 regular clergy, 32 semi¬ 
 narians, 8 Brothers, 57 Sisters, and 75 churches or 
 chapels. 
 
 Lutheranism (cf. C. E., IX-458a) continues in 
 Germany and Scandinavia to be agitated by heated 
 controversies between orthodox and rationalistic 
 elements and tends in the United States toward 
 central administrative organization or at least 
 larger denominational combinations. 
 
 I. History. —The third centenary of Martin 
 Luther’s revolt was commemorated in 1817 with 
 such enthusiasm that it constituted one of the 
 outstanding events in the history of Lutheranism 
 in the nineteenth century. An even more extrava¬ 
 gant glorification of the heresiarch and of his 
 pseudo-reform was to signalize in 1917 the fourth 
 centenary of the publication of Luther’s ninety-five 
 theses. But the World War then in progress and 
 the internal dissensions among Lutherans prevented 
 celebration on any extensive scale. Germany was 
 too much absorbed in the war and other nations 
 were too hostile to glorify the memory of Luther. 
 Moreover, some of his own followers in Germany 
 saw little reason and showed no eagerness to com¬ 
 memorate the establishment of a church then in 
 rather precarious condition. Hansen, a zealous de¬ 
 fender of Lutheran orthodoxy, frankly declared in 
 1917 that “Protestantism had no ground for cele¬ 
 brating jubilees, but ample reason for doing 
 penance in sackcloth and ashes.” To outsiders the 
 multiplicity of opinions among Lutherans them¬ 
 selves as to what constitutes the essentials of 
 Lutheran faith and practice suggests the conclusion 
 that Luther confused rather than “freed” the human 
 mind. To the confusion of religious ideas were 
 added, with the separation of Church and State 
 in 1918, uncertainty of financial support and 
 diversity of administrative direction in the Lutheran 
 churches of Germany (see Evangelical Church). 
 Lutheranism, however, still remains the state 
 church in the three Scandinavian kingdoms of Den¬ 
 mark, Norway, and Sweden. 
 
 In the United States two important combinations 
 were recently effected among Lutherans. The 
 Lutheran General Synod,- Lutheran General Council 
 and Lutheran United Synod, South, combined and 
 formed the United Lutheran Church in America 
 (15 November, 1918). Three Norwegian synods, 
 the Norwegian Evangelical Lutheran Synod of 
 North America, the Norwegian Hauge Synod and 
 the United Norwegian Lutheran Church took 
 similar action and formed the Norwegian Lutheran 
 Church of America. In foreign missionary work 
 Lutheranism has been adversely affected by the 
 issue of the war and the consequent exclusion of 
 German missionaries from most of their fields of 
 evangelistic endeavor. American Lutherans have 
 made efforts to add these territories to those 
 already in their charge. They also conduct home 
 missions among the negroes and Indians of the 
 United States, but have for generations sustained 
 heavy losses because, differing in race, language and 
 customs, they found it difficult to adapt themselves 
 to religious life in America. A campaign among 
 them for $500,000 to be spent in reconstruction 
 service was eminently successful in 1919. The 
 denomination maintains a large number of educa¬ 
 tional institutions in America, and is, as the Cath¬ 
 olic Church, a strong believer in and defender of 
 parochial schools. Among its institutions for 
 higher education are the following: in Pennsyl¬ 
 vania, Muhlenberg College at Allentown, and Sus¬ 
 quehanna University at Selinsgrove; in Illinois, 
 
 Carthage College at Carthage and Augustana Col¬ 
 lege at Rock Island; in Kansas, Bethany College 
 at Lindsborg and in various States many Con¬ 
 cordia, Wartburg, Luther or Lutheran colleges or 
 seminaries. 
 
 II. Statistics. —There are at present approxi¬ 
 mately 60,000,000 Lutherans in the world. They 
 are most numerous in Germany which has to-day 
 39,000,000 Evangelicals. In this number are in¬ 
 cluded not only Lutherans, but also millions of 
 members of the Reformed Church. The relative 
 strength of these two denominations in German 
 lands cannot be accurately determined. Sweden 
 has 5,800,000 Lutherans; Finland, 3,283,000; Den¬ 
 mark, 3,100,000; Norway, 2,600,000; Poland, 1,500,- 
 000; Esthonia, 1,458,000; Hungary and Rumania 
 together, 1,360,000; Latvia, 1,200,000. 
 
 In the United States the Lutherans are the fourth 
 largest denomination ranking after the Catholics, 
 Methodists, and Baptists. They had in 1921, 
 2,493,000 members with 14,000 churches and 10,000 
 ministers. Canada has approximately 65,000 
 Lutherans. 
 
 Finck, Lutheran Landmarks and Pioneers in America (Phila¬ 
 delphia, 1913); Neve, A Brief History of the Lutheran Church 
 in America (2nd ed. Burlington, 1916); Kissling, Der deutschc 
 Protestantismus, 1817-1917 (Munster, 1918); Rade, The Present 
 Situation of Christianity in Germany in American Journal of 
 Theology, XXIV, 1920, 339-367; Lempp, Church and Religion 
 in Germany in Harvard Theological Review, XIV, 1921, 30-52; 
 Schneider, Kirchliches Jahrbuch (annual); Religious Bodies 
 1916 (Washington, 1919); The Statesman’s Year-Book (New 
 York annual); Year-Book of the Churches (New York); 
 Lutheran Church Year-Book (New York). 
 
 N. A. Weber. 
 
 Lutzk, Diocese of. See Luck. 
 
 Luxemburg, Diocese of (Luxemburgensis; cf. 
 C. E., IX-465a), comprising the duchy of the same 
 name, is directly subject to the Holy See, and 
 was erected a vicariate apostolic in 1833 and raised 
 to a diocese in 1870. The second bishop of this 
 diocese, Rt. Rev. Jean-Joseph Koppes, b. in Luxem¬ 
 burg 1843, appointed bishop 28 September, 1883, 
 assistant at the pontifical throne 1896, d. 30 Novem¬ 
 ber, 1918, was succeeded by the present incumbent, 
 Rt. Rev. Pierre Nommesch. Bishop Nommesch was 
 born in this diocese, was made bishop 8 March, 
 1920, and consecrated 25 March. The duchy is 
 almost entirely Catholic; the total number of in¬ 
 habitants was 246,000 by the 1920 statistics, and of 
 this number 242,272 are Catholics, 1230 Protestant, 
 and 970 Jews. The language of the people is a 
 dialect of their own, a kind of Low German with 
 many words borrowed from the French. With the 
 death of the Grand Duke William the male line of 
 rulers became extinct, and, according to the Nassau 
 pact of 1783 and the statute of 1907, his daughter 
 Marie Adelaide succeeded him, taking the throne 
 in 1912. On 1 August, 1914, two days after Ger¬ 
 many’s declaration of war on France, German troops 
 invaded the duchy, and throughout the war vast 
 quantities of war materials passed over the railways 
 of this country, in spite of the convention of 11 
 November, 1902, which forbade such transportation. 
 During the whole war, in spite of blockade, isolation, 
 and hardship, the people of the little duchy showed 
 heroic charity toward the sufferers of France and 
 Belgium, sending trainloads of food and clothing. 
 After the signing of the armistice the same charity 
 was shown toward the suffering people of Central 
 Europe, particularly Austria and the Tyrol. In 
 1918, upon the heels of the retiring enemy, the vic¬ 
 torious armies, headed by the Americans, passed 
 through the gayly decorated capital and were 
 viewed from the palace steps by the Grand Duchess 
 and General Pershing. 
 
 In 1912 the religious convictions of the Grand 
 
LUXEMBURG 
 
 LYONS 
 
 475 
 
 Duchess, a staunch Catholic, made her hesitate to 
 sign the education bill which would banish all 
 religious instruction from the schools, and although 
 she finally signed it, the Liberals and Socialists 
 attacked her severely. Thenceforth serious accusa¬ 
 tions were launched against her, particularly that 
 of pro-Germanism during the war. The charges had 
 \ 013 slight foundation, and many of them were 
 gross calumnies, but in an effort to bring peace to 
 her country, she abdicated in 1919 and entered a 
 Carmelite convent. On 28 September of the same 
 year a referendum was taken in Luxemburg to de¬ 
 cide on the political future of the country, and a 
 continuation of the existing government was favored 
 ° . one * Princess Charlotte, younger sister 
 of Marie Adelaide, then ascended the throne, and 
 shortly after her accession she married Prince Feli* 
 of Bouibon-Parma. A son was born in February, 
 1921, and christened John Benedict, after John the 
 Blind, King of Bohemia, and the present Holy 
 Father Benedict XV. The papal nuncio came from 
 Brussels to represent His Holiness, both at the 
 marriage of their Highnesses and at the baptism of 
 the infant prince. 
 
 October, 1915, Paul Eyschen, the well known 
 minister of state, died, having filled this office since 
 1888. The present Prime Minister is Herr Emile 
 Reuter. In 1918 a change was made in the con¬ 
 stitution, granting universal suffrage to all citizens 
 of both sexes over twenty-one years of age. In 
 recent years the duchy also lost two prominent 
 ecclesiastics, Mgr. Frederick Loch, of the parish of 
 Aotre Dame of Luxemburg, and Rev. Peter Schilz, 
 D. D., canon and member of the Legislature and 
 director of the diocesan boarding school. 
 
 Since 1881 education in the grand duchy has 
 been obligatory, but gratuitous. The educational 
 bill of 1912, anti-Catholic in spirit, was so vigorously 
 protested by the bishop and clergy that in 1921 
 some slight changes were made in it, and the priests 
 are again permitted to go into the schools to give 
 religious instruction. Primary education is given 
 to all children from six to thirteen years of age, 
 when secondary education begins. Priests are 
 allowed to teach in the secondary schools, provided 
 they hold university degrees and have passed the 
 State examining board. Primary education is under 
 a board of inspectors and, with very few exceptions, 
 education is entirely under State control, and all 
 parish priests, vicars, chaplains, professors, and 
 teachers are paid by the government. In the ele¬ 
 mentary schools both French and German are 
 taught. 
 
 The statistics of 1919-20 show 19,376 boys and 
 18,662 girls attending the primary schools; 5476 
 boys and 5390 girls attending other schools prepara¬ 
 tory for secondary education; 2632 boys and girls 
 m kindergartens. For secondary education there 
 are 3 Athenaeums, 1 at Luxemburg with 43 pro- 
 lessors and 650 boys, 1 at Echternach with 20 pro- 
 and 300 boys, 1 at Diekirch with 16 professors 
 and 320 boys; 3 lyceums or high schools for girls, 
 
 1 at Luxemburg with 24 professors and 220 girls, 
 
 1 at Sainte Sophie with 15 professors and 250 girls; 
 a normal school for men and one for women at 
 Luxemburg; 2 industrial and commercial schools, 
 
 1 at Luxemburg with 35 professors and 461 boys 
 and 1 at Esch with 22 professors and 200 boys! 
 in addition to these there are State schools for 
 mechanics and handicraft, for agriculture, a school 
 ot mines, a school for deaf mutes, for the blind, and 
 or the weak-minded. The charitable institutions 
 include a lunatic asylum in charge of Sisters, a 
 borne of correction, and homes for foundlings and 
 orphans, in charge of Sisters. The religious com¬ 
 
 munities established in the duchy are: men, Bene¬ 
 dictines, Dominicans, Jesuits, Redemptorists, White 
 Fathers Sacred Heart Fathers, Christian Brothers, 
 and Brothers of Mercy; women, Sisters of Notre 
 
 a? e< ^T?i tm l S ’ P om j n i can s, Franciscans, Sis- 
 S V Elizabeth, of Our Lady of Mount 
 
 Phdd t ° f S V 0 ? ha r r es , Borrome °> of the Poor 
 o h Jose Ph of Mercy, the School 
 Sisters and the Sisters of St. Zita. There are 381 
 
 secular and 61 regular clergy, 27 of these teach 
 m the secondary schools. The “Unio Sacerdotalis ” 
 a mutual aid, and support union is formed among 
 the clergy; and the unions of Catholic people, of 
 Catholic workmen, and of Catholic young men and 
 women, besides various sodalities of men, women 
 and children are established among the laity! 
 thirteen Catholic newspapers are published. 
 
 Luxemburg, Rosa. See Spartacus Group. 
 
 ( t ^berg), Archdiocese op (Leopoliensis; 
 cf. C. E IX-144d), in Poland, a see for three Rites, 
 Latin, Armenian, and Greek-Ruthenian. For the 
 Latm Rite the present incumbent is Most Rev. 
 Joseph Bilczewski, born in the Diocese of Cracow 
 1860, appointed 17 December, 1900, made a mem¬ 
 ber ot the academy of science of Cracow and 
 appomted an assistant at the pontifical throne 11 
 May, 1904. He is assisted by an auxiliary, Rt. Rev 
 «° tno S n Twardowski, titular Bishop of T-elmessus. 
 ±Jy 1920 statistics the diocese is divided into ?9 
 
 ?on n ii rie i S • , this rite ’ and comprises 256 parishes, 
 129 filial parishes, 649 secular priests, 49 clerics, and 
 convents of men with 178 religious. 
 
 . Most Rev. Joseph-Theophilus Teodorowicz born 
 m Zywaczow, Poland, in 1864, was appointed bishop 
 tor the Armenian Rite 16 December, 1901, at the 
 age of thirty-seven. In 1919 he was appointed a 
 deputy to the Diet of Poland. According to 1920 
 statistics the diocese comprises 3878 Catholics of 
 this rite, and about 800 Armenian Schismatics, 10 
 parishes, 14 Armenian and 7 Latin priests, and 24 
 churches and chapels. 
 
 For the Greek-Ruthenian Rite the diocese also 
 bears the title of Halicz and includes the diocese 
 of Kamenetz Podolski in Russia. The see 
 is now filled by Most Rev. Andrew Alexander 
 de Szeptyckyi, Basilian, born in Poland of a noble 
 family -in 1865, studied at the universities of 
 Cracow, Vienna, and Breslau, ordained 1892, served 
 as a missionary, professor, and master of novices, 
 proving himself especially valuable because of his 
 knowledge of languages. He was appointed Bishop 
 of Stanislawow at the age of thirty-four 19 June, 
 1899, and promoted 17 December, 1900. In 1914 
 he was deported to Kiev by the Russians, and in 
 the press made a false announcement of his 
 death. The Holy See was unsuccessful in trying 
 to obtain his liberation from Nicholas II, and it 
 was only after the abdication of the Tsar that he 
 was freed, in March, 1917, and in August he re¬ 
 turned to Vienna. By 1920 statistics there are in 
 the diocese 1,335,977 Catholics of this Rite, 1017 
 secular priests, 20 regular clergy, 754 parishes, 519 
 filial parishes, 1250 churches and 35 chapels. 
 
 Lyons, Archdiocese of (Lugdunensis; cf. C. E., 
 IX-472a), in France, is under the administration of 
 His Eminence Louis-Joseph Cardinal Maurin, Arch¬ 
 bishop of Lyons and Primate of Gaul, b. 1859 in 
 the diocese of Marseilles, ordained 1882, appointed 
 Bishop of Grenoble 1911, and promoted to the Arch¬ 
 diocese of Lyons 1 December, 1916, made cardinal 
 4 December of the same year. On 11 September, 
 1912, Cardinal Coullie, who had filled the see of 
 Lyons from 1893, died, and was succeeded by Rt. 
 Rev. Hector-Irenee Sevin, b. Simandre 1852, ap- 
 
LYONS 
 
 476 
 
 LYONS 
 
 pointed Bishop of Chalons 1908, and Archbishop of 
 Lyons 2 December, 1912, created cardinal 1914. 
 Cardinal Sevin died 4 May, 1916, and was succeeded 
 by the present incumbent. 
 
 During the World War about 800 priests of the 
 Archdiocese were mobilized, and of these 57 gave 
 up their lives, as well as 93 seminarians, from 450 
 to 500 priests were wounded, about 350 received the 
 croix de guerre, 30 were decorated with the legion 
 d’honneur and 50 with the medaille militaire. 
 
 Numerous religious orders are represented in this 
 district, but it is impossible to give exact statistics, 
 as since the persecution many of then? aT 3L n0 
 longer permitted to wear the religious habit. How¬ 
 ever, the famous property of the Chaitreux which 
 
 had been awarded to the city by the Law of Sepa¬ 
 ration, has been bought back by a lay society and 
 turned over to the monks. . 
 
 Statistics for 1921 give 688 parishes, 700 
 churches, 1990 secular priests and 300 regulars, 
 1 university with 50 professors and about 400 stu¬ 
 dents, 15 secondary schools for boys with 300 
 teachers and 4500 students, 48 secondary schools 
 for girls with 360 teachers and 3100 students, 2 
 normal schools with 16 teachers and 90 pupils, 11 
 professional schools with 58 teachers and 1050 
 pupils, 720 elementary schools with 1790 teachers 
 and 60.000 pupils. The charitable institutions in¬ 
 clude about 60 hospitals. Numerous societies are 
 formed among the clergy and laity, and 70 daily 
 or weekly journals are published. 
 
M 
 
 McAndrew James, major-general in the United 
 States army, b. at Hawley, Penna., in 1862; d. at 
 Washington on 30 April, 1922. Graduating from 
 the Military Academy at West Point he took part 
 m the Spanish American War in Cuba and the 
 I mlippines. When the United States entered the 
 VYorld War, McAndrew was sent across with the first 
 detachment of the American troops in 1917, command¬ 
 ing the Eighteenth Infantry of the first Division. 
 
 ^ Wa ! d( f ailed to organize the army staff college 
 and schools at Langres, where the army officers 
 received a course in modern warfare as it had de- 
 veloped during the past three years. On 1 Mav, 
 1918, he became General Pershing’s right-hand man 
 as chief of staff of the American Expeditionary 
 rorce. It was he who directed from headquarters 
 the operations at Chateau Thierry, St. Mihiel and the 
 Argonne Meuse; and his work in both the defensive 
 and offensive campaigns placed him in the first rank 
 of the great generals of the United States. After 
 the war he received an honorary degree in law from 
 
 ordham university and was made commandant 
 u ul p eaera l Staff College in Washington, but his 
 health broke down toward the end of 1920, though 
 he lingered for fifteen months in hospital. 
 
 Macao, Diocese of (Macaonensis; cf. C. E., IN- 
 481 b) m the Portuguese settlement of Macao in 
 the Island of Hueng-Shan, adjacent to the coast of 
 the Chinese Province of Kwang-tung. Rt. Rev 
 Joao Paul Azeredo e Castro, appointed to this see 
 9 jj’. 9 ??’ d I ed 17 February, 1918, and was suc¬ 
 ceeded by Rt. Rev. Jose da Costa Nunes, vicar gen¬ 
 eral of the diocese, appointed 16 December, 1920. 
 Bv a decree of 3 February, 1903, which became ef- 
 fectn e m 1908, the jurisdiction of the diocese ex¬ 
 tends over the neighboring islands as far as the 
 mouth of the river (with the exception of Hong- 
 Kong), the prefecture of Tchao-King with twelve 
 sub-prefectures, the prefecture of Hiang-Chan, a 
 part of Timor and the Portuguese Missions of 
 Malacca and Singapore. The territory has a total 
 population of 8,000,000, of whom 40,000 are Catho- 
 lics. Statistics for 1920 credit it with 3 parishes, 
 22 missions, 52 European and 9 native priests 1 
 
 Portuguese and Chinese students, 
 
 74 churches and chapels, 6 convents for girls 1 
 uoarding school for boys, 2 asylums, 36 schools, and 
 1 hospital. 
 
 MacDonagh, Thomas, Irish poet, scholar and 
 Pjtnot, born m Cloughjordan, County Tipperary, 
 1878, d. Dublin, 1916. His father and mother were 
 both teachers in the primary schools. He was 
 trained by a religious order and even entered a novi¬ 
 tiate in his early youth. He became a teacher in a 
 college in Kilkenny and later in Fermoy. Afterwards 
 he went to the Aran Islands and to Irish-speaking dis¬ 
 tricts in Munster and made himself fluent in the lan- 
 
 , Jl ! S N fc before Pcarse (q. V.) opened his school 
 (fet. Enda’s) MacDonagh came to Dublin to try to 
 get a play of his (“When the Dawn Is Come") pro- 
 duced The scene was laid in the revolutionary 
 IreEnd of t he future. When the play wasjproduced in 
 the Abbey Theatre MacDonagh had already joined 
 the staff of St. Enda’s school. MacDonagh’s two 
 
 passions were love of art and love of country and his 
 greatest interest was poetry, which he knew well in 
 English, French, Latin and Irish. He was drawn to 
 the classical poets but after coming to Dublin he 
 wrote more personal poetry. During the period before 
 
 /io^ le t / ?, D * ub S he Published “The Golden Joy" 
 (1906), and later Songs of Myself." After publishing 
 this work he went to Paris to do some reading. Then 
 he took his M.A. in the National University. Padraic 
 >° aF 1 ’ James Stephens, and a professor in the College 
 o science and MacDonagh started the “Irish Review" 
 as associate editors and after an interregnum, he took 
 over the paper and edited it with his friend and pupil, 
 Joseph Plunkett. MacDonagh wrote a thesis on 
 1 homas Campion and English Poetry” and was made 
 assistant professor of English literature in the National 
 University, Dublin. In 1916 he published a critical 
 prose work, Literature in Ireland." MacDonagh’s 
 country was always in his mind and he would have 
 welcomed a reasonable settlement of Irish political 
 conditions from the Government of Gr; ,t Britain 
 He was happily married and his first son was born in 
 1J12, and a second one six months before the insur¬ 
 rection. VVhen the nationalists created their volun- 
 eers MacDonagh had a place in the Executive and 
 command of a corps. From this time until the Easter 
 Kebelfion that ended with his death, MacDonagh was 
 associated with the Volunteer movement with his 
 friends Pearse and Plunkett. Like them he was a 
 combatant-poet, fighting a combat that was passion¬ 
 ate, intellectual, spiritual. 
 
 Colum, Introduction to Poems of the Irish Revolu- 
 tionary Brotherhood (Boston, 1916). 
 
 Samuel Fowle Telfair, Jr. 
 
 MacDonMd, Walter, theologian and philosopher, 
 
 b 7if u 1 kenny m 1854 1 d< on 2 Ma y, 1920. While 
 still busy with what is called “the most controversial 
 
 of all modern books," “Some Ethical Questions of 
 Peace and War," Dr. MacDonald’s death was ap¬ 
 proaching. After his preparatory studies he went to 
 Maynooth College, and on his ordination in 1876, 
 he became rector of St. Kieran’s College, where he 
 had formerly been a pupil. He returned to Maynooth 
 in 1881 where he served as librarian, Prefect of the 
 Dunboyne Establishment, and professor of theology. 
 He founded the “Irish Theological Quarterly" in 
 1906. One of his treatises, on “Motion,"' was 
 withdrawn from circulation because of certain pecu¬ 
 liar views it presented. 
 
 McDonnell, Charles E. See Brooklyn, Diocese 
 of. 
 
 477 
 
 Macedonia, Vicariate Apostolic of (Mace- 
 doniensis Bulgarorum), a vicariate in Greece, for 
 the Greek-Bulgarians, with residence at Salonica. 
 The present vicar is Rt. Rev. Epiphanius Scianow 
 of the Greco-Slavic Rite, appointed titular Bishop 
 of Livias, 23 July, 1895. By 1920 statistics the ter¬ 
 ritory comprises a Catholic population of 10,200- 
 41 missionary priests and 33 churches and chapels’. 
 At the outbreak of the Balkan War (September 
 1912) this vicariate was much more flouriSing 
 counting 27 parishes and 36 priests. The Greeks’ 
 however, destroyed 12 parishes and forced six others 
 
MACEIO 
 
 478 
 
 MADRAS 
 
 to pass to the Orthodox Church, while the Serbs 
 seized two more and forced them to become 
 schismatic, putting to death one of the pastors. 
 Large numbers of Catholics were massacred but 
 the exact number is not known. 
 
 Maceio, Archdiocese of (Macejensis; cf. C. E., 
 I-244c), in the State of Alagoas, Brazil. This see 
 was erected in 1900 under the name of Alagoas, but 
 a Decree of 27 August, 1917, changed it to the 
 present title, and a subsequent Decree 13 February, 
 1920, raised it to the dignity of a metropolitan see. 
 The first bishop, Rt. Rev. Antonio Manuel de 
 Castilho-Brandao, died in Maceio, 15 March, 1910, 
 and his death was deeply mourned throughout the 
 diocese, his zeal and devotion having been greatly 
 appreciated by his people. He had made himself 
 much loved, and almost all the dioceses of Brazil 
 held"solemn services for the repose of his soul. The 
 second bishop was appointed in the person of Rt. 
 Rev. Manuel Antonio de Oliveira Lopes, born in 
 Sao Gongalo de Campos, Brazil, in 1861, ordained 
 1886, served as a pastor and canon of the cathedral 
 of Bahia, founded the journal “O Mensageiro de 
 Fe,” was appointed titular Bishop of Tabia 25 
 January, 1908, and made coadjutor to the Bishop 
 of Fortaleza, and transferred 26 November, 1910. 
 By the Decree which raised Maceio to an archdio¬ 
 cese he was named first archbishop. This territory 
 covers an area of about 22,525 sq. miles and com¬ 
 prises a total population of 800,000. No statistics 
 are published. 
 
 Macerata and Tolentino, United Dioceses of 
 (Maceratensis et Tolentinensis; cf. C. E., IX- 
 492a), in the Marches, Central Italy, suffragan of 
 Fermo. This see is filled by Rt. Rev. Domenico 
 Pasi, born in Faenza, Italy, 1870, served as a pastor 
 and was named a prelate of the Holy See in 1909, 
 prot.honotary apostolic 3 August, 1912, and ap¬ 
 pointed titular Bishop of Philadelphia, 9 September, 
 1913, and made auxiliary and vicar general of the 
 Diocese of Comacchio, and then administrator of 
 the Diocese of Ferrara. He was promoted 15 
 December, 1919, to succeed Rt. Rev. Romolo 
 Molaroni, appointed 30 September, 1916, died 14 
 August, 1919. By a Brief of 21 April, 1921, the 
 Sanctuary of Our Lady at Macerata, which bears 
 the title of Mary, Mother of Mercy, was erected 
 into a minor basilica. The statistics of 1920 credit 
 Macerata with a Catholic population of 31,112 
 Catholics, 17 parishes, 65 secular and 6 regular 
 clergy, 30 seminarians, 5 Brothers, 53 Sisters, and 
 92 churches and chapels. Tolentino has 15,090 
 Catholics; 8 parishes, 28 secular and 9 regular 
 clergy, and 48 churches and chapels. 
 
 McGloin, Frank, jurist and publicist, b. at 
 Gort, Galway, Ireland, on 22 February, 1846; d. 
 in New Orleans in September, 1921. The son of 
 Patrick and Nora (Comber) McGloin, he was brought 
 to New Orleans in early childhood, and fought in 
 the Confederate Army, after which he was ad¬ 
 mitted to the bar. He was one of the chief assistants 
 of the late Chief Justice White, in his fight, as an 
 attorney, against the Louisiana lotteries. In 1880 he 
 was appointed Justice of the Louisiana State Court of 
 Appeals. A zealous Catholic, he was one of the 
 great forces in upbuilding the Church in Louisiana; 
 he was the editor of the “Hibernian,” the “Holy 
 Family,” the founder and president of the Society 
 of the Holy Spirit, the builder of St. George’s Chapel, 
 Siegen, Louisiana, and one of the founders of the 
 Catholic Winter School. In 1910 he was made a 
 Knight Commander of the Order of St. Gregory by 
 Pope Pius X. Among his writings are: “The Story 
 
 of Norodom,” a romance of the Far East; “The 
 Conquest of Europe;” “The Light of Faith” (1905); 
 “The Mystery of the Holy Trinity in Oldest Judaism” 
 (1916). 
 
 Mackenzie, Vicariate Apostolic of (de Mac¬ 
 kenzie; cf. C. E., IX-504a), in Canada, suffragan 
 of Edmonton, with episcopal residence at Fort 
 Resolution. By a decree of 1908 the limits of this 
 vicariate were somewhat changed and it now com¬ 
 prises that part of the Northwest Territory which 
 lies north of the 60° latitude, east of Yukon Ter¬ 
 ritory and west of the 100° longitude. The terri¬ 
 tory^ entrusted to the Oblates of Mary Immacu¬ 
 late, the present vicar being Rt. Rev. Gabriel- 
 Joseph-Elie Breynat, appointed in 1901 and conse¬ 
 crated titular Bishop of Adramattium 6 April, 
 1902. Latest statistics (1922) credit the vicariate 
 with a Catholic population of 4500; 19 regular 
 clergy, 31 religious women (Gray Nuns), 2 hospitals, 
 
 2 dispensaries, 12 churches, and 4 schools. 
 
 MacSwiney, Terence; the famous Lord Mayor 
 of Cork, b. on 28 March, 1879; d. at Brixton prison 
 of a hunger strike on 25 October, 1920, which he 
 began as a protest against English rule. The strike 
 lasted seventy-three days. When the Irish “Rising” 
 occurred he was frequently in jail, and at one time 
 in exile; when his intimate friend, Thomas Mac- 
 Curtain, the Lord Mayor of Cork, was murdered, 
 MacSwiney was elected in his place. He is the 
 author of “Principles of Freedom.” 
 
 Madagascar. See Diego-Suarez, Fianarantsoa, 
 Tananarive, Vicariates Apostolic of; Antsirabe 
 Prefecture Apostolic of. 
 
 Madeleine-Sophie Barat, Blessed (cf. C. E., 
 II-283b), was beatified 24 May, 1908, by Pope Pius 
 X, and her feast is celebrated 25 May. 
 
 Madras, Archdiocese of (Madraspatan; cf. C. 
 E., VI-603c), now has a Catholic population of 
 about 58,246, divided as follows: 30,000 Telegus, 
 20,000 Tamilians, and 8000 Anglo-Indians, out of 
 a total heathen population of nine million. On 
 12 February, 1911, Archbishop Colgan died after 
 twenty-nine years in this see. He was nominated 
 Bishop of Aureliopolis and Vicar Apostolic of 
 Madras in 1882, and raised to the archiepiscopal 
 dignity by the decree of 25 November, 1886, and 
 was nominated assistant at the papal throne on 
 the occasion of his golden jubilee. He died at the 
 age of eighty-six, and was buried in the Cathedral 
 of St. Mary of the Angels. His successor is the 
 Most Rev. Jean Aelen, D.D., of the Mission Hill 
 Fathers. He was born at Waspite, Holland, in 
 1854, and was named titular Bishop of Themisonium 
 in December, 1901, and coadjutor to the Archbishop 
 of Madras in 1902. 
 
 In 1921, on 4, 5 and 6 of January, the All Indian 
 Marian Congress was held at Madras, and was pre¬ 
 sided over by the Apostolic Delegate to India, 
 Archbishop Pisani. This congress, originally in¬ 
 tended to be held in 1914, had the war not in¬ 
 terfered, was, when finally accomplished, an impres¬ 
 sive manifestation of the Catholic Faith. It was 
 the first Marian Congress ever held on the continent 
 of Asia, and gathered a vast variety of Catholics, 
 from the uncultured Telegu to the refined Brahmin, 
 from the Burmese, with his flat Chinese face to the 
 distinctive Madrassi; at least twenty different lan¬ 
 guages were being spoken in this great gathering. 
 All the bishops and archbishops of India attended 
 or sent representatives and the apostolic delegate, 
 speaking to the 1200 assembled in the hall, which 
 
MADRID-ALCALA 
 
 MAINE 
 
 479 
 
 had been especially erected, declared that the time 
 was near when India would have her own clergy 
 irnder her own hidiim bishops. A daily bulletin, 
 The Marian Congress Bulletin,” giving the events 
 ° mi ° “2^ was . Published during the congress. 
 
 ■if statistics of the diocese show: 44 
 
 parishes, 42 churches, 5 missions, 269 stations, nearly 
 all having chapels, 2 convents for men and 27 for 
 women, 27 secular priests and 38 regular (Foreign 
 Missionaries of Mill Hill, London), 8 lay brothers, 
 7*4 biters, 20 seminarians, 5 high schools with 60 
 teachers and attendance of 682 boys and 494 girls 
 2 training schools with 11 teachers and 55 students,’ 
 98 elementary schools with 312 teachers and 6965 
 students, and 1 industrial school with 2 teachers. 
 Chanty is administered through 2 homes for the 
 aged, 2 homes for babies and 4 refuge homes, while 
 oi the government hospitals and 1 government 
 training school and college permit Catholic priests 
 to minister in them. The Catholic schools are aided 
 financially by the Government, but none of the 
 institutions. A “Sick Fund” is organized among 
 the clergy, and among the laity the Catholic Indian 
 Association and a philanthropic society. The dio- 
 fv G iP ll bbshes the “Catholic Leader” (weekly), the 
 Nalla Ayan (monthly), and the Catholic Direc¬ 
 tory of India, Burma, and Ceylon yearly. 
 
 Madrid-Alcala, Diocese of (Matritensis-Alca- 
 hensis or Complutensis; cf. C. E„ IX-516a), in 
 
 fn a i n h SU m ag S n ° f i 5 To i edo ' These united sees are 
 filled by Rt Rev. Prudencio Melo y Alcalde, born 
 
 n Burgos, 1860, ordained in 1883, served as vice- 
 secretary to the Archbishop of Burgos, professor 
 University of Valladolid, Central University, 
 and the Seminary, grand chaplain of the Sisters 
 
 Wtlr f I ?u atl0n ; l v , lca , r general, named a canon 
 lector of the cathedral of Burgos in 1898 then 
 
 pro-vicar general, appointed titular Bishop of 
 Olympia 19 December 1907, and auxiliary at 
 I oledo transferred to Vitoria 18 July, 1913 and 
 again transferred to Madrid 4 December, 1916 
 to succeed Rt Rev. Jose Maria Salvador y Barrera’ 
 
 4 December, 1916. According 
 _ *i 0 statistwa the diocese comprises a Catholic 
 population of 1,500,600 ; 251 parishes divided into 18 
 archpresbytenes, 1170 priests, 776 churches and 
 
 Sistpr i 2 °n G T'r ntS Wlth 536 reli gious, and 736 
 oisters. A Catholic university was founded in the 
 
 diocese m 1908, with the faculties of philosophy and 
 
 umtfnn Cle f nC + e n‘ S n m May ’ 1919 ’ the solemn inaug- 
 uratmn of the Basilica of the Sacred Heart took 
 
 mnnv A he ^ence of the ro ^ al family and 
 many of the Spanish bishops. 
 
 (° r Magallanes), Vicariate Apostolic 
 OF (Magellanensis), in Chili, suffragan of San¬ 
 tiago, with episcopal residence at Punta Arenas 
 1 his vicariate was erected by a Decree of 4 October 
 t “uprises the territory of the old pre^ 
 lecture of Southern Patagonia. It extends from the 
 rC latitude on the North to the Mai vine Islands 
 
 WestTmind ? ngl * nd ,’ whicb form the South and 
 West boundaries, and on the East as far as the 
 
 boundary line between Chili and Argentina It is 
 
 entrusted to the Salesians, the present vicar being 
 
 Bishon of T Abrah 7. m Aguilera, appointed titular 
 ifisfiop of Issus 22 December, 1916. In 1990 the 
 
 Slf.T"" 8611 2 [T shes “ nd a number of 
 priSts 1 t,0ns ’ served b - v “bout 40 missionary 
 
 Michael, psychologist, b. at Leighlin- 
 Lr d 1 <1 d 'at Pctworth, England, on 3 Septem- 
 * 1918 ' re ceived his early education at Tulla- 
 
 u 1 
 
 more, Mt. St. Mary’s and Tullaby, and became a 
 Jesuit in England in 1880 when he was twenty years 
 ot age. Immediately after his course of philosophy 
 
 1L1 °j tau g^t psychology from 1885 to 
 
 1891 and subsequently from 1897 to 1903. He at¬ 
 tempted some missionary work at Edinburgh but 
 was unable to continue on account of ill-health.’ He 
 then wrote for the “Stonyhurst Series” his volume 
 on “Psychology,” which was declared by the London 
 L niversity to be of such special excellence that no 
 further test was required for according his application 
 r e degree °f Doctor of Literature. Another 
 of his works was “Tatian’s Diatessaron,” and he 
 contributed several articles to The Catholic En¬ 
 cyclopedia, 
 
 Mahnic, Anthony. See Krk, Diocese of. 
 
 Maine (cf. C. E., IX-541c). —Industries.— The 
 manufacturing census of 1919 shows a decrease in 
 o«2r. n - um ^ er manufacturing establishments from 
 3378 in 1914 to 2996 in 1919. There was, however 
 
 1 n Cre - aSe in ca P ital ($233,844,000 in 1914, $420,- 
 651,000 in 1919), and in value of products ($200 - 
 450,000 in 1914; $461,415,000 in 1919). 
 
 Agriculture. —In 1918 the potato crop of the 
 entire State brought nearly $25,000,000. In 1919 
 five million barrels of apples were grown. The 
 agricultural products of the entire State equal 
 $100,000,000 in an average year, while through its 
 varied industries Maine produces $275 to $400 for 
 each inhabitant. 
 
 -.<?°^ UI ^ ATI0N -“ Tlle Population of the State was 
 742,271 m 1910; 768,014 in 1920. The latest census 
 shows an increase of 25,643, or 2.5 per cent from 
 1910 to 1920, smaller than the increase during the 
 previous decade of 47,905, or 6.9 per cent. The 
 Catholic population is 153,225. 
 
 Education.— According to the report of the State 
 superintendent for the year 1919, the number of 
 school children in the State was 228,489, and the 
 amount expended for school purposes was $5,149,386. 
 
 . 1 he following favorable opinion on the subject 
 oi Bible reading in the public school was rendered 
 by the Supreme Court of Maine: “If the Bible, 
 or any particular version of it, may be excluded 
 irom the schools because its teachings may be 
 opposed to the teachings of the authorities of any 
 church, the same result may ensue as to any other 
 book. If any sect may object, the same right may 
 be granted to others. This would give the authori- 
 ties of any sect the right to annul any regulations 
 of the constituted authorities of the State as to 
 the course of study and the books to be used. It 
 is placing the legislation of the State, in the matter 
 of education, at once and forever in subordination 
 to decrees and teachings of any and all the sects, 
 when their members conscientiously believe such 
 teachings. It at once surrenders the power of the 
 State to a government not emanating from the 
 Peopl e nor recognized by the Constitution.” 
 
 1 he State laws relative to private and parochial 
 schools are as follows: The basic language of in¬ 
 struction in the common branches of all schools 
 public and private, shall be the English language. 
 Nothing in this section shall be construed to pro¬ 
 hibit the teaching in elementary schools of any 
 language as suchj the State superintendent shall 
 prescribe or approve courses of study and methods 
 of instruction of public and private schools; all 
 professors and instructors and teachers in public 
 and private institutions shall teach humanitv, 
 morality, etc., American history and civil govern- 
 ment aie to be taught; for children attending 
 private schools certificates of attendance must be 
 filed with the public school officials; all private 
 
MAINZ 
 
 MAITLAND 
 
 480 
 
 schools shall make such statistical and other re¬ 
 ports as the State superintendent may require. 
 
 State Government— The following have been 
 added as heads of State departments: 2 highway 
 commissioners, 1 bank commissioner, 3 public 
 utilities commissioners, a deputy secretary of State 
 commissions and corporations, a commissioner of 
 labor and industry, a superintendent of public build¬ 
 ings, a commissioner of health, 3 industrial acci¬ 
 dent commissioners, a commissioner of harbor and 
 tidal waves, a live stock sanitary commissioner, 3 
 prison commissioners, and one woman factory in¬ 
 spector. The commission of inland fisheries has 
 been reduced from three to one member. There 
 are also appointed 3 for the board of accountancy, 
 
 4 instead of 8 for the public health council, 4 em- 
 balming examiners, and 3 for the board of arbitra¬ 
 tion and conciliation. 
 
 Judicial Department— Superior Courts have 
 been established in the counties of Cumberland, 
 Kennebec, Androscoggin, and Penobscot. Maine 
 has 20 cities, 434 towns, and 69 plantations. The 
 State Board of Charities and Corrections,. estab¬ 
 lished by the Legislature of 1913, is composed of 
 five members, unsalaried, one of them a woman, 
 appointed by the governor and with the consent 
 of the council. The board appoints a salaried 
 secretary and other agents. The board is required 
 to investigate and inspect the whole system of 
 public charities and correctional institutions of the 
 State, to examine into the conditions and the 
 management of all prisons, jails, reform schools, 
 schools of a charitable and correctional nature, and 
 all such institutions as hospitals, houses, sani¬ 
 tariums, orphanages, to give its opinion of their 
 organization and to pass upon all plans for new 
 institutions under their supervision. It acts ex 
 officio as a board of mother’s aid, and also as a 
 board of children’s guardians. A number of asso¬ 
 ciations, hospitals, and other institutions receive 
 appropriations from the State, and are subject to 
 supervision by the State board, as long as they 
 receive such aid. Appropriations are made for 
 certain charitable and benevolent institutions, not 
 owned by the State, for the care, support and 
 medical treatment of dependent persons; among 
 these are St. Elizabeth’s Orphan Asylum, Portland, 
 and St. Mary’s General Hospital at Lewiston. 
 Overseers of the poor, not to exceed seven in num¬ 
 ber, are chosen by each town. The semi-inter¬ 
 mediate sentence law is applicable to all State 
 institutions, for each of which the governor acts 
 as a parole board. Any property left to educa¬ 
 tional, charitable, religious or benevolent institu¬ 
 tions is exempt from the inheritance tax. A legis¬ 
 lative Act of 1913 allowed any corporation or 
 association holding funds bequeathed for religious, 
 moral, and benevolent purposes to transfer the 
 same to another corporate body for similar pur¬ 
 poses with the approval of the resident judge. 
 
 Legislative Changes. —Maine was the first State 
 to enact prohibition. The first prohibition law, 
 passed through the influence of Neal Dow in 1851, 
 was repealed. In 1850 another law went into effect, 
 but the enforcement was very lax. In 1884 an 
 amendment was voted into the State constitution, 
 forbidding the sale of liquor except to invalids. 
 Though the Legislature of 1905 enacted the Sturgis 
 Law, creating a State Enforcement Commission, 
 prohibition has always been considered a farce in 
 the State. The extreme bitterness of the campaign 
 and the accompanying charges of fraud led to the 
 initiation and passage of the Davies Direct Primary 
 law, which applies to the election of county officials 
 as well as federal officials. In 1912 the constitu¬ 
 
 tional amendment was re-submitted to a popular 
 vote, and retained by a majority of 758 votes. The 
 national Prohibition Act was ratified in 1919 by 
 the State legislature. 
 
 The State constitutional amendment of 1841 for¬ 
 bidding the legislature to loan the credit of the 
 State, directly or indirectly, or to increase the State 
 debt over $300,000, except in emergency cases, was 
 felt by many to be a serious obstacle to the 
 development of Maine, but in 1912 the State was 
 allowed to increase a debt of not over $2,000,000 
 for highway purposes. In 1913 another law allowed 
 the legislature to tax intangible personal property 
 without regard to the rate applied to other classes 
 of property. In 1915 child labor was prohibited in 
 factories or mercantile establishments, and in the 
 same year the Workmen’s Compensation Act was 
 passed. In 1916 the first national park east of the 
 Mississippi River, comprising 500 acres, known as 
 the Sieur de Montes National Monument, was 
 created on Mount Desert Island. In 1918 the legis¬ 
 lature passed an Act forbidding the feeble-minded 
 to marry. The federal suffrage amendment w r as 
 ratified on 5 November, 1919. 
 
 Prisons and Reformatories.— There is a county 
 jail in each county, except Lincoln and Sagadorhoe, 
 which use jails in other counties. There is an In¬ 
 dustrial School for Girls at Hallowell, a State 
 Reformatory for Women at Skowegan (1915), and 
 one for men at Windham (1919). 
 
 Recent History. —During the European War 
 Maine contributed 24,252 soldiers to the U. S. 
 Army (0.65%). The members of the national, guard 
 joined the 26th Division, and those of the national 
 drafted army the 76th Division, both at Camp 
 Devens. The summary of casualties among the 
 Maine members of the American Expeditionary 
 Forces is as follows: deceased, 21 officers, 497 men; 
 prisoners, 2 officers, 15 men; wounded, 64 officers, 
 1491 men. 
 
 For ecclesiastical history see Portland, Diocese 
 of. 
 
 Mainz Diocese of, (Maguntinensis; cf. C. E., 
 IX—552c), in Germany. The present incumbent 
 is the Rt. Rev. Ludwig Hugo, who was named coad¬ 
 jutor to Rt. Rev. George Heinrich Kirstein (d. 15 
 April, 1921) with the right of succession, succeeding 
 7 March, 1912, consecrated 10 April, 1921, published 
 15 April, 1921. The diocese is divided into deaneries 
 and 188 parishes and contains 186 parish priests, 1 
 rector, 80 curates, 43 priests in other positions, and 
 20 who are pensioned or on leave of absence. The 
 diocesan seminary has 10 professors and 60 students. 
 The only male order existing in the diocese is that of 
 the Capuchins with 3 houses (Mainz, Bausheim and 
 Dieburg), 19 Fathers and 17 brothers. The female 
 orders are: Sisters of Mercy from the mother-house 
 at Trier, 2 houses, 26 Sisters; English Ladies, 7 houses, 
 271 Sisters; Franciscan Sisters from Aachen, 3 houses, 
 27 Sisters; Franciscan Sisters of the Perpetual Ador¬ 
 ation, 1 house, 42 Sisters, Sisters of Divine Provi¬ 
 dence, mother-house at Mainz, 85 filial houses, 657 
 Sisters; Sisters of the Most Sacred Redeemer, mother- 
 house at Niederbronn, 23 houses, 230 Sisters; Sisters 
 of the Good Shepherd, 1 house, 29 Sisters; Sisters of 
 St. Vincent de Paul, 9 houses, 137 Sisters. 
 
 Maitland, Diocese of (Maitlandensis; cf. C. 
 E., IX-555d), in New South Wales, Australia, is 
 suffragan to the Archdiocese of Sydney. It has 
 been growing steadily in recent years during the 
 incumbency of the present bishop, Rt. Rev. Patrick 
 Vincent Dwyer, and now numbers a Catholic popu¬ 
 lation of some 38,000, of whom 36,000 are Aus- 
 
Majorca 
 
 481 
 
 MALINES 
 
 tralians, 100 Irish, 500 German, 300 Syrians, and 
 about 200 of other nationalities. 
 
 By the present (1921) statistics, there are 21 
 parishes, 85 churches, 30 mission stations, 36 con¬ 
 vents for men, 48 secular priests, and 7 regular* 
 i ft a I brothers (10 Marists and 4 Redemptorists) 
 340 Sisters (Dominicans, Sisters of Mercv, and 
 Sisters of St. Joseph); 5 high schools with 20 
 teachers and an attendance of 230 boys and 420 
 girls; 52 elementary schools with 120 teachers and 
 an attendance of 5300. The only Catholic Institute 
 for Deaf Mutes in Australasia is conducted at 
 vyaratah by the Dominican nuns, and counts 55 
 girls and small boys among its pupils; an orphan- 
 age for girls is conducted at Maitland by the Sisters 
 of Mercy and has 85 children, and a hospital at 
 \\ aratah is also under the direction of these Sisters. 
 A number of the public institutions admit the 
 priests of the diocese to minister in them, and the 
 government allows a small grant tp the Catholic 
 orphanages for their support. The Sick Clergy 
 und and the Priests Eucharistic League are estab- 
 lished among the clergy, and the Australian Cath- 
 ohc Gmld Benefit Society and the Hibernian Aus- 
 trahan Catholic Benefit Society among the laity, 
 i he Diocesan Almanac is published annually. 
 
 Majorca and Iviza, Diocese of (Majoricensis 
 et Ibusensis; cf. C E., IX—556d), suffragan of 
 \ alencia, with the residential seat at Palma on the 
 Island of Majorca. The present bishop is Rt Rev 
 Rigobert Domenech y Vallo, b. 15 November, 1870’ 
 at Valencia, ordained 19 May, 1894, honorary chap- 
 
 fcth and ^r each fo 1 t ? HlS ¥^ jesty in I906 > appointed 
 bishop 5 May, 1916, proclaimed 4 Decemberfollow- 
 
 mg, succeeding Mgr. Pietro-Juan Campins y Baicelo 
 
 b'*14 January, 1859; d. 1915. The cathedral church 
 
 was restored in 1904. In 1909 the remains of King 
 
 Jaime III were transferred from Valencia. There 
 
 are in the diocese (1922): 71 parishes and 23 affiliated 
 
 parishes; 371 churches; 684 secular and 60 regular 
 
 priests; 9 monasteries for women; 41 convents for 
 
 men and 142 for women; 244 lay brothers; 1674 
 
 bisters; 1 seminary with 244 seminarians; 4 colleges 
 
 for boys with 75 teachers and 219 pupils; 11 colleges 
 
 for girls with 125 teachers and 1200 pupils; 6 4 
 
 academies with 20 teachers and 90 pupils* 204 
 
 elementary schools with 546 teachers and 18 120 
 
 P u pi fvi 3 asylums ; 10 hospitals, 2 refuges; 3 ’lav 
 charitable centres, 4 day nurseries. The Govern- 
 ment maintains 200 schools; an Institute and a normal 
 school for men and women teachers. Three societies 
 are organized among the clergy. There are 60 
 organizations among the laity in Palma and 200 
 in the towns. The Catholic press is represented bv 
 eleven periodicals. The population of 297 194 is 
 entirely Spanish and Catholic with the exception of 
 60 French and 20 English. The diocese lost two of 
 its prominent men by the death of Don Miguel 
 Mauro, brother of Antonio Mauro, present president 
 of the Council of Ministers, and Don Jose Mari 
 Guadrado, polemist, archadogist, and histoiian. 
 
 Barillon h P 1 srw\ Re Yo*Mane-Luc-Alfonse-Einile 
 lOMflv’ lory 8 0ctober > I860, at Chartres, appointed 
 
 4 NoVrnbf; C r.f Cmted 18 Se P te mher, proclaimed 
 MU fix I ,K owin ^ succeeding Mgr. Rene- 
 Michel Fee, b. 4 February, 1856, d. 20 January 1904 
 Since 27 November, 1920, the bishop has a coadiutor 
 
 of Corona ° n TL M b §r h Louis f% riG hon, titular Bishop 
 ot corona. The bishop and all the clergy belomr to 
 
 W G ?n C w y °/ F ? rei gn Missions of Paris. ‘During^the 
 \\ odd War twelve of the priests were mobilized of 
 whom three were killed, and ten died of exhaustion 
 mission, so that the number of missionaries 
 f h rl eCre ?f d Smce th ? war > but native dergv 
 ihe.vVT her VS a sem ! nar y Penang, are beginning 
 S lwT" ' mission. There are in the diocese: 
 33 priests having charge of 69 churches and chapels 
 52 schools with 10,675 pupils, 25 orphanages and 
 creches with 808 children, 49 Brothers of the Christian 
 
 Jesus S a , nd 86 Sisters of the Infant 
 
 Jesus. Ihe English schools receive a “grant-in-aid” 
 from the government. 6 
 
 Diocese of (Malacitanensis; cf. C. E 
 
 It ■ oh? ®p ai ffi suffragan of Granada. This 
 see is filled by Rt. Rev. Manuel Gonzalez y Garcia 
 born m Seville, 1877, named archpriest of Huelva 
 and made a private chamberlain in 1913, appointed 
 titular Bishop of Olympia 6 December, 1915 and 
 
 Anri? io9n la m a r> MaI T aga ’ where he succeeded 22 
 Apnl, 19_0, Rt. Rev. Juan Munros y Herrera (d 
 
 26 December 1919). The 1920 statistics credit the 
 
 tr ,T th I 42 ’ 44 ? Ca tholies; 135 parishes divided 
 among 16 archpresbyteries, 373 priests, 147 chapels 
 
 and S 84^ Sisters 68 COnvents with 106 religious 
 
 M alacca > Diocese of (Malacensis; cf. C. E., IX— 
 562c), m the Malay Peninsula, comprises Singapore 
 island, the Malacca territory proper, Penang Island, 
 Province Wellesley Perak, Selangor, Negri-Sembilau, 
 Pahan, Johore, Kedah, Trenganu, Kelantan, Patani 
 r'erlis and several Siamese provinces on the west coast 
 up to the Isthmus of Krah, with an area of about 700 
 miles from north to south, and 200 miles from east to 
 west. The diocese is suffragan to Pondicherry, with 
 episcopal residence at Singapore. It has a total 
 population of about 3,500,000 and a Catholic popula- 
 tV 41,/60, of whom about 8000 arc Europeans 
 and Eurasians, 18,000 Chinese, and 16,000 Indians. 
 
 Malines (or Mechlin), Diocese of (Mechli- 
 niensis; cf. C. E. X-104a), comprises the two 
 Belgian provinces of Antwerp and Brabant. The 
 
 of Malines is co-extensive 
 
 Tnnrni7 e T B ' e gla S kmgd °? (suffragan bishoprics, 
 lournai, Liege, Namur, Ghent, and Bruges) The 
 
 ancient metropolitan cathedral of St. Rombaut is 
 
 the church of the Archbishop of Malines, who is 
 
 the primate of Belgium. His Eminence Desire- 
 
 Joseph Cardinal Mercier, Archbishop of Malines 
 
 founder of the Institute of Philosophy at Louvain 
 
 and eminent patriot, is known throughout the world 
 
 ior his bearing towards a triumphant enemy and 
 
 his devotion and unceasing labor for his people 
 
 country and God during the late war. Cardinal 
 
 „™ Sat B [ aine -l’Alleud in the Diocese 
 of Malines, 21 November, 1851, entered the semi- 
 
 °l ¥ al * me f’ t 1 0ct °ber, 1870, ordained 4 April, 
 1874, student at Louvain, professor at seminary of 
 Malines, professor at Louvain (1822), director of 
 Institute of Philosophy at Louvain 1891, president 
 
 f^ h \ Le °Tt Tu 1 ? 92 ’ P r late to HoIy See 
 
 1886, named Archbishop of Malines 7 February, 
 1906, consecrated by the Apostolic nuncio, Mgr! 
 
 V ico, at Malines 25 March and enthroned 16 April 
 ollowing, succeeding Cardinal Goossens, deceased 
 Created cardinal 15 April, 1907, received the hat 
 and title of San Pietro in Vincoli 18 April follow¬ 
 ing. During the German occupation Cardinal Mer¬ 
 cier was kept under constant surveillance and 
 suspicion, shut in his palace many times and hin¬ 
 dered in his ministry but he dared to face the 
 enemy, to protest to German authorities in person 
 and by letter against their actions in Belgium The 
 Cardinal became recognized as a spokesman for 
 tta oppressed country, his letters to the German 
 officials and German bishops and to his own flock 
 effected good results and showed the Cardinal to be 
 one of the greatest figures of the age. Cardinal 
 Mercier has been decorated and honored by many 
 
MALINES 
 
 482 
 
 MALINES 
 
 countries, receiving the croix de guerre fiom France 
 and Italy, the croix civile and grand cordon ot 
 the Order of Leopold from Belgium, prizes and 
 honors from French and Spanish Academies of 
 Political and Moral Sciences, degrees from numer¬ 
 ous universities and many other rewards, rrom 
 September to November, 1919, Cardinal Merciei re¬ 
 ceived a continuous tribute when he traveled m 
 the United States. The Cardinal has published 
 many important works on Scholastic philosop y 
 and besides his letters of war times, which included 
 the famous pastoral, “Patriotism and Endurance, 
 has written works on spiritual life. In 1919 was 
 published “La Vie interieure, appel aux ames 
 sacerdotales,” which will be followed by other simi¬ 
 lar works. In 1920 a provincial council was held at 
 
 Malines. . B 
 
 There are two auxiliaries to the archbishop, Kt. 
 Rev. Louis-Joseph Legraive, b. at Chain, 18 Decem¬ 
 ber, 1858, consecrated titular bishop of Parnassus 
 17 November, 1907, and made superior of the Upper 
 Seminary at Malines in 1909, and Rt. Rev. Antoine 
 Alphonse de Wachter, b. at Puers 10 April 1855, 
 and consecrated titular bishop of Dionysias 25 July, 
 1909. Mgr. Legraive was brought before the council 
 of war at Antwerp, 16 March, 1917, for having 
 given hospitality to a Frenchman unfit for service 
 who wished to return to his own country ; he was 
 condemned to nine month s detention and sent to 
 Germany. In the beginning of April, upon the in¬ 
 tervention of the Pope, he recovered his liberty. 
 
 The statistics for 1912 are the latest available. 
 They give 2,527,850 inhabitants in 52 deaneries 
 with 768 parishes, secular priests 2410, regular 
 priests 1137, scholastics 596, lay brothers 319, Broth¬ 
 ers 1308, novices 560, total religious men 39w0, 
 religious women, including novices, 13,331. 
 
 The communities for men include 3 abbeys and 
 1 house for Benedictines, 2 Cistercian abbej s, 5 
 Norbertine abbeys and 1 priory, 11 colleges and 
 houses of Jesuits, 16 convents of orders destined 
 for foreign missions, 22 monasteries for other or¬ 
 ders, 65 convents for religious priests, total 126; 70 
 convents of Brothers, 985 convents of women; gen¬ 
 eral total of convents 1181. Many of these convents 
 have only a few Brothers or Sisters who teach in 
 the schools or Sisters who look after sick oi aged 
 in hospitals and refuges of rural communities. 
 
 Education, Seminaries. —There is a seminary 
 at Malines with an upper division for theology with 
 250 students and a lower division for philosophy 
 with 151 students. Also a seminary for vocations 
 that come late in life with 27 students. There is 
 a preparatory seminary at Hoogstraeten and 2 
 others, these schools teaching almost exactly the 
 same courses .in classical study as the colleges. The 
 Seminary of Leo XIII attached to Institute of 
 Philosophy at Louvain is interdiocesan, and there is 
 also an American seminary at Louvain under direc¬ 
 tion of American bishops with all foreign students. 
 
 Higher Education,— The University of Louvain, 
 founded in 1834 by the Belgian episcopate with 
 140 professors (secular priests, 1 regular and lay¬ 
 men), 3248 students, of whom 141 are foreigners 
 (1921); the faculty of philosophy and letters at 
 the Institut St. Louis at Brussels has 5 professors 
 and 103 students (December, 1921), while the 
 scientific section of the same school has 9 profes¬ 
 sors and 68 students; the Institut Supevieur de 
 Commerce under the Jesuit fathers with 23 in¬ 
 structors and 177 students. These schools confer 
 degrees in the same title as similar State institu¬ 
 tions, the university being fully independent, the 
 other schools having a board of examiners ap¬ 
 pointed by the Government. A school ( ecolc 
 
 superieure) for young ladies at Brussels has 17 
 professors and 89 pupils; a similar school at Ant¬ 
 werp in the Flemish language has 23 professors 
 and 160 pupils. The diplomas have no legal value, 
 but as a guarantee of their scientific value they are 
 countersigned by the rector of the University ot 
 Louvain. 
 
 Secondary Education. —Twenty-five colleges or 
 institutes with intermediate instruction of higher 
 degree and under direct authority of the arch¬ 
 bishop, have about 430 instructors and 10,000 stu¬ 
 dents, 7 establishments of the same degree m charge 
 of religious, (5 Jesuit, 1 Josephite, 1 Crosier Father) 
 with about 4000 students, 1 establishment of Greco- 
 Latin studies in charge of Ursuline nuns at Wavre- 
 Notre-Dame and a very great number of 
 institutions in charge of religious with about 19,000 
 students. Many schools with intermediate instruc¬ 
 tion of a lower degree are run by the Brothers 
 (of Mercy, Christian Schools, St. Gabriel, etc.). 
 The diplomas given by schools of higher degree 
 have the same value as those of Government 
 schools. The Government intermediate schools ot 
 higher and lower degree have religion as part of 
 the program and the course is given by a secular 
 priest appointed by the bishop. The same arrange¬ 
 ment exists in the official normal schools and two 
 communal colleges. Thirty-eight priests are as¬ 
 signed to this instruction. The regimental and 
 cadet schools as well as Vecole mihtaire, have chap¬ 
 lains and their course in religion. The church 
 schools of this degree do not receive any govern¬ 
 ment subsidy except two colleges at Gheel ana 
 Herenthals and four institutes at Antwerp which are 
 supported by the commune. 
 
 Normal Schools— There are two schools .of 
 regents for the training of professors of intermediate 
 schools of lower degree under the authority of the 
 archbishop, also 7 schools of regents m charge of 
 the nuns. Then there are 3 primary normal schools 
 for instructors in primary schools and 2 others of 
 same sort for girls under direct charge of the 
 archbishop, with .11 normal schools for girls under 
 the nuns, 1 school for regents and 2 primary normal 
 schools under the Brothers. These normal schools 
 receive large subsidies and also burses in favor 
 of pupils. The diplomas from these schools have 
 the same value as those of the governmental nor¬ 
 mal schools. . 
 
 Primary Schools— There exists nearly every¬ 
 where in the diocese a primary school of the Sis¬ 
 ters. Often in the Flemish section of the diocese 
 the Sisters have charge of the communal schools 
 and usually these Sisters’ schools are the only ones 
 for girls in the commune. The school for boys 
 is directed by instructors in whom the icligious 
 authority has confidence. In the cities, except 
 Antwerp, Brussels and their suburbs, religious in¬ 
 struction is given in all the schools as a blanch 
 of the program from which parents can exempt 
 their children. In localities where the religious 
 interest of population demands it the clergy have 
 erected free schools directed by the Sisters, Broth¬ 
 ers or lay persons. The total of these schools is 
 650 with ‘about 150,000 pupils. There are 204 pro¬ 
 fessional and industrial free schools, 102 for boys 
 with 14,000 pupils and 102 for girls with 6700 pupils. 
 The Government pays the entire salary of the 
 lay instructors who have diplomas, assigned to 
 free primary schools which accept the program and 
 instruction of the State, which is practically in 
 every case, and also that of the religious on a 
 reduced basis. Besides the government pays eight- 
 tenths of the salary of the teachers personnel and 
 the same percentage of several other parts of the 
 
MALTA 
 
 MANCHURIA 
 
 483 
 
 budget ol the industrial and professional schools. 
 I he city of Antwerp pays a subsidy of 2,000,000 
 francs to the Catholic schools. 
 
 At 1 urnhout there is an apostolic school under 
 the Jesuits for young boys who propose to enter 
 the congregations whose members are destined for 
 mission work; and 2 apostolic schools under the 
 hat hers of the Holy Ghost. 
 
 Hospitals. —Since the confiscation of hospitals, 
 hospices, and charitable establishments during the 
 hrench occupation (1794-1815), these institutions 
 have been under civil control, but the religious 
 continued their care ol the sick, for which they 
 receive a slight remuneration. Lately some lay 
 nuises hav e been introduced. The Sisters serve in 
 the military hospitals, and nearly all others in 
 the country, besides owning numerous hospitals 
 sanatoriums, and clinics themselves. 
 
 Associations.— In all the urban communes there 
 exists a Catholic political organization, working 
 men s and youth s circles, military training classes, 
 ^'n in i iaa ^ ics ’ e ^ c * fb e rural communities nearly 
 all the interests are affiliated. In the Flemish region 
 ^eis a powerful agricultural organization which 
 has 90,000 members in the Flemish provinces. 
 Newspapbrs.— The principal Catholic dailies are 
 La Libre Belgique,” “Le XX e siecle,” “De 
 Handaard, Brussels; “La Metropole,” “De Mor- 
 ?^ n( fport, “Het Handelsblod,” Antwerp; in Flem¬ 
 ish, “De Gazet van Antwerpen,” Antwerp and “Het 
 Aiieuws van der lag,” Brussels; less important 
 dadies are Le Democrat,” Brussels and “De Gazet 
 van Mechelen,” Malines. 
 
 hospital was established at Malta, the largest num- 
 bei of patients received at one time being 25,000. 
 
 Managua, Archdiocese of (Managuensis; cf. 
 n 1 46d), in the Republic of Nicaragua, 
 
 Central America. Erected 26 February, 1531, under 
 the name of Nicaragua, it was raised to the rank of a 
 metropolitan see by Pius X, 2 December, 1913, with 
 two suffragan dioceses under its jurisdiction. It, 
 comprises the provinces of Managua, Masaya, 
 Garazo, Matagalpa, and Ginotega, with an area of 
 about 6563 square miles. It is bounded on the north 
 and west by the Diocese of Leon, on the east by the 
 Diocese of Granada and the Vicariate of Bluefields 
 and on the south by the Pacific Ocean. The popu- 
 lation is estimated at 250,000. The first archbishop 
 is Most Rev. Jose Antonio Lezcano y Ortega, b. 10 
 Apnl, 1865, at Granada, ordained 15 April 1888 
 elected archbishop 10 December, 1913, enthroned 3 
 • r 14 7 P ro( 4aimed 28 May following, elected 
 iP 1 * 4 1916 president of the Supreme Congress 
 of the Republic. The auxiliary for Matagalpa is 
 Rt. Rev. Canllo y Salazar, titular Bishop of Torone. 
 
 1 here are in the archdiocese : 30 parishes, 45 churches, 
 
 1 mission, 27 secular and 3 regular clergy, 18 Brothers, 
 24 Sisters, 1 seminary with 19 seminarians, 4 hospitals. 
 
 Diocese of (Melitensis; cf. C. E., IX- 
 j(6b), comprising the Island of Malta, is imme¬ 
 diately subject to the Holy See. The bishop, also 
 titular Archbishop of Rhodes, is Rt. Rev. Maurus 
 Garuana, O S.B., b. 16 November, 1867, in Malta, 
 studied at the College of St, Ignatius and at Fort- 
 Augustus, professed 11 November, 1885, ordained 
 * , ar ch, 1891, missionary in Scotland, appointed 
 at the Consistory of 22 January, 1915, consecrated 
 at Rome 10 February, by the Cardinal Merry del 
 ’ ^throned 25 February following, succeeding 
 Mgr. Pietro Pace (b. 9 April, 1831, d. 26 July, 1914). 
 1 he diocesan statistics for 1921 are; 46 parishes 
 510 secular and 248 regular priests, 2 abbeys for 
 women (Benedictine), 26 convents for men and 
 4/ for women, 105 lay brothers, 611 Sisters, 1 semi¬ 
 nary with 44 seminarians, 1 university with 84 stu¬ 
 dents 2 colleges for men with 220 students, 4 high 
 schools with 510 boys and 640 girls, 1 training 
 school with 120 pupils, 102 elementary schools with 
 
 77 fk te i a rSr erS a ? d 16,407 P u Pils, 1 industrial school 
 with 100 pupils. A diocesan missionary institute 
 was founded in 1920 for missionary work among 
 Maltese emigrants; there are 3 homes, 1 asylum 3 
 hospitals, 1 refuge (Good Shepherd), 1 settle- 
 house, 3 day nurseries. All public institutions have 
 chaplains paid by Government, and all the schools 
 except the high schools are supported by the Gov¬ 
 ernment. Four societies are organized among the 
 clergy I he Catholic press is represented by 
 monthly magazines or bulletins issued bv almost 
 ah the religious orders in connection with their 
 specml works The diocese comprises 200,000 
 Maltese Catholics. 
 
 + k In i 921 5? aI * a was granted self-government, and 
 the New Parliament was opened by the Prince 
 of Wales, 1 November, 1921; two out of seventeen 
 members of the senate are nominated by the arch¬ 
 bishop. During the World War twelve priests 
 acted as military chaplains on the various fronts. 
 Trom the time of the Gallipoli Expedition a base 
 
 Manchester, Diocese of (Manchesteriensis; 
 ct. C. E., IX—584d), comprising the State of New 
 Hampshire, an area of 9305 sq. m., suffragan of 
 
 ?,°i St °i 1 7, Th - is - see is . fiIled h y Rt - Rev - George 
 Albert Guertin, born in Nashua, New Hampshire, 
 
 1869, studied at Brighton, Sherbrooke and St. Hya- 
 cmthe, ordained in Manchester in 1892, served as 
 . pastor of St. Anthony’s Church and appointed bishop 
 at the age of thirty-eight, 16 December, 1906, to 
 succeed Rt. Rev. John B. Delaney, died 11 June 
 of the same year. The religious orders established in 
 the diocese include, men: Benedictines, Christian 
 Brothers, Brothers of the Sacred Heart, Marist 
 Brothers of the Schools, and Xaverian Brothers; 
 women: Sisters of Mercy, Sisters of Jesus Mary, 
 Presentation Sisters, Sisters of Charity of Providence, 
 Gray Nuns, Sisters Adorers of the Precious Blood and 
 Sisters of the Holy Cross and of the Seven Dolors. 
 By latest statistics 1922, the Catholic population of 
 the diocese numbers 141,489; it comprises 81 churches 
 with resident priests, 31 missions with churches, 144 
 secular and 14 regular clergy, 28 chapels, 39 mission 
 stations, 36 seminarians, 1 college with 250 students, 
 
 1 high school with 160 boys, 2 academies with 225 
 pupils, 41 parochial schools with 19,900 pupils, 7 
 orphan asylums caring for 1009 orphans, 4 hospitals, 
 
 2 homes for the aged, 2 homes for working girls, and 1 
 .nfant asylum. 
 
 Manchuria, Northern, Vicariate Apostolic of 
 (Manciurensis Septentrionalis; cf. C. E., IX- 
 585d), one of the two ecclesiastical divisions of the 
 civil province of the same name, in China. It 
 comprises territory separated from the vicariate 
 apostolic of Southern Manchuria, 10 May, 1898, 
 is entrusted to the Society of Foreign Missions* 
 or Pans the present Vicar Apostolic being Rt. Rev! 
 Pierre-Marie-Frangois Lalouyer, appointed titular 
 Bishop of Raphana 24 July, 1897, and named first 
 vicar of this territory 16 May, 1898. He is assisted 
 by a coadjutor, Rt. Rev. Auguste-Ernest Gaspais, 
 appointed titular Bishop of Canopus 16 December, 
 1920, and named coadjutor 20 December following. 
 Out of a total population of 10,000,000 this vicariate 
 counts 23,311 Catholics and 2556 catechumens. The 
 1920 statistics credit it with 700 Protestants, 25 
 missionaries, 11 native secular priests, 32 catechists, 
 21 churches, 66 chapels, 1 upper and 2 lower semi¬ 
 naries with 50 students, 123 schools teaching nearly 
 
MANCHURIA 
 
 484 
 
 MANILA 
 
 3000 children, and 9 orphanages. The religious 
 congregations working here include the Franciscan 
 Missionaries of Mary, who came to the mission in 
 1911, 35 native Sisters of the Sacred Heart of Mary, 
 and about 135 Chinese women who have taken 
 religious vows but live with their families and work 
 
 in the mission. 
 
 Manchuria, Southern (or Liao-tong), Vicariate 
 Apostolic of (Manciurensis Meridionalis; cf. C. 
 E., IX-585d), one of the two ecclesiastical divisions, 
 of the civil province of the same name in China. 
 It is entrusted to the Society of Foreign Missions 
 of Paris, the present Vicar Apostolic being Rt. Rev. 
 Marie-Felix Choulet, appointed 19 February, 1901, 
 and named titular Bishop of Zela, two days later. 
 According to 1920 statistics, out of a total popula¬ 
 tion of 10,000,000, this territory counts 27,847 Catho¬ 
 lics; the vicariate is credited with 3814 catechumens, 
 32 European and 16 native priests, 95 catechists, 144 
 churches or chapels, 190 stations, 35 seminarians, 63 
 schools, 11 orphanages, 15 Sisters of Portieux, and 
 30 Chinese religious. These native religious belong 
 to the Congregation of the Most Pure Heart of 
 Mary, wdiich in 1919 had two convents, one, the 
 mother-house, at Siao-Pa-Kia-Tse, in the province 
 of Ghirin, the other at Houlan, in the province of 
 He-Lung-Kiang. In 1920 this congregation fur¬ 
 nished forty-one teachers to the vicariate. 
 
 Manfredonia, Archdiocese of (Sipontinensis; 
 cf. C. E., IX—588b), in the province of Foggia, 
 Southern Italy, with the perpetual administration of 
 the diocese of Viesti (Vestanensis). For twenty-five 
 years this see has been filled by Most Rev. Pasquale 
 Gagliardi, born in Tricarico 7 December, 1859, ap¬ 
 pointed 19 April, 1897. The statistics of 1920 credit 
 Manfredonia with 101,800 Catholics, 16 parishes, 140 
 secular and 14 regular clergy, 7 Brothers, 15 Sisters 
 and 154 churches and chapels. Viesti, comprising 
 only the city of that name, counts 8005 Catholics, 2 
 parishes, 36 priests and 11 churches and chapels. 
 
 Mangalore, Diocese of (Mangalorensis; cf. 
 C. E., IX—588d), in the province of Madras (India), 
 suffragan of Bombay, with residence at Codialboil. 
 It has a total Catholic population of 112,000. The 
 bishop is Rt. Rev. Paul-Charles Perini, S. J., b. 12 
 January, 1867, ordained in 1897, consecrated 4 
 December, proclaimed 3 November, 1911, succeeding 
 Mgr. Abbondio Cavadini, S. J., b. 5 February, 1846, 
 d. 26 March, 1910. The diocesan statistics for 1922 
 are: 61 parishes, 61 churches, 8 chapels, 2 missions, 
 8 mission stations, 82 secular and 43 regular priests, 
 1 convent for men and 3 for women, 14 lay brothers, 
 165 Sisters, 1 seminary with 86 seminarians, 1 college 
 for men and 1 for women, 2 high schools for boys and 
 3 for girls, 2 normal schools, 1 training school for 
 catechists, 90 elementary schools, 5 industrial schools, 
 
 1 home for the aged and infirm, 4 asylums (2 for men, 
 
 2 for women), 3 hospitals, 1 settlement.house for 
 Korgars. The Government Civil Hospital and the 
 Government Civil Jail admit the ministry of priests, 
 and schools such as are on the Government list of 
 recognized schools receive Government grants. Two 
 associations are organized among the clergy and five 
 among the laity. There are published in the diocese: 
 “Trumpet Can,’' the organ of the Priests’ Apostolic 
 Union; “Ange,” the messenger of the Sacred Heart 
 in Konkany; Indian Catholic Truth Society publi¬ 
 cations in Konkany; “The Catholic Educational 
 Review;” and the Konkany “Driven,” a bi-monthly 
 publication. The total Catholic population of the 
 diocese is 112,000, of whom 107,000 are Konkany 
 Catholics of Aryan origin, 3500 Malabar and Tamil 
 Catholics of Dravidian origin, and 800 Eurasians, 
 
 mostly of Indo-Portuguese descent. Clergymen of 
 note deceased since 1910 are: Rev. Augustus Muller, 
 S. J., of the New York province of the Society of 
 Jesus, who founded the charitable institutions now 
 called “Father Muller’s Charitable Institutions;” 
 labored for over thirty years, and died 1 November, 
 1910, aged 69, his services being recognized by the 
 late King Emperor, Edward VII, who honored him 
 with the Kaiser-i-Hind Medal; Rev. E. Frachetti, 
 S. J., who spent twenty-nine years in the mission, 
 filling important posts, and died 8 June, 1915. “The 
 Father Frachetti Memorial Ward” in Father Muller’s 
 Hospital was erected in his memory by the Catholic 
 Community of Mangalore. During the World War 
 Mangalore was the first diocese in India to send out 
 an Indian chaplain for the Indian army in Mesopo¬ 
 tamia. The Indian army is not entitled to have a 
 chaplain, but during the war the Indian Government 
 initiated a departure from its usual policy, and it was 
 Mangalore that volunteered the first chaplain. 
 
 Manifestation of Conscience (cf. C. E., IX-597). 
 It is strictly forbidden for any religious superior 
 whosoever to induce in any way his subjects to 
 manifest their consciences to him; but subjects may 
 open their souls to their superiors, if they so desire; 
 it is even laudable for them to show this filial trust 
 in their superiors, and if the latter are priests to 
 discuss their doubts and troubles of conscience with 
 them. There is no longer any obligation to de¬ 
 nounce a superior who violates this law, as was 
 prescribed in the decree “Quemadmodum” of Leo 
 XIII. 
 
 Manila, Archdiocese of (de Manila; cf. C. E., 
 IX-597c), comprises the city of Manila, the prov¬ 
 inces of Bataan, Bulacan, Cavite, Nueva Ecija, 
 Pampanga, Rizal, Tarlac, Pangasinan, and Zam- 
 bales. The area of the territory is 9276 square 
 miles. The population, nearly all Catholics, is esti¬ 
 mated at 2,026,269. By the appointment (March, 
 1910) of the Rt. Rev. Jose Petrelli as first Bishop 
 of Lipa, Batangas, the provinces of Batangas, Taya- 
 bas, and Laguna were separated from the arch¬ 
 diocese, of which they had until then been a part. 
 The archdiocese includes some 200 towns with a 
 population of two or three thousand each. On 
 16 May, 1916, Archbishop Harty was translated to 
 Omaha, and Rt. Rev. M. J. O’Doherty, Bishop of 
 Zamboanga, elevated to the see of Manila. Bishop 
 Petrelli, who had succeeded Mgr. Agius as Apos¬ 
 tolic Delegate, established a permanent residence 
 of the Papal Delegation in the district of Malate, 
 Manila, but was later appointed Nuncio at Lima, 
 and left the islands in July, 1921. 
 
 The second organic Act of Congress for the gov¬ 
 ernment of the Philippine Islands, called the “Jones 
 Law” (1916), prohibited the use of public money 
 for the support of any sectarian institution. As 
 the result of this clause of the law it became neces¬ 
 sary to close the Catholic Boys’ Reformatory at 
 Lolomboy, theretofore aided by the city of Manila; 
 the Hospital de San Jose de Cavite, where a large 
 number of insane persons (partially maintained by 
 Government grants), had been cared for by Sisters 
 of Charity; and the Hospicio de San Jose, also 
 suffering from the withdrawal of government aid 
 for its orphans, has become partially converted into 
 a scholastic institution. The repeated declarations 
 of the Government to change the official language 
 from Spanish to English has necessitated the intro¬ 
 duction of English-speaking communities and con¬ 
 gregations. Prior to the American regime the 
 Assumption Mothers were the only English-speak¬ 
 ing community in the islands. 
 
 In response to appeals the Christian Brothers 
 
MANIZALES 
 
 485 
 
 MARDIN 
 
 came, in 1910, and established a school; Benedic¬ 
 tine Mothers, a girls’ academy; Sisters of the Divine 
 Word, Holy Ghost College; the Belgian Canon- 
 nesses Mission, the Tondo Orphanage, St. Teresa’s 
 Hall, and the Immaculate Conception Sisters, 
 Chinese Hospital. In 1921 Sisters of the Good 
 Shepherd established their first house in the Philip¬ 
 pines in the District of Sta Ana, Manila, and the 
 same year the historic academy of the Jesuits, the 
 alma mater of the most famous Filipinos, recogniz¬ 
 ing the needs of the hour, in the course of 1921 
 declared English the official language of the Ateneo 
 de Manila, and the staff is now mainly composed 
 of American Fathers. 
 
 The unprecedented experiment of the United 
 States in undertaking to educate in the English 
 language on secular lines an illiterate Catholic 
 population of at least one million children has 
 been responded to by the Filipinos with enthusiasm. 
 The Government schools, primary, intermediate, 
 high, and university, are crowded with pupils, for 
 whom, however, no religious education is provided. 
 Keenly alive to the urgent necessity of making 
 provisions for the teaching of the faith to the 
 young people, the archbishop erected the Catholic 
 dormitory, St ; Rita’s Hall, at a cost of $300,000 
 in 1917 for 350 Catholic students, and in 1918 he 
 purchased a suitable building, St. Mary’s Hall, as 
 a Catholic dormitory for 130 young women stu¬ 
 dents. Since 1917 in parishes in this diocese Cath¬ 
 olic elementary schools recognized by the Govern¬ 
 ment are educating a majority of the municipal 
 students of school age according to Government 
 standards. The Christian Brothers in 1910 estab¬ 
 lished an elementary and secondary school for 
 boys; this has increased and now magnificent build¬ 
 ings are being erected which will make La Salle 
 College one of the foremost academic establish¬ 
 ments in the Orient. Another costly building 
 which was erected in 1913 is St. Escolastica College, 
 where upwards of 400 girl students are in daily 
 attendance. Besides the royal university of St. 
 Tomas there are now twenty Catholic scholastic 
 institutions offering academic courses to young men 
 and women, several of which are recognized by 
 the Government as qualified to grant the bac¬ 
 calaureate and other degrees. There is also estab¬ 
 lished in almost every parish an elementary school 
 of Christian doctrine. The attendance in these 
 schools fluctuates, but may be estimated at not 
 less than 8000. Regarding Catholic schools recog¬ 
 nized by the Government, the figures can not be 
 ascertained accurately; the total number in at¬ 
 tendance in November, 1921, was 13,460. 
 
 The Knights of Columbus have grown from one 
 council to three and are expecting the establishment 
 of more. The year 1921 records the death of the 
 Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, Cayetano 
 Arellano, a Knight of Columbus, an eminent jurist, 
 and a humble minded Christian gentleman. A 
 month or two later the Hon. Norberto Romualdez, 
 then Grand Knight of the Manila Council, was 
 appointed by the President of the United States 
 an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court. 
 
 Shortly after his installation Archbishop 
 O’Doherty established a Catholic Federation of 
 Men, and another of Women, both of which are 
 doing good work. Lately an American Women’s 
 Catholic Club has also come into existence to take 
 its part in social, economic, and charitable activities 
 in Manila and the nearer provinces. 
 
 The old established Dominican daily paper, 
 “Libertas,” withdrew from publication in April' 
 1917. Shortly after “La Defensa,” a successful daily 
 
 e\ ening paper, came into being and has acquired 
 a wide circulation, under the direction of ‘The 
 Association of the Catholic Press.” 
 
 By 1921 statistics there are in the archdiocese 
 42 secular priests, 150 priests representing 9 re¬ 
 ligious orders, 187 parishes (144 of which have resi- 
 dent priests), 70 lay brothers, 309 members of 9 
 ltligious communities of women, 1 general seminary 
 and 3 preparatory, 1 university, 43 colleges, acad¬ 
 emies, and schools, with a total attendance of about 
 13,500, and 3 charitable institutions with approxi- 
 mately 200 inmates. 
 
 r , ^ niz J les > Diocese of (Manizalensis; cf. 
 
 ^ ’’ Colombia, Central America, 
 
 suffragan of Medellin. This see was erected in 1900 
 and Rt. Rev. Gregory Nazianza Hoyos, born in 
 Vahos in 1849, was appointed the first bishop, 11 
 May, 1901. He died 26 October, 1921, and his suc¬ 
 cessor has not yet been appointed. A decree of the 
 Consistory of 11 June, 1920, separated the territory 
 of Balsa from this diocese and united it to the diocese 
 of Cali. The cathedral is dedicated to Our Lady 
 No statistics are published. 
 
 Mantua, Diocese of (Mantuanensis; cf. C. 
 E., IX—611b), in Lombardy, northern Italy, suffra¬ 
 gan of Milan. This see is filled by Rt. Rev. Paolo 
 Carlo Francesco Ongo, born in Milan in 1840, or¬ 
 dained in 1863, appointed 18 March, 1895, to succeed 
 Bishop Sarto who was promoted to Venice, and who 
 later became Pope Pius X. Bishop Origo was named 
 an assistant at the pontifical throne 16 November, 
 1903. The Catholic population of this diocese num¬ 
 bers 257,500; the 1920 statistics credit it with 153 
 parishes, 307 secular and 25 regular clergy, 120 
 seminarians, 10 Brothers, 270 Sisters and 259 churches 
 or chapels. 
 
 Maranon, Prefecture Apostolic of. See San 
 Gabriel dell’ Addolorata de Maranon. 
 
 Marash, Diocese of (Marascensis; cf. C. E., 
 IX 636b), a see of the Armenian Rite, in Cilicia, 
 Asiatic Turkey. The see is filled by Rt. Rev. Nonce- 
 Avedis Arpiarian, born in Eghin, Armenia, 1856, 
 appointed Bishop of Karpouth 23 September, 1890, 
 promoted to the titular metropolitan see of Anazarbe 
 5 April, 1898, and made auxiliary to the Patriarch of 
 Cilicia, transferred 27 August, 1911, succeeding 
 Bishop Monradian, who died in 1906. During the 
 Vorld War the Abbes Stephen Paramian and Joseph 
 Akrabian, both of whom had studied at the Seminarv 
 of St. Francis Xavier at Beirut, were martyred. In 
 all 70,000 Armenians of this region perished, leaving 
 now about 30,000, of whom 1600 are Catholics. The 
 diocese is served by 11 missionary priests, 7 regulars 
 and 4 churches or chapels. 
 
 Marbeau, Emmanuel-Jules-Marie, Bishop of 
 Meaux, b. at Paris on 12 November, 1844; d. on 31 
 May, 1921. He was ordained at Orleans in 1874. 
 When the city of Meaux was deserted by all the au¬ 
 thorities during the World War, Bishop Marbeau 
 remained at his post and practically administered the 
 affairs of the municipality. This made him one of 
 the heroes of the Marne. For this defensio civitatis 
 he was awarded the Cross of the Legion of Honor. 
 He was consecrated Bishop of Meaux in 1910 and died 
 two or three days after celebrating his golden jubilee 
 as a priest. 
 
 Mardln, a mission in Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, 
 erected in 1627, made a prefecture apostolic in 1842, 
 and again returned to the status of a mission 12 
 September, 1896. It is entrusted to the Capuchins, 
 with official residence at Diarbekir, The present 
 
MARDIN 
 
 486 
 
 MARQUETTE 
 
 Superior is Rev. Ange de Clamecy, born in Clamecy, 
 France, 1 July, 1863, entered the Congregation of 
 Capuchins in 1892 and was named head of this mission 
 18 March, 1910. According to 1920 statistics the 
 mission comprises 1445 Catholics of the Latin Rite, 
 
 9 stations with resident priests, 11 churches or chap¬ 
 els, 18 schools with 2585 children, 1 college with 48 
 students, and 2 orphanages with 22 orphans. The 
 mission is served by 10 Capuchin Fathers and 5 
 Brothers, 6 secular priests and 22 Sisters, Tertiaries 
 of Lons-le-Saunier. 
 
 Mardin, Archdiocese of (Mardensis; cf. C. 
 E., IX—650d) of the Syrian Rite and a diocese of the 
 Armenian and Chaldean Rites in Mesopotamia, 
 Asiatic Turkey. This is a patriarchal see of the 
 Syrian Rite, the Patriarch of Antioch, His Excel¬ 
 lency Ignatius Dionysius Rahmani, resides here. 
 A patriarchal vicar also resides here, at present, Most 
 Rev. Behnan Kalian, titular Archbishop of Sarugh. 
 The diocese comprises 4200 Syrian Catholics, 3900 
 Schismatics, 350 Protestants, 10,000 Mussulmans 
 and 1000 Jews. The 1920 statistics credit it with 
 14 secular and 13 regular clergy, and 8 churches or 
 chapels. 
 
 The see for the Armenian Rite is vacant, the bishop, 
 Rt. Rev. Hussig Ghulian, having died, 18 February, 
 1922. The diocese comprises 6500 Armenian Catho¬ 
 lics and 20,000 Schismatics; 14 missionary priests, 2 
 regulars and 14 churches or chapels. The diocese is 
 administered for the Chaldeans by Rt. Rev. Israel 
 Audo, born in Alkosch, Mesopotamia, 1859, studied 
 at the Seminary of Mossul and was ordained in 1886, 
 served as patriarchal vicar at Bassorah in 1892 and 
 appointed bishop 11 May, 1909. Statistics of 1920 
 credit the diocese with 1670 Chaldean Catholics, 6 
 regular clergy, 3 churches or chapels, 2 stations and 
 3 schools. 
 
 Margaret Mary Alacoque, Saint (cf. C. E., 
 IX-653b), canonized by Benedict XV, on 13 May, 
 1920. 
 
 Margaret of Lorraine. Blessed (cf. C. E., 
 IX-655b).—Her cultus was approved at Rome, 20 
 March, 1921. 
 
 Mariana, Archdiocese of (Marianensis; cf C. 
 E., IX—660b), in the state of Minas Geraes, Brazil. 
 This see is filled by Most Rev. Silvere Gomes Pimenta, 
 born in Congonhas do Campo, in this diocese, in 
 1840, ordained in 1862, made a professor in the 
 seminary, vicar capitular, vicar general ,and pro- 
 thonotary apostolic in 1878, appointed titular Bishop 
 of Camachus 20 June, 1890, and transferred to 
 Marianna 3 December, 1897. When the diocese was 
 raised to the dignity of an archdiocese in 1906, he 
 was made its first archbishop 1 May of that year. 
 On 19 June, 1912, he was made an assistant at the 
 pontifical throne, and on 28 May, 1920, he was made 
 a member of the literary academy. He is assisted 
 by an auxiliary, Rt. Rev. Antonio-Augusto de Assis, 
 titular Bishop of Diocletianopolis, appointed 2 
 August, 1918. By a decree of 22 February, 1921, the 
 limits of the archdiocese, as well as those of the 
 diocese of Aterrado were slightly changed. The 
 diocese of Aterrado had been erected in 1918 by a 
 division of the archdiocese. Statistics of the arch¬ 
 diocese have not been published since this division 
 was made. 
 
 Mariana and Caroline Islands, Vicariate 
 Apostolic of (Marianensis et Carolinensis; 
 cf. C. E., IX—660d), formerly a prefecture Apostolic 
 and raised to a vicaiiate 1 March, 1911. On 18 June, 
 1907, this territory was entrusted to the Capuchins 
 of Westphalia, the present vicar apostolic being Rt. 
 
 Rev. Salvator Peter Walleser, appointed titular 
 Bishop of Tanagra, 21 August, 1912. He is the 
 author of a Palan dictionary and grammar. Having 
 submitted to Japanese domination, these islands are 
 dependent on the apostolic delegate for Japan, since 
 3 March, 1921. The official residence is atPonapa. 
 In 1911 the Caroline Islands had a total population 
 of 20,000, of whom 1700 aie Catholic; 12 missionaries, 
 12 Brothers, 11 religious, 11 stations, 11 churches 
 or chapels and 14 schools with 600 pupils. The 
 Mariana Islands count a Catholic population of 
 2800, and 1000 non-Catholics; 3 Capuchin priests, 2 
 Brothers, 3 stations, 3 churches. The mission does 
 not conduct any schools here as the Government 
 holds complete control over education. 
 
 Mariannhill, Vicariate Apostolic of (Mari- 
 annhillensis), in South Africa. On 27 July, 1921, a 
 portion of the Vicariate Apostolic of Natal was taken 
 and entrusted to the missionaries of Mariannhill, and 
 on 10 September, following, it was erected into a 
 separate vicariate under the name of Mariannhill. 
 It extends from East to West between the Rivers 
 Umkomaas and Umlaas, and is bounded on the North 
 by the Division of Impendhle, on the West by the 
 I)rackensburg and on the South by the Great Key 
 River. Rev. Father Fleischer has just been appointed 
 vicar apostolic and titular Bishop of Tiberiopolis. 
 Statistics are not yet published. 
 
 Marquesas Islands, Vicariate Apostolic of 
 (Insularum Marchesi; cf. C. E., IX—688c), in 
 Polynesia, with residence at Atouona, on the Island 
 of Hiva. It is entrusted to the Congregatmn of 
 Picpus, the present vicar being Rt. Rev. David Le 
 Cadre, made provincial of these islands 29 June, 
 1912, administrator apostolic 11 November following, 
 named vicar apostolic 30 December, 1920, and ap¬ 
 pointed titular Bishop of Demetrias 5 January, 1921. 
 The population comprises 2750 Catholics, 450 Pro¬ 
 testants and 100 pagans. By 1920 statistics the 
 vicariate is served by 8 missionary priests, 2 Brothers, 
 9 Sisters of St. Joseph of Cluny, 9 cathechists, and 
 37 churches or chapels. The schools were closed in 
 1904 by order of the French Government, which has 
 had control of these islands since 1841. 
 
 Marquette (Sault Ste Marie and Marquette), 
 Diocese of (Marianapolitana et Marquettensis; 
 cf. C. E., IX-689a), is under the administration of 
 the fourth bishop, the Rt. Rev. Frederick Eis, D. D., 
 who was consecrated 24 August, 1899. The present 
 (1921) statistics for this diocese show a Catholic 
 population of approximately 85,896; 90 secular 
 priests and 8 regulars, 76 churches with resident 
 priests, 61 missions with churches, 54 mission sta¬ 
 tions, 29 chapels, 12 ecclesiastical students, 3 acad¬ 
 emies, 27 parochial schools, 8413 pupils in schools, 
 1 orphan asylum with 100 orphans, 1 school for 
 Indians, and 4 hospitals. The diocese comprises 
 the northern peninsula of the State of Michigaan 
 and is suffragan of Milwaukee. 
 
 Marquette University, situated in Milwaukee, 
 Wisconsin, was founded by the Jesuits in 1857 as 
 St. Aloysius Academy and incorporated in 1864 
 as Marquette College until 1907, when a new char¬ 
 ter was obtained and the institution became a 
 university. This same year the Milwaukee Medical 
 College was affiliated with the University, and in 
 1908 the Milwaukee Law School, the College of 
 Applied Science and Engineering being begun at 
 the same time. In 1910 the College of Economics, 
 School of Business Administration and School of 
 Journalism were opened. The affiliation between 
 Marquette University and the Milwaukee Medical 
 School was discontinued in 1912 when the Univef- 
 
MARRIAGE 
 
 MARRIAGE 
 
 487 
 
 si tv acquired complete control of the schools of 
 Medicine and Dentistry, and the Training School 
 foi Nurses of Trinity Hospital. The following year 
 property was purchased from the Wisconsin Col- 
 lege of Physicians and Surgeons and the two Medi¬ 
 cal Colleges of Milwaukee were merged into the 
 new medical department of the university. A 
 complete reoiganization of the College faculties 
 took place after this and in February, 1915, Mar- 
 quette School of Medicine was accorded a “Class 
 
 t in a io Dg i b £, the American Medical Association. 
 In 1918 the Carnegie Foundation offered the Uni¬ 
 versity two-thirds of a million dollars for the Medi¬ 
 cal School on condition that the University raise 
 one-third, and this having been done, the Medical 
 
 School now has an endowment fund of one million 
 dollars. 
 
 The present organization of the University com¬ 
 prises the College of Arts and Sciences with a total 
 registration of 325; College of Applied Science and 
 Engineering, registration 500; College of Dentistry 
 
 rnn 8 ^!' 011 ! College of Economics, registration 
 oOO; school of Journalism, registration 70; College 
 °‘ , .250 ; School of Medicine, 155; Conservatory 
 
 of Music, 1100; Training School for Nurses, 62- 
 and University High School, 450. Rev. Herbert 
 L-. JNoonan, S. J., is president of the university, with 
 a faculty of 264. 
 
 Marriage (cf. C. E„ IX-699).-In 1921 the Holy 
 bee instructed ordinaries to insist, even by the in¬ 
 fliction of penalties, that their priests should ob- 
 ser\ e most carefully the canons prescribing the 
 investigation of the status of parties wishing to get 
 mairied and the notification of the parish priest 
 of their place of baptism after the marriage cere¬ 
 mony. The Code prescribes that before a marriage 
 takes place it is necessary to ascertain if the parties 
 {ire free to marry validly and licitly. If there was 
 danger of death the oaths of the contracting par¬ 
 ties affirming their baptism and freedom to contract 
 would in case of necessity suffice. Ordinarily the 
 proceduie is to publish the banns of marriage - in 
 addition the parish entitled to assist at the cere¬ 
 mony must examine the parties separately in accord¬ 
 ance with regulations to be drawn up by the local 
 ordinary, and ascertain from them if there is any 
 impediment and if they, especially the woman, are 
 contracting freely. If they have not been baptized 
 m his territory the parish priest who is to assist at 
 the; mamage must obtain baptismal certificates from 
 both parties, or from the Catholic party if a dis¬ 
 pensation has been granted from the impediment 
 of disparity of worship. Moreover, those who have 
 not been confirmed are to receive that sacrament 
 before marriage, if that can be arranged without 
 grave inconvenience. The parish priest must exhort 
 minors not to marry without the knowledge or 
 reasonable consent of their parents; should the 
 minors disregard this advice he must not assist 
 at their marriage without first consulting the local 
 ordinary; finally, he must instruct the parties 
 according to circumstances, on the sanctity of the 
 sacrament, the duties they are about to assume, and 
 earnestly exhort them to go to confession and re- 
 ceive Holy Communion before their marriage. 
 
 Matrimonial Consent .—A simple error concerning 
 the unity, indissolubility, or sacramental dignity 
 o marriage, even if it gave rise to the contract, 
 does not vitiate matrimonial consent; nor does 
 knowledge or belief that the marriage is void nec¬ 
 essarily exclude it A valid marriage cannot be 
 contracted unless the parties are present personally 
 or by proxy; consequently marriage cannot now 
 be contracted by letter, the parties must express 
 
 their consent verbally, and may not employ equiv- 
 
 r « P ,, g h/ theyar ? ? bl ? 9>cak. If the mar- 
 m JL ] ,- v I"fl |e diocesan regulations 
 
 must be observed; (b) for validity, the proxy must 
 ave a special commission to contract with a speci- 
 hed person; the commission must be signed bv the 
 principal and either the parish priest or the ordi¬ 
 nary of the place where the commission is given 
 or by a priest delegated by either, or by at least’ 
 two witnesses; (c) if the principal does not know 
 how to write, the fact is to be noted in the com¬ 
 mission and another witness added who must also 
 sign the document; if these provisions are not ob¬ 
 served the commission is invalid; (d) if prior to the 
 contracting of the marriage, the principal should 
 withdraw the commission or become insane, even 
 without the knowledge of the proxy or of the other 
 principal, the marriage would be invalid; (e) the 
 proxy must discharge his commission personallv 
 otherwise the marriage would be void. Marriage 
 can be contracted also with the aid of an inter¬ 
 preter, but the parish priest must not assist at a 
 marriage by proxy or by the help of an interpre- 
 tei without just cause, and unless the authenticity 
 of the commission or the trustworthiness of the 
 interpreter is undoubted; if time permits he must, 
 moreover, get permission from the ordinary 
 In all cases of marriage a record should be made 
 as soon as possible ( quamprimum, the word statim 
 immediately was used in the earlier law) by the 
 parish priest or his substitute, even when another 
 priest was delegated to assist. The marriage is to 
 be recorded also in the baptismal registers; conse¬ 
 quently if either or both of the principals were bap¬ 
 tized elsewhere the parish priest who assisted the 
 marriage must personally or through the episcopal 
 curia and without delay notify the pastor of the 
 place of baptism. This notification must give the 
 age and names of the parties, the names of their 
 parents, the place and date of the ceremony the 
 names of the witnesses, and of the parish priest; 
 the document must be stamped with the parochial 
 seal and should be sent through the diocesan chan¬ 
 cery. The Holy See has recently called the atten¬ 
 tion of parish priests to the fact that many of 
 the emigrant workers are vagi or if not it is difficult 
 to be sure that there is no impediment to their 
 marriage and that in such cases it is necessary for 
 the priest to refer the matter to the ordinary before 
 assisting at their marriages. If marriage took place 
 under circumstances in which no priest was neces- 
 sary for validity, the obligation of procuring its 
 record in both books devolves primarily on the 
 priest, if any, who assisted, and secondarily on the 
 witnesses and the contracting parties. 
 
 Marriages of conscience, that is secret marriages 
 for which the banns have not been published, can 
 be authorized by the local ordinary, but not by 
 the vicar general without a special mandate, for a 
 very ui gent and grave reason only. The assistant 
 pi lest, the wit nesses, the ordinary and his successors, 
 and either spouse unless with the consent of the 
 other are bound to secrecy. The marriage is to be 
 recorded in a special book kept in the secret curial 
 archives. The promise of secrecy does not bind the 
 ordinary if its observance would constitute a danger 
 of scandal or reflect gravely on the sanctity of 
 marriage, or if the parents neglect to have the off¬ 
 spring of such a marriage baptized, or if they have 
 them baptized under fictitious names without noti- 
 l>ing the ordinary of the birth and baptism with 
 the real names of the parents within thirty days, 
 
 or if they neglect to give the children a Christian 
 education. 
 
 Mariiage may be contracted at any time of the 
 
MARRIAGE 
 
 MARTINELLI 
 
 488 
 
 year but the solemn nuptial blessing is forbidden 
 from the first Sunday of Advent till Christmas Day 
 inclusive and from Ash Wednesday to Easter Sun¬ 
 day inclusive; the local ordinary, however, may lor 
 just cause permit the blessing during those periods, 
 while observing the liturgical laws regarding the 
 Mass to be said; but the parties are to be admon¬ 
 ished to abstain from too great a display, ine 
 marriages of Catholics are to be celebrated in ^ e 
 parish church and not in another church or public 
 or semi-public oratory without the permission o 
 the local ordinary or the parish priest, fiscal ordi¬ 
 naries can allow marriage in private buildings only 
 in extraordinary cases when there is a just, and 
 reasonable cause; they are allowed in churches or 
 oratories of seminaries or of nuns only m case ol 
 urgent necessity, when due precautions have been 
 taken Mixed marriages are to be celebrated out¬ 
 side the church without sacred rites; an ordinary 
 may, however, dispense from this to avoid gieater 
 evils but he may not allow Mass to be celebrated. 
 
 Codex jur . can ., 1019-33; 1094-1109; Vlaming, Praelect . jur . 
 matr . (1920-21); Ayrinhac, Marriage Legislation . 
 
 Marriage, Mixed (cf. C. E., IX-698).—Before 
 granting a dispensation for a mixed mariiage, which 
 the Church forbids most severely and commands 
 ordinaries and other pastors of souls to deter the 
 faithful from contracting as far as they can, there 
 must be grave and just reasons, and guarantees, 
 ordinarily to be in writing, that the non-Cathohc 
 party will remove from the Catholic party the 
 danger of perversion, and the promise of both par¬ 
 ties that all the children will be baptized and 
 brought up exclusively in the Catholic Faith. There 
 must be, moreover, moral certainty that the prom¬ 
 ises will be fulfilled. As was said above in treating 
 of disparity of worship (q.v.), the parties must 
 be married only by a Catholic ceremony. 
 
 Marseilles, Diocese of (Massiliensis; cf. C. 
 E., IX—715b), in the province of Bouches-du-Rhone, 
 France, suffragan of Aix. This see is filled by Rt. 
 Rev. Joseph-Antoine Fabre, born in La Ciotat, 
 France, 1844, ordained in 1867, served as a curate 
 and rector, made pastor-dean of Roquevaiie 25 May, 
 1881, named an honorary canon in 1898 and a titular 
 canon in 1904, vicar general in 1906, prothonotary 
 apostolic 29 January, 1908, vicar capitular in 1909, 
 and appointed bishop the same year, 29 April, suc¬ 
 ceeding Cardinal Andrieu, promoted to Bordeaux, 2 
 January preceding. He is assisted by an auxiliary, 
 Rt. Rev. Daniel Champavier, titular Bishop of Sora. 
 In 1921 Bishop Fabre was named a commander of the 
 Order of Leopold by the Belgian King, and received 
 the cross on 6 May, from the Belgian Consul. The 
 first diocesan synod since 1907 was held in 1920 and 
 presided over by Bishop Fabre, assisted by Mgr. 
 Durand. A new upper seminary was opened at St. 
 Joseph the same year, in the former school of the 
 Religious of the Sacred Heart; it comprises a large 
 chapel, the old chateau of the Barony of St. Joseph, 
 a new building, and the old boarding school, which is 
 used for the seminary proper, and a number of small 
 buildings. During the World War 127 priests and 67 
 seminarians were mobilized from this diocese, and of 
 this number 21 were killed or disappeared, 6 were 
 decorated with the Medaille Militaire, 44 with the 
 Croix de Querre and 2 with the Medaille des Epidemies. 
 
 Latest statistics, collected in 1911 give the total 
 population of this diocese as 622,056, of whom 
 492,663 are Catholics. It comprises 8 first class, 3 
 second class and 82 succursal parishes, 115 vicariates, 
 1 church for the Greek Uniat Rites, 1 church for 
 Italian speaking, and 1 for German speaking Catho¬ 
 lics, 1 upper and 1 lower seminary, and 3 colleges and 
 
 ecclesiastical institutions. The "Ordo” of 1920 gives 
 399 secular and regular clergy; 37 priests deceased in 
 1918 and 15 in 1919. 
 
 Marshall Islands, Vicariate Apostolic of 
 (Insularum Marchall; cf. C. E., IX 718c), in 
 the Pacific Ocean, is entrusted to the Congregation ot 
 the Sacred Heart of Issoudun, the present Superior 
 of the mission being Rev. Bruno Sching, named in 
 November, 1911. These islands have become subject 
 to Japan and therefore are dependent on the apostolic 
 delegate for Japan, since 3 March, 1921. Although 
 erected into a vicariate in 1905 this territory is not 
 yet invested with the full episcopal character. It 
 comprised in 1920, 6 stations, 8 missionary priests, 8 
 Brothers, 13 religious of Our Lady of the Sacred 
 Heart, 4 churches, 6 stations and 6 schools with ZZ 5 
 
 children. 
 
 Marsi, Diocese of (Marsorum; cf. C. E., 
 IX—718d),in the province of Aquila, Southern Italy, 
 directly subject to the Holy See. The episcopal 
 residence is at Pescina and for this reason the bishopric 
 is sometimes known by that name. The see is at 
 present filled by Rt. Rev. Pio Marcello Bagnoli, 
 O.C.D., born in the diocese of Florence, 1859, dehm- 
 tor general of his Order, named consultor to the Con¬ 
 gregation of Bishops and Regulars in 1907, then to 
 that of the Council in 1908, and later consultor of 
 the Congregation of Religious, appointed bishop 14 
 December, 1910, succeeding Rt. Rev. Niccolo Cola, 
 transferred to Nocera 26 August, 1910. This diocese 
 has a Catholic population of 165,000, 80 parishes, 132 
 secular and 25 regular clergy, 30 seminarians, 30 
 Brothers, 60 Sisters and 303 churches or chapels. 
 
 Marsico Nuovo and Potenza, Diocese of (Mar- 
 ci sen sis et Patentinensis; cf. C. E., IX-719a), in 
 the province of Potenza, Southern Italy. The first 
 see is a suffragan of Salerno and the second ol 
 Acerenza. Rt. Rev. Roberto Achille Razzoli, 
 O. F. M,. b. 29 January, 1863, studied at the college 
 of Giaccherino, entered the Order of Friars Minor 
 29 August, 1879, ordained 9 August, 1885, provincial 
 definitor in 1901, custodian of the Holy Land from 
 January, 1906, to January, 1913, appointed to this 
 see 27 August, 1913, consecrated m Florence, 18 
 September following, enthroned 21 May, 1914,^ sue- 
 C66ding Mgr. Igncizio IVIontcnsi (b. 6 Octobci, loou, 
 d. 16 February, 1913). The united sees comprise 
 24 parishes, 104 churches, 70 secular priests, 1 mon¬ 
 astery and 7 convents for women, 60 nuns, 10 semi¬ 
 narians, 2 missionary societies, 2 homes, 5 asylums, 
 
 1 hospital under the care of the Sisters of Charity, 
 
 2 orphanages. Five public institutions admit the 
 ministry of the priests. Seven associations are 
 organized among the clergy and seven among the 
 men and women. “L’Aurora,” the diocesan bul¬ 
 letin, is published here. The diocese has an entirely 
 Latin population of 100,000 Catholics. The District 
 Catholic Congress was held in 1911 and the 
 Women’s Social Week in 1921. 
 
 Martinelli, Sebastiano, Cardinal, b. at Santa 
 Anna, near Lucca, Italy, on 20 August, 1848; d. at 
 Rome on 4 July, 1918. He was the successor ol 
 Cardinal Satolli as Delegate Apostolic in the United 
 States, became an Augustinian when he was 15. He 
 was ordained in 1871. After teaching theology m his 
 Order he was made Prior General in 1869, and re " 
 elected in 1896, and after being made Archbishop ol 
 Ephesus in 1896, went to Washington. He was 
 elevated to the Cardinalate in 1901, and in 1909 he 
 was Prefect of the Congregation of Rites. He was 
 member of the Canon Law Commission from 1906 
 till 1917. 
 
MARTINIQUE 
 
 489 
 
 MARY 
 
 Martinique Diocese of (Sancti Petri et Arcis 
 Gallic^; cf. C. E., IX-731b), one of the French 
 Lesser Antilles, was suffragan to the Archdiocese of 
 
 fr ^ 1S50 to , 1905 » when it was restored 
 to the Sacred Congregation of Propaganda and bv 
 
 a decree of 4 March, 1912, it was entrusted to the 
 Congregation of the Holy Ghost 1 
 
 Bishop Marie-Charles-Alfred de Cormont, who 
 (Time to this see in 1899 as successor to Bishop 
 Tanoux, died in 1911, and was succeeded by rT 
 
 ? e '\ J ?u ep i^ ran ^V s MalJ eret (1912-14). Upon 
 his death, Bishop Malleret was succeeded by the 
 
 Ieaufen - RE Re /- P ^l-Louis-Joseph 
 
 quien, C. S. Sp., b. in the diocese of Lille 1872 
 
 appointed bishop 15 March, 1915. The town of 
 
 St. Pierre, which was completely destroyed by the 
 
 eruption of Mont Pelee in 1902, is in process of 
 
 reconstruction and the parish has been re-eSab 
 
 hshed since 1914. A modest chapel has been built 
 
 mesent (1922MhS nS ° f ^ ° ld cathedral and at 
 
 the territo^ Th ^i a + b ° Ut ? 0( ! 0 inh abitants in 
 tne territory. The population of the whole diocese 
 
 numbers about 190,000, comprising European? 
 
 Creoles half-breeds, Blacks, and .some four or five 
 
 hundred Indians; with the exception of these last 
 
 STpaShes'Sfi C ? tholic The has 
 
 '7 Parishes, 36 churches, 1 convent of men and 2 
 
 o women, 37 secular and 22 regular clergy 1 sec¬ 
 ondary school tor boys with 9 teachers 7 and 75 
 
 2 7 ° r i girl ? 18 teachers and 128 pupils 
 asylum, 7 hospitals and 1 nursery. Six public 
 institutions permit the priests of the diocese to 
 nunistei in them. A Catholic journal and a reli 
 gious bulletin are published 
 
 1 b I s J° R P p ANNONH alma, cf. C. E., IX— 
 734c), an archabbey, belonging to the Benedictines 
 in Hungary about fourteen miles south of Gyor It 
 
 Protestants Catho 1C Population of 33,333 and 6230 
 
 Mary, L ittle Brothers of (cf. C. E., IX-749b) — 
 The Institute of the Little Brothers of Mary gener- 
 
 (^M lTepi aS b Br ° therS of the y S?hools 
 
 tionin S 'l917 e th! t f d ce 1 n J enmaI of its founda- 
 n in 1917, the festal celebrations being auspi- 
 
 ciously inaugurated at St. Ann’s Hermitagi 
 
 Poughkeepsie, N. Y., 2 January, 1917. The progress’ 
 
 is a h no?ib? r firSt Centm y of hsexistence 
 
 IS a notable achievement in the face of almost 
 
 “oriTof^ e Obstacles. It marks the success of 
 
 diet Ph? the . f , ounder > Venerable Joseph Bene- 
 diet Champagnat (q.v.), a humble curate of a poor 
 
 parish with nothing to sustain him but his trust in 
 God and a desire to do something to promote ILs 
 glory by bringing children closer to Him. By a 
 
 thaUthl 1 vin y ' kl 92 °’r , i' 0pe Benedict X V declared 
 Wrtuet had PraCticed 
 
 bein'!x g T nera , 1 clm P ter of th e order was 
 • bv R,-ul H hf’G - June, 1920, and was attended 
 by Brothers from all parts of the world Thp 
 
 VeTRt U Kev m r't y b ^ aS -peZr genS 
 
 tn Hrrffi g V * Prot ^ r Diogene, assistant general 
 elect i^n^^ en ° r - ^tratonique, who declined re- 
 Elght assi stants, together with a procu- 
 
 elected 8 fo e r ra t’he SeCretarV gene , ra1 ’ etc - we re P also 
 i cted tor the ensuing twelve years. Brother 
 
 Hiogene, for many years head of one of the largest 
 
 fn/ ma A/f Cb °° S 0 t ^ ie institute, had moulded the 
 
 Late? « anSt tea ? h , ers °, n hroad and thorough lines 
 
 he was L P o r0V1 , n , Cml and then as assistant general 
 
 whiTw f ere sWlAl 611 USt ! d , wit £. delicate missions, 
 occunaHon *' lf '' l J’, e «"W. Dut,ng the German 
 
 remateed in t f h Be J gl " m and Northcrn France, he 
 remained in the danger zone for more than three 
 
 years, devoting himself to the welfare of some 
 aged and infirm Brothers, and of the neighboring 
 
 taX la of 0 Beaiil t m the r SP f Cial re ? uest of the in habi- 
 tants ot Beaucamp (a few miles from Lille) and 
 
 of the neighboring townships he accepted the dif 
 
 ficu t position of Mayor, and thus became the com 
 
 authonties k HfcT'“ i‘ he people ? nd the German 
 authorities His fearlessness carried him through 
 
 this and other critical situations. Shortly after the 
 
 gning of the armistice the people whom lie had 
 
 Sf?h? Legmn of Ctl Honor daimed fW ““ tho Cross 
 
 schools, professional and religious training, and 
 imerous commissions were appointed to deal with 
 
 oi e io W w P °d le b WOr + k i ° f £ dllcatl0 £’ the system of teaching 
 followed by the Manst Brothers being modified 
 
 tiW? ne L essa y to meet the requirements of the 
 times. Varied outlooks upon the educational 
 question arising out of personal knowledge and 
 experience were considered, and the result published 
 
 Method ™ d A fie< ? ‘, Edll f cat l * onal Guide and School 
 thpnrrj \ A j stuc ty ° f the . complete statistics of 
 Uje ordei evidenced the vitality and power of the 
 
 Manst Institute. Despite persecutions in certain 
 Znh™’ the fa f that nearly a thousand of its 
 iv. ca • ^ d to the colors during the World 
 
 War, and opposition to the development of its 
 
 plied Th Van ° US Places has grown and mul£ 
 
 70W? members? 6 at PreS6nt ° 921) 25 provinces and 
 
 In 1921 the canonical visitation of the Marist 
 educational establishments was made by special 
 
 visd g nf eS th° f ^he supenor general. The canonical 
 ' lsit of the Marist institutes in the United States 
 was made by Very Rev. Brother Stratonique, for¬ 
 mer general of the order, and Very Rev. Brother 
 Angehcus, assistant general, who had previously 
 had several years of successful educational work in 
 Canada and the United States. During the course 
 
 Rrn+h lh vlsltatl01 J the corporation of the Marist 
 Brothers secured the site for a juniorate or 
 junior novitiate in the Diocese of Boston where 
 tkey have several schools. It is known as Tvngsboro 
 ^ an . slon ’ a house erected by Captain Tyng (d 
 1 772), an important landmark of the country-side 
 and admirably adapted for the purpose of the 
 Manst institution. The juniorate is a preparatory 
 school for boys from thirteen to sixteen years of 
 vge, who are willing to consecrate their lives to 
 Instdm’° f Gatholic education in the Marist 
 wht 'n? e juniorate is to the regular novitiate 
 preparatory seminary is tp the theological 
 seminary of the diocesan clergy. It brings the asni 
 rant simpiy to the thresholds the novitkte P t o 
 uhich he is promoted when he has attained’the 
 
 eSLl qualifications. 6 " Pr °° f ° f P °“ g the 
 
 of the highest points of the Bronx, N. Y for the 
 purpose of erecting a boarding and day school 
 ork on the buildings will be begun within two 
 or three years, and meanwhile parts of the grounds 
 are used as the athletic field of St. Ann’s Academy 
 conducted by the Marist Brothers on Lexington 
 Avenue and 76th Street. St. Ann’s, established 1892 
 the chief Marist institution in New York Citv 
 is a high school where graduates of parochial 
 schools may find, besides all the advantages of an 
 incorporated school, every safeguard for mind 
 conscience, and heart. St. Ann’s Camp, conducted 
 by the Marist Brothers on Lake Champlain, N Y 
 solves the vacation problem for Catholic boys ' ’’ 
 
MARY 
 
 490 
 
 MARYLAND 
 
 Mary, Saint, Sisters of. See Saint Mary 
 Sisters of. 
 
 Mary, Servants of (Order of Servites; cf. C E., 
 IX-750b).—At the general chapter of the order, 
 held in Florence in 1913, Rev. Alexis Lepicier, b. 
 at Vancouleurs, France, and professor of dogma 
 at Propaganda, was elected prior general to succeed 
 Rev. Guiseppe Lucchesi. On account of tlr e trovibl- 
 time the next general chapter was not held until 
 1920, and Fr. Lepicier ruled the order for seven 
 instead of six years. His successor is Aloysims 1 aba- 
 nelli, professor of moral theology at the .Bologna 
 Seminary, elected prior general at the general C “^.P" 
 ter held at Monteberico, Vicenza, 1920 In 1913, 
 the order assumed a mission, detached from the 
 Vicariate Apostolic of Natal, in Swaziland, Ih® 
 superior of the mission resides <it the capital, 
 Nbabanc. In 1914 apostolic work was also taken 
 up at S. Antonio de Obligado, Santa Fe, Argentina. 
 In 1920 Mgr. Prosper Bemardi, consecrated titular 
 Bishop of Paltus, became the first prelate of the 
 Prelature of Acre and Purus in Brazil, detached 
 from the Diocese of Manaos. He reached his new 
 official residence, Senna Madureira, in August. In 
 1910 two new houses of the order were opened, 
 one in Chicago, and one at Ladysmith, Wis., and 
 also two missions in Missouri, one at Malden, and 
 one at Wilhelmina; in 1912 Notre Dame de la 
 Defense, Montreal, Canada; in 1913 Notre Dame 
 du Mont Carmel, also at Montreal, and one at 
 Vancouver, B. C.; in 1914 one at Ottawa; in 1916 
 one at Welby, Col.; and in 1917 one at Portland, 
 Ore. The novitiate of the American Sisters has 
 been transferred from Cheropee, la., to Omaha, 
 Neb. Mgr. Pellegrino Stagni, former prior general 
 of the Servites and Apostolic Delegate to Canada, 
 died 23 September, 1918. 
 
 members, located in 59 establishments of which 6 are 
 colleges, 20 high schools, and the remainder parish 
 schools. St. Mary’s College at Dayton, Ohio, was 
 established as the University of Dayton in 1920, in 
 which year colleges of Education and of Finance and 
 Commerce, and the School of Sociology were added; 
 the College of Engineering was opened in 1911; and 
 the pre-Medical School began its courses in 1915. 
 The Society has 2 provinces in the United States: 
 the Cincinnati Province with 39 institutions and 370 
 members; and the St. Louis Province with 20 in¬ 
 stitutions and 181 members. The latter has its 
 provincial house and novitiate at Maryhurst, near 
 Kirkwood, Mo., with a normal school under erection' 
 The residence of the provincial of the Cincinnati 
 Province is at Mount St. John, Dayton, Ohio. 
 New foundations in the Cincinnati Province are: 
 Cathedral Latin School, Cleveland, Ohio; West 
 Philadelphia Catholic High School for Boys, Phila¬ 
 delphia, Pa.; Mount St. John Normal School, Dayton, 
 Ohio; and a new Juniorate at Beacon, N. Y. 
 
 Mary, of St. Philip, Sister. See Lescher, 
 
 Frances Mary. 
 
 Maryknoll. See Foreign Mission Society of 
 America, Catholic. 
 
 Mary, Society of, of Paris (Marianistes; cf. 
 C. E., IX—752b).—In 1917 the Society had 170 
 houses and 1800 religious. The superior general, 
 Very Rev. Joseph Hiss, celebrated his sacerdotal 
 golden jubilee in 1921, the occasion being com¬ 
 memorated throughout the order. For its scholarly 
 works in Japan the Society was awarded a prize of 
 10,000 francs by the French Academy, 25 November, 
 1920. This prize was instituted for spreading a 
 knowledge of the French language outside of France. 
 And according to a statement in “Tunisie catholique” 
 (2 Oct., 1920) it is through the Marianistes that the 
 intellectually elite of the bourgeoisie and the official 
 world in Japan have learned to know France in her 
 language, her history, and her spirit, as have also 
 the common people. They reach all classes of people 
 in Japan, through their academies, commercial 
 schools, night schools and vocation schools for adults, 
 and normal school. The academy at Tokio numbers 
 1200 pupils, of whom 553 are in the primary classes 
 and 647 in secondary classes; the commercial school 
 at Osaka has 868 pupils; and the academy at Nagasaki 
 has 547. There are 54 students at the apostolic 
 school at Urakami. The College of St. Joseph at 
 Yokohoma has 253 pupils recruited chiefly from the 
 foreign settlement in the city composed mostly of 
 English and Americans. The Marianistes wish to 
 found other schools at Osaka and Fukuoha, but the 
 losses suffered by the Society during the war and the 
 lack of subjects, due to difficulties in the recruiting 
 of religious since 1903, make this at present impos¬ 
 sible. In Hawaii the Marianistes direct the College 
 of St. Louis at Honolulu, with 950 pupils of whom 
 400 are non-Catholics. Since its foundation in 
 1883 there have been 273 conversions to the faith at 
 this college, and in 1920 alone there were 74. 
 
 In the United States the Society numbers 551 
 
 Maryland (cf. C. E., IX-755b).—The total area 
 of the State of Maryland is 12,327 square miles, 
 of which 2386 are water. 
 
 Population. —The total population in 1920 was 
 1,449,661, an increase of 154,315 or of 11.9 per cent 
 since 1910. The average number of persons to 
 the square mile was 145.8. The urban population 
 was 60 per cent; the rural population 40 per cent. 
 The numerical rank of the State has decreased in 
 every census, being sixth in 1790 and twenty-sev¬ 
 enth in 1920. The negro population is about 244,000. 
 Baltimore increased 31 per cent in population dur¬ 
 ing the census decade 1910-20. The federal census 
 of 1920 gives it 733,826 inhabitants as against 558,485 
 in 1910. The religious census of 1916 shows 2936 
 church organizations with a membership (communi¬ 
 cants) of 602,587. The Census Bureau dropped the 
 word “communicants” and accepted from each body 
 its own report of members. The number of Catho¬ 
 lics is therefore put down in 1916 as 219,530. Other 
 totals are: Baptists, 44,866; Disciples, or Christians, 
 5719; Dunkers, 6538; Friends, 4790; Methodists, 
 166,445; Presbyterians, 21,551; Reformed Presby¬ 
 terians, 15,801; United Brethren, 8428. The total 
 number of church edifices reported was 2879, with 
 a valuation of $29,162,381. 
 
 Resources. —There were 4937 manufacturing es¬ 
 tablishments in the State in 1919, with 140,400 wage 
 earners. The capital invested was $619,607,000 and 
 the total value of products $873,945,000. In 1920 
 Maryland had 47,908 farms valued at $463,638,120. 
 In the same year the value of the agricultural 
 crops was $109,811,164; corn, wheat, hay, and to¬ 
 bacco are the principal crops. The fisheries of the 
 state are very valuable, especially the oyster fish¬ 
 eries which yield more than those of any other 
 state. There are ample facilities for traffic both 
 by sea and land, the state having 1409 miles of 
 railway track, while 30 or more steamboat lines 
 enter the port of Baltimore. The construction of a 
 Chesapeake and Delaware ship canal by the Federal 
 Government is in progress and its extension from 
 Norfolk to North Carolina has been recommended. 
 
 Education. —In 1920 there were in Maryland 
 64,434 illiterates over 10 years of age. Of the native 
 whites, 13,884 illiterates or 2 per cent, were of native 
 parentage, 1484 or 9 per cent, were of foreign or 
 mixed parentage. The illiterates among the foreign 
 
MARYMOUNT 
 
 491 
 
 MASS 
 
 born whites numbered 13,575 or 13.4 per cent- 
 among the negroes, 35,404 or 18 per cent. The 
 decrease ot illiteracy among negroes from 23 per 
 cent m 1910 to 18 per cent in 1920 shows the gain 
 in Maryland s educational standards. In 1920 there 
 loTL? 423 ! P ublic elementary and high schools with 
 and 43,543 colored elementary pupils 
 and 1 a,541 white and 987 colored high school pupils 
 . he state expenditure was $8,918,441. Bible reading 
 is neither permitted nor excluded in the public 
 schools. The State Board of Education (seven 
 members appointed by the governor) selects the 
 state superintendent as the executive officer of the 
 board and through him has control of the public 
 school system. The appointment of county super¬ 
 intendents and supervisors is made by county boards 
 of education, subject to the approval of the state 
 superintendent. 
 
 The State laws governing private and parochial 
 schools are as follows: The State Board shall require 
 all pm ate educational institutions to report as to en¬ 
 rollment and courses of study; no private institution 
 not approved shall issue any certificate, diploma, 
 or degree. St Charles College at Ellicott City 
 was destroyed by fire in 1911; the new St. Charles 
 was built at Cantonsville. For Catholic educa¬ 
 tional details, see Baltimore, Archdiocese of 
 CHAEITIES.-There are (1921) 8 Catholic hospitals, 
 12 orphan and infant asylums, and 6 trial reform 
 schools m the state. 
 
 Rece NT Legislation .-fo 1913 an amendment to 
 the Constitution placed the penalty of bribery at 
 elections on the buyer of votes as well as the seller. 
 
 “ * h 5 f xt ye ar .. a State Tax Commission was 
 created to supervise and equalize assessment of 
 property and taxation; a Workmen’s Compensation 
 Act was passed and a measure providing for the 
 
 Tn U lQ^ f mt ° f eI f cting United States Senators. 
 
 four amendments to the constitution pro¬ 
 dded for referendum, reclassification of property 
 
 hn r J? Xat i 10 r pi £ p , os . es ’ Parole in criminal cases, and 
 home rule for Baltimore. A State Board of Prison 
 Conti ol was established in 1916. In 1918 child 
 
 oMQ?n° man J a + b ° r WaS reguIated - The legislation 
 iA d to ??- rrect , some abuses in state gov- 
 fnr th Dt by Providing for the merit system, and 
 
 ment a T n the - purchasin S depart¬ 
 
 ment, a State Athletic Commission was created to 
 
 upervise boxing and another commission was cre- 
 
 £ to Mn P r er r S S and r prepare industri al and welfare 
 qJX M aryland refused to ratify the Woman’s 
 
 the ff s i?th • J 7 Eeb ™ ary > 1920 > and was 
 
 tne sixth State to ratify the National Prohibition 
 
 Amendment, 12 February, 1921. n 
 
 War Record— During the European War Mary- 
 lands contribution of soldiers numbered 47,054 or 
 125 per cent of the United States Army The 
 
 Sfen— ° f Guar<3 united 
 
 S t* ,hi h d 3 ."’ ISI0 T n A at McC1 ? llan - Alabama, and 
 those of the National Army with the 79th Division 
 
 at Camp Meade, Maryland. A summary of casu- 
 altms among the Maryland members of the Amer¬ 
 ican Expeditionary Force gives the following figures • 
 
 oSs^an^lloq 06 ^ Rnd 913 , ™ en; Prisoners, 54 
 2675 men d H ° 9 W0Unded ’ 129 officers and 
 
 Ud m 1are i ad ? itted to the lectures and 
 , w ^ k ' matricul ated, non-matriculated, and 
 special two-year course students. A special secre- 
 
 eTtte C ortLffi^ red ’ and a ver/distinetTve 
 
 teature of the institution is its Paris branch situ¬ 
 ated m the most desirable quarter of Paris ’where 
 prls of he junior year of college may spend a year 
 
 Institute Uo q ll i y ’ takmg courses at the Catholic 
 
 and th . e conserva t°ries of 
 music and ait. Various societies and clubs are 
 
 Prater 26 A limo ^ th ? students; Apostleship of 
 Association of the Children of Mary, La 
 
 Chssffia/cinb 6 n °h nS t tanC Q Engllsh Dramatic Club, 
 OIpp p. Society, Orchestral Society, 
 
 Mother mV / ^Q b ir a ^ AthIetic Association! 
 
 dean of ° M ’ 1S the P re sent (1922) 
 
 dean^of the college; the faculty number 8 religious 
 
 and o lay professors; total registration of students, 
 
 tycoon C a hapter and Conventual (cf. C. E 
 tinJbiif ^ conventual Mass should ordinarily be 
 S’ but tbe chanting may be omitted when the 
 bishop or his substitute says Mass pontifically in 
 
 n'gene^- Tf mU8t be appIied the beneSors 
 in general. If a canon is unable through illness 
 
 priert’Jho^dfilf n t °h b °m d t0 - give an alms to the 
 priest who fulfills the obligation for him unless 
 
 othemise 11 aF Statutes or a special custom provide 
 
 Yofk rY Thi? lt T arrytown-on-Hudson, New 
 
 This institution, conducted by the Relieious 
 
 ? 908 h thfn Cr h d ,? eart °. f ,. Mar >’, was established in 
 
 leVVr r gh f h x- m ™! fil ; en ;=e of Mr. James But- 
 vT’ -^-G. C., of New York City, who also founded 
 
 Marymount School for Girls. The colLe com 
 prises four buildings, and has a well equipped 
 laboratory, conservatory, and gymnasium^ Tffiee 
 
 Mass, Sacrifice of the (cf. C. E. X-20)_All 
 
 year StS bithon? UPd d t0 S ‘7- Mass severaI times’each 
 y u ar ’i j blsbo P s and religious superiors however 
 should see that they all do so more frequently on 
 
 carding+h nd M her feaStS of prece Pt at least. Re- 
 gardmg the Mass pro populo, the Code provides 
 
 nffirV f d f A^ St u transferred so that not only the 
 
 and of bU r the obb gation of hearing Mass 
 
 to ano f thpr d ami ^ r ° m S ? rvile work is transferred 
 
 orient^ toj, rn b J shops ’ vicars capitular, and parish 
 priests (parochial vicars representing chapters or 
 
 other moral persons; also vicars Jconomi) a?e 
 
 dav g but°nnf ply %*** fo - t^ e i r flocks on the latter 
 day, but not on the original feast. If a bishop or 
 
 hp r np h pd Pri fl- St ha ? Charg ^ ° f more than one territory 
 
 TO mnltfl k°“ e Ma f ; hitherto his obligation 
 was multiple. The parish priest should say the 
 
 Mass for the people in the parish church unless 
 
 it is necessary or advisable to say it elsewhere and 
 
 for a just cause the local ordinary may allow’ him 
 
 ,, C Tj a ? ge o 4be i day °f celebration. In May 1911 
 the Holy See declared that in parish churches’where 
 
 Awt ^ivr SS WaS Said parish Priests were obliged 
 of Th t 5 e ^ ass pro 'populo, according to the office 
 
 tr,n!f da / + r en , on Sundays to which had been 
 transferred the solemnization of the feasts of 
 
 Epdiany, Corpus Christi, Sts. Peter and Paul {he 
 
 would^not fffiffi n tp nd °kr er f - east ?’ and that they 
 would not fulfil their obligation by the Mass of 
 
 the solemnizations mentioned. If a priest is obliged 
 
 to say a conventual Mass and the Mass for the 
 
 people on the same day, he must celebrate and 
 
 daUnmrt f offer r tf Ia ?t P t eI ' S T ally ’ and the fo| i°wing 
 day must offer the latter himself or get another 
 
 d ° S °'• u 1CaTS Apostolic, prefects Apostolic 
 and quasi-parish priests are bound to do so at 
 least on the feasts of Christmas, the Epiphany 
 Chr qB SC T enS1 ° n Thursday, Pentecost, ^orpi’ 
 
 ‘■on,jU?Saints" 
 
 reguIatlon^llT fibs* matter? b ° lmd by * he 
 
 scribedln Use thc illt ar bread pre- 
 
 scribed m his Rite when saying Mass. It is mm 
 
 impious thing, even in case of extreme necessity, 
 
MASSA 
 
 492 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS 
 
 to consecrate the bread without the wine or vice- 
 versa or to consecrate them when not celebrating 
 Mass’. All customs to the contrary being repro¬ 
 bated, priests in saying Mass must observe the 
 rubrics of the liturgical books, and beware of adding 
 any ceremonies or prayers of their own accord, 
 they must, moreover, use the liturgical language 
 prescribed for their Rite. 
 
 Massa di Carrara, Diocese of (Massensis; cf. C. 
 E X-24c), in Central Italy, is suffragan of Modena. 
 It is under the administration of the Rt Rev. 
 Giusseppe Bertazzoni (b. at San Rocco, 1865), who 
 was consecrated 12 September, 1917, succeeding 
 Rev. Bishop Marenco. The diocese comprises a 
 Catholic population of 165,000 and includes 213 
 parishes, 280 churches, 4 convents for men and 12 
 for women, 230 secular priests and 15 regular b 
 lay brothers, 100 religious women, 3 seminaries with 
 56 seminarians, 1 college for men with 40 students. 
 4 colleges for women with 14 instructors and loo 
 students. The various charitable institutions in¬ 
 clude 1 female orphanage, 15 asylums for children 
 and 2 homes, in addition to schools and oratories. 
 A Mutual Aid Society is established among the 
 clergy and a Catholic Young Men’s Society among 
 the laity. 
 
 Massa Maritima, Diocese of (Massanensis; 
 cf C E X—30a), in the province of Grosseto, 
 Central Italy, with the united title of Populoma, 
 suffragan of Siena. The see is filled by Rt. Rev. 
 Giovanni Battista Boracchia, born in Santa Croce di 
 Beverino, Italy, 1849, appointed 11 July, 1892. Thls 
 diocese counts 80,000 Catholics, 29 parishes 60 secu¬ 
 lar and 7 regular clergy, 10 seminarians, 6 Brothers, 
 54 Sisters and 64 churches or chapels. 
 
 Massachusetts (cf. C. E., X-24d).—The total 
 land area of the State of Massachusetts is 8039 
 
 square miles. _ 9 
 
 Population. —In 1920 the population w’as 3,8o2, 
 356: less than 6 per cent lived in communities 
 having a population of 2500 or less. In 19--0 t ie 
 ratio of decrease in the foreign-born of the popula¬ 
 tion was 3.2 per cent; the number of native-born 
 in the total population being 2,725 990, and that 
 of the foreign-born 1,045,106. Ireland has furnished 
 17.0 per cent of the total of foreign-born. Canada 
 (exclusive of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and 
 Prince Edward Island) is second, with a population 
 of 14 2 per cent of the total foreign-born popula¬ 
 tion. In 1920 Russia supplied the largest increase 
 in foreign born, having risen from one-half of one 
 per cent in 1885 to 8.5 per cent. Italy’s contribu¬ 
 tion in the same period rose from .76 per cent to 
 10.9 per cent. In the cities of Fall River, Lawrence, 
 and New Bedford it runs over 70 per cent of the 
 entire population. In Boston the population of 
 foreign parentage forms 63 per cent, while at 
 Holyoke it-has risen to 66 per cent; at Worcester 
 to 67 per cent; at Lowell it is 66 per cent; the 
 Greeks, who formed 1.1 per cent of the foreign-born 
 population in 1910, now form 1.9 per cent of the 
 foreign-born population. In the city of Boston 
 Irish parentage gives a total of 57,011 out of a 
 census of 238,919 persons of foreign parentage, and 
 this nationality predominates in every ward except 
 five, where either the Russians or the Italians have 
 
 the majority. „ 
 
 The present order of religious denominations m 
 this State is: Catholics, 71.3 per cent, or 1,140,208; 
 Congregationalists, 6.8 per cent, or 133,509; Bap¬ 
 tists 4 4 per cent, or 86,551; Methodists, 3.8 per 
 cent’, or 75,965; Episcopalians, 3.8 per cent, or 
 
 75,217. 
 
 Economic Conditions. —According to the State 
 statistics of manufactures for 1918, in rank of in¬ 
 dustries by gross value of product, cotton goods 
 came first, with $537,631,796; boots and shoes 
 second, with $479,400,878; woolen goods third, with 
 $464,067,705. According to the Federal census ot 
 manufactures for 1919 Massachusetts had 11,90 
 manufacturing establishments with a product valued 
 at $4,007,452,000. The total capital devoted to 
 production in the State was $2,964,177,000, and the 
 average number of wage earners 716,600. 
 
 Massachusetts laws prohibit more than forty-eight 
 hours’ weekly employment for women and children, 
 and limit the day’s labor to nine hours. No woman 
 or minor may be employed for purposes of manu¬ 
 facturing between five o’clock p. m. and six o clock 
 a. m. In 1912 the State Board of Labor and Indus¬ 
 tries was created to take over the enforcement of 
 all the labor laws in the State. In the same year 
 Massachusetts was a pioneer in establishing a com¬ 
 mission to provide for the determination of mini¬ 
 mum wages for women and children. Refusal to 
 pay the minimum wage incurs only the penalty ol 
 publicity; this is abrogated when the prosperity ol 
 the establishment is threatened. 
 
 Recent Legislative Changes. —The new constitu¬ 
 tion submitted by the Constitutional Com ention 
 (1917-19) and constituting a re-arrangement of the 
 previous instrument, was ratified on 4 November. It 
 provided for direct legislation by the people by 
 means of the initiative and referendum, gave the 
 Legislature far-reaching powers to engage m trad¬ 
 ing, and to promote the general welfare by utilizing 
 the natural resources of the State. It established 
 a modern budget system and formulated the “anti- 
 aid” amendment, refusing State money to all 
 schools under private control. It authorized the 
 Legislature to provide for compulsory voting at 
 elections. Most far-reaching was it's reform of the 
 State administration. The administrative and 
 executive branches were reorganized into not more 
 than twenty departments, in one of which every 
 executive and administrative office, board, and com¬ 
 mission, except those serving directly under the 
 governor and council, must find place. The Public 
 Utilities Department was created in 1919 to take 
 over the duties of two of the old boards. Massa¬ 
 chusetts was the eleventh State to ratify the Pro¬ 
 hibition Amendment, 2 April, 1918, and the eighth 
 to ratify the Federal Suffrage Amendment, 25 June, 
 1919. The Board of Charity is now the Depart¬ 
 ment of Public Welfare, and its secretary has the 
 title of Commissioner. The annual election of the 
 governor, to which Massachusetts clung so long, is 
 replaced by the biennal election, although the Legis¬ 
 lature meets every year. In 1920 Governor Calvin 
 Coolidge, of Northampton, was elected Vice-Presi¬ 
 dent of the United States. 
 
 Education. —The amendment of 1855 was modi¬ 
 fied in 1918, to prohibit the appropriation of public, 
 money not only to sectarian institutions, but also 
 to any institution not under public control. The 
 State laws governing private and parochial schools 
 are as follows: To satisfy compulsory education 
 laws children must attend public day schools or 
 some other day school approved by the (town or 
 city) school committee; school committees shall 
 approve private schools only when the instruction 
 in all the studies required by law is in the English 
 language; studies taught in private schools must 
 be those required for public schools, and instruction 
 must equal in thoroughness and efficiency that given 
 in public schools; private and paroclual schools 
 report annually to the State Board of Education 
 such statistics as it shall prescribe relative to the 
 
MATADI 
 
 493 
 
 MAZARA 
 
 number of pupils and instructors, courses of study, 
 cost of tuition, and the general condition of the 
 institution or school under their charge; school 
 moneys shall never be appropriated to any religious 
 sect for the maintenance exclusively of its own 
 schools. Cities and towns containing more than 
 500 families must maintain high schools. Cities of 
 20,000 inhabitants must provide manual training, 
 and cities of 50,000 inhabitants must maintain eve¬ 
 ning high schools. A system of continuation 
 schools provides for the education of illiterate 
 minors between fourteen and sixteen who are at 
 work. There are also stringent provisions as to 
 the employment of minors between sixteen and 
 twenty-one, intended to prevent illiteracy. A de¬ 
 partment of University Extension under'the State 
 Board of Education organizes and maintains a com¬ 
 prehensive system of extension teaching. The 
 student enrollment between January, 1916, and 
 December, 1920, was: in courses, 43,455; correspon¬ 
 dence courses, 13,012. The recent establishment of 
 Smith’s Agricultural School in Northampton and 
 the Independent Industrial Shoe-making School 
 in Lynn show the trend of education in Massa¬ 
 chusetts. 
 
 There are (1918) 181 teachers in the normal 
 schools of the State; in the public schools there 
 are 630,878 pupils with an average attendance of 
 93 per cent. The proportion of teachers is 2089 
 male and 16,913 female. The total support of the 
 public schools amounts annually to $ 36 , 614 , 623 . 
 
 The State law relative to Bible reading in the 
 public schools reads: A portion of the Bible shall 
 be read daily r in the public schools, without written 
 note or oral comment; but a pupil whose parent, 
 or guardian, informs the teacher in writing that he 
 has conscientious scruples against it, shall not be 
 required to read from any particular version, or to 
 take any personal part in it. The school committee 
 shall not purchase or use school books in the public 
 schools calculated to favor the tenets of any par¬ 
 ticular religious sect. There are 97 high schools 
 and academies with 10,645 pupils. The local annual 
 tax for school support per child between the ages 
 of five and fifteen is $43. The total valuation of 
 all public school property is $94,608,586. There are 
 within the State 17 colleges or universities, 5 of 
 them devoted to the education of women. There 
 are 3 medical schools; 2 additional law schools 
 have been recently opened. The Massachusetts 
 Institute of Technology is the only college receiving 
 State and Federal subsidies. There are forty schools 
 for the dependent and the afflicted. 
 
 For Catholic educational and religious statistics 
 see Boston, Archdiocese of; Fall River, Diocese 
 of; Springfield, Diocese of. 
 
 Recent History— During the European War the 
 State contributed 132,610 soldiers to the U. S. Army 
 (3.53 per cent). As in the case of all New England 
 regiments, the soldiers were stationed at Camp 
 Devens, which was established near Ayer, Massa¬ 
 chusetts, incorporated either in the 26th Division 
 as were the Massachusetts national guards, or in the 
 76th Division as the members of the national army. 
 The summary of casualties among the Massachusetts 
 members of the American Expeditionary Force is as 
 follows: deceased, 206 officers, 2749 men; prisoners, 
 25 officers, 205 men; wounded, 456 officers, 9864 
 men. The Massachusetts men served valiantly at 
 Belleau Wood, Argonne Wood, and Soissons, and 
 were in the thick of the fight in France when the 
 armistice came. 
 
 Matadi, Prefecture Apostolic of (De 
 Matadi), erected through a separation of the Vi¬ 
 
 cariate Apostolic of Belgian Congo, and entrusted to 
 the Redemptorists. By a Decree of 31 May, 1921, 
 the boundaries were somewhat enlarged by the 
 addition of certain territory taken from the Vicariate 
 Apostolic of Leopoldville. The present and first 
 prefect apostolic is Rev. Joseph Heintz, appointed 
 1 August, 1911. Statistics are not yet published. 
 
 ^ Matanzas, Diocese of (Matanzansis; cf. 
 C. E., XVI—'36a), in Cuba, suffragan of Santiago de 
 Cuba. The first bishop of this see, Rt. Rev. Charles 
 Warren Currier was transferred to the titular see of 
 Hetalonia in June, 1915, and his successor was ap¬ 
 pointed in the person of Rt. Rev. Severiano Sainz y 
 Bencamo, 11 February of the same year. Born in 
 Cuba in 1871 he served as vicar general of San Cristo- 
 foro de Laguna, and was named a prelate of the Holy 
 See 14 July, 1914. The diocese covers an area of 5728 
 sq. miles and embraces a total population of 230,000. 
 According to 1920 statistics it comprises 21 secular 
 and 30 regular clergy, 3 schools for boys and 2 for 
 girls. 
 
 Matera, Archdiocese of. See Acerenza. 
 
 Maturin, Basil—Churchman, b. in 1847 in Ireland, 
 where his father, an Episcopalian clergyman, had a 
 living at Grangegorman; drowned in 1915 in the “Lusi¬ 
 tania” catastrophe. After graduating at Trinity Col- 
 lege, Dublin, he went to England and became Dr. 
 Jebb’s curate at Peterstorv. He remained there for 
 three years and then joined the Cowley Fathers and 
 was sent to St. Clement’s in Philadelphia, Pa., where 
 he achieved great popularity as a preacher. In 1897 
 he became a Catholic at Beaumont, was ordained in 
 1898, and was made Chaplain of the Oxford under¬ 
 graduates. He is the author of several books on the 
 piritual life. 
 
 Maximalists. See Bolshevism. 
 
 Mayotte, Nossi-Be and Comores, Prefecture 
 Apostolic of (Insularum Majottae, Nossibe^ et 
 Comor^e; cf. C. E., X—90d), off the coast of Africa. 
 These islands, with the rest of the Comoro group, 
 are entrusted to the Fathers of the Holy Ghost. At 
 present the prefecture is administered by Rt. Rev. 
 Auguste Fortineau, C. S. Sp., titular' Bishop of 
 Chytri and vicar apostolic of Diego-Suarez. It 
 embraces a total population of 50,810, and by 1916 
 statistics (the latest available) is credited with 5000 
 Catholics, 6 churches and 4 missionaries. 
 
 Mazara del Vallo, Diocese of (Mazariensis; cf. 
 C. E., X-94c), in the province of Trapani (Sicily), 
 suffragan of Palermo, has a Catholic population of 
 300,000. The bishop, Rt. Rev. Nicola Audino, b. 
 15 October, 1861, at Caltanisetta, appointed to the 
 see of Lipari, 28 November, 1898, transferred to 
 the Diocese of Mazaro del Vallo, 22 June, 1903, 
 succeeding Mgr. Gaetano Quattrocchi, deceased*. 
 The diocese numbers 27 parishes, 6 convents for 
 men, 300 secular priests, 30 Brothers, 80 Sisters, 
 
 1 seminary with 30 seminarians, 16 elementary 
 schools with 16 teachers and 250 pupils, 1010 homes, 
 
 8 asylums, 14 hospitals, 2 day nurseries. Eleven 
 associations are organized among the clergy and 
 twenty-eight among the laity. One diocesan and 
 fourteen parochial bulletins are published in the 
 diocese. 
 
 Persons of importance deceased since 1910 in¬ 
 clude Can. Prof. Antonio Castiglione, orator, his¬ 
 torian, and founder of a charitable institution, and 
 Can. Davide Ajello, educator, and founder of the 
 Mutual Aid Association. 
 
 4 diocesan synod was held in 1908, the first 
 diocesan Eucharistic Congress in 1910, and the sec- 
 
MEATH 
 
 494 
 
 MELFI 
 
 ond in 1921. During the World War the diocese 
 contributed two military chaplains, Can. Dr. 
 Giovanni Battista Quinci in the navy and Can. 
 Dr. Benedetto Yivona in the army. Two priests, 
 officers in the army, were decorated, 73 were non¬ 
 commissioned officers or soldiers. 
 
 Meath, Diocese of (Midensis); in the province 
 of Leinster, Ireland, suffragan of Armagh, with 
 episcopal residence at Mullingar. Rt. Rev. Lawrence 
 Gaughran was appointed to this see 16 April, 1906. 
 Born in Lobinstown, this diocese, in 1842, he studied 
 at Navan and Maynooth, was ordained in 1868, 
 served as a professor at Navan, was made adminis¬ 
 trator of Mullingar in 1877, pastor of Kells and vicar 
 forane in 1885, vicar general in 1894, and named a 
 prelate of the Holy See 24 January, 1896. The 
 various religious orders established in the diocese 
 include men: Franciscans, Carmelites, Jesuits, Chris¬ 
 tian Brothers and De la Salle Brothers; women: 
 Sisters of Loretto, Presentation Nuns and Sisters of 
 Mercy. By the 1911 census the total population of 
 the diocese is computed at 137,595, of whom 127,729 
 hre Catholics. The 1922 statistics credit it with 
 66 parishes, 153 secular and 21 regular clergy, 144 
 churches, 13 convents of nuns with 124 members in 
 the communities, and 3 monastic houses with 17 
 members in the communities. 
 
 Meaux, Diocese of (Meldensis; cf. C. E., 
 X—98b), in the department of Seine-et-Marne, 
 France, suffragan of Paris. Rt. Rev. Emmanuel- 
 Jules-Marie Marbeau, appointed to this see 3 Feb¬ 
 ruary, 1910, was made a chevalier of the Legion of 
 Honor 30 October, 1920, and an assistant at the 
 pontifical throne 19 April, 1921, on the occasion of 
 the golden jubilee of his ordination. He died 31 May, 
 1921, and was succeeded by Rt. Rev. Louis Gaillard, 
 born in Beauvais, 1872, studied at St. Sulpice and 
 was ordained in 1902, made an honorary canon and 
 director of charities in 1907, vicar general in 1908, 
 named a private chamberlain the same year, and 
 again in 1915, served as a hospital chaplain from 1914 
 to 1918, and appointed bishop 21 November, 1921. 
 During the World War 150 priests were mobilized from 
 this territory and a large number of seminarians. Out 
 of the total number 12 priests and 16 seminarians gave 
 up their lives, 3 were decorated with the Legion 
 d’honneur, 4 with the medaille militaire , 40 with the 
 croix de guerre and 1 with the cross of St. George. 
 
 By 1920 statistics the diocese counts a Catholic 
 population of 363,561, 39 parishes, 402 succursal 
 parishes and 8 vicariates formerly supported by the 
 state. 
 
 Mechlin, Diocese of. See Malines. 
 
 Medellin, Archdiocese of (Medellensis; cf. 
 C. E., X—116c), in Colombia, South America. This 
 see is filled by Most Rev. Manuel Jose Cayzedo y 
 Cuero, born in Bogota 1850, made his studies in the 
 South American College in Rome, ordained in 1883, 
 served as prefect of studies and vice rector of the 
 Seminary of Bogota, appointed Bishop of Pasto 11 
 February, 1892, transferred to Popayan 2 December, 
 1895, made archbishop 14 December, 1901 and 
 transferred 14 December, 1905. He was made an 
 assistant at the pontifical throne 15 February, 1917. 
 The statistics of 1920 credit the archdiocese with 
 363,710 Catholics, 110 secular and 15 regular clergy, 
 55 parishes, 75 churches or chapels and 141 Catholic 
 schools with 16,035 pupils. 
 
 Meissen, Diocese of (Misnensis; cf. C. E., X— 
 148d), in Saxony, directly subject to the Holy See. 
 This ancient see, founded in 968 and suppressed after 
 the Reformation and changed to the Vicariate 
 
 Apostolic of Saxony, was reestablished, amidst great 
 rejoicing 24 June, 1921. The religious ceremonies 
 were presided over by the papal nuncio, Mgr. Pacelli, 
 and on 26 June, the seven-hundredth anniversary of 
 the foundation of the Cathedral of Bautzen, the 
 residential city, was celebrated. Rt. Rev. Christian 
 Schreiber, born in 1872, studied in Rome and was 
 ordained in 1899 and later professor and rector of the 
 Seminary of Fulda, was appointed first bishop of the 
 newly established see, 12 August, 1921, he is the 
 forty-second bishop since the foundation of the see. 
 The new diocese covers an area of 6741 square miles, 
 and embraces the old Vicariate Apostolic of Saxony 
 and the Prefecture Apostolic of Lusactia. It includes 
 the ancient Kingdom of Saxony and the Principality 
 of Saxe-Altenburg. About forty-five per cent, or 
 236,000, of the entire population are Catholic and 
 these are served by 100 priests. Only about a quarter 
 of the population belong properly to Saxony, about a 
 quarter are Germans, and the rest foreigners, with 
 a large majority of Austrians. 
 
 Melbourne Archdiocese of (Melburnensis; 
 cf. C. E., X—155a), in Australia, is at present under 
 the incumbency of Rt. Rev. Daniel Mannix, b. 4 
 March, 1864, in the Diocese of Cloyne, studied at St. 
 Solman Fermoy and Maynooth, where he was by 
 turns professor, vice-president, and president from 
 1903 to 1912, titular chancellor in 1904, senator of 
 the University of Ireland, prelate of the Holy See, 20' 
 March, 1906, appointed Archbishop of Pharsalus 3 
 July 1912, and coadjutor of the Archbishop of Mel¬ 
 bourne, proclaimed 2 December following, succeeded 
 6 May, 1917, Mgr. Thomas Carr, b. 7 January, 1840, 
 d. 6 May, 1917, the outstanding feature of whose 
 episcopate being the building up of the Catholic 
 primary school system. The statistics for 1921 are: 
 82 districts, 198 churches, 158 secular and 48 regular 
 clergy, 100 Brothers, 1091 nuns, 2 colleges within the 
 University of Melbourne with 135 students, 2 train¬ 
 ing colleges with 65 students, 10 superior schools for 
 boys, 27 for girls, with 5262 pupils, 126 parochial 
 primary schools with 31,145 students. The total 
 number receiving education in Catholic Colleges and 
 schools is 37,607. Charitable institutions comprise 
 4 orphanages, 2 industrial schools, 1 for boys and 1 
 for girls, 1 reformatory for girls, 2 Magdalen Asylums 
 for penitent women, 1 home for neglected children, 
 1 home for the aged poor, 1 home for women and girls 
 out of employment, 1 foundling hospital, 1 receiving 
 home in connection with the foundling hospital. The 
 Catholic population is estimated at 193,924 souls. 
 Since 1910 the archdiocese lost two clergymen of note 
 in the persons of the Archbishop of Melbourne and 
 the Rev. S. A. Robinson (died 6 July, 1921), who had 
 erected a beautiful church at Camberwell as a national 
 tribute to Our Lady of Victories. Events of import¬ 
 ance were the opening of Newman College for men 
 and St. Mary’s Hall, college for women within the 
 University of Melbourne in 1918. Twenty-five new 
 parishes were instituted, and twenty new Catholic 
 primary schools opened. During the War eleven 
 chaplains from the archdiocese served overseas with 
 the troops of whom one received the military cross 
 and another the croix de guerre. 
 
 Melfi and Rapolla, Diocese of (Melfiensis 
 ac Rapollensis; cf., C. E., X—165a), in the province 
 of Potenza, Southern Italy, is immediately subject to 
 the Holy See. Rt. Rev. Alberto Costa, b. at Borgo 
 San Donnino, 15 March, 1873, vicar general, professor 
 at the seminary and private chamberlain 24 Novem¬ 
 ber, 1908, appointed 4 January, 1912, consecrated 
 28 April following, Bishop of Melfi and Rapolla, 
 succeeding Mgr. Giuseppe Camassa retired and 
 appointed Patriach of Jerusalem. 
 
MELO 
 
 495 
 
 MERCY 
 
 The united sees include (1921 census) 14 parishes, 
 17 churches, 52 secular priests, 5 convents for women' 
 450 Brothers, 32 Sisters, 1 seminary with 4 seminar¬ 
 ians, 1 asylum, 1 hospital, 1 day nursery at Rapolla; 
 one war hospital only is supported by the Government. 
 The Juvenile Circle is organized among the laity in 
 Rapolla. In May, 1913, the Peace of Constantine 
 was solemnly commemorated, and a great mission 
 was preached by the Capuchin Fathers in 1914 and 
 1921. During the World War the clergy, with the co¬ 
 operation of the laity, ministered to the needy spiritu¬ 
 ally and materially. 
 
 Melo, Diocese of (Melensis; cf. C. E., X— 
 169b), in Uruguay, suffragan of Montevideo. This 
 see is filled by its first bishop, Rt. Rev. Jose Marcos 
 Semena, born in Tacuarembo, Uruguay, 19 March, 
 1855, served as vicar general and was appointed 
 bishop 3 July, 1919. Although erected by a decree 
 of 14 April, 1897, the see was never actually estab¬ 
 lished until 1919. Its establishment was one of the 
 conditions named upon the restoration of diplomatic 
 relations with the Holy See. 
 
 Mende, Diocese of (Minntensis; cf. C. E., 
 X—-180a), in the department of Lozere, France, 
 suffragan of Albi. This see is filled by Rt. Rev. 
 Jacques Gely, born in Rigols, France, in 1849, ordained 
 in 1873, served as chaplain of St. Louis of France, 
 diocesan missionary and vicar general, and appointed 
 bishop 21 February, 1906. He is assisted by a co¬ 
 adjutor, Rt. Rev. Jules-Alexandre Cusin, titular 
 Bishop of Nyssa. During the World War, 205 priests 
 and 150 seminarians were mobilized from this terri¬ 
 tory, and of this number, 17 priests and 24 seminar¬ 
 ians gave up their lives, 2 were decorated with the 
 Legion d’Honneur, 93 with Croix de Guerre and 2 with 
 the Medaille Mililaire. The 1920 statistics credit the 
 diocese with a population of 122,738, 29 first class 
 parishes, 191 succursal parishes and 143 vicariates 
 formerly supported by the state, and 23 chaplaincies. 
 
 Mendez y Gualaquiza, Vicariate Apostolic of 
 (de Mendez ac Gualaquiza; cf. C. E., X-183a), in 
 the province of Oriente, Ecuador, with residence 
 at Sig-Sig, is entrusted to the care of the Salesians. 
 It is bounded on the north by the Apatemona 
 River, on the south the Zamora River, on the 
 east the Maranon and Morona rivers, on the west 
 with the dioceses of Loja and Cuenca; the popula¬ 
 tion is composed of 20,000 Jibaros and 2000 whites 
 and Indians. 
 
 The vicar apostolic, Rt. Rev. Domingo Comin, 
 oalesian, titular Bishop of Obba, b. 9 Septem¬ 
 ber, 1874, appointed at the Sacred Congregation of 
 the Consistory' of 8 March, 1920, consecrated at 
 Cuenca 17 October following, appointed Vicar Apos¬ 
 tolic of Mendez y Gualaquira 5 March preceding, 
 to succeed Mgr. Santiago Costamagua, titular 
 Bishop of Colonia (b. 2 January, 1846 \ retired in 
 1919; d. 8 September, 1921, aged seventy-six). 
 
 There are (1922 census) 6 churches, 1 mission, 
 
 4 stations, 4 convents for men, 6 regular priests 
 3 Brothers, 1 seminary with 21 seminarians. 
 
 During the administration of Mgr. Santiago 
 Costamagua the mission was supported by the alms 
 collected by him, and the headquarters of the 
 mission, the seminary and the residence of the 
 Vicar Apostolic in Cuenca were built by him. In 
 918 he celebrated his jubilee, and for the occasion 
 
 Ju C ly V 1918 letter ° f PmiSe fr ° m the P ° Pe ’ datcd 31 
 
 Menevia, Diocese of (Menevensis; cf. C. E., 
 A— 187d), comprises all of Wales, except Glamor¬ 
 ganshire, and is suffragan of Cardiff. The see is 
 32 
 
 administered by Most Rev. Francis Mostyn, Arch¬ 
 bishop of Cardiff, who had filled this see, as its first 
 bishop until his promotion 7 March, 1921. The 
 religious communities established in the diocese 
 include, men: Benedictines, Franciscans, Jesuits, 
 Oblates of Mary Immaculate and Passionists; women: 
 Benedictines, Sisters of the Immaculate Conception 
 Institute of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Sisters of 
 Charity of Our Lady of Mercy, Sisters of Charity of 
 ~C Paul, Sisters of Mercy, of the Good Saviour, of 
 , 5v v Ghost > Sainte Marie, and Ursulines. The 
 total Catholic population of the diocese is estimated 
 at 9822. Latest statistics credit it with 29 secular 
 and 62 regular clergy, 19 convents, 52 public churches 
 or chapels, 6 private chapels with Sunday mass, 
 13 public elementary schools receiving Government 
 grants, and 4 without grants, with 2159 pupils, 11 
 other schools with 416 boys pupils, 1 residential 
 institution for poor children and 1 home. 
 
 Mennonites (cf. C. E., X-l90b).—There are now 
 (1922) 16 branches of this sect in the United States 
 instead of 12 as reported in 1906. There has been 
 an attempt in the last two decades to bring about 
 a union ^he different branches. As a result 
 there are now two conference-groups which loosely 
 unite the major portion of the sect. In 1918 the 
 Mennonites reported 11 missionaries in Latin Amer¬ 
 ica. In Asia, Africa, and Oceania they reported 
 in 1920, 107 missionaries, 5747 members, and 15 
 hospitals and dispensaries. The total number of 
 members in the world is less than 300,000. In the 
 United States the 16 bodies reported (1921) 887 
 churches, 1488 ministers, and 82,722 members. 
 About 1500 Mennonites are now migrating to 
 Durango, Mexico, from Manitoba and Saskatche¬ 
 wan, owing^ to differences of opinion with the 
 Canadian Government regarding war and edu¬ 
 cation. 
 
 /cP°A SC ?l Simons: His Life, Labors and Teachings 
 
 (Scottsdale, Pa., 1916); Smith, The Mennonites: A Brief 
 I /dfn° r Xr°^T heir Origin (Bern, Ind., 1920); Religious Bodies, 
 1916 (Washington, 1919); Year Book of the Churches (New 
 i oik, annual). 
 
 N. A. Weber. 
 
 Mercy, Fathers of (cf. C. E., V-794c).—At the 
 general chapter of the society held in Rome, July, 
 1909, Eugene Porcile, founder-rector of Our Lady 
 of Lourdes Parish, Brooktyn, was elected superior 
 general. Owing to ill health he resigned in less 
 than a year after taking office, and retired to 
 Ciply, Belgium, where he died 2 January, 1912. He 
 was succeeded by Peter Hattais, who was appointed 
 vicar general of the society by the Congregation of 
 Religious in January, 1910. At the general chapter 
 held in Rome, July, 1919, Rene Delaplanche was 
 elected superior general of the society for the 
 regular term of six years. In 1910, at the request 
 of Cardinal Farley, the Fathers opened the new 
 parish of Notre Dame located at 114th Street and 
 Morningside Drive. This magnificent church, whose 
 style is Classical Renaissance, represents an expendi¬ 
 ture of more than one million dollars. The first 
 pastor of Notre Dame was Fr. Maurice Reynaud, 
 who enlisted in the French Army at the outbreak 
 of the World War. He was the first priest from 
 the United States to enter the war, and the first 
 to lay down his life in his country’s cause, having 
 fallen in battle 23 October, 1917. His remains are 
 interred in the Military Cemetery at Montgarni. 
 In order to further more rapidly the development 
 of the American province, the new-elected superior 
 general, Rene Delaplanche, applied for and received 
 from Rome a rescript empowering him to establish 
 in America a novitiate for the reception of Amer¬ 
 ican subjects. The novitiate is located at Oregon. 
 
MERCY 
 
 496 
 
 METHODISM 
 
 N. Y., near Peekskill, on the banks of the Hudson 
 River. In addition to conducting missions, their 
 real end and aim, the Fathers of Mercy have care 
 of both French and English speaking parishes in 
 America. 
 
 Mercy, Sisters of, of St. Borromeo (cf. C. E., 
 X-201b).—During the World War 45 institutions 
 of the order were given over to the care of wounded 
 soldiers and 137,000 soldiers were nursed in these 
 hospitals. Owing to the privations and hardships 
 of the war the death rate of the members doubled. 
 Sister Salesia Backes, mother general of the order 
 at Trier, died 10 March, 1912. Her successor Sis¬ 
 ter Eugenia Coenzler, died 14 December, 1920. The 
 present general superior is Sister M. Aloysia Schmitz. 
 After a postulate of eight to ten months, candi¬ 
 dates remain at the mother-house for the canon¬ 
 ically prescribed novitiate of one year. Temporary 
 vows are then made for three years, after which 
 final vows are taken. At the present time (1921) 
 the order at Trier numbers 1400 members, 66 branch 
 houses, 56 hospitals and orphanages, 10 boarding 
 schools, day schools, and sewing schools. On 6 
 March, 1921, the constitutions of the order, with 
 mother-house at Prague, were definitely approved. 
 
 Merida, Diocese of (Emeritensis in Indus; 
 cf. C. E., X—202a), in Venezuela, suffragan of the 
 Archdiocese of Venezuela. This see is filled by Rt. 
 Rev. Antonio Raimondo Silva, born in Caracas 1850, 
 ordained in 1873 and appointed 21 May, 1894. He 
 was named an assistant at the pontifical throne 17 
 January, 1916. Statistics of 1920credit the diocese 
 with 425,000 Catholics, 20,000 Indians and 300 
 Protestants, (census of 1888); 100 priests, and 150 
 churches or chapels. 
 
 Meschler, Moritz, ascetical writer, b. at Brig, 
 Switzerland, on 16 September, 1830; d. at Exaeten, 
 Holland, on 2 December, 1912. He entered the 
 Society of Jesus in 1850, when his native land was 
 persecuting it. He had studied first at the Bene¬ 
 dictine School of Engleberg, and then at a little 
 college of his Jesuit compatriots. He studied phil¬ 
 osophy for two years at Bonn, taught humanities to 
 the junior scholastics; made his theology at Ratisbon, 
 was ordained to the priesthood in 1862, and finished 
 his theology at Maria Laach. He passed his life of 
 sixty-two years as a Jesuit, almost exclusively among 
 his fellow-countrymen, engaged mainly in writing. 
 He was eighty-two years old when he published his 
 last book, and for still another year he wrote for the 
 “Stimmen.” He never taught theology, but because 
 of his profound studies in that particular science and 
 his thorough knowledge of Suarez in particular, his 
 works on the Holy Ghost, the Sacred Heart, St. 
 Joseph, the Blessed Virgin, his life of Christ, and his 
 “Meditations” place him in the ranks of theological 
 specialists. He was twenty-one years master of 
 novices, sixteen years rector of great colleges; he 
 served three times as provincial and fourteen years as 
 assistant general. In 1872 he was thought to be at 
 the end of his career, but it was precisely then that 
 his literary activity began to display itself, and books 
 and articles came from his pen year after year. 
 
 Mesopotamia.—An independent State, under 
 Great Britain as mandatory, which has an area of 
 143,259 square miles, and a population, according 
 to the census of 1920, of 2,849,282. 
 
 Religion. —The following statistics are given in 
 the 1920 census: 
 
 Vilayet Sunni Shi’ah Jews Christian Others 
 
 Baghdad 524,414 750,421 62,565 20,771 2,133 
 
 Basra... 42,558 721,414 10,088 2,551 8,989 
 
 Mosul.. 579,713 22,180 14,835 55,470 31,180 
 
 Total.. 1,146,685 1,494,015 87,488 78,792 42,302 
 
 Government. —In 1920 a Council of State was 
 formed to administer the country until the future 
 government is decided upon. Municipalities have 
 been established wherever possible. 
 
 Education. —Before the war the Department of 
 Public Instruction under the Ottoman government 
 maintained in every sanjak and caza, a primary 
 school, in which Turkish and Arabic were taught 
 free of charge. The various religions had their own 
 schools in Baghdad and Basra. In 1906 the German 
 consul at Baghdad offered to subsidize the Car¬ 
 melite schools in the country if they wmuld undertake 
 to teach German. The French Dominicans and 
 nuns at Mossul conducted over a dozen schools in 
 the neighborhood and carried on educational work 
 among the Chaldeans. The people as a whole are 
 very illiterate and education is the crying need of 
 the country. Since their occupation, the British 
 have opened up about 90 schools. 
 
 Economics. —Mesopotamia is a land of great 
 potentialities, especially in the matter of oil deposits. 
 In June, 1919, the ancient canal Saqlawiyah, near 
 Fellujah, was formally reopened, and the waters of 
 the Euphrates allowed to pass through. Before the 
 war the only railway in Mesopotamia was the small 
 section of the Baghdad Railway running from 
 Baghdad north to Samarra (80 miles), which was 
 built by the Germans. During the war several 
 lines were built for military purposes (1100 miles) 
 On 15 January the line running from Bassorah to 
 Baghdad was opened to traffic. A railway from 
 Teheran to Baghdad is under consideration. The 
 total commerce in 1919 amounted to $95,453,362, 
 of which the total exports were $35,751,342; the 
 imports, $59,702,020. Cotton constituted about 
 50 per cent of the imports. 
 
 Recent History. —Mesopotamia belonged to tho 
 Turkish empire until the World War when it was 
 conquered by Indian and British troops, who oecu- 
 occupied Basra on 22 November, 1914, and Baghdad 
 on 11 March, 1917. In the Treaty of Versailles 
 (1919) Mesopotamia is recognized as an independent 
 state, to be placed under mandatory power. The 
 Supreme Council awarded the mandate to Great 
 Britain. 
 
 Messina, Archdiocese of (Messanensis; cf. 
 C. E., X—216c), in Sicily, also bears the title of the 
 Archimandritate of San Salvatore (Sanctissimi Salva- 
 toris Messame.) The present incumbent is Most 
 Rev.Letterio d’Arrigo Ramondini, born in Messina, 
 15 November, 1849, appointed 24 March 1898. He 
 is assisted by a coadjutor, Most Rev. Angelo Paino, 
 promoted to the titular see of Antinoe and named 
 coadjutor 10 January, 1921. This diocese has a 
 Catholic population of 313,932, and comprises 139 
 parishes, 300 priests and 540 churches or chapels. 
 The Archimandritate of San Salvatore of Messina 
 has 9 parishes, 1 vicar, 6 vicarial chapels, 58 priests, 
 59 churches or chapels and a Catholic population of 
 22 ,000, (1920 statistics). 
 
 Methodism, following the general Protestant 
 trend, has in recent years agitated the question 
 of union, but without definite results. Negotiations 
 for the union of the Methodists, Congregationalists, 
 and Presbyterians in Canada were in 1917 post¬ 
 poned until the second year after the war. No 
 definite action has yet (1922) been taken. Efforts 
 to unite the Methodists and the United Brethren 
 came to naught and negotiations for the proposed 
 union of the Methodist Episcopal Church and the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church, South, were finally 
 abandoned in 1918, the chiet obstacle being the 
 status of the colored Methodists. The proposals 
 of the Lambeth Conference of 1920 on church 
 
METROPOLITAN 
 
 497 
 
 MEXICO 
 
 union were definitely rejected by the Methodists 
 in 1922, they refusing to submit to reordination 
 as a condition of reunion. The proposal to extend 
 laity rights to women has been generally accepted, 
 the Canadian General Conference (1918) being the 
 first to grant such rights, with the proviso that 
 women be not considered as eligible for the min¬ 
 istry. Despite the general trend in Methodism on 
 this point, a radical departure is reported on the 
 part of the Northeastern Oklahoma Conference 
 of the Methodist Episcopal Church, which in 1922 
 is declared to have granted a license to preach 
 to a .thirteen-year-old girl. 
 
 A summary of the foreign missionary work of 
 all Methodist bodies in 1916 showed 34 countries 
 occupied; 552 stations; 1937 American missionaries; 
 14,134 native helpers; 3316 churches; 518,000 mem¬ 
 bers; 3342 schools; 118,631 pupils; 120 hospitals, 
 dispensaries, and orphanages. Methodist propa¬ 
 ganda has of late been particularly aggressive in 
 the city of Rome, and the late Pope Benedict XV 
 called on the Knights of Columbus and the Paulists 
 of America to help counteract it. The domestic 
 missions in the United States reported for all 
 Methodist bodies in 1916, 4576 missionary workers, 
 258 colleges and 89,134 students, and 194 hospitals, 
 orphanages, and homes for the aged, of which about 
 45 were hospitals. Among the better known educa¬ 
 tional institutions controlled by the Methodists are 
 Boston University, Cornell College, De Pauw Uni¬ 
 versity, Dickinson College, Goucher College, and 
 N orthwestern University. An important factor in the 
 general work of the Methodist Episcopal Church is 
 the Deaconess movement, which had its origin in 
 1887 in connection with the Chicago Training School 
 for Missions. There were in 1916 about 200 dea¬ 
 coness institutions of various kinds in the United 
 States and foreign countries, the general purpose 
 being to care for the sick and unfortunate. There 
 were in 1916 in the United States 922 licensed 
 deaconesses, 130 probationers, and 546 associate 
 workers; in Europe, 668 deaconesses; there were 600 
 nurses in Germany and Austria-Hungary (1916), 
 and deaconess hospitals in Berlin, Hamburg, Frank¬ 
 fort, and Zurich. The Board of Temperance, Pro¬ 
 hibition and Public Morals of the Methodist 
 Episcopal Church, with headquarters in Washing¬ 
 ton, D.C., played a prominent part in obtaining 
 the passage of the 18th amendment (prohibition) 
 to the constitution of the United States. 
 
 The official list of Methodist bodies includes, be¬ 
 sides those enumerated in the article Methodism 
 (1) the Colored Methodist Protestant Church, or¬ 
 ganized along the same lines as the Methodist 
 Protestant Church, by Negro Methodist churches 
 in Maryland and adjoining states in 1840; (2) the 
 African American Methodist Episcopal Church, 
 organized in Baltimore in 1873, as a “reformed 
 Methodism” and reported in the government statis¬ 
 tics for the first time in 1916; (3) the Reformed 
 Methodist Union Episcopal Church, a colored or¬ 
 ganization formed in 1885 as the Independent 
 Methodist Church, the present name being adopted 
 in. 1896. Since 1916 it is in full accord with the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church in doctrine and polity. 
 The Zion Union Apostolic Church is officially the 
 Reformed Zion Union Apostolic Church. The 
 Evangelist Missionary Church has not reported 
 any statistics since 1890 and has in all probability 
 disappeared. In 1921, all Methodist bodies in the 
 United States reported 67,493 churches, 46,364 min¬ 
 isters, 7,867,863 members (7,797,991 in 1922). Five 
 bodies of Methodists reported 836,113 members 
 in Great Britain in 1915; the latest figures for 
 Ireland (1911) claim 62,382; South Africa (1918), 
 
 91,199 Europeans and 456,018 non-Europeans; Aus¬ 
 tralia, 547,800; Canada and Newfoundland, 1,148,000. 
 It is to be noted that for Ireland and for the 
 British colonies the above figures are for con¬ 
 stituents (communicants and their families), while 
 in all other cases communicants onlv are listed 
 (see Protestantism). The total of Methodist com¬ 
 municants in the world is between nine and ten 
 million. The total Methodist constituency in the 
 world is placed by some writers as high as 35,000,000. 
 In all probability it is between 25,000,000 and 
 30,000,000. 
 
 Neely, Doctrinal Standards of Methodism (New York, 
 1918); Rucker, The Separation of the Methodists from the 
 Church of England (New York, 1918); Arms, History of the 
 It m. Taylor Self-supporting Missions in South America (New 
 York, 1921); Hartman, Foreign Missionaries in Action (New 
 York, 1918); Fisher, Under the Crescent and Among the 
 Kraals (Boston, 1917); Barstow, Methodist Trails in the 
 African Jungle (New York, 1917) ; Munhall, Breakers! 
 Methodism Adrift (New York, 1913) ; Religious Bodies, 
 1916 (Washington, 1919) ; Year Book of the Churches 
 (New York, annual) ; Statesman’s Year Book (London, 
 annual) ; Methodist Year Book (New York, annual). 
 
 N. A. Weber. 
 
 Metropolitan. See Archbishop. 
 
 Metz, Diocese of (Metensis; cf. C. E., X— 
 247a), in Lorraine, France, is immediately subject to 
 the Holy See, and comprises a Catholic population 
 of 540,000 French and 44,000 Germans. The bishop, 
 Rt. Rev. Jean-Baptiste Pelt, b. 6 April, 1863, ordained 
 in 1886, doctor of canon law and theology, author of 
 a manual, vicar at St. Martin, professor and superior 
 of the Upper Seminary, vicar general and archdeacon 
 in 1906, prelate to the pontifical throne, nominated by 
 the French Government 24 April, 1919, appointed by 
 the Pope 1 August, consecrated 29 September, 1919, 
 succeeding Mgr. Willibrord Benzler, retired in 1919, 
 with the title of Archbishop of Attalia,died 16 
 April, 1921. 
 
 The diocesan statistics for 1922 are: 646 parishes, 
 726 churches, 836 secular and 46 regular clergy, 3 
 monasteries for men, 2 for women, 1 abbey for 
 women, 4 convents for men, 21 for women, 45 Broth¬ 
 ers, 2786 nuns in the various houses. Besides the 
 religious houses existing in the diocese in 1910, there 
 are now: the Fathers of the Assumption with 1 house, 
 Sisters of St. Joseph of Cluny, 1 house; Sisters of 
 Perpetual Adoration (at Biding), 1 house; Sisters of 
 the Faith (at Herrenwald), 1 house; 3 seminaries (1 
 upper and 2 lower), with 494 seminarians, 1 College 
 for boys with 22 teachers and 400 boj^s, 10 high 
 schools, 1 normal school with 50 students, about 1500 
 elementary schools (public and private), 2 lunatic 
 asylums and 1 for the aged, and 17 hospitals. The 
 ministry of priests is unrestricted in public institu¬ 
 tions. All public piimary schools receive Govern¬ 
 ment aid. Four associations are organized among the 
 clergy: The Apostolic Union, Priest Adorers, Priests 
 of St. Francis de Sales, and the Retreat Fund; among 
 the laity: “Action populaire catholique lorraine,” 
 French Women's Patriotic League, Societies for young 
 people and Federation of Works of Charity. The 
 periodicals published are: in French “Le Lorrain,” 
 “Le Couirier de Metz,” “Le Courrier de la Sarre”; 
 in German: “Die Lothringer Volkszeitung,” “Lothr. 
 Volksblatt.” 
 
 Mexico, (cf. C. E., X—250b).—With the excep¬ 
 tion of one term (1880-1884), Porforio Diaz filled the 
 office of President from 1877 to 1911, the law against 
 re-elections being repealed in 1887. Diaz aimed from 
 the first at setting up an efficient dictatorship under 
 which economic development was possible and which 
 would gain the good opinion of foreign statesmen and 
 capitalists. To this end he reorganized the “guardias 
 rurales,” a force of mounted police to deal with 
 
MEXICO 
 
 498 
 
 MEXICO 
 
 brigandage. He changed none of the laws against 
 the church; neither did he enforce them. Religious 
 orders were quietly permitted to resume their mis¬ 
 sionary activities. Supposed to be a constitutional 
 president, Diaz headed a government more auto¬ 
 cratic than Russia. Herein lay the seed of the 
 disaster that overwhelmed Mexico after his departure, 
 for he had trained no one for the task he might lay 
 down. He maintained close relations with the state 
 governors and through them controlled the jefes 
 politicos who administered the districts. No outside 
 interference was possible as the elections were entirely 
 in the hands of the administrative hierarchy. This 
 together with the ever present perplexing land ques¬ 
 tion was the cause of the discontent that led to Diaz’s 
 overthrow. Under the law of Disamortization (1856), 
 the common lands were enclosed at the same time 
 that the Church lands were sold. The failure of the 
 Indians to maintain their holdings led to the con¬ 
 centration of large areas in the hands of a few. 
 According to the Mexican census of 1910, seven 
 thousand families of Spanish creole descent owned 
 nearly all the fertile soil of Mexico, each feudal estate 
 averaging over 100 square miles. The Terrazas estate 
 in Chihuahua contained 13,000,000 acres, an area as 
 large as Holland and Belgium combined. Insurgency 
 soon spread all over Mexico. To save the country 
 from further bloodshed, Diaz resigned and a pro¬ 
 visional government was formed under Sefior de la 
 Barra. On 2 October, 1911, Francesco I. Madero 
 was unanimously elected president, with Suarez as 
 vice-president. The new Government failed utterly 
 to put an end to the disorder which had broken out 
 everywhere on the fall of Diaz. Zapata and his 
 Indians revolted in Morelos. General Bernardo 
 Reyes attempted an unsuccessful insurrection. Gen¬ 
 eral Pascual Orozco rebelled and captured Juarez. 
 General Felix Diaz took Vera Cruz, but was captured 
 and imprisoned. General Mondragon, backed by his 
 own troops and students of the Military Training 
 School at Tlapam, rose against the Government 
 9 February, 1913, liberated General Reyes and 
 General Felix Diaz, and the three marched to the 
 capital, where Reyes was killed in an attack on the 
 National Palace. In a meeting arranged by the medi¬ 
 ation of H. Lane Wilson, United States Minister, 
 Madero was forced to resign and Huerta became pro¬ 
 visional president of Mexico until the formal election 
 of Diaz. On 23 February President Madero, his 
 brother Gustavo, and Vice-president Suarez were 
 murdered. Felix Diaz escaped to Europe. The new 
 dictator, Huerta, was recognized by Congress and by 
 the States, except along the frontier. Here the Con¬ 
 stitutionalists, Gonzalez, Maytorena, and Carranza 
 refused to compromise or to recognize the new Gov¬ 
 ernment. It is doubtful whether their hesitation 
 would have had any important result, had not Huerta 
 driven them to desperation by the murder of Gonzalez 
 who had withdrawn his opposition. Maytorena, 
 thereupon, fled to the United States and Carranza 
 launched his revolution in 1913. Villa, a former 
 bandit, who had a genius for military leadership, 
 joined the revolution, the progress of which was 
 largely due to the favorable attitude of the United 
 States which refused to recognize Huerta on account 
 of the murder of the Maderos and threw its strength 
 into the rebellion. A division among the revolu¬ 
 tionists, however, prevented them from getting full 
 control of the country, for Villa turned against Car¬ 
 ranza. 
 
 The programme of the Constitutionalists was of an 
 extreme revolutionary nature. It included the owner¬ 
 ship and control of land and natural resources, the 
 solution of the land question by the division of large 
 estates, and by the return to the villages of all common 
 lands confiscated or sold. Moreover, the Constitu¬ 
 
 tionalists felt that in order to make Mexico a true 
 democracy it was necessary that the influence of the 
 Church should be utterly and finally suppressed. The 
 end was to be attained by the prohibition of all re¬ 
 ligious education, whether public or private, the con¬ 
 fiscation of Church property, and strict Government 
 supervision of the clergy. The action of the Consti¬ 
 tutionalist leaders went far beyond this official pro¬ 
 gramme and the victory of the revolution was fol¬ 
 lowed by a campaign of extermination against the 
 Church, the higher clergy being driven out of the 
 country, the churches in several States being closed, 
 and many members of the clergy and religious orders 
 being executed or imprisoned. During the confused 
 period of civil war after 1914 several religious upris¬ 
 ings broke out in districts where the anti-clerical 
 measures were most severe, especially in Michoacan 
 The rising in Oaxaca was also partly of religious 
 origin. The fall of Huerta was hastened by the action 
 of the United States in raising the embargo on the 
 export of arms in favor of the Constitutionalists only 
 and by the occupation of Vera Cruz by an American 
 armed force on 21 April, 1914. At this juncture 
 Argentine, Brazil, and Chile, known as the A. B. C. 
 powers, offered to serve as mediators and sent their 
 diplomatic representatives to Niagara Falls, but failed 
 to obtain any results. In the meantime Obregon en¬ 
 tered Guadalajara, Villa, the noted bandit leader, 
 took Zacatecas with great slaughter, while Monterey 
 and Saltillo fell into the hands of the Constitutional¬ 
 ists. The capture of Tampico on 13 May deprived 
 Huerta of his base in the north and his chief remaining 
 source of revenue. A new war, however, broke out 
 among the revolutionists. Maytorena, supported by 
 the Yaqui Indians, rose against Carranza, and Villa 
 allied himself with Mayorena. A convention at 
 Aguascalientes demanded the resignation of Car¬ 
 ranza and declared Eulalio Gutierrez provisional pres¬ 
 ident. Villa and Zapata occupied Mexico City in his 
 name. Gutierrez was, however, disowned by the 
 convention, which ruled the city until its occupation 
 by Obregon, the Carranza commander. He, in turn, 
 was forced to retreat by the incoming Zapatist force 
 on 10 March, and Gonzalez was now recognized as 
 President. The north was in the hands of the Con¬ 
 stitutionalists. The siege of the Carranist forces in 
 Sonora called forth the vigorous protests of the 
 United States and the concentration of the United 
 States troops along the frontiere. The climax came 
 when an armed band of Villistas attacked Columbus, 
 New Mexico, killing eight soldiers and nine civilians. 
 The United States Government acted at once, sending 
 12,000 soldiers under General Pershing to “take 
 Villa dead or alive.” Further trouble was caused 
 when President Wilson of the United States de¬ 
 manded the release of seventeen United States pris¬ 
 oners taken in a collision between the Carranzist 
 troops and a body of negro cavalry. The new Gov¬ 
 ernment of Mexico, however, was gradually recog¬ 
 nized by the different powers (the South American 
 Republics in October, 1915, Austria-Hungary, 21 
 October; Germany, 10 November; France, Great 
 Britain, Italy, and Russia, 4 December). In No¬ 
 vember, 1916, a national convention met at Queretaro 
 to consider an amendment to the Constitution and 
 on 31 January, 1917, it was signed. In March, 1917, 
 Carranza was elected president. The new Govern¬ 
 ment was doomed like the rest, for in another revo¬ 
 lution (1920), centering at Sonora, Carranza was 
 forced to flee the capital, and de la Huerta became 
 provisional president. Carranza was murdered later 
 by his own troops. In September, 1920, Alvero 
 Obregon was elected. 
 
 The new Constitution, while declaring “that Con¬ 
 gress shall not enact any law establishing or forbidding 
 any religion whatsoever,” not only eliminates freedom 
 
MEXICO 
 
 499 
 
 MICHIGAN 
 
 of worship but makes provisions which tend to the 
 destruction of religion itself. This is apparent from 
 article 130, which runs as follows: (1) The Federal 
 authorities shall have exclusive power to exercise in 
 matters of religious worship and out ward ecclesiastical 
 forms, such intervention as by law authorized. (2) 
 Marriage is a civil contract. (3) The law recognizes 
 no corporate existence of the religious associations 
 known as churches. (4) The ministers of religious 
 sects shall be considered as persons exercising a pro¬ 
 fession and shall be directly subject to the laws 
 enacted on the subject. (5) The State legislatures shall 
 have the exclusive power of determining the maximum 
 number of ministers of religious sects according to the 
 needs of the locality. (6) Ministers of religious sect 
 shall not any any public gathering or private meeting 
 criticize the fundamental laws of the country, the 
 authorities in particular, or the government in gen¬ 
 eral; they shall have no vote, either directly or indi¬ 
 rectly, nor shall they be allowed to assemble for 
 political purposes. (7) Before consecrating new tem¬ 
 ples of worship to public use permission must be ob¬ 
 tained from the Department of the Interior. (8) The 
 caretaker of each place of worship, together with ten 
 other citizens of the place shall promptly advise the 
 authorities of the minister appointed or of any change 
 of ministers. (9) Under no conditions shall studies 
 carried on in ecclesiastical institutions be ratified or 
 be granted any other dispensation or privilege which 
 shall have for its purpose the ratification of the said 
 studies in official institutions. (10) Periodical reli¬ 
 gious publications shall not comment on any political 
 affairs of the nation, nor publish any information 
 regarding the act of the authorities of the country or 
 of private individuals in public life. (11) Every kind 
 of political association whose name shall bear any 
 word or any indication relating to any religious belief 
 is forbidden. (12) No minister of any religious sect 
 may inherit on his own behalf or by means of a trustee 
 any real property occupied by any association for 
 religious or charitable purposes, (i.3) Any real and 
 personal property pertaining to the clergy or to reli¬ 
 gious institutions shall be governed in conformity to 
 article 27 of this constitution. (Article 27, clause 2 
 reads: The religious associations known as churches 
 irrespective of creed shall in no case have legal capa¬ 
 city to acquire, own, or administer real property or 
 loans made on such property. All such real property 
 shall vest in the nation and any one shall have the 
 right to denounce property so held. Presumptive 
 proof shall be sufficient to declare the denunciation 
 well founded. Places of public worship are the prop¬ 
 erty of the nation as represented by the Federal gov¬ 
 ernment which shall determine which of them may 
 continue to be devoted to their present purposes. 
 Episcopal residences, rectories, seminaries, orphan 
 asylums, collegiate establishments of religious asso¬ 
 ciations and convents or any other buildings built or 
 designed for the administration, propaganda, or 
 teaching of the tenets of any religious sect, shall forth¬ 
 with vest as of full right directly in the nation to be 
 used exclusively for the public services of the Federa¬ 
 tion or of the States within their respective jurisdic¬ 
 tion. All places of public worship which shall be late 
 erected shall be the property of the nation.) (14) No 
 trial by jury shall ever be granted for the infraction of 
 any of the preceding provisions. Back of the refusal 
 of the United States to recognize the present govern¬ 
 ment of Mexico is the discriminating Clause 5 of 
 Article 27 which reads as follows: “Only Mexicans by 
 birth or naturalization have the right to acquire owner¬ 
 ship in lands, waters and their appurtenances, or to 
 obtain concessions to develop mines or waters in 
 Mexico. The nation may grant the same right to 
 foreigners, provided they agree to be Mexicans and 
 not invoke the protection of their governments under 
 
 penalty of forfeiture. Within a zone of 100 kilometers 
 from the frontiers and 50 kilometers from the coast, 
 no foreigner shall acquire direct ownership of lands 
 and waters. The United States refused to consider 
 this as annulling its obligation to protect its citizens. 
 
 Mexico, Archdiocese of (Mexicanensis; cf. 
 C. E., X—269c), a metropolitan see of Mexico, 
 comprising the city and state of the same name. It 
 is filled by Most Rev. Jos6 Mora y del Rio, born in 
 Pajacuarcin, Mexico, 1854, studied at Zamora and the 
 South American College in Rome, ordained in 1879, 
 served as director of a number of Mexican colleges 
 and secretary to the archbishop, appointed first 
 bishop of Tehuantepec 19 January, 1893, transferred 
 to Tulancingo 12 September, 1901, again transferred 
 to Leon 15 September, 1907, and promoted to Mexico 
 2 December, 1908. He was named an assistant 
 at the pontifical throne 6 October, 1910, and by a 
 decree of the consistory, the following November he 
 was made president of the Mexican episcopate. He 
 is assisted by an auxiliary, Rt. Rev. Maximino Ruiz, 
 whose titular see is Derbe. An important event has 
 taken place in Mexico in the restoration of the Apos¬ 
 tolic Delegation which since the beginning of the 
 more violent political troubles has been in the hands 
 of the apostolic delegates at Washington. Mgr. 
 Filippe was appointed titular Archbishop of Sardica 
 and named delegate, 22 July, 1921. Another impor¬ 
 tant development in the archdiocese has been the 
 organization of a Confederation of Catholic Associa¬ 
 tions, on the lines of the National Catholic Welfare 
 Council of the United States; the official organ of this 
 association is “The Bond of Union.” On 19 March, 
 1919, the archbishop, separated from his flock, and 
 exiled from his country, celebrated the silver jubilee 
 of his episcopate, with a few intimate friends, at the 
 mother-house of the Sons of the Sacred Heart, at 
 San Antonio, Texas. According to 1920 statistics 
 the archdiocese counts a Catholic population of 
 1,839,250; 620 secular and 218 regular clergy, 230 
 parishes and 1000 churches and chapels. 
 
 Michigan—The total land area of the State of 
 Michigan is 57,980 square miles. In 1920 the 
 population was 3,663,412, an increase of 30.5 per 
 cent over that of 1910 (2,810,173). The average 
 number of inhabitants to the square mile was 63.8, 
 as against 48.9 in 1910. Of the population 61 per 
 cent was urban. 
 
 Economic Conditions. —The agricultural products 
 for the year 1920 included 64,350,000 bushels of 
 corn, 20,234,000 bushels of wheat, 36,875,000 bushels 
 of oats. The value of wool was $26,243,000. The 
 state had 2,224,000 sheep, 640,000 horses, 1,646,000 
 neat cattle, and 1,450,000 swine. In 1916 the fish 
 catch in the Great Lakes was worth $1,430,322. 
 The manufacturing statistics of Michigan are as 
 follows: establishments, 8285; capital, $2,337,003,000; 
 persons engaged in manufacure, 547,925; value of 
 products, $3,447,984,000. Michigan manufactures 
 about 75 per cent of the entire output of motor 
 vehicles in this country. The value of the output 
 of the mines was $199,264,604 for the year 1918. 
 In 1919 there were in the state 8982 miles of 
 railway and 947 miles of electric railway; during 
 the year, 50,089,000 net tons with 68,235,542 short 
 tons of freight passed through the St. Mary’s Canal, 
 situated at Sault Ste Marie. 
 
 Education. —There are 23,051 teachers in the pub¬ 
 lic schools and 683,373 pupils; the total appropria¬ 
 tion from all sources in the last fiscal year was 
 $32,141,150. All children are compelled by law to 
 attend some school at least five months in the year, 
 unless shown to be properly taught at home. 
 
 The state laws governing public and private schools 
 
MICHOACAN 
 
 MICHOACAN 
 
 500 
 
 are as follows: The superintendent of public in¬ 
 struction has supervision of all the private, denomi¬ 
 national and parochial schools of the State. The 
 sanitary conditions of such schools, the courses of 
 study therein, and the qualifications of the teach¬ 
 ers thereof must be of the same standard as pro¬ 
 vided by the general school laws of the State. No 
 person can teach in any of the regular or elemen¬ 
 tary grades in any private, denominational, or 
 parochial school without a certificate qualifying 
 him or her to teach in like grades of the public 
 schools of the State. No money can be appropri¬ 
 ated or drawn from the treasury for the benefit 
 of any religious sect or society, theological or re¬ 
 ligious seminary, nor can property belonging to 
 the State be appropriated for any such purpose. 
 Incorporated academies or other literary institu¬ 
 tions must annually report to the State Superin¬ 
 tendent property, income, enrollment, course of 
 studies, textbooks, etc. In 1920 great bitterness 
 arose over a proposed amendment to the State 
 Constitution, designed to compel all children below 
 eighth grade to attend the public schools. It was 
 defeated by a 2 to 1 vote. The proposal was bit¬ 
 terly fought by the private school interests and 
 those religious denominations who maintain schools 
 of their own, as well as by many who oppose re¬ 
 ligious strife. Although the State attorney-general 
 declared the amendment unconstitutional, the 
 supreme court decided that it should be submitted 
 to the people. 
 
 The University of Michigan in 1919 had 555 in¬ 
 structors, and 8857 enrolled students, the State 
 Agricultural College had 158 instructors and 1753 
 students, and is supported by interest on endow¬ 
 ment fund, one-fifth of a mill tax and appropria¬ 
 tions from the United States Treasury and State 
 Legislature, students’ fees, and receipts for produce. 
 The College of Mines had 27 instructors and 140 
 students. The four normal schools in the state 
 employ 266 instructors and have an average of 
 340 pupils. The School for the Blind has 18 
 instructors and about 165 pupils; the Employment 
 Institute, 8 instructors and 90 pupils, the State 
 Public School, 8 teachers, 9 cottage managers, and 
 about 632 inmates. A State Training School for 
 Women was established in 1917. 
 
 Religion. —The Federal Religious Census of 1916, 
 published in 1918, gives the following statistics: 
 Catholics, 1,171,381; Methodist Episcopalians, 287,- 
 931; Episcopalians, 40,726; Baptists, 170,452; Pres¬ 
 byterians, 114,857; Disciples of Christ, 116,639; 
 Lutherans, 187,746; Jews, 33,377; Congregationalists, 
 57,926. 
 
 Recent Legislative Changes. —These include a 
 new State Constitution, adopted 3 November, 1908. 
 It has been amended several times to give the 
 people the initiative and referendum on legislative 
 matters and constitutional amendments, and author¬ 
 ity to recall elective officers, except judges. In 
 1912 the Presidential Primary Bill was passed, as 
 well as an Employer’s Liability Bill. On 1 May, 
 1918, state-wide prohibition went into effect by 
 means of an amendment to the State Constitution. 
 In 1919 the Legislature permitted religious societies 
 to receive gifts, although the real estate received 
 must be sold if unused for ten years; prohibited 
 sex discrimination in payment of wages, and pro¬ 
 vided for the primary election of township officials. 
 The following were created in that year: State 
 Police, Public Utilities Commission, State Athletic 
 Board of Control, Board of Examiners of Architects, 
 Surveyors, and Engineers, an Industrial Commis¬ 
 sion, and a Commission to investigate the disputed 
 boundary between Wisconsin and Michigan. Both 
 
 Houses, without a single dissenting vote, ratified 
 the Federal Woman Suffrage Act on 10 June, 1919, 
 and the Federal Amendment on 2 January, 1919. 
 In that year also, boxing was prohibited on Sunday, 
 and on Saturday if continued into Sunday. 
 
 History. —On 22 December, 1917, five Germans 
 were convicted and sentenced in the United States 
 District Court at Detroit, on indictments for inaugu¬ 
 rating in Michigan military enterprises against Can¬ 
 ada while the United States was still at peace 
 with Germany. The leader was connected with 
 attempts to blow up the Welland Canal and other 
 structures of military importance. In 1918 the trial 
 of United States Senator Newberry for exceeding 
 the expenditure limit in securing his nomination 
 and election roused a great deal of interest. It 
 culminated in his conviction and sentence to two 
 years in Leavenworth Penitentiary. The case was 
 appealed. On 12 January, 1921, the Senate voted 
 46 to 41 to seat him but expressed their disap¬ 
 proval of his election expenditures. 
 
 During the European War Michigan sent into 
 the United States Army 135,465 soldiers, or 3.61 
 per cent of the force. The Michigan members of 
 the national guard formed a part of the 32d Division 
 at MacArthur, Texas, and those of the national 
 army joined the 85th Division at Custer, Michigan. 
 The summary of casualties of the Michigan mem¬ 
 bers of the American Expeditionary Force was as 
 follows: deceased, 124 officers, 2627 men; prisoners, 
 6 officers, 84 men; wounded, 251 officers, 7277 men. 
 
 For ecclesiastical history see Detroit, Diocese of; 
 Grand Rapids, Diocese of; Marquette, Diocese of. 
 
 Michoacan (or Mechoacan), Archdiocese of 
 (Michoacanensis; cf. C. E., X—282c), in Mexico, is 
 a metropolitan, with residence at Morelia. The Most 
 Rev. Leopold Ruiz Flores, b. 13 November, 1865, 
 studied in Mexico, later at the South American 
 College, Rome, doctor of theology, philosophy, and 
 canon law in 1887, ordained 17 March, 1888, ap¬ 
 pointed 1 October, 1900, consecrated 27 December 
 following, promoted as Archbishop of Linares, 14 
 September, 1907, transferred to Michoacan at the 
 consistory of 27 November, 1911, to succeed Most 
 Rev. Antinogenes Silva (b. 26 August, 1848; d. 26 
 February, 1911). In 1914 Mgr. Ruiz y Flores went 
 into exile disguised as a drover. The Revolutionists 
 set a price upon his head, but in 1919 he safely 
 returned to his see. 
 
 Statistics of the Archdiocese for 1922 give: 63 
 parishes, 400 churches, 57 succursal parishes, 5 
 chaplaincies, 246 secular and 91 regular clergy, 1 
 seminary with 299 seminarians, 1 home, 2 asylums, 
 2 hospitals. No priests are admitted in public 
 institutions; none of the schools or institutions receive 
 Government grants. Associations organized among 
 the laity are: the Knights of Columbus, the Associa¬ 
 tion of the Fathers of Families, the Catholic Workers, 
 the Catholic Association of Mexican Youth, the 
 Society of Catholic Workmen. Two weeklies are 
 published. The Catholic population is estimated at 
 900,000, of Spanish and Indian descent. 
 
 Events of importance since 1914 are: the perse¬ 
 cution against the Church, confiscation of churches, 
 colleges, schools; religious instruction prohibited in 
 private schools and the clergy forbidden to direct 
 educational institutions; 30 priests exiled, the exile of 
 the priests of Morelia being prevented because of the 
 protest of the people en masse; the 2 most ancient 
 churches of Morelia, built in 1541, were demolished, 
 the stones being employed to macadamize the streets. 
 The Socialists penetrated the cathedral and broke 
 with their fists the statue of Our Lady of Guadeloupe; 
 the Catholic Association of Mexican Youth was 
 severely persecuted, of whom about ten were im- 
 
MIDDLE AGES 
 
 501 
 
 MIDDLE AGES 
 
 prisoned each day. On 20 June, 1920, the Arch¬ 
 diocese of MichoacaU ceded a large portion of its 
 territory for the formation of the Diocese of Tacam- 
 baro, with Rt. Rev. Leopoldo Lara as its first bishop. 
 
 Middle Ages,— Meaning of Name.— By the 
 “Middle Ages” there is now commonly understood 
 the period intervening between antiquity and mod¬ 
 ern times, or between the Fall of the Roman Em¬ 
 pire of the West in 476 and the capture of Con¬ 
 stantinople by the Turks in 1453. Thus the Middle 
 Ages cover the period of about one thousand years 
 between the Greco-Roman civilization and the 
 wider diffusion of classical learning at the time of 
 the Renaissance. The very appellation Middle 
 Ages seems to imply that they are an inter¬ 
 mediary period between two civilizations, a break 
 in the course of civilization, a time of darkness 
 separating the light of the Greco-Roman world 
 from the light of the modern world. A brief exami¬ 
 nation into the origin of the term and a summary 
 statement of the nature and the achievements of 
 the Middle Ages will dispel this colossal error. 
 Our authority in this treatment will be Godfrey 
 Kurth, the eminent Belgian historian. 
 
 Origin of the Term.— Originally, the term “Mid- 
 dle Age ’ was used philologically. In studying the 
 development of the Latin tongue from its origin 
 down to their own time, the philologists had noted 
 its several epochs and had given each epoch a name. 
 The first epoch was that of the classical Latin, 
 which witnessed the birth of the masterpieces of 
 Roman literature. It extended from the begin¬ 
 ning of the Roman State down to. the reign of 
 Constantine the Great (312-337). The second epoch 
 was that of the barbarian Latin, when the Latin 
 language was inherited and disfigured by the in¬ 
 vading Germanic tribes. It lasted down to the 
 reign of Charlemagne (742-814). The third period 
 of Latinity began at the death of Charlemagne 
 and witnessed the birth of the Italian, Spanish, 
 French, and the other neo-Latin tongues. The 
 three periods of Latinity were called respectively 
 the High, the Middle, and the Low Age. Later 
 the Humanists extended the limits first assigned 
 to the “Middle Age” of Latinity. They began to 
 look upon their own time as a fourth and new age 
 of Latinity. They loved to think that they had 
 restored the Latin tongue to its pristine purity, 
 and they saw in the period beginning with the 
 sixteenth century a new period of Latinity. Thence¬ 
 forth they united the second and third periods, 
 both of which had marked the decline of the 
 Latin tongue, and called them the middle period. 
 Thus they extended the Middle Age of the Latin 
 language to a period stretching from the decline 
 of the Roman Empire under Constantine the Great 
 to the Renaissance. Thus the Middle Age of 
 Latinity became synonymous with declining 
 Latinity. It was used in this sense by the 
 Humanists, also by the French historian and 
 philologist Ducange (1610—1688) wdien he gave to 
 his celebrated dictionary the title of “Glossarium 
 Mediae et Infimae Latinitatis.” 
 
 The historians borrowed the term “Middle Age” 
 from the philologists, and transferred it to the 
 domain of historiography. They adopted both the 
 name and period which it covered, and designated 
 that historical and political period as the Middle 
 Ages, and from the standpoint of civilization marked 
 as blank the period w T hich the philologists had 
 marked blank from the standpoint of Latinity 
 The unfortunate exchange of terms brought about 
 the exchange of viewpoints and confusion of ideas 
 resulted from the confusion of words. 
 
 1 he term “Middle Ages” was used in this, its 
 present sense, as early as 1639, by Rausin of Liege 
 in his “Leodium” (p. 103). Christopher Keller 
 followed in the footsteps of Rausin in “Historia 
 medii aevi a temporibus Constantini Magni ad Con- 
 stantinopolim a Turcis captam deducta,” published 
 in Jena, 1688. Loescher introduced the w T ord into 
 a German work published in the year 1725. Since 
 then the expression has been in constant use in 
 pedagogical works, and gradually found its way 
 into literary productions. But not before the sec¬ 
 ond half of the eighteenth century does the term 
 appear in literary works, and the great writers 
 of that epoch in France as well as in Germany use 
 it seldom and with hesitancy. The French Academy, 
 the final authority in matters pertaining to the 
 French language, did not admit the term into the 
 official repertoire of the language until the publi¬ 
 cation of the sixth edition of its dictionary, in- 
 1835. It is not unlikely, as Kurth predicts, that 
 future lexicographers will discard the term “Middle 
 Ages.” 
 
 Nature and Achievements.— Not only was the 
 introduction of the philological term “Middle Ages” 
 into historiography unwarranted, but the implica¬ 
 tion that it is an appropriate name for an inter¬ 
 mediary period is historically false. Far from 
 being intermediary between the ancient and modern 
 civilizations, the Middle Ages are the beginning of 
 modern civilization, which began when the pagan 
 civilization of Rome collapsed. On the ruins of 
 pagan civilization new societies were built which 
 were Christian in principle. These societies still 
 stand on their original foundation, Christian 
 morality. They were begun during the centuries 
 of the Middle Ages and continued to flourish dur¬ 
 ing subsequent centuries. We are the heirs of the 
 Middle Ages, not, as some would have it, the heirs 
 of Greece and Rome. Whatever of institutions and 
 ideas is lasting in modern society has its roots deep 
 in the fertile soil of the first Christian centuries. 
 
 The achievements of the Middle Ages are known 
 to students of history. The Middle Ages gradually 
 put an end to ancient slavery and called all men 
 to freedom. Under the inspiration of the Church 
 of the Middle Ages governments and individuals 
 emancipated their slaves, and the laws of Christian 
 rulers encouraged and favored the suppression of 
 slavery. To loosen link by link the chain of slavery 
 was the work of centuries, which finally brought 
 about the complete and universal emancipation of 
 the slave. The Middle Ages rent the imperial unity 
 of the world and substituted the modern nation¬ 
 alities. The Middle Ages created the modern lan¬ 
 guages and thereby gradually eliminated the Latin. 
 These are the languages which we speak to-day and 
 which hold unprecedented eminence in the world 
 of thought. The Middle Ages accepted the Chris¬ 
 tian Faith with love, and defended it vigorously 
 and constantly, with word, pen, and sword. The 
 Middle Ages made the papacy the most respected 
 institution of the world, and it was the papacy 
 that saved civilization “by defending, in the name 
 of religion, the natural rights against the usurpa¬ 
 tions of the State, of the rulers, and even against 
 the people itself. It was the papacy that knew 
 how to conciliate the weak with the powerful by 
 recommending everywhere and always justice, peace, 
 respect for duty, and assumed obligations; and it 
 was in this way that the papacy laid the corner¬ 
 stone of international law, by standing forth as a 
 bulwark against the pretensions and passions of 
 brutal force” (Guizot, “L’Eglise et la Societe,” 
 1861). 
 
 The Middle Ages enforced the distinction between 
 
MIDDLESBROUGH 
 
 502 
 
 MILAN 
 
 the temporal and the spiritual, the great principle 
 which flows from the Gospel and which in the 
 past has renovated and to-day upholds the political 
 and social spirit of the civilized world. The 
 Middle Ages founded the constitutional monarchy 
 and representative government, both unknown to 
 antiquity, but which are indispensable conditions 
 for the political existence of modern nations. Under 
 the shelter of these public liberties, which were 
 guaranteed by covenant between prince and subject, 
 the Middle Ages gave impetus to all forms of 
 association, from the municipal corporation down 
 to the labor union, and bequeathed to us models 
 to which, in spite of the storms of revolution, 
 humanity unceasingly turns for imitation. The 
 art of the Middle Ages has become our art. The 
 name Gothic, which at first was applied to the 
 architecture of the Middle Ages as a term of 
 .reproach, is now bestowed on our art as a title, of 
 glory, and to-day we draw inspiration from the 
 monuments of the Middle Ages. The poets of the 
 seventeenth and eighteenth centuries gloried in 
 their ignorance of the national poetry of the 
 Middle Ages; we love it, we admire it, we have 
 given it our undying affection. 
 
 In art and poetry we shall not have surpassed 
 the Middle Ages until we shall have erected a 
 more beautiful cathedral than that of Reims, 
 painted a more inspiring canvas than the Van 
 Eycks’ Adoration of the Lamb, and written a poem 
 more powerful than Dante’s “Divina Commedia.” 
 
 All that we have—our religion and our political 
 ideas, our nationality and our language, our 
 aesthetics and our social economy—all these con¬ 
 nect us with the Middle Ages and separate us from 
 antiquity. We are the heirs of the Middle Ages; 
 we continue their work. The Middle Ages are the 
 period of our younger years. They do not repre¬ 
 sent the ideal perfection of society, they had defects 
 peculiar to childhood. Without desiring a return 
 to the conditions then prevailing, we prize the 
 Middle Ages as the time of our vigorous youth, a 
 youth freely and proudly developed in the light 
 and sunshine of the Gospel. When we pride our¬ 
 selves on the present status of our civilization we 
 honor the vigorous red blood of our ancestors. 
 From its birth Christian society has marched on 
 its checkered course towards the realization of its 
 sublime ideal. The centuries of the Middle Ages 
 began the work, the modern centuries followed, 
 and our age, heir of both, continues the task and 
 will hand down the work unfinished to future cen¬ 
 turies. 
 
 Kurth, What are the Middle Ages ?; Kurth , L’egliseaux 
 tournants de Vhistoire , tr. Day, The Church at the Turning 
 Points of History ; Kurth, Les Origines de la Civilisation 
 Moderne . 
 
 Victor Day. 
 
 Middlesbrough, Diocese of (Medioburgensis; 
 cf. C. E., X—286a), comprises the North and East 
 Ridings of York County, England, and the city of 
 York north of the Ouse. The see is suffragan of 
 Liverpool and is at present filled by Rt. Rev. Richard 
 Lacy, born in Navan, England, in 1841, ordained in 
 1867 and appointed 12 September, 1879. He is the 
 first bishop of the diocese, and was named an assistant 
 at the pontifical throne 20 December, 1917. The 
 religious orders of men established in the diocese 
 include: Benedictines, Canons Regular of the Lateran, 
 Hospitallers of St. John of God, Jesuits, Marists, and 
 Brothers of the Christian Sohools; women: Sisters of 
 the Assumption, Dominicans, Canonesses Regular 
 of St. Augustine, Faithful Companions of Jesus, 
 Ladies of Mary, Poor Clares, Poor Sisters of Nazareth, 
 Serietes, Sisters of Charity, Sisters of Charity of St. 
 
 Paul, Sisters of Mercy, Sisters of the Presentation, 
 Sisters of Charity of Notre Dame, and Sisters of 
 Misericorde. The latest statistics (1922) credit the 
 diocese with 77 secular and 43 regular clergy, 25 con¬ 
 vents, 73 churches, 33 private chapels having Sunday 
 Mass, 43 elementary schools receiving ^Government 
 grants and 2 without grants, with 11,676 pupils, 11 
 other schools teaching 407 boys, 2 hospitals and 5 
 residential institutions for poor children. The Cath¬ 
 olic population is estimated at 46,920. 
 
 Mignot, Eudoxe-Ir^nee. See Albi, Arch¬ 
 diocese of. 
 
 Milan, Archdiocese of (Mediolanensis; cf. 
 C. E., X—298d), in Lombardy, Northern Italy. 
 The city of Milan, situated on the Olona river, is 
 Italy’s industrial center and, next to Naples, the 
 largest city, with a population of 663,000 in 1915. 
 The diocese is the largest in Italy and the most 
 important. The distinguished and universally be¬ 
 loved Cardinal Archbishop Andrea Ferrari (q. v.) 
 died 2 February, 1921, and on 13 June, 1921, Mgr. 
 Achille Ratti, titular Archbishop of Adana, was 
 created cardinal priest and named Archbishop of 
 Milan; on 6 February, 1922, he was elected Pope, 
 taking the name of Pius XI. The Holy Father lost 
 no time in providing his city of Milan with a pastor, 
 Mgr. Eugenio Tosi, of the Oblates of St. Charles, 
 born in Busto Arsizio, diocese of Milan, 6 May, 1863, 
 elected bishop of Squillace 5 April, 1911, transferred 
 to Andria 22 March, 1917, and to Milan in March, 
 1922. 
 
 During the war 481 priests of the archdiocese were 
 in the army, 110 as chaplains, 29 as assistant chap¬ 
 lains, 10 as officers, and 331 as soldiers; of these 9 
 died, 7 were wounded, 9 made prisoners, and 14 
 decorated for valor; 300 seminarians served in the 
 army, 18 were killed, 5 were wounded and 27 were 
 taken prisoner. Ten churches were requisitioned by 
 the military authorities, 24 diocesan institutions 
 were used as hospitals, 29 congregations of Sisters 
 served as nurses, committees for needs of war were 
 formed in each parish, organizations were formed 
 to assist refugees, institutions were opened for war 
 orphans, committees of assistance for prisoners and 
 also to locate prisoners were organized, besides the 
 committee of religious assistance for soldiers. At the 
 end of the war the commander-in-chief solemnly 
 praised the work of the clergy of the diocese and the 
 archbishop was decorated. 
 
 Two recent institutions inaugurated m 1921 and 
 both founded by Cardinal Ferrari are the Catholic 
 University of the Sacred Heart and the “Casa del 
 Popolo” called L’Opera Cardinale Ferrari. The first, 
 the only one of its sort in Italy, is limited to the study 
 of philosophy and social sciences and is located in an 
 ancient palace, has 52 professors, about 100 students, 
 with a great hall, laboratories, rich library, offices, 
 chapel, etc. The second, started by a gift of the 
 diocese to the cardinal at his episcopal jubilee, follows 
 the activities of the Knights of Columbus, providing 
 all safe forms of social activities for the workers, 
 artisans, students and clerks gathered together in the 
 great metropolis which is the moral capital of Italy. 
 Still in the course of formation on a vast site, at the 
 present time (January, 1922) there has been started 
 a technical school, school for secretarial course, for 
 preparation of elementary teachers, technical school 
 for daughters of workers, school of popular music, 
 economical restaurant for students, workers, and 
 clerks, a free employment bureau, a school for the 
 unemployed, free course in popular culture, a board¬ 
 ing place for university students, and a dopo-scuolo 
 for students from high schools. Many other activ¬ 
 ities are to be started and the complete Casa will 
 
MILETO 
 
 503 
 
 MINNESOTA 
 
 include a theatre, large dormitory, baths, moving 
 pictures, field for sports, etc. 
 
 1 he new Catholic press includes a political daily, 
 7 weeklies, 10 business papers and 16 cultural ones, 
 with 12 editorial houses and 8 religious libraries. 
 The diocese contains nearly 3,000,000 Catholics 
 (2,967,876 in 1919), 795 parishes (54 in city), 2162 
 secular priests, 92 regular priests, 141 churches in the 
 citv; 1724 outside, total 1865; 18 orders of men with 
 35 houses, 50 congregations of women, 103 houses in 
 city, 397 in the diocese; 155 lay brothers, 5 seminaries, 
 750 seminarians; 16 colleges for men, 28 for women; 
 1 university; 1 mission work; 29 refuges, 10 hospitals, 
 61 day nurseries; 1 organization among the clergy and 
 49 for the laity. 
 
 Mileto, Diocese of (Miletensis; cf. C. E., 
 ^ 303b), in the province of Catanzaro, Southern 
 Italy, directly dependent on the Holy See. This see 
 is filled by Rt. Rev. Giuseppe Morabito, born in 
 Reggio-Calabria in 1858, appointed titular Bishop of 
 Dioclea 15 June, 1898, and transferred 15 December 
 following. On 14 February, 1919 Rt. Rev. Paolo 
 Albera, Bishop of Bova, was named apostolic admin¬ 
 istrator ot the diocese. It embraces a Catholic pop¬ 
 ulation of 220,000, 126 parishes, 27 vicariates, 300 
 secular and 8 regular clergy, 120 seminarians, 10 
 Brothers, 35 Sisters and 300 churches and chapels. 
 
 Mill Hill. See Foreign Missions, Saint Joseph’s 
 Society for. 
 
 Milwaukee, Archdiocese of (Milwauchiensis; 
 cf. C. E., X-319a), in the State of Wisconsin, U. 
 S. A., covers an area of 9321 sq. miles with a Cath¬ 
 olic population of about 274,329. The see is filled 
 by Most Rev. Sebastian Gebhard Messmer, D. D., 
 D. C. L., b. 20 August, 1847, at Goldach, ordained 
 28 July, 1871, appointed Bishop of Green Bay 14 
 December, 1891, consecrated 27 March, 1892, trans¬ 
 ferred and raised to the archiepiscopal dignity 10 
 December, 1903, proclaimed 14 November, 1904, 
 succeeding Mgr. Frederick Xavier Katzer (b. 11 
 February, 1844; d. 20 July, 1903); made assistant 
 at the pontifical throne 16 November, 1906. 
 
 According to 1922 census there are: 233 parishes, 
 70 missions, 338 secular and 102 regular clergy, 
 
 6 monasteries for men, 11 convents for women, 
 
 3 clerical seminaries with 524 clerical students, 1 
 university with 274 professors and 4300 students, 1 
 college for men with 100 boys, 1 high school with 
 260 boys and girls, 7 academies with 1080 girls, 165 
 parochial schools with 45,000 pupils, 1 industrial 
 school for girls with 95 pupils, 5 homes for the 
 aged, 4 for girls, 1 for working men, 7 asylums for 
 orphans and dependent children with 680 inmates, 
 14 hospitals, 1 institute for deaf-mutes with 85 
 pupils, 1 institute for the feeble-minded with 190 
 pupils, 1 day nursery. Most of the public institu¬ 
 tions admit the ministry of priests. None of the 
 Catholic institutions or schools are supported by 
 state or government aid. Three societies are or¬ 
 ganized among the clergy: Eucharistic League, 
 Purgatorial Society, St. Michael’s Priest Fund for 
 Indigent Priests; among the laity: Holy Name 
 Society, St. Vincent de Paul Society, League of 
 Catholic'Women, Missionary Association of Cath¬ 
 olic Women, Association of Catholic Hospitals. 
 Four Catholic weeklies are published: “Catholic 
 Herald,” “Catholic Citizen,” “Columbia,” “Excel- 
 fjgj’ ; three Catholic monthlies: “Hospital Progress,” 
 The Ligorian,” “Mater Dolorosa.” Catholic 
 nationalities represented in the archdiocese are: 
 169 English-speaking parishes, 89 German, 21 Polish, 
 o Lithuanian, 5 Italian, 4 Slovak, 3 Slovene, 1 each 
 for French t Croatian, Syrian, and negroes. Since 
 
 1910 the iollowing religious orders have come into 
 the diocese: Redemptorist Fathers, at Oconomo- 
 woc; Palatini Fathers, at Wauwatosa; Dominican 
 Fathers, at Madison; 3 houses of Carmelite Sisters 
 ot the Sacred Heart. 
 
 Archbishop Messmer celebrated his golden jubilee 
 27 July, 1921. 
 
 During the World War the diocese contributed 
 13 chaplains to the army and 13,000 soldiers. 
 
 Mind Healing. 
 
 Thought. 
 
 See Christian Science; New 
 
 Minguella y Arnedo, Toribio, Bishop of Sigiicnza 
 and historian, was born at Eg^o de Cornago, Logrono, 
 Spain, on 16 April, 1836; d. at Monteagudo on 1 
 August, 1920. After completing his secondary 
 studies with distinction at Tarragona, he joined the 
 Discalced Augustinians at Monteagudo and after 
 being ordained was sent to the Philippines Islands in 
 1858. He labored at Las Pinas, Selang, Imus, 
 Rosam, and Cavite Viejo and was secretary general 
 and chronicler of the Philippine province of iiis order. 
 He was sent later to Madrid as commissary procurator 
 and was nominated rector of San Mullan and elected 
 a corresponding member of the Royal Academy of 
 History. In 1894 he was made Bishop of Porto Rico, 
 where he displayed extraordinary pastoral zeal; three 
 years later he was transferred to the See of Siguenza, 
 from which after an episcopate of twenty years he 
 resigned in 1916, at the age of eightv-one, and was 
 appointed titular Bishop of Basilopolis. Mgr. 
 Minguella is recognized as one of the greatest scholars 
 in Spain in his day. Among his linguistic published 
 works may be mentioned his Spanish-Tagal Grammar 
 (Manila, 1878), and “Metodo practico para que los 
 ninos y ninas de las provincias tagalas aprendan a 
 hablar espanol” (Manila, 1886), a work crowned by 
 the Government and published at its expense; 
 “Unidad de la especie humana probada por la filo- 
 logia” (Madrid); an extensive treatise on Filipino 
 palaeography, the fruit of long and varied research, 
 is as yet unprinted. His chief historical contribu¬ 
 tions are “San Mull&n de la Cogulla” (Madrid, 1883); 
 “Conquista espiritual de Mindanao por los agostinoo 
 recoletos” (Valladolid, 1885); “Cronologia de Roma 
 P. fray Gabino Sanchez Cortes” (Madrid, 1894); 
 “Historia del P. Ezequial Moreno, obispo de Pasto” 
 {Madrid, 1904), and “Historia de la diocesis de 
 Siguenza et de sus obispos” (3 vols. Madrid, 1910-13), 
 a masterly wnrk crowned by the Academy of History. 
 
 Minnesota—The total land area of Minnesota 
 is 84,682 square miles. In 1920 the population was 
 2,387,125, an increase of 15 per cent over that of 
 1910 (2,075,708). Of this 55 per cent was rural. 
 The average number of inhabitants to the square 
 mile was 29.5. The largest cities are: Minne¬ 
 apolis, 380,582; St. Paul, 234,585; Duluth, 98,917; 
 Winona, 19,143; Stillwater, 12,435. 
 
 Economic Conditions. —According to the census 
 of 1919 there weie in the State 622o manufacturing 
 establishments, in which were employed 115,600 
 wage earners. The capital invested amounted to 
 8690,384,000, and the total value of products was 
 $1,218,130,000. In the same year Minnesota had 
 178,478 farms, with an acreage of 51,749,120. The 
 value of the crops was $506,020,665, the principal 
 crops being maize (118,125,000 bushels), wheat 
 (29,116,000 bushels), oats (126,488,000 bushels), bar¬ 
 ley (25,000,000 bushels). The wool clip amounted 
 to 3,594,000 pounds of wool. The national forest 
 area is 1,044,233 acres. In 1917 Minnesota had 
 9161 miles of railway, besides 732 miles of electric 
 railway. St. Paul is a.famous railway center through 
 which ton railroads pass. The Groat Northern Rail- 
 
MINOR 
 
 504 
 
 MIREPOIX 
 
 way Company of St. Paul has a line of steamers 
 which sail between Puget Sound and China, Japan, 
 and the Philippines, the railway of the company 
 carrying vast loads of merchandise from bt. Paul 
 to the port of shipment at very low freight rates. 
 About 44,000,000 tons of iron ore were mined and 
 shipped from Minnesota in 191/. 
 
 Education .-The laws governing private and 
 parochial schools are as follows: iNo public P“one>s 
 or property shall be appropriated or used o _ 
 support of schools wherein the distinctive doctrines 
 of any particular Christian or other religion are 
 promulgated or taught. To satisfy the require¬ 
 ments of compulsory attendance a school must be 
 one in which all the common branches are taught 
 in the English language. A foreign language may 
 be taught for a period not to exceed one hour m 
 each day. By a decision of the Attorney General 
 Bible reading is excluded from the public schools. 
 State support is from the income on the permanent 
 school fund and one half the income from the 
 state swamp land fund, from revenue derived from 
 a one mill tax and from biennial appropriations 
 by the Legislature. The appropriated funds are 
 distributed from a special State aid and the income 
 from trust funds and the State tax, exceeding 
 SI50,000, is distributed to the districts according to 
 the number of pupils enrolled in the public schools 
 for forty days or more. Local support consists of 
 a tax on the property of the district, including 
 a one mill tax required by law to be levied m 
 each district. There are six public normal schools. 
 In 1920 the 9136 public elementary schools of the 
 State had 16,896 teachers and 439,537 pupils; 240 
 public high schools with 2244 teachers and 64,060 
 pupils The total expenditure on education in the 
 same year was $38,358,555. In 1920 the State Uni¬ 
 versity had 5560 students and 800 professors; Ham¬ 
 line University, 30 instructors and 418 students; 
 St. John’s University at Collegeville, 51 instructors 
 and 420 students. Among the most recently estab¬ 
 lished State institutions are: the Willmar State 
 Asylum, opened in 1912 as a hospital for inebriates, 
 and in 1917 as an asylum for the insane; the State 
 Reformatory for Women, at Shakopee, opened m 
 1920; a new Home School for Girls, formerly at 
 Red Wing (1907), now at Sauk Center (1911); Hos¬ 
 pital for Crippled and Deformed Children near 
 St. Paul (1910); Minnesota Sanitarium at Leech 
 Lake (1908). 
 
 Religious. —The LTiited States Religious Census 
 for 1916, published in 1918, gives the following statis¬ 
 tics: Catholics, 415,664; Lutherans, 264,649; Metho¬ 
 dist Episcopalians, 59,576; Presbyterians, 32,494; 
 Congregationalists, 22,987; Episcopalians, 22,635; 
 German Evangelical Synod, 10,048. See also St. 
 Paul, Archdiocese of; Duluth, Diocese of; 
 Winona, Diocese of; St. Cloud, Diocese of; 
 Crookston, Diocese of. 
 
 Legislative Changes. —Minnesota’s recent legis¬ 
 lation has been most progressive. In 1911 a primary 
 election law for candidates in State public office 
 was passed. In 1913 the United States Supreme 
 Court unanimously upheld the right of the State 
 to regulate railroad rates within its borders. In 
 the same year the‘congressional and legislative dis¬ 
 tricts were re-apportioned; a workmen’s compensa¬ 
 tion law was passed: a Minimum Wage Com¬ 
 mission appointed to regulate the wages of women 
 and children; the Presidential Primaries Bill was 
 passed and the non-partisan primary was extended 
 to all members of the Legislature, requiring them 
 to appeal to the electors on their ability to do 
 the work required of them, instead of making their 
 
 work a political issue. A Mothers Pension was 
 also provided for. In 1914 the International Har¬ 
 vester Company was declared to be a trust, and l s 
 dissolution ordered by the United Stat .^ P 1 ® t - r1 ^ 
 Court. The administration of all State institutions 
 
 is now under a Central Board of Co ^ r ° T |; 
 
 Federal Prohibition Act was ratified on 17 January, 
 1919; the Federal Suffrage Act on 8 September, 
 
 Sttarf in the War. —IMinnesota s contribution to 
 the World War was 99,116 soldiers or 2.64 per cent 
 of the United States Army. The Minnesota sol¬ 
 diers of the national guard formed a part of the 
 34th Division at Camp Cody, New Mexico, and 
 those of the national army part of the 88th Division 
 at Fort Dodge, Iowa. The summary of casualties 
 among the Minnesota members of the American 
 Expeditionary Force was as 
 
 officers, 2088 men; prisoners, 10 officers, 91 men, 
 wounded, 105 officers, 4979 men. 
 
 Minor. See Age. 
 
 Minor Orders (cf. C. E., X-332). Vicars Apos¬ 
 tolic, prefects Apostolic, and abbots or prelates 
 nullius, even if they have not received episcopal 
 consecration, are authorized by law, but only dur¬ 
 ing their term of office and within their own terri¬ 
 tory, to confer first tonsure and minor orders on 
 their own secular subjects and on others exhibit¬ 
 ing the requisite dimissorial letters; a regular abbot 
 has the same power in regard to those subject 
 to him by profession, provided he is a priest and 
 has legimately received the abbatial blessing; his 
 power, however, is similarly limited unless he has 
 received episcopal consecration, all privileges to the 
 contrary being now revoked. 
 
 .Minorca, Diocese of (Minoricensis; cf. C. E. 
 X—332a), suffragan of Valencia , comprises the Island 
 of Minorca, the second largest of the Balearic Islands, 
 which belong to Spain. The see is filled by Rt. Rev. 
 John Torres y Rivas, born in Iviza 1844, ordained in 
 1868, served as a pastor, professor of Latin at the 
 University of Madrid, vice rector of the Spanish 
 College in Rome and chancellor of Iviza, made a dean 
 and vicar capitular in 1898, prothonotary apostolic 
 in 1900 and chaplain to His Majesty, appointed 
 bishop 9 June, 1902. This diocese extends over an 
 area of 273 square miles, making it the smallest of the 
 Spanish dioceses. It embraces a Catholic population 
 of 40,000, 80 Protestants, 17 parishes, 111 priests, 
 38 churches, 8 oratories, and 7 convents with 2U 
 religious and 77 Sisters. 
 
 Minsk, Diocese of (Minscensis; cf. C. E., 
 X—333d), in Western Russia, erected in 1798, was 
 suppressed bv the Russian Government m 1869, and 
 only- re-established by a Decree of 1917. The diocese 
 is dedicated to St. Michael the Archangel and em¬ 
 braces a Catholic population of 288,980, 9 deaneries, 
 66 filial parishes and 84 secular priests. The first 
 bishop since the re-establishment is Rt. Rev. feigis- 
 mund Losinski, born in the diocese in 1870, made 
 chancellor of Mahileff and professor at the seminary 
 and appointed 2 November, 1917. In December, 
 1920, the Russian papers circulated a false report 
 that Bishop Losinski, held as a hostage by the Boi- 
 sheviki, had died of typhus at Smolensk. As a result 
 of the intervention of the Holy See, however, the 
 bishop was liberated in 1921 and returned to Warsaw 
 on 14 July. 
 
 Miranda, Diocese of. See Braganqa. 
 
 Mirepoix, Diocese of. See Pamiers, 
 
MIRIDITE 
 
 505 
 
 MISSION 
 
 Miridite, Abbey of (Miriditarum, cf. C. E. 
 X 352c.), situated in the diocese of Alessio, at 
 Oroschi, in the province of Scutari, Albania. It is 
 an abbey nullius, directly subject to the Holy See. 
 The present abb6 is Rt. Rev. Giuseppe Gionalli, 
 appointed titular Bishop of Callinicus21 November, 
 1921. In the territory under his jurisdiction are: 
 25,000 Catholics, 25 churches and 8 chapels; 13 
 native priests of whom 11 are secular and 2 Friars 
 Minor. 
 
 Misericorde, Congregation of the Sisters of.— 
 At present the congregation numbers: professed 
 Sisters, 250; novices, 25; postulants, 18. Branch 
 houses have been established throughout Canada 
 and the United States. At the mother-house in 
 Montreal there are 81 nuns; with this is associated 
 an orphan asylum with 7 Sisters and 525 children; 
 also a hospital giving accommodation to 175 
 patients, with t nuns and 30 attendants; patients 
 treated during the year 2837. At Sault-au-Recollet 
 the nuns conduct an orphan asylum with accommo¬ 
 dations for 150 children, attendants 25, nuns 15. 
 The hospital at Ottawa, founded in 1879, was 
 • destroyed by fire in 1900. The new building, com¬ 
 pleted in 1904, accommodates 100 patients, nuns 
 14, nurses 12. A new addition, called the Annex, 
 was added in 1920, with accommodation for 35 
 patients. A hospital was opened at Winnipeg in 
 1898 to commemorate the golden jubilee of the 
 order. Patients treated during the year of 1920 
 2640, nuns 19, nurses 30. In the same year a 
 hospital was opened at Edmonton, Alta.: nuns 14, 
 nurses 20, patients treated during the year 190l! 
 In 1904 a branch house was founded at St. Norbert, 
 Man., for children, and accommodates 200 little 
 ones. In the United States the nuns have a large 
 hospital in New York City: nuns 28, nurses 30, 
 patients treated during the year 3896. In Green 
 Bay, Wis., a hospital was established in 1900: nuns 
 2 a 2 . nurses 30, patients treated during the year 1698. 
 At Oak Park, a suburb of Chicago, a beautiful hos¬ 
 pital was opened in 1905: nuns 20, nurses 25 
 patients treated during the year 2740. In 1912 a 
 hospital was opened at Pana, Ill., in the coal 
 regions. nuns 9, nurses 12, patients treated during 
 the year 652. The establishment at Milwaukee has 
 accommodation for 35 patients; nuns 10, nurses 5. 
 In connection with the institution is a nursery with 
 50 babies. In Toronto a hospital was opened for 
 mothers and babies (1917), accommodating 35 
 mothers and 50 babies. Perpetual vows are now 
 taken by the religious three years after first vows 
 are made, these first vows having been renewed 
 annually. 
 
 Misocco and Calanca, Prefecture Apostolic 
 of (Mesancinae et Calancae; cf. C. E., X —354c) 
 in the Canton of Grisons, Switzerland, with official 
 residence at Cama-Loggia. This territory is admin¬ 
 istered by a vice-prefect apostolic, Rev. Emile de 
 Seravalle, a member of the Capuchin Order, to whom 
 the prefecture is entrusted. The population, number¬ 
 ing 4250, is almost entirely Catholic. The prefecture 
 comprises 9 residences, 8 parishes, 10 secular priests, 
 under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Chur, 12 reg- 
 
 ul " $?Jpy,22 churches or chapels, and 24 schools 
 with 346 children. 
 
 Mission, Congregation of the (cf. C. E., X-357). 
 General Administration.— During the twenty-six 
 years of the generalship of Fr. Fiat (1878-1914), 
 the number of Lazarists and of Sisters of Charity ' 
 increased almost twofold. In China alone, to give 
 one remarkable instance, the number of Lazarist 
 vicariates increased from four in 1878 to ten in 
 
 1914. The chief events of general interest which 
 took place in the congregation during Fr. Fiat’s 
 term of office were the beatification of John Gabriel 
 Peiboyre and krancis Regis Clet, the former 
 martyred in China in 1840, the latter in 1820, and 
 the introduction of the cause of Louise de Marillac 
 co-foundress of the Sisters of Charity, and that of 
 the Sisters of Arras put to death during the French 
 Revolution. These servants of God were solemnly 
 beatified by Benedict XV in 1920. Several other 
 causes actually before the Court of Rome, notably 
 those of Justin de Jacobis, Vicar Apostolic in 
 Abyssinia, Catherine Laboure, to whom the Miracu¬ 
 lous Medal was revealed; John le Vacher, and many 
 others, were zealously promoted by him. The 
 Geneial Assembly of 1914 accepted Fr. Fiat’s resig¬ 
 nation, lie having reached the age of eighty-two 
 Born in Auvergne 29 August, 1832, he made his 
 theological studies in the Seminary of St. Flour 
 and his novitiate at Paris, was ordained priest and 
 sent to the grand seminary of Montpellier, where 
 he labored for ten years, was recalled to Paris and 
 named sub-director of novices, and later assistant 
 superior of the mother-house, and was elected 
 superior general in 1878 in succession to Fr. Bore 
 deceased. 
 
 Fr. Fiat’s successor was Fr. Emile Villette, procu¬ 
 rator general of the congregation, elected superior 
 general 31 July, 1914. Frs. Alfred Louwyck, Francis 
 Verdier, Philip Meugniot, and Augustine Veneziani 
 werG elected assistant superiors. Emile Villette was 
 born at Somain in the Diocese of Cambrai in 
 
 1855, entered the Congregation of the Mission in 
 1873, after ordination was sent as professor to the 
 grand seminary of Oran, Algiers, in 1886 was named 
 superior of the seminary of Solesmes, and in 1898 
 superior of the grand seminary of Cambrai, and in 
 1903 was appointed procurator general of the con¬ 
 gregation. His generalship fell within the troubled 
 
 of the World War. For the congregation 
 this was a fratricidal war. Members were found 
 in both camps, and many on both sides met death 
 on the battlefields of Europe. The strain of the 
 conflict told upon the health of the superior, who 
 died 7 November, 1916. Owing to the war it was 
 practically impossible to summon a general assem¬ 
 bly at this time to elect a successor to Fr. Villette, 
 so according to the constitutions the government 
 of the congregation was assumed by a vicar general, 
 and Fr. Alfred Louwyck, the assistant superior, 
 became vicar. Fr. Louwyck was born near St. 
 Omer 24 January, 1851, entered the congregation 
 in 1876, was master of novices and director of 
 students at the mother-house, and did excellent 
 work on the constitutions and rules of the congre¬ 
 gation. He died 17 February, 1918, and was suc¬ 
 ceeded as vicar general by Fr. Francis Verdier, who 
 had been elected second assistant in 1914. The 
 possibility of convoking a general assembly re¬ 
 maining indefinite, the Holy See granted to the 
 new vicar general the full powers of a superior 
 general, so that the congregation should not suffer 
 for lack of adequate authority. The armistice put¬ 
 ting an end to hostilities, Fr. Verdier summoned a 
 general assembly for 27 September, 1919. The 
 deputies to the assembly of nearly 100 chose Fr. 
 Verdier superior general, and Frs. Emile Cazot, 
 Louis Planson, Patrick McHale, and Augustine 
 Veneziani, assistants. Fr. Verdier was born 1 March, 
 
 1856, at Lunel, Diocese of Montpellier, and was 
 received into the Congregation of the Mission in 
 1874; after his ordination he taught in the grand 
 seminary of Nice, received the doctorate of theology 
 in Rome in 1887, and was superior of the grand 
 seminary of Montpellier from 1895 to 1903, when 
 
MISSION 
 
 MISSION 
 
 506 
 
 the seminaries in France were closed by the Gov¬ 
 ernment, and he was sent as superior to the semi¬ 
 nary of Noto, Italy, remaining there for ten years; 
 elected superior general by an almost unanimous 
 assembly. The congregation has accepted 80 new 
 houses within the last ten years. A few of these, 
 however, are revivals of institutions suppressed dur¬ 
 ing various European revolutions. The new founda¬ 
 tions are chiefly in countries outside of Europe, 
 and the restorations in France, Germany, and Po¬ 
 land. Recently deceased notable members of the 
 congregation are the former assistants, Frs. Allou, 
 Meout, and Forrestier. 
 
 The canonical status of the Congregation of the 
 Mission conforms to Book II, title XVII, De 
 jT&dzQzosts, 
 
 Europe. —In Europe the Congregation of the Mis¬ 
 sion suffered serious losses during the great war. 
 Many priests, students, novices, and Brothers either 
 fell on the battlefield or died of wounds contracted 
 during military service. The dismemberment of 
 the Austro-Hungarian Empire brought on a national 
 crisis which had both civil and religious effects. 
 In fact, it became expedient to divide the Austrian 
 province of the congregation according to racial 
 groupings into Austrian, Hungarian, and Jugoslav. 
 The restored nationality of Poland had a cor¬ 
 responding effect upon the religious and ecclesias¬ 
 tical organization of the nation. In particular the 
 Priests of the Mission, who had been established 
 in Warsaw by St. Vincent himself about the middle 
 of the seventeenth century, were, after long absence, 
 recalled to that city by the present archbishop. 
 The Church of the Holy Cross, founded in Warsaw 
 in 1651, and twenty-two seminaries were under the 
 direction of the Priests of the Mission, when Russia 
 endeavored to quench the spirit of Polish nation¬ 
 ality and extinguish Catholicity in the country in 
 1864. Passports to return to Warsaw and take 
 possession of Holy Cross Church were granted to 
 the Polish Lazarists by the German Government 
 in 1918. The Missionaries have thus resumed the 
 work first undertaken by St. Vincent de Paul in 
 1651. Young priests who are taking graduate 
 courses in theology in the University of Warsaw 
 are under the direction of the Lazarists, one of 
 whom is professor of Sacred Scripture and another 
 director of the diocesan seminary. The parish in 
 Vilna has also been restored to the congregation. 
 The Province of Holland was constituted in 1920. 
 It embraces also the missions of Bolivia in South 
 America and the Vicariate of Eastern Chi-li in 
 China. 
 
 Africa. —The Province of Algiers, to which is 
 attached Abyssinia, has been revived and the semi¬ 
 naries of Constantine and Oran are under the direc¬ 
 tion of the Priests of the Mission. John Baptist 
 Coulbeaux, who died at the mother-house in Paris 
 in 1921, had spent the greater part of his missionary 
 life in Abyssinia, where, during his apostolic labors, 
 he became proficient in the language of the coun¬ 
 try, and at the time of his death was-preparing for 
 publication a dictionary of the Amhara tongue. 
 
 Asia. — Chino .—The Lazarists now have eleven 
 vicariates in China. By Apostolic Brief of 27 April, 
 1912, the Vicariate of Maritime Chi-li, with resi¬ 
 dence at Tien-tsin, was created by division of the 
 Vicariate of Northern Chi-li. Fr. Paul Dumond, 
 C. M., was named its first Vicar Apostolic, and 
 was consecrated Bishop of Curubis 30 June, 1912. 
 The vicariate is territorially the smallest in China, 
 but numerically one of the largest. In 1920 the 
 Holy See created a new vicariate in Southern 
 Kiang-si and entrusted it to the Eastern Province 
 of the United States, Bishop Dumond, formerly of 
 
 Tien-tsin, is at present apostolic administrator. ‘In 
 the autumn of 1921 the first American Lazarists to 
 undertake mission work in the Celestial Empire 
 reached Kan-chow, the seat of the new vicariate. 
 The first superior is Fr. John O’Shea, and his com¬ 
 panions are Frs. Daniel McGillicuddy, Leo Cahill, 
 Francis Meade, Thomas Crossley, with four stu- 
 dents, Messrs. Stauble, Colbert, McLaughlin, and 
 Erbe. As soon as the Americans are sufficiently 
 acquainted with the language and customs of the 
 country, one of them will be chosen vicar apostolic. 
 In 1918 Bishop Jarlin of Peking invited the Irish 
 Province to take charge of St. Josephs Church, 
 Peking. Fr. Patrick O’Gorman volunteered for that 
 mission, and on his arrival in the capital at once 
 set about opening a school for natives and for 
 Europeans. That school is now flourishing. 
 
 Persia .—The Province of Persia barely exists. 
 Constant political changes, Mohammedan fanati¬ 
 cism, and fury render the existence of Catholic 
 missions in Persia extremely difficult. When in 
 1918 the Russians, who had held the Turks and 
 Kurds in check, abandoned Urmiah, these last were 
 determined to return and exterminate the Chris¬ 
 tians. On two different occasions they were re¬ 
 pulsed by the Assyrian Christians, but at length 
 forcing their way by superior numbers they suc¬ 
 ceeded in capturing Urmiah, where they ruthlessly 
 massacred Archbishop Sontag, Delegate Apostolic 
 and Provincial of the Lazarist Province of Persia. 
 Frs. Dinkha, L’Hotellier, and Miraziz met with a 
 like fate. Archbishop James Sontag was born at 
 Dinsheim, Diocese of Strasburg, in 1869. He made 
 his early studies at Prime Combe, and was received 
 into the congregation in 1887. Ordained priest m 
 1895 he was sent first to Urmiah and afterwards to 
 Teheran. After the death of Archbishop Lesne, 
 Fr. Sontag was made Apostolic Delegate and Arch¬ 
 bishop of Ispahan, and was consecrated in the 
 chapel of the mother-house of the Lazarists in 
 Paris in 1910 by Archbishop Amette. He was 
 decorated by the Shah of Persia in 1917, and re¬ 
 ceived the croix de guerre in the same year. At 
 the cost of his life he remained with his afflicted 
 flock when threatened by the Turks. The present 
 superior of the Lazarist mission is Aristide Chatelet, 
 appointed in 1919. Fr. Paul Bedjan, C.M., the 
 distinguished Orientalist, who died at Cologne 9 
 June, 1920, was born at Kosrova, Persia, in 1840. 
 He was of Chaldean origin and modest parentage. 
 His early studies gave promise of his future suc¬ 
 cess in mastering Syriac and Neo-Aramaic. With 
 indefatigable energy Fr. Bedjan edited some forty 
 volumes upon every variety of ecclesiastical science, 
 and his work has been universally esteemed by 
 Oriental scholars and by missionaries in Persia. 
 
 India.—In 1920 the Province of Madrid, at the 
 request of Propaganda, sent four priests to Surada, 
 district of Gan j an, Diocese of Vizagapatam, India, 
 that district to be made a vicariate within a few 
 
 years. ^ . __ 
 
 America. —In 1913 Rt. Rev. Wm. Rojas, C. M., 
 Bishop of Panama, requested the Visitor of the 
 Eastern Province of the United States to send 
 some American priests to attend to the spiritual 
 needs of the Catholic employees of the United 
 States Government in the Zone. Fr. Thomas Mc¬ 
 Donald volunteered for that mission. Within a 
 few years he built a church at Balboa and chapels 
 at stations along the Canal. Fr. Peter Burns, his 
 assistant, has been equally active at Christobal and 
 ' Colon. The missions of Bocas del Toro and 
 Almirante also have for some years been served 
 by Lazarists. At present seven priests are engaged 
 in the Panama mission, In Central America a new 
 
MISSIONARIES 
 
 507 
 
 MISSISSIPPI 
 
 province was formed in 1914 with headquarters at 
 Guatemala City. In Colombia a novitiate of the 
 province of that name was established at Bogota. 
 In Chile the Archbishop of Valparaiso entrusted 
 to the French Lazarists the suburb of Playa Ancha 
 of that city. The territory of Arauca in Colombia 
 was erected into a prefecture apostolic in 1916. 
 Fr. Emile Larquere is first prefect apostolic. In 
 the same republic the district of Tierra-dentro, Dio¬ 
 cese of Popayan, is entrusted to the Congregation 
 of the Mission. In 1921 Fr. August Blessing, Vice- 
 Visitor of Costa Rica, was named Vicar Apostolic 
 of Port Limon, recently created a vicariate. The 
 new Kenrick Seminary and the preparatory school 
 of the diocese of St. Louis are recent foundations 
 
 in the Western Province of the United States, and 
 St. Joseph’s College, Princeton, N. J., in the Eastern 
 Province. During the Mexican revolution most 
 of the houses of the congregation in that republic 
 were closed and property confiscated. By degrees 
 the province is being slowly reconstituted. 
 
 Statistics.— The present number of houses of the 
 Congregation of the Mission is 348, of which 85 are 
 seminaries, and the remaining parish houses or 
 mission houses. .There are 33 provinces, of which 
 17 are in Europe, 4 in Asia, 2 in Africa, 5 in North 
 America, and 1 in the East Indies. The present 
 number of members is about 3000. Owing to the 
 great war vocations in France, Germany, Austria, 
 and Italy have dwindled considerably. In Poland, 
 Spain, Ireland, and the United States the number 
 of vocations has rather increased than diminished. 
 In the Latin American provinces there is great 
 dearth of vocations to the religious state. Statistics 
 of number and class of seculars cared for are not 
 available except for foreign missions and parishes. 
 In the Northern Province of China, which com¬ 
 prises five vicariates, there' are 466,683 Catholics 
 in a total population of about 21,000,000. There 
 were in 1921: 20,554 catechumens, 10,484 pagan 
 adults baptized, 8245 children of Christian parents, 
 and 36,022 children of pagans. In the Southern 
 Province there are six vicariates with a Catholic 
 population of 139,742, an increase of 62,547 in ten 
 years. China is the most promising mission field 
 in charge of the congregation. Whilst French 
 Lazarists are still in the majority in the Chinese 
 missions, other provinces of the congregation are 
 imitating the apostolic zeal of those pioneers who 
 for more than a century have borne the burden of 
 the day and the heats. American, Irish, and Italian 
 provinces have already begun to help towards the 
 conversion of the Celestial Empire to the One 
 
 Faith of Christ. r> T t 
 
 Patrick McHale. 
 
 Missionaries of the Consolata-(TuRiN).— Canon 
 Giuseppe Allamano, rector of the Sanctuary and 
 Convent of the Consolata in Turin realized the need 
 of an Institute to train foreign missioners in that 
 region, so in 1890 he composed a rule planned prin¬ 
 cipally for missionaries destined to evangelize Africa. 
 In 1900 his idea was approved and in June, 1901, 
 he opened the Institute in Turin and two missionary 
 priests were sent to Tuso, in the Vicariate Apostolic 
 of Zanzibar (Eastern Africa), arriving there in June, 
 1902. Here the work was started anong uncivilized 
 natives of the Kenya district, and in spite of dif¬ 
 ficulty of language and other hardships, the king was 
 baptised and in three years 12 stations were es¬ 
 tablished. The Sisters of Blessed Cottolengo came 
 to aid them. In 1905 this province of Kenya was 
 erected into an independent Mission and in 1909 into 
 a vicariate apostolic with Mgr. Filippo Perlo (one 
 of the first two missioners) as vicar, with residence at 
 Limourou. To day over 20 stations are established 
 
 in the vicariate and, besides, 4 orphanages, 1 college 
 for sons of native chiefs, 2 colleges for catechists, 
 1 college (scholastic-catechistical) to develop native 
 teachers, recognized by English Government, 2 
 seminaries (upper and lower) with 60 native students, 
 1 monastery with a number of young native women 
 who aspire to become auxiliary Sisters, 1 printing 
 
 establishment where a monthly 
 
 periodical and school 
 
 and religious books are printed, 1 large industrial 
 school where houses and movable churches are built 
 to be carried to the stations, and a vast farm which 
 provides food supplies for all the stations. There 
 are 60 priests in the vicariate and each station has a 
 school. 
 
 In view of the success of this first mission, the 
 Prefecture of Kaffa in southern Abyssinia was erected 
 in 1913 and entrusted to the missionaries of the Con¬ 
 solata. Missionaries had been banished from this 
 territory in 1904 and were forbidden to enter, so it 
 was 1917 before the Fathers entered as civilians and 
 established five stations. Their work is still hampered 
 and clandestine. The vicar apostolic is Mgr. 
 Gaudentius Barlassina, with residence at Kaffa. 
 In the past year the Missionaries of the Consolata 
 have been invited to another field in Iringa, which is 
 part of the Vicariate apostolic of Dar-es-salam, former 
 German East Africa, now British territory, and en¬ 
 trusted to the German Benedictines. 
 
 The mother-house of the institute, which in the 
 beginning could scarcely shelter 40 persons, has now 
 been transferred to a new and commodious building, 
 with a capacity for 250 persons, divided into four 
 distinct parts namely: collegio for students, seminary, 
 novitiate, and independent house for missionary 
 Sisters. This last institute was established twelve 
 years after the founding of the other institute. Dur¬ 
 ing the war all the clerics in the seminary were called 
 to the army but a relatively numerous personnel was 
 maintained at the mission stations. 
 
 Missionary Church Association. 
 Thought. 
 
 See New 
 
 Missionary Society of St. Paul the Apostle.— 
 Since 1911 new foundations have been made as fol¬ 
 lows: In New York City the Good Shepherd parish 
 and Newman Hall at Columbia University; in 
 Toronto, Canada, St. Peter’s parish and Newman 
 Hall at the University of Toronto; in Minneapolis, 
 Minn., St. Lawrence parish; in Portland, Oregon, 
 St. Philip Neri’s parish; and in Rome, Italy, a 
 residence and house of studies. At present the 
 number of priests is 75, and the number of Paulist 
 students in preparation for the priesthood is 50. 
 
 In 1919, on the death of Very Rev. John J. 
 Hughes, Very Rev. Thomas F. Burke succeeded him 
 as superior general. Among the recently deceased 
 are: Fr. George M. Searle, a former superior gen¬ 
 eral; Fr. Michael P. Smith, a noted missionary; 
 Fr. Gilbert Simmons, for many years associated 
 with the work of the Catholic World; Fr. Charles 
 J. Powers, one of the consultors; and Fr. Hugh 
 Swift, of the Tennessee foundation. 
 
 Mississippi—The area of the State of Mississippi 
 is 46,865 square miles. In 1920 its population was 
 1,789,384, of which 853,962 were whites and 935,184 
 negroes, with 1105 Indians and 364 Chinese. There 
 were 4968 males and 4968 female foreign-born; total, 
 8019. The number of males of voting age was 
 441,331; of females, 434,775. Of these 215,098 males 
 and 206,561 females were white; 225,700 males and 
 227,963 females of negro blood. Of the illiterate 
 males of voting age 9801 were native whites, 489 
 were foreign-born whites, 81,671 were negroes; of 
 the illiterate females 8063 were natives, 493 were 
 foreign-born, and 81,210 were negroes. Illiteracy 
 
MISSOURI 
 
 508 
 
 MISSOURI 
 
 in the total population amounts to 17.2 per cent, 
 a remarkable decrease since the census of 1900 (32 
 per cent). Uliterac}' of the native white population 
 is 3.6 per cent; of foreign born whites 13.3 per 
 cent; of negroes 29.3 per cent. Of the population 
 13.4 per cent was urban, 86.6 was rural. The 
 largest cities are Meridian (23,399), Jackson (22,- 
 817), Vicksburg (18,072). 
 
 Economic Conditions. —Mississippi is pre-emi¬ 
 nently an agricultural state, but there is an 
 increase in manufacturing. The number of estab¬ 
 lishments in 1919 was 2455; the number of persons 
 engaged 64,452; the capital invested $154,117,337; 
 salaries and wages paid $59,182,535; value of prod¬ 
 ucts $197,746,987. The number of farms in the 
 State in 1920 was 272,101, and the value of all 
 farm property was $964,751,855. Cotton is the 
 principal crop, the value of the cotton yield in 
 1919 being $183,845,184, a great increase over that 
 of 1909, which was valued at $83,148,805. Other 
 important crops are corn, oats, and sugar. The 
 value of the sugar crop for 1919 was $3,923,140; 
 in 1909, $1,506,887. In 1919 the bonded debt of the 
 State was $8,443,254. According to the Council of 
 Foreign Bondholders, the State has a defaulted debt 
 of $7,000,000. The assessed value of real and per¬ 
 sonal property is $649,644,340. Although there are 
 mineral deposits in Mississippi, such as limestone, 
 coal, and gypsum, there is but little mining. Ihe 
 railway mileage of the State in 1919 was 4480. 
 Lumbering is an important industry, the present 
 value of the lumber in the State being not less 
 than $350,000,000. 
 
 Education. —Education is not compulsory in 
 Mississippi. The number of children enrolled in 
 1918 was 540,756, and the average attendance was 
 345,952. The average attendance in 1913 was 301,- 
 922, showing an increase in 1918 of 44,030. There 
 are 7266 schools in the school districts, and of these 
 3377 are for negro children. Counting the colored 
 private schools it is estimated that there are about 
 4500 colored teachers with 150,000 colored pupils. 
 The school expenditure in 1917-18 was as follows: 
 for teachers’ salaries $13,498,882; for grand total 
 current expenses $4,263,954; the statistics, outlays, 
 and capital acquisition are not available. There 
 are 6 universities and colleges, and 1 public normal 
 school. The Mississippi Normal College was opened 
 in 1912. 
 
 The laws governing private and parochial schools 
 are as follows: No public funds shall be appro¬ 
 priated toward the support of any sectarian school. 
 The flag shall be displayed within or without every 
 school building. In 19i2 the Legislature abolished 
 all Greek-letter fraternities and sororities in the 
 State colleges or schools, this being the first legis¬ 
 lation of the kind. The matter was brought before 
 the United States Supreme Court, which decided 
 (1 June, 1915) that the Greek-letter fraternity men 
 could not attend any of the state schools of Mis¬ 
 sissippi, thus upholding the law passed in 1912. 
 Bible reading is neither permitted nor excluded in 
 the public schools of Mississippi. 
 
 Religion. —The Catholic population of the State 
 in 1920 amounted to 30,792, including 2675 colored 
 and 344 Indian Catholics. According to the relig¬ 
 ious census of 1916 other religious denominations 
 numbered: Baptists 441,293; Methodist Episcopal, 
 South, 114,469; Methodist Episcopalians 45,483; 
 colored Methodist Episcopal 33,070; African Meth¬ 
 odist Episcopal 26,133; Presbyterian 19,758; African 
 Methodist Episcopal Zion Church 7202; all others 
 43,410. For Catholic educational and religious 
 statistics see Natchez, Diocese of. 
 
 Administration. —There are now six 'judges of 
 
 the -State supreme court, who serve eight years, 
 seventeen Circuit Court judges, and ten chancellors. 
 An amendment to the State constitution in 1914 
 provides for the election of district judges and 
 chancellors in the popular election, and also for 
 the election of supreme court judges. There are 
 State hospitals at Natchez, Vicksburg, and Jackson. 
 The State owns 28,750 acres of cotton and farm 
 lands, upon which the entire prison population of 
 about 1300 prisoners is worked. The annual cash 
 income to the State from the labor of the prisoners 
 is not less than $200,000. Among the holidays of 
 the State are 19 January (Robert E. Lee’s birth¬ 
 day), Thanksgiving Day, and Labor Day. 
 
 Recent Legislation. —In 1912 tipping was pro¬ 
 hibited and child labor regulated. The new bank 
 law of 1914 provided for an inspection system and 
 a tax on banks to provide a fund for paying 
 depositors of insolvent banks. In the same year 
 the initiative and referendum was adopted. In 
 1916 a State board of law examiners was created, 
 women were admitted to the practice of law, and 
 public hangings were prohibited. The law requir¬ 
 ing registration of all voters four months prior to 
 the election barred out women enfranchised by the 
 Federal Amendment of November, 1920. In 1919 
 a highway commission composed of eight men was 
 created. The Federal Suffrage Amendment was 
 defeated on 21 January, 1920. Mississippi, how¬ 
 ever, was the first State to ratify the Federal Pro¬ 
 hibition Act (8 January, 1918). 
 
 History. —During the European War Mississippi’s 
 contribution was 54,295 soldiers, or 1.44 per cent of 
 the United States Army. The Mississippi members 
 of the National Guard joined the 39th Division at 
 Camp Beauregard, Louisiana, and those of the 
 National Army the 87th Division at Camp Pike, 
 Arkansas. The summary of casualties among the 
 Mississippi members of the American Expeditionary 
 Force is as follows: deceased, 18 officers, 886 men; 
 prisoners, 23 officers, 542 men; wounded, 53 officers, 
 1320 men. 
 
 Missouri (cf. C. E., N-398a).—The area of the 
 State is 69,420 square miles. According to the 
 census of 1920 its population is 3,404,055, which 
 shows an increase of 110,720 during the period 
 1910-20, or of 3.4 per cent, a smaller increase than 
 that of the preceding decade, when it was 186,670, 
 or 6 per cent. The largest cities are St. Louis, 
 with a population of 772,897, Kansas City (324,410), 
 St. Joseph (77,939), Springfield (39,631), Joplin 
 (29,855). The urban population is 1,586,963; the 
 rural population 1,817,152, making the urban popu¬ 
 lation 46 per cent. 
 
 Economic Conditions. —In 1917 Missouri ranked 
 as the chief lead-producing State of the Union. 
 The returns from the smelters show that the State 
 mined enough lead ore to produce 234,156 tons of 
 primary lead. The total valuation of the lead 
 produced in 1917 was $40,274,832; of zinc, $27,115,- 
 272; of iron ore, $134,906; of lime, cement, brick, 
 $12,202,000. The quantity of cobalt and nickel 
 sulphides varies considerably in the different work¬ 
 ings. In 1918 the coal produced in the State was 
 worth $17,126,498. The products of the forests of 
 Missouri included (1918) over 272,000,000 feet of 
 lumber, the greatest production being in oak lum¬ 
 ber (112,897,000 feet), yellow pine lumber (31,118,- 
 000 feet), cypress lumber (26,981,000 feet), and gum 
 lumber (24,981,000 feet). The value of the output 
 of farm crops alone for the year 1919 was $566,050,- 
 000. Of the total crop valuation $214,469,000 con¬ 
 sisted of Indian corn, in the production of which 
 Missouri was the first State in the Union. The 
 
MOBILE 
 
 509 
 
 MOBILE 
 
 greater portion of the crop is consumed by live 
 stock within the State. 
 
 The surplus in live stock for the year beginning 
 January, 1920, consisting of cattle, horses, hogs, 
 mules, and sheep, was 9,909,000 head, valued at 
 §378,840,000. Missouri is constantly gaining as a 
 wool-producing State, §3,807,000 worth of wool being 
 sold in 1920. The surplus of poultry and eggs for 
 the year 1919 was about §36,500,000. The statistics 
 in 1904 show an estimated total value from the 
 dairies of §4,900,000, while the statistics of 1919 
 give a total value of §125,351,000. The cotton crop 
 of 1919 brought §11,051,000. The number of farms 
 in 1919 was 263,124, showing a decrease of 14,120, 
 or of 5 per cent since 1910. Missouri has prosperous 
 manufacturing industries, the more important of 
 which depend^ on agriculture and forestry. In 1919 
 there were 8593 establishments with a capital of 
 §939,691,255, employing 245,826 persons, and an out¬ 
 put valued at §1,599,313,923. There are 8230 miles 
 ot railroads and 113 miles of electric railway. A 
 municipal free bridge across the Mississippi River 
 at St. Louis for the accommodation of railroads, 
 electric roads, wagons, and pedestrians was recently 
 completed. 
 
 Religion.— According to the United States reli¬ 
 gious census of 1916 the total population of church 
 members in Missouri was 1,370,551, and the prin¬ 
 cipal religious denominations were as follows: Cath¬ 
 olics 445,352; Baptists 268,468; Congregationalists 
 10,479; Disciples or Christians 145,403; German 
 Evangelicals 37,374; Lutherans 45,313; Methodists 
 228,135; Presbyterians 17,435; Episcopalians 14,309; 
 Reformed bodies 1204; United Brethren bodies, 
 4286; Churches of Christ 15,160; Latter Day Saints 
 9947; Jewish congregations 8347. Thus 32.5 per cent 
 of the total number of church-going people in the 
 State are Catholics, the Baptists having the next 
 highest percentage (18.4), and the Methodists being 
 third (16.7). The selling of any wares or merchan¬ 
 dise is forbidden on Sunday, and one cannot recover 
 for Sunday work. Athletics are allowed. For Cath¬ 
 olic educational and religious statistics see St. 
 Louis, Archdiocese of; St. Louis, University of; 
 Kansas City, Diocese of; St. Joseph, Diocese of. 
 
 Education.— The State is divided into 9807 school 
 districts. The number of teachers in the elemen¬ 
 tary schools in 1920 was 21,126, pupils 672,483, high 
 school teachers 2800, pupils 62,438. Attendance 
 for more than three-fourths of the school term is 
 compulsory for children between eight and fourteen 
 years of^age. The school expenditure in 1917 was 
 §28,048,051, and the school fund in 1918 amounted 
 to §14,390,306. There are eleven colleges in the 
 State, besides sixteen junior colleges. A Depart¬ 
 ment of Education has been recently established in 
 the State University, which had, in^ 1919, 3536 stu¬ 
 dents and 128 professors, 53 instructors, and 64 
 assistants. The School of Administration was 
 opened in 1914. The State laws governing private 
 and parochial schools are as follows: No public 
 money shall be used to help support any school con¬ 
 trolled by any religious sect or denomination. Lots 
 and buildings used exclusively for religious worship, 
 for schools, or for religious or charitable purposes 
 may be exempt from taxation. Bible reading in 
 the public schools is neither permitted nor ex¬ 
 cluded. 
 
 Recent Legislation.— In the past twenty years 
 only two amendments to the constitution have been 
 adopted, despite the fact that it required only a 
 majority vote to adopt amendments. In 1919 nine 
 were voted for. The good roads bond issue amend¬ 
 ments, providing for bond issues of §60,000,000, and 
 the so-called constitution amendment were most 
 
 important. The latter changed the method of call¬ 
 ing a constitutional convention and made the con¬ 
 vention^ bi-partisan. One was of prime importance 
 from Kansas City’s standpoint, for it gave that 
 city home rule in charter-making power and in¬ 
 creased the limit of indebtedness to an extent that 
 will permit necessary public improvements, and, if 
 desired, the purchase of utilities. Two referendum 
 measures referred the Prohibition Act of Missouri 
 and the Workmen’s Compensation Act, both passed 
 by the 1919 legislature. The Prohibition Act passed, 
 but the other was defeated. Missouri has its Chil¬ 
 dren’s Code Commission, appointed by the gover¬ 
 nor. In 1919 it introduced its revised code of fifty- 
 one bills and succeeded in having twenty-five 
 adopted, some of which merely harmonized existing 
 law, while others introduced new standards. The 
 use of school property for recreational purposes was 
 permitted, the school board furnishing free light, 
 heat, and care-taking. Agricultural education is 
 provided for. Capital punishment was abolished 
 in 1917. The juvenile court now takes care of 
 committing children to other than public institu¬ 
 tions, placing them as far as possible with an asso¬ 
 ciation controlled by persons of the same religious 
 faith as the parents of the child. The Smith- 
 Hughes Act, providing for vocational education, was 
 accepted by the State in 1917 and elaborate arrange¬ 
 ments have been made relative to its administra¬ 
 tion. An act was passed in 1919 exempting from 
 the inheritance tax all property, benefit, or income 
 passing to any hospital, religious, or educational 
 or scientific institutions to be used for such pur¬ 
 poses. Recent legislation permits gifts for religious 
 purposes. A state prison board of three members 
 was established by the Legislature in 1917. This 
 board appoints two chaplains for the penitentiary. 
 The Federal Suffrage Amendment was ratified on 
 3 July, 1919; the Federal Prohibition Act on 16 
 January, 1919. 
 
 War History.— The total number of Missourians 
 who served in the war against Germany was 128,- 
 000 in the army, 6910 in the navy, and 3400 in the 
 marine corps. The Missouri members of the 
 national guard were mobilized at the State Rifle 
 Range at Nevada, on 5 August, under command of 
 Brigadier General Harvey C. Clark, and on 28 
 September entrained with the 35th Division at 
 Camp Doniphan, Oklahoma. Arriving in France 
 in May, 1918, they were attached to the American 
 contingent in the St. Mihiel salient, forming a part 
 of the reserve. Transferred to the Argonne they 
 participated in the fiercest fighting of the battle. 
 They went into action on 26 September, 1918, and 
 on October, after six days of fighting, had cap¬ 
 tured every objective from Vouquois Hill to Exer- 
 mont. The drafted men formed a part of the 89th 
 Division under General Leonard Wood at Camp 
 Funston, and also made a fine record in the battles 
 of St. Mihiel and Argonne. Another Missouri unit 
 which acquitted itself with much credit was the 
 12 th Engineers, composed largely of railroad men 
 from St. Louis. The casualties of Missouri men 
 in the American Expeditionary Force were as fol¬ 
 lows: deceased, 106 officers, 2456 men; prisoners, 
 10 officers, 101 men; wounded, 298 officers, 7414 men. 
 
 Mobile, Diocese of (Mobiliensis), in Alabama. 
 This diocese took a conspicuous part in the 
 civic celebration of the bi-centenary of the founda¬ 
 tion of the City of Mobile, 26 February, 1911. In 
 the presence of His Eminence Cardinal Gibbons, 
 Archbishop Blenk, of New Orleans, and all the 
 bishops of the archdiocese, a pontifical Mass was 
 sung in the historic cathedral by Bishop John W. 
 
MODENA 
 
 510 
 
 MOHILEFF 
 
 Shaw, a native of Mobile, and at that time Bishop 
 of San Antonio, but since raised to the dignity of 
 Archbishop of New Orleans. In the afternoon there 
 was a great demonstration in honor of the anni¬ 
 versary, a parade of Catholic laymen taking place, 
 which in numbers had never before been equaled 
 in this city. The celebration was directed by the 
 present bishop, Rt. Rev. Patrick Allen, who was 
 consecrated by Cardinal Gibbons on 16 May, 1897. 
 In his address the cardinal spoke a word of praise 
 for the splendid work Bishop Allen had accom¬ 
 plished, and for the spiritual and temporal benefits 
 which he felt would be gained for the diocese by 
 his marked interest in this event. 
 
 During the same year the Rev. C. T. O’Calloghan, 
 D. D., who had been vicar general of the diocese 
 during four administrations, died on 5 October. On 
 7 February, 1915, Rev. Henry O’Grady, Dean of 
 North Alabama and for several years missionary 
 to the non-Catholics of the Diocese of Mobile, 
 died in Birmingham, and in 1918 Rev. Wm. 
 Demony, one time secretary to the Papal Dele¬ 
 gate, Mgr. Bonzano, an author of considerable 
 promise, died on 8 December. On August 11, 1921, 
 the diocese was shocked by the murder of one of 
 its priests, Rev. James E. Coyle, by a Protestant 
 minister. Father Coyle was Dean of North Ala¬ 
 bama, and a model priest, zealous in the perform¬ 
 ance of his duty, and a noted writer, with some 
 poems also to his credit. Upon trial the murderer 
 was dismissed without punishment. 
 
 During the World War the diocese of Mobile 
 responded generously to the needs of the country, 
 with a full quota of priests serving as chaplains 
 and numbers of young men in the service; 42 of 
 these gave up their lives, either in action or through 
 sickness. 
 
 The Diocese of Mobile comprises a Catholic 
 population of 46,512, of whom 5266 are colored. 
 It includes 63 parishes, 48 missions, 1 monastery 
 for men, 1 convent for men, 71 secular priests and 
 72 regulars, 9 Brothers of the Sacred Heart, 19 
 Benedictine and 5 Jesuit Brothers, 1 seminary with 
 26 seminarians, 1 high school with 5 teachers and 
 an attendance of 146 boys, 8 academies, and 1 in¬ 
 dustrial school. A number of the priests devote 
 themselves to various missionary works, and a 
 home is maintained for the evangelization of the 
 colored people as well as three orphan asylums and 
 seven hospitals; all public institutions permit priests 
 to minister in them. The Clergy Relief Society 
 is organized, as well as the Knights of Columbus, 
 the Ancient Order of Hibernians, and the Holy 
 Name Society; a Catholic monthly is published 
 by St. Paul’s Church in Birmingham. 
 
 Modena, Archdiocese of (Mutinensis; cf. 
 C. E., X—13a), in Emilia, Northern Italy, was 
 united perpetually in 1821 with the Abbey of Nonan- 
 tola, a former Benecditine monastery and prelature 
 nullius. The present bishop is Mgr. Natale Bruni, 
 born in Nociveglia, diocese of Piacenza, 25 December, 
 1856, elected 17 December, 1900, to succeed Mgr. 
 Borgognoni, deceased. During the War the clergy 
 opened a casa del soldato in the archepiscopal palace 
 and the seminary was used as a military hospital. 
 According to 1919 statistics, there are in the diocese 
 220,400 Catholics, 179 parishes, 455 secular and 50 
 regular priests, 60 seminarians, 20 lay brothers, 244 
 Sisters, 450 churches or chapels. 
 
 Modernism (cf. C. E., X-421).—In reply to a 
 query whether the regulations contained in the 
 motu proprio “Sacrorum Antistitum” and the en¬ 
 cyclical “Pascendi” of Pius X were revoked by 
 
 the Code, the Holy Office replied on 22 March, 
 1918, that these anti-modernistic precautions were 
 still in force and were to continue so until the 
 Holy See decreed otherwise. 
 
 Modigliana, Diocese of (Mutilensis; cf. C. E., 
 X—421a), in the province of Florence, Northern 
 Italy, suffragan of Florence. The see is filled by 
 Rt. Rev. Ruggero Bovelli, born in Pantalla, Italy, 
 1875, served as vicar general of Todi and was ap¬ 
 pointed 5 August, 1915, to succeed Rt. Rev. Luigi 
 Capotosti, transferred to the titular see of Thermse 
 22 January, 1915. The Catholic population of this 
 diocese is recorded by 1920 statistics as 40,000; the 
 diocese comprises 83 parishes, 146 secular and 16 
 regular clergy, 40 seminarians, 7 Brothers, 99 Sisters 
 and 114 churches or chapels. 
 
 Modjeska, Helena, actress, b. at Cracow, Poland, 
 on 12 October, 1840; d. at Bay City, California, on 
 8 April, 1909; daughter of Michael Opid, a high- 
 school teacher and talented musician. She studied at 
 St. John’s Convent, Cracow, and at an early age gave 
 proof of her histrionic talent. On leaving school she 
 made an enthusiastic study of the Polish patriotic 
 writers, especially of the great poets Mickiewicz, 
 Slowacki, and Zaleski, and also of Shakespeare, by 
 whom she was fascinated. In 1857 she married 
 Gustave Sinnmayer Modrzejewski, a theatrical im- 
 pressario. A few years later she decided to follow the 
 stage and joined a travelling company. In 1865 
 she came under the guidance of Jasinski, a noted 
 stage director in Warsaw, and achieved a decided 
 success at Cracow in Schiller’s “Don Carlos.” A 
 little later her husband died, and on 12 September, 
 1868, she married Count Karol Bozenta Chlapowski. 
 The following month she appeared in the Imperial 
 Theatre, Warsaw, and, playing “Adrienne Lecouv- 
 reur,” scored a great triumph, establishing her record 
 as Poland’s premiere actress. A few weeks later she 
 had signed a life contract to play at the Warsaw 
 Theatre. Her success, however, raised a hurricane 
 of professional jealousy, and in 1876 she emigrated 
 to California, which was thenceforward her home. 
 She made her first American appearance at San 
 Francisco in 1877, when for the convenience of 
 Americans she modified her name to Modjeska. Her 
 success as Adrienne was immediate. She repeated her 
 triumphs through America in Shakespearean and 
 lighter roles, and then captured England and Ire¬ 
 land, in the latter country, she being a patriot from 
 a sister oppressed nation, was dogged by British 
 secret service agents. Madame Modjeska was most 
 successful probably in the roles of Lady Macbeth, 
 Mary Stuart, and Beatrice. 
 
 Modjeska, Memories and Impressions ; an autobiography 
 (New York, 1910). 
 
 Mohileff, Archdiocese of (Mohiloviensis; cf. 
 C. E., X—428d), in Russia, with episcopal residence 
 at Petrograd. Most Rev. Vincent Kluczynski pro¬ 
 moted to this see 7 April, 1910, retired and was 
 transferred to the titular see of Philippopolis 22 Sep¬ 
 tember, 1914. He was succeeded by Most Rev. 
 Edward de Ropp, bom in the archdiocese in 1851, 
 ordained in 1886, appointed Bishop of Tiraspal 9 
 June, 1902, transferred to Vilna 9 November, 1903, 
 exiled by the Imperial Russian Government from 
 1907 until 1917, and promoted 25 July of that year. 
 He was taken prisoner by the Bolsheviki, but liber¬ 
 ated, through the intervention of the Pope and 
 permitted to go to Rome in 1920. The archdiocese 
 has the privilege of three suffragan bishops, residing 
 at Mohileff, Polotsk and Livonia, but at present 
 there is only one, Most Rev. John Felix Cieplak, 
 titular Archbishop of Acheida, who resides at Mohi¬ 
 leff. Mohileff is the primatial see of Russia and the 
 
MOLFETTA 
 
 511 
 
 MONGOLIA 
 
 Metropolitan for all the bishoprics of the Latin Rite, 
 and is the largest archdiocese in the world, comprising 
 three quarters of European Russia and all of Asiatic 
 Russia. It embraces a Catholic population of 
 747,709, and according to 1920 statistics comprises 
 171 parishes, 56 filial parishes, 324 secular and 4 
 regular clergy. 
 
 Molfetta, Terlizzi and Giovianzzo, Diocese of 
 (Melpichtensis, Terlitiensis and Jurenacensis; 
 cf. C. E., X—434a) , in the province of Bari, Southern 
 Italy, directly subject to the Holy See. These sees 
 are filled by Rt. Rev. Pascale Gioia, appointed 30 
 September, 1921, to succeed Rt. Rev. Giovanni 
 Jacono, transferred to Caltamisetto 18 March, 1921; 
 the dioceses, although united, each preserves its 
 own rights. According to 1920 statistics Malfetta 
 has 4 parishes, 70 secular and 9 regular clergy, 150 
 seminarians, 7 Brothers, 10 Sisters and 15 churches 
 or chapels; it comprises the city and commune of 
 Malfetta, a territory of some 50,000 inhabitants. 
 Terlizzi counts 2 parishes, 40 secular and 2 regular 
 priests, 16 churches or chapels and a population of 
 24,100. Giovinazzo comprises 2 parishes, 37 secular 
 and 6 regular clergy, 34 churches or chapels, 6 
 Brothers, 24 Sisters and 12,150 inhabitants. 
 
 Monaco, principality and diocese, situated on 
 the Mediterranean Sea, covers an area of eight 
 square miles and comprises the towns of Monaco, 
 La Condamine, and Monte Carlo, with a total 
 population (1913 census) of 22,956. 
 
 The present ruler, Prince Albert III, was an 
 absolute ruler until 1911, when on 7 January a con¬ 
 stitution was promulgated which provides for a 
 National Council elected by universal suffrage and 
 vote by ballot. The Government is carried out 
 under the authority of the Prince, by a Ministry 
 assisted by a Council of State. The legislative 
 power is exercised by the Prince and the National 
 Council, which consists of 21 members elected every 
 four years. The territory of the principality is 
 divided into three communes administered by 
 municipal bodies, in the election of which women 
 are entitled to take part. It has its own coinage 
 (it issues only 100 franc pieces), which is current 
 since 1876 in all the states of the Latin union, and 
 also issues its own postage stamps and has its own 
 flag. 
 
 In 1887, by the Apostolic letter of His Holiness 
 Leo XIII, the principality was erected into a dio¬ 
 cese directly subject to the Holy See and Mgr. 
 Bonaventure Theuret was appointed its first bishop. 
 He died 11 November, 1901, and the see was 
 vacant, administered by the vicar capitular, Mgr. 
 Guyotte, until 1903 when Rt. Rev. Jean-Charles 
 Arnal du Curel was appointed second bishop of the 
 see. Bishop Curel died 5 June, 1915, and was suc¬ 
 ceeded by Rt. Rev. Victor-Augustin Vie, born at 
 Escrennes 1849, preconized Bishop of Monaco 8 
 May, 1916, died 10 June, 1918. After Bishop Vie’s 
 death the see was again vacant, administered by 
 the vicars capitular, Leon Pauthier (1918-20) and 
 Lazare Perruchot (1920). On 16 December, 1920, 
 the present incumbent, Rt. Rev. Georges-Prudent- 
 Marie Bruley des Varennes, was appointed bishop 
 and took possession of the see 25 January, 1921. 
 
 By a decision of the Congregation of the Con¬ 
 sistory 6 May, 1921, the Archdiocese of Aix was 
 constituted the court of appeal for the Diocese of 
 Monaco, which, though still remaining directly 
 under the Holy See, has been reattached, for its 
 provincial councils, to the metropolitan province 
 of Aix. 
 
 The religious orders established in the diocese 
 are: men, Carmelites, Friars Minor, Jesuits, Clerks 
 
 55 
 
 Regular of . the Mother of God, Fathers of the Holy 
 Ghost and Christian Brothers; women, Sisters of 
 the Infant Jesus, Sisters of Bon Secours, Daughters 
 of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul, Dominican Sis¬ 
 ters, Sisters of the Holy Rosary, and Sisters of the 
 Blessed Sacrament. The Christian Brothers have 
 charge of 3 communal schools: 1 at Monaco with 
 307 students, 1 at La Condamine with 402 students, 
 and 1 at Monte Carlo with 480 students; the 
 Sisters of the Infant Jesus also conduct a com¬ 
 munal school in each town, and in addition to 
 these they have 1 boarding school with 145 pupils 
 and 3 day schools at Monaco with 145 pupils, 1 at 
 La Condamine with 100 pupils, and 1 at Monte 
 Carlo with 114 pupils. The charitable institutions 
 comprise 3 infant asylums with a total number of 
 220 children, 1 orphanage and industrial school 
 under the Daughters of Charity, 1 orphanage, in¬ 
 dustrial school and school under the Dominicans, 
 and 1 nursery and dispensary under the Daughters 
 of Charity. Various archconfraternities are or¬ 
 ganized in the diocese, of Penitents, of Our Lady of 
 Assistance, of Christian Mothers, of the Holy Rosary 
 and Third Order of St. Francis. 
 
 Among the prominent clergy deceased in recent 
 years are: Mgr. J. B. Guyotte, vicar capitular (d. 
 1915); Mgr. J. Baud (d. 1917) ; Mgr. Pierre Mercier 
 (d. 1918); Rev. Demetrius Giannecchini (d. 1919), 
 and Mgr. Leon Pauthier (d. 1920). 
 
 Mondonedo, Diocese of (Minfoniensis; cf. 
 C. E., X—477a), suffragan of Compostela, Spain. 
 The present bishop is Rt. Rev. Juan Jose Solis y 
 Ferndndez, consecrated 1907. The diocese has an 
 area of 1622 square miles, 603 parishes divided into 
 27 arch presbyterates, 403 priests, 410 churches, 512 
 chapels or sanctuaries, 27 convents, 57 members of 
 religious orders of men, and 213 Sisters. The Cath¬ 
 olic population is 275,000. 
 
 Mondovi, Diocese of (Montis Regalis in 
 Pedemonte; cf. C. E., X—478a), suffragan of Turin, 
 Italy. The present bishop is Rt. Rev. Giovanni 
 Battista Ressia, elected 1897. The Catholic popu¬ 
 lation of the diocese is 170,400. There are 150 
 parishes, 490 secular priests, 145 seminarians, 12 
 Brothers, 135 Sisters, 20 regular priests and 1760 
 churches and chapels. 
 
 Mongolia, Central, Vicariate Apostolic of 
 (Mongoliae centralis; cf. C. E., X—482b), in 
 China, with residence at Si-wan-tse, contains a 
 Catholic population of 46,867 and is entrusted to the 
 Congregation of the Immaculate Heart of Mary 
 (Scheutveld). The vicar apostolic, Rt. Rev. Jerome 
 Van Aertseler, b. at Hoogstraeten, Belgium 1 Novem¬ 
 ber, 1845), titular Bishop of Zarai, has filled this see 
 since 1898. The vicariate numbers (1921) 52 districts, 
 52 missions with resident priests, 297 stations, 181 
 churches and chapels, 40 European priests of the Con¬ 
 gregation of Scheutveld, 24 native priests (secular) 4 
 convents for women, 1 seminary with 57 seminarians, 
 
 1 college for boys with 90 pupils, 1 for girls with 40 
 pupils, 28 Franciscan Missionaries of Mary, 267 
 teachers and catechists (men), 162 (women), 11,135 
 catechumens, 136 schools for boys, 99 schools for 
 girls, 11 refuges with 541 inmates, iO orphan asylums 
 with 1495 girls. 
 
 On 15 November, 1914, Rt. Rev. Edward Ter 
 Laak was consecrated as coadjutor. 
 
 Mongolia, Eastern, Vicariate Apostolic of 
 (Mongolia Orientalis; cf. C. E., X-479b), erected 
 21 December, 1883, by Leo XIII, who divided 
 Mongolia into three vicariates apostolic, Eastern, 
 Central, Southwestern. The vicariate is entrusted 
 
MONGOLIA 
 
 512 
 
 MONREALE 
 
 to the Belgian Missionaries of the Congregation of 
 Scheutveld, and embraces the province of Jehol, 
 part of the province of Chi-li lying without the 
 Great Wall, and part of the province of Mukden 
 commonly called Pien. It is bounded on the south 
 by that part of the province of Chi-li beyond the 
 Great Wall; on the west by the vicariate of Central 
 Mongolia; and on the north and east by Man¬ 
 churia. The climate is severe and dry, especially 
 in the north; in the southern part the heat of the 
 summer and the cold of the winter are intense. 
 Epedimics are frequent, especially typhoid, scarlet 
 fever, influenza, bubonic plague and pneumonia. 
 Many of the newly arrived missionaries succumb to 
 typhoid. The vicariate, is divided into 3 districts 
 and subdivided into 25 residences (churches with 
 resident missionaries), whence the priests administer 
 to 151 Catholic centers (single congregations com¬ 
 posed of 30 or more members), and to 1581 affiliated 
 localities (with less than 30 Catholics in a single 
 congregation). The total population approximates 
 5,000,000; the total Catholic population (July, 
 1921) is 35,031 Chinese. The secular priests are 
 Chinese and number 15; the regular priests (Con¬ 
 gregation of Scheutveld) number 38, and are 
 assisted by 1 lay brother. There are 70 churches 
 and chapels, 1 convent for Chinese Brothers of the 
 Sacred Heart, 1 convent for Chinese women living 
 in community, 1 seminary with 29 seminarians, 2 
 colleges for boys with 138 students, 2 normal schools 
 for girls with 51 pupils, 55 elementary schools for 
 boys with 1360 pupils and 66 for girls with 1641 
 pupils, 76 catechetical centers with 2627 catechu¬ 
 mens, 1 home for men with 32 inmates, and 1 for 
 women with 18 inmates, 14 orphanages with 676 
 children, 81 orphans in the care of nurses, and 20 
 in the care of Catholic families. The number of 
 orphans adopted yearly is 127. The sect of Nai-li-ti 
 on 17 November, 1891, martyred Fr. Petro Sin and 
 60 neophytes and burnt the churches at Pakow 
 and Sanshekiatze. In 1900 the Boxers laid waste 
 the entire vicariate with fire and sword. Fr. Joseph 
 Segers, at the age of thirty-two, at the command 
 of the sub-prefect of Lwanpinghsien, was buried 
 alive for the Faith; his cause has been introduced 
 at Rome. 
 
 The following are the more recent events of 
 note: 1908, founding of 2 new residences, in Chan- 
 wan-tzen and Kong-ye-fu; 1909, founding of the 
 college for boys in Hata; 1910, founding of a new 
 residence in Ta-ing-tzen in Barin; 1911, epidemic 
 of pneumonia; proclamation of Mongolian inde¬ 
 pendence; 1912, rebellion of the soldiers in Chao- 
 yang-fu; the destruction by fire of the college for 
 boys at Sung-shu-tsoei-tze; battle between Mongol¬ 
 ians and Chinese with the latter the victors; 1913, 
 rebellion of the soldiers in Jehol; victory of the 
 Mongolians over the Chinese; Chinese soldiers de¬ 
 spoil the church, residences and settlement of Ta- 
 ing-tzen in Barin, and after dispossessing the mis¬ 
 sionaries and more than 1000 Catholics force them 
 to seek refuge among the churches of the south; 
 1914, building of the church in Kongil-fou; 1916, 
 founding of a home for aged women in Sung-shu- 
 tsoei-tze ; erection of three new residences in 
 Choei-zen-chan, Fang-chenn, and Fong-ning-hein; 
 1918, famine in Chao-yang-hien; building of the 
 church of Taing-tzen in Barin; 1918-19, death of 
 eight missionaries; 1920, deaths of four missionaries; 
 1920-21, great famine in Chao-yang-hien. 
 
 Since the year 1908 death has claimed from the 
 vicariate eighteen missionary priests, sixteen Euro¬ 
 peans, and two Chinese, among whom were the 
 following: Wilhelm Meyer (1838-1909), labored 
 among the missions of the vicariate for forty-three 
 
 years, delegate of Eastern Mongolia to the general 
 congregation of his order in Europe; Albert Botty 
 (1875-1919), called from the vicariate to become 
 superior general of his order and being forced to 
 resign through sickness returned to the missions as 
 professor of theology in the seminary; John Vyt 
 de Willegen (1866-1911), for nineteen years among 
 the missions of the northern district, of which he 
 was finally elected superior; Ernest G. van Obberge 
 (1875-1919), director of the southwestern district, 
 whose labors of twenty-one years in the vicariate 
 resulted in many converts; Patrick Tcheng (1841- 
 1919), a zealous missionary for forty-three years; 
 Marcus Tchao (1869-1920), dedicated to the work 
 of the missions for twenty-one years, rector of the 
 residence of Liukiatze, cruelly put to death by the 
 pagans. Among the laity recently deceased is Joseph 
 Tchang-tchenn-tong, catechist in Chao-yang-hien, 
 whose zeal converted many and whose counsel was 
 sought by both the lowly and prominent, elected 
 president of the council of the civil prefecture, ap¬ 
 pointed mandarin by the Manchurian government. 
 
 Mongolia, Southwestern, Vicariate Apostolic 
 of (Mongolia occiduo-meridionalis; cf. C. E., 
 X—482b), in China, with residence at Eul-che-se- 
 king-ti, is entrusted to the Congregation of the 
 Immaculate Heart of Mary (Scheutveld). This 
 mission has an approximate population of 2,000,000, 
 of whom 32,072 are Christians, and 16,004 catechu¬ 
 mens. Having been modified again 12 December, 
 1914, it now comprises the territory in the ring 
 formed by the Yellow River and the Great Wall. 
 The vicar apostolic, Rt. Rev. Ludovic Van Dyck, b. 
 21 January, 1862, ordained 30 May, 1885, was ap¬ 
 pointed 12 August 1915, titular Bishop of Abbir and 
 Vicar Apostolic of Southwestern Mongolia, conse¬ 
 crated 22 January, 1916. The 1921 statistics credit 
 the vicariate with 187 Christian communities, 33 
 residences, 154 churches and chapels, 42 European 
 and 6 native priests, 72 native nuns, occupied in the 
 hospitals and schools, 165 instructors and catechists 
 (men), and 126 women instructors, 1 seminary with 
 2 seminarians, 4 students of philosophy and 42 
 Latinists, 3 colleges with 120 students, 1 normal 
 school for girls with 21 students, 37 primary schools 
 for boys with 1122 pupils. 
 
 Events of special importance include: from 1911-12 
 the war occasioned on the declaration of the Republic, 
 the massacre of the missionaries and the Christians 
 by the Ko-lao-hoei sect in 1912; the great famine from 
 1915-1916; the influenza epidemic from 1917-1918, 
 which caused great ravages. 
 
 Monopoli, Diocese of (Monopolitana; cf. 
 C. E., X—497a), in Italy, dependent directly on the 
 Holy See. The present bishop is Rt. Rev. Agostino 
 Migliore, consecrated titular Bishop of Domitiopolis 
 in 1918 and transferred to Monopoli in 1920. The 
 Catholic population of the diocese is 62,503. There 
 are 8 parishes, 137 secular priests, 10 seminarians, 
 and 29 churches and chapels. 
 
 Monreale, Archdiocese of (Montis Regalis; 
 cf. C. E., X—508a), metropolitan see in the Province 
 of Palermo, Sicily. The present archbishop is Rt. 
 Rev. Antonio Augusto Intreccialagli, O. C. C., b. 
 1852, consecrated Bishop of Caltanisetta in 1907, 
 promoted titular Archbishop of Sardica, and coad¬ 
 jutor of the Archbishop of Monreale in 1914, suc¬ 
 ceeded to the see in 1919 upon the death of Bishop 
 Lancia di Brolo. The Catholic population of the 
 archdiocese is 228,600. There are 30 parishes, 352 
 secular priests, 66 regular priests, 120 seminarians, 
 29 Brothers, 94 Sisters, and 218 churches and chapels. 
 
MONT-LAURIRR 
 
 513 
 
 MONTAUBAN 
 
 Mont-Laurier, Diocese or.—Erected 26 April 
 19 13 by separation from the Diocese of Ottawa! 
 1 he first bishop, Frangois Xavier Brunet, born at 
 bt-Andre dArgenteuil 27 November, 1868, ordained 
 1893, elected bishop of Mont-Laurier 6 August, 
 1913, died in Montreal 7 January, 1922, and was 
 buried in. liis cathedral at Mont-Laurier 11 January 
 following. Rev. J. E. Limoges, cure of St. Jovite, 
 is administrateur Scd& 1 Gccmtc. The Catholic popu¬ 
 lation is 38,969; the secular priests number 53 and 
 regular priests 13. There are 42 parishes and 42 
 churches with resident priests, 10 missions with 
 chinches, 3 monasteries for men and 7 for women, 
 1 corn ent for men and 7 for women, 1 seminary 
 with 13 seminarians and classical college attached 
 with 140 pupils, 21/ parochial schools, 1 high school, 
 7 academies, 1 training school, 1 asylum. The 
 Society of Saint Joseph exists among the clergy. 
 For the laity there are the following associations: 
 Ladies of St. Anne, Union of St. Joseph, French- 
 Canadian Artisans, Catholic Foresters, League of 
 the Sacred Heart. The Government contributes to 
 the support of Catholic institutions. 
 
 Montalcino, Diocese of (Ilcinensis; cf. C. E., 
 X—513b), in Italy, dependent directly on the Holy 
 See. The present bishop is Rt. Rev. Alfredo del 
 Tomba, consecrated 1909. The Catholic population 
 of the diocese is 39,150. There are 34 parishes, 74 
 secular priests, 3 regular priests, 10 seminarians, and 
 85 churches and chapels. 
 
 Montalto, Diocese of (Montis Alti; cf. C. E., 
 X—516a), suffragan of Fermo, Italy. The present 
 bishop is Rt. Rev. Luigi Ferri, consecrated 1911. 
 The Catholic population of the diocese is 33,500. 
 There are 33 parishes, /5 secular priests, 3 regular 
 priests, 18 seminarians, and 97 churches and chapels. 
 
 Montana.—The area of the State of Montana is 
 146,997 square miles. The population in 1920 was 
 548,889, an increase of 46 per cent over that of 
 3/6,653 in 1910. Of this 31.3 per cent was urban; 
 64.5 per cent was rural. There were 605,289 native 
 whites (440,640 of native parentage, 101,910 of 
 foreign parentage, 62,919 of mixed parentage), and 
 93,620 foreign born. The Indians number. 10,956, 
 the Chinese 872, and the Japanese 1074. The per¬ 
 centage of illiteracy was 2.3 for the whole State. 
 The largest cities are Butte 41,611; Great Falls 
 24,121; Billings 15,100; Helena 12,037; Missoula 
 12 , 668 . 
 
 Economic Conditions.— There are 57,677 farms 
 in the State, with an acreage of 35,070,656. In 
 1919 Montana raised 7,799,647 bushels of wheat 
 on 1,698,531 acres; 2,583,908 bushels of oats on 
 191,096^ acres; 346,972 bushels of barley on 75,979 
 acres; 73,824 tons of sugar beets on 8600 acres. The 
 number of farms irrigated was 10,807, or 18.7 per 
 cent, the capital invested being $52,143,363. In 
 1917 copper to the value of $74,928,283 was pro¬ 
 duced, silver to the value of $10,817,589, and gold 
 to the value of $3,517,253. The number of cattle 
 m the State is in excess of 200,000; the annual 
 production of wool is about 17,000,000 pounds. 
 Manufacturing is on the increase, for in 1919 there 
 were 1290 establishments, as against 939 in 1914. 
 The number of persons engaged were 20,692; the 
 capital invested $137,476,277; value of products 
 ♦166,664,518. The principal products were flour and 
 gristmill products, and lumber and timber products; 
 important industries are car and general repair shop 
 construction, and meat packing. The bonded debt 
 of the State in 1921 was $2,852,588; the assessed 
 valuation of real property $1,271,722,246; of per¬ 
 sonal property $396,301,869. There were in 1918 
 
 1913 miles of main line of railway, 205 miles of 
 double track main line, and 1594 miles of branches, 
 etc. 
 
 Education. —The State laws governing private and 
 parochial schools are as follows: No public mone 3 r 
 shall be used in support of any school controlled 
 in whole or part by any sect. Such property as 
 may be used exclusively for educational purposes 
 may be exempt from taxation. Teaching certificates 
 are issued only to citizens or declarants. Any 
 accredited high school may establish normal train¬ 
 ing courses. In 1920 the 3619 public elementary 
 schools had 5305 teachers and 111,721 enrolled 
 pupils. In the 178 public high schools there were 
 910 teachers and 14,517 pupils. The school expendi¬ 
 ture was $12,904,270. The average monthly salary 
 paid to male teachers in 1917 was $104, and to 
 female teachers $70. The College of Agriculture 
 and Mechanic Arts at Bozeman, the School of Mines 
 at Butte, the Normal School at Dillon, and the 
 State University at Missoula (founded in 1895) 
 constitute the University of Montana. In 1919 the 
 State university had 1134 students and 65 instruc¬ 
 tors, and an income from the State of $280,000, 
 the sum of $60,000 being appropriated for new build¬ 
 ings. According to the Russell Sage Foundation 
 Report (1920) Montana stands first among all the 
 States in percentage of school population attending 
 school, in average number of days, attendance by 
 each child of school age, and in expenditure per 
 pupil for purposes other than teachers’ salaries. 
 
 Religion.— According to the United States census 
 of 1916 there were in the State: Catholics 78,113; 
 Methodist Episcopalians 13,872; Presbyterians 6792; 
 Episcopalians 4607; Baptists, North Convention, 
 4073; Lutherans 9129; Servian Orthodox 2700; Con- 
 gregationalists 3841; Disciples of Christ 3719; Latter 
 Day Saints 1460; all other denominations 9259. 
 For Catholic religious and educational statistics 
 see Helena, Diocese of, and Great Falls, Diocese 
 of. 
 
 Recent Legislation— In 1911 a white slave law 
 was passed, juvenile courts established, and a tuber¬ 
 culosis sanatarium provided for. In 1913 a corrupt 
 practice law went into effect, and in 1917 an eight- 
 hour day law for women was passed. In that year 
 attorneys were required to pay a license fee. 
 Changes were made in the mode of elections, in 
 the taxation laws, and in the mining laws. The 
 Prohibition Act was ratified on 19 February, 1918, 
 and the Federal Suffrage Act on 30 July, 1919. 
 
 History. —As a result of the election in 1916 the 
 distinction came to Montana of being the first 
 State to send a woman to Congress, Miss Jeannette 
 Rankin, of Missoula, being chosen. In 1917 Frank 
 Little, organizer and agitator for the Industrial 
 Workers of the World, came to the State to organize 
 a strike in the mines. The State authorities were 
 about to prosecute him when he was lynched at 
 Butte. 
 
 During the European War Montana contributed 
 36,293 soldiers, or .97 per cent of the United States 
 Army. The State members of the national guard 
 joined the 41st Division at Fremont, California, 
 and those of the national army the 91st Division 
 at Camp Lewis, Washington. The summary of 
 casualties among the Montana members of the 
 expeditionary force was as follows: deceased, 13 
 officers, 921 men; prisoners, 2 officers, 37 men; 
 wounded, 43 officers, 2426 men. 
 
 Montaubon, Diocese of (Montis Alrani; cf. 
 C. E., X-524c), Tarn-et-Garonne (France) is suf¬ 
 fragan of Toulouse, comprises a Catholic population 
 of 160,000 French and a few hundred Spaniards. 
 The bishop, Rt. Rev. Pierre Marty, b. 31 October, 
 
MONTE CASSINO 
 
 514 
 
 MONTEREY 
 
 1S50. at Beaumont, professor at the upper seminary 
 in 1883, titular chancellor in 1888, appointed titular 
 Bishop of Acmonia 4 August, 1907, and coadjutor 
 at Montaubon, consecrated 21 September, pro¬ 
 claimed 19 December following, to succeed 10 Jan¬ 
 uary, 1908, Mgr. Adolphe Josue Frederic Fiard (b. 
 12 December, 1821; d. 10 January, 1908). 
 
 There are, according to 1922 census: 327 parishes, 
 335 churches, 340 secular priests, 10 regulars con¬ 
 sidered as diocesan missionaries, 14 congregations 
 of women, contemplative or hospitaler in 37 houses, 
 convents, hospitals, and orphanages; 2 seminaries, 
 upper and lower, with 22 seminarians in the upper 
 and 65 in the lower seminary, 1 college for boys 
 with 26 teachers and 270 boys, 2 for girls with 25 
 teachers and 205 pupils, 119 elementary schools 
 with 41 men and 208 women instructors, with 1412 
 boys and 3134 girls, 1 home for men (La Bastiolle), 
 10 orphan asylums, 16 hospitals, 1 refuge, 1 day 
 nursery. The departmental prison has an official 
 chaplain. Three societies are organized among the 
 clergy: Society of St. John the Evangelist (for 
 defunct priests), Priests Adorers, Apostolic Union; 
 among the laity: Catholic Union, Catholic Youth, 
 Patronages of boys and girls. “La Croix,” of Tarn- 
 et-Garonne, “Catholic Bulletin” (Semaine reli- 
 giuse), and the “Parochial Bulletin” are published 
 in the diocese. 
 
 In June, 1921, Mgr. Marty ordained the former 
 colonel of the artillery Rollin, officer of the Legion 
 of Honor, croix de guerre, and the son-in-law of 
 the former senator from Tarn-et-Garonne, Count 
 Henri Delbreil. 
 
 Monte Cassino (cf. C. E., X-526d), a Benedictine 
 abbey nullius of the Cassinese Congregation, in the 
 province of Caserta, Italy, with an extensive terri¬ 
 tory comprising 58 parishes, 214 churches, and a 
 population of 130,000, with 90 secular priests. The 
 present abbot is Dom Gregorio Diamare, born 
 1865, professed 1888, ordained 1891, claustral prior 
 1908, elected Archabbot of Monte Cassino 1909, and 
 president of the Cassinese Congregation 1915. The 
 community of Monte Cassino numbers 26 priests, 
 2 clerics, and 21 lay brothers. The total number 
 of students in the college is 100, and there are 
 50 clerics in the seminary. A monastery of Bene¬ 
 dictine Nuns, with a community of 15 Sisters, is 
 under the jurisdiction of Monte Cassino. 
 
 Monte Oliveto Maggiore, Abbey Nullius of 
 (S. Mariae Montis Oliveti Majoris; cf. C. E., 
 XI—245a), in the province of Siena, Italy, dependent 
 directly on the Holy See. The abbey was the birth¬ 
 place of the Olivetans, and was founded in 1313 by 
 St. Bernard Tolomeo. The Piccolomini family 
 increased the resources of the abbey, the abbey church 
 being one of the most remarkable in Italy. The 
 abbey was declared exempt from the jurisdiction of 
 the Bishop of Piacenza and erected as an abbey 
 nullius by Clement XIII, 18 Jan., 1765, confirmed 
 as such by Leo XIII in 1899. The present abbot 
 nullius is Dom Mauro Parodi, b. 1856, became abbot 
 10 Sept., 1917. 
 
 Monte Vergine, Abbey Nullius of (Montis 
 Virginis; cf. C. E., X—538d), a Benedictine abbey 
 of the Cassinese Congregation of Primitive Observ¬ 
 ance, situated in the province of Avellino, Italy. 
 The present abbot nullius is Dom Ramiro Marcone, 
 b. 1882, professed 1898, ordained 1906, became abbot 
 in 1918. The abbey nullius comprises 7 parishes 
 with 9000 souls and 27 secular priests. There are 
 16 clerics in the seminary. Dependent on the abbey 
 are 3 convents of Sisters. In the Benedictine abbey 
 there are 9 priests, 9 clerics, 3 novices and 8 lay 
 brothers. 
 
 Monteagudo, Anna de los Angeles, saintly 
 Dominican religious, b. at Arequipa, Peru, in 1602; 
 d. there on 10 January, 1686; daughter of Sebastiano 
 and Francisca (de Leon) Monteagudo. She was 
 educated in the Dominican convent of St. Catherine 
 of Siena, Arequipa, and later, after overcoming the, 
 objections of her parents, she entered the same order, 
 where she reproduced the life of virtue of her sainted 
 countrywoman, Rose of Lima. In 1648 she was 
 appointed mistress of novices, and after a life of virtue 
 she died in the odor of sanctity in her eighty-fourth 
 year. The cause of her canonization was introduced 
 at Rome on 13 June, 1917. 
 
 Montefeltro, Diocese of (Feretrana; cf. C. E.> 
 X—528d), in the province of Urbino, Italy, suffragan 
 of Urbino. The present bishop is Rt. Rev. Raffaele 
 Santi, b. 1863, elected 1912. The Catholic popula¬ 
 tion of the diocese is 60,350. There are 121 parishes, 
 173 secular priests, 30 regular priests, 20 seminarians, 
 24 brothers, 96 Sisters, and 260 churches and chapels. 
 
 Montefiascone, Diocese of (Montis FalisciI 
 cf. C. E., X—529a), in the province of Viterbo, Italy, 
 dependent directly on the Floly See. The present 
 bishop is Rt. Rev. Giovanni Rosi, b. 1872, elected 
 1910. The Catholic population of the diocese is 
 30,000. There are 17 parishes, 69 secular priests, 
 16 regular priests, 50 seminarians, 12 Brothers, 80 
 Sisters, and 77 churches and chapels. 
 
 Montenegro. See Jugoslavia. 
 
 Montepulciano, Diocese of (Montis Politiani), 
 in the Province of Siena, in Tuscany. The diocese 
 is directly subject to the Holy See. Its bishop, 
 Rt. Rev. Giuseppe Batignani, born in the diocese 
 of Siena in 1856, who came to this see 28 November, 
 1898, died 9 November, 1921. The population of 
 the diocese numbers about 16,000. There are 18 
 parishes, 26 churches, 1 monastery (Capuchin), 1 
 convent for men, 30 secular and 6 regular priests, 
 3 Brothers, 12 Sisters, 1 diocesan college with 35 
 students, a conservatory for women with 5 teachers 
 and 20 students, 1 normal school with 8 teachers 
 and 40 students, an elementary school with 18 
 teachers, 1 asylum, and 1 hospital. During the 
 World War the diocese contributed its quota of 
 priests and men to the army, while the laity and 
 clergy at home took an active part in Red Cross 
 and other war work. 
 
 Monterey and Los Ang<eles, Diocese of (Mon- 
 tereyensis et Angelorum), comprises the lower 
 part of the State of California. Right Rev. 
 Thomas James Conaty, who* filled this see from 27 
 March, 1903, died at Coronado, Cal., 18 September, 
 1915, and was succeeded by the present incumbent, 
 Rt. Rev. John J. Cantwell. Bishop Cantwell was 
 born at Clonmel, Tipperary, Ireland, in 1874, made 
 his studies at the college of St. Patrick at Thurles, 
 was ordained 1899, became vicar general of San 
 Francisco and was appointed Bishop of Monterey 
 and Los Angeles 21 September, 1917. During the 
 World War this diocese sent four chaplains over¬ 
 seas, three others took charge of local encamp¬ 
 ments, and a good proportion of the men of the 
 diocese went into the service, while the activities 
 of those at home received the commendation of 
 State officials. 
 
 The Catholic population has kept pace with the 
 general growth of Southern California, and has 
 increased from 60,000 in 1910 to 190,000 in 1921. 
 New parish schools, Catholic high schools for 
 girls and religious communities have been estab¬ 
 lished in the diocese. The religious communities 
 found here at present are: men, Benedictines, 
 
MONTESCLAROS 
 
 MONTREAL 
 
 515 
 
 Franciscans, \incentians, Jesuits, Redemptorists, 
 and Christian Brothers; women, Sisters of the Im¬ 
 maculate Heart of Mary, Sisters of Mercy of the 
 Good Shepherd, of the Visitation, Little Sisters of 
 the Poor, Missionary Sisters of the Sacred Heart of 
 Jesus, Daughters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul, 
 Sisters of St. Joseph of Carondelet, Presentation 
 Sisters, Sisters of St. Dominic, of the Holy Cross 
 °i l e Blessed Sacrament, of the Precious Blood’ 
 of the Holy Names of Jesus and Mary, and Sisters 
 of Notre Dame. 
 
 By 1921 statistics there are 164 parishes, 284 
 churches, 120 missions, 60 mission stations, 8 con¬ 
 vents for men, 12 for women, 225 secular and 90 
 regulai pnests, 160 Sisters, 1 Franciscan seminary 
 with 54 seminarians, besides 80 diocesan seminarians 
 in other seminaries, 1 college for men with 11 
 teachers and 420 students, 1 college for women 
 with 18 teachers and 280 students, 10 high schools 
 vith 45 teachers and 650 girls, 16 academies with 
 50 teachers, 40 elementary schools with 110 teachers 
 and lo 000 pupils, 1 industrial school with 6 teachers 
 and n o 4 students. The charitable institutions in¬ 
 clude 3 homes for the aged, 8 orphanages, 7 hos¬ 
 pitals, 1 settlement house, and 4 day nurseries in 
 Los Angeles The orphanages receive some aid 
 from the State, and the Sherman Indian School 
 county hospitals, and the soldiers’ home permit the 
 pnests to minister in them. The Eucharistic League 
 
 established among the clergy, and the Holy 
 JSame, Isational Catholic Welfare Council and 
 Jm. cr societies among the laity. A diocesan paper, 
 
 4 he Tidings,” is published. 
 
 Montesclaros Diocese of , (Montesclarensis; 
 
 V* AA I—-36a), suffragan of Diamantina, 
 Hrazd The first and present bishop is Rt. Rev. 
 Joao Antonio Pimenta. 
 
 • Montevideo, Archdiocese of (Montisyidei 
 
 W , !- ) ’ ! n Uruguay. This see was 
 vacant from 26 September, 1908, when Most Rev. 
 Manen Soler died, until the appointment of the 
 present incumbent 3 July, 1919. Archbishop Soler 
 was the third bishop and first archbishop of this see 
 and also governed the dioceses of Salto and Melo 
 which are united to the archdiocese. The appoint¬ 
 ment of a new archbishop was delayed by political 
 troubles and during the vacancy Rt. Rev. Richard 
 issa,. titular Bishop of Anemurmm, was appointed 
 administrator. The see is now filled by Most Rev 
 Juan 4 rancisco Aragone, who was born in Carmelo 
 
 n/Q g u ay ’ m A 88 , 3 . and served as visitor of the diocese 
 ol Salto until his appointment. By a Consistorial 
 decree of 17 June, 1921, a metropolitan chapter was 
 erected here According to 1920 statistics this 
 territory includes a Catholic population of 964 577 
 of whom 273,655 are Catholics in the province of 
 Montevideo; it comprises 46 parishes, 7 filial parishes, 
 12w pnests and about 500 churches and chapels. 
 
 pf B £ )n S )el !j er ’^ocese of (Montis Pessulani; 
 ti, ^ 545a), suffragan of Avignon, Francfe. 
 
 hpiLr° C T i 1 ^ 8 £ a , d - 76 bisho P s > the last bishop 
 iQ9i g Cardmal de Cabrieres (q. v.) who died 21 Dec., 
 nnnni / the see is vacant. The Catholic 
 
 population of the diocese is 480,484, of whom 80 230 
 are in the city of Montpellier. There are 43 first 
 class parishes, 103 succursal parishes, and 27 vicarages 
 formerly supported by the state. g 
 
 Montreal, Archdiocese of, metropolitan see of 
 the ecclesiastical Province of Montreal, has as 
 ju tragans the five dioceses of Montreal, Saint- 
 « ac,nthG ’ Sherbrook, Valleyfield, and Joliette, and 
 comprises a Catholic population of 633.538, con¬ 
 
 sisting largely of French Canadians, but with a 
 considerable number of Irish as well as Italians, 
 folds, Lithuanians, Germans, Ruthenians, Syrians, 
 Armenians, and Rumanians. The diocese of Mon¬ 
 treal at the present time (1922) is under the direc¬ 
 tion of Mgr. Paul Bruchesi, consecrated in 1897, 
 assisted by an auxiliary bishop, Rt. Rev. Georges 
 Gauthier. Bishop Gauthier is the successor of Mgr. 
 Racicot, auxiliary bishop, and one time vicar rector 
 of Laval University, d. 14 September, 1915. In 
 1918 Mgr. Martin, archdeacon of the diocese, died 
 10 July, and in 1919 the diocese lost two prominent 
 clergymen by the deaths of Mgr. Emile Roy, vicar 
 ( d> 7 April) and the Abbe Troie, superior 
 of Saint Sulpice (d. 15 March). 
 
 During recent years this diocese has been the 
 scene of a series of events which demonstrate its 
 steady growth. In 1911 the foundation was laid 
 for the College of St. Jean, and in 1917 the Fran¬ 
 ciscan Missionaries of Mary arrived in the diocese, 
 followed in 1920 by the Capuchin Fathers. On 29 
 April, 1919, tho cathedral of Montreal became a 
 basilica, and by a Rescript of Benedict XV, on 8 
 May of the same year, Laval University was made 
 the University of Montreal. During the World 
 War 50,000 men from this territory went into the 
 Canadian Army, and at least one-third of these 
 were Catholic. The diocese gave seven military 
 chaplains, and hundreds of its men were killed at 
 the front while great numbers of others came home 
 wounded. 
 
 The present statistics of the diocese show 170 
 parishes, 170 churches, 13 missions, 4 monasteries 
 for men and 5 for women, 1 abbey for men, 548 
 secular priests and 362 regulars, 1738 Brothers* 
 and 6845 religious women. Under these different 
 communities of women there are 9 mother-houses 
 and 254 other institutions. The educational institu¬ 
 tions under the direction of the Church are: 1 
 theological seminary with 297 students, 1 phi¬ 
 losophical seminary with 160 students; the Uni¬ 
 versity of Montreal, which, in addition to the 
 vanous university courses, has connected with it 
 1 high school with 148 students and 7 religious 
 professors and 2 normal schools, one with 101 boy 
 students and 10 teachers, the other with 249 girl 
 students and 29 teachers. Independent of the 
 university there are 12 professional schools, 424 
 elementary schools with 25,163 students, 74 model 
 oi 26,734 students, 70 academies with 
 
 31,975 students, 19 independent schools which re¬ 
 ceive financial aid from the Government, with 2732 
 students, and 44 which do not receive aid with 
 6021 students. 
 
 In all there are 2391 religious teachers and 996 
 lay teachers. The charitable institutions include 55 
 asylums, 10 hospitals, 26 refuges, and 2 day nurseries 
 while a great number of the public institutions 
 allow the priests of the diocese to minister in them 
 Among the clergy a society is organized for the 
 study of social work, as well as associations for 
 the Foreign Missionaries Seminary and the Union 
 of Saint-Jean, an insurance association. Among the 
 laity there are a number of societies formed in 
 each parish, the principal ones being the Associa¬ 
 tion of St. John the Baptist, the Catholic Associa¬ 
 tion for Canadian Youth, and the Society of St. 
 Vincent de Pan. The Catholic press in this diocese 
 is very active, nil the papers published in French 
 being Catholic, and the Anglo-Protestant papers 
 being usually in sympathy with the Church. The 
 “Semaine Religieuse,” edited by the archbishop, is 
 the official organ of the diocese and has a circula¬ 
 tion of many thousands. 
 
MORAVIA 
 
 MOSSUL 
 
 516 
 
 Moravia. See Czechoslavia. 
 
 Moravian Brethren. See Plymouth Brethren. 
 
 Mormons (cf. C. E., X— 570c).—I. Church of 
 Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. According to 
 the United States reports for 1906 and 1916 this 
 organization showed considerable growth in eveiy 
 particular in the United States during the decade 
 In 1916 it reported 403,388 members (as compared 
 with 205,796 in 1906), 905 church edifices and con¬ 
 tributions of $1,192,980 for missions and benevo¬ 
 lences. The total number of ministers was 4790. 
 Foreign missionary work is carried on in Australia, 
 Great Britain, the Netherlands, New Zealand, the 
 Scandinavian countries, Switzerland, Mexico Japan, 
 India, the Society Islands, Africa, Samoa, and many 
 islands of the Pacific. Missionary work in Ger¬ 
 many, Austria, and Turkey, including Palestine, was 
 discontinued during the war. In 1916 the chuich 
 reported in the foreign fields 1183 missionaries, 4679 
 native helpers, and 75,450 communicants. me 
 president of the Mormon church (1921) is Heber J. 
 Grant. 
 
 II. Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of 
 Latter Day Saints.— The death of Joseph Smith, m 
 1844, was followed by the development of several 
 factions among the Latter Day Saints. According to 
 many it was one of these factions and not the ong- 
 inarbody which, under the leadership of Brigham 
 Young, settled in Salt Lake City. According to 
 this view the original body was scattered through¬ 
 out the Mississippi valley. Some of these scat¬ 
 tered members and a few congregations that had 
 preserved their identity effected a partial reor¬ 
 ganization in Wisconsin in 1853, which was after¬ 
 wards completed under the name “Reorganized 
 Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints.” This 
 organization claims to be the true and lawful con- 
 tinuation of and successor to the original Church 
 of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. The chief 
 point of doctrinal difference was the repudiation of 
 the revelation of plural marriage. In 1860 they 
 were joined by Joseph Smith, the son of the 
 prophet. He was presiding officer until his death 
 in 1914, when he was succeeded by his son. The 
 headquarters of this church are now at Lamoni, 
 Iowa, although the largest branch is at Indepen¬ 
 dence, Mo. 
 
 The two bodies reported, in 1921, 1740 churches, 
 9790 ministers, and 494,388 members in the United 
 States.,, 
 
 La Rue, Foundation of Mormonism (New York, 1919) ; 
 Religious Bodies , 1916 (Washington, D. C., 1919) ; Year 
 Book of the Churches . 1920 (New York, 1922). 
 
 N. A. Weber. 
 
 Morocco, Vicariate Apostolic of; (cf. C. E., 
 X—574b).—Morocco is the country which forms the 
 northwest corner of Africa, formerly an independent 
 sultanate but now occupied by Spanish and French 
 troops. The country is today in an unsettled con¬ 
 dition and there has been considerable fighting with 
 the Moors in the Spanish zone, which lies on the 
 Mediterranean; the French have a protectorate over 
 a large part of the country and a small section in the 
 extreme northwest which includes Tangier (Tanger), 
 the most important port, is a neutral zone. The 
 mission in Morocco (Marreucos) dates from the 
 thirteenth century. In 1219 St. Francis of Assisi 
 sent five of his order to evangelize the Moors. The 
 five Franciscans were martyred in the city of Morocco 
 (Marrakich) in 1220. For reasons completely for¬ 
 eign to the Franciscan order the mission suffered a 
 short period of decadence but was restored in the 
 year 1630 by the martyr St, Juan do Prado, from 
 
 Andalusia. In 1677 the Franciscans were expelled 
 by the Sultan Muley Ismael, but they returned m 
 1688 to take up their work. From that date tne 
 Mission continued to flourish until the secularization 
 of the religious orders in Spain, when the Mission was 
 almost extinguished, only two missionaries being left 
 in Morocco. In 1859 the Mission was restored and 
 a college was established in Cuenco for missionaries 
 to the Holy Land and Morocco. This college was 
 transferred‘in 1862 to Santiago de Compostella, where 
 it exists today. With this aid the Mission experienced 
 more favorable years, the prefecture apostolic was 
 restored, and continued until 1908, when it was 
 raised to a vicariate. Father Francisco Maria Cer- 
 vera, O. F. M., who had been prefect since 1896 was 
 made vicar and titular bishop of Fessese, wit resi 
 dence at Tangier. 
 
 The vicariate contains 22 quasi-parishes, oO 
 churches; 15 chapels and oratories; 42 stations; 1 
 convent with 13 religious; 69 regular priests (Fran¬ 
 ciscans); 100 secular priests (chaplains); 3b lay 
 brothers; 158 Sisters; 9 schools for boys, 19 teachers 
 1500 pupils; 8 schools for girls, 17 teachers, 1400 
 pupils; 4 schools for small children, 5 teachers, 200 
 Dupils; 2 Franciscan Colleges for secondary education, 
 
 1 Marist, 1 Marianist; schools for catechists with 
 1186 pupils; 1 higher school in Tangier where the 
 missionaries give a course in law, 3 hospitals, 
 are numerous schools sustained by the different 
 Governments, some of which the missionaries visit 
 and explain Christian doctrine to the students. 
 There are numerous institutions for both sexes, ten 
 of which are religious, the others are charitable and 
 under the vigilance of the missionaries, there are 
 numerous daily papers which have a Catholic char¬ 
 acter but are independent of the Mission. T 
 Mission possesses a printing establishment, where 
 many works of importance are printed and edited. 
 The missionaries have also an official meteorological 
 
 observatory. . , 
 
 The indigenous element of the country is composed 
 of five distinct races, Moors, Arabs, Berbers, and 
 negroes, who profess the religion of Mohammed, and 
 the Jews. There are besides numerous foreigners oj 
 different European and American nationality, me 
 area is about 496,990 square miles and the population 
 is estimated at 10,000,000, which include 300,000 
 Hebrews, 100,120 Catholics, and the rest, excepting 
 a few Protestants, are Mohammedans. 
 
 Among the recent missionaries of especial note who 
 have died is Father Jose Tuchundi, prefect apostolic 
 from 1877-96, an excellent religious, a worthy supe¬ 
 rior, diplomat and Arabist. He took part in n u rn£ r " 
 ous diplomatic errands, the most important of whic 
 was when he carried Sultan Muley Hassan s felicita¬ 
 tions to Pope Leo XIII at his sacerdotal jubilee in 
 1888. He wrote many works concerning the Arabs, 
 facilitating to the Spanish the study of their language. 
 His funeral was attended by the consular and dip¬ 
 lomatic services of the different nations and an 
 immense crowd of Christians, Moors and Jews, who 
 venerated him as a scholar and saint. 
 
 The French part of Morocco has been separated 
 and entrusted to the French Franciscans, whose 
 superior, Father Marie-Lucien Dane, is vicar genera 
 of that district for Mgr. Cervera. 
 
 Mossul (cf. C. E., X—598d), in Asia Minor, the 
 seat of a Chaldean archdiocese, a Syrian diocese, and 
 an Apostolic mission. The Chaldean patriarch, 
 resident in Mossul, is His Excellency Emmanuel 
 Joseph Thomas, b. 1852, ordained ^ elected 
 Bishop of Seerth 1890, promoted to the Chaldean 
 patriarchate of Babylon 1900 In the Chaldean 
 archdiocese there are 31,900 Catholics, 46 secular 
 
MOSTAR 
 
 517 
 
 MULRY 
 
 priests, 39 regular priests, 27 churches and chapels, 
 17 schools, and 2 stations. The Syrian bishop is 
 Rt. Rev. Gregory Peter Habra, b. 1856, elected 1901, 
 succeeding Bishop Bermi, deceased. In the Syrian 
 diocese there are 7100 Catholics, 50 priests, 20 
 religious, 2 convents, 20 churches, 10 schools for boys 
 and 5 schools for girls. The Apostolic mission's 
 confided to the Dominicans. The superior, Dom 
 Berre, O.P., appointed 1907, was transferred in 1921 
 to the Latin Diocese of Bagdad. A new superior 
 has not yet been appointed. Under the Latin Rite 
 there are about 53,000 Catholics, administered to by 
 23 Dominican priests. 
 
 Mostar and Markana-Trebinje, Diocese of (cf. C. 
 E., X—599c), in Herzegovina, Jugoslavia, formerly, 
 with Bosnia, part of Austria-Hungary. The diocese 
 of Mostar, suffragan of Serajevo, has also the title of 
 Duvno, a former see, and the perpetual administra¬ 
 tion of the united sees of Markana and Trebinje. 
 Rt. Rev. Louis Stephen Misic, O.F.M., b. at Grad- 
 iska, in this diocese, 10 November, 1859, was elected 
 29 April, 1912, and consecrated in Rome 18 June to 
 succeed Mgr. Buconjic deceased. Mgr. Paschal 
 Buconjic, O.F.M., Bishop of Mostar, who had 
 labored for many years in the diocese, and Father 
 Didaens Buntic, a scholar who had done a great deal 
 for the orphans and poor boys of the diocese, have 
 died since 1910. 
 
 The population is Croatian and for Bosnia-Herze- 
 govina the religious allegiance is 827,051 Greek 
 Schismatics, 583,233 Mohammedans and 437,778 
 Catholics. The Catholic population of the city of 
 Mostar is 4079 from a total of 16,313, that of the 
 diocese 149,000. There are 62 parishes, 32 churches, 
 2 missions, 3 Franciscan monasteries, 5 convents for 
 women, 15 secular and 88 regular priests, 1 seminary, 
 2 colleges for boys and 2 for girls, 4 normal schools 
 with 460 students, 2 industrial schools, 1 hospital, 
 
 1 day nursery, 1 political (twice a week) and 2 relig¬ 
 ious papers, a sacerdotal association, the Third Order 
 of St. Francis and Marian Congregation for the laity. 
 The Government pays 10 dolar a year for each pupil 
 in the Catholic schools of the diocese. Nine new 
 parishes, 9 parish churches and 5 orphanages have 
 been erected since 1910. 
 
 Motu proprio ( c f. C. E., X-602).—If a rescript in 
 reply to a petition contains the clause motu proprio, 
 it is valid, even when the petition did not tell the 
 whole truth, but it is invalid if there was only 
 one final cause advanced and it was false; however, 
 even under such circumstances a dispensation from 
 a minor matrimonial impediment is valid. A 
 rescript granted motu proprio to a person who by 
 canon law is disqualified from obtaining the favor 
 in question, or if it is contrary to a legitimate local 
 ’custom, private statute, or acquired right is ineffec¬ 
 tive, unless it expressly contains a derogating clause. 
 
 Moulins, Diocese of (Molinensis; cf. C. E., 
 X—-603d), in the department of Allier, France 
 suffragan of Sens. Rt. Rev. Emile-Louis Lobbedey, 
 appointed to his see 5 August, 1906, was transferred 
 to Arras 5 Ma 3 r , 1911, and his successor was appointed 
 m the person of Rt. Rev. Jean-Baptiste Penon. Born 
 m Simiane, France, in 1850, he was ordained in 1873, 
 served as a professor at the lower seminary of Aix and 
 the Catholic College, pastor, vicar general under 
 Archbishop Gouthe-Soulard, and made an honorary 
 canon and vicar capitular, denied the office of vicar 
 general by the Government, named pastor-dean of 
 St. Remy of Provence in 1904, of St. Madeleine of 
 Aix in 1906, and appointed bishop 8 May, 1911. 
 The diocese comprises a Catholic population of 
 406,291, 31 parishes, 281 succursal parishes and 55 
 
 vicariates formerly supported by the state, (1920 
 statistics). 
 
 Mount St. Vincent, College of, was established 
 in 1910 at the mother-house of the Sisters of 
 Charity, at Mount St. Vincent under the direction 
 of these Sisters. The institution was founded for 
 the higher education of Catholic young women, and 
 has a faculty of 19 professors and 8 associate pro¬ 
 fessors with a member of the community as dean,, 
 and classified as follows: clergy 7, religious 8, lay 
 12. There are in all eight college buildings, includ¬ 
 ing well equipped laboratories, gymnasium, library, 
 museum, and art studios. The Most Rev. Patrick 
 J. Hayes, D. D., Archbishop of New York, is presi¬ 
 dent of the college. In 1921 the college registered 
 175 students, of whom 25 were graduated. 
 
 Mozambique, Prelature Nullius of (Mozam- 
 bicensis; cf. C. E., X—610d), in the Portuguese 
 colonies of South Africa, directly dependent on the 
 Holy See. The present Prelate Nullius is Rt. Rev. 
 Joachim Pitinho, of the Friars Minor, to whom this 
 territory is entrusted, appointed titular Bishop of 
 Augusta 16 December, 1920. The statistics of 1920 
 credit the territory with 177,060 Catholics, 6 secular 
 and 6 regular clergy, and 10 parishes. 
 
 Muenster, Abbey Nullius of, in Saskatchewan 
 (Canada). This abbey was erected in 1892 under 
 the name of Cluny, in Illinois, was transferred to 
 Canada in 1903 under the name of St. Peter, and 
 made an abbey 15 August, 1911. On 6 May, 1921, 
 the Sacred Congregation of the Consistory dismem¬ 
 bered the Diocese of Prince Albert and the “Colony 
 of St. Peter/’ comprising fifteen townships with the 
 parishes of Muenster, Humboldt, Annaheim, Dead 
 Moose Lake, Fulda St. Benedikt, Leofeld, Bruno, 
 Engelfeld and Watson, was formed into an abbey 
 nullius and entrusted to the Abbot of the Benedictine 
 Monastery of St. Peter, near Muenster. 
 
 The present administrator is Abbot - Ordinary 
 Michael Ott, O.S.B., b. 18 March, 1870, professed 
 24 June, 1889, ordained 29 June, 1984, appointed 
 abbot 23 July, 1919, made abbot nullius in May, 
 1921, proclaimed at the Sacred Congregation of the 
 Consistory, 13 June following. 
 
 According to (1922) statistics there are: 12 par¬ 
 ishes, 24 churches, 15 missions, 2 stations, 1 
 monastery for men, 1 abbey for men, 5 convents for 
 women, 3 secular and 17 regular clergy, 5 lay 
 Brothers, 54 nuns, 1 seminary, 1 college for men with 
 60 boys, 3 academies with 125 girls, 69 elementary 
 schools with 85 teachers and 2500 pupils, 1 hospital 
 (St. Elizabeth’s Hospital). Associations organized 
 among the laity: Knights of Columbus, Foresters, 
 Volksverein. The Catholic periodicals published are: 
 St. Peter's Bote, German Catholic Weekly, published 
 by the O. S. B. of St. Peter’s Abbey. The Catholic 
 population numbers about 10,000 Germans, chiefly 
 settlers from the United States. 
 
 Mulholland, Rosa. See Gilbert, Lady. 
 
 Mulry, Thomas Maurice, American banker and 
 philanthropist, b. 1855, New York City, d. there in 
 1916. He was second son among fourteen children. 
 Four of his brothers became priests in the Society of 
 Jesus and a sister joined the Sisters of Charity. He 
 was educated at St. Joseph’s parochial school and 
 De La Salle Academy. He became a contractor at the 
 beginning of his business career, and in his maturer 
 years he became an influential figure in banking, real 
 estate, life insurance, religious and official circles. 
 In 1906 he was elected President of the Emigrant 
 Industrial Savings Bank, New York, one of the largest 
 banks of its kind in the world, and held this position 
 
MUN 
 
 518 
 
 MUNICH-FREISING 
 
 until his death. He is perhaps most widely known for 
 his work as an ardent worker in the St. Vincent De 
 Paul Society, New York City, of which he became 
 President, and of his general activities in charitable 
 work of all kinds. He was a member of the Charity 
 Organization Society of New York, of the State 
 Board of Charities, of the Board of Managers and its 
 president for many years, of the Manhattan State 
 Hospital for the Insane; one of the founders and 
 president of'the Fourth State Conference (1903) of 
 the New York State Conference of Charities and 
 Correction, etc. He wrote a number of papers upon 
 charitable matters, characterized by soundness of 
 judgment, practicality, wide sympathy and a tren¬ 
 chant and lucid style. 
 
 Mun, Adrien-Albert Marie, Comte de, French 
 statesman and orator, b. at Lumigny, Seine-et-Marne, 
 on 23 February, 1841; d. at Bordeaux, on 6 October, 
 1914. The future modern crusader of the Church in 
 France was the great-grandson of Helvetius, the 
 materialist philosopher whose writings did so much 
 injury to religion, but his mother was the saintly 
 Eugenie de la Ferronnays, sister of Mme. Augustus 
 Craven. He graduated from Saint-Cyr, served in 
 the cavalry in Algeria and was decorated for bravery 
 in the Franco-German War, in which he was captured. 
 While imprisoned at Aachen with his fellow-officer, 
 Rene de la Tour du Pin, he heard with deep interest 
 of Bishop von Ketteler’s social work. After his 
 release he was adjutant to the military governor of 
 Paris during the Commune. Reflecting on the horrors 
 he was witnessing, he blamed these fundamentally on 
 the neglect by the rich and the educated of the social 
 duties imposed on them by the Christian Law. His 
 Catholic patriotic soul was stirred; henceforth his life 
 and talents were devoted to two objects: to save 
 France from being undermined by the anti-militarists 
 and anti-clericals and to strengthen it to resist future 
 aggression; and the social regeneration of France and 
 the betterment of the workers by activities and legis¬ 
 lation based on Christian principles. In 1872 with 
 La Tour du Pin and Eugene Meignen, he founded at 
 Belleville the first of the famous Cercles Catholiques 
 d’ouvriers (Catholic workingmen’s clubs), in which 
 the workers could meet for social enjoyment and also 
 participate in lectures and conferences on social and 
 religious topics, the programme and principles of 
 which were set forth in their review, “L’Association 
 catholique.” Under the influence of de Mun and 
 Leon Harmel, the Council of studies of the Cercles 
 catholiques gradually advanced beyond the Le Play 
 and Perin conservative schools of Catholic sociology, 
 emphasizing the necessity of social legislation, 
 approaching the programme of the German, Austrian 
 and Swiss Catholics. They were subjected to a very 
 vigorous attack by the Perin school aided by Mgr. 
 Freppel for some years, but finally the de Mun-Coun- 
 cil of Studies program was approved by the Interna¬ 
 tional Congress of Catholic sociologists at Liege in 
 1890. 
 
 To give himself up to this work de Mun resigned 
 from the army in 1875 and was elected from Pontivv 
 (Morbihan) in 1876 as deputy to the French Chamber, 
 where he was to reveal his intense patriotism and his 
 great oratorical gifts for so many years. He has the 
 glory of initiating beneficial legislation for the work¬ 
 ing-class, even before the Swiss Government invited 
 the nations to confer on this matter. He is found 
 advocating legislation to bring about the joint associa¬ 
 tion of labor and capital as early as 1872; the Sunday 
 day of rest, old age pensions and sickness insurance 
 in 1886; the eight-hour day, prohibition of child 
 labor, the forbidding of woman labor in certain 
 unhealthy and dangerous work in 1889. How con 
 formable his social programme was with the principles 
 
 of Christian morality and justice is apparent from the 
 fact that so many of his proposals find expression in 
 the programme of reform laid down by Pope Leo XIII 
 in his Encyclical “Rerum Novarum’’ (cf. Moon, op. 
 ait. infra, 163-65). He unhesitatingly accepted the 
 Encyclical of Leo XIII in 1892, directing Catholics to 
 accept the Republic as a fait accompli, this act cost 
 him his seat at Pontivy, but he was soon returned 
 to the Chamber from Morlaix (Finistere). In 1897 
 he was elected to the French Academy. In 1901 he 
 became vice-president of the new Popular Liberal 
 Party, which the religious intolerance of Waldeck- 
 Rousseau’cs Government had forced the Social Catho¬ 
 lic deputies to found in order to safeguard democratic 
 political liberty and carry out their plan of Christian 
 social legislation. He continued to warn the Socialists 
 and the pacifists, who were the mainstay of the anti¬ 
 clerical politicians, that while they could find time 
 to attack religion and destroy the Catholic schools 
 they were not only neglecting the opportunity of aid¬ 
 ing the workingmen but by their unpatriotic policies 
 were rapidly bringing about the collapse of France. 
 Filled with patriotism, he declared to them that 
 Agadir, Algeciras, Tangiers and Casablanca proved 
 that war with Germany was inevitable, and that they 
 were neglecting preparations. It was only shortly 
 before the cataclysm, however, that the government 
 listened to his warnings. When old age rendered 
 public speaking more difficult for him, de Mun 
 redoubled his efforts with his pen. When the war 
 began his daily articles in the Echo de Paris nerved his 
 countrymen, and his cheery messages to the soldiers 
 in the midst of the initial disasters, inspired them with 
 the thought that they had still God and Joan of Arc 
 with them; and with the Marne victory, he announced 
 to them that their final triumph was assured. He died 
 four weeks later just after penning his last daily 
 message of hope. Among Comte de Mun’s published 
 works are: “Discours et ecrits divers’’(7 vols.)j “Ma 
 vocation sociale’’: and “Combats d’hier et d’aujourd - 
 hui”; “Contre la separation’’; “La loi des suspects’’; 
 “Les congregations religieuses devant la Chambre.’’ 
 
 Giraud, Un grand Frangais ; de Grandmaison, Le Comte 
 Albert de Mun in Etudes (CXLI), 25-52; Browne, A Modern 
 Crusader in The Catholic World (Dec., 1921), 370-80; Moon, 
 The Labor Problem and the Social Catholic Movement m France 
 (New York, 1921). 
 
 Munich, LTniversity of. —The number of matric¬ 
 ulated students at the University of Munich during 
 the Winter term 1920-21 was 8395, of whom 897 were 
 women. To these may be added 1030 non-matric- 
 ulated auditors ( horer ) and 230 non-matriculated 
 women auditors (horerinnen) . The total number of 
 students was 9565. 
 
 Munich-Freising, Archdiocese of (Monacensis 
 et Frisingensis; cf. C. E., X-631a), in Bavaria. 
 His Eminence Franz Cardinal Bettinger, who filled, 
 this see 1909-17, was chiefly responsible for the 
 present organization of the diocese. Under his 
 direction the Kirchengenilinde-Ordung was formed 
 to collect funds for the establishment of new par¬ 
 ishes and the building of new churches. He gave 
 particular attention to the care of Catholic youth, 
 with which object he encouraged Dr. Michael 
 Buchberger in the foundation (1910) of the Katho- 
 lischer Jugendfuers orge-Verein and took a firm 
 stand against the enemies of the Church in the 
 press by the spreading of Catholic writings and 
 the foundation of the Catholic Press Organization 
 of Bavaria, the growth of which was largely due to 
 the efforts of Dr. Lewis Muller of Munich. 
 
 During the World War the spiritual welfare of 
 the Bavarian troops was directed from the diocese 
 of Munich and all orders came from the arch¬ 
 bishop, who acted as field bishop of the army. 
 
MUNKACS t 
 
 t 
 
 There were83 division clergymen in the service and 
 154 chaplains; from the archdiocese of Munich- 
 Freising alone there were 33 chaplains in the field, 
 80 in hospitals at home and 30 more in other kinds 
 of service. Over 200 seminarians from the archdio¬ 
 cese served and of these 101 were killed. 
 
 Cardinal Bettinger did much for the religious 
 needs of the Catholic soldiers in the line and in 
 1917, with the approval of King Ludwig III, he 
 dedicated Bavaria to the Blessed Virgin Mary He 
 died suddenly on 12 April, 1917, and was succeeded 
 by the present incumbent, Most Rev. Michael 
 Faulhaber. Archbishop Faulhaber was bora at 
 Klosterheidenfeld 1869, ordained 1892, professor of 
 theology in the University of Munich, appointed 
 Bishop of Speyer 1911, and promoted to the Arch¬ 
 diocese of Munich 24 July, 1917. He was nomi¬ 
 nated cardinal 7 March, 1921. Rt. Rev. John 
 Neudecker, titular Bishop of Helenopolis, was ap¬ 
 pointed auxiliary to the archbishop in 1911 and 
 and in 1921 Rt. Rev. Aloysius Harthl, titular Bishop 
 of Germanica, was also made an auxiliary. 
 
 The various religious orders established in this 
 diocese are: men, Benedictines with 4 abbeys and 
 
 2 colleges, 90 Fathers, 25 scholastics and 139 Broth¬ 
 ers; Franciscans with 5 convents, 58 Fathers, 35 
 scholastics and 51 la}' brothers; Capuchins with 5 
 convents, 57 Fathers, 11 novices and 44 lay broth¬ 
 ers; Carmelite Friars with 8 Fathers, 2 novices 
 and 4 lay brothers; Minorities with 3 Fathers and 
 
 3 lay brothers; Redemptorists with 28 Fathers, 31 
 scholastics and 20 lay brothers; Augustinians with 
 3 Fathers and 6 lay brothers; Missionaries of the 
 Sacred Heart with 3 Fathers and 6 lay brothers; 
 Salvatorians with 3 Fathers and 6 lay brothers; 
 Jesuits with 32 Fathers and 18 lay brothers; Sale- 
 sians with 3 Fathers and 1 lay brother; Marist 
 Brothers with 7 Brothers and 30 scholastics; Mis¬ 
 sion Seminary of the Pallottines with 3 Fathers, 
 and the Brothers of Mercy with 38 friars and 13 
 oblates; women, Benedictines, Servites, Brigittines, 
 Carmelites, Sisters of Charity of St. Vincent de 
 Paul, English Ladies of the Institute of Mary, 
 Dominicans, Franciscans, Sisters of St. Joseph, of 
 St. Crescentia, of the Good Shepherd, Poor School 
 Sisters, Ursulines, Sisters of the Most Holy Re¬ 
 deemer, of the Holy Cross, of St. Paul, and Sisters 
 of St. Elizabeth. 
 
 The archdiocese is divided into 36 deaneries, 3 
 town commissariats, 442 parishes, 205 benefices and 
 113 districts with their own clergy. By 1921 statis¬ 
 tics there is a Catholic population of 1,195,150 and 
 a total number of 1666 priests; 438 pastors, 205 
 invested beneficiaries, 749 other secular priests and 
 274 regulars. There are 113 mission churches, 30 
 monasteries for men, 3 convents for men and 312 
 for women, 4 abbeys for men and 1 for women, 
 363 lay brothers and 4698 nuns. A lower seminary 
 in Scheyern has 176 students and one in Freising 
 has 200 students and in addition to these there 
 are the archiepiscopal seminary in Freising with 
 138 students, the Georgianum with 100 students, of 
 which only 18 belong to this diocese, 1 seminarian 
 from this diocese at the German College at Rome, 
 and 7 at the Canisianum at Innsbruck. 
 
 A Catholic Union for parents has been established 
 by Cardinal Faulhaber and there are numerous 
 other unions for the clergy, for teachers, students, 
 young men and women, working men and women, 
 and servants, as well as the St. Vincent de Paul 
 Society and St. Elizabeth’s Guild. 
 
 Munkacs, Diocese of (Munshasiensis Ruth- 
 enorum; cf. C. E., X—634b), in the Republic of 
 Czechoslovakia, of Greek-Ruthenian Rite is sufFragan 
 
 10 MUNSTER 
 
 of Esztergom, with residence at Ungvar, and com¬ 
 prises a Catholic population of 440,000 Russian- 
 Riithenian speaking Greek-Ruthenian Catholics and 
 20.000 Hungarian speaking Catholics. The see is 
 filled (1922) by Rt. Rev. Antonin Papp, b. 17 
 November, 1867, ordained in 1893, chancellor, later 
 vicar general of Munkacs, prothonotary apostolic 3 
 January, 1905, appointed titular bishop of Lyrba and 
 coadjutor, 29 April, 1912, consecrated 15 October, 
 proclaimed 2 December following to succeed Mgr. 
 Julius Firczak, b. 22 August, 1836; d. 2 June, 1912; 
 founder of the Actio Ruthenica?, for the faithful of his 
 diocese. 
 
 According to 1922 statistics the diocese numbers 
 321 parishes, 683 filial parishes, 680 churches, 400 
 secular and 12 regular priests, 5 monasteries for men, 
 15 lay brothers, 1 lower seminary, 5 colleges for men, 
 2 boarding schools for girls, 450 normal schools with 
 490 teachers and 35,000 students. The Government 
 pays all the teachers’ salaries. The associations 
 organized among the clergy are the Eucharistic 
 League and the Society for the Conversion of Schis¬ 
 matics; among the laity: Sodality of the Holy Rosary 
 and that for the Adoration of the Sacred Heart of 
 Jesus. Four periodicals are published. 
 
 Important members of the clergy recently deceased 
 were Michael Balogh, formerly vicar in Maramaros- 
 Sihob, who made great efforts for the promotion of 
 culture in his vicariate and died in 1916. Dr. Alex¬ 
 ander Mikita, canon, professor of theology and 
 founder of a Catholic periodical, d. in 1910. Joannes 
 Turjay, canon, a great benefactor, d. in 1914, Col- 
 omanus-Georgius Zsatkovics, historian, author of 
 several dissertations on the history of the diocese of 
 Munkacs, d. in 1920. Andrea Dudits, pastor and 
 former member of the House of Deputies in Budapest, 
 d. in 1921; among the laity: Ignatius Roskovics, ail 
 artist, who restored the domestic chapel of the lower 
 seminary in Uzhorod. Events of importance include 
 the reform of the Order of St. Basil the Great, estab¬ 
 lishment of the Order of Nuns of St. Basil the Great 
 (Basilissae), convocation of the diocesan synod, and 
 the institution of retreats for the clergy of the diocese. 
 
 During the World War five priests died fighting for 
 their country, and the clerics in the military hospitals 
 deserve great credit and praise for their work for the 
 widows and orphans of the diocese. 
 
 Munster, Diocese of (Monasteriensis), in the 
 Prussian Province of Westphalia, suffragan of 
 Cologne. From 1891 to 1911 the diocese passed 
 through a period of great prosperity under the 
 wise care of Bishop Hermann Dingelstadt (b. 1835; 
 d. 1911). Attracted by the flourishing industries 
 throughout the diocese, the number of Catholics 
 increased from 875,000 to 1,520,000. Bishop Dingel¬ 
 stadt established 53 new parishes and erected and 
 enlarged 130 churches. Prompted by great zeal 
 for the care of souls, he increased the devotion to 
 the Blessed Sacrament by introducing perpetual 
 adoration. The sodalities, especially the Society 
 of Christian Mothers, received a new impetus; a 
 diocesan synod was held at which diocesan statutes 
 were enacted. His successor, Rt. Rev. Felix von 
 Hartmann (b. at Munster 15 December, 1831), who 
 as spiritual councillor for eleven years and vicar 
 general for six merited for himself the respect and 
 esteem of all who knew him, was to hold the 
 office for only a short period of time. He was 
 elected Bishop of Munster 6 June, 1911, and 
 administered the diocese until 29 October, 1912, 
 when he was named Archbishop of Cologne by the 
 cathedral chapter of Cologne. 
 
 The present administrator, Rt. Rev. Johannes 
 Poggenburg, b. at Ostbevern, 12 May, 1862, elected 
 7 May, 1913, consecrated 16 October, 1913, had been 
 
MURO-LUCANO 
 
 520 
 
 MURPHY 
 
 pastor in the manufacturing centers, diocesan presi¬ 
 dent of the young men’s societies, president of the 
 preparatory seminary, Collegium Ludgerianum, and 
 vicar general, and was well fitted to undertake the 
 exacting duties of bishop of this extensive diocese, 
 in which there are 444 parishes, 444 churches, and 
 47 succursal churches. In 1921 the Catholics num¬ 
 bered 1,695,147; other denominations 837,196. Of 
 the 1404 secular priests 1121 are engaged in parochial 
 work and 155 in teaching. There are 166 regulars 
 and 350 lay brothers, 19 monasteries and 1 abbey 
 for men, 7 convents of contemplative orders with 
 325 Sisters and 6 mother-houses of various orders 
 of nuns. Of these two orders having 190 houses 
 are engaged in caring for the sick, three teaching 
 orders have 150 houses, 1 convent for the education 
 of the nuns for foreign missions. These orders have 
 52 houses in other German dioceses, and 162 outside 
 of Germany. Twelve orders, whose mother-houses 
 are not situated in the diocese of Munster, have 61 
 houses in this diocese engaged in the care of the 
 sick and in educational work. 
 
 The diocesan seminary is at Munster. The Uni¬ 
 versity of Munster is a state institution and has 
 thirteen professors in the theological faculty. 
 Among the state-aided secondary schools there are: 
 
 1 diocesan gymnasium with 10 clerical professors, 
 15 gymnasia, 35 municipal gymnasia, 51 secondary 
 schools of various kinds for boys, either public or 
 private, 68 secondary schools for girls, either public 
 or private, 6 Catholic normal schools, 135 public 
 and private continuation schools, industrial, com¬ 
 mercial, and agricultural. The common elementary 
 schools are denominational municipal schools under 
 the supervision of the Government. Religious 
 instruction for the most part is given by priests. 
 There are 4 diocesan shelters (3 for boys, 1 for 
 girls), 1 institution for epileptic women and girls, 
 17 hospitals which belong to parishes or political 
 organizations, and 33 homes for visiting nurses 
 scattered throughout the diocese. The following 
 religious societies exist in the diocese: 180 young 
 men’s societies under the direction of priests, 300 
 Marian sodalities for young men, 90 journeymen’s 
 unions (Gesellenvereine), 40 merchants’ associations, 
 109 men’s associations, 12 working girls’ unions, 12 
 servant girls’ associations, 325 congregations of 
 Catholic young men, and there are Christian 
 mothers’ societies in all parishes. 
 
 During the war 50 priests volunteered as nurses, 
 later they were appointed war chaplains and worked 
 with great zeal and self-sacrifice. The members of 
 the various charitable organizations (Elizabeth 
 Verein, St. Vincent de Paul Society, Christian 
 Mothers and the Knights of Malta) unselfishly gave 
 their services to relieve the misery and distress of 
 the war. Beside the nuns of the nursing orders, 
 countless young women offered their services as 
 voluntary nurses. The bells and chimes of numer¬ 
 ous churches were requisitioned by the Government 
 during the war. 
 
 Muro-Lucano, Diocese of (Muranensis; cf. 
 C. E., X—646b), in the province of Petenza, North¬ 
 ern Italy, suffragan of Conza. This see is filled by 
 Rt. Rev. Giuseppe Scarlata, born in the diocese of 
 Caltanisetta in 1859, served as pastor of Villalba, 
 named a prelate of the Holy See 10 November, 1910, 
 and appointed bishop 27 November, 1911, succeeding 
 Cardinal Ascelesi, transferred to Santa Agata dei 
 Goti, 19 June, 1911. According to 1920 statitsics 
 this diocese embraces a Catholic population of 
 40,180, 11 parishes, 85 secular priests, 48 seminarians 
 and 72 churches or chapels. 
 
 Murphy, John Benjamin, b. near Appleton, 
 Wisconsin, 21 December, 1857; d. at Mackinac 
 Island, Michigan, 11 August, 1916, distinguished 
 surgeon and teacher of medicine; son of Michael 
 and Ann (Grimes) Murphy. He graduated from 
 the public high school of Appleton, taught school 
 for a year, and then took up the study of medicine 
 at Rush Medical College, Chicago, where he 
 obtained his degree in 1879. He served as an 
 intern in Cook County Hospital, and then for two 
 years was a partner of Dr. Edward Lee, one of 
 the attending surgeons in the hospital. He used 
 the first money obtained in his practice to go to 
 study in the" European hospitals, especially in 
 Vienna, where he worked under Billroth, Albert, 
 Fenger, and others. The spirit of investigation was 
 rife in Europe. Within a few years Koch had 
 introduced cultures of bacteria, Laveran described 
 the parasite of malaria, Woelfler was introducing 
 gastro-enterostomy, and Hahn had done the first 
 nephropexy, while Murphy’s own teacher Billroth 
 was revolutionizing the surgery of the stomach. 
 
 Murphjr came back to America inspired to go on 
 with original work. In his early thirties he in¬ 
 vented the anastomosis button which made the 
 hitherto very difficult surgery of the intestines not 
 only possible, but even easy. It came to be known 
 by his name throughout the world and at once 
 called attention to his opening career. Though no 
 longer used it literally changed the whole aspect 
 of intestinal surgery. After this his studies in the 
 possibilities of surgery of the gall tract opened up 
 new fields for investigation and achievement, and 
 he did excellent pioneer work and stimulated others 
 to follow him. He next took up the problem of 
 repairing injured blood vessels or bringing them 
 together in such a way as to leave them patulous 
 and without necessarily shutting off the circulation 
 to a part. Then following an Italian suggestion of 
 some years before Murphy took up the problem of 
 setting tuberculous lungs at rest by injections of 
 nitrogen into the pleural cavity. This method had 
 not attracted attention in America until Murphy 
 emphasized its possibilities, but it has since been 
 employed continuously in many parts of the coun¬ 
 try for selected cases, and is considered a life¬ 
 saving procedure. Still looking for further fields 
 of surgical development he took up the study of 
 joint diseases, with great benefit to many cripples. 
 These cases had to be studied individually and 
 could not be grouped or generalized, but Murphy 
 showed the possibilities of affording great relief 
 and making life ever so much more livable for 
 these poor cripples. 
 
 It is as a teacher almost more than a surgical 
 operator that Doctor Murphy deeply influenced 
 the surgery of our day not only in America, but 
 also in Europe. His first teaching position was 
 that of instructor in surgery in Rush Medical Col¬ 
 lege in 1884. He nex A filled the position of pro¬ 
 fessor of surgery in the College of Physicians and 
 Surgeons in 1892. For two years he was professor 
 of surgery and co-head of the department in Rush 
 Medical College. For the next fourteen years, 
 with the exception of the two years (1905-1907 at 
 Rush), he was head of the Department of Surgery 
 at Northwestern University Medical School. For 
 more than thirty years he had been attending and 
 then consulting surgeon at Alexian Brothers’ Hos¬ 
 pital, and was consulting surgeon for St. Joseph’s 
 Hospital, Columbus Hospital, and the Hospital for 
 Crippled Children. He was for many years the 
 attending surgeon and chief of staff at Mercy Hos¬ 
 pital, where most of his important surgical work 
 was done. 
 
MUSH 
 
 521 
 
 MYSORE 
 
 Doctor Murphy’s reputation as a surgeon of the 
 greatest skill whose technique and methods of 
 operating were enabling him to accomplish results 
 secured by no one else soon spread, and literally 
 physicians from all over the country crowded to 
 his operating room in Chicago to see him work. 
 They could be quite sure that they would see some 
 surgery done in a new way that would be adopted 
 by others before long. His work was thoughtful, 
 suggestive, and eminently valuable for practical 
 men. As he operated on his patients—they were 
 never cases to him—he talked freely to the group 
 of physicians and students who followed him. No 
 wonder that these graduate students felt that they 
 would like to follow Doctor Murphy’s lessons when 
 they could not be present in person, and 'so after 
 a time arrangements were made to have his talks 
 taken down and printed for distribution, under the 
 title of the “Doctor Murphy Clinics.” These soon 
 had a wide circulation and were in demand from 
 the surgeons not only of this country, but of 
 Europe and from the medical libraries all over the 
 world. 
 
 Honors soon came to Doctor Murphy from many 
 different quarters. In 1902 the University of Notre 
 Dame awarded him the Laetare Medal; in 1905 he 
 was given the degree of LL.D. by the State Uni¬ 
 versity of Illinois; the Universitj' - of Sheffield, 
 England, conferred the degree of D.Sc. in 1908; 
 and St. Ignatius College that of M.A. He was a 
 life member of the Deutsche Gesellschaft fiir 
 Chirurgie, an honorary member of the Societe 
 chirurgicale de Paris, an honorary fellow of the 
 Royal College of Surgeons of England, and a 
 charter member of the American College of Sur¬ 
 geons. He was president of the American Asso¬ 
 ciation of Railway Surgeons, the Chicago Medical 
 Society, the American Medical Association, and 
 the Clinical Congress of Surgeons of North America. 
 Pope Benedict XV crowned Doctor Murphy’s life 
 work by making him Knight Commander of the 
 Order of St. Gregory in 1916. 
 
 Probably the best idea of Doctor Murphy’s 
 greatness as a surgeon will be secured from the 
 oration in surgery delivered before the American 
 College of Surgeons at Montreal on 11 October, 
 1920, by Sir Berkeley Moynihan, the leading Eng¬ 
 lish surgeon of our time. He said of him: “Murphy 
 was beyond question the greatest clinical teacher 
 
 of his day.It is easy now to see how great 
 
 a figure he was in the world of surgery of his 
 day. When all his work is reviewed, when not only 
 its range, but the wonderful sincerity and the 
 permanent and piercing accuracy of so large a 
 part of it are considered; when we remember his 
 unequalled gifts as teacher, his power of lucid 
 exposition and of persuasive or coercive argument, 
 his devotion for many years at least to experi¬ 
 mental research, it is no exaggeration, I think, to 
 say of him that he was the greatest surgeon of 
 his time.” His great American colleague and 
 friend, Dr. W T illiam J. Mayo of Rochester, Minn., 
 in delivering the second John B. Murphy Oration 
 in Surgery before the American College of Surgeons 
 (1921) said: “The Great War brought to a close 
 a period of scientific surgery, of which Dr. John 
 B. Murphy was the most brilliant exponent. 
 Murphy was a voluminous writer and greatly en¬ 
 riched surgical literature. By these printed pages 
 posterity will know him, but to those of us who 
 have been inspired by his magnetic personality 
 and who have, with rapt interest, followed his 
 clinical teachings, visible evidences of the printed 
 page are but the ghost hovering over the grave of 
 the greatest surgeon of the last generation.” 
 
 MOYNIHAN, The John B. Murphy Oration in Surgery, 
 Gynecology and Obstetrics (December, 1920); Mayo, The 
 Second John B. Murphy Oration in Surgery, Gynecology 
 and Obstetrics (1921); Skillern, A Visit to the Surgical 
 Clinic of John B. Murphy in International Clinics. I, 
 25th series (1915); Doctor Murphy’s Clinics (Philadelphia, 
 1912-1916); American Medical Journals (1916) passim. 
 
 James J. Walsh. 
 
 Mush, Diocese of (Muscensis Armenorum; 
 cf. C. E., X—647d), a see of the Armenian Rite in 
 Upper Armenia, at present vacant. It comprises a 
 total population of 160,000, of whom 95,300 are 
 Christians and 65,000 of this number, Armenian 
 Catholics. These are served by 7 secular and 2 
 regular priests, 7 churches or chapels, 5 stations and 
 5 schools with 300 pupils. The last bishop, Rt. Rev. 
 Jacques Tapouzian, was put to death by the Turks 
 during their massacre of Armenians from June to 
 August, 1915, and his body was cut to pieces. He 
 was born in Baghgiagik, Turkey, in 1855, ordained 
 in 1879, served as vicar general and was appointed 
 bishop 27 August, 1911. 
 
 Mykonos, Archdiocese of. See Naxos and 
 Tinos. 
 
 ^ Mysore, Diocese of (Mysuriensis, cf. C. E., 
 X—661d), in India, suffragan of Pondicherry, with 
 residence at Bangalore, is entrusted to the Society 
 of Foreign Missions of Paris. The Catholic popula¬ 
 tion is composed of 1571 Europeans, 5925 Anglo- 
 Indians, and 49,093 Indians. The recent bishop, 
 Rt. Rev. Hippolyte Teissier, b. 8 November, 1853, 
 appointed 22 August, 1916, consecrated at Bangalore 
 24 January, 1917, died 28 January, 1922. The see 
 at present is vacant. The diocesan statistics for 
 1922 are: 31 parishes; 128 churches; 2 missions; 
 51 stations; 63 secular priests; 2 convents for men 
 and 8 for women; 8 lay brothers; 322 Sisters; 1 
 seminary (native) with 53 seminarians; 2 colleges 
 for men with 52 teachers and 1174 pupils; 1 college 
 for women with 20 teachers and 300 pupils; 2 high 
 schools with 18 teachers and an attendance of 322 
 girls; 3 secondary schools with 32 teachers and 
 609 students, 2 training schools with 7 teachers and 
 65 students, 60 elementary schools with 100 teachers 
 and 4222 pupils, 3 industrial schools with 12 teachers 
 and 150 pupils; 1 home for the aged with 125 in¬ 
 mates, 10 orphanages with 646 boys and girls; 
 2 hospitals; 3 dispensaries; 4 refuges for women 
 with about 300 inmates; 5 Christian settlements or 
 villages; 4 nurseries. Religious communities of 
 women in charge of educational and charitable 
 institutions are the Sisters of the Good Shepherd, 
 Sisters of St. Joseph of Tarbes, Sisters Catechists of 
 Mary Immaculate, and Little Sisters of the Poor. 
 About one-fourth of the schools are aided by the 
 government;’ all the others are supported by the 
 mission. One society is organized among the clergy: 
 the Indian Clergy Fund. Among the laity are the 
 Society of St. Vincent de Paul, St. Anne’s Temper¬ 
 ance Society, Cooperative Societies and Benefit 
 Fund, libraries, clubs, St. Anthony’s Society in aid 
 of the Poor Whites. One Catholic periodical is 
 published, the “Angel of the Good Shepherd.” The 
 Civil and Military Hospitals and Military Schools 
 admit the ministry of priests. Noteworthy of clergy¬ 
 men deceased since 1910 were Rt. Rev. Augustin 
 Frangois Basle, d. 13 Sep., 1915, and Rt. Rev. 
 Eugene-Louis Kleiner, d. 1915. The headquarters 
 of the Apostolic Delegation for India, Burma, and 
 the Strait Settlements has been established at 
 Bangalore. During the World War 10 priests were 
 mobilized, several receiving decorations for their 
 bravery, and 369 former students of the college 
 joined the colors of whom 27 were killed. Many of 
 the Catholic Indians served in France, Egypt, and 
 Mesopotamia. 
 
N 
 
 Nabik, Diocese of (Nabikensis Syrorum), 
 in Syria, was erected by a decree in 1921 for the Syrian 
 Rite, and is suffragan of Damascus. The bishop has 
 not yet been appointed. 
 
 Nagasaki, Diocese of (Nagasakiensis, cf. C. E., 
 X—667c), on the south-eastern shore of the Island 
 of Kiushiu, Japan, is under the administration of 
 Rt. Rev. Jean-Claude Combaz, who succeeded to 
 the see upon the death of Mgr. Cousin, d. 20 Sep¬ 
 tember, 1911, after forty-five years of fruitful work 
 in the Japanese episcopacy. Bishop Combaz, who 
 is a member of the Foreign Missions of Paris,^ was 
 born at Saint-Beron in the diocese bf Chambery 8 
 December, 1856, and studied at the seminary of 
 Pont-de-Beauvoisin, entering the Foreign Missions 
 in 1877. In 1880 he was sent to the Japanese Mis¬ 
 sion and became a professor in the Seminary of 
 Nagasaki. He was elected Bishop of Nagasaki 3 
 June, 1912, and consecrated the following 8 Sep¬ 
 tember. 
 
 In 1912 the mission mourned the death of Mgr. 
 Bonne, director of the Seminary of Nagasaki for 
 thirty years and afterwards Archbishop of Tokio, 
 and within the last few years the mission has lost 
 fifteen of its missionaries and four Japanese priests. 
 During the World War its ranks were still further 
 depleted by the mobilization of eleven mission¬ 
 aries, one of whom was killed at Champagne, one 
 received the medaille militaire as well as the croix 
 de guerre, and four others received croix de guerre 
 and many other citations. 
 
 According to the 1920 census of the diocese there 
 is a Catholic population of 57,499 as against 47,104 
 in 1'910. The personnel of the mission is: 1 bishop, 
 22 missionaries, 29 diocesan priests, 440 native 
 catechists entrusted with the instruction of the 
 Christian communities, 18 native catechists en¬ 
 trusted with the instruction of infidels, 20 itinerant 
 baptizers (female). The mission auxiliaries en¬ 
 gaged in works of charity and education are: 38 
 Brothers of Mary, 11 of them foreigners, including 
 2 priests and 27 Japanese; 27 Sisters of the Holy 
 Child Jesus (Chaufailles), of whom 15 are Japan¬ 
 ese; 36 Franciscan Sisters (Missionaries of Mary), 
 of whom 17 are Japanese; 19 Sisters of St. Paul of 
 Chartres, of whom 13 are Japanese; and 12 com¬ 
 munities of native women with 227 members. The 
 establishments include 48 mission stations with 
 residences; 38 sub-stations; 165 Christian com¬ 
 munities; 77 blessed churches and chapels; 54 un¬ 
 blessed oratories and chapels; 1 seminary with 31 
 students; 2 schools for female catechists; 1 apos¬ 
 tolic school with 57 pupils (7 novices; 50 Brothers 
 of Mary); 1 college with 600 pupils; 2 high schools 
 (boarding) with 257 students; 2 primary schools 
 with 178 pupils, 2 professional schools with 62 
 pupils; 2 kindergartens with 323 children; 13 or¬ 
 phanages with 281 children, 12 asylums with 942 
 inmates; 1 farm with 30 employees; 5 work houses 
 with 134 workers; 1 leper asylum with 56 patients; 
 9 dispensaries which have cared for 27,333 patients 
 in the year, besides nursing done in the homes, and 
 1 home for the aged. The Brothers of Mary have 
 the direction of the apostolic school and the col¬ 
 
 lege, and the other institutions are under the care 
 of the Sisters of the Holy Child Jesus, Franciscan 
 Missionaries of Mary or the Sisters of St. Paul of 
 Chartres. The administrative statistics for the 
 year ending 15 August, 1921, are: baptisms of 
 adults 407 (116 in articulo mortis, 4 Protestants); 
 infants 2596 (402 in articulo mortis); annual con¬ 
 fessions 34,479; Paschal communions 33,489; Holy 
 Viaticums 619; extreme unctions 712; marriages 
 524; known deaths 1032; increase 1160. 
 
 Associations are formed among the clergy for 
 saving the children of the diocese from the hands 
 of pagan instructors whenever possible. There is 
 no Catholic periodical published in the mission, 
 but a great number of religious books have been 
 printed. 
 
 Nagl, Franz Xaver, Cardinal, Prince Archbishop 
 of Vienna, b. there on 26 November, 1855; d. there 
 on 4 February, 1913, after wearing the scarlet robes 
 for two years. He made his academic studies at 
 Krems and Seitenstettin, was trained in theology at 
 Sankt Polten and ordained on 14 July, 1878. He 
 continued his studies in his native land and in Rome, 
 returning to Austria as professor of exegesis. In 
 1855 he was imperial and court chaplain and spiritual 
 director of the Augustinum at Vienna and from 
 there returned to Rome as rector of the Austrian 
 ambassadorial church, S. Maria dell’ Anima Teu- 
 tonicorum, of which he wrote a history on the oc¬ 
 casion of its fifth centenary. In 1902 he was made 
 Bishop of Trieste-Capo d’lstria, where he had the 
 difficult task of managing two conflicting races, the 
 Italians and Slovenians. After seven years of this 
 hardship he was promoted to the coadjutorship of 
 Vienna, with the right of succession to Cardinal 
 Gruscha, the incumbent of the see. In 1911 Car¬ 
 dinal Gruscha died and Bishop Nagl succeeded to the 
 dignity of archbishop and cardinal. 
 
 Nagpur, Diocese of (Nagplorensis; cf. C. E. 
 X—669a), in India, suffragan of Madras. The see 
 is filled by Rt. Rev. Francois Etienne Coppel, 
 O. S. F. S., b. at Gets 5 January, 1867, ordained 6 
 July, 1890, vicar at Devizes and Malmesbury in 
 England, arrived at India 2 July, 1892, superior of 
 St. Francis de Sales College at Nagpur, appointed 
 22 June, 1907, consecrated 15 September, 1907, 
 proclaimed 19 December following, to succeed Mgr. 
 Etienne Marie Bona venture, b. 26 April, 1851; d. 
 12 March, 1907. The diocese has (1922) a total 
 population of 15,000,000 of whom 19,000 are Cath¬ 
 olics, 7 churches, 33 chapels, 16 head-stations, 37 
 priests and 4 Brothers of the Missionaries of St. 
 Francis de Sales, 6 Franciscan missionary Brothers, 
 50 Sisters of St.. Joseph, 22 Daughters of the Cross, 
 1 seminary, 5 high schools with 1395 pupils, 5 inter¬ 
 mediate schools with 625 pupils, 1 industrial school 
 with 80 pupils, 5 primary schools with 815 pupils, 
 there are about 100 schools connected with the 
 missions to the pagans, 1 conference of the Society 
 of St. Vincent de Paul, 1 poor house with 100 in¬ 
 mates, 8 charitable dispensaries, 11 orphanages for 
 boys and girls connected with the schools. 
 
 Nagy-Varad (Oradea Mare-Grosswardein), Dio¬ 
 cese of (Magno-Varadinensis; cf. C. E. VII—40a) 
 
 522 
 
NAMAQUALAND 
 
 523 
 
 NAMUR 
 
 —This diocese which contains dioceses of both the 
 Latin and Greek Rumanian rites, lay in the old king¬ 
 dom of Hungary, but since the division' of Hungary, 
 subsequent to the treaty of St. Germain, nearly half 
 the diocese lies in territory ceded by Hungary to 
 Rumania. Statistics of 1920 give the diocese 158,329 
 Latin Catholics, 164,495 Greek-Rumanian Catholics, 
 203,966 Schismatics, 103,835 Lutherans, 527,710 
 Calvinists, 911 Unitarians, 53,292 Jews and 1,289 of 
 other religions. 
 
 Latin Rite .—The Latin diocese with cathedral chap¬ 
 ter at Nagy-Varad is a suffragan of Kalocsa (Hun¬ 
 gary). The bishop is Count Nicholas Szechenyi, born 
 at Sopron, Diocese of Gyor, 6 January, 1868, elected 
 Bishop of Gyor 1911, to succeed Mgr. Szmrecsanyi, 
 who died in 1908. Since the installation of Bishop 
 Szechenyi many churches and schools have been 
 erected at the cost of 10 million crowns. The sick 
 and wounded soldiers during the war were cared for 
 by the clergy and for many months nine wounded 
 officers were nursed and fed in the episcopal residence. 
 Soldiers on the march were fed and entertained, and 
 the sick nursed, over 25 million crowns being advanced 
 for this purpose by the bishop, chapter, and "diocesan 
 foundations. 
 
 The diocese counts (1922) 79 parishes, 87 churches, 
 4 monasteries for men and 1 for women, 2 convents 
 for men and 10 for women, 137 secular and 45 regular 
 piiests, 159,000 Catholics, 1 seminary with 16 semi¬ 
 narians, 3 high schools with 24 teachers and 250 stu¬ 
 dents, 90 normal schools with 124 teachers and 5,780 
 pupils, 2 industrial schools with 6 teachers and 70 
 pupils, 4 homes for the aged poor, 3 orphanages, 1 
 hospital, 5 day nurseries and 2 diocesan periodicals. 
 
 Greek-Rumanian Rite .—The diocese of the Greek- 
 Rumanian Rite is suffragan to Fogaras in Transyl¬ 
 vania (Rumania). The see is at present vacant, as 
 the last bishop, Demetrius Radu, born at Tompohaza, 
 Diocese of Fogaras 16 October, 1862, elevated to 
 Lugos 3 December, 1896, transferred to Nagy-Varad 
 25 June, 1903, assistant at Papal throne 5 December, 
 1903, and senator, was killed by a bomb in the Ru¬ 
 manian senate at Bukarest 9 December, 1920. The 
 episcopal seat is at Oradea Mare (Nagy-Varad). 
 There are (1922) 164,495 Catholics, 199 secular 
 priests, 179 churches, and 24 convents of men and 
 women, having in all 307 members. 
 
 « 
 
 Namaqualand, Great, Prefecture Apostolic 
 of (Magni Namac ualand; cf. C. E., X—268b), in 
 South Africa, comprises an area of 119,970 square 
 miles, formerly belonging to Germany, and since the 
 World War assigned to Great Britain. The pre¬ 
 fecture was erected 7 July, 1909, by separation from 
 the Vicariate Apostolic of Orange River, as Germany 
 was unwilling to negotiate with Mgr. Simon, Vicar 
 Apostolic of Orange River, because he resided at 
 Pella on English territory. New limits were as¬ 
 signed to the prefecture, 2 June, 1913. It is entrusted 
 to the Oblates of St. Francis de Sales of Troyes, and 
 the present prefect apostolic is Rt. Rev. Stanislas 
 Krolikowski, appointed 1910. There are in the Pre¬ 
 fecture Apostolic 5 mission stations with a church and 
 resident priest, four with a Sisters convent as well. 
 There are over 50 secondary stations which are visited 
 several times every year. There are 8 priests (O. F. 
 F. S.), 2 clerics, 2 lay brothers (O. S. F. S.), 10 sisters 
 (O. S. F. S.), 8 native catechists, 1 seminary, 5 schools 
 for native children and 4 orphanages. 
 
 Names of Jesus and Mary, Sisters of the 
 Holy (cf. C.E., X-678c).—Since 1911 38 new estab¬ 
 lishments have been founded, 28 in Canada and 10 
 in the United States. This expansion has necessi¬ 
 tated the formation of four further provinces, 
 raising the number to eleven. Mother Martin of 
 
 the Ascension, after two terms of ten years, was 
 superseded by Mother Marie de Bon Secours 
 (1916), re-elected by the Fifteenth General Chap¬ 
 ter of the Congregation (October 6-16, 1921), as 
 Superior General. The provincial headquarters, 
 located in Portland, Ore., were transferred in 1911, 
 with the provincial novitiate, to Marylhurst, Os¬ 
 wego, Ore., the provincial house, New York, was 
 removed from Schenectady to Albany in 1912. A 
 College of the Holy Names in Oakland, Cal., char¬ 
 tered 1918, began work as junior college 1915, full 
 college 1918. In the Diocese of Valleyfield, Que., 
 a normal school controlled by the R. C. Board of 
 Education, Quebec, was confided to the Sisters of 
 the Holy Names in 1911, by Rt. Rev. J. M. Emard; 
 it supplies teachers for rural and other schools. 
 Among notable members recently deceased are: 
 Mother M. Stanislas (Virginia Duhamel), ex- 
 Superior General, whose connection with the ad¬ 
 ministration from the outset (1853-1912) helped to 
 shape the spirit of the Institute, Mother M. Thais 
 (Thais Lacoste), Mother M. Lawrence (Pamela 
 Lafontaine), and Sister Thomas Aquinas (Annie 
 Fagan), all three widely known as educators in 
 Canada and the United States during nearly half 
 a century. The Congregation numbers (1921): 
 professed sisters, 1920; novices, 104; postulants, 
 114; establishments, 168; pupils (June, 1921), 
 40,743; colleges, 2; normal schools, 4; residential, 
 select, and parochial schools, 162. 
 
 ^Namur, Diocese of (Namurcensis; cf. C. E. X— 
 679a), contains the provinces of Namur and Luxem¬ 
 burg in Belgium, and is a suffragan of Malines. The 
 German army advanced on Namur 19 August, 1914, 
 and on 23 August the forts around the city fell into 
 the enemies’ hands. Later the entire diocese was 
 occupied by hostile troops. 
 
 Rt. Rev. Thomas-Louis Heylen, O. Prsem., born 
 at Casterle, 5 February, 1856, entered the Premon- 
 stratenseans 1875, ordained 11 June, 1881, elected 
 abbot of Tongerloo 1 June, 1887, and was appointed 
 Bishop of Namur 23 October 1899, president of the 
 permanent committee of the Eucharistic Congress 
 (1901), assistant at the Papal throne and Roman 
 Count (1910), and officer of the Order of the Crown 
 of the Congo. Bishop Heylen defended his people 
 and faith fearlessly in personal and written protests 
 to the German authorities throughout the occupation 
 of Namur (August, 1914-November, 1918), he main¬ 
 tained the rights of patriotism in his churches and 
 applied himself to relieving pain and suffering among 
 the deported French and the population of the occu¬ 
 pied French territories adjacent to his diocese, as 
 well as his own people. For his many works for God 
 and country, the bishop has been made a Grand 
 Officer of the Order of Leopold by the King of the 
 Belgians (18 July, 1919); cited in the Order of the 
 Army by the French Republic and awarded the croix 
 de guerre with palm (5 January, 1921); on 17 January, 
 1922, he was made an honorary commander of the 
 civil division of the Order of the British Empire; 
 also named honorary canon of Reims in August, 1920, 
 by Cardinal Lugon, and the citizens of Namur 
 bestowed on their bishop the title of “Defender of 
 the City.” 
 
 One hundred and sixteen priests and seminarians 
 were mobilized, 27 of whom were chaplains and 89 
 ambulance men or hospital attendants; 9 died in 
 battle and 17 were wounded. Among the priests who 
 remained in the occupied territory 17 were massacred 
 by the German army in August, 1914, and 91 devoted 
 themselves especially to sustain confidence and pa¬ 
 triotism or took an active part in the service of espion¬ 
 age. Among the distinctions attained were 111 cita¬ 
 tions in orders of allied armies or the country, 6 
 
NANCY 
 
 524 
 
 NARDO 
 
 chevaliers of the Order of Leopold, 3 with palms; 8 
 chevaliers of the Order of the Crown, 3 with palms; 
 19 chevaliers of the Order of Leopold II, 8 with palms; 
 36 Belgian croix de guerre; 5 military medals of 2d 
 class; 47 medals of the Yser; 19 croix civiques of the 
 1st class, 8 of the 2d class, 1 of the 3d class; 5 medals 
 of King Albert; 1 chevalier of the Legion of Honor 
 (French); 2 French croix de guerre; 4 medals of la 
 reconnaissance frangaise; 4 British war medals; 1 
 Italian croix de guerre; 1 medal of St. George, 2d 
 class and 1 of 4th class (Russian); 110 commemorative 
 medals and 116 Victory medals. 
 
 In the diocese there are 583,722 Catholics, in 36 
 deaneries with 726 parishes and 911 churches, 6 
 abbeys for men and 7 for women, 37 convents for 
 men and 63 for women, 1,316 secular and 557 regular 
 priests, 345 lay brothers, 3,113 religious women (a 
 great number of communities of French religious 
 refugees in Belgium have re-entered their own coun¬ 
 try) • 
 
 The diocesan seminary at Namur has 103 semina¬ 
 rians, while at the preparatory seminaries at Bastogne 
 and Floreffe are 416 students. The seminary at 
 Floreffe was damaged during the war by the German 
 troops who occupied it but the havoc has been repaired 
 and the old abbey now shelters 18 priests professors 
 and 184 students. There are 17 colleges and estab¬ 
 lishments for ancient and modern classical studies for 
 boys, among which the best known are the Jesuit 
 college at Florennes, which has 20 professors and 150 
 students, the College Notre Dame at Bellevue-Dinant 
 and the College St. Joseph at Virton. Other schools 
 include a secondary school for girls, attached to the 
 University of Louvain, with 10 professors and 65 
 students; 7 middle schools for boys with 1,866 stu¬ 
 dents, 27 for girls with 3,660 students; normal schools, 
 
 2 for boys with 30 professors and 250 students, 4 for 
 girls with 68 professors and 440 students; 3 profes¬ 
 sional and industrial schools with 471 students; 424 
 free primary schools with 27,678 pupils, many of 
 which are subsidized by state or local government. 
 
 There are 5 houses for retreats; 2 asylums for the 
 insane, 4 for the aged and 1 for the deaf and dumb; 
 
 3 hospitals and 8 refuges. The ministry of priest is 
 allowed in all State institutions. Eleven religious 
 journals are published and the work of the Bonne 
 Presse is organized in many parishes. There are three 
 organizations among the clergy and many and varied 
 associations among the laity. 
 
 Nancy and Toul, Diocese of (Nanceiensis 
 et Tullensis; cf. C. E., X—680b), comprises the 
 Department of Meurthe-et-Moselle, France, and is 
 a suffragan of Besangon. Rt. Rev. Charles-Frangois 
 Turinaz who came to the see in 1882 d. 19 October, 
 1918. He was born at Chambery in 1838, made his 
 clerical studies at the French seminary, Rome, was 
 ordained in 1862, elected Bishop of Tarentaise 1873, 
 transferred 30 March, 1882; in 1913 he was made 
 titular bishop of Antioch in Pisidia, while retaining 
 the title of Nancy. During his episcopate he brought 
 all the activities of his diocese to a magnificent state 
 of development and during the war was known as 
 “the old Hon of the frontier.” He was succeeded in 
 1918 by Rt. Rev. Charles-Joseph-Eugene Ruch, b. 
 at Nancy in 1873, ordained in 1897, vicar general in 
 1907, made coadjutor of Nancy and titular bishop of 
 Gerasa in 1913. He was a military chaplain through¬ 
 out the war and by a Decree of the Consistory (1917) 
 was named inspector in ordinary of mobilized priests. 
 He was transferred to Strasburg in 1919 and succeeded 
 (5 February, 1920), by the present bishop, Rt. Rev. 
 Hippolyte de la Celle, b. at Beaune, diocese of Mou- 
 lins, 1863, ordained 1886, honorary vicar general at 
 Moulins in 1910. The statistics of 1920 credit Nancy 
 with a population of 503,810 inhabitants, 486 parish 
 
 churches or chapels, an upper and lower seminary, 
 756 priests, 3 ecclesiastical colleges, 21 convents, 
 
 5 of which are mother houses, 18 hospitals. The work 
 accomplished by the bishops, priests, and nuns of 
 Nancy during the years of the war is described in the 
 “Livre d'Or” (published 1920). Six societies are 
 carried on among the laity, apart from the usual 
 parochial associations, and among the clergy there is 
 an association of Prayer for Deceased Priests. 
 
 Nantes, Diocese of (Nanceiensis; cf. C. 
 E., X—681c), comprises the entire Department of 
 Loire-Inferieure, France, and is a suffragan of Tours. 
 Bishop Rouard, who governed the diocese from 
 1896, died 10 Feb., 1914, and was succeeded by Rt. 
 Rev. Eugene-Louis-Marie Le Fer de La Motte, b. 
 at St. Servan, Diocese of Rennes, 1867, ordained 
 1891, elected in May, 1914, and enthroned in August 
 before his consecration (15 November), because of 
 the war. The diocese has (1922) 262 parishes with 
 churches, 1 abbey for men, 886 secular priests, 7 
 monasteries for women, 3 convents for men, 30 for 
 women, 2 seminarians with 334 seminarians, 4 col¬ 
 leges for boys with 86 teachers, and 1074 students,, 1 
 training school with 5 teachers and 50 pupils, 379 
 elementary schools with 40,366 pupils. Missionary 
 work is being carried on by the diocesan Missionaries 
 of the Immaculate Conception. The population 
 was given as 666,748 in 1916. The Apostolic Union 
 is organized among the clergy and there is a diocesan 
 branch of La Jeunesse Francaise. The Catholic 
 periodicals in circulation in the diocese are “L’Echo 
 de la Loire” (daily), “La Semaine religieuse,” 
 “L’Echo de Primbceuf,” “L’Ami de la Verise” 
 (weekly). Three hundred and eighty-five priests were 
 mobilized during the war and 155 seminarians. Of 
 these 36 priests and 34 seminarians died, 5 were 
 decorated with the Legion of Honor and 98 priests 
 and 36 seminarians received the croix de guerre. 
 
 Naples, Archdiocese of (Neopolitansis; cf. 
 C. E., X—686d), in Southern Italy, is under the 
 administration of His Eminence Cardinal Giuseppe 
 Prisco, b. in Naples 8 September, 1836, professor of 
 philosophy at the seminary and chancellor of the 
 archdiocese created cardinal deacon of St. Csesarius 
 in Palatio, 30 November, 1896, passed to the order 
 of cardinal-priests after his. appointment as Arch¬ 
 bishop of Naples, 24 March, 1898, took the title 
 of San Sisto, consecrated by Pope Leo XIII, 29 May, 
 1898, succeeding Mgr. Sarnelli di Giorani, deceased. 
 Cardinal Prisco was made vicar of the Pope for the 
 sanctuary of Our Lady of Pompeii at Valle Pompei. 
 Statistics for 1920 credit the archdiocese with a 
 Catholic population of 600,000, 106 parishes, 1875 
 secular and 800 regular priests, 150 seminarians, 
 150 Brothers, 2000 Sisters, 1105 churches or chapels. 
 On 18 January, 1916, the name of the sanctuary of 
 Our Lady of Sorrows, commonly known as al Fiumi - 
 cello , was declared pontifical. The church of St. 
 Anthony the Abbot was restored to the Constantinian 
 Order 13 December, 1916. 
 
 Napo, Vicariate Apostolic of (Napensis; 
 cf. C. E., XVI—84d), in Ecuador. The vicariate 
 is entrusted to the Jesuits, and Very Rev. Andre 
 Perez, S.J., is superior of the mission. The ad¬ 
 ministrator apostolic is Rt. Rev. Emile Cecco, a 
 Josephite, appointed in 1921. The vicariate com¬ 
 prises the provinces of Archidona and Avila, with a 
 Catholic population of 9000 divided into 18 centers, 
 with 9 churches. 
 
 Nardo, Diocese of (Neritonensis, cf. C. E., 
 X—703d), in the province of Lecce, Southern Italy, 
 directly subject to the Holy See. It is governed by 
 Rt. Rev. Nicola Giannattasio, b. 17 January, 1871, 
 
NARNI 
 
 525 
 
 NATAL 
 
 appointed Bishop of Nardo, 30 November, 1908, 
 proclaimed 29 April, 1909, to succeed Bishop 
 Giuseppe Ricciardi, b. 10 June, 1839, d. 18 June, 
 1908. On 7 December, 1916, Bishop Giannattasio 
 refused promotion to the Archdiocese of Otranto. 
 The Catholic population of the diocese is 80,373. 
 There are 16 parishes, 77 churches or chapels, 133 
 secular and 8 regular clergy, 53 seminarians, 10 
 Brothers, and 24 Sisters. Our Lady of the As¬ 
 sumption is the patron of the cathedral chapter. 
 
 Narni and Terni, United Dioceses of (Narnien- 
 sis et Interamensis; cf. C. E., X—704a), in the 
 province of Perugia, Central Italy. The present ad¬ 
 ministrator is Rt. Rev. Cesare Boccoleri, b. 1875 in 
 Rapollo, elected at the Consistory of 13 June, 1921, 
 consecrated at Rapollo 29 June, enthroned at Terni 
 11 December, and at Narni 18 December following, 
 to succeed Mgr. Francesco Moretti, promoted to the 
 titular see of Laodicea of Theodoriade. Narni has a 
 Catholic population of 32,600, 41 parishes, 46 secular 
 and 9 regular clergy, 73 churches and chapels. 
 Terni has a population of 34,000, 16 parishes, 26 
 secular priests, 39 nuns, 54 churches and chapels. 
 
 Nashville, Diocese of (Nashvillensis; cf. C.E., 
 X—704d), has made great progress since 1910 in the 
 erection of schools, rectories, institutions and 
 churches. The new Cathedral of the Incarnation 
 at Nashville stands as a monument to the energy 
 of the present bishop, Rt. Rev. Thomas Sebastian 
 Bvrne, D.D. In 1916 a great fire which destroyed 
 the eastern section of the city, wiped out St. Co- 
 lumba’s parish and the Home for the Aged Poor 
 under the Little Sisters of the Poor. However, 
 through the untiring work of the bishop, a new 
 church, school and rectory soon replaced the old 
 parish buildings, and a fire-proof building was 
 erected on new property for the Little Sisters, at 
 a cost of $200,000, of which $50,000 was subscribed 
 through a campaign conducted entirely by non- 
 Catholics. In 1917 a thoroughly equipped hospital 
 building was erected adjoining and forming a part 
 of St. Thomas’ Hospital, which is now considered 
 one of the foremost hospitals of the South. In 
 1920 St. Mary’s Home for Incurables was opened 
 under the Sisters of St. Francis, and there have 
 been numerous other additions throughout the 
 diocese. 
 
 The opening of the mission field in East Tennes¬ 
 see was a most important step in its progress. The 
 first mission center was established in Johnson City 
 and is now in charge of the Dominican Fathers. It 
 provides missionaries for the contiguous counties, 
 and chapels have been erected in all important 
 towns. A second center was opened at Harriman, 
 and a third at Cleveland, both in charge of the 
 diocesan priests. From these centers priests work 
 throughout the mountain districts of Tennessee 
 ministering to the scattered Catholics and meeting 
 with notable success in the conversion of non- 
 Catholics. 
 
 During the World War priests and people re¬ 
 sponded generously and ten of the total number of 
 men of this section who gave up their lives were 
 Catholics. The Catholic population of the diocese 
 numbers 23,015, of whom 4500 are Italians, 150 
 Syrians and the rest American negroes or whites. 
 The 1921 statistics show 30 parishes; 58 churches; 
 28 missions; 129 stations; 42 secular priests and 16 
 religious; 21 teaching Brothers; 328 Sisters. The 
 educational institutions include: 1 college for men 
 with 19 teachers and an attendance of 320; 12 high 
 schools with 52 teachers and an attendance of 481; 
 5 academies for girls with 729 students; 2 training 
 schools for nurses with an attendance of 125; 32 
 
 elementary schools with 122 teachers and an at¬ 
 tendance of 5126; 2 industrial schools with an 
 attendance of 150. Missionary work is carried on 
 through the East Tennessee missions and the 
 Society for the Propagation of the Faith. The 
 charitable institutions include: homes for the aged 
 poor under the Little Sisters, and for incurables 
 under the Franciscan Sisters; 2 asylums; 2 hospi¬ 
 tals; 1 House of the Good Shepherd and a free 
 medical clinic. The Eucharistic League is estab¬ 
 lished among the clergy and the Holy Name Soci¬ 
 ety, Knights of Columbus, Ancient Order of Hiber¬ 
 nians and Young Men’s and Young Ladies’ Insti¬ 
 tutes are established among the laity. A Catholic 
 periodical called the “Columbian,” is published at 
 Nashville and the “Catholic Journal of New South” 
 at Memphis. 
 
 Natal, Diocese of (Natalensis; cf. C. E., XVI— 
 36b), in the State of Rio-Grande do Norte, was 
 erected 11 November, 1909, by the dismemberment 
 of the Diocese of Parahyba, of which it is suffragan. 
 The boundaries are, on the North and East the 
 Atlantic Ocean, on the South the State of Parahyba 
 and on the West and Northwest the State of Cera, 
 covering an area of about 21,936 sq. miles. It is gov¬ 
 erned by Rt. Rev. Antonio Dos Santos Cabral, b. 8 
 October, 1884, studied at the seminary of Bahia, or¬ 
 dained 1 November, 1906, vicar then rector of Propria, 
 chancellor of the cathedral 4 August, 1912, private 
 chamberlain 15 October, 1914, appointed 1 Sep¬ 
 tember, 1917, proclaimed 10 March, 1919, succeeding 
 Mgr. Joachim-Antonio de Almeida, transferred to the 
 titular see of Lares. It contains a Catholic population 
 of 500,000, (80,000 natives) and 28 parishes. 
 
 Natal, Vicariate Apostolic of; (cf. C. E., 
 X—7(J7d), in South Africa. This vicariate underwent 
 a complete transformation in the course of 1921, a 
 portion of its territory being cut off by a decree of 27 
 July, and erected into the vicariate of Mariannhill 
 (q. v.), and another portion by a decree of 27 August 
 being separated to form the prefecture of Zululand 
 (q. v.). As a result of this division the total popula¬ 
 tion of Natal has been reduced to 1,100,000 and the 
 number of Catholics to 12,000 (Europeans 6500, 
 Asiatics 1500, Natives 4000). There are at the pres¬ 
 ent time 23 parishes and churches and 15 stations, 36 
 priests, 350 nuns, 11 teaching Brothers and 3 lay 
 brothers. The religious orders represented at present 
 are the Oblates of Mary Immaculate, Dominicans, 
 Servites, Marist Brothers, Sisters of the Holy Family, 
 Augustinian Sisters, Sisters of Nazareth, Franciscan 
 Sisters, Dominican Sisters of Newcastle and Domini¬ 
 can Sisters of Oakford. The institutions include 
 1 convent for men, 16 for women, 1 college for boys 
 with 10 teachers and 310 students, 7 for girls with 82 
 teachers and 1900 pupils, 12 elementary schools, with 
 98 teachers and 2500 pupils, boys and girls, 4 asylums 
 and 4 hospitals. Ten of the schools and hospitals 
 receive government assistance. A needle-work guild, 
 the St. Vincent de Paul Society, and the Ladies of 
 Charity are organized among the laity. Ten priests, 
 all of them Oblates of Mary Immaculate, were mobil¬ 
 ized during the late war, and five of them received 
 different decorations. Rev. Fr. de Louet received the 
 British W T ar Cross, Fr. Kerautret, the British military 
 medal, Fr. Maingot, the Medaille des Epidemies , and 
 the French croix de guerre, Fr. Garrigon the medaille 
 militaire, the French croix de guerre, the Queen’s 
 Medal, and the British War Cross, Fr. Vialard, the 
 French croix de guerre. Two years and a half ago, at a 
 meeting held in Durban on the occasion of Bishop 
 Delalle’s jubilee celebration, the idea of the founda¬ 
 tion of a Catholic newspaper for South Africa was 
 expressed by Fr. Sormany, O. M. I., and highly 
 
NATCHEZ 
 
 526 
 
 NATIONAL 
 
 approved by the bishops and clergy assembled. Fr. 
 J. O’Donnell, visited the Transvaal and the 
 
 Cape Colony in connection with the scheme and 
 twelve months later the "Southern Cross" was an 
 accomplished fact. 
 
 Natchez, Diocese of (Natchesiensis, cf. C. E., 
 X—704d), in the State of Mississippi, is under the 
 administration of the Rt. Rev. John E. Gunn, who 
 succeeded to this see upon the death of Bishop 
 Heslin on 22 February, 1911. Bishop Heslin had 
 filled the see of Natchez for twenty-two years and 
 during that time he had given special attention to 
 the development of parochial education and estab¬ 
 lished a parish school in nearly every parish of the 
 diocese which had a resident priest, besides direct¬ 
 ing the building of a number of the largest 
 churches in the diocese. 
 
 Bishop Gunn is the sixth Bishop of Natchez and 
 was born in County Tyrone, Ireland, in 1863, and 
 educated in Ireland and Rome. He was ordained 
 for the Society of Mary in Rome in 1890 and was 
 professor of Theology, Washington, D. C., from 
 1892-98. He was pastor of Atlanta from 1898 until 
 his consecration, 29 August, 1911. During his ad¬ 
 ministration he has made the mission, schools and 
 chapels his special work and up to the present 
 time (1921) has added 45 chapels and increased the 
 number of children in Catholic schools from 5000 
 to 7000. He was instrumental in securing a gov¬ 
 ernment-built school for the Choctaw Indians and 
 in getting the Belgian Missionaiy Fathers to take 
 charge of the Mississippi Indians, and under his 
 guidance the Fathers of the Divine Word opened 
 a preparatory seminary at Bay St. Louis for the 
 training of colored boys for the priesthood. Bishop 
 Gunn is known as the bishop of poor churches and 
 especially of the colored, the Indians and the 
 abandoned white Catholics of Mississippi. 
 
 In addition to Bishop Heslin the diocese has 
 lost several well known clergymen in recent years; 
 Dr. Oliver of Jackson, Father Mallin of Vicksburg, 
 Mgr. Wise of Yazoo, Fathers Althoff and Ketels of 
 the Coast, and in 1921 the Rt. Rev. Patrick C. 
 Hayden, vicar general of the diocese. 
 
 The various religious orders established in the 
 diocese are: men, Fathers of the Mission, Divine 
 Word Fathers, Josephites, Belgian Missionaries 
 and Brothers of the Sacred Heart, who conduct 
 high schools and colleges in four important cen¬ 
 ters; women: Sisters of Charity of Nazareth, Sisters 
 of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul, Sisters of Per¬ 
 petual Adoration, Sisters of St. Joseph, of Mercy, 
 of Notre Dame and the Holy Ghost Sisters of 
 Techny and of San Antonio. The total Catholic 
 population is 30,477 of whom 344 are Indians, 2600 
 negroes, and over 27,000 whites. There are 51 
 priests, 143 churches, 41 of which have resident 
 priests, 42 Brothers of the Sacred Heart, 238 Sisters 
 and 6352 children in parish schools. There are 3 
 colleges for boys and 6 for girls and 2 orphanages, 
 1 for boys and 1 for girls. 
 
 Natchitoches, Diocese of. See Alexandria, 
 Diocese of (Louisiana). 
 
 National Catholic Welfare Council, organized 
 on 24 September, 1919, at the Catholic University 
 of America, Washington, D. C., by the American 
 Hierarchy. The Welfare Council is the successor 
 of the emergency organization, the National Cath¬ 
 olic War Council, created by the American Hier¬ 
 archy at the time of America’s entrance into the 
 World War. A general convention of the Catholics 
 of the United States was held in Washington on 
 11-12 August, 1917, to establish the National 
 
 Catholic War Council. Its objects were to promote 
 the spiritual and material welfare of the United 
 States’ troops at home and abroad and to study, 
 co-ordinate, unify and put into operation all Cath¬ 
 olic activities incidental to the war. The mag¬ 
 nificent record of Catholics during the War and 
 reconstruction period, and the helpful service which 
 they rendered, both to the country and to the 
 Church, in the great variety of activities handled 
 by the emergency war organization, impressed upon 
 the members of the Hierarchy the necessity of 
 continuing in times of peace many of the useful 
 activities of the war period, and at their annual 
 meeting in Washington in September, 1919, the 
 Hierarchy determined to perpetuate the work of 
 the War Council in a permanent organization to 
 be known as the National Catholic Welfare 
 Council. 
 
 In order that the work of the Welfare Council 
 might be organized, co-ordinated and administered 
 in the most effective manner, the Hierarchy ap¬ 
 pointed an administrative committee of seven of 
 its members to manage the affairs of the Welfare 
 Council. The administrative committee was estab¬ 
 lished in five departments: a Department of Educa¬ 
 tion, a Department of Social Action, a Department 
 of Laws and Legislation, a Department of Lay Or¬ 
 ganizations and a Department of Press and Pub¬ 
 licity. 
 
 The Most Rev. Edward J. Hanna, Archbishop 
 of San Francisco was appointed Chairman of the 
 Administrative Committee, and the following epis¬ 
 copal chairmen of the various departments were 
 elected to assist him: His Eminence Dennis Card¬ 
 inal Dougherty, Archbishop of Philadelphia, Chair¬ 
 man of the Department of Laws and Legislation; 
 Most Rev. Austin Dowling, Archbishop of St. Paul, 
 Chairman of the Department of Education; Rt. 
 Rev. Peter J. Muldoon, Bishop of Rockford, Chair¬ 
 man of the Department of Social Action; Rt. Rev. 
 William T. Russell, Bishop of Charleston, Chairman 
 of the Department of Press and Publicity, and Rt. 
 Rev. Joseph Schrembs, Bishop of Cleveland, Chair¬ 
 man of the Department of Lay Organization. 
 Later, when Cardinal Dougherty resigned from the 
 Committee, Rt. Rev. Edmund F. Gibbons, Bishop 
 of Albany, was elected Chairman of the Depart¬ 
 ment of Laws and Legislation, and Rt. Rev. Louis 
 S. Walsh, Bishop of Portland, was elected to mem¬ 
 bership on the Committee. While some of the 
 Departments were able to launch certain activities 
 immediately, the whole work of the Welfare Coun¬ 
 cil was not fully organized and functioning until 
 the early part of 1921. 
 
 The Executive Department has the supervision 
 of the work of the Welfare Council as a whole, the 
 co-ordination of all its departments and the ulti¬ 
 mate responsibility as to its development, as well 
 as its general policy and action. This Department 
 keeps in personal touch with the officials of the 
 Government. It is a medium of communication, of 
 information and of action between the officials and 
 departments of the Government on all matters that 
 affect Catholic interests and Catholic rights. It is 
 a medium of information to legislators, national or 
 state, and to others who wish to inform themselves 
 as to the Catholic attitude on matters of Catholic 
 or public interest. 
 
 The Department of Education is under the Chair¬ 
 manship of Most Rev. Austin Dowling, and the 
 Rev. James H. Ryan, D.D., Ph.D., is its executive 
 secretary. The chief purposes of the Department 
 are: a clearing-house of information concerning 
 Catholic education and Catholic education agencies, 
 for Catholic educators and students, and for the 
 
NATURALIZATION 
 
 NAXOS 
 
 527 
 
 general public; an advisory agency to assist Cath¬ 
 olic education systems and institutions in their 
 development; a connecting Agency between Cath¬ 
 olic education activities and Government education 
 agencies; an active organization to safeguard the 
 interests of Catholic education. 
 
 The Department of Press, Publicity and Litera¬ 
 ture, among its other activities, has taken over the 
 news service from the Catholic Press Association, 
 which supplied twenty-three weekly newspapers. 
 Today thiee dailies and eighty-four weeklies receive 
 the N. C. W. C. service, which is made up of (1) 
 a printed news sheet of eight columns, full news¬ 
 paper style; (2) a supplementary compilation of 
 news features, consisting of from twenty-five to 
 thirty-five full foolscap sheets printed by a mimeo¬ 
 graph machine; (3) a Washington news-letter; (4) 
 a Monthly Editorial Sheet, containing editorials on 
 ' ital topics of the day, special articles by distin¬ 
 guished writers, book reviews and other magazine 
 features. In connection with the Press Department 
 a complete exchange and clipping bureau is main¬ 
 tained. One of the important developments of the 
 news service has been its adoption for teaching pur¬ 
 poses in colleges and schools. 
 
 The Department of Social Action was organized 
 in December. 1919. Rt. Rev. Peter J. Muldoon, 
 D D., is its Chairman. There is a general commit¬ 
 tee of twenty-eight priests and laymen, and an 
 executive committee in immediate charge of the 
 department. The Department of Social Action 
 deals v ith the industrial relations, civic education, 
 social welfare, and rural life. Rev. John A. Ryan, 
 D.D., is Director of the section dealing with indus- 
 tiial relations; Mr. John A. Lapp, LL.D., is Direc¬ 
 tor of Civic Education and Social Welfare, and Rev. 
 Edwin V. O’Hara, Ph.D., is Director of the Rural 
 Life Bureau of the department. The purpose of 
 ^ e P ar ^ men l ; , is get the best information on 
 all of these subjects, distribute the information and 
 serve as a direct help to the rest of the Welfare 
 Council and to the Men’s and Women's Council 
 in particular in all matters coming under its prov¬ 
 ince. A weekly news service on industrial and rural 
 questions is being conducted for the Catholic papers 
 and a few secular papers. The department also 
 conducts a lecture course on -economic and social 
 topics for Catholic seminaries and colleges and 
 Catholic clubs in secular universities. 
 
 The Department of Laws and Legislation was 
 organized in December, 1920, its purpose being to 
 safeguard Catholic interests in both State and 
 .Nation. The Department keeps in close touch 
 with the activities of Congress and the legislatures 
 of the several States, and is ever on the alert to 
 detect those measures aversely affecting Catholic 
 interests and morality and to obtain information 
 as to the source of such matters. 
 
 The Department of Lay Organizations, having 
 two co-ordinate departments—one the National 
 Council of Catholic Men and the other the National 
 Council of Catholic W omen—has for its purpose 
 the unification of the Catholic lay forces through¬ 
 out the country. The Rt. Rev. Joseph Schrembs 
 directs the organization and activities of these two 
 Councils. Admiral William S. Benson is President 
 of the National Council of Catholic Men. It 
 conducts a Catholic Bureau of Immigration and 
 a Catholic Service School for Men. At the head of 
 ~*e Council of Catholic Women is Mrs. 
 
 Michael Gavin. Its object is to accomplish for 
 Catholic women what the National Council of 
 Catholic Men seeks to do for the men. The hope 
 of these two Councils is to reach the vast majority 
 ot Catholics not affiliated with any Catholic societv 
 34 
 
 They are trying to infuse into them some of its 
 com age, opt imism and spirit, and above all to teach 
 them the advantage of organized effort and unity 
 in thought and action outside the Church as well as 
 a • e sca tt ,ere d forces of the Catholic body 
 of America are gradually being united in this way 
 into a compact organization which will soon be 
 able to make Catholic Faith, principles and ideals 
 command the influence and prestige in our social 
 and civic life which their soundness and stability 
 warrant. In Canada, in South America, in Eng¬ 
 land, Ii eland and other countries of Europe the 
 work of the Welfare Council is attracting much 
 attention and many of its programs are being 
 studied most carefully, and some of them are 
 being put into operation by the Catholics of the 
 countries named. This is particularly true of the 
 ■^ a f 1 i ona Catholic Welfare Council’s Press service, 
 which is being carefully studied by foreign Catholic 
 journalists. 
 
 Naturalization. See Americanization. 
 
 Navigators’ Islands (or Samoa), Vicariate Apos- 
 tolic OF (Archipelagi Navigatorum; cf. C. E., 
 AIII—421a), in Polynesia, is entrusted to the 
 Society of Mary and governed by Rt. Rev. Joseph 
 arnand, a Manst, titular Bishop of Polemonium, 
 b. 31 December, 1879, professed 20 December, 1903 
 ordained 16 July, 1905, appointed Vicar Apostolic 
 of Navigators Islands, 4 August, 1919, and con¬ 
 secrated 16 May, 1920. He resides at Apia, on the 
 Island of Upola (Samoa). The vicariate comprises 
 the western islands of Samoa (q. v.) formerly belong¬ 
 ing to Germany, and since the Treaty of Versailles 
 governed by New Zealand. It numbers a total pop¬ 
 ulation of 38,000, of whom 6675 are Catholics, and 183 
 catechumens, 15 districts, 92 stations, 22 regular 
 pnests, 4 native priests, 15 Little Brothers of Mary 
 28 Sisters, 101 catechists, 4 schools of Brothers, 6 of 
 Sisters with 2000 pupils, 82 primary schools, 25 
 churches and a few chapels, 1 professional school. 
 
 Naxos and Tinos, Archdiocese of (Naxiensis et 
 Tinensis), is one of the three dioceses of the Latin 
 lite in the Cyclades Islands, Greek Archipelago, 
 and has as suffragans Syra and Thera (Santorin). 
 a/ i 8, ^ rie ^ 3 June, 1919, the sees of Tinos and 
 Mykonos were united to the archdiocese of Naxos 
 under the title of Naxos and Tinos. The silk in¬ 
 dustry , once flourishing on these islands, has since 
 disappeared, Naxos and Tinos being now given 
 chiefly to cattle raising, Syra is a manufacturing 
 place for wool and cotton, and Thera is famous 
 for its strong wine which is its principal source of 
 revenue. 
 
 The present incumbent, Rt. Rev. Mathew Vido, 
 b. in the diocese of Tinos 1847, prelate of the Holy 
 See, appointed Bishop of Tinos and Mykonos 9 
 March, 1915, was promoted to the Archdiocese of 
 Naxos and Tinos 3 July, 1919, to succeed Arch¬ 
 bishop Brindisi, transferred to Corfu after filling 
 the see of Naxos from 1909. 
 
 There are only about 150 Catholics in Naxos and 
 these live in the old town. In Tinos, however 
 there are about 4000 Catholics who fully live up to 
 the lequirements of their faith and cling to many 
 picturesque and ancient Catholic customs. They 
 are all peasants and live by themselves in 25 small 
 villages, each of which has its own church and 
 curates, the pastors are usually changed every two 
 years. On each of these islands a flourishing 
 academy is conducted by the Ursuline Nuns and 
 these institutions are famous throughout the 
 Le\ ant. At Naxos there is a commercial school’ 
 for boys conducted by the Oblate Fathers of St. 
 
NAZARETH 
 
 528 
 
 NEBRASKA 
 
 Francis de Sales (oi: Troyes)^ the Jesuits have had 
 ISSfiZSt aSS have 2 stations 
 
 with one Father each, on the same island and the d»ga»' PUP^^ and 2 private normal 
 
 Capuchin Fathers have a station at Naxos with 1 in fol9 was *16,690,000. 
 
 priest. In 1918 $7 ; 457 ; 000 were expended for salaries among 
 
 Nazareth, Diocese of (Nazarensis in Brasilia) 12,758 teachers. The laws governing State private 
 
 in Brazil is suffragan of Olinda. It was erected by a and parochial schools are as follows (compulsory 
 
 decree of 2 August, 1918, but was not published education act): Grades, qualifications of teachers, 
 
 until 1 October . 1921. The territory of this new promotion of pupils, courses of study in private 
 
 diocese is taken from the northeast portion of that schools must be substantially the same as m public 
 
 of Olinda The first bishop, Rt. Rev. Richard Ramos schools. The teachers must be certificated. History 
 
 Da Costa Viella b at Olinda 3 April, 1887, rector and Civil Government must be 'aught and patriotic 
 
 B S Qravada^appointed at the Consistory 3 July, 1919, exercises held. County superintendents of county or 
 
 Bishop of Nazareth. The parish church of Our Lady city superintendents of city where any private denorn- 
 
 of Nazareth became the cathedral with twenty-two mational or parochial school is located shall inspect 
 
 parishes in the diocese. The new diocese has two such school and report to the proper officers any evi- 
 
 SnrDnts at the South American College, Rome. dence of failure to observe any provisions of this Act. 
 
 students at tne tooutn America £ ’ No pergon> individually or as a teacher, shall, m any 
 
 Nazareth, Sisters of Charity of. See Charity private, denominational, parochial or public school, 
 
 Sisters of, of Nazareth. teach any subject to any person in any other language 
 
 ^ _ __ ^ ( i l but the English language. Languages other than the 
 
 Nebraska (cf. C. E. X-/29c) The area of the language may be taught as languages only 
 
 State of Nebraska is 7520 square miles. In 1920 when & n shall have successfully passed the eighth 
 
 the population was 1,296,372, an increase of 8.7 since grac [ e> A foreign language may be used to teach 
 
 1910. Of this, 31.3 per cent was urban; 68.7 per cent ® eli ion on Sunday. After September, 1919, all teach- 
 was rural. The density is 16.9 persons to the square epg in pr i va te, parochial, or denominational schools are 
 mile. Of the native whites, (1,129,567), 757,064 were f orb i dden to teach without a certificate; all must be 
 of native parentage, 231,948 were of foreign parentage, full cit i zen s of the United States, and they must attend 
 140,555 mixed; the foreign-born whites were 149,652. institu t es at least once a week. Teachers in private 
 There were 13,242 negroes and 2888 Indians, and gchoolg mus t keep attendance records. The wearing 
 804 Japanese. The percentage of illiteracy was 1.4, of re ligious garb while teaching in a public school 
 a slight decrease since 1910 (1.9). The largest cities - g a misdemeanor. The State shall not accept any 
 are Omaha (191,601), Lincoln (54,948), Grand Island g rard> conveyance or bequest of money, lands, or 
 (13,960), Hastings (11,647). other property to be used for sectarian purposes. All 
 
 Economic Conditions. As an agricultural otate normal schools must be incorporated under the laws of 
 
 Nebraska ranks high, containing about 124,OUU Nebraska w i t h at least $50,000 invested or available 
 farms in 1920. Of these, 3021 were irrigated, lhe for gchool use> and not i ess than five teachers on full 
 North Platte and its tributaries supplied water to ti giving instruction as required by the State, 
 nearly 85 per cent of the land irrigated m 1919. i ne Th must pass tbe p erson al inspection of the State 
 following table shows the agricultural wealth oi e- b oard of examiners or of the State superintendent of 
 braska in 1919: public instruction, and must have the same entrance 
 
 --- " requirements as the State normal schools. Of the 
 
 Com . 184,186,000 bushels *^.W,000 original grant ot 3,000,000 acres of land made by the 
 
 . 69 SS bushels 45,47b',(m Federal Government for permanent endowment of 
 
 ntv ' 4,299,000 tons 60,186,000 schools, 1,661,405 acres are now held by the State, 
 
 Alfalfa.'.'..'. 2,527,834 tons ?H?o’noo further sale, with minor exceptions, being forbidden. 
 
 Horses. ' ’ ‘ ’ ’ 70349’,000 The value of the endowment is $2,800,000. Among 
 
 Bariev and Rye .. 12 , 227,000 bushels 13,225,000 recently founded State institutions are the hospital 
 
 rS“ J . l ushels ‘I'SM for tuberculosis (opened in 1912), and the State public 
 
 . 62,^',000 pound, siSooo school, created in 1909 
 
 Flaxseed.. 15,000 bushels 60,000 Religion.— The U. S. religious census of'1916 
 
 Buckwheat.!!!!!. 16.000 bushes 29 ' 000 gi ves the following statistics for the State: Catholics 
 
 $ 775 , 105,862 135,537; Methodists 81,879; Lutherans 66,906; 
 
 _ Presbyterians 26,233; Disciples (Christians) 24,140, 
 
 Tbo fourteenth census of manufactures in Nebraska Baptists 19,643; Congregationalists _19,423; Episco- 
 
 reveals (1919), 2,884 81 879 ? For furth^relSous and educational statis- 
 
 - - hzssz&srx “■ “ 0F ; 
 
 Sil n m g ah n a d the^S 
 
 thelargest in the United States, the estimated produc- conservation and public welfare th g dis- 
 
 ttTre wte 8 stsfmUefof railway in Rato (total S."tion oTuS^tyWland minor ’judge*i of 
 
 liHil 
 
 of which *212,697,098 was personal and $355,759,828 
 
 J=fr7m^t «ST3 ^ 
 
 than 12 weeks in the school term. In 1918 the 726 adopt an amendment. The Code Act of 1919 con 
 
NELLIE 
 
 529 
 
 NEVADA 
 
 solidated the several boards and commissions under 
 the governor with secretaries forming his cabinet, with 
 the purpose of unifying the administration of the 
 State’s business, doing away with duplications and 
 overlapping jurisdiction. The legislature of 1919 
 reproduced the Sabbath-breaking legislation of New 
 England, but exempts families who are emigrating, 
 watermen, ferrymen, keepers of toll oridges, railways 
 running necessary trains. Public dancing on Sundays 
 is permitted in cities of the metropolitan class, having 
 a public welfare board with authority to regulate such 
 dancing. In 1916 there were 1075 divorces and 12,786 
 marriages. The Constitutional Convention in 1919 
 voted 41 amendments to the constitution, and referred 
 them to the people in the next election. The Federal 
 Suffrage Amendment was ratified on 31 July, 1919; 
 the Prohibition Act on 16 January, 1919. 
 
 History.— -Nebraska’s recent history is mainly a 
 legislative history. In 1919 race riots, however, 
 broke out in the city of Omaha. The mob surrounded 
 the court house and set fire to the interior of the build¬ 
 ing in order to force the sheriff to turn over a negro 
 prisoner held in the county jail w r hich was over the 
 roof. \\ hile the sheriff was removing the prisoners, 
 the negro was secured by the mob, hung, shot, and 
 cremated. Mayor Smith was captured by the mob, 
 and narrowly escaped being hung, his rescue being 
 effected by a group of citizens. During the European 
 War Nebraska’s contribution was 47’805 soldiers or 
 1.27 per cent, of the United States Army. The mem¬ 
 bers of the national guard formed a part of the 34th 
 Division at Camp Cody, New Mexico, and those of 
 the national army joined the 89th Division at Fun- 
 ston, Kansas. The summary of casualties of the 
 Nebraska members of the American Expeditionary 
 Force was as follows: deceased, 25 officers, 830 men; 
 prisoners, 20 men; wounded, 36 officers and 2130 men. 
 
 Erxlesiastical History .—In 1912 the western part 
 of the Diocese of Omaha w r as erected into the Diocese 
 of Kearney, this name being later changed to Grand 
 Island. 
 
 Nellie of Holy God, Little. See Organ, Nellie. 
 
 Nepi and Sutri, Diocese of (Nepesinsis et Su- 
 trinsis, cf. C. E., X —750b), united sees of the prov¬ 
 ince of Home, are under the direction of Mgr. 
 Olivares who was appointed to the diocese upon the 
 death of Mgr. Doebbing 14 March, 1916. Mgr. 
 Luigi Olivares was bom at Corbetta in the diocese 
 of Milan in 1873. He received his degree of Doctor 
 of Theology and became pastor of Santa Maria 
 Liberatrice at Testaccio in Rome. He was ap¬ 
 pointed Bishop of Nepi and Sutri 15 July, 1916, 
 and consecrated at Rome 29 October, of the same 
 year. During the World War the clergy and laity 
 of this diocese took an active part in assisting the 
 families of the soldiers and war prisoners. Accord¬ 
 ing to present (1921) statistics there are in the 
 diocese, 30 parishes, 95 churches, 3 monasteries for 
 women, 13 convents for men, 16 for women, 61 
 secular priests, 36 regulars, 23 Brothers, 148 Sisters, 
 
 2 seminaries with 23 seminarians. Among the 
 charitable institutions are 14 asylums in charge of 
 Sisters and 4 hospitals in charge of either Sisters 
 or Brothers. Sisters teach in eight of the govern¬ 
 ment schools. The total Catholic population of 
 the diocese is approximately 49,000; 6 Catholic 
 societies are organized among the laity. 
 
 Netto, Joseph Sebastian, cardinal, b. in 1841, at 
 Lagos, Portugal; d. in 1920 near Seville, Spain, 
 Cardinal-priest of the Church and occupant of the 
 Patriarchal See of his native land. He was a simple 
 parish priest in 1873; a Franciscan friar in 1875; 
 Bishop of Angola and Congo in Africa in 1879; 
 
 Patriarch of Lisbon in 1883, and cardinal in 1884, 
 receiving the hat in 1886. In 1907, he resigned his 
 office as patriarch to become once more an humble 
 friar in a convent of his Order, and when the Revolu- 
 i 0I j u broke he was banished from his native 
 land by the fanatical mob. He found a refuge in 
 Spain near Seville until his death. 
 
 Neusohl, Diocese of. See Banska Bystrica. 
 
 Neutra, Diocese of. See Nitra. 
 
 Nevada (cf. C. E., X—775b).—The area of 
 the State of Nevada is 110,690 square miles. The 
 population in 1920 was 77,407, a decrease of 4468 or 
 of 5.5 per cent since 1910; in the decade 1900-1910 
 the population increased from 42,335 to 81,875, or 
 93.4 per cent. Reno, with a population of 12,016, 
 was the largest city. Of the population 19.7 per cent 
 is urban; 80.3 per cent is rural. There are 46,240 
 males and 31,167 females. The whites* number 
 70,699, of whom 2603 are foreign-born. There are 
 also 4907 Indians, 754 Japanese, 689 Chinese and 346 
 negroes. The illiteracy of the population of ten years 
 of age and over is 5.9 per cent, a decrease of .89 per 
 cent since 1910. 
 
 Economic Conditions.— Farming is on the increase 
 for since 1910 the number of farms has increased 17.6 
 per cent. At present there are 3163, with an area of 
 2,357,163 acres, worth $99,779,666. The agricultural 
 products of Nevada for 1919 were valued thus: wheat 
 $1,067,550; oats $86,252; barley $259,379; potatoes 
 $1,099,228; hay $10,946,159. In that year the entire 
 number of sheep in the state was 880,580, and the 
 wool clip amounted to 5,554,342 pounds. The Fed¬ 
 eral Irrigation project embraces 160,000 acres in the 
 State. The development of Nevada is hindered by 
 lack of transportation facilities. In 1918 the value 
 of the entire mineral production of the State was 
 $51,080,169; the gold was worth $6,619,937; the 
 silver $10,000,599, both totalling $16,620,536. The 
 area of the national forests in the State is 4,971,335 
 acres. The census of manufactures in 1919 showed 
 a decrease of 7.8 since 1914 in the number of estab¬ 
 lishments. There are altogether 166, with 3563 per¬ 
 sons engaged, earning salaries and wages totalling 
 $14,905,687. The capital invested was $16,834,561 
 and the value of the products $22,874,311. The 
 principal industries were: car and general shop con¬ 
 struction and repairs by steam railway companies, 
 flour mill and grist-mill products, dairying, printing 
 and publishing. The railway mileage in 1919 was 
 2843, of which 2281 was first track. In 1920 the State 
 debt was $165,000; the assessed value of property 
 being $214,000,000. 
 
 Education. —The State laws governing private 
 and parochial schools are as follows: It shall be unlaw¬ 
 ful for any board of school trustees, regents or board 
 of education, or for any teacher or other person teach¬ 
 ing in the public or private schools to cause to be 
 taught or to teach any subject or subjects, other than 
 foreign languages, in the public or private schools in 
 any language but English. No public funds of any 
 kind shall be used for sectarian purposes. The prop¬ 
 erty of corporations formed for charitable, religious, 
 or educational purposes may be exempt from taxa¬ 
 tion. Education is compulsory between the ages of 
 eight and sixteen. There were (1920) in Nevada 
 22,604 persons under 21 years of age, 65 of whom 
 were negroes and 164 Mongolians. Of these, 12,936 
 attend the public schools and 372 private schools. 
 The total number of schools in the State is 390, with 
 717 teachers. The educational expenditure was 
 $1,318,396. The State University at Reno with an 
 attendance of 295 and a faculty of 35 in 1919 was 
 given $122,818 by the legislature of Nebraska. Of 
 this $24,420 w r ere for repairs. The annual expenditure 
 
NEVERS 
 
 530 
 
 NEW GUINEA 
 
 is about $300,000. In accordance with recognized 
 interpretation of school law, Bible reading is not prac¬ 
 tised in the public schools. 
 
 Religion. —According to the United States Census 
 of Religious Denominations (1916), there were in 
 the State 8742 Catholics or 54.1 per cent, of all church 
 members; 1207 Episcopalians or 7.5 per cent.; 
 3429 Latter Day Saints or 21.2 per cent.; 777 Metho¬ 
 dists or 4.8 per cent.; 501 Presbyterians or 3.1 per 
 cent.; 356 Baptists or 2.2 per cent. For further 
 educational and religious statistics see Salt Lake, 
 Diocese of; Sacramento, Diocese of. 
 
 Recent Legislation.— The laws passed by the 
 Legislature in the last decade provide for a State Bu¬ 
 reau of Industry, Agriculture, and Irrigation, work¬ 
 men’s compensation, a juvenile court, industrial in¬ 
 surance, an eight-hour requirement for working- 
 women, non-partisan ballots in the election of the 
 judiciary,*an inheritance tax, and the employment 
 of convict labor on roads. Woman Suffrage was 
 adopted in 1914. The 1913 divorce law, requiring 
 a residence of one year in the State, was changed in 
 1915 so as to exact only a six months’ residence in the 
 State before filing the complaint. 
 
 Recent History.— During the European War 
 Nevada contributed 5105 soldiers, or .14 per cent of 
 the United States Army. The national guard joined 
 the 41st Division at Camp Fremont, California. 
 In 1917 Nevada was the only State to furnish her 
 draft quota for entrainment without cost to the 
 Government. The summary of casualties among 
 Nevada men of the American Expeditionary Forces 
 is as follows: deceased, 5 officers, 66 men; prisoners, 
 
 1 officer and 2 men; wounded, 6 officers and 170 men. 
 
 Nevers, Diocese of (Nivernensis). —In 1910 
 Mgr. Pierre 'Chatelus was consecrated Bishop of 
 Nevers to succeed Mgr. Ganthey, promoted to the 
 Archdiocese of Besangon. He was born at St. 
 Tomain-le-Puy, diocese of Lyons, 27 November, 
 1854; was ordained in 1878; was rector of the basilica 
 Foruof viere in 1893, and pastor of the Church of St. 
 Francis de Sales in Lyons when he was appointed to 
 the see of Nevers. 
 
 In 1922 the diocese numbered 309 parishes, 313 
 secular and 5 regular priests, 15 secularized brothers 
 300 sisters, 1 convent of men and 24 of women, 
 
 2 seminaries with eleven professors and 22 seminarians 
 in the higher seminary and 32 in the preparatory 
 seminary, 3 colleges for boys with 36 professors and 
 530 students, 6 academies for girls with 33 teachers 
 and 450 pupils, 88 elementary schools with 200 
 teachers and 5800 pupils, 1 home for the aged, 1 
 insane asylum, and 1 day-nursery. 
 
 Priests are permitted to visit the prisons and one 
 lycee. Amongst the clergy there is the Association 
 of St. Augustine to care for aged and infirm priests 
 and the League for Religious Defense to support the 
 rights of the clergy before civil tribunals and to defend 
 their reputation when attacked by the press. Amongst 
 the laity there are many professional, commercial, 
 charitable and social associations. There is a Catholic 
 newspaper, La Croix du Nivernais, published fort¬ 
 nightly. 
 
 The seminarians and priests of the diocese mobilized 
 during the World War fulfilled their duty nobly. 
 Many of them won the Croix de Guerre, two the 
 Medaille Militaire, two the Croix de la Legion d’Hon- 
 neur. The diocese lost fifteen seminarians and five 
 priests. The event of greatest importance in Nevers 
 since 1910 was the apostolic process of beatification 
 and canonization of Bernadette Soubirous, whose 
 body reposes there in the Mother-house of the Sisters 
 of Charity and Christian Instruction. 
 
 New Antwerp, Vicariate Apostolic of (Novas 
 Antverpi^e), Belgian Congo, was erected by a 
 decree of 3 April, 1919, by dismemberment of the 
 former vicariate of Belgian Congo, of which it kept 
 the northern portion. It is entrusted to the Con¬ 
 gregation of the Immaculate Heart of Mary of 
 Scheut. The vicar Apostolic is Rt. Rev. Egidius de 
 Boeck, C. C. I. M., titular Bishop of Azotus, b. 
 in the Diocese of Malines, 13 November, 1875, or¬ 
 dained 1 July, 1900, nominated Vicar Apostolic of 
 New Antwerp, 4 January, 1921, consecrated 8 May, 
 1921. He resides at New Antwerp. This vicariate, 
 comprising territory from the Tumba Lake to the 
 district of Ubanghi and of Lower Welle, contains a 
 Catholic population (1922 census) of about 60,000, 
 with 19 mission stations, of which 8 belong to the 
 congregation of Scheut, 5 to the Trappists, 6 to the 
 English Fathers, and 1 seminary for the training of 
 native priests. 
 
 New Caledonia, Vicariate Apostolic of 
 (Novae Caledoniae; cf. C. E., X—781c), comprises 
 the French colony and Island of New Caledonia, in 
 Oceania, with its dependencies, the Isle of Pines, 
 Belep, and Loyalty Islands. The population con¬ 
 sists of 11,596 free French and 2310 of convict origin, 
 27,100 natives and 5224 foreigners of different nation¬ 
 alities. For twenty-five years (since 1897) the French 
 government has ceased to send convicts to this colony, 
 so that in a few years there will be none of this origin. 
 The vicariate is entrusted to the Marist Fathers. 
 Rt. Rev. Claude-Marie Chanrion, S.M., titular 
 Bishop of Chariopolis, b. in the Diocese of Lyon, 6 
 October, 1865, was appointed pro-vicar apostolic in 
 July, 1905, and vicar apostolic of New Caledonia, 25 
 March, 1906. He resides at Noumea. There are in 
 the vicariate: 31 parishes with missions, 102 churches 
 or chapels, 41 regular priests, 35 Brothers, 2 sem¬ 
 inarians in Australia, 1 home of the Little Sisters of 
 the Poor with 11 Sisters and 70 inmates. There are 
 about 1400 pupils in the European public schools, and 
 about 500 pupils in the free schools. The native 
 Catholics who attend the schools of their mission 
 number about 500. Public hospitals admit the 
 ministry of priests. The Conference of St. Vincent de 
 Paul and the Ladies of Charity are associations of the 
 laity. One periodical, “L’Echo de France Catho- 
 lique,” is published here. The agricultural products 
 of the colony are coffee, maize, sugar, copra (about 
 2500 tons), and others. All the mining companies 
 are French, with the exception of one Anglo-Amer¬ 
 ican. 
 
 New Guinea, British, Vicariate Apostolic 
 of; (cf. C. E., X—784d); Papua, Oceania. Mgr. 
 Navarre, who resigned in 1908, was succeeded by the 
 present Vicar Apostolic, Rt. Rev. Alain Guynot de 
 Boismemi, titular bishop of Gabala. About 200 of 
 the Catholic population of 8435 are Australians, the 
 remainder being Papuans. The unhealthy climate, 
 the uncivilized conditions of the country, the childish 
 and primitive character of the natives and the Eras- 
 tian policy of the Australian Government are among 
 the causes which impede religious expansion. At the 
 present time there are 12 parishes, 37 churches, 27 
 missions, 1 convent for men, 1 for European and 1 
 for native Sisters, 1 seminarian in Europe, 43 elemen¬ 
 tary schools, 53 teachers, 2206 pupils, 9 orphanages 
 and asylums. There are five societies established 
 among the laity. 
 
 New Guinea, Dutch, Vicariate Apostolic of; 
 (cf. C. E., X—784d), consisting of the Dutch islands 
 between 125° 30 r and 141° east L., W., Halmaheira, 
 Ternate, Tidore, Ceram, Ambon, Banda, Kei, Aroe, 
 Tenimbar, and Dutch New Guinea. The mission iu 
 
NEW GUINEA 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE 
 
 531 
 
 the Koi Islands was at first attended by Father Ras¬ 
 ters, S.J., and his companions (1888-1903). It was 
 separated from the vicariate of Batavia, 22 December, 
 1902, the Catholic population being then about 2000.’ 
 As the prefecture of Dutch New Guinea it was en¬ 
 trusted to the Dutch province of the Missionaries of 
 the Sacred Heart (M. S. H. Tilburg). The first pre¬ 
 fect apostolic was Rev. M. Mevens, 1903-15; the 
 second Rev. H. Nollen, 1915 7 21. In 1920 the pre¬ 
 fecture was erected into a vicariate and Rt. Rev. 
 Johann Aerts became the first vicar with the titular 
 see of Apollonia. He arrived in July, 1921, and 
 mahes his residence at Langgoer-Tolal, Kei Islands. 
 Ihe mission now (1922) contains 5 districts with 26 
 priests and 20 brothers of the Congregation of the 
 Missionaries of the Sacred Heart, 8 Sisters of Our 
 Lady of the Sacred Heart, 90 native catechists, 14,967 
 Catholics, 2513 catechumens, 76 churches, 17 sta¬ 
 tions with 60 sub-statio s, 71 schools with 2891 pupils 
 and 3 boarding schools (2 for boys, 1 for girls), with 
 139 pupils. There is 1 industrial school with 12 
 pupils. Forty schools receive Government aid. Four 
 sodalities of the Blessed Virgin are established among 
 the young people. 
 
 New Guinea, German, Prefecture Apostolic of. 
 See Kaiserwilhelmsland. 
 
 New Hampshire (cf. C. E. X-758a)—The area 
 of the State of New Hampshire is 9,341 square miles, 
 and the population in 1920 was 443,083, an increase 
 of 2.9 per cent since 1910. Of this 63.1 per cent was 
 urban; 36.9 per cent was rural. The average number 
 of inhabitants per square mile was 49.1. The whites 
 numbered 442,331, of whom 351,098 were native- 
 born, and 91,233 were foreign born. Of the native- 
 born, 225,512 were of native parentage; 81,039, of 
 foreign parentage; 44,547 mixed. The negroes num¬ 
 bered on y 621. Of the population, ten years or over, 
 there were 15,788 illiterates or 4.4 per cent. The 
 largest cities are: Manchester (78,384), Nashua 
 (28,379), Concord (22,167), Keene (11,210), Laconia 
 (10,879), Portsmouth (13,659). 
 
 Economic Conditions. —According to the census 
 of manufactures for 1919, the value of manufactured 
 products was 8405,739,000; of materials, $238,641,- 
 000; capital invested, $328,438,000. There were 
 89,999 persons engaged in manufacturing and 1497 
 establishments. The chief manufactures are boot, 
 and shoes, leather goods, paper, lumber, woolens 
 and machinery. There is less interest in mining at 
 present, the number of mines and quarries in the state 
 being 33, as against 53 m 1910. The value of mineral 
 products in 1918 was $1,568,195. Although the 
 number of farms (20,523 in 1920), showed a decrease 
 of 24.1 per cent, the value of farm property in 1920 
 was $118,656,115, which is a gain over that of 1910 
 ($103,704,196). The farming area of the State is 
 2,603,806 acres. The dairy products have doubled in 
 value since 1909, the value in 1919 being $10,224,888. 
 The principal crops of the State are corn ($844,793), 
 oats ($485,367), hay ($13,616,378), vegetables 
 ($5,228,489), fruits ($2,605,103). There are 1203 
 miles of railway, of which the Boston & Maine con¬ 
 trols 1020. The State debt in 1920 was $3,040,524, 
 assessed value of real property $412,591,376; of 
 personal property, $90,815,543. 
 
 Religion. —According to the United States Census 
 of Religious Denominations (1916), the largest 
 denominations were: Catholics 136,020; Congrega- 
 tionalists 20,084; Methodists 13,574; Baptists 15,027; 
 
 Free Baptists 2308; Unitarians 3890; Universalists 
 1611. For further religious and educational statis- 
 ticssee Manchester, Diocese of. 
 
 Education. —The law directs that every child 
 from 8 to 14 years of age shall have at least 36 weeks 
 
 of schooling. If he has not completed the elementary 
 grades, the school age is extended to 16. All those 
 between the ages ol 16 and 21 who cannot speak or 
 write English must attend part time school. The 
 btate Board of Education consists of the Governor, 
 exofficio, and five persons,, appointed one annually by 
 the Governor and Council. Besides, there are a 
 Commissioner, appointed by' the Board, and four 
 Deputy Commissioners. In 1920, there were 64 205 
 enrolled pupils and 2648 teachers (220 men) in’the 
 public elementary schools; in the 86 public high 
 schools there were 673 (170 men) teachers and 13,055 
 pupils. In cities of 2500 and over, 1114 children 
 attend kindergartens. The Laconia School for the 
 feebleminded has 282 pupils. A new normal school 
 was founded in Keene, in 1909. There are evening 
 schools in 8 cities with a total attendance of 1509, 
 916 of whom are male. The expenditure for education 
 in 1920 was $3,960,075. The two normal schools 
 have 31 teachers and 286 students, but the supply of 
 teachers is still inadequate. The 23 private schools 
 in the State had in 1917-18 altogether 2672 students. 
 Of the 659 students in the New Hampshire College of 
 Agriculture, 61 women were in the home-economic 
 course, one woman and 119 men were in the agricul¬ 
 tural course and 187 men in the engineering course. 
 This college had 62 instructors (1919). In the same 
 year, Dartmouth had 88 professors in the collegiate 
 departments, and 1673 students, 29 professors and 
 65 students in the professional departments. St. 
 Anslem s (collegiate and academic) had 25 professors 
 and 294 students, besides 278 in the high school. Bible 
 reading in the public schools is neither permitted nor 
 excluded. 
 
 The laws governing private and parochial schools 
 are as follows: No money raised by taxation shall ever 
 be granted or applied for the use of the schools or 
 institutions of any religious sect or denomination. In 
 the instruction of children in all schools including 
 private schools, in reading, writing, spelling, arith¬ 
 metic, grammar, geography, physiology, history, civil 
 government, music and drawing, the English language 
 shall be used exclusively, both for purposes of in¬ 
 struction therein and for purposes of general adminis¬ 
 tration. The exclusive use of English for purposes of 
 instruction and administration is not intended to 
 prohibit the conduct of devotional exercises in private 
 schools in languages other than English. A foreign 
 language may be taught in elementary schools, pro¬ 
 vided the course of study or its equivalent is such as 
 outlined by the State Board of Education in the 
 common English branches. To satisfy the compulsory 
 education law, “Attendance at a private school ap¬ 
 proved by the State Board shall be regarded as 
 attendance at the public schools.” The resolution of 
 the State Board of Education has been as follows: 
 Resolved that the approval of the Board shall not be 
 given to any private school which does not comply 
 with the following requirements: 
 
 (1). Provide instruction and other educational op¬ 
 portunities as nearly as may be reasonably possible to 
 those given in the public schools in the same city or 
 town. (2). Be maintained for 36 weeks in each year, 
 at least five hours a day, and five days a week in a 
 sanitary building. (3). Be equipped with reasonably 
 suitable furniture, books, maps, and other necessary 
 appliances. (4). Make reports required of public 
 schools of the same grade on forms provided by the 
 Board. (5). Teach substantially the same subjects as 
 those prescribed by the Board for the public schools 
 of similar grade.' (6). Use the English language as the 
 basic language of instruction and administration as 
 prescribed by law. (7). Be carried on in such a 
 manner as effectively to prepare the pupils for the 
 exercise of the rights and discharge the duties of 
 American citizenship and from the teaching of the 
 
NEW JERSEY 
 
 NEW JERSEY 
 
 532 
 
 prescribed studies 
 
 produce educational results equiv¬ 
 
 alent to those produced by the teaching of the same 
 studies in the public schools. If any private school 
 fails to comply with the above mentioned require¬ 
 ments, it is the legal duty of the Board to revoke its 
 
 approval of this school. , 0 _ 
 
 Recent Legislation and History. I here has 
 been some activity oh the part of the State and 
 Federal Governments to preserve the natural beauties 
 of New Hampshire by extensive purchases of forest, 
 lands and mountain peaks. Inl911, Crawford N otch 
 , was purchased by the State. In 1915, the Unite 
 States Government purchased under the Weeks 
 Forestry Act a tract of 550 acres in the White Moun¬ 
 tains, to be added to lands already acquired and set 
 apart for reservation purposes. This purchase gave 
 the Government control of practically all the peaks 
 of the Presidential Range. There have been changes 
 in the State administration in the creation of the 
 following: State Tax Commission (1911), Bureau of 
 Labor (1911), Board of Conciliation and Arbitration 
 (1913), Department of Agriculture and Highway 
 Commission (1915), Child Welfare Department 
 (1918). The Employers’ Liability Act was passed in 
 1911 * mothers’ pensions provided, women s labor 
 limited, and registration of foreign corporations re¬ 
 quired in 1913. The judiciary was authorized in 1919 
 to order an allowance by the husband to his wife 
 during the pendency of a suit for divorce, and the 
 governor was allowed to issue marriage licenses to 
 ministers to marry persons within the fetate. me 
 Federal Prohibition Act was ratified on 15 January, 
 1919, and the Suffrage Act, 10 September, 1919. An 
 inheritance tax went into effect m 1918. During the 
 European War, New Hampshire sent into the United 
 States army, 14,374 soldiers, or .38 per cent of the 
 enrolment. The members of the national guard 
 joined the 26th Division and those of the national 
 armv the 76th Division, both at Camp Devens. lhe 
 summary of casualties of the New Hampshire members 
 of the American Expeditionary Force is as follows: 
 deceased, 19 officers, 339 men; prisoners, 2 officers, 
 17 men; wounded, 30 officers, 1128 men. 
 
 New Jersey (cf. C. E., X 790a). The total 
 area of the State of New Jersey is 8224 square miles 
 of which 710 are water. The population in 1920 was 
 3 155,900, an increase of 24.4 per cent, since 1910. 
 The density is 420 persons a square mile. Oi the 
 population, 78.8 per cent, is urban, 21.3 per cent, rural. 
 Of the whites 628,402 were foreign born, and 1,752,- 
 736 were native; and of the latter, 705,784 were of 
 native parentage, 705,784 foreign parentage, 209,- 
 328 mixed. Of the population of ten years and over 
 127,661 were illiterate (5.1 per cent.) The largest 
 cities are: Trenton 119 , 289 ; Newark 414,524; Jersey 
 City 298,103; Camden 116,309; Paterson 135,875. 
 
 Economic Status. —During the war the accesi- 
 bility of New Jersey to foreign ports increased the 
 industrial productivity of the State. Shipbuilding 
 was started on a large scale on the flat-lands of the 
 coast, and great industrial plants were buiit. lhe 
 manufacturing census of 1919 revealed 11,062 es¬ 
 tablishments, with 603,889 persons engaged earning 
 for their services $773,001,000. The caP^al in¬ 
 vested was $2,835,441,000, and the value of the pro¬ 
 ducts $3,677,165,000. New Jersey has valuable 
 fisheries, the shell-fish for 1919 bemg valued at 
 $6,700,000. Of the mineral production of the State, 
 the clay and clay products led, with a value of $21,- 
 837 396, the chief output being sanitary ware. In 
 the* production of zinc ore the State ranked second 
 of the States in the Union. The following are the 
 
 most important mineral P roducts of 
 
 their value: iron ore $1,945,651; trap rock $1,475,358, 
 
 limestone $674,397; sand and gravel $2,462,864. 
 
 The agricultural census (1920) gives 29,702 farms in 
 the State, a decrease of 11.3 per cent, since 1909. 
 The farm area is 2,282,585 acres, the value of farm 
 property $311,847,948, an increase of 22.4 per cen t. 
 since 1909. The chief crops are cereals $87,464,445, 
 vegetables $40,669,147; fruits and nuts $11,809,078. 
 The railroad mileage of the State is 2461, the length 
 of electric railway 1593 miles; of canals 1/5 miles. 
 
 There is no State debt. . 
 
 Education. —Education is compulsory and free 
 for all between the ages of 7 and 15. A child of 
 14-16 years of age who has an employment certificate 
 and yet is temporarily unemployed must attend 
 school at least 20 hours a week; if employed, he must 
 attend for 6 hours a week for 36 weeks a year. Ail 
 educational institutions and public libraries are tax 
 exempt. In 1919 educational corporations and chari¬ 
 table organization were authorized to make changes in 
 their acts or certificate of incorporation and th® ir 
 organizations. In 1916 the State took over the 
 Burlington Colony for the Feeble-minded, which is 
 now known as the State Colony for Feeble-minded 
 Males. In 1918 the State charitable, penal, and re¬ 
 formatory institutions were centralized under the 
 Department of Institutions and Agencies. School 
 authorities are forbidden to inquire into the religious 
 faith of teachers seeking appointment. Bible reading 
 in the public schools is obligatory. The laws governing 
 private and parochial schools are as follows: Ine 
 
 common branches shall be taught in English to all 
 children of compulsory school age. Private schools 
 shall annually make such reports to the Commis¬ 
 sioner of Education as he may require Such finan¬ 
 cial reports shall not be made public by the Com¬ 
 missioner. The common branches of elementary 
 education must be taught by competent teachers to 
 all children of compulsory age. Private schools 
 must be in session for all days and hours of public 
 schools.” According to the New Jersey State Report 
 for 1919, there are now 2163 public schools with a 
 seating capacity of 570,061 The total value of the 
 school property is estimated at $83,580,432. -tuere 
 are 18,007 teachers, of whom 2233 are men and 15,774 
 are women. These receive an average yearly salary 
 of $1083.27. For 1 the school year, the current ex¬ 
 penses of the schools amounted to $25,451,014; the 
 cost of permanent improvements was $2,772,218. 
 the special appropriation amounted to $4,030,503, 
 a total of $32,253,825. In 1920 the expenditure was 
 $30,854,795. In the seventy public high schools 
 there were 2365 teachers and 53,710 pupils. The 
 three normal schools at Trenton, Montclair, and 
 Newark (established in 1912), have 105 teachers and 
 
 2015 students. , T t a 
 
 Religion. —According to the latest United btates 
 
 Census of Religious Denominations (1916), the 
 Catholics numbered 790,764, or 59.1 per cent.; 
 Methodist Episcopalians 131,211 or 9.8; Presby¬ 
 terians 102,290 or 7.6 per cent.; Protestant Epis- 
 copalians 67,996 or 5.1 per cent.; Jews 15,720 or 
 1.2 per cent.; for further religious and educational 
 statistics see Newark, Diocese of; Trenton, 
 Diocese of* 
 
 Recent History and Legislation .—In 1911 was 
 enacted the Geran Bill, extending the application 
 of the direct primary, providing for the blanker 
 Massachusetts ballot, and for the prevention ot 
 fraud. Acts were also passed to prohibit indecent 
 publications; to make it a misdemeanor to bribe a 
 representative of a labor organization; t<? provide 
 for the challenging of jurors in civil and criminal cases, 
 to create a Board of Utility Commissioners, to es¬ 
 tablish a Commission of Old Age Insurance and 
 Pensions, to provide for employers’ liability and 
 workmen’s compensation. In 1914 a direct in¬ 
 heritance tax was passed. The Bill giving cities. 
 
NEW MEXICO 
 
 533 
 
 NEW MEXICO 
 
 under commission government greater latitude in 
 the administration of local affairs was declared un¬ 
 constitutional by the Supreme Court on 22 May, 
 1914. In 1916 a state Department of Agriculture 
 and a Workmen’s Compensation Aid Bureau were 
 created, in 1918 the Department of Charities and Cor¬ 
 rections, the Interstate Bridge and Tunnel Com¬ 
 mission, a Board of Fisheries, and a Boxing Com¬ 
 mission. In 1920 the legislature passed over the 
 governor’s/veto a measure authorizing a bond issue of 
 $28,000,000, for New Jersey’s share in the building of 
 the Delaware River Bridge between Camden and 
 Philadelphia, and the Hudson River vehicular tunnel 
 between Jersey City and New York City. A bonus 
 was granted to all veterans of the Great'War. The 
 County Park Boards are authorized to permit Sunday 
 ball and other games, if no admission fee is charged. 
 
 History. —During the European War New Jersey 
 furnished to the United States Army 105,207 men 
 (2.80 per cent.); the members of the national guard 
 joined the 28th Div ision at Camp McClellan, Alabama; 
 those of the national army, the 78th Division at Camp 
 Dix. The summary of casualties of the New Jersey 
 members of the American expeditionary force is as 
 follows: deceased, 117 officers, 2244 men; prisoners, 
 20 officers, 65 men; wounded, 219 officers, 7401 men. 
 
 New Mexico (cf. C. E., XI — la), formerly 
 a territory of theUnited States, now a State, admitted 
 to the Union on 6 January, 1912, with an area of 
 122,634 square miles. The population in 1920 was 
 360,350 of which 18 per cent.was urban and 82.0 rural. 
 The average number of inhabitants to the square mile 
 is 2.9 as against 2.7 in 1910. The largest cities are 
 Albuquerque (15,157), Santa Fe (7033), and Las 
 Vegas (4304). The composition of the population is 
 as follows: whites, 334,673 (native 305,596, foreign- 
 born, 29,077); negro 5773; Indian 19,512; Chinese 
 171; Japanese 251. In 1910 the illiterate members of 
 the population over 10 years of age numbered 48,697 
 or 20.2 per cent.; in 1920, 41,637, or 15.6, a decrease 
 of 4.66 per cent. 
 
 Economic Conditions.— Although the census of 
 1920 reveals a decrease of 16.3 per cent, in the number 
 of farms since 1910 (1920, 29,844), the farm land area 
 shows an increase of 116.6 percent. (1910, 11,270,021 
 acres; 1920, 24,409,633 acres). The chief crops are 
 corn, wheat, oats, and kafir and milo. The output of 
 hay and forage totalled 693,807 tons, worth $12,852,- 
 751 in 1919. Grazing is an important industry, for 
 in 1920 there were 1,300,000 cattle, valued at $63,- 
 101,300. Sheep-raising is still on the decline, 8,300,- 
 804 pounds of wool being produced in 1919 as against 
 16,994,017 in 1909, although the value of the wool 
 increased from $3,131,971 in 1909 to $3,542,922 in 
 1919. The farms reported a total of 1,640,475 sheep. 
 
 In 1916 the Elephant Butte Dam was completed 
 after five years of labor. It is the work of the United 
 States Reclamation Service and forms the largest 
 storage reservoir in the world, feeding an irrigation 
 system which covers 185,000 acres of land in New 
 Mexico, Texas, and Mexico. The dam extends across 
 the canyons of the Rio Grande. In 1919 the legisla¬ 
 ture provided for the leasing of State lands for mineral 
 purposes and for the retaining of the permanent 
 ownership of all oil lands with one-eighth royalty. 
 New Mexico has valuable mineral resources, the most 
 important being coal (4,023,239 tons valued at 
 $10,787,082 in 1918), and copper (98,264,562 tons 
 valued at $24,271,347). The entire mineral produc¬ 
 tion was worth $40,631,024 in 1918. The summary 
 for manufactures for 1919 gives 387 establishments, 
 6646 persons engaged in manufacturing, earning in 
 salaries and wages a total of $7,685,803. The capital 
 invested was $15,226,253 and the value of the prod¬ 
 ucts $17,856,602. The principal industries, ranked 
 
 b ,y the value of the products, are cars and general 
 shop construction and repairs by steam railroad com¬ 
 panies, lumber and timber products, and flour and 
 grist-mill products. There are about 3000 miles of 
 State. r I he bonded indebtedness in 
 1920 was $4,291,500; the assessed value of real and 
 personal property in 1919, $371,559,631. There are 
 113 banks (44 national and 69 others) in the State 
 with an aggregate capital of $56,966,000. 
 
 Education. —New Mexico has a State board of 
 education and a county board of education for each 
 county. Elementary education is free and compul¬ 
 sory between the ages of six and sixteen for seven 
 months in the school year. About 8,500,000 acres of 
 public lands have been set aside for the common 
 schools, the sales of land and rentals furnishing the 
 necessary funds. School taxes are likewise levied in 
 each county, district and municipality. In 1917 pro¬ 
 vision was made for part payment of transportation 
 expenses for normal students from distant parts of 
 the State. The State maintains the University of 
 New Mexico at Albuquerque, the College of Agricul¬ 
 ture and Mechanic Arts near Las Cruces in the Mesilla 
 Valley, the New Mexic<p Normal University at Silver 
 City, the School of Mines at Socorro, the Military 
 Institute at Roswell, the Spanish and American School 
 at El Rito, the Institute for the Deaf and the Insti¬ 
 tute for the Blind at Alamogordo. In 1920 there were 
 1430 public elementary schools in the State, with 
 81,399 enrolled pupils and 2752 teachers, and 71 
 public high schools with 257 teachers and 3870 pupils. 
 The private schools number 38 and there are 26 Indian 
 schools with 2291 pupils and 141 teachers, maintained 
 by the Federal Government . Religious instruction in 
 public schools is prohibited by law, but boards of 
 directors may open school-houses for the use of relig¬ 
 ious societies, etc., at times outside school hours. 
 Bible reading is neither permitted nor excluded. The 
 Sisters’ charitable institutions (hospitals, etc.) are 
 State-aided, the appropriation for the purpose in 1919 
 being $12,000. In 1917-18 the university received 
 for its income $133,169, and had (1919) a teaching 
 force of 92 professors and 406 students. The College 
 of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts with 95 teachers 
 and 285 students, received both Federal and State 
 aid, aggregating $298,122 in 1917-18. The combined 
 valuation of the State’s educational institutions is 
 about $2,000,000; while the annual expenditures 
 aggregate $1,300,000. The laws governing private 
 and parochial schools are as follows: No funds 
 appropriated or levied for educational purposes shall 
 be used for the support of any sectarian, denomina¬ 
 tional or private schools (XII.3). All church prop¬ 
 erty, all property used for educational or charitable 
 purposes, not used for private or corporate profit, 
 shall be exempt from taxation. To comply with 
 compulsory education regulations, courses of study 
 must be approved by the school board. Private 
 schools shall report to the county superintendent with 
 regard to enrolment, number of teachers, and 
 branches taught. 
 
 Religion. —According to the United States Census 
 of Religious Bodies (1916), the Catholics were more 
 than 84 per cent, of the church membership of the 
 State, which was 209,809, distributed as follows: 
 Catholics 177,727; Methodists 11,767; Presbyterians 
 4245; Baptists 6721; Disciples of Christ 2284; Pro¬ 
 testant Episcopalians 1718; other sects 5862. For 
 further religious and educational statistics see Santa 
 Fe, Archdiocese of; Tucson, Diocese of. 
 
 Recent History. —New Mexico is the forty-sev¬ 
 enth State to be admitted to the Union. On 16 June, 
 1910, the Senate passed the Bill granting statehood 
 to New Mexico, providing, however, that the pro¬ 
 posed State should hold no legislative sessions before 
 12 January, 1912, also stipulating that the State set 
 
NEW NORCIA 
 
 534 
 
 NEW NORCIA 
 
 aside 100,000 acres for a penitentiary. After many 
 efforts an enabling act was approved 20 June, 1910, 
 which provided for a Constitutional Convention to 
 meet at Santa Fe on 3 October, 1910. The constitu¬ 
 tion was ratified on 21 January, 1911, and on the same 
 day the President signed the bill for the admission of 
 New Mexico on the condition that it amend the 
 article providing a method for the amendment of its 
 constitution. This amendment was submitted to the 
 people, approved, and on 5 January, 1912, President 
 Taft issued a proclamation, making effective New 
 Mexico’s admission as a State. The laws passed by 
 the succeeding legislatures have provided for the 
 following: workmen’s compensation, income taxes, 
 commission form of government for cities of 10,000 
 or more, a State mounted police, night schools tor 
 illiterates, an annual franchise tax on corporations, 
 a permanent budget system, a child welfare board, 
 and a department of health. The suffrage amendment 
 to the Federal constitution was ratified on 19 Febru¬ 
 ary, 1920; the prohibition amendment on 20 January, 
 1919. New Mexico’s contribution to the European 
 War was 12,439 soldiers or .33 per cent, of the United 
 States Army. The national guard members joined, 
 the 40th Division at Fort Kearney, California; those 
 of the national army, the 92nd Division at Camp 
 Funston, Kansas. The summary of casualties ot 
 the New Mexican members of the American Expe- 
 ditionary Force is as follows: deceased, 10 officers, 
 218 men; prisoners, 8 men; wounded, 20 officers, 
 604 men. 
 
 New Norcia (cf. C. E., XI—5b), a Benedictine 
 abbey nullius in Western Australia. Since the report 
 of this mission published in 1910 the New Norcia 
 Mission has made considerable progress. As a 
 native or aboriginal mission little change has taken 
 place, but as regards the white population of the 
 Mission, we notice this progress more particularly 
 in the all important matter of education and m the 
 higher appreciation of the fine arts, music, painting, 
 etc. Indeed, people of every class and denomination 
 are* often attracted to the Mission to listen to the 
 music, or to see the many excellent paintings to be 
 met with in the monastery, church and colleges, 
 many of which are from the brush of local Benedictine 
 artists and in the opinion of many compare favorably 
 with the works of the old masters. 
 
 In the first edition of the Catholic Encyclopedia, 
 there was not much to say on the subject of education 
 at New Norcia. St. Gertrude’s Ladies’ College was 
 not long enough in action to forecast its success, and 
 St. Ildephonsus Boys’ College was only in embryo. 
 The building of this college was regarded generally 
 as a foolhardy idea, and even when it was built men 
 of position and experience, gazing on its magnificent 
 dimensions, were inclined to be skeptical of their 
 future usefulness. These, however, were false 
 prophets, although it was hard for the casual observer 
 to see how these colleges, so far removed from civiliza¬ 
 tion in the wilds of the Australian bush, could be a 
 success. Abbot Torres, however, with a keener 
 perspective into the future than most men, persevered 
 with his work, furnishing and equipping his college 
 in an up-to-date fashion, until St. Ildephonsus was 
 ready to recpive students. The expense of building, 
 etc., of these two colleges was an enormous drain on 
 the New Norcia Mission, for all this had to be delved 
 out of the Mission lands by the Benedictine monks, 
 without a penny of -outside help from any quarter. 
 
 When the college was ready Bishop Torres, who 
 had set his heart on securing the Marist Brothers as 
 teachers, went to Italy for this purpose and returned 
 successful. He soon after opened his new college 
 with an ideal staff of Marist Brothers, 4 he official 
 opening ceremony took place 22 February, 1913, 
 
 His Excellency, Sir Gerald Strickland did the honors 
 on the occasion, in the midst of brilliant surroundings. 
 Sir John Forrest, Commonwealth Treasurer, State 
 ministers of the Crown, and many leading citizens 
 from the capital, motored eighty-two miles to New 
 Norcia to emphasize their appreciation of Bishop 
 Torres’ effoits to bring the benefits of a sound Chris¬ 
 tian secondary education within the reach of all. 
 
 The college started with a roll call of fifty boys, 
 and became popular from the start. The first year 
 ended with a roll of 117. Boys rushed in from every 
 quarter and soon made a name for themselves and 
 their college at the public examinations and continue 
 to do so vear after year. St. Gertrude’s Young 
 Ladies’ College of New Norcia, and St. Ildephonsus 
 Boys’ College are amongst the most popular and suc¬ 
 cessful secondary schools in Australia, and do an 
 enormous amount of good. Bishop Torres had now 
 his monastery, his diocese, and his two aborigine 
 missions, New Norcia and Diisdale River, well 
 equipped with priests, churches, convents, and schools. 
 During his fourteen years as superior, abbot ordinarius 
 and Bishop of New Norcia, His Lordship accom¬ 
 plished more than most men can boast of in a life¬ 
 time. The secret of Bishop Torres' success may be 
 attributed to his possession of a keen and penetrating 
 intellect, his great determination and his superhuman 
 energy. He worked perhaps indiscreetly hard, rarely 
 taking five hours rest out of twenty-four. He was 
 his own draftsman, his own architect, his own super¬ 
 visor of works. He directed everyone and every¬ 
 thing within his monastery and his diocese, and did 
 so to the complete satisfaction of all. He died 15 
 October, 1914, at the age of fifty-three, widely and 
 deeply mourned, and\eryRev. Father Bas, O. S. B., 
 prior, continued to be superior during the interregnum. 
 
 Rt. Rev. AnselmCatal'an, O. S. B., Abbot Visitator 
 of the Spanish Province of the Benedictines, was sent 
 from Manila to preside at the election of Bishop 
 Torres’ successor, and to his own surprise was elected 
 to succeed, 26 March, 1915. In a few days after, 
 the newly elected abbot set out for Rome to have the 
 election confirmed by Propaganda, the Congregation 
 of the Council, etc. The confirmation of an abbatial 
 election ordinarily belongs to the abbot general, but 
 in the case of New Norcia the abbot is both abbot 
 and ordinarius , and as such the confirmation comes 
 within the jurisdiction of Propaganda. The election 
 being canonically confirmed, Abbot Catalan returned 
 to his monastery and diocese in Australia, and was 
 installed in his cathedral after High Mass on the fol¬ 
 lowing Sunday in the presence of an unusually large 
 congregation, and amidst great congratulations and 
 rejoicings. During his seven years administration as 
 abbot ordinarius Abbot Catalan retained his hold 
 on the affections of his monks and people. 
 
 The term of his office so far is not marked by any 
 great improvements in -or around the monastery, 
 His Lordship’s attention having been engaged in 
 other directions, viz. in improving the mission prop¬ 
 erties outside the orbit of the monastery, and stabil¬ 
 ising the mission finance after the heavy drain of 
 Bishop Torres’ regime, a very necessary work indeed, 
 and already showing good results. The only source 
 of revenue the Benedictines of New Norcia have is 
 the product of the soil, and the spending power of 
 the mission for legitimate undertakings is in exact 
 proportion to the returns from the land. The 
 Benedictines never trade on borrowed money. 
 
 After a period of hostility on the part of the natives, 
 during which the missionaries were sometimes in 
 danger of their lives, they have succeeded in winning 
 the friendship of the savages. Some hundreds of 
 these nomads flock around the Mission and willingly, 
 even cheerfully, help the Fathers in any work that 
 turns up, clearing the land, planting, gardening, etc. 
 
NEW ORLEANS 5 
 
 They also take well to Christian teaching, and give 
 the missionaries promise of turning out good Catho¬ 
 lics. Great indeed is the transformation of these 
 hitherto unfortunate people. Great also is the work 
 of the Benedictine Fathers in leading them out of the 
 darkness and shadow of death into the true light of 
 Christian civilization, at the risk of their own lives. 
 
 The present status of the Mission is as follows: 
 parishes 4; abbey 1, abbey nullius of New Norcia, 
 western Australia; churches 10, missions 2, New 
 Norcia and Drisdale River missions; monasteries 2; 
 convents, 5 of nuns, and 1 of men (Marist Brothers); 
 priests, regular 19; secular 3; monastic students 20; 
 lay brothers 26; college of men 1, conducted by 
 Marist Brothers, 10 Brothers teaching; ladies’ col¬ 
 leges 2 with 18 nuns teaching; high schools 3, with 
 28 teachers, nuns 27. There are one boys’ high 
 school with 160 boarders; 2 girls’ high schools with 
 190 in attendance; 2 orphanages, 1 for native boys 
 and 1 for native girls, conducted by one Benedic- 
 tine Brothers and 5 Benedictino Nuns respectively. 
 None of the Mission schools or charitable institutions 
 receive any Government subsidy, except a very paltry 
 sum m aid of the native orphanages. All the rest, 
 buildings, food, clothing, and general upkeep, is 
 entirely dependent on the charity of the Benedictine 
 community. The Catholic population is 2700; the 
 children attending Catholic schools number 400. 
 
 New Orleans, Archdiocese of (Nov.® Aurel- 
 l.®, cf. C. E., XI 5d), in Louisiana. On 4 January, 
 1918, thirteen civil parishes in the southwestern part 
 of Louisiana were detached from the Archdiocese of 
 New Orleans and erected into the diocese of Lafayette 
 (q. v.). In 1915 the old St. Louis cathedral was con¬ 
 demned by the civil authorities and closed to public 
 worship. Through the generosity of a non-Catholic 
 gentleman who desired to remain unknown, the 
 ancient edifice was repaired and restored to public 
 worship, the first services within the restored edifice 
 being the installation of the Most Rev. John William 
 Shaw. He succeeded the Most Rev. James H. Blenk, 
 who died 20 April, 1917. Archbishop Shaw was b. 
 at Mobile, 16 December, 1863, ordained 20 May, 
 1888, elected titular bishop of Castabala 7 February, 
 1910, consecrated 14 April following and made coadju¬ 
 tor bishop of San Antonio, published 27 November, 
 1911 having already on 11 March, 1911, succeeded 
 the late Bishop John A. Forest. Xavier University 
 for the education of colored youth was opened in 1916, 
 and the Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament of Cornwells, 
 Pa., were called to the archdiocese to assume charge. 
 The buildings were purchased through the generosity 
 of Mother Katherine Drexel. The chapel-car, “St. 
 Paul,” for the use of the metropolitan see was blessed 
 at Easter, 1915, and immediately entered upon its 
 missionary labors in the archdiocese and the suffragan 
 sees. In 1921 a drive was inaugurated whereby it was 
 hoped to raise the sum of SI,000,000 for the erection 
 of a major seminary for the archdiocese. The drive 
 opened on 8 January and closed on 20 January. It 
 was under the personal direction of the Archbishop 
 and the active chairmanship of the Very Rev. A. J. 
 Bruening, the chancellor of the archdiocese. The 
 dnve closed with its purpose realized. Ground has 
 been purchased in New Orleans for the seminary site 
 and it is hoped to have the seminary building ready 
 for occupancy by October, 1922. In February, 1922, 
 a diocesan synod, the first held since the administra¬ 
 tion of Archbishop Janssens (1888-1897), was held by 
 the Most Rev. Archbishop Shaw. The Hotel-Dieu, 
 an exclusively Catholic hospital in charge of the Sisters 
 of Charity, was enlarged at a cost of $200,000 and a 
 department for incurables established through the gift 
 of $50,000 from Mr. J. Burguieres, a Catholic lay¬ 
 man. Many new parishes have been erected since 
 
 35 ' NEW ORLEANS 
 
 the accession of Archbishop Shaw, among them three 
 lor colored people and an old mortuary chapel of 
 Spanish colonial days was remodeled for the use of 
 Spanish-speaking Catholics and made a mission of the 
 St. Louis cathedral. 
 
 The following religious orders have been admitted 
 to the diocese 1911: The Oblate Fathers of Mary 
 Immaculate, Brothers of Mary, Christian Brothers 
 Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament, Fathers'of the IJolv 
 Ghost, Sisters Servants of Mary, Sisters of Mary of 
 the Presentation. During the War, Loyola Univer¬ 
 sity suspended many of its courses and the university 
 building and grounds were placed at the disposal of 
 the United States Government. The Loyola Hospital 
 Unit was organized by the medical staff of Loyola 
 University and financed entirely by a non-Catholic 
 lady at an outlay of $100,000, and was placed at the 
 disposal of the Government for service in the camps of 
 Italy. The nursing department was in charge of the 
 Sisters of Charity. Thirty Sisters of Charity and 100 
 trained nurses under the direction of the head nurse, 
 a Sister of Charity from the province of New Orleans! 
 sailed for Italy and rendered excellent service in field 
 and camp. Catholic men and women served faith¬ 
 fully on the Red Cross committees and on every com¬ 
 mittee for the raising of lunds by the Government 
 the Archbishop and clergy were faithful workers. 
 
 Among the deceased since 1911 are: Rev. Daniel 
 Mullane, Provincial of the St. Louis province of 
 the Redemptorists and rector of St. Alphonsus, New 
 Orleans. Rev. A.Otis, S.J., died at Loyola University 
 of which he had been president for six years; he 
 erected the church of the Holy Name of Jesus on 
 the university campus and was recognized as one of 
 the leading educators and missionaries of the far 
 South. Very Rev. Thomas Lorente, O.P., a native 
 of Spain and for many years professor at St. Thomas’ 
 College, Manila. During the administration of Arch¬ 
 bishop Chapelle as Apostolic Delegate Extraordinary 
 to the Philippine Islands after the Spanish-American 
 War, Father Lorente acted as his auditor and secre¬ 
 tary. Returning with Archbishop Chapelle to New 
 Orleans in 1904, Father Lorente became his secre¬ 
 tary for a few months until the Dominicans were 
 admitted to the diocese and Father Lorente was made 
 the pastor of St. Anthony’s Church. Later he founded 
 the new parish of St. Anthony in New Orleans and 
 the Dominican Seminary for Foreign Missions at 
 Pontchatoula, to which he gave the name of Rosary- 
 ville. Father Lorente was subsequently appointed 
 vice-provincial for the Spanish Dominicans in Amer¬ 
 ica and died suddenly in August, 1915. Edward 
 Douglass White (q. v.), chief Justice of the United 
 States died in July 1921; also Hon. Frank McGloin 
 (q. v.), K.S.G., in September of the same year; and 
 his son-in-law Hon. James J. McLoughlin, K.S.G., 
 who had been prominent in State and city affairs and 
 active in all church work in New Orleans. 
 
 The Catholic population of the archdiocese is es¬ 
 timated at 440,000 and is cosmopolitan in character. 
 It comprises descendants of the original French 
 and Spanish settlers, descendants of Irish and 
 German immigrants, negroes (natives and descen¬ 
 dants of San Domingo refugees, 1793), Italians, 
 Belgians, Dutch, Hungarians, Slavs, Syrians and 
 late Spanish immigrants from Mexico and South 
 America. According to the statistics of 1922 the 
 archdiocese contained 119 parishes, 83 missions, 202 
 churches, 2 monasteries for men, 3 for women, 1 
 abbey for men, 10 convents for men, 26 for women, 
 122 secular priests, 151 regulars, 56 lav brothers! 
 397 nuns, 1091 sisters, 2 seminaries and *99 semina¬ 
 rians. Educational institutions in the archdiocese are: 
 
 1 university, 150 professors, 900 students; 4 colleges 
 for men, 7l teachers, 1118 students; 1 college for 
 women, 9 teachers, 30 students; 7 high schools for 
 
NEW POMERANIA 
 
 536 
 
 NEW THOUGHT 
 
 boys, 68 teachers, 1291 students; 11 high schools and 
 academies for boys, 125 teachers, 1615 students; 1 
 normal school, 3 teachers, 11 students; 89 elementary 
 (parochial) schools, 506 teachers, 25,000 pupils; 1 
 high school for colored students (Xavier University); 
 
 2 industrial schools, white and colored (the white 
 school has 8 teachers, 44 students; the colored, 9 
 teachers, 89 students); the Catholic Womens Club 
 also conducts classes in industrial work. There is a 
 summer school connected with Loyola University 
 with 30 teachers and 700 students. The missionary 
 workers of the archdiocese are the St. Vincent de Paul 
 Society and St. Margaret’s Daughters among the 
 Poor. The following charitable institutions have 
 been established in the archdiocese: 5 homes, among 
 which is 1 for the aged colored poor conducted by the 
 Sisters of the Holy Family; 9 asylums (1010 orphans); 
 
 3 hospitals; 1 refuge; 1 settlement house; 1 day nur¬ 
 sery; 1 infant asylum (150 infants); 1 institute for deaf 
 mutes (100 inmates). Fifteen of the institutions 
 admit the ministry of priests. Eight institutions 
 receive aid from the City of New Orleans. The 
 Catholic Women’s Club has been organized since 
 1911 and six new circles were added to St. Margaret’s 
 Daughters. The Catholic periodicals published in 
 the Archdiocese are: the “Morning Star” and the 
 “Vineyard of the East.” 
 
 New Pomerania, Vicariate Apostolic of 
 (Nov^e Pomeranle; cf. C. E., XI—17c) in Oceania, 
 is entrusted to the Missionaries of the Sacred Heart of 
 Issoudin. Rt. Rev. Louis Couppe, M.S.H., titular 
 Bishop of Leros, b. 26 August, 1850, consecrated vicar 
 Apostolic of New Pomerania, 9 October, 1890, still 
 (1922) governs the vicariate. He resides at Heberts- 
 hohe (New Britain). According to 1920 statistics 
 there are 38 missionary priests, 48 Brothers, 30 Sisters 
 of Our Lady of the Sacred Heart, 31 principal stations, 
 130 substations, 26 churches or chapels, 116 schools 
 with 4096 pupils, 13 orphanages, a Catholic popula¬ 
 tion of 20,419, and 82 catechists. 
 
 New Thought may be defined as a philosophico- 
 religious, pantheistic, pragmatist system of life 
 which seeks by deifying man to free him from sick¬ 
 ness, error, and all other evils. 
 
 Doctrine. — Criticism .—New Thought is not an 
 organized church; it is not, so its leaders claim, a 
 fixed system of thought, philosophy or religion; it 
 has no fixed creed or dogma. There is, however, a 
 loosely united central organization of teachers and 
 leaders, which is known as the International New 
 Thought Alliance, from the publications of which, 
 in conjunction with various works issued by New 
 Thought leaders, a summary of their teachings may be 
 gleaned. According to the Constitution and By- 
 Laws of the Alliance, the purpose is: “To teach the 
 Infinitude of the Supreme One; the Divinity of Man 
 and his Infinite Possibilities through the creative 
 power of constructive thinking; and, obedience to the 
 voice of the Indwelling Presence, which is our source 
 of Inspiration, Power, Health, and Prosperity.” 
 Its motto is “Propaganda and Fellowship.” The 
 general character of the teaching is apparent from the 
 following statements issued by the Washington head¬ 
 quarters for use in Sunday service. “This organiza¬ 
 tion has for its prime object the teaching of the 
 Christianity of Christ, and not the Christianity of 
 any sect; the doctrine of Jesus of Nazareth, without 
 theological dogma. We believe that Jesus meant 
 just what He said, and that everything that He 
 taught is not only true, but practical and practicable 
 in daily life. Whenever He is said to have healed, 
 we believe and teach that His cures were effected, not 
 by miracle, or by violation of, or exception to, the 
 laws of his Heavenly Father, but in compliance with 
 
 the laws of the Father. We, therefore, believe and 
 teach that, when the doctrine of Jesus and the Laws 
 of God are studied and followed in daily life, health, 
 happiness, abundance, and healing of the sick ‘follow 
 them that believe.’ ” 
 
 Statement of Being.— “There is One Presence, One 
 Intelligence, One Substance, One Life, the Good 
 
 Omnipotent. ^ „ 
 
 “God is the name of the Everywhere Present 
 
 Principle, in whom I live, move, and have my being. 
 “In all, and through all, and above all, God 
 
 Almighty. ~ 
 
 “Thy name is Spirit. I know Thee as the One 
 
 All-Seeing Mind. . , w . , 
 
 “Thou art always with me as indwelling Wisdom 
 
 and Love. ^ , . , ... . T 
 
 “Thy law is now the Standard of my life, and 1 
 
 am at peace. 
 
 “I in Thee, and Thou in me.” 
 
 The Lord's Prayer—In present tense: Our 
 Father who art in Heaven, Hallowed is Thy name. 
 Thy kingdom is come; Thy will is done on earth as 
 it is in Heaven. Thou givest us each day our daily 
 bread. Thou forgivest us our debts as we forgive 
 our debtors. Thou leadest us not into temptation, 
 but dost deliver us from all evil. For Thine is the 
 kingdom, the power, and the glory, forever and ever. 
 _Amen 
 
 The foregoing may be considered as the official 
 tenets of the Alliance. Their full meaning is made 
 apparent by a study of New Thought books, Thus 
 a creed is impossible for followers of New Thought 
 because “the term itself conveys the idea of a growing 
 or developing thought. When New Thought is 
 molded and formed into a system it ceases to be 
 ‘New’ Thought. Truth is not susceptible of monop¬ 
 oly or being made into a system. ... It is the divine 
 right of each individual to believe what he pleases.” 
 This is to all intents and purposes the Modernist 
 doctrine of evolution of dogma, holding that truth is 
 changeable, as opposed to the Catholic doctrine 
 that dogma is immutable, that truth is unchangeable. 
 Yet New Thought does teach various “dogmas.” 
 Pantheism is the fundamental error, for this system 
 teaches the “Divinity of Man,” and that “man is a 
 microcosm of God.” Of our Lord it is said, He 
 laid down his life for men—an expression that has no 
 reference to his death.” The Atonement of Christ 
 is rejected on the plea that, because God is omnipotent 
 there is no need for intermediaries or for a vicarious 
 atonement. Naturally, too, the doctrine of original 
 sin is rejected, for according to the New Thought 
 thesis of evolution man’s “only fall was upward.” 
 Hence also “all forms of orthodoxy implying emphasis 
 on man’s sinfulness, and a future punishment” are 
 rejected. New Thought essentially claims to offer 
 a means of healing both sin and sickness and other 
 evils through a “rediscovery” of the method which 
 Jesus employed, which it claims not to have been 
 miraculous at all but within the reach of all “who 
 fully realize their oneness with God.” This funda¬ 
 mental idea is common to both New Thought and 
 Christian Science (q. v.), for they are both develop¬ 
 ments from the teachings of Phineas Quimby. New 
 Thought, however, unlike Christian Science, pro¬ 
 claims the will and faith (assurance, confidence, not 
 theological faith) as factors in its healing methods, 
 faith being described as “a spiritual force that has 
 accomplished wonders. . . . To believe that we are well 
 or that we are going to become so, excites a spiritual 
 force within us that goes far towards making us so 
 . . . In the . . . healer it is a positive mental force, 
 in the patient a receptive mental state.” Underly¬ 
 ing this New Thought doctrine of faith there is, of 
 course, the psychological truth of the power of sug¬ 
 gestion. It is in lowering the works of Jesus to 
 
NEW THOUGHT 
 
 537 
 
 NEW THOUGHT 
 
 practically this level that New Thought errs. New 
 employs in practice various methods: 
 (1) The tactual, e.g. placing the hand on the head of 
 the patient; this the exponents claim causes contact 
 of mind with mind and the transmission of healthy 
 emotional states to the mind of the patient. This 
 they claim to be the explanation of manv of the cures 
 performed by Christ. (2) The visual, not in common 
 use; it is claimed to be derived from the Scriptural 
 account of the healing of the lame man by St. Peter 
 and St. John (Acts, iii). (3) The silent which is 
 practised when in tactual contact with the patient or 
 when he is at a distance; a telepathic mental message 
 being delivered to the mind of the latter. This 
 theory enables New Thought practitioners to carry 
 on their trade without coming in contact with their 
 patients, and in some New Thought magazines ad¬ 
 vertisements of such practitioners appear. (4) The 
 verbal method consists in the patient audibly repeat¬ 
 ing formulas denying the existence of fear, sickness, 
 and affirming motives of trust, confidence, power, 
 oneness with God. These four methods may be 
 designated by the general title of “health-affirmation 
 method. ’ (5) There is another quite different 
 
 species that can be designated the harmony-with - 
 disease method in which the patient “vibrates” with 
 the disease, and through non-resistance is supposed 
 • to recover his health. (6) An extension of the healing 
 treatment is found in the 'prosperity treatment which, 
 on the ground that failures in business and life gen¬ 
 erally, are due to the same causes as sickness, namely 
 fears, beliefs and the like, seeks by “affirmation” to 
 destroy povert}^. 
 
 While New 7 Thought is not an organized church, 
 yet it bases the teachings outlined above on a philo¬ 
 sophy of life which it heralds as an “advance on the 
 older ethical and religious systems;” which preaches 
 “the universality of religion” (by this it seems to 
 mean simply individualism) and receives among its 
 followers members of any religious denomination. 
 Starting with the idea that God is an immanent, 
 indwelling spirit (as actually applied this is pantheis¬ 
 tic, and must not be confused with the Catholic 
 teaching that God is everywhere and that He dwells in 
 each soul) New Thought holds that therefore evil is 
 merely a negative quantity, the absence of good, 
 that “sin and moral evil are largely an ignorant sel¬ 
 fishness ’ and, “it would proclaim to man his freedom 
 from the necessity of belief in disease, poverty, and 
 all evil as a part of God’s plan.” In brief, the true 
 and eternal nature of man is good; he is not hampered 
 by moral inability, by natural sinfulness; he is god¬ 
 like and spiritual being is potentially within him; 
 “the spirit of man is sinless, diseaseless, deathless, 
 sharing the very nature of God and destined to im¬ 
 mortal glory.” The important point to remember in 
 evaluating these enunciations is that New Thought 
 holds that this sharing in the nature of God takes 
 place here and now; it is considered as the natural 
 state of man; the supernatural is denied; man’s heaven 
 is as much on earth as elsewhere. Hence, prayer, 
 grace, the sacraments, find no place in this system; 
 the “Affirmations of Being” are declared to be the 
 true form of prayer and this they claim will finally 
 supersede the older forms of worship. Hence it may 
 be seen that the hope and intention of New 
 Thought is to establish itself as the universal re¬ 
 ligion, despite the absence of any such apparent 
 present purpose. In point of fact not a few New 
 Thought churches have been organized in which 
 Sunday services are held wherein “the silence” and 
 “healing” are a part of the program, while, as in 
 Christian Science, Wednesday “experience” meetings 
 are also conducted. That New Thought does per¬ 
 form some cures is not to be denied; nervous diseases 
 and similar disorders, it is known from the laws of 
 
 psychology, will yield to mental treatment and 
 this in general is the explanation of their cures, al¬ 
 though New Thought leaders hold that their system 
 is spiritual rather than mental. The immoral 
 tendency of New Thought (fortunately New Thought- 
 lsts do not always follow their doctrines to their 
 natural conclusions) is evident from its perversion of 
 the teaching on sin, from its rejection of the super¬ 
 natural, of the Atonement of Christ, of the doctrine 
 of future punishment, and from the absence of super¬ 
 natural means enabling man to struggle against 
 temptation and overcome the promptings of his 
 lower nature. 
 
 History. —The New Thought movement can be 
 traced back to Phineas Parkhurst Quimby (1802- 
 1866), a native of New Hampshire, at one time a 
 pupil of Charles Poyen, a French mesmerist, who 
 visited the United States in 1836. Beginning in 
 1840 to practise mesmerism, Quimby began to “heal” 
 by putting a “subject,” one Lucius Burkmar, into 
 the mesmeric state, Burkmar then diagnosing the 
 patient’s disease and prescribing the remedy. 
 Claiming to have been himself cured of kidney trouble 
 (by Burkmar placing his hands on Quimby and 
 1 reuniting” to one kidney a diseased piece three inches 
 long which had become almost entirely separated), 
 Quimby came to the conclusion that the cure had 
 really been a mental process on his own part, that 
 disease is “a deranged state of mind,” that it, its 
 power over life and its curability “are all embraced 
 in belief, and that the curative “principle” consists in 
 producing changes in the belief of the patient. He 
 then gave up mesmerism and set himself to reduce 
 his “discovery” to a “science,” asserting that it was 
 more than mental suggestion and claiming a “spiritual” 
 foundation for his work. Holding that “one spirit 
 may operate directly on another spirit, and that 
 the basis of this spiritual activity is the Divine in us,” 
 he claimed to have “rediscovered the method of 
 healing by which Jesus wrought, not his ‘miracles,’ 
 but his highly intelligible works of healing.” About 
 1860 Quimby began to formulate his ideas in writing, 
 thus bringing into being the “Quimby manuscripts”, 
 about which so much controversy has raged in con¬ 
 nection with Christian Science. After Quimby’s 
 death, Julius A. Dresser, one of his patients, resent¬ 
 ing Mrs. Eddy’s claims (see Christian Science) 
 took up the practice of mental healing, following 
 Quimby s system. Another of Quimbj^’s pupils, 
 Rev. Warren Felt Evans, of the New Church (Sweden- 
 borgian), did likewise, publishing in 1869 “The Mental 
 Cure,” “Mental Medicine” in 1872, “Soul and 
 Body” in 1875, and “The Divine Law of Cure” in 
 1881, the last named being especially instrumental 
 m giving impetus and direction to the New Thought 
 movement. By 1882 and 1883 the movement had so 
 many “practitioners” and followers in Boston that it 
 was known as the “mind-cure” or the “Boston 
 craze.” In 1886 the first society or “church” was 
 founded by J. W. Winkley, a Unitarian minister, 
 under the title of the “Church of the Divine Unity.” 
 “Metaphysical Clubs” were founded in many places; 
 and in Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New York 
 societies^ were organized under the name, “Light, 
 Love, Truth.” The movement spread also to the 
 West, being known as “Practical Christianity” in 
 Kansas City (two of whose branches were called “The 
 Society of Silent Unity,” and the “Unity School of 
 •Christianity ), and “Divine Science” in Denver 
 and San Francisco. 
 
 Until 1890 the general name of the movement was 
 “mental science”; after that date the term “New 
 Thought” came into vogue, being first officially 
 applied to a magazine founded in 1894. The first 
 “New Thought” society with a regular organization, 
 after the new name had come into general use, was 
 
NEW THOUGHT 
 
 NEW THOUGHT 
 
 538 
 
 the “Church of the Higher Life,” founded in Boston 
 in 1894 by Mrs. Van-Anderson, and still existing in 
 1919, though without a leader. The Greenacre 
 Conferences, also founded in 1894, at Eliot, Maine, 
 became later a summer center for New Thought 
 gatherings. Afterwards this organization was opened 
 to Swamis with their Vedantic philosophy from 
 India, and Miss Farmer, the founder, finally became a 
 devotee of Bahaism. In 1895 the Metaphysical Club 
 was found6d in Boston, and this society, through its 
 active propaganda, was the first which made a de- 
 termined effort to spread its views and try to gain a 
 general following, and from it in a sense grew the 
 more general organization which later sprang up. 
 The first national convention was held in 1894; the 
 first to be held under the name of New Thought was 
 in Boston in 1899. This Boston convention organized 
 “The International Metaphysical League” (in passing 
 we may note that included in the purpose of this 
 league, was “to teach the universal Fatherhood and 
 Motherhood” [! ] of God), which met in 1900, electing 
 officers from the United States, England, Australia 
 and New Zealand. Apparently this organization was 
 not very successful; in 1903 an “International New 
 Thought Convention” was held in Chicago, which 
 met annually until 1906, when a reorganization was 
 effected. In 1908 the name was changed t<? I he 
 National New Thought Alliance,” and this m turn 
 became in 1914 “The International New Thought 
 Alliance,” the first international convention being 
 held in London in that year, there being present rep¬ 
 resentatives of the American body, of the Higher 
 Thought Centre” of Great Britain and of the Ligue 
 Internationale de la Nouvelle Pensee, and La 
 Societe Unitive” of France. The first international 
 congress was held at San Francisco in 1915, the 
 Panama-Pacific Exposition dedicating to it one day 
 known as New Thought Day. The international 
 headquarters are now in Washington, D. C. Cut- 
 side of the United States the movement has (as of the 
 year 1919) organizations or representatives in tha 
 Hawaiian Islands, England, Scotland, Ireland, 
 Australia, New Zealand, France, Chile, and Brazil. 
 It is impossible to give any accurate statistics since its 
 followers are also in many cases members of various 
 sects. Probably it has its greatest strength in the 
 central and western states of the United States. It 
 is claimed that the Unity Society of Kansas City, 
 Missouri, has a membership of 50,000 scattered 
 throughout the country. The leaders of the move¬ 
 ment claim that it has influenced ‘ ‘millions. ” On the 
 basis of the number of magazines (they are quite nu¬ 
 merous) devoted to the propagation of New Thought 
 ideas an estimate that there are possibly 200,000 
 devotees in the world may be hazarded, but the 
 number of full members (those not affiliated with 
 any other church) can hardly be as high as 100,000 
 in the United States, and not much above that 
 figure in the world. 
 
 Other Healing Associations.— Besides the two 
 leading organizations, Christian Science and New 
 Thought, in which “divine healing” plays a promi¬ 
 nent part there are many others in which this doc¬ 
 trine finds a place. Some of these are organized 
 churches (a few are found even among the so-called 
 “evangelicals”), while others are more specifically 
 healing associations. Although, with possibly one 
 or two exceptions, they are not genetically connected 
 with New Thought they may be briefly summarized 
 here: 
 
 (1) The Emmanuel Movement arose in the Prot¬ 
 estant Episcopal Church about 1906, originating in 
 Emmanuel Church, Boston. Practice here was con¬ 
 fined to treatment of functional nervous disorders, 
 and usually in connection with the aid of regular 
 physicians. The movement spread to many Piot- 
 
 estant Episcopal churches in the United States and 
 to some Anglican churches in Great Britain The 
 usual method employed is the laying on of hands 
 and anointing. This practice was taken up as a 
 protection against Christian Science, utilizing, as 
 the leaders stated, the truth underlying the latter, 
 namely the influence of moral over physical states. 
 Some other Protestant organizations have inaugurat¬ 
 ed a similar movement; moreover, especially in its 
 earlier history, New Thought numbered among 
 its adherents hot a few Protestant ministers whu at 
 the same time retained their denominational affilia- 
 
 (2) The Assemblies of Ood, General Council, or¬ 
 ganized in Arkansas and Missouri in 1914, accept 
 some orthodox doctrines. 4hey hold the coming 
 of Jesus and the beginning of the millenium as im¬ 
 minent, and profess to have the gift of divine healing 
 They reported in 1921 about 118 organizations, 937 
 
 ministers, and 6703 members. 
 
 (3) The Christian Catholic Church m Zion, known 
 formerly as the Christian Catholic Apostolic Church 
 in Zion (the Dowieites), was founded by John 
 Alexander Dowie who, claiming to have been mirac¬ 
 ulously cured, organized a healing association in 
 Australia, in 1888. Having come to Chicago m 
 1890, he changed the name of his “Divine Healing 
 Association” to that listed above, in 1896. In 1900 
 he founded a town, Zion City, Illinois, where he es¬ 
 tablished headquarters. Though he proclaimed 
 himself “Elijah the Restorer of All Things in 1901, 
 and “First Apostle” in 1903, he was ousted by his 
 followers in 1906, and Wilbur G. Voliva, the present 
 leader, succeeded him. This sect condemned all Chris¬ 
 tian denominations in general, but particularly was 
 Christian Science excoriated by Dowie, who also 
 considered doctors as inspired by the devil. Dowie 
 claimed, about 1905, to have thousands of followers 
 all over the world. The government statistics for 
 1906 reported for this church, 17 organizations (in 
 10 states), 17 church edifices or halls, 35 ministers and 
 5865 members, of whom 40 per cent were males and 
 60 per cent females. Since then the association has 
 not made public its statistics; the population of Zion 
 City, which since 1911 is governed by a mayor and 
 council (quasi-ecclesiastical, however), was 4789 
 
 in 1910 and 5580 in 1920. 
 
 (4) The Church of the Universal Messianic Message 
 is an outgrowth of the Christian Yoga Society which 
 was founded at Spokane, Wash., in 1911, by A. K. 
 Mozumdar after a study of oriental religions. 1 his 
 church purposes to “bring about unity with Omni¬ 
 present God on the part of its members, in imitation 
 of the Great Master, Jesus Christ; to heal the sick 
 by an appeal to God for an interposition of divine 
 power,” and to teach the great mystery of life. It 
 accepts no creed and recognizes no sacrament, nor 
 ministerial office. In 1921 there were 5 organizations 
 
 and 266 members. . . 
 
 (5) The Apostolic Faith Movement originated in 
 1900, not as a denomination strictly so-called, but 
 rather as a loose union of free-lance evangelists. The 
 chief doctrine and practice is that of healing, the 
 leaders visiting and praying for the sick while those 
 at a distance are treated by correspondence, and by 
 sending them objects such as handerkerchiefs that 
 have been “blessed” for that purpose. Their head¬ 
 quarters are at Los Angeles, Cal., Portland, Ore., and 
 
 • Minneapolis. In 1921 they had 24 churches, 26 
 ministers and 2196 members. They carry on foreign 
 missionary work in many countries. 
 
 (6) The Church Transcendent, known also as the 
 “Transcendental Wav,” founded at Warren, Ohio, 
 in 1915, holds as one of its principles that mind 
 transcends matter and is the conqueror over evil. 
 It aims at a universal religion transcending ‘ all the 
 
NEW YORK 
 
 539 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 partial, racial and national religions.” In 1921 it 
 had 3 churches, 2 ministers, 91 members. 
 
 (7) The Missionary Church Association, founded at 
 Berne, Ind., in 1898, accepts many of the orthodox 
 teachings of Christianity. It believes in the healing 
 of the body in answer to the prayer of faith. In 
 1921 it had 25 organizations, 59 ministers, 1554 
 members. 
 
 (8) An organization very similar to the preceding 
 is the International Apostolic Holiness Church, 
 founded at Cincinnati in 1897. In 1921 it reported 
 325 churches, 640 ministers, 11,000 members. 
 
 (9) The Mennonite Brethren in Christ in common 
 with some other branches (see Mennonites), hold 
 the doctrine of divine healing of the sick by the 
 “laying on of hands, and anointing with oil, and 
 praying over, them.” 
 
 (10) The Pentecostal Holiness Church, organized at 
 Anderson, S. C., in 1898, accepts in general the 
 doctrines of Methodism. It believes also in divine 
 healing but does not condemn the practice of medicine 
 as essentially evil. In 1921 it reported 192 churches 
 282 ministers, 5353 members. 
 
 (11) The Progressive Spiritual Church is a very 
 radical Spiritualist organization holding that Jesus 
 was merely a medium and his resurrection a ma¬ 
 terialization. As to healing it holds that divine 
 metaphysics guide the mind of the medium on earth 
 and that only in this way can the cause of disease be 
 detected and overcome. In 1921 it reported 11 
 churches 20 ministers, 5831 members. 
 
 (12) There are also a few independent Reformed 
 Christian Science churches. (See Christian Science; 
 also in the original edition, Extreme Unction; 
 Lourdes; Miracles; Prayer; Psychotherapy.) 
 
 Dresser, A History of the New Thought Movement (New 
 York, 1919); Idem, The Religion of the Spirit in Modern Life 
 (New York, 1914); Idem, (ed.) The Spirit of the New Thought, 
 with extensive bibliography (NewYork, 1917), Idem, Handbook of 
 New Thought (New York, 1917); Idem, Health and the Inner Life 
 (New York, 1906); Idem, The Power of Silence (New York, 1902); 
 Evans, The Divine Law of Cure (Boston, 1881); Idem, The 
 Primitive Mind-Cure (Boston, 1884); Allen, The Message of 
 New Thought (New York, 1914); Atkinson, Dynamic Thought 
 (Los Angeles, 1906). Anderson, New Thought, Its Lights and 
 Shadows (Boston, 1911); Johnson, Some Modern Isms (Rich¬ 
 mond, 1919); Podmore, Mesmerism and Christian Science 
 (Philadelphia, 1909). 
 
 The best Catholic treatment is found in Bellwald, Christian 
 Science and the Catholic Faith, Including a Brief Account of New 
 Thought and Other Modern Mental Healing Movements (New 
 York, 1922); see also Moore, New Thought (C. T. S. pamphlet, 
 London, 1916). A brief treatment of mind-healing is given in 
 Benson, Non-Catholic Denominations (London and New York, 
 1915). 
 
 On the Emmanuel Movement see Worcester (et al.), 
 Religion and Medicine (New York, 1908); Idem (et al.), The 
 Christian Religion as a Healing Power (New York, 1909); Pan- 
 Anglican Congress Report, 1908, vol. Ill, sect. B (London, 
 1908); on the Christian Catholic Church in Zion see Harlam, 
 John Alexander Dowie and the Christian Catholic Apostolic Church 
 in Zion (Chicago, 1906), and Thurston, Christian Science in 
 vol. V., of Lectures on the History of Religions (St. Louis, 1911); 
 for other organizations see Religious Bodies, 1916 (Washington, 
 1919), and Year Book of the Churches (New York, annual). 
 
 Gerald Shaughnessy. 
 
 New York (cf. C. E. XI-19c)—The area of the 
 State of New York is 49,204 square miles. The 
 population in 1920 was 10,385,227, a gain of 14 per 
 cent since 1910. Of this, 82.7% was urban; 17.3 was 
 rural. In 130 years the population of the state has 
 increased 36 times. The average number of inhab¬ 
 itants per square mile was 217.9, as against 191.2 in 
 1910, and 152.5 in 1900. There were 59 cities, of 
 which 6 have over 100,000 inhabitants and 16 have 
 from 25,000 to 100,000 inhabitants. The proportion 
 of the population of New York living in places of 2500 
 or more increased from 72.9 per cent in 1900, to 78.8 
 per cent in 1910, and to 82.7 per cent in 1920. The 
 six largest cities are New York, with a population of 
 5,620,048; Buffalo 506,775; Syracuse 171,717; Albany 
 113,344; Yonkers 100,176; Utica 94,156. About two 
 
 million and a half live outside the New York City 
 limits. There are within the State 7 Indian reserva¬ 
 tions, inhabited by 4458 Indians. 
 
 Economic Status. —In 1919 New York had 
 49,374 manufacturing establishments employing 
 1,229,900 people as wage earners. The capital in¬ 
 vested was $6,033,852,000; the cost of materials, 
 $4,947,991,000; the value of the products, $8,875,- 
 007,000. 
 
 Commerce. —In 1920 New York was the first 
 shipping port in the world, surpassing even the 
 ports of London and Liverpool. Its imports were of 
 the value of approximately $1,251,790,373; and its 
 exports, $2,616,850,680. The tonnage movement of 
 foreign trade for the year ending 30 June, 1920, was: 
 entered, 15,049,744; cleared, 14,275,255. 
 
 Agriculture. —In 1920 there were in the State 
 193,195 farms of a total area of 20,632,803 acres, 
 of which 13,158,781 acres were improved land. The 
 value of the farms was $1,908,483,201; of live stock, 
 $313,554,695. Though the number of farms showed 
 a decrease of 10.4 per cent since 1910, the crop value 
 revealed an increase of 119 per cent, being $417,046,- 
 864 in 1920. The principal crops were: cereals, $82,- 
 524,839; hay $169,494,524; vegetables $104,070,460; 
 the wool clip was 3,350,824 pounds, valued at 
 $1,976,986. The dairy industry is still important as 
 the receipts from the sale of dairy products in 1920 
 were $174,155,050. The fruit crop in the same year 
 was worth $34,891,361. 
 
 Mining. —The mines of the State in 1918 yielded 
 products valued at $54,997,036; the quarries pro¬ 
 duced building stone valued at $5,208,752. The salt 
 springs produced in the same year 15,218,071 barrels 
 of salt worth $2,176,472, while the petroleum wells 
 yielded $3,307,814 worth of crude petroleum. New 
 York is still the wealthiest State in the United States, 
 the aggregate value of all the property within the 
 State in the year 1919 (latest estimate) being $12,- 
 758,021,954, of which $12,322,150,324 represented 
 real property and improvements. The personal prop¬ 
 erty was worth $435,871,630. The property in New' 
 York City alone was worth $1,225,055,569. The 
 revenue of the State government was $86,433,925 
 (1918-19). The city of New York received the enor¬ 
 mous revenue of $905,733,841. The bonded debt of 
 the State in 1919 was $236,744,660. The State in¬ 
 come is derived mainly from taxes on assessable prop¬ 
 erty, fees from foreign corporations, licenses, taxes 
 on certain public franchises and trusts and banks. 
 New York has a personal income tax modelled on the 
 Federal law'. Personal property yielding an income 
 is exempt from the property tax. The State Tax 
 Commission administers all the- tax statutes in the 
 State. 
 
 Transportation. —There are 8,534 miles of rail¬ 
 way track and 6,039 miles of electric railway. The 
 canals cover 638 miles, of which 361 miles belong to 
 the Erie Canal. The State Barge Canal has just 
 been completed at a cost of $150,000,000. It is 12 
 feet deep and has a capacity of 20,000,000 tons. 
 In 1919 goods carried free on these State canals were 
 valued at $35,000,000. The port of New York has 
 a total water-front of 578.4 miles. 
 
 Education. —School attendance is compulsory 
 for all children between seven and sixteen years of 
 age. A recent amendment to the educational law 
 makes instruction in physical training or kindred sub¬ 
 jects compulsory for all over 8 years of age, and mili¬ 
 tary training for all between 16 and 19 at least three 
 hours a week between September and June 15. At¬ 
 tendance in part-time schools is required of children 
 14-17 years of age, w r ho are not high school graduates, 
 and who are not regularly attending school. Every 
 minor between 16 and 21 years of age w'ho does not 
 possess the ability to speak, read, and write the Eng- 
 
NEW YORK 
 
 540 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 lish language as required for the completion of the 
 fifth grade of the public or private schools shall at¬ 
 tend some day, evening or private school. Bible read¬ 
 ing in the public schools is neither permitted nor ex¬ 
 cluded. The laws governing private or parochial 
 schools are as follows: The Regents of the University 
 of the State of New York shall prescribe courses m 
 citizenship and patriotism to be maintained and fol¬ 
 lowed in all schools of the State. Similar courses 
 shall be prescribed in private schools. The Commis¬ 
 sioner of Education shall be responsible for the en¬ 
 forcement of this Act and shall cause to be inspected 
 and supervised the instruction to be given in such 
 subjects. The instruction required shall be: At a 
 public school in which at least the six common school 
 branches of reading, spelling, writing, arithmetic, the 
 English language, and geography are taught in Eng¬ 
 lish; elsewhere than a public school, in the same sub¬ 
 jects, taught in English by a competent teacher. No 
 public money shall be used for the support of any ed¬ 
 ucational institution of any religious denomination 
 (1X4). Subjects taught in private schools must be 
 substantially equivalent to those taught in public 
 schools. Courses in patriotism and citizenship shall 
 be prescribed in all public and private schools. The 
 school term of private schools must be equal in length 
 to that of public schools. 
 
 In 1918 there were 2,421,283 children of school age 
 (5-18), 11,898 public schools with 1,672,311 pupils, 
 52,858 teachers, 964 public high schools and academies 
 with 197,119 pupils and 8375 teachers. In the 10 
 normal public normal schools there were 348 teachers 
 and 7020 students. Moreover, the State has 133 
 vocational schools. The total expenditure on edu¬ 
 cation in 1919 was $126,050,044; the city of New 
 York with 1862 pupils and 46,020 teachers spent 
 $45,765,043 in 1919. The 136 universities, pro¬ 
 fessional and technical schools had 5634 teachers and 
 52,043 students. The New York City College has an 
 enrolment of 14,473; West Point 701. The public 
 statistics of the United States Bureau of Education 
 (1920, Bulletin No. 3) show that 117 private schools 
 and academies (not parochial schools) were con¬ 
 ducted under the auspices of the Catholic Church in 
 New York in 1918. In 1920 there were 300,000 in the 
 Catholic schools. The United States Education 
 Bureau (1920) reported that in 1918, 10,674 were 
 registered in the Catholic secondary schools alone. 
 The Catholic Directory estimates the number of peo¬ 
 ple under Catholic care, including the orphans and 
 other inmates of charitable institutions, as 350,198. 
 Tho New York State Public Library has 506,000 
 volumes; the New York City Public Library has 
 2,306,471 books and-320,464 pamphlets, in all 2,626,- 
 
 935 volumes. ' _ - 
 
 Religion. —According to the latest United States 
 Census of Religious Denominations, the members 
 of all denominations numbered 4,315,404, divided as 
 follows: Catholics, 2,745,552; Methodist Episcopali¬ 
 ans, 328,250; Protestant Episcopalians, 227,685; 
 Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, 
 222,888; Baptists Northern Convention, 182,443; 
 Jewish Congregations 112,924; Lutheran General 
 Council 73,582; Reformed Church in America 66,773; 
 Congregational Churches 65,021; all other denomi¬ 
 nations, 289,287. There were 8,780 church edifices, 
 867 halls, and 5319 parsonages (valued at $28,782,- 
 609). The total value of church property was $293,- 
 210,904, and the debt $36,201.46. The Sunday schools, 
 8616 in number, were attended by 1,296,956 scholars. 
 The present law of New York limits the income of the 
 religious and charitable corporations of the State to 
 $1,000,000; and the value of their property to $10,- 
 000,000. The Catholics formed 63.6 per cent, of the 
 total of the religious communicants, but only 44.6 
 claimed any membership whatever. There were 281 
 
 Catholics for every 1000 of the population, a gain df 
 7.3 per cent, oqer the censes of 1890: 24 Protestant 
 Episcopalians for each 1000. For further statistics 
 see New York, Archdiocesr Of and its suffragans 
 in the State. 
 
 Marriage. —A marriage license must be ob¬ 
 tained from the clerk of the town or city where a 
 woman resides or, if she is a non-resident, where the 
 marriage is solemnized. Both parties must appear 
 before the issuer of the license. A city clerk of a 
 city of over 1,000,000 inhabitants may solemnize a 
 marriage upon a license issued by himself. To take or 
 harbor any girl under eighteen years of age for the 
 purpose of marriage without the consent of her 
 parents or guardian constitutes abduction. An action 
 to annul her marriage may be brought by a woman 
 where she was under eighteen years of age at the time 
 of the marriage and the consent of her parents or 
 guardian was not had and the marriage was not con¬ 
 summated and not ratified by mutual consent after 
 she attained the age of eighteen. After a divorce is 
 granted, re-marriage is forbidden to the guilty party 
 during the life of the spouse, unless, after three years 
 have elapsed, proof is made of his or her uniform good 
 conduct, when the defendant may be permitted by 
 the court to marry again. 
 
 Sunday Laws. —The New York laws permit 
 barbers to work on Sundays only before one o’clock 
 and only in the city of New York and the village of 
 Saratoga Springs. Local authorities, either on their 
 own initiative or upon the result of a local referendum, 
 are authorized to license Sunday baseball and other 
 sports. The question of Sunday theatres is left to the 
 community. 
 
 Militia. —Under the provisions of the Military 
 Law of the State a new active organization was 
 created in 1917 to take the place of the National 
 Guard, which was then in Federal service. It is part 
 of the active militia of the State, is partly subject to 
 Federal control, and receives rifles and ammunition 
 from the Federal Government. 
 
 Recent History. —In 1911 laws were passed, 
 re-apportioning Congressional districts of the State, 
 providing for a direct State tax and direct primary 
 voting, and regulating child labor. In 1913 Governor 
 William Sulzer was impeached and removed from 
 office for misapplication of party funds. He was 
 succeeded by Martin Glynn, a Catholic, through 
 whom State conventions were abolished and a short 
 ballot law and workmen’s compensation Act were 
 adopted. Vocational and industrial education and 
 medical inspection in schools were provided for by 
 law; vital statistics were put under the State Depart¬ 
 ment of Health. A new Education Bill (1916) made 
 provision for town boards of education and for a 
 school board in every city of the State, making their 
 powers unform. The former clause was repealed in 
 the 1918 session. A constitutional convention was 
 held in 1915, but the revised constitution was over¬ 
 whelmingly defeated in the November election. A 
 Child Welfare Board has been set up in each county 
 and mothers’ pensions allowed. The constitution was 
 amended in 1918 to require that all voters after 
 1 January, 1920, read and write English. An income 
 tax in the same year was placed on all, even non¬ 
 residents, who had their source of income in New 
 York State. The constitutionality of the law was 
 referred to the Supreme Court. State scholarships 
 for all veterans of the late war have been established. 
 A bridge to be known as the Great Western Highway, 
 is to be built across the Mohawk River at Schenec¬ 
 tady. 
 
 A Department of State Police was established in the 
 1918 session of the legislature. The 1920 session will 
 be memorable for the expulsion of the Socialist 
 members of the Assembly, who were charged with 
 
NEW YORK 
 
 541 
 
 NEWARK 
 
 belonging to a party disloyal to the Government and 
 with having been elected on a platform hostile to the 
 interest of the State and country. The Socialist 
 party amended their constitution in 1920 and two 
 of the expelled members were re-admitted. A bonus 
 was voted to all military and naval veterans of the 
 late war, the bond issue not to exceed $45,000,000. 
 The housing situation in New York city became so 
 acute that innumerable rent laws were passed as 
 means of relief. The Federal Prohibition Act was 
 ratified on 29 January, 1919, and the Suffrage Amend¬ 
 ment on 16 June, 1919. The enforcement of the 
 Prohibition Act is outlined in the Mullane-Gage 
 Law of 1921. The prevailing liquor tax law is re¬ 
 pealed, as well as the city local option law and the 
 duty of enforcement was transferred from the excise 
 department (abolished) to the State attorney- 
 general. The term intoxicating liquor is construed to 
 mean liquor containing more than one-half of one 
 per cent alcohol. Sacramental wines and medical 
 liquors are excepted. 
 
 During the European War New York contributed 
 the greatest number of soldiers to the United States 
 Army (9.79 per cent). Most of the New York mem¬ 
 bers of the national guard joined the 27th Division 
 at Camp Wadsworth, South Carolina; those of the 
 national army, the 77th Division at Camp Upton, 
 New York, or the 78th Division at Camp Dix, New 
 Jersey. Flying regiments were quartered at Mineola, 
 Long Island. The summary of casualties among New 
 York men is as follows: deceased, 476 officers, 8720 
 men; prisoners, 42 officers, 835 men; wounded, 1203 
 officers, 28,946 men. 
 
 New York, Archdiocese of (Neo Eboracensis; 
 cf. C. E., XI—20b ) K comprises 4717 square miles 
 of the State of New York, and the Bahama Islands, 
 an area of 4466 sq. miles. On 15 September, 1902, 
 Rt. Rev. John M. Farley, who had been Titular 
 Bishop of Zeugma and auxiliary of Archbishop Cor¬ 
 rigan since 21 Dec., 1895, was promoted to the 
 archiepscopal see. On 25 April, 1904, Rev. Thomas 
 F. Cusack was made auxiliary of the archbishop, 
 and Titular Bishop of Themiscvra, until he was 
 promoted (5 July, 1915) to the see of Albany. 
 Archbishop Farley was created Cardinal Priest on 
 27 November, 1911, and died 17 September, 1918. 
 His auxiliary, Rt. Rev. Patrick J. Hayes, succeeded 
 him 10 March, 1919. Born in New York 20 Novem¬ 
 ber, 1867, he made his studies at Manhattan College, 
 the seminary of Troy and the Catholic University, 
 was ordained 8 September, 1892, and served as curate 
 of St. Gabriel’s and secretary to Cardinal Farley, 
 was made chancellor of the archdiocese in 1903, 
 named a prelate of the Holy See 15 October, 1907,’ 
 and appointed titular Bishop of Tagasta and auxiliary 
 to the archbishop 3 July, 1914. On 29 November, 
 1917, he was named ordinary of all Catholics mob¬ 
 ilized in the army and navy, and in February, 1920, 
 Chaplain in Chief of the American army, and navy, 
 and decorated by France Chevalier of the Legion of 
 Honor. The same year he was decorated with the 
 Order of the Crown of Italy, in recognition of the 
 services he rendered Italy during the War. In 1921 
 an auxiliary Bishop was appointed in the person of 
 Rt. Rev. John J. Dunn, consecrated titular Bishop 
 of Camuliana 28 October, 1921. Born in New York 
 in 1870, Bishop Dunn was ordained in 1896, and 
 named a private chamberlain in 1914. He was placed 
 in charge of the Society of the Propagation of the 
 Faith in New York, in 1904, and served in this 
 capacity until his appointment as bishop. Rt. Rev. 
 John J. Collins, S. J., retired Vicar Apostolic of 
 Jamaica, and titular Bishop of Antiphello, also 
 resides in the archdiocese, at Fordham University. 
 
 The Catholic population of the archdiocese numbers 
 
 1,473,291, an increase of 148,291 since 1919. The 
 latest statistics (1922) credit it with 313 parish 
 churches, 82 missions with churches, 204 chapels, 31 
 mission stations, 728 secular and 413 regular clergy, 
 1 theological seminary with 219 students, 1 prepara¬ 
 tory seminary with 350 students, 1 university, 31 
 colleges and academies for boys with 8995 students, 
 
 4 colleges for girls with 817 pupils, 46 academies for 
 girls with J896 pupils, 119 parochial schools for boys 
 with 39,477 pupils, 119 parochial schools for girls 
 with 43,153 pupils within the city, and 69 parochial 
 schools outside of the city with 8256 boys and 8704 
 girls, making a total of 99,590 children ‘in parochial 
 schools. The various institutions include 8 adminis¬ 
 tration offices, 14 protective agency offices, 19 child¬ 
 caring institutions, 32 day nurseries and settlements, 
 
 5 homes for the aged, 20 homes and residences for 
 women, 3 correctional homes for women, 29 hos¬ 
 pitals, sanitariums and convalescent homes, and 
 9 immigrant homes. A total of 175,538 young 
 people are under Catholic care. To co-ordinate all 
 these vast activities a Bureau of Catholic Charities 
 was established in the Terminal Building, near the 
 Grand Central Station. It has a staff of seven 
 priests directing the clerical and visiting work of a 
 great number of lay employees. It has also local 
 offices in Richmond, Dutchess, Orange, Sullivan and 
 Westchester Counties, the purpose of this centraliza¬ 
 tion being to prevent overlapping and duplication 
 of work, thus achieving the double end of economy 
 and efficiency. An appeal of the archbishop to 
 finance this great enterprise brought a ready response 
 of over two million dollars, though the average con¬ 
 tribution from each person was not much over three 
 dollars payable at the convenience of the donor. A 
 very valuable aid in the work of preaching was 
 obtained by two volumes of splendid dogmatic and 
 moral instructions, distributed to the clergy by the 
 archbishop, which insured uniformity of instructions 
 throughout the archdiocese. It is the work of Fathers 
 Charles J. Callan and John M. McHugh of the 
 Order of Preachers. The Knights of Columbus are 
 continuing their activities in the New York Arch¬ 
 diocese with ever increasing ardor. They have 
 established scholarships in the colleges of Man¬ 
 hattan and Fordham, and besides providing generally 
 for their own sick or needy members, furnish recrea¬ 
 tion of various kinds to thousands of orphans, irre¬ 
 spective of creed, race, or color, and distribute 
 baskets to the poor for a bountiful Christmas dinner. 
 Their greatest effort has recently been launched in a 
 great building campaign for the erection of an im¬ 
 mense central headquarters, and on 17 April, 1922, 
 $1,100,000 in pledges and $400,000 in cash had been 
 received for this purpose. This structure is to be 
 used first for the requirements of the club for welfare 
 work of various kinds, for archdiocesan meetings, a 
 center for free employment and hospitalization work, 
 educational course, a social secretarial center with 
 gymnasium and swimming pools, and a great audi¬ 
 torium for public gatherings and civic and social 
 events. Of the 140 evening schools established by 
 the Knights after demobilization, there are four 
 schools in New York giving sixty courses in more 
 than forty subjects. Apart from the Knights of 
 Columbus, the Catholic writers and stage folk have 
 been formed into guilds, the Most Reverend Arch¬ 
 bishop frequently attending their meetings. 
 
 Newark, Diocese of (Novarcensis; cf. C. E., 
 
 X—779d), in New Jersey. According to the statis¬ 
 tics of 1922 the diocese contains 206 churches, 37 
 missions, with churches, 6 stations, 114 chapels, 1 
 Abbey (Benedictine) for men with 50 priests, 23 
 clerics, 3 novices, 17 lay brothers, 15 scholastics, 
 
 1 monastery for women (Dominican), 1687 Sisters, ( 
 
NEWPORT 
 
 542 
 
 NICOPOLIS 
 
 362 secular priests, 221 regulars, 1 diocesan seminary 
 with 52 seminarians, 4 seminaries for religious orders, 
 161 students. Five diocesan students are at Rome 
 and two at Louvain. The educational institutions 
 in the diocese are: 6 colleges and academies for boys 
 (1195 pupils), 1 college for women, 15 academies 
 for girls (1900 pupils), 137 parochial schools (70,588 
 
 pupils), 1 industrial school (200 inmates); total young 
 
 people under Catholic care 67,412. The following 
 charitable in stitutions exist in the diocese: 4 homes 
 for the aged, 1 institute for the blind, 1 home for 
 incurables, 1 nursery and babies’ hospital, 3 homes 
 for working girls, 1 for orphans, 1 for boys. Since 
 1911 the Capuchins have been established in the 
 diocese. In 1922 the Catholic population numbered 
 598,143. The present incumbent is the Rt. Rev. 
 John J. O’Connor, who has administered the diocese 
 since 1901. 
 
 Newport, Diocese of. See Cardiff. 
 
 Ngan-Hwei, Vicariate Apostolic of; (cf. C. 
 E., VIII—634d), in China, erected by papal brief 
 of 8 August, 1921, comprising the province of Ngan- 
 hwei, heretofore part of the former \ icariate Apostolic 
 of Kiang-nan. The vicariate is under the care of the 
 Jesuits of the provinces of Castile, Leon, and Turin 
 and is accordingly divided into three distinct parts, 
 conforming to the three intendencies which Ngan- 
 hwei comprises, each having at its head a regular 
 superior in the capacity of vicarius delegatus. The 
 vicar apostolic has not yet been appointed. For the 
 year 1920-21, there were in Ngan-hwei: 464 Christian 
 communities, 73,912 Catholics, 53,531 catechumens. 
 The records show 1794 baptisms of adults, 4964 
 baptisms of children, 1028 confirmations, 39,576 an¬ 
 nual confessions, 39,386 annual communions, 187,399 
 confessions of devotions, 338,777 communions of de¬ 
 votion, 578 who received extreme unction, 712 mar¬ 
 riages, 115 schools for boys and 3223 Catholic and 
 1386 pagan pupils, 65 schools for girls with 2047 
 Catholic and 623 pagan pupils, 217 men teachers 
 and 124 women teachers. For further statistics see 
 Kiang-su. 
 
 Niagara University, founded in 1856 by the 
 Rev. John J. Lynch, C. M., afterwards first Arch¬ 
 bishop of Toronto, and directed by the Priests of the 
 Congregation of the Mission, has had a steady and 
 rapid growth since its inauguration. The erection of 
 another building became necessary in 1906, and since 
 then the Convent of the Little Sisters of the Holy 
 Family has been added. The University comprises 
 the College and the High School departments; the 
 total registration for 1921 was 3000. In 1920 the 
 University conferred the following degrees: B.A. 6; 
 Ph.B.ll; M.A. 3; LL.D. 6. 
 
 Nicaragua, Diocese of. See Granada; Leon; 
 Managua. 
 
 Nicastro, Diocese of (Neocastrensis; cf. 
 C. E., XI—47b), in the province of Catanzaro, 
 Southern Italy, is suffragan of Reggio, Rt.. Rev. 
 Eugenio Giambro, b. in the Diocese of Caltamsetta, 
 12 October, 1866, penitentiary chancellor and rector 
 of the Nicastro Seminary, appointed Bishop of 
 Sarsina 10 February, 1911, proclaimed 30 November 
 following, transferred to Nicastro 22 May, 1916, to 
 succeed Mgr. Regine, promoted to the rank of Apos¬ 
 tolic Administrator of Nicastro from 16 March, 1920, 
 to 11 September, 1921. According to 1920 statistics 
 there are 53 parishes, 9 vicariates, 130 secular and 5 
 regular priests, 20 seminarians, 71 churches or chap¬ 
 els, and a Catholic population of 110,100 souls. 
 
 Nice, Diocese of (Niciensis; cf. C. E., 
 XI—48b), comprises the department of Alpes- 
 
 Maritimes, France. It is suffragan of Aix. The 
 bishop, who also bears the title of Count of Drap, is 
 Rt. Rev. Henri-Louis Chapon, b. at St. Brieuc 14 
 March, 1845, appointed 25 June, 1896, consecrated 
 at Orleans 29 September following to succeed Mgr. 
 Balain, was given the personal privilege of the 
 pallium in 1916, and was promoted as assistant to 
 the pontifical throne 6 August, 1921. There are in 
 the diocese 172 parishes, of which 33 are curacies and 
 139 succursal parishes, 397 secular priests, 1 upper 
 and 1 lower seminary, and 3 ecclesiastical institutions. 
 The total Catholic population is 356,338 of whom 
 142,940 are in Nice. On 11 June, 1913, the relics of 
 the ancient bishops Sts. Veran and Lambert were 
 discovered and canonically recognized. 
 
 Nicolet, Diocese of (Nicoletana, cf. C. E., XI— 
 69a) in the Province of Quebec, Canada, suffragan 
 of Quebec. The present bishop, Rt. Rev. Joseph 
 Simon Herman Brunault, is the second bishop of 
 this diocese and has filled the see since 1904. Since 
 1911 the diocese has lost two of its most prominent 
 clergy by the deaths of Mgr. Douville, P.A., Vicar 
 General of the diocese, and Mgr. Suzor, P.D., also 
 Vicar General, and in addition to these one priest 
 of the diocese, Captain R. Crochetiere, serving as 
 chaplain during the war, was killed in action 2 
 April, 1918, and buried in the cemetery of Bailleui- 
 mont, France. 
 
 The present (1921) statistics show 69 parishes 
 69 churches, 1 mission with mission station at 
 Odonak, 1 monastery for women, 6 convents for 
 women, 164 secular priests, 130 brothers, 560 sisters, 
 
 1 seminary with 30 seminarians, 3 colleges for men 
 with 130 professors and 900 students, 5 academies 
 with 35 teachers and 1100 students (boys), 1 nor¬ 
 mal school with 10 teachers and 98 students, 611 
 elementary schools with 670 teachers and 2400 
 pupils, 4 hosiptals and 2 orphan asylums. All the 
 public institutions permit the priests of the diocese 
 to minister in them and the Catholic schools are 
 aided by the Government. The total Catholic 
 population comprises approximately 89,000 French 
 Canadians, 1000 Irish, and 400 Italians. 
 
 Nicopolis, Diocese of (Nicopolitana, cf. 
 C. E., XI—70d), in Bulgaria, not the ancient Nictppoli. 
 which has become a titular Latin see, on the site of 
 which stands the present village of Nicup, near 
 Tirnow, where extensive ruins mark the place of the 
 cathedral, but a modern city built about 629 by the 
 Emperor Heraclius. Rt. Rev. Henri Doulcet, who 
 had been bishop since 1895, resigned 13 March, 
 1913, and was succeeded by Rt. Rev. Leonard von 
 Baumbach (b. 1856), who had been coadjutor since 
 1910. Bishop von Baumbach died at Rome in 1915 
 and was succeeded by the present bishop, Damian 
 John Theelen, a Passionist, b. at Beesel, Holland, 
 4 April, 1877, ordained 23 Sept., 1899, appointed 
 to the see of Nicopolis 21 May, 1915, and conse-- 
 crated at Rome on 15 August following. Like his 
 predecessors he resides at Rustchuk. The Catholic 
 population of the diocese consists of 14,000 Bul¬ 
 garians, with about 1000 foreigners, Poles, Croats 
 and Belgians. There are 17 parishes, 20 churches, 
 18 mission stations, 4 secular and 21 regular priests, 
 3 lay brothers, 3 monasteries for men and 4 for 
 women with 42 Sisters. There is a diocesan seminary 
 with 9 seminarians. At present there are 7 elementary 
 schools with 40 teachers and 1180 pupils. Since 1911, 
 the Benedictine Sisters from the Abbey of St. Ottilien 
 in Bavaria have maintained two schools in the 
 diocese, one at Endje near Schoumle and the other 
 at Bardau near Belvelatine. A French Congregation 
 of Dominican Sisters has recently opened a school 
 at Sistova. A day nursery cares for 110 children. 
 
NICOTERA 
 
 543 
 
 NOCERA 
 
 That part of the diocese situated along the River 
 Danube was the scene of war activities, especially 
 from August to November, 1916. 
 
 Nicotera and Tropea, Diocese of (Nicoterensis 
 et Tropiensis' cf. C. E., XI—72a), in the province 
 of Catanzaro, Southern Italy, suffragan of Reggio di 
 Calabria. Bishop Giuseppe Leo, transferred to the 
 Diocese of Trani and Barletto in February, 1920, 
 was replaced by Rt. Rev. Felice Cribellati, who was 
 appointed in May, 1921, consecrated at Rome 29 
 June, and enthroned 11 September following. 
 Nicotera has 12 parishes, 20 churches or chapels, 
 45 secular pfiekts, and a Catholic population of 15,841. 
 Tropea has 60 parishes, 110 churches or chapels, 
 160 secular and 5 regular priests, 36 seminarians, and 
 a Catholic population of 62,115. 
 
 Nictheroy, Diocese of. See Petropolis. 
 
 Nigeria, a British Protectorate; cf. C. E., 
 XI—73d (the colony of Lagos is technically outside 
 the Protectorate), situated on the west coast of Africa. 
 Politically Nigeria is one, the political divisions known 
 as northern and southern Nigeria exist no longer, their 
 amalgamation having taken place in May, 1912. 
 The area of Nigeria is approximately 336,000 square 
 miles. Lagos, with a population somewhere about 
 80,000 is the capital. Kano has lost much of its for¬ 
 mer splendor. At present it suffers considerably from 
 a great slump in trade. Its famous walls are now 
 broken in many parts. It -would be most correct to 
 assign to them a height of 15 or 17 feet. Its popula¬ 
 tion varies with the seasons. During the ground-nut 
 season thousands of strangers crowd into the native, as 
 distinct from the European, quarters. Normally the 
 population may reach 40,000. The Emirs of Sokoto, 
 Katsena and Kano enjoy a certain amount of inde¬ 
 pendence as native potentates but their jurisdiction 
 is in all important matters subordinated to the British 
 Administration. 
 
 It is no longer true to state that “powerful English 
 Protestant missions have unsuccessfully endeavored 
 to gain a foothold.” The Protestant sects as a whole 
 counted in 1919 some 78,937 (baptized) Christians. 
 In reply to a query for their statistics just a year ago 
 the Church Missionary Society gave 213 places of 
 worship (including what they call chapel-schools), 
 and 124 schools strictly so called. Catholic Nigeria 
 now counts three vicariates: Benin, Western Nigeria 
 and Lower Nigeria, with residences at Lagos, Asaba 
 and Onitsha respectively. The chief posts of Western 
 Nigeria are Lokoja, Asaba, Igbuzo, Ogwashi, Issele, 
 Olona, Ubiaja, Ukoni, Warri, Agenebode and Aragba. 
 The fourth ecclesiastical division of Nigeria is the 
 Prefecture Apostolic of Eastern Nigeria. The Society 
 of African Missions has charge of this prefecture 
 together with the Vicariates of the Bight of Benin 
 and Western Nigeria. This last-named vicariate was 
 erected in 1918. The population consisting mostly of 
 Nigratan tribes is between 8,000,000 and 10,000,000, 
 of whom 8366 are Catholics, the others being Moham¬ 
 medans and Arabs. There are 11 quasi-parishes, 115 
 churches, 105 stations, 21 secular priests, 1 convent 
 of Sisters, 1 seminary with 6 seminarians, 57 ele¬ 
 mentary schools, 200 teachers, 3247 pupils, 3 homes 
 for the poor and destitute, 3 orphanages, 12 institu¬ 
 tions for charitable works. Two leper hospitals 
 admit the ministry of priests. The Angelic Society 
 and that of the Holy Family are established among the 
 laity. The present vicar apostolic is Rt. Rev. Thomas 
 Broderick, who succeeded Rt. Rev. Carlo Lappa (d. 
 1917), as prefect apostolic of Western Nigeria. He 
 was born in Kerry, Ireland, 1882, ordained in 1906, 
 and appointed titular Bishop of Pednelissus 24 
 August, 1918. Bishop Lappa was a native of Milan 
 and a distinguished natural scientist and astronomer. 
 
 35 
 
 He compiled a valuable dictionary in the Ibo language. 
 His auxiliary, Rev. Martin Friedrich, a native of 
 Alsace (1872) who had been a missionary in Nigeria 
 from 1897 died in 1917. 
 
 Nigeria, Eastern, Prefecture Apostolic of, 
 has been since 1911, under the care of Mgr. Oswald 
 Waller, of the African Missions of Lyons. No sta¬ 
 tistics are furnished. 
 
 Nigeria, Lower (cf. C. E., XI—73d), Vicariate 
 Apostolic of, with residence at Onitsha, is still 
 under the administration of Rt. Rev. Joseph Ignatius 
 Shanahan, C. S. Sp., w r ho became prefect apostolic 
 in 1905, vicar and titular bishop of Abila in 1920, 
 when the territory was erected into a vicariate. The 
 population (10,000,000), is extremely dense, but the 
 catechists have been so remarkably organized that 
 they are able to reach thousands of catechumens. 
 The British Government has given every encourage¬ 
 ment to the development of these missions, even to 
 contributing to the support of the schools. In 1920 
 there were 19 missionary priests (Fathers of the 
 Holy Ghost) employed here, and 10 brothers, with 
 9 stations, 280 posts, 355 schools with 22,800 pupils, 
 6 chapels and 7 orphanages. The schools are of 
 three kinds, government schools, assisted schools 
 and free or unassisted schools; the first two are 
 aided by the government, while the third class are 
 supported by the voluntary contributions of the 
 natives. Until a few years ago the Sisters of St. 
 Joseph of Cluny labored in this territory but at 
 present there are-no nuns. An Irish lady is in charge 
 of the convent at Calabar, and is shortly to be joined 
 by others. There, as lay missionaries, they will 
 continue the work of the Sisters. 
 
 Nimes, Diocese of (Nemausensis; cf. C. E., XI— 
 83a), with the sees of Alais (Alisiensis) and Uzes 
 (Uticensis) suffragan of Avignon, comprises the civil 
 department of Gard, France. Statistics for 1920 
 credit it with a total population of 413,458, of whom 
 302,650 are Catholics, 108,348 Protestants, 450 
 Jews; 293 parishes, a total of 499 secular priests, 1 
 upper seminary and 4 ecclesiastical schools. The 
 present (1922) bishop, Rt. Rev. Marcellin-Charles 
 Marty, b. in the Diocese of Rodez, 22 August, 1862, 
 studied at the Catholic Institute of Toulouse, or¬ 
 dained in March, 1890, Vicar of Marsillac, later at 
 the Cathedral of Rodez in July, 1901, rector of De- 
 cazeville in 1906, archpriest of the cathedral in 1914, 
 and chancellor in 1916, appointed titular Bishop of 
 Isionda, 14 April, 1919, and coadjutor at Nimes, 
 consecrated 2 July following to succeed Mgr. Felix 
 Auguste Beguinot, b. 11 July, 1836; d. 3 February, 
 1921. In 1921 Abbot Bruyere published “Guide de 
 la Cathedrale de Nimes,” a book in which he relates 
 the history of this monument, dating back to the 
 eleventh century. 
 
 Nitra (Nyitra, Neutra), Diocese of (Nitrien- 
 sis; cf. C. E., X—774d), in Slovakia, suffragan of 
 Esztergom. The present bishop is Rt. Rev. Charles 
 Kmetko, b. at Drskovcie, 12 December, 1875, ap¬ 
 pointed at the Consistory of 16 December, 1920, con¬ 
 secrated at Nitra 13 February, 1921, succeeding 
 Bishop Batthyani, transferred to the titular see of 
 Cyrra. There are in the diocese: 148 parishes, 96 
 curacies, 232 secular and 25 regular clergy, 372,930 
 Catholics, 28,727 non-Catholics, and 16,102 Jews. 
 
 Nocera and Gualdo Tadino, Diocese of (Nucer- 
 inensis et Tadisensis; cf. C. E., XI—86d), in the 
 province of Perugia, Umbria, Central Italy, is im¬ 
 mediately subject to the Holy'See. The present 
 bishop is Rt. Rev. Niccolo Cola, b. at Camerino 25 
 October, 1869, consecrated Bishop of Marses 30 
 June, 1910, transferred to Nocera 26 August following, 
 proclaimed 27 November, 1911, succeeding Mgr. 
 
NOCERA 
 
 544 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA 
 
 Rocco Anselniini, b. 19 September, 1837; d. in 
 August, 1910. There are (1920): 59,731 Catholics, 
 82 parishes, 110 secular priests, 20 seminarians, 100 
 churches or chapels. By a decree of the Consistory 
 of 2 January, 1915, the Collegiate Church of San 
 Benedetto at Gualdo Tadino was erected into a cathe¬ 
 dral honoris tantum causa and the title of Tadino was 
 united to that of Nocera. 
 
 Nocera dei Pagani, Diocese of (Nucerinensis 
 Paganorum; cf. C. E., XI—87a), in the province of 
 Salerno, Southern Italy. It is a suffragan of Salerno. 
 The Catholic population is 70,850. Rt. Rev. 
 Giuseppe Romeo, b. in the Diocese of Reggio di 
 Calabria, 7 April, 1820, ordained in May, 1894, was 
 appointed bishop 12 July, 1913, enthroned 15 
 February, 1914, published 25 May following, to 
 succeed Bishop Luigi del Forno, b. 24 August, 1842; 
 d. 7 January, 1913. Diocesan statistics (1920) credit 
 it with 18 parishes, 180 secular and 50 regular priests, 
 12 seminarians, 28 churches or chapels. At Nocera 
 reposes the body of St. Alphonsus of Ligouri. 
 
 Nola, Diocese of (Nolana, cf. C. E., XI—89c), 
 suffragan of Naples, is under the administration of 
 Mgr. Agnello Renzullo, who has filled the see since 
 1890. He was born in Naples 2 April, 1836, or¬ 
 dained in 1860 and appointed bishop of Iserhia and 
 Venafro 27 February, 1880, which see he -filled until 
 his transfer to Nola. During the World War the 
 priests and laity of the diocese .assisted with the 
 bureaux of information and gave shelter to refu¬ 
 gees. By present (1921) statistics the diocese 
 comprises 89 parishes, 632 churches, 1 mission, 9 
 monasteries for men, 2 for women, 219 secular 
 priests and 50 regulars, 20 Brothers, 250 Sisters, 
 
 1 seminary with 80 seminarians, 350 university stu¬ 
 dents, 4 colleges for men with 50 professors and 
 400 students, 1 college for women with 6 pro¬ 
 fessors and 70 students, 2 normal schools with 25 
 teachers and 150 students, 1 professional school 
 with 8 teachers and 60 students, 70 elementary 
 schools with 350 teachers and 5000 students. The 
 various charitable institutions, 2 homes, 50 asylums 
 and 3 hospitals; these institutions as well as the 
 Catholic schools receive financial aid from the 
 Government. A Federation of clergy and 5 socie¬ 
 ties among the laity are established in the diocese, 
 and 5 periodicals are published. 
 
 Nonantola, Prelature Nullius of (Nonantu- 
 lensis; cf. C. E., X—95a), in the province of Modena, 
 Northern Italy, perpetually united to the Archdiocese 
 of Modena (q. v.) since 23 January, 1821. The 
 prelature numbers (1920) 30 parishes and 35,049 in¬ 
 habitants served by 69 priests. In 1917 was com¬ 
 pleted the work of restoration on the abbey church 
 which dates back to the eleventh century. 
 
 Norbertine Order. See Premonstratensian 
 Canons. 
 
 Norcia, Diocese of (Norsinensis; cf. C. E., 
 XI—101c), in the province of Perugia, Central Italy’ 
 directly subject to the Holy See. The present bishop 
 is Rt. Rev. Vincenzo Migliorelli, b. 3 September 
 1873, appointed 11 July, 1916, consecrated at Rome 
 28 October following, to succeed Rt. Rev. Ercolano 
 Marini, promoted to the Archdiocese of Amalfi, 2 
 June, 1915. According to 1920 statistics there are 
 100 parishes, 125 secular and 10 regular clergy, 50 
 seminarians, 8 Brothers, 140 Sisters, 258 churches or 
 chapels. 
 
 North Carolina (cf. C. E., XI-108a)—The total 
 area of the State of North Carolina is 52,426 square 
 miles, of which 3686 are water. It is divided into 100 
 
 counties and had in 1920 ten Congressional districts 
 with a population of 2,559,123, a gain of 16 per cent 
 since 1910. Of this 19.2 per cent was urban; 80.8 
 per cent was rural. The average number of inhabi¬ 
 tants to the square mile is 52.5. The census of 1920 
 reveals the composition of the population as follows: 
 ■whites 1,783,779; negroes 763,407; Indians 11,824. 
 The native whites who total 1,776,680 have 1,765,203 
 of native parentage; 5737 of foreign parentage; 5740 
 of mixed parentage. The foreign-born numbered 
 only 7099. The proportion of negroes to whites varies 
 greatly in the different counties. In 1 virren County, 
 with a total population of 21,593, the'^yere 13,821 
 negroes. In ten counties, the proportion of. negroes 
 varies from 50 to 62.5 per cent. Indian reservations 
 in 1919 covered an area of 98 square miles and had a 
 population of 2235. The largest cities are Charlotte 
 (46,338), Winston-Salem (48,395), Wilmington, 
 (33,372), Asheville (28,504;, Raleigh (24,418). 
 
 Economic Conditions. —Agriculture continues to 
 develop as an industry in the State, for in 1920 the 
 number of farms was 269,763, an increase of 6.3 per 
 cent; the land area was 31,193,600; the value of farm 
 property, $1,250,166,995; of live stock $119,152,672. 
 Of the crops, which totalled $503,229,313, the chief 
 were corn (40,998,317 bushels, worth $79,946,722); 
 wheat (4,744,528 bushels, $11,861,354); peanuts 
 (5,854,689 bushels, $13,465,793); sweet potatoes and 
 yams (7,959,786 bushels, $11,939,707); cotton 
 (858,406 bales, $149,362,644); tobacco (280,163,432 
 pounds, $151,288,264); sugar-cane (386,285 tons, 
 $28,585,090). In the eastern part of the State ths 
 fisheries are very valuable, especially the shad and 
 oyster. Mining is not very extensive, but there is a 
 great variety of minerals, the chief being talc, mica, 
 iron, soapstone, barytes, coal, gold and silver. A 
 great deal of lumber is shipped from the State. About 
 21,000,000 acres are in forest, the total value being 
 $167,450,000. The Census of Manufactures of 1919 
 reveals 5999 establishments, with an average of 
 157,000 wage-earners, producing goods worth $943,- 
 808,000; the capital invested $669,144,000; the cost 
 of materials, $526,906,000. The chief seaport is 
 Wilmington, from which, in 1919, were exported 
 goods valued at $33,941,084, chiefly cotton for foreign 
 ports. In 1919 there were 5207 miles of railway 
 (1009 miles of sidings, and 301 miles of electric rail¬ 
 way) with 11 companies. The State has 471 banks 
 with a capital of $13,468,000 and 84 national banks 
 with a capital of $9,965,000. In 1919 the State debt 
 amounted to $10,090,104; the assessed value of per¬ 
 sonal and real property to $1,029,993,778. According 
 to the Council of Foreign Bondholders the State has a 
 defaulted debt of about twelve million dollars, but 
 the State refuses to recognize it, considering it the 
 fraudulent issue of reconstruction days. 
 
 Charitable and Educational Status. —The 
 charities of the State are under the State Board 
 of Charities and Public Welfare. Each county, which 
 is the unit, has a superintendent of public welfare 
 and a juvenile court, compulsory in every county. 
 Among the recent additions to the State charitable 
 institutions are the North Carolina Orthopaedic Hos¬ 
 pital in Gastonia, chartered in 1914, erected in 1920, 
 and a Confederate Women’s Home, established in 
 Fayetteville in 1913. The Department of Education 
 is one of the executive departments of the State gov¬ 
 ernment. The Superintendent of Public Instruction 
 is elected by the people for four years. The official 
 reports of the public schools for the years 1917-18 
 show a total school population of whites 446,270; 
 colored 187,980; school-houses 8535; white teachers 
 11,730; colored teachers 3511; total average fund 
 $5,677,769. The following are under State control, 
 but receive aid from tuition fees and donations: the 
 State University, situated at Chapel Hill, endowment 
 
NORTH DAKOTA 
 
 545 
 
 NORTH DAKOTA 
 
 $270,348; income $382,047; annual Slate appropria¬ 
 tion $235,000; faculty 142; students 1406; North 
 Carolina College for Women (formerly the State 
 Normal and Industrial College) at Greensboro, build¬ 
 ings, 17; annual State appropriation, $165,000; 
 faculty, 92, students, 784; North Carolina State Col¬ 
 lege of Agriculture and Engineering (formerly the 
 North Carolina College of Agricultural and Mechanic 
 Arts), State appropriation, $150,000, Federal appro¬ 
 priation, $33,500; faculty 80, students, 1056. The 
 Caswell Training School for Mental Defectives was 
 founded in 1911 and opened in 1914, and the Stone¬ 
 wall Jackson Manual Training and Industrial School, 
 in 1907. The State laws governing private or paro¬ 
 chial schools include the following: The general 
 assembly may exempt from taxation property held 
 for educational, scientific, literary, charitable, or 
 religious purposes (111-5). Bible reading is neither 
 permitted nor excluded in the public schools. 
 
 Recent Legislation and History. —In 1915 was 
 passed the measure known as the Anti-Jug Act, 
 forbidding shipment to and receipt by any person of 
 more than one quart of spirituous liquor and five gal¬ 
 lons of malt beverage every fifteen days. In 1917 the 
 contract system of leasing prisoners was forbidden and 
 provision made for a State-use system on which the 
 prisoners were put to work to make articles for the 
 State. In the same year the budget system was 
 adopted and the Federal Child Labor Law, prohibit¬ 
 ing shipment in interstate commerce of products of 
 child labor was declared unconstitutional by a justice 
 of the Supreme Court; the prison law was revised and 
 modernized. The Federal Prohibition Amendment 
 was ratified on 14 January, 1919. Miscegenetic mar¬ 
 riages are forbidden. The laws of 1917 require the 
 return of the marriage license or certificate to the 
 register of deeds within 60 days after the solemniza¬ 
 tion. In 1921 a law was passed requiring the appli¬ 
 cant for a marriage license to file a physician’s certifi¬ 
 cate, stating that he is free from harmful disease, is 
 neither an idiot, imbecile, or of unsound mind. Di¬ 
 vorce is granted if the parties have lived separately for 
 five years (not ten, as formerly). 
 
 During the European War the State furnished 
 73,003 soldiers or 1.94 per cent of the United States 
 Army. The North Carolina members of the national 
 guard joined the 30th Division at Camp Sevier, South 
 Carolina and those of the national army, the 81st 
 Division at Jackson, South Carolina. The summary 
 of casualties among the North Carolina members of 
 the American Expeditionary Force gives the following 
 figures: deceased, 63 officers, 1547 men; prisoners, 
 
 7 officers, 53 men; wounded, 173 officers, 3955 men. 
 
 Religion —Religious statistics from census of reli¬ 
 gious bodies, 1916: 
 
 Denomination 
 
 No. 
 
 of 
 
 Orgs. 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 
 Members 
 
 No. 
 
 Church 
 
 Edifices 
 
 Value of 
 Chuich 
 Property 
 
 All denominations. 
 
 9,735 
 
 1,080,723 
 
 9,135 
 
 $25,523,323 
 
 Baptists (colored) . 
 
 1,520 
 
 223,792 
 
 1,491 
 
 2,440,868 
 
 Baptists (white)... 
 
 2,728 
 
 316,221 
 
 2,514 
 
 5,720,470 
 
 Christian. 
 
 184 
 
 18,299 
 
 178 
 
 321,826 
 
 Congregationalists. 
 
 61 
 
 3,125 
 
 58 
 
 133,229 
 
 Disciples. 
 
 173 
 
 20,095 
 
 162 
 
 339,229 
 
 Friends. 
 
 71 
 
 8,631 
 
 65 
 
 160,389 
 
 Lutherans. 
 
 195 
 
 22,895 
 
 181 
 
 812,865 
 
 Methodists(negro). 
 
 1,255 
 
 112,042 
 
 1,227 
 
 2,820,904 
 
 Methodists (white). 
 Presbyterians and 
 
 2,104 
 
 231,814 
 
 2,015 
 
 6,116,074 
 
 Reformed. 
 
 Protestant 
 
 757 
 
 80,504 
 
 690 
 
 4,293,665 
 
 Episcopalians. . . 
 
 282 
 
 18,545 
 
 261 
 
 1,467,400 
 
 Roman Catholic... 
 
 89 
 
 4,989 
 
 51 
 
 397,310 
 
 Adventists. 
 
 53 
 
 2,817 
 
 35 
 
 39,835 
 
 North Carolina, Vicariate Apostolic of (Caro¬ 
 lina Septentrionalis, cf. C. E., XI—108a), U. S.A. 
 
 The Abbot-Ordinary of the abbey nullius of Bel¬ 
 mont, which embraces the same territory as the 
 vicariate, is also vicar Apostolic of North Carolina. 
 The present civar apostolic (1922) Rt. Rev. Leo 
 Haid, titular bishop of Messena, was made an 
 assistant at the pontifical throne 15 July, 1914. The 
 Benedictine and Josephite Fathers are established 
 in this territory, as well as the Sisters of Mercy 
 and Sisters of Christian Education. According to 
 1921 statistics it comprises a Catholic population 
 of 8254, 24 secular and 21 regular clergy, 23 
 parishes, 40 missions with churches, 60 mission sta¬ 
 tions, 5 chapels, 28 Brothers, 107 religious women, 
 1 seminary with 20 students, 1 college for boys with 
 100 students, 2 preparatory schools for boys with 
 69 pupils, 2 colleges for girls with 250 students, 16 
 parochial schools with 573 white and 396 colored 
 children, 2 orphanages with 125 orphans, 1513 
 young people under Catholic care and 3 hospitals. 
 
 North Dakota (cf. C. E., XI-llld)—The area 
 of the State of North Dakota is 70,837 square miles, 
 of which 712 are water. The population in 1920 was 
 646,872, an increase of 12.1 per cent, since 1910. Of 
 this, 13 6 per cent, is rural; 86.4, urban. The density 
 is 9.2 persons per square mile. The largest cities are 
 Fargo 21,961; Grand Forks 14,010; Minot 10,476. 
 
 Economic Status.— North Dakota ranks high as 
 an agricultural State. In 1920 there were 77,690 
 farms, with an area of 36,214,751 acres, worth $1,- 
 759,742,995. The principal crops were cereals, valued 
 at $301,782,935; other grass and seeds, $215,764,634; 
 hay and forage, $15,583,209; vegetables, $56,583,209; 
 fruit, $13,725,227. About 649,940 acres were devoted 
 to flaxseed and 2,972,082 bushels were harvested. 
 There were about 2,956,000 live stock, worth $153,- 
 361,490. Irrigation is on the increase; 340 farms were 
 irrigated in 1920 and the area to be irrigated under 
 the Federal Reclamation Act extends to 57,000 acres. 
 The forests cover about 679,800 acres. There are 
 132,902 fruit trees and 524 acres of berries. The rise 
 of the dairy industry is remarkable, for the value of 
 milk, cream, and butter-fat sold and of butter and 
 cheese made in 1919 was $19,576,343, an increase of 
 301 per cent since 1909. 
 
 A small amount of manufacturing is carried on in 
 the state. The Federal report of manufactures (1919) 
 gives 894 plants, with 6148 persons engaged, earning 
 $6,835,367, and producing goods valued at $57,373,- 
 622. The capital invested is $24,549,838. The prin¬ 
 cipal industries ranked by the value of the products 
 are: flour mill and gristmill products, butter-making, 
 cars and general shop construction and repairs by 
 steam railway companies, printing and publishing 
 newspapers, baking and auto-repairing. Coal is 
 mined extensively in the western part of the State; in 
 1918 there were 166 mines in operation and 719,733 
 tons were mined. North Dakota has 5316 miles of 
 railroad. On 1 July, 1919, the bonded debt of the 
 State was $1,230,963; the assessed value of real and 
 personal property $496,978,049. 
 
 Education.— The school fund of North Dakota is 
 still large, ($19,000,000 in 1918); the apportionment 
 in 1918 was $958,322. In 1919 the number of con¬ 
 solidated schools was 477; the number of high school 
 pupils 4420. In all, there were in 1918 about 5300 
 schools with 168,034 pupils and 7160 teachers. The 
 average salary for teachers is $59 a month. In 1919 
 the Board of Administration assumed the duties of 
 the Board of Control of Education, and of Regents. 
 The legislative appropriation for the State university 
 in 1918 was $225,400; the number of professors, in¬ 
 structors, and assistants (1918-19) was 86, and the 
 total attendance 1294. There are normal schools at 
 Minot, Mayville, Dickinson and Valley City, and a 
 new school of science at Wahpeton. 
 
NORTHAMPTON 
 
 546 
 
 NORWAY 
 
 The laws governing parochial and private schools 
 are as follows: the legislature shall by a general law 
 exempt from taxation all property exclusively used by 
 schools. To comply with the compulsory education 
 law, private schools must teach branches usually 
 taught in public schools. Private schools, to be law¬ 
 fully attended by children of compulsory age, must be 
 approved by county superintendents. Incorporated 
 schools must annually make full report of all their 
 property and of all their affairs. Bible reading in the 
 public schools is specifically permitted by law. 
 
 Religion. —According to the United States Re¬ 
 ligious Census of 1916, the Episcopalian Church has 
 2445 members, 60 organizations, 156 Sunday School 
 teachers, 1499 scholars, 45 church edifices and 5 
 halls, 19 rectories, and 22 clergy. The value of the 
 churches, chapels, grounds, and all other property 
 including the rectories, which cost $65,750, is $180,- 
 475. There are 52 parishes and missions and 80 
 preaching stations. Total offering, $41,241.10 for 
 year ending 1, June, 1918. The Methodist Episcopal 
 Church had in the State 221 church buildings, valued 
 at $963,900 and 139 parsonages, valued at $265,615 
 with a membership of about 14,000. The Presby¬ 
 terian Church had 6 presbyteries, 67 ministers, 
 9295 members, and 12,572 Sunday School members. 
 There were in the State 173 church organizations, 
 177 Sunday Schools, 138 churches, and 81 manses. 
 The value of the property was reported as $725,550; 
 of the manses, $163,400. The Lutherans, who are 
 numerous in the Northwest, had 1050 organizations 
 and 758 churches. The Baptists had a membership 
 of 6268, a Sunday School enrolment of 6864, 72 
 churches valued at $229,290, and 43 parsonages worth 
 $79,900. According to this census the number of 
 Catholics was 95,859, the value of their property was 
 $2,538,205. According to the Catholic Directory 
 the number of Catholics in 1920 was 105,000. For 
 further educational and religious statistics see 
 Fargo, Diocese of; Bismarck, Diocese of. 
 
 Legislation. —According to recent legislation, the 
 issuer of a marriage license must inquire of the 
 applicant on oath relative to the legality of his forth¬ 
 coming marriage and may examine witnesses on oath 
 if he deems necessary. A copy of the divorce decree, 
 if there is any, must be filed with him. He must re¬ 
 quire each to file an affidavit, setting forth whether 
 each has been divorced or not. He must also have a 
 physician’s certificate, proving that he is neither in¬ 
 fected nor feebleminded, imbecile, epileptic, or ad¬ 
 dicted to drink. A license must not be granted to 
 one under the influence of liquor, nor for a misce- 
 genetic marriage, nor for one that would contravene 
 the decision of a divorce decree. All servile labor is 
 prohibited on Sundays, except works of necessity and 
 charity, providing, however, that transportation and 
 the operation of bakeries and newspaper plants shall 
 be considered works of necessity. All public selling is 
 prohibited before ten o’clock a.m. except that of fish 
 and meat, and food to be eaten on the premises, 
 drugs, confectionery and papers. Free baseball games 
 are allowed more than 500 feet away from a church 
 edifice. 
 
 The Socialistic legislation recently passed in the 
 State has attracted much attention. Back of this was 
 the Non-Partisan League, organized in 1915, origi¬ 
 nally a movement of wheat-growers to improve the 
 marketing of their product and to secure better bank¬ 
 ing facilities. The movement grew so rapidly that in 
 1916 the League, whose membership was limited to 
 farmers, elected its candidate for governor and in 
 1918 came into control of the Legislature. Its legis¬ 
 lative measures contained provisions for establishing 
 a state-owned bank, terminal grain elevators, flour 
 mills, packing plants, public warehouses; for pur¬ 
 chasing homes or farms under a building and loan as¬ 
 
 sociation scheme, and for the State to engage in any 
 business directly or indirectly involving farm prod¬ 
 ucts. Seventeen million dollars’ worth of bonds were 
 authorized to finance the enterprises, which were to 
 be under the control of the Industrial Commission, 
 composed of the governor, attorney ncneral and com¬ 
 missioner of agriculture and labor. A Btate compulsory 
 hail insurance bill was also passed, requiring all farm¬ 
 ers to insure their crops from hail damage. Opposi¬ 
 tion to the Non-Partisan League developed in the 
 form of the Independent Voters Association, and the 
 movement is dwindling. 
 
 During the European War North Dakota contrib¬ 
 uted 25,803 men or .69 per cent of the United States 
 Army. The North Dakota members of the national 
 guard belonged to the 34th Division at Camp Cody, 
 New Mexico; those of the national army to the 88th 
 Division at Fort Dodge, Iowa. The summary of 
 casualties of the North Dakota members of the Amer¬ 
 ican Expeditionary Force is as follows: deceased, 13 
 officers, 687 men; prisoners, 35 men; wounded, 43 
 officers, 1782 men. 
 
 Northampton, Diocese of (Nortantoniensis; 
 cf. C. E., XI—107c), in England, suffragan of 
 Westminster. A consistorial decree of 25 July, 1916, 
 modified its boundaries. The present administrator 
 of the diocese is the Rt. Rev. Dudley Charles Cary- 
 Elwes. He was born in 1868, ordained in 1896, 
 elected 21 November, 1921, succeeding the Rt. Rev. 
 Frederick William Keating, who was promoted. 
 According to the statistics of 1922 the diocese con¬ 
 tains: 116 churches and chapels, 24 convents, 80 
 secular priests, 4 of whom are retired, 22 regular 
 priests (5 Benedictines, 2 Carmelites, 4 Franciscans, 
 
 6 Jesuits and 5 Canons Regular), 27 public elementary 
 schools, 22 of which receive Government grants, 
 with 3567 pupils, 1 school for boys (not elementary), 
 21 for girls, with 1575 pupils, 3 institutions for poor 
 children, orphanages, poor law and reform schools. 
 According to the census of 1911, the Catholics 
 numbered 16,892. 
 
 Northern Missions. See Germany, Northern 
 Missions of. 
 
 Northern Territory, Prefecture Apostolic of 
 the; (cf. C. E., XI—115b), in Australia, formerly 
 known as the Diocese of Port Victoria and Palmer¬ 
 ston; is bounded on the North by the Indian Ocean, 
 on the South by 25° Latitude, on the Southeast by 
 Queensland, on the West by Western Australia; the 
 Missionaries of the Sacred Heart of Issoudun are in 
 charge of it, with Very Rev. Francis Xavier Gsell, 
 M.S.H., administrator Apostolic since 1910. There 
 are in the prefecture 3 priests, 2 Brothers, and 6 Sis¬ 
 ters of Our Lady of the Sacred Heart at Port Darwin, 
 2 priests, 1 Brother and 3 Sisters in charge of 1 school 
 with 50 pupils on the Island of Bathurst. 
 
 Norway, Vicariate Apostolic of (cf., C. E., 
 XVI—84d) .—Under the guidance of Mgr. Fallize 
 the mission of Norway increased rapidly. In 1912, 
 he was made assistant to the Pontifical Throne, and 
 in 1921, owing to ill-health, he was obliged to resign 
 his post as vicar. His great influence in Norway has 
 been instrumental in winning almost complete liberty 
 for the Catholics there, and his loss will be kneely 
 felt. By a decree of 1 June, 1913, Spitsberg was 
 included in the Norwegian Mission. 
 
 Since 1919, the Dominicans and the Father of the 
 Sacred Heart have worked together with the secular 
 priests; regulars and seculars combined number 24. 
 The total number of nuns engaged in the manage¬ 
 ment of schools, hospitals and caring for the sick in 
 their homes, is about 200. On account of a deplorable 
 emigration to foreign countries, especially to America, 
 
NOTARIES 
 
 NOTRE DAME 
 
 547 
 
 the mission can only count some few thousands. In 
 Christiania there are 2 churches and 2 chapels, in 
 Trondhjem 2 churches, in the following places only 
 one: Tromsd, Harstad, Hammerfest, Bergen, Stav¬ 
 anger, Christianssand, Arendal, Porsgrunn, Dram- 
 men, Fredriksstad and Fredickshald. Each station 
 with the exception of Harstad has its own hospital 
 and Catholic school, its religious sodalities for married 
 men and women, and for young men and young girls. 
 A weekly Catholic paper and a monthly one for the 
 young make the missionaries work in spreading the 
 Faith much easier. During the last twenty years the 
 Catholic Church has made great progress on account 
 of the sympathy Catholics meet with, both from the 
 authorities and the people, so that the soil for its 
 future growth is well prepared. In 1921, Mgr. 
 Dieppen, Bishop of Bois-le-Duc, was appointed 
 Apostolic \ isitor to the Scandinavian countries bv 
 Benedict XV. J 
 
 Notaries, (cf. C. E., XI—122c).—Diocesan chan¬ 
 cellors are notaries in the ecclesiastical judicial sys¬ 
 tem. by virtue of their offices. Bishops may appoint 
 additional notaries, who may be laymen of clerics; 
 only a clerical notary may'be employed in a cleri¬ 
 cal criminal suit. These additional notaries may be 
 removed at will by the bishop; they cannot, how¬ 
 ever, be suspended or removed at will by a vicar 
 capitular without the consent of the chapter. 
 Superiors of exempt religious may appoint one of 
 their^subjects as a notary but only for matters 
 affecting their order. It may be noted that before 
 taking up suit in the ecclesiastical courts the judge 
 must appoint a notary, as the proceedings would be 
 invalid unless the papers and records were drawn 
 up or authenticated by a notary; even the judg¬ 
 ment must be signed by him. In view of the con¬ 
 fidential nature of their work notaries are bound 
 u oa ^ discharge their office faithfully, and 
 they are bound to observe the strictest secrecy not 
 merely in all criminal suits but in contentious liti¬ 
 gation where the interest of a litigant might be 
 impaired by a lack of secrecy. 
 
 Noto, Diocese of (Netensis; cf. C. E., 
 XI—126b), in the province of Syracuse, Sicily, is 
 suffragan of Syracuse, had (1920) a Catholic popula¬ 
 tion of 209,500, with 20 parishes, 277 secular and 74 
 regular clergy, 50 seminarians, 32 Brothers, 200 
 Sisters, 102 churches or chapels. The bishop, Rt. Rev. 
 Giuseppe Vizzini, b. at Villalba, in the Diocese of 
 Caltanisetta, 10 November, 1874, professor of theo¬ 
 logy at the Roman Seminary, officer of the Congre¬ 
 gation of the Consistory in 1911, appointed 19 August, 
 1913, consecrated at Rome, 14 September following 
 to succeed Mgr. Giovanni Blandini (b. 7 March, 1832* 
 elected 5 July, 1875). 
 
 Notre Dame, Congregations of. I. Congrega¬ 
 tion of Notre Dame de Montreal, (cf. C. E., XI— 
 12/a). The Sisters are in charge of colleges, nor¬ 
 mal schools, boarding schools, academies, parochial 
 or separate schools, commercial schools and domes¬ 
 tic science schools. Since the opening of Notre 
 Dame Ladies’ College, in 1908, 65 students have re¬ 
 ceived the degree B.A. Seven convents and 13 
 branch establishments have been founded since 
 1908. At present (1921) there is a total of 151 
 foundations, 1921 professed Sisters, and 198 novices. 
 Ihe present general superior is Mother St. Eu- 
 phroysyne, elected in 1917 to succeed Mother St 
 Marie-Josephine, who in 1913 succeeded Mother 
 bt. Anaclet, elected superior in 1903, died Novem¬ 
 ber, 1912. 
 
 —^* Institute of Notre-Dame de Namur (cf. 
 C.E. XI-128b). During the war, Namur, the 
 
 mother-house was cut off from the rest of the in¬ 
 stitute. The Belgian province suffered much. Large 
 and prosperous establishments with classes for 
 boarders, day-boarders, and poor children were de- 
 stro 3 r ed when Vise and Dinant were burned in 
 August, 1914. The Sisters were expelled from seven 
 other com ents. The poor children’s classes were 
 maintained everywhere, but few houses were able 
 to accept boarders, because of the difficulty of 
 obtaining provision, and because of the number of 
 soldiers inhabiting the various convents. A bomb 
 falling upon a corner of a building at the Namur 
 convent killed a novice and a postulant. Sisters 
 who had been employed as teachers in the board¬ 
 ing school, having no pupils, used their time in 
 increasing the literature of the institute. A well 
 documented “Life of the Venerable Mere St. 
 Joseph” has been published, as well as a study of 
 the “Blessed Mere Julie as a Teacher,” both in 
 French, but now being translated into English. 
 The “Life of Sister Mary of St. Philip” and the 
 Popular Lives of the Saints,” published by the 
 English Sisters, have attracted attention; among 
 the latter that of Blessed Oliver Plunkett has been 
 very favorably received. The English province has 
 its own novitiate at Ashdown Park, Sussex, in con¬ 
 formity with the requirements of the new Code of 
 Canon Law. The provincial superior is Sister 
 Marie des Saints Anges. Rev. Mother Marie 
 Aloyse, the eighth superior general of the institute, 
 died 23 hebruary, 1912, and Rev. Mother Marie 
 Julienne was elected to replace her 28 March, 1912. 
 On 27 November, 1921, the constitutions of the 
 congregation were definitively approved. 
 
 In the Eastern Province of the United States, 
 the provincial superior is Sister Frances of the 
 Sacred Heart, who succeeded Sister Agnes Mary 
 (d. 18 May, 1920), successor of Sister Mary Borgia 
 (d. 17 April, 1910). The community of Berkeley 
 Street, Boston, Mass., has been transferred to the 
 Fenway, where a college with State charter, has 
 been opened for young girls. The 104 students are 
 day-scholars, not boarders, as at Trinity. In the 
 California Province the provincial superior is Sis¬ 
 ter Berchmans Joseph, who succeeded prescribed 
 the new Code. The preceding provincial, Sister 
 Mary Bernardme, died in January, 1913. 
 
 At present there are 41 houses in Belgium, 20 in 
 England, and Scotland, 47 in America, and 7 in 
 Africa, making a total of 115 houses. There are 
 3579 professed Sisters, of whom 1105 are in Bel¬ 
 gium, 805 in England, and Scotland, 1618 in Amer¬ 
 ica, and 51 in Africa. The rule of the institute 
 has been sent to Rome for any modifications which 
 may be necessary to conform with the new Code 
 of Canon Law. 
 
 III. School Sisters of Notre Dame (cf. C. E., 
 XI-130c)—During the past ten years there has 
 been a steady growth in the number of schools 
 under the care of the Sisters. The work of the 
 Baltimore province has been extended to Porto 
 Rico; the first school under the Sisters was opened 
 in Puerto de Tierra, near San Juan, in 1915, and 
 the second was opened in Caguas in 1916. More 
 than thirty Sisters are now in charge of about 1300 
 children at the two schools. In 1912 a new prov¬ 
 ince was formed from the western part of the 
 Milwaukee province. At that time it comprised 
 Minnesota and northern Iowa but its growth has 
 been quite rapid and at present it has houses in 
 North and South Dakota and Washington. The 
 mother-house is on Good Counsel Hill, Mankato, 
 Minn.; in connection with the mother-house there 
 is a flourishing academy for boarders and day- 
 pupils. Mother Marianne, the commissary general 
 
NOTRE DAME 
 
 NOTTINGHAM 
 
 548 
 
 of the order, died in 1917 and was succeeded by 
 Mother Stanislaus Kostka, the present commissary 
 general. The following are the principal changes 
 brought about by the revised code of canon law: 
 The seven year period of the temporary vows has 
 been shortened to three years, and the indefinite 
 period for the office of the local Superiors has been 
 changed to conform with the new code’s require- * 
 ment of three or at most six years. Owing to 
 existing conditions no report can be given of the 
 houses in Europe. The number of foundations in 
 the United States and Canada is 362, thirteen being 
 in Canada. The number of members is 4450. Be¬ 
 sides parochial schools, many of which have high 
 schools and commercial classes, the Sisters have 
 two colleges, seven academies, twelve orphanages, 
 one day-nursery, one deaf-mute institute, one In¬ 
 dian school. The work of the Sisters is confined 
 exclusively to school children, including the care 
 of orphans under school age. 
 
 IV. Sisters of Notre Dame (Of Cleveland, Ohio, 
 cf. C.E., XI-131d) —The second mother general, 
 Mother Maiy Chrysostom, who in 1872 had suc¬ 
 ceeded Mother Mary Anna, died in April, 1895. 
 She had safely guided the institute through the 
 stormy days of the Kulturkampf. Sister Mary 
 Cecilie was almost unanimously elected the third 
 mother general. In 1877 she had gone to America 
 as the youngest of a band of 22 Sisters, served as 
 mistress of boarders in Cleveland and Covington, 
 and. after her return to Europe in 1889 acted as 
 first assistant to the mother general. During her 
 able administration the rule was definitely ap¬ 
 proved by Leo XIII in 1900. In 1921 revisions 
 were made in the constitution, conformable to the 
 new Code of Canon Law. The community prayer 
 book also underwent revision. About thirty new 
 foundations owe their existence to her, and since 
 1920 the order conducts a “Scuola Internazionale,” 
 a home for young girls in Turin, Italy, and a 
 foundation in Rome is being contemplated. Owing 
 to the World War the projected erection of a mis¬ 
 sion in Madras, India, has been deferred indefi¬ 
 nitely. In February, 1915, occurred the formal 
 opening of Notre Dame Academy, provincial 
 mother-house and novitiate at Ansel Road and 
 Rockefeller Park, Cleveland, Ohio. In March, 
 1918, Sister Mary Evarista succeeded Sister Mary 
 Louise as provincial of the American Province. In 
 July, 1921, Mother General Mary Cecilie made her 
 fourth visit to the American Province. In 1910 
 occurred the death of Sister M. Modesta, sister of 
 the deceased Bishop Toebbe of Covington. She 
 had been Superior of the American Province and 
 later, until her death, served as first assistant to 
 the mother general in the mother-house in Ger¬ 
 many. During the following years the order lost 
 Sisters M. Bernarda, M. Hildegardis, M. Renilde, 
 M. Josepha, and M. Alfons, all pioneer members. 
 
 The government of the congregation is in the 
 hands of a superior general, elected for life by an 
 electoral body. The superior general resides in the 
 mother-house, and has a general council, which 
 consists of at least eight members. Besides the 
 mother general, it comprises her three assistants, 
 the novice mistress, and the other members elected 
 by the council. The provincial superiors are elected 
 by the superior general after approval and vote of 
 the general council. They, too, have a special 
 council, approved by the superior general. The 
 superiors of the affiliated houses are appointed by 
 the superior general at the suggestion of the pro¬ 
 vincials and with the consent of the general coun¬ 
 cil. There is no distinction between choir and lay 
 Sisters. The work of the order is allotted by 
 
 superiors who, know the capacity and capabilities 
 of each. Candidates must pass a six months time 
 of probation. This period is followed by two years 
 novitiate, after the expiration of which time, the 
 temporary vows for three years are pronounced. 
 At the end of the third year, perpetual profession 
 is made. The education given by the Sisters of 
 Notre Dame comprises the development of the 
 pupils’ physical, mental, and moral powers, and a 
 thorough knowledge of their Holy Faith. In 
 America and abroad the congregation makes it a 
 point to obtain State approval. The plan of 
 studies strictly conforms to modern requirements. 
 
 The foundations at present number 140. In Ger¬ 
 many there are 66 affiliations; in Holland, 10; 
 Italy, 1; and in the United States, 63. The present 
 number of members of the order is 1569 professed 
 Sisters, and 247 novices and postulants. Of these 
 Europe has 964 professed, and 187 novices and pos¬ 
 tulants; America, 605 professed and 60 novices and 
 postulants. In Germany the Sisters are in charge 
 of 14 lyceums, 10 high schools, 2 normal schools, 
 and 1 college; 10 boarding schools; 7 orphanages; 
 
 9 homes for young women; 40 kindergartens, and 
 7 domestic science schools. In the United States, 
 the Sisters are in charge of 54 parochial schools, 3 
 academies, 4 orphanages, 10 high schools, 1 home 
 for young women. The total number of children 
 under their charge in America in 1'920 was 22,634. 
 
 Notre Dame du Lac, University of (cf. C. E.» 
 XI—132a) had a registration for 1921 of 1490 students 
 distributed as follows: College of Arts and Letters 
 352; College of Science 115; College of Engineering 
 344; College of Commerce 468; College of Law 153; 
 special students 19; sub-freshman year 39. The 
 university now possesses a library consisting of 
 112,247 bound volumes and 39,150 pamphlets and 
 periodicals, and a museum containing art, geological, 
 zoological, botanical and numismatic collections; the 
 botanical collection includes the herbaria of the late 
 Edward Lee Greene. The Rev. James A. Burns, 
 C.S.C., Ph.D., is now president of the university; in 
 addition to the “Ave Maria” other publications of the 
 University are: “The Scholastic” (weekly), “The Mid¬ 
 land Naturalist” (monthly); and two student publi¬ 
 cations, “The Juggler” (monthly); and “The Dome” 
 (annual). 
 
 Nottingham, Diocese of (Nottinghamensis; cf. 
 C.E., XI—133a), one of the twelve original English 
 dioceses, is under the administration of Rt. Rev. 
 Thomas Dunn, who was born in London, 28 July, 
 1870, and ordained in 1893, after which he acted 
 as chaplain of the Visitation at Harrow, and was 
 later made chancellor of Westminster in 1902. In 
 1906 he was made rector of Staines and under three 
 successive Popes he was appointed a Private Cham¬ 
 berlain, in 1895, 1903 and 1914. He was appointed 
 Bishop of Nottingham 3 January, 1916, and con¬ 
 secrated 25 February, succeeding Rt. Rev. Bishop 
 Brindle who had filled this see from 1901 until his 
 transfer to the see of Tecape in 1915. In 1918 the 
 Xavierian Brothers established their noviciate and 
 house of preliminary studies at Deeping, St. James, 
 Lincolnshire, thus establishing themselves for the 
 first time in the diocese of Nottingham. The Fran¬ 
 ciscans (Capuchin, O.S.F.C.) also became estab¬ 
 lished in the diocese for the first time the follow¬ 
 ing year, when they transferred their Seraphic 
 College from Cowley, Oxford, to Panton Hall, 
 Wragby Lincolnshire, where it is now known as 
 St. Lawrence’s Franciscan College. 
 
 The religious orders established here include 
 men, Benedictines, Cistercians, Dominicans, Capu¬ 
 chins, Institute of Charity, Jesuits, Premonstaten- 
 
NOVARA 
 
 549 
 
 NOVICE 
 
 sians and Xaverian Brothers; women, Dominicans, 
 Faithful Companions of Jesus, Franciscan Sisters 
 Minoresses, hranciscan Tertiaries, Little Company 
 of Mary, Poor Clares Colletines, Poor Sisters of 
 Nazareth, Sisters of Charity of St. Paul. Sisters of 
 Mercy, Sisters of the Presentation, Sisters of 
 Providence of the Institute of Charity, Sisters of 
 Providence of Ruille sur Loir, Sisters of St. Dor¬ 
 othy. Sisters of St. Joseph of Peace and Sisters of 
 the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary. By the 
 1921 census the total Catholic population numbers 
 44,827; the diocese comprises 91 secular and 62 
 regular clergy, 24 convents, 118 churches and 
 chapels, 49 public elementary schools receiving gov¬ 
 ernment grants with a total of 8562 pupils, 3 sec¬ 
 ondary schools for boys and 10 for girls with a total 
 of 1118 pupils, 1 hospital, 3 residential institutions 
 for poor children and 1 home. 
 
 Novara, Diocese op (Novariensis; cf. C. E., 
 XI 134b); the capital of the Province of Novara' 
 Piedmont, Italy, is suffragan of Vercelli. The present 
 incumbent is Rt. Rev. Guiseppe Gamba, born at San 
 Damian, 1857, appointed Bishop of Biella 1900 and 
 transferred to the see of Novara 13 August, 1906. He 
 was made an assistant at the pontifical throne 10 
 July, 1917. During the World War the religious insti¬ 
 tutions were transformed into military hospitals and 
 places of refuge for fugitives. In 1921 the Catholics 
 in this diocese numbered 500,000; there are 377 
 parishes, 4 monasteries for women, 14 convents for 
 men and 10 for women, 3 seminaries, 200 seminarians, 
 
 9 secondary schools for boys and 9 for girls. Among 
 the charitable institutions are 4 hospitals and an 
 asylum attached to almost every parish. All the 
 asylums and hospitals permit the priests to minister 
 in them; all the Catholic schools and institutions are 
 maintained privately. A number of mutual benefit 
 societies are organized, 2 among the clergy and 6 
 among the laity. 
 
 Novice (cf. C. E., XI—144b).—Any Catholic 
 endowed with the requisite moral and physical quali¬ 
 fications and inspired by right motives may, if free 
 from canonical impediments, become a religious. 
 Before his profession by making his vows in an insti¬ 
 tute or other, he must have passed a certain time in 
 probation as novice, which, moreover, is usually 
 preceded by a postulancy. The canonical obstacles 
 to one’s becoming a novice may in some cases render 
 a novitiate null and void while in other cases they 
 might affect not its validity but its lawfulness. 
 
 AdxMission. —An aspirant is admitted to the novi¬ 
 tiate ordinarily when he receives the habit, though 
 in certain orders a different regulation may obtain. 
 To be validly admitted he must have completed his 
 fifteenth year (a higher minimum age is required b}' 
 the constitutions of some institutes). The novitiate 
 must last a year without interruption and be passed 
 m the house of novices; if a longer time is prescribed 
 m any institute, this extension is not required for 
 the validity of profession unless that is expresslv 
 laid down in the constitutions. If a novice having 
 been dismissed leaves the house or if he goes out of his 
 own accord with the intention of not returning, or if 
 for any cause he has been outside of the house of 
 novices for more than thirty days, not necessarily 
 successive, he must begin his whole novitiate over 
 again; if he has been absent for more than fifteen 
 but less than thirty days, with permission or has been 
 kept away forcibly while remaining under the super¬ 
 ior’s obedience, the time of absence must be made up 
 before he can be professed; if, finally, the absence 
 was for less than fifteen days, the superior is free to 
 disregard it. If the members of any institute are 
 divided into two classes, for instance lay-brothers and 
 
 priests, lay and choir sisters, a novitiate made for one 
 class would not count for the other. 
 
 The following classes of persons cannot be admitted 
 validly to the novitiate: (1) those who having been 
 Catholics later joined a non-Catholic sect; (2) those 
 un der the minimum age for admission; 
 (3) those who enter under the influence of force 
 grave fear, or fraud, or those whom a superior has 
 admitted owing to the same influences (this regulation 
 so far as admission to the novitiate is concerned is 
 an innovation); (4) a married person while the bond 
 of marriage lasts this modifies a former practice, for 
 hitherto if a marriage was unconsummated, one of 
 the parties might enter an order with solemn vows, and 
 the marriage would remain undissolved until he or 
 she had been solemnly professed; so a superioress 
 cannot now validly admit a wife whose husband 
 consents to her joining an order; (5) those who are or 
 have been professed in religion; (6) those who are 
 threatened with punishment for the commission of 
 some crime, on account of which they have been or 
 are liable to be accused; (7) a residential or titular 
 bishop, from the time of his nomination by the Holy 
 pee, (8) a cleric while bound by a pontifical oath to 
 * a * or so , s * n a certain diocese or in the missions. 
 
 The following persons are not to be admitted to the 
 novitiate though their admission would be valid even 
 if forbidden: (I) Clerics in sacred orders who would 
 enter without the knowledge of the ordinary or against 
 his orders when he refuses his permission on the 
 grounds that their departure would result in serious 
 spiritual loss to his flock which could not be avoided 
 otherwise; (2) those who are unable to pay their 
 debts, formerly this was not usually considered an 
 impediment in the case of those who seemed to be 
 permanently insolvent; (3) those who have to render 
 an accounting of their office or who are mixed up in 
 secular business in such a way that lawsuits or other 
 ^\ 0I i?-f n ^ ences ^e or( Ier are likely to result; 
 (4) children who have to relieve the grave necessities 
 of their fathers, or mothers, or grandparents, and 
 parents so long as their services are needed for the 
 support or education of their children; (5) those who 
 are intended to receive Holy Orders in religion and 
 who are irregular or debarred from the reception of 
 orders by any canonical impediment; (6) Orientals, 
 that is members of the Eastern Churches, unless they 
 have obtained permission of the Sacred Congregation 
 for the Eastern Church. 
 
 Testimonial Letters.— The Code of Canon Law 
 effected considerable changes in the matter of testi¬ 
 monials required from aspirants to the novitiate. 
 Before being admitted applicants must produce cer¬ 
 tificates of baptism and confirmation. Male aspirants 
 must in addition show testimonial letters from their 
 ordinary of their place of origin and of any place in 
 which they have spent more than one morally continu¬ 
 ous year after completing their fourteenth year, any 
 privilege contrary to this being now revoked. Those 
 who have been seminarians or postulants or novices 
 in another religious institute, require in addition 
 testimonial letters from the rector of the seminary 
 after consulting the local ordinary, or from one of 
 higher religious superiors. Clerics, however, need 
 besides the ordination papers only testimonial letters 
 from the ordinaries in whose dioceses they have spent 
 more than one morally continuous year, unless they 
 had been postulants or novices in another order, in 
 which case they must secure a letter from a higher 
 superior of that body. .When a professed religious 
 passes, with permission of the Holy See, from one 
 order to another, it is sufficient for him or her to 
 present a letter from a higher superior of the institute 
 he is leaving. Superiors in all orders or institutes 
 may require further proofs of the fitness of aspirants, 
 and women, in particular, must not be admitted as 
 
NOVICE 
 
 550 
 
 NOVICE 
 
 novices unless their ability and moral character have 
 been carefully investigated. Those from whom 
 testimonial letters are thus required by law must 
 send them gratuitously under seal to the superior, 
 not to the aspirant, within three months after they 
 have been requested; and letters regarding former 
 seminarians, postulants or novices must be c<pn- 
 firmed by oath by the rector or superior sending 
 them. If one who has been asked for letters believes 
 he has a grave reason for not answering, he must make 
 the reason known to the Holy See within the appointed 
 time; so, too, if the superior receives no reply concern¬ 
 ing the aspirant, he must notify the Holy See; if the 
 party replies that the aspirant is not sufficiently 
 well known to him, the religious superior must in¬ 
 quire of another reliable person. These letters, 
 which are strictly confidential both as regards the 
 informant and the information given, should refer 
 to the aspirant’s birth, morals, disposition, life, rep¬ 
 utation, condition and knowledge; they should state 
 if he has incurred any censure, irregularity, or other 
 canonical impediment, and whether or not his family 
 requires his assistance; finally, in case of seminarians 
 or former postulants or novices, whether they left 
 of their own accord or why they were sent away. 
 
 House of Novices. —The permission of the Holy 
 See is required for the erection of a house of novices of 
 a pontifically approved institute; in the case of other 
 institutes the constitutions may be followed. If 
 the institute is divided into provinces there may be 
 only one house of novices in any province unless for 
 a grave cause and in virtue of an apostolic indult. 
 The novitiate should be separated from the part of 
 the house inhabited by the professed so that there 
 should be no communication between them and the 
 novices. Furthermore lay-brother novices must 
 have a place apart for themselves. Novices must 
 wear the habit prescribed by the constitutions of the 
 institute, unless special local conditions render 
 another practice advisable. 
 
 Training. —As the object of the novitiate is to 
 test the vocation of aspirants and train them in the 
 school of sanctity, their formation is entrusted to a 
 master of novices (or mistress of novices, in case of 
 nuns), a religious noted for his prudence, charity, 
 piety and fidelity to religious observance, one who 
 is at least thirty-five years of age and who has been 
 professed at least ten years, counting from his first 
 profession; if the order is clercal he must be a priest. 
 For any just reason, for instance, the large number of 
 novices, an assistant to the master may be appointed, 
 who must be at least thirty years old and have been 
 professed five years. Both the master and his as¬ 
 sistant must be freed from all other duties so that 
 they can give their entire time to the care and govern¬ 
 ment of the novices. They are to be selected in 
 accordance with the constitutions: if they are to hold 
 office for a definite time they may not be removed 
 before its expiration except on serious just grounds; 
 they may be reappointed on the lapse of their term, 
 if the constitutions do not forbid it. Novices are 
 bound to obey the master of novices and the religious 
 superiors. While the master and the novices are sub¬ 
 ject to the general discipline of the house, no one may 
 interfere with the master in training and governing 
 the novices, under any pretext, except the superior 
 authorized by the constitutions. The master of 
 novices must make, in accordance with the con- 
 situtions, a report about each of the novices for the 
 chapter or higher superior within the year of the 
 novitiate. The year’s novitiate is devoted to the 
 formation of the novice by study of the rule and con¬ 
 stitutions, by pious meditations and assiduous prayer, 
 by instructions on the vows and Christian virtues, 
 by exercises adapted for the eradication of the roots 
 of evil', the controlling of the motions of the soul, 
 
 and the acquisition of virtue. Lay novices are to be 
 carefully instructed also in Christian doctrine, for 
 which purpose a special conference is to be given to 
 them at least once a week. During the year of the 
 novitiate novices must not be employed preaching 
 or hearing confessions or in the external charges of the 
 institute (that is works or exercises not immediately 
 intended for spiritual formation and sanctification), 
 neither must they devote themselves to the study of 
 the sciences, arts, or literature; in 1910, the Congre¬ 
 gation of Religious prescribed a limited course of 
 studies for novices; this is not obligatory under the 
 Code of Canon Law, but commentators on the Code 
 do not say it is now forbidden. Lay novices may per¬ 
 form the duties of the lay-brothers within the house, 
 but they must hold only subordinate posts and must 
 not be charged with work that would interfere with 
 their duties as novices. Novices enjoy all the 
 privileges and spiritual favors granted to their 
 institute, and if they should die as novices they are 
 entitled to all the suffrages prescribed for professed 
 members. 
 
 Any renunciation of or encumbrancing of his prop¬ 
 erty by a novice is null and void, but before his simple 
 profession he must make arrangements for its ad¬ 
 ministration and for the disposition of its use and 
 profits during the time he is simply professed. The 
 novice is free to designate the beneficiary unless the 
 constitutions provide otherwise. The object of this 
 prohibition against alienation or encumbrancing is to 
 safeguard the liberty of the novice or religious in 
 case it should be necessary or advisable for him for 
 any reason to return to secular life. If it should 
 happen that after making his simple vows a religious 
 comes into property the right to the use and profits 
 of which he did not dispose of as a novice, he must 
 dispose of them notwithstanding his vows just as 
 would a novice. Such disposals made after pro¬ 
 fession may be changed, not indeed at the mere will 
 of the religious, unless the constitutions allow him, 
 but with the permission of his general, or in the case 
 of nuns ( moniales ), as yet only simply professed, with 
 leave of the local ordinary and of the regular superior 
 if the institute is subject to regulars, provided, how¬ 
 ever, that the religious does not change the docu¬ 
 ment in such a way that a notable part of the prop¬ 
 erty is given to the institute. Vermeersch considers 20 
 to 25 per cent a notable part. If the religious leaves 
 the institute, this fact annuls any disposal of property 
 made as above. 
 
 Before making his temporary profession in a re¬ 
 ligious congregation—but not in an order—a novice 
 must dispose of his present and possible future 
 property by will, devising or bequeathing it in what¬ 
 ever way he pleases. As the will does not take effect 
 before the testator dies, it is not open to the same 
 objection as alienation or encumbrancing. After 
 simple profession this will cannot be changed except 
 by leave of the Holy See or in case of urgency of a 
 higher or even of a local superior. If for any reason 
 the will was not made before simple profession, the 
 religious, if professed before the promulgation of the 
 Code, can do what his rule permitted; others, it 
 would seem, would have to obtain permission from 
 the Holy See, which in case of urgency might be pre¬ 
 sumed. 
 
 A novice or postulant must not be charged anything 
 for food or clothing unless this is provided by the 
 constitutions or by express contract; if he leave 
 he may freely take away anything he brought in 
 with him if it has not been used up. 
 
 A novice is free to leave the novitiate at any time; 
 on the other hand, he may be sent away for a just 
 cause by the constitutional authorities, without the 
 superior being obliged to give him any reason for his 
 dismissal. If he completes his term of probation 
 
NUEVA CACERES 
 
 551 
 
 NUEVA SEGOVIA 
 
 however, he must he admitted to profession or sent 
 away; if the superiors should be in doubt as to his 
 fitness, the novitiate may be prolonged, but not 
 beyond six months (the Normae of 1901 had said 
 three months). In order the more to safeguard the 
 liberty of those who are aspiring to religious life, 
 the superioress of nuns whether exempt or not must 
 inform the local ordinary at least two months before 
 anyone is admitted either to the novitiate or to pro¬ 
 fession whether temporal or perpetual. The local 
 ordinary or a priest deputed by him is to examine 
 the aspirant at least thirty days before her reception 
 or profession, to see if she is acting of her own free 
 will, from pious motives, and if she understands 
 what she is about to do; if the report is favorable 
 the aspirant may be received or professed as the 
 case may be. Before making the vows of profession, 
 however, every novice must make a spiritual retreat 
 for at least eight whole days, two days less than the 
 Normae prescribed. 
 
 The canonical regulations regarding nuns confes¬ 
 sors apply to the case of female novices. In institutes of 
 men there are to be one or more ordinary confessors, 
 according to the number of novices; the master of 
 novices or his assistant may not hear sacramental 
 confessions of any of their novices, unless when in a 
 particular case the novice of his own accord for an 
 urgent reason asks them to do so. The ordinary 
 confessors should live in the house of novices, if the 
 institute is clerical; if, however, it is lay they should 
 come frequently to the novitiate for confessions; in 
 addition extraordinary confessors should be appointed, 
 to whom the novices can go in special cases, and 
 masters of novices are warned not to show any dis¬ 
 pleasure if a novice exercises this privilege. Finally, 
 at least four times each year the superior must appoint 
 an extraordinary confessor to whom all the novices 
 must go at least to receive a blessing. 
 
 Kinane, Nuns and Sisters in Irish Eccl. Record, XII (1918), 
 301-06; 466 sqq.; Codex juris canonici, 538-76; Vermeersch- 
 Cretjsen, Epit. juris canonici, 515-81. 
 
 Neuva Caceres, Diocese of (de Caceres, cf. 
 C. E., XI—148c), is one of the eight suffragan sees 
 of the Archdiocese of Manila, Philippine Islands. It 
 comprises the provinces of Camarines, Camarines 
 Norte, Albay and Sorsogon in the southern part of 
 Luzon, the province of Masbate and the sub-province 
 of Catanduanes thus including a territory of 7386 sq. 
 miles and a population of 837,193 (census of 1918). 
 
 As early as 1595 cue Church had made so much 
 progress in these parts that Clement VIII created 
 the diocese of Nueva Caceres taking its name from 
 the town of Nueva Caceres founded in Camarines 
 Sur in 1579 bv Pedro de Chaves in honor of Francisco 
 de Sande, second Governor-General of the Philippine 
 Islands and a native of Caceres. The first bishop 
 appointed was Fray Pedro Bautista Blazquez, a 
 Franciscan, who was then evangelizing in Japan, 
 having been sent by the Spanish King on an embassy 
 to the Mikado, Taicosama. He never took possession 
 of his see, nor was he consecrated, for with twenty-five 
 others he was martyred at Nagasaki, 5 February, 
 1597. He and his companions were canonized by 
 Pope Pius IX, 8 June, 1862, and San Pedro Bautista 
 was made the patron of the diocese of Nueva Caceres, 
 The first bishop to rule the see was Francisco de 
 Ortega. 
 
 The present incumbent is Rt. Rev. John Bernard 
 MacGinley, born at Croag, diocese of Raphoe, Ire¬ 
 land, in 1871, and after being ordained and receiving 
 the degree of doctor of theology, he was cardinated 
 m the diocese of Philadelphia. He was elected to the 
 see of Nueva C&ceres on 2 April, 1910, consecrated 
 the 2 May following and publicly acknowledged 27 
 November, 1911. 
 
 In 1915 a destructive typhoon which occurred on 
 
 23 October wrecked the bishop’s house, the seminary 
 and a score of churches, and some 200 people were 
 killed or drowned. During the World War the people 
 of the diocese, encouraged by the word and example 
 of the clergy, subscribed largely to the various liberty 
 loans. In the present year (1921) the Benedictine 
 Missionary Sisters of Tutzing, Bavaria, opened the 
 college of St. Agnes in the town of Albay, on 22 
 February. 
 
 The Catholic population of the diocese is approxi¬ 
 mately 830,805, of whom about 500 are Chinese, 300 
 Spaniards, 5 Americans and 830,000 Filipinos. There 
 are 100 parishes, 100 churches, 2 conventsfoi women, 
 136 secular priests and 18 regular, 1 Brother, 23 
 Sisters, 1 seminary with 35 seminarians (including 
 preparatorians). The educational institutions in¬ 
 clude 1 college for men with 10 teachers and 280 
 students, 2 colleges for women with 23 teachers and 
 265 students and 98 elementary schools with 294 
 teachers and 11,250 pupils. The Apostolic Union 
 is organized among the clergy and a Catholic Fed r- 
 ation among the laity. 
 
 Nueva Pamplona, Diocese of (Neo-Pampilo- 
 nensis; cf. C. E.—149b), in Colombia, South Amer¬ 
 ica, is a suffragan of Bogota. It is at present (1922) 
 under the administration of Rt. Rev. Raphael Afana- 
 dor y Cadena, b. at Barichara, in the Diocese of So¬ 
 corro, 4 April, 1871, ordained 3 July, 1898, vicar 
 general of Socorro, appointed 5 June, 1916, consecrated 
 3 September, proclaimed 7 December following to suc¬ 
 ceed Mgr. Evariste Blanco, b. 25 October, 1855; d. 
 15 September, 1915. There are in the diocese (1920) 
 51 parishes, 8 secular and 7 regular priests, 76 churches 
 or chapels, and a Catholic population of 250,480 souls. 
 
 Nueva Segovia, Diocese of (Nov^e Segobee, 
 cf. C. E., XI-149c), is one of the eight suffragans of 
 the Archdiocese of Manila in the Philippine Islands. 
 It is under the administration of Rt. Rev. Pierre- 
 Joseph Hurth, C.S.C., born at Nittel in the diocese 
 of Treves on 30 March, 1857, and appointed Bishop 
 of Dacca on 26 June, 1894, transferred to the see of 
 Milopotamus in 1909 and again transferred to Nueva 
 Segovia in 1913. He came to this see as successor to 
 Rt. Rev. James J. Carroll, who had resigned 12 
 October, 1912, on account of a serious accident which 
 had befallen him on a pastoral visit in Abra. 
 
 In 1913 a violent typhoon which visited the north¬ 
 ern part of Luzon destroyed or seriously damaged a 
 great number of the churches in the territory north of 
 Vigan. On 27 November, 1914, the whole diocese 
 joyously celebrated the first anniversary of the res¬ 
 toration of the Society of Jesus in recognition of the 
 great service which these Fathers have rendered the 
 church in Nueva Segovia. In addition to their other 
 labors they direct the episcopal college and seminary 
 of the diocese. The same day saw the close of the 
 second synod at which nearly all the priests of the 
 diocese had assisted. 
 
 In 1919 the diocese mourned the death of Mr. 
 Enrique Quema, a leader among the men of the 
 province, who had always used his wealth and influ¬ 
 ence in the cause of the Church. In 1921 the death 
 of Mgr. Antonio Padila, prothonotary ad instar , and 
 Vicar General of the diocese, caused a serious loss: on 
 two different occasions lie had acted as administrator 
 of the diocese. The clergy lost another staunch 
 supporter through the death of Miss Filomena 
 Donato, a woman of ability and wealth, who took an 
 active part in all charitable works and a special inter¬ 
 est in supporting numerous catechism classes and 
 maintaining a number of schools in the missions of 
 Abra and in poor parishes. 
 
 The total population of the diocese of Nueva 
 Segovia is 1,367,700 (by the census of 1919), of which 
 
NUNS 
 
 552 
 
 NUSCO 
 
 994,000 are Catholics. In the province of Abra, 
 with a Christian population of 61,000, nearly half 
 belong to the Agilpayan schism, and there are also 
 10,000 Tinguians, but among these there seems to be 
 a great movement toward the Catholic Church. A 
 number of different tribes live in the mountain prov¬ 
 inces, numbering in all about 215,000 and these are 
 even today dangerous savages, but the Belgian 
 Fathers and Fathers of the Divine Word are daily 
 extending their influence farther into these countries. 
 Since 1909, the Fathers of the Divine Word have 
 increased the number of Catholics from less than 
 10,000 to over 35,000 by reconciling schismatics and 
 partly through conversions. 
 
 By present (1921) statistics the diocese counts 87 
 parishes, besides the two great mission districts of 
 Abra and the mountain provinces, 99 secular and 13 
 regular priests. A parish often numbers as many as 
 20,000 or 30,000 souls and generally consists of the 
 chief town of a Municipality and the surrounding 
 villages, the distance from the central church to these 
 villages often being as much as 20 kilometers. 
 
 The number of children attending Catholic schools 
 is woefully small, in part due to the moral pressure 
 put upon parents to contribute to the erection and 
 support of public schools and to send their children 
 to them. These people, mostly very poor, having 
 contributed, wish to reap some benefit from the 
 schools and besides this, experience has shown that a 
 pupil from a public school holds a better chance for 
 public employment than one from a Catholic school. 
 Another reason lies in the fact that high schools exist 
 only in the provincial capitals and to these come all 
 the young people in search of higher education, and 
 the Government and the Protestant denominations 
 are able to provide them with excellent living quarters 
 at a very nominal rate, while the Catholic schools are 
 not so able to do this. To offset these difficulties 
 classes in catechism are held each Sunday in every 
 parish church and village of importance, and in many 
 places the priests gather the children in the church 
 after school. In some few public schools, the priests 
 are allowed to teach religion twice a week and religious 
 societies have been established, especially among the 
 students of the high schools. 
 
 However, the number of Catholic schools is steadily 
 increasing; good colleges closed during the Revolution 
 and now re-opened, are conducted at Vigan and 
 Dagupan and academies for girls at Vigan and Lm- 
 gayen. In 1912 there was only one other academy 
 and one parish school in the whole diocese, while at 
 the present time the Belgian Sisters have a well- 
 attended academy at Bagnio and two central high 
 schools in the Mountain Provinces; the Sisters Ser¬ 
 vants, of the Holy Ghost have a parochial school- 
 academy at Tayum; the academy at Tagudin which 
 in 1912 had 305 pupils now has 670 with 7 branch 
 schools having 874 pupils. Besides these there are 
 23 schools under the direction of the Belgian Fathers 
 with 2553 pupils, 33 schools under the Fathers of the 
 Divine Word, with 2260 pupils. The total number 
 of children under Catholic instruction is 11,203, 
 taught by 26 Fathers and scholastics, 15 Brothers, 50 
 Sisters and a corps of Filipino teachers. There are 
 also two trade schools and besides these all kinds of 
 lace-making and fine needlework are taught by the 
 Belgian Sisters and Sisters of St. Paul, their pupils 
 having carried off the highest awards at the San 
 Francisco Exhibition in 1914. 
 
 Nuns (cf. C. E., XI—164a).—In canon law 
 the term nuns ( moniales ) signifies religious with solemn 
 vows or, unless the contrary is evident from the 
 nature of things or from the context, religious belong¬ 
 ing to institutes in which the vows according to the 
 constitutions should be solemn but in fact are so no 
 
 longer in certain places by virtue of an Apostolic 
 indult; the term sisters ( sorores ), is applied to reli¬ 
 gious with simple vows. The election of the mother 
 superior of a monastery of nuns properly so-called 
 {moniales) if the monastery is subject to the jurisdic¬ 
 tion of the bishop, is to be presided over by the local 
 ordinary or his delegate, without, however, any 
 violation of the law of enclosure. The votes are to 
 be counted by two assistant priests, who must not be 
 ordinary confessors of the monastery. _ If the nuns 
 are subject to a regular superior he is to preside; 
 however, even in this case the ordinary should be 
 notified beforehand of the day and hour of the election 
 so that he can if he pleases be present with the regular 
 superior or send a representative, in which case he or 
 his representative presides. 
 
 In case of the election of a mother general of a 
 congregation the local ordinary of the place where the 
 election is being held is to preside personally or by 
 deputy. Under the Code a mother general or the 
 superioress of a monastery of nuns must be at least 
 forty years old and ten years professed and be of 
 legitimate birth; in the case of other higher superior¬ 
 esses—mother-general, mother-provincial and their 
 vicars—the minimum age is thirty, but ten years 
 profession is also requisite; if the constitutions of an 
 order or congregation provide for more stringent 
 qualifications they are unaffected by the Code. 
 Nothing having been said in the Code about minor 
 superioresses their qualifications are settled by the 
 constitutions. An important change has been made 
 regarding the tenure of office; minor superioresses 
 may now hold office only for three years; they may 
 be re-appointed or re-elected for a second period but 
 not for a third successive term in the same house. 
 The higher superioresses are to hold office tempo¬ 
 rarily unless the constitutions provide otherwise, but 
 the general law does not fix a definite limit to their 
 term of office. A superioress is bound to promote 
 among her subjects the knowledge and the execution 
 of the decrees of the Holy See affecting religious. 
 Local superioresses must cause to be read publicly, 
 at least once a year, at a stated time, the constitutions 
 of the institute, together with the decrees which the 
 Holy See has ordered to be read in public; they must 
 also see that a suitable instruction in Christian doc¬ 
 trine for lay sisters and domestics, as well as a pious 
 exhortation for the whole community, are given at 
 least twice a month. 
 
 The mother general of any pontifically approved 
 institute or order must send the Holy See every five 
 years or oftener, if the constitutions so provide, a 
 report on the condition of her institute or order signed 
 by herself, her council and by the ordinary of the place 
 where she and her council reside. She and each 
 provincial and local superioress (at least of every 
 house with six or more members, technically domus 
 formata), must have her council, consisting of two 
 religious, whose advice or consent must be obtained 
 when it is required by the constitutions or the sacred 
 canons. See also Novice; Oeconomus; Postulant; 
 Profession; Religious: Confessors of Nuns. 
 
 Kinane, Nuns and Sisters in Irish Ecel. Record, Ail (.lyioj, 
 291 sqq.; Codex juris canonici, can. 492-517. 
 
 Nuremberg, one of the principal cities of the 
 Archdiocese of Bamberg, Bavaria. It is divided into 
 5 parishes, 14 churches, including 6 mission churches, 
 2 monasteries for men, 2 convents for women with 
 53 nursing sisters and 69 English Ladies, 44 secular 
 clergy, 13 regular clergy and 8 lay brothers. 1 wo 
 homes’ and 4 nurseries have been established in the 
 city and 1 Catholic periodical is published there. 
 
 Nusco, Diocese of (Nuscanensis; cf. C. E., XI 
 171b), in the province of Avellino, Southern Italy, 
 is suffragan of Salerno. Rt. Rev. Pasquale Mores, b. 
 
NY AS ALAND 
 
 553 
 
 NYGATA 
 
 at Lucera 11 January, 18/3, chancellor, appointed 
 at the Consistory of 15 December, 1919, succeeded 
 Mgr. Luigi Paul ini transferred to the Diocese of 
 Concordia, 10 March, 1919. According to 1920 
 statistics there are: 19 parishes, 107 secular and 1 
 regular priests, 15 seminarians, 2 Brothers, 34 
 Sisters, 118 churches or chapels, and a Catholic 
 population of 40,304. 
 
 Nyasaland, Vicariate Apostolic of. See Shire. 
 
 Nyassa, Vicariate Apostolic of (Nyassas; cf. 
 C. E., XI—-l/2b), in Central Africa, is entrusted to 
 the V hite Fathers. In 1914 a portion of the vicariate 
 was formed into the Vicariate Apostolic of Bang- 
 uelo, thus confining the territory to the Lake of 
 Nyassa, with the dividing line between the Zambezi 
 and the Congo Rivers as its boundarv. The vicar 
 Apostolic is Rt. Rev. Mathurin Guilleme, W F 
 titular Bishop of Matera, b. at Ste. Matie de Redon 
 in the Diocese of Rennes, France, 3 July, 1859 ap¬ 
 pointed Vicar Apostolic of Nyassa, 24 February 
 
 1911, consecrated 18 June following, lie resides at 
 Bembeke. The vicariate has (1922 statistics) 0 
 stations with 28 White Fathers, 9 White Sisters, 218 
 catechists, 10,000 catechumens, 11,557 Catholics; in 
 828 schools there were 6665 boys and 5409 girls, 
 17,886 patients cared for in 18 hospitals, 9 churches, 
 25 chapels and 4 orphanages. 
 
 Nygata, Prefecture Apostolic of (de Nygata), 
 Japan, erected 13 August, 1912, and confided to the 
 Fathers of the Divine W ord, comprises all the western 
 coast of the island of Nippon. The first prefect 
 apostolic, appointed in November, 1912, is Mgr. 
 Joseph Reiners, S. V. D., b. at Neuwerk, Holland, 
 1874, ordained 1898, sent to the Japanese mission in 
 1909. There are 480 Catholics out of a population of 
 6,000,000. There are 13 churches and chapels, 10 
 stations, 19 regular priests, 1 seminary with 8 semi¬ 
 narians, 1 college for girls with 9 teachers and 157 
 pupils, 1 hospital, 1 orphanage, 1 house of charitable 
 work and 2 homes. There is a school for catechists 
 with 2 students. 
 
o 
 
 Oaxaca (or Antequera, cf. C. E., ^“^Od), 
 Archdiocese of, in the southern part of the Republic 
 of Mexico, has as suffragan dioceses Chiapas and 
 Tehuantepec. A new province was formed by Leo 
 XIII in 1906 and the Archdiocese of Yucatan was 
 established at Merida with the bishoprics of Campeche 
 and Tabasco as suffragans, thus taking away three of 
 
 the suffragan dioceses of Oaxaca. 
 
 The present Archbishop, the Rt. Rev. Eulogio G. 
 Gillow, was born at Puebla in 1841, made his studies 
 in England, Belgium and Rome, was ordained m 
 Mexico and then returned to Rome. He was ap¬ 
 pointed to the see of Oaxaca in 1887, being consecrated 
 on 23 May, and 1891 he was raised to the rank of 
 archbishop. On account of the Revolution the 
 Church in this territory has suffered some changes, 
 but things are gradually becoming readjusted. . 
 
 In the city of Oaxaca there is a seminary divided 
 into three sections: ordained students, seminarians 
 and preparatory students; one college for young men; 
 
 3 select academies for young women; 6 free schools tor 
 boys and 4 for girls. Among the charitable institu¬ 
 tions under Catholic control are a day nursery, a 
 charity hospital and a home for the poor. 
 
 Oblates of Mary Immaculate (cf. C. E., XI 
 184c), founded 25 January, 1816, approved as a 
 congregation under simple vows 17 February, 1826, 
 and received the brief of approbation by Pope Leo 
 XII, 21 March, 1826. All Oblate houses were 
 directly dependent on the central administration 
 until 1850. The congregation has at present seven¬ 
 teen juniorates situated at Sainte-Foy-lez-Lyon and 
 Strasbourg (France), Santa-Marie-a-Vico (Italy), 
 Saint-Helier (Jersey), Saint-Charles par Fauquement 
 (Holland), Burlo-bei-Borken (Germany), Krotoszyn 
 (Poland), Urnieta (Spain), Raheny (Ireland) Waere- 
 ghem (Belgium), in Europe; Buffalo (New Aork), and 
 San Antonio (Texas), in the United States; Ottawa 
 (Ontario), Saint Boniface (Manitoba), Strathcona 
 (Alberta), in Canada, Colombo and Jaffna, in the 
 Island of Ceylon. The novitiates are twelve in 
 number and are situated at: San Giorgio Canvese and 
 Roviano (Italy), Urnieta (Spain), Thy-le-Chateau 
 and Nieuwenhove (Belgium), Maria-Engelport (Ger¬ 
 many), Markowice (Poland), Ardagh (Ireland), 
 Tewksbury (Mass.); Mission (Texas), Ville-la-Salle 
 (Canada); and Colombo (Ceylon). The nine estab¬ 
 lishments at present occupied as scholasticates are 
 situated at: Rome, Liege, Hiinfeld, Stillorgan, Wash¬ 
 ington, Castroville, Ottawa, Edmonton, and Co¬ 
 lombo. Besides the University of Ottawa, among 
 higher institutions of learning directed by the Oblates 
 of Mary Immaculate are St. Joseph’s College at 
 Colombo (1100 pupils) and St. Patrick’s College at 
 Jaffna (700 pupils), both in Ceylon. As the Oblate 
 scholastics at Ottawa graduate in philosophy and 
 theology at the University of Ottawa, so their Irish 
 confreres at Stillorgan graduate in philosophy at the 
 National University in Dublin. The two seminaries 
 of Colombo and Jaffna, in Ceylon, were amalgamated 
 together (1908) in Colombo for the same purpose of 
 working at the formation of a native clergy who 
 already number about 50. The classical college of 
 Saint Louis, New Westminster, has been given up, 
 
 while that of Saint Charles, Pietermaritzburg, was 
 lately entrusted to the Marist Brothers. The Oblates 
 are no longer (1919) in charge of the Sacred Heart 
 Basilica in Brussels. They direct Neunkirch, in 
 Alsace, and Maria Engelport, in Germany, and a 
 few other famous pilgrimage shrines in honor of the 
 Blessed Virgin. The new Alsace Lorraine province 
 of the Oblates has charge of the ancient sanctuary of 
 Saint Ulrich, while the German province looks after 
 the shrines of Saint Nicholas at Kapellen-Neuss and 
 of Saint Rupert at Bingen. . 
 
 The following provinces and vice-provmces have 
 lately been created: Alsace-Lorraine (1920), Alberta- 
 Saskatchewan (1921), Italy (1921) and Lowell 
 (1921). The two latter are only vice-provmces 
 which will presumably soon be the case for Poland 
 also. Two special missions for the Esquimaux were 
 recently established in Northwestern Canada, at 
 Chesterfield Inlet, in the Keewatin Vicariate, and at 
 Bear Lake, in the Mackenzie Vicariate. The .former, 
 in charge of Fr. Arsene Turquetil, was established in 
 1912, while the latter, founded in 1911, already county 
 three martyrs—Frs. John-Baptist Rouviere and 
 William Le Roux, massacred in 1913, and Fr. Joseph 
 Frapsance drowned by accident in 1920. In Canada 
 the archepiscopal See of Saint Boniface from 1853 
 until 1915, and the episcopal Sees of Samt Albert, 
 now (1912) Archdiocese of Edmonton, and of Prmce 
 Albert, now (1921) Prince Albert and Saskatoon, 
 since their foundation (respectively 1871 and 190/) 
 until 1920 have been occupied by Oblates; and so a,re 
 still the Vicariates of Athabaska and Mackenzie. 
 The new Vicariate of Keewatin was entrusted to the 
 Oblates in 1910, and the Vicariate of Yukon and 
 Prince Rupert is also (1917) administered by an 
 Oblate bishop, with the help of Oblate missionaries. 
 The following Oblates have recently been appointed 
 bishops: Charles Cox, Vicar Apostolic of Transvaal 
 (1914) and Administrator-Apostolic of Kimberley in 
 South Africa (1914); Emile Bunoz, Vicar Apostolic 
 of Yukon and Prince Rupert (1917); Jules Brault, 
 Bishop of Jaffna (1920). Recently deceased Oblate 
 bishops: Matthew Gaughren (1843-1914), Vicar 
 
 Apostolic of the Orange River Colony (Kimberley), 
 Adelard-Langevin (1855-1915), Archbishop of Saint 
 Boniface (Manitoba), Henry Joulam (J852-1919), 
 Bishop of Jaffna (Ceylon); Emile Legal (1849-1920), 
 first Archbishop of Edmonton (Alberta); Albert 
 Pascal (1848-1920), first Bishop of Prince Albert 
 (Saskatchewan). Fr. Albert Lacombe, the Black- 
 robe voyageur,” died in 1916. The cause of r r. 
 Dominic Albini, Hie Apostle of Corsica, who died at 
 Vico in 1839, has lately been introduced in Rome. 
 The present General Superior of the order is Mgr. 
 Augustine Dontenwill (b. 185/), elected 1908, also 
 Archbishop of Ptolemais. 
 
 The periodicals on the work of the congregation 
 have lately greatly increased in number. The follow¬ 
 ing is a complete list: “Missions des O. M. L> P9*> 
 fished at Rome for the order only; ‘ La Voce di Maria ^ 
 (Naples); “Revue Apostolique de Marie Immaculee 
 (Paris); “Immaculata” (Strasbourg) “Monats- 
 blatter der Oblaten der Unbefleckten Jungfrau Maria 
 (Hunfeld); “Messager de Marie Immaculee,” and 
 “Maria Bode” (Brussels); “Missionary Record of the 
 
 554 
 
OBLATES 
 
 OGDENSBURG 
 
 555 
 
 Oblates of Mary Immaculate” (Dublin); “La Ban- 
 nidrc de Mane fmmaculce” (Ottawa); “L’Ami du 
 Foyer (Saint-Bomface); “Mary Immaculate” (San 
 Antonio). Among the principal reviews or maga¬ 
 zines of general importance published by the Oblates 
 are: ‘ Regnabit, Revue universelle du Sacre Coeur” 
 (Paris); “La Bonne Nouvelle” (Paris); “Les Annales 
 du Cap (Cap-deda-Madeleine); “The Monthly Bul¬ 
 letin (Vancouver); “Blue and White” (Colombo); 
 and a large number of parochial bulletins, such as 
 those of Lowell, Buffalo, and McCook (United 
 States), of Montreal, Quebec, and Hull (Canada). 
 
 1 he present number of Oblate foundations is as 
 follows: Europe: general administration, 5 (including 
 2 houses m Poland); Italian vice-province, 4; French 
 southern province, 13; French northern province, 16; 
 Alsace-Lorraine, 3; German province, 17; Belgian 
 province, 5; Anglo-Irish province, 15. America: 
 Canadian province, 15; United States northern prov¬ 
 ince, 9; “Lowell” vice-province, 6; United States 
 southern province, 18; province of Manitoba, 25; 
 province of Alberta-Saskatchewan, 11; vicariate of 
 British Columbia, 10; vicariate of Athabaska, 17* 
 vicariate of Mackenzie, 14; vicariate of Yukon 6’ 
 vicariate eff Keewatin, 11. Asia: Archdiocese of 
 Colombo, 55, Diocese of Jaffna, 26 houses or missions. 
 Africa: vicariate of Natal, 21; vicariate of South 
 Afnca, 14 (7 in Kimberley and 7 in Transvaal); vicar¬ 
 iate of Basutoland, 14 residences (divided into 3 dis¬ 
 tricts). A comparison of the number of members of 
 the congregation in 1907, 1910, and 1921 is given in 
 the following table: 
 
 Members 
 
 1907 
 
 1911 
 
 1921 
 
 Bishops and priests 
 
 Scholastics. 
 
 Lay Brothers. 
 
 Total number of Oblates. . 
 Novices. 
 
 1182 
 
 250 
 
 485 
 
 1917 
 
 134 
 
 500 
 
 1258 
 
 298 
 
 507 
 
 2063 
 
 111 
 
 5S3 
 
 1372 
 
 300 
 
 341 
 
 2073 
 
 134 
 
 873 
 
 Juniors. 
 
 
 r Oblates of Saint Francis de Sales (cf. C E 
 X 1 —i87b) a congregation of priests the establish¬ 
 ment of which was originally desired by St. Francis 
 de Sales, and carried out by Ravmond Bonal du 
 Kouerque with the assistance of St. Jane Frances 
 de Chantal. This congregation died out at the begin¬ 
 ning of the eighteenth century, but was revived two 
 hundred years later by Ven. Mother Marie de Sales 
 Cnappuis and Canon Louis Alexander Alphonse 
 Brisson, formerly professor in the seminarv and chap¬ 
 lain ot the visitation convent at Troyes. In 1869 Fr. 
 Brisson began St. Bernard’s College near Troyes, 
 with Fr. Gilbert (d. 1909) and Fr. Kollin. On 14 
 October, 1873, Bishop Ravi net of Troves received 
 them and three companions into the novitiate. The 
 laudatory Brief of the new institute was granted bv 
 Pius IX, 21 December, 1875. The first decennial 
 approbation was dated 7 December, 1887, and the 
 definitive approbation of the Institute and its con¬ 
 stitution was given 8 December, 1897. Fr. Brisson 
 5 rs I superior general. He was succeeded 
 iqoi 8 by ^ r - Jean D eshairs, who died 16 June, 
 iazl, upon lus return from a canonical visitation of 
 Greece Uruguay, and Brazil. A general chapter 
 was held at Albano, 23 October, 1921, when Fr. 
 •Joseph Lebeau was elected superior general. He 
 was born at Saron (Marne) 22 September, 1860, was 
 the hrst provincial superior, the founder of the 
 Austro-German province, and chaplain of the Visita¬ 
 tion convent of Soleure. He chose Fr. Rollin as his 
 assistant general. 
 
 The congregation has three provinces: Latin, 
 German, and English. The novitiate for the Latin 
 province is in Giove (Umbria). The German province 
 
 has its novitiate at Schmieding (Upper Austria). A 
 preparatory school of about forty students has been 
 recently established at Dachsberg (Upper Austria), 
 and a preparatory school of more than sixtv students 
 has been established at Overbach. The Oblates are 
 guardians of the tombs of Archduke Francis Ferd¬ 
 inand and his family. Before the revolution of 1897 
 the Oblates were stationed in Ecuador. 
 
 Oceania, Central, \ icariate Apostolic of 
 (Oceaniae Centraliae).— The total population of 
 th!S vicanate apostolic (1922) is 30,000 of whom 8800 
 are Catholics. In 1920 the establishment of quasi- 
 parishes desired by Canon Law was accomplished in 
 YV all is. The first vicar apostolic Mgr. Bataillou was 
 succeeded in 1877 bj- Mgr. Elloy; in 1879 Mgr. Lamaze 
 became vicar, and at his death (1906) Mgr. Olier his 
 coadjutor, succeeded him. In 1912 the present in¬ 
 cumbent, Mgr. Blanc, was appointed, Mgr. Olier 
 having died in 1911. Born in Toulon in 1872, Mgr. 
 Blanc was ordained in 1895 by special dispensation 
 on account of his age. He left for the missions in 
 Oceania six years later, and was consecrated titular 
 bishop of Dibou 29 June, 1912. He is the author of 
 ps lies Wa lis” (Paris, 1913) and “L’Heritage 
 d un Fveque d’ Oceanie”‘(Toulon, 1921). 
 
 According to statistics for 1921 the vicariate has 
 3 parishes, 3 missions, 10 stations, 38 churches 2 
 secular and 16 regular priests, 53 Sisters, 1 seminarv 
 with 18 seminairians, 3 colleges for boys with 10 
 teachers and 140 pupils, 11 secondary schools for 
 girls with 30 teachers and 185 pupils, 64 elementary 
 schools with 64 teachers and 2540 pupils. Priests 
 are permitted to visit the public hospitals and 
 the prisons. The Association for the Propagation 
 of the Faith is established in the vicariate, and there 
 are many publications in the native languages made 
 by the mission. 
 
 CEconomus (cf. C. E., XI-214b).—If a cathe¬ 
 dral chapter fails to appoint an ceconomus or bursar 
 within eight days after being notified of an episcopal 
 vacancy, the right devolves on the archbishop, or, 
 if it be an archiepiscopal vacancy, on the senior suf¬ 
 fragan bishop. The chapter elects the ceconomus 
 by a majority vote and may select the vicar capitular 
 to hold both offices; once elected his removal is re¬ 
 served to the Holy See, but he can resign validly when 
 he pleases, independently of the wish of the chapter. 
 Religious institutes are directed to appoint ceconomi 
 to look after the property and revenues of local 
 houses, of provinces, and of the order in general 
 respectively; a superior may not be named a local 
 ceconomus, except in case of necessity. If the con¬ 
 stitutions are silent about the procedure, the ceconomi 
 are to be appointed by one of the higher superiors 
 with the consent of his council. In a like manner, 
 it is prescribed that each seminary should have its 
 ceconomus, who must not be rector at the same time, 
 to take charge of household matters. 
 
 Ogdensburg, Diocese of (Ogdensburgensis* 
 cf. C. E., XI—222c), comprises 12,036 square 
 miles in the State of New York. The second bishop 
 of this see, Rt. Rev. Henry Gabriels, consecrated 5 
 May, 1892, died 23 April, 1921, and his auxiliary, 
 Rt. Rev. Joseph Henry Conroy, was appointed to 
 succeed him. Born in this diocese in 1858, Bishop 
 Conroy was ordained in 1881 and later became 
 rector of the cathedral and vicar general of the 
 diocese, which position he filled until his appointment 
 as titular Bishop of Arindela, and auxiliary, 11 
 March, 1912. The religious orders now established 
 in this diocese include: men, Franciscans (Friars 
 Minor), Augustinians, Oblate Fathers, Missionaries 
 of the Sacred Heart and Brothers of the Christian 
 
0GL1ASTRA 
 
 556 
 
 OHIO 
 
 schools; women: Gray Nuns, Sisters of Mercy, 
 Sisters of St. Joseph, Franciscan Sisters, Ursulines, 
 Sisters of Charity and Daughters of the Holy Ghost. 
 The diocese comprises a Catholic population of 100,- 
 600; 140 secular and 20 regular clergy, 101 churches 
 with resident priests, 61 missions with churches, 
 
 79 mission stations, 24 chapels, 13 Brothers, 8 
 seminarians, 13 academies for boys, 12 academies for 
 young ladies, 20 parochial schools with 4873 pupils, 
 
 2 orphan asylums caring for 314 orphans; a total of 
 5382 young people are under Catholic care; 8 hospitals 
 are caring for 5461 patients and 1 home for the aged 
 is established. 
 
 Ogliastra, Diocese of (Oleanstrensis; cf. 
 C. E., XI—223dV, in Sardinia, suffragan of Cagliari. 
 In 1910 Mgr. Emanuele Virgilio, the present bishop, 
 was appointed to the see of Ogliastra, to succeed Mgr. 
 Paderi deceased. He was born at Venosa in 1868 
 and was pro-vicar general and archpriest of the 
 cathedral when he was elevated to the episcopate. 
 According to the statistics for 1920 the diocese con¬ 
 tains 29 parishes, 46 secular priests, 20 seminarians, 
 53 churches and chapels, and a Catholic population 
 of 54,500. 
 
 ♦ 
 
 Ohio (cf. C. E., XI-225d)—The area of the State 
 is 41,040 square miles. The population in 1920 was 
 5,759,394, an increase of 20.8% since 1910. Of this, 
 63% was urban; 36.2 was rural. The average number 
 of inhabitants to the sq. mile was 141.4 as against 117 
 in 1910. Ohio has 80 cities, the largest being Cleve¬ 
 land, with a population of 796,841. Seven cities 
 have more than 100,000 inhabitants; of these, Akron 
 showed in 1920 the greatest rate of increase, having 
 trebled its population (201%). The principal cities 
 with their populations are as follows: Akron *-08,4^5; 
 Cincinnati 401,247; Columbus 237,031; Toledo 243,- 
 164; Dayton 152,559; Youngstown 132,358. 
 
 Economic Status. —Although the number of 
 farms in 1919 was 256,695, a decrease of 5.6% since 
 1909, the value of farming property was $3,095,666,- 
 336, an increase of 62.7%; the total area of farms was 
 23 515,888 acres. The value of live stock was $287,- 
 655,118; of all crops, $607,037,562 (an increase of 
 174.6% since 1909). The chief crops are: corn, of 
 which 149,844,626 bushels were grown in 1919, at a 
 value of $217,274,709; wheat, 58,124,351 bushels, 
 $127,873,474; tobacco, 64,420,472 pounds, $13,528,- 
 302; beet sugar, 365,415 tons, $3,836,861. Dairying 
 is on the increase, the value of dairy products in 1919 
 
 being $81,148,586. . 
 
 Ohio ranks fourth of all the States m the Union for 
 mineral products, coal and clay manufactures rank¬ 
 ing foremost. The latest (1919) census of mining 
 enterprises (mines, quarries and wells) reveals 2283 
 productive enterprises compared to 1876 m 1909; 
 1064 mines and quarries and 35,440 petroleum and 
 natural gas wells. The value of products was $134,- 
 518 505. The census of manufactures mentions 
 16 125 establishments, 978,068 people engaged in 
 manufacture, earning $1,218,366,093, and turning out 
 products worth $5,100,298,728. The capital invested 
 was $3,810,859,879. There are 9160 miles of railway 
 in the State and 3227 miles of electric railway The 
 lake and river traffic is very large. Ohio has 775 State 
 banks and 370 national banks, with deposits over 
 $3 000,000. The State debt on 1921 was $510,266, 
 465, including the Canal loan, not bearing interest. 
 
 Religion. —According to the latest United States 
 Census of Religious Denominations, there were 
 2 291,793 members of all denominations, 843,856 
 Catholics, 399,045 Methodist Episcopalians; 138,800 
 Presbyterians; 109,732 Disciples; 77,775 Baptists 
 (Northern Convention); 20,151 Jews; 164,224 
 Lutherans. For Catholic statistics see Cincinnati, 
 
 Archdiocese of; Cleveland, Diocese of; Colum¬ 
 bus, Diocese of. . 
 
 Education and Charity.— Education is compul¬ 
 sory for all children between the ages of six and 
 fifteen. There are in the State 11,475 school-houses, 
 
 10 707 elementary schools, with 28,224 teachers 
 (3 171 men and 25,053 women), and 880,290 enrolled 
 pupils (450,371 boys and 429,919 girls). The 588 
 public high schools have 6914 teachers, 132,711 pupils; 
 the normal schools, 1127 students and 77 teachers. 
 The educational expenditure in 1919 was $60,040,295. 
 There are provisions for the establishment of public 
 schools for the deaf, blind, and crippled. Lincoln’s 
 Birthday is now considered a school holiday. The 
 Board of Education of a village school district con¬ 
 taining a village of 3000 or more may elect to be ex¬ 
 empt from the supervision of the county board of 
 education. Bible reading in the public schools is al¬ 
 lowed by court decision. In 1912 two normal schools 
 were established, one at Bowling and another at Rent. 
 The laws are governing private and parochial schools 
 as follows: “All private and parochial schools which 
 instruct pupils who have not completed a course of 
 study equivalent to that prescribed for the first 
 grades of the elementary schools of Ohio shall be 
 taught in the English language. German shall nqt 
 be taught below the eighth grade. All teachers in 
 public and private schools must take the oath of 
 allegiance. No religious sect or sects shall have any 
 exclusive right to or control of any part of the school 
 funds of the state (VI-2). Private schools must 
 teach same branches taught in the public schools. 
 The flag must be displayed on or near each public 
 and private school building.” To eliminate idleness 
 among boys and girls between the ages of 16 and 18 
 years the new school law of Ohio (1921) provides that 
 a child more than 16 years old may leave school to 
 go to work if he has completed the work of the seventh 
 grade, has passed a physical examination and can 
 present a written promise of employment. If he 
 meets these requirements he receives an age and 
 schooling” certificate, but this is not a permanent 
 release from school; it is only a release for the time 
 the child is employed by the one employer. If he 
 changes employers he must secure a new certificate. 
 If the child is to be employed by his parents, the same 
 procedure applies, and if he loses his position, he must 
 return to school. The board of charities consists of 
 seven members, appointed by the governor, who is 
 ex-officio a member and president of the board, has 
 supervision of all the charities of the state. 
 
 Recent History and Legislation. Of great 
 importance in the State’s history was the constitu¬ 
 tional convention held in Columbus in 1912. Of the 
 42 amendments submitted to the voters, 34 were 
 adopted and eight defeated. Those which were 
 adopted provide for the initiative and referendum, an 
 eight-hour day on all public work, a limitation of the 
 veto power of the governor, state-wide primaries and 
 civil service, an easier removal of State officials, 
 conservation of natural resources, including legis¬ 
 lative control over the methods of mining, change m 
 the judicial system, and the elimination of unneces¬ 
 sary legal delays; regulation of corporations, munici¬ 
 pal home rule, and the privilege of cities to choose their 
 own form of government. In 1914 a new S1 hc of 15UU 
 acres was chosen for the penitentiary. The coal 
 strike of 1914 and the consequent shut-down of the 
 mines in the State brought great hardship to the mi¬ 
 ners and caused great loss to the industry. By a decision 
 of the Supreme Court in 1915 Cleveland came into 
 possession of a tract of lake-front land worth several 
 millions which the railways had cocupied for halt a 
 century. Floods caused great damage in the State in 
 1915. The Federal Suffrage Amendment was ratified 
 
OKLAHOMA 
 
 557 
 
 OKLAHOMA 
 
 on 16, June 1919j the Prohibition Amendment on 
 7, Jan. 1919. During the European War Ohio con¬ 
 tributed 200,293 men to the United States Army 
 (5.33 per cent). The Ohio members of the National 
 Guard joined the 37th Division at Camp Sheridan, 
 Ohio, and also at Montgomery, Alabama; those of 
 the National Army, the 83d Division at Camp 
 Sherman, Ohio. The drafted men wore sent to Camp 
 Chillicothe, Ohio. The summary of Ohio men in the 
 American Expeditionary Force is as follows: deceased, 
 123 officers, 3959 men; prisoners, 13 officers, 146 men- 
 wounded, 379 officers, 11,387 men. 
 
 Oklahoma (cf. C. E., XI-230d)—The area of the 
 State of Oklahoma is 70,057 square miles. The 
 population in 1920 was 2,028,283, an increase of 
 22.4 per cent since 1910. The percentage of rural 
 inhabitants was 73.4; urban, 26.6. The average 
 number of persons per square mile is 29.2. The 
 largest cities are Oklahoma City, 91,295; Tulsa, 
 72,075. Oklahoma now ranks as the twenty-first 
 State in population; in 1900 it was thirtieth. 
 
 Econqmic Status. —As an agricultural state 
 Oklahoma has unlimited possibilities. In 1920 
 there were 191,988 farms; the area of farm-land was 
 31,951,934 acres and its value was $1,660,423,544. 
 Among the crops (valued at $549,249,277 in 1919) 
 the chief were wheat (65,761,843 bushels), corn 
 (53,851,093 bushels), cotton (1,006,242 bales). 
 Oklahoma ranks sixth in cotton production, twelfth 
 in corn production, seventh in wheat production and 
 first in the petroleum output. The output of coal 
 in 1918 was 4,813,447 tons; the number of men 
 employed in this industry being 8551. In the same 
 year the petroleum output was 103,347,070 barrels- 
 the natural gas output 124,317,179 feet. The three 
 large cement mills in the state have a yearly capacity 
 of 1,400,000 barrels. During 1918-19 91.6 miles of 
 railroad were built in the State, making the total 
 mileage 6532. The summary of manufactures in 
 1919 shows a consistent increase, as compared with 
 that of 1914, except in the number of establishments, 
 proprietors and firm members which show small 
 decreases. In the 2446 establishments, 38,238 persons 
 were engaged in manufacture, earning for their 
 seivice a total of $47,552,000. The capital invested 
 was $280,847,000 (an increase of 328 per cent since 
 1914) and the value of the products $402,462,000. 
 The State debt in 1920 was $2,972,900; the assessed 
 value of real and personal property, $1,664,448,745. 
 
 Education. There are state normal schools at 
 Durant, Weatherford, Edmond, Ada, Alva and 
 Tahlequah, a reformatory for delinquent and in¬ 
 corrigible negro girls at Taft (created in 1917), 
 another reformatory at Granite, an industrial school 
 for girls at Jecumseh, a deaf, blind and orphans’ 
 institute at J aft, a school for the blind at Muskogee, 
 Oklahoma College for Women at Chickasha, a State 
 prison at McAlister, a home for white children at 
 Helena, a school for the feeble-minded at Enid, State 
 hospitals at Norman, Vinita, and Supply, a training 
 school for white boys at Paul’s Valley, the Con¬ 
 federate Home at Ardmore, the Union Soldiers’ 
 Home and University Hospital at Oklahoma City, 
 two schools of mines at Miami and Wilburton a 
 petroleum experiment station of the United States 
 Bureau of Alines at Bartlesville, and a tubercular 
 sanitarium at Boley. 
 
 TLheie are fifteen agricultural schools, each receiving 
 rederal aid. In 1919 the University of Oklahoma had 
 loO professors and 3683 students. The latest educa¬ 
 tional statistics for Oklahoma (1920) give 510,139 
 white pupds, 41,276 negro pupils, 14,181 teachers, 
 in 1916 there were 605 public high schools with 34,932 
 enrolled pupils and 1954 teachers. In 1918 the normal 
 schools had 125 teachers and 4660 students. The 
 
 total expenditure in 1918 was $13,803,861. Bible 
 reading in the public schools is specifically permitted 
 by law. The State laws governing private and 
 parochial schools are as follows: It shall be unlawful 
 to teach in any other language than English in any 
 public, parochial, denominational or other institution 
 of learning within the State of Oklahoma, unless 
 pupils receiving such instruction shall have completed 
 the eighth grade of a common school curriculum. 
 All teachers in public and private schools must take 
 the oath of allegiance. All property used exclusively 
 for schools and colleges and for religious and charitable 
 purposes shall be exempt from taxation. (X-6). No 
 money (public) shall be used for the support of any 
 religious teacher or any other sectarian institution as 
 such (11—5). The State board of education shall have 
 authority to visit and inspect all institutions of higher 
 learning, both public and private. Education is com¬ 
 pulsory for all between the ages of eight and eighteen 
 for two-thirds of the school term, but this does not 
 apply to persons between the ages of sixteen and 
 eighteen who are lawfully employed and have finished 
 the eighth grade or full course of instruction. Part- 
 time schools were provided for in 1919; and county 
 schools in all counties having a population of less than 
 2000 school pupils. In this same year the negro boys 
 were transferred from the penitentiary to the school 
 at Taft. 
 
 Religion. —According to the United States Census 
 of Religious Denominations (1916), all denominations 
 in Oklahoma numbered 424,492, divided chiefly 
 as follows: Catholics 47,427 or 11.2%; Baptists, 
 Southern Convention 87,028 or 20.5%; Methodist 
 Episcopalians 60,263 or 14.2%; Baptists, Northern 
 Convention 42,408 or 10%; Disciples of Christ 41,811 
 or 9.8%; Methodist Episcopalians, 40,148 or 9.5%; 
 Church of Christ 21,700 or 5.1%. For further 
 religious and educational statistics see Oklahoma, 
 Diocese of. 
 
 Recent History and Legislation. —The clause 
 in the State constitution limiting manhood suffrage 
 by means of an educational test and a grandfather 
 clause was referred to the Supreme Court for decision. 
 The latter was declared unconstitutional in 1915, but 
 the educational test remained, applied, however, to 
 all alike. By the Enabling Act Guthrie was made the 
 capital until 1913, but in the election of 11 June, 1910, 
 the people decided upon the removal of the capital to 
 Oklahoma City. The election was declared invalid 
 by the State Supreme Court on the ground that the 
 title of the ballot did not conform to law. Thereupon 
 the governor called a special session of the Legislature 
 to remove the capital to Oklahoma City. In 1913 the 
 Supreme Court prohibited the introduction of liquor 
 into counties occupied by Indians. In 1915 a Widows’ 
 and Orphans’ Pension Law was adopted and the pen¬ 
 sioning of Confederate soldiers provided for. The 
 Federal Prohibition Act was ratified on 7 January, 
 1919; the Suffrage Act, 28 February, 1920. In 1920 
 a woman was elected to the National House of Repre¬ 
 sentatives. During the European War Oklahoma con¬ 
 tributed to the United States Army 80,169 men (2.13 
 per cent of the army). The Oklahoma members of 
 the national guard joined the 36th Division at Camp 
 Bowie, Texas; those of the national army, the 90th 
 Division at Fort Travis, Texas. A national guard 
 camp was established at Fort Sill, Doniphan, Okla¬ 
 homa. The summary of casualties among the Okla¬ 
 homa members of the American Expeditionary Forces 
 is as follows: deceased 20 officers, 1457 men; pris¬ 
 oners 80 men; wounded 59 officers, 4742 men. 
 
 Oklahoma, Diocese of (Oklahomensis) —Ac¬ 
 cording to statistics for 1921 there are in the diocese 
 of Oklahoma 75 parishes, 166 churches, 91 missions, 
 122 stations, 3 monasteries for nuns, 1 abbey for men, 
 
 1 convent for men, 50 convents for women with 338 
 
OLD CATHOLICS 
 
 558 
 
 OLINDA 
 
 religious, 12 seminarians. Educational institutions 
 include 3 colleges for boys with 33 teachers and an 
 attendance of 387; 1 college for women with 12 teach¬ 
 ers and an attendance of 68; 3 academies with 34 
 teachers and an attendance of 315, 5 training schools 
 with 28 teachers and 611 students; 51 elementary 
 schools with 227 teachers and 5651 pupils. There are 
 1 orphanage, St. Joseph’s Oklahoma City, in charge of 
 6 Sisters of Mercy, with 73 inmates, and 3 hospitals; 
 St. Francis, Oklahoma City, in care of 22 Sisters of 
 St. Francis; St. Mary’s Infirmary, McAlester, con¬ 
 ducted by 9 Sisters of Charity of the Incarnate Word; 
 and Ponca City Hospital, Ponca City, in charge of 
 6 Sisters of St. Joseph. Organizations amongst the 
 clergy include the Eucharistic League, Infirm Priests’ 
 Fund, the Association for Three Masses. For the 
 laity there are the Knights of Columbus, Catholic 
 Foresters, the Bohemian Catholic Society. Three 
 Catholic monthlies are published, the “Orphans’ Rec¬ 
 ord,” the “Indian Sentinel,” and the “Little Flower 
 Magazine.” 
 
 Since 1911 the Cathedral parish, Oklahoma City, has 
 been divided twice, the first time (1911) to form the 
 Sacred Heart parish, and again in 1917, when the 
 parish of Our Lad}^ of Perpetual Help was formed. 
 The Mission of Our Lady of Mount Carmel for Mexi¬ 
 cans was founded in metropolis in 1921. In 1916 the 
 Sacred Heart parish in Tulsa was erected, and in 1921 
 a parish under the same patronage was founded in 
 Muskogee. The Discalced Carmelite Fathers from 
 the province of Valencia, Spain, came to the diocese 
 in 1915, and have charge of the parish of Our Lady 
 of the Holy Rosary, Hartsborne. 
 
 During the World War four French Benedictine 
 Fathers of the Sacred Heart Abbey entered the French 
 Army. Three others and three diocesan priests served 
 as chaplains in the American Army. Throughout the 
 diocese effective work was done in the council of 
 defence, in the various bond and Red Cross drives, 
 etc. 
 
 Old Catholics (cf. C. E., XI—235b), in the 
 United States. After the development of the Old 
 Catholic movement in Europe there grew up here, in 
 some sections, particularly the Middle West, a cer¬ 
 tain tendency to sympathize with these schismatics. 
 The leader in this movement was J. R. Vilatte (or 
 Villatte), a Parisian, a Catholic by birth who had 
 come to Canada to study for the priesthood. While 
 yet in the early stages of preparation he apostatized, 
 chiefly owing to the influence of the apostate Chini- 
 quy, entered a Presbyterian seminary, and became 
 pastor of a Presbyterian congregation in Wisconsin. 
 Later coming under the influence of the apostate 
 Hyacinthe Loyson, he went to Europe and was or¬ 
 dained by the Old Catholic bishop, Herzog, in 1885. 
 Returning to Wisconsin he laid the foundation of the 
 Old Catholic movement among certain communities 
 of Belgians. Among other innovations Mass was 
 said in French, but the Old Catholic doctrine was 
 retained. His first congregation later joined in a 
 body the Episcopal church. Vilatte unsuccessfully 
 attempted a rapprochement with the Episcopalian 
 bishop of Fond du Lac and through the latter’s influ¬ 
 ence, he seeking episcopal consecration at the hands 
 of Herzog, was denied his request. He then turned 
 to the Orient, and was consecrated bishop, according 
 to the Latin Rite, by the schismatical archbishop of 
 Ceylon, Goa, and India, F. X. Julius Alvarez, 
 assisted by two Jacobite Malabar bishops (1891). 
 He now attempted a more pretentious organization 
 in Wisconsin without any great success. He made a 
 solemn recantation of his errors (2 February, 1899) 
 and was outwardly reconciled to the Church, only to 
 relapse within a short time, a decree of excommuni¬ 
 cation (13 June, 1900) being issued against him and 
 
 against a priest, Paul Miraglia, whom he had attempt¬ 
 ed to consecrate bishop. These two now made 
 common cause, and excepting a brief interval about 
 1906, when Vilatte unsuccessfully attempted to 
 organize the Associations of Worship in France after 
 the separation of Church and State, their work has 
 been chiefly in the Middle West. 
 
 Although not ecclesiastically united to the Old 
 Catholic sect of Europe the movement, being doc- 
 trinally the same , is generally given this designation. 
 They were first listed in the United States reports in 
 1916. They then reported three quasi independent 
 branches: ‘the Old Roman Catholic Church, the 
 American Catholic Church, and the Catholic Church 
 of North America, Vilatte being directly in charge of 
 the two first, while the third traced its source to the 
 Jansenists of Utrecht. To these three two others 
 may be added, the Polish National Catholic Church 
 of America, a body made up chiefly of schismatic 
 congregations, generally led away from the Church 
 by recreant priests, and the Lithuanian National 
 Catholic Church which by immigration is an off-shoot 
 of the parent body in Europe. Furthermore the 
 original Old Catholic body in Europe seems also to 
 claim organization here; in 1919 their American arch¬ 
 bishop, de Berghes de Raches, entered the Church 
 (he had never been a Catholic). He entered the 
 Augustinian novitiate, but died 17 November, 1920. 
 
 The three “Old Catholic” bodies in the United 
 States reported in 1916, 21 organizations and 14,200 
 members. In 1920 the “Old Roman Catholic 
 Church” had disappeared, having merged with the 
 “American Catholic Church” under that title, and 
 under the leadership of Vilatte. The two bodies 
 reported in 1920, 9 churches, 19 ministers, and 
 34,000 members. The Polish National Catholic 
 Church claimed in the same year 34 churches, 45 
 ministers, and 28,000 members; the Lithuanian 
 National Catholic Church reported 7 churches, 3 
 ministers, and 7343 members. 
 
 Recent Schismatical Movements among Catholics of the United 
 States in American Ecclesiastical Review, XXI (1899), i, ibid., 
 XXIII (1900), 287; Religious Bodies, 1916 (Washington, 1919); 
 Year Book of the Churches, (New York, annual). 
 
 N. A. Weber. 
 
 O’Leary, Peter, leading modern Gaelic writer, 
 b. at Cluaindroichead, County Cork, Ireland, in 
 1839; d. 21 March, 1920. He entered the diocesan 
 college of Fermoy and from there went on to May- 
 nooth. He became Canon in 1906, after being engaged 
 on parish work for many years. He celebrated his 
 golden jubilee in 1917 and the National University 
 conferred on him the degree of LL.D. two years later. 
 In the revival of the study of Gaelic which was wel¬ 
 comed with so much enthusiasm by the Irish people, 
 Canon O’Leary stands out a conspicuous figure. 
 When after a bitter fight on the part of the English 
 Government to prevent the study of Irish in the 
 schools, the difficulty presented itself of finding books 
 for the young generation to familiarize themselves 
 with the language, Canon O’Leary supplied the want. 
 His first book "S6adna” brought the language at a 
 bound into modern literature with a lightness of touch 
 that has never been surpassed and that elevated it at 
 once into a classic. Such is the opinion of Douglas 
 Hyde. He followed this up by many more which 
 enabled thousands of pupils to prepare for public 
 examinations. He translated the New Testament, the 
 Imitation of Christ, and Aesop’s Fables into Irish, and 
 in his “Guaire,”, “Craos-deamhan,” “Lughaidh 
 MacCon,” and “Eisirt” re-told and modernized some 
 of the great stories of ancient Ireland. 
 
 Olinda and Recife, Archdiocese of (Olin- 
 densis et Recifensis; cf. C. E., XI—242c), in the 
 State cf Pernambuco, Brazil. The see is at present 
 
OLIVER 
 
 559 
 
 OPORTO 
 
 (1922) vacant, the former archbishop, Mgi. Leme da 
 Silveira Cintra having been appointed titular arch¬ 
 bishop of Pharsalia and coadjutor to the archbishop 
 of Rio de Janeiro, 15 March, 1921. He had been 
 Dromoted to the see of Olinda in 1916 to succeed 
 Mgr. da Silva Britto, deceased. On 5 December, 
 1910, the diocese of Olinda was erected into an arch¬ 
 diocese. By a Bull of 26 July, 1918, it was decreed' 
 that the church of St. Peter in Recife should be a co- 
 cathedral with Olinda, that the archbishop and the 
 canons could reside there, and that the title of the 
 diocese should henceforth be Olinda and Recife. 
 In 1920 the church of Recife was erected into a minor 
 basilica According to 1920 statistics there are in 
 the archdiocese 81 parishes, 365 churches and chapels, 
 88 secular and 22 regular priests, and a total popula¬ 
 tion of 1,030,244, of whom 1,028,541 are Catholics, 
 and 1683 are Protestants. 
 
 . °}^ £ 1U Sr ket ’ B lessed (cf. C. E., XII—169c), 
 beatified 23 May, 1920, by Benedict XV. On 30 
 June, 1920, a decree of the Sacred Congregation of 
 Rites authorized the translation of the relic of the 
 head of Blessed Oliver Plunket from the Dominican 
 Convent to the Oliver Plunket Memorial Church, 
 St. Peters, Drogheda. His feast is kept 11 July. 
 
 Olivetans (cf. C. E., XI-244d).—The sixth 
 centenary of the foundation of the order was cele¬ 
 brated in 1919. At the general chapter held at 
 Monte Ohveto in June, 1920, a new procurator gen¬ 
 eral, Dom Lugano, was elected, and the election 
 confirmed according to the rules formulated by 
 Clement XII in 1733. The abbot general is Dom 
 Mauro Parodi. The monastery of Lendinara, in 
 the Diocese of Adria, was erected into an abbey 
 by brief of 15 Dec., 1920, and Dom Celestino Man 
 Colombo, prior of the monastery and rector of the 
 famous sanctuary of Notre Dame del Pilastrello. 
 which adjoins it, was named abbot by the Pope 
 himself and received the abbatial blessing from 
 Bishop Rizzi, 21 Dec., 1920. This sanctuary, con¬ 
 fided to the Olivetans, was erected into a minor 
 basilica by Pius X, 15 Feb., 1911. In 1912 the 
 Onvetans had 4 abbeys (3 in Italy and 1 in Carniola), 
 
 2 priories (in Italy), and 3 residences (2 in Italy 
 and 1 in Istria). There were 124 members, of whom 
 72 were priests, 24 clerics and novices, and 28 
 Brothers. The French houses are now dispersed. 
 
 Olmutz, Archdiocese of. See Olomouc. 
 
 was erected into the Diocese of Kearney. It now com¬ 
 prises an area of 14,051 sq. miles, where formerly its 
 territory extended over 52,996 sq. miles. Rt. Rev. 
 Richard Scanned, D.D., who had filled this see from 
 1891, died 8 January, 1916, and was succeeded by 
 the present incumbent, Most Rev. Jeremiah J. Harty, 
 former Archbishop of Manila, P. I., who was trans¬ 
 ferred to Omaha with the title of Archbishop-Bishop. 
 Archbishop Harty was born in St. Louis, Mo., 1 
 November, 1853, and was ordained 28 April, 1878. 
 He labored in his home city as an assistant and then 
 a pastor until 1903, when he was appointed Arch¬ 
 bishop of Manila, which see be filled until his transfer 
 to Omaha. He took possession of the see on 28 De¬ 
 cember, 1916, and his administration has been marked 
 by the establishment of new parishes and parochial 
 schools and the introduction of new religious orders 
 into the diocese. An event of special importance was 
 the establishment of the Chinese Mission Society in 
 Omaha on 14 December, 1918. The mother house of 
 the Society is at Dalgan Park, Galway, Ireland, and 
 their present headquarters in Omaha, St. Columban’s 
 Mission House, is devoted to the education of young 
 men for the priesthood in China. “The Far East,” a 
 magazine devoted to the conversion of China, is pub¬ 
 lished here. Another Catholic paper, “The True 
 Voice,” edited by Rev. P. C. Gannon and having a 
 very extensive circulation, is also published in the 
 diocese. The religious orders now (1922) established 
 here include men: Augustinian Recollects, Basilians, 
 Franciscans, Jesuits, and Redemptorists; women: 
 Sisters of Mercy, Poor Clares, Religious of the Sacred 
 Heart, Sisters of Notre Dame, of St. Dominic, of St. 
 Francis, of the Good Shepherd, Franciscan Sisters of 
 Christian Charity and Sisters of the Blessed Sacra¬ 
 ment. The latest statistics credit the diocese with 
 163 diocesan and 56 regular clergy, 142 parishes, 164 
 churches and 2 more under construction, 59 chapels, 
 4 stations, 78 men of religious orders, 844 women 
 of religious orders, 1 university with 1945 students, 32 
 ecclesiastical students, 7 colleges and academies for 
 girls, with 84 teachers and 701 students, 8 high schools 
 with 30 teachers and 336 students, 90 parochial schools 
 with 11,216 pupils, 1 orphan asylum with 166 orphans, 
 4 homes for young ladies with 181 residents, 1 House 
 of the Good Shepherd, 1 industrial home for boys, 
 1 home for the aged, 3 hospitals with 590 beds, 188 
 hospital nurses, and a total of 15,005 young people 
 under Catholic care. In 1921 the total Catholic 
 population was 83,357. 
 
 Olomouc, Archdiocese of (Olomucensis; cf. 
 V. E., XI—-247a), in Czechoslovakia. In 1921 Mgr. 
 Antonin Slojan was appointed archbishop of Olomouc 
 w) succeed Cardinal de Skrbensky-Hriste, resigned 
 Born in Moravia, 22 May, 1851, he was ordained in 
 18/6 and for twenty years was curate and pastor in 
 various churches. In 1896 he won his doctorate in 
 theology and the following year was Czech deputy to 
 *r e Council of the Empire. In 1902 he was deputy to 
 f G Moravia, and was made canon and provost 
 
 ot collegiate chapter of Kromerizi in 1908. He was a 
 delegate to the National Assembly in 1919, and the 
 following year was elected to the Senate of Czecho¬ 
 slovakia. At the same time the pope made him a 
 chamberlain. Wa,s consecrated archbishop 
 of Olomouc by Mgr. Micara, 3 April, 1921. Mgr. 
 W isnar, titular bishop of Calliopolis, is auxiliary of 
 Olomouc. In 1916 there were in the archdiocese 51 
 deaneries, 664 parishes, 1536 secular and 145 regular 
 •priests, 2121 nuns, and 1,860,150 Catholics. 
 
 Omaha Diocese of (Omahensis; cf. C. E., XI- 
 49c) in the State of Nebraska, U. S. A., was divided 
 into two parts by a Decree of the Sacred Consistoriai 
 Congregation of 8 March, 1912, and the western part 
 
 Ontario, Northern, Vicariate Apostolic of. 
 Detached from the Diocese of Haileybury in province 
 of Ontario, Canada, and erected into a prefecture 18 
 April, 1918, and into a vicariate 27 November, 1920. 
 The majority of the Catholic population of 12,000 are 
 French-Canadian with the rest Indian or Irish. There 
 are 8 secular priests, 9 parishes, 50 missions, 10 ele¬ 
 mentary schools with 16 teachers and 450 pupils, a 
 boarding school for Indians at Albany with 30 pupils 
 taught by 5 Gray Nuns of Ottawa, a boarding school 
 for boys and girls at Hearst with 50 boarders and 80 
 day pupils taught by 8 sisters of Our Lady of Perpetual 
 Help. The present vicar apostolic is Rt. Rev. Joseph 
 Halle, elected prefect apostolic in 1919, titular Bishop 
 of Theveste and vicar apostolic in 1920, consecrated 
 Bishop of Petraea, 17 April, 1921, with his residence 
 at Hearst. 
 
 Oporto, Diocese of (Portugallensis; cf. C. E., 
 XI—260f) in Portugal, Suffragan of Braga. Mgr. 
 Antonio Barbosa-Leao is the present (1922) Bishop 
 of Oporto, having succeeded to the see in 1919 on 
 the death of Mgr. de Souza Barroso (1918). He was 
 born in the diocese 17 October, 1860, was appointed 
 Bishop of Angola and Congo in 1906, transferred to 
 
OPPIDO 
 
 560 
 
 ORDERS 
 
 Faro the following year, where he remained until 
 1919. The latest available statistics (1920) give for 
 the diocese 462 parishes, 480 churches, 1220 priests 
 and 650,000 Catholics. 
 
 Oppido Mamertina, Diocese of (Oppidensis; 
 cf. C. E., XI—262a).—in the province of Reggio 
 Calabria, Italy, suffragan of Reggim Mgr. Antonio 
 Golati, archpriest of Vallenlunga in the diocese of 
 Mileto, was appointed bishop of Oppido Mamertina 
 15 December, 1919, to succeed Mgr. Scopellitti, who 
 resigned after ruling the see for twenty-one years and 
 was transferred to the titular see of Rhesaena. In 
 1920 the diocese contained 19 parishes, 4 vicarages, 30 
 churches or chapels, 41 secular priests, 25 seminarians 
 and a Catholic population of 30,000. 
 
 Option, Right of (cf. C. E., XI-264b).—The 
 right of option which was formerly enjoyed by many 
 chapters and until recently by a few is now abolished, 
 even where it existed in virtue of a special Apostolic 
 indult, and all customs to the contrary are reprobated. 
 This applies not merely to dignities ( dignitates) but to 
 all canonries also. Of course where the right of 
 option was based on the original provisions of a 
 foundation it has not been affected by the Code legis¬ 
 lation, though it may not be enjoyed by a capitular 
 emeritus. Cardinal-deacons and cardinal-priests but 
 but not cardinal-bishops still possess the right of 
 option peculiar to the Sacred College: thus, on 7 
 March, 1921, Cardinal La Fontaine, Patriarch of 
 Venice, who had the title of Saints Nereus and 
 Achilles, resigned it and took the title of the Twelve 
 Holy Apostles, which had been rendered vacant by 
 the death of Cardinal Netto on 7 December, 1920. 
 
 Cordex juris canonici , can., 236, 396, 422. 
 
 Oradea-Mare, Diocese of. See Nagy-Varad. 
 
 Oran, Diocese of (Oranensis; cf. C. E., XI— 
 266c), in Algeria, suffragan of Algiers. Rt. Rev. 
 Christophe-Louis Legasse, appointed bishop of this 
 see 6 December, 1915; was transferred to Perigeux 13 
 August, 1920. His successor was named in the person 
 of Rt. Rev. Leon Durand, born in Oran in 1878, 
 studied at Marseilles, the French Seminary in Rome, 
 and the Academy of Noble Ecclesiastics, was ordained 
 in 1902, served as a professor of theology and canon 
 law in the upper seminary of Marseilles, entered the 
 army as a military chaplain in 1914 and received an 
 honorary citation, and was appointed titular Bishop 
 of Hetalonia 10 January, 1919, transferred to Tri- 
 comia 10 March following and named auxiliary at 
 Marseilles, where he served until his transfer to Oran 
 
 11 October, 1920. As a result of the efforts of Bishop 
 Legasse the old episcopal palace has been returned 
 to the bishop under an eighteen year lease, beginning 
 1 July, 1920, at the same price paid by the State, its 
 tenant for the last ten years, to the city of Oran. 
 The garden remains open to the public during the 
 greater part of the day and the city pays for its upkeep 
 in recognition of the advantage thus accorded to the 
 people. The old cathedral of St. Louis, in this dio¬ 
 cese, was replaced by that of the Sacred Heart 22 
 August, 1913, this church having been blessed the 
 preceding February. The chapter still has St. Louis 
 for its patron however. Latest statistics credit the 
 diocese w T ith 273,536 Europeans, and 686,444 Mus¬ 
 sulmans, 87 first and second class parishes and 135 
 priests. 
 
 Orange River, Vicariate Apostolic of (Fluminis 
 Orangensis). —According to statistics for 1921 there 
 were in the vicariate of Orange River, South Africa, 
 
 12 quasi-parishes, 12 churches or chapels, 30 stations, 
 12 regular priests, 3 Brothers, 16 Sisters, 6 catechists, 
 4 convents of nuns, 12 elementary schools with 
 
 18 teachers and 700 pupils, 4 orphanages, 3 homes 
 for aged men and a Catholic population of about 
 5500, English, Dutch and Africans. The residence 
 of the vicar apostolic is at Pella. In 1909 the 
 prefecture apostolic of Grand Namaqualand (q. v.) 
 was detached from the vicariate. 
 
 - Oratory (cf. C. E., XI-271c).-—The Code 
 
 defines an oratory as a place set aside for Divine 
 worship, though not chiefly and expressly intended 
 for the use of the public generally. It is called a 
 public oratory, if while it is principally intended for 
 a collegiate body or even private individuals, the 
 general public have a canonically approved right of 
 going there at least during Divine services; a semi¬ 
 public oratory on the other hand is erected for a 
 community or a certain body of the faithful, without 
 the general public having the right to visit it; they 
 are erected by permission of the ordinary. Finally an 
 oratory is termed private or domestic when it has 
 been erected in a private establishment for the exclu¬ 
 sive use of a private person or family. The private 
 chapels of cardinals and bishops now enjoy the same 
 privileges as semi-public oratories. Colleges, board¬ 
 ing-schools, military barracks, fortresses, prisons, 
 hospitals, and the like may not have minor chapels 
 in addition to the principal oratory unless the ordinary 
 thinks they are necessary or very useful. _ Mortuary 
 chapels erected in cemeteries by private individuals 
 or families for their place of burial are considered 
 private oratories; while the ordinary may habitually 
 allow the celebration of several Masses in such a 
 chapel, in other domestic oratories they can allow 
 only one Mass to be said as an incidental occurrence, 
 in an extraordinary case when there is a just and 
 reasonable cause. When an Apostolic indult has 
 been obtained for a domestic oratory, one Mass may 
 be celebrated there daily except on the more solemn 
 feasts, but no other church services may be held; if, 
 however, there is a just and reasonable cause, different 
 from those on account of which the indult was 
 granted, the ordinary may allow Mass to be celebrated 
 there on these feast-days as an incidental occurrence. 
 Domestic oratories cannot be blessed or consecrated 
 like churches; they and semi-public oratories, whether 
 they have received only the common blessing for 
 houses or no blessing at all, must be reserved exclu¬ 
 sively for Divine service and must never be used for 
 
 domestic purposes. 
 
 Codex juris canonici , can., 1188-96. 
 
 Orders, Holy (cf. C. E., XI-279a)—Minister.—• 
 The ordinary minister of the sacrament of orders is a 
 consecrated bishop, but under certain circumstances 
 the Holy See authorizes by common law or by a special 
 indult a cleric who has not received episcopal conse¬ 
 cration to act as an extraordinary minister. The num¬ 
 ber of legitimate ordinary ministers has been curtailed 
 by the Code; formerly they included the bishops of 
 origin, or benefice, or service, or incardination; today 
 the office is limited to one’s own ( propius ) bishop or a 
 bishop who has received legitimate dimissorial let¬ 
 ters from him. The expression “own bishop” as far 
 as the ordination of seculars is concerned means 
 solely the bishop of the diocese in which the candidate 
 has a domicile together with origin, or a simple domi¬ 
 cile without origin; in the latter case the candidate 
 must swear that he intends to remain permanently in 
 the diocese, unless there is question of ordaining a 
 cleric who has already been incardinated in the diocese 
 by first tonsure, or a student who is intended for ser¬ 
 vice in another diocese after legitimate excardination ' 
 and incardination, or a professed religious. The place 
 of origin is that in which a father has a domicile, or in 
 defect of a domicile, a quasi-domicile, when his child 
 is born, or the place of the mother’s domicile or quasi- 
 
ORDERS 
 
 561 
 
 ORDERS 
 
 domicile if the child is illegitimate or posthumous or 
 the place where a foundling has been discovered, or 
 the place of birth in the case of the child of vagi. No 
 one may promote to higher orders a candidate who has 
 been ordained^ by the Pope, without the permission 
 of the Holy See; so also no one may consecrate a 
 bishop without the consent of the sovereign pontiff, 
 and even then he is to have two assistant bishops for 
 the ceremony unless a dispensation has been granted 
 from Rome; finally a Latin bishop may not ordain a 
 person belonging to an Oriental Rite without an apos¬ 
 tolic indult. 
 
 The number of extraordinary ministers, on the 
 other hand, has been increased. A regular abbot cle 
 regimine, even without territory nullius, provided he 
 is a priest and has lawfully received the abbatial bless¬ 
 ing, may confer tonsure and minor orders on all his 
 professed subjects. Unless under those conditions, if 
 the abbot is not a bishop, any orders conferred by him 
 would be null and void, as any privilege to the con¬ 
 trary has now been withdrawn. Vicars and prefects 
 apostolic, and abbots and prelates nullius, if conse¬ 
 crated, are ordinary ministers like other bishops; 
 if they have not been consecrated they can, when 
 within their own territory and during their tenure of 
 office, confer tonsure and minor orders on their own 
 subjects and on all who have dimissorial letters from 
 their own superiors; except under these circumstances 
 any orders conferred by them would be invalid. Fin¬ 
 ally, cardinals who are not bishops may confer tonsure 
 and minor orders on any candidates who present them¬ 
 selves with dimissorial letters from their own supe¬ 
 riors. 
 
 Subjects .—The requirements of the Code regarding 
 aspirants for Holy Orders mentioned here refer not to 
 the validity but to the liceity of ordinations. It is 
 advisable that aspirants to orders should live in a 
 seminary from a very early age; all must do so at least 
 during their entire theological studies, unless the or¬ 
 dinary conscientiously believes that there is grave 
 cause for dispensing from the obligation in a special 
 case; if thus dispensed the aspirant should be entrusted 
 to the special care of a pious capable priest, but even 
 then his studies must be made in the seminary, not 
 privately. First tonsure and orders are to be con¬ 
 ferred only on those who intend to become priests and 
 who give good hope of filling that office worthily. 
 The candidate for orders must have been confirmed. 
 No one, whether secular or religious, may receive first 
 tonsure before beginning his theology; the subdiacon- 
 ate may not be conferred before the end of the third 
 year’s theology, nor the diaconate before commencing 
 the fourth year; the priesthood can be received only 
 after the middle of that year. The intervals between 
 the reception of the different orders must be observed; 
 those between first tonsure and portership and be¬ 
 tween each of the minor orders is left to the discretion 
 of the bishop; but one must be an acolyte one year 
 before receiving the subdiaconate, and subdeacons 
 and deacons must have exercised their respective or¬ 
 ders for three months before being promoted, unless, 
 in the opinion of the bishop, the wants or interests of 
 the church demand shorter intervals; however, all 
 customs to the contrary being reprobated, it is never 
 lawful without special papal permission to confer 
 minor orders with the subdiaconate or two sacred 
 orders on the same day; nor is it allowable to confer 
 first tonsure with a minor order, or all minor orders 
 at the same time. 
 
 Seculars must have a canonical title for ordination, 
 either a benefice, patrimony, or pension; and a bishop 
 who, without an Apostolic indult, ordains his subject 
 without a title, must provide for his support if neces¬ 
 sary, even if the subject covenanted not to ask for 
 alimentation. When these titles are not available 
 they may be replaced by a title of diocesan service 
 
 and in territories subject to Propaganda by a title of 
 mission but in these cases the candidate must sw r ear 
 to devote himself perpetually to the service of the 
 diocese or mission, under the authority of the local 
 ordinary for the time being. In the United States the 
 oath has been modified to allow the cleric to pass to 
 another diocese in the same province. In these two 
 cases the ordinary is bound to appoint the candidate 
 to some benefice or office, or give him an allowance 
 sufficient for his support. For regulars with solemn 
 profession the title is poverty; for religious with per¬ 
 petual simple vows it is the mensa communis; for other 
 religious it is as in the case of seculars. Secular can¬ 
 didates for ordination and religious who are bound by 
 the same regulations before being ordained must pro¬ 
 duce: (a) testimony of their last ordination or, if there 
 is question of first tonsure, of their baptism and con¬ 
 firmation; Cb) testimony that they have completed 
 the required course of study; (c) testimony of the 
 rector of the seminary or of the priest to whom the 
 aspirant was entrusted while outside the seminary, 
 concerning his moral character; (d) testimonial letters 
 from the ordinary of the place where the candidate 
 has lived for a time during which he might have in¬ 
 curred a canonical impediment; (e) similar letters from 
 a higher religious superior if the candidate is a re¬ 
 ligious. The time just referred to in (d) is usually 
 three months in the case of soldiers, and six months 
 for others after attaining puberty, but the ordaining 
 bishop may insist on having letters when the time was 
 shorter and even for the period before puberty was 
 reached. If the local ordinary has not sufficient 
 knowledge, either personal or through others, to tes¬ 
 tify that no canonical impediment was incurred while 
 the candidate was in his territory, or if the candidate 
 has lived in so many dioceses that it would be im¬ 
 possible or very difficult to obtain all the requisite 
 letters, the ordinary must obtain a supplementary 
 oath from the candidate. If after obtainin g the letters 
 but before ordination the candidate again remains the 
 requisite time in a diocese he must procure fresh testi¬ 
 mony from the local ordinary. A religious superior 
 must testify in his letters not only that his subject is 
 professed and a member of his house, but that he has 
 finished the studies and has the other qualifications 
 required by the canons. Candidates, both secular and 
 religious, are to be carefully examined concerning the 
 order they are about to receive, and those intended 
 for major orders are to be examined in theology; the 
 details of the examination are left to the bishop; but 
 even after the candidate has received the dimissorial 
 letters certifying that his examination was satisfac¬ 
 tory, the ordaining bishop has the right to hold an¬ 
 other examination and reject the candidate if he finds 
 him unsuited. 
 
 The names of the candidates, excepting religious 
 with simple or solemn perpetual vows, must be an¬ 
 nounced publicly in the candidates’ parochial church, 
 but the ordinary may dispense from this for just cause 
 and have the proclamation made in another church or 
 instead of the proclamation have the names posted 
 publicly on the church doors for a few days, one of 
 which must be a day of precept. The proclamation 
 should be made on a day of precept during mass or on’ 
 another day and at another time when a great number 
 of the faithful are attending church. If within six 
 months the candidate has not been ordained the proc¬ 
 lamation must be renewed. The faithful must inform 
 the parish priest or the ordinary if they know of any 
 impediment to the ordination. Those who are about 
 to receive first tonsure or minor orders must make a 
 retreat of three days, those who are to be raised to a 
 major order, six days; if anyone is to receive several 
 major orders within six months, the ordinary may re¬ 
 duce the retreat for the diaconate to three days. If 
 the ordination does not take place within six months 
 
OREGON 
 
 562 
 
 OREGON 
 
 the retreat must be repeated; if the delay is less, the 
 matter is left to the ordinary’s discretion. Religious 
 must make the retreat in their own house or another 
 at the superior’s discretion; seculars are to make it in 
 the seminary or in another pious or religious house 
 designated by the bishop, who must be notified that 
 it was made, by the superior of the house, or if the 
 candidate is a religious by one of this higher superiors. 
 
 Ceremonies .—The directions of the ritual are to be 
 followed as heretofore in ordinations; little changes 
 have been made in the Code. All those who are being 
 promoted to a major order must receive Holy Com¬ 
 munion at the ordination Mass. If a candidate who 
 has already received any orders in an Oriental Rite is, 
 in virtue of an Apostolic indult, about to receive 
 higher orders in the Latin Rite he must first receive 
 in the latter Rite the orders which he did not receive 
 in the Oriental. Major orders may now be conferred 
 also on any Sunday, or a feast of obligation, when 
 there is a grave cause for doing so and minor orders 
 can be given not merely on Sundays but also on feasts 
 of double rite, in the morning only, without a special 
 indult. All customs contrary to the provisions just 
 mentioned regarding the time of ordination are repro¬ 
 bated. Though ordinarily ordinations take place in 
 the church, to sure and minor orders may be con¬ 
 ferred in private oratories and major orders for just 
 cause in an episcopal seminary, or religious oratory. 
 Finally, a record of the ordination must be preserved 
 in the local curial archives, and the local ordinal, or 
 higher superior of the candidate who is a religious and 
 has been ordained with dimissorial letters, must send 
 notice of the ordination of all subdeacors to the rec¬ 
 tors of their baptismal churches so that the fact can 
 be recorded in the baptismal register. 
 
 Oregon (cf. C. E., XI-288c)—The area of the 
 State of Oregon is 96,669 square miles including 
 1092 of water surface. The population in 1920 was 
 783,389, an increase of 16 per cent since 1910; the 
 increase between 1900 and 1910 was 62 per cent. The 
 average number of inhabitants to the square mile was 
 8.2. About half the population (49.9 per cent) was 
 rural. The largest cities are Portland (258,288), 
 Salem (17,679), Eugene (10,593), Astoria (14,207). 
 Thi whites numbered 769,146 (666,995 native, 102,- 
 151 foreigi bor ), the negroes, 2144, Indians, 4590, 
 Chi lese, 39090, Japa mse, 4151. Of the native whites, 
 497,726 were of native parentage, 95,827 of foreign 
 parentage, 73,442 of mixed parentage. The school 
 attendance of all between the ages of 5 and 20 years 
 of age was 152,275 or 70.1 per cent. Among those of 
 ten years and over there were 9317 illiterates, or 1.5 
 per cent. Most of the foreign-born whites came orig- 
 i ally from Canada (13,774), Germany (13,740), 
 Sweden (10,532), Norway (6955), and Russia (6979). 
 
 Economic Conditions. —Oregon is prosperous as 
 an agricultural State. The number of farms in 1920 
 (50,206) shows an increase of 10.3 per cent since 1910. 
 The area of farm land is 13,542,318 acres, the value 
 of farm property, $818,559,751; value of all farm 
 crops, $131,884,639; of live stock, $101,779,342. 
 The principal crops were wheat, valued at $41,201,- 
 480; oats, $7,939,537; barley, $2,215,065; hay, 
 $41,835,706; fruits and nuts, $20,373,412; dairy 
 products, $17,651,409. Especially rich is the county 
 of Umatilla, whose wheat crop averages about 5,000,- 
 000 bushels annually, while the alfalfa lands, com¬ 
 prising about 30,000 acres, yield three crops a year, 
 totalling 4 tons to the acre. Live stock is also an 
 extensive industry; there are in this county about 
 66,000 sheep, with fleeces averaging about 9 pounds 
 each, and 33,000 cattle. The wool clip was 13,118,479 
 pounds, valued at $1,544,443. In 1920, 9154 farms 
 with an acreage of 986,162 were irrigated. Plans are 
 are being made for the irrigation of about two million 
 
 acres. At an annual expense of $100,000 the State- 
 operated hatcheries liberate 85,000,000 young salmon 
 every year. The entire industry brings in about 
 $10,000,000 annually. 
 
 The mining resources are few, coal to the amount of 
 28,327 tons being mined in 1918. Manufacturing is 
 slightly on the increase, the number of establishments 
 in 1919 (2707) being 16.7 per cent greater than in 
 1914. There were 68,004 persons ergaged in manu¬ 
 facture and earning for their services a total of 
 $94,986,000. The capital invested was $499,982,000 
 and the value of the products $366,783,000. For 
 communications, the State has 3214 miles of railways. 
 The Dalles and Celilo Canal completed in 1915 opens 
 the Columbia and Snake Rivers to navigation for a 
 length of 570 miles from the ocean. The Columbia 
 River Highway, om of the finest in the world, was 
 opened in 1916. The State debt in 1920 was $19,- 
 859,025; the assessed value of taxable property, as 
 equalized, was $990,435,472. The lumber industry is 
 a large source of revenue for Oregon, the output of 
 sawed lumber for 1918 being 2,700,000,000 feet, 
 valued at $68,000,000. In 1913 a compulsory forest 
 patrol law was e: acted requiring the owners of forests 
 to provide adequate protection, or to pay for the 
 protection furnished by the State. The air patrol 
 maintained by the War Department proved a valuable 
 adjunct to the system. 
 
 Religion. —According to the latest United States 
 Census of Religious Denominations, the membership 
 of all sects was 179,468. The largest were: Catholics 
 49,728 or 27%; Methodist Episcopalians 27,866 or 
 15.5%; Presbyterians 16,672 or 9.3%; Baptists, 
 Northern Convention 15,635 or 8.7%; Disciples of 
 Christ 15,399, or 8.6%; Congregationalist 6373 or 
 3.6%; Protestant Episcopalians 5726 or 3.2%; 
 Jews 1315 or .7%. For further educational and re¬ 
 ligious statistics, see Oregon City, Archdiocese of; 
 Baker City, Diocese of. 
 
 Education. —Education is compulsory for children 
 between the ages of 9 and 15. All county school 
 districts having a school population of 2500 or mom' 
 must maintain schools at least eight months in the 
 year. In 1920 there were 2673 public schools with 
 7695 teachers and 148,412 enrolled pupils, 220 high 
 schools with 1163 teachers and 24,641 pupils, a public 
 normal school with 30 teachers, and 230 pupils. The 
 total expenditure on education in 1919 was $11,217,- 
 385. An irreducible fund of $7,109,689 has been 
 secured by the sale of part of the school lands. The 
 Agricultural College has an instructing staff of 265 
 and a total attendance of 3623 students; the Uni¬ 
 versity of Oregon, 123 instructors and 1868 students. 
 Washington’s Birthday (22 February) is a half-holiday 
 in the schools. Bible reading is neither permitted 
 nor excluded. The State laws governing private and 
 parochial schools are as follows: It shall be unlawful 
 for any board of school directors, regents, or trustees, 
 or for any teacher or other person teaching in the 
 public or private schools, to cause to be taught or to 
 teach any subject or subjects other than foreign 
 languages in the public or private schools in any 
 language but English. All teachers in public and 
 private schools must take the oath of allegiance. No 
 money shall be drawn from the treasury for the 
 benefit of ary religious or theological institution 
 (1-6). Property for educational, literary, scientific, 
 religious or charitable purposes may be exempted from 
 taxation (IX-1). Any teacher in a four-year high 
 school must be a graduate of a standard college or 
 hold a like certificate or State diploma. The State 
 superintendent shall visit all chartered schools and 
 shall secure statistical information relative to the 
 number of students, teachers, value of property, 
 libraries, salaries, courses of study. 
 
 Recent Legislation and History. —In 1911 a 
 
OREGON 
 
 563 
 
 ORIA 
 
 new law permitted a three-quarters jury verdict in 
 civil cases; white slave traffic was made a felony; a 
 Parole Board, Fish and Game Commission, and State 
 Banking Department were created. In the general 
 election of November, 1912, suffrage was extended to 
 women and every citizen of twenty-one years of age 
 and over, who shall have resided in the State during the 
 six months preceding the election. In the same year, 
 the Supreme Court refuse to declare the initiative, 
 referendum and recall Act of 1910 unconstitutional, 
 simply denied jurisdiction, saying that the question 
 was political, not judicial. The law of 1913, pro¬ 
 viding permanent registration of voters was declared 
 unconstitutional. A Workmen’s Compensation Act 
 was passed in 1913. According to the laws of 1915, 
 applicants for a marriage license must file a physician’s 
 certificate, made u?:der oath ten days before the 
 ceremony, stating that the male party is fit to marry. 
 Any physician making a false statement on the 
 certificate required shall lose his license. Marriage 
 of a white person with a negro, Chinese, Kai aka, or 
 Indian is forbidden. It is a criminal offense to take a 
 girl under sixteen years of age against the will of her 
 parents or guardian, for the purpose of marriage. 
 In 1916 the manufacture and sale of liquor was pro¬ 
 hibited, and the importation of intoxicants into 
 the state forbidden. An amendment went into effect, 
 removing from the constitution a clause denying the 
 suffrage to negroes, mulattoes, and Chinese. The 
 Sunday closing laws of the State, which had been on 
 the statute books for many j^ears without an effort 
 being made to enforce them, were repealed in 1916. 
 The Act of Repeal was proposed by initiative petition 
 in July and approved by a majority of votes in the 
 November election. In 1917 a Poor Man’s Court 
 was created; provisions were made for the commit¬ 
 ment and care of the feeble-minded, insane and 
 criminally inclined persons were provided for; pa¬ 
 rental schools for discipline and instruction of habitual 
 truants, absentees, and school offenders, and county 
 tuberculosis sanitariums and hospitals were estab¬ 
 lished. In order to stimulate the return of dis¬ 
 charged soldiers and sailors to colleges and uni¬ 
 versities, the Legislature permitted the payment of 
 $25.00 a month during eight months a year for four 
 years to any veteran of the European War. More 
 recent laws allow the widow to take an undivided 
 third of land in lieu of a dower. Immoral pictures, 
 printed or written matter, articles or instruments are 
 forbidden. The Federal Suffrage Act was ratified on 
 12 January ; 1919; the Prohibition Act three days 
 later. During the European War Oregon sent into 
 the United States Army 30,116 men (.8 per cent). 
 
 1 he Oregon members of the national army joined the 
 91st Division at Camp Lewis, Washington. The 
 summary of casualties of the Oregon members of the 
 American Expeditionary Force is as follows: de¬ 
 ceased, 29 officers, 483 men; prisoners, 29 officers, 
 430 men; wounded, 63 officers, 991 men. 
 
 Oregon City, Archdiocese of (Oregonopoli- 
 tanensis; cf. C. E., XI—293a), comprises 21,389 
 square miles in the State of Oregon. This see is 
 ■filled by Most Rev. Alexander Christie, promoted 
 from the see of Vancouver 12 February, 1899. Born 
 in Vermont in 1848, Archbishop Christie made his 
 studies in St. Paul, Minnesota, and was ordained 22 
 December, 1877, and appointed Bishop of Van¬ 
 couver, 22 March, 1898. The religious communities 
 now in the archdiocese include: men, Benedictines, 
 Capuchins, Dominicans, Franciscans, Fathers and 
 Brothers^ of the Congregation of the Holy Cross, 
 Jesuit Fathers, Paulists, Redemptorists, Servites, 
 Society of the Divine Saviour and Brothers of the 
 Christian Schools; women; Sisters of the Holy Names 
 of Jesus and Mary, Sisters of Charity of Providence, 
 
 of Mercy, of the Good Shepherd, Sisters Adorers of 
 the Precious Blood, Sisters of the Holy Child Jesus, 
 Sisters of Mary of the Presentation, Benedictine 
 Sisters, and Sisters of St. Francis. The archdiocese 
 comprises 1 mitred abbot, 77 diocesan priests, 76 
 regular priests, 66 churches with resident priests, 
 50 missions with churches, about 100 mission stations, 
 18 chapels, 1 seminary of religious order with 47 
 students, 3 colleges and academies for boys with 
 563 students, 13 academies for girls, 46 parochial 
 schools, 7300 pupils in Catholic schools, 3 orphan 
 asylums caring for 405 orphans, 8 hospitals, 1 House 
 of the Good Shepherd, 1 home for the aged, and 1 
 Catholic young women’s home. The Catholic 
 population of the archdiocese is 60,000.. 
 
 Orense, Diocese of (Auriensis; cf. C. E., XI- 
 295b), in Spain, is a suffragan of the Archdiocese of 
 Compostela. The present incumbent, Rt. Rev. D. 
 Florencio Cervino Gonzales, was appointed to the see 
 7 March, 1921, as successor to Rt. Rev. Eustachio 
 Ilundain y Esteban, who filled the see from 14 No¬ 
 vember, 1904, until his promotion to the Archdiocese 
 of Seville, 16 December, 1920. By 1920 statistics the 
 Catholic population of the diocese numbers 363,000, 
 practically all the inhabitants of this territory. In 
 1921 there were 682 parishes, 682 churches, 12 monas¬ 
 teries for men with 86 religious, 12 monasteries for 
 women with 180 sisters, 882 secular priests and 147 
 regulars, 20 Brothers and 1 seminary. The Catholic 
 institutions include 1 normal school, 6 homes, 4 asy¬ 
 lums, 3 hospitals, 8 refuges, 2 lay charitable centres 
 and 1 day nursery. There are many societies organ¬ 
 ized among both clergy and laitv, and two Catholic 
 periodicals are published. 
 
 Organ, Nellie, better known as Little Nellie 
 of Holy God, b. in Waterford, Ireland, 24 August, 
 1903; d. there 2 February, 1908. This saintly child 
 was the daughter of humble Catholic parents whose 
 only inheritance was a sterling Irish faith. The 
 youngest of four children, Nellie was not four years 
 old when her mother died and she, with her sister, 
 was placed in the Industrial School of the Sisters of 
 the Good Shepherd, at Sunday’s Well in 1907. It 
 was soon discovered that she was suffering from 
 phthisis and curvature of the spine. As her frail 
 little body wasted away her heart and soul opened 
 to the love of God and the illumination of His grace 
 in an extraordinary degree. She had a wonderful 
 intuition concerning the Real Presence, and her 
 progress in religious knowledge and growth in holiness 
 were most "remarkable. She lived continuously in 
 the presence of “Holy God,” and her hunger to receive 
 Him in Holy Communion was so great that the 
 Bishop of Cork permitted her to make her First 
 Communion, a permission more unusual then, before 
 the promulgation of the decree of Pope Pius X in 
 favor of early communion, than now. During the 
 remaining months of her life her patience in suffering 
 for the love of “Holy God” many extraordinary 
 spiritual facts attested by the Sisters who witnessed 
 them, the hours she spent in “talking to Holy God,” 
 and the secrets He revealed to her convinced those 
 who came in contact with her of her unusual sanctity. 
 She was buried in the public cemetery of St. Joseph 
 where her grave became a shrine, at which, it was 
 rumored, many found peace and consolation. A 
 year and a half after her death her body was trans¬ 
 ferred to the Convent Cemetery at Sunday’s Well. 
 At the disinterment her remains were found to be 
 intact, the fingers quite flexible, and her clothing 
 exactly as it was on the day of her death. 
 
 Edith Donovan. 
 
 Oria (or Uritana), Diocese of (Uritanensis; 
 cf. C. E., XI—302a), in the province of Lecce, 
 
ORIHUELA 
 
 564 
 
 OSAKA 
 
 Southern Italy, Suffragan of Taranto. According to 
 the statistics for 1920 the diocese contains 15 parishes, 
 122 churches or chapels, 132 secular priests, 20 sem¬ 
 inarians, 51 regular priests, 30 Brothers, and 42 
 Sisters and 120,000 Catholics. Mgr. Antonio di 
 Tommasio has ruled the see since 1903. 
 
 Orihuela, Diocese of (Oriolensis orAlomensis; 
 cf. C. E., XI—315c), comprises most of the civil 
 province of Alicante, in Spain, suffragan of Valencia. 
 Rt. Rev. Raymond Plaza y Blanco, born in the dio¬ 
 cese of Cuenca in 1847 and appointed to this see 18 
 July, 1913, died 8 November, 1921, and no bishop 
 has yet been appointed to succeed him. This 
 diocese also has jurisdiction over two small portions 
 of the territory to the North, rightly belonging to 
 neighboring dioceses. Latest statistics (1920) credit 
 it with 367,603 Catholics, 70 parishes, 314 priests, 
 94 churches, 145 chapels and about 5 convents with 
 133 religious and 445 Sisters. 
 
 O’Riordan, Michael, Rector of the Irish 
 College, Rome; b. in Co. Limerick, Ireland, in 
 1857; d. at Rome on 27 August, 1919. He was 
 educated in the Irish College, the Propaganda and 
 the Gregorianum, Rome. After his ordination to the 
 priesthood in 1883 he spent four years in the ministry 
 at Westminster, England, and from there went to a 
 professor’s chair at St. Munchin’s College, Limerick, 
 and later was attached to the parish of St. Michael 
 in the same city. In 1905 he was called to Rome 
 as Rector of the Irish College and successor to Mgr. 
 Murphy. He was made a Prothonotary Apostolic, 
 consultor of the Sacred Congregation and postulator 
 of the cause of the Irish martyrs. Meantime he had 
 received an honorary degree as doctor of philosophy 
 from Louvain. He published several scholarly 
 works, one of which was an answer to Draper’s 
 “Conflict of Science and Religion.” “Catholicity 
 and Progress in Ireland” and the “Life of St. Colum- 
 banus” were also from his pen, as were many con¬ 
 tributions to English, American, Irish and Italian 
 Reviews. He was one of the best esteemed men 
 in Rome for his personal qualities as well as for his 
 historical, archaeological and theological learning. 
 
 Oristano, Archdiocese of (Arborensis; cf. C. 
 E., XI-316c), in Sardinia. Archbishop Tolu, who 
 had filled this see from 1899, died 30 January, 1914, 
 and was succeeded by Most Rev. Ernest Piovella, b. 
 at Milan, 1867, promoted to the see of Oristano 15 
 April, 1914, transferred to the see of Cagliari, 8 
 March, 1920. The see is now filled by Most Rev. 
 Giorgio Delrio, b. in Silanus, Italy, 1865, made a 
 chancellor penitentiary, and pro-vicar general, 
 appointed Bishop of Gerace 6 December, 1906, and 
 promoted 16 December, 1920. In 1912 Oristano cele¬ 
 brated the tercentenary of its seminary, founded in 
 1612. In September, 1921, the first congress of the 
 Third Order of St. Francis was held here, and the 
 same year, in October, the seventh centenary of the 
 Dominican Order was celebrated. During the World 
 War two of the clergy of this diocese, Rev. Angelo 
 Murgia, and Rev. Giovanni Coghe served as military 
 chaplains, the latter being killed in action. All the 
 clergy, from the archbishop down were distinguished 
 by their zeal for the spiritual welfare of the soldiers. 
 The diocese lost a zealous worker by the death of Mgr. 
 Francesco Cherchi, in December, 1913. 
 
 By 1921 statistics this diocese counts 74 parishes, 
 200 churches, 2 monasteries for women, 2 convents for 
 men, 150 secular and 14 regular clergy, 5 Brothers, 70 
 sisters, 1 seminary, 50 seminarians, 1 physical training 
 school with 8 teachers and 100 students and 8 elemen¬ 
 tary schools with 12 teachers and 300 pupils. The 
 charitable institutions include 1 home, 5 asylums, and 
 
 1 hospital: the asylums receive financial aid from the 
 government. In 1920 the population of this diocese, 
 which is entirely Catholic, was counted at 96,900. 
 
 Orleans, Diocese of (Aurelianensis; cf. C. E., 
 XI—318c), in the department of Loire, France, 
 suffragan of Paris. This see is filled by Rt. Rev. 
 Stanislas-Arthur-Xavier Touchet, born in Sobers 
 in 1848, served as vicar general to his uncle, the 
 Archbishop of Besangon, and as archdeacon of 
 Belfort for six years, and was appointed Bishop 18 
 May, 1894. On 23 December, 1915, he was honored 
 with the priviledge of wearing the pallium, which he 
 received the following day from Cardinal Amette- 
 in Paris. On 16 July, 1919, Bishop Touchet cele, 
 brated the silver jubilee of his episcopacy. Ac¬ 
 cording to 1920 statistics the diocese counts a Catholic 
 population of 364,061 of whom 72,096 are in Orleans 
 proper, 41 parishes, 293 succursal parishes and 23 
 vicariates formerly supported by the State. During 
 the World War 215 of the clergy of this diocese were 
 mobilized, and of this number, 20 seminarians and 
 10 priests gave up their lives, 5 were decorated with 
 the legion d’honneur , 5 with the medaille militaire 
 and 70 with the croix de guerre. On 13 September, 
 1921 a diocesan synod was held for the purpose of 
 revising the statutes of the diocese. The preceding 
 year, by a bull dated 27 October, the Pope conferred 
 the dignity of dean of the chapter on Canon Cornet. 
 The festivities in honor of St. Joan of Arc, 8 May, 
 1921, were presided over by Cardinal di Belmonte. 
 
 Orvieto, Diocese of (Urbevetanensis; cf. C. $., 
 XI—331c), in the province of Perugia, central Italy, 
 directly subject to the Holy See. This see is filled by 
 Rt. Rev. Salvatore Fratocchi, born in Rome in 1855, 
 appointed titular Bishop of Memphis and auxiliary 
 to the Bishop of Orvieto 22 June, 1903, succeeding to 
 the see 24 January, 1905. According to 1920 statis¬ 
 tics this diocese has a Catholic population of 41,500; 
 57 parishes, 89 secular and 20 regular clergy, 60 
 seminarians, 6 Brothers, 98 Sisters, and 124 churche* 
 and chapels. 
 
 Osaka. Diocese of (Osakensis). —Adherence 
 to old superstitions, agnosticism amongst the intel¬ 
 lectual classes, laxity of morals, the desire of material 
 progress and finally national pride inflamed by the 
 various achievements of Japan since the Restoration 
 (1868) are formidable obstacles to the spread of the 
 Faith in this diocese. The present bishop is Mgr. 
 J. B. Kastanier, appointed 6 July, 1918, to succeed 
 Mgr. Chatron, deceased. Born at Lacapelle, diocese 
 of St. Flour, 7 January, 1877, he was ordained 23 
 September, 1899, and went to Osaka the following 
 month, where he labored for nineteen years before his 
 consecration as bishop. He was mobilized in France 
 at that time, but on his appointment was allowed to 
 return to his diocese. 
 
 A decree of 13 August, 1912, took away from the 
 diocese certain territory which now forms part of the 
 Prefecture Apostolic of Nygata. According to the 
 latest statistics (1922) the diocese counts: 19 mission¬ 
 ary and 3 native priests, 9 Marianite Brothers, 26 
 Sisters, 32 catechists, 21 missions, 38 stations, 7 
 churches, 20 oratories, 1 commercial school for boys 
 with 859 pupils, 2 secondary schools for girls with 656 
 alumnae, 2 sewing schools with 72 pupils, 2 kinder¬ 
 gartens with 262 children, 1 school for European or 
 Eurasian girls with 90 students, 3 orphanages with 
 80 inmates, and 4532 Catholics. The mission pub¬ 
 lishes a monthly review, Hokyo Hatei no Tomo (The 
 Friend of Catholic Families). 
 
 During the World War five missionaries were 
 mobilized, all of whom returned to their work when 
 peace was proclaimed. Two of them won the “Croix 
 
OSIMO 
 
 565 
 
 OTRANTO 
 
 do Guerre,” and one 1h<‘ "Medaillc d’Honneur des 
 Epidemics.” 
 
 Osimo (and Cingoli), Diocese of (Ruximanensis; 
 cf. C. E., XI—338d), in the province of Ascoli, 
 central Italy, directly dependent on the Holy See. 
 Rt. Rev. Giovanni-Battista Scotti, appointed to this 
 see 18 May, 1894, died 5 December, 1916, and was 
 succeeded by Rt. Rev. Pacifico Fiorani, born in 
 Collestellano, in the diocese of Fabriano, in 1855, 
 served as a professor, then rector of the seminary, 
 made a theological canon of the cathedral, named an 
 honorary chamberlain extra urbem , 20 May, 1893, 
 and again in 1903, appointed rector of the seminary 
 of Magliano-Sabino, and appointed titular Bishop of 
 Carystus 15 April, 1907, and suffragan bishop of 
 Sabina, made auxiliary to the Bishop of Ascoli- 
 Piceno in 1908, and transferred to the see of Civi¬ 
 tavecchia 10 March, 1910, which he filled until again 
 transferred to Osimo, 12 May, 1917. Latest statis¬ 
 tics available (1920) credit the diocese with 52,300 
 Catholics of whom 10,165 are in Cingoli; 34 parishes, 
 150 secular and 29 regular clergy, 20 seminarians, 
 12 Brothers, 87 Sisters and 89 churches and chapels. 
 
 Osma, Diocese of (Oxomensis; cf. C. E., XI— 
 339c), in Northern Spain, suffragan of Burgos. The 
 see is at El Burgo de Osma/but Soria, the capital of 
 the province of that name, was the see at one time. 
 This diocese has had a glorious history but now is one 
 of the most humble in Spain. The inhabitants are 
 nearly all farmers and poor and as the district is iso¬ 
 lated from the great centers of Spain, religion has not 
 progressed of late years. The present bishop is Mgr. 
 Mateo Mugica y Urrestarazu, bora in diocese of 
 Vitoria 21 September, 1870, ordained in 1893, elected 
 22 February, 1918, to succeed Mgr. Lago y Gonzales, 
 transferred to Tuy. The diocese has (1920) 187,500 
 inhabitants, all Catholics, 398 parishes, 803 churches, 
 
 1 monastery for women, 6 convents for men and 4 for 
 women, 370 secular and 60 regular priests, 100 Sis¬ 
 ters, 1 seminary, 109 seminarians, 1 institute (general 
 and technical) with 94 students, 1 college for boys 
 with 200 students, 2 colleges for girls with 200 stu¬ 
 dents, 1 normal school for boys (88 students) and 1 
 for girls (60 students), 1 industrial school with 14 
 
 upils, 410 elementary schools with 3862 pupils, 2 
 ospitals in charge of Sisters of Charity, 3 asylums, 
 
 2 refuges, 2 day nurseries, 1 weekly paper and various 
 parish publications. The usual associations are 
 organized for clergy and laity. Lately agricultural 
 colonies have been organized in the diocese. 
 
 Osnabriick, Diocese of (Osnabrugensis, cf. 
 C. E., XI—341a), in Germany. The present incum¬ 
 bent is the Rt. Rev. William Berning, b. at Lingen, 
 26 March, 1877, ordained 10 March, 1900, elected 14 
 July, 1914, published 8 Sept., consecrated 29 Septem¬ 
 ber following. On 15 September, 1914, he was 
 appointed Apostolic Vicar of the Northern Missions 
 of Germany and Prefect Apostolic of Schleswig- 
 Holstein. The Caritas-verband (association of char¬ 
 ities) was founded 23 May, 1916, and a diocesan 
 synod was held from 6-8 October, 1920. In 1921 
 the diocese contained 110 parishes, 12 deaneries, 31 
 independent chapels or stations, 265 secular priests, 
 30 regulars, 987 sisters. The diocesan seminary is 
 at Osnabriick with 8 seminarians who are being pre¬ 
 pared for ordination. The remaining theological 
 students, 70 in number, are studying at the University 
 of Munster in Westphalia. The following orders of 
 men have foundations: Capuchins, Clemenswerth 
 near Sogel (4 priests); Missionaries of the Sacred 
 Heart, Johannesburg in Borgermoor (5); Marists, 
 Meppen (11); Franciscans, Ohrbeck-Holzhausen near 
 Osnabriick (3); Fathers of Sacred Heart at Handrup 
 
 near Lengerich. The following orders of women have 
 mother-houses in the diocese: Benedictines of the 
 Perpetual Adoration, Osnabriick; Franciscans, Thu- 
 ine; Ursulines, Haseltinne, Haste and Osnabriick; 
 Missionary Sisters of Mary, Meppen. Among the 
 higher educational institutions are the following: 
 Gymnasium Carolinum at Osnabriick, founded by 
 Charlemagne; a gymnasium at Meppen, realgym- 
 nasium (6 to 9 years’ course, Latin, sciences and 
 modern languages), at Papenburg; lyceum and school 
 for women conducted by the Ursulines at Haste; 
 lyceum of the Sisters of our Lady at Meppen; lyceum 
 of the Ursulines at Haseltinne and Papenburg. The 
 following associations exist among the priests: Asso¬ 
 ciation for Catholic catechists, Pactum Marianum; 
 Unio cleri pro missionibus; Unio apostolica, Priests’ 
 Temperance Society. Much good is done by the 
 many religious, charitable and social organizations 
 which have been formed among the laity. Forty- 
 eight of them exist in various places throughout the 
 diocese. Only one Catholic paper is published in the 
 diocese. 
 
 The following institutions exist in the diocese: 1 
 home for destitute children, 6 orphanages, 1 home for 
 convalescent children, 3 homes for children, 3 da.y 
 nurseries, 27 hospitals, 1 reformatory, 27 hospitals. 
 There are Sisters stationed at various places who go 
 about visiting the sick. 
 
 Ossory, Diocese of (Ossoriensis; cf. C. E., 
 XI—342d), in the province of Leinster, Ireland, 
 suffragan of Dublin, with the episcopal residence at 
 Kilkenny. For almost thirty-eight years this see 
 has been filled by Rt. Rev. Abraham Brownrigg, born 
 in Kildavin in 1836, appointed bishop 28 October, 
 1884, and named an assistant at the pontifical 
 throne 15 January, 1892. The religious orders estab¬ 
 lished in this diocese include men: Dominicans, 
 Augustinians, Capuchins, Carmelites, Brothers of 
 the Christian Schools, Irish Christian Brothers and 
 Brothers of Charity; women: Presentation Nuns, 
 Sisters of Charity, Sisters of Loreto, of Mercy, of the 
 Holy Faith, of St. John of God and Sisters of the 
 Sacred Heart of Mary. According to the latest 
 census, collected in 1911, the Catholic population of 
 the diocese is 79,572. Latest statistics (1922) credit it 
 with 41 parishes, 127 priests, 9 higher schools, 96 
 churches, 1 college, 4 houses of regulars, 17 convents, 
 and 6 establishments of the Christian Brothers. 
 
 Ostia, Diocese of (Ostiensis; cf. C. E., 
 XI—346b), a suburbicarian see, united to Velletri 
 in 1150, and separated from it 5 May, 1914. This see 
 is always filled by the dean of the Sacred College, at 
 present His Eminence Vincenzo Cardinal Vannutelli, 
 who is also Bishop of Palestrina. The statistics of 
 1920 credit the diocese with 3000 Catholics, 3 par¬ 
 ishes, 10 secular and 10 regular clergy and 20 churches 
 or chapels. On 21 June, 1919, the cardinal laid the 
 first stone for the new church of Regina Pacis. (See 
 also Palestrina,.) 
 
 Ostuni, Archdiocese of. See Brindisi. 
 
 Otranto, Archdiocese of (Hydruntinensis, 
 cf. C. E., XI—351d), in the province of Lecce, 
 Southern Italy. Most Rev. Giuseppe Ridolphi, 
 transferred to this see 10 August, 1912, was again 
 transferred to the titular see of Irenopolis, 12 August, 
 1915. After a vacancy of two years his successor was 
 appointed, Most Rev. Carmelo Patane, born in 
 Giarre in 1869, named a prelate of the Holy See 8 
 March, 1917, and appointed archbishop 11 January, 
 1918. The boundaries of this ancient diocese were 
 somewhat changed by a decree of the consistory of 25 
 November, 1915. According to 1920 statistics the 
 diocese counts a Catholic population of 100,200, and 
 
OTTAWA 
 
 566 
 
 OZIERI 
 
 lias 56 parishes, 260 secular priests, 100 seminarians 
 and 325 churches or chapels. 
 
 Ottawa, Archdiocese of (Ottawiensis; cf. C.E., 
 XI-352a), in Canada, comprises three counties 
 of the Province of Quebec and four of the Province 
 of Ontario. In 1913 the northern portion was erected 
 into a new diocese with the see in Mont Laurier, 
 Quebec, and in 1915 the portion included in the vicar¬ 
 iate apostolic of Temiskaming was erected into the 
 Diocese of Haileybury. The latest figures obtainable 
 (1921) show a total Catholic population of 143,000, 
 comprising 108,000 French, 32,000 English and 3000 
 Italians and Ruthenians. Archbishop Charles Hugh 
 Gauthier, born at Alexandria, Ontario, 1843, ordained 
 1867, was appointed archbishop of Kingston 29 July, 
 1898, and transferred to the see of Ottawa 6 Septem¬ 
 ber, 1910. He died 19 January, 1922, and the see is 
 now vacant. 
 
 This archdiocese lost three prominent and influen¬ 
 tial members through the deaths of Rev. A. L. 
 Manedn, founder of the Institute of Jesus and Mary, 
 d. 26 February, 1920 ;Sir Wilfred Laurier (q. v.), Pre¬ 
 mier of Canada (1896-1911), d. 17 January, 1919; 
 and Lady Laurier, d. 12 November, 1921. 
 
 Bishop Gauthier was responsible for the introduc¬ 
 tion of the Sisters of Joan of Arc and the founding of 
 their institute for young working girls, in 1919. Other 
 religious orders established in the capital are: men, 
 Oblates of Mary Immaculate, Dominicans, Cap¬ 
 uchins, Fathers of the Company of Mary, Redemp- 
 torists, Fathers of the Holy Ghost and Servite Fath¬ 
 ers; women, Grey Nuns, Sisters of the Precious Blood, 
 Sisters of the Holy Family, Sisters of the Sacred Heart 
 of Jesus, Sisters of Providence, Dominican Sisters of 
 the Congregation of Notre Dame, Sisters of the Good 
 Shepherd, Sisters of Mercy and Sisters of the Visita¬ 
 tion. 
 
 The diocese includes: 98 parishes, 106 churches, 8 
 missions, 4 monasteries for men and 4 for women, 160 
 secular and 165 regular priests, 101 Brothers, 1315 
 sisters, 1 seminary, 35 seminarians, 1 university (see 
 Ottawa University), with 62 professors and 800 
 students, 2 colleges for boys, 2 high schools, 15 acade¬ 
 mies, and 1 normal school with 15 teachers. The ele¬ 
 mentary schools have a total attendance of about 
 30,000. Among the charitable institutions are 6 
 asylums, 4 hospitals, 2 homes and 1 nursery. The 
 taxes paid by the Catholics are sufficient to support 
 the Catholic elementary schools. St. Joseph’s Eccle, 
 siastical Fund is established for sick or infirm clergy- 
 and the Catholic Association for Young Canadians, 
 various societies of Catholic workmen, and the St. 
 Joseph Society of Canada are organized among the 
 laity. A daily Catholic paper, “Le Droit,” is pub¬ 
 lished. 
 
 Ottawa, University of (cf. C. E., 352d), 
 conducted by the Oblate Fathers of Mary Immac- 
 olate, in Ottawa, Canada. Raised to the rank of a 
 Catholic University in 1889, this institution offers 
 parallel courses in English and French, comprising a 
 
 commercial course, collegiate course, arts, including 
 a philosophical course, and a theological course. The 
 Government Museum, Dominion Observatory and 
 Parliament Library offer the faculty and students 
 unusual opportunities for reference work, and occa¬ 
 sional attendance at the debates of the Dominion 
 Parliament enables them to become familiar with 
 political contests. The principal organizations 
 formed among the students consist of English and 
 French debating societies, an orchestra, band, and 
 athletic association. Numerous scholarships have 
 been founded. For the year 1921-22, 843 students 
 were registered in the university under a staff of 62 
 professors. His Grace, the Archbishop of Ottawa is 
 Apostolic Chancellor of the University, and the pres¬ 
 ent rector is Rev. F. X. Marcotte, O. M. I., D.D. 
 
 Oviedo, Diocese of (Ovetensis; cf. C. E., XI- 
 363c), in Spain, is suffragan of the Archdiocese of 
 Compostela. Bishop Baztan y Urniza, who had filled 
 this see since 1904, was transferred to the titular see 
 of Nilopolis 18 October, 1920. The present incumbent 
 Rt. Rev. Juan Bautista Perez, born in Buriana, 
 Spain, 1874, ordained in 1896, served as professor in 
 the seminaries of Tarragona and Murcia, founder and 
 director of the Catholic journal “La Verdad,” made 
 vicar general in 1909, appointed titular Bishop of 
 Dorylaeum and auxiliary at Toledo, 22 February, 
 1915, and transferred in 1921. In 1918 the twelfth 
 centenary of the battle of Covadonga was celebrated 
 and the shrine of Our Lady was canonically crowned in 
 the presence of the royal family, Cardinal Guisasola 
 y Menendez, Archbishop of Toledo, and other high 
 dignitaries of the church. In 1920 the Catholic popu¬ 
 lation of this diocese numbered 776,347, and by 1921 
 statistics there are’ 969 parishes, 3421 churches, 28 
 convents of men and 92 of women, 1323 secular and 
 214 regular clergy and lay brothers, 1081 Sisters, 2 
 seminaries and 233 seminarians. The various insti¬ 
 tutions include 1 normal school, 5 hospitals and 6 
 asylums. There is a mutual benefit society organized 
 among the clergy, a number of societies among the 
 laity, and Catholic periodicals are published. 
 
 Ozieri, Diocese of (Octeriensis; cf. C. E., II 
 —581a), in Sardinia, Italy, suffragan of Sassari. 
 This diocese was formerly known as Bisarchio, but 
 had its episcopal seat at Ozieri; by a decree of 12 
 February, 1915, the name was changed to Ozieri. 
 Rt. Rev. Filippo Bacciu, appointed to this See in 
 1896, d. 4 March, 1914, and was succeeded by Rt. 
 Rev. Carmelo Cesarano, appointed 8 April, 1915. 
 Upon his promotion, 30 September, 1948, the present 
 incumbent, Rt. Rev. Francesco Frtmco, was ap¬ 
 pointed to succeed him 10 March, 1919. The diocese 
 comprises a Catholic population of 50,000, 26 par¬ 
 ishes, 110 churches, 65 secular clergy, 1 seminary 
 and 60 seminarians, 1 home for the aged, 10 asylums, 
 1 hospital and 1 refuge. Societies are organized 
 among the clergy and laity, and various Catholic 
 papers are circulated in the diocese. 
 
p 
 
 Paderborn, Diocese of (Paterbornensir; cf. 
 C. E., XI—383b), in Germany, suffragan of Cologne. 
 On 12 Nov., 1920, Rt.Rev. Karl Joseph Schulte who 
 administered the diocese from 1910, was named 
 vicar apostolic of Anhalt and at the Consistory of 
 8 March, 1920, was made archbishop of Cologne. 
 His successor at Paderborn is the Rt. Rev. Henry 
 Haehling de Lanzenauer, b. at Coblenz, 19 Feb., 
 1861, ordained 18 Aug., 1883, elected 5 Aug., 1912 
 and made auxiliary bishop of Paderborn, consecrated 
 24 October following. In 1921 the vicariate apostolic 
 of Anhalt was suppressed and incorporated in the 
 Diocese of Paderborn. Soon after the outbreak of 
 the war an association called Die Kirchliche Krieg- 
 shilje was founded in the diocese, the object of which 
 was to aid relatives and friends in their search foi 
 missing and imprisoned soldiers, to give spiritual and 
 temporal aid to all prisoners in Germany, inespective 
 of race, color or creed, and to care for the German 
 soldiers in the enemy camps. The Leoninum, the 
 theological college at Paderborn, was made the 
 central place of activity and Bishop Schulte, together 
 with Rev. Dr. Starke, five priests and a great number 
 of lay volunteers directed the undertaking. Through 
 the efforts of the Holy See central places of com¬ 
 munication were established in the enemy countries. 
 German priests were sent to the enemy camps, cloth¬ 
 ing and food were given to the soldiers, with the aid of 
 the Borromaeusverein, literature was distributed in 
 the camps. A special effort was made to supply 
 Russia, as the prisoners in that country had been 
 cut off from spiritual aid and but seldom had the 
 consolation of the ministrations of a priest. At 
 the camps at Senne and Doberitz, near Spandau, 
 a temporary church for prisoners of all nationalities 
 was erected from the diocesan funds and prayer- 
 books were supplied for the French, English and 
 Belgian soldiers. The work of this association was 
 the means of bringing effectual aid to the afflicted 
 and in every way furthering the spirit of Christian 
 charity among the warring nations. 
 
 In 1921 the diocese contained 5,453,731 inhabitants, 
 with 1,637,618 Catholics. It is divided into 53 
 deaneries and has 620 parishes, 210 succursal parishes, 
 11 missions, 830 churches, 25 monasteries for men, 
 323 convents for women, including 6 mother-houses, 
 1439 secular priests, 125 regulars, all engaged in 
 parish work, 4 houses for Brothers, 1 seminary, 50 
 seminarians. Educational institutions include: 1 
 university, 12 professors, 300 students, 1 philosoph¬ 
 ical-theological academy at Paderborn, about 50 
 hohere schulen (scientific and classical high schools), 
 
 7 normal schools, 4 missionary schools. The parish 
 schools are aided by the Government. The following 
 institutions exist in the diocese: 91 homes, 53 asjdums, 
 103 hospitals, 4 houses of correction, 1 settlement 
 house, 197 nuiseries, all of which admit the ministry 
 of priests. Numerous religious organizations and 
 societies exist among the clergy and laity. About 
 fifty Catholic papers are printed in the diocese. 
 Rev. Dr. Franz Ilitze, distinguished professor of 
 social science, deputy of the Reichstag, and cham¬ 
 pion of the Catholic social movement, died in 1921. 
 
 Padua, Diocese of (Patavinta; cf. C. E., 
 XI—385c), in the province of Venice, Italy, suffragan 
 
 of Venice. The present bishop is Mgr. Luigi Pelizzo 
 born in Faedis, Diocese of Udine, 26 February, I860’ 
 elected Bishop of Padua, 13 July, 1906, consecrated 
 at Cividale 19 August, to succeed Cardinal Callegari 
 deceased. According to 1919 statistics, the diocese 
 comprises 580,000 Catholics, 321 parishes, 817 secular 
 priests, 304 seminarians, 457 churches or chapels. 
 
 Palawan, Prefecture Apostolic of; (cf. C. E., 
 XI—417d), suffragan of Manila, Philippine Islands! 
 The present prefect apostolic is Rt. Rev. Victorien 
 Roman Zarate, b. 1875, ordained 1897, appointed 
 prefect 1911. The population of the prefecture is 
 about 60,000, of whom 27,357 are Catholics. There 
 are 9 priests and 6 churches. The leper settlement 
 on the Island of Culion is under the care of the 
 Jesuits, aided by the Sisters of St. Joseph. 
 
 Palencia, Diocese of (Palentina; cf. C. E., 
 XI—417d), suffragan of Burgos, Spain. The area of 
 the diocese is 2942 square miles, and the Catholic 
 population about 190,000. There are 350 parishes 
 divided into 19 archipresbyterates, 36 filial churches, 
 130 hermitages, 575 priests, 378 parish churches, 300 
 chapels and oratories, 9 religious houses for men, 15 
 for cloistered Sisters and 21 for Sisters devoting them¬ 
 selves to educational and charitable works, 192 mem¬ 
 bers of religious orders of men, and 519 Sisters. The 
 present Bishop is Rt. Rev. Raimon Barbera y Boada, 
 b. 1847, elected titular Bishop of Anthedon 1907’ 
 transferred to Palencia 1914. 
 
 Palermo, Archdiocese of (Panormitana, cf. 
 C. E., XI—419b), in Sicily. The present incumbent 
 is His Eminence Alessandro Cardinal Lualdi, b. in 
 Milan, 1858, ordained 1880, rector of the Lombard 
 Seminary, Rome, appointed Archbishop of Palermo 
 14 November, 1904, and raised to the dignity of 
 Cardinal-priest 15 April, 1907. His auxiliary is Rt. 
 Rev. Giuseppe Lagumina, titular Bishop of Samos. 
 
 In 1910 a diocesan synod was held and in 1920 the 
 Plenary Council of Sicily met, the first since the pro¬ 
 mulgation of the new canon law. In 1921 the terri¬ 
 torial congress of the third order of St. Francis was 
 held, and in 1924 the third centenary of the finding 
 of the relics of St. Rosalia will be celebrated. 
 
 During the World War many of the clergy went to 
 the Front, 190 in all, and great privations were borne 
 by those at home, while they worked in the hospitals 
 and various shelters for the soldiers, particularly the 
 Casa del Soldafo, which was the first of its kind in 
 Italy, having been founded by Rev. Vitale Brun 
 in 1913. 
 
 The diocese comprises (1921) 50 parishes, 524 
 churches and mission chapels, 1 monastery for men 
 and 5 for women, 520 secular priests and 50 regulars, 
 25 Brothers, 500 Sisters, 3 seminaries, 125 seminar¬ 
 ians, a theological college at the university with 10 
 professors and 15 students, 8 secondary schools for 
 boys with 20 teachers and 350 pupils, 22 secondary 
 schools for girls with 12,000 pupils, 1 professional 
 school with 10 teachers and 100 pupils. Among the 
 charitable institutions are 1 mission centre, 1 home 
 for the poor, 25 asylums and 1 hospital. In'1920 
 there were 543,990 Catholics in this territory, a large 
 proportion of whom are Greco-Albanians. 
 
 567 
 
PALESTRINA 
 
 568 
 
 PANAMA 
 
 Palestrina, Diocese of (Praenestinensis; cf. 
 C. E., XI—421b), a suburbicarian diocese in Italy, 
 united with Ostia in virtue of its tenure by Cardinal 
 Vincenzo Vannutelli, dean of the Sacred College (see 
 Ostia). The Catholic population of the diocese is 
 45,700. There are 24 parishes, 62 secular priests, 47 
 regular priests, 42 seminarians, 114 religious and 96 
 churches and chapels. 
 
 Pamiers, Diocese of (Apamiensis; cf. C.E., XI— 
 435c), with the united titles of Couserans and 
 Mirepoix, comprises the department of Ariege and 
 is suffragan of Tours. The present (1922) bishop of 
 the diocese is Mgr. Pierre Marceillac appointed in 
 1916 to succeed Mgr. Izart, promoted to Bourges. 
 Born at Grenade-sur-Garonne, diocese of Toulouse, 
 10 July, 1863, Bishop Marceillac was ordained in 
 1888. He was professor of moral theology in the 
 higher seminary in Toulouse in 1905, and seven 
 years later became the pastor of St. Jerome’s in 
 that city, whence he was raised to the episcopate. 
 Statistics of the diocese for 1921 give: 332 par¬ 
 ishes, 367 churches, 40 missions, 10 stations, 306 
 secular priests, 1 convent of Carmelites, 8 religious 
 orders of women, 2 seminaries with 100 students in 
 both; 6 academies for girls with 60 teachers and 
 1000 pupils; 1 boarding school for boys with 90 
 pupils; 8 free schools for boys with 1200 pupils, 
 and 30 for girls with 2000 pupils; 20 homes and 
 22 hospitals. 
 
 Amongst the clergy there are the Apostolic Union, 
 Association of Priests Adorers, Association for a 
 Happy Death, and the Society of Sacerdotal Voca¬ 
 tions. For the laity there are the Union of Catho¬ 
 lics and of Heads of Families, the Propagation of 
 the Faith, Apostleship of Prayer, Sodality of the 
 Children of Mary, and others. Catholic publica¬ 
 tions include “Semaine Catholique,” “La Croix de 
 L‘Ariege,” “La Jeune Ariege,” “Bulletin des Voca¬ 
 tions Sacerdotals,” “Banniere de Marie,” and “Bul¬ 
 letin historique du Diocese de Pamiers.” A decree 
 of March, 1910, united to the diocese the titles of 
 Couserans and Mirepoix. 
 
 Pamplona, Diocese of (Pampilonensis; cf. C. E., 
 XI—437c), suffragan of Saragossa, Spain. The pres¬ 
 ent bishop is Rt. Rev. Jose Lopez Mendoza y Garcia, 
 b. 1848, elected to the see of Jaca 1891, transferred 
 to Pamplona 1899, assistant at the pontifical throne 
 1916. The area of the diocese is 3495 square miles and 
 the Catholic population 275,000. There are 839 
 parishes, 1049 priests, 521 churches and chapels, 110 
 convents with 275 members of religious orders of men 
 and 450 Sisters. 
 
 Panama, Diocese of (Panamanensis, cf. C. E., 
 XI—438c), was erected by Leo X, on 9 September, 
 1513, according to the papal Bull held in the 
 diocesan archives. For many years an inconsider¬ 
 able appropriation was paid by the Government to 
 the Conciliar Seminary and Missions, to partly 
 fulfill the obligation to pay to the diocese a fixed 
 sum in compensation for church property previ¬ 
 ously confiscated by the Colombian Government; 
 however, in 1915, the National Assembly voted that 
 even this appropriation should be discontinued. 
 
 The former bishop, Rt. Rev. Francis X. Junguito, 
 S.J., who had administered the diocese for ten 
 years, remedying as far as possible the damage 
 caused by the Colombian revolution, died on 21 
 October, 1911, and was succeeded by the present 
 incumbent, Rt. Rev. William Rojas Arrieta, C. M., 
 who was born in Cartago, Costa Rica, 25 June, 
 1855. He was preconized on 21 March, 1912, and 
 consecrated Bishop of Panama on 18 August of 
 the same year. 
 
 In addition to the death of Bishop Junguito the 
 diocese has suffered the loss of several other promi¬ 
 nent and zealous workers in recent years: the Rev. 
 Joseph A. Sanguillen, vicar general under Bishop 
 Junguito, who died at the age of eighty-two; 
 Manuel Jean, a distinguished Catholic layman, 
 who founded an orphan asylum for girls, which he 
 entrusted to the care of the Sisters of Charity of 
 St. Vincent de Paul; Pablo Arosemena, a promi- 
 ment citizen, lawyer and politician, who was one 
 time President of the Republic of Panama. 
 
 Since 1911 the Cathedral of Panama and all the 
 churches which had been damaged during the 
 Revolution have been restored, the first ecclesias¬ 
 tical Synod of Panama was held in 1916 and theo¬ 
 logical and moral conferences for the clergy have 
 been established. The seminary and all the relig¬ 
 ious associations have been reorganized, several 
 new parishes added and many societies, the 
 Knights of Columbus, Knights of the Sacred 
 Heart, Knights of St. John, LaSalle Association 
 for young men and Union of Catholic Workers, 
 have been organized. Recent years have been 
 marked by a revival of faith and religious spirit 
 throughout the community. The religious inter¬ 
 ests of the Catholics in the Canal Zone are cared 
 for by the priests of the Congregation of the Mis¬ 
 sion of St. Vincent de Paul belonging to the east¬ 
 ern province of the United States, whose central 
 house is at Philadelphia. They take care of Bal¬ 
 boa, Cristobal and the intermediate points along 
 the Canal; the men of the army and navy are 
 attended by special chaplains appointed by the 
 United States Government. 
 
 In addition to the religious communities already 
 established in the diocese (the Jesuits with 5 
 priests and 3 lay brothers; one Lazarist priest; and 
 the Discalced Augustinians with 2 priests and 1 
 lay brother), many other communities have been 
 introduced within recent years. The Franciscan 
 Sisters have opened a college for girls in Panama 
 and have more than 200 pupils, the Bethlemites 
 have charge of a government asylum for male 
 children with about 60 boys, and the Daughters of 
 Mary Help (Maria Auxiliadora) of Don Bosco 
 have founded an orphanage for girls, assisted by 
 .the Salesian Cooperators. 
 
 According to the latest census the total popula¬ 
 tion of Panama is 62,000, of whom 20,000 are Cath¬ 
 olics of either white, or negro races, with some 
 few thousands, mulattoes. Great numbers of these 
 negroes, however, are not Panamanian, but immi¬ 
 grants from the West Indies, brought in for the 
 Canal work. The diocese comprises 46 parishes, 
 82 churches, 3 missions with 2 mission stations, 48 
 secular priests and 14 regular, 18 Christian Broth¬ 
 ers, 1 seminary with 3 seminarians. The educa¬ 
 tional institutions include 1 college for men with 
 18 teachers and 300 students, 3 colleges for women 
 with 26 teachers and 500 students, 1 normal school 
 with 10 teachers and 400 students, 1 industrial 
 school with 3 teachers and 150 pupils, and numer¬ 
 ous elementary schools throughout the Republic, 
 the capita] alone having 10 with 3000 pupils. There 
 are a number of charitable institutions: 1 home 
 under the Sisters of St. Vincent de Paul; 1 asylum 
 in charge of these same Sisters; 3 American Gov¬ 
 ernment hospitals, 1 at Panama and 2 at Colon; 
 1 charitable center under the Brothers and 1 day 
 nursery in charge of the Bethlemites. The public 
 schools permit the priests of the diocese to minis¬ 
 ter in them and the Catholic asylums receive 
 financial aid from the Government. Two Catholic 
 papers, 1 weekly and 1 monthly publication, are 
 published in the diocese. 
 
PANAMA 
 
 569 
 
 PARIS 
 
 Panama Congress on Christian Work in Latin 
 
 See Protestantism. 
 
 Paraguay, Diocese of (Paraguayensis; cf. C. E., 
 XI—470b), suffragan of Buenos Aires, comprises the 
 territory of the Republic of Paraguay, South America, 
 an area of 97,722 square IVJiles. The present bishop 
 is Rt. Rev. Symphorian Norgarin, b. at Thacanguazu, 
 Paraguay, 21 August, 1863, ordained 1886, elected 
 bishop 1894, succeeding Bishop Aponte, deceased. 
 The population of the diocese is 635,000. There are 
 110 parishes, 125 churches, 2 missions, 68 secular 
 priests, 33 regular priests, 1 seminary with 40 semi¬ 
 narians, 2 colleges for girls, 1 asylum, 1 hospital, 1 
 day nursery, 1 association of the clergy, 1 Catholic 
 publication. 
 
 Parahyba, ^ Diocese of (Paiiahybensis; cf. 
 C. E., XI—472a), metropolitan see in Brazil. The 
 present bishop is Pet. Rev. Adautto Aurelio de 
 Mirando Henriques, consecrated 1894. On 6 Febru¬ 
 ary, 1914, the western part of Parahyba was erected 
 into the Diocese of Cajazeiras (q. v.). The present 
 area of the diocese is 28,517 square miles. There are 
 735,572 Catholics, 1000 Protestants, 48 parishes, 52 
 secular priests, 10 regular priests, and 1 college. 
 
 Parana, Diocese of (Paranensis; cf. C. E., 
 XI—475d), suffragan of Buenos Aires, in Argentina. 
 It consists of the civil province of Entre Rios, with a 
 population of 518,000, 33 parishes, 115 churches, 
 3 monasteries for men and 1 for women, 35 convents 
 for women, 75 secular priests, 140 regular priests, 
 15 Brothers, 1 seminary with 72 seminarians. There 
 are 20 schools for boys with 1600 pupils, 30 schools 
 for girls with 3500 pupils, 1 normal school with 10 
 teachers and 45 students. The Government con¬ 
 tributes to the support of the schools. Charitable 
 institutions include *2 homes, 7 asylums, 12 hos¬ 
 pitals. Three societies are organized among the 
 clergy. The present bishop is Rt. Rev. Juan Abel 
 Bazan y Butos, b. at Tama de la Rioja in 1867, made 
 his studies at the Latin-American College, ordained 
 1891, elected to the see of Parana 7 Feb., 1910, 
 consecrated 8 May following. 
 
 Pardo Bazan, Emilia, novelist, b. of a noble 
 family at Coruna, Spain, on 16 September, 1852; 
 d. at Madrid on 15 May, 1921. A precocious child, 
 she was carefully educated and could read with facility 
 at six. At fourteen her favorite works were the Bible, 
 the Iliad, and Don Quixote. In 1868 she married Don 
 Jose Quiroga, and shortly after travelled extensively 
 in France and Italy, becoming familiar with the great 
 poets: Shakespeare, Byron, Alfieri, Manzoni, Goethe, 
 Schiller, Heine. In 1876 she won a prize at Orense 
 with her “Examen critico de las obras de padre 
 Feijoo” which was followed by a brief study on the 
 Christian epic poets. She then read the novelists: 
 Scott, Dickens, Lytton, Hugo and George Sand. This 
 course was followed by her “Pascual Lopez,” the auto¬ 
 biography of a medical student, which was well 
 received. After reading Zola’s “Assommoir,” she 
 became a realist and an apologist for the French 
 naturalistic school, first evidenced by “Un Viaje de 
 Novios” (1881) though her delightful “San Francisco 
 de Assis” in the following year was a reaction. .Fitz- 
 maurice-Kelly calls Pardo Baz&n the greatest Spanish 
 novelist of the nineteenth century; but Cejador in 
 his “Historia de la lengua y literatura Castellana” 
 judges her otherwise, pointing out how she cut herself 
 off from the Spanish tradition and spirit, breathes a 
 foreign atmosphere, exhibits an unnational frivolity, is 
 a slave to Gallicisms; in a word, no one with judgment 
 could for a moment think of placing her on the same 
 plane as Pereda, Menendez v Pelayo or Valera. Cer¬ 
 tain it is her reputation rests entirely on her fiction 
 
 which is unhealthy and often downright indecent 
 Her greatest works are: “La Cuestion Palpitante’ 
 (1883); “Los pazos de Ulloa” (1886); “La madre 
 naturaleza” (1887); “La priedra angular” (1891); 
 “Dulce dueno” (1911); “Por la Europa catholica” is 
 a charming book of travel. In her review “Nuevo 
 teatro critico she established a vehicle for a series of 
 remarkable literary studies (January, 1891). Pardo 
 Bazan wrote a few dramas of which “Verdad” and 
 “Cuesta abajo” were the most successful. She was 
 an ardent supporter of the feminist movement. Not¬ 
 withstanding the character of some of her fiction she 
 was always a professed Catholic. In October 1916 
 her statue was erected in Coruna by her fellow-citi¬ 
 zens. 
 
 Parenzo-Pola, Diocese of (Parentina-Polensis; 
 cf. C. E., XI-480b); dependent of Gorizia. The 
 cities of Parenzo and Pola, situated on the Adriatic, 
 are in the province of Istria, which was ceded by 
 Austria to Italy following the war. The members of 
 the cathedral chapter at Parenzo have the right on 
 feast days to wear the violet soutane with cincture of 
 the same color, the surplice, violet mozetta and Latin 
 cross in gold while the chapter at Pola has the same 
 right except that the mozetta is replaced by the man- 
 telletta and the pectoral cross is in Greek form. 
 
 The former bishop, Rt. Rev. John Baptist Flapp, 
 died 26 December, 1912, after an administration of 
 twenty-eight years and was buried from the cathedral 
 church; he bequeathed the greater part of his posses¬ 
 sions to religious works. His successor, the present 
 bishop, is Rt. Rev. Tryphon Pederzolli, b. 28 January, 
 1864, at Cattaro, elected 19 June, 1913, installed in 
 cathedral of Parenzo 9 November, 1913, and at Pola, 
 8 December, 1913. At the entrance of Italy into the 
 War the southern part of the diocese was evacuated; 
 some of the refugees were sheltered in barracks, the 
 scattered people suffering great misery, resulting in 
 steadily increasing mortality. Priests served in the 
 army as chaplains, but none were in battle; the special 
 devotions carried on in the churches were commended 
 by the Holy Father; and generous collections, which 
 the bishop himself went about to sssist in raising, were 
 given towards the relief of widespread suffering. The 
 Catholic population is 122,000. The secular priests 
 number 130, regular priests 12, and lay brothers 5. 
 There are 51 parishes; 270 churches; 11 stations; 2 
 convents for men, and 14 for women; 1 preparatory 
 seminary with 3 students; 1 college for boys with 4 
 teachers and 16 students; 1 asylum; 5 hospitals. The 
 clergy have a mutual association, an organization for 
 missionary work, and one for priestly adoration. 
 Among the laity there are 15 religious organizations. 
 
 Paris, Archdiocese of (Parisiensis; cf. C. E., 
 XI—480d), comprises the Department of the Seine, 
 France. Since its foundation the See has been ad¬ 
 ministered by 110 bishops and 21 archbishops, of 
 whom 7 are saints, and including also the Master of 
 Sentences Peter Lombard (d. 1160) and in the 
 nineteenth century Cardinals de Belloy, de Tallev- 
 rand-Perigord, Morlot, Guibert and Richard. The 
 present administrator is Cardinal Louis-Ernest 
 Dubois, b. 1 Sept., 1856,ordained 1879,elected Bishop 
 of Verdun 18 April, 1901, consecrated 2 July follow¬ 
 ing, promoted Archbishop of Bourges 30 Nov., 
 1909, enthroned 3 Feb. 1910, published 4 December 
 following, transferred to Rouen 1916, transferred to 
 Paris 13 Sept., 1920, took possession 30 November, 
 enthroned 8 December following, succeeding Cardinal 
 Amette (q. v.), deceased. He was created cardinal 
 4 Dec., 1916, with the title of Sancta Maria in 
 Aquiro. On 12 Dec., 1916, he received the pallium 
 from the hands of Pope Benedict XV. Assisting him 
 in the administration of the archdiocese are three 
 
PARISH 
 
 570 
 
 PARMA 
 
 auxiliary bishops: Rt. Rev. Benjamin-Octave 
 Roland Gosselin, b. 17 Dec., 1870, named titular 
 Bishop of Mosynopolis and auxiliary of Cardinal 
 Amette 12 May, 1919, preconized 3 July, consecrated 
 12 August following, vicar capitular i Sept., 1920, 
 auxiliary of Cardinal Dubois 30 Nov., 1920; Rt. 
 Rev. Henri-Marie-Alfred Baudrillart, b. 6 Jan., 
 1859, rector of the Catholic Institue, named titular 
 Bishop of Himeria 29 July, 1921, and consecrated 
 29 October following: Rt. Rev. Emmanuel Chaptal, 
 b. 1861, ordained 1897, pastor of Notre Dame du 
 Travail de Plaisance, 1910, appointed auxiliary 
 bishop 1922, with jurisdiction over the Russians and 
 other Slavs resident in Paris. The continual develop¬ 
 ment in Catholic work, as well as the increase in the 
 number of parishes during the past fifteen years has 
 made necessary this collaboration in the ecclesiastical 
 administration of Paris, and the recent appointment 
 of Abbe Chaptal provided for the care of the large 
 influx of foreign population, especially Russians, since 
 the Balkan Wars and the Russian Revolution. 
 
 According to the report of the diocesan congress of 
 1920, the archdiocese comprises 79 parishes within 
 the city, 12 chapels of ease and 30 public chapels, and 
 in the suburbs 94 parishes with 27 chapels of ease. 
 The churches are insufficient in number to accommo¬ 
 date the faithful, and to remedy this insufficiency the 
 chapels of ease have been created. Since 1906 43 new 
 places of worship have been established within the 
 diocese; 16 churches and 29 chapels. Five churches 
 are now under construction. Statistics for 1918 give 
 a population for the archdiocese of 4,154,042. In 
 1914 the new Proper for Paris was approved. Now 
 resident within the archdiocese are the Brothers of 
 the Christian Schools, Lazarists, African Missionaries 
 of Lyons, Foreign Missionaries of Paris, White 
 Fathers, Holy Ghost Fathers, Hospitallers of St. John 
 of God, Sulpicians, and numerous religious congrega¬ 
 tions of women. 
 
 Parish (cf. C. E., XI-499c)—It is provided in 
 canon 216 of the Code that the territory of every 
 diocese should be divided into parishes, that is terri¬ 
 torial units, each with its own special church, special 
 congregation and special permanent pastor having 
 cure of souls; vicariates and prefectures apostolic were 
 to be divided similarly, at least in part, where and 
 when that could be done conveniently, and wfith ad¬ 
 vantage to the spiritual welfare of the people, in which 
 case if a special pastor was appointed the territory 
 becomes a quasi-parish, and the pastor at once ac¬ 
 quires special rights and is subject to special obliga¬ 
 tions. The importance of this may be seen in the fact 
 that in the English-speaking world generally there 
 were no parishes and no parish priests strictly so- 
 called, but only permanent or removable rectors. 
 The question having been raised whether or not these 
 rectorial territories, in countries like England and the 
 United States, which had been released by the con¬ 
 stitution “Sapienti Consilio” (1908) from the tutelage 
 of the Congregation of Propaganda, had on the 
 promulgation of the Code become ipso facto parishes, 
 the Sacred Congregation of the Consistory replied in 
 the negative (1 August, 1919). To constitute a parish 
 a decree of the ordinary determining its boundaries, 
 the seat of the parish, the endowment for divine wor¬ 
 ship and the support of the clergy, was declared neces¬ 
 sary; furthermore, it was not necessary to make the 
 rector irremovable, indeed for a just cause he might 
 be expressly proclaimed removable in the decree of 
 erection. Finally, if owing to the small number of the 
 faithful or the scanty resources available it was un¬ 
 desirable to create a parish, the existing churches could 
 be made subsidiaries, or chapels, or an adjoining par¬ 
 ish, remaining in dependence on it until such time as 
 they could be erected into parish churches. 
 
 A little later a question arose as to the status-of the 
 existing divisions of dioceses in countries like Aus¬ 
 tralia, which were still under the Congregation of 
 Propaganda. On 9 December, 1920, the Holy See 
 replied: (1) that it was not necessary to divide the 
 diocese of missionary countries into parishes at all; 
 the matter will evidently be left to the discretion of 
 ordinary, just as vicars and prefects Apostolic need 
 not divide their territory except where it can be done 
 conveniently; (2) that where the diocese had been al¬ 
 ready divided as prescribed in canon 216 the terri¬ 
 tories came under the name of parishes, but that the 
 special regulations for quasi-parishes also applied to 
 them. The chief significance of this is that while 
 these territories are parishes and their rectors parish 
 priests, yet the latter are not obliged to offer mass 
 for their flocks, except on eleven important feasts, 
 whereas ordinary parish priests must do so every 
 Sunday and holiday (including suppressed feasts). 
 
 Without a special Apostolic indult special parishes 
 cannot be created in the same town or territory for 
 people of different nationality or different speech, nor 
 can family or personal parishes be created; if, how¬ 
 ever, any such are now extant the bishop must make 
 no change without consulting the Holy See. There is 
 nothing in this legislation to prevent the opening of 
 subsidiary churches on national or linguistic lines. 
 Once a parish has become entitled officially to an irre¬ 
 movable rector, a removable rector cannnot be ap¬ 
 pointed without leave of the Holy See. If the rector 
 had hitherto been removable, he may be declared 
 irremovable by the bishop—but not by a vicar cap¬ 
 itular—with the advice of the cathedral chapter. 
 Ordinarily newly-erected parishes should have irre¬ 
 movable rectors, but circumstances may arise justi¬ 
 fying the appointment of a removable rector, though 
 in this case the bishop must first consult the chapter. 
 
 Every parish is subject to a tax for the diocesan 
 seminary; it should have its confraternities of the 
 Blessed Sacrament and of Christian doctrine, and nor¬ 
 mally a special cemetery, though as frequently hap¬ 
 pens the ordinary may find it more convenient to have 
 a common cemetery, especially in cities and towns. 
 When a just canonical cause arises a bishop may di¬ 
 vide, unite or suppress parishes, even without the 
 consent of the rector or people, and erect the separated 
 portion into a perpetual vicariate or a new parish; if 
 there is no proper canonical cause, e.g., the difficulty 
 of many parishioners in reaching the church, too 
 great an increase or decrease in the number of parish¬ 
 ioners, the action of the bishop would be invalid; as a 
 safeguard he must always consult, though he need 
 not follow the advice of, the cathedral chapter, and 
 those interested, such as the rectors; while there is 
 ahvays the right of appeal against the bishop's deci¬ 
 sion to the Holy See, though until the Holy See acts 
 it remains in force. When a parish has been divided 
 the bishop must assign a proper source of revenue to 
 the newly erected vicariate or parish, which may be 
 taken from the mother church, provided the latter is 
 not impoverished thereby; the new church if thus en¬ 
 dowed is bound to pay honor to the mother church in 
 a way prescribed by the ordinary, but the filial church 
 is entitled to its own baptismal font. If the divided 
 parish belonged to religious or was subject to a right 
 of patronage the new or filial parish is independent of 
 the religious or the patron. 
 
 Parma, Diocese of (Parmensis; cf. C. E., XI— 
 505a), in the Province of Parma, Italy, dependent 
 directly on the Holy See. The prsent bishop is Rt. 
 Rev. Guido Maria Conforti, b. 1865, elected Arch¬ 
 bishop of Ravenna 1902, resigned and transferred 
 to the titular archbishopric of Stauropolis 1904, 
 named coadjutor Bishop of Parma 1907, succeeded to 
 the See in the same year upon the death of Bishop 
 
PAROUSIA 
 
 571 
 
 PASTOR 
 
 Magani, and retained the personal title of archbishop. 
 In August, 1918, he was named president of the Union 
 of Italian Missionaries, created for the development 
 of foreign missions. The Catholic population of the 
 diocese is 232,913. There are 306 parishes, 407 
 secular priests, 66 regular priests, 100 seminarians, 
 2 Brothers, 99 Sisters, 406 churches and chapels. 
 
 Parousia.—On 18 June, 1915, the Pontifical Biblical 
 Commission handed down the following decision in 
 reply to the accompanying queries regarding the 
 Parousia: 
 
 . I* Whether to solve the difficulties which occur 
 .in the Epistles of St. Paul and of other Apostles, 
 where the Parousia, as it is called, or the second 
 coming of Our Lord Jesus Christ, is spoken of, it is 
 permitted to the Catholic exegete to assert that the 
 Apostles, although under the inspiration of the Holy 
 Ghost they teach no error, nevertheless express their 
 own human views, into which error or deception 
 can enter? 
 
 Reply. In the negative. 
 
 II* ^ hether, keeping before one’s eyes the genuine 
 idea of the Apostolic Office and St. Paul’s undoubted 
 fidelity to the teaching of the Master; likewise, the 
 Catholic dogma regarding the inspiration and in¬ 
 errancy of the Scriptures, whereby all that the sacred 
 writer (hagiographus) asserts, enunciates, suggests 
 must be held to be asserted, enunciated, suggested 
 by the Holy Ghost; also, being weighed the texts 
 of the Apostle’s Epistles, considered in themselves, 
 which are before all in harmony with the speech of 
 the Lord Himself, it is meet to affirm that the Apostle 
 Paul in his writings certainly said nothing which is 
 not in perfect harmony with that ignorance of the 
 time of the “Parousia’ which Christ Himself pro¬ 
 claimed to be men’s portion? 
 
 Reply. In the affirmative. 
 
 III. Whether, attention being paid to the Greek 
 phrase Tret's oi cures oi 7repiAei7r6yuei'oi also 
 the explanation of the Fathers being weighed, es¬ 
 pecially that of St. John Chrysostom, who’was 
 highly versed both in his country’s language and in 
 the Pauline Epistles, it is lawful to reject as far 
 fetched and destitute of solid foundation, the in¬ 
 terpretation traditional in the Catholic schools 
 (also retained by the reformers of the sixteenth 
 century themselves), which explain the words of 
 St. Paul in chapter IV of the 1 Epistle to the Thesa- 
 lonians, vv. 15-17 without in anywise implying the 
 affirmation of a “Parousia” so imminent that the 
 Apostle added himself and his readers to those of 
 the faithful who should survive to meet Christ? 
 Reply. In the negative. 
 
 Passau, Diocese of (Passaviensis; cf. C. E., 
 XI-519b), in Bavaria, suffragan of Munich-Freising. 
 The present administrator is Rt. Rev. Sigismund 
 Felix de Ow-Felldorf, b. at Berchtesgaden, 18 October, 
 1855, ordained 25 July, 1884, elected auxiliary Bishop 
 of Iiatisbon 8 January, 1902, consecrated 24 Febru¬ 
 ary following, transferred 18 October, 1906, enthroned 
 6 March, 1907. The diocese is divided into a city 
 degnery and 22 rural deaneries. In 1921 it contained 
 259 parishes, 72 benefices and exposiluren, 550 
 churches, 632 priests of whom 259 are pastors, and 45 
 in diocesan educational institutions (these include 
 those stationed at the cathedral), 86 regulars, 92 lay 
 brothers, 1 diocesan seminary with 55 seminarians and 
 a preparatory seminary at Passau. The schools and 
 institutions are all supported by the government. 
 The State institutions include: a technical schooi 
 ( hochschule ) for men, 16 high schools (hohere schvlen) 
 with 11 teachers, 380 elementary schools, 2 mission- 
 schools. Since 1911 the following orders of men have 
 established themselves in the diocese: Salesians, 
 
 3 houses, at Passau, Freyung and Burghausen; 
 ^ alvatorians, 1 house at Griesbach and the Benedic¬ 
 tines at Niederalteich. The principal association 
 among the clergy is the Association of Priests of the 
 -Diocese. Among the laity the following associations 
 are formed: Catholic Women’s League, Catholic 
 Merchants Association and Catholic Women Clerks’ 
 Association. The principal Catholic paper published 
 in the diocese is the “Donauzeitung.” 
 
 Pasto, Diocese of (Pastensis, Pastopolitan- 
 ensis; cf. C E., XI—537d), suffragan of Bogota, 
 Colombia. The present bishop is Rt. Rev. Antonio 
 Maria Pueyo de Val, C. M. F., b. 1864, elected 1917. 
 
 /i Ln- ei®, P°P u ^ a fion is 315,640, and there are 
 41,000 infidels, 68 parishes, 90 secular priests, 23 
 regular priests, 133 churches and chapels. 
 
 Pastor (cf. C. E., XI-537d)—All dioceses are 
 now to be divided into parishes and where this has 
 been done the pastors, technically rectors, have be¬ 
 come parish priests. The rectors of parishes are per- 
 *?II them may be removed under certain 
 conditions laid down in the sacred canons; the same 
 degree of stability not being granted to all, some of 
 the rectors are called removable and the other irre¬ 
 movable, which expressions are often used in speaking 
 of the parish itself. While the parish may be declared 
 irremovable by the bishop, once it has been done it 
 cannot be rendered removable except by permission 
 of the Holy See. Those who rule quasi-parishes and 
 parochial vicars enjoying full parochial powers are 
 included under the title parish priest in canon law 
 and have the rights and duties of parish priests (except 
 that the obligation of saying Mass for the parishioners 
 is limited to eleven feasts, an exemption granted also 
 to rectors of parishes subject to Propaganda. Occa¬ 
 sionally a moral person, such as a cathedral chapter 
 or a religious house becomes a parochus with leave of 
 the Holy See, in which case the actual cure of souls is 
 entrusted to a vicar. The parochial pastor must now 
 be a priest, this abolishes a former practice by which 
 a cleric could receive a benefice with cure of souls 
 annexed, on condition of his receiving’ the priesthood 
 within a year. A religious who is a parish priest is 
 always removable at the will of the local ordinary or 
 of his superior according to the constitutions of his 
 order; each of these must give notice, but need not 
 state his reasons, to the other; an appeal against the 
 removal may be made to the Holy See with devolutive 
 effect. 
 
 Parish priests are nominated and instituted by the 
 meal ordinary, except for parishes reserved to the 
 Holy See, all customs contrary to this have been 
 reprobated while respecting all lawful privileges of 
 election or presentation. If the episcopal see is vacant 
 or impeded and a rector dies the vicar capitular or 
 other ruler of the diocese.should appoint a parochial 
 vicar but not a parish priest unless the see has been 
 vacant a year. Quasi-parish priests are appointed by 
 the local ordinary, with the advice of his council, 
 from his own secular clergy. A vacant parish is to be 
 filled within six months by the local ordinary, unless 
 he decides that owing to special circumstances the 
 time should be extended. lie should appoint the 
 priest who is best qualified for the position; to decide 
 this point he is to consult the diocesan records, take 
 note of the examinations of the priests in the years 
 immediately following their course of studies, and 
 with his synodal examiners is to hold another exam¬ 
 ination, from which, however, with the consent of the 
 synodal examiners, he can exempt priests of known 
 theological ability. If a parish priest is transferred at 
 the suggestion of the bishop, a new examination is 
 not required, if the change is made at his own request, 
 it is optional for the bishop to order it; if the change is 
 
PATAGONIA 
 
 572 
 
 PATAGONIA 
 
 a forced removal no examination is held. Where the 
 system of concursus is in vogue it is to be continued 
 till the Holy See provides otherwise. A parish priest 
 should have only one parish, except where parishes 
 have been united ceque principaliter; no parish may 
 have more than one parish priest having cure of souls, 
 all customs to the contrary being reprobated and all 
 privileges to the contrary withdrawn. A parish priest 
 obtains his cure of souls from the moment he takes 
 canonical possession of his parish, before or at which 
 time he must make the profession of faith prescribed 
 by the sacred canons. 
 
 ‘ The following duties are reserved to parish priests, 
 unless the law in certain instances has provided other¬ 
 wise: to administer solemn baptism; to carry Holy 
 Communion publicly to the sick in his parish; to bring 
 the Viaticum publicly or privately to the sick and to 
 administer extreme unction (except to bishops, to 
 those resident in houses of clerical religious or of nuns 
 with solemn vows, or of lay religious if exempted by 
 the bishop); to announce ordinations or proclaim 
 banns of marriage; to assist at marriages, and give 
 the nuptial blessing; to hold funeral services; to bless 
 houses according to the ritual on Easter Saturday or 
 other days if customary; to bless the baptismal font 
 on Easter Saturday, to lead public processions outside 
 of the Church, and to give blessings with pomp and 
 solemnity outside of the Church, except where a chapter 
 performs these functions in connection with its church. 
 A parish priest is entitled to the statutory or sanc¬ 
 tioned customary fees for voluntary acts of jurisdic¬ 
 tion or on the occasion of administering certain sacra¬ 
 ments; if he exacts more he is bound to restitution; 
 if any one performs such duties for him the parish 
 priest is entitled to the fees, even to any surplus over 
 the ordinary amount, unless it is certain that the 
 donor intended the surplus for the actual minister; 
 however, if a party is too poor to pay the parish priest 
 is obliged to give his services. He has care ex officio 
 of all those in his parish who are not exempt (a semi¬ 
 nary is exempt), but the bishop for just and grave 
 cause may withdraw from the jurisdiction religious 
 houses and pious places not exempt by law. In virtue 
 of this the bishop may give parochial rights to the 
 chaplains of such places. _ 
 
 A parish priest is bound to reside in the parochial 
 house near his own church; however, the local ordi¬ 
 nary may, when there is a just cause, allow him to 
 reside elsewhere, provided the house is not so far 
 from the church as to interfere with the proper 
 discharge of his parochial duties. He is entitled to 
 two months’ leave .of absence each year as a maxi¬ 
 mum, whether continuous or interrupted, but the 
 time of his annual retreat is not included in this; 
 the ordinary may, however, for grave reasons prolong 
 or curtail the period of vacation. When the parish 
 priest is absent more than a week he must have the 
 ordinary’s written permission, and must provide a 
 substitute approved by him (approval and leave of 
 his superior would also be needed if the parish priest 
 were a religious). If for grave cause the parish 
 priest has been called away suddenly and cannot 
 return within a week he must notify the ordinary as 
 soon as possible, explaining the cause and suggesting 
 a substitute and must hold himself ready to obey 
 orders • 
 
 Removal of Pastors. —If the bishop thinks that 
 there is a canonical reason for changing an irremov¬ 
 able parish priest, he must first consult any two of 
 the synodal examiners. He then invites the pastor 
 either verbally or by writing to resign (the demand 
 is unnecessary if the priest s mind is affected). The 
 invitation, however, is invalid unless it mentions the 
 cause and the arguments inducing the ordinary to 
 make the request. The latter may allow the priest 
 whatever extension of the time fixed for replying 
 
 he judges suitable, provided no spiritual detriment to 
 the faithful results. If the ordinary finds unsatis¬ 
 factory the reasons given by the priest for declining to 
 resign he must tell him so. The priest has then ten 
 days within which to request a stay in order to bring 
 forward new reasons and the testimony of two or 
 three witnesses which he had been unable to obtain 
 on the previous occasion. The ordinary, taking 
 advice with two parish priests as consultors, must 
 examine these fresh reasons, if they have been pre¬ 
 sented within ten days from the time of the request 
 for a stay. The final decision rests exclusively with 
 the ordinary, not as formerly with the ordinary and 
 the consultors. The ordinary should endeavor to 
 provide the priest as soon as possible with other 
 parish, office, or benefice, if he is fitted for such, or 
 with a pension if circumstance allow. The priest 
 should leave the parochial house as soon as he can, 
 but if he is infirm and cannot conveniently move, he 
 is to be allowed to remain there during his illness. 
 A removable parish priest may be removed for the 
 same reasons as one who is irremovable; the pro¬ 
 cedure is similar, except that he is not allowed a 
 second hearing. At times it may seem advisable to 
 an ordinary to transfer to another parish a parish 
 priest who is perfectly satisfactory and exemplary. 
 Special faculties would be necessary to remove an 
 irremovable parish priest against his will, but this is 
 not so if the pastor is removable and the new parish 
 is not notably inferior. The removable priest may, 
 however, set forth his objections in writing for the 
 ordinary; if the latter is unmoved by the objections 
 he must, to proceed validly, call in two parochial 
 consultors and discuss with them the priest’s objec¬ 
 tions, the conditions of the two parishes, and the 
 reasons why he deems the change useful or necessary. 
 If, after hearing the consultors, the ordinary still 
 favors the change he is to advise the priest to yield; 
 should the latter still refuse, the ordinary may notify 
 him in writing that after the lapse of a certain time 
 his present parish is to be vacated, and may declare 
 it vacant when that period has elapsed. 
 
 Among the duties which a parish priest must be 
 most careful to fulfil are saying Mass and administer¬ 
 ing the sacraments, visiting and comforting the sick 
 and dying, preparing children and others for first 
 confession, Holy Communion and confirmation, 
 preaching on Sundays and feasts of precept, explaining 
 the catechism to adults in Sunday sermons, and keep¬ 
 ing the church clean and free from unbecoming pro¬ 
 ceedings, such as sales for pious purposes. If he is 
 gravely careless in these matters the bishop should 
 call his attention to his fault; if he does not amend 
 the bishop is to admonish him and punish him, if 
 after consulting two examiners and giving the priest 
 an opportunity of defending himself he judges that 
 the parochial duties have been seriously neglected 
 without a just cause; if the admonition and punish¬ 
 ment produce no amendment the bishop can at once 
 deprive a removable parish priest of his office; an 
 irremovable parish priest is to be punished by de¬ 
 priving him in part or in whole of the fruits of his 
 benefice, which are to be given to the poor. Should 
 the irremovable priest continue recalcitrant the 
 ordinary, after establishing the fact as above, is to 
 deprive him of his parish likewise. 
 
 Patagonia, Northern, Vicariate Apostolic of 
 (Patagonle septentrionalis; cf. C. E., XI—540c), 
 in South America. The vicariate is confided to the 
 Salesians but at present the see is vacant. The 
 population is 123,100, of whom 115,000 are Catholics. 
 There are: 50 priests, 30 churches, 9 chapels, 2 
 seminaries, 26 schools, 10 colleges, 97 Salesians, and 
 112 Daughters of Marie-Auxiliatrice. 
 
PATAGONIA 
 
 573 
 
 PAVIA 
 
 Patagonia, Southern, Prefecture Apostolic of 
 (Patagonl® meridional^; cf. C. E., XI—540d), in 
 South America. This former prefecture apostolic 
 was erected in 1883, comprising all the territory of 
 Magallanes. On 4 October, 1916, that part of the 
 prefecture belonging to Chile was erected into the 
 Vicariate Apostolic of Magellan, and that part belong¬ 
 ing to the Argentine was attached to the Diocese of 
 Buenos Aires and divided into 4 deaneries, confided 
 to the Salesians. 
 
 Patna, Diocese of (Patnensis), in India 
 suffragan of Calcutta. The new see of Patna was 
 created by a Decree of 10 September, 1919. The terri¬ 
 tory of the diocese includes the whole of the former 
 Prefecture Apostolic of Bettiah and Nepal (q. v.) and 
 the eastern part of the diocese of Allahabad (q. v.) 
 lying to the south of the River Ganges. It is entrusted 
 to the Fathers of the Society of Jesus of the Missouri 
 Province and includes all the districts of north and 
 south Bihar (except the two districts of Purneah and 
 of the Santal Pargannahr), the whole of Nepal and a 
 strip of about 80 square miles in the Darjeeling Dis¬ 
 trict. It has an area of 126,000 square miles and a 
 total population of 25,000,000. The total Catholic 
 population is 5033. The first bishop is the Rt. Rev. 
 Louis Van Hoeck, S.J., consecrated 6 March, 1921 
 at Ranchi, by the Most Rev. B. Meuleman, S.J.’ 
 Archbishop of Calcutta. Born in Antwerp, 17 April, 
 1870, Bishop Van Hoeck entered the Jesuit novitiate 
 in 1890, made his scholasticate in Calcutta, and was 
 ordained in 1903. He had been rector of Manresa 
 in Itanchi for eight years preceding his appointment 
 as bishop. Mgr. Van Hoeck was decorated with the 
 gold medal Kaisar-i-Hind. There are in the mission 
 15 churches, 7 chapels, 10 head stations, and 12 sub¬ 
 stations four Fathers of the Society of Jesus, 1 
 Capuchin Father lent by the Diocese of Lahore, and 
 7 secular priests. Religious communities include the 
 Irish Christian Brothers (10); Sisters of the Institute 
 of the Blessed Virgin Mary (18); the Sisters of the 
 Holy Cross (Switzerland 10); the Sisters of St. 
 Joseph (5); and the Sisters of the Third Order of St. 
 Francis (Indian Sisters 11). These Brothers and 
 Sisters conduct 2 high schools with 372 pupils (214 
 boys and 113 girls); 1 middle English school with 55 
 boys; 1 convent day school with 76 girls, 2 industrial 
 schools for Indian girls, 2 refuges for women, and 
 many orphanages. Six public institutions admit the 
 ministration of priests and the schools are aided by 
 the Government. The diocese has a printing press at 
 Bettiah called “The Catholic Mission Press.” 
 
 Patron and Patronage (cf. C. E., XI-560b).— 
 No right of patronage can be validly created hence¬ 
 forth; local ordinaries, however, may concede to those 
 who establish benefices or erect churches wholly or in 
 part a right to certain prayers, temporarily or per¬ 
 petually, according to the liberality of the donor, or 
 they may allow the foundation of a benefice with the 
 condition annexed that it is to be granted the first 
 time to the clerical founder or to another cleric named 
 by the founder. Ordinaries should endeavor to have 
 the interested parties accept prayers, even perpetual, 
 for themselves and their families in return for yielding 
 up their rights of patronage or at least of presentation. 
 Where popular elections and presentations are cus¬ 
 tomary they may be tolerated only if the people select 
 one of three clerics proposed by the local ordinary. 
 The only honorary rights of a patron mentioned in 
 the Code are, if authorized by lawful local custom: 
 to have a genealogical record of their family erected 
 in the church, precedence over other lay persons in 
 processions and similar functions, and a more promi¬ 
 nent seat in church, but this must not be placed within 
 the sanctuaty or under a canopy. Minors exercise 
 
 their right through their parents or guardians, but it is 
 suspended if the parents or guardians are non-Catho- 
 li.es. here there is no just impediment the presenta¬ 
 tion must be made within four months (or less if cus¬ 
 tom or the laws of the foundation require it), after 
 the person having the right of instituting notifies the 
 patron of the vacancy and of the eligible priests if a 
 concursus is necessary; if the presentation is not made 
 within the proper time, the church or benefice may be 
 freely collated on that occasion; if, however, a dispute 
 arises which cannot be settled within the time fixed 
 the ordinary should name a temporary ceconomus for 
 the church or benefice. If the right of patronage is 
 exercised by a college the candidate to be presented 
 must have obtained the absolute majority of votes; 
 if no one is selected in the first two ballots, the person 
 getting the greatest number of votes is to be chosen; 
 if more than one received the highest figure all those 
 who have received it are to be presented. Where there 
 are individual patrons the candidate getting the rela¬ 
 tive majority of votes is chosen; in this case, too, more 
 than one person may thus be presented. A patron has 
 a vote for every title to his right, and he may present 
 more than one candidate. The ordinary has the right 
 to decide if the candidate is suitable and he should 
 investigate carefully before deciding but he is not 
 obliged and need not give his reasons. If the candi- 
 didate is unsuitable the patron can propose a second, 
 and, if he also is unfitted, the benefice may be freely 
 collated for that occasion unless the patron or candi¬ 
 date appeals to the Holy See within ten days after 
 being notified of the rejection; during the time of 
 appeal an oeconomus should be appointed by the ordi¬ 
 nary if necessary. W hen one has been lawfully pre¬ 
 sented, found suited, and his presentation has been 
 accepted, he has a right to canonical institution, the 
 right of granting which is enjoyed by the local ordi¬ 
 nary , but not by the vicar general without a special 
 mandate. Canonical institution must be given within 
 two months after presentation, unless there is a just 
 excuse. 
 
 Patron Saints (cf. C. E., XI—562a).—The 
 practice of choosing a special saint as patron of a 
 nation ,province ,diocese or other locality, religious 
 institute, confraternity or other group constitutiong 
 a moral person is again highly approved in the Code. 
 When a selection has been made, however, the saint 
 does not become the patron officially until the Holy 
 See gives its approval. The choice of a diocesan 
 patron by a bishop requires the approval of the 
 diocesan synod to become effective. A special apos¬ 
 tolic indult is necessary where there is a desire to 
 select as patron one who has only been beatified, for 
 as a rule the Church allows as patrons only those 
 whose heroic sanctity has been definitively placed 
 beyond all question by canonization. By common 
 ecclesiastical law the feast days of patron saints are 
 not holy days of obligation; and a local ordinary 
 may transfer the external celebration of the patronal 
 feast to the following Sunday. 
 
 Patti, Diocese of (Pactensis; cf. C. E., XI— 
 567a), in Sicily, suffragan of Messina. The present 
 bishop is Rt. Rev. Ferdinando Fiandaca, b. 1857, 
 elected Bishop of Nicosia 1903, transferred to Patti 
 1912, succeeding Bishop Traina, deceased. The 
 Catholic population of the diocese is 200,000. There 
 are: 49 parishes, 324 secular priests, 43 regular priests, 
 70 seminarians, 50 Sisters, 520 churches and chapels. 
 
 Paulists. See Missionary Society of Saint Paul 
 the Apostle; Saint Paul of Hungary, Hermits of. 
 
 Pavia, Diocese of (Papiensis; cf. C. E., 
 XI—592b), suffragan of Milan, Italy. The present 
 bishop is Rt, Rev. Francesco Ciceri, b. 1848, ordained 
 
PAZ 
 
 574 
 
 PEARSE 
 
 1870, elected bishop 1901, succeeding Bishop Riboldi, 
 promoted, appointed assistant at the pontifical throne 
 1920. The bishop has the right of pallium. The Cath¬ 
 olic population of the diocese is 110,300. There are: 
 82 parishes, 198 secular priests, 10 regular priests, 
 65 seminarians, 20 Brothers, 59 Sisters, 112 churches 
 and chapels. 
 
 Paz y Figueroa, Maria Antonia de San Jose de, 
 preacher and missionary, b. at Santiago del Estero 
 in the Diocese of Salta, Argentina, in 1730; d. at 
 Buenos Aires on 6 March, 1799. At the age of 
 fifteen she dedicated herself to the service of God 
 and formed among her companions a society, without 
 any special rule, for the practice of Christian virtue 
 and the observance of the Evangelical counsels. 
 She acted under the spiritual guidance of the Jesuits 
 and when they were exiled she determined to carry 
 on their work and propagate their spirit as best she 
 could. With the approval of the religious authorities 
 and the cooperation of the Society of the Sisters of 
 Pious Sermons, she began to preach penance and urge 
 the laity to make the Spiritual Exercises, and between 
 1775 and 1779 evangelized large districts, especially 
 round Tucuman, San Miguel, Rivin, and Cdrdoba. 
 She then visited Buenos Aires where she stirred up the 
 religious zeal of the clergy and laity, and in August, 
 1780, with the archbishop’s approval, she established 
 a house of retreats, in which over 70,000 persons made 
 the Spiritual Exercises within the next eight years. 
 She then preached in Rio de la Plata and Monte¬ 
 video, where she remained three years. She was then 
 recalled by the citizens of Buenos Aires, and on her 
 return founded a Magdalen Asylum. She died in 
 the odor of sanctity in her sixty-ninth year, and on 
 8 August, 1917, the cause of her canonization was 
 introduced at Rome. 
 
 Acta Sanctae Sedis (1917), 435-38. 
 
 Pearse, Padraic H., Irish educator, poet and 
 patriot, b. in Dublin in 1879, d. 3. May, 1916, the 
 son of an English sculptor, James Pearse, and an 
 Irish mother. He was educated in a private school in 
 Dublin, then was an intermediate student of the 
 Christian Brothers’ school, at twelve he commenced 
 the study of the Irish language, and later studied 
 Canon O’Leary’s “Seadna” under supervision of the 
 author. When seventeen he founded the New Ireland 
 Literary Society and his presidential addresses were 
 published in book form in 1898 as “Three Essays on 
 Gaelic Topics.” Before he was twenty-four Pearse 
 graduated from the Royal University and was ap¬ 
 pointed Irish lecturer in Catholic University College, 
 where he gained his B.A. and B.L. Padraic Pearse 
 became editor of the Gaelic League Official organ “An 
 Claidheamh Soluis” (The Sword of Light), and he 
 announced his intention of making it the organ of 
 militant Gaeldom. He was the first of the young 
 men to be spoken of in the Gaelic League and he had 
 mastered the language and learned about Gaelic life 
 by living for long spaces of time in a cottage he owned 
 in West Connacht. And so he became a leader in the 
 movement to prepare the Irish for freedom, to turn 
 their hopes toward an Ireland that would be a re¬ 
 surgent Gaelic nationality. He wrote continually in 
 Irish and English and was an intelligent advocate of 
 bi-lingual schools, founding one such for boys (St. 
 Enda’s) in 1908 and later, as the idea developed and 
 its success was assured, St. Ita’s school for girls was 
 also founded. In these schools he put into practice 
 his ideas of national Irish education based on religion 
 and patriotism and from henceforth his writings were 
 connected with this school. Thomas McDonagh 
 became a member of the staff of St. Enda’s and later 
 Joseph Mary Plunkett became a pupil of his. Pearse 
 wrote a Passion Play in Irish in 1911 and produced it 
 
 at Easter in the Abbey Theatre. A year later he pub¬ 
 lished his single book of verse, “Suantraidhe agus 
 Goltraidhe” (Songs of Slumber and Sorrow), written 
 in the language of his Connacht parish. He began an 
 anthology of poetry in the Irish language, making his 
 own translations and putting much of his personality 
 into them. In the spring of 1913 he made a visit to 
 America to raise funds for his schools by lecturing on 
 Irish literature and his own ideas of education. 
 
 In the winter of 1913 the Irish Volunteers were 
 formed. Pearse, Plunkett and MacDonagh became 
 members of a secret political society that had revolu¬ 
 tion as its object and they strove to bring about for¬ 
 eign intervention. In 1914 the European War broke 
 out and the threat of conscription, actual over-taxa¬ 
 tion, danger of famine and exasperation caused by 
 unfair and clumsy administration fanned the flames 
 of their purpose and the Volunteer movement spread. 
 Pearse and his companions saw in the War their great 
 chance. On St. Patrick’s Day, 1916, a vast body of 
 Volunteers paraded in College Green, Dublin, and 
 saluted Eoin MacNeil, their recognized leader. The 
 personality of Pearse and James Connolly, a Socialist, 
 was responsible for the Easter uprising. Roger Case¬ 
 ment, landing in Kerry, failed to be met by those who 
 were to take him to his destination and had been 
 captured by police and taken to London, and at the 
 same time a liner, the “Aud,” which accompanied 
 Casement’s submarine disguised as a Norwegian 
 timber ship, but carrying 20,000 rifles, millions of 
 rounds of ammunition with machine guns and explo¬ 
 sives had been stopped by a British patrol near 
 Tralee where the arms were to be landed and the ship, 
 flying the German flag, was scuttled by her own 
 crew. A rising had been planned for Easter Sunday, 
 but on learning of this loss a countermanding order 
 was sent broadcast on Holy Saturday. On Easter 
 Sunday the Volunteer council met to consider whether 
 or not a blow should be struck for they knew that the 
 British Government had learned from the sinking of 
 the “Aud” how near insurrection had come to pass 
 and that the decision was made to seize the Volunteer 
 Executive and break up the organization. MacNeill 
 opposed unaided insurrection. Sean MacDiarmada, 
 Tom Clarke and Thomas MacDonagh were com¬ 
 mitted to the insurgent policy, Pearse is believed to 
 have favored the moderate counsel, but Connolly 
 declared that at any cost the Citizen Army should 
 strike before it disbanded and so Pearse, having 
 preached at all times the duty of Irishmen to vindicate 
 their national faith, gave the vote for the insurrection 
 which turned the course of Irish history (see Ireland). 
 
 On Easter Monday (24 April, 1916), soon after 
 noon the Irish Republic was proclaimed in Dublin 
 (the stirring proclamation was signed by Clarke, 
 MacDiarmada, Connolly, Eamonn Ceannt, Pearse, 
 MacDonagh and Plunkett) and the insurgent tri-color 
 waved from the flagstaff above the General Post 
 Office in the heart of the Irish capital. There was little 
 fighting on the first day. British reinforcements were 
 hurried into the country while all over Ireland a few 
 hundred youths, ill-armed, stood their ground against 
 the might of Britain. A circle of fire and steel was 
 contracting around the daring insurgents and even the 
 best organized counties had not enough munitions for 
 an hour’s firing. 
 
 Pearse was Commander in Chief and President of 
 the Provisional Government. The County Dublin 
 Volunteers pierced into County Meath, taking the 
 R. I. C. barracks and fighting a pitched battle with 
 the constabulary at Ashburne. In County Galway a 
 large body of insurgents, led by Liam Mellows, 
 advanced on Galway City. In County Wexford 
 Enniscorthy was seized on Thursday and the Repub¬ 
 lican flag hoisted on the Athenaeum, and on Friday 
 encircling forces pressed close to the central scene of 
 
PECS 
 
 PEGUY 
 
 575 
 
 operations in Dublin. A terrific bombardment had 
 sot the center of Dublin City wholly ablaze. The 
 loss oi life was appalling, while banks, churches and 
 business places were tottering and Pearse wrote his 
 last manifesto in which he said: “I am satisfied that 
 we have saved Ireland’s honor . . . we have acted 
 for the best interests of Ireland. . . I am not afraid to 
 face the judgment of God or the judgment of pos- 
 * Connelly, wounded with a bullet through the 
 thigh stdl directed the defence. Commandant Daly 
 had destroyed the Linen Hall Barracks, but was sur¬ 
 rounded at hour Courts. Countess Markievicz, after 
 bemg driven from the trenches in Stephen's Green, 
 was defending the College of Surgeons. Commandant 
 MacDonagh was surrounded in Jacob’s factory, Com¬ 
 mandant De Valera was holding Boland’s Mills, while 
 Commandant Ceannt held part of the South Dublin 
 Union. On Saturday the.General Post Office was set 
 aflame and the Republican Government had to evacu¬ 
 ate the headquarters there, which Pearse was the last 
 to leave I rom new headquarters he sent a message 
 asking for terms. These were refused and at two 
 o dock Pearse surrendered unconditionally to Sir 
 John Maxwell. He then sent out notices to com¬ 
 mandants of the surviving Volunteer bodies, ordering 
 arms to be laid down, “in order to prevent a further 
 slaughter of unarmed people and in the hope of saving 
 lives of our followers, now surrounded and hopelessly 
 outnumbered. ” J 
 
 And so the rising ended, the outstanding forces 
 laying down their arms on Sunday. There followed a 
 round-up of Irish Irelanders. to have been heard 
 to speak Irish was cause enough for the breadwinner 
 to be torn from his family. Hundreds of Irishmen 
 were crowded into congested prisons and sent to 
 internment camps and fifteen of the leaders, including 
 Padraic Pearse and his brother William, Connolly 
 Eamonn Ceannt, Sean McDermott, Michael O’Han- 
 rahan, Con Colbert, Thomas Kent, Joseph Mary 
 Plunkett, Edward Daly, Michael Mallon, Thomas 
 MacDonagh, Tom Clarke and John MacBride were 
 'tt- f. ra i° P earse was executed on 3 May, 1916 
 and William twenty-four hours later. The Easter 
 Rising had been quickly quelled but the blood-sacri- 
 face that had been made called into being a mighty 
 desire for freedom that proved Pearse and the others 
 had not died in vain, their Provisional Republic pro¬ 
 claimed on Easter Monday lived and these deaths 
 united Irishmen to fight for an unfettered Ireland. 
 
 Pearse the patriot overshadowed Pearse the poet 
 and his tireless activities in behalf of the Irish language 
 education and freedom limited his artistic production ’ 
 but the very essence of the man was poetry—the rare 
 poetry of perfect simplicity and intense sincerity 
 lighted by a deep faith from which no interest in his 
 lite was separate. The single volume in which his 
 works have been placed contains a slender lot of poetry 
 (about one-tenth of the whole), but in these twenty- 
 odd poems we have a most accurate picture of the 
 poet, gentle but not soft, calm and eager, and at times 
 oi exaltation a flaming passionate mystic. We find 
 also in the book some very fine prose, especially his 
 stories of children which are perfect in natural dia¬ 
 logue, and a few plays, one of which, “The Singer,” is 
 autobiographical. Pearse was so sincere that’his 
 writmgs could but reveal himself and they even fore¬ 
 tell with startling accuracy his future, for he had 
 dreamed a dream in his heart” and set his face to 
 the road before him and the death he knew he should 
 meet. 
 
 MacManus, The Story of the Irish Race (New York, 1921)- 
 V OL .™’ Introduction to Poems of the Irish Revolutionary Brother¬ 
 hood (Boston, 1916); O’Braonian in Studies (September, 1916). 
 
 Samuel Fowle Telfair, Jr. 
 
 >.in the ecclesiastical province of Esztergom (Gran). 
 I his diocese since 7 September, 1754, has enjoyed 
 the perpetual right of the pallium. The present bishop 
 is Count Jules Zichy, b. at Nagv-Land, diocese of 
 Szekes-Fehervar, 7 November, 1871, brother of the 
 head of the Catholic party, titular abbot of St. 
 Martin de Buch, papal chamberlain to Popes Leo 
 XIII and Pius X, elected 11 December, 1905, con¬ 
 secrated in the Sistine Chapel by Pius X, 21 Decem¬ 
 ber following and enthroned 14 January, 1906. 
 
 During the Servian occupation (1918-1921) the 
 clergy fearlessly strove to bring about the expulsion 
 of the invaders, and some priests were incarcerated and 
 others were martyred. Among those put to death are: 
 Stephen Vomdcsy, honorary canon and professor of 
 theology; Victor Perr, editor of the weekly “Pecsi 
 Est;” Aloysius Tselstoger, pastor at Olaz; Ludovicus 
 Lesfuyaz, O. S. Fr.; Canon Dionysius Mosowyi; 
 Abel Bufessy, O. Cist., director of the archgymnasium 
 in Pecs. At the time of the Communist uprising 
 some of the clergy took an active part as leaders against 
 the revolution. 
 
 The following clergy of note are recently deceased: 
 Canon Julius Wajdis (d. 21 March, 1920), a man of 
 great sanctity, called “the father of the poor”; 
 Adalbert Horvath, translator of Hungarian poems into 
 Croatian and of Slavonic poetry into Hungarian. 
 A notable evjent for the diocese was the founding of a 
 weekly, “Dunantul,” which intrepidly upheld Catholic 
 doctrine during the Communistic uprising and sup¬ 
 ported the Hungarian cause during the time of the 
 Servian occupation. 
 
 There are 532,800 Catholics in the diocese, as com¬ 
 pared with 18,200 Schismatics, 46,200 Lutherans 
 85,500 Calvinists, and 18,700 Jews. There are 
 347 secular and 84 regular priests, assisted by 25 
 lay brothers; 181 parishs with 268 churches; 1 mission; 
 
 11 monasteries for men and 25 for women; 1 seminary; 
 
 1 university in charge of the Government with 88 
 professors and 1145 students; 5 colleges for boys with 
 14 teachers and 300 students; 6 colleges for girls with 
 30 teachers and 350 students; 2 academies with 18 
 teachers and 165 pupils; 7 training schools with 139 
 teachers and 2850 pupils; 3 orphanages; 1 hospital; 
 
 1 house of refuge; 73 day nurseries. The Govern¬ 
 ment contributes to the support of the Catholic in¬ 
 stitutions and admits the ministry of priests in all 
 public schools. 
 
 There are a mission society and a Eucharistic league 
 organized among the clergy while among the laity 
 many associations such as the League of the Sacred 
 Heart, the Society for Perpetual Adoration, etc., 
 exist. Two Catholic dailies, 1 weekly and 6 other 
 periodicals are published. 
 
 f P< \ C 4 (orFunfkirchen), Diocese of (cf. C. 
 • , *1 322b, Quinque Ecclesiensis) , in Hungary, 
 3 7 
 
 Peguy, Charles Pierre, author, b. at Orleans on 
 7 January, 1873; d. at the Battle of the Marne, 1914. 
 After his baccalaureate he taught in the normal school 
 of his native city but abandoned pedagogy to study 
 the question of Socialism. In 1907 he ran a work 
 through the press under the pseudonym, of Pierre 
 Deloire. He also composed a drama on Joan of Arc. 
 Meantime he had organized a Socialist library and 
 was among those who clamored for a revision of the 
 Dreyfus trial. But Joan of Arc pursued him; he 
 gave up his library and began to turn his thoughts 
 higher. It was not hard for him to do so, for his 
 Socialism was alw r ays of a mystical character and he 
 had no regard for the material side of it or for com¬ 
 promises with politicians. In 1905 the attitude of 
 Germany towards France aroused his patriotism and 
 he wrote “Our Country,” in which there are medita¬ 
 tions on Joan of Arc and St. Genevieve, the liberators 
 of Orleans. In 1910 appeared another book of medi¬ 
 tations on the tragedy of Calvary, in 1912 a book 
 about the Holy Innocents, one of them taking the 
 
PEKIN 
 
 576 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA 
 
 Academy prize. When the war broke out he rushed- 
 to the front and when he died was cited on the order 
 of the day. 
 
 Pekin. See Chi-li, Northern. 
 
 Pelotas, Diocese of (Pelotasensis; cf. C. E., 
 XI—610a), in Brazil, suffragan of Porto Alegre. The 
 present bishop is Rt. Rev. Joachim Ferreira de Mello, 
 b. 187.5, elected 1921, succeeding Bishop de Campos 
 Barreto, transferred. The area of the diocese is 16,026 
 square miles and the population is 307,000, of whom 
 280,000 are Catholics and 27,000 Protestants. There 
 are: 24 parishes, 32 secular priests, 50 regular priests 
 and 10 Brothers belonging to 5 religious congregations 
 of men, 5 religious congregations of women, 2 col¬ 
 leges, several secondary and parochial schools and 
 nearly 120 Sisters who have charge of all the hospitals 
 in the diocese. 
 
 Pembroke, Diocese of (Pembrokensis, cf. 
 C. E., XI—611a), in Canada, is suffragan to the 
 Archdiocese of Ottawa. On 3 May, 1912, Rt. Rev. 
 Patrick T. Ryan, who had been vicar general of the 
 diocese for two years, was appointed titular Bishop 
 of Clazomense, consecrated 25 July, of the same year 
 and made auxiliary to Bishop Lorrain, first bishop of 
 Pembroke. Bishop Lorrain died 18 December, 1915, 
 and his auxiliary was named successor, 7 August, 
 1916, taking possession of the see 21 December fol¬ 
 lowing. 
 
 During the World War numbers of the young men 
 of this diocese enlisted for service, 140 going from the 
 cathedral parish alone, 10 of whom were killed. Six 
 of the clergy went to the front as chaplains and one 
 of them, Rev. F. L. French, P. P., was in charge of 
 the Canadian chaplain-service in France with the 
 rank of lieutenant-colonel. He received the deco¬ 
 ration of the Distinguished Service Order and two of 
 the other chaplains received French military medals. 
 
 On 18 June, 1918, the Grey Nuns of the Cross 
 celebrated the fiftieth anniversary of their establish¬ 
 ment in the Diocese of Pembroke, and on 24 July, 
 1921, the Sisters of St. Joseph of Peterborough were 
 introduced into the diocese, with a mother-house at 
 Pembroke. 
 
 Penedo, Diocese of (Penedensis), suffragan 
 of Maceio, Brazil. The diocese was erected 3 April, 
 1916, by division of the Archdiocese of Alagoas (Ma¬ 
 ceio), the western part forming the new diocese. The 
 western boundaries are those of the former Archdio¬ 
 cese of Alagoas and the eastern boundaries are the 
 eastern borders of the parishes of Coruripe, Junqueiro, 
 Zimolira, and Palmeira, belonging to the new diocese, 
 which comprise a total of 16 parishes formerly belong¬ 
 ing to Alagoas. A decree of 25 August, 1917, modified 
 the diocesan boundaries. The episcopal residence is 
 at Penedo, where the church of the Rosary was erected 
 into a cathedral. The first and present bishop is Rt. 
 Rev. Jonas de Aranjo Batinga, b. 1865, vicar general 
 of Maceio, elected 28 January, 1918, published 10 
 March, 1919. 
 
 Penne and Atri, Diocese of (Pennensis et 
 Atriensis; cf. C. E., XI—638c), in the Province of 
 Teramo, Italy, dependent directly on the Holy See. 
 The present bishop is Rt. Rev. Carlo Pensa, O.S.C., 
 b. 1869, elected 27 August, 1912, succeeding Bishop 
 Piras, deceased. Penne has 163,800 Catholics, 91 
 parishes, 163 secular priests, 21 regular priests, 275 
 churches and chapels, 10 Brothers, and 6 Sisters. 
 Atri has 20,600 Catholics, 8 parishes, 30 secular 
 priests, 44 churches and chapels. 
 
 Pennsylvania (cf. C.E.,XI—638d).—The area of 
 the State of Pennsylvania is 45,126 square miles, 
 
 of which 294 are covered with water. In 1920 the 
 population was 8,720,017, a gain of 13.89 per cenf 
 since 1910. Of this 64.3 was urban; 35.7 was rural. 
 The average number of inhabitants is 194.5 per square 
 mile, as against 171 in 1910. There are 67 counties, 
 2544 primary divisions, 1567 townships, 39 cities, 933 
 incorporated boroughs and one incorporated town. 
 The largest cities are: Philadelphia, with a popula¬ 
 tion of 1,823,779; Pittsburgh 588,193; Scranton 
 137,783; Reading 107,784; Erie 93,372; Harrisburg 
 75,917; Wilkes-Barre 73,828; Allentown 73,502; 
 Johnstown 67,327. Philadelphia still ranks as the 
 third city in the United States but Pittsburg has fallen 
 to the ninth place. Pennsylvania sends 36 represen¬ 
 tatives to the United States Congress and has 38 
 votes in the electoral college. It is second of all the 
 States in the Union in population. 
 
 Material Resources. —In 1918 about 630,000 
 million feet of lumber was cut in Pennsylvania, 
 about one-half as much as the State of Minnesota, at 
 an average cost of $30.21 per million feet. This is a 
 great decrease from 1900, when the cut was 2,313,267 
 million feet. It is estimated that the State has about 
 115,000,000,000 tons of coal. The total output of 
 bituminous coal in 1918 was 178,550,741 tons; of 
 anthracite coal, 98,826,084 tons. Thus the State 
 contributed more than 33 per cent of the coal mined 
 in the United States, and about half of the coke, the 
 output being 26,723,645 tons. In the same year the 
 petroleum output was 103,347,070 barrels, worth 
 $231,136,205. The production of pig iron in 1918 
 was 15,423,262 long tons, valued at $460,677,474, 
 just 39 per cent of the entire production of the United 
 States. 
 
 In 1919 Pennsylvania had a capital of $6,277,268,- 
 000 invested in manufactures, employing 1,136,252 
 wage earners receiving $1,406,561,000 per annum, 
 and producing $7,316,063,000 in value of finished 
 goods, including, l3esides iron and steel, textiles of 
 various kinds, etc. The manufacturing establish¬ 
 ments numbered 27,975. Owing to the abundance of 
 tanning substances Pennsylvania is the largest leather- 
 producing State in the Union, 60 per cent of the glace 
 kid of the United States being made in Philadelphia. 
 In 1916 the leather industry employed 13,592 workers, 
 earning a total wage of $9,336,100, the total product 
 being valued at $155,973,800. In the same year the 
 cotton mills employed a total of 5826 workers, earning 
 a total of $3,193,200. 
 
 Agriculture. —In 1919 there were 202,256 farms 
 with an area of 18,586,832 acres, of which 12,673,519 
 were improved. The value of the farm property was 
 $1,253,274,862. The chief crops are: wheat 26,774,- 
 760 bushels; oats 44,858,325 bushels; tobacco 60,541,- 
 000 pounds; maize 66,457,800 bushels. 
 
 Communications. —On 1, January 1919, Penn¬ 
 sylvania had 12,872 miles of railway, and 4870 
 miles of electric railway, an average of 26.05 miles of 
 track for every square mile. The total assessment of 
 steam railroads operating any portions of their lines 
 within the State is $6,832,325,258. For the year end¬ 
 ing December, 1916, the total earnings of railroads 
 subject to taxation was $1,444,317,202. There were 
 391,412,797 passengers and 966,155,890 total tons of 
 freight. The street railways showed a capitalization 
 of $432,310,318. Philadelphia is an important port, 
 the imports for the year ending 30 June, 1920, being: 
 imports, $219,167,601; exports, $449,691,705. In 
 1919 just 1447 vessels from foreign ports arrived in 
 Philadelphia; 2057 from coastwise ports. On 1 De¬ 
 cember, 1917, the outstanding bonds of the State 
 amounted to $22,651,110, which were partially cov¬ 
 ered by a sinking fund of $2,151,110. On 1 Novem¬ 
 ber, 1920, the assessed value of real property was $6,- 
 836,165,155; taxable value of personal property, 
 $1,907,34,355. 
 
PENSION 
 
 PEORIA 
 
 57 i 
 
 Education. School attendance is compulsory 
 for all between the ages of 8 and 11 for the full 
 term; in less populated districts (less than 5000) it 
 may be reduced to /0 per cent of the term for children 
 under 12 years of age. The State Board of Education 
 created by the Act. of 18 May, 1911, consists of six 
 members, appointed by the Governor for six years. 
 I he Superintendent of Public Instruction, appointed 
 bv the Governor for four years, is president and 
 chief executive officer of the State Board of Educa¬ 
 tion. The Bureau of Vocational Education, created 
 in 1915 to supersede the Vocational Educational 
 Division, authorized in 1913, consists of two divisions 
 Agricultural and Industrial. The Bureau of Pro¬ 
 fessional Education created in 1911 is under the State 
 Department of Public Instruction. In 1911 was also 
 created the Bureau of Medical Instruction and 
 Licensure of the Department of Public Instruction. 
 A State Council of Education was established in 
 1921 The laws governing private and parochial 
 schools are as follows: The register of all public, 
 private, parochial, Sunday and other schools shall 
 exhibit the names and residence of all children 
 and persons excluded therefrom or readmitted there¬ 
 to . . .; and such register shall be open at all 
 times to the inspection of city, borough, township 
 authorities and the State Department of Health and 
 their respective officers and agents. Every child 
 between the ages of 8 and 16 is required to attend a 
 day school in which the common English branches 
 are taught in the English language. All teachers in 
 public and private schools, shall take the oath of al¬ 
 legiance. No appropriation shall be made to any 
 charitable or educational institution not under the 
 absolute control of the Commonwealth. Private 
 schools must report regarding attendance. Attendance 
 registers shall always be open to public authorities. 
 Ao teacher, while teaching in a public school, shall 
 wear a religious garb. In the year ending July, 1919, 
 there were in the State 15,185 school-houses, 42,354 
 schools, 937 high schools, 58,073 boys and 72,197 
 girls in the high schools, also 43,972^teachers (6233 
 male and 37,139 female). The number of pupils 
 was 1,583,187; the total educational expenditure 
 $75,343,160. The average monthly salary of the 
 male teacher is $91.82; of the female teachers $62.45. 
 School districts are required to provide special edu¬ 
 cation in special classes in the public schools for chil¬ 
 dren who are mentally or physically handicapped. 
 
 1 he schools are being consolidated as far as possible 
 m remote districts to increase their educational 
 efficiency. Bible reading is obligatory in the public 
 schools. Among the recent additions to the State 
 institutions are: the New Western Penitentiary of 
 Pennsylvania, founded in Centre County, in 1915, 
 where all the electrocutions now take place; to this 
 place, which is known as the Pennsylvania State 
 Prison, the inmates of the Eastern and Western State 
 Penitentiaries were transferred; the State Industrial 
 Home for the care of criminal women between sixteen 
 and thirty years of age was established at Muncy in 
 19}3; the Western Hospital for the Insane at Blairs- 
 ville in 1915; the State Village for Feeble-Minded 
 Men near Glen Iron, Union County; State Hospital 
 at Coal dale (originally a private hospital); and a 
 State School for the Deaf in Scranton (originally a 
 private institution). 
 
 Religion. —Of the entire population of Pennsyl¬ 
 vania in 1916 (8,522,017) 4,114,527, or 45 per cent, 
 were church members: 2,283,995 Protestants and 
 1,830,532 Catholics. The latest census of Catholics 
 (1920) for the entire State was 1,755,194. The Protes¬ 
 tant denominations for 1916 were divided as follows: 
 Methodists 427,509; Lutherans 371,674; United Pres¬ 
 byterians 73,405; Reformed 209,256; Baptists 193,262; 
 Presbyterians 332,088; Episcopalians 118,687; United 
 
 Brethren 73,989; all others 483,125. The value 
 of church property is $208,132,581, being 2 per cent 
 
 l473 V fi9n%nr a Af P In Pert ^ m the ? ta . te > which is 
 811,473,620,306. Of the entire population in 1916, 
 
 5o per cent professed no religion, as against 67.2 per 
 cent in 1900. For Catholic statistics see Philadel¬ 
 phia, Archdiocese of, and its suffragans. 
 
 Recent Legislation and History. —In 1913 a 
 Public Utilities Act did aw r ay with the railway com¬ 
 mission. State-wide primaries were introduced in the 
 same year, electrocution was substituted for hanging" 
 and a mothers’ pension bill was enacted. Night work 
 for children was prohibited in 1915. This had an 
 important bearing on the industrial situation of 
 Pennsylvania, as more children were employed in 
 Pennsylvania than in any other state of the Union. 
 A Workmen’s Compensation Act was provided for and 
 a Prison Labor Commission created. In 1917 a 
 direct inheritance law was passed. In the last ten 
 years much has been done to reform the laws of 
 Pennsylvania. The election law has been changed 
 but the ballot laws are yet far from perfect. The 
 Federal Suffrage amendment was ratified on 24 June 
 1919; the Prohibition Act on 25 February, 1919. 
 
 During the European War Penns 3 r lvania furnished 
 to the United States Army 297,891 men (7.93 per 
 cent). The Pennsylvania members of the national 
 guard were incorporated into the 28th Division at 
 Camp Hancock, Georgia; those of the national army 
 into the 79th Division at Camp MeaSe, Maryland or 
 with the 80th Division at Camp Lee, Virginia. The 
 summary of casualties of the Pennsylvania members 
 of the American Expeditionary Force is as follows: 
 deceased, 29i officers, 7607 men; prisoners, 37 
 officers, 854 men; wounded, 810 officers, 25,442 men. 
 An artillery camp was established at Tobyhanna, 
 Pennsylvania; a tank cantonment at Gettysburg, 
 and an ambulance camp at Allentown. 
 
 Pension, Ecclesiastical (cf. C. E., XI—645c).— 
 A local ordinary when conferring a benefice may for 
 a just cause, which is to be announced in the act of 
 collation, subject a benefice to a temporary pension 
 lasting during the lifetime of the beneficiary, who 
 must, however, be left a suitable income. Parochial 
 benefices may not be subjected to pensions, except in 
 favor of the parish priest or vicar of the same parish on 
 retiring from office: this pension must not exceed one- 
 third of the parish revenues after deducting expenses 
 and uncertain income. If a parish priest retires 
 voluntarily at the request of the ordinary he should 
 receive a larger pension than if he had to be removed. 
 
 If an ecclesiastic is raised to the cardinalate he loses 
 his pension ipso facto unless the Holy See provides 
 otherwise in a special case. 
 
 Pentecostal Holiness Church. See New Thought. 
 
 Peoria, Diocese of (Peorensis; cf. C. E., XI 
 
 661d), in the State of Illinois, comprises an area 
 of 18,554 square miles, and has a Catholic population 
 of 116,553, mostly American born. The present 
 bishop, Rt. Rev. Edmund M. Dunne, D.D., who 
 has filled the see since 1909, is assisted by an auxiliary 
 bishop, Rt. Rev. Peter J. O’Reilv, D.D., titular 
 Bishop of Lebedos. On 25 August, 1916, Rt. Rev. 
 John Lancaster Spalding (q. v.), first Bishop of 
 Peoria, died in that city. Bishop Spalding had been 
 forced by illness to resign his see in 1908, but he 
 continued his residence in Peoria as Archbishop of 
 Scythopolis, to which title he was raised in 1909. 
 
 The present (1921) statistics of this diocese show 
 159 parishes, 238 churches, 80 missions, 20 mission 
 stations, 5 monasteries for men and 1 for women, 1 
 abbey for men, 1 convent for women and 26 for men, 
 178 secular priests and 47 regular, 10 lay brothers, 
 1357 nuns and 20 seminarians. The various edu- 
 
PERIGUEUX 
 
 PERSIA 
 
 578 
 
 cational institutions include 2 colleges for men with 
 35 professors and 400 students, 8 high schools, 8 
 academies with an attendance of 1216. .There are 
 3 Catholic homes and 13 hospitals maintained in the 
 diocese and 4 of the public institutions admit the 
 priests to minister in them. The Eucharistic League 
 is organized among the clergy and the Knights ot 
 Columbus, Holy Name and Altar Societies among the 
 laity. “The Bee Hive/’ a Catholic periodical, is 
 published in Pekin, Illinois. 
 
 Perigueux Diocese of (Petrocoricensis, cf. 
 C. E., XI—668a), comprises the department of 
 Dordogne, France, and is suffragan to the Arc 
 diocese of Bordeaux. On 1 January, 1915, Bishop 
 Henri-Louis-Prosper Bougouin d^ed, after filling this 
 see from 1906, and was succeeded by Rt. Rev. Mane- 
 Louis-Maurice Riviere. Bishop Riviere was pro¬ 
 moted to the Archdiocese of Aix 9 July, 1920, and the 
 present incumbent, Rt. Rev. Chnstophe-Louis 
 Legasse, came to the see, lo August, 1920. Boin at 
 Bassussary, diocese of Bayonne, m 1859, Bishop 
 Legasse was made a prelate of the Holy bee in 1899, 
 Prefect Apostolic of St. Pierre and Miquelon the same 
 vear, and Bishop of Oran 6 December 191o. During 
 the World War this diocese contributed large numbers 
 of priests and laymen to the service; 15 priests and 
 14 seminarians were killed, 20 priests and 6 semina¬ 
 rians were wounded and numerous citations and 
 medals of honor were conferred upon those who 
 
 served, diocese has a Catholic population (1920) of 
 437,432 and by 1921 statistics it comprises 738 par¬ 
 ishes 637 churches, 2 monasteries for men and 2b tor 
 women, 555 secular priests, 6 regulars, 2 seminaries 
 100 seminarians, 2 secondary schools for boys with 
 40 teachers and 500 pupils, 60 elementary schoo s 
 with 174 teachers, 1 mission centre, 1 home, 4 asyl¬ 
 ums, 20 hospitals, 1 refuge and 1 nursery. Ihe 
 Defense sacerdotale and a fund for the assistance o 
 priests are organized among the laity . The Semaine 
 religieuse” and “La Croix du Pengord,” are published. 
 
 Perjury (cf. C. E., XI-696d).-If anyone 
 
 testifying in an ecclesiastical court commits perjury 
 he is to be punished by a personal interdict if he be¬ 
 longs to the laity, or by suspension if he is a cleric. 
 
 Perpetual Adoration, Sisters of the (cf. C. E., 
 XI—698b).—This congregation has its mother-house 
 at Quimper, Finistere, France, and has another 
 foundation at Brest, from 130 to 140 poor orphans 
 being cared for in each. The number of children 
 educated by the Sisters from the foundation of the 
 institute to the present is about 2600. _ The difficul¬ 
 ties of the last twenty years have made impossible the 
 extension of the work of the congregation, the 
 establishment of a new foundation requires a rather 
 important centre in view of the twofold end of the 
 institute: the perpetual adoration of the Blessed 
 Sacrament and the education of children. On 27 
 March 1874, the congregation received a decree ot 
 approbation from Rome. In 1895, an important 
 annex was constructed to accommodate iady board¬ 
 ers. Mother St. Barthelemy, elected superior in 
 1901 actively and firmly resisted during her admin¬ 
 istration the measures of the Government which 
 wished to recognize the Sisters as a teaching congre¬ 
 gation and in 1908 secularized the school attached to 
 the orphanage. She was succeeded in 1916 by Mother 
 Marie of the Precious Blood, the tenth and present 
 superior general. On 20 September, 1921, the Sisters 
 celebrated the centenary of the foundation of the 
 orphanage. According to the prescriptions ot the 
 new Code of Canon Law, perpetual vows are taken 
 at the end of three or six years, instead of ten as for¬ 
 
 merly. There are at present (1921) 64 professed 
 choir religious, 40 professed lay sisters, and 11 novices. 
 The number of deceased religious is 118. Among the 
 notables recently deceased are: Mother St. Ange 
 (Adele Cohanec), d. 1900 during her term as superior 
 general; Sister Theresa of Jesus (Emilie Corbel), 
 assistant and mistress of novices, d. 1911; Sister 
 Marie Bernard (Jenny Pellan), economist and assist¬ 
 ant, d. 1916; Sister St. Arsene (Marie Desiree Salaun), 
 superior at Brest, d. 1919; Sister Marie St. Louis 
 (Sophie Guitard), former assistant, local superior, 
 and mistress of novices, d. 1921; Mother St. Jean 
 Baptiste (Amelie Lefort), former superior general, 
 diamond jubilarian in 1920, d. 1921. 
 
 Perpetual Help, Sisters of Our Lady (cf. C. E., 
 XI—699a).—The rules and constitutions of the con¬ 
 gregation were approved by diocesan authority, 2 
 July, 1915. On 15 June of that year the founder, 
 Abbe Brousseau, was made honorary canon of the 
 metropolitan church of Quebec by Cardinal Tas- 
 chereau. He died 18 April, 1920. The foundress, 
 Mother St. Bernard, died 30 April, 1918. The 
 present superior general is Sister St. Helen, elected 
 21 July, 1919, to succeed Sister St. Isidore. A house¬ 
 keeping school was built in 1913, and a new house 
 was founded at Hearst, Ontario, in August, 1920. In 
 1921, the personnel of the institute was 190 professed 
 religious, 22 novices, and 7 postulants. 
 
 Perpignan, Diocese of (Perpinianum; cf. 
 C. E., XI—700b), suffragan of Albi, France. # The 
 present bishop is Rt. Rev. Jules-Marie-Louis de 
 Carsalade du Pont, b. 1847, ordained 1871, conse¬ 
 crated bishop 1900, succeeding Bishop Gaussail, 
 deceased. He celebrated his sacerdotal golden jubilee 
 in 1921, in the Basilica of St. Jean, in the presence of 
 4000 faithful and 200 priests. The Catholic popula¬ 
 tion of the diocese is 212,986, of whom 39,510 are in 
 Perpignan. There are 26 curacies, 197 succursals and 
 43 vicariates. 
 
 Persia (cf. C. E., XI—712b), has an area of about 
 628,000 square miles and a population of about 
 8 to 10 millions. Of the three million nomads, 
 there are about 260,000 Arabs, 720,000 Turks, 675,- 
 000 Kurds and Leks, 20,700 Baluchis and Gypsies, 
 234,000 Lurs. The Europeans number about 1200. 
 The principal cities are Teheran, with over 220,000 
 inhabitants, Tabriz, with 200,000; Ispahan and 
 Kermansha with 80,000 each. 
 
 Recent History. —Under the Anglo-Russian 
 Treaty of 1907 the whole of northern Persia was 
 declared to be within the Russian sphere of influence; 
 the British controlled the southeastern corner, while 
 the rest of the Central and Southern parts were 
 declared to be neutral. After the fall of Mohammed 
 Ali in 1909, a regency was appointed and the Mejliss 
 assembled. The state of affairs was so bad that m 
 1911 Mr. W. Morgan Shuster, an American financial 
 adviser selected by President Taft, was invited to 
 take charge of the finances of Persia. He refused to 
 recognize the Anglo-Russian agreement, and thereby 
 antagonized Russia who planned series of inter¬ 
 ventions in the administration, and forced the dis¬ 
 missal of Shuster after eight months, by an ultimatum, 
 which was approved by Great Britain. After his 
 departure Persia relapsed into anarchy. 
 
 Though Persia remained neutral during the Great 
 European War, her territory was invaded near Mount 
 Ararat by the Russians and Turks in 1914. In¬ 
 decisive fighting occured intermittently for many 
 months between the Russians under Baratoff based 
 upon Tabriz and the Turks based upon Bagdad. 
 At the end of 1916 the Turks held Hamadar which 
 however, they lost to Russia in 1917. At the 'with¬ 
 drawal of the Russian forces the Turks entered Persia, 
 
PERTH 
 
 579 
 
 PESARO 
 
 occupied Baku, but at the end of the war the British 
 occupied the southeast and west portions of Persia. 
 By the terms of the armistice imposed on Turkey by 
 the western powers, Persia was to be evacuated by 
 the Turkish troops. On 19 September, 1919, the 
 secret treaty between Great Britain and Persia, con¬ 
 cluded on 9 August, was made public. By its terms 
 Great Britain made a 20 year loan of £2,000,000 at 
 
 7 per cent which was to have precedence over all 
 other debts of Persia except a former British loan of 
 £1,250,000 made in 1911. As a guarantee Persia 
 pledged her custom receipts. Great Britain also 
 agreed to supply at Persian expense, expert advisers, 
 military officers, munitions, and all necessary mili¬ 
 tary equipment, and to make no charge to Persia 
 for troops sent to the aid of Persia during the war. 
 Perski, on the other hand, agreed not to demand in¬ 
 demnity for damage caused by them. This treaty 
 was objected to by the United States, as it violated 
 the principles of the League of Nations. The agree¬ 
 ment was denounced on 27 February, 1921, by the 
 Prime Minister, Seyed-Ziaed-Din. 
 
 Perth, Archdiocese of (Perthensis; cf. C. E., 
 XI —731c), in Western Australia, erected into a 
 metropolitan see 28 August, 1913. The first and 
 present archbishop is Most Rev. Patrick Joseph 
 Clune, C. SS. R., b. at Killaloe, Ireland, 6 Jan., 
 1864, consecrated in Perth 17 March, 1911, succeed¬ 
 ing Bishop Gibney, resigned, became archbishop 28 
 August, 1913. The Catholic population is 39,500, 
 composed to a large degree of Irish, English, and 
 Maltese immigrants. The religious orders established 
 in the diocese are: Oblates of Mary Immaculate, 2 
 houses, 11 members; Redemptorists, 1 monastery, 
 
 8 members; Irish Christian Brothers, 4 houses, 22 
 members; Sisters of Mercy; 15 houses, 193 nuns; 
 Sisters of St. Joseph of the Apparition, 7 houses, 
 77 nuns; Sisters of St. John of God, 4 houses, 68 
 nuns; Presentation Sisters, 3 houses, 25 nuns; Sisters 
 of St. Joseph of the Sacred Heart, 4 houses, 24 nuns; 
 Loreto Nuns, 2 houses, 34 nuns. There are 2 monas¬ 
 teries of men, 3 convents of men, 38 convents for 
 women, 52 secular priests, 9 regular priests, 4 lay 
 brothers, 471 Sisters. Educational institutions in¬ 
 clude: 3 colleges for men, with 30 teachers, and 850 
 students; 2 colleges for women, with an attendance of 
 164; 6 high schools; 53 primary schools, with an at¬ 
 tendance of 7958; 4 industrial schools with 24 
 teachers, and 621 pupils; a total of 53 primary schools, 
 25 superior schools, 9764 children in Catholic schools, 
 325 professed religious, 64 novices, and 80 lay 
 teachers. Charitable institutions total 9, containing 
 497 inmates under the care of 94 professed religious 
 and 7 lay teachers; they include 2 homes, 1 Mag¬ 
 dalene Asylum, and 2 hospitals. None of these in¬ 
 stitutions receive support from the government. 
 The diocese comprises 32 parishes and 103 churches. 
 An official diocesan weekly called the “Western 
 Australia Record” is published. The Pioneer Total 
 Abstinence Society is organized among the clergy, 
 and lay associations include the C. Y. M. S., K. S. 
 C., Hibernians, and Foresters. During the World 
 War Rev. John Fahey, D. S. O., saw four years ser¬ 
 vice in Gallipoli, Egypt and France, where Rev. 
 Peter Hayes served for three years and Rev. Dean 
 Brennan served for five years. Rev. Patrick McBride 
 was on home service. 
 
 Peru; (cf. C. E., XI—732d), republic, in South 
 America, has an area of 722,461 square miles, and a 
 population of about 5,000,000. The largest cities 
 are Lima, with a population estimated in' 1919 at 
 140,884; Callao, 34,346 (1915); Arcquipa, 40,000; 
 Cuzco, 15,000. 
 
 Religion. —The constitution guarantees religious 
 
 liberty, although the Catholic religion is the religion 
 of the state. In 1919 £22,158 were voted for public 
 worship, and £660 for missions. For religious 
 statistics see Lima, Archdiocese of, and its suf¬ 
 fragans: Cajamarca, Chacapoyas, Cuzco, Ayacucho, 
 Hu&nuco, Huaraz, Puno, Trujillo. 
 
 Education. —Although education is by law com¬ 
 pulsory, the law is not enforced. In 1919 there were 
 3036 primary schools with 4351 teachers and 181,211 
 pupils. In 1918 there were 27 government schools 
 with 6231 pupils and 364 teachers. The pupils pay 
 a moderate fee in high schools maintained by the 
 government. There are universities at Lima (Uni- 
 versidad de San Marcos, founded in 1551) at Are- 
 quipa, Cuzco, and Trujillo. 
 
 Economics. —The cotton area in 1918 was 140,000 
 acres and the crop 45,200,000 pounds. Rice is 
 grown on 70,000 acres, and the exports of this 
 product in 1918 was valued at $813,301. The total 
 mineral output of the country was in 1919 valued at 
 $40,100,000. Hides to the value of $3,038,803 were 
 exported in 1919. The foreign trade of Peru in 
 1919 was worth $190,041,853; exports, $130,731,191; 
 imports, $59,310,662. The railway mileage in 1918 
 was 1893 miles. Of these, 1300 miles were operated 
 by the Peruvian Corporation; the rest being owned 
 by the government. 
 
 Finance. —The revenue of the republic in 1919 
 was £6,154,171; the expenditure £5,799,981. The 
 total debt of Peru on 30 June, 1920, amounted to 
 £6,088,740, of which the internal debt amounted to 
 £3,969,216. 
 
 Defence. —Military service in Peru is compulsory 
 and universal. The peace establishment of the 
 army is 11,000; the 176 state-aided Rifle Clubs 
 muster about 16,000 marksmen; the Civil Guard in 
 1918 included 2771 officers and men. The Peruvian 
 navy consists of six ships. 
 
 Recent History. —The long-standing dispute over 
 Arica and Tacna has disturbed the peace of the 
 republic in recent years. On 25 November, 1918, 
 Chile and Peru severed relations and for a time 
 there was grave danger of war, but the United States 
 counselled a peaceful adjustment and war was 
 averted. The matter was submitted to the League 
 of Nations, but the League felt that it was not 
 within their jurisdiction. In May, 1922, the dele¬ 
 gates of the three countries most concerned in the 
 dispute—Chile, Bolivia, and Peru—assembled in 
 Washington, U. S. A., to settle the quarrel. In 
 December, 1919, Peru adopted a new constitution, 
 superseding that of 1860. The principal innova¬ 
 tions in the document are: Religious toleration, com¬ 
 pulsory education, graduated income tax, guarantees 
 of personal security, compulsory arbitration of labor 
 disputes, municipal autonomy, and the establish¬ 
 ment of three regional legislatures to deal with local 
 matters. 
 
 Perugia, Archdiocese of (Perusinensis; cf. C. 
 E., XI—736a), in Central Italy, dependent directly 
 on the Holy See. The present archbishop is Most, 
 Rev. Giovanni Beda Cardinale, O. S. B., b. 1869 
 Abbot of Praglia, consecrated Bishop of Civitavecchia 
 and Corneto 1907, promoted titular Archbishop of 
 Laodicea and apostolic delegate of Perugia 3 Feb., 
 1910, transferred to Perugia 8 Nov., 1910, published 
 30 Nov., 1911, succeeding Archbishop Mattei 
 Gentili, resigned. The Catholic population of the 
 archdiocese is 100,900. There are: 199 parishes, 
 218 secular priests, 40 regular priests, 90 seminarians, 
 150 Sisters, 371 churches and chapels. 
 
 Pesaro, Diocese of (Pesaurensis; cf. C. E., 
 XI—738d), suffragan of Urbino, Central Italy. 
 The present bishop is Rt. Rev. Bonaventura Porta, 
 
PESCIA 
 
 580 
 
 PHILADELPHIA 
 
 b. 1866,elected 1917,succeeding Bishop lei, deceased. 
 The Catholic population of the diocese is 49,Ut>u. 
 There are: 41 parishes, 100 secular priests, 31 regular 
 priests, 18 seminarians, 11 Brothers, 43 bisters, luu 
 churches and chapels. 
 
 Pescia, Diocese of (Pisciensis; cf. C. E., XI— 
 740a), suffragan of Pisa, Central Italy, dhe present 
 bishop is Rt. Rev. Angelo Simonetti, b. 1861, elected 
 1907, consecrated 1908, succeeding Bishop Seranm, 
 resigned. The Catholic population is 70,504. there 
 are: 38 parishes, 125 secular priests, 34 regular priests, 
 19 seminarians, 9 Brothers, 135 Sisters, 66 chuiches 
 and chapels. 
 
 Pescina, Diocese of. See Marsi. 
 
 Pesqueira, Diocese of (Pesqueiriensis ; cf. C.E., 
 XVI—35d), in Brazil, suffragan of Olinda, erected 
 5 December, 1910, under the name of Floresta, 
 transferred in 1918, comprises 27 parishes lying 
 beyond the Archdiocese of Olinda, the Diocese of 
 Garanhuns and the Diocese of Nazareth. Mgr. 
 Jose Antonio de Oliveira Lopes, b. at Recife, 21 
 November, 1868, ordained 16 April, 1892; made 
 honorary chamberlain, 1899, prelate of the Holy 
 See 1903, and Prothonotary Apostolic in 1919 and 
 appointed to the see on 26 June, 1915, is the second 
 bishop. There are in the diocese (1921) 40 churches, 
 
 1 convent of men, 2 of women, 45 secular, pi iests, 
 
 5 regular priests, 22 Brothers, 15 Sisters, 25 semi¬ 
 narians in the seminary of Olinda, 2 colleges for boys 
 with 10 teachers and 100 students, secondary school 
 for girls with 9 teachers and 69 students, 4 elemen¬ 
 tary schools with 4 teachers and 200 pupils. One 
 school receives aid from the Government. There 
 is one Catholic newspaper. 
 
 Peterborough, Diocese of (Peterborotjghen- 
 sis, cf. C. E., XI—756b), in the Province of Ontario, 
 Canada, suffragan of Kingston. Rt. Rev. Richard 
 A. O’Connor, Bishop of Peterborough, died 23 Janu¬ 
 ary, 1913, having been bishop of that diocese for 
 almost twenty-four years. He was succeeded by the 
 Rt. Rev. Michael Joseph O’Brien as fourth Bishop of 
 Peterborough. He was born in the city of Peter¬ 
 borough 29 July, 1874, and after his classical course in 
 St. Michael’s College, Toronto, and his philosophical 
 and theological courses in the upper seminary, 
 Montreal, was ordained priest 6 July, 1897. He spent 
 the next two years in Rome, receiving his doctorate 
 in theology in June, 1899. On his return he exercised 
 the sacred ministry in the city of Peterborough until 
 he was appointed bishop on 20 June, 1913. The dio¬ 
 cese outside the city of Peterborough is well equipped 
 with Catholic schools and institutions and contains 
 22 parishes, 50 churches, 33 secular and 1 regular 
 priest, 2 hospitals, and a Catholic population of 
 27,000. The city of Peterborough has a population 
 of about 25,000, more than a fourth of which is Cath¬ 
 olic. It has three churches, four schools and a Cath¬ 
 olic high school, a large hospital, a house of Providence 
 and an orphanage, all of which are in charge of the 
 Sisters of St. Joseph. 
 
 Petrograd, Archdiocese of. See Mohileff. 
 
 Petropolis, Diocese of (Petropolitanensis; cf. 
 C. E., XI—782c), suffragan of Rio de Janeiro, 
 Brazil, The see was erected at Nictheroy, 1893, 
 transferred to Petropolis 1895, with change of name, 
 and retransferred to Nictheroy, 1908. The present 
 bishop is Rt. Rev. Agostino Francesco Bennassi, 
 b. 1868, elected 1908, succeeding Bishop Braga, 
 transferred. There are: 123 parishes, 89 secular 
 priests, 35 regular priests, 100 filial churches and 
 chapels, 3 colleges, and 1 technical school. 
 
 Philadelphia, Archdiocese of (Philadel- 
 phiensis; cf. C. E., XI—793b), in the State of 
 Pennsylvania, comprises a total population of 
 3,176,549 according to the United States census of 
 1920, of which number 1,823,779 belong to the city 
 of Philadelphia. On May 27, 1911, the official news 
 was received from Rome that the auxiliary bishop, 
 Most Rev. Edmond F. Prendergast, D.D., had been 
 elevated to the rank of Archbishop of Philadelphia, 
 receiving the sacred pallium on 31 January, 1912. 
 Rt. Rev. John J. McCort, D.D., V.G. (now Bishop 
 of Altoona), was consecrated on 17 September, 1912, 
 as Titular Bishop of Azotus and auxiliary bishop 
 
 of the diocese. . 
 
 During the seven years in which Archbishop Pren¬ 
 dergast presided over the destinies of the Phila¬ 
 delphia archdiocese, the foundation of many impor¬ 
 tant institutions of education and charity were 
 securely laid. Among these should be included the 
 great Misericordia Hospital, the Archbishop Ryan 
 Memorial Institute for Deaf and Dumb, the new 
 St. Vincent’s Home, St. Edmond’s Home for the 
 Crippled Children, and the Catholic Boys High 
 School of West Philadelphia. In 1915 the work of 
 renovating the interior of the Cathedral was com¬ 
 pleted; and here, on 17 November of the same year, 
 took place the dedication of the original structure, 
 now one of the most imposing in the United States, 
 together with the celebration of the golden jubilee of 
 the metropolitan. 
 
 On August *28, 1917, the diocese lost one oi its 
 most distinguished members through the death of the 
 Most Rev. Thomas F. Kennedy, D.D., Rector of 
 the North American College in Rome. 
 
 The charity and generosity of the Philadelphia 
 Catholics was manifested towards the afflicted peoples 
 in diverse ways during the years of the European 
 conflict. Before America entered the war, besides 
 special aid given to the International Red Cross 
 Society and similar societies, a diocesan appeal was 
 twice issued in behalf of the Belgians, and nearly 
 $25,000.00 were realized. After the pledge of loyalty 
 given to the President of the United States by the 
 bishops assembled in Washington in 1917, a special 
 letter, breathing a spirit of sincerest patriotism and 
 loyal support of the Government was sent by Arch¬ 
 bishop Prendergast to the clergy and laity of the 
 diocese. Generous response was given to this appeal 
 of the metropolitan. There was scarcely a parish or 
 institution in the diocese that did not form committees 
 to promote and invest large sums in the various 
 Liberty Loans. In the fourth Loan for example, 
 exclusive of the Knights of Columbus, approximately 
 twelve million dollars was subscribed. 
 
 Among the numerous institutions established by 
 the Catholics of Philadelphia to give creature comfort 
 to the soldiers and sailors, perhaps the most remark¬ 
 able was the Benedict Service Club, managed by the 
 Diocesan Alliance of Catholic Women. Here, during 
 eleven months were entertained 223,225 soldier and 
 sailor guests, of which number 55,613 were lodged 
 over night and 131,318 were provided with meals. 
 Fifty-nine Philadelphia priests volunteered their ser¬ 
 vices as chaplains in the army and navy, of whom 
 thirty-eight were selected for service. 
 
 On 26 February, 1918, Archbishop Prendergast 
 died, lamented by priests and people as a shepherd, 
 clear of vision, firm of purpose, gentle of manner, and 
 full of a deep faith that was child-like in its simplicity. 
 Two months later, the announcement was made of 
 the selection of the Bishop of Buffalo, the Rt. Rev. 
 Dennis J. Dougherty, D.D., as Archbishop of 
 Philadelphia. On 10 July, 1918, the new metropolitan 
 was solemnly enthroned as the fourth archbishop and 
 sixth bishop of the See. A native son of the diocese, 
 having been born near Ashland, Schuylkill County, 
 
PHILBIN 
 
 581 
 
 PHILIPPINE 
 
 1G August, 1865, Archbishop Dougherty, after two 
 years at St. Mary’s College, Montreal, spent three 
 years as a student in the diocesan Seminary at Over- 
 brook, where he was selected to complete his training 
 at the American College in Rome. On 31 May, 1890, 
 he was ordained to the priesthood by His Eminence 
 Cardinal Satolli. Later, he was transferred to the 
 diocese of Jaro, P. I. After thirteen years of self- 
 sacrifice and Apostolic labor in the Philippines, during 
 which time he reconstructed two dioceses, the young 
 American Bishop was recalled to his native land and 
 made head of the diocese of Buffalo, in 1916. 
 
 The new archbishop had hardly taken up his pas¬ 
 toral labors when, in the autumn of 1918, the dreadful 
 scourge of influenza, then sweeping the country, fell 
 upon the city with appalling severity. Archbishop 
 Dougherty sent a letter to the pastors of the diocese 
 permitting them to utilize the parish halls and 
 parochial schools as hospitals, and allowing the 
 uncloistered Sisters to act as nurses in the hospitals 
 and private homes. Two thousand Sisters responded 
 to the call; and two hundred and fifty seminarians 
 likewise left their studies and worked until late at 
 night in the cemeteries burying the dead. A special 
 tribute of thanks was formally extended to the Arch¬ 
 bishop by the Mayor and the City Council of Phila¬ 
 delphia for this noble assistance in the hour of need. 
 
 On 11 February, 1921, press dispatches from Rome 
 brought the news that the Metropolitan of Philadel¬ 
 phia was to be elevated to the Sacred College of Car¬ 
 dinals at the Secret Consistory of 7 March. The 
 ceremonies of investiture with the Sacred Purple took 
 place in Rome during the week of 7 to 10 March, 
 when the new American Prince of the Church also 
 took possession of his titular church of SS. Nereus 
 and Achilleus. A reception unparalleled in the his¬ 
 tory of the city of Philadelphia greeted him on his 
 return home, and at a public reception in the Academy 
 of Music, the Governor of the State, and Mayor of 
 the City, joined in the universal testimony of esteem 
 and affection for Philadelphia’s first Cardinal. 
 
 On 19 September, 1921, Rt. Rev. Michael J. Crane, 
 D.D., V.G., rector of the Church of St. Francis de 
 Sales, was consecrated by Cardinal Dougherty as 
 Titular Bishop of Curium and Auxiliary Bishop of 
 Philadelphia. The ceremony took place in the 
 Cathedral of SS. Peter and Paul, and was attended 
 by a vast concourse of the laity and members of the 
 clergy, among whom were three archbishops and 
 thirteen bishops. 
 
 Philadelphia is also the residence of the Ruthenian 
 Greek Catholic Bishop for the United States. The 
 Rt. Rev. Soter Stephen Ortynski, the first Ruthenian 
 Bishop, consecrated in 1907, died 24 March, 1916, 
 since which time the see has been vacant. Within 
 the limits of the diocese of Philadelphia, the Ruthen- 
 ians Greeks possess twenty-nine churches, chapels 
 and stations, two orphanages, and four schools. 
 “The Missionary” a religious magazine, is issued 
 every month in the Ruthenian (Ukrainian) language. 
 
 Statistics. —There is probably no diocese in the 
 world better provided with institutions of religion, 
 education and charity than Philadelphia. There arc 
 188 parochial schools, teaching 95,008 children. 
 There are four high schools with 83 teachers and an 
 attendance of 2399. Fifteen academies are devoted 
 to the instruction of 2877 pupils; and three industrial 
 schools have a staff of 64 instructors, with 439 
 students. 
 
 The diocesan seminary in the yearly collection of 
 1921, received the sutn of $195,584.86, perhaps the 
 largest amount ever contributed in one year for a 
 similar purpose by any diocese in the Catholic world. 
 The number of seminarians studying for the diocese 
 is 299, and there is never a lack of vocations. 
 
 There arc in the diocese thirteen religious commu¬ 
 
 nities of men: Augustinian Fathers, Christian Bro¬ 
 thers, Congregation of the Holy Ghost, Jesuit 
 Fathers, Redemptorist Fathers, Society of Mary, 
 Dominicans, Salesians, Marists, Missionary Fathers 
 of the Sacred Heart, Holy Trinity Fathers,' Basilians 
 and Vincentians. 
 
 The number of women religious is 3650, distributed 
 among twenty-nine communities. There are in the 
 diocese: the Sisters of the Assumption, Bernardine 
 Sisters, O. S. F. (Polish), Discalced Carmelites, 
 Felician Sisters, Religious of the Sacred Heart, Little 
 Sisters of the Poor, Missionary Sisters of the Third 
 Order of St. Francis, Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament, 
 Sisters of Charity, Sisters of Christian Charity, Sis¬ 
 ters of the Holy Child Jesus, Salesian Sisters of the 
 Holy Eucharist, Sisters of the Holy Family, Sisters 
 of St. Dominic, Sisters of the Most Blessed Trinity, 
 Sisters of the Good Shepherd, Mission Workers of the 
 Sacred Heart, Missionary Sisters of the Sacred 
 Heart, Sisters of St. Joseph, Sisters of Mercy, Sisters 
 of Notre Dame, Sisters Servants of the Immaculate 
 Heart, Sisters of the Third Order of St. Francis, Poor 
 Clares, Sisters Servants of the Holy Ghost of Per¬ 
 petual Adoration, Sisters of Bon Secours, Sisters of 
 St. Casimir, and Sisters of St. Dorothy. 
 
 The Catholic population of Philadelphia diocese 
 was estimated in 1921 at 713,412, whose spiritual 
 needs are supplied by 807 priests, regular and secular, 
 ministering in 479 churches, chapels and stations. 
 
 Philbin, Eugene Ambrose, jurist, b. at New York 
 on 24 July, 1857; d. there on 14 March, 1920; son of 
 Stephen and Eliza (McGoldrick) Philbin. He was 
 educated at the College of St. Francis Xavier, New 
 York; Seton Hall, New Jersey; and graduated from 
 Columbia University Law School in 1885, being 
 admitted to the bar in the following year. In 1913 
 he was appointed a justice of the Supreme Court in 
 New York, an office he held till his death. Judge 
 Philbin was deeply interested in the public welfare 
 arid was appointed commissioner of the New York 
 State Board of Charities (1900), a regent of the 
 University of the State of New York (1904), and trus¬ 
 tee of the Catholic University of Amerkca, a trustee 
 of St. Patrick’s Cathedral. He was one of the pro¬ 
 moters and a director of the Catholic Encyclopedia, 
 to which he contributed the article on Libel. In 
 recognition of his service to the Church he was created 
 a Knight Commander of the Order of St. Gregory 
 the Great in 1908. 
 
 Philippine Islands; (cf. C. E., XII—10a), a group 
 of 7083 islands, with a total area of 114,400 square 
 miles and a total population, according to the Philip¬ 
 pine Census of 1918, of 10,350,730, composed chiefly 
 of the Malay race, 91.5 per cent of whom are Chris¬ 
 tians, and only 886,999 or 8.5 per cent are Moros 
 and pagans. The capital, Manila, has a population 
 of 283,613, of whom 257,356 are Filipinos, 17,856 
 are Chinese, 1611 Japanese, 3124 Americans, 1955 
 Spaniards, 635 English, 236 Germans, 160 French, 
 95 Swiss. The largest islands with their respective 
 areas are: Mindanao, 36,906 square miles; Samar 
 5124 square miles; Negros 4093 square miles, Palawan 
 4500 square miles, Panay 4448 square miles, Mindoro 
 3794 square miles; Leyte 2799 square miles, Cebu 
 1695 square miles; Bohol 1534 square miles, and 
 Masbate 1255 square miles. 
 
 Education. —In 1920 there were 925,678 pupils 
 with 316 American teachers and 20,691 Filipino 
 teachers. The public owned 4063 and rented 1163 
 school buildings. The total expenditures for 1920 
 for administration and instruction were about 
 $6,869,654. The Filipino University had, in 1920, 
 an enrollment of 4130, and a teaching force of 379 
 professors and assistants. The cost of operation was 
 
PIACENZA 
 
 582 
 
 PIUS SCHOOLS 
 
 $755,926.57. The amount spent for each pupil per 
 vear is $9.50. The Vice-Governor, who is appointed 
 by the President of the United States, is also Secretary 
 of Public Instruction. He and two other members 
 form the provincial board, which constitutes the 
 legislative branch of the provincial Government. - 
 All three officials are elected by the people. 
 
 History (1907—22).—In the period between 
 1907 and 1913 one-half of the legislative power was 
 turned over to a body of Filipinos, known as the 
 Philippine Assembly. The policy of utilizing the 
 Filipinos in the Government made it possible to have 
 a proportion of 72 per cent Filipinos as against 28 
 per cent in 1913. In 1916 the Jones Act was passed 
 permitting the people to elect a House and Senate. 
 In 1921, the percentage of Americans in the Filipino 
 Service was only 4 per cent. The haste with which 
 the Filipinos were put in office, regardless of their 
 efficiency, had had a deteriorating effect on the 
 service. In 1920 President Wilson called for the grant¬ 
 ing of independence to the Filipinos. In March, 
 1921, President Harding sent General Leonard Wood 
 to the Philippines to make a study of the situation and 
 to report on the existing conditions. Their final, 
 judgment was that “it would be a betrayal of the 
 Philippine people, a misfortune to the American 
 people, a distinct step backward in the path of pro¬ 
 gress, and a discreditable neglect of duty were we to 
 withdraw from the islands.” 
 
 Economics. —’The total area planted to the crops 
 in 1919-20 was 7,513,305 acres, the largest crop being 
 rice (3,453,347 acres). The value of the imports in 
 1919 was $107,774,000; of exports $113,118,000. 
 The railway mileage in 1920 was 778, owned by the 
 government. 
 
 Government. —'The Governor-General, as the 
 chief executive, represents the sovereign power of the 
 United States, and is appointed by the President of 
 the United States with the advice and consent of the 
 Senate. Under him are secretaries of six executive 
 departments. With the exception of the Vice- 
 Governor, all the secretaries are Filipinos. The 
 Philippine Legislature is composed of 24 senators and 
 91 representatives. A Council of State, created by 
 executive order subsequent to the enactment of the 
 present Organic Act, commonly known as the Jones 
 Law, forms the connecting link between the executive 
 and legislative branches of the Government and rep¬ 
 resents the people’s counsel in the administration. 
 It is composed of the Governor-General, the presidents 
 of both houses, and the secretaries. The provincial 
 and municipal Governments are supervised by the 
 Department of the Interior through the executive 
 b ureau and the bureau of non-Christian types. The 
 chief executive of each of the 24 provinces is a pro¬ 
 vincial governor. 
 
 Piacenza, Diocese of (Placentinensis; cf. 
 C. E., XII—69d), in Emilia, Central Italy, dependent 
 directly on the Holy See. The present bishop is Rt. 
 Rev. Ersilio Menzani, b. 1872, elected 1920, conse¬ 
 crated 1921, succeeding Bishop Pellizzari: deceased. 
 The Catholic population of the diocese is 326,000. 
 There are: 351 parishes, 529 secular priests, 75 regular 
 priests, 160 seminarians, 1200 churches and chapels. 
 
 Piauhy, Diocese of (Piahunensis; cf. C. E., XII 
 —72b), in Brazil, suffragan of Belem do Par&. The 
 present bishop is Rt. Rev. Octavio Pereira de Al¬ 
 buquerque. b. 1866, elected 1914. The population 
 of the diocese is 374,000. There are: 32 parishes, 
 57 secular priests, 30 regular priests, and several 
 Sisters. 
 
 Piazza Armerina, Diocese of (Platiensis*; 
 cf. C. E., XII—72c), in the province of Caltanisetta, 
 
 Italy, suffragan of Syracuse. Bishop Sturzo is still the 
 incumbent of the see, which has a Catholic popula¬ 
 tion of 240,000. There are 31 parishes, 152 churches, 
 205 secular priests, 35 regular priests, 50 seminarians, 
 
 1 college for men with 8 professors and 70 students, 
 
 7 secondary schools with 60 teachers and an atten¬ 
 dance of 500 boys and 900 girls, 1 normal school with 
 20 teachers and 500 pupils, 1 training school with 
 
 8 teachers and 80 pupils, 160 elementary schools 
 with 160 teachers and 10,000 pupils. Charitable 
 institutions include 5 almshouses, 7 day nurseries, 
 
 7 hospitals and 6 orphanages for girls. Fourteen 
 societies are organized among the laity. During 
 the war the clergy took the lead in all relief work. 
 
 Pignatelli, Giuseppe Maria, Venerable (cf. 
 C. E., XI—82d).—The cause of his beatification, 
 introduced under Gregory XVI, was resumed 25 
 February, 1917. 
 
 Pinar del Rio, Diocese of (Pinetensis ad 
 Flumen; cf. C. E., XII—101b), suffragan of San¬ 
 tiago de Cuba, Cuba. The present bishop is Rt. Rev. 
 Manuel Ruiz y Rodriguez, b. 1874, ordained 1897, 
 elected 18 April, 1907, consecrated 11 June following. 
 The population of the diocese is 173,064. There are 
 19 secular priests, 8 Sisters, 4 convents, and 25 
 churches. 
 
 Pinerlo, Diocese of (Plneroliensis; cf. C. E., 
 XII—102a), in the province of Turin, Piedmont, 
 Northern Italy, is a suffragan of Turin. The present 
 incumbent, Rt. Rev. Giovanni Battista Rossi, b. at 
 Cavallermaggiore, 1838, came to this see 18 May, 
 1894. During the World War the bishop provided 
 bread for all poor families of soldiers and twenty-two 
 of the priests served in the army, all winning praise 
 and various decorations for their services. During 
 recent years the diocese lost a prominent member 
 from the ranks of it? clergy, by the death of Rt. Rev. 
 Canon Pietro Caffaro, a well known writer. By 1921 
 statistics the diocese comprises 61 parishes, 92 
 churches, 68 mission stations, 2 monasteries for 
 women, 1 convent for women, 169 secular priests, 1 
 higher and 1 lower seminary, 68 seminarians, 4 
 secondary schools for boys and 1 for girls. 
 
 There are a number of schools, a gymnasium, 
 lyceum, technical institute and normal schools under 
 the government. The charitable institutions in¬ 
 clude 1 missionary center, 4 homes in the city and 3 
 more throughout the diocese, 17 asylums, 2 hospitals 
 and 2 clinics. One society is formed among the 
 clergy and the “Popular Union (Unione Popohire) 
 and other societies among the laity. There are about 
 60,000 Catholics and 20,000 Waldensians in the 
 diocese. 
 
 Pious Schools, Clerks Regular of the (cf. C.E., 
 XIII—588a)—The congregation is divided into 12 
 provinces: Rome; Liguria; Naples; Tuscany, 
 
 Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia; Poland; Hungary, 
 Austria; Catalonia; Aragon; the Castries; and 
 Valencia. There are also 3 vice-provinces: Cuba; 
 Argentina-Chile; and Roumania. The congiega- 
 tion has a total of 136 houses, distributed as fol¬ 
 lows: Spain, 55; Italy, 28; Czechoslovakia, 19, 
 including Moravia and Bohemia; Roumania, 3; 
 Austria, 4; Hungary, 12; Poland, 2; Germany 
 (Silesia), 1; Argentina, 2; Chile, 4; Cuba 5; Mex¬ 
 ico, 1. The present preposit.or general is Very Rev. 
 Thomas Vinas, elected 1912. Among noted mem¬ 
 bers of the order are: Paulino Chelucci, latin ora¬ 
 tor; Remigio Maschat, celebrated canonist; Gelasio 
 Dobner, distinguished historiographer; Eduardo 
 Corsini, polygrapher; Giovanni Beccaria, physicist, 
 friend of Franklin; Ubaldo Giraldi,writer on canon 
 
PIOUS UNIONS 
 
 583 
 
 PITTSBURG 
 
 law; Mauro Ricci, writer; Eduardo Zlanas, con¬ 
 troversialist. The cause of peatilication of Pietro 
 Casani was introduced in March, 1922. 
 
 Pious Unions. See Associations, Pious. 
 
 Pisa, Archdiocese of (Pisanensis; cf. C. E., 
 -XII 110b), in r I uscany, Central Italy. The present 
 administrator is Cardinal Archbishop Pietro Maffi, b. 
 12 October, 1858, ordained 1881, consecrated titular 
 Bishop of Caisarea Mauretaniae and auxiliary to Car¬ 
 dinal Archbishop Riboldi of Ravenna, 9 June, 1902, 
 promoted to the Archdiocese of Pisa, 22 June, 1903, 
 created cardinal priest 15 April, 1907. The Catholic 
 population of the archdiocese is 190,000. There are: 
 138 parishes, 330 secular priests, 110 regular priests, 
 750 churches and chapels, 79 Brothers, 200 Sisters. 
 
 Pistoia and Prato, Diocese of (Pistoriensis 
 Et Pratensis; cf. C. E., XXII—117b) in the prov¬ 
 ince of Florence, Italy, suffragan of Florence. The 
 bishop is Rt. Rev. Gabriele Vettore, b. at Fibbiano, 
 1869, elected to the see of Tivoli, 15 April, 1910, 
 consecrated 9 May, transferred at the consistory of 
 16 Dec., 1915, succeeding Bishop Sarti (b. 1849, 
 elected 1909, d. 1915). 
 
 Within the city of Pistoia there are 12 parishes, 
 35 churches, 2 convents for men, 3 monasteries for 
 women, 6 convents for women, a seminary with 70 
 students, a civil hospital in charge of Sisters, an 
 almshouse, likewise under the direction of Sisters, 
 2 orphanages (1 for boys and 1 for girls), 2 refuges 
 for fallen women, a hospice for women with elemen¬ 
 tary, secondary and normal schools, one for men under 
 the direction of priests, a public governmental ly- 
 ceum-gymnasium, a public industrial school, one of 
 arts and crafts, a technical school, and an orphan¬ 
 age. Outside the city there are 155 parishes, 2 con¬ 
 vents for men, 15 convents of women with schools, 
 asylums, etc., and 1 orphanage under the care of 
 Sisters. There are 250 secular priests, 30 regulars, 
 and 130 Sisters. A mutual benevolent association 
 is organized among the clergy and a diocesan weekly 
 a r d numerous parish bulletins are published. In 
 Prato there are 48 parishes, 70 churches, 4 convents 
 of men and 3 of women, 82 secular and 35 regular 
 priests, 1 seminary with 20 seminarians, 1 college 
 for men with 25 professors and 80 students, 3 for 
 women with 20 teachers and 200 students, 1 normal 
 school with 10 teachers. Charitable institutions 
 i elude 2 homes, 1 asylum, 1 hospital, 1 day nursery. 
 The population of the united dioceses was 200,100 
 in 1920. 
 
 Pitigliano, Diocese of. See Savona and 
 Pitigliano. 
 
 Pittsburg, Diocese of (PittsbuRgensis; cf. 
 t-' • A —121a), suffragan of Philadelphia in the 
 
 Lmted States, comprises 7056 square miles in the 
 State of Pennsylvania. The development of the 
 diocese in recent years is largely due to the wisdom 
 and leadership of Rt. Rev. J. F. Regis Canevin who 
 nlied this see from 1904-1920. Pennsylvania, rank¬ 
 ing first among the States of the Union in the value 
 of its mineral products and the development of the 
 lron > steel, coal and coke industries, and being one 
 of the largest sources of labor supply in the country, 
 has drawn great masses of foreign-speaking Catholics, 
 attracted by the industrial activity. Missions have 
 grown, developing into large and well established 
 parishes, and the Pittsburgh Apostolate, which from 
 its inception (1905) under the admirable direction of 
 Very Rev. Edward P. Griffin, LL. D., has reclaimed 
 so many souls in the thinly settled regions of the 
 diocese, joined in this pioneer work. Its zealous 
 priests went out among the immigrants of the wide 
 
 scattered settlements and mining towns, preaching 
 and administering the sacraments. During Bishop 
 administration 33 English, 19 German, 
 19 Polish, 13 Italian, 16 Slavish, 1 Lithuanian, 3 
 Croatian, 2 Slovak, 3 Hungarian, 1 Kreiner, 1 Syrian 
 and 30 mixed churches were built. The building of 
 schools was urged and encouraged, and a parish 
 school system evolved, with a diocesan board in con¬ 
 trol which legislates for the schools of the diocese, 
 inspects them, and passes upon the ability of the 
 teachers. Parish high schools were rarely heard of 
 in the diocese before Bishop Canevin’s time; now there 
 are forty-six, and their number is increasing steadily. 
 Higher education was encouraged and in 1914 St. 
 Vincent Seminary, which is under the care of the 
 Benedictines of St. Vincent Archabbey, was env 
 powered by the Holy See to grant the ecclesiastical 
 degrees of doctorate, licentiate, and baccalaureate, 
 in both philosophy and theology; Duquesne College 
 was successful in securing the charter which elevated, 
 it to the rank of University. (See Duquesne Uni¬ 
 versity.) 
 
 The Diocesan Confraternity of Christian Doctrine, 
 organized 1908, has grown to be a lay apostolate; 
 a band of young men and women journey every Sun¬ 
 day to mining towns and rural districts and give 
 their time where Catholic children are in need of 
 catechetical instruction; the confraternity is now pre¬ 
 paring 17,179 children for the worthy reception of 
 the sacraments. Fourteen branches throughout the 
 whole diocese have 700 catechists who conduct 193 
 classes, visit the scattered families, bring to baptism 
 the unbaptised, reclaim for their own schools children 
 who attend non-Catholic Sunday-schools, instruct the 
 Catholic inmates of two tuberculosis sanitoriums, 
 the Institute for the Blind, and the Home for Crippled 
 Children, and organize Catholic centers which develop 
 in time into regular missions and parishes; fifteen such 
 parishes have been formed since the founding of the 
 confraternity. 
 
 The Conference of Catholic Charities, whose 
 activities were broadened during the Catholic Chari¬ 
 ties Campaign of October, 1919, has as its purpose 
 the co-ordinating of the work of all Catholic chari¬ 
 table activities of the diocese, whether individual, 
 organizational or institutional, to avoid duplicating, 
 to increase the efficiency of these agencies, and to 
 plan and promote new diocesan charities. This pio- 
 gram has been executed with marked success; three 
 temporary homes have been established which give 
 day and night shelter to childien in emergency cases; 
 three day nurseries have been provided; the thoroughly 
 organized Catholic Children’s Bureau is a clearing 
 house for all matters relating to the care of neglected, 
 dependent and delinquent children; over 1728 cases 
 were attended during the period of twelve months. 
 The department of family welfare handles all family 
 problems of insufficient support and supplies families 
 with food, clothing, fuel, rent, medical aid. More 
 than 7900 cases were attended. An immigrant and 
 employment bureau has been opened; a home for 
 homeless children has been established; a school of 
 sociology, under the auspices of Duquesne University; 
 the Catholic Child and Youth Saving Union has been 
 organized, with units established in each parish to 
 co-operate with pastors and parish organizations to 
 keep as many children as possible out of the courts 
 and institutions by handling their difficulties pri¬ 
 vately, and by securing Catholic representatives to 
 look after their interests when brought to the courts. 
 The Travelers Aid Society co-operates with the 
 National Travelers Aid Society; in addition to these 
 charitable organizations many new institutions were 
 founded during Bishop Canevin’s incumbency: 4 
 asylums, a second home of the Good Shepherd, 1 in-, 
 dustrial training school, 1 institute industrial training 
 
PIUS 
 
 584 
 
 PIUS 
 
 school, 1 institute for deaf mutes, 1 home for infants 
 
 and 6 hospitals. , . . 
 
 When years of intense activity had impaired 
 Archbishop Canevin’s health in the Spring of 1920, 
 he offered his resignation to the Holy Father, who 
 finally yielded to his wishes and on 26 November 
 
 1920, appointed him administrator of the diocese until 
 his successor should be appointed and take possession. 
 
 In recognition of the success of his administration the 
 Holy Father on 9 January 1921, appointed him arch¬ 
 bishop of the titular See of Pelusium. 
 
 Upon the resignation of the bishop the priests of the 
 diocese forwarded a petition to the Holy See begging 
 that a diocesan priest be appointed to the vacant see 
 and in response Rev. Hugh C. Boyle, P. R. of St. 
 Mary Magdelene’s Church, Homestead, Pa., was ap¬ 
 pointed and consecrated by Bishop Canevin 28 June 
 
 1921. He was born in Cambria County, Pa., 8 Octo¬ 
 ber 1873, educated at St. Vincent’s College and the 
 seminary at Beatty, Pa., and ordained priest 2 July 
 1898, superintendent of the parochial schools of the 
 diocese (19 March, 1909), and appointed irremovable 
 pastor of St. Mary Magdalene s Church, Homestead, 
 Pa. 26 November, 1916. 
 
 The religious communities of the diocese number 
 as follows: Redemptorists, 9 members; Benedictines, 
 67; Passionist Fathers, 16; Brothers of Mary (Dayton, 
 Ohio), 10; Capuchin Fathers, 33; Holy Ghost Fathers, 
 30; Carmelite Fathers, 8; Italian Franciscan Fathers, 
 
 6. Total: 179 members. The religious communities 
 of women number: Sisters of Mercy, 394 members; 
 Sisters of Notre Dame (mother-house, Baltimore) 
 50; Franciscan Sisters, 250; Sisters of St. Joseph, 
 266; Benedictine Nuns, 92; Ursuline Nuns, 24; Sisters 
 of Charity, 331; Little Sisters of the Poor, 35; Sisters 
 of the Good Shepherd, 50; Sisters of Divine Provi¬ 
 dence, 264; Sisters of Nazareth (mother-house, Chi¬ 
 cago), 82; Third Order of St. Francis ,35; Sisters of 
 the Incarnate Word, 10; Felician Sisters (mother- 
 house, Detroit), 70; Sisters of St. Agnes (mother- 
 house, Fond-du-Lac, Wisconsin); Passionist Nuns, 
 25; Immaculate Heart Nuns (mother-house, Scran¬ 
 ton), 46; Bernardine Sisters, 20; Sisters of Sts. Cyril 
 and Methodius, 7; Sisters of the Divine Redeemer, 4; 
 Holy Ghost Nuns, 22; Sisters of the Blessed Trinity, 
 4; Sisters of the Precious Blood, 4; Vincentian Sisters, 
 67; Dominican Sisters, 39; Sisters of St. Francis of the 
 Immaculate Conception, 14; Sisters of St. Francis of 
 Kunegunda, 5; Total: 2216. 
 
 By 1921 statistics there are: bishop, 1; archbishop, 
 1; archabbot, 1; diocesan priests, 454; regular, 169; 
 churches with resident priests, 329; missions, 55; 
 chapels, 80; stations, 7; parochial schools, 208, with 
 1371 teachers and 71,769 pupils; seminaries of re¬ 
 ligious orders 3; diocesan seminarians, 99; diocesan 
 ecclesiastical students, 96; university, 1; with 81 pro¬ 
 fessors and 1362 students; colleges for women, 1; with 
 18 teachers and 100 students; parochial high schools, 
 35; private high schools, 11; total: 46 with an attend¬ 
 ance of 2102; religious normal training schools, 9 with 
 335 students; industrial school, 1 with 46 pupils; day 
 nurseries, 3; orphan asylums, 5; foundling asylums, 2; 
 protectory for boys, 1; school for deaf mutes, 1; 
 homes for aged poor, 3; homes of Good Shepherd, 2; 
 homes for working girls, 2; temporary homes for 
 children, 3; temporary home for women, 1; hospitals 
 8; Catholic population about 665,000. 
 
 Pius X (cf. C. E., XII—137 for the earlier part of 
 his pontificate).—On 1 November, 1911, Pius X 
 issued a decree which made the new Breviary obliga¬ 
 tory after 23 October, 1917. All the bishops and 
 religious orders were ordered to modify their proper 
 Offices so as to bring them as much as possible in 
 touch with the Breviary of the Universal Church. 
 In the same year he gave a new impulse to the study 
 
 of Holy Scripture, in keeping with the purpose of 
 Leo XIII, bv reorganizing the Biblical Commission. 
 He ordered severe and solemn examinations for 
 clerics who were seeking for degrees, and set apart a 
 special establishment for the members of the Com¬ 
 mission. On 24 May, 1911, he directed the Por¬ 
 tuguese clergy not to accept pensions from the Govern¬ 
 ment, and when the revolution with its attendant 
 persecution broke out he replied to the challenge by 
 making the Patriarch of Lisbon a cardinal. His 
 Encyclical “Lamentabili” of 1912 denounced the 
 oppression of the Indians of Peru by the rubber 
 merchants of that country and after a special agent 
 had been sent to investigate, he establshed a mission 
 for the Indians which he put in the hands of the 
 Friars Minor. His abolition of the numberless in¬ 
 efficient seminaries in Italy by establishing regional 
 centres had been carried out with extreme vigor from 
 the beginning of his pontificate even to the extent of 
 deposing unwilling bishops. By the year 1913 the 
 great work was in large part achieved. His political 
 action in Italy was such that in the early part of his 
 reign he had^ induced 228 deputies to refrain from 
 legislation hostile to the Church and especially 
 to vote down the divorce bill. In 1914 he forbade the 
 transference of cardinals from one see to another, 
 reformed the financial methods of the various Con¬ 
 gregations, sent back to their dioceses a large num¬ 
 ber of clerics who were spending an idle existence in 
 Rome, and redistricted all the parishes of the city. 
 Pius X was stricken with serious illness the early 
 part of 1913, but he rallied. In the following year 
 he began to show signs of fatigue. He had an attack 
 of bronchitis on 19 August, 1914, which was alarming; 
 and on the following day he breathed his last. 
 
 Pius XI, Pope (Achille Ratti), b. May 30, 1857, 
 at Desio, a town of about 8000 inhabitants northwest 
 of Milan. He was the son of a silk weaver and the third 
 of a family of six. He was taught as a child by a devoted 
 old priest named Volonteri, who taught class in his 
 own house for forty-three years. To Achille he gave 
 intensive training and sent him well equipped to the 
 Milan Seminary, where he spent three years, going 
 thence to the Gregorian University in Rome. In 
 1882 he was teaching theology and sacred eloquence 
 at Milan, and in 1888 was chosen as one of the 
 College of Doctors of the Ambrosian Library. There 
 he spent twenty years of his life. In 1907 he was 
 made Chief Librarian, and in 1910 was called to 
 Rome as assistant of Father Ehrle, S. J., in the 
 Library of the Vatican, and was appointed Librarian 
 when Father Ehrle resigned that office, in 1914, 
 without, however, breaking his connection with the 
 Library at Milan. His position in both places was 
 very difficult, for racial hatred was acute at that time 
 between Germans and Italians and the anti-clerical 
 fury was intense, but his admirable tact smoothed 
 away every obstacle. In 1918 he was sent as Apos¬ 
 tolic Visitor to Poland, although he had no previous 
 experience in diplomacy, except what he had gathered 
 during school visits to Vienna in 1891 and to Paris 
 in 1893 with Mgr. Radini Tedeschi. His Polish 
 assignment coincided with the composition of the 
 Brest-Litovsk Treaty by the Germans, who were in 
 occupation of Poland at that time, and had placed 
 Warsaw under the control of a council of regents whom 
 the Poles regarded as instruments of German domina¬ 
 tion. He was in Poland practically throughout the 
 period of its political resurrection, and his duties 
 brought him into relation with the former Russian 
 provinces along the eastern Polish frontier. He had 
 to establish new dioceses where German bishops in 
 Poland had resigned, and others in those parts which 
 had formerly belonged to Russia. Immediately 
 after the Armistice of 1918 he had to deal with the 
 
PLASENCIA 
 
 585 
 
 PLOCK 
 
 question of the status of church properties in both 
 sections. To solve it he created a commission of 
 bishops which was recognized by the Polish Govern¬ 
 ment, and at the same time he succeeded in obtaining 
 from the Polish Constitutent Assembly a resolution 
 that no law would be enacted about the properties 
 without consulting the Holy See. On 6 June, 1919, 
 since Poland had become an independent nation, Mgr. 
 Ratti was made Papal Nuncio. 
 
 His work in these trying circumstances brought 
 into evidence his firmness, courage and evenness of 
 temper. His courage was especially shown at the 
 time of the Bolshevist invasion in July, 1920. Most 
 of the officials fled; he remained at his post. Later 
 he was appointed High Ecclesiastical Commissioner 
 for the plebiscite in Upper Silesia; an appointment 
 which met with the approval of the Polish, German 
 and Interallied Commissioners. While serving on 
 the Commission he was active in securing the libera¬ 
 tion of the prisoners detained in their homes by the 
 Bolsheviki, and also in releasing such distinguished 
 personages as the' Archbishop of Mohileff and the 
 Bishop of Minsk. He was distributing food mean¬ 
 time among the Russian and Polish children, being 
 provided with money for this purpose by the Pope. 
 
 His success at this post was rewarded by his 
 promotion to the Archbishopric of Lepanto and he was 
 consecrated on 28 October, 1919, in the Cathedral 
 of Warsaw, in the presence of the officials of the 
 Polish Government, the members of the Constitutent 
 Assembly and the episcopacy of Poland. On 13 
 June, 1921, he w r as made Archbishop of Milan and 
 created cardinal. Even the anticlericals and Social¬ 
 ists of Milan were jubilant over his appointment, 
 notwithstanding that it was he who had changed 
 Musioli Facismo from an extreme Socialist into a 
 patriot and supporter of the House of Savoy. He was 
 elected Pope on 6 February, 1922, and his accession 
 hailed with an almost universal acclaim. 
 
 Plasencia, Diocese of (Placentina; cf. C. E., 
 XII—157d), in the Province of Caceres, Spain, suffra¬ 
 gan of Toledo. The present bishop is Rt. Rev. Angelo 
 •Regueras y Lopez, b. 1870, elected 26 March, 1915, 
 consecrated 14 September following. The area of the 
 diocese is 4110 square miles and the Catholic popula¬ 
 tion is 300,000. There are 174 parishes divided into 
 15 archipresbyterates, 322 priests, 175 churches, 147 
 chapels, 37 convents with 49 members of religious 
 orders of men and 355 Sisters. 
 
 Plater, Charles Dominic, author, b. at Mootlake, 
 England, in 1875; d. at Malta on 21 January, 1921. 
 After finishing his studies at Stonyhurst, he became a 
 Jesuit 7 Sept., 1894, and during his scholasticate 
 went to Oxford where he received a degree of M.A. 
 in 1907, giving much of his time at this period of his 
 life to the study of industrial economics. After his 
 ordination he was made professor of Psychology at 
 St. Mary’s Hall, and in 1916, he was sent as rector 
 to the Jesuit House at Oxford, Campion Hall. There 
 he set to work again at his economics, but his health 
 gave way and he was sent to Ireland and then to 
 Malta to recuperate. In the latter place he began 
 to give lectures on his favorite topic, but overtaxed 
 his strength and died there. 
 
 Plenary Councils.—Under the Code a plenary 
 council is convoked and presided over by the papal 
 legate under the Pope’s orders. It is to be attended 
 by the archbishops, residential bishops, who, how¬ 
 ever, may send their coadjutors or auxiliaries to repre¬ 
 sent them, by Apostolic administrators of dioceses, 
 abbots or prelates nullius, vicars Apostolic, prefects 
 Apostolic and vicars capitular, all of whom have a 
 deliberative vote; titular bishops residing within ihe 
 
 territory may be called by the papal legate, in accord¬ 
 ance with his instructions, and are to have a deliber¬ 
 ative vote, unless the contrary was expressly provided 
 when they were summoned to attend. Those having 
 a deliberative vote must, if they are prevented from 
 attending, send a deputy who, as such, has only a 
 consultive vote. 
 
 Codex juris canonici, can. 282. 
 
 Plockor Plotsk, Diocese of, Plocensis (cf. C.E., 
 XII—166d), in Poland, dependent of Warsaw. Rt. 
 Rev. Anthony Nowowiejski, b. at Lubien, diocese 
 of Sandomierz, 11 February. 1858, ordained 10 July, 
 1881, was elected bishop of Plock 12 June, 1908, 
 and consecrated at Petrograd 6 December following 
 by Bishop W nukoski, his predecessor, who was pro¬ 
 moted. Rt. Rev. Adolph Peter Szelazek, b. at 
 Stoczek, diocese of Podlachie, 1 July, 1865, ordained 
 in 1888, was elected titular bishop of Barca and 
 auxiliary to Plock 29 July, 1918. 
 
 From 1915 to 1918 the diocese was occupied by 
 the German army, and in 1920 it was laid waste by 
 the invading Bolsheviki; four priests were butch¬ 
 ered and many suffered great indignities and even 
 torture. Twelve priests served as chaplains in the 
 Polish army during this fighting. The laymen of 
 the diocese serving in the army fought with great 
 valor, especially in opposing the Bolsheviki. Chari¬ 
 table organizations were formed for the care of the 
 sick and wounded, the destitute and the orphaned. 
 The two-hundredth anniversary of the founding of 
 the diocesan seminary was celebrated in 1910 and 
 with apostolic concurrence the graduate alumni 
 were awarded the academic degree of Doctor of 
 Theology with certain reservations. Among the 
 recently deceased of note are: Rev. Alexander 
 Zaremba, cathedral canon, domestic prelate, pro¬ 
 fessor of Holy Scripture in the diocesan seminary, 
 editor of the periodical “Encyklopedia Koscrelna,” 
 died in 1907, aged 50 years; Rev. Casimir Welon- 
 ski, cathedral prelate, rector of the diocesan semi¬ 
 nary, afterwards became Fr. Justinus, prior-general 
 of the order of Piarists in Czestochowa, died in 
 1915, aged 82 years; Rev. Brenislaus Marjanski, 
 canon professor at the seminary, contributor to 
 and editor of the weekly ‘‘Mazar,” died in 1912, 
 aged 49 years; Rev. Anthony Brylusynski, domes¬ 
 tic prelate, professor at the seminary, pastor, popu¬ 
 lar author, died in 1912, aged 70 years; Rev. Adam 
 Maciejowski, professor at the seminary, gifted 
 orator and author, died in 1919, aged 45. * 
 
 The diocese is divided into 12 deaneries and has 
 a^Catholic population of 824,331 Poles attended by 
 375 secular and 3 regular priests and 1 lay brother. 
 There are 252 parishes and churches with 54 de¬ 
 pendent churches; 1 monastery for men and 1 for 
 women; 1 convent for men and 8 for women; 1 
 seminary, and 1 lyceum erected in 1915 for stu¬ 
 dents of philosophy and theology with a combined 
 total of 18 professors and 118 students; 27 normal 
 schools with 280 teachers and 10,000 students; 5 
 elementary schools with 35 teachers and 600 pupils; 
 
 5 industrial schools with 25 teachers and 700 stu¬ 
 dents; 5 homes; 6 asylums; 8 orphanages; 6 hospi¬ 
 tals; 3 refuges; 10 settlement houses; 25 day nurs¬ 
 eries. The Government contributes as best it can 
 to the support of the normal schools conducted in 
 the Polish language, which have been recently 
 opened in various cities and towns of the diocese. 
 The clergy have an association for spiritual welfare 
 called “Unio Apostolica,” and one for intellectual 
 advancement, “Unitas Plocka.” In almost every 
 parish there are one or more religious associations 
 lor the laity. One Catholic daily called “Kurjer 
 Plocki,” 1 weekly, and 3 periodicals are published. 
 
PLUNKET 
 
 586 
 
 PODLASIE 
 
 Plunket, Oliver, Blessed. See Oliver Plunket, 
 Blessed. 
 
 Plunkett, Joseph Mary, Irish poet and patriot, 
 b. in Dublin, 1887; d. there 1916, the son of Count 
 and Countess Plunkett, belonging to a Catholic 
 branch of the family whose name was in Irish history 
 for six hundred years. He was educated at the 
 Catholic University School, Belvidere College, and 
 spent two years studying philosophy at Stony hurst. 
 He kept up Scholastic Philosophy and was much 
 influenced by the study of mystical contemplation. 
 On account of ill health he was forced to lead a life 
 of inactivity and spent his winters abroad. He 
 studied Irish under Thomas MacDonagh and with 
 him took over the “Irish Review.” He was the 
 friend of MacDonagh, Pearse and Casement and a 
 partner in the foundation of an Irish theatre in 1914. 
 In spite of his ill health, he had remarkable power of 
 will and was a Spartan type, contemptuous of senti¬ 
 mentality. His first published work was “The Circle 
 and the Sword,” a book of verse. Plunkett was a 
 militant mystic. His poems were few, yet they are of 
 purest beauty and lovely simplicity and like the name 
 of his first book his symbols were the eternal circle 
 and the destroying sword. The intensity of his love 
 of God and man and Ireland shone from the man 
 himself, and the works he has left us, although few, 
 are immortal. At the age of twenty-nine he died, as 
 he had said to the priest who gave him the last rites 
 of the Church,“for the glory of God and the honor of 
 Ireland.” For the history of the Easter Rebellion in 
 
 which Plunkett died, see Pearse. 
 
 McBrxen in Studies (December, 1916); Colum, Introduction 
 to Poems of the Irish Revolutionary Brotherhood (Boston, 1916). 
 
 Samuel Fowle Telfair, Jr. 
 
 Plymouth, Diocese of (Plymuthensis, Ply- 
 muth^e; cf. C. E., XII—171b), in England, forms 
 part of the Province of Birmingham. At the present 
 time (1921) the diocese is under the administration of 
 the Rt. Rev. John Keily, D.D., who was appointed 
 to this See upon the resignation of Bishop Graham, 
 due to the infirmity of age in 1910. Bishop Keily 
 was born in Limerick, Ireland, on 23 June, 1854, and 
 was ordained priest in Plymouth in 1877, after which 
 he was made chancellor of the cathedral. He received 
 his appointment as bishop on 21 April, 1911, and was 
 consecrated on 13 June, by Cardinal Bourne, assisted 
 by Bishop Barton of Clifton, and Bishop Keating of 
 Northampton, now Archbishop of Liverpool. 
 
 The National Catholic Congress of 1913 was held 
 in Plymouth and with the exception of two members, 
 was atteneded by all the hierachy, the town represent¬ 
 atives and the headquarters staff of the army and 
 navy. During the World War heavy responsibilities 
 were thrown upon the clergy of this diocese by the 
 number and size of the hospitals and the influx of the 
 wounded of all nationalities. Since the ending of 
 the war, in spite of financial difficulties and heavy 
 taxation, much has been done in the way of recon¬ 
 struction in the diocese. The advance of religion has 
 been noticeable among the Catholics and the public 
 street preaching by the Catholic Evidence Guild 
 (q. v.) has had a marked effect in conversions. A 
 monthly periodical “The Diocesan Record,” is now 
 published. 
 
 By the census of 1921 the diocese has a Catholic 
 population of 16,898 and includes: 96 churches, 
 chapels and mission stations; 76 secular priests and 
 48 regular (Benedictines, Canons Regular of Lateran, 
 Cistercians and Marists); 42 convents; 23 public 
 elementary schools receiving Government grants and 
 11 which do not receive grants; 2 other schools for 
 boys and 17 for girls; the total number of children in 
 these schools is 3586. Among the charitable institu¬ 
 tions are: 1 hospital, 5 residential institutions for poor 
 
 children, orphanages, poor law, industrial or reforma¬ 
 tory schools, and 1 refuge. In 1919, there were 238> 
 conversions of Protestants. 
 
 Plymouth Brethren (cf. C. E., XII—172a).— 
 
 This denomination is split in the United States into 
 six sects which for convenience will be designated 
 by numbers, since it is impossible to find a distinctive 
 name for each. 
 
 I. This sect claims to follow more closely the 
 teachings of the founders and hence is sometimes 
 referred to as the “Exclusives.” Membership (1916), 
 3896. 
 
 II. This sect comprises those who are known as 
 the “Open Brethren.” It split from the parent body 
 in 1848. Membership (1916) 5928. 
 
 III. This branch “represents the extreme high- 
 church principle of Brethrenism .... that 
 absolute power of a judicial kind has been delegated 
 by Christ to the Christian assembly” (Religious 
 Bodies, 1916, pt. II, p. 173). Membership (1916), 
 
 476. , 
 
 IV. This branch broke away from the others in 
 1890, owing to a controversy in regard to the subject 
 of eternal life. They are more numerous in the 
 British Empire than in the United States. Member¬ 
 ship (United States, 1916), 1389. 
 
 V. This branch split from No. Ill on a question of 
 discipline. It first appears in the United States 
 religious bodies reports in 1916. Membership, 1820. 
 
 VI. In 1906 a disagreement on questions of church 
 order in branch No. IV. in England, caused a split 
 in the United States also. Membership (United 
 States, 1916), 208. 
 
 In 1921, all branches reported 470 churches and 
 13,717 members in the United States. 
 
 Religious Bodies, 1906 (Washington, D. C., 1909); Religious 
 Bodies, 1916 (Washington, D. C., 1919); Year Book of the 
 Churches, 1920 (New York, 1920). 
 
 N. A. Weber. 
 
 Podlasie, Diocese of (Janow, Podlachiensis; 
 cf. C. E., IX—403, s. v. Lublin), in the palatinate 
 or wojewodztwo of Lublin, in Poland, suffragan of 
 Warsaw, restored by Benedict XV in 1918. The 
 diocese of Podlasie was erected on 2 July, 1818, by 
 the separation of 118 parishes from the dioceses of 
 Poznan, Plock, Krakow, Luck, and Chelm, the city 
 of Janow on the river Krzywula in the wojewodztwo 
 of Brzesc being the episcopal see. In 1428 Witold 
 the Great Duke of Litwa (Lithuania) erected a villa 
 at Porchow which he donated later with its parish 
 church to the cathedral of Luck. Bishop Joszowicz 
 in 1465 developed the villa into a town changing its 
 name to Janow. In 1657 Janow was destroyed by 
 the Swedes. Subsequently Paul Algimutowicz, Duke 
 of Orsza and Bishop of Luck, rebuilt the ruined church 
 which in 1741 was made a collegiate church and in 
 1818 became a cathedral. Pius IX enriched it with 
 the relics of St. Victor martyr, which were solemnly 
 deposited there on 11 June, 1859. The first bishop 
 of this diocese, Felix Lucas de Lewino Lewinski, 
 ruled from 1819 till his death on 5 April, 1825. He 
 was succeeded by Joannes Marcellus de Gutkowo 
 Gutkowski, who ruled from 1826 till his deportation 
 by the Russians in 1846 to the province of Witebsk, 
 the diocese being administed during his absence by 
 Bartholomaeus Radziszewski, a canon of Jandw, as 
 vicar-general. Bishop Gutkowski died in exile in 
 Lwow in 1855. The third bishop, Benjaminus 
 Petrus Paulus Szymanski, previously Commissary of 
 the Warsaw province of the Capuchins was precon - 
 ized in 1856, and took possession of the cathedral 
 in 1857, ruling the church of Podlasie until 22 May, 
 1867, when the diocese was suppressed by the 
 Russians to facilitate the spread of their Schismatic 
 church, and united to Lublin, the bishop being 
 
POGGIO 
 
 587 
 
 POLAND 
 
 deported to Loniza, where he died on 15 January 
 following. From that date until 1918 the diocese 
 has been ruled by the Bishop of Lublin as adminis¬ 
 trator Apostolic. When the Russian schismatics 
 were thus for over forty years endeavoring to crush 
 out Catholicism, they confiscated many Catholic 
 churches, suppressed parishes, and forbade the 
 building of new or the repairing of old churches. For 
 instance, in the civil district of Biala, between 1874 
 and 1900, out of eleven parishes, churches, ten were 
 suppressed and one was allowed to be built in Juczna, 
 where the Schismatics had confiscated the mag¬ 
 nificent church of Our Lady of Ivoden. In 1905, 
 when the persecution was relaxed, almost 200,000 
 of the Greek Schismatics returned to the true fold, 
 some new churches being built and a few of the 
 suppressed parishes revived. 
 
 When Russia fell in the European War, the 
 Schismatics took to flight, and on the restoration 
 of Poland, hope sprang up again in the hearts of the 
 faithful. The diocese was restored and Mgr. Henry 
 Przezdziecki, formerly vicar general of Warsaw, was 
 elected bishop of Podlasie 24 September, 1918, suc¬ 
 ceeding Bishop Szymanski, who had died in 1868. 
 He was born on 17 February, 1873; ordained on 
 22 December, 1895, preconized on 24 September, 
 1918, and consecrated at Warsaw on 17 November, 
 
 1918. At present he resides at Siedlce, where the 
 diocesan curia is located. The ecclesiastical court, 
 however, is being held at Lukow, until proper 
 quarters have been prepared at Siedlce. The dio¬ 
 cesan seminary of Benedict XV in Jandw was re¬ 
 stored on 8 October, 1919, and has 7 professors 
 and 50 seminarians, of whom 19 are studying theology 
 and 31 philosophy; in addition 2 seminarians are 
 studying at the Warsaw University and 3 at the Uni¬ 
 versity of Lublin. The cathedral chapter comprises 
 4 prelates or dignities and 8 canons. At present the 
 first dignity or dean is Mgr. Ceslaus Sokotowski, 
 coadjutor to Mgr. Przezdziecki, and titular Bishop 
 of Pentacomia. He was born at Warsaw on 9 July, 
 1877, and nominated to his titular see on 4 October, 
 
 1919. He is also rector of the seminary and vicar 
 general of the diocese. The progress of the Church 
 during the last three years may be seen in the increase 
 of the number of parish churches to 174, with 291 
 churches and chapels. There is a shortage of priests, 
 however, for though there are 225 they are insufficient 
 to cope with all the work of the diocese with its 644,318 
 Catholics. They are assisted by 3 Pauline Fathers, 
 
 1 priest of the Immaculate Conception, 3 Salesians 
 (2 priests) and 3 Resurrectionists. There are 19 
 Sisters of the Immaculate Conception with 1 house, 
 8 Franciscan Sisters of the Family of Mary, 2 houses; 
 3 Felician Sisters (Franciscan Tertiaries of St. Felix), 
 
 1 house; 6 Little Servants of the Most Sacred 
 Heart of Jesus, 1 orphanage and 1 hospital, 19 
 Vincentian Sisters of Charity, 4 hospitals, 1 orphan¬ 
 age; in all there are in the diocese 3 homes for the 
 aged and destitute; 5 orphanages; 5 day nurseries; 
 and 7 infirmaries. The diocese has clerical co-operative 
 associations called "Unitis Viribus” in Siedlce; and 
 a diocesan bulletin or review, “Wiadomosc Diecezalne 
 Podlaskie.” 
 
 Poggio Mirteto, Diocese of (Maxdelensis; cf. 
 C. E., XII—178c), in Central Italy, dependent 
 directly on the Holy See. The present bishop is 
 Rt. Rev. Luigi Ferretti, b. 1862, elected 1917, 
 consecrated 1918, succeeding Bishop Nirra, deceased. 
 The Catholic population is 35,0(X). There are: 
 36 parishes, 45 secular priests, 8 regular priests, 12 
 seminarians, 5 Brothers, 40 Sisters, 113 churches and 
 chapels. 
 
 Pohle, Joseph, theologian, b. at Niederspay, near 
 Coblentz, Germany, on 19 March, 1852; d. at Breslau, 
 on 21 February, 1911. He studied at Trier, graduat¬ 
 ing in 1871 and the following year proceeded to the 
 Gregorian University at Rome, where he won doc¬ 
 torates in philosophy and theology, and studied 
 astronomy under Father Secchi, whose life he wrote 
 in later days. He was ordained in 1887, and sub¬ 
 sequently taught theology at Baar in Switzerland, and 
 Leeds, England; and philosophy at Fulda, 1886-89, 
 in which year he was called to the chair of apologetics 
 in the Catholic University of America, which he 
 filled with distinction for five years, when he re¬ 
 signed and returnintr to Germany occupied the chair 
 of dogmatic theology in Munster, Westphalia. 
 Three years later he was called to the same post in 
 the University of Breslau, where in 1915-1916 he 
 served as rector magnificus. In 1913 he had been 
 made a domestic prelate of the Pope. Pohle’s 
 writings are highly esteemed for their depth of thought 
 and accuracy of doctrines. His chef d’oeuvre is a 
 “Lehrbuch der Dogmatik,” the fruit of his lectures on 
 dogmatic theology, which was translated into Eng¬ 
 lish (12 Vols.) by Dr. Arthur Preuss of St. Louis, 
 editor of the “Catholic Fortnightly Review” (St. 
 Louis). Among his other w'orks are a biograph}'’ 
 of Angelo Secchi (2nd ed., 1904); two theological 
 monographs: “De providontia divino” and “De 
 conceptu creationis divinae”; a popular introduction 
 to astronomy, “Die Stemenweltenundihre Bewohner” 
 (6th ed., 1910). In addition he was for several years 
 editor of the “Philosophisches Jahrbuch” of the 
 Gorres Society, and contributed numerous articles 
 to the “Kirchenlexikon,” the “Kirchliches Handlexi- 
 kon,” the Catholic Encyclopedia, the “Historich 
 politischer Blatter,” and other reviews. 
 
 ^ Poitiers, Diocese of (Pictavensis; cf. C. E. 
 XII—178d), in the department of Vienne, France, 
 suffragan of Bordeaux. In 1918 Mgr. Humbrecht, 
 Bishop of Poitiers, was promoted to the Archdiocese 
 of Besangon, and was succeeded in Poitieis by Mgr. 
 de Durfort, actual bishop. Born at Montfermeil, 
 diocese of Versailles, 12 July, 1863, he was ordained 
 in 1887, made prelate of the Holy See in 1899, and 
 Piothonotary Apostolic five years later. In Febru¬ 
 ary, 1911, he was appointed Bishop of Langres and 
 consecrated the following May, remaining there until 
 he was transferred to his present see. Mgr. Hum¬ 
 brecht became Bishop of Poitiers in 1911, succeeding 
 Mgr. Pelge who died 31 May of that year. On 
 1 March, 1912, the Cathedral of Poitiers was made 
 a basilica. An important event in the diocese was 
 the centenary celebration of the birth of Cardinal 
 Pie, 1915. During the World War 280 priests and 
 130 seminarians from the diocese of Poitiers were 
 mobilized, 13 of the former and 34 of the latter 
 died, two received the Medaille Militaire, 73 the Croix 
 de Guerre , and 2 were proposed for the Legion of 
 Honor. 
 
 The diocese comprises the departments of Vienne, 
 in which there were 332,376 Catholics in 1920 (Poi¬ 
 tiers, 41,292), and Deux-S&vres, in which there were 
 337,627. In the same year the diocese counted 69 
 parishes, 574 succursals and 97 vicarages formerly 
 supported bythe State. 
 
 Poland (cf. C. E., XII—181c), Republic of, an 
 independent state since 9 November, 1918. In 
 1914 at the beginning of the World War, the Poles 
 were promised independece by the Russian Grand 
 Duke Nicholas, Commander-in-Chief of the Russian 
 armies. Similar promises were made several times 
 during the course of the war by the Central Powers, 
 the rulers of which even went so far, in 1916, as to 
 sign a decree to that effect, and to notify the Holy 
 
POLAND 
 
 POLAND 
 
 588 
 
 See that their intention was to form the Polish pro¬ 
 vinces occupied by them into an independent State. 
 The Poles placed no confidence in their promises, 
 and Polish soldiers found themselves fighting in 
 enemy camps with one aim, the reconstruction of the 
 dismembered kingdom. General Pilsudski, with his 
 “Polish legions,” crossed the border of Russian 
 Poland 5 August, 1914, in an effort to loosen Russia’s 
 grip on that territory. The following year the 
 central Powers -succeeded in driving out the Russians 
 and on 5 August, 1915, the German army entered the 
 City of Warsaw under the command of Prince 
 Leopold of Bavaria. The German occupation lasted 
 for three years, during which time they carried away 
 from Warsaw and the provinces many valuable 
 objects from public and private buildings, requisition¬ 
 ing not only the copper roofs and church bells, but 
 even the door handles, emptying the city of all the 
 supplies left by the Russians, and devastating the 
 forests of the country. The Germans at first es¬ 
 tablished the Citizens’ Central Committee for the 
 government of Poland, then the so-called Temporary 
 Council of State (1917), and finally the Regency 
 Council composed of Prince Lubomirski, M. 
 Ostrowski and Archbishop Ivapowski of Warsaw. 
 
 It was aided bv a Council of State and a Council of 
 Ministers, but “had very little legislative or adminis¬ 
 trative power. The Polish Legions which refused the 
 oath of fidelity to the Kaiser as commander-in-chief 
 of the armies of the Central Powers, were disbanded 
 and interned and General Pilsudski was arrested 22 
 July, 1917, and transferred to Madgeburg. The 
 Polish Secret Military Organization covering all 
 Poland with its network was formed at this time. 
 
 The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (15 December, 
 1917-3 March, 1918), between Germany and the 
 Bolshevists, by the terms of which Poland found 
 herself despoiled of her former territories for the 
 recovery of which she had been fighting side by side 
 with the Central Powers, brought about a clash. 
 Influenced also by the Russian revolution (March, 
 1917), the entrance of the United States into the 
 World War (April, 1917), and the proposal of a free, 
 united and independent Poland with access to the 
 sea made by President Wilson, and his famous fourteen 
 points, Poland joined the Allies. The most power¬ 
 ful factor in this decision was Ignace Paderewski, 
 who demanded the repudiation of Germany and 
 Austria and whose reputation and personality won 
 for the cause of Poland the sympathy of America 
 and the allied countries. Under his influence a 
 Polish army was formed in France and the United 
 States and the National Polish Committee in Paris 
 was recognzied, 18 October, 1917, as the only legiti¬ 
 mate government of Poland. In General Foch’s 
 great offensive many Polish soldiers fought with 
 heroism. The Armistice signed by Germany, 11 
 November, 1918, opened a new era for Poland, an 
 independent republic was proclaimed and a govern¬ 
 ment formed under the control of the Moderate 
 Socialists. General Pilsudski, freed by German 
 revolutionists, returned to Warsaw and was given 
 supreme military authority. The German General 
 Beseler fled, and the German troops in Poland were 
 disarmed and expelled by the Polish Secret Military 
 Organization. The Polish Republic was proclaimed 
 and a temporary government elected 14 November, 
 with Pilsudski as first President, until a Diet should 
 establish a regular Government. Paderewski was 
 sent to Warsaw where he was enthusiastically greeted 
 by the people and 15 January, 1919, he formed a 
 new Cabinet in which he was Prime Minister. The 
 following message was sent to Paderewski from Paris 
 at the direction of President Wilson: “The President 
 of the United States directs me to extend to you as 
 Prime Minister and Secretary of Foreign Affairs of 
 
 the Provisional Polish Government, his sincere wishes 
 for your success in the high office which you have 
 assumed, and his earnest hope that the government 
 of which you are a part will bring prosperity to the 
 Republic of Poland. It is my privilege to extend 
 to you at this time my personal greetings and of¬ 
 ficially assure you that it will be a source of gratifica¬ 
 tion to enter into official relations with you at the 
 earliest opportunity, and to render to your countiy 
 such aid as is possible at this time, as it enters upon 
 a new cycle of independent life, which will be in due 
 accord with that spirit of friendliness which has in 
 the past animated the American people in their 
 relations with your countrymen.” 
 
 Paderewski’s cabinet resigned 13 December, 1919, 
 and he was sent to France as diplomatic representa¬ 
 tive from Poland to the League of Nations. In Janu¬ 
 ary, 1921, he resigned and returned to the United 
 States, having earned the undying gratitude of his 
 countrymen and given signal proof of his love tor 
 Poland. During his term of office the Polish Consti¬ 
 tutional Diet was formed, which unanimously con¬ 
 firmed General Pilsudski as president (20 February, 
 1919) and reaffirmed Poland’s alliance with the Allied 
 Powers. Bv the treaty of Versailles, signed by Dmow- 
 ski and Paderewski, the Polish National Committee 
 in Paris was dissolved and the independence of Poland 
 formally recognized by the Allies. On 31 July the 
 treaty was ratified by the Polish Diet. A new consti¬ 
 tution was drawn up by the Diet and solemnly adopted 
 17 March, 1921, when a solemn Te Deum was chanted 
 in the cathedral of Warsaw. All the legislative power 
 in the republic is vested in the National Assembly, 
 which is composed of the Diet ( Sejin ) and the Senate. 
 The executive power is exercised by a President and 
 a Cabinet of Ministers, the former elected every seven 
 years. The Diet dissolves by its own vote. Religious 
 freedom is granted to all loyal citizens, and the Catho¬ 
 lic Church as the church of the majority, takes first 
 place in the State among the other creeds equal before 
 the law. The relations between Church and State 
 are to be regulated by a special concordat to be ratified 
 by the Diet. The more important political parties 
 in the Constitutional Diet are: the Polish People s 
 Party (84 members), the National People s Union of 
 Diet (79 members), the National Peoples Union 
 (42 members) the Polish Socialist Party (33 members) 
 the Christian National Worker’s Club (28 members) , 
 the National People’s Christian Party (22 members) 
 the National Worker’s Circle (25 members). - 
 total number of members in the Diet is 412; at present 
 (1922) the liberal and moderate Socialist element is 
 stronger than the Catholic element. . , 
 
 Poland was invaded in 1920 by the Russian Bolshe¬ 
 vists, who, after initial victories that seemed to 
 threaten the fall of Warsaw, were finally defeated, 
 with a loss of 30,000 prisoners and 90,000 casualties; 
 the Poles were the first of their enemies to be victor¬ 
 ious over Soviet Russia. A preliminary peace treaty 
 was signed at Riga, 12 October, 1920, and ratified 
 
 18 March, 1921. . ( ,, 
 
 Religion. —As a national consequence of the 
 religious freedom granted by Poland in 1919 many 
 religious communities expelled from Russian Poland 
 have returned and several new congregations have 
 made foundations there. There are now m the coun¬ 
 try, Communities of Men: ( 1 ) Capuchin Fathers, 
 Warsaw, Nowe Miasto, 18; (2) Redemptonst Fa 
 ers, Warsaw, 8; (3) Marian Fathers, Bielany, v\ ar- 
 saw 18; (4) Jesuit Fathers, Warsaw, 7; (5) Vincen¬ 
 tian Fathers, Warsaw, 15; (6) Franciscan Fathers 
 
 (Conventuals), 5; (7) Salesian Fathers, Warsaw, 
 
 Prat™ 13* (8) Resurrectionist Fathers, Warsaw, 
 
 e t c . 9- (9) Brother Albert’s Brothers, Warsaw, 
 
 Praga, 6. Communities of Women: (1) Sisters of 
 Perpetual Adoration, Sakramentki; (2) Sisters of St. 
 
POLICASTRO 
 
 589 
 
 POLICASTRO 
 
 Mary of Visitation, Wizytki; (3) Sisters of Holy 
 Family of Nazareth, Nazaretanki; (4) Sisters of St. 
 Felix a Cantalicio, Felicyanki; (5) Sisters of Resur¬ 
 rection, Tmartwychwstanvki; (6) Sisters of Immacu¬ 
 late Conception, Niepokalanvis; (7) Sisters of St. 
 Mary’s Servants (Scovulae), Sluzscniczvis; (8) Sis¬ 
 ters of St. Mary’s Family, Rodzina Maryi; (9) Sis¬ 
 ters of St. Mary a Misericordia, Serafitki; (10) 
 Sisters of Brother Albert, Albertynki. In general: 
 regular priests, 56; nuns, 30; religious sisters, 28, and 
 many Sisters of Charity especially of St. Vincent de 
 Paul. Hospitals, asylums and other humanitarian 
 institutions number 38; 15 of which are under the 
 care of Sisters of Charity. There are also several hid¬ 
 den Congregations of Men and Women, with their 
 rules approved by Rome; they were especially needed 
 when Poland was under Russian government and 
 similar religious institutions were by law either pro¬ 
 hibited, persecuted or totally suppressed. They 
 dress like the seculars, and are working in the city, 
 in provinces and villages, exercising their beneficial 
 influence and apostleship. Several hidden mission¬ 
 aries, especially Jesuit Fathers, worked among the 
 Uniates. 
 
 The general meetings of the Polish episcopate are 
 productive of much good for the Church. Through 
 them unity of action, the organization of the new and 
 restored dioceses and a general strengthening of the 
 Catholic movement are effected. They are always 
 held under the guidance of the Papal Nuncio. The 
 first was held in Warsaw, 11 March, 1917, because of 
 the hundred years’ jubilee of the Archdiocese, Poland 
 being yet under German occupation. The second in 
 Warsaw, 10 December, 1918, and the third, 20 Janu¬ 
 ary, 1919, before the elections to the Constitutional 
 Diet, when a general episcopal letter to the nation 
 and Polish people was issued. The fourth in Warsaw, 
 because of different social, ecclesiastical and educa¬ 
 tional questions, 13 March, 1919. The fifth in Gniez- 
 no, 27 August, 1919, at the tomb of St. Wojciech, 
 Archbishop and Martyr, in thanksgiving to God for 
 the restitution of a united and independent Poland, 
 and asking the benediction of the Almighty that it 
 may prosper as it did at the time of St. Wojciech. 
 The sixth was held at Warsaw at the consecration of 
 Mgr. Ratti. The seventh on 10 January, 1920, on 
 the occasion of the return of the newly-created Car¬ 
 dinals to Poland and the bringing of the symbolical 
 St. Josaphat’s Candle. The eighth was held at 
 Oxenstochowa, at the shrine of Our Lady and Queen 
 of Poland, in the very heart of Catholic Poland. The 
 national vows were renewed, their fulfillment prom¬ 
 ised and Holy Virgin again proclaimed as Queen of 
 Poland, and asked to save Poland from the Bolsheviki, 
 as she has saved the nation in similar danger in 1655. 
 The meeting in Cracow, 28 May-3 June, 1921, at 
 the tomb of St. Stanislaw, Bishop and Martyr, ended 
 with the solemn and public consecration of the whole 
 Polish nation to the Most Sacred Heart of Jesus, read 
 in public procession by Mgr. Dalbor, Primate of 
 Poland. 
 
 After the resurrection of Poland two new dioceses 
 were erected as suffragans to the Metropolitan See of 
 Warsaw, one in Podlachia with its episcopal residence 
 at Siedlce, which was formerly suppressed by the Rus¬ 
 sian Government, the second formed from the Arch¬ 
 diocese of Warsaw and comprising the industrial dis¬ 
 tricts of Poland. Its episcopal residence is in Lodz. 
 The proposed erection of a theological faculty at the 
 University of Warsaw will have an immense influence 
 on the education of the clergy of the archdiocese. 
 
 In fulfillment of a promise made 3 May, 1791, just 
 before the partition of Poland and in thanksgiving for 
 the restoration of liberty and unity, the Diet voted to 
 erect a church in Warsaw in honor of Divine Provi¬ 
 dence. In December, 1921, the first Polish Mission¬ 
 
 ary Congress of Clergy was held in Warsaw, and a 
 Missionary Union of Clergy formed to increase the 
 missionary spirit in Poland. In April, 1918, Mgr. 
 Ratti, since elevated to the papacy, was sent by Pope 
 Benedict XV as Apostolic Visitor to Poland, which 
 was then nominally free but under German occupa¬ 
 tion. After the republic was proclaimed, an Apostolic 
 Nunciature of the second class was erected in Poland, 
 with Mgr. Ratti as Nuncio. He was appointed titular 
 archbishop of Lepanto 3 July, 1919, and was conse¬ 
 crated in the cathedral of Warsaw the following 
 October in the presence of the Primate and many of 
 the bishops of Poland, President Pilsudski, Premier 
 Paderewski and other civil representatives. In 1.021 
 Mgr. Ratti was made Archbishop of Milan and was 
 succeeded as Nuncio by Mgr. Laurenti Lauri, titular 
 archbishop of Ephesus, who was formerly nuncio to 
 Peru. M. Wladislas Skrzynski is the Minister Pleni¬ 
 potentiary and Envoy Extraordinary of Poland to the 
 Holy See, having presented his letters of credit 15 
 October, 1921. The newly-created Polish cardinals 
 Card. Dalbor, Primate of Poland and Card. Kakow- 
 ski, Archbishop of Warsaw, created 15 December, 
 1919, brought with them from Rome the symbolical 
 candle of St. Josaphat. On the day of the canoniza¬ 
 tion of St. Josaphat, 27 June, 1867, Pius IX returned 
 to the alumni of the Polish College in Rome, the bees¬ 
 wax candle given him in accordance with a long-estab¬ 
 lished custom, telling them to preserve it in the col¬ 
 lege until they could light it in a free and independent 
 Poland. At the public allocution to the new Car¬ 
 dinals, Benedict XV expressed his conviction that the 
 time had now come for the fulfillment of the will of 
 his predecessor, and the candle was solemnly given 
 to the Cardinals by the rector of the Polish College. 
 With great ceremony it was placed in the cathedral of 
 Warsaw and during the Pontifical Mass, President 
 Pilsudski was invested to light it. The sermon on this 
 occasion was preached by Mgr. Pelczar, who had wit¬ 
 nessed the ceremony on the canonization of St. 
 Josaphat. 
 
 Religious freedom also brought to Poland many 
 non-Catholic creeds and sects. There are now in 
 Warsaw Methodists, Quakers, Baptists, Bible 
 Students and various societies from North America, 
 notably the Y. M. C. A. and the Y. W. C. A., which 
 at first under humanitarian pretenses and then openly 
 spread their heretical doctrines. They meet with 
 temporary success owing to the high purchasing 
 power of foreign money, and are helped by the native 
 Protestants and Jews. There are some native inde¬ 
 pendent churches, such as the Marianites, but they 
 have few adherents. 
 
 Amongst the Polish religious and clergy recently 
 deceased was Brother Albert (Adam Chnnwelowski), 
 former artist, who devoted his life to work amongst 
 the most wretched and destitute. He founded a 
 congregation known as Brother Albert’s Brothers and 
 Sisters, and died a holy death in Cracow, 25 December, 
 1915. Rev. I. Radziszewski, d. 22 February, 1922, 
 was founder and rector of the Catholic University at 
 Lublin, which is under the care of the Polish episcopate 
 and of great benefit to Catholic youth. During the 
 Bolshevist invasion Father Skorupka, twenty - 
 seven years old, chaplain of the Eighth Division of 
 Infantry, was killed as he rallied his regiment under 
 terrific machine gun-fire, to attack the enemy, in the 
 decisive battle of the invasion. His heroism'was 
 officially recognized by the General Staff. 
 
 Policastro, Diocese of (Policastrensis; cf., 
 C. E., XII—212b), in the Province of Catanzaro, 
 Southern Italy, suffragan of Salerno. The present 
 bishop is Rt. Rev. Giovanni Vescia, b. 1848, elected 
 1899. The Catholic population of the diocese is 
 
POLSI 
 
 590 
 
 POOR CHILD 
 
 64,000. There are: 38 parishes, 195 secular priests, 
 
 9 regular priests, 234 churches and chapels. 
 
 Polsi, Santa Maria di, an abbey in the Diocese of 
 Gerace, Italy, erected into an abbey nullius 8 April, 
 1920. 
 
 Pondicherry, . Archdiocese of (Pondicheriana 
 or Pudicheriana; cf. C. E., XII—228d), in India, 
 has a total Catholic population of 143,450, of whom, 
 1000 are Europeans, 1200 Anglo-French Indians and 
 142,000 Indians; 25,760 of these Catholics are m the 
 French territory of the diocese. The present arch¬ 
 bishop, Most Rev. Elias Jean Joseph Morel, has filled 
 the See since 1909. He was born at Beliefontaine, 
 diocese of St. Claude in 1862, and entered the Sem¬ 
 inary of the Foreign Missions in 1884. After his 
 ordination he was sent to Pondicherry, where he 
 became rector of the college of Cuddalore and in 1904, 
 vicar general. He was appointed bishop 11 May, 
 1909, and consecrated 21 September of the same year. 
 Within recent years the diocese has lost three most 
 zealous workers bv the deaths of Rev. Father Darras 
 (1916), the apostle of the North Arcot district, where 
 he had baptized about 2500 heathens, Rev. Father 
 Mette (4917), author of several catechisms and 
 founder of a training school for catechists, and Rev. 
 Father Drouhin (1918), a great promoter of primary 
 education and religious doctrine in the diocese and 
 the editor of two monthly periodicals. The cyclone 
 which occurred in 1916 in this section, destroyed 
 many buildings throughout the diocese. During the 
 World War twelve of the missionaries went into the 
 service and some of these were made prisoners, but 
 none were seriously wounded and all eventually re¬ 
 turned to their missionary labors. 
 
 The present (1921) statistics show 58 parishes and 
 missions, 66 churches and 229 chapels, 3 convents for 
 men and 37 for women, 93 secular priests, 65 Euro¬ 
 pean and 28 Indian, 21 Brothers of St. Gabriel, 69 
 European and 268 Indian Sisters and 1 seminary 
 with 22 seminarians, 10 of whom belong to the dio¬ 
 cese. The educational institutions include in addi¬ 
 tion to this seminary, a lower seminary-college at 
 Pondicherry with 998 pupils; a branch school at 
 Tirupapuliyur with 1380 pupils; Montfort European 
 boys’ high school at Yercand with 50 pupils; Sacred 
 Heart girls’ high school with 48 pupils; a training 
 school for teachers at Findicanam under the Brothers 
 of St. Gabriel; St. Joseph’s orphanage and industrial 
 school with 60 pupils; a Government training indus¬ 
 trial school and a training school for catechist at 
 Villupuram. In addition to these there are through¬ 
 out the diocese 113 elementary schools for boys, 
 boarding and day schools for girls under the Sisters of 
 St. Joseph of Cluny, various industrial schools, and 
 schools under the Indian Congregation of the Im¬ 
 maculate Heart of Mary, which was established m 
 1844 under the rule of the Third Order of St. Francis. 
 The Indian Congregation of St. Louis of Gonzaga 
 which was founded about the middle of the eighteenth 
 century for bringing up non-caste children, has 46 
 Sisters in charge of 2 orphanages and 6 schools. 
 
 The charitable institutions include 21 orphanages 
 for boys and girls with 550 orphans, besides 18 who 
 have been placed in the care of Christian families, 
 1 refuge for Eurasian women, and 2 homes for the 
 aged, 1 at Pondicherry and 1 at Karikal. 
 
 Pontremoli, Diocese of (Apuanensis; cf. C. E., 
 XIII—234b), suffragan of Pisa, Italy. The present 
 bishop is Rt. Rev. Angelo Antonio Fiorini, O. M. 
 Cap., b. 1861, elected 1899. The Catholic popula¬ 
 tion of the diocese is 63,157. There are: 126 parishes, 
 204 secular priests, 9 regular priests, 75 seminarians, 
 6 Brothers, 30 Sisters, 361 churches and chapels. 
 
 Poona, Diocese of (Punensis; cf. C. E., XII 
 235d), in India, is a suffragan of Bombay. The 
 second bishop of the diocese, Rt. Rev. Henry Doering, 
 
 S. J., who had filled the see from 1907, resigned in 
 1921, and the affairs of the diocese are now admin¬ 
 istered by an apostolic administrator, at present the 
 Rev. A/Bruder, S. J. The Catholic population is 
 numbered at 20,801 and there are 22 churches and 
 20 chapels served by 13 Fathers of the Society of 
 Jesus and 22 secular priests, assisted by the Nuns of 
 Jesus and Mary and the Daughters of the Cross. 
 The Ahmednegar mission now has 9068 Christians. 
 Among the educational institutions are: St. Vincent’s 
 High School, Poona, with 330 pupils; St. Joseph’s 
 convent school, Poona, with 350 pupils under eleven 
 nuns of Jesus and Mary who also conduct the Euro¬ 
 pean Orphanage a r d St. Ann’s School with 16 board¬ 
 ers and 36 day scholars; convent school at Igatpuri 
 with 76 pupils and a poor school with 47 children; 
 also a convent school at Panchgani with 142 pupils, 
 both under the Daughters of the Cross; English teach¬ 
 ing schools at Bhusaval, Igatpuri, Lanowli, Sholapur, 
 Ahmednegar, Dharwar and Hubli, with a total of 
 735 pupils. In the Ahmednegar Mission districts 
 there are 86 village schools attended by 1456 children 
 and in the Gadag Mission districts 5 elementary 
 schools with about 300 children. 
 
 Poor, Little Sisters of the (cf. C. E., XII • 
 248b) .—The mother-house of this congregation is at 
 La Tour St. Joseph, St. Pern, Ille-et-Vilaine, France; 
 there are also novitiates in Italy, Spain, Belgium, the 
 United States, Australia and China. The total num¬ 
 ber of foundations (1920) is 312, distributed as 
 follows: France and Alsatia, 111; of which 8 are in 
 Paris; Belgium, 14; England and Jersey, 27; Spam 
 and Portugal, 54; Italy, Sicily, and Switzerland, 22, 
 Turkey and Hungary, 2; Asia, 8; Africa, 5; South 
 America, 9; Oceania, 8; United States, 52. The order 
 numbers 6227 members and cares for 45,297 old 
 people. 
 
 Poor Brothers of St. Francis Seraphicus (cf. C. 
 E.XII-248d) .—The present general superior is Brother 
 Athanasius Wietmann, who was elected in 1901, and 
 during whose term of office the rules of the congre¬ 
 gation have been approved by the Holy See (1910). 
 In 1904 the congregation was affiliated to the order 
 of St. Francis. In 1910 St. Josephaus, the juvenile 
 home at Aachen, was moved into a new house. In 
 1919 a home for mechanic apprentices, who work in 
 the city, was established at Cologne. In 1921 branch 
 houses were opened at Essen, where the Brothers 
 conduct a hostel for boys, and at Aix-la-Chapelle, 
 where they care for abandoned young people. An 
 educational institution, called the Piusheitn , was 
 opened by the Brothers at Glonn, Bavaria, in 1921. 
 In the same year the Brothers of Cincinnati, Ohio, 
 founded a protectory for boys at Armstrong Springs, 
 Little Rock, Arkansas. The American houses were 
 erected into a province in 1913. In consequence of 
 the war the educational institution at Marienbronn, 
 Province of Posen (now Poland), founded in 1909, and 
 the asylum for homeless children, founded at Her- 
 besthal, Province of Eupen (now Belgium), in 1910, 
 were given up in 1919. At the present time (1921) 
 there are 16 institutions under the care of the Brothers: 
 12 educational houses, 1 workingman’s colony, 1 
 apprentice home, 2 asylums for the homeless and 
 abandoned. In Europe there are 202 members of the 
 congregation and 59 in America. Sixteen promising 
 members lost their lives during the war. 
 
 Poor Child Jesus, Sisters of the (cf. C. E., 
 XII—251).—The first superior general of the congre¬ 
 gation was Mother Clara Fey, born 11 April, 1815, 
 
POOR CLARES 
 
 591 
 
 POPULAR ACTION 
 
 at Aix-la-Chapelle. She started her work 2 February, 
 1844, in her native town and remained at the head 
 of the congregation till her death, 8 May, 1894. She 
 was followed in office by Mother Innocentia (Eliza¬ 
 beth Brown), b. 13 August, 1840, at Landstuhl, 
 Rheinpfalz, entered the congregation on 12 June, 
 1855, was elected superior general on 2 July, 1894, 
 died 25 February, 1900. The third superior general 
 is Mother Franziska Chantal (Antonie Happ), b. 12 
 June, 1854, at Solingen. She entered the congrega¬ 
 tion 20 December, 1880, was elected superior general 
 8 May, 1900, and re-elected 2 July, 1906, and 2 July, 
 1912; the election due 2 July, 1918, was, with special 
 permission of the Holy See, postponed to the same 
 date, 1920. A decree of the Holy See which, according 
 to the new Code of Canon Law, would have rendered 
 a further re-election impossible or invalid, had not 
 yet reached Bishop Schrijnen of Roermond who, 
 according to the rule, presided at the act. The 
 unanimous re-election of Mother Franziska Chantal 
 was thereupon declared valid by the Roman authori¬ 
 ties. 
 
 A new foundation was made at North Finchley near 
 London in 1908. It now has flourishing day and 
 boarding schools. Further foundations took place 
 in 1912 at Cologne where the Catholic orphanage of 
 the city was confided to the sisters’ care; in 1914, at 
 Flagharen, Holland, where a Catholic girls’ school 
 was opened. In 1917 a house was founded at Schlei- 
 den (Eifel), with a small high school, which is also 
 to serve as a convalescent home for the members of 
 the congregation. Two foundations were added to 
 the three already existing at Cologne: in 1917 a 
 house for lady students and girls in business was 
 opened and in 1918 the Sisters took charge of the 
 orphanage at Cologne-Ehrenfeld, which had been 
 established in a separate house from their own during 
 the Kulturkampf. 
 
 At the present time the number of houses is 44. 
 Owing to the extraordinary mortality during the war 
 and the following years (the average number of deaths 
 before the war was 24, from 1915 to 1920 inclusive it 
 increased to 55), the total number of Sisters was 1730 
 on 1 August, 1921. A considerable number of candi¬ 
 dates had to be refused admission on account of over- 
 delicate or ill health. Besides the provincial novi¬ 
 tiates at Maastricht and Vienna there were two more 
 erected at Southam near Rugby (1916) for English, 
 and at Borsbeeck near Antwerp (1920), for Belgian 
 and French candidates. Training colleges for teachers 
 are at Maastricht, Dusseldorf, and Vienna, colleges 
 preparing for University examinations at Neu- 
 Dusseldorf and North Finchley. There are high 
 schools at Cologne, Ehrenfeld, Cologne-Kalk, Dussel¬ 
 dorf, Neuss, Godesberg, Bitburg, and Schleiden in 
 Germany; at Maastricht, Roermond-Land, and Swal- 
 men in Holland; at Vienna, Retz, Stadlan in Austrai; 
 at Brussels, Antwerp, Borsbeeck, and Gemmenich 
 in Belgium. There are under the Sisters’ care more 
 than 20,000 babies, children, young girls of all classes 
 and students preparing for the University. 
 
 The following were the co-foundresses of Mother 
 Clara: Mother Theresia Startz, vicaress (d. 2 Septem¬ 
 ber, 1895); Mother Dominica (d. 20 December, 1893); 
 Mother Magdalena, superioress of Southam (d. 2 
 June, 1902); Sister Aloysius (d. 9 April, 1889); 
 Sister Franziska, directress of the church embroidery 
 work (d. 19 February, 1901). A book by Mother 
 Clara Fey, “Advents-und Weihnachts-betrachtun- 
 gen,” was published at Freiburg in 1921. 
 
 Poor Clares (cf. C. E., XII—251c).—The 
 German community of Poor Clares in the United 
 States has convents in Cleveland, Chicago, Rockford, 
 Ill., and Oakland, Cal. The Italian community in 
 the United States has foundations at Omaha, Neb., 
 
 38 
 
 New Orleans, La.; Evansville, Ind.; Boston, Mass.; 
 Bordentown, N. J.; Philadelphia, Pa.; New York, 
 N. Y.; Philips, Wis.; and Victoria, B. C. According 
 to the census of the Poor Clares, taken in 1921, the 
 following is the present status of the order: Italy, 
 houses 132, members 2022; Corsica, h. 1, m. 27; Pal¬ 
 estine, h. 3, m. 54; Prussia, h. 19, m. 237; Bavaria, 
 h. 3, m. 104; Holland, h. 4, m. 75; Belgium, h. 39, 
 m. 1040; Ireland, h. 9, m. 168; England, h. 14, m. 
 327; France, h. 28, m. 747; Spain, h. 238, m. 4489; 
 Peru, h. 11, m. 198; Columbia, h. 10, m. 150; Ecua¬ 
 dor, h. 5, m. 124; Bolivia, h. 3, m. 65; Argentina, 
 h. 1, m. 20; Brazil, h. 5, m. 106; Mexico, h. 1, m. 46; 
 Canada, h. 1, m. 34; United States, h. 12, m. 231; 
 total, h. 581, m. 10945. 
 
 Poor Handmaids of Jesus Christ (cf. C. E., 
 XII—254c).—Since 1911, many notable improvements 
 have been made in various institutions conducted by 
 the order. Foremost among these is that of the large 
 addition built to the St. Joseph Hospital in Fort 
 Wayne, Ind. This hospital, the cornerstone of which 
 was laid in 1912, is modern in every detail and is one 
 of the ten standardized institutions of its kind in 
 the State of Indiana. In 1913, at Bishop Alerding’s 
 expressed desire, the Mercy Hospital at Gary, Ind. 
 was taken over by the order, and later another hospital 
 was built in New Ulm, Minn. The beautiful property 
 adjoining Lake Gilbraith in Indiana was purchased 
 18 March, 1917, to serve as the location of the new 
 mother-house, the erection of which is expected to be 
 completed in May, 1922. The second Mother Gen¬ 
 eral, Mother M. Amalia, died 24 February, 1916, 
 and was succeeded by the present Mother General, 
 Mother M. Firmata. The Order has 3600 members, 
 of whom 620 are in charge of 44 institutions in the 
 United States. The institutions under the care of 
 the Sisters are hospitals, homes for the aged, orphan¬ 
 ages, high schools, parochial schools, and kinder¬ 
 gartens. In Gary, Ind., at the request of Fr. DeVille, 
 the Sisters give instructions in religion to children of 
 all nationalities, who are Catholic, but who attend 
 the public schools. Over 1300 pupils, divided into 
 classes according to a systematic plan, attend these 
 instructions. The community is represented in the 
 dioceses of Fort Wayne, Alton, Belleville, Superior, 
 and in the Archdioceses of Chicago and St. Paul. 
 
 Popayan, Archdiocese of (Popayanensis; cf. 
 C. E., XII—258c), in Colombia. According to 
 statistics for 1921, there are in the archdiocese 39 
 parishes, 114 churches, 2 missions in charge of the 
 Redemptorists and Lazarists respectively, 57 secular 
 and 24 regular priests, 2 convents of men, Redemptor¬ 
 ists and Carmelites; 4 convents of women, Franciscans 
 of Bethlehem; 13 houses of the Brothers of Charity; 
 4 houses of Marist Brothers with 80 Brothers, 1 sem¬ 
 inary, which gives higher and preparatory courses and 
 has 118 seminarians; 1 university, 5 colleges for boys 
 and five for girls, 1 high school, 1 normal school for 
 boys with 30 students, 1 for girls with 36 students; 
 327 elementary schools with 274 teachers and 22,500 
 pupils and 15 industiial schools; 6 hospitals and 
 3 asylums. All Catholic schools are under supervision 
 of the ecclesiastical authoiities; a few are aided by 
 the civil Government. Recent events of importance 
 in the diocese were the celebration of the golden 
 jubilee of the restoration of the seminary by the 
 Lazarists and the separation of part of the territory 
 of the diocese, which was erected into the Prefecture 
 Apostolic of Tierradentra, 13 May, 1921. 
 
 Popular Action (Action Populaire). —Among 
 the many organizations dedicated to the purpose of 
 Catholic seocial action, one of the most interesting 
 and most significant is VAction Populaire, founded 
 in France in 1903, by Abbe Leroy, a French priest 
 
POPULAR ACTION 
 
 592 
 
 POPULAR ACTION 
 
 who had previously been engaged in work among 
 the poor. His aim was to create a central informa¬ 
 tion bureau, library and publishing agency for French 
 Catholics who interested themselves in social ques¬ 
 tions. The enterprise was launched modestly, very 
 modestly indeed, because adequate financial support 
 had not yet been secured. A kitchen and a shed, 
 remodelled as offices, served to house the handful 
 of secretaries and editors whom Abbe Leroy had 
 brought together at Reims. Soon, however, the 
 organization expanded. An entire building, the In- 
 stitut Maintenon, 5 Rue des Trois-Raisinets, Reims, 
 in the shadow of the noble Reims cathedral, was 
 taken over as headquarters. By 1912, the central 
 office had a staff of sixteen editors—ten priests and 
 six laymen—and twenty-seven secretaries, besides a 
 staff of travelling representatives and several hundred 
 collaborators in France and abroad. In ten years, 
 1903-1912, the Action Populaire distributed about 
 1,000,000 pamphlets, 150,000 leaflets, and 60,000 
 volumes of Catholic literature on social problems. 
 It regularly published several series of year-books, 
 manuals and periodicals. Moreover, it rendered 
 valuable service as an information bureau. In its 
 library was a remarkable collection of social and 
 economic treatises and official documents, besides 
 files of some four hundred periodicals. Every year 
 the central office at Reims received thousands of 
 inquiries, and returned thousands of replies dealing 
 with such diverse but useful matters as how to found 
 a mutual aid society, how to start a Catholic trade 
 union, how to organize a co-operative store, where 
 to find authoritative information on the question of 
 social insurance, what kind of a job a young peasant 
 girl should try to obtain when she went to Paris, 
 what books a Catholic should consult on the prin¬ 
 ciples of sociology, what Catholic lecturer could be 
 called upon for a speech on the labor problem, etc. 
 Often the office would send out an expert to help 
 organize a social service institution. As time elapsed 
 the A. P. broadened its activities still further by 
 organizing study courses and conferences, by send¬ 
 ing out representatives as itinerant lecturers, and 
 by holding social conventions, sometimes primarily 
 for the clergy, sometimes for workingmen, some¬ 
 times for lay social workers. The German invasion 
 of France during the Great War of 1914-1918 made 
 it necessary for the Action Populaire to suspend its 
 activities and to seek new quarters in Paris. At 
 the close of the war, however, the organization re¬ 
 sumed its activity and established its offices at 188 
 Rue de Breinut, Noisy-le-Sec, near Paris. 
 
 The Action Populaire is part and parcel of what 
 may be called the Catholic Social Movement. Be¬ 
 ginning toward the middle of the nineteenth century 
 with the isolated, almost sporadic, efforts of men 
 like Ozanam, Villeneuve-Bargemont, and Von Ket- 
 teler, growing powerfully under the patronage of 
 Leo XIII, spreading rapidly throughout Europe and 
 into the other continents, the Catholic Social Move¬ 
 ment has not only awakened in millions of Catholics 
 an active interest in social welfare, but has become 
 so potent a factor in contemporary social questions 
 as to attract the interest of non-Catholics, even of 
 persons bitterly hostile to the Church. It is in the 
 light of this general Catholic awakening to the vital 
 importance of social justice that the true significance 
 of the Action Populaire most clearly appears. When 
 Abbe Leroy put his hand to the plough in 1903, he 
 found the ground already broken by Count Albert 
 de Mun, Henri Lorin, Marquis de la Toiu 1 du Pin, 
 and many another courageous pioneers. Already 
 there had sprung up Catholic Workingmen’s Clubs, 
 Catholic labor unions, employers’ unions, Catholic 
 social study groups, a Young Men’s Catholic Asso¬ 
 ciation, and other organizations devoted to social 
 
 reform and welfare work. On these the Action 
 Populaire could draw for support and sympathy; for 
 these it could act as a central bureau and publishing 
 house; to these it could give new inspiration and 
 solidarity. The attitude of the Action Populaire 
 toward social and economic questions was explained 
 by Abbe Desbuquois, the director of the institution, 
 in a series of articles written in 1912. The funda¬ 
 mental principles of Catholic social action, he de¬ 
 clared, were to be found in Leo XIII’s historic Ency¬ 
 clical “On the Condition of the Working Classes” 
 
 (Rerum Novarum ) and other papal letters. It was 
 the duty of Christians, he believed, not merely to 
 give bread to the hungry, homes to the homeless, 
 care to the sick, and alms to the penniless, but also 
 to work for the reform of industry and society on a 
 basis acceptable to Christian morality, and to strive 
 for the prevention, as well as the palliation, of social 
 injustice. The aim should be to create employment 
 bureaus which would minimize the evils of involun¬ 
 tary idleness, to build airy and sanitary dwellings 
 in which the dread plague of tuberculosis would not 
 find easy lodging, to organize industry so that in¬ 
 justice and avarice would not prevail, to Christianize 
 manners and morals, to combat irreligion, intemper¬ 
 ance, and vice. This program would require both 
 spiritual influence and temporal reforms, such as the 
 organization of industrial unions or guilds, the enact¬ 
 ment of labor laws, and the establishment of welfare 
 institutions. In all such matters, Catholics must 
 remain loyal to the Christian conception of liberty, 
 of human rights and duties, of justice and charity, 
 if the perilous errors of economic laisser-faire, Marx¬ 
 ism, and Syndicalism are to be avoided. 
 
 The value and scope of the services rendered by the 
 Action Populaire as a center for the stimulation of 
 Catholic social work and for the dissemination of 
 Catholic principles as well as of economic and socio¬ 
 logical information may best be indicated by a de¬ 
 scription of its publications. At the outset, the 
 Action Populaire began to publish three thirty-page 
 pamphlets or brochures every month, at the popular 
 price of five cents. Each pamphlet was a handy 
 treatise on some such question as old-age pensions, 
 labor unions, strikes, co-operation, housing problems, 
 employment service, vocational training, child-labor, 
 accident compensation, Socialism, factory inspection 
 and income taxes. Though they were published at a 
 nominal price and written in popular style, these 
 little yellow-covered pamphlets were not, as one 
 might be inclined to suppose, the haphazard results 
 of hasty journalism; they were prepared by eminent 
 economists and sociologists, French and foreign, 
 Catholic and non-Catholic. They attained a sur¬ 
 prisingly large circulation and their influence was 
 very wide. Other series were inaugurated from time 
 to time as the need appeared. For example, the 
 growth of Catholic social study clubs led the Action 
 Populaire to issue a series of Plans et Documents, com¬ 
 prising documentary and doctrinal material for the 
 use of such clubs. Again, when complaints were 
 heard that the great papal encyclicals and the texts 
 of important social laws were not easily available 
 except for special students, the Action Populaire 
 issued five-cent reprints of such documents, in a 
 series called Actes Sociaux. In addition, there were 
 Feuilles Sociales, or brief summaries in question-and- 
 answer form, and Tracts Populaires , mere leaflets 
 for popular propaganda. 
 
 In 1908 the Action Populaire took a further step 
 forward; it began to publish regular periodicals de- 
 devoted to social questions. The first was “La Revue 
 de 1’Action Populaire,”. a diminutive green-covered 
 magazine, published on the tenth of each month 
 and the twentieth of alternate months. Though un¬ 
 pretentious in form, this little review was exceedingly 
 
POPULAR ACTION 
 
 593 
 
 POPULATION 
 
 valuable for its studies of social legislation and its 
 detailed articles on practical social work. A younger 
 magazine, “La Vie Syndicate,’’ was created for the 
 purpose of encouraging Catholic trade-unionism. 
 But the most important of the periodicals was “Le 
 Mouvement Social,” a continuation of “L’Associa¬ 
 tion Catholique,” which had been founded by Count 
 Albert de Mun’s Association of Catholic Working- 
 men’s Clubs in 1876, and had won an international 
 reputation as one of the most informing and best- 
 documented reviews dealing with the labor question. 
 This review w r as taken over by the Action Populaire 
 in 1909 and edited by Abbe G. Desbuquois and M. 
 Joseph Zamanski. With scholarly leading articles 
 on economic and legislative problems, with biblio¬ 
 graphical notes on French and foreign books, with 
 brief summaries of important articles published by 
 French and foreign periodicals, and with news items 
 covering all sorts of social and economic events, 
 “Le Mouvement Social” was invaluable to any serious 
 student of social welfare. Even anticlerical Social¬ 
 ists quoted it. 
 
 Only a few words may be said about the annuals 
 and other books published by the Action Populaire. 
 One of the most interesting, as well as the earliest, 
 of these was the “Guide Social,” published yearly, 
 beginning in 1904, a volume of several hundred 
 pages giving the latest information, statistics, and 
 bibliography on the various aspects of the social 
 problem—housing, hygiene, trade-unionism, co-ope¬ 
 ration, labor legislation, etc. This year-book proved 
 so useful that beginning in 1911 a much more pre¬ 
 tentious thousand-page annual, “L’Annee Sociale 
 Internationale,” was issued. This was a truly monu¬ 
 mental reference work, a veritable annual encyclo¬ 
 pedia for social workers and sociologists. But enough 
 has been said, for this brief article, of the Action 
 Populaire’s publications, although many other useful 
 manuals and books have not been mentioned. 
 
 The Action Populaire has been fortunate in obtain¬ 
 ing not merely the passive approval, but the enthus¬ 
 iastic support, of the higher clergy in France and of 
 the Holy See. Up to 1916, the institution had re¬ 
 ceived commendations from the pope, the papal 
 secretary of state, six cardinals, and seventy-six 
 French bishops and archbishops. In 1912, His 
 Holiness Pius X said, “non solum laudo sed approbo.” 
 In 1909, Cardinal Merry del Val, then papal secre¬ 
 tary of state, wrote: “What especially pleases the 
 Sovereign Pontiff is to observe by what principles 
 the Action Populaire is inspired. Its frankly Catholic 
 spirit, superior to all party struggles, its entire fidelity 
 to the teachings of the Church, . . . finally, its 
 
 generous aim of working for the true welfare of the 
 laboring class, which is so worthy of interest, are 
 pledges that it will produce precious and enduring 
 fruits. . . .” Cardinal Lugon, Archbishop of 
 
 Reims, wrote in 1911: “The orthodoxy of your prin¬ 
 ciples, your Catholic spirit, your scrupulous attention 
 to conformity with the directions of the Holy See, 
 as well as the talent and science of your collaborators, 
 make the Action Populaire, in my opinion, a trust¬ 
 worthy school of social studies, and make its publi¬ 
 cations the classics, so to speak, of Catholic work.” 
 
 Desbuquois, L’Action Populaire, son esprit, son travail, No. I 
 of the yellow brochures published by the Action Populaire; 
 Goyau, L'Action Populaire de Rheims, son histoire, son role in Le 
 Correspondent (June 25, 1912, pp. 1058-1077); Hernaman, 
 Catholic Social Action in France, a brochure published by the 
 Catholic Truth Society of London; Duthoit, Vers l'organisation 
 professionelle; Tubmann, Le developpement du Catholicisme social 
 depuis I’encyclique “Rerum Novarum”; Hachin et Agasbe, Re- 
 traites ouvrieres et paysannes ; L' Annee social Internationale ; Moon, 
 The Labor Problem and the Social Catholic Movement in France 
 (New York, 1921), pp. 321-339. A more extended bibliography 
 is given in the last-mentioned book. 
 
 Parker Thomas Moon. 
 
 Population (cf. C. E., XII—276c).—Fresh interest 
 has been developed the past ten years in the Malthus 
 Theories on over-population and the consequent 
 necessity of controlling or limiting the number of 
 births, not by continence or the practice of self- 
 restraint, as he came to counsel in his later works, 
 but by various preventives, physical or chemical, 
 for the use rather of the woman than of the man. 
 Neo-malthusianism is the name given to a movement 
 to propagate by books, periodicals and newspaper 
 advertisements, a knowledge of these preventives or 
 contra-conceptives, as they are styled. Discussions 
 on over-population as the cause of poverty, of vice and 
 of war led many at first to take this movement 
 seriously, but its unnatural and immoral principles, 
 the apparent quest of lucre on the part of its pro¬ 
 moters, disillusioned the public, and it is now re¬ 
 garded for what it is, a gospel of unrestrained lust 
 sure to result in grave physical and moral disorders, 
 such as sterility when pregnancy is really desired, 
 fibroid tumors and other bodily derangements for the 
 woman, and various forms of neurasthenia for both 
 man and woman, causing unhappiness, melancholy, 
 distrust, as when children appear despite the use of 
 preventives, remorse, loss of mutual respect, in¬ 
 fidelity, separation, divorce. To the woman the 
 practice is particularly hurtful and degrading, as 
 it falls to her lot, according to the advocates of the 
 practice, to use the artificial preventives, thus 
 taking the more direct harm from them, and to 
 accept the conditions of prostitute for those of mar¬ 
 ried life proper. 
 
 The theories of the Neo-malthusians are based on 
 several errors, for it is not true, as they claim, that 
 there is such a thing as over-population, nor is it 
 true that population increases by multiplication while 
 food and other supplies increase only by addition, 
 nor finally is it true that over-population is a cause of 
 crime, war or high death rate. Over-population 
 means too many human beings to feed, clothe and 
 shelter. When thirty years ago scientists estimated 
 that the population of the earth was 1500 millions, 
 they also estimated that it could support only four 
 times that number and that it would be over populatd 
 in 200 years. As supplies of food and other neces¬ 
 sities increase with the hands to produce them, it is 
 estimated that the earth could be made to supply not 
 merely 6000 millions but four times that number, 
 although in point of fact population has been in¬ 
 creasing for centuries, they manage to find sufficient 
 living supplies except where floods, wars, or mis- 
 government result in famine conditions. The 
 exigencies of the late war have taught the nations 
 how to overcome, if not to prevent, the ordinary 
 causes of famine. Improved methods of producing, 
 conserving and transporting food, clothing and hous¬ 
 ing materials make it possible to provide for any 
 normal growth in population. With supplies in¬ 
 creasing in proportion to population, there is no such 
 thing as over-population. Besides, with all the skill 
 in organizing relief in time of famine, volcano, earth¬ 
 quake and with all the advance of medical science, 
 catastrophies will occur to kill off population, and 
 diseases, new entirely in form, will occur to decimate 
 population, so that nature thus sets a limit to excess. 
 What nature may not do, human beings themselves 
 will do, as did Greece two hundred years before Christ , 
 anticipating as they did the counsels of Malthus, 
 living in luxury, controlling, that is to say, avoiding, 
 pregnancy, and decaying as a consequence, as did 
 their conquerors, the Romans, who in turn imitated 
 their vices, and since then notably the Mohammedan 
 and other peoples who, to indulge in lust have 
 ignored the command to increase and multiply. 
 
 Increase in population may be made a cause of 
 greater production and wealth, under proper polit- 
 
PORT AUGUSTA 
 
 594 
 
 PORT OF SPAIN 
 
 ical and economic conditions, rather than of poverty. 
 Crime is never so common nor so heinous among the 
 poor as among the rich. The very evils which birth 
 control encourages lead necessarily to moral disorder 
 and decadence, which bring on the scarcity, the vice, 
 and the misery which birth control is designed to 
 prevent. 
 
 The small family is not the most happy one for the 
 parents or for the one or two children to whom it is 
 limited, even should such children live. Third, 
 fourth and fifth children are often more favored in 
 their heredity than their predecessors and they sup¬ 
 plement one another’s defects. Selfishness is often 
 characteristic of the only or of the few children than 
 of the houseful. As a rule the healthier and more 
 attractive married woman is the mother of several 
 children. The evil moral and economic conse¬ 
 quences of this movement are so plain that govern¬ 
 ments are taking cognizance of it. It is unlawful 
 in France to publish books or periodicals recommend¬ 
 ing it. In the United States such publications are 
 denied the privilege of the mails. 
 
 Sutherland, Birth Control (New York, 1922); Gerrard, 
 The Church and Eugenics; Idem, Marriage and Parenthood; 
 Caston, La crisis del Matrimonio (Madrid, 1914); Dumont, 
 Depopulation et civilisation (Paris, 1890); Bertillon, La de¬ 
 population de la France (Paris, 1911); Pierrit, L'(Euvre maconi- 
 que de la depopulation in France in La reforme sociale, 6th s., 
 VI, 172; Onclair, Malthus et sa theorie in La revue catholique des 
 institutions du droit, 2nd s. IV, 400; M. F. and J. F., Prosti¬ 
 tution; Vaughan, The Menace of Empty Cradles; Foerster, 
 Marriage and the Sex Problem; Coppers, Moral Principles and 
 Medical Practice. 
 
 Port Augusta, Diocese of (Portaugustana; 
 cf. C. E., XII—283d) is suffragan of the Archdiocese 
 of Adelaide, South Australia. By the census of 1911, 
 it had a Catholic population of 12,653, mostly of 
 Irish origin, with a few Poles. The present bishop, 
 Rt. Rev. John Henry Norton, has filled the see since 
 1906. He has been very active in recent years in 
 building new churches, presbyteries, schools and 
 convents in the diocese as well as in reducing the 
 debt. In October, 1919, the diocese received a visit 
 from the apostolic delegate, Rev. D. B. Cattaneo. 
 The diocese includes 12 parishes, 36 churches, two 
 religious orders of women, the Sisters of St. Joseph 
 numbering 49, and the Sisters of the Good Samaritan, 
 numbering 9; 12 convents, 21 secular priests, 1 high 
 school with 2 teachers and attendance of 41, and 13 
 elementary schools with 47 teachers and 1226 pupils. 
 The Priests’ Eucharistic League is organized as well 
 as the Australian Catholic Federation, Children of 
 Mary, Sacred Heart Society, and Hibernian Aus¬ 
 tralian Catholic Benefit Society among the laity. 
 The “Southern Cross,” a periodical published in 
 Adelaide, is circulated in this diocese. 
 
 Port Louis, Diocese of (Portus Ludovici; cf. 
 C. E., XII—289a), comprises the Island of Mauritius, 
 dependent directly on the Holy See. The diocese was 
 confided to the Holy Ghost Fathers in 1916. The 
 present bishop is Rt. Rev. John Murphy, C. S. SP., 
 b. in County Kerry 1854, provincial of Ireland, 
 elected bishop 1916, consecrated at Dublin, enthroned 
 28 Jan., 1917, succeeding Bishop Bilsborrow promoted 
 to the Archdiocese of Cardiff. The area of the diocese 
 is 739 square miles and the population is 276,233, of 
 whom the Catholics number 120,000. There are: 
 27 parish churches, 40 chapels, 53 priests, of whom 
 26 are Holy Ghost Fathers, 7 Jesuits, and 2 Benedic¬ 
 tines. One of the first missionaries to evangelize 
 Mauritius was Fr. James Laval in 1842. At his 
 death 40,000 blacks followed his venerated remains 
 to the tomb, which has become a place of pilgrimage 
 not only for Catholics but for Mussulmen and pagans. 
 
 Port de Paix, Diocese of (Portus Pacis), 
 in Haiti, dependent on Port au Prince.—This 
 
 diocese was erected 3 October, 1861, but has never 
 had a bishop and Mgr. Kersuzan, Bishop of Cap 
 Haitien, is the Administrator Apostolic of the diocese, 
 which he has entrusted to the care of 12 Fathers of the 
 Company of Mary (Blessed Louis de Montfort). 
 There are 100,000 Catholics; 5 lay brothers assisting 
 the 12 priests above mentioned; 5 parishes; 7 churches; 
 
 12 missions; 5 convents for men, and 4 for women. 
 
 Port-au-Prince, Archdiocese of (Portus 
 Principis, cf., C. E., XII—284c), comprises the 
 western part of the Republic of Haiti and has a Cath¬ 
 olic population of 736,920. The present (1921) 
 incumbent, the Most Rev. Julian Conan, has filled 
 this see since 1903, and is also Apostolic Adminis¬ 
 trator of the diocese of Gonaives. He was born at 
 Guern in the diocese of Vannes on 16 June, 1860, 
 preconized 22 October, 1903, and consecrated bishop 
 at Port-au-Prince on 13 December of the same year. 
 Since 1911 the archdiocese has been making rapid 
 progress. A new cathedral constructed by the 
 Haitian government was dedicated the 22 December, 
 1914; on 4 August, 1914, the Government signed an 
 agreement with the archbishop authorizing the 
 clergy to found a number of rural primary schools to 
 be supported by the State and subject to government 
 inspection. The archbishop established an Apostolic 
 School in 1920 for the preparation of young Haitians 
 who wish to study for the priesthood and in 1921 
 there were 9 students enrolled. During the World 
 War 31 of the secular clergy were mobilized and of 
 these 2 were killed, 15 received the croix de guerre 
 and in all 24 citations were won among them. Of 
 the regmar clergy 9 Fathers of the Congregation of 
 the Holy Ghost and 3 Brothers entered the army 
 and of these 5 won the croix de guerre , and of the 
 24 Christian Brothers who also served, 1 was dec¬ 
 orated with the Legion of Honor and 8 with the 
 croix de guerre . The total number of secular and regu¬ 
 lar clergy of the diocese has diminished since 1911, 
 owing to the general mobilization during the War, 
 which not only took many priests away, but greatly 
 lessened the number of students for the priesthood. 
 
 At the present time there are 28 parishes, 53 
 secular priests, 3 congregations of religious men and 
 3 of women. The Fathers o* the Holy Ghost conduct 
 a secondary school and the Seminary College of St. 
 Martial, with 475 pupils, at Port-au-Prince. There 
 are 18 Fathers and 5 Brothers among the professors, 
 and 2 other Fathers of the Congregation administer 
 the parish of Petion-Ville. Under the Christian 
 Brothers there is a secondary school, the Institute of 
 St. Louis of Gonzaga, with 675 pupils at Port-au- 
 Prince, as well as 4 government primary schools 
 throughout the diocese. There are also 3 Fathers of 
 the Society of Mary, 2 of whom administer the parish 
 of Carrefour, while the third acts as chaplain to the 
 Brothers. Among the religious orders of women 
 there are: 95 sisters of St. Joseph of Cluny, who con¬ 
 duct a secondary school at Port-au-Prince and 1 
 orphanage, 1 hospital and 7 government schools in 
 different parts of the diocese; the Daughters of 
 Wisdom (105 in all) who conduct a secondary school 
 at Port-au-Prince and 3 hospitals and 4 Govern¬ 
 ment schools in other parts of the diocese; the 
 Daughters of Mary (10 in all), who conduct a pro¬ 
 fessional school, normal school and industrial school 
 at Port-au-Prince. 
 
 Port of Spain, Archdiocese of (Portus 
 Hispaniac; cf. C. E., XII—291a), in the Antilles. 
 According to statistics for 1921, the archdiocese has 
 46 parishes, 59 churches, 10 missions, 56 stations, 
 
 13 secular and 78 regular priests, 10 lay brothers, 159 
 nuns in 7 convents, and 1 monastery for men. There 
 are 2 colleges for boys with 25 teachers and an atten- 
 
PORT VICTORIA 
 
 595 
 
 PORTO NACIONAL 
 
 dance of 400; 4 secondary schools for girls with 40 
 teachers and 664 pupils, 2 training schools with 8 
 teachers and 20 students; 176 elementary schools 
 with 704 teachers and an attendance of 27,136 and 2 
 industrial schools with 15 teachers and 300 pupils. 
 Charitable institutions include 2 homes for the aged, 
 
 1 home for poor girls and 1 orphanage. The hospitals, 
 asylums, refuges and day nurseries are all under the 
 control of the colonial Government or town boards; 
 of these 12 hospitals, 4 asylums, 1 tuberculosis hos¬ 
 pital, and 1 leper asylum admit the ministration of 
 priests. 
 
 Most of the elementary schools are aided by the 
 Government and in some places building grants-in- 
 aid are given. There are various guilds, benefit 
 societies and confraternities organized amongst the 
 laity, and a weekly, “The Catholic News,” is pub¬ 
 lished. The Catholic population, white, black and 
 colored, numbers 195,000, of whom about 5000 are 
 East Indians. 
 
 In 1912 the Knights of St. John from the United 
 States were introduced into the diocese; in 1919 the 
 active Tertiary Dominican Sisters came, and three 
 years later the De La Salle Brothers made a founda¬ 
 tion there. On 18 March, 1915, the church in San 
 Jose, the ancient capital of Trinidad, was consecrated. 
 In 1921 hostels for pool girls were built. 
 
 The archdiocese lost two of its most zealous workers 
 in 1920, in the persons of Father Louis Tapon, F.M.I., 
 missionary from France, who had labored in Santa 
 Lucia for forty-two years as parish priest, church 
 builder and vicar general, and Canon J. M. Aquart, 
 who had worked in the Grenadines without a break 
 for twenty- five years and had built there four chapels, 
 a school and presbytery. During the World War 
 Father Henri Nouais, C.S.N., was killed while trying 
 to find shelter for civilians. He had acted as Infermier 
 and later as interpreter to the Portuguese Expedi¬ 
 tionary Force. Six other priests from Port of Spain 
 served as chaplains. 
 
 Port Victoria, Diocese of (Portus Victoria 
 Seychellarium; cf. C. E., XII—312c), comprises 
 the Seychelles Islands in the Indian Ocean. The total 
 population of the diocese (census of 1921) is 24,523, of 
 whom 21,588 are Catholics. There are: 23,649 Brit¬ 
 ish, 585 Africans, 134 French, and 103 Chinese in 
 the diocese. The present bishop is Rt. Rev. Louis 
 Gumy, O. M. Cap., b. 1866, elected 1921, succeeding 
 Bishop Lachavanne, O. M. Cap., b. 1849, d. 1920. 
 Bishop Clark, O. M. Cap., had died 29 Sept., 1915. 
 Lady Brooks, recently deceased, was a benefactress 
 of the mission, converted from the Greek Church. 
 During the World War 2 Marist Brothers and 15 of 
 the former pupils of the college were killed in Europe, 
 250 Catholics died in Africa, chiefly natives used as 
 porters, and 18 of the clergy and laity were decorated. 
 There are in the diocese: 14 parishes, 19 churches or 
 chapels, 18 regular priests, 15 Marist Brothers, 56 
 Sisters of St. Joseph of Cluny, 1 college for men with 
 10 teachers and 180 pupils, 1 college for women with 
 12 teachers and 175 pupils, 20 elementary schools with 
 46 teachers and 1500 pupils. There are 18 grant-in- 
 aid schools. The secondary department of the gov¬ 
 ernment school was suppressed. Three asylums, 2 
 hospitals, and 1 maternity house admit the ministry 
 of priests. Each parish has 5 guilds. A Catholic 
 periodical is published, called the “Reveil Seychel- 
 lais.” 
 
 Port Victoria, Prefecture Apo?tolic of. See 
 Northern Territory. 
 
 Portland, Diocese of (Portlandensis, cf., 
 C. E., XII—287b), comprises the entire State of 
 Maine, a district of some 29,895 sq. miles and has 
 
 a Catholic population of approximately 154,189. 
 The present incumbent, Rt. Rev. Louis Sebastian 
 Walsh, D.D., has filled the see since 1906 and under 
 his able administration the diocese has made rapid 
 progress. The principal events of interest in recent 
 years have been the celebration of the tercentenary 
 of the establishment of the Catholic Church in 
 Maine in August, 1913; the tenth anniversary of 
 the consecration of Bishop Walsh on 18 October, 
 1916; the celebration of the golden jubilee of the 
 cathedral in September, 1919. During the World 
 War this diocese gave 3 chaplains to the Army, 1 
 to the Navy and 1 for special duty in France. About 
 800 Catholic men of the diocese entered the various 
 branches of the service, thus forming one-third of 
 the total number of men enlisted from the State, 
 whereas the entire Catholic population is only one- 
 sixth of the total population of the State. The present 
 statistics of this diocese show 88 parishes with resi¬ 
 dent priests, 71 missions with churches, 34 chapels, 
 159 churches, 80 mission stations, 1 convent for 
 men and 37 for women, 137 secular and 33 regular 
 priests, 4 lay brothers, 28 seminarians, 643 nuns. 
 The various educational institutions under Catholic 
 direction include: 1 college for men with 13 teachers 
 and 190 students, 1 college for women, 12 academies 
 and 50 elementary schools with 412 teachers and 
 18,000 pupils. Several of these schools as well as 
 some of the charitable institutions receive aid from 
 the State in their support. The charitable institu¬ 
 tions include 1 home for old ladies, 7 orphan asylums 
 and 6 hospitals; all* the public institutions permit the 
 priests of the diocese to administer to the Catholic 
 inmates. 
 
 Porto, Diocese of. See Oporto. 
 
 Porto Alegre, Archdiocese of (Portalegren- 
 sis; cf. C. E., XII—289b), comprises the State of 
 Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. The present arch¬ 
 bishop is Most Rev. John Becker, b. 1870, ordained 
 1896, elected Bishop of Florianopolis 3 May, 1908, 
 consecrated 13 September following, promoted to 
 the Archdiocese of Porto Alegre 1 August, 1912, 
 published 2 December, enthroned 8 Decembet 
 following, succeeding Archbishop Ponce de Leao, 
 transferred. The population of the archdiocese is 
 675,000, of whom 580,000 are Catholics. There 
 are: 85 parish, 95 secular priests, 150 regular priests, 
 100 Brothers, about 400 Sisters, 2 colleges, 2 normal 
 schools, 1 agricultural school, and more than 300 
 secondary and parochial schools. 
 
 Porto Nacional, Diocese of (Portus Nation¬ 
 als in Brasilia), in the State of Goyaz, Brazil, 
 suffragan of Marianna. It was erected 20 December, 
 1915, by separation from the Diocese of Goyaz, and 
 Rt. Rev. Vicente Maria Moreira, O. P., was elected 
 bishop 28 January, 1918. He resigned and was 
 succeeded 30 July, 1920, by Rt. Rev. Raymond- 
 Dominique Carrerot, O. P., b. at Pamiers, France, 
 1868, ordained 1885, elected titular bishop of Urano- 
 polis, and prelate nullius of Araguaya, where he 
 governed until his transfer to Porto Nacional. The 
 diocese has 14 parishes, 31 churches, 1 convent for 
 men (Dominicans), 1 for women (Dominican Third 
 Order), 2 secular priests, 4 regular, 1 lay brother, 
 serving a population of about 150,000. There are 1 
 college for boys with 3 teachers and 25 students, 
 1 college for girls with 5 teachers and 150 students, 
 1 normal school with 2 teachers and 12 pupils, 2 ele¬ 
 mentary schools with 3 teachers and an attendance 
 of 115. The Government contributes to the support 
 of the elementary schools. The confraternity of the 
 Holy Rosary, the Third Order Secular of St. Dominic 
 and various Catholic circles are organized among the 
 
PORTO RICO 
 
 596 
 
 PORTUGAL 
 
 laity. A Catholic periodical is published. Note¬ 
 worthy deaths since the erection of the see include 
 those of Father Rosarius Melizer, who founded St. 
 Thomas College for young men, and Father Barth- 
 olomeus Merinho, who built the cathedral, the Dom¬ 
 inican priory and the Sisters’ convent. 
 
 Porto Rico, Diocese of (Portoricensis; cf. 
 C. E., XII—292a); comprising the islands of Porto 
 Rico, Vico and Culebra, directly dependent on the 
 Holy See—In 1921 Mgr. Georges Caruana was 
 appointed bishop of Porto Rico to succeed Mgr. 
 Jones, O. S. A., who after an episcopate of fourteen 
 years died in Philadelphia, 17 February, 1921. 
 Mgr. Caruana was born in Malta, 23 April, 1882, and 
 was incardinated in the Diocese of Brooklyn. Later 
 he went to Philadelphia as secretary to Cardinal 
 Dougherty, and was consecrated in Rome at the 
 Colegio Capranica College by Cardinal Vico, 28 
 October, 1921, being installed 10 February, 1922. 
 He served as chaplain in the World War. In 1913 
 the diocese celebrated the fourth centenary of its 
 foundation. Within the last few years two prominent 
 priests died there, Rev. Pedro M. Berrios, P. A., 
 V.G., who had labored in Porto Rico for fifty years 
 and was renowned for his charity; and Rev. Jose 
 Nazaire, a noted scholar and preacher. During the 
 recent war the clergy and laity of the diocese co¬ 
 operated in every patriotic movement. A brigade 
 17,000 strong was formed and was ready for em¬ 
 barkation when the armistice was signed. Further¬ 
 more, the regiment of Porto Rican infantry, a regular 
 organization, served in the Canal Zone. 
 
 There are about 1,000,000 Catholics in the islands 
 which comprise the diocese, American, Spanish and 
 Porto Rican. According to 1921 statistics there are 
 78 parishes, 83 churches, 20 missions, 78 secular 
 and 30 regular priests, 7 Brothers, 14 convents of 
 men and 5 of women, 1 seminary with 24 seminarians, 
 1 preparatory college for boys with 6 teachers and 
 an attendance of 90, 5 for women with 285 students, 
 10 elementary schools with 4000 pupils. Charitable 
 institutions include 3 houses, 5 asylums, and 5 
 hospitals. The Mission Helpers conduct a school 
 for the deaf and dumb, and work amongst the poor. 
 All public institutions are visited and ministered to 
 by priests. The Knights of Columbus, Catholic 
 Daughters of America, and many parochical societies 
 are established in the diocese. Tw r o Catholic peri¬ 
 odicals “La Verdad” and “El Amigo de Todos,” are 
 published. 
 
 Porto and Santa Rufina, Diocese of (Portuensis 
 et Sanctae Rufinae; cf. C. E., XII—290a), subur- 
 bicarian see in Italy. The present archbishop is 
 Cardinal Antonio Vico, b. 1847, elected titular Arch¬ 
 bishop of Philippi and delegate apostolic to Colombia 
 1897, apostolic nuncio to Belgium, 1904, and to Spain 
 1907, created cardinal priest 1911, chose the see of 
 Porto and Santa Rufina 1915, prefect of Rites 1918. 
 The diocese has 19 parishes, 26 priests, 30 churches 
 and chapels, and 4652 Catholics. 
 
 Portoviejo, Diocese of (Portus Veteris; cf. C. 
 E., XII—294d), in Ecuador, suffragan of Quito. 
 The area of the diocese is 13,200 square miles, and the 
 Catholic population is 78,000. There are: 2 secular 
 priests, 1 regular priest, and 1 religious community 
 of women in the diocese. At present the see is vacant. 
 The administrator apostolic is Rt. Rev. Andres 
 Machado, S. J., Bishop of Guayaquil. 
 
 Portsmouth, Diocese of (Portusmuthensis; 
 cf. C. E., XII—296d), suffragan of Westminster, 
 England. The present bishop is Rt. Rev. William 
 Timothy Cotter, b. 1866, ordained 1892, conse¬ 
 
 crated auxiliary to Bishop Cahill 19 March, 1905, 
 succeeded to the see 24 November, 1910. The 
 population of the diocese (census 1911) is 1,318,606 
 of whom about 48,200 are Catholics. There are: 
 93 secular priests; 194 regular priests; 47 convents; 
 106 churches and public chapels; 51 private chapels; 
 34 public elementary schools receiving government 
 grant and 9 not receiving government grant, with an 
 attendance of 1828 boys, 1948 girls, and 1658 chil¬ 
 dren; 11 secondary schools for boys with 1321 pupils; 
 21 secondary schools for girls with 1667 pupils; 6 
 charitable institutions caring for 4Q8 children. 
 
 Portugal (cf. C. E., XII—297b), a republic, has 
 an area of 35,490 square miles and a population of 
 5,957,985 (latest census 1911). The chief towns 
 with their population in 1911 are Lisbon 435,359; 
 Oporto 194,009; Setubal 30,346; Funchal 24,687. 
 In 1917 there were 190,485 births, 134,691 deaths, 
 34,210 marriages, 15,825 emigrants. Portuguese 
 emigrants went chiefly to the U. S. and Brazil. 
 
 Economics. —Of the total area, 26.2 per cent is 
 cultivated, 17.3 per cent is forest, and 43 per cent 
 is waste land. In 1919 the chief crops were: wheat 
 4,767,665 bushels, rye 1,785,838; oats 3,037,831; 
 barley 1,009,780. The production of wool amounted 
 to 6,244,684 pounds. The olive trees cover about 
 825,000 acres, producing an annual average of 
 12,760,000 gallons of oil. The imports of the 
 country in 1919 were valued at £52,110,675; the 
 exports, £24,874,650. Wine formed the staple 
 import, the quantity amounting in 1919 to 12,458,220 
 gallons, valued at £7,940,582. The revenue in 
 English pounds sterling in 1920-21 was £26,913,445; 
 the expenditure, £52,802,831. On 30 June, 1920 
 the external debt of Portugal was £36,287,252. The 
 internal debt amounted to 1,113,601,347 escudos 
 (1 escudo = $1,080, normal exchange). 
 
 Government. —The constitution of 20 August, 
 
 1911, provides for two Chambers, the National Coun¬ 
 cil (164 members in 1921), elected by direct suffrage 
 for three years, and the Second or Upper Chamber 
 (71 members), elected by all the Municipal Councils. 
 The President is elected by both Chambers with a 
 mandate for four years, but cannot be re-elected. 
 He appoints the Ministers, who, however, are re¬ 
 sponsible to Parliament. For judicial purposes the 
 republic is divided into 193 comarcas, each having 
 a court of first instance. There are 2 courts of appeal 
 at Lisbon and Oporto, and a Supreme Court at 
 Lisbon. 
 
 Education. —In 1915 there were 6706 public 
 elementary schools with 342,763 pupils; in 1919, 
 32 secondary schools (with 11,791 pupils in 1917). 
 For higher education, there are three Universities at 
 Lisbon, Coimbra, and Oporto, a technical school at 
 Lisbon, special colleges of music, art, commercial 
 schools, a military academy at Lisbon, and a naval 
 school. 
 
 Recent History. —Since the proclamation of the 
 republic on 6 October, 1910, there have been no 
 fewer than seven revolutions, or attempted revolutions 
 in Portugal. Two of these have been monarchical, 
 for the restoration of the deposed King Manuel II, 
 now living in England; the rest have been due to one 
 faction of the Republican party attempting to oust 
 its rivals, so that it might enjoy the benefits of office. 
 The President chosen for 1911-15 was Manoel de 
 Arriga, who survived the invasion of Royalists in 
 
 1912. This movement failed from lack of support 
 from the Monarchists. In a compromise between 
 ex-King Manuel and Dom Pedro at Dover on 22 
 January, 1912, the latter renounced the throne, so 
 that the following Royalist risings were in support of 
 King Manuel. The vigorous anti-clerical policy of 
 the Government at this time aroused attention 
 
POSTULANT 
 
 597 
 
 POTAMIAN 
 
 throughout the world. The hierarchy refused to 
 accept the separation law, and to prove their sin¬ 
 cerity, refused even the small stipend allowed to the 
 priests from a Government which had been so unjust 
 to the Church. Numerous priests were imprisoned 
 as political offenders. In 1912 several Bishops, in¬ 
 cluding the Patriarch of Lisbon, two archbishops 
 and six bishops were arrested. The Archbishops of 
 Portalegre and Braga were expelled for two years. 
 Diplomatic relations with the Vatican were suspended 
 and the next year the Portuguese legation at the 
 Vatican was abolished. In 1913 the Bishop of Oporto 
 was arrested for administering confirmation in a 
 diocese from which he had.been expelled. So un¬ 
 relenting was the Government's attitude that the 
 world protested, and the Portuguese Assembly on 
 19 February, 1914, passed an Amnesty Bill, providing 
 that the insurgent leaders be expelled and amnesty 
 granted to others, and that political prisoners be 
 given a free trial to determine whether they were to 
 be exiled or acquitted. Among those exiled were 
 four priests. In 1915 there was an attempt to set 
 up a separate republic in northern Portugal, and at 
 the same time another group of democrats formed an 
 organization for the Defense of the Republic. After 
 a coup d’etat , President Arriaga resigned, and Theo- 
 philo Braga was elected provisional president. He 
 served until 5 October, 1915, when he was succeeded 
 by Bernardino Machado, elected on 6 August, 1915. 
 In March, 1916, Portugal declared war on Germany, 
 and joined the Allies in defending the western front. 
 In December, 1917, occurred another revolution, 
 headed by Major Sidonio Paes. On 28 April Paes was 
 elected president, but was murdered by the party 
 which he overthrew the previous year. A provis¬ 
 ional government was established with Joao do 
 Canto e Castro Silva Anatunes as president, and on 
 6 August, 1919, Dr. Antonio Jose de Almeida was 
 elected president. 
 
 The most recent revolution in October, 1921, was 
 tragic in the extreme. Pressure had been brought 
 on President Almeida for a more conservative ad¬ 
 ministration with proclivities favoring the Royalist 
 prisoners and unfavorable toward the victims of 
 Major Sidonio Paes’s revolution of December, 1917. 
 These victims a year later became the murderers of 
 Paes and the results of his revolution drove into exile 
 ex-President Bernardino Machado and ex-Premier 
 Dr. Alfonso Costa. Since 1920 the victims of Paes’s 
 revolution have been determined to restore the one 
 faction government, as it had existed prior to the 
 revolution of December, 1917. The revolutionists 
 hoped to achieve their ends by peaceful means but 
 they allowed the revengeful Carbonario to arm them¬ 
 selves at the Naval Arsenal. Admiral Machado dos 
 Santos, the founder of the republic, was murdered by 
 his guards while being taken to the arsenal under 
 arrest, the Minister of Marine under President Paes 
 was shot dead, and Senhor Gran jo, Captain Ereitas 
 da Silva, and Captain Carlos da Maia were killed. 
 
 The Army of Portugal is a militia raised by con¬ 
 scription and consists of about 30,000 men (peace 
 footing). The navy personnel is about 6000. Dur¬ 
 ing the war 65,062 officers and men were sent to 
 France. The casualties were: 1862 killed, 5224 
 wounded, and 6678 taken prisoners. The military 
 estimates for 1919-20 was about 44,228,346 escudos. 
 
 Religion. —There are about 5000 Protestants, 
 mostly foreigners, and 500 Jews. The rest of the 
 population is Catholic. 
 
 Postulant. —By an Apostolic Decree of January, 
 1911, generals of orders in which lay brothers made 
 solemn vows were authorized to allow in individual 
 cases the reception of lay brother candidates on the 
 completion of their seventeenth year, but a postu¬ 
 
 lature of two years or longer was necessary for valid 
 profession. Abstracting from the constitutions of 
 each order, however, the Code now allows lay brother 
 ostulants to be received at the age of fourteen and a 
 alf. A postulature of at least six months is necessary 
 in all religious institutes having perpetual .vows in 
 the case of nuns or sisters and lay brothers; if the 
 institutes have only temporary vows the necessity and 
 duration of the postulature depends on the constitu¬ 
 tions. The higher superiors may extend this period 
 of probation but not be 3 r ond six months. Before 
 beginning their novitiate postulants must make a 
 spiritual retreat of at least eight days and, if their 
 confessors allow them, a general confession of their 
 whole lives. 
 
 Codex juris canonici, 539-41. 
 
 Postulation. —When postulation is simultaneous 
 with an election the canons now require the candidate 
 to receive the approval of at least two-third* of the 
 voters; in the pre-Code days he was required to have 
 twice the number necessary for one who was canon¬ 
 ically eligible. A postulation must be sent to the 
 proper superior within eight days, otherwise it be¬ 
 comes ipso facto null and void and the electors, unless 
 their delay was justifiable, lose their right to elect 
 or postulate for that occasion. Ordinarily, postula¬ 
 tion is not permissible in capitular elections. 
 
 Codex juris canonici, 179-82; 507. 
 
 Potamian, Brother, in the world Michael 
 Francis O’Reilly, scientist and bibliographer, b. 
 in Co. Cavan, Ireland, on 29 September, 1847; 
 d. in New York on 20 January, 1917. He studied in 
 the Christian Brothers’ School, New York, and at 
 the age of twelve entered the junior novitiate of the 
 institute at Montreal. At the age of twenty-three 
 he was sent to London, where he taught in St. Joseph’s 
 College. Taking advantage of the opportunities 
 offered in London to specialize in scientific studies he 
 graduated as Master of Arts and Doctor of Science in 
 London University, and was on terms of intimacy 
 with Lord Kelvin, Mivart, Huxley and Tyndall. 
 He represented the British Government in the 
 educational section at four international exhibitions, 
 Vienna (1873), Philadelphia (1876), Paris (1889) and 
 Chicago (1893); at Chicago he was a member of the 
 Jury of Awards. He taught at the De La Salle 
 Training School, Waterford, Ireland, from 1893 to 
 1896, when he was transferred to Manhattan College, 
 New York, where he died twenty-one years later. 
 Perhaps the greatest testimony to his scientific 
 scholarship was his selection by the trustees of the 
 American Institute of Electrical Engineers to compile 
 a catalogue raisonne of the Latimer Clark Library, 
 the most complete collection of books relating to 
 electricity. The work was accomplished success¬ 
 fully in seven years, and the catalogue ranks with the 
 famous catalogues of the Surgeon General’s Library 
 at Washington. Brother Potamian was as unas¬ 
 suming as he was learned; he was a popular lecturer 
 and his course in science was one of the chief features 
 at the Catholic Summer School, Lake Champlain. 
 Among his writings are: “Gleanings in Electrical 
 History;” “Franklin and De Romas, or the Lightning 
 Kite;” “Gilbert of Colchester;” “The Rotation of the 
 Earth;” “Electric Illumination” (co-author); “The 
 Makers of Electricity;” “The Makers of Astronomy” 
 —the last two in conjunction with Dr. James J. 
 Walsh; and finally his great “Catalogue of the Wheeler 
 Gift, or a brief illustrated account of works on 
 electricity and magnetism from earliest times to the 
 middle of the nineteenth century.” Brother Potamian 
 was a collaborator in the Catholic Encyclopedia, 
 contributing to it a number of scientific biographies. 
 
 Walsh, Brother Potamian in The Catholic World, c. v. (1917): 
 33-42. 
 
POUSO ALEGRE 
 
 598 
 
 PREACHERS 
 
 
 Pouso Alegre, Diocese of (Pousalegrensis; 
 cf. Porto Alegre, C. E., XII—289d; where for Porto 
 read Pouso), in the State of Minas Geraes, Brazil, 
 erected in 1900. At present it is being ruled by its 
 third bishop; the first, Rt. Rev. Joao Baptista 
 Correa Nery, was transferred to Pampinas in 1908; 
 the second Rt. Rev. Antonio Augusta de Assis was 
 transferred to Guaxupe in 1916, these two dioceses 
 having been created in the year mentioned by separa¬ 
 tion from Pouso Alegre. The third and present bish¬ 
 op, Rt. Rev. Octavio Chagas de Miranda, b. at Cam¬ 
 pinas on 10 August, 1881, ordained on 30 December, 
 1908, nominated to the see on 14 February, 1916, was 
 consecrated on 4 June following. He founded and 
 directed the Catholic paper of Campinas, “O Men- 
 sageiro”. The episcopal city is Pouso Alegre. At pres¬ 
 ent there are in the diocese 350,000 inhabitants; 34 
 parishes; 164 churches and chapels; 33 secular priests, 
 7 regular priests and 8 lay brothers; 2 convents, 55 
 sisters; 1 ecclesiastical seminary, 22 students; 1 dio¬ 
 cesan college, 150 students; 2 girls’ schools; 2 normal 
 schools, 25 professors, 250 students; 1 trade school for 
 orphans, 3 teachers, 20 pupils, 7 hospitals. The 
 Government aids one of the diocesan institutions, 
 and in eight the administration of the clergy is allowed. 
 There are 103 sodalities and Catholic societies among 
 the laity. There is a Catholic press issuing the fol¬ 
 lowing publications: “Semana religiosa”, weekly, 
 “O Santuario,” monthly; and two reviews “Archivio 
 diocesano” and “O Levita.” 
 
 Pozzuoli, Diocese of (Puteolana; cf. C. E., XII 
 —331), in Italy, suffragan of Naples, is governed by 
 Mgr. Guiseppe Petrone, b. in Naples on 27 August, 
 1872; appointed to this see 23 Sept., 1921. The 
 diocese of Pozzuoli has 10 parishes; 98 churches and 
 chapels; 2 monastic houses for men, 5 for women 
 
 2 convents for men, 5 for women; 85 priests, of whom 
 5 are regulars; 25 sisters; 1 seminary with 12 students; 
 4 boys’ colleges, with 15 teachers and 500 pupils; 
 
 3 girls’ colleges with 10 teachers and 400 pupils; 
 20 elementary schools with 100 teachers; 1 refuge; 
 2 asylums; 1 hospital; 1 day nursery; 9 organizations 
 and associations for the laity, and 1 among the clergy; 
 1 Catholic weekly and 1 monthly magazine; the minis¬ 
 trations of the priests are allowed in two public 
 institutions Among those who died recently was; 
 Salvatore Lopex, a noted musician, director of the 
 orchestra of the Royal Palace, Naples. The remains 
 of Giambattista Pergolesi, whose “Stabat Mater” 
 is famous, have been placed in a magnificent new 
 chapel of the cathedral erected by the Government. 
 
 Prague, Archdiocese of (Pragensis; cf. C. E., 
 XII—338b), in Bohemia. On 26 June, 1918, Pope 
 Benedict XV declared blessed the 64 Servite mar¬ 
 tyrs of Prague. These holy men had endeavored to 
 stay the progress of the Hussite heresy in Bohemia 
 at the beginning of the fifteenth century. So many 
 were the conversions that they excited the enmity 
 of the revolutionists at whose head was John Ziska. 
 When assembled in general chapter in 1420 the Ser- 
 vites were locked in their monastery and given a 
 choice between apostasy and death. They chose 
 martyrdom, and 64 were thereupon burned alive in 
 the monastery. Part of their remains, interred in 
 the presbytery of the Church of the Annunciation 
 at Prague, were exhumed by Cardinal Schwarzen- 
 burg and deposited in a magnificent reliquary. The 
 present administrator of the archdiocese is Francis 
 Kordac, b. 1852, elected 1919. The Catholics in 
 the archdiocese number 2,438,109, Protestants 77,895, 
 Jews 48,330, others 613, those without creed 3786. 
 There are: 589 parishes, .1343 secular priests of 
 whom 91 belong to other dioceses, and 407 regular 
 priests. 
 
 Prague, University of; (cf.C.E.,XII—342b).— 
 On the establishment of the Czechoslovakian Repub¬ 
 lic the name of the University of Prague was changed 
 to “Universitas Carolina,” its original title. In 1920 
 the professors of the natural sciences withdrew from 
 the faculty of philosophy and established a new 
 faculty from which the Rector for the year 1921-22 
 was chosen. The proposal to separate the theological 
 faculty from the university which was made in 1919 
 is remaining in abeyance until the question of the 
 separation of the Church and State is decided. 
 
 The Bohemian theological faculty was separated 
 from the German university in 1892, and united to 
 the Bohemian university. At present the schedule 
 of the theological faculty calls for lectures in: Old 
 Testament sciences, 9 hours per week, philosophy 4, 
 fundamental theology 5, New Testament 9, special 
 dogmatics 9, moral theology 9, church history and 
 patrology 9, canon law 7, sociology 2, pastoral 
 theology, homiletics and liturgy 9, methodology and 
 pedagogy 3, Oriental languages (Arabic, Syriac, 
 Aramaic, Assyrian, Ethopic and Coptic) 5, vetero- 
 slavic liturgy and palseoslavic versions of the Bible 
 5, Christian art and archaeology 5, ethics 3, and 
 history of religions 3. Only those who have passed 
 through the gymnasium and received their testi¬ 
 monium maturitntis, as it is called, rank as ordinary 
 students and they alone are admitted to degrees. 
 To obtain a degree the candidate must pass a satis¬ 
 factory test in Arabic, Aramaic and Syrian, and 
 higher exegesis, and submit a dissertation on a Biblical 
 subject, or on moral or pastoral theology or on 
 church history and canon law; those who pass these 
 tests must stand an oral examination for two hours in 
 general and speculative dogmatic theology; if still 
 successful the candidate having taken the oath in 
 presence of the chancellor of the faculty is admitted 
 solemnly to the doctorate with the consent of the 
 chancellor, the dean of the faculty and the pro¬ 
 motor. In addition since 1901 seminary examinations 
 are held in the Bible, philosophy, apologetics, church 
 history, palaeoslavic studies and recently Christian 
 art. The number of students in 1910 was 116 
 ordinary and 8 special students in the theological 
 faculty, but in 1920 as a sequel to the war there were 
 only 31 ordinary and 10 special students. Moreover 
 there are three diocesan institutes where theological 
 students can attend the same lectures. 
 
 Recently Benedict XV sent an evangelical letter 
 to the bishops of the Czechoslovakian^ Republic 
 emphasizing the necessity of a two years’ course in 
 philosophy and a four years’ course in theology. 
 
 Tomek, Geschichte der Prayer Universitat (1849); Winter, 
 Deje vysokych skol Prazslcych 1409-1622 (1897). 
 
 Preachers, Order of (cf. C. E., XII—354d).— 
 There are three divisions of the Order of St. Dominic: 
 the Order of Friars Preachers (First Order); the 
 cloistered Dominican Nuns (Second Order); and the 
 Brothers and Sisters of Penance (Third Order). 
 Although this last branch of the institute does nob 
 seem to have had any juridical confirmation, or to 
 have been formally affiliated to the First Order until 
 1285, it certainly existed in the days of St. Dominic, 
 and fell within his plan of the religious life. Before 
 the Saint’s death pious associations of religious- 
 minded persons had begun to gather around his 
 priories, to place themselves under the guidance of 
 the Fathers, and to assimilate the spirit of the in¬ 
 stitute. The Third Order of Penance living in the 
 world was most probably the parent stem out of 
 which grew the Conventual Third Order of Sisters. 
 Some have traced this branch of the Third Order back 
 to 1255; yet its beginnings seem shrouded in no 
 little obscurity (C. E., XII—369d); XIV—638b; 
 “Manual of the Third Order of St. Dominic,” London, 
 
PREACHERS 
 
 599 
 
 PREACHERS 
 
 1871; De Ganay, “Les Bienheureuses Dominicaines,” 
 Paris, 1913; chapter on “The Third Order” by Dix, 
 in “The English Dominican Province,” London, 
 1921). The First Order substituted the monastic 
 scapular for the rochet of canons. 
 
 A general chapter of the order promulgates new 
 laws, but to become a part of the constitutions they 
 must be accepted by three consecutive chapters. 
 General chapters are two fold: (a) general chapters of 
 provincials; and (b) general chapters of definitors. 
 Their periods of convocation have not always been 
 the same. At times, owing to various causes, they 
 have been held rather irregularly. But they are now 
 convoked alternately every three years, and are 
 largely intended as a counterbalance of power. 1 he 
 
 general chapter of provincials is composed of the 
 master general and the actual provincials of the 
 order. Each province also elects a delegate or 
 companion ( socius ) to accompany its provincial to 
 the chapter and to act in his stead in case of necessity. 
 The general chapter of definitors is formed by the 
 master general and the definitors elected in their 
 respective provinces to constitute this legislative 
 body. Each province chooses one such representa¬ 
 tive. Another delegate or companion, elected at the 
 same time, accompanies the definitor to the chapter, 
 and takes his place should this become necessary. 
 When a master general is to be elected, both the 
 provincials and their companions and the definitors 
 and their associates attend the elective chapter. 
 All these (except the delegates who accompany 
 the provincials), together with the ex-masters general 
 and the procurator general, have a voice in the selec¬ 
 tion of the order’s new head. The suffrage is given 
 in secret. Similarly, the provincial chapters of the 
 order (that is, those convened in the various provinces) 
 are held biennially. They are also twofold: (a) the 
 elective chapter; and (b) the intermediate chapter 
 (congregatio intermedia ). By the former the provincial 
 is elected, together with the definitor and the two 
 delegates spoken of above. It is made up of the 
 masters in theology, ex-provincials and preachers 
 general belonging to the province, the priors and one 
 delegate (chosen by ballot) from each convent. 
 Such a delegate must belong to the community which 
 he represents; and only its members have a vote 
 in his selection. The last general chapter (Corias, 
 Spain, 1920) gave representation to the houses that 
 are not convents. These institutions are arranged in 
 groups, and each group sends one or more delegates 
 according to the number of Fathers who constitute 
 it. That each such cluster may be more truly re¬ 
 presented, only its members may vote for or be elected 
 its delegates. " The intermediate chapter is assembled 
 two years after the election of the provincial, whose 
 term"of office is four years. It is composed of the 
 provincial and those just mentioned, except the 
 preachers general and the several conventual and 
 group delegates. The laws regulating the con¬ 
 vocation, etc., of chapters, whether general or pro¬ 
 vincial, are given in the constitutions under the title 
 “De Capitulo Generali” and “De Capitulo Pro- 
 vinciali.” 
 
 The spirit of the order has ever been quite demo¬ 
 cratic. Nearly all its officials and representatives 
 are chosen by secret suffrage. However, the spirit 
 of the new Code of Canon Law, though its legislation 
 did not change the institute’s law in this matter, led 
 the chapter of Corias (1920) to limit the number of 
 ballots to seven for all elections. The new Code 
 of Canon Law also took the Friars Preachers out of 
 those religious orders known as mendicants in the 
 strict sense. The chapter of Corias, however, au¬ 
 thorized the master general to petition the Holy See 
 for a restoration of the institute to its time-honored 
 place among the mendicant orders. The Dominicans, 
 
 it will be remembered, have a ritual of their ovvn. 
 But, owing to the Motu Proprio of Pius X, “Abhir.c 
 duos annos,” 23 October, 1913, their Divine Office 
 has been rendered more like that of the present 
 Roman Breviary. By the Motu Proprio of Benedict 
 XV, “Alloquentcs proxime,” 25 March, 1917, the 
 Congregation of the Index, of which a Dominican was 
 always the secretary, has been suppressed. 
 
 Among the works on preaching written by Domini¬ 
 cans, in the first two centuries of their existence, two 
 deserve special mention. They are “De eruditione 
 praedicatorum” (On the instruction of Preachers) by 
 Blessed Humbert of Romans (d. 1277), published the 
 last time in “De vita regulari Beati Humberti de 
 Romanis,” Rome, 1888-89; and John Bromyard’s 
 (d. 1420), well-known and often-published “Summa 
 praedicantium,” which treats of all preaching matter 
 in alphabetical order (Quetif-Echard, “Scriptores 
 Ordinis Praedicatorum,” I, 700). St. Vincent Ferrer 
 (d. 1419) was one of the most extraordinary and 
 effective preachers as well of the Church as of the 
 order. Father Thomas Nicholas Burke (d. 1882), 
 one of the greatest pulpit orators of the English- 
 speaking world, did some of his best work in the 
 United States. Father Vincent J. Lombardo (d. 
 1909), Bonaventure Krotz (d. 1914), and Charles H. 
 McKenna (d. 1917) were among the most noted 
 modern preachers respectively in Italy, Germany, 
 and the United States. 
 
 In England the studium generate of the order at 
 Cambridge, founded in the beginning of the fourteenth 
 century, was an active rival of that at Oxford. The 
 Friars Preachers influenced English society, from the 
 highest to the lowest ranks, to a remarkable extent. 
 Among those who took a conspicuous part in the 
 public affairs of the country were John Darlington 
 (d. 1284), Archbishop of Dublin and a trusted mem¬ 
 ber of the government under Henry III; William 
 Hotham (d. 1296), Archbishop of Dublin and favorite 
 minister of Edward I; Thomas Rushook (d. 1393), 
 Bishop of Chichester and confessor and protector of 
 Richard II; and John Gilbert (d. 1397), Bishop of 
 Hereford and twice lord treasurer of England (Palmer, 
 “Blackfriars of Cambridge,” in “The Reliquary 
 Magazine,” January, 1885; Maclnerny, “History 
 of the Irish Dominicans,” Vol. I, Dublin, 1916; 
 chapter on “In Public Life,” by Gumbley, in “Ihe 
 English Dominican Province,” London, 1921). In 
 Ireland, the order’s influence was rather through 
 the people than through those in public authority; 
 but it was none the less profound. To mention no 
 others, David MacKelly (1253), Archbishop of 
 Cashel and the first Irish Friar Preacher to wear the 
 mitre in his native land; Ross MacGeoghegan (d. 
 1641), Bishop of Kildare; Terence Albert O’Brien 
 (d. 1651), the martyr bishop of Emly; Dominic 
 Burke (d. 1704), Bishop of Elphin; Thomas De 
 Burgo or Burke (d. 1776), noted historian and 
 Bishop of Ossory: John Thomas Troy (d. 1823), 
 Archbishop of Dublin and founder of Maynooth 
 College, were among the leading lights of the Irish 
 episcopacy. Of the 368 Irish martyrs now proposed 
 for beatification 101 belonged to the Order of St. 
 Dominic (De Jonghe, “Belgium Dominicanum, 
 Brussels, 1719; De Burgo, “Hibernia Dommicana,” 
 Cologne, 1762; “The Hibernian Magazine,” April 
 1864; Brennan, “Lives of the Irish Martyrs and 
 Confessors,” New York, 1879; O Heyne, The 
 Irish Dominicans of the Seventeenth Century, 
 translated and edited by Coleman, Dundalk, 1902; 
 Nolan, “The Irish Dominicans in Rome,” 1813; 
 Maclnerny, op. cit.: “Acta Capitulorum Ordmis 
 Praedicatorum,” Vol. VII, edited by Reichert 
 Rome, 1902; “Analecta Ordinis Praedicatorum, 
 February and December, 1915). The Iriars Preachers, 
 in a brotherly spirit and a desire to promote faith and 
 
PREACHING 
 
 600 
 
 PREACHING 
 
 morals among the people, have taken a notable part 
 in the formation and development of more than one 
 religious order. 
 
 The 36 Annamese and the 8 Tonkin martyrs 
 beatified, respectively 27 May, 1900, and 20 May, 
 1906, belonged to the Province of the Philippines, 
 as did the proto-Chinese martyr, Francis de Capillas 
 (d. 1648), who was beatified, 2 May, 1909.^ The 
 same province still has its famous Indo-Chinese 
 missions in East, North, and Central Tonkin. Bishop 
 Edward D. Fenwick (d. 1832), Father Matthew 
 A. O’Brien (d. 1871), and Father Nicholas D. Young 
 (d. 1878) stand out as conspicuous examples of 
 missionary laborers in the United States. 
 
 In spite of revolutions and social upheavals, the 
 Order of Preachers has continued to foster a cultiva¬ 
 tion of the fine arts, especially that of architecture. 
 Among the splendid structures it has erected within 
 the last seventy-five years are the Church of St. 
 Saviour, Dublin, Ireland; that of St. Dominic, 
 London, England; St. Thomas’s Priory, Zwolle, 
 Holland; the Collegio Angelico, Rome; and in the 
 United States, the Dominican House of Studies, at 
 the Catholic University, Washington, D. C., and 
 St. Vincent Ferrer’s Church, New York. St. Dom¬ 
 inic’s Church, San Francisco, destroyed by the 
 earthquake of 1906, was a fine specimen of the 
 Romanesque basilica. Throughout the order the 
 lay brothers have ever been among its most skillful 
 artists and architects. 
 
 The late World War, which appeared to bode so 
 badly for religion, seems rather to have turned the 
 minds of men to God. Since its close vocations 
 have increased. The members of the First Order 
 are considerably more numerous than they were a 
 decade ago. After the return of peace, even in those 
 countries which suffered most from the upheaval, 
 the Fathers, undismayed by their trials, resumed their 
 various social, intellectual, religious, and missionary 
 endeavors. It is worthy of note that the Biblical 
 School of St. Stephen, Jerusalem, has been accredited 
 to the French Academy of Inscriptions and Belles- 
 Lettres, and honored with the title of “L’Ecole 
 Frangaise Archeologique de Jerusalem.” In prac¬ 
 tically all the provinces the publication of religious 
 and scientific views has been revived. The output 
 of books and other literary productions shows an 
 intense intellectual activity. For many years the 
 labors of the Friars Preachers in the English-speaking 
 countries, especially in the United States, in giving 
 parochial missions have been enormous. Although 
 teaching in the universities and seminaries has 
 always been regarded as a part of the order’s apostol- 
 ate, conducting secular colleges was looked upon as 
 foreign to its vocation. In more recent times, how¬ 
 ever, the Fathers have begun to engage in this work 
 as conducive to the end of the institute, which is the 
 salvation of souls. The Province of the Philippines, 
 for instance, has several such institutions, and that 
 of St. Joseph, in the United States, has two; while 
 the Province of the Holy Name is starting one in 
 California. 
 
 According to the latest statistics (“Analecta 
 Ordinis Prsedicatorum,” May-August, 1921), there 
 are today 352 convents and secondary institutions 
 of the order distributed through 31 provinces and 2 
 congregations. Forty of these institutions are in 
 the United States, belonging respectively 26 to the 
 province of St. Joseph, 10 to that of California, 2 
 to that of the Philippines, and 2 to that of Canada. 
 Fourteen convents of the order are under the im¬ 
 mediate jurisdiction of the master general. The 
 members of the First Order now number some 5000, 
 and about 1000 students are preparing to enter the 
 novitiates. Two of its members are cardinals, 7 
 archbishops, 19 bishops, and 7 prefects apostolic. 
 
 It has 34 foreign missions, on which 450 Fathers and 
 Brothers are engaged. The Province of St. Joseph, 
 in the United States, has now accepted a foreign 
 mission in the civil prefecture of Kien-ning-Fu, 
 about 170 miles north of the city of Fu-chau, China. 
 There are about 5000 enclosed Dominican Nuns 
 (Second Order), nearly half of whom are in ascetic 
 Spain. The United States has 300. The Conventual 
 Third Order Sisters number more than 20,000. 
 Almost half of these are in the United States. The 
 principal mother-houses of the American Sisters 
 specially devoted to educational work are located 
 at Springfield, Ky.; Columbus, O.; Caldwell, N. J.; 
 Brookland and Newburgh, N. Y.; Fall River, Mass.; 
 Adrian and Grand Rapids, Mich.; Racine and 
 Sinsinawa, Wis.; Springfield, Ill.; Nashville, Tenn.; 
 New Orleans, La.; Galveston, Tex.; San Rafael and 
 Mission San Jos6, Cal.; and Tacoma, Wash. The 
 Dominican Sisters of the Sick Poor, with their head¬ 
 quarters in New York City, are performing a noble 
 mission of charity. The Foreign Mission Sisters of 
 St. Dominic, Maryknoll, N. Y., devote themselves 
 to the Christian instruction of Chinese and Japanese 
 in the United States as well as in foreign lands. 
 Other communities again, with their principal houses 
 at Sparkill and Blauvelt, N. Y., are engaged in the 
 care of orphans and other like works of benevolence. 
 The members of the Third Order living in the world 
 are very numerous; but, quite naturally, this branch 
 of the institute flourishes especially in those places 
 where the other divisions are established. 
 
 The order has 14 canonized Saints. St. Dominic 
 (d. 1221), St. Peter of Verona, commonly called St. 
 Peter Martyr (d. 1252), St. Hyacinth, apostle of 
 Poland (d. 1257), St. Thomas of Aquin (d. 1274), 
 St. Raymond of Pennafort (d. 1275), St. Vincent 
 Ferrer (d. 1419), St. Antoninus of Florence (d. 1450), 
 St. Pius V (d. 1752), St. John of Cologne (d. 1573), 
 and St. Louis Bertrand (d. 1581) are of the First 
 Order. St. Agnes of Montepulciano (d. 1317) was a 
 member of the Second Order. St. Catherine di 
 Ricci (d. 1589) belonged to the Conventual Third 
 Order. St. Catherine of Sienna (d. 1380) and St. 
 Rose of Lima (d. 1615) are the glory of the Third 
 Order living in the world. Besides these, some 
 290 members of the three orders of St. Dominic have 
 been beatified and perhaps as many as 600 others 
 have been declared venerable by the Church, or are 
 regarded as such in the piety of the faithful. 
 
 Jarrett. English Dominicans (London, 1921). 
 
 V. F. O’Daniel. 
 
 Preaching—The object of preaching is to en¬ 
 able the faithful to know God, to understand His 
 revelation, and to realize and fulfil their duties 
 towards Him and their fellow-men. As the care of 
 the faithful in spiritual matters was entrusted by 
 Christ to St. Peter and the Apostles, the duty of 
 preaching the truths of religion devolves on their 
 successors in their respective spheres, that is pri¬ 
 marily on the pope for the whole world and on the 
 bishops for their dioceses. Confronted with the 
 prevalent disregard of the supernatural and the 
 adoption of pagan standards of living throughout 
 Christendom, Pope Benedict XV, realizing that this 
 condition was in part due to the failure of preach¬ 
 ing to supply the proper antidotes, issued an En¬ 
 cyclical “Humani generis” (15 June, 1917), dealing 
 with the preaching of the Gospel. The three abuses 
 which he signalized as in need of urgent reform 
 were (1) the unwarranted assumption of the office 
 of preaching on the part of many; (2) the unfitness 
 of many of those who had been allowed to preach; 
 (3) the manner and procedure of not a few preach¬ 
 ers, inspired as they were by vain glory, by a de¬ 
 sire to rival the leaders of the stage or political 
 
PRECIOUS BLOOD 
 
 601 
 
 PRECIOUS BLOOD 
 
 platform, who dealt with profane topics and ab¬ 
 stained from setting forth divinely revealed truths 
 f .hat might weary or terrify their hearers. About 
 two weeks later the Sacred Congregation of the 
 Consistory issued a Decree setting forth rules to 
 regulate the authorization of preachers in accord¬ 
 ance with the papal encyclical and the Code. On 
 11 November, 1918, the pope again showed the 
 great importance he attached to preaching the 
 Gospel in his allocutioh to the Lenten preachers in 
 Rome. 
 
 In virtue of his office a bishop must personally 
 preach the Gospel to his flock; as it is impossible 
 for him to do this unaided the work is carried on 
 by the parish priests and others approved by him 
 to preach the Gospel, while he should have a com¬ 
 mission of vigilance to see that the work is exe¬ 
 cuted properly. Ordinaries and religious superiors 
 are strictly bound to have their clerics during the 
 time of their studies thoroughly trained in preach¬ 
 ing and made acquainted with the famous models 
 of sermons bequeathed by the Fathers, to say 
 nothing of those contained in the New Testament. 
 They may also prescribe for their clerics a yearly 
 oral and written examination in preaching for some 
 years after ordination. No one must undertake the 
 ministry of the word unless deputed by a lawful 
 superior; apart from parish priests, no one may 
 preach to the faithful in public churches or ora¬ 
 tories, even those of regulars, not even regular 
 priests, without the local ordinary’s express permis¬ 
 sion. Permission is granted only to priests or 
 deacons, but in a special case the local ordinary 
 might authorize another cleric for a good cause, 
 but he cannot allow a lay person, even a religious, 
 to preach. If a sermon is to be given exclusively 
 to exempt religious or others such as servants, 
 pupils, or guests, who live in their house by day 
 and night, the superior of a clerical institute grants 
 the faculty for preaching to his own subjects or 
 to a secular priest or a member of another religious 
 order who has been adjudged competent by his 
 ordinary or superior. If a sermon is to be given to 
 nuns with solemn vows subject to a regular order 
 or to non-clerical religious, permission of both the 
 local ordinary and the religious superior, is to be 
 obtained. Local ordinaries must not, without a 
 grave reason, refuse the faculty of preaching to a 
 religious presented by his own superior, or recall it 
 later, especially from the entire community at one 
 and the same time; however, religious in order to 
 preach always require the permission of their own 
 superior. The ordinary or superior is bound in 
 conscience not to grant the faculty or permission 
 to anyone whose good character has not been estab¬ 
 lished and who has not passed a suitable examina¬ 
 tion in theology, and the preacher may be sub¬ 
 jected to another examination if his orthodoxy is 
 questionable; if the faculty is revoked an appeal 
 may be taken. 
 
 No priest from outside a diocese is to be invited 
 to preach unless the permission of the ordinary of 
 the place where the sermon is to be given has first 
 been obtained, and he must not consent before 
 being satisfied as to the preacher’s virtue and 
 knowledge. The permission is to be sought by a 
 parish priest for a sermon to be preached in his 
 parish church or in others depending on it; by the 
 rector for a church exempt from the jurisdiction of 
 the parish priest; by the highest dignitary with the 
 chapter’s consent, for a capitular church; by the 
 moderator or chaplain of a confraternity for the 
 confraternity church.. A local ordinary may preach 
 in any church, even exempt, in his territory, and, 
 pxcent in large cities he may forbid anyone to 
 
 preach in the local churches during the time that 
 he himself is preaching or is present at a sermon 
 given to the people for some special cause of pub¬ 
 lic interest. A parish priest is under a strict obli¬ 
 gation to explain the word of God in a homily 
 every Sunday and holyday of precept at the chief 
 Mass especially. He cannot fulfill this duty by 
 securing a permanent substitute, unless the ordi¬ 
 nary consents to it for a just reason; the ordinary, 
 however, may allow the sermon to be omitted on 
 some of the greater feasts and even, where there is 
 good cause, on some Sundays. The Church, while 
 not imposing a precept, wishes that there should 
 be a short discourse on the Gospel or on some 
 point of Christian doctrine at all Masses attended 
 by the faithful on feasts of precept whether in 
 churches or public oratories; if the ordinary pre¬ 
 scribes this, all priests even exempt religious, must 
 obey. The faithful, furthermore, are to be ex¬ 
 horted earnestly to be present at sermons fre¬ 
 quently. 
 
 The matter of sermons must be essentially 
 sacred, dealing chiefly with what Christians must 
 do and believe to attain salvation. If the preacher 
 would treat of other matters not strictly sacred, yet 
 in keeping with the house of God, or if he would 
 deliver a funeral eulogy, he must not do so without 
 permission of the local ordinary; it is absolutely 
 forbidden for any preacher to treat of politics in 
 the pulpit. Citations from profane authors and 
 especially from heretics or infidels must be em¬ 
 ployed only with the greatest caution, the Sacred 
 scriptures, the Fathers and Doctors of the Church 
 providing adequate proof and defense of the prin¬ 
 ciples of Christian morality. The preacher should 
 accommodate himsplf to the ordinary intelligence 
 of his hearers both in reasoning and in the choice 
 of language, and in delivery should observe the 
 modesty and gravity befitting one who speaks in 
 Christ’s name. Preachers neglecting these prescrip¬ 
 tions are to be admonished and reprehended by 
 their bishop; if they neglect to amend or if their 
 offense was grave their faculty of preaching is to 
 be withdrawn by the bishop temporarily or perma¬ 
 nently, in case of his own subjects; if the preacher 
 was an extern or religious the bishop is to forbid 
 him to preach again in his diocese and at the same 
 time to notify the culprit’s ordinary or even, in 
 extreme cases, the Holy See. 
 
 Keating, Preach the Gospel in Ir. Eccl. Rec., XIV (1919) 
 465-75; MacCarthy, New Regulations on Preaching in Eccl 
 Rev., LVII (Philadelphia, 1915), 377-89. 
 
 Precious Blood, Congregations of the. 
 I. Congregation of the Most Precious Blood 
 (cf. C. E., XII—373c), an association of secular 
 priests who live in community but take no vows, 
 being held together by the bond of charity only, 
 and in America by a promise not to leave the com¬ 
 munity without permission of the lawful superior. 
 The present general superior is Very Rev. Hyacinthe 
 Petroni, elected for life, 11 Oct., 1905, to succeed 
 Aloysius Biaschelli M. 1905). The mother-house 
 is Santo Maria in Trivio in Rome, in the convent 
 garden of which a Methodist church was erected at 
 the time of the confiscation by the Italian Govern¬ 
 ment. This has been replaced G922) by a printing 
 office. In Europe, as a rule, members are not ad¬ 
 mitted to the congregation until they are at least 
 students of philosophy; these pursue their studies 
 in Rome. At present there are two minor seminaries 
 for the lower studies at Albano and Patricia. In 
 America the congregation conducts a college (College- 
 ville, Ind.) and parishes in the Archdiocese of Chicago 
 and Dioceses of Cincinnati, Cleveland, Toledo, 
 Fort Wayne, St. Joseph, Kansas City, Lincoln, 
 
PREFECT 
 
 602 
 
 PREFECT 
 
 Bismarck and Newark. The present statistics for the 
 congregation are: Italy, 3 provinces, 15 houses, the 
 pri icipal ones being at Rome (Santa Maria in 
 Trivio), Albano, Naples, Bari, Ancona, Rimini, 
 Cesena; Spain, 2 houses; Bavaria, 1 house (Baum- 
 gaerth); North America, 1 province with a semi¬ 
 nary at Carthagena, Ohio, seat of the provincial 
 with 43 students, a college at College ville, Ind., 
 with 300 students, novitiate at Burketts ville, Ohio, 
 with 90 students. The houses at Shellenberg (Liech¬ 
 tenstein), Feldkirch, Kufstein (Austria), belong to 
 the American province. There are in the American 
 province 140 priests, 50 lay brothers, and over 50 
 missions and stations. Prominent members of the 
 society include Cardinal Alexius Ascalesi, Arch¬ 
 bishop of Benevento and Bishop Aloysius Fant.ozzi 
 of Veroli. There are seven deceased bishops. Pub¬ 
 lications of the congregation are: “Bolletino dei 
 Missionari del Prez. Sangue,” a monthly ('Rome); 
 “De Botschaftez” and “The Messenger,” monthlies, 
 (Collegeville, Ind.). 
 
 Nell Centenario della Congregazione del Prezmo Sangue (Grotta 
 ferrata, 1918); Zur hunderfahrigen Gedachtnisfeir; Souvenir of the 
 Centenary Celebration C.PP.S. 
 
 II. Daughters of the Precious Blood (cf. C. 
 E., XII—374b) .—This congregation, founded by 
 Maria Seraphina Spickermans in 1857, was approved 
 by decree of Leo XIII, 24 Sept., 1890, the constitu¬ 
 tions being definitely approved 3 June, 1901. The 
 main object of the congregation is the education of 
 girls, from elementary and infant schools to boarding 
 and training schools, and the care of the sick. The 
 first general superior was Mother Seraphina Spicker¬ 
 mans (b. 1 Majq 1819; d. 17 Aug., 1876). She was 
 succeeded by Mother Josephine Frank (b. 29 May, 
 1841; d. 4 Aug., 1886), Mother Ludgera Schweers 
 (b. 10 July, 1847; d. 12 Aug., 1920), and the present 
 superior, Mother Kostka Ressing (b. 17 March, 
 1868). At present (1921) there are 200 members 
 of the congregation and 6 foundations. All the 
 convents have infant, elementary and needlework 
 schools. In addition there are: 1 training school 
 for teachers, 2 boarding schools, 3 higher schools for 
 girls, and 3 schools for housekeeping. In three 
 places the congregation has district care of the sick. 
 The total number of persons cared for is about 4000. 
 
 III. Sisters Adorers of the Precious Blood 
 (Saint-Hyacinthe; cf. C. E., XII—374c), a congre¬ 
 gation of nuns maintaining daily adoration of the 
 Precious Blood really present in the Blessed Sacra¬ 
 ment. They care for a few ladies in retreat and as 
 boarders in a house separate from the monastery. 
 The Sisters also direct under the chaplain or another 
 appointed priest, the Confraternity and Guard of 
 Honor of the Precious Blood. At the request of the 
 Bishop of St. IJyacinthe the Holy See has granted the 
 institute (1919) the privilege of celebrating as of 
 old the Lenten feast of the Most Precious Blood. 
 The congregation is not under a generalship, each 
 house being independent, even from the first house of 
 the institute, and governed by a local superior 
 elected every five years by the chapter of each house. 
 The institute subsists on doweries provided by the 
 choir Sisters, on alms charitably offered by very many 
 persons petitioning prayers and in thanksgiving for 
 favors received; and on the work of some of the 
 Sisters who make everything requisite for the altar 
 and other pious articles. Choir and lay sisters, after 
 three years of temporary vows, make their perpetual 
 vows, according to the new regulations in conformity 
 with the Code of Canon Law. The tourieres (out 
 sisters) pronounce their vows for a year only, being 
 allowed to renew them on the date of the first emission. 
 The rules and constitutions of the institute have 
 been sent to Rome for any necessary revision. There 
 are 15 foundations of the institute, with 490 mem¬ 
 
 bers. Houses have recently been founded at London, 
 Ont. (1913), and Saint-Boniface, Man. (1918). 
 Among distinguished religious recently deceased are: 
 Mother E. de St. Joseph, co-foundress of the institute 
 and foundress of the monastery at Toronto (1913); 
 M. Marie-des-Cinq Plaies, co-foundress and superior 
 of the monastery at Nicolet (1916); M. Marie du 
 Saint-Esprit, foundress and first superior of the 
 monastery at Montreal (1917); M. Catherine de 
 Ricci, co-foundress of the monastery at Brooklyn 
 (1917); M. Marie Sainte-Ursule, foundress^ of the 
 monastery of Sherbrooke (1920); M. Therese de 
 Jesus, co-foundress and superior of the monastery at 
 Havana (1921). On 14 Sept., 1911, the Sisters 
 celebrated the golden jubilee of the foundation of the 
 institute. 
 
 IV. Sisters Adorers of the Precious Blood 
 (Alton, Ill.; cf. C. E., XII—375a).—The Nazareth 
 Home, Alton community, was incorporated (1918) 
 under the laws of the State of Illinois with the right 
 of succession under the legal title of Nazareth Home, 
 Alton, Ill. The institution is under the direction 
 of Mother Pauline Schneeberger, vicaress general. 
 In February, 1920, at the time of the influenza 
 epidemic, seven sisters died within a week. Mother 
 Josepha, first assistant, died in the same year (16 
 Oct.). There have been several changes made in the 
 original buildings of the Nazareth Home. St. 
 Xavier’s House, the first novitiate, was repaired as an 
 orphanage for boys and girls. In September, 1920, 
 a high school was opened for girls, especially those 
 who aspire to be teachers as Sisters Adorers of the 
 Precious Blood. A new edifice, St. Paul’s Hall, 
 was constructed. At present the institution numbers 
 55 Sisters, 7 novices, 1 candidate, 12 aspirants. The 
 Sisters conduct schools in the Archdiocese of St. 
 Louis and in the Diocese of Alton, Ill., Harrisburg, 
 Pa., Altoona, Pa., Pittsburg, Pa., Fort Wayne, 
 Ind. There are about 1400 pupils. 
 
 V. Sisters of the Precious Blood (O’Fallon, 
 Mo., cf. C. E., XII—375b).—In 1910 the rule of the 
 institute was revised. The community received the 
 “Decretum Laudis” from the Holy See in 1918. In 
 July, 1920, Mother M. Wilhelmina was elected supe¬ 
 rior general. The institute numbers 229 Sisters, 18 
 novices, 12 candidates. There are 24 parochial 
 schools and 1 academy, St. Elizabeth Institute. 
 
 VI. Sisters of the Precious Blood (Ruma, 
 Ill., cf. C. E., XII—375b).—The Ststers conduct 
 establishments in the Archdiocese of St. Louis and 
 in the dioceses of Alton, Belleville, Concordia, El 
 Paso, Oklahoma, St. Joseph and Wichita. The 
 community numbers 346 Sisters, 17 novices, 25 
 candidates. They have under their care 60 schools, 
 2 academies, 3 hospitals, and 1 orphange with 261 
 orphans. There are 6300 pupils. 
 
 VII. Sisters of the Precious Blood (Maria 
 Stein, Ohio; cf. C. E., XII—375b).—The Sisters 
 have 49 foundations in the Archdiocese of Cincinnati, 
 and the dioceses of Cleveland, Fort Wayne, Kansas 
 City, Monterey and Los Angeles, St. Joseph, Toledo, 
 and Tucson. They have 40 schools, 1 sanitorium, 
 1 orphanage, 3 boarding schools, 1 home for the 
 aged, and the care of domestic work for 6 institutions. 
 Under their care are 7800 pupils, 210 boarders, 
 150 orphans, 100 to 150 patients in the sanitarium. 
 The community numbers 580 professed religious, 32 
 novices, 2 postulants. The present superior general 
 is Mother M. Emma Nunlist, elected 1899, succeeded 
 1905 by Mother M. Josephine Boetsch (d. 1917), 
 re-elected 1911. 
 
 Prefect Apostolic (C. E., XII — 386).— Pre¬ 
 
 fects apostolic and vicars apostolic are governed by 
 the same laws except that the prefects have not to 
 make the canonical visit ad limina; the prefects take 
 
 
 
 
 
 •i 
 
 
PRELATE NULLIUS 
 
 603 
 
 PREMONSTRATENSIAN 
 
 oossession of their territorj^ officially by exhibiting 
 the decree or letters patent of the Congregation of 
 Propaganda, the vicars by showing their apostolic 
 letters, to the pro-prefect or pro-vicar of their respec¬ 
 tive districts. Prefects apostolic while within their 
 own territories enjoy the same rights and faculties as 
 residential bishops, unless the Holy See has limited 
 them; like vicars apostolic, even if -they have not 
 received episcopal consecration, they can, within 
 their districts and during their term of office, give all 
 the blessings reserved to bishops, except the pontifi¬ 
 cal blessing, grant indulgences of fifty days, adminis¬ 
 ter confirmation, first tonsure, and minor orders. If 
 they have received episcopal consecration they have 
 a right to the honorary privileges of titular bishops: 
 if they are not bishops, they have, but only during 
 their term of office and while within their own terri¬ 
 tories, the insignia and privileges of the prothono- 
 taries apostolic de numero participantium. 
 
 Prefects and vicars apostolic must require all mis¬ 
 sionaries, even religious, to show on arriving their let¬ 
 ters of authorization, and the missionaries, including 
 regulars, must ask leave of them to exercise their 
 ministry, a request -which is not to be denied except 
 to individuals and then only for grave cause. All 
 missionaries, including regulars, are subject to their 
 jurisdiction, visitation, and correction in matters per¬ 
 taining to the government of the missions, the cure 
 of souls, the administration of the sacraments, the 
 direction of schools, alms and bequests for the mis¬ 
 sion. Except in the cases allowed by law, they must 
 never meddle with the discipline of religious under 
 the direction of their own superior; yet if a dispute 
 arises regarding the orders of the religious superiors 
 and those of the vicars or prefect apostolic in regard 
 to the matters just referred to, the religious must 
 ordinarily follow the directions of the vicar or prefect 
 apostolic; they have, however, the right of appeal to 
 the Congregation of Propaganda. If there are not 
 enough secular priests, vicars and prefects apostolic 
 can, after advising with the superiors, compel reli¬ 
 gious, even those who are exempt, if they are at¬ 
 tached to the mission, to undertake the cure of souls, 
 unless the religious have a rule to the contrary ap¬ 
 proved by the Holy See. 
 
 Vicars apostolic are obliged to make the visits ad 
 limina like residential bishops, but where it would be 
 gravely inconvenient they can employ a procurator, 
 even one residing in Rome. They and the prefects 
 apostolic are to send a written account of the state 
 of their mission, signed personally and also by one of 
 their council, to the Holy See every five years, and 
 moreover, at the close of each year they are to for¬ 
 ward a statement of the conversions, baptisms, annual 
 receptions of the sacraments, and other facts worthy 
 of notice. They may not absent themselves for a 
 notable time from their territories, except for a grave 
 and urgent cause, without consulting the Holy See; 
 and they should visit their districts as often as neces¬ 
 sary personally or by proxy, if they are lawfully ex¬ 
 cused, to see if the missions work is being properly 
 conducted. They should select a council of at least 
 three of the older and more prudent missionaries, 
 whom they are to consult in more serious and difficult 
 matters. If possible they should call meetings of at 
 least the chief religious and secular missionaries once 
 a year or oftener to discuss their experiences and to 
 perfect the means of carrying on the mission work. 
 They are bound to enforce the laws relating to epis¬ 
 copal archives, due allowance however being made 
 for difference of place and persons. The regulations 
 concerning plenary and provincial councils and 
 diocesan synods should be carried out in territories 
 subject to Propaganda, as far as conditions permit; 
 no time is fixed, however, for holding them, and the 
 decrees of the councils before being promulgated must 
 
 be sent to the Congregation of Propaganda. They are 
 bound gravely in conscience to use every endeavor to 
 build up a native clergy and priesthood and, more¬ 
 over, must apply Mass for the people entrusted to 
 them on the feasts of the Nativity, Epiphany, Easter, 
 Ascension Thursday, Pentecost, Corpus Christi, the 
 Immaculate Conception, the Assumption, St. Joseph, 
 Sts. Peter and Paul, and All Saints, according to the 
 regulations laid down for bishops. They may not, 
 without the knowledge of the Holy See, allow mission¬ 
 aries whom it has sent to leave their territory per¬ 
 petually, or to go into another, neither may they 
 expel them. In a case of public scandal, however, 
 they can, after consulting their councils, and, where 
 there is question of a religious, warning his superior 
 as far as possible, remove a missionary, but they must 
 notify the Holy See of the fact. • 
 
 At the end of the year 1921, there were of Latin 
 Rite 177 vicariates apostolic (Europe 8, Asia 68, 
 Africa 54, America 27, and Oceanica 20), 62 pre¬ 
 fectures apostolic (Europe 4, Asia 10, Africa 28, 
 America 13, and Oceanica 7), and 14 missions 
 (Europe 1, Asia 9, Africa 1, America 2, and Oceanica 
 1); in addition there are 2 vicariates apostolic of 
 Uniat Greco-Bulgar Rite (Thrace and Macedonia) 
 and 4 vicars apostolic of Syro-Malabar Rite in India. 
 
 Prelate Nullius, that is a prelate of no diocese, 
 one who rules over a territory independent of any 
 diocese and having its own clergy and laity. In 
 canon law prelates nullius are governed exactly by 
 the same regulations as abbots nullius, having the 
 same rights and obligations (see Abbot) . In 1921 the 
 prelatures nullius were: Acre and Purus, Bom Jesus 
 do Piauhy, Registro do Araguaya, SSma Conceicao 
 do Araguaya, and Santarem in Brazil; Altamura and 
 Acquaviva delle Fonti, and Santa Lucia del Mela 
 in Italy; and Mozambique. On 13 May, 1921, the 
 prelature of Rio Branco was aggregated to the Bene¬ 
 dictine Abbey of Our Lady of Monteserrato, Rio de 
 Janeiro, the abbot durn g his term of office adminis¬ 
 tering the prelature without the obligation, however, 
 of personal residence there. 
 
 Codex juris canonici, can. 319-27. 
 
 Premonstratensian Canons (Norbertine Order; 
 cf. C. E., XIII—387d).—The year 1920 witnessed the 
 eighth centenary celebrations of the foundation of 
 the Norbertine Order (1120-1920), the event being 
 marked by splendid festivities throughout the order, 
 and eulogistic tributes appeared in both the European 
 and American press. The activities of the Norbertine 
 Fathers, especially in the Brabant province, are 
 worthy of note. During the last twenty years their 
 number has increased from 408 to 640, while new 
 houses have been founded in England, the United 
 States, the Belgian Congo, Brazil, Denmark, Canada, 
 and Switzerland. Thus would appear to be fulfilled 
 St. Norbert’s prophecy, the circumstances of which 
 are not without interest. At the consecration of St. 
 Norbert’s first church at Premontre (1122) before a 
 large assembly of worshippers, the altar stone fell in 
 pieces, an incident of apparently ill-omen, v T hich 
 caused the postponement for the time being of the 
 ceremony of consecration. According to St. Norbert’s 
 prophecy, this was an indication that one day his 
 order would decline, but after some time would be 
 restored with new vigor. At the general chapter of 
 the order (1921) in the Abbey of Schlagl, where the 
 revision of the constitutions was arranged, the follow¬ 
 ing events of far-reaching importance were announced: 
 the French Fathers were allowed to return to France, 
 their two houses in Belgium being also retained; a 
 beautiful and extensive building had been acquired 
 in Rome, alongside of the famous Basilica of St. 
 Pudenziana, whose administration was likewise en¬ 
 trusted to the order; the Abbey of Tongerloo had taken 
 
PRENDERGAST 
 
 004 
 
 PRESBYTERIANISM 
 
 charge of the episcopal college of St. Charles, Porren- 
 truy near Basle (Switzerland); the Abbey of Averbode 
 was to start a new house of the order at Antwerp; the 
 Abbey of Tepl had bought the former Norbertine 
 Abbey of Speinshart, in Bavaria; the canons of Aver¬ 
 bode had started a huge Eucharistic crusade for the 
 Belgian youth. 
 
 St. Norbertine’s Third Order, founded by the Saint 
 himself for his friend Count Theobald of Blois and 
 Champagne, a grandson of William the Conqueror, 
 was the first institution of this kind, being established 
 one hundred years before the Franciscan and Domini¬ 
 can Third Orders (1122). It flourished especially in 
 Flanders, Brittany, and Bavaria. Count Baldwin IX 
 of Flanders, afterwards Emperor of Constantinople, 
 was one of its illustrious members. The year 1922 
 being the eighth centenary of the foundation, a na¬ 
 tional congress of the members of the Third Order of 
 St. Norbert was held in the Abbey of Tongerloo, pre¬ 
 sided over by Rt. Rev. Thomas L. Heylen, Bishop of 
 Namur. Bishop Heylen is a son of Tongerloo, 
 founder of the Corpus Christi basilica of Manchester 
 and of the Belgian Archconfraternity of the Holy Mass 
 of Reparation (238,000 members), and as president 
 of the Permanent Committee of the International 
 Eucharistic Congresses has given vigorous impulse 
 to those splendid world-gatherings in honor of the 
 Blessed Sacrament, which are making the twentieth 
 century “the century of the Holy Eucharist.” The 
 process of beatification of Hugh of Fosses (1093-1164), 
 first disciple of St. Norbert and first abbot general of 
 the Norbertine Order, will be introduced in Rome in 
 May, 1922, by Bishop Heylen. On 27 January, 1922, 
 occurred the death of the abbot general, Norbert 
 Schachinger, Abbott of Schlagl. He was succeeded 
 by the present abbot general, Gummarus Crets, 
 Abbot of Averbode (Belgium). 
 
 Statistics. —The following statistics show the 
 present state of the order in each circary or province. 
 Particulars are also given having reference to some 
 convents of nuns who, though no longer under the 
 jurisdiction of the order, are or have been related to it. 
 The figures have been taken from printed catalogues 
 published in December, 1921, or from letters since 
 received. When the desired information has not 
 arrived in time, a catalogue of a former year has been 
 consulted. 
 
 Circary of Brabant (Belgium and Holland).—Aver¬ 
 bode Abbey: priests, 89; clerics and novices, 26; lay 
 brothers, 37; of these, 28 priests and 22 lay brothers 
 have been sent to Brazil; and 4 priests and 2 lay 
 brothers to Veile in Denmark. Grimbergen Abbey: 
 priests, 32; clerics, 7; lay brothers, 6; of these, 4 
 priests are in Canada. Park-Louvain Abbey: priests, 
 38; clerics, 5; of these, 8 priests in Brazil. Postel 
 Abbey: priests, 27; clerics, 4; of these, 1 priest in 
 Belgian Congo and 1 in England. Tongerloo Abbey: 
 priests, 80; clerics, 31; lay brothers, 31; of these 12 
 priests are in England, 5 priests are in Switzerland, 
 and 12 priests and 10 lay brothers are in Belgian Congo 
 in the Prefecture Apostolic of Welle (q. v.). Berne- 
 Heeswijk Abbey: priests, 48; clerics, 11; lay broth¬ 
 ers, 13; a flourishing college with 100 students is 
 attached to the abbey. St. Norbert’s Priory, West 
 De Pere, Wisconsin, U. S. A.: priests, 34; clerics, 7; 
 lay brothers, 4; and a college conducted by the fath¬ 
 ers. 
 
 Circary of France .—The Abbey of Mondaye and 
 other houses, confiscated in 1903, founded a new house 
 at Bois-Seigneur Isaac, near Nivelles, Belgium. In 
 1921 the old Abbey of Mondaye was reestablished 
 (priests 22; clerics, 2; lay brothers, 2). The Abbey 
 of Averbode took charge of the Priory of Bois-Seigneur 
 Isaac (priests 8; clerics, 7; lay brothers, 2). 
 
 Circary of Provence .—The Abbey of Frigolet and 
 other houses confiscated in 1903, bought the former 
 
 Norbertine Abbey of Leffe, Dinant, Belgium. In 
 1921 they recovered their house of Frigolet (priests, 
 31; lay brothers, 2). The Abbey of Leffe became a 
 simple priory (priests 3). The Priory of Storrington, 
 England, has 6 priests and 1 lay brother. The mission 
 in Madagascar is served by 3 Norbertine Fathers. 
 
 Circary of Austria . —In Czechoslovakia: Neureisch 
 Abbey (Novd Rise), 15 priests; Seelau Abbey 
 (Zeliv), 21 priests, Strahov Abbey (Prague), 66 
 priests and 2 clerics; Tepl Abbey, 95 priests and 3 
 clerics; the college of Pilscn is conducted by the 
 abbey (professors, 9; students, 185). _ In Austria: 
 Gerus Abbey, 25 priests and 3 clerics; Schlagl 
 Abbey, 41 priests and 5 clerics; Wilten Abbey 
 (Innsbruck), 44 priests, 4 clerics, and 4 lay brothers. 
 
 Circary of Hungary. —In Czechoslovakia: _ Jaszo 
 Abbey (priests, 85; clerics, 13), which supplies the 
 professors and conducts the gymnasia of lvassa, 
 Rozsnyo, and Nagy-Vdrad (now in Rumania). In 
 Hungary: Csorna Abbey (priests 45; clerics, 5), 
 which supplies the professors and conducts the gym¬ 
 nasia of Keszthely (professors, 13; students, 332) and 
 Szombathely (professors, 14; students, 450). These 
 two abbeys have a college for their religious, who 
 study at the University of Budapest; some clerics 
 follow the course of lectures at the University of Fri¬ 
 bourg. 
 
 Convents of Norbertine Nuns (Second Order ).— 
 OosterhoutPriory, Holland, 52nuns. NeerpeltPriory, 
 Belgium, 25 nuns. Bonlieu Abbey, nuns expelled 
 from France, reassembled at Grimbergen, Belgium, 
 35 nuns. Le Mesnil-St-Denis Priory, Seine et Oise, 
 France, 34 nuns. Abbey of St. Sophia, Toro, Spain, 
 14 nuns. Abbey of St. Maria near Zamora, Villoria 
 de Orbigo, Spain, 42 nuns. Zwierzyniec, near Cracow, 
 Poland, 46 nuns. Imbramowice Abbey, Poland, 12 
 nuns; Priory of Berg Sion, near Utznach, in the Dio¬ 
 cese of St. Gall, Switzerland, 39 nuns. 
 
 Convents of Norbertine Nuns (Third Order). —St. 
 Joseph’s at Heiligenberg, near Olmutz, 10 nuns, and 
 Stresovice Andelka, near Prague, 3 nuns. 
 
 Congregation of Norbertine Bisters, mother-house at 
 Duffel, Belgium, with branch houses in Mechlin, 
 Gheel, Hoostraeten, Neerwaver. 
 
 Prendergast, Edmond F., Archbishop of Phila¬ 
 delphia, b. at Clonmel, Ireland, on 3 May, 1843; 
 d. at Philadelphia on 26 February, 1918. He came 
 to the United States in 1859 and made his ecclesi¬ 
 astical studies at Overbrook Seminary, being ordained 
 on 17 November, 1865. He held several important 
 pastorates in the Archdiocese of Philadelphia and 
 from 1895-1897 he served as vicar-general. He was 
 auxiliary to Archbishop Ryan on 27 November, 1895, 
 and he was consecrated titular Bishop of Scillio by 
 his immediate superior on 24 February, 1897. _ He 
 was appointed seventh archbishop of Philadelphia on 
 27 May, 1911. , , , TT J 
 
 Retjss, Biog. Cyc. of the Catholic Hierarchy of the United 
 States, 1784-1898 (Milwaukee, 1898); The Golden Jubilee of the 
 Priesthood of the Most Reverend Edmond F. Prendergast, D.D. 
 and the Dedication of the Cathedral of Saint Peter and Paul, 
 Philadelphia (Philadelphia in 1915); Corrigan, Chronology of 
 the Catholic Hierarchy of the United States in Cath. Hist. 
 Rev., Ill 23. 
 
 Presbyterianism (cf. C. E., XII—392c).—In 
 1906 the Presbyterian Church in the United States 
 of America effected a union with the Cumberland 
 Presbyterian Church. However, approximately one- 
 half of the ministers, organizations, and members of 
 the latter refused to recognize the union and continued 
 the organization. Much litigation ensued, most of 
 the cases being decided in favor of the “reunited 
 church;” in Tennessee 'and Missouri the decisions 
 favored the Cumberland body. The union has 
 adopted a “Book of Common Worship” for voluntary 
 use. In 1907 the Council of the Reformed Churches 
 
PRESCRIPTION 
 
 PRINCE ALBERT 
 
 605 
 
 in the United States holding the Presbyterian System 
 was organized, bringing into co-operative relations 
 seven of the Presbyterian family in this country. Of 
 the Reformed bodies the Reformed Church in Amer¬ 
 ica, and the Reformed Church in the United States 
 joined this council, although rejecting a proposed 
 organic union with the Presbyterian Church. 
 
 Since 1907 there have been proposed various plans 
 of union, notably that of the Northern and the 
 Southern bodies. The latter rejected the overtures. 
 Plans of union in Scotland and in Canada also failed, 
 or have been postponed. In 1920 the Welsh Presby¬ 
 terian Church united with the Presbyterian Church 
 in the United States. Finally in 1921 (December), 
 proposals for union of all Presbyterian and Reformed 
 Churches in the United States were indefinitely post¬ 
 poned , owing to inability to agree on a unification pro¬ 
 gram. The point of disagreement was as to whether 
 there should be a complete union, with one general 
 assembly and a number of regional synods, or a fed¬ 
 eral union in which the various denominations would 
 preserve their autonomy. The denominations reject¬ 
 ing the proposals were the Presbyterian Church in 
 the United States (South), Presbyterian Church in 
 the United States (North); Reformed Church in the 
 United States; and the United Presbyterian Church. 
 
 In interdenominational work the Presbyterians are 
 affiliated with the Federal Council of Churches of 
 Christ in America and have been prominent in the 
 preparations for the World Conference on Faith and 
 Order. 
 
 The Presbyterians have been especially active 
 aniong foreigners in this country. In 1916 there were 
 eighty-one different communities served by the board 
 in charge of this work; eleven languages were regu¬ 
 larly employed. The Presbyterian Church (North¬ 
 ern) has inaugurated a “New Era Movement” in an 
 attempt to bring under one leadership the various 
 agencies and a plan of financial centralization has 
 been adopted. 
 
 Since 1917 the educational work of the Presbyterian 
 Church in this country is under a general board of 
 education. It controls 13 seminaries, including two 
 for Germans, and two for negroes. Among other 
 ir stitutions affiliated with the board (generally owned 
 or controlled by the Presbyterians) are Elmira Col¬ 
 lege, Lafayette College, Lincoln University, New 
 York University, University of Wooster, Washington 
 and Jefferson College and Illinois College. Princeton 
 University, Hamilton College, and Western Reserve 
 University, though not directly connected with the 
 church, have been closely identified with its history. 
 
 In the foreign field in 1916 the Presbyterians carried 
 on 26 missions, 7 in China, 3 in India, 2 each in Per¬ 
 sia, Siam and Brazil, and 1 each in Africa, Japan, 
 Korea, Mexico, the Philippine Islands, Chile, Colom¬ 
 bia, Venezuela, Guatemala and Syria. They reported 
 1353 missionaries, 118 medical missionaries (24 
 women), and 308 single women, 930 churches and 
 161,470 communicants. In 1920 they reported 1772 
 missionaries and 226,971 members. The church 
 conducts the Syrian Protestant College at Beirut, 
 Syria, Forman College at Allahabad, India, and the 
 Canton Christian College in China. 
 
 The names of the various Presbyterian bodies in 
 the United States are (1922) the Associate Reformed 
 Synod, Associate Synod of North America, Colored 
 Cumberland Presbyterian Church, Cumberland Pres¬ 
 byterian Church, Presbyterian Church in the United 
 States of America, Presbyterian Church in the United 
 States (South), Reformed Presbyterian Church (Old 
 School), Reformed Presbyterian Church General 
 Synod, United Presbyterian Church, and Welsh 
 Presbyterian Church (Calvinistic Methodist). 
 
 In 1920 there were between five and six million 
 Presbyterian communicants in the world; United 
 
 States, 2,255,000 (10 bodies), (2,384,000 in 1922); 
 Scotland 1,245,000; Canada 300,000; Wales 200,000; 
 Ireland 130,000; England 89,000; Australia 100,000; 
 New Zealand 50,000; South Africa 50,000. The total 
 number of Presbyterian constituents (communicants 
 and their families), in the world, is between fifteen 
 and twenty millions, although some state a much 
 higher figure. 
 
 Selbie, English Sects (London, n. d., ab. 1910); Religious 
 Bodies, 1916, (Washington, 1919); Year Book of the Churches 
 (New York, annual); Sweets. Our Presbyterian Educational 
 Institutions (Louisville, 1914); Stephens, The Presbyterian 
 Churches, Divisions and Unions in Scotland, Ireland, Canada and 
 America (Philadelphia, 1910). 
 
 N. A. Weber. 
 
 Prescription. See Property, Ecclesiastical. 
 
 Presentation of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Congre¬ 
 gation of the (cf. C. E., XII—399d).—The general 
 mother-house is at Bourg Saint-Andeol (Ardeche), 
 France, and Mother Marie-Sainte-Honorine is the 
 sixth superior general of the institution. The 
 provincial-house in America is at Saint-Hyacinth 
 (Quebec), Canada. Mother Marie des Saints 
 Anges is provincial superior. Connected with the 
 American provincial house are the novitiate, with 
 114 novices and postulants, a boarding school affil¬ 
 iated to the University of Montreal, and a govern¬ 
 ment normal school. The Sisters are also in charge 
 of two academies and two primary schools in the 
 city of Saint Hyacinthe. There are 1023 Sisters in 
 America, with a total of 59 houses and 20,751 
 pupils. In the United States 12,856 pupils are un¬ 
 der the Sisters’ instruction in 25 schools belonging to 
 this congregation. 
 
 Presentation of Our Lady, Sisters of the (cf. 
 C. E., XII—399a), founded at St. Nicolas in 1830. 
 The Rev. K. Schockaert is chaplain and director 
 of the institute and Mother Mary Alphonse was 
 re-elected general superior in 1920. Dependent on 
 the mother-house at St. Nicolas are the filial 
 houses of Boom (near Antwerp) Ledeberg {Ghent) 
 Lockeren, Bornhem, and Lootenhulle, each house 
 has an institution for boarders and two day 
 schools, one for the lower classes of society which 
 is gratuitous and another for the better classes. At 
 St. Nicolas, besides the boarding school with about 
 170 pupils, there is a college for pupil-teachers 
 with an attendance of 270. It has two sections, a 
 primary and a middle section for higher studies. 
 The latter was founded in 1911, and in 1920 com¬ 
 mercial classes were started, with a three year 
 course in business training for girls, at the end of 
 which a certificate may be obtained. At present 
 the community numbers about 200 members. 
 
 Presentation Order (cf. C. E., XII—397b).— 
 The new Code of Canon Law has made necessary 
 some changes in the rule of the order. In Ireland the 
 bishops are advocating amalgamation, the extent of 
 which is not yet known. In the last ten years the fol¬ 
 lowing new houses have been founded; Ireland, 2; 
 England, 2; Australia, 1; India, 1; America, 6. Of 
 the new foundations in America 3 are in South 
 Dakota, 1 in Dubuque, Iowa, and 2 in New York 
 City. A novitiate was opened in 1921 at Mt. St. 
 Joseph, Newburgh, N. Y. 
 
 Prince Albert and Saskatoon, Diocese of 
 (Principis Alberti et Saskatoonensis; cf. C. E., 
 XII—427b), in the Province of Saskatchewan, 
 Canada, suffragan of Regina. By decree of 30 April, 
 1921, the name of the diocese formerly Prince Albert, 
 was changed to Prince Albert and Saskatoon. The 
 Benedictine Abbey of St. Peter at Muenster, Sas¬ 
 katchewan, was erected into an abbey nullius by 
 
PRIVATION 
 
 606 
 
 PRIVILEGES 
 
 Apostolic Constitution of 6 May, 1921, and its terri¬ 
 tory separated from the Diocese of Prince Albert and 
 Saskatoon. The diocese is confided to the Oblates of 
 Mary Immaculate and the present bishop is Rt. Rev. 
 Joseph Prud’homme, O. M. I., b. 1882, elected 1921, 
 succeeding Bishop Albert Pascal, deceased. There are 
 in the diocese: 32,000 Catholics, not including Ruthe- 
 nians, 34 secular priests; 37 regular priests, of whom 
 36 are Oblates and 1 Redemptorist; 54 churches with 
 resident priests; 75 chapels; 8 religious congregations 
 of women with 203 Sisters; 3700 children in 115 
 Catholic schools; 2 schools for Indians with 130 chil¬ 
 dren. 
 
 Privation is a vindication imposed by the law 
 or by a superior by which one is deprived of an 
 ecclesiastical right, dignity, office, benefice or the 
 fruit thereof. In public cases where it has been 
 incurred as a penalty latae scntcntiae of the com¬ 
 mon law it cannot be remitted by the ordinary. If 
 it has been imposed by an ordinary he cannot 
 validly confer the vacated office, benefice or dignity 
 on onee of his own household or on one who is 
 related to him by blood or affinity in the first or 
 second degree. 
 
 The following persons by the very fact of their 
 offence suffer privation: those who presume to 
 hold two incompatible offices or benefices lose 
 both; a newly promoted cardinal who refuses to 
 swear to visit the pope within a year, is deprived 
 of the cardinalitial dignity forever; a bishop-elect 
 who neglects to receive consecration within six 
 months is deprived of the right of consecration; 
 a patron who converts to his own use ecclesiastical 
 property belonging to the church of which he is 
 patron loses his right of patronage; one who holds 
 an office, benefice, or dignity and violates the obli¬ 
 gation of residence annexed, eo ipso loses a part of 
 the revenue proportionate to the time of his ab¬ 
 sence, if he remains obstinate he may be deprived 
 of the office, benefice, or dignity itself. 
 
 The following are to be punished by privation: 
 clerics who impede directly or indirectly the exer¬ 
 cise of ecclesiastical jurisdiction and have recourse 
 for that purpose to any lay power or who publish 
 laws, mandates or -decrees against the rights and 
 liberty of the Church, or who join Masonic or 
 similar associations which plot against the Church 
 or legitimate civil authority; they are to lose their 
 office, benefice, dignity, pension or function (and 
 if they are religious are to be deprived of active 
 and passive voice in their institute); so, too, are 
 clerics who conspire against the authority of the 
 pope, a papal legate, or their own ordinary, or 
 clerics laying violent hands on a cardinal or papal 
 legate; or confessors guilty of solicitation; or 
 clerics who usurp or retain the property or rights 
 of the Roman Church; or clerics guilty of certain 
 aggravated sins of impurity. 
 
 Clerics usurping or converting church property 
 are to lose their benefices; clerics who deliberately 
 inflict grave bodily injury on themselves, are to 
 lose their benefices or offices having cure of souls 
 annexed. 
 
 The following offenders are to be punished by 
 privation but only if recalcitrant: apostates, heret¬ 
 ics, or schismatics, are to lose their benefices, dig¬ 
 nities, pensions, office, or functions; canon theolo¬ 
 gians, or penitentiaries, their benefice; concuninary 
 parish priests are to lose their parishes, other 
 clerics their benefices. 
 
 The following persons may be punished by 
 privation at the discretion of the ordinary: those 
 who traffic in Mass stipends or who fail to notify 
 the ordinary annually of the number of Masses 
 
 still unsaid for which stipends have been received, 
 if this notification is required by law; those who 
 insult or defame another verbally or in writing; 
 those who steal, destroy, conceal or substantially 
 change any document belonging to the episcopal 
 archives, may be deprived of their office or bene¬ 
 fice; those who are found guilty of homicide, 
 abduction of the young, selling anyone as a slave 
 or for any other evil purpose, usury, rapine, griev¬ 
 ous theft, incendiarium, grave mutilation or assault 
 or battery inflicted on another, or those who take 
 possession of a benefice, office, or dignity irregu¬ 
 larly; those who stubbornly refuse to make the 
 profession of faith when required by law; those 
 who fabricate or falsify papal letters, decrees or 
 rescripts, or knowingly use the same (if religious, 
 they are to lose active and passive voice); clerics 
 who violate the sixth commandment especially if 
 they have cure of souls. 
 
 Again a cleric who is giving grave scandal and 
 remains recalcitrant may be deprived temporarily 
 of the right to wear clerical dress; if acleric has 
 been deposed and shows no sign of amendment he 
 may be deprived perpetually of this right, which 
 would entail the loss of clerical privileges, or clerics 
 who publicly sympathize or who attempt even civil 
 marriage, or who elope, lose their right to the 
 clerical dress, ipso facto. 
 
 Religious superiors who admit unsuitable candi¬ 
 dates irregularly to the novitiate or to profession 
 may be deprived of their office; so, too, reverend 
 mothers who spend any part of a nun’s dowry or 
 who fail to notify the ordinary in due time about 
 approaching receptions or profession, or who 
 violate the regulations protecting the liberty of 
 criticism enjoyed by nuns during visitation; or a 
 superioress who puts any difficulty in the way of a 
 nun who desires to have an extraordinary confes¬ 
 sor, or who prevents or asks about a nun going to 
 confession to any approved confessor in a church 
 or even a semi-public oratory, or who would in 
 any way prohibit a nun who was seriously ill from 
 calling in any priest who has approbation for hear¬ 
 ing women’s confessions. After a warning for any 
 of these offences a superior is to be deprived of 
 his or her offices if a second offence occurs. It 
 should be noted that a sentence of privation does 
 not take effect until it has been communicated to 
 the guilty party, who has always, however, the 
 right of a devolutive appeal to the Holy See. 
 
 Privilege. —If a privilege has been enjoyed 
 for 100 years or from time immemorial it is presumed 
 to have been properly granted. A privilege granted 
 by rescript is not revoked by a contrary law unless 
 this is stated expressly in the law or unless the law 
 was enacted by the superior of the person who issued 
 the rescript. It was formerly customary for religious 
 orders properly so called to communicate to one 
 another whatever privileges were granted specially 
 to any of them (cf. C. E., XII-756b). This practice 
 has now been abolished, for the Code declares that a 
 religious order or institute henceforth enjoys only 
 the privileges contained in the Code or granted to it 
 by the Apostolic See, all communication of privileges 
 being hereafter excluded; privileges of a regular order, 
 however, belong also the nuns of the same order in 
 so far as they are capable of enjoying them. 
 
 Privileges, Ecclesiastical. —The faithful owe rev¬ 
 erence to the clergy, according to their different 
 grades and offices, and would be guilty of the 
 crime of sacrilege if they inflicted an unjustifiable 
 bodily injury on a cleric. 
 
 Privilegium canonist —Under the Code of Canon 
 Law the punishment inflicted for attacking the per- 
 
PRJASEV 
 
 607 
 
 PROFESSION 
 
 son of a cleric is proportioned to the dignity of the 
 party injured. Thus anyone who lays violent hands 
 on the pope incurs excommunication very specially 
 reserved to the Holy See, is ipso jacto an excom¬ 
 municate vitandus, legally infamous, and if he be 
 a cleric is to be degraded; if the party injured is 
 a cardinal or a legate of the pope the culprit in¬ 
 curs an excommunication specially reserved to the 
 pope, he oecomes legally infamous and is to be 
 deprived of any ecclesiastical benefice, dignity, pen¬ 
 sion or office he holds; if the injured party is a 
 patriarch, archbishop, bishop, whether residential 
 or titular, the offender incurs excommunication re¬ 
 served specially to the Holy See; if the part}' 
 wronged is any other cleric or religious of either 
 sex, the excommunication is reserved to the cul¬ 
 prit’s ordinary, who may if he judges fitting impose 
 additional penalties. 
 
 Privilegiuvi fori .—This means that in civil and 
 criminal cases the clergy must be brought to trial 
 before an ecclesiastical not a oecular judge; how¬ 
 ever, in certain places the Holy See has agreed 
 with the civil authorities to waive this privilege 
 while in all others places permission when neces¬ 
 sary, though it must be asked, is always granted to 
 bring clerics before a lay tribunal. If the defend¬ 
 ant is a prelate of high rank permission can be 
 obtained only from the Holy See; otherwise it can 
 be granted by the ordinary. Canonists agree that 
 this privilege of the forum is not in force in Bel¬ 
 gium, France, Holland or Germany, Ireland and 
 English-speaking countries generally; in the United 
 States laymen may sue a cleric without asking the 
 ordinarj^’s permission, but a priest may not sue 
 another cleric m the civil courts without leave 
 of his ecclesiastical superiors. Where the privilege 
 is in force the legislation of the Church is as fol¬ 
 lows: Whosoever without leave of the Holy See 
 dares to bring before a lay judge a cardinal, legate 
 of the Holy See, or higher official of the Roman 
 Curia in connection with matters pertaining to this 
 office, or finally his own ordinary incurs excommu¬ 
 nication specially reserved to the pope; if the 
 party haled before the judge is any other bishop, 
 abbot or prelate nullius or one of the higher supe¬ 
 riors of a pontifically approved religious order, the 
 excommunication is reserved simply to the pope; 
 in any other case the culprit if a cleric is ipso facto 
 suspended from office, while a lay person is to be 
 suitably punished by his bishop. 
 
 Naturally an individual loses these privileges 
 when he is no longer in the ranks of the clergy; 
 that is the case when a minor cleric after notifying 
 his ordinary discontinues his studies for the priest¬ 
 hood and returns to secular life; or when a culprit 
 for his evil deeds has been degraded or deprived 
 forever by his bishop of the right to wear ecclesias¬ 
 tical dress. 
 
 Codex juris canonici , 2341; Ayrinhac, Penal Legislation in the 
 New Code (New York, 1920) 272-79; Idem in Eccles. Rev. XLVII 
 (Philadelphia, 1912), 302-15. 
 
 Prjasev, Diocese of Eperjesensis Ruthenorum 
 (cf. C. E., Eperies V—484d), of the Greek Ruthen- 
 ian Rite, dependent of Estzergom, formerly in king¬ 
 dom of Hungary, but now in Czechoslovakia. Rt. 
 Rev. Stephen Novak, born in Oblya, diocese of Mun- 
 kacs, 4 December, -1879, was consecrated bishop in 
 1913 to succeed Rt. Rev. John Valyi, d. 22 Novem¬ 
 ber, 1911. On account of political reasons Bishop 
 Novak has been out of the diocese for three years 
 and his affairs are administered by the vicar gen¬ 
 eral Nicolaus Russnak. The bishop’s see is Prjasev, 
 in Latin Fragopolis. in Slovakian Presov, in Hun¬ 
 garian Eperjes. Here the episcopal residence, 
 cathedral, seminary and most of the diocesan insti¬ 
 
 tutions are situated. The diocese contains 185,000 
 Ruthenian Catholics, 230 priests (11 celibates, 27 
 widowers, the rest married) 183 parishes scattered 
 through 6 counties, 183 parochial churches, 135 
 filial churches, 61 chapels, 250 parochial schools 
 with 35,000 pupils, a college for boys, 2 convents 
 of Basilians, and a theological seminary with 40 
 students. 
 
 Profession, Religious (cf. C. E., XII-451c).— 
 The canonical requirements for a valid religious pro¬ 
 fession are as follows: (1) the candidate must be 
 at least sixteen years old for temporary or twenty-one 
 for perpetual profession; (2) he must have made a 
 valid novitiate; (3) he must be admitted to profession 
 by a superior authorized by the constitutions; (4) 
 the profession must be explicit, made freely and with 
 requisite knowledge, and finally must be accepted by 
 a lawful superior or his delegate according to the 
 constitutions. Furthermore, if there is question of 
 perpetual profession in any religious institute the 
 candidate must have been professed of simple tempo¬ 
 rary vows for at least three years. The first profession 
 must be made in the house of novices at the end of 
 the term of probation. These vows bind either for 
 three years or longer in the case of those who after the 
 lapse of three years have not reached the age required 
 for the perpetual profession, or from year to year 
 wheie the constitutions prescribe annual professions. 
 The general law no longer extends the time or age for 
 profession in the case of lay brothers beyond those 
 required for other religious; the law exempt's from tem¬ 
 porary profession a religious who,havingbeen professed 
 solemnly or with simple perpetual vows, changes with 
 permission of the Holy See to another order or congre¬ 
 gation; such a religious on completing his new noviti¬ 
 ate must be admitted to perpetual profession at once 
 or return to his old order; however, if necessary to 
 test his vocation, the superior may prolong his 
 period of probation but not for more than one year. 
 It may be noted by way of exception that the first 
 vows of the Jesuits and the Religious of the Sacred 
 Heart are still perpetual on the part of the professed 
 religious; however, the profession by which the latter 
 institute becomes bound to its members cannot be 
 postponed beyond six years. 
 
 When the temporary vows of the professed have to 
 be renewed, for a just cause the renovation may be 
 made earlier, but not by more than a month. In 
 such a case the new year of temporary profession 
 does not begin from the day of renovation, but from 
 the day in which it would have begun had the time 
 of renovation not been anticipated. If the lawful 
 superior questions the fitness of the religious for 
 perpetual profession, he may allow the temporary 
 vows to be renewed but not for more than three 
 years; should a doubt still remain, the superior, if desir¬ 
 ous of continuing the probation, must apply to the 
 Holy See, which, however, is not wont to extend it be¬ 
 yond a year. In case a novice on account of his age had 
 to make a temporary profession for more than three 
 years, if an extra period of probation is needed, it 
 must not, in the opinion of Vermeersch, extend be¬ 
 yond six years from the time of the first profession, 
 though Augustine holds that extension may be for 
 three years beyond the time for which the first vows 
 were made. Before the period of their temporary 
 vows has expired religious may be dismissed by the 
 general of a pontifically approved order or institute 
 with the consent of his council, or in the case of nuns 
 by the local ordinary and the regular superior, if 
 there is any, acting on the written request of the 
 mother superior, and her council, or, in the case 
 of diocesan Sisters, by the ordinary of the place 
 where the convent is situated with the knowledge and 
 consent of the superioresses. 
 
PROFESSION 
 
 608 
 
 PROFESSION 
 
 In dismissing temporarily professed relig ous the 
 following conditions must be observed by superiors: 
 (a) the motives for dismissal must be grave; thus a 
 lack of the religious spirit causing scandal to others is 
 sufficient, when repeated admonition combined 
 with a salutary penance has proved ineffective; though 
 ill-health is not, unless it is clearly proved that the ill- 
 health was fraudulently concealed or dissimulated be¬ 
 fore profession; (b) although the motives must be really 
 known to the superior who dismisses, it is not neces¬ 
 sary for them to have been proved judicially, but 
 they must always be made known to the subject, who 
 must be granted full liberty to reply, and his answer 
 must be communicated to the superior who is to dis¬ 
 miss or retain the religious; (c) if dismissed, the 
 religious has the right to appeal to the Holy bee, and 
 pending its decision the dismissal remains in abeyance. 
 If a dismissed religious was received without a dowry 
 or cannot support herself with her means, her institute 
 must in charity, but not in justice, not merely aid 
 her to return home safely and becomingly, but 
 provide her in accordance with natural equity for a 
 certain time, to be determined by mutual consent, or, 
 in case of disagreement, by the local ordinary, with 
 the means of living decently. A religious so dis¬ 
 missed is ipso facto released from all his vows, but not 
 from the obligations arising from sacred orders, if he 
 has received them. It might be added that religious 
 however professed are ipso facto lawfully dismissed if 
 they have (a) apostatized publicly from the Faith, 
 or (b) eloped with one of the opposite sex; or (c) 
 contracted or attempted to contract marriage, even 
 civil marriage; but according to the constitutions 
 the higher superior with his chapter or council should 
 make a declaration of the fact and draw up the proof 
 
 for their archives. . . 
 
 The religious superior, before admitting anyone to 
 the first temporary profession must have the consent 
 of his council or chapter; but for the perpetual 
 profession he need only consult them. At professions 
 the formula and ceremony prescribed by the consti¬ 
 tutions should be employed; all rites and ceremonies 
 referring to perpetuity of state, which had.been 
 allowed in certain institutes by the decree “Perpensis” 
 of 18 July, 1902, for both temporal and perpetual 
 profession are now to be reserved for solemn pro¬ 
 fession. A written copy of the formula signed by the 
 professed and at least by him who received the 
 profession is to be kept in the archives; if the pro¬ 
 fession was solemn the superior who received it must 
 notify the pastor of the place where the newly- 
 professed religious was born, for purposes of record. 
 
 Religious professed temporarily in preparation for 
 their perpetual vows enjoy all the indulgences, 
 privileges and spiritual favors of those professed of 
 solemn vows or of simple perpetual vows; should they 
 die while thus bound temporarily they have a right 
 to the same prayers and masses as the perpetually 
 professed. So, too, are they under the same obliga¬ 
 tion to observe the rules and constitutions; however, 
 where choir is obligatory they are not bound by the 
 rule of reciting the Divine Office in private, unless they 
 are in in holy orders or the constitutions expressly 
 provide otherwise. They have no right of active and 
 passive voice unless it is granted to them expressly 
 by the constitutions; the time set down for enjoying 
 this privilege is counted from that of their first pro¬ 
 fession, if the constitutions are silent. By profession 
 they lose parochial benefices at the end of a year, and 
 all other benefices after three years. 
 
 Property. —Professed religious with simple vows, 
 whether perpetual or temporal, retain the owner¬ 
 ship of their property and can acquire more, unless 
 as happens in certain institutions the constitutions 
 provide differently. As has been mentioned in the 
 article Novice before simple profession the religious, 
 
 though he has to retain the ownership of his property 
 as long as his simple vows continue, must give over 
 the administration of his property to any person he 
 selects, and, if the constitutions do not provide other¬ 
 wise, must dispose of its use and revenues as he 
 pleases. This right of disposal most probably permits 
 the novice to ordain that the revenue is to be added 
 regularly to the capital (Papi, op. cit. infra, p. 51). 
 
 If this arrangement regarding the administration of 
 the property and the disposal of its use and revenue 
 was omitted for any reason before simple profession, 
 it is to be made by the religious, notwithstanding his 
 vows, with the same freedom as is enjoyed by novices. 
 If the constitutions do not allow a religious to change 
 the administration of his property or the disposal of 
 its revenue at his discretion, he must have the leave 
 of his superior general, or in case of a nun who has 
 simple vows made in an institute with solemn vows 
 (monialis) of the local ordinary, and of the regular 
 superior. If the change, however, should be in favor 
 of his own institute, he may not make it even if the 
 superior authorized him, at least if it would involve 
 a considerable part, in which case it would be neces¬ 
 sary to obtain the permission of the Congregation of 
 Reiigious. If the religious professed of simple vows, 
 should leave the institute before making his solemn 
 vows the provisions as to the administration and the 
 disposal of the revenue would cease to hold. Should 
 one professed of solemn vows leave, this would not be 
 so, because the latter by his solemn profession gave 
 up not merely the right to administer his property 
 and dispose of its revenue, but divested himself en¬ 
 tirely of* ownership. What a simply professed 
 religious receives as a recompense for his work done 
 or what is given to him for the sake of the community 
 belongs not to him but to the institute; but he can 
 acquire new property by will or donation as a personal 
 gift, unless this is forbidden by the constitutions. 
 However, the Holy See has made a special provision 
 by which a dowry brought in by any nun or sister 
 must be returned to her, if she goes back to the world. 
 
 Apart from special Apostolic indults, the professed 
 with simple vows belonging to an order of regulars, 
 cannot validly renounce their property before the 
 last sixty days preceding their solemn profession; 
 within those sixty days, however, they must renounce 
 it all in favor of anyone they wish, the renunciation 
 to become effective only when the solemn profession 
 takes place. Immediately after their profession steps 
 should be taken to have the renunciation made 
 binding in civil law. Due regard being had to special 
 Apostolic indults, all property devolving in any way 
 to a religious after solemn profession goes to the order, 
 province, or house, according as the constitutions 
 provide, if the order is capable of owning property; 
 should the order be incapable, the Holy See becomes 
 the owner. Professed with simple vows in religious 
 congregations may not divest themselves of the owner¬ 
 ship of their property by a free gift, nor may they 
 change the will which, in accordance with canon 
 law, they made as novices, without leave of the 
 Holy See, or, in urgent cases of a higher superior 
 or even a local superior, if there is no time to have 
 recourse to the Holy See or higher superior respec¬ 
 tively. Formerly the giving up of ownership was 
 forbidden only while the religious had temporary 
 simple vows, now it is forbidden also when these 
 vows are perpetual. 
 
 A parochial benefice becomes vacant after the 
 lapse of a year from the first profession of the holder, 
 all other benefices after three years. On being per¬ 
 petually professed a religious loses by law the right 
 of incardination in the diocese to which he belonged 
 before entering religion. A religious profession which 
 was invalid on account of an external impediment 
 can be validated only by the Holy See or by lawful 
 
PROFESSION 
 
 609 
 
 PROHIBITION 
 
 profession made after the nullity became known and 
 the impediment was removed; if, however, it was 
 invalid from a mere nternal defect of consent, it 
 becomes valid when that consent is given, provided 
 the institute has not already withdrawn its consent. 
 
 Codex juris canonici, can. 572-86; Papi, Religious Profession 
 n CW \ or k' 1918) Oreusen, Religieux et religieuses (Brussels, 
 1921) V ermeersch-Crettsen, Epitome Juris canonici (Mechlin, 
 1921); Fuhrich, De religiosis (Innsbruck, 1919); Ferreres, 
 Institutiones Canonicae (Barcelona, 1920); Prummer, Manuale 
 juris ecclesiastici (Freiburg, 1920). 
 
 Profession of Faith.—All customs to the contrary 
 being reprobated, a profession of faith according to 
 the formula approved by the Holy See must be made 
 personally as follows: (a) Those who assist at a 
 general or special council or diocesan synod with a 
 consultive or deliberate vote must make it before the 
 president or his delegate; the president makes it 
 in presence of the council or synod; (b) cardinals- 
 elect in presence of the dean of the sacred college, 
 the first cardinal priest and deacon, and the camer- 
 lengo; (c) those promoted to an episcopal see, even 
 non-residential, or to abbeys nullius, vicariates 
 Apostolic, or prefectures Apostolic, in presence of 
 an Apostolic delegate; (d) a vicar capitular in presence 
 of the cathedral chapter; (e) those promoted to a 
 dignity or canonry, in presence of the local ordinary 
 or his delegate and of the chapter; (f) newly ap¬ 
 pointed diocesan consultors, the local ordinary or his 
 delegate and before the other consultors; (g) vicars 
 general, parish priests, and all those who have been 
 provided with a benefice, even manual, having the 
 cure of souls annexed; rectors and professors of 
 theology, canon law, and philosophy in seminaries, at 
 .the commencement of each scholastic year or at least 
 on taking office; all candidates for the subdiaconate; 
 all diocesan censors of books; all priests before ob¬ 
 taining faculties to hear confessions or to preach, 
 make the profession of faith in presence of the local 
 ordinary or his delegate; (h) the rector of a uni¬ 
 versity or faculty, in presence of the ordinary or his 
 delegate; all the professors in a canonically erected 
 university or faculty, at the beginning of each 
 scholastic year or at least on assuming office, and 
 candidates who, having passed the examinations, are 
 about to receive their degree in presence of the rector 
 of .the university or faculty or his delegate; (i) 
 superiors in clerical religious orders or congregations, 
 the chapter or the superior who designated them or 
 his delegate. Those who after having relinquished an 
 office, benefice, or dignity, even of the same kind as 
 one which they had previously held, must again 
 make profession of faith, in the manner just pre¬ 
 scribed. Any one who neglects to make this profes¬ 
 sion without just cause is to be admonished after a 
 suitable time; should he then prove contumacious he 
 is to be punished with privation of his office, benefice 
 or dignity, and of the revenue accruing therefrom. 
 
 Progressive Spiritual Church. See New Thought. 
 
 Prohibition—I. Definition.— Prohibition, as 
 commonly spoken of and practically so understood, 
 can best be defined specifically as the forbidding by 
 civil law of the manufacture, sale and transporta¬ 
 tion of intoxicating liquor for beverage purposes, 
 exception being made in the case of liquor when 
 used for scientific, commercial, medicinal and sac¬ 
 ramental purposes. As so defined it must be 
 clearly distinguished from both temperance and 
 total abstention. The former is a virtue by which 
 one uses liquor or any other material thing in 
 reason, so that a man can drink an intoxicating 
 beverage and at the same time be perfectly tem¬ 
 perate by drinking the same in reasonable modera¬ 
 tion. Total abstinence differs likewise from Prohi¬ 
 bition in the sense that it is a voluntary act, 
 
 inspired by a variety of motives such as penance 
 or desire for better health or as a mere exercise of 
 will-power or from physical dislike, whereas Prohi¬ 
 bition is imposed by force of law and is not neces¬ 
 sarily a virtue. It is important to keep these 
 distinctions clear. All decent people advocate 
 temperance, many practise total abstinence, but 
 there is a sharp and bitter division of sentiment 
 on the question of Prohibition. 
 
 II. General Principles.— It is manifest that 
 Prohibition can have no justification on the ground 
 of any inherent and essential evil in liquor. All 
 material things, whether drink or food or clothing, 
 etc., are the creations, either actually or potentially, 
 of God, Who meant man tc use and enjoy them 
 rationally. Matter is not evil in se. Long ago the 
 Church condemned such fantastic philosophy when 
 battling with the Manichean sects. Alcohol, as 
 such, therefore is no more evil than wheat or 
 water or fruit. Were it otherwise, it is strange 
 that the Creator should have so universally pro¬ 
 vided nature with the power to produce alcohol. 
 
 The only premise, therefore, at all justifying a 
 discussion of Prohibition relates to the abuse of 
 alcohol, exactly the same as if it were a discussion 
 on the abuses of marriage or political government 
 or eating or dressing or playing. Theoretically 
 most Prohibitionists would admit this, though 
 practically their extreme language would indicate 
 that they do ascribe some sort of essential evil to 
 liquor as such. At all events, the only possible 
 ground for discussion of the drink problem is the 
 abuse of drink. Any other discussion is futile and 
 necessarily endless. Moreover, Prohibition is not 
 necessarily a religious or even moral issue. It be¬ 
 comes so only when the abuses of alcohol affect 
 the morality of its victims, as can be said with 
 equal truth of the abuses of the theatre or dancing 
 or dressing. This should particularly be borne in 
 mind in view of the tendency here in the United 
 States to promote Prohibition through religious 
 agencies, in fact by an appeal to religious fanati¬ 
 cism. Equally important is it to keep in mind 
 that Prohibition cannot be based upon Scriptural 
 grounds. Whilst the Bible of course utters many 
 admonitions against drunkenness, it is manifestly 
 indifferent concerning the use of drink which it 
 evidently recognizes as an universal human cus¬ 
 tom. Only a fanatical textual criticism would 
 attempt to distort isolated texts or particular words 
 into a universal condemnation of drink. In this 
 connection it is significant that Christ’s very first 
 miracle was the changing of water into wine. His 
 selection of wine for the Eucharistic sacrifice com¬ 
 pletely throws out of court any appeal of Prohibi¬ 
 tionists to the Bible. It is true that the extremists 
 among them endeavor to show that He used the 
 unfermented juice of the grape, but, as above 
 observed, this is a fanatic texual criticism gone 
 mad, and is moreover in direct opposition to the 
 universal interpretation of the Christian world 
 (both Catholic and Protestant) up to the present. 
 In a word, then, the whole discussion of the ques¬ 
 tion of Prohibition resolves itself down to a ques¬ 
 tion of the abuse of alcohol. The only question 
 to be seriously discussed is whether or not this 
 abuse has become such a grave menace to the 
 political, economic or moral life of society that to 
 preserve itself from destruction society must either 
 altogether abolish its use or restrain it within 
 reasonable bounds. 
 
 III. History. —The United States is the only 
 civilized nation of any size or importance, past or 
 present, which has attempted real and absolute 
 Prohibition. (For apparent or unimportant excep- 
 
PROHIBITION 
 
 610 
 
 PROHIBITION 
 
 tions see below under Europe. It, therefore, merits 
 most attention, though its efforts m that dl [ ect }°" 
 will be seen in clearer relief, if we describe also the 
 less drastic efforts of other countries, to solve the 
 
 drink problem. . . , 
 
 (1) The United States .—Prohibition as above 
 
 defined, i. e., a forbidding of liquor by force of 
 civil law, may be said to have come into being 
 about the middle of the nineteenth century Before 
 that moral suasion had been the only agent used m 
 combating the increasing evils of drinking. But 
 the year 1850 the State of Maine appealed to the 
 new method of force by formally passing a state¬ 
 wide prohibition law. This can be said to be the 
 beginning of the idea that the civil law was the 
 best agent to stop drunkenness: it was the bnth of 
 Prohibition as such. The idea spread with surpris¬ 
 ing rapidity and by 1860 twelve States had followed 
 the example of Maine, among them some like 
 Rhode Island and New York, which are now bit¬ 
 terly opposed to Prohibition. By 1890 others had 
 joined, bringing the total up to seventeen. Ih lto 
 first stage of the movement proved, however, to be 
 only a sort of preliminary skirmish. 
 
 For some ten years or so a hopeless fight was 
 carried on by the National Prohibition Party at 
 the customary elections, but some dozen years ago, 
 a new and powerful factor began to make itself 
 felt in the advent of the Anti-Saloon League, to 
 the unremitting efforts of which is now due Consti¬ 
 tutional Prohibition in the United States ihis 
 body was from the start skillfully organized bold 
 to the point of unscrupulousness in its political 
 methods and apparently enormously financed. With 
 clear-headed intelligence it concentrated its attack 
 upon what even those opposed to Prohibition 
 recognized and still recognize as the undefensibie 
 element of the liquor question, namely, the saloon. 
 
 The old ale-house or road-house, with whatever 
 abuses, was after all a rather decent affair, cele¬ 
 brated in song and interwoven with much romance 
 and venerable tradition, but the saloon which took 
 its place in American life was seldom respectable 
 and only too often a nest for the lowest elements 
 in our social and political life. With rare intelli¬ 
 gence, then, this new foe of drink concentrated its 
 attacks upon it exclusively, thereby bringing to its 
 aid all those decent people who, even though di ink¬ 
 ers themselves, could not countenance such a social 
 
 Ca With equal intelligence, though unfortunately 
 not altogether honest, the Anti-Saloon League 
 made an emotional appeal to what it called tne 
 church/’ the church being, however at most a 
 certain radical element of Evangelistic Protestant¬ 
 ism chiefly Methodists, who have always been 
 opposed to many forms of amusement enjoyed by 
 other Christians. So powerful was this ally that it 
 is not too much to say that this religious body was 
 more responsible than any other factor in bunging 
 about Prohibition. Lastly, the Anti-Saloon League 
 with consummate skill engineered a political cam- 
 at small local political units, especially m country 
 paign which has no equal in American politics. At 
 first neglectful of national politics, it prepared the 
 way to enter the national field by nibbling away 
 districts, where heavier pressure could be brought 
 to bear upon the individual politician or omce- 
 seeker, particularly where that pressure could be 
 applied through the medium of religious or social 
 ostracism. Moreover, the small country unit of¬ 
 fered a more fertile field for an appeal to senti¬ 
 mentality and fanaticism than could be found m 
 the more liberal city life. Such a campaign was 
 all the more subtle inasmuch as its demands for 
 
 local option appealed to the sense of liberty and 
 local pride of a small political unit, which could 
 not be expected to be farsighted enough to foresee 
 that local option was only the means whereby to 
 attain universal Prohibition, as subsequent events 
 have amply proved, for surely, no Prohibitionist 
 would now advocate local option, but rather bit¬ 
 terly oppose it. 
 
 The prohibition movement, so skillfully directed, 
 found an indirect ally in the very political spirit 
 of the early years of the present century. Radical¬ 
 ism was rampant in politics. New political pan¬ 
 aceas were the visionary cure-alls. A sort of 
 fanaticism was in the very air. That this helped 
 the “dry” forces is evident from the fact of the 
 prevalence of radicalism in the Southern and 
 Western States which have been the mainstay of 
 Prohibition in its later stage. At all events, the 
 Anti-Saloon League made an amazing progress. 
 From the local county or township it spread to the 
 State, until finally it had enough States in line to 
 force through the Constitutional Amendment. The 
 progress was so swift that the people were taken by 
 surprise. The fact was accomplished when many 
 even yet deluded themselves into thinking that it 
 
 could not happen. . . . , 
 
 The peculiar method of passing Constitutional 
 amendments favored the “drys.” By this method 
 an amendment must be submitted not to a popu¬ 
 lar vote but to the Legislatures of the various 
 States. This gave the Anti-Saloon League the ad¬ 
 vantage of bringing the familiar pressure to bear 
 upon individual legislators, with the result that 
 some Legislatures voted in direct defiance of the 
 well-known wishes of the people. In Maryland, 
 for instance, the Legislature ratified the amend¬ 
 ment notwithstanding the fact that only shortly 
 before the State had gone wet. The most extreme 
 Prohibitionist will admit that had the amendment 
 been submitted to a popular vote throughout the 
 United States the issue would have been at least 
 doubtful. The passing of it by the Legislatures, 
 therefore, cannot be taken as an adequate ex¬ 
 pression of the will of the people. 
 
 As to the effect so far of Prohibition, it is hard 
 to judge. In so far as it has eliminated the old 
 saloon, or at least made the return of _ the old 
 saloon impossible so far as public recognition goes, 
 it has done good. But, when that is said, any other 
 alleged benefits are at best doubtful. Undoubt¬ 
 edly crime has increased. Of course, this may be 
 equally due to the lowering of moral standards 
 brought on by the great War. But, it is significant, 
 to say the least, that the great moral regeneration 
 predicted by the Prohibitionists has not material¬ 
 ized. Equally difficult is it to estimate whether or 
 not drinking has decreased. Certainly in the large 
 centres it has not, the hospitals in these cities 
 showing frequently an increase of alcoholic patients. 
 Moreover, millions are making home wines and 
 beer who before perhaps never or seldom drank, 
 and the mere fact that the last Congress was asked 
 by the Prohibition forces for some ten million 
 dollars wherewith to suppress illicit liquor traffic is 
 sufficient proof that the amendment is violated as 
 much as it is observed. n 
 
 Perhaps the most serious result of it all lies in 
 the feeling of resentment created by it and the 
 startling impetus it has given to the invasion of 
 personal liberties by the State. The resentment 
 shows itself in a contempt not only for the Consti¬ 
 tution itself but for all law as law, for law is being 
 more and more regarded as a tyrant, whereas the 
 handing over to the Federal Government of the 
 police powers of the individual States would seem 
 
PROHIBITION 
 
 611 
 
 PROHIBITION 
 
 to be taking down the last barrier against Federal 
 encroachments upon local liberty, and making of 
 the old-time “sovereign State” a mere geographical 
 unit in a huge political homogeneity, with a head 
 at Washington possessing limitless powers. If this 
 be true, and it seems incontrovertibly so, then 
 Prohibition has not merely abolished liquor but it 
 has altered that concept of government as framed 
 by the Fathers of the Republic and substitutes 
 something which would nev,er have been accepted 
 by the signers of the Constitution had they fore¬ 
 seen its possibility. It marks a change in the 
 whole concept of government in the United States. 
 
 For these reasons Prohibition cannot in any 
 sense be termed a jait accompli in the United 
 States, because the struggle is no longer between 
 decency and the saloon, which has passed away 
 forever, but between lovers of liberty or of consti¬ 
 tutional guarantees of the same and what seem to 
 them a tyrannical band of fanatics. On the side 
 of lighter wines and beer are found as many up¬ 
 right and'religious people as can be mustered by 
 the Prohibitionists. There is a respectable element 
 (how numerous it is hard to say) which feels that 
 the question has not been settled justly and wisely 
 in spite of the Eighteenth Amendment, and this 
 element is apparently determined to fight until a 
 just decision be reached, not only as regards the 
 mere question of drink, but still more so as re- 
 rards the more important questions of liberty and 
 States rights as opposed to a Federal Socialistic 
 government. All that one can say now is that the 
 drink question is far from being settled. 
 
 (2) Europe .—No European country has yet 
 adopted Prohibition'as such. At the beginning of 
 the great War Russia, by a hasty imperial decree, 
 abolished the manufacture and sale of vodka, 
 which act was hailed by Prohibitionists as a great 
 victory for their cause. But it should be noted 
 that the local communities were still allowed the 
 privilege of local option in regard to other alco¬ 
 holic drinks of a milder form, like beer and wine. 
 So also Finland attempted Prohibition in 1909, but 
 was prevented from putting it into effect by the 
 Russian authorities, and even that attempt permit¬ 
 ted light beer. Likewise Iceland, a Danish colony, 
 with less than 80,000 inhabitants, in 1915 adopted 
 a drastic Prohibition similar to that in the United 
 States, but it allowed spiritous drinks containing 
 2% weight per cent of alcohol, and, moreover, 
 latest news asserts that a reversal of this law has 
 taken place in the 1922 elections. The whole situa¬ 
 tion is too insignificant and uncertain to warrant 
 its citation as an exception to the above general 
 assertions. Outside of the United States, there¬ 
 fore, only Mohammedan countries enjoy the theo¬ 
 retical honor of being Prohibitionary, though even 
 there practice, as usual, does not follow theory. It 
 is interesting to note in this connection that the 
 Prohibition question has come to some prominence 
 in Turkey, owing to the more liberal Moham¬ 
 medans interpreting the Prophet’s forbidding of 
 “wine” as referring strictly to “wine”—hence their 
 indulgence in beer, whiskey and brandy, a casuistry 
 which rules out even Mohammedans from the list 
 of absolute Prohibitionists. Moreover, Moham¬ 
 medanism with its polygamy can hardly be held 
 up as a moral criterion for Christian civilized 
 peoples. 
 
 But, Europe has its drink problem, all the more 
 acute since the war. A detailed review of it in 
 every country is not possible here, but it is well to 
 rote two characteristics of the European way of 
 dealing with the problem, in the hope that a study 
 of them will help Americans to handle it more 
 
 intelligently than they have hitherto done. The 
 first thing which an American must note with 
 humiliation is that in Europe the intricate prob¬ 
 lems associated with liquor laws are not left to the 
 mercy of the propagandist or interested legislator. 
 Europe attempts at least to clear the way through 
 scientific enquiries by men of eminence and 
 authority. For instance, in France the French 
 Academy of Medicine has long labored with it. 
 France was likewise one of the prime movers in 
 the formation of the International Committee for 
 the Scientific Study of the Alcohol question. Nor¬ 
 way, once the most intemperate of nations, has, 
 through its Alcohol Commission, put through what 
 is perhaps the most intelligent alcohol legislation 
 in the world. European intelligence has been far 
 ahead of American, which so far has never ap¬ 
 proached the subject with scientific calm, but has 
 handed it over to crude fanatics and equally crude 
 and often politically corrupt legislators. The result 
 is that Europeans do achieve some real results in 
 the way of temperance, while we flounder around 
 in a hopeless tangle of a multitude of laws which 
 are only more or less obeyed and with an ever 
 increasing bitterness against such laws. 
 
 The second point noticeable in European meth¬ 
 ods is their wisdom in confining their energies to 
 the abolition or at least drastic control of strong 
 distilled spirits like vodka, whiskey and brandy, but 
 allowing a reasonable liberty in favor of the lighter 
 fermented beverages like beer and wine. It is un¬ 
 deniable that the drink problem goes hand in hand 
 with distilled spirits; that sobriety goes hand in 
 hand with light wines and beer. Take, for in¬ 
 stance, France. Fifty or sixty years ago France 
 was one of the soberest countries of Europe, though 
 every Frenchman drank wine every day. Now, it 
 has come up very high in the list of alcoholics, the 
 reason being simply that according to all authori¬ 
 ties, various forms of distilled liquors have more 
 and more supplanted wine as a national beverage. 
 The same is true for Italy. So long as the Italians 
 stuck to their wine, they had absolutely no drink 
 problem. Neither had Spain and Portugal, but 
 these historically sober countries now have a drink 
 problem due to the increasing use of whiskey, a 
 custom introduced chiefly by returning emigrants 
 from America. Europe, therefore, with admirable 
 prudence and with good results is concentrating its 
 energies upon strong spirits and endeavoring to 
 bring its wine and beer drinking peoples to their 
 old sober ways. 
 
 From all this the United States can learn some 
 wisdom in handling its drink problem. It cannot 
 hope to reach any permanent results until it first 
 places the study and control of the problem in the 
 hands of men who, by experience and scientific 
 study, are qualified to handle it. It will forever 
 remain an acute problem, prolific of evils, so long 
 as it is left to the mercy of emotional fanatics or 
 timid and perhaps corrupt legislators, the former 
 of whom take no account of psychology and the 
 latter of whom take account only of votes. Only 
 in this way can the problem be shorn of the emo¬ 
 tional frenzy and political corruption and bitter 
 feeling which now characterize it here on both 
 sides. It will remain insoluble so long as Ameri¬ 
 cans persist in their crude methods of letting it be 
 handled by amateurs. Such a view should, it would 
 seem, meet with universal approval of sane men. 
 
 It is the opinion, likewise, of an ever-increasing 
 number of observers that America should follow 
 the example of Europe in permitting the reasonable 
 use of wine and beer, while repressing the stronger 
 spirits. Every person of decent moral standards, 
 
PROPERTY 
 
 612 
 
 PROPERTY 
 
 drinkers as well as non-drinkers, is glad to see the 
 old saloon abolished, for it was an evil. Equally 
 would all like to see whiskey restricted to a very 
 narrow role, but if the experience of Europe 
 and that of the United States during the past tew 
 years counts at all, it is the merest common sense 
 to allow wine and beer under reasonable contro . 
 At all events it was the essence of political tolly to 
 try to force absolute prohibition all at once upon 
 many millions of people who had been accustome 
 to drink from time immemorial. 
 
 IV. Prohibition and the Mass— The position 
 of the Church regarding the matter for the Uuchar- 
 istic Sacrifice is too well known to warrant discu.- 
 sion. For detailed discussion of the Church s teach¬ 
 ing and practice on this subject see UK., V-*>»*. 
 She considers as invalid any juice of the grape 
 which has been de-alcoholized. She requires wine 
 in the plain sense of the word—wme from tiie 
 grape. A more practical question, however, is how 
 far the Mass may be affected by the Eighteenth 
 Amendment. It is, of course, true that that amend¬ 
 ment restricts its prohibition to ‘‘beverage pro¬ 
 poses,” and that the Volstead Law specifically 
 interprets that expression as permitting wine ioi 
 sacramental purposes. Congress could not do 
 otherwise without violating the Constitution, which 
 forbids Congress to interfere with the exercise ot 
 religion. But all this does not allay the misgivings 
 of more far-sighted Catholics, because Congress can 
 throw so many drastic and irritating regulations 
 around the getting of wine as to seriously interfere 
 with its legitimate procuring and in some cases 
 practically make the same impossible, all the more 
 so when the administration of these regulations 
 would be in the hands of fanatical bigots some of 
 whom have not hesitated to declare themselves in 
 favor of absolutely prohibiting wine for Mass. 
 That this is no idle apprehension is manifest from 
 the restrictions thrown around the issuing of per¬ 
 mits of whiskey for medicinal purposes, whicfi 
 have deterred all but a few physicians from pre¬ 
 scribing it and druggists from carrying it in stock. 
 Significant is it also that on its face the Eighteenth 
 Amendment gives no such powers, these powers 
 seeming to have been read into it by over-zealous 
 officials. If, then, they can practically put liquor 
 for medicinal purposes out of business, why can 
 they not do the same for Mass wine? Such an 
 eventuality is at least conceivable. 
 
 Again, whilst Congress cannot make any laws 
 establishing a religion or prohibiting the free exer¬ 
 cise thereof, any individual State can do so. The 
 Constitution is no guarantee of religious liberty 
 except so far as Congress is concerned. It is not 
 inconceivable, therefore, that a State, roused to 
 frenzy by a bigoted wave of fanaticism, might 
 actually attempt such a monstrous injustice, all 
 the more so as it has the present Eighteenth 
 Amendment for a -sort of precedent and encourage¬ 
 ment in such prohibitory legislation. The situation, 
 to say the least, excites misgivings. 
 
 The unscientific and emotional character of the 
 Prohibition movement, at least in the United 
 States, is reflected in the inferior quality, despite 
 the enormous quantity, of its literature. Few 
 works of permanent value are accessible to the 
 general reader. Perhaps the sanest and best in¬ 
 formed and most complete .study of the drink 
 problem is Korn’s “Alcohol and Society” (New 
 York, 1916). More advanced readers will find 
 works in English and other languages cited by him. 
 For a full discussion of the bearing of religion—the 
 
 Bible in particular—upon the question, see Wasson, 
 “Religion and Drink” (New York, 1914). 
 
 Lucian Johnston. 
 
 Property, Ecclesiastical (cf. C. E., XII-466b) 
 —The Code emphasizes once more that the Catholic 
 Church and the Apostolic See have an innate right, 
 independent of the civil power, of acquiring, holding, 
 and administering temporal property for the at¬ 
 taining of their proper ends; and individual churches 
 and moral persons erected by ecclesiastical authority 
 as legal entities have also a similar right m accordance 
 with the sacred canons. The Church, moreover, may, 
 independently of the civil pow r er, exact from the faith¬ 
 ful whatever is necessary for Divine service, the 
 decent support of the clergy and other ministers, and 
 the ends for which the Church exists. It may acquire 
 temporal goods by all means lawful to others, the 
 ownership of ecclesiastical property vests, under the 
 supreme authority of the Holy See, m the moral 
 person who acquired it legitimately; if that person 
 passes away the dominion accrues to its immediate 
 superior, full consideration, however, being given to 
 the wishes of the founder or donor, the rules govern¬ 
 ing the moral person, and outstanding rights. 
 
 Acquisition.— Anyone who, by ecclesiastical or 
 natural law, is competent to deal with his property 
 freely, may devote it to pious uses even by a donation 
 causa mortis or by will. In bequeathing property to 
 the Church the requirements of the civil law should 
 be fulfilled if possible; if through any defect the 
 testament is held invalid in the civil court, nev€ >r- 
 theless the heirs must be warned to carryout the 
 wishes of the testator. The ordinary is the executoi 
 of bequests or donations for religious purposes, he 
 must see that the donor’s or testator s wishes are 
 carried out, and those delegated to do so must 
 account to him. Any clause in a testament contrary 
 to this right of the ordinary is to be considered non¬ 
 existent. A cleric or religious who receives property 
 in trust for pious purposes must inform the ordinary 
 about his trusteeship, the property and its obliga¬ 
 tions; if the donor expressly and entirely torbids 
 this the trusteeship must be refused. If the trust to a 
 religious is in favor of a church, or of pious works or 
 of the inhabitants of a place or diocese, the ordinary 
 to be informed is the local ordinary, otherwise it is 
 the ordinary of the religious. If there is a just reason 
 for making a change in carrying out a testators 
 will, permission is to be obtained from the -Holy 
 See, unless the testator has expressly authorized 
 the local ordinary to act. If, however, through no 
 fault of the administrators it is impossible to carry 
 out the provisions, on account, for instance, ol the 
 small size of the estate or for another reason, the 
 ordinary, after consulting the interested parties, may, 
 in an endeavor to carry out the testator s wishes as 
 far as possible, reduce all the bequests proportion¬ 
 ately, except that the number of Masses may never 
 be reduced, except with the express permission ol the 
 
 Holy See. , TT . a 
 
 Alienation. —The consent of the Holy See is 
 required for a valid contract to alienate any treasure 
 or any church property worth oyer 30,000 francs 
 ($6000), or to incur debts or obligations exceeding 
 that sum. If the goods are valued at 1000 francs 
 ($200) or less, the permission of the bishop, who is 
 to consult the council of administration (except in 
 case of things of trifling value) and also of those who 
 are interested, suffices. If the value lies between 
 the two figures mentioned, the consent of the cathedral 
 chapter and of the council of administration is also 
 needed. If part of the property has already been 
 alienated, the fact must be stated in applying tor 
 permission to sell more. The property is to be ap¬ 
 praised by an expert, and ought not to be sold below 
 
PROTECTIVE 
 
 613 
 
 PROTESTANT 
 
 the price he fixes; the sale should ordinarily be by 
 auction or at least it should be made known publicly, 
 and the property should go to the highest bidder, 
 everything considered without special permission of 
 the local ordinary; however, immovable church 
 property must not be sold or leased to its admin¬ 
 istrators or those related to them in the first or 
 second degree of consanguinity or affinity. The 
 church has the right of personal action against any 
 person (and his heirs) alienating church property 
 without the proper formalities, and a right of real 
 action against any holder, if the alienation was void. 
 If the alienation was invalid the action may be pur¬ 
 sued by the person alienating, his superior, their 
 successors in office or by any cleric of the church 
 that has suffered the injury. To mortgage or pledge 
 ecclesiastical property or to contract debts, the 
 permission of the legitimate superior mentioned above 
 is required; he is to consult those who are interested 
 and to provide for the liquidation of the debt as soon 
 as possible. 
 
 In leasing ecclesiastical property worth over 30,000 
 francs, for more than nine years, the consent of the 
 Holy See is needed. If for less than nine years, 
 or for more than that time, provided the value is 
 between 1000 and 30,000 francs, the consent of the 
 ordinary, cathedral chapter, council of administration 
 and of those interested, is needed; but for property of 
 this value, if the time does not exceed nine years, 
 the consent of those interested and of the ordinary, 
 after consulting the council, suffices, which is also 
 the case if the property is not valued over 1000 francs 
 and the time exceeds nine years. If the goods do not 
 exceed 1000 francs in value and the time is less than 
 nine years, the legitimate administrators can act 
 on notifying the ordinary. If the property is held by 
 emphyteusis (perpetual lease) the grantee cannot 
 redeem the rent without the proper superior’s au¬ 
 thority; the deed of grant must accept the ecclesi¬ 
 astical forum as alone competent to adjudicate in 
 any of the controversies that might arise between the 
 parties in connection with the property. 
 
 Alienation of church property without due permis¬ 
 sion is null and void; consequently the property must 
 be given back and the culprit must repair any injury 
 or loss his act has occasioned. The alienor and those 
 who consented to the alienation are liable to punish¬ 
 ment according to the value of the property involved. 
 If the object is worth less than 1000 francs the penalty 
 is left to the ecclesiastical superior’s discretion; if it is 
 valued between 1000 and 30,000 francs, the culprit, 
 if a patron, loses the right of patronage, an ad¬ 
 ministrator his office, a religious superior or oecomous 
 his office and his eligibility for any other office— 
 his superiors may impose further suitable penalties 
 —an ordinary and other clerics having an office, 
 benefice, dignity, or function in the Church, have to 
 pay for double the amount of injury, to the church 
 or pious work injured; other clerics are to be sus¬ 
 pended for a time fixed by the Holy See. In a case 
 in which the permission of the Holy See is required 
 by canon law and has been deliberately omitted, 
 those who have alienated the property, or consent 
 to this, and those who have bought or received it 
 incur unreserved excommunication. It may be re¬ 
 marked that the canons in which these penalties are 
 laid down speaks expressly only of alienation, nothing 
 being said therein about loans, mortgages or leases. 
 
 Apart from this alienation, those w r ho usurp or hold 
 personally or otherwise the temporary property or 
 rights of the Roman Church'incur excommunication 
 reserved specially to the Holy See, and the offenders, 
 if clerics, are to be deprived of whatever dignities, 
 benefices, offices or pensions they may hold and 
 declared incapable of acquiring them in future. 
 Furthermore, if anyone presumes, personally or by 
 
 another, to convert to his own use any ecclesiastical 
 property whatsoever or to prevent the proper parties 
 from enjoying the income or return therefrom he 
 falls under excommunication and remains there till 
 he makes restitution or removes the obstacle he placed 
 and asks absolution from the Holy See; if he was 
 the patron of the church or property he loses his right 
 of patronage eo ipso, if he was a cleric (even if he 
 only consented to the usurpation), he loses his 
 benefices, is rendered incapable of receiving others 
 and is to be suspended from exercising his orders, 
 even after absolution and reparation made, if his 
 ordinary thinks fit. These penalties, however, are 
 not incurred by ordinary thieves of church property, 
 nor by city officials who acquire church property for 
 the city but not for themselves. 
 
 Prescription. —The Church accepts, as regards 
 ecclesiastical property in general, the principles of the 
 civil law in the various countries regarding prescription 
 in the matter of acquiring or losing the ownership. 
 But prescriptive rights do not arise in the case of: (a) 
 what is ordered by natural or positive Divine law, or 
 what cannot be granted except by Apostolic privilege; 
 
 (b) spiritual rights, for which a layman is incompetent, 
 if there is question of prescription in favor of a layman; 
 
 (c) the definitive fixed boundaries of ecclesiastical prov¬ 
 inces, dioceses, parishes, vicariates Apostolic, prefec¬ 
 tures Apostolic, abbeys or prelacies nullius; (d) Mass 
 stipends or obligations; (e) an ecclesiastical benefice 
 without title; (f) the right of visitation and obedience, 
 such that an ecclesiastical person cannot be visited by 
 or is not subject to any prelate; (g) the payment of 
 the cathedraticum. Sacred things in possession of a 
 private individual can be acquired through prescrip¬ 
 tion by a private person, but they must not be used 
 for profane purposes; if, however, they have lost their 
 consecration or blessing they can be used for profane, 
 but nor for sordid uses. One ecclesiastical person may 
 acquire a sacred thing from another similar body by 
 prescription, but a private person can thus acquire 
 sacred things only from a private person. Immovable 
 property, and movable valuable property, rights and 
 actions, whether personal or real, belonging to the 
 Holy See may be prescribed in a hundred years; those 
 belonging to other ecclesiastical moral persons in 
 thirty years. The prescriptive right does not arise, 
 however, unless there was good faith not only at the 
 beginning but throughout the required period. 
 
 Codex juris canonici, can. 1495-1517; 1529-1543; Ayrinhac, 
 Penal Legislation (New York, 1920), 293-303. 
 
 Protective Society, Catholic. See Catholic 
 Protective Society. 
 
 Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States 
 of America, (cf. C. E., XII—493c).—In the General 
 Conventions of 1910 and 1913 the proposal to 
 change the name of this church was defeated. The 
 question, which had been a burning one since 
 about 1890, developed two extreme parties, one 
 desiring the church to be designated as the Ameri¬ 
 can Catholic Church (or some equivalent title), 
 while the other desired more clear Protestant des¬ 
 ignation and affiliation. The change was not pro¬ 
 posed directly; it was to be accomplished in the 
 revision of the Prayer Book. Excluding the change 
 of name, a committee on Prayer Book revision 
 was appointed in 1913, among its chief sponsors 
 being those who desired to eliminate everything 
 savoring of Ritualism. This committee, after bring¬ 
 ing in recommendations similar to those proposed 
 by Anglicans for the Book of Common Prayer 
 (q. v.), has been continued over the conventions 
 of 1916 and 1919 and final action is promised in the 
 Convention of 1922. The General Convention of 
 1919 rejected a proposal to prohibit the remar¬ 
 riage of divorced persons. 
 
PROTESTANTISM 
 
 014 
 
 PROTESTANTISM 
 
 The Anglican community of the Atqnement, a 
 Protestant Episcopal religious community consist¬ 
 ing of 2 men and 15 women following the Francis¬ 
 can rule were received into the Catholic Church 30 
 October, 1909, and in 1919 the Protestant Episco¬ 
 pal bishop of Delaware, Frederick J. Kinsman, 
 made his submission, these being the two most 
 notable cases in a series of conversions. 
 
 The Episcopalian Church has been prominent in 
 its efforts toward church union in recent years. 
 Several cases have occurred of admission of non- 
 Episcopalian ministers to Episcopalian pulpits, and 
 of local “concordats” with dissenters, a notable in¬ 
 stance being the tentative arrangement (later 
 abandoned), with the Congregationalists for the 
 admission of ministers of the latter to Episcopal 
 ordination while continuing to minister in the 
 Congregational Church (see Congregationalism). 
 In 1922 a quasi-organic union with the Hungarian 
 Reformed Church was effected, the ministers of 
 the latter, without repudiating their existing or¬ 
 ders, agreeing to accept Episcopal ordination. Par¬ 
 ticipation by the Protestant Episcopal Church in 
 the Congress on Christian Work in Latin America 
 in 1916 (see Protestantism) was strongly opposed 
 by those who did not desire to see their church 
 committed to a policy of pan-Protestantism, and 
 who considered such a congress an intrusion on 
 Latin America. The Board of Missions, however, 
 voted to participate and five members resigned 
 their connection with the board as a consequence. 
 The leading work of this church along the lines of 
 reunion was the inauguration at the General 
 Convention of 1910 of arrangements preliminary 
 to a World Conference on Faith and Order (see 
 Union of Christendom), to consider the ques¬ 
 tion of church union. 
 
 The Protestant Episcopal Church in the United 
 States consists of sixty-eight dioceses (1922). 
 Home mission work is carried on for the white 
 population, for Indians, negroes (there is now a 
 negro suffragan bishop), Swedes, Japanese, and the 
 deaf mutes in. the south and west. A fund of 
 $’9,000,000 has been raised as a sustentation fund 
 for the sick and retired clergy. 
 
 Foreign missionary work is carried on in Africa, 
 China, Japan, Haiti, Brazil, Cuba and Mexico. 
 They reported in 1916, 463 stations, 346 American 
 missionaries, 247 churches, 346 schools, 14 hospi¬ 
 tals, 6 asylums, 17,551 members. In China a un¬ 
 ion was effected in 1912 with the Anglicans of 
 England and Canada. 
 
 The educational system of the Protestant Epis¬ 
 copal church includes 14 theological institutions 
 with 462 students in 1916, and 3 distinctively 
 church colleges, while the non-sectarian Columbia 
 University, Hobart College, Trinity College 
 (Hartford, Conn., not to be confused with the 
 Catholic institution of the same name in Washing¬ 
 ton, D. C.), and Lehigh University have a loose 
 connection with the church. There are also about 
 122 academic institutions with 12,000 students, and 
 261 parochial schools with 14,000 pupils. In 1922 
 the Protestant Episcopal Church reported in the 
 United States, 8103 churches, 5677 ministers, and 
 1,104,099 communicants. 
 
 The Reformed Episcopal Church, an offshoot Qf 
 the Protestant Episcopal Church, was founded in 
 1873 by Bishop George Cummins of the latter 
 church, in protest against criticism directed against 
 him for having participated in a communion service 
 in a Presbyterian church. He was joined by several 
 clergymen and a few laymen, all of whom were 
 opposed to the “ritualistic” tendencies of Episco- 
 palianism at the time. In doctrine this sect accepts 
 
 substantially the Thirty-nine Articles of the Protest¬ 
 ant Episcopal Church, but specifically rejects the 
 doctrine that “regeneration is inseparably connected 
 with Baptism”; it considers episcopacy merely as a 
 desirable form of government, not a divine ordi¬ 
 nance; it rejects the distinction between clergy and 
 laity, holding that ministers are merely included 
 in the same way as all believers in “a royal priest¬ 
 hood.” Since 1905 there has been a decrease of 22 
 churches, and 23 ministers. In 1921 there were 65 
 churches, 65 ministers, and 11,806 members (13,022 
 in 1922). 
 
 Kinsman, Salve Mater (New York, 1920); MacGill, Salve 
 Mater and the Episcopal Church in Catholic World, CXI (1920), 
 762; Keeler, Protestant Hungarians and Episcopalians in 
 America, XXVI (1922), 344; Proposed Amendments to Psalter 
 to be submitted to Convention, 1922 (New \ork, 1921); Second 
 Report of the Joint Commission on the Book of Common Prayer 
 (New York, 1919); Third Report ditto (New York, 1922); Living 
 Church Annual (Chicago); Religious Bodies, 1916 (Washington, 
 1919); Year Book of the Churches (New York, annual). 
 
 Gerald Shaughnessy. 
 
 Protestantism (cf. C. E., XII—495c) will be 
 treated under three heads: 1) theology, or attitude 
 toward creed, faith or doctrine; 2) work; 
 3) statistics. 
 
 I. Theology. —Protestantism has in recent years 
 tended to become more and more “liberal” in its 
 attitude toward theology, creed, or “creedal state¬ 
 ments.” Both as cause and as effect the fever for 
 some kind of reunion (see Union of Christen¬ 
 dom), especially prevalent since 1910, brings out 
 clearly that many, if not most, of the sects of 
 Protestantism have already given up, or are will¬ 
 ing to give up, belief in revealed truth as the test 
 of a Christian. Most sects, it is true, continue 
 officially to hold a “creed” but their indifferent at¬ 
 titude toward the question of the relation of the 
 individual to the creed may be summed up in 
 various statements made at the preliminary meet¬ 
 ing of the World Conference on Faith and Order 
 (Geneva, August, 1920). “There was no idea,when 
 the Nicene Creed was formulated, of requiring the 
 subscription of the laity. ... I desire that there 
 may be as little inquisition as possible into the 
 opinions and beliefs of private individuals” (Re¬ 
 port, p. 63). That the Anglican bishop who uttered 
 these words could reconcile them with his previous 
 statement that “a united church can never come 
 into being or exist without articles of faith,” and 
 his subsequent defense of the Nicene Creed as 
 “obligatory upon the Church’s teachers” and as the 
 only “basis on which any religion can maintain 
 itself in the long run without becoming a, mere 
 theism,” indicates a truly puzzling confusion of 
 ideas as to what faith means. Again another 
 Anglican bishop argues along the same lines: 
 “What is the word, creed? . . . It is always the 
 expression of the Christian experience, burning 
 intimate in the very heart, deep down in the 
 soul. . . . It is not a statement. It is unfair to 
 say that a creed is an intellectual statement.” Yet 
 he too stands uncompromisingly for the Nicene 
 Creed. In answering him a Presbyterian rejects 
 his distinction, and adds, “it seems incredible to 
 me that spiritual communion in any way depends 
 upon holding the same intellectual statement of 
 truth.” While the foregoing opinions are not en¬ 
 tirely official utterances on the part of any church, 
 it remains true, however, that the men quoted are 
 representative leaders of Protestant thought, vested 
 with authority to present to the Conference at 
 least to a certain extent, the views and official 
 attitude of their churches. It is only fair to add 
 that it is precisely the question of creed which so 
 far has proved the greatest obstacle to the success 
 
PROTESTANTISM 
 
 615 
 
 PROTESTANTISM 
 
 of such movements as the World Conference; a 
 delegate may indeed reject a creed as a trammel¬ 
 ling, binding, intellect-hampering ball and chain, 
 but the “creedal” and “non-creedal” churches, 
 (i. e. those that hold a creed as necessary and those 
 that reject its necessity respectively), are for all 
 that no nearer union today, and, what is logically 
 more remarkable, the various “non-creedal” sects 
 are equally unable to effect union among them¬ 
 selves, and in each case the true final reason for 
 failure is the insistence upon “creed.” 
 
 A correct interpretation of this anomaly is the 
 explanation that the churches have practically re¬ 
 jected the necessity of a creed for individual mem¬ 
 bers; but they retain the creed as obligatory on 
 the church and its teachers. In practice this dis¬ 
 tinction is not of very great value; an attitude of 
 indifferentism pervades the sects today, and the 
 doctrine of exclusive salvation (“Outside the church 
 there is no salvation”), though formerly held by 
 most of them is now practically rejected by the 
 majority. One minister, speaking against the 
 “useless multiplication of churches,” sums up very 
 well his ideas on tips point: “What a blessing it 
 would be if communicants of churches could rid 
 themselves of the idea that the only true church is 
 the one to which they belong. There is no church 
 that has fully apprehended Christian truth or that 
 mirrors flawlessly the ideals of Jesus Christ. There 
 are no ‘Christians only’ in the fullest sense of the 
 term. . . . God has not given to any one race, any 
 one nation, any one religion, a monopoly of Truth 
 or elected any particular communion to be the 
 custodian of orthodoxy, not even my own. . . .” 
 Such indifferentists do not perceive how utterly 
 unworthy of God it is to think that He should 
 purposely have failed to make any one church the 
 custodian of His revelation; they fail utterly to 
 realize how hopeless and futile, if their premises 
 be true, it w r ould be to cling to any church, which 
 by their admission has at most only a part of the 
 truth. 
 
 II. Work.— The facts set forth above go far to 
 explain the emphasis on the material rather than 
 the spiritual in foreign mission work. The belief 
 of the individual matters little hence rather is a 
 community approached as a whole with the inten¬ 
 tion of transforming them without regard to the 
 individuals into a “corporate Christian commun¬ 
 ity.” As a Baptist speaking of his own sect, words 
 which are applicable quite generally to Protestants, 
 says, “We share a transfer of emphasis from effort 
 to rescue individual souls from perdition to the 
 endeavor to create Christian communities. . . . 
 [Hence] we have no longer an exclusive or pre¬ 
 ponderant interest in evangelistic work in the 
 strict sense of the term, but found hospitals, main¬ 
 tain schools, conduct industrial work.” Naturally, 
 such works have a certain value, and in most cases 
 the good will of the promoters is also to be pre¬ 
 sumed; it is, how’ever, a strange anomaly to find 
 among those who at least theoretically still cling 
 to the doctrine of “justification by faith alone” 
 what is practically tantamount to the diametric¬ 
 ally opposite, “justification by works alone.” 
 
 A similar tendency to stress the material side is 
 noticeable also in domestic work, especially in the 
 United States. As significant examples it is suf¬ 
 ficient to mention the New Era Movement among 
 the Presbyterians, the Centenary “drive” of the 
 Methodists and the Tercentenary Fund of the 
 Congregationalists, in all of which rather excessive 
 emphasis was laid upon the financial side of relig¬ 
 ion and its works. Going further than any of the 
 instances cited, the Interchurch World Movement 
 
 illustrates well the point in question here, while 
 its brief span of life serves to indicate the futility 
 ol such movements when not firmly based on 
 spiritual foundations. This movement was launched 
 in December, 1918, as a union of Protestant organi¬ 
 zations in their “program of Christian service and 
 the performance of their common task.” Not 
 without some opposition it succeeded in eliciting 
 the support of about forty denominational and 
 interdenominational boards and societies. At first 
 ostensibly a co-operative movement of mission 
 boards and societies, it soon set its hand to other 
 works such as education, ministerial relief and pen¬ 
 sions, supervision of eleemosynary institutions, and 
 investigation of industrial conditions. Numbering 
 among its sponsors many prominent financial lead¬ 
 ers, it set out to acquire a fund of $336,000,009 
 with which to accomplish its purposes. Within a 
 comparatively short period $180,000,000 had been 
 raised and a vast organization was functioning at 
 a monthly expense of $1,000,000. About a year 
 after its inception, expenses were reduced to $75,000 
 monthly, when about twenty-two of the denomina¬ 
 tions co-operating signified their intention to with- 
 draw, while some, notably the Baptists and Presby¬ 
 terians, had definitely severed connections with the 
 movement. Finally, early in 1921, the organization 
 was forced to close its books and retire from busi¬ 
 ness, in debt to New York banks for large sums 
 advanced,—loans which the various denominations 
 which guaranteed them are gradually paying off. 
 
 Many reasons have been suggested as explain¬ 
 ing the failure of the movement. From a Catholic 
 point of view, it would seem (and this is the view 
 of most of the Protestant criticisms, of which there 
 were not a few), that the movement represented 
 the crassly material side of Protestantism and died 
 from sheer spiritual inanition. The very just criti¬ 
 cisms which many of the sects directed against it, 
 and its final collapse are rather to the credit of the 
 “orthodox” Protestants, although it must be admit¬ 
 ted that one of the strongly contributory causes of 
 the failure was the refusal of the “unchurched” to 
 support it with any great financial contributions, 
 they having been counted on to finance the cen¬ 
 tral organization while the denominational contri¬ 
 butions were to have been expended proportion¬ 
 ately among the denominations themselves.- 
 
 To sum up the general situation, while the '‘sav¬ 
 ing faith” (confidence in one’s justification) of the 
 early reformers is rather generally retained, faith 
 as meaning articles of belief to which intellectual 
 assent is to be given receives but slight attention 
 in Protestantism today. The “orthodox” still 
 strive to maintain the traditional doctrines, but 
 actually Protestantism is tending more and more 
 to resolve itself into, or at least to concentrate it¬ 
 self around, the one doctrine of the “Brotherhood 
 of Man,” more or less materially interpreted, for¬ 
 getting that the command on which that doctrine 
 is based is only the second of the Law, the first 
 duty being to love God, and forgetting also that 
 the first and higher duty of love of neighbor calls 
 us to minister to the soul of the individual before 
 we care for his body and his material welfare. The 
 Brotherhood of Man, in other words, means noth¬ 
 ing, or very little, unless interpreted in the light 
 of the eternal truths which are essentially un¬ 
 changeable, and which must forever be centered 
 around the Creation and the Incarnation and all 
 that those truths imply. 
 
 Under such conditions as outlined above it would 
 be natural to expect to find a disinclination on the 
 part of Protestants to enter the ministry. Such a 
 state of affairs exists; indeed so noticeable is it, 
 
PROTESTANTISM 
 
 G16 
 
 PROTESTANTISM 
 
 that many churches have sounded a note of alarm. 
 To cite conditions in the United States: in the 
 National Congregational Council of 1917 the presi¬ 
 dent of the Chicago Seminary stated that the de¬ 
 crease in the number of theological students had 
 progressed to such an extent that the church was 
 facing the most serious crisis since the Civil War. 
 There has been a steady decline also in the enroll¬ 
 ment of Episcopalian, Presbyterian and Baptist 
 theological students. In the latter sect in 1920, 
 189 ministers died, while only 245 were ordained, 
 leaving a gain of only 56, far too few to provide 
 for the demands of a growing church. The gen¬ 
 eral result is that in 1920, aecording to a report 
 made for the Federal Council of Churches, there 
 were 40,000 Protestant pulpits without pastors; in 
 the South alone there were said to be 3000 Bap¬ 
 tist, 1800 Methodist, 1000 Episcopalian, and 1000 
 Presbyterian churches without leaders. In 1921, 
 according to a writer in the “Independent” (20 
 August, 1921) 5000 Protestant pulpits became 
 
 vacant; 5000 more are expected to become vacant 
 in 1922; yet there were only 1600 seminary gradu¬ 
 ates in 1921, with prospects of even less in the year 
 following. Moreover, it is significant that the 
 writer just referred to (a Protestant) names as 
 the outstanding causes for the present Protestant 
 crisis, and for what he terms the failing influence 
 of Protestantism in the last generation (1) bad 
 theology (2) bad Christianity (3) bad Protestant¬ 
 ism. 
 
 United States Government statistics for minis¬ 
 ters for the period 1890 to 1916 are as follows: 
 number of Protestant ministers in the United 
 States in 1890, 101,870; in 1906, 149,653; in 1916, 
 171,509. The rate of gain from 1890 to 1906 was 
 somewhat less than 3% per year; for the following 
 ten years it was less than 1.5%, or about one-half 
 the former rate. 
 
 In England and Wales conditions are quite simi¬ 
 lar: in 1909 there were 10,125 dissenting clergy¬ 
 men, and 55,476 “local and lay preachers.” In 
 1915 there were 10,863 of the former and 54,449 of 
 the latter, showing a net loss of 289 for the period. 
 In 1901 there were 25,235 Anglican clergymen; in 
 1918 there were reported only 1'9,800 (with the 
 possibility that there may have been a few more 
 on the non-active list). It is true that the war 
 had a serious effect in this period, but nevertheless 
 we should expect an increase over the figures of 
 seventeen years before, if the churches were in a 
 healthy condition. 
 
 Contrasting with its rather moribund state from 
 the point of view of theology, Protestantism has of 
 late been making added efforts to penetrate the 
 Catholic countries of Europe and South America 
 through the medium of material resources. France, 
 Belgium, Italy, Poland, and other countries, after 
 the war, have become the center of the proselyting 
 efforts of the Protestants; and under the guise of 
 “humanitarian aid” they have sought to inject the 
 virus of religious division among those peoples. 
 Funds contributed to by American Catholics as 
 well as Protestants have been used to further this 
 propaganda, not directly always, but in many in¬ 
 stances none the less effectively. In Italy and in 
 Rome itself the proselyting activities were espe¬ 
 cially evident until the Holy Father finally called 
 upon the Knights of Columbus and the Paulists of 
 America to help counteract the propaganda. The 
 Holy Office (5 November, 1920), issued a letter to 
 the Bishops of the Church, warning them of the 
 activities of the Y. M. C. A. (q. v.) and similar or¬ 
 ganizations, and indicating the dangers to the Cath¬ 
 olic faith which lurked in accepting favors from 
 
 their hands. The Holy Office did not condemn the 
 “applied Christianity” of the associations. The edu¬ 
 cational and recreational features are to be com¬ 
 mended; but the Protestant rationalism and indif- 
 ferentism of the promoters exact a terrible toll in 
 return. That this is really the purpose of the Y. 
 M. C. A. and other similar societies, particularly 
 in their European work appears from their own 
 words, according to the letter of the Holy Office 
 which bases the following statement on a Y. M. 
 C. A. pamphlet published in Rome (“che cosa e la 
 Y. M. C. A.: cio che si propone, etc”): “This 
 society, indeed, makes profession of a sincere love 
 for young people, as if it had no dearer aim than 
 to give them facilities for corporal and mental de¬ 
 velopment; but at the same time it destroys their 
 faith and declares that it proposes to purify it, 
 and to impart a more perfect knowledge of life, 
 ‘above and apart from any religious system’.” 
 
 In the Western hemisphere Protestant propa¬ 
 ganda has been pushed strongly in Latin America, 
 although much proselytism has also been attempted 
 among Catholic immigrants in the United States. 
 The opening of the Panama Canal, various Pan- 
 American meetings, the Panama Pacific exposition, 
 and the commercial prospects of trade with South 
 American countries had for years turned attention 
 to Latin America. The sects which have in point 
 of fact never met with any striking success in that 
 field, now turned their attention thither. In the 
 Edinburgh World Missionary Conference of 1910 
 the delegates had practically been told, “Hands 
 off,” when the question of South America was 
 raised, the Anglican and German delegates par¬ 
 ticularly decrying any attempt to proselyte among 
 the Latin-American Catholics. The consensus of 
 opinion was that missionary efforts should be ex¬ 
 pended in non-Christian countries. The American 
 delegates, not satisfied with such an attitude, soon 
 after their return conceived the idea of a union 
 congress to consider the possibilities, methods, and 
 means, of a campaign “to win Latin America to 
 Christ” (sic). As a consequence the “Congress on 
 Christian Work in Latin America” was arranged 
 for, to. consist of a union meeting of delegates from 
 various churches. The proposal was generally 
 hailed with approval by the different sects. The 
 Missionary Society of the Protestant Episcopal 
 Church voted to participate, contrary to instruc¬ 
 tions from the General Convention of the church. 
 Recognizing the true nature of the movement, 
 three bishops and several of the clergy (including 
 Dr. Manning, who was later made a bishop), re¬ 
 signed in protest from the Board in 1915, one 
 bishop declaring that the conference was a direct 
 attack of one part of Christendom on another, and 
 that in such an affront to Roman Catholics he 
 would not take part. Meanwhile, after long dis¬ 
 cussion at the preliminary meetings, the following 
 invitation was sent to various Catholic leaders, in 
 the full knowledge, of course, that no Catholic 
 would accept such a call from such a source: “All 
 communions or organizations which accept Jesus 
 Christ as Divine Saviour and Lord, and the Holy 
 Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments as the 
 Revealed Word of God, and whose purpose is to 
 make the will of Christ prevail in Latin America, 
 are cordially invited to participate in the Panama 
 Congress, and will be heartily welcomed.” 
 
 The congress met in Panama 10-20 February, 
 1916, and later issued in three volumes the reports 
 and discussions of the commissions and meetings. 
 The chief aim seemed to be to present to the Latin 
 Americans a united front, a “catholic Protestant 
 church as it were, no longer divided. Accordingly 
 
PROTESTANTISM 
 
 G17 
 
 PROVIDENCE 
 
 a quasi-conti act was entered into distributing ex¬ 
 clusive territory to the various sects. The reports 
 and discussions with very few exceptions were a 
 rehashing of the old, often vile, and many times 
 refuted calumnies hurled at the Church since 
 Luther’s revolt; they may be summed up in the 
 statement of one of the delegates (vol. I, p. 350), 
 ‘‘The Roman Church deserves warfare.” The con¬ 
 gress was attended by delegates from the following 
 churches: Adventist, Baptist, Christian, Congrega¬ 
 tional, Disciples, Friends, Lutheran, Methodist, 
 Moravian, Presbyterian, Protestant Episcopal, Re¬ 
 formed Church in America, and United Brethren; 
 by delegates from various interdenominational 
 societies -and by some delegates from Canada and 
 Great Britain (not Anglicans). Continuation con¬ 
 ferences were arranged for various Latin American 
 cities; but since then no striking results have been 
 reported. 
 
 III. Statistics.— In compiling statistics on the 
 number of Protestants in various countries and in 
 the world, much confusion has resulted from a fail¬ 
 ure to define terms and to follow the definitions 
 consistently. Protestants themselves usually list 
 only “communicants” when enumerating the mem¬ 
 bers of their churches. This term has, naturally, 
 different meanings in different sects, but in general 
 it signifies those who are in full union with their 
 church, who are fully affiliated and enrolled, and 
 who are entitled to full participation in the vari¬ 
 ous exercises of worship. Keeping this definition 
 in mind, statistics show that there are considerably 
 less than 100,000,000 Protestant communicants in 
 the world today (1922); the true figure is possibly 
 very close to 90,000,000. However, these Protestant 
 communicants represent a much larger Protestant 
 “constituency,” among whom should be included, 
 besides the communicants, all those of Protestant 
 connection: children (not considered as members 
 by most sects), who are brought up under Protes¬ 
 tant influence and who in many cases will later on 
 “join the church”; occasional church-goers; and 
 finally that vast army of quasi-unbelievers who 
 although not affiliated with any church, nor likely 
 to be, are by their training, education, and preju¬ 
 dices thoroughly Protestant or at least anti- 
 Roman. It is easy to understand that in this last 
 category are necessarily included many indifferent- 
 ists and rationalists, who can only in a very broad 
 sense be classed as Christians. The Protestant 
 constituency of the world (communicants and con¬ 
 nections) numbers about 175,000,000. For purposes 
 of comparison it may be stated here that there 
 are in the world about 350,000.000 Catholics, united 
 under the Pope of Rome. Discounting those who 
 have ceased to be practical Catholics the member¬ 
 ship is close to 325,000,000. These estimates are 
 arrived at from a study of the religious statistics 
 of all countries of the world as presented by the 
 Statesman’s Year Book for 1921. 
 
 The actual distribution of the Protestants of the 
 world has not changed much in recent decades; in 
 all Latin America there are about 100,000 com¬ 
 municants (about 300,000 constituents); in Catho¬ 
 lic Europe (France, Italy, Luxemburg, Ireland, 
 Austria, Poland, Portugal, Spain, and Czechoslo¬ 
 vakia) there are about 1,000,000 Protestant com¬ 
 municants (about 4,000,000 constituents), of whom 
 about one-half are in Poland, the number in most 
 of these countries being entirely negligible. In 
 France, which excepting Czechoslovakia, is the 
 only other Catholic country possessing an appreci¬ 
 able Protestant population (about 1,000,000 con¬ 
 stituents), the effect of the Separation Law of 1905 
 and of the war has been almost disastrous to 
 
 Protestantism, which is now admittedly in a 
 struggling condition. In Protestant Germany, 
 Protestantism, already before the war attacked by 
 the canker of rationalism, has also received a de¬ 
 cided setback through the separation of church and 
 state, although it is still (1922) impossible to gauge 
 definitely the results of this clause of the constitu¬ 
 tion. In Czechoslovakia Protestantism has made 
 some gains recently through a schism resultant 
 upon the formation of the new Government. How¬ 
 ever, the gains were greatly exaggerated and 
 Czechoslovakia must be numbered among the pre¬ 
 dominantly Catholic countries, containing in 1921 
 about 11,675,000 Catholics and 900,000 Protestants 
 (constituents). 
 
 The United States numbers among its inhabi¬ 
 tants 28,111,553 Protestant communicants (accord¬ 
 ing to a secretary of the Federal Council of 
 Churches, 1922), divided among about 200 sects. 
 The Catholics number about 20,000,000. As indi¬ 
 cated above, however, it would be a mistake to 
 class this country immediately (as some do), on 
 the strength of these figures, as non-Christian, for 
 many of the other 60,000,000 inhabitants are right¬ 
 fully included in the Protestant constituency, this 
 totaling probably about 40,000,000 (Year Book of 
 the Churches, 1920, p. 196) although Dr. Watson, 
 the Washington secretary of the Federal Council, 
 claims nearly 75,000,000 in 1922. This latter figure 
 is evidently too high. The number of sects increased 
 from 186 in 1906 to 200 in 1916 (about 193 in 1922), 
 the net gain of fourteen in the decade being due to a 
 loss of seventeen and an addition of thirty-one de¬ 
 nominations. (For further information on points 
 touched on in this article see especially articles on 
 various sects and various countries.) 
 
 Pisani, Les missioyis protestantes a la fin du XIX siecle 
 (Paris, 1903); Krogh-Tonning and Baltus, Le protestantisme 
 contemporain (Paris, 1901); Meagher, History of the Protestant 
 Religions (New York, 1914); Congress On Christian Work in 
 Latin America, Reports, etc. (New York, 1917); Atteridge, 
 The Campaign of Slander against South America, I, The Land of 
 the Christless Cross, in The Month, CXXIII (1914), 337; Idem, 
 II, Facts versus Fiction, ibid., 599; Burton, Tendencies in 
 Northern Baptist Churches in American Journal of Theology, 
 XXIV (1920), 321; Rall, Methodism Today, ibid., 481; Coe', 
 The Religious Breakdoicn of the Ministry in Journal of Religion, 
 I (1921) 18; Gild and Pinchot, Six Thousand Country Churches 
 (New York, 1919); Idem, The Country Church, the Decline of its 
 Influence (New York, 1913); Goguel, The Religious [Protestant j 
 Situation in France; in Journal of Religion, I (1921), 561; Rade, 
 The Present Situation of Christianity [Protestantism] in Germany ’, 
 in American Journal of Theology, XXIV (1920), 339; Mac¬ 
 millan, Protestantism in Germany (Princeton, 1917); Report 
 of Preliminary Meeting of World Conference on Faith and Order 
 (Gardiner, Maine, 1921); Epistola ad locorum ordinarios qua 
 eorum vigilantia excitatur circa nova qusedam acatholicorum 
 molimina contra fidem (the Holy Office on the Y. M. C. A. et 
 al.), in Acta ApostolicX Sedis, XII (1920), 595; Fisher, The 
 Holy Office and the Y. M. C. A. in America, XXIV (1921), 450; 
 Religious Bodies, 1916 (Washington, 1919); Year Book of the 
 Churches (New York, annual). 
 
 Gerald Shaughnessy. 
 
 Providence, Diocese of (Providentiensis, cf. 
 C. E., XII—509c), is co-extensive with the State of 
 Rhode Island. In March, 1915, at the request of 
 Bishop Harkins, the Rt. Rev. Mgr. Thomas F. 
 Doran, vicar general of the diocese, was appointed 
 auxiliary bishop. On 27 April, 1915, he was conse- 
 secrated titular Bishop of Halicarnassus. He died 3 
 Jan., 1916, after a short illness. On 4 July, 1917, 
 Rev. Denis M. Lowney, one of the vicars general of 
 the diocese, was appointed auxiliary bishop, and con¬ 
 secrated 23 October following. He died 13 Aug., 
 1918, after having served less than a year, and was 
 succeeded by the present administrator, the Rt. Rev. 
 William A. Hickey, who was appointed coadjutor 
 bishop with the right of succession, 16 Jan., 1919. 
 Born at Worcester, Mass., 13 May, 1869, ordained 
 at Boston, 22 Dec., 1893, he succeeded Bishop Har¬ 
 kins on the death of the latter, 25 May, 1921. 
 
PROVIDENCE 
 
 618 
 
 PRZEMYSL 
 
 On 25 April, 1912, the Rev. Austin Dowling, rector 
 of the cathedral, was consecrated Bishop of Des 
 Moines at Sts. Peter and Paul’s Cathedral, Provi¬ 
 dence. On 29 Oct., 1916, Most Rev. John Bonzano 
 dedicated St. Ann’s School at Providence. Provi¬ 
 dence College was incorporated, 14 Feb., 1917, and 
 Bishop Hickey delivered the opening address, 18 
 Sept., 1919. In 1920 a drive was inaugurated to 
 pay off the debt on the college, the amount realized 
 being $330,000. In January, 1920, the National 
 Council of Catholic Men was organized. This was 
 the first diocesan body in the United States to com¬ 
 plete its organization. During the war 7 priests of 
 the diocese enlisted as chaplains, 11,646 men enlisted 
 in the Army and Navy, 281 were killed or died of 
 wounds or disease, 192 were wounded. The Catho¬ 
 lics of the diocese number about 275,000, of whom 
 151,000 are Irish, 65,000 French, 37,000 Italians, 
 10,500 Poles, 10,100 Portuguese, 1100 Syrians, 1000 
 Lithuanians. Parishes and schools have been 
 founded for the Catholic foreigners in the various 
 cities and towns of the diocese and many of them are 
 in charge of priests of their own nationality. The 
 Armenians are periodically served by an Armenian 
 priest who hears their confessions and exhorts them 
 to attend the church for English-speaking Catholics. 
 There has been an extensive post-war development in 
 parochial school building. One school has already 
 been built, two are in actual process of construction, 
 while plans for at least five more are under consid¬ 
 eration. 
 
 According to the statistics of 1922, the parish con¬ 
 tains: 96 parishes, 21 missions, 2 stations, 100 
 churches, 2 monasteries and 4 convents for men, 49 
 convents for women, 218 secular priests, 54 regulars, 
 38 lay brothers, 911 Sisters, 48 seminarians who are 
 being educated in seminaries in other dioceses. The 
 educational institutions are: 1 college, 14 teachers, 256 
 students; 8 high schools, 40 teachers, 692 students 
 (185 boys, 507 girls); 7 academies, 91 teachers, 1614 
 students (1189 boys, 425 girls); 46 elementary schools, 
 547 teachers, 21,622 pupils; 2 industrial schools, 5 
 teachers, 118 pupils. The schools are not supported 
 by the Government. The missionary works are the 
 Catholic Missionary Society and the Providence 
 Apostolate. The following institutions exist in the 
 diocese: 6 homes, 2 asylums, 2 hospitals, 6 day nur¬ 
 series. All the public institutions admit the ministry 
 of priests. Some of the institutions receive appropria¬ 
 tions from the state. Organizations among the 
 clergy are the Pia Unio Precum and Clergy Fund 
 Society. The following associations exist among the 
 laity: National Catholic Council of Men, National 
 Catholic Council of Women, Queens’ Daughters, 
 Daughters of Isabella. A Catholic periodical called 
 the “Providence Visitor” is published in the diocese. 
 
 Providence, Divine, Congregations of. See 
 Divine Providence, Sisters of. 
 
 Providence, House of. See Joseph Benedict 
 
 COTTOLENGO, RLESSED. 
 
 Providence, Sisters of (St. Mary-of-the-Woods; 
 cf. C. E., XII—507d).—The Sisters take simple 
 vows. The postulantship of six months is followed by 
 a novitiate of two years, at the end of which time 
 vows are taken. A year of second novitiate pre¬ 
 cedes the final and perpetual vows. The admin¬ 
 istrative faculty of the congregation is an elective 
 body comprising a superior general and five assist¬ 
 ants, a secretary, and a general chapter. In a 
 private audience given in 1913 to the superior gen¬ 
 eral, Mother M. Cleophas, Pope Pius X granted 
 the privilege of Perpetual Exposition of the 
 Blessed Sacrament, for which a special chapel con¬ 
 
 necting with the conventual church has been built 
 at the mother-house. The cause of beatification 
 of Mother Theodore (d. 1856) has been taken up 
 at Rome bjr the Sacred Congregation. The Sisters 
 conduct parochial schools and academies in the 
 Archdioceses of Baltimore, Boston, and Chicago, 
 and the dioceses of Indianapolis, Fort Wayne, and 
 Peoria, also a college at St. Mary-of-the-Woods, 
 four miles from Terre Haute, Indiana. In 1920 
 they opened a house in East Ho-nan, China, being 
 the first American sisterhood to take up work in 
 the foreign missions. Statistics for 1921 are: 1442 
 professed Sisters, 106 novices, 30 postulants, 60 
 parochial schools, 15 academies, 1 college, 1 orphan¬ 
 age, 2 day nurseries; 30,000 children. 
 
 Provincial Councils. — Provincial councils are 
 to be held at least every twentieth year. Bishops 
 who are not subject to a metropolitan, abbots or 
 prelates nullius, archbishops without suffragans, 
 must elect, after obtaining Apostolic approval, to 
 attach themselves to a neighboring metropolitan 
 whose provincial councils they will assist at and be 
 bound by. The metropolitan should summon the 
 bishops of his province at least every five years to 
 meet and consult about religious conditions and 
 prepare for the next council. Among those. who 
 should be invited to and should attend provincial 
 councils are prefects apostolic, cathedral chapters 
 or diocesan consultors, who are to be represented 
 by two of their members selected by their college, 
 also superiors, of monastic congregations and 
 higher exempt clerical superiors residing in the 
 province; of these only the prefects apostolic have 
 a deliberative vote. No penalties are mentioned 
 in the Code for a violation of the obligation to 
 attend the councils. On the conclusion of the 
 council the president is to forward the acts and 
 decrees to the Holy See for examination by the 
 Holy Congregation of the Council; they are not to 
 be promulgated until approbation has been given. 
 After promulgation, local ordinaries cannot dis¬ 
 pense from the decrees unless for just cause in 
 particular instances. In places subject to the Con¬ 
 gregation of Propaganda the regulations concerning 
 provincial councils should be observed, as far as 
 possible allowing for altered circumstances; no 
 time for holding these councils, however, is laid 
 down, but their acts and decrees are to be submit¬ 
 ted to Propaganda and not to the Congregation of 
 the Council. 
 
 Provision, Canonical (cf. C. E., XII-516a).—No 
 one who has been elected, presented or nominated 
 for any office, benefice, or dignity may take possession 
 of it or interfere with its government or administra¬ 
 tion, before presenting his apostolic letters to the 
 proper authorities. If he violates this canon, he 
 becomes by the very fact incapable of acquiring the 
 office, benefice, or dignity, and is to be suitably 
 punished by the ordinary and compelled by spiritual 
 penalties, even deposition if necessary, to give it up 
 without delay. Chapters, communities, and others 
 who officially admit such a party before he has pre¬ 
 sented his letters are by the very fact suspended from 
 the right of electing, nominating or presenting till it 
 pleases the Holy See to revoke the suspension. 
 Formerly, in virtue of the Constitution “Romanus 
 Pontifex,” the dignitaries and canons of the cathedral 
 admitting a prelate under such circumstances incurred 
 specially reserved excommunication. 
 
 Przemysl, Diocese of, of the Latin Rite 
 (Premisliensis; cf. C. E., XII—532c), suffragan of 
 Lwow (Lemberg), in Galicia, formerly an Austrian 
 province, which was included in the new Republic of 
 
PRZEMYSL 
 
 619 
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 Poland at the division of Austria-Hungary. The pres¬ 
 ent bishop is Mgr. Joseph Sebastian Pelczar, born at 
 Korczvna, 17 January, 1842, elected titular bishop of 
 Miletopohs 20 February, 1899, transferred 17 Decem¬ 
 ber, 1900, and enthroned 13 January, 1901, succeed¬ 
 ing Mgr. Solecki, deceased, as Bishop of Przemysl. 
 His auxiliary is Rt. Itev. Charles Joseph Fischer, born 
 in Jaslo, 1847, elected titular bishop of Mallus 15 
 April, 1901. During the war the Diocese of Przemysl 
 was invaded by the Russians, Germans, Austro- 
 Hungarians and Ukranian rebels. The city was cap¬ 
 tured by the Russians in March, 1915, and many 
 towns and villages were burned, also about 100 
 churches of the Latin Rite. About 100 diocesan 
 priests were chaplains in the Austrian (later Polish) 
 army, six of whom were captured by the Russians. 
 Many priests, Sisters and Polish layw r omen worked in 
 hospitals, way-stations and other places to relieve 
 the misery of the soldiers, prisoners, the poor and the 
 many orphans. In 1921 the diocese contained 345 
 parishes, 1,200,000 Latin Catholics, 760,000 Uniat 
 Catholics (Greek Ruthenian), 200,000 non-Catholics 
 (mostly Jews), 345 parishes, 30 convents and monas¬ 
 teries for men, 135 for women, 699 secular and 150 
 regular priests, 1 upper seminary, 81 seminarians, 1 
 lower seminary, many orphanages and hospitals. The 
 schools are supported‘and directed by the Govern¬ 
 ment and religion is taught in all schools by priests 
 appointed by the bishop and pensioned by the govern¬ 
 ment. There are three associations among the clergy 
 and many and varied ones in each parish for the lahy. 
 An official paper is published by the bishop. 
 
 Przemysl, Sambor and Sanok, Diocese of, 
 of the Greek Uniat Rite, using the Ruthenian lan¬ 
 guage, in Western Galicia, Poland, suffragan of Lwow 
 (Lemberg). This diocese includes the territory of the 
 Latin diocese of the same name and also that of the 
 Latin diocese of Tarnow. The present bishop is Mgr. 
 Josaphat Joseph Kocylowsky, born in Pakosziwka in 
 1876, ordained in 1907, elected 29 January, 1917, to 
 succeed Mgr. Czechowicz, deceased. In 1915 the 
 diocese contained 1,252,492 Greek Catholics, 819 
 secular priests, of whom 685 are married, 140 widow 7 - 
 ers and 28 celibates, 36 regular priests, 697 parishes 
 and 1374 churches or chapels. 
 
 Psichari, Ernest, author and soldier, b. 27 
 September, 1883, d. 22 August, 1914, the son of 
 Jean Psichari, a professor at the Ecole des Hautes 
 Etudes, by his wife Noemi Renan, daughter of the 
 famous sceptic. M. Psichari, being a member of the 
 Orthodox Greek Church, Ernest was baptised ac¬ 
 cording to the Greek Rite, but thenceforth religion 
 formed no part in his life. At the lycees Henri IV 
 and Condorcet, he displayed brilliant mental gifts 
 and a poetical temperament, writing verses in the 
 manner of Verlaine. In 1902 Psichari left Paris to 
 spend a year of military service in a provincial gar¬ 
 rison. At the end of the year he returned to Paris 
 to take up his studies, but in 1904 he enlisted in the 
 51st Regiment of the line and in 1906 was sent to 
 Africa. In 1907 he returned to France, was promoted 
 sub-lieutenant in 1909 and at once set out for Maure¬ 
 tania, French West Africa. His first book “Terres 
 de Soleil et de Sommeil” was followed by “L’Appel des 
 Armes” (written in Mauretania, 1910-1912), which 
 is an apology for the military life and in which there 
 is seen the author’s groping for faith. Close after 
 follows“Le Voyage du Centurion” which is auto¬ 
 biographical, although told in the third person. 
 This book tells of a French soldier in Africa searching 
 for faith and finding it. Psichari left Africa in 1912 
 and was stationed at Cherbourg where although he 
 read a great deal concerning the Faith, confession 
 still seemed a stumbling block. On 4 February, 
 
 1913, the grandson of Renan read his profession of 
 faith after which he went to confession and received 
 absolution. He was confirmed 8 February, taking 
 the name of Paul in reparation for Renan’s treatment 
 of the Apostle. After a ‘‘year of prayer” he decided 
 to become a Dominican. He was still at Cherbourg 
 when war was declared and on the second day of 
 mobilization set out for the battle front During 
 those first days of surprise and defeat Lieutenant 
 Psichari was an inspiration to his men and after 
 twelve hours of terrific fighting at St. Vincent- 
 Rossignol in Belgium, he fell, shot in the temple, and 
 was found with his rosary wound about his -wrist 
 and on his lips the smile of a great peace. 
 
 Samuel Fowle Telfair, Jr. 
 
 Psychoanalysis (Gr. 'kvxy, ava'Kvais), means a 
 disclosing of the mental content, the latter being 
 taken in its widest extent as embracing both the 
 conscious as well as the unconscious psychic 
 processes. It began as a therapeutic treatment of 
 certain neurotic diseases, but quickly developed 
 into a general science of the unconscious which 
 aims at a complete reorientation of human life and 
 a far-reaching revaluation of its values. In its nar¬ 
 rower aspects, it may be defined as a therapeutic 
 procedure designed for the cure of nervous disor¬ 
 ders which it effects by means of a mental analysis 
 revealing and removing the underlying psychic 
 causes that are at the bottom of these abnormal 
 conditions in its larger acceptation, it may be de¬ 
 scribed as the investigation of the content and the 
 workings of the unconscious mind and of the rela¬ 
 tion between the unconscious and the conscious in 
 all manifestations of human life. Taken in this 
 broad sense, psj^choanalysis claims intimate con¬ 
 tacts with all the phenomena of civilization and 
 pretends to furnish a new basis for human activi¬ 
 ties in art, education, morality and religion. “In 
 the few years of its existence,” writes Dr. Andre 
 Tridon, “psychoanalysis has made a deep impres¬ 
 sion on all the mental sciences and has especially 
 revolutionized psychology, ethics and psychiatry. 
 Its terminology, at first forbidding, has enriched 
 the language with entirely new expressions, without 
 which the cultured would find themselvess helpless 
 in psychological discussions. It has supplied not 
 only physicians, but artists, thinkers, sociologists, 
 educators, and critics with a new point of view. It 
 offers to the average man and woman a new ra¬ 
 tional code of behavior based on science instead of 
 faith.” Dr. Isador H. Coriat speaks in the same 
 strain: “Psychoanalysis is beginning to found a 
 new ethics as well as a new psychology, a new 
 neurology and a new school of literary criticism.” 
 This sweeping claim is based on the alleged dis¬ 
 covery, made by the psychoanalysts, that the dif¬ 
 ferences between the content of the unconscious of 
 the abnormal and of the normal are extremely 
 slight and that consequently the laws governing 
 pathological conditions of the mind may be ex¬ 
 tended to its healthy states. The highest and the 
 lowest are thus brought together and explained by 
 the same causes. Whatever there is most exalted 
 in man can be adequately understood as a trans¬ 
 figuration of the vilest animal instincts. Thus 
 psychoanalysis would have us believe. “For,” de¬ 
 clares Miss Beatrice M. Hinkle in her introduction 
 to Dr. C. G. Jung’s notorious “Psychology of the 
 Unconscious,” “this theory has so widened in its 
 scope that its application has now extended beyond 
 a particular group of pathological states. It has in 
 fact led to a new evaluation of the whole conduct 
 of human life; a new comprehension has developed 
 which explains those things that formerly were 
 
PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 620 
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 unexplained, and there is offered an understanding 
 not only of a neurosis and the phenomena of con- 
 duct but the product of the mind as expressed m 
 myths and religions.” The new world-view that 
 grows out of psychoanalysis, it may easily be sur¬ 
 mised, follows the evolutionary and materialistic 
 trend of modern psychology and is very much at 
 pains to establish man’s biological relationship to 
 animal life. It strips man of everything that con¬ 
 stitutes his unique dignity. . , 
 
 History. —Psychoanalysis is ot recent date. 
 Though its antecedents may be traced back to the 
 great French students of mental disturbances, 
 notably Dr. J. M. Charcot oi the Salpetriere, its 
 origin as a distinct method is associated with the 
 name of Dr. Sigmund Freud of Vienna, who formu¬ 
 lated his theory and gave it to the public for the 
 first' time in 1895. He departed from previously 
 adopted methods of treating nervous troubles by 
 rejecting hypnotism and hypnotic suggestion as 
 factors in the cure and substituting for them his 
 own newly developed method of mental anlysis. 
 To this he was led by the discovery of an older 
 colleague, Dr. Breuer, who while treating a case of 
 hysteria made the observation that the patient 
 improved in the degree in which she disclosed her 
 life history. Freud saw the deeper significance of 
 this fact. It suggested to him that the first step 
 towards a cure of the neurosis is the unburdening 
 of the mind which is oppressed by some unpleasant 
 emotional experience and cannot regain its equi¬ 
 librium until it has been relieved of the trouble¬ 
 some idea. But in some instances it was difficult 
 to gain access to the hidden memories and an elab¬ 
 orate technique had to be developed to reach down 
 into the depths of the mind. This technique Dr. 
 Freud called psychoanalysis. 
 
 Though first received with distrust, it gradually 
 won its way into the medical world and at present 
 enjoys considerable popularity. In 1908 it was in¬ 
 troduced to the scientists of America and since has 
 gained in vogue. The literature of psychoanalysis 
 is steadily growing and has already reached be¬ 
 wildering proportions. Divergences of opinion 
 and method have sprung up among the followers 
 of Dr. Freud, and different schools have arisen, 
 but this is inevitable in a new science that is not 
 yet entirely sure of its ground. A certain body of 
 fundamental tenets, however, is universally ac¬ 
 cepted by the advocates of psychoanalysis. 
 
 The Etiology of Neurosis. —The characteristic 
 assumption of psychoanalysis is that psychoneu¬ 
 rotic symptoms are due to unfulfilled desires of un¬ 
 recognized tendencies that have been repressed 
 into the unconscious and now are entirely forgotten 
 in their original form. Though repressed, they are 
 not obliterated and struggle to get expression. If 
 this psychic tension finds no outlet through legiti¬ 
 mate channels, it will express itself in unethical 
 behavior or in the form of psychoneuroses. The 
 neurosis betrays the existence of a dynamic idea in 
 the unconscious which, though it cannot emerge 
 into consciousness, may in some way influence 
 emotional attitudes and produce certain motor im¬ 
 pulses. As Dr. Freud says: “Neurotics suffer from 
 reminiscences.” The paradoxical phase of the 
 matter is that the memories that cause the disturb- 
 - ance are forgotten. Unpleasant forgotten memories 
 of a strong affective nature are the roots of the 
 neurotic symptoms. These memories are also 
 referred to as strangulated emotions. 
 
 If these concealed memories are brought back 
 into consciousness they lose their evil power, the 
 pent-up emotion is discharged and the symptoms 
 disappear. The way to recovery then would seem 
 
 easy. But a great difficulty confronts the physi¬ 
 cian, because since these memories have dropped 
 out of the field of consciousness they cannot be 
 recalled at will. The forgetting, moreover, m these 
 cases is not a mere passive process, it is rather an 
 actual repression, which enhances the difficulty ot 
 discovery. Only by the subtle methods of psycho¬ 
 analysis can the hidden springs be unearthed For 
 a proper understanding of the technique employed 
 in the search after the disturbing emotions, a pre¬ 
 vious knowledge of Freud’s theory of the uncon¬ 
 scious is indispensable. This theory is not original 
 with Freud, but has been taken from modern 
 psychology, though Freud has added to it a few 
 touches of his own, notably the radical contention 
 that the unconscious is dominated by the sexual 
 
 instinct. . 
 
 Structure of the Mind. —Th§ mind is the bat¬ 
 tleground of conflicting forces and tendencies. Its 
 content is divided into the conscious and the un¬ 
 conscious. To the former belong those experiences 
 which are actually in the focus of attention or that 
 may easily be recalled (foreconscious). The latter 
 comprises such experiences that have been utterly 
 forgotten and that cannot be brought back to our 
 knowledge by the ordinary processes of introspec¬ 
 tion. It is, moreover, the realm of primitive 
 instincts, selfish and antisocial tendencies, elemental 
 urges, brutal impulses and repressed dqsires. The 
 unconscious knows no higher moral law, it seeks 
 only self-gratification and is ruled by the pleasure 
 principle. Civilization and social life put a curb 
 on those primitive egocentric impulses and require 
 of the individual to hold them in check. From 
 early childhood days this repression goes on, and 
 thus man becomes adjusted to his social environ¬ 
 ment. But the primitive cravings remain ready to 
 break through the barriers that have been erected 
 against them. 
 
 Consciousness seeks adaptation to the social re¬ 
 quirements and represses whatever would lead to 
 conflicts with the outer world. It is governed by 
 the reality principle. In the average human being 
 the adjustment to the demands of civilization, 
 though beset with difficulties, is accomplished 
 without any fatal consequences to physical and 
 mental health. Some types, however, are unequal 
 to the formidable task; they break down under the 
 strain and morbid states result which manifest 
 themselves by emotional instability, unreasonable 
 irritability, violent antipathies and other abnor¬ 
 malities. 
 
 The unconscious is dynamic and continually 
 strives for expression. It seeks to break into 
 consciousness, but is prevented from doing so by 
 an inhibitive power that stands guard at the thresh¬ 
 old of consciousness and repels these outlawed 
 desires unless they assume a guise that will make 
 them acceptable to our socialized consciousness. 
 This inhibitive power is called the censor and 
 represents the restraining force of society. By dis¬ 
 guising itself the unconscious frequently determines 
 our actions which we think have been performed 
 from motives that are altogether different from 
 the real ones. “Too much emphasis,” says Dr 
 Wilfrid Lay, “cannot be placed on the fact that the 
 real causes of what we do in our acts from hour 
 to hour are hidden from us and that the majority 
 of assigned reasons are mere pretexts, the real mo¬ 
 tives being in the unconscious, and therefore abso¬ 
 lutely inaccessible to us.” 
 
 The Complex. —Into the unconscious we repress 
 such wishes that shock our socialized consciousness 
 and that have attached to them an unpleasant 
 emotional tone. Not always, however is the repres- 
 
PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 621 
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 sion successful. The unwelcome wish may form in 
 the unconscious a complex that will eventually dis¬ 
 turb the emotional and mental equilibrium. The 
 repression it must be understood, is not a deliberate 
 act, but the result of the counteracting activity of 
 another interest. ‘‘This unwitting repression/’ writes 
 R. H. Hingley, “is the activity on which the whole 
 psychoanalytic theory is built.” The complex thus 
 formed exerts a bias on the whole trend of the in¬ 
 dividual life and starts a series of impulsive activi¬ 
 ties that are unrelated to the rest of the mental 
 life and resemble the phenomena of dissociation. 
 From this source arise distressing phobias, annoy¬ 
 ing amnesias, dislikes, tics, compulsion neuroses, 
 anxiety neuroses, paralysis and hysteria. The com¬ 
 plex may be defined as a group of unconscious 
 ideas, or rather a group of ideas in the unconscious, 
 which, having been subjected to repression, con¬ 
 tinue to have an independent existence and growth. 
 Since the complex is unknown the patient cannot 
 account for his trouble and is utterly helpless. Psy¬ 
 choanalysis comes to his rescue, for its purpose is 
 to set free the unconscious with a view to the dis¬ 
 covery and comprehension of the patient’s buried 
 complexes and to reintegrate and reharmonize his 
 mental life. 
 
 A complex greatly decreases efficiency and tends 
 to make life miserable. It induces obsessions and 
 inhibitions of various kinds and consquently be¬ 
 comes a serious handicap. Being progressive it 
 leads from one inability to another. This expan¬ 
 sion of the area of the complex is graphically de¬ 
 scribed by Dr. W. Lay% who says: “A complex 
 being repressed into the unconscious on account of 
 the painful feelings connected with it, at once 
 begins in the unconscious to associate with itself a 
 number of other ideas, all of which take on the 
 unpleasant quality. These ideas, therefore, are pre¬ 
 vented by this acquired unpleasantness from com¬ 
 ing into consciousness. The person in whose mind 
 these complexes are forming will not, without effort, 
 be able to remember these ideas when he wants 
 them. The complexes will detach from the fore¬ 
 conscious, where are stored the ideas which are sub¬ 
 ject to voluntary recall, one person’s name, another 
 person’s address, another’s occupation, and drag 
 them down towards the unconscious, where they 
 will nevermore be subject to his will. It is thus 
 seen that, when looked at from the under side,—as 
 it were from the point of view of the unconscious,— 
 there must be complexes forming down there from 
 the time of our earliest infancy. The complexes 
 continue to develop and attach more and more 
 ideas to themselves until finally our minds, even 
 those of us who are completely normal, are made 
 up of an overwhelming majority of forgotten or 
 repressed matter, all of it available for the pur¬ 
 pose of feeding the complexes, and none of it of 
 any use to ourselves. Only the fullest human lives 
 can prevent this formation of a sodden mass of 
 complexes in the unconscious of every one of us.” 
 
 Since according to Freud, all mental conflicts are 
 of a sexual nature and arise out of suppressed 
 sexual experiences, it follows that in his view every 
 complex must cluster around a sex idea. Where 
 the sex life takes a normal course, no complex can 
 form and no neurotic disturbances occur. He ex¬ 
 plicitly states: “In a normal sexual life no neu¬ 
 rosis is possible.” This dictum has been amended 
 by Dr. A. A. Brill, one of his disciples, and cast 
 into this more acceptable form: “We can lay it 
 down as a fundamental that if a person’s love-life 
 is adequately adjusted, his adjustment to life gen¬ 
 erally is normal.” 
 
 The Psychoanalytic Treatment. —In order to 
 
 cure neurosis resulting from unfulfilled wishes, it is 
 necessary to get at the hidden desire that has been 
 thwarted and repressed and that seeks compensa¬ 
 tion in the neurotic symptons which afford a morbid 
 gratification. This presents great difficulties; for 
 what has been purposely forgotten is buried much 
 deeper than what merely slips from our memory. 
 The difficulty is accentuated when the fatal emo¬ 
 tional shock dates back to early childhood, as is 
 frequently the case. Actual and exceedingly clever 
 resistance both from the unconscious as from the 
 patient is encountered in the process of discovery. 
 For strange to say, the patient clings to his 
 symptons and cherishes them. “The time required 
 to cure a patient,” writes Dr. A. A. Brill, “is directly 
 proportional to the degree in which he is morbidly 
 benefited by his neurosis. The patient dreads the 
 disclosure and offers opposition rather than as¬ 
 sistance. Hence Dr. Freud complains: “When we 
 undertake to cure a patient, to free him from the 
 symptons of his malady, he confronts us with a 
 vigorous, tenacious resistance that lasts during the 
 whole time of the treatment.” 
 
 ' Besides, the disguise which the unconscious urge 
 has assumed must be penetrated. These assumed 
 disguises, to which our suppressed cravings resort 
 to elude the censor, are called symbols. They are 
 meant to deceive the patient as well as everybody 
 else and bear no recognizable resemblance to the 
 reality which they cover. “Thus, for example,” 
 writes Dr. Lay, “the fear of crossing open places 
 symbolizes a fear of quite a different sort which is 
 in the unconscious, and never appears above the 
 threshold because too terrible to be faced con¬ 
 sciously.” In fact, hate may mask love, fear may 
 stand for desire. This symbolism renders the dis¬ 
 covery of the real cause extremely difficult. Only 
 after long and painstaking work will the analyst be 
 able to reach down into the hidden depths of the 
 individual and drag into the light the underlying 
 motives and determinants of his symptons and 
 attitudes. 
 
 In order to dig up the buried complex the pat¬ 
 ient’s life history is carefully studied, his little 
 mannerisms are analyzed, he is encouraged to cul¬ 
 tivate a passive attitude and to speak freely what¬ 
 ever may come to his mind. Forgotten names or 
 seemingly trivial slips of speech point to the of¬ 
 fending complex who by his clever tricks thus de¬ 
 feats his own purpose. Of great assistance is the 
 word-association method by which the patient is 
 made to betray the concealed wish through his 
 reactions to a list of selected words. 
 
 This process of investigation simultaneously con¬ 
 stitutes the cure; for, in its course the existing 
 resistance is overcome, the disturbing experience 
 relived in all its emotional intensity or, as the 
 psychoanalysts inelegantly say, abreacted, and the 
 psychic tension released. This process by which 
 the mind is purged and the complex dissolved and 
 reintegrated with the normal mental life is desig¬ 
 nated as the cathartic method. During the treat¬ 
 ment a stage occurs where the patient transfers to 
 the analyst the emotional attitude which was at 
 the root of his trouble. This process is of a very 
 delicate nature and calls for tactful and cautious 
 handling. 
 
 The cure is not complete and permanent until 
 the introverted energy, liberated by the destruc¬ 
 tion of the complex, is sublimated, that is, turned 
 into channels of social activity and diverted to use¬ 
 ful purposes. A dangerous urge may in this fashion 
 not only be rendered harmless, but converted into 
 a power for good. “The term sublimation,” Dr. I. 
 Coriat explains, “was first introduced by Freud 
 
PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 622 
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 and was borrowed from the terminology of chem¬ 
 istry. Literally, it means the act of refining and 
 purifying or freeing from baser qualities. The 
 process of such sublimation in psychoanalysis is an 
 unconscious one, that is, it takes place without the 
 subject’s knowledge. It is the end result of psycho¬ 
 analysis, since no patient can be said to have been 
 cured, until he has successfully sublimated. Sub¬ 
 limation may be defined as the unconscious con¬ 
 ducting of the repressed emotions to a higher, less 
 objectionable and more useful goal. It is the capac¬ 
 ity for replacement or exchange of the original (re¬ 
 pressed) aim for a secondary social, religious, 
 scientific or artistic aim. It is really a transfer¬ 
 ence of basic instincts to other interests.” Accord¬ 
 ing to Freud, who is quite frank and outspoken in 
 this matter, sublimation is the directing of sexual 
 cravings toward other aims of a non-sexual nature. 
 In his view also the sexual impulse is the driving 
 force behind civilization. “Nay,” he says, “psycho¬ 
 analysis claims that these same sexual impulses 
 have made contributions whose value cannot be 
 overestimated to the highest cultural, artistic and 
 social achievements of the human mind.” Over the 
 extent of the part played by the sex factor in 
 human life a split has occurred in the ranks of the 
 psychoanalysts, some of whom repudiate the ex¬ 
 treme views propounded by Freud on this subject. 
 Nevertheless, even those who do not go to the 
 length of Freud’s position, make exaggerated con¬ 
 cessions to his theory. 
 
 This overemphasis of sex is one of the most loath¬ 
 some aspects of the psychoanalytic theory. Under 
 its irrevent touch everything becomes slipiy and 
 reminiscent of the ooze and murk in which the 
 repulsive monsters of the deep disport themselves. 
 Every human instinct revolts against this desecra¬ 
 tion of things that are held sacred by our race. 
 Spontaneously vehement indignation is aroused at 
 the blunt statement of Dr. A. A. Brill, that “Every 
 activity or vocation not directed to sex in the 
 broadest sense, no matter under what guise, is a 
 form of sublimation.” By its doctrine of sublima¬ 
 tion, psychoanalysis has gone further than any 
 other theory in degrading man. It falls as a ruinous 
 blight upon human ideals. It takes the glamor out 
 of life and leaves it like a faded and dead flower. 
 Where we were wont to see high idealism, lofty 
 inspiration, splendid consecration, pure devotion to 
 duty and magnificent heroism, there, according to 
 this vile interpretation of human nature, after all 
 is nothing but a disguised manifestation of the 
 sex urge. Only a foul and diseased imagination 
 would be willing to follow the tortuous paths and 
 nasty byways into which a detailed exposition of 
 this theory would of necessity lead us. We sum 
 up the case in the words of Mr. R. H. Hingley, who 
 writes: “Actors, ministers, surgeons, physicians, 
 artists, poets, may all give their reasons for the 
 vocations they have accepted. But these reasons 
 will be very different from those crude primitive 
 tendencies which psychoanalysis claims to be the 
 motive power of their various activities. These 
 tendencies are indignantly denied and wrathfully 
 repudiated. They link up the finest and noblest 
 achievements of human nature to its basest and 
 most degraded forms. “At the bottom of every 
 human activity, however, fair and exalted it may 
 seem, there lies something sinister, something per¬ 
 verse. At the core of every flower of life we find 
 curled up the hideous cankerworm of sex. That 
 is what psychoanalysis would make of life.” 
 
 Dreams. —The dream occupies a very important 
 position in psychoanalysis. For the diagnosis of 
 the morbid condition it is of incalculable value. 
 
 More than any of the previously mentioned indi¬ 
 cations it helps to disclose the hidden complex. In 
 the dream the unconscious is particularly active 
 and the ordinary inhibitions of the conscious are 
 very much relaxed. The dream, therefore, is the 
 key to the storehouse of the unconscious and opens 
 up windows into the deepest and most remote 
 recesses of the mind. It took Dr. Freud some time 
 to recognize and fully appreciate the role of the 
 dream. Of the gradual development of this under¬ 
 standing Dr. A. A. Brill tells us: “At first Freud 
 paid no more attention to the dreams which his 
 patients narrated than any other intelligent man of 
 the time. But gradually as he listened to them 
 he began to see that they must have some place 
 in the vital economy of the mind, for every¬ 
 thing in the physical or mental spheres must 
 have a function. In time he was convinced 
 that the dream is not a mere jumble, a senseless 
 mechanism, but that it represents frequently in 
 symbolic form the person’s inmost thoughts and 
 desires, that it represents a hidden wish. He thus 
 developed his monumental work, the greatest in 
 the century, in my opinion, ‘The Interpretation of 
 Dreams.’ He found that the dream offered the 
 best access, that it was the via regia as he put it, 
 to the unconscious; that it was of tremendous help 
 not only in the treatment, but also in the diagnosis.” 
 
 The cornerstone of Freud’s theory of dreams is 
 the hypothesis that all dreams are the fulfilment 
 of a wish, especially of such wishes which we wotrld 
 disown and indignantly repudiate in our waking 
 hours. The dream in this way answers a two¬ 
 fold biological function, it protects sleep against 
 interruption through the unsatisfied desire and af¬ 
 fords a fictitious gratification to repressed cravings. 
 Freud expresses this office of the dream in technical 
 language as follows: “Dreams are the removal of 
 sleep-disturbing psychic stimuli by way of hallu¬ 
 cinated satisfaction.” 
 
 In the dream vengeance, hatred, jealousy, envy ^ 
 and other evil passions, which consciousness habit¬ 
 ually holds in check, come to the fore and find a 
 vicarious satisfaction by enacting scenes in which 
 the unconsciously entertained wishes born out of 
 these passions are realized. Yet even here these 
 vile tendencies dare not appear in their native form 
 and their unmitigated ugliness; for, though during 
 sleep the vigilance of the censor relaxes it does not 
 entirely cease. The dream, therefore, makes use of 
 symbols in order to evade the censor. Withal on 
 account of the partial eclipse of the censorship, the 
 symbolic disguise may be less rigid and the under¬ 
 lying wish can be more easily recognized than in 
 the incidents of our wakeful life. 
 
 To unlock the real meaning of the dream is the 
 aim of dream interpretation which in psychoanalysis 
 has been brought to a very high degree of perfec¬ 
 tion. Still it is fraught with great difficulties by 
 reason of the disguise and the symbolic substitu¬ 
 tions to which the dream has recourse. Dreams 
 have two contents, the manifest and the latent. 
 The former is obvious to the dreamer; the latter 
 can only be revealed by minute analysis. Only the 
 latent content is of value in the investigation of 
 the unconscious. 
 
 The dynamic of the dream has received much at¬ 
 tention on the part of the psychoanalyst. The fac¬ 
 tors energetic in the dream are dramatization, dis¬ 
 tortion, displacement and symbolic representation, 
 all of which have but one aim, to nullify the watch¬ 
 fulness of the censor. These very devices which 
 outwit the censor also render the interpretation a 
 laborious task. The numerous gaps, the jarring 
 incongruities and the slender threads by which 
 
PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 623 
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 the action is held together are due to the 
 absence of reason in our dream life. The un¬ 
 conscious is devoid of logic. It is blind and im¬ 
 pulsive. Dr. Ernest Jones writes: “Dream mak¬ 
 ing proceeds by methods quite foreign to our wak¬ 
 ing mental life; it ignores obvious contradictions, 
 makes use of highly strained analogies, and brings 
 together widely different ideas by means of the 
 most superficial associations.” This illogical char¬ 
 acter of the dream processes accentuates the dif¬ 
 ficulties of dream interpretation. 
 
 According to Freud, dreams never deal with triv¬ 
 ialities, but always with vital concerns of the in¬ 
 dividual. They revert with special predilection to 
 childhood, in which the instinctive life was as yet 
 unrepressed, and rehearse experiences of a strong 
 sensational or emotional emphasis. The dream also 
 is made to throw light upon certain race processes; 
 for the situation of humanity with regard to social 
 repression is analogous to that of the individual. 
 Humanity also has its dreams by which it wishes 
 to escape the restraint imposed by civilization. 
 And in these dreams it likewise uses a symbolism 
 intended to dissemble the real meaning. “Fairy 
 tales, legends and religions,” says Dr. A. Tridon, 
 “are the dreams of the human race, expressing as 
 they do the fulfillment of mankind’s desire for 
 happiness, and power or compensating mankind for 
 the many restrictions imposed upon it by man’s 
 own biological status.” These phenomena, then, 
 according to Freud are properly understood if 
 interpreted along the line of dream symbolism. 
 Some have applied this method to the beliefs and 
 traditions of mankind and have made havoc of 
 its most precious spiritual possessions. Psycho¬ 
 analysis in this respect has proved a great solvent 
 and destroyer. 
 
 Criticism. —If we take psychoanalysis in its 
 restricted sense as a therapeutic method we 
 have no fundamental objections against it, but 
 only warn against its exaggerations and coun¬ 
 sel extreme caution in its application. The 
 mind is a delicate mechanism and unskilled 
 tampering with its working is liable to produce 
 much harm. When the treatment of the patient 
 is under the supervision of an experienced and 
 reliable physician and if it is surrounded by the 
 safeguards made necessary by the intimate nature 
 of the disclosures, there is nothing to be said 
 against it from a moral point of view. In view of 
 ugly possibilities, however, these provisos must be 
 insisted upon in the same way as they are urged 
 in the practice of hypnotism. We are not prepared 
 to admit that all psychic disturbances have their 
 origin in unfulfilled desires, especially if these de¬ 
 sires are supposed to be of the sexual sort. More¬ 
 over, psychoanalysis can hardly be said to be the 
 cure of the neurosis, for after the disturbing ele¬ 
 ment in the psychic life has been discovered, a 
 complete re-education of the patient frequently 
 becomes necessary. Psychoanalysis promises more 
 than it can perform. The fashionable cult of psy¬ 
 choanalysis as practised in some circles lacking both 
 knowledge and experience cannot be condemned 
 too severely, because it may lead to most disastrous 
 results. Pyschoanalvsis is a dangerous toy. 
 
 From the admissions of psychoanalysts strong 
 arguments may be drawn in favor of well known 
 Catholic practises such as confession and asceticism. 
 A sincere confession will purge the mind of much 
 perilous stuff which otherwise might begin to rankle 
 and poison the soul. The resistance which the peni¬ 
 tent experiences in disclosing his weakness also has 
 a great curative value. Christian asceticism is by 
 far more effective in repressing evil tendencies than 
 
 40 
 
 the unconscious repression of which psychoanalysis 
 makes so much. The conscious repression de¬ 
 manded by the moral law will prevent the forma¬ 
 tion of hidden complexes and will exercise deliber¬ 
 ate control over evil impulses and tendencies. 
 Habits of virtue, moreover, will not only repress 
 the wicked inclinations into the unconscious, but 
 will drain them of all their energy and gradually 
 supplant them entirely. The important point over¬ 
 looked by the psychoanalysts is this that disorders 
 of the mental life are not so much caused by ef¬ 
 fectually suppressed desires as by insufficiently sup¬ 
 pressed desires which are allowed to lurk in the 
 mind. The Christian law forbidding evil thoughts 
 prevents such insincerity that may avenge itself in 
 psychic disturbances. 
 
 Psychoanalysis contains elements of truth, but 
 they are distorted beyond recognition on account 
 of the fantastic and pseudo-scientific terminology 
 affected by the apostles of the new theory. Many 
 of its heralded discoveries are common-sense truths 
 expressed in a mysterious jargon calculated to im¬ 
 pose upon the uneducated. That men act from 
 mixed motives and that at times they disguise the 
 real reasons that prompt their actions has long 
 since been recognized by the teachers of the spirit¬ 
 ual life, one of their staples being to warn the 
 striver after virtue against this subtle self-decep¬ 
 tion. Sublimation is equally familiar to them, since 
 they do not teach the annihilation of passions, but 
 a redirection of them into spiritual channels. In 
 this and in many other items Catholic asceticism has 
 long anticipated what is useful in psychoanalysis, 
 which has not even clarified the matters in ques¬ 
 tion, but has only caused confusion and bewilder¬ 
 ment by its pretentious vocabulary. 
 
 As an interpretation of life and a basis of con¬ 
 duct, psychoanalysis must be rejected without 
 reserve. Its personifiication of the unconscious 
 psychic processes, upon which it rests its astonish¬ 
 ing claims, is unscientific and not borne out by 
 facts. The unconscious is neither dynamic nor as 
 omnipresent as the psychoanalyst would make it 
 out. Freud has entirely inverted psychology, mak¬ 
 ing the unconscious the dominant factor in our 
 psychic life and exalting the instinctive life above 
 the rational. In reality this would make an end 
 of psychology as an independent science and reduce 
 it to a branch of biology. On this point psycho¬ 
 analysis is in accord with the general drift of 
 modern evolutionary psychology. 
 
 For freedom there is no room jn the psycho¬ 
 analytical system; the will is nothing but the pup¬ 
 pet of the unconscious forces. Thus writes Dr. 
 A. A. Brill, the authentic exponent of the Freudian 
 psychology: “For it is known that all our actions 
 are physically determined by unconscious motives, 
 that there is no psychic activity which does not 
 follow definite paths formed in the individual since 
 his childhood.” Far from being known, this is con¬ 
 trary to observation and utterly at variance with 
 well-established facts. For Freud man is only a 
 bundle of conflicting impulses, each one of which 
 is striving for the mastery whilst the mind is the 
 passive onlooker. The animal life is not only the 
 substratum, but the actual source of the rational 
 and the spiritual. It is impossible to erect on such 
 a basis an anthropology that will do justice to the 
 dignity of man. Without exaggeration it may be 
 asserted that at present psychoanalysis is the great¬ 
 est enemy to a right understanding and a just esti¬ 
 mate of man’s place in the universe. It degrades 
 him as few systems of philosophy have ever done. 
 It obliterates the boundary lines between sanity 
 and insanity; it explains the normal manifestations 
 
PUBLIC 
 
 624 
 
 PUNO 
 
 of the mind on the same basis as the phenomena 
 of the diseased mind. Art, religion, heroism have 
 the same source as crime, morbidity and perversion. 
 The unconscious is the key to everything. The 
 highest is nothing but a sublimation of the lowest. 
 Behind everything lies the dark and somber back¬ 
 ground of the vital urge. The influence of such 
 teaching can but be pernicious and subversive of 
 morality. 
 
 The only valuable contribution that psycho¬ 
 analysis has made to the science of education is 
 that it has called renewed attention to the fartal 
 consequences of illegitimate and unreasonable re¬ 
 pression. The general application of psychoanalytic 
 methods to the training of children would be noth¬ 
 ing short of criminal. It would ruin the beautiful 
 unconcern of the child, ruthlessly brush the bloom 
 of innocence from its soul and, instead of prevent¬ 
 ing nervous troubles, lay the foundation of mor¬ 
 bidity and perversion. Even Mr. R. H. Hingley, 
 otherwise favorably disposed towards psychoan¬ 
 alysis, protests against such an abuse. “We do 
 not believe,” he writes, “it is desirable, necessary 
 or possible to apply the full technique of this 
 method to the task of educating the ordinary child.” 
 
 Freud, A General Introduction to Psychoanalysis (New York, 
 1920); Idem, The Interpretation of Dreams (New York, 1913); 
 Idem, The Psychopathology of Everyday Life (New York, 1914); 
 Idem, Totem and Taboo (New York, 1918); Idem, Wit and Its 
 Relation to the Unconscious (New York, 1916); Brill, Funda¬ 
 mental Conceptions of Psychoanalysis (New York, 1921); Adler, 
 The Neurotic Constitution (New York, 1917); Jung, Psychology 
 of the Unconscious (New York, 1916); Jones, Papers on Psy¬ 
 choanalysis (Toronto, 1918); Pfister, 'The Psychoanalytic 
 Method (New York, 1917); Jelliffe, The Technique of Psy¬ 
 choanalysis (Boston); Holt, The Freudian Wish and its Place 
 in Ethics (New York, 1915); Tridon, Psychoanalysis, Its His¬ 
 tory, Theory and Practice (New York, 1919); Low, Psychoanalysis, 
 A Brief Account of the Freudian Theory (New York, 1920); 
 Coriat , What Is Psychoanalysis (New York, 1919); Idem, 
 Abnormal Psychology (New York, 1917); Lay, Man's Uncon¬ 
 scious Conflict (New York, 1920); Idem, Man's Unconscious 
 Spirit (New York, 1919); Frink, Morbid Fears and Compulsions, 
 Their Psychology and Psychoanalytic Treatment (New York, 
 1918); Hingley, Psycho-Analysis (New York, 1922); Tansley. 
 The New Psychology and Its Relation to Life (New York, 1921); 
 Howley, Psychology and Mystical Experience (London, 1920); 
 Raupert, Human Destiny and the New Psychology (Phila¬ 
 delphia, 1921); Walsh, Health through Will Power (Boston, 
 1920); Froebes, Lehrbuch der experimentellen Psychologie 
 (Freiburg, 1917); Lindworsky, Psychoanalyse in Lexikon der 
 Paedagogik (Freiburg, 1917); Egger, Die Psychanalyse als 
 Seelenproblem und Lebensrichtung (1919); Aveling and Cullen, 
 Psychoanalysis in The Dublin Review (Sarnen, 1921, No. 337); 
 Barrett, Psychoanalysis and Christian Morality in The Month 
 (Feb., 1921); Rivers, Psychotherapeutics in Encyclopedia of 
 Religion and Ethics. 
 
 C. Bruehl. 
 
 Public Honesty (cf. C. E., XII-554a).—The 
 matrimonial impediment known as public honesty 
 or public propriety now arises only out of an invalid 
 marriage, whether or not consummated, or from 
 public or notorious concubinage; it annuls marriage in 
 the first and second degrees of the direct line between 
 
 the man and the blood relatives of the woman and 
 vice versa. The causes of the impediment are now 
 quite different from those that gave rise to it before 
 the Code came into effect. In those days it arose 
 from a valid betrothal, which now produces no effect 
 on a marriage contract, or from an unconsummated 
 valid marriage, which now gives rise to the impedi¬ 
 ment of affinity. While public or notorious concubin¬ 
 age gives rise to the impediment of public propriety, 
 it would not be caused by secret concubinage, or 
 
 occasional sexual relations. 
 
 Ayrinhac, Marriage Legislation (New York, 1919); Slater 
 in Eccl. Rev., LXV (Philadelphia, 1921), 492. 
 
 Puebla de los Angeles (or Tlaxcala; cf. C. 
 E., XIV—747d), Archdiocese of (Angelopoli- 
 tania), Mexico. In 1919, Mgr. Sanchez Paredes, 
 vicar capitular of Puebla, was appointed bishop, and 
 consecrated in his cathedral 8 June, succeeding Mgr. 
 Ibarra y Gonzalez deceased. In 19^1 the diocese 
 contained 180 parishes, 2038 churches and chapels, 
 498 secular and 57 regular priests, 12 convents of men 
 and 23 of women, 3 monasteries of nuns, 234 Brothers, 
 1 higher, 1 preparatory, and 5 succursal seminaries 
 with 320 seminarians; 1 university with 54 professors 
 and 80 students, 7 preparatory colleges for boys with 
 36 teachers and 1325 pupils, 15 for girls with 172 
 teachers and 2012 students, 2 high schools with 20 
 teachers and 221 pupils, 80 boys and 142 girls; 2 
 academies with 32 teachers and 306 pupils; 1 normal 
 school with 12 teachers and 45 students, 1 training 
 school with 19 teachers and 36 students; 407 elemen¬ 
 tary schools with 289 teachers and 8078 pupils. 
 Charitable institutions include 1 home for the aged, 
 1 asylum, 9 hospitals, and 3 settlement houses. 
 Five public institutions permit the ministration of 
 priests, and some of the schools and institutions 
 receive Government aid. There are 7 organiza¬ 
 tions formed amongst the clergy and 33 amongst 
 the laity. The Catholic press is represented by 8 
 publications. 
 
 Pulati, Diocese of (Pulatensis; cf. C. E., 
 XII—561d), in Albania, suffragan of Scutari. The 
 present bishop is Rt. Rev. Bernard Slaku, O.F.M., 
 b. 1875, elected titular Bishop of Tiberiade and coad¬ 
 jutor Bishop of Pulati, 1910, succeeding to the see 13 
 January, 1911, upon the resignation of Bishop Mar¬ 
 coni . The population of the diocese is 14,300, of whom 
 14,260 are Catholics. There are 9 secular priests and 
 14 churches and chapels. 
 
 Puno, Diocese of (Puniensis; cf. C. E., 
 XII—569d), comprises the Department of Puno, 
 Peru, suffragan of Lima. The area of the diocese is 
 20,193 square miles, and the Catholic population is 
 260,840. There are: 62 parishes, 85 priests, 3 stu¬ 
 dents at the Theological Seminary at Lima, 320 
 churches and chapels. 
 
Q 
 
 Quebec, Archdiocese of (Quebecensis), in 
 Canada, comprises the counties of Beauce, Bell' - 
 chasse, Dorchester, Kamouraska, Levis, L’lsbt, 
 Lotbiniere, Megantic, Montinagny, Montmorency, 
 Portneuf, Quebec and part of Temiscouata. The 
 present incumbent, His Eminence Louis Cardinal 
 Begin, who took possession of the see in 1898, 
 was created a cardinal 25 May, 1914. He has 
 as his auxiliary Most Rev. Paul-Eugene Roy, b. 
 1859, who was consecrated titular Bishop of Eleu- 
 theropolis (1908), later appointed titular Arch¬ 
 bishop of Seleucia (1914) and (1920) made coadju¬ 
 tor with the right of future succession to the Arch¬ 
 bishop of Quebec. 
 
 Archbishop Roy is the chief force in the “Action 
 Sociale Catholique,” of which the “Action Catho- 
 lique,” edited in Quebec since 1907, is a branch. 
 In connection with this paper there is a depart¬ 
 ment which publishes tracts and pamphlets on 
 various Catholic subjects. An ecclesiastical associa¬ 
 tion organized in the diocese, “La caisse de Saint 
 Joseph,” grants a pension to its members who are 
 out of employment through sickness or age. Other 
 charitable institutions are: 10 hospitals, 2 of which 
 are devoted to tubercular patients; 8 orphanages; 
 4 patronages for boys and 3 for girls; 1 house for 
 the protection of girls; 1 refuge for repentant girls, 
 all conducted by religious communities; 40 pros¬ 
 perous conferences of St. Vincent de Paul and a 
 tabernacle society. A branch of the Catholic 
 Association of Travelling Salesmen is organized in 
 the diocese, as well as 30 branches of the Canadian 
 Association of Young Catholics, a club of Catholic 
 sailors and the Association of Canadian Girls. 
 Throughout the diocese there are about 25,000 
 members of the national syndicates of Catholic 
 workmen. 
 
 By 1921 statistics there are 404,500 Catholics; 
 668 secular and 102 regular priests; 233 parishes; 
 22 missions; 255 churches or chapels; 36 public 
 oratories; 1 university (Laval), with 460 students, 
 of whom 185 are theological students; 4 colleges 
 or seminaries with 2100 students; 1 Apostolic 
 School with 35 teachers who atjtend the Seminary 
 of Quebec for lectures; Laval normal school with 
 100 young women and 75 young men training for 
 teaching, and 200 other students; 1 normal domes¬ 
 tic science school with 150 girls; 1 agricultural 
 school with 100 students and 1 agricultural or¬ 
 phanage. 
 
 The religious Orders established in the diocese 
 are: male (the asterisk shows which have in the 
 diocese a novitiate or a preparatory postulate), 
 Dominicans, Franciscans*, Capuchins*, Jesuits, 
 Redemptorists*, Oblates of Mary Immaculate, 
 Missionaries of the Sacred Heart*, White Fathers*, 
 Eudists, Fathers of the Blessed Sacrament*, 
 Brothers of St. Vincent de Paul*, Fathers of the 
 Assumption, the Fathers of the Holy Cross (who 
 have a house in Quebec, in which there are about 
 twenty students following the course of theology at 
 Laval, while the Franciscans and the Capuchins 
 have their own classes of theology); Brothers of the 
 Christian Schools*, of Christian Instruction, of St. 
 
 Viator, of the Sacred Heart, Marist Brothers*, 
 female: Ursulines*, Augustinian Sisters, called 
 Hospitalieres*, Grey Nuns*, Sisters of Good Shep¬ 
 herd (of Quebec)*,' of Jesus-Mary*, of the Congre¬ 
 gation of Notre-Dame, Servants of the Holy Heart 
 of Mary*, Sisters of Our Lady of Perpetual Help*, 
 of the Roly Rosary, of Providence, Dominicans of 
 the Infant Jesus*, Franciscans Missionaries of 
 Mary*, of our Lady of Good Council, of the Holy 
 Family, Cistercian (Trappistine) Sisters*, of Hope, 
 of St. Joseph, of St. Valier*, of Charity of St. 
 Louis*, White Sisters*, Redemptorist Sisters*, Sis¬ 
 ters of St. Francis of Assisi*, of the Precious 
 Blood*, of the Assumption, Little Franciscans of 
 Mary, Missionaries of the Immaculate Conception, 
 Oblate Sisters, Sisters of the Holy Infant Jesus*, 
 of Ste. Chretienne*, Servants of the Blessed Sac¬ 
 rament, Visitandine Sisters, Sisters of Jeanne 
 d’Arc*. 
 
 Queretaro, Diocese of (de Queretaro; cf. C. E.5 
 XII—601b), in 'Mexico, suffragan of Michoacan. 
 The present administrator of the diocese is the Rt. 
 Rev. Francisco Banegas, b. at Celaya, Mexico, 5 
 March, 1867, studied at Celaya, Queretaro and 
 Morelia, and was ordained at the seminary. He was 
 vicar general of Vera Cruz in 1914 and was exiled in 
 August of that year. He took refuge in the Antilles, 
 whence he was sent to Chicago. He returned to Vera 
 Cruz, December, 1918, was elected 28 February, 
 1919, published 3 July, consecrated 27 July following, 
 succeeding Rt. Rev. Emmanuel Rivera, who died 
 8 May, 1914. In 1920 the diocese contained: 
 279,414 Catholics, 19 parishes, 14 vicarages, 210 
 churches and chapels, 93 secular priests, 20 regulars, 
 and 150 seminarians. 
 
 Quilon, Diocese of (Quilonensis, cf. C. E., 
 XII—610d), in India, suffragan of Verapoly, is still 
 under the administration of Bishop Benziger. There 
 are 152,424 Catholics, out of a total population of 
 1,900,000. Eighty-one priests, of whom 24 are Dis¬ 
 eased Carmelites, serve 181 churches and 46 chapels. 
 Besides the preparatory seminary with 39 students 
 there is now at Quilon a higher seminary with 26 
 seminarians, besides 2 at the seminary of Kandy in 
 Ceylon. There are 24 Discalced Carmelites, 61 Sis¬ 
 ters of the Third Order Apostolic of Our Lady of 
 Mount Carmel, 32 European and 27 native lay Sis¬ 
 ters of the Missionary Canonesses of St. Augustine, 
 18 Sisters and 7 novices of the Congregation of the 
 Holy Cross from Menzingen, 21 Sisters and 5 novices 
 of the Congregation of the Immaculate Heart of 
 Mary. The boys’ schools have 1756 pupils and the 
 girls’ 4066; the total number of schools in the diocese, 
 including mixed schools, is 184; the total number of 
 pupils 18,702. 
 
 The charitable institutions include 2 orphanages for 
 boys with 85 inmates, 3 for girls with 183 inmates, 
 the Infant Jesus Orphanage at Mulagamude with 295 
 inmates, one at Nagercoil with 30 inmates, besides a 
 dispensary and 3 hospitals. 
 
 Quimper and Leon, Diocese of (Corisopi- 
 tensisetLeoniensis, cf. C. E., XII—611c),includes 
 the Department of Finistere, France. It has 314 
 
 625 
 
QUIMPER 
 
 026 
 
 QUITO 
 
 parishes, 314 churches, about 1000 chapels, 1 monas¬ 
 tery for men, 37 convents or residences for men, and 
 154 for women. There are 1100 secular priests, 14 
 Jesuits and 3 lay brothers, 5 Benedictines, 142 Broth¬ 
 ers and 1625 Sisters. There are 2 upper seminaries 
 (one being for the Missions of Haiti), and 1 lower 
 seminary with 150 seminarians in the upper seminary 
 and 300 in the lower; Five colleges with 75 professors 
 and 1500 students. There are 2 normal schools, 1 
 for boys with 4 teachers and 60 pupils, and 1 for girls, 
 with 5 teachers and 38 pupils. Two hundred and sixty 
 teachers instruct 16,000 boys in 67 elementary schools 
 and 783 teachers instruct 30,000 girls in 180 schools. 
 Charitable institutions include 16 asylums, 28 hos¬ 
 pitals, 3 refuges, 8 orphanages and 15 industrial 
 schools. Four organizations exist among the clergy 
 and among the laity there are general associations such 
 as the Jeunesse Catholique, the General Federation 
 of Patronages, the League of the Fathers of Families, 
 the Catholic Union, the Ligue Patriotique des Fran¬ 
 cises, and the diocesan association for the Relief of 
 War Orphans, besides one or two associations of 
 various kinds in each parish. The population of the 
 diocese is 809,771 Catholics. The see is still governed 
 by Rt. Rev. Adolphe-Yves-Marie Duparc, b. at 
 Lorientin 1857, ordained in 1880, elected 11 February, 
 1908, in succession to Bishop Dubillard, promoted to 
 the see of Chambery. The important events in the 
 diocese since 1911 include the coronation of the statue 
 of Ste. Anne at the famous shrine of Ste. Anne-la-Palue 
 in 1913, and the fourth Breton Marian Congress held 
 at Folgoat in the same year, under the presidency of 
 the Rt. Rev. Bishop. Cardinal Dubillard, archbishop 
 of Chambery, former bishop of Quimper, president of 
 
 the League Pro Pontifice et Ecclesia died at Chambery 
 1 December, 1914, and in that year also occurred the 
 death of Comte Albert de Mun "(q. v.), member of the v 
 French Academy, deputy for Finistere, and founder 
 of the- CEuvre des Circles Catholiques d’Ouvriers. 
 During the war 766 ecclesiastics (priests and semina¬ 
 rians) were mobilized, of whom 100 were killed or 
 missing, 233 were cited in orders of the day with 379 
 citations, 15 were decorated with the cross of the 
 Legion of Honor, 23 with the Medaille Militaire, 10 
 with the Medaille des Epidemies , and a large number 
 received the Croix de Ouerre. Of the 17 army and navy 
 chaplains 14 were cited in orders of the day with 36 
 citations, and 7 received the cross of the Legion of 
 Honor. 
 
 Quito, Archdiocese of (Quitensis, cf. C. E., 
 XII—615c), Ecuador, has a Catholic population of 
 420,560, 81 parishes and 195 priests. The present 
 bishop is Most Rev. Manuel Maria Polit, born at 
 Quito in 1862; he attained distinction as a lawyer and 
 publicist, became secretary to the Senate and deputy, 
 entered the ecclesiastical state in 1890, made his 
 studies at the Latin-American College, Rome, and at 
 St. Sulpice, Paris, was ordained in 1894, elected bishop 
 of Cuenca 11 January, 1907, consecrated 1 November 
 following, promoted 17 June, 1918, in succession to 
 Mgr. Frederico Gonzales y Suarez, d. 6 December, 
 1917. At the request of the Mercedarians the 
 ancient and magnificent church of Our Lady of Mercy 
 was erected into a minor basilica by a decree of 2 
 December, 1920. Under this title the Blessed Virgin 
 is invoked for protection from earthquakes, which 
 aere so frequnt and so violent in Ecuador. 
 
R 
 
 Ragusa, Diocese of (Ragusinensis, cf. C. E., 
 
 • XII—633d), in Jugoslavia, suffragan of Lara, is still 
 under the administration of Rt. Rev. Joseph Gregory 
 Marcellic, b. at Preko, 1847, elected titular bishop of 
 Tanis 1893 and transferred 18 May, 1894, succeeding 
 Mgr. Vodopic, deceased. In 1916 there were in the 
 diocese 72,285 Catholics, 500 Greek Schismatics, 5 
 deanships, 47 parishes, 11 filial parishes, 112 secular 
 and 52 regular priests. 
 
 Rajpootana, Prefecture Apostolic of. See 
 Ajmer, Diocese of. 
 
 # 
 
 Rampolla del Tindaro, Mariano, Cardinal, b. 
 at Polizzi, on 17 August, 1843; d. at Rome on 17 
 December, 1913. The family of the Rampollas del 
 Tindaro belong to the Sicilian nobility. The future 
 Cardinal studied at the Capranica, which explains his 
 great affection for that institution a id its pupils. In 
 1875 he was appointed to be auditor of the nunciature 
 at Madrid and returned to Rome two years later to be 
 Secretary of the Propaganda for Oriental Affairs; he 
 was Prothonotary Apostolic in 1878 and Secretary of 
 the Latin Propaganda in 1880. In 1880 Leo XIII 
 made him Archbishop of Heraclea and in 1882 sent 
 him as nuncio to Madrid. During his stay there he 
 won the affection of every one, and when the king 
 asked the cardinal’s hat for him, not only did the Pope 
 grant the honor but in 1887 when his term expired he 
 recalled him to Rome and appointed him Secretary of 
 State in place of the deceased Cardinal Jacobini. As 
 to whether he shaped the policy of Leo XIII or 
 merely followed the Pope’s guidance is still an open 
 question, but his fidelity to the Pontiff was such that 
 during his long fifteen years of office he never reserved 
 for himself a single day of vacation. He was lich in 
 his own right, but his liberality was princely, both in 
 repairing churches and in assisting the needy and 
 poor. 
 
 In the Conclave that elected Pius X, Rampolla 
 would certainly have received the tiara had it not 
 been for the veto power of Austria. As Archpriest 
 of St. Peter, it was he who had to extend the official 
 welcome to Cardinal Sarto, a duty which he per¬ 
 formed with exquisite graciousness and tact. After 
 the election of Pius, Cardinal Rampolla resumed the 
 work of the various Congregations to which he be¬ 
 longed; that of the Holy Office had become extremely 
 heavy after the resignation of Cardinal Serafino 
 Vanutelli as Secretary; but this did not prevent him 
 from elaborating his splendid study of the Life of St. 
 Melania the Younger which was welcomed by the 
 enthusiastic approval of the learned men of all Europe. 
 To allow him to continue his researches, Pius X in 
 1912 made him Librarian of the Holy Roman Church, 
 besides bestowing other honors upon him. His posi¬ 
 tion was of course an extremely delicate one in his rela¬ 
 tions with Pius X, but never a word of regret for 
 having failed to receive the tiara ever escaped his lips, 
 and never a word of hope that some future occasion 
 would bring him the honor. He died suddenly in 
 1913. He will ever be regarded by the world as a 
 great cardinal and a faithful servant of the Church. 
 
 Raphoe, Diocese of (Rapotensis; cf. C. E., 
 XII—-647b), in the province of Ulster (Ireland), 
 is suffragan of Armagh, with residence at Letter- 
 kenny, Co. Donegal. His Eminence Cardinal 
 Michael Logue, former bishop of Raphoe, was suc¬ 
 ceeded by Rt. Rev. Patrick O’Donnell, who fills the 
 see since 1888. He was born at Rilzaine, Glenties, 
 28 November, 1855, studied at Maynooth, and later 
 served as a professor there; was prefect of Dunboyne, 
 rector of the Catholic University of Ireland, and 
 was appointed 26 February, 1888; he was made a 
 member of the Irish Convention in 1917. Statistics 
 for 1921 report 26 parishes, 57 churches, 90 secular 
 priests, 2 monasteries for men, 5 convents for women, 
 45 Brothers, 60 Sisters; 1 college for boys opened in 
 1916, with 9 teachers and 90 students, 1 high school 
 for women with 50 students, 221 elementary schools 
 with 485 teachers and 16,532 pupils, 1 industrial 
 school with 75 pupils, technical schools with attend¬ 
 ance of 50 pupils for each, 5 workhouses, 1 county 
 asylum for the insane; besides two workhouse hos¬ 
 pitals there are 2 more maintained by public funds, 
 and the Shiel hospital; the priests’ ministry is unre¬ 
 stricted in all public institutions; primary and 
 secondary schools receive government grants. One 
 society is organized among the clergy for the support 
 of disabled clergy, and several branch associations 
 among the laity such as: the Apostolic Union, Father 
 Mathew’s Union, Pia Unia pro missionibus, Associa¬ 
 tion of Clerical Managers of schools, temperance 
 societies, reading rooms, clubs, confraternities and 
 sodalities. The diocesan periodical, “The Crann,” 
 is published here. During the World War six priests 
 served as army chaplains. Canon Maguire’s His¬ 
 tory of the Diocese of Raphoe was published in 1920. 
 
 Ratisbon (Regensburg), Diocese of (Ratis- 
 bonensis; cf. C. E., XII-657a), suffragan of 
 Munich-Freising. The present incumbent is the Rt. 
 Rev. ’Anthony von Henle, b. at Weissenhorn 22 May, 
 1851, ordained 23 November, 1873, elected bishop of 
 Passau 3 April, 1901, consecrated 16 June following, 
 transferred to Ratisbon 6 November, 1906, enthroned 
 6 February, 1907. He was also councillor for the 
 Kingdom of Bavaria until 1918. During his adminis¬ 
 tration he introduced the diocesan hymn book, im¬ 
 proved the famous cathedral choir and also the 
 International School of Music, catalogued the 
 valuable library of music of Canon Proske, created a 
 diocesan archive for Christian Art, remodelled the 
 episcopal residence into a hospice for the clergy and 
 laity, transferred the old Roman Porta Pretoria to 
 the cathedral of St. Peter, established a central 
 diocesan bureau of charities, disbanded fourteen un¬ 
 denominational churches, established many parishes 
 in Ratisbon and other places. There are 889,951 
 Catholics in the diocese, of whom 600 are Austrians, 
 500 Poles, 150 Hungarians, 30 Jugoslavs, 20 Ru¬ 
 manians and 20 Russians. 
 
 The diocese contains 38 deaneries, 490 parishes, 
 186 benefices, 89 Expositurships, 36 other pastoral 
 offices, 600 churches, 740 succursal churches, 720 
 chapels, 1100 secular priests, 200 regulars, and 300 lay 
 brothers. The following orders of men have founda¬ 
 tions in the diocese: Benedictines, 2 abbeys at Metten 
 
 627 
 
RAVENNA 
 
 628 
 
 RAVENNA 
 
 and Wettenburg; Carmelites, 5 houses; Franciscans 5; 
 Capuchins 2; Redemptorists 3; Augustinians 4; 
 Minorites 2 hospices; Brothers of Mercy 5; School 
 Brothers 4; Premonstratensians 1; Salesians of Don 
 Bosco 1; Pallottini Fathers 1; Fathers of the Divine 
 Word 1; Brotherhood of Hermits 1; The following 
 orders of women are represented: Poor Clares 3 
 houses (104 Sisters); Dominicans 3 houses (166); 
 Cistercians 2 houses (199); UrsulineR 1 house (95); 
 Sisters of the Good Shepherd 1 house (64); English 
 Ladies 3 houses (120); Carmelites 2 houses (25); 
 Elizabethines 1 house (28); Salesians 4 houses (314); 
 24 establishments of the Sisters of Mercy (127); 
 82 of the Poor School Sisters (576); 115 of the Third 
 Order of St. Francis of Mallersdorf (939); 1 of the 
 Daughters of the Divine Redeemer of Niederbronn; 
 
 1 of the Sisters of the Holy Cross (3); 12 of the 
 Franciscans (49). In all there are 2662 Sisters in the 
 diocese. The diocesan seminary is at Ratisbon with 
 165 seminarians and there are 3 preparatory semin¬ 
 aries with 559 students. 
 
 The following educational institutions for men 
 exist in the diocese: 1 Hochschule with a philosophical 
 and theological faculty at Ratisbon (13 professors, 
 220 students), 6 gymnasia, 1 Oberrealschule (9 years 
 scientific course), 1 International School of Church 
 Music (5 professors, 20 students), 5 Realschulen (6 
 years scientific course, 64 professors, 1607 scholars), 
 
 2 teachers’ training schools (23 teachers, 351 students), 
 4 preparatory training schools (13 teachers, 168 
 students), 9 industrial schools (25 teachers, 650 
 students), 12 agricultural schools, 1 central agricul¬ 
 tural association with a continuation school for 100 
 young farmers and a house-keeping school for farm 
 maids. The following institutions exist for women: 
 11 Hohere Schulen for young women conducted by the 
 Sisters, divided as follows: English Ladies (1 school, 
 
 15 teachers, 300 pupils), School Sisters (1 school, 
 
 16 teachers, 243 pupils), 3 training schools for 
 teachers, 1 municipal school for young ladies (17 
 teachers, 457 pupils), 5 gymnasia, also 12 house¬ 
 keeping schools. There are 2547 State elementary 
 schools (10 years course) with 2547 teachers and 
 about 190,000 pupils, 71 needle-work schools for girls, 
 10 private soup kitchens, 1 association for male 
 teachers, 1 association for juvenile teachers, 1 asso¬ 
 ciation for women teachers, 11 societies for women 
 teachers. The following institutions have been 
 established for children: 18 homes, 45 orphan asy¬ 
 lums, 4 institutions for imbeciles, 2 homes for the deaf 
 and dumb, 5 shelters, 97 infant schools. The various 
 religious and social societies are well organized. They 
 are: 1 Archconfraternity of the Association of 
 Christian Mothers which includes 4000 associations, 
 18 Women’s Leagues, Association of the Holy Family, 
 500 Associations of Parents for the Support of 
 Christian schools, 7 childrens’ associations, 3 Womens’ 
 Associations ( 13,000 members), 172 Young Womens’ 
 Associations (40,000 members), 12 Young Men and 
 Men’s Associations (25,000 members), 1 anti-alcohol 
 league, 50 sodalities for young men under the guidance 
 of priests, 39 for women, 9 associations for merchants’ 
 employees (600 members), 54 apprentice associations 
 with 10 hospices, 116 boys’ sodalities (3370 rural 
 members), 150 rural associations for servants (7000 
 members), 2 homes for servants, 3 associations for 
 servants, 133 associations for workmen and work¬ 
 women, established since 1848 (10,000 members), 
 800 Farmers’ Associations (25,000members), Railroad 
 Men’s Union of Bavaria, the two last named estab¬ 
 lished since 1897. The laity have formed Christian 
 trade unions, a League for Metal-Workers and the 
 Merchants’ Hanseatic Union. The following chari¬ 
 table institutions exist in the diocese: 65 hospitals, 
 37 infirmaries for the aged, 3 homes for invalids, 4 
 homes for servants, 4 homes for the aged, 6 poor- 
 
 houses, 3 lunatic asylums, 1 house of correction at 
 Straubing, 2 institutions for prisoners, 50 nursing 
 stations. The following charitable organizations have 
 been formed: Conference of St. Vincent de Paul, 
 established 1848, 1 bureau of charities, 1 association 
 for supplying poor churches with vestments, 1 Priests’ 
 Association, 1 branch of the St. Raphael Society for 
 Catholic Emigrants. 
 
 Since 1911 the diocese has lost the following dis¬ 
 tinguished priests and laymen: Rev. Dr. Haberl, 
 founder of the school of church music; Canon Miihl- 
 bauer, builder of the Erhardihaus , a hospice for ap- * 
 prentices; Dr. Schreiner, who planned and promoted 
 the excavation of the Roman Castle Abusina Eining; 
 Canon Michael Haller, composer of church music; 
 Dean Sollner, builder of the basilica at Weiden; 
 Privy Councillor Carl Pustet, printer to the Holy 
 See; Joseph Habbel, merchant, publisher and public 
 official; Count Dr. Hugo v. Walderdorff, historian; 
 Eugenia Nentwig, Abbess of the Poor Clares, apostle 
 of the poor. Since 1911 the following important 
 events have taken place in the diocese: A new dioce¬ 
 san register was published (1916), also a diocesan 
 hymn-book. Many churches were erected and new 
 parishes were founded, numerous missions were given, 
 Eucharistic congresses, Catholic congresses, and 
 sodality conferences were held, pilgrimages were made 
 to Amberg and A1 totting, and 15,000 persons partici¬ 
 pated in the Farmers’ Congress. 
 
 During the war the clergy most generously gave 
 their services in caring for the spiritual and bodily 
 wants of the soldiers. Twenty of them acted as field 
 chaplains, 20 nursed the wounded, 160 seminarians 
 joined the army. At the three large prisoners’ camp 
 at Grafenwohr, Amberg, and Ratisbon, the clergy 
 were actively engaged in ministering to the spiritual 
 needs of the soldiers and prisoners. The Sisters of 
 Mercy cared for the wounded in 30 hospitals: Count 
 Albert and Countess Margareta of Thurn and Taxis 
 nursed the soldiers; the Catholic Press Association 
 provided reading matter for them. At the principal 
 railroad station at Ratisbon 325,000 prisoners, in¬ 
 cluding Germans, Austrians, Hungarians and Jugo¬ 
 slavs, were taken care of. Thirty thousand soldiers 
 of this diocese fell on the field of battle, of whom 86 
 were seminarians. An association has been formed 
 which looks after the graves of the fallen soldiers both 
 at homeland abroad. 
 
 Ravenna, Archdiocese of (Ravenatensir; cf. 
 C. E., XII—662b), in the province of Romagna, 
 Central Italy. A consistorial decree of 3 January, 
 1917, modified the confines of the archdiocese. 
 Ravenna, which claims metropolitan rights over all 
 the province of Emelia, is governed by Most Rev. 
 Pasquale Morganti, b. in the Diocese of Milan, 13 
 January, 1853, appointed bishop of Bobbio, 9 June, 
 1902, promoted to Ravenna 14 November, 1904, 
 succeeding Mgr. Guido Maria Conforti, resigned for 
 reasons of health, and appointed Bishop of Parma, 
 12 October, 1904, later Bishop of Cervia, 7 January, 
 1909; died 8 December, 1921. It has (1922) a Catholic 
 population of about 220,000 souls, 60 parishes, 200 
 churches, 2 monasteries for women, 2 convents for 
 men, 4 for women, 150 secular priests, 125 nuns, 
 
 1 seminary with 54 seminarians, 1 college for men 
 with 8 teachers and 70 students, 3 for women with 
 15 teachers and 105 students. The institutions under 
 the authority of the government are: 3 high schools 
 with 40 teachers and 300 boys and 50 girls, 1 academy 
 with 10 teachers and 40 boys and 10 girls, 1 normal 
 school with 80 students, 1 professional school with 
 70 students. Charitable institutions include 14 
 asylums and 3 hospitals. A Mutual Aid Society and 
 a society for deceased clergy are organized among the 
 clergy, and three Circles among the laity. During 
 
RECANATI 
 
 629 
 
 REGINA 
 
 the World War the clergy in cooperation with the 
 laity helped the needy of the diocese and several of the 
 clergy received citations. The sixth centenary of the 
 death of Danke was observed with fftting solemnity 
 under the ausrices of the Catholic Committee led by 
 the Archbishop. 
 
 Recanati and Loreto, Diocese of (Recine- 
 tensis et Lauretanensis, cf. C. E., XII—675d), 
 in the Province of Ancona, Central Italy, directly 
 dependent on the Holy See. The present bishop is 
 Rt. Rev. Alfonso Andreoli, b. at Pergola, 1850, elected 
 Bishop of Montefeltro 6 December, 1896, transferred 
 20 December, 1911, succeeding Mgr. Ranuzzi de 
 Bianchi, promoted to the titular archdiocese of Tyre. 
 On 12 September, 1920, took place the solemn conse¬ 
 cration of the statue of the Blessed Virgin as patroness 
 and protectress of aviators (q. v.) under the title of 
 Our Lady of Loreto, in the presence of the military 
 authorities and a vast throng. It was this statue that 
 was destroyed in the fire which broke out in the Santa 
 Casa during the night of 22 February, 1921. The 
 late Holy Father, Pope Benedict XV, promised to 
 assist in repairing the damage. Statistics for 1920 credit 
 the diocese with 26,000 Catholics, 8 parishes, 40 
 secular and 30 regular priests, 35 churches or chapels 
 in Loreto; 25,000 Catholics, 12 parishes, 42 secular 
 and 20 regular clergy, 20 seminarians, 40 churches or 
 chapels in Recanati. By a decree of the Consistory 
 (23 December, 1915), the Bishop of Loreto was 
 accorded the privilege of the pallium. 
 
 Recife, Archdiocese of. See Olinda and Recife. 
 
 Rector (cf. C. E., XII-676c).—A priest in charge 
 of a church that is neither parochial nor capitular, 
 nor annexed to the house of a religious community 
 which holds its services there, is called its rector. 
 Rectors are usually appointed by the local ordinary 
 where there is a right of election or presentation, or 
 where the church is under the control of an exempt 
 religious order or congregation, the rector requires the 
 ordinary’s approbation. In all cases a rector may be 
 removed by the ordinal at will for just cause, but if 
 the rector is a religious his superior is to be notified 
 of the removal. As a rule the superior of a seminary 
 or college directed by clerics is rector of any annexed 
 church. Rectors must refrain from acting as parish 
 priests,—thus they may not hold funerals in their 
 churches; they may be ordered by the local ordinary 
 to say Mass at a convenient hour, to announce the 
 feasts and fasts, and to explain the Gospel and the 
 catechism, if the parish church is so far away that 
 parishioners cannot attend it without great incon¬ 
 venience. 
 
 Reformed Churches—I. The Reformed (Dutch) 
 Church in America is a member of the “Alliance 
 of Reformed Churches throughout the World hold¬ 
 ing the Presbyterian System,” and of the “Council 
 of Reformed Churches holding the Presbyterian 
 System,” which is the American branch of the 
 former. In 1920 this church reported 727 churches, 
 769 ministers and 133,000 members (135,000 in 
 1922). In 1'916 the foreign missions reported 29 
 stations, 343 out-stations, 141 missionaries, 61 
 churches and 6827 members. 
 
 II. The Reformed (German) Church in the 
 United States, is also a member of the Presbyterian 
 Alliance and Council. This church has recently 
 sought, without success, to effect a union with the 
 Presbyterians and with the Reformed Dutch 
 Church. The Hungarian Reformed Church in 1922 
 entered into an agreement with the Protestant 
 Episcopal Church, whereby its ministers may ac¬ 
 cept ordination from the latter, without repudiat¬ 
 ing their existing orders. 
 
 The Reformed German Church reported in 1916 
 on its foreign mission work in Japan and China, 6 
 stations, 70 American missionaries, 35 churches, 
 3768 members, 17 schools, 3 hospitals, 1 orphanage. 
 In the United States the Church reported in 1920, 
 1767 churches, 1260 ministers, 330,000 members 
 (331,369 in 1922). 
 
 III. Reformed Churches in the Union of South 
 Africa, according to the census of 1918, had 800,178 
 European constituents (including adherents as 
 well as communicants), and 204,702 non-European 
 constituents. 
 
 Religious Bodies, 1916 (Washington, 1919); Year Book of the 
 Churches (New York, annual); Statesman’s Year-Book (London, 
 annual); Keeler, Protestant Hungarians and Episcopalians in 
 America, XXVI (1922), 344. 
 
 N. A. Weber. 
 
 Reggio di Calabria, Archdiocese of (Rhegi- 
 nensis, cf. C. E.,XII—717a), in Calabria, Southern 
 Italy, is still governed by Rt. Rev. Rinaldo Camillo, 
 Rousset, O.C.D., who came to the see in 1909 in suc¬ 
 cession to Cardinal Portanova, deceased. He was 
 bom at Beaulard, Italy, in 1860, entered the Carme¬ 
 lites in 1877, ordained in 1884, held various posts in 
 his order and was elected Bishop of Bagnorea in 1916, 
 promoted to Reggio after having acted as adminis¬ 
 trator apostolic. The statistics for 1920 credit it 
 with 89 parishes, 12 vicariates, 180 secular and 15 
 regular priests, 45 seminarians, 10 Brothers, 50 Sis¬ 
 ters, 200 churches and chapels, and 200,000 Catholics. 
 
 Reggio dell’Emilia, Diocese of (Reginensis), 
 suffragan of Modena, in Central Italy. It is under 
 the administration of Rt. Rev. Eduardo Brettoni, 
 born in the diocese of Florence, 1864, who was 
 appointed bishop 12 October, 1910. In 1912 a 
 Eucharistic Congress was held in this diocese. In 
 1913 the diocese lost its vicar general by the death 
 of Mgr. Campano. In 1920 the Catholic popula¬ 
 tion numbered 175,600, and by 1921 statistics there 
 are: 247 parishes, 300 churches, 3 monasteries for 
 men and 3 for women, 407 secular priests, 20 semi¬ 
 naries, about 75 seminarians, 200 Sisters, 1 second¬ 
 ary school for girls, 1 normal school and 1 profes¬ 
 sional school. Among the charitable institutions 
 are the diocesan congregation of missionaries, 1 
 poor house, 2 communal asylums, 3 hospitals, and 
 dispensaries for the care of babies. A mutual aid 
 society is established among the clergy and three 
 Catholic periodicals are published. 
 
 Regina, Archdiocese of (Reginensis; cf. C. 
 E., XII—718b), in Saskatchewan, Canada, erected 
 4 March, 1910, was raised to metropolitan rank 4 
 December 1915, with Prince Albert as its suffragan, 
 and Most Rev. Olivier-Elzear Mathieu, appointed at 
 the consistory of 9 December, 1915, as its first arch¬ 
 bishop. Born at St. Roch, Quebec, 24 December, 
 1853, he received his degree as doctor of theology in 
 Quebec in 1878, was ordained 2 June following, 
 served as professor of philosophy at the seminary 
 from 1878 to 1911, made doctor of philosophy in 
 Rome in 1882,prothonotary apostolic 17 June, 1902, 
 appointed first Bishop of Regina, 21 July, 1911, 
 consecrated 5 November following and accorded the 
 privilege of the pallium 21 June, 1916. In 1911 
 Bishop Mathieu was appointed fellow of the Order 
 of St. Michael and St. George by Edward VII; he 
 had been previously honored in 1902, by being named 
 an officer of public instruction and chevalier of the 
 Legion of honor. 
 
 According to 1922 statistics there are in the arch¬ 
 diocese, 79 parishes, 130 churches, 140 missions, 90 
 stations, 20 parishes served by religious, 20 convents 
 for women, 71 secular and 50 regular priests, 3 
 brothers, 235 nuns, 10 seminarians, 2 classical col- 
 
REGISTERS 
 
 630 
 
 REIMS 
 
 leges for men with GO teachers and 1G0 students. 20 
 higher schools for boys and girls with 110 teachers 
 and 825 students, 5 academies with 125 pupils, 3 
 industrial schools with 375 pupils and 1 boarding 
 house for girls; missionary work is done among the 
 Indians; there are 3 hospitals which receive a govern¬ 
 ment allowance for every patient. Societies organ¬ 
 ized among the clergy are: League of Priests Adorers, 
 Pious Union for a Happy Death, and the Association 
 of the Mass; among the laity: Knights of Columbus, 
 the French Canadian Association, Volks verein, and 
 various parochial confraternities. The Catholic popu¬ 
 lation of 85,000 is made up of French, German, Eng¬ 
 lish and other nationalities. In 1918 two classical 
 colleges were built at Regina; Campion College, an 
 English college conducted by the Jesuit Fathers, and 
 “Le College Mathieu” at Gravelbourg, a French 
 college under the direction of the Oblate Fathers* 
 
 Registers, Parochial (cf. C. E., XII-721c).— 
 Registration of a baptism must be made by the 
 parish priest without delay, he may not leave the 
 registration to the priest who administers the sacra¬ 
 ment, or to nuns or laymen. The Ritual directs that 
 the entry should be made before the child leaves the 
 church or the sponsors leave the baptistery. V hen 
 baptism has been administered neither by the parish 
 priest nor in his presence the minister is bound to 
 inform the parish priest without delay so that the 
 record may be made in the parochial register; the 
 parish priest referred to is the proprius parochus of 
 the subject baptized, that is the pastor of the place 
 of domicile of the infant’s parents. The decree a Ne 
 Temere” made it obligatory to note opposite one’s 
 name in the baptismal register the fact of his or her 
 marriage; the Code confirmed this practice and 
 ordered further that a similar record should be made 
 when the party was confirmed, solemnly professed, 
 or ordained subdeacon. The detailed facts of con¬ 
 firmation must be noted in a special confirmation 
 book, in addition to the annotation m the baptismal 
 record mentioned above; if the confirmed party s own 
 parish priest was not present he is to be notified by 
 
 the minister of the sacrament as soon as possible. 
 
 Murphy, Parish Records in Eccl. Rev., LXV (Philadelphia, 
 1921), 1-12. 
 
 Registro do Araguaya, Prelature Nullius in the 
 province of Matto Grosso, Brazil, erected 12 May, 
 1914. It is under the administration of Rt. Rev. 
 Antoine Malan, O. S. F. S., b. in 1862, ordained 
 1889, superior of the Salesians of Matto Grosso in 
 1901 and elected titular bishop of Amissus and prelate 
 nullius 25 May, 1914. The prelature was enlarged 
 29 October, 1920, by the addition of territory taken 
 from Belem do Para. According to 1920 statistics 
 there are 100,000 Indian inhabitants in 10 tribes, of 
 whom 15,000 are civilized, 1 parish, 3 sub-parishes, 
 
 3 chapels, 8 convents, of which 4 are Salesian and 
 
 4 of the Sisters of Mary-Auxiliatrice. 
 
 Reims, Archdiocese of (Rhemensis), com¬ 
 prises the district of Reims in the department of 
 the Marne and the whole department of Ardennes 
 in France. The present incumbent, His Eminence 
 Louis Cardinal Lugon was born at Maulevier in 
 1842, ordained 1865, appointed Bishop of Belley, 
 1887. During his administration in that see lie 
 terminated the process of beatification of the Cure 
 d’Ars and was presented at the festivities attend¬ 
 ing this event in Rome. He was promoted to the 
 Archdiocese of Reims 21 February, 1906, and cre¬ 
 ated a cardinal priest 16 December, 1907. 
 
 This territory, which saw some of the fiercest 
 fighting during the World War, has suffered 
 severely, and irreparable damage was done to some 
 of its finest buildings. Notable among these is the 
 
 cathedral of Notre Dame, built during the thir¬ 
 teenth century, one of the most famous examples 
 of Gothic architecture. For two and a half years 
 it was subject to constant though intermittent 
 bombardment, its tall spires always in view of the 
 German army. In 1917, during a three days’ siege 
 more than 1500 shells fell in the city itself, while 
 40,000 more fell on the cathedral or around during 
 May. The roof of the choir collapsed upon the 
 beautiful marble altar and today the gaping roof 
 and broken windows and statues stand as a con¬ 
 stant reminder of the war. Among the other 
 churches of the diocese 66 were totally destroyed, 
 84 suffered severe damage and 177 others received 
 slight injury. The Abbey d’Igny, founded by St. 
 Bernard, was totally destroyed by the explosion of 
 a mine; a house of scholastics for the African Mis¬ 
 sionaries, at Binson, was destroyed, the Carmelite 
 Convent, burned during the siege; the monastery 
 of the Visitation, destroyed; the monastery of the 
 Good Shepherd, 1 house of the Congregation of 
 Notre Dame; mother house of the Congregation of 
 the Holy Child Jesus, 2 houses of the Sisters of 
 Charity of St. Vincent de Paul destroyed and 1 
 damaged; 1 house of the Little Sisters of the Poor; 
 house of the Sisters of Adoration and Reparation, 
 in Reims the house of the Helpers of the Holy 
 Souls damaged; the upper seminary burned and 
 the lower seminary damaged. The demoralizing 
 effect of the war has been particularly serious for 
 the educational institutions: all the elementary 
 schools were closed and have not yet been opened, 
 the greater number having been destroyed. The 
 College of St. Joseph at Reims, with 350 pupils, 
 suffered severely; boarding schools under the 
 Sisters of Notre Dame and Sisters of the Infant 
 Jesus were burned, and all the normal schools were 
 destroyed or burned, but these latter have been 
 reconstructed. The property of the professional 
 school of arts and crafts of St. John Baptist de la 
 Salle, having been destroyed the school is now 
 transferred to other quarters. All the asylums, 1 
 for the aged under the Augustinians and 2 under 
 the Little Sisters of the Poor, 1 at Reims and 1 at 
 Glaire, have been destroyed. The only charitable 
 institutions remaining are the institutions of the 
 diocesan Missionary Society at Charleville which 
 has only 4 members; and spiritual retreat houses 
 for men and jmung men, 1 under the Jesuits and 1 
 under the Christian Brothers. 
 
 Before the war there were 634 priests in the 
 diocese; now there are about 520. Two hundred 
 priests and seminarians were mobilized and of 
 these 5 were decorated with the legion d’honneur, 
 6 with the medaille militaire, 57 with the croix 
 de guerre, 9 with the medaille des epidemies, 1 
 with the Cross of Serbia. 1 with the Cross of St. 
 George and 1 with the Eagle of Serbia; this list 
 testifies to the bravery and devotion of the clergy, 
 at the front and in the occupied territory. 
 
 There are at present (1921) 41 parishes, 550 suc- 
 cursal parishes, 105 missions and 663 churches. 
 There are two houses of priests of the Society of 
 Jesus and 1 Capuchin convent with 7 religious. 
 Besides the Sisters mentioned above as having 
 suffered the ravages of the war, there are the 
 Augustinians, the Sisters of the Holy Saviour, who 
 visit the poor in their homes, the Ladies of Naza¬ 
 reth, the Sisters of the Holy Family, 1 branch of 
 which (Branch of Hope) maintains two houses and 
 1 clinic, and the Tertiary Franciscans. The Insti¬ 
 tute of St. Remi at Charleville is still flourishing, 
 with an enrollment of 250 pupils and a boarding 
 school under the Sisters of Nazareth is success¬ 
 fully 7 conducted. Among the clergy there is an 
 
RELATIONS 
 
 631 
 
 RELIGIOUS 
 
 Association of St. Joseph for deceased clergy, an 
 Association of Priest-Adorers, and an altar society. 
 Among the laity a great number of societies are 
 organized for the young, both boys and girls; circles 
 of study, patronages and sodalities; the confer¬ 
 ence of St. Vincent de Paul and the Third Order 
 of St. Francis for men; the association of Chris¬ 
 tian Mothers, the Third Order of St. Francis, 
 Ladies of Mercy and various societies for good 
 works among the women. Before the war there 
 were many foreigners, mostly Belgians and Ger¬ 
 mans, found in this diocese, but since then the 
 foreign element has been composed chiefly of the 
 workmen engaged in reconstruction. The popula¬ 
 tion now numbers about 524,340. 
 
 Relations, Jesuit. —What are commonly styled 
 the “Jesuit Relations” are transcripts of letters 
 written by the first Jesuit missionaries among the 
 Algonquins, Abenakis, Iroquois, Hurons, Illinois, and 
 other Indian tribes of North America. These letters 
 •were sent down to Quebec when the opportunity 
 presented itself, and after being carefully collated and 
 edited were transmitted to France and issued annually 
 in book form from 1632 to 1672. There they were 
 stopped by an order from Rome forbidding all 
 descriptions of missionary work in any part of the 
 world. The reason of this injunction was the fact 
 that the discussion about the liceity of the Malabar 
 Rites in India had become so animated that it was 
 thought wise to resort to this drastic measure in order 
 to prevent similar controversies elsewhere. The sus¬ 
 pension of the “Relations” incensed Louis XIV and 
 was not therefore due to the enmity of Frontenac, 
 who would not have dared to set himself in 
 opposition to His Majesty. Unfortunately the letters 
 and maps of Marquette arrived in 1673 and could not 
 be made public until circumstances arose which made 
 their publication imperative. 
 
 The “Relations” are invaluable as historical docu¬ 
 ments. Indeed they are almost the only source of our 
 knowledge about the aboriginal inhabitants of what 
 is now the United States and Canada. From them 
 we learn, at first hand, all about their mode of life, 
 their traditions, their superstitions, their religious 
 practices, their funeral rites, their dress, their dwell¬ 
 ings, their wars, their habits in time of peace, their 
 government, their tribal relations, their language, etc. 
 There is an added value to them inasmuch as they 
 were written under the most adverse conditions; in 
 canoes, in fetid wigwams, on rocks or fallen trees; 
 often at the risk of the life of the chronicler; amid 
 drunken or crazy Indians, for whom note-taking by 
 those mysterious white strangers was like witchcraft, 
 whose spell they dreaded and which they had a right 
 to ward off by a blow of the tomahawk. The writers 
 themselves were often overcome with fatigue or 
 hunger or disease, or were crippled by the wounds 
 received at the hands of their neophytes. Apart from 
 their scientific value these “Relations” are also, at 
 times, personal psychological revelations of the highest 
 order. The letters of de Brebeuf and Jogues, for 
 instance, are of intense interest in this respect; and it 
 would be difficult to find anything to surpass Bres- 
 sani’s study of his emotions before, during, and after 
 the terrible tortures inflicted on him by the savages. 
 Besides their contributions to ethnology, sociology, 
 and the aboriginal religion, they have made the 
 geographers of the world their debtors. It was 
 Marquette who first traced the course of the Missis¬ 
 sippi and first saw the Missouri and Ohio rivers; de 
 Brebeuf mapped out the whole north shore of Lake 
 Erie from Niagara to Detroit; Allouez and Dablon 
 made the circuit of Lake Superior and located the 
 copper deposits; Le Moyne found the salt springs of 
 Syracuse; du Quen discovered Lake St. John, etc. 
 
 Over and above this, almost all of them set to work 
 at making dictionaries and elaborating grammars of 
 these unknown tongues, which had no cognate con¬ 
 nection with any of the European languages; while all 
 of them differed from each other in their forms of 
 speech. 
 
 The composition of these “Relations,” says 
 Thwaites, “excites wonder that they could be written 
 at all. Nearly always the style is simple and direct. 
 Never does the narrator descend to self-glorification. 
 He never complains of his lot, but sets forth his 
 experience in the most matter of fact phrases. Not 
 only do these devout missionaries, whose personal 
 heroism has never been surpassed in any field, live 
 and breathe in these “Relations,” but we have in 
 them our first competent account of the red Indian at 
 a time when relatively uncontaminated by contact 
 with Europeans.” Seven of these great contributors 
 to science were butchered by the Indians, and one of 
 them survived torture almost miraculously. They 
 were Jogues, Brebeuf, Chabanel, Gamier, Daniel, 
 Buteux, and Bressani. 
 
 The first 40 volumes of the “Relations” that were 
 published in France, were known as the “Cramoisy,” 
 reprints of which followed later in Paris and Lyons. 
 There were issues in Rome and other cities of Italy, 
 and also partial ones in the “Mercure Frangais” and 
 “Litterse Annuae Societatis Jesu.” In the United 
 States interst in the “Relations” was excited by D. 
 O’Callaghan’s “Documental History of New York.” 
 Shea’s various histories were based on the three 
 large octavo volumes printed by the Canadian Gov¬ 
 ernment, at the instance of Father Martin, S. J., the 
 founder of St. Mary’s College, Montreal. Parkman 
 drew on these copiously. The publication of 72 
 volumes by the Burrowses Brothers of Cleveland 
 surpasses and sums up the work of all others. This 
 edition is in alternate pages of French and English, 
 and has had the advantage of the vast fund of infor¬ 
 mation of the old archivist of St. Mary’s, Montreal, 
 Father Arthur E. Jones, who contributed to each 
 volume several pages of precious notes and explana¬ 
 tions of the text, which for many readers would 
 have been otherwise unintelligible. The whole is 
 completed by two volumes of marvellous indexes, 
 which enable the student to find immediately every 
 item contained in the vast work. 
 
 Relationship (cf. C. E., XII—731c).—Spiritual 
 relationship arises now only in three cases: (a) be¬ 
 tween the baptizer and the person baptized; (b) be¬ 
 tween the sponsor and the person baptized; (c) 
 between the sponsor and the person confirmed. It 
 is now a matrimonial impediment (minor) only when 
 arising from baptism; formerly the relationship 
 existed also between the sponsors and the recipient’s 
 parents and was a bar to marriage. 
 
 Religious Life (cf. C. E., XII—748d).—Expres¬ 
 sions like “religious life,” “religious ordqr,” or 
 “nuns” are frequently used in ordinary conversation 
 or writing in a wider sense than is customary with 
 theologians or canonists. As might be expected the 
 Code in the preliminary canons dealing with religious 
 lays down the meaning to be given to those and 
 kindred terms when used in canon law as follows: 
 A religion, or religious institute in general, is any 
 society approved by legitimate ecclesiastical au¬ 
 thority, whose members according to the special laws 
 governing their society make public vows, whether 
 perpetual or temporary, to be renewed, if temporary, 
 after the lapse of a specified time, and thus tend after 
 evangelical perfection. An order is a religion in 
 which solemn vows are made; a monastic congrega¬ 
 tion is a union of several self-governing monasteries 
 under one superior; an exempt religion is an institute 
 
RELIGIOUS 
 
 632 
 
 RELIGIOUS 
 
 with solemn or simple vows, withdrawn from the 
 jurisdiction of the local ordinary; a religious congre¬ 
 gation, or simply a congregation, is a society with 
 simple vows only, whether perpetual or temporary. 
 A pontificial religion or institute ( religio juris ponti- 
 ficii ) is a religious organization which has received 
 approbation or at least a commendatory decree 
 (,laudis decretum) from the Holy See; a diocesan 
 institute is a religious organization erected by an 
 ordinary and as yet without the commendatory 
 decree. A religious organization is termed clerical if 
 its members generally receive the priesthood; other¬ 
 wise it is called lay. A religious house is the residence 
 of any religious organization; a regular house is one 
 belonging to an order; an established house ( domus 
 formaia ) is a religious house in which there are at 
 least six professed religious, of whom, if the institute 
 is clerical, four must be priests. A province is a union 
 of several religious houses belonging to one religious 
 organization and under the same superior. 
 
 Religious are those who have made vows in any 
 religious organization; religious with simple vows are 
 professed members of a congregation; regulars are 
 professed members of an order; sisters ( sorores ) are 
 women religious with simple vows; nuns {moniales ) 
 are women religious with solemn vows, or if the very 
 nature of things or the context does not imply other¬ 
 wise, women religious whose vows by rule should be 
 solemn, but which for certain localities have been 
 declared simple by the Holy See. By higher superiors 
 are meant the abbot primate, abbot superiors of a 
 monastic congregation, abbots of monasteries sui 
 : uris, even if the monastery belongs to a monastic 
 congregation, the general or supreme ruler of a 
 religious society, the provincial superiors, their vicars 
 and all others having the same jurisdiction as pro¬ 
 vincials. 
 
 Bishops, but not vicars capitular or vicars general, 
 can erect religious congregations; however, they 
 must neither do so nor forbid their erection, without 
 consulting the Holy See; moreover, where there is 
 question of tertiaries living a common life, they must 
 be aggregated by the supreme ruler of the first order. 
 A diocesan congregation, even though it has spread 
 through several dioceses, remains diocesan and 
 subject to the various local ordinaries until it obtains 
 the papal approbation or commendatory decree. 
 The name or habit of a constituted religious organiza¬ 
 tion may not be assumed either by those not belong¬ 
 ing to it or by a new religious body. No legally 
 established religious organization, even if it is dio¬ 
 cesan and has only one house, can henceforth be 
 suppressed except by consent of the Holy See, to 
 which in case of suppression the disposal of the 
 property is reserved, due respect, however, being 
 shown for the wishes of the donors or benefactors of 
 the organization. It is the exclusive prerogative of 
 the Holy See to divide, unite or modify provinces 
 of a pontifical order or congregation or to found or 
 suppress new provinces thereof, or to separate 
 independent monasteries from a monastic congrega¬ 
 tion and unite them to another. If a province is 
 suppressed the general chapter, or, if it is not in 
 session, the supreme ruler with his council, has the 
 right to dispose of its property, unless the constitu¬ 
 tions provide otherwise, due regard being had for the 
 claims of justice and the wishes of founders. A 
 diocesan religious congregation cannot establish a 
 house in another diocese without leave of the local 
 ordinaries both of the mother-house and of the other 
 diocese; the first-named ordinary, however, is not to 
 refuse permission without grave cause. If the con¬ 
 gregation exists in several dioceses none of its laws 
 may be changed without the consent of each of the 
 ordinaries into whose diocese it has been introduced. 
 (N. B. The Acta, 1021, p. 313, gives the new rules 
 
 governing the approbation of religious congregations; 
 cf. C. E. XII—758). , , , 
 
 The approval of the Holy See and the local ordi- 
 narv’s written consent are required for the erection 
 of an exempt religious house, whether fully estab¬ 
 lished or not, or of a monastery of nuns {moniales), 
 or of any religious house in a territory subject to 
 the Congregation of Propaganda; in all other cases 
 the ordinary’s leave suffices. Permission to erect a 
 new house authorizes clerical religious to have a 
 church or public oratory annexed to the house, 
 though before building it in a specified place they 
 must obtain the ordinary’s leave, and to exercise 
 their sacred ministry within the limits of the law; 
 it also authorizes both clerical and lay religious to 
 carry on the pious works proper to them, unless they 
 are restricted by the terms of the permit. To erect 
 and open schools, hospitals or other such buildings 
 apart from a religious house, even exempt, it is 
 sufficient but necessary to get the ordinary’s leave in 
 writing; formerly these institutions needed the same 
 authorization as the religious house. To convert a 
 religious house to other purposes permission must be 
 obtained from the same authorities as authorized its 
 erection, unless the change is merely a matter of 
 internal discipline and in accordance with the laws of 
 the foundation. A religious house, whether fully 
 established or not, belonging to an exempt religion, 
 cannot be suppressed without leave of the Holy See; 
 if it belongs to a non-exempt pontifical congregation, 
 it can be suppressed by the general, with the local 
 ordinary’s consent; those belonging to a diocesan 
 congregation can be suppressed by the mere au¬ 
 thority of the local ordinary, after hearing the 
 moderator of the congregation, unless it is the only 
 house of the institute, but an appeal with suspensive 
 effect may always be made to the Holy See. 
 
 Superiors. —Exempt clerical superiors have ec¬ 
 clesiastical jurisdiction over their subjects in both 
 the internal and external fora. However, the abbot 
 primate or abbot superior of a monastic congregation 
 does not enjoy all the power and jurisdiction con¬ 
 ferred by the common law on higher superiors, but 
 is limited in accordance with the constitutions and 
 with special papal decrees. 
 
 Higher superiors should hold office temporarily, 
 unless the constitutions provide otherwise minor 
 local superiors must not be appointed for more than 
 three years, though they may be reappointed for a 
 second term, if the constitutions so permit, but not 
 for a third consecutive term in the same house. 
 What is here said of minor local superiors applies to 
 superiors and directors of schools, hospitals, and other 
 pious houses, if they are superiors of religious, haying 
 power over other religious even in matters of religious 
 discipline. Superiors are to reside in their own 
 house and not to leave it, except as permitted by the 
 constitutions. All superiors must see that their 
 subjects are informed about papal decrees relating to 
 religious and that the decrees are observed. Local 
 superiors are to have the constitutions and certain 
 prescribed papal decrees read publicly on stated days 
 at least once a year; they must also cause to be given, 
 at least twice a month, an instruction in Christian 
 doctrine, adapted to the capacity of the hearers, to 
 the lay-brothers or lay sisters and the domestic 
 servants, and a pious exhortation to all the members 
 of the house, especially in non-clerical religious. 
 Abbot primates, superiors of monastic congregations, 
 and generals of pontifical orders and congregations 
 must transmit to the Holy See every fifth year 
 (formerly every three years), or oftener if the con¬ 
 stitutions so provide, a report on the religious condi¬ 
 tion of their order or congregation, signed by them¬ 
 selves and their councils, and in case of congrega¬ 
 tions of women, signed also by the ordinary of the 
 
RELIGIOUS 
 
 633 
 
 RELIGIOUS 
 
 place of residence of the mother-general and her 
 council. In religion there must be no merely honorary 
 titles of offices, or dignities; however, those who 
 have been higher superiors may retain their title, if 
 the constitutions of their religion so permit. 
 
 Administration of Property. —To invest or re¬ 
 invest money the consent of the local ordinary must 
 be obtained by (a) mother superiors of nuns ( moniales ) 
 or of diocesan congregations, in all cases—formerly 
 the ordinary’s approbation was not required; if the 
 monastery is subject to a regular superior his per¬ 
 mission also is needed; (b) mother superiors of 
 pontifical congregations for the investment of dowries 
 of professed religious; congregations approved by the 
 Holy See were until the promulgation of the Code 
 completely exempt from episcopal jurisdiction in the 
 administration of their temporal property; (c) 
 superioresses of houses belonging to religious con¬ 
 gregations, if money has been given by will, or 
 otherwise, to be spent in the service of God; (d) any 
 religious, even a regular, if the money has been given 
 for the benefit of a parish or mission. Important 
 changes in regard to the alienation of property and 
 the contracting of debts were made by the Code. 
 To contract debts now amounting to more than 
 30,000 francs ($6000 or £1200) or to alienate property 
 exceeding that sum the consent ( beneplacitum ) of the 
 Holy See is required; for smaller amounts it is suffi¬ 
 cient but necessary to have the written permission of 
 the superior according to the constitutions of each 
 organization, with the consent of his chapter or 
 council given by secret ballot; but nuns or sisters 
 of diocesan institutes must have the written consent 
 of the local ordinary, and of the regular superior if 
 the nuns are subject to a regular superior. Formerly 
 the consent of the Holy See was required to alienate 
 property valued over $250 or £50, or to contract 
 debts exceeding $2000 or £400, the consent of the 
 bishop being unnecessary where smaller values were 
 involved. In a petition for leave to contract debts 
 or obligations it is necessary to set forth all the other 
 debts or obligations incurred to date by the moral 
 person, order or congregation, province, or house; 
 otherwise the permission if granted would be invalid. 
 
 In all monasteries of nuns {moniales), even exempt, 
 an accounting must be made once a year, or oftener, 
 if the constitutions so provide, by the reverend mother 
 to the local ordinary, and to the regular superior also, 
 if the monastery is subject to one. Should the ac¬ 
 counting be unsatisfactory the ordinary can apply 
 suitable remedies, and should circumstances demand 
 it may even remove the oeconomus and other ad¬ 
 ministrator, if the monastery is subject to a regular 
 superior the ordinary should notify him in the first 
 instance and if he neglects to act the ordinary may 
 then take measures to correct the evil. In all other 
 female religious orders or congregations, an account¬ 
 ing is to be made to the local ordinary during visita¬ 
 tion, or oftener, if he judges it necessary, concerning 
 the administration of the dowry investments. The 
 local ordinary, moreover, is entitled to be informed of 
 the economic condition of houses of diocesan insti¬ 
 tutes, and of the administration of funds and legacies 
 for the welfare of a parish or mission to be spent 
 locally in the service of God. 
 
 If an institute, province, or house, contracts debts 
 or obligations even with the superiors leave, it incurs 
 the responsibility; if a regulai incuis obligations with 
 his superior’s consent, the responsibility devolves on 
 the moial person whose superior granted permission; 
 a religious of a congregation with simple vows who 
 contracts debts is responsible, unless he was acting 
 on behalf of the congregation with the superior’s 
 leave. However, if the religious contracts without his 
 superior’s leave his institute, province, or house 
 
 incurs no responsibility. Religious superiors are 
 warned not to run into debt, unless it is certain that 
 their ordinary revenues are sufficient to pay the interest 
 and extinguish the debt by amortization within a 
 reasonable time. It may be noted here that the Code 
 does not renew the prohibition contained in the 
 Instruction “Inter ea” (1909), against erecting new 
 monasteries or houses or even irom enlarging or 
 changing those already built unless the necessary 
 funds were already in hand. Donations may not be 
 made from the property of a house, province, con¬ 
 gregation or order, except as alms or for another just 
 cause, and then only with the superior’s leave and 
 according to the constitutions. 
 
 Studies. —Every clerical religious should have a 
 scholasticate: common life must be followed therein, 
 otherwise the students are ineligible for ordination. 
 If the religion or province have no house of studies the 
 students are to be sent to the scholasticate of another 
 province or religion, or to the episcopal seminary, or a 
 public Catholic athenaeum. Religious who study at 
 a distance from their own house must reside in a 
 place approved by the Holy See and not in private 
 houses. During their studies, scholastics must be 
 under the special guidance of a spiritual father or 
 prefect, who has the qualifications prescribed in 
 canon law for masters of novices; they must be granted 
 ample time for study and the general, or in special 
 cases other superiors, can exempt students, if neces¬ 
 sary, from certain community duties, such as choir, 
 especially at night. Religious are to devote at least 
 two years to the study of philosophy and four years 
 to theology according to the method, principles and 
 doctrines of St. Thomas Aquinas. After completing 
 their studies they are to be examined annually for 
 five years by some of the learned members of the 
 order or institute. In every fully established house 
 there must be at least once a month a discussion of a 
 case of moral theology or^liturgy, at which all mem¬ 
 bers of the house who afe studying or have studied 
 theology must attend, unless the constitutions provide 
 otherwise. 
 
 Divine Office. —In accord with the hitherto 
 commonly accepted view, the Code prescribes that 
 choral recitation of the Office is obligatory in houses in 
 which there are at least four religious or even less, if the 
 constitutions so prescribe, who are bound to choir 
 and who are not lawfully impeded. 
 
 Correspondence. —All religious, male or female, 
 can freely send letters, exempt from all inspection, 
 to the Holy See or its legate in the country, to their 
 cardinal protector, to their higher superiors, and to 
 the superior of their own house, if absent, to the local 
 ordinary to whom they are subject, and, in case of 
 nuns under the jurisdiction of regulars, to the higher 
 superiors of the order; furthermore, the religious can 
 receive from all of these letters which nobody has the 
 right to inspect. Formerly communication to or 
 from the local superiors and papal legates were not 
 guaranteed privileged, while correspondence with the 
 cardinal was only doubtfully privileged. 
 
 Obligations and Privileges. —The obligations 
 of clerics are as a rule binding on religious: they must 
 make an annual retreat, attend daily Mass if possible, 
 meditate daily and perform the works and devotions 
 prescribed by their rules; they are to go to confession 
 weekly and receive Holy Communion frequently, 
 even daily; but provisions in their rules regarding the 
 reception of the sacraments on certain days have 
 only a directive force. On the other hand all religious, 
 even lay religious and novices, enjoy the clerical 
 privileges of the canon, the forum, immunity and 
 competence. In certain cases the ordinary is au¬ 
 thorized to interfere with exempt religious. Not to 
 mention the election of superioresses, and the ad- 
 
RELIGIOUS 
 
 634 
 
 RELIGIOUS 
 
 ministration of convent property, he may punish a 
 regular for a fault committed outside of his house, 
 if the regular superior, after being informed, fails to 
 do so; he must notify the Holy See about abuses in 
 exempt houses if the regular superior, after be : ng 
 warned, takes no steps to reform conditions; and 
 finally he is bound to give special attention to houses 
 not fully established, to see that no abuse creeps in and 
 in case of necessity he can apply provisional remedies. 
 In the case of non-exempt institutes approved by the 
 Holy See, the ordinary cannot make any change in 
 the constitutions, nor inquire into the administration 
 of property except as stated above, nor interfere with 
 the internal government and discipline, except as 
 authorized by the canons, yet in lay institutes he may 
 inquire regarding religious discipline, morality, 
 the law of enclosure, the reception of the sacraments, 
 and provide a remedy for abuses, if the superior on 
 being notified does not do so. but in matters of 
 grave import must notify the Holy See about his 
 action. Any indult granted legitimately by the 
 local ordinary, dispensing from an obligation of the 
 common law, avails likewise for all religious living 
 in the diocese, as far as their vows and constitutions 
 allow. 
 
 Collection of Alms. —Regulars belonging to 
 mendicant orders strictly so-called (not, however, 
 Dominicans and others who are loosely termed 
 mendicants) may collect alms in the diocese where 
 their house is situated with the sole authorization of 
 their superior; outside of the diocese, however, they 
 require the written consent of the ordinary of the place 
 in which they would collect. All other religious of 
 pontifical congregations are forbidden to collect alms, 
 unless they have a special indult, in which case, 
 however, they need the written consent of the local 
 ordinary, if the indult does not excuse them from 
 obtaining it; while members of diocesan congregations 
 require the written consent of their own local or¬ 
 dinary and of the ordinary^ the place of collection. 
 The local ordinary must not grant leave to collect 
 to the religious just mentioned except in case of real 
 necessity, which cannot be met in any other way; if a 
 sufficiently large collection can be made in the dis¬ 
 trict in which the religious live he must not permit 
 them to collect outside of it. 
 
 Leaving an Institute. —No religious can pass to 
 another, even a stricter, institute, or from one in¬ 
 dependent monastery to another, without leave of 
 the Holy See. When anyone is authorized to make 
 such a change he has to make his novitate again in 
 the new institute; during this time he is bound by his 
 vows (by the vow of obedience to his new superior 
 and his master of novices), but his other religious 
 rights and obligations are suspended. On the com¬ 
 pletion of his novitate he is to be admitted to perpetual 
 profession or else he must return to his former in¬ 
 stitute. If the vows in the first institute were solemn 
 and those in the second simple, the religious who has 
 been transferred is bound henceforth only by simple 
 vows, unless the Apostolic indult expressly provides 
 for the contrary. Religious life on the other hand 
 may be entirely abandoned, either temporarily or 
 perpetually. For good reasons a religious might 
 obtain an indult of exclaustration (permission to 
 reside outside of a religious house) from the local 
 ordinary if his institute is diocesan, or in any other 
 case from the Holy See. In virtue of such an indult 
 the religious remains bound by his vows and other 
 obligations of his profession compatible with his 
 new condition, but he may not wear the religious dress; 
 while he is thus away from the institute he has no 
 voice in its affairs, though he enjoys its privileges, 
 and is bound by the vow of obedience to the ordinary 
 of the diocese in which he resides, not to the superior 
 
 of his institute. Again, a religious might obtain an 
 indult of secularization; in virtue of such an indult, 
 the religious is entirely free from his vows and rule, 
 but one in major orders remains bound by the obliga¬ 
 tions annexed to them. Those who have made only 
 temporary vows are quite free to leave when the term 
 of their vows has expired; their institute, too, might 
 dismiss them at that time, for a just and reasonable 
 cause, but not on the score of ill-health, unless the 
 religious had fraudulently hidden or dissimulated the 
 illness before his first profession. These methods of 
 changing one’s condition are lawful; on the other hand 
 an attempt to abandon religious life by apostasy or 
 by flight would be unlawful. An apostate from re¬ 
 ligion is one who having made perpetual vows leaves 
 his religious house unlawful^ with the intention of 
 not returning or who to withdraw himself from 
 religious obedience, does not return after he has left 
 the house with permission. This intention is legally 
 presumed when the religious does not return or notify 
 his superior within a month of his intention to return. 
 Apostates and fugitives remain bound by their vows 
 and must return at once; their superiors should en¬ 
 deavor to have them come back; if they return peni¬ 
 tently they are to be received; in the case of an apostate 
 or fugitive nun the local ordinary is to pursue the 
 matter prudently, while the regular superior is to 
 act if the nun belongs to an exempt monastery. 
 
 Dismissal. —-There are three crimes for which 
 a religious is ipso facto dismissed from religious 
 life: public apostacy from Catholicism; flight with a 
 person of the opposite sex; and attempted marriage, 
 even so-called civil marriage. For the canonical 
 dismissal of religious bound by temporary vows there 
 must be grave reasons, such as the absence of the 
 religious spirit to a degree causing scandal, when 
 admonition and penance have failed to reform him. 
 If the religious belongs to a pontifical order or con¬ 
 gregation the dismissal is effected by the general with 
 the consent of his council, obtained by secret ballot, 
 or in the case of nuns ( moniales) by the local ordinary 
 and the regular superior, if any, but they may act 
 only after the superioress with her council have stated 
 in writing. To dismiss any professed religious, the 
 religious must have been guilty of a serious fault or 
 have lost the religious spirit to such a degree that 
 neither admonition nor penance has been able to 
 effect an amendment of life. If the vows are tem¬ 
 porary and the party belongs to a pontifical institute 
 the superior general and his council effect the dismissal; 
 in the case of a nun ( monialis ), the local ordinary and 
 regular superior, if any, dismiss at the written request 
 of the superioress and her council, finally, a diocesan 
 sister would be dismissed by the local ordinary with 
 the knowledge and acquiescence of her superioress. 
 In all these cases the religious must be notified of 
 the accusations; he may reply and his answer must 
 form part of the records of the case. He may appeal 
 to the Holy See against the dismissal, which, pending 
 the answer, remains ineffective, If finally dismissed, 
 the party is ipso facto released from all his vows of 
 religion. 
 
 When the vows are perpetual: if the religious be¬ 
 longs to a non-exempt clerical or lay institute of men, 
 and having been guilty of three serious offences, has 
 failed to amend after being admonished twice, the 
 general and his council, if they favor dismissal, refer 
 the case to the local ordinary for action, when the 
 institute is diocesan; or they issue the decree them¬ 
 selves if the institute is pontifical, though in this case 
 the decree to be effective must be approved by the 
 Holy See. To dismiss a nun or sister, there must be 
 grave external reasons combined with hopeless in¬ 
 corrigibility; if the religious is a diocesan sister she 
 can be dismissed by her local ordinary; if she is a nun, 
 
RENAISSANCE 
 
 635 
 
 RENAISSANCE 
 
 the local ordinary sends the record of her case with 
 his own decision (and that of the regular superior, 
 if any) to the Holy See for action; if the religious be¬ 
 longs to any other pontifical institute, the mother 
 general sends all the documents in the case to the 
 Holy See for decision. 
 
 In case of serious scandal and imminent risk of very 
 grave danger to the community a religious with per¬ 
 petual vows in a non-clerical institute may be sent 
 back into the world by the local superior with the con¬ 
 sent of his council and of the local ordinary, but the 
 ordinary or one of the higher superiors must put the 
 matter before the Holy See without delay. 
 
 An exempt cleric professed perpetually cannot be 
 dismissed without a canonical trial or investigation; 
 he must have been guilty of three offenses, of the same 
 kind or at least indicative of a permanent evil will, 
 the first and second each being followed by a formal 
 admonition and threat of dismissal given by his 
 immediate higher superior, or guilty of continuous 
 offence despite two warnings given at least three 
 months apart. The immediate higher superior re¬ 
 ports to the general, who with his council (of at least 
 four assistants) form the tribunal with power to order 
 dismissal; the sentence, however, cannot become 
 effective till it has been approved by the Sacred 
 Congregation of Religious. In an extraordinary case 
 where there is grave scandal and imminent danger 
 of very serious injury to the community the religious 
 may be sent back to the world by a local superior with 
 the consent of his council when there is not time to 
 have recourse to the higher superior, but the regular 
 canonical investigation must be instituted without 
 delay. A religious professed perpetually, on being 
 dismissed, remains bound by his vows of religion 
 unless the contrary is provided by the constitutions 
 of the institute or by an Apostolic indult. If he is in 
 sacred orders and his offence was very serious he 
 may be deprived perpetually of clerical dress; if his 
 fault was less grievous, he is under suspension until 
 he is absolved by the Holy See; he may be ordered by 
 the Sacred Congregation to remain in a certain diocese, 
 the ordinary of which can send him to do penance in 
 a religious house or place him under the care and super¬ 
 vision of a priest; if he is unable to support himself 
 the institution is to do so through the local ordinary, on 
 condition that he lives a good life; the ordinary may 
 after the lapse of a year ask the Holy See to remove the 
 suspension and may admit him, if he is a priest, to 
 say Mass and engage in some remunerative pastoral 
 work. If he is still bound by his vows of religion 
 he is under an obligation to return to religion; if he 
 has given proof of real amendment during those years 
 his order must take him back, unless the Holy See 
 decides otherwise; if the vows were dissolved he may 
 be accepted by any benevolent bishop; otherwise the 
 matter is to be referred to the Holy See. 
 
 Codex juris canonici, can. 487-672; Vermeersch, De religiosis 
 VI (Bruges, 1911), 44-5; Kinane, Nuns and Sisters in Irish 
 Eccl. Record (Dublin, 1918-9). 
 
 Renaissance.—By the term Renaissance is gen¬ 
 erally understood the vast intellectual movement 
 of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. This 
 movement manifested itself first in Italy, after¬ 
 wards successively in the other countries of Western 
 Europe. It was marked by a wider and deeper 
 knowledge of Greco-Roman antiquity, and a pas¬ 
 sionate love for its literature and art. The scholars 
 who devoted themselves to the study of the Greco- 
 Roman civilization were called Humanists, and the 
 epoch in which they lived is known as the Renais¬ 
 sance. The term Renaissance or re-birth, as applied 
 to the above mentioned intellectual movement, is 
 a misnomer. It wrongly implies that the knowl¬ 
 edge of the literature and art of Greece and Rome 
 
 had been dead and buried for centuries and that 
 suddenly it was born again, and developed during 
 the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Against this 
 false contention is the fact that Humanism was 
 but the natural development of the learning of the 
 Middle Ages, a flowering out of the knowledge of 
 the preceding centuries. 
 
 Already in the time of Charlemagne we note a 
 widespread revival of classical learning. Everyone 
 recalls how this powerful patron of letters, notwith¬ 
 standing continual wars, established schools 
 throughout his empire, how he invited from Eng¬ 
 land the celebrated Alcuin, a distinguished scholar 
 and disciple of the Venerable Bede, under whose 
 direction academies were established where the 
 sons of the more wealthy were taught Latin, Greek, 
 Hebrew, philosophy, theology and mathematics. 
 This new impulse thus given to letters was con¬ 
 tinued by the successors of Charlemagne and 
 stimulated anew, successively, by such scholars and 
 apostles of learning as Dante (1265-1321), Petrarch 
 (1304-1474), Pope Nicholas V (1397-1455). During 
 the centuries which separated the Humanists from 
 Charlemagne, scholarly monks had been preserv¬ 
 ing, copying, studying, teaching the writings of the 
 ancient Roman and Greek poets, historians, and 
 philosophers. Alongside the scientific language 
 which the modern tongues had developed, popular 
 poetry had come into being, the great epics had 
 seen the light of day, the unprecedented philo¬ 
 sophical and theological progress of the twelfth 
 century had astounded the world, and experimental 
 science had appeared on the scene of history with 
 the English philosopher, Roger Bacon (1214-94). 
 The Crusades had given a new impulse to learning, 
 the first encyclopedias had summarized the knowl¬ 
 edge of their times, the splendor of plastic arts had 
 covered Europe with monuments which are the 
 admiration no less than the despair of our age, 
 voyages of exploration had extended the geo- 
 - graphical knowledge of the learned, and basic in¬ 
 ventions had made further discoveries possible to 
 mankind. 
 
 Since the wider diffusion of classical learning in 
 the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries is but the 
 gradual outgrowth of the learning of the Middle 
 Ages, how unscholarly is the gratuitous assertion 
 of many writers that the Renaissance sprang into 
 existence over night with the arrival in Europe of 
 some Greek professors driven from the Orient by 
 the advancing Turk. These professors, they claim, 
 brought to Western Europe the knowledge and 
 love of the literary masterpieces of antiquity. But 
 the fact is that, when these professors appeared, 
 the monks of the Middle Ages had for a thousand 
 years been spending themselves to preserve and 
 make known many of these treasures of mankind. 
 Whatever additional writings Western Europe re¬ 
 ceived at that time it had learned to appreciate by 
 its own centuries-long literary studies. 
 
 The leading characteristic of the Renaissance 
 was a general infatuation with the writings and the 
 art of pagan antiquity. From the admiration of 
 the ancient literary and artistic forms there was, 
 with some of the Humanists, but one step to the 
 imitation of pagan morals*and manners, and but 
 another step to the consequent contempt of Chris¬ 
 tianity and the further attempt to paganize the 
 modern world. This extreme led some well-mean¬ 
 ing but narrow-minded persons to the opposite, 
 perhaps not less dangerous, extreme. Seeing that 
 the study of pagan art, pagan literature, and 
 ancient science led to the rejection of the Christian 
 faith and Christian morals, these extremists con¬ 
 tended that this study should be abandoned and 
 
RENNES 
 
 636 
 
 RENUNCIATION 
 
 that Christians should confine themselves to the 
 acquisition of the divine sciences. But this extreme 
 runs counter to the ancient axiom , Propter abusus 
 non tollitur usus, the abuse of a thing does not do 
 away with its use. Again, others, the rigorists of 
 the moral order, attributed the corruption of their 
 time to luxury, and dreamed of forcing people 
 back into the simple living of former times, at the 
 expense of man’s noblest prerogative, his individual 
 liberty, as later happened in the cases of the Puri¬ 
 tans in America, and of Calvin in the Commune 
 of Geneva. These, too, were extremists, because 
 Christianity does not condemn any human faculty, 
 not even the faculty of lawful enjoyment, nor 
 demand of civilization the surrender of any of its 
 legitimate conquests. 
 
 What stand did the Church take at this mo¬ 
 mentous crisis in history? The Catholic Church 
 did not follow the lead of either kind of extrem¬ 
 ists. She took the sane middle way. In medio 
 virtus, in medio tutissimus ibis, safety lies in a 
 middle course. In the midst of the great move¬ 
 ment of the Renaissance which had well-nigh swept 
 Europe off its feet, she remembered her perpetual 
 mission to teach all nations, the Greek as well as 
 the barbarian, the enlightened as well as the ignor¬ 
 ant, the rich as well as the poor. Far from hurling 
 anathemas at the progress of science and the opu¬ 
 lence of arts (though she often saw them misused) 
 she invoked heaven’s blessing upon them, inspired 
 them with Christian principles which permeated 
 their whole mass, and thus made of them instru¬ 
 ments to promote the glory of God and the salva¬ 
 tion of souls. And with this true Christian broad¬ 
 mindedness, confident in the unfailing presence of 
 Christ the Savior and of the Divine Paraclete, she 
 wisely directed the unparalleled intellectual, artis¬ 
 tic, and scientific movement, and, beaming with a 
 new hope, took the road of the future. There was 
 a revival; she made it truly Catholic. 
 
 In all lands there were men not less eminent fot 
 their Christian piety than for their classical learn¬ 
 ing who, though given to the passionate study of 
 pagan antiquity, remained thoroughly Christian, 
 who, appropriating the good there was in pagan 
 antiquity, nevertheless remained conscious of their 
 own Christian superiority; who made pagan art, 
 literature, and science not mistresses but humble 
 handmaids of Christianity. 
 
 Among these Christian humanists it will suffice 
 to quote Rudolph Agricola (Huysmann) of Hol¬ 
 land, who zealously promoted the study of classics 
 in Germany; Vittorino da Feltre, who organized a 
 school of classical learning at Mantua, Italy, and 
 desired his pupils to receive Holy Communion 
 every month; Aleandro Girolamo, professor and 
 later rector of the University of Paris, and after¬ 
 wards papal nuncio in Germany; Cardinal Sado- 
 leto, who as poet, orator, theologian, and philoso¬ 
 pher was in the foremost rank of his time; Vida, 
 the author of the Christian epic “Christias” and of 
 “De Arte Poetica”; Pico della Mirandola, poet and 
 Christian apologist; Alexander Hegius of West¬ 
 phalia, priest and founder of a classical school in 
 Holland; Blessed Thomas More, knight, Lord 
 Chancellor of England, author and martyr; Blessed 
 Cardinal Fisher, Chancellor of the University of 
 Cambridge, Bishop of Rochester, and martyr; 
 Vives, the Spanish philosopher, author of a great 
 variety of works; Cleynaerts, the Belgian priest, 
 Orientalist, and missionary among the Moham¬ 
 medans. 
 
 But it was in Rome, about all other places, that 
 Catholic leaders guided the intellectual movement 
 in the right direction, making the Renaissance an 
 
 auxiliary of Christianity. The names of Pius II, 
 Nicholas V, Julius II, and Leo X summarize the 
 history of the most powerful patronage accorded to 
 literature, art, and science in the history of our 
 race. These pontiffs were surrounded by the most 
 glorious phalanx of artists with the peerless 
 Bramante, the world-renowned Michelangelo, and 
 the divine Raphael at their head. These names 
 recall the Dome of St. Peter’s, the Sistine Chapel, 
 the Stanze and the Loggie of the Vatican, produc¬ 
 tions unsurpassed in the history of art. The Popes 
 of the Renaissance kept Christianity abreast of the 
 enlightenment of their age, and placed on the 
 brow of the Church a new tiara, a threefold crown 
 of science, art, and poetry, whose lustre is not 
 likely to fade. 
 
 Kurth, trans. Day, The Church at the Turning Points of His¬ 
 tory; Idem, Les Origines de la Civilisation Moderne , Manuel d ’ 
 Histoire Universelle. 
 
 Victor Day. 
 
 Rennes, Archdiocese of (Rhedonensis), com¬ 
 prises the department of Ue-et-Vilaine in France. 
 His Eminence Auguste-Rene Cardinal Dubourg, 
 who came to this see 7 August, 1906, died 22 Sep¬ 
 tember, 1921. Born at Loguioy-Plougras, 1842, he 
 was ordained in 1866, served as professor in the 
 lower seminary of Treguier, was appointed Bishop 
 of Moulins, 19 January, 1893, which see he filled 
 until his promotion to Rennes. He was created 
 cardinal priest 4 December, 1916, being the first 
 cardinal of Breton origin. To Cardinal Dubourg’s 
 activity is due the construction of the beautiful 
 college of St. Vincent de Paul for secondary educa¬ 
 tion and the complete restoration of the upper 
 and lower seminaries and the episcopal residence 
 as well as the reconstruction of the diocese from 
 the demoralized condition caused by the separation 
 of Church and State. The Cardinal was succeeded 
 by his auxiliary, Rt. Rev. Alexis Charost, the pres¬ 
 ent incumbent. 
 
 During the World War 600 priests from this ter¬ 
 ritory and 200 seminarians were mobilized and of 
 these 18 were decorated with the Order of the 
 Legion of Honor, 2 became officers and 2 served as 
 navy chaplains, 274 students preparing for the col¬ 
 lege of St. Cyr, fell on the field. 
 
 By 1921 statistics the total population of this 
 diocese is 608,100; there are 43 parishes, 319 suc- 
 cursal parishes, 396 churches, 6 convents of men 
 and 65 for women, 1100 secular priests and 50 reg¬ 
 ulars, a number of Brothers who have become 
 secularized since the law of 1901, numbers of Sis¬ 
 ters, secularized also, 1 lower seminary with 250 
 students, 4 secondary schools for boj^s with 120 
 teachers and 1600 pupils, 14 boarding schools for 
 the secondary education of girls with 150 teachers 
 and 1200 pupils, 140 elementary schools for boys 
 with 260 teachers and 41,000 pupils, 266 elementary 
 schools for girls with 800 pupils. The charitable 
 institutions include: 5 retreats, 7 asylums, 55 
 
 clinics, sanitariums and hospitals, 2 refuge homes 
 and 2 nurseries. All public institutions’ permit 
 the ministry of priests and all the hospitals, except 
 the military hospital at Rennes, are conducted 
 by religious. The “Semaine Religieuse,” “Nouvel- 
 liste de Bretagne,” and various parish bulletins are 
 published. 
 
 Renunciation (cf. C. E., XII—774a).—A renun¬ 
 ciation of an ecclesiastical office to be valid must be 
 made in writing, or orally in presence of two witnesses, 
 personally or by proxy; if it is made to a local ordinary 
 it must be accepted or refused by him within a month. 
 If the renunciation has been lawfully accepted the 
 office becomes vacant as soon as the person renouncing 
 
RESCRIPTS 
 
 637 
 
 RETREATS 
 
 is informed ot the fact. A cleric is considered by the 
 law to have renounced his office tacitly: (a) if he 
 becomes a professed religious; benefices, however, in 
 this case are not vacated immediately; (b) if he 
 neglects to take up his post within the time appointed 
 by law, or by the ordinary if the law is silent on the 
 point; (c) if he comes into peaceful possession of a post 
 incompatible with a former office; (d) if he apostatizes 
 publicly; (e) if he contracts marriage even civil; (f) 
 if without just cause lie becomes a soldier voluntarily; 
 
 (g) if he unjustifiably and of his own accord leaves 
 off his clerical dress and after being warned by the 
 ordinary does not put it on again within a month; 
 
 (h) finally, if when he is bound by the law of residence 
 he absents himself unlawfully and, when not legitimate¬ 
 ly excused, neglects to obey or to answer the ordinary 
 within a suitable time prescribed by the latter. 
 
 Rescripts (cf. C. E., XII—783c; V—691d).—Con¬ 
 cealment of the truth or subreption in a petition for 
 a rescript does not necessarily render it invalid, nor 
 does a falsehood or obreption, provided the sole 
 reason, or at least one of those alleged, is true. The 
 use of the clause motu proprio in a rescript validates 
 what would otherwise be void through subreption, 
 it would not, however, validate obreption except in a 
 petition for a dispensation from a minor matrimonial 
 impediment. A rescript granted motu proprio to a 
 person who by canon law is disqualified from obtain¬ 
 ing the favor in question, or if it is contrary to a 
 legitimate local custom, private statute, or acquired 
 right is ineffective, unless it expressly contains a 
 derogating clause. The words of a rescript are to be 
 taken in their common acceptation; in case of doubt 
 a wide interpretation is allowed, except where the 
 interests of third parties or of the public are involved, 
 or in reference to lawsuits, or when the petition was 
 made to secure a benefice. A rescript if revoked by 
 a superior is still valid until revocation has been made 
 known to the person who obtained it; it is not revoked 
 by a contrary law, unless the law provides for this or 
 unless the law has been enacted by a superior of the 
 grantor of the rescript . 
 
 Resurrection Sisters.—This Congregation was 
 founded in Rome in 1891 by Mother Celine Bor- 
 zecka. The community has as its chief aim the 
 education of girls, although other works fall also 
 within the scope of its activities. Besides the 
 mother-house in Rome and a novitiate in Austria 
 the community has also established a novitiate at 
 Norwood Park, Ill., U. S. A. 
 
 Retreat of the Sacred Heart, Congregation of 
 the (cf. C.E., XII—795b).—There are twenty-three 
 houses belonging to the institute: 16 in France, 2 
 in Brussels, and 5 in England. The house at 
 Clevedon was closed in 1920, and a new house 
 opened at Clifton with a hostel for Catholic women 
 students, ^studying at the Bristol University. The 
 Life of Victoire de St. Luc, French Revolutionary 
 martyr, has been written by Mother St. Patrick, a 
 religious of the institute. 
 
 Retreats for Laymen. —In January, 1909, 
 Mr. Sidney J. Finley, of New York, called a small 
 meeting of Catholic laymen to consider the establish¬ 
 ment of a House of Retreats for Laymen in or near 
 New York City, similar to those which had been 
 founded in Belgium and in England. As a result of 
 this meeting request was made of the provincial of 
 the Society of Jesus that the Society undertake 
 direction of the work. This request received the 
 cordial assent of the provincial and the approval of 
 Archbishop Farley of New York, and Father Terence 
 
 J. Shealy, S. J., was appointed director of the move¬ 
 ment, which in May, 1909, was tentatively organized. 
 It was decided that, pending the actual acquisition 
 ot a suitable house for retreats, an inaugural "week- 
 retreat should be held in the summer months at 
 rordham University, during the vacation season, 
 and on July 9th eighteen men composing, for the 
 most part, the organized group, made the first retreat 
 under Father Shealy’s direction. From the inception 
 of the movement it was recognized that to meet the 
 exigencies of modern business conditions the ‘'week¬ 
 end retreats could not begin before Friday evening 
 and must terminate early on Monday morning, and 
 this has been the rule since that time. 
 
 The success of the first retreat led to the holding 
 of three more retreats at Fordham University before 
 the end of the vacation, and in the autumn six more 
 "week ends’’ were held at Keyser Island, South 
 Norwalk, the total attendance at the ten retreats in 
 1909 being 179 men. In November, 1909, a public 
 meeting in aid of the movement was held at Cathedral 
 College in the presence of Archbishop Farley. Early 
 in 1910 "week ends’’ were resumed at Keyser Island, 
 and once more Fordham University was used during 
 the summer vacation, return being made to Keyser 
 Island in the autumn, and the total results for i910 
 were nineteen retreats attended by three hundred 
 men. Active search for a suitable house was made 
 during 1910 and many houses were inspected. None 
 of them, however, met the combined requisition of 
 adaptability and price—the latter being a verv 
 formidable limitation. In January, 1911, it was 
 decided to incorporate what had up to that time been 
 known as the "Laymen’s Retreat Movement” and 
 the "Laymen’s League for Retreats and Social 
 Studies” was founded, the name being later changed 
 to that of the "Laymen’s League for Retreats and 
 Social Service.” 
 
 In March, 1911, Father Shealy’s search fora house 
 was finally rewarded by the discovery of an estate on 
 Staten Island known as "Fox Hill Manor.” This 
 consisted of a large double house standing in twenty 
 acres of ground near Fort Wadsworth. The house 
 had been built some forty years before by Mr. L. H. 
 Meyer for the occupancy of his own family and that 
 of a married daughter. It contained twenty-seven 
 large rooms and was admirably suited for a Retreat 
 House, as it stood well secluded from the public 
 roads. The grounds had been lavishly improved by 
 Mr. Meyer in his lifetime but on his death the prop¬ 
 erty suffered considerable neglect and when dis¬ 
 covered by Father Shealy both house and grounds 
 were in a state of deplorable disrepair. It was pur¬ 
 chased in April, 1911, for $50,000. At that time the 
 funds actually at Father Shealy’s disposal were less 
 than $13,000, laboriously collected in the preceding 
 two years. With the aid of the Emigrant Savings 
 Bank, which lent $30,000 on the property and of two 
 friends who advanced $7,000 more, Father Shealy 
 paid $50,000 cash to the executors of Mr. Meyer’s 
 estate and the first House of Retreats for men in 
 the United States was an accomplished fact. 
 
 Announcement was made of this achievement at a 
 public meeting held in May at Carnegie Hall in the 
 presence of Archbishop Farley and the provincial 
 of the Society of Jesus, and again the emphatic ap¬ 
 proval of the archbishop was publicly accorded to the 
 work. The Laymen’s League was busily at work 
 obtaining members for the League and retreatants 
 for the week-end bands, and a committee was at 
 work organizing the School of Social Studies. In the 
 intervals of his work as Lecturer on Jurisprudence in 
 the Law School of Fordham University and his work 
 as director of the week-end retreats (which were being 
 held at Keyser Island and later at Fordham Uni¬ 
 versity), Father Shealy was busied throughout the 
 
638 
 
 RHODE ISLAND 
 
 RHA2TIA 
 
 spring and early summer with the details of making 
 Fox Hill Manor ready for retreats. The house had 
 to be largely refurnished and running ■ repairs on a 
 large scale were necessary. It was decided to 
 rechristen it as “Mount Manresa” and to hold the 
 first retreat therein beginning on September 8th—a 
 most appropriate date. Some idea of the obstacles 
 to be overcome may be gleaned from the fact that 
 the last of the beds and the chairs arrived and were 
 placed in position at 5 p.m. on that day. At 7 p.m. 
 on September 8th, however, the provincial of the 
 Society of Jesus, Father Joseph Hanselmann, S. J., 
 presided in the dining room where some seventy men 
 were assembled for the first retreat and at 8:30 p.m. 
 Father Shealy gave the “Points” in the chapel. 
 
 An important feature of the retreat work of 
 Mount Manresa has been the Extension Retreats 
 given by Father Shealy each year at Philadelphia, 
 Ogdensburg and other centres. These retreats have 
 been largely attended. The movement begun so 
 successfully in New York is spreading rapidly 
 throughout the United States, and special houses 
 have been opened in Albany (N. Y.), Boston, Chi¬ 
 cago, Philadelphia, St. Louis, St. Mary’s (Kan.), 
 Syracuse (N. Y.), and Trenton (N. J.), and other 
 cities. The Passionist houses as a rule have accom¬ 
 modations for retreats for laymen as well as priests. 
 The English Jesuits have six houses of retreat: at 
 Stamford Hill, Osterley, Roehampton, Romiley, St. 
 Asaph (Wales), and Bothwell (Scotland); while the 
 Irish Jesuits have one at Rathfarnham Castle, Dublin. 
 
 Rhsetia, Prefecture Apostolic of (R^ethorum; 
 cf. C. E., XIII—18b), in the Canton of Orisons, 
 Switzerland, is bounded on the South by Lombardy, 
 on the West by the cantons of Tessin, Uri and Glarus, 
 on the East by the Tyrol, and is entrusted to the 
 Capuchins. It reports (1920) a total population of 
 10,000 inhabitants of whom 6541 are Catholic; 3621 
 Zwinglians; 22 churches, with resident and 27 with 
 non-resident priests, 22 Capuchins, 36 schools with 
 1116 pupils, and 1 orphanage with 12 inmates. The 
 prefect apostolic is Rt. Rev. Giovanni Santini, 
 O. S. F. C., b. in Rieti, 5 August, 1867, professed 
 8 December, 1890, missionary in Rhsetia, 14 August, 
 1892; prefect apostolic of Rhsetia, 2 January, 1905, 
 resigned in 1912, chaplain to the Austrian prisoners 
 of war in January, 1916, re-elected prefect apostolic 
 of Rhsetia, 13 September, 1918. He resides at Sagens 
 (or Thiefen Kastell). 
 
 Rhode Island, (cf. C. E., XIII—20a).—The area 
 of the State of Rhode Island is 1248 square miles. 
 In 1920 the population was 604,937, a gain of 11.4 
 per cent since 1910. Of this, 97.5 per cent was 
 urban; 2.5 per cent was rural. The average number 
 of inhabitants to the square mile is 566.4 as against 
 508.5 in 1910. The largest cities are Providence, 
 with a population of 237,595; Pawtucket 64,248; 
 Woonsocket 43,496. According to the Federal 
 Census (1920) the number of foreign born in Rhode 
 Island is as follows: born in Italy 32,241; in Canada 
 36,412; in England 25,782; in Ireland 22,253; in 
 Sweden 6542; in Scotland 5692; in Portugal 8624; 
 in Russia 8055; in Germany 3126; in Poland 8158; 
 this classification does not distinguish the Jews, who 
 are rapidly increasing, and who in 1918 numbered 
 20,512. There were besides 593,980 whites, 10,036 
 negroes, 110 Indians and 225 Chinese. Of the 
 population of 10 years of age and over (483,788), 
 there were 31,312 illiterates or 6.5 per cent. Of these 
 the foreign born numbered 171,032 (16.5 per cent). 
 
 Economic Conditions. —Manufactures.—In 1919 
 there were 2466 establishments (a gain of 12.6 per cent 
 since 1914), with a total capitalization of $589,- 
 937,000; employing 155,547 workers with a payroll 
 
 of $168,675,000, and an output to the value of 
 $747,323,000. Cotton spinning and dyeing are the 
 principal industries, also the manufacture of rubber 
 and elastic goods. The State has deposits of graphite, 
 lime, and building stone, the value of the stone 
 quarried in 1917 being $518,785; of other minerals, 
 $198,338. 
 
 Agriculture —The general trend of agriculture is 
 revealed in the latest agricultural census (1920), 
 which shows a decrease in the number of farms from' 
 5292 in 1910 to 4083 in 1920. The farmland area is 
 331,600 acres, of which 132,855 is in improved land. 
 The value of all farm property is $33,636,766; of the 
 livestock, $4,840,279; of the crops, $5,340,000. 
 
 The direct foreign commerce is still small, the 
 exports in 1919 were valued at $426,741; the imports, 
 $5,456,800. The total assets of the banks and trust 
 companies in June, 1919, were $356,030,000. The 
 State bonded debt in January, 1921, was $9,200,082, 
 with a sinking fund of $1,397,428; the assessed value 
 of real property, $600,000,000; of personal property, 
 $390,000,000. 
 
 In 1919 the railroads of the State comprised 209 
 miles of single track and 351 miles of electric railway. 
 
 Religion. —The federal census of 1916 gives the 
 following statistics of religious denominations: 
 
 Body 
 
 Members 
 
 Churches 
 
 Catholics. 
 
 261,312 
 
 102 
 
 Protest,a,nt, Episcopalians. 
 
 20,176 
 
 20,180 
 
 60 
 
 Baptist. 
 
 117 
 
 Methodist, Episcopalians. 
 
 7,801 
 
 10,531 
 
 2,783 
 
 41 
 
 Cnngrpgationalists. 
 
 43 
 
 Lutherans. 
 
 9 
 
 Free Baptists.\. 
 
 514 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 Value of property: Protestant Episcopalian 
 $1,775,430; Congregationalist $1,263,572; Baptist 
 $1,777,880; Unitarian $257,500; Universalist $380,- 
 500; Free Baptist $35,000. For Catholic statistics 
 see Providence, Diocese of. 
 
 Education. —The laws governing private and 
 parochial schools are as follows: Parochial schools 
 must maintain approved standards and are subject 
 to inspection. The State Board of Education may 
 visit, inspect, and examine private schools at pleasure. 
 The conditions for approval are: The term must be 
 substantially equal to that required by law. (2.) 
 The instruction must be in English. (3.) Thorough 
 and efficient teaching must be given. (4.) A register 
 must be kept and reports furnished to school com¬ 
 mittees and truant officers. The instruction in 
 private schools must be in the subjects taught in 
 public schools and in the English language. On 
 designated holidays no session of any school in the 
 State shall be held. 
 
 According to the U. S. Census )1920) there were 
 173,404 children of school age and 108,817 attended 
 school (62.8 per cent.) 
 
 The number of pupils enrolled in the 2093 public 
 elementary schools in 1919 was 83,300; of teachers, 
 2585; in the 163 high schools, 381 teachers and 
 8756 pupils. The total expenditure on education 
 was $3,503,091. The number of school buildings is 
 509; the valuation of school property $12,439,076. 
 The parochial school children in the State numbered 
 18,481; the attendance of the children in the parochial 
 schools and academies was 20,066 in 1918. These 
 schools cost in 1919 $3.79 per month for each pupil. 
 Allowing ten months of the school year on the basis 
 of that cost, the 18,481 parochial school children, in 
 attending the public schools would have cost the 
 State $699,610. Open-air schools were established 
 in 1912. In 1917 the maximum school age was 
 increased to sixteen years. In 1918 the national 
 
RHODES 
 
 630 
 
 RICHMOND 
 
 Smith-Lever Act in relation to vocational education 
 was passed, and another, granting State aid to towns 
 which established courses in vocational education. 
 Provisions were made the next year for State aid to 
 crippled and injured children under the supervision 
 of the Commissioner of Public Schools. 
 
 At the same time a division of Child Welfare was 
 created in the State Board of Health and the cause of 
 Americanization promoted by the establishment of 
 free night schools for the purpose of teaching English. 
 Bible reading is neither permitted nor excluded in the 
 public schools. There are enrolled in Brown Univer¬ 
 ity 89 professors and teacjiers and 1349 students. 
 The appropriation for teachers’ salaries for both 
 elementary and secondary schools in 1918 was 
 $2,159,668; for graded and high schools, $33,000. 
 
 Sunday Laws. —Sunday concerts of a serious, 
 classical, or musical nature are allowed. Milk, 
 fruit, confectionery, and tobacco may be sold on 
 Sunday. Amateur athletic games can be played in 
 the open air between the hours of noon and six 
 o’clock in the afternoon on Sunday. In 1919 laws, 
 were passed licensing professional athletic games, 
 thus eliminating the trouble caused by the defunct 
 Sunday laws. 
 
 Recent Legislation and History. —In 1912 a 
 Public Utilities Commission was created, also a 
 Board of Control and Supply to take charge of the 
 regulation and control of State institutions. An 
 Employer’s Liability Act was passed. In 1913 the 
 hours and conditions of working women and children 
 were regulated. On 17 April Rhode Island granted 
 'presidential suffrage to women , the first state in the 
 East to do so. It was decided at the same time 
 that a person over twenty-one years of age could not 
 unreasonably neglect to support parents who were 
 destitute without fault of their own. The lease of 
 prison labor to private contractors was forbidden. 
 The State Board of Labor was created in 1919. The 
 Federal Suffrage Amendment was ratified on 6 
 January, 1920; the State refused to ratify the 
 Federal Prohibition Amendment, June, 1919. 
 
 During the European War Rhode Island con¬ 
 tributed 16,861 soldiers to the United States Army 
 (.45 per cent). As in the case of all men from New 
 England, the Rhode Island soldiers joined either the 
 26th or 76th Division at Camp Devens, Massa¬ 
 chusetts. The summary of casualties of Rhode 
 Island members of the American Expeditionary 
 Force is as follows: deceased, 15 officers, 340 men; 
 prisoners, 35 men; wounded, 42 officers, 1130 men. 
 At the end of the war a bonus was granted to all 
 veterans of the war by the legislature. 
 
 Rhodes, Prefecture Apostolic of (Rhodien- 
 sis; cf. C. E., I—791c; XIII—24c), comprises the 
 Island of Rhodes and adjacent islands, and is the 
 seat of a titular archbishopric united to the see of 
 Malta (q.v.). The prefecture is confided to the 
 Franciscans. The first prefect apostolic was Rt. Rev. 
 Andrea Felici, O.F.M., who died in 1911. He was 
 succeeded by Rt. Rev. Ignatius Beaufais, O.F.M., 
 and in 1920 Rt. Rev. Bonaventura Rossetti was 
 named prefect, succeeding Beaufais. The prefecture 
 is now vacant, Rt. Rev. Rossetti having died 12 
 August, 1921. Statistics for 1921 report: 2 churches, 
 
 3 convents for men, 1 for women, 4 regular priests, 
 
 2 lay brothers, 1 college for boys with 10 teachers and 
 200 students, 1 for girls with 7 teachers and 155 stu¬ 
 dents, 1 elementary school with 5'teachers and 102 
 pupils, 1 commercial school with 5 teachers and 70 
 pupils, 1 orphanage, 1 refuge in the course of con¬ 
 struction, and a Catholic population of 1000 souls. 
 The island came under the Italian dominion in 1912; 
 they erected Italian schools both elementary and 
 technical in charge of the Christian Brothers. During 
 
 41 
 
 the World War 2 priests and one lay brother served 
 at the front in the Italian army. 
 
 Ribeirao Preto, Diocese of (De Ribeirao 
 Preto; cf. C. E., XIII—31a), in the state of Sao 
 Paulo, Brazil, is suffragan of Sao Paulo. It is governed 
 by Rt. Rev. Alberto-Jos6 Gonsalves, first bishop, 
 b. 20 July, 1859, ordained 17 September, 1882; he 
 served as rector of Curityba where he constructed the 
 church now used as the Cathedral, became vicar 
 general of the diocese, a deputy and president of the 
 Chamber of Parana, federal senator for Parana, 
 secretary to the Brazilian Senate from 1895-1905, 
 prothonotary apostolic 23 August, 1897, decorated 
 with the cross Pro Ecclesia et Pontijice , appointed 
 5 December, 1908, consecrated 2 February, 1909. 
 There are in the diocese (1920), 45 parishes, 85 
 churches and chapels, 50 secular priests, 12 semi¬ 
 narians, 5 communities of men with 18 religious, and 
 10 of women with 60 nuns; 6 Catholic schools with 
 600 pupils; a total population of 800,000 of whom 
 only 1000 are non-Catholic. 
 
 Richmond, Diocese of (Richmondiensis), com¬ 
 prises an area of 34,808 square miles in the States 
 of Virginia and West Virginia, U. S. A. Rt. Rev. 
 Augustine Van De Vyver died 16 October, 1911, 
 and was buried on the twenty-second anniversary 
 of his consecration as Bishop of Richmond. He 
 was succeeded by the present incumbent, Rt. Rev. 
 Dennis Joseph O’Connell, a priest of this diocese 
 who had been consecrated titular Bishop of Sebaste 
 and auxiliary to the Bishop of San Francisco, 24 
 December, 1908, and who was installed as Bishop 
 of Richmond, 19 March, 1912, in the presence of 
 Cardinal Gibbons, several archbishops and bishops, 
 the Governor of Virginia, the Mayor and other no¬ 
 tables. Bishop O’Connell was born in Donough- 
 more, Ireland, 1849, ordained 1877, appointed a 
 prelate of the Holy See 1887, served as rector of 
 the American College, Rome, and later of the Cath¬ 
 olic University at Washington which position he 
 filled when called to the episcopacy. The diocese 
 has made remarkable progress under the able admin¬ 
 istration of Bishop O’Connell; additional religious 
 have been brought into this territory, many new 
 churches have been built, parishes established and 
 schools erected, notable among these, the Sacred 
 Heart Cathedral School which is in keeping with 
 the majestic cathedral itself. 
 
 Upon the entrance of this country into the World 
 War the bishop placed every diocesan and parish 
 organization at the disposal of the President, and 
 before .the draft was ordered the flower of Catholic 
 youth was enlisted in the service. The priests sta¬ 
 tioned at or near the various army and navy posts, 
 did valiant work as volunteer chaplains; particular 
 mention should be given to the work of the Oblate 
 Fathers, who, upon the invitation of Bishop 
 O’Connell and financed by the Knights of Columbus, 
 established headquarters for five chaplains who at¬ 
 tended Jamestown naval base, St. Helena Train¬ 
 ing Station at Berkley, Virginia Beach rifle range, 
 the Naval hospital and the Marine barracks at 
 Portsmouth as well as various warships and trans¬ 
 ports in the Hampton Roads district. The Knights 
 of Columbus of Virginia did splendid work both' 
 at home and abroad, and a home established by 
 them in conjunction with the McGill Catholic 
 Union, in Richmond, became the centre of patriotic 
 activities for all Richmond Catholic societies. As 
 an example of the consistently fine work done 
 throughout the diocese we may take the records 
 of the Catholic Club of Portsmouth which show 
 that on New Year’s day, 1919, dinners were served 
 to 3500 uniformed men. 
 
RIDOLFI 
 
 640 
 
 BIOBAMBA 
 
 By 1921 statistics the diocese comprises 45 
 priories, 7 convents of women, 80 secular priests 
 and 16 regulars, 65 Brothers, 305 Sisters, 30 semi¬ 
 narians, 1 college for boys with 100 students, 15 
 high schools with 60 teachers and an attendance 
 of 275 boys and 425 girls, 24 academies with 120 
 teachers and 1000 boys and 1400 girls, 35 elementary 
 schools with 170 teachers and 6000 pupils, and 3 
 industrial schools with 46 teachers and 380 pupils. 
 The charitable institutions include 1 home for the 
 aged, 3 orphan asylums, 1 hospital, 1 refuge home 
 for boys and 1 refuge home for girls. The Rich¬ 
 mond Clerical Fund Association and the Euchar¬ 
 istic League are organized, and among the laity 
 the Knights of Columbus, Holy Name, and Junior- 
 Holy Name Societies, Hibernian and St. Vincent 
 de Paul Societies with women’s auxiliaries, Boy 
 Scouts, Children of Mary, Angels of the Blessed 
 Sacrament, Alumnian Association and local parish 
 societies of men, women and children are estab¬ 
 lished. The Catholic population numbers 44,000 
 of whom 700 are negroes; the whites comprise 
 Americans, Irish, German, Italians, English, a few 
 French and small numbers of Bohemians, Poles, 
 Slovaks and Syrians. 
 
 Ridolfi, Fortunatus, Regular Cleric of St. Paul, 
 b. at Zenano, in the Diocese of Brixen, on 8 Novem¬ 
 ber, 1777; d. 8 April, 1850; son of Joseph and Angela 
 (Tonni) Ridolfi. In 1887 he was sent to study in the 
 College at Monza, conducted by the suppressed Jesu¬ 
 its. Some years later he manifested his desire to 
 become a religious but the revolutionary troubles of 
 that time prevented him from carrying out his pur¬ 
 pose. In 1799 he was compelled to join the army at 
 the time of the establishment of the Cisalpine Repub¬ 
 lic, but he remained untouched by the corruption 
 around him. On 30 September of that year he entered 
 the Barnabite novitiate, after which he studied the¬ 
 ology at Milan and took his solemn vows in 1802. 
 He was a professor of literature at Cremona and else¬ 
 where, but when the decrees of the French Govern¬ 
 ment, which then ruled Lombardy, suppressed all 
 religious orders, he found refuge in the house of his 
 uncle who was an arch-priest of Brixen. In 1816, dur¬ 
 ing which what was almost a famine desolated Lom¬ 
 bardy, Ridolfi appeared like an angel of charity in 
 aiding the distressed. As the religious orders had been 
 re-established in Italy in 1815, he made haste to join 
 his brethren in the college of Carrobrole, where he 
 concerned himself chiefly in the work of inaugurating 
 and directing oratories for the youth of both sexes. 
 The cause of his beatification and canonization was 
 introduced on 12 November, 1919. 
 
 Rieti, Diocese of (Rietinensis; cf. C. E., 
 XIII—54a), in the province of Perugia, Southern 
 Italy, directly dependent on the Holy See. Rt. 
 Rev. Bonaventura Quintarelli, who came to the see 
 in 1895, died 31 October, 1915, and was succeeded 
 9 Dec., 1915, by Rt. Rev. Tranquillo Guarneri, 
 b. at Castelnuovo in 1871. He resigned and was 
 transferred to the titular see of Europus 16 June, 
 1916, and is now bishop of Acquapendente. He has 
 been succeeded by Mgr. Francesco Sidoli, b. at 
 Ceresota, Diocese of Piacenza, 2 Nov., 1874, elected 
 20 June, 1916, and consecrated 25 July following. 
 According to 1920 statistics there are 160 parishes, 
 142,100 Catholics, served by 200 secular and 40 
 regular priests, 50 seminarians, 20 Brothers, 100 
 Sisters, 402 churches or chapels. 
 
 Riga, Diocese of (Rigensis), in Lettonia or 
 Latvia, depending directly on the Holy See, revived 
 on 22 September, 1918, by separation from the Arch¬ 
 diocese of Mohileff. It is governed by Mgr. Antonius 
 
 Springowic, b. at Rositten, Latgale in Lettgalia, in 
 the Diocese of Riga, 31 October, 1876. He studied 
 in the ecclesiastical seminary at Petrograd, was 
 ordained in 1901, and was named dean of Lixna in 
 April, 1920, in succession to Mgr. O’Rourke, who 
 resigned. The Diocese of Riga comprises the 
 Republics of Lettonia and Esthonia. It has: 130 
 parishes; 175 churches; 145 secular priests; 412,356 
 Catholics (330,574 Letts; 39,244 Poles; 23,036 White 
 Russians; 16,338 Lithuanians; and 3164 of German, 
 Esthonian and other nationalities); 1 seminary, 36 
 students; 1 boys’ college, 5 teachers, 50 pupils; 2 
 elementary schools, 5 teachers, 200 pupils; 1 home for 
 the aged; 3 orphanages. There are about 1000 state 
 primary schools, 50 gymnasia, and 3 prisons, in all 
 of which ministrations of the clergy are permitted. 
 The clergy have a cooperative society for the pur¬ 
 chase of church supplies. Among the laity there are: 
 a Catholic Association of Lettish Farmers, a general 
 Lettish Catholic Association, and a society for the 
 publication of Catholic works. Catholic periodicals 
 published are a weekly, “Latgolas Words,” and a 
 monthly, “Wairogs.” Among those who died are 
 Father Casimir Skrynda and Antonius Skrynda, a 
 physician, who for years devoted themselves to the 
 religious and patriotic education of the Lettish youth 
 and the promotion of Catholic and Lettish writings. 
 Five priests, Fathers Marcinjan, Biksis, Kero vie, 
 Tukiss, and Petrus Osien were put to death in the 
 religious persecution carried out by the Russian 
 Maximalists. On 18 November, 1918, the Letts 
 proclaimed their independence of Russia and were 
 at once attacked by the Maximalists, whom they 
 fought until 1920. During the European War the 
 clergy and laity made every effort to alleviate suf¬ 
 fering especially among the refugee poor. They 
 raised over 2,000,000 Russian roubles for that purpose. 
 During the war when the Letts were conscripted to 
 fight for Russia, they quietly organized themselves 
 into cohorts, which later formed the nucleus of the 
 first national army. In 1920, two years after the 
 erection of the Diocese of Riga, Mgr. Antonius 
 Springowic was consecrated at Aglona in Lettgalia, 
 before the miraculous image of the Blessed Virgin, 
 in the presence of the civil authorites, 50 priests, and 
 about 60,000 of the faithful. 
 
 Rimini, Diocese of (Ariminensis; cf. C. E., 
 XIII—57d), in the province of Forli, northern 
 Italy, suffragan of Ravenna. It is still under the 
 administration of Mgr. Vincenzo Scozzoli, who came 
 to the see in 1900. Statistics for 1920 credit it with 
 124 parishes, 125,400 Catholics, ministered to by 
 336 secular and 56 regular priests, 64 seminarians, 
 15 Brothers, 183 Sisters, 254 churches or chapels. 
 
 Rimouski, Diocese of (Sancti Germani de 
 Rimouski; cf. C. E., XIII—58d), Canada, suffragan 
 of Quebec. Mgr. Andre Albert Blais, who came to 
 the see in 1891, died 23 January, 1919, and was 
 succeeded 18 Dec., 1919, by Mgr. Joseph-Romuald 
 Leonard, b. at St. Joseph de Carleton m 1876, 
 ordained 1899, consecrated 25 Feb., 1920. The 
 Catholic population of the diocese is 145,758. There 
 are 198 secular priests, 11 regular priests, 5 religious 
 communities of men and 10 of women. There are 
 105 parishes and 135 churches and chapels, 1 upper 
 seminary with 30 seminarians, 1 lower seminary 
 with 338 students, 12 convents and academies, 1 
 home for the aged and infirm, 1 orphanage, 1 hospital. 
 
 Riobamba (or Bolivar), Diocese of (Bolivaren- 
 sis; cf. C. E., XIII—61d), suffragan of Quito, Ecua¬ 
 dor. The present bishop is Rt. Rev. Carlos-Mana 
 Xavier de la Torre, b. at Quito, 12 November, 1873, 
 ordained 19 December, 1896, appointed Bishop of 
 
RIPATRANSONE 
 
 641 
 
 ROCHESTER 
 
 Laja, 30 December, 1911, consecrated 20 May, 1912, 
 transferred to the Diocese of Riobamba 21 August, 
 1919, to succeed Bishop lilpieno Perez y Quinones 
 (b. 4 August, 1803; d. 27 December, 1918). Statistics 
 for 1921 give: 37 parishes, 44 churches, 1 mission in 
 Macos, 1 monastery for women, 3 convents for men, 
 / convents for women, 10 Christian Brothers, 19 
 Sisters, 11 seminarians at the Seminary of Mayor de 
 Quito, 3 colleges for men with 200 students,' 0 for 
 women with 40 teachers and 700 students, 1 normal 
 school, 80 elementary schools, 2 asylums, 2 hospitals, 
 2 charitable centres. One Catholic periodical is pub¬ 
 lished. The fiftieth anniversary of the diocese was 
 celebrated in 1915, and the Basilica of the Immaculate 
 Conception of Jesus was consecrated in the same year. 
 On 11 November, 1920, the centenary of the inde¬ 
 pendence of Riobamba was celebrated. 
 
 Ripatransone, Diocese of (Ripanensis; cf. 
 C. E., XIII—62d), in the Province of Ascoli-Piceno, 
 Central Italy, suffragan of Fermo. The present 
 bishop is Rt. Rev. Luigi Boschi, b. 1853, appointed 
 bishop 5 May, 1902, nominated administrator apos¬ 
 tolic of Montalto 25 July, 1910. There are (1922) in 
 the diocese: 15 parishes, 70 churches, 65 secular and 6 
 regular priests, 2 convents for men, 2 for women,20 
 bisters, 1 seminary with 28 seminarians, 3 colleges for 
 women, 1 normal school, 12 elementary schools, 1 
 orphanage for girls, 6 asylums for children, 6 hospitals, 
 and a Catholic population of 43,000 souls. The Pop¬ 
 ular Union is organized among the laity. 
 
 Ritualists —The influence of the Ritualists in 
 Anglican church life is evident in many ways in 
 recent years. Numerous wayside shrines or “Cal¬ 
 varies/' instead of the bronze tablets in the vesti¬ 
 bules, are found today in England, to commemorate 
 the fallen soldiers, while occasionally prayers are 
 offered for the dead. In religious communities 
 particularly are found doctrine and practice dif¬ 
 ficult to distinguish from the true Catholic de¬ 
 posit : masses are said for the repose of the souls 
 ol the dead; the saints are invoked and honored 
 and relics venerated; the Blessed Virgin is to be 
 worshipped with hyperdulia and belief is incul¬ 
 cated in her Assumption and Immaculate Concep¬ 
 tion; the Sacrament is reserved in chapel for the 
 adoration of the religious, and in 1916, 1000 min¬ 
 isters petitioned that reservation for adoration by 
 the people be legalized. The growth of religious 
 life itself is significant: since the Oxford move¬ 
 ment about thirty-five Anglican sisterhoods have 
 been founded in England among which are found 
 such titles as the “Sisterhood of St. Mary the 
 Virgin,” the "Community of the Blessed Virgin 
 Mary,” that of the “Holy Name of Jesus,” and in 
 1907 there was founded at Cowley, Oxford, an 
 enclosed Order of the Love of God. There were 
 about twelve orders of men founded in the same 
 period, but with far less success. According to 
 the “Dictionary of English Church History” there 
 were more women in (Anglican) religious orders 
 in England in 1912 than at the time of the suppres¬ 
 sion under Henry VIII; this work claims 1300 
 Sisters in 1912, and places the number at the sup¬ 
 pression as 745; Gasquet (Henry VIII and the 
 English Monasteries, p. 360), lists 1560 nuns at 
 that period; naturally we must admit a notable 
 increase of religious in the Anglican Church, but 
 in comparing the present state to that at the time 
 of Henry VIII we must not forget the vast dif¬ 
 ference in population at the two periods specified. 
 
 A significant event in Anglican religious circles 
 was the submission to Rome in a body in February, 
 1913, of the Anglican Benedictine monks of Caldey 
 Island, and the community of nuns at St. Bride’s 
 
 Milford Haven, affiliated with the former. The 
 lormer were a foundation in 1898, directed by 
 Aeired Carlyle, under the special sanction of Arch¬ 
 bishop 1 emple, to revive the strict rule of St. 
 Benedict. The community began in the Isle of 
 Dogs, moved later to Painsthorpe, and finally to 
 Caldey I he nuns were originally the Community 
 ol bt. Mary and St. Scholastica, founded by' Father 
 Ignatius in 1868 to observe the strict rule of St. 
 Benedict. They separated from his community 
 mo X e< ^ iff 1893 to Mailing Abbey and in 
 1911, to St. Bride’s Abbey, Milford Haven, after 
 having in 1907 become affiliated with the Caldey 
 Island Benedictines. The founder of the Caldey 
 community, Dorn Aeired Carlyle, O.S.B., was 10 
 Aug., 1914, appointed bv the Holy See the first 
 abbott of the new Catholic community. 
 
 Despite what Catholics may consider Catholic 
 tendencies in Anglicanism there is a decidedly 
 strong current of opposition to the Ritualistic or 
 Catholic party in the English Church today, 
 the Kikuyu incident and its outcome (see An¬ 
 glicanism), and various decisions, almost uni¬ 
 formly against the High Church party, show this. 
 In 1909, in the case of the Bishop of Oxford v. 
 Henly, the reservation of the blessed sacrament 
 and the service of benediction were held unlawful, 
 and the defendant, who did not appear, was de- 
 pri\ ed. Again in the Open Letter of the Bishop of 
 Zanzibar, regarding the Kikuyu Conference, there 
 « S - case L)r. Langford James, who was 
 
 ‘ inhibited from ministering” in the diocese of St. 
 Albans (the very diocese to which the editor of 
 ‘-Foundations” was attached), because “he had 
 invoked our Lady and two other saints.” Further¬ 
 more the bishop announced his “refusal both of 
 ordination and jurisdiction to any who practice 
 these invocations.” Finally the greatest weight be¬ 
 hind the mo\ ement to revise the Book of Common 
 Piayei (q. v.) is probably that of those who wish 
 so to word the Ornaments Rubric and other pas- 
 sages that in no way can it be held that there is any 
 official Anglican sanction for such Catholic practices 
 as those mentioned in this article. The conclusion 
 seems inevitable that whatever may be the senti- 
 nients and private beliefs of many good Anglicans 
 in the Catholic” party today, the almost uniform 
 trend of official decision is against them and on the 
 side of the Low Church or “Protestant” party. 
 
 CTTV ® A £P ct °f Anglican Continuity in Dublin 
 \oc rii C r'?v T ( wi 4 c io? 5; o? N £ x - Tendencies of Anglicanism, 
 C T> (1 ?]S). 25; F°x, “High. Churchism ” versus 
 
 Ritualism in The Month, CXXIII (1914) 255* Oliard A Nn 
 
 fouiTp P. ic . tiona !^. ° f , En ^ lish Church History, s’.vv. (London 
 ^ ltual T cas , es - etc -< Henson, Church of England, 
 Its A ature and Future (London, 1919), a Low Church exposition. 
 
 Gerald Shaughnessy. 
 
 Rochester, Diocese of (Roffenensis; cf. C. E., 
 
 nf 7 osi 102c * ’-i n New J ork ' ^ T- A-, covers an area 
 
 ol 7081 sq. miles, and is suffragan to New York. It 
 
 na,s 62 parishes, 111 churches with resident priests, 42 
 missions with churches, 19 chapels, 218 secular and 6 
 regular priests, 1 theological seminary for secular 
 priests with 208 seminarians, 1 preparatory sem¬ 
 inary with 107 seminarians, 2 academies, 3 high 
 schools with 1524 students, 3 orphan asylums with 
 480 mrnates, 1 home for the aged with 159 inmates, 
 
 4 hospitals, and a Catholic population of 185 876 
 1 he diocese is under the administration of Rt. Rev 
 Thomas Francis Hickey, D.D., b. at Rochester, New 
 York, 4 February, 1861, ordained 25 March, 1884 
 vicar general and rector of the Cathedral of Rochester’ 
 appointed titular Bishop of Berenice and coadjutor 
 to the Bishop of Rochester, 18 February, 1905, con¬ 
 secrated 24 May following, succeeded to the see 18 
 January, 1909, upon the death of Bishop McQuaid. 
 
ROCHET 
 
 ROMAN CONGREGATIONS 
 
 642 
 
 Rochet (cf. C. C., XIII, 104).—by a motu proprio 
 of 25 April, 1920, the Holy See granted all regular 
 bispops the right to wear the rochet, but when they 
 are in the Eternal City they must always have a 
 mantellette over the rochet. 
 
 Rockford, Diocese of (Rockfordiensis; cf. C. 
 E., XIII—105c), in Illinois, U. S. A., covers an area 
 of 6867 sq. miles, with a Catholic population of 
 61,043. It is suffragan to Chicago. The first and 
 present bishop is Rt. Rev. Peter James Muldoon,D.D., 
 b. 10 October, 1863, ordained 18 December, 1886, 
 appointed titular Bishop of Tamassus and auxiliary 
 Bishop of Chicago 10 June, 1901, consecrated 25 
 July of the same year, transferred to Rockford 28 
 September, 1908, proclaimed 29 April, 1909, refused 
 transfer to Monterey and Los Angeles at the Con¬ 
 sistory of 22 March, 1917. Statistics for 1922 report: 
 77 churches with resident priests, 22 missions with 
 churches, 3 stations, 10 chapels, 214 secular priests, 
 21 ecclesiastical students, 1 academy for boys with 30 
 pupils, 1 for girls with 60 pupils, 4 high schools with 
 450 students, 33 parochial schools with 6473 pupils, 1 
 orphan asylum with 206 inmates, 2 homes for old 
 people, and 6 hospitals. Educational and charitable 
 institutions are in charge of the religious communities 
 established in the diocese. 
 
 Rockhampton, Diocese of (Rockhamptoniensis; 
 cf. C. E., XIII—105c), in Queensland, Australia, is 
 suffragan to the Archdiocese of Brisbane. Rt. Rev. 
 James Duhig, who came to this see in 1905, was 
 created titular Archbishop of Amida and coadjutor 
 with right of succession, to the Archbishop of Bris¬ 
 bane, 26 February, 1912. He was succeeded by the 
 present incumbent Rt. Rev. Joseph Shiel, born in 
 Meath, Ireland, 2 February, 1873, ordained at May- 
 nooth, 19 June, 1898, volunteered for the Australian 
 Missions and served in the archdiocese of Melbourne 
 and the diocese of Rockhampton and Ballarat; 
 consecrated Bishop of Rockhampton 26 January, 
 1913. In September, 1912, the golden jubilee of the 
 diocese was celebrated and the following year on 
 11 May, the enthronement of Bishop Shiel took place. 
 The apostolic delegate, Mgr. Cattaneo visited the 
 diocese 22 June, 1918, and the following day the 
 foundation was laid for the new St. Patrick’s church 
 which replaces the first church in Rockhampton. 
 During the WorldWar three priests of this diocese and 
 a full quota of the Catholic young men served at the 
 front. Through the death of Rev. Julien Plormel, 
 15 March, 1921, the diocese lost one of its pioneer 
 priests who had served in this territory for thirty- 
 five years. The Catholic population of the diocese 
 numbers about 40,000, the majority of whom are of 
 Irish origin. By 1921 statistics there are: 20 parishes, 
 1 convent for men (Marist Fathers), 38 secular priests, 
 200 sisters, 7 high schools with 14 teachers and atten¬ 
 dance of 150 boys and 100 girls, 17 boarding schools 
 with 250 boys and 430 girls, 35 elementary schools 
 with 150 teachers and attendance of 5700, 1 orphan¬ 
 age receives one shilling day from the government 
 for each child. 
 
 Roman Colleges, (cf. C. E., XIII—131). Under 
 Pius X certain changes were made affecting the 
 Seminario Romano: the philosophical and theological 
 faculties were transferred to the Lateran and renamed 
 Seminario maggiore; the faculty of law is in the 
 Piazza S. Apollinare, 49; and the classical school or 
 Seminario minore at St. Peters. The Seminario 
 Pio has been incorporated in the Seminario maggiore 
 at the Lateran. There are two new colleges: the 
 Collegio Pontificio Etiopico, for the Abvssinians, 
 which was founded on 1 October, 1919, in Piazzo S. 
 Martin, and is under the care of the Capuchin Friars; 
 
 and the Collegio Pontificio per le Missioni Estere 
 Italiane, for the Italian foreign missions, founded on 
 13 March, 1914, and enlarged in 1921; which is in the 
 via della Scrofa. The Collegio Beda_, in the via 
 Pietro Cavallini, which was founded in 1892, was 
 separated from the English College in 1917. 
 
 Roman Congregations (cf. C. E., XIII—136a).— 
 The congregation of the Holy Office (C. E., XII—137) 
 is now charged with the duties of the Congregation of 
 the Index, which was suppressed on 25 March, 1917; 
 it alone is competent to deal with questions relating 
 to the Eucharistic fast of priests celebrating Mass. 
 On the other hand, what relates to the use and con¬ 
 cession of indulgences, except dogmatic pronounce¬ 
 ments regarding new prayers and devotions, has been 
 transferred from the Holy Office to the Apostolic 
 Penitentiary. 
 
 The Congregation of the Consistory (C. E.,XIII— 
 139) has now a third cardinal ex-officio member, 
 namely the prefect of the Congregation of Seminaries 
 and of Universities of Studies, and a new ex-officio 
 consultor, the secretary of the last-mentioned con¬ 
 gregation. It no longer decides questions of com¬ 
 petency arising between the various congregations, 
 tribunals, and offices of the Roman Curia, these being 
 settled by a body of cardinals selected by the pope 
 each time a dispute arises. 
 
 The Congregation of Propaganda (C. E., XII— 
 456; XIII—143) has jurisdiction also over societies 
 of ecclesiastics and seminaries founded exclusively 
 for the training of missionaries for foreign missions, 
 particularly in connection with their rules and ad¬ 
 ministration and the granting of concessions regard¬ 
 ing the ordination of the alumni. It has, no longer, 
 any jurisdiction over Catholics of Eastern Rites, 
 even in questions involving Latins. For them the 
 Congregation of the Eastern Church has been estab¬ 
 lished with the same power over the subjects and 
 churches of the Eastern Rites as the other congrega¬ 
 tions have over those of Latin Rite, respecting, 
 however, the jurisdiction of the Holy Office. 
 
 The Congregation for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical 
 Affairs (C.E.,XIII—145) is charged with the formation 
 or division of dioceses and the filling of vacant sees, 
 when civil governments have to be consulted on these 
 matters; it deals, moreover, with affairs entrusted 
 to its examination by the pope through the cardinal 
 secretary of State, when foreign civil law or papal 
 concordats are involved. 
 
 On 4 November, 1915, the Congregation of Semi¬ 
 naries and of Universities of Studies was formed to 
 have jurisdiction over everything pertaining to semi¬ 
 naries, which previously had been controlled by the 
 Congregation of the Consistory; it supervises the 
 government and course of studies in Catholic faculties 
 or universities, including those directed by religious; 
 it grants permission to confer academic degrees and 
 may itself confer them on men distinguished for their 
 attainments. The cardinal secretary of the Con¬ 
 sistory is an ex-officio member, and the consistorial 
 assessor an ex-officio consultor of this congregation. 
 During a papal vacancy the sacred congregations re¬ 
 tain their ordinary powers; they may exercise these 
 freely in matters of minor importance; in more serious 
 affairs they should await the election of the new 
 pope, but if the matter is very urgent it may be 
 settled provisionally by the prefect and a few of the 
 cardinals of the congregation to whom the pope would 
 likely have entrusted it. They may not, however, 
 deal with matters which during the lifetime of the 
 pope they cannot decide without consulting the 
 sovereign pontiff or in virtue of special and extra¬ 
 ordinary faculties, which the pope is accustomed to 
 grant the prefects or secretaries of the congregations. 
 
 / 
 
ROSEAU 
 
 643 
 
 ROUEN 
 
 Roseau (or Charlottetown), Dioce.se of 
 (Rosbnensis; cf. C. E., XIII—191b), Island of 
 Dominica, British Antilles, is suffragan of Port-of- 
 Spain. Rt. Rev. Philip Sehelfhaut having died 22 
 May, 1921, the see is still (1922) vacant. There are 
 in the diocese 17 parishes, 24 churches, 9 chapels, 
 19 priests, 39,600 Catholics, 4 convents for women, 
 3 high schools with 13 teachers and 160 pupils, 6 
 elementary schools with 24 teachers and 1200 pupils. 
 There are charitable institutions but not under Catholic 
 control. The ministry of priests is admitted in 
 public institutions. A grant is given to some of the 
 parochial schools, but the three convent high schools 
 receive nothing from the Government. The “Ec¬ 
 clesiastical Bulletin,” of Roseau (monthly), and the 
 “Dominica Chronicle” (twice a week) are published 
 in the diocese. Mgr. P. Sivienne after laboring for 
 forty-nine years as secular priest, died in 1912; 
 Gustave S. Delisle, a man remarkable for his devoted¬ 
 ness to church and religion, died in October, 1918. 
 On 1 April, 1917, the Danish Islands were transferred 
 to the United States. In 1919 the Redemptorist 
 Fathers extended their mission work outside the 
 diocese of Roseau to St. Lucia, Guadeloupe, and as 
 far as Haiti. There is great enthusiasm everywhere 
 for the missions. During the World War 170 Catholic 
 men enlisted for active service, of whom 10 fell on 
 the battlefield. The clergy, in co-operation with the 
 laity, endeavored to raise several thousands of 
 dollars, which amount was sent to the British Red 
 Cross especially, also to the French and Belgian Red 
 Cross. 
 
 Rosenau, Diocese of. See Roznava. 
 
 Ross, Diocese of (Rossensis; cf. C. E., XIII— 
 20Id), in Ireland, includes a part of Cork and is 
 suffragan of Cashel. Rt. Rev. Denis Kelly, consecrat¬ 
 ed 9 May, 1897, still fills the see. He resides at 
 Skibbereen. Diocesan statistics for 1920 report 
 a Catholic population of 31,801 (1911 Census), 3026 
 non-Catholic. There are 11 parishes, 28 priests and 
 curates, 22 parochial and district churches, 3 con¬ 
 vents, 71 primary schools with 6800 pupils. The 
 Societies of St. \incent de Paul are organized in the 
 diocese. 
 
 Rottenburg, Diocese of (Rottenburgensis; cf. 
 C. E., XIII—207), includes Wurtemburg and is suf¬ 
 fragan of Frieburg im Breisgau. The diocese is divided 
 into 715 parishes, 146 chaplaincies, 19 mission stations 
 and 122 vicariates; there are 1158 active and 102 
 pensioned secular clergy, and 771,811 Catholics. 
 After the abdication of the King in 1918, the bishop 
 demanded the provisional government to re-admit the 
 Franciscans at Weggental, to reinstall the Redemp- 
 torists in the former house of the Jesuits on the 
 Schonberg, near Ellwangen and the Recollects in the 
 old abbey of Weingarten. At a meeting of the coun¬ 
 cil of the provisional government, held 23 Dec., 
 1918, it was unanimously voted to permit the return 
 of the religious orders of men who had been banished 
 since the Secularization Act in 1803. There are now 
 in the diocese the following orders of men: Benedic¬ 
 tines at Neresheim, 16 priests, 16 Brothers, 8 novices; 
 and branches of the following orders who have houses 
 outside of the diocese: Franciscans at Weggental 
 near Rottenburg, 4 priests, 3 Brothers; Franciscans 
 at Weingarten, 5 priests, 3 Brothers; Redemptorists at 
 Schonenberg, near Ellwangen, 6 priests, 1 brother; 
 Jesuits at L T lm, 1 priest; Jesuits at Stuttgart, 2 priests; 
 Society of the Divine Savior (Salvatorians) at 
 Wurzach, 3 priests; Oblates of the Immaculate Con¬ 
 ception at Aufhofen, 4 priests, 2 Brothers; scholasticate 
 of the Congregation of the Sacred Heart at Schrez- 
 heim, 1 priest, 2 Brothers; Pallotini Fathers at 
 Gmund; Capuchins at Laudenbach, Christian Broth¬ 
 
 ers at Dietenheim. In 1921 the following orders and 
 congregations of women had establishments in the 
 diocese; Congregation of the Third Order of St. 
 Francis at Bonlanden, 150 Sisters, 2 branch houses; 
 Sisters of St. Francis from Heiligenbronn, 228 Sisters, 
 3 branch houses; School Sisters of Our Lady with a 
 mother-house at Ravensburg, 50 Sisters and a house 
 at Wurzach, 30 Sisters; Sisters of the Third Order 
 of St. Francis from Reute, 1136 Sisters, 182 branches, 
 and at Siessen 480 sisters, 34 branch houses; Sisters 
 of Mercy of St. Vincent de Paul at Untermarchtal, 
 1680 Sisters of Charity, 215 branch houses; Con¬ 
 gregation of the Salesians at Obermarchtal, 16 
 Sisters; branch-house of the Sisters of the Holy 
 Cross from Strasburg in Donzdorf, 14 sisters; branch 
 house of the Servants of the Most Sacred Heart of 
 Jesus of Vienna in Kirchheim (16 Sisters), branch of 
 the Sisters of Charity of the Holy Cross of Strasburg 
 at Donzdorf (14 Sisters); branch of the Servants of the 
 Most Sacred Heart of Jesus of Vienna at Kirchenheim 
 (3 Sisters). 
 
 In 1921 the diocese had the following institutions: 
 208 day nurseries, 216 needlework schools, 8 cooking 
 schools, 3 asylums, 4 asylums for children, 4 reforma¬ 
 tories, 8 homes for girls, 3 homes for working girls, 
 
 27 hospitals, 1 home for the aged, 1 institution for 
 the blind, 2 institutions for the deaf and dumb 
 3 for idiots, 3 for the insane, 1 for incurables, 2 for 
 epileptics, 4 houses of retreat, 4 sanitoriums. For 
 the priests the following associations have been es¬ 
 tablished: Association for the support of sick priests, 
 Marian Congregation of Priests, Unio Apostolica, 
 Unio Cleri pro missionibus, Association for Priestly 
 Perseverance, Association of the Eucharistic League. 
 The laity have established the following associations: 
 95 boys and young Mens’ Associations, 60 Marian 
 Congregations for young women, 220 Young Womens’ 
 Sodalities, 45 Journeymen’s Unions (Gesellenvereine) 
 7 Merchants’ associations, 13 Civil employees as¬ 
 sociations 164 workingmen’s associations, 56 working 
 women’s associations, 236 mothers’ associations, 
 Third Order of St. Francis with 18,600 members. 
 
 During the war 110 priests were employed in caring 
 for the soldiers in the following capacities; 32 were 
 active at the front, 31 were stationed at sub-head¬ 
 quarters and in field hospitals, 47 were employed in 
 sanitary service. Several hundred sisters of various 
 charitable orders were also active in sanitary service. 
 The present incumbent of the diocese of Rottenburg 
 is the Rt. Rev. Paul William de Iveppler, b. at 
 Gmund, Swabia, 28 Sept., 1852, ordained, 2 Aug., 
 1875, professor of Exegesis and Scripture at Tu¬ 
 bingen 1883, and of moral theology in 1889, also 
 professor of moral theology at Freiburg in 1894, 
 elected bishop of Rottenburg 11 Nov., 1898, con¬ 
 secrated 18 Jan., 1899, made a prelate asistant to the 
 Pontifical Throne, 28 April, 1918. 
 
 Rouen, ^ Archdiocese of (Rothomagensis; cf. 
 C. E., XIII—208d), includes the Department of 
 Seine-Inferieure, France. The archdiocese is gov¬ 
 erned by Most Rev. Andre du Bois de la Villerabel, 
 who also bears the title of Primate of Normandy, b. 
 
 28 June, 1864, of a very old family of the diocese of 
 St. Brieuc, ordained in 1887, director of the Semaine 
 Religieuse from 1891-1902, vicar-general in 1906, 
 appointed Bishop of Amiens 1 June, 1915, conse¬ 
 crated 29 July, promoted at the Consistory of 16 
 December, 1920, to the Archdiocese of Rouen, took 
 possession 25 January, 1921, succeeding Cardinal 
 Louis-Ernest Dubois, promoted to Paris. In March, 
 1921, Mgr. Villerabel took possession of the old 
 episcopal palace of his predecessors. Statistics for 
 1920 report: 63 curacies, 599 succursal parishes, 53 
 vicariates, 30 vicariate chapels, 17 communal chap¬ 
 els, and 2 parish chapels. On 16 October, 1921, took 
 place the celebration of the erection of Notre Dame 
 
ROUTHIER 
 
 644 
 
 RUMANIA 
 
 de Bon-Secours into a minor basilica, accorded by the 
 brief of 28 March, 1919. 
 
 Routhier, Adolphe, Canadian lawyer, b. 1839 
 at St. Placide, Quebec, d. 19 June, 1920. He 
 received the degrees of LL.D. and Lit.D. from Laval 
 University. He was admitted to the Canadian bar 
 1861, became Professor of International Law at 
 Laval University, Judge of the Superior Court of 
 Quebec (1873-1904) and Chief Justice (1904-6), 
 President of the Court of Admiralty for the Province 
 of Quebec from 1904 and was knighted 1911. He was 
 made Knight Commander of St. Gregory by Pius 
 IX and a Grand Commander of St. Gregory by Leo 
 XIII. He wrote a number of volumes in prose and 
 verse under the pen name of “Jean Picquefort.” 
 
 Roznava (or Rosenau), Diocese of (Rosena- 
 viensis; cf. C. E., XIII—192b), suffragan of 
 Eger.—The diocese suffered greatly from the ravages 
 of the war, and moreover was called upon in 1919 to 
 fight against the invading Bolsheviki. The schools 
 devoted themselves to making warm clothing for the 
 soldiers, and various associations were formed among 
 clergy and laity for tending the needy. The creation 
 of the new republic of Czechoslovakia divided the 
 diocese into two parts—Hungarian and Slavonic; 
 the episcopal see remains in Czechoslovakia and 19 
 parishes in Hungary fall under its administration, the 
 Apostolic See having refused to dismember the dio¬ 
 cese. Of special note are the following recently 
 deceased: Bishop Louis Balas de Sipek (d. 1920), 
 who ably governed the diocese through the crucial 
 period of the war; Rev. Anthony Szuszai (d. 1917), 
 pastor of Dobsina and ecclesiastical author of merit; 
 Paul Vener and Martin Gobi, cathedral canons; 
 Adalvert Serenyi (d. 1919), minister of agriculture and 
 commerce during the war. 
 
 The statistics of 1910 give the total population 
 of the diocese as 372,914, divided as follows: Catholics 
 204,076; Greek Uniats 10,140; Greek Orthodox 747; 
 Lutherans 100,571; Calvinists 45,308; Jews 11,921; 
 Unitarians 2; Baptists 38; Nazarenes 111. There are 
 165 secular and 22 regular priests; 99 parishes and 180 
 churches; 1 monastic house for men; 3 convents for 
 men and 4 for women; 1 seminary; 151 normal schools 
 with 202 teachers and 14,000 students; 1 asylum and 
 1 orphanage; 4 hospitals; 4 religious organizations 
 among the clergy and 6 among the laity; 1 Catholic 
 periodical. The Government supports the Catholic 
 institutions. 
 
 Rumania; (cf. C. E., XIII—224d).—A monarchy in 
 Southeastern Europe which has an area of 122,282 
 square miles and a population of about 8,631,000. 
 The present state includes Moldavia (14,170 square 
 miles), Grand Wallachia (29,810 square miles), 
 Oltenia and Dobrudja (8969 square miles); the depart¬ 
 ments of Durostor and Caliacra (2969 square miles), 
 ceded by the Treaty of Bucharest in 1913 , Bessarabia 
 (17,146 square miles), joined in March, 1918; Bukovina 
 (4030 square miles), joined in November, 1918, and 
 Transylvania (22,312 square miles) in December, 
 1918. The largest cities are Bucharest, with a 
 population in 1917 of 308,987; Chisinau, 114,100; 
 Cernauti, 87,128; Ismail, 85,600; Iasi (Jassy), 76,120; 
 Galatz, 73,512; Timisivara, 72,223; Braila, 65,911. 
 In 1918 there were 103,072 births, 297,310 deaths, 
 57,345 marriages, and in 1919, 865 divorces were 
 granted. 
 
 Religion. —Of the total population of Rumania 
 in 1918, 9,695,714 belonged to the Orthodox Church; 
 1,456,147 were Greek Catholics, 1,483,929 were 
 Roman Catholics, 1,344,970 Protestants, 17,596 
 Armenians, 834,344 Jews, and 44,087 Moham¬ 
 medans. The government of the Orthodox Church 
 
 rests with 4 archbishops, the first being called the 
 Primate of Rumania, the second, the Archbishop of 
 Moldavia; the third, of Transylvania, and the 
 fourth of Bukovina; besides these there were 10 
 bishops of the National Church. Transylvania has 
 a Greek Catholic archbishop and 3 bishops. The 
 clergy of the National Orthodox Church are paid by 
 the State; those of other denominations, subventioned 
 by the State. Religious liberty prevails throughout 
 the country. The Catholic population is divided 
 among the Archdiocese of Jassy and the dioceses of 
 Bucharest, Csanad, Nagy-Varad, Transylvania and 
 Szathmar. 
 
 Economics. —In 1921 extensive agrarian reforms, 
 foundations of which were laid in 1917, were taken 
 in hand by the government. It was ordered that 
 all estates of 500 hectares in Rumania proper, and 
 of over 100 hectares in Bessarabia, Bukovina, and 
 Transylvania, should be distributed to the peasantry, 
 who were required to pay 65% of the pre-war value, 
 the State paying the remaining 35%; time for pay¬ 
 ment to extend over a period of 45 years. In 1920 a 
 series of paralyzing strikes culminated in an attempt 
 to overthrow the government. The scheme was 
 defeated by the Premier, General Averescu, who 
 caused the arrest of all Socialist and Syndicalist 
 leaders who had endorsed the Third International. 
 By his order all technical workers were called to the 
 colors and placed under military discipline. The 
 chief crops with their area and production for 1920 
 were: Wheat, 2,095,890 acres, 630,000 tons; rye, 
 183,675 acres, 52,000 tons; barley, 1,053,736 acres, 
 460,000 tons; oats, 971,102 acres, 425,000 tons; 
 maize, 4,051,494 acres, 1,773,000 tons; tobacco, 
 11,250 acres, 5000 tons. In 1919 the imports were 
 valued at £143,317,825; the exports, £4,115,647. 
 The revenue for 1921-22 was estimated at £208,- 
 800,000, and the expenditure, £199,250,035. 
 
 Education. —Education is free and compulsory, 
 as far as possible. In 1918-19 there were 5764 ele¬ 
 mentary schools with 11,088 teachers and 692,896 
 pupils. The same year educational institutions were 
 as follows: for boys, 56 lyceums, 13 gymnasiums 
 and 7 seminaries, with a total of 1287 teachers and 
 44,983 pupils; for girls, 66 (12 state and 54 private) 
 high schools with 1051 teachers and 9584 pupils; 
 12 normal schools for men and 4 for women; 75 
 professional schools for boys and 54 for girls; 25 com¬ 
 mercial schools, 25 agricultural schools, and 4 
 universities at Bucharest, Cluj in Transylvania 
 (founded in 1919), Iasi (Jassy), and Cernauti (Czer- 
 nowitz) in Bukovina, (founded in 1920). In Tran¬ 
 sylvania extreme bitterness resulted from a Govern¬ 
 ment decree in 1921 requiring Magyar children to 
 attend Rumanian schools. 
 
 Defence. —Military service in Rumania is com¬ 
 pulsory and universal, from the ages of 21 to 46. 
 The Rumanian losses in killed and missing during 
 the war amounted to 335,706. In January, 1921, 
 the approximate strength of the army was 250,000 
 men. The public debt of Rumania amounted on 
 April 1, 1921, to 20,311,293,312 lei (1 lei = $.193 
 normal exchange), of which 3,733,862,452 lei con¬ 
 stitutes the consolidated debt, and 121,500,000 lei 
 the floating debt. This is exclusive of the propor¬ 
 tions of the debts of Austria-Hungary and Russia, 
 which have been assumed by Rumania, the total of 
 which is about 10,000,000,000 lei. 
 
 Communications. —Notwithstanding the efforts of 
 the Government, railway transportation at the end 
 of 1920 was still almost as impossible as in 1914. 
 The bridge at Cernavoda (over the Borea) con¬ 
 necting the interior of the country with Constantza, 
 the only all-year port of Rumania, was not repaired 
 in 1921. Motor transport has been attempted with 
 little success. The railway mileage in 1920 was 
 
RUSSIA 
 
 645 
 
 RUSSIA 
 
 7240, all worked by the State, which also supervises 
 the navigation on the Danube and Black Sea. 
 
 Government. —In 1920 the national Cormals of 
 Transylvania, Bukovina, and Bessarabia, were dis¬ 
 solved and the entire state was subdivided into 
 departments, with prefects nominated directly from 
 Bucharest. In the reduction of the number of 
 deputies in the chamber from 548 to 324 the Tran¬ 
 sylvanians lost more seats in proportion than the 
 old kingdom, and charged discrimination. The 
 present ruler is Ferdinand I, who succeeded King 
 Carol on 11 October, 1914. 
 
 World War. —At the outset of the struggle Ruma¬ 
 nia preserved a strict neutrality, awaiting the out¬ 
 come of the struggle before she cast her lot with 
 either party. In April, 1916, when Teuton fortunes 
 appeared most favorable, the Rumanian minister 
 at Berlin signed a convention with Germany pro¬ 
 viding for free exchange of domestic products. 
 However, on 16 August, she signed a secret treaty 
 with the Entente, agreeing to break off all economic 
 relations with Germany, to declare war, and to 
 begin an offensive in 10 days; in return, the Allies 
 promised her military support and Bukovina, Tran¬ 
 sylvania, and the Banat of Temesvar. On 27 
 August, 1916, war was declared on Austria- 
 Hungary. To crush Rumania, the German com¬ 
 mander, Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg, col¬ 
 lected a composite Bulgar-Turco-Teutonic army. 
 Meanwhile, the Rumanian General Staff, counting 
 on General Sarrail in Macedonia to engage the 
 attention of Bulgaria (in alliance with Austria) , and 
 upon Russia’s promise to inaugurate an offensive in 
 Bukovina and thereby prevent the shifting of 
 Austro-German troops from Poland and Galicia, 
 threw the bulk of its available forces into Transyl¬ 
 vania, with little regard for the possibility of counter¬ 
 attacks. The Rumanians pressed heavily on the 
 Wallachian and Moldavian fronts, and from Mol¬ 
 davia, they swiftly penetrated into eastern Transyl¬ 
 vania. Passing into Wallachia, they took Orsova 
 and marched to Mehadia. In three weeks they 
 had delivered one-fourth of Transylvania from Magyar 
 rule. Another Teutonic army under Field Marshal 
 von Mackensen invaded the Dobrudja and cap¬ 
 tured Constanza on 22 October, 1916, in spite of 
 Russia’s sending one of her ablest generals, Vladimir 
 Sakharov, with reinforcements to stiffen the line. 
 In the west, von Falkenhayn captured Vulcan Pass 
 on 25 October, defeated the Rumanians in a bloody 
 battle, and on 21 November captured Craiova, thus 
 winning one-third of Wallachia. Advancing down 
 the slopes of the Transylvanian Alps, the Teutons 
 marched into Rumania and on 6 December, 1916, 
 von Mackensen entered Bucharest. By January, 
 1917, the Rumanians had lost all of Wallachia, all 
 the Dobrudja, and part of southern Moldavia; their 
 king was in Jassy, and their armed remnants, sup¬ 
 ported by the Russians, were at bay along the 
 Sereth River from Galatz westwards. General Sar¬ 
 rail attempted an offensive, but was driven back. 
 The collapse of Russia in 1917 completed Rumania’s 
 downfall and on 7 March, 1918, she signed the 
 Treaty of Bucharest with Germany, giving up all 
 the Dobrudja, the Petroseny coal basin, and the 
 Carpathian passes. Subsequently the Central Em¬ 
 pires consented to the incorporation of Bessarabia 
 into Rumania, which had been voted by a Bessara¬ 
 bian Council on 27 March, 1918. After the collapse 
 of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy in 1918 the 
 Rumanians ousted the pro-German Marghilonian 
 Ministry. Following a short military administra¬ 
 tion under General Coanda, parliament was dissolved 
 and a new election held. The new Government 
 immediately declared for the incorporation within 
 the kingdom of the Rumania-speaking parts of 
 
 Transylvania, Hungary (Banat), Bukovina and 
 Bessarabia. On 1 December, 1918, the National 
 Assembly of Transylvania voted to unite with 
 Rumania on the basis of universal manhood suf¬ 
 frage, liberty of language, religious and civil reforms. 
 During 1919 a continuous warfare was waged with 
 Soviet Russia and Bolshevist Hungary. By royal 
 decree on 28 May, 1919, all Jews of Rumania were 
 emancipated and given every right of citizenship. 
 
 The arrangement of her Western boundary was 
 unsatisfactory to Rumania, and, in the summer of 
 1919, she sent troops to the river Theiss to establish 
 boundaries in keeping with her national aspirations. 
 So successful was this little invasion that the troops 
 advanced beyond the river and on 4 August, 1919, 
 occupied Bucharest, contrary to the explicit orders 
 of the Peace Conference, and demanded the reduc¬ 
 tion of Hungary’s army and the surrender of part 
 of her supplies; Bessarabia was annexed. Repeated 
 warnings of the Supreme Council forced Rumania 
 to sign the Treaty of St. Germain in December, 
 1919, and to withdraw her troops from Hungary 
 in February, 1920. On 28 October, 1920, Rumania, 
 Britain, France, Italy and Japan signed a treaty 
 giving Bessarabia to Rumania, the permission of 
 Russia being considered unnecessary. Rumania 
 joined the “Little Entente,” a defensive alliance 
 entered into by Czechoslovakia and Jugoslavia, on 
 14 August, 1920. Each country pledged itself to 
 support the others in case of unprovoked attack by 
 Hungary. Rumania, however, stipulated that Ad¬ 
 riatic questions should not concern the alliance. 
 Under the -inspiration and guidance of France, a 
 formal “defensive” alliance against Soviet Russia 
 was entered into by Rumania, Poland, and Hungary 
 on 2 March, 1921. 
 
 Russia (cf. C. E., XIII—231d), Soviet republic, 
 has an area of about 1,867,737 square miles (excluding 
 Poland and Finland, but including the new States. 
 A census taken throughout the territories of the 
 Russian Soviet Republic on 20 August, 1920, showed 
 a population of 136,000,000 of whom 47 per cent were 
 males and 53 per cent were females. About 22 
 millions (16.2 per cent) were settled in cities and 
 towns. 
 
 Religion. —The Soviet Government disestablished 
 the Church and declared for freedom of worship. 
 The prevailing religion is Greek Orthodox. In 1922 
 the Soviet Government decreed the confiscation of all 
 Church property, and ordered the arrest of any 
 Orthodox Church officials who resisted, as it was felt 
 that the wealth of the Russian Church, hidden in 
 monasteries and churches, was sufficient to feed 
 thousands of starving Russian peasants. The 
 Catholics are in a majority in the former Polish pro¬ 
 vinces, the Mohammedans are scattered throughout 
 Eastern and Southern Russia, while the Jews are 
 settled in the towns of the western and southwestern 
 provinces. Before the Revolution, Russia was 
 divided into 66 bishoprics, under 3 metropolitans, 14 
 archbishops, and 50 bishops, and the management of 
 the Church was in the hands of 62 consistoria. 
 
 Agriculture.— Up to 1905 the Russian peasant 
 had no political significance, although he constituted 
 87 per cent of the population and his labors produced 
 43 per cent of the world’s corn supply. The war took 
 away many of the peasants, and brought the mobilized 
 peasantry for the first time in contact with the indus¬ 
 trial workers. In 1917 the peasants sided with the 
 revolutionists almost to a man. After the inaugura¬ 
 tion of the Soviet regime, the decree went forth that 
 “the private possession of land, of natural wealth, 
 waters and forces of nature” was abolished, and that 
 these were handed over to the working classes. The 
 land properties were immediately divided up and 
 
RUSSIA 
 
 646 
 
 RUSSIA 
 
 handed over to the peasants. The unequal division 
 of some estates caused local committees to be estab¬ 
 lished to divide an estate in mathematical proportion 
 to the number of souls on it. So great was the dis¬ 
 trust of the system which caused large quantities of 
 land to be uncultivated in thinly-populated districts 
 and intensely cultivated in thickly populated dis¬ 
 tricts, that in 1920 the Government forbade any re¬ 
 partition of the land for twelve j r ears and abolished 
 the Committees. The State proclaimed also a monop¬ 
 oly of wheat, paying for it in worthless paper and in 
 promises of manufactured goods and agricultural 
 implements which it could not fulfill. The lack of 
 initiative on the part of the peasants resulted in the 
 decrease of 18 per cent in the total quantities of land 
 cultivated in 1918, as compared with 1916. 
 
 Economics. —The principal industries are nation¬ 
 alized, and are concentrated under the various depart¬ 
 ments of the Supreme Economic Council. Organized 
 labor in Russia is by no means overwhelmingly Bol¬ 
 shevik, as many of the trade unions are Social Revo¬ 
 lutionaries and Anarchists, or belong to the Menshe¬ 
 viks, or minority faction of the Marxists. Owing to 
 the enormous depreciation of the ruble, due to colossal 
 emissions of paper money, payment is generally being 
 made in kind. Industrial production has depreciated 
 greatly; the production of the coal mines in 1920 being 
 only 20 per cent, of their normal pre-war output; of 
 cast-iron 2 per cent.; textiles 5 per cent.; paper 21 per 
 cent; sugar 6 per cent. In the Ural the mines yielded 
 only half of their pre-war output. The sole cause of 
 this deplorable state of affairs is to be found in the 
 Communist Government, which balks at every turn, 
 the activities of labor and has brought the country to 
 ruin. The membership of the Russian labor unions in 
 January, 1921, aggregated 6,970,000, of whom 30 
 per cent, were specialists, 7 per cent, were clerical 
 workers, and 63 per cent, manual workers. The 
 struggle between the labor unions and the Soviets for 
 supremacy was so grave that in March, 1921, it was 
 announced that the purely communistic state was an 
 impossibility and that for the sake of economic devel¬ 
 opment Russia must compromise with the capitalistic 
 bourgeoisie . More concessions were made at the same 
 time to which the more radical Communists objected. 
 These included more freedom in exchange of goods, 
 abandonment of compulsory requisitioning of farm 
 produce, more liberty for private initiative, and lastly 
 greater freedom for co-operative societies. There is 
 hardly any faith in the Soviet Government’s ability to 
 pay its financial obligations. In February, 1918, the 
 Soviets repudiated all the debts of Russia contracted 
 up to 1917, confiscated the banks, and maritime enter¬ 
 prises, and on 23 April, nationalized foreign trade. 
 The French, who had loaned the State about 1,300,- 
 000,000 rubles, were for that reason reluctant to 
 recognize the present Government of Russia. In 1920 
 French credit in Russia was about 13,540,000,000 
 
 rubles. The total indebtedness of Russia on 1 Sep¬ 
 tember, 1917, amounted to 32,300 million rubles, 
 made up as follows: pre-war debt 8800 million rubles; 
 seven internal war loans 10,500 million rubles; loans 
 contracted abroad 8000 million rubles; short-dated 
 loans 5000 million rubles. At the Economic Confer¬ 
 ence at Genoa there were negotiations on the part of 
 Russia for a loan of three billion gold rubles to be used 
 for the reconstruction of the country. In October, 
 1917, the railway mileage was 34,000, but at present 
 the railroads are operating at 7 per cent of their former 
 capacity. After three years in which there was 
 hardly any foreign trade, due to the allied boycott of 
 Russia, it picked up again in 1920, following the peace 
 with Esthonia, where most of Russia’s port outlets are 
 situated. A trade agreement between the British 
 Government and Soviet Russia was signed on 16 
 March, 1921. 
 
 Education. —The highest educational authority is 
 centered in the Commissariat for Education which has 
 jurisdiction even over the art schools, theatres, labor 
 schools, music, and libraries. The unified labor school 
 has been introduced by the Soviets to replace the 
 various types of the elementary and secondary schools 
 of the pre-revolutionary period. Education is com¬ 
 pulsory and free; children are provided with lunches 
 and necessary books. In 1919 there were in the Soviet 
 republic, 63,317 schools and 4,796,284 pupils. All 
 the schools have been secularized. New universities 
 have been established at Jarolslav, Smolensk, Kos¬ 
 troma, Tambov, Astrakhan, Tashkent, Samara, 
 Simbirsk, Orel, Ekaterinburg, Ekaterinodar, and 
 Veliki Ustivig. The number of students, which was 
 117,000 in 1919, has risen to 120,000 (1920). In 
 1921 there were 3,758 technical schools with 298,263 
 students. In 1919 the education budget was 17,244, 
 million rubles; in 1920, 100,049 million rubles. 
 
 Government. —The Russian republic is a Federal 
 Socialist community Government under the constitu¬ 
 tion of 19 July, 1918, adopted in the fifth All-Russian 
 Soviet Congress. All central and local authority is 
 vested in Soviets of workers, soldiers, and peasants; 
 all private property is abolished, all mines, factories, 
 and means of production belong to the State. There 
 is compulsory military service, freedom of conscience, 
 and universal obligation to labor. The centre and 
 source of executive power is the All-Russian Congress 
 of Soviets, consisting of representatives from the 
 town Soviets on the basis of one for every 25,000 elec¬ 
 tors, and from provisional congresses on the basis of 
 one for every 125,000 inhabitants. The executive 
 authority is entrusted to the All-Russian Central 
 Executive Committee of not more than 200 members, 
 elected by Congress. This is called the Council of 
 the People’s Commissioners and at present has 18 
 members. The government was removed on 14 
 March, 1918, from Petrograd to Moscow. (See 
 Bolshevism; Soviet.) 
 
Sabadel, Armand (well-known as Pere Pie de 
 Langogne), theologian and canonist, b. at Langogne, 
 France, on 16 November, 1850; d. at Rome on 4 May, 
 1914. He entered the Capuchin order in 1873, was 
 ordained two years later, and, after teaching theology 
 at Crest, was called to Rome as secretary to the 
 definitor-general of his order. In that position he 
 revealed himself as a theologian and canonist of high 
 rank. His ability was recognized, and he was ap¬ 
 pointed successively by the Holy See consultor to five 
 of the more important congregations. He was intru- 
 mental in bringing about some of the reforms in the 
 marriage procedure included in the decree “Ne 
 Temere.” He was named titular Bishop of Corinth 
 in 1911, and died just as Pius X was about to raise him 
 to the cardinalate. He was a favorite director of 
 many of the leading Catholic laity in Rome. He is 
 the author of lives of Blessed Crispin of Viterbo (Paris, 
 1899) and Venerable Philomene de Sainte-Colombe 
 (Paris, 1893); he succeeded Mgr. Chaillot as editor 
 of the “Analecta,” and published the “Diurnal de 
 Marie,” a collection of olden hymns and poems in 
 honor of Our Lady. 
 
 Sabina, Diocese of (Sabinensis; cf. C. E., 
 XIII—290d), a suburbicarian see in Italy, with the 
 perpetual title of Abbot of Farfa. The chapter and 
 clergy of St. Blaise and St. Giles at Palombara, Sabina, 
 were given new laws by consistorial decree of 3 Febru¬ 
 ary, 1918. The present bishop is Cardinal Gaetano 
 de Lai, b. 1853, ordained 1876, created cardinal 
 deacon 1907, chose the suburbicarian see of Sabina 
 27 November, 1911, consecrated by Pius X at the 
 Vatican 17 December, and enthroned 31 December 
 following. Rt. Rev. Antonio Nicozzi, titular Bishop 
 of Caesarea Philippi, is auxiliary bishop of Sabina. 
 The Catholic population of the diocese is 54,200. 
 There are 35 parishes, 56 secular priests, 52 regular 
 priests, 27 seminarians, 72 churches and chapels. 
 
 Sabotage, a term derived from the French word 
 sabot, meaning foot-wear carved out of wooden blocks, 
 Spanish zapato. This kind of foot-wear is used in 
 some French rural districts. The root of the French 
 word sabot is probably derived from the Iberian dialect. 
 The term sabotage has different meanings but common¬ 
 ly it signifies a dishonest act committed by a workman 
 while performing his work for the purpose of injuring 
 the interests of his employer, in which sense the word 
 is frequently used in French Syndicalist literature. 
 The use of the term in its present sense may be ex¬ 
 plained by the alleged fact that at the time of the in¬ 
 troduction of mechanical processes into industry, the 
 workers, disappointed with the installation of ma¬ 
 chines, which decreased the number of workers em¬ 
 ployed, threw their sabots into the wheels, thus 
 causing the stoppage of the work and the destruction 
 of the machines. In our day, the word sabotage is 
 widely used in official decrees of the Soviets in Russia. 
 Its meaning implies opposition to or interference with 
 orders issued by the Bolshevik authorities. The 
 first public document in which the word sabotage was 
 officially used by the Soviets dates back to 8 December 
 1917, when the notorious “Decree for Combating the 
 Bourgeoisie and their Agents, as well as those who 
 
 are Engaged in Sabotage of the supply of the army,” 
 was issued. On this date another decree, No. 30, 
 was issued pertaining to the measures for “Combat¬ 
 ing the sabotage among the employes of higher rank 
 in postal and telegraph institutions.” Therein the 
 same term is used in connection with organized oppo¬ 
 sition to the wealth-owning classes in general. The 
 decree urges the combating of “sabotage of the bour¬ 
 geois coalition,” and it suggests to the workers that 
 they themselves get rid of “every kind of sabotage of 
 the people’s power.” Later the term sabotage has 
 been found repeatedly in the Soviet press. 
 
 In practice the term sabotage is applied in Soviet 
 Russia to any kind of opposition to the Soviet au¬ 
 thorities. Thus, the stoppage of work in industrial 
 concerns for improving the living conditions of the 
 workers is classed as sabotage. The same term is 
 used for describing desertions from the Red Army. 
 The full title of the “Cheka” is “Extraordinary Com¬ 
 mittee for Combating Counter-revolution, Specula¬ 
 tion and Sabotage.” The penalty for sabotage varies 
 from imprisonment for short terms to capital punish¬ 
 ment. The term sabotage is frequently applied by 
 the Bolsheviki to the passive resistance of the peasants 
 to the Soviets, especially as regards their refusal to 
 grow more wheat than they need for themselves; also 
 in connection with the marked tendency of the 
 peasants to decrease the area of land under cul¬ 
 tivation. Thousands of Russians have been shot on 
 the charge of sabotage, which, in many instances, is 
 used as a synonym for the word “counter-revolution.” 
 
 Boris Brasol. 
 
 Sacramentals (cf. C. E., XIII—292d) are 
 things or actions made use of_by the Church after 
 the manne^ of the sacraments to obtain spiritual 
 blessings, especially through the prayers of the 
 Church, which alone has power to constitute, in¬ 
 terpret, change or abolish them. The only legitimate 
 minister of the sacramentals is a cleric authorized 
 for that purpose; however, the term sacramental is 
 sometimes loosely used to include holy water and the 
 like, which may be used by tjie laity themselves. 
 No one but a bishop can consecrate unless he is 
 authorized by canon law or by an Apostolic indult. 
 A priest can give any blessing, however, except 
 those expressly reserved to bishops or others; if he 
 gave a reserved blessing it would ordinarily be valid 
 but unlawful. Deacons and lectors can give only the 
 blessings specified in the law. If a minister neglects 
 to employ the formula prescribed by the Church for 
 blessings of consecrations they are invalid. Though 
 blessings are intended specially for Catholics, they 
 may be given to catechumens, and, if the Church has 
 not forbidden it, to non-Catholics also, in order that 
 they may obtain the light of faith or even health 
 along with faith. A cleric under personal interdict 
 may not administer the sacramentals, nor, as a rule, 
 may he if excommunicated, though sometimes this 
 is allowed if he is requested by the faithful when no 
 other priest is available. Finally the sacramentals 
 may not be used by excommunicates vitandi or 
 tolerated excommunicates after condemnatory or 
 declaratory sentence. 
 
 647 
 
SACRAMENTO 
 
 648 
 
 SACRED HEART 
 
 Sacramento, Diocese of (Sacramentensis; cf. 
 C. E., XIII—294a), comprises territory in the States 
 of California and Nevada, suffragan of San Francisco. 
 The Catholic population of the diocese includes: 
 22,000 Americans, 15,000 Italians, 5000 Portuguese, 
 4000 Germans, 3000 Slavs, 3000 Irish, 1000 Mexicans, 
 500 Syrians and Armenians, 500 Spaniards, and 
 2500 others. During the World War 2500 young men 
 joined the colors, and two priests were chaplains. 
 The Catholic societies took active part in the Liberty 
 Bond drives, Red Cross work, etc. The late bishop, 
 Rt. Rev. Thomas Grace, celebrated his episcopal 
 silver jubilee 16 June, 1921. He died 27 December, 
 1921, and at present the diocese is in care of the 
 auxiliary Bishop, Rt. Rev. Patrick J. Keane, who 
 was elected vicar capitular by the diocesan council. 
 Bishop Keane was born 6 January, 1872, in Co. 
 Kerry, Ireland, educated in St. Patrick’s College, 
 Carlow, Ireland, and the Catholic University, 
 Washington, D. C., where he was ordained priest 
 20 June, 1895. He was consecrated auxiliary 
 Bishop of Sacramento 14 December, 1920. 
 
 Statistics for the diocese for 1922 give: 50 parishes, 
 107 churches, 57 missions, 43 stations, 73 secular 
 priests, 4 regular priests, 9 lay brothers, 254 Sisters, 
 1 college for men with 9 teachers and 210 students, 
 1 high school with an attendance of 200 boys, 7 
 academies with an attendance of 650 girls, 11 ele¬ 
 mentary schools with an attendance of 1600, 1 home, 
 1 asylum, 4 hospitals, and 1 day nursery. Rev. J. 
 Cunha is pastor of the church for Indians at Mason, 
 Nevada. All county hospitals admit the ministry 
 of priests. Organizations among the clergy are the 
 Priests’ Eucharistic League and the Diocesan Aid 
 Society; among the laity, the Knights of Columbus, 
 Young Men’s Institute, and National Catholic 
 Councils for Men and Women. The “Catholic 
 Herald,” published in Sacramento, is the official 
 organ of the diocese. 
 
 Sacred Heart, Brothers of the (cf. C. E., 
 XIII—305b).—In 1912, the Province of Canada had 
 acquired such an extension, that the General Coun¬ 
 cil of the Congregation deemed advisable to divide 
 it into two provinces: the Province of Arthabaska, 
 P.Q., and that of Montreal. The former has its 
 postulate, novitiate, and scholasticate at Arthabaska, 
 and the latter at St. Hyacinth, P.Q. To the Pro¬ 
 vince of Montreal are attached four houses established 
 in French-Canadian parishes of New England. The 
 constitutions of the congregation were approved by 
 the Holy See in 1914. A general chapter held in 1919, 
 at Renteria, Spain, re-elected Brother Alberic as 
 superior general for a third term of six years. In 
 1921 the Brothers celebrated the centenary of the 
 foundation of their order. The congregation num¬ 
 bers at present (1921) 1260 Brothers and 350 pos¬ 
 tulants and novices, 137 colleges and schools, of 
 which 68 are in Europe and 69 in America, with a 
 total of 30,000 pupils from 40 dioceses; in the United 
 States and Canada there are 18,000 pupils under the 
 instruction of 650 Brothers. The congregation is 
 divided into 7 provinces, with the mother-house at 
 Renteria (Guipuzcoa), Spain. Like all religious 
 orders in France, the Brothers furnished their con¬ 
 tingent in defense of their country during the World 
 War. Of the 121 religious mobilized, 22 were killed, 
 12 wounded, and 33 cited. The congregation has a 
 total of 800 deceased members. 
 
 Sacred Heart, College of the, Manhattanville, 
 New York City, was established by provisional 
 charter on 1 March, 1917, and given the right to 
 issue the usual academic degrees. Their charter was 
 made absolute on 29 May, 1919. The college is 
 under the direction of the Religious of the Sacred 
 
 Heart who established the Academy of Manhattan- 
 ville in 1847, which they still conduct in connection 
 with the college. The college buildings include a well- 
 equipped museum, gymnasium, laboratories and 
 library. The college is governed by 11 trustees and a 
 faculty of 18. 
 
 Sacred Heart, Mission Helpers of the (cf. C. 
 E., VIII—55a).—The mother-house of this institute 
 is in Baltimore, Md., and there are branch houses in 
 Irvington, Md.; Trenton, N. J.; New York, N. Y., 
 and Pittsburg, Pa. There are 92 Sisters, 13 novices, 
 and 13 postulants. 
 
 Sacred Heart, Sons of the (Institute of Verona), 
 an institute founded in 1867 at Verona by Mgr. 
 Daniel Comboni as a society of secular priests for the 
 African missions. In 1885 the society became a 
 religious congregation, and its members were named 
 Sons of the Sacred Heart. They were under the 
 direction of the Jesuit Fathers until 1900, when a 
 member of the new congregation was elected superior 
 general. The congregation has been finally approved 
 by the Holy See. At present this institute, besides 
 small residences in Italy, has the mother-house at 
 Verona for students of theology and philosophy, the 
 novitiate at Venegono near Milan, and an apostolic 
 school at Brescia. A novitiate for German speaking 
 members is at Brixen (Tyrol) and a house at Gratz 
 (Austria). The field for the mission work of the 
 institute is the whole of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan 
 and the northern part of the Uganda Protectorate. 
 At present there are two vicariates apostolic, the 
 Vicariate Apostolic of Khartoum and the Vicariate 
 Apostolic of Bahr-el-Ghazel and Uganda, with more 
 than 20 residences of missionaries. Priests of this 
 congregation are also at Cairo, Helouan, and Assuan 
 in Egypt. 
 
 Sacred Heart of Jesus, Missionary Sisters of 
 the (cf. C. E., XIII-305d).—This congregation, 
 with mother-house at Rome, received the decree of 
 praise from the Holy See, 17 July, 1921. The Sisters 
 conduct homes for the aged and the sick, orphanages, 
 industrial schools, academies, sewing classes; they 
 visit hospitals and prisons and give religious instruc¬ 
 tion in their convents, which are open to women 
 desirous of making retreats. The present superior 
 general is Mother Antoinette Della Casa, who suc¬ 
 ceeded Mother Frances Xavier Cabrini (d. 22 Dec., 
 1917). The Sisters came to America in 1889, and 
 have convents in the archdioceses of New York, 
 New Orleans, Chicago, and Philadelphia, and the 
 dioceses of Brooklyn, Denver, Los Angeles, Newark, 
 Scranton, Seattle, and Nicaragua. Among new 
 foundations are: the Sacred Heart School at Dobbs 
 Ferry, N. Y., overlooking the Hudson; a home for 
 young girls, with accommodations for private boarding 
 pupils; an orphanage in Philadelphia; “Mother 
 Cabrini Memorial,” one of the best educational 
 institutions in Denver; “Mother Cabrini Pro- 
 ventorium” at Burbank, Los Angeles, Cal.; Columbus 
 Sanitarium, Seattle, Wash.; Columbus Hospital 
 Extension, Chicago, Ill.; Columbus Hospital Ex¬ 
 tension, New York, formerly the St. Lawrence 
 Hospital at West 163d Street. At the present time 
 the Sisters have in the United States alone, 500 
 sisters, 8 orphanages, many parochial schools in 
 various States, day nurseries, 5 hospitals with train¬ 
 ing schools for nurses, and a dispensary. 
 
 Sacred Heart of Jesus, Priests of the (Bethar- 
 ramites) .—Betharram, situated in the Diocese of 
 Bayonne, only twelve miles from Lourdes, is a very 
 old pilgrimage, the history of the origin of which is 
 partly legendary. Before the apparition of Our 
 Lady in the famous grotto, Betharram was by far 
 
SACRED HEART 
 
 649 
 
 SACRED HEARTS 
 
 the best known and most frequented of the miraculous 
 shrines of the Pyrenees. Some regular priests were 
 for centuries the chaplains of the church. This 
 church and the monastery were closed and partly 
 destroyed during the French Revolution. Fr. 
 Garieoits, born in the Basque country, 15 April, 
 1797, was sent to Betharram as professor in the 
 school which had been opened in the old monastery 
 in 1812. The school was closed in 1832 and Fr. 
 Garieoits remained at Betharram as chaplain. It was 
 in this year that he associated himself with some 
 priests and began to preach to the surrounding 
 populations which, during these stormy times, had 
 grown up in total ignorance of religion. ‘ The number 
 of these priests soon increased and they became the 
 first members of the new congregation. The religious 
 teaching of youth was as urgent as the missions to the 
 old, and a first college was opened near the shrine. 
 Fr. Garieoits thus became the founder of a preaching 
 and teaching congregation. Many colleges were 
 built by them or passed into their hands, and some 
 of the priests went to the Argentine, where there was 
 a great Basque population. Fr. Garieoits died 14 
 May, 1863, renowned for his sanctity. Since his 
 death his tomb has been venerated and many miracles 
 induced the Bishop of Bayonne to investigate these 
 facts and begin the process of canonization. The 
 cause was introduced at Rome, 15 May, 1899, and 
 the heroicity of his virtues was declared 28 Nov., 
 1916. The Congregation received the decree of 
 praise, 30 July, 1875, and final approbation 5 Sept., 
 1877. The constitutions were approved provisionally 
 28 April, 1890, and definitively 6 Sept., 1901. The 
 congregation has increased in members and extended 
 the works of preaching and teaching. The persecu¬ 
 tion of late*years has obliged them to close many of 
 the colleges in France, but others have been opened 
 in South America: in Buenos Aires, Rosario, La 
 Plata, Montevideo, Asuncion. The missions of the 
 Yun-nan have been lately transferred to the Priests 
 of the Sacred Heart. They have in Spain a house of 
 studies for the young members, another at Bethlehem 
 (Palestine), where they were called in 1877 as chap¬ 
 lains to the Carmelite nuns, and another at Nazareth. 
 
 Sacred Heart of Jesus, Priests of the (of St. 
 Quentin), a congregation of priests founded in 1877 
 at St. Quentin (France) by Canon Leo Dehon, their 
 first and present superior general. They received the 
 decree of praise 25 February, 1885, and definitive 
 approbation 4 July, 1906. There are now over 500 
 members, with 4 novitiates for various nationalities. 
 The special object of the congregation is to offer to 
 the Sacred Heart a worship of love and atonement, 
 by lives of zeal and piety. The works of zeal are: 
 the education of youth, preaching, missions, and the 
 evangelization of native populations of Africa and 
 America. 
 
 The congregation has 4 provinces (French Belgian, 
 German, Dutch and Italian), and numbers aljout 
 18 large and 20 small establishments in the European 
 countries. There are 304 priests, 155 seminarians, 
 124 lay brothers and 73 novices. At present the 
 priests have seven missions: two in Africa, at Stanley 
 Falls (Congo) and Adamaua (Kamerun); three in 
 America, in the north and south of Brazil and in 
 Canada; one in London; and one in Finland. New 
 mission work will be taken up very soon in the 
 Dutch colony of Celebes, Asia, and in the near future 
 also in the United States. The Vicariate Apostolic 
 of Stanley Falls was erected in 1908, having been 
 established as a mission by the Priests of the Sacred 
 Heart in 1897, and erected into a prefecture apostolic 
 in 1904. The congregation has eleven mission posts 
 within the vicariate: St. Gabriel Falls, two at Stanley¬ 
 ville, Ponthierville, Lokandu, Beni, Bafwalaka, 
 
 Avakubi, Banalya, Basoko, Yanonge. The Pre¬ 
 fecture Apostolic of Adamaua, erected 28 Apm, 
 1914, had been confided as a mission to the Priests 
 of the Sacred Heart in 1912, was interrupted in 1915 
 and taken up again in 1920. There are 4 mission 
 stations in the prefecture, with the usual works 
 attached. More than 20 members of the congrega¬ 
 tion labor in the Diocese of Santa Caterina in the 
 southern part of Brazil; 4 priests are in the dioceses 
 of Olinda and Recife Maceio in northern Brazil; while 
 7 other priests conduct the diocesan seminary in 
 Taubate (Sao Paulo). In Canada they have 7 
 priests in the Archdiocese of Edmonton with 5 mission 
 stations established: Chauvin, Wainwright, Viking, 
 Tofield, and Elm-Cark, the residence of the superior 
 of the mission. The congregation has 5 priests with the 
 care of four parishes in Sweden. For four years the 
 priests labored among the native Catholics, Poles 
 and Germans, scattered through schismatic Finland, 
 until in 1911, under the intolerant government of the 
 Czar, and for the usual pretexts they were obliged 
 to leave Russian territory. They now have 4 priests 
 in Helsingfors, Finland. 
 
 More than 500 students attend the five flourishing 
 apostolic schools which each year give a certain 
 number of subjects to the novitiate. The congrega¬ 
 tion has also four houses of philosophy and theology 
 with an annual number of twenty priests. But many 
 more are needed for the vast work of the missions. 
 In the houses of studies at Rome, Bologna, Louvain, 
 Luxemburg, and Breda are received young men who 
 have concluded their studies at one of the apostolic 
 schools or at other private and public schools, have 
 finished their novitiate, and wish to continue their' 
 philosophical and theological studies. There they 
 perfect themselves in the life to which they are 
 called. Many of the European houses propagate the 
 devotion to the Sacred Heart by preaching and by 
 numerous publications. 
 
 Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary, Congregation 
 of the (cf. C. E., XIII—308c).—The founder of the 
 Congregation, Fr. Mary Joseph Coudrin, died 27 
 March, 1837, and was succeeded as superior general 
 by Mgr. Bonamie who was previously Archbishop of 
 Tyre and Chalcedon. He was followed in 1853 by 
 Fr. Euthyme Rouchouze, who was superior general 
 until 1869, when Fr. Marcellin Bousquet undertook 
 the government of the congregation. This was just 
 before the outbreak of the Commune in Paris, during 
 which Fr. Bousquet’s four assistants were martyred. 
 They were: Fr. Ladislas Radique, prior of the mother- 
 house, b. at St. Patrice-du-desert, Orne, 8 May, 1823; 
 Fr. Polycarp Tuffier, procurator of the mother- 
 house, b. at Malzieu, Lozere, 14 March, 1807; Fr. 
 Marcellin Rouchouze, secretary, b. at St. Julien-en- 
 Jarrets, Lozere, 14 Dec., 1810; Fr. Frczal Tardieu, 
 councillor, b. at Chasserades, Lozere, 18 Nov., 1814. 
 All four were massacred by the communists, 26 May, 
 1871, after having been imprisoned since 12 April, 
 1871. Fr. Bousquet was ordered to dissolve his con¬ 
 gregation throughout French territory, and imme¬ 
 diately evacuate the mother-house. This he re¬ 
 fused to do, and for twenty-six months he and six 
 companions remained, in spite of many privations. 
 On 19 June, 1905, he was dragged from his retreat 
 and forced to seek refuge in Belgium. All the houses 
 in France were confiscated, and the communities 
 dispersed. Fr. Bousquet died in exile at Braine-le- 
 Comte, Hainaut, Belgium, 10 Sept., 1911, and was 
 succeeded, 14 Jan., 1912, by the present superior 
 general, Fr. Flavian Prat. Another distinguished 
 member of the congregation was Fr. Damien de 
 Veuster, who went as a missionary to Hawaii in 1864, 
 and in 1873 began his sixteen years of labor among 
 the lepers of Molokai, dying a victim to the disease. 
 
SAHARA 
 
 650 
 
 SAINT AUGUSTINE 
 
 England erected a monument to him on Molokai, the 
 place of his sacrifice, and Belgium erected a statue 
 of him at Louvain. 
 
 Until 1909 the congregation admitted a novice to 
 perpetual vows after eighteen months. Since then 
 the novitiate lasts only one year, after which tem¬ 
 poral vows are made for three years, and then per¬ 
 petual vows are taken. The Belgian province form¬ 
 erly comprised all the houses of the order in Belgium, 
 Holland, and Germany. On 15 August, 1920, a 
 German province was formed and a Dutch province 
 is to be erected in Holland. A novitiate for the 
 French province was opened at Montgeron, 11 Sept., 
 1920, and the same province took over a school at 
 Saturce, Spain, and a parish at Gibara, Cuba, in 
 October, 1918. New foundations of the Belgian 
 province are: a house at Ginneken (Holland), founded 
 in 1916 as the national centre for the work of the 
 Enthronement in Holland, and a novitiate and 
 scholasticate for Dutch students opened at Valken- 
 burg (Holland) in September, 1920. New founda¬ 
 tions of the German province are: novitiate and 
 scholasticate (philosphy) at Arnstein (1919); apostolic 
 school (upper classes) at Niederlahustein (1920); 
 apostolic school (lower divisions), at Waldernbach 
 (1920); residence and general secretariate for the 
 Enthronement in Germany, at Aachen (1916); 
 boarding school at Herzogenrath; mission at Chris¬ 
 tiania, Norway (1920). A college and novitiate for 
 the South American province was opened at Vina del 
 Mar, Chile, and blessed 4 Nov., 1920. The apos¬ 
 tolic school of Grave, Holland, which was destroyed 
 by fire in 1920, will be reopened at Saint Oederode in 
 North Brabant, Holland. The congregation has a 
 total of 661 professed religious, of whom 6 are bishops, 
 387 priests, 144 students, 2 choir brothers, and 123 
 lay brothers. The present number of foundations is 
 34. There are 15 almonries or chaplainships with the 
 Sisters of the Sacred Heart; 6 apostolic schools, 
 with 345 students; 6 colleges, with 1908 students; 
 and 1 boarding school with an attendance of 25. 
 
 Sahara, Vicariate Apostolic of. See Bamako; 
 Waghadugu 
 
 Saint Agnes, Sisters of. —The Congregation of the 
 Sisters of Saint Agnes of Rome, whose mother-house 
 is at Fond du Lac, Wisconsin, was founded at Barton, 
 Wisconsin, in 1846, by the pioneer missionary priest, 
 Rev. Caspar Rehrl, who conceived the idea of found¬ 
 ing a community of Sisters for the education of chil¬ 
 dren. The location first selected, proving undesir¬ 
 able, the community was transferred, with ecclesias¬ 
 tical approval, to its present location at Fond du Lac, 
 Wisconsin, the first home being a small frame dwell¬ 
 ing. Here are now located the mother-house, the 
 novitiate and postulate, the training schools for the 
 young members of the community; St. Mary’s Springs 
 Academy, a boarding-school for young girls; St. 
 Agnes Hospital, connected with which is a training 
 school for nurses; the Henry Boyle Catholic Home 
 for the Aged. The young community was guided 
 through many hardships and difficulties by its 
 superior general, Mother Mary Agnes Hazotte. 
 Their spiritual guide and adviser was Francis Haas, 
 O. M. Cap., one of the founders of the Capuchin 
 Order in the United States. On 7 Dec., 1875, the 
 Sacred Congregation of the Propaganda issued to the 
 community a decree of praise and on 16 August, 
 1880, the institute and its constitutions were ap¬ 
 proved by Pope Leo XIII. The congregation is 
 governed by a superioress general and a council 
 of four members, elected every six years. There is 
 no distinction of dress or rank among members of 
 the community, each being employed according to 
 her fitness and aptitude. The time of probation 
 consists of a juniorate for young girls and a pos¬ 
 
 tulate of not over one year, after which, if accepted 
 by the council, the candidate is clothed with the 
 religious habit and begins her novitiate year. Vows 
 are made for three years, at the expiration of which 
 time, the religious is admitted to perpetual pro¬ 
 fession, according to the rules and constitutions of 
 the Sisters of St. Agnes. From the small colony 
 in 1870, the congregation has grown to a flourishing 
 community of 611 professed members, 22 novices, 
 35 postulants, and has under its direction 42 schools, 
 
 1 academy, 2 hospitals, 1 training school for nurses, 
 
 2 orphanages, 1 home for the aged, and 1 house for 
 emigrants. These establishments are distributed 
 throughout the States of Wisconsin, Michigan, 
 Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York 
 and Kansas, in eleven archdioceses and dioceses. 
 
 Saint Albert, Diocese of. See Edmonton, 
 Archdiocese of 
 
 Saint Alexander Orosci. See Miridite 
 
 Saint Andrews and Edinburgh, Archdiocese of 
 (S. Andrew et Edinburgensis; cf. C. E., XIII— 
 330c),' in Scotland. The present bishop is the Most 
 Rev. James Augustine Smith, who has administered 
 the diocese since 1900. According to the statistics of 
 1922 the archdiocese contains: 99 churches, chapels 
 and stations, 59 missions, 22 convents, 92 secular 
 priests including 5 retired, 14 regulars (5 Oblates, 9 
 Jesuits), 49 congregational day schools. The Catholic 
 population in 1920 numbered, 77,804. 
 
 Saint Augustine, Diocese of (Sancti Augus¬ 
 tine; cf. C. E., VI—118c), in Florida, suffragan of 
 Baltimore. The area of the diocese is 46,959 square 
 miles and the Catholic population is 51,014, including 
 about 10,000 Italians, 20,000 to 25,000 Cubans and 
 Spaniards, and about 2500 colored. On 15 December, 
 1910, Maurice P. Foley, rector of the cathedral, 
 was consecrated bishop of the newly-erected Diocese 
 of Tuguegarao, P. I. At the death of Bishop Kenny 
 of St. Augustine on 23 October, 1913, the diocese 
 was administered by Very Rev. John O’Brien, V. G., 
 who died 8 July, 1917. On 30 June, 1914, Michael 
 J. Curley was consecrated bishop to succeed the 
 late Bishop Kenny. In 1915 the first Catholic 
 hospital was opened by the Sisters of Charity. 
 Bishop Curley was appointed Archbishop of Baltimore 
 26 July, 1921. During his seven years as bishop 
 much progress was made in every feature of the 
 Church, a number of churches and chapels were 
 built and several new parochial schools erected, the 
 total value of buildings under construction being over 
 half a million. Florida become noted for its bigotry 
 during the administration of Governor Catts (1916- 
 20), who was elected on an anti-Catholic platform. 
 The present Bishop of St. Augustine is Rt. Rev. 
 Patrick Barry, appointed 22 February, 1922. In 
 January, 1920, occurred the death of Rev. Stephen 
 Langlade, a pioneer priest, who for over forty years 
 labored among the Catholics in Moccasin Branch and 
 Bakerville, building churches and doing most of the 
 work himself. Over 700 Catholic young men were 
 in active service during the World War and 21 died 
 for their country. Rev. John F. Conoley and Rev. 
 A. C. Baczyk served as chaplains. The laity were 
 active in all war works. 
 
 Statistics for the diocese for 1922 give: 28 parishes; 
 75 churches; 45 missions; 150 stations, 1 abbey for 
 men; 29 secular priests; 28 regular priests; 18 lay 
 brothers (16 Benedictine and 2 Jesuit); 16 convents 
 for women with 189 Sisters (Sisters of St. Joseph, 
 Sisters of the Holy Names, and Benedictines); 1 
 Benedictine seminary with 10 seminarians; 2 colleges 
 for men with 19 teachers and 195 students; 13 acade¬ 
 mies; an attendance of 4318 pupils in academies and 
 
SAINT BONAVENTURE 
 
 651 
 
 SAINT CASIMIR 
 
 
 
 parochial schools; 1 orphan home for girls in Jackson¬ 
 ville, with 75 orphans; 1 hospital (St. Vincent’s) in 
 Jacksonville. The priests have missions which they 
 attend regularly. The Priests’ Eucharistic League is 
 established among the clergy, and among the laity are 
 organized the Knights of Columbus, Catholic Daugh¬ 
 ters of America, Holy Name Society, and Knights of 
 St. John among the colored. 
 
 Saint Bonaventure, College of (cf. C. E., XIII—■ 
 339a), at Quaracchi, near Florence, Italy, has long 
 been famous as the center of literary activity in the 
 Order of Friars Minor. Of late the staff of editors 
 has been increased and now consists of 12 Fathers, 
 5 for the theological and 5 for the historical section, 
 and two managers. The theological section has 
 brought out a second volume of “Quaestiones Dis- 
 putatse,” by Cardinal Matthew of Aquasparta (1914), 
 and a new critical edition of “Libri IV Sententiarum” 
 by Peter the Lombard, in two volumes (1916). 
 Olivis “Quaestiones in II Sententiarum,” edited by B. 
 Jansen, S. J., is in print and will comprise three volumes 
 of the “Bibliotheca Franciscana Scholastica.” The 
 first part of the long announced new edition of the 
 “Summa Theologica” of Alexander of Hales is almost 
 ready for print. The historical section has pub¬ 
 lished two more volumes of “Analecta Franciscana”: 
 vol. V (second part of “Bartholomew of Pisa”) in 
 1912 and vol. VI (Necrologia) in 1917; whilst vols. 
 VII (Franciscan documents of Bologna) and VIII 
 (Process of Canonization of St. Louis of Toulouse) 
 will shortly appear. Volume XIX of the con¬ 
 tinuation of the “Annals Minorum” by Wadding was 
 reprinted in 1914. The most important work of the 
 historical section in recent years, however, is the 
 publication of the “Archivum Franciscanum His- 
 toricum,” an international quarterly review for 
 original research in the field of Franciscan history. 
 The contributions to this paper are published either in 
 Latin or in English, French, German, Italian, or 
 Spanish. Since 1908 fourteen large volumes have 
 been published. Many minor publications have 
 been made both by members of the college and out¬ 
 siders. In 1920 the new Breviary was printed at 
 Quaracchi on behalf of the Franciscan Order. 
 
 Saint Boniface, Archdiocese of (Sancti Boni- 
 facii; cf. C. E., XIII—339), Manitoba, Canada, 
 is governed by Mgr. Arthur Beliveau, who succeeded 
 Mgr. Langevin, O. M. I., who died on 15 June, 1915. 
 Mgr. Beliveau was born at Mt. Carmel, in the diocese 
 of Three Rivers, on 2 March, 1870, studied at St. 
 Boniface and later at Rome, where he graduated 
 doctor of theology, was ordained on 24 September, 
 1883; appointed auxiliary and titular Bishop of 
 Dumitiopolis on 24 March, 1913; consecrated at St. 
 Boniface 25 July following; promoted at the Con¬ 
 sistory of 9 December, 1915, receiving the pallium 
 on 7 June, 1916. On 4 December, 1915, the erection 
 of the new Archdiocese of Winnipeg necessitated 
 changes in the limits of that of St. Boniface, which 
 is now bounded on the east by 91 degrees long., on 
 the south by the international boundary, on the west 
 by the meridian dividing ranges 12 and 13 west of the 
 principal meridian, by the line separating townships 
 9 and 10, and by the Red River and Lake Winnipeg, 
 and on the north by the line dividing townships 
 44 and 45, protracted eastward to its intersection 
 with the 91 degrees long. The Catholic population 
 within the present area, excluding the Ruthenian 
 Catholics, who have been under the jurisdiction of a 
 bishop of their own Rite since 1912, is 35,000; French 
 21,525, English 2372; Poles 2079; Flemish 1699; 
 Indians, 689; German, 257; Hungarian, 119; other 
 nationalities, 321. There are 105 priests, 53 secular 
 and 52 religious. The religious orders are: Oblates 
 
 of Mary Immaculate, 24 priests; Jesuits, 7; Trappists, 
 10; Canons Regular of the Immaculate Conception, 
 2; Sons of Mary Immaculate, 3; Redemptorists, 4; 
 Clerics of St. Viator, 2. There are 77 religious teach¬ 
 ing or lay brothers, belonging to the orders just 
 mentioned; and 16 American Marist Brothers and 10 
 Brothers of Our Lady of Mercy. The institutes of 
 women are: Grey Nuns, 189; Sisters of the Holy 
 Names of Jesus and Mary, 55; Sisters of Notre Dame 
 des Missions, 13; Daughters of the Cross, 20; Sisters 
 of Mercy, 9; Sisters of the Five Wounds of Our 
 ■Savior, 42; Sisters of Providence, 9; Carmelite Sisters, 
 12; Adorers of the Precious Blood, 12; Sisters of St. 
 Joseph, 7; Presentation Sisters, 8; Belgian Ursulines, 
 8; Sisters of the Holy Family, 20; Oblate Sisters of 
 the Sacred Heart and Mary Immaculate, founded 
 in 1904 by Mgr. Langevin, 53; total 456 Sisters. The 
 institutions of the archdiocese are: 1 Jesuit College, 
 400 students; 1 minor seminary (founded 1909), 60 
 pupils; 1 Oblate juniorate, 50 students; 21 convents; 
 2 general hospitals, and 1 for contagious diseases; 
 2 orphan asylums, 1 home for the aged; 1 agricultural 
 college, 3 Indian boarding schools. The State- 
 supported Catholic schools or separate schools in the 
 Catholic homogeneous parishes continue to be con¬ 
 ducted along Catholic lines as far as possible. The 
 same condition obtains in two large schools in the 
 City of St. Boniface, the Marist Brothers Boys’ 
 school, and the Holy Name of Jesus and Mary girls’ 
 school. Being legally public schools inspected by the 
 civil authorities, they are administered by trustees 
 elected by the parents and are sustained by the 
 ordinary school taxes and the money grant of the 
 provisional Government. In the mixed centres this 
 system cannot work, and in such places these are 
 parochial schools, which involves double taxes. 
 Among the persons deceased in recent years may be 
 mentioned in addition to the late Archbishop Lan¬ 
 gevin, Mr. Louis Arthur Prud’homme, historian, 
 and for thirty years judge of County Court; his son 
 who has been recently consecrated Bishop of Prince 
 Albert and Saskatoon, is the first bishop born in 
 Western Canada. 
 
 Saint-Brieuc and Treguier, Diocese of (Brio- 
 censis et Trecorensis; cf. C. E., XIII—340b), 
 comprises the department of Cotes-du T Nord (Brit¬ 
 tany), France, and is suffragan of Rennes. The 
 present bishop is Mgr. Jules-Laurent-Benjamin 
 Morelle, b. at Plessier-Rozainvillers, Diocese of 
 Amiens, 16 May, 1849, ordained 1873, elected 13 
 July, 1906, to succeed Mgr. Fallieres, deceased. On 
 9 August, 1919, Bishop Morelle was made a com¬ 
 mander of the Order of Leopold II, by the Kr g of 
 the Belgians. About 600 priests were mobilized 
 during the war, 50 priests and 39 seminarians died 
 in the army, 5 were decorated with the Legion of 
 Honor, 14 with the medaille militaire , 125 priests, 
 44 seminarians with the croix de guerre , and 15 with 
 the medaille des eyidemies. The Catholic popula¬ 
 tion numbered (1919) 605,523. There are 48 dean¬ 
 eries, 404 parishes, 977 secular priests (1921) and 150 
 seminarians. 
 
 Saint Casimir, Lithuanian Sisters of, founded by 
 Rev. Anthony Staniukynas, with the help of Bishop 
 Shanahan of Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. The first 
 three members were under the care of the Sisters of 
 the Holy Cross in Ingenbohl, Switzerland when it 
 was decided that they come to America and be trained 
 for religious teachers. Mother M. Cyril, then 
 Superior of the Sisters of the Immaculate Heart of 
 Mary, at Mount Saint Mary’s, Scranton, Pa., under¬ 
 took their training and the Lithuanian postulants 
 arrived at Mt. St. Mary’s, 2 Nov., 1905. Rather than 
 
 form a branch of a well organized community, they 
 
 % 
 
SAINT CHARLES 
 
 652 
 
 SAINT CLOUD 
 
 were desirous of establishing a Lithuanian Sisterhood 
 for the needs of the Lithuanian people. Permission 
 for this was given by Pius X, 19 April, 1907. The 
 first three postulants received the religious habit 30 
 August, 1907, at Mount Saint Mary’s Seminary 
 Chapel. They were Sister Maria (Casimira Kaupas), 
 Sister M. Immaculata (Judith Dvaranauskas) and 
 Sister M. Concepta (Antoinette Unguraitis). Their 
 habit was designed by Casimira Kaupas (later Mother 
 Maria). On 7 Oct., 1907, the first house of the 
 Sisters of St. Casimir was opened at Mount Carmel 
 in the Diocese of Harrisburg, Pa. In 1909 Bishop 
 Quigley of Chicago took the small congregation into 
 his archdiocese, and the mother-house was trans¬ 
 ferred from Harrisburg to Chicago in 1911. Rev. 
 A. Staniukynas took charge of the community until 
 his death, 15 December, 1918, when Rev. Francis 
 Bucys became their chaplain and spiritual director. 
 On 5 Oct., 1920, four Sisters of St. Casimir opened a 
 novitiate in Pazaislis, Lithuania. The special 
 work of the congregation is teaching and taking care 
 of orphans. At present the Sisters conduct Saint 
 Casimir Academy at the mother-house, and Lithuan¬ 
 ian parochial schools in the archdioceses of Chicago, 
 Philadelphia, and Baltimore, and the dioceses of 
 Harrisburg and Scranton. There are 170 members 
 in the community. 
 
 Saint Charles Borromeo, Missionaries of 
 (cf. C. E., X—368a). In the general chapter of 
 August, 1919, held in Rome, Most Rev. Pacifico 
 Chenuil, formerly superior provincial of the western 
 province of the United States, was elected superior 
 general. The western and eastern provinces of the 
 United States were united into one province, with 
 headquarters at Buffalo, N. Y. Since 1911, five new 
 missions have been established in the United States 
 and in some the church has already been erected; 
 4 new kindergartens and 6 new parochial schools 
 have been built. The present number of foundations 
 in the United States is: 26 parishes, 5 chapels, 12 
 parochial schools, 8 kindergartens, 2 St. Raphael 
 societies. These are under the care of 62 priests and 
 2 lay brothers. 
 
 Saint Clara College, in Sinsinawa, Wisconsin, was 
 founded as St. Clara Academy in 1852 by the very 
 Rev. Samuel Charles Mazzuchelli, O.P. The institu¬ 
 tion was entrusted to the Sisters of St. Dominic for 
 the higher education of Catholic women and in 1901 
 it was empowered by the State to confer degrees. In 
 connection with the college is a high school known as 
 St. Clara Academy. St. Clara College has had a 
 steady growth since its foundation and now (1920-21) 
 has a student enrollment of 336; college 149; training 
 school 20; Sister students 70; academy 97. The St. 
 Thomas Aquinas Library contains some 10,000volumes 
 and the college faculty numbers 31. Plans are made 
 to transfer the college department in the fall of 1922 
 from Sinsinawa to River Forest, Illinois a suburb of 
 Chicago, and the institution will then be known as 
 Rosary College. 
 
 Saint-Claude, Diocese of (Sancti Claudii; cf. 
 C. E., XIII—341b), in France, suffragan of Lyons. 
 The present bishop is the Rt. Rev. Frangois-Alexan¬ 
 dre Maillet, b. at Bourges, 12 Jan., 1854, elected 24 
 March, 1898. took possession of the see, 18 June, con¬ 
 secrated 29 June, following, made assistant to the 
 pontifical throne, 16 April, 1921. In 1920 there were 
 in the diocese 252,713 Catholics, 34 parishes, 356 
 succursal parishes, 23 vicarages formerly supported by 
 the state. 
 
 Saint Cloud, Diocese of (Sancti Clodoaldi; 
 cf. C. E., XIII—342d), suffragan of St. Paul, 
 Minnesota. On account of his age and failing 
 
 strength the venerable and saintly Bishop Trobec 
 on 15 April, 1914, transmitted his resignation to 
 Rome, and was named titular Bishop of Lycopolis. 
 His successor was Rt. Rev. Joseph F. Busch, second 
 Bishop of Lead, South Dakota. During the tenure 
 of that see Bishop Busch had upheld the observance 
 of Sunday as a day of rest despite much adverse 
 criticism and the greed of a powerful corporation. 
 The decree of his translation to the See of St. Cloud 
 was dated 19 January, 1915, and on 18 March of 
 the same year he took solemn possession, being 
 installed by the late Archbishop John Ireland. From 
 the beginning he directed his attention to systematiz¬ 
 ing the business of the diocese, and took up the 
 thorough organization of his people to carry on 
 charitable and welfare work as the needs of the 
 times demanded. To knit his people more closely 
 together he began in June, 1916, the holding of an 
 annual Diocesan Convention. The delegates com¬ 
 posing this convention were the pastors, trustees of 
 the various parishes, and representatives of the 
 different parish societies. Parish Committees 
 organized on the same principle were ordered to be 
 formed in every parish with a view of taking care 
 of all situations that might arise, and of cooperating 
 with the central Executive Committee in all diocesan 
 problems. In all this he was years ahead of the 
 rest of the country and his position and action have 
 since been splendidly vindicated by the program of 
 action adopted and urged by the united hierarchy 
 of the country. Hence, when the National Councils 
 of Catholic Men and Women were called into being 
 by the National Catholic Welfare Council, the 
 Diocese of St. Cloud proved a well prepared field for 
 immediate action. Under his direction the Holy 
 Name Society was established in every parish and 
 mission. 
 
 Under the administration of Bishop Busch the 
 diocese has been registering a steady growth. The 
 Catholic population is now nearly 65,000 and the 
 number of parishes and missions has increased to 
 135. There are 105 secular priests and 56 regular 
 priests, 2 monasteries for men and 3 convents for 
 women numbering 28 lay brothers and 350 Sisters. 
 To the jurisdiction of the Benedictine Abbey of St. 
 John the Baptist belong 113 Fathers and 25 Brothers. 
 Under the authority of St. Joseph’s Convent of 
 the diocesan Benedictine Sisters stand 800 Sisters. 
 The diocesan Franciscan Sisters number 49. The 
 educational system, always good, has been much 
 improved. It counts at present 1 university and 
 college for men with 465 students, 1 college for 
 women, 2 academies for girls with an attendance of 
 270, 1 normal school with about 60 pupils, 1 seminary 
 with 46 students, 4 high schools and 37 elementary 
 schools in which 258 nuns teach 6669 children. 
 Other institutions in the diocese are as follows: 
 4 hospitals, 1 orphan asylum, 1 infants’ home, 3 
 homes for the aged. Three State institutions admit 
 the ministrations of the priest. The Clerical Benefit 
 Association largely assumes the care of infirm and 
 aged priests. For the laity there are the Central 
 Verein, the Knights of Columbus, the Catholic 
 Order of Foresters, the A. O. H., the L. C. B. A., 
 the Holy Name Society, the Holy Childhood, the 
 Woman’s Missionary Association, the different 
 Women’s Guilds for social welfare and charitable 
 work, and notably the National Councils of Catholic 
 Men and Women. 
 
 During a period of little more than a year, death 
 has claimed six personages who contributed in a 
 notable degree to the upbuilding of the works of the 
 diocese. The first of these was the Rev. Dr. Leo 
 Gans, who died 26 November, 1920. Born in St. 
 Cloud, he received his elementary education in the 
 cathedral school. His college course was made 
 
SAINT CLOUD 
 
 053 
 
 SAINT-DENIS 
 
 under the Capuchins of Mt. Calvary, Wisconsin, 
 and his seminary training was completed at the 
 American College in Rome, where he received the 
 degree of J. C. D. Upon his return to his native 
 country he taught for several years at the Seminary 
 of St. Paul and was then recalled to his diocese as 
 pastor of the Pro-Cathedral of the Holy Angels in 
 St. Cloud. His chief pastoral care was the work 
 of the schools. He built and brought to the highest 
 point of efficiency the Cathedral High School, which 
 has been affiliated with the State University. 
 
 To Rev. Cornelius Wittmann, O. S. B., the dio¬ 
 cese owes the establishment of its first elementary 
 school; in fact he is the founder of the first school 
 of any kind that existed within the territory now 
 comprised in the St. Cloud jurisdiction. In his 
 honor a commemorative bronze tablet has been 
 erected in the new St. Cloud High School of Me¬ 
 chanics and Arts. Born in Bavaria on 11 October, 
 1828, he came to St. Vincent’s Abbey in Pennsyl¬ 
 vania at the age of twenty-four.. Two years later 
 he came to Minnesota at the request of Bishop 
 Cretin of St. Paul, by whom he was ordained priest. 
 In 1850 he established the first school in Stearns 
 County and in October of the same year he erected 
 a building, in what is now the city of St. Cloud, 
 that was to serve the twofold purpose of church 
 and school. In 1857 he became one of the incor¬ 
 porators and the first professors of St. John’s Semi¬ 
 nary, which has since developed into St. John’s 
 University at Collegeville. He was actively engaged 
 in parochial and educational work until failing eye¬ 
 sight compelled him to return in 1904 from Wash¬ 
 ington, whither he had gone as a volunteer to help 
 establish the new Benedictine Abbey at Lacey. He 
 continued to reside at St. John’s Abbey, Collegeville, 
 until his death on 22 September, 1921. 
 
 The cause of charity suffered a great loss when 
 Mother Mary Rose, O. S. F., died at the hospital 
 in Breckenridge, in 1921. She was born in Canada 
 in the little village of Assumption, near Montreal, 
 8 April, 1857. Her parents were French Canadians 
 and her name in the world was Rose de Lima Ethier. 
 She was eighteen years old when she entered a 
 convent of Franciscans. At the end of her time of 
 religious probation she labored for several years in 
 the negro missions of Georgia, and then, with a 
 little band of courageous Franciscan Nuns, came to 
 the Diocese of St. Cloud, where they founded the 
 diocesan Franciscan Congregation. For many years 
 Mother Rose directed the destinies of the little 
 community, whose mother-house and novitiate she 
 established at Little Falls, Minn. The Sisters are 
 now in charge of 5 hospitals, 2 homes for the aged, 
 an orphan asylum, and an infants’ home. 
 
 On 27 November, 1921, occurred the death of 
 Right Rev. Peter Engel, O. S. B., fourth Abbot of 
 the Abbey of St. John the Baptist, at Collegeville, 
 Minn. Born 3 February, 1856, at St. Nicholas, 
 Wisconsin, he received his early education in the 
 parochial schools of that locality. Taking up his 
 collegiate course in St. John’s University as an 
 aspirant for the order, he made his religious pro¬ 
 fession 19 July, 1875, and was ordained priest, 
 15 December, 1878. After the demise of Abbot 
 Bernard Locnikar, he was elected abbot 28 Novem¬ 
 ber, 1894, and solemnly blessed 11 J illy, 1895. 
 Under his able and paternal administration the work 
 and influence of his monastery were very widely 
 extended, and from St. John’s sprang the monastery 
 of Lacey, Washington, and the Abbey Nullius of 
 St. Peter, Saskatchewan, Canada. Himself a ripe 
 scholar, he bent every effort to raise the standard 
 of studies at St. John’s University, and in this he 
 succeeded wonderfully. Many of His young Fathers 
 were sent to the different universities at home and 
 
 abroad, and returned amply equipped to take up 
 the many different departments newly created to 
 extend the usefulness of the educational establish¬ 
 ment under his direction, so that from a small 
 college St. John’s has taken on the dimensions of a 
 university. So widely known and fully appreciated 
 did his personality become among the other Bene¬ 
 dictines in the United States that for twelve years 
 Abbot Engel was the President of the American 
 Cassinese Congregation. 
 
 The death of Bishop Trobe coccurred 15 Decem¬ 
 ber, 1921. The venerable prelate was born in 
 Billiggratz, Carinthia, 16 July, 1838. He received 
 his elementary education in the schools of his home 
 village, and his college course in the gymnasium at 
 Laibach. Upon the completion of his collegiate 
 studies he entered the Seminary of Laibach. While 
 there he met the saintly Bishop Baraga of Northern 
 Michigan, to whose eloquent appeal for workers in 
 the American mission field he gave eager and gen¬ 
 erous response. He arrived in New York 4 April, 
 
 1864, whence he proceeded to St. Vincent’s Semi¬ 
 nary at Beatty, Pa. Having completed his studies, 
 he came to St. Paul, where Bishop Thomas L. 
 Grace ordained him to the priesthood 8 September, 
 
 1865. The first pastoral charge assigned to him 
 was at Belle Prairie, Minn., the earliest parish 
 within the limits of the present Diocese of St. Cloud. 
 In 1866 he was sent to Wabasha, to which a large 
 number of missions were attached. Many parishes 
 in Southern Minnesota owe their existence to his 
 untiring zeal. In 1887 he was called to St. Paul, 
 where he founded and developed St. Agnes’ parish. 
 After the death of Bishop Marty he was conse¬ 
 crated third.Bishop of St. Cloud by the Most Rev. 
 John Ireland, 26 September, 1897. During seven¬ 
 teen years he administered the affairs of the dio¬ 
 cese with the same holy zeal and quiet ability that 
 he had so constantly shown in his pastoral work. 
 
 Monsignor Bernard Richter of Melrose died 18 De¬ 
 cember, 1921. Born in Westphalia in 1853, his 
 first clerical studies were made at the seminary of 
 Munster, in his native province. These studies 
 were completed at St. Francis Seminary, Milwaukee, 
 whither he came in 1874. He was ordained in 1877. 
 His first field of priestly labor was at White Lake, 
 South Dakota. He was then made pastor of the 
 cathedral of St. Cloud by the first bishop, Zardetti, 
 upon whose resignation Fr. Richter was appointed 
 to Melrose. There he spent twenty-seven years of 
 his pastoral activities. He was appointed a Domestic 
 Prelate of His Holiness in 1912. 
 
 In common with their brethren throughout the 
 United States, the Catholics of the Diocese of St. 
 Cloud bore their fair proportion of the burden 
 imposed by the country’s participation in the World 
 War. Six of the priests saw service with the army. 
 Four were overseas and the other two were employed 
 in camps in the United States. The graduate nurses 
 of all the hospitals were prompt in offering their 
 services to the Government; one hospital having 
 the distinction of one hundred per cent, of its 
 graduates accepted for war work at home and abroad. 
 Catholic young men enlisted in both branches of the 
 service, and priests and people in their respective 
 localities were active in every kind of war and wel¬ 
 fare work. In this they followed the example of 
 their bishop, who has the proud distinction of having 
 been publicly eulogized in the United States Senate 
 Chamber by the senior Senator from Minnesota, the 
 Honorable Knute Nelson. 
 
 Saint-Denis (or Reunion), Diocese of (Sancti 
 Dionysii; cf. C. E., XIII—344b), includes the 
 island of Reunion in the Indian Ocean, 350 miles 
 east of Madagascar. The diocese was formerly a 
 
SAINT-DIE 
 
 654 
 
 . . SAINT GABRIEL 
 
 suffragan of Bordeaux, but is now directly dependent 
 on the Holy See. The present bishop is Mgr. Georges- 
 Marie de la Bonniere de Beaumont, C. S. Sp., 
 b. at Idron, diocese of Bayonne, 12 December, 
 1872, studied at the French Seminary in Rome, or¬ 
 dained there 1897, volunteer chaplain, 65th Division, 
 Infantry, 1914, then chaplain-in-chief, 16th Aimy 
 Corps until August, 1917, elected titular Bishop 
 of Paphos and coadjutor of Saint Denis 22 March, 
 
 1917, consecrated at Pau 14 October, and sailed for 
 Reunion. He succeeded Mgr. Fabre, 26 December, 
 1919. Mgr. de Beaumont was cited in the orders of 
 the Army in 1916 for “courage and abnegation under 
 intense fire” and was awarded the croix de guerre 
 avec etoile d’argent. His predecessor, Mgr. Jacques- 
 Paul Antonin Fabre, was born in Nimes (Gard) 16 
 October, 1837, ordained 1863, chaplain in the war 
 of 1870, named Bishop of St. Denis 1892, arrived 
 there June, 1893, left for France May, 1915, and died 
 26 December, 1919, at Pessac (Gironde). Mgr. 
 Fabre was a Doctor in Letters, and published many 
 books and numerous articles. Influenza caused 
 great trouble at Saint Denis in 1919, as many as 
 250 persons dying in one day in the episcopal city of 
 20,000 inhabitants. All the priests called to the 
 front during the war returned to the diocese dec¬ 
 orated with the croix de guerre. A very large propor¬ 
 tion of young men of the island were killed, a great 
 number decorated for bravery. The bishop is oc¬ 
 cupied in creating a native clergy and he has estab¬ 
 lished a presbyteiial school at Cilaos. The diocese 
 contains 49 parishes, 66 churches, 2 convents of 
 men and 39 of women, 35 secular and 14 regular 
 priests, 14 lay Brothers, 190 Sisters, 1 seminary, 15 
 seminarians, 1 high school with 14 professors and 180 
 girls, 41 elementary schools, 134 instructors and 
 3788 pupils, 2 refuges, 11 asylums, 3 hospitals, 7 
 organizations among the laity. Two papers are 
 published. The government aids four of the insti¬ 
 tutions. The Catholic population numbers 171,979, 
 all French. 
 
 Saint-Die, Diocese of (Sancti Deodati; 
 cf. C. E., XIII—344d), comprises the department of 
 the Vosges, France, and is suffragan of Besangon. 
 The episcopal city was occupied August-September, 
 1914, by German troops and part of the diocese was 
 laid waste and occupied (1914-18), by the invaders. 
 The present bishop is Mgr. Alphonse Gabriel Fou¬ 
 cault, b. at Senoches (Eure-et-Loire), 24 March, 
 1843, named Bishop of Saint-Die 3 January, 1893, 
 consecrated at Chartres, 20 March, and made solemn 
 entry into Saint-Die, 6 April. Mgr. Foucault was 
 made a chevalier of the Legion of Honor 27 July, 
 1919, was presented with the silver medal of souvenir 
 frangais, celebrated his sacerdotal (fifty years) and 
 episcopal jubilee, upon which occasion he received the 
 personal privilege of the pallium. 
 
 During the war 240 of the 525 priests of the diocese 
 were mobilized, 44 of the 48 seminarians in the upper 
 seminary in 1914 and 17 of the 25 there from 1915 to 
 
 1918. Of this number 10 priests were killed on the 
 battlefield, 5 died in the army, 3 were shot by the 
 enemy, 1 was killed by bombardment, 8 seminarians 
 were killed and 2 died; 11 were severely wounded; 
 28 were decorated (7 with the Legion of Honor, 8 with 
 the medaille militaire, 1 with the Order of St. George 
 (English), 1 with the Order of St. George (Russian), 
 1 with the Cross of Rumania, 1 with the croix de 
 guerre beige , 6 with the medaille des epidemies, 2 with 
 the Medaille argent du souvenir frangais, more than 
 50 with the croix de guerre. There were 129 citations. 
 Thirty-four priests were taken as hostages. There 
 are two minor basilicas in the diocese, that of St. 
 Peter Fourier at Mattaincourt and that of St. Joan 
 of Arc at Domremy. St. Joan of Arc,whose birthplace 
 
 was Domremy, was canonized 13 May, 1920, in St. 
 Peter’s at Rome. The diocese comprises 388 parishes, 
 465 churches, 1 monastery and 5 convents of women, 
 481 secular priests, 2 seminaries, 152 seminarians, 1 
 free college for boys and 7 for girls, 10 free elementary 
 schools for boys and 30 for girls, 1 mission institute 
 with 4 secular priests, 3 orphanages, 8 hospitals. 
 Priests are admitted to minister in a prison, a lyceum 
 and 4 colleges. Two journals are printed, besides 
 numerous parish bulletins and “va semaine religeuse 
 The Catholic population numbers about 400,000 of 
 the 429,800 inhabitants. 
 
 Saint Elizabeth, College of* at Convent Station, 
 New Jersey, in 1921 had a faculty of 34, classified 
 as follows: diocesan clergy, 1; religious, 26; lay, 7. 
 The registration of students was 170, of whom 22 
 were graduated. Sister Mary Pauline Kelligherk, 
 LL.D., is president of the college. 
 
 Saint-Flour, Diocese of (Sancti Flori, cf. C. E., 
 XIII—347d), comprises the department of Cantal, 
 France and is suffragan of Bourges. The present 
 bishop is Mgr. Paul-Augustin Lecceur, b. at Rouen, 
 13 March, 1848, served in the ambulance corps in 
 1870, ordained 1872, elected Bishop of Saint-Flour 
 13 July, 1906, consecrated at Rouen 3 August, 
 enthroned 24 August. The diocese contains many 
 shrines to which thousands of Catholics make pil¬ 
 grimages each year. In 1920 the coronation of Our 
 Lady of Quezec took place in the presence of 8 bishops, 
 150 priests and 15,000 faithful. About 40,000 
 pilgrims visit this shrine each year. In 1921 the 
 Church of Notre Dame des Miracles in Mauriac 
 was erected into a minor basilica. In the diocese 
 there are 314 parishes; 8 monasteries of women (2 
 Carmelites, 2 Visitation, 1 Infant Jesus, 1 Notre 
 Dame, 1 St. Joseph, 1 Holy Family), and 48 convents 
 with a total of 600 Sisters; 486 secular priests, 50 
 Brothers, 1 upper seminary with 45 seminarians, 1 
 lower with 60; 2 colleges for boys with 550 students 
 and 4 for girls with 600, 1 normal school, 70 elemen¬ 
 tary schools, 6 asylums, 23 hospitals, 1 refuge, 2 
 creches, association of Catholic youth, 3 papers 
 published in Saint-Flour, 4 in Aurillac and 1 in 
 Mauriac. The population of the diocese is 223,000, 
 nearly all Catholic. 
 
 Saint Francis Xavier, Brothers of. See Xaver- 
 ian Brothers. 
 
 Saint Gabriel, Brothers of (cf. C. E., VI—330c). 
 —This institute has continued to spread in spite of 
 persecution and war, and the resultant lack of re¬ 
 cruits. The houses of religious training after this 
 enforced retarding of progress are now beginning to 
 prosper. During the World War (1914-18) 200 
 members of the institute gave proof of their patriot¬ 
 ism on many battlefields, and 25 of them sacrificed 
 their lives for their country. The government 
 awarded well-merited decorations to many and of¬ 
 ficially acknowledged that all the religious had nobly 
 fulfilled their duty. During this trying period, as 
 well as during the difficulties of the persecution of 
 1903, the institute was wisely governed by the present 
 superior general, Rev. Brother Martial, b. at Tauves, 
 Puy de Dome, 11 June, 1850, entered the congrega¬ 
 tion, 6 Oct., 1864, was successively professor in the 
 boarding-school at the mother-house, master of 
 novices, assistant general, elected superior at the 
 chapter of 1898, and since re-elected. His generous 
 activity has encouraged the spirit of holiness, learning, 
 and zeal among the Brothers, spread the work of the 
 institute throughout many pagan countries, and saved 
 it from destruction during the persecutions of 1903. 
 On 19 February, 1910, the constitutions of the order 
 were temporarily approved by the Holy See. Having 
 
SAINT GALL 
 
 055 
 
 SAINT JOAN 
 
 been revised to conform to the hormae , no notable 
 change in the constitutions Was necessary in accord¬ 
 ance with the new Code of Canon Law* The institute 
 is governed by a superior general elected for twelve 
 years and eligible for re-election indefinitely. He has 
 four assistants, a secretary general, and a general 
 economist. The institute is divided into provinces; 
 each governed by a provincial assisted by a council 
 of four members; Since 1914 many members have 
 died, due especially to the war. Among the notable 
 deceased are: Brother Fortune, assistant general, d 
 i8 May, 1914, at the age of seventy-five years, 
 having passed twenty-five years in the administra¬ 
 tion of the congregation; Brother Pothin, procurator 
 general, died suddenly, 24 April, 1921. 
 
 At present (1921) there are 1100 members of the 
 congregation and 117 foundations. Besides 20,000 
 children educated in their schools, the Brothers in¬ 
 struct 498 orphans, 495 deaf mutes, and 119 blind. 
 The institute has 13 mission posts with 58 missionary 
 Brothers, 6 institutions for .deaf mutes, 3 institutions 
 for the blind, 0 novitiates, and 5 juvenates. The 
 following foundations have been made since 1909: 
 Canet de Mar, Spain, novitiate (1909); Saluzzo, 
 Italy, novitiate (1909); Bangalore, India (1909); 
 Convitto Silvio Pellico, Saluzzo, Italy (1910); 
 Chantabon, Siam (1910); Tetraultville, Canada 
 (1910); Nuritter, Holland, novitiate (1911); St. Bruno, 
 Canada (1911; Rotheun, Liege (1912); Rome, Italy 
 (1912); Liedekerke, Brabant, Belgium (1913); Tin- 
 divanam, India, school (1913); Caracas, Venezuela, 
 (1914); Tindivanam, India, normal school (1919); 
 Ste. Anne dcs Plaines, Montreal, Canada (1919); 
 Samsen, Bangkok, Siam (1920); Petriou, Siam (1920); 
 St. Romuald, Quebec, Canada (1920); Ste. Madeleine, 
 Outremont, Montreal (1920); Barcelona, Spain 
 (1920); and a number of foundations in France. 
 
 Saint Gall, Diocese of (Sangallensis; cf. C. E., 
 XIII—349b), includes the canton of St. Gall and two 
 half-cantons of Appenzell in Switzerland. The 
 diocese is directly dependent on the Holy See. The 
 present bishop is Mgr. Robert Burkler, born at 
 Rorschach 5 March, 1863, ordained 1888, proposed 
 by the chapter 29 October and elected 16 December, 
 1913, consecrated at St. Gall 1 February, 1914, to 
 succeed Mgr. Ruegg, deceased. St. Gall has (1919) 
 a Catholic population of 204,000 from a total of 375,- 
 000 inhabitants, 120 parishes, 8 missions, 4 monas¬ 
 teries of Capuchins, 2 of women, 13 convents of 
 women, 261 secular and 30 regular priests, 55 Broth¬ 
 ers, 700 Sisters, 1 seminary, 10 seminarians, 1 college 
 for boys and 210 churches or chapels. 
 
 Saint George’s, Diocese of (Sancti Georgii; 
 cf. C. E., XIII—351a), Newfoundland, extends 
 along the sea coast from Fortune Bay on the south¬ 
 west to Flowers Cove on the extreme northwest of 
 the island. The people for the most part depend for 
 livelihood on the fisheries and as a consequence the 
 parishes, which now number 12, are all on the sea¬ 
 board. Rt. Rev.M. F. Power, late bishop, died in 
 Sydney, N. S., 6 March, 1920, at the age of forty- 
 three years, after nine years in the episcopate. He 
 was succeeded by Rt. Rev. Henri Thomas Renouf, 
 formerly parish priest of St. Patrick’s in the city of 
 St. Johns, who was consecrated 8 December, 1920, 
 and took possession of his see 15 January, 1921. 
 During the episcopate of Bishop Power many develop¬ 
 ments took place. A new wing was added to the 
 Convent of Mercy at St. George’s and in this way a 
 large number of young girls of the diocese are enabled 
 to secure a first class education, and an ample number 
 of competent teachers are provided for the different 
 parish schools. The Sisters of Mercy were introduced 
 into the growing town of Bay of Islands and conduct 
 
 42 
 
 a, day school there. Four new parishes were estab¬ 
 lished, among them, the new parish of Bay d’Espoir,in¬ 
 cluding the Mic-mac Indian settlement at Conne River. 
 With very few exceptions the population is native- 
 born of French, Scotch, Irish and English ancestry. All 
 speak the English language, though French and 
 Gaelic may still be heard, in the homes. The growth 
 of the population is altogether due to natural increase. 
 According to latest statistics the Catholic population 
 numbers 13,000; there are 14 priests engaged in the 
 work Of fhe mission; The diocese has 40 churches, 
 about 30 stations, and 80 schools with an average 
 attendance of 2000 pupils. The government gives an 
 annual per capita grant to the Catholic school boards, 
 of which the local priest is chairman. There are 
 two convents of the Sisters of Mercy and one of the 
 Presentation Order, with a total of 15 Sisters. Three 
 seminarians are at present preparing abroad for work 
 in the diocese. Among the laity the Holy Name 
 Society and the League of the Sacred Heart are in a 
 flourishing condition. 
 
 Saint Hyacinthe, Diocese of (Sancti Hya- 
 cinthi; cf. C. E., XIII—351c), in the Province of 
 Quebec, suffragan of Montreal. The present bishop is 
 Rt. Rev. Alexis-Xyste Bernard, b. 1847, ordained 
 1871, elected 1905, consecrated 1906. A normal 
 school was founded at St*. Hyacinthe, in 1912. The 
 diocese has: 76 parishes, 77 churches, 1 mission, 1 
 monastery for men, 1 monastery for women, 220 secu¬ 
 lar priests, 19 regular priests, 277 Brothers, 1347 
 Sisters, 1 seminary with 477 seminarians, 4 colleges 
 for boys with 42 teachers and 700 students, 26 colleges 
 for girls with 429 teachers and 5481 students, 44 acade¬ 
 mies and schools under religious orders with 266 
 teachers and 7050 pupils (2700 boys, 4350 girls), 
 1 normal school with 26 professors and 211 students, 
 1 house of retreat, 10 asylums and hospitals, and 1 
 refuge. Organizations among the clergy are: La 
 Caisse Ecclesiastique, L’Union Apostolique, Les 
 Pr^tres Adorateurs; and among the laity: Syndicate 
 Ouvriers Nationals Catholiques, Association Catho- 
 lique de la Jeunesse, Association Catholique des 
 Voyogeurs, and Association des Zouaves. There are 
 120,852 Catholics and 11,721 Protestants in the dio¬ 
 cese. 
 
 Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne, Diocese of (Mau- 
 riannensis; cf. C. E.,XIII—353d), includes part of 
 the department of Savoy, France, and is suffragan of 
 Chambery. The present bishop is Mgr. Adrien 
 Alexis Fodere, born at Bessans, in the diocese, 
 student at the French Seminary in Rome, ordained 
 there in 1866, consecrated at St. Peter’s by Pius 
 X 25 February, 1906, to succeed Mgr. Rosset, 
 deceased. The bishop of the see has the title of 
 Prince of Aiguebelle. During the war 55 priests and 
 23 seminarians were mobilized, 8 died in the war, 
 1 was decorated with the medaille militaire and 17 
 with the croix de guerre. The diocese has 87 parishes 
 and 69,000 Catholics. 
 
 Saint Joan of Arc, Sisters of, a community found¬ 
 ed in 1914 at Worcester, Mass., U. S., by Fr. Clement 
 Staub. After three years of organization the mother- 
 house was transferred to Quebec, 29 September, 1917, 
 and definitely fixed at Bergerville, near Quebec, 6 
 September, 1918. The institute received diocesan 
 approbation from Cardinal Begin, 2 March, 1917, 
 and was canonically erected as a religious congrega¬ 
 tion by Benedict XV, 31 May, 1920. The object of 
 the community is the spiritual and temporal service 
 of priests, through love of the Sacred Heart, in a spirit 
 of expiation, under the patronage of St. Joan of Arc, 
 model of sacrifice. The Sisters render spiritual ser¬ 
 vice in offering up for the priesthood their interior 
 
SAINT JOHN 
 
 656 
 
 SAINT JOSEPH 
 
 life. They give temporal service in taking care of 
 presbyteries, apostolic schools, ecclesiastical colleges 
 and seminaries, and homes for aged and retired priests. 
 They have charge of the presbyteries of the Church of 
 St. Roch and the Basilica of Quebec, and the Apostolic 
 School of Notre Dame at Quebec. In Worcester, 
 Mass., they have a postulate, and the care of three 
 presbyteries in Nashua, N. H. In all, they have 
 5 houses in Canada and 6 in the United States, and 
 number 35 religious, of whom 17 are professed. 
 
 Saint John, Diocese of (Sancti Joannis; cf. C. 
 E., XIII—355a), in the Province of New Brunswick. 
 Canada. The present administrator is the Rt. Rev. 
 Edward Alfred Le Blanc, b. at St. Bernard, Halifax, 
 15 Oct., 1870, ordained 23 Dec., 1893, elected 2 
 Aug., 1912, published 2 Dec., consecrated 10 Dec., 
 following. He succeeded the Rt. Rev. Timothy 
 Casey, who was transferred to the Archdiocese of 
 Vancouver, 31 July, 1912. According to the statis¬ 
 tics of 1922 the diocese contains: 45 churches with 
 resident priests, 51 missions with churches, 57 secular 
 priests, 23 regulars, 20 seminarians who are being 
 educated in seminaries of other dioceses. Educational 
 and charitable institutions are: 1 college conducted 
 by the Fathers of the Holy Cross, 4 academies, 3 
 orphan asylums, 1 asylum for old people, 1 hospital. 
 The Catholic population numbers 65,000. 
 
 Saint John’s, Archdiocese of (Sancti Joannis 
 Terr^e Nowe; cf. C. E., XIII—356b), in New¬ 
 foundland. Most Rev. M. F. Howley, first arch¬ 
 bishop, died 16 October, 1914. He was succeeded by 
 Most Rev. Edward Patrick Roche, who was born in 
 Placentia, Newfoundland, in 1874, received his early 
 education at St. Bonaventure’s College, St. John’s, 
 and his ecclesiastical training at All Hallow’s College, 
 Dublin, Ireland. Ordained priest in 1897, after some 
 years of parochial work, he occupied successively the 
 posts of chancellor, administrator of the cathedral 
 parish, and vicar general, and on the death of Arch¬ 
 bishop Howley became administrator apostolic of 
 the archdiocese. In 1915 he succeeded to the epis¬ 
 copacy, being consecrated 29 June, and receiving the 
 pallium on 12 December of that year. Already during 
 the present episcopate a considerable addition has 
 been made to St. Bride’s College for young ladies, the 
 Convent of the Presentation Sisters has been enlarged 
 by a new building, and the Presentation Schools of 
 St. Patrick’s, St. John’s, have been replaced by 
 new and modern ones. A Memorial School, the 
 Academy of Our Lady of Mercy for the higher educa¬ 
 tion of Catholic girls, honoring those Knights of 
 Columbus who gave their lives during the Great War, 
 is equipped with all the latest educational require¬ 
 ments. Besides giving his attention to the completion 
 and embellishing of St. Patrick’s Church, St. John’s, 
 the present archbishop has undertaken also the 
 important work of the restoration of the cathedral. 
 The communities of the Sisters of Mercy, as also 
 those of the Presentation Nuns, formerly independent 
 houses, have been amalgamated into provinces with 
 a superior-general for each order. A new Catholic 
 hospital, St. Clare’s, has been opened under the man¬ 
 agement of the Sisters of Mercy. Two new convents 
 have been established, many new schools built, the 
 orphanages have been improved and enlarged, whilst 
 the archdiocese has benefitted much spiritually by 
 the erection of fourteen new churches and several new 
 parishes. The episcopal palace of St. John’s, the resi¬ 
 dence of the archbishop, was destroyed by fire in 
 February, 1921. A new building has been erected 
 to replace the venerable edifice built in the year 1854. 
 
 The Catholic population of the archdiocese is 50,000, 
 all English-speaking. There are: 28 parishes, 27 
 churches, 35 missions, 1 monastery for men with 25 
 
 Christian Brothers, 9 convents of Presentation Nuns 
 with 121 Sisters, 8 convents of Sisters of Mercy with 
 88 Sisters, 25 seminarians, 1 college for men (St. 
 Bonaventure’s) with 12 teachers and 460 students, 
 1 college for women (St. Bride’s) with 14 teachers and 
 141 students, 39 high schools, 1 Academy of Our Lady 
 of Mercy with 23 teachers and 450 girls, 2 training 
 schools forming departments of St. Bonaventure’s 
 (16 students) and St. Bride’s colleges (35 students), 
 146 elementary schools with 420 teachers and 11,065 
 pupils, 1 industrial school with 152 pupils under the 
 instruction of 6 Brothers assisted by lay teachers, 1 
 hospital (St. Clare’s) under the Sisters of Mercy, 
 Belvedere Orphanage with 153 girls under the care 
 of the Sisters of Mercy, Mount Cashel Orphanage with 
 152 boys under the care of the Christian Brothers. 
 All institutions are assisted by government grants. 
 The general hospital, poor asylum, lunatic asylum, 
 and sanitorium admit the ministry of priests. Organi¬ 
 zations among the laity are the Benevolent Irish 
 Society, Total Abstinence Society, Star of the Sea 
 Association, Holy Name Society, Knights of Colum¬ 
 bus, and other pious sodalities. 
 
 Saint John’s University, of Toledo, Ohio, was 
 opened in September, 1898, and incorporated as “St. 
 John’s College” on 22 May, 1900. On 29 August, 
 1903, the charter was amended and the institution 
 became “St. John’s University.” In September, 1908, 
 the Law Department was opened and the university 
 now consists of the High School Department, College 
 of Arts and Sciences, including a pre-medical depart¬ 
 ment, and the Law School, which is a night school. 
 The university is conducted by the Jesuit Fathers and 
 their usual course of training is followed. During the 
 summer a course of studies is given for members of 
 other religious orders wishing to attend, and during 
 the winter an extension course of studies is given in 
 the evenings. A library of 5500 volumes is at the 
 disposal of the students, and a Law Library of 1000 
 volumes. A bi-weekly paper, “The Gleaner,” is 
 published by the students. In 1921 the High School 
 Department registered 250 students under a faculty 
 of 16; the College of Arts and Sciences, 39 students, 
 faculty 15; Law School, 44 students, faculty 24. 
 Rev. Francis X. Busch, S.J., is president of the 
 university. 
 
 Saint Joseph, Diocese of (Sancti Josephi; 
 cf. C. E., XIII—356d), in Missouri. The City of St. 
 Joseph has at present: 8 parishes with 13 resident 
 pastors, each parish having a parochial school, 
 attended by over 2000 pupils; a Catholic high school 
 for boys conducted by the Brothers of the Christian 
 Schools; a Catholic high school for girls, conducted 
 by the Religious of the Sacred Heart; and an academy 
 and junior college for young ladies, conducted by the 
 Religious of the Sacred Heart; one hospital conducted 
 by the Daughters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul. 
 The City of St. Joseph has a Catholic population of 
 about 15,000. Outside of the city may be mentioned 
 the Benedictine Abbey of Conception, established in 
 1874. The Benedictine Fathers conduct a seminary 
 for their own students, and a classical college. For 
 the present several parishes and missions in the dio¬ 
 cese are attended by the Benedictines from Conception 
 Abbey. The mother-house and academy of the Bene¬ 
 dictine Sisters of Perpetual Adoration is at Clyde; 
 and at Maryville is the mother-house of the Francis¬ 
 can Sisters, who conduct hospitals at Maryville, 
 Hannibal, and Moberly. An academy at Chillicothe 
 is conducted by the Sisters of St. Joseph, and one at 
 Moberly is conducted by the Sisters of Loretto. 
 
 By a decree of the Sacred Congregation of the Con¬ 
 sistory, dated Rome, 16 June, 1911, the territory con¬ 
 tained in the counties of Adair, Clark, Knox, Lewis, 
 
SAINT JOSEPH 
 
 657 
 
 SAINT JOSEPH 
 
 Macon, Marion, Monroe, Rails, Randolph, Shelby, 
 Schuyler,Scotland, and that part of Chariton County 
 east of the Chariton River was detached from the 
 Archdiocese of St. Louis and attached to the Diocese 
 of St. Joseph. By reason of this extension the Diocese 
 of St. Joseph now comprises the whole northern part 
 of the State of Missouri extending from the Missouri 
 to the Mississippi River and is bounded on the south 
 bv the counties of Howard, Boone, Audrain, and Pike. 
 The diocese has 32 parochial schools with an atten¬ 
 dance of 1985 boys and 1980 girls, or a total of 3905. 
 The Catholic population is about 42,000. On account 
 of the advanced age and continued infirmity of Bishop 
 M. F. Burke, by virtue of a decree of the Sacred 
 Congregation of the Consistory, dated 18 April, 1921, 
 Rt. Rev. James P. Brady was named apostolic 
 administrator of the Diocese of St. Joseph, with all 
 the rights and privileges annexed by law to that office. 
 The Rt. Rev. James P. Brady took official possession 
 of the administration according to the terms of the 
 decree 25 April, 1921. 
 
 Saint Joseph, Missionaries of, of Mexico 
 (Josephites). —This congregation was founded in 
 the City of Mexico in 1872, during the time of Presi¬ 
 dent Juarez, when anti-religious laws had been pro¬ 
 mulgated and all the religious congregations driven 
 from Mexican soil. A member of the Congregation 
 of the Mission, expelled from his convent, conceived 
 the idea of founding a congregation with a native 
 character, to help efface the evil caused by the dis¬ 
 persion of the religious who had existed there. This 
 priest was Fr. Jose M. Vilaseca, born in Igualda, 
 Spain, 19 January, 1831. Fr. Vilaseca’s idea was 
 to found an order similar to the institutes of St. 
 Vincent de Paul, with organizations like the Lazarists 
 and Sisters of Charity. The two institutes were 
 placed under the protection of St. Joseph and were 
 called Missionaries of St. Joseph (Josefines) and 
 Sisters of St. Joseph (Josefinas). Their object was 
 to preach the gospel to the people, especially to the 
 poor and the numerous Indians in Mexico, still 
 living in savagery and idolatry. The Sisters were to 
 instruct the young and nurse the sick in hospitals. 
 In the beginning the circumstances of the persecu¬ 
 tion of congregations caused the two institutes to 
 lead a concealed life. The men mingled with the 
 students of a seminary called the Clerical College, 
 which gave to the dioceses of Mexico two hundred 
 priests in those troubled years. The Sisters passed as 
 Daughters of Mary. However, in a short time, 
 the founder and some of his religious managed to 
 elude the authorities, and give missions in the country 
 and small centers. 
 
 During the presidency of General Porfirio Diaz the 
 persecution was very much abated and some expelled 
 congregations returned to Mexico, but not the 
 Sisters of Charity. The Josephite Institutes took 
 advantage of this truce to consolidate and increase 
 their numbers. The missionaries separated from the 
 Clerical College and started their, own seminary in 
 spite of great difficulty, through lack of vocations. 
 In Mexico there is a great scarcity of religious voca¬ 
 tions among men. The dioceses of the central sec¬ 
 tion of the country, like Guadalajara, Michoacan, 
 and Zamora, produce a large number of secular priests 
 each year but very few religious. The other dioceses 
 even lack secular priests. The Congregation of St. 
 Joseph did not have many subjects, and of the few 
 foundations made several disappeared for various 
 reasons. In 1892 the first missionaries succeeded in 
 penetrating the country of the savage Indian tribes. 
 The Trahumares in the State of Chihuahua and the 
 Yaquis in Sonora were evangelized but these missions 
 were not permanent, as the priests were no more than 
 explorers of the land. Later the Fathers penetrated 
 
 the mountains called Nayarit which lie in the States 
 of Zacatecas, Durango, and Jalisco. There they 
 established themselves and for ten years evangelized 
 the Indians until the destructive revolution of 1914 
 and the following years expelled the missionaries 
 and destroyed their w’orks. 
 
 In 1895 the congregation opened a house in Rome, 
 established there their procurator general, and ordered 
 its students to follow the scholastic courses of the 
 Roman University. In 1898 the Decretum Laudis 
 was obtained from the Holy See. In 1902 the 
 Sacred College approved the constitutions of the 
 congregation conditionally for seven years, and on 
 14 September, 1911, granted final approbation. 
 Fr. Vilaseca had died 3 April, 1910, and was succeeded 
 by Fr. Jose M. Troncoso, now head of the institute. 
 The religious persecution which ravaged Mexico 
 through the instrumentality of President Carranza 
 was as fierce and terrible as that of President Juarez 
 fifty years before, and caused great harm to the 
 Josephites. All their houses were occupied by 
 soldiers and their religious dispersed, among them 
 their superior general, who emigrated to the United 
 States, while others went to Central America. The 
 revolutionary trouble has now passed and the re¬ 
 ligious can return to their houses and take up their 
 missions. At present the number of missionaries is 
 100 with 12 houses, all in Mexico, and a procurator 
 general in Rome. 
 
 Saint Joseph, Sisters of.—Congregation of the 
 Sisters of St. Joseph (cf. C. E., VIII—511a), 
 founded at Le Puy, France, in 1650 by Fr. Jean- 
 Paul Medaille, S.J., and dispersed during the French 
 Revolution. Among the religious who survived the 
 reign of terror was Mother St. John Fontbonne, who, 
 anxious to reassemble her community, established a 
 novitiate at Saint Etienne in 1807 at the expressed 
 wish of Cardinal Fisch for the reconstruction of the 
 congregation. This foundation was a fe.w years later 
 removed to Lyons which then became the mother- 
 house for that archdiocese, the congregation at that 
 time being diocesan. The community now at Le 
 Puy has a mother-house on the site of the original 
 foundation of 1650. It has suffered much under 
 recent legislation. The mother-house at Lyons is 
 still in existence and had numerous schools and 
 institutions previous to 1905. From it foundations 
 have been made in Armenia, Egypt, Corsica, the 
 Indies, Mexico, and the United States. The Sisters 
 were introduced into the United States through 
 correspondence between Bishop Rosati of St. Louis 
 and Fr. Charles Cholleton, Spiritual Father of the 
 Sisters in the Diocese of Lyons and also foreign vicar 
 of St. Louis. They settled first, in Carondelet, in the 
 Diocese of St. Louis, in 1836, and later Bishop Rosati 
 sent three religious to Cahokia. The foundation in 
 Canada was made by Sister Delphine, one of the 
 original band of six who came to Carondelet from 
 Lyons. 
 
 Boston (cf. C. E., VIII—512d).—In 1873 Sisters of 
 St. Joseph from the Brooklyn foundation opened a 
 parochial school in connection with St. Thomas 
 Church, Jamaica Plain, at the request of Fr. Thomas 
 Magennis, pastor there. They were soon asked to 
 take charge of similar schools in South Boston, 
 Stoughton, Amesbury. In 1876 a novitiate was 
 opened and Boston became an independent establish¬ 
 ment of the Sisters under Archbishop Williams, with 
 Mother Mary Regis as superior. The novitiate was 
 transferred to Cambridge in 1885 and Mt. St. Joseph 
 Academy was opened there, but this property was 
 sold for Metropolitan Park purposes in 1891 and a 
 novitiate and academy were built at Brighton. In 
 1902 a normal school was opened at Canton, and the 
 novitiate transferred there. In 1921 these were 
 
SAINT JOSEPH 
 
 658 
 
 SAINT JOSEPH 
 
 removed to Framingham to the magnificent estate 
 given the Sisters by the late Thomas Fitzpatrick of 
 Boston. The mother-house is still at Brighton. 
 The Sisters are now teaching throughout the arch¬ 
 diocese, and (1922) number 603 in charge of 1 
 academy, 27 parish schools, including 5 high schools, 
 a school for the deaf, and an industrial school for 
 girls. They have in their schools 14,745 boys and 
 girls. The present superior, Mother Mary Borgia, 
 was re-elected in July, 1920, for her sixth term of 
 office. Since 1910 the Sisters have made 26 new 
 foundations, the present number being 38. In 
 addition to their schools they conduct homes for 
 working girls, homes for aged women, and rest 
 houses for women. Their foundress, Mother Mary 
 Regis, died in 1917, at Brighton, where she had 
 retired due to failing health. She had entered the 
 community at Brooklyn in 1863, was made superior 
 of the Boston foundation in 1873, and governed it 
 as an independent establishment from 1876 to 1890. 
 Subsequently she was appointed local superior of 
 Saint Joseph’s, Amesburv, and again superior of 
 St. Thomas Convent, Jamaica Plain. 
 
 Brooklyn (cf. C. E., VIII—512d).—In 1856, Bishop 
 Loughlin of Brooklyn applied to the mother-house of 
 Philadelphia for Sisters of Saint Joseph who, in the 
 rapidly widening field of education in Long Island, were 
 to form the nucleus of a new community. The three 
 Sisters named for the foundation arrived 25 August, 
 1856, and 8 September opened Saint Mary’s Academy 
 in Williamsburg. Two years later a parochial school 
 was inaugurated in a neighboring parish. In 1860 
 the mother-house, novitiate, and boarding school 
 were removed to Flushing, L. I., whence the varied 
 activities of the Sisters were extended over the 
 diocese. Several years later, the mother-house and 
 novitiate were transferred to Brentwood, where an 
 academy for young ladies was opened 8 September, 
 1903. Saint Joseph’s alumnae indudes Flushing and 
 Brentwood graduates, whose loyalty has been sub¬ 
 stantially proved, especially in reference to their 
 Alma Mater. The former students’ patronage is 
 noticeable, in their representatives at the Brentwood 
 Academy, even to the second and third generation. 
 The Congregation of the Sisters of Saint Joseph in 
 the Diocese of Brooklyn, now (1921) numbering 800 
 members, must be filially recognized in 5 branch 
 communities: Ebensburg, Pa.; Rutland, Vt.; Boston, 
 Chicopee Falls, and Springfield, Mass. In the 
 Diocese of Brooklyn the Sisters preside over 6 
 academies, 50 parochial schools, 4 orphanages, and 
 2 hospitals. In accordance with the requirements of 
 Canon Law, several changes have been recently made 
 among the local superiors. During the past decade 
 15 missions were opened, including an academy, 2 
 commercial schools, a summer resort for the Sisters, 
 10 parochial schools, and Saint Joseph’s Day College 
 for Women. 
 
 In June, 1920, the first college graduates, twelve 
 in number, received from the State University the 
 degree B. A. At present, several of this pioneer class, 
 holding important positions as teachers, are extending 
 the work of Catholic education. As the college is 
 patronized chiefly by Brooklyn high schools, the 
 academies in charge of the Sisters of Saint Joseph 
 are well represented. The college building was 
 formerly known as the Pratt Mansion. On 8 August, 
 1921, the college sustained a great loss in the death of 
 its venerated founder and president, Bishop Mc¬ 
 Donnell, who, five years before, had named the 
 present Bishop Molloy head of the faculty, and is 
 now succeeded by him. 
 
 Buffalo (cf. C. E., VIII—512d).—Four Sisters of 
 St. Joseph from Carondelet introduced the congrega¬ 
 tion into the Diocese of Buffalo in 1854, the com¬ 
 munity becoming autonomous there in 1861. The 
 
 general superiors have been Mother M. of the Sacred 
 Heart, Mother M. Scholastica, and the present 
 superior, Mother M. Austin Teresa. The term of 
 superior has been changed from three to six years, 
 and the novitiate has been reduced from five to three 
 years, according to the revised Code of Canon Law. 
 Since 1910 the Sisters have opened 5 new schools and 
 a finely equipped hospital. At present they have 
 40 institutions under their charge, including 1 deaf 
 mute asylum, 3 orphan asylums, 1 infant asylum, 1 
 hospital, 1 home for women and working girls and 3 
 schools, of which one is a boarding academy. The 
 community numbers 360, and they have under in¬ 
 struction 9000 children. 
 
 Burlington (cf. C. E., VIII—513a).—In the 
 Diocese of Burlington 65 professed Sisters, 31 novices, 
 and 4 postulants are in charge of 1 home and 7 schools 
 with 2000 pupils. 
 
 Chicago (cf. C. E., VIII—513a).—In the Arch¬ 
 diocese of Chicago 60 professed Sisters, 29 novices, 
 and 5 postulants teach 1540 pupils in 7 parochial 
 schools and 2 academies. The mother-house is at 
 La Grange, Ill. 
 
 Cleveland (cf. C. E., VIII—513a).—In the Diocese 
 of Cleveland 140 professed Sisters, 19 novices, and 
 2 postulants conduct an academy and 12 parochial 
 schools with 5200 pupils. The mother-house is 
 at West Park, Ohio. 
 
 Concordia (cf. C. E., VIII—513b).—Established 
 by four Sisters from Rochester in 1883, the Sisters 
 of St. Joseph of Concordia now number 380 and have 
 under their care 37 institutions. Since 1910 they 
 have opened a boarding school for girls at Cawker 
 City, Kansas, and a parochial school in connection 
 with it; a diocesan orphanage at Abilene, Kansas; 
 and an old people’s home also at Abilene, with 20 
 inmates 
 
 Detroit (cf. C. E., VIII—513b).—In the Diocese of 
 Detroit 253 professed Sisters, 24 novices, and 16 
 postulants have charge of 3810 pupils and 425 or¬ 
 phans. The mother-house is Nazareth Convent, 
 
 1\Tq ?9rpfli lVTipn 
 
 Erie (cf. C. E., VIII—513b).—The present supe¬ 
 rior of this cpmmunity, founded from Carondelet in 
 1860, is Mother M. Helena, elected in July, 1918, 
 and re-elected in 1921. She had been appointed by 
 Bishop Fitzmaurice to fill the unexpired term of 
 office of Mother M. Eugenia, fourth general superior, 
 who died 23 December, 1917, Mother M. Ambrosia, 
 second general superior, died 9 October, 1916. Due 
 to the revised Code of Canon Law, the novitiate is 
 shortened from seven to five years; local superiors 
 are changed every three years, and superiors of major 
 institutions every six years. At present the com¬ 
 munity numbers 227 Sisters and 6 postulants. They 
 have i9 institutions under their care, all in Pennsyl¬ 
 vania. These are: Villa Maria Academy, mother- 
 house and young ladies’ boarding school, Erie; St. 
 Vincent’s Hospital, Erie; Spencer Hospital, Meadville; 
 St. Joseph’s Orphanage, Erie; Catholic Boys’ Home, 
 Harbour Creek; St. Mary’s Home for the Aged, 
 Erie; Cathedral, St. Patrick’s, St. Joseph’s, St. 
 Michael’s, St. Ann’s, St. John’s, and Sacred Heart 
 parochial schools, Erie; St. Bernard’s parochial and 
 high school, Bradford; St. Francis’s parochial and high 
 school, Clearfield; St. Agatha’s parochial and high 
 school, Meadville; St. Bridget’s parochial school, 
 Meadville; St. Mary’s parochial and high school, 
 Reynoldsville; St. Leo’s parochial and high school, 
 Ridgeway. The Sisters care for 6800 patients, 320 
 orphans, 50 aged, and 4800 pupils annually. 
 
 Fall River (cf. C. E., VIII—513c).—In the Diocese 
 of Fall River 43 Sisters teach 1781 pupils in 5 paro¬ 
 chial schools. 
 
 Fort Wayne (cf. C. E., VIII-513c).—In the Dio¬ 
 cese of Fort Wayne 65 professed Sisters, 12 novices, 
 
SAINT JOSEPH 
 
 659 
 
 SAINT JOSEPH 
 
 and 7 postulants teach 1000 pupils. The mother- 
 house is at Tipton, Ind. 
 
 Ogdensburg (cf. C. E., VIIL—513c).—There are 
 80 Sisters in the Diocese of Ogdensburg, with mother- 
 house at Watertown, N. Y. 
 
 Philadelphia (cf. C. E., VIII—513c).—This 
 community, with mother-house at Chestnut Hill, 
 Philadelphia, conducts establishments in the arch¬ 
 dioceses of Baltimore and Philadelphia, and in the 
 dioceses of Harrisburg, Newark, and Trenton. There 
 are 712 professed Sisters, 350 juniors and novices, and 
 41 postulants. Statistics for 1921 are as follows: 
 5 academies, 655 pupils; 1 deaf-mute institute, 53 
 boarders, 225 Sunday School deaf-mute pupils; 3 
 high schools; 4 parish high schools; 17 commercial 
 schools; 63 elementary schools; 36,840 pupils; 3 
 asylums, 970 inmates; 3 day nurseries, 125 children; 
 1 settlement house. 
 
 Pittsburgh (cf. C. E., VIII—513d).—This com¬ 
 munity has its mother-house at Baden, Beaver Co., 
 Penn., and conducts establishments in the Dioceses of 
 Altoona and Pittsburgh. There are 266 professed 
 Sisters, 45 novices, 11 postulants, and 9000 pupils. 
 
 Rochester (cf. C. E., VIII—514a).—In the dioceses 
 of Rochester and Syracuse there are 441 professed 
 Sisters, 115 novices, and 12 postulants. They have 
 under their care 2 orphan asylums with 357 orphans 
 1 home for the aged with 85 inmates, teach and 
 14,152 pupils. 
 
 Sacramento. —On 22 June, 1912, in response to 
 the late Bishop Grace’s urgent call for Sisters, Mother 
 Bernard Gosselin, then assistant Superior at La 
 Grange, Ill., with nine companions, established a 
 novitiate in Eureka, Cal., under the direction of 
 Mgr. L. Kennedy, V.G. Shortly after their arrival 
 a large academy and parochial school were built. 
 In 1916 St. Bernard’s Institute for boys was opened 
 at Ferndale, Cal. The Sisters also conduct schools 
 in Brawley, Imperial Valley, Santa Ana, and Ontario-, 
 in the Diocese of Monterey and Los Angeles. On 
 1 Nov., 1920, the Sisters opened to the public one of 
 the most modern and fully equipped hospitals on the 
 coast. The following year marked the opening of St. 
 Mary’s Chinese Mission, conducted by the Paulist 
 Fathers, San Francisco, where the Sisters of St. 
 Joseph teach 600 Chinese pupils daily. On the feast 
 of the Conversion of St. Paul, six months after the 
 birth of this new mission, over 75 converts were 
 baptized, four priests performing the impressive 
 ceremony at the same time. The Sisters of St. 
 Joseph of Eureka follow the rules of their original 
 foundation of Lyons, and in addition to educational 
 and hospital work, undertake all missionary works 
 and w r orks of mercy. Though only ten years es¬ 
 tablished the community already numbers nearly 
 100 members. 
 
 St. Augustine (cf. C. E., VIII—514a).—In the. 
 Diocese of St. Augustine 113 professed Sisters, 7 
 novices, and 2 postulants conduct 8 mission houses, 
 1 orphanage with 70 orphans, 3 academies, 15 
 schools, attended by 2434 children. 
 
 St. Louis (cf. C. E., VIII—514b).—The six Sisters 
 of St. Joseph who came from Lyons in 1836 to Saint 
 Louis were: Sisters Felicite Bout6, Febronie Chapellon, 
 Philomene Vilaine, Saint Protais Deboille, Febronie 
 and Delphine Fontbonne. They were joined in 
 1837 by two more Sisters from Lyons, Sisters Celestine 
 Pommerel and Saint John Fournier. Sister Delphine 
 Fontbonne, niece of Mother Saint John Fontbonne, 
 superior general of the Lyons congregation, was 
 appointed superior in Carondelet, then a small 
 French village of several hundred inhabitants. The 
 'Sisters were given charge of the village school in 1837, 
 and in the following year began the instruction of 
 deaf-mutes. Bishop Rosati obtained an appropriation 
 for this deaf-mute school from the Missouri Legisla¬ 
 
 ture in 1839. Mother Celestine Pommerel (1839- 
 57) succeeded Mother Delphine and governed the 
 congregation for eighteen years. She organized St. 
 Joseph’s Academy, chartered in 1853, and in 1845 
 sent Sister teachers to the oldest parochial school in 
 St. Louis, St. Vincent’s, now (1921) celebrating its 
 76th anniversary and to a school for Catholic colored 
 children of the city. This was maintained until 
 obstacles were placed by the civil authorities in the 
 way of its continuance. During her term of office, 
 houses of the congregation were established in the 
 dioceses of Philadelphia, St. Paul (Minn.), Toronto 
 (Canada), Wheeling (Va.), Buffalo (N. Y.), and 
 Natchez (Miss.). Her successor, Mother St. John 
 Facemaz (1857-72), on the advice of Archbishop 
 Kendrick of St. Louis, and with his cooperation, 
 formed a generalate comprising the houses in Missouri, 
 Minnesota, Mississippi, and Illinois, with mother- 
 house at St. Louis, and obtained for it the approba¬ 
 tion of Pius IX. Mother Agatha Guthrie (1872- 
 1904), a native of St. Louis, was an indefatigable 
 worker in the cause of charity, and extended the 
 activities of the congregation to the Creole children 
 of the South and to the Western Indian tribes. At. 
 her death in 1904, the congregation counted numer¬ 
 ous institutions in 17 dioceses of the United States. 
 Mother Agnes Gonzaga Ryan (1905-17) was suc- 
 ceded by the present) mother general, Mother Mary 
 Agnes Rossiter (1917—). 
 
 The congregation numbers (1921) 2300 professed 
 members, with a large novitiate in each of the four 
 provinces, the average number of novices being 150. 
 At the last enumeration in 1920, novices and postu¬ 
 lants numbered 173. The community maintains 
 2 instituutes for deaf-mutes; 1 Creole and 4 Indian 
 schools, among the latter that of San Xavier del Bac 
 in Arizona, one of the largest day schools for Indians 
 in the United States; 17 academies; 1 conservatory 
 of music and art, with over 1000 pupils; 3 colleges, 
 two juniors and one senior. The last, a member of 
 the American Association of Colleges, was opened 
 under the auspices of Archbishop Ireland, in St. 
 Paul, where his sister, Mother Seraphine, was pro¬ 
 vincial superior for many years. The sisters are 
 teaching in 34 high schools and 163 parochial schools, 
 with a total enrollment of 56,791 pupils. They also 
 have charge of 1 day nursery; 1 infant asylum; 1 
 home for the friendless; 7 orphanages- and 10 hospitals 
 which cared for 16,605 patients during 1920. These 
 educational and benevolent institutions are spread 
 throughout 23 archdioceses and dioceses. 
 
 Savannah (cf. C. E., VII—515a).—In the Diocese 
 of Savannah there are 58 Sisters, with 750 pupils 
 under instruction. The mother-house is at Augusta, 
 Ga. 
 
 Springfield (cf. C. E., VIII—515a).—In the Dio^ 
 cese of Springfield 400 professed Sisters and 30 
 novices teach 4600 pupils in 23 parochial schools. 
 
 Superior. —This community was founded in 1907 
 by three Sisters of St. Joseph from Cincinnati, Ohio, 
 at the request of Bishop Schinner of Superior and 
 through the kindness of Rev. Albert Dierckes, S.J., 
 president of St. Xavier College, Cincinnati, and 
 Rev. F. X. O’Neil, S.J. Mother Evangela, accom¬ 
 panied by Sisters M. Xavier and M. Joseph ? first 
 took charge of a school then in course of erection in 
 Superior. The first mother-house was in Billings 
 Park, in St. Patrick’s parish. In 1909 the Jesuits 
 from Cincinnati took charge of this parish in Superior 
 and began the organization of the Cloude Allouez 
 College. Fr. Dierckes died in 1914, and being short 
 of men the Jesuits were withdrawn from Superior, 
 and the Sisters of St. Joseph took over the Cloude 
 Allouez College, establishing a girls’ high school 
 there. In March, 1909, the Sisters undertook the 
 work of a government day school for Indian children 
 
SAINT JOSEPH 
 
 660 
 
 SAINT JOSEPH 
 
 at Reserve, Wis. They also had charge of a parochial 
 school at Hayward, Wis., until all work there closed 
 down. Billings Park is now the Good Samaritan 
 Hospital, conducted by the Sisters, and the mother- 
 house has been transferred to Central Park, a beautiful 
 location on the Bay of Superior, facing Lake Superior. 
 The community numbers (1921) 17 Sisters, 6 novices, 
 and 3 postulants. 
 
 Wheeling (cf. C. E., VIII—515b).—In the Diocese 
 of Wheeling there are 119 professed Sisters, 22 novices, 
 and 3 postulants. 
 
 Wichita (cf. C. k, XIV—515b).—The Sisters of 
 St. Joseph were established with the mother-house in 
 this diocese, at the re-division of the Kansas dioceses 
 in 1897, the first foundation having been made at 
 Abilene, Kansas, in 1887, by Sisters from Concordia. 
 The first general superior was Mother M. Bernard 
 Sheridan (1887-1908). She was succeeded by Mother 
 M. Aloysia Kelleher, who served an extra year 
 beyond her two terms in order to complete the 
 new mother-house, St. Mary’s Convent. This was 
 solemnly dedicated by Bishop Hennessy of Wichita, 
 11 February, 1915. Mother M. Colette Kipp was 
 elected general superior, 4 July, 1915, and was 
 succeeded by the present superior, Mother M. 
 Aloysia Kelleher, 15 August, 1921. The work of 
 the community is the education of children and the 
 care of the sick in hospitals. At the present time 
 (1921) the Sisters number 270, and have 1 academy, 
 2 high schools, 20 parochial schools, 6 hospitals, and 
 5 nurses’ training schools. 
 
 Canada.—Hamilton (cf. C. E., VIII—515c).— 
 This community with mother-house at Hamilton, 
 Ont., numbers 183 professed Sisters, 33 novices, and 
 9 postulants. The Sisters conduct 10 schools in the 
 city of Hamilton, and have foundations at Paris 
 (1858), Brantford (1859), Guelph (1861), Arthur 
 (1870), Dun das (1879), and Mt. Forest (1908). 
 
 London (cf. C. E., VIII—515c).—The community 
 of Sisters of St. Joseph at London, Ontario now 
 (1922) number 234, in charge of 15 mission houses, 
 2 hospitals, 19 schools, an orphan asylum and a house 
 of refuge for the aged. They also teach the separate 
 schools of the city. About 3000 children are under 
 their care. In 1914 a larger mother-house became 
 necessary so the Convent of the Sacred Heart was pur¬ 
 chased from the Religious of the Sacred Heart who 
 left for other fields of labor. 
 
 Peterborough (cf. C. E., VIII—515d).—In 1890 
 several Sisters from the mother-house at Toronto 
 established a house at Petersborough which became 
 in turn the nucleus of a new congregation. The 
 community now (1921) numbers 292 professed Sisters, 
 73 novices, and 6 postulants. The Sisters have 
 charge of 2 academies, 3 hospitals, 2 orphanages, a 
 home for the aged, and 29 separate schools in the 
 diocese of Peterborough, Sault Ste. Marie, Ottawa, 
 and Alexandria. In 1910 a foundation was made at 
 Douglas in the Diocese of Pembroke. Other foun¬ 
 dations in the same diocese were Killaloe (1914) and 
 Mount St. Patrick (1916). In 1921 the Diocese of 
 Pembroke was granted its own mother-house at 
 Pembroke, with a community of 27 members from 
 the Peterborough community. Other recent foun¬ 
 dations were Almonte in the Archdiocese of Ottawa 
 in 1914 and St. Andrews West in the Diocese of 
 Alexandria in 1917. Among recent deaths was that 
 of Mother Annunciation, in May, 1920. She was 
 one of the pioneers of the Peterborough community, 
 Superior of St. Joseph’s Academy, Lindsay, for 
 many years, and translator of “The Life of Mother 
 Sacred Heart.” In 1918 Mother Clotilde, who had 
 been Superior General for sixteen years, resigned her 
 office and was succeeded by the present Superior, 
 Mother Aldegonde. 
 
 Toronto (cf. C. E., VIII—515d).—In 1914 the 
 
 constitutions of the institute were revised according 
 to the requirements of Canon Law. General gov¬ 
 ernment was established and the system of election 
 by delegation introduced. The houses of the Diocese 
 of Toronto and the missions of Western Canada 
 elected a superior general and general council to 
 administer the affairs of the institute. In 1916 ap¬ 
 plication was made to the Holy See for pontifical 
 approval of the congregation and its constitutions. 
 In July, 1920, the initial step in the process was taken 
 by the Sacred Congregation of Regulars, and the 
 decree of praise was granted, the institute thereby 
 ceasing to be diocesan and taking rank among the 
 approved congregations of the Church. In 1921 the 
 constitutions were further revised to meet the ruling 
 of the new Code of Canon Law, and application was 
 made to the pope for final approbation. 
 
 £>ince 1910 the following new foundations have 
 been made: St. Joseph’s College, Toronto, was 
 affiliated with St. Michaels, the Catholic college of 
 the University of Toronto, in 1911, and college 
 courses were begun in October of that year; St. 
 Joseph’s had carried on the work of secondary edu¬ 
 cation for nearly fifty years; the graduates of the 
 four or five years’ college course now receive their 
 degree from the University of Toronto upon passing 
 the regular annual examinations there; an alumnae 
 association was formed in 1911 and in the same year 
 appeared the initial number of the college quarterly 
 “St. Joseph’s Lilies.” St. Joseph’s Hospital at 
 Comox, Vancouver Island, B. C., the first mission of 
 the Sisters in Western Canada, was opened in July, 
 1913; primarily for the benefit of the men in the 
 logging and mining camps of the district, the hospital 
 is however open to all, and the great work accom¬ 
 plished in relieving physical suffering and ministering 
 to the care of souls has removed the barrier of anti- 
 Catholic prejudice which at first seemed insur¬ 
 mountable; 9 Sisters are now engaged in. the institu¬ 
 tion, and the number of patients registered during 
 1921 was 420. St. Joseph’s Convent, Prince Rupert, 
 B. C., was opened 15 August, 1916, at the urgent 
 request of Rt. Rev. E. I. Bunoz; 4 sisters took 
 charge of the parochial school and in 1917 St. Joseph's 
 boarding and day school were opened; the com¬ 
 munity now numbers 9 Sisters, and the number of 
 pupils registered during 1921 was 80 in the boarding 
 and day school and 130 in the parochial school. 
 St. Joseph’s Convent, Ladysmith, Vancouver Island, 
 B. C., was founded in September, 1917; there are 5 
 Sisters in charge of a parochial school with 125 
 pupils. St. Joseph’s Convent, Penetanguishene, 
 Ont., has 6 sisters in the mission opened there in 
 September, 1918, and 4 sisters with 7 lay teachers in 
 charge of the public school, with 465 pppils. St. 
 Joseph’s Convent, Winnipeg, Manitoba, was founded 
 in March, 1919, at the request of Archbishop Sinnot, 
 the Sisters taking charge of the parochial school in 
 St. Joseph’s parish; there are 9 Sisters in the mission, 
 and 5 Sisters in the school, with 300 pupils; in 
 January, 1921, two Sisters were sent to teach in St. 
 Alphonsus School in the Archdiocese of St. Boniface, 
 Manitoba, with 110 pupils registered there. St. 
 Anne’s Convent, St. James (Winnipeg), Manitoba, 
 was established in September, 1921, when a com¬ 
 munity house was opened in St. Anne’s parish; 
 there are 4 Sisters in the mission, and 3 Sisters teach 
 in the parochial school, with 143 pupils. St. Joseph’s 
 Hospital, Toronto, was opened in October, 1921, at 
 Sunnyside to relieve the needs of the western section 
 of the city; the hospital at present accomodates 25 
 patients. 
 
 The following distinguished members of the con¬ 
 gregation are recently deceased: Mother M- M. de 
 Pazzi Kennedy (d. 1915), superior general of the 
 congregation for eighteen years, being twice elected 
 
SAINT JOSEPH 
 
 SAINT JOSEPH 
 
 061 
 
 to the office (1887-90, 1902-8); memorials of her zeal 
 are the beautiful chapel in the mother-house, St. 
 Michael’s Hospital, Toronto, and St. Joseph’s 
 Hospital, Port Arthur, erected during her administra¬ 
 tion, and the founding of many libraries for the spread 
 of Catholic literature in poor localities. Sister M. 
 Emerentia Lonergan, esteemed and revered as 
 teacher, literary devotee, and religious, for sixteen 
 years secretary general of the congregation, also 
 editor of “St. Joseph’s Lilies.” Sister M. Austin 
 McKay-Warnock, prominent educationalist and at 
 the time of her death head of the faculty of St. 
 Joseph’s University College, having made a brilliant 
 course of studies there, winning the Edward Blake 
 Scholarship, the George Brown Scholarship, and the 
 Italian prize granted by the minister of foreign 
 affairs for Italy. 
 
 At present (1921) there are 18 foundations of the 
 institute: 13 in the Diocese of Toronto and 5 in 
 Western Canada. The Sisters number 400. Thej^ 
 conduct a university college, 4 academies, 1 high 
 school, and 30 separate schools with a total attendance 
 of 8903 pupils. They are also in charge of 3 hos¬ 
 pitals which have an annual registration of 5891 
 patients, a House of Providence for the poor and the 
 aged with 420 inmates, and an orphanage for 225 
 children. The present superior general is Mother 
 M. Victoria, elected in 1920. 
 
 Sisters of St. Joseph of Annecy (cf. C. E., VIII— 
 515d).—The mother-house of the Sisters of St. Joseph 
 of the English province is at Annecy, Savoy. 
 At present the congregation has 19 houses in 
 France, and 6 in Switzerland. The Sisters in the 
 Province of Annecy are engaged in teaching 10 
 schools for poor children, and 3 boarding schools, 
 each of which latter has a finishing course for training 
 girls in housekeeping. The Sisters have charge 
 of 8 hospitals and hostels, 3 houses where nursing 
 Sisters reside who go to nurse the sick ; n their homes, 
 and from 12 of the existing houses the Sisters visit 
 and tend the sick. They also have .1 orphanage, and 
 in 5 of the houses there are work-rooms and organiza¬ 
 tions for the protection of girls and for procuring them 
 employment. The Sisters of St. Joseph of Annecy, 
 in England, are entirely devoted to the teaching 
 profession. There are 6 houses of the congregation 
 in England: Newport (the provincial house and 
 novitiate), Devizes, Malmesbury, Bristol, Clifton, 
 Taunton. The last was founded in 1920 and the 
 Sisters took charge there of the elementary schools, 
 at the desire of the Bishop of Clifton. The total 
 number of pupils taught by the Sisters in the elemen¬ 
 tary schools in England is about 2500. The Sisters 
 have charge of 10 schools. They also have 2 boarding 
 schools to which are attached large day schools, with 
 a total of about 500 pupils. At Blairs College, 
 Aberdeen, Scotland, there are 13 Sisters in charge 
 of the domestic arrangements and housework of the 
 college. At Newport and in all the other houses of 
 the congregation in England, the Sisters devote 
 their evenings to instructing and preparing non- 
 Catholic women for reception into the Catholic 
 Church. They also visit the sick and poor in their 
 homes as well as in the hospitals, and help many to 
 die well. The Sisters in England (1921) number in 
 all 89 members. In the Province of Vizagapatam, 
 India, the Sisters of St. Joseph are in charge of 8 
 schools, 5 for Europeans and 3 for natives; 2 boarding 
 schools; 4 orphanages; 4 dispensaries; 1 work depot; 
 3 hospitals. The number taught and cared for by 
 the Sisters is about 5000 children and 270 orphans. 
 They nurse in the hospitals and at their homes, 
 about 8200 sick persons every year. In their mis¬ 
 sionary journeys they baptize, on an average, 6000 
 children in articulo mortis. 
 
 Sisters of St. Joseph of Bourg (cf. C. E., VIII— 
 
 516a).—These Sisters, with mother-house at Bourg, 
 have a novitiate at New Orleans, La., in the United 
 States, where they conduct establishments in the 
 archdioceses of Cincinnati, Dubuque, New Orleans, 
 and St. Paul and in the dioceses of Duluth, Natchez, 
 and Superior. There are in the United States 175 
 Sisters in charge of 25 schools, 1 orphan hospital, 1 
 industrial school, 1 asylum, and 1 home for working 
 girls, with 2500 pupils under their instruction. 
 
 Sisters of St. Joseph of Chambery (cf. C. E., VIII— 
 516b).—Mother Leonide continued to govern the 
 congregation until 1919. Her generalate was a 
 troubled one, having witnessed the closing of so many 
 of the houses in France; as assistant, in 1903, she 
 took up the tangled threads of the government at 
 an inauspicious time. It was a great care for her to 
 provide for the needs of so many of her Sisters who 
 were scattered far and wide. In August, 1912, the 
 congregation celebrated the hundredth anniversary of 
 the foundation of the mother-house at Chambery. 
 In the early stages of the war the Sisters had to flee 
 from Odessa, and before the war was over, the 
 Russian province was practically annihilated. While 
 Russia was with the Allies, three of the Hospital 
 Sisters of Petrograd followed the army as nurses, and 
 were captured by the Germans. They were liberated 
 some time later, through the influence of the Danish 
 government, and returned to Petrograd. Under the 
 Soviet Government, several Sisters were imprisoned, 
 some for months, but God ever watched over them. 
 Finally, the Sisters, not being able to render service 
 to their neighbor, and being constantly in danger of 
 imprisonment, decided to leave Russia, with the 
 exception of a few who were Russian subjects, and 
 therefore could not obtain passports. During the 
 occupation of Blegium, the Sisters kept their schools 
 open and, in spite of great privations, lived to witness 
 the return of the King. In the war countries and in the 
 adjacent neutral countries, the Sisters distinguished 
 themselves by the help they gave to the wounded or 
 the passing regiments. Several governments awarded 
 medals and crosses to members of the congregation 
 for the services rendered. A gold medal was awarded 
 to the congregation in token of gratitude by the French 
 government; 55 medals were given to individual 
 Sisters, of which three were from the King of Greece, 
 and six from Queen Elizabeth of Belgium. During 
 the war the Sisters opened an ambulance hospital 
 near the mother-house at Chambery, another at 
 Courbevoie, Seine. The two hospitals of Aix-les- 
 Bains (Savoie) and one at Rumilly (Savoie) were 
 converted into ambulances. In all of these, the 
 Sisters devoted themselves to the care of the wounded 
 and the dying. At the age of eighty-two, after a 
 life devoted to the interests of her congregation, 
 Mother Leonide died at Chambery, 17 January, 1919. 
 
 At the General Chapter held in August, 1919, 
 Mother Mary Sacred Heart was elected superior 
 general. Some months after the Sisters of Tarnopol 
 (Galicia) had to flee before the advancing army of 
 the Bolsheviki and abandon their convent and school. 
 Within the last few years, several houses have been 
 reopened in France, new foundations made and the 
 novitiate has been repeopled. Soon after her election, 
 the superior general undertook a journey to some of 
 the provinces, Rome, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, 
 and Brazil. 
 
 The following new foundations have been made: 
 in Italy; a school, kindergarten, and sewing class 
 (1912) in Tuscany; in Denmark, four schools and one 
 academy; in Brazil, one academy and two hospitals; 
 in the United States: five schools, of which one 
 academy is in Stamford, Conn., one parochial school 
 in West Haven, Conn., a school for boys in Deep 
 River, Conn., two schools in St. Mary’s County, 
 Md. At present 150 houses belong to the congre- 
 
SAINT JOSEPH 
 
 SAINT JOSEPH 
 
 662 
 
 gation, 105 of which are outside of France. There 
 are about 1830 Sisters in the institute. Their work 
 is educational and charitable. The institute has 
 hospitals, schools, homes for the aged, orphan asylums 
 and one refuge for lepers. The schools are parochial, 
 high schools, academies for young ladies, training 
 schools for nurses. In France, since the persecu¬ 
 tions, a large number of sewing-classes have been 
 opened for young girls, also sanitariums for the pre¬ 
 vention of tuberculosis, for war-orphans, or otherwise 
 afflicted persons. In the American province alone, 
 there are about 11,703 patients cared for yearly. 
 There are about 3345 pupils attending the parochial 
 schools; about 1700 in the Sunday-school classes. 
 
 As the rule has been revised at Rome to meet the 
 requirements of a generalate in 1874 and to obtain 
 papal approbation, few changes had to be made to 
 meet the requirements of the new Canon Law. 
 The term of office for local superiors, however, has 
 been limited to three years and, exceptionally, to 
 six years. 
 
 Sisters of St. Joseph of St. Vallier (cf. C. E., VIII— 
 516d).—This congregation, with mother-house at 
 St. Vallier, France, has a provincial house, novitiate, 
 and boarding school in Quebec, and 7 other founda¬ 
 tions in Canada, all of which are model and element¬ 
 ary schools and 3 of which are boarding schools as 
 well. 
 
 Little Daughters op St. Joseph (cf. C. E., 
 VIII—-517a).—The community now has two houses 
 in Montreal, the original foundation at 45 rue Notre 
 Dame de Lourdes and the new mother-house at 989 
 rue Sherbrooke Ouest, erected in 1911. There are 
 109 professed Sisters, 13 novices, and 4 postulants. 
 The superior general is Sister Marie-Philomene. 
 
 Polish Franciscan Sisters of St. Joseph (cf. 
 C. E., VIII—517b).—This community, with mother- 
 house and novitiate at St. Joseph’s Convent, Stevens 
 Point, Wisconsin, numbers 381 professed Sisters, 
 70 novices, and 33 postulants. They are in charge 
 of 39 schools with 21,468 pupils. 
 
 Sisters of St. Joseph of Peace (cf. C. E., VIII 
 —517c).—In 1909 there was an election of a general 
 superior at the mother-house, in Nottingham, Eng¬ 
 land, and Mother Teresa was elected for a second 
 term of six years. At the expiration of this time, in 
 1915, a general chapter could not be convened owing 
 to difficulty in travelling during war time. Dis¬ 
 pensation was therefore obtained each year until 
 1919, when the chapter assembled at Englewood, 
 N. J., and elected Mother Agatha superior general 
 for six years. In May, 1910, the constitutions, which 
 had been previously submitted to the Sacred Con¬ 
 gregation of Religious for approval, were returned 
 with directions to have them altered to conform to the 
 requirements of the Revised Code of Canon Law. 
 
 The Sisters have charge of the following homes for 
 working girls: St. Joseph’s, Jersey City, opened in 
 1885; a large summer home at Englewood, N. J., 
 erected in 1888; the Hotel Washington, Jersey City, 
 purchased in 1902, and accommodating 100; Loretto 
 Hall, at Newark, N. J., opened in 1915 and enlarged 
 in 1918, with accommodations for 100, and extensive 
 adjoining grounds for outdoor exercise, and purchased 
 in 1921; Villa Lourdes, Englewood,erected in 1916 as a 
 summer vacation house for St. Mary’s and Loretto 
 Hall; St. Teresa’s at Seattle, Wash., accommodating 
 only 50 girls, bought in 1909, and the work trans¬ 
 ferred in 1921 to the Terry Hotel, accommodating 
 170, and purchased through the zeal of Bishop 
 O’Dea; Rosary Hall, Vancouver, B.C. ; opened in 
 1914 and enlarged to double its capacity in 1919. 
 The following hospitals are under their care: St. 
 Joseph’s, Bellingham, Wash., established in 1890, 
 removed to a more suitable location and enlarged in 
 1900, and enlarged to double its capacity in 1909; 
 
 M. M. Hospital, Rossland, B.C., established m 
 1896 and enlarged for the jubilee in 1921; St. Anthony’s 
 Wenatchee, Wash., established in 1916, and a new 
 building accommodating 60 patients erected in 1921. 
 The hospitals in Greenwood, B.C., and in Seward, 
 Alaska (founded 1915), were closed in 1918 owing to 
 war conditions. The Domestic Science School 
 Jersey City, was closed as the site was needed for 
 building for another purpose. The school for the 
 Blind at Jersey City, purchased in 1909, was added 
 to in 1915, and now has accommodations for 200. 
 At Englewood in 1912 accommodation was provided 
 for orphan boys who were removed from York St., 
 Jersey City; the orphan girls remained at York St. 
 An office was erected for the “Orphan’s Messenger” 
 in 1912, where boys are taught printing and girls 
 office work. In 1916 Mrs. Barbara Givernaud 
 donated her estate at Homestead, N. J., to be used as 
 an orphanage for boys and girls between the ages of 
 two and seven years; the Givernaud Orphanage ac¬ 
 commodates 115. In 1917 Mr. and Mrs. T. J. 
 Maloney donated their estate at Waldwick, N. J., 
 to the Sisters; the farm at St. Joseph’s Villa is cul¬ 
 tivated for the benefit of the orphans and in 1920 a 
 school was opened on the estate. But later on St. 
 Luke’s parochial school was opened on church grounds 
 with an attendance of 138. In the same year St. 
 Joseph’s High School at Nelson, B. C., was erected. 
 In 1921 a school was opened in Vancouver, B. C. 
 
 A new convent in Nottingham, England, was pur¬ 
 chased in 1910, and a club house for working girls was 
 erected in Nottingham in 1912. A new convent was 
 purchased in London, England, in 1921. 
 
 The total number of members in the community 
 is 222, and there are 21 foundations. There are 
 4 homes for working girls, accommodating 420; 
 
 1 home for the blind, accommodating 200; 4 or¬ 
 phanages with capacity for 450 children; 6 parochial 
 schools with an attendance of 1170; 4 middle class 
 schools with an attendance of 350; 3 hospitals with 
 1530 patients treated annually; 3400 visits to the sick 
 poor annually; 280,000 publication memberships of 
 the “Orphan’s Messenger” with an annual corres¬ 
 pondence of 110,000. Sodalities and Sunday schools 
 are connected with most of the institutions. 
 
 Sisters of St. Joseph of St. Hyacinthe (cf. 
 C. E., VIII—518b).—This congregation, with 
 mother-house at St. Hyacinthe, Canada, has 3 
 elementary and model schools in St. Hyacinthe, 
 22 outside the city and within the diocesan limits, 
 
 2 in the Diocese of St. Boniface, and 1 in the Diocese ' 
 of Regina. There are 265 professed Sisters, 23 
 novices, 12 postulants, and 46 juvenists. 
 
 Sisters of St. Joseph of the Apparition (cf. 
 C. E., VIII—518b), a congregation founded in 
 1830 at Gaillac (Tarn), France, by Mile. Emdie de . 
 Vialar, who placed it under the patronage of St. 
 Joseph. The institute has for its principal object to 
 honor the mystery of the Incarnation revealed to 
 St. Joseph, thus the title of “The Apparition.” The 
 Sisters devote themselves to the education of chil¬ 
 dren, rich and poor, and the care of the sick of all 
 classes; and in the missions all kinds of charitable 
 works are undertaken. They have numerous estab¬ 
 lishments in different parts of the world; there are 
 31 in the English colonies. In addition to many 
 hospitals, homes, orphanages, and dispensaries, there 
 are 120 houses mostly for education. The number of 
 pupils in 1920 was about 18,200; orphans 1100; 
 113,537 people were attended in the dispensaries; 
 5845 were admitted into the hospitals for a long 
 period and 285,998 for a short time only. The 
 Manchester home for aged, infirm, and sick ladies 
 of every creed will have to be enlarged to accomodate 
 its many patrons. There are 1200 members of the 
 congregation, many of whom have received dis- 
 
SAINT JOSEPH 
 
 663 
 
 SAINT LOUIS 
 
 tinctions such as the Legion of Honor, Academic 
 Palms, Gold and Silver Medal decorations, etc. 
 The mother-house is at Marseilles. The institute 
 is governed by a mother general and four assistants, 
 and is divided into provinces with a mother pro¬ 
 vincial for each. The constitutions of the order are 
 adapted to the Rule of St. Augustine and were 
 modified according to the new Code of Canon Law 
 when they were finally approved in January, 1910. 
 The present superior general is Mother Celine J. 
 Le Bouffo, unanimously re-elected for the fourth 
 time. 
 
 Sisters of St. Joseph of the Most Sacred 
 Heart of Jesus (cf. C. E., VIII—518c).—The 
 rules and constitutions of this community were 
 approved by Pope Pius IX in 1874, Sister Mary 
 (Mackillop) having gone to Rome in the preceding 
 year to obtain papal approbation. In 1881 Pope 
 Leo XIII sent a rescript authorizing the establish¬ 
 ment of the mother-house in Sydney and in 1888 he 
 raised the institute to a congregation. Final approba¬ 
 tion of the constitutions of the congregation was 
 granted by Pope Benedict XV, 18 January, 1920. 
 The first mother general was Mother Mary of the 
 Cross (Mackillop), who was succeeded by Mother 
 Bernard and re-elected upon the latter’s death in 
 1898. Mother Mary had not completed her second 
 term as superior when she died in 1909, and was 
 succeeded by Mother M. Baptista (d. 1918). The 
 present mother general is Mother M. Laurence, 
 elected 1918. The congregation is spread thoughout 
 Australia and New Zealand, and numbers: 1219 
 Sisters, 183 houses, 11 charitable institutions with 
 2409 inmates, 209 schools with 26,401 pupils. 
 
 Saint Joseph, Sons of (cf. C. E., VIII—519c).— 
 The centenary of the foundation of the institute was 
 celebrated privately because of the war, on 1 May, 
 1917. The term of the present superior general, 
 Fr. Felix de Vlieghe, expires in 1922. The rules 
 of the congregation, revised to conform with the Code 
 of Canon Law, have been submitted to the Holy See 
 for approval. The Fathers have as their special 
 work the education of boys of the high and middle 
 classes in boarding and day schools. They have 
 four institutions as follows: Grammont, with an at¬ 
 tendance of 450 boys; Melle, with 330 boys; Louvain, 
 with 600 boys; Weybridge, with 150 boys; making 
 a total of 1530 boys under their instruction. The 
 Belgian houses suffered much during the World 
 War, but they are still maintained and in repair. 
 The congregation numbers 100 members, of w'hom 
 54 are priests. 
 
 Saint Joseph’s Society for Colored Missions (cf. 
 C. E., VIII—521c), commonly called the Josephite 
 Fathers, had its origin in the foundation of St. 
 Joseph’s Foreign Missionary Society, established at 
 Mill Hill, England, 1866, by Herbert Cardinal 
 Vaughan. In 1871 the first band of missionaries 
 to set out from Mill Hill came to Baltimore and was 
 assigned to St. Francis Xavier’s church. Afterwards 
 missions were established in Louisville, Charleston, 
 Norfolk, Richmond, Washington, and other places 
 in the South. Some years later, the bishops who 
 assembled in the Third Plenary Council of Baltimore, 
 expressed the necessity of providing for an organiza¬ 
 tion of priests who should labor exclusively for the 
 conversion of the colored people of the United States. 
 Accordingly, in 1892, through a Memorial addressed 
 by Cardinal Gibbons to Cardinal Vaughan, the 
 Society in the United States was made independent 
 of Mill Hill and, under the title of St. Joseph’s 
 Society of the Sacred Heart for Colored Missions, 
 established its mother-house in Baltimore. St. 
 Joseph’s Society is a congregation of secular priests 
 
 depending in a direct way upon the Holy See and 
 engaged exclusively in laboring for the conversion of 
 the negro race. The Society is governed by a superior 
 general who is elected for a period of six years by a 
 general chapter, and is assisted by a council of four 
 consultors. The present superior general, the Very 
 Rev. Louis B. Pastorelli, was elected'in June, 1918. 
 
 Since the American foundation in 1892, the Society, 
 then few in numbers, has developed steadily in 
 membership and in influence in the work for which it 
 was established. At present there is a membership 
 of 73 priests, in charge of 47 parishes and 24 attached 
 missions. These are scattered throughout 15 dioceses, 
 situated for the most part in the South. There are 
 
 6 missions in Alabama, 1 in Arkansas, 2 in Delaware, 
 1 in the District of Columbia, 2 in Florida, 11 in 
 Louisiana, 4 in Maryland, 4 in Mississippi, 2 in North 
 Carolina, 1 in New York, at Buffalo, 3 in Tennessee, 
 
 7 in Texas, and 3 in Virginia. Their missionary 
 activities extend to all Southern States with the 
 exception of Georgia and South Carolina. Efforts are 
 made to build up an educational system in both 
 urban and rural communities. Besides conducting 
 51 parochial grammar schools, there has been a 
 recent development of high school departments of 
 which at present there are four. At this date there 
 is an enrollment of 8606 colored pupils. In addition 
 to activities in the mission field itself, St. Joseph’s 
 Society conducts St. Joseph’s Seminar}', the mother- 
 house, in Baltimore, where aspirants are trained for 
 the colored missions; Epiphany Apostolic College, 
 Walbrook, Baltimore, a preparatory college for 
 St. Joseph’s Seminary; St. Joseph’s Industrial 
 School, Clayton, Delaware; an agricultural and 
 trade school for colored boys; and St. Joseph’s 
 Orphanage, Wilmington, Delaware, for colored boys. 
 The “Colored Harvest,” bi-monthly, is the official 
 organ of the Josephite Fathers, published in Balti¬ 
 more. “St. Anthony’s Guide” is the monthly organ 
 of St. Joseph’s Industrial School, Clayton, Del. 
 
 Louis B. Pastorelli. 
 
 Saint Joseph's Society for Foreign Missions. 
 
 See Foreign Missions, Saint Joseph’s Society for. 
 
 Saint Louis, Archdiocese of (Sancti Ludovici; 
 cf. C. E., XIII—357c), in Missouri. Among the 
 Catholics in the Archdiocese of St. Louis there are 
 many and various nationalities; aside from the 
 descendants of the early Irish and German people 
 we find those of Polish extraction and Polish immigra¬ 
 tion, many of French extraction, and a decided 
 number of Italians, Slovaks, Lithuanians, Bohem¬ 
 ians, and some few from Spain, Mexico, Austria, 
 and Servia. During the past few years many notable 
 clergymen and laymen have departed this life. 
 Among the clergy were: Rt. Rev. P. W. Tallon, 
 president of the Kenrick Seminary Board and pastor 
 of the Visitation Church, St. Louis, Mo.; Rev. 
 David S. Phelan, editor of the ‘Western Watchman,” 
 a man as brave as he was learned, and one who ac¬ 
 complished much for Catholic journalism during his 
 days. Among the laymen were: Wm. J. Kinsella, 
 the vice-president of the Calvary Cemetery board; 
 Edward Devoy, the president of the St. Vincent de 
 Paul Society; and Theophile Papin, Jr., a member 
 of the Cathedral Association. Many events of im¬ 
 portance have transpired since 1912; among them 
 were the visits of Their Excellencies, Cardinal 
 Vannutelli and Cardinal Mercier. There have been 
 many impressive and memorable celebrations, one 
 of which was the celebration held at the Old Cathedral 
 on Sunday, 6 January, 1918, commemorating the 
 Centennial of the coming to St. Louis of the Rt. Rev. 
 Bishop DuBourg. Pontifical High Mass was cele¬ 
 brated at the Old Cathedral Church with the Most 
 Rev. Jeremiah Hartv, Archbishop of Omaha, as 
 
SAINT MARTIN 
 
 664 
 
 SAINT MARY 
 
 the celebrant. His Grace, the Archbishop of St. 
 Louis, preached the sermon. An appropriate sou¬ 
 venir containing a brief historical sketch of St. Louis 
 100 years ago was published by the Catholic Historical 
 Society of St. Louis, An afternoon service was held 
 at the St. Louis New Cathedral, at which a number 
 of old French canticles were sung by a select choir, 
 and an address made by the Rt. Rev. Mgr. P. W. 
 Tallon, on the early French Catholic days in Missouri. 
 The two celebrations, however, that stand out most 
 prominently, were the dedication of the new Kenrick 
 Seminary, and the blessing and formal opening of the 
 New Cathedral on Lindell Boulevard. 
 
 On 21 April, 1913, on a choice tract of land out¬ 
 side the city limits, called Glennon Park, the Most 
 Rev. John J. Glennon turned the first spade of earth 
 for the foundation of the new Kenrick Seminary. 
 The laying of the corner stone of this institution took 
 place on Thanksgiving day, 27 November, 1913. 
 On 12 September, 1915, visitors’ day, a crowd rated 
 close to 25,000, was admitted to inspect the completed 
 buildings just before the opening of the scholastic 
 year. The opening of the new seminary for class 
 work took place on 15 September; the solemn dedica¬ 
 tion of the institution on 27 April, 1916. Archbishop 
 Glennon blessed the new buildings and the stately 
 chapel. Pontifical Mass was celebrated by His 
 Excellency, the Most Rev. John Bonzano, D.D., 
 Apostolic Delegate. The sermon was preached 
 by His Grace, the Most Rev. Archbishop Edward 
 J. Hanna, D.D., of San Francisco, California. 
 Twenty-two members of the hierarchy and more 
 than 350 prelates and priests from every part of the 
 United States assisted at the function. 
 
 The dedication of the New St. Louis Cathedral 
 took place on 18 October, 1914. The ceremony was 
 the simple blessing of the new church as found in the 
 Roman ritual. Archbishop John J. Glennon of¬ 
 ficiated in this ceremony. After the blessing Ponti¬ 
 fical Mass was celebrated by the Rt Rev. Bishop 
 John J. Hennessy, D.D., of Wichita, Kansas. He 
 was assisted by the Rt. Rev. Mgr. Joseph A. Connolly, 
 V.G., P.R., as assistant priest. The Revs. J. J. 
 Tannrath, chancellor of the archdiocese, and James 
 T. Coffey, pastor of St. Leo’s Church, St. Louis, were 
 deacons of honor; the Rev. F. J. Jones, deacon of the 
 Mass, and the Rev. E. J. Lembes, sub-deacon. 
 Archbishop Glennon, who preached the sermon, was 
 attended by the Very Rev. M. S. Ryan, C. M., 
 president of the Kenrick Seminary, and the Rev. 
 P. W. Tallon, rector of the Visitation Church, as 
 deacons of honor. The Rev. Martin S. Brennan 
 was master of ceremonies, assisted by the Rev. John 
 P. Spencer, S. T. L. Though the function was very 
 simple,the Rt. Rev. Bishops Thos. F. Lillis of Kansas 
 City, John Ward of Leavenworth, John Cunningham 
 of Concordia, Morris Francis Burke of St. Joseph, 
 Richard Scanned of Omaha, honored the occasion 
 with their presence. At the time there was no 
 permanent altar in the cathedral and the Mass was 
 celebrated at a temporary altar brought from the 
 abandoned cathedral chapel. The cathedral itself was 
 in an unfinished state throughout and the only relief 
 from bare brick was afforded by the Lady Chapel 
 which was finished in Italian mosaics. About 30 
 priests were present and a full choir of 200 seminarians 
 from the Kenrick Seminary, assisted by a male 
 choir of 40 under the direction of Prof. Camille 
 Becker, chanted the Gregorian Mass of the dedica¬ 
 tion. Over 7000 people were present. About 5000 
 of these were within the building and the other 2000 
 were grouped in the vestibule and at the Lindell 
 Boulevard front along the Newstead Avenue side of 
 the edifice. The seating capacity of the cathedral is 
 2500, with the galleries about 3500, its ultimate 
 capacity being 5000 to 6000 persons. Its greatest 
 
 length is 365 feet, its greatest width 204 feet. The 
 area of the clear or open auditorium is 13,500 square 
 feet. The height of the main dome is 227 feet. 
 The exterior is close textured gray granite from Con¬ 
 cord, N. H. Interiorly the cathedral is brick set in 
 cement, which later is to be overlaid with mosaic 
 and marble. The estimated cost of the cathedral 
 was $3,000,000. 
 
 Statistics for the archdiocese are: 425,692 Catholics, 
 300 parishes, 379 churches, 79 missions, 79 stations, 
 4 monasteries for men, 20 convents for men, 360 
 secular priests, 242 regular priests, 12 seminaries, 
 
 1 university, 4 colleges for men, 17 academies for 
 young girls, 10 high schools with an attendance of 
 1766, 3 training schools, 120 elementary schools with 
 an attendance of 38,000, 6 industrial schools with an 
 attendance of 1000, 6 missionary works, 9 homes, 
 6 asylums, 10 hospitals, 4 refuges, 5 settlement 
 houses, 4 day nurseries. 
 
 Saint Martin de Pannonia. See Martinsberg. 
 
 St. Mary, Sisters of (Beaverton, Ore.), founded 
 in 1886 by Archbishop Gross of Oregon City. The 
 number of Catholics in the archdiocese at that time 
 was small, and they were scattered over a large 
 territory. The archbishop, recognizing from the first 
 the value of Catholic education as a potent factor in 
 spreading and preserving the faith, was anxious to 
 establish parochial schools throughout the arch¬ 
 diocese, and to accomplish this great work more suc¬ 
 cessfully founded the Congregation of the Sisters of 
 St. Mary, at Sublimity, Oregon. On the feast of the 
 Assumption, 1886, five young women consecrated their 
 lives to the service of the Divine Master. An old, 
 abandoned school building which, together with a 
 tract of land, had been donated to the archbishop for 
 educational purposes, served as the first mother- 
 house of the little community. They made their 
 novitiate under the direction of the Benedictines, and 
 during that time laid the foundation of their spiritual 
 life. The object of the congregation is to labor in¬ 
 cessantly for the salvation and instruction of youth 
 in academies and parochial schools. Archbishop 
 Gross, as the founder of the community, took an 
 active interest in its spiritual and temporal progress. 
 He confided the spiritual direction of the community 
 to Father Wernher, O. S. B., who, after three years 
 of zealous labors, died 1 January, 1889, and was suc¬ 
 ceeded by the Rev. Joseph Fessler. After a growth 
 of six years the community spread to other fields of 
 labor. In January, 1891, the first mission-house was 
 opened at Verboort, Ore. Two months later the 
 Sisters assumed charge of the diocesan orphanage 
 at St. Mary’s near Beaverton. Vocations steadily 
 increased. The erection of a larger building with 
 suitable accommodations became an imperative need. 
 Sublimity had no railroad facilities, and it was de¬ 
 cided to seek another situation for a new mother-house. 
 A tract of land beautifully situated at St. Mary’s, 
 within easy reach of Portland, was donated by a 
 generous benefactor for this purpose. On 15 August, 
 1893, the corner-stone was laid, and in the following 
 January the archbishop solemnly dedicated the con¬ 
 vent to Our Lady of Perpetual Help. With this 
 approval, the novitiate was transferred from Sub¬ 
 limity to St. Mary’s. The community was now es¬ 
 tablished on a solid basis and a code of rules approved 
 by the archbishop was adopted. On 2 Nov., 1898, 
 the founder of the community died. Six months 
 later he was succeeded in the archepiscopal see oy 
 the Rt. Rev. Alexander Christie, formerly Bishop of 
 Victoria, B. C. Under his supervision the Sisters 
 of St. Mary progressed, and their rules were revised 
 and perfected by the Jesuit Fathers. At present 
 (1922) the Sisters conduct two academies for girls and 
 
SAINT MARY 
 
 665 
 
 SAINT MARY’S 
 
 young ladies, a hoarding-school for small boys, and 
 the diocesan home for orphan boys; they are also in 
 charge of the parochial schools in St. Stephen’s, St. 
 Agatha’s, St. Andrew’s, and Holy Cross parishes, in 
 Portland, and parochial schools in Milwaukee, 
 Sublimity, Verboort, St. Louis, Gervais, Tillamook, 
 Roy, Beaverton, and Hillsboro, all in the Archdiocese 
 of Oregon City. There are 113 professed Sisters, 5 
 novices, and 2 postulants, with 1440 pupils. 
 
 SainUMary, Sisters of (Namur, Belgium).—This 
 institute, whose sole purpose is the education of 
 young girls, was founded in 1819, in the old city of 
 Namur, Belgium, where the mother-house of the 
 order is located and it was canonically approved by 
 the Holy See. Early in 1861 the renowned missionary 
 Rev. P. J. DeSmet, S. J., while making a short 
 sojourn in his native land visited Namur, and during 
 an interview with Rev. Mother Claire removed all 
 doubts as to the advisability of complying wth his 
 request to send Sisters to America. Bishop Timon 
 of Buffalo, had long desired to procure a community 
 of foreign nuns to conduct schools in his diocese. 
 Accordingly upon the bishop’s initiative negotiations 
 were entered into and in August, 1863, five Sisters 
 set sail for America. Fr. Smarius, S. J., acted as their 
 guide and protector. These religious were Sister 
 Emelie, superior and later first provincial of the 
 American missions, Sisters Mary Claver, Mary of 
 Saint Joseph, Augustine, and Paula. Of that little 
 band one still survives. This aged religious has 
 enjoyed the unusual experience of having welcomed to 
 Saint Joseph’s Academy six successive bishops of 
 Buffalo. Lockport, N. Y., the first American mission 
 naturally became the provincial mother-house. 
 Bishop Timon having been one of the first missionary 
 priests of Texas, was not unmindful of the needs of 
 the South, and in response to an appeal made by 
 Bishop Dubois of Galveston, he asked Mother Emelie 
 to send a community to that diocese. The mis¬ 
 sions in the South spread rapidly. In 1921 Texas 
 became a separate province. Meanwhile the tree 
 planted in 1863 was spreading out other branches. 
 At present the institute comprises three provinces in 
 America besides those in Europe, namely: the North, 
 with the provincial house at Lockport, N. Y.; Canada, 
 with provincial house at Ottawa; and Texas, with 
 provincial house at Fort Worth. Belgium and 
 England constitute the provinces of Europe. The 
 novices in each province are assigned to duties within 
 that province. Special facilities for the training 
 of teachers are afforded. Saint Mary’s House of 
 Studies enjoys the honor of being the first permanent 
 building of the Sisters College of the Catholic Uni¬ 
 versity of America, Washington, D. C. This enables 
 the American Sisters to pursue university courses 
 of study and to obtain degrees as the European Sisters 
 do at Oxford and Louvain. Saint Joseph’s Academy, 
 Lockport, is chartered under the Albany Board of 
 Regents. In 1921 the Sisters in America numbered 
 282, with 13 novices, 14 postulants, and 6538 pupils. 
 
 Saint Mary, Sisters of (St. Louis, Mo.), a con¬ 
 gregation of nursing Sisters founded in St. Louis, Mo., 
 in 1872, by five members of the Servants of the 
 Divine Heart of Jesus, who migrated from Elberfield, 
 Germany, during the persecutions of the Kultur- 
 karnpf. The original order was founded in Paris 
 in 1866 with the consent of Archbishop Darboy for 
 the nursing of orphans. Two of its members being 
 German were compelled to leave France during the 
 Franco-Prussian War and established a temporary 
 home at Elberfield, where they devoted themselves 
 to the nursing of wounded soldiers. These were 
 Sisters Ottilia and Magdalena, who in 1872, with 
 Sisters Elizabeth, Francisca, and Marianna, accepted 
 
 the invitation of Mgr. Muehlsiepen, Vicar General of 
 St. Louis, to settle in that archdiocese. The Sisters 
 rented three rooms opposite St. Mary’s Church, and 
 the pastor of this church, Fr. Faerber (d. 1905), 
 became their spiritual adviser and lifelong friend. 
 Soon after their arrival a smallpox epidemic gave 
 them opportunity for active service; this was followed 
 in 1873 by cholera, and in 1878 by yellow fever. In 
 the latter year the community numbered 38 members, 
 of whom eight went to Memphis, Tenn., and five to 
 Canton, Miss., to nurse the yellow fever victims; 
 these thirteen Sisters contracted the disease and five 
 of them died. A building had been erected for the 
 community in 1873, and became their first mother- 
 house. They were incorporated under the laws of 
 the State of Missouri in 1874 as Sisters of St. Mary 
 of St. Louis, Mo. On 4 October, 1880, Mother 
 Ottilia and sixteen other Sisters made their first 
 vows in the presence of Mgr. Muehlsiepen in accord¬ 
 ance with the Rules of the Third Order Regular of 
 St. Francis and the particular constitutions of the 
 Sisters of St. Mary. A few days after this event 
 (17 Oct.) Mother Ottilia died and was succeeded as 
 superior by Mother Seraphia (d. 1912) who remained 
 in office till 1910, when Mother Aloysia was elected 
 superior. She was succeeded in 1921 by Mother 
 Concordia, formerly mistress of novices. The present 
 mother-house and novitiate is St. Mary’s Infirmary 
 (St. Louis), opened for occupancy in 1889. Rt. 
 Rev. O. S. J. Hoog, Vicar General of St. Louis, is 
 the spiritual adviser of the community, which now 
 numbers 307 Sisters and 30 novices. Fr. Henry 
 Henry Jaegering (d. 1919) was the faithful chaplain 
 of St. Mary’s Infirmary for thirty-seven years. 
 
 From 1895 till 1905 the Sisters assumed charge of 
 the German Hospital (now Research Hospital), 
 Kansas City, Mo., at the invitation of the hospital 
 directors. In 1904 they decided to build a hospital 
 of their own in that city, and the new St. Mary’s 
 Hospital was completed in 1909. Connected with it 
 is a training school for nurses organized in 1916, with 
 a present attendance of 50 students. The number of 
 patients cared for at this hospital in 1920 was 4705, 
 of whom 565 were free patients, 1214 Catholics, 
 and 3491 non-Catholics. Since its completion (1909) 
 the hospital has received 38,255 patients, of whom 
 6488 were free patients. It has a capacity of 175 
 beds. In addition to this and St. Mary’s Infirmary, 
 with a capacity of 150 beds, the Sisters have 5 other 
 hospitals: Mt. St. Rose Sanatorium, for diseases of 
 the throat and chest, opened at St. Louis, Mo., in 
 1902, with a capacity of 150 beds; St. Joseph’s 
 Hospital, St. Charles Mo., founded 1885, capacity, 
 35 beds; St. Mary’s Hospital, Jefferson City, Mo., 
 opened in 1905 with a capacity of 45 beds; St. 
 Francis Hospital, Blue Island, Ill., first building 
 opened for patients 1905, new hospital opened 1916, 
 capacity 100 beds; St. Mary’s Hospital, Madison, 
 Wis., opened in 1913, capacity, 75 beds. 
 
 Saint Mary’s College, at Prairie du Chien, in the 
 State of Wisconsin, U. S. A., is an outgrowth of St. 
 Mary’s Institute and was established in 1872. The 
 college occupies the site of Fort Crawford, which 
 was built in 1829 by Colonel, afterwards President, 
 Zachary Taylor, and served as a bulwark against 
 the Indians. Government troops were withdrawn 
 from it in 1859, and it was purchased in the sixties 
 by Mr. John Lawlor, who, with the assistance of 
 Mgr. P. M. Abbelen and Mother Caroline, foundress 
 of the Order of School Sisters of Notre Dame, in 
 America, established the Institute for the furtherance 
 of Catholic education. In 1897 its name was legally 
 changed to St. Mary’s Academy, made famous in 
 1910 by the erection on its extensive grounds of a 
 splendid monument to Father Marquette. In 1913 
 
SAINT MARY’S 
 
 666 
 
 SAINT-PIERRE 
 
 college courses were opened and since then the progress 
 of the college has been rapid. It comprises a good 
 laboratory, gymnasium, and a library of 5000 
 volumes. A monthly paper, the “News-Letter,” 
 published here, will be developed into a quarterly 
 magazine in June, 1922, in commemoration of the 
 golden jubilee of the foundation. Student organiza¬ 
 tions comprise the League of the Sacred Heart, 
 Sodality of the Immaculate Conception, The Cru¬ 
 saders, Missionary Sewing Circle, Les Deux Pleiades, 
 Dramatic Club, and Musical Societies. Eight 
 religious and 1 lay teacher, all university graduates, 
 compose the faculty. The present registration (1922) 
 numbers 235 students. 
 
 Saint Mary’s Seminary, Baltimore, was founded al¬ 
 most simultaneously with the establishment of the 
 American hierarchy, as it was formally opened under 
 the patronage of the first American bishop, the 
 lit. Rev. John Carroll, on 3 October, 1791. The 
 Seminary was in charge of the Sulpician Fathers 
 under the Rev. Francis Nagot, with three priests and 
 five seminarians. In 1804 the rank and privilege of 
 a State University were granted to the Seminary by 
 the Maryland Assembly and in 1822 Pope Pius VII 
 solemnly conferred upon it the title, rights, and 
 privileges of a Catholic University. A complete 
 faculty of able professors was maintained during 
 the administrations of Frs. Nagot (1791-1810), 
 John M. Tessier (1810-29), and Louis R. Deluol 
 (1829-49), and?although the students were very 
 few they included some of the most zealous mission¬ 
 aries and prominent churchmen of the time. An era 
 of growth and prosperity for the Seminary was ushered 
 in, however, with the establishment of St. Charles 
 College, Ellicott City, Md., in 1848, and under 
 the administration of Frs. Francis Lhomme (1848- 
 60), Alphonse Magnien (1878-1902), and R. Dyer 
 (1902- ) the institution has made marked progress. 
 
 Since 1853 St. Mary’s Seminary has been exclusively 
 a theological seminary with philosophy and theology 
 courses. In the year 1920-21 there were 21 members 
 in the faculty and a registration of 320 students, of 
 whom 56 were ordained priests. The number of de¬ 
 grees conferred was as follows: B.A., 20; M.A., 15; 
 Bachelor of Theology, 6; Doctor of Canon Law, 1; 
 Doctor of Letters, 1. 
 
 Saint Maurice en Valais, Abbey Nullius of. 
 
 See Agaunum * 
 
 Saint Paul, Archdiocese of (Sancti Pauli; 
 cf. C. E., XIII—366d), in Minnesota. On 25 Sep¬ 
 tember, 1918, occurred the death of Archbishop John 
 Ireland (q. v.). He was succeeded by Most Rev. 
 Austin Dowling, who was ordained 24 June, 1891, 
 appointed Bishop of Des Moines, Iowa, 31 January, 
 1912, consecrated 25 April following, nominated Arch¬ 
 bishop of St. Paul, 1 February, 1919. The campaign 
 for educational works of the archdiocese in October 
 and November, 1920, secured $5,700,000 in pledged 
 subscriptions. The Catholic population of the arch¬ 
 diocese is about 265,000 of various nationalities, the 
 French and German elements predominating. A 
 Catholic newspaper called the “Catholic Bulletin” is 
 published at St. Paul. Bureaus of Catholic Charities 
 are established in St. Paul and Minneapolis. There 
 are in the archdiocese: 200 parishes, 262 churches, 62 
 missions, 3 convents for men, 295 secular priests, 51 
 regular priests, 1380 Sisters, 2 seminaries with 170 
 seminarians, 1 college for men with 48 professors and 
 850 students, 22 high schools with 143 teachers and 
 3171 pupils, 1 normal school with an attendance of 
 56, 105 elementary schools with 600 teachers and 
 23,692 pupils, 4 homes, 3 asylums, 3 hospitals, 1 
 refuge, 2 settlement houses. The Priests’ Eucharistic 
 
 League and the Apostolic Union are established among 
 the clergy. 
 
 Saint Paul of Hungary, Hermits of (cf. C. E., 
 
 XI—587c).—In 1864 the Pauline Order had in 
 Russian Poland 19 convents, but in the same year 
 these foundations were annihilated by the Russian 
 government. Only one, Jg,sna Gora (Czestochowa), 
 in the Diocese of Wladislaw, remained. In Austrian 
 Poland, after the edict of the Emperor Joseph II 
 all the Pauline convents were closed, except that at 
 Skalka, in the Diocese of Cracow. The German 
 government was always opposed to Polish orders, hence 
 there were never any Pauline convents in Prussian 
 Poland. Immediately after the end of the war 
 (1919) the order recovered one of its ancient founda¬ 
 tions at Lesna, near Brest Litovsk, in the'Diocese of 
 Podlachia. . In 1920 these three Pauline convents, 
 at Jasna Gora, Skalka, and Lesna, elected as general 
 superior Fr. Peter Markiewicz. He was born at 
 Kalisz in 1877, made his ecclesiastical studies at 
 Wladislaw and higher theological studies at Rome, 
 and was ordained in 1906. The last general superior 
 had died in 1871, since which time the Russian 
 government had forbidden the election of a successor. 
 
 The Pauline Order is now beginning to extend its 
 work, endeavoring to recover its ancient foundations, 
 and has a rule conformed to the new Code of Canon 
 Law. There are 46 members of the order. An ec¬ 
 clesiastical school or juvenate for boys who feel 
 inclined to enter the religious life, has been establish¬ 
 ed. The order also directs some religious and pious 
 congregations in Czestochowa. In Lesna the mem¬ 
 bers have parochial duties as well as the spiritual 
 care and direction of the teachers’ seminary there. 
 
 The novitiate and house of studies are in Cracow. 
 
 In 1915 occurred the death of Fr. Justin Welonski, 
 who had been prior since 1910, previously rector of 
 the ecclesiastical seminary at Plock, and had entered 
 the order as a rector. 
 
 Saint Paul-without-the-Walls (San Paolo 
 
 fuori le Mura; cf. C. E., XIII—369b), a Benedic¬ 
 tine abbey nullius of the Cassinese Congregation, and 
 one of the patriarchal churches of Rome, dependent 
 directly on the Holy See. On 13 March, 1918, 
 occurred the death of the Abbot Nullius Dom Gio¬ 
 vanni del Papa, O.S.B., b. 1850, professed 1871, I 
 ordained 1876, elected 23 September, 1904, blessed 
 13 November following. He was succeeded by Dom 
 Ildefonso Schuster, O.S.B., b. 1880, professed 1899, 
 ordained 1904, elected 6 April, 1918, blessed 13 April 
 following. The abbey nullius has 3 parishes, 13 
 churches, 4 secular priests, 25 regular priests, 15 lay 
 brothers, 11 seminarians, and the care of 5000 Catho¬ 
 lics. Dependent on it are 1 monastery of nuns and 
 3 convents of Sisters. Three day nurseries are estab¬ 
 lished. There are 10 confraternities and many asso¬ 
 ciations among the young men and women. A 
 monthly diocesan bulletin is published. 
 
 Saint Peter, Abbey of. See Muenster, Abbey 
 Nullius 
 
 Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, Prefecture Apos¬ 
 tolic of (Insularum S. Petri et Miquelonensis; 
 cf. C. E., XIII—376a), comprises a small group of 
 islands south of Newfoundland, belonging to France. 
 
 The prefect Apostolic is Mgr. Joseph Oster, b. at 
 Berstheim, in diocese of Strasburg, France, 19 
 April, 1846, entered the Congregation of Holy Ghost, 
 1862, provincial in United States, pro-prefect in 1912, 
 prefect 16 January, 1916, with residence at Saint 
 Pierre. On the islands there are 3 parishes, 3 
 churches, 2 convents of women, 6 regular priests, 1 
 lay brother, 28 Sisters, 1 college for boys, with 3 
 instructors and 58 students and 1 for girls with 15 
 
SAINT TERESA 
 
 667 
 
 SAINT VIATOR 
 
 instructors and 150 students, 1 academy with 60 
 boys and 80 girls, 1 elementary school with 40 pupils, 
 a commercial school for boys with 120 students and 
 for girls with 90, 3 associations among the laity, who 
 number 4000 and are mostly French. During the 
 war 350 laymen and 1 priest were mobilized, 99 of 
 whom were victims. 
 
 Saint Teresa of Jesus, Society of, founded by 
 Enrique de Osso, on the feast of the Sacred Heart 
 of Jesus 23 June, 1876, at Taragona, Spain, and 
 approved by Pope Pius X, 18 December, 1908. Fr. 
 de Osso’s desire was to stem the torrent of impiety 
 which threatened to engulf vast numbers of young 
 souls. The object of the institute is the Christian 
 education of young people, to extend the knowledge 
 and love of God by means of the apostleship of 
 prayer, teaching and sacrifice. The mother-house 
 is in Barcelona, Spain, where the mother general 
 and her council reside. The four provinces with a 
 total of 51 houses in Spain, Africa, Mexico, South 
 America, Cuba and the United States. The acad¬ 
 emies have courses of study from the kindergarten 
 to the grammar and academic grades, and in some 
 places normal courses are conducted. There are 
 three novitiates: one in Tortosa, Spain; one in 
 Montevideo, Uruguay, South America; and one 
 in San Antonio, Texas. The members of the So¬ 
 ciety make the three simple vows of poverty, 
 chastity and obedience, and must be imbued with 
 the spirit of their holy patron, the seraphic doctress, 
 St. Teresa of Jesus. There are teaching and lay 
 religious. The society is governed by its own con¬ 
 stitutions and rules, which follow the rule of St. 
 Ignatius. 
 
 The province of St. Teresa of Jesus, with pro¬ 
 vincial house and novitiate at Jesus de Tortosa, 
 Spain, has academies and schools in Spain at Barce¬ 
 lona (3), Valencia, Taragona, Saragossa, Tortosa, 
 Villanueva, Vinebre, San Celoni. Almunia, Maella 
 and Enguers; in Africa, at Oran, Algeria. The 
 province of the Sacred Heart of Jesus has acad¬ 
 emies and schools in Spain at Madrid (2), Ciudad 
 Rodrigo, Valladolid, Pamplona, Oviedo, Bilbao, 
 Calahorra, Huelva, Duenas and Mora de Toledo. 
 The province of St. Francis de Sales, with provin¬ 
 cial house at Mixcoac, Mexico, and novitiate at 
 San Antonio, Texas, has academies and schools in 
 Mexico at Mixcoac, Mexico City, Puebla, Morelia, 
 Zacatacas, Guadalajara and Merida; in Cuba at 
 Havana, Camaguey, Santa Clara, Ciego de Avila 
 and Guantanamo; in the United States at San 
 Antonio, Tex., Uvalde, Tex. (parochial school), New 
 Orleans, La. (parochial school). The province of 
 St. Joseph with provincial house and novitiate at 
 Montevideo, Uruguay, South America, has acad¬ 
 emies and schools at: Montevideo, Uruguay (2); 
 Buenos Aires, Argentina; Santiago de Chile, Chile; 
 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Santa Ana, Brazil; Itaqui, 
 Brazil; Asuncion, Paraguay; Rocha, Uruguay, and 
 Dolores, Uruguay. 
 
 Saint Thomas, Diocese of (Sancti Thom,® 
 in insula; cf. C. E., XIII—381c), in the Gulf of 
 Guinea, suffragan of Lisbon. The last bishop died 
 in 1847. The see then remained vacant. Since 1865 
 it has been ruled as a vicariate. In 1920 the Catholics 
 numbered about 21,000. 
 
 Saint Thomas of Guiana, Diocese of (deGuayana; 
 cf. C. E., XIII—382c), in Venezuela, suffragan of 
 Caracas. The present bishop is the Rt. Rev. 
 Xiste Sosa, b. at Tinaco, 20 Oct., 1876, elected titular 
 bishop of Claudiopolis 14 June, 1915, consecrated 28 
 Oct., published 9 Dec. following, and made adminis¬ 
 trator apostolic of Guiana, transferred 5 Dec., 1918, 
 
 published 10 March, 1919. He succeeded the lit. 
 Rev. Antonio Maria Duran, who died 18 July, 1917. 
 According to the statistics of 1920 the diocese con¬ 
 tained 400,500 Catholics, 43 parishes, 20 filial 
 churches, 53 chapels and 26 priests. 
 
 Saint Thomas of Mylapur, Diocese of (Sancti 
 Thom.® de Meliapor; cf. C. E., XIII—382d), 
 suffragan of Goa, India. The Catholic population 
 of the diocese is 80,000, including Indians, Anglo- 
 Indians, and Europeans. The All-India Eucharistic 
 Congress was held in 1912. In 1921 the Marian 
 Congress was held at Madras and the Episcopal 
 Conference at Mylapore. During the World War 
 several units from the diocese served in different de¬ 
 partments. Rev. A. A. Teixeira was chaplain to 
 the British forces in Mesopotamia and Rev. Faustino 
 Barreto was chaplain to the native Indian forces. 
 The present bishop is Rt. Rev. Teotonio Manuel 
 Ribeiro Vieira de Castro, b. 1859, elected 1899. 
 There are in the diocese: 51 parishes, 60 churches, 5 
 vicariates forane, 178 stations and chapels, 1 monas¬ 
 tery for men, 3 convents with 37 European Sisters, 
 9 convents with 93 Indian Sisters, 76 secular priests, 
 7 regular priests (Salesians), 5 lay brothers, 2 semi¬ 
 naries with 28 seminarians, 6 high schools with 60 
 teachers and an attendance of 1239 boys and 150 
 girls, 81 elementary schools with 324 teachers and 
 an attendance of 4865 boys and girls, 2 industrial 
 schools with 15 teachers and 226 pupils, 2 homes for 
 men and women, 3 orphanages for boys with 350 
 inmates, 6 orphanages for girls with 230 inmates, 
 4 dispensaries, 1 day nursery. Most of the institu¬ 
 tions are aided by the British Government. The 
 Mylapore Diocese Educational Society is established 
 among the clergy, and the Catholic South Indian 
 Association among the laity. A Catholic periodical 
 is published, called “The Catholic Register of 
 Mylapore.” 
 
 Saint Viator, Clerics of (cf. C. E., XV—399d).— 
 In 1912 the Holy See erected into provinces, with the 
 canonical advantages and obligations such erection 
 brings, the four obediences of the institute, viz. 
 Vourles, Rodez, Montreal, and Chicago. In the 
 same year the superior general, Fr. P. D. Lajoie, 
 celebrated the sixtieth anniversary of his sacerdotal 
 ordination. In 1914 the general chapter of the order 
 was to be held at Jette-St.-Pierre, and the delegates 
 were en route, some having already reached the 
 mother-house, when the war broke out. This 
 forced the superior general to postpone the chapter 
 indefinitely During the German occupation of 
 Belgium all communication with the A°.Vher-house 
 was cut off. The personnel of the juVGiate of West- 
 malle succeeded in crossing the frontier and took 
 refuge in Holland, where they were given generous 
 hospitality by the Benedictines of St. Paul Abbey, 
 Osterhout; they numbered 70 and remained at 
 Osterhout for fifty months. Four years of physical 
 and mental suffering were patiently borne by the 
 superior and his assistants. One of these, Brother 
 Buchon, died, during the war, from privation. 
 Another, Fr. Coutu, after tedious parleys with the 
 German authorities and humilating formalities, 
 succeeded in getting out of Belgium on the mission 
 of making the canonical visit of the provinces. He 
 went to America (1916) to visit the American and 
 Canadian provinces and in 1917 returned to France, 
 where he died the following year from disease caused 
 by the conditions of life while in Belgium. Fr. 
 F. M. Robergfe, from the Canadian province, was ap¬ 
 pointed assistant general to succeed Fr. Coutu, and 
 joined his post in December, 1918, a few weeks after 
 the armistice was signed. The superior general, Very 
 Rev. P. D. Lajoie, died at Jette-St.-Pierre, 25 Feb., 
 
SAINT VINCENT 
 
 668 
 
 SALAMANCA 
 
 1919, in his ninety-third year. Born in Canada in 
 1826, he had joined the institute at Joliette in 1847, 
 was ordained priest in 1852, afterwards professor 
 and director at Joliette College and pastor of Joliette, 
 provincial of Canada in 1870, vicar of the institute 
 in 1880, and elected superior general in 1890. He 
 governed the institute for twenty-nine years, safely 
 guiding it through the agitated period of spoliation, 
 persecution and dispersion in France, and the dis¬ 
 astrous years of the World War. He transferred the 
 general direction of the institute from Vourles to 
 Paris in 1896, and after the French edict against re¬ 
 ligious congregations in 1903 transferred it again to 
 Belgium, first at Aerschot and then in 1908 at Jette- 
 St-Pierre. He was succeeded as superior general 
 by Very Rev. Pierre Robert, elected by the general 
 chapter convened at Jette-St-Pierre, 22 May, 1919. 
 Fr. Robert was born in France in 1862, joined the 
 congregation in 1876, was ordained in 1886, director 
 of St. Michel secondary school at Paris in 1890, 
 provincial at Vourles 1900, vicar of the institute 1909, 
 elected superior general 1919, author of a life of the 
 founder of the institute and history of the congrega¬ 
 tion up to 1860: “Vie du Pere Louis Querbes” 
 (Brussels, 1922). Very Rev. Frangois-Michel 
 Roberge was elected vicar of the institute and two 
 new assistants were also appointed: Brothers Joseph- 
 Bruno Gareau and Jules Chomienne. The chapter 
 also revised the statutes according to the new Code 
 of Canon Law, but this effected no important change 
 in the form of government or in the rules. It chiefly 
 consisted in introducing into the text of the statutes 
 the rights, privileges, or obligations resulting from the 
 rescripts or indults obtained from the Holy See since 
 the primitive text of the statutes was confirmed by 
 Pope Gregory XVI in 1839. 
 
 Among recent transfers and foundations of in¬ 
 stitutions of the order were the establishment at 
 Outremont, near Montreal, in 1915, of the scholas- 
 ticate of the Canadian province, and the transfer 
 in 1921 of the novitiate of the French province of 
 Rodez from Zarauz, Spain, to Escoriaza, Spain. 
 In 1921, Columbus College, Chamberlain, S. D., 
 officially closed its career as an educational institu¬ 
 tion, owing to the opening in September of the same 
 year, of a new diocesan Catholic college at Sioux 
 Falls, S. D. The authorities of the institute trans¬ 
 ferred to Chamberlain, in the buildings of Columbus 
 College, the novitiate of the American province 
 heretofore located in Chicago; and in this place they 
 opened a scholasticate for theological studies. The 
 Institute of the Clerics of St. Viator at present 
 (1922) controls 104 educational institutions of dif¬ 
 ferent kmds and degeees: primary and secondary 
 schools, cl3S^cal and commercial colleges. It also 
 has the care of 9 parishes in the United States and 
 Canada. The Montreal Catholic Institution for 
 Deaf Mutes (male) is under its direction. The deaf and 
 dumb pupils cared for number 170. The following 
 table supplies statistics of the institute: 
 
 
 Professed 
 
 Priests 
 
 Professed 
 
 Brothers 
 
 Scholasticates 
 
 Novices 
 
 Juvenists 
 
 Institutions 
 
 Students 
 
 Taught 
 
 Gen. Direction. 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Provinces 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V ourles. 
 
 6 
 
 97 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 75 
 
 23 
 
 2100 
 
 Rodez. 
 
 5 
 
 140 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 75 
 
 34 
 
 2200 
 
 Montreal... . 
 
 49 
 
 330 
 
 34 
 
 40 
 
 92 
 
 37 
 
 7860 
 
 Chicago. 
 
 37 
 
 32 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 9 
 
 340 
 
 Totals.... 
 
 99 
 
 602 
 
 49 
 
 62 
 
 262 
 
 104 
 
 12,500 
 
 Saint Vincent de Paul, Brothers of, a congregation 
 of priests and brothers living in community and con¬ 
 secrating their lives to the service of the poor and 
 workmen and the care of the needy in general. The 
 institute was founded in Paris in 1845 by Fr. Jean- 
 Leon Le Prevost, one of the first collaborators of 
 Frederic Ozanam. It received the decree of praise, 
 10 May, 1869, and papal approbation, 6 June, 1874; 
 the constitutions were provisionally approved 13 
 February, 1906. The mother-house is in Tournay, 
 Belgium, and the present superior general is Fr. 
 Fernand Desrousseaux, elected 1914, and re-elected 
 25 August, 1920. The institute is established in 
 France, Belgium, and Canada. The principal 
 Canadian foundation is at Quebec where there are a 
 novitiate and juvenate, a school with 350 students, 
 two societies for young people, an association for 
 students, and a maison de famille where 50 orphans 
 are taught trades. The procurator general resides 
 at Rome, where there is a scholasticate. 
 
 Saints Cyril and Methodius, Daughters of, a 
 congregation of religious women for the instruction 
 of Slovak children, founded by Rev. M. Jankola 
 and several other Slovak priests, who saw the great 
 necessity the Slovak people in America had of 
 Catholic schools. The first three members were sent 
 to Mt. St. Mary’s, Scranton, Pa., where they re¬ 
 mained for several years under the kind direction of 
 the Sisters of the Immaculate Heart of Mary. In 
 the year 1909 their rule was approved by Pope Pius 
 X, and on 11 September, 1909, the first three members 
 pronounced the vows. As their numbers increased 
 they were obliged to leave these Sisters, and assume 
 the government of the institute themselves. Ac¬ 
 cordingly, they opened a mother-house in Middle- 
 town, and two years later it was moved to Danville, 
 Pa., to which is also attached a novitiate. In Middle- 
 town they have an orphanage. The congregation 
 now numbers (1921) 83 professed Sisters, 22 novices, 
 and 15 postulants. The Sisters have seven houses in 
 the Scranton Diocese; 5 houses in the Harrisburg 
 Diocese; and houses at Bridgeport, Conn.; Gary, 
 Ind.; Chicago, Ill.; Vandergrift and Buffalo, N. Y. 
 
 Saints Vincent and Anastasius, Abbey Nullius 
 of (Sanctorum Vincentii et Anastasii ad Aquas 
 Salvias; cf. C. E., XIII—380d), near Rome. The 
 diocese of the abbey nullius, under the Reformed 
 Cistercians, is at Orbetello, comprising several village 
 and two small islands, divided into 8 parishes, 
 administered by 50 priests. The abbey nullius main¬ 
 tains an elementary school, with 105 children taught 
 by 5 Sisters, and a residence for the workmen con¬ 
 nected with the monastery, who number 32 families 
 and 48 unmarried. There is a religious association 
 established among these workmen. Upon the death 
 of Cardinal Oreglia (3 December, 1913), the Holy 
 Father appointed Rt. Rev. Andrea Caron, titular 
 Bishop of Chalcedon, apostolic administrator of the 
 spiritual needs of the diocese, 1 January, 1916. Rt. 
 Rev. Leo Ehrhard, prior of the abbey, was elected 
 abbot in November, 1919, and blessed 22 January, 
 1920. 
 
 Salamanca, Diocese of (Salamantinensis; cf. 
 C. E., XIII—391b), suffragan of Valladolid, Spain. 
 The present bishop is Mgr. Julio de Diego y Garcia 
 Alcolea, born in the Diocese of Sigtienza at Honta- 
 nares 16 February, 1859, ordained 1881, elected 
 bishop of Astorga 14 November, 1904, consecrated at 
 Valladolid 5 February, 1905, transferred to Sala¬ 
 manca 18 July, 1913, to succeed Mgr. Valdes y 
 Noriega, deceased. A Eucharistic Congress was held 
 in Salamanca, with representatives from every parish 
 (20,000 in all), attending the notable discourses, ser- 
 
SALE 
 
 G69 
 
 SALFORD 
 
 inons and social conferences. The Catholic popula¬ 
 tion is 350,000. The diocese includes 286 parishes, 
 539 churches, 1 convent of men, 27 of women, 462 
 secular and 80 regular priests, 56 lay brothers, 791 
 Sisters, 1 seminary, 337 seminarians, 1 university, 5 
 asylums, 4 hospitals, 2 refuges and 1 day nursery. 
 There are 2 organizations among the clergy and sev¬ 
 eral among the laity. A Catholic daily and 2 reviews 
 are published. 
 
 Sale, Diocese of (Saliensis; cf. C. E., XIII— 
 395d), in Victoria, Australia. The present diocese 
 was part of the Archdiocese of Melbourne until 
 
 1887, when the late James Francis Corbett, then 
 parish priest of St. Kilda, Melbourne, was consecrated 
 first Bishop of Sale. The diocese covers the civil 
 province of Gippsland, an area of 16,700 square 
 miles, extending due east from 50 miles from Mel¬ 
 bourne to the border of the State of New South 
 Wales, and on the south is washed by the Southern 
 Ocean. The first bishop found in this vast district 
 only a few priests, who eventually returned to the 
 Archdiocese of Melbourne, and no convent school. 
 When he died in May, 1912, he left three fine con¬ 
 vents of the Sisters of Notre Dame de Sion, with 
 primary and secondary schools, at Sale, Barinsdale, 
 and Warragul. In 1921 the diocese had eight 
 convents of the Sisters of St. Joseph of the Sacred 
 Heart with primary schools at Sale, Cowwarr, 
 Leongatha, Maffra, Morwell, Omeo, Traralgon, and 
 Yarram. The summary of the diocese for that year 
 is: districts, 12; churches, 50; secular priests, 23; 
 primary schools, 10; secondary schools, 3; number of 
 children in Catholic schools, 1296. According to 
 the last available census, the total population of the 
 diocese is 73,507, and the Catholic population is 
 12,480. The second Bishop of Sale is Rt. Rev. 
 Patrick Phelan. Born in Co. Kilkenny, Ireland, in 
 1860, Dr. Phelan was educated at Mount Melleray 
 Seminary, Co. Waterford, and at St. Patrick’s 
 College, Carlow, where he was ordained 26 May, 
 
 1888. He commenced ecclesiastical work in the 
 Archdiocese of Melbourne in October of that year. 
 In 1896 he was appointed pastor of St. Joseph’s, 
 Collingwood, and in March, .1900, was appointed 
 dean of Melbourne and administrator of St. Patrick’s 
 Cathedral. In 1908 Dr. Phelan became vicar general 
 of the archdiocese, and in 1912 was created pro- 
 thonotary apostolic by Pope Pius X. Through the 
 death of Bishop Corbett the See of Sale became 
 vacant that year, and Dr. Phelan was consecrated 
 second Bishop of Sale at St. Patrick’s Cathedral, 
 Melbourne, 2 March, 1913, by Archbishop Carr of 
 Melbourne. When the apostolic delegate visited 
 Sale six years after Dr. Phelan’s appointment, the 
 bishop was able to declare that he had opened 
 several convent schools in the diocese, had expended 
 £75,000 in building churches, schools, and presby¬ 
 teries, and was then engaged in building a college or 
 secondary school for boys at Sale which was costing 
 over £25,000. The Marist Brothers are in charge of 
 this college. Bishop Phelan is the author of several 
 works. Some were the result of controversy in the 
 public press with Protestant Divines, such as “Chris¬ 
 tian Marriage” and the “Refutation of Protestant 
 Calumnies.” Others are.of a devotional character, 
 viz. “The Holy Sacrifice of the Mass,” “The Mission 
 of St. Ignatius of Loyola,” and “The Priesthood of 
 Christ.” 
 
 Salerno, Archdiocese of (Salernitanensis; cf. 
 C. E., XIII—396b), in the Province of Naples, 
 Southern Italy. The present administrator is the 
 Most Rev. Carlo Maria Grasso of the Benedictines of 
 Monte Cassino. He was b. at Genoa, 22 April, 1869, 
 ordained 1 April. 1893, named administrator apostolic 
 
 of Cava and Sarno in 1914, promoted to Salerno 7 
 April, 1915, consecrated at Rome 22 April and 
 received the pallium 19 July, published 6 December 
 following. On 16 September, 1919, he was named 
 administrator of Nusco and of Nole 8 December fol¬ 
 lowing. He succeeded the Most Rev. Valerio Laspro, 
 who died 22 November, 1914. According to the sta¬ 
 tistics of 1920 the archdiocese contained 149 parishes, 
 364 churches and chapels, 659 secular priests and 60 
 seminarians. In 1920 the united see of Acerno con¬ 
 sisted of 7 parishes, 7 churches, and 16 secular priests. 
 
 Salesian Society (cf. C. E., XIII—398c).—The 
 Society has a total of 341 houses and numbers over 
 5000 members—priests, lay brothers and clerics. 
 There are 230 festive oratories or recreation grounds 
 with chapel for religious instruction, with over 
 100,000 children in attendance. The 130 colleges, 
 for the poor in particular, have as boarders,35,000 boys 
 In many of the colleges there is a department for 
 learning trades, with 15,000 boys under instruction. 
 In 52 agricultural colonies there are 3000 boys. The 
 132 clubs have a membership of over 7000. Over 
 22,000 pupils are educated by the Salesians in over 
 150 elementary schools, mostly in Italy and South 
 America. The Salesians have under their jurisdic¬ 
 tion 13 shrines, 91 parishes, and over 300 churches 
 and chapels. They have 43 missions among the 
 heathens, chiefly in South America (Brazil, Ecuador, 
 etc.), with 250,000 souls. A new mission in the coast 
 region of Assam, northern India, was taken over by 
 them in December, 1921. Here there are only 5000 
 Catholics out of a population of 7,000,000. The 
 Vicariate Apostolic of Shiu-Chow, China, was en¬ 
 trusted to the Salesians in 1920. This vast territory 
 is divided into 10 missions and has about 3,000,000 
 souls under the jurisdiction of Mgr. Louis Versiglia, 
 S. C. The Vicariate Apostolic for the Aborigines in 
 Kimberley, Australia, is to be given to the Salesians 
 in the fall of 1922. At Elizabethville, Congo, Africa, 
 there is a large mission. Since the armistice of the 
 World War important foundations have been es¬ 
 tablished for the first time in Ireland, Germany, and 
 Russia. Among prominent members of the Society 
 are: John Cagliero, Cardinal Bishop of Frascati, one 
 of Don Bosco’s early pupils and the head of the 
 first band of Salesian missionaries who went to Buenos 
 Aires in 1875; Archbishop Guerra of Santiago de 
 Cuba, Bishop Piani, auxiliary of Puebla, Mexico; 
 and six other bishops in Italy and South America. 
 Recently deceased is Don Paolo Albera, second suc¬ 
 cessor of the Ven. Don Bosco, died in Turin, 29 Oct., 
 1921. Salesian institutes in the United States are 
 at: Ramsey, N. J.; New Rochelle, N. Y.; Philadelphia, 
 Penn.; Watsonville, Cal. (orphanage). In England 
 they have schools at: Battersea, London; Farn- 
 borough, Hampshire; Burwash, Sussex; Chertsey, 
 Surrey. There is an agricultural school at Pallask- 
 enry, Co. Limerick, Ireland. The novitiate and house 
 of studies for the United States is at New Rochelle, 
 N. Y.; for England and Ireland, at Oxford. 
 
 Salford, Diocese of (Salfordiensis; cf. C. E., 
 XIII—399c), suffragan of Liverpool, England. The 
 Catholic population of the diocese is about 293,400, 
 of whom 1,000 are Italians and 900 Lithuanians, 
 Poles, Ruthenians, etc. Recently deceased Catholic 
 laymen of note were: Sir Daniel McCabe, K.S.S., 
 Deputy Lieutenant of the County of Lancashire, 
 twice Lord Mayor of Manchester, died 29 Sept., 
 1919; Alderman Carus, K.S.G., several times Mayor 
 of Darwen, died in December, 1920. During the 
 World War some 25 priests of the diocese went out 
 as chaplains. Of these Rev. J. Birch lost a limb, 
 Rev. John O’R. Browne was honored by a military 
 cross with bar, and Revs. R. McGuinness, W. 
 
SALMAS 
 
 670 
 
 SALTA 
 
 Leighton, R. V. O’Shaughnessy, and Arthur O’Connor 
 won military crosses. Rev. E. M. Bray, D.D., did 
 heroic work in the Messina earthquake and was made 
 a Cavalier by the King of Italy. The Catholic Truth 
 Society Conference was held at Salford in 1916. The 
 present bishop is Rt. Rev. Louis Charles Casartelli, b. 
 1852, consecrated 1903. The auxiliary bishop is Rt. 
 Rev. John S. Vaughan, titular Bishop of Sebastopolis, 
 b. 1853, consecrated 1909. Statistics for the diocese 
 are: 135 parishes, 134 churches, 12 chapels of ease, 
 52 convent and private chapels, 18 institutions 
 (chapels) where Mass is said, 1 abbey of Poor Clares, 
 44 convents for women, 289 secular priests, 86 
 regular priests (7 Benedictines, 8 Friars Minor, 
 7 Dominicans, 55 Jesuits, 5 Premonstratensians, 
 3 Servants of Mary, 1 Missionary Father of St. 
 Joseph), 11 religious congregations of men* 23 re¬ 
 ligious congregations of women, 4 colleges for boys 
 with 1163 students, 14 colleges for girls with 2790 
 students, 1 training school and hostel with an at¬ 
 tendance of 118, 141 elementary schools, 2 industrial 
 schools with 965 pupils, 5 rescue homes for children, 
 3 homes for working girls, 1 hospital for men (Alexian 
 Brothers’ at Newton Heath, Manchester), 1 hos¬ 
 pital for women (The Home, Whalley Range, Man¬ 
 chester), 1 refuge. Ecclesiastical students attend 
 St. Bede’s College and Ushaw College. Most of the 
 public institutions admit the ministry of priests. 
 Practically all the institutions are aided by the 
 Government, except Stonyhurst and a few convents. 
 The Government aids all the elementary schools, 
 Loretto College for girls, St. Bede’s College and 
 Xaverian College for boys. The Priests’ Eucharistic 
 League and Lancashire Infirm Clergy Fund are 
 established among the clergy. There are seventeen 
 associations among the laity. Catholic periodicals 
 are: “The Catholic Federationist,” monthly organ 
 of the Catholic Federation; “The Harvest,” monthly 
 organ of the Catholic Protective and Rescue Society; 
 and the “Annual Diocesan Almanac and Directory.” 
 
 Salmas, (cf. C. E., XIII—402c), a Chaldean see 
 included in the ancient Archdiocese of Adhorbigan or 
 Adherbaidjan. The present bishop is the Rt. Rev. 
 Pierre Aziz, b. at Mossul, 6 April, 1866, ordained in 
 
 1890, elected 25 Jan., 1910, consecrated 15 Aug. fol¬ 
 lowing, published 30 Nov., 1911. During the war all 
 the villages in the diocese were devastated and burned 
 and many of the men were killed. At the time of the 
 Persian massacre in 1918, Bishop Aziz was deported 
 by the Turks, but was providentially saved after hav¬ 
 ing been imprisoned for two months and enduring 
 great suffering. He arrived at Diabekir with several 
 priests after a journey of 50 days on foot. According 
 to the statistics of 1920 the diocese contained 10,460 
 Chaldean Catholics, 24 secular priests, 33 churches 
 and chapels, 14 stations and 14 schools. 
 
 Salt Lake, Diocese of (Lacus Salsis; cf. 
 C. E., XIII—404c), comprises territory in Utah and 
 Nevada. The foundations of the Catholic Church in 
 the Diocese of Salt Lake were laid by the intrepid 
 missionary bishop, Rt. Rev. Lawrence Scanlan, D.D., 
 who was appointed Vicar Apostolic of Utah, 25 Janu¬ 
 ary, 1887, and first Bishop of Salt Lake, 25 January, 
 
 1891, when the diocese was erected. Bishop Scanlan 
 was an apostolic man, inured to the hardships of 
 frontier mission life, and greatly beloved by all 
 classes. After forty-seven years of missionary toil 
 he died 10 May, 1915. The second Bishop of Salt 
 Lake, Rt. Rev. Joseph S. Glass, C.M., D.D., was 
 born in Bushnell, Ill., 13 March, 1874, made his class¬ 
 ical studies at St. Vincent’s College, Los Angeles, Cal. 
 and his theological studies at St. Mary’s Seminary, 
 Barrens, Mo., where he was ordained to the priest¬ 
 hood, 15 August, 1897. After spending two years in 
 
 Rome, he took his degree in theology in 1899, and was 
 appointed professor of theology in the Vincentian 
 Seminary at Barrens, Mo. In 1901 Dr. Glass was 
 sent by his community as president of St. Vincent’s 
 College and rector of St. Vincent’s Church, Los 
 Angeles, Cal., where he labored with success for four¬ 
 teen years. He was appointed to the see of Salt Lake 
 
 1 June, 1915; consecrated in St. Vincent’s Church, 
 Los Angeles, 24 August, and installed in the See of 
 Salt Lake 1 September, 1915. 
 
 The new bishop found himself, with but seven 
 diocesan priests and a number of borrowed clergy, 
 in charge of the largest diocese in the United States, 
 embracing, according to the latest data, 167,657 
 square miles, including the entire State of Utah, 
 84,990 square miles, and two-thirds of the State of 
 Nevada, 72,667 square miles. His first work was 
 to get priests and to place them at strategic points, 
 so that they could reach the scattered parishes and 
 missions of the vast diocese. Nearly every known 
 language is spoken in the mining camps and sick 
 calls of a hundred miles are a common occurrence. 
 The unsettled conditions of the mining industry made 
 it necessary to proceed with caution and deliberation, 
 for a few months of depression often changed a thriv¬ 
 ing .parish into a deserted mining camp. In spite 
 of many difficulties and a scarcity of resources, the 
 bishop, with characteristic energy, augmented the 
 clergy, erected nine new parishes, of which three 
 were in the episcopal city, and sent missioners to 
 administer to the scattered Catholics in the remote 
 parts of the diocese. The cathedral of the Mag- 
 delaine was refurnished and decorated and made one 
 of the most imposing churches in the intermountain 
 section; valuable church property was acquired; and 
 the Catholic people were organized and instructed. 
 The growth of the Church has been steady, but owing 
 to the migratory habits of a large part of the mining 
 population, largely immigrants from various parts 
 of Europe, many of the smaller parishes are unstable 
 and temporary. At present, there are 29 priests 
 working in the diocese, and 12 ecclesiastical students * 
 in various seminaries. Salt Lake City has 5 parishes, 
 
 2 free grammar schools, St. Ann’s Orphanage and 
 School, besides St. Mary’s Academy and Boarding 
 School. There are parochial schools at Ogden, 
 Park City, and Eureka. 
 
 The Sisters of the Holy Cross have done pioneer 
 work in the dicoese, having opened St. Mary’s 
 Academy and Holy Cross Hospital in 1875, and the 
 Sacred Heart Academy in Ogden in 1876. All these 
 institutions have grown rapidly. The Holy Cross 
 Sisters have charge of the day schools at Ogden, Park 
 City, and Eureka, and at the cathedral, Salt Lake. 
 In 1920, Bishop Glass invited the Daughters of 
 Charity of St. Vincent to the diocese, and gave them 
 charge of the large Catholic free school. Each year 
 a grade is added to the curriculum, and the high 
 school will soon be completed. The Knights of 
 Columbus are well organized in the diocese and con¬ 
 duct an evening trade school for ex-service men in 
 Salt Lake. The Catholic Women’s League is one of 
 the largest and most aggressive Catholic organiza¬ 
 tions of women in the West. Their war record was 
 conspicuous and they perform much charity and 
 philanthropic work. The Society of St. Vincent de 
 Paul is organized in all the city parishes, and the Boy 
 Scouts are well organized and doing efficient workjn 
 some places. The vast deposits of iron and coal 'in 
 Utah mark the diocese as one of the future steel centers 
 of the West. With the development of this industry 
 and the revival of copper and silver mining, an im¬ 
 mense increase of population is expected. 
 
 Salta, Diocese of (Saltensis; cf. C. E., XIII- 
 404a), in the northern Dart of the Republic of Ar- 
 
SALTILLO 
 
 671 
 
 SALVATION ARMY 
 
 gentina, suffragan of Buenos Aires. The last ad¬ 
 ministrator of the see was the Rt. Rev. Joseph 
 Gregory Romero. He was born at Salta, 14 Oct. 
 1862, elected titular bishop of Therm® 18 Feb., 
 1914, and auxiliary bishop of Salta, published 25 
 May following, appointed bishop of Salta, 29 Oct., 
 1914, died 17 Aug., 1919. He succeeded the Rt. 
 |Rev. Matias Linares who died 24 April, 1914. The 
 see is still vacant. According to the statistics of 
 1920, the diocese contains: 37 parishes, 131 chapels, 
 54 seminarians. 
 
 Saltillo, Diocese of (cf. C. E., XIII—404), 
 Coahuila, Mexico, suffragan of Linares, is still gov¬ 
 erned by Mgr. Jesfis Maria Echavarria. It has 27 
 parishes and 1 vicariate or vice-parish; the number of 
 churches and chapels is greater, for there is hardly a 
 hamlet or village that has not at least a poor chapel; 
 the spiritual wants of the diocesans are attended to by 
 34 priests, of whom 7 are regular—Jesuits in Saltillo 
 and Carmelites and Josephites in Torreon. There 
 are 15 communities of Sisters with 52 religious: the 
 Sisters of St. Joseph with 3 hospitals in Torredn and 
 1 in San Pedro; Sisters of Charity of the Good Shep¬ 
 herd with a Magdalen Asylum at Saltillo; the Sisters 
 of the Incarnate Word, of the Good Shepherd, of the 
 Purity of Mary, and the Guadalupe Sisters engage in 
 teaching; the Sisters of Christian Mercy have orphan¬ 
 ages at Saltillo and Parras. Before 1913 there were 
 many other communities of men and women in Coa¬ 
 huila teaching or exercising works of charity towards 
 the poor and the sick, but in the late revolution the 
 diocese suffered great losses, as for instance the total 
 destruction of the famous Jesuit College of Saint John. 
 The diocesan seminary was disbanded and has not 
 yet been reorganized, as the Government is using the 
 building for its offices. There are, however, at present 
 5 boys’ schools, 3 colleges and 3 schools for girls with 
 a total of 2500 pupils. Among the social organiza¬ 
 tions of the laity are: The Catholic Association of 
 Young Mexico, the newly-established Catholic Union 
 of Coahuila; and the Catholic Workingmen’s Society 
 in Saltillo, Torredn, Parras, and San Pedro. Among 
 those who have died in the diocese in recent years 
 mention must be made of Senor Don Enrique and his 
 wife Senora Dona Trinidad Narro de Maas. They 
 founded and endowed an orphan asylum which was 
 confided to the Josephite Sisters, but the Sisters have 
 been driven out and the orphanage turned over to lay 
 directors. They likewise contributed very generously 
 towards the erection of the new Gothic Sanctuary of 
 our Lady of Guadalupe, the most beautiful in Saltillo 
 but not yet completed owing to the political distur¬ 
 bances. They also gave St. Vincent’s Hospital, which 
 bears the name of the donor, “Enrique Maas,” but it 
 too is in the hands of the Government. Finally they 
 left an adequate bequest for the foundation of a 
 school of arts and crafts, but it has not been possible 
 to carry out this plan either. 
 
 Salto, Diocese of (Saltensis; cf. C. E.,XIII— 
 405b), in Uruguay, suffragan of Montevideo. The 
 erection of this diocese did not go into effect until 
 1919, when the Rt. Rev. Thomas Camacho was ap¬ 
 pointed to the new see. He was b. at San Jose 16 
 Feb., 1868, and elected 3 July, 1919. 
 
 Saluzzo, Diocese of (Saluci^e, Salutiensis; 
 cf. C. E., XIII—405d), in the Province of Cuneo, 
 Piedmont, Upper Italy, suffragan of Turin. The 
 present incumbent is the Rt. Rev. Giovanni Oberti, 
 of the Clerks Regular of the Pious Schools; b. at 
 Ovada, Italy, 21 Nov., 1862, elected 16 Dec., 1901, 
 made assistant to the pontifical throne 20 Feb., 
 1913. According to the statistics of 1920 the diocese 
 contained:160,500 Catholics, 92 parishes, 671 churches 
 
 and chapels, 304 secular priests, 31 regulars, 112 
 seminarians, 24 Brothers, 220 Sisters. 
 
 Salvation Army, The. —The Salvation Army is 
 an organization, religious and philanthropic in pur¬ 
 pose, which was formed under the above name in 
 1878, by William Booth, as the result of a defection 
 from the Methodist Church in England in 1865, the 
 movement being known by various names previous 
 to 1878. 
 
 I. Doctrine. —Its doctrine is contained in the 
 “Articles of War,” sixteen in number, eight doctrinal, 
 eight, chiefly pledges of personal conduct, which 
 constitute the “fighting faith,” and in the 
 “Doctrines” which contain the “teaching faith.” 
 Neither of these confessions, however, is considered 
 as a strict creed, binding the soldiers to intellectual 
 assent, although the “Articles of War” are signed by 
 each soldier when enlisting. The doctrine of the 
 Trinity is accepted; the Bible is viewed as the sole 
 Rule of Faith; they reject Calvinistic predestinarian- 
 ism and hold that Christ died for all, not merely for 
 the elect, and that ample provision is made for entire 
 deliverance from sin by the salvation of God; sin is 
 the enemy which the Army is to combat; conversion 
 from sin is an emotional experience accompanied by 
 outward manifestations, such as the vociferous utter¬ 
 ing of “Hallelujahs” and “Amens,” and by the interior 
 assurance of salvation. There are no sacraments, the 
 administration of Baptism and the Lord’s Supper being 
 discontinued in 1882, the distinctive uniform and the 
 pledge of the Articles being considered as sufficiently 
 taking their place. Religious worship consists 
 chiefly in “holiness” or experience meetings, a feature 
 being stirring hymns sung to the accompaniment of 
 a band or of some other instrumental music. 
 
 Stress is laid upon personal conduct, the soldier 
 upon his conversion pledging himself to live a Chris¬ 
 tian life, to be humane, and to abstain entirely from 
 intoxicating liquors and all harmful drugs. Self- 
 sacrifice in order to procure the salvation of others 
 is inculcated as a duty at all times, while more 
 specifically a week is set aside annually as “self- 
 denial week,” in which all members are urged to 
 make a self-denial offering through saving, thrift and 
 abstention from personal pleasures or luxuries during 
 that period. The Army is chiefly concerned in prac¬ 
 tising the corporal works of mercy, not, however, 
 to the exclusion of the spiritual works of mercy, as 
 they see the latter. 
 
 There are no ministers or pastors in the Salvation 
 Army, the commissioned officers being the nearest 
 approach to such, and women being fully eligible for 
 any position; there are no churches, understanding 
 by the term edifices set apart for Divine worship, 
 for the Army property is used indiscriminately for 
 philanthropic and for devotional purposes—a hall 
 may be in the evening a chapel and in the night a 
 dormitory; in a certain sense there are no congrega¬ 
 tions, since those who accept the full Army tenets 
 become themselves workers for the salvation of 
 others, even though they be only private soldiers 
 in the Army, while those who do not become active 
 soldiers after their conversion usually join some other 
 church if they persevere. 
 
 Although there are no ministers, yet the organiza¬ 
 tion is hierarchical, autocratic, and monarchical in 
 character. The chief officer is the General (known 
 formerly as the Commander-in-chief), who issues all 
 orders and regulations, to whom unquestioning 
 obedience is to be yielded, in whom as trustee is 
 vested the ownership of all Army property, and who, 
 himself appointed for life, appoints his own successor. 
 Associated with the General at the International 
 Headquarters in London are the Chief of the Staff, 
 the Foreign Secretary and the Chancellor. In the 
 
SALVATION ARMY 
 
 672 
 
 SALVATION ARMY 
 
 “field” the army is divided into Territories (usually 
 corresponding to countries), these being subdivided 
 into Provinces, these again into Divisions. Each 
 Division contains a certain number of corps, each 
 of the latter having its own Captain and Lieutenant, 
 the corps being the nearest Army equivalent to an 
 ordinary denominational congregation. Officers 
 usually give their full time to the work and receive 
 sufficient remuneration to support themselves; 
 soldiers usually pursue their ordinary occupations 
 during the day and in the evening devote themselves 
 to the work of the Army. There are training schools 
 or garrisons for officers, the course varying from 1 to 
 3 years. 
 
 II. History. —The Salvation Army was founded 
 by William Booth, who, born an Anglican in England 
 in 1829, later joined the Wesleyan Methodists, 
 becoming a local preacher when fifteen or sixteen 
 years old. His open-air preaching not being ac¬ 
 ceptable to the Wesleyans, he joined the Methodist 
 New Connexion and was ordained minister, only to 
 leave that denomination in 1861. He and his wife 
 then turned themselves exclusively to itinerant 
 evangelical work, intending at first not to found a 
 new sect, but rather to send their converts to existing 
 organizations. In 1865, after having come in contact 
 with the slums of London, his ideas took more 
 definite shape, and he founded the East London 
 Revival Society, changing the name later to East 
 London Christian Mission, and again to the Christian 
 Mission. By 1878 the movement had spread; one 
 of Booth’s co-workers in a seaport town was known 
 as the “captain,” and he preparing a reception for 
 his leader announced that the “General” was coming. 
 The program spoke of the “Christian Mission” as a 
 “volunteer army.” This Booth changed to “Salvation 
 Army,” which accordingly in 1878 became the name 
 of the movement, its official and definitive acceptance 
 taking place in 1880. 
 
 Opposition to the movement and its general 
 methods, at first bitter, subsided after a few years. 
 In 1890, following out the development of his ideas 
 on the relief of poverty, uplift of the slum-dwellers, 
 reform of criminals, and similar points, Booth pub¬ 
 lished his “In Darkest England and the Way Out,” 
 advocating as remedies for those evils, city, farm, 
 and over-sea colonies, homes for fallen women, 
 prisoners’ aid work, and legal and financial associa¬ 
 tions to aid the poor. The scheme has been realized 
 to a considerable extent. William Booth died in 
 1912 and was succeeded by his son, Bramwell Booth. 
 
 The Army spread rapidly to countries outside of 
 England, the inauguration in different countries 
 being as follows: Scotland 1878; Ireland, the United 
 States, Australia 1880; France 1881; Canada, Swe¬ 
 den, India, Switzerland 1882; South Africa, Ceylon, 
 New Zealand 1883; Germany 1886; Denmark, Italy, 
 Holland 1887; Norway 1888; South America (5 
 republics), Finland, Belgium 1889; West Indies 1892; 
 Dutch East Indies 1894; Iceland, Japan 1895; Korea 
 1908; Burma 1914; China 1915; Russia 1917. 
 
 III. Statistics. —In 1920 the Salvation Army was 
 located in 70 countries and colonies; it numbered 
 11,173 corps and outposts; it was in charge of 1276 
 social institutions, 751 day schools; it had 18,321 
 officers and cadets, 71,419 local officers, 32,000 bands¬ 
 men; it issued 82 periodicals. 
 
 In the United States in 1920 an administrative 
 reorganization was effected, three territories being 
 created, instead of one as formerly. Miss Evangeline 
 Booth, daughter of the first general, remains, how¬ 
 ever, in supreme charge of all the work in this coun¬ 
 try. In 1920 there were 1036 corps and outposts; 
 3649 officers and cadets; 28,586 members; 52 hotels 
 for men, 3 for women, 4 boarding houses for young 
 women; 82 industrial homes; 3 children’s homes; 
 
 19 slum posts and nurseries; 26 rescue homes and 
 maternity hospitals. The Army also dispenses char¬ 
 ity through Christmas dinners, distribution of toys, 
 finding temporary or permanent work for the unem¬ 
 ployed, and distribution of coal and ice to the poor. 
 
 IV. Criticism. —A discussion of the doctrines held 
 by the Salvation Army is unnecessary here, since they 
 are common also to Protestantism in general, partly 
 to liberal and partly to “orthodox” sects. There is 
 little new in doctrine in the Army; its methods are 
 not entirely new; its work is to a considerable extent- 
 new to Protestantism. So far as it performs the work 
 to which it has assigned itself the Army deserves 
 credit. Mam 7- , chiefly Protestants, have attacked 
 its methods, and the sincerity of its members. The 
 most serious charge that can be brought against it, 
 however, is its minimizing of dogma, of spiritual truth, 
 of the concursus of God in the affairs of men through 
 the Sacraments and sacramentals, through the super¬ 
 natural in general. The statement that the Army 
 performs work which no other sect can or will perform 
 is fairly true; but the additional assertion that it 
 engages in work and remedies conditions with which 
 not even the Catholic Church can cope is unfounded. 
 In the Catholic Church various religious orders 
 perform similar work without sacrificing anything on 
 the religious or dogmatic side; rather are the latter 
 intensified by such work. Prominent among these- 
 may be mentioned the Alexian Brothers, founded, 
 originally to combat the plague in the fifteenth cen¬ 
 tury, the various Hospitallers, the military orders, 
 the Mercedarians, the Magdalens, the Sisters of the 
 Good Shepherd, especially devoted to the redemption 
 of fallen women, the Little Sisters of the Poor, the 
 Sisters of Charity, while a typical lay society is that 
 of St. Vincent de Paul. An interesting conversion of 
 a Salvationist to the Catholic Church is that (1897) of 
 Miss Susie Swift, Brigadier of the Army, head of the 
 Auxiliary League of America and editor of “All the 
 World” (Curtis, “Some Roads to Rome in America”). 
 
 V. The Volunteers of America is the name of 
 an American off-shoot of the Salvation Army. In 
 1896 Ballington Booth, a son of the founder of the 
 Army, together with his wife, left the Army through 
 dissatisfaction with the autocratic rule of the general. 
 They formed a'rival organization under the above 
 title, having, however, practically the same doctrines, 
 aims and methods as the Army . In organization the 
 Volunteers are more democratic, the government of 
 the corporate society being vested in the “Grand Field 
 Council,” which elects eleven directors as financial 
 officers and trustees of all property. The commander- 
 in-chief or general is elected for a term of five years. 
 More generally than is the case with the Salvation 
 Army converts are urged to join the church with 
 which they were previously connected, or some other 
 church of their choice. A distinctive feature of the 
 work of this sect is the Volunteer Prisoners’ League, 
 which has for its object the salvaging and reformation 
 of persons sentenced to prison. In 1920 there were 
 reported in the United States, 97 churches or edifices, 
 307 ministers (officers, etc.), and 10,204 members. 
 They conduct one hospital, 19 homes for children 
 and girls, and various homes for working girls. 
 
 There have been many other off-shoots or imitators 
 of the Army. Major Moore, one of General Booth’s 
 first envoys to the United States, seceded in 1884 
 and formed an organization which he called the Amer¬ 
 ican Salvation Army. Litigation over the name 
 ensued between him and the parent organization, 
 ending in 1913 when the dissenting body received 
 from the Salvation Army $4100 and adopted the 
 name of American Rescue Workers. The names of 
 some of the others are: Gospel Army, Redeemer’s 
 Army, Christian Army, Christian Union Army, 
 American Volunteer Army, Christian Volunteers, 
 
 
 
 
 
SALZBURG 
 
 673 
 
 SAMOA 
 
 Christian Volunteer Association, American Salva¬ 
 tionists, Samaritan Association, Samaritan Christian 
 Association. 
 
 Friederichs (et al.). Selected Papers on Social Work of Salva¬ 
 tion Army (St. Albans, 1907-08); Begbie, Life of Gen. William 
 Booth (New York, 1920); Booth, In Darkest England and the 
 Way Out (New York, 1890) Booth-Tucker, Life of Catherine 
 Booth (New York, 1892); Idem, Social Relief Work of the Salvation 
 Army in the United States (New York, 1900); Friederichs, 
 The Romance of the Salvation Army (London, 1907); From the 
 Jaws of Death (report of anti-suicide bureau); St. Albans, 1912); 
 Salvation Army Year Book (London, annual); Booth—(Bal- 
 lington), The Volunteers of America in Independent, XLVIII—• 
 (1896), 437. Attacks on the Salvation Army: Lamb, The 
 Social Work of the Salvation Army (New York, 1909); Manson, 
 The Salvation Army and the Public (London, 1906); White (etal.), 
 The Truth About the Salvation Army (London, 1892); Williams, 
 Salvation Army Today (Chicago, 1915); Haggard, Regeneration 
 (London, 1910); Huxley, Evolution and Ethics and other Essays 
 (New York, 1902); Idem, Social Diseases and Worse Remedies 
 (London, 1891). 
 
 Gerald Shaughnessy. 
 
 Salzburg, Archdiocese of (Salisburgensis) , in 
 Austria. It contains 290,000 Catholics, 2615 
 Protestants and 302 Jews; 187 parishes, 335 churches, 
 8 monasteries and 2 Benedictine Abbeys (St. Peter 
 at Salzburg and Michaelbeuren) for men, 2 monaster¬ 
 ies and 1 Benedictine abbey (Nonnberg, Salzburg) for 
 women, with 1074 sisters, 18 deaconries and 2 
 collegiate churches. The clergy number 478 seculars 
 and 172 regulars. The following orders for men and 
 women are represented: Franciscans, Capuchins, 
 Servites, Mission Fathers, Ursulines, Poor Clares, 
 Dominican Sisters, Augustinian Sisters, Sisters of 
 Charity, Sisters of Our Lady of Charity, Sisters of the 
 Cross and School Sisters. The archdiocese has a 
 cathedral chapter which has twelve members and 
 collegiate churches at Mattsee (1 provost and 9 
 capitulars) and at Seekirchen (1 provost and 9 
 canons). An important change took place in the 
 archdiocese when in 1920 the diocese of Trent and 
 in 1921 the diocese of Brixen were separated from the 
 Archdiocese of Salzburg and placed under the direct 
 jurisdiction of the Holy See. In 1810 the University 
 was dissolved but the theological faculty, with the 
 right of promotion remained and now consists of 8 
 professors and 40 students. 
 
 The following schools exist in the archdiocese: 1 
 archiepiscopal private gymnasium (180 students), 1 
 state gymnasium (310 students, 4 girls), 1 state 
 obberealschule (9 years scientific course, 517 students), 
 1 realgymnasium for girls conducted by the Ursulines 
 (6 years scientific course, 87 students), 1 teachers’ 
 training school in charge of the Ursulines (165 
 students), 1 reform realgymnasium (6 years scientific 
 course, 12 teachers), 1 high school, 2 training schools, 
 180 elementary schools, 1 industrial school, 2 mis¬ 
 sionary schools. These schools are supported by the 
 Government. There are also in the archdiocese 3 
 homes, 3 asylums, 58 hospitals, 3 refuges, 24 day 
 nurseries, 28 public institutions, admitting ministry 
 of priests. The following associations exist among 
 the clergy: Association for the Support of Sick 
 Priests, Association of Catechists and Association of 
 Clergy. The laity have forty associations. Four 
 Catholic periodicals are published in the archdiocese. 
 The cathedral at Salzburg (1647-1675) ranks as the 
 finest example of Germanic Renaissance architecture. 
 
 Throughout the nineteenth century the see of 
 Salzburg was governed by many saintly and zealous 
 prelates among whom the Mt. Rev. Augustin Gruber 
 (1823-1835) stands out pre-eminent. Ilis successors 
 were: Frederick Cardinal Count zu Schwarzenberg 
 (1836-1856), Maxmilian Joseph Cardinal von Tarnozy 
 (1850-1876), Francis Albert Cardinal Eder (1876- 
 1890), John Evangelistus Cardinal Haller (1890-1900), 
 John Baptistus Cardinal Katschthaler (1900-1914), 
 b. 20 May, 1832, d. 27 Feb. 1914, author of “Theo- 
 logica dogmatica” (1876-1888), “History of Church 
 
 - Music” (1893), “Sermons” (1892-1908). In 1906 he 
 i held a Provincial Council at Salzburg, actively 
 
 furthered the Catholic University Association and the 
 
 - St. Caecilia Society. His successor, Most Rev. 
 | Balthasar Kaltner, b. at Goldegg, 12 April, 1840, d. 
 » 6 July, 1918, a learned and devout prelate who had 
 i been auxiliary bishop of Gurk (1910-1914), and was 
 ; most active and zealous in all that concerned the 
 • welfare of the archdiocese. He was well known as an 
 
 ■ eminent jurist and architect. He built the prepara- 
 \ tory seminary and the parish churches at Itzling, 
 , Oberndorf, St. Andra, was professor of theology at 
 . Salzburg and author of an advanced catechism for 
 [ use in the high schools. From 1914 to 1918 he 
 , labored indefatigably for the spiritual and bodily 
 { welfare of the soldiers. The present incumbent is 
 
 the Most Rev. Ignatius Rieder, b. at Grossarl, 1 
 February, 1859, professor of theology at Salzburg, 
 elected titular bishop of Sura and auxiliary bishop of 
 f Salzburg 2 Jan., 1911, succeeded Most Rev. Balthasar 
 » Kaltner, 10 March, 1919. 
 
 > During the war the clergy and laity worked with 
 great zeal and encouraged the soldiers by giving them 
 
 ■ spiritual and temporal comfort. Twenty-six priests 
 were appointed field chaplains, 2 regulars were active 
 
 ! in cholera hospitals, 2 in refugees’ camps, 3 in military 
 ! hospitals. All the clergy contributed from 4 to 
 ^ 7% of their incomes for war purposes, about 60,000 
 kronen. War welfare committees were established, 
 collections were taken up in churches, the prisoners 
 received spiritual aid and the wounded were cared for 
 in reserve hospitals. An asylum was founded for war 
 
 ■ orphans and good literature was distributed among 
 the soldiers (central distribution bureau at Salzburg). 
 Many rectories, Sisters’ private schools and two sum¬ 
 mer homes of the Ursulines were given over for hospital 
 purposes, gifts and clothes were distributed to the 
 soldiers at the front. Catholic Women’s Associations 
 provided refreshments at the depots, the war loan 
 was promoted, church and private property was used 
 to further the war loan (several million kronen), the 
 soldiers graves were cared for, the Red Cross Associa¬ 
 tion was supported, the church bells were given over 
 to the government, the St. Peter foundation cared 
 for twenty wounded soldiers, and the missionaries 
 at Lieferung and St. Rupert placed 100 beds at the 
 disposal of the Government. 
 
 Samar and Leyte, Diocese of. See Calbayog. 
 
 Samoa; (cf. C. E., XIII—421a), a group of 
 islands in the Western Pacific Ocean, formerly 
 belonging to the United States and Germany. On 
 29 August, 1914, the western islands of the 
 group (Savaii, Upolu, Apolima, Manono), held by 
 Germany, were occupied .by a force of New Zea¬ 
 landers. At the conclusion of the World War, 
 Western Samoa was assigned to New Zealand under 
 a mandate from the League of Nations, dated 17 
 December, 1920. The Governor General of New 
 Zealand in Council has made laws for Western Samoa, 
 and Hon. E. P. Lee, Minister of General Affairs for 
 New Zealand, is in charge of Samoa and other former 
 German islands assigned to New Zealand. Provision 
 has been made for a nominated Legislative Council, 
 to which are eligible for appointment natural born 
 British subjects, Samoans, or those born in Samoa. 
 The Council consists of not less than four official 
 members and an equal number of unofficial members, 
 all meetings being presided over by the administrator. 
 The civil administration was inaugurated 1 May, 
 1920. German currency is replaced by New Zealand 
 bank notes and specie. Military training of the 
 natives except for local police or defence purposes is 
 prohibited, and no military or naval force or any 
 fortification may be established. These islands are 
 
SAMOGITIA 
 
 674 
 
 SAN GABRIEL 
 
 ecclesiastically administered by a vicar apostolic and 
 called the Vicariate Apostolic of Navigators’ Islands 
 (q- v.). . 
 
 The United States still retains Tutuila and other 
 islands, which for political reasons form a separate 
 ecclesiastical territory but are not a prefecture prop¬ 
 erly so called. They are administered by Rt. Rev. 
 Joseph Darnand, S. M., titular Bishop of Pole- 
 monium, and Vicar Apostolic of Navigators’ Islands, 
 the former administrator, Rt. Rev. Peter John 
 Broyer having died 27 October, 1918. During the 
 last months of 1918 great havoc among the natives 
 was caused by influenza, 7000 falling victims to the 
 disease. The total Catholic population of the islands 
 is 8000. The whites number 1500, natives, 37,000, 
 and Chinese coolies 1500. There are: 15 parishes; 
 57 churches; 74 stations; 2 native priests; 15 Marist 
 Fathers; 9 teaching brothers and 2 lay brothers; 
 21 European and 15 native Sisters; 15 high schools, 
 with 25 teachers and 1091 pupils, of whom 576 are 
 boys and 515 girls; 1 training school for catechists 
 with 4 teachers and 35 students; 69 elementary 
 schools with 69 teachers and 1293 pupils. A Catholic 
 periodical, “O le Auauna,” is published in the 
 native language. 
 
 Samogitia, Diocese of. See Zemaiti. 
 
 San Andres and Providencia, Prefecture Apos¬ 
 tolic of, in Columbia, S. A. This prefecture was 
 erected 20 June, 1912, and was placed in charge of the 
 Missionary Fathers of Mill Hill. The Very Rev. 
 Richard Turner was named first superior. No 
 statistics are available. 
 
 San Antonio, Diocese of (Sancti Antoninii; 
 cf. C. E., XIII—424c), in Texas, suffragan of 
 New Orleans. The present bishop is Rt. Rev. 
 Arthur Drossaerts, b. at Breda, 11 Sept., 1362, 
 ordained at Bois-le-Duc, 15 June, 1889, elected 18 
 July, 1918, consecrated at New Orleans, 8 Dec. 
 following, succeeding Rt. Rev. John William Shaw, 
 promoted to New Orleans. There are in the diocese 
 86 parishes, 180 churches, 94 missions, 66 mission 
 stations, 1 monastery for women, 72 secular priests, 
 88 regulars, 47 lay brothers, 1349 Sisters, 3 seminaries 
 and 165 seminarians. The educational institutions 
 include: 4 colleges for women with 88 teachers and 
 375 students, 14 academies with 220 teachers and 
 2155 pupils (508 boys and 1647 girls), 2 training 
 schools with 19 teachers and 65 students, 71 element¬ 
 ary schools with 236 teachers and 8128 pupils. The 
 diocese has the following charitable institutions: 2 
 homes for the aged (82 inmates), 1 asylum with 70 
 boys, 1 asylum with 84 girls, 1 house of the Good 
 Shepherd, (57 inmates), 3 hospitals which took care 
 of 4491 sick persons in 1921, 1 day nursery with 
 105 children and 32 orphans, a National Catholic 
 Community House for Mexicans. Connected with 
 the State University is a Catholic students’ club¬ 
 house called Newman Hall. The following associa¬ 
 tions exist among the priests: the Eucharistic League 
 and the Purgatorial Association. The laymen 
 have organized the following associations: Knights of 
 Columbus, Catholic Knights, Holy Name Society, 
 St. Vincent de Paul Society, Boy Scouts. A Catholic 
 periodical called “The Southern Messenger,” is 
 published in the diocese. It was founded and manag¬ 
 ed by the late L. .William Menger. In October, 
 1919 a drive was planned to collect funds for a 
 diocesan seminary which netted the sum of $132,000. 
 The building was erected in 1920> During the war 
 1 priest served with the United States army overseas, 
 1 with the Navy home service, 2 priests as Knights 
 of Columbus chaplains. The diocese has a Catholic 
 population of 140,000. The following nationalities 
 
 are represented: Germans 15,000, Poles 6000, Bo¬ 
 hemians 12,000, Mexicans 75,000, negroes 1000. 
 
 San Carlos de Ancud, Diocese of (Sancti Caroli 
 Ancudre; cf. C. Et, XIII—426a), in Southern Chili, 
 suffragan of Santiago. The present bishop is the 
 Rt. Rev. Antoine Louis Castro y Alvarez, b. at 
 Valpariso, 24 April, 1867, entered the Congregation 
 of the Picpus, elected 21 Feb., 1918, published 10 
 March, 1919, succeeding the Rt. Rev. Pedro Valen¬ 
 zuela who resigned. According to the statistics of 
 1920 the diocese contained: 15 missions, 207 chapels, 
 62 secular priests, 50 seminarians, 6 congregations 
 of men, 3 congregations of women. 
 
 San Francisco, Archdiocese of (Sancti Fran- 
 cisci; cf. C. E., XIII—439c), in California. On 27 
 Dec., 1914, occurred the death of the Most Rev. 
 Patrick William Riordan. -He was succeeded by the 
 Most Rev. Edward Joseph Hanna, b. at Rochester, 
 21 July, 1860, ordained at Rome, 30 May, 1885, 
 elected titular Bishop of Titopolis, 22 Oct., 1912, 
 and auxiliary Bishop of San Francisco, consecrated 
 4 Dec. following, and promoted 1 June, 1915, pub¬ 
 lished 6 Dec. following. According to the statistics 
 of 1922 the Catholics number about 364,826. All 
 races of Europe are represented. The archdiocese 
 contains 146 parishes, 70 missions, 30 stations, 216 
 churches, 6 monasteries and 12 convents for men, 1 
 monastery and 71 convents for women with about 
 1230 Sisters, 250 secular priests, 185 regulars, about 
 200 lay brothers, 1 seminary with 260 seminarians. 
 The educational institutions are: 2 universities, 75 
 professors, 650 students; 8 higher educational institu¬ 
 tions for women, 161 teachers, 2391 students; 1 nor¬ 
 mal school; 2 training schools; 70 elementary schools, 
 about 840 teachers, and 15,500 students. Among the 
 missionary works are several schools for the Japanese 
 and Chinese in San Francisco, and for the Indians in 
 Lake and Mendocino counties. The following char¬ 
 itable institutions exist in the diocese: 3 homes, 5 
 asylums, 1 institution for the blind, 1 institution for 
 deaf-mutes, 7 hospitals, 2 refuges, 3 settlement 
 houses, 7 day nurseries. The City and State prisons, 
 insane asylums, etc., admit the ministry of priests. 
 The orphan asylums and 1200 children under the care 
 of the Little Childrens’ Aid are partly aided by the 
 Government. The Eucharistic League has been es¬ 
 tablished among the clergy. The Holy Name Society 
 for men exists in many parishes. A Catholic paper 
 called “The Monitor” is published in the archdiocese. 
 Recently the Poor Clares and Sisters of the Third 
 Order of St. Dominic have settled in the archdiocese. 
 The Missionary Sons of the Immaculate Heart of 
 Mary are in charge of Newman parish. The following 
 clergymen of note have died since 1912: Rev. Philip 
 O’Ryan, S.T.L., apologist in A.P.A. struggle and 
 organizer of the League of Holy Cross Cadets; Rt. 
 Rev. Mgr. J. J. Prendergast, who was Vicar General 
 from 1878 to 1914. During the war 10 priests served 
 as chaplains in the army, 5 overseas and 5 in camps. 
 The Knights of Columbus were active in the various 
 camps. 
 
 San Gabriel delPAddolorata de Maranon, Prefec¬ 
 ture Apostolic of (S. Gabrielis de Virgine Per- 
 dolente), erected by a Decree of 27 February, 1921, 
 which divided the former prefecture of Sao Leon 
 de Amazonas, cutting off the regions which lie 
 around the Maranon or Upper Amazon, and its 
 tributaries, within the limits of Peru, and extending 
 as far as the rivers Huncway and Ancutiyo, and 
 erecting this territory into the new prefecture. The 
 district is chiefly populated with Indian tribes, and 
 is entrusted to the Passionists. Rt. Rev. Atanasio 
 Jauregui was named first prefect apostolic. No 
 statistics are published. 
 
SAN JOSE 
 
 675 
 
 SAN SEVERINO 
 
 San Jose de Costa Rica, Archdiocese of (Sancti 
 Josephi de Costarica; cf. C. E., XIII—446d), 
 metropolitan, in Costa Rica, Central America. This 
 see was erected into an archdiocese on 1(5 Feb., 1921, 
 and the Most Rev. Othon Raphael Castro was ap¬ 
 pointed first archbishop. He was elected at the con¬ 
 sistory of 10 March, 1921. The bishop of the former 
 diocese was the Rt. Rev. Jean Gaspar Stork, C. M., 
 b. at Cologne 7 June, 1856, elected 1 June, 1904, 
 consecrated 28 Aug., published 14 Nov. following. 
 He succeeded Rt. Rev. Bishop Thiel, who died in 
 December, 1920. In 1920 the diocese consisted of 
 65 parishes, 65 parish churches, 98 chapels, 102 
 secular priests, 12 regulars, 10 seminarians, 708 
 children in Catholic schools. The Catholics num¬ 
 bered 355,500. 
 
 San Juan, Diocese of (Sancti Joannis de 
 Cuyo; cf. C. E., XIII—447a), in the Argentine 
 Republic, suffragan of Buenos Aires. The present 
 administrator is the Rt. Rev. Joseph Americ Orzali, b. 
 at Buenos Aires, 13 March, 1863, ordained 19 
 December, 1885, elected 30 December, 1911, conse¬ 
 crated 10 March, 1912, published 2 December follow¬ 
 ing. He succeeded Rt. Rev. Marcolino del Carmelo 
 Benavente who died in September, 1910. Rt. Rev. 
 Marco Zapata, titular bishop of Castabala, is the 
 auxiliary bishop. In 1920 there were in the diocese 
 37 parishes, 149 churches and chapels, 40 seminarians 
 of whom 3 were in Rome, 482,000 inhabitants. 
 
 San Leon del Amazonas, Vicariate Apostolic of, 
 in Northern Peru. Formerly a prefecture apostolic 
 it was erected into a viciariate 22 Feb., 1921, and 
 entrusted to the Augustinians. The present vicar is 
 the Rt. Rev. Soter Redondo Herrero, titular bishop 
 of Aucanda. He was b. at Valencia, 9 Nov., 1868, 
 named prefect apostolic of San Le6n del Amazonas, 
 Nov., 1915, elected at the Consistory of 16 June, 1921, 
 named vicar apostolic of San Le6n del Amazonas 
 26 May following. According to the statistics of 
 1920, the prefecture apostolic contains 4 stations and 
 
 4 Augustinian Fathers. 
 
 San Luis Potosi, Diocese of (Sancti Ludovici 
 Potosiensis; cf. C. E., XIII—448c), in Mexico, 
 suffragan of Linares. The last administrator of the 
 diocese was the Rt. Rev. Joseph Montes de Oca y 
 Obregon. He was born at Guanajuato in Mexico, 
 
 26 June, 1840, ordained 28 Feb., 1863, curate in 
 England, then in Guanajuato, chaplain to the Em- 
 perior of Mexico, elected bishop of Tamaulipas and 
 consecrated 6 March, 1871, transferred to Linares, 
 19 Sept., 1879, and to St. Luis Potosi, 13 Nov., 
 1884, assistant to the pontifical throne 13 Dec., 
 1887, made titular archbishop of Cesarea de Pont 
 July, 1920, published 16 Dec. following, died at 
 New York, 19 Aug., 1921. The see is still vacant. 
 According to the statistics of 1920 the diocese con¬ 
 tained 620,000 Catholics, 46 parishes, 150 churches 
 and chapels, 132 secular priests, 8 regulars, 15 
 seminarians. There is a school in every parish and 
 
 5 colleges. 
 
 San Marco and Bisignano, Diocese of (Sancti, 
 Marci et Bisinianensis; cf. C. E., XIII—448d) 
 in Calabria, Italy, immediately subject to the Holy 
 See. The present administrator of the diocese is the 
 Rt. Rev. Salvatore Scaun, b. at Ozieri, 11 Dec. 
 1859, ordained 12 April, 1884, elected 27 March, 
 1909, consecrated 30 June, made administrator 
 Apostolic of Cassanoall Tonio March, 1910, published 
 
 27 Nov., 1911. He succeeded Vincenzo Ricotta, who 
 lied 14 Jan., 1909. According to the statistics of 
 1920 the diocese contains 70,900 Catholics in San 
 Marco and 70,900 in Bisignano, 64 parishes, 212 
 Lurches and chapels, 174 secular priests, 6 regulars, 
 
 5 convents for men, 8 for women and 40 seminarians. 
 
 San Martino al Cimino (cf. C. E., XIII—449c) 
 an abbey nullius in the Province of Rome, directly 
 dependent on the Holy See. The present Abbot is 
 Most Rev. Antonio-Doinenico Rossi, born in Pia¬ 
 cenza in 1866, incorporated into the Diocese of Chi- 
 avari, made an honorary canon extra urbem in 1878, 
 1905 and 1914, made a prelate of the Holy See in 1915 
 and named Abbot of San Martino al Cimino in April 
 of the same year. There are about 2070 Catholics 
 included in this territory; it comprises 1 parish, 3 
 churches, 1 abbey, 8 secular priests, 5 Sisters, 3 sem¬ 
 inarians, 1 elementary school with 5 teachers and 100 
 pupils, which receives aid from the Government, and 
 1 public institution in which the priests are permitted 
 to minister. Recently occurred the death of a prom¬ 
 inent member of the clergy, Monsignor Francesco 
 Spolverini, apostolic nuncio to Brazil and sub-datary 
 to the Holy See. 
 
 San Miguel, Diocese of (Sancti Michaelis), in 
 the Republic of San Salvador, Central America. It 
 was erected 11 Feb., 1913 by a division of the diocese 
 of San Salvador and comprises the civil provinces of 
 San Miguel, La Union, Morizan and Usulutan. 
 The present and first bishop of the diocese is the 
 Rt. Rev. Juan Duenas y Argumedo, b. at Apico, 
 San Salvador, 18 Jan., 1868, ordained 1 Nov., 
 1891, elected 1 Aug., 1913, published 25 May, 1914, 
 made assistant to the pontifical throne, 11 Aug., 
 1920. The diocese covers an area of about 4234 
 square miles and contains 335,500 inhabitants, 1 
 congregation of men and 2 of women. No further 
 statistics are available. 
 
 San Miniato, Diocese of (Sancti Miniati; 
 cf. C. E., XIII—449d), in Northern Italy, suffragan 
 of Florence. The present administrator is the Rt. 
 Rev. Carlo Falconi, b. at Prato, 23 March, 1848, 
 elected titular bishop of Arethusa 24 June, 1907, 
 transferred 30 August following. He succeeded the 
 Rt. Rev. Pio Alberto del Corona who resigned. Ac¬ 
 cording to the statistics of 1920 the diocese contained 
 106,800 Catholics, 100 parishes, 250 churches and 
 chapels, 246 secular priests, 42 regulars, 19 Brothers 
 136 Sisters and 7 seminarians. 
 
 San Pedro de Sulan, Vicariate Apostolic ofJ 
 in the Republic of Honduras. It was erected 2 Febru¬ 
 ary, 1916, by the division of the diocese of Comaya- 
 gua, of which it takes in all the northern part and com¬ 
 prises the civil provinces of Cortes, Islas de la Bahia, 
 Atlantida and Colon. It is confided to the care of 
 the Lazarists. The Very Rev. Antoine Casulleras was 
 appointed administrator in 1917. No further data 
 are available. 
 
 San Salvador, Archdiocese of (Sancti Salvatoris 
 in America Centrali; cf. C. E., XIII—450d).— 
 On 11 Feb., 1913, the former diocese of San Salvador 
 was erected into an archdiocese and two other dio¬ 
 ceses, those of San Miguel and Santa Ana, were 
 formed therefrom. The present incumbent is the 
 Most Rev. Anthony Perez y Aguilar, b. at San 
 Salvador, 20 March, 1839, elected 13 Jan., 1888, 
 appointed archbishop 11 Feb., 1913, and made 
 assistant at the pontifical throne 2 April, 1916. 
 According to the statistics of 1920 the former diocese 
 contained 1,000,000 Catholics, 295 churches, 180 
 secular priests, 13 colleges, 18 hospitals, 8 homes and 
 asylums. 
 
 San Severino, Diocese of (Sancti Severini; 
 cf. C. E., XIII—452), in Central Italy, suffragan 
 of Fermo, was erected in early days. The saint 
 whose name it bears was its second or third bishop 
 and governed it from 440 to 442-3. The diocese 
 was subsequently united to that of Camerino, but 
 
SAN SEVERO 
 
 G76 
 
 SANKT POLTEN 
 
 
 was restored in 1586. San Severino is situated 
 about a kilometer from the ancient Picene city of 
 Septempeda, where the Romans later established a 
 colony. It has two cathedrals, the older being in an 
 ancient castle. In 1827 the Augustinian church be¬ 
 came the new cathedral, and to it the Madonna of 
 Pinturicchio was transferred recently from the castle, 
 while Pomaranico’s paintings are in the Church of the 
 Madonna della Misericordia. The crypt of the 
 Church of San Lorenzo in Doliolo, a Cistercian 
 abbey church, is believed to be the ancient temple 
 of Feronia. It is in this church that the relics of 
 the martyrs SS. Hippolytus and Justin are preserved. 
 The sanctuary of San Pacifico attracts large crowds 
 of pilgrims from the adjoining dioceses. Near Monte 
 Sanvicino St. Dominic Loricato passed his extraor¬ 
 dinarily penitential life and when his monastery fell 
 into ruin his body was transferred to the parish 
 church of Santa Anna in Frontale. This little 
 diocese of San Severino has a population of about 
 20,000; the Capuchins have 1, the Friars Minor 1, 
 and the Cistercian monks 2 houses; 1 monastery of 
 Cistercian nuns; 1 convent of Poor Clares; the Vin¬ 
 centian Sisters of Charity have an orphanage and a 
 hospital; the Sisters of the Child Jesus have a flourish¬ 
 ing college, and the Daughters of Providence an 
 orphanage. There are 29 parishes, 100 church 
 chapels and oratories, about 120 priests. The 
 present Bishop of San Severino, Mgr. Adamo Bor- 
 ghini, w*as born in Gualdo in the Archdiocese of 
 Ferrara on 13 December, 1859, appointed titular 
 Bishop of Carpasia on 13 January, 1909, and auxiliary 
 of Ferrara, and transferred to San Severino on 4 
 July, 1913, suceeding Mgr. Bicchi, who died on 
 18 January, 1913. 
 
 By the Constitution “Boni Pastoris” of Benedict 
 XV, dated 20 February, 1920, the diocese of Treja 
 was perpetually united to that of San Severino in 
 such a way that the Bishop of the latter diocese is to 
 be Apostolic Administrator of Treja. The bishop 
 is to reside a notable part of each year in either 
 diocese. Treja had been made a diocese on 8 
 February, 1916, but never had a bishop of its own, 
 having been administered by the Bishops of Caine- 
 rino until 1913, when, owing to the inconvenience 
 arising from its location, it was placed temporarily 
 under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of San Severino. 
 The Diocese of Treja comprises a commune in the 
 province of Macerata, with (in 1914) 9597 inhabi¬ 
 tants; 8 parishes; 46 churches, chapels, and 3 orato¬ 
 ries, and 30 secular priests; there were a convent of 
 Friars Minor; a convent of Salesian Sisters, while 
 the Sisters of Charity had a refuge and a girls’ 
 orphanage, in addition to directing the public hos¬ 
 pital. 
 
 San Severo, Diocese of (Sancti Severini; cf. 
 C. E., XIII—453b), in southern Italy, suffragan of 
 Benevento. By a consistorial decree of 23 February, 
 1916, two parishes of the archdiocese of Benevento 
 were assigned to the diocese of San Severo. The 
 present bishop is the Rt. Rev. Gaetano Pizzi, b. at 
 Miranda, Italy, 15 February, 1854, elected bishop of 
 Lacedonia, 21 July, 1907, consecrated 15 September, 
 transferred 5 November, 1912, enthroned 1 February, 
 1913, suceeding the Rt. Rev. Emmanuele Merra, 
 who died 20 July, 1911. In 1920 the diocese con¬ 
 tained: 45,920 Catholics, 7 parishes, 25 churches and 
 chapels, 94 secular priests, 6 seminarians. 
 
 Sanctuary, Right of (cf. C. E., XIII—430).— 
 Churches still enjoy the right of asylum to this 
 extent, that culprits taking refuge there are not to 
 be removed, except in case of necessity, without the 
 assent of the ordinary or at least of the rector of the 
 church. 
 
 Sandhurst, Diocese of (Sandhurstensis; 
 cf. C. E., XIII—436c), in Victoria, Australia, suf¬ 
 fragan of Melbourne, The present administrator 
 is the Rt. Rev. John McCarthy, b. at Fermoyle, 
 diocese of Kilfenora, Ireland, 1 Nov., 1858, elected 
 14 Feb., 1917, consecrated 7 June following. He 
 succeeded the Rt. Rev. Stephen Reville, O. S. A., 
 who died 19 Sept., 1916. The diocese contains 
 26 parishes, 109 churches, 38 stations, 1 monastery 
 for men, 8 Marist Brothers, 44 secular priests, 8 
 regulars, 202 Sisters, 1 orphange with 150 orphans, 
 
 58 penitents. Educational institutions include the 
 following: 1 college for men with 2 teachers and 36 
 students; 13 colleges for women with 59 teachers and 
 988 students; 26 elementary schools with 104 teachers 
 and 3612 pupils. 
 
 Sandomir, Diocese of (Sandomiriensis; cf. C. 
 
 E., XIII—436d), in Poland, suffragan of Warsaw. 
 
 The present incumbent is the Rt. Rev. Marianus 
 Joseph Ryx, b. at Warsaw, Poland, 10 Dec., 1853, 
 ordained in 1879, elected 7 April, 1910, consecrated 
 20 June, published 27 Nov., 1911. In 1920 the dio¬ 
 cese contained 892,278 Catholics, 21 deaneries, 215 
 parishes, 50 filial churches, 333 secular priests, 1 
 regular, 45 Sisters, 96 seminarians, 1 college at 
 Opatow. 
 
 Sandwich Islands, Vicariate Apostolic of. 
 
 See Hawaii. 
 
 Sankt Polten, Diocese of (Sancti Hippolyti; cf. 
 
 C. E., XIII—447b), in Lower Austria, suffragan of 
 Vienna. There are now (1921) in the diocese, 
 650,800 Germans, of whom 644,000 are Catholics 
 and 6800 belong to other denominations. It con¬ 
 tains 40 parishes, 503 churches, '9 monasteries, 7 
 abbeys and 1 convent for men, 104 convents with 
 1140 sisters; 510 secular and 449 regular priests 
 and 20 lay brothers. There is one diocesan semi- ■ 
 nary with 180 students, two preparatory seminaries 
 for boys and one diocesan theological institution. 
 With very few exceptions, the educational institu¬ 
 tions are under the care of the government. In 
 high schools (Mitt els chulen) and elementary 
 
 schools, Catholic religious instruction is obligatory. 
 Owing to the proximity of Vienna there is no 
 university at Sankt Polten. There are, however, 2 
 diocesan high schools (Hohere Schulen) with 29 
 teachers and 450 students (girls), 1 normal school 
 (diocesan), for girls, with 15 teachers and 250 stu¬ 
 dents, 20 elementary schools (diocesan), 120 teach¬ 
 ers, 5000 students, 7 industrial schools of which 1 Is 
 commercial and 6 are housekeeping schools with 40 
 teachers and 850 students (girls) and 2 mission 
 schools. 
 
 The following institutions exist in the diocese: 
 
 1 home for the blind, 1 institute for the deaf and 
 dumb. All other institutions are under the care 
 of the state and about 750 sisters give their serv¬ 
 ices in caring for the inmates. Four associations 
 exist among the clergy and 28 among the laity. 
 Only 5 Catholic periodicals are published at Sankt. 
 Polten, all others are issued in Vienna and in other 
 nearby places. _ i 
 
 During the war both clergy and laity were active 
 in caring for the wounded in hospitals, for the 
 prisoners and refugees. Entertainment was pro¬ 
 vided for the soldiers, homes were established and 
 spiritual and bodily comforts were given to them. 
 
 Mention should be made of the following dis¬ 
 tinguished prelates and laymen who have died 
 since 1912: Rev. John Kirschbaumer, Provost at 
 Krems, a well known author; Very Rev. Anthony 
 Erdinger, Very Rev. Karl Erdinger, both prelates 
 at Sankt Polten and writers of renown, the latter 
 
SANT’ ANGELO 
 
 677 
 
 SANTA LUCIA 
 
 also a botanist; Count Julius Fa.lkenhayn and 
 Count Ferdinand Kuefstein who were well known 
 public-spirited men of their day. 
 
 At present (1922) the diocese is administered by 
 the Rt. Rev. John Baptist Roessler, b. at Nieder- 
 Schrems, 23 June, 1850, ordained 19 July, 1874, 
 appointed to the see of Sankt Polten 10 April, 
 1894, consecrated 10 June following. 
 
 Sant’ Angelo de’ Lombardi et Bissaccia, Dio¬ 
 cese of (Sancti Angeli Lombardorum et Bis- 
 acciensis; cf. C. E., XIII—459b), in Southern Italy, 
 suffragan of Conza. The present bishop is the Rt. 
 Rev. Giulio Tommasi, b. at Scanzano, Italy, 13 
 August, 1855, elected 19 April, 1897, made assistant 
 to the pontifical throne 12 August, 1915. According 
 to the statistics of 1920 Sant’ Angelo contains 27,000 
 Catholics, 6 parishes, 30 churches and chapels, 75 
 secular priests. Bisaccia contains 15,570 Catholics, 3 
 parishes, 15 churches and chapels, 43 secular priests, 
 .2 regulars. 
 
 # 
 
 Sant’ Angelo in Vado and Urbania, Diocese 
 of (Sancti Angeli in Vado et Urbaniensis; cf. 
 O.E., XIII—459c), in Italy, suffragan of Urbino. 
 The present bishop is the Rt. Rev. Luigi-Giacomo 
 Baccini, a Capuchin, b. at Taggia, Italy, 17 Novem¬ 
 ber, 1869, elected 18 August, 1908, consecrated 4 
 October following, published 29 April, 1909. He 
 succeeded the Rt. Rev. Antonio Valbonesi who re¬ 
 signed. According to the statistics of 1920 Sant’ 
 Angelo contained: 5000 Catholics, 36 churches and 
 chapels, 18 secular priests, and 16 seminarians. Ur¬ 
 bania contained 10,000 Catholics, 42 parishes, 50 
 churches and chapels, 54 secular priests, 6 regulars, 
 and 20 seminarians. 
 
 Santa Agata dei Goti, Diocese of (S. Aga- 
 ra.E Gothorum; cf. C. E., XIII—454b), in Southern 
 Italy, has 29 parishes; 93 churches; 2 convents of 
 nuns with 12 members, and 6 communities of Sisters; 
 
 3 religious houses of men; 89 secular and 13 regular 
 priests; 9 Brothers; 1 seminary, 55 seminarians; 
 
 1 girls’ college, 2 teachers, 15 students; many ele¬ 
 mentary schools with a very large attendance; 6 
 infant asylums; 1 hospital. All the elementary 
 schools in the diocese are state or city institutions. 
 The clergy has a Mutual Benefit Association and a 
 dasa del Clero; for the laity there are several rural 
 Danks, 2 Catholic circles, and various pious unions, 
 ncluding the Daughters of Mary. The population of 
 :he diocese is entirely Catholic and numbers about 
 12,000. One of the most interesting events in the 
 liocesan history in recent years was the coronation of 
 :he Madonna on Mount Taburno. During the war 
 Doth clergy and laity devoted themselves to the care 
 )f the refugees and the orphans. In August, 1921, a 
 periodical for the Franciscan Tertiaries of Southern 
 Italy was started at Airola in the diocese. 
 
 Santa Casa di Loreto. See Recanati and Loreto. 
 
 Santa Catharina, Diocese of (Florianopolis; 
 ;f. C.‘E., XIII—456b), in Brazil, suffragan of Porto 
 \legre (Sao Pedro do Rio Grande). The present 
 idministrator is the Rt. Rev. Joachim Dominiques de 
 Jliveira. He was b. at Villanova de Gaya, Portugal, 
 
 1 December, 1878, ordained 21 December, 1901, 
 elected 2 April, 1914, published 28 May following, 
 consecrated 31 May, succeeding the Rt. Rev. Borges 
 ^uintao, who was elected but never accepted the 
 lonor. According to the statistics of 1920 the diocese 
 contained 486,960 inhabitants, of whom about 
 200,000 are Protestants, most of them German emi¬ 
 grants. No further statistics are available. 
 
 I Santa Clara, University of, —founded by the 
 n Rey. John Nobili, S.J., 19 March, 1851, upon the 
 invitation of Rt. Rev. Joseph Sadoc Alemany, O.P 
 V Bishop of San Francisco. On 28 April, 1855, the 
 - institution was chartered as a university, but it was 
 b known as Santa Clara College until 29 April, 1912, 
 b when its title was officially changed to “University of 
 Santa Clara.” In 1907 the courses in law. medicine 
 and engineering were begun and by 1911 the pre^ 
 _ medical and law schools were well established, and in 
 _ 1912 the school of engineering. At present (1921) 
 
 the university consists of the colleges of philosophy 
 and letters, general science, institute of law, college 
 } of engineering, school of pedagogy and pre-medical 
 b course. A preparatory school is conducted under 
 r the supervision of the university authorities. Rev. 
 j Timothy Leo Murphy, S.J., is president of the 
 ; university and the faculty numbers 48. The total 
 ; registration for all departments in 1921 was 369. 
 
 , Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Diocese of (Sanct^e 
 Crucis de Sierra; cf. C. E., XIII—456c), in Bolivia, 
 suffragan of La Plata (Charcas). According to 
 : the statistics of 1920 the diocese contained 54 parishes 
 , 70 churches and chapels and 105 priests The present 
 
 bishop is the Rt. Rev. Joseph Santistevan who has 
 ► administered the see since 1901. 
 
 Santa Fe, Archdiocese of (Sanctve Fidei 
 ; in America; cf. C. E., XIII—456d), in New Mexico. 
 
 ' Archbishop John B. Pitaval resigned February, 1918, 
 
 ‘ and was appointed titular archbishop of Amida 29 
 July, 1918. He was succeeded by the Most Rev. 
 Albert T. Daeger, O. F. M., b. at St. Anne, diocese of 
 , Indianapolis, in 1872, ordained 1896 missionary 
 among the Indians, promoted at the consistory of 
 10 March, 1919, consecrated 7 May and received the 
 pallium 11 May following. The archdiocese con¬ 
 tains 50 parishes, 315 missions with churches, 50 
 churches with resident priests, 315 mission churches, 
 104 mission stations, 50 secular priests, 47 regulars’ 
 
 6 seminarians, 160 religious including the Brothers 
 of the Christian Schools at Santa F6 and Las Vegas, 
 Sisters of Loretto, of Charity, of the Most Blessed 
 Sacrament, of St. Francis and of the Sorrowful 
 Mother. Educational institutions existing in the 
 archdiocese are: 3 colleges for men with 28 teachers 
 and 398 students; 6 high schools with 29 teachers and 
 413 students (62 boys, 351 girls); 4 academies with 
 40 teachers and 773 girl students; 1 normal school 
 with 25 students; 26 elementary schools with 98 
 teachers and 4993 pupils. The following charitable 
 institutions have been founded in the archdiocese: 
 
 5 hospitals at Santa Fe, Albuquerque, Gallup, East 
 Las Vegas and Roswell; St. Anthony’s Orphanage at 
 Albuquerque and St. Vincent’s Orphanage at Santa 
 Fe, which receives an annual appropriation from the 
 Government. A periodical called the “Southwestern 
 Catholic,” the official organ of the archdiocese of 
 Santa Fe, is regularly printed. During the war two 
 priests became chaplains and many of the laity en¬ 
 tered the service. The Catholics number 141,573, 
 of whom 121,000 are Americans and Spaniards’and 
 20,573 are Indians. 
 
 Santa Fe, Diocese of (Sanct^e Fidei; cf. C. E., 
 XIII—457b), in the Argentine Republic, suffragan of 
 Buenos Aires. According to the statistics of 1920 the 
 diocese contains: 1,050,000 inhabitants, 73 parishes, 
 52 succursal parishes, 153 churches and chapels in 
 the State of Santa Fe. The governments of Chaco 
 and Formosa have 4 mission centres. The first and 
 present bishop is the Rt. Rev. Jean Boneo, who has 
 administered the diocese since 1898. 
 
 Santa Lucia del Mela, Prelature Nullius of 
 (cf. C. E., XIII—457d), within the territorv of the 
 
SANTA MARIA 
 
 678 
 
 SANTA MARTA 
 
 Archdiocese of Messina, under the direct jurisdiction 
 of the Holy See. The prelature is administered by 
 the Archbishop of Messina (q. v.) and comprises 7 
 parishes, 76 priests and 13,354 inhabitants. 
 
 Santa Maria, Diocese of (Sanct^e Marine; cf. 
 C. E., XIII—458a), in Brazil, suffragan of Porto 
 Alegre. The first and present administrator is the 
 Rt. Rev. Miguel de Lima Valverde, b. at Bahia, 
 Brazil, 29 Sept., 1872, ordained 30 March, 1895, 
 deputy and president of the chamber of Deputies of 
 Bahia, elected 6 Feb., 1911, consecrated 15 Oct. 
 following. According to the statistics of 1920, the 
 diocese contained: 28 parishes, 15 secular priests, 
 38 regulars, 25 Brothers and about 50 Sisters, 1 
 college and more than 40 secondary schools. The 
 inhabitants numbered 435,000 of whom 400,000 were 
 Catholics, 20,000 Protestants and 15,000 Jews. 
 
 Santa Maria de Monserrato, Abbey Nullius 
 of (Beatte Marde Virginis de Monserrato; 
 cf. C. E., XIII—458a), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 
 The arch-abbot, Dom Gerardo van Caloen resigned 
 the charge of the Biazilian Benedictine Congiegation 
 in July, 1915. Before he resigned a coadjutor 
 cum jure successionis , Dom Chrystomo van Saegher, 
 had been chosen. Both have now retired, the first 
 to the monastery of St. Andrew in Lophem (Bruges), 
 Belgium, the second to Regina Coeli Abbey in 
 Louvain. The present arch-abbot of the Brazilian 
 congregation is Dom Jose da Santa Escolastica 
 Faria, elected 28 October, 1920, and blessed by 
 Cardinal Gasparri 24 June following. He lives at 
 the monastery of Sao Bento in the suburb Alto Boa 
 Vista da Tijuca, in the mountains which surround 
 Rio de Janeiro. Today the abbey nullius is gov¬ 
 erned by Dom Pedro Eggerath, formerly rector of 
 the gymnasio of Sao Bento in Sao Paulo, who was 
 elected 14 October, 1915, blessed 13 February, 1916, 
 elevated to abbey nullius by apostolic bull in August, 
 1921. The new abbot has continued the works com¬ 
 menced by his predecessors, but from the beginning 
 has enlarged the social activity of the abbey. The 
 works of the abbey are: 
 
 1. Mission of Rio Branco. —In August, 1912, two 
 new Fathers and a lay brother reinforced the staff 
 working there, making four priests and 3 lay brothers 
 in the teiritory between the Rio Branco and Rio 
 Negro. A group of Benedictine nuns will soon follow 
 them. The Brazilians (faimers and laborers) in the 
 territory number about 20,000 and the Indians about 
 5000, nearly all of whom are baptized. 
 
 2. Care of Souls. —Besides the abbatial church in 
 Alto B5a Vista, the monks have charge of the paro¬ 
 chial church of Sant’ Amaro in the neighboring 
 city of Campos, State of Rio de Janeiro, and in other 
 places in the Diocese of Nictheroy. The Benedictines 
 also have charge of care of souls in the navy hos¬ 
 pital on the Island of Cobras, as well as the gariison 
 and prison on the same island and the hospital of 
 Sao Sebastiao for tubercular patients. They look 
 out for the immigiants coming from Europe who 
 are stationed in the Island of Flores, in the bay of 
 Guanabora. 
 
 3. Education (Secondary).—1 gymnasio attended 
 by 300 students. (Primary) 1 “populai” school for 
 200 boys, 1 night school for adults, 1 shelter for 
 naval sailors. These schools are taught by the 
 monks assisted by lay teachers paid and directed 
 by them. The shelter for sailors is helped by the 
 naval authorities and officers instruct there in some 
 subjects. The personnel of the abbey includes 17 
 priests (inclusive of arch-abbot and abbot), 1 cleric 
 with solemn vows, 2 clerics with simple vows, 1 
 choir novice, 5 lay brothers and 2 lay novices; 
 total 28. 
 
 Santa Maria di Polsi. See Polsi, Santa Maria di 
 
 Santa Marta, Diocese of (Sanct^e Martha; 
 cf. C. E., XIII—458), in Colombia, suffragan of 
 Cartagena, is governed by Mgr. Joaquin Garcia, 
 Eudist, who was born at Bucaramanga, in the Diocese 
 of Nueva Pamplona on 4 April, 1883, and was 
 appointed to this see on 15 September, 1917, in suc¬ 
 cession to Mgr. Toro,.who had been transferred to the 
 See of Antoiquia. The diocese contains about 86,000 
 inhabitants. 
 
 The first bishop of this diocese, Mgr. Tomas Ortiz, 
 O.P., was appointed in 1531, but owing to ill-health 
 he was unable to receive episcopal consecration after 
 his arrival in Spain from America, where he had pre¬ 
 viously passed some time as protector of the Indians. 
 Don Alonso Tobes was appointed his successor, but 
 shortly after his consecration he died in Spain when 
 preparing for the journey to his diocese. Finally 
 Bishop Juan Fernandez de Angelo succeeded in reach¬ 
 ing his see in 1536. Pope Paul IV reduced the diocese 
 to the rank of an abbey, but ten years later (1572) 
 Gregory XIII made it a diocese once* more, with Fray 
 Juan Mendez as bishop. The diocese now contains 
 26 rather extensive parishes with 35 churches; among 
 the latter the most notable are the Cathedral, in 
 Roman style, very solidly built on artistic lines, and 
 the mother church of Santa Ana in Ocana, a work of 
 beauty. 
 
 The religious communities are: the Capuchins and 
 Eudists at Santa Marta; the Jesuits at Ocana; the 
 Presentation Sisters of Tours at Santa Marta, Cien- 
 aga, Ocana and Convencidn; and Visitandines at 
 Ocana. Devoted to the care of the sick and the educa¬ 
 tion of girls, the Presentation Sisters have excellent 
 colleges in each of the towns just mentioned, with a 
 total of over 2000 pupils, and they direct 3 hospitals 
 in Santa Marta, Cienaga and Ocana. There are 35 
 secular and 11 regular priests, and a seminary with 
 38 seminarians, which is under the care of the Eudists. 
 The work of the Jesuits who were introduced by the 
 presiding bishop, Mgr. Toro, is twofold; some of the 
 Fathers are engaged in missionary work in the part of 
 the diocese bounded by the east bank of the Rio 
 Magdalena, others are teaching in the College at 
 Ocana, where they have 200 students. Besides the 
 educational institutions mentioned above there are 
 in Santa Marta the Liceo Celedon, which is chartered 
 to confer the baccalaureate degree, and normal schools 
 for men and women each with about 12 professors and 
 300 students. In Ocana there are advanced and ele¬ 
 mentary technical schools; and in the entire diocese 
 more than 320 primary schools. There is a diocesan 
 “Boletin eclesidstico” published every fortnight; and 
 a weekly paper published in the parish of El Sagrario 
 and San Miguel de Santa Marta. The sodalities and 
 societies among the laity are very active and produc¬ 
 tive of consoling results; chief among them are: 
 The Brothers of the Most Blessed Sacrament, the 
 Sodality of the Sacred Heart, the Adorers of the 
 Blessed Sacrament, the Nazarenes, the Knights of 
 Columbus, the Daughters of Our Lady of Mount 
 Carmel, the Rosary Sodality, the Third Order of St. 
 Francis. The Societies of the Propagation of the 
 Faith and of the Holy Childhood were established 
 some years ago and are rapidly increasing their mem¬ 
 bership. 
 
 In 1905 the diocese was divided to provide for a 
 Vicariate Apostolic of Goagira, whose first Vicar Mgr. 
 Anastasis Vicente Soler y Royo with his zealous 
 brother Capuchin missionaries have reaped so much 
 fruit among the Indians of that country. Most of the 
 Goagiros and the Arhuacos now are civilized; while 
 the Motilones also are abandoning their proud pagan¬ 
 ism and savagery for Catholicity, 
 
SANTA ROSA 
 
 679 
 
 SANTO DOMINGO 
 
 Santa Rosa de Capan, Diocese of (Sanct^e 
 Ros^e de Capan), in the Republic of Honduras, 
 suffragan of Tegucigalpa. This diocese was erected 
 2 Feb., 1916, by the division of the diocese of Comay- 
 agua, of which it takes in the western part and in¬ 
 cludes the civil provinces of Santa Barbara, Capan, 
 Gracias, Ocutepeque, and Intibuca. The present 
 and first bishop is the Rt. Rev. Claude Volio, b. at 
 Cartago, in Costa Rica, 28 Oct., 1874, elected 8 
 Feb., 1916, published 4 Dec., following. No statis¬ 
 tics are available. 
 
 Santa Rosa de Osos, Diocese of (Sanctte 
 Ros/E de Osos) in Colombia, South America, 
 suffragan of Medellin. This diocese was erected 5 
 February, 1917, and the Rt. Rev. Maximilian 
 Crespo was appointed its bishop. He was born at 
 Buga, Colombia, 18 October, 1861, elected bishop 
 of Antioquia, 18 October, 1910, published 27 Novem¬ 
 ber, 1911, transferred 7 February, 1917, published 
 22 March following. No statistics for this diocese 
 have been published up to this time (1922). 
 
 Santa Severina, Archdiocese of (Sanctte 
 Severing; cf. C. E., XIII—459d), in Calabria, 
 Southern Italy. The present Archbishop is the Most 
 Rev. Carmelo Pujia, b. at Filadelfia, Italy, 25 
 Oct., 1852, elected bishop of Anglona-Tursi 13 
 July, 1897, published 14 March, 1898, promoted 
 October, 1905, published 11 December, following. 
 He was made assistant to the pontifical throne 9 
 February, 1912, and named administrator of Cotrone 
 1 April, 1921. He succeeded the Rt. Rev. Nicolas 
 Piccirilli who was transferred. According to the 
 statistics of 1920 the diocese contained: 42,000 
 Catholics, 23 parishes, 5 vicarages, 53 churches and 
 chapels, 67 secular priests, 16 regulars, 17 seminarians. 
 
 Santander, Diocese of (Sancti Anderii, San- 
 tanderiensis; cf. C. E., XIII—458c), in Spain, 
 suffragan of Burgos. The present administrator is 
 the Rt. Rev. Juan Plaza y Garcia, b. at Hortezuela de 
 Ocen, Spain, ordained 4 June, 1887, elected titular 
 bishop of Hippos 27 August, 1913, consecrated 27 
 December, following, transferred 16 December, 1920. 
 He succeeded the Rt. Rev. Vincent Sanchez y Castro, 
 who died 19 September, 1920. According to the sta¬ 
 tistics of 1920 the diocese contained 239,000 Catholics, 
 478 parishes, 500 secular priests, 20 convents for men 
 with 151 priests, 61 convents with 573 sisters. 
 
 Santarem, Prelature Nullius of (cf. C. E., 
 XIII—459d), in North Brazil, suffragan of Belem do 
 Pard, erected 21 September, 1903. The first prelate 
 was Rt. Rev. Frederico Benitio Costa. The area of 
 the prelature is 231,660 square miles. It is bounded 
 on the north by Guiana, on the east by the Atlantic 
 Ocean and the Xingu River, on the south by the state 
 of Matto Gross and on the west by the State of Ama¬ 
 zonas. There are about 200,000 civilized inhabitants 
 and about 50,000 Indians. More than half of the 
 prelature is yet unexplored. The civilized people live 
 along the Amazon River and near the mouths of the 
 rivers that flow into it. There are 20 parishes erected. 
 Santarem, Obidos, Alemquer, Monte Alegre, Macapa 
 and Itaituba have residing pastors. The other par¬ 
 ishes are frequently visited by the missionaries: 
 Faro, Juruty, Almeirim, Boim, Alter do Chao, Avei- 
 ros, and Altamira by the Franciscan Fathers; Masa- 
 gao and Amapd by the Missionaries of the Holy Fam¬ 
 ily. In the prelature there are 12 Franciscan Fathers 
 and 2 Franciscan lay brothers, 5 Missionaries of the 
 Holy Family (from Grave in Holland), and 1 secular 
 priest, an Italian. In Santarem is the monastery of 
 the Franciscan Fathers, and the principal convent of 
 the Sisters of the Immaculate Conception Order who 
 number 50 Sisters, 30 in Santarem and 20 with resi¬ 
 
 dences in Obidos, Monte Alegre, St, Joseph’s Colony, 
 and amongst the Indians. These Sisters have a no¬ 
 vitiate in Muenster (Westphalia), for novices who come 
 from Germany. 1 he Franciscan Fathers come from 
 the Province of St. Anthony in Brazil and are all 
 Germans. They have a Seraphic College in Bardel 
 (Westphalia) for German postulants, the college being 
 directly dependent on St. Anthony’s Province in 
 Brazil. 
 
 The city of Santarem, situated where the Tapajoz 
 enters the Amazon, is a healthy city of about 5000 
 inhabitants. It has the Cathedral" Church of the 
 Immaculate Conception, St. Sebastian’s Church in 
 the east and St. Raymundus’ Church in the west of 
 the city, and the 2 convents of the Franciscan Fath¬ 
 ers and the Conceptionist Sisters in the south of the 
 city. The population of the whole prelature is Cath¬ 
 olic with very few exceptions. There are about 20 
 Protestants in Santarem and perhaps a dozen in some 
 other cities. Obidos has about 3000 inhabitants and 
 Alemquer, Macap£ and Monte Alegre less than 3000. 
 The people are descendants of Indians and some 
 European immigrants, mostly of mixed origin and 
 some colored, the pure European and quite white 
 people being very few. In Macapd is a Congregation 
 of the Daughters of the Heart of Mary; 14 Sisters in 
 Macapd, 3 in Masagao, 4 in the Indian mission 
 amongst the Waupes, and 5 in the Diocese of Piauhy. 
 The mission among the Mandurucus Indians of the 
 prelature was founded in 1910 and has 2 schools for 
 boys and girls, directed by the Franciscan Fathers 
 and the Conceptionist Sisters. There are about 600 
 Indians civilized and instructed. The Mandurucus 
 have a special idiom, in some way like the Lupi lan¬ 
 guage, but with considerable difference. Fr. Hugo 
 Mense, who stayed 10 years amongst these Indians, 
 composed a very interesting grammar and dictionary 
 of the language and wrote also a catechism. The 
 present prelate of Santarem is Rt. Rev. Amandus 
 Bahlmann, O.F.M., titular bishop of Argos, born in 
 Essen (Oldenburg), 8 May, 1862, entered the Fran¬ 
 ciscan Order in 1879, consecrated 19 July, 1908. 
 
 Santiago de Compostela, Archdiocese of. See 
 Compostela. 
 
 Santiago del Estero, Diocese of (Sancti 
 Jacobi de Estero; cf. C. E., XIII—462c), in the 
 Argentine Republic, suffragan of Buenos Aires. The 
 present and first bishop is the Rt. Rev. Juan Martin 
 Janiz. He was b. at Cordoba, Argentina, 23 October, 
 1840, elected 7 February, 1910, consecrated 8 May. 
 In 1920 the diocese contained 220,000 inhabitants, i3 
 parishes and 46 chapels. 
 
 Santo Domingo, Archdiocese of (Sancti 
 Dominict; cf. C. E., XIII—463c), in the Island of 
 San Domingo, Greater Antilles. The present ad¬ 
 ministrator is the Most Rev. Adolph Nouel y Boba- 
 dilla (see Dominican Republic), b. at San Domingo, 
 12 December, 1862, ordained 19 December, 1885, 
 elected titular archbishop of Methymna, 8 October, 
 1904 and coadjutor to the Archbishop of San Domingo, 
 consecrated at Rome 16 October, published 14 
 November following. He succeeded Most Rev. 
 Ferdinand Antoine Merion, deceased on 20 August, 
 1906. He was elected President of the Republic of 
 San Domingo 2 December, 1912, resigned 28 March 
 following, having fulfilled his mission of peace by 
 that time. On 3 November, 1913, he was named 
 Apostolic Delegate to Cuba and Porto Rico which 
 position he held until 1915. He was made assistant 
 to the pontifical throne 30 April, 1916. According to 
 the statistics of 1920 the archdiocese contains 60 
 secular and 4 regular priests, 55 churches, 20 Sisters 
 of Charity, 246 schools. 
 
SAO CARLOS 
 
 680 
 
 SAULT SAINTE MARIE 
 
 Sao Carlos do Pinhal, Diocese of (Sancti 
 Caroli Pinhalensis; cf. C. E., XIII—465b), in 
 Brazil, suffragan of Sao Paulo. The first and present 
 incumbent is the Rt. Rev. Jos6 Marcondes Homem 
 de Mello, who has administered the see since 1906. 
 According to the statistics of 1920 the diocese con¬ 
 tains 28 parishes. 
 
 Sao Luiz de Caceres, Diocese of (Sancti 
 Aloysii de Caceres; cf. C. E., XIII—465b) in 
 Brazil, suffragan of Cuyaba. The present incumbent 
 is the Rt. Rev. Pierre-Louis Galibert of the Third 
 Order of Franciscans, b. at Lasfaillades, France, 31 
 December, 1877, ordained 24 June, 1902, went as a 
 missionary to Brazil, August, 1904, elected 15 March 
 1915, consecrated 15 August, published 6 December 
 following, to succeed Rt. Rev. Modeste Auguste 
 Vieira who resigned. There are no statistics avail¬ 
 able for this diocese as yet. 
 
 Sao Luiz do Maranhao, r Diocese of; (cf. C. 
 E., XIII—465), in Brazil, suffragan of Belem de 
 Par£. The present bishop is Mgr. Ilelvetius Gomez 
 de Oliveira, a member of the Salesians, who was born 
 at Anchieta, Brazil, on 19 February, 1876; was ap¬ 
 pointed to the see of Corumba on 15 February, 1918, 
 and transferred to Sao Luiz on 18 June following. 
 The diocese has 54 parishes: 130 churches, 4 convents 
 for men and 7 for women; 45 priests, of whom 28 
 are secular; 2 seminaries with 65 seminarians, 1 
 girl’s college with 20 teachers and 100 students; 2 
 asylums, 1 hospital, 1 day nursery, and a Catholic 
 union of workingmen with 800 members. The 
 population of the diocese is about 890,000, Brazilian, 
 Portuguese, French, English, Italians and Germans. 
 The late bishop Mgr. Francisco de Paula Silon, who 
 died on 4 June, 1918, was the most gifted orator 
 among the Brazilian bishops. 
 
 Sao Paulo, Archdiocese of (Sancti Pauli in 
 Brasilia; cf. C. E., 465d), in Brazil. The present 
 administrator is the Most Rev. Leopoldo Duarte e 
 Silva who has administered the diocese since 1908. 
 According to the statistics of 1920 the archdiocese 
 contains: 1,800,000 Catholics, 35,000 Protestants, 
 12,000 infidels, 44 parishes, 500 churches and chapels, 
 270 secular priests, 318 regulars, 16 orders of men in 
 32 houses, 21 congregations of women in 46 houses 
 and 5 colleges. In 1908 a faculty of philosophy was 
 founded at the university under the direction of the 
 Benedictines. 
 
 Sao Salvador de Bahia de Todos os Santos, 
 
 Archdiocese of (Sancti Salvatoris omnium 
 Sanctorum; cf. C. E. XII—466a), in Brazil. On 
 20 October, 1913, the dioceses of Barra, Caetite and 
 Ilheos were taken from the archdiocese of Sao Sal¬ 
 vador on which they depended. The present in¬ 
 cumbent is Most Rev. Jerome Thome da Silva, b. at 
 Sobral, Brazil, 12 June, 1849, ordained 21 December, 
 1872, elected bishop of Belem de Para, 26 June, 1890, 
 consecrated 26 October, following, promoted 12 Sep¬ 
 tember, 1893, enthroned 28 February, 1894. Accord¬ 
 ing to the statistics of 1920, the archdiocese contains 
 1,050,000 inhabitants, 9 congregations of men with 
 18 houses and 180 religious, 7 congregations of women 
 with 20 convents and 220 Sisters. 
 
 Sao Thiago de Cabo Verde, Diocese of (Sancti 
 Jacobi Capitis Viridis; cf. C. E., XIII—467a),'in 
 the Cape Verde Archipelago, suffragan of Lisbon. 
 The present bishop is Rt. Rev. Jose Alves Martins, 
 b. at Verga, Portugal, 22 March, 1874, ordained 
 18 July, 1897, elected 10 March, 1910, published 
 27 November, 1911. According to the statistics of 
 1920, the diocese contained 147,000 inhabitants with 
 143,000 Catholics in the archipelago, and 300,000 
 
 with 5000 Catholics in Portuguese Guinea; 35 parishes, 
 
 8 of which are in Guinea, 24 parishes and 25 churches 
 in the archipelago and 38 chapels 4 of which are in 
 Guinea. 
 
 Sappa, Diocese of (Sappensis, Sappatensis, 
 Zappatensis; cf. C. E., XIII—467d), in Albania, 
 suffragan of Scutari. The present administrator is 
 the Rt. Rev. George Koletsi, b. at Kalmeti, 28 Jan., 
 1868, elected 21 Sept., 1911, published 30 Nov., 
 following. He succeeded the Rt. Rev. James 
 Serecci, who was promoted. According to the statis¬ 
 tics of 1920 the diocese contained: 20,120 Catholics, 
 
 25 parishes of which thirteen are without pastors, 
 
 51 churches and chapels, 1 convent of the Friars 
 Minor at Trosciani, 17 secular priests and 3 regulars. 
 
 II 
 
 Sapporo, Prefecture Apostolic of, in Japan, 
 was erected in 1915. The present Prefect Apostolic 
 is Rev. Wenceslaus Kinold, O. F. M. The Catholics 
 number 1450 Japanese, who are looked after by 
 10 Franciscan missionary priests and 2 lay brothers. 
 There are 10 churches, 14 missions, 9 stations, 1 
 convent for men and 2 for women, 1 seminary with 8 
 alumni, 1 asylum, and 1 Catholic weekly. 
 
 Saragossa, Archdiocese of (Cesaraugustanen- 
 sis; cf. C. E., XIII—468b.), in Spain. His Eminence 
 Cardinal Juan Soldevila y Romero has filled this see 
 since 16 December, 1901. Born at Fuente la Pena, 
 in the diocese of Zamora in 1843, he studied at the 
 seminaries of Valladolid, Tuy and Compostella; he 
 served as a pastor at Valladolid, became a canon of 
 Orense and secretary to the bishop, then a canon 
 and archpriest of Valladolia and was appointed Bishop 
 of Taragona 14 February, 1889, which see he filled 
 until his promotion. He was made a cardinal priest 
 15 December, 1919. He is assisted by an auxiliary, 
 Rt. Rev. Miguel Diaz y Gomara, titular Bishop of 
 Thagora. The archdiocese covers an area of 7879 
 sq. m. and embraces a Catholic population of 475,614; 
 380 parishes, 9 filial parishes,'852priests, 429 churches, 
 476 chapels, 4 seminaries and 84 convents with 334 
 religious and 1363 Sisters. 
 
 Saratow, Diocese of. See Tiraspol. 
 
 Sarsina, Diocese of (Sarsinatensis; cf. C. E., 
 XIII—478c) in Italy, suffragan of Ravenna. The 
 present bishop is the Rt. Rev. Ambrogio Riccardi, 
 b. at Scavolino, Italy, 29 June, 1856, elected 1 July, 
 
 1916, consecrated 22 September, published 7 Decem¬ 
 ber following, succeeding the Rt. Rev. Eugenio 
 Giambro who was transferred. According to the 
 statistics of 1920 the diocese contained 32,000 
 Catholics, 54 parishes, 120 churches and chapels, 
 
 76 secular priests and 36 seminarians. 
 
 Sassari, Archdiocese of (cf. C. E., XIII— 
 485a), in Sardinia, Italy. The present adminis¬ 
 trator is the Most Rev. Cleto Cassani, b. at Vailate, 
 Italy, 8 September, 1866, elected auxiliary Bishop of 
 Sassari, 19 January, 1911, promoted 5 January, 
 
 1917, published 22 March following. He succeeded 
 the Most Rev. Emilio Parodi, who died 20 December, 
 1916. According to the statistics of 1920 the arch¬ 
 diocese contained: 132,200 Catholics, 35 parishes, 
 123 churches and chapels, 117 secular and 41 regular 
 priests, 17 brothers, and 69 Sisters. 
 
 — I I; i O , fr , \ fi ‘-C. J’i* QtJKjl 
 
 Sault Sainte Marie, Diocese of (Sancti Marle- 
 Ormensis; cf. C. E., XIII— 487c), in Canada. The 
 Rt. Rev. David Joseph Scollard, the first adminis¬ 
 trator of the diocese, is the present incumbent. Ac¬ 
 cording to the statistics of 1922 the diocese contains: 
 50,000 Catholics, including 5500 Indians, 35 secular 
 priests, 33 regulars, 87 churches, 40 parishes, 72 
 
SAULT SAINTE MARIE 
 
 681 
 
 SCOUT MOVEMENT 
 
 missions, 1 college, 2 academies, 3 hospitals, 50 Cath¬ 
 olic schools, 70 public schools with Catholic teachers, 
 3 industrial schools for Indians. 
 
 Sault Sainte Marie and Marquette, Diocese of. 
 See Marquette 
 
 Savannah, Diocese of (Savanensis; cf. C. E., 
 XIII—488a), comprises the State of Geoigia. After 
 administering the diocese for twenty-two years the 
 Rt. Rev. Benjamin J. Keiley resigned in February, 
 1922. The Very Rev. Joseph D. Mitchell is the pres¬ 
 ent administrator of the diocese, until the appoint¬ 
 ment of a new bishop. On 11 September, 1921, the 
 Catholic Laymen’s Convention was held at Atlanta. 
 The diocese contains 23 parishes, 34 missions, 57 
 mission stations, 57 churches, 5 convents for men, 11 
 for women with 137 Sisters, 21 secular priests, 40 
 regulars, 8 lay brothers, 10 seminarians who are being 
 educated in another diocese. The educational insti¬ 
 tutions are: 4 high schools with 18 teachers and 320 
 students (200 boys, 120 girls), 6 academies with 20 
 teachers and 250 girl students, 9 elementary schools 
 with 88 teachers and 2316 pupils. For the campaign 
 against the forces of anti-Catholic prejudice in the 
 State see the article on the Catholic Laymen’s Asso¬ 
 ciation of Georgia. The following hospitals and 
 homes exist in the diocese: Home of the Little Sisters 
 of the Poor, Savannah, St. Joseph’s Orphan Home for 
 Boys, Washington, Ga., St. Joseph’s Hospital, Sa¬ 
 vannah, St. Joseph’s Hospital, Atlanta. One Cath¬ 
 olic periodical called The Bulletin is published in the 
 diocese. The clergy have founded the Eucharistic 
 League. Among the laity there exist the following 
 societies: Holy Name, Children of Mary, St. Vincent 
 de Paul, etc. There are 20,517 Catholics in the dio¬ 
 cese with about 300 Syrians and 65 Croatians. Dur¬ 
 ing the war two priests of the diocese served as chap¬ 
 lains. 
 
 Savona and Noli, Diocese of (Savonensis et 
 Naulensis; cf. C. E., XIII—489d), in northern 
 Italy, suffragan of Genoa, is governed at present by 
 Mgr. Giuseppe Scatti, "who was born at Lecco in the 
 Diocese of Milan on 19 January, 1843, and appointed 
 to the see on 9 January, 1898. His cathedral church 
 is the Basilica of Our Lady of Mercy. During the 
 World War many of the parish priests were with the 
 colors; and all the colleges, seminaries, and religious 
 houses were converted into military hospitals. Some 
 of the clergy were decorated with the Cross of Merit 
 for their invaluable assistance. On 25 October, 
 1921, there was a violent explosion in Fort S. Elena 
 which caused great destruction in Bergeggi and its 
 environs; the clergy rendered great aid to the suf¬ 
 ferers. The diocesan reports for 1922 are as follows: 
 63 parishes; about 270 churches and chapels; 245 
 priests, of whom 75 are religious; 8 religious houses 
 for men, 5 for women; 1 abbey; 1 seminary; 3 boys’ 
 colleges; 1 girls’ college; 2 state normal schools; 1 
 state trade school; 4 state classical schools; refuges 
 and hospitals in almost all the parishes. There are 
 the following clerical associations or societies: Apos¬ 
 tolic Union, Borsa Ecclesiastica, Operai Evangelici, 
 and the Clerical Cooperative Society; for the laity 
 there are among others the Catholic Workers’ 
 Society and the Young Men’s Society. The Catholic 
 population is about 90,000. 
 
 Saxony, Vicariate Apostolic of (Saxoniensis; 
 cf. C. E., XIII — 501b), incorporated with the Pre¬ 
 fecture Apostolic of Lusatia, in the ancient diocese of 
 Meissen, reestablished by a decree of 24 June, 1921. 
 
 Scannell, Thomas Bartholomew, theologian, b. 
 in London on 8 July, 1854; d. at Brighton on 17 
 February, 1917. He studied at St. Edmund’s College, 
 
 Ware, and after winning first place in the LL.B. 
 examination in London University, with honors in 
 jurisprudence and Roman Law, graduated in theology 
 from the English College, Rome, and was ordained 
 in 1878. He taught philosophy at Ware, and subse¬ 
 quently served on the English mission, becoming 
 missionary rector at Weybridge in 1905, and a canon 
 of Southwark diocese in 1908. He was a member of 
 the papal commission on Anglican orders (1896), and 
 besides c^tributing to the “Dublin Review” and 
 other periodicals, he is the author of “The Priest’s 
 Studies,” “A Manual of Catholic Theology” (in 
 collaboration with Dr. Wilhelm), and revised and 
 enlarged “The Catholic Dictionary” of Addis and 
 Arnold. 
 
 Schleswig-Holstein. See Germany, Vicariate 
 Apostolic of; Denmark 
 
 Schools, Clerks Regular of the Pious. See 
 Pious Schools, Clerks Regular of the 
 
 Schwenckfeldians (or Schwenkfelders; cf. C. E., 
 XIII—597).—In recent 3 ^ears a responsiveness to 
 modern influences has taken the place of their early 
 clannish exclusiveness; all rules and regulations 
 against secret societies have been dropped and par¬ 
 ticipation in war, formerly forbidden, is now left to 
 the individual conscience. The establishment of 
 the Perkiomen School (Pennsburg, Pa.), has in¬ 
 creased their general interest in education. In 1921 
 this sect reported 4 churches, 6 ministers and 1150 
 members, all in Pennsylvania. 
 
 Religious Bodies, 1916 (Washington, 1919); Year Book of the 
 Churches (New York, annual). 
 
 N. A. Weber. 
 
 Scopia, Archdiocese of (Scopiensis; cf. C. E., 
 XIII—609d), in Albania, under the direct jurisdiction 
 of the Holy See. The present administrator is the 
 Most Rev. Lazare Miedia, b., at Scutari, Albania, 6 
 March, 1859, elected Bishop of Sappa 28 March 
 1900, made titular archbishop of Arepolis and co¬ 
 adjutor to the Archbishop of Scutari 24 December, 
 1904, transferred 14 April, 1909, published 29 of the 
 same month. He succeeded the Most Rev. Pascal 
 Trosksi who resigned. According to 1920 statistics 
 there are: 15,400 Catholics, 24 parishes, 14 churches, 
 4 secular and 14 regular priests. 
 
 Scoraille, Raoul de, author, b. at Perigueux, 
 France, on 24 January, 1842; d. at Toulouse on 11 
 July, 1921. He studied at Sarlat and Paris, pre¬ 
 paring for admission to St. Cyr; but in 1860 he entered 
 the Society of Jesus at Pau. He was ordained in 
 1874 and consequently taught philosophy at Vais. 
 In 1887 he was appointed director of “Etudes,” the 
 noted Catholic review, which was to resume publica¬ 
 tion the following year, after its enforced suspension 
 resulting from the intolerant Ferry decrees. He was 
 superior of the Toulouse province when the Society 
 was again exiled from France at the time of the 
 separation, and he became rector of the scholasticate 
 at Gemert in Holland where the young Jesuits found 
 refuge. It was during this exile that he wrote his 
 “Francois Suarez,” a valuable biography of the great 
 Spanish philosopher and theologian. 
 
 Dudon in Etudes (Paris, 5 October, 1921). 
 
 Scout Movement, Catholic Boys'. —The Boy 
 Scouts of America represent a nation-wide movement 
 for the betterment of the American boy. Educational 
 in its spirit and purpose, this movement aims to de¬ 
 velop self-reliance, initiative, resourcefulness and the 
 spirit of service in growing boys. Membership in a 
 scout troop and active participation in the attractive 
 scout program bring to the boy opportunity for clear 
 thinking, a broadening of his interests, the formation 
 
SCOUT MOVEMENT 
 
 G82 
 
 SCOUT MOVEMENT 
 
 of good habits and the inculcation of virtues essential 
 to good character. The Scout Movement appre¬ 
 ciates and understands the sentiments and interests 
 which belong to the boy. These interests are met and 
 satisfied by a program of activities so varied and so 
 broad that the true scout is always moving forward, 
 becoming keener in his capacity for observation and 
 deduction and growing stronger as desirable habits are 
 woven permanently into his character. The genius 
 of scouting lies in its appeal to the boy. Scouting 
 makes a Hoy eager to learn. The scout’s recreation 
 is the scout’s education. Scouting* has proved an 
 excellent solution of the much-discussed boy problem. 
 The activities which every normal boy craves are 
 utilized in scouting for the making of a sturdy and 
 manly boyhood, the brightest promise of an honor¬ 
 able and loyal citizenship. Yet scouting is not play, 
 it is a serious work. Scouting awakens a sense of 
 personal responsibility and stirs up in heart and mind 
 the spirit of earnest devotion to duty. The scout 
 promises on his honor to do his duty to God and to his 
 country, to obey the scout law, to help other people 
 at all times and to keep himself physically strong, 
 mentally awake and morally straight. The scout is 
 trustworthy, loyal, helpful, friendly, courteous, kind, 
 obedient, cheerful, thirfty, brave, clean and reverent. 
 “Be Prepared,” is the scout motto. For what? 
 “For a Good Turn daily and for every emergency,” 
 is the answer. Parents, teachers, leaders of boys, have 
 begun to see the movement in its clear light. They 
 are recognizing in Scouting a distinct contribution to 
 the happiness and welfare of the boy of today and to 
 the community and civic prosperity of tomorrow. 
 
 Scout activities constitute in their admirable variety 
 a splendid program of endeavor for every normal boy. 
 Whether he be rich or poor, in school or facing his 
 first struggle with the industrial or commercial world, 
 scout activities offer him definite aims and positive 
 purposes which hold his interests fast. These ac¬ 
 tivities are almost beyond counting. Yet there is no 
 confusion in their arrangement and presentation. 
 Each has a purpose, clear and definite, with its pecu¬ 
 liar appeal to the young mind. The program of 
 scout training meets a need vital to all organizations 
 for boys. Scouting succeeds where many other 
 worthy efforts fail, for scouting keeps scouts busy. 
 The scout never loses spirit for want of something 
 interesting to do. Troops do not disband because 
 membership is irksome. Under intelligent interpre¬ 
 tation and application the activities of the scout 
 program do not fail to develop and to maintain the 
 interests of aspiring young scouts. 
 
 SCOUT 
 
 The religious policy of the Scout Movement is 
 clearly defined in Article III of the Constitution: 
 “The Boy Scouts of America maintain that no boy 
 can grow into the best citizenship without recog¬ 
 recognizing his obligation to God. The recognition of 
 God as the ruling and leading power in the universe, 
 and the grateful acknowledgment of His favors and 
 blessings, is necessary to the best type of citizenship 
 and a wholesome thing in the education of the growing 
 boy. No matter what the boy may be—Catholic, 
 Protestant, or Jew—this fundamental need of good 
 citizenship should be kept before him. The Boy 
 Scouts of America as an organized body recognizes 
 the religious element in the training of a boy, but it 
 is absolutely non-sectarian in its attitude toward 
 religious training. Its policy is that the religious 
 organization or institution with which the Boy 
 Scout is connected shall give definite attention to 
 his religious life.” No argument is necessary to show 
 the great good that can result from such a program 
 of ideal Americanism; sincere devotion to our own 
 best principles and respect for our fellow man in his 
 
 equally sincere convictions—the only true democracy. 
 The twelfth point of the Scout Law is called by many 
 “the cardinal point” in Scouting. Its sets forth the 
 foregoing principle as follows: He is reverent toward 
 God. He is faithful in his religious duties and 
 respects the convictions of others in matters of custom 
 and religion. The receipt of the Letter from Cardinal 
 Gasparri, Papal Secretary of State, allayed any doubt 
 that remained in the mind of Catholics as to their 
 proper attitude toward Scouting. That letter bespeaks 
 the full approbation for scouting of His Holiness, Pope 
 Benedict XV, and confers the “Apostolic Blessing on 
 all those who further the Catholic Extension of the 
 Scout Movement under the auspeies of the ecclesias¬ 
 tical authorities.” 
 
 The National Council of the Boy Scouts of America 
 has more than played fair. In the early days of its 
 organization it cordially endorsed the establishment 
 of the Bureau of Catholic Extension of the Boy Scout 
 Movement, which was organized with the approval 
 of His Eminence, the late Cardinal Farley, by a 
 group of Catholic men interested in boys’ work: 
 “The creation of this Catholic Bureau for the handling 
 of the Boy Scout Movement among Catholics fur¬ 
 nishes us with a tremendously effective medium 
 through which to aid in the development of that 
 master creation, high principles, clean and clear 
 thinking, independent manhood. 
 
 “Our National Catholic Societies can aid materially 
 in this work. These organizations can best stimulate 
 interest by stretching out a paternal hand, aiding the 
 activities of the Scout troops not by sympathy only 
 but by supplying scoutmasters; men to take an active 
 part in troop athletics, hikes, etc. This is not the 
 work of any single society but the work of all. There 
 will be plenty to .go around. We must have a com¬ 
 bination of forces and we must eliminate waste 
 energy. There must be more than idle words of 
 commendation . . . there must be action.” (N.C. 
 W.C. Bulletin, Aug., 1919.) 
 
 This Bureau exists for the following purposes: 
 to promote the formation of Boy Scout troops among 
 Catholic boys; to assist Local Scout Councils in 
 securing the co-operation of the Catholic authorities 
 in their several communities; to bring to the at¬ 
 tention of pastors and others having the direction of 
 groups of Catholic boys, the benefits of the Scouting 
 program; to stimulate among young men of the Church 
 the desire for leadership as scoutmasters; in localities 
 where there are no troops of Catholic boys, to assist 1 
 scoutmasters to understand and to execute the wishes 
 of the Catholic authorities concerning the religious 
 duties of Catholic boys in other troops. In the 
 execution of this program the Bureau will, from 
 time to time, issue such literature as may be neces¬ 
 sary, and will publish in the official Scout publications 
 matters interesting or informatory to troops of 
 Catholic boys. Catholic scoutmasters, scoutmasters 
 who have Catholic boys as members of their troops, 
 and persons planning the organization off Local 
 Councils, are invited to consult with the Bureau in 
 order that every facility for participation in Scouting 
 may be opened to Catholic boys, which is the aim of 
 the Bureau. 
 
 Girl Scouts. —In the United States, Girl Scouts, 
 Incorporated, a national organization, consisting of 
 girls between the ages of ten and eighteen, who meet 
 periodically to undergo training which shall prepare 
 them for a fuller life in their personal as well as 
 social relations. The organization, patterned after 
 the Girl Guides of England, the sister organization 
 of the Boy Scouts, was founded in March, 1912, by 
 Mrs. Juliette Low of Savannah, Georgia. In 1915 
 the growth of the movement warranted its national 
 incorporation. Girl Scouts and their leaders, to the 
 number of 114,000, were in 1922 organized in every 
 
SCRANTON 
 
 683 
 
 SCRANTON 
 
 State, and in Hawaii, Porto Rico and Alaska. Through 
 the International Council the Girl Scouts are affiliated 
 with the Girl Guides of England and all parts of the 
 British Empire and similar organizations in other 
 parts of the world. At the 1920 meeting of the 
 International Council at London, reports were 
 received from all parts of the United States and the 
 British Empire and from Italy, France, Belgium, 
 Switzerland, Poland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, 
 Holland, Portugal, Russia, Czechoslovakia, Brazil, 
 Argentina, Japan, China and Siberia. The activities 
 of the Girl Scouts center about three main interests: 
 (1) Home, the program provides incentives for 
 practising woman’s world-old arts of cooking, house¬ 
 keeping, first aid, and home nursing; (2) Health, 
 personal health, both physical and mental, as well 
 as community health, is the key-note of scout ac¬ 
 tivities, which aim at developing the habit of health 
 rather than merely to give information about anatomy 
 or physiology; (3) Citizenship, gregarious interests 
 and occupations tending to make of the girls women 
 effective in modern political society are encouraged. 
 The self-governing unit of a patrol, which is the 
 basis of organization, the conduct of their own 
 meetings according to elementary parliamentary 
 law, working together in groups, all contribute to 
 valuable training in democratic ideals. 
 
 . A realization of the important role of play in educa¬ 
 tion has dictated a method largely recreational in 
 all scout activities, resulting in a program of story- 
 telling, games, dancing, hiking, camping, boating, 
 athletics and sports of all kinds. The scout slogan: 
 “Do a good turn daily” encourages the habit of help¬ 
 fulness which may be said to be the core of the 
 movement, and the motto “Be Prepared,” holds forth 
 the ideal of being ready to meet intelligently most of 
 the situations that are likely to arise in later life. 
 A code of such unquestioned values as honor, loyalty, 
 kindness, courtesy, humanity, cheerfulness, obedience 
 thrift, and cleanliness forms the laws to which every 
 girl scout voluntarily subscribes. 
 
 The Organization is as follows: (1) Patrol, the 
 working unit, consisting of eight girls, one of whom 
 is elected patrol leader; (2) Troop, the administra¬ 
 tive unit recognized by the national organization, 
 consisting of one or more patrols, under the direction 
 of a captain, who must be at least twenty-one years 
 of age and who has been commissioned by National 
 Headquarters; (3) Local Councils, link between the 
 Girl Scout troops and the community, consisting of 
 women and men representing all the best interests of 
 the community—social, educational, religious, busi¬ 
 ness, civic. In all communities one or more Catholic 
 men or women have a place on the Council; (4) 
 National Council, the central governing body, made 
 of elected delegates from all local groups, working 
 through an executive board which conducts National 
 Headquarters in New York. 
 
 From the start the organization has been non¬ 
 sectarian in practise as well as theory, one of the 
 most convincing proofs of which is that the move¬ 
 ment has received the endorsement of many of the 
 hierarchy who have given it their serious considera¬ 
 tion. The national organization, appreciating the 
 zeal with which the Catholic Church safeguards the 
 faith of her children, requires there be Catholic, as 
 well as Protestant and Jewish, representation on 
 every council formed. Catholic interests on the 
 National Executive Board are represented by Mrs. 
 Nicholas F. Brady, a prominent Catholic woman, who 
 is also a national offiicer of the organization, 
 and at National Headquarters there is a special con¬ 
 sulting Catholic Board to which all questions in¬ 
 volving the organization of Catholic troops are 
 referred. It a rule of the organization that at every 
 Girl Scout Camp attended by Catholic children, 
 
 there must be at least two Catholic councillors to 
 assure to them the opportunity of attending Mass on 
 Sundays and holy days of Obligation, as well as to 
 regulate the menu for Fridays and other fast days. 
 Late breakfast is served to all children who wish to 
 receive Holy Communion. Grace before meals is 
 silent, and each child says her own evening prayers, 
 for there is never any evening camp fire prayer 
 service fields 
 
 The movement in the Catholic field was given its 
 chiefest impetus in the East by the encouragement of 
 Archbishop Patrick J. Hayes of New York who, after 
 a review of all the broader recreational programs for 
 girls, endorsed that of the Girl Scouts. Cardinal 
 Doughtery of Philadelphia, Archbishop Mundelein 
 of Chicago, Archbishop Messmer of Milwaukee also 
 led in endorsing the movement. It is being supported 
 by bishops throughout the country, among whom 
 are Bishop Donahue of Wheeling, Bishop O’Connor 
 of Newark, Bishop Neelan of Sioux City, Bishop 
 Nilan of Hartford, Bishop Kieley of Savannah, 
 Bishop Hoban of Scranton, and Bishop Grimes of 
 Syracuse. The centers most active in organizing 
 Catholic girls into troops are New York, Philadelphia, 
 Washington, D. C., Chicago, Richmond, Milwaukee, 
 and Savannah. In the Archdiocese of New York 
 there were organized on 31 December, 1920, 75 troops 
 in 36 parishes, 8 community houses, 3 girls’ clubs and 
 3 homes for girls. This represents 2000 Catholic 
 girls enrolled at National Headquarters as scouts, 
 under the leadership of 57 Catholic volunteer cap¬ 
 tains. The Catholic Charities of the Archdiocese of 
 New York has adopted scouting as the chief recrea¬ 
 tional program for the adolescent girls in 7 orphan 
 asylums where upward of 600 children have been 
 organized under the direction of an experienced field 
 captain from National Headquarters. Six Catholic 
 colleges were among the first women’s colleges to 
 introduce a course in Scout Leadership into the 
 departments of Sociology or Physical Education. 
 The Colleges of New Rochelle, St. Elizabeth, Mt. St. 
 Vincent, Marymount, Sacred Heart, and the Trinity 
 College joined with Smith, Vassar, and Simmons in 
 holding such classes, which were in each case directed 
 by a Catholic member of the Education Department 
 in co-operation with the faculty of the college. A 
 report of March, 1922, shows a total of 192 students 
 registered for these courses in the Catholic colleges, 
 of whom 40 were actually doing the practical work of 
 leading parochial troops. 
 
 Scranton, Diocese of (Scrantonensis; cf. C. 
 E., XIII—633a), in Pennsylvania, suffragan of 
 Philadelphia. The present administrator is the Rt. 
 Rev. Michael John Hoban, b. at Waterloo, Diocese 
 of Newark, 6 June, 1853, ordained 22 May, 1880, 
 elected titular bishop of Alali, 1 Feb., 1896, and 
 coadjutor bishop of Scranton, consecrated 22 March 
 and published 26 June following. He succeeded Rt. 
 Rev. William O’Hara, 3 Feb., 1899. The diocese has a 
 Catholic population of 274,978, and includes the 
 following nationalities: Irish, Germans, Slovaks, 
 Lithuanians, Italians, Magyars and Slovenians. 
 On 12 Oct., 1921, the diocese celebrated its golden 
 jubilee and also the silver jubilee of its bishop, Rt. 
 Rev. John Hoban. The diocese contains 178 parishes 
 57 missions, 19 stations, 1 monastery for men, 60 
 convents for women with 733 Sisters, 270 secular 
 priests, 28 regulars, 14 lay brothers. The following 
 educational institutions exist in the diocese: 1 college 
 for men with 15 teachers and 375 students; 1 for 
 women with 30 teachers and 180 students; 25 high 
 schools with 150 teachers, 5 academies with 100 
 teachers; 86 elementary schools with 520 teachers and 
 25,101 pupils; 1 industrial school with 10 teachers and 
 268 students. State appropriations made for educa- 
 
SCUTARI 
 
 684 
 
 SECKAU 
 
 tion were declined in 1921. The diocese has the fol¬ 
 lowing charitable institutions: 2 homes, 2 asylums, 
 
 3 hospitals, 1 day nursery. A weekly called the 
 “Catholic Light” is printed in the diocese. During 
 he war 13 priests acted as chaplains. 
 
 Scutari, Archdiocese of (Scutarensis; cf. 
 C. E., XIII—648a), in Albania. The last archbishop 
 was the Most Rev. Jacques Sereggi, who adminis¬ 
 tered the archdiocese from 1910 to 1921. The see is 
 now vacant. Statistics for 1920 give 34,820 Catholics, 
 23 foreign and 39 native priests, 29 churches and 15 
 chapels. 
 
 Searle, George Mary, Paulist, astronomer, b. 
 at London on 27 June, 1839; d. at New York, on 
 7 July, 1918. He was a descendant of Governor 
 Dudley of Massachusetts Bay. After the death of 
 his parents, who were Episcopalians, he was edu¬ 
 cated as a Unitarian at Brookline, Mass., but at 
 Harvard University, while retaining a belief in God, 
 he lost faith in a Revelation; at a later date, how¬ 
 ever, he recovered his faith and eventually entered 
 the Catholic Church (1862). After acting as com¬ 
 puter for the “American Ephemeri and Nautical 
 Almanac,” he was appointed assistant astronomer at 
 Dudley Observatory, Albany, New York, where 
 he discovered the asteroid Pandora. Subsequently 
 he taught mathematics in the Annapolis Naval 
 Academy , and was called to Harvard Observatory as 
 assistant in 1866. Joining the Paulist congregation in 
 1868, he subsequently held the chair of mathematics 
 and astronomy in the Catholic University, Wash¬ 
 ington. It is interesting to note that his forecast 
 of the last return of Halley’s Comet was accepted by 
 American astronomers as the most reliable compu¬ 
 tation. Though so well known to the public as an 
 astronomer, Father Searle’s chief work was pastoral; 
 as a confessor and preacher he was popular; and his 
 religious spirit is evidenced by his election as superior 
 general of the Paulists in 1904. He was a Fellow of 
 the Association for the Advancement of Science, and 
 a member of the American Academy of Arts and 
 Sciences and other kindred societies. He con¬ 
 tributed articles to the “Astronomical Journal,” 
 “Astronomische Nachrichten,” “The Catholic 
 World,” and Catholic Encyclopedia. His “Plain 
 Facts for Fair Minds,” a popular explanation of the 
 chief Catholic doctrines, has enjoyed great popularity, 
 and in his last work, “Truth About Christian Science/’ 
 he corroborates Thurston’s verdict that Eddyism is 
 neither Christian nor scientific. 
 
 Powers in America (27 July, 1918), 378-80. 
 
 Seattle, Diocese of (Seattlensis; cf. C. E., 
 XIII—665a), comprising the State of Washington, 
 U. S. A. The Rt. Rev. Edward J. O’Dea who has 
 administered the diocese since 1896, celebrated the 
 twenty-fifth anniversary of his episcopal consecra¬ 
 tion on 8 Sept., 1921. The diocese contains 79 
 parishes, 66 missions, 45mission stations, 77 churches, 
 1 abbey and 3 convents for men, 1 monastery and 
 12 convents for women, 74 secular priests, 70 regu¬ 
 lars, 28 lay brothers, 565 Sisters. Twenty semi¬ 
 narians are being educated at seminaries in other 
 dioceses. The following educational institutions 
 exist in the diocese; 2 colleges for men with 31 
 teachers and 591 students; 10 high schools with 30 
 teachers and 630 students (230 boys, 400 girls), 
 6 academies with 60 teachers and 1301 girl students; 
 
 1 normal school with 5 teachers and 244 students; 
 31 elementary schools with 180 teachers and 5924 
 pupils; 1 industrial school with 5 teachers and 120 
 pupils. Charitable institutions in the diocese are: 
 
 2 homes, 4 orphan asylums (308 inmates), 1 refuge, 
 11 hospitals, 1 day nursery. All city and county 
 hospitals and jails admit the ministry of priests. 
 
 The following societies exist among the clergy: 
 Clerical Relief bund, Eucharistic League. Among 
 the laity: Holy Name Society, St. Vincent de Paul 
 Society, National Catholic Welfare Council. A paper 
 called the “Catholic Northwest Progress” is pub¬ 
 lished in the diocese. 
 
 Sebastia, Archdiocese of (Sebasten Armen- 
 orum; cf. C. E., XIII—667d), of the Armenian rite, 
 with Tokat as a dependency, in Asia Minor. The 
 see has been vacant since 1919. According to 1920 
 statistics the archdiocese contains 3000 Armenian 
 Catholics, 12 mission parishes and 4 churches. 
 
 Sebenico, Diocese of (Sebenicensis; cf. C. E., 
 XIII—668d), in Dalmatia, Jugoslavia, suffragan of 
 Zara. The last bishop was the Rt. Rev. Luca Pappa- 
 fava. The see has been vacant since 1919. According 
 to the statistics of 1920 the diocese contained: 98,853 
 Catholics, 50 parishes, 7 curacies, 54 secular and 64 
 regular priests. 
 
 Seckau, or Graz, Diocese of (Secoviensis), in 
 Austria, suffragan of Salzburg. The downfall of the 
 Austro-Hungarian Empire and the disruption of 
 Styria which had existed for the past twelve cen¬ 
 turies, brought about great changes in the diocese. 
 During the World War which caused so much 
 misery and suffering, both the clergy and laity of 
 the diocese, served their country with great zeal 
 and unselfish devotion. The houses of the Domin¬ 
 icans, Lazarists, Brothers of Charity, as well as the 
 convents of the Religious of the Sacred Heart and 
 Sisters of St. Elizabeth, were used as hospitals for 
 the wounded, and as convalescent homes. Five 
 seculars and several regulars gave their services as 
 chaplains. The first diocesan synod was held in 
 August, 1911, and in 1919 the present incumbent of 
 the see, Bishop Leopold Schuster, celebrated his 
 fiftieth anniversary as priest, and his twenty-fifth 
 anniversary as bishop. 
 
 The population of the diocese consists of 948,096 
 Catholics and about 21,235 non-Catholics. The 
 inhabitants are Germans with about 20,000 Slo¬ 
 venes. There are 339 parishes, 474 churches, 28 
 monasteries and 1 abbey for men, 13 convents for 
 women with 128 branches, and 2086 Sisters; 627 
 seculars and 348 regulars, 224 lay brothers. The 
 Cathedral Chapter consists of 3 honorary canons 
 (Dignitare) and 7 residential canons. The state 
 university is at Graz and has a theological faculty 
 with 10 professors and 2 privatdozenten. The 
 Benedictines have a theological school (university 
 course) at Admont (3 students), the Redemptor- ; 
 ists, one at Mantern (7 lectors, 18 clerical profes¬ 
 sors), the Dominicans one at Graz (6 lectors, 15 
 clerical professors), where there is also a diocesan 
 seminary for boys connected with a gymnasium 
 (21 professors, 300 students). Preparatory schools 
 for classical studies (Unter gymnasium , 6 years 
 course) are conducted by the Benedictines at Ad¬ 
 mont and St. Lambrecht, a realschule (6 years sci¬ 
 entific course with Latin in curriculum) by the 
 Brothers of Mary, and 2 normal schools for girls by 
 the Ursulines at Graz, and the School Sisters at 
 Algersdorf, near Graz. There are 45 common 
 elementary schools and 5 kindergartens which are 
 in charge of the following orders: Brothers of 
 Maiy (2), Religious of the Sacred Heart (2), Ur¬ 
 sulines (2), School Sisters (28), Dominicans (2), 
 Sisters of Charity (8), Sisters of the Holy Cross (1); 
 an industrial school for girls has been established 
 by the Ursulines. With few exceptions the schools 
 are supported by the government. The following 
 institutions are established in the diocese: 1 Cath¬ 
 olic workingmen’s home, 2 homes for working- 
 
SECULARIZATION 
 
 685 
 
 SEMINARY 
 
 women, 1 club for young men, 1 asylum for the 
 blind, 1 for the deaf and dumb, House of Mercy 
 for incurables conducted by the Sisters of St. Eliza¬ 
 beth, 1 home for sick and aged priests, 1 sanatorium 
 for women in charge of the Sisters of the Holy 
 Cross, 1 hospital for men, 8 children’s asylums, 
 3 houses of correction, 3 homes and 11 day nur¬ 
 series. The ministry of priests is permitted in all 
 public institutions. In addition to the religious 
 orders that already had foundations in the diocese, 
 the following have been established since 1912: 
 Jesuits at Graz, Brothers of Mary at Graz, Pious 
 Workers of St. Joseph Calasanctius at Deutsch- 
 Goritz, Sons of the Sacred Heart at Messendorf, 
 Sisters of the Good Shepherd at Graz, Dominicans 
 at Gleisdorf, School Sisters at Wildon with a 
 mother-house at Algersdorf near Graz (26 
 branches), Daughters of the Divine Love at Maria- 
 trost, and Daughters of the Divine Redeemer at 
 Grafenegg. Orders established in the diocese prior 
 to 1912 have opened new houses at the following 
 places: Franciscans at Tieschen, and the Capuchins 
 at Graz and Mittersdorf. Among the clergy 8 
 associations have been established and in every 
 parish a number of societies and associations are 
 formed among the laity. Two daily Catholic news¬ 
 papers, 4 weeklies, and 9 monthlies are published 
 in the diocese. The following distinguished clergy¬ 
 men have lately died: Dr. Anton Griessl, Provost 
 of the Cathedral, for many years director of the 
 diocesan seminary, and a well known writer on 
 Canon law, and Rt. Rev. Mgr. John Graus, a 
 writer on ecclesiastical art and editor of “Der 
 Kirchenschmuck.” 
 
 Secularization (cf. C. E., XIII—677d).—Religious 
 who become secularized are freed from their vows of 
 religion, but not from the obligations incurred if and 
 when they received major orders. Formerly they 
 owed not merely canonical obedience to the bishop 
 but also obedience in virtue of their religious vow 7 . 
 If a religious in sacred orders who did not lose his 
 diocesan rights by perpetual profession leaves his 
 institute, either when he does not renew his vows or 
 in virtue of an indult of secularization, he must re¬ 
 turn to his diocese and be received by his own bishop; 
 if he has lost those rights, he cannot exercise his 
 sacred orders after leaving his institute until some 
 bishop consents to receive him or the Holy See pro¬ 
 vides otherwise. A bishop may receive such a re¬ 
 ligious unconditionally, in which case he is thereby 
 incardinated in the diocese; or he may admit him on 
 probation for three years, or even six but not for more; 
 when the term of probation ends, if he has not been 
 dismissed he is by the very fact incardinated in the 
 diocese. The restrictions placed on secularized 
 religious, mentioned in C. E., XIII—678c, are prac¬ 
 tically unchanged, except that in the first case they 
 are prohibited from receiving benefices only, not 
 offices, while the fifth regulation limiting the place 
 of residence is omitted. The restrictions, however, 
 are extended to those who have been dispensed from 
 their temporary vows, or oaths of perserverance, or 
 any special promises made according to their consti¬ 
 tutions, provided they had been thus bound for six 
 complete years. Those who leave their institute on 
 the completion of the period of their temporary vows 
 or who are secularized or dismissed can claim nothing 
 for their work while in the institute. If, however, a 
 nun or sister who was received without a dowry, has 
 not sufficient means to support herself, the institute 
 is bound in charity to give her the expenses of her 
 journey home and enough to enable her to live 
 respectably for some time; the amount is to be agreed 
 upon mutually, or in case of disagreement it is to be 
 fixed by the local ordinary. 
 
 Seez, Diocese of (Sagiensis; cf. 0. E., XIII— 
 681d), comprises the Department of Orme, France, 
 and is suffragan to Rouen. The diocese, is divided 
 into 5 archipresbyterates, 36 deaneries, and 513 
 parishes. The population is 274,500. There is a 
 diocesan seminary, and preparatory seminaries are 
 at Flers and S6ez. The present bishop is Rt. Rev. 
 Claude Bardel, b. 1851, preconized titular Bishop of 
 Parium and auxiliary of Cardinal Boyer, Archbishop 
 of Bourges, in 1894, named Bishop of Scez, 1897, 
 assistant at the pontifical throne 1918. 
 
 Segni, Diocese of (Segninsis; cf. C. E., XIII 
 —683d), in Province of Rome, Italy, directly under 
 the jurisdiction of the Holy See. The present incum¬ 
 bent is the Rt. Rev. Angelo Maria Sinibaldi, b. at 
 Gavignano, Spain, 14 April, 1846, elected titular 
 Bishop of Europus, 13 December, 1904, and suffragan 
 of Velletri, transferred 16 April, 1915, published 6 
 December following to succeed Rt. Rev. Pancrazio 
 Giorgi who died 30 March, 1915. Statistics for 1920 
 report: 19,450 Catholics, 12 parishes, 34 churches, 63 
 secular and 18 regular priests, 8 Brothers, and 27 Sis¬ 
 ters. 
 
 Segorbe (or Castellon de La Plana) , Diocese 
 of, (Segobiensis; cf. C. E., XIII—684c), in the 
 ecclesiastical province of Valencia, Spain. The 
 present bishop is Mgr. Luis Jose Amigo y Ferrer, 
 Capuchin, born at Masamagrell, Archdiocese of 
 Valencia, 17 October, 1854, novice at Bayonne 1874, 
 ordained 1879, founder of a congregation of Our 
 Lady of Sorrows to educate abandoned children, 
 elected titular bishop of Thagaste 18 April, 1907, 
 and administrator of Solsona, consecrated in Madrid 
 2 June following, transferred 18 July, 1913, to 
 succeed Mgr. Massanet, deceased. A pilgrimage of 
 25,000 faithful took place on 29 April, 1917, for the 
 translation of the remains of Venerable Bonifacio 
 Ferrer, brother of the apostle St. Vincent Ferrer, on 
 the sixth centenary of his death and to pray for the 
 intercession of the Blessed Virgin for the peace of the 
 world. The diocese contains 83,460 Catholics, 64 
 parishes, 77 churches, 2 monasteries of women, 2 
 convents of men, 133 secular and 13 regular priests, 
 36 lay brothers, 1 seminary w r ith 70 seminarians, 1 
 college for boj 7 s, 3 for girls, 1 academy for 40 boys, 
 124 elementary schools with 148 instructors and 
 9500 pupils, 1 asylum. The Government contributes 
 to the support of nearly all the elementary schools. 
 Besides ecclesiastical bulletins, two religious papers 
 are published. 
 
 Segovia, Diocese of (Segoviensis; cf. C. E., 
 XIII—684c), in Spain, suffragan of Valladolid. The 
 present bishop is the Rt. Rev. Manuel de Castro y 
 Alvuso, b. at Valladolid, 16 April, 1863, elected bishop 
 of Jaca 28 October, 1913, published 25 May, 1914, 
 transferred 9 July, 1920. He succeeded the Rt. Rev. 
 Remi Gandasegui y Garrochategui, who was pro¬ 
 moted. According to the statistics of 1920 there are 
 in the diocese 80,500 Catholics, 311 parishes, 361 
 churches, 205 chapels, 363 priests, 28 convents with 
 65 religious and 90 Sisters. 
 
 Sehna, Diocese of (Sehanensis; cf. C. E., 
 XIII—687b), a Chaldean see in Persia. The present 
 administrator is the Rt. Rev. Jean Nissan, b. at 
 Dehoc, Turkey in Asia, in 1880, elected July, 1914, 
 published 8 September, confirmed by a brief of the 
 Propaganda 15 September following. Statistics for 
 1920 give: 900 Chaldean Catholics, 2 churches, 3 sec¬ 
 ular priests and 1 school. 
 
 Seminary (cf. C. E., XIII—694b).—Every semi¬ 
 nary is to have two advisory boards, one for discipline 
 and one for the administration of property; each board 
 
SENEGAL 
 
 686 
 
 SEOUL 
 
 consists of two priests appointed by the bishop for 
 six years, after consulting the chapter. The vicar 
 general, the rector of the seminary, the oeconomus, the 
 ordinary confessors, and members of the bishop's 
 household may not be members of the board. The 
 bishop must see that the seminarians each day recite 
 in common their morning and evening prayers, make 
 a meditation and assist at Mass, that they go to con¬ 
 fession at least once a week and receive Holy Com¬ 
 munion frequently, that on Sundays and feasts, they 
 be present at Mass and Vespers, taking part in the 
 ceremonies, especially in the cathedral, if the bishop 
 judges that discipline and studies would not suffer 
 thereby, that they make the spiritual exercise an¬ 
 nually for some days, and assist at a religious instruc¬ 
 tion at least once a week. No one is to be admitted 
 to a seminary without written attestation of his 
 iegitimacy, and his reception of baptism and con¬ 
 firmation; nor may one who has been dismissed from 
 another seminary or from a religious institute, until 
 the bishop has been informed by his old superiors 
 why he was dismissed, and has found him to be not 
 unworthy of being raised to the priestly dignity. 
 The seminary is not under the jurisdiction of the 
 parish priest; for those who live therein the rector 
 of the seminary is parish priest except in regard to 
 matrimony. He may not, however, hear the con¬ 
 fessions of the students, except in a particular case 
 when for a grave urgent reason a student freely asks 
 him to do so. It is to be noted that the Code pre¬ 
 scribes that there must be separate profession in 
 seminaries for Scripture, dogmatic theology, moral 
 theology and church history. 
 
 Senegal, Vicariate Apostolic of. See Sene- 
 
 GAMBIA 
 
 Senegambia, Vicariate Apostolic of (cf. C. E., 
 XIII—715b), to which is joined the Prefecture 
 Apostolic of Senegal, both in French West Africa, 
 although a portion of the vicariate is British territory 
 called Gambia. The two territories are entrusted to 
 the Fathers of the Holy Ghost with residence for the 
 vicariate at Dakar and for the prefecture at St. Louis. 
 The vicar and prefect is Mgr. Louis Le Hunsec, born 
 at Ploemer, diocese of Vannes, France, 6 January, 
 1878, novice in 1897, student at French Seminary in 
 Rome in 1898, ordained 1901, professed in 1902, sent 
 to the mission 1903, elected Bishop of Europus 22 
 April, 1920, named vicar and prefect 23 April, conse¬ 
 crated in Paris 30 May following. His predecessor was 
 Mgr. Hyacinthe Jalabert, b. at Chambery, 12 Novem- 
 berr, 1859, ordained 1882, missionary in Guiana, left fo 
 Senegal in 1896, elected 13 February, 1909, conse¬ 
 crated in Paris 1 May following, titular bishop of 
 Telepta, vicar and prefect, died with seventeen mis¬ 
 sionaries 11 January, 1920, on his way back to Dakar 
 when the steamship “Africa” was shipwrecked. The 
 French Government named Bishop Jalabert a 
 Chevalier of the Legion of Honor for his devotion 
 in the epidemic of yellow fever which desolated Sene¬ 
 gal in 1901. In the vicariate and prefecture there are 
 1,300,000 inhabitants, of whom about 800,000 are 
 Mussulmans. There are two races of natives, the 
 Divals and Serers, who have remained pagans but are 
 being converted little by little to the Cathoic religion. 
 In July, 1919, M. William Pouty, Governor General 
 of French West Africa, died. In March, 1919, the 
 celebration of the centenary of the arrival of the Sis¬ 
 ters of St. Joseph in the colony, and in October, 1921, 
 the visit of M. Sarrant, minister of the colonies, and 
 in December, 1921, the visit of General Mangin, were 
 important events. The blacks who live in the 
 towns of St. Louis, Rufique, Goree and Dakkar are 
 citoyens electeurs and in 1915 they were mobilized. 
 Three hundred of these soldiers were killed in the war. 
 
 Besides this, many black French subjects were in¬ 
 corporated in the Senegalais tirailleurs , thousands of 
 whom died. All of the missionaries within the age 
 limits were mobilized, and many of them served in 
 campaigns in France and Kamerun as chaplains or 
 infirmarians. Two missionaries won the legion 
 d’honneur, one the medaiUe militaire , nearly all others 
 the croix de guerre. One black missionary, Abbe 
 Sonko-Saue, chaplain with the Senegalais tirailleurs , 
 was killed in Champagne in the attack of April, 1917. 
 There are in this territory 27,942 Catholics, 4 par¬ 
 ishes, 14 churches, 10 missions, 24 stations, 3 con¬ 
 vents of Sisters, 4 secular and 26 regular (Holy Ghost) 
 priests, 6 lay brothers, 1 seminary, 5 seminarians, 
 1400 pupils in schools, 4 hospitals. The Sodality of the 
 Children of Mary and other parish associations are 
 organized among the laity and one monthly bulletin 
 is published. There are established under the Gov¬ 
 ernor of Senegal many practical works among the 
 natives such as, a lycee at St. Louis, normal school at 
 Goree, an industrial school at Goree, a medical 
 school, a maternity hospital and a creche at Dakkar. 
 
 Sens, Archdiocese of (Senonensis; cf. C. E., 
 XIII—720b), comprises the department of Yonne, 
 France, and has as suffragans Troyes, Nevers and 
 Moulin. The present archbishop, who also has the 
 title of Bishop of Auxerre, is Mgr. Jean-Victor- 
 Emile Chesnelong, b. at Orthez, Diocese of Bayonne, 
 6 April, 1856, ordained in Paris 1879, pastor of St. 
 Michel and in 1902 of Ste-Madeleine; elected bishop 
 of Valence 21 February, 1906, consecrated in Rome 
 by Pius X, 25 February and enthroned 29 March; 
 promoted 12 January, 1912, succeeding Mgr. Etienne 
 Ardin, deceased. During the war 129 priests and 26 
 seminarians were mobilized from the archdiocese, 7 
 priests and 12 seminarians were killed; 1 legion 
 d’honneur, 5 medailles ?nilitaires and 38 croix de guerre 
 were awarded them. In the archdiocese there are about 
 305,000 Catholics, 491 parishes, more than 500 
 churches, 318 secular priests; 1 upper seminary with 30 
 seminarians, 1 lower seminary with forty-three, an 
 Ecole du Sacre Coeur with 17 seminarians; 2 colleges, the 
 Ecole St. Jacques with 150 students (43 seminarians), 
 the Ecole St. Edme, 120 students, in both colleges there 
 being 28 professors;schools (primary and higher primary 
 8 for boys, 48 for girls, total 134 classes, 2567 pupils, 
 with 175instructors; 6orphanages directed by religious. 
 The important hospitals are dependent on the civil 
 administration but except in the one at Auxerre, the 
 nurses are furnished by the Sisters. The Sisters of 
 Ste. Colombe (Sisters of the Holy Childhood of 
 Jesus and Mary) form a congregation for hospital 
 work, founded in 1842. They occupy the grounds 
 and some of the buildings of the old monastery of 
 Ste. Colombe. The Catholic press includes “La 
 Semaine Religieuse,” official organ of the archbishop, 
 and “La Liberte de 1’Yonne,” a Catholic weekly 
 directed by an ecclesiastic named by the bishop. 
 The congregations of women include Sisters of the 
 Holy Childhood, Carmelites, Daughters of Charity, 
 Sisters of the Good Shepherd of Angers, Presentation 
 Sisters of Tours, Bon Secours Sisters of Troyes, Fran¬ 
 ciscans Sisters of Providence of Alengon, Augustinians, 
 Ursulines. On account of the situation of the religious 
 in France, it is impossible to give accurate statistics 
 concerning them. 
 
 Seoul, (cf. C. E., XVI—84d), Vicariate 
 Apostolic of, in Corea. It comprises northern and 
 central Corea with the exception of two north¬ 
 eastern provinces, Ham-Kyeng, which were given 
 to the Benedictine Congregation of St. Ollilien on 
 1 May, 1921. Following this division there remained 
 to the Vicariate of Seoul seven of the thirteen prov¬ 
 inces which form Corea. Its area covers 43,769 
 
SERAJEVO 
 
 687 
 
 SESSA AURUNCA 
 
 square miles and its population numbers 8,429,021, 
 of whom 51,674 are native Catholics, with 120 
 European and 500 Japanese. The present vicar 
 Apostolic is the Rt. Rev. Gustav Charles Marie 
 Mutel of the Foreign Missions of Paris, b. at Blume- 
 ray, 8 March, 1854, ordained 24 Feb., 1877, departed 
 for Corea 5 April following. He was made director 
 of the seminary at Paris in 1885, elected 2 Sept., 
 1890, and made vicar apostolic of Corea, consecrated 
 21 Sept., following and named vicar apostolic of 
 Seoul 8 April, 1911, made assistant to the pontifical 
 throne, 24 May, 1921. On 20 Aug., 1920. Rt. 
 Rev. Emile Alexander Devred was named coadjutor 
 with the right of succession. According to the 
 statistics of 1922 the vicariate apostolic is divided 
 into 40 districts and has 612 stations, 156 churches, 
 24 European missionaries, 26 native priests, 15 
 catechists, 1 Benedictine abbey (12 monks, 12 
 brothers, 5 Corean postulants), 1 convent of the 
 Sisters of St. Paul of Chartres (11 European and 80 
 Corean nuns), 1 seminary with 18 seminarians, 1 
 preparatory seminary, 57 students. The secondary 
 schools are: 54 parochial schools for boys (2122 pupils) 
 13 parochial schools for girls (1254 pupils); 1 agricul¬ 
 tural and industrial school, conducted by the Bene¬ 
 dictines (35 pupils). The Sisters of St. Paul of 
 Chartres have charge of 2 orphanages, with 293 
 orphans. There are also two dispensaries. During 
 the year 1921, 5462 persons were baptized, including 
 1015 adults, 2502 children of Christians and 1360 
 children of pagans, and 36,318 Easter communions 
 were made. In the government hospitals, priests 
 are permitted to visit the sick and to administer the 
 sacraments, but they are not permitted to visit the 
 public institutions. Every year a double retreat 
 brings together the European and the native clergy 
 and also whenever a synod is held. A monthly 
 Latin review edited by the Superior of the Seminary 
 is published for all the clergy of the Corean missions. 
 A*fortnightly review in Corean is printed at Seoul. 
 In 1917 occured the death of the pro-vicar Rev. 
 Father Doucet, who for forty years labored with un¬ 
 tiring zeal for the propagation of the Faith. During 
 the first ten years he endured all the sufferings of a 
 persecution. 
 
 In 1910 Corea was annexed to Japan. Although 
 the Catholics did not suffer thereby, it is noticeable 
 that since then the number of conversions among the 
 pagans has grown less. During the uprising in 
 March, 1919, some Catholics were accused of foment¬ 
 ing disorder and of ill-treating the natives. Upon 
 investigation it was discovered that the police had 
 confused them with S 9 me adherents of the Prot¬ 
 estant sects who were implicated in the movement. 
 The authorities did not fail to accord justice to the 
 Catholics, and remarked the loyalty which the latter 
 had shown under the circumstances. Since 1908 the 
 cause of the Corean martyrs has progressed. Mgr. 
 Imbert and his companions, eighty-two martyrs who 
 died between 1839 and 1846, passed before the anti- 
 preparatory Congregation on 22 November, 1921. 
 The cause of Mgr. Berneux and his companions, 
 twenty-six martyrs who died in 1866, was introduced. 
 13 Nov., 1918. ” The remissorial letters sent to Rome 
 allowed the apostolic process to begin in the Spring 
 of 1921. During the World War thirteen out of 
 thirty missionaries were mobilized and returned to 
 France. Three of them fell on the field of honor, 
 the others returned in 1919, but one of them was so 
 severely gassed that he will be invalided for the re¬ 
 mainder of his life. During the war the support 
 which the vicariate had received from the Propaga¬ 
 tion of the Faith and from the Holy Childhood Society 
 was considerably diminished, but happily the alms 
 which were sent from the United States made up 
 the deficiency. Five perpetual scholarships and 
 
 44 
 
 nineteen yearly scholarships which were sent by the 
 clergy and faithful of the United States proved of 
 
 great benefit to the vicariate. 
 
 • 
 
 Serajevo (Sarajevo or Uriibosna), Archdiocese 
 of (Seraiensis; cf. C. E., XIII—725a), in province 
 of Bosnia, Jugoslavia. Serajevo is a city with over 
 50,000 inhabitants, the capital of Bosnia, which 
 country with Herzegovina, was annexed to Austria- 
 Hungary in 1908, and was the scene of the murder of 
 the Austrian Prince Francis Ferdinand which started 
 the European war and resulted in the dissolution of 
 the Empire and the joining of Bosnia-Herzegovina to 
 the new kingdom of Jugoslavia. The first archbishop 
 of Serajevo, Dr. Joseph Stader, b. at Brod, diocese 
 of Sirmium (Diakovar), 14 January, 1843, professor 
 of theology at Zagreb, was elected 18 November, 
 1881, consecrated 30 November following, died 8 
 December, 1918. His successor has not been ap¬ 
 pointed. The diocese is administered by the auxiliary 
 bishop, Mgr. John Saric, born in the diocese at 
 Travnick 22 Sept., 1871, canon of the metropolitan, 
 elected titular bishop of Csesaropolis 8 April, 1908, and 
 consecrated 28 May following. Canon John Koscak 
 died in 1915. Marian Congregations are forbidden in 
 the schools by the new Government. The Catholic 
 population (1921) numbers 240,000, of whom 230,000 
 are Croats, the rest Germans, Hungarians, Bohe¬ 
 mians, Poles and Rumanians. There are 93 parishes 
 (40 of which are entrusted to Franciscans), 105 
 churches, 7 convents of men, 18 of women, 79 secular 
 and 96 regular priests, 15 lay brothers, 2 seminaries 
 (1 at Serajevo for the entire province of Bosnia- 
 Herzegovina under the Jesuits), with 197 seminarians, 
 
 I college for boys with 70 students, 6 for girls with 
 200 students, 1 home for the aged poor, 2 hospitals, 
 
 II day nurseries, 1 association for the clergy. Marian 
 Congregations and the Third Order of St. Francis for 
 the laity exist in nearly all parishes. Four papers are 
 published and the Government gives part support to 
 Catholic institutions. 
 
 Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, Kingdom of. See 
 Jugoslavia 
 
 Serena, La, Diocese of (de Serena; cf. C. E. 
 XIII—726d), embracing the Coquimboand Altacarna 
 provinces, Chile, is suffragan of Santiago. Rt. Rev. 
 Carlos Silva Cotapos, b. in the Diocese of Santiago, 
 10 May, 1868, ordained 21 September, 1891, doctor of 
 civil law and professor at the seminary in 1890, later 
 at the Catholic University from 1902 to 1907, secre¬ 
 tary in 1902, chancellor in 1907, principal and vicar 
 general in 1915, was appointed bishop 20 February, 
 1918, succeeding Mgr. Raymond-Auge Jara (b. 1 
 August, 1852; d. 9 March, 1917). 
 
 There are (1921) 34 parishes, 151 churches, 11 
 monasteries for men, 18 for women, 52 secular and 
 50 regular priests, 170 sisters, 1 seminary with 325 
 seminarians, 1 college for men with 7 teachers and 85 
 students, 3 for women with 20 teachers and 250 
 students, 1 professional school with 25 teachers and 
 1000 pupils, 1 home, 5 hospitals in care of the nuns. 
 The lay charitable centers are in the convents of 
 women. The hospital, seminary, colleges and schools 
 receive Government aid. The Society of St. Joseph 
 is organized among the clergy and numerous sodali¬ 
 ties, mostly of women, among the laity. The Chilean 
 daily and four minor periodicals are published in 
 La Serena. 
 
 Servants of the Most Blessed Sacrament. See 
 
 Blessed Sacrament, Servants of the Most 
 
 Servia. See Jugoslavia 
 
 Sessa Aurunca, Diocese of (Suessana; cf. 
 C. E., XIII—737d), in Southern Italy, suffragan of 
 
SETON HALL 
 
 688 
 
 SHANTUNG 
 
 Capua. The present administrator is the Rt. Rev. 
 Fortunato de Santo, b. at Forni di Sopra, 1 August, 
 1862, elected 25 April, 1914, published 25 May fol¬ 
 lowing to succeed the Rt. Rev. Giovanni Battista 
 Diamare, who died 9 January, 1914. According to 
 1920 statistics there are: 62,750 Catholics, 42 par¬ 
 ishes, 103 churches and chapels, 80 secular priests, 
 and 15 seminarians. 
 
 Seton Hall College, South Orange, New Jersey, 
 was founded in 1856 by the Rt. Rev. James Roose¬ 
 velt Bayley, Bishop of Newark. The new college 
 was named after Mother Elizabeth Seton, aunt of 
 the founder, and was first situated in Madison, N. 
 J., but in 1861 was moved to more spacious build¬ 
 ings in South Orange. The same year the institution 
 was incorporated; by the charter the corporate 
 powers were vested in a board of thirteen trustees 
 with the Roman Catholic Bishop of Newark per¬ 
 petual trustee ex-officio and President of the Board. 
 
 During the Civil War the college so ably with¬ 
 stood its difficulties that, in 1865, under the man¬ 
 agement of Father McQuade, it had to enlarge its 
 building to twice the original size. In 1867 Father 
 McQuade was appointed Bishop of Rochester and 
 Rev. Michael A. Corrigan, D.D., was chosen presi¬ 
 dent. In 1873 Dr. Corrigan was appointed Bishop 
 of Newark and his brother, the Rev. James H. 
 Corrigan, A. M., succeeded him. Dr. Corrigan 
 resigned in 1888 and Rev. William F. Marshall, 
 whose term of office was marked by great financial 
 success for the college, was his successor, but in 
 1897 illness forced Father Marshall to resign and 
 Rev. Joseph J. Sinnott, D.D., became president, 
 for two years, until his death. Dr. Sinnott estab¬ 
 lished the Seton Hall High School and his suc¬ 
 cessor, Mgr. John A. Stafford, S.L.L., opened the 
 Bayley Hall Grammar School. After the golden 
 jubilee of the college in 1906 Mgr. Stafford asked 
 to be relieved of the presidency and Rt. Rev. Mgr. 
 James F. Mooney, D.D., LL.D., the present head 
 of the college, was appointed to succeed him. 
 
 The college now consists of eight buildings, in¬ 
 cluding the library, in which there is a collection 
 of 25,000 volumes. In 1921 the college had a fac¬ 
 ulty of 10, a student registration of 82 with 19 
 graduates; the high school had a faculty of 20 
 with a student registration of 172. Since 1862 the 
 degrees conferred by Seton Hall College are as 
 follows: Doctor of Laws, 42; Doctor of Science, 
 1; Master of Arts, 8; Master of Science, 1; Bache¬ 
 lor of Arts, 4. 
 
 Seville, Archdiocese of (Hispalensis; cf. C. E., 
 XIII—744b), in Spain. The see is at present under 
 the incumbency of Most Rev. Eustachio Ilundain 
 y Esteban, b. at Pampeluna, 20 September, 1862, 
 professor at the seminary 1891, chancellor and arch-' 
 priest of the cathedral of Segovia in 1901, rector of 
 the seminary, appointed Bishop of Orense, 14 
 November, 1904, consecrated 12 March, 1905, pro¬ 
 moted to the rank of Archbishop of Seville at the 
 Consistory of 16 December, 1920, succeeding 
 Cardinal Enrique Almaraz y Santos, transferred to 
 Toledo. Statistics for 1920 credit the archdiocese 
 with 293 parishes divided into 23 archpresbyteries, 
 409 chapels, 1751 priests, 213 convents with 580 
 religious and 3204 sisters. On 8 Dec., 1917, there 
 was celebrated the third centenary of the vow taken 
 by the canons to defend the dogma of the Immaculate 
 Conception. 
 
 Sex, Freudian Theory of. See Psychoanalysis. 
 
 Seychelles Islands. See Port Victoria, Diocese 
 
 of. 
 
 Shan-si, Northern, Vicariate Apostolic of 
 (Scian-si Septentrionalis, cf. C. E., XIII—752b), 
 in China. It has a Catholic population of 38,014 
 and Ji8,300 catechumens, all Chinese. Rt. Rev. 
 Agapito Augusto Fiorentini, titular Bishop of Russad- 
 dir, b. at Palestrina (Italy), 27 September, 1866, 
 appointed Vicar Apostolic of Northern Shan-si, 
 6 March, 1902, resigned in 1909, reappointed Vicar 
 Apostolic of Northern Shan-si, 7 July, 1916, resides 
 at Tai-yuan-fu. The vicariate numbers (1921): 
 35 missions, 279 churches, 421 stations, 1 convent for 
 men, 1 for women, 22 secular and 20 regular clergy, 2 
 Brothers, 14 Sisters, 2 seminaries with 55 seminarians, 
 
 1 college for boys with 163 students, 1 for girls with 
 145 students, 1 normal school with 20 students, 327 
 elementary schools with 327 teachers and 3621 pupils, 
 
 2 hospices for aged men with 142 inmates, 2 for aged 
 women with 100 inmates, 1 hospital with 1007 beds, 
 1 dispensary where 15,663 have been cared for,' 
 
 8 orphanages with 248 boys and 830 girls, 5 nurseries. 
 The prisons of Tai-yuan-fu admit the ministry of 
 priests. The Third Order of St. Francis is organized 
 among the laity. During the World War none of the 
 missionaries were mobilized, but in the last five years 
 12 missionaries have died of typhus, prevalent in this 
 district. In 1920 the famine resulting from the drought 
 of the preceding summer caused one million deaths. 
 This was the lowest mortality from this cause in all 
 the provinces, due to the efforts of the missionaries 
 and the Central Committee, founded by the pro¬ 
 vincial government, who worked zealously to help 
 the suffering poor. At Ping-tin-chou, in the most 
 afflicted district, they maintained at their own 
 expense for a year and a half an orphanage caring 
 for nearly 400 starving boys and girls. In return 
 the government officially recognized the work of the 
 vicariate by deoorating it with the medal of civil 
 merit. 
 
 Shan-si, Southern, Vicariate Apostolic of 
 (Scian-si Meridionalis; cf. C. E., XIII—752c), in 
 China. The vicariate is entrusted to the Franciscans, 
 and has an entirely Chinese population of whom 
 32,000 are Catholic. Rt. Rev. Albert Odoric Timmer, 
 O. F. M., titular Bishop of Drusipara, b. 18 October, 
 1859, consecrated 20 July, 1901, is vicar apostolic, 
 with residence at Lu-an-fu. The vicariate has: 
 30 parishes, 61 churches, 490 missions, 244 stations, 
 
 9 secular and 31 regular clergy, about 100 Tertiary 
 Nuns, 1 theological seminary with 8 students, 1 
 preparatory seminary with 31 students, 3 colleges for 
 boys with 15 teachers and 185 pupils, 2 for girls with 
 5 teachers and 56 pupils, 4 normal schools with 
 4 teachers and 25 students, 250 elementary schools 
 with 265 teachers and 3750 pupils (boys and girls). 
 The work of the mission is carried on by annual 
 missions, catechumenate offices of consultation, 
 and lecture rooms or halls for the pagans. There 
 are 2 asvlums of the Holy Childhood, 3 refuges, 2 
 nurseries. The schools are not supported by the 
 Government but some of the pupils receive a sub¬ 
 sidy from the provincial government. The Action 
 Sociale Catholique is organized among the laity. 
 
 Shan-tung, Eastern, Vicariate Apostolic of 
 (Scian-tom Orientalis; cf. C. E., XIII—752c), 
 in China, comprises a total population of about 
 9,000,000 and includes three civil prefectures (Teng- 
 chow-fu, Lai-chow-fu,Tsing-chow-fu), and twenty four 
 subprefectures. It is entrusted to the Franciscan 
 Fathers. The present vicar apostolic is Rt. Rev. 
 Adeodat Wittner, O. F. M., titular Bishop of Milet, 
 b. at btrasburg, 21 November, 1868, appointed 
 coadjutor with future succession, 29 April, 1907, and 
 vicar apostolic 9 September, 1911. He resides at 
 Che-fu. According to 1921 statistics there are 
 
SHANTUNG 
 
 G89 
 
 SHENSI 
 
 1905 Christian communities. 373 churches or chapels, 
 15,215 Catholics, 16,533 catechumens, 25 Franciscan 
 Fathers, 3 Brothers, 18 secular priests, 1 upper 
 seminary with 10 seminarians, 1 lower seminary with 
 22 seminarians, 2 boarding schools for girls with 
 70 European and 95 Chinese pupils, 198 schools with 
 2493 pupils, 4 orphanages with 23 boys and 444 
 girls, 4 hospitals, 1 leper hospital, 5 dispensaries, 
 i printing plant with 23 boys, 4 work rooms with 660 
 girls, 15,186 instructions given to the pagans. 
 
 Shan-tung, Northern, Vicariate Apostolic of 
 (Scian-si Septentrionalis; cf. C. E., XIII—752d), 
 in China, comprises the northwestern part of the 
 Province of Shan-tung, including the cities of Tsi-nan- 
 fu, Tung-chang-fu, Wu-ting fu, Tai-au-fu, and Ling- 
 tsing-chou. It is entrusted to the Franciscans. 
 Rt. Rev. Adalbertus Schmticker, O. F. M., titular 
 Bishop of Elearchia, b. at Olsberg, 6 September, 
 1878, was appointed Vicar Apostolic of Northern 
 Shan-tung, 29 June, 1921. He resides at Tsi-nan- 
 fu. The population of the vicariate is estimated 
 between 13,000,000 and 14,000,000. There are in 
 the vicariate (1921): 43 central stations with resident 
 missionaries, 732 sub-stations, 1900 smaller stations, 
 442 churches and chapels (besides some 400 oratories 
 owned by Chinese families), 2 clerical seminaries 
 with 54 students, 2 normal schools with 40 female 
 and 22 male students, 179 religious schools with 1327 
 male and 1913 female pupils, 36 elementary schools 
 with 487 boys and 147 girls, 2 dispensaries in which 
 13,256 cases have been treated, 2 homes for the 
 aged with 59 male and 48 female inmates, 1 orphan¬ 
 age with 49 boys, 5 orphanages for girls with 364' 
 inmates, besides 671 orphans placed in Christian 
 homes, 1 printing plant. The missionary activity 
 has been greatly hampered on account of the famine 
 which obliged many Christians to migrate, and the 
 help of the missionaries was requisitioned for the 
 distribution of the relief funds. 
 
 Sheehan, Patrick Augustine, novelist, b. in 
 Mallow, Ireland, in March, 1852; d. at Doneraile, 
 County Cork on 5 December, 1913; son of Patrick 
 and Joanna (Regan) Sheehan. He received his classi¬ 
 cal education in St. Colman’s, Fermoy, and entered 
 Mavnooth College in 1869; despite his delicate consti¬ 
 tution he completed his theological studies with hon¬ 
 ors, while still a year below the age for the priesthood, 
 which he received at Cork in 1875. He was sent to 
 England to begin his pastoral career and after serving 
 at Plymouth and Exeter was recalled in 1877 and ap¬ 
 pointed curate at Mallow, where he spent four years, 
 and later at Queenstown. On 4 July, 1895, he was 
 made parish priest of Doneraile, and in 1905 was made 
 a canon of the cathedral. As early as 1881 Fr. Sheehan 
 had begun writing in the “Irish Ecclesiastical Review” 
 and other periodicals; he was encouraged by Father 
 Matthew Russell, S.J., then editor of “The Irish 
 Monthly” the literary mentor of so many of the Irish 
 writers. His first novel, “Geoffrey Austin, Student,” 
 which appeared in 1895, depicted student life in Dub¬ 
 lin and was well received. It was followed by “The 
 Triumph of Failure”; “Luke Delmege” and “My 
 New Curate”, which attained great popularity. 
 This was due in part, aside from the literary merit, 
 to the fact that the reader was introduced into an 
 unknown but real world, the genuine life of the 
 average Irish priest, with its joys, its troubles, its 
 difficulties and consolations. Canon Sheehan drew 
 largely on the life around him for his characters; in 
 his writings he reveals his ideals and aims as a pastor 
 of souls; there is a vast vista behind the action in his 
 fiction that leads the reader to thoughts of higher 
 livings. His novels were written mainly as a recrea¬ 
 tion, a rest from his pastoral work, which was always 
 
 his chief concern. Of his later works, “The Blindness 
 of Dr. Gray” and “The Queen’s Fillet” were the most 
 successful. “Under the Cedars and the Stars” and 
 “Parerga” are collections of literary and philosophical 
 notes and observations. In addition to the works 
 mentioned above Canon Sheehan wrote “Glenanaar”, 
 “Lisheen”, “Miriam Lucas”, “The Intellectuals”, and 
 a volume of poems, “Cithara Mea”. “Mariae 
 Corona” is a volume of sermons in honor of the Blessed 
 Virgin, and “The Graves at Kilmorna”, published 
 posthumusly, is a novel of the Fenian rising in ’67. 
 
 Heuser, Canon Sheehan of Doneraile (London, 1918). 
 
 Shen-si, Central, Vicariate Apostolic of 
 (Scen-si Centralis; cf. C. E., XVI—84d), in 
 China, separted from Northern Shen-si and erected 
 into a separated vicariate 12 April, 1911. It is en¬ 
 trusted to the Friars Minor. Rt. Rev. Eugenio 
 Massi, O.F.M., titular Bishop of Jaffa, b. in the Dio¬ 
 cese of Ripatransone, 13 August, 1875, was ap¬ 
 pointed Vicar Apostolic of Central Shen-si, 7 July, 
 1916. He resides at Sian-fu. There are in the 
 vicariate (1921): 208 churches, 54 chapels, 11 Euro¬ 
 pean and 32 native priests, 38,198 Catholics, 46,559 
 catechumens, 2040 baptisms of adults, 1092 confirma¬ 
 tions, 35 seminarians in the upper seminary and 45 
 in the lower seminary, 112 schools with 4220 pupils, 
 4 homes, 2 asylums, 1 orphanage of the Holy Child¬ 
 hood with 20 boys. Institutions in charge of the 
 Franciscan Missionaries of Mary are: 1 orphanage, 
 6 pharmacies, 3 hospitals (2 for women, 1 for men), 
 3 schools with 335 pupils, 4 boarding schools with 
 600 pupils (girls), and 3 laboratories. 
 
 Shen-si, Northern, Vicariate Apostolic of 
 (Scen si Septentrionalis; cf. C. E., XIII—755d), 
 in China. On 12 April, 1911, the Vicariate of North 
 era Shen-si was divided into two vicariates, Northern 
 and Central Shen-si, and both entrusted to the Friars 
 Minor. Northern Shen-si has a population of 3,000,000 
 pagans, 2257 Catholics, and 4109 catechumens. Rt. 
 Rev. Celestin Ibanez y Aparicio, O. F. M., titular 
 Bishop of Bagis, b. at Becerril de Campos, Diocese 
 of Palencia, 19 May, 1873, was appointed Vicar 
 Apostolic of Northern Shen-si, 10 September, 1911. 
 He resides at Yen-an-fu. Statistics for 1921 credit 
 the vicariate with 5 rural districts, 11 missions, 11 
 principal residences, 13 churches, 14 chapels, 92 
 secular Tertiaries, 10 Franciscan priests, 1 upper 
 seminary with 14 seminarians, 1 college for boys with 
 30 students, 23 primary schools for boys with 266 
 pupils, 8 primary schools for girls with 76 pupils, 
 2 orphanages for girls. 
 
 Shen-si, Southern, Vicariate Apostolic of 
 (Scen-si Meridionalis; cf. C. E., XIII—756a), in 
 China. It is entrusted to the Foreign Missions of 
 Sts. Peter and Paul of Rome. Rt. Rev. Antonio 
 Maria Capettini, titular Bishop of Evaria, b. in the 
 Diocese of Vigevano, 11 January, 1877, was ap¬ 
 pointed Vicar Apostolic of Southern Shen-si, 8 Sep¬ 
 tember, 1919. He resides at Han-chung-fu. The 
 population of the vicariate is 6,000,000, of whom 
 16,900 are Catholics, all Chinese. There are (1921 
 census): 55 parishes, 55 churches, 100 missions, 85 
 stations, 22 secular clergy, 17 European and 25 
 Chinese Sisters, 2 seminaries with 40 seminarians, 4 
 colleges for boys with 8 teachers and 110 pupils, 4 
 colleges for girls with 8 teachers and 200 pupils, 40 
 elementary schools with 40 teachers and 1200 stu¬ 
 dents, 1 industrial school with 2 teachers and 30 
 pupils, 5 orphanages, 1 leper hospital, 4 hospices for 
 the aged, 5 homes, 4 asylums, 2 hospitals, 5 refuges, 
 2 day nurseries. None of the institutions are aided 
 by the Government. Several pious associations 
 proved by the church are organized among the chM 
 and laity. Among the recently deceased of nol4 
 
SHERBROOKE 
 
 690 
 
 SHIPMAN 
 
 Mgr. Pie Joseph Passerini, former vicar apostolic, a 
 zealous worker for the faith, founder of the cathedral, 
 an orphanage, schools, and a hospital, d. 16 April, 
 1918; Fr. 01 into Tomada, a zealous missionary, d. 
 25 Jan., 1917; Mother Seraphine Battajola, a religious 
 of Canosa, d. 17 April, 1919, from an infection con¬ 
 tracted while caring for the wounded. Of recent years 
 the vicariate has suffered from military anarchy and 
 war, invasion of soldiers, sieges, pillage, flood, and 
 famine. Nevertheless, the progress of religion and its 
 moral influence among the highest classes, civilian and 
 military, is evident. The vicar apostolic, Rt. Rev. 
 Capettini, was decorated 2 March, 1920, with the 
 Star of the Tiger by the President of the Republic, in 
 recognition for his devotion to the wounded and 
 refugees for two years. 
 
 Sherbrooke, Diocese of (Sherbrookiensis; cf. 
 C. E., XIII 756d), suffragan of Montreal. The 
 present administrator of the diocese is the Rt. Rev. 
 Paul S. La Rocque, who celebrated the fiftieth anni¬ 
 versary of his ordination and the twenty-fifth of his 
 consecration in May 1919. A new community of Sisters 
 known as the Missionairesde la Chine, have establish¬ 
 ed a house at Sherbrooke. A new cathedral is in 
 course of construction and the episcopal residence has 
 lately been completed. The death in 1918 of the Rev. 
 J. C. Choquettewas a severe loss to the diocese. He 
 was a scientist of note, an indefatigable worker in the 
 cause of temperance and a leader of men. According 
 to the statistics of 1922 the Catholic population 
 numbers 100,000. The diocese contains 87 parishes, 
 5 missions, 145 secular priests, 21 regulars, 560 
 Sisters, and 30 seminarians wflo are being educated 
 in seminaries in other dioceses. The Benedictines, 
 Franciscans and Redemptorists have monasteries in 
 the diocese. About 20,000 pupils attend the schools 
 which have been established in every parish. A 
 weekly review called “Le Messager” is printed at the 
 cathedral. 
 
 Shields, Thomas Edward, educationist; born at 
 Mendota, Minnesota, on 9 May, 1862; died at 
 Washington, D. C., on 15 February, 1921. Though 
 as a young child he was rather bright, about the age 
 of ten he became backward and his youth was en 
 shrouded by a dullness that arose from alternating 
 phases of physical and mental development. He 
 seemed a hopeless dullard, but in his nineteenth year 
 his normal capacities began to assert themselves/and 
 in 1882 he entered St. Francis College at Milwaukee, 
 where he remained three years. In 1885 he entered 
 the Seminary of St. Thomas Aquinas at St. Paul, 
 Minnesota. He was ordained to the priesthood on 
 14 March, 1891, after which he spent fourteen months 
 as curate at the Cathedral of St. Paul. In 1892 he 
 enrolled at St. Mary’s Seminary at Baltimore, whence 
 he graduated as Master of Arts. In October of the 
 same year, entered Johns Hopkins University, special¬ 
 izing in biology and physiology. He won his doctorate 
 of philosophy there with his thesis entitled, "Effect 
 of Odors and Mental Work on the Blood Flow," in 
 preparing for which he discovered an ingenious im¬ 
 provement of the plethysinograph. On receiving his 
 degree in June, 1895, he was appointed to the chair 
 of natural sciences at St. Paul Seminary. In 1898 he 
 was assigned to pastoral work at St. Joseph’s Church 
 in St. Paul, where he seems to have remained until 
 1902, when he became instructor of physiological 
 psychology at the Catholic University, becoming 
 associate professor of this science in 1905, and pro¬ 
 fessor of psychology and education in 1909. He 
 ^)ined the staff of Trinity College in 1904, and 
 kcanized there the department of education. In 
 received the honorary degree of LL.D. from 
 •'./ kit tan College. He founded the summer school 
 
 for Catholic Sisters at the Catholic University in 
 1911, and was named its first dean, holding that 
 post until his death. The immediate outcome of this 
 foundation was the establishment of the Sister’s 
 College, in October, 1911, for the professional training 
 of members of the educating sisterhoods. He engaged 
 actively in affiliating of Catholic schools and colleges 
 with the Catholic University, and instituted a corre¬ 
 spondence school in education for the private in¬ 
 struction and study of Catholic sisterhoods. He 
 inaugurated a movement to restore music to the 
 people, considering it a basic element in the develop¬ 
 ment of intellect and the formation of character, and 
 he developed complete system of musical instruction— 
 vocal and instrumental. In 1920, he undertook, with 
 Mrs. Justine Ward, the construction of a building to be 
 devoted to the school of music of the Sisters’ College. 
 
 Dr. Shields founded "The Catholic Educational 
 Review," and "The Catholic Education Press," in 
 1911. He contributed the "Notes on Education" 
 in "The Catholic University Bulletin,” from 1907 to 
 1910. In addition he is the author of “The Index 
 Omnium" (1887); "The Making and Unmaking of 
 a Dullard" (1908); "The Education of Our Girls" 
 (1907); "The Teacher’s Manual of Primary Methods" 
 (1912); "The Psychology of Education" (1908); and 
 several treatises on Religion and Reading. He con¬ 
 tributed to "The Dolphin," "The Catholic World." 
 "The School Review," and “The Catholic University 
 Bulletin," and wrote a few articles for "The Catholic 
 Encyclopedia." 
 
 The Catholic Educational Review , (Washington, 1921), 193-302. 
 
 Shi-koku (Sikok), Prefecture Apostolic of 
 (cf. C. E., XIII—758b), comprises the Island of 
 Shi-koku, the smallest of the four islands of Japan. 
 The population, according to 1920 statistics, is 
 3,046,625. The prefecture is entrusted to' the 
 Dominicans formerly in the Philippines. Rt. Rev. 
 Joseph Marie Alvarez, O.P., b. at Burgos 16 March, 
 1871, professed 8 September, 1886, ordained 6 April, 
 1895, was appointed first Prefect Apostolic of Shi¬ 
 koku, 2 October, 1904, with residence at Tokushima. 
 There are in the vicariate: 541 Catholics, 3 churches, 
 5 missions, 11 stations, 8 regular priests, 4 Brothers, 1 
 seminary with 4 seminarians, 1 elementary school with 
 69 students, 1 orphanage with 17 inmates, 1 ma¬ 
 ternity school. In 1918 four high schools were op¬ 
 ened, one in each civil prefecture: that in Tokushima 
 is an industrial school, and that in Takamatsu is a 
 commercial school. A housekeeping school, to be con¬ 
 ducted by Dominican Sisters, is under construction 
 at Matsuyama. The Confraternity of the Holy 
 Rosary is established at Kochi. 
 
 Shipman, Andrew Jackson, lawyer and Sla¬ 
 vonic scholar, b. in Springvale, Fairfax County, 
 Virginia, on 15 October, 1857; d. at New York on 
 17 October, 1915; son of John James and Priscilla 
 (Carroll) Shipman. His mother was a lineal de¬ 
 scended of Thomas Carroll, who settled in Mary¬ 
 land in 1725, while the Shipmans came from England 
 about a quarter of a century earlier. He studied at 
 Georgetown, where he entered the Catholic Church, 
 and after graduating became the editor of a local 
 paper, the “Vienna Times," and subsequently assis¬ 
 tant manager of a coal-mining company in Hock¬ 
 ing Valley, Ohio. There he acquired his first knowl¬ 
 edge of several Slavonic languages from the foreign- 
 born miners, whose lay apostle he beeame. They 
 had arrived in the United States only to find a com¬ 
 plete absence of priests speaking their tongues or 
 using their local rite; Shipman saw the danger in 
 which they were and taking the matter up with the 
 hierarchy had their needs attended to. In 1884 he 
 entered the United States customs service at New 
 
SIIIRE 
 
 691 
 
 SIAM 
 
 York, and two years later graduated in law from the 
 University of the City of New York and was ad¬ 
 mitted to the bar, of which he became one of the 
 mofct distinguished members. He was probably the 
 greatest lay authority in America on the laws of 
 the Catholic, Episcopal, and Orthodox Russian 
 Churches. He took an important part in the New 
 York Constitutional Convention of 1915. He was a 
 member of the Board of Regents of the University 
 of the State of New York, and an active worker in 
 all the chief Catholic organizations and charitable 
 associations in New York. Apart from the law, 
 his chosen work was for the peoples of Eastern 
 Europe, among whom he was wont to pass his annual 
 vacations. He interested himself in the Slavic, Hun¬ 
 garian and Italian immigrants, he lectured and wrote 
 about Russia, Poland, Ruthenia and the Greek Rites, 
 and on the occasion of the dedication of St. George’s 
 Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church in New York, 
 October, 1911, he published “The Holy Mass Accord¬ 
 ing to the Greek Rite,” in Slavic with his own trans¬ 
 lation in English. He was advisor to Mgr. Soter S. 
 Ortynskv, the first Catholic bishop of Greek Rite in 
 the United States, and acted as a counsellor of the 
 Syrian Catholics. His zeal is instanced in his expo¬ 
 sure in “America” in 1910 of the attempt of the 
 Presbyterians at Newark in New Jersey, New York, 
 and other centres to proselytize the newly-arrived 
 Slavic Catholics by the fraudulent use of the Greek 
 Rite Liturgy and ceremonial, a Presbyterian “Mass.” 
 His funeral services were held in St. Patrick’s Cathe¬ 
 dral, New York. After the solemn requiem Mass, 
 a burial service was conducted according to the 
 Greek Rite by Bishop Ortynsky, attended by Greek, 
 Ruthenian and Maronite priests. Members of the 
 Ukranian choir chanted the music of the service. 
 This was the first time a burial service according to 
 this rite was held in a church of the Latin Rite in 
 the United States. Shipman was one of the chief 
 promoters of the publication of the Catholic Ency¬ 
 clopedia, to which he contributed numerous articles. 
 
 Pallen, A Memorial of Andrew J . Shipman ; His Life and Writ ¬ 
 ings (New York, 1916). 
 
 Shire, Vicariate Apostolic of (Shirensis; cf. 
 C. E., XIII—759a), in Nyasaland Protectorate, 
 Africa. In the beginning of 1915 an insurrection 
 fomented by a negro, John Chilembroe, the head of a 
 Protestant mission, broke out in Nyasaland, and 
 several Europeans were massacred. The principal 
 Catholic mission, St. Joseph du Nguludi, seat of the 
 Vicar Apostolic, was attacked at night by the in¬ 
 surgents. Most of the missionaries were able to save 
 themselves, but one of them was severely wounded 
 and left for dead, and his recovery was almost 
 miraculous. Six large buildings of the mission were 
 reduced to ashes, the losses amounting to more than 
 100,000 francs. The government of the Protectorate 
 of Nyasaland (English) indemnified the mission to the 
 extent of £800. Since then the Mission of Nguludi has 
 been rebuilt but the effects of the insurrection are 
 still being felt. When the war broke out in 1914 one 
 Father and one Brother who were in France at the 
 time were mobilized and remained in the French army 
 throughout the war. Father M. Ryo was several times 
 cited in orders of the day and received the Croix de 
 Ouerre. The French Government excused the other 
 missionaries from military duty. They offered their 
 services to the English. Nine priests and four sisters 
 during several years worked in the sanitary division 
 of the English army and in the ambulance service and 
 hospitals. All of them were remarkable for their 
 devotion, their endurance and their self-sacrifice. 
 One priest and one Sister died in the service. Ac¬ 
 cording to the statistics of 1922 the vicariate apostolic 
 contains 2 churches, 23 chapels, 9 principal stations, 
 
 17 succursal stations, 9 houses of the missionary 
 Fathers, 4 convents of the Daughters of Wisdom with 
 12 sisters, 24 regular priests, 3 lay brothers, 1 seminary 
 with 7 seminarians. The educational institutions 
 are: 1 boarding school for girls, 2 teachers, 25 pupils, 
 2 training schools, 2 teachers, 30 pupils, 296 element¬ 
 ary schools, 200 teachers, 17,530 pupils. The ele¬ 
 mentary schools receive an annual allowance of 
 £130 from the government. Two orphanages, 3 
 hospitals and six dispensaries for the natives exist in the 
 diocese. A catechism, prayer book, Bible history, 
 hymn book and 2 grammars have been printed in 
 Cinyanja, the language of the natives. In 1922 there 
 were 8000 native Catholics, 5130 catechumens, 50 
 European and 30 Goanese Christians. 
 
 Shorter, Dora Sigerson, poetess, b. in Dublin; 
 d. on 6 January, 1918. Miss Sigerson, who became 
 later Mrs. Clement Shorter, published her “Verses” 
 in 1894. Her other works are “The Fairy Change¬ 
 ling,” “The Lady’s Slipper,” “Ballads and Poems,” 
 “The Father Confessor,” “The Woman Who Went 
 to Hell,” “The Song of Earl Roderick” and “Collected 
 Poems.” All her writings are said to be raoy of the 
 soil on which she was born, absolutely original and 
 no mere imitative culture product. 
 
 Shrewsbury, Diocese of (Salopiensis; cf. 
 C. E., XIII—759c), in England, suffragan of Bir¬ 
 mingham. According to the census of 1921 there 
 were 867,960 inhabitants in the diocese, of whom 
 67,591 were Catholics of English and Irish extraction. 
 On 8 July, 1914, took place the opening of St. Ed¬ 
 mund’s Orphanage and Certified Poor Law School, 
 named in honor of Bishop Edmund Knight, second 
 bishop of the diocese. In August, 1920, the Faithful 
 Companions of Jesus celebrated the centenary of 
 their foundation at Upton Hall. Cardinals Bourne 
 and Gasquet, many archbishops and bishops and 
 heads of religious orders were present at the celebra¬ 
 tion. During the war 9 secular priests went to the 
 front as chaplains, of whom 1 was killed. Numerous 
 war memorials were erected in churches throughout 
 the diocese. The diocese contains 46 parishes, 58 
 churches, 6 missions, 3 stations, 22 convents for 
 women, 86 secular priests, 12 regulars. The educa¬ 
 tional institutions are: 12 high schools with 1305 
 pupils, 42 elementary schools with 11,678 pupils, 1 
 industrial school with 50 inmates. Of these 40 ele¬ 
 mentary schools, 1 industrial school and 1 orphanage 
 are supported by the Government. There is one 
 house of retreats in the diocese. The following char¬ 
 itable institutions exist in the diocese: 2 homes, 1 
 orphanage and poor law school, 1 infant welfare 
 centre. All the institutions admit the ministry oe 
 priests. Organizations among the clergy are: Shrewsf 
 bury Secular Clergy Fund, Diocesan Conferences- 
 Among the laity: Catholic Young Men’s Society. 
 Catholic Women’s League, Society of St. Vincent d, 
 Paul, Catholic Needlework Guild and the Rescue 
 Society. 
 
 Siam, Vicariate Apostolic of Siamensis; of. 
 C. E., XIII—765), Asia, is governed by Mgr. Ren6- 
 Marie-Joseph Perros, b. at Guewenheim in Alsace, 12 
 March, 1870, entered the Seminary of the Paris 
 Foreign Missions in 1888, ordained on 15 October, 
 1893, and sent to Siam in December following, ap¬ 
 pointed titular Bishop of Zoara and Vicar Apostolic 
 on 17 September, 1909, being consecrated at Bangkok 
 on 30 January, 1910. The diocesan statistics for 1921 
 record a native population of 5,200,000 (Siamese, 
 Annamites, Chinese), with 26,600 Catholics; 20 mis¬ 
 sions; 60 churches and chapels; 25 Brothers of St. 
 Gabriel; 51 Sisters of St. Paul of Chartes, Europeans; 
 96 native Sisters, Lovers of the Cross; 1 seminary 
 
SIBERIA 
 
 G92 
 
 SIENKIEWICZ 
 
 with 09 seminarians; 3 boys’ colleges, 51 teachers, 
 2000 students; 3 girls’ colleges, 40 teachers, 820 stu¬ 
 dents; 1 normal school, 3 professors, 28 students; 78 
 elementary schools, 110 teachers, 3901 pupils; inci¬ 
 dentally it may be stated that it was the French mis¬ 
 sionaries in Siam who initiated the education of the 
 native boys and girls; 5 houses for the aged; 2 hos¬ 
 pitals; 2 infant asylums. There is an association of 
 the past pupils of the Assumption College. The 
 mission has a printing press for publishing religious 
 books and its two Catholic reviews, “Echo de Y 
 Assomption,” a quarterly in English, French, and 
 Siamese; and “Sarasat Christang,” a Siamese month¬ 
 ly. As the missionaries in the vicariate are French 
 religious activities were curtailed during the war, 
 the Vicar Apostolic, 13 priests and 9 Brothers having 
 been called to the colors; 2 priests and 1 Brother lost 
 their lives; a priest and a Brother won the croix de 
 guerre and several of their brethren were cited in the 
 orders of the day. 
 
 Launay, Histoire de la Mission de Siam , 1662-1811 (3 vols. 
 
 Paris, 1920). 
 
 Siberia (cf. C. E., XIII—767c), formerly a part of 
 the Russian Empire, has an area of 4,831,882 square 
 miles, divided a£ follows: 
 
 Province 
 
 Area 
 
 Population ( 1915 ) 
 
 Amur 
 
 154,795 
 
 261,500 
 
 Kamchatka 
 
 502,424 
 
 41,400 
 
 Irkutsk 
 
 280,429 
 
 821,800 
 
 Primorskaya 
 
 206,486 
 
 631,600 
 
 Sakhalin 
 
 14,668 
 
 34,000 
 
 Tobolsk 
 
 535,739 
 
 2,085,700 
 
 Tomsk 
 
 327,173 
 
 4,053,700 
 
 Transbaikal 
 
 238,308 
 
 971,700 
 
 Y akutsk 
 
 1,530,253 
 
 332,600 
 
 Y eniseisk 
 
 981,607 
 
 1,143,900 
 
 The Soviet government of Russia controls Siberia, 
 as far east as Lake Baikal. The chief towns with their 
 respective populations in 1913 are Irkutsk 129,700, 
 Tomsk 116,664; Vladivostok 91,464; Krasnoyarsk 
 87,500; Chita 79,200; Blagoveshchensk 62,500; 
 Novo-Nikolaevsk 62,967; Barnaul 61,330; Khabarovsk 
 51,300. 
 
 History. —Siberia formed a part of the Russian 
 Empire until the Russian revolution of 1917, when 
 chaos prevailed throughout the land. In 1919, 
 Admilar Kolchak, whose remarkable military suc¬ 
 cesses seemed to promise a unified Siberia under a 
 stable government, established at Omsk the so- 
 called All-Russia government. Upon the appearance 
 of this government, the Allies and Associated 
 Powers, inclined to consider it as a unifying force in 
 Siberia, sent help to Kolchak. His administration 
 however, succumbed to the Reds, who overran 
 Siberia, captured Omsk in November and forced 
 Kolchak to flee to Irkutsk on Lake Baikal, where he 
 set up a new government. The United States govern¬ 
 ment realized by this time the futility of trying to 
 aid Siberia and withdrew her troops in March, 1920. 
 The American evacuation was followed by the with¬ 
 drawal of Japanese troops from Transbaikal and Amur 
 Provinces. In June, 1920, Japan had completed the 
 evacuation of these provinces and concentrated 
 her troops some 20,000 in number, within a radius of 
 150 miles from Vladivostok. The fall of Kolchak 
 was followed by a period of chaos. The three pro¬ 
 vinces of Eastern Siberia were divided into three 
 governments: a government was set up at Verkneu- 
 dinsk for the Transbaikal province; another at 
 Blagovestchensk for the Amur Province and still 
 another at Vladivostok for the Maritime Provinces, 
 all dominated by Reds of the most radical type. 
 In 1920 respresentatives from the three governments 
 met and in September declared the union of the three 
 states in the Far Eastern Republic of Siberia with its 
 seat at Chita in Transbaikal Province. In January, 
 1921 the Provincial government held an election 
 
 in order to organize a Constituent Assembly, which 
 sat in Chita and adopted a constitution. On May, 
 1921, the Maritime Province, 266,000 square miles 
 in area, defected from the republic and is controlled 
 at present by a secessionist government set up in 
 Vladivostok by a Moderate Social Democrat, S. D. 
 Merkulov. A massacre of 700 Japanese, including 
 the Japanese consul at Nikolaevsk in March, 1920, 
 caused the Japanese government to insist that the 
 Chita government should shoulder the responsibili¬ 
 ty for that incident and agree upon a plan for settle¬ 
 ment before she removed her troops from Sakjali, 
 which occupation was undertaken as a result of the 
 massacre. The Siberian “misadventure” has already 
 cost Japan about $400,000,000. With the presence 
 of Japanese troops in the Vladivostok region, the 
 Far Eastern Republic is powerless to overthrow the 
 Merkulov government at Vladivostok, and thus 
 gain control of the Maritime province which is 
 Siberia’s outlet to the sea. Another difficulty en¬ 
 countered by the Far Eastern Republic is the in¬ 
 creasing control by the Chinese authorities of the 
 Russian line called the Chinese Eastern Railway, 
 linking Chita with Vladivostok. Since 1917, this 
 railway has gradually passed into Chinese control. 
 There is a possibility that the Chita government 
 will finally merge with the Soviet government of 
 Russia. 
 
 According to' the constitution of the Far Eastern 
 Republic, there is no functionary corresponding 
 exactly to president in other republics. The Cabinet 
 consists of Secretaries, for Foreign Affairs, Agricul¬ 
 ture, Finance, Home Affairs, Communications, 
 Education and Labor. Elected by the National 
 Assembly, these eight Secretaries in turn elect from 
 among themselves a chairman who presides at the 
 Council of Secretaries and who is commonly referred 
 to as President of the Far Eastern Republic (in 
 foreign countries). 
 
 Sidgreaves, W alter , astronomer, b. at Grimsbargh, 
 Preston, England, on 4 October, 1837; d. at Stony- 
 hurst College, 12 June, 1919. Entering the Society 
 of Jesus in his eighteenth year, he was ordained in 
 1871. He taught at Beaumont College and the 
 English College in Malta, but he is more closely 
 associated with Stony hurst, especially with its 
 observatory, all the instrumental equipment of which 
 was erected and adjusted by him. He was a pioneer 
 in the study of terrestrial magnetism, having begun 
 his observations in 1863; and as a result his observa¬ 
 tory was one of the seven official meteorological 
 stations in the British Isles. He assisted Fr. Perry, 
 S. J., in his magnetic survey of France and in observ¬ 
 ing the transit of Venus in Kergueland Island (1874) 
 and Madagascar (1882) on behalf of the British 
 Government. Father Sidgreaves, who was elected 
 a Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1891, 
 and for years was a member of its Council, specialized 
 in stellar spectroscopy, and his remarkable photos of 
 the spectra, especially of the Novae in 1892 and 1901 
 won for him a gold medal at the St. Louis Exposition 
 in 1904, and a grand prix at the Franco-British Ex¬ 
 position in 1908. 
 
 Sienkiewicz, Henryk, novelist, b. on 4 May, 1846, 
 at Vola, Okrzeyska, Siedlce, Poland; d. on 14 Novem¬ 
 ber, 1916. He made his studies at the University of 
 Warsaw, was editor of the newspaper “Slovo” in 
 1869, and began his fiction work with the novel “Na 
 Marne” (In Vain) in 1870. In 1876 he came to the 
 United States and remained for some time in Cali¬ 
 fornia , and he travelled also in Central Africa. Nearly 
 all of his novels have been translated into English by 
 Jeremiah Curtin. Besides his larger books, he pub¬ 
 lished also a number of short stories which were fully 
 
SIGUENZA 
 
 SION 
 
 093 
 
 up to the level of his other library products. Nearly 
 all of them are inspired by the patriotic motive of 
 sustaining his countrymen in their national sufferings 
 and are said to have a deep significance for his Polish 
 readers: His “Quo Vadis” is the first one that made 
 him known to the English-speaking world. That, 
 “Pan Michael,” “With Fire and Sword,” and “The 
 Deluge” are rated by some as the most brilliant of his 
 books. They have been frequently dramatized with 
 great success. In 1905 he received the Nobel Prize 
 of Literature. 
 
 Siguenza, Diocese of (Seguntina; cf. C. E., 
 XIII—788). in Spain, suffragan of Toledo, has an 
 area of approximately 4188 square miles with a 
 population of 155,000 practically all Catholics. The 
 statistics for 1921 record 353 parishes with 471 
 churches, 384 secular and 20 regular piiests, 2 
 Brothers, 2 religious houses for men, 12 convents 
 with 232 Sisters (Franciscans, Conceptionists, Ber- 
 nardines, Ursulines, Benedictines, Little Sisters of 
 the Poor, Sisteis of St. Anne, Sisters of Charity), 
 
 1 home, 4 hospitals, 1 seminary with 132 seminarians. 
 The present incumbent of the see, Mgr. Eustaquio 
 Nieto y Martin, was born at Zamora in the Diocese 
 of Madrid-Alcala, on 12 March, 1866, ordained in 
 1891, appointed crconomus and later rector of the 
 Concepcion Church in Madrid, named bishop of 
 Siguenza on 22 August, 1916, and consecrated on 27 
 December following, on the resignation of Mgr. 
 Toribio Minguella y Arnedo (q. v.). 
 
 Simla, Archdiocese of (Simlensis; cf. C. E., 
 XIII—796), in India, established in 1910, is still 
 governed by the Most Rev. A. E. J. Kenealy of the 
 English Capuchins, who have charge of the mission. 
 He was b. in Wales, 1864, entered the Franciscans 
 1879, was ordained 1887, taught philosophy 1888-89; 
 first rector of the Franciscan College, Oxford; general 
 depositor of his order 1908; consecrated 1910. The 
 ecclesiastical boundaries are on the North Kashmir 
 and Kafristan, on the South Rajputana, on the 
 East Agra, and on the West Lahore. In 1921 the 
 diocesan statistics record the total population as 
 about 5 millions (Hindus, Mahommedans, Punjabus, 
 Ladakbus and a variety of mountain tribes), Catholics 
 numbering 2361; 7 parishes; 11 churches; 1 mission; 
 20 stations; 12 Capuchin and 3 secular priests; 44 
 nuns; 1 women’s training college, 5 teachers, 32 stu¬ 
 dents; 3 girls’ high schools, 40 teachers, 448 students; 
 
 2 elementary schools, 6 teachers, 100 pupils. All 
 these schools receive a grant-in-aid from the Govern¬ 
 ment. There are sodalities of the Children of Mary 
 and the Franciscan tertiaries, and a Catholic Club at 
 Simla. Among those who have died since 1912 may 
 be mentioned Fr. Denis, O.S.F.C. (10 Dec., 1914), 
 who fled from Rome when it was captured by the 
 Piedmontese and devoted his remaining years to the 
 missions; Fr. Amphian Plunket (10 Jan., 1915), born 
 in the United States, who was a Christian Brother 
 for years in India, and was later ordained. Among 
 the notable events have been the establishment of 
 the “Simla Times,” a Catholic weekly, by Archbishop 
 Kenealy; the opening of a missionary colony at 
 Madonnapur in Sirsa; and the golden jubilee of St. 
 Francis High School, Simla. Despite the small 
 number of priests, Simla supplied three chaplains 
 during the war. Fr. Stanislaus O’Brien, O.S.F.C., 
 ranking as a major, saw service in France and on sea, 
 was awarded several medals, and died after his return 
 from service owing to the hardships he had endured 
 for nearly seven years. 
 
 Simony (cf. C. E., XIV—la), may be an offence 
 against the Divine or merely against ecclesiastical 
 law. The former is deliberate intention of buying or 
 
 selling for a temporal price anything intrinsically 
 spiritual— e.g., the sacraments or indulgences—or 
 anything temporal annexed to something spiritual 
 in such a way that the temporal cannot exist without 
 the spiritual— e.g., an ecclesiastical benefice—or a 
 spiritual thing which is even partially the object of the 
 contract— e. g., the consecration in the sale of a con¬ 
 secrated chalice; the latter is the giving or exchanging 
 of a temporal thing annexed to a spiritual for a similar 
 thing, or a spiritual thing for another spiritual thing, 
 or even a temporal thing for a temporal thing, if this 
 is forbidden by the Church on account of the danger 
 of irreverence towards something spiritual resulting 
 therefrom. Under the Code in speaking of simony 
 the words buy, sale, exchange, etc., are use in a wide 
 sense, so as to include any agreement, even non- 
 executed or tacit in which the simoniacal intention 
 can be deduced from the circumstances, even if it 
 has not been expressly manifested. There is no 
 simony, however, when an offering is accepted or 
 asked not as a price for, but on the occasion of spiritual 
 ministrations, for the support of religion and its 
 ministers, when this is done in acordance with the 
 sacred canons or a recognized legitimate custom— 
 e.g. offerings for Masses, marriages, baptism, etc. 
 But as the Code says “in the administration of the 
 sacraments the minister must not for any cause or 
 on any occasion, ask for or exact directly or indirectly, 
 anything beyond the offering fixed for the whole 
 ecclesiastical province by the provincial council or 
 at a meeting of the bishops of the province with the 
 approval of the Holy See.” If a priest, therefore, 
 should demand more than the statutory or customary 
 fee he would be guilty of at least disobedience and 
 injustice and, according to some, even of simony. 
 
 A suspicion of heresy is incurred by anyone, not 
 excepting a bishop, who knowingly administers or 
 receives any sacrament simoniacally; in addition a 
 cleric, but not a bishop, would incur suspension re¬ 
 served to the Holy See. If simony is committed in 
 the conferring of any ecclesiastical office, benefice, or 
 dignity, it renders the collation null and void; this 
 is the case if the beneficiary was not aware of the 
 simoniacal act of the collator and a third party, unless 
 the simony was committed against the positive wish 
 of the beneficiary or without his knowledge but with 
 the intent to defraud him; persons guilty of this form 
 of simony incur excommunication simply reserved to 
 the Holy See; they lose ipso facto and forever what¬ 
 ever right of election, presentation or nomination 
 they may have had, and if they are clerics they are to 
 be suspended. It is expressly laid down in the law 
 that any deduction from the revenue or compensa¬ 
 tion or payment to be made to the collator, patron or 
 other person, by the cleric at his induction is simonia¬ 
 cal. Those who traffic in indulgences incur excom¬ 
 munication reserved simply to the pope. The 
 censure formerly affected those who trafficked in other 
 spiritual favors as well; those who trade in Mass 
 stipends are to be punished by the ordinary if neces¬ 
 sary by suspension or privation of benefice or office, 
 or in case of lay persons by excommunication— 
 formerly the penalty was excommunication incurred 
 ipso facto. 
 
 Sinn Fein. See Ireland 
 
 Sion, Diocese of (Sedunensis; cf. C. E., 
 XIV—15, 364), Switzerland, dependent directly <pn 
 the Holy See, almost co-terminous with Le Valais. 
 The present Bishop, Mgr. Victor Bieler, b. at Tcher- 
 men-Brigue, on 17 March, 1881, was ordained on 7 
 July, 1907, and after acting as chancellor and pro¬ 
 fessor of canon law was appointed on 26 May, 1919, in 
 succession to Mgr. Abbet, who had died on 12 July, 
 1918. The diocese has 133 parishes, of which 2 are 
 
SIOUX CITY 
 
 694 
 
 SOCIETY or JESUS 
 
 in Vaud; in addition there are 4 parishes depending on 
 the Abbot-Bishop of St. Maurice. There are 150 
 churches and chapels, 1 abbey (St. Maurice), 5 
 religious houses for men, 3 for women; 208 secular 
 and 116 regular priests; 1 seminary with 15 seminari¬ 
 ans; 3 cantonal colleges; 8 boys’ secondary schools, 
 3 girls’; 18 schools of domestic science (girls); 2 agri¬ 
 cultural schools; 3 cantonal normal schools; in 1914 
 there were in Le Valais 641 primary schools (448 
 French, 193 German), taught by 642 teachers (of 
 whom 292 were women); 9 infants’ schools, 3 homes 
 for the old and poor (Souste, Sierre, Sion); 1 inebri¬ 
 ates’ home; 1 insane asylum; 1 deaf-mute institute; 
 6 hospitals—these are private but are organized and 
 directed in a Catholic spirit; 2 free refuges for poor 
 travelers (at the Simplon and the Great St. Bernard). 
 All the public institutions allow the ministration of 
 priests. The insane asylum, 3 cantonal colleges and 
 their annexes, and 3 normal schools, are entirely 
 government-supported, while partial support is 
 granted to all primary schools, domestic science 
 schools, parish libraries and charitable institutes. 
 Among the clergy is a clerical insurance society against 
 ill-health, the Association of Priest Adorers, etc., 
 while the laity have the ‘‘Association populaire des 
 Catholiques suisses”. There are no Catholic papers 
 that are non-political. The population numbers 
 120,000, two-thirds French, one-third German. Dur¬ 
 ing the War, the inhabitants welcomed and aided the 
 wounded, the interned, the refugees, and especially 
 the children of the belligerent nations, without dis¬ 
 tinction; in addition the Catholic students assisted 
 the poor students in Austria. The State and the 
 Church are entirely separated. The cost of the higher 
 and the public obligatory education is borne by the 
 State of Valais and the communes; all the other 
 institutions mentioned alone except the few specially 
 noted were established and are administered privately 
 but are aided also by the State. 
 
 Sioux City, Diocese of (Siopolitanensis; 
 cf. C. E., XIV—16b), in Iowa, suffragan of Du¬ 
 buque. The present bishop is the Rt. Rev. Edmund 
 Heelan, b. at Elton, diocese of Limerick, 5 Feb., 1868, 
 studied at Dublin, Ireland, ordained 24 June, .1890, 
 elected titular bishop of Gerasa, 21 Dec., 1918, and 
 made auxiliary bishop of Sioux City, consecrated 8 
 April, 1919. He was made Bishop of Sioux City at 
 the Consistory of 8 March, 1920, succeeding Rt. 
 Rev. Philip J. Garrigan, who died 14Oct., 1919. The 
 diocese has a Catholic population of 66,914, which 
 includes small groups of Poles, Lithuanians, Italians 
 and Bohemians. In 1922 the diocese contained 107 
 parishes, 37 missions, 144 churches, 130 secular 
 priests, 12 regulars, 5 lay brothers, 500 Sisters and 27 
 seminarians who are being educated in seminaries in 
 other dioceses. The educational institutions are: 1 
 college for men, 30 high schools with 60 teachers and 
 400 students (150 boys and 250 girls); 1 academy with 
 10 teachers and 30 girl students. A diocesan orphan¬ 
 age (St. Anthony’s House) has lately been estab¬ 
 lished in the diocese. There are also 5 hospitals. 
 Societies among the clergy are the Eucharistic League; 
 among the laity, Knights of Columbus, Ancient 
 Order of Hibernians, etc. During the war, five 
 piiests served as chaplains in the army. 
 
 Sioux Falls, Diocese of (Siouxormensis; cf. 
 C. E., XIV—16d), in South Dakota, suffragan of 
 St. Paul. The Catholic population consists of 69,775 
 white inhabitants and 1067 Indians. In 1922 the 
 diocese contained 114 parishes with churches and 
 resident pastors, 83 mission churches, 144 secular 
 priests, 12 regulars. In 1921 Bishop Thomas O’Gor¬ 
 man founded the new Columbus College at Sioux 
 Falls, in charge of the priests of the diocese. The 
 
 faculty consists of 12 priests and 3 lay professors; there 
 are 187 students. The other educational institutions 
 are 7 high schools, 1 normal school with 82 pupils; 
 32 elementary schools with 5842 pupils. There are 
 five hospitals in the diocese. All state institutions 
 admit the ministry of priests. Societies among the 
 priests are: the Eucharistic League, Purgatorial 
 Society; among the laity: Holy N§me Society, League 
 of the Sacred Heart, Holy Childhood Society. Ten 
 priests of the diocese served with the American army 
 in the World War, one of whom was killed. Rt. Rev. 
 Thomas O’Gorman, the last bishop of Sioux Falls, 
 died 19 Sept., 1921. His successor has not yet been 
 appointed. 
 
 Sire, Dominique, Sulpician, b. at St. Jory in the 
 Diocese of Toulouse on 12 March, 1827; died there on 
 11 December, 1917. He studied at St. Sulpice and 
 after his ordination in 1851 taught in the seminary at 
 Le Puy, and later at St. Sulpice. During the Paris 
 Commune he acted as a delegate for the exchange of 
 hostages. His great work was the compilation of 
 translations of the Gull “Ineffabilis”, by which the 
 dogma of the Immaculate Conception was promul¬ 
 gated, in all the known languages and dialects. Only 
 one copy in fifty folio volumes with hand-illustrations 
 was made, and this is preserved in the Vatican. 
 
 Sirmium, Diocese of. See Diakovu 
 
 Sisters. See Nuns 
 
 Slovakia. See Jugoslavia 
 
 Slovenia. See Jugoslavia 
 
 Smederevo, Archdiocese of. See Belgrade 
 and Smederevo 
 
 Sobral, Diocese of (Sobralensis) , in the 
 State of Ceara, Brazil, suffragan of Fortaleza. It 
 was erected 10 November, 1910, by separation from 
 the diocese of Fortaleza of which it formed the east¬ 
 ern portion, with a population of 450,000. The 
 first and present bishop is Rt. Rev. Jose Tupinamba 
 da Frota, b. at Sobral in 1882; he studied at the 
 South American College, Rome, was ordained in 
 1905, elected 24 January, 1916, and consecrated 
 30 June in the cathedral of Balna. No statistics are 
 furnished. 
 
 Social Guild, Catholic. See Catholic Social 
 Guild 
 
 Society of the Blessed Sacrament. See Blessed 
 
 Sacrament, Fathers of the 
 
 Society of Jesus (cf. C. E., XIV—81a).—The 
 World War proved to be a very severe test of the 
 Society’s vitality. No less than 2014 of its young and 
 active men, some of whom were occupying responsible 
 positions in churches, colleges and universities, were 
 summoned to do service in the armies of the contend¬ 
 ing nations in France and elsewhere, not only as 
 chaplains and stretcher-bearers, but as soldiers in the 
 trenches or officers in the army and navy. As the 
 entire Society had only 17,205 on its rolls at that time, 
 many of whom were incapacitated for any kind of 
 work by age or infirmity, the effect was most 
 disastrous. In France alone 855 Jesuits were 
 mobilized. Of these 165 died in the service. How 
 many returned from camp, crippled or incurably ill, 
 is not recorded. It is worth noting that the 855 
 French Jesuit army and navy men gained 1056 
 distinctions; nevertheless when the war was over 
 they found much of the old anti-clerical spirit as 
 pronounced as ever, with the prospect of a denial 
 of a corporate existence for the Society in the country 
 
SOCIETY OF JESUS 
 
 695 
 
 SOCIETY OF JESUS 
 
 and no hope of recovering its expropriated churches 
 and colleges. 
 
 The wholesale withdrawal of the educational staffs 
 will explain the collegiate wrecks in France, Italy and 
 Belgium. Even the buildings which had been con- 
 / verted into hospitals were uninhabitable for some 
 time after the cessation of hostilities. In the mis¬ 
 sions the effects of the upheaval were also felt severely. 
 Thus the French Jesuits had to leave their posts 
 in Alexandria, Aleppo, Damascus, and elsewhere, 
 for the Turks were on the German side in 
 the fight. Even the great • university of Beyrut 
 closed its doors and in the Bombay district of India 
 the English Government objected to the presence 
 of the German Jesuits who had labored there for 
 years. An attempt was made by their American 
 brethren to fill their places, but the necessary per¬ 
 mission was so long delayed by the Government, 
 that the Americans went to the Philippines instead, 
 while the already overworked Belgian Jesuits of 
 Calcutta did their best to fill the gaps in Bombay. 
 
 During the war the colleges of Budapest and 
 Kalocsa in Hungary suffered from the alternate vic¬ 
 tories and defeats of the Austrians and Russians, but 
 their lot was still worse when after the war the Bol- 
 sheviki invaded and wrecked the houses, sent their 
 inmates adrift or to jail, after ordering them to write 
 down a declaration of their withdrawal from the 
 Society. Poland also had a hard experience during 
 the Russian and Ruthenian conflict. 
 
 At the beginning of hostilities it was thought pru¬ 
 dent for the Father General and his Assistants, on 
 account of their complex nationality, to withdraw 
 from Rome for the time being. The General sought 
 the seclusion of Ziziers in Switzerland, but as the 
 Jesuits are not alllowed in this little country permis¬ 
 sion was granted only on condition of their living in 
 strict privacy, and even that concession could not 
 have been obtained had not the President of the Re¬ 
 public happened to be a Catholic. At the close of 
 the war they returned to Rome. 
 
 The emergence of new nationalities in Europe as a 
 result of the struggle, necessarily called for a read¬ 
 justment of the racial and national units in the 
 Society, independently of other reasons, such as the 
 size of some of the provinces. These new provinces 
 were variously grouped under the larger sections of the 
 Italian, German, Spanish, French, English and 
 American Assistancies. Of these Assistancies the 
 Italian is numerically the weakest. In 1921 it had 
 only 1415 members as against 4229 in the Spanish 
 and 4359 in the German Assistancy. Not only did 
 it gain nothing by this new arrangement, but it lost 
 149 who were transferred to the American division. 
 
 The Italian group includes the Roman, Neapolitan, 
 Sicilian, Venetian and Turin Provinces. The Roman 
 had its Gregorian University and Biblical Institute, 
 but both were badly crippled during the war. Its 
 novitiate also at Castel Gondolfo had only a very 
 limited number of novices and juniors; there was no 
 tertianship, and its theological students had dwindled 
 to nineteen theologians. No philosophers appeared 
 on the lists. The explanation of this wreck is given 
 by the constantly recurring phrase in the catalogue 
 militiavi agit, “he is in the army." Even of the 
 nineteen theologians nine are so labelled. All of the 
 philosophers had been drafted. On the whole the 
 Roman Province furnished 18 priests, 41 scholastics 
 and 14 lay brothers to the combatants. Similar 
 conditions prevailed in the Venetian section. Scho¬ 
 lastics and novices were housed in the same build¬ 
 ing as well they might be, for 18 philosophers, 10 
 juniors, 2 novices and G lay brothers were under the 
 colors. Turin had only 2 theologians, 7 philosophers, 
 6 juniors and 12 novices, all of whom lived in one 
 house at Chieri. There were 12 priests, 30 scholastics 
 
 and 12 lay brothers with the troops. Sicily had col¬ 
 leges at Messina, Catania and Malta but as 17 of its 
 priests and 11 of its scholastics were in camp the 
 colleges were in a moribund state. Finally, Naples 
 had to furnish the army with 59 Jesuits, leaving in the 
 scholasticate only 7 theologians and no philosophers, 
 while its novitiate counted only 6 scholastics and 5 
 lay brothers. The entire membership of its province 
 amounted to only 340. 
 
 Prior to the war the German Assistancy was 
 composed of the Provinces of Austria, Belgium, 
 Galicia, Germany and Holland. The enormous 
 size of both Germany and Belgium, as well as the 
 appearance of new nations, compelled another ar¬ 
 rangement, so that the German Assistancy is now 
 made up of the Provinces of Austria, Belgium, Czecho¬ 
 slovakia, South Germany, North Germany, Hungary, 
 Holland, Jugoslavia and Poland. 
 
 Austria has 3 colleges, a scholasticate, a novitiate, 
 a professed house, and 6 residences with a member¬ 
 ship of 359. Belgium has 13 colleges, 8 residences, 2 
 novitiates, a scholasticate, an apostolic school, 2 
 houses for retreats, and 1291 members. The 
 bilingual difficulty which is at present an acute 
 political issue prevents the division of Belgium into 
 two or three provinces. The Province of Germany, 
 however, has been cut in two: Lower and Upper 
 Germany; the former with 2 colleges, a house of 
 retreats, a house of writers, a novitiate, a scholas¬ 
 ticate, and 12 residences; the latter with a college, a 
 house of writers, a novitiate and 2 residences. The 
 partition of the personnel is 649 for the lower and 
 634 for the upper section. As the German Jesuits are 
 now allowed back in their country, from which they 
 had been exiled ever since the time of the Kulturkampf, 
 new changes must necessarily occur. Hungary, which 
 was formerly part of Austria, has a novitiate, 2 resi¬ 
 dences, 1 college and 2 which are as yet incohate. 
 The membership of the new province is 196. The 
 vice-province of Czechoslovakia counts only 164 
 members, but has 4 colleges, a novitiate and 4 resi¬ 
 dences. The vice-province of Jugoslavia counts only 
 117 on its register. It has a novitiate, a seminary, 
 2 colleges and 2 residences. Holland comprises 4 
 colleges, a scholasticate, a house of retreats, a novitiate 
 and 8 residences. The membership is 587. Finally 
 Poland has a scholasticate, a novitiate and tertian- 
 ship and 15 residences, and 464 members. 
 
 As Waldeck Rousseau’s Association Laws of 1901- 
 04 had robbed the Society of all its property in France 
 we find a continual recurrence in all the catalogues of 
 the words collegia dispersa , residentia dispersa, which 
 means that some of the members of the extinct es¬ 
 tablishment are living here and there in rented houses, 
 writing, preaching or teaching wherever the oppor¬ 
 tunity presents itself. Hence the Jesuit conscripts 
 returning to civil life after winning great glory for 
 their country have nowhere to go except to these 
 restricted quarters, for they find that much of the 
 old anti-clerical spirit is still in France and there is 
 little if any hope of recovering the expropriated col¬ 
 leges and churches. Three of the French provincials 
 are still living outside of France. The Province of 
 France numbers 732 against 700 in Champagne. 
 It has a college at Canterbury, which is likewise a 
 juniorate. Its scholasticate is on the Isle of Jersey. 
 Lyons also finds shelter for its scholastics at Hastings, 
 England, but it has continued to have a tertianship 
 at Paray-le-Monial and an Apostolic School at 
 Thonon. Like the other two provinces Lyons is 
 wrecked. Counting those at home and on the mis¬ 
 sions its members run up to 681. 
 
 Until recently the Spanish Assistancy consisted of 
 the Provinces of Aragon, Castile, Toledo, the dis¬ 
 persed Province of Mexico and Portugal. A new 
 province has now been added in the mother country, 
 
SOCORRO 
 
 696 
 
 SOLIMOES ALTO 
 
 which is known as Leon, which has 521 members, be¬ 
 sides another in Spanish America called the Argentine- 
 Chile Province, already with 396 members. Even 
 Mexico has 327, and has found entrance into 
 Chihuahua, Guatemala, Nicaragua and San Salvador. 
 Argentine-Chile has a novitiate besides 3 seminaries, 
 5 colleges with a sixth just beginning, and five 
 residences. Since the revolution the Portuguese 
 province has ceased to exist in Europe. 
 
 The English Assistancy has undergone no change, 
 but in the American, New England has been severed 
 from the Maryland-New York Province and is in 
 process of adjustment. The Provinces of California 
 and New Orleans have also been established. 
 
 Substantially all the provinces have foreign mis¬ 
 sions, in Europe, Asia, Africa and America. They 
 are in Alaska, Central and Southern Africa, Ceylon, 
 China, Japan, India, Egypt, Syria, Turkey and else¬ 
 where, among Moslems and pagans, semi-civilized, 
 or utter barbarians and degraded savages. One of 
 the most interesting of them all is perhaps that of the 
 lepers, four or five thousand of whom are being cared 
 for by 20 Jesuits in India, Madagascar, the Philip¬ 
 pines, Java, Ceylon, Colombia, Ecuador, the Lesser 
 Antilles, Jamaica and even in Spain. 
 
 . In 1921, the Society had 17,540 members, of whom 
 8586 are priests, 4957 scholastics, and 3997 lay 
 brothers. It is divided into 31 provinces grouped 
 into 6 assistancies. The Superior General is the 
 Very Reverend Father Wladimir Ledochowski. 
 
 Socorro, Diocese of (de Succursu; cf. C. E., 
 XIV—118c), in Colombia, suffragan of Bogota. 
 Mgr. Antonio Vicente Arenas, b. at Zapatoca in 
 1862, was vicar general when he was elected at the 
 consistory of 28 May, 1914, in succession to Bishop 
 Toro, transferred to Santa Marta and now bishop 
 of Antioquia (q.v.). The diocese has 230,000 in¬ 
 habitants, 50 parishes, 2 congregations of men and 
 3 of women. A diocesan seminary was established 
 in 1919. 
 
 Sofia and Philippopolis, Vicariate Apostolic of.— 
 The present vicar apostolic is Rt. Rev. Vincent Pejov, 
 O. M. Cap., who succeeded as vicar Robert Menini 
 (d. 14 Oct., 1916), titular Archbishop of Gangra, 
 whose administration of the vicariate was one of 
 prudence and wisdom and resulted in the founding 
 of many Catholic works. The Balkan war of 1912- 
 13, which involved the vicariate, was followed shortly 
 by the World War of 1914-18, in which 3priests served 
 as chaplains. The Catholic population of 19,000 
 is largely Bulgarian, formerly followers of the Paul- 
 ician sect, but converted to Catholicism by the 
 Franciscan Fathers. In the cities of the vicariate, 
 especially Sofia, the Catholic population is partly 
 foreign. There are 20 secular and 37 regular priests 
 and 18 lay brothers; 13 parishes and 29 churches; 2 
 convents for men and 7 for women; 2 colleges for boys 
 with 30 teachers and 800 students, and 3 for girls 
 with 34 teachers and 900 students; 2 elementary 
 schools with 8 teachers and 300 students; 2 asylums; 
 2 hospitals, and 4 religious asociations among the 
 laity. The government does not contribute to the 
 support of the Catholic institutions 
 
 Soissons, Diocese of (Suessionensis; cf. C. E., 
 XIV—130c), in France, suffragan of Reims. In 
 1920 occurred the death of the Rt. Rev. Pierre- 
 Louis Pechenard, who had administered the diocese 
 since 1907. He reorganized the diocese after the 
 law of Separation had become effective and was 
 active in restoring the churches which had been de¬ 
 stroyed during the war. His successor is the Rt. 
 Rev. Henri-Joseph Binet, b. at Juvigny 8 April, 
 1869, ordained at Soissons 22 Oct., 1893. ' He joined 
 the army and was decorated with the Legion of Honor, 
 
 was vicar general and archdeacon of Laon, elected 
 16 June, 1920, took possession of the see 31 July, 
 consecrated 24 August and published 16 Dec. follow¬ 
 ing. During the war three-quarters of the diocese 
 was laid waste by the fierce battles which raged on the 
 Aisne front and the continuous fighting which lasted 
 from May to November, 1918. More than 200 
 churches were completely demolished and 300 were 
 badly damaged. In many places Mass was cele¬ 
 brated in the chapels of the barracks. Eighty of the 
 clergy were cited in orders of the day, the present 
 bishop and four priests were decorated with the 
 Legion of Honor and several others received the 
 military medal. Immediately after the armistice 
 the priests returned to the devastated regions and cour¬ 
 ageously began the work of restoration. In nearly 
 all the districts the Union Sacree continued; the 
 clergy were invited to bless the flags of the former 
 combatants and the monuments which were erected 
 to the dead soldiers. The following persons of note 
 have died since 1912: M. Hurier de Crecy-sur-Serre, 
 an ardent champion of Catholicism; Mme. Hugues 
 de St. Quentin, who was made a chevalier of the 
 Legion of Honor. With great devotion and zeal she 
 helped to restore the homes of the devastated region 
 of St. Quentin. She died in 1921. According to the 
 statistics of 1922 the diocese contains 578 parishes, 
 869 churches, 8 convents for women, 488 secular 
 priests, 1200 Sisters, 2 seminaries and 95 seminarians. 
 Schools existing in the diocese are: 14 high schools, 
 130 teachers (550 boys, 1000 girls), 35 elementary 
 schools, 100 teachers (1600 pupils). The schools' 
 are not supported by the Government. The follow¬ 
 ing institutions exist in the diocese: 2 homes, 4 
 asylums, 2 hospitals, 1 settlement house, 10 nurseries. 
 One Catholic paper is published in the diocese. The 
 following organizations exist among the clergy: 
 Mutual Aid Society, Relief Fund. Among the laity: 
 
 6 Conferences of St. Vincent de Paul, 1 Mutual Aid 
 Association, 30 societies for young men and women, 
 4000 branches of the Patriotic League of France. 
 
 Solicitation, (cf. C. E., XIV—134d)Any con¬ 
 fessor found guilty of the crime of solicitation is to 
 be suspended from saying Mass and hearing sacra¬ 
 mental confessions, and may even be declared unable 
 to exercise again the function of confessor because of 
 the gravity of his offence; he is to be deprived of all 
 benefices, dignities and the right of active or passive 
 voice and to be declared incapable of again acquiring 
 these privileges; in a very grave case he might also 
 be canonically degraded. If anyone personally or 
 through another lays a false accusation of the crime 
 of solicitation against a confessor before his superiors 
 he incurs ipso facto excommunication specially re¬ 
 served to the Holy See, from which he cannot be 
 absolved in any case unless he has formally retracted 
 his calumny and repaired the wrong he has done as 
 far as possible, and has been given a severe long 
 penance. False accusation is a sin reserved to the 
 Holy See on its own account, the only instance in 
 canon law of such a reservation; for in any other case 
 when a crime is punished by a censure reserved to t he 
 pope the sin is reserved only in virtue of the censure. 
 
 Slater in Eccl . Rev ., LIX (Philadelphia, 1918), 458-63; 
 Gearin, ibid ., LX, 61-9. 
 
 Solimoes Alto, Prefecture Apostolic of 
 (Solimoes superioris; cf. C. E., XIV—135), in 
 Brazil, is bounded by the Vicariate of Llanos de San 
 Martin, and the prefectures of Rio Negro, Teffe, 
 Ucayali, and Sao Leon des Amazones. It is confided 
 to the Capuchins of the Seraphic Province (Italy), 
 and is divided into 4 large parishes, Sao Paolo de 
 Olivenca, Remate de Males, Tonantins, and Urutuba, 
 which are intersected by numerous rivers and are 
 peopled by a civilized and an uncivilized populace. 
 
SOLOMON ISLANDS 
 
 697 
 
 SONDA ISLANDS 
 
 Since 1910 the mission has lost 3 of its zealous workers: 
 Frei Jucunds of Soliera, Frei Agatangelo of .Spoleto 
 and Frei Julio of Nova, whose deaths at the early 
 ages of 42, 27, and 25 respectively were due to the 
 hardships of such an undeveloped mission and the 
 severity of the climate. The Fathers are supported 
 entirely by alms from Propaganda and different 
 societies in Europe. The mission statistics for 1922 
 record: 20,000 Catholics; 4 parishes; 2 churches and 
 12 chapels; 6 Capuchin Fathers and 1 lay brother; 
 2 Catholic associations or circles; 1 high school with 
 20 pupils; 2 primary schools with 30 pupils. The 
 government does not contribute to the support of 
 these schools. The first and present prefect apostolic 
 is Frei Evangelist, b. at Cefalonia, Italy, on 5 Maye 
 1882, entered the Capuchins in 1898, and was mad, 
 superior of the mission and prefect apostolic in 
 September, 1910. He resides at Tonantins. 
 
 Solomon Islands, Northern, Prefecture Apos¬ 
 tolic of (Insularum Salomonicarum; cf. C. E., 
 XIY—138a), comprises (1) the islands of Choiseul 
 and Shortland in the British Protectorate, the island 
 of Isabel being since 1912 included in the Vicariate 
 Apostolic of the Southern Solomon Islands; (2) the 
 late German islands of Bougainville, Buka and other 
 small islands presumably under the Australian 
 administration and included politically in the New 
 Guinea territory. The first prefect apostolic, Mgr. 
 Joseph Forestier, appointed in 1898, died 3 May, 
 1918, after a humble hidden life of suffering and 
 sacrifices, in realization of his motto, “Good makes 
 no noise, noise does no good.” He had spent eighteen 
 years in the Solomon Islands, having previously 
 labored in Samoa for fifteen. The present vicar is 
 Rt. Rev. Maurice Boch, S. M., elected 18 May, 1920, 
 who makes his residence at Poporag on Shortland. 
 Malaria, black-water fever and dysentery are prev¬ 
 alent in these islands and all the missionaries who 
 came to establish the mission in 1898 have been 
 carried off by disease. The sanitary conditions are 
 now improving owing to the clearing of land and 
 drainage of swamps. The missionaries’ chief diffi¬ 
 culty is the learning of native languages and dialects, 
 which are numerous and difficult. 
 
 The native Catholic population in 1922 is 3024, but 
 there are only eight Catholics among the white 
 population, which consists chiefly of government 
 officials and plantation overseers. There are 2 
 churches, 8 districts, 11 stations, 14 regular priests 
 (Marists), 8 Sisters, 2 lay brothers, 3000 catechumens, 
 6 training schools for catechists, with 80 .students, 
 16 elementary schools with 809 pupils taught by 
 9 priests and 7 Sisters, 1 industrial school with 20 
 pupils, 8 orphanages in connection with the Sisters’ 
 schools, 9 dispensaries. Among the clergy the Apostle- 
 ship of Prayer, the Association of Priests Adorers, 
 the League of Priestly Holiness, and the St. Joseph 
 Association for the Agonizing have been organized, 
 and among the laity the Apostleship of Prayer and 
 the Confraternity of Mount Carmel. 
 
 On 30 December, 1914, occured the death of Rev. 
 Joseph Bertet, S.M., a victim of his zeal in evangeliz¬ 
 ing Choiseul. He was only 29 and had been only 
 two years on the mission. Rev. Charles Flaus, S.M., d. 
 29 December, 1920, at Rockhampton, Queensland, 
 of disease contracted during his 10 years of apostolate. 
 He had been one of the founders of this mission, to 
 which he came from Fiji, where he had spent seven 
 years and was sent to Germany to found a house of 
 missionaries at Meppen in Hanover. After five years 
 he returned to the Solomon Islands in 1905, to resume 
 his labors, but his strength failed and he had to go 
 to Australia where he continued his work for souls. 
 
 On 10 December, 1914, an Australian fleet arrived 
 at Rieka to take possession of Bougainville, an island 
 
 attached by Germany to its former colony of the 
 Bismarck archipelago. The boundary which cut this 
 prefecture in two remains. From being Anglo- 
 German it has become Anglo-Australian, politics not 
 having taken into account the real geographical situa¬ 
 tion or the new boundary which it makes necessary. 
 
 Solomon Islands, Southern, Vicariate Apos¬ 
 tolic of; (cf. C. E., XIV—138b).—By a decree of 
 Rome, dated 1 June, 1912, the Prefecture Apostolic of 
 the Southern Solomon Islands was erected as a Vica¬ 
 riate Apostolic with new boundaries including, Ysabel, 
 New Georgia, Guadalcanar, Florida, Malaita, San 
 Christoval, Santa Cruz and adjacent islands. A 
 brief dated 2 June, 1912, appointed Rev. J. M. E. 
 Bertreux, S. M., Vicar Apostolic of the new Vicariate 
 and titular Bishop of Musti. He was consecrated 
 at Nantes, France, 28 Oct., 1912. Bishop Bertreux 
 died *at Rua Sura 4 Jan., 1919. His successor 
 is the Rt. Rev. Louis Marie Rancaz of the Marist 
 Congregation and titular Bishop of Telepte. He 
 was b. at Verrons-Arvey, 1 Feb., 1879, professed 
 15 June, 1902, left for the Solomon Islands 6 Sept., 
 1903, elected bishop 13 July, 1920; named Vicar 
 Apostolic of the Southern Solomon Islands, 15 July, 
 1920, consecrated at Sydney 27 Dec., 1920, and 
 published 16 Dec., following. In spite of the death 
 of several priests and Sisters of the mission, victims 
 of the unhealthy climate of these islands, much pro¬ 
 gress has been made in evangelizing the natives, es¬ 
 pecially those of the islands of Guadalcanar, San 
 Christoval and Malaita. At the end of the year 
 1921 the mission comprised: 12 Marist Fathers, 3 
 lay brothers, 12 nuns of the Third Order of Mary, 
 8 churches, 109 chapels, 8 schools for boys (410 
 pupils) 5 schools for girls (276 pupils). The Catholics 
 number 3866, neophytes 2275. 
 
 Solsona, Diocese of (Celsonensis; cf. C. E., 
 XIV—138), in Lerida, Spain, suffragan of Tarragona, 
 is governed by Mgr. Valentin Cornelias y Santamana 
 as Apostolic Administrator. Mgr. Cornelias, who suc¬ 
 ceeded Bishop Benlloch y Vidal (raised to the 
 cardinalate 7 March, 1921), on 18 December, 1919, 
 was b. at Caserras, in the Diocese of Solsona on 5 
 June, 1861. The dipcesan statistics for 1921 record 
 150 parishes; 480 churches, chapels and oratories; 1 
 seminary with 98 seminarians; 1 home for the aged; 
 10 hospitals; 12 parish magazines, 1 official ecclesias¬ 
 tical bulletin, 8 Catholic weeklies. Only the Gov¬ 
 ernment schools receive State aid, but they are 
 entirely Catholic, as are the inhabitants. The fol¬ 
 lowing are the religious institutes not already men¬ 
 tioned in C. E., loc. cit.: men, Franciscans (Berga); 
 Brothers of the Christian Schools (Berga and Mol- 
 lerusu); Dominicans (Apostolic School, Solsona); 
 Capuchins (Tarrega); women, Pious Institute of 
 Charity; Sisters of the Blessed Virgin; Josephines 
 (Cardoza); Franciscan Tertiaries of the Sacred 
 Hearts of Jesus and Mary (Villanova; Miralcamp); 
 Servants of the Passion (Polla de Lillet); in all 46 
 religious houses, with 438 religious, of whom 198 are 
 Sisters. 
 
 Sonda Islands, Prefecture Apostolic of 
 (Insularum Sund^ Minorum), in Oceania, was 
 erected 16 September, 1913, and entrusted to the 
 Fathers of the Divine Word. Rev. Peter Noyen 
 of that congregation is the first prefect. The statis¬ 
 tics for 1920 report 45,700 Catholics, served by 24 
 Fathers of the Divine Word, 15 lay brothers, 4 
 Jesuit Fathers, 6 lay brothers, 17 Franciscan Sisters 
 from Heijthuizen, Holland, 6 Sisters Servants of the 
 Holy Ghost from Uden, 64 Catholic schools with 
 5978 boys and 4308 girls. The residence is at 
 Lavantocka, island of Flores. 
 
SONORA 
 
 698 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA 
 
 Sonora, Diocese of (de Sonora; cf. C. E. 
 XIV—145), in Mexico, suffragan of Durango, is 
 governed by Mgr. Juan Navarette, b. in Oaxaca on 
 12 August, 1886; graduated doctor of theology, phil¬ 
 osophy, canon and civil law at Rome; driven into 
 exile during the Revolution; appointed to the see on 13 
 January, 1919, and consecrated at Aguascalientes on 8 
 June following. He succeeded Mgr. Valdespino y 
 Diaz, who was transferred to Aguascalientes on 10 
 January, 1913. As one might naturally construe from 
 the lengthy episcopal vacancy, the diocese suffered 
 very severely during the Mexican Civil wars, and 
 from the activity of the sectaries. The population, 
 however, is practically all Catholic and besides 
 Spanish Mexicans, includes creoles, mestizos and 
 Indians. The latest diocesan statistics report 28 
 parishes, 85 churches or chapels, 19 secular priests, 5 
 seminarians, 25 Sisters, 1 boys’ college, 5 girls’ col¬ 
 leges with 25 teachers and 500 students. There is a 
 Catholic propaganda sheet with a circulation of 
 30,000. 
 
 Sons of Saint Joseph. See Saint Joseph, Sons of 
 
 Sontag, James. See Mission, Congregation of the 
 
 Sorrento, Archdiocese of (Surrentinensis; 
 cf. C. E. XIV—151h), in the province of Naples, 
 Southern Italy. Most Rev. Giuseppe Giustiniani, 
 who had succeeded to the see in 1886, died 6 July, 
 1917, and was succeeded by the present incumbent 
 Most Rev. Paolo lacuzio, b. at Forino, 1862, elected 
 bishop of Capaccio in 1900, promoted 9 July, 1917. 
 From January to April, 1918, he was apostolic ad¬ 
 ministrator of Capaccio and was appointed to the 
 same office for Castellamare di Stabia 23 January, 
 1920. The statistics for 1920 give a Catholic popu¬ 
 lation of 55,900 divided into 36 parishes and served 
 by 266 secular and 34 regular priests. There are 16 
 seminarians, 197 Sisters, 235 churches and chapels. 
 On 10 December, 1914, the church of St. Michael at 
 Piano was made a minor basilica. 
 
 Sorrowful Mother, Sisters of the, a community 
 with mother-house in Rome, founded in 1883, by 
 Mother Mary Frances Streitel who was also the 
 first mother general. In 1889 the Sisters came to 
 America where they devoted their lives to the 
 education of children and the care of the sick. The 
 American novitiate is at Marshfield, Wis., where 
 ample means are provided to prepare the Sisters 
 for their profession as teachers and nurses. The 
 congregation numbers 300 Sisters, 6 novices, and 6 
 postulants. They are represented in the Archdio¬ 
 cese of Santa Fe and the Dioceses of Green Bay, 
 La Crosse, Newark, Oklahoma City, Superior, 
 Wichita, and Winona. They have charge of the 
 following institutions: 1 sanitarium; 10 hospitals; 
 
 1 orphanage, and 5 schools. Their rules have been 
 approved by the Holy See. 
 
 South Carolina (cf. C. E., XIV—157b).—The 
 area of the State is 30,989 square miles. In 1920 the 
 population was 1,683,724, an increase of 11.1% 
 since 1910. Of this, 17.5 was urban; 82,5 was rural. 
 The average number of persons to the square mile is 
 55.2 as against 49.7 in 1910. Since 1910 three new 
 counties have been organized from parts of six others. 
 South Carolina has 15 cities of which Charleston, 
 with a population of 67,957, is the largest. The 
 others include: Columbia, 37,524; Spartanburg, 
 22,638; Greenville, 23,127. The negro population 
 exceeds the white population, the whites numbering 
 818,538; the negroes 864,719, but the percentage of 
 negroes is decreasing, 55.2% in 1910, 51.4% in 
 1920. Allendale (77.6%), Beaufort (78.4%), Fair- 
 field (76.1%), Counties have there gatest percentage 
 
 of negroes. Of the population ten years and over 
 220,667 (18.1%) were illiterate. Among the native 
 whites, the illiterates numbered 38,639; among the 
 foreign-born whites 391; among the negroes, 181,422 
 The illiterate white males of voting age numbered 
 17,385; the illiterate white females, 15,988; the illite¬ 
 rate male negroes, 69,185; female negroes, 76,842. 
 
 Economic Status. —According to the census of 
 manufactures taken in 1919, there are 2004 establish¬ 
 ments, with an average of 79,400 wage earners, a 
 capital of $374,538,000, products worth $381,454,000. 
 
 Agriculture is more than holding its own in the 
 State, the number of farms in 1920 being 192,693, 
 an increase of 9.2% since 1910. The value of all 
 farm property was $953,064, of live stock, $91,518; 
 of all crops, $437,121,837. The chief crops were 
 oats, 3,597,835 bushels, valued at $4,317,400; corn, 
 27,472,013 bushels, $54,944,026; wheat, 630,911 
 bushels, $1,634,062; rye, 50,342 bushels, $143,477. 
 More than one fourth of the land is devoted to cotton, 
 South Carolina being the third State in the produc¬ 
 tion of cotton, producing 1,476,645 bales, valued at 
 $259,889,520. Tobacco is also extensively grown, 
 71,193,072 pounds, worth $23,493,714 in 1919. 
 
 In 1919 there were 75 national banks with a capital 
 of $96,757,000; 342 state banks wdth a capital of 
 $14,820,000, and 28 savings banks with a capital of 
 $9,697,647. On 1 January, 1920, the State debt 
 amounted to $5,382,059; the assessed value of real 
 property $207,829,170; of personal property $152,- 
 670,741. The railroad mileage is 3824. Recent 
 improvements to the Savannah River have made it 
 navigable for over 200 miles from Savannah to Augusta, 
 Ga. Charleston, with its fine harbor, is a great 
 commercial port, its imports in 1919, being $2,618, 
 869, exports, $21,407,596. 
 
 Education. —Private and parochial schools must 
 give their instruction in the English language. There 
 shall be exempt from taxation all schools, colleges, and 
 institutions of learning, except where the profits are 
 applied to private uses; provided, that as to real estate, 
 the exemption shall not extend beyond the buildings 
 and premises actually occupied. Private schools 
 shall report to county superintendent relative to 
 enrollment, attendance, teachers, grade, and amount 
 of work. Persons in charge of private educational 
 institutions shall make such statistical reports to 
 state superintendent as he may require. Private 
 school to be lawfully attended by children of compul¬ 
 sory school age must be approved by the State Board. 
 Among the laws passed in 1920 was an act encouraging 
 teaching of agriculture, industry, and domestic 
 science in the public schools. A State Board of cor¬ 
 rectional administration was established in 1918 and 
 under its control were placed the South Carolina 
 industrial School and the State Reformatory for 
 Negro Boys and the new State Industrial School for 
 Girls. In the same year a State Training School 
 for the Feeble-Minded was opened. In 1919 an 
 equalization fund for needy schools was provided by 
 the state, guaranteeing a minimum school term of 
 7 months in any school district voting an 8 mill tax. 
 Provision was made for improvement of school 
 conditions in industrial centres. School attendance 
 is compulsory for children between the ages of eight 
 and fourteen, for four months, l the year, or during 
 the school term, if it is shorter than four months. 
 Bible reading in the public schools is neither permitted 
 nor excluded. 
 
 In 1920 there were in the State 2332 schools for 
 white children employing 753 men teachers, and 
 5646 women and teaching 226,065 whites, with an 
 average attendance of 153,511. For negro children, 
 there are 2502 public schools employing 670 men and 
 2630 women, teaching 251,980 pupils with an average 
 attendance of 177,940. The tota. revenue of both 
 
SOUTH DAKOTA 
 
 099 
 
 SOUTH DAKOTA 
 
 white and negro schools was $7,659,536.10 out of 
 which was expended $5,894,917.43 for whites and 
 $765,481.75 for negroes. The State per capita ex¬ 
 penditure in 1920 was $26.08 for whites, $3.04 for 
 negroes, $13.94 average for both races. There are 
 26 institutions of higher learning for whites and 10 
 for negroes. Of the 26 institutions for whites, 8 are 
 non-sectarian and receive a total state support of 
 $1,067,935.71; 7 are Presbyterian; 5 are Baptist; 
 3 are Methodist, and 3 are Lutheran. The Univer¬ 
 sity of South Carolina has 47 officers and faculty, 
 579 students, and a total income of $240,184.37; 
 Clemson Agricultural College has 170 officers and 
 teachers, 1014 students, and.an income of $388,422.- 
 57; The Winthrop Normal and Industrial College has 
 127 officers and an income of $680,798.49. 
 
 Religion. —The following statistics are taken from 
 the latest United States Census of Religious Denom¬ 
 inations: 
 
 Denominations 
 
 Churches 
 
 Ministers 
 
 Members 
 
 Baptist. 
 
 2,405 
 
 381 
 
 416,341 
 
 Methodist Episcopalians 
 Colored, South. 
 
 807 
 
 82 
 
 105,306 
 
 Presbyterian. 
 
 407 
 
 144 
 
 38,284 
 
 Lutheran. 
 
 103 
 
 44 
 
 14,788 
 
 Episcopal. 
 
 114 
 
 84 
 
 11,000 
 
 Universalist. 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 146 
 
 Congregational. 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 501 
 
 A. R. Presbyterian. 
 
 40 
 
 27 
 
 4,923 
 
 Catholic. 
 
 32 
 
 16 
 
 9,514 
 
 For further religious and educational statistics, see 
 Charleston, Diocese of. 
 
 Recent Legislation and History. —During the 
 governorship of Coleman L. Blease (1911-15) several 
 conflicts took place between the executive and the 
 judiciary and legislature. Governor Blease clashed 
 with the State Supreme Court over judicial appoint¬ 
 ments, refusing to commission any appointees except 
 his personal friends. He exercised his veto to an 
 extraordinary degree, vetoing more bills in his term 
 of office than his predecessors had in twenty years. 
 He pardoned so many convicts that the prison popula¬ 
 tion was depleted. He was nevertheless re-elected 
 in 1912 and the following year revoked the com¬ 
 missions of notaries public, state constables and 
 officers in the State. On 11 January, 1915, he dis¬ 
 banded the organized militia of the State and resigned 
 the following day. His successor revoked the order 
 of disbandment. Marriage licences were required 
 by law in 1911, and regulations made for their in¬ 
 surance. In 1912 electrocution was provided as a 
 means of capital punishment. South Carolina voted 
 for prohibition in 1915; in 1920 free tuition in the 
 State institutions was given to ex-soldiers. 
 
 During the European War South Carolina contrib¬ 
 uted 53,482 soldiers or 1.42% of the United States 
 Army. The South Carolina members of the National 
 Guard joined the 30th Division at Camp Sevier, 
 South Carolina, and those of the National Army, 
 the 81st Division at Camp Jackson, South Carolina. 
 The summar^y of casualties among the South Carolina 
 members of the American Expeditionary Force is as 
 follows: deceased, 50 officers, 1088 men; prisoners, 
 2 officers, 14 men; wounded, 162 officers, 2603 men. 
 
 South Dakota (cf. C. E., XIV—160d).—The area 
 of the State is 77,615 square miles. In 1920 the 
 population was 636,547, an increase of 9 per cent 
 since 1910. Of this, 16% was urban; 84% was 
 rural. The average number of inhabitants to the 
 square mile is 8.3 as against 7.6 in 1910 and 5.2 in 
 1900. South Dakota has 68 counties, 4 of which are 
 unorganized. Since 1910 four new counties have 
 been organized from 3 unorganized counties and parts 
 of 2 organized counties. The largest cities are: 
 
 Sioux Falls, 25,202; Aberdeen, 14,537; Watertown, 
 9400. There are five Indian reservations, two of 
 which comprise the 4 unorganized counties of the 
 State. The native whites of native parentage num¬ 
 ber 308,598; of foreign parentage, 141,341; of mixed 
 parentage 86,817. The foreign born (82,391) came 
 chiefly from Norway (16,813), Russia (11,193), 
 Germany (15,674), Sweden (8573). There are also 
 16,384 Indians. Among the population ten years of 
 age and over (482,195), there are 8109 illiterates. 
 
 Economic Status. —The output of the farms of the 
 state for 1919 is as follows: corn 91,200,000 bushels, 
 worth $108,528,000; wheat 30,175,000 bushels, worth 
 $72,420,000; oats 53,650,000 bushels, worth $33,- 
 800,000; barley 19,250,000 bushels, worth $22,138,- 
 000; rye 6,500,000 bushels, worth $8,125,000; flax¬ 
 seed 1,160,000 bushels, worth $4,930,000; potatoes 
 4,450,000 bushels, worth $8,550,000; hay 1,158,000 
 tons, worth $21,033,000. 
 
 The number of farms is 74,637 (34,636,491 acres), 
 of which .1198 are irrigated. Agricultural products 
 shipped out of the state in 1918 returned $270,536,- 
 000. In 1917 the State produced gold to the value 
 of $7,364,233; lime, cement, and other minerals, also 
 stone, $973,443; mica, $11,008; in 1919 the value of 
 the gold produced fell to $5,267,600. 
 
 The latest census of manufactures gives the follow¬ 
 ing summary: establishments, 1414; persons engaged, 
 9034; capital, $30,933,630; salaries and wages, 
 $9,981,625; cost of materials, $42,985,870; value of 
 products, $62,170,582. The principal industries 
 ranked by the value of their products are: butter¬ 
 making, flour and grist mill products, bread and 
 other bakery products, printing, publishing, news¬ 
 papers and periodicals. The products of the cream¬ 
 eries were valued at $10,806,000; of the flour mills, 
 $8,873,000 
 
 The Constitution limits the bonded debt of the State 
 to $100,000 over and above the debt of the territory 
 of Dakota assumed by the State at its foundation. 
 The State at present has no bonded debt. The 
 assessed value of real and personal property in 1919 
 was $1,846,456,090; of moneys and credits, $110,- 
 876,049; of corporate property, $137,802,039. The 
 railroad mileage is 4278. 
 
 Education. —The laws governing private and paro¬ 
 chial schools are as follows: All private school in¬ 
 struction and all private instruction accepted in 
 lieu of public school instruction shall first be approved 
 by the county superintendent who shall exercise 
 supervision over such schools and such instruction 
 and shall exercise the right of visitation and inspec¬ 
 tion thereof and may revoke his approval of such 
 instruction at any time. Instruction shall be given 
 in all common schools of the State, both public and 
 private, in the English language only. Religion 
 shall be taught in English. No person shall be per¬ 
 mitted to teach in a private school any of the branches 
 to be taught in the public schools unless such person 
 shall hold a certificate entitling him to teach the same 
 branches in the public schools of the state. All 
 teachers in public and private schools must take oath 
 of allegiance. No public appropriation to aid any 
 sectarian school shall ever be made (VIII—16). 
 Branches to be taught in public and private schools 
 are: reading, writing, orthography, arithmetic, 
 primary language and English grammar, United 
 States and South Dakota history, physiology and 
 hygiene, civil government and drawing. Patriotic 
 instruction shall be given one hour each week. 
 School attendance is compulsory for all children be¬ 
 tween the ages of 8 and 16 for the entire school term 
 up to the 8th grade After a child reaches the sixth 
 grade, the period of attendance may be reduced to 
 16 continuous weeks. A child welfare commission 
 was established i n 1919. Free tuition is given to 
 
SOUTHWARK 
 
 700 
 
 SOVIET 
 
 war veterans in all state institutions. The popula¬ 
 tion of school age numbers 211,870, of whom 144,441 
 (68.2%) are attending school. 
 
 About one-third of the school lands has been sold 
 for the sum of $17,000,000 which returns an annual 
 revenue of interest and rentals of over a million dollars. 
 The expenditure for school purposes in 1920 was 
 $11,620,117. Elementary and secondary education 
 is free to all from 6 to 21 years of age. Between 
 the ages of 8 and 16 it is compulsory on all not 
 otherwise taught. In the 4749 elementary schools in 
 1920 there were 78,746 pupils and 4873 teachers; 
 421 secondary schools with 1018 teachers and 12,694 
 pupils. The government maintains three Indian 
 schools in the State at Flandreau, Rapid City, and 
 Pierre. There are four normal schools, a school of 
 mines, an agricultural college, and a university 
 (60 instructors and 961 students). The agricultural 
 college has 67 on its faculty and 1096 students (1918). 
 
 Religion. —The following figures are taken from the 
 United States Census of Religious Denominations 
 (1916). 
 
 Denominations 
 
 Members 
 
 Churches 
 
 Adventists. 
 
 1,046 
 
 25 
 
 Baptists. 
 
 8,852 
 
 90 
 
 Catholics.. 
 
 72,113 
 
 294 
 
 Congregationalists. 
 
 11,762 
 
 181 
 
 Disciples. 
 
 1,764 
 
 17 
 
 Evangelicals. 
 
 1,752 
 
 40 
 
 Friends. 
 
 192 
 
 3 
 
 German Evangelicals. 
 
 339 
 
 5 
 
 Independents. 
 
 236 
 
 5 
 
 Jews. 
 
 270 
 
 1 
 
 Lutherans. 
 
 52,035 
 
 478 
 
 Mennonites. 
 
 1,798 
 
 16 
 
 Methodists. 
 
 22,141 
 
 271 
 
 Presbyterians. 
 
 10,077 
 
 116 
 
 Protestant Episcopal Church. 
 
 8,156 
 
 119 
 
 Reform Bodies. 
 
 4,421 
 
 54 
 
 Salvation Army. 
 
 336 
 
 .... 
 
 Swedish Evangelical. 
 
 749 
 
 19 
 
 United Evangelical Church. 
 
 231 
 
 5 
 
 United Brethren. 
 
 260 
 
 7 
 
 All other denominations. 
 
 336 
 
 7 
 
 Total. 
 
 199,017 
 
 1,756 
 
 For Catholic statistics see Sioux Falls, Diocese • 
 of; Lead, Diocese of. 
 
 Recent Legislation and History. —In 1911 the 
 distribution of lands of the Sioux Indian Reservation 
 was begun at Gregory. There were 4000 homesteads 
 and 50,000 applicants. Provision was made for in¬ 
 determinate sentence for criminals, the length of the 
 sentence being determined by the Warden and Board 
 of Charities and Corrections. In 1912 the new 
 Richards Primary Law was adopted, so as to do away 
 with party elections. In 1916 State-wide prohibition 
 was adopted. In 1917 the office of State Sheriff was 
 created, the city manager plan of governing cities 
 approved, a Workmen’s Compensation Act adopted, 
 and a school survey provided for. The Federal 
 Suffrage Amendment was ratified on 4 December, 
 1919; the Prohibition Amendment on 20 March, 
 1918. In 1917 the South Dakota National Guard 
 was called into Federal Service and entrained at 
 Camp Greene, Charlotte, North Carolina. Accord¬ 
 ing to the figures prepared by General W. A. Morris, 
 South Dakota’s contribution of men was as follows: 
 voluntary enlistments, 10,268; selective draft, 21,517; 
 navy and marine, 1006. A total of 141,243 regis¬ 
 tered for the selective draft. South Dakota soldiers 
 went over with the first contingents sent across and 
 continued to go at intervals until November, 1918, 
 but as they were brigaded with no reference to states it 
 is impossible to follow units to any extent; the veteran 
 Fourth South Dakota, however, was chiefly appor¬ 
 tioned to the 146th, 147th, 148th Field Artillery, 
 went to France in December, 1917, and January, 
 
 1918, and rendered valiant service. The summary of 
 casualties of South Dakota men in the American 
 Expeditionary Force is as follows: deceased, 13 
 officers, 541 men; prisoners, 16 men; wounded, 43 
 officers, 1254 men. 
 
 Southwark, Diocese of (Southwarcensis; cf. 
 C. E., XIV—162d), suffragan of Westminster, Eng¬ 
 land. The present incumbent is the Rt. Rev. Peter 
 Emmanuel Amigo, who has administered the diocese 
 since 1904. The following clergymen and dis¬ 
 tinguished laymen have died since 1921: Canon 
 Thomas Scannell, joint author with Dr. Wilhelm of 
 a manual of Catholic Theology (Wilhelm and Scan¬ 
 nell). He revised the “Catholic Dictionary” and 
 prepared the new edition (1918); Canon Halloran, 
 who for sixty years was attached to the mission of 
 Our Lady Star of the Sea, at Greenwich, London, 
 S. E.; the Duke of Norfolk, well known for his 
 munificent generosity to the Church and for his 
 interest in and support of Catholicity. In 1918, 
 twenty-four of the secular clergy of the diocese 
 were serving as chaplains in the army and navy. 
 Rt. Rev. Anthony Alphonse De Wachter, auxiliary 
 to Cardinal Mercier, was charged with the spiritual 
 interests of the Belgian war refugees. He resided at 
 the bishop’s house during the four and a half years 
 of his stay in England, the episcopal residence being 
 placed unreservedly at his disposal and made the 
 headquarters for his work. As the diocese of South¬ 
 wark was the nearest to the seat of war, many hos¬ 
 pitals were opened there which were faithfully at¬ 
 tended by the priests of the diocese. In 1921 the 
 diocese contained 674 parishes, 158 churches, 150 
 private chapels, 70 stations, 37 religious houses for 
 men, 142 for women, 280 secular priests, 257 regulars, 
 9 homes for lay brothers, 1 seminary with 100 sem¬ 
 inarians. The following colleges and schools exist 
 in the diocese: 17 colleges for men, 200 teachers; 
 64 colleges for women, 500 teachers; 2719 boys and 
 7059 girls attend the various high schools; 94 elemen¬ 
 tary schools, 22,757 pupils; 2 industrial schools, 14 
 teachers; 20 Poor Law Schools. Elementary chools 
 as well as Poor Law, industrial and reformatory 
 schools receive Government appropriations. Charita¬ 
 ble institutions in the diocese are: 3 homes, 5 hos¬ 
 pitals, 2 refuges, 3 settlement houses, all of which 
 admit the ministry of priests. The Catholic popula¬ 
 tion of the diocese numbers 160,000. The Catholic 
 paper of the diocese is called the “Southwark Record.” 
 The following socieites have been established for the 
 priests: the Apostolic Union and the Priests’ Euchar¬ 
 istic League. There are nine societies for the laity. 
 
 Sovana and Pitigliano, Diocese of (Soanensis 
 Pitilianensis; cf. C. E., XIV—165b), in the pro¬ 
 vince of Grosseto, Central Italy, suffragan of Siena, 
 with the residence at Pitigliano. Mgr. Riccardo 
 Carlesi, b. at Prato in 1869, came to the see 8 July, 
 1916, in succession to Bishop Cardella, who governed 
 it from 1896 and died 6 February, 1916. The 
 Catholic population numbers 38,500. There are 48 
 parishes, and 78 churches and chapels served by 96 
 secular and 10 regular priests, 8 Brothers and 23 
 Sisters. 
 
 Soviet —The word is derived from the Russian, 
 meaning Council. In the modern sense it is used 
 to describe a form of revolutionary organization 
 and is more specifically applied to the organization 
 of the Communist governments which were set up 
 in different countries during the years following 
 the World War. Thus Soviet Governments were 
 formed in Russia, Hungary, Georgia, Armenia, and 
 Ukrainia. In Russian governmental law the word 
 Soviet has been used in different ways since the 
 
SOVIET 
 
 701 
 
 SOVIET 
 
 first part of the nineteenth century. For instance: 
 the supreme administrative power was vested in 
 the Council of Ministers, acting under the authority 
 of the emperor. On the other hand, the supreme 
 legislative power in Russia was vested in the Im¬ 
 perial Council, together with the Imperial Duma, 
 both houses acting under the authority of the 
 emperor. The legislative authority of the Imperial 
 Council corresponded to that of the Senate in the 
 United States, the House of Lords in England, and 
 the Senate in France. The specific meaning at¬ 
 tached to the word Soviet had its origin in 1905 at 
 the time of the first outbreak of the revolutionary 
 movement in Russia, when the extremist leaders 
 in Petrograd and other Russian cities induced the 
 industrial workers and employees in different lines 
 of trade to elect their representatives to the Central 
 Council or Soviet, the institution of which was 
 designed to control the revolutionary movement. 
 Following out this program the workers in Petro¬ 
 grad, Moscow, and elsewhere elected their respec¬ 
 tive deputies, each factory sending its own dele¬ 
 gates to the Soviet of this or the other city. The 
 Soviets thus elected became the revolutionary cen¬ 
 ters in which the plans were worked out for the 
 overthrow of the imperial Government, and through 
 which they were actually put into operation. 
 
 In most instances the elections of the Soviets 
 were merely staged and the representation of the 
 factories consisted in self-styled agitators who had 
 nothing in common with the shop-workers them¬ 
 selves. The first Petrograd Soviet of Workers’ 
 Deputies was controlled by Trotzky (Bronstein) 
 and Parvus (Helfandt), both of whom were profes¬ 
 sional agitators and have never been manual 
 workers themselves. The brief history of the first 
 Petrograd Soviet was identified with different 
 criminal outbreaks and the looting of public prop¬ 
 erty (banks, the treasury, etc.). The first Moscow 
 Soviet of Workers’ Deputies was engaged in the 
 organization of the armed uprising against the Gov¬ 
 ernment in 1905. During that stage the make-up 
 of the Soviets was heterogeneous, for practically all 
 revolutionary, radical and Communist factions were 
 represented therein. With the defeat of the revolu¬ 
 tion of 1905, all Soviet organizations were dissolved 
 by the Russian Government and many of their 
 members were tried and imprisoned. In 1917, 
 simultaneously with the outbreak of the March 
 Revolution, Soviet organizations were hurriedly 
 formed, first in Petrograd and Moscow, and later 
 in other Russian cities. Although at that time the 
 Soviets had no official standing, their influence upon 
 governmental affairs became so great as to over¬ 
 shadow the significance of the officially recognized 
 Provisional Government. Moreover, Kerensky 
 who after the March Revolution became the head 
 of the Provisional Government, was vice-chairman 
 of the Petrograd Soviet of Workers’ and Soldiers’ 
 Deputies. In 1917 the make-up of the Soviets was 
 augmented by the representation of revolutionary 
 army units and the poorer peasants. Thus, the 
 recognized title of these revolutionary organizations 
 was “Soviets of Workers’, Soldiers’ and Peasants’ 
 Deputies.” During the first five months subsequent 
 to the revolution the Soviets were composed of rev¬ 
 olutionists belonging to the different extreme fac¬ 
 tions, such as the Bolsheviki, Mensheviki, Social 
 Revolutionists and People’s Socialists. Gradually, 
 however, the influence of the Bolsheviki or Com¬ 
 munists became dominant and by August, 1917, 
 the Soviets practically everywhere fell under the 
 complete control of the Communists. In the same 
 proportion as the Soviet influence grew the Provi¬ 
 sional Government was losing its prestige. Soviets 
 
 became the controlling factor not only in the eco¬ 
 nomic life but also in military affairs in Russia. 
 Every regiment and army unit had a local Soviet 
 of its own which took upon itself the interference 
 with the orders of the regimental commanders and 
 sometimes even of the supreme command. Condi¬ 
 tions resulting therefrom were disastrous as the 
 activities of the different army units became thor¬ 
 oughly discoordinated and military operations be¬ 
 came impossible. 
 
 During this phase of the history of the Soviets 
 a new tendency was manifested, namely, plans were 
 worked out for the centralization and .coordination 
 of the activities of the various local Soviets. To 
 attain this end the latter were urged to elect their 
 representatives, who were sent to the capital where 
 they formed an All Russian Central Soviet, which 
 in turn elected an executive committee in which 
 the supreme administrative power was vested. 
 With the overthrow of the Provisional Govern¬ 
 ment the Soviets automatically seized the state 
 control. The official “Constitution” of the Soviet 
 system was adopted at the Fifth All Russian Con¬ 
 gress of Soviets in July, 1918, according to which 
 the “Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic” is 
 governed by the All Russian Congress of Soviets, 
 which in turn is composed of representatives of 
 local, urban and provncial Soviets. The All 
 Russian Congress of Soviets is convoked at 
 least twice a year by the All Russian Central 
 Executive Committee. In the intervals between 
 the sessions of the All Russian Congresses of 
 Soviets the supreme power is exercised by the All 
 Russian Central Executive Committee. Paragraph 
 31 of the Soviet “Constitution” provides that “The 
 All Russian Central Executive Committee is the 
 supreme legislative, executive and controlling organ 
 of the Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic.” 
 The same Central Executive Committee forms a 
 Council of People’s Commissars for the purpose of 
 the general management of the affairs of the Soviet 
 Republic, and it also has authority to form different 
 departments or People’s Commissariats for the 
 purpose of conducting the various branches of gov¬ 
 ernment. The Central Executive Committee con¬ 
 siders and enacts all measures and proposals intro¬ 
 duced by the Soviet of People’s Commissars, or by 
 the various departments issuing decrees and regu¬ 
 lations of its own. At the same time the Council 
 of People’s Commissars has the right to issue its 
 decrees, resolutions and orders, notifying the All 
 Russian Central Executive Committee of all orders 
 thus issued. 
 
 The Soviet or Council of People’s Commissars is 
 composed of seventeen Commissars: (a) Foreign 
 Affairs; (b) Army; (c) Navy; (d) Interior; (e) 
 Justice; (f) Labor; (g) Social Welfare; (h) Educa¬ 
 tion; (i) Post and Telegraph; (j) National Af¬ 
 fairs; (k) Finances; (1) Ways of Communication; 
 (m) Agriculture; (n) Commerce and Industry; (o) 
 National Supplies; (p) State Control; (q) Supreme 
 Soviet of National Economy; (r) Public Health. 
 The Soviet of People’s Commissars is accountable 
 to the All Russian Congress of Soviets and the All 
 Russian Central Executive Committee. The organ¬ 
 ization of local Soviets comprises Soviet organiza¬ 
 tions of four categories: (a) Regional; (b) Provin¬ 
 cial; (c) County; (d) Rural of Volost, the latter 
 being the smallest administrative division of the 
 Russian State. Each local Soviet elects an execu¬ 
 tive organ of its own, the membership of which in 
 regional and provincial Soviets does not exceed 
 twenty-five; in county Soviets, twenty; and in 
 rural Soviets, ten. These Executive Committees 
 are responsible to the Congress which elects them. 
 
SPAIN 
 
 702 
 
 SPAIN 
 
 In addition, the Soviet “Constitution” provides 
 for so-called “Soviets of Deputies.” These are 
 organized in the following way: In cities, one 
 deputy is elected for each one thousand inhabitants. 
 The total number of deputies is not less than fifty 
 and not more than one thousand members. Other 
 settlements, such as towns and villages, of less than 
 ten thousand inhabitants, elect one deputy for each 
 one hundred inhabitants, the total being not less 
 than three and not more than fifty deputies. The 
 term of the deputy is only for three months. The 
 Soviets of Deputies, in turn, elect Executive Com¬ 
 mittees to deal with current affairs. These Com¬ 
 mittees are also accountable to the Soviets which 
 elect them. This complicated and clumsy govern¬ 
 mental system makes it impossible to administrate 
 governmental affairs in a way that would be more 
 or less efficient. Conflicting decrees are issued by 
 the hundreds of different local Soviets. Moreover, 
 even within the central state organization contra¬ 
 dictory orders are given by the Soviet of People’s 
 Commissars, the All Russian Central Executive 
 Committee and the All Russian Congress of Soviets 
 •—the three bodies acting in a large degree inde¬ 
 pendently one from the other. The Commissars 
 themselves have admitted on various occasions that 
 such a system of government is bound to result in 
 a complete paralysis of the governmental machine. 
 Thus, Nevsky, formerly Commissar of Ways and 
 Communications, and Rykofif, in charge of the 
 Supreme Council of National Economy, as far back 
 as 1920, addressing the All Russian Congress of 
 Soviets, gave a complete account of the shortcom¬ 
 ings of the Soviet system, picturing in the darkest 
 colors the state of Russian economic life. 
 
 In spite, however, of these warnings, and the 
 proven collapse of the whole governmental system, 
 which is in a state of complete decay, no measures 
 have been adopted to improve the situation. In 
 various countries revolutionary movements have 
 been accompanied by attempts to set up Soviets 
 of rebellious Workers’ and Soldiers’ Deputies. The 
 notorious Communist rule in Hungary (1918-19), 
 under the dictatorship of Bela Cohen (Kuhn), as¬ 
 sumed the shape of a Soviet administration. In 
 the same way, in November, 1918, the mutinous 
 sailors of the German fleet, after an uprising in 
 Kiel, organized a Council or Soviet of Workmen, 
 Soldiers and Sailors. This revolutionary outbreak 
 was followed by a similar Soviet movement in 
 Hamburg and other ports and German industrial 
 districts. By the Fall of 1918, Soviets were estab¬ 
 lished in nearly every center of importance in 
 Germany, and their tactics became identified with 
 the agitation for world revolution and the destruc¬ 
 tion of the capitalist regime in Germany itself. 
 The German Soviet movement, similar to that in 
 Russia, was dominated by the Bolshevist faction, 
 which is known in Germany as the Spartacus group 
 (q. v.). The Soviet system both in Russia and 
 elsewhere expresses practically the program of 
 proletarian dictatorship. 
 
 See Bibliography for Bolshevism; also Decrees and Constitu¬ 
 tion of Soviet Russia (New York, 1920); Terne, In the Realm 
 of Lenin (in Russian, Berlin, 1921); Shcherbina, Laws of Evolu¬ 
 tion and Russian Bolshevism (in Russian, Belgrade, 1921); 
 Franke, Die Wahrheit ueber Russland (Berlin, 1920); The Bol- 
 sheviki in their Role of Managers and Rulers (in Russian, Tokio, 
 1919); Memorandum on the Bolshevist or Communist Party in 
 Russia and its Relations to the Third or Communist Internationale 
 and to the Soviets (Washington, D. C., 1920). 
 
 Boris Brasol. 
 
 Spain (cf. C. E., XIV—169b).—The kingdom has 
 an area of 190,050 sq. m., but including the Balearic 
 and the Canary Islands and the Spanish possessions 
 in Africa, the total area is 194,783 sq. m. The census 
 
 of 1910 gave 19,950,817 inhabitants, but the estimated 
 population in 1919 was 20,738,844. 
 
 Agriculture. —The soil of Spain is subdivided 
 among a very large number of proprietors. In 1919, 
 3,300,965 acres were under vines and produced 
 7,914,252,192 pounds of grapes; in 1918, 3,852,910 
 acres under olives yielded 1,403,831 pounds. Silk 
 culture is carried on in Valencia, Murcia, and other 
 provinces. There are 26 cane sugar factories and 40 
 beet sugar factories in Spain. The production in 1917 
 totalled 80,034,580 kgs. The normal agricultural 
 production in 1919 was: wheat, 70,352,992 bushels; 
 barley, 35,623,758 bushels; rye, 11,835,142 bushels; 
 maize, 12,882,452 bushels; oats, 9,555,392 bushels; 
 total, 140,249,736 bushels. Oil, 255,202 tons; wine, 
 543,904,788 gallons. 
 
 Fisheries. —In the Spanish fisheries the total 
 number of boats employed in 1917 was about 15,293, 
 of which 751 were steamers; fishermen, 86,287; the 
 value pf catch about 87,229,047 pesetas , representing 
 a total weight of 135,607 tons. The most important 
 catches are those of sardines, tunny fish, and cod. 
 
 In Spain there are 677 factories, with 19,320 workmen 
 for the preparation of sardines and fish-preserves. 
 
 Religion. —Religious liberty prevails in Spain, 
 but the whole population except 30,000 adheres to 
 the Catholic faith. The law of 1910 allows the public 
 exercise of all creeds in Spain. In the year 1919 the 
 religious orders in Spain numbered 807 communities 
 of men and 3585 of women. The number of male 
 religious was 9667; of female 37,849. Some of these 
 religious communities have taken up sections of the 
 most desolate and wild lands in Catalonia and the 
 North, lands which have never been profitable or 
 even cultivated, and erected monasteries there after 
 the manner of the Middle Ages or of the energetic 
 missionaries in the Far West. 
 
 Education. —The elaborate system of education 
 created by the law of 1857 has not been rigidly en¬ 
 forced, but various improvements have been effected, 
 especially by a law of 9 June, 1909, which made edu¬ 
 cation obligatory. The country is divided into eleven 
 educational districts with the universities as centres. 
 There are seventeen government schools of com¬ 
 merce, and the national government maintains 
 twenty-five manual training schools. There are also \ 
 26,103 public schools and 5669 private schools, with 
 2,604,308 pupils. Besides the 58 secondary institu¬ 
 tions, or middle class schools, there are 253 annexed 
 schools or colegios, preparatory to the cultural : 
 institutions. Educational conditions in Spain are 
 improving. In 1917 the amount expended by the 
 Government upon primary education was $6,894,235, 
 an increase of 33 per cent since 1902; on secondary 
 education, an increase of 48 per cent; on special 
 schools of 161 per cent. The appropriation for uni¬ 
 versity education in 1916 was twice that of 1902. By 
 royal decree of 25 August, 1917, there was organized 
 with the Ministry of Public Instruction a foundation 
 for the study and encouragement of the education of 
 deaf mutes, the blind and the mentally abnormal. 
 The establishment of the Commission for the Enlarge¬ 
 ment of Studies and Scientific Investigations, La Junta 
 para de Estudios e Investigadones Cientijicas,” com¬ 
 posed of eminent educational and scientific experts, 
 chosen with "due regard” to the diversity of intel¬ 
 lectual and religious tendencies of Spain, is of doubtful 
 value as the universities are really deprived of initia¬ 
 tive and freedom. It supports Spanish students in 1 
 foreign countries and encourages new types of educa¬ 
 tional institutes as well as scientific and sociological 
 research. 
 
 Charity. —In 1919 there were sixty-three hospitals 
 in the capitals of the country, Madrid has eight: 
 Provincial, Princesa, Clinico de San Carlos, San Juan 
 de Dios, Nino Jesus, V. O. T. de San Francisco, Jesus 
 
SPAIN 
 
 703 
 
 SPAIN 
 
 Nazareno, Nuestra Senora del Carmen. On 1 Jan¬ 
 uary, 1919, there were 2732 patients, and with 
 21,790 admitted during the year, the total number of 
 patients included 12,(304 men and 11,918 women. 
 The five asylums of Madrid, including the Hospicio 
 de Madrid, Asilo de Nuestra Senora de la Paloma, 
 Asilo de Vallehermoso, de Santa Cristina, and de 
 Nuestra Senora de Las Mercedes, sheltered in 1919 
 a total of 5059 people. There are sixty emergency 
 hospitals in the country. The number of insane people 
 (2185) added in 1919 to those already present in the 
 asylums of the capitals brought the total up to 9187. 
 The number of leprosy cases treated in 1914 was 
 874 and in 1920, 1039, an increase of 165. 
 
 Special mention should be made of the work of the 
 Society of Saint Vincent de Paul in Spain. Owing 
 to the incomplete data given for the year 1919 the 
 figures published are those for 1918. In that year 621 
 conferences and meetings were held; 10,549 families 
 were visited; 1212 marriages regulated; 444 children 
 legitimatized; 5202 children and 2487 adults were in¬ 
 structed; personal taxes, 23,332 pesetas) funds: income, 
 1,105,055 pesetas; expenditure, 1,039,543 pesetas. In 
 all, the number of benevolent institutions were 11,274; 
 their funds amounted to 548,811,447 pesetas , the 
 average fund of each institution 48,679 pesetas; their 
 total revenues, 15,995,619 pesetas, the average income 
 of each foundation* 1418 pesetas; average fund for 
 each inhabitant, 26.49 pesetas. 
 
 Defence. —Military service in Spain is compulsory. 
 The total term of service is for 18 years, divided into 
 the following: 1 year recruits in deposit; 3 years 
 active army (first standing); 5 years active army 
 (second standing); 6 years reserve; and 3 years terri¬ 
 torial reserve (not yet organized). In 1916 a central 
 general staff of the army was appointed. The coun¬ 
 try is divided up into eight territorial districts, each 
 under a Captain-General. The peace establishment 
 for 1920 was fixed at 216,649 men of all ranks (64,355 
 in Morocco), and the total strength of the field army 
 would probably be about 300,000 combatants. The 
 army is organized in 16 divisions, each of 2 brigades 
 and 1 of artillery. There are also the Guardia Civil 
 and the Carabineros, the former a constabulary, the 
 latter a military police used as customs guard on the 
 frontier, both recruited from the army and under 
 military discipline. Outside the Spanish peninsula 
 there are the three military commands of Melilla, 
 Ceuta and Larache in Morocco, also the Balearic 
 Islands and the Canary Islands. 
 
 Government. —The various provinces and com¬ 
 munes of Spain are governed by provincial and muni¬ 
 cipal laws. Since 1 January, 1918, every commune 
 has its own elected ayuntamiento , consisting of from 
 five to fifty regidores, or concejales, and presided over 
 by the Alcalde, at whose side stand, in the larger 
 towns, several tencientes alcaldes. The entire municipal 
 Government, with power of taxation, is vested in the 
 ayuntamientos. Half the members are elected every 
 two years, and they appoint the alcalde, the executive 
 functionary, from their own body. Members cannot 
 be re-elected until after two years. Each province in 
 Spain has its own Assembly, the Diputacion Provin¬ 
 cial, the members of which are elected by the con¬ 
 stituencies. The diputaciones provinciates meet in 
 annual session, and are permanently represented by 
 the comision provincial, a committee appointed every 
 year. The Constitution of 1876 secures to the dipu¬ 
 taciones provinciates and the ayuntamientos the govern¬ 
 ment and administration of the respective provinces 
 and communes. Neither the national executive nor 
 the Cortes has the right to interfere in the established 
 municipal and provincial administration, notwith¬ 
 standing which pressure is too frequently brought to 
 bear upon the local elections by the Central Govern- 
 45 
 
 ment. During the World War, Spain maintained 
 strict neutrality. 
 
 Political Situation. —The various political par¬ 
 ties at present are the Conservatives, Liberals, Re¬ 
 formists, Republicans, Regionalists (Catalonia), Carl- 
 ists, and Independents. Until a recent date all the 
 progressive elements in the country were republican, 
 anti-clerical and Jacobin. The monarchy was re¬ 
 duced to seeking a basis in the rural population, 
 which, for several causes, among which lack of proper 
 communications and an insufficient standard of edu¬ 
 cation are prominent, were politically passive. The 
 result was a political system, based on the predomi¬ 
 nance of local demagogues, called in Spain caciques. 
 The cacique keeps the constituency in hand for the 
 benefit of the Government’s candidate, and in ex¬ 
 change, the Government puts all the power of the 
 •State at the service of the local activities of the cacique. 
 Throughout the Restoration period the actual working 
 of the system was entrusted to a political machinery 
 composed of two parties, the Liberals and Conserva¬ 
 tives. The Conservative party, now in power, stands 
 for the old order of things in general, the “make haste 
 slowly” principle; its adherents are of various shades 
 of opinion. The majority of them are heart and soul 
 for the present monarchy and for a constitutional 
 Spain. Others are “Carlists” and hark back to the 
 older regime. Others want to see no change whatever 
 —they are the “stand-patters” of the party. Others 
 are strong clericals and see in any change an attack 
 on the vested rights of the Church. The Liberal 
 party believes in developing Spain to the extreme lim¬ 
 its of pure Constitutionalism without actually destroy¬ 
 ing the monarchy, no matter what interests may 
 suffer. The majority of its adherents are strictly con¬ 
 stitutional and devoted to the monarchy. They want 
 the broadest measure of modern political invention, 
 whether Spain is ready for it or not. Then comes the 
 Republican party, which may be described as being 
 in the same relation (in the inverse order) to the Liber¬ 
 als as the Carlists are to the Conservatives. They are 
 anti-constitutional and anti-monarchical, and desire 
 a republic in Spain. They follow the Radicals, who 
 are the apostles of discontent, and whose members 
 are of all shades of opinion, theorists, Socialists, and 
 some of the “white glove” or philosophical school of 
 anarchy. They are divided into various groups, such 
 as Regionalists, Independents, etc. 
 
 The situation in Spain today is the result of the 
 contemporaneous maturing of two movements, each 
 aiming at a transformation of the political and social 
 order of the nation. The one is called in Spain the 
 “regionalist movement,” and the other, the Spanish 
 manifestation of the same social unrest that is sweep¬ 
 ing the world, is industrial in character and aims at 
 nothing less than social revolution. The regionalist 
 movement, as a whole, is a concerted attack on the 
 central Government. It is, in other words, a political 
 movement aiming at a decentralization of govern¬ 
 mental control by a recognition of the great historic 
 “regions” of Spain, to be erected into autonomous or 
 even into independent States. In two regions par¬ 
 ticularly, this agitation for regional autonomy is 
 intensified by a local nationalistic propaganda of 
 more or less ancient origin. The Basques and Cata¬ 
 lonians, by virtue of their Spanish language, litera¬ 
 ture, and race, are appealing to the principle of self- 
 determination for “oppressed nationalities.” The 
 enthusiasm for the movement has made it powerful 
 enough to become an issue throughout the peninsula. 
 With one-tenth of the total population of the nation, 
 Catalonia pays one-fifth of the taxes, buys one-half 
 the imports, and sells one-third of the exports of the 
 whole nation. It is, therefore, difficult to reconcile 
 the Catalonians to the control of the central Govern- 
 
SPALATO 
 
 704 
 
 SPALDING 
 
 ment. Moreover, Catalans feel alien from Castilians, 
 Andalusians from Galicians. . 
 
 In direct contrast to this movement is the “Span¬ 
 ish” movement, lacking the separatist patriotic 
 animus, but aiming simply at a political re-organiza- 
 tion of the nation as the moral and social renovation 
 of government in Spain. The proposed reorganization 
 has, however, been radical enough to arouse deter¬ 
 mined opposition in the central Government. 
 
 At present there is division in the ranks of the 
 Socialist party. This has strengthened the Syndical¬ 
 ist movement, which is economic, not political. 
 The Socialists have met with bitter and uncom¬ 
 promising opposition from the established order and 
 in their present attitude are bound to remain a 
 negative or at most a merely critical force in the 
 politics of the nation. However, they have been 
 an important factor in the present industrial unrest of 
 Spain. Other contributing causes are the privations 
 or the economic crisis and the agitation in military 
 circles. The consequent widespread strikes and dis¬ 
 turbances brought about the rise and fall of several 
 ministries and at times the placing of the whole 
 country under martial law. The dissatisfaction in 
 the army is due to what is held to be favoritism, 
 certain officers receiving advancement through court 
 influences, and also to the insufficiency of pay and 
 lack of adequate military organization. This re¬ 
 sulted in the organization by the officers, the gen¬ 
 darmerie and customs officials of juntas for the 
 defense of their interests. So great was their in¬ 
 fluence in 1917 that the army was in actual revolution 
 and the political situation in Spain was most critical. 
 The military juntas are reactionary and are opposed 
 to labor organizations. 
 
 Labor unions, or sindicatos Catolicos, as they are 
 called, have been formed, however, and are still 
 being formed among the miners, railroad men, and 
 men of other trades; classes of social work have been 
 established, employers are instructed in the proper 
 treatment of their workmen. Casas Sociales with 
 recreation rooms, co-operative stores, theatres, have 
 been established in a few cities; and last but by no 
 means the least, practically the entire population 
 has been formed into an association called El Sindicato 
 Agricola. With the help and guidance of Father Nevares 
 as its prime mover and guiding star it has, since its 
 establishment ten years ago enrolled as associates 
 600,000 families, representing about three million 
 souls. These are formed into a nation-wide union 
 of 6000 sindicatos or local branches with divisions in 
 each province, while individual towns are subject 
 to the province. It is truly democratic in organiza¬ 
 tion; the workmen or farmers of each town elect their 
 representative, the representatives of the towns 
 elect the chief of each province, and the last named 
 elect the general director of the confederation. Each 
 federation or local branch takes care of the temporal 
 welfare of the associates, interests itself in all disputes 
 between workmen and employers, makes loans, and 
 has a loan fund as well as a sick fund. The organiza¬ 
 tion of other unions, or sindicatos, of workmen of 
 various trades is similar to that of the Agrarian 
 Federation. The railroad union has 6000 or 7000 
 associates. Its worth was exhibited in the railway 
 strikes of 1916 and 1917, when its members, not being 
 convinced of the reason and justice of the strike, 
 refused to strike. 
 
 The policy of reconstruction is at present much 
 discussed in Spain. It comprises the following 
 objects: (1) the nationalization of the main railroad 
 lines and change of legislation in regard to the less 
 important lines; (2) regulation of concessions of water¬ 
 courses; (3) extensive appropriation for public works; 
 (4) changes in the mining regulations; (5) agricultural 
 credit; (6) organization of agricultural education and 
 
 of refordsting; (7) the creation of an organized body 
 to shape economic policies during the transition period. 
 Included also is the construction of a large system of 
 railways. In 1917 it was estimated that the hydro¬ 
 electric power utilized in Spain is equal to 2,000,000 
 tons of coal, a present value of $80,000,000. It is 
 necessary to exploit water power on account of the 
 coal shortage. The industrial situation in Spain 
 has been unique for two reasons, one being that a 
 considerable proportion of employers has been limited 
 to companies whose directing bodies resided abroad. 
 This circumstance introduced into labor questions a 
 national consideration together with difficulties of 
 international law. It is proposed now that all 
 concessions for the use of water power and mines 
 must be limited to individuals and companies living 
 in Spain. 
 
 \ I 
 
 Spalato and Macarska, Diocese of (Spala- i 
 tensis et Macarscensis; cf. C. E., XIV—207d), 
 in Jugoslavia, suffragan of Zara, in 1917 had a 
 Catholic population of 201,149 with about 10,500 
 schismatics and about 3000 Protestants. There are 
 98 parishes, 281 secular and 79 regular priests. 
 Mgr. Gjivoic, who succeeded to the see 11 July, 
 1911, died 27 February, 1917. He was succeeded 
 by one of his two auxiliaries, resident at Macarska, 
 
 Rt. Rev. George Caric, born 1867, elected titular 
 bishop of Ceramus and auxiliary to the bishop of 
 Spalato, 1906, being consecrated at Rome by Cardinal 
 Merry del Val. He died 17 May, 1921, and the see 
 is still vacant. Mgr. Vincent Palunko, titular bishop 
 of Rhodiopolis and auxiliary to the bishop of Spalato 
 (elected 1904) resides at Spalato. 
 
 Spalding, James Field, b. at Enfield, Connecti¬ 
 cut, in 1839; d. at Boston on 9 August, 1921. The con¬ 
 version of Mr. Spalding to the Faith in 1891 provoked 
 a storm among the Protestants like that caused by 
 Newman’s abandonment of Anglicanism in 1845. 
 
 He graduated from Williston Seminary, Easthampton, 
 Mass., and in 1862 from Williams College. He was 
 then a Congregationalist, but was dissatisfied with 
 its doctrine and becoming Episcopalian about 1868, 
 he was ordained deacon by Bishop Lawrence of 
 Massachusetts. After rectorships at Ithaca, N. Y., 
 and Portland, Conn., he was assigned to Christ 
 Church, Cambridge, in 1879. It was not till twelve i 
 years afterwards that he entered the True Fold, 
 announcing as his reason that he found the Epis¬ 
 copalian Church and the entire Anglican community 
 permeated with rationalism and free thinking and 
 unbelief. 
 
 Spalding, John Lancaster. —Scholar, distin¬ 
 guished churchman and first Bishop of the Diocese 
 of Peoria, Illinois, b. at Lebanon, Kentucky, 2 June, 
 1840; d. at Peoria 25 August, 1916. He received his 
 education at Mount St. Mary’s College, Emmits- 
 burg, the University of Louvain, Belgium, and the 
 American College in Rome. After his ordination to 
 the priesthood, he was designated as one of the 
 assistant priests at the Cathedral in Louisville, 
 Kentucky, and later was made secretary to the 
 Bishop of Louisville and chancellor of the diocese. 
 From 1872-77 he was stationed at St. Michael’s 
 Church in New York City, where he had gone to 
 write the life of his uncle, the Most Rev. Martin 
 John Spalding, seventh Archbishop of Baltimore. 
 Appointed first bishop of the See of Peoria 27 Nov., 
 1876, he was consecrated in New York City by Car¬ 
 dinal McCloskey 1 May, 1877. He was very active 
 in the cause of Catholic higher education and was one 
 of the prime movers in the establishment of the pres¬ 
 ent Catholic University at Washington, D. C. He 
 also cooperated quite actively in the movement for 
 Catholic colonization of the West, and in 1902 he was 
 
SPARTACUS 
 
 705 
 
 SPEYER 
 
 appointed by the President of the United States as one 
 of the arbitrators in the anthracite coal strike. At 
 the height of his power TLnd prestige, he was stricken 
 with paralysis 6 Jan., 1905, and three years later he 
 was compelled to resign from the active administration 
 of his diocese and was given the title of titular Arch¬ 
 bishop of Scitopolis. Among his writings may be 
 mentioned, “Life of the Most Rev. Martin J. Spald¬ 
 ing, D.D.”; “Religion, Agnosticism and Education,” 
 “Socialism and Labor,” and his essays. 
 
 Reuss, Biog. Cycl. of the Catholic Hierarchy of the United 
 Slates (Milwaukee, 1898); Shea. The Defenders of Our Faith 
 (New York, 1892), 334-35; The Catholic Hist. Rev., Ill, 154. 
 
 Spartacus Group. —Under this name is known the 
 extreme faction of the German Socialist movement. 
 The pretext for the birth of this group was the dis¬ 
 sension among German Socialists on their attitude 
 toward the World War, and more specifically the 
 voting for the war credit. While on 4 August, 1914, 
 immediately after the outbreak of the European 
 War, the Socialist representatives in the German 
 Reichstag unanimously voted for the war credit, 
 nevertheless the debates which preceded this voting 
 indicated that there was a difference of opinion 
 among the Socialists with regard to the vital issue 
 of military preparedness. Karl Liebknecht was 
 among the most violent antagonists of the Hugo 
 Haase Socialist faction, which stood for the support 
 of the Imperial German Government. In Decem¬ 
 ber of the same year, when the German Chancellor 
 made a plea for additional war credits, Liebknecht 
 voted “no.” The final organization of the Spartacus 
 Group dates back to 1917, when Liebknecht and 
 Rosa Luxemburg came out openly against the 
 tactics of the Independent Socialist Party, accus¬ 
 ing them of liberal or petty bourgeois tendencies. 
 Simultaneously the Spartacus Group combined its 
 efforts with the so-called group of the Interna¬ 
 tionale and started extensive propaganda among 
 the German workers and soldiers, advocating an 
 immediate social revolution, with the final aim of 
 establishing proletarian dictatorship. This move¬ 
 ment was largely influenced by the Bolshevik rev¬ 
 olution in Russia. Financially the Bolsheviki came 
 to the assistance of the revolutionary movement 
 in Germany by appropriating 10,000,000 rubles for 
 propaganda purposes abroad. This fund was dis¬ 
 pensed through the Bureau of International Revolu¬ 
 tionary Propaganda. Millions of leaflets and 
 pamphlets were circulated by the Spartacides, both 
 in Germany and Austria. The fundamental aim 
 of the Spartacus Group was made clear in an appeal 
 to the German workers in connection with the 
 Brest-Litovsk parleys. Therein it was stated: 
 “There is only one means of putting an end to the 
 present butchery and misery of the workers—the 
 overthrow of the government and the bourgeois 
 class, in the way this was accomplished in Russia.” 
 The Spartacus Group also advocated a general 
 strike as a measure calculated to bring about stop¬ 
 page in war industries, paralyzing all economic 
 activity. 
 
 With the overthrow of the Imperial German 
 Government, Liebknecht and his associates endeav¬ 
 ored to establish control over the Congress of 
 Soldiers’ and Workers’ Deputies, which was con¬ 
 voked in Berlin. In this, however, the leaders of 
 the Spartacus movement failed completely and the 
 majority of the 450 delegates constituting said Con¬ 
 gress repeatedly voted in favor of the platform 
 of the Independent Socialists, adhering to Kautsky 
 and Haase. The climax of the influence of the 
 Spartacus Group among the German workers came 
 at the time when one of the well-known leaders 
 of German Social Democracy, Scheidemann, joined 
 
 the German Republican Government announcing 
 his program of social reforms as opposed to and 
 distinguished from the tactics of violent social 
 revolution along the lines advocated in the Com¬ 
 munist Manifesto of Karl Marx. Armed uprisings 
 spread over Germany, with the Spartacides invari¬ 
 ably leading the rebellious workers and the de¬ 
 moralized soldiery. In 1919 the political situation 
 in Germany became critical. Berlin and other large 
 cities were actually besieged by Communist 
 workers, and the whole country was on the verge 
 of a social cataclysm. The Moscow Soviet Mission 
 in Berlin became the headquarters of revolutionary 
 agitation. Spartacan tactics grew more aggressive 
 every day, until finally the German Government 
 was compelled to arrest Rosa Luxemburg and Karl 
 Liebknecht. Their arrest was the turning point 
 in the development of the revolutionary move¬ 
 ment in Germany. When put under arrest in Ber¬ 
 lin, Liebknecht and Luxemburg had to be convoyed 
 from one prison to another. While on their way, 
 they were shot and instantly killed by the soldiers 
 under whose guard they were. The actual circum¬ 
 stances of Liebknecht’s and Luxemburg’s deaths, 
 however, still remain dubious. With the elimina¬ 
 tion of these two Spartacan leaders, the whole 
 movement lost its impetus. The milder factions of 
 German Social Democracy again assumed control 
 over Socialist activities. In 1920 the different Ger¬ 
 man Socialist factions began to investigate inde¬ 
 pendently the conditions in Soviet Russia. Ger¬ 
 man revolutionary workers proceeded to that coun¬ 
 try in the hope that they would find there ideal 
 social conditions. However, the situation which 
 they actually found converted them into conscious 
 and implacable enemies of the Soviet regime. In 
 this connection the report of one of the German 
 Socialist leaders, Dittman, who also studied the 
 Soviet experiment in Russia herself, produced a 
 great impression on the minds of the German 
 workers, and dealt a grave blow to the Spartacus 
 movement. Aside from those mentioned above, 
 the Spartacus Group counted among its leaders 
 Franz Mehring, the author of the “History of the 
 German Social Democracy.” Theoretically the 
 Spartacus Group always declared itself in favor 
 of orthodox Marxism, while in matters of prac¬ 
 tical action it advocated an alliance with Soviet 
 Russia for the purpose of forcibly introducing 
 Communism into western countries, with the assist¬ 
 ance of the combined Russian and German Red 
 Armies. 
 
 Fraina, The Social Revolution in Germany (Boston, 1919); 
 Damenberg, The Revolution in Germany in The Radical Review II, 
 (January-March, 1919); Dittman, Report in Der Freiheit (August 
 31-September 1, 1920); Documents of the American Association 
 for International Conciliation ,” I (1919); Franke, Die Wahrheit 
 ueber Russland (Berlin, 1920). 
 
 Speyer, Diocese of (Spirensis; cf. C. E., XIV— 
 214d), in Bavaria, suffragan of Bamberg. The 
 present diocese is a remnant of the former diocese 
 situated on the right and left banks of the Rhine 
 to within a distance of nineteen miles of Stuttgart. 
 It comprises, moreover, parts of the dioceses of 
 Strasburg, Metz, Trier, Mainz, and the now sup¬ 
 pressed diocese of Worms and since 1815 it is 
 coterminus with the Pfalz, a political territory 
 created by the Congress of Vienna. The real date of 
 its foundation is 23 Sept., 1821, on which day the 
 papal Bull of circumscription was published. During 
 the administration of Bishop, afterwards Cardinal, 
 Geissel, and even more so under that of Bishop 
 Weis, the work of building up the diocese was begun. 
 Due to the World War and the revolution of 1918, 
 many changes have since taken place. The consti¬ 
 tution of the Republic has brought about the sepa- 
 
SPIRITISM 
 
 706 
 
 SPOKANE 
 
 ration of Church and State, although the final separa¬ 
 tion has not yet definitely taken place. The State, 
 which is bound to compensate the Church, by reason 
 of the secularization, has been unable from technical 
 financial reasons to pay the indemnities. Conse¬ 
 quently the incomes of the benefices are supple¬ 
 mented by voluntary contributions from the State, 
 which the latter has the power to withdraw at any 
 moment. The bishops are also concerned with regard 
 to the salaries of the priests. They do not wish the 
 clergy to be paid by the State, as in that case the 
 Government would have control over them. The 
 independence of the Church even in financial matters 
 has been inaugurated by the religionsgesellschciftliche 
 (religio-social) tax legislation, which grants the 
 Church the right of taxation such as has been the 
 case in Prussia during the past twenty years. The 
 democratic Government has already granted some 
 privileges to the Church, such as the right to make 
 new foundations without the approval of the State. 
 One of the most difficult problems of the future will be 
 the maintenance of denominational schools, the only 
 privilege which the church has retained in regard 
 to the schools being the supervision and teaching 
 of religious instruction. Those who wish to teach 
 this branch must have the Missio Canonica , without 
 which a teacher cannot receive an appointment in 
 the denominational schools. The law in regard to 
 the religious education of children will lead to many 
 evil results. Even a child of fourteen is now lawfully 
 able to withdraw from the Church. Owing to the 
 low value of the currency, it will be impossible to 
 build churches as heretofore, which will prove a 
 drawback to the spiritual development of the people. 
 Before the war about 8,000,000 marks were annually 
 expended for this purpose, but now ten times that 
 amount would not suffice. 
 
 The present incumbent of the diocese is the Rt. 
 Rev. Ludwig Sebastian, b. at Frankenstein, 6 Oct., 
 1862, ordained 17 Aug., 1887, elected 31 July, 
 1917. The diocese contains 243 parishes, 94 chap¬ 
 laincies, 373 churches, 4 missions. There are about 
 1,000,000 inhabitants, four-fifths of whom are Cath¬ 
 olics. The following clergymen and laymen of prom¬ 
 inence have died since 1912: Rev. Joseph Bischoff 
 (Conrad v. Bollanden), a writer of prominence; 
 Rev. Jacob Frederick Bussereau, founder of the 
 Congregation of St. Paul for men and women for the 
 care of the abandoned and destitute; Cardinal v. 
 Bettinger, formerly dean of the cathedral of Speyer; 
 Rev. Dr. Joseph Zimmern, capitular of the cathedral, 
 political defender of the Church; Prof. Jacob Reeb, 
 founder of an educational institute for homeless 
 boys. The zeal and activity shown by Bishop, 
 now Cardinal, Michael von Faulhaber during the 
 war is worthy of the highest praise. He forbade any 
 criticism of the bishops of the Entente, visited the 
 trenches at the risk of his own life, held conferences 
 for the military chaplains and preached to them. 
 In the beginning of the war seventy young priests 
 became chaplains and served in the hospitals. A 
 number of theological students were killed and some 
 lost their vocation. The clergy who remained in 
 their parishes comforted the afflicted, kept in com¬ 
 munication with those at the front, tried, when 
 possible, to procure food for the starving. Many of 
 the church bells were taken by the Government. 
 
 Spiritism (cf. C. E., XIV—221b).—On 17 April, 
 1917, the Congregation of the Holy Office in reply 
 to a query declared that it was not permissible to 
 attend at spiritistic seances of any kind, even as a 
 spectator, with a tacit or express protestation against 
 having any communication with evil spirits. 
 
 Liljencrants, Spiritism and Religion (New York, 1918); 
 Crawford, The Reality of Psychic Phenomena (London, 1917); 
 
 Idem. Hints and Observations for those investigating the Phenomena 
 of Spiritualism (New York, 1918); Idem, Experiments in Phys¬ 
 ical Science (London, 1919); Pope. Spiritualism, Occultism and 
 the Catholic Church in Eccl. Rev * LXIII (Philadelphia, 1920), 
 225-53; Raupert, The New Black Magic (New York, 1919); 
 Roure, Le Merveilleux Spirite (Paris, 1917), Preliminary Report 
 of the Commission appointed to investigate modern spiritualism 
 (Philadelphia, 1920). 
 
 Spisz (Zips), Diocese of (Scepusiensis). — cf. C. 
 E., XV—761b), The late Bishop Alexander Parvi; 
 died 24 March, 1919, and was buried with great honor. 
 He built an entirely new home for the Sisters of St. 
 Vincent de Paul of Leutschau, collecting for this pur¬ 
 pose more than 400,000 crowns, and also erected a 
 training school for teachers. On 9 December, 1915, 
 Marlin Kheberich, domestic prelate, was preconized 
 titular Bishop of Sabrata and appointed Auxiliary 
 Bishop of Spisz, the first time such an appointment 
 had occurred in Spisz in over one hundred years. 
 Upon the death of Bishop Parvi, Bishop Kheberich 
 was unanimously elected Bishop of Spisz; but the 
 newly created republic of Czechoslovakia having 
 since embraced the entire diocese he resigned the 
 bishopric, remaining, however, auxiliary bishop and 
 major mitred provost of the ancient chapter of Spisz. 
 During the World Warboth clergy and laity voluntarily 
 sacrificed their wealth to their country. The bishop 
 is Mgr. John Vojtassak, who was chancellor of the dio¬ 
 cese when he was elected at the consistory of 16 Decem¬ 
 ber, 1920. The Catholic population of 244,000 is at¬ 
 tended by 220 secular and 14 regular priests, assisted 
 by 8 lay brothers. There are 166 parishes with 166 
 churches and 100 mission churches; 123 public chapels; 
 7 convents for men and 5 for women; 1 seminary with 
 
 6 professors and 21 students; 1 Catholic daily and 2 
 other periodicals. The principal religious organiza¬ 
 tion among the clergy is that of Saint Joseph; such 
 associations among the laity are many and varied. 
 The Government at present contributes generously 
 to the support of the Catholic institutions. 
 
 Spitzberg. See Norway, Vicariate Apostolic 
 of. 
 
 Spokane, Diocese of (Spokanensis) .—This dio¬ 
 cese was established on 17 December, 1913, and com¬ 
 prises the following counties in the State of Wash¬ 
 ington: Oskanogan, Ferry, Stevens, Pend Oreille, 
 Douglas, Grant, Lincoln, Spokane, Adams, Whit¬ 
 man, Benton, Franklin, Walla Walla, Columbia, 
 Garfield and Asotin, and covers 30,192 square miles 
 of territory. The first and present administrator of 
 the diocese is the Rt. Rev. Augustin F. Schinner, b. 
 at Milwaukee 1 May, 1863, ordained 7 March, 1886, 
 elected first bishop of Superior, 13 May, 1905, conse¬ 
 crated 15 July, published 11 December following: he 
 resigned 15 January, 1913, and was transferred 18 
 March, 1914, published 28 May following. According 
 to the statistics of 1922 the diocese contains: 28,608 
 Catholics, including Irish, Germans, Italians and 
 about 1500 Indians, 46 parishes, 97 churches, 51 mis¬ 
 sions, 59 stations, 2 convents for men (Jesuits and 
 Franciscans), 1 monastery for women (Poor Clares), 
 
 7 convents for women, 51 secular priests, 39 regulars, 
 32 Jesuit lay brothers, 1 Franciscan brother, 299 
 sisters who teach in academies and parish schools. 
 Educational institutions in the diocese are: 1 uni¬ 
 versity, 32 professors, 615 students, 5 academies, 473 
 students (35 boys and 438 girls); 1 normal school, 43 
 students; 1 training -school for nurses; 16 parochial 
 schools. The following charitable institutions exist 
 in the diocese: 1 orphanage, 4 hospitals, 1 House of 
 the Good Shepherd. Societies among the clergy are: 
 St. Joseph’s Ecclesiastical Society for aged and infirm 
 priests; among the laity: Catholic Social Betterment 
 League and several fraternal organizations. A dio¬ 
 cesan magazine called “The Inland Empire Catholic 
 Messenger’’ is published monthly. 
 
SPRINGFIELD 
 
 707 
 
 STOEGER 
 
 Springfield, Diocese of (Campifontis; cf. C. E., 
 XIV—236d)*, in Massachusetts, suffragan of Boston. 
 The present bishop is Rt. Rev. Thomas M. O’Leary, 
 b. 1875, ordained 1897, elected 1G June, 1921, 
 consecrated 8 September following, succeeding 
 Bishop Beaven (d. 5 October, 1920). The Catholic 
 population of the diocese is 332,758. There are: 
 366 secular priests, 26 regular priests, 188 churches 
 with resident priests, 26 missions with churches, 2 
 colleges with 915 students, 2 academies, 72 parochial 
 schools with 34,085 pupils, 5 orphan asylums with 
 626 orphans, 35,751 young people under Catholic 
 care, 1 House of the Good Shepherd, 8 hospitals, 1 
 infant asylum with 90 inmates, 5 homes for the aged 
 poor with 326 inmates, 3 homes for working girls. 
 
 Stanislawow, Diocese of (Stanislaopoliensis; 
 cf. C. E., XIV—247a), of the Greek-Ruthenian Rite 
 in Galicia, Poland, suffragan of Lwow (Lemberg). 
 Almost the entire diocese was laid waste during the 
 World War; many of the churches were desecrated, 
 destroyed or burnt; many priests were driven out of 
 the country, and many died in prison, but in spite 
 of the numberless adversities they never failed in true 
 apostolic zeal for their flocks. The laity proved 
 staunch defenders of their country, and every town 
 of the diocese suffered the death of at least 19 of its 
 youth. The present bishop is Mgr. Gregory 
 Chomyszyn, born at Chomyszyn in 1867, elected 
 16 April, 1904, to succeed Mgr. Szeptycki, promoted 
 to Lwow. Among the clergy of note recently de¬ 
 ceased are: Jeremias Gommickyj, O.S.B.M., the first 
 rector of the thelogical seminary at Stanislawow, and 
 founder of the convent of the Sisters Servants of the 
 Blessed Virgin Mary, exiled into Symbirck, Russia, 
 where he died in 1916; Analbert Halibej, spiritual 
 director of the theological seminary, butchered by 
 Polish soldiers in 1919. Of the Catholic population 
 of 1,022,000, those belonging to the Greek Rite are 
 Ukrainians. The Redemptorist Fathers of Stanis¬ 
 lawow embraced the Greek Rite in 1919 and founded 
 their first such monastery within the city itself. 
 There are 538 secular and 22 regular priests and 12 
 lay brothers; 22 deaneries; 433 parishes; 234 mother 
 churches with 298 affiliated churches and 64 chapels; 
 5 Reformed Basilian monasteries for men; 2 monas¬ 
 teries for women; 1 convent for women with 15 
 foundations; 1 theological seminary; 1 college for 
 boys with 70 students, and 1 for girls with 40 students; 
 1 normal school for girls with 6 teachers and 200 
 students; 9 orphanages; 12 day nurseries. The govern¬ 
 ment has established normal schools everywhere; 
 about 5 seminaries for teachers of the normal schools, 
 and 8 gymnasia. The religious organizations among 
 the clergy are: Society of the Immaculate Conception, 
 and Association of St. Peter; and among the laity: 
 Association of St. Nicholas, Apostleship of Prayer, 
 and charitable Association of St. John. 
 
 Stanley-Falls, Vicariate Apostolic of (de 
 Stanley Falls; cf. C. E., XIV—247), in Belgina 
 Congo, is still governed by Mgr. Gabriel-Emile 
 Grison, titular Bishop of Sagalassus. Mgr. Grison 
 was born at St. Julien, in the Diocese of Verdun on 25 
 December, 1860, and ordained in December, 1883. 
 He joined the priests of the Sacred Heart of St. Quen¬ 
 tin in 1886 and was professed on 13 September, 1887; 
 he was superior in Ecuador in 1890, and was sent to 
 the Congo mission in 1897, becoming Prefect Apos¬ 
 tolic of Stanley-Falls on 4 August, 1904; appointed 
 Vicar Apostolic on 12 March, 1908, and consecrated 
 at Rome by Cardinal Gotti on 11 October following. 
 The vicariate has 13 Franciscan Sisters; 348 native 
 catechists; 22,929 Catholics and 20,042 catechumens; 
 2991 baptisms were administered last year. The war 
 called away 6 missionaries, who were under arms dur¬ 
 
 ing the four years—3 in France, 3 in Kamcrun. All 
 of them returned safely, but four of them have been 
 sent to Kamcrun to replace the German Fathers, who 
 had that mission formerly. There are now 30 priests 
 and 5 lay brothers in charge of 11 missions: St. 
 Gabriel, Stanleyville (2), Avakubi, Lokandu, Bana- 
 lya, Basoko, Bafwalaka, Beni, Yanonge and Ponthier- 
 ville. All the last four have clay-wall churches, 
 the others have brick churches in Roman or 
 Gothic style; there are at least 250 small rural chapels. 
 The Franciscan Missionary Sisters of Mary have 
 establishments at St. Gabriel, Basoko, and Stanley¬ 
 ville (left bank); the Marist Brothers have charge of 
 the state school at Stanleyville (right bank). There 
 are 11 central schools with 1249 pupils; and 116 rural 
 schools taught by catechists with 1292 pupils. The 
 Sisters have 3 girls’ schools with 120 pupils; the 
 Brothers have a primary school at Stanleyville with 
 300 pupils; a clerical school with 14 pupils; and a 
 professional school with 50 pupils. In October, 1921, 
 petite seminaire was opened at Bafwalaka with 22 
 students. Each mission, except Stanleyville (right 
 bank), has a dispensary and in case of necessity takes 
 in abandoned children. The Sisters have a small 
 leper-hospital at St. Gabriel and visit the lazaret for 
 sleeping-sickness victims, 2 miles from Stanleyville, 
 three times a week; they have charge, moreover, of 
 the European and the native hospitals of the Grand 
 Lacs Railway at Stanleyville (left bank). In addition 
 the mission has 14 workshops and 3 farms where the 
 natives are taught masonry, carpentry, gardening and 
 agriculture. 
 
 Stanton, William Jerome, Jesuit missionary b. 
 at Staunton, Illinois, 8 February, 1870, d. at St. 
 Louis, 10 March, 1910, the son of Thomas Stanton 
 and Regina Helen Brawner. Stanton entered the 
 Jesuit novitiate near Florissant, Missouri, 16 July, 
 1887. In 1894 he was sent to teach in St. Ignatius 
 College, Chicago, and in 1895 to Detroit. In 1896 
 he was sent to a newly opened college at Belize, the 
 capital of British Honduras, Central America. Here 
 he found time to collect specimens of insects, crus¬ 
 taceans, reptiles, etc., the fauna of British Honduras. 
 In 1899, he returned to St. Louis for his theology, 
 but was sent in 1901 to Manila where he studied at 
 the observatory of the Spanish Jesuits and was or¬ 
 dained in 1902, the first American priest to be or¬ 
 dained in the Philippines. In 1904 he returned to 
 America and soon after left for Europe where he spent 
 his tertianship at Manresa near Barcelona, Spain. 
 Exceptional scientific gifts and equipment marked him 
 out for fine work in entomology but he preferred to 
 go as a missionary to the Indians he had seen on his 
 vacations some years before in British Honduras. 
 In October, 1905, he went back to Belize and soon 
 left for the west of the colony to begin a new mission 
 among the Mayo Indians. He opened the mission 
 alone and worked there for five years in face of every 
 hardship, preaching, teaching, being the Good 
 Shepherd to the half civilized natives of the district. 
 At the end of 1909, although his quest for souls had 
 been most fruitful, the years of hardship had ruined 
 his health and Father Stanton was forced to return 
 to St. Louis where he died of cancer. 
 
 Samuel Fowle Telfair, Jr. 
 
 Stelnamanger, Diocese of. See Szombathelt 
 
 Stoeger, Johann Baptist, Redemptorist lay 
 brother, b, at Enrersfeld, near Vienna, on 4 October, 
 1810; d. at Eggenburg, Austria, on 3 November, 
 1883. He was received into the Redemptorist Con¬ 
 gregation as a coadjutor brother 18 March, 1840. 
 The forty-six years which he passed in religion in the 
 humble role of assistant cook and baker he sanctified 
 
STONE 
 
 708 
 
 STUART 
 
 by his humility and his devotion towards the Blessed 
 Sacrament and Our Lady. He died with a reputation 
 of unusual holiness and the cause of his canonization 
 was introduced at Rome on 22 December, 1915. 
 
 Stone, James Kent, afterwards and better known 
 as Father Fidelis, Passionist, b. in Boston 10 
 November, 1840, d. 14 Oct., 1921. He was a grand¬ 
 son, on the maternal side, of the famous jurist, 
 Chancellor James Kent. His father was the Rev. 
 John Stone. He graduated at Harvard in 1861, 
 studied for a time at Gottingen in Germany, saw 
 service in the American Civil War and became an 
 Episcopal minister in 1866. He had been professor 
 of the classics and president in Kenyon College, 
 Ohio, and of Hobart College, New York. He be¬ 
 came a Catholic in 1869, after a perusal of the 
 appeal of Pope Pius IX to the world outside of 
 the Church to enter the fold. He was received, on 
 8 December, at Madison, N. J., by Dr. Wigger, 
 then pastor of the church, and subsequently Bishop 
 of' Newark. The “Invitation Heeded” was written 
 to explain his conversion. He was ordained priest 
 by Cardinal McCloskey, 21 December, 1872, and 
 entered the Paulist Community, but in 1878 sub¬ 
 sequently became a Passionist, his two young 
 daughters having been adopted by Michael J. 
 O’Connor of San Francisco. The mother of these 
 children had died some years previously. He spent 
 three years in Rome and was then sent to South 
 America, where he labored for twelve years as 
 provincial consultor, master of novices and provin¬ 
 cial. He preached at Harvard in 1896 and 1897 
 and in 1901, at the request of President Eliot, took 
 charge of the 1400 pupils who attended the Summer 
 school. In 1908 he was recalled to South America, 
 where he remained until 1914 and was then assigned 
 to Mexico but was unable to enter the country 
 because of the civil wars that were raging there. In 
 1919 he retired to Norwood Park, Chicago, and for 
 two years was a victim of great physical suffering. 
 There his daughter joined him and brought him 
 to her home in California where he had the happi¬ 
 ness of saying Mass until two days before his death. 
 His famous book, “The Invitation Heeded,” had 
 gone through seventeen editions and had been 
 translated into several languages. 
 
 Strasbourg, Diocese of (Argentinensis; cf. 
 C. E., XIV—313b), in France, directly dependent on 
 the Holy See. In 1918 Alsace was restored to France 
 and the religious situation under the Concordat with 
 Germany was maintained. Rt. Rev. Charles Joseph 
 Ruch was nominated by the French Government and 
 appointed bishop of Strasbourg 1 August, 1919. He 
 was b. at Nancy 24 September, 1873, ordained 17 
 July, 1897, elected titular bishop of Gerasa and 
 coadjutor bishop of Nancy, 14 June, 1913, conse¬ 
 crated 16 July. He was appointed bishop of Nancy 
 21 October, 1918, and transferred to the see of Stras¬ 
 bourg in 1919, succeeding Rt. Rev. Adolph Fritzen, 
 who died in that year. According to the statistics 
 for 1921, the diocese contains 720 parishes, about 860 
 churches, 1 monastery for men (Trappists), 15 con¬ 
 vents for men, about 1100 secular priests, 20 religious 
 orders of women, 1 seminary with about 160 semi¬ 
 narians. The educational institutions in the diocese 
 are: 1 university at Strasbourg, 15 professors, about 
 180 theological students, 2 colleges for men, 12 
 boarding schools for girls. The charitable institutions 
 are in a flourishing condition. Among them are sev¬ 
 eral juvenile institutions, 1 institution for the blind, 
 1 for the deaf and dumb. All the public institutions 
 admit the ministry of priests and most of them are in 
 charge of Sisters. There are in the diocese the follow¬ 
 ing congregations of men: Franciscans, Capuchins, 
 
 Dominicans, Congregation of the Holy Ghost, Ob- 
 lates of Mary Immaculate, White Fathers of the 
 African Missions, Brothers of the Christian Doctrine, 
 Marist Fathers. Two associations have been founded 
 in the diocese for the defence of Catholic rights, 
 Catholic League of Alsace and the League of Parents. 
 Four German and two French dailies are published 
 in the diocese. 
 
 Strassmaier, Johann Nepomuk, Assyriologist, b. 
 at Hagenberg, Bavaria, on 15 May, 1846; d. at Lon¬ 
 don on 11 January, 1920; son of Johann Evangelist 
 and Theresa (Pichler) Strassmaier. After preliminary 
 studies at Hagenberg and Metten, and a brief stay in 
 the Seminary of Ratisbon, he entered the Jesuit 
 novitiate at Gorheim near Sigmaringen. He studied 
 philosophy at Maria Laach and with two hundred fel¬ 
 low-Jesuits served in the ambulance department of 
 the German Army during the War of 1870, being 
 awarded a medal and certificate for fidelity to duty. 
 This .availed him but little, for with his fellow-religious 
 he was exiled soon after by the German Protestants 
 and took refuge at Alost in Belgium. The following 
 year he crossed over to England and completed his 
 studies at Ditton Hall and St. Beuno’s (Wales), being 
 ordained in 1876. Two years later he was sent to 
 London, where he began his intensive life study of 
 the Babylonian remains in the British Museum. As a 
 result of his labours he published six valuable tomes 
 of Assyrian texts, translations and studies: “Alpha- 
 batisches Verzeichnis der assyrischenund akkadischen 
 Worter” (1886); ‘‘ Worterverzeichnis zu den babylon- 
 ischen Inschriften in Museum zu Liverpool” (1886); 
 “Inschriften von Nabonidus” (1886-89); “Inschriften 
 von Nabuchodonosor” (1889); “Inschriften von Cy¬ 
 rus” (1889). Later he published the inscriptions of 
 Cambyses and Darius. With Joseph Epping, S. J., 
 he undertook the testing of the Babylonian Calendar- 
 Tablets and Observation-Lists, and after eight years’ 
 study and calculation they produced their remarkable 
 “Astronomisches aus Babylon,” which contained quite 
 a number of fundamental discoveries regarding Baby¬ 
 lonian astronomy and chronology. One of the greatest 
 Oriental scholars of the age, Father Strassmaier was 
 in addition one of the best-known and most popular 
 spiritual directors in London. 
 
 Stuart, Janet Erskine, Superior General of the 
 Society of the Sacred Heart, b. at Cottesmore, Rut¬ 
 land, England, 11 November, 1857; d. at Roe- 
 hampton, London, 21 October, 1914. She was the 
 youngest daughter of Rev. and Hon. Andrew Stuart, 
 son of the second Earl of Castlestewart, the male 
 representative of the royal Stuarts. She became a 
 Catholic in 1879, and three years later entered the 
 novitiate of the Sacred Heart at Roehampton, where 
 she became secretary to Reverend Mother Digby 
 (q. v.). Professed in 1889, she then became mistress 
 of novices, and in 1894 succeeded Mother Digby as 
 Superior. When five years later Mother Digby 
 as superior general visited her convents in the United 
 States, Canada and Mexico, Mother Stuart accom¬ 
 panied her and in 1901 was sent to visit the houses of 
 the Society in the West Indies and South America. 
 In May, 1911, on the death of Mother Digby, with 
 whom she had worked for twenty-nine years, Mother 
 Stuart was called to France as vicar general, pending 
 the election of a new superior general. The follow¬ 
 ing August she was herself elected to that office, and 
 went to Rome to get the blessing of the Holy Father 
 on her generalate. Later she visited her convents 
 in the eastern part of Europe and finally those in 
 Australia, New Zealand, and Japan, returning to 
 England by way of America, where she gathered 
 together the superiors of the various houses in the 
 vicariate at Manhattanville, N. Y., and made with 
 them an eight days retreat. The last months of 
 
STUHLWEISSENBURG 
 
 709 
 
 SUSPENSION 
 
 Mother Stuart's life were saddened by the events 
 of the war; the Sacred Heart Convent at Liege fell 
 into the hands of the Germans and the nuns fled to 
 Brussels; several days later word was brought to 
 her that two of her religious in Tournai had been 
 shot. She was cut off from communication with 
 her other houses on the continent, and with the 
 help of friends she left the mother house at Ixelles 
 and went to Roehampton, where she died several 
 months later. Mother Stuart’s wide and deep 
 culture, her breadth of view, her understanding of 
 children, her perfect balance, her choice spirit as well 
 as her distinction of style, are shown in her two 
 published works “The Education of Catholic Girls” 
 (1911), which established her reputation as a great 
 educator; and the “Society of the Sacred Heart” 
 (1914), a character sketch, exquisitely etched, of the 
 institute of whose exalted type of spirituality she was 
 such a perfect expression. 
 
 Edith Donovan. 
 
 Stuhlweissenburg, Diocese of. See Szekes- 
 
 FEHERVAR 
 
 Styria, See Jugoslavia 
 
 Suau, Pierre, historian, b. in Guadeloupe, West 
 Indies, on 7 June, 1861; d. on 15 August, 1916. For 
 a long time on the editorial staff of the Etudes, Father 
 Suau,besides contributing to its pages, is the author of 
 several books which attracted considerable attention, 
 notably his “History of St. Francis Borgia,” “Heroic 
 Spain,” “The Society of Jesus,” “Rudolph Hequa- 
 viva,” and others. His “France in Madagascar” was 
 crowned by the French Academy. He was a quick, 
 incisive writer whose broad strokes which sketched a 
 landscape or depicted a character, immediately held the 
 attention of the reader. He was educated at Toulouse 
 and Angers and became a Jesuit in 1878. On a scrap 
 of paper, written long before his demise, were found 
 the words: “I request that no one be permitted to 
 write the smallest necrological notice about me.” 
 
 schools with 30 teachers and 815 pupils; 1 high school 
 with 4 teachers and 42 pupils; 2 orphanages, 1 for 
 boys with 40 children, ana 1 for girls with 68 children. 
 The Government to a certain extent contributes to 
 the support of the orphanages and to some of the 
 Catholic schools. In Padang the laity have the 
 Society of St. Vincent de Paul and in Medan an or¬ 
 ganization for social uplift, and one for political 
 ends. 
 
 Superior, Diocese of (Superiorensis; cf. C. E., 
 XIV—336c), in Wisconsin, suffragan of Milwaukee. 
 According to the statistics of 1922 there were 57,509 
 Catholics in the diocese, including 54,224 whites and 
 3285 Indians. Rt. Rev. Augustin Francis Schinner, 
 first bishop of the diocese, resigned 15 Jan., 1913, 
 and was succeeded by Rt. Rev. Joseph M. Koudelka, 
 b. at Clistowo, diocese of Budweis, 8 Dec., 1852, 
 ordained 8 Oct., 1875, consecrated auxiliary bishop of 
 Cleveland and titular bishop of Germanicopolis 25 
 Feb., 1908, transferred to Milwaukee as auxiliary 
 bishop, 4 Sept., 1911, appointed to the see of Superior, 
 6 Aug., 1913, made assistant at the pontifical throne 
 13 July, 1917. He died 24 June, 1921. He founded 
 the diocesan home for orphans in 1914, and was a 
 zealous missionary among the Slavic races. The see 
 is still vacant. During the war 3 priests became chap¬ 
 lains in the army, 1135 Catholics joined the army, 220 
 joined the navy. Of these 27 were killed and 49 
 wounded. The diocese contains 68 parishes, 153 
 churches, 85 missions, 28 mission stations, 11 con¬ 
 vents for men, 29 for women with 256 sisters, 98 
 secular priests, 21 regulars, 7 lay brothers and 5 
 seminarians who are being educated in seminaries in 
 other dioceses. Educational institutions include 2 
 high schools, 1 academy, 22 elementary schools with 
 4355 pupils, 2 industrial schools with 302 pupils. 
 There are 8 hospitals and 1 orphan asylum in the 
 diocese. Ten public institutions admit the ministry 
 of priests. Two associations exist among the clergy 
 and eight among the laity. 
 
 Sublimation, Psychological. See Psychoanaly¬ 
 sis 
 
 Sumatra, Prefecture Apostolic of (cf. C. E., 
 XIV—333c), embraces the island of Sumatra and 
 some of the lesser surrounding islands, including 
 Banka and Billiton. The inhabitants number 
 6,300,000, of whom 145,000 are in Banka and 68,- 
 500 in Billiton The Catholic population is 6754; 
 and includes 5081 Europeans, 912 Japanese or Chinese 
 and 706 Malays. There are 180,000 Protestants, 
 600,000 pagans, and the rest mostly Mohammedans. 
 The principal mission centers are: Padang, Medan, 
 Kolta Radja, Sawah Loento, Font de Kock, Palem- 
 bang, Telok Betong, Tandjong Sakti, Sambong in 
 Banka, Manggar in Billiton. The soil is rich and 
 well cultivated, yielding tobacco, coffee, tea, rubber, 
 pepper, wood, etc. The principal mineral products 
 are petroleum, coal and gold. The present prefect 
 apostolic is Rt. Rev. Mathias Brans, who succeeded 
 the late Bishop Liberatus Cluts, d. 23 April, 1921, 
 after a life of zealous labors, first among the people 
 of Borneo, and lastly in the Prefecture Apostolic of 
 Sumatra. Seventeen Capuchins look after the 7 
 larger and 15 lesser stations and the 15 churches, and 
 frequently during the year journey to about 100 
 different localities to attend the resident Catholics. 
 They are assisted in their labors by 4 Capuchin lay 
 brothers, 41 Sisters of Charity from Tilburg, and 19 
 lay catechists. For the purpose of teaching the 
 young, the Brothers of the Congregation of Tilburg 
 and the Franciscan Sisters from Dongen in Holland 
 are expected to take up their residence in the pre¬ 
 fecture this year (1922). There are 10 elementary 
 
 Susa, Diocese of (Segusiensis; cf. C..E., 
 XIV—345a), in the province of Turin, Southern 
 Italy, suffragan of Turin. It reports 62 parishes, 
 130 secular priests, a convent of Friars Minor Con¬ 
 ventuals, (the building being an example of perfect 
 Gothic), an institute of Sisters of the Third Order of 
 St. Francis, founded by Rt. Rev. E. G. Rosaz, 
 bishop of Susa (d. 1913), which has other founda¬ 
 tions at Turin and in Switzerland; an institute of 
 the Sisters of St. Joseph with foundations within 
 and without the diocese, with hospices for pupils 
 of the primary and secondary schools. There is a 
 diocesan seminary with 60 seminarians. The Fran¬ 
 ciscan Sisters have charge of a home for old people 
 and of an orphanage for girls; the Sisters of Charity 
 of a hospital and infant asylum and the Sisters of 
 St. Joseph of an elementary poor school, which is 
 supported by the Government. A mutual benevo¬ 
 lent association is established among the clergy and 
 among the laity there are circles for Catholic youth 
 and groups of Catholic women with their own con¬ 
 stitutions and residences. “La Valsura”, a Catholic 
 weekly, is published by the Tipografia Pia San Carlo. 
 The clergy took an active part in all the committees 
 formed during the war to assist the families of the 
 combatants. The priests of the city founded and 
 maintained for four years the only Casa dei Soldati. 
 The present bishop is Rt. Rev. Umberto Rossi, 
 elected at the Consistory of 13 June, 1921, succeed¬ 
 ing Mgr. Giuseppe Castelli, who was bishop of Susa 
 from 1911 until his transfer to Cuneo. 
 
 Suspension (cf. C. E., XIV—345d), is a censure 
 by which a cleric is deprived totally or partially of his 
 
SWATOW 
 
 710 
 
 SWATOW 
 
 office or of his benefice or of both office and benefice. 
 Suspension from office means that one is forbidden 
 to exercise the power of orders or of jurisdiction, or to 
 act as an official administrator; suspension from 
 jurisdiction generally forbids any act of jurisdiction, 
 whether ordinary or delegated, in either forum; sus¬ 
 pension from divine functions forbids any exercise 
 of the power of orders which one has obtained through 
 ordination or by a special privilege; suspension from 
 orders forbids any exercise of the power of orders 
 obtained through ordination as distinct from the 
 power of jurisdiction or the powers received by 
 special privilege. Suspension from sacred orders 
 forbids any exercise of the power of orders received 
 through major ordination; suspension from a particu¬ 
 lar order forbids any act of that order, and the sus¬ 
 pended party may not confer that order on another 
 or receive a higher order himself, or exercise it if he 
 received it in spite of this prohibition. 
 
 No suspended cleric may be promoted to a higher 
 order. Anyone exercising an order from which he 
 has been suspended becomes irregular. While sus¬ 
 pension imposed by the common law of the Church 
 affects the offices or benefices held anywhere by the 
 suspended party, an ordinary cannot suspend a cleric 
 from a particular office or benefice held in another 
 diocese. Just as in the case of excommunication, a 
 cleric who is suspended from the administration of 
 the sacraments or sacramentals cannot lawfully ad¬ 
 minister them unless when he has been requested by 
 the faithful to do so. He may always consider the 
 request legitimate, unless he was suspended by a 
 condemnatory or declaratory sentence, in which 
 case it is only in danger of death that the faithful 
 may ask for absolution, or, if there is no other priest 
 present, for the other sacraments or sacramentals. 
 Again, no cleric under suspension after a declaratory 
 or condemnatory sentence can validly exercise the 
 right of election, presentation, or nomination, or 
 acquire any ecclesiastical dignity, office, benefices 
 or pension. If such a sentence were pronounced any 
 pontifical favor received later by the suspended cleric 
 would be of no effect, unless the suspension wa, 
 mentioned in the rescript. 
 
 Suspension reserved to the Holy See is incurred 
 ipso facto (a) by a consecrating bishop, the assistant 
 bishops or priests, and the bishop consecrated when 
 the consecration takes place without an Apostolic 
 mandate—general suspension; (b) by clerics promoted 
 to orders by simony or receiving or administering any 
 other sacrament simoniacally—general suspension; 
 
 (c) by one who has presumed to receive orders from 
 a person censured by sentence, or from a notorious 
 apostate, heretic, or schismatic—suspension from 
 divine functions; those, however, who acted in good 
 faith in receiving these orders are prohibited from 
 exercising them, until they receive a dispensation; 
 
 (d) it is incurred for a year by anyone who ordains a 
 person not subject to him without proper dimissorial 
 letters, or his own subject without testimonial letters, 
 or his own subject without testimonial letters from 
 the ordinaries of the places where he lived long enough 
 to contract a canonical impediment, or by one con¬ 
 ferring major orders on a candidate who lacks a 
 canonical title, or (apart from a privilege) on a 
 religious who does not belong to a house situated in 
 the territory of the ordaining bishop, unless the 
 bishop of the place of residence of the religious con¬ 
 sents or is of a different Rite or is absent or not 
 holding ordinations at the specified times or has 
 died and left no one with episcopal orders in his 
 place—suspension from conferring orders; (e) by a 
 religious in major orders whose profession has been 
 declared null by reason of his deliberate deceit— 
 general suspension; (f) by a chapter or those who 
 admit a person elected, presented or nominated, 
 
 before he exhibits the requisite letters—suspension 
 from the right of election. 
 
 Suspensions reserved to the ordinary are incurred 
 ipso facto: (a) by a cleric who without his ordinary’s 
 leave cites anyone enjoying the privilege of the forum 
 before a lay judge—suspension from office; (b) by a 
 fugitive religious in sacred orders who has left his 
 community, but with the intention of returning— 
 general suspension reserved to his higher superior. 
 
 Non-reserved suspension is incurred ipso facto: (a) 
 by a priest presuming to hear confessions or to absolve 
 from reserved sins, without obtaining the necessary 
 jurisdiction—suspension from hearing confessions; 
 (b) by those who with malice have had themselves 
 ordained without dimissorial letters or with false 
 ones, or before the canonical age, or without having 
 received the lower orders—suspension from the order 
 received; (c) by a cleric who presumes to resign his 
 ecclesiastical office, benefice, or dignity into lay 
 hands—suspension from divine functions; by an 
 abbot or prelate nullius who has neglected to obtain 
 the necessary episcopal blessing within the fixed time— 
 suspension from jurisdiction; (d) by a vicar capitular 
 who unlawfully grants dimissorial letters for ordina¬ 
 tion during a vacancy—suspension from divine 
 functions; (e) by religious superiors who unlawfully 
 presume to send their subjects to be ordained by an 
 extern bishop—suspension from saying Mass for a 
 month. 
 
 Suspension ex informata conscientia. —This extra¬ 
 ordinary remedy may be applied by the ordinary 
 only when the usual method of procedure cannot be 
 followed without grave inconvenience. The decree is 
 generally but not necessarily to be in writing and 
 should contain the exact date, an express statement 
 that the suspension is ex informata conscientia, and 
 indication of the duration, which must be temporary, 
 unless the suspension is inflicted as a censure, in 
 which case the cause must be stated, and further¬ 
 more should clearly mention what acts are prohibited. 
 The suspended cleric may appeal to the next higher 
 superior. An important change is that, while it 
 may never be inflicted for a notorious crime, it may 
 be imposed for a public offence: (a) if the crime is 
 revealed to the ordinary by unimpeachable witnesses 
 who alone can prove it but who cannot be induced to 
 give evidence in court, and no judicial proof can be 
 obtained from others; or (b) if the cleric himself 
 prevents the judicial investigation from being begun 
 or completed; or (c) if the judicial process would 
 involve a conflict with the civil law or probably 
 cause scandal. It rests with the bishop in his dis¬ 
 cretion and charity to reveal the cause or crime to 
 the cleric involved. 
 
 Swatow, Vicariate Apostolic of, in China, Was 
 erected on 6 April, 1914, under the name of Chao- 
 chau, by separation from the Prefecture Apostolic 
 of Kuan Tom (Canton); on 18 August, 1915, the name 
 of the vicariate was officially changed to Swatow. 
 The mission has an area of 50,000 square miles and 
 embraces the civil prefectures of Chaochau and 
 Kie-yang and five sub-prefectures of Honitchow, viz., 
 Chang-ning, Lu-feng, Lung-chuan, Lien-ping, Ho-ping. 
 It is bounded on the north by the vicariate of Southern 
 Kiang-si and Fu-kien, on the east by the vicariate of 
 Amoy and the Chinese Sea, on the south by the 
 Chinese Sea and on the west by the Vicariates of 
 Hong-kong and Canton. The islands in the Chinese 
 Sea belonging to the civil districts mentioned above 
 are under the jurisdiction of the vicar. The vicariate, 
 which has a population of six millions, mostly of the 
 Holo and Kakka races, is under the spiritual care of 
 the Foreign Missions. The first and present vicar 
 Apostolic is Mgr. Adolphe Rayssac, b. at Lunan in 
 the diocese of Cahors, France, on 4 November, 
 
r SWEDEN 
 
 711 
 
 SWEDEN- 
 
 1866; studied at Figeac, Montfaucou, and Cahors, 
 entered the Missions Etrangeres at Paris in August, 
 1887; ordained on 21 Sept., 1889; set out for the 
 Chinese mission three months later. Mgr. Rayssac 
 was appointed vicar apostolic on 17 July, 1914, 
 and consecrated at Hong-kong on 3 May, 1915. 
 From March, 1915, till February, 1917, he was 
 Apostolic administrator of Canton. He resides at 
 Swatow. The statistics of the vicariate for 1917 
 recorded 22 European and 7 Chinese priests; 224 
 churches and chapels; 33,695 Catholics; 594 adult 
 baptisms, 3107 infant baptisms (1976 being of pagan 
 parentage); 77 confirmations; 5794 annual and 70,186 
 devotional confessions; 5208 Easter and 114,619 
 devotional communions; 76 boys’ schools with 1490 
 pupils; 12 girls’ schools with 497 pupils; 5 orphanages 
 with 148 orphans. 
 
 The notable events in the vicariate since its erec¬ 
 tion are as follows: In October, 1915, Father Louis 
 Etienne, when travelling to Swatow to report in 
 accordance with the French military law, was shot 
 and stabbed by brigands, but he recovered after 
 eight months in a hospital at Hong-kong; in 1916 the 
 Sisters of St. Paul of Chartres were withdrawn from 
 the vicariate; in 1917 the southern armies defeated the 
 northern forces, but in June, 1918, Swatow was 
 recovered by the Pekin Government. A very violent 
 earthquake occurred on 13 February, 1918, killing 
 hundreds in Swatow and on the island of Namoa. 
 In Swatow the Catholic church was badly shaken and 
 is beyond repair, while in Chaochowfu the tower of 
 the beautiful church of Notre Dame Auxiliatrice was 
 thrown down and the walls of the building split. 
 
 Sweden, (cf. C. E., XVI—347a).—The area of the 
 monarchy is 173,035 square miles and the population 
 on 31 December, 1920, was 5,904,000, including 
 4,161,000 in the rural communes and 1,743,000 in 
 the cities. 
 
 Education. —In 1919 there were 77 public second¬ 
 ary schools with 27,384 pupils, 51 high schools with 
 3486 pupils, 2 high and 7 elementary technical 
 schools with about 4000 pupils, 17,085 elementary 
 schools with 24,265 teachers and 706,841 pupils, and 
 5 navigation schools. Education is compulsory and 
 free, and children not attending the public schools 
 must furnish proofs of being privately educated. 
 There are 2 universities at Upsala and at Lund, also 
 medical, philosophical, and law faculties at Stockholm 
 and Goteborg. 
 
 Social Conditions. —According to the Poor Law 
 ordinances issued in 1918, the communes are obliged 
 to assist children under 16 years of age, if necessary, 
 and all those who are disabled from disease, old age, 
 and infirmity. In each commune, which constitutes 
 a poor district, there is a board of public assistances. 
 In 1919 a total of 256,441 received relief (140,973 in 
 country parishes, 115,468 in towns). 
 
 Government. —Sweden is a constitutional mon¬ 
 archy, with a King and a Parliament of two houses. 
 The King must be a member of the Lutheran Church, 
 and exercises his power in concert with the Council 
 of State and the Diet. The provincial administration 
 is entrusted in Stockholm to a High Governor and in 
 each of the 24 governments to a prefect, who is 
 nominated by the King. Ecclesiastical affairs and 
 questions relating to the primary schools are dealt 
 with by the parish assemblies, presided over by the 
 pastor of the parish. 
 
 Religion. —The mass of the population belong to 
 the Lutheran Church, recognized as the State religion. 
 There are 12 bishoprics, and 1587 parishes (1920). 
 Upsala is the metropolitan see. The clergy are chiefly 
 supported from the parishes and proceeds of church 
 lands. The Jews number about 6000. 
 
 Economic Conditions. —In 1919 the number of 
 
 farms in cultivation was 428,758, of which 120,788 
 were of 2 hectares and under; 270,511 of 2 to 20 
 hectares, and 34,883 above 100 hectares. The 
 harvest in Sweden was between 50 per cent and 75 per 
 cent more abundant than normal, but the demand 
 was not equal to the supply. In order to allay the 
 discontent caused by the fact that large quantities of 
 foreign wheat was being imported, while Swedish 
 wheat was lying unbought, the government raised 
 the duty on imported grain. In 1920, 286,535 tons 
 of wheat were produced, 1,024,757 tons of oats, 
 1,677,545 tons of potatoes, 3,599,014 tons of sugar 
 beet and fodder roots; and 4,499,896 tons of hay. 
 In 1919, the value of all crops was estimated at 
 2145 million kroner (1 krona = $.268). The public 
 forests in Sweden (mostly on crown lands) have an 
 area of 8,193,981 hectares, and in 1918 yielded 
 5,636,240 cubic metres of timber. In the same year, 
 289,113 men, 50,516 women, 34,980 boys and 10,671 
 girls (under 18 years of age) were employed in the 
 factories. On 15 July, 1921, the Sales Union which 
 had regulated the price of timber, was dissolved, and 
 the sales of timber, which had shrunk to a low level, 
 improved. A new eight-hour week law went into 
 effect on 1 January, 1920. Foreign competition has 
 been severely felt in the iron and steel trade. About 
 4,981,110 tons of iron ore were mined in 1919; of 
 these, 2,418,989 tons were exported. Of the 493,701 
 tons of pig iron mined in 1919, 81,578 tons were 
 exported. In Sweden, 45,108 persons were engaged 
 in mining. The foreign trade of Sweden in 1920, 
 included exports valued at £127,421,500 and imports 
 valued at £187,415,833. At the end of 1919, the 
 railway mileage in Sweden was 9392, of which 3409 
 miles belonged to the state. The total revenue was 
 estimated at £71,926,310, the expenditure, £46,792,- 
 777. On 1 January, 1921, the total debt, chiefly 
 contracted for productive purposes, was 1,270,440,927 
 kronor, or 217 kroner per head of the population 
 (96 in 1910). The assets in the state were 1,207,- 
 
 806,233 kroner. 
 
 Defence. —The military forces of Sweden are 
 recruited on the principle of universal suffrage. The 
 peace standing (1920) is about 86,507 men. The 
 Swedish navy is used entirely as a coast defense force. 
 
 Recent History. —During the World War, 
 Sweden maintained the strictest neutrality, although 
 its shipping suffered greatly from the submarines and 
 the allied blockade. After the war, Sweden claimed 
 the Alland Islands, which were, however, awarded 
 by the League of Nations to Finland. On 26 May, 
 1919, the Swedish Parliament granted full national 
 suffrage to women, who in 1909, had been given 
 municipal suffrage. In June, 1919, the Swedish 
 Congress of Independent Socialists at Stockholm, 
 voted to join the “Third International at Moscow” 
 and adopted a resolution favoring Bolshevist prin¬ 
 ciples. In 1920, a marriage law was passed depriving 
 the husband of personal guardianship over the wife 
 and of legal right to dispose of the wife’s property. 
 The wife could acquire property in her own right. 
 If both parties desired a divorce, no court action was 
 required, the parties merely registered before a judge, 
 and the marriage was automatically dissolved. A 
 trade agreement with Soviet Russia was signed in 
 February, 1922. A consultative referendum on the 
 question of alcohol will take place in August, 1922. 
 
 Sweden, Vicariate Apostolic of, is under the 
 guidance of Mgr. Albert Bitter, titular bishop of 
 Doliche. He was born in 1848 at Melle, in the 
 diocese of Hildesheim, was ordained in 1874, and 
 spent his early priestly life as a missionary in Sweden, 
 first in Stockholm and then in Goteborg. Later he 
 went to Mecklenburg and returning to Sweden was 
 raised to the episcopacy and appointed vicar apos¬ 
 tolic 1893. To his apostolic labors is largely due 
 
SWEDENBORGIANS 
 
 712 
 
 SWITZERLAND 
 
 the sure if slow progress of the Church of Sweden. 
 Although liberty of conscience has not yet been for¬ 
 mally proclaimed in the Swedish Constitution, it is a 
 practical fact; religious orders are allowed to develop 
 without government interference and the Sisters of 
 St. Joseph and the Grey Sisters of Breslau conduct 
 several schools there. In 1921, the first Catholic 
 daily, the ‘ ‘ Credo’ ’, was published by the same publish¬ 
 ers who had issued a Catholic review of that name two 
 years earlier. Statistics for 1921 give 15 priests, 17 
 churches and chapels, 5 stations and a Catholic 
 population of 2558. 
 
 Swedenborgians —I. General Convention of the 
 New Jerusalem in the United States of America. 
 In 1912 a very complete Book of Worship was 
 adopted by the General Convention. In recent 
 years this sect has suffered a decrease in nearly all 
 particulars. In 1921 it reported 101 churches, 99 
 ministers and 6519 members. 
 
 II. General Church of the New Jerusalem. This 
 sect centers its main energies on the religious edu¬ 
 cation of children through the three parochial 
 schools which it supports. Its higher educational 
 center is at Bryn Athyn, Pa., where also an experi¬ 
 ment at reviving the medieval guilds was attempted 
 in the erection of a stately cathedral under the 
 direction of Ralph Adams Cram. The guild experi¬ 
 ment was not entirely successful and the architect, 
 Mr. Cram, withdrew from the undertaking. 
 
 Foreign missionary work is carried on in Sweden, 
 Belgium, France, Switzerland, South Africa, Brazil, 
 and Canada. There were in 1916, 6 stations, 5 
 American missionaries, 5 churches and 310 mem¬ 
 bers. In 1921 they reported in the United States 
 15 churches, 35 ministers, and 733 members, show¬ 
 ing a slight decrease in members since 1912. 
 
 Religious Bodies, 1916 (Washington, 1919); Year Book of the 
 Churches (New York, annual). 
 
 N. A. Weber. 
 
 Switzerland (cf. C. E., XIV—358a), a federal 
 republic in Central Europe, divided into 22 cantons, 
 three of which are divided into half cantons. On 
 l December, 1920, the area was 15,976 square miles 
 and the population 2,861,508. According to the 
 1910 census the inhabitants of Switzerland were 
 classified by native tongue as follows: 2,594,186 
 spoke German, 793,264 spoke French; 302,578, 
 Italian; 23,031 spoke other languages. The number 
 of foreigners resident in Switzerland in 1920 was 
 412,306. In 1919 there were 74,205 births, 30,731 
 marriages, and 57 deaths and still births. The 
 number of emigrants in 1920 was 9276. The largest 
 cities with their respective populations are: Zurich, 
 206,120; Basle, 135,385; Bern, 103,385; St. Gall, 
 69,733; Lausanne, 67,858. With the exception of 
 the Moravians and two Lutheran parishes in Geneva, 
 all the Protestants of Switzerland belong to the 
 Evangelical Church. The great majority of these 
 belong to the “National Churches,” organized accord¬ 
 ing to cantons. There are differences in details in 
 the constitutions of these cantonal National Churches. 
 Besides these there are also large independent Prot¬ 
 estant Churches and Evangelical sects of the most 
 varied kinds. In the census the Old Catholics are 
 not counted as independent confessions, but are 
 enumerated among the Catholics. In addition to 
 the Old Catholic bishop, the Christian Catholic 
 National Church is administered by a national synod 
 which meets annually; besides the Old Catholic 
 priests and the bishop, its membership includes dele¬ 
 gates elected by the parishes. The Swiss Jews are 
 united for worship into several communities, which 
 are organized in accordance with the laws of the 
 Confederation for associations. 
 
 According to the census of 1 December, 1920, the 
 number of Protestants amounted to 2,218,589 
 (57 per cent of the population), of Catholics, 1,586,- 
 826 (41 per cent), and of Jews, 20,955 (2 per cent). 
 The Protestants are in a majority in twelve cantons, 
 and the Catholics in ten. Of the more populous 
 cantons, Zurich, Bern, Vaud, Neuchatel, and Basle 
 are mainly Protestant while Luzern, Fribourg, 
 Ticino, Valais, and the Forest Cantons are mainly 
 Catholic. The Jesuit order and its affiliated societies 
 cannot be received in Switzerland, and the foundation 
 of new convents and religious orders is forbidden. 
 The Catholic population is is governed by the sees 
 of Basle and Lugano, Chur, St. Gall, Lausanne 
 and Geneva, and Sion. 
 
 Government. —The constitution of 29 May, 
 1874, which is still in force, provides for a President 
 and Vice-President, elected for one year, and a 
 Parliament of 2 Chambers, a Slander at or State 
 Council, and a Nationalrat or National Council. 
 The first is composed of 44 members, two for each 
 canton and the Nationalrat has 189 members, 
 chosen by the people, one for each 20,000. The 
 executive administration of the Confederation is 
 divided into 7 departments, each of which is under 
 the direction of a member of the Federal Council. 
 When business relative to a particular department is 
 considered in the legislature, the Councillor who 
 manages that department attends, answers questions, 
 gives explanations, and joins in debate. Besides 
 its general administrative (including financial) work, 
 the charge of foreign relations and of the army, the 
 Council supervises the conduct of the permanent 
 civil service of the Confederation. By the law of 
 1914 the Department of Foreign Affairs, which was in 
 charge of the President of the Council and which 
 was changed every year, became permanent and 
 comprised three sections: viz. Foreign Affairs, In¬ 
 ternal Affairs and Commerce. The initiative 
 and referendum prevails, but is seldom used, only 
 three times on 62 laws passed between 1905 and 1919. 
 Three of the cantons are politically divided—Basle 
 into Stadt and Land; Appenzell into Ausser Rhoden 
 and Inner Rhoden, and Unterwald into Obwald and 
 Nidwald. Each of these parts of cantons sends one 
 member to the State Council. In 1919 a new group 
 of Peasants, Artisans, and Bourgeois won 26 seats in 
 the National Council. A Civil Code, combining 
 the old Teutonic customary law with the principles 
 of modern French law was enacted in 1912. A penal 
 code is being prepared (1919). 
 
 Education. —The statistics for 1918 give 302 
 kindergartens, 4229 primary schools with 13,371 
 teachers and 555,353 pupils, 527 secondary schools 
 with 49,170 pupils, and 1877 teachers, 128 middle 
 schools with 26,608 pupils and 1708 teachers. There 
 are also special schools and seven universities. The 
 Academy of Neuch&tel was transformed into a uni¬ 
 versity in May, 1909, but without the faculty of 
 medicine. 
 
 Social Conditions. —There is a Federal Insurance 
 Law, entitling all Swiss citizens to insurance against 
 illness and accident (passed in June, 1911). Accident 
 insurance is obligatory in industrial establishments 
 under the Federal Liability Law and is adminis¬ 
 tered by the Swiss Accident Insurance Institution. 
 On 31 December, 1919, the prison population con¬ 
 sisted of 3187 of whom 400 were women. 
 
 Economic Conditions. — Agriculture .—It is esti¬ 
 mated that there are 250,000 separate farming prop¬ 
 erties averaging less than 15 acres in size, by far 
 the greater part of which are occupied and worked by 
 the owner or members of his family. In 1920, the 
 production was as follows: wheat, 97,600 metric 
 tons; oats, 45,200 metric tons; potatoes, 768,700 
 metric tons; rye, 37,200 metric tons. According to 
 
SYDNEY 
 
 713 
 
 SYNOD 
 
 the estimates of the Swiss Milk Office, created by the 
 Government in 1917 to regulate the provisioning of 
 the country, milk production for 1913 was estimated 
 at 273,000 metric tons, with a constant decrease dur¬ 
 ing the war years to 186,000 tons in 1919. The 
 amount of milk utilized in the manufacture of cheese, 
 butter, and condensed milk, in 1919 (53,000 tons) was 
 only half the amount used in 1913. In view of the 
 innumerable strikes in the surrounding countries, 
 the labor situation in Switzerland has been very calm. 
 The forty-eight-hour week became effective for all 
 Swiss industrial establishments on 1 January, 1920. 
 xVt the end of 1919 there were 20 central trade unions 
 in the country with a combined membership of 
 223,588. A Federal Labor Bureau was established 
 in 1921 with jurisdiction over all labor questions, 
 including the drafting of bills regulating relations 
 between employer and employee. The Bureau was 
 designed to act also as an intermediary between the 
 Swiss government and the labor organizations of the 
 League of Nations. In 1918 there were 9317 fac¬ 
 tories, including 1222 watch establishments with 
 46,500 employees, of whom some 25,000 were male. 
 The railway mileage of Switzerland in 1920 was 3881, 
 besides 34 miles of foreign railways in the Confedera¬ 
 tion. The state railways are being electrified. In 
 1920 the foreign trade of Switzerland included: im¬ 
 ports valued at $712,777,052, and exports, valued at 
 $550,553,435. In 1921 the revenue of the govern¬ 
 ment was estimated at £14,333,600, and the expendi¬ 
 ture at £20,937,600. The public debt of the coun¬ 
 try, exclusive of the railway debt, amounted on 1 
 January, 1921, to £64,234,264, mostly at 5 per cent. 
 The floating debt was £10,280,000. The total debt 
 was thus £74,514,264. 
 
 Defence. —Switzerland depends for defence on a 
 national militia; service being compulsory and uni¬ 
 versal. The number of soldiers in peace time is 
 about 140,000. In 1920 the military budget was 
 £1,930,989. 
 
 The position of Switzerland in the Great European 
 War (1914), completely surrounded by belligerent 
 Powers, was one of great difficulty. The nation as a 
 whole was extremely anxious to maintain neutrality, 
 though in their sympathies the Swiss people were 
 sharply divided. The country suffered acutely from 
 economic difficulties. Besides maintaining its army 
 on a war footing for the duration of the war, Switzer¬ 
 land became a clearing house for the refugees, wounded, 
 and prisoners of the belligerents, while exiled monarchs 
 and international diplomats made it their headquarters. 
 After the Revolution in Germany, the small districts 
 of Busingen, Jestelten, and Lottstelten in Baden 
 declared themselves united to the canton of Schaff- 
 hausen. In the popular referendum held on 15 May, 
 1920, 1134 cantons voted for and 1034 against joining 
 the League of Nations. The popular vote favored it 
 by 400,000 to 300,000. 
 
 Sydney, Archdiocese of (Sydneyensis; cf. C. 
 E., XIV—365b), in Australia. In 1917, 12 parishes 
 were separated from the archdiocese to help form the 
 new diocese of Wagga-Wagga. In 1921 the centenary 
 of the foundation of the church in Australia was 
 solemnly celebrated at Sydney, the hierarchy of 
 Australasia attending. On 8 June, 1913, the Arch¬ 
 bishops of Sydney and Melbourne laid the foundation 
 stone of the new cathedral and £11,000 were sub¬ 
 scribed on that day. It is hoped that the work will 
 be completed in five years. The archdiocese is in a 
 flourishing condition, due in great part to the zeal 
 and energy of its present administrator, Most Rev. 
 Michael Kelly. He was b. at Waterford, Ireland, 
 13 Feb., 1850, ordained 1 Nov., 1872, rector of the 
 Irish College at Rome, 1891, elected titular Arch¬ 
 bishop of Achrida 16 July, 1901, and coadjutor of the 
 
 archdiocese of Sydney, consecrated 15 Aug. following, 
 succeeding the late Cardinal Moran, 16 Aug., 1911. 
 In his episcopate was founded the Apostolic Delega¬ 
 tion in Australia, Mgr. Cerretti being the first dele¬ 
 gate. According to the statistics of 1922 the arch¬ 
 diocese contains 86 parishes, 177 churches, 156 
 secular priests, 105 regulars, 270 brothers, 1668 
 nuns. There are 3 seminaries in the archdiocese with 
 182 seminarians. Educational institutions are: 43 
 high schools, 369 teachers, 5345 students; 144 ele¬ 
 mentary schools, 705 teachers, 34,932 pupils. No 
 census of the Catholic population has been taken 
 since 1911. The following institutions exist in the 
 archdiocese: 2 homes (1 conducted by the Little 
 Sisters of the Poor, 1 for infirm priests), 9 hospitals, 
 3 refuges. All the public institutions admit the 
 ministry of priests. Hospitals receive small dona¬ 
 tions from the government. There are two Catholic 
 weekly newspapers: the ‘'Catholic Press” and the 
 “Freeman’s Journal.” The official records of the 
 war show that Catholics enlisted in proportion to the 
 population. Chaplains were sent from time to time 
 with the different divisions. Two of them were 
 decorated with the Officer Order of the British Empire. 
 
 Sylvestrines (cf. C. E., XIV—372d).—The Con¬ 
 gregation of Sylvestrines is formed by several monas¬ 
 teries suijuris, and has a superior general, who, with 
 a procurator general and a secretary general form the 
 governing body. They are elected for six years only 
 by the capitular Fathers assembled in general chapter. 
 There is no vicar general. The mother-house of the 
 congregation is the Monastery of St. Sylvester on 
 Monte Fano, though the superior general resides at the 
 monastery of St. Stephen on Monte Cacco. Revised 
 constitutions of the congregation were confirmed by 
 Alexander VIII in 1690, but the present constitutions 
 are those approved by Gregory XVI, 4 May, 1838. 
 The monasteries in Portugal are entirely extinguished. 
 Those in Brazil were ruled by a vicar, but owing to 
 the difficulties of communication and local differences, 
 in the course of time they passed over to the Cassinese 
 Congregation of Benedictines, under which some of 
 them still exist. There were formerly monasteries of 
 Sylvestrine Nuns, which, however, have ceased to 
 exist. Among the saints of the congregation are: 
 Simonettus, Philip of Recanato, Paulinus Bigazzini 
 of Perugia, Bonapars Ghisleri of Jesi, John the Soli¬ 
 tary, Benvenuto of Arcevia, Simon of Roccacontrada, 
 Bartholomew a Cingulo, and many others. The prin¬ 
 cipal records of the congregation are still in manuscript 
 in the general archives. 
 
 Synod (cf. C. E., XIV—388a).—Under the new 
 regime a diocesan synod is to be held in each diocese 
 at least every tenth year, to treat exclusively of the 
 special needs of the clergy and laity of the diocese. 
 It can be convoked only by the bishop or by the 
 vicar general if specially delegated, but not by the 
 vicar capitular, and is to be held ordinarily in the 
 cathedral. The following persons are to be invited 
 and must attend—if they are unable to be present 
 they must inform the bishop of their inability: the 
 vicar general; the cathedral canons or diocesan 
 consultors; the rector of the higher diocesan sem¬ 
 inary; the vicars forane; a representative of each 
 collegiate church, chosen by its chapter from among 
 its members; the parish priests of the city in which 
 the synod is being held; at least one parish from each 
 vicariate forane, chosen from among those who are 
 charged there with the cure of souls; abbots de 
 regimine; and of the superiors of each clerical order 
 or congregation in the diocese, appointed by the 
 provincial, unless when the provincial house is in 
 the diocese and the provincial himself prefers to 
 attend. The bishop may, if he pleases, invite all the 
 
SYON ABBEY 
 
 714 
 
 SYRIA 
 
 religious superiors and any of the secular priests; 
 he can punish any of those who neglect to be present 
 after being summoned, except exempt religious not 
 acting as parish priests. Those who attend have 
 merely a consultive vote, the bishop being the sole 
 legislator; he alone signs the synodal constitutions, 
 which, if promulgated in the synod, begin to bind 
 ipso facto, unless the contrary is expressly provided. 
 
 In each diocese there are to be selected not more 
 than twelve priests skilled in canon law, who need 
 not belong to the diocese, to whom the bishop is to 
 delegate power to act as judges; the bishop decides 
 the number that ought to be appointed and submits 
 the names to the synod for its approval; if between 
 synods any vacancies occur the bishop can fill them 
 after consulting the cathedral chapter; the former 
 judges are called synodal; the latter pro-synodal, 
 but they are otherwise identified in the eyes of the 
 law. They hold office ordinarily until the next 
 synod, but may be re-appointed and may not be 
 removed by the bishop except for grave cause and 
 after consulting the cathedral chapter. The Code 
 does not mention any obligation on the part of the 
 bishop to send the names of the judges to Rome, as 
 was formerly the case. 
 
 Syon Abbey (cf.C.E., XIV—394c)—On 21 April, 
 1920, the fifth centenary of the first profession of 
 monks and nuns of the Bridgettine monastery of Syon 
 was celebrated. In honor of this event Pope Benedict 
 XV restored to the monastery of Syon its former 
 privileges of perpetual abbacy and solemn vows. On 
 4 May, the anniversary of the canonical election of 
 the first abbess of Syon, Rev. Dame Mary Teresa 
 Jocelyn was blessed and installed by the Bishop of 
 Plymouth. 
 
 Syra, Diocese of (Syrensis, cf. C. E., XIV—3195a) , 
 one of the Cyclades Islands in the Greek Archi¬ 
 pelago, suffragan to the Archdiocese of Naxos and 
 Tinos. The present incumbent, Rt. Rev. Anthony 
 Macrioniti, succeeded to the see in 1912 upon the 
 promotion of Bishop Darmanin to the Archdiocese 
 of Corfu. He was born in Smyrna in 1853, studied 
 at the College of Propaganda, and was chancellor 
 of the Archdiocese of Smyrna until his appoint¬ 
 ment as bishop. The Catholic population of this 
 island numbers about 10,000, living mostly in the 
 old town or in a few outlying villages. There are 
 a commercial school for boys conducted by the 
 Christian Brothers—and an academy under the 
 Vincentian Nuns, who also conduct a hospital. 
 The Capuchin Fathers have had a residence and 
 church here since the Seventeenth Century, and 
 the Jesuits have been established on the island 
 since the Eighteenth Century. The 1920 statistics 
 credit it with 25 secular and 6 regular clergy, and 
 20 churches or chapels. 
 
 Syracuse, Diocese of (Syracusensis; cf. C. E., 
 XIV—397c), in the state of New York, suffragan of 
 New York. The present incumbent is the Rt. Rev. 
 John Grimes, b. at Lisnagrey, Ireland, 25 Jan., 
 1856, ordained 19 Feb., 1882, rector of the cathedral 
 of Syracuse, elected titular bishop of Himeria, 1 Feb., 
 1909. and coadjutor bishop of Syracuse, published 29 
 April, consecrated 16 May following, succeeded the 
 Rt. Rev. Patrick Ludden, 6 Aug., 1912. The 
 diocese contains 98 parishes, 137 churches, 39 mis¬ 
 sions, 5 convents for men, 6 for women, 483 Sisters, 
 143 secular priests, 18 regulars, 4 lay brothers, 25 
 seminarians who are being educated in seminaries of 
 other dioceses. The educational institutions include: 
 11 high schools, average attendance 946 (402 boys, 
 544 girls); 3 academies with 43 teachers, average 
 attendance 579 (boys 321, girls 258); 34 elementary 
 
 schools with 430 teachers, attendance 16,344. The 
 following charitable institutions exist in the diocese: 
 3 hospitals, 5 settlement houses, 1 home at Syracuse 
 called the Ludden Home for Working Girls. Regular 
 Sunday services are held at nine public institutions. 
 Associations existing among the clergy are: Euchar¬ 
 istic League, Clerical Fund, Society for Infirm 
 Priests. Among the laity: Knights of Columbus, 
 Catholic Welfare, Society of St. Vincent de Paul and 
 the usual Catholic societies. A paper called “The 
 Catholic Sun” is published at Syracuse. 
 
 Syria (cf. C. E., XIV—405a).—While four of the 
 Catholic Oriental Rites have archbishops in Syria, 
 the Latins are organized in the Vicariate Apostolic of 
 Aleppo. This flourishing vicariate was almost ruined 
 during the war. Most of the missionaries, including 
 the Sisters, were expelled; almost all the churches, 
 schools, colleges, and other institutions were closed or 
 taken over by the Turkish Government. The few 
 workers who remained were helpless to stay the 
 devastation. After the armistice in 1918 the mis¬ 
 sionaries and Sisters began to return to undertake 
 the work of restoration; but even in 1922 not all the 
 vicariate has been blessed with peace, Christians are 
 still being slaughtered, especially in parts of Cilicia 
 and Northern Syria, where six of the Fathers had 
 already been slain. Most of the faithful, abandoning 
 everything, have followed the French forces into 
 exile. The Vicar Apostolic of Aleppo is ex-officio 
 Apostolic Delegate to Syria. The present incumbent 
 Mgr. Frediano Giannini, titular Bishop of Serres, was 
 born at Bozzano in the diocese of Lucca, Italy, on 16 
 June, 1861; he joined the Friars Minor on 8 August, 
 1876, was professed on 22 November, 1881, ordained 
 on 21 December, 1883; he was appointed custodian of 
 the Holy Land, and on 19 January, 1905, named 
 vicar apostolic and Apostolic Delegate. In March, 
 1920, he was decorated with the Cross of the Com¬ 
 manders of the Legion d’Honneur by General Gouraud 
 in the name of the French Government. In 1921 the 
 vicariate comprised 28 quasi-parishes and missions; 
 49 houses of clerical religious, 15 of lay religious, and 
 90 of Sisters; there are 170 priests, all regulars, 130 
 Brothers and 669 Sisters of different congregations. 
 There are about 7500 Catholics of the Latin Rite and 
 335,000 of various Eastern Rites. 
 
 The Jesuit University at Beirut has faculties of 
 philosophy, theology, medicine, seicnce, Oriental 
 letters, law, architecture. The university and college 
 have about 1000 students. Annexed to the university 
 is a seminary for students of various Eastern Rites 
 with thirty-four seminarians. The university astro¬ 
 nomical observatory is located at Ksara on Mount 
 Lebanon. The faculties of law and architecture are 
 dependent on the University of Lyons, and the 
 faculty of medicine belongs to the French Govern¬ 
 ment; but all three are under the direction of the 
 Jesuits who have the appointment of the professors. 
 In addition in 1919-20 there were 15 colleges for boys 
 with 3630 pupils, and 10 for girls with 2230 pupils; 
 120 elementary schools for boys with 10,016 pupils, 
 and 64 for girls with 11,284 pupils; today (1922) the 
 pupils number over 30,000; finally there is a normal 
 school for men, and one for women. Most of the 
 teachers in the schools, most of which are aided by 
 the French Government, are religious, while the re¬ 
 maining teachers are dependent on them. The 
 different Catholic Oriental Rites have also colleges, 
 schools, and institutions of their own, but the Latin 
 schools receive pupils of all rites, and even schis¬ 
 matics and infidels. The Catholic orphanages con¬ 
 tain more than 1000 children, who, in addition to an 
 elementary education, receive suitable manual and 
 technical training. There are 3 foundling asylums; 
 various dispensaries; 3 hospitals; numerous ouvroirs or 
 
SZAMOS-UJVAR 
 
 715 
 
 SZOMBATHELY 
 
 workrooms, where poor girls can get suitable employ¬ 
 ment; 1 home for the aged; numerous religious sodali¬ 
 ties for boys, girls, men and women, with thousands 
 of members; conferences of St. Vincent de Paul in 
 most of the larger cities; workingmens' societies; 
 circles for the young; catechetical societies. Provi¬ 
 sion is made for giving the spiritual exercises to 
 ecclesiastics and the faithful, especially Orientals'. 
 The Jesuits at Beirut have an excellent printing press, 
 where they publish the journal “Al-Bachir" and the 
 periodical, “Al-Machreq,” both in Arabic. 
 
 Capuchin Mission .—The Capuchin Syrian mission 
 was established as early as 1825. Its present superior 
 is Fr. Jerome de Lyons. The Fathers have charge of 
 six quasi-parishes or missionary districts at Beirut, 
 Mersina, Antioch, Tarsus, Baaldath and Khodulek; 
 with 10 churches and 7 stations, 30 Franciscan Third 
 Order sodalities with 2850 tertiaries. They have 
 organized and now direct 29 charitable institutions— 
 refuges, work-rooms, sanatoriums, and especially 
 orphanages—w r ith 4700 inmates or beneficiaries. In 
 1910 they had 106 schools with 6000 pupils; as a sequel 
 to the war they have had to curtail their efforts in this 
 field, but they have already 24 schools—3 of which are 
 colleges—with 62 teachers and 335 students. All the 
 schools and institutions receive Government aid. 
 
 Szamos-Ujvar, See Gherla 
 
 Sze-chwan, Eastern, Vicariate Apostolic of 
 (Se-ciuensis orientalis, cf. C. E., XIV—419a), with 
 residence at Chiong-King-fu, China, is entrusted to 
 the Society of Foreign Missions of Paris, the present 
 vicar apostolic being Rt. Rev. Celestin-Felix-Joseph 
 Phouvellon, titular bishop of Dansara, to which see 
 he was elected on his appointment to this vicariate in 
 1891. The mission reports for 1920-1921 a Christian 
 population of 58,102, 64 parishes and 729 mission 
 stations, 103 secular priests, 37 of whom are French 
 and 66 Chinese; 4 Brothers, 53 Sisters, of whom 7 are 
 Europeans; 211 schools for boys with 4168 pupils and 
 159 for girls with 3116 pupils. There are a theological 
 seminary with 25 seminarians and a lower seminary 
 with 60 students, and a probatorium with 45 students. 
 There are a Carmelite convent with 10 nuns, a hospital 
 conducted by the Franciscan Missionaries of Mary 
 (7 Sisters), 1 native convent of the Sacred Heart with 
 41 Sisters, who conduct 2 hospitals; 1 home for aged 
 women, with 102 inmates, 2 orphanages with 394 
 orphans. “La Vente” a weekly published in Chinese 
 with a supplement in French, has about 2000 sub¬ 
 scribers. A printing press with bindery attached 
 issues Chinese and French books. 
 
 Sz6kesfehervar (German Stuhlweissenbijrg, 
 Diocese of Albaeregalensis, cf. C. E., XIV— 
 317b), in Hungary, suffragan of Esztergom. The 
 present bishop of Szekesfeh6rv<lr is Dr. Ottokar 
 Prohaszka, famous preacher and leader of the 
 Hungarian Catholic movement, b. at Nyitra 10 
 October, 1858, professor of theology in the University 
 of Budapest, elected bishop 11 December, 1905, 
 consecrated in Rome by Pius X, 21 December follow¬ 
 ing, succeeding Mgr. Varosy, promoted to Kalocsa. 
 The Catholic population of 289,772 is for the most 
 part Hungarian; about 3000 are either German or 
 Slavonic. Hospita s w r ere erected during the World 
 War and equipped with the necessary furnishings 
 and provided w th ample food for the care of the 
 inmates. Among the recently deceased of note is 
 Ferdinand Zichy, founder of a political faction that 
 defended the cause of Catholicism in the public 
 assemblies. There are 146 secular and 33 regular 
 priests and 12 lay brothers; 99 parishes, and 132 
 churches; 6 monasteries for men, and 1 for women; 
 1 seminary; 2 colleges for boys with 4 teachers and 
 78 students, and 3 for girls with 9 teachers and 132 
 students; 1 high school with 14 teachers and 270 
 boys students; 147 normal schools with 268 teachers 
 and 20,738 pupils; 3 industrial schools with 28 
 teachers and 400 pupils; 1 hospital; 2 orphanages; 
 1 day nursery. The Government supports the 
 Catholic institutions liberally and all the public 
 schools and gymnasia admit religious instruction. 
 The clergy have an association for mission work; 
 and among the laity there is a popular Catholic 
 organization. One Catholic daily is published. 
 
 Szombathely or (Steinamanger) , Diocese of 
 (Sabariensis) , suffragan of Esztergom in Hungary. 
 Szombathely was an episcopal see even before the 
 invasion of the Huns, but King St. Stephen gave it to 
 the Bishop of Veszprem and, in 1777, the see was re¬ 
 constituted. The present incumbent is Count John 
 Mikes von Zabola, born at Zabola, Diocese of Transyl¬ 
 vania, 27 June, 1876, elected 11 December, 1911. 
 Bishop Mikes was imprisoned in Budapest during the 
 Bela Kuhn regime in 1919 and rescued by Catholic 
 railroad workers. In the diocese there are 463,511 
 Catholics, 194 parishes, 711 churches, and stations, 
 5 abbeys and 6 titular abbots, 2 titular provosts, 8 
 monasteries for men and 20 for women with 288 
 members, 1 seminary with 42 seminarians, 1 college 
 for boys with 2 teachers and 70 students, 5 colleges for 
 girls with 210 students, 423 elementary schools with 
 780 teachers and 63,607 pupils, 5 industrial schools, 
 3 homes for poor, 6 Catholic publications and various 
 associations of the clergy and laity. 
 

 
 T 
 
 Tabasco, Diocese of (Tabasquensis; cf. C. E., 
 XIV—423b), in the Republic of Mexico, suffragan 
 of Yucatan, with episcopal residence at San Juan- 
 Bautista. This see is filled by Rt. Rev. Antonio 
 Hernandez, born in Tepijulco, 23 July, 1864, served 
 as a canon of the Cathedral and vicar general of the 
 diocese of Chilapa, and was appointed bishop 2 
 December, 1912, succeeding Rt. Rev. Leonardo 
 Castellanos, app. 22 March, 1908, d. 19 May, 1912. 
 The diocese embraces a population of about 100,000. 
 No recestati 
 
 Tacambaro, Diocese of (Tacambarensis), in 
 Mexico, erected by a decree of 29 July, 1913, which 
 took seven parishes from the diocese of Michoacan 
 and 16 from Zamora and formed them into the new 
 diocese. However, on account of political troubles 
 the diocese was not really organized until recently, 
 when the first bishop was appointed in the person of 
 Rt. Rev. Leopoldo Lara, 23 December, 1920. He 
 was born in Quiroga, diocese of Michoafcan in 1875 
 and was serving as a pastor there when he received 
 his appointment. Statistics for the diocese are 
 not yet published. 
 
 Tahiti, Vicariate Apostolic of (Insularum 
 Tahiti; cf. C. E.. XIV—430a), comprises the most 
 important of the Society Islands. It is entrusted to 
 the missionaries of Picpus and has its episcopal resi¬ 
 dence at Papeete. The present vicar apostolic is 
 Rt. Rev. Andre-Athanase Hermel, appointed titular 
 Bishop of Casium and coadjutor to the former vicar 
 15 May, 1905, succeeding as vicar in March, 1908. 
 According to 1920 statistics the vicariate comprises 
 a total population of 39,230, of whom 7770 are 
 Catholic, 29,760 Protestants (of whom many are 
 Mormons), and 1700 Pagans, The mission is served 
 by 30 missionary priests, 2 lay brothers, 15 Brothers of 
 Ploermel, 80 catechists, 54 churches or chapels, 
 22 Sisters of St. Joseph of Cluny, 1 school for boys, 
 3 schools for girls, and 13 schools for both boys and 
 girls. 
 
 Taigi, Anna Maria, Blessed. See Anna Maria 
 Taigi, Blessed 
 
 Taiku, Vicariate Apostolic of (de Taikou; cf. 
 C. E., XVI—85b), was formerly part of the Vicar¬ 
 iate Apostolic of Corea. By a decree of 8 April, 1911, 
 the northern part was taken to form the Vicariate 
 Apostolic of Taiku, and entrusted to the Society of 
 Foreign Missions of Paris. Rt. Rev. Florian-Jean- 
 Baptiste Demange, of this congregation was named 
 the first Vicar Apostolic, and appointed titular 
 Bishop of Adrassus, 8 April, 1911. The vicariate 
 takes its name from the city of Taiku where the 
 episcopal residence is situated. By latest statistics, 
 1920-21, the total Catholic population of this territory 
 numbers 30,672; it has 17 European missionaries, 7 
 native priests, 7 Catechists, 2 European Sisters and 
 11 native Sisters, 15 districts, 71 churches and chap¬ 
 els, 403 mission stations, 27 schools for boys with 734 
 pupils, 5 schools for girls with 364 pupils and 119 
 orphaned infants receiving care. During the year the 
 sacraments were administered as follows: 405 adults 
 
 baptized after receiving instruction, 303 aultsd 
 baptized at the point of death, 1533 children of 
 Christian parents and 1310 children of Pagans bap¬ 
 tized when dying; annual confessions, 20,828; confes¬ 
 sions repeated 52,749; Easter communions, 20,360; 
 communions repeated, 174,424; confirmations, 365; 
 marriages, 301; extreme-unctions, 421; and holy 
 viatica, 282. At the close of the year the vicariate 
 counted 528 catechumens. 
 
 Tamaulipas (or Ciudad Victoria), Diocese of 
 (Tamaulipanensis; cf. C. E., XIV—440c), com¬ 
 prises the Mexican State of the same name and seven 
 parishes in the State of Vera Cruz, suffragan of Lin¬ 
 ares. The present bishop is Mgr. Jose Guadalupe 
 Ortiz, b. at Momax, diocese of Zacatecas, 12 Decem¬ 
 ber, 1867, elected 24 January, 1919, and consecrated 
 18 June following, to succeed Mgr. Guzman, de¬ 
 ceased. The revolution impeded to a great extent the 
 progress of the Church in this state. The episcopal 
 residence is at Ciudad Victoria, the capital of Tamauli¬ 
 pas. The Catholic population is given at 315,000 
 although the figures probably mean nominal Catholics. 
 There are 30 parishes, 45 churches, 25 secular priests, 
 15 sisters, 4 colleges for girls with 20 teachers and 
 400 students, and 1 asylum. 
 
 Tananarive, Vicariate Apostolic of (de 
 Tananarive; cf. C. E. XVI—85b), in Madagascar, 
 with residence at Tananarive. It comprises the terri¬ 
 tory formerly known as the Vicariate Apostolic of 
 Central Madagascar. It is entrusted to the Society 
 of Jesus, the present vicar being Rt. Rev. Henri de 
 Lespinasse de Saune, titular Bishop of Rhizus, ap¬ 
 pointed coadjutor to the Vicar Apostolic of Central 
 Madagascar, Rt. Rev. Jean Baptiste Cazet 18 Febru¬ 
 ary, 1900, succeeding as vicar 30 August, 1911. The 
 Franciscan Missionaries of Mary have arrived in the 
 vicariate recently to work among the lepers. They 
 have a novitiate here, as have also the Sisters of Provi¬ 
 dence of Corence, and have also founded a hospital 
 at Tananarive. Mgr. Dantin, who was appointed 
 to be the first Vicar Apostolic of Betafo, was conse¬ 
 crated here, his consecration being the first that has 
 ever taken place in the capital of Madagascar. An 
 upper seminary has been established for recruiting 
 native clergy, and the Premonstratentian Fathers 
 have been introduced into the territory to work in the 
 region of Vatomandrv. An organization for the native 
 Catholic youth, “Knights of the Sacred Heart of 
 Jesus,” has been established, and a society of native 
 religious under the patronage of St. Francis Xavier 
 has been founded. A bi-monthly review is published 
 in Malgache and a French monthly, “Messager du 
 Sacre Cceur de Tananarive,” is also published. Dur¬ 
 ing a recent epidemic one of the missionaries deyoted 
 himself entirely to caring for the needs of the stricken 
 people. During the World War a number of the mis¬ 
 sionaries were mobilized and called to France and two 
 were killed at the front. A number of the native 
 Catholics also served in France and the Orient. At 
 home the Catholics took an active part in all patriotic 
 endeavors. Reverend Mother Zenaide, superior of 
 the Sisters of St. Joseph of Cluny, and a missionary 
 in Madagascar for almost fifty years, was given the 
 
 716 
 
TANGANIKA 
 
 717 
 
 TARAZONA 
 
 Prix Lange , by the French Academy, and the govern¬ 
 ment conferred upon her the medal of honor, gold 
 medal of Madagascar and the rosette of an Oflicier 
 d’Acadkmie, in recognition of the signal services ren¬ 
 dered to the sick and wounded of the French Army by 
 her and her community, and for their devotion to the 
 moral and religious progress of the Malgaches. 
 The vicariate now (1922) counts a total of 108,000 
 baptized Catholics, 6 parishes in the city of Tanana¬ 
 rive, 302 churches besides 50 houses where the faithful 
 gather to practice the Faith, 12 convents of women, 
 44 missionary priests, 133 Sisters, 40 Brothers, 20 of 
 whom are Brothers of the Christian Schools, 1 semi¬ 
 nary, 35 seminarians, 1 college for boys with 290 stu¬ 
 dents, 1 for girls, 119 elementary schools with 179 
 teachers and 17,702 pupils, 1 hospital, 10 homes, 12 
 workhouses and 6 orphanages. The two civil hos¬ 
 pitals and 1 leprosy hospital admit the priests when it 
 is requested. On 8 May, 1921, the feast of St. Joan 
 of Arc was celebrated with great splendor in Tanana¬ 
 rive. 
 
 Tanganika, Vicariate Apostolic of, in former 
 German East Africa, now under a British mandate, 
 confided to the White Fathers with residence at Notre 
 Dame de Karema. The vicar apostolic is Mgr. Joseph- 
 Marie Birraux, b. at Bernex, France, 27 Novembe r, 
 1883, novice at Maison Carree, ordained at Carthage, 
 1908, missionary at Tanganika 1911. At the declara¬ 
 tion of war the territory of the vicariate was a German 
 colony and the missionaries were interned but were 
 later given their liberty, probably through fear of the 
 natives;th ey suffered great privations until the arrival 
 of the English and Belgians. In 1919 Father Birraux 
 was attacked by grippe and he left for Algiers on the 
 advice of the doctor. Returning, he was elected vicar 
 apostolic and titular bishop of Ombus 22 April, 1920, 
 and was consecrated at Bernex 23 June following. The 
 inhabitants of the district number about 3,000,000 
 negroes, 18,871 of whom are converted Catholics. 
 There are 13 missions, 13 churches, 13 stations, 6 
 convents of women, 30 White Fathers, 10 lay broth¬ 
 ers, 1 seminary with 65 seminarians, 4 of whom are in 
 theological studies, 241 elementary schools with 255 
 teachers and 16,906 pupils. 
 
 Taranto, Archdiocese of (Tarentinensis; cf. 
 C. E., XIV—450c), in southern Italy. The see is 
 filled by Most Rev. Orazio Mazzella, born in the 
 diocese of Benevento in 1860, appointed titular Bishop 
 of Cyme 11 February, 1896, promoted to the arch¬ 
 diocese of Rossano 24 March, 1898, made an assistant 
 at the pontifical throne 15 February, 1901, and trans¬ 
 ferred to Taranto 14 April, 1917. He succeeded Most 
 Rev. Giuseppe Cecchini, who filled the see from 1909 
 until his death, 17 December, 1916. The diocese 
 comprises, according to latest statistics: 27 parishes, 
 335 churches, 1 monastery for women, 4 convents for 
 men and 3 for women, 162 secular priests, 15 Brothers, 
 170 Sisters, 1 seminary, 10 seminarians, 1 higher 
 school for boys with 40 students, 3 for girls with 150 
 students, 1 professional school with 4 teachers and 
 40 students, 6 elementary schools with 25 teachers 
 and 1000 students, 2 homes, 4 asylums and 3 hospitals. 
 One society is formed among the clergy and about 100 
 different associations are organized among the laity. 
 Diocesan and inter-parochial bulletins are published. 
 The population of the diocese numbers about 202,850. 
 
 Tarapaca, Vicariate Apostolic of (cf. C. E., 
 XIV—415b), in Northern Chile. The present 
 vicar is Mgr. Jose Maria Caro Rodriguez, born at 
 Cahuil, diocese of Santiago de Chili, 15 November, 
 1866, studied at South American College, Rome, 
 ordained 1890, elected titular bishop of Mylasa and 
 Vicar Apostolic of Tarapaca 5 January, 1912, and 
 consecrated 28 April, 1912. The episcopal residence 
 
 is in the seaport city of Iquique, an important ship¬ 
 ping point for nitrate, with a population of 47,000 
 (1918). In Iquique there are the mother churcn of 
 the Immaculate Conception, three other parishes, 
 and seven chapels. In the saltpetre district there are 
 ten rural churches near the mines which the pastors 
 visit periodically. One of these churches, that of 
 Pica, has five dependent churches. In the Andes with 
 an elevation of 2000 to 4500 meters above sea level 
 there are four parish churches, one of which is San 
 Lorenzo de Tarapacd. These churches from date 
 colonial expansion of the sixteenth and seventeenth 
 centuries and their monuments and stone buildings 
 recall a state of ancient grandeur. They owed 
 their importance to the great traffic which re¬ 
 sulted in the exploitation of these mines and those of 
 Bolivia. Now these places, with the exception of 
 Pica and succursals, are poor villages of Indians, who 
 are farmers or shepherds. In the vicariate there are 
 110,000 inhabitants, 14 secular priests and 16 reg¬ 
 ulars (6 Franciscans, 8 Salesians, 2 Redemptorists); 
 7 lay brothers; Salesian Sisters, Oblates of the 
 Sacred Heart, Sisters of the Good Shepherd, and 
 Sisters of Charity of St. Joseph of Cluny; a “Colegio 
 Don Bosco,” of the Salesian Fathers, with 300 boys, a 
 “Colegio de Maria Auxiliadora,” of the Salesian 
 Sisters with 300 girls; 5 elementary schools with 430 
 pupils, 1 orphanage, 1 House of Correction for women 
 run by Sisters of Good Shepherd, partly supported 
 by the Government; 1 hospital attended by the Sisters 
 of St. Joseph of Cluny; La Reparacion Sacerdotal 
 and Hermanos de San Pedro for the clergy and numer¬ 
 ous societies for the laity; “La Luz,” a religious weekly 
 and “Las Cuestiones Sociales,” a social weekly, are 
 published besides numerous leaflets and tracts of 
 pious and social propaganda. The important events 
 since 1912, besides the consecration of the vicar 
 apostolic were the foundation of the Oblates of Sacred 
 Heart and their chapel in the diocese, and the erection 
 of a chapel of St. Peter in Cavancha, a suburb of 
 Iquique. 
 
 Tarazona, Diocese of (Tirsonensis; cf. C. E., 
 XIV—452b), includes part of the provinces of 
 Zaragoza, Sovia, Navarra and Logrono and is suf¬ 
 fragan to Saragossa (Zaragoza), Spain. The bishop 
 of Tarazona is administrator apostolic of the Diocese 
 of Tudela, which has been suppressed since 1851. 
 The present bishop is Rt. Rev. Isidoro Badia y 
 Serradell, b. at Isona, diocese of Urgel, 26 April, 
 1865, ordained 1890, elected titular bishop of Ascalon 
 and auxiliary to the Cardinal Archbishop of Toledo 
 9 January, 1903, administrator of Barbastro, 3 
 July, 1907, transferred to Tarazona 27 July, 1917, 
 to succeed Mgr. Ozcoidi y Udave, deceased. Mgr. 
 Jaime Ozcoidi y Udave was born at Pamplona 30 
 December, 1850, studied at Calahorra and Pamplona, 
 elected bishop of Tarazona 14 December, 1905, con¬ 
 secrated in Cathedral of Vitoria, July, 1906, to succeed 
 Mgr. Salvador y Berrera, transferred; died 9 October, 
 1916. Bishop Ozcoidi restored the church of La 
 Magdalena, promoted the publication of unedited 
 works of the Venerable Maria de Agreda and new 
 corrected editions of her other writings, founded 
 various burses in the seminary, helped the re-installa¬ 
 tion of a residence of Carmelites in Tarazona and the 
 foundation of a College of the Augustinians at Agreda, 
 Marist schools in Alfaro, and supported free schools 
 for poor boys in Tarazona. The death occurred 
 recently of Father Albericio, prebendary canon for 
 sixty years, who wrote a Latin grammar and con¬ 
 structed a wagon-road up to the Sanctuary of Our 
 Lady of Moncayo, situated on the mountain of that 
 name, 1650 metres above the sea-level. The im¬ 
 portant happenings in the diocese since 1912 were the 
 opening of the process of beatification of Fr. Ezequiel 
 
TAEBES) 
 
 718 
 
 TEFFE 
 
 Moreno. 0. S. A., bishop of Pasto, who was born 
 in Alfaro and died in Monteagudo, both in this 
 diocese; the translation of the remains of Venerable 
 Sister Maria de Jesus de Agreda and the printing of 
 her works, especially the celebrated “Mystic City of 
 God;” and the process of Mother Vicenta, native of 
 Cascante and founder of the Institute of Maria Imma- 
 culata for domestic service. There are in the diocese 
 (1921), 144,500 Catholics, 147 parishes, 299 churches, 
 
 2 abbeys of women, 10 convents of men and 18 of 
 women, 380 secular and 215 regular priests, 2 houses 
 of Brothers, 670 Sisters, 1 seminary, 112 seminarians, 
 
 3 asylums, 12 hospitals, 5 refuges, and many or¬ 
 ganizations for clergy and laity in every parish. 
 In every township there are schools maintained by 
 the Government and in more important places 
 colegios directed by religious. Five Catholic papers 
 are published. 
 
 Tarbes and Lourdes, Diocese of (Tarbiensis et 
 Lourdensis; cf. C. E., XIV—453b), in the depart¬ 
 ment of Hautes-Pyrenees, France, suffragan of Auch. 
 In consideration of the fact that the celebrated shrine 
 of Lourdes is situated in this diocese, a decree of 20 
 April, 1912, united the name of Lourdes to the title 
 of the see, but only as an honorary title, and not 
 changing the episcopal residence. A bull of later 
 date, 8 December, 1917, accorded the privilege of 
 wearing the pallium to the bishop, but this privilege 
 is only attached to the see of Lourdes. The present 
 bishop, Rt. Rev. Frangois-Xavier Schoepfer was born 
 in Wettolsheim, in the diocese of Strasbourg in 1843, 
 he served as pastor of St. Pierre de Gros-Caillou in 
 Paris, was named a prothonotary apostolic 1 June, 
 1888, and appointed bishop 14 December, 1899. 
 Another special privilege was granted to the diocese 
 in 1918 when a rescript of Rites dated 27 February 
 gave permission for the celebration of the feast of 
 the Immaculate Conception in the churches of Lourdes 
 on 25 March, 1918, the sixtieth anniversary of the 
 sixteenth apparition of Our Lady, in spite of the fact 
 Holy Thursday fell on this date. The diocese em¬ 
 braces a Catholic population of 206,105; 28 first- 
 class parishes, 300 succursal parishes, 133 vicariates, 
 647 secular priests, 1 upper seminary, 5 ecclesiastical 
 institutes, 2 houses of retreat and 17 convents of 
 women. 
 
 Tarentaise, Diocese of (Tarantaisensis; cf. 
 C. E., XIV—454a), in the department of Savoie, 
 France, suffragan of Chambery, with episcopal 
 residence at Moutiers. This see is filled by Rt. 
 Rev. Louis Termier, born in Chambery, 2 February, 
 1860, ordained in 1884, served as a professor in Paris 
 and Chambery, then as superior of the lower seminary 
 of St. Pierre d’Albigny in October, 1894, pastor and 
 archpriest of Aix-les-Bains, named an honorary 
 canon in 1909 and appointed 29 November, 1918, 
 succeeding Rt. Rev. Jean-Baptiste Biollet, app. 
 16 December, 1907, d. 10 October, 1918. The dio¬ 
 cese embraces a ‘Catholic population of 68,000; 7 
 first class and 79 succursal parishes, and 22 vicariates 
 formerly supported by the state. 
 
 Tarnow, Diocese of (Tarnoviensis; cf. C. E., 
 XIV—458c), in Western Galicia, Poland, formerly a 
 part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The see, 
 suffragan of Lwow, is now filled by Rt. Rev. Leon 
 Wallega, born in Moszczenice in the diocese of 
 Przemysl in 1859, ordained in 1883 and appointed 
 bishop 15 April, 1901. He is assisted by an auxiliary, 
 Rt. Rev. Edward Komar, appointed titular Bishop 
 of Alinda 16 June, 1921. A decree of the Consistory 
 of 30 August, 1921, changed the boundary line of the 
 diocese on the side of Przemysl. By latest statistics 
 the diocese has a Catholic population of 823,936; 
 
 21 deaneries, 181 parishes, 43 filial parishes, 452 
 secular and 66 regular clergy, 10 convents and 620 
 
 religious women scattered through 117 houses. 
 
 \ 
 
 Tarragona, Archdiocese of (Tarraconensis; 
 cf. C. E., XIV—459b), in Catalonia, Spain. The 
 present archbishop is Cardinal Francisco de Asis 
 Vidal y Barraquer, born in the archdiocese at Cam- 
 brils, 3 October, 1868, studied at Manresa, at the 
 law school in Barcelona, and the Seminary of Tarra¬ 
 gona, ordained 1899, elected titular bishop of Pen- 
 tacomia and administrator of Solsona, 25 May, 
 1914, promoted to the archbishopric 7 May, 1919, 
 and created cardinal priest 7 March, 1921, with the 
 title of Santa Sabina. His predecessor was Mgr. 
 Antolin Lopez y Pelaez, born at Manazanal del 
 Puerto, Diocese of Astorga, 31 August, 1866, priest 
 1889, elected Bishop of Jaca, 14 November, 1904, 
 consecrated at Burgos, 4 April, 1905, promoted to 
 Tarragona, 18 July, 1913, died 23 December, 1918. 
 Mgr. Lopez y Pelaez was a member of the Senate and, 
 from 1913, of the Royal Academy of Spain. On the 
 fourth centenary of the birth of St. Teresa he pro¬ 
 nounced a discourse at the celebration. In 1914 
 he founded a museum for the diocese of Tarragona, 
 which dates from Apostolic times. The Catholic 
 population numbers 210,000 and the diocese includes 
 268 parishes, 600 churches, 20 monasteries for men 
 and 70 for women, 1 abbey for men and 1 for women, 
 827 secular and 256 regular priests, 3 seminaries, 205 
 seminarians, 80 lay brothers, 560 Sisters, 1 university 
 with 59 professors and 700 students, 21 colegios for 
 boys with 6000 students and 24 for girls with 4100 
 students, 10 high schools with 200 boys, 3 academies, 
 2 normal and 28 elementary schools, 2 homes for aged 
 poor, 9 asylums, 3 refuges, 5 charity centers, 3 day 
 nurseries, 14 organizations among clergy and 17 
 among laity. Four Government institutions admit 
 the ministry of priests and 17 Catholic institutions 
 receive Government aid. Four periodicals (2 dailies 
 and 2 weeklies) are published. 
 
 Taubate, Diocese of (Taubatensis; cf. C. E., 
 XIV—465b), in the state of Sao Paulo, Brazil, is 
 still filled by its first Bishop Rt. Rev. Epaminondas 
 Nunes de Avila e Silva. It extends over an area of 
 7722 square miles and according to 1920 statistics 
 has a total population of 400,000; 39 parishes, 5 
 congregations of men and 5 of women. 
 
 Teano, Diocese of. See Calvi and Teano 
 
 Teffe, Prefecture Apostolic of (de Teffe; cf. 
 C. E., XVI—69b), in Brazil, was erected by a decree 
 of 23 May, 1910, which separated it, together with 
 the Prefecture Apostolic of Upper Solimoes, from the 
 Diocese of Amazones or Manaos. The first mission 
 was established in this territory by Rev. Father 
 Libermann in June, 1907, at Teffe, a little town of 600 
 inhabitants about 350 miles from Manaos. A site 
 “Bocca do Teffe,” was donated to the missionaries 
 by the State authorities, and a large orphanage and 
 industrial school for young Indians was erected upon 
 it. No further aid however has been received from 
 the Government since 1900. The first prefect apos¬ 
 tolic, Rt. Rev. Michel-Alfred Barat, C.S.Sp., born 
 in Crouzille, France, in 1864, came to the mission of 
 the Amazonas in 1906, served as a teacher in the in¬ 
 dustrial school at Paricatuba from 1906-1908, and 
 was named prefect apostolic in August, 1910. Al¬ 
 though the territory comprised in this prefecture 
 extends over miles it includes only four municipalities, 
 Teffe, Fonte-Boa on the Solimoes, Carauary and San 
 Felippe, embracing a population of 35,000. The work 
 of the missionaries is chiefly among the mulatto 
 “rubberers,” and Indian fishers or hunters, who live 
 in the forests on the banks of the Japura, Jutahy 
 
TEGGIANO 
 
 719 
 
 TENNESSEE 
 
 and Junia. By a decree of 10 September, 1921, the 
 boundaries on the side of the Upper Solimoes were 
 somewhat changed. Teff6, Fonte-Boa and San 
 Felippe have resident vicars, two other missionaries 
 are charged with the orphanage and industrial school, 
 and a third acts as rector of the seminary at Teffe. 
 This seminary was established in 1920, and the fol¬ 
 lowing year a college for boys was added to it, and 
 plans are being made to have Brothers established 
 here in 1922. The only priest from this territory 
 ordained yet, is Rev. Manuel Alemar, a former pupil 
 of the industrial school, ordained in Paris in 1913. 
 Rev. Constant Tastemin, secretary to the Prefect, 
 is noted for his knowledge of languages as well as his 
 geographical and ethnographical studies. In 1920 he 
 received a gold medal from the Paris Geographical 
 Society and in 1922 a dictionary and grammar of the 
 Tupy language, published in Vienna twelve years 
 before, was translated and published by the Museum 
 of Sao Paulo, in Brazil. He has made numerous col¬ 
 lections of the vocabularies of the many native lan¬ 
 guages, and placed them in the hands of Monsieur 
 Rivet, a professor in the Paris Museum, for future 
 publication. By latest statistics the territory has 
 three parishes, 5 churches, 6 missions, 2 mission sta¬ 
 tions, 2 convents of men, 1 secular and 10 regular 
 clergy (Fathers of the Holy Ghost), 1 seminary, 5 
 seminarians, 4 higher schools for boys, 1 professional 
 school with 10 teachers and 40 students, 2 elementary 
 schools with 2 teachers and 45 pupils. Four of the 
 schools receive assistance from the Government, two 
 organizations are formed among the laity and a bi¬ 
 monthly bulletin, “O Missionario,” is published. 
 
 Teggiano, Diocese of. See Diano 
 
 Tegucigalpa, Archdiocese of (Tegucigalpensis) 
 in the Republic of Honduras, Central America. 
 The entire Republic of Honduras was erected into 
 the diocese of Comayagua in 1561, but by a Decree 
 of 2 February, 1916, it was divided into three parts, 
 and the eastern part was made the Archdiocese of 
 Tegucigalpa. It comprises the civil provinces of 
 Yoro, Comayagua, La Paz, Valle, Tegucigalpa, Cho- 
 luteca, El Paraido and Oloucho. By the same 
 Decree the western part of the old diocese was 
 formed into the new diocese of Santa Rosa de 
 Capan, and the northern part became the Vicariate 
 Apostolic of San Pedro Sula. The new diocese 
 and the vicariate are suffragans of Tegucigalpa. 
 Most Reverend Janne-Maria Martinez y Caba¬ 
 nas, bora in Honduras, 12 November, 1842, ap¬ 
 pointed Bishop of Comayagua, 30 January, 1902, 
 was promoted to be first archbishop of Tegucigalpa 
 by the Decree of erection. Upon his death, 11 
 August. 1921, the government ordered that he 
 should be buried with military honors, and that 
 three days of public mourning should be observed. 
 His successor has not yet been appointed (1922), 
 and no statistics are published for the archdiocese. 
 
 Tehuantepec, Diocese of (Tehuantepecensis; 
 cf. C. E., XIV—473c), in the State of Oaxaca, Mex¬ 
 ico, suffragan of Antequera. By a decree of 1 August, 
 1919, the canton of Tuxtlas in the State of Vera Cruz 
 was added to the diocese. This new territory adds 
 about 27.000 miles to the diocese and comprises 9 
 cities and 500 villages, with a total population of 
 200,000. The episcopal residence has been trans¬ 
 ferred to San Andres Tuxtla, and this change having 
 been approved in 1920, one of the parochial churches 
 of this city has been erected into a temporary cathe¬ 
 dral, awaiting the construction of a new cathedral. 
 The city and the whole diocese are dedicated to St. 
 Andrew the Apostle, and the Immaculate Conception. 
 The parish churches number 32, of which only 22 have 
 46 
 
 resident priests, a great scarcity of clergy having been 
 caused by the revolutionary decree which expelled 
 all foreigners. In addition to these churches are a 
 number of public sanctuaries and chapels, making 
 in all about 150. Before the Revolution three schools 
 for girls were conducted by the Josephine Sisters, and 
 a school under the Marist Brothers was established at 
 Tehuantepec. All of these schools, with the exception 
 of one, have been suppressed since 1914, and this one 
 is in course of suppression by being converted from a 
 Catholic to a lay school. A preparatory school for 
 boys destined for the seminary is conducted in the 
 new episcopal residence, and a school for girls is to be 
 added to this and entrusted to the Sisters. The 
 seminary, which was founded in 1912, had four pro¬ 
 fessors and 130 students distributed through four 
 courses, but in 1914 the military authorities converted 
 it into a hospital. The present bishop is Rt. Rev. 
 Ignacio Placencia y Moreira, born at Zapopan in the 
 diocese of Guadalajara in 1867, studied at the seminary 
 in that diocese and later served as a professor there, 
 was made a pastor in 1904, became secretary to the 
 bishop, then prebendary canon of the cathedral, and 
 was appointed bishop 15 September, 1907. 
 
 Telese (or Cerreto-Sannita) , Diocese of 
 (Thelesinensis or Cerretanensis; cf. C. E., 
 XIV—476d), in the province of Benevento, Southern 
 Italy, suffragan of Benevento, with episcopal residence 
 at Cerreto-Sannita. Rt. Rev. Angelo-Michele 
 Jannachino, appointed to this see 29 November, 1895, 
 retired and was transferred to the titular see of 
 Lorea 12 January, 1918. His successor was ap¬ 
 pointed in the person of Rt. Rev. Giuseppe Signore, 
 born in Monteroni in 1872, made a canon and rector 
 of the seminary, and appointed bishop 20 June, 1918. 
 By latest statistics the diocese comprises 24 parishes, 
 72 churches, 3 monasteries for men, 6 for women, 71 
 secular priests and 8 regulars, 70 Sisters, 1 seminary, 
 93 seminarians, 1 higher school for girls with 4 teach¬ 
 ers and 22 pupils, 1 home, 7 asylums and 1 refuge 
 One association is organized among the clergy and 
 two among the laity. During the World War all the 
 clergy and laity of the diocese took an active part, 
 either in the ranks, or in charitable and patriotic 
 works at home. 
 
 Temiskaming, Vicariate Apostolic of. See 
 Haileybury, Diocese of 
 
 Teneriffe (or San Cristobal do Laguna), Dio¬ 
 cese of (Tenerifensis or Sancti Christophori de 
 Laguna; cf. C. E., XIV—507a), comprises the Islands 
 of Teneriffe, Gomera, La Palma and Hierno in the 
 Canaries. It is a suffragan of Seville and has its 
 episcopal residence at Santa-Cruz. Rt. Rev. Nicolas 
 Rey y Redondo, appointed to this see 21 May, 1894, 
 died 6 September, 1917, and was succeeded by Rt 
 Rev. Gabriel Llompart y Santandreu, born in Inca 
 in the Balearic Islands in 1862, appointed bishop 17 
 May, 1918. The diocese has a Catholic population 
 of 260,707 and by 1920 statistics counts 184 parishes, 
 divided among 10 archpresbyteries, 104 priests, 60 
 churches, 184 chapels and 18 convents with 52 
 religious and 229 Sisters. 
 
 Tennessee (cf. C. E., XIV—508b).—The area of 
 the State of Tennessee is 42,022 square miles. In 
 1920 the population was 2,337,885, an increase of 7% 
 since 1910. Of this, 26.1% was urban; 73.9% was 
 rural. The average number of inhabitants to the 
 square mile was 56.1, as against 52.4 in 1910. Be¬ 
 sides the 1208 civil districts, there are also 236 second¬ 
 ary divisions, comprising 28 cities, 202 towns, and 
 6 villages. The largest cities are: Memphis 162,351; 
 Nashville 118,342; Knoxville 77,818; Chattanooga 
 
TEPIC 
 
 720 
 
 TERAMO 
 
 57,895. Of the entire population (1,173,967 males 
 and 1,163,918 females), there are 1,885,993 whites and 
 451,758 negroes (222,758 males and 229,119 females). 
 The native whites numbered 1,870,515 and the foreign 
 born, 15,478. Most of the foreign born came from 
 England, Germany, Ireland, Italy, and Russia. Of 
 the population of ten years of age and over (1,770,- 
 762) 182,629 were illiterate (10.3% as against 13.6 
 in 1910). 
 
 Economic Status. —Tennessee is forging ahead 
 agriculturally, the number of farms (252,774), show¬ 
 ing an increase of .27 % since 1910, and the value of 
 farm property ($1,251,964,585), an increase of 104.4% 
 In these farms were included 19,510,856 acres, of 
 which 11,185,302 were in improved land. The 
 value of the live stock, including 317,921 horses, 
 352,510 mules, 1,161,846 cattle, 346,196 sheep, 
 was $173,522,135. The chief crops were: corn 70,- 
 639,252 bushels, worth $127,150,649; wheat 6,362,- 
 357 bushels, worth $14,506,174; hay 967,314 tons, 
 $29,666,979; tobacco 112,367,567 pounds, worth 
 $24,720,869; cotton 306,974 bales, worth $48,808,866; 
 sugar 146,734 tons, worth $9,537,710. The dairy, 
 poultry, eggs, honey, and wax were worth $50,409,- 
 776. Peanuts are grown in the Tennessee Valley. 
 The wool clip in 1919 was 2,052,000 pounds. Al¬ 
 though the number of manufacturing establishments 
 (4589) showed in 1919 a decrease of 3.9% since 1914, 
 the value of the products ($556,271,000) revealed an 
 increase of 179%. The 113,418 persons engaged in 
 manufacture received for their services $106,690,000; 
 the capital invested was $410,351,000. The pro¬ 
 ductions of the mines were: coal $13,592,998; phos¬ 
 phates $2,101,040; iron $10,338,159; clay products, 
 $1,960,226; limestone $504,599; stone $1,635,573; 
 all others $17,840,520; aggregating $46,012,889. 
 The Mississippi and Tennessee Rivers'are natural 
 waterways and the State contains 4075 miles of rail¬ 
 way, besides 467 miles of electric railway. The 
 bonded debt, including old bonds unfunded, on 13 
 June, 1919, amounted to $17,988,352. The assessed 
 value of property in the same year, including real 
 and personal property, was $726,369,281. 
 
 Religion. —According to the Census Bulletin of 
 1916 the church membership of all denominations 
 was 840,133; total Protestant bodies 817,118; Baptists 
 South and National 311,517; Regular Baptists 2582; 
 Free Will Baptists 4681; Duck River, etc. (Baptist 
 Church of Christ) 4589; Primitive Baptists 8925; 
 Colored Primitive Baptists 811; Congregationalists 
 2185; Disciples of Christ 21,672; Churches of Christ 
 63,521; Lutherans 3541; Methodist Episcopal 
 56,484; Methodist Protestant 1759; Methodist Epis¬ 
 copal Church, South, 167,270; African Methodists 
 23,497; Presbyterian Church in U. S. A. 17,584; 
 Cumberland Presbyterians 27,631; Presbyterian 
 Church in U. S. 25,606; Presbyterian Association 
 Reformed of the South Synod 1644; Protestant 
 Episcopal Church 9910; United Brethren in Christ 
 916; all other Protestant bodies 74,115; Catholic 
 Church 23,015; Jewish Congregations 2022. For 
 Catholic statistics see Nashville, Diocese of. 
 
 Education. —School attendance is now com¬ 
 pulsory during the entire term for children between 
 7 and 16 years of age. The employment of children 
 under 14 years of age in workshops, factories and 
 mines is illegal. With a scholastic population of 
 842,199, of which 681,470 are whites and 160,710 
 are colored, there were. (1920) enrolled in the public 
 schools of Tennessee 44&,333 white children and 
 80,356 negroes. There are separate schools for 
 whites and negroes. In 1918 the State had 7313 
 public elementary schools, and 226 public high 
 schools. The two public normal schools had 71 
 teachers and 914 pupils. In 1917-18 the ex¬ 
 penditure was $12,480,163. Bible reading in the 
 
 public schools is obligatory. The laws governing 
 private and parochial schools are as follows: The 
 legislature shall exempt from taxation such property 
 as may be held and used for purposes purely religious, 
 charitable, scientific, literary, or educational (11-28). 
 The flag must be displayed on or near each school 
 building. In 1919 a State board of administration 
 was created to consist of the governor, state treasurer, 
 and the general manager of state institutions, and to 
 have charge of all state institutions, penal, reforma¬ 
 tory, and charitable. “Victory Day,” 11 November, 
 was made a legal holiday. In the same year a de¬ 
 partment of university extension to be conducted by 
 the University of Tennessee was established for the 
 purpose of vocational and industrial training in wage 
 earning employments. Provision was also made for 
 the removal of the State Training and Agricultural 
 School for Boys to the “Herbert Domain” and of the 
 inmates of the Tennessee Industrial School to the state- 
 owned property in Davidson County, now occupied 
 by the State Training and Agricultural School for 
 Boys. The East Tennessee Female Institute was 
 transferred to the State University. 
 
 Recent History and Legislation. —In 191-3 were 
 passed an Act providing for the parole of convicts, a 
 measure removing the disabilities of married women 
 on account of coverture and a Vital Statistics Act. 
 In 1914 a so-called nuisance bill had for its purpose the 
 closing of every saloon, gambling house, and dis¬ 
 reputable resort in the State, by providing that no 
 liquor could be sold within four miles of a school. 
 In 1917 prohibition became more effective, by a law 
 forbidding the importation of liquor into the State. 
 In 1915 it was shown that the experiment of working 
 the negro convicts on State roads was successful 
 enough to warrant its continuance. The contract 
 system of letting out prison labor to private con¬ 
 tractors was forbidden. In 1919 pensions were 
 granted to widows whose husbands were killed or died 
 while in active service in the Civil War and to the 
 widows of deceased soldiers who were married to such 
 soldiers prior to the year 1890, if such widows are of 
 good moral character and in indigent circumstances. 
 The annual appropriation for the purpose is $1,- 
 029,000. Capital punishment was abolished in 1915. 
 The Federal Suffrage Amendment was ratified on 
 18 August, 1920; the prohibition amendment on 8 
 January, 1919. 
 
 During the European War the State contributed 
 75,825 soldiers to the United States Army (2.02%). 
 The Tennessee members of the national guard joined 
 the 30th Division at Camp Sevier, South Carolina; 
 those of the national army, the 82d Division at Camp 
 Gordon, Georgia. The summary of casualties among 
 the Tennessee members of the American Expedition¬ 
 ary Forces is as follows: deceased, 74 officers, 1762 
 men; prisoners, 7 officers, 54 men; wounded, 228 
 officers, 4065 men. 
 
 Tepic, Diocese of (Tepicensis; cf. C. E., XIV— 
 513c), in the territory of Tepic, Mexico, suffragan of 
 Guadalajara. This see is filled by Rt. Rev. Manuel 
 Azpeitia Palomar, a canon of Guadalajara, appointed 
 a prothonotary apostolic 14 July, 1905, and named 
 bishop 1 August, 1919, succeeding Rt. Rev. Andr6 
 Segura y Dominguez, d. in August, 1918. This 
 diocese, which covers an area of 11,583 square miles, 
 includes 180,000 inhabitans, 17 parishes, 98 secular 
 priests, 10 seminarians, 30 churches (of which one is 
 the celebrated church of Our Lady of Falpa,) and 29 
 chapels. 
 
 Teramo, Diocese of (Aprutinensis or Thera, 
 mensis; cf. C. E., XfV—514b), in southern Italy^ 
 directly subject to the Holy See. This see was filled 
 by - Rt. Re V . Alessandro Beniamino Zanecchia- 
 
TERESA 
 
 721 
 
 TEXAS 
 
 Gianetti from 18 June, 1902, until his death 21 
 February, 1920. He was succeeded by Rt. Rev. 
 Settimio Quadraroli who was appointed in September, 
 1921. The statistics of 1920 credit the diocese with 
 130,000 Catholics, 124 parishes, 210 secular and 23 
 regular clergy, 40 seminarians, 381 churches and 
 chapels, 11 Brothers and 15 Sisters. 
 
 Teresa of the Child Jesus, Sister, Carmelite of 
 Lisieux, better known as the Little Flower of Jesus, 
 b. at Alengon, France, 2 January, 1873; d. at Lisieux 
 30 September, 1897. She was the ninth child of 
 saintly parents, Louis and Zelie Martin, both of 
 whom had washed to consecrate their lives to God in 
 the cloister. The vocation denied them was given 
 to their children, five of whom became religious, one 
 in the Visitation Order and four in the Carmelite 
 Convent at Lisieux. Brought up in an atmosphere 
 of faith w T here every virtue and aspiration were 
 carefully nurtured and developed, her vocation 
 manifested itself when she was still only a child. 
 Educated by the Benedictines, when she was fifteen 
 she applied for permission to enter the Carmelite 
 Convent, and being refused by the superior, went to 
 Rome with her father, as eager to give her to God as 
 she was to give herself, to seek the consent of the 
 Holy Father, Leo XIII, then celebrating his jubilee. 
 He preferred to leave the decision in the hands of the 
 superior, who finally consented and on 9 April, 
 1888, at the unusual age of fifteen, Therese Martin 
 entered the convent of Lisieux where two of her 
 sisters had preceded her. The account of the eleven 
 years of her religious life, marked by signal graces 
 and constant growth in holiness, is given by Sceur 
 Therese in her autobiography, written in obedience 
 to her superior and published two years after her 
 death. In 1901 it was translated into English, and in 
 1912 another translation, the first complete edition 
 of the life of the Servant of God, containing the auto¬ 
 biography, “Letters and Spiritual Counsels,” was 
 published. Its success was immediate and it has 
 passed into many editions, spreading far and wide 
 the devotion to this “little” saint of simplicity, and 
 abandonment in God’s service, of the perfect accomp¬ 
 lishment of small duties. The fame of her sancity 
 and the many miracles performed through her inter¬ 
 cession caused the introduction of her cause of 
 canonization only seventeen years after her death, 
 10 June, 1914. 
 
 Edith Donovan. 
 
 Teresian Sister. See Saint Teresa of Jesus, 
 Society of 
 
 Terlizzi, Diocese of. See Molfetta, Terlizzi 
 
 AND GlOVINAZZO 
 
 Termoli, Diocese of (Thermularum; cf. C. E., 
 XIV—518a), in the province of Campobasso, southern 
 Italy, suffragan of Benevento. This see is filled by 
 Rt. Rev. Rocco Caliandro, born in Ceglie Messapica, 
 Italy, in 1872, served as vicar general and canon 
 theologian of Oria, and was appointed bishop 28 
 March, 1912, to succeed Rt. Rev. Giovanni Capitoli, 
 transferred to Bagnorea 14 February, 1911. The 
 diocese embraces a Catholic population of 58,800, 
 19 parishes, 55 secular priests, 1 secondary school for 
 girls with 5 teachers and 40 pupils, 50 churches or 
 chapels, 1 asylum directed by 4 Sisters of Charity, 
 and 1 orphanage for girls directed by 3 Sisters of 
 Charity, caring for 15 orphans. One society is 
 organized among the clergy and the “Unione Fem- 
 minile Catholica Italiana,” among the women of the 
 diocese. 
 
 Terracine, Sezze and Piperno, Diocese of 
 (Tebracinensis , Setinensis and Privernensis; 
 
 cf. C. E., XIV—518b), in the province of Rome, 
 Italy, directly subject to the Holy See. This see is 
 at present vacant, Rt. Rev. Domenico Ambrosi, 
 who filled it since 1899, having died 17 August, 1921. 
 These three united dioceses embrace a Catholic popula¬ 
 tion of 70,000, and according to 1920 statistics in¬ 
 clude 25 parishes, 89 secular and 20 regular clergy, 
 15 seminarians, 13 Brothers, 98 Sisters and 62 churches 
 and chapels. 
 
 Teruel, Diocese of (Terulensis; cf. C. E., XIV— 
 525c), in Aragon, Spain, suffragan of Saragossa. 
 It has the administration of the diocese of Albarracin 
 (Alboracinensis). The see is filled by Rt. Rev. 
 Juan Anton y de la Fuente, born in Burgos in 1848, 
 studied in the diocesan seminary, served as a pro¬ 
 fessor there and as a pastor and was appointed bishop 
 14 December, 1905. The Catholic population of the 
 diocese numbers 180,000, and it comprises 104 
 parishes divided among 6 archpresbyteries, 250 
 priests, 252 churches or chapels and 15 convents 
 with 40 religious and 150 Sisters. Albarracin is 
 credited with 33 parishes. 
 
 Testimonial Letters. See Novice 
 
 Texas (cf. C. E., XIV—543a).—The area of the 
 State of Texas is 262,398 square miles of land and 
 3498 square miles of water. In 1920 the population 
 was 4,663,228, an increase of 19.7 per cent since 
 1910. Of this 32.4 was urban; 67.6 was rural. 
 Texas has 171 cities, of which the largest are Dallas 
 158,976; Fort Worth 106,482; San Antonio 161,379; 
 Houston 138,276. 
 
 Economic Status. —According to the Summary of 
 Manufactures, issued by the Census Bureau in 1919, 
 there are in Texas 5724 establishments, with 131,389 
 persons engaged in manufacture, earning in wages 
 and salaries $147,908,000, and turning out products 
 worth $999,996,000. The capital invested was 
 $588,797,000. Texas ranks high agriculturally, the 
 chief crops in 1920 being: maize 174,200,000 bushels; 
 wheat 15,925,000 bushels; oats 44,100,000 bushels; 
 rice 9,554,000 bushels. The yield of cotton in 1920 
 covered 12,576 acres; and the crop was 4,200,000 
 bales, valued at $227,200,000. In January, 1921, 
 the State had 1,187,000 horses, 792,000 mules, 1,184,- 
 000 milch cows, 4,457,000 other cattle, 3,069,000 
 sheep, and 2,427,000 swine; the wool clip in 1919 
 amounted to 14,986,000 pounds. 
 
 The resources of the banks in 1919 amounted to 
 $723,257,000. According to the report of the U. S. 
 Comptroller of the Treasury there are in the State 
 834 State banks, 73 trust companies, 38 private 
 banks, and 510 national banks. The total wealth of 
 the State is $3,128,819,287'. In 1919 the bonded debt 
 was $4,002,000; the bonds being held entirely by 
 State educational and charitable funds. The as¬ 
 sessed value of real property was $2,060,602,300, and 
 of personal property $939,898,582. 
 
 Religion. —The Census Bureau’s figures for 1916 
 gave the number of Baptists as 649,037; Disciples of 
 Christ 54,836; Lutherans 37,697; Methodists 428,409; 
 Presbyterians 75,673; Protestant Episcopalians 17,- 
 116; Catholics 402,874; Jewish Congregations 628. 
 Thirty per cent. are Protestant, 9 per cent. are Catholic, 
 58 per cent, have no definite religious belief, other 
 religions less than 1 per cent. 
 
 In 1914 the Diocese of El Paso (q. v.) was erected 
 from territory taken from the Diocese of Tucson, 
 Dallas (q. v.) and San Antonio (q. v.). For further 
 statistics see also Galveston, Diocese of; Corpus 
 Christi, Diocese of. 
 
 Mining. —The following were mined in the State 
 in 1917: asphalt $2,292,036; clay products $3,451,806; 
 coal $4,177, 608; raw clay $22,477; copper; 
 $6315; natural gas $3,192,625; gypsum $996,262 
 
THEATINES 
 
 722 
 
 THEBES 
 
 lime $361,308; cement $3,661,328; mineral waters 
 $72,175; petroleum $42,891,555; natural gas gasoline 
 $1,149,441; quicksilver $1,136,508; salt $564,029; 
 sandstone brick $65,102; sand and gravel $716,457; 
 silver $490,930; stone $697,540; graphite, manganese 
 ore, sulphur, gems, etc., estimated at $11,626,795, 
 total value, $77,552,369. The state ranks second 
 of the United States in the production of quicksilver. 
 
 Communications. —Galveston is an important 
 outlet for the cotton grown in the United States and 
 as a commercial port is second only to New York. 
 
 The total shipping business of the Galveston cus¬ 
 toms district for the fiscal year ending 30 June, 
 1919, was $485,564,493; of this the exports were in 
 value $467,869,587. The coastwise commerce of the 
 port is estimated at $400,000,000. Port Arthur had 
 on 30 June, 1919, foreign exports for the year to the 
 value of $57,443,660; the value of the imports was 
 $4,684,508. In 1919 there were 610 steamships 
 and 7 sailing vessels at the ports of Texas, with an 
 aggregate tonnage of 1,182,919. The towns of 
 Beaumont and Orange now share with Port Arthur 
 in the commercial benefits of deep water, all three 
 being connected by the Sabine Neches Canal, recently 
 deepened. A permanent causeway, over two miles 
 in length, connecting Galveston with the mainland, 
 was opened to traffic in May, 1912. The level of the 
 town has been raised to protect it from storms. Texas 
 has 128,960 miles of public highways, 13,000 of which 
 are still maintained with state aid (1919). The total 
 mileage of railroads is 15,931. 
 
 Education. —'The enactment of a practical com¬ 
 pulsory law for Texas by the thirty-fourth Legisla¬ 
 ture marked a great victory for the cause of popular 
 education in the State. The greatest single piece of 
 school legislation within recent years was enacted 
 into law in 1915 when the Legislature appropriated 
 $1,000,000 to aid the people to provide for better 
 educational facilities. A recent law provides for a 
 county board of education in each county, and au¬ 
 thorizes the county superintendent and the county 
 board to grade and classify the rural schools. The 
 employment of illiterate children under fourteen 
 years of age in factories and mines is illegal. Sepa¬ 
 rate schools are provided for white and colored chil¬ 
 dren. In the 1918 scholastic census 1,098,989 
 children between 7 and 18 (210,278 negroes) were 
 enrolled. In 1920 the 8401 public elementary schools 
 had 927,869 enrolled pupils and 25,592 teachers; 
 the 2621 public high schools had 107,779 pupils and 
 4766 teachers. There are also 6 normal schools; 
 the two most recently established being at Commerce 
 and Alpine. The University of Texas with 304 pro¬ 
 fessors and 4612 students has an income of about 
 $200,000 yearly. In 1920 its legislative appropria¬ 
 tion was $925,521; in 1921, $915,789. The School of 
 Mines and Metallurgy was established in 1914; the 
 new department covers education, engineering, ex¬ 
 tension, and graduate work. 
 
 The Agricultural and Mechanical College has an en¬ 
 rollment of 2759. Grubbs Vocational College at 
 Arlington and the John Tarleton College at Stephens- 
 ville, opened in 1917, are its branches. 
 
 The valuation of school property in the state is 
 $48,872,283. The expenditure on education in 1920 
 was $25,185,550. Two junior agricultural colleges 
 were created in 1917. The Prairie View State Col¬ 
 lege (Normal and Industrial) for colored youths had 
 40 professors and 1348 students in 1914. The laws 
 governing private and parochial schools are as follows: 
 No part of the public school fund shall ever be ap¬ 
 propriated for or used for the support of any sec¬ 
 tarian school (VII—4). Patriotism must be taught 
 ten minutes each day in all schools. Bible reading 
 in th@ public schools is neither permitted nor ex¬ 
 cluded . 
 
 Recent Legislation and History. —In 1911 
 much disturbance along the border was caused by the 
 revolution in Mexico. Large quantities of arms and 
 ammunition were smuggled across the border by the 
 Mexican Revolutionists and a detachment of United 
 States Cavalry was posted from El Paso to Browns¬ 
 ville to prevent such smuggling. Conditions became 
 so acute that a patrol along the Rio Grande River wms 
 established to co-operate w r ith the United States 
 authorities in the enforcement of neutrality. General 
 Reyes, a Mexican, was arrested in San Antonio on the 
 charge of inciting a rebellion against a friendly coun¬ 
 try. For further data see Mexico. 
 
 In June, 1911, the international committee ap¬ 
 pointed to decide on the ownership of land within the 
 present limits of El Paso, gave El Paso all the lands 
 north of the boundary line of 1864 and ceded to 
 Mexico all the lands south of that line. As the 
 boundary of 1864 could not be fixed, the actual 
 settlement was deferred. In 1911 the following 
 legislation was passed: a law to prohibit the exhibition 
 of prize fights and other immoral shows by means of 
 moving pictures; an Act establishing a new prison 
 system, making provision for a board of prison com¬ 
 missioners and for the management, control, and 
 treatment of prisoners, and another Act establish¬ 
 ing a State Insurance Board. In 1913, provisions 
 were made for suspended and indeterminate sen¬ 
 tences for criminal cases and the parole of convicted 
 persons, for presidential primary elections in the 
 State, a Bureau of Child and Animal Protection, and 
 an eight-hour day for workmen Additional improve¬ 
 ments were made to the Houston ship canal in 1916. 
 A statutory measure put Texas in the list of pro¬ 
 hibition States. The sales provision of this law was 
 declared unconstitutional on the ground that it con¬ 
 flicted with local option, which was incorporated in 
 the constitution. Other provisions of this Act, 
 however, were declared void. The federal suffrage 
 amendment was ratified on 28 June, 1919, the Pro¬ 
 hibition Act, 4 March, 1918. 
 
 During the European War Texas contributed to the 
 United States Army 161,065 soldiers (4.29%). Most 
 of the Texas members of the National Guard formed 
 a part of the 36th Division at Camp Bowie, Texas; 
 those of the National Army, the 90th Division at 
 Camp Travis, Texas. The summary of casualties 
 among Texas men is as follows: deceased, 127 of¬ 
 ficers, 2595 men; prisoners, 11 officers, 69 men; 
 wounded, 325 officers, 7006 men 
 
 Theatines (cf. C. E. XIV—556b).—A decision of 
 the Sacred Congregation of Religious having re¬ 
 established the Congregation of the Holy Family in 
 July, 1916, the province of that name was dissolved. 
 At present the order is formed by the Italian and 
 Spanish provinces. The Italian province has three 
 houses in Italy and two. in America; and the 
 Spanish province has three houses in Spain with 
 a total of 130 members. It has three colleges with 
 about 1000 pupils. Rt. Rev. Michael J. Cerda is 
 the present superior general. He was born in Spain 
 in 1859, and after presiding several times over the 
 Spanish province was appointed general in 1916. 
 In that year Rt. Rev. Francis de P. Ragonese, 
 former superior general, died in Rome. 
 
 Theatre Movement, Catholic. See Catholic 
 Theatre Movement 
 
 Thebes, Diocese of (Thebanensis Coptorum; 
 cf. C. E., XIV—563b), a diocese of the Coptic Rite in 
 Egypt with residence at Tahtah. The see, established 
 in 1895, is still filled by its first bishop, Rt. Rev. 
 Ignace Glades-Barzi, born in Ghirghe, in this diocese, 
 in 1867 and appointed bishop 6 March, 1896. Out 
 
THERA 
 
 723 
 
 THIRD ORDERS 
 
 of a total population of 2,000,000 this diocese counts 
 15,000 Coptic Catholics. It comprises 36 priests, 
 36 schools, 28 churches and chapels and 81 Christian 
 communities. 
 
 Thera (Santorin), Diocese of (Santoriensis), 
 one of the Cyclades Islands in *the Greek Archi¬ 
 pelago, is suffragan to the Archdiocese of Naxos 
 and Tinos. The present incumbent, Rt. Rev. Michel 
 Camilleri, born at Corfu, in 1854, was appointed 
 bishop of this see 1 July, 1907. There are only 
 about 150 Catholics on the island and these are 
 mostly descended from the Spanish or Italian cru¬ 
 saders. The diocese lost a prominent benefactor 
 in the recent years through the death of Rev. 
 Alberto Issaverdens, Superior of the Lazarist Con¬ 
 vent, whcT founded and endowed an elementary 
 school. During the World War none of the clergy 
 from this diocese went to the Front, but several 
 of the lay brothers, who all won the admiration of 
 their non-Catholic compatriots. 
 
 The diocese comprises 1 parish, 13 churches, 2 
 monasteries for men (Lazarist and Dominican 
 Fathers), and 2 for women (Dominican nuns and 
 Sisters of Charity), 5 secular and 3 regular clergy, 
 2 lay brothers, 1 secondary school for boys, with 
 6 -teachers and 25 pupils and 1 for girls with 6 
 teachers and 30 pupils, 1 elementary school with 1 
 teacher and 8 pupils, 1 home for the destitute, 
 1 orphanage, 1 hospital, and 1 settlement house. 
 The Children of Mary are organized in the diocese. 
 
 Thessalonians, I Epistle to. —For the decision 
 of the Biblical Commission on the Pauline doctrine 
 of Parousia see Parousia and Drum in “Ecclesiastical 
 Review,” LIII (1915), 472-82. 
 
 Third Orders , Regular.—Third Order of St. 
 Dominic (cf. C.E.,XIV—638b).—A further develop¬ 
 ment of the Dominican Third Order has come in the 
 Oblates of the Blessed Sacrament begun in Corpus 
 Christi House, Leicester, England, in January, 1909, 
 under Miss Ellerker and Miss Fortey. It had the 
 approval of Bishop Brindle of Nottingham, the 
 diocesan, and was guided by the inspiration of 
 Father McNabb, O.P., then Prior of Holy Cross, 
 Leicester. The aim of this society is “an attempt to 
 meet new wants in a new way ”—(“Some Children of 
 S. Dominic,” by Marie St. S. Ellerker, C.T.S., 
 England, 1916, p. 3)—i.e., by combining community 
 life with the life of women in the world engaged in good 
 works of all kinds. The Sisters, though not religious, 
 take vows for three years and then for life, recite the 
 Divine Office, and have the usual round of religious 
 exercises but without the formalities necessarily 
 belonging to conventual rule. Their work is “to 
 refuse no work which might be needed and which we 
 were asked by authority to undertake” (ibid. p. 5), 
 and in practice this has been found to include teach¬ 
 ing, assisting in parochial missions and missions to 
 non-Catholics, instructing children and converts, 
 catechising, taking part in the organization of retreat 
 work, in social work, in local government, in direct¬ 
 ing study-clubs. Moreover of late years, they have 
 been engaged in missionary work among the East 
 Indians in Trinidad and in extensive labors in the 
 Diocese of Duluth, U. S. A., where Bishop McNich- 
 olas, O.P., has become also a second founder. They 
 number at present only about fifty. 
 
 Jarrett, English Dominicans (London, 1921), 208-13. 
 
 Bede Jarrett. 
 
 Third Order Regular of St. Dominic in the 
 United States (cf. C. E., XIV—640b).— Brooklyn, 
 N. Y. The Dominican Congregation of the Holy 
 Cross, with mother-house at Holy Cross Convent, 
 Brooklyn, N. Y., and novitiate at Amityville, L. I., 
 
 now numbers over 665 religious and 52 novices. 
 Mother Augustine Fleck was elected prioress general 
 for six years in 1913, and re-elected in 1919 for 
 another term of six years. She celebrated the golden 
 jubilee of her profession in September, 1921, and was 
 honored by the Holy Father with an autograph letter 
 of felicitation. The constitution of the congregation 
 is being revised in conformity with the new Code of 
 Canon Law. New foundations have been made as 
 follows: St. Agnes’ Parochial School, Rockville 
 Centre, L. I.; Our Lady of Perpetual Help Parochial 
 School, Lindenhurst, L. I.; St. Mary Magdalen 
 Parochial School, Springfield, L. I.; St. Thomas’ 
 Parochial School, Woodhaven, L. I.; Normal School 
 for Training of Novices opened at Amityville in 1920; 
 St. Martin’s Parochial School, Amityville, L. I.; 
 Corpus Christi School, Mineola, L. I., to be opened 
 in September, 1922. At present the congregation 
 numbers 48 dependent houses in New York, Long 
 Island, and Porto Rico, including 44 schools, 1 
 sanitarium, 1 infirmary for incurables, 2 hospitals. 
 Four of the schools are for orphans with a total 
 attendance of 700. Other school children number 
 16,000. Sanatorium patients number at least 50 
 and the infirmary has usually 100 patients. The 
 hospital has cared for about 5000 patients in six years. 
 St. Catherine’s Hospital, Brooklyn, celebrated its 
 golden jubilee in 1920. 
 
 Fall River, Mass .—These Sisters have houses in 
 the Dioceses of Albany, Fall River, and Fargo, with 
 mother-house at Fall River. In 1915, they took 
 charge of St. Anne’s Parochial School, Cohoes, New 
 York, and in 1920 they opened an academy and 
 boarding school for girls in Grafton, North Dakota. 
 The foundress of the congregation, Mother M. 
 Bertrand Sheridan, died 20 March, 1915. The 
 congregation numbers 73 professed Sisters, 8 novices, 
 and 6 postulants, in charge of 2 academies, 1 high 
 school (academic and commercial), and 4 parochial 
 schools, with a total attendance of 1660 children. 
 
 Grand Rapids, Mich .—The Congregation of Our 
 Lady of the Sacred Heart was established in Michigan, 
 22 October, 1877, at Traverse City, by Mother 
 Aquinata and five Sisters from the Dominican Con¬ 
 vent on East Second Street, New York, and was 
 formed into an independent congregation in 1894. 
 The mother-house was transferred to Grand Rapids 
 where St. John’s Orphan Home was established in 
 1889. At the first general chapter of the congrega¬ 
 tion in 1897, Mother Aquinata was elected mother 
 general, which office she held for eighteen years. 
 At her death, 1 May, 1915, the community numbered 
 300 Sisters who were conducting 40 mission schools, 
 2 academies, 1 orphan asylum, and 1 high school for 
 girls. She was succeeded by Mother Mary Gonsalva, 
 the mother assistant and councillor, who died 23 
 February, 1921. In 1919 the erection of a new 
 mother-house was begun in the suburbs of Grand 
 Rapids, and the cornerstone was laid 15 June, 1921. 
 Mother M. Gonsalva was succeeded by the present 
 superior, Mother Mary Benedicta. The member¬ 
 ship has grown from 5 to 383 professed religious, 
 together with 42 novices and 11 postulants; 45 of the 
 congregation*have died. The Sisters now conduct 50 
 parochial schools, 2 academies, 1 high school for 
 boys, 1 high school for girls, 1 orphan asylum, and 1 
 nursery. The academies and high schools are 
 affiliated to the University of Michigan and the 
 State Normal Schools. 
 
 Kenosha, Wis .—The Portuguese Congregation of 
 St. Catherine of Sienna, driven from Portugal by the 
 revolution in 1910, founded a house in Ontario, 
 Diocese of Baker City, Oregon, where they built a 
 much needed hospital. The novitiate was canonically 
 opened in October, 1912, and in June, 1920, wa, 
 transferred to Kenosha, Diocese of Milwaukees 
 
THIRD ORDERS 
 
 724 
 
 THIRD ORDERS 
 
 Wisconsin. Mother Mary Catherine Roth was the 
 first superior of the congregation in America and was 
 re-elected vicaress general in July , 1912, at the general 
 chapter held in Salamanca, Spain. The community 
 kept Holy Rosary Hospital as a branch house and in 
 the year 1914 another mission was taken up in Han¬ 
 ford, California, where the Sisters conduct Sacred 
 Heart Hospital and St. Rose’s Parochial School. At 
 present the congregation numbers 38 professed Sisters 
 and 13 novices. 
 
 Racine, Wis .—The Community of St. Catherine of 
 Sienna with mother-house at Racine, Wisconsin, 
 celebrated its golden jubilee in 1912. Mother Mary 
 Hyacintha Oberbrunner, who had been prioress 
 general for thirty-five years, died at an advanced age, 
 28 September, 1915. Mother Mary Cecilia Fox, 
 who was elected prioress general in 1907, died 11 
 November, 1915. At the general chapter 25 March, 
 1916, Mother Mary Romana Thom was elected to 
 succeed Mother Mary Cecilia Fox. The most im¬ 
 portant institutions of the congregation, other than 
 St. Catherine’s Academy and Day School connected 
 with the mother-house at Racine, Wis., are 7 high 
 schools, 41 parochial schools, and 1 home for ladies. 
 The membership of the congregation is 360, including 
 316 professed Sisters, 26 novices, and 18 postulants, 
 with 10,000 children entrusted to their care. 
 
 Saint Catharine, Ky .—On 26 April, 1918, the St. 
 Catherine of Sienna Community, with mother-house 
 at St. Catharine, near Springfield, Ky., was ap¬ 
 proved by Rome as an independent congregation. 
 Cardinal Fruhwirth O. P., was appointed cardinal 
 protector. The rule conforms to the new Code of 
 Canon Law. On 25 July, 1918, Mother Francesca 
 Kearney was elected the first mother general. She 
 had been elected prioress 25 July, 1915, succeeding 
 Mother M. Aquin, whose second term of office began 
 25 July, 1912. The following new foundations have 
 been made: Sacred Heart Academy, Watertown, 
 Mass., 1912; Sacred Heart School, East Boston, 
 1912; St. Anthony School, Cedar Rapids, Neb., 
 1912; St. Mary School, Dawson, Neb., 1913; St. 
 John School, North Cambridge, Mass., 1913; St. 
 Patrick School, Fremont, Neb., 1914; St. James 
 School, Kearney, Neb., 1915; St. Patrick School, 
 Havelock, Neb., 1916; St. Patrick School, Missouri 
 Valley, Iowa, 1916; St. Dominic Academy for small 
 boys, Waverly, Mass., 1917; St. Brendan School, 
 1918; St. Patrick School, McCook, Neb., 1918; 
 St. Mary School, Red Oak, Iowa, 1919; St. Bartholo¬ 
 mew School, Chicago, Ill., 1921; Sacred Heart 
 School, South Bend, Ind., 1921; St. Catharine of 
 Sienna Hospital, McCook, Neb., 1921. The con¬ 
 gregation numbers 350 members in charge of 2 normal 
 schools, 7 academies, 25 parochial schools, 1 con¬ 
 servatory, and 1 hospital, with 10,000 children under 
 their instruction. 
 
 San Jose, Cal .—The Californian Congregation of 
 the Queen of the Most Holy Rosary, with mother- 
 house at San Jos6, Cal., was founded in 1876 by three 
 Sisters from Brooklyn, who took charge of St. 
 Boniface’s Parochial School in San Francisco. The 
 first regular convent of the congregation was erected 
 in San Francisco and dedicated 29 November, 1883, 
 under the title of the Immaculate Conception. This 
 was the mother-house of the congregation definitely 
 incorporated 28 January, 1890. The present mother- 
 house and novitiate was established in 1891, at 
 Mission San Jose, Alameda Co., Cal. In 1899 a 
 second novitiate was established in Europe, in the 
 diocese of Li6ge, and a third in Mexico City in 1921. 
 At present the congregation has the following insti¬ 
 tutions: Immaculate Conception Academy, San 
 Francisco, Cal.; St. Boniface’s Parochial School, 
 San Francisco, Cal.; St. Anthony’s Parochial School, 
 San Francisco, Cal.; St. Elizabeth’s Parochial 
 
 School, Oakland, Cal.; Sacred Heart Academy, Los 
 Angeles, Cal.; St. Michael's Parochical School, 
 Los Angeles, Cal.; St. Gabriel’s Parochial School, 
 Mission San Gabriel, Cal.; St. Catherine's Orphan¬ 
 age, Anaheim, Cal.; The Albertinum Orphanage, 
 Ukiah, Cal.; St. Mary’s Orphanage, Mission San 
 Jos6, Cal.; St. Mary’s Parochial School, Portland, 
 Ore.; Holy Rosary Parochial School, Portland, 
 Ore.; Colegio de la Imaculada Concepcion, Ilalpam, 
 D. F., Mexico; Colegio San Rafael, Mexico City. 
 The congregation numbers 205 professed Sisters, 16 
 novices, and 12 postulants. 
 
 San Rafael , Cal .—These Sisters, with mother-house 
 at San Rafael, conduct establishments in the Arch¬ 
 diocese of San Francisco and in the Diocese of 
 Sacramento. The Sisters in the community number 
 151; novices 5; postulants 9. 
 
 Shepard, Ohio .—The work of this congregation, 
 with mother-house at Shepard, Ohio, is entirely 
 educational. The constitutions, approved in 1891, 
 are awaiting in Rome the sanction of their revision 
 according to the new Code of Canon Law. In 
 August, 1915, the estate of Miss Blanche Potter 
 at Eagle Park, Ossining-on-Hudson, N. Y., was 
 purchased as a boarding school for girls. In July, 
 1917, the present mother general, Miriam Masterson, 
 succeeded Mother Vincentia Erskine, who resigned 
 her office. Mother Vincentia was born 25 November, 
 1852, at Hunter, N. Y., and received her early edu¬ 
 cation in New York schools. She entered the Domini¬ 
 can Order and made her profession 8 April, 1875, 
 becoming novice-mistress in 1885 and prioress in 
 1891. She was chosen for the newly-created office of 
 mother general in 1893, when the Holy See elevated 
 the congregation to the dignity of a pontifical insti¬ 
 tute. From modest proportions the missionary field 
 served by the Sisters under Mother Vincentia has 
 been increased to one of importance, including 21 
 parochial schools and 4 academies. Mother Vin¬ 
 centia was elected three times to the office of mother- 
 general and asked to be released from a fourth 
 election. She was, however, appointed vicar general 
 in 1917, which office she held until her death on 17 
 December, 1919. Closely associated with Mother 
 Vincentia was Sister Mary Thomas Scanlan, who 
 died 10 December, 1918. At present the congrega¬ 
 tion numbers 295 professed religious, 26 novices, and 
 10 postulants. New foundations include 1 academy 
 and 5 parochial schools. 
 
 Sinsinawa, Wis .—The Congregation of the Most 
 Holy Rosary, with nmther-house at Saint Clara 
 Convent, Sinsinawa, Wisconsin, has been under the 
 administration of Sister Clara Conway as prioress, 
 1849-1854, Sister Joanna Clark, prioress 1854-1864, 
 Mother M. Regina Mulqueeney, general superior, 
 1864-1867, Mother M. Emily Power, general superior, 
 1867-1909, and the present general superior Mother 
 Mary Samuel, 1909. At the death of Mother Emily 
 Power in 1909 there were 47 convents with her Sisters 
 teaching in 52 schools located in various dioceses of 
 the United States. In 1888, after a previous visit 
 to Rome, Mother Emily obtained from the Holy 
 See the formal canonical approval of the revised 
 Constitutions of the Congregation, few essential 
 points of which were invalidated by the new Code of 
 Canon Law. The College of Saint Clara, Sinsinawa, 
 Wis., was chartered in 1901. Associated with Mother 
 Emily in her labors for Catholic education were many 
 gifted religious, among whom were: Sisters Alberta 
 Duffy, Benedicta Kennedy, M. Charles Borromeo, 
 mid Alexius Duffy, all writers; Sisters M. Reginald 
 Kean and M. Bonaventure Tracy, successively 
 Prioress of Saint Clara Convent; Sister Gertrude 
 Power, superior of the Dominican congregation in 
 Faribault, Minn.; Sister Mary George Adamson, 
 who braved the dangers of the World War to make a 
 
THIRD ORDERS 
 
 725 
 
 THIRD ORDERS 
 
 foundation of the congregation in Europe and died 
 there in 1918. Sister Imelda Teresa Swift, the noted 
 convert from the Salvation Army, died in 1916 in 
 this congregation as a professed novice. The con¬ 
 gregation now numbers 862 professed Sisters, 35 
 novices, and 33 postulants. There are 63 mission 
 houses besides the mother-house. In 1917 the 
 Sisters took charge of a school of social science and 
 modern languages in Fribourg, Switzerland, Insti- 
 tut des Hautes Etudes, Villa des Fougeres. Rosary 
 College in River Forest, Chicago, is now under 
 construction. 
 
 Dominican Sisters of the Perpetual Rosary. —These 
 Sisters are a contemplative community, strictly 
 cloistered. They chant the Divine Office in choir 
 according to the Dominican Rite and support them¬ 
 selves by making vestments, altar linens, altar 
 breads, etc. The first foundation was at Hoboken, 
 which is regarded as the mother-house, though each 
 house is independent and governed by the prioress 
 of each community, there being no mother general or 
 provincial. They all observe the Rule of St. Aug¬ 
 ustine. The chief change due to the new Code of 
 Canon Law is the wearing of the entire Dominican 
 habit while collecting, in place of the black 
 habit of outdoor Sisters formerly worn, and the giving 
 of the white scapular to the lay Sisters in place of 
 the black. Two of the first four religious who came 
 over from Belgium are recently deceased. Mother 
 Mary of Jesus, prioress in Hoboken for twenty years, 
 died 4 October, 1917, at the age of seventy; Mother 
 Mary Dominic, sub-prioress in Hoboken, died 2 
 November, 1920, at the age of seventy-eight. The 
 present prioress in Hoboken is Mother Mary Agnes, 
 elected 1 October, 1919, to succeed Mother Mary 
 Imelda, who with thirteen other Sisters established 
 a new foundation at Summit, N. J. The Sisters 
 have 7 houses in the United States at Hoboken, 
 N. J. (35 professed Sisters, 4 novices, 8 postulants); 
 Hales Corners, near Milwaukee, Wis.; Catonsville, 
 near Baltimore, Md.; Camden, N. J. (38 perpetual 
 professed Sisters, 6 professed novices, 3 novices, 3 
 postulants, 1 outside Sister); Buffalo N. Y.; La 
 Crosse, Wis. (15 Sisters), and Summit, N. J. 
 
 Dominican Nuns of the Congregation of St. 
 Cajherine of Ricci. —This congregation is devoted 
 to the work of retreats and to the spirit of adoration, 
 reparation, and thanksgiving. It was founded in 
 Glens Falls, Diocese of Albany, N. Y., in 1880, by 
 Lucy Eaton Smith who took in religion the name of 
 Sister Maria Catherine de Ricci. She was bora in 
 Brooklyn, N. Y., 22 March, 1845, was received into 
 the Catholic Church 18 December, 1865, went to 
 Europe seeking to fulfill her religious vocation, and 
 returned to the United States to found a new com¬ 
 munity of the Dominican Order, in honor of St. 
 Catherine of Ricci. The present mother-house in 
 Albany, N. Y., was opened in May, 1887. Mother 
 de Ricci died 24 May, 1894, in the new house founded 
 at Saratoga, and was succeeded as second provincial 
 by Mother Mary Loyola, who was born 8 February, 
 1854, and was received into the Church at Rome, 22 
 July, 1876. During Mother Loyola’s administration 
 an English-speaking boarding school and academy 
 was founded at Havana, Cuba, in 1900, and a home 
 for business women was opened in Philadelphia, 
 Penn., in 1901. Mother Loyola died 23 April, 
 
 1904, and was succeeded by Sister Mary Bertrand, 
 the present provincial, who was elected in January, 
 
 1905, succeeded by Mother M. Frances in 1915, and 
 re-elected in 1918 and 1921. Under Mother M. 
 Bertrand’s administration the following foundations 
 have been made: in 1908, an English-speaking 
 boarding school and academy at Cienfuegos, Cuba, 
 and in connection therewith an orphan asylum sup¬ 
 ported by the Daughters of the Rosary, an organiza¬ 
 
 tion of the best Catholic families of the city; in 1911, 
 a home for business women in New York City; in 
 1912, a home for business women in Dayton, Ohio. 
 In all these houses the work of giving spiritual 
 retreats is conducted. The congregation is steadily 
 increasing in members and now numbers 89 professed 
 religious, 6 novices, and 5 postulants. 
 
 Third Order of St. Francis (cf. C. E., XIV— 
 641a).—In recent years the Franciscan Third Order 
 has been the subject of several pontifical pronounce¬ 
 ments. The most important of these are the latter 
 of Pius X “Tertium Franciscalium Ordinem,” of 8 
 September, 1912; and the Encyclical Letter of Bene¬ 
 dict XV “Sacra propediem” of 6 January, 1921. 
 In the first of these two letters which was addressed 
 to the three ministers-episcopal of the First Order, 
 Pius X expressed his joy at the new evidences of 
 activity amongst the tertiaries tending to the propaga¬ 
 tion of the Third Order. At the same time however, 
 he confessed to a fear that many tertiaries were in 
 danger of losing sight of the proper purpose and 
 vocation of their order. The Third Order, he re¬ 
 minded them, is an order of penance, designed to 
 teach men the love of the Cross and the avoidance of 
 worldliness, and to lead its members in the way of 
 evangelical perfection. Hence, Tertiary fraternities, 
 as such, must not concern themselves with purely 
 economic or social questions; though individual 
 tertiaries are encouraged to take part in the social 
 works. In virtue of their profession all tertiaries 
 must avoid luxurious living and be ready to exercise 
 the works of mercy, spiritual and corporal. In 
 regard to tertiary congresses, the pontiff laid down 
 that such congresses may only be held with the 
 approval of the superiors of the First Order and under 
 their leadership; the congresses may only discuss 
 matters properly pertaining to the order and must 
 avoid purely economic and social questions; the acts 
 of the congress may not be published without the 
 sanction of the superiors of the First Order. 
 
 The Encyclical Letter of Benedict XV, above 
 referred to, was published on the occasion of the 
 seventh centenary celebration of the formal foundation 
 of the order. In this letter the pope again urged the 
 tertiaries to set an example of unworldliness and in 
 particular called upon them to cultivate modesty 
 in dress in opposition to the prevalent fashions of the 
 day; but more especially he bade them emulate the 
 example of the first tertiaries as apostles of fraternal 
 charity and good will in a world inflamed by the 
 passions of war. 
 
 The year 1921 witnessed a world-wide celebration 
 of the seventh centenary of the order, culminating 
 in the international congress of the tertiaries held in 
 Rome in September of that year. The congress had 
 been convoked to meet in Assisi, but such were the 
 vast numbers attending it that it was found necessary 
 to transfer the congress to a city capable of providing 
 accommodation for the delegates. 
 
 Of the Pontifical privileges granted to tertiaries in 
 late years, the most notable is the concession contained 
 in the Letter of PiuxX, “Sodalium e Tertio Ordine,” 
 of 5 May, 1909, whereby tertiaries by communication 
 of privileges share in all the good works of the First 
 Order and enjoy the same indulgences. 
 
 A movement to bring the local tertiary-fraternities 
 into closer cooperation with each other for their 
 mutual benefit and encouragement was approved by 
 Pius X in his Letter “Delectavit nos” of 17 December, 
 1909, addressed to the federated fraternities in 
 Rome. The movement is but a return to the ancient 
 practice of the Third Order fraternities in Italy; and 
 were it carried out generally, would undoubtedly tend 
 to strengthening the Third Order as a spiritual force 
 in the church. 
 
 The most recent statistics give the number of 
 
THIRD ORDERS 
 
 726 
 
 THIRD ORDERS 
 
 Franciscan tertiaries under the jurisdiction of the 
 First Order as 1,525,300 under the jurisdiction of the 
 Friars Minor of the Leonine Union; 28,000 under the 
 Friars Minor Conventuals; and 989,500 under the 
 Friars Minor Capuchin. 
 
 Father Cuthbert. 
 
 Third Order Regular of St. Francis in the 
 United States (cf. C. E., XIV—646b).;— Allegany, 
 N. Y .—This Franciscan congregation, with mother- 
 house at St. Elizabeth’s Convent, St. Bonaventure, 
 Allegany, N. Y., has at present 17 foundations, 
 including 1 college, 2 academies, 3 high schools, 14 
 parochial schools, 3 homes for working girls, 1 home 
 for children, 1 day nursery, and 2 hospitals. New 
 foundations have been made in the dioceses of 
 Ogdensburg, Pittsburgh and Buffalo. The com¬ 
 munity now numbers 322 members. 
 
 Bay Settlement, Wis. —This congregation, with 
 mother-house at Bay Settlement, Green Bay, Wis¬ 
 consin, numbers 60 professed neligious, 4 novices, 
 and 5 postulants. The present superior is Mother 
 M. Angela, who succeeded Mother M. Teresa in 
 
 1920. New foundations have been made as follows: 
 St. Fidelis School, Meeme, Wis., 1917; St. Mary’s 
 School, Bear Creek, Wis., 1919; McCormick Memor¬ 
 ial Home for the Aged (20 inmates), Green Bay, 
 Wis., 1921. St. Aloysius Institute, a boarding school 
 at Sturgeon Bay, Wis., was discontinued in July, 
 
 1921. The congregation is at present in charge of 
 10 parochial schools with 1215 pupils, 1 boarding 
 school with 58 pupils at Robinsonville, Wis., and 
 
 1 home for the aged. 
 
 Buffalo, N. Y .—The present superior of this con¬ 
 gregation with mother-house at Buffalo, N. Y., is 
 Sister M. De Pazzi, elected 2 August, 1919. The 
 present number of foundations is 41, of wdiich 12 
 have been established in the last ten years. These 
 include: 2 hospitals caring for 120 patients; 3 homes 
 for the aged with 434 inmates; 1 orphan asylum 
 with' 450 orphans; 35 parochial schools with 7764 
 children. Perpetual Adoration of the Most Blessed 
 Sacrament was founded on 27 December, 1902, and 
 this association, affiliated with the one established 
 in Rome, is called The Association of Perpetual 
 Adoration and Work for Poor Churches. The con¬ 
 gregation now numbers 375 professed Sisters, 21 
 novices, and 7 postulants, a total of 403 members. 
 
 Clinton, Iowa. —The constitutions of this congre¬ 
 gation, with mother-house in Clinton, Iowa, have 
 been revised according to the new Code of Canon 
 Law and are in Rome for approval. The present 
 superior is Mother M. Fidelis. The congregation 
 numbers 200 professed Sisters and 18 postulants and 
 novices, having under their care 1 college and academy, 
 
 2 hospitals with 822 patients, 1 old people’s home 
 with 30 inmates, and 30 parochial schools. There 
 are 3005 children under their instruction. 
 
 Dubuque, Iowa. —This congregation with mother- 
 house at St. Francis Convent, Dubuque, Iowa, 
 received the decree of praise and the approval and 
 confirmation of its constitutions in 1914. The 
 constitutions, with revisions in conformity with the 
 new Code of Canon Law, are to receive final approval 
 in 1922. Since the death of the foundress in 1892, 
 the congregation has been governed successively by 
 Mother M. Elizabeth Hoenig, Mother M. Coletta 
 Roehret, and Mother M.. Dominica Wieneke, the 
 present superior general, elected in July, 1920. Since 
 1912 the congregation has taken charge of 5 parochial 
 schools in Iowa, 1 in South Dakota, 2 in Oregon, and 
 1 hospital in Iowa. It now has a total of 52 grammar 
 schools and 15 high schools and academies with a 
 total enrollment of 8609 pupils, 2 orphanages, 1 
 hospital, 1 home for the aged, 1 home for young 
 ladies, 1 domestic department at Columbia College, 
 
 Dubuque, Iowa. The number of professed Sisters 
 is 454, novices 53, and postulants 15. 
 
 Millvale, Penn. —This congregation, with mother- 
 house at Mt. Alvernia, Millvale, Penn., was founded 
 in 1865 from Buffalo, N. Y. They established 
 a hospital in a small frame dwelling, which has since 
 given place to the large brick structure known as 
 St. Francis Hospital, covering an entire block, with 
 a capacity of 600 beds, and containing a psychopathic 
 department. This department maintains an occupa¬ 
 tion school, in which weaving, wicker work, sewing 
 and knitting are taught to patients whose condition 
 permits them to take up the work. The hospital 
 maintains a hydrotherapeutic department, the largest 
 of its kind in Western Pennsylvania; also a vocational 
 school for disabled soldiers, and a training school for 
 nurses which numbers 126 nurses, including pupils 
 and graduate nurses. It has for years maintained a 
 free dispensary, and the patients treated here during 
 the past year number 10,652. Their mission as 
 teachers dates from 1868, when a colony of 12 Sisters 
 opened a house on the South Side, then known as 
 Birmingham, but since incorporated in the city as 
 the South Side. Here they took charge of the school 
 connected with St. Michael’s parish. In 1871, at 
 the request of Bishop Domenec of Pittsburgh, 
 Bishop Timon of Buffalo released the community 
 from his obedience, and a mother-house and novitiate 
 were permanently established in the Pittsburgh 
 diocese at the above named place. In 1884, through 
 the influence of Rev. Father Luke, C. P., the con¬ 
 stitutions were approved for a period of five years. 
 In 1890, His Holiness Leo XIII granted a definitive 
 approbation, and the Sisters have thenceforth been 
 under the jurisdiction of the Holy See. Slight 
 changes, due to the revised Code of Canon Law, 
 have been made affecting the novitiate. The time 
 of postulancy has been reduced from one year to six 
 months; the time of novitiate from two years to one 
 year; the time of temporary vows has been increased 
 from two to three years. The development of the 
 community called for a larger mother-house and 
 novitiate, and the present structure at Mt. Alvernia, 
 Millvale, was erected in 1898. The community 
 numbers 262 professed Sisters, 18 novices, 14 pos¬ 
 tulants, nnd 18 aspirants. It has 17 houses and has 
 charge of 2 hospitals, an insane asylum, a home for 
 aged ladies, an orphan asylum, and a home for in¬ 
 fants under five years of age. As educators they 
 have charge of 15 schools, attended by 7300 pupils-, 
 and engaging 138 teachers; 10 of these schools have 
 their own high school. In connection with the mother- 
 house is the Community Normal School, and a pre¬ 
 paratory school in which young ladies desiring to 
 enter the community begin their studies preparatory 
 to the normal course (students 18, teachers 4). 
 
 Nevada, Mo. —This congregation, with mother- 
 house at Nevada, Mo., has its general mother-house 
 in Switzerland, from where the first Sisters came to 
 America in 1893. The community now numbers 
 26 professed Sisters and 2 postulants, in charge of 
 115 orphans. 
 
 Oldenburg, Ind. —This congregation, with mother- 
 house at Oldenburg, Indiana, was governed for 
 thirty-six years by Mother Olivia, who was succeeded 
 in 1919 by Mother Veneranda. Mother Olivia had 
 celebrated her golden jubilee in 1915, and in 1921 
 Mother Veneranda and five Sisters celebrated their 
 golden jubilee and 51 Sisters their silver jubilee. 
 To provide Perpetual Adoration of the Blessed Sacra¬ 
 ment, the erection of a new chapel was begun in 
 October, 1919. According to the new Code of Canon 
 Law the community submits a triennial report to the 
 Holy See, the postulate is extended from three 
 months to six, and novices are admitted to final pro¬ 
 fession after three years of temporary vows, instead- 
 
THIRD ORDERS 
 
 727 
 
 THIRD ORDERS 
 
 of five years as formerly. The present cardinal 
 protector of the congregation is Cardinal Merry del 
 Val, appointed in 1916, upon the death of their 
 former cardinal protector, Cardinal Falconio. Among 
 the recent deceased of the community have been 
 Sister Julia (1914); Sisters Coletta, Dominica, and 
 Bonaventure (1915); Sisters Florentine, Johanna, 
 Petronilla, Genevieve, and Augustine (1916); Sisters 
 Cornelia, Lidivina and Dorothea (1919). In 1920 
 the Sisters for the first time made use of their privilege 
 as voters and took part in the presidential election. 
 New foundations have been made as follows: (1912) 
 Kankakee, Ill., Collegehill, Ind., and Hamilton, 
 Ohio; (1915) Chillicothe, Ohio, Dayton, Ohio, and 
 Houghville, Ind.; (1916) Bowling Green, Mo., 
 Fort Branch, Ind., and Wichita, Kan.; (1919) 
 Peoria, 111.; (1921) St. Ann’s, Jennings Co., Ind. 
 
 Peekskill, N. Y. —The general mother-house of this 
 congregation is at Gemona, Italy, and the present 
 general superior, Mother M. Carmela, succeeded 
 Mother M. Assumpta who died in February, 1912. 
 The provincial mother-house and novitiate is at 
 Mount St. Francis, Peekskill, N. Y. Mother M. 
 Joseph, provincial superior, succeeded Mother M. 
 Elizabeth, who died 7 October, 1914. The present 
 number of members is 318, novices 13, postulants 8. 
 The congregation has charge of: 1 academy with 258 
 pupils; 3 business schools with 200 pupils; 20 paro¬ 
 chial schools with 6973 children; 1 institution for desti¬ 
 tute children with 950 inmates; a reception and quar¬ 
 antine house for this institution; 2 boarding houses 
 for girls with 75 boarders; 5 day nurseries with 300 
 children; 1 convalescent home with 15 patients. 
 
 Peoria, III. —This congregation, with mother- 
 house at Peoria, Ill., has charge of the following 
 hospitals: St. Francis’, Peoria, Ill., 6046 patients 
 from July, 1919, to July, 1920; St. Joseph’s, Bloom¬ 
 ington, Ill., 2857 patients; St. Anthony’s, Rockford, 
 Ill., 4931; St. Mary’s, Galesburg, Ill., 1386; St. 
 James’, Pontiac, Ill., 509; St. Francis’, Burlington, 
 Iowa, 813; St. Joseph’s, Keokuk, Iowa, 1688; Sacred 
 Heart, Ft. Madison, Iowa, 772; St. Francis’, Esca- 
 naba, Mich., 1464; St. Mary’s, Marquette, Mich., 
 985; St. Joseph’s, Menominee, Mich., 1412; a total of 
 11 hospitals carin'g for 22,563 patients, of whom 
 1435 were charity patients. The Sisters also have a 
 hospital at Echt, Holland, founded in 1905 by 28 
 Sisters from America. The congregation numbers 
 258 professed Sisters, 25 novices, and 12 postulants, 
 a total of 295 members. The present mother general 
 is Mother M. Anthony. 
 
 Tiffin , Ohio. —This congregation, with mother- 
 house at St. Francis Convent, Tiffin, Ohio, was or¬ 
 ganized in 1868 and incorporated in 1869 under 
 the title Citizen’s Hospital and Orphan Asylum. 
 The present superior is Mother Bonaventura. The 
 foundations of the congregation are: St. Francis 
 Home for the Aged, Tiffin, Ohio, capacity 100; St. 
 Francis Orphanage, Tiffin, Ohio, capacity 150; St. 
 Francis Convent, Tiffin, Ohio; St. Joseph’s Hospital, 
 Lorain, Ohio; Pilgrim House, Carey, Ohio; parish 
 schools in Ohio at Adrian, Blakeslee, Carey, Custar, 
 Fort Jennings, Lorain, Miller City, Millersville, 
 New Washington, Paulding, Payne, Tiffin. The 
 congregation numbers 90 professed religious, 7 
 novices and 9 postulants. 
 
 Franciscan Sisters of the Atonement. —These Sisters 
 form the Second Congregation of the Society of the 
 Atonement (see Atonement, Friars of the), which 
 was originally a foundation at Graymoor, N. Y., 
 of Anglican Friars and Sisters, who were received 
 into the Catholic Church 30 October, 1909. In 
 the Second Congregation there are now 33 Sisters, 
 14 novices, 12 postulants, and 10 Tertiary Sisters, a 
 total of 69. The Sisters have four mission settlement 
 houses as follows: one in the large Italian parish of 
 
 Our Lady of Pity in the Bronx, New York City, for 
 mission settlement and catechism work among the 
 5000 Catholic children attending public school; a 
 second house in Hereford, Texas, where two missionary 
 Friars are also laboring; a mission house in Tucumcari, 
 New Mexico; and a fourth house in Dover, Ohio, 
 under the Capuchin Fathers. The cornerstone of a 
 new building for the St. Clare’s Mission Settlement 
 House in the Bronx, N. Y., founded 1919, was laid 
 16 October, 1921. There are at present 23 Sisters 
 of the Atonement working in the missions. Their 
 special work is catechism and social settlement work 
 for the foreign born children of the public schools and 
 their parents. Their constitutions, based upon the 
 Franciscan Rule and revised according to the new 
 Code of Canon Law, have been approved by his 
 late Eminence Cardinal Farley and by the present 
 ordinary Most Rev. Archbishop Hayes. 
 
 Franciscan Sisters of Baltimore City. —These Sisters, 
 with mother-house at St. Mary’s Abbey, Mill Hill, 
 London, were introduced into America in 1881, for 
 work among the colored people. At the request of 
 the late Cardinal Gibbons they established them¬ 
 selves in the Archdiocese of Baltimore, where they 
 now have a novitiate and a home accommodating 
 300 orphans. Convents have been opened in Nor¬ 
 folk and Richmond, Va., and in Wilmington, N. C. 
 In some of their schools the Sisters have as many as 
 600 pupils. From St. Mary’s Abbey, Mill Hill, 
 Sisters were sent to open missions in Africa in 1902, 
 and the late Mother Mary Paul, who was then 
 Superior of the Franciscan Convent in Norfolk, Va., 
 was chosen to be the first superior to lead the mis¬ 
 sionary band of Sisters to this new field of labor in 
 Uganda, British East Africa. There are now 4 con¬ 
 vents of this congregation working among the natives 
 of Uganda, where they have 2 hospitals and 3 schools. 
 The aggregate number of this congregation is about 
 500. 
 
 Franciscan Sisters of Christian Charity. —This 
 congregation was founded 9 November, 1869. The 
 mother-house and novitiate is at Holy Family Con¬ 
 vent, Alverno, Wisconsin. The present superioress 
 is Mother M. Generose, elected in July, 1919. There 
 are 436 professed Sisters, 42 novices, and 41 pos¬ 
 tulants. The Sisters have 52 parish schools distrib¬ 
 uted as follows: Green Bay, 32; Milwaukee, 4; 
 Omaha, 2; La Crosse, 3; Grand Rapids, 1; Columbus, 
 6; Superior, 1; Marquette, 2; and a school of music 
 at Marquette. The number of teachers actively 
 engaged in school work is 266. Holy Family Hospital 
 at Manitowoc, Wis., Good Samaritan Hospital at 
 Zanesville, Ohio, and St. Joseph’s Home for the 
 Aged at West Point, Neb., are in charge of the con¬ 
 gregation. 
 
 Franciscans of the Immaculate Conception. —This 
 community, with mother-house at Little Falls, Minn., 
 has charge of the following institutions: St. Gabriel’s 
 Hospital, Little Falls, erected 1915, dedicated 1916; 
 St. Francis’ Hospital, Breckenridge, Minn.; St. 
 James Hospital, Perham, Minn.; St. Joseph’s Hospi¬ 
 tal, Dodgeville, Wis., erected 1913-14; St. Ansgar’s 
 Hospital, Moorhead, Minn., bought from the 
 Lutherans 24 October, 1920, dedicated and blessed 
 the same year; St. Ott’s Orphanage, Little Falls, 
 Minn., averaging about 120 children a year, the 
 children there finishing the eighth grade; Aged People’s 
 Home, Little Falls, Minn., averaging about 35 to 40 
 aged people a year. Connected with St. Gabriel’s, 
 St. Francis’, and St. Ansgar’s Hospitals are training 
 schools for nurses. Notable members of the com¬ 
 munity recently deceased are: Sister Mary Rose, 
 mother general for twelve years, died 7 November, 
 1921; Sister Mary Francis, first superior, died 11 
 December, 1915; Sister Mary Magdalen, one of the 
 oldest members of the community, died 28 September, 
 
THIRD ORDERS 
 
 728 
 
 THIRD ORDERS 
 
 1917; Sister M. Baptista, died 16 February, 1921; 
 and Sister M. Joseph, died 7 April, 1921. The 
 present superior of the community is Mother M. 
 Teresa, elected 1918 and re-elected 1921. The 
 community numbers 74 professed Sisters and 21 
 novices 
 
 Little Franciscan Sisters of Mary. —This community, 
 founded at Worcester, Mass., has its mother-house at 
 Baie-St.-Paul, Canada. It is affiliated by a diploma 
 dated 7 October, 1904, to the Grand Order of the 
 Seraphic St. Francis of Assisi, and received its decree 
 of canonical erection 25 December, 1914, on the 
 twenty-fifth anniversary of its foundation. The 
 three following foundresses successively governed 
 the institute: Mother Mary Joseph (1889-93), 
 Mother Mary Ann of Jesus (1893-1908), and Mother 
 Mary Dominic (1908-20). The present superior 
 general is Mother Mary Clare of Assisi. The pos¬ 
 tulate for candidates lasts one year, and the novitiate 
 lasts also a year; then the novices are admitted to 
 annual vows which they renew for four years, after 
 which they make perpetual vows. To conform 
 with the Canonical Code the constitutions were sub¬ 
 jected to slight changes, viz.: facility to extend the 
 term of the postulate, novitiate, and temporary 
 vows; also to anticipate the renewal of said vows in 
 cases where it would be impossible for the missionary 
 Sisters to renew them on date of expiration; while on 
 the other hand, the Sisters who are to make their per¬ 
 petual vows must have a dispensation if it is impos¬ 
 sible for them to be at the mother-house for canoni¬ 
 cal examination on or before thirty days previous to 
 date of making their vows. The institute has at 
 present 17 houses, of which 9 are in the United States. 
 Seven of these are schools at: Marinette, Wis.(1901), 
 190 pupils; Auburn, Me. (1904), 539 pupils; Fort Kent, 
 Me. (1906), 580 pupils (also a boarding school for girls 
 with 55 and one boys’ with 49); Menominee, Mich. 
 (1907), 179 pupils; Marquette, Mich., (1911), 191 
 pupils; Eagle Lake, Me. (1916). 260 pupils; Wallagras, 
 Me. (founded 1898, closed 1913, reopened 1920), 
 122 pupils; total number of pupils, 2061. The 
 Sisters have a home for the aged and abandoned of 
 both sexes at Worcester, Mass., with 156 inmates, 
 and a hospital at Eagle Lake, Me. (1906), with 27 
 patients, having cared for 2682 patients since 1912. 
 At Auburn, Me., a boarding school was closed last 
 year to give more space for class rooms. According 
 to 1914 statistics the institute had treated, cared for, 
 educated and instructed 21,267 persons of both sexes 
 as follows: 1255 aged, 1838 patients, 352 insane, 765 
 orphans, 17,057 pupils. Up to 1921 the institute 
 counts 27 deceased Sisters of whom 2 were foundresses. 
 The community comprises 252 professed religious, 
 27 novices, and 37 postulants. 
 
 Franciscan Sisters of Penance and Christian Charity. 
 —This congregation has its mother-house and novitiate 
 at Stella Niagara, N. Y., where there is also a semi¬ 
 nary for the education of girls, with 116 pupils in 
 1921. In the Diocese of Buffalo the Sisters conduct 
 the Buffalo Academy of the Sacred Heart, St. Anne’s 
 St. Joachim's, St. Michael’s, Mt. Carmel and St. 
 John’s (La Salle, N. Y.), parochial schools, having a 
 total of 2753 pupils under the direction of 136 Sisters. 
 St. Vincent’s Orphanage in Columbus, Ohio, founded 
 in 1875, now cares for 248 orphans. St. Ann’s 
 Foundling Asylum was founded in 1908, and in 1921 
 took care of 109 infants. In these two institutions 
 34 Sisters are employed. The Sisters conduct six 
 parochial schools in the Diocese of Columbus, where 
 1920 children are educated under the supervision of 
 52 Sisters. St. Aloysius Academv in New Lexington, 
 Ohio, was founded in 1875. There are 147 pupils 
 in attendance here, with 28 Sisters in charge. In 
 Charleston, W. Va., the Sisters are in charge of the 
 Sacred Heart School which has 344 pupils. The two 
 
 Indian Missions, St. Francis and Holy Rosary, both 
 in South Dakota, care for 555 children. These 
 Missions were founded in 1886 and 1888 respectively. 
 In Nebraska the Sisters have academies in O’Neill 
 and Alliance. They have three hospitals in the West: 
 the Sacred Heart Hospital in Havre, Mont.; St. 
 Joseph’s Hospital in Minot, North Dakota., and 
 St. Joseph’s Hospital in Alliance, Neb. They have 
 parochial schools in Los Angeles, Cal.; Sacramento, 
 Cal.; Portland, Ore.; Spokane, Uniontown, and 
 Cowlitz, Wash.; Denver, Col.; and Havre, Mont. 
 In 1921 the Grace Day Nursery was opened in Sacra¬ 
 mento, Cal. The total number of Sisters working 
 in the United States (1922), is 446, including 394 
 professed religious, 31 novices, and 11 postulants. 
 In their 4 academies, 21 parochial schools, 2 Indian 
 Missions, 3 hospitals, orphanage, foundling asylum, 
 day nursery, and 2 homes for working girls, they care 
 for 12,189 seculars. 
 
 The congregation throughout the world is divided 
 into 6 provinces, with a total of 128 convents, more 
 than 45,000 souls being confided to the care of the 
 Sisters, who number 2859 professed religious, 272 
 novices, and 119 postulants, a total of 3250 members. 
 Statistics for each province are (1920) as follows: 
 Holland, 717 professed, 65 novices, 18 postulants, 
 28 convents; Germany, 1240 professed, 150 novices, 
 70 postulants, 41 convents; India, 146 professed, 6 
 novices, 6 convents; Brazil, 350 professed, 24 novices, 
 17 postulants, 23 convents; North America, 386 
 professed, 27 novices, 14 postulants, 27 convents; 
 Africa, 20 professed, and 3 convents. 
 
 Franciscan Sisters of the Perpetual Adoration .— 
 This community, with mother-house at St. Rose 
 Convent, La Crosse, Wisconsin, now numbers 601 
 professed Sisters, 32 novices, and 37 postulants. 
 They have at present 14 foundations and are in charge 
 of 3 hospitals caring for 6412 patients in 1920, 1 
 orphanage with 212 orphans, 2 academies, 78 paro¬ 
 chial schools with 11,039 pupils, and 1 Indian school. 
 The present superior general is Mother M. Ludovica. 
 
 Poor Sisters of St. Francis of the Perpetual Adoration. 
 —These Sisters, with mother-house at Olpe, Germany, 
 have a provincial house at La Fayette, Indiana. 
 The present mother general is Sister Verena Schulte, 
 elected 1916, and the provincial superior is Sister 
 
 M. Josepha. Recently deceased religious of note are: 
 Sister M. Leonarda, superioress of St. Alexius Hos¬ 
 pital, Cleveland, Ohio, died 2 November, 1916; 
 Sister M. Engelberta, superioress of St. Francis 
 Convent, La. Fayette, Indiana, died 1 March, 1918; 
 Sister Alexia, superior of St. Joseph’s Hospital, 
 Memphis, Tenn., died 26 August, 1919. New 
 foundations have been made as follows: in 1913, 
 Sacred Heart School, Gallup, N. M.; St. Anthony’s 
 Orphanage, Albuquerque, N.M.; St. Francis Hospital, 
 Indianapolis, Ind.; in 1914, St. Anthony’s School, 
 Columbus, Neb.; in 1915, St. Edward’s School, 
 Lowell, Ind.; in 1916, St. Mary’s Hospital, Gallup, 
 
 N. M.; Immaculate Conception School, Cuba, 
 N. M.; in 1917, St. John’s School, Goshen, Ind.; 
 in 1919, St. Mary’s Hospital, Memphis, Tenn.; 
 St. Edward’s School, Morrison, Mo.; St. Ann’s 
 School, La Fayette, Ind.; in 1920, St. John’s School, 
 Earl Park, Ind.;. St. Francis School, Lumberton, 
 N. M.; St. Stanislaus School, Omaha, Neb.; in 1921, 
 St. Mary’s School, Huntington, Ind.; school at San 
 Fidel, N. M. The present number of foundations is 
 76, including 21 hospitals, 50 schools, 3 orphanages, 
 1 home for the aged; and St. Francis Convent. The 
 community numbers 830 professed religious, 66 
 novices, and 15 postulants. 
 
 Missionary Franciscan Sisters of the Immaculate 
 Conception. —This congregation has its mother-house 
 and novitiate in Rome and a branch novitiate at 
 Newton, Mass. It was founded in 1873 by Mother 
 
THIRD ORDERS 
 
 729 
 
 THIRION 
 
 Mary Ignatius of Jesus, the first house in America 
 being established at Belle Prairie, Minn. In 1880 
 the mother-house was established in Rome. Mother 
 Mary Ignatius died in 1894 and was succeeded as 
 superior by Mother Mary of the Angels, during 
 whose term of office an orphanage for colored children 
 was opened in Savannah, Ga. (1897) and another 
 orphanage opened in Jersey City, N. J. (1898). 
 With the permission and approval of the Sacred 
 Congregation of Propaganda a house was opened in 
 Fayum, Upper Egypt, in 1899. A flourishing school 
 is now carried on there for the instruction of children 
 of Coptic and Mahommedan parents as well as those 
 few of Catholic parentage. On the expiration of the 
 term of Mother Mary of the Angels, Mother Mary 
 Antonia was elected superior general in 1900. She 
 died in 1901 and was succeeded by Mother Mary 
 Columba. During the twelve years of her administra¬ 
 tion new houses were opened in Augusta, Ga. (1901), 
 Boston (1902), West Hoboken, N. J. (1904), Cairo, 
 Egypt (1907), New Castle, Penn. (1908), Bronx, 
 N. Y. (1909), Belle Prairie, Minn. (1911), Brooklyn, 
 N. Y. (1911), Chicago, 111.(1911), Newton, Mass. 
 (1912), Montreal, Canada (1912), Pittsburgh, Penn. 
 (1912). The first convent erected in Belle Prairie 
 was malicious^ destroyed by fire and the new con¬ 
 vent erected in 1911. At the general chapter of the 
 institute held in Rome, July, 1913, Mother Mary 
 Agnella was elected superior general. During her 
 term of office 3 new houses were opened: Damanhour, 
 Egypt (1913), Rockford, Ill. (1915), Philadelphia, 
 Penn. (1918). Mother Mary Agnella died in 1921. 
 Mother Mary Benignus, the present superior general, 
 was elected in July, 1919. In September of that year 
 a settlement house was opened in Syracuse, N. Y. 
 In January, 1920, a mission was opened at Chester, 
 Penn., and in February, 1921, a home for Italian 
 children w^as opened in Jamaica Plain, Mass. The 
 Convent of Our Lady of the Angels in Tenafly, N. J., 
 which was opened on 16 June, 1921, serves as a sum¬ 
 mer home for the Sisters and is the seat of publication 
 of their periodical “Annals of Our Lady of the An¬ 
 gels.” A branch novitiate was established in Boston 
 in 1903 and transferred to Newton, Mass., in 1912. 
 The present number of mission houses is 21. The 
 congregation comprises 190 professed Sisters, 14 nov¬ 
 ices, and 9 postulants. 
 
 Polish Franciscan School Sisters: —This con¬ 
 gregation has its mother-house at St. Louis, Mo., 
 and its novitiate at'Ferguson, Mo., the new site for 
 the novitiate having been purchased in 1921. The 
 present superior general is Mother Hilaria. The 
 congregation numbers 115 professed religious, 12 
 novices, and 8 postulants, with 19 foundations. 
 
 Franciscan Sisters of the Sorrowful Mother. See 
 Sorrowful Mother, Sisters of the. 
 
 Bernardine Sisters of St. Francis. These Sisters 
 have their mother-house and novitiate at Read¬ 
 ing, Penna. They were founded in 1894 by Mother 
 Weronica Grzedowska who with three Sisters came 
 to America from Zakliczyn in Poland, having been 
 sent by the Bishop of Tarnowa. The Sisters opened 
 R small parochial school at Mt. Carmel, Penna., where 
 they remained for one year. In 1895 they established 
 the mother-house at Reading, Penna., and the novi¬ 
 tiate was opened there in 1901. In 1912 Mother 
 Hedwig Leszczynska, the present general superior, 
 succeeded Mother Weronica. The latter died in 
 1916. The aim of the congregation is to teach in 
 parochial elementary and higher schools and to take 
 care of orphans. At present the Sisters have 42 
 schools scattered throughout the States of Pennsyl¬ 
 vania, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. They also 
 have charge of St. Francis Orphan Asylum, Reading, 
 Penna., incorporated 1905, and the St. Stanislaus 
 Orphan Asylum, Nanticoke, Penna., opened in 1919. 
 
 The congregation numbers 230 professed Sisters, 
 70 novices, and 40 postulants. 
 
 Felician Sisters, O. S. F. See under Felician 
 Sisters 
 
 Third Order of Our Lady of Mount Carmel 
 (cf. C. E., XIV—637d). A good deal of discussion 
 has recently taken place on the origin of the Third 
 Order, but no definite result has been arrived at. 
 Fr. Gabriel Wessels (Analecta Ordinis Carmelitarum, 
 vol. Ill, 259 sqq.) is of opinion that until the end of 
 the fifteenth century there was no real distinction 
 between the convents of the Second and Third 
 Orders, in other terms that the distinction arises 
 from the stricter or less strict observance of enclosure 
 and other points of the rule, and as this distinction 
 resulted chiefly from the Tridentine legislation the 
 division would seem to be even somewhat later than 
 stated by this accurate and cautious observer. A 
 new rule for the Tertiaries of the Discalced Car- 
 melities living in the world was approved by the Holy 
 See 6 March, 1921. 
 
 Benedict Zimmerman. 
 
 Third Orders, Secular. —Secular Third Orders 
 are composed ordinarily of lay persons, known as 
 tertiaries, who aim at Christian perfection by follow¬ 
 ing a rule approved for them by the Holy See, em¬ 
 bodying the spirit of a particular religious order 
 as far as that is compatible with their condition as 
 lay people. The permission of the Holy See is re¬ 
 quired before a third order can be established, and 
 this has been granted to the Premonstratensians, 
 Dominicans, Friars Minor, Carmelites, Augustinians, 
 Minims, Servites, and Trinitarians, while the Ben¬ 
 edictines have their oblates who resemble the terti¬ 
 aries. While religious of these orders can enroll 
 individual tertiaries, permission of the local ordinary 
 is necessary for the erection of a sodality of the third 
 order, and special permission is needed if the members 
 are to wear a distinctive habit while assisting at 
 sacred functions. No one who has made vows in 
 any religious institute can belong to a third order, 
 except by special permission of the Holy See, even 
 though he had been a tertiary before making his 
 vows; however, if he is freed from his vows and 
 returns to the world, his tertiarian membership 
 revives. No one may be a member of two third 
 orders; though for good reason a tertiary may pass 
 from one order to another, or from one sodality to 
 another in the same order. Tertiaries may be, but 
 are not obliged to be, present as a body at public 
 religious offices, but if they do take part they must 
 wear their insignia and have their own cross; they 
 do not share in the indulgences granted to the first 
 and second orders, except by special indult. A general 
 blessing or deprecative absolution with a plenary 
 indulgence annexed may be given publicly to all 
 tertiaries on stated feasts, when they ‘assemble for 
 that purpose; if the priest whose office it is to give 
 it is absent, any priest, secular or regular, who is 
 authorized to hear confessions may bestow it; further¬ 
 more, the blessing may be received priyately from 
 any confessor after sacramental absolution on any 
 of the specified feasts or the preceding day, and in 
 case of Franciscan tertiaries on any day also within 
 the octaves of the feasts. 
 
 Vermeersch-Creusen, Epit. jut. can. (IUalines, lyzij, 
 698-703. 
 
 Thirion, Julien, scientist, b. at Sclayn, Namur, 
 Belgium, in 1852; d. on 23 February, 1918. He 
 studied at Namur and at the age of twenty entered 
 the Society of Jesus; during his course of training he 
 specialized in mathematical physics and subsequently 
 he was sent to Louvain to supervise the scientific 
 training of the young Jesuits. As early as 1880 ho 
 had contributed a number of historical astronomical 
 
THRACE 
 
 730 
 
 TIERNAN 
 
 to the Precis historiques (Brussels), and 
 later published a “History of Mathematics" in the 
 same review. In 1896 he was appointed secretary of 
 the Societe scientifique de Bruxelles and editor of the 
 “Annales" of the Society and later of the “Revue des 
 questions scientifiques.” As a professor Thirion was 
 noted for the lucidity of his exposition of intricate 
 questions, which he rendered more attractive by brief 
 historical sketches; so in his contribution to the 
 “Revue des questions scientifiques” the same lucidity 
 and attractiveness are noted. Optics was his favorite 
 subject, but he contributed many interesting scien¬ 
 tific biographies. 
 
 Schaffers in Revue de quest, scient., XXVIII (Louvain, 1920), 
 27-52, giving bibliography of Thirion’s writings. 
 
 Thrace, Vicariate Apostolic of (Thraciae 
 Bulgarorum), was erected 7 April, 1883, for the 
 Greco-Bulgarian Catholics in European Turkey. 
 The total population of the territory numbers about 
 410,000 and of this number only 3000 are Catholic. 
 These are served by 16 missionary priests, 20 churches 
 and chapels, 13 schools with 500 pupils. At present 
 (1922) there is no vicar apostolic named for this 
 territory. 
 
 Three Rivers, Diocese of (Trifluvianensis; cf. 
 C. E., XIV—708d), formed from the Archdiocese of 
 Quebec to which it is now suffragan. It comprises 
 a Catholic population of 108,000 French Canadians 
 and about 2300 English and other nationalities. 
 During the World War the clergy and laity of this 
 diocese took an active part in organizing works of 
 patriotism and charity, and large numbers of the 
 young men joined the ranks, many of them giving up 
 their lives and others receiving decorations of honor. 
 Recently the most important developments in the 
 progress of the diocese have been the holding of a 
 diocesan synod, the organization of the “Corporation 
 ouvriere Catholique,” a society for Catholic working 
 men, and the establishment of a semi-weekly journal. 
 The diocese has however lost several prominent mem¬ 
 bers by the deaths of: Mgr. Hermyle Baril, P. A., 
 vicar general and administrator of the diocese, 
 principal of the normal school and one time superior 
 of the seminary, died 17 February, 1915; Canon H. 
 Trahan, pastor of Saint Severe, deceased in 1917; 
 His Honor Judge F. S. Tourigny, died in 1916. The 
 diocese comprises, according to latest statistics, 57 
 parishes, 80 churches, 4 missions, 9 stations, 1 monas¬ 
 tery for men, 3 for women, 1 convent for men, 9 
 for women, 135 secular and 30 regular clergy, 175 
 lay brothers, 1 seminary with 355 professors and an 
 alumni of 500, 18 higher schools for boys with 150 
 teachers and 3000 students, 20 higher schools for 
 girls with 175 teachers and 3500 students, 12 aca¬ 
 demies with 60 teachers and 1800 pupils (800 boys 
 and 1000 girls), 1 normal school with 10 teachers and 
 100 pupils, 332 elementary schools with 600 teachers 
 and 30,000 pupils, 3 industrial schools, 2 diocesan 
 missionary organizations, 4 homes, 6 orphanages, 
 
 2 hospitals, 1 reformatory, 4 other charitable in¬ 
 stitutions and 1 poor house. Four of the public 
 institutions permit the priests to minister in them and 
 for the most part the schools receive financial aid 
 from the government. Among the clergy the Society 
 of Priests Adorers, Society of the Blessed Virgin, the 
 St. Thomas Aquinas Fund, and the “Society d’une 
 Messe,” are organized, and among the laity the 
 Third Orders of St. Francis and of St. Dominic, the 
 League of the Sacred Fleart, and the St. Vincent de 
 Paul Society are established, besides some minor 
 associations. The see is at present filled by Rt. 
 Rev. Frangois-Xavier Cloutier, born in this diocese 
 in 1848, ordained in 1872, appointed bishop 8 May, 
 1899, and named an assistant at the pontifical throne 
 
 3 February, 1916. 
 
 Thureau-Dangin, Paul, historian, b. at Paris on 
 14 December, 1837; d. at Cannes on 25 February, 
 1913. He studied law, practiced in the Court of 
 Appeal in Paris and was an auditor in the Conseil 
 d’Etat. His taste, however, was historical and literary 
 rather than forensic; and as associate editor of 
 “Le Frangais" and a contributor to “Le Cor- 
 respondant" he supported the Orleanist family. In 
 1863 he published “La Pologne et les trait6s de 
 Vienne" and four years later he abandoned all his 
 other pursuits to devote himself to the study of 
 history and the interests of religion. In his “Histoire 
 de la Monarchic de Juillet" (7 vols. 1884-92), his 
 documentations, his power of synthesis, together with 
 his accuracy and impartiality reveal the master 
 historian. This work and his zeal for the purity of 
 the language won for him in 1893 a chair in the 
 French Academy, of which he became perpetual 
 secretary in 1908. Thureau-Dangin was one of the 
 few Frenchmen who grasped the intricacies of the 
 Oxford Movement and its consequences, and in his 
 “Renaissance Catholique en Angleterre" (1899) 
 he traces in detail the simultaneous development of 
 High Church Anglicanism and Catholicism in 
 England from the beginning of the Oxford Movement. 
 He was inclined to liberalism at times in the matter, 
 for instance, of Biblical criticism and the relations 
 of the Church and the State, but on realizing the 
 Church’s teaching he corrected his stand unhesitat¬ 
 ingly. Among his other writings are “Royalistes et 
 Republicans" (1874); “Paris, capitale pendant la 
 revolution frangaise” (1872); and “Un predicates 
 populaire dans l’ltalie de la Renaissance, Saint 
 Bernardin de Sienne" (1896). 
 
 Thuringia (cf. C. E., XIV—712c), a new state in 
 Central Germany formed on 24 December, 1919, by 
 the union of the former grand duchies of Saxe- 
 Weimar-Eiseanch, Saxe-Meiningen, Gotha, Saxe 
 Altenburg-Reuss, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, Schwarz- 
 burg-Sonderhausen. The area is 4546 square miles; 
 the population according to the last census (1 Decem¬ 
 ber, 1910) was 1,510,538 or 3322 inhabitants per 
 square miles. The capital is Weimar; other towns are 
 Gera, Gotha, Jena, Eisenach, Greiz, Rudolstadin 
 Arnstadt, and Sonderhausen. Until the formation 
 of the new constitution the Legislature (Volksrat) 
 was composed of the deputies of the Legislatures of 
 the seven republics; the executive authority being in 
 the hands of a ministry (Staatsrat) composed of 
 representatives of the government of each of the 
 seven states. 
 
 Tibet, Vicariate Apostolic of (Thibetanensis; 
 cf. C. E., Ill—678b, VI—603c), in China, with 
 episcopal residence at Ta-tsien-lu. By a decree of 
 20 March, 1912, Propaganda added to this vicariate 
 the country between the boundaries of Tibet and the 
 territory of the East Indies known as British Boutan, 
 which was too far from Calcutta, on which it had 
 formerly depended. The vicariate is entrusted to 
 the Society of Foreign Missions of Paris, the present 
 vicar being Rt. Rev.’ Pierre-Philippe Giraudeau, 
 titular Bishop of Thynias. The territory counts 
 3789 Catholics and 600 catechumens out of a total 
 population of 4,000,000. It is served by 25 European 
 priests, 2 native priests, 18 churches and chapels, 
 34 stations, 1 seminary with 10 students, 21 schools 
 with 266 pupils, 2 hospitals, 5 orphanages and 6 
 Chinese religious. 
 
 Tiernan, Frances Christine, authoress, known 
 more widely by her pseudonym, “Christian Reid,” 
 b. at Salisbury, North Carolina, on 5 July, 1846; d. 
 there on 24 March, 1920; daughter of Colonel Charles 
 Frederick and Elizabeth Clarissa (Caldwell) Fisher. 
 
TIERRADENTRO 
 
 731 
 
 TIVOLI 
 
 Her mother was a Catholic; her father an Episcopa¬ 
 lian. Colonel Fisher fell at the first battle of Manas¬ 
 sas, and his daughter remained loyal to his Confeder¬ 
 ate ideals to the end. Beginning with “Valerie 
 Aylmer" in 1870, Christian Reid achieved enviable 
 success as a writer of elegant fiction. In “The Land 
 of the Sky" she immortalized western North Caro¬ 
 lina, and directly led to the development of the 
 mountain country of that State. Her war drama, 
 “Under the Southern Cross," with its impassioned 
 presentation of the views of the South upon the con¬ 
 stitutional right of secession, has enshrined her name 
 in the hearts of the Southerners. In 1887 she married 
 James Marquis Tiernan and accompanied him to 
 Mexico where she sojourned till his death in 1898. 
 While there she w T rote among other fiction “The Land 
 of the Sun" (1894), one of her most interesting tales. 
 Early in life she was received into the Catholic Church 
 by Cardinal Gibbons, then only Vicar Apostolic of 
 North Carolina. She practised her religion zealously 
 and to her is mainly due the erection of the Church 
 of the Sacred Heart in her native town. In 1909 
 Christian Reid was honored with the Laetare Medal 
 by the University of Notre Dame. Between 1870 
 and 1915 she wrote more than forty novels, of which 
 the following, in addition to those mentioned above, 
 are the best known: “A Daughter of Bohemia," 
 “Heart of Steel," “The Picture of Las Cruces," 
 “Weighed in the Balance," “A Little Maid of Ar- 
 cady,” “The Wargrave Trust," “The Secret Be¬ 
 quest,” “A Question of Honor." 
 
 . Tierradentro, Prefecture Apostolic of (de 
 Tierradentro), in Colombia, erected by a decree 
 of 13 May, 1921. The territory comprised in 
 this prefecture was taken from the diocese of Popayan 
 and entrusted to the Lazarists. No prefect has been 
 appointed yet and no statistics are published. 
 
 Time, Computation of (cf. C. E., XIV—726a).— 
 In reckoning time the following regulations have been 
 laid down in the Code (can. 31-4). A day consists of 
 twenty-four continuous hours beginning at mid¬ 
 night; a week, of seven days; a month means thirty 
 and a year three hundred and sixty-five, unless it is 
 stated that they are to be taken as in the calendar. 
 It is to be noted that while in canon law a day implies 
 continuity of time, a week does not; hence any seven 
 canonical days, even not continuous, make a week, 
 unless the law says it refers to a calendar week. 
 The time of day is to be reckoned by the common 
 local custom, but if there is question of saying Mass 
 privately, reading the Office privately, receiving 
 Holy Communion, or observing the fast or abstinence, 
 one may also follow the true or mean local time, or 
 the regional or other extraordinary legal regional or 
 other extraordinar}' - legal time. Vermeersch-Creusen 
 and Claeys-Bouuaert believe this optional computa¬ 
 tion of time may be used in regard to indulgences 
 and cessation from servile work; and the former au¬ 
 thorities, contrary to Maroto and others, see no 
 difficulty in allowing one to recite the Breviary, for 
 instance, according to the true time, observe ab¬ 
 stinence according to mean time, and the Eucharistic 
 fast according to local time. The concessions made 
 regarding the calculation of time do not in any 
 way affect the liturgical laws. Moreover, the 
 requirements of the local civil law as to the time for 
 fulfilling contracts are to be observed, unless the 
 contrary is expressly agreed to by the contracting 
 parties. 
 
 If a month or year is expressly or equivocally 
 mentioned, e. g., the month of February, next year, 
 it is to be taken as in the calendar. If the exact 
 time at which anything begins is mentioned neither 
 expressly nor implicitly, e. g., suspension from saying 
 
 Mass for a month or two years, three months vacation 
 each year, etc., the time is to be reckoned from the 
 moment to moment if the time is continuous as in 
 the first example, the months and years are to be 
 taken as in the calendar; if the time is not con¬ 
 tinuous as in the second instance, week, month and 
 year mean seven, thirty, and three hundred and 
 sixty-five days respectively. If the time referred 
 to consists of several days, or of one or more weeks, 
 months, or years, and the term from which the 
 period is reckoned is mentioned expressly or im¬ 
 plicitly: (a) months, and years are taken as in the 
 calendar; (b) if the term coincides with the beginning 
 of the day, e. g., two month’s vacation from 15 
 August, the computation begins with the first date 
 mentioned, the term ending at the beginning of the 
 last day of the same number, i. e., at midnight of 
 14-15 October; (c) if the term from which a period 
 is reckoned does not coincide with the beginning of 
 a day, e. g., the fourteenth year of age, a year’s 
 novitiate, eight days after the death of a bishop; 
 where, as in the first two examples, the timens begi 
 at the moment of one’s birth, or of one’s taking the 
 vows respectively; the first day is not counted and 
 the term finishes at the end of the last day of the 
 same number, i. e., one who entered the novitiate 
 on 7 September, 1918, completed the two years at 
 midnight of 7-8 September, 1920; (d) if the month 
 has no corresponding number, e. g., one month from 
 30 January, the term will end with the beginning or 
 the end of the last day of the month, as the case 
 may be; (e) where acts of the same kind are to be 
 repeated at stated times, e. g. , three years to perpetual 
 profession after temporary profession, three years to 
 a new election, the time finishes on the same monthly 
 date as that on which it began, but the new act 
 may be peformed at any time that day. 
 
 O’Donnell in Irish Eccl. Record, XI (1918), 50-58; Ver¬ 
 meersch-Creusen, Epit. jur. can., 94-101; Maroto, Institu- 
 tiones jur. can., 221-32. 
 
 Tinin, Diocese of. See Knin 
 
 Tinos, Archdiocese of. See Naxos and Tinos 
 
 Tiraspol (or Chersonese) Diocese of (Tiras- 
 polensis seu Saratovensis; cf. C. E., XIV—739a) 
 in the government of Cherson, Russia, suffragan of 
 Mohileff. This see is filled by Rt. Rev. Joseph- 
 Louis Kessler, born in Otrogovca in 1862, served as a 
 pastor, then canon, and inspector of the upper 
 seminary, and was appointed bishop 1 April, 1904. 
 He has the privilege of two suffragan bishops who 
 reside at Tiraspol and Saratow, but at present no 
 one has been appointed to these positions. The 
 administrator apostolic for the Armenians of the 
 diocese is Rev. Serge Der Abraamian who resides at 
 Tiflis. The episcopal residence is at Saratow. By a 
 Consistorial decree of 2 August, 1921, the boundaries 
 of the diocese were somewhat changed by the separa¬ 
 tion of five parishes which were added to the diocese 
 of Jassy. The latest statistics available are those 
 of 1911 which credit the diocese with 359,823 Catholics 
 of the Latin and Armenian Rites (Armenians 37,088); 
 125 parishes, 93 chapels, and 179 secular priests of the 
 Latin Rite; 56 parishes, 5 chapels and 54 priests of the 
 Armenian Rite. This is the only Russian diocese 
 which has an upper and lower seminary, Catholic 
 parish schools and a religious weekly (published in 
 German). The two seminaries which are situated in 
 Saratow have 161 students making lower studies and 
 
 26 making higher studies. 
 
 Tivoli, Diocese of (Tihirtinensis; cf. C. E., 
 XIV—747b), in the province of Rome, central Italy, 
 directly dependent on the Holy See. This see is 
 filled by Rt. Rev. Luigi Scarano, born in Trivento 
 
 27 October, 1867, served as a canon and vicar general, 
 
TLAXACALA 
 
 732 
 
 TOKIO 
 
 was named a private chamberlain 24 May, 1913, 
 prothonotary apostolic in 1915, and appointed bishop 
 22 March, 1917, succeeding Rt. Rev. Gabriel 
 Vettori, transferred to Pistoia 6 December, 1915. 
 According to 1920 statistics the Catholic population 
 of the diocese numbers 40,000 and there are 42 
 parishes, 72 secular and 35 regular clergy, 20 seminar¬ 
 ians, 68 Sisters and 108 churches or chapels. 
 
 Tlaxacala, Archdiocese of. See Puebla de los 
 Angeles 
 
 Todi, Diocese of (Tudertinensis; cf. C. E., 
 XIV—754a), in the province of Perugia, central 
 Italy, directly subject to the Holy See. This see is 
 filled by Rt. Rev. Luigi Zaffarami, born in this diocese 
 in 1864, served as archpriest of San-Terenziano, 
 appointed titular Bishop of Sasima 22 January, 1915, 
 and named administrator apostolic of Todi, and 
 transferred 6 December, 1915. The ancient cathedral 
 of this diocese was dedicated to Saint Terentius, while 
 the new one, built on the ruins of the former, is dedi¬ 
 cated to Our Lady. The diocese embraces a Catholic 
 population of 45,200, and according to 1920 statistics 
 has 98 parishes, 99 secular and 15 regular clergy, 40 
 seminarians, 10 Brothers, 47 Sisters and 249 Churches 
 or chapls. 
 
 Togo, French, Vicariate Apostolic of 
 (Togensis; cf. C. E., I—180-189), in Western Africa. 
 The prefecture apostolic of Togo, erected in 1892 and 
 entrusted to the Fathers of the Divine Word of Steyl, 
 Holland, was raised to a vicariate apostolic 16 March, 
 1914. Owing to the conditions brought about by the 
 war, the missionaries were obliged to leave, and the 
 vicar apostolic, Rt. Rev. Franz Wolf, appointed by 
 the decree of erection, and titular Bishop of Byblos, 
 is still forced to remain in Europe. From January, 
 1918, until January, 1921, the vicariate was adminis¬ 
 tered by Rt. Rev. Ignace Hummel, Vicar Apostolic 
 of the Gold Coast. That year the vicariate was 
 given over to the Society of the African Missions of 
 Lyons, and on 11 January Monsignor Jean-Marie 
 Cessou was named administrator of the vicariate. 
 During the World War Monsignor Cessou with Rev. 
 Father Alphonse Seitie and six other priests served 
 in various capacities and the two named were dec¬ 
 orated with the Croix de Guerre. The vicariate, which 
 comprises the whole territory of Togo, entrusted to 
 the French by the Peace Conference, is divided into 
 nine districts. The Christian portion of the popula¬ 
 tion, numbering about 24,942, is composed of mem¬ 
 bers of two tribes, the Ewe and the Gengbe. Ac¬ 
 cording to latest statistics it comprises 9 quasi-parishes, 
 9 missions, 22 churches, 134 mission stations, 2 
 convents of religious with 6 Sisters, 13 missionary 
 priests, 6 lay brothers, 3 seminarians, 10 higher 
 schools for boys with 48 teachers and 1939 pupils, 
 1 higher school for girls with 4 teachers and 300 
 pupils, 1 industrial school which trains printers, 
 blacksmiths, book-binders, shoe makers, cabinet 
 makers, tailors and watch repairers, and has 14 
 teachers and 86 students, 1 home for the destitute, 
 and 2 refuges. The industrial school and two of the 
 other schools are partially supported by the govern¬ 
 ment. The Congregation of Mary with 46 branches 
 for men, young men, women and girls, is organized. 
 
 Tokio, Archdiocese of (Tokiensis; cf. C. E., 
 XIV—754d.), in Japan. A decree of 13 August, 
 1912, separated a portion of its territory from the 
 archdiocese and erected it into the prefecture 
 apostolic of Nygata. The present incumbent of the 
 see is Most Rev. Jean-Pierre Rey, of the Society of 
 Foreign Missions of Paris, appointed 1 June, 1912, to 
 succeed Most Rev. Frangois Bonne, d. 11 January, 
 1912. Born in Julienas, France, in 1858, Arch¬ 
 
 bishop Rey made his studies in Lyons and the sem¬ 
 inary of the Foreign Missionaries in Paris, was 
 ordained in 1882 and was sent to Japan, where he 
 became vicar general in 1906. Latest statistics 
 credit the archdiocese with 15,987,516, of whom 9685 
 are Catholic; 28 European priests, 3 Japanese 
 priests, 2 communities of men with 26 religious, 3 
 communities of women with 58 Sisters, 17 schools 
 with 1872 pupils and 39 churches and chapels. 
 
 Tokio, Catholic University of, in Japan. This 
 institution, conducted by the Jesuits, originated 
 in the mind of Pope Pius X, in consequence of a 
 report made to him by the then Bishop of Port¬ 
 land (now Cardinal O’Connell), on returning to 
 Rome from a special embassy to the Mikado in 
 1905. In 1908, Fr. James Rockliff, S.J., Fr. Henri 
 Boucher, S.J., and Fr. Joseph Dahlman, S.J., went 
 to Japan to found the university, landing at Yoko¬ 
 hama on 17 October of that year. Archbishop 
 Pierre Rey of Tokio placed at their disposal a resi¬ 
 dence which had originally been erected for a 
 Catholic students’ dormitory. Here they devoted 
 themselves to the study of the Japanese language 
 and customs until a suitable location for the uni¬ 
 versity buildings was secured in April, 1912. This 
 plot consists of a little less than five acres, just 
 within the ancient rampart and moat of the city 
 of Tokio (pop. 3,000,000), and midway between the 
 two imperial palaces, easily accessible by the Yoko¬ 
 hama Interurban, the City Belt Line and two trans- 
 urban electric lines. 
 
 Government permission for the opening of a 
 private school, of college and university rank ( Koto 
 Gakko and Daigako) was secured, and classes 
 opened with an enrollment of twenty students in 
 April, 1913. Faculty and students were both housed 
 at this time in old Japanese buildings, standing on 
 the property, and wholly inadequate to the pur¬ 
 pose. The erection of a suitable classroom build¬ 
 ing was begun immediately, and at a cost of 120,000 
 yen, was completed and opened for classes in Sep¬ 
 tember, 1914. This building is of brick, with 
 wooden bracings rendering it as near earthquake- 
 proof as anything not of concrete and steel can be. 
 It has capacity for four hundred students, and in¬ 
 cludes faculty offices, students’ library and two ex¬ 
 hibition halls. The faculty are still huddled into 
 the Japanese buildings above mentioned; they 
 now number ten Fathers representing eight nation¬ 
 alities drawn from Europe, Asia and America. 
 Twenty extern Japanese professors are employed. 
 The enrollment of students has steadily grown to 
 one hundred and sixty. The first graduating exer¬ 
 cises were held in March, 1918, when eleven stu¬ 
 dents were graduated. Their immediate employ¬ 
 ment in responsible positions by leading firms and 
 departments of the Government, gave marked proof 
 of the reputation which the university enjoys for 
 a high standard of studies and hard work. The 
 present course of studies corresponds as closely to 
 that of Jesuit universities in other parts of the 
 world as the vast divergence of circumstances will 
 permit. Chinese takes the place of Greek, modern 
 European languages supplant Latin. The course 
 ends with two years of Scholastic philosophy and 
 ethics. Courses in foreign service, architecture and 
 journalism are expected in the near future. 
 
 The legal status of the university prior to 1920 
 was that of a private institution recognized by the 
 Government but not enjoying an equality with 
 imperial schools of the same rank. In 1920' the 
 Law of Endowments went into effect, extending to 
 endowed private institutions the right to give de¬ 
 grees and enjoy privileges equal to those of imperial 
 
 * 
 
TOLEDO 
 
 733 
 
 TONG-KINO 
 
 institutions. The endowment fund prescribed by 
 the Japanese Government for the Catholic Univer¬ 
 sity was 600,000 yen, about $300,000. Until this 
 has been collected the university will exist only 
 on tolerance. The University is now under the 
 Presidency of the Rev. Herman Hofman, S.J., who 
 was installed in 1913. Its Japanese address is 
 Jochi Daigaku, Kojimachi, Tokio, Japan. 
 
 Toledo, Archdiocese of (Toletanensis; cf. 
 C. E., XIV—755b.) in Spain. This see is filled by 
 His Eminence Cardinal Almarez y Santos, born in 
 Vallies, Spain, in 1847; he studied in Salamanca, 
 was made a vicar sometime after his ordination, and 
 in 1874 became canon magistral of the cathedral of 
 Salamanca. He was later made secretary of the 
 chapter, honorary chamberlain, preacher of the 
 Royal Chamber, and in 1885 was named secretary to 
 the Bishop of Madrid and archpriest of that cathedral. 
 He later became vicar capitular, and a professor in 
 the seminary and then dean of the chapter in 1891. 
 He was appointed Bishop of Palencia 18 January, 
 1893, promoted to the archdiocese of Seville 18 
 April, 1907, and was proposed by the King for the 
 primatial see of Toledo 12 November, 1920, and 
 transferred by the Consistory, on 16 December. In 
 1908 the King again honored him by naming him a 
 senator in virtue of personal title, and on 27 Novem¬ 
 ber, 1911, he was created a cardinal priest. The 
 Cardinal is assisted by Rt. Rev. Matthew Colon y 
 Canals, an Augustinian Monk, who was appointed 
 titular bishop of Andrapa and auxiliary at Toledo 
 29 July, 1921. The Archbishop of this see, besides 
 being Primate of Spain, is also Patriarch of the East 
 Indies. The Catholic population of the archdiocese 
 numbers 400,022; latest statistics credit it with 
 439 parishes divided among 33 archpresbyteries, 
 940 priests, 489 chapels or sanctuaries, 75 convents 
 with 130 religious and 1025 Sisters. 
 
 Toledo, Diocese of (Toledensis; cf. C. E., 
 XIV—579c), comprises 6969 square miles in the State 
 of Ohio. In May, 1921, Rt. Rev. Joseph Schrembs, 
 appointed to this see as its first bishop 11 August, 
 1911, was transferred to Cleveland, leaving behind 
 him a record of ten years accomplishments only 
 equalled by the work of the pioneer bishops of this 
 country. Until the appointment of his successor, 
 Rt. Rev. John T. O’Connell acted as administrator, 
 and on 30 November of the same year Rt. Rev. Sam¬ 
 uel A. Stritch, chancellor of the Diocese of Nashville, 
 was named the second bishop. 
 
 The diocese (1921) contains 102 parishes, with 123 
 churches, 16 chapels, 21 missions and 18 stations. 
 One monastery of men, Redemptorists, at Lima, and 
 one of women, the Visitation nuns, in Toledo, as well 
 as the Franciscan Minor Conventual Fathers and the 
 Sisters of Mercy and Sisters of St. Francis (Polish 
 Province) have been established in the diocese 
 recently. There are now 136 secular and 45 regular 
 priests, about 700 Sisters of whom 160 are engaged in 
 hospitals and refuges, 12 contpmplatives, and the 
 remainder occupied in school work. A Jesuit univer¬ 
 sity and college, with 24 professors and 365 students, 
 three academies, having 923 students, and ten high 
 schools, with 887 students, provide for higher educa¬ 
 tion. Elementary schools number 84, with 457 
 teachers and 16,541 children enrolled. The diocese 
 is well provided with charitable institutions, having 
 2 orphanages, 2 homes for the aged, 1 House of the 
 Good Shepherd, 4 hospitals, 1 working girls’ home, a 
 community house, a settlement house, and a day 
 nursery. In some places a community chest provides 
 partial public support to institutions, and in a few 
 strictly Catholic localities district schools are taught 
 by Sisters. Almost every priest is a member of the 
 
 Pactum Apostolicum, and the Eucharistic League is 
 well supported, a diocesan Eucharistic Conference 
 with a public procession being held each year. The 
 Knights of Columbus, Knights of St. John, Catholic 
 Knights of Ohio, Holy Name Society, National 
 Catholic Welfare Council, Ladies’ Catholic Benefit 
 Association, Catholic Boy Scouts, and several Polish, 
 Hungarian and Slovak societies are in a flourishing 
 condition. The Catholic population is about 122,500, 
 comprising Poles, Slovaks, Magyars, Croatians, Ital¬ 
 ians, French, Germans, Bohemians and Greeks. 
 During the war the diocese sent out 3 priests as chap¬ 
 lains and took care of two camps, Perry and Erie, 
 within its borders. 
 
 Tong-king, Central, Vicariate Apostolic of 
 (Tom-kim Centralis), one of the divisions of the 
 French Colony of the same name, in Asia. It is en¬ 
 trusted to the Dominicans, the present vicar apos¬ 
 tolic being Rt. Rev. Pierre Munagorri y Obyneta, 
 appointed titular Bishop of Pityus 28 July, 1865. 
 The episcopal residence is at Bui-tchu. Out of a total 
 population of 2,000,000 the vicariate has 219,250 
 Catholics; these are served by 22 missionary priests, 
 92 native secular priests, 129 seminarians, 615 
 churches and chapels, 75 stations, 3 orphanages, 2 
 hospitals, 366 native Tertiary Dominican nuns, 33 
 Amantes de la Croix (native Sisters), and 15 Sisters 
 of St. Paul of Chartres. 
 
 Tong-king, Eastern, Vicariate Apostolic of 
 (Tom-kim orientalis; cf. C. E., VII—774d), one of 
 the seven vicariates comprised in the French colony 
 of this name, in Indo-China. It comprises four 
 provinces, Hai-duong, Kienh-an, Quanh-yen and 
 Mon-cay, and includes a total population of 2,500,- 
 000. It is entrusted to the Dominicans of Spain, with 
 official residence at Hai-phong. The present vicar is 
 Rt. Rev. Francisco Ruiz de Azua who succeeded upon 
 the resignation of Rt. Rev. Nicaise Arellano, 14 
 April, 1919, after an administration of 13 years. 
 Bishop Ruiz de Azua joined the Tong-king mission 
 in 1893, was made provincial vicar of Eastern Tong- 
 king in 1914, and was named coadjutor to the vicar 
 and titular Bishop of Cardica 19 June, 1917. By 
 latest statistics (1922) the vicariate has 53 secular 
 priests, 30 clerics, 13 catechists of the first grade, 77 
 of the second and 41 of the third grade, and 153 
 mission servants. Various schools and institutions 
 include a Latin school with 60 pupils, a theological 
 seminary with 29 students, a college for catechists 
 with 53 students, a school under the Brothers of 
 Christian Doctrine with 6 Brothers teaching 206 
 boys, 2 schools under the Sisters of St. Paul of 
 Chartres with 13 Sisters teaching 177 girls, 4 houses of 
 Sisters of the Third Order of St. Dominic, with 104 
 Sisters, 9 orphanages caring for 106 orphans, 5 hos¬ 
 pitals caring for 194 patients, 1 leper hospital with 80 
 patients, 1 house of nursing Sisters of St. Paul of 
 Chartres, with 4 Sisters, and 2 homes in which orph¬ 
 ans are received, with 33 children. The spiritual 
 progress of the vicariate is best shown by the following 
 statistics for the past year: baptisms of catechumens 
 362, baptisms of children of Christians 3488, bap¬ 
 tisms of dying children of pagan parents 6374, con¬ 
 firmations 3099, ordinations 22, confessions 157,613, 
 communions 271,341, extreme unctions 1526, mar¬ 
 riages 795, Christian communities 340. The native 
 Christians number, in all, 79,510, and the European 
 Catholics, 2000. 
 
 Tong-king, Maritime, Vicariate Apostolic of 
 (Tom-kim maritimus; cf. C. E., VII—774d), one of 
 the seven ecclesiastical divisions of Tong-king, in 
 Indo-China. This vicariate, erected in 1901, is still 
 under the administration of its first vicar, Rt. Rev. 
 
TONG-KING 
 
 734 
 
 TONG-KING 
 
 Jean-Pierre-Alexandre Marcou, of the Society of 
 Foreign Missions of Paris, appointed titular Bishop 
 of Lysias 18 April, 1895, and named vicar 16 April, 
 1901. He resides at Phat-Diem and is assisted by a 
 coadjutor, Rt. Rev. Louis-Christian-Marie de Coo- 
 man, titular Bishop of Thacia-Montana. Although 
 the work of the missionaries in this territory has met 
 with marked success from a spiritual point of view, 
 they encounter great difficulties in the matter of edu¬ 
 cation. The largest part of the population is of the 
 peasant class, engaged chiefly in farming, with the 
 result that a great scarcity of teachers for the schools, 
 is found. To overcome this difficulty however, 
 catechism schools have been established and the 
 children learn the alphabet from the catechism. In 
 all the centers of new Christians catechists, numbering 
 about forty in all, give instruction. This territory 
 embraces a Catholic population of 109,000, and by 
 latest statistics comprises 54 parishes, 405 churches 
 and chapels, 521 Christian communities, 37 mission¬ 
 ary priests, 100 native priests, 187 catechists, 3 
 seminaries, 1 school for catechists, 269 seminarians, 
 11 houses of religious women, and 143 native religious. 
 The institutions include 68 elementary schools with 
 80 teachers and 1915 pupils, 4 asylums, 5 hospitals, 
 6 homes, 6 nurseries, 1 leper asylum with 68 lepers 
 (aided by the State), and 1 school for deaf mutes. 
 The Society of Priests Adorers is organized among the 
 clergy and a bi-monthly journal or review is published 
 for them. During the past year there were 1452 
 baptisms of infidels, 8196 baptisms of dying children 
 of infidel parents, 4709 baptisms of children of Chris¬ 
 tian parents, 495,964 confessions, and 1,660,291 
 communions. One of the most renowned of the 
 clergy who has served in this territory, was the late 
 Father Six, an Annamite priest, pastor of Phat-Diem 
 before the erection of Tong-King Maritime. He was 
 well known for his wisdom and his ability at the court 
 of Hue and m dealing with the high French officials. 
 He was made an honorary minister of the king, the 
 only priest who has ever had this honor, and a 
 chevalier of the legion d’honneur. 
 
 Tong-king, Northern, Vicariate Apostolic of 
 (Tom-kim Septentrionalis; cf. C. E., VIII—778b), 
 an ecclesiastical division of the French Colony of 
 Tong-king in Asia. It is entrusted to the Dominicans, 
 its present vicar being Rt. Rev. Maximim Velasco, 
 appointed titular Bishop of Amorium and coadjutor 
 at Northern Tong-king, 28 July, 1889, succeeding as 
 vicar apostolic 7 February, 1902. His coadjutor at 
 present (1922) is Rt. Rev. Theodore Gordaliza, ap¬ 
 pointed titular Bishop of Abdera 10 August, 1915. 
 By a decree of 31 December, 1913, the provinces of 
 Lang-son and Cao-bang, and the delegations of Bao- 
 lac, Quan-ba and Dong-yan, in the province of Ha- 
 giang, were separated from the vicariate and erected 
 into a prefecture apostolic. The only statistics pub¬ 
 lished are those collected before this division was 
 made. 
 
 Tong-king, Southern, Vicariate Apostolic of 
 (Tom-kim meridionalis, cf. C. E., VII—774d), 
 separated from Western Tong-king in 1846, this ter¬ 
 ritory is entrusted to the Society of Foreign Missions 
 of Paris, with episcopal residence at Xa-doai. The 
 present vicar apostolic is Rt. Rev. Andre-Leonce- 
 Joseph Eloy, appointed titular Bishop of Magydos 
 and vicar apostolic 11 December, 1912. The vicari¬ 
 ate embraces a Catholic population of 126,000, and is 
 divided into 16 districts and 94 parishes. Latest 
 statistics credit it with 512 churches or chapels, 604 
 stations, 8 convents with 130 native Sisters (Amantes 
 de la Croix), 29 European missionaries and 133 native 
 priests, 210 catechists, 2 seminaries, 265 seminarians, 
 20 elementary schools with 20 teachers and 520 
 
 pupils, 428 Christian doctrine schools with 17,500 
 pupils, 1 hospital and 6 orphanages with 1243 orph¬ 
 ans. The priests are permitted to minister in 1 public 
 hospital. A diocesan fund for native clergy is estab¬ 
 lished. During the World War 19 of the missionaries 
 were mobilized of whom 7 returned to France and 
 served there; 1 was wounded and 2 received the croix 
 de guerre. When the Indo-Chinese regiments were 
 organized about 250 Annamite Catholics from this 
 vicariate volunteered and many of these also won the 
 croix de guerre. 
 
 Tong-king, Upper, Vicariate Apostolic of 
 (Tom-kim Superioris, cf. C. E., VII—774d), com¬ 
 prises the provinces of Son-tay, Tuyem-gnang and 
 Hung-Hoa, under the collective title of Xu-doai. It 
 is entrusted to the Foreign Missions of Paris, the 
 present vicar being Rt. Rev. Paul-Marie Ramond, 
 appointed titular Bishop of Linoe and named first 
 vicar apostolic of this territory 18 April, 1895. As in 
 other sections of Tong-king, the great handicap to the 
 work of the mission is the great scarcity of schools. 
 There are a number of schools teaching religion, but 
 no professional schools, and a great need exists for 
 some secondary schools, and at least one high school. 
 In all Tong-king there are 800,000 Christians whose 
 children are forced to use the government schools 
 which are often antagonistic toward religion. If the 
 missionaries were in a position to establish schools 
 they would be patronized not only by Christian 
 children, but by numbers of pagans, and thus the work 
 of conversion would be greatly facilitated. However, 
 the very inadequate resources of the mission have 
 always had to be devoted to the work of the native 
 clergy in spreading the Faith and in holding those 
 already converted. By latest statistics (1922) the 
 vicariate comprises 16 parishes, 180 churches and 
 chapels, 16 Christian communities, 230 stations, 51 
 secular priests of whom 23 are European and 28 na¬ 
 tive, 5 European and 34 native Sisters, 2 lower 
 seminaries, 68 seminarians, 56 elementary schools 
 with 56 teachers and 750 pupils, 4 asylums, 4 hos¬ 
 pitals, and 5 nurseries, besides places in each parish 
 for receiving children, where they are cared for or 
 entrusted to Christian families. The Association of 
 Priests Adorers is formed among the clergy, and parish 
 bulletins in French and Annamite are published at 
 Hanoi. Each year three retreats are held at the 
 episcopal residence at Hung-hoa, for the missionaries, 
 for the native clergy and for the catechists. The 
 Catholics of the vicariate now number 33,500. Dur¬ 
 ing the World War five of the missionaries from this 
 territory went to the front and one was killed, one 
 wounded, one decorated with the medaille militaire, 
 and two with the croix de guerre. A large number of 
 Annamite chieftains took part in the fighting. 
 
 Tong-king, Western, Vicariate Apostolic of 
 (Tom-kim occidentalis, cf. C. E., VII—774d), a 
 division of the French colony of the same name in 
 Indo-China. It is entrusted to the Society of Foreign 
 Missions of Paris, tjie present vicar apostolic being 
 Rt. Rev. Pierre-Jean-Marie Gendreau appointed 
 titular Bishop of Chrysopolis 26 April, 1887, and co¬ 
 adjutor to the vicar of Western Tong-king, whom he 
 succeeded 25 April, 1892. He was named an assistant 
 at the pontifical throne 11 June, 1912. His coadjutor 
 is Rt. Rev. Louis-Marie-Henri Bigolet, titular Bishop 
 of Antiphrae. Latest statistics credit the vicariate 
 with 93 parishes, 721 churches and chapels, 786 mis¬ 
 sion stations, 137 native secular priests and 36 mis¬ 
 sionaries, 461 Sisters, 2 seminaries, 270 seminarians, 
 
 2 higher schools for boys with 16 teachers and 539 
 pupils, 1 higher school for girls with 10 teachers and 
 280 pupils, 156 elementary schools with 172 teachers 
 and 1489 pupils, 5 industrial schools with 9 teachers 
 
TORONTO 
 
 735 
 
 TOURNAI 
 
 and 370 pupils, and 766 Christian doctrine schools 
 with 27,992 students. The various institutions in¬ 
 clude 1 house for retreats, 4 asylums, 3 hospitals, 1 
 refuge and 7 nurseries. The public university, ly- 
 ceum, hospitals and prisons permit the priests to 
 minister in them, and 1 Catholic institution receives 
 aid from the government. A society is organized 
 among the young Catholics of the vicariate, and 2 
 journals, 1 review and 1 “Semaine Religieuse,” are 
 published. The Catholic population comprises 
 154,000 Annamites and 3100 French. Seven of the 
 missionaries and about 6000 Annamite Catholics saw 
 service during the World War. 
 
 Toronto, Archdiocese of (Torontinensis; 
 cf. C. E., XIV—781d.), in Ontario, Canada. This 
 see is filled by Most Rev. Neil MacNeil, born in 
 Hills Corough in the diocese of Antigonish in 1851; 
 he made his studies in Antigonish and at Propaganda 
 College in Rome, was ordained in 1879, became a 
 professor and then president of St. Francis Xavier’s 
 College, Antigonish, founded the journals “Aurore” 
 in 1881, and “Casket” in 1890, and was appointed 
 titular Bishop of Nilopolis and vicar apostolic of 
 St. Georges 6 August, 1895, transferred to St. 
 Georges de Terre-Neuve 18 February, 1904, pro¬ 
 moted to the archdiocese of Vancouver 19 January, 
 1910, and again transferred 10 April, 1912. The 
 Catholic population of the archdiocese numbers 
 85,000. Latest statistics credit it with 80 parishes, 
 32 mission stations, 113 secular and 46 regular 
 clergy, 1 seminary, 1 college, 10 convents and 
 academies, 112 churches and 8 hospitals and asylums. 
 
 Tortona, Diocese of (Dertonensis; cf. C. E., 
 XIV—784d), in the province of Alessandra, northern 
 Italy, suffragan of Genoa. This see is filled by Rt. 
 Rev. Simone Pietro Grassi, born in Schilpario in 
 1856, served as provost of Verdello and was ap¬ 
 pointed bishop 22 January, 1915, to succeed Rt. 
 Rev. Igino Bandi, appointed in 1890, died 8 Sept., 
 1914. During the World War 200 priests of this 
 diocese served in the ranks, and 25 as military 
 chaplains at the front. A number were killed and 
 many received decorations of valor. All the priests 
 at home, and the laity, took an active part in relief 
 work of all kinds. Upon its reestablishment in 1817 
 this diocese was taken from the metropolitan see of 
 Milan and made suffragan to Genoa. It now has 
 295 parishes, 500 secular priests, 430 churches, 6 
 monasteries of men, 4 convents of men, and 40 of 
 women, 2 seminaries, 65 seminarians, 3 educational 
 institutions for bo 3 'S with 25 teachers and 300 stu¬ 
 dents, 5 educational institutions for girls, with 30 
 teachers and 350 pupils, about 30 asylums and 10 
 hospitals. A mutual aid society is organized among 
 the clergy and a number of associations among the 
 laity. Three diocesan weeklies and fifty parish 
 bulletins are published. A Eucharistic Congress was 
 held in the diocese recently, as well as a centenary 
 celebration in honor of St. Martianus, believed by 
 ome to have been the first bishop of this see. 
 
 Tortosa, Diocese of (Derthusensis; cf. C. E., 
 XIV—785c), in the province of Tarragona, Spain, 
 suffragan of Tarragona. This see is filled by Rt. 
 Rev. Pedro Rocamora y Garcia, born in La Granja 
 de los Rocamoras in 1832, served as a professor in 
 the seminary of his native city, pastor of Elche, 
 professor of theology, penitentiary canon of the cathe¬ 
 dral of Orihuela, elected bishop 21 May, 1894. 
 The diocese comprises Catholics, 725,388, and by 
 latest statistics has 182 parishes, 723 churches, 10 
 monasteries for men, 50 houses of religious com¬ 
 munities of women, 592 priests, 1 seminary, 200 
 seminarians, elementary schools in each parish, 8 
 
 47 
 
 homes for the aged and infirm, 10 asylums, hospitals 
 in each parish, and 6 refuges. A number of lay 
 charitable centers and day nurseries are established, 
 and the priests are permitted to minister in two 
 public institutions. Many associations are formed 
 among the clergy, as well as the laity, and a number of 
 Catholic periodicals are published here. 
 
 Toulouse, Archdiocese of (Tolosanensis; cf. 
 C. E., XIV—795b), comprises the department of 
 Haute-Garonne, France. The see is at present filled 
 by Most Rev. Jean-Augustin Germain, born in Beau- 
 caire in 1839, ordained in 1863, served as a pastor and 
 was appointed Bishop of Rodez 19 April, 1897, pro¬ 
 moted 14 December, 1899. He is assisted by an 
 auxiliary, Rt. Rev. Jean Raynaud, titular Bishop 
 of Germia. During the World War 260 priests and 
 seminarians were mobilized from this territory and of 
 this number 38 died, 7 were decorated with the legion 
 d’honneur, 2 with the medaille militaire, and 80 with 
 the croix de guerre. The principal event of import¬ 
 ance in the archdiocese recently was the “Semaine 
 Sociale” of France, held here in July, 1921. The 
 archdiocese comprises about 400,000 Catholics, and 
 is divided into 552 parishes, having 575 churches. It 
 includes 1 abbey for men, 1 for women, 25 convents 
 for women, 700 secular priests, 1 upper and 2 lower 
 seminaries, 250 seminarians, 1 Catholic university 
 with 27 professors and 75 students, 3 colleges for boys 
 with 350 students, 12 colleges for girls, 195 Cathoiic 
 elementary schools with 405 teachers, teaching 
 about one-fourth of all the school children, an asso¬ 
 ciation of diocesan missionaries at Pibrac, 3 houses of 
 retreats for ladies, 1 home under the Little Sisters of 
 the Poor, 6 orphanages for girls, 1 for boys, 1 home 
 for deaf mutes and 1 home for the blind. Three soci¬ 
 eties, the League for Deceased Priests, Jesus 
 Hostie, and Priests Adorers, are formed among 
 the clergy, and numerous associations are established 
 among the laity. Two important daily papers, 
 “Express du midi” and the “Telegram,” are pub¬ 
 lished here, as well as three weeklies and a number of 
 parish bulletins. 
 
 Tournai, Diocese of (Tornacensis; cf. C. E., 
 XIV—798b).—Includes the entire province of 
 Hainaut in Belgium. In the early days of the war 
 the Belgians, assisted by some English and French 
 troops, made a stand against the Germans on tho 
 Sambre and Mons but in a few weeks the entire 
 diocese was occupied and was “despoiled, ravaged 
 and tortured” by German soldiers. Rt. Rev/Charles 
 Gustave Walravens, Bishop of Tournai, was taken 
 as a hostage by the Germans in August, 1914, and in 
 spite of his seventy-four years was obliged to journey 
 on foot part of the way to Brussels, where he was 
 interned. He was afterwards released but evil treat¬ 
 ment and violence inflicted by German authorities 
 on the venerable prelate hastened his death, which 
 occurred at Tournai 13 February, 1915. Nearly all 
 the bishops of Belgium assisted at his funeral, 18 
 February, where the honors that the Germans wished 
 to render him were banned. He was replaced 6 
 December, 1915, by Rt. Rev. Amedee Marie Crooy, 
 born at Ixelles-Bruxelles, 29 January, 1869, student 
 at Rome, religious preceptor to the King’s son, 
 papal chamberlain, enthroned 8 December, 1915. 
 
 In the diocese there are 1,230,000 Catholics, 35 
 cures with 540 parishes, 1 abbey for men, 87 convents 
 for men and 535 for women, 1220 secular priests, 
 6500 religious women. The seminary with 80 sem¬ 
 inarians is divided into an upper and lower section, 
 the former at Tournai and the latter at Bonne 
 Esperance. There are 11 colleges or institutes for 
 the higher education of boys and 50 colleges for girls. 
 Throughout*the diocese there are many lower schools 
 
TOURS 
 
 736 
 
 TRANSYLVANIA 
 
 and institutions to whose support the Government 
 contributes. Ten Catholic journals are published. 
 
 Tours, Archdiocese of (Turonensis; cf. C. E., 
 XV—2a), in the department of Indre-et-Loire, 
 France. Most Rev. Rene-Frangois Renou, who was 
 promoted to this see in 1896, retired and was trans¬ 
 ferred to the titular see of Apamea, 2 August, 1913. 
 His successor is Most Rev. Albert Negre, born in 
 Saint Bonnet de Chirac in 1853, made his studies at 
 the French seminary in Rome and served as a dio¬ 
 cesan missionary, professor of theology at Mende, 
 vicar general and superior of the upper seminary, was 
 appointed Bishop of Tulle 14 July, 1908, and pro¬ 
 moted 5 August, 1913. During the World War 145 
 priests and seminarians were mobilized from this 
 territory and from this number 5 priests and 5 semi¬ 
 narians were killed, and 2 were decorated with 
 the legion d’honneur. Since the close of the war a 
 constant effort has been made to reorganize the var¬ 
 ious diocesan works which had become partly dis¬ 
 rupted, and to launch new endeavors which should 
 help to rebuild the country, both morally and phys¬ 
 ically. In 1921 a Catholic Congress was held, 
 and plans were made for a provincial council 
 held during Lent of the present year (1922), which 
 treated of the social needs of the people. A special 
 effort is being made to encourage large families; the 
 archbishop has promised his blessing in personally 
 baptizing the fifth child in each family, and every 
 child after that. In a material way encouragement 
 is being given by the Catholic merchants who make 
 reduction on merchandise purchased by the heads of 
 large families. Latest statistics available give the 
 population of the archdiocese as 341,200, and credit 
 it with 289 first class and succursal parishes, and 50 
 vicariates. 
 
 Trani and Barletta, Archdiocese of (Trani et 
 Barolensis; cf. C. E., XV—16d), with the united 
 title of Nazareth, and perpetual administration of the 
 diocese of Bisceglia (Vigiliensis). This see is situated 
 in the province of Bari, Italy, and is at present filled 
 by Most Rev. Giuseppe Leo, born in 1864, in Andria, 
 where he served as a Canon; he later became vicar 
 general of Cariati, and was appointed Bishop of 
 Nicotera 23 June, 1909, and promoted in February, 
 1920, to succeed Most Rev. Giovanni Regine, d. 6 
 October, 1918. Barletta comprises only the city of 
 that name and has a Catholic population of 46,000; 
 5 parishes, 26 secular priests and 20 churches and 
 chapels. Trani counts 26,500 Catholics, 8 parishes, 
 35 secular and 5 regular clergy, 100 seminarians, 4 
 Brothers, 110 Sisters and 46 churches and chapels. 
 Bisceglia has a Catholic population of 32,000, and 6 
 parishes in the city, which forms the whole diocese; 
 46 priests, 15 seminarians and 15 churches, chapels 
 and oratories. 
 
 Transaction.—If a contentious controversy af¬ 
 fects only the private interests of the parties to the 
 dispute, the judge, in order to avoid litigation when 
 possible, is directed to urge them to settle the dispute 
 out of court, if it seems feasible, by transaction, that 
 is a friendly arrangement under the guidance of a 
 priest, preferably one of the synodal judges, in 
 accordance with the regulations of the civil law, 
 where that is not contrary to Divine or ecclesiastical 
 law or the enactments of the Code. Transaction is 
 not valid, however, when there is question of crime, 
 of dissolving the marriage bond, of titles to benefices, 
 or of spiritual interests closely connected with 
 temporalities. 
 
 Transcendental Way, Church of the. See New 
 
 Thought 
 
 
 Transvaal, Northen, Prefecture Apostolic of 
 (Transvallensis Septentrionalis; cf. C. E., I— 
 189c XV—20c), comprises part of the colony of the 
 Transvaal, in South Africa. It was erected by a 
 decree of 22 December, 1910, and entrusted to the 
 Benedictines of the Primitive Observance. The 
 present prefect apostolic is Rev. Ildefonse Lanslots, 
 of this congregation, born in 1859, ordained in 1881, 
 and named 16 January, 1911. The prefecture com¬ 
 prises two civil districts formerly belonging to the 
 vicariate apostolic of Transvaal, Zoupant-Sberg and 
 Waterberg. It counts (1920) 337 Catholics out of a 
 total population of 440,000; these are served by 6 
 priests, 3 Brothers, 2 churches and 5 schools. 
 
 Transvaal, Vicariate Apostolic of the 
 (Transvaalensis; cf. C. E., XV—45c), in South 
 Africa, includes all of the Transvaal except Water¬ 
 berg, Zoutpansberg and the northern portion of the 
 original vicariate. It is entrusted to the Oblate 
 Fathers of Mary Immaculate, the present vicar being 
 Rt. Rev. Charles Cox, appointed 15 July, 1914, 
 titular Bishop of Dioclea. From 1912, after the resig¬ 
 nation of Bishop Miller, Bishop Cox acted as admin¬ 
 istrator of the vicariate, and on 15 September follow¬ 
 ing his appointment he was named administrator 
 apostolic of the vicariate of Kimberly. The total 
 population of this territory is 1,347,600, of whom 20,- 
 100 are Catholic. This Catholic population includes 
 citizens of almost all the European nations, but the 
 majority of Europeans belong to the Dutch Churches. 
 By most recent statistics the vicariate is served by 28 
 regular clergy of 4 religious orders, and 2 secular 
 clefgy assisted by 21 Brothers and 304 nuns. These 
 religious women belong to the Holy Family, Domini¬ 
 can, Good Shepherd, Ursuline, Holy Cross, Nazareth, 
 Mercy or Loreto congregations. The Marist Brothers 
 conduct a college with 93 boarding and 569 day stu¬ 
 dents, and 25 convent schools having a total of 4591 
 pupils, are established. Out of this total of 5253 
 receiving Catholic education only 2158 are Catholics. 
 In 1915 the Sisters of the Holy Family retired from 
 the Johannesburg hospital, but they still conduct a 
 sanitarium. The Christian Brothers have erected a 
 day college at Pretoria which will be opened some time 
 this year (1922). The St. Vincent de Paul Society, 
 Sacred Heart Confraternity, Children of Mary, 
 Young Men’s Society, Guild for Young Boys and 
 Girls, Rosary Confraternity and the Ladies of Charity 
 are established here. A Catholic weekly, “The South¬ 
 ern Cross,” is published and the St. Vincent de Paul 
 Society publishes a parochial monthly, “The Catholic 
 News.” There are in all 33 churches and chapels; one 
 of these, near Pretoria, is reserved for native lepers 
 and is served from Pretoria. The Sisters teach hymns 
 and catechism to these people and many converts 
 have been made among them. 
 
 Transylvania (or Erdely), Diocese of (Tran- 
 sylvaniensis; cf. C. E., XV—22d).—This diocese is 
 a suffragan of Kalocsa, Hungary, although the whole 
 territory lies in that ceded after the war by Hungary 
 to Rumania. The see was founded by King Saint 
 Stephen, first king of Hungary, crowned in 1001. 
 Since the separation of the territory of the diocese 
 from Hungary there has been the greatest poverty 
 among the clergy, as the government of Rumania con¬ 
 tributes nothing towards the support of Catholic 
 schools or institutions. However, much is now being 
 done to effect a concordat with the State. In the 
 same territory of the diocese of Transylvania lies 
 the metropolitan of Fogaras, of the Greek Rumanian 
 Rite. 
 
 Rt. Rev. Count Charles Gustave Majlath von 
 Szekhely, born at Bakdcsa, diocese of Pecs, 24 
 September, 1864, student at Vienna, priest 6 October, 
 
TRAPANI 
 
 737 
 
 TRAPPISTS 
 
 1887. elected titular Bishop of Martyropolis and 
 coadjutor in Transylvania 15 March, 1897, succeeded 
 to bishopric 1 July, 1897. He resides at Gyula- 
 Feh<5rvar (Karlsburg, Alba Julia, Blaj), which con¬ 
 tains the monumental cathedral of St. Michael, 
 founded in the twelfth century. Rev. Samuel 
 Prokupek, papal chamberlain, died in 1920, as did 
 Rev. Joseph Meisel, Abbot of Corona, who had 
 been forced to emigrate into Hungary. 
 
 During the war, when Transylvania was in Eastern 
 Hungary, many men were soldiers at the front. Since 
 the war over 2,000,000 Hungarians have been 
 separated from Hungary and now live in new Rumania 
 where they have no political autonomy. Forty 
 priests of the diocese served with the Hungarian 
 army, but none of them were killed. Rev. Maysas 
 Sebestyen was killed by the Communists and Rev. 
 Nicholas Osiki by the Rumanian soldiers. 
 
 In the diocese there are 377,000 Catholics of the 
 Latin Rite, of whom about 350,000 are Hungarian 
 and 20,000 German. There are 238 parishes, 290 
 churches, 100 chapels, 28 monasteries for men and 
 
 1 for women, 26 convents for women, 358 secular 
 and 130 regular priests, 1 seminary with 28 semina¬ 
 rians, 2 academies with 18 teachers and 47 pupils, 
 7 gymnasia for boys with 125 teachers, and 2300 stu¬ 
 dents, 1 gymnasium for girls with 18 teachers and 310 
 students, 3 business schools with 18 teachers and 727 
 students, 28 civic schools with 163 teachers and 
 3750 students, 206 elementary schools with 556 
 teachers and 23,070 pupils, 3 training schools with 19 
 teachers and 280 students, 6 boarding schools for 
 boys with 17 teachers and 550 students, 5 boarding 
 schools for girls with 10 teachers and 260 students, 
 10 homes for aged and poor, 4 orphanages; and 5 
 Catholic papers are published. Two societies are or¬ 
 ganized among the clergy and many varied ones 
 among the laity throughout the diocese have a large 
 number of members. 
 
 Trapani, Diocese of (Drepanensis; cf. C. E., 
 XV—23b), on western shore of Sicily, suffragan of 
 Palermo. This see is filled by Rt. Rev. Francesco- 
 Maria Raiti, a Carmelite of the ancient observance, 
 born in Lingua glossa, Sicily, in 1864, appointed 
 Bishop of Lipari 22 June, 1903, and transferred 6 
 December, 1906. The city, which has a population 
 of over 70,000, has only, within the last fifty years, 
 been entirely united with the main land. By latest 
 statistics it comprises 14 parishes, 55 churches, 1 
 monastery for women, 1 Carmelite convent of men, 
 74 secular and 6 regular clergy, 1 seminary, 12 
 seminarians, 1 college for men, 1 normal school with 
 12 teachers and 1200 pupils, 2 professional schools 
 with 12 teachers and 1500 pupils and 2 elementary 
 schools. The charitable institutions include 1 asylum, 
 
 2 hospitals, 2 orphanages and 1 day nursery. Three 
 societies are organized among the clergy and many 
 among the laity. 
 
 Trappists (cf. C. E., XV—24a), the common name 
 by which the Cistercians who follow the reform in¬ 
 augurated by the Abbot de Ranc6 at the Abbey of 
 La Trappe, were known; and now often applied to the 
 entire Order of Reformed Cistercians. 
 
 As a great number of the monasteries of this order 
 are situated in France and Belgium, the two countries 
 that suffered most during the disastrous World War, 
 it is not surprising that they had much to endure. 
 Between 500 and 600 members were mobilized in the 
 armies of the Allies, of whom from 150 to 200 were 
 priests and from amongst these a good number, in¬ 
 cluding 3 abbots, were utilized as military chaplains. 
 Of those mobilized some 55 to 60 were killed in action, 
 many were honored with citation on the field of 
 battle, and no small number received various de¬ 
 
 corations for exceptional bravery, such as the croix 
 de guerre , medaille militairv, croix de la legion 
 d’honneur , etc. 
 
 Several of the monasteries suffered many injuries. 
 Mont des Cats, near Mt. Kernel, in Flanders, of 
 which so much mention was made in the newspapers, 
 and which was one of the most beautiful monasteries 
 in the order, was totally destroyed in 1917, and its 
 heroic abbot, who could neve;' be induced to abandon 
 his post of duty, even under almost constant bom¬ 
 bardment, died from exposure and mental strain, 
 whilst lying on an improvised cot made of empty 
 provision boxes, the refuse of a nearby military camp. 
 It was at this monastery that the Prince of Hesse, 
 whose Catholic mother was a cousin of the former 
 Emperor William, was killed in a hand-to-hand con¬ 
 flict in the very cloisters of the abbey, in 1915. 
 The next was Notre Dame d’lgny, near Fismes, 
 France, the abbey of the Most Rev. D. Augustin 
 Marre, actual abbot general of the order. This was 
 first captured in August, 1914, when it suffered but 
 slight physical damage. In August, 1918, however, 
 whilst the invaders were in full retreat, they mined 
 the buildings with high-explosives and, when at a 
 safe distance, detonated the charges, completely 
 destroying the monastery, leaving but a desolate 
 heap of ruins where before had stood one of the most 
 ancient abbeys of the order. The third was Notre 
 Dame de Mont des Olives (Oelenberg), Alsace. This 
 abbey, but recently completed, was right on the battle 
 front; it was taken a couple of times by the French, 
 then used as military headquarters by the Germans, 
 was frequently bombarded by both armies, and to a 
 great extent destroyed, especially its monumental 
 church and cloisters. Fourth is Notre Dame de 
 Mariastern near Banja-Luka, and not far from 
 Serajevo, where occurred the murder that was the 
 immediate excuse for the terrible conflict. This 
 abbey housed the largest community in the order, 
 embracing over 200 members, and was proportionate¬ 
 ly prosperous in material affairs. On account of a 
 great number of the religious being of German na¬ 
 tionality, and because the neighborhood was in¬ 
 habited chiefly by Serbs, Turks, and others not in 
 sympathy with these, its personnel was soon reduced 
 almost to extinction and its possessions very greatly 
 diminished. Notre Dame des Sept-Douleurs, at 
 El-Athroun, in the Holy Land, about half-way be¬ 
 tween Jerusalem and Jaffa, was occupied by the 
 Turks, who badly damaged the buildings, especially 
 their valuable library, as well as their mill and vine¬ 
 yards, these latter being their principal means of 
 support. The monks were dragged to the sea-shore 
 whence, through the intervention of theTtalian Consul, 
 they were finally repatriated to France. Notre 
 Dame du Sacre-Cceur, near Akbes, in Syria, a very 
 interesting monastery, was devastated and the re¬ 
 ligious kept for a while as captives, during which 
 time one of the brothers died on a bench in a railroad 
 station, the others being finally expelled from the 
 country. 
 
 The monasteries of Belgium were all occupied by 
 the invading army, and the religious compelled to 
 exile themselves to Holland. Amongst those which 
 suffered most was the Abbey of Westmalle, where 
 the church was damaged and all material that could 
 be used for munitions of war confiscated. Notre 
 Dame de St. Benoit, at Achel, was just on the 
 frontier between Belgium and Holland, the line 
 intersecting the property. The monks were obliged 
 to take up their abode in a chicken-house and other 
 out-buildings of the monastery, within the Holland 
 line but only a very short distance from their abbey, 
 from which they were separated by a wire fence, 
 heavily charged with electricity; thus they were al¬ 
 ways within sight of their beloved home, but threat- 
 
TREBIZOND 
 
 738 
 
 TRENT 
 
 ened with death if they attempted to enter its sacred 
 precincts. 
 
 At the present time (1922) all the communities 
 are once more in their monasteries, except that of 
 Notre Dame d’Igny, which is at Citeaux, the mother- 
 house; and Notre Dame du Sacre-Cceur (Akbes), 
 which is at Maguzzano, in Italy. One of the good 
 effects of the war was a much closer union between 
 Church and State in France, termed the “Union 
 Sacree,” which has made it possible for nearly all of 
 the French monasteries to recall their “houses of 
 refuge” which had been established in various parts 
 of the world some twenty years ago, when under 
 threat of expulsion from their own homes. A well 
 known house of this kind was “Petit Clairvaux,” 
 in Nova Scotia, all the members of which are now at 
 their home in the Abbey of Thymadeuc Another 
 wholesome effect was from the influence that death 
 in all its horror had upon many serious minded men 
 in the army; viewing this in immediate proximity 
 for so long a time, and learning therefrom the lesson 
 of the futility of earthly ambition, as well as the vanity 
 of temporal pleasures, large numbers of these turned 
 to God with their whole heart and not a few soldiers, 
 from the rank of commander down to simple private, 
 as well as naval officers and men, from the grade of 
 captain down, have entered various monasteries of 
 the order, and are proving themselves fervent reli¬ 
 gious. New foundations have been established: 
 one at Banz, an old ^,nd beautiful Benedictine monas¬ 
 tery in Bavaria; another at Himenrode in the Rhine¬ 
 land; a third in the Italian Tyrol; as well as some other 
 places. Cistercian Nuns were also established at the 
 well-fitted monastery near the famous pilgrimage of 
 Sainte Anne d’Auray (from whence was established 
 the well-known pilgrimage shrine of Sainte Anne de 
 Beaupre, in Canada). In the same year (1921) 
 the Trappistines of Notre Dame de Consolation, at 
 Besangon, the direct line from the ancient nuns of 
 Port-Ro} r al, were reinstated in the order. A couple 
 of more houses of Trappistines in Belgium were also 
 restored to the order at the same time. In America, 
 Notre Dame du Lac, Oklahoma, was destroyed by 
 fire on the feast of St. John, 1916, and since rebuilt, 
 the new church and monastery having been reopened 
 on the feast of the Assumption, 1921. 
 
 Edmond M. Obrecht. 
 
 Trebizond, Mission of. —The mission originally 
 established in Georgia in 1661, was confided to the 
 Capuchin Order. For nearly two centuries these 
 missionaries, having built hospitals and schools in 
 the chief cities, labored there in comparative peace. 
 But in 1845, by a decree of Nicholas I, Tsar of Russia, 
 they were expelled; the Mission of Georgia was aban¬ 
 doned, and the Fathers settled at Trebizond, on 
 the shores of the Black Sea. They founded a new 
 mission there, and established stations, churches and 
 schools in several of the cities. In 1845 it was made 
 a prefecture apostolic, but on 12 September, 1896, 
 it was reduced to the status of a mission. 
 
 The Mission of Trebizond has the same boundaries 
 as the Vicariate Apostolic of Constantinople, lying 
 between 28 degrees and 39 degrees E. longitude, 
 and 39 and 42 degrees N. latitude. On the southern 
 side the mission is bounded by the Vicariate of 
 Mesopotamia and Persia, and on the northern side 
 by the metropolitan Church of Saratof in Russia. 
 The people are subject to the Turkish Government, 
 but at present are under the control of the Nationalists. 
 Various languages are spoken in the mission, but 
 principally Turkish, Greek, Armenian and French. 
 The chief cities in the mission are Trebizond, Erzerum, 
 Samsun, Kerassunda, Sinope, Ineboli. The popula¬ 
 tion numbers about 1,500,000. The people are in 
 general war-like and undisciplined; they have no 
 
 industries, but engage in agriculture or in commerce. 
 As in all parts of the East that once had the Faith, 
 it is very difficult to make conversions: among the 
 schismatics on account of their lack of the spirit of 
 Christianity, and among the Mohammedans on ac¬ 
 count of their deeply-rooted fanaticism. The Prot¬ 
 estants, particularly the American societies, have 
 opened a good number of schools in the district; 
 their proselytes are mostly Armenians who follow 
 the Protestant exercises as long as they receive sup¬ 
 port; but after leaving they are usually neither Prot¬ 
 estant nor schismatic, becoming quite indifferent in 
 religious matters. At the present time, as a result 
 of the War, the number of Catholics has been greatly 
 diminished, partly on account of the massacre of the 
 Armenians, and partly because so many Catholics 
 of Latin Rite were driven into exile. There are at 
 the end of 1921 only about 300 Catholics, mostly of 
 the Latin Rite, who are living in the cities along the 
 sea-coast. 
 
 There are Latin churches in the seven quasi¬ 
 parishes, Trebizond, Erzerum, Kerassunda, Sinope, 
 Samsun, Ineboli and St. Stephen’s. In addition there 
 are five chapels belonging to religious communities. 
 There are twelve priests in the Mission and four lay- 
 brothers. The Fathers are assisted by the Christian 
 Brothers in Trebizond, the Marist Brothers in Samsun 
 and the Sisters of St. Joseph in Trebizond, Kerassunda 
 and Samsun. Before the War there was a Capuchin 
 higher school in Erzerum with 150 pupils; a Christian 
 Brothers school at Trebizond with 120 pupils; a 
 Marist Brothers school at Samsun with 200 pupils; 
 while the schools of the Sisters of St. Joseph had 100 
 pupils at Trebizond, 120 at Samsun, and 60 at 
 Kerassunda. At the present time, however, most 
 of the schools have been destroyed, but the Capuchin 
 Fathers have one at Trebizond with 90 pupils, 
 while another has just been started at Kerassunda with 
 25. The superior of the Mission, R. P. Lorenzo de 
 Monte Marciano, was born in Sicily on 16 December, 
 1867, entered the Capuchin novitiate in 1883, and 
 after studying in the East and teaching philosophy at 
 Constantinople was named superior on 10 November, 
 1911. In August, 1920 he was appointed Adminis¬ 
 trator Apostolic of Smyrna. 
 
 Treja, Archdiocese of. See Camerino 
 
 Trent, Diocese of (Tridentinensis; cf. C. E., 
 XV—35d), in Styria, Italy, directly subject to the 
 Holy See. The diocese had been under the jurisdiction 
 of Salzburg, since 1825, until a decree of 24 February, 
 1920, changed it and made it dependent on Rome. 
 The see is filled by Rt. Rev. Celestin Endrici born in 
 the diocese in 1866, ordained in 1891, appointed 
 bishop 6 February, 1904, and named an assistant at 
 the pontifical throne 30 March, 1908. Before and 
 during the World War his Lordship the Bishop car¬ 
 ried on a fierce struggle against the Austrian authori¬ 
 ties to safeguard the native language (Italian) for the 
 country. By the peace treaty Trent, which com¬ 
 prises the Southern part of the Tyrol, was given to 
 Italy. The diocese is divided into 286 parishes and 
 has 636 churches, 3 monasteries for women, 1 abbey 
 for men and 1 for women, 38 convents of men, 151 
 for women, 1169 secular and 121 regular clergy, 194 
 Brothers, 1713 Sisters, 2 seminaries, 450 seminari¬ 
 ans, 4 secondary schools for boys with 50 teachers and 
 497 pupils, 10 secondary schools for girls with 112 
 teachers and 785 pupils, 4 normal schools with 120 
 teachers and 1381 pupils, 1 professional school with 
 23 teachers and 320 pupils and 1 industrial school 
 with 7 teachers and 35 pupils. All the public institu¬ 
 tions permit the priests to minister in them. One 
 society is formed among the clergy and 17 different 
 organizations among the laity, and 6 Catholic jour- 
 
TRENTON 
 
 739 
 
 TRICHUR 
 
 nals and 15 periodicals are published here. The pop¬ 
 ulation of this diocese numbers approximately 423,375 
 Italians and 165,681 Germans. 
 
 Trenton, Diocese of (Trentonensis; cf. C.E., 
 XV—37a), comprises 5756 square miles in the State 
 of New Jersey, and is suffragan of New York. The 
 second bishop of this see, Rt. Rev. James Augustin 
 MacFaul, appointed 20 July, 1894, died 16 June, 
 
 1917. His successor was appointed in the person of 
 Rt. Rev. Thomas J. Walsh, born in the diocese of 
 Philadelphia in 1873, made his studies in Buffalo, the 
 seminary of Alleghany and in Rome, was ordained in 
 Buffalo in 1900 and served as pastor of the cathedral, 
 secretary to the bishop and chancellor of the cathe¬ 
 dral of Buffalo, and was appointed bishop 10 May, 
 
 1918. This territory is the seat of several military 
 camps which played an important part in mobilization 
 and training during the World War: Camp Dix 
 at Wrights town, Camp Kendrick at Lakehurst, Cape 
 May Naval Station, Camp Alfred Vail at Little 
 Silver, Camp Edge, at Sea Girt, Fort Mott at Salem, 
 Camp Raritan at Metuchen and Fort Hancock at 
 Sandy Hook. Trenton is also the seat of the state 
 prison, state reformatory, state homes for boys and 
 for girls, state hospital, state village of epileptics, 
 state sanitorium for tuberculosis, New Jersey school 
 for deaf and the New Jersey home for feeble minded 
 women, all of which institutions are served by priests 
 from the diocese. At present (1922) the religious 
 orders established here include Franciscan Fathers, 
 Augustinians, Priests of the Congregation of the 
 Mission, Fathers of the Pious Society of Missions, 
 Order of the Most Holy Trinity, Dominicans, Brothers 
 of the Sacred Heart and Christian Brothers; women: 
 Sisters of Charity, Mission Helpers of the Sacred 
 Heart, Sisters of St. Francis, of St. Joseph, of Mercy, 
 Dominican Nuns and Sisters of the Holy Child 
 Jesus. Latest statistics credit the diocese with 198 
 secular and 33 regular clergy, 148 churches with 
 resident priests, 68 missions with churches, 84 stations, 
 20 chapels, 1 college with 102 students, 1 preparatory 
 school for boys with 77 students, 1 college for girls 
 with 85 students,' 4 academies for girls with 273 
 pupils, 62 parochial schools with 27,056 pupils, 
 10 high schools with 927 pupils, and 2 orphan asy¬ 
 lums. A total of 30,884 young people are under 
 Catholic care. The charitable institutions include 
 2 hospitals, 4 day nurseries and 2 homes for the aged. 
 
 Treviso, Diocese of (Tarvisinensis; cf. C. E., 
 XV—38b), in the province of Venice, Northern Italy, 
 suffragan of Venice. This see is filled by Rt. Rev. 
 Andrea Giacinto Longhin, born in Campodarsego, 
 Italy, in 1863. He entered the Congregation of 
 Capuchins in 1879 and became provincial of the Order 
 in Venice, in 1902, and was appointed bishop 15 April, 
 1904. In October, 1919, he was named an officer of 
 the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus, by the 
 Italian King. The church of the Great Mother in 
 this diocese was made a minor basilica 12 June, 1917. 
 According to 1920 statistics the Catholic population 
 numbers 453,822; there are 219 parishes, 400 secular 
 and 30 regular clergy, 270 seminarians, 22 Brothers, 
 300 religious women and 400 churches and chapels. 
 
 Tricarico, Diocese of (Tricaricensis; cf. C. E., 
 XV—40a), in the province of Potenza, Southern 
 Italy, suffragan of Acerenza. Rt. Rev. Agapito- 
 Augusto-Giovanni Fiorentini, app. to this see 
 27 June, 1909, was transferred to Catazaro 25 Sep¬ 
 tember, 1919. He has been succeeded by Rt. Rev. 
 Achille Grimaldi, born in the diocese of Anglona; 
 he was named an honorary chamberlain extra urban 
 9 May, 1907, rector of the seminary of Capua in 1919 
 and appointed bishop in January, 1921. The 1920 
 
 statistics credit the diocese with 80,540 Catholics, 
 25 parishes, 170 secular priests, 30 seminarians, and 
 91 churches and chapels. 
 
 Trichinopoly, Diocese of (Tiiichinopolita- 
 nensis; cf., C. E., XV—40d), in India, suffragan of 
 Bombay. In order to facilitate administration this 
 diocese is divided into four districts, each under a 
 vicar foraine having residence at Trichinopoly, Ma¬ 
 dura, Palamcottah and Tuticorin respectively. The 
 district of Tuticorin has lately been formed out of the 
 district of Palamcottah and entrusted to the Indian 
 secular priests under a vicar foraine chosen from 
 amongst them. These districts are subdivided into 
 sections numbering seventy-eight in all. Rt. Rev. 
 John Mary Barthe, S. J., appointed to the see in 1890. 
 was given a coadjutor in the person of Rt. Rev. 
 Auguste Faisandier, in 1909, and upon his resignation 
 in 1913, Bishop Faisandier succeeded him on 19 
 December. Born inCoubon, France, in 1853, Bishop 
 Faisandier entered the Jesuit Order in 1874, went as 
 a missionary to Madura in 1889, served as a professor 
 in St. Joseph College, master of novices and rector of 
 the scholasticate of Shembaganur, and was named 
 superior regular and vicar general in 1905, in which 
 capacity he served until his appointment. During the 
 World War one of the priests from this diocese, 
 Rev. A. Constanto, who was serving as a chaplain in 
 the French Army, was killed near Verdun. The 
 diocese suffered another loss through the death of 
 Rev. Francis Billard, who died in Bangalore, 1 Aug¬ 
 ust, 1913; his remains were immediately transferred 
 to Trichinopoly, where they were buried in a little 
 chapel erected in St. Mary’s Tope, a settlement for 
 the Brahmins whom this holy priest had converted to 
 Christianity. The total Catholic population of this 
 diocese, according to the 1921 census, numbers 
 279,324, of whom 942 are Europeans and Eurasians. 
 Latest statistics credit the diocese with 78 parishes or 
 stations, 632 churches and chapels, 1 convent of 
 Brothers of the Sacred Heart, 6 convents of women, 
 29 secular and 155 regular clergy (Jesuits), 34 lay 
 brothers of whom 30 are Indians, 560 Sisters, 1 
 seminary, 24 seminarians, 1 college for boys with 
 110 teachers and 2476 students, 5 high schools with 
 125 teachers and 2200 boy students and 400 girl 
 students, 3 training schools with 17 teachers and 
 208 pupils, 418 elementary schools with 886 teachers 
 and 21,341 pupils and 9 industrial schools with 20 
 teachers and 492 pupils. The various charitable 
 institutions include asylums for Indian widows at 
 Trichinopoly and Adeikalaburam, 11 dispensaries, 4 
 homes and St. Mary’s Tope, for Brahmin converts. 
 All the schools receive an annual grant from the 
 government. St. Joseph’s College has organized an 
 alumni association, as well as a very active press 
 which publishes the “Messenger of the Sacred Heart” 
 in Tamil, “The Morning Star” a Marian magazine, 
 “The Magazine” the college periodical, and Indian 
 Catholic Truth Society pamphlets in both English 
 and vernacular. 
 
 Trichur, Vicariate Apostolic of (Trichurensis; 
 cf. C. E., XV—41b), in India, one of the four vicar¬ 
 iates of the Syro-Malabar Rite. According to the 
 census of 1920 the Catholics of the Syrian Rite in 
 the vicariate numbered 106,423, having 100 churches 
 and 4 chapels served by 96 native secular priests. 
 There are also three monasteries of Carmelite Regular 
 Tertiaries at Elthuruth, Ambalakad, and Pavaratti, 
 with about 22 professed and 11 lay brothers besides 
 a number of novices; also six convents for Carmelite 
 nuns with 136 professed nuns, two convents of St. 
 Clare with 22 professed nuns, and one of the Holy 
 Family with 13 professed nuns, besides novices, pos¬ 
 tulants, and lay sisters. There are in the vicariate 
 
TRIER 
 
 740 
 
 TRINITARIANS 
 
 1 college, 2 high schools, 8 lower secondary schools and 
 141 elementary schools, the number of children under 
 instruction being 16,954. A seminary at Trichur 
 prepares candidates for the seminaries of Puthempally, 
 Kandy and Mangalore. The Vicar Apostolic Francis 
 Vazhapilly, appointed 5 April, 1921, and named 
 titular Bishop of Philadelphia two days later, resides 
 at Trichur. 
 
 Trier (Treves), Diocese of (Trevirensis), 
 suffragan of Cologne. Like many other dioceses in 
 Germany it has suffered innumerable hardships and 
 privations in consequence of the World War. Many 
 of the clergy who were subject to military duty were 
 obliged to join the ranks, but the majority of them 
 were given duties as chaplains at the front or in 
 hospitals. The priests labored indefatigably to 
 ameliorate the misery and distress caused by the 
 war, by comforting the soldiers and consoling the 
 relatives of those who had fallen on the field of battle. 
 The laity willingly offered their services and their 
 fortunes for the cause and are enduring untold misery 
 and suffering in consequence. The children are the 
 object of the greatest solicitude, as it is impossible to 
 obtain adequate food for their sustenance. During 
 these days of trial the diocese was ably administered 
 by Rt. Rev. Michael Felix Korum, who on 15 Aug., 
 1921, had the privilege of celebrating his fortieth 
 anniversary as bishop. He died 4 December, 1921, 
 and his successor has not yet been appointed. The 
 see also has an auxiliary bishop, Rt. Rev. Anthony 
 Moench, titular Bishop of Polystilium. 
 
 In 1912 the International Marian Congress was 
 held at Trier. The diocese contains 1,814,240 
 German inhabitants, of whom 1,336,888 are Catholics 
 and 477,352 belong to other faiths. There are 768 
 parishes, 829 churches, 930 mission churches and 
 chapels, 4 monasteries and 1 abbey for men, 213 
 monasteries with 3855 Sisters, 560 lay Brothers in 
 16 monasteries. There are 1126 secular and 196 
 regular priests, 55 of whom are either retired or on 
 leave of absence. The diocesan seminary is at Trier 
 and has a regent, 7 clerical professors, and 240 
 students. In 1921 there were 90 gymnasia (9 or 6 
 years* classical course), with 12,100 students (6500 
 boys and 5600 girls); 2 normal schools (500 students); 
 4300 common elementary schools with 2600 male 
 teachers and 17 female teachers (12,100 students); 
 
 14 industrial schools (3600 students); 3 mission 
 schools connected with the convents of the missionary 
 orders. The following institutions are established 
 in the diocese: 47 orphan asylums, 7 homes for work¬ 
 ing girls, 10 homes for juveniles, 23 homes for day 
 laborers, 31 refuges, 117 hospitals in charge of 
 Sisters, 2 houses of correction in charge of the Nuns 
 of the Good Shepherd, 164 day nurseries. The 
 following societies are organized among the clergy: 
 Unio Apostolica, Marian Congregation, Pious Society 
 of Missions. The laity have organized religious, 
 charitable and social associations among which the 
 most prominent are: Society of St. Vincent de 
 Paul, Elizabeth Verein, numerous sodalities for men 
 and women, boys and girls, the Albertus Magnus 
 Association, Boriomaeus Association, Peoples’ League 
 for Catholic Germany, Working Men and Women’s 
 Association and Mechanics’ Association. A Catholic 
 periodical for priests called the “Pastor Bonus’’ is 
 published in the diocese. 
 
 Trieste and Capo d’Istria, Diocese of (Terges- 
 
 TINENSIS ET JUSTINOPOLITANENSISJ cf. C. E., XV— 
 45b), in the provinces of Carniola and Istria, Italy, 
 suffragan of Gorz-Gradiska. Rt. Rev. Andrea 
 Karlin, appointed to this see 6 February, 1911, retired 
 and was transferred to the titular see of Themiscyra 
 
 15 December, 1919. He was succeeded by Rt. Rev. 
 
 Angelo Bartolomasi, born in the diocese in 1869, 
 studied at Graveno, Chiere and Turin, was ordained 
 in 1892, served as a curate, was later made a canon of 
 the cathedral and professor in the seminary of 
 Chieri. On 24 November, 1910, he was appointed 
 titular Bishop of Derbe and auxiliary at Turin, was 
 named first military chaplain of the Italian Army in 
 1915 and transferred to Trieste and Capo d’lstria 15 
 December, 1919. In 1920 he was made president of 
 the national committee of the Eucharistic Congress 
 and an honorary member of the permanent committee 
 of the international Eucharistic Congress. The dio¬ 
 cese counts 409,794 Catholics, 8003 Protestants, 228 
 parishes and vicariates, 429 secondary parishes and 
 46 regular clergy. 
 
 Trincomalie, Diocese of (Trincomaliensis; cf. 
 C. E., XV—45c), in Ceylon, suffragan of Colombo, 
 was created in 1893 by a division of the Diocese of 
 Jaffna. The diocese comprises the whole of the East¬ 
 ern Province, as well as the District of Tamankaduwa. 
 Out of a total population of 195,000, the Catholics 
 number 8946, with 29 churches and chapels, served by 
 15 fathers and four lay brothers of the French Prov¬ 
 ince of the Society of Jesus, with two secular priests. 
 Candidates for the priesthood are sent to Kandy or 
 Trichinopoly Seminaries. There are 45 schools, with 
 2740 pupils and two Convents of the Sisters of the 
 Apostolic Carmel of Mangalore, with two orphanages 
 and two Industrial Schools attached to the convents. 
 A diocesan congregation of the native Sisters of the 
 Presentation of Trincomalie was started in 1920. 
 The present bishop is Gaston Robichez, S.J., ap¬ 
 pointed 22 March, 1917, who resides at Batticaloa. 
 Born in Aire-sur-la-Lys, France, in 1867, he studied 
 at Sainte Marie d’Aire and the lower seminary of 
 Arras, and after his ordination was given charge, suc¬ 
 cessively, of the missions of Lille, Amiens, Boulogne, 
 Ceylon and Trincomalie, where he served as vicar 
 general. 
 
 Trinitarians, Order of; (cf. C. E., XV—45d).— 
 In 1912 the Trinitarians had 7 houses in the Roman 
 province, of which 3 were in Rome, and the others 
 in Rocco di Papa, Palestrina, Anagni, and Leghorn 
 in Etruria. Dependent on the Roman province are 
 the Prefecture Apostolic of Benadir in Italian Somali¬ 
 land, Africa, and 4 flourishing foundations in the 
 United States at Asbury Park, N. J., Long Branch, 
 N. J., Red Bank, N. J., and Harrisburg, Penn. 
 The spreading of the order in North America is due 
 to the zeal of Fr. Antoninus a Jesu, provincial of the 
 Roman province. The Spanish province numbers 
 8 convents in Spain, from where the Trinitarians were 
 expelled in 1835 but returned in 1879; among the 
 Spanish houses is the old convent of Cordova. 
 Outside of Spain, belonging to the Spanish province, 
 are the Roman College of S. Carlo alle Quatro 
 Fontane, a foundation in Cuba, and several in Chile. 
 The Neopolitan province has 4 convents, and the 
 Austrian province has 2 convents, one in Vienna and 
 one in Augustendorf. The order numbers several 
 hundred members, most of whom are Spanish and 
 Italian and a few German and French. 
 
 The Italo-Turkish War (1911-12) brought troubles 
 on the Trinitarians and immediately after the out¬ 
 break of the World War (1914) the order gave its 
 buildings for the use of the Red Cross, and the priests 
 cared for the wounded soldiers in the hospitals. A 
 convalescent home opened in the convent at Gers- 
 hofer was supported by charitable contributions of 
 people in the neighborhood. The provincial was 
 untiring in his zeal for the wounded. During the 
 war communication with the missions was entirely 
 cut off. The minister general, Rev. Antonio dell' 
 Assunzione, elected in May, 1906, succeeding Rev. 
 
TRINITY COLLEGE 
 
 741 
 
 TROYES 
 
 Gregorio di Gesu e Maria who had been minister 
 general since 1891, was succeeded in Maj', 1919 
 by Rev. Francisco Saverio dell’ Immacolata. A new 
 cardinal protector, Cardinal Teodoro Valfre di 
 Bonzo was appointed 3 Feb., 1920. Among the 
 notable deceased in 1921 were: Rev. Ambrogio di S. 
 Giovanni Battista, definitor general from 1906-19, 
 d. 25 Feb., 1921, at the age of ninety-one years; 
 Rev. Ramon de Nuestra Senora de los Afflicionados, 
 one of the founders of the Trinitarian college at 
 Cardenas, Cuba, and military chaplain for two years, 
 d. at Santiago de Nubles, Chile, 31 Oct., 1921; 
 Commander Joseph Hercules Massi, professed 
 Tertiary, chief guardian of the Vatican Museums, 
 and writer, d. 21 Dec., 1921. 
 
 The Trinitarian Nuns came to the United States 
 in 1920, at the request of Cardinal Archbishop 
 Dougherty of Philadelphia. Four Sisters arrived 
 in Bristol, Penn., in November and their number 
 has since been increased by American novices. The 
 Calced Spanish Trinitarian Nuns have houses at: 
 Badajoz; Burgos; Calig, Castellon de la Plana; 
 S. Clemente, Cuenca; Alcala la Real, Andujar, and 
 Martos, Jaen; Villena, Murcia; Villoruela, Salamanca; 
 Laredo, Suances, and Suesa, Santander; Noya, 
 Santiago; Toboso, Toledo. The Discalced Spanish 
 Trinitarian Nuns have houses at Madrid and Valencia 
 and dependent on the mother-house of Valencia are 
 convents at Concentaina, Estivella, Rivarrojak, 
 Picasent, Godella, Benimamet, Biar, Ontur, Casas 
 Ibanez, Castellar, Vallada, Burjasot, Bechi, Iijona, 
 and Adraneta del Meastra. On 27 Feb., 1912, the 
 process of beatification of Sister Angela Maria of the 
 Immaculate Conception, reformer of the Trinitarians 
 and foundress of the convent at Toboso, was intro¬ 
 duced. Bl. Anna Maria Taigi, professed Trinitarian 
 tertiary, was proclaimed blessed 30 May, 1920. 
 
 In July, 1917, the Trinitarians received from 
 Cardinal Archbishop Piffl of Vienna the Imperial 
 Jubilee Church at Vienna-Donaustadt. In 1918 at 
 their general assembly the Holy Trinity Brotherhood 
 resolved to hereafter hold their monthly services in 
 this church instead of at St. Peter’s. This and 
 recent affiliations of various branches of the Brother¬ 
 hood will re-establish the former unity existing be¬ 
 tween the Brotherhood and the Trinitarian Order. 
 The present minister general, Rev. Francisco Saverio 
 dell’ Immacolata, established the “Acta Ordinis 
 Sanctissimae Trinitatis,” a publication containing be¬ 
 sides documents referring to the general government 
 of the order, notes on its history. The first number 
 appeared in 1919. 
 
 Trinity College, for Catholic women, situated in 
 Washington, D. C., under the direction of the Sisters 
 of Notre Dame de Namur, has grown since 1912, 
 from a registration of 160 students to 363 in 1921. 
 This same year the number of degrees conferred 
 was as follows: PhD., 1; M.A., 1; B.S., 2; B.A., 
 77. The faculty is composed of 11 professors from 
 the Catholic University, 3 lay instructors and the 
 Sisters of Notre Dame who teach in various de¬ 
 partments. 
 
 Tripoli, Archdiocese of (Tripolitanensis; cf. 
 C. E., XV—60c), a see of the Maronite and Greek 
 Melkite Rites in Syria. The Maronite see is filled 
 by Most Rev. Anthony Arida, born in Becharre 
 (the city of the Cedars of Lebanon), in 1863, studied 
 at St. Sulpice at Issy, and in Paris, was ordained in 
 1890, served as secretary to the Patriarch of Syria, 
 was made an honorary chamberlain in 1905 and con¬ 
 secrated 18 June, 1908. During the World War all 
 this territory suffered severely and altogether the 
 diocese lost about 100,000 Maronites, through per¬ 
 secution, famine, pestilence and other causes. The 
 
 bishop and priests did all in their power to relieve the 
 suffering, and showed great devotion and charity in 
 distributing clothes and food and in caring for the 
 sick. The diocese comprises 45,000 Maronite 
 Catholics, 107 parishes, 105 churches, missions con¬ 
 ducted by the Jesuits, Vincentians and Carmelites, 
 at Hemesia, Tripoli, and Cabayath, 140 Maronite 
 secular priests, 3 monasteries for men and 1 for 
 women, 3 convents for men and about 40 for women, 
 16 lay brothers, 1 seminary, 15 seminarians, 2 col¬ 
 leges for boys and 2 for girls, 40 elementary schools 
 with 45 teachers and about 2000 pupils, and 1 hospital. 
 Various other charities are conducted by the French 
 Sisters of Charity and of Mercy. A number of the 
 schools receive financial aid from the French High 
 Commission. Two periodicals are published in the 
 diocese. 
 
 The see is a bishopric for the Greek-Melkite Rite 
 and is at present filled by Rt. Rev. Joseph Doumani, 
 Basilian, born in Damascus in 1849, and consecrated 
 as first bishop 21 March, 1897. On 22 November, 
 1915, the Turks, falsely accusing him of being a spy, 
 put to death the Abbe Anatole Meseray, a French 
 priest who was acting as secretary to the bishop. 
 Following upon this outrage the bishop and his 
 vicar general, the Archimandrite John Chimara, 
 w r ho sacrificed himself to accompany his superior, 
 were exiled at Sivas and at Tokat, where they suf¬ 
 fered imprisonment, cold, hunger and cruelty for 
 three years and a half. The diocese comprises about 
 6000 Greek Catholics who have been cared for 
 by Bishop Doumani for twenty-six years. Latest 
 statistics credit it with 15 parishes, 6 churches, 10 
 chapels, 16 secular and 3 regular clergy and 11 
 elementary schools with 11 teachers and 400 pupils. 
 For the Latin Rite Tripoli is a titular see. Those 
 Catholics of the Syrian Rite residing here are under 
 the jurisdiction of the Archdiocese of Beirut. 
 
 Tripoli, Prefecture Apostolic of. See Libya, 
 Vicariate Apostolic of 
 
 Trivento, Diocese of (Triventinensis; cf. C. E., 
 XV—63a), in the province of Campobasso, Southern 
 Italy, directly dependent on the Holy See. This see 
 is filled by Rt. Rev. Antonio Lega, born in Brisighella 
 in 1863, served as vicar general of Tivoli, named a 
 prelate of the Holy See in 1911, and appointed by the 
 Consistory 25 May, 1914. The diocese has a Catholic 
 population of 130,000, 59 parishes, 170 secular priests, 
 60 seminarians, 24 nuns and 133 churches and 
 chapels. 
 
 Troyes, Diocese of (Trecensis; cf. C. E., 
 XV—67b), in the department of Aube, France, 
 suffragan of Sens. The see is filled by Rt. Rev. 
 Marie-Etienne Laurent Monnier, born in Poligny, 
 France, in 1847, studied under the Jesuits at Metz 
 and at St. Sulpice in Paris, was ordained in 1871, 
 served as rector of the Cathedral of St. Claude, dean 
 of St. Aubin, made a titlar canon in 1894, arch¬ 
 priest of the cathedral in 1898 and appointed bishop 
 12 October, 1907. The diocese is divided into 423 
 parishes and 27 vicariates, comprising a total popula¬ 
 tion of 240,255 of whom 55,586 are in Troyes proper. 
 By latest statistics there are 290 secular and 18 
 regular clergy, 2 convents of women, 7 convents of 
 men, 2 seminaries, 56 seminarians, 1 diocesan college 
 with 17 teachers and 150 students, 1 professional 
 school with 4 teachers and 30 pupils, 20 elementary 
 schools wuth 32 teachers and 1000 pupils, 3 houses of 
 retreat, 1 asylum and 1 nursery, all other charitable 
 institutions being conducted by the state or com¬ 
 mune. These, how'ever, permit the priests to minister 
 in them. A daily journal, “l’Avenir de l’Aube,’ ’ and 
 a Catholic weekly review of the diocese are pub¬ 
 lished, and the St. Vincent de Paul Society and 
 
TRUJILLO 
 
 742 
 
 TUAM 
 
 various charitable and pious associations are well or¬ 
 ganized. During the World War, out of a total of 
 100 priests mobilized, 13 gave up their lives, 3 were 
 decorated with the “ legion d’honneur,” 4 with the 
 “medaille militaire ” and numbers with the “croix 
 de guerre. 
 
 Trujillo, Diocese of (de Truxillo; cf. C. E., 
 XV—70a.) in Peru, suffragan of Lima. The present 
 incumbent of this see is Rt. Rev. Carlos Garcia 
 Irigoyen, born in Lima, in 1857. After starting his 
 studies at the seminary of Santo Toribio, he left and 
 became secretary of foreign affairs, but returned in 
 1880 and was later ordained. In 1898 he became 
 secretary in particular to the Archbishop of Lima 
 and a canon; he served as director of the '‘Revista 
 Catolica,” ecclesiastical censor, collaborator ^of 
 “El Bien Social,” and founder and director of “El 
 Amigo del Clero.” Named a prelate of the Holy 
 See in 1909, he was appointed bishop 21 March, 1910. 
 He has been honored with the cross Pro Ecclesia et 
 Pontifice, and was named an assistant at the pontifi¬ 
 cal throne 27 June, 1920. He is also a member of 
 the historical institute of Peru. The Catholics of this 
 diocese total 89,000; the remainder of the population 
 is made up of 14,000 Chinese and 500 Protestants. 
 The diocese comprises, according to 1920 statistics, 
 20 parishes, 150 priests, 3 seminarians, 250 churches 
 and chapels, 6 congregations of men and 5 of women. 
 
 Truth Societies, Catholic.—England. —The rec¬ 
 ord of the Catholic Truth Society during the last 
 ten years covers the difficult period of the Great 
 War, and the remarkable reorganization and expan¬ 
 sion of its work after the peace. The war years were 
 a trying time. The rise in the cost of paper and 
 printing not only restricted the Society’s output, 
 but also made it necessary to increase the sale 
 price of its publications, thus limiting their circula¬ 
 tion. Many publications went out of print and it 
 was only by careful management that its activity 
 was maintained even on a restricted basis. Never¬ 
 theless much valuable work was done. Its “Little 
 Prayer Book” had been adopted by the War Office 
 as the prayer book for Catholic soldiers. Before 
 long the War Office orders for the book became so 
 large that to supply them would have entailed 
 heavy loss. It was arranged that the Prayer Book 
 should be printed by the War Office as an official 
 publication, the Government paying a royalty to 
 the Society. Flemish and French translations of 
 the book were also prepared for the Belgian refugees 
 who were crowding into England, and later a little 
 manual of instruction was produced in both these 
 languages. The final result was the formation of 
 a Belgian Society for the production of cheap 
 Catholic literature, which was established at Brus¬ 
 sels after the armistice. 
 
 The conditions for publishing work remained 
 difficult for long after the war, but nevertheless 
 the Catholic Truth Society was able to carry 
 through a remarkable work of reorganization and 
 expansion. Many useful publications were out of 
 print. These were gradually reprintedjand put into 
 circulation. The work both of literary control and 
 business administration had so far been carried 
 on by a single general committee. In 1920 a small 
 business committee was formed to deal with admin¬ 
 istration and propaganda. At the annual general 
 meeting in April, 1921, a new scheme of organi¬ 
 zation was adopted; the election of the general 
 committee brought in a new element of strength; 
 and the practical work was divided between a liter¬ 
 ary and a business committee. Closer relations 
 were established with the- Catholic Truth Society 
 of Ireland and large economies in printing were 
 
 effected by entrusting much of the work to firms 
 in Ireland. The C. T. S. also undertook the pro¬ 
 duction of special literature for the Catholic Evi¬ 
 dence Guild. It was decided that the time had 
 come for the Society to secure a working centre 
 in a prominent position in London, and pending 
 this step the business committee occupied a tempo¬ 
 rary office near Westminster Cathedral, and organ¬ 
 ized a new propaganda to increase the membership. 1 
 This included sermons in the churches, public meet¬ 
 ings, and a well organized circularising campaign. 
 The membership rose rapidly, and in February, 
 1922, extensive offices were secured in a fine build¬ 
 ing close to the cathedral. All the work of the 
 Society was concentrated in these new head¬ 
 quarters which included offices for the staff, a refer¬ 
 ence library and an enquiry and information bureau, 
 a retail department, an extensive basement for the 
 storage and wholesale department of the Society’s 
 publications. A large hall was arranged for meet¬ 
 ings and conferences and the Catholic Evidence 
 Guild undertook to use it for lectures to non- 
 Catholic audiences on Sunday afternoons and eve¬ 
 nings all the year round. The new centre was in¬ 
 augurated on April 25, 1922* by Cardinal Bourne, 
 who had from the first been a zealous and helpful 
 promoter of the new movement. It is hoped that 
 subsidiary centres will be organized in other 
 dioceses throughout Great Britain. The Society 
 has also taken over the work of the Bexhill Library 
 (q. v.), established by Mr. Reed Lewis. 
 
 Tuam, Archdiocese of (Tuamensis; cf. C. E., 
 XV—79d), in Ireland. The present archbishop 
 of this see, Most Rev. Thomas P. Gilmartin, was 
 promoted 9 July, 1918, to succeed Most Reverend 
 John Heal}'' who died 16 March of that year after 
 seventeen years in the see. Archbishop Gilmartin 
 was born near Castlebar, County Mayo in 1862, 
 and after an early education at St. Jarlath’s College, 
 Tuam, he completed his studies at St. Patrick’s 
 College, Maynooth, and was ordained in 1885. He 
 served as a professor at St. Jarlath’s, and in 1891 was 
 appointed Dean of St. Patrick’s College, which posi¬ 
 tion he filled until his election as Bishop of Clonfert 
 18 December, 1909. He was promoted to the arch¬ 
 diocese from this see. During the World War this 
 diocese sent two chaplains to the front to serve with 
 the British forces, Rev. Michael Divens and Rev. 
 Michael Comey, and a third, Rev. Goeffrey Prender- 
 gast, served as a chaplain with the British forces in 
 Palestine from July, 1916, to December, 1917. The 
 laity were represented in the ranks in large numbers. 
 In 1914 the Benedictine Nuns, who were forced to 
 leave their abbey at Ypres upon the arrival of the 
 Germans, came to Tuam and are now permanently 
 established in Kylemore Abbey, County Galway. 
 The abbey, built several years ago as a private 
 residence, is of exceptional beauty, and the nuns 
 have opened a school here for the higher education of 
 girls. The archdiocese has a purely Irish population 
 of about 180,000. It is divided into 56 parishes 
 having 126 churches, and comprise 11 monasteries 
 for men of the Third Order Regular of St. Francis, 
 1 abbey for women, 17 convents for women, 165 
 secular priests and 5 regulars, 28 lay brothers, 200 
 nuns, 2 colleges for men with 18 teachers and 155 
 students, 4 secondary schools for girls with 29 
 teachers and 215 students, 8 high schools with 34 
 teachers, 790 boys and 170 girls, 428 elementary 
 schools with 33,i00 pupils and 4 industrial schools 
 with 300 pupils. The charitable institutions include, 
 1 home, 1 asylum at Castlebar, 8 hospitals and 8 
 refuges; a number of the hospitals and refuges have 
 now, however, been taken over by English soldiers. 
 The elementary and intermediate schools, and the 
 
TUCSON 
 
 743 
 
 TUNJA 
 
 work houses are assisted to some extent by the Govern - 
 ment. The “Pia Unio Cleri,” the Propagation of the 
 Faith, the Society of St. Vincent de Paul and a 
 temperance society are organized in the diocese. 
 
 Tucson, Diocese of (Tucsonensis; cf. C. E., 
 XV—84d), comprises the State of Arizona, U. S. A., 
 an area of 133,058 square miles. This see is filled by 
 its second bishop, Rt. Rev. Henri Granjon, born in 
 Brignais, France, in 1863, studied at St. diamond, 
 and was ordained in 1887, appointed bishop 19 April; 
 1900. The Catholic population is made up of 8000 
 Americans and 43,000 Mexicans. The Franciscan 
 Fathers, Discalced Carmelites, Marist Brothers and 
 Missionary Sons of the Immaculate Heart of Mary, 
 are established here, as well as the Sisters of St. Joseph, 
 of the Immaculate Heart of Mary, of Loretto, and 
 Sisters of the Precious Blood. By latest statistics 
 the diocese comprises 20 secular and 41 regular clergy, 
 35 churches with resident priests, 66 missions with 
 churches, 80 mission stations, 2 ecclesiastical students, 
 1 college for boys, 7 academies, 10 parish schools, 
 2500 pupils in schools and academies, 6 Indian schools, 
 
 1 orphanage with 100 inmates, and 4 hospitals. 
 
 Tucuman, Diocese of (Tucumanensis; cf. 
 C. E., XV—85a.) in the Republic of Argentina, 
 suffragan of Buenos Aires. This see has been vacant 
 since the death of Rt. Rev. Paulo Padilla y Barcena, 
 appointed as its first bishop 16 January, 1898, died 
 17 October, 1921. It is administered by the auxili¬ 
 ary, Rt. Rev. Carlo Echenique Altamira, appointed 
 titular Bishop of Themesis, 10 December, 1914. 
 According to 1920 statistics the population of this 
 diocese totals 400,000; it is divided into 18 parishes 
 served by 67 chapels. 
 
 Tudela, Diocese of (Tudelensis; cf. C. E., 
 XV—85c), in the province of Navarre, Spain, suf¬ 
 fragan of Saragossa. The “Annuario Pontificio” of 
 1918 lists this diocese as united with Pamplona, but 
 the “Annuario Eclesiastico” of Barcelona unites it 
 with Tarazona, as the Bishop of Tarazona acts as 
 administrator of the diocese of Tudela. The terri¬ 
 tory comprises 9 parishes, 28 churches, 4 convents 
 of men and 9 of women, 56 secular and 35 regular 
 clergy, 20 Brothers, 1 seminary, 30 seminarians, 1 
 college for boys with 5 teachers and 123 pupils, 1 
 college for girls with 8 teachers and 210 pupils, 11 
 elementary schools with 16 teachers and 512 pupils, 
 
 2 asylums and 1 hospital. Six of the elementary 
 schools are assisted by the government. Two societies 
 are organized among the laity and 3 Catholic peri¬ 
 odicals are published. Schools of higher education 
 are conducted by the Jesuits, with 198 boarding and 
 22 day students, and by the Christian Brothers 
 with 190 pupils. 
 
 Tuguegarao, Diocese of (Tuguegaraonensis; 
 cf. C. E., XV—85d), in the Philippines, suffragan 
 of Manila. The first bishop of this see, Rt. Rev. 
 Maurice Patrick Foley, appointed 10 September, 
 1910, was transferred to Jaro 6 September, 1916, 
 and his successor was named in the person of Rt. 
 Rev. Santiago Sancho, secretary to the Bishop of 
 Nuova Caceres, appointed 5 February, 1917. The 
 same year the Association of Christian Doctrine was 
 organized in the diocese and in 1918 a major and 
 minor seminary was established in the college of 
 San Jacinto, under the direction of the Fathers of 
 the Order of Preachers. A new building was added 
 to the girls’ college in the diocese, to be used as a 
 dormitory. In 1920 an important development 
 in the progress of the diocese occurred with the foun¬ 
 dation of the Catholic Federation of Women of 
 Tuguegarao. The objects of this society are many: 
 to procure the union of all Catholics in the Philip¬ 
 
 pines; to promote universal charity and look after the 
 cooperation of Catholics in works of charity such 
 as dispensaries, protection of infancy, aid to the poor, 
 formation of clubs for women, guardianship of workers, 
 libraries, etc.; to help support Catholic institutions; 
 to animate the Catholic press, instruct the people in 
 the truths of the Catholic religion, and make manifest 
 the good works which the Church is doing in these 
 islands, by means of reviews and pamphlets, and by 
 the creation of centers of instruction and recreation. 
 The opening of an electric plant in Tuguegarao and 
 Aparri, in the province of Cagayan, in 1921, promises 
 to be of importance in the improvement of this terri¬ 
 tory. By latest statistics (1922) the diocese com¬ 
 prises 25 parishes, 44 churches, 19 missions, 29 
 secular priests, 1 seminary, 30 seminarians, 1 college 
 for boys with 12 teachers, 1 college for girls with 
 9 teachers, 1 academy with 9 teachers and 260 girls, 
 and 2 elementary schools with 15 teachers. A 
 society, “Monte Pio del Clero,” is organized among 
 the clergy, and the Catholic Federation of women, 
 among the laity. 
 
 Tulancingo, Diocese of (de Tulancingo; 
 cf. C. E., XV—86a.), in the state of Hidalgo, Mexico, 
 suffragan of the Archdiocese of Mexico. Rt. Rev. 
 Jose-Juan de Jesus Herrera y Pina, appointed to 
 this see 16 September, 1907, was promoted to Linares 
 7 March, 1921. His successor was appointed in the 
 person of Rt. Rev. Vincent Castellanos y Nunez, 
 born in the diocese of Zamora, Spain, in 1870, 
 served as secretary to the Archbishop of Durango, 
 was appointed Bishop of Campeachy 7 February, 
 1912, and transferred 26 August, 1921. The cele¬ 
 brated church of Our Lady of the Angels is situated 
 in Tulancingo. The diocese comprises a Catholic 
 population of 600,000; 62 parishes, 56 seminarians, 
 3 religious congregations of men and 4 of women. 
 
 Tulle, Diocese of (Tutelensis; cf. C. E., XV— 
 86c), comprises the department of Corr&ze, in 
 France. Rt. Rev. Joseph Metreau, appointed to this 
 see in 1913, died 24 April, 1918, and was succeeded 
 by Rt. Rev. Jean Castel, born in Foix, France, in 
 1868, ordained in 1891, served as a professor and 
 prefect of the Carmelite school at Parmes, pastor 
 and dean, named vicar general in 1909 and arch¬ 
 deacon of St. Girons, and appointed bishop 3 August, 
 1918. The diocese comprises 289 parishes, 340 
 secular priests 2 houses of missionaries, 1 com¬ 
 munity of Brothers conducting an asylum for 
 foreigners “La Celette,” 56 convents of religious 
 women, 1 diocesan congregation of nursing Sisters, 
 
 1 upper seminary with 30 students, 1 lower seminary 
 with 80 students, 2 secondary schools with 30 
 teachers and 220 pupils, 5 elementary schools for 
 boys and 42 for girls, 2 schools directed by religious 
 orders, 2 asylums and 9 hospitals. Two Catholic 
 periodicals are published, “Semaine Religieuse” and 
 “Croix de la Corr&ze,” and 4 important associa¬ 
 tions are organized among the laity: Catholic 
 Association of French Youth, association for liberal 
 teaching of Correze, an association of the heads 
 of Catholic families, and the Society of St. Vincent 
 de Paul. During the World War 144 priests and 33 
 seminarians were mobilized from this diocese, and of 
 the number 8 priests and 9 seminarians gave up their 
 lives, 3 were decorated with the legion d’honneur, 
 
 2 with the Medaille Militaire and 57 with the croix 
 de guerre. 
 
 Tunja, Diocese of (Tungensis; cf. C. E., 
 XV—90c.) in the State of Boyaca, Colombia, 
 suffragan of Bogota. Since 24 June, 1905, this see 
 has been filled by Rt. Rev. Antonio-Edwardo Mal¬ 
 donado y Calvo. Born in Bogota in 1860 he studied 
 
TUNKERS 
 
 744 
 
 TURKISH EMPIRE 
 
 at the South American College in Rome, was or¬ 
 dained in that city in 1885, returned to his native 
 city and served as a professor in the seminary, and 
 canon and pastor of the cathedral. The popula¬ 
 tion of the diocese is composed of 750,000 Catholics 
 and 10,000 Pagans. The territory is divided into 
 153 parishes served by 145 priests, 159 churches and 
 chapels, 5 religious congregations of men and 6 of 
 women. 
 
 Tunkers. See Dunkers 
 
 Turin, Archdiocese of (Taurinensis; cf. C. E., 
 XV—92d), in the province of Piedmont, northern 
 Italy. This see is filled by His Eminence Agostino 
 Cardinal Richelmy, born in the city of Turin in 1850. 
 He was ordained in 1872 and became a professor in the 
 seminary, and in 1886, on 7 June, was appointed 
 Bishop of Isrea, from which see he was promoted to 
 the archdiocese 17 September, 1897. Two years 
 later he was created a cardinal priest, 19 June, 1899. 
 His auxiliary is Rt. Rev. Giovanni Pinardi, a Salesian, 
 appointed titular Bishop of Eudocias 24 January, 
 1916. The Catholic population of the archdiocese 
 numbers 680,600. It is divided into 276 parishes, 
 1405 secular and 300 regular clergy, 260 seminarians 
 and 986 churches and chapels. 
 
 Turkish Empire, The; (cf. C. E., XV—97a), now 
 occupies a territory of about 174,000 square miles. 
 Although the statistical documents are very incom¬ 
 plete, the total population of the empire is about 
 8,000,000. In the small European territory now re¬ 
 maining under Turkish rule Moslems predominate. 
 In Constantinople, there are 308,733 Turks, 235,215 
 Greeks, and 297,160 others, (Greek Patriarchate 
 statistics, 1912). In Asia Minor the Turks form 
 seven-tenths of the population, outnumbering the 
 Greeks alone by four to one, and the Greeks and 
 Armenians together by three to one. In Konia they 
 outnumber the Greeks, twelve to one; in Angora, 
 fourteen to one; in Costamouni, thirty-nine to one. 
 On the other hand, in some districts, as Ismid, they 
 form only forty-seven per cent of the population; 
 in Adana, one third of the total. 
 
 The other elements of the population are the 
 Armenians (Haikans), belonging to the Indo-Iranic 
 group of the Aryan stock, found in greatest numbers 
 in the district of the Caucasus. Under Turkish rule 
 their fate has been deplorable; constantly subject to 
 the raids of the savage Kurds and oppressed by the 
 Government, they have suffered massacre time and 
 again. According to a secret report, published in 
 1919, the deportation of the Armenians had been 
 organized systematically from March to October, 
 1915, as a pretext for destroying the race. Of the 
 entire Armenian population of 1,600,000 to 2,000,000, 
 it is estimated that from 1,000,000 to 1,200,000 were 
 deported and half of these perished. The Circassians, 
 or Cherkesses, had their original home in the western 
 Caucasus, whence they emigrated into the Turkish 
 Empire rather than submit to the Russians. Being 
 Moslems they were readily received by the Porte and 
 are widely dispersed throughout Asia Minor. The 
 Jews are mostly descendants of Jews who came from 
 Spain towards the end of the fifteenth century. They 
 have been less persecuted in Turkey than in any other 
 country in Europe except England. The Dunmehs 
 (converts) are certain Jews who profess Islam, but 
 secretly practise the rites of Judaism. Most of the 
 European peoples are represented. A certain number 
 of these, the issue of families long settled in the East, 
 have lost their nationality and are known as Levan¬ 
 tines. The Lazes are a small tribe found in the region 
 of Trebizond. In the mountain region back of 
 Smyrna there are some small tribes of Moslems, 
 
 7 
 
 called Xeibecks, Avshars, Youruks, etc., who lead 
 the life of brigands. 
 
 Geography. —Before the Great European War, 
 the Turkish Empire was made up of (1) Turkey in 
 Europe; (2) Turkey in Asia (Anatolia, Arabia, Syria, 
 Palestine, Mesopotamia and Kurdistan); and (3) 
 certain islands in the Mediterranean. After the 
 conclusion of the first Balkan War (November, 1913), 
 the Turkish possessions in Europe were lessened, 
 Turkey in Europe in part being divided among the 
 Allied States (Bulgaria, Servia, Montenegro and 
 Greece), and in part being created into the indepen¬ 
 dent state of Albania. Cyprus and Egypt formerly 
 under the suzerainty of the Sultan, belong now to 
 the British, Cyprus being annexed to the British 
 Empire at the outbreak of the war in 1914, and 
 Egypt declared a Protectorate in January, 1915. The 
 Empire was reduced still further by the Treaty of 
 Sevres (signed on 10 August, 1920). In Europe, 
 Turkey retains, mainly as a concession to Moham¬ 
 medan feeling, the city of Constantinople with a 
 few miles behind it up to the Chataldja lines, but 
 the whole of Eastern Thrace with Gallipoli is trans¬ 
 ferred to Greece. In Asia, Turkey surrended all her 
 Arab provinces, from the Taurus Mountains north 
 of Aleppo to the Persian frontier north of Mossul, i. e., 
 Syria and Palestine and Mesopotamia, besides the 
 vast peninsula of Arabia proper. The Treaty also 
 provides for the creation of an independent Armenian 
 State to be carved out of the old vilayets of Trebizond, 
 Erzerum, Bitlis, and Van, and of an autonomous 
 Kurdish State to the south of Armenia with eventual 
 rights to complete independence. Smyrna, the chief 
 seaport in Asia Minor, goes to Greece with consider¬ 
 able hinterland extending over 100 miles along the 
 coast. The rest of Asia Minor belongs to Turkey. 
 Turkey renounces all rights over Egypt, the Suez 
 Canal, Lybia (formerly Tripoli), and all the islands 
 in the Mediterranean. As the country stands today, 
 it is bounded on the south by v Syria, Mesopotamia; on 
 the east by Persia and Armenia; on the north by the 
 Black Sea, and includes Anatolia, Kurdistan, Cilicia 
 (which the French evacuated), and part of the Cha¬ 
 taldja Peninsula, where Constantinople is situated. 
 
 Agriculture and Commerce. —Land in Turkey is 
 held under three different forms of tenure—namely, 
 1st, as “Miri,” or Crownlands; 2nd, as “Vakuf,” or 
 pious foundations; and 3rd, as “Mulk,” or freehold 
 property. The “Miri” are held direct from the 
 crown; the Government grants the right to cultivate 
 an unoccupied tract on the payment of certain fees, 
 but always enjoys seigniory rights over the land in 
 question. The “Vakuf” comprises property dedicated 
 for religious or charitable purposes. The “Mulk” 
 does not exist to a great extent. The land laws are 
 in process of modification. A large portion of the 
 State revenue is derived from tithes on agricultural 
 product; the system of levying it is burdensome and 
 oppressive, the general practice being to farm it out 
 to contractors. Agriculture is most primitive; the 
 chief crops being figs, coffee, olives, nuts, grapes. 
 The foreign commerce of Turkey from 31 December, 
 1919, to 1 January, 1920, in piastres, is given as 
 follows m the U. S. Commerce Report, of 15 June, 1921: 
 
 Imports Exports 
 
 England.2,669,326,438 683,843,156 
 
 France. 784,841,318 7,171,157 
 
 Germany. 115,030,795 25,408,933 
 
 Austria. 59,828,239 622,086,397 
 
 Egypt. 513,116,015 56,706,668 
 
 United States..... 808,506,281 498,848,735 
 
 Recent History. —The nation as it exists today, 
 diminished in area and prestige, is the outcome of 
 several recent wars beginning with the Tripolitan 
 
TURKISH EMPIRE 
 
 745 
 
 TURKISH EMPIRE 
 
 War in 1911, and ending in the Treaty of Sdvrcs in 
 1920. In 1913, Greece, Servia, Montenegro, declared 
 war on Bulgaria. The Turks took advantage of the 
 discord among their enemies and the withdrawal of 
 the Bulgarian army from Tchataldja to march toward 
 Adrianople, which they took with ease on 22 July. 
 Bulgaria, overwhelmingly beaten, sued for peace. 
 •Thus Bulgaria lost Adrianople and control of railway 
 connections with Dedeagatch, her new single seaport 
 on the Aegean. For a while a new war threatened 
 between Turkey and Greece; in October, Anatolian 
 reservists were called to the colors by the Turkish 
 Government and the center of the Greek army was 
 moved to Kavala, the easternmost point of Thrace. 
 Diplomatic relations were, however, resumed and 
 resulted on 13 November, 1913, in the conclusion of 
 a treaty providing for the settlement of religious, 
 racial, and financial affairs in Grecian Thrace and 
 Macedonia. In February, 1914, the powers restored 
 Imbros, Tenedos, and Castellorizo, off Asia Minor, 
 to Turkey and awarded to Greece all the other islands. 
 
 World War. —After the Balkan Wars, Turkey 
 determined to improve the military and naval position 
 of the government and as evidence appointed several 
 German army officers of high rank to positions of 
 prime importance in the actual command of the army. 
 Therefore, it is easy to understand the pro-German 
 influence that led Turkey to cast her lot with Germany 
 in the Great European War. Still, at the beginning 
 of the great struggle, it insisted on neutrality, belying, 
 its statements, however, by mobilizing immediately. 
 Soon after the declaration of war, two German 
 cruisers in the Mediterranean, the Goeben and 
 Breslau, took refuge in the harbor of Constantinople. 
 The Allies protested and the Turks answered by 
 abrogating the conventions known as the “Capitula¬ 
 tions,” whereby foreigners in that country were exempt 
 from local jurisdiction in civil and criminal cases. 
 The Vatican protested along with the Powers that the 
 abrogation put an end to religious liberty. The 
 Turks immediately closed the Dardanelles to com¬ 
 merce. On 29 October, 1914, the Breslau, masquerad¬ 
 ing as a Turkish cruiser, shelled Russian towns on 
 the Black Sea and three Turkish torpedo boats raided 
 Odessa. On 3 November, Russia declared war on 
 Turkey, and on 27 November, the Sultan of Turkey 
 proclaimed a Jehad or Holy War to be waged by all 
 Mohammedans against “the enemies of Islam.” 
 
 Except for some spasmodic uprising against French 
 rule in Morocco the Mohammedan subjects of 
 England and France gave little heed to this proclama¬ 
 tion. Coincident with Turkey’s entry into the war, 
 the British formally annexed the Greek-speaking 
 Island of Cyprus and terminated Turkish suzerainty 
 in Egypt. Already a British force from India had 
 landed at the head of the Persian Gulf, had taken 
 Basra, on 23 November, and were preparing for an 
 invasion of Mesopotamia with Bagdad as their 
 objective. In February, an Anglo-French fleet of 
 more than fifty warships attempted to force the 
 passage of the Dardanelles and to reduce Constan¬ 
 tinople, but suffered such severe losses that the 
 co-operation of land forces was deemed necessary. In 
 April, British and French forces from Egypt landed 
 at the eastern end of Gallipoli, between Gaba 
 Tepe and Ari Burnu and suffered great losses under 
 the heavy fire of the Turks. The whole enterprise 
 was from the British point of view a ghastly failure, 
 due to lack of experienced leadership, mismanage¬ 
 ment, a deficient water supply, and inclement 
 weather, and cost Great Britian 117,000 casualties. 
 
 Serious fighting took place in Mesopotamia and on 
 28 April, 1915, General Townshend was forced to 
 surrender Kut-el-Amara after being surrounded and 
 besieged. His fate was avenged by General F. S. 
 Maude, who with an augumented British force re¬ 
 
 captured the town, overwhelmed the Turkish army 
 at Dialah and, on 11 March, made his triumphal 
 entry into Bagdad. Joining hands with the Russians 
 he marched on to Samarra. On the Russo-Turkish 
 front wore six Russian armies. In Armenia a decisive 
 battle in January, 1915, shattered the Turkish line 
 on the Arasa River and near Lake Totum. Erzerum 
 was taken by the Russians after a five days’ assault. 
 The first Russian army captured Trebizond in April 
 and headed for Platana and Djivizlyk in May and 
 June. Another penetrated the mountains of the 
 upper Choruk, took Mamakhatum, Baiburt, Ardasa, 
 Gumushkaneh and Erizingan in July. “Old Armenia” 
 was thus lost to Turkey. The other Russian armies 
 were not so successful. The third army, barely 
 escaped disaster in the Lake Van region. The fourth 
 and fifth were driven back in northwestern Persia. 
 The sixth struggling westward along the caravan 
 route from Kermanesh to Bagdad was hurled back 
 almost 200 miles into the interior of Persia. About 
 this time a formidable uprising in Arabia occurred. 
 Under the leadership of the insurgent-sheriff of Mecca, 
 the Arab rebels not only established themselves in 
 Mecca, but also captured Jedda and Kinfunda and 
 beleaguered Taif. In November, 1916, their new 
 “Kingdom of the Hedjaz” was proclaimed. 
 
 After repelling a Turkish attack on the Suez Canal, 
 early in August, 1916, an army of Australasians, 
 Indians, and Englishmen, skirted the Mediterranean 
 Coast eastward, occupied El Arish and Maghdabah, 
 ninety miles east of the Canal, and struck northwards 
 into Palestine; at Gaza they inflicted a heavy loss 
 upon the Turkish army, but did not take the city. 
 General Edward Allenby succeeded General Murray, 
 and succeeded in taking Beersheba, Gaza, and cutting 
 the Jaffa-Jerusalem railroad. On November, 16, 
 Jaffa was occupied and on 10 December, 1917, 
 Jerusalem surrendered to the British. 
 
 According to the Treaty of Peace with Turkey, 
 signed at Sevres on 10 August, 1920, the Turkish 
 Empire is very much reduced. Turkey cedes (1) 
 Thrace, west of the Chatalja and excepting only the 
 Derkos water supply to Greece, as well as Tenedos 
 and Imbros, and the Islands in the Aegean occupied 
 by Greece; (2) Smyrna with the surrounding strip, 
 comprising Tireh, Odemish, Magnisa, Akhissar, 
 Berg-hama and Aivali, is to be administered by 
 Greece, under Turkish sovereignty, for 5 years after 
 which the territory may annex itself to Greece by 
 plebiscite; (3) Mesopotamia, Palestine, Syria, Ar¬ 
 menia, and the Hejz became independent, the first 
 three under mandatories; (4) Kurdistan has autonomy 
 conferred upon it; (5) Castellorizo and the Dodecanese 
 are ceded to Italy. Turkey retained Constantinople, 
 but the coastal area of the Dardanelles, the Marmora 
 and the Bosphorus are placed under the control of a 
 “Commission of the Straits” appointed by the League 
 of Nations. At the same time England, France, and 
 Italy made a tripartite agreement in which they 
 undertook to support each other in maintaining their 
 respective spheres of influence in Turkey. 
 
 The prospective creation of a free state of Con¬ 
 stantinople led to a demand by the Young Turks 
 that Damad Pasha be ousted for his alleged failure 
 to win for Turkey more concessions in the signing of 
 the treaty; the Sultan declined to remove him. Finally 
 the landing of additional Greek and Italian troops at 
 Smyrna and Adalia, together with the seizure of 
 Koneih, an important railway center in Asia Minor, 
 by the Nationalist insurgents, caused the downfall of 
 the Entente ministry. The Nationalists immediately 
 set up a rival government at Angora. Soon they 
 controlled a large part of Anatolia. In the hope that 
 the wretched conditions in Turkey would be stabilized, 
 an Anglo-Franco-Italian army occupied Constanti¬ 
 nople on 16 March, 1920, and the Turkish government 
 
TUY 
 
 746 
 
 TWILIGHT SLEEP 
 
 was informed that such occupation would continue 
 until the terms of the Peace Treaty were fulfilled. 
 Seeing the impossibility of carrying out the terms 
 without prolonged opposition the allies modified the 
 terms of the treaty in a conference at London in 
 February, 1921. Greece, however, insisted on im¬ 
 posing the terms of the Sevres Treaty, so favorable 
 to her, on the Nationalists and commenced to do so 
 by force. 
 
 Kemal, the Nationalist leader, headed the forces 
 fighting the invading Greeks in Asia Minor. 
 
 Tuy, Diocese of (Tudensis; cf. C. E., XV— 
 105a), in the province of Pontevedra, Spain, suffragan 
 of Compostello. This see is filled by Rt. Rev. Manuel 
 Tago y Gonzalez, born in the city of Tuy, in 1865; 
 he made his studies at the seminary there and later 
 served as a professor of Greek, Hebrew and theology, 
 was ordained in 1888, made secretary to the Bishop 
 of Lugo in 1896, named a canon the same year and 
 raised to the rank of theological canon in 1904. He 
 was appointed Bishop of Osma 25 August, 1909, and 
 transferred to Tuy 4 May, 1917. He is a member of 
 the royal academy of history. The diocese, which 
 covers an area of 766 square miles embraces a Catholic 
 population of 278,540. It comprises (1920 statistics) 
 277 parishes divided among 15 archpresbyteries, 504 
 priests, 90 seminarians and 25 convents with 125 
 religious and 357 Sisters. 
 
 Twilight Sleep is a treatment to bring about pain¬ 
 less childbirth. In 1847 James Y. Simpson in 
 England used ether and chloroform in obstetrical 
 practice, but little progress was made until 1902 
 when the German physician,Steinbuechel, introduced 
 a method in which the expectant mother was in a 
 state of quietude and rest similar to that of a gentle 
 sleep, hence the name Twilight Sleep. This state 
 of unconsciousness was brought about by the use of 
 a drug called scopolamine and doses of morphine. 
 The first was used to intensify the action of the 
 morphine, which had the tendency to prevent 
 pain. Dr. Charles Green of Harvard, Dr. Williams 
 of Johns Hopkins, Dr. Joseph De Lee of North¬ 
 western University, Chicago, and many other eminent 
 specialists in obstetrics, after studying the process 
 scientifically and observing it in many actual tests 
 abandoned the treatment. Dr. De Lee inspected 
 the methods as applied in maternity hospitals in 
 several of the larger cities of Germany and found 
 that the treatment had been rejected by the physicians 
 who had formerly advocated it and who had studied 
 it under the most favorable conditions. In the 
 United States the subject was brought to the atten¬ 
 tion of the general public by articles in some of our 
 popular magazines; but little of the information 
 given there was reliable. “The merits and dis¬ 
 advantages of this treatment have been fully dis¬ 
 cussed both medically and popularly to the fullest 
 extent, but its use has been largely discontinued by 
 American obstetricians. There is a distinct risk to 
 the child. The percentage of still births is increased, 
 even in series of selected cases, and is due to an 
 asphyxia” (Shear’s “Obstetrics, Normal and Opera¬ 
 tive,” 1920). “The violence and uncertainty of the 
 whole treatment, the general bad impression given 
 to our patients who are being taught to approach 
 the ‘horrors of labor in fear and trembling constitute 
 so severe an arraignment of this treatment of labor 
 cases that we feel compelled to condemn it, leaving 
 open the question of the merits of a single dose of 
 morphine and scopolamine in those cases in which 
 we have hitherto given morphine and atropin” 
 (Dr. Joseph L. Baer). 
 
 The primary reason for the treatment is the pre¬ 
 vention of pain in childbirth. The effects which 
 
 directly result from it are (1) danger to the life of 
 the mother, (2) and of permanent and serious injury 
 to the mother, (3) danger to the life of the child, and 
 (4) of serious and permanent injury to the child. 
 There are times when dangerous treatments and 
 operations may be used as the only alternatives of 
 saving the life of a patient. Under such conditions 
 a risk may be taken or a part may be amputated to 
 save the whole. But in the application of twilight 
 sleep the lives of two persons are involved, that of 
 the child and that of the mother. Moreover, the 
 child has the same claim to life that the mother has. 
 A double effect follows from the operation: (1) 
 the prevention of pain on the part of the mother, 
 and (2) the four dangers given above. Under such 
 circumstances the good directly intended must be 
 proportional to the evil effects which follow. In 
 twilight sleep any one of the evil effects is more than 
 sufficient to offset the good which is sought and 
 therefore the operation is morally wrong. 
 
 To further understand the difficulties which may 
 arise in this matter we must recall that the advocates 
 of twilight sleep proposed it as a treatment in normal 
 childbirth; in their opinion it was to have a universal 
 application. When we consider its purpose and the 
 evils which were necessarily connected with it we 
 must condemn the movement as unethical. In 
 isolated cases where the life of the mother is en¬ 
 dangered by some organic trouble, remedies may be 
 used, even if they indirectly threaten the life of the 
 child or injury to the child. Dr. De Lee, in his 
 latest book on obstetrics (1920), claims that even 
 with improvements “while the life dangers to the 
 mother can be eliminated, the patient must be willing 
 to pay the price of possible lacerations and hem¬ 
 orrhage, and the occasional loss or injury of the child 
 as the cost of her relief from suffering.” Under these 
 conditions the remedy may not be used in normal 
 pregnancy. 
 
 During the past six years other methods of painless 
 childbirth have been advocated, among them the 
 use of nitrous oxid-oxygen. It is claimed for this 
 treatment that it relieves the pains of childbirth and 
 in no way injures or endangers either mother or 
 child. More than a hundred cases were taken care 
 of in the Presbyterian Hospital, Chicago. But a 
 prominent physician of Chicago who had followed 
 the above cases wrote: “The method, while perfectly 
 safe, was abandoned because it was cumbersome, 
 could be used only in a hospital and was enormously 
 expensive. . . . The results did not show the 
 slightest improvement in any way over the time 
 honored method of a few drops of chloroform or 
 ether at the beginning of each pain in the late stage 
 of labor.” 
 
 The difficulty in pronouncing on the ethical solution 
 of such operations is that they are new and the data 
 furnished may not always be reliable. But the prin¬ 
 ciples which should guide one are of easy application. 
 If, as is claimed, these various methods do not injure 
 child or mother and at the same time relieve the pain 
 of the mother they may be used. If the operation is 
 called twilight sleep the name does not affect the 
 remedy; nor does it make the first method and motive 
 of the movement moral. 
 
 O’Malley, The Ethics of Medical Homicide and Mutilation (New 
 York, 1919); McClure's Magazine (June, 1911); De Lee, 
 The Principles and Practice of Obstetrics (1920); Barnes, Twilight 
 Sleep . A report of 30 cases and a summary of 5575 cases re¬ 
 ported in literature in Jour . Indiana Med . Assoc . (Fort Wayne, 
 1920), XIII, 259-263 (with 14references); Winch, Twilight Sleep 
 in general in the practice . Lancet (London, 1919), II, 563 (favor¬ 
 able); Ramsay, Twilight Sleep , its present status , in Illinois Med . 
 Jour . (Chicago, 1919), XXXV, 297 (danger); Baer, in Journal 
 of the A . M . A . (3 April, 1915, 22 May, 1915); Davis, Painless 
 Childbirth and Eutocia and Nitrous Oxid-Oxygen Analgesia 
 (Chicago, 1916). 
 
 Henry S. Spalding 
 
TYRE 
 
 747 
 
 TYRE 
 
 Tyre, Archdioces of (Tyrensis; cf. C. E., XV— 
 109d), a see of three rites, in Syria. For the Latin 
 Rite the see was united to Oristano, but is now listed 
 as a titular see. For the Greek Melkites it is filled by 
 Most Rev. Maximos Saiegh, appointed in 1919. 
 There are 5270 Catholics of this rite, 6 secular and 10 
 regular clergy, and 14 churches and chapels. The 
 present incumbent for the Maronite Rite is Most 
 
 .V, 
 
 m .1. voH 
 ‘jrjjKiilfp 
 
 {fife .i*H>l 
 
 * 77 ify r ’ > . 
 
 re ■Abp'usi ad / id 
 
 i/< 
 
 Rev. Chocrallah Khoury, born in Lebanon in 1805, 
 ordained in 1886, served as superior general of the 
 Lebanon mission of Kraim, and was appointed 31 
 January, 1906. He is the first archbishop for this 
 rite. Out of 400,000 inhabitants there are 10,000 
 Maronite Catholics served by 19 secular priests and 
 16 churches and chapels. 
 
 f 
 
 n' ; -4*91 
 
 fi ojmo • 
 
 i r/o ioxr • «* % 
 
 lift < *i f f 1 r‘ 
 
 : 5UJJ ; i. ' •; -J ’ \ t ' » ( I , f , r * ..) *(]•' 
 
 T » r 
 
 f ft f*! y 
 
 1 I 
 
Ubanghi (cf. C. E., XV—115a), Prefecture 
 Apostolic of, in Belgian Congo, is governed by 
 Mgr. Fulgence Carnonckel, a native of Grammont, 
 Belgium. The mission of Ubanghi was accepted by 
 the Belgian Capuchins in January, 1910, at the request 
 of the Belgian Government, and on 7 April, 1911, 
 was raised to a prefecture Apostolic. On 10 Septem¬ 
 ber, Fathers Fulgence Carnonckel, Liberatus Maas 
 of Turnhout, Basilius Tanghe of Bruges, Ferdinandus 
 Peeters of Antwerp and two lay brothers, Humilis 
 Ceulemans of Gravenwezel and Amandus de Lannoy 
 of Hoozlede left Belgium to found the mission, 
 arriving on 1 December at Bansyville when the first 
 station was started. No missionary had even been 
 there, but there were a score of natives here and there 
 who had been baptized while doing military service. 
 
 The boundaries are: On the W. and N. the 
 River Ubanghi from 1° 30' N. lat. to the 
 junction of the Bomu and Uele; on the E. a 
 ilne from there to the confluence of the Trim- 
 biri and Congo, and continued to the south 
 of Abumombazi (3° 38'46" N.; 22° 5' E.), and on the 
 S. the watershed separating the Congo and Ubanghi, 
 the Ubanghi and Ngiri, and then 1° 30' S. lat. to the 
 Ubanghi. To the west lies the Vicariate Apostolic of 
 French Equatorial Congo; to the west and north 
 the Prefecture Apostolic of Ubanghi-Chari-Tchad; to 
 the east, the Prefecture Apostolic of Western Uelle; 
 and the Vicariate Apostolic of New Antwerp, the 
 latter also lying to the south. Many languages are 
 spoken in the prefecture adding to the missionary’s 
 labors—- the Ngombe and Lubala use a Bantu 
 tongue, while the Ngbandi, Banza and Bwaka use 
 Sudanese languages. The natives number over 150,- 
 000. Sleeping sickness is prevalent. It is curable 
 if treated without delay, consequently the mission¬ 
 aries have established dispensaries in three stations, 
 where suspected cases can be treated. Leprosy 
 occurs here and there but not in a contagious form. 
 Before the arrival of the Belgians and especially 
 the missionaries the tribes were all cannibal; now 
 cannibalism is a very rare occurence. The natives 
 are very superstitous and addicted to fetichism, but 
 they are not idolators. Polygamy is the great ob¬ 
 stacle to their conversion, but even that is yielding 
 slowly. Catechumens receive six months special 
 training at the mission station, before being-baptized; 
 after baptism they remain there four weeks longer 
 to prepare for Holy Communion. From 1913 to 
 1921 the number of Catholics has been as follows: 
 83; 325; 501; 668; 1361; 2259; 2945; 3467; 4238. The 
 mission statistics for 1921 furnished by the Prefect 
 Apostolic who resides at Moleghe are: priests 12, 
 lay brothers 5; Capuchins; Sisters, 4 (Augustinians 
 from Mons); churches and chapels, 5 public, 2 private 
 Catholics 4238; catechists 61; chapel schools 49; 
 catechumens 5737; normal schools (for catechists) 
 2, pupils 37; rural schools 45; pupils 718; trade 
 schools 14, pupils 115 girls, 86 boys; orphanages 4; 
 orphans 213 boys, 131 girls, who receive secondary 
 education; laboratories and dispensaries 3; hospitals 
 2; with 167 sleeping sickness patients; 4 cemeteries; 
 baptism 1189 of which 789 were solemn , 400 in articulo 
 mortis (186 of these baptized parties recovered); 
 Holy Communions 105,466; marriages 80; ecclesias¬ 
 
 tical burials 58. There are no non-Catholics in the 
 prefecture, the attempt made by the American 
 Protestants in 1916 having failed to make any con¬ 
 verts. The elementary or rural schools teach Cris- 
 tian doctrine, reading and writing of the vernacular 
 the secondary schools teach in addition elementary 
 arithmetic and the history and geography of Belgium 
 and the Congo; the normal or catechists’ schools 
 teach in addition the art of speaking and corres¬ 
 pondence. The trade schools teach carpentry, 
 brickmaking, masonry, tanning, tailoring and shoe¬ 
 making. 
 
 Ubanghi-Chari, Prefecture Apostolic of; (cf. 
 C. E., XV—115a), in French Equatorial Africa, is 
 confided to the Congregation of the Holy Ghost. V. 
 Rev. Jean-Rene Calloch, C. S. Sp., b. in the Diocese 
 of Quimper, France, in 1876, appointed 21 January, 
 1904, still fills the see. On 14 May, 1914, the pre¬ 
 fecture was detached from the Vicariate of Central 
 Africa and the new boundaries were fixed. It is as 
 large as France with several millions of inhabitants to 
 convert. Prior to the war the missionaries were 
 gaining foothold slowly but surely. In 1920 five 
 missionaries did wonderful work in the missions 
 established. There were (1918) 565 conversions and 
 baptisms, and 250 children educated and cared for 
 by the Bangui and the Bessou charities. 
 
 Uberaba, Diocese of (de Uberaba; cf. C. E., 
 XV—115d), in Minas Geraes, Brazil, suffragan of 
 Marianna. The word Uberaba is from I-berab-a, 
 which in Tupi means “smiling water,” the Indian 
 name of the ruin on which the city stands. On 8 
 July, 1918, the parishes of St. Jerome and St. Francis 
 were transferred to the newly-erected Diocese of 
 Aterrado (q. v.). In 1921 the diocese had an area 
 of about 58,000 square miles (150,000 square kilo¬ 
 meters) with 44 parishes, and a population of about 
 375,000, mostly Catholics. The city of Uberaba 
 has 13 canons, of whom 3 are supernumerary; by 
 Apostolic indult the canons are exempt from the 
 obligation of reciting the office in common and resid¬ 
 ing in the episcopal city. The diocesan statistics 
 record as follows: Religious Orders—Dominicans, 
 5 priests, 5 lay brothers; Marist Brothers, 18; Vincen¬ 
 tian Fathers, 2; Dominican Sisters, 20, with 30 
 novices; Sisters of the Immaculate Heart of Mary, 
 13; Portuguese Sisters of Jesus, Mary and Joseph; 
 Catholic press—“Uniao Popular,” “Estrella Matu- 
 tina,” “Mensageiro do Rosario,” and “A Cruz;” 
 Sodalities—Apostleship of Prayer, Perpetual Rosary, 
 Daughters of Mary, Franciscan Tertiaries, Dominican 
 Tertiaries, Crusaders of the Blessed Sacrament, St. 
 Gerald’s Association, Men’s Rosary Sodality, Angeli¬ 
 cal Militia of St. Thomas Aquinas, St. Vincent de 
 Paul Society, Ladies’ Charitable Association; Homes 
 —2 Houses of Mercy, 2 Asylums; Organizations—the 
 Altar Society to care for poor churches, the Uniao 
 Popular, which conducts a night school for working¬ 
 men, with 40 students; Schools—besides many 
 parochial schools there are 3 girls’ colleges, one with 
 700 students, ranking as a normal school, 1 diocesan 
 gymnasium with 500 pupils, and 2 private Catholic 
 schools conducted by secular ladies. There were 
 
UCAYALI 
 
 749 
 
 UNION 
 
 about 2050 marriages and 14,000 baptisms in the 
 diocese in the year 1921. 
 
 Ucayali, (St. Francis of Ucayali), Prefecture 
 Apostolic of (cf. C. E., XV—117d), in Central 
 Peru, is confided to the Friars Minor, and governed 
 by Very Rev. Francesco Irazola, O. F. M., elected 
 28 January, 1913. He resides at St. Francis of 
 Ucayali. 
 
 The prefecture contains (1920) 10,000 inhabitants 
 of whom 5140 are Catholic, and 100 catechumens, 
 12 missionary priests, 10 lay brothers, 24 churcehs 
 and chapels, 1 parish, 17 Christian communities anh 
 6 residences. 
 
 Udine, Archdiocese of (IJtinensis; cf. C. E., 
 XV—118b), in Friuli, Northern Italy, directly subject 
 to the Holy See. This see is filled by Most Rev. 
 Antonio Anastasio Rossi, born in Milan in 1864; he 
 made his studies in Rome, became a professor in the 
 seminary of Pavia, then vicar general and honorary 
 canon in that diocese, municipal counsellor and pro¬ 
 vincial 1902-08, was made a private chamberlain 
 in 1905 and appointed bishop 8 January, 1910. 
 In February, 1917, he was named a grand officer of 
 the crown of Italy. The cathedral, built in 1236, and 
 altered several times, was most recently repaired in 
 1912. The diocese comprises 272 parishes, 502 
 churches, 4 monasteries for men and 1 for women, 2 
 convents for men and 68 for women, 644 secular and 
 32 regular clergy, 10 brothers, 890 Sisters, 1 seminary, 
 285 seminarians, 4 higher schools for boys and 10 
 for girls, and 18 professional schools. One missionary 
 association carries on charitable works and 2 homes, 
 34 asylums, 10 hospitals, 2 refuges, 1 settlement 
 house and 2 day nurseries are established. One society 
 is formed among the clergy, a number among the 
 laity, and several Catholic periodicals are published. 
 
 Uganda, Vicariate Apostolic of (Ugandensis; 
 cf. C. E., XV—413a), erected in 1894 as the Vicariate 
 Apostolic of Victoria Nyanza Northern, and changed 
 to its present title by a decree of 15 January, 1915. 
 It is entrusted to the White Fathers, the present 
 vicar being Rt. Rev. Henry Streicher, named 21 
 January, 1897, and appointed titular Bishop of 
 Tabraca 1 February, following. He is assisted by a 
 coadjutor Rt. Rev. Jean Forbes, appointed titular 
 Bishop of Vaga, 17 November, 1917. Episcopal 
 residences are established at Katirondo and Kampala. 
 The vicariate, which comprises the greater part of 
 the royalty of Uganda, is illustrious for the 22 
 blacks martyred for the Faith, who were beatified 
 in 1920. Latest statistics, collected in June, 1919, 
 credit it with 171,551 Catholics, 60,126 catechumens, 
 31 stations, 106 missionary priests and Brothers, 
 10 native priests, 40 European religious (White 
 Sisters and Sisters of Marie-Reparatrice), 91 native 
 Sisters, 1314 catechists, 725 schools giving instruc¬ 
 tion to 10,172 boys and 7622 girls, and 52 charitable 
 institutions caring for 378,003 sick people. During 
 the year 1918-19 baptism was administered to 3593 
 adults, and Easter communions, and communions of 
 devotion totaled 2,085,316. 
 
 Ugento, Diocese of (Uxentinensis; cf. C. E., 
 XV—119b), in the province of Lecce, Southern 
 Italy, is suffragan of Otranto. Rt. Rev. Luigi Pug- 
 liese, transferred to Ugento 22 July, 1896, still (1922) 
 fills the see. There are in the diocese (1920) 70,000 
 Catholics, 30 parishes, 125 secular and 4 regular 
 priests, 10 seminarians, 120 churches or chapels. 
 
 Union of Christendom — Recent manifestations of 
 the movement toward reunion may be treated 
 under three heads: various sporadic and in a sense 
 local movements, generally affecting only a limited 
 
 constituency; the Federal Council of Churches of 
 Christ in America; the World Conference on Faith 
 and Order. 
 
 I—Most of the sporadic or limited movements 
 have been treated in the various articles on the sects, 
 but for convenience the most important may be sum¬ 
 marized here. 
 
 (1) A concordat was entered into by members of 
 the Protestant Episcopal Church and of Congre¬ 
 gational churches in the United States, March, 1919, 
 bearing chiefly on orders and the ministration of the 
 sacraments. It later fell somewhat into abeyance 
 although final disposition is to be made in the con¬ 
 ventions of 1922. 
 
 (2) In 1915 a basis of union was agreed upon by the 
 joint committees of the Presbyterian, Methodist, and 
 Congregational churches of Canada, the union to be 
 known as “The United Church of Canada.” As 
 yet (1922), however, the plan has not been put into 
 execution. 
 
 (3) A similar union of the Presbyterian, Methodist 
 and Congregational churches of Australia was pro¬ 
 posed in 1918, full reports on the result not yet being 
 available. 
 
 (4) In 1919 proposals were made for church union 
 in South India, the parties to the proposition being 
 the Anglican Church, the South India United Church 
 (constituted in 1908 and embracing the two congre¬ 
 gational bodies: the London Missionary Society and 
 the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign 
 Missions; and also the Church of Scotland, the 
 United Free Church of Scotland, and the Dutch 
 Reformed Church of America) and the Mar Thoma 
 Syrian Church. Final action has not yet been 
 reported. 
 
 (5) In 1913 at Kikuyu in British East Africa a 
 union meeting, participated in by Anglicans, was held 
 (see Anglicanism). In 1918 a similar meeting 
 (without the accompanying incidents) was held at 
 the same place, the associating parties being the 
 Church Missionary Society (Anglican), the Church 
 of Scotland Mission, Africa Inland Mission (an inter¬ 
 church organization), and the United Methodist 
 Church Mission, a constitution being proposed for a 
 projected “Alliance of Missionary Societies in 
 British East Africa” and ratification is now being 
 sought. 
 
 (6) In 1919 and 1920 proposals were made paiticu- 
 larly in accordance with the statement of the Lambeth 
 Conference fof 1920 or reunion between the Chuich 
 of England and the Wesleyan Methodist Church, but 
 were rejected by the latter on the question of epis¬ 
 copacy. 
 
 (7) In 1918 the Free Evangelical Churches of 
 England, including Baptists, Congregationalisms, 
 Methodists, Presbyteiians and other Nonconformist 
 bodies, formed a Free Church Federation similar to 
 the Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in 
 America. 
 
 (8) In 1917 three Lutheran bodies in the United 
 States, the Norwegian, United Norwegian, and 
 Hauge’s Synods united under the title of the Norweg¬ 
 ian Lutheran Church of America, and in 1918 three 
 other Lutheran bodies in America, the General Synod, 
 the General Council, and the United Synod South, 
 united, adopting the name United Lutheran Church 
 in America. 
 
 (9) In 1920 in the United States representatives of 
 the Armenians, Baptists, the Christian Church, 
 Christian Union of the United States, Congregational¬ 
 ists, Disciples, Evangelical Synod of North America, 
 Friends (two branches), Methodists (Primitive), 
 Methodist Episcopalians, Moravian Church, Presby¬ 
 terian Church in the United States of America, Prot¬ 
 estant Episcopal Church, Reformed Episcopal Church, 
 Reformed Church in the Uni ted States, United Presby- 
 
UNION 
 
 750 
 
 UNION 
 
 terians, and Welsh Presbyterians, formulated plans 
 for a federal union to be known as the “United Church 
 of Chiist in America.” 
 
 (10) The Alliance of Reformed Churches through¬ 
 out the World holding the Presbyterian System is a 
 loose federation whose title is self-explanatory. Its 
 American branch is the Council of Reformed Churches 
 of America holding the Presbyterian System. There 
 have also occurred minor unions between various 
 Presbyterian bodies (see Presbyterianism). 
 
 (11) For Interchurch World Movement see Prot¬ 
 estantism. 
 
 II. —While the Federal Council of Churches of 
 Christ in America is a manifestation of the general 
 movement toward unity it is in no sense an attempt 
 to draw up a common creed or form of government or 
 of worship. The Council is an officially constituted 
 body, yet the autonomy of the federated churches 
 remains intact, the purpose being to effect unity of 
 service and effort rather than of faith or polity. 
 
 The organization of the Federal Council was com¬ 
 pleted in 1908, largely as the result of previous feder¬ 
 ative movements. It includes about thirty denomina¬ 
 tions, among which are found Baptist, Lutheran, 
 Methodist, Presbyterian, and Protestant Episcopal 
 sects. In 1922 they reported a combined total of 
 142,472 congregations, 113,761 clergy and 19,933,115 
 members. 
 
 Similar bodies outside of America are: in England, 
 the National Council of the Evangelical Free Churches 
 (mentioned above, I, 7), and the Fedeial Council of 
 the Evangelical Free Churches which is somewhat 
 more inclusive than the former: in France, the Prot¬ 
 estant Federation of France ( Federation Protestante 
 de France), embracing the National Union of Re¬ 
 formed Evangelical Churches, National Union of 
 Reformed Churches. Evangelical Lutheran Church, 
 Union of Evangelical Free Churches, Evangelical 
 Methodist Church, Union of Baptist Churches of 
 Northern France; in Switzerland, the Union of Swiss 
 Reformed Churches ( Verband Schweizerischer Refor- 
 mierter Kirchen ), including only the German-speaking 
 churches of the Swiss Reformed Church Conference; 
 in Belgium, the Belgian Protestant Committee of 
 Union (Comite d’Union Protestante Beige), which 
 includes the Union of Protestant Evangelical Churches 
 of Belgium and the Belgian Christian Missionary 
 Church; in Japan, the Federation of Churches of 
 Japan; in Germany, the Federal Council of the 
 Churches of Christ in Germany, which is in process of 
 organization. 
 
 III. —The World Conference on Faith and Order is 
 a more thorough and comprehensive attempt to effect 
 a reunion of the churches, their ideal being a union 
 which shall embrace not only the Protestant sects 
 and the Eastern schismatics, but (so they state), the 
 Catholic Church as well. 
 
 (a) History. —The movement originated in the 
 General Convention of the Episcopal Church, at Cin¬ 
 cinnati, in 1910, when the Rev. William T. Manning, 
 rector of Trinity Church, New York (now bishop), 
 introduced a resolution on reunion calling for the 
 appointment of a commission to prepare a “conference 
 for the consideration of questions touching Faith and 
 Order, and that all Christian Communions through¬ 
 out the world which confess our Lord Jesus Chiist as 
 God and Saviour be asked to unite with us in arrang¬ 
 ing for and conducting such a conference.” The 
 commission was appointed and $100,000 donated 
 by J. P- Morgan to help finance it. The commission 
 immediately began conferring with other chuiches, 
 the Congregationalists and the Disciples of Christ, 
 who were in convention at the same time as the Epis¬ 
 copalians, being the first to join the movement, after 
 having concomitantly passed similar resolutions to 
 that mentioned above. In May, 1913, an unofficial 
 
 meeting of repesentatives of American denomina¬ 
 tions was held; meanwhile deputations had gone to 
 Great Britain to arouse interest there; a North Amer¬ 
 ican preparatory conference took place in January, 
 1916, in Garden City, Long Island; and in 1919 an 
 official American deputation visited Europe and the 
 Near East. 
 
 In Athens the delegates were well received by the 
 Holy Governing Synod of the Church of Greece, 
 which agreed to send representatives to the World 
 Conference. Other Eastern chuiches took similar 
 action, the cordiality of the Church of Constantinople 
 extending so far as to invite and permit one of the 
 members of the deputation to sing the Gospel on 
 Easter Sunday at the cathedral service. Practically 
 all the non-Catholic chuiches in Europe signified 
 their approval of the movement and their intention 
 to co-operate, the churches in Russia and Germany 
 alone not being approached because of disturbed 
 internal conditions in those countries, although a few 
 delegates from these churches finally attended the 
 meeting in 1920. The deputation also visited Rome, 
 being received by his Holiness Pope Benedict XV, 
 who indicated that the Catholic Church could not 
 accept their invitation to participate in the proposed 
 confeience. 
 
 The churches, as they approved the movement, 
 appointed commissions (not more than three members 
 from each), and these delegates convened in Geneva, 
 Switzerland, 12 August, 1920, to arrange for its fur¬ 
 ther conduct. There were present 137 delegates, 
 under the presidency of Bishop Charles H. Brent, of 
 the Protestant Episcopal diocese of Western New 
 York, representing about forty nations and seventy 
 Trinitarian churches. After having been in session 
 generally twice daily the Conference elected a con¬ 
 tinuation committee and adjourned on 19 August, the 
 final benediction being given by. Bishop Herzog of the 
 Old Catholic Church. Since this preliminary meeting 
 the continuation work has consisted chiefly in the 
 formation of local groups, notably at Oxfoid and Cam¬ 
 bridge, England, and at Philadelphia, to discuss the 
 topics presented at Geneva, in order that definite 
 proposals may if possible be made to the next Con¬ 
 ference. 
 
 (b) Aims and Methods. —As previously intimated 
 this movement aims at effecting a universal, reunited 
 church, and not merely a federation of churches in 
 which each constituent church would retain its present 
 complete entity, its organization, forms and beliefs. 
 Practically it aims at arriving at such a compromise 
 on questions of faith and order as would be acceptable 
 to all participants as the basis of reunion. It also 
 differs from many similar movements in that it seeks 
 to embrace the Catholic Church in the movement. 
 
 To effect its purpose the conference method has 
 been adopted, the intent being to procure thiough 
 small lepiesentative bodies of delegates information on 
 the views of the participant churches as to the ques¬ 
 tions involved; to bring about discussion of the points 
 raised; to receive from the various churches their 
 opinions as to what should be the nature and charac¬ 
 teristics of the proposed reunited church. The pre¬ 
 liminary local discussions are especially for this pur¬ 
 pose, it being their task to consider the questions 
 formulated for them and circulated by the World Con¬ 
 ference. Furthermore, the churches are asked not to 
 pledge themselves officially to any answers to the 
 questions; their action is to await the final proposals 
 which may in the future be presented to them by the 
 Conference after the results of the preliminary dis¬ 
 cussions have been collated, discussed and acted 
 upon. The period necessary for the accomplishment 
 of their purpose has been estimated as “perhaps one, 
 and possibly two, generations.” Finally, the sponsors 
 of the movement have at all times called attention to 
 
UNION 
 
 751 
 
 UNION 
 
 the necessity of prayer for the success of the under¬ 
 taking. The continuation committee, stating that 
 the first and by far the most important preparation is 
 that of prayer, has requested the participating 
 churches to offer regular and special prayers for this 
 purpose. A "Manual of Prayers for Unity” has been 
 issued, and an octave of prayers has been appointed 
 for the week ending with Pentecost, 4 June, 1922. 
 
 What has been the concrete result of the twelve 
 years of work on the part of the movement? While 
 the preliminary Conference at Geneva (1920) was 
 somewhat in the nature of an agape, especially in its 
 opening sessions, it discussed in a general way the 
 meaning of the church, and what is meant by unity, 
 and the place of the Bible and a creed in relation to 
 reunion. The almost universal tendency of the 
 delegates seemed to indicate an inability on the part 
 of their churches to yield any substantial point in 
 questions of faith or order, the lion-episcopal churches, 
 for example, standing for the sufficiency of their 
 orders, and the non-creedal churches generally deny¬ 
 ing any necessity of a creed in the strict sense. How¬ 
 ever, the meeting was not intended to be definitive 
 on these points; and accordingly it instructed the 
 continuation committee to secure proper considera¬ 
 tion and discussion of the topics mentioned above. 
 This committee formulated the questions and sent 
 them to the local churches in the following form: 
 (1) What degree of unity in Faith will be necessary 
 in a reunited Church? (2) Is a statement of this 
 one Faith in the form of a Creed necessary or desir¬ 
 able? (3) If so, what Creed should be used? or 
 what other formulary would be desirable? (4) YV hat 
 are the proper uses of a Creed and of a Confession of 
 Faith? 
 
 (c) The Catholic Church and the Movement— Before 
 speaking of the attitude of the Church it may be well 
 to indicate the attitude of the Movement toward the 
 Church. As stated previously the sponsors of the 
 movement entertained the hope that they could pre¬ 
 vail upon Catholic delegates to enter into conference 
 with them; their idea of a reunited Church is one 
 that should include the Roman Church as well 
 as the various non-Catholic denominations. They 
 have accordingly in pursuance of this idea always been 
 courteous in their attitude toward the Church and 
 her rulers; in their discussions there has not ap¬ 
 peared any attack on the Church; even after receiving 
 the definitive declination of the Pope to send dele¬ 
 gates to Geneva they have not changed their attitude; 
 in their "Manual of Prayers” use is made of some 
 excerpts from the Roman Missal; and finally in this 
 Manual a courteous suggestion is made that Catholic 
 priests should say, and lay people should have said, 
 votive Masses for the Reunion of Christendom. The 
 general external attitude, in other words, is that of 
 those who desire an entente cordiale with the Church. 
 It is quite clear, however, that they are unable to 
 understand why the Church cannot take any official 
 part in the movement. 
 
 The attitude of the Church toward the World 
 Conference presents a twofold aspect: toward the 
 movement in itself, and toward the movement as 
 seeking official Catholic representation in the Con¬ 
 ference. Toward the movement in itself, that is, 
 toward the movement as constituting a sincere and 
 earnest attempt on the part of the non-Catholic 
 denominations to arrive at some method of ending the 
 deplorable religious disunion which has divided a 
 great part of Christianity into almost innumerable 
 sects, the Church has only sympathy and approval. 
 The end in itself, the Reunion of Christendom, is one 
 which appeals especially to all Catholics. Priests and 
 people pray daily for this end, Masses are said, 
 novenas are offered up, an octave of prayer is of¬ 
 ficially offered yearly, and some religious orders have 
 48 
 
 practically as their chief end the furtherance of 
 religious unity. This does not, however, mean that 
 they pray directly for the success of the World Con¬ 
 ference in the concrete. They pray indeed that this 
 movement may serve at least to lead some back 
 into the bosom of the Church which their fathers de¬ 
 serted; they cannot, however, admit the competency 
 of such a tribunal to settle such questions as it has 
 raised; for a Catholic,-only the Catholic Church 
 through its leader, the Pope, the Vicar of Christ on 
 earth, can say what is necessary, what is useful, in 
 matters of faith and order, and this the Church has 
 indicated so clearly in times past that the question is 
 no longer an open one. 
 
 Hence on the second aspect of the attitude of the 
 Church the explanation is simple. The Church can 
 take no official part in the World Conference because 
 the Church has been appointed by Jesus Christ as the 
 custodian of the deposit of faith which He left with 
 it through His apostles. The Catholic Church is in 
 the possession of the Truth and uncompromisingly, 
 yet in all charity, it must decline any encroachment 
 on its Divine prerogatives. It is not then in a spirit 
 of aloofness or of lack of sympathy or understanding 
 that the Church acts as she does; for the Church all 
 the questions which the Conference raises as to the 
 necessity of a Creed, and the like, are definitely 
 settled. It is hard indeed for a non-Catholic to 
 appreciate this attitude. An analogy taken from the- 
 field of science may help. If a non-scientific man 
 should approach a scientist, an astronomer for example, 
 and request the latter for a conference with a view 
 to a broader basis of unity of belief on astronomical 
 subjects; if he should intimate that in astronomy it 
 should be sufficient to hold that the earth does not 
 revolve around the sun, and that the sun is only a 
 few thousand miles away from the earth, and that 
 with greater freedom on the part of both to view the 
 questions as they please, a truer unity would be at¬ 
 tained, the scientist could only reply that the ques¬ 
 tions had already been decided against the petitioner; 
 they are no longer open; if unity is desired it must be 
 unity with the scientist on those points which have 
 been proved true. 
 
 In matters of faith and order the Catholic Church 
 is in a position analogous to that of the scientist in 
 regard to facts of nature. On the word of God the 
 Church is certain that it is in possession of the Truth. 
 It cannot recede without going counter to the will of 
 God. If the non-Catholic would'only try to under¬ 
 stand this merely from the psychological point of 
 view he would probably come nearer to a more S3^m- 
 pathetic realization of the fact that the Church’s 
 refusal to treat with him on a compromise basis is 
 absolutely compatible with the charity and the good 
 will she professes. 
 
 The two points of view outlined above are sub¬ 
 stantially those held by Benedict XV when approached 
 by representatives of the World Conference. In 
 1914 and in 1915 he expressed his gratification at 
 learning of the movement, and his hope that it would 
 finally lead to the restoration of the unity of the 
 mystical body of Christ. To the deputation of 
 1919 he accorded a cordial personal welcome; but as 
 the report of the deputation puts it "the contrast 
 between the Pope’s personal attitude towards us and 
 his official attitude towards the Conference was very 
 sharp. One was irresistibly benevolent, the other 
 irresistibly rigid. The genuineness of the Pope’s 
 personal friendliness towards us was as outstanding 
 as the positiveness of his official declination of our 
 invitation.” In conclusion this final point may best 
 be summed up by the official statement of Benedict 
 XV, presented to the deputation by Archbishop 
 Cerretti: "The Holy Father, after having thanked 
 them for their visit, stated that as successor of St. 
 
UNION 
 
 752 
 
 URBINO 
 
 Peter and Vicar of Christ he had no greater desire 
 than that there should be one fold and one shepherd. 
 His Holiness added that the teaching and practice of 
 the Roman Catholic Church regarding the unity of 
 the visible Church of Christ was well known to 
 everybody and therefore it would not be possible for 
 the Catholic Church to take part in such a Congress 
 as the one proposed. His Holiness, however, by no 
 means wishes to disapprove of the Congress in ques¬ 
 tion for those who are not in union with the Chair of 
 Peter; on the contrary he earnestly desires and prays 
 that, if the Congress is practicable, those who take 
 part in it may, by the grace of God, see the light and 
 become reunited to the visible Head of the Church, 
 by whom they will be received with open arms.” 
 
 Mode, Aims and Methods of Union Movements in America in 
 American Journal of Theology, XXIV (1920), 224; Johnson, 
 Policy of Protestant Episcopal Church, loc. cit., 161; Gailor, 
 Lambeth Committee on Reunion in Constructive Quarterly, VIII 
 (1920), 537; see also loc. cit., IX (1921), 19,234, etc.; Kelly, 
 United Church of Canada, loc. cit., V (1917), 435; Answer to pre¬ 
 ceding, loc. cit., 617; Cadoux, Proposed Creedal Basis of Reunion 
 in Journal of Religion, I (1921), 592; Sanford, The Origin and 
 History of the Federal Council (Hartford, 1916); Christian Unity 
 at Work, record of Federal Council, 1908-1912 (New York, 
 1913) ; Library of Christian Co-operation, record 1912-1916, 6 
 vols. (New York, 1917) ; Federal Council Bulletin (New York, 
 monthly); Wilson, Episcopacy and Unity, Anglican and non- 
 episcopal relations (London and New York, 1912) ; Headlam, 
 Doctrine of the Church and Christian Reunion, prejudiced against 
 the Catholic Church (London and New York, 1920) ; Brown, 
 The Level Plan for Church Union, ultra-Protestant (New York, 
 1910) ; Cobb, The Meaning of Christian Unity (New York, 1915); 
 Mallock, Doctrine and Doctrinal Disruption (London, 1908); 
 Simpson, The Catholic Conception of the Church, Anglican dis¬ 
 cussion (New York, 1914) . 
 
 The chief literature on the World Conference is contained in 
 pamphlets issued through its secretary, Robert Gardiner, Gardi¬ 
 ner, Maine, U. S. A.; No. 2, Report and Resolution of the P. E. 
 Church suggesting the Conference; 12, Hall, The World Con¬ 
 ference and the Problem of Unity; 16, Idem, Questions of Faith and 
 Order for Consideration by the Proposed Conference; 17, Idem, 
 A Bibliography of Topics related to Church Unity; 26, Haughwout, 
 A World Movement for Christian Unity; 28, The Object and Method 
 of Conference; 32, Report of the Deputation to Europe and the East, 
 1919; 33, Report of Preliminary Meeting at Geneva, Switzerland, 
 (12-20 Aug., 1920); 34, A Compilation of Proposals for Christian 
 Unity; the correspondence between Secy. Gardiner and Car¬ 
 dinal Gasparri, papal secretary of State, has also been published 
 in a separate pamphlet. 
 
 Catholic references: Walker, Problem of Reunion (London and 
 New York, 1920); Carson, Reunion Essays (London, 1903); 
 d’Herbigny (tr. Buchanan); Vladimir Soloviev, a Russian 
 Newman (London, 1918); Batiffol, Leo XIII on Reunion in 
 Constructive Quarterly, VII (1919), 566; Idem, Benedict XV and 
 Reunion, loc. cit., VI (1918), 209; Revue Anglo-Romaine (Paris, 
 1895-6) was a short-lived review devoted chiefly to reunion of the 
 Anglican Church with Rome. ^ 
 
 Gerald Shaughnessy. 
 
 Unitas Fratrum. See Bohemian Brethren 
 
 United Evangelical Church. See Albright 
 Brethren 
 
 Universal Messianic Message, Church of the. 
 See New Thought 
 
 Universalists (cf. C. E., XV— 181b).—This sect 
 reported in 1922, in the United States, 650 churches, 
 561 ministers, and 58,566 members. 
 
 Religious Bodies, 1916 (Washington, 1919); Year Book of the 
 Churches (New York, annual). 
 
 N. A. Weber. 
 
 Unyanyembe, Vicariate Apostolic of (Unia- 
 bembensis; cf. C. E., XV— 204d), in former German 
 East Africa, now under Belgian and British mandates, 
 is confided to the White Fathers and had (1920) 10 
 stations, 3678 Catholics, 2889 catechumens, 33 mis¬ 
 sionaries, 72 catechists, 6 nuns of Our Lady of Africa, 
 13 stations with resident priests, 26 schools with 966 
 pupils, and 30 institutions of charity. The mission 
 is under the administration of Rt. Rev. Pierre-Henri 
 Leonard, titular Bishop of Tipasa of Numidia, b. 
 5 December, 1869, appointed vicar apostolic of 
 Unyanyembe, 27 June, 1912, consecrated 11 August 
 of the same year. He resides at Ushirombo or 
 Tabora. 
 
 Union That Nothing Be Lost, incorporated, under 
 the laws of the State of New York, is the missionary 
 agency of the Society of the Atonement (q. v.). This 
 Society is a new branch of the III Order Regular of 
 St. Francis, following closely the Rule of the Friars 
 Minor, and the Union That Nothing Be Lost has been 
 the almoner of hundreds of thousands of dollars be¬ 
 tween benefactors and the missionaries and their 
 work in the past few years. The Society was received 
 from Anglicanism into the Catholic Church in 1909 
 and the Union That Nothing Be Lost was a later 
 development; its benefactors number over 40,000. 
 There is scarcely any part of the foreign mission field 
 which has not benefited from its ministrations. 
 
 Unitarians.—The president of the “General Con¬ 
 ference of Unitarian and other Christian Churches” 
 is William H. Taft, former president and now Chief 
 Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. 
 The Unitarians reported in 1921 a membership in 
 the United States of 51,635, a loss of 30,880 as com¬ 
 pared with the figures for 1916. This loss is possibly 
 due to the fact that the loosening of creedal obligations 
 in the other sects no longer forces a Protestant with 
 Unitarian leanings to give up his “orthodox” af¬ 
 filiations. 
 
 Religious Bodies, 1916 (Washington, 1919); Year Book of the 
 Churches (New York, annual). 
 
 N. A. Weber. 
 
 Upper Nile, Vicariate Apostolic of (Nili 
 Superiors; cf. C. E., XV—205b), comprises the 
 eastern portion of Uganda, on the Nile. The first 
 vicar of this territory, Rt. Rev. Henry Hanlon, of the 
 Congregation of Foreign Missions of Mill Hill, Lon¬ 
 don, to whom it is entrusted, was succeeded in June, 
 1912, by Rt. Rev. John Biermans, titular Bishop of 
 Gargara. Bishop Biermans’ first work was to make 
 an urgent appeal for funds in order to bring more 
 priests to this mission. The old Fathers, most of 
 whom had been laboring in this unhealthy climate 
 from the foundation of the vicariate, were broken in 
 health and new energy was badly needed. The 
 bishop’s appeal met with ready response, particularly 
 in America and Holland and within a few years the 
 number of priests had increased from thirty-six to 
 fifty. A training school for catechists was established, 
 and a little later the Bukedi and Budama districts 
 were opened for missions. There are now twenty- 
 three permanent missions, sixteen of which are in the 
 protectorate of Uganda, where there are also one 
 institution of native Sisters, a boarding school and a 
 high school. At Kamuli there is a convent with 
 school and hospital, and an industrial school. Four¬ 
 teen Sisters are working in the territory establishing 
 schools and hospitals as quickly as they can obtain 
 the necessary funds. Although the mission stations 
 of Kisii and Asumbi were the only ones actually 
 destroyed during the World War, the whole vicariate 
 suffered, and the lowering of the exchange and the 
 increase in prices still impede the progress of the 
 work. In 1921 the vicariate rejoiced with its bishop 
 in the celebration of the silver jubilee of his ordina¬ 
 tion. According to 1920 statistics this territory has 
 18,053 Catholics, 12,000 catechumens, 28 missionary 
 priests, 240 catechists, 15 churches and chapels and 
 12 schools with 1649 pupils. 
 
 Urhino, Archdiocese of ( Urbinatensis; cf. 
 C. E., XV—221b), in Italy, is governed by Mgr. 
 Giacomo Ghio, b. at Bosia, in the diocese of Genoa 
 on 23 July, 1858, and nominated to the see on 28 
 March, 1912. The diocesan statistics (1921) record 
 42,500 inhabitants; 99 parishes; 128 priests, of 
 whom 8 are regulars (Conventional and Friars 
 Minor); 1 seminary, 30 students; 4 convents 
 (women); 4 educational establishments; a university: 
 a lyceum; a gymnasium; a technical school; a 
 
URGEL 
 
 753 
 
 URUGUAY 
 
 normal school; a school of arts and trades; a school 
 for women workers. There is a local Catholic paper, 
 the “Bolletino diocesano.” Among the recent local 
 events of interest were the Eucharistic congress in 
 1913; the confirmation of the cultus of Blessed 
 Pelingotto by the Congregation of Rites on 12 
 November, i918; and the reorganization of the 
 Royal Gallery of Art of the Marches, in the Ducal 
 Palace, for which many fine works were recently 
 obtained. Among the distinguished citizens of 
 Urbino in days gone by was Francesco Paciotto 
 (1521-91), the greatest military architect of his age, 
 one of whose notable works is the fortress of Ant¬ 
 werp. Worthy of note also is the new Cathedral, 
 erected in the days of Archbishop Berioli, from the 
 plans of G. Valladier, the fagade being the work of 
 Camillo Morgia of Ravenna. 
 
 Urgel, Diocese of (Urgellensis; cf. C. E., 
 XV—223b), in the province of Lerida, Spain, is 
 governed by Mgr. Justino Guitart y Vilardebo, b. 
 at Barcelona on 16 December, 1875; was appointed 
 to this see on 9 January, 1920; was consecrated on 
 23 May following, and on 27 July made his entrance 
 into the valleys of Andorra, of which he is the 
 sovereign prince. He succeeded Mgr., now Cardinal, 
 Benlloch y Vivo, who was transferred to Burgos on 
 
 7 January, 1919. The diocesan records for 1921 
 show 170,000 Catholics; 20 archpriests; 620 priests; 
 411 parishes and 575 churches and chapels. 
 
 Urhbosna, Archdiocese of. See Serajevo 
 
 Uritana, Diocese of. See Oria 
 
 Ursula of the Blessed Virgin, Society of St. (cf. 
 C.E. XV-22Sa).—Since the erection of the gener- 
 alate in 1898 the superiors general have been: 
 Mother Marie de St. Pierre Hallez (1883-89), who 
 obtained the revision by Rome, according to the 
 new regulations of the Church, of the original con¬ 
 stitutions; Mother Marie Stanislas Vigouroux 
 (1889-95); Mother Marie de St. Charles de Caque- 
 roy (1895-1920), under whose superiorship the ex¬ 
 pulsions from the French convents took place and 
 who succeeded in keeping the members together, 
 opening houses in foreign lands where the work and 
 spirit of the order are still alive; Mother Therese 
 du Rosaire Tenneson (1920), who has reopened 
 some of the French houses as a test of the good 
 will of the Government. These are family houses 
 for girls rather than academies, since the nuns can 
 not teach any of the subjects included in the 
 program of education in France. The nuns take 
 care of the children, and lay professors comprise 
 the teaching staff. The revised Code of Canon Law 
 did not necessitate any change in the government 
 or rule of the order, this change having been made 
 under the pontificate of Leo XIII. The period of 
 novitiate is two years, followed by five years of 
 temporary vows. After this time ol probation, the 
 members are admitted to perpetual profession. 
 The community in New York has its novitiate and 
 provincial house in the Convent of Our Lady of 
 Lourdes (W. 142d St.), and has acquired two 
 houses nearby for the Academy of Our Lady of 
 Lourdes, which includes a commercial and secre¬ 
 tarial course. 
 
 Ursulines (cf. C. E., XV—228c).—Under the 
 direct guidance of the Holy See, the Roman Canonical 
 Union has made steady progress since 1912. Many 
 important affiliations have been effected, notably 
 those of the historic foundation at New Orleans, the 
 oldest Ursuline community in the United States, 
 and that of Santa Rosa in California. The original 
 
 8 provinces have been increased to 11: the Greco- 
 
 Italian, Austria and Jugoslavia, Hungary, East of 
 France, West of France, Belgium, Holland-England, 
 North of the United States, South of the United 
 States, Brazil and Latin-America. The total num¬ 
 ber of subjects in the Union is 3617. The original 
 number of communities, 63, has been increased to 180 
 within the past ten years. Of this number there are 
 33 houses in the Northern Province of the United 
 States, governing 71 establishments of which one is 
 a college at New Rochelle, numbering 300 students. 
 There are also 25 academies or boarding schools, 
 
 2 boarding schools for little boys, 35 parochial schools, 
 
 6 Indian missions in Montana and 2 Esquimaux mis¬ 
 sions in Alaska. This province numbers 393 pro¬ 
 fessed religious, and 35 novices. The Southern 
 Province of the United States numbers 341 professed 
 religious and 30 novices. The central novitiates are 
 at Dallas, Texas: Alton, Ill.; and Fishkill, N. Y. 
 The present head of the institute is Rev. Mother 
 Angela de Notre Dame, who was re-elected to this 
 office in September, 1920. 
 
 Ursulines of Quebec (cf. C. E., XV—229c).—The 
 monastery at Quebec has had many improvements 
 (such as lighting and heating) in recent years. The 
 monastery comprises 17 buildings, including 4 for 
 servants, mechanics, and workmen. The little 
 chapel of the cloister, where the foundresses prayed 
 for fifty years and where Mgr. de Laval, first Bishop 
 of Quebec, and the Canadian Jesuit martyrs said 
 Mass, was made an oratory of the Sacred Heart on 
 the 250th anniversary of the celebration of the first 
 Mass (1642-1892), to commemorate the establish¬ 
 ment of the Confraternity of the Sacred Heart in this 
 sanctuary and the first solemn feast in Canada in 
 1700. This was during the superiorship of Mother 
 Marie de 1’Assomption Georgiana Letourneau, who 
 did much for the monastery during the nine years when 
 she was at the head of the community (1890-96; 
 1908-11). She died 5 March, 1916, and was succeeded 
 as superior in 1911 by Mother de Sainte Aur&ie 
 (Emma Chaperon), who in turn was succeeded 
 in 1917 by the present superior, Mother Saint Fran¬ 
 cois de Borgia (Alice Riverin). The constitutions of 
 the community have been sent to Rome for ap¬ 
 probation according to the requirements of the 
 canonical Code. There are four foundations of the 
 community and a branch house temporarily opened 
 at Merici in 1902. The community numbers 102 
 members, with about 500 pupils under instruction, 
 including 65 in the normal school, founded in 1857. 
 In 1912 their institution at Quebec was affiliated with 
 the Laval University and the students may obtain a 
 diploma and degree from the university upon passing 
 the necessary examinations. 
 
 Uruguay (cf. C. E., XV—230d), a South Amer¬ 
 ican Republic, has an area of 72,153 square miles, and 
 an average of 19.2 people to the square mile. In 1919 
 the total population was 1,462,887; that of Montevideo 
 City on 30 November, 1920, was 361,950. Of the 
 other cities, Paysandu had 26,000 inhabitants; Salto 
 30,000; Mercedes 23,000. In 1919 there were 39,307 
 living births, 1291 still-births, 7532 marriages and 
 18,904 deaths. The surplus of births over deaths was 
 20,403. 
 
 Religion. —State and Church are separated, and 
 there is complete religious liberty. The religion pro¬ 
 fessed by the majority of the inhabitants is Catholic. 
 The Archbishopric of Montevideo (q. v.) has two 
 suffragan bishops, one in Salto (q. v.) and one in 
 Melo (q. v.). The 1908 census showed 430,095 
 Catholics, 12,232 Protestants, and 45,470.unspecified. 
 
 Education. —Primary education is obligatory. In 
 1919 there were 995 public schools with 106,905 
 enrolled pupils and 183 private schools with 19,410 
 
URUGUAYANA 
 
 754 
 
 UTAH 
 
 pupils. Evening courses for adults were attended 
 by 5613 pupils (195 illiterates). In 1920 the Monte¬ 
 video University had 4165 students and 344 teachers. 
 There are also a preparatory school and 22 other estab¬ 
 lishments for secondary and higher education with 
 4143 pupils in 1919. There are normal schools for 
 males and for females, and a school of arts and trades 
 supported by the State where 185 pupils receive train¬ 
 ing gratuitously. At the military college there are 
 8 professors and 46 pupils. There are also many reli¬ 
 gious seminaries throughout the Republic with a con¬ 
 siderable number of pupils, a university for women, a 
 school for the blind, and one for the deaf and dumb, 
 and a school for domestic science. 
 
 Economics. —For the year 1920-21 the receipts 
 were £8,137,015 and the expenditures were £8,746,- 
 614. The estimates of revenue and expenditure for 
 1920-21 were (4.7 dollars-£l): $38,043,975 reve¬ 
 nue and $41,109,088 expenditure. 
 
 Agriculture. —In Uruguay the agricultural indus¬ 
 tries are increasing. The number of people engaged in 
 agriculture in 1913-14 was 92,462; in 1914-15, 98,301 
 and in 1918-19,93,187. The principal crops for the 
 year 1919-20 were as follows: wheat 688,407 acres, 
 barley 4610 acres, oats 81,145 acres, linseed 83,645 
 acres. In 1916 there were within the republic 7,802,- 
 442 head of cattle, 567,154 horses, 11,472,852 sheep, 
 16,663 mules, 12,218 goats, and 303,958 pigs. Wine 
 was produced chiefly in the departments of Monte¬ 
 video, Canelones, Salto, Colonia, and Paysandu. 
 In 1918 there were 2822 properties (2638 in 1917) of 
 17,180 acres, producing 41,888,814 kilos of grapes, 
 and 5,628,926 gallons of wine. Tobacco and olives 
 are also cultivated. 
 
 Mining. —In the northern departments several gold 
 mines are worked, and silver, copper, lead, magnesium 
 and lignite coal are found. The supply of electricity is 
 used for light, power, and traction in a State monopoly 
 according to the bill passed 20 October, 1912. In 1918 
 there were 16,017 industrial and commercial estab¬ 
 lishments with a capital of 134,383,782 pesos. 
 
 Foreign Trade. —The foreign trade for 1919 was as 
 follows: imports £8,420,783, exports £27,457,991; 
 and in 1920: imports £9,632,982, and exports £16,- 
 150,344. 
 
 Government. —The new Constitution of Uruguay, 
 which went into effect on 1 March, 1919, in substitu¬ 
 tion for the old Constitution of 10 September, 1829, 
 provides for strict separation of powers, election of 
 members of the high court of justice by the General 
 Assembly, and cabinet interpellation. Executive 
 power is divided between two branches, one part is 
 entrusted to a president elected by popular vote, and 
 the other to an administrative commission of nine 
 members, also elected by popular vote for six years. 
 The administrative commission has all administrative 
 power not expressly reserved to the president or some 
 other branch of the Government, especially such 
 power as relates to public instruction, health, labor, 
 industries, public charities, and finance. Minority 
 representation is provided for by plurality voting. 
 The President is not allowed to leave the country 
 longer than forty-eight hours without the consent 
 of the Legislature. Plenary power to interpret the 
 constitution rests with the Legislature. By Act of 
 the Uruguayan Legislature on 5 August, 1920, duel¬ 
 ling was again legalized. 
 
 Uruguayana, Diocese of (Uruguayensis; cf. 
 C. E., XV—233b), in Brazil, suffragan of Porto 
 Alegre. The town of Uruguayana, with 14,800 
 inhabitants, is 720 miles west of Porto Alegre. The 
 other principal cities included in this diocese are 
 Alegrete with 11,800 inhabitants, San Gabriel with 
 11,000 inhabitants and Sant’ Anna do Livramentowith 
 12,000 inhabitants. The first bishop is Rt. Rev. 
 
 Hermeto Joseph Pinheiro, born at Traipu in the dio¬ 
 cese of Alagoas in 1870; he studied at Olinda, was 
 ordained in 1905, and appointed bishop 12 May, 1911. 
 The total population of the diocese numbers 250,000. 
 It has 18 first-class and 3 second-class parishes, 3 
 convents of men, 8 of women, 15 secular and 14 regu¬ 
 lar clergy, 72 Sisters, 16 seminarians, 30 mixed 
 schools with 1462 pupils, 5 parochial schools for boys 
 with 134 pupils, 4 parochial schools for girls with 150 
 pupils, 2 secondary schools for boys with 323 pupils, 
 and 6 secondary schools for girls with 861 pupils, and 
 6 hospitals. A benefit society is formed among the 
 clergy and several associations are organized among 
 the laity. Two Catholic periodicals are published. 
 
 Utah (cf. C. E., XV—238a).—The area of the 
 State of Utah is 84,990 square miles, of which 2806 
 are of water surface. In 1920 the population was 
 449,446, an increase of 20% since 1910. Of this, 
 48% was urban; 52% was rural. The average num¬ 
 ber of inhabitants to the square mile was 5.5, as 
 against 4.5 in 1910. Part of Wasatch County was 
 organized as Duchesne County in 1915. Daggett 
 County was also organized during the last decade from 
 part of Unitah County and changes were made in 
 the boundaries of Rich and Summit Counties. Be¬ 
 sides the civil divisions (429 primary and 137 secon¬ 
 dary), the State contains 3 Indian reservations, and 
 part of another. The largest cities are Salt Lake 
 City (118,110), Ogden (32,804), Provo (10,303). 
 There are 441,901 whites, 1446 negroes, 2711 In¬ 
 dians, 342 Chinese, and 2936 Japanese. The 
 foreign-born whites numbered 56,455, and came 
 mostly from England, Sweden, Denmark, Germany, 
 Greece, and Italy. Of the total population of ten 
 years of age and over (331,530), there were 6264 
 illiterates (1.9%). The males outnumbered the 
 females (232,051 males; 217,345 females). 
 
 Economic Status. —Agriculture is on the increase 
 in Utah, the number of farms increasing from 21,667 
 in 1910 to 25,662, in 1920. The area of farm land 
 was 5,050,410 acres, of which 1,715,380 was improved 
 land. Of these farms, 22,218 (86.6%) were irrigated. 
 The new irrigation enterprises include 2,359,244 acres, 
 with an invested capital of about $33,000,000. A 
 large part of the irrigated land lies in the Great Salt 
 Lake drainage basin, the water supply coming 
 principally from streams draining the Wasatch and 
 Uintah Mountains and flowing into Utah Lake and 
 Great Salt Lake. 
 
 In 1919 the production and value of the leading 
 crops were: corn 265,361 bushels, valued at $517,456; 
 wheat 4,100.979 bushels, $9,022,154; oats 1,742,392 
 bushels, $2,069,269; barley 365,186 bushels, $620,814; 
 potatoes 1,648,400 bushels, $3,494,607; hay 1,031,- 
 609 bales, $24,759,397. In 1917 the State produced 
 gold valued at $3,355,156; the production of silver 
 amounted to 13,479,133 ounces; the lead production 
 in 1917 was 89,261 short tons, valued at $15,352,888; 
 in the same year the copper production was 246,- 
 674,153 pounds, valued at $67,342,044; the zinc 
 product was 10,643 short tons, valued at $2,171,261; 
 the coal production of the State has steadily increased, 
 amounting in 1918 to 5,136,825 tons, valued at 
 $5,405,715. In 1917 about 60,000 tons of salt were 
 produced. The State contained 7,430,084 acres of 
 State forest in 1917. The latest census of manufac¬ 
 tures (1919) gives 1160 manufacturing establishments, 
 23,107 persons engaged, earning a total of $27,135,- 
 482 for their services and turning out products worth 
 $156,933,071. The capital invested was $140,785,- 
 034. The principal industries ranked by the value of 
 products were: lead smelting, beet sugar, slaughtering 
 and meat packing. There are no navigable streams, 
 but good facilities for transportation. The railway 
 mileage is 2447; the electric railway mileage 448. 
 
UTRECHT 
 
 755 
 
 UTRECHT 
 
 The ten savings banks had deposits amounting to 
 §16,648,228 and 61,000 depositors. The State debt 
 in 1920 was $3,435,000; the assessed valuation of 
 property $675,000,000. 
 
 Education. —In 1920 the population of school age 
 numbered 159,339, of whom 116,385 (73%) attended 
 school. School attendance for 20 weeks annually 
 (10 consecutive), and in large cities for 30 weeks 
 (10 consecutive), is compulsory on children from 
 eight to sixteen years of age. In 1918 only six 
 States exceeded Utah in the percentage of population 
 enrolled in public schools, Utah’s percentage being 
 24.3 in comparison with Nevada’s 12.7%. In this 
 year the 642 public elementary schools had 3449 
 teachers and 110,193 enrolled pupils; 43 public high 
 schools with 471 teachers and 10,097 pupils. Ac¬ 
 cording to a late report of the United States Bureau 
 of Education, there are just 21 States which expend 
 more per capita of the school population than Utah. 
 The expenditure for educational purposes was $5, 
 536.554; the value of the school property, $12,865,451. 
 Bible reading in the public schools is neither permitted 
 nor excluded. The law governing private or parochial 
 schools is as follows: No public appropriation shall 
 be made in support of any school, seminary, academy, 
 college, or university, not controlled by the State 
 (X—13). In 1917 all public school houses were de¬ 
 clared to be public centers where citizens could meet 
 and discuss any subjects or questions relating to 
 educational, economic, artistic and other interests 
 of citizens. In 1919 it was voted that upon a majority 
 vote of taxpayers of any voting precinct having a 
 school population of not less than 1200, the county 
 school board can establish a standard high school, 
 but junior and senior years may not be established 
 until the need is determined by the State Board of 
 Education. Such a school may not be established 
 within twelve miles of an existing high school. Re¬ 
 turned soldiers and sailors were given instruction 
 in the Agricultural College and University without 
 charge of entrance fees. 
 
 Religion. —The Mormons are still the most 
 numerous of all religious denominations, having in 
 1916, 257,719 members out of all the church members 
 in the State. The Catholics at that time numbered 
 10,000. The value of the Mormon church property 
 was then $4,313,908. Divorce seems to be on the 
 increase in the State as is seen in the following statis¬ 
 tics: 225 divorces in 1896; 387 in 1906; 661 in 1916. 
 For further religious and educational statistics, see 
 Salt Lake City, Diocese of. 
 
 Recent History and Legislation. —In 1911 
 laws were passed to prevent the employment of 
 children under fourteen in such establishments as 
 breweries and mines; restrictions were also placed on 
 the employment of women. The selling or giving 
 away of tobacco in any form to minors was forbidden. 
 Provision was made for the employment of convict 
 labor for the construction of roads. In 1913 the 
 indeterminate sentence was granted to persons con¬ 
 victed of crime, and a measure provided for mothers’ 
 pensions. A general prohibition law was passed in 
 1917 and strengthened by amendments forbidding 
 the introduction of liquor into the State. In the 
 same year an industrial board was created and put 
 in charge of the Workmen’s Compensation law, also 
 
 passed by the same legislature. In 1915 a threatened 
 uprising among the Piute Indians was averted by the 
 prompt action of the United States government in 
 sending General Hugh L. Scott, chief of staff, to adjust 
 the difficulty. 
 
 The Federal prohibition amendment was ratified 
 on 15 January, 1919, the suffrage amendment, 30 
 September, 1919. There are now 64 members in the 
 State Legislature, 18 in the Senate and 46 in the 
 House. 
 
 During the European War, Utah contributed 17,- 
 362 soldiers (.46% of the United States Army). 
 The members of the national guard joined the 40th 
 Division at Camp Kearny, California; those of the 
 national army, the 91st Division at Camp Lewis, 
 Washington. The summary of the casualties of 
 Utah men in the American Expeditionary Force is as 
 follows: deceased, 7 officers, 295 men; prisoners, 7 
 men; wounded, 17 officers, 680 men. 
 
 Utrecht, Archdiocese of (Ultrajectensis; cf. 
 C. E., XV—245d), situated in the Netherlands. The 
 see is filled by Most Rev. Henri Van der Wetering, 
 born in Hoogland, in this diocese, in 1850, ordained in 
 1874, appointed titular Bishop of Gaza and coadjutor 
 to the archbishop 8 February, 1895, succeeding to the 
 see on 25 July following. On 1 May, 1900, he was 
 made an assistant at the pontifical throne, and on 26 
 August, 1920, he was named a Knight of the Grand 
 Cross of the Order of Orange-Nassau. The most 
 important developments in the archdiocese recently 
 have been the erection of new parishes, and its divi¬ 
 sion into 22 deaconates. During the World War the 
 clergy and laity carried on many charitable works 
 among the fugitives who came here from the warring 
 countries, and also gave assistance to sick and 
 wounded Germans and Austrians, who, in many 
 cases were received by Dutch families. The arch¬ 
 diocese comprises 318 parishes, 420 churches, 1 
 monastery for men and 3 for women, 10 convents of 
 women with 33 Sisters, 600 secular and 250 regular 
 clergy, 299 lay brothers, 6 major and 2 minor semi¬ 
 naries, having 79 professors and 266 seminarians, 2 
 universities, Utrecht and Groningen, where there is a 
 certain proportion of Catholics among both professors 
 and students, 5 colleges for boys with 55 teachers 
 and 655 students, 11 colleges for girls with 86 teachers 
 and 1765 students, 2 high schools with 18 teachers and 
 81 pupils, 5 normal schools with 94 teachers and 275 
 pupils, 3 disciplinarian schools with 9 teachers and 
 204 pupils, a number of academies, 278 elementary 
 schools wdth 1587 teachers and 49,520 pupils and 11 
 industrial schools with 40 teachers and 576 pupils. 
 The elementary and normal schools are salaried by 
 the government and their buildings are supported by 
 the municipal authorities; all other schools are partly 
 supported by the government. The various charitable 
 institutions include: 2 diocesan missionary organiza¬ 
 tions, 25 homes for the aged and destitute, 40 nursing 
 homes, 5 hospitals, 20 orphanages, 10 refuges, 5 day 
 nurseries, 150 charitable centers. Four associations 
 are formed among the clergy, 10 among the laity, 
 and 50 Catholic periodicals are published. In recent 
 years the archdiocese has lost three prominent clergy 
 by the deaths of Mgr. Theodore Roes, canon capitular 
 and dean, Mgr. Andreas Jansen, and Mgr. Brouwer, 
 vicar general. 
 
Vacz, Diocese of (Waitzen; Vaciensis; cf. C. 
 E., XV, 525), in Hungary, suffragan of Esztergom 
 (Gran), was founded by King Stephen in the year 
 1001. The name of the first bishop is unknown 
 but Clement II or III held the see in 1055. 
 The cathedral chapter, which was suppressed when 
 the Turks conquered Vacz, in 1542, was revived in 
 1700. The present bishop, Msgr. Stephen Arpad 
 Hanauer, succeeded Msgr. Count Charles Emmanuel 
 Csaky, who held office from 1900 until his death on 
 16 February, 1919. Msgr. Hanauer is the first 
 bishop in Hungary who has been nominated directly 
 by the Holy See without the intervention of the civil 
 authorities. He was born at Papa, in the Diocese of 
 Veszprem, on 26 December, 1869, ordained on 26 
 July, 1892, being subsequently spiritual director of 
 the Seminary of Budapest, and chancellor of the See 
 of Veszprem. As Bishop of Vacz he has the privilege 
 of the pallium. He has as his coadjutor Msgr. Charles 
 Gossman, b. on 1 January, 1870, at Soroksar, in the 
 Diocese of Vacz, ordained in 1894, and consecrated 
 titular Bishop of Castoria and auxiliary of Vacz on 5 
 October, 1913. 
 
 The late bishop Count Csaky displayed great en¬ 
 ergy in the government of his diocese. IJe erected 15 
 new parishes and founded a diocesan Altar Society 
 which provides the churches with altar linens and 
 equipment almost gratis. His life was characterized 
 by his devotion to the Blessed Sacrament and his 
 benefactions to the poor and at his death he left 
 everything to the Church. 
 
 The boundaries of the diocese have not been 
 changed in the recent upheaval, but it has been di¬ 
 vided by the diocesan synod of 1921 into 5 arch¬ 
 deaneries, and 25 vicariates or deaneries. There are 
 149 parishes, 14 missions; 187 churches; 7 religious 
 houses for men, 17 for Sisters; 349 priests, of whom 
 300 are seculars and 49 regulars; 15 Brothers; 1 sem¬ 
 inary, 5 professors, 76 students; 1 boys’ college, 3 
 girls’ colleges, 6 high schools, 60 teachers, 960 pupils, 
 of whom 360 are girls; 1 boys’ academy, 7 teachers, 
 34 pupils; many secondary and primary schools with 
 757 teachers and 72,560 pupils; 1 home for the aged; 
 5 orphanages; 2 day nurseries; 3 hospitals. The 
 Catholic population is 920,000. 
 
 The principal events of importance in the diocese 
 since 1912 have been the erection of 15 new churches 
 and the ordination of 54 priests. At the beginning 
 of November, 1918, a great revolution broke out in 
 Hungary and on 16 November the Socialists pro¬ 
 claimed a Hungarian Republic, which on 20 March, 
 1919, turned into a Bolshevist state; on 1 August, 
 1919, the Socialist republic was restored, and three 
 days later the more conservative element of the citi¬ 
 zens got control. Subsequently the governing body 
 has declared that Hungary is by law a limited mon¬ 
 archy, but owing to political conditions the sovereign 
 has not yet been able to assume power. During the 
 European War the faithful founded a number of hos¬ 
 pitals and established many charitable centres. Fol¬ 
 lowing the example of Mgr. Count Peter Vay, 
 prothonotary Apostolic, the Catholics throughout 
 Hungary combined to erect at Gyor an orphanage for 
 the children of soldiers who lost their lives in defense 
 
 V 
 
 of their country. At present it is supporting 100 of 
 their orphans. 
 
 Vadstena. See Bridgettines 
 
 Valleyfield, Diocese of (Campivallensis; cf. 
 C. E., XV—261a), in Canada, suffragan of Montreal 
 The present bishop is Rt. Rev. Joseph Medard Emard, 
 who has administered the diocese since 1892. On 23 
 May, 1917, he was made assistant at the pontifical 
 throne and 1 August, 1918, he was appointed Bishop 
 Ordinary of the Canadian Army. He took an active 
 part in the Eucharistic Congresses of London, Mont¬ 
 real and Malta. The Chapter of the Cathedral of 
 Valleyfield was erected by a Pontifical Bull of 12 
 December, 1919. In 1921 the diocese contained 57,- 
 045 Catholics of Canadian and Irish nationality, 41 
 parishes, 43 churches, 7 missions, 1 monastery for 
 men (Clerics of St. Viator), 1 for women (Poor Clares), 
 96 secular priests, 12 regulars, 30 Brothers, 280 Sisters, 
 1 seminary with 15 seminarians. The educational 
 institutions are 2 colleges for boys (70 teachers, 700 
 students), 20 convent schools for girls (280 teachers, 
 all Sisters), 5academies (17 teachers), 1 normal school 
 (10 professors, 90 students), 215 elementary schools 
 (300 teachers), 1 industrial school (2 teachers, 35 
 inmates). The following charitable institutions exist 
 in the diocese: 3 orphanages and homes for the aged, 
 1 hospital. 
 
 Vallombrosan Order (cf. C. E., XV—262b).— 
 This order is an ancient Benedictine Congregation 
 with the mother-house at Vallombrosa near Florence, 
 Italy. The 8 monasteries for men are S. Maria at 
 Vallambrosa, S. Trinita at Florence, S. Michele 
 at Passignano, S. Maria di Montenero at Leghorn, S. 
 Giuseppe di Pescia at Lucca, La Badia Fiorentina at 
 Florence, S. Prassede at Rome, and S. Maria de 
 Galloro at Rome. The monasteries for women are 
 Spirito Santo a Varlungo at Florence, S. Girolamo a 
 S. Gimignano at Siena and S. Umilta di Faenza to 
 which is attached a boarding place for Florentine 
 ladies. The complete number of persons in the order 
 is 173. After the promulgation of the Code of Canon 
 Law, the order published its new constitution, which 
 was approved by Pope Benedict XV, 28 May, 1921. 
 The present abbot general of the order is Dom Fedele 
 Tarani, elected in May, 1920. The order publishes a 
 monthly periodical “II Faggio Vallombrosano.” 
 
 Valva and Sulmona, Diocese of (Valvensis 
 et Stjlmonensis; cf. C. E., XV—264c), in Italy, 
 directly under the jurisdiction of the Holy See. The 
 present administrator is the Rt. Rev. Nicola Iezzoni, 
 b. 1 May, 1860, elected 6 December, 1906. According 
 to the statistics of 1920 the diocese contained 150,000 
 Catholics, 58 parishes, 244 churches and chapels, 142 
 secular priests, 48 regulars, 50 seminarians, 20 Broth¬ 
 ers and 30 Sisters. In February, 1913, occurred the 
 death of the celebrated archaeologist and writer, Rev. 
 Giuseppe Celidonio. During the war many of the 
 priests of the diocese enlisted in the army. 
 
 Vannes, Diocese of (Venetensis; cf. C. E., 
 XV—271b), in France, suffragan of Rennes. The 
 bishop, Rt. Rev. Alcime-Armand Gouraud, b. at 
 
 756 
 
VANNUTELLI 
 
 757 
 
 VERAPOLY 
 
 Vieillevigne, France, 13 April, 1856, ordained 29 
 June, 1880, elected 21 February, 1906, consecrated 
 25 February following. In 1921 the diocese numbered 
 500,000 French Catholics, 285 parishes, 300 churches, 
 
 2 monasteries for men, 3 for women, 2 abbeys for 
 men, 2 for women, 220 convents for women with more 
 than 3000 Sisters, 888 secular and 130 regular priests, 
 
 5 seminaries with 400 seminarians including some stu¬ 
 dents at the preparatory seminary. The educational 
 institutions are: 3 high schools for boys (100 teachers 
 and 1200 pupils) 3 for girls, 1 normal school (6 teachers 
 40 students), 3 training schools, (100 teachers and 
 42,600 pupils). The schools are not supported by the 
 government. The following institutions exist in the 
 diocese: 1 house of retreats, 35 asylums, 12 hospitals, 
 
 6 day nurseries. Four Catholic periodicals are pub¬ 
 lished in the diocese Numerous organizations and 
 societies exist among the clergy and laity. During 
 the war many priests joined the army, ten of whom 
 received the medal of the Legion of Honor. 
 
 Vannutelli, Serafino, Cardinal, Bishop of Ostia 
 and Porto, Dean of the Sacred College, b. at Gennaz- 
 zano, Italy, 26 November, 1834; d. at Rome, 19 
 August, 1915. He belonged to a noble family most 
 conspicuous at Genazzano in the Diocese of Pales¬ 
 trina . He studied at the Capranica, and was ordained 
 priest at Rome on 23 December, 1860, by Cardinal 
 Patrizi; he taught canon law at the Roman Seminary 
 and theology at the Seminary of the Vatican. He was 
 auditor at the Pontifical Nunciature in Mexico and 
 Munich, and subsequently was delegate Apostolic to 
 Ecuador, Colombia, Peru and Central America. He 
 became archbishop of Nicaea in 1869 at the age of 
 thirty-five. In 1865, he was papal nuncio at Brussels 
 and remained there until the break with the Vatican 
 in 1879. He then went to Vienna in the same capacity 
 in spite of the apparent failure at Brussels, and re¬ 
 mained there seven years. In 1887 was raised to the 
 cardinalate and in 1893 was named Archbishop of 
 Bologna, but by a system of rotation elected to be 
 Bishop of Frascati, afterwards becoming Secretary of 
 Briefs and Prefect of the Congregation of Bishops and 
 Regulars and in spite of his advanced age Grand 
 Penitentiary in 1899. When he offered his resignation, 
 as he was suffering from catarast, Pope Leo XIII 
 refused to accept it. Again the system of official 
 option brought him from the See of Frascati to that 
 of Porto. Notwithstanding the honors lavished on him, 
 he was remarkable for his great modesty; his unflinch¬ 
 ing toil in every one of the posts to which he was 
 assigned and his tender piety. He was one of the 
 great figures of the Sacred College. 
 
 Vedruna de Mas, Joaquina de, religious found¬ 
 ress, b. at Santa Marla del Pino, Spain, 16 April, 
 1783; d. at Barcelona on 28 August, 1854; daughter 
 of Lawrence and Teresa (Vidal) de Vedruna. At an 
 early age she desired to enter the Carmelites, but by 
 the advice of her parents and her confessor, she 
 remained in the world, marrying Teodoro de Mas. 
 Their union was blessed with many children; two of 
 their daughters became nuns. Her husband died in 
 1816, and Joaquina devoted herself to the education 
 and training of her children, and to the care of the 
 sick in a nearby hospital. Her old desire of con¬ 
 secrating herself to God grew strong again and on 
 6 January, 1826, when her children no longer required 
 her attention, she made the three vows of religion 
 with her bishop’s approval. Some weeks later she 
 founded the congregation of the Carmelite Sisters of 
 Charity, whose mission was to protect poor girls, 
 provide for those who had not a sufficient dowry to 
 enter religion, and to nurse the sick poor. During 
 the Spanish civil war, she and her companions were 
 forced to take refuge at Perpignan in France; they 
 
 returned subsequently and the congregation developed 
 rapidly. It was confirmed by the Holy See in 1890, 
 and today it counts over 200 houses with more than 
 1700 sisters. In 1881, the remains of the holy found¬ 
 ress were translated from Barcelona to Vich, where 
 they were interred in the chapel of St. Raphael in 
 the garden of the mother-house of the institute. The 
 renown of her sanctity as a maiden, as a mother, 
 and as a religious has continued to grow and on 14 
 January, 1920, the cause of her canonization was 
 introduced at Rome. 
 
 Veglia, Diocese of. See Krk 
 
 Venosa, Diocese of (Venusinensis; cf. C. E., 
 XV—342d), in Southern Italy, suffragan of Acerenza. 
 The present bishop is the Rt. Rev. Angelo Petrelli, 
 b. at Arnesano, Italy, 13 June, 1863, elected 20 May, 
 1913, consecrated 24 August, following, published 
 25 May, 1914. In 1921 the diocese contained: 40 
 secular priests, 5 regulars, 1 convent for men, 26 
 sisters, 1 seminary with 20 seminarians. The 
 following institutions exist in the diocese: 2 homes for 
 destitute children, 4 industrial schools for girls, 2 
 hospitals. Many priests served in the army during 
 the War, two as chaplains, one of whom was formally 
 praised for his services by the Chaplain-in-Chief. 
 One priest who was an officer was killed fighting. 
 
 Ventimiglia, Diocese of (Ventimiliensis; cf. 
 C. E., XV—343a), in Northern Italy, suffragan of 
 Genoa. The present bishop is the Rt. Rev. Am- 
 brogio Daffra, b. at Canneto, Italy, 11 January, 
 1841, ordained 7 December, 1864, elected 11 July, 
 1892, made assistant to v,ne pontifical throne, 27 
 February, 1904. In 1921 the diocese contained 
 104,000 inhabitants, 75 parishes, 210 secular and 
 regular priests, 12 houses of various religious orders 
 for men, 60 convents for women, 4 educational 
 institutions for boys, 15 for girls. Eleven religious 
 periodicals are published in the diocese. 
 
 Vera Cruz, Diocese of (Ver^e Crucis or Jala- 
 pensis; cf. C. E., VI—344d), in the Mexican Re¬ 
 public, suffragan of the Archbishopric of Mexico. 
 The present incumbent is the Rt. Rev. Raphael 
 Guizar Valencia, b. at Zamora, Spain, elected 1 
 August, 1919. He succeeded the Rt. Rev. Joachim 
 Arcade Pagazza, who died in August, 1919. In 
 1821 the diocese contained 62 parishes, 320 churches, 
 3 convents for women with,47 sisters, 95 secular priests, 
 
 1 seminary and 27 seminarians. The educational 
 institutions are: 8 colleges for men (29 teachers, 800 
 students), 7 colleges for women (2000 students), 
 
 2 normal schools and 4 training schools. 
 
 Verapoly, Archdiocese of (Verapolitana; cf. 
 C. E., XV—345b), on the Malabar coast, India, 
 includes now only Christians of the Latin Rite. These 
 latter form a Catholic population of 98,467 having 50 
 parishes, 68 churches and chapels, 18 missions, 18 
 stations, 1 monastery for men, 2 convents for men, 
 11 regular priests and 5 novices, 37 secular priests, 
 9 lay brothers, 33 Carmelite nuns and 9 novices in 
 5 convents, 2 native Brothers of St. Teresa and 24 
 catechists, 2 seminaries (upper and lower), 2 high 
 schools with 62 teachers and an attendance of 1130 
 boys and 447 girls, 115 elementary schools with an 
 attendance of 6359 boys and 4336' girls, 5 convent 
 schools with 1072 girls, 4 orphanages with 10 boys 
 and 156 girls, 1 hospital with 139 in-patients and 
 13,001 out-patients. All schools receive government 
 aid except the seminaries. The Priests’ Mutual Help 
 Association exists among the clergy, and among the 
 laity there are reading-rooms, literary associations, 
 and the Catholic Association of the Archdiocese of 
 Verapoly. Several Catholic periodicals are published. 
 
VERDUN 
 
 758 
 
 VERMONT 
 
 The archdiocese is confided to the Discalced Car¬ 
 melites. The present administrator is the Most Rev. 
 Angel Marla Perez y Cecilia, O. C. D., at Burgos, 
 Spain, 10 February, 1872, ordained 10 June, 1895, 
 elected titular Archbishop of Achrida and coadjutor 
 of Verapoly 18 June, 1915, consecrated 28 October 
 following. He succeeded Rt. Rev. Bernard Arguin- 
 zonis, who resigned. In 1920 there were 824 conver¬ 
 sions. 
 
 Verdun, Diocese of (Virodunensis), in France, 
 suffragan of Besangon. From September, 1914, to 
 November, 1918, more than 200 parishes were oc¬ 
 cupied by the enemy and communication with the 
 bishop of Verdun was practically cut off. The Holy 
 See confided the administration to the bishop of 
 Namur. At the beginning of the battle of Verdun the 
 bishop and the diocesan administration left the 
 episcopal city which was being bombarded and burned 
 by the Germans and took refuge at Bar-le-Duc in the 
 southern part of the diocese. They did not return to 
 Verdun until 1921. The seminary was successively 
 moved to Nancy, to Paris and then to Bar-le-Duc, 
 and has not yet been re-established at Verdun. The 
 preparatory seminary, established at Bar-le-Duc was 
 burned in 1917. During the war about 186 priests 
 joined the army; of these 13 were killed, 20 more or 
 less seriously wounded, and 50 prisoners in Germany. 
 One hundred and sixty citations and diplomas of 
 honor and 120 decorations were awarded to the priests 
 of the diocese. Owing to the war the number of 
 priests in the diocese has decreased from 550 in 1914 
 to 443 in 1921 and the population which, with the 
 exception of a small number of Protestants and Jews, 
 is entirely Catholic, has decreased from 242,557 
 inhabitants in 1911 to 190,001 in 1921. Out of 572 
 churches, 253 remained intact, 153 were destroyed 
 and 166 were damaged Only a small portion of the 
 much damaged cathedral has been restored. Nine¬ 
 teen of the 28 deaneries have been destroyed. 131 of 
 the rectories have been completely ruined and 86 are 
 capable of repair. The war also destroyed several 
 boarding schools and 3 hospitals. It hastened the 
 dispersion of the religious communities, only one of 
 which still remains in Verdun. According to the 
 statistics of 1921 the diocese contains: 30 first class 
 parishes, 444 succursal parishes, 74 parochial chapels, 
 443 secular priests, 2 seminaries, 83 seminarians, 
 1 college for boys (15 teachers, 145 students), 8 
 elementary schools for boys, 1 agricultural school 
 (2 teachers, 20 pupils), 7 boarding schools and schools 
 for girls, 13 hospitals in charge of sisters, 3 houses of 
 nursing sisters and 1 orphanage. The following 
 public institutions admit the ministry of priests: 
 1 lyceum, 2 colleges, 1 lunatic asylum and 4 prisons. 
 Two periodicals, several parochial bulletins and pious 
 pamphlets are published in the diocese. Organiza¬ 
 tions among the priests are: Associations des Pretres 
 Adorateurs, Aid Association for aged and infirm 
 priests, Association for the Defense of the Clergy, 
 Association of prayer for living and deceased priests. 
 Numerous religious and social organizations exist 
 among the laity. 
 
 Verena, Saint, virgin of the third and fourth cen¬ 
 turies, left by her parents at their death, in the care 
 of the Theban bishop, Chaeremon. Upon his martyr¬ 
 dom, she accompanied her kinsman ? Victor, of the 
 Theban Legion, to Milan, where she lived in the home 
 of one Maximus and attended the persecuted and 
 imprisoned Christians. On learning of the martyr¬ 
 dom of Victor at Agaunum with Saint Maurice and 
 the whole Theban Legion about A.D. 286, Verena 
 set out to pray at his grave on the Rhone, and finally 
 settled in solitary residence among the Alemanni to 
 the north, near what is now the city of Solothurn in 
 
 Switzerland, doing good and instructing the heathen 
 women of the mountains in the Christian Faith. 
 The Roman governor imprisoned her because of her 
 refusal to sacrifice to the gods, but on being taken 
 sick and learning that Verena prayed for his recovery, 
 he released her. The Roman Martyrology gives 
 her feast on 1 September and she is especially venerat¬ 
 ed in the territory of the ancient Diocese of Con¬ 
 stance, which included the whole Alemanni people, 
 and for centuries was the largest and most important 
 Diocese of Germany. An ancient tiny mountain 
 chapel covers the rugged spot where Verena lived. 
 
 In recent years, interest in St. Verena has developed 
 in America on account of the increasing use of her 
 name for girls, especially in the Middle West, and 
 because of the more frequent use of the name in 
 religious orders of women. 
 
 Vincent Henry Huck. 
 
 Vermont ( c f. C. E., XV—354b).—The area of the 
 State of Vermont is 9564 square miles. In 1920 
 the total population was 352,428, a decrease of 1 
 per cent, since 1910. Of this, 31.2% was urban; 
 68.8 was rural. The average number of inhabitants 
 to the square mile is 38.6, as against 39 in 1910. 
 Vermont has seven cities only three of which exceed 
 10,000, Burlington 22,779; Rutland 14,954; Barre 
 10,008. Of the whites in Vermont, the natives 
 numbered 307,291, of whom 228,325 were of native 
 parentage, 42,100 of* foreign parentage, 36,866 of 
 mixed parentage. The foreign-born whites (44,526) 
 came chiefly from Canada (French 14,181; others 
 10,687), Italy 4067; Ireland 2884; England 2197. 
 There are 572 negroes. The population of ten years 
 of age and over included 8488 illiterates (3%). 
 
 Economic Status. —Manufacturing.—The sum¬ 
 mary of manufactures issued by the United States 
 Census Bureau for 1919 reveals 1790 establishments, 
 employing 38,845 persons, earning a total wage of 
 $41,429,114, and turning out products worth $168,- 
 108,072. The capital invested was $134,314,391. 
 The principal industries ranked by the value of their 
 products were marble and stone work, woolen and 
 worsted goods, paper and wood pulp, butter, machine 
 tools, lumber and timber products. 
 
 Agriculture. —In 1919 the value of the agricul¬ 
 tural output of the State, comprising corn, wheat, 
 rye, oats, buckwheat, potatoes, and tobacco, aggre¬ 
 gated $47,999,600, an increase of 102% since 1909. 
 Vermont leads all the other States of the Union in the 
 number of pounds of butter per capita, pounds of 
 butter per farm, pounds of butter per cow, and in 
 ratio of dairy cows to population. In 1920 Vermont 
 had 435,480 cattle on farms, or nearly one third of 
 all the cattle in New England. The value of the 
 live stock was $42,385,331; of the dairy products, 
 $27,207,813. The State had in the same year 
 29,075 farms (a decrease of 3634 since 1910), valued 
 at $222,736,620. The marble quarries yield half of 
 the marble produced in the United States. Talc 
 and granite are also mined. The railway mileage in 
 1919 was 1080; the electric railways in the State I 
 covered a total of 102 miles. In 1920 the assessed 
 value of real property was $187,364,577, of personal 
 property, $74,736,570. One of the most important 
 industrial developments of 1911 was the building of 
 a railroad to the asbestos region in the northern part 
 of the State, which contains one of the most extensive 
 asbestos deposits in the United States. At the same 
 time, there was a movement for the development of 
 an international water route by the construction of 
 canals between Lake Champlain and the Hudson 
 River on one hand, and the St Lawrence River on the 
 other, surveys being taken for the deepening of the 
 shallows in the north end of Lake Champlain. 
 
 Religion. —The latest United States Census of 
 
VIATICUM 
 
 759 
 
 VICAR 
 
 Religious Denominations (1916) gives the following 
 statistics: Congregationalists 22,912 members, 212 
 churches, 144 ministers; Baptists 9797 members, 112 
 churches, 88 ministers; Episcopalians 600 members, 
 64 churches, 36 ministers; Free Baptists 213 mem¬ 
 bers, 6 churches; Adventists 1439 members, 9 
 churches, 21 ministers. For Catholic statistics see 
 Burlington, Diocese of. 
 
 Education. —In 1920 the population of school 
 age numbered 100,842, of whom 67,746 (67.2 per 
 cent.) attended school. There were 16 academies with 
 a total attendance of 1771 students and 78 high 
 schools, which in 1918 had 9237 students, 2403 
 public schools with 2975 teachers. In 1920 Middle- 
 bury College had 33 professors and instructors and 
 447" students; Norwich University, 29 instructors 
 and 250 students; St. Michael’s College, 14 pro¬ 
 fessors and 137 students; the State Agricultural 
 College (est. 1911) 105 students (1918). In 1918 
 the University of Vermont had 599 students, 50 on 
 the collegiate department teaching staff, 43 in the 
 professional department, 64 in the engineering 
 department. In 1920 it had 118 instructors and 930 
 enrolled students. There are 21 Catholic parochial 
 schools with 229 teachers and 7743 pupils. The 
 summary of school expenditures given by the United 
 States Bureau of Education for 1917-18 is as follows: 
 teachers’ salaries, 81,390,647; total current expenses, 
 82,365,097; expended for outlays, state, 8171,682; 
 city, 8411,680. The value of the school property 
 in the same year is given as 85,123,186. State 
 supervision of education is exercised through a 
 Commissioner elected by the Board of Education. 
 In 1919 a teachers’ retirement system was estab¬ 
 lished. Bible reading in the public schools is neither 
 permitted nor excluded. 
 
 Recent Legislation and History. —In 1911 the 
 office of Commissioner of Weights and Measures was 
 created; provision was also made for the punishment 
 of murder in the first degree, giving the jury the 
 right to fix the penalty either at death or imprison¬ 
 ment for life. Child labor was regulated, and the 
 prevention of the white slave traffic provided for. 
 In 1913 a Board of Conciliation and Arbitration for 
 the adjustment of local disputes was created. Electro¬ 
 cution was substituted for hanging as a form of 
 capital punishment. In the same year the State 
 constitution was amended as follows: Every Bill 
 passed by the Vermont Legislature must be sub¬ 
 mitted to the governor for his approval. In case of 
 its veto, if two-thirds of each house approve of it 
 again, it becomes laAV. No person was to be declared 
 guilty of felony or treason by the legislature. No 
 charter of incorporation shall be granted by special 
 law except for municipal, charitable, educational, 
 penal or reformatory corporations > but the General 
 Assembly must provide general laws for the organiza¬ 
 tion of corporations. The time of meeting of the 
 General Assembly is changed from October to 
 January; the time of their election from September 
 to November. In 1915 an Act was passed providing 
 for eugenic marriages. A workingmen’s compensa¬ 
 tion law Avas also passed. The establishment of 
 county tuberculosis hospitals has been authorized. 
 There Avas an attempt in 1917 to nullify the effects 
 of the local option liquor laAV passed in 1903, but the 
 people rejected the Prohibition Act submitted to them 
 and the local option law stood. The Federal prohibi¬ 
 tion amendment was ratified on 29 January, 1919. 
 In the same year provision was made for the com¬ 
 mitment of Avomen between the ages of 21 and 45 to 
 the State School of Feeble-Minded, and the com¬ 
 mitment of dependent children to the Vermont 
 Industrial School was prohibited. 
 
 When trouble Avith Mexico broke out in 1916, the 
 First Regiment of the Vermont National Guard 
 
 immediateljr mobilized and was one of the first to 
 reach the border. It was officially reported as “the 
 best National Guard Regiment in equipment and 
 general efficiency” on the border. In 1917 the same 
 regiment, though Avith a somewhat changed personnel, 
 was drafted into Federal service, and thereby ceased 
 to be the National Guard. At this time the regiment 
 mustered 55 officers and over 2000 men and soon 
 became the 157th Pioneer Infantry in the famous 
 26th or “Yankee” Division. The regiment won the 
 highest commendation for its fighting qualities and 
 general morale. Other Vermonters were also on 
 active duty abroad with the United States, English, 
 and French regiments. The summary of casualties 
 among the Vermont members of the Expeditionary 
 Force is as follows: deceased, 13 officers, 287 men; 
 prisoners, 2 officers, 21 men; wounded, 17 officers, 
 680 men. 
 
 Viaticum (cf. C. E., XV—397b).—If a person has 
 received Holy Communion and later, on the same 
 day, falls into danger of death he is to be urged 
 strongly to receive the Holy Eucharist again, as 
 Viaticum; it is both laAvful and fitting for him while 
 he remains in danger of death to receive the Holy 
 Viaticum several times on different days with his 
 confessor’s approval. It should be given to the 
 faithful according to their own Rite, but in case of 
 necessity any Rite is permissible. 
 
 Viatorians. See Saint Viator, Clerics of 
 
 Vicar (cf. C. E., XV—401a).—There are 
 five classes of parochial vicars or priests who act for a 
 parish priest in the cure of souls, namely, the per¬ 
 petual vicar, the vicar ccconomus, the vicar sub¬ 
 stitute, the vicar assistant and the vicar co-operator. 
 When a parish has been fully (plena jure) united to a 
 religious house, a capitular church or other moral 
 person, a perpetual vicar should be appointed for the 
 actual cure of souls, and should receive suitable 
 compensation. Except when there is a legitimate 
 privilege or custom to the contrary, he should be 
 presented by the religious superior, the chapter, or 
 the moral person as the case calls for, and be in¬ 
 stituted by the local ordinary if found fitted by him. 
 Whether he is a secular or religious his rights and 
 duties while holding office are the same as those of a 
 parish priest, and he can be removed only under like 
 conditions 
 
 As soon as a parish becomes vacant, a vicar cecoro- 
 mus should be appointed by the local ordinary with 
 a suitable salary. Before His appointment, the gov¬ 
 ernment of the parish, if no other provision has been 
 made, is to be taken over by the vicar co-operator, or 
 if there are several, by the one ay ho has held office 
 longest; if there is no vicar, one of the neighborii g 
 parish priests takes charge, the ordinary having de¬ 
 cided beforehand which of them should do so; if the 
 parish is under the care of a religious, his local 
 superior should act. Those who are thus empoAvered 
 to take charge must notify the local ordirary as soon 
 as the vacancy occurs. A vicar ccconomus has the 
 same rights and duties as a parish priest in the cure 
 of souls, but he may not act to the detriment of the 
 rights of the parish priest or of the parochial benefice. 
 On the termination of his office an ccconomus must, 
 in presence of the vica-forane or other priest named 
 by the ordinary, hand over to the neAV parish priest 
 or to a succeeding ccconomus the key of the archives 
 and an inventory of the books, documents and other 
 things belonging to the parish, and must give an 
 accounting of the receipts and expenses during his 
 administration. 
 
 A vicar substitute is to be appointed by a parish 
 priest with the consent of the local ordinary or, if 
 necessary, of the religious superior, when the parish 
 
VICAR APOSTOLIC 
 
 760 
 
 VICTORIA 
 
 priest is to be away from his parish for more than a 
 week, or by the ordinary or superior, in case the 
 parish priest is appealing to the Holy See against 
 being deprived of his benefice. He has all the rights 
 and duties of a parish priest in the cure of souls, unless 
 the local ordinary or the parish priest has curtailed 
 them. A vicar substitute elected in case of urgent 
 necessity without the ordinary’s approbation can 
 validly and licitly assist at marriages ( Nouv. Revue 
 theol. 1921, p. 200). 
 
 A vicar assistant is to be given by the local ordinary 
 to a parish priest who through old age, lack of skill, 
 blindness, or other permanent cause, is unable to 
 fulfil his duties properly, He should be granted a 
 suitable salary. If he fills the parish priest’s place in 
 everything, he has all his rights and duties, save the 
 obligation of applying Mass for the people; otherwise 
 his rights and duties are as laid down in his letter of 
 appointment. If the parish priest is mentally com¬ 
 petent, the assistant is to work under his directions 
 in accordance with the instructions contained in 
 the ordinary’s letter. 
 
 Vicar co-operators are usually known in English- 
 speaking countries as curates (q. v.). Vicars 
 
 ceconomus, substitute, or assistant can be removed at 
 will by the bishop, or vicar capitular, but not by the 
 vicar general without special authorization. If they 
 are religious they may be similarly removed but 
 notice should be given to their superior, who is also 
 empowered to remove them. 
 
 Vermeersch-Creusen, Epit. jur. can., 419-430. 
 
 Vicar Apostolic. See Prefect Apostolic 
 
 Vicar Capitular, (cf. C. E., XV—401d).—When 
 an episcopal vacancy occurs, ordy one vicar capitular 
 can be chosen by the chapter, otherwise the election 
 would be invalid, any custom to the contrary being 
 reprobated; this had long been a disputed point 
 among canonists. The candidate must be chosen by 
 an absolute majority of the valid votes cast; he must 
 be a priest, at least thirty years old, and must not have 
 been elected, nominated or presented to the vacant 
 see, otherwise his selection would be invalid, and the 
 metropolitan, or, if he is dead, the senior suffragan 
 bishop on learning the facts would have to appoint 
 the vicar for that occasion. His election requires 
 no confirmation; he obtains ordinary episcopal juris¬ 
 diction in spiritual and temporal matters from the 
 moment he makes his profession of faith, and is bound 
 by the law of residence. He must apply Mass for 
 the people, like a bishop; and receives a salary the 
 amount of which is fixed by a provincial council or 
 custom. If he is a bishop he enjoys the honorary 
 privileges of a titular bishop, otherwise he has only 
 those of a titular apostolic prothonotary. If he is 
 elected or nominated to the bishopric he can retain 
 his office until he takes canonical possession of his 
 see as bishop. 
 
 Vermeersch-Creusen, Epit. jur. can., 383-391. 
 
 Vicar General (cf. C. E., XV—402c).—A vicar 
 general must be a secular priest less than thirty years 
 old; formerly the minimum age was twenty-five; 
 neither is it requisite that he should be of legitimate 
 birth. If a diocese if confided to the care of regulars, 
 the vicar general may be selected from among the 
 members of the same order. A vicar general may be 
 appointed by a residential bishop or an abbot or 
 prelate nullius, but not by a vicar or prefect apostolic. 
 The latter, however, in virtue of a concession of 
 Benedict XV (6 Nov., 1919) may, if it is necessary, 
 appoint vicars delegate, who have practically the 
 same powers and duties as a vicar general (Acta 
 Apos. Sedis, 1920, p. 120). The office of vicar gen¬ 
 eral is not to be conferred on the canon penitentiary 
 or a relative of the bishop, especially in the first degree 
 
 or the second combined with the first, or except in 
 case of necessity, on a parish priest or other cleric 
 having the cure of souls. Vicars general now rank 
 as local ordinaries; they possess ordinary episcopal 
 jurisdiction throughout the diocese in virtue of their 
 office, except in matters which the bishop has re¬ 
 served to himself or for which the law requires a 
 special episcopal mandate. 
 
 Under the Code this mandate is needed to excar- 
 dinate or incardinate clerics, provide for ecclesiastical 
 offices, convoke diocesan synods, nominate or in¬ 
 stitute parish priests, remove parochial vicars, erect 
 pious associations, reserve sics, grant dimissorial 
 letters, authorize marriages of conscience, consecrate 
 places, authorize the erection of a church, declare 
 relics authentic or permit the sale of sacred relics 
 when the proof of their authenticity has perished, 
 fix the honorarium to be paid to poor churches by 
 those celebrating Mass there, erect, unite or collate 
 benefices, grant canonical institution or authorise a 
 change of benefice, inflict ecclesiastical penalties or 
 remit a penalty imposed by a vicar general as judge, 
 or absolve excommunicated apostates, heretics, or 
 schismatics, after their offence has been brought to the 
 external forum of the local ordinary. Authorities 
 differ as to the nature of the power a vicar general 
 receives with a special mandate; Stutz and Maroto 
 call it ordinary; Nicolas considers it delegated; 
 Vermeersch-Creusen consider it ordinary when the 
 mandate is granted in collating the vicarship or in 
 the general formula of institution, but delegated when 
 granted separately: Kinane says the power is not 
 merely delegated, but is of the same nature as that 
 acquired by the general mandate, and consequently 
 follows the same rules in regard to delegation. 
 
 A vicar general has the right of precedence, both 
 in public and private, over all the other diocesan 
 clergy, not excluding the cathedral dignitaries and 
 canons, even in choir and in capitular sessions, unless 
 where a cleric has received episcopal consecration 
 and the vicar general has not; the vicar during his 
 term of office has a right to the privileges and insignia 
 of a titular prothonotary apostolic, and, if he is a 
 bishop, to the honorary privileges of a titular bishop. 
 
 Vermeersch-Creusen, Epit. jur. can., 343-51: Kinane in 
 Irish Eccl. Rec., XVI (1920), 507. 
 
 ^ Vich, Diocese of (Vicensis, Ausonensis; cf. 
 C.E.,XV—405d), in Spain, suffragan of Tarragona. 
 The present bishop is the Rt. Rev. Francisco Munoz 
 y Izquierdo, b. at Burjasot, 28 April, 1868, ordained 
 in 1862, elected 5 May, 1916, consecrated 15 Oct., 
 published 4 Dec. following. He succeeded the Rt. 
 Rev. Jos6 Torras y Bages who died 7 Feb., 1916. 
 A congress of the Marian Congregations of Cataluna 
 and the Balearic Islands was held at Vich, 1 May, 
 1921. The following distinguished clergymen have 
 died since 1912: Rt. Rev. Jose Torras y Bages, 
 Bishop of Vich, a learned and cultured scholar who 
 was honored by Pius X and Benedict XV, died 7 
 Feb., 1916; Very Rev. Juan Collell y Cuatrecasas, 
 founder of the Congregation of the Little Servants 
 of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, died Oct., 1921. In 
 1921 the diocese contained: 280 parishes, 580 
 churches, 21 convents for men, 97 for women with 
 573 Sisters, 823 secular priests, 151 regulars, 1 semi¬ 
 nary with 370 seminarians. The educational insti¬ 
 tutions are: 200 schools for boys (220 teachers); 250 
 schools for girls (270 teachers); 4 high schools (18 
 teachers); 1 training school (6 teachers, 25 students). 
 There are also in the diocese 6 asylums, 10 hospitals, 
 
 4 settlement houses. Numerous periodicals are pub¬ 
 lished in the diocese. 
 
 Victoria, Diocese of (Victoriensis in ins. 
 Vancouver; cf. C. E., Xy— 412c), in British 
 Columbia. The present administrator is the Rt. 
 
VICTORIA NYANZA 
 
 761 
 
 VIRGINIA 
 
 Rev. Alexander MacDonald, b. at Malbou, Canada, 
 18 February, 1858, ordained 8 March, 1884, elected 
 1 October, 1908, consecrated 3 January, 1909. In 
 1921 the diocese contained 12 parishes, 27 churches, 
 21 stations, 4 convents for men, 8 for women with 
 109 sisters, 13 secular priests, 9 regulars, 2 semina¬ 
 rians, 2 industrial schools, 2 hospitals. One Catholic 
 periodical is published in the diocese. 
 
 Victoria Nyanza, Vicariate Apostolic of (cf. 
 C.E., XV—413), in Africa. In 1911 Rwanda was 
 separated from the vicariate of Southern Nyanza and 
 in August, 1915, its name was changed to Victoria 
 Nyanza. The present vicar is Rt. Rev. Joseph 
 Sweens of the White Fathers, who succeeded Rt. 
 Rev. John Joseph Hirth 12 December, 1912. In 
 July, 1921 the vicariate apostolic contained 19,000 
 Catholics, 27,000 catechumens, 25 churches, 14 
 stations, 4 convents for women with 23 Sisters, 6 
 native secular priests, 36 regulars, 6 Brothers, 2 
 seminaries, 85 seminarians, 270 elementary schools 
 (300 teachers, 18,000 pupils), 14 industrial schools 
 (14 teachers, 80 inmates) and 14 hospitals. Owing 
 to the hardships of the climate the following zealous 
 missionaries have died since 1914: Revs. Joseph 
 Fimbel, Leon Ulrich, Herman Tongerius; also, 
 Sisters Ludwina, Roberta, and G. van der Sanden. 
 
 Victoria Nyanza, Northern, Vicariate Apos¬ 
 tolic of. See Uganda 
 
 Vacant he produced his “Dictionnaire de la Bible” 
 (Letouzey et An6; Paris, 1895-1913). This monu¬ 
 mental work fills five quarto volumes numbered in 
 10,926 columns. It is not controversial, though it 
 refutes error by exposition; it treats in separate articles 
 of each book of scripture, each name of person or 
 place, and the entire field of biblical archaeology, 
 the exegesis being based on the Fathers, the standard 
 Catholic Scripturists, and the ascertained results of 
 modern sciences. In addition to this work, Vigouroux 
 is the author of “Le Manuel des sciences bibliques” 
 (in collaboration with his brother-Sulpician Bacuez), 
 which has run through over a dozen editions and has 
 been translated into Italian, Spanish, and Russian; 
 “La Bible et les decouvertes modernes en Palestine, 
 en Egypte, et en Assyrie” has been reprinted six times; 
 “Les livres saints et al critique rationaliste,” a 
 refutation of the objections of unbelievers against the 
 Bible, in five volumes, ran through five editions; 
 his “Bible polyglotte” in 8 volumes, with the Hebrew, 
 Greek, Vulgate Latin and French (Glaire) versions 
 is a popular rather than an erudite compilation. In 
 1903 Leo XIII, who held him in high esteem, ap¬ 
 pointed Vigouroux consultor of the newly-established 
 Biblical Commission, a guarantee of the orthdoxy 
 of his exegetical opinions. In addition to his rep¬ 
 utation as a scholar, it may be noted that Vigouroux 
 was highly esteemed at both Rome and Paris as a 
 director of souls. 
 
 Vienna, Archdiocese of (Vindobon; cf. C. 
 E., XV—409b), in Austria. The present adminis¬ 
 trator is His Eminence Cardinal Frederick Gustave 
 Piffl. He was b. at Koniggratz, 15 October, 1864, 
 entered the Order of the Canons Regular of St. 
 Augustine, elected Archbishop of Vienna, 2 May, 
 1913, consecrated 1 June, created cardinal priest 25 
 May, 1914. In 1921 the archdiocese contained 
 2,596,212 Catholics, all German except a small 
 number of Czechoslovakians, 533 parishes, 1089 
 churches, 68 monasteries for men, 266 convents for 
 women, 3 abbeys for men, 982 secular and 700 
 regular priests, 4 seminaries, 1 university, 11 pro¬ 
 fessors, 137 students, 1 college for men with 8 teachers 
 and 220 students; a large number of secondary schools, 
 academies, normal and industrial schools and chari¬ 
 table institutions exist throughout the archdiocese. 
 The schools and institutions receive some support from 
 the government. The following distinguished clergy¬ 
 men have died since 1912: His Eminence Francis 
 Cardinal Nagl (q. v.), Very Rev. Hermanns Tschokke, 
 professor of Biblical Studies at the University of 
 Vienna, and for twenty years a staunch defender 
 of the ecclesiastical matters under the Austrian 
 Monarchy. During the war 33 priests joined the 
 army and many others cared for the spiritual needs 
 of the soldiers in the hopsitals. Both clergy and laity 
 contributed generously to the war loans. 
 
 Virgin Islands. See America 
 
 Virginia. —The area of the State is 42,627 
 square miles. In 1920 the population was 2,309,187, 
 an increase of 12 per cent, since 1910. Of this, 29.2 /o 
 was urban, 70.8% was rural. The average 
 number of inhabitants per square miles was 57.4 as 
 against 51.2 in 1919. Virginia has 22 cities, of which 
 the largest with their respective populations are: 
 Richmond 171,667; Norfolk 115,777; Roanoke 50,842; 
 Portsmouth 54,387; Lynchburg 29,956; Petersburg 
 31,002; Newport News 35,596; Danville 21,539; 
 Alexandria 18,060; Staunton 10,623; Charlottesville 
 10,688; Bristol 6,729; Fredericksburg 5,882; Win¬ 
 chester 6,883; Clifton Forge 6,164; Hampton 6,138; 
 Radford 4,627; Buena Vista 3,911; Williamsburg 
 
 > 4g2. 
 
 The compostion of the population in 1920 was as 
 ollows: whites 1,617,909; negroes 690,017; Indians 
 $24- Chinese 278. The native whites numbered 
 L,587,124, of whom 1,534,494 were of native parent- 
 ige; 30,514 of foreign parentage; 22,116 of mixed 
 parentage. The foreign-born, numbering 30,785 
 lame chiefly from England (3752), Russia (5421), 
 [taly (2435), and Germany (2802). Of the popula¬ 
 tion ten years of age and over, 195,159 or 11.2 per 
 >ent were illiterate. Of these, 122,322 wer© 
 legroes (23.5 per cent.). The negroes who in 1910 
 Q9 a ppnt. of the noDulation formed 29.9 
 
 Vigouroux, Ftjlcrain , Biblical scholar, b. at Nant- 
 d’Aveyron in the Diocese of Rodez, France, on 13 
 February, 1837; d. at Saint Sulpice, Issy, on 21 
 February, 1915. Probably no one in the last half 
 of the nineteenth century did more to spread a true 
 and scientific knowledge of the Holy Scripture than 
 Fulcran Vigouroux. He studied at Rodez and Paris 
 and after his ordination on 23 December, 1861, he 
 became a Sulpician. He subsequently taught philos¬ 
 ophy at Autun and Issy, and lectured on Biblical 
 exegesis with great success in the seminary at Paris, 
 and after 1890 in the Institute Catholique (Pans). 
 While holding this position he undertook the com¬ 
 pilation and publication of a biblical dictionary, and 
 with the assistance and collaboration of a corps of 
 scholars like Pierre Battifol, Corluy, Delattre, 
 Hyvernat, Jacquier, Mangenot, Many, Turmel and 
 
 per cent in 1920. , . 
 
 Economic Status: The total value of the farm¬ 
 lands with buildings, implements, machinery, and 
 live stock in 1920 was $1,196,555,772, an increase 
 of 91 4 per cent in a decade. The farms embrace 
 more than 70 per cent of the total land area or 
 18 561,112 acres; over one-half representing improved 
 acreage. The number of farms was 186,242, of which 
 54 per cent are free from debt, the average value of 
 each farm, including equipment, being $6,425, and 
 of farm land per acre $40.75. The trucking has in¬ 
 creased 550 per cent in forty years. The State stands 
 first in peanuts (output 4,416,000 bushels, value 
 $6,006,000); third in tobacco (output 17/,390 
 pounds, value $42,574,000). In 1920 the \ield of 
 other crops was: corn 42,302,978 bushels, value 
 $78,260,514; wheat 11,446,027 bushels, value $26,- 
 
VISIT AD LIMINA 
 
 762 
 
 VISIT AD LIMINA 
 
 783,702; Irish potatoes 12,263,374 bushels, value 
 $26,979,423; sweet potatoes and yams 5,981,348 
 bushels, value $9,570,164; oats 1,958,609 bushels, 
 value $2,154,475; rye 456,689 bushels, value $822,039; 
 buckwheat 232,507 bushels, value $360,390; barley 
 229,301 bushels, value $332,490; and in tons of hay 
 and forage 1,989,282, value $41,847,594. The 
 cultivation of alfalfa is increasing and covers 24,348 
 acres. The value of crops in 1920 was $262,252,283 
 from 4,579,367 acres. The number of dairy cows in 
 the same year was 509,305, valued at $28,596,179. 
 Since 1910 the number of sheep has decreased from 
 438,719 to 342,367. The value of live stock in 1920 
 was $121,969,281. 
 
 Manufactures .—According to the latest census of 
 manufactures (1919) there were in the State 5,603 
 manufacturing establishments, with an aggregate 
 capital of $464,517,000, employing 119,400 people; 
 the cost of raw material used $372,041,000 and the 
 value of the product to $641,810,000. 
 
 Mining .—The mineral ouput of Virginia in 1918 
 was worth $37,639,368. About 10,087,000 tons of 
 coal and 1,304,000 tons of coke was mined, also 
 472,337 tons of iron ore and 562,299 tons of pig 
 iron. Norfolk alone exported 17,500,000 tons of 
 coal. There are 50 accredited mineral springs. 
 
 About 855,000,000 feet of lumber were cut in 
 1918. In September, 1919, there were 147 banks 
 (national) with total resources of $430,241,000. 
 The resources of the State banks (June 30, 1919) 
 amounted to $177,814,000. The bank clearings in 
 Richmond alone equalled $4,875,418,760; deposits 
 $94,669,440; loans and discounts $102,049,839. The 
 total valuation of real estate was $645,144,646, 
 divided as follows: counties, $329,873,554; cities, 
 $315,271,112. Of the total the whites owned $612,- 
 699,391; negroes, $32,475,255. The building opera¬ 
 tions of the city of Richmond were $4,118,688. 
 The gross insurance risks written in Virginia in 1919 
 were as follows: fire insurance $633,887,306; marine 
 insurance $75,442,221; life insurance $435,668,431. 
 
 The bonded debt of the State amounts (1919) 
 $22,912,216; the assessed value of property for the 
 same year was: real estate, $797,414,198; personal 
 $535,859,124; total $1,333,273,322. The total 
 mileage of the State is 4677. There are 12 electric 
 companies with 433 miles of track extending between 
 cities. 
 
 Religion.— The church membership (1916) was 
 949,136, of which the Baptists numbered 406,387; 
 Methodists 258,785; Presbyterian 52,564; Protestant 
 Episcopal 33,593; Disciples 34,220; Lutherans 
 16,040. The Catholics are given as 36,671. The value 
 of all church property is $29,480,547; the debt 
 $2,081,152. 
 
 For Catholic statistics see the articles on the 
 dioceses of Richmond, Wheeling, and Wilming¬ 
 ton. 
 
 Education. —The compulsory education law ap¬ 
 plies to children between the ages of eight and twelve 
 years and requires attendance for 16 weeks each 
 3 r ear. Two weeks’ attendance at half time or night 
 school equal one week at day school. The receipts 
 from the permanent funds in 1918 were $106,749, 
 the receipts from appropriations and taxation were 
 State: $2,486,456; county, $1,200,197; local, $3,747,- 
 086; making the total revenue receipts $8,788,842. 
 There was a balance on hand in the school year 
 1916-17 of $1,034,496. The total expenditure in the 
 State for instruction in 1918-19 was $9,155,363. 
 There are a total of 210,278 colored pupils enrolled 
 in the public schools. Statistics of public schools 
 (1918) show a school population of 658,926; total 
 enrollment, 480,139; in high schools 29,157; average 
 daily attendance 326,296 teachers 13,904; number of 
 school houses 6,743; school revenue $8,788,842; 
 
 salaries of teachers $5,162,470; annual cost of build¬ 
 ing $1,085,690; libraries and class equipment $1,676,- 
 918; total value of school property $18,862,254, an 
 increase in six years of over 100 per cent. 
 
 In 1920 the University of Virginia had 88 pro¬ 
 fessors, 18 officials, 931 students, and including the 
 summer school, 2737. 
 
 In 1919 women were admitted to the College of 
 William and Mary and Laurel Industrial School was 
 transferred to the State. The laws governing private 
 and parochial schools include the following: the 
 State Board of Health shall have the power to 
 enforce rules and regulations from time to time, 
 requiring and providing for the thorough sanitation 
 of all schools. No appropriations shall be made 
 to any sectarian institutions. 
 
 Recent Legislation and History. — Several 
 important Acts were passed in 1912, to provide for 
 a new State institution for the feeble-minded, also 
 surgical aid for the indigent, crippled, and deformed, 
 the establishment of the first juvenile court in the 
 State, primary elections for ail except presidential 
 electors, segregation districts for the residence of 
 white and colored people. On 1 November, 1916, 
 state-wide prohibition went into effect. In the same 
 year, in order to extend the usefulness of agricultural 
 high schools the Legislature voted to offer liberal 
 terms to school districts which wished to borrow from 
 from the State’s Literary Fund for the erection of 
 schools. Provision was also made for a public 
 defender in cities of 50,000 people, for two years. 
 Judges were authorized to substitute jail sentences 
 in misdemeanor cases. It was decided at that time 
 that the father and mother were entitled to the 
 custody, services, and earnings of legitimate children. 
 Mothers’ pensions were adopted in 1918. In 1918 
 the legislature decided that marriage, when either 
 party is a habitual criminal, idiot, or insane, or is 
 affected with specific diseases, is under the circum¬ 
 stance prohibited. In 1896 there were 525 divorces; 
 in 1906, 1074; in 1916, 1886. The Federal Suffrage 
 amendment was defeated by the Virginia Legislature 
 on 12 February, 1920, but the Prohibition Amend¬ 
 ment was ratified on 10 January, 1918. During the 
 European War, an artillery camp was established at 
 Lee Hall (Camp Eustis), Camp Humphreys for the 
 engineers at Accotink; and two embarkation camps 
 at Newport News (Hill and Stuart). Virginia fur¬ 
 nished to the United States Army 73,062 men (1.94 
 per cent). The Virginia members of the national 
 guard were for the most part incorporated into the 
 29th Division at Camp McClellan, Alabama; those 
 of the National Army with the 80th Division at Camp 
 Lee, Virginia. The summary of casulaties among the 
 Virginia members of the American Expeditionary 
 Force is as follows: deceased, 71 officers, 1564 men; 
 prisoners, 3 officers, 40 men; wounded, 196 officers, 
 4256 men. 
 
 Visit ad Limina (cf. C. E., XV—478a).—If 
 the year appointed for the visit of a bishop to the Holy 
 See falls wholly or partially within the first two years 
 of the episcopacy, he may omit the visit and the 
 diocesan report for that occasion. Bishops residing 
 outside of Europe may limit their visits to every 
 tenth year. Vicars apostolic, but not prefects 
 apostolic, are bound to visit Rome; however, if it is 
 very inconvenient for them to do so personally they 
 may fulfil their obligation by a procurator, even 
 one residing in Rome. However, both vicars and 
 prefects apostolic must send in quinquennial reports, 
 giving a full account of their pastoral work, the condi¬ 
 tion of their missions, and whatever relates to the 
 welfare of their people; the account must be signed by 
 the vicar or prefect and by at least one member of 
 their council. In addition they have to forward to 
 
VISITATION 
 
 703 
 
 VIVES V TUTO 
 
 the Congregation of Propaganda at the end of each 
 year, a statement showing the number of conversions, 
 baptisms, and receptions of the sacraments during 
 the year together with anything else worthy of notice. 
 
 On 4 November, 1918, the Sacred Consistorial 
 Congregation published a Decree setting forth a list 
 of questions to be answered by local ordinaries in the 
 quinquennial diocesan reports to the Holy See. An 
 earlier series of queries for the same purpose had been 
 drawn up in 1909, but owing to changes made by the 
 Code it was necessary to modify them. The new 
 formula did not, however, come into effect until 1921. 
 The report is to be written in Latin, dated and sub¬ 
 scribed to by the ordinary; the first report is to 
 contain full careful answers to all the questions; later 
 reports may omit referring to the material conditions 
 of the diocese if it is unchanged. The formula is 
 divided into ten chapters comprising a hundred ques¬ 
 tions, many of them being multiple. The first 
 chapter asks for data concerning the ordinary per¬ 
 sonally, the residential see, the civil statistics of the 
 diocese, the number of Catholics and non-Catholics 
 the diversity of Rites, the number of priests, clerics, 
 seminary students, whether there is a cathedral 
 chapter or a body of diocesan consultors; the number 
 of deaneries, and parishes, whether any parishes are 
 based on language or nationalty, and not on territory, 
 and if so by what authority; the number of churches, 
 oratories, celebrated shrines; the statistics of re¬ 
 ligious institutes. The second chapter has twelve 
 main questions concerning the observance of specific 
 canons governing the administration of temporalities, 
 inventories, and the archives. The third chapter 
 concerns the Faith and Divine worship; heresy, 
 modernism, superstition, theosophy, spiritism, free¬ 
 dom of worship, cemeteries, observance of the 
 liturgical rubrics, pictures, statues, number and condi¬ 
 tion of the churches, works of art therein, whether 
 entrance into the churches during services is, as 
 commanded, always and absolutely free, custody 
 of and reverence to the Blessed Sacrament. The 
 fourth chapter concerns the ordinary himself; his 
 income, residence, administration of temporalities, 
 administration of confirmation, ordinations, con¬ 
 fessions, observation of regulations on preaching, 
 mixed marriages, canonical visitation, diocesan 
 synods, relations of the civil authorities towards 
 them and the Church. The fifth chapter treats of the 
 diocesan curia in three queries; the sixth deals with 
 the spiritual and temporal aspects of the seminary 
 in five questions. The seventh chapter has nine 
 questions treating in detail of the observance of 
 clerical obligations as laid down in the canons; the 
 eighth has nine questions dealing with the cathedral 
 and other chapters; the ninth chapter in fourteen 
 questions is concerned with the deans and parish 
 priests, especially in regard to their homilies, sermons 
 and catechisms and to the administration of the 
 sacraments; the tenth chapter in seven questions deals 
 with religious, their reputation, usefulness, obser¬ 
 vance of the canons governing admission, enclosure, 
 confessions, canonical visitation; the eleventh chapter 
 has sixteen queries treating of the faithful, public 
 morality, Christian lives, reverence of the clergy and 
 the Pope, attendance at Mass, fast and abstinence, 
 infant baptism, Easter communions, frequent com¬ 
 munion, the last sacraments, Catholic burials, reli¬ 
 gious marriages, proportion of mixed marriages, re¬ 
 ligious education, especially of pupils attending public 
 schools; spiritual care of those just out from school, 
 confraternities; Catholic social service centers, refuges, 
 workshops; character of the press; forbidden societies; 
 Socialism; attitude of Catholics towards anti-religious 
 education: the twelfth chapter directs the ordinary 
 particularly, in his first report to state summarily 
 what he thinks of the material and moral condition 
 
 of his diocese, his hopes and his anxieties; while in 
 later reports he will tell how and with what result 
 he has carried out any advice or orders he may receive 
 from the Holy See in reply to his earlier report and 
 whether in the matter of faith and morals the diocese 
 has improved or falling away, or whether it is practi¬ 
 cally unchanged, and to what he attributes this con¬ 
 dition of affairs. 
 
 Acta Apostolicae Sedis (1918), 487-503. 
 
 Visitation. Canonical (cf. C. E., XV—479d).— 
 Bishops are bound to visit their diocese each year 
 either wholly or in part, but so that the entire diocese 
 shall be visited at least once every five years. This 
 is a personal obligation, but for just reasons the bishop 
 may depute the vicar general or other priest to carry 
 it out. The bishop may select any two priests he 
 desires to assist Rim in this work, all privileges or 
 customs to the contrary being now reprobated.. If a 
 bishop neglects to make his visitation, his metropolitan 
 notifies the Holy See and on obtaining its approval 
 carries out the visitation. Exemption from the 
 bishop’s jurisdiction does not imply exemption from 
 episcopal visitation; for the latter a special apostolic 
 rescript is required. However exempt religious are 
 subject to visitation only in the cases laid down in the 
 Code. Thus the bishop must visit every fifth year 
 monasteries of nuns subject to regulars, but only to 
 enquire about the observance of the enclosure; 
 however, if the regular superior has omitted the can¬ 
 onical visitation for five years, the bishop is to make 
 it for him. So, too, is he to visit pontifical clerical 
 congregations, even exempt to examine the church, 
 the sacristy, and the confessionals; or if the institute 
 is lay, to enquire into its internal discipline also. 
 Parish priests or vicars, who are religious, are sub¬ 
 ject to his visitation, except in the matter of regular 
 observance; moreover, he can visit the churches of 
 exempt orders to see if the regulations concerning 
 unlawful or incongruous devotions are being carried 
 out. If a charitable foundation is by prescription 
 or apostolic privilege exempt from episcopal juris¬ 
 diction or visitation the bishop may nevertheless 
 supervise its moral condition, its exercise of piety, 
 and the administration of the scraments therein. 
 
 An archbishop may not make a canonical visitation 
 of one of his suffragan dioceses, except when the bishop 
 has neglected this duty, and even then he must first 
 obtain permission from the Holy See. The visitation 
 need not be authorized by a provincial council 
 as was formerly the case. 
 
 Vitoria, Diocese of (Victoriensis; cf. C. E., XV 
 —489c), in Spain, suffragan of Burgos. The present 
 bishop is the Rt. Rev. Leopold Eijo y Garay, b. at 
 Vigo, 14 April, 1878, ordained 27 December, 1900, 
 elected bishop of Tuy, 28 May, 1914, transferred 
 to Vitoria 22 March, 1917, took possession 16 July 
 following. He succeeded the Rt. Rev. Melo y 
 Alcade who was transferred. In 1921 the diocese 
 contained 712 parishes, 967 churches, 1 abbey for 
 men, 89 convents for men, 203 for women, 4138 
 professed sisters, 380 novices, 5 seminaries with 407 
 seminarians. The educational institutions are: 1 
 free university, 50 professors, 350 students; 3 normal 
 schools; 1070 elementary schools, 1184 teachers, 
 67,408 pupils. The following institutions exist in 
 the diocese: 14 homes for the aged and infirm, 30 
 asylums, 59 hospitals, 8refuges, 12 settlement houses, 
 10 day nurseries. All the public institutions admit 
 the ministry of priests. Five Catholic papers are 
 published in the diocese. 
 
 Vives y Tuto, Jose Calasanzio, Cardinal, theo¬ 
 logian, b. at San Andres de Llevaneras, in the Diocese 
 of Barcelona, Spain, on 15 February, 1854; d. at 
 Monte Porzio Catone, Rome, on 7 September, 1913. 
 
VIVIERS 
 
 764 
 
 VOWS 
 
 After studying at Mataro he entered the Guatemalan 
 province of the Capuchins on 11 July, 1869, but 
 three years later he was driven into exile during the 
 revolution, and took refuge first with the Jesuits in 
 California and later with the Capuchins at Toulouse, 
 France. He was sent to Ecuador, but ill-health com¬ 
 pelled him to return in 1876 to Toulouse, where he 
 was ordained. He was then named guardian of the 
 convent in Perpignan, but when the French govern¬ 
 ment began its anti-Catholic persecution in 1880, he 
 with the other Spanish Capuchins withdrew to Spain. 
 He took an active part in arranging the union of the 
 Spanish Capuchins with the body of the order from 
 which they had been separated for nearly a century, 
 and displayed such ability in the negotiations at 
 Rome that his superiors called him there per¬ 
 manently in 1887. Subsequently he was appointed 
 Consultor of the Holy Office and other congregations, 
 examiner of the Roman clergy, and a member of the 
 Commission on Anglican Orders, and general definitor 
 of the Capuchins. He took a prominent part in the 
 Plenary Council of La tin-America, held at Rome in 
 1899, and was raised to the cardinalate in the same 
 year. When the Roman Curia was reorganized in 
 1908, he was named Prefect of the Congregation of 
 Religious by Pius X, whose confessor and confidential 
 adviser he was. To him are due most of the legislative 
 reforms in religious life introduced during the reign 
 of Pius X; and the Modernists attributed to his 
 inspiration the vigorous unmasking and condemnation 
 of their heretical theories. Cardinal Vives was 
 universally esteemed as a man of exemplary piety, 
 mortified life, kind to the poor and filled with zeal for 
 religion. In spite of his executive labors he found 
 time to write a course of dogmatic theology, which 
 enjoys considerable popularity in Spain, and a number 
 of ascetical works. 
 
 Viviers, Diocese of (Vivarium; cf. C. E., 
 XV—493c), in France, suffragan of Avignon. The 
 present administrator is the Rt. Rev. Joseph Michel 
 Bonnet, b. at Langogne, France, 29 September, 1835, 
 ordained December, 1859, elected 26 June, 1876, 
 consecrated 24 August, made assistant at the pon¬ 
 tifical throne 28 March, 1879. The auxiliary is the 
 Rt. Rev. Paul Negre, titular bishop of Cybistra. In 
 1921 the diocese contained 365 parishes, 328 succursal 
 parishes, 37 vicariates actually existing, 1 monastery 
 for men (Trappists), 2 monasteries for women (Car¬ 
 melites and Poor Clares), about 500 secular priests, 
 1 seminary (67 seminarians), 1 preparatory seminary 
 (160 students), several teaching orders of Brothers. 
 The educational institutions are: 2 secondary colleges 
 for boys (25 teachers, 300 students), 373 parish schools 
 entirely supported by the Catholics (20,000 pupils). 
 During the war 280 priests were mobilized. Of these 
 10 were killed, 2 injured, 1 received the medal of the 
 Legion of Honor, 1 the medaille militaire, 60 the croix 
 de guerre. Of the seminarians, 85 joined the army, 
 19 were killed, 3 injured, 1 received the medaille 
 militaire and 10 the croix de guerre. The Union Dio- 
 cesaine for cooperative buying has been established 
 among the clergy and an association called the 
 Jeunesse Catholique is flourishing among the laity. 
 Six Catholic periodicals are published in the diocese. 
 In 1921 the diocese contained 254,308 Catholics, 
 mostly French, with a few Spaniards and Italians and 
 40.000 Protestants. 
 
 Vizeu, Diocese of (Visensis; cf. C. E., XV— 
 496c), in the north central part of Portugal, suffragan 
 of Braga. The see is filled by Rt. Rev. Antonio Alv6s 
 Ferreira, born in Sardoal in the diocese of Portalegre 
 in 1864; he studied at Portalegre and Coimbra, was 
 ordained in 1886, served as rector of the seminary of 
 Santarem, was made a canon, then vicar general and 
 
 later, a canon of Lisbon, was named an honorary 
 chamberlain in 1899, prelate of the Holy See in 1902, 
 and prothonotarv apostolic in 1906, and appointed 
 titular Bishop of Martyropolis 19 December, 1907, 
 and coadjutor to the bishop of Vizeu, whom he suc¬ 
 ceeded 2 July, 1911. The diocese comprises 209 
 parishes, 1218 churches, 312 secular priests, 1 semi¬ 
 nary with 10 professors and 48 seminarians, 1 college 
 for'boys with 12 teachers and 120 students, 1 college 
 for girls with 8 teachers and 58 pupils, 1 home for the 
 aged, 1 asylum for boys and girls and 1 asylum for 
 boys only, with a training school connected with it, 
 2 civil and 1 military hospitals, and 1 settlement 
 house. A number of societies are organized among 
 the laity and 6 Catholic periodicals are published. 
 During the World War four priests from this diocese 
 served as chaplains and one of these died in Africa. 
 
 VogiiS, Charles-Jean-Melchior, Marquis de, 
 distinguished Oriental scholar and archaeologist, b. 
 at Paris on 18 October, 1829; d. there on 9 Novem¬ 
 ber, 1916. At an early age he entered the French 
 Department of Foreign Affairs and was sent to 
 Russia, where in 1851 he wrote a notable study on 
 Russian goldwork. He left the diplomatic service 
 the following year and travelled in Greece, Syria, 
 Palestine and the Orient, returning again in 1861 to 
 Syria. In 1871 he was ambassador at Constantinople 
 and in 1875 at Vienna. Among the honors conferred 
 on him were: the cross of Commander of the Legion 
 of Honor, membership in the Society of Anti¬ 
 quarians of France (1860), in the Academy of 
 Incriptions (1868), and. in the French Academy 
 (1891). Among de Vogue’s great works are “Les 
 eglises de la Terre Sainte”; “La Syrie Centrale” (3 
 volumes, Paris, 1865-77), a veritable monument of 
 Oriental science, vols. I and II dealing with architec¬ 
 ture, and vol. Ill with the Semitic inscriptions of 
 Palmyra and Safa; “Le Temple de Jerusalem”; and 
 “Melanges d’archeologie orientale.” But his in¬ 
 terests were not confined to Oriental antiquities; he 
 was a prominent cultivator and president of the 
 Agricultural Society of France; edited the “Memoires 
 de Villars” in a masterly way; wrote “Une famille 
 vivaroise,” a charming account of his family; and 
 was prominent in the Red Cross work in France 
 during the War. An outstanding feature in his career 
 was his zeal for the Christians in the Orient. In 
 1856 with Augustin Cauchy and Charles Lenormant 
 be founded L’CEuvre des Ecoles d’Orient, of which he 
 hecame president in 1900; in 1860 he cooperated with 
 Abb6 (later Cardinal) Lavigerie in succouring the 
 Maronites when the Christians were being martyred 
 in Syria; while ambassador at Constantinople he was 
 an active protector of the Catholic missions in Turkey 
 in Asia; and during the European War he inspired the 
 Holy See to intercede with the Sultan to spare the 
 Syrians who were being deliberately starved to 
 death. 
 
 Jalabert in Etudes , t. 149 (1916), 709-40; and Paris press 
 (November, 1916), Figaro (11 Nov.), Temps (12 Nov.), Echo 
 de Paris (15 Nov.). 
 
 Volunteers of America. See Salvation Army 
 
 Vows (cf. C. E., XV—511a).—The only private 
 vows now reserved to the Holy See are a vow of 
 perfect and perpetual chastity, and a vow to enter a 
 religious institute having solemn vows, provided 
 these vows have been made unconditionally and after 
 the completion of the party’s eighteenth year. 
 Formerly a vow to visit the Holy Land, Compostella, 
 or the Tombs of the Apostles in Rome was likewise 
 reserved to the pope. While solemn religious pro¬ 
 fession still dissolves an unconsummated marriage it 
 is to be noted that a religious profession is invalid 
 unless it has been preceded by a valid novitiate, ac J 
 
vows 
 
 705 
 
 VOWS 
 
 that unless a dispensation has been granted by the to the Holy See, if they attempt marriage, even 
 Holy See no married person can make a valid novitiate civil marriage; the penalty is likewise incurred by 
 while his or her marriage remains undissolved. their partners; formerly the censure was reserved only 
 
 Clerics in sacred orders, and regulars or nuns with to the ordinary, 
 solemn vow t s incur excommunication reserved simply 
 
 f 
 
 It 
 
 
 
 !. . t- i - ’’ 
 
 Ug’i.ri 
 
 i 
 
 ...» hf:» ' ■■ .• < 
 a •tile < 
 
 k Mv.‘ I-“I til ii 
 
 * .i; 
 
 , | « ? . »k.i ... • 
 
 .'ia ifTlJl: tKUJii 
 
 Ait 11 * 1. U3 
 
 
 fc i 
 
 fit 
 
 : ; V i > •' 
 
 it ; OAflOmOvl v'i aii 
 .' ■ ■ ' ■' . . , i I■ .Or; ■ 4 
 
 ;i< * • : >0 •>, r i v ‘Pii. 6? Of' I 
 
 ; . • ■> . : - . ' i ,f t ■ 7 ' % < ; 
 
 , -b'. *-i ■ ’m 3 fcvi-- i ;.i i dioii ii qotbt'd tU->- if 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 ' ! .■ * 7# ■ 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 ,«> . Ohm: .in n i 
 
 c *. :a.nOw. 
 
 ii ' ;ipw »i* • ’.fi'.Vo;;-- i 
 
 fin 
 
 ifl Ji iif r.i '■ . ifcif 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i * 
 
 • • •. • • • 
 
 
 ri 
 
 
 
 
 OJ’W 
 
 ♦ 
 
 IdOUirtaF '• 
 
 
 v.qpf 
 
 . tp,- 
 
 
 if. .* > % ■ 
 
 V 
 
 L'vi : rr 
 
 
 
 ■ i ftyi 
 
 
 
 
w 
 
 Wagga-Wagga, Diocese of (Corvopolitanien- 
 sis), separated from the dioceses of Goulburn and 
 Wilcannia and erected into the new diocese 28 July, 
 1917. It is bounded on the south by the Murray 
 River to a point ten miles west of Tocumwal; on the 
 west by a line extending from that point on the Mur¬ 
 ray, to the western boundary of County Cooper; on 
 the north by a line about 25 miles north of the South- 
 West Railway, including the irrigation area, 4 miles 
 north of Yenda and 7 miles east of it to Ullabo; thence 
 in a southeasterly line to Khancoban and the Murray. 
 The first bishop, Rt. Rev. Joseph Wilfred Dwyer, was 
 born in Maitland, N. S. W., 12 October, 1869, and 
 was consecrated 13 October, 1918, by the Apostolic 
 Delegate, Mgr. Cattaneo, assisted by 12 archbishops 
 and bishops, and thrity priests. The episcopal resi¬ 
 dence is at Wagga-Wagga. During the past year 
 (1921) the diocese was greatly stirred by the Ligouri 
 case, in which Bridget Mary Partridge, otherwise 
 known as Sister Ligouri, brought suit against Bishop 
 Dwyer for slander. Having run away from her con¬ 
 vent and taken refuge with a Protestant family, she 
 later brought suit for £5000 damages. The court, 
 however, wholly exonerated the bishop after a long 
 trial lasting several days. The Catholic population 
 of this territory comprises 20,000 Irish, 200 English 
 and 1000 of German descent. Latest statistics credit 
 the diocese with 18 parishes, 53 churches, 100 mission 
 stations, 2 convents for men, 15 for women, 24 secular 
 clergy, 8 teaching Brothers, 132 nuns, 2 colleges for 
 girls with 12 teachers and 158 students, 4 high schools 
 with 24 teachers and 230 pupils, 18 elementary schools 
 with 70 teachers and 2600 pupils, and 1 orphanage for 
 girls with 73 orphans, conducted by the Sisters of 
 Mercy. The priests minister in 7 public hospitals 
 and 1 jail. The only aid any of the Catholic institu¬ 
 tions receive from the government is an occasional 
 gift of £50. The Hibernian-Australian Catholic 
 Benefit Society, the Australian Catholic Guild and the 
 St. Vincent de Paul Society are established among the 
 laity. 
 
 Waghadugu, Vicariate Apostolic of (de 
 Ouagadougou), erected by a decree of 2 July, 1921, 
 through a division of the Vicariate Apostolic of 
 Sahara. It includes all the territory east of a line 
 drawn from 5° west to a lake south of the River Niger 
 in the city of Timbuctu, from here to the boundary 
 line of the three civil provinces of Bandiagara, 
 Dedugu and Babodiulasso, included in this Vicariate. 
 It is entrusted to the White Fathers, the first vicar 
 Apostolic being Rt. Rev. Joanny Therenoud, ap¬ 
 pointed titular Bishop of Sitifis 18 July, 1921, having 
 been named vicar on 5 July previous. 
 
 Waitzen, Dioces of. See Vacz 
 
 Wales, Church of England in. See Anglicanism 
 
 Walsh, William J., Archbishop of Dublin; b. 
 there on 30 January, 1841; d. there on 9 April, 1921. 
 He was educated at St. Lawrence O’Toole Seminary 
 and at the Catholic University, when it was directed 
 by Doctor (Cardinal) Newman. He then went to 
 Maynooth, and after his regular course spent three 
 
 years in higher studies in the Dunboyne Establish¬ 
 ment. <£n 1867 at the age of twenty-six he taught dog¬ 
 matic and moral theology. He became vice-president 
 of the Maynooth College in 1878, and at the death of 
 Dr. Russell succeeded him as president. He was an 
 authority on the social, economic and educational 
 questions of the day and a strong advocate of the 
 claims of the Irish tenantry, and in 1881 gave his 
 support to Gladstone’s Land Bill. His “Plain Expo¬ 
 sition” of the Bill was published at the time; in 1883 
 his book entitled “The Queen’s Colleges and the Royal 
 University of Ireland” challenged public attention. 
 On the death of Archbishop McCabe of Dublin in 
 1885, Dr. Walsh was named his successor, in spite of 
 the opposition of the Government, which sent Sir 
 George Errington to Rome to protest against the 
 appointment. From the beginning, he identified him¬ 
 self with the cause of the people, in public meetings, 
 the pulpit and the press. He was present as a witness 
 in the Parnell trial and gave evidence of the utmost 
 importance; and was many times mediator in trade 
 disputes and strikes. In recognition of his services, 
 he was given the Freedom of the City of Cork in 1890. 
 With all these multiplied activities he was also a writer 
 even on such subjects* as “Gregorian Music” and 
 “Bimetalism.” During his entire episcopal career he 
 was deeply interested in the cause of education, espe¬ 
 cially in the matter of university training, in which the 
 Catholics labored under grave disabilities. As early 
 as 1883 his treatise, “The Queen’s Colleges and the 
 Royal University of Ireland” on this question had 
 challenged public attention. At a later date his 
 “Trinity College and the University of Dublin” and 
 “Trinity College and Its Medical School” proved very 
 effective. When the new National University of 
 Ireland was chartered he was appointed its first 
 Chancellor. In regard to recent history in Ireland he 
 pointed out in 1917 that the National Party had in 
 effect agreed to partition Ireland, and he openly sup¬ 
 ported the Republican candidate at the general elec¬ 
 tion in 1918; subscribed to the forbidden D4il Eireann 
 loan in 1919; and was vigorous in his denunciation of 
 the excesses of the British forces in Ireland. 
 
 Wang, Erik A., pioneer missionary, b. at 
 Kongsvinger, Norway, on 29 August, 1859; d. at 
 Bergen in 1913. He was of Lutheran parentage, but 
 in his childhood became a Catholic. After studying in 
 Denmark, Norway, the Faroe Islands, Belgium (at 
 Thielt), and at the College of Propaganda, Rome, he 
 was ordained in 1882, and returning to his native 
 land, founded numerous Catholic stations and 
 churches there. He was stationed at Christiania as 
 curate (1882-83) and as rector (1886-99), and at 
 Tromso as rector (1883-84); in the latter year he 
 accompanied the Prefect-Apostolic of Norway on his 
 visitation to Hammerfest and Alten. Subsequently 
 he was secretary to Mgr. Fellize, the prefect Apostolic, 
 and was named a member of the Council of the prefec¬ 
 ture. In 1899 he was nominated as rector at Bergen, 
 and acted as dean of Western Norway. He was editor 
 of “St. Olav,” a Christiania Catholic magazine, and 
 contributed several articles to “The Catholic En¬ 
 cyclopedia.” 
 
 766 
 
WARD 
 
 767 
 
 WASHINGTON 
 
 Ward, Bernard, ecclesiastical historian, b. on 4 
 February, 1857, at Old Hall, Herts, England; d. at 
 Brentwood, on 21 January, 1920; son of Dr. W. G. 
 Ward of the Oxford movement. He studied at Old 
 Hall and Oscott and was ordained in 1882 by Cardinal 
 Manning. The greater part of his life was spent in 
 St. Edmund’s College, Old Hall, of which he became 
 vice president in 1890 and two years later president, 
 a post he held till 1916. Shortly afterwards he was 
 preconized titular Bishop of Lydda and Administrator 
 Apostolic of the new diocese of Brentwood, to which 
 see he was translated as its first bishop on 20 July, 
 1917. The development of the college at Old Hall is 
 largely due to his initiative and energy. He wrote a 
 “History of St. Edmund’s College” and “A Life of 
 St. Edmund of Canterbury;” these, however, were 
 but as a prelude to “The Dawn of the Catholic Revival 
 in England,” “The Eve of Catholic Emancipation,” 
 and “The Sequel to Catholic Emancipation,” which 
 form a history of the Church in England from 1780 to 
 1850, and a permanent contribution to English 
 ecclesiastical literature. “The Priestly Vocation” is 
 a volume of “The Library for Catholic Priests and 
 Students,” of which he was a joint editor. Mgr. 
 Ward also wrote a “Commentary on St. Luke’s 
 Gospel” and contributed articles to The Catholic 
 Encyclopedia. 
 
 Ward, Wilfrid, biographer and essayist,, b. at 
 Old Hall, Herts, England, in 1856; d. at Hempstead on 
 9 April, 1916; son of William G. Ward, of the Oxford 
 Movement and brother of Bishop Ward. He studied 
 at Old Hall, Ushaw, the Gregorian University, Rome 
 and graduated later in the London University. In 
 1890 he was called to the chair of philosophy at Ushaw, 
 and in 1906 became editor of “The Dublin Review.” 
 Beginning with a study on the philosophy of religious 
 thought,“Witnesses to the Unseen,” and inspired by 
 Newman’s theory of development, Ward devoted 
 most of his life to bringing Catholic scholars to recog¬ 
 nize the legitimate clairqs of modern science and to 
 inducing the modern world to consider without preju¬ 
 dice the Catholic viewpoint. He was one of the 
 founders of the Synthetic Society (1896-1908), for the 
 discussion of the philosophic basis of religious belief; 
 among its members being Balfour, Haldane, Bryce, 
 Sidgwick, and Bishop Gore. “Men and Matters,” 
 “Problems and Persons,” “The Wish to Believe,” 
 and “The Clothes of Religion” contain most of his 
 best philosophic and apologetic writings. Ward was 
 also a biographer of high standing, his best efforts in 
 this field being the “Life of Cardinal Newman,” 
 and the biography of his father, which appeared as 
 “William George Ward and the Oxford Movement” 
 and “William George Ward and the Catholic Revival;” 
 together with the “Life and Times of Cardinal 
 Wiseman” and his “Memoir of Aubrey de Vere.” 
 
 Father Cuthbert and G. K. Chesterton in The Dublin 
 Review , CLIX, (1916). 
 
 Warsaw, Archdiocese of (Varsaviensis; cf. 
 C. E., XV—555b), in the Republic of Poland. On 
 14 November, 1918, the city of Warsaw again became 
 the real capital of a free and independent Poland, the 
 seat of Naesebrik Panstwa, Chief of State, the seat of 
 the Diet, of Central Civil and Military Government, 
 and the see of the Polish archbishop and cardinal, His 
 Eminence Alexander Kakowski. Born in Dembina in 
 1863, he was ordained in 1886, served as a professor 
 and then rector of the upper seminary, became a 
 canon in 1901, rector of the ecclesiastical academy of 
 Petrograd in 1910, a prelate of the Holy See in 1911, 
 and was made archbishop 2 May, i.913. On 15 
 December, 1919, he was created a cardinal priest. The 
 archbishop is assisted by two auxiliaries, Most Rev. 
 Casirnir Ruszkiewicz, titular Archbishop of Nicolia, 
 and lit. Rev. Stanislas Gall, titular Bishop of Hali- 
 
 49 
 
 carnassus; the latter is also chaplain in chief of the 
 Polish army. The cardinal’s predecessor, Most Rev. 
 Vincent Choserat Popiel, the eighth archbishop of 
 Warsaw under the Russian government, died 7 
 December, 1912, after an illness of two years. His 
 wise and watchful administration of twenty-nine 
 years was the longest of any incumbent of this see. 
 
 On the very day of the outbreak of the Russian 
 Revolution, 11 March, 1917, all the Polish bishops 
 were gathered together to celebrate the centenary of 
 the foundation of the Archdiocese of Warsaw. Since 
 the Russian high officials and most of the members of 
 the orthodox Russian church have now left the city, 
 it has taken on a truly Catholic appearance. The 
 magnificent Russian Cathedral, erected in 1912 out of 
 public funds, has, after some necessary alterations, 
 been turned over to Catholic worship, and some of the 
 churches which had been seized by the Russians have 
 been restored to the Catholics. There now remain 
 only three churches for the Russians, one at Praga 
 being used as the cathedral. A well-known apostle 
 of Catholicism in Poland, Rev. Father Honorat, a 
 Capuchin, and founder of the Sisters of St. Felix of 
 Cantalice, died 16 December, 1916. He was the 
 founder of several other religious organizations, a 
 well-known spiritual director and writer, and an 
 ardent advocate of frequent communion for forty 
 years before the decree of Pius X. 
 
 The Archdiocese of Warsaw at present comprises 
 the metropolitan chapter of Warsaw with twelve 
 canons, and the collegiate chapter of Lowicz with its 
 twelve canons. The diocese is divided into nineteen 
 deaneries: (1) Warsaw (inside the city), comprising 
 16 parishes with 27 non-parochial churches and many 
 private chapels, among the many humanitarian insti¬ 
 tutions. Total souls 569,934; (2) Warsaw (outside 
 the city), 18 parishes with 97,421 souls; (3) Praga, 17 
 parishes with 146,040 souls; (4) Biala (Bialla), 9 
 parishes with 30,407 souls; (5) Gostynin, 16 parishes 
 with 62,935 souls; (6) Goszcyn (Goshchi), 9 parishes 
 with 32,667 souls; (7) Gora Kalwarja, 8 parishes 
 with 26,460 souls; (8) Grodzisk, 11 parishes with 
 46,995 souls; (9) Grojec, 12 parishes with 43,630 
 souls; (10) Jadow, 8 parishes with 43,850 souls; 
 (11) Kaluszyn, 8 parishes with 22,953 souls; (12) 
 Kutno, 22 parishes with 80,274 souls; (13) Lowicz, 
 21 parishes with 90,730 souls; (14) Minsk, 10 par¬ 
 ishes with 51,592 souls; (15) Mszczonow (Mshchonov) 
 10 parishes with 59,563 souls; (16) Radzymin (Rad- 
 simin), 8 parishes with 44,310 souls; (17) Rawa, 13 
 parishes with 45,418 souls; (18) Skierniewice (Skerne- 
 vitse), 10 parishes with 41,902 souls; (19) Sochaczew 
 (Sohatshev), 18 parishes with 51,670 souls. Total of 
 244 parishes, with 1,472,751 souls. Non-parochial 
 churches, 68; churches with monasteries, 12; public 
 and semi-public chapels, 171; private chapels, 25; 
 number of secular clergy, 501; regular clergy, 56; 
 alumni of seminary, 104; students of university, 15; 
 nuns, 30; houses of religious orders, female, 28; 
 faithful in Warsaw, 569,934; in archdiocese of War¬ 
 saw, but outside of city proper, 902,817; total for 
 archdiocese, 1,472,751. 
 
 Washington, (cf. C. E., XV—560b).—The 
 area of the State is 69,127 square miles. In 1920 
 the population was 1,356,621, an increase of 18.8 per 
 cent since 1910. Between 1900 and 1910 the popula¬ 
 tion jumped from 518,103 to 1,141,990 (120.4%). 
 The average number of imhabitants to the square 
 mile is 20.3, as against 17.1 in 1910 and 7.8 in 1900. 
 In 1920, 5.2% of the population was urban; 44.8% 
 was rural. There are 15 Indian reservations, 1 
 navy yard, 1 national park, and a tract of unsurveyed 
 land. Pend Oreille County was organized from a 
 part of Stevens County in 1911. There are 69 
 cities, of which the largest with their respective popula- 
 
WASHINGTON 
 
 768 
 
 WASHINGTON 
 
 tions are: Seattle 315,312; Spokane 104,437; Tacoma 
 96,965; Bellingham 25,585; Everett 27,644; The 
 composition of the population is as follows: whites 
 1,319,777; negroes 6883; Indians 9061; Chinese 2363; 
 Japanese 17,387. There are 1,069,722 native whites, 
 of whom 711,706 were of native parentage; 214,618 of 
 foreign parentage; 143,398 of mixed parentage. The 
 foreign-born whites, numbering 149,686, came 
 chiefly from Sweden (34,793), Norway (30,304), 
 Germany (22,315); Canada (42,988). Of the popula¬ 
 tion ten years of age and over, 1.7 per cent or 18,526 
 were illiterate. 
 
 Economic Conditions. —The number of farms in 
 1920 was 66,288; an increase of 10,096 since 1910. 
 The value of the farm property was $1,057,429,848; 
 of the live stock $82,316,130; and of all crops (1920) 
 $227,212,008. The chief crops were: wheat 41,837,- 
 090 bushels, $91,206,642; oats 8,073,481 bushels, 
 $8,073,481; barley 2,249,856 bushels, $3,374,792; corn 
 901,905 bushels, $1,623,433; potatoes 5,866,710 
 bushels, $12,320,093; hay 2,013,913 tons, $47,717,- 
 065; hops 1,615,761 pounds, $727,092. 
 
 The total number of farm animals for the assess¬ 
 ment of 1919 was given at 1,787,871 at a total value 
 of $77,572,066, while the dairy industry shows for 
 the same year the following result: butter 5,899,678 
 pounds, $3,296,726; cheese 84,868 pounds, $28,006; 
 total value of dairy products $27,620,231. 
 
 According to the Census of Manufactures in 1919, 
 there were 4,919 establishments, employing 150,482 
 persons earning for their services, $225,757,000, and 
 producing goods worth $809,635,000. The capital 
 invested was $553,125,000. The assessed valuation 
 of real property in 1919 amounted to 722,761,254; 
 of personal property, $179,764,087. The outstand¬ 
 ing bonded debt was paid off in 1911. 
 
 The whole fisheries output during normal times 
 amounts to between $10,000,000 and $20,000,000 
 annually, the wide difference being caused chiefly 
 by the fluctuation of prices and difference in the size 
 of the salmon run from year to year. In 1917 an 
 exceptional year for prices—the total value was 
 $22,654,688. During the past 30 years the value of 
 salmon taken from the waters of the State of Wash¬ 
 ington has amounted to between $200,000,000 and 
 $300,000,000. In order to encourage the fishing 
 industry both the Federal and State governments 
 maintain hatcheries in the rivers and lakes and plant 
 millions of fry annually. 
 
 The total land area of the state is 42,775,040 acres. 
 Of this approximately 11,983,340 acres are included 
 in the forest reserves and closed to entry and over two 
 million acres are untaxed in Indian reservations, and 
 over four million are private timber lands. The 
 lumber, lath, and shingles manufactured in 1918 
 reached 4,603,123,000 feet. The coal mines pro¬ 
 duced in 1918 4,082,212 tons of coal. The foreign 
 trade of the State was as follows: '(1918) imports, 
 $326,981,279; exports, $258,006,441; (1919) imports, 
 $195,918,797; exports, $292,374,345. 
 
 The fourteenth census gives the number of farms 
 in Washington as 66,288 (an increase of 10,096 since 
 1910), with a total area of 13,244,720 acres, exactly 
 31 per cent of the land area in Washington. The 
 area of improved land in these farms was 5,520,308 
 and the value of all farm property was $496,439,617. 
 The area of drained land was 94,924 acres. 
 
 The railroad mileage of the State is 8046; the total 
 mileage of navigable rivers is approximately 1200. 
 In 1911 Seattle took advantage of the new port- 
 districting law and created the port of Seattle as a 
 separate muncipality. The opening of the Panama 
 Canal resulted in negotiations by six leading Atlantic 
 steamship companies for docking facilities at Tacoma 
 and Seattle. The Federal Government has large dry 
 docks and a naval depot at Bremerton, on Puget 
 
 Sound. Garrisons of the regular army are main¬ 
 tained at Spokane, Seattle, Vancouver, and three 
 coast defence points at the entrance to Puget Sound 
 and one at Bremerton Navy Yard. 
 
 Religion. —In 1916 there were in the State 97,418 
 Catholics; 43,293 Methodists; 30,559 Presbyterians; 
 18,248 Baptists; 20,435 Lutherans; 17,521 Disciples 
 of Christ; 16,137 Congregationalists; 10,881 Epis¬ 
 copalians. Details of the condition of the Catholic 
 Church in the State are given in the articles on the 
 dioceses of Seattle and Spokane. 
 
 Education. —The laws that govern private and 
 parochial schools are as follows: All schools publicly 
 supported shall be free from sectarian control or 
 influence (IX-4). Private schools must be approved 
 by county superintendents. American history and 
 government must be taught in all high schools. In 
 1920 there were 373,108 children between the ages 
 of five and twenty; of these, 257,332 (69 per cent) 
 attended school. In the public schools formal reli¬ 
 gious teaching or regular reading from the Bible is 
 not permitted, but moral training is given and moral 
 principles are inculcated. Provisions were made in 
 1919 for the establishment of continuation schools or 
 part-time classes for all children under eighteen, 
 state aid being provided; also for the establishment of 
 a division of agriculture at the State College at 
 Washington, and a new Normal school at Centralia. 
 Education is compulsory for all children between 
 eight and sixteen years old. In 1920 the 2150 schools 
 had 7113 teachers and were attended by 247,688 
 children, elementary schools and the 281 high schools 
 had 1795 teachers and 1000 students. The total 
 expenditures for the year was $22,414,510. The 
 average monthly salary paid to male teachers in 1918 
 was $97.38; to women teachers, $69.33. The annual 
 expenditure for each child has been conservatively 
 estimated for that year as $67. Beside the State 
 institutions, there were in 1918, 135 schools under 
 private and sectarian management. The 12 Catholic 
 academies for girls show an attendance of 933 pupils, 
 and the 46 parochial schools with 7773 pupils save 
 the State an annual expense of $520,000. The 
 Catholic charitable institutions housed and supported 
 56 orphans and 50 aged and infirm persons. The 
 State University had in 1919,52professors, 28 associat¬ 
 ed and 60 assistant professors, 55 instructors, 32 as¬ 
 sistants, 16 graduate assistants, together with a music 
 staff of 12 members, and 2,547 students. 
 
 Recent Legislation and History. —In 1911 the 
 public service commission was created, and the 
 nomination and election of judges of courts of record, 
 original and appellate, on a non-partisan judiciary 
 ticket were provided for. The initiative, referendum, 
 and recall amendment to the constitution was 
 adopted in 1912. In 1913 an industrial welfare 
 commission was created with power to fix the mini¬ 
 mum wage for women. In the same year, mothers 
 pensions were provided for, juvenile courts created, 
 a State Humane Bureau established to provide for 
 incompetents, children, and minors, hospitals for 
 tuberculosis cases provided for, the death penalty for 
 murder was abolished, teachers’ pensions and retire¬ 
 ment funds were created, and a department of 
 agriculture established. The Federal Prohibition 
 Act was ratified on 13 January. 1920; the suffrage 
 amendment on 22 March, 1920. Divorce is granted 
 now when the parties are estranged and have 
 separated and apart for eight years or more and the 
 court is satisfied that the parties can no longer live 
 together, and in case of chronic mania or dementia 
 of either party, having existed ten years or more. The 
 war with Germany caused a sudden expansion in the 
 state’s industrial activities, especially in ship-build¬ 
 ing. An immense cantonment for the United States 
 soldiers was established at Camp Lewis, outside of 
 
WATERFORD 
 
 769 
 
 WELLLINGTON 
 
 Tacoma. Washington furnished during the war 
 45,154 soldiers (1.20 per cent of the United States 
 Army). The Washington members of the newly 
 drafted Nationa' Army were incorporated into the 
 91st Division at Camp Lewis. Especially active 
 was the government cut-up plant at Vancouver, 
 Washington, in the spruce production for war air¬ 
 planes. The summary of casualties of Washington 
 members of the American Expeditionary Force is as 
 follows: deceased, 42 officers, 835 men; prisoners, 
 
 2 officers, 20 men; wounded, 94 officers, 1077 men. 
 After the war considerable labor disturbances marked 
 the State’s industrial life. Radical agitators at¬ 
 tempted to favor the flame of discontent caused by 
 high prices and inflated currency and the climax 
 came at Centralia on 11 November, 1919, when a 
 crowd of I. W. W. fired several shots into a parade 
 of members of the American Legion. One of the 
 leading agitators was lynched. 
 
 Waterford and Lismore, Diocese of (Water- 
 fordensis et Lismorensis; cf. C. E., XV—564d), 
 suffragan of Cashel, Ireland. Bishop Sheehan died 
 in 1916 after a strenuous career as bishop. He re¬ 
 established the ancient diocesan chapter and renewed 
 the diocesan synod which had not been held for nearly 
 two centuries. Amongst his other notable works were 
 the introduction of a system of religious school exam¬ 
 inations, the compilation of a catechism for diocesan 
 use, the provision of clergy houses and the promotion 
 and improvement of ecclesiastical music and cere¬ 
 monial. He was succeeded by Rt. Rev. Bernard 
 Hackett, C.SS.R., b. at Dungavan, 1863, ordained 
 1888, superior of the Redemptorist convent in Limerick 
 when he was elected 29 January, 1916, consecrated 
 19 March, 1917. 
 
 Rev. Dr. Henebery died in 1917. He had been pro¬ 
 fessor of Old and Modern Irish in the National Uni¬ 
 versity of Ireland and had much reputation as a 
 scholar. He left no permanent work except a still 
 unpublished treatise of a highly technical character 
 on Irish music. The year 1917 also witnessed the 
 death of Rev. M. P. O’Hickey, late professor of Irish 
 at Maynooth, whose energy and enthusiasm did much 
 to foster a taste for their native language amongst the 
 clergy of Ireland, to his exertions being largely due the 
 provision of essential Irish in the curriculum of the 
 National University of Ireland. The Diocese con¬ 
 tains 39 parishes, 77 churches, 10 monasteries, 1 
 abbey, and 6 convents for men, 29 convents for 
 women, 120 secular priests, 46 regulars, 602 Sisters, 
 
 3 seminaries, 2 colleges for men and 1 for women, 6 
 high schools, 2 training schools, 3 industrial schools 
 with an attendance of 381; the students in St. John’s 
 College and Mount Melleray seminary are organized 
 for the relief of foreign missions. There are 10 homes, 
 3 asylums for the insane, 7 hospitals, 1 refuge. Various 
 religious societies and an ecclesiastical benevolent 
 society are organized among the clergy and among the 
 laity there are various religious and young men’s 
 societies. 
 
 Weale, William Henry James, antiquarian, b. 
 at Marylebone, London, on 8 March, 1832; d. at 
 Clapham Common, London, on 26 April, 1917; 
 son of J. and Susan (Vesien) Weale. He was educated 
 at King’s College, London, and from his youth had a 
 fascination for art and archaeology, being especially 
 interested in the antiquities of Belgium. In 1849 he 
 became a Catholic, and after marying Miss Helena 
 Walton settled at Bruges in 1855. Four years later 
 he published “Belgium, Aix-la-Chapelle and Cologne, 
 an Archaeological Guide-Book,” the fruit of his 
 travels and studies. He continued his studies in 
 medieval Flemish art and was soon acknowledged the 
 leading living authority on the subject; he threw 
 
 valuable light especially on the work of David, Mem- 
 linc, the Van Eycks and other artists of the early 
 Flemish school. He had an expert knowledge 
 also of early book-binding, illuminated manuscripts 
 and monumental brasses. In 1872 he was invited 
 back to England to classify and describe the speci¬ 
 mens of Flemish art in the South Kensington Museum, 
 and in 1890 was appointed keeper of the National Art 
 Library. He was an honorary member of the Royal 
 Flemish Academy, and of the Academy of Fine Arts 
 of Antwerp, and an Associate of the Royal Academy 
 of Belgium; in addition he was decorated as an 
 officer of the Order of Leopold. Among his writings 
 in addition to memoirs on the artists mentioned 
 above: may be mentioned “Bruges et ses environs” 
 (1862); “Memoire sur la Restauration de Monuments 
 Publics en Belgique” (1862); “LeBeffroi: arts, heraldi- 
 que, archeologie” (1863-76); “La Flandre: revue des 
 monuments d’histoire et d’antiquite” (1867-76); 
 “Bibliographia Liturgica” (1886); and “Peintres 
 Brugeois” (1907-12). He also contributed an article 
 on David Gheeraert to the Catholic Encyclopedia. 
 
 Weber, Anselm, apostle of the Navajo Indians, 
 b. at New Salem, Michigan, on 10 November, 1862; 
 d. at Rochester, Minnesota, on 7 March, 1921. 
 He was educated at St. Francis College, Cincinnati, 
 and entered the Friars Minor in 1882. After his 
 ordination seven years later, he taught at Cincinnati, 
 and in 1898 was sent as a missionary to the Navajos 
 in Arizona. Two years later he became superior of 
 the mission, and established a school at St. Michael’s, 
 which proved very successful and has had great 
 influence among the Indians. He was instrumental 
 in having the reservations of the Navajos extended 
 and obtained much helpful legislation for them. 
 In the course of his missionary labors among the 
 Indians in Arizona and New Mexico, Father Weber 
 became expert in their language, and assisted his 
 brother Franciscans in compiling their “Ethnologic 
 Dictionary of the Navajo Language” (1910). He 
 wrote a Navajo-English “Catechism of Christian 
 Doctrine,” and was engaged in writing a Navajo 
 grammar when his health finally broke down. He was 
 a contributor to the “Indian Sentinel” and “Sendbote 
 des Goettlichen Herzens Jesu,” and wrote the article 
 “Navajo Indians” for the Catholic Encyclopedia. 
 
 Wellington, Archdiocese of (Wellingtoniensis; 
 cf. C. E., XV—580a), in New Zealand. This see 
 has been filled for thirty-eight years by Most Rev. 
 Francis-Marie Redwood, who was appointed bishop 
 in 1874, and promoted upon the erection of the see 
 into a metropolitan see in 1887. In 1913 he was 
 given a coadjutor, with right of succession, in the 
 person of Most Rev. Thomas O’Shea of the Congre¬ 
 gation of Marists. He was born in San Francisco 
 in 1870, studied at St. Mary’s Seminary, Meanee, 
 New Zealand, and was ordained in 1893, returning to 
 the seminary as a professor. He later served as 
 rector of St. Joseph's, Wellington, was made vicar 
 general in 1907, and was appointed titular Bishop of 
 Gortyna, 9 May, 1913. In 1915 Archbishop Red¬ 
 wood celebrated the golden jubilee of his priesthood, 
 and in 1918 Rev. Dean Binsfeld celebrated the 
 diamond jubilee or sixtieth anniversary of his ordina¬ 
 tion. A beautiful Gothic church dedicated to St. 
 Mary of the Angels was erected in Wellington City 
 in 1920-21. During the World War this diocese gave 
 about 500 of its young men to serve with the forces, 
 and large numbers fell in action or died from wounds: 
 General F. E. Johnston was killed in France in 1917, 
 and Colonel W. J. Malone was killed in Gallipoli in 
 1915. From the ranks of the clergy 14 went to the 
 front as chaplains, and one, Father McMenamin, was 
 killed in action, and another, Father Patrick Dore, 
 
 50 
 
WERNZ 
 
 770 
 
 WEST VIRGINIA 
 
 died from wounds received. Rev. M. J. Lewis, who 
 served as a military chaplain at home, died at his 
 post during the epidemic of 1918. The diocese has 
 also suffered the loss of one of its oldest missionaries, 
 Rev. Patrick J. Smyth, active in missionary work 
 for thirty years, who died 7 September, 1916, and 
 three prominent laymen, generous benefactors 
 of the Church; Martin Kennedy, K. S. G., d. 1916; 
 Sydney Johnston] d. 1917, and Maurice O'Connor 
 d. 1920. The archdiocese comprises 58,000 whites 
 and 2000 Madri Catholics. Latest statistics credit 
 it with 45 parishes, 127 churches, 3 Madri Missions, 
 38 mission stations, 2 monasteries of men, 4 con¬ 
 vents of men and 50 of women, 48 secular and 53 
 regular clergy, 30 lay brothers, 520 nuns, 1 seminary, 
 30 seminarians, 2 colleges for men with 16 teachers 
 and 200 students, 4 colleges for girls with 25 teachers 
 and 390 students, 14 high schools with 56 teachers 
 and a total attendance (boys and girls) of 1100, 
 57 elementary schools with 210 teachers and 6910 
 pupils, besides 2 elementary schools for Madri 
 children with 4 teachers and 45 pupils, 3 industrial 
 schools with 14 teachers and 450 pupils and 1 board¬ 
 ing school for Madri girls with 3 teachers and 50 
 pupils. The charitable institutions include 3 homes, 
 1 Catholic women’s hostel and 1 day nursery; 23 
 public institutions permit the priests to minister in 
 them and two of the Catholic homes receive govern¬ 
 ment grants. Two societies are formed among the 
 clergy and ten among the laity. 
 
 Wernz, Franz Xaver, General of the Society of 
 Jesus, and distinguished canonist, b. on 4 December, 
 1842, at Rottweill, Wiirtemberg; d. at Rome on 
 20 August, 1914. He entered the Jesuit novitiate on 
 5 December, 1852, and was professed on 2 February, 
 1876. He was professor of canon law at the Gregorian 
 University in 1883, and its rector in 1904, and was 
 elected to the office of general on 8 September, 1906. 
 He died in August, 1914. Since 1908, he had been 
 consultor of the Congregations of the Holy Office, of 
 the Consistorial, of the Index, and of Extraordinary 
 Ecclesiastical Affairs, and from 25 April, 1904, he 
 was a member of the Commission for the codification 
 of canon law. His obsequies were held at the Gesh 
 six days after his death. 
 
 West Virginia (cf. C. E., XV — 605a).—The 
 area of the State is 24,170 square miles, of which 
 24,022 square miles are land and 148 square miles 
 are water. In 1920 the population was 1,463,701, an 
 increase of 19.9 since 1910. Of this 74.8 per cent was 
 rural, 25.2 per cent urban. The average number of 
 inhabitants to the square mile was 60.9 as against 
 50.8 in 1910. There are 34 cities, of which the 
 largest with their respective populations are: Wheeling 
 56,208; Huntington 50,177; Charleston 39,608; 
 Clarksburg 27,869. The composition of the popula¬ 
 tion is as follows: whites 1,377,235; negroes 86,345; 
 the native whites numbered 1,315,329, of which 
 1,232,857 were of native parentage, 56,625 of foreign 
 parentage, and 25,847 of mixed parentage. The 
 foreign-born, 61,906 in all, came chiefly from Italy 
 (14,147), Austria (5115), Poland (5799), England 
 (3433), Russia (3911). Of the population ten years 
 of age and over (1,083,395) 6.4 per cent, or 69,413, 
 were illiterate. 
 
 Economic Status. —Although the number of 
 farms in 1920 shows a decrease of farming land, the 
 87,289 farms in the State were valued at 57.7 per 
 cent more than in 1910. The land in farms is $9,569,- 
 790; the value of all farm property, $496,439,617; 
 of live stock, $67,261,153. The production and value 
 of the leading crops in 1920 were as follows: hay 
 1,099,679 bushels, $23,746,574; corn 17,010,357 
 bushels, $29,768,131; wheat 3,747,812 bushels, 
 
 $8,395,097; oats 3,054,668 bushels, $3,054,668; 
 rye 186,709 bushels, $326,749; buckwheat 537,883 
 bushels, $860,616; potatoes 2,809,398 bushels, 
 $6,461,619; tobacco 7,587,052 pounds, $2,731,338; 
 fruit $9,962,747. The railroad mileage in the State 
 is 3892, exclusive of the electric railways covering 
 660 miles of track. The assessed value of real property 
 in 1919 was $767,653,310; and of personal property, 
 $372,631,062. The total bonded debtedness of the 
 State was $13,500,000 on 1 January, 1920. 
 
 Mining .—In 1918 there were 89,933,839 tons of 
 coal mined; 3,349,761 tons of coke. The production 
 of mineral gas was worth $57,389,161; of clay 
 products $9,608,065. The petroleum wells yielded 
 8,117,300 barrels, valued at $49,078,000. The State 
 ranks second in the production of coal. 
 
 Manufacturing .—A preliminary statement of the 
 1919 census of manufactures in the State reveals 
 2784 establishments, with 93,812 persons engaged 
 in manufacture, earning a total of $120,047,000, 
 producing goods valued at $471,982,000. The capital 
 invested was $340,119,000. 
 
 Education. —In 1919 the Barnes Educational 
 Code of 1916 was amended and re-enacted. It pro¬ 
 vides for a State Board of Education, to consist of a 
 State superintendent, ex-officio, and six members 
 appointed for six years by the Governor. An ad¬ 
 visory council is created to assist in policies for the 
 education of colored youth. The State Board has 
 general control over the State University, normal and 
 agricultural schools, the vocational school, col¬ 
 legiate institute, colored institute and the schools for 
 the deaf, blind, and all State educational institutions. 
 The State superintendent is elected for four years 
 by the qualified voters, also a county superintendent 
 for each county. The district Board of Education 
 consists of three members and as a corporation can 
 hold school property, provide school sites, buildings, 
 equipment, and can appoint one school trustee for 
 each sub-district. The minimum school term is 
 now 130 days, but will be increased ten days each 
 year until 1924, when it will be 160 days. Children 
 not less than seven nor more than fourteen years of 
 age must attend school, also those between fourteen 
 and sixteen years of age who are not lawfully em¬ 
 ployed. Those who are employed are expected to 
 attend evening or part time school at least 5 hours a 
 week for 20 weeks, if such school is in session within 
 two miles from a child’s residence. Any district 
 may issue bonds for sites, buildings, etc., by three- 
 fifths of the votes cast. The laws governing private 
 and parochial schools are as follows: The basic 
 language of instruction in the common school branches 
 in public and private schools shall be the English 
 language only. Private schools, to be lawfully 
 attended by children of compulsory education age, 
 must be approved. They must furnish to district 
 boards reports relative to attendance and instruction. 
 The term of the approved private school must be 
 equal to that of the public school. The property 
 used for educational, literary, scientific, religious or 
 charitable purposes may be exempted from taxation 
 (X.-l). 
 
 In 1920 the 6978 public elementary schools had 
 341,977 enrolled pupils and 10,978 teachers, and the 
 172 public high schools had 1129 teachers and 
 18,512 pupils. The six public normal schools had 
 123 teachers and 2262 students in 1917. The 
 expenditure on education in 1920 was $11,291,536. 
 In 1920 the number of children of school age was 
 515,423, of whom 321,191 attended school. The value 
 of all property used for school purposes was $20,- 
 245,822; while $5,836,335 was spent for maintenance. 
 Included in the State institutions are: 6 State hos¬ 
 pitals, an Industrial School for Boys at Pruntytown, 
 a Tuberculosis Sanitarium at Terra Alta, a Colored 
 
WESTMINSTER 
 
 771 
 
 WESTMINSTER 
 
 Tuberculosis Sanitarium at Denmar, a Children’s 
 Home at Elkins, and a Colored Orphan’s Home at 
 Huntington. 
 
 Religion. —The latest (1916) Census of Religious 
 Denominations gives the following statistics: all 
 denominations, 427,865 members; Methodist Episco¬ 
 palians 82,551; Baptists, Northern Convention, 
 62,459; Catholics 60,337; Methodist Episcopal 
 Church, South, 53,020; United Brethren in Christ 
 29,426; Disciples of Christ 10,227; Methodist- 
 Protestant Church 18,948; Baptists, National Con¬ 
 vention, 16,238; Presbyterians 27,349. The value 
 of church property was $15,472,996. For Catholic 
 statistics see the articles on the dioceses of Wheeling 
 and Richmond. 
 
 Recent Legislation and History. —The ques¬ 
 tion of the Virginia debt rose with the formation of 
 Vest Virginia and has been an important issue in 
 recent politics. At the time of its separation from 
 Virginia, the new State agreed to assume a just por¬ 
 tion of the public debt of Virginia prior to 1861. 
 Various negotiations failed to adjust it, as there were 
 divers judgments, some in favor of West Virginia 
 and some against. Virginia instituted suit in the 
 Supreme Court, which tentatively fixed West Vir¬ 
 ginia’s share of the debt at $7,182,507.48, leaving the 
 question of interest for later adjustment. West 
 Virginia then created a West Virginia Debt Commis¬ 
 sion to reduce if possible the amount of the debt, 
 preparatory to contingent arrangements for payment. 
 On 14 June, 1915, the Court issued a judgment against 
 West Virginia for $12,393,929.50, including accrued 
 interest and for 5 per cent thereafter until paid. In 
 June, 1916, Virginia asked the Supreme Court for a 
 writ of execution by levy on public property in West 
 Virginia. This the court denied in order to give West 
 Virginia a reasonable opportunity to pay the judg¬ 
 ment. In February, 1917, Virginia filed application 
 for a writ of mandamus against the Legislature of 
 West Virginia to compel a levy of a tax to pay the 
 judgment. On 1 January, 1919, the debt was 
 $14,562,867.16. In March West Virginia agreed to 
 pay $1,062,867 in cash and arranged to pay the rest 
 by an issue of bonds. 
 
 West Virginia has been the scene of several strikes, 
 those of 1911 at Cabin Creek and Paint Creek and the 
 collieries of Kanawha Valley were serious enough to 
 call out the militia and to cause martial law to be 
 declared. On this occasion the miners won the strike, 
 nearly every one of their demands being granted. 
 Recent legislation includes a state wide prohibition 
 amendment to the constitution (1912), an inheritance 
 tax (1913), the creation of a Public Utilities Com¬ 
 mission, a workmen’s Compensation Act (1913), the 
 establishment of a State Roads Commission (1915), 
 of a Board of Children’s Guardians 1919), to receive 
 and place neglected boys under sixteen and girls 
 under eighteen, a Child Welfare Commission (1921), 
 also a Bureau of Negro Welfare and Statistics (1921), 
 the establishment of a State industrial school for 
 colored boys from ten to eighteen years of age. 
 The age of consent was raised to sixteen in 1921. 
 The marking of the West Virginia-Marylamd Boun¬ 
 dary was finished in 1912. Ratification of the Federal 
 suffrage Amendment was defeated on 12 February, 
 1920; but the prohibition amendment was ratified on 
 10 January, 1918. During the European War the 
 United States Government completed at an expense of 
 $60,000,000 two great war industries, a projectile 
 plant at Charleston and a high explosives plant at 
 Nitro, sixteen miles down the Kanawha. 
 
 At the time of the trouble with Mexico in 1916 the 
 Second infantry regiment of the West Virginia Militia 
 was called into the United States service for duty on 
 the Mexican border and after remaining in the State 
 mobilization camp at Kanawha City, Charleston, 
 
 West Virginia, until the middle-of October, when it 
 was sent to San Antonio (Fort Sam Houston). Here 
 the regiment remained until it was returned to the 
 State and mustered out. When the war with Ger¬ 
 many broke out the entire militia was drafted into 
 service, received their training at Camp Shelby, 
 Mississippi, and joined the American Expeditionary 
 Forces. The West Virginia members of the national 
 army were incorporated into the 8Qth Division at 
 Camp Lee, Virginia. In all, West Virginia con¬ 
 tributed 55,777 soldiers (1.48 per cent) to the United 
 States Army. 
 
 Westminster, Archdiocese of (Westmonaster- 
 iensis; cf. C. E., XV—592d), erected and made 
 metropolitan in 1850 when it comprised the counties 
 of Middlesex, Hertfordshire, Essex and London north 
 of the Thames. In 1917 the county of Essex was 
 formed into the separate diocese of Brentwood. The 
 suffragan sees of Westminster are Brentwood, North¬ 
 ampton, Nottingham, Portsmouth and Southwark. 
 
 During the World War Cardinal Bourne in his 
 capacity of Archbishop of Westminster stood forth as 
 the representative and spokesman of the Catholics of 
 the British Empire, and his patriotic services and 
 statesmanlike utterances commanded universal re¬ 
 spect. Besides taking the lead in providing the very 
 large number of military and naval chaplains required, 
 he paid personal visits repeatedly to the front and to 
 the fleet. Finally he undertook a journey through the 
 East in which he did much to allay apprehensions and 
 remove misunderstandings. The public position he 
 won himself before the non-Catholic public was shown 
 in the confidence placed in him by the ministers of 
 state, by his election to the Athenaeum Club under 
 special circumstances of honor, and notably on the 
 occasion of his episcopal silver jubilee in 1921, when 
 he received messages of congratulation testifying to 
 the esteem in which he was held by the rulers and rep¬ 
 resentatives of foreign powers as well as those of his 
 own country, men of all classes and creeds joining in 
 this manifestation of good will. Since the war he 
 has carried out extensive works at the diocesan semi¬ 
 nary, St. Edmund’s College, Old Hall, where he has 
 spent many thousands of pounds in thoroughly repair¬ 
 ing and largely remodelling the college buildings, some 
 of which date back to the Eighteenth Century. As 
 his own personal act of thanksgiving to God for the 
 victory won by the Allies he has added to the college 
 church, at his private expense, a spacious and beauti¬ 
 ful jubilee chapel. In 1918 he issued a notable pas¬ 
 toral on the Social Question which continues to influ¬ 
 ence recent Catholic thought and writings on this 
 momentous subject. The same year on 27 August, 
 one of the Archbishop’s Auxiliaries died and his suc¬ 
 cessor as provost was Rt. Rev. Joseph Butt, who was 
 consecrated titular Bishop of Cambysopolis 24 Febru¬ 
 ary, 1911. The second auxiliary, Rt. Rev. Manuel 
 Bidwell, was consecrated titular Bishop of Miletopolis 
 8 December, 1917. 
 
 Besides the diocesan seminary, St. Edmund’s Col¬ 
 lege Hall, and the foreign missionary college at Mill 
 Hill, there are in the diocese: a training college for men 
 teachers in elementary schools, and eight other insti¬ 
 tutions engaged in secondary education. For girls 
 there are 60 secondary schools and 1 training college 
 for teachers. Public elementary schools number 88, 
 of which 84 (including 151 departments) receive gov¬ 
 ernment grants. In 1920-21 there were 27,904 chil¬ 
 dren on the books of these schools, the figures in pre¬ 
 vious editions of the Catholic Encyclopedia for 
 1890 and 1900 include schools now in the diocese of 
 Brentwood. Amongst residential charitable institu¬ 
 tions for children are schools certified by the govern¬ 
 ment, which are under the administration of the West¬ 
 minster Diocesan Education Fund, and are used 
 
WETTINGEN-MEHRERAU 
 
 772 
 
 WHITE 
 
 jointly by the two dioceses of Westminster and Brent¬ 
 wood; 1 reformatory, 2 industrial schools, 9 for Poor 
 Law children and 8 schools for opthalmic, mentally 
 deficient, crippled and epileptic children; 4 orphan¬ 
 ages under the Rescue Society. Other charitable 
 institutions include many other homes and orphan¬ 
 ages for poor children, 5 refuges for penitents, a night 
 refuge, 4 asylums for aged poor, 2 almshouses and 4 
 hospitals. 
 
 Much work is done amongst the poor by the Society 
 of St. Vincent de Paul, the Ladies of Charity and 
 other organizations of the laity. Other societies watch 
 over the interests of certain classes. Such are: the 
 Converts’ Aid Society (for converted clergymen), 
 the Catholic Soldiers’ and Seamen’s Associations, the 
 Prisoners’ Aid Society and the International Catholic 
 Society for befriending girls. The Catholic periodicals 
 published include “The Tablet,” the “Dublin Re¬ 
 view” and the “Catholic Directory.” 
 
 Among the religious communities of men established 
 in the archdiocese are: Augustinians, Augustinians of 
 the Assumption, Benedictines, Canons Regular of the 
 Lateran, Discalced Carmelites, Catholic Missionary 
 Society, Congregation of the Mission, Dominicans, 
 Fathers of Charity, Jesuits, Marist Fathers, Mission¬ 
 aries of the Sacred Heart, Oblates of Mary Immacu¬ 
 late, Oblates of St. Charles, Oratorians, Passionists, 
 Pious Society of Missions, Redemptorists, Fathers of 
 St. Edmund (Pontigny), St. Joseph’s Society for 
 Foreign Missions, Salesians, Salvatorians, Servites, 
 Scheut Fathers, Missionary Sons of the Immaculate 
 Heart of Mary, Alexian Brothers, Brothers of Mercy 
 and Marist Brothers. Women: Adoration of the 
 Sacred Heart, Adoration Reparatrice, Assumption, 
 Bon Secours, Bon Secours (of Troyes), Canonesses of 
 St. Augustine, Carmelites, Daughters of the Cross, 
 Dominicans, English Institute of the Blessed Virgin 
 Mary, Faithful Companions, Filles de Jesus, Fran¬ 
 ciscans, Good Shepherd, Handmaids of the Sacred 
 Heart, Helpers of the Holy Souls, Holy Child, Im¬ 
 maculate Conception, Our Lady of the Retreat, Jesus 
 and Mary, Little Company of Mary, Little Sisters of 
 the Assumption, Little Sisters of the Poor, Marie 
 Auxiliatrice, Marie Reparatrice, Marist Sisters, Most 
 Holy Cross and Passion, Most Holy Sacrament, Notre 
 Dame, Notre Dame de Sion, Poor Clares, Poor Hand¬ 
 maids of Jesus, Poor Servants of the Mother of God, 
 Poor Sisters of Nazareth, Filles de la Sagesse, Sainte 
 Union, Servants of the Sacred Heart, Sisters of Charity 
 (4 congregations with 17 convents), Sisters of Hope, of 
 Mary and Joseph, of Mercy, of Providence, of St. 
 Joseph, of St. Martha, of St. Martin, of St. Mary, of 
 the Christian Retreat, of the Holy Family, of the Poor 
 Child Jesus, of the Sacred Heart, of the Sacred Hearts 
 of Jesus and Mary, Society of the Sacred Heart, Sis¬ 
 ters Misericorde, Ursulines, Ursulines of Jesus, Visi¬ 
 tation, Augustinian Sisters of Meaux, Daughters of 
 Providence, Franciscan Missionaries of Mary, Sisters 
 of Our Lady of the Missions, of St. Gildas and of 
 Loreto. According to latest statistics there are in the 
 archdiocese: 487 priests (190 regulars), 150 churches, 
 41 communities of men, 141 communities of women. 
 The Catholic population numbers 260,000 out of a 
 total population of 4,115,461. 
 
 Wettingen-Mehrerau, Abbacy Nullius of; cf. 
 C. E., XV—607b).—In the general chapter of 7 
 Sept., 1920, the abbot of Wettingen, Mgr.- Cassian 
 Haid (elected abbot August 1919), was elected abbot 
 general of the entire Cistercian Order During the 
 world war 15 clerics and 34 lay brothers served in the 
 army, and 6 priests attended the wounded. Among 
 the recently deceased are: Dominic Willi, professed 
 Prior of Wettingen-Mehrerau, Abbot of the restored 
 monastery of Marienstatt, elected Bishop of Limburg 
 in 1898, died 6 Jan., 1913. Abbot Eugene Rotz of 
 
 Wettingen-Mehrerau, died 7 Aug., 1917. Abbot 
 Conrad Kolb, professed, elected Abbot of Marien¬ 
 statt 25 Aug.,. 1898, died 21 May, 1918. The 
 abbey has 93 priests, and 70 lay brothers; 2 parishes; 
 3 churches; 1 mission in Birnan in Baden; 2 stations; 
 3 abbeys for men, and 6 for women; 3 theological 
 seminaries with 10 professors and 20 alumni; 6 colleges 
 for boys with 40 teachers and 360 students; 2 colleges 
 for girls with 20 teachers and 90 students. The 6 
 colleges include 1 gymnasium, 2 schools for oblates, 
 1 commercial school and 1 agricultural school. A 
 Catholic periodical is published called “Cistercienser- 
 Chronik.” 
 
 Wheeling, Diocese of (Wheelingensis; cf. C. 
 E., XV—608a), comprises 21,355 square miles in 
 the state of West Virginia, and 7817 square miles in 
 the state of Virginia. It is under the administration 
 of its third bishop, Rt. Rev. Patrick James Donahue, 
 born in Great Malvern, England, in 1849 and appoint¬ 
 ed bishop 22 January, 1894. In 1913 the vicar general 
 of the diocese, Very Rev. Monsignor Joseph Mullen 
 died, on 24 November, and he has been succeeded 
 by Very Rev. O. H. Moye. Another influential 
 member of the clergy was lost to the diocese by the 
 death of Rev. John W. Werninger, first president of 
 St. Edward’s College at Huntington, West Virginia, 
 28 November, 1919. In the West Virginia section of 
 the diocese the progress has been especially marked in 
 recent years; a large new church and parochial school 
 have been built in Weston, a new parochial school 
 at Clarksburg has been placed in charge of the 
 Xaverian Brothers, at Moundsville a new parochial 
 school and church have also been built, and a Polish 
 school and church, as well as a church for English 
 speaking people, have been erected at Weirton. 
 A new hospital known as St. Francis Hospital, at 
 Charlestown, is in charge of the Sisters of St. Joseph, 
 and extensive additions have been made to the Wheel¬ 
 ing and St. Mary’s Hospitals. The Catholic popula¬ 
 tion of this territory, which totals approximately 
 63,000, is composed of about ten prominent nationali¬ 
 ties, the largest proportion being Italians, Germans, 
 Poles and Hungarians. The diocese comprises 71 
 parishes, 113 churches, 86 missions, 4 monasteries 
 for women, 2 convents of men and 6 of women, 86 
 secular and 27 regular clergy, 25 lay brothers, 332 
 nuns, 30 seminarians, 1 college for men with 50 
 teachers and 40 students, 11 high schools with 54 
 teachers and 125 pupils, 5 academies with 30 teachers 
 and 720 pupils (girls), 1 training school with 4 teachers 
 and 35 pupils, 31 elementary schools with 125 
 teachers and 4500 pupils, 1 missionary work, 5 
 homes and 6 hospitals. Three societies are formed 
 among the clergy, and 17 associations are organized 
 among the laity; one Catholic periodical is published. 
 During the World War four of the clergy of the dio¬ 
 cese served as chaplains,.and from the large number 
 of the laity who served, about fifty gave their lives 
 in the service. 
 
 White, Edward Douglass, Chief Justice of the 
 United States Supreme Court, b. at Lafourche, 
 Louisiana, on 3 November, 1825; d. at Washington 
 on 19 May, 1921; son of Edward and Catherine S. 
 (Ringgold) White, his father being well known as the 
 seventh governor of Louisiana. He studied at Mount 
 St. Mary’s, Emmitsburg, the Jesuit College in New 
 Orleans, and Georgetown University; but before gradu¬ 
 ating he enlisted in the Confederate Army during the 
 Civil War. In 1868, he was admitted to the Louisiana 
 Bar, thus following in the footsteps of his father and 
 grandfather, both lawyers of distinction, and six 
 years later he was elected a State Senator. In 1897, 
 he was appointed to the bench of the Supreme Court, 
 of Louisiana, a position he filled with distinction for 
 thirteen years, when he was elected to the United 
 
WHITE FATHERS 
 
 773 
 
 WHITE SISTERS 
 
 States Senate. In 1894, he was appointed associate 
 justice of the United States Supreme Court by 
 President Cleveland, and on 12 December, 1910, was 
 named Chief Justice by President Taft, the first 
 instance in which a president named a chief justice of 
 a different political affiliation. Coming from Louisiana 
 where the civil, not the common, law is the basis of 
 jurisprudence, White is considered to have been the 
 greatest authority on the civil law who has graced 
 the United States Supreme Court bench. In cases 
 involving the Government he was a federalist in his 
 decisions, for instance in the insular cases, though he 
 delivered a minority decision against it in the famous 
 Northern Securities case. He received the Laetare 
 Medal from the University of Notre Dame in 1914, 
 and at the time of his death he was chancellor of the 
 Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. 
 
 White Fathers, (Missionaries of Our Lady 
 of Africa of Algiers; cf. C. E., XV—613d).—A 
 society of secular priests living in community, and 
 laboring for the conversion of Africa. At present 
 the missionaries have under their care the Prefecture 
 Apostolic of Ghardaia and the vicariates apostolic of 
 Uganda, Victoria-Nyanza, Kivu, Unyanyembe, Tan¬ 
 ganyika, Nyassa, Banguelo, Upper Congo, Bamoko, 
 and Waghadugu. The two last were erected in 1921 
 by division of the Prefecture Apostolic of Sahara. 
 Recruiting houses for the society are in Quebec 
 (Canada), Belgium, Holland, 'Germany, Italy, 
 Luxemburg, Switzerland, and France, in which are 
 received those not yet ready for the novitiate. Those 
 desiring to become priests are admitted to the novi¬ 
 tiate after their philosophical studies and one year of 
 general theology. They complete their studies and 
 are ordained at the scholasticate of Carthage in Tunis. 
 The superior general, Mgr. Livinhac, titular Arch¬ 
 bishop of Oxrynchus, resides at Maison Carree near 
 Algiers. In July, 1921, the society numbered: 
 15 bishops, 1 prefect apostolic, 645 priests, 225 
 brothers, 75 novices, with 100 pupils in the theological 
 classes. In the houses of postulants for the novitiate 
 were 90 pupils. The number of neophytes in all the 
 vicariates (June, 1920), was 305,154, and the number 
 preparing for baptism was 120,560. There were 
 1400 Christians in the mission established by the 
 White Fathers among the Berbers of Jurjura (Alge¬ 
 ria), in June, 1921; the regions bordering on the 
 great lakes and the Sudan show the best results. 
 The number of boys and girls in the schools under 
 instruction of the White Fathers in June, 1920, was 
 64,096 and 38,758 respectively. In 1921 the French 
 Government named Fr. Van der Vliet, missionary in 
 Jerusalem, Knight of the Legion of Honor, in recog¬ 
 nition of his services during the World War. Being 
 of Dutch origin, he was permitted to remain in 
 Jerusalem, where he was able to aid the French 
 religious expelled from the Holy Land and to guard 
 from profanation the Basilica and Seminary of 
 St. Anne. 
 
 White Sisters (Missionary Sisters of Our 
 Lady of Africa). —A religious congregation estab¬ 
 lished by Cardinal Archbishop Lavigerie of Algiers 
 to aid the White Fathers in their evangelization of 
 Africa. The first eight aspirants from Brittany, 
 France, were trained in the religious life by the 
 Sisters of the Congregation of St. Charles of Nancy, 
 one of whom had brought them safely to Algiers. 
 The rules of their institutes were drawn up by Arch¬ 
 bishop Lavigerie, and after a strict novitiate the 
 candidates received the habit from him. Other 
 postulants from France joined them, but some found 
 the life too severe and returned to their native land. 
 The first mission party was formed in 1873 and sent 
 to the village of St. Cyprien des Attafs, where the 
 
 archbishop had purchased an allotment, intending 
 that the first Arab Christians would settle there 
 under the immediate control of the White Fathers. 
 The Sisters were to teach the women to take care of 
 their new homes and to bring up their children in a 
 Christian manner. In 1876 St. Elizabeth’s Hospital 
 was established and there the Sisters still nurse their 
 numerous Arab patients. A year later the station 
 of Ste. Monique was founded nearby; then came the 
 mission of Les Ouad Thias in Kabylia, Beni-Ismail 
 and Djemaa-Saharidj in the same province. In 1882 
 the Sisters were installed at La Marsa, near Carthage, 
 where they opened a school, an asylum for bereaved 
 women, and an orphanage for European girls. The 
 Sisters were insufficient in number to respond to the 
 many calls for new mission stations, and recruiting 
 houses were opened in Lyons and Paris, at Maestricht 
 in Holland, and Herent in Belgium. At the death 
 of Cardinal Lavigerie in 1892, the congregation was 
 confided to the care of its superior general, Mother 
 Marie Salome. The mistress of novices had received 
 a special blessing from the cardinal for her little flock. 
 
 In 1893 the Sisters were at work in 11 stations. 
 They are under the spiritual guidance of the White 
 Fathers, and have established their works in the 
 following vicariates confided to the care of these 
 missionaries: Upper Congo, Tanganiyika, Victoria- 
 Nyanza, Unyanyambe, Nyassa, Uganda, Kivu, 
 Banguelo, Bamoko, and Waghadugu; and in the 
 prefecture apostolic of Ghardaia. They have estab¬ 
 lished schools, workrooms, dispensaries, hospitals, 
 leper-hospitals, and asylums. In the villages of the 
 Kabyles they have infant-schools and workrooms 
 where women and girls learn plain sewing and carpet 
 weaving and the sick are nursed in the Hospital of 
 Ste. Eugenie. In 1910 the the French Red Cross 
 inaugurated an important dispensary in Tunis and 
 several White Sisters act as nurses. The Sisters also 
 have orphanages, workrooms, and dispensaries in the 
 protectorate. 
 
 The congregation has grown and prospered. At 
 present there are 550 professed nuns staffed in 64 
 posts, the greater number being situated in British 
 East and Central Africa. An aspirant to the order 
 must have completed her sixteenth year and not be 
 over thirty-five. Widows are not admitted. Abne¬ 
 gation of self is the most valuable virtue for a mission¬ 
 ary Sister. After a postulate of several months the 
 aspirant is admitted to the novitiate at Algiers, and 
 makes her first vows at the end of eighteen months. 
 These vows are renewed annually for five years, when 
 the Sisters are admitted to perpetual profession. 
 There are no lay Sisters in the community; each and 
 all are employed in manual or apostolic labor accord¬ 
 ing to their strength and aptitudes or the will of the 
 superiors. Common life is a rule, the constitations 
 prescribing that a community must never reckon less 
 than three members. In distant mission posts there 
 are usually four or five Sisters so as to fill the vacant 
 place in case of sickness or other unforeseen necessity. 
 Though superfluity is obviously banished from the 
 Sisters’ livelihood, the necessary has never failed 
 them, and since the inauguration of the railway in 
 British East Africa and elsewhere the means of 
 existence have been greatly facilitated. A simple 
 habitation, and plain, nutritious and sufficient food 
 are provided. The religious costume is composed of 
 a white robe and scapular; a wimple and a white veil 
 indoors and on the mission; in European centres the 
 Sisters wear a black veil and mantle over their white 
 robe whenever they go abroad. They also wear a 
 silver crucifix attached to a red silk cord on the 
 breast, and the rosary beads, black and white, are 
 suspended at the belt. The Sisters undertake deeds 
 of mercy and charity of every kind in behalf of the 
 African natives, and follow daily spiritual exercises. 
 
WICHITA 
 
 774 
 
 WINNIPEG 
 
 The mother general, aided by several assistants, 
 rules the congregation and is under the direct author¬ 
 ity of the Holy See, though each community, in¬ 
 cluding the mother-house, is under the jurisdiction 
 of the ordinaries in their respective dioceses. A 
 postulate has been opened in Levis, P. Q., Canada, 
 to receive aspirants from North and South America. 
 The congregation received a laudatory Brief in 1887, 
 was conditionally approved for five years in 1888, 
 this approbation being received in 1897 and 1901, 
 and was definitively approved 14 Dec., 1909. 
 
 Wichita, Diocese of (Wichitensis; cf. C. E., 
 XV—616b), in Kansas, suffragan of St. Louis. Bishop 
 Hennessy died 13 July, 1920, and was succeeded by 
 Rt. Rev. Aug. J. Schwertner, installed 22 June, 1921. 
 The city of Wichita now has a population of 78,000, 
 about 5000 of whom are Catholics. There are in the 
 diocese 85 secular and 25 regular priests, 81 churches 
 with resident pastors, 60 missions with churches, 8 hos¬ 
 pitals, 49 parish schools (4 in Wichita), with 4862 
 pupils, 1 high school with 13 pupils, 3 academies with 
 470 pupils, and a Catholic population of 37,000. The 
 Redemptorists are now included among the religious 
 orders of men and the Loretto Sisters and Franciscan 
 Sisters among the women. A weekly called the 
 “Catholic Advance” is the diocesan organ. Three of 
 the diocesan priests served as chaplains during the 
 war. 
 
 Wilhelm, Joseph, theologian; b. at Montzen, 
 Belgium in 1845; d. at Aachen, Germany on 4 
 February, 1920. He studied at the University of 
 Liege and in the German College and Gregorian 
 University, Rome, and was ordained in 1870. He 
 subsequently taught philosophy for nine years, and 
 was engaged in parish work in the diocese of South¬ 
 wark, England, for thirty years, being rector at 
 Shoreham from 1886 till 1899, and later at Battle 
 (1900-11). He returned to Aachen in 1911 where he 
 died. He is the author of “The Family of Grace: 
 Pedigrees and historical Records from 1000] to 
 1911”; “Manual of Dogmatic Theology” (2 vols., 
 in collaboration with T. B. Scannell); “The Catholic’s 
 Manual,” a translation of Pesch’s “Das religiose 
 Leben”; he collaborated on “TheCatholic Dictionary;” 
 the Catholic Encyclopedia, and contributed to 
 various Catholic reviews like the “Linzer theologische 
 Quartalschrift,” and “Catholic Fortnightly Review” 
 (St. Louis); in addition he assisted in producing the 
 English version of Janssen’s “Geschichte des deuts- 
 chen Volkes,” and was editor of the “International 
 Catholic Library.” 
 
 Will and Testament of Clerics (cf. C. E., XV— 
 626d).—Among the privileges now granted to cardi¬ 
 nals is the right to dispose as they list, even by will, 
 of the fruits of their benefices, with the following 
 limitations: If any cardinal domiciled in Rome dies 
 his sacred equipment—excepting his rings and pecto¬ 
 ral crosses whether or not containing relics—and what¬ 
 ever is intended permanently for divine worship, no 
 matter by what source of income it was obtained, 
 are to go to the pontifical treasury, unless the cardinal 
 has donated or bequeathed them to a church, a 
 public oratory, a pious place, or to an ecclesiastic or 
 religious. The Holy See, however, expresses the 
 hope that he will make his titular church the bene¬ 
 ficiary. If a residential bishop, even though he be 
 a cardinal, dies, his sacred equipment must go to his 
 cathedral; however, this regulation does not apply to 
 his rings or pectoral cross, even if they have relic*, 
 though if there are relics of the Holy Cross in his 
 pectoral cross, the relics are to be delivered to his 
 successor—nor does it apply to objects not got with 
 ecclesiastical funds or already turned over as church 
 
 property. If the bishop governed two dioceses in 
 succession or united dioceses, these objects should be 
 returned to the various cathedrals according to the 
 source of the origin of the money with which they 
 were acquired, or if the united dioceses have a common 
 revenue, they should be divided equally between 
 them. Bishops, therefore, should leave a statement 
 showing what property was obtained through their 
 private funds or by donations, otherwise it will be 
 presumed by the canon law that the property -was 
 acquired with revenues derived from the Church. 
 What is said about residential bishops applies also to 
 any cleric w r ho holds a secular or religious benefice. 
 
 Novices in religious congregations, before making 
 their temporary vows, must make a will disposing 
 freely of whatever property they have then or may 
 acquire later. After their simple profession they 
 cannot lawfully change this will (validity is not in 
 question) without leave of the Holy See or, in case of 
 urgency, of a higher or even of a local superior; but 
 a change giving the religious institute a notable part 
 of the property, say about 20 to 25 per cent, is for¬ 
 bidden . As the Code does not refer to wills made in 
 religious orders by those having only simple vows, 
 the matter must be decided by the Constitutions of 
 the various bodies which ordinarily allow such 
 religious to dispose freely of their property by will. 
 
 Vermeersch-Creusen, Epit. jur. can. 
 
 Wilmington, Diocese of (Wilmingtoniensis; 
 cf. C. E., XV—646d), including the State of Dela¬ 
 ware, nine counties of Maryland and two of Virginia 
 east of Chesapeake Bay. Bishop Monaghan, who 
 succeeded in 1897, still governs the diocese, which 
 now has 31 parishes, 20 missions, 40 stations, 31 par¬ 
 ish churches, 1 monastery for women, 19 convents for 
 women, 38 secular priests, 21 regulars, 1 lay brother, 
 213 nuns, 15 seminarians, 3 high schools, 3 academies, 
 14 elementary schools with 127 teachers and an atten¬ 
 dance of 4988, 1 colored industrial school with 5 
 teachers and an attendance of 664. There are three 
 asylums and one home for the aged. A diocesan 
 benevolent association and the Priests’ Eucharistic 
 League are organized among the clergy and among the 
 laity the Knights of Columbus, the Daughters of 
 America, the Society for the Propagation of the Faith 
 and parish sodalities. The Catholic population of 
 34,300 includes Americans, Irish, German, English, 
 English-Scots, Italians, Poles, Greeks, Spaniards, 
 Portuguese, Bohemians and Ruthenians. During the 
 war eight priests of the diocese were in the service. 
 One was chaplain at the naval base at Lewes, Del., 
 where he died of the influenza in the service of his 
 men. Four served at the front in France, one of 
 whom, while acting as a chaplain, was wounded; the 
 other three served as regular soldiers in the French 
 army. The remaining three acted as chaplains in the 
 different camps in the United States. Rt. Rev. John 
 Lyons, V. G., died 3 April, 1916. 
 
 Winnipeg, Archdiocese of (Winnipegensis), 
 erected 4 December, 1915, comprises that portion of 
 the province of Manitoba, Canada, situated to the 
 south of the line which divides townships 44 and 45, 
 and to the west of Lake Winnipeg and the Red River, 
 except that territory lying south of the line which 
 divides townships 9 and 10, and east of the meridian 
 between the 12th and 13th ranges west of the principal 
 meridian. The first archbishop is Most Rev. Alfred 
 Arthur Sinnott, born in Morell, diocese of Charlotte¬ 
 town, 22 February, 1877; he made his studies in 
 Charlottetown and in Rome and was ordained in 
 Montreal in 1900. Named private chamberlain in 
 1907 he became secretary to the apostolic delegation of 
 Canada, and was appointed archbishop 9 December, 
 1915. The Jesuits, Oblate Fathers of Mary Immacu- 
 
WINONA 
 
 WISCONSIN 
 
 / /5 
 
 late and Redemptorists are established in the arch¬ 
 diocese as well as the Gray Sisters, Sisters of St. 
 Joseph, of the Holy Names of Jesus and Mary, of 
 Mercy, Franciscan Sisters Missionaries of Mary, 
 Benedictine Sisters, and Sisters of Our Lady of the 
 Missions. The territory has a Catholic population of 
 40,000, and counts 46 secular and 18 regular clergy, 
 10 seminarians, 38 churches with resident priests, 55 
 mission chapels, 12 parochial schools, 11 convents, 
 2 orphanages, 1 hospital, 2 asylums and 2 boarding 
 schools for Indians. 
 
 Winona, Diocese of (Winonensis; cf. C. E., XV 
 —658b), in Minnesota, suffragan of St. Paul. The 
 present bishop is the Rt. Rev. Patrick R. Heffron, 
 who has administered the diocese since 1910. Ac¬ 
 cording to the statistics of 1922 the diocese contained: 
 86 churches with resident priests, 38 missions, 117 
 secular priests, 7 regulars, 35 seminarians who are 
 being educated in seminaries of other dioceses, 1 
 orphan asylum, and 4 hospitals. The educational 
 institutions are: 1 college for boys (205 students), 
 1 college for women (453 students), 3 academies for 
 young ladies, 28 high schools (1278 students), 40 
 parish schools (7210 pupils), 1 school for small boys 
 (45 pupils). The Catholics number 68,800. 
 
 Wisconsin ( c {. C. E., XV—66b).—The area of the 
 State is 56,066 square miles. In 1920 the popula¬ 
 tion was 2,632,067, an increase of 12.8% since the 
 census of 1910. Between 1900 and 1910 the in¬ 
 crease was also 12.8%. Of this, 47.3% was urban; 
 j2.7% was rural. The average number of persons 
 to the square mile is 47.6 as against 42.2 in 1910. 
 There are 132 cities, of which the largest are: Mil¬ 
 waukee, with a population of 457,147; Racine 
 58,593; Kenosha 40,472; Superior 39,671; Madison 
 38,378. There are four Indian reservations. The 
 native whites number 2,156,810, of whom 1,054,691 
 are of native parentage, 736,051 of foreign parentage, 
 366,065 of mixed parentage. The foreign born 
 whites, 460,128 in all, came chiefly from Germany 
 (151,250), Norway (45.433), Sweden (22,896), Rus¬ 
 sia (21,447), Austria, (19,641), Italy (11,187). There 
 are 5201 negroes and 9611 Indians. Of the popula¬ 
 tion of ten years and over (2,069,567), there were 
 50,397 illiterates (,2.4%). 
 
 Economic Status.— According to the Agricultural 
 Census of 1920, there were in the State 189,295 
 farms, an increase of 12,163 since 1910. The land 
 area in farms is 22,148,223 acres; the value of all 
 - farm property, $2,677,282,997: of live stock $322,- 
 312,115; of the crops $445,387,868. The chief crops 
 of the State are: oats 68.296,223 bushels, valued at 
 $58,051,788; corn 44.547.398 bushels, valued at $64,- 
 593,729; hay $105,006,816; tobacco 52,454,246 
 pounds, $11,539,932. In 1920 there were in the State 
 3,050.829 cattle, including 2,763,483 milch cows, 
 683,364 horses, 479,991 sheep, and 1,596,419 swine. 
 The wool cut was 3,191,940 pounds, worth $1,691,728. 
 The dairy products brought $180,306,599 to the 
 State. The summary of manufactures for the State 
 in 1919 reveals the following statistics: establish¬ 
 ments 10.394; wage earners 265,200; capital $1,- 
 372,723,000; cost of materials $1,130,835,000; value 
 of products $1,883,608,000. Zinc is the chief mineral 
 product. Iron, granite, limestone, sandstone, and 
 graphite are also mined. The railway mileage is 
 7632. Milwaukee is a port of entry, its imports 
 in 1919 being $4,367,381; its exports $999,934. The 
 bonded debt of the State in 1920 was $1,935,000; 
 the assessed value of property in 1919, $298,538,152. 
 
 Religion.— The Federal Census of Religious De¬ 
 nominations in 1916 gave the following figures: 
 Catholics 594,S36; Lutherans 233,685; Methodists 
 
 65,364; Congregationalists 30,534; Baptists 21,464. 
 
 For details of Catholic information see the ar¬ 
 ticles on Milwaukee; Green Bay; La Crosse; 
 Superior. 
 
 Education.— In 1913 the county educational sys¬ 
 tem was reorganized under a county board of educa¬ 
 tion, which had extensive control over rural, ele¬ 
 mentary, and high schools. Two additional insti¬ 
 tutions were provided at the same time, an Indus¬ 
 trial Home for Women in Fond-du-Lac County, 
 and a Home for Feebleminded and Epileptic in 
 Racine County. The laws governing private and 
 parochial schools include the following: All 
 teachers of private and parochial schools shall keep 
 a record embodying all the data enumerated in 
 this subsection [regarding attendance] and such 
 record shall be open to the inspection of all truant 
 officers at any and all reasonable times. School 
 attendance is compulsory for all children between 
 the ages of seven and fourteen years, in cities for 
 the entire year; in towns and villages for 6 months 
 a year. Children between fourteen and seventeen, 
 who are regularly employed, must attend industrial 
 or continuation schools, 8 hours a week. In 1919-20 
 there were in the elementary schools, 14,122 
 teachers and 405,467 students; in the high schools, 
 3179 teachers and 59,776 students. The total ex¬ 
 penditure of the State for educational purposes 
 in 1919-20 was $21,385,791; of which upwards of 
 $17,000,000 was spent on the common schools, high 
 schools, and graded schools. There are 26 day 
 schools for the deaf and in 1918 out of 377 high 
 schools, there were 65 union and 3 consolidated 
 high schools. A State Library Commission main¬ 
 tains circulating free school libraries comprising 
 more than 1,900,000 volumes. There are 8222 school 
 houses. The Universitjr of Wisconsin, with a stu¬ 
 dent enrollment of 6872, received from the State in 
 the year ending 30 June, 1918, a total of $1,108,390; 
 this, with the students’ tuition fees ($550,000), and 
 other sources of income brought the grand total of 
 university receipts up to $2,901,453. Marquette 
 University has 3000 students. It is estimated that 
 there are over 73,000 children in the Catholic 
 parochial schools in the State. The orphan asylums 
 harbor nearly 1300 children. 
 
 Recent History and Legislation. —In 1913 a 
 minimum wage law was passed to be administered 
 by the State Industrial Commission. In the same 
 year all male persons were required to pass a 
 medical examination before marriage. This was 
 declared unconstitutional by the Circuit Courts, 
 but the Supreme Court upheld it, saying that it 
 was a valid exercise of police power. Mothers’ 
 pensions were provided for, but are not extended 
 to children of divorced parents. A bonus was given 
 in 1919 to war veterans, $10 a month, also free 
 education in the institutions of the State by means 
 of $30 a month. A law was also passed exempting 
 labor, agricultural, and horticultural organizations 
 instituted for the purpose of mutual help and not 
 having a capital or conducted for profit, from the 
 anti-trust laws. This gave labor unions the right 
 to organize. A State Board of Conciliation was 
 established. The Federal Suffrage Amendment was 
 ratified on 10 June, 1919; the Prohibition Act, 17 
 January, 1919. 
 
 During the European War Wisconsin’s draft re¬ 
 turns were reported first of all the States. She 
 originated the State and County Councils of De¬ 
 fence and the observation of meatless and wheat¬ 
 less days. The entire Wisconsin National Guard 
 saw service at the border of Mexico, in 1916, being 
 stationed at a camp near Fort Houston, San An¬ 
 tonio, Texas. As a result, they were seasoned 
 
WLADISLAW 
 
 776 
 
 WYOMING 
 
 soldiers when they were called into Federal Serv¬ 
 ice. The National Guard mobilized at Fort 
 Douglas. Some companies of the infantry were 
 transferred to the 42d Division, Rainbow Division, 
 and as the 150th Gun Battalion, was sent to Camp 
 Mills, Long Island, for preliminary training before 
 being sent to France. The other troops were in¬ 
 corporated into the 32d Division and sent to Camp 
 McArthur.. On the way to France some were lost 
 by the torpedoing of the transport steamer “Tus- 
 cania,” near the coast of Ireland. The others 
 moved to the front line in Alsace, taking over the 
 entrenchments facing Altkirch and Muhlhausen, 
 then near Chateau Thierry, to relieve the Third 
 Division. They were also at Fismes and Verdun. 
 The Wisconsin members of the National Army 
 were incorporated into the 85th Division and en¬ 
 trained at Camp Custer, Michigan. On the whole 
 the State contributed 98.211 soldiers or 2.61% of 
 the U. S. Army. The summary of casualties among 
 the Wisconsin members of the American Expedi¬ 
 tionary Force is as follows: deceased, 111 officers, 
 2538 men; prisoners, 6 officers, 72 men; wounded, 
 285 officers, 6801 men. 
 
 Wladislaw, Diocese of. See Kalisz-Kujawy 
 
 Wloclawek, Diocese of. See Kalisz-Kujawy 
 
 Wonsan, Vicariate Apostolic of (de Wonsan), 
 in Corea. This vicariate was erected by a decree of 
 5 August, 1920, which divided the Vicariate of Seoul 
 and took the northeastern provinces to constitute the 
 new vicariate, which became the third vicariate 
 apostolic of Corea. It comprises the provinces of 
 South Hamyong and North Hamyong which have a 
 population of 1,760,000. It is entrusted to the Bene¬ 
 dictine Fathers who found only 550 Catholics there 
 when they began their work at the outset of 1921. 
 This small flock is served from two mission stations, 
 one at Wonsan, the other at Naipiong; at the former 
 there is one priest assisted by three lay brothers, while 
 at Naipiong there is only one priest. The vicar, Rt. 
 Rev. Boniface Sauer, appointed titular Bishop of 
 Appiaria 25 August, 1920, returned to Corea in 1921 
 with six more priests, and they, with 14 lay brothers 
 (5 of them Corean postulants) are still in Seoul, where 
 the Europeans are studying the difficult language, but 
 as soon as possible they will be transferred to Wonsan. 
 The Father at Wonsan has opened an elementary 
 school which is attended by 80 boys and 35 girls, 
 mostly pagans. 
 
 World Conference on Faith and Order. See 
 
 Union of Christendom 
 
 Writers’ Guild, Catholic. See Catholic 
 
 Writers’ Guild 
 
 • 
 
 Wurzburg, Diocese of (Herbipolensis; cf. 
 C. E., XV—718c), in Bavaria, suffragan of Bamberg. 
 The present incumbent is Rt. Rev. Ferdinand 
 de Schloer, b. at Richelback, 2 March, 1839, ordained 
 10 August, 1862, named 5 March, 1898, consecrated 
 and enthroned 22 May following, assistant at the 
 pontifical throne 1 July, 1918. In 1917 in presence 
 of the Archbishop of Bamberg and the Bishop of 
 Eichstatt the people solemnly celebrated the three 
 hundredth anniversary of Julis Echter von Mesel- 
 brunn, the greatest Bishop of Bamberg. The fol¬ 
 lowing distinguished clergymen have died since 
 1909: Dr. Karl Guido Braun, rector, and canon of 
 the cathedral, distinguished for his activity in the 
 field of social science and for the energetic and 
 spirited stand which he took in combating religious 
 errors; Dr. Adam Gopfert, well known for his work 
 on moral theology; Dr. Henry Kihn, dean of the 
 
 cathedral, at one time professor at the university 
 and author of several well known works on patrology 
 and canon law. During the war the clergy and 
 laity who were not actively engaged at the front, 
 rendered valuable assistance in all fields of war- 
 work. They nursed the sick in the field hospitals, 
 looked after the soldiers at the railroad stations, 
 assisted widows and cared for young children. Many 
 of the pastors supplied their soldier parishioners with 
 literature and were in constant communication with 
 them. Several homes for children were established 
 and an institution for crippled soldiers. Count Karl 
 zu Lowunstein (q. v.), leader of the German Catholic 
 party and for many years chairman of the central 
 committees of the Catholic Congresses, joined the 
 Dominicans in his declining years and received 
 Holy Orders. He died in 1921. In 1921 the diocese 
 contained 456 parishes, 725 churches (about one in 
 every town), 7 mission stations, 25 monasteries for 
 men, 1 Benedictine abbey for men at Munster- 
 schwarzach, 300 convents and foundations for 
 women, with 2725 Sisters, 886 secular priests, 150 
 regulars, 190 Brothers, 1 diocesan seminary with 
 70 seminarians, 6 houses of studies. There is 1 
 university with a Catholic theological faculty, 8 
 professors, 14 gymnasia. All the schools are under 
 the supervision of the State, but courses are given 
 in religious instruction by regularly appointed pro¬ 
 fessors. In the primary schools the pupils are 
 instructed by the parish priests. There are also 8 
 higher educational institutions (Hohere schulen ), for 
 girls under the supervision of Sisters, several private 
 schools, 1 normal school for teachers, 900 elementary 
 schools, 1750 teachers, 98,000 pupils, 1200 con¬ 
 tinuation schools, 1397 teachers, 37,500 pupils. 
 
 The following institutions exist in the diocese: 
 1 institution for the deaf and dumb, 1 for the blind, 
 7 homes for the aged and for apprentices, 1 for 
 cripples, 2 asylums, 2 educational institutions, 3 
 hospitals (1 at Aschaffenburg, 2 at Wurzburg) 
 and aside from these each district has its own hospital, 
 3 reformatories (1 for boys, 2 for girls), 1 settlement 
 house. Day nurseries under the care of the Sisters 
 have been established in nearly every town. The 
 ministry of priests is permitted in all these institu¬ 
 tions. Owing to the hard times, private institutions 
 and schools receive some support from the state. 
 The following associations have been formed among 
 the clergy: Diocesan Association of Priests, Marian 
 Congregation for priests, Apostolic Union, Associa¬ 
 tion for the support of sick and retired priests, 
 Association of the Eucharistic League, Association 
 for Priestly Perseverance, Missionary Association 
 of the World War. The laity have the following 
 associations: Workingmens’ Association, Associa¬ 
 tions for journeymen, apprentices, merchants, men 
 and youths, associations for servants, associations 
 for young women, workingwomen, servants, busi¬ 
 ness women, League for Catholic Women. These 
 last do not include the Bonifacius and mission 
 associations or any society or fraternity connected 
 with the church. 
 
 University of Wurzburg. —The following is a 
 summary of the attendance at the University during 
 the winter and summer term of 1919-1920: 104 
 theological students, 897 law students (11 of whom 
 were women), 1041 medical students (91 women), 
 481 students of dentistry (27 women), 635 students 
 of philosophy (65 women), 56 students of pharmacy 
 (5 women). In all 3214 matriculated students. To 
 these may be added 47 male auditors ( Horer) and 33 
 female auditors (Horerinnen). 
 
 Wyoming (cf. C. E., XV—724c).—The area 
 of the State of Wyoming is 97,914 square miles. In 
 1920 the population, was 194,402, an increase of 
 
WYOMING 
 
 777 
 
 WYOMING 
 
 33.2% since 1910. Of this number 29.5% was 
 urban; 70.5 was rural. The average number of 
 inhabitants to the square mile is 2, as against 1.5 in 
 1910. There are 21 counties, 7 of which have been 
 organized since 1910. Yellowstone Park is independ¬ 
 ent of any county organization. There is one Indian 
 reservation. The largest cities are: Cheyenne, with 
 a population of 13,829; Casper, 11,447; Sheridan, 
 9175; Rock Springs, 6456; Laramie, 8207. Of the 
 whites (190,146), there were 164,891 natives and 
 25,255 foreign-born. The native whites included 
 122,884 of native parentage, 25,234 of foreign parent¬ 
 age, 16,255 of mixed parentage. The foreigh-born 
 came chiefly from England (2505), Germany (2292), 
 and Switzerland (2042). The population of ten 
 years of age or more numbered 150,993, of whom 
 3149 (2.1%) were illiterate. 
 
 Economic Status. — Manufacturing .—The latest 
 census of manufactures (1919) reveals 576 establish¬ 
 ments in Wyoming, 8095 persons employed, earning 
 a total of $12,891,267, and turning out products 
 worth $81,445,394. The capital invested was $82,- 
 287,667 and the cost of the materials $42,250,528. 
 
 Mining .—The coal output for 1918 was 9,438,688 
 tons; the iron ore output 543,846 tons. In 1917 
 2,027,857 pounds of copper, worth $553,605; 8,978,- 
 680 barrels of petroleum, worth $11,047,876; and 
 182 ounces of gold, worth $3,762, were produced. 
 
 Agriculture. —Live-stock raising is carried on exten¬ 
 sively in the State, the statistics of 1920 being as 
 follows: cattle 869,000 head, valuation $32,640,000; 
 sheep 3,200,000, valuation, $32,640,000; horses 
 225,000; swine 63,000, worth $1,159,000; mules and 
 asses 4,000, worth $360,000; total value, $87,884,516. 
 The wool product for 1919 was 18,411,773 pounds, 
 valued at $8,064,838. In 1920 there were 15,611 
 farms (an increase of 43.3% since 1910), having a 
 value of $334,410,590. The crop value in that year 
 was $30,270,630. The railroad mileage is 1924. 
 Ther are 172 telephone systems, covering 3000 miles 
 of wire. 
 
 Education. —The general supervision of public 
 schools is entrusted to the superintendent of public 
 instruction; county educational matters are under 
 the care of the district board of school trustees; 
 district educational matters under the district board 
 of school trustees. The state Board of Education, 
 created in 1917, is composed of seven members, at 
 least two of whom are actually engaged in educational 
 work. The state superintendent is a member ex- 
 officio, and with the approval of the governor appoints 
 the other members of the board for six years. The 
 State Commissioner of Education is secretary of the 
 board. The law governing private and parochial 
 schools is: No money shall ever be appropriated to 
 any sectarian or religious institution or society. In 
 
 accordance with recognized interpretation of con¬ 
 stitutional law, Bible reading in the public schools is 
 not practised. School attendance for children be¬ 
 tween the ages of seven and fourteen is compulsory. 
 In October, 1920, the 1477 public schools had 150 
 male and 1800 female teachers, and 43,077 enrolled 
 pupils (21,376 boys and 21,701 girls). The expendi¬ 
 ture on education in 1919-20 was $4,173,828. In 
 1918 the district tax revenues were $799,992.71; and 
 the earnings and income from practically all the 
 school lands was $485,252.06. In 1919 the State 
 University had 56 professors and 913 students. In 
 1917 the State accepted the terms of the Act of 
 Congress providing for Federal aid in vocational 
 education. 
 
 Religion. —The United States Census of Religious 
 Denominations (1916), gives the following statistics: 
 Catholics 12,801; Latter Day Saints, Church of 
 Jesus Christ, 9447; Methodist Episcopal 4293; Prot¬ 
 estant Episcopal 3890; Presbyterian Church, U. S. A., 
 2514; Congregationalists 1951; Baptists, N. C., 1841; 
 Disciples of Christ 763; Lutheran, Synodical Confei- 
 ence, 704; all other denominations 301. For further 
 religious and educational statistics see Cheyenne, 
 Diocese of. 
 
 Recent Legislation and History. —The initia¬ 
 tive and referendum was adopted in 1911 and the 
 nomination of candidates for public office by means 
 of the direct primary provided for at the same time. 
 In 1913 the marriage of white persons with negroes, 
 mulattoes, Mongolians,.and Malays was forbidden. 
 The sale of cocaine was regulated, an eight-hour day 
 for workmen on public works provided for, railroads 
 were made liable for injuries to and death of employ¬ 
 ees. In 1915 were passed the following: a measure 
 placing the husband and wife on equal footing in 
 regard to ownership of property, also an eight-hour 
 law for women, a Workmen’s Compensation Bill, 
 and a mothers’ Pension law. In 1917 the law 
 authorized cities and towns to purchase land not 
 over 80 acres in extent for cemetery purposes. Full 
 power is granted to improve the land and to sell the 
 plots to private owners in exactly the same manner 
 as private cemetery companies. Any town estab¬ 
 lishing such a cemetery must be allowed to do so only 
 by a referendum vote. The Federal Suffrage Act 
 was ratified on 28 January, 1920, the Prohibition 
 Act on 16 January, 1919. During the European War 
 Wyoming’s contribution to the United States Army 
 was 11,393 men (.30%). The Wyoming members 
 of the national army formed a part of the 91st Divi¬ 
 sion at Camp Lewis, Washington. The summary 
 of casualties among the Wyoming members of the 
 American Expeditionary Force is as follows: deceased, 
 2 officers, 231 men; prisoners, 3 men; wounded, 14 
 officers, 426 men. 
 
X 
 
 Xaverian Brothers (cf. C. E., XV—728b).— 
 Since 1912 the Xaverians have become prominent in 
 educational matters. Annually several members are 
 sent to the Catholic Educational Conventions, at 
 which some take active part in reading papers, dis¬ 
 putations, etc. In 1915 the third superior general, 
 Brother Chrysostom, died in Mayfield, England. 
 As no general chapter could be held during the war, 
 Brother Theophile acted as superior general till 1919, 
 when the general chapter elected Brother Bernard 
 (Gryson) an Englishman by birth and a Belgian by 
 long residence, he having taught classes in the English 
 department at Bruges, Belgium, for twenty-eight 
 years. The same general chapter appointed a com¬ 
 mittee of the provincials of America (Br. Isidore), 
 England, (Br. Cyril), and Belgium (Br. Adolph), to 
 revive the constitutions and rules in conformity with 
 the new Code of Canon Law. Steps have been taken 
 to obtain the full approval of the Congregation of 
 Religious. According to the revised constitutions 
 the time of postulancy is changed to six months. 
 To the canonical novitiate of one full year, another 
 year’s noviceship is added by the rule of the order, 
 and temporary vows of three years precede final vows. 
 
 The tenure of office of minor superiors is three years, 
 and limited to six. The election for delegates to the 
 general and provincial chapters is also according to 
 the Code. In the United States the Xaverians have 
 opened six new foundations. Catholic high school, 
 Clarksburg, W. Va. (1914); Catholic high schools at 
 Wichita, Kans. (1916); Utica, N. Y. (1917); Rich¬ 
 mond, Va. (1917); parochial school, Alexandria, Va. 
 (1918); Holy Cross School, Brooklyn, N. Y. (1920). 
 In 1921 the novitiate was transferred to Old Point 
 Comfort, Va., where all the rules and regulations 
 prescribed by canon law are strictly followed. The 
 Brothers have (1921) a total of 32 establishments in 
 the United States, of which 6 are preparatory schools 
 for colleges, 5 of them accepting boarders, 7 high 
 schools connected with parishes, with a teaching staff 
 of 108 Brothers, 17 parochial schools taught by 92 
 Brothers. There are also 6 industrial schools and 
 homes in charge of 51 Brothers. The number of 
 Brothers otherwise employed is 13, and there are 6 
 superannuated and infirm, making a total of 270 
 professed members, with 29 scholastics and novices. 
 The Brothers are in charge of 6540 boys. 
 
Y 
 
 Yap. See Caroline Islands 
 
 Yii-kiang, Vicariate Apostolic of (Fuchow or 
 Eastern Kiang-si; cf. C. E., VIII—634d), in China, 
 was formerly erected under the name of Eastern 
 Kiang-si on 25 April, 1885, it was changed into 
 Fuchow on 25 April, 1920; finally, by a decree of 1 
 June, 1921, at the demand of Mgr. Clerc-Renaud, 
 Fuchow, which is a common name in China, was 
 changed to Yii-kiang. It comprises 4 districts, 
 namely, Fuchowfu, Kienchungfu,-Kwamgsinfu and 
 Iaochowfu, covering an area of about 21,621 square 
 miles, has a total population of 8,000,000 and is 
 entrusted to the Lazarists The vicar is Rt. Rev. 
 Jean-Louis Clerc-Renaud, Lazarist, titular Bishop of 
 Elis, b. 18 June, 1866, appointed vicar Apostolic of 
 Kiang-si, 10 August, 1912, consecrated 3 November, 
 vicar Apostolic of Fu-chow in October, 1920 (Yii- 
 Kiang in 1921). He resides at Yii-kiang. There are 
 in the vicariate (1920 census): 29,642 Catholics, 
 2868 catechumens, 15 European and 4 Chinese 
 Lazarist priests, 13 native priests, 393 Christian 
 settlements where a mission is preached every year, 
 
 24 residences, 24 churches, 117 public chapels, 12 
 oratories, 141 schools of prayer with 2509 pupils, 
 
 3 primary schools with 72 pupils, 30 catechists with 
 1702 students. The Sisters of Charity have a house 
 with 262 teachers. 
 
 Young Men’s Christian Association.—An inter¬ 
 national, interdenominational, Protestant, lay organi¬ 
 zation, founded for a predominantly religious purpose, 
 but aiming now at the spiritual, intellectual, physical 
 and social improvement (a) of its members; (b) of 
 young men in general, and (c) of boys, the young men 
 of tomorrow. 
 
 General Description: Government, Char¬ 
 acter. —Due to the exclusively religious character 
 of its foundation its members were at first Protestants 
 only, but with the expansion of its activities it later 
 admitted persons not belonging to any Protestant 
 denomination, as well as members of those Protestant 
 denominations (e. g. Unitarians) not at first included. 
 Accordingly two classes of members were thereafter 
 recognized: active and associate. Only active mem¬ 
 bers have the right to vote and to hold office in the 
 Association. To be eligible to active membership 
 one must be a member in regular standing of an 
 “evangelical” Church. Any young man of good 
 moral character is eligible for associate membership. 
 While the “evangelical test” for active membership 
 has varied according to country and time the “Port¬ 
 land test” of the United States organization is the 
 clearest definition of what is meant by “evangelical” 
 (Christian in the title being practically synonymously 
 used). This test, so-called because passed at the 
 Portland convention in 1869, states: “That, as these 
 organizations bear the name of Christian and profess 
 to be engaged directly in the Savior’s service, so it is 
 clearly their duty to maintain the control and manage¬ 
 ment of all their affairs in the hands of those who pro¬ 
 fess to love and publicly avow their faith in Jesus, 
 the Redeemer, as divine, and who testify their faith 
 by becoming and remaining members of churches 
 held to be evangelical; and that such persons, and 
 
 779 
 
 none others, should be allowed to vote or hold office.” 
 
 “And we hold those churches to be evangelical 
 which, maintaining the Holy Scriptures to be the 
 only infallible rule of faith and practise, do believe in 
 the Lord Jesus Christ (the only begotten Son of the 
 Father, King of Kings, and Lord of Lords, in whom 
 dwelleth the fullness of the Godhead bodily, and who 
 was made sin for us, though knowing no sin, bearing 
 our sins in his own body on the tree), as the only 
 name under heaven, given among men, whereby we 
 must be saved from everlasting punishment.” 
 
 Outside of America the membership qualification 
 varies, the British organization admitting to full 
 membership “any person who gives decided evidence 
 of his conversion to God,” while in Holland no 
 restriction is made. A red triangle is used as the 
 insignia of the Association, the color signifying sac¬ 
 rifice, and the three sides, the body, mind, and spirit 
 to be consecrated to God. 
 
 The Association is a combination of civic units, 
 each independent, which combine to form state and 
 national organizations. Salaried officers (usually a 
 general secretary and an executive secretary, and 
 other minor officials), conduct the affairs of each unit 
 under the supervision of the Board of Directors, who 
 are elected by the active members. There are also 
 committees of members, composed of volunteers, to 
 whom is assigned supervision over various activities. 
 There are in the United States three training schools 
 for secretaries, one at Chicago, one at Springfield, 
 Mass., and one at Nashville, and four summer 
 schools for the same purpose. National conventions 
 of delegates from the units are held every three years, 
 no unit not observing the laws of the Association, 
 especially that defining the status of active and 
 associate membership, being allowed representation. 
 The National Convention in turn elects the members 
 of the International Committee. There are in addition 
 state organizations meeting annually or biennially, 
 similar in form to the national body, the chi^f purpose 
 of these two general organizations being the estab¬ 
 lishment of new civic units. 
 
 Each civic unit usually has a home or club-house, 
 as a rule providing a gymnasium, auditorium, and 
 offices for the organization and very often rooming 
 accommodations for a limited number of individual 
 members. While each civic unit naturally does not 
 participate in all the activities, the work of the organ¬ 
 ization as a whole includes Railroad (railroad work¬ 
 ers), Industrial, Student, Army and Navy, Colored 
 Men’s, Educational, Physical, Boys’, Foreign Work, 
 and Religious Departments. Considerable attention 
 is paid in many centers to immigrants. In the 
 educational department are included general (usually 
 night) schools, vocational and industrial training, 
 while co-ordinated with it are the Bible classes which 
 are a feature of nearly every unit, being conducted 
 almost always by laymen. The expenses of the 
 organizations are met by the membership dues and 
 by contributions from the public, the latter amounting 
 usually to about 25% of the whole, a custom inten¬ 
 tionally adopted as a means of sustaining interest in 
 the Association and its work. 
 
 History. —The Y. M. C. A. received its name and 
 
YOUNG MEN’S CHRISTIAN 
 
 780 
 
 YOUNG MEN’S CHRISTIAN 
 
 definite organization 6 June, 1844, in London, when 
 George Williams, its founder, met with eleven asso¬ 
 ciates to enlarge, and crystallize the work and purposes 
 of an association for Bible reading and prayer which 
 he had organized seven years before. Several socie¬ 
 ties of a similar nature had existed previous to this 
 time, seme as early as the seventeenth century, and 
 some of the pre-existing societies joined the Associa¬ 
 tion in a body. In 1845 the first paid secretary was 
 appointed; in 1847 organized Bible work was started. 
 By 1851 the Association had spread to many places 
 in England, to Germany, Switzerland, France, and 
 had been established in Montreal, Boston and New 
 York in America. The first international meeting 
 (United States and Canada) occurred in 1854, and 
 the first intercontinental at Paris in 1855. The 
 Central International Committee was formed in 1878 
 with headquarters in Geneva. In 1894 on the occa¬ 
 sion of the jubilee of the Association, George Williams, 
 its founder, was knighted by Queen Victoria. The 
 British branch took up educational work in 1864 and 
 in the World War 1914-18 performed welfare work 
 among the soldiers and sailors, while since the war 
 it has been active among the ex-service men. 
 
 In the United States the Association had attained 
 a membership of 25,000 by 1860. The Civil War 
 forced many of the units to disband and the life of the 
 entire organization was threatened. However, the 
 leaders turned their attention to the army, and wel¬ 
 fare work consisting of devotional meetings, Bible 
 and hymn-book distribution, sermons, and the like, 
 and material aid of various kinds occupied the Asso¬ 
 ciation almost exclusively. As a result of their gen¬ 
 eral introduction to the public through these activities 
 the Association took on a new lease of life after the 
 cessation of hostilities. More attention was now 
 paid to the auxiliary works, such as physical and men¬ 
 tal education and the organization recorded a rapid 
 yearly increase. 
 
 In the meanwhile the question of the membership 
 test was causing considerable discussion. The 
 American organization at first followed the tl ‘Paris 
 basis” of 1855 which reads as follows: “The Young 
 Men’s Christian Associations seek to unite those 
 young men who, regarding Jesus Christ as their God 
 and Saviour, according to the Holy Scriptures, desire 
 to be his disciples in their doctrine and in their life, 
 and to associate their efforts for the extension of his 
 kingdom among young men.” This was reaffirmed 
 at Albany in 1866 but in 1868 at Detroit the “Evan¬ 
 gelical Church test” was adopted. To define more 
 clearly the term “evangelical” the “Portland test,” 
 as given abave, was adopted in 1869. Gradually 
 the individual units, which had at no time been unan¬ 
 imous in their test, adopted that of 1869, and by 1885 
 this test uniformly prevailed in the United States, 
 the penalty for its infraction by a unit being exclusion 
 from the conventions. Since 1885 the growth of the 
 United States organization has been rapid, and the 
 scope of its activities has gradually enlarged, till 
 today it includes the various branches enumerated 
 above. In the World War the Association in co¬ 
 operation with the Government undertook welfare 
 work among the soldiers and sailors, in cities, in 
 camps and overseas. Its conduct of this work, 
 particularly among the overseas troops, brought down 
 upon the Association severe adverse criticism, chiefly 
 because of its methods. Although many have claimed 
 that these charges were unjustified it remains true 
 that the Association was the only one of the various 
 organizations thus engaged to be generally criticized 
 by the soldiers. In distinctively religious lines, apart 
 from its work of conducting Bible classes and devo¬ 
 tional meetings and directing drifters back to their 
 church, the Association has in recent years taken an 
 active interest in Protestant proselytizing movements. 
 
 In 1916 the Pan-Protestant Congress at Panama 
 inaugurated a movement to make Latin America 
 Protestant (see Protestantism). The Y. M. C. A. 
 gave the fourth largest proportionate donation for 
 this work, while a further active interest is also being 
 taken in the work. In the reconstruction work in 
 Europe after the war both the Y. M. C. A. and the 
 Y. W. C. A. have played a prominent part, the 
 religious side of the work being strongly featured as 
 one of the leading aims behind the material aid which 
 is^ being given. In 1920 the Association reported 
 8789 centers; 6250 in Europe, 32 in Africa, 386 in 
 Asia, 23 in Australasia, and 2098 in America. Its 
 total membership in the United States in 1921 was 
 739,438, of whom 304,399 were active members. The 
 total property and funds in the United States in 1921 
 was $121,000,000 and its total income $29,000,000. 
 
 Catholics and the Y. M. C. A.—Attracted by 
 the facilities for physical training and recreation 
 which the Association afforded, and not fully under¬ 
 standing its religious character, Catholic young men 
 in large numbers joined the organization as associate 
 members. In 1914, according to reliable estimates 
 based on statistics furnished by the Association 
 officials (see Garesche infra), out of a total members- 
 ship of 625,598 in the United States there were about 
 146,000 Catholics, approximately 23.5%. The total 
 associate membership was 254,830, the Catholics 
 constituting 57.34%. Exact figures are today unob¬ 
 tainable, but if the Catholics still constitute the same 
 proportion (probably they are less numerous now, 
 o'&ing to the increased facilities obtainable in Catho¬ 
 lic societies), they number about 240,000 in 1922. 
 In many individual units in 1914 there were more 
 Catholics than members of any other Church and in 
 nearly all units the number of Catholics ranks high 
 in comparison with those from other Churches. The 
 presence of such a large number of Catholics in an 
 association which was founded for a religious purpose 
 under Protestant auspices and which today retains 
 its religious aims and methods, in some points devel¬ 
 oped far beyond those of its early stages, raises various 
 questions which may be summed up as follows: (a) 
 Is the Association really a Protestant organization? 
 (b) Does it make any difference from the point of view 
 of religion and faith if a Catholic belongs to it? 
 
 Before answering these questions it will be well to 
 explain the status of the Catholic in the Y. M. C. A. 
 The fact that he is admitted only as an associate 
 member can only be interpreted to mean that he is 
 not a Christian in the sense in which the word is used 
 in the title of the Association. In point of fact he is 
 equivalently placed by the constitution of the Asso¬ 
 ciation in the same religious category as Jews and 
 Unitarians. That this distinction was, as first for¬ 
 mulated, intended to bar out Unitarians and that 
 there was no thought of its reference to Catholics 
 has always been asserted by the leaders of the Asso¬ 
 ciation and is undoubtedly true. They did not 
 expect that Catholics would apply for admission to 
 such an association. However, the presence of the 
 clause proclaiming the Bible to be the sole rule of 
 faith and practice safeguarded Protestant control 
 when Catholics began to join. In justice to the 
 Association it must be admitted that its leaders 
 repudiate any intention of .denying to Catholics the 
 title of Christian: the Portland test, they say, was 
 intended to define evangelical , not Christian. Grant¬ 
 ing this, it is clear that then the title of the Association 
 should be evangelical or Protestant, not Christian 
 which is a much more inclusive term than as used in 
 the Association title. 
 
 The answer to the question as to the Protestant 
 character of the Association is best given in the words 
 of Association leaders. In 1915 the general secretary 
 of the Chicago Y. M. C. A. said to a Catholic priest 
 
YOUNG MEN’S CHRISTIAN 
 
 781 
 
 YOUNG MEN’S CHRISTIAN 
 
 in reply to questions on the subject of Catholic mem¬ 
 bership, “The Y. M. C. A. is essentially a Protestant 
 organization. In my judgment it should remain 
 distinctly Protestant. I will be frank and say that 
 in my opinion the Y. M. C. A. should not include 
 loyal Catholic young men in its active membership. 
 
 They are out of place there.Indeed, taking 
 
 into'consideration the present [1915] attitude of the 
 Catholic Church toward the Y. M. C. A. it is my 
 belief that a Catholic young man shows a want of 
 loyalty when he enters the \ . M. C. A.” In 1919 
 the general secretary of the Y. M. C. A. International 
 Committee in New' York, speaking in behalf of the 
 Inter-Church Emergency Campaign said: “When 
 President Wilson wired the \ . M. C. A. that the 
 United States needed it in the war, before I paid any 
 attention to athletics, to educational work, I pro¬ 
 ceeded to form a committee on evangelical work in 
 
 the churches.The result was the evolution 
 
 of a religious program. Prior to this evangelical 
 work; the Y. M. C. A. had a few score of clergymen 
 employed as secretaries. Now we have over 3,000 
 ordained secretaries. Now we have the direct leader¬ 
 ship of such men as Clarence Barbour, President of 
 Rochester Theological Seminary; President J. Ross 
 Stevenson of Princeton [Divinity School]; President 
 Henry Churchill King of Oberlin College; more than 
 200 clergymen, the leading clergymen of every 
 denomination. We sent these 200 men overseas 
 that the boys might hear the best preachers of the 
 country. We sent 5,000,000 copies of the New 
 
 Testament to the Allied armies.When the 
 
 story of the war is written, if the Y. M. C. A., yes, 
 and the Y. W. C. A. are not on record as the identified 
 Evangelical Church of America , then I, and many 
 others, will hand in our resignations, for the *Y* will 
 have lost its interest.” These statements make per¬ 
 fectly clear the fact that the Association is essentially 
 a Protestant organization having for its chief aim the 
 furtherance of Protestant principles and ideas. This 
 aim is especially apparent in the co-operation ex¬ 
 tended to Protestant missionary work in Latin Amer¬ 
 ica, already referred to, and in the after-the-war work 
 in Europe. A further indication of the Protestant 
 character of the Association, is the action of the Central 
 Branch at Philadelphia which has adopted a ruling, 
 taking effect in the beginning of 1922, limiting in the 
 future its respective non-Protestant groups to five 
 per cent of the total enrollment. 
 
 The reconstruction work of the Y. M. C. A. is a 
 combination of evangelization and material, educa¬ 
 tional and recreational aid, extended through centers 
 chiefly in France, Belgium and Italy, including Rome. 
 The interdenominational character of the Associaiton 
 leading them necessarily to adopt the “least common 
 denominator” in religion, the spiritual education 
 that they offer is as a consequence not acceptable to 
 Catholics because of the minimizing of of practice and 
 belief which it entails. Yet the leaders of the work 
 went even further and in a pamphlet issued in Italy 
 (“Che cosa ' la Y. M. C. A. : cio che si propone, 
 etc.”), announced that in addition to physical and 
 intellectual training it proposed to give also a “spirit¬ 
 ual education” through free conferences on spiritual 
 and religious problems “characterized by greater 
 liberty of thought and a wide tolerance, above and 
 apart from any church or creed.” Such a course was 
 in effect a system of proselytizing although the 
 Association in the same pamphlet disavowed any such 
 intention. As a result of such actions on the part of 
 the Y. M. C. A. and other similar organizations, the 
 Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office issued a 
 Letter to the bishops (5 Nov., 1920), warning them 
 against such organizations, their methods, and aims, 
 and their religious indifferentism as constituting a 
 grave danger to Catholics who should accept their 
 
 ministrations. Although this Letter was directed 
 against several organizations the Y. M. C. A. was 
 the only one to be named specifically. Of the Asso¬ 
 ciation the Letter, while acknowledging the material 
 aid which it had rendered “to a large number of 
 unhappy persons in the world war,” and'while finding 
 no fault with its general material activities says, 
 “this society indeed makes profession of a sincere love 
 for young people, as if it had no dearer aim than to 
 give them facilities for corporal and mental develop¬ 
 ment; but at the same time it destroys their faith and 
 declares that it proposes to purify it and to impart a 
 more perfect knowledge of life ‘above any church and 
 beyond any religious creed’.” As to the attitude 
 toward Catholic members in the United States it is 
 only fair to add that with few exceptions there has 
 been no attempt to proselytize among them. At times 
 lukewarm Catholics on entering the Association have 
 been urged to join their Church again, in accordance 
 with the general policy of seeking to have its members 
 affiliated with some church. 
 
 The answer to the second question as to the relation 
 between Catholic faith and membership in the Asso¬ 
 ciation has in effect been already given. A Catholic 
 member of the Y. M. C. A. cannot blink the fact that 
 he is enrolled in a distinctively Protestant organiza¬ 
 tion'. Even though he utilizes only the recreational 
 features he is constantly in an “evangelical” atmos¬ 
 phere of religious indifferentism (the theory that one 
 church is as good as another), which is of itself suffi¬ 
 cient to constitute a perpetual, at least remote, danger 
 to his faith, and he is supporting by his membership 
 and by his contributions all the activities which the 
 Association conducts. There may, or may not be, for 
 circumstances alter cases, any direct danger to his 
 faith, but his connection with their work among the 
 Catholics of South America and Europe, slight though 
 this connection may be personally, is a fact which 
 must be weighed in conscience by a Catholic when 
 enrolling himself as a member of the Young Men’s 
 Christian Association. 
 
 The Young Women’s Christian Association, 
 although not officially connected with the Y.M.C.A., 
 nor historically sprung from it, is similar in character 
 and scope in its work for young women. This organ¬ 
 ization is the result of the uniting of several smaller 
 independent societies originating in various countries, 
 chiefly during the latter half of the nineteenth century. 
 In Great Britain in 1855 two prayer unions with 
 purely spiritual aims were founded simultaneously in 
 different places. These two united in 1877 as the 
 Y. W. C. A., with broader activities but with prac¬ 
 tically the same purpose. Special attention was 
 thereafter paid to social work, the aim being to 
 remedy conditions through hotels, traveler’s aid, 
 factory helpers and the like. The Association spread 
 to the English colonies and also became connected 
 with similar organizations in the United States. In 
 the United States various women’s societies were 
 founded in the same period. The Y. W. C. A. of 
 Boston was founded in 1866. A conference of 
 twenty-three similar organizations was held at Hart¬ 
 ford in 1871, the oldest unit member being the 
 Ladies’ Christian Union of New York. In 1875 this 
 conference adopted the name “International Confer¬ 
 ence of Women’s Christian Associations.” In 1891 
 after a union with some Canadian societies the title 
 “International Board of Women’s and \oung 
 Women’s Christian Associations” was adopted. In 
 the meanwhile there were many other independent 
 organizations, especially student societies in the 
 Middle West. In 1886 nine of such state organiza¬ 
 tions united under the title “The American Com¬ 
 mittee,” the oldest unit in this union being that 
 founded at the State Normal School, Normal, Ill., 
 in 1873. In 1906 the International Board and the 
 
YOUNG MEN’S CHRISTIAN 
 
 782 
 
 YOUNG MEN’S CHRISTIAN 
 
 American Committee united to form the “Young 
 Women’s Christian Associations of the United States 
 of America.” The World’s Y. W. C. A., of which 
 the American association is a member, was organized 
 in 1894, the first world conference being held in 1898 
 in London. In the world conference in Switzerland 
 in 1920, twenty-eight countries were represented. 
 The location of the World’s Association headquarters 
 is determined by each world conference which meets 
 quadrennially. The government of the Y. W. C. A. 
 is essentially similar to that of the Y. M. C. A., and 
 its activities are of the same general nature, there 
 being specific differences because of the fact that their 
 work is for young women and presents problems not 
 arising in the men’s organizations. A blue triangle is 
 the insignia of the Y. W. C. A. 
 
 In 1921 the Association in the United States num¬ 
 bered 287 city and town units with a membership of 
 314,219, county units 27, with a membership of 
 8853, and 740 student units, with a membership of 
 61,508, the total being 1054 units and 384,580 mem¬ 
 bers. These figures were incomplete and in 1922 
 there were said to be 1075 units and 559,000 members. 
 According to the incomplete returns of 1921 the value 
 of the real property of the Association in that year 
 was $11,244,369, its expenses were $6,366,349, and 
 its contribution to national, world’s and foreign Work 
 was over $2,000,000. In 1914 out of a total member¬ 
 ship of 342,305 it was reliably estimated on infor¬ 
 mation furnished by various units that there were 
 about 40,000 Catholic members (nearly 7 per cent of 
 the total) in the organization. 
 
 The Young Women’s Christian Association pre¬ 
 sents the same religious aspect as the Y. M. C. A. 
 The “basis” of the British organization is as follows: 
 “Faith in God the Father as Creator, and in Jesus 
 Christ His only Son, as Lord and Saviour, and in the 
 Holy Spirit as Revealer of Truth and source of power 
 for life and service, according to the teaching of the 
 Holy Scriptures. 
 
 “The aim of the Y. W. C. A. is: To call young 
 women and girls to the allegiance of our Lord Jesus 
 Christ, the fellowship of His Church and the service 
 of His Kingdom. 
 
 “To unite them in a fellowship of prayer, Bible 
 study and service through which they may make their 
 contribution to the spiritual, moral and social prog¬ 
 ress of the world. 
 
 “To make available for them all that will minister 
 to character, mental capacity and physical health.” 
 
 The basis of the World’s Y. W. C. A. was at first 
 the foregoing but the Stockholm conference limited 
 it to the first paragraph of the same. 
 
 In the United States previous to 1906 the Inter¬ 
 national Board admitted Catholics to full member¬ 
 ship, including the right to vote, if a unit so desired. 
 The American Committee granted voting membership 
 to members of the Protestant evangelical Churches 
 only. After the union of 1906 units which were 
 formerly members of the International Board were 
 allowed to retain their basis of membership; but the 
 new body adopted the following specifications which 
 are binding on all units with the aforesaid exception: 
 “After the adoption of this constitution, any Young 
 Women’s Christian Association not privileged to 
 become a charter member may be admitted to this 
 organization upon application to the National Board 
 and upon filing with it a copy of its constitution, 
 showing that its active membership—that is, the 
 voting and office-holding membership—is limited 
 to women who are members of Protestant Evangelical 
 Churches.” 
 
 “By Protestant Evangelical Churches are meant 
 those churches which, because of their essential 
 oneness in Jesus Christ as their Divine Lord and 
 Savior, are entitled to representation in the Federal 
 
 Council of the Churches of Christ under the action of 
 the Inter-Church Conference held in New York Citv 
 November, 1905.” y * 
 
 The objective of the American organization is 
 stated as follows: “To advance the physical, social, 
 intellectual, moral and spiritual interests of young 
 women. . . . To bring them to such knowledge 
 oi Jesus Christ as shall mean for the individual fulness 
 of life and development of character, and shall make 
 the organization as a whole an effective agency in the 
 bringing in of the Kingdom of God.” 
 
 The religious and Protestant character is further 
 apparent from the following excerpts from its official 
 Hand Book: “The objective of the Association is the 
 
 development of Christian character.This 
 
 is the element which unifies all the work, which makes 
 the cafeteria and the sewing class, the gymnasium 
 and the dormitory, the travel class, and the cross 
 country club, the Hallowe’en party and the warm 
 welcome of the Association building as essentially 
 religious in purpose as the Bible circle or the Vesper 
 service. In the profoundest sense of the word all work 
 of the Association is religious work.” 
 
 On another page the Hand Book, after stating that 
 the Association’s definition of Evangelical Churches 
 is that of the Federal Council of the Churches of 
 Christ, states: “In brief, then, the Association is in 
 a position to render the deepest and most fundamental 
 service to young women in that it is directed by those 
 pledged to the fulfillment of its purpose, and voting 
 power is vested in those who are members of the 
 churches listed in the Federal Council of Churches or 
 eligible to be so listed.” 
 
 The direct religious activities of the Y. W. C. A. 
 are also practically the same as those of the Y.'m! 
 C. A. so that all things considered the question of 
 Catholic membership in this organization is identical 
 in all aspects with that of membership in the Y. M. 
 C. A., even in the units which allow Catholics to vote] 
 
 Williams, Life of Sir Geo. Williams (New York, 1906)• 
 Doggett, History of the Y. M. C. A., I, Founding the Y. M C A ’ 
 (New York, 1916); Shipton, History of the Y. M. C. A in 
 London ( London, 1864); Stevenson, Historical Records of'the 
 K' v' (London, 1884); Idem, The Jubilee of 
 
 K- C -' A -'J 8 & ( Lon don, 1894); Morse, History of the 
 North American Y. M C. A. ( New York, 1913); Idem, Fifty 
 Years of Federation of Y. M. C. A. in No. America (New York 
 1905); Religious Interviews, etc. (New York, 1916); Hurrey 
 The Red Trtimgle in Latin America in Pan American Magazine, 
 XXVT Y - M - ™ So. America, loc. cit., XXXI 
 
 (1920), 297; Congress on Christian Work in Latin America 
 Reports (Commission VII) (New York, 1917); Meredith, The 
 1. M. C. A. and the Russian Orthodox Church (New York 
 1921); Mayo, That Damn Y (defence of the Association’s war 
 work); (New York, 1920); Hendricks, Handbook of Social 
 Resources of the United States (Washington, 1921); Year Book 
 of the Churches (New York, annual); Association Year Book 
 (New York, annual). The Association conducts a flourishing 
 publication house, issuing many books, pamphlets and maga¬ 
 zines. Among the latter are American Youth; Association Men 
 (2 editions); Association Seminar; the following are issued in 
 connection with work among foreign students in the United 
 States; El Estudiante Latino-Americano; Christian China; The 
 Philippine Herald; Hindustan Christian Student. All mentioned 
 except Association Men and Seminar (monthly) are monthly 
 during school-year. 
 
 Information on the Y. W. C. A. can be found in the magazines 
 issued by the press of the National Association: The Association 
 Monthly; Foreign-Born (monthly); the following publications are 
 issued at London and New York; The Y. W. C. A. and Recon¬ 
 struction; The Y. W. C. A. and Education; The Y. W. C. A. in 
 the 20th Century. 
 
 The best Catholic source on the organizations, on the problem 
 of Catholic membership, and on the question of providing for 
 Catholic young men and women organizations with similar 
 facilities is a series of articles by Garesche (ed.), in The Queen’s 
 Work, II, III, IV, V (1915-16), passim. Garesche, The 
 Y. M. C. A., a Protestant Organization in America, XVII (1917), 
 289; Idem, The Y. M. C. A.’s Protestantism, loc. cit., 315; 
 Idem, Catholic Recreational Centers, loc. cit., XXVI (1922), 
 478; A Profession of Faith by the Y. M. C. A. in American 
 Ecclesiastical Review, LXVI (1922), 297; Beattie, A Great 
 Evangelical Drive in America, XXI (1919), 168; Epistola ad 
 locorum ordinarios, qua eorum vigilantia excitatur circa nova 
 quaedam acatholicorum molimina contra fidem in Acta A. S., 
 XII (1920), 595, and in American Eccl. Rev., LXIV (1921), 
 269; Fisher, The Holy Office and the Y. M. C. A. in America, 
 
YOUNG WOMEN’S CHRISTIAN 
 
 783 
 
 YUN-NAN 
 
 XXIV (1920-21), 450; The Bishops and (he Y.M.C.A.in 
 American Eccl. Rev. LXIV (1921), 242. - See also articles on 
 various Catholic societies, Catholic social work, social reform, 
 etc. 
 
 Gerald Shaughnessy. 
 
 Young Women’s Christian Association. See 
 
 Young Men’s Christian Association 
 
 Yucatan, Archdiocese of (Yucatanensis; 
 cf. C. E., XV—737c), in Mexico. The present 
 archbishop is Most Rev. Martin Tristschler y 
 Cordova, who has occupied the see since 1900. He 
 was born in the Diocese of Puebla, 26 May, 1868, 
 studied at the South American College at Rome 
 from June, 1883 to August, 1893, doctor of 
 philosophy at nineteen and of theology at twenty- 
 three, ordained 12 December, 1891, elected Bishop 
 of Yucatan, 28 July, 1900, consecrated 18 November 
 following, first Archbishop of Yucatan 11 November, 
 1906. 
 
 The archdiocese has (1922) 27 parishes, 166 
 churches, 2 mission groups, 47 secular and 7 regular 
 priests, 42 Sisters, 1 seminary with 16 seminarians, 
 1 college for men with 16 teachers and 231 students, 
 4 for women with 26 teachers and 724 students, 6 
 elementary schools with 26 teachers and 527 pupils, 
 1 orphan asylum for boys with 20 inmates, 1 charita¬ 
 ble centre. Ninety per cent of the population is 
 Catholic. Two societies are organized among the 
 clergy and three among the laity. 
 
 On 24 September, 1915, Salvador Alvardo, 
 Governor of Yucatan, sent a group of fanatics to 
 invade the cathedral during the night; they destroyed 
 the sacred images, the altars and even the organ, 
 and desecrated the cemeteries. The Spanish clergy 
 and the nuns dedicated to education in the college 
 of St. Teresa of Jesus and Mary were exiled, their 
 property seized and secularized, colleges, hospitals 
 and institutions were confiscated by the fanatics 
 until there was nothing more left. The bishop' 
 house was converted into an official building. But 
 little by little some of the clergy returned and have 
 ventured to open schools. Finally several Yucatan 
 
 gentry founded the “Universidad Ibero Americana"; 
 but in this and in the private schools the law of 
 religious prohibition is in force. 
 
 Yukon and Prince Rupert , Vicariate Apostolic 
 of (cf. C. E.,XV—738a), in Canada. The former 
 prefecture apostolic was erected into a vicariate on 20 
 Nov., 1916. Its area is about 520,000 sq. miles. The 
 present and first vicar is the Rt. Rev. Emile-Marie 
 Bunoz, b. at Sales, France, 24 February, 1864, or¬ 
 dained 28 March, 1891, elected titular bishop of 
 Tentyra and made vicar apostolic of Yukon 13 June, 
 1917, consecrated at Vancouver 18 Oct. following, 
 published 10 March, 1919. In 1921 the vicariate had 
 8000 Catholics, 5 quasi-parishes, 37 churches, 32 
 missions, 10 stations, 3 convents for women with 28 
 Sisters, 2 secular priests, 12 regulars (Oblates of Mary 
 Immaculate), 2 seminarians, who are being educated 
 in other dioceses, and 1 hospital. The secondary edu¬ 
 cational institutions are: 2 parochial schools, 1 
 academy, 1 Indian industrial school, 2 Catholic Indian 
 schools conducted by laymen under the supervision 
 of priests. 
 
 Yun-nan, Vicariate Apostolic of (cf. C. E., XV— 
 738b), in China, has 37 parishes, 132 churches, 201 
 stations, 26 European missionaries, 16 Chinese priests, 
 1 convent for women “Chinese Maidens,” 17,500 
 Catholics, 1 seminary with 40 seminarians, 1 college 
 for women with 3 students, 1 normal school with 3 
 teachers and 23 pupils, 1 home for the aged poor, 19 
 orphanages, 1 hospital, 110 schools with 2100 pupils. 
 There is no aid from the government for any of these 
 institutions, and only one orphanage admits the 
 ministry of priests. In several districts the associa¬ 
 tion of the “Bona Mors” is organized. The vicariate 
 is entrusted to the Foreign Missions of Paris, under 
 the administration (1922) of Rt. Rev. Charles- 
 Marie-Felix de Gorostarzu, titular Bishop of Aila, 
 b. at St. Vincent de Fyrosse, France, 6 October, 1860, 
 appointed vicar Apostolic of Yun-nan 10 December, 
 1907, consecrated 29 March, 1908. He resides at 
 Yun-nan-fu. 
 
z 
 
 Zacatecas, Diocese of (cf. C. E., XV—740b), in 
 the State of Zacatecas, Mexico, is suffragan of Guada¬ 
 lajara. By a decree of 16 January, 1920, the boun¬ 
 daries of Zacateca and that of St. Louis de Potosi 
 were modified; making an area of about 22,806 square 
 miles. The see is filled by Rt. Rev. Miguel de la 
 Mora, b. 14 August, 1874, ordained 30 November, 
 1897, doctor of theology, superior and prefect of 
 studies at the seminary of Guadalajara, magistral 
 chancellor in November, 1908, elected 9 February, 
 1911, consecrated 7 May following to succeed Mgr. 
 Jose Alva, b. 5 October, 1841; d. July, 1910. There 
 are in the diocese: 26 parishes, 40 succursals, 129 
 secular and 7 regular priests, 2 congregations of men 
 and 3 of women, and 100 Catholic schools. 
 
 Zagrab (Agram) , Archdiocese of (Zagra- 
 biensis; cf. C. E., I—225c); in the ancient Kingdom of 
 Croatia, formerly a part of Hungary but now in Jugo¬ 
 slavia. Most Rev. George Posilovic, who filled this 
 see from 1894, died 26 April, 1914, and was succeeded 
 by the present incumbent, Most Rev. Anthony Bauer. 
 Archbishop Bauer, b. in this diocese 1856, the author 
 of numerous works of apologetics and a member of 
 the Southern Slavonic Academy of Sciences was 
 appointed titular Archbishop of Pessinus 20 January, 
 1911, and made coadjutor to the Archbishop of 
 Agram. His auxiliaries are (1921) Rt. Rev. Joseph 
 Lang, and for the Greek Rite, Rt. Rev. Dominic 
 Premus. In 1916 there were in this diocese 1,572,778 
 Catholics of the Latin Rite, 3074 Uniat Greeks, 144,- 
 932 Orthodox Greeks; 351 parishes, 622 secular and 
 75 regular clergy. 
 
 Zahm, John Augustine, American author and 
 scientist, b. at Lexington, Ohio, in 1851, d. in Mun¬ 
 ich, Germany, 1921. He was educated at Notre 
 Dame University, Indiana, and upon graduation 
 entered the Congregation of the Holy Cross, and 
 was ordained piiest in 1875. He filled various posi¬ 
 tions in the Congregation, at one time being provin¬ 
 cial from 1898 to 1906. He was the author (some¬ 
 times under the pseudonym of Mozans), of a 
 number of books covering a large variety of sub¬ 
 jects; among these were: “Evolution and Dogma,” 
 “Scientific Theory and Catholic Doctrine,” “Along 
 the Andes and down the Amazon,” “The Quest of El 
 Dorado.” He was an enthusiastic Dante student 
 and assembled at Notre Dame one of the three 
 largest of the Dante libraries in America. He was 
 a scholarly and brilliant writer. He was a member 
 of the Roosevelt Scientific Expedition to South 
 America and on that and other trips collected maps, 
 photographs, relics, curios, etc., which were added 
 to the valuable collection of fifteen hundred vol¬ 
 umes of South American history and research work 
 at Notre Dame University. 
 
 Zante, Diocese of. See Corfu, Zante, Cep- 
 
 HALONIA 
 
 Zanzibar, Northern, Vicariate Apostolic of 
 (Zanzibarensis or Zanguebarensis septentrio- 
 nalis; cf. C. E., XV—750c), on the east coast of 
 Africa, comprises the Island of Zanzibar, Piemba, 
 and British East Africa (now Kena Colony), with the 
 
 exception of the Kena Province, and the provinces 
 north of the Kikuyu Escarpment; it is confided to the 
 Fathers of the Holy Ghost. The population of the 
 vicariate numbers 800,000, of whom 9000 are Catho¬ 
 lics with about as many catechumens; the chief 
 languages spoken are Kiswajili, Kikuyu, Kitaita 
 and Kikambu. The present (1922) vicar apostolic 
 is Rt. Rev. John Gerald Neville, C. S. Sp., titular 
 Bishop of Carrhae, b. in Dublin, Ireland, 29 October, 
 1859, appointed vicar apostolic 1 September, 1913, 
 consecrated titular Bishop of Carrhae 28 October 1913. 
 
 The mission has 22 priests and 11 lay brothers 
 (members of the Society of the Holy Ghost), 211 
 catechists, 30 nuns (Sisters of Loreto, of the Precious 
 Blood, and White Sisters), 66 principal and secondary 
 stations, 13 churches, 30 chapels, 72 schools (three 
 of which are high schools), with 3633 pupils; 5 normal 
 schools, with 100 students; 5 professional schools, 
 with 65 pupils; 9 orphanages, with 161 orphans; 2 
 leper asylums, with 100 inmates; 6 hospitals, 29 
 pharmacies, 3 asylums for the poor, with 100 inmates, 
 and 1 junior seminary. There is no aid from the 
 State for educational purposes, an annual sum being 
 contributed from the government towards the upkeep 
 of the leper asylum. Nine of the priests were called 
 away during the War; four of the missions were 
 closed, two being within the war zone, and the two 
 others because of the diminished personnel, but at 
 the present (1922), they are in full swing, and new 
 ones have been opened. Three of the priests acted 
 as military chaplains during the African Campaign, 
 one of whom, Father Demaison, was decorated with 
 tne Military Cross; two houses were used as hospital 
 by the government. 
 
 Zanzibar, Southern (Dar-es-Salaam; cf. C. 
 E., XVI—85c), Vicartate Apostolic of. Before the 
 year 1888, the Vicariate Apostolic of Dar-es-Salaam 
 and the Prefecture of Lindi were under the j urisidiction 
 of the Bishop of Zanzibar, a member of the Society 
 of the Fathers of the Holy Ghost. In the year the 
 Benedictines of St. Odilia in Bavaria, to whom part 
 of the district was committed, came to Dar-es-Salaam, 
 and settled near the coast at a place called Pugu; the 
 little band counted 1 priest, 9 Brothers and 4 Sisters. 
 The following year during an outbreak of the Arabs, 
 the station was destroyed, some of the missionaries 
 were killed, others captured, but later ransomed at 
 a high price. When at length the efforts of the 
 missionaries bore fruit and the number of stations 
 increased the mission was made independent and 
 called the Prefecture Apostolic of Dar-es-Salaam 
 (1894), with Mgr. Maurus Hartmann as superior; in 
 1902 the prefecture became the Vicariate Apostolic of 
 Southern Zanzibar, under the government of Mgr. 
 Cassianus Spies, and on 10 August, 1906, the name 
 was changed from Southern Zanzibar to Dar-es- 
 Salaam. On 12 November, 1913, the vicariate was 
 divided into two parts, the northern region retaining 
 the old name while the southern became the Prefecture 
 Apostolic of Lindi, under the rule of Mgr. Willebror- 
 dus Ley. In 1905, a new persecution known as 
 “Magi-Magi” broke out among the natives; almost 
 all the stations in the prefecture of Lindi were 
 destroyed and seven of the missionaries, among them 
 
 784 
 
ZEMAITI 
 
 785 
 
 ZEMAITI 
 
 the Vicar Apostolic, were killed, while the others 
 had to flee the country for a time. In 1917, the 
 missionaries of German nationality were prohibited 
 from carrying on their missionary work and in Sep¬ 
 tember, 1920, the Vicar Apostolic, Mgr. Spreiter, 
 O. S. B., and all his fellow-Germans were repatriated 
 by the British Government. In the meantime 
 Father Joseph Laaue, with some missionaries, mostly 
 belonging to the White Fathers, have taken over the 
 care of the prefecture and vicariate by order of the 
 Cardinal Prefect of Propaganda. In 1921, the vica¬ 
 riate was entrusted to the Swiss Capuchins and to 
 the Fathers of the Institute of Consolation, and the 
 prefecture to the Swiss Benedictines. In the thirty- 
 three years that have elapsed since the separate 
 mission was founded seventy of the missionaries have 
 laid down their lives there; 1 bishop, 14 priests; 
 27 brothers and 28 nuns, all belonging to the Bene¬ 
 dictine Congregation of St. Ottilien. 
 
 The boundaries of the Vicariate together with the 
 Prefecture are: on the north from the Indian Ocean 
 to Mbweni, then the boundary separating the civil 
 provinces of Bagamoyo and Mogoro from Dar-es- 
 Salaam and Rufigi, then the rivers Ruaha and 
 Umerowe as far as the railway from the eastern coast 
 to Lake Tanganyika, then along the railway as 
 far as Kilimatinde; on the west a line from Kilimatinde 
 along the railway as far as Lake Nyasa and 34' 
 longitude, then along Lake Nyssa to the Portuguese 
 territory, but so as to include the entire districts of 
 Uhehe and Ugogo and Ubena in the Vicariate of 
 Dar-es-Salaam; on the south the river Rovuma as 
 far as the Indian Ocean, i. e., the boundary between 
 the British and the Portuguese territories; on the east 
 the Indian Ocean, the rivers Mbenkuru and Ruhuyc 
 separating the vicariate and the prefecture. The 
 ecclesiastical boundaries are: on the north the 
 Vicariate Apostolic of Bagamoyo; on the west the 
 Vicariate Apostolic of Tanganyika; on the south the 
 Prelature nullius of Mozambique. The mission is 
 entirely within the Tanganyika territory, over which 
 the British have a mandate since the War. 
 
 Almost all the natives use the Kisqahil language, 
 though each tribe has its own language as well, the 
 principal ones being Ivihehe, Kipogoro, Ivigogo, 
 Kingui, and Kinyassa. In the vicariate of Dar-es- 
 Salaam there were according to the census of 1914, 
 approximately 568,800 natives, while the prefecture 
 of Lindi had 485,800. At the end of 1921, the vicar¬ 
 iate had 7847 neophytes, 295 catechumens, 69 elem¬ 
 entary schools, and 76 catechists; while the prefecture 
 had 14,419 neophytes, 4,802 catechumens, 141 
 elementary schools and 161 catechists. In the 
 eastern part of the vicariate there are 9 Swiss Capu¬ 
 chin priests, 6 Brothers, and 9 Sisters; while in the 
 western part there are 6 priests of the Institute of 
 Consolata of Turin. In the prefecture of Lindi, there 
 are assigned to the mission 13 Swiss Benedictines 
 (8 priests and 5 Brothers), and 6 White Fathers. 
 While awaiting the separation of the three missions 
 just mentioned, Father Joseph Laaue of the White 
 Fathers is administrator general. 
 
 Zemaiti, Diocese of (Samogitiensis; cf. C. E., 
 XIII—421), in Lithuania. The present incumbent 
 of this see is Mgr. Francesco Karewicz, b. at Masiady, 
 in this diocese, on 17 September, 1861; chancellor of 
 the cathedral of Mohileff, and appointed bishop of 
 Zemaiti on 20 February, 1914, in succession to Mgr. 
 Cyrtowt, who died on 20 September, 1913. This dio¬ 
 cese was erected in 1417 by the Council of Constance 
 at the request of Witold the Great, with its see at 
 Varna or Medininki, and was confirmed by Pope 
 Martin V in 1421. In 1849 it comprised the provinces 
 of Kauna (Kovno) and Kiron, with an area of about 
 23,800 square miles. In 1864 the episcopal see, 
 
 diocesan seminary, chapter, and consistory were trans¬ 
 ferred by the civil authorities from Varna to Kauna, 
 and in 1895 the Chruch of St. Peter and Paul was 
 declared the cathedral church of Leo XIII. On 26 
 April, 1921, the cathedral church on the five hun¬ 
 dredth anniversary of the foundation of the diocese 
 was made a minor basilica, the solemnities of the 
 erection being held at Kauna on 11 September, 
 1921. The diocesan patron is St. John the Baptist, 
 the external celebration being held on the Sundy 
 before the feast of St. Peter and Paul. 
 
 In 1921 there were in the diocese: 360 parishes, 415 
 churches, 1 monastery of monks, 1 convent of nuns 
 with solemn vows; 649 secular, 6 regular priests, 17 
 lay brothers; 1,300,000 Catholics; 1 seminary, 14 
 professors, 109 students; 1 university; 1 boys’ college, 
 7 professors, 98 students; 1 girls’ college, 8 professors, 
 90 students; 10 primary schools, 23 teachers, 
 500 pupils; 4 industrial schools, 12 teachers, i20 
 pupils; 12 hospitals and orphanages; 7 day nurseries; 
 priests are permitted to exercise their ministry in all 
 the schools. The Lithuanian Government supports 
 all the Catholic schools in the diocese governed by 
 Catholic associations like the Saule (Sol) or Ziburys 
 (Faz) or by private persons. Furthermore, in all 
 neutral or mixed schools the doctrines of Catholicism 
 are taught. 
 
 Societies. —The clergy have a mutual assurance 
 society, and a diocesan temperance sodality. The 
 following are the societies, among the laity: (a) 
 Catholic Society of Lithuanian Women or “L. K. 
 Moteru Draugiji,’-’ founded in 1908. It has 80 
 branches, publishes a review called “Moteris,” and 
 supports or directs about 30 institutions: schools, 
 libraries, orphanages, etc.; (b) The “Motinele” 
 (‘little mother’) association, for the support of youths 
 pursuing high studies; (c) Society of St. Casimir, 
 for publishing and distributing good books; (d) 
 temperance societies; (e) the Action catholique; 
 (f) the Christian Democratic Party; (g) the “Lietuvos 
 Darbo Federacija” or Federation of Workingmen; 
 (h) St. Zita’s Society, for servants; (i) Our Lady’s 
 Society, for servants; (j) St. Vincent de Paul con¬ 
 ferences; (k) the “Ateitininkai” association of young 
 .students; (1) the “Pavasaris” association of Catholic 
 young men. • _ 
 
 There are 1,300,000 Catholics in the diocese, almost 
 all Lithuanians. In the cities and some parts of the 
 country there are groups that speak Polish at home, 
 but they do not amount to over 4 per cent. There 
 are 2 Catholic daily papers and 12 periodicals. 
 
 Among the clergy and laity who have died since 
 1912 mention should be made of Petrus Krauciunas, a 
 layman, a master of theology, noted teacher, philo¬ 
 logist, and patriot, who died in 1912; Joannes Bal- 
 vocius, a priest and a popular writer; Gaspar Cirtautas 
 bishop of the diocese, who restored and adorned the 
 cathedral, and died in 1913; Riauba, Dovydaitis, 
 and Juozapavici the first Lithuanian soldiers to die 
 in the struggle to liberate their fatherland in 1918. 
 
 Notable diocesan events since 1912: (1) the pre¬ 
 conization of the present bishop Mgr. Franciscus 
 Karevicus in 1914; (2) letter of Pope Benedict XV 
 to the bishop in which he consoled the oppressed peo¬ 
 ple of Lithuania and appointed 20 May, 1917 as the 
 day on which a collection was to be taken up in all 
 the churches in the world for the war victims in 
 Lithuania (Welkollekte); (3) the nomination of 
 
 Archbishop Achille Ratti, now Pope Pius XI, as 
 visitor Apostolic to Lithuania; he came the diocese 
 in January, 1920; (4) the 500th aniversary of the 
 erection of the diocese; (5) the granting of the title 
 and privileges of a minor basilica to the cathedral 
 church at Kauna on 26 April, 1921; (6) the Bull 
 “Maxime interest” of 9 June, 1920, transferring part 
 of the civil province of Courland, with about 100,000 
 
ZION CITY 
 
 786 
 
 ZMUDZ 
 
 Catholics from the Diocese of Zamaiti to that of 
 Iiiga; (7) the repulse of the Russian Bolshevist forces 
 attempting to enter Lithuania in 1919; (8) the erec¬ 
 tion of a university with a Catholic faculty in Kaunas 
 on 16 February, 1922. 
 
 For more than two years after the outbreak of the 
 war Lithuania, and especially the Diocese of Zemaiti, 
 was the scene of the most sanguinary fighting be¬ 
 tween the Germans and the Russians in which the 
 country was laid waste. Various societies were 
 established to repair the damages and alleviate the 
 sufferings caused by the war. Chief among these 
 are the “Draugija nukentejusiems del karo SelptF’or 
 “Society for aiding the war sufferers,” “Litauischer 
 
 Verein fur Kriegshilfe” with 40 branches at Wilna, 
 Kauna, and other places in Lithuania, and 100 
 branches in Russian territory, where 200,000 persons 
 who had been forced into exile by the war were 
 helped by this society. The society also supported 
 2 colleges or gymnasia, more than 100 intermediate 
 and primary schools and similar institutions in 
 Petrograd, Moscow, Voronez, and other places. 
 
 Zion City. See New Thought 
 
 Zips, Diocese of. See Spisz 
 
 Zmudz, Diocese of. See Zemaiti 
 

 
 
 
 
 t