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 FARMER'S P 
 
 DESIGNED AS A KEADING BOOK 
 
 COlflMOr^ S€IiO©I.§ 
 
 rONTAIMNG THE MOST ISfrORTAST IKFORMATION OK 
 
 PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE, 
 
 rXAL, AXP SELECTED FROM THE BEST FNCLISI' 
 /VND A!VIE<<»^^^^ ^^'<^KK? ON AORi(.UI/rUKE. 
 
 BY J. ORVZZ.XA TAiriLOZL 
 
 ALBANY: 
 
 'OBLiSBEIi AT THE COMMON ^CHOOL P£P03IT0RT. 
 
UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS 
 AT AMHERST 
 
 UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 
 
 Special Collections & Rare Books 
 
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FARMERS' SCHOOL BOOK, 
 
 This book should be read in common schools 
 in the place of the " English Reader," " Colum- 
 bian Orator," and other similar works. By 
 reading the Fanners' School Book, the children 
 will learn the business of practical life ; and this 
 ia much more desirable than to read the English 
 Reader, a book they seldom understand, and one 
 they can put to no practical use. 
 
 From the steam presses of 
 Packard &, Van Benthuysen. 
 
THE 
 
 FARMERS' SCHOOL BOOK. ^ 
 
 PREPARED AND PUBLISHED BY 
 J. ORVILLE TAYLOR, 
 
 AUTHOR OF THE "DISTRICT SCHOOL," &C. 
 
 THIS WORK CONTAINS THE MOST IMPORTANT INFORMA- 
 TION ON AGRICULTURE. 
 
 ALBANY: 
 
 PUBLISHED AT THE "COMMON SCHOOL DEPOSITORY," 
 
 NO. 71 STATE-STREBT. 
 
 1837. 
 
[Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1837, by 
 
 J. Orville Taylor, 
 in the Clerk's Office of the Northern District of New-York] 
 
C O N TENTS. 
 
 Preface 9 
 
 Introductjon 11 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 Chyniistiy. — General Principles 19 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 Caloric 23 
 
 CHAPTER HI. 
 Oxygen 32 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 Nitrogen 36 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 Atmosphere 37 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 Carbon. — Carbonic Acid 40 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 Light.— Electricity 44 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 Hydrogen 46 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 Water 49 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 The Earths M 
 
VI CONTENTS, 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 How Tillable Lands are made 66 
 
 CHAPTER XH. 
 Composition of Arable Lands 58' 
 
 CHAPTER XIH. 
 Vegetable Nutriment 60 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 Properties of Mixed Earths, and their Cultivation 69 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 •^ •^llfl'he Nature of Manures. — Varieties .... 65 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 The Nature of Manures— continued .... 68 
 
 CHAPTER XVIL 
 
 Stimulating Manures — Lime, Plaster, Ashes, 
 and Marl 71 
 
 CHAPTER XVIIl. 
 Improvement of the &oil 77 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 Succession of Crops 81 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 Grasses 85 
 
 CHAPTER XXL 
 
 Grasses — continued 91 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 Hemp 98 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 Hops , . , , 106 
 
CONTENTS. TU 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 Rutabaga 114 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 ^sture 119 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 The Culture of Silk 126 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 History of Silk 128 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 Silk — continued 133 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 Sugar made from Beets 139 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 Beet Sugar — continued 146 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 Best Breeds of Cattle 151 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIl. 
 
 The different Breeds of Neat Cattle compared . 155 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 On Buying and Stocking a Farm with Cattle . 157 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 The Cow. — Raising Calves 161 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. 
 Working Oxen 166 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVl. 
 Pasturing Cattle 169 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVII. 
 Soiling Cattle 173 
 
VUl CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
 
 Slallfeeding Beef Cattle ^177 
 
 CHAPTKR XXXIX. 
 Milch Kine 
 
 % 
 
 CHAPTER XL. 
 
 The Pasture and other Food best for Cows, as 
 it regards their Milk 182 
 
 CHAPTER XLI. 
 
 The Management of Milk and Cream.— Making 
 and Preserving Butter 185 
 
 CHAPTER XLII. 
 Making and Preserving Cheese 192 
 
 CHAPTER XLIH. 
 Swine 196 
 
 CHAPTER XUV. 
 
 Diseases of Cattle 199 
 
 CHAPTER XLV. 
 
 Diseases oeculiar to Oxen, Cows, and Calves . 207 
 
 CHAPTER XLVI. 
 
 Diseases of Horses 209 
 
 CHAPTER XLVII. 
 ' Sheep 314 
 
 CHAPTER XLVIII. 
 Sheep — continued , 219 
 
 CHAPTER XLIX. 
 The Farmyard 223 
 
 CHAPTER L. 
 
 The Farmyard— coniinvied 828 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Children may read and study in the school- 
 room what they will practice when they become 
 men. They now read the " English Reader," or 
 some other "collection" that they do not under- 
 stand, or feel any interest in ; and which, the 
 worst of all, never gives them one useful idea for 
 the practical business of life. 
 
 This little work has been published to take the 
 place of such useless, unintelligible reading. Its 
 object is to give children, while they are receiv- 
 ing their school education, a scientific, practical 
 knowledge of the labours of manhood. To the 
 Young Farmer the work is invaluable, and it will 
 seize the feelings and get the attention of every 
 child that is learning to read. The improvement 
 of our schools, and the interests of Agriculture, 
 have long been calling for such a work. It has 
 now appeared, full of the most useful information, 
 yet in a small, cheap form. The schools may 
 obtain it without delay. 
 
 The introduction, and the part which relates to 
 Chymistry, together with a portion of the chapters 
 
X PREFACE. 
 
 on Cattle and the nature and properties of the Soil, 
 it was necessary for me to write. I have been 
 greatly assisted on the subject of Sheep Hus- 
 bandry by Judge Buel's invaluable periodical, the 
 " Cultivator." That part which relates to the 
 manufacture of Sugar from the Beet is taken from 
 Pedder's Report — the best source of information 
 we have. The chapter on Hemp was written by 
 the Honourable Henry Clay of Kentucky. Much 
 assistance has also been obtained from many of 
 the first writers of the day on Agriculture, and 
 particularly from an able English work, called 
 the " Complete Grazier." 
 
 The work is emphatically a choice collection of 
 the most important things which our best writers 
 have said on the science and practice of Agricul- 
 ture. A concise manual for farmers while en- 
 gaged in their labours, and a large amount of the 
 most useful information for children to read over 
 and over again in their schools. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 1. The King of Sparta being asked "what 
 things he thought most proper for boys to learn," 
 answered, *' Those things which they expect to do 
 when they are men." The young farmer has hot 
 taken this advice. He has learned nothing of his 
 profession, while receiving his education. The 
 study of Agriculture has not even been pursued in 
 the district schools ! 
 
 2. When a boy wishes to become a carpenter, or 
 a shoemaker, or a blacksmith, he considers it ne- 
 cessary to study his business for seven or eight 
 years. And if he chooses one of the professions — 
 law, physic, or divinity — he devotes ten or twelve 
 years to the study of those things which he expects 
 to do when he becomes a man. If he desires to 
 be a merchant, the different markets, products, and 
 the wants of the people, the facilities of commerce, 
 the value of exchanges, the supply and demand of 
 articles, engross his attention, and all the powers 
 of his mind, for months and years. 
 
 3. But knowledge is more important, more valu- 
 able to the farmer, than to the tradesman, or to the 
 professional man. The farmer should understand 
 Chymistry, that he may know and change the na- 
 ture of the soils, that he may rightly prepare the 
 
Ml INTRODUCTION. 
 
 best manures, and wisely mix the different earths 
 — and, also, that he may understand the way in 
 which the plants take in their nourishment from 
 the air and earth, and be prepared to assist them 
 in this nice operation. 
 
 4. He should know something of GEOLOok', that 
 he may see the nature of the different soils, which 
 are mostly made of pulverized rocks. By knowing 
 the nature and location of the rocks in the neigh- 
 bourhood, he can form a very correct opinion of 
 the nature and properties of the soil, and judge 
 how far the heavy rains or the droughts will affect 
 the crops. 
 
 5. Mineralogy should be studied to some ex- 
 tent. Plaster, lime, marl, &c. are discovered by 
 means of this science. The properties of these 
 stimulating manures, so valuable to the farmers, 
 would never have been known or applied, if the 
 study of mineralogy had been neglected. There 
 are beds of plaster, marl, and lime, in almost every 
 section of our country ; and if the farmers would 
 give a little attention to this simple and delightful 
 part of natural science, mines of wealth would 
 open on many a barren corner of the farm. 
 
 6. Manures are now but little studied or under- 
 stood. They are so made, or so applied, that but 
 little good, compared to what they might do, is de- 
 rived from them. The moisture of the barnyard 
 is permitted to soak into the earth, or to run off to 
 uncultivated portions of the farm. Fermentation 
 is either checked too soon, or goes much too far. 
 And the manure is frequently left in the yard till 
 all the nutritive gases have evaporated and become 
 lost in the air. 
 
INTRODLCTION. Xll! 
 
 7. Long, warm maniirefc:, which should be put on 
 hard, cold soils, are often put on soils that are open 
 and warm. Rotten, cold manures, containing no- 
 thing but a few salts, which should be used only on 
 warm, light soils, are mixed Avith clayey, heavy 
 lands : and a crop that requires a certain manure, 
 is frequently dressed with one directly opposite in 
 its character. There is not much knowledge of 
 manures, and frequently less judgment in their ap- 
 plication. 
 
 8. The rank weeds that grow under the fences, 
 on the sides of the road, and among the crops in 
 the field, together with the potato tops, might be 
 gathered and thrown into heaps to ferment, and 
 thus furnish to the farmer yearly a large quantity 
 of the most valuable manure. Manure is the life 
 of the farm, and the agriculturist should make 
 all he can, and know how to apply it to the best 
 purposes. 
 
 9. The Grasses are a very important study. 
 Only two or three of these, such as timothy and 
 clover, are generally cultivated. That there arc 
 twenty or thirty different kinds well adapted to our 
 soil, and that some of these are much larger and 
 quicker in their grow^th, is known only to a few. 
 The common grass is raised from year to year 
 without seeking for anything better. But this is 
 not considered profitahle farming. 
 
 10. The different Grains are not always selected 
 for their appropriate soils. Each grain has its own 
 particular food, and the soil that is rich in nutriment 
 for one kind may have nothing nourishing for 
 another. It requires long observation, and much 
 knowledoe of the distinct individual food of the 
 
XiV I INTRODUCTION. 
 
 grain wc wish to raise, and of the existing proper- 
 lies of the soil we cuhivate, to make a wise adapt- 
 ation of grains to soils. A rotation of crops is 
 always necessary, a«d much study is required to 
 know the best rotation. 
 
 11. How often do farmers sow foul, imperfect 
 seed ! They not only show indifference to the 
 most profitable grains, but they not unfrequently, 
 because the trouble is somewhat less, sow seed of 
 inferior growth, or that which is mixed with the 
 seed of the most destructive and troublesome weeds. 
 By using such seed, the farm soon becomes unfit 
 for cultivation. Farmers also neglect to destroy 
 the first growth of any foul weed. They permit 
 it to go to seed, to spread its roots, and finally to 
 take full possession of the soil, when one hour's 
 work at first would save the farm. 
 
 12. The best breeds of Cattle are not always 
 selected. Although it costs as much to keep a 
 small, light, bony breed of cattle, as it does to feed 
 a square, meaty, heavy breed, yet most farmers 
 still continue to raise the old, unprofitable stock, 
 and appear indifierent to the advantages of the bet- 
 ter breeds that haA'^e been introduced by observing, 
 enterprising men. Farmers may receive double 
 the profits from their cows and beef cattle, if they 
 will only obtain the better, improved breeds. 
 
 1 3. Sheep, if there is a good selection and prop- 
 er care, may be made very profitable to the far- 
 mer. But their nature is so imperfectly understood , 
 and their favourite, healthy food so seldom known, 
 or procured, that their profits are greatly diminished 
 by the yearly loss of the flock by death. It is sur- 
 prising that men will continue to lose their sheep 
 
IM'RODUCriON. XV 
 
 from year to year, without paying any allention to 
 their diseases and the remedies. The most profit- 
 able breed is not always procured. Habit and in- 
 dolence still, in many places, continue to raise the 
 English sheep, with its thin, long, coarse wool, 
 and its large consuming carcass. 
 
 14. Swine, perhaps, receive the least of our 
 attention. The long snout, the sharp back, the 
 stilted bony legs, the maw that is always devour- 
 ing, yet always squealing for more, are what we 
 see in almost every part of the country. The 
 short nose, the fat cheek, the broad back, and the 
 small short leg, or in one word the Berkshire 
 Hog, we seldom meet with. Farmers may save 
 half their corn and have double the quantity of 
 pork, if they will only take a little pains in better- 
 ing the breed of their hogs. 
 
 15. Roots, such as the parsnip, the carrot, and the 
 rutabaga, should be raised for his cattle by every 
 farmer. One acre of roots will give as much food 
 as three acres of grass. The cattle likewise are 
 kept in a much better condition on roots than on 
 hay exclusively. By a little labour in raising 
 roots the farmer may at least double the profits 
 from his stock. It is unaccountable that turnips, 
 carrots, &c., are not more generally cultivated for 
 cattle ! 
 
 16. The Beet Sugar is soon to become one of 
 the most common and most profitable products of 
 the farm. Every farmer can make his own sugar 
 from the beet as easily as he can make cider from 
 the apple. The process of raising the beet and 
 that of making the sugar are described in this book. 
 That which relates to this subject is taken from 
 
XVI INTRODUCTION. 
 
 " Pedder's Report," the latest and most authentic 
 source of information on this interesting subject. 
 
 17. Silk is also becoming one of our articles of 
 produce. I'he raising of the silkworm and the 
 mulberry tree, and the manufacture of the raw silk, 
 are briefly but fully discussed in this work. The 
 necessary information on this subject is here given 
 in a small space. Farmers should plant the mul- 
 berry seed without delay. The culture of silk is 
 simple and very profitable. 
 
 18. Hemp is also a profitable crop for farmers. 
 I have obtained for this work the best treatise on 
 the growth and manufacture of hemp that has yet 
 been published. It is from the pen of the Honour- 
 able Henry Clay of Kentucky. He has cultivated 
 this crop largely, and speaks after long and close 
 observation. The culture of hemp may be made 
 profitable in this state. The culture of Hop.«: is 
 also very ably and freely described. 
 
 19. The best Architecture of farmhouses, 
 of barns and other outhouses, should also be stud- 
 ied by the young agriculturist. Convenience, 
 security, and protection of the stock, should be 
 studied in the location and structure of the farm 
 buildings. We often see the fences around the 
 barn and the house thrown down by the cattle, 
 and the whole stock allowed to roam in every di- 
 rection, through the garden and over the grain 
 and the meadows, during the whole feeding time 
 of fall and spring. 
 
 20. And we often see the hog pen between the 
 road and the house, and the bam on the other side 
 of the road directly opposite to the house. These 
 objects should be placed in tlic field directly back 
 
INTRODUCTION. XVII 
 
 of the dwelling. Why it is that some farmers will 
 have the hog pen and the barnyard immediately 
 under the windows and door of their dwelling I 
 could never imagine ! The cattle are permitted to 
 run around the house, and in the dooryard, and 
 bite off and tread down the young trees, and the 
 pigs are permitted to trouble the kitchen door, and 
 to upset the swill barrel, and to root up the gar- 
 den ! But I have never been able to teli why this 
 was so. 
 
 21. There is much to learn and much to cor- 
 rect. No other man should be so observing — so 
 familiar with nature, in all her silent and wonder- 
 ful operations — so well acquainted with every de- 
 partment of natural science, as the Farmer. Na- 
 ture and the Farmer work together — for the 
 same object — in the same workhouse — and with 
 the same tools and materials. Nature is strug- 
 gling with all her great energies to feed and bless 
 the human race ; and to aid her is the work of 
 the farmer. But he will be a poor help, unless 
 he understands her mode of operation. 
 
 22. At present how deficient is the farmer's ed- 
 ucation ! He does not learn that which makes 
 his profession profitable and honourable ! Farm- 
 ing, in too many instances, is merely BLIND IM- 
 ITATION ! — thoughtless, unproductive toil — the 
 slavish delving of the hands, without the delights 
 or the aid of the intellect ! This must be so 
 when there is no science to guide ; when, in their 
 only education, the children learn nothing of their 
 profession ! Then let that be taught in the com- 
 mon school, which will make farming delightful, 
 hoiwurahlc, and profitable. 
 
,/ / ,^ ..ctj (^^ 
 
 L 
 
THE 
 
 FARMERS' SCHOOL BOOK, 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 CHYMISTRY. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 
 
 1. Chymistry is the science which makes us 
 acquainted with the elementary parts of bodies ; 
 and, also, with the manner in which these parts 
 act upon each other. The object of chymistry, 
 then, is to find out the elementary parts of sub- 
 stances or bodies — the nature of these constitu- 
 ent parts — the laws which unite and separate 
 them, and the results of this union and separa- 
 tion. 
 
 2. Natural philosophy speaks of the size, weight, 
 hardness, or softness of a body, of a loaf of bread 
 for example, while chymistry finds out the ingre- 
 dients in it — flour, water, salt, and yeast, which 
 make the loaf. 
 
 3. Natural philosophy says that matter, among 
 several other qualities, has extension, which means 
 length, breadth, and thickness ; imp cnetr ability, 
 which means, that no two particles can be in the 
 same space at one time ; and divisibility^ mean- 
 ing, that every piece of matter can he divided into 
 
20 CHYMISTRY. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 
 
 several smaller pieces. Chymistry shows what 
 all bodies are made of, and how the elementary 
 parts which compose them are put together. 
 
 4. Substance, or body, means any kind of mat- 
 ter, solid, fluid, or aeriform — anything we can see, 
 taste, touch, or smell. A stone is a solid body, so 
 is a piece of wood ; water is a fluid body, and the 
 air, vapours, and gases are aeriform bodies. 
 
 5. Substances are either simple or compound. 
 A simple substance is one that cannot be reduced 
 into anything more simple. There are fifty-three 
 simple substances ; only thirty-seven of them are 
 used in the arts, or in agriculture. 
 
 6. A compound substance is one composed of 
 two or more simple bodies. Water is a compound 
 body, being composed of the two simple substan- 
 ces, oxygen and hydrogen. Almost all the objects 
 we see are composed of several substances. 
 
 7. A compound body can be separated into its 
 simple elements. Air is a compound body, and 
 can be separated into oxygen and nitrogen — the 
 two simple substances which compose it. Again, 
 put oxvgen and hydrogen together, and water is 
 formed — a compound body being made out of these 
 two simple ones. 
 
 8. There is a tendency in particles and masses 
 of matter to approach each other. This is called 
 attraction. It acts upon matter at great distances. 
 The sun attracts the earth, the earth attracts the 
 moon ; and if we throw a stone into the air, the 
 earth has such an attraction on thp stone as to 
 draw it down again to the ground. When any- 
 thing falls, it is drawn to the earth by a force whicli 
 we call the attraction of gravitation. 
 
CHYMISTRY. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 21 
 
 9. Particles of matter have another tendency 
 to approach each other, called the attraction of 
 cohesion. While gravitation acts upon bodies at 
 great distances, cohesion acts only upon particles 
 at insensible distances. Cohesion brings particles 
 of matter of the same kind into seeming contact, 
 and keeps them in that situation. 
 
 10. On some particles it acts with great force, 
 and on others the action, if any, is not percepti- 
 ble. On solids its force is intense ; on liquids the 
 force is weaker, and on the particles of air, and 
 the gases, it apparently has no action. There is 
 considerable cohesion in ice, less when changed 
 into a liquid, and not any when changed into a 
 vapour. 
 
 11. Take two bullets; cut a piece from each, 
 so as to make a flat surface, put them together with 
 some pressure, and they will stick to each other 
 with great force. A piece of glass, when laid 
 flatly upon another piece, coheres with consider- 
 able force. The cohesion of a stone is destroyed 
 by pounding it into a powder, and the cohesion of 
 a lump of sugar is destroyed by dropping it into 
 water — the water having a stronger attraction for 
 the sugar than the particles of sugar have for each 
 other. 
 
 12. Heat destroys cohesion, as when ice, or 
 wax, or lead is melted. It seems to be an oppo- 
 sing power to cohesion. The atoms of bodies 
 V, ould come into actual contact, if it were not for 
 a force called repulsion. This force is supposed 
 to be heat, and prevents the atoms from touching 
 each other. The blacksmith, by infusing heat into 
 a piece of iron, destroys, to a degree, its cohesion. 
 
2a CHYMISTRY. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 
 
 thus rendering it soft and pliable for his use. The 
 hardness or softness of a body is in proportion to 
 its cohesion. 
 
 13. When the attraction of cohesion is exerted 
 suddenly, the particles unite indiscriminately, and 
 form irregular masses. But when it resumes its 
 force more slowly, the particles assume a perpen- 
 dicular arrangement, and form masses of regular 
 figures. This is termed cryataiization, and the 
 regular-figured masses are called crystals. 
 
 14. Chymical attraction, or, as it is more gen- 
 erally termed, c//y;wica/ affinity, IS exerted between 
 the particles of different kinds of matter. Put 
 water and oil into a tumbler and the oil will rise 
 on the top, not mixing with the water ; but drop 
 a piece of pearlash into the tumbler, and the oil, 
 water, and pearlash will immediately unite and 
 form soap. The reason is, that the pearlash has a 
 strong chymical affinity for both water and oil, and 
 becomes a bond of union between them. 
 
 15. Besides the three species of attraction that 
 have been mentioned, there are electric and mag- 
 netic attraction. Rub a piece of sealing wax with 
 a cloth, and put it near a feather or a pile of fine 
 sand, and the feather or the particles of sand will 
 jump to the wax and stick to it. This is electric 
 attraction. By drawing the hand over a cat in the 
 dark, sparks of fire are elicited. This is also 
 electric attraction. The needle is directed to the 
 pole by magnetic attraction. 
 
CALORIC, 28 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 1. Caloric is a very thin, subtil fluid. It can- 
 not be seen, and is known only by the sense of 
 touch. It is the cause of all our feelings of warmth, 
 or heat. Its particles repel each other ; that is, 
 they have a tendency to separate and fly ofl". It 
 is imponderable, which means, it has no weight. 
 A body is no heavier when it is hot, or what is 
 the same thing, full of caloric, than when it is 
 cold. 
 
 2. It is found in all substances : in ice, in 
 stones, in wood, in metals, in water, and in air. 
 Everything contains some caloric. A liquid con- 
 tains more caloric than a solid, and the aeriform 
 substances, such as air, vapour, and the gases, con- 
 tain more caloric than the liquid substances. The 
 more caloric a substance has, the less solid it is, 
 except clay and a few other bodies. 
 
 3. The attraction of cohesion makes solids. 
 Caloric, it will be remembered, is an opposing 
 power to cohesion, and therefore makes liquids. 
 Every solid substance on the earth might be 
 changed into a liquid or vapour by infusing into it 
 sufficient caloric. If we lay a piece of ice on the 
 stove, the caloric soon changes it into v/ater, and 
 then into vapour. 
 
 4. Caloric is communicated from one body to 
 another. If we put the hand on a hot body, calo- 
 ric passes from it into the hand, and causes the 
 
24 CALORIC. 
 
 feeling of warmth ; when we touch a body colder 
 than the hand, the caloric goes from the hand into 
 the body. Caloric desires to be in all bodies in 
 an equal degree, and therefore goes from object to 
 object, when bodies are brought together. If we 
 throw a hot ball into a pail of water, the large 
 quantity of caloric in the ball goes off immediately 
 into the water, and in a short time the water and 
 ball have an equal temperature. 
 
 5. Caloric passes through some bodies with 
 great rapidity, while through other bodies it passes 
 slowly. It goes speedily through an iron rod, so 
 that we cannot touch the hand within a foot of the 
 heated end ; but it goes so slowly through glass 
 that we can take hold of a glass rod within three 
 inches of the melting end. Hence, some bodies 
 are called good conductors of heat, or of caloric, 
 and others bad conductors. Iron is a good con- 
 ductor; glass, stones, wood, and charcoal are bad 
 conductors. 
 
 6. If we take a piece of wire, and a pipe stem 
 of equal length, and put a piece of wax on one 
 end of each, and place the other ends in the fire, 
 the wax on the wire wiil melt directly, while the 
 wax on the pipe stem is no warmer than when 
 first put there — the wire being a good, and the clay 
 a bad conductor of heat. Among the metals, gold 
 is the best conductor of heat, platinum next, silver 
 next, copper next — then iron, zinc, tin, lead, mar- 
 ble, &c. 
 
 7. Silks, woollens, and furs are bad conductors 
 of heat, and they are for this reason worn in win- 
 ter, that we may retain the heat of the body as far 
 as possible — the body being warmer in winter 
 
 ■^%.. 
 
CALORIC. 25 
 
 than the surrounding air, it is wise to keep within 
 us as much of our own caloric as we can. In 
 summer we wish to let the heat of the body pass 
 off, and should at this season wear those materials 
 that are good conductors of heat, such as cotton, 
 linen, <fcc. 
 
 8. Air is a bad conductor of caloric. On this 
 account a thick blanket is not as warm as a quilt ; 
 air being between the two outside pieces and in 
 the cotton. The more open or porous a body is, 
 the less its conducting force. Animals living in 
 cold regions are covered with fine furs which al- 
 most prevent the heat's escaping from the body ; 
 while those living in warm parts are covered with 
 coarse, thin hair, oflering no obstacle to the free 
 escape of heat. 
 
 9. Bricks, being bad conductors of heat, are 
 frequently heated and wrapped in a cloth, and 
 used for keeping the feet warm in cold weather ; 
 but a heated piece of plank is still better, because 
 wood does not lose caloric as easily as brick. 
 
 10. Black is a better conductor of heat than 
 white. Heat is reflected by white but passes 
 through black. Take a piece of black woollen 
 cloth, and another of the same size and quality of 
 white, and lay them upon the snow, when the sun 
 is shining. In a few hours the black will be found 
 to have sunk below the surface of the snow, while 
 the white will remain on the surface. The black 
 cloth lets the rays of caloric pass through it and 
 melt the snow beneath, while the white reflects 
 the caloric. 
 
 11. When we go into the sun in summer it is 
 wise to wear a whitish dress — the white, turning 
 
26 CALORIC. 
 
 the rays of the sun away from us, will make the 
 heat less oppressive. In winter by wearing black, 
 the rays of the sun enter the clothing and give 
 warmth to the person. 
 
 12. There are six sources of caloric : viz., the 
 sun's rays, combustion, friction, the mixture of 
 different substances, electricity, and galvanism. 
 The sun is the great fountain of heat, and thus of 
 life. Caloric comes from the sun at the rate of 
 200,000 miles in a second of time. It warms and 
 thins the frozen juices of the plants in the spring, 
 and causes the sap to circulate through the trunks 
 and branches of the trees. 
 
 13. As there is caloric in every substance, 
 whenever anything is burned, a separation of the 
 simple elements takes place ; the caloric is set at 
 liberty and produces in us the sensation of heat. 
 The caloric that was before hidden in the wood or 
 coal has from decomposition become free and ac- 
 tive. 
 
 14. When two hard bodies are brought together 
 with great force, a portion of the hidden caloric is 
 forced out. By striking a flint with a piece of 
 steel, caloric enough is forced out to melt the bits 
 of steel that are struck off, and this makes what 
 we call a spark. 
 
 15. A freezing body gives off heat. Taking 
 away the caloric (it has been said) makes a liquid 
 a solid. Consequently when water becomes ice, 
 a quantity of caloric goes off from the water. 
 This accounts for the moderation of the weather 
 during a snow storm. The caloric that is con- 
 stantly escaping from the freezing vapour warms 
 the atmosphere. 
 
CALORIC. 27 
 
 16. Melting produces cold. When snow and 
 ice melt into water, they must have an additional 
 quantity of caloric, which is taken directly from 
 the atmosphere. Friction produces heat on the 
 same principle as striking one hard body against 
 another : viz., by forcing out the hidden caloric. 
 Instances have occurred of whole forests' burning 
 down, by first kindling from the violent friction of 
 the dry branches against each other by the wind. 
 
 17. The most intense heat can be obtained from 
 a galvanic apparatus : strong enough to melt iron 
 as quick as fire melts snow. If a piece of char- 
 coal is ignited by the fire from a galvanic battery, 
 it burns with the greatest intensity, and makes a 
 light so bright that the eye cannot look upon it. 
 
 18. When two substances are mixed, and the 
 mixture takes a more solid form, heat is produced ; 
 for no substance can become more dense without 
 giving off caloric. If we take a vial half full of 
 water in the hand, and pour into it a little oil of vit- 
 riol (sulphuric acid) the hand will feel warm. 
 The mixture by condensing gives out a portion of 
 its caloric. 
 
 19. The mixture of some substances produces 
 cold. If we put a table spoon full of epsom salts 
 into a tumbler and then pour into the tumbler a lit- 
 tle water, the tumbler will teel very cold. In this 
 case the mixture has expanded and taken the ca- 
 loric from the tumbler. 
 
 20. Caloric expands bodies. When it enters a 
 substance, it removes the particles farther from 
 each other. Hence it enlarges the size of bodies, 
 which become less compact. In this, caloric acts 
 in opposition to cohesion. If we measure a piece 
 
28 CALORIC. 
 
 of iron when it is cold and then heat it, we shall 
 find by measuring again while hot that it has in- 
 creased in length and thickness. 
 
 21. The pendulum of a clock is longer in warm 
 than in cold weather ; as clocks go slower in pro- 
 portion as the pendulum is made longer, they are 
 apt to go too fast in cold, and too slow in warm 
 weather. We may lay it down, then, as a rule, 
 that caloric expands all bodies ; that the expansion 
 of the same body increases with the quantity of 
 caloric which enters it. 
 
 22. When the particles of a liquid are heated 
 they expand and thus become lighter than those 
 that are yet cold. Consequently the heated lighter 
 particles ascend, and the cold particles descend. 
 Thus when fire is put under a kettle containing 
 any liquid, two currents immediately take place ; 
 the hot particles rising to the surface and the cold 
 ones falling to the bottom, there to be heated, and 
 then give place to others. 
 
 23. This will show the adva'^tage of placing the 
 fire directly under the kettle ; otherwise the water 
 in the lower part will not readily heat. AVhen the 
 water bubbles and throws off steam, it is heated to 
 what is called the boiling point. This point is 
 2 12° on the thermometer. 
 
 24. The atmosphere rests, or presses upon every- 
 thing on the earth at the rate of fifteen pounds 
 on each square inch of surface. The water hav- 
 ing this pressure on it, does not so easily bubble 
 up and the steam does not rise so readily. If we 
 boil water in a vacuum, that is, where there is no 
 air, the degree of heat required is less than in the 
 open air by 140°. 
 
CALORIC. 29 
 
 25. Water boils in a vacuum at a temperature 
 of 72°, Hence the higher you rise above the 
 surface of the earth, the less the pressure of the 
 air and the more quickly water boils. Water boils 
 sooner by having a lid over the kettle, and on the 
 top of a hill with a less fire than it does in the 
 valley. 
 
 26. Water cannot be made hotter than the boil- 
 ing point — 212^. At this pohit it flies off in the 
 form of steam. If we could make a vessel strong 
 enough to hold the steam, water could be heated 
 red hot like a piece of iron. But the steam is so 
 strong, and has such a desire to go off, that it 
 would be difficult to confme it. It is the steam's 
 desire to expand that gives the steam engine its 
 power. 
 
 27. When children roast eggs they crack the 
 •shells slightly before they put them into the Are, 
 to keep them from exploding, or bursting, as they 
 usually call it. The egg bursts because the liquid 
 in the shell expands with the heat ; if there is a 
 little crack in the shell the steam will find vent and 
 do no injury ; but if the vapour is confined the 
 shell explodes with a loud noise, and the egg is 
 scattered through the ashes. 
 
 28. So in the boiler of a steam engine, if there 
 is a proper vent (called safety valve) the steam 
 will do no injury ; but if the vent is not good, and 
 the force of the steam is stronger than the boiler, 
 an explosion will take place as certainly as in the 
 roasting of an egg. 
 
 29. Air is expanded by heating it. If a bladder 
 containing air be tied tight at the neck and held 
 to the fire, it will expand until it bursts If put 
 
30 CALORIC. 
 
 in a cold place, the bladder will contract ; that is, 
 become partly empty. 
 
 30. When a substance cools quickly we say its 
 radiating power is great. By polishing a teapot 
 or any metalic vessel, we lessen the radiating 
 power of the vessel and increase its reflecting 
 power. That is, a polished surface throws oflf the 
 heat coming from another body better than a rough 
 surface ; but a rough teapot lets the water cool 
 quicker than a bright pot. 
 
 31. It is wise, therefore, to have the vessels 
 which we desire to keep hot water in always 
 polished bright. When a body continues to give 
 off more caloric than it receives, it will become 
 colder than the objects around it. The earth is 
 constantly giving off caloric. During the day the 
 Sim gives caloric to the earth, but in the night the 
 earth gives away heat without receiving any ; of 
 course the earth becomes colder during the night 
 than the air. 
 
 32. The moisture in the air, having some of its 
 caloric taken away by the cooling earth, becomes 
 water and falls to the ground — this is what we call 
 dew. There is no dew when the night has been 
 cloudy, for the clouds are good reflectors, and 
 send the earth's caloric back again, and the ground 
 does not cool. 
 
 33. A piece of bright tin is a very good reflec- 
 tor. When a stove is necessarily placed near a 
 wall, at oae side of the room, a piece of tin placed 
 against the wall opposite the stove will reflect 
 much of the heat out into the room, which other- 
 wise would be absorbed by the v/all or ceiling. 
 
 34. If we should line a room with tin much less 
 
CALORIC. 31 
 
 fire would be required, but the heat would not be 
 so agreeable, and the dazzling surface would be un- 
 pleasant to the eyes. 
 
 35. When a fire is made in a stove or fireplace, 
 the particles of air next to the stove become warm 
 first ; heat expands them, and being lighter than 
 the cold particles, they rise up to give place to 
 the particles from above, that have not been heated. 
 This makes two currents of air — a cold cur- 
 rent going towards the stove, and a warm current 
 going from the stove — till the room is thoroughly 
 warmed. 
 
 36. We have said that when a body takes in ca- 
 loric it grows larger, and when it gives ofi' caloric 
 it becomes smaller. There is one substance which 
 is an exception to this general rule. This is water ; 
 for when it freezes it must lose some of its caloric, 
 yet it increases in bulk. 
 
 37. We can satisfy ourselves of this fact by let- 
 ting a basin full of water freeze hard. When fro- 
 zen the ice will rise considerably above the top of 
 the basin. A housekeeper knows this fact to her 
 sorrow when she finds her earthen pitchers and 
 glass tumblers cracked by being suffered to stand 
 full of water during a cold night. 
 
 38. This exception in the laws of nature shows 
 the wise care our Creator takes of us. If water, 
 like other bodies, should become less in size 
 when frozen, the ice would sink as soon as 
 formed. Then another layer of ice would form 
 to sink in its turn, till the rivers and lakes had be- 
 come one solid mass of ice. The fish must then 
 all die. 
 
 39. The heat of summer would not melt so 
 
32 OXYGEN. 
 
 much ice ; and no ships could move through the 
 water ; and finally, all animal and vegetable life 
 would be destroyed. But the Creator has made 
 the ice lighter than a piece of water of equal size, 
 and the ice floats on the top, preventing the frost's 
 reaching down far from the surface. The thin 
 sheet of ice soon melts in the spring, and all is 
 free again. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 1. Oxygen gas is one of the simple substances, 
 and forms part of almost every body we see. It is 
 one of the principal elements of the atmosphere 
 we breathe ; the air being composed, almost en- 
 tirely, of oxygen and nitrogen. About one quarter 
 of the air is oxygen, and it enters into the compo- 
 sition of every animal and vegetable, and into many 
 of the minerals. 
 
 2. Oxygen gas may be obtained in a separate 
 form by several ways. The usual method is to 
 separate it by heat from red lead, manganese, or 
 saltpetre. By applying strong heat to either of 
 these substances, the oxygen is disengaged, and 
 goes off in a separate form by itself, and is caught 
 in a vessel prepared to receive it. 
 
 3. Oxygen gas has neither colour, taste, nor 
 smell. When suddenly and forcibly pressed, it 
 emits light and heat. In its pure state it is always 
 
OXYGEN. 3a 
 
 in the form of a gas, but when it unites with solids 
 it becomes a solid. It is combined with hydrogen 
 to form water, and with carbon forming carbonic 
 acid gas. 
 
 4. Oxygen is found in all kinds of rocks : 
 hence, the earth, the ocean, and the air abound 
 in it. Oxygen has a powerful attraction for most 
 of the simple substances ; and there is not one 
 of them with which it may not be made to com- 
 bine. 
 
 5. When bodies are united with it, they are said 
 to be oxydized. The rusting of iron is occasioned 
 by the iron's uniting with the oxygen in the air. 
 Gold and silver do not rust much, that is, oxygen 
 does not combine with them readily. Iron we 
 know rusts or oxydizes soon, if left exposed to the 
 air and moisture. 
 
 6. All substances capable of burning burn with 
 far greater brilliancy in oxygen gas. A piece of 
 wood having the least spark of fire on it bursts into 
 flame the moment it is put into a jar of oxygen. 
 Even iron and steel, not commonly classed among 
 bodies that burn, undergo a rapid combustion in 
 oxygen gas. 
 
 7. Now, if the air was wholly made of oxygen, 
 everything would burn up. If we should put fire 
 into a stove, the stove itself would burn. The 
 blacksmith in heating his iron would see his ham- 
 mer and anvil bursting into a flame. 
 
 8. But the all-wise Creator has put just enough 
 of oxygen into the air to burn wood, oil, coal, &c. ; 
 but not so much as to render fire dangerous, under 
 proper care. The whole world would burn up by 
 increasing the quantity of oxygen a little. 
 
 C 
 
34 OXYGEN. 
 
 9. Take all the oxygen out of the world and 
 nothing would burn. Oxygen is, therefore, called 
 the supporter of combustion. The oxygen in 
 the air makes our candles and fuel burn. When 
 they burn, their ingredients do indeed disappear, 
 but they are not destroyed. Although these in- 
 gredients lly off in a gaseous form, and are com- 
 monly lost to us, still they can be collected and 
 preserved. 
 
 10. AVhen this is done with requisite care, it is 
 found that the ingredients of the bodies that have 
 been burned weigh more after than before com- 
 bustion ; and that the increase in weight is equal 
 to the quantity of oxygen which has disappeared 
 during the burning. Alan cannot destroy matter — 
 he can only change its form and appearance. 
 
 11. Combustion, or burning, is nothing more 
 than the rapid union of oxygen gas vnth. combus- 
 tible matter. This rapid union is always attended 
 with a disengagement of heat and light. Before 
 oxygen will unite with combustible matter, the 
 temperature of the materials you wish to burn 
 must be considerably raised. This is done by 
 putting fire, or caloric, on the wood, coal, or candle- 
 wick. 
 
 12. Oxygen is not only necessary to combus- 
 tion, it is also necessary to animal life. No ani- 
 mal can live in an atmosphere which does not 
 contain a certain portion of oxygen ; for an an- 
 imal soon dies if confined in a portion of air from 
 which the oxygen has been previously removed. 
 
 13. If we confine an animal in a vessel that is 
 air tight, the animal will feel no inconvenience at 
 first, but it will soon grow uneasy, breathe hard, 
 
OXYGEN. 35 
 
 and shortly die. If the air in the vessel is now 
 examined, it will be found to contain no oxygen. 
 While the air had oxygen in it the animal did well 
 enough, but as soon as its breathing had consumed 
 all the oxygen the animal died. 
 
 14. The object of breathing is to purify the 
 blood ; and the oxygen in the air seems to be the 
 purifying principle. As breathing destroys oxy- 
 gen, the air in a room filled with people becomes 
 bad, and unfitted for supporting life. Candles in 
 such a room do not burn briskly, as there is a want 
 of oxygen. 
 
 15. The people who died in the "Black Hole 
 of Calcutta" soon consumed all the oxygen in that 
 small place, and as fresh air could not enter, there 
 was nothing left to support life. It is very neces- 
 sary lo have rooms, especially schoolrooms, well 
 ventilated. The bad air should be permitted to 
 pass off, and fresh air have a free circulation. 
 
 16. It is oxygen that turns things sour. Oxy- 
 gen uniting with sweet cider makes vinegar. As 
 the oxygen of the air goes into the cider it is wise 
 to let the cask be only part full, and the bung be 
 left out, that the air may touch as much of the li- 
 quid as possible. It is the oxygen that turns mo- 
 lasses, beer, maple sap, &c., sour. This effect of 
 oxygen is called its acidifying effect — and makes 
 all the acids and oxyds that we know of. 
 
36 NITROGEN. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 NITROGEN. 
 
 1. Nitrogen is one of the constituents of atmo- 
 spheric air ; oxygen and nitrogen being the two el- 
 ements which make the air. Nitrogen is a gas 
 without colour, taste, or smell, and does not sup- 
 port combustion or animal life. 
 
 2. It extinguishes all burning bodies that are 
 immersed in it, and no animal can live in it. Ni- 
 trogen can be obtained in a separate state by ta- 
 king the oxygen out of a quantity of air, which 
 leaves the nitrogen alone by itself. 
 
 3. The oxygen can be taken out in this way : 
 burn a piece of phosphorus in a jar, which must 
 be turned bottom upward, with the open mouth 
 resting on water ; or, standing an inch or two in 
 the water. The phosphorus burns while lying on 
 the water, till all the oxygen in the jar is con- 
 sumed. The water will then absorb the carbonic 
 acid created by burning the phosphorus, leaving the 
 nitrogen alone in the jar. 
 
 4. Nitrogen is much lighter than oxygen, and 
 consequently than the air. In a crowded room 
 where the oxygen has been taken out of the air by 
 breathing, the nitrogen rises and remains near the 
 ceiling. The upper part of a crowded room, there- 
 fore, should be aA^oided. 
 
 5. In a crowded room there is another bad gas, 
 
ATMOSPHERE. 37 
 
 which falls to the floor, and is destructive of life. 
 This will be described hereafter. 
 
 Nitrogen is found in all animals^ but only in a 
 few vegetables. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 ATMOSPHERE. 
 
 1 . The air is that very light fluid that surrounds 
 us everywhere : we live in it, and could not exist 
 without it. It extends forty-five miles above the 
 earth. The attraction of gravitation keeps it to 
 the surface of the earth, in the same manner that 
 any moveable object is kept ; it also revolves with 
 the earth around the sun. The wind is nothing 
 more than the air in motion. 
 
 2. The atmosphere is without colour, invisible, 
 has neither taste nor smell, and unless in motion, 
 is not perceived by the sense of touch. It is 831 
 times lighter than water ; that is, a quart of air is 
 831 times lighter than a quart of water. 
 
 3. Its qualities are fluidity, expansibility, elas- 
 ticity, and gravity. Its great fluidity arises from 
 the absence of the attraction of cohesion. This 
 attraction has little or no influence upon the parti- 
 cles of air. 
 
 4. Its elasticity is great, for 128 bottlefuls of 
 air can be so compressed as to be put into one of 
 the bottles. As soon as the pressure is taken ofi", 
 the air springs out to its usual volume. 
 
38 ATMOSPHERE. 
 
 5. The air expands largely likewise. Heating 
 it increases its size, or volume. If a bladder con- 
 taining a small quantity of air be held to the fire, 
 the swelling will be seen^ occasioned by the expan- 
 sion of the air within. 
 
 6. The weight or gravity of the air, it has been 
 seen by comparing it with water, is small. Its 
 lightness is wisely ordered, for if it was even as 
 heavy as water, we should not be able to move 
 through it with such rapidity. 
 
 7. Its oxygen, we have said, supports animal 
 life, and makes all our fires burn, and its fluidity 
 carries the vapours rising from the seas and lakes 
 over the earth to give drink to the grass, the grain, 
 the trees, and the plants. 
 
 8. If its particles did not move over each other 
 so easily, the air would not be the great carrier of 
 the clouds which supply water to the vegetable 
 kingdom. 
 
 9. The lightness and elasticity of the air ena- 
 ble the birds to use their wings, and go from place 
 to place with the fleelness almost of the aerial cur- 
 rents. From the great weight of the atmosphere, 
 we are enabled to raise water from the well by 
 means of the common pump. 
 
 10. The atmosphere presses verj^ heavily on 
 the water in the well. When the bucket in the 
 pump is raised, it leaves the bottom part of the 
 pump emptied of its air, and the atmosphere pres- 
 sing on the surface of the well crowds the water 
 up the empty pump. 
 
 11. The pressure of the atmosphere prevents 
 water from evaporating too much ; if the pressure 
 was a little less we should not have any water on 
 
ATMOSPHERE. 39 
 
 the earth, for a small degree of heat would send 
 the fluids up into the atmosphere. As it is, the 
 degree of heat is admirably adapted to the amount 
 of pressure. The weight of the air binds the wa- 
 ter down as it were. 
 
 12. The whole weight of the atmosphere is 
 thought to be, by philosophers, equal to the weight 
 of a ball of lead sixty miles through — two thou- 
 sand one hundred and sixty pounds pressure on 
 every square foot of ground. The air presses in 
 every direction : upward, downward, and sidewise. 
 It is owing to this that we are not injured by the 
 great weight of the atmosphere. 
 
 13. When I hold out my hand I feel no weight 
 upon it, because the pressure under and above my 
 hand is equal. It is pressed up as much as down ; 
 the elasticity or spring of the air pressing up. 
 
 14. Atmospheric air contains about one part in 
 every thousand of carbonic acid gas. This gas 
 when breathed by animals destroys life. It is 
 much heavier than air, and is frequently found in 
 old wells, pit holes, and low marshy places. It 
 is created by breathing, and falls to the floor of the 
 room. More will be said of it hereafter. 
 
 15. The air also contains water in the form of 
 vapour, and a large quantity of gaseous particles, 
 rising from various bodies exposed to the heat of 
 the sun, and oxygen of the air. It is seen, that 
 the air is a compound of a great number of sub- 
 stances, and that it is the great receptacle for 
 everything too light to stay on the earth. 
 
 16. As there are many things that are constantly 
 rising into it, we should do all that can be done to 
 obtain air in as pure a state as possible. In th« 
 
40 CARBON. — CARBONIC ACID. 
 
 schoolroom each pupil destroys the oxygen of 
 about one gallon of air every minute. 
 
 17. The oxygen in the air, it will be remem- 
 bered, is what supports animal life. And from the 
 body of every pupil there is a constant escape of 
 an impure matter, in the form of gas, going into 
 the room and loading the air with disease. 
 
 18. The air thus unfitted for supporting life 
 should be let off by ventilators in the ceiling, and 
 not retained, as is too often the case, in the school- 
 room, to give the pupils drowsiness, stupor, and 
 disease. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 CARBON. CARBONIC ACID.* 
 
 1. Carbon is extensively diffused through na- 
 ture, and is found in both the animal and vegetable 
 kingdoms. Charcoal is nearly pure carbon ; so is 
 cotton ; and the diamond is nothing but pure car- 
 bon crystalized. Lampblack and soot are also 
 chiefly carbon. 
 
 2. Charcoal is formed by heating wood to a red 
 heat, in a place where the air is not admitted. 
 Usually, when charcoal is made, the wood is cov- 
 ered with earth, the whole forming what is called 
 a " coal pit." 
 
 * The most of this chapter is taken from " Chymistry for Be- 
 ginners."- 
 
CARBON. CARBONIC ACID. 41 
 
 3. If you burn wood in the open air, the whole, 
 almost, will disappear in the form of vapour and 
 carbonic acid gas ; a small portion of ashes is the 
 only thing left. But charcoal, which is almost all 
 carbon, must not be confounded with the various 
 kinds of coal that are dug out of the earth ; these 
 are called mineral coal: They, it is true, contain 
 a large portion of carbon, but mixed with sulphur, 
 pitch, and iron. They, consequently, are heavier 
 than charcoal. 
 
 4. Charcoal is remarkable for its power of ab- 
 sorbing, or taking in gases of different kinds, and 
 for letting them escape again when it is heated. 
 When newly made, its pores are filled with the 
 first kind of air or gas which comes in contact 
 with it. To free its pores it must be heated, when 
 it is again ready to absorb other gases. 
 
 5. Hence, charcoal will purify water that has 
 become putrid, and for this reason is very useful 
 to persons at sea, who cannot obtain fresh water. 
 Tainted meat may be made sweet by being boiled 
 with powdered charcoal, or rubbed thoroughly 
 with it. But the housekeeper who uses it for this 
 purpose must remember that it must be heated 
 to redness, and applied to the meat before it has 
 absorbed other gases than the putrid odour of the 
 meat. 
 
 6. Charcoal in the form of lampblack is used 
 with oil for paints and printer's ink ; with iron, 
 it forms steel ; with sulphur and nitre, it makes 
 gunpowder. It is in common use for fuel, and 
 especially for cooking operations of various kinds. 
 The diamond furnishes not only the most elegant 
 
42 CARBON. CARBONIC ACID. 
 
 ornaments, but is useful in arts ; and is the best 
 substance known for cutting glass. 
 
 7. Carbonic acid gas (sometimes called fixed 
 air) is found in limestone and magnesia, and may- 
 be driven out from these solid substarwes by heat. 
 This gas is also formed by breathing, fermentation, 
 and combustion. 
 
 8. No animal can live in this gas — they die al- 
 most immediately. It is different in its effects 
 upon the lungs from nitrogen or hydrogen ; they 
 do not support life, carbonic acid gas destroys it. 
 In the two former, animals die for the want of 
 oxygen, in the latter they are killed. It is on ac- 
 count of the deadly nature of this gas that char- 
 coal is so dangerous when burned in a close room. 
 
 9. The small portable furnaces which are now 
 so much in use for cooking, ironing, and other 
 household operations, should never be used except 
 in the open air, or in a fireplace ; and then the 
 doors of the room should be opened. The char- 
 coal, as it burns, gives off carbon, which, uniting 
 with the oxygen of the air, forms carbonic acid gas. 
 
 10. This gas does not support combustion, and 
 an animal cannot live in air which contains suffi- 
 cient carbonic acid for extinguishing a lighted 
 candle. Hence, the wisdom of letting down a 
 burning candle into old wells, or pits, before any 
 one ventures to descend. If the light goes out, 
 the air is certainly impure, and there is generally 
 no danger if the light continues to burn. As it is 
 heavier than the atmosphere, it sinks into these 
 low, excavated places. 
 
 11. This gas is called carbonic acid, because it 
 gives to liquid substances an acid, or sour taste, 
 
CARBON. CARBONIC ACID. 43 
 
 of a peculiar kind, which, though not sharp, is 
 lively and refreshing. The agreeable pungency 
 of beer, bottled cider, &c., is in a great measure 
 owing to the presence of this gas ; by the loss of 
 which, or exposure to the air, they become stale. 
 It causes the sparkling and boiling up of soda 
 water, and the liveliness of the Saratoga mineral 
 waters. 
 
 12. The peculiar properties of yeast or empty- 
 ings are owing to this gas. In struggling to es- 
 cape through the wet flour, or dough of which 
 bread is made, the carbonic acid gas becomes en- 
 tangled and causes the little cavities or holes which 
 appear in light bread. Pearlash makes cake light 
 on account of the carbonic acid gas which it con- 
 tains. 
 
 13. We see that the effect of this gas on animal 
 life is death, and we also see that this gas is pro- 
 duced in great abundance from the breathing of 
 animals, decomposition or ''rotting'^ of animals 
 and vegetables, and the burning of candles and 
 fires. Apparently, it would increase sufficiently 
 in a short time to destroy all animal life. 
 
 14. But the wisdom of the Creator has made 
 the plants of such a nature that they absorb this 
 gas, and the atmosphere which is breathed by ani- 
 mals is purified by the vegetable kingdom. 
 
 15. Carbonic acid gas is food for plants, and 
 they are nourished by what is given off by and 
 destroys animals. Again, the life of animals is 
 oxygen, and plants give off this gas in large abun- 
 dance. How wisely are the two kingdoms related 
 to each other ! ! Truly, " In wisdom has He made 
 them all." 
 
44 LIGHT. ELECTRICITY. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 LIGHT. ELECTRICITY. 
 
 1. Light has a very important action upon veg- 
 etation. Plants raised in dark places are nearly 
 without colour, perfume, taste, or firmness of tex- 
 ture. 
 
 2. Whether the luminous fluid called light en- 
 ters into the plants or not, it certainly has a won- 
 derful influence on their combinations. Plants 
 do not emit oxygen gas, excepting when exposed 
 to the rays of the sun ; and it is known, also, that 
 flowers rarely produce fruit if raised entirely in 
 the shade. 
 
 3. When electricity is abundantly difiiised through 
 the atmosphere, it has a powerful influence over 
 vegetation. It excites the action of oxygen, and 
 determines the condensation of the aqueous fluids. 
 Grain germinates or sprouts quicker in water filled 
 with electricity. And it is a well-known fact that 
 fermentation takes place most rapidly during a 
 thunder storm : at this time the air is full of elec- 
 tricity. 
 
 4. A liquid consisting of a variety of ingredients, 
 not very closely united, milk for instance, is de- 
 composed and becomes sour under a highly elec- 
 tric state of the air — dairy women know that their 
 milk sours very rapidly during a thunder shower. 
 It is the presence of a great quantity of electri- 
 city that produces this eff'ect. 
 
 5. We have now mentioned the principal ingre- 
 
LIGHT. ELECTRICITY. 46 
 
 dients and principles existing in the atmosphere, 
 which have more or less influence upon plants 
 and animals. The next thing to be considered is 
 water. 
 
 6. When we reflect upon the influence which 
 the atmosphere exercises over vegetation and over 
 the principal operations carried on by farmers, we 
 are astonished at not finding the simple instruments 
 which tell its changes every moment. 
 
 7. There should be on every farm a hygrome- 
 ter, to ascertain the moisture of the atmosphere ; a 
 thermometer, to indicate the degree of cold and 
 heat ; and a barometer, to determine the weight of 
 the atmosphere. This last instrument would be 
 very valuable, by foretelling the changes of the 
 weather ; the rising of the mercury announces the 
 return of dry weather, and its sinking warns of 
 rain and storms. 
 
 8. It is true that we can regard these variations 
 only as signs ; but they are signs much more cer- 
 tain than those which people derive from the 
 screaming of tree toads and the changes of the 
 moon. Expensive, complicated instruments are 
 not wanted ; but cheap, simple, yet determinate 
 ones should always be had. 
 
 9. Judge Buel, in his invaluable paper, the Cul- 
 tivator, has somewhere described these instruments, 
 and given such directions as will enable farmers to 
 obtain and use them. 
 
 *^^ 
 
46 HYDROGEN. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 HYDROGEN. 
 
 1. Hydrogen is a gas, and one of the simple 
 substances ; it has neither colour, taste, nor smell. 
 Hydrogen and oxygen united form water ; and 
 wherever water is found there is hydrogen. It is 
 the lightest substance that we knewv of. It is 
 found in vegetables and animals, and even in the 
 rocks. 
 
 2. As hydrogen and oxygen form water, it fol- 
 lows that when the oxygen is taken from the water, 
 the hydrogen is left in a separate form by itself. 
 Hydrogen, then, can be procured in the following 
 way. 
 
 3. Put a few bits of iron into a vessel, and pour 
 upon them a little sulphuric acid, and four times as 
 much water, and the hydrogen of the water will 
 rise in a separate gaseous form, when it may be 
 caught in a vessel prepared for the purpose. 
 
 4. The reason of the hydrogen's rising is this : 
 The sulphuric acid aids the oxygen of the water 
 in its strong desire to unite with the iron, which is 
 soon done, leaving the hydrogen to rise, it being 
 extremely light. 
 
 5. Hydrogen does not support animal life ; for 
 an animal soon perishes when confined in it. The 
 hydrogen has no destructive quality in it, and death 
 is occasioned, simply, by the want of oxygen. 
 
 6. Neither is hydrogen a supporter of combus- 
 tion ; for if we put a candle into it the light goes 
 
nVDROGEX. 47 
 
 out in an instant : yet hydrogen burns Turiously 
 when we put fire to it. 
 
 7. The blaze of a candle, or of a piece of wood 
 or coal, is nothing but hydrogen and a little carbon 
 burning — the oil, tallow, coal, and wood furnishing 
 the hydrogen. The union of the oxygen in the air 
 with the hydrogen and carbon in candles, wood, 
 and coal, is always attended with heat and light, 
 and makes what we call " fire." 
 
 8. If we put hydrogen and oxygen together and 
 then set fire to the mixture, we shall have a loud 
 explosion, and find that water has been formed. 
 It appears a little strange that water can be formed 
 by burning substances ! ! To produce this effect 
 the mixture is two parts of hydrogen and one of 
 oxygen. 
 
 9. The gas we burn in cities, for the purpose 
 of lighting the streets, public buildings, &c., now 
 used instead of candles and lamps, is principally 
 the hydrogen gas. The companies who furnish 
 this gas to the citizens make it from coal. 
 
 10. Coal, when exposed to heat in a closed ves- 
 sel, is decomposed ; and hydrogen, which is one 
 of the ingredients of coal, rises in a state of gas, 
 having a little carbon with it, forming a compound 
 gas, called hydro-carbonat. This is the gas used 
 to light cities, &;c., and is transparent, invisible, and 
 burns very readily and rapidly. This is a modern 
 invention, and makes a great saving of oil andL 
 tallow. 
 
 11. In mines where they dig out coal, this hy- 
 dro-carbonat gas is found in great quantities. 
 This gas, when found there, is formed either by 
 coal now burning far under ground, or wao made 
 
48 HYDROGEN. 
 
 by a former combustion and kept in the caves and 
 holes of the mine till the 'Jjresent time. 
 
 12. When the coaldiggers open the mine, the 
 oxygen contained in the atmosphere mixes with 
 this hydro-carbonat gas. Now we have said that 
 when oxygen and hydrogen are mixed and then 
 ignited, a deafening explosion takes place. If 
 these miners take fire with them into the mine, 
 they are liable to be blown up at any moment ; for 
 this hydro-carbonat gas, we know, takes fire with 
 great readiness, and being mixed with oxygen will 
 make a tremendous explosion. 
 
 13. As it is so far under ground, the people 
 must have a lamp to see how to work, and ex- 
 plosions have very often happened which killed 
 hundreds of men and horses. This combustible 
 gas will collect there, the coal must be dug out, 
 and the people must have a light to see how to 
 work. 
 
 14. But explosions were constantly taking place, 
 killing great numbers every time, till Sir Humphrey 
 Davy — a great chymist — invented a lamp, called 
 safety lamp, which gives the miners light but does 
 not set fire to the gas. 
 
 15. This was a great invention, and has saved 
 thousands of lives and made it safe for people to 
 work in mines, that before no one would enter. 
 
 16. This safety lamp is nothing more than a 
 common lamp, surrounded with a fine wire net- 
 work, or gauze, which covering gives such a shape 
 to the gas when it approaches the blaze that fire 
 is not communicated to the body of gas outside of 
 the network. 
 
WATER. 49 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 WATER. 
 
 1. Water, as has been said, is a compound 
 body, consisting of hydrogen and oxygen. It is 
 found in four states ; the purest of which is a solid, 
 as that of ice. Increase the quantity of caloric in 
 a cake of ice, and it becomes a liquid, and a still 
 greater increase of caloric makes the liquid a va- 
 pour. 
 
 2. Water is also in a state of composition with 
 other bodies, because in many cases it becomes 
 one of their component parts ; as constituting a 
 part of the juices of animals and vegetables. 
 Water contains atmospheric air, which is as neces- 
 sary to the life of the fish as it is to animals that 
 live on land. 
 
 3. The particles of air in the water pass over 
 the gills (the lungs of a fish) and purify the blood. 
 If we take the air out of a bottle of water and then 
 put a fish into it, there will be almost immediate 
 death. The more pure air the water contains the 
 healthier it is ; and hence we should not keep 
 wells covered as close as many people do. 
 
 4. Water expands gTeatly when it changes into 
 steam. The steam of one drop occupies as much 
 room, or space, as 800 drops in a liquid state. At 
 the poles the water always exists in a solid state. 
 It is so hard there it can be cut with a chisel like 
 marble. 
 
 D 
 
50 WATER. 
 
 5. Water falling through the atmosphere absorbs 
 many impurities which float in the air, and thus 
 purifies the element we breathe and live in. We 
 say, " How sweet the air is after a shower." 
 
 6. Salt water is much heavier than fresh water ; 
 a vessel so loaded as to sink in fresh water would 
 float in salt water. 
 
 7. " Water influences vegetation not only by the 
 nutritive principles furnished to plants by its decom- 
 position, but by means wholly physical, which we 
 shall first consider. The first effect of water upon 
 a soil appropriated to vegetation is, to moisten and 
 divide the earth, and consequently to favour the 
 extension of roots, the introduction of air, and the 
 development of seeds. 
 
 8. " The second is that of conveying to the seed 
 the first aliment required by it, oxygen, which 
 that liquid always holds in solution in a greater oi 
 less degree, and which is, as I have already ob- 
 served, the principal agent in germination. The 
 third office performed by water is that of dividing 
 the manure applied to the soil, of dissolving some 
 portions of it, and conveying them to the organs 
 of the plants in a state fitted for their digestion and 
 nourishment. 
 
 9. " All kinds of water are not equally suitable 
 for this purpose ; rain water, which is the purest 
 and contains the most air of any, is also the best 
 for supplying the wants of plants. Generally 
 speaking, those streams which have their rise in 
 granitic or primitive calcareous mountains are fa- 
 vourable to vegetation ; but it is necessary that they 
 should flow through soils free from metallic salts, 
 Ci earths ; and that they should have traversed. 
 
WATER. 61 
 
 before being used in agriculture, a sufficient space 
 to have become impregnated with a due portion of 
 atmospheric air. 
 
 10. " Streams may not be pure, and yet may be 
 very serviceable for watering the soil, especially if 
 they carry, or hold in solution, certain salts favour- 
 able to plants, and some animal or vegetable sub- 
 stances. In this case they possess double virtue 
 and produce double effect. 
 
 11. " Waters may be divided into three classes ; 
 the first comprehending those that are charged 
 with animal matter ; the second, those which hold 
 in solution some of the principles of vegetables ; 
 and the third, the pure waters, or those which 
 contain salts in but small quantities. 
 
 12. " The waters of the first class are the most 
 active ; and among them, those which are loaded 
 with the sweat of wool, or with the ammoniacal 
 combinations arising from the fermentation of pow- 
 dered bones, of shavings of horn, or fragments of 
 wool, hold the first rank. When employed in 
 their dry state, as manures, these substances pro- 
 duce their effects very slowly, but exercise a much 
 more energetic action when, during decomposition 
 by putrefaction, their products are absorbed by 
 water as fast as formed, and immediately conveyed 
 to the plants. The soft, fleshy, or liquid portions 
 of animal substance do not produce so lasting an 
 effect ; their decomposition is too rapid for their 
 action to be continued for any length of time. 
 
 13. '• The waters of the second class, those that 
 are charged with some of the products of vegeta- 
 tion, either natural or arising from decomposition, 
 form very good manures. When plants have 
 
52 WATER. 
 
 yielded to water all their soluble portions, the sub- 
 sequent decomposition of their insoluble fibres 
 furnishes new soluble products, which serve for 
 nourishment ; water imbibes these as fast as they 
 are formed, and transmits them to the plants with 
 which it comes in contact. In this manner dead 
 plants supply food to the living, and all the ele- 
 ments composing the first are found differently 
 combined in the last. 
 
 14. " When natural vegetable products, or those 
 arising from decomposition, are mixed with, or 
 dissolved in urine or the other animal fluids which 
 are charged with salts, the effect upon vegetation 
 is much increased, because, in addition to exciting 
 the digestive organs of plants, these salts dissolve 
 some substances which could not in their original 
 state penetrate into these organs. It is for this 
 reason that cakes of rape seed, wild mustard, and 
 nuts, used in the manner mentioned above, afford 
 the best manure known. 
 
 15. " The waters constituting the third class 
 hold in solution some salts ; these salts may be 
 considered as performing several offices in the act 
 of vegetation ; they stimulate the vitality of plants, 
 and increase thje activity of their powers ; they 
 produce, in fact, upon plants the same effect as 
 those produced upon the human body by the use 
 of such condiments as marine salt and saltpetre. 
 Salts of the same nature as those contained in 
 waters of the third class, always produce good ef- 
 fects upon the soil to which they are applied, either 
 by sprinkling the ground with them, or combining 
 them with barnyard manure. 
 
 1 6. " Though these salts are useful to vegetation, 
 
WATER. 63 
 
 it is necessary to guard against using them in ex- 
 cessive portions ; as they then dry up and destroy 
 the plants. Lands which have been long over- 
 flowed by the sea refuse to yield anything to cul- 
 tivation till they have, by the repeated action of 
 fresh water been freed from the salt with which 
 they had become impregnated. 
 
 17. "Some of the salts that are conveyed into 
 plants by water exert an influence over them in- 
 dependent of their stimulating power ; being de- 
 composed within their organs, and serving, by 
 the assimilation of their constituent principles, as 
 nourishment to the plants. The greater part of 
 the salts derived from the animal or vegetable 
 kingdoms are of this description. 
 
 18. " Having considered water as a mechanical 
 power, and as a vehicle for the conveyance of food 
 to plants, it remains for me to make known its di- 
 rect influence upon them. M. de Saussure has 
 proved by experiment, that plants decompose water, 
 and appropriate to their own uses the hydrogen 
 and the oxygen contained in it ; but this assimila- 
 tion is very trifling, if they cannot at the same 
 time absorb carbonic acid. The small increase of 
 weight gained bj'' a plant in an atmosphere contain- 
 ing only oxygen sufficiently verifies this. 
 
 19. "Dead plants which ferment when secluded 
 from oxygen give out some carbonic acid ; but 
 this only proves the combination between the car- 
 bon and oxygen contained in vegetable products. 
 
 20. " Next to carbon, the most abundant princi- 
 ple in plants is hydrogen ; which appears to be 
 furnished, in a great measure, by their power of 
 decomposing water. Hydrogen can be obtained 
 
54 THE EARTHS. 
 
 from plants by distillation, but in the decomposition 
 of dead vegetables it unites either with the oxy- 
 gen of the air to form water, or it is exhaled in 
 union with carbon as carburetted hydrogen." — 
 ChaptaL 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 THE EARTHS. 
 
 1. " Nearly all vegetables derive their support 
 from the earth. As the earth furnishes the great- 
 est number of plants, its influence upon vegetation 
 is of the greatest consequence ; yet this subject is 
 one of the most difficult things of which we can 
 treat. 
 
 2. " Plants are not, like animals, endowed with 
 the power of moving about from place to place ; 
 but are always fixed to a limited portion of the 
 sjil. They depend upon the small space which 
 they occupy for the supply of their wants. They 
 can draw food only from those portions of the 
 surrounding air, earth, and water that come next 
 to them. 
 
 3. " It is necessary, then, that plants should find, 
 immediately around them, the nourishing princi- 
 ples necessary for their growth. They should be 
 able to extend their roots, in order to draw from 
 the soil its nutritive juices ; and to fasten them- 
 selves in the earth, so as to be secure from being 
 dried up by heat, or uprooted by the winds. It 
 
MOULD. 55 
 
 is important, men, that we examine the nature 
 of earths, and the differences which exist among 
 them."* 
 
 MOULD. 
 
 4. All plants, when dead, are more or less 
 readily decomposed ; that is, they separate into 
 their original parts. This change is greatly hast- 
 ened and helped by the air and heat. As dead 
 plants are the principal food of living plants, it is 
 very important for us to become acquainted with 
 the products of vegetable decomposition. 
 
 5. This falling to pieces, or decomposition, of 
 plants, is most rapid when they are collected in 
 heaps. When large masses of vegetables are in 
 a state of fermentation, heat is always produced ; 
 but if they have been dried, it is important to col- 
 lect them into heaps, and moisten them slightly. 
 
 6. Sometimes the heat, in this case, is so great 
 as to cause the heap to take fire ; this occurs 
 when hay is stacked without being sufficiently 
 dry, or when rope, hemp, or flax is piled up wet. 
 When all the parts o( a plant are decomposed, 
 there is left a substance of a brown colour, called 
 mould. This mould contains salts, oils, and some 
 of the earths. 
 
 7. The dying sod of a summer fallow is a 
 mould ; and, as has been said, this mould is pro- 
 duced by the fermentation of vegetable matter. 
 Now, farmers frequently make a great mistake in 
 what is called " summer fallowing " When the sod 
 is rotting, there is a constant escape of nourish- 
 
 * Chaptal's Agricultural Chyinistry. 
 
5Q HOW TILLABLE LANDS ARE MADE. 
 
 ing matter. The crop ought to have this esca- 
 ping nutriment ; therefore grain should always be 
 growing while the sod is fermenting, or decom- 
 posing. 
 
 8. Land owes its fertility mostly, if not wholly, 
 to the presence of ingredients found in mould, or 
 to qualities similar to those in mould. These in- 
 gredients are furnished by manures, and by the de- 
 c3mposition of plants. But each crop takes away 
 s )me of these ingredients, and a part is washed 
 a yay by the rains. 
 
 9. Thus the soil is deprived by degrees of its 
 nutritive qualities, till at length nothing remains 
 bit a few bare earths. These, being deprived of 
 their nourishing juices, are completely barren. 
 To restore its fertility, the land must be manured 
 afresh, after having yielded several crops. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 HOW TILLABLE LANDS AKE MADE. 
 
 1. Arable lands are made, almost entirely, by 
 tne decomposition of the rocks which form the 
 basis of our globe. The water which flows in 
 torrents from the tops of the mountains washes 
 away their sides, till gravel, sand, and mineral slime 
 are formed and deposited in the valleys below. 
 
 2. The number and size of the stones found 
 in the valleys depend upon the distance of the 
 mountains whence the stones were torn, upon the 
 
HOW TILLABLE LANDS ARE MADE. 57 
 
 harder or softer character of the rocks in the moun- 
 tain, and upon the force of the currents of water 
 which went from the hills to the valleys. 
 
 3. Nearly all our rich valleys were formed from 
 the rocks in the mountains, and we can know the 
 nature of the soils by examining the elevated lands 
 and mountains in the vicinity. The deposites 
 from mountains whose rocks are made up of 
 quartz, feldspar, and mica, form soils mixed with 
 silicia, alumine, lime, magnesia, and oxyd of iron. 
 
 4. It would, however, be wrong to suppose that 
 the lands formed by the waste of mountains are, 
 throughout, of the same nature as the rocks from 
 which they have been produced. The heavier 
 particles are dropped first, nearest the mountain, 
 while the lighter elements, and those that have 
 more afiinity for water, are carried farther. 
 
 5. Rivers coming from different parts, and uni- 
 ting, make deposites which form a soil, having 
 very dissimilar ingredients. It frequently happens 
 that this mixture of the mud of two rivers pro- 
 duces a soil more fertile than would be made by 
 either of the rivers singly ; the qualities of the one 
 serving to correct the deficiencies of the other. 
 
 6. The soils found on the tops and sides of 
 mountains must have been formed, after a lapse 
 of many ages, by the constant action of the air, 
 water, and heat. These powerful chymical agents 
 soften and pulverize the rocky surface. Those 
 rocks which have a strong afiinity for air and wa- 
 ter will necessarily fall to pieces before those that 
 have less affinity, 
 
 7. As soon as the surface of the rock is furrowed 
 and the mosses have fastened themselves upon 
 
58 COMPOSITION OP ARABLE LANDS. 
 
 it, the plants that require but little nourishment 
 take root and decay there in their turn. Each suc- 
 cessive decay adds something to the top of the 
 rock, till a soil is produced fit for cultivation. 
 
 8. Man, also, has not only changed the nature 
 of soils, but he has made some of the most produc- 
 tive. By obtaining and mixing vegetable mould, 
 minerals, clays, (fcc, he has made many a barren 
 spot to blossom and yield an abundant harvest. 
 If we would observe the ingredients which are 
 found in our most fertile lands, we would be able, 
 not only to improve our farms, but to make them 
 larger. 
 
 9. Other causes than those we have mentioned 
 have produced arable lands. The numerous lakes 
 which have disappeared ; the eruption of volca- 
 noes ; the overflowings of the seas ; the bony re- 
 mains of animals, and the decay of vegetables 
 buried in the ground, have formed soils of all char- 
 acters. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 COMPOSITION OF ARABLE LANDS. 
 
 1. The best basis for good lands is a mixture of 
 lime, silicia, and alumine. To make the best lands, 
 these desirable qualities should be mixed in true 
 proportions. Lands may have too much even of a 
 good ingredient ; in such cases some other neces- 
 sary qualities are excluded. 
 
COMPOSITION OF ARABLE LANDS. 69 
 
 2. We should find out the qualities of the rich 
 and poor lands, that we may be able to correct the 
 faults of the one by the qualities of the other, 
 Every farmer knows when a field is worn out, 
 and, also, when it is in what he calls " good or- 
 der." But does he find out the absent qualities of 
 the reduced land 1 Does he know the qualities he 
 adds when he improves the poor land ? 
 
 3. An excellent soil for wheat is of this charac- 
 ter : — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Carbonate of lime 28 
 
 Silicia 32 
 
 Alumine '-^6 
 
 Animal or vegetable matter and moisture . . 11 
 
 4. In the best earths for tillage have been foV^d 
 the following qualities : — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Silicious gravel 32 
 
 Calcareous gravel 11 
 
 Silicia 10 
 
 Carbonate of lime 19 
 
 Alumine 21 
 
 Vegetable remains 7 
 
 5. In the best earths there is a large proportion 
 of gravel. This renders the soil light and easily 
 worked, and helps the passing off of heavy rains. 
 Sandy soils are frequently too open, containing 
 too much gravel. They should be mixed with 
 clay, that they may hold the water. Clay lands 
 hold the water too long, and should be mixed with 
 sand that the water may more readily pass off. 
 
60 VEGETABLE NUTRIMENT. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 VEGETABLE NUTRIMENT. 
 
 1. The atmosphere, it has been seen, furnishes 
 plants with two kinds of food. One of thegi is 
 carbonic acid and the other oxygen. The air, 
 also, carries in its bosom a large quantity of 
 water, in the form of vapour. The coolness of 
 the night makes this vapour fall to the earth, and 
 produces what we call the dew. 
 
 2. The sun comes again in the morning and 
 changes these drops of water into vapour, which 
 will again at night fall on the plants. Thus the 
 plants are moistened every twenty-four hours by 
 the water in the air. Were it not for this, the 
 heat of the sun would dry up the vegetable king- 
 dom. 
 
 3. When water ascends from the earth, in the 
 form of vapour, it carries along with it fine parts of 
 decaying vegetables and animals. These putrid 
 substances in the air are injurious to men and 
 animals, but supply the best of food for plants. In 
 order to have the most benefit from the dews, the 
 soil should contain certain qualities which it does 
 not always possess. 
 
 4. If the soil is dry and hard the dew does not 
 enter into and moisten it. The dew in this case 
 only moistens the leaves of the plants — the roots 
 receive no benefit. It is necessary in this case 
 to soften the earth, that the dews and rains may 
 
VEGETABLE NUTRIMENT, 61 
 
 reach the roots. For this reason we mellow the 
 ground between the rows of corn, and other crops 
 raised in rows. 
 
 5. Pulling up the weeds that stand in the hill 
 loosens the earth next to the roots and stalks, 
 and also prevents the corn from being choked- 
 This little attention should always be given, as it 
 enables the dew to fall directly on the roots of the 
 plants. 
 
 6. It is highly important for us to ascertain the 
 power the soil has of drawing in the dew from 
 the air ; and also the strength of the soil in re- 
 taining the dew. Every farmer may obtain this 
 knowledge. He has only to dry thoroughly an 
 equal quantity of two separate soils, and to weigh 
 them night and morning for several days, and he 
 can form an estimate of the quantity of moisture 
 which each has drawn in during the night. 
 
 7. In this experiment he should spread each 
 portion of earth over an equal quantity of surface. 
 It is seen that the air and the earth are powerful 
 agents in promoting vegetation. They act upon 
 plants directly by their own principles ; and they 
 act as helps by conveying to the organs of plants 
 such substances as are necessary for their sup- 
 port. 
 
 8. Although food is brought to the plants, it is 
 heat alone that invigorates the organs, and enables 
 them to take in the nutriment. So it is with many 
 animals ; they are benumbed by cold, and animated 
 by heat. All soils do not receive and retain heat 
 alike. Some are always wet and cold, others al- 
 ways dry and parched. 
 
62 MIXED EARTHS. 
 
 9. Cold, heavy lands are warmed by long ma- 
 nure, lime, &c. ; while dry, hot soils are moistened 
 and improved by clay, marl, and plaster. The 
 manure from the sheep and horse is more heating 
 in its action tha* that of cows. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 PROPERTIES OF MIXED EARTHS, AND THEIR CULTI- 
 VATION. 
 
 1. Soils should vary according to the nature of 
 the plants to be cultivated in them. Some prefer 
 a porous, dry, and arid soil ; others flourish only 
 in land constantly moist. There are some that 
 require a great degree of heat, others vegetate in 
 the midst of snows. 
 
 2. These peculiar tastes of plants ought to be 
 known to the farmer : then he may select for each 
 one the soil best adapted to it. Or, he may change 
 the characters of those he possesses, so as to af- 
 ford to each plant the soil most congenial to it. 
 
 3. For a plant to flourish in a soil, it is not 
 enough that the earths composing it are of the 
 right kind. It is necessary to unite other circum- 
 stances which are not always to be met with. For 
 example, the arable soils which lie upon rocks 
 vary considerably in depth. The thickness of this, 
 bed of soil not only exerts an influence upon the 
 powers of vegetation, but determines the kind of 
 plant which can be raised on it. 
 
MIXED EARTHS. 63 
 
 4. The bed of earth ought to be from ten to 
 twelve inches in depth for grain, and much more 
 than that for clover. For trees it must be much 
 deeper than for grain or clover, or their roots, run- 
 ning to no depth, will extend their shoots to a great 
 distance, and thus exhaust the strength of a large 
 portion of soil. 
 
 5. It makes a great difference of what substance 
 the substratum of the beds of earth is composed. 
 If the substratum be of sand, the soil above will 
 dry more quickly than if it were of marl or clay. 
 A bed of clay under one of sand contributes to its 
 fertility by retaining the water which easily filters 
 through the last, and thus preserving its moisture. 
 
 6. But if the water collected upon the clay 
 moisten too long a time the roots of the plants, 
 they languish. Roots may be exposed to living, 
 flowing water, without being injured by it; but 
 stagnant water is always hurtful, and for the most 
 part destructive to them. Hence, farmers should 
 drain their fields and meadows. Draining, espe- 
 cially under draining, should be more attended to 
 than it has been. 
 
 7. In lands that are too moist, it is good to 
 form beds of pebble stones, upon which a layer 
 of mould should be placed. Excellent meadows 
 are made in this way, upon land which had never 
 before produced anything but rushes. A clayey 
 or marly soil resting upon a bed of porous rock 
 is more fertile than one which rests upon a hard 
 rock. 
 
 8. The reason of this is very simple. In the 
 first case the water filters through the rock, and 
 escapes ; in the second, it remains stagnant, ren- 
 
64 MIXED EARTHS. 
 
 dering tlie soil pasty, and possessing none of the 
 requisites for vegetation. Much of the land in this 
 country is spoiled by letting the water stand on it 
 till not only all vegetation is killed, but it is ren- 
 dered wholly unfit for tillage. 
 
 9. Inclined lands, where the slope is rapid, and 
 the soil light and open, are liable to have the ma- 
 nures carried off by the heavy rains. Even the 
 soil is sometimes very much gullied. This fre- 
 quently happens to lands cultivated upon the sides 
 of mountains, till they become completely barren. 
 Hence, we would conclude that it is unwise to clear 
 up the sides of high hills, as much as is sometimes 
 done. Furrows should never be left running up 
 and down the hill, as this makes a channel for the 
 water. 
 
 10. Thorough ploughing contributes largely to 
 the fertility of lands. But in order that it may 
 produce its best effects, it is necessary to have re- 
 gard to some circumstances which are not gener- 
 ally attended to. Ploughing divides and softens 
 the soil — mixes thoroughly its constituent princi- 
 ples — destroys weeds — and frees the ground from 
 those insects which often abound in it. 
 
 11. The ploughings should be more numerous, 
 and conducted with more care, upon a heavy soil 
 than upon one that is light and porous. Clayed 
 soils should be ploughed only when dry ; when 
 they have imbibed water they form a soft paste, 
 which should not be worked. Sandy and calca- " 
 reous lands may be ploughed at all times. 
 
 12. Deep ploughings are very advantageous to 
 lands, which are of the same nature to a consider- 
 able depth. For those lower parts of the soil 
 
THE NATUIIE OF MANURES. 66 
 
 which have become filled with the manures, that 
 the rains have carried down below the surface, 
 are thus thrown up, to contribute to the nourish- 
 ment of vegetation. 
 
 13. Deep ploughings are also useful in those 
 lands where the upper layer is too clayey and 
 compact, and rests upon a bed of sand and car- 
 bonate of lime. By ploughing deep, the sand or 
 lime is mixed with the clay above, rendering it 
 more fertile than it could be made by any other 
 means. An equally good result is obtained from 
 deep ploughing in the opposite case, that is, when 
 a soil, too sandy or calcareous, rests upon an argil- 
 laceous bed. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 THE NATURE OF MANURES. VARIETIES. 
 
 1. Whatever is drawn in by the organs of 
 plants and contributes to their growth, may be 
 called manure. The three kingdoms of nature 
 furnish substances for manures. Those generally 
 used are decomposed vegetables and some ani- 
 mal matters. Salts serve principally to stimulate 
 plants ; and hence, we have substances that may 
 be called stimulants, and other substances that act 
 directly as the nourishers of plants. 
 
 2. The nutritive manures contain parts which, 
 when dissolved in water, are capable of entering 
 vno the roots, stalks, and leaves of the plants. Tt 
 
 E 
 
66 THE -NATURE OF MANURES. 
 
 is generally thought best to let these substances 
 putrify or ferment ; for this separates the jmrts^ 
 and makes them more easily dissolved in water. 
 
 3. When fermentation is taking place, the gases, 
 such as carbonic acid, carburetted hydrogen, azote, 
 and ammonia, are produced, and furnish food 
 for plants. This will show the wisdom of having 
 a crop growing while the sod is rotting, or, in 
 other words, fermenthig. And this shows summer 
 fallowing to be a very bad practice; as in this 
 case all the gases go off into the air without having 
 any plants to feed. 
 
 4. Fermentation sliould not go too far m the 
 barnyard or in the heap. If it does, there is 
 nothing left but some fixed salts, niixed with those 
 earths and juices which have resisted its action. 
 It also permits the gases we have mentioned, 
 which are the life of plants, to escape and waste 
 in the air. Fermentation, to a great degree, 
 should take place in the soil we wish to raise the 
 grain from. 
 
 5. The ver}' best kind of manure is usually 
 lost in this country. In England and France the 
 moisture from the stables is carefully conducted 
 into reservoirs, made and placed for the purpose. 
 The liquid is taken out of these vats, and thrown 
 over straw, dry leaves, weeds, <fec. In this way 
 it is saved, and made to assist fermentation. In 
 this country we either let it soak into the ground, 
 or run off into useless, uncultivated places. 
 
 6. Many farmers heap up, in large piles, the 
 collections of the barnyard, and allow them to 
 rot uncovered and exposed to the changes of the 
 weather. This is wrong. These heaps should 
 
IHE NATURE OF MANURES. 67 
 
 be covered by a slight roof of straw or boards, to 
 protect them from the rain. Separate layers 
 should be formed of each clearing of the stables, 
 cowhouse, and sheep pens. 
 
 7. These layers should be from a foot and a 
 half to two feet in thickness ; and when the heat 
 produced in them by fermentation rises in the 
 centre to more than 95^, or when the mass begins 
 to smoke, it should be turned to prevent decompo- 
 sition from going too far. As the manure lies in 
 yards, in heaps and thin layers, the fermentation 
 is very unequal. Some parts have undergone too 
 much decomposition and some not enough. 
 
 8. Fermentation should go on alike in the whole 
 mass, and be arrested as soon as the straw begins 
 to turn brown. To do this, the mass may be 
 spread, or carried into the fields, to be immediately 
 mixed with the soil. Or, we may mix with it 
 mould, plaster, muck, straw, dry leaves, &;c., while 
 lying in the yard or in heaps. 
 
 9. There has been much said of late on the 
 subject of fermentation. Some contending that 
 the manure should be considerably rotted, and 
 others that a very little fermentation is much better. 
 Before deciding upon this question we should have 
 reference to the soil to be manured. If this be 
 compact, clayey, and cold, it is better that fermen- 
 tation have taken place but slightly. 
 
 10. Unfermented. manures soften and divide 
 hard soils, and render them open to the air and 
 water ; and they also, while undergoing fermenta- 
 tion, lighten and warm the earth. But if the soil 
 be light, warm, and porous, the fermented manure 
 is preferable, because it gives out less heat, and 
 
68 THE NATURE OF MAMRES. 
 
 instead of opening the earth, already too open, it 
 makes it more compact. Experience has made 
 these facts known to all ohserving farmers. 
 
 11. When we wish to apply manure to any par- 
 ticular soil, we should ascertain the peculiar quali- 
 ties of that soil, and then select the kind of manure 
 adapted. Animals bearing wool furnish the warm- 
 est manures ; these may be mixed with ihe coldest 
 soils. The next warmest is made by horses ; 
 while that of cows and oxen contains the least 
 heat of any. 'ihe latter is good for hot, sandy 
 land. 
 
 12. Bones and horn scrapings have become in 
 the hands of farmers powerful agents in fertilizing 
 the soil. These parts of animals are principally 
 composed of phosphate of lime and gelatine. 
 Bones and horns should be ground or pounded 
 fine, before mixing them with the soil. Farmers 
 lose much by not attending to these parts of ani- 
 mals. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 THE NATURE OF MANURES. — CONTINUED. 
 
 1. The excrement of birds is another very val- 
 uable manure ; better than that of quadrupeds, for 
 birds digest their food more thoroughly. It also 
 contains more animal matter, and is richer in 
 salts. This article is one of commerce between 
 some of the isles of the Pacific and South Amer- 
 
THK NATURE OF MAiNURES. 69 
 
 ica. Farmers in the United States neglect this 
 manure entirely. The piles under the henroosts 
 remain unseemly and useless from year to year. 
 
 2. Sir Humphrey Davy has proved by experi- 
 ments that rye, wheat, barley, and oat straw have 
 but two per cent, of manure in them. That is, 
 only two pounds of manure in one hundred pounds 
 of straw. The ninety-eight pounds consists en- 
 tirely of fibre, which is a long time in decompo- 
 sing. 
 
 3. In the whole vegetable kingdom, there is not 
 a substance that affords so little aliment for plants 
 or animals as the dry straw of grain. If it is 
 thrown into the yard to soak up the moisture from 
 the cattle, to mix with the excrement and to fer- 
 ment, in this condition it increases largely the 
 quantity of manure. In this way it should always 
 be applied. 
 
 4. Weeds, leaves of trees, and all the succulent 
 plants which grow so abundantly in ditches and 
 waste lands, under fences, and by the roadside, if 
 cut when in Jlowtr, and slightly fermented^ furnish 
 from twenty to twenty-five times more manure 
 than straw does. These weeds and plants, care- 
 fully collected, ftirnish to the farmer an immense 
 resource for enriching his lands. 
 
 5. If the farmer would cut these weeds for this 
 purpose he would be a double gainer ; for in this 
 way he would prevent the foul seed from spreading 
 over his land. It is surprising that agricidturists 
 will let the foul plants go to seed, undisturbed, 
 from year to year. The farm soon becomes full 
 of poisonous plants, which choke the crops and 
 draw up all the strength of the soil. 
 
70 THE NATURE OF MANURES. 
 
 6. Farmers should make a small excavation, 
 near a stream of water, and into this hole throw 
 all the vveedsj coarse grass, leaves, potato topSy 
 (fee, which may be gathered in summer. By let- 
 ting a little water to this collection, the whole heap 
 would soon ferment enough to make excellent ma- 
 niu-e. How much farmers lose by not attending 
 to this one simple thing ! ! 
 
 7. There is another source of manure generally 
 overlooked. The sides of the highway soon be- 
 come covered with a rich sod, made by the litter 
 of hogs, sheep, and cattle, which run in the road. 
 This sod should every two or three years be car- 
 ried into the fields and mixed with the soil. It 
 would be a great addition to the manure made on 
 the farm. 
 
 8. There is a species of manure called compost. 
 This is made by arranging beds of different kinds 
 of manure one above another, taking care to make 
 such a mixture as is suited to the soil to be en- 
 riched by it. Suppose we wish to form a compost 
 for a clayey, stiff soil. 
 
 9. The first bed must be made of plaster, grav- 
 el, or mortar rubbish ; the second of the litter and 
 excrements of horses, or sheep ; the third of 
 sweepings of yards, paths, barns, and of lean marl, 
 dry and calcareous ; of muck from swamps ; the 
 remains of hay, straw, &:c. ; and all this in its turn 
 must be covered with a layer of the same mate- 
 rials as the first. 
 
 10. Fermentation will take place in the beds of 
 dung, and the liquor flowing from these will min- 
 gle with the materials of the other layers. When 
 the whole mass exhibits the signs of a high heat 
 
STIMULATING MANURES. 71 
 
 and a brown colour, it must be carried into the 
 fields. Care must be taken to mix well the sub- 
 stances composing the different layers. 
 
 11. If the compost be designed to manure a 
 light, porous, and calcareous soil, it must be formed 
 of materials of a very different character. In this 
 case it is necessary that argillaceous principles 
 should prevail. 
 
 1 2. The materials must be compact, the dung of 
 the least heating kind, and the fermentation con- 
 tinued till the ingredients form a yielding and glu- 
 tinous paste. The earths must be clayey, half 
 baked and pounded, or consisting of fat and argil- 
 laceous marl and the mud from low places. Of 
 these all the layers must be formed. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 STIMULATING MANURES LIME, PLASTER, ASHES^ 
 
 AND MARL. 
 
 1. " Lime is familiarly known to farmers by the 
 same name that is generally used by chymists. 
 It is obtained by the aid of heat from rocks which 
 go by the name of limestones. These are combi- 
 nations of lime with carbonic acid, which is fixed 
 in them by chymical attraction, but which, when 
 driven off by heat, takes the same form as the air 
 of the atmosphere, or becomes a gas. This gas 
 from this circumstance has been called Jxed air^ 
 
72 STIMULATING MANURES. 
 
 by which name it is often known as causing the 
 sparkling and froth of cider and beer. 
 
 2. The principal part of limestone i* therefore 
 called by chymists carbonate of lime. Carbonate 
 of lime is also found in shells, both those of living 
 animals and those which exist in the ground in a 
 fossil state. The former is mixed with animal 
 matter, which is more or less separated from the 
 latter, according to the time livhich has elapsed 
 since the death of the shell fish. 
 
 3. Marl, in the sense in which the term is used 
 by chymists, is a mixture of clay with carbonate 
 of lime. The English writers on agriculture have 
 not observed this distinction, and the term is 
 sometimes applied by them to a decomposed chalk, 
 which may contain little or no clay ; and some- 
 times to the clay, which contains no carbonate of 
 lime. 
 
 4. In fact, the name is frequently applied by 
 them to any earthy matter found below the vegeta- 
 ble soil which is capable of increasing its fertility. 
 From this misapprehension, the substances which, 
 go by the name of marl in New-Jersey, Mary- 
 land, and Virginia, do not correspond with the 
 chymical definition, but are generally beds of fossil 
 shells, mixed in various proportions with earthy 
 and saline matters of various kinds. 
 
 5. Lime is a substance very different in its char- 
 acter from the two earths of which we have pre- 
 viously spoken. When prepared by heat from any 
 of the original forms of its carbonate, it retains 
 their shape unaltered, but may have its colour 
 changed, and always loses considerable in weight. 
 
 6. It 13 now acrid, caustic, and corrosive, and 
 
STIMULATING MANURES. 73 
 
 has some properties in common with potash, which 
 are therefore alkaline. Of these the most impor- 
 tant is, that it unites with acids to form compounds 
 included in the general class of salts. 
 
 7. Of the salts of lime, which are important to 
 the farmer, the three principal are : the carbonate, 
 which, as we have stated, is found in limestone, 
 chalk, shells, and marl ; the sulphate, in which 
 lime is combined with sulphuric acid, and which, 
 in combination witli water, is the substance so well 
 known to our farmers under the name of plaster of 
 Paris, or less familiarly by that of gypsum ; the 
 phosphate, which constitutes a large part of the 
 bones of animals. 
 
 8. Lime, when exposed to air, attracts carbonic 
 • acid, which is always to be found in the atmo- 
 sphere ; it thus passes back to the state of carbon- 
 ate, but in so doing gradually falls to powder, and 
 is then said to be air slacked. U slacked with 
 water, it also falls to a powder, which still retains 
 the caustic character of the burnt lime ; but this 
 powder, when exposed to the air, unites with car- 
 bonic acid more rapidly than when in mass. 
 
 9. Three principal modes of proceeding are in 
 use for applying lime. The lirst is the most sim- 
 ple, and is the most general wherever lime is ob- 
 tained cheaply, and where culture is but little ad- 
 vanced in perfection, and manual labour is dear. 
 This is putting the lime [the burned limestone] im- 
 mediately on the ground, in little heaps at twenty 
 feet, average distance, and each heap containing, 
 according to the rate of liming, from a cubic foot 
 
 I of the stone to half that quantity. When the 
 lime has been slacked by exposure to the air, and 
 
74 STIMULATING MANURES. 
 
 hrts Tallen into powder, it is spread on the surface 
 so as to be equally divided. 
 
 10. The second mode differs from the first in 
 this respect : the heaps of stone are covered with 
 a coat of earth, about six inches thick, according 
 to the size of the heap, and this coat is equal to 
 five or six times the bulk of the lime. When the 
 lime begins to swell, by slacking, the cracks and 
 openings in the heap are filled with earth : and 
 when the lime is reduced to powder, each heap is 
 worked over, so as to mix thoroughly the lime and 
 the earth. If nothing hurries the labour, this last 
 operation is repeated at the end of fifteen days — 
 and then, after waiting two weeks more, the mix- 
 ture is spread over the soil. 
 
 11. The third process, which is adopted where 
 culture is more perfect and lime is dear, and 
 which combines all the advantages of liming, 
 without offering any of its inconveniences, consists 
 in making compost heaps of lime and earth or 
 mould. For tliis, there is first made a bed of earth, 
 mould or turf, of a foot or thereabout in thickness. 
 The clods are chopped down, and there is spread 
 over a layer of unslacked lime, of a hectolitre for 
 the twenty cubic feet, or a ton to the forty-five 
 cubic feet of earth. 
 
 12. Upon this lime is placed another layer of 
 earth, equal in thickness to the first ; then a sec- 
 ond layer of lime ; and then the heap is finished 
 by a third layer of earth. If the earth is moist, 
 and the lime recently burned, eight or ten days 
 will sufiice to slack it completely. Then the heap 
 is cut down and well mixed — and this operation is 
 repeated afterward before using the manure, which 
 
STIMULATliNG MANUREiJ. 75 
 
 is delayed as long as possible, because the effect 
 on the soil is increased with the age of the com- 
 post ; and especially if it has been made with 
 earth containing much vegetable mould. 
 
 13. This method is the one most used in Belgi- 
 um and Flanders : it is becoming almost the exclu- 
 sive practice in Normandy : it is the only practice, 
 and followed with the greatest success, in La 
 Sarthe. Lime in compost is never injurious to the 
 soil. Light soils, sandy or gravelly, are not tired 
 by repetitions of this compost. No coimtry or au- 
 thor charges lime, used in this way, with having 
 been injurious to the soil. In short, this seems the 
 must sure, the jnost useful, and the least expensive 
 mode of applying lime as manure. 
 
 14. Lime is the life of wheat, and should be 
 used on land in this country more generally than 
 it has been. We would .recommend, to most farm- 
 ers, the second method mentioned above, of apply- 
 ing it to the soil. 
 
 1 5. Plaster is profitably and extensively used in 
 this country. On the sandy lands, the white or 
 Nova Scotia plaster is thought best ; but used on 
 the loamy, clayey soils, the western plaster is sup- 
 posed to be equally good, it not better. Plaster, 
 or gj'^psum, as it is sometimes called, does not help 
 low moist lands as much as it does dry uplands. 
 On soil of the latter kind, it should be used more 
 generally than it has hitherto been. It will well 
 pay the expense and trouble. 
 
 16. Plaster was made known to us by Benjamin 
 Franklin, upon his return from Paris. As Frank- 
 lin wished the effects of this manure to strike the 
 attention of all cultivators, he wrote in great let- 
 
76 STIMULATING MANURES. 
 
 ters in a field of clover by the side of a public 
 road, " This has been plastered." The rich veg- 
 etation which was seen in the plastered portion 
 led him to adopt this method. 
 
 17. Volumes upon the excellences of plaster 
 would not have produced so speedy an effect. 
 From that period we have used great quantities of 
 plaster. 
 
 18. Gypsum is a compound of sulphuric acid 
 and lime, containing more or less water crystalized. 
 A moderate heat deprives it of its water, and ren- 
 ders it of a darker colour. It can then be reduced 
 to powder and employed in that state. 
 
 19. The gypsum should be scattered by hand, 
 when the leaves and plants begin to cover the 
 ground. It is best to do this during a light rain, as 
 it is well to have the leaves a little moistened, that 
 they may retain a small portion of the plaster. 
 The effect of plaster is seen for three or four 
 years. 'I'he use of it ought to be resumed at the 
 end of that lime, if not sooner. B'rom three to 
 four hundred pounds should be thrown upon an 
 acre. When used on corn or potatoes it should be 
 thrown into the hills. 
 
 20. Ashes produced by burning wood are ex- 
 cellent stimulants, though without being leached 
 ashes are, usually, much too active. But after hav- 
 ing been deprived, by the action of water, of nearly 
 all their salts, they still produce great effects. In 
 this state they are called leaclted ashes. How 
 often do we see large piles of these ashes left, 
 probably in the way, from year to year. If farm- 
 ers knew their value, they would scatter them over 
 the land without delay. 
 
iMPROVEMEiNT OF THE SOIL. 77 
 
 21. Leached ashes are most powerful upon low 
 lands and meadows. Here they not only help the 
 growth of good plants, hut free the soil from weeds. 
 By the use of these ashes, lands drenclied with 
 water may be freed from rushes, and prepared for 
 yielding clover, and other plants of good kinds. 
 'J'hey amend clayey soils and promote vegetation. 
 Farmers should be careful to scatter them over the 
 fields and not throw them into the dooryara fiom 
 year to year, where they are entirely lost. 
 
 22. iViarl is usually nothing more than a mixture 
 of lime and clay. Shell marl is composed of lime 
 and sand : this last kind is best for sand land, and 
 the former for clay land. The shell marl is found 
 in great quantities in New-Jersey, and has quad- 
 rupled the value of many farms. This is partic- 
 ularly the case in Monmouth county. There are 
 also large beds of marl in the state of New-York, 
 but little attention has as yet been given to this 
 valuable species of manure. 
 
 CHAPTER xvnr. 
 
 IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL. 
 
 1. To improve the soil is to render it more suited 
 to the growth of plants. Before this can be done 
 we musi know the particular aliment which the 
 different plants require, and the present qualities 
 of the soil we wish to act upon. We always work 
 in the dark when we do not thoroughly and ac- 
 
78 IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL. 
 
 curately understand the end for which we are toil- 
 ing, and the substance we are acting upon. 
 
 2. The soil can be increased by mechanical 
 means. It is known that the best earths produce 
 but little, if they be not stirred by the spade, the hoe, 
 or the plough. This operation divides and softens 
 the earth. It brings to the surface the manures of 
 all kinds, which the rains had caused to sink below 
 it. It helps the spreading of the roots and mixes 
 the manure with the earth. 
 
 3. Ploughing also destroys weeds, and causes 
 them to serve as manure. And, lastly, it frees 
 the soil from vermin, which would otherwise mul- 
 tiply in it to the destruction of the harvest. Plough- 
 ing forms the basis of agriculture, for without it 
 there can be no harvest. Ground that we are 
 very particular with should be stirred with the hoe 
 or spade, as these instruments are more thorough 
 than the plough. 
 
 4. It is, in most cases, a good practice to har- 
 row the fall grain in the spring. The drag, how- 
 ever, should be light, and the teeth made of wood. 
 This operation opens the earth and lets in the air 
 and moisture. The roller should be used on rough, 
 open soils. This instrument is sometimes used 
 on wet, heavy land with much injury. Reduced, 
 clayey land will become too hard, without any as- 
 sistance from the roller. 
 
 5. But on lumpy, porous land the roller should 
 be used. It unites and levels the surface of the 
 ground, and presses the seeds into contact with 
 the earth. The roller also makes a tine prepar- 
 ation for the scythe. It is not unfrequently the 
 case that the frosts of sprhm rai&e the roots of 
 
IMPROVUMENT OF THL SOIL. 79 
 
 grain out of the ground, when they are left bare, 
 and soon die. By rolling the land at this time we 
 crowd the roots aguin into the earth. This will 
 often save a crop. 
 
 6. That the subject may be clearly understood, 
 we will distinguish soils as clayey, calcareous, si- 
 licious, and sandy. These divisions seem to com- 
 prise all those requiring to be amended. And the 
 quality of the earth we find in each will tell us 
 what must be done to make an improvement. 
 
 7. A clayey soil is rendered pasty (what farm- 
 ers call sticky) by rains, and it is hardened and 
 cracked by heat. This soil absorbs moisture from 
 the air only on its surface, but takes in the water 
 from the rain so abundantly that the roots of plants 
 are in danger, in a wet time, of being drowned. 
 This great quantity of water also frequently stag- 
 nates ; and this soon destroys the crop. 
 
 8. In clayey soils the freezing and thawing throw 
 out the roots of the grain, and leave them exposed 
 to the frost and winds. In this condition the grain 
 winter kills. To remedy this, in part, we should 
 pass the roller over the grain after every thaw. 
 This will cover and crowd the roots of the grain 
 into the earth. 
 
 9. Everything that will tend to soften this 
 clayey earth, to render it more light and porous, 
 and to hasten the passage of water through it, is 
 adapted to the improvement of this kind of soil. 
 We should mix with this earth calcareous sands, 
 broken shells, chalks, lean marl, ashes, lime, <fec. 
 The ploughings should be deep and frequent. The 
 green crops should be turned in. And there should 
 be a plentiful use of the hot manures. 
 
80 IMPROVEME-NT OF THE SOIL. 
 
 10. Calcareous soils possess properties entirely 
 different from those of the clayey soils. The rains 
 drain through them easily, and they throw off 
 moisture readily by evaporation. The air, again, 
 can penetrate the sandy soil and deposite the mois- 
 ture with which it is charged. 
 
 11. The tillage of these soils is light and easy; 
 and as they are loose and porous, provided they 
 have sufficient depth, roots spread in them easily. 
 To improve these soils we should make them ca- 
 pable of holding water, and this may be done by 
 a dressing of fat marl or calcined clay. These 
 soils, being naturally warm, require the ftesh ma- 
 nure of neat cattle. The rich mud drawn from 
 rivers and low places may be used with great suc- 
 cess in improving calcareous soils. 
 
 12. The custom of allowing lands to rest after 
 having produced several harvests, has long been 
 in practice, and is still followed, to a great extent, 
 in this country. It is thought that land ought to 
 rest to recover its strength, or productive virtue. 
 The necessity of rest in animals probably gave 
 rise to this idea. But nothing is more unfounded 
 in truth. If lands are properly managed they need 
 not rest. 
 
 13. The scarcity of manure has been, again, 
 another cause of letting lands lie fallow. But the 
 ease with which fodder may be cultivated furnishes 
 the means of supporting an increased number of 
 animals, and hence of obtaining an increased quan- 
 tity of manure. With the help of this the farmer 
 need not let his lands lie idle. He may make 
 sufficient manure to keep his land most of the time 
 under the plough. 
 
SUCCESSION OF CROPS. 81 
 
 14. A great advantage has arisen from the sys- 
 tem of rotation of crops, which is found to answer 
 all the purposes of fallowing. By skilfully ar- 
 ranging a succession of crops of grain, artificial 
 fodder, leguminous plants, roots, &c., the earth is 
 enriched, instead of being impoverished. The 
 ground is likewise cleansed from weeds, and more 
 abundant crops are obtained at less expense. 
 
 15. During those years when certain fodders, 
 such as clover and trefoil, require no other care 
 than that o( harvesting them, the farmer can be- 
 stow all his attention, manures, and the labour of 
 his cattle upon such other portions of his farm as 
 may need improvement. So that, instead of having 
 one half of his land lying as an unproductive fal- 
 low, it may be covered with herbage, affording the 
 finest food for cattle. 
 
 16. The soil will be growing richer, instead of 
 poorer, and may be prepared for raising grain, 
 without the addition of any barnyard manure. 
 Farmers should keep sheep, not only for the pro- 
 fit on the wool, but for the purposes of manure. 
 And they should make all the manure they can, 
 from every plant that may grow upon the farm. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 SUCCESSION OF CROPS. 
 
 1. The soil and climate may be well adapted 
 to the cultivation of a particular plant, and yet 
 that plant not do well, if sown on the same piece 
 
 F 
 
83 SUCCESSION OF CROPS. 
 
 of ground from year to year. To manage land 
 profitably, various kinds of vegetables must be raised 
 on it in succession. The rotation must also be 
 conducted with intelligence, that none unsuited to 
 the soil or climate be introduced. 
 
 2. It is the art of varying the crops upon the 
 same soil, of causing different vegetables to suc- 
 ceed one another, and of skilfully managing the 
 effect of each upon the soil, which can alone es- 
 tablish that good order of succession which consti- 
 tutes cropping. 
 
 3. A good system of cropping is the best surety 
 of success that a farmer can have. Without this, 
 all is vague, uncertain, and hazardous. To estab- 
 lish a good system of cropping, a degree of know- 
 ledge is necessary, which, unhappily, is wanting 
 to the greater part of our practical farmers. Cer- 
 tain facts and principles, which may serve as guides 
 in this important branch of agriculture, will now 
 be stated. 
 
 4. All plants exhaust the soil. They take from 
 it certain properties, which, if not replaced by art, 
 will leave the soil so much impoverished. If 
 crop after crop is taken from the same field, the 
 ground will become fairly exhausted. The earth 
 cannot give nutriment to plants without being im- 
 poverished. 
 
 5. But all plants do not exhaust the soil equally. 
 Although the air, water, and moisture in the earth 
 are the common food of plants, yet different plants 
 have not the same aliment Some love a dry soil, 
 some a wet, while others will grow only in the 
 richest lands. Every plant has its own favourite 
 
SUCCESSION OP CROPS. 83 
 
 food ; and some are large, and others are small 
 eaters. 
 
 6. The grains and most of the grasses having 
 but few leaves, do not receive much food from the 
 air or water, but obtain most of their nourishment 
 from the ground. These, consequently, exhaust 
 the soil more than such plants as have large, fleshy- 
 leaves, which feed upon the air and water, and 
 draw carbonic acid and water into the earth. 
 Nearly all the plants that are cut for fodder are 
 of this kind. 
 
 7. In most cases those plants which are cut 
 green, or while in flower, exhaust the soil but lit- 
 tle : till this period they have derived their support 
 almost entirely from the air and water. The stalks 
 and roots are charged with juices, and those parts 
 that are left in the earth after mowing will restore 
 to the soil all that had been received from it by the 
 plant. 
 
 8. Plants of different kinds do not exhaust a soil 
 in the same manner. They exhaust only that por- 
 tion of the soil which comes in contact with their 
 roots. A plant that has a long, single root, may 
 be able to find an abundance of food in land, the top 
 of which has been impoverished by short spread- 
 ing roots. 
 
 9. Plants of the same kind always send their 
 roots in the same direction. They, consequently, 
 are supported by the same layers of earth. A tree 
 seldom prospers that has taken the place of an- 
 other of the same kind. If there has been suffi- 
 cient time since the old tree was taken away for 
 its roots to rot and thus supply manure, the second 
 
84 SUCCESSION OF CROPS. 
 
 growth may flourish. But unless this is the case, 
 the tree will not be healthy and thrifty. 
 
 10. It has been proved that plants have taste 
 and choice regarding their food. It is in fact with 
 them as with animals, there are some elements 
 common to all, and some peculiar to each kind. 
 This is beyond doubt, since a certain plant takes 
 up one quality, and some other plant an opposite 
 quality. 
 
 11. All plants do not restore to the soil either the 
 same quantity or the same quality of manure. The 
 grains take most from the soil and return least to 
 it. Plants with large roots and stalks frequently 
 return to the soil as much as they take from it. 
 From what has been said, we may draw the fol- 
 lowing conclusions. 
 
 12. Although the soil may be well prepared, it 
 cannot nourish a long succession of crops without 
 becoming exhausted. 
 
 Each harvest impoverishes the soil to a certain 
 extent, according to the degree of nourishment 
 which it restores to the earth. 
 
 The cultivation of spindle roots ought to suc- 
 ceed that of top and running roots. 
 
 13. We should not return too soon to the cultiva- 
 tion of the same kinds of vegetables in the same 
 soil. 
 
 It is very unwise to allow two kinds of plants 
 which permit the ready growth of weeds to be 
 raised in succession. 
 
 Plants that derive their principal support from 
 the soil should not be sown, unless the soil is suf- 
 ficiently provided with manure. 
 
 14. "When the soil shows symptoms of exhaus- 
 
GRASSES. 85 
 
 tioii, the cultivation of those plants that restore 
 most to the soil must be resorted to. These prin- 
 ciples are confirmed by experience. 
 
 15. We have here stated a system of agricul- 
 ture, rich in its products, but more rich in its 
 economy. It saves labour and manure. All cidti- 
 vators ought to be governed by them. Their ap- 
 plication, however, must be modified by the nature 
 of soils and climates, and the particular wants of 
 each locality. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 1. '* I HAVE found in our publications on agri- 
 culture very little information on the improvement 
 of our meadow and pasture grounds. Indeed, the 
 names of our native grasses are scarcely enumer- 
 ated, much less are their habits described, or 
 their relative merits for hay and pasture pointed 
 out, in any American work which has fallen with- 
 in my notice. A considerable portion of our lands 
 are unsuitable for the system of convertible hus- 
 bandry, that is, an alteration of grain and grass 
 crops. 
 
 2. "Of this description are our stiff clays, marshes, 
 and swamps, and all of those lands in which til- 
 lage is rendered difficult by reason of hardpan, 
 stones, or wetness. These should be improved as 
 permanent meadows and pastures ; and it is of 
 
86 GRASSES. 
 
 the first importance to the farmer to know the 
 grasses which will render them most conducive to 
 profit ; for that our grass grounds are as suscep- 
 tible of improvement as our tillage grounds, by a 
 suitable selection of seeds and suitable manage- 
 ment, must be apparent to every reflecting mind. 
 The improvement and productiveness of our cat- 
 tle and sheep husbandry, which at this lime de- 
 servedly engage much of the public attention, de- 
 pend materially on this branch of farming. 
 
 3. " Sweet-scented Vernal Grass. This is a grass 
 of diminutive growth, and is not worth cultivating 
 for hay. It is nevertheless considered as valuable 
 in pasture, on account of its aftbrding very early 
 feed, and growing quick after being cropped. Its 
 proper situation is high, well-drained meadows. 
 It constitutes, in such meadows, in Massachusetts, 
 at least one half of the whole crop. Its chief fault 
 is that it is too early for the other grasses, but it 
 afibrds a second and even a third crop if cut early. 
 It is the grass which gives the finest flavour, so 
 grateful to milch cows. 
 
 4. ^^ Meadow Foxtail possesses all the advantages 
 of early growth with the preceding, and is much 
 more abundant in product and nutriment. It gen- 
 erally constitutes one of five or six kinds which are 
 sowed together, by the English farmers, for pas- 
 ture ; and affords withal a tolerable crop of hay. 
 It does best in moist soils, whether loams, clays, 
 or reclaimed bogs. Sheep and horses have a bet- 
 ter relish for it, says Sir G. Sinclair, than oxen. 
 
 5. " Rough Cocksfoot. Dr. Muhlenburgh and T. 
 Cooper concur in opinion that this is the orchard 
 grass of the United States, though some that I have 
 
GRASSES. 87 
 
 raised as orchard grass does not seem to corres- 
 pond with the figure of the dactylis glomerata in 
 the second volume of Dickson's Farmer's Com- 
 panion. In England, cocksfoot is taking the place 
 of rye grass with clovers. Arthur Young speaks 
 in high commendation of it ; though all writers 
 concur in the opinion, that it should be frequently 
 and closely cropped, either with the scythe or cat- 
 tle, to reap the full benefit of its great merits. 
 
 6. "I should prefer it to almost every other grass ; 
 and cows are very fond of it. Cooper rates it 
 above timothy, and says it is gradually taking the 
 place of the latter, among the best farmers about 
 Philadelphia. This is probably owing to the fact 
 that it is earlier than timothy, and of course more 
 suitable to cut with clover for hay. Its growth is 
 early and rapid, after it has been cropped. It 
 does well on loams and sands, and grows well in 
 shade. 
 
 7. " If further facts are wanting in favour of this 
 grass for pasture, the reader will find them in an 
 article in the American Farmer of the fourteenth 
 November, 1823, supposed to be Colonel Powel's, 
 a gentleman who combines as much science with 
 judicious practice, especially in cattle and grass 
 husbandry, as any person in the Union. He says, 
 * I have tried orchard grass for ten years. It pro- 
 duces more pasturage than any artificial grass I 
 have seen in America.' Sow two bushels of seed 
 to an acre. 
 
 8. " Tall Oat Grass. Both Arator (Mr. Taylor) 
 and Dr. Muhlenburg have placed this at the head 
 of their lists of grasses, which they have recom- 
 mended to the attention of the American farmer. 
 
88 GRASSES. 
 
 The latter says it is of all others the earliest and 
 best grass for green fodder and hay. The doctor 
 was, probably, not apprized of its deficiency in 
 nutritive matter, as indicated in the table. 
 
 9. " It possesses the advantage of early, quick, 
 and late growth, for which the cocksfoot is es- 
 teemed, tills well, and is admirably calculated for 
 pasture grass. I measured some on the twentieth 
 of June, when in blossom, when it should be cut 
 for hay, and found it four and a half feet long. 
 The latter math is nearly equal in weight, and 
 superior in nutritious matter, to the seed crop. 
 
 10. " Tall Fescue, although u native grass, has 
 not fallen undeir my personal observation. It 
 stands highest, says Davy, according to the ex- 
 periments of the Duke of Bedford, of any grass, 
 properly so called, as to the quantity of nutritive 
 matter afforded by the whole crop, when cut at the 
 time of flowering ; and meadow catstail (timothy) 
 grass affords most food, if cut at the time when 
 the seed is ripe. 
 
 11. "It grows naturally in wet grounds, in bog 
 meadows, and on the sides of ditches, often to the 
 height of four or five feet. Our ignorance of ag- 
 ricultural botany, and of the intrinsic value of this 
 grass, can alone have prevented its being more 
 generally known and cultivated. It must be very 
 valuable for wet grounds, as from its rapid growth 
 it is calculated to smother or keep down the 
 coarser kinds, which naturally abound in these sit- 
 uations . 
 
 12. " Rye Grass is extensively cultivated in Scot- 
 land and the north of England, and where cocks- 
 foot has not superseded it, is generally mixed 
 
GRASSES. 89 
 
 with clover seeds. It is rather declining in pub- 
 lic estimation. It does well in pasture ; and as it 
 contains much nutriment, is considered valuable 
 for cows and sheep. Dickson says it does best in 
 rich moist meadows. Young does not speak well 
 of it. 
 
 13. " Red Clover. There are many species of 
 the trifolium. and several varieties of the red clo- 
 ver. Whether the kind we generally cultivate is 
 the pratense, or not, I am unable to determine 
 The character of red clover as a meliorating fertil- 
 izing crop, is too generally known to require illus- 
 tration. It cannot be depended upon for perma- 
 nent grass lands ; though it yields to no grass for 
 alternating with grain, in convertible husbandry. 
 
 14. " It formerly was as indispensable in a course 
 of crops in Norfolk, England, (which has been con- 
 sidered pre-eminent for good tillage,) as turnips ; 
 and the maxim was, and still is, ' No turnips, no 
 crops.' But it appears from Young's survey of 
 that county, that it cannot now be depended on 
 oftener than once in from eight to twelve years 
 Trefoil, white clover, cocksfoot, rye grass, (fee, 
 are therefore alternated with red clover, in the 
 grass years. There is reason to believe that 
 neither red clover nor other grasses will bear re- 
 peating for a course of years upon the generality 
 of the soils. 
 
 15. " They exhaust the ground of the peculiar 
 nourishment required for their support. In Great 
 Britain, white clover, trefoil, rye grass, or cocksfoot 
 is generally sown with red clover seeds. From 
 twenty to thirty pounds of seeds are sown to the 
 acre In the northern states, timothy is generally 
 
90 GRASSES. 
 
 sown with clover ; though the mixture is an im- 
 proper one for hay ; for the clover is fit for the 
 scythe ten or fifteen days before the timothy has 
 arrived to maturity. If sown alone, from eight to 
 sixteen pounds of clover seed should be put on an 
 acre ; more on old land than on new. 
 
 16. " White or Dutch Clover {trifolium repens) 
 is considered in England of importance to hus- 
 bandry, if we are to judge from' the great quantity 
 of seed which is there sown annually. With us, 
 many districts produce it spontaneously ; but it is 
 too seldom sown. It shrinks greatly in drying, 
 and does not contain as much nutritive matter as 
 red clover ; yet its value as a pasture grass is uni- 
 versally admitted. Its increase is very much fa- 
 cilitated by a top dressing of gypsum, lime, or 
 ashes. 
 
 17. " Lucerne, although aflfording much more 
 green food, contains less nutriment in a single 
 crop than red clover. It must, however, be borne 
 in mind, that it grows much quicker than clover, 
 and will bear cutting twice as often. In the soil- 
 ing system, an acre of lucerne will keep four cat- 
 tle or horses from the fifteenth of May to the first 
 of October. 
 
 18. *'I sowed seed in 1821, at the rate of six 
 pounds the acre, with barley. It has stood the 
 winters well, much better than clover ; and has been 
 in a state of progressive improvement. Drought 
 has not affected it. The plants are very tender 
 the first year, and require either a very clean 
 tilth, or to be kept free from weeds and grass with 
 a hoe the first year. It should have a deep loam, 
 as it sends down tap roots five or six feet ; and it 
 
GRASSES. 91 
 
 is equally necessary that the,ground should not be 
 wet. 
 
 19. "It may be sown either in drills or broadcast, 
 with or without grain. Fifteen pounds of seed are 
 required for the acre if drilled, and twenty are not 
 too much if sown broadcast. To the proprietor of 
 a dairy, an acre or two of lucerne would be valu- 
 able, to be fed to his cows in addition to ordinary 
 pasture. 
 
 CHAPTER XXr. 
 
 GRASSES CONTINUED. 
 
 1. " Long-rooted clover is a native of Hungary, 
 and I do not think has ever found its way across 
 the Atlantic. The root is biennial, and if sown in 
 the fall, lasts only during the next season. It 
 penetrates to a great depth in the ground, and con- 
 sequently is but little affected by drought. It 
 therefore requires a deep dry soil. 
 
 2. " The product of this grass, when compared to 
 others that are allied to it in habit and place of 
 growth, proves greatly superior. It affords twice 
 the weight of grass, and more than double the nu- 
 tritive matter that is given by the common clover. 
 It gives abundance of seed ; and, says G. Sinclair, 
 if the ground be kept free of weeds, it sows itself, 
 vegetates, and grows rapidly, without covering in, 
 or any operation whatever. 
 
 3. " Four years it has propagated itself in this 
 
92 GRASSES. 
 
 manner on the space of ground which it now oc- 
 cupies, and from which this statement of its com- 
 parative value is made. This species would, no 
 doubt, prove a valuable acquisition to our hus- 
 bandry, whether we consider its value for green 
 food, hay, or as a green crop to be turned in pre- 
 paratory to grain. 
 
 4. " Sain Foin is peculiarly adapted to a calca- 
 reous or chalky soil. It is true it is cultivated in 
 Norfolk, England, which is a soil of sand and 
 loam, naturally destitute of calcareous matter. 
 But it is common there to dress their lands with 
 clay marl, which abounds with carbonate of lime ; 
 without which dressing, says Young, Norfolk soils 
 will not grow sain foin. 
 
 5. " This writer considers it ' one of the most 
 valuable plants that were ever introduced into the 
 agriculture of Great Britain.' The well-known 
 Mr. Coke cultivates four hundred acres of this 
 grass, and sows it without other seeds. Several 
 attempts have been made to cultivate sain foin in 
 this country, but hitherto I believe without success. 
 
 6. " Timothy. This grass is distinguished in 
 Great Britain by the name of meadow catstail ; in 
 New-England by that of herd's grass. It is one 
 of the most valuable grasses that are cultivated ; 
 and what is worthy the notice of every farmer, it 
 affords more than double the nutriment when cut in 
 the seed that it does in the flower. 
 
 7. ''In tenacious, strong, and moist soils it is en- 
 titled to a precedence, perhaps, over any single 
 grass for hay, yet does not seem to be suitable to 
 mix with clover seeds when intended for meadow. 
 Another consideration, which renders it particu- 
 
GRASSES. 93 
 
 larly worthy of attention, is the seed which it af- 
 fords, and which may be saved without materially 
 diminishing the hay crop. From ten to thirty 
 bushels of seed may be taken from an acre of 
 timothy, which, at the price it now bears, is of it- 
 self a handsome remuneration. 
 
 8. " Florin has of late years been brought into 
 notice in Great Britain, by the experiments of Dr. 
 Richardson ; who particularly recommended it for 
 the cold boggy soils of the mountainous districts, 
 where ordinary grasses would not thrive. The 
 peculiar value of the florin, and of other grasses 
 of the agrostis family, arises from their fitness for 
 winter pasture ; as they lose very little of their 
 bulk or nutriment by remaining in the soil after 
 they have ceased to grow, 
 
 9. " Its name [creeping bent or couch grass) im- 
 plies a difficulty in mowing it, except on a surface 
 perfectly smooth. We have seen it recommended 
 to the notice of American farmers ; but from the 
 very limited progress which seems to have been 
 made in its cultivation, we infer that it has fallen 
 short of public expectation. 
 
 10. " Upright Bent Grass. Dr. Muhlenburgh 
 considers this the herd's grass of the southern, 
 and the foul meadow of the eastern states, of 
 which whitetop and redtop are varieties. This 
 grass is more congenial to our climate than to that 
 of England. In any boggy soils, both varieties of 
 this grass have come in spontaneously, as soon as 
 the ground has been cleared and drained, have 
 soon formed a compact sod, and afforded good hay 
 and good pasture. 
 
 J 1. " Flat-stalled Meadow Grass. This, accord- 
 
'94 GRASSES. 
 
 ing to Muhlenburgh, is the blue grass, which is 
 considered as a pest in many of our tillage grounds. 
 The small crop which it gives, and the little nutri- 
 tive matter which this affords, show the little de- 
 pendance that ought to be placed on it for grazing, 
 or for hay. 
 
 12. " Smooth-stalked Meadow Grass is a native 
 plant, and is well adapted for permanent pastures. 
 It grows quickly after being cropped, and does 
 well upon dry ground. Floating Fescue grows 
 well in swamps and bog soils, where good kinds 
 are most wanted. 
 
 13. "I would suggest, with much deference, 
 whether grasses may not be divided, for the prac- 
 tical benefit of the farmer, into three kinds, to wit : 
 1st. Cultivated grasses. All kinds, strictly speaking, 
 which the soil does not produce spontaneously, are 
 cultivated grasses. But the term, as generally 
 used, and as I here employ it, applies only to such 
 as are sown to alternate with grain, pulse, and 
 roots, in a systematic rotation of crops, 
 
 14. " The grasses selected for this purpose are, 
 generally, the red clovers, lucerne, sain foin, or- 
 chard, timothy, tall oat, and rye grass. Clover is 
 the primary dependance on all soils which will 
 grow it, and especially where gypsum can exer- 
 cise its magic powers. As vegetables are said to 
 exhaust the soil in proportion to the smallness of 
 their leaves, (the larger the leaves the more nutri- 
 ment they draw from the atmosphere, and the less 
 from the soil,) clovers are entitled to the high 
 commendation they have obtained among Ameri- 
 can farmers. But as these plants are liable to 
 premature destruction by the frosts of winter, it is 
 
GRASSES. 95 
 
 both prudent and wise to intermix with their seeds 
 those of some other grasses more to be depended on, 
 
 15. " For this purpose, on sands, loams, and 
 gravels, and these constitute the soils usually em- 
 ployed in convertible husbandry, the orchard grass 
 and tall meadow oat grass appear to be best cal- 
 culated to ensure profit. They grow early, delight 
 in a clover sod, and are fit for the scythe when 
 clover is in the bloom, the time when it ought to 
 be cut. The hay from this mixture may be made 
 before harvest commences ; and if the soil is good, 
 a second crop may be cut almost equal to the first. 
 If intended for pasture the second year, either of 
 these grasses will afford more abundant food than 
 timothy. 
 
 16. " In clays, the meadow foxtail, an excellent 
 grass, might be substituted, though, according to 
 Sinclair, the tall oat grass will do well here also. 
 In wet soilsy where clovers do not grow well, tim- 
 othy and meadow reed grass would be a good se- 
 lection, sown either separately or together. 
 
 17. " Lucerne and sain foin require a deep dry 
 soil, and are generally sown without other seeds. 
 The first does not attain to perfection before the 
 third year ; and both, where succesfully cultivated, 
 are permitted to occupy the ground from six to 
 eight years. 
 
 18. "2d. Meadow grasses. In selecting these 
 the object is to obtain the greatest burden of good 
 hay, and to mix those kinds which may be profit- 
 ably cut at the same time. For clayey and moist 
 soils, many valuable and nutritious kinds seem to 
 be well adapted ; that is to say, meadow foxtail, 
 timothy, tall oat, meadow soft grass, floating fes- 
 
yb GRASSES. 
 
 cue, rye grass, reed meadow, smooth-stalked mead- 
 ow, American cocksfoot, upright bent or herd's 
 grass, and tall fescue. 
 
 19. " And the last five are peculiarly suited to 
 swamp or hog soils. For dry loams, sands^ and 
 gravels, which never ought to be kept long in grass, 
 the cocksfoot or orchard grass and tall oat are 
 probably the best ; and to these might be added 
 red and white clover. The great difiiculty is to 
 prevent the deterioration of meadows. This takes 
 place from the better grasses running out, and 
 giving place to coarser kinds, in moss, and to use- 
 less or noxious plants, aided often by a neglect to 
 keep them well drained. 
 
 20. " The finer and more nutritious kinds thrive 
 best in moist, though they will not live long in wet 
 soils. Hence it is of the first importance to keep 
 the surface soil free from standing water, by good 
 and sufficient ditches ; and it often becomes neces- 
 sary, and in most cases it is advisable, on a flat 
 surface, to lay the land in ridges at right angles 
 with the drains. 
 
 21. " Another precaution to be observed is not to 
 feed them with stock when the soil is wet and 
 poachy. Harrowing in the fall has been found 
 beneficial to meadows. It destroys mosses, and 
 covers the seeds of grasses which have fallen, or 
 may be sown, and thus produces a continued suc- 
 cession of young plants. In Europe, lime is used 
 with good eff'ect as a top dressing to grass lands, 
 as are also ashes. 
 
 22. " With us, the annual application of a bushel 
 of gypsum to the acre is found beneficial. It not 
 only thickens the verdure with clover, but is of 
 
GRASSES. 97 
 
 advantage in most other grasses. Stable manure 
 should be used only when it can be spared from 
 the more profitable uses of tillage. When the 
 means above enumerated fail to ensure a good 
 crop of hay, it is time to resort to the plough, and 
 a course of crops. 
 
 23. "3d. Pasture grasses. But few of the grass- 
 es most valued in Great Britain for pasture are 
 the natural growth of the United States ; but it is 
 believed that if the seeds are once introduced upon 
 our farms we shall find little difficulty in natural- 
 izing them. Neither the orchard nor vernal grass, 
 which are said to be indigenous to our country, is 
 recognised in the grass lands which have come 
 within my observation : yet they constitute, with 
 foxtail and tall oat grass, the earliest and most val- 
 uable varieties for perennial pastures. 
 
 24. " The meadow foxtail and orchard grass, 
 together with our white clover and green meadow 
 grass, poa trivialis, (which seldom require to be 
 sown,) I think would form the best selection for 
 all grounds which are moderately dry. The rye 
 and oat grasses, or meadow soft grass, might be 
 either substituted for the first two or combined 
 with them. 
 
 25. " These would afford spring, summer, and 
 fall feed, abundant in quantity, and wholesome 
 and nutritious in quality. On wet soils, (though 
 pastures require to be drained, as well as mead- 
 ows, to ensure a rich herbage,) the tall fescue^ 
 «mooth-stalked meadow, upright bent, and herd's 
 grass, may be introduced to advantage. Gypsum 
 is applied to pastures witli the same benefit tliat it 
 is to meadows." — Jud<ir. Burl. 
 
 o 
 
 G 
 
98. HEMP- 
 
 CHAPTER XXIi, 
 
 1. "The preparation of the ground for sowing 
 the seed is by the plough and horses, until the 
 clods are sufficiently pulverized or dissolved, and 
 the surface of the field is rendered even and 
 smooth. It should be as carefully prepared as if 
 it were for flax. This most important point, too 
 often neglected, cannot be attended to too much. 
 Scarcely any other crop better rev/ards diligence 
 and careful husbandry. Fall or winter ploughing 
 is practised with advantage ; it is indispensable in 
 old meadows, or old pasture grounds, intended for 
 producing hemp. 
 
 2. " Plants for seed are ordinarily reared in a 
 place distinct from that in which they are cultiva- 
 ted for the lint. In this respect, the usage is dif- 
 ferent from that which is understood to prevail in 
 Europe. The seeds which are intended to repro- 
 duce seeds for the crop of the next year are 
 sowed in drills about four feet apart. When they 
 are grown sufficiently to distinguish between the 
 male and female stalks, the former are pulled and 
 thrown away, and the latter are thinned, leaving 
 the stalks separated seven or eight inches from 
 each other. 
 
 3. " After the seeds are thrashed out, it is ad- 
 visable to spread them on a floor, to cure properly 
 and prevent their rotting, before they are finally 
 put away for use the next spring. Seeds are not 
 
jTeemp. 99 
 
 generally used unless they were secured the fall 
 previous to their being sown, as it is believed they 
 will not vegetate if older ; but it has been ascer- 
 tained that when they are properly cured and kept 
 dry, they will come up after the first year. It is 
 important to prevent them from heating, which 
 destroys the vegetating property, and for that pur- 
 pose they should be thinly spread on a sheltered 
 floor. 
 
 4. " The seeds, whether to reproduce seeds only, 
 or the lint, are sowed about the same time. Opin- 
 ions vary as to the best period. It depends a good 
 deal upon the season. The plant is very tender 
 when it first shoots up, and is affected by frost. 
 Some have sowed as early as the first of April; 
 but it is generally agreed, that all the month of 
 May, and about the tenth of it especially, is the 
 most favourable time. 
 
 5. " When the object is to make a crop of hemp, 
 the seeds are thrown broadcast. The usual quan- 
 tity is a bushel and a half to the acre ; but here 
 again the farmers differ, some using two bushels, 
 or even two and a half. 
 
 6. " The ground can only sustain and nourish 
 a certain quantity of plants ; and if that limit be 
 passed, the surplus will be smothered in the growth. 
 When the seeds are sown, they are ploughed or 
 harrowed in ; })loughing is best in old ground, as 
 it avoids the injuriouf effect of a beating rain, and 
 tne consequent oaking of the earth. It would be 
 also beneficial subsequently to roll the ground with 
 a heavy roller. 
 
 7. " After the seeds are sown, the labours of the 
 cultivator are suspended, until the plants are ripe, 
 
100 HEMP. 
 
 and ill a state to be gathered ; everything in the 
 intermediate time being left to the operations of na- 
 ture. If the season be favourable until the plants 
 are sufficiently high to shade the ground, (which 
 they will do in a few weeks, at six or eight inches' 
 height,) there is strong probability of a good crop. 
 When they attain that height, but ^ew articles sus- 
 tain the effect of bad seasons better than hemp. 
 
 8. " The maturity of the plant is determined by 
 the evaporation of the farina, already noticed, and 
 the leaves of the plant exhibiting a yellowish hue : 
 it is then generally supposed to be ripe, but it is 
 safest to wait a few days longer. Very little at- 
 tentive observation will enable any one to judge 
 when it is fully ripe. In that respect it is a very 
 accommodating crop, for if gathered a little too 
 soon the lint is not materially injured, and it will 
 wait the leisure of the farmer some ten days or a 
 fortnight after it is entirely ripe. 
 
 9. " Two modes of gathering the plants are 
 practised, one by pulling them up by the roots, an 
 easy operation with an able-bodied man, and the 
 other by cutting them about two inches (the nearer 
 the better) above the surface of the ground. Each 
 mode has its partisans, and I have pursued both. 
 
 10. " When pulled, it is done by the hand, which 
 is better for the protection of an old leather glove. 
 The labourer catches twenty or thirty plants to- 
 gether, with both hands, and by a sudden jerk 
 draws them w ithout much difficulty. The opera- 
 tion of cutting is performed with a knife, often 
 made out of an old scythe, resembling a sickle, 
 not so long, but broader. The knife is applied 
 
HEMP. 101 
 
 much in the same way as the sickle, except that 
 the labourer stoops more. 
 
 11. " Whether pulled or cut, the plants are care- 
 fully laid on the ground, the evener the better, to 
 cure ; which they do in two or three days, in dry 
 weather. A light rain falling on them while lying 
 down is thought by some to be beneficial, inasmuch 
 as the leaves, of which they should be deprived, 
 may be more easily shaken off or detached. When 
 cured, the plants are set up in the field in which 
 they were produced, in shocks of convenient size, 
 the roots or butt ends resting on the ground, and 
 the tops united above by a band made of the plants 
 themselves. 
 
 12. " Previous to putting them up in shocks, 
 most cultivators tie the plants in small hand bun- 
 dles, of such a size that each can be conveniently 
 held in one hand. Before the shocks are formed, 
 the leaves of the plants should be rapidly knocked 
 off with a rough paddle or hooked stick. Some 
 suffer the plants to remain in these .<*hocks until 
 they are spread down to be rotted. Others, again, 
 collect the shocks together as soon as they can 
 command leisure, (and it is clearly best,) and form 
 them into stacks. 
 
 13. "A few farmers permit these stacks to re- 
 main over a whole year, before the plants are ex- 
 posed to be rotted. I have frequently done it with 
 advantage, and have at this time two crops in 
 stalks. By remaining that period in stalks, the 
 plants go through a sweat, or some other process, 
 that improves very much the appearance, and, I 
 believe, the quality of the lint ; and this improve- 
 
102 HEMP. 
 
 ment fully compensates the lo.ss of time in bringing 
 it to market. 
 
 14. " The method of rotting is that which is 
 generally practised in Kentucky. The lint so 
 spread is not so good for many purposes, and es- 
 pecially for rigging and ships, as when the plants 
 have been rotted by immersion in water, or, as it is 
 generally termed, water rotted. 
 
 15. "The greater value, and consequently 
 higher price of the article prepared in the latter 
 way, have induced more and more of our farmers 
 every year to adopt it ; and if that prejudice were 
 subdued, which every American production unfor- 
 tunately encounters when it is first introduced and 
 comes in contact with a rival European commod- 
 ity, I think it probable that in a few years we 
 should be able to dispense altogether with foreign 
 hemp. 
 
 16. "The obstacles which prevent the general 
 practice of water rotting are, the want of water 
 at the best season for the operation, which is the 
 month of September ; a repugnance to the change 
 of an old habit ; and a persuasion, which has 
 some foundation, that handling the plants after 
 their submersion in water during that month is in- 
 jurious to health. The first and last of these ob- 
 stacles would be removed by water rotting early 
 in the winter, or in the spring. 
 
 17. " The only difference in the operation, per- 
 formed at those seasons and in the month of Sep- 
 tember, would be, that the plants would have to 
 remain longer in soak before they were suffi- 
 ciently rotted. 
 
 18. " The plants are usually spread down to be 
 
HEMP. 103 
 
 dew rotted from the middle of October to the mid- 
 dle of December. A farmer who has a large crop 
 on hand puts them down at different times, for his 
 convenience in handling and dressing them. Au- 
 tumnal rotting is more apt to give the lint a dark 
 and unsightly colour than winter rotting. The 
 best ground to expose the plants upon is meadow 
 or grass land, lF)ut they are not unfrequently spread 
 over the same field on which they grow, 
 
 19. " The length of time they ought to remain 
 exposed, depends upon the degree of moisture and 
 the temperature of the weather that prevail. In a 
 very wet and warm spell five or six weeks may 
 be long enough. Whether they have been suffi- 
 ciently rotted or not is determined by experiment. 
 A handful is taken and broken by the hand or ap- 
 plied to the brake, when it can be easily ascer- 
 tained, by the facility with which the lint can be 
 detached from the stalk, if it be properly rotted. 
 
 20. " If the plants remain on the ground too 
 long, the fibres lose some of their strength, though 
 a few days longer than necessary, in cold weather, 
 will not do any injury. If they are taken up too 
 soon, that is, before the lint can be easily separa- 
 ted fi-om the woody part of the stalk, it is harsh, 
 and the process of breaking is difficult and trou- 
 blesome. Snow rotting, that is, when the plants, 
 being spread out, remain long enough to rot, 
 (which, however, requires a greater length of time,) 
 bleaches the lint, improves the quality, and makes 
 it nearly as valuable as if it had been water rotted. 
 
 21. " After the operation of rotting is performed, 
 the plants are again collected together, put in 
 $liocks or stacks, or, which is still better, put under 
 
104 HEMP. 
 
 a shed or some covering. When it is designed to 
 break and dress them immediately, they are fre- 
 quently set up against some neighbouring fence. 
 The best period for breaking and dressing is in 
 the months of February and March, and the best 
 sort of weather, frosty nights and clear thawing 
 days. The brake cannot be used advantageously 
 in wet or moist weather. 
 
 22. " It is almost invariably used in this state 
 out of doors, and without any cover ; and to assist 
 its operation, the labourer often makes a large fire 
 near it, which serves the double purpose of drying 
 the plants and warming himself. It could not be 
 used in damp weather in a house without a kiln or 
 some other means of drying the stalks. 
 
 23. " The brake in general use is the same hand 
 brake which was originally introduced and has 
 been always employed here, reseuibling, though 
 longer than the common flax brake. It is so well 
 known as to render a particular description of it 
 perhaps unnecessary. It is a rough contrivance, 
 set upon four legs, about two and a half feet high. 
 The brake consists of two jaws with slits on each, 
 the lower jaw fixed and immoveable, and the upper 
 one moveable, so that it may be lifted up by means 
 of a handle inserted into a head or block at the 
 front end of it. 
 
 24. " The lower jaw has three slats or teeth, 
 made of tough white oak, and the upper two, ar- 
 ranged approaching to about two inches in front, 
 and in such manner that the slats of the upper 
 jaw play between those of the lower. These slats 
 are about six or seven feet in length, six inches in 
 depth, and about two inches in thickness in their 
 
HtMP. 105 
 
 lower edges ; tliey are placed edgewise, rounded 
 a litrle on the upper edges, which are sharper than 
 those below. 
 
 25. " An ingenious and enterprising gentleman 
 in the neighbourhood of Lexington has been, ever 
 since the erection of the above-mentioned machine, 
 trying various experiments, by altering and im- 
 proving it, to produce one more perfect, which 
 might be beneficially employed on rotted hemp, to 
 diminish the labours of the brake. He mentioned 
 the other day that all of them had failed ; that he 
 had returned to the old hand brake, and that he 
 was convinced that it answered the purpose better 
 than any substitute with which he was acquainted. 
 
 26. " The quantity of nett hemp produced to the 
 acre is from six hundred to one thousand weight, 
 varying according to the fertility and preparation 
 of the soil and the state of the season. It is said 
 that the quantity which any field will produce may 
 be anticipated by the average height of the plants 
 throughout the field. Thus if the plants will aver- 
 age eight feet in height, the acre will yield eight 
 hundred weight of hemp ; each foot in height cor- 
 responding to a hundred weight of the lint. 
 
 27. " Hemp exhausts the soil slowly, if at all. 
 An old and successful cultivator told me that he 
 had taken thirteen or fourteen successive crops 
 from the same field, and that the last was the 
 best. That was probably, however, owing to a 
 concurrence of favourable circumstances. Nothing 
 cleanses and prepares the earth better for other 
 crops (especially for small grain or grasses) than 
 hemp. It eradicates all weeds, and when it is 
 
106 HOPS. 
 
 uiken off, leaves ihe field not only clean, but smooth 
 and even. 
 
 28. " The rich lands of Ohio. Indiana, and Illinois 
 are, I have no doubt, generally well adapted to the 
 cultivation of this valuable plant ; and those states 
 enjoy some advantages for the cultivation of it 
 which this does not possess. Their streams do 
 not dry up as much as ours, and they can consequent- 
 ly employ better than we can the agency of water 
 in the preparation of it. 
 
 29. " Their projected canals, when completed, 
 will admit of its being carried to the Atlantic cap- 
 itals at less expense in the transportation than we 
 must incur in sending it. On the other hand, the 
 unfortunate state of slavery among us gives us, at 
 present, probably a more certain command of labour 
 than those states have." — Henry Clay. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 1. '• The hop is a native plant. It is foimd grow- 
 ing spontaneously on the banks and intervals of 
 many of our large rivers. There are several dis- 
 tinct species, all bearing a near affinity to each 
 other — (I have noticed five.) At present they are 
 cultivated together, promiscuously ; no preference 
 having been given to any particular one of them by 
 the brewer. But 1 am of the opinion that there is 
 
HOPS. 107 
 
 an essential difference in their qualities ; that one 
 may be the best for pale ale, another for slrong 
 beer, and a third for porter ; and I presume, ere 
 long, particular attention will be paid to ascertain 
 their different qualities. 
 
 2. " The soil best calculated for the production 
 of hops I consider to be a sandy loam, rather low 
 and moist. I am led to this conclusion partly from 
 my own observation, and further (considering na- 
 ture an infallible instructer) from finding the lands 
 which produce them naturally (intervals and the 
 banks of large rivers) to be of this kind. Yet, I 
 must observe, I have seen very fine crops raised 
 on very different soils. 
 
 3. " I should recommend the following mode of 
 preparing the land and managing the crop. In the 
 fall (October) plough the land deep, nine or ten 
 inches. In the spring following, pass a heavy, 
 sharp iron-toothed harrow over the land in the same 
 direction in which it was ploughed ; after which, 
 spread your manure evenly over the same, sixteen 
 cords per acre, and more if the land be much re- 
 duced ; then cross plough the land nearly the same 
 depth, and furrow it as for planting corn, the fur- 
 rows to be at least four feet apart. 
 
 4. "It is customary to plant corn or potatoes 
 with the hops — (I should prefer potatoes.) Plant 
 every other hill in every other row with hops, thus 
 placing the hop hills at least eight feet apart. Put 
 four cuttings from the running roots, about eight 
 inches in length, into each hill, and cover them the 
 common depth of potatoes. Many yards have been 
 much injured by being planted too closely. It is 
 
108 HOPS. 
 
 of great importance to have the hills so far distant 
 from each other as to admit a free current of air 
 to pass through the yard. 
 
 5. " All the attention requisite the first season 
 after the hops are planted, is to keep them clean 
 from weeds, which is easily done when hoing the 
 crop planted among them. In the fall, (October,) 
 to prevent their being injured by the hard frosts of 
 winter, lay out of your cart one shovelful of com- 
 post nature on the top of each hill ; manure from 
 the hog sty I should prefer. 
 
 6. " In each following spring, before the hops 
 are opened, as it is termed, spread evenly over the 
 yard about eight cords of manure per acre, (coarse, 
 strawy manure I should prefer, as it will have a 
 tendency to keep the land loose,) and plough the 
 field both ways at the first hoing. They require 
 but three hoings in a season, unless necessary to 
 subdue the weeds ; the last of which should be 
 performed when the hops are in full blossom, (about 
 the beginning of August.) 
 
 7. " After the first crop, it is necessary to open 
 the hops, every spring, by the middle of May; 
 which is performed by making four furrows be- 
 tween the rows, turning the furrows from the hills, 
 and running the plough as near to the same as pos- 
 sible without injuring the main roots. Then the 
 earth is removed from the roots with a hoe, all 
 the running roots cut in with a sharp knife 
 within two inches of the main roots ; the tops 
 of the main roots must also be cut in, and then 
 the hills covered with earth about two inches deep. 
 
 8. " The next thing necessary to be done is to 
 set the poles. This should be done as soon as the 
 
HOPS. - 109 
 
 hop vines begin to make their appearance. By so 
 doing, much time and labour will be saved in tying 
 up the vines to the poles, as many of the vines 
 will naturally take to the poles. There should 
 not be to exceed two vines to one pole, nor to ex- 
 ceed two poles to one hill, nor any pole to exceed 
 sixteen feet in height. Many yards have been 
 very much injured by letting a greater number of 
 vines grow on one pole, and almost destroyed by 
 overpoling. 
 
 9. " Very much depends on paying due atten- 
 tion, in the spring, to select the most thrifty vines, 
 and training them to the poles, which is done by 
 fastening them to the poles with a piece of yarn, 
 slightly twisted together with the thumb and finger. 
 It will be necessary to inspect your hopyard fre- 
 quently until the hops begin to blossom, and ' tie 
 up the vines,' as it is termed, as they are subject 
 to be blown off the poles by every high wind. 
 
 10. " As soon as the hops are ripe, which is 
 about the beginning of S3])tember, they must be 
 immediately gathered or the crop is lost. The 
 (quality of the hops depends co.isiderably oa their 
 being picked clean from leaves and sterns. Thi 
 labour of picking or gathering the hops may be 
 well performed by women and children, having 
 one man to a bin to handle the poles and to inspect 
 the pickers. 
 
 11." The bin is a wooden box, about nine feet 
 long, three feet wide, and two and a half feet high, 
 made of thin pine boards, (that it may be easily 
 moved over the yard,) across which the poles are 
 laid, and into which the hops are picked by hand. 
 Care should be taken, when gathcrinir the hops, to 
 
UO HOPS, 
 
 cut the vines two feet from the ground, that the 
 roots may not be injured by bleeding. 
 
 12. "The most important part in the manage- 
 ment of hops is the curing or drying of them. 
 Here I would note that hops always grow first 
 sort, and that all second sort and refuse hops are 
 made so by unfortunate or unskilful management. 
 Much depends on having a well-constructed kiln. 
 For the convenience of putting the hops on the 
 kiln, the side of the hill is generally chosen for its 
 situation. Care should be taken that it be a dry 
 situation. 
 
 13. The kiln should be dug out the same big- 
 ness at the bottom as at the top ; the side \valls 
 laid up perpendicularly, and tilled in solid with 
 stone, to give it a tunnel form. Twelve feet 
 square at the top, two feet square at the bottom, 
 and at least eight feet deep, is deemed a conve- 
 nient size. On the top of the wa.lls sills are laid, 
 having joists let into them in like manner as for- 
 iaying a floor ; on which laths, about one and a 
 half inches wide, are nailed, leaving open spaces 
 between them three fourths of an inch, over which 
 a thin linen cloth is spread and nailed at the edges 
 to the sills. 
 
 14. " A Jboard about twelve inches wide is set 
 up on each side of the kiln, on the irmer edge of 
 the sill, to form a bin to receive the hops. The 
 larger the stones made use of in the construction 
 of the kiln, the better : as it will give a more 
 steady and dense heal. The inside of the kiln 
 should be well plastered with mortar, to make it 
 completely air tight. Charcoal (that made from 
 yellow birch or mnple I should prefer) is the only 
 
HOPS. 1 1 1 
 
 fuel proper to be used in drying hops. The kihi 
 should be well heated before any hops are put on, 
 and carefully attended to keep a steady and regu- 
 lar heat. 
 
 15. " Fifty pounds of hops, when dried, is the 
 largest quantity that should be dried at one time, 
 on a kiln of this size ; unless absolutely neces- 
 sary to put on that quantity, a less would dry better. 
 The green hops should be spread as evenly and as 
 lightly as possible over the kiln. The fire at first 
 should be moderate, but it may be increased as the 
 hops dry and the steam is evaporated. 
 
 16. " Hops should not remain long in the bin or 
 bag after they are picked, as they will very soon 
 heat and become insipid. The hops should not 
 be stirred on the kiln until they are completely 
 and fully dried. Then they should be removed 
 from the kiln into a dry room and laid in a heap, 
 and there remain, unmoved and unstirred, until 
 bagged, which is done with a screw, having a box 
 made of plank, the size the bag is wished, into 
 which the cloth is laid, and the hops screwed into 
 the box, which is so constructed that the sides 
 may be removed, and the bag sewed together 
 while in the press. 
 
 17. " The hops, after lying a few days, will 
 gather a partial moisture, called a sweat. The 
 sweat will probably begin to subside in about eight 
 days, at which time, and before the sweat is ofT, 
 they ought to be bagged in clear dry weather. As 
 the exact time when the hops Avill begin to sweat, 
 and when the sweat will begin to subside or dry- 
 off, (the proper time to bag them,) will vary with 
 the state of the atmosphere, it will be necessary to 
 
112 HOPS. 
 
 examine the hops from day to day, which is easily 
 done by taking some of them from the centre of the 
 heap with your hand, 
 
 18. " If on examination you find the hops to be 
 very damp, and their colour altering, which will 
 be the case if they were not completely dried on 
 the kiln and not otherwise, you must overhaul 
 them and dry them in the air. The most conve- 
 nient size for a bag of hops to handle and trans- 
 port, is about five feet in length, and to contain 
 about two hundred and fifty pounds. 
 
 19. " The best bagdng is coarse strong tow 
 cloth of our domestic manufacturing ; next to that 
 Russia hemp bagging. The East India sugar and 
 gimny bags, so called, ought never to be used. 
 The sugar bags are of an unreasonable weight, 
 and both they and the gunny bags are of no value 
 to the brewer ; whereas the other bags are worth 
 prime cost. 
 
 20. " It is now common for those who have en- 
 tered considerably into the cultivation of hops to 
 build houses over their kilns, which in wet weather 
 are very convenient ; otherwise, a kiln in the open 
 air would, in my opinion, be preferable. It is 
 necessary to have these buildings well ventilated 
 with doors and windows ; and to have these kept 
 open night and day, except in wet weather, and 
 then shut those only which are necessary to keep 
 out the rain. 
 
 21. "If a ventilator was put in the roof of the 
 building, directly over the centre of the kiln, about 
 six feel square, built like those in breweries and 
 distilleries, I am of the opinion it would be found 
 very advantageous. I have seen many lots of 
 
HOPS. 
 
 113 
 
 hops much mjured both in colour and flavour by 
 being dried in close buildings. 
 
 22. " Where the houses over the kilns are built 
 large, for the purpose of storing the hops as they 
 are dried, which is a great saving of labour, a close 
 partition should be made between the kilns and the 
 room in which the hops are stored, to prevent the 
 damp steam from the kilns coming to them, as it 
 will colour them, and injure their flavour and qual- 
 ity very much. 
 
 23. " I expect that many of our farmers will ob- 
 ject to the mode of manuring hops which I have 
 recommended, their common practice being to put 
 the manure in the hills when they plant the hops, 
 and afterward to apply the manure on the hills at 
 the first and second hoings. I find the hop roots 
 very liable to be injured by the worms, and to 
 decay. 
 
 24. " My opinion is, that the manure in the hill 
 has a tendency to produce the worms, and its fer- 
 mentation at their roots to cause their decay ; and 
 that the crop is not more, if as a;bundant, as when 
 manured in the manner I have recommended ; 
 and, further, that a hopyard manured in this man- 
 ner will continue in a healthy state for many 
 years. 
 
 25. " I also expect that the quantity of ma- 
 nure I have recommended v;ill be objected to 
 by many, it being a commonly received opinion 
 that hops should have little or no manure. I 
 find it a general complaint among the farmers 
 where hops have been cultivated many years, 
 that the quantity raised per acre does not exceed 
 the one half raised by their ancestors on the same 
 
 H 
 
114 RUTABAGA. 
 
 land ; inferring that the ' hops are running out,' as 
 it is termed, and cannot now be cuhivated to ad- 
 vantage. 
 
 26. " Hops, 1 believe, in common with all sorts 
 of grain and vegetables, flourish best and produce 
 the finest crops when cultivated on new lands, 
 which require little or no manure ; and such were 
 the lands which their ancestors cultivated. The 
 same complaint, I presume, would be made against 
 all sorts of grain and vegetables, if raised with 
 little or no manure, on lands that have long been 
 cultivated. From my own observations, I am con- 
 fident that no crop can be more improved and in- 
 creased by high cultivation than hops." — William 
 Blanchard, Jr. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 RUTABAGA. 
 
 1. The following is an account of the method 
 of cultivating rutabaga, adopted by the Rev. Henry 
 Colman, in obtaining a crop for which he received 
 a premium of twenty dollars from the Massachu- 
 setts Agricultural Society, in the year 1830. 
 From the New England Farmer, vol. ix., p. 284. 
 
 2. " Gentlemen — Accompanying this you have 
 the certificates of a crop of rutabaga raised this 
 year on my farm in Lynn. From these it will 
 appear that on an acre, measured by a sworn sur- 
 veyor, on one side of the field, were gathered 
 
RUTABAGA. 115 
 
 seven hundred and A)rty-one baskelfuls ; and that 
 forty baskets of the above named weighed at the 
 town scales two thousand seven hundred and fifty 
 pounds net weight. 
 
 3. " This, allowing fifty-six pounds to a bushel, 
 ■the standard weight assumed by the society, would 
 give a orop of nine hundred and three bushels to 
 the acre. The turnips were planted on the twenty- 
 ninth of June and second of July ; about one 
 pound and a half of seed was used for the acre ; 
 and they were gathered and stored in cellars and 
 in the barn, in the last part of November. 
 
 4. " The ground on which they grew is a good 
 soil, neither wet nor dry, and bore the last year an 
 abundant crop of onions, and corn the year prece- 
 ding the last. It was well manured at both times, 
 and in fine tilth. It was manured with at least six 
 cords to the acre of barn manure the last spring, 
 and sowed again to onions ; but the seed entirely 
 failing, it was ploughed, harrowed, furrows struck 
 out, and about eight cords of barn manure spread 
 in the furrows ; ploughed again so as by a back 
 furrow to form a ridge over the manure, and 
 the seed sown with a small drill harrow on the 
 ridges, making the rows about twenty inches 
 asunder. 
 
 5. " As soon as the plants were of sufficient size, 
 a drill harrow, with small shares fixed to it, to cut 
 off all the weeds, was passed through the rows ; 
 and the plants were thinned with a small weeding 
 hoe to the distance of about eight inches apart, 
 and the vacant places filled up by transplanting 
 from the supernumerary plants. They were once 
 more harrowed and cleaned, which was a very 
 
116 ilLTABAGA. 
 
 small labour ; and owing to the very unpropitious 
 weather, were not harvested until very late. 
 
 6. " Some of them were very large ; one 
 weighed fifteen pounds, and many were nearly as 
 large. The exact expense of cultivating the acre 
 cannot be estimated, as it was intermixed with 
 other farmwork ; but the whole, from the sowing 
 to the gathering, was not two thirds of the labour 
 usually bestowed on planting, cultivating, and 
 gathering an acre of potatoes. 
 
 7. " My Swedish turnips the last year, of which 
 1 raised considerable quantities, were fed off to my 
 oxen, dry cows, young stock, and fatting sheep. 
 To the cattle they were of very great advantage ; 
 and for feeding sheep, they proved the last year, 
 by an accurate account, worth from ten to twelve 
 and a half cents per bushel. The man who has 
 the care of my stock considers them as among the 
 most profitable feed which can be given either to 
 fatting or to store cattle. Three years' experi- 
 ment has increased their value very much for these 
 purposes in my ov/n estimation." 
 
 8. A correspondent in the New England Far- 
 mer, vol. xi., p. 277, writes thus: "A wish to 
 have others profit by my experience has induced 
 me to send you, Mr. Editor, half a sheet of re- 
 marks on the culture of the rutabaga as a food 
 fur domestic animals. I have cultivated from 
 half an acre to three acres of this root every year 
 for thirteen years in succession, and feel compe- 
 tent to give rules for its culture, and confidence 
 in recommending it as a valuable and profitable 
 crop. 
 
RUTABAGA. 117 
 
 9. " The soil must be rich and dry : and the 
 more it inclines to a sand loam ihe better. Chiy 
 is the worst, and wet soils will not answer at all. 
 Pnparations. My general practice has been, to 
 manure well a piece of pHStiiie, or clover ley, from 
 which the hay has first been cut, plough it hand- 
 somely over, and harrow it well. 
 
 10. " Soiling, cj c. I sow in rows, at two and 
 a half or three feet, with a drill harrow. The 
 sooner the preceding operations succeed each 
 other the better. I have sown broadcast, but the 
 expense o^ thinning and culture is increased. A." 
 man will drill in three or four acres a day. We 
 allow a pound of seed to the acre, though half this, 
 properly distributed, is enough. S«)w from ihe 
 twenty-sixth of June to the tenth of July. 
 
 11. " Culture. I use a cultivator, that may be 
 graduated to the space between the rows, drawn 
 by a horse, as soon as the plants can be well dis- 
 tinguished. This is repeated in a few days, back 
 and forward, and the implement carried so close 
 to the drills, as to leave only strips of from four 
 to ten inches, which are then thoroughly cleaned 
 with a skim hoe, and the plants thinned to eight 
 and ten inches' distance. The cultivator soon fol- 
 lows for a third time, and if necessary, the skim 
 hoe, when the crop is generally left till harvest. 
 The great aim is to extirpate the weeds, and to do 
 this while they are small. 
 
 12. " Harvesting is postponed as long as the 
 season will permit. The roots are then pulled up 
 and laid on the ground, the tops of the two rows 
 towards each other. The pullers are followed by 
 
lis RUTABAGA. 
 
 a man or boy with a bill hook, who with a light 
 blow cuts the lops as fast as three or four can pull. 
 Three men will in this way harvest, of a good crop, 
 three hundred bushels in a day. 
 
 13. " The tops are gathered into heaps and taken 
 to the yard in carts daily, for the stock, until they 
 are consumed. An acre will give from five to ten 
 cartloads of tops. The roots are piled in the field 
 if dry ; the pits, two or two and a half feet broad, 
 covered with straw and earth, and as cold weather 
 approaches, with manure, to prevent frost, N. B. 
 With a crowbar make one or more holes on the 
 crown of the pit, which must be left open, to let 
 off the rarifie4 air and prevent the roots from 
 heating. 
 
 14. " Use. The tops serve for autumn. As 
 soon as the mild weather of spring will justify, 1 
 break through the frost, and take the contents of 
 a pit to my barn, and cover the roots with straw 
 or hay. From thence they are fed to my stock, 
 being first chopped up with a snik, (Dutch meat- 
 chopper,) or spade. They are excellent for sheep, 
 especially for ewes that have young ; and hogs 
 and horses eat them freely. Steamed, they are 
 used in the north of England for horses as a sub- 
 stitute for grain. 
 
 15. "I have fattened sheep and bullocks upon 
 them with profit. They constitute, particularly 
 from February to June, an excellent culinary veg- 
 etable for the table. A bullock will thrive fast 
 upon two bushels a day, and will consume hardly 
 any hay, and requires no drink. 
 
 16. " Product and Cost. My average crop has 
 been six hundred bushels per acre, though others 
 
PASTURE. 119 
 
 have raised much heavier products. The cost in 
 manure and labour, when they are secured for 
 winter, has been from two to three cents per 
 bushel." 
 
 CHAPTER XXV 
 
 1. "To manage pasture land advantageously, it 
 should be well fenced in small lots, of four, eight, 
 or twelve acres, according to the largeness of one's 
 farm and stock ; and these lots should be bor- 
 dered at least with rows of trees. It is best that 
 trees of some kind or other should be growing 
 scattered in every point of a pasture, so that the 
 cattle may never have to go far in a hot hour to 
 obtain a comfortable shade. The grass will spring 
 earlier in lots that are thus sheltered, and they 
 will bear drought the better. But too great a pro- 
 portion of shade should be avoided, as it will give 
 a sourness to the grass. 
 
 S. " Small lots thus sheltered are not left bare 
 of snow so early in the spring as larger ones lying 
 bare, as fences and trees cause more of it to re- 
 main upon the ground. The cold winds in March 
 and April hurt the grass much when the ground 
 is bare. And the winds in winter will not suffer 
 snow to lie deep on land that is too open to the 
 rake of winds and storms. 
 
 3. " It is hurtful to pastures to turn in cattle too 
 
120 PASTURE, 
 
 early in the spring ; and most hurtful to those pas- 
 tures in which the grass springs earUest, as in very 
 low and wet pastures. Potching such land in the 
 spring destroys the sward, so that it will produce 
 the less quantity of grass. Neither should cattle 
 be let into any pasture until the grass is so much 
 grown as to afford them a good bite, so that they 
 may 'fill themselves v/ithout rambling over the 
 whole lot. 
 
 4. " The twentieth of May is early enough to 
 turn cattle into almost any of our pastures. Out 
 of some they should be kept later. The driest 
 pastures should be used first, though in them the 
 grass is shortest, that the potching of the ground 
 in the wettest may be prevented. 
 
 5. " The bushes and shrubs that rise in pastures 
 should be cut in the most likely times to destroy 
 them. Thistles and other bad weeds should be 
 cut down before their seeds have ripened ; and 
 ant hills should be destroyed. Much may be done 
 towards subduing a bushy pasture by keeping cat- 
 tle hungry in it. A continual browsing keeps 
 down the young shoots, and totally kills many of 
 the bushes. Steers and heifers may mend such a 
 pasture, and continue growing. 
 
 6. " But as to cleared pastures, it is not right to 
 turn in all sorts of cattle promiscuously. Milch 
 kine, working oxen, and fatting beasts, should 
 have the first feeding of an enclosure ; afterward, 
 sheep and horses. When the first lot is thus fed 
 off, it should be shut up, and the dung that has 
 been dropped should be beaten to pieces, and well 
 scattered. Afterward, the second pasture should 
 be treated in the same manner, and the rest in 
 
PASTURE, 121 
 
 course, feeding the wettest pasture after the driest, 
 that the soil may be less poiched. 
 
 7. " Something considerable is saved by letting 
 all sorts of grazing animals take tljeir turn in a 
 pasture. By means of this, nearly all the herbage 
 produced will be eaten ; much of which would 
 otherwise be lost. Horses will eat the leavings 
 of horned cattle ; and sheep will eat some things 
 that both the one and the other leave. 
 
 8. " But if in a course of pasturing, by means of 
 a fruitful year, or a scanty stock of cattle, some 
 grass of a good kind should run up to seed and 
 not be eaten, it need not be regretted ; for a nevv 
 supply of seed will fill the ground with nevv roots, 
 which are better than old ones. And I know of 
 no grass that never needs renewing from the seed. 
 
 9. " A farmer need not to be told, that if he 
 turn swine into a pasture, they should have rings 
 in their noses, unless brakes and other weeds need 
 to be rooted out. Swine may do service in this 
 way. They should never have the first of the 
 feed ; for they will foul the grass, and make it dis- 
 tasteful to horses and cattle. 
 
 10. " Let the stock of a farmer be greater or 
 less, he should have at least four enclosures of 
 pasture land. One enclosure may be fed two 
 weeks, and then shut up to grow ; then another. 
 Each one will recruit well in six weeks ; and each 
 will have this space of time to recruit. But in the 
 latter part of October, the cattle may range through 
 all the lots, unless some one has become too wet 
 and soft. In this case, it ought to be shut up, and 
 kept so till feeding time the next year. 
 
 11. "But tha! farmers mavnot'be troubled with 
 
122 PASTURE. 
 
 low miry pastures, they should drain them, if it be 
 practicable, or can be done consistently with their 
 other business. If they should produce a smaller 
 quantity of grass afterward, it will be sweeter, and 
 of more value. It is well known, that cattle fatted 
 in a dry pasture have better-tasted flesh than those 
 fatted in a wet one. In the old countries it will 
 fetch a higher price. This is particularly the case 
 as to mutton. 
 
 12. " Feeding pastures in rotation is of greater 
 advantage than some are apt to imagine. One acre, 
 managed according to the above directions, will 
 turn to better account, as some say who have prac- 
 tised it, than three acres in the common way. 
 
 13. " By the common way I would be under- 
 stood to mean, having weak and tottering fences, 
 that will drop of themselves in a few months, and 
 never can resist the violence of disorderly cattle ; 
 sufl^ering weeds and bushes to overrun the land ; 
 keeping all the pasture land in one enclosure ; 
 turning in all sorts of stock together ; suffering the 
 fence to drop down in autumn, so as to lay the pas- 
 ture common to all the cattle and swine that please 
 to enter ; and not putting up the fence again till 
 the first of May, or later. Such management is 
 too common in all parts of this country with which 
 I am most acquainted. I would hope it is not uni- 
 versal. 
 
 14. " Land which is constantly used as pasture 
 will be enriched. Therefore it is advisable to mow 
 a pasture lot once in three or four years, if the 
 surface be so level as to admit of it. In the mean 
 time, to make amends for the loss of pasture, a 
 mowing lot may be pastured. It will thus be im- 
 
**' PASTURE. 123 
 
 proved ; and if the grass do not grow so rank 
 afterward in the pasture lot, it will be more clear 
 of weeds, and bear belter grass. Alternate pastu- 
 ring and mowing has the advantage of saving a 
 good deal of expense and trouble in manuring the 
 mowing grounds. 
 
 15. " Though pastures need manuring less than 
 other lands, yet, when bushes, bad weeds, <fec. 
 are burned upon them, the ashes should be spread 
 thinly over the surface. The grass will thus be 
 improved ; and grass seeds should be sown upon 
 the burnt spots, that no part may be vacant of 
 grass. 
 
 16. " Sheep, calves, and horses, unless they 
 are worked, it is said, require no water in their 
 pastures. The want of water induces them to 
 feed in the night, when the dew is on and the 
 grass the more nutritious. Cows, however, want 
 pure water. In pastures which are on hillsides, 
 water may generally be obtained by digging hori- 
 zontally into the side of the hill till it is found, 
 and then carrying it out with a pipe." — Deane. 
 
 17. We learn from English writers on agri- 
 culture, that three modes have been adopted in 
 Great Britain for consuming clover and other herb- 
 age plants by pasturing. These are tethering, or 
 fastening the feeding animal to a stake, hurdling, 
 and free pasturage. In the Agricultural Report of 
 Aberdeenshire, it is stated that there are some cases 
 in which the plan of tethering can be practised 
 with more profit than- even soiling, 
 
 18. " In the neighbourhood of Peterhead, for in- 
 stance, they tether milch cows on their grass fields, 
 in a regular and systematic method, moving each 
 
124 PASTURE. 
 
 tether forward in a straight line, not above one 
 foot at a time, so as to prevent the cows from tread- 
 ing on the grass that is to be eaten ; care beii»g al- 
 ways taken to move the tether forward, hke a per- 
 son cutting clover with a scythe, from one end of 
 the field to the other. 
 
 19. " In this way, a greater number of cows can 
 be kept on the same quantity of grass than by any 
 other plan, except where it grows high enough to 
 be cut and given them green in houses. In one 
 instance, the system was carried to great perfec- 
 tion by a gentleman who kept a few sheep upon 
 longer tethers, following the cows. 
 
 20. " Sometimes also he tethered horses after- 
 ward upon the same field, which prevented any 
 possible waste, for the tufts of grass produced by 
 the dung of one species of animal will be eaten 
 by those of another kind without reluctance. This 
 mode was peculiarly calculated for the cowfeed- 
 ers in Peterhead : ^s from the smallness of their 
 holdings they could not keep servants to cut or 
 horses to carry home the grass to their houses, to 
 be consumed in a green state. 
 
 21. *' In hurdling off clover or herbage crops, a 
 portion of the field is enclosed by hurdles," [move- 
 able wooden fences,] " in which sheep are confined, 
 and as the crop is consumed the pen is changed to 
 a fresh place, until the whole is fed ofif. This 
 practice is very extensively adopted at Hoikham," 
 [England,] " and is peculiarly calculated for light 
 and dry soils. Its advantages are, that the grass 
 is more economically consumed ; that the stock 
 thrives better, having daily a fresh bite ; and that 
 
PASTUHE. 125 
 
 the dung which falls, being more concentrated, is 
 more likely to be of use." — Loudon. 
 
 22. Water should be provided for every field 
 under pasture ; and also shelter and shade, either 
 by a {q\v trees, or by a portable shed, which may 
 be moved with the stock from one enclosure to 
 another. Where there are no trees, rubbing posts 
 are also a desirable addition. In Germany they 
 have portable sheds which are employed both in 
 summer and winter, and generally with a piece of 
 rock salt fixed to a post for the cattle to lick at 
 will. 
 
 23. Some graziers mix a fev/ sheep and one or 
 two colts in each pasture, which both turn to ac- 
 count, and do little injury to the grazing cattle. 
 In some cases, we are told that sheep are benefi- 
 cial to pastures, by eating down and destroying 
 white weed, and some other useless and pernicious 
 plants. 
 
 24. So various is the appetite of animals, that 
 there is scarcely any plant which is not chosen 
 by some and left untouched by others. The fol- 
 lowing is said to be a fact, known and' practised 
 on by graziers in Holland. When eight cows 
 have been in a pasture, and can no longer obtain 
 nourishment, two horses will do very well there 
 for some days, and when nothing is left for the 
 horses, four sheep will live upon it ; this not only 
 proceeds from their differing in the choice of 
 plants, but from the formation of their mouths, 
 which are not equally adapted to lay hold of the 
 grass. 
 
 25. Stocking a pasture with as many sheep as 
 it will support is recommended for forming a ten- 
 
126 CULTURE OF SILK. 
 
 der herbage, and causing the grass to mat or grow 
 very thick at the bottom. An English writer says, 
 " In turning out horses to grass in the spring, it is 
 usual to choose the forenoon of a fine day to do it 
 in ; the natural consequence is, the horse fills his 
 belly during the sunshine, and lies down to rest 
 during the cold of the night, thereby probably ex- 
 posing himself to disorders. In some parts of 
 Yorkshire a better practice prevails : the horse is 
 turned out at bedtime ; the consequence is, he 
 eats all night, and sleeps in the sunshine of the 
 next dav." 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 THE CULTURE OF SILK. 
 
 1. The principal articles made use of for cloth- 
 ing among civilized people are wool, flax, cotton, 
 and silk, all of which consisting of fine fibres, 
 those fibres are twisted into threads, and woven 
 into various kinds of cloth. Each of these pos- 
 sesses, perhaps, some peculiar advantage in quality 
 which the others do not ; but that which univer- 
 sally holds a most decided preference over all the 
 others is silk. 
 
 2. It is superior in strength, and infinitely so in 
 softness and in beauty. It is produced by a large 
 insect of the caterpillar kind called in English the 
 silkworm, but in natural history is commonly called 
 the hoinhix mori or mulberry caterpillar. This 
 
CULTURE OF SILK. 127 
 
 worm spins out the silk from the substance of its 
 own body, winding itself up in a ball, which, when 
 finished, is about the size and shape of a robin's 
 
 egg. 
 
 3. From this ball, which is called a cocoon^ the 
 silk is wound off for use, in a continuous thread, 
 from the outside to the centre, which contains the 
 chrysalis^ or the remains of the worm when it has 
 done spinning. If the silk is not wound off in a 
 few days after the cocoon is completed, the chrys- 
 alis changes its form, and comes out in that of a 
 moth or small butterfly, of a whitish-gray colour, 
 and of a very clumsy form, being incapable of 
 flying, though it has wings. 
 
 4. In a few hours after leaving the cocoon the 
 female moth lays her eggs, which are about the 
 size of a mustard seed, and from two to four hun- 
 dred in number. These eggs are preserved in a 
 cool place until a fresh crop or litter of worms is 
 wanted, when they are placed in a warm atmo- 
 sphere, where they hatch spontaneously in a short 
 time. 
 
 5. The worms are at first very small, but being 
 fed on the leaves of the mulberry tree, they grow 
 to nearly or quite the size and length of a fingei, 
 and commence spinning cocoons as before. The 
 cocoons from which the silk is to be wound or 
 reeled are exposed to heat by steaming, baking, or 
 otherwise to kill the chrysalis. 
 
128 
 
 HISTORY OF SILK. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 HISTORY OF SILK. 
 
 i. The discovery of the use of silk, and the 
 modes of procuring and manufacturing it, was un- 
 questionably made by the Chinese at a period of 
 very remote antiquity ; we know nothing, there- 
 fore, of its early history, except what we learn 
 from them. 
 
 2. The account they give ys is, that it was dis- 
 covered in its native forests of mulberry ; and 
 that about seven hundred years before the days of 
 Abraham, an emperor called Haung-to, whose 
 name they hold in great veneration, persuaded his 
 wife, Si-ling-chi, to have the silkworms gathered 
 and domesticated, and to teach his subjects the 
 management of them, and use of the silk. If this 
 account be true", the lirst silk grower was an 
 emperor. 
 
 3. 'J'he silk business, however, appears to have 
 been for a long time, probably for many ages, con- 
 fined to a part of the Chinese dominions, called 
 Serica. But in process of time, garments com- 
 posed of it were carried by traders, travelling in 
 caravans, through trackless sands and deserts to 
 Syria and Egypt, a journey which it took about 
 eight or nine months to perform. 
 
 4. These garments were sold to merchants, who 
 again sold them at enormous prices, and they 
 were, no doubt, for a long period the principal 
 source of wealth to the last-mentioned nations. 
 
HISTORY or SILK. 12^ 
 
 5. This tedious overland carrying trade was, 
 for a long time, chiefly monopolized by the Per- 
 sians, who, about three hundred and fifty years 
 before the Christian era,, extended it to Greece, 
 where the silk found a prodigious demand, owing 
 to the immense wealth of the Grecians ; and the 
 Phoenicians also engaging in the tra.de, it found its 
 way throughout the south of Europe. But even 
 those who brought it to Europe knew not what it 
 was, where it came from, nor how it was pro- 
 duced. 
 
 6. By the Romans in the third and fourth cen- 
 turies it was considered an article of too much 
 extravagance to be indulged in, except by those of 
 immense wealth and pride. But about the fifth, 
 and beginning of the sixth century, it began to be 
 a subject of inquiry among the Romans, from what 
 part of the world this precious article came, and 
 what was the secret of its production. 
 
 7. About this time, two monks, who had been 
 missionaries to China, returned, an<l brought with 
 them the seed of the mulberry, and gave informa- 
 tion how the silkworms were reared and fed upon 
 the leaves, and how thos€ worms spun the silk. 
 But to carry the silkworms or their eggs out of 
 China was forbidden on pain of death. 
 
 8. Still, however, in consequence of the liberal 
 rewards offered by th« Emperor Justinian, these 
 persevering individuals returned, and after a long 
 pilgrimage, havhig obtained the eggs at the risk 
 of their lives, brought them to the emperor con- 
 cealed in a hollow cane. 
 
 9. The culture of silk was now engaged in by 
 families of the highest standing ; but was chiefly 
 
 I 
 
130 HISTORY OF SILK. 
 
 carried on under the immediate protection of the 
 emperor, for his own benefit ; but at his death, the 
 monopoly could be maintained no longer, and the 
 business was entered, into by individuals with great 
 avidity ; and during four hundred years the silk 
 was distributed by the Venetian merchants through- 
 out the west of Europe. 
 
 IOl But in the year 1146, Roger the Norman, 
 king of Sicily, invaded Greece, and capturing a 
 great number of silk growers and weavers, car- 
 ried them to Palermo, his capitol. By the Sara- 
 cens also it was carried into Spain, and it soon 
 after found its way into Italy, where, in 1306, it 
 was so far advanced as to yield a revenue to the 
 state. 
 
 11. It now also found its way into France, and 
 was encouraged by Louis XI. and Charles VIII. , 
 and still more by Henry IV., who established it 
 as one of the principal sources of wealth to his 
 nation, which standing it has maintained ever 
 since. 
 
 12. It began to be introduced into England a 
 little before, and during the reign of Elizabeth ; 
 and James I. endeavoured much to establish the 
 silk culture in that kingdom. He addressed let- 
 ters, written with his own hand, to the lord lieu- 
 tenants of every county in the kingdom, accom- 
 panied with mulberry seeds and plants, together 
 with a book of instructions. But though near the 
 close of his reign he effected something towards 
 establishing the manufacture of silk, nothing prof- 
 itable was done in its production, and probably 
 never can be in that kingdom, owing to the humid- 
 ity of the atmosphere. 
 
HISTORV OF SILK. 131 
 
 13. In the reign of George II. much was effect- 
 ed in improving the silk manufacture by Sir Thom- 
 as Lamb, and his brothers John and Henry, and 
 it has increased progressively to the present time. 
 The throwsting mill, erected by the Lambs in 
 Derby, is still standing, and is regarded with great 
 interest, though its usefulness is much superseded 
 by subsequent improvements. 
 
 14. It was probably owing to the difficulty of 
 producing silk in England that attempts were made 
 to introduce it into the then British colonies, as 
 early as the twentieth year of the reign of James 
 I., who gave special instructions to the Earl of 
 Southampton, that as he had " understood that the 
 soil of Virginia naturally yieldeth stores of excel- 
 lent mulberries, he would urge the cultivation of 
 silk, in preference to tobacco, which bringeth with 
 it many disorders and inconveniences." 
 
 15. In 1623, the colonial assembly directed mul- 
 berry trees to be planted ; and soon after laid a 
 penalty of three pounds of tobacco upon every 
 planter who should fail to plant at least ten mul- 
 berry trees for every, liundred acres of land in his 
 possession. A premium of ten thousand pounds 
 of tobacco was offered to any person who should 
 export two thousand pounds worth of raw silk. 
 
 16. These encouragements had, in a great meas- 
 ure, the desired effect, the agriculturists engaged 
 spiritedly in the business, and great numbers of 
 mulberry trees were planted. Among others, a 
 Mr. Walker had seventy thousand trees growing 
 in 1664. *'.As early as 1732, at the settlement of 
 Georgia, the lands were granted upon the express 
 condition that one hundred white mulberry trees 
 
132 HISTORY OF SILK. 
 
 should be set on every ten acres of land when 
 cleared. 
 
 17. In 1755, Mrs. Pinckney, a very distinguished 
 lady of South Carolina, took with her to England 
 a sufficient quantity of very superior silk to make 
 three dresses. Considerable sewing silk was made 
 in Georgia during the war of the revolution. In 
 1770, a filature for reeling silk was established at 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 18. But the silk growing and manufacturing 
 enterprise appears to have been wholly lost sight 
 of during the general confusion and distress which 
 prevailed during the revolution, except in Connect- 
 icut, where it had been introduced as early as 1760, 
 by the patriotic exertions of a Mr. Aspinwal, and 
 where it has been continued upon a small scale 
 ever since ; but this has been chiefly confined to 
 sewing silk. 
 
 19. But a general awakening to a sense of the 
 great importance of the silk growing and manu- 
 facturing interest has lately taken place, and now 
 appears to extend through every part of the United 
 States ; and there is every reason to anticipate a 
 most successful result. 
 
SILK CONTINUED, 133 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 SILK CONTINUED. MODE OF PROCEEDING IN REAR- 
 ING THE WORMS AND PRODUCING SILK. 
 
 1. The first step in the silk business is to pro- 
 cure and have in readiness an ample supply of 
 food for the number of worms intended to be kept, 
 which food consists chiefly of the leaves of the 
 mulberry tree ; though there are many other leaves 
 o.\ which they may occasionally be fed, particu- 
 larly the lettuce ; but it is doubtful whether any- 
 thing except the mulberry leaves can be perma- 
 nently depended on, either for sustaining the worms 
 or producing silk. 
 
 2. There are several species and numerous 
 varieties of the mulberry, some of which are in- 
 digenous in this country, and others of foreign 
 origin ; but though the silkworm will feed on 
 nearly all of them, yet some are much preferable 
 to others. 
 
 3. It was formerly supposed that none but the 
 white Italian mulberry would answer the purpose ; 
 but lately, beautiful specimens of silk have been 
 exhibited from worms fed on leaves of several 
 kinds of native mulberry, particularly the red and 
 the purple. White mulberries are also found in 
 some of the most remote forests in the United 
 States, probably equal in value to those brought 
 from Italy. 
 
 4. But several varieties have recently been in- 
 
134 SILK CONTINUED, 
 
 troduced from different pans of the world, which 
 appear to be greatly superior to those former^ in 
 use, among which are the Dandolo, the Briisa, and 
 the Chinese or moms multicaulis, which last takes 
 its name from the multitude of slender stalks or 
 sprouts which shoot up from it. 
 
 5. From present appearances, this may be safely 
 pronoimced superior to any other for feeding silk- 
 worms. Its leaves are exceedingly large, and 
 from its low and shrublike form, they require much 
 less time and labour in gathering — they are much 
 sooner brought to maturity — are more palatable and 
 more nutritious to the worms, and produce more 
 and better silk. 
 
 6. When a sufficient number of mulberry plants 
 have been propagated, and have grown large enough 
 to be divested of their leaves, the next step will be 
 to procure a small stock of eggs. This with the 
 Chinese mulberry may be effected in a very short 
 time, for the young trees may be multiplied by 
 layers and cuttings from ten to a hundred fold an- 
 nually ; and considerable quantities of leaves may 
 be taken from them the second year from the seed- 
 bed. 
 
 7. When the trees have begun to put forth their 
 leaves in the spring, the eggs of the silkmoth are 
 placed in a warm situation (but not in the direct 
 rays of the sun) to produce hatching, which will 
 take place in about five or six days. 
 
 8. When the worms are hatched, they attach 
 themselves to the leaves of small twigs of mulberry, 
 by which they are carried to the place where they 
 are to be fed. They are then about the twelfth 
 
SILK CONTINUED. 135 
 
 part of an inch in length, and those that are healthy 
 are generally of a black colour. 
 
 9. In the first stage of feeding the worm, they 
 may be laid on tables, on shelves, or even on rough 
 boards temporarily placed for the purpose, and 
 covered with paper, and fed with tender leaves 
 chopped fine. In about four days, they begin to 
 appear torpid, and cease eating, in which state 
 they remain twenty-four or twenty-six hours, during 
 which time they shed their skin, which is called 
 moulting. 
 
 10. This operation they generally perform four 
 times, and the intervening times before, between, 
 and after the moultings are called ages. The first 
 four agee are from four to eight days each, and 
 the fifth and last age occupies about ten days, at 
 which time the worms attain their full size. 
 
 11. As the silkworms increase in size they in- 
 crease also in appetite, and especially during the 
 last ages they devour large quantities of leaves. 
 About the thirty-second day they generally cease 
 feeding, and prepare to *^iiiu the*- cocoons. Little 
 twigs, especially of oak, with tnt» leaves on and 
 dried, are then placed for them to climb on, when 
 they commence spinning, and winding themselves 
 in, and in about from four to eight days they com- 
 plete their work. 
 
 12. The cocoons intended to be reserved for 
 eggs are then selected, and in about twelve days 
 the moth will come out. They are then placed on 
 papers in pairs, male and female, in a dark room ; 
 and in from twenty-four to thirty-six hours from 
 the time of leaving the cocoon, the female moth 
 will have laid her complement of eggs, which is 
 
136 SILK CONTINUED. 
 
 generally from three to four hundred. Both the 
 male and female die shortly after the female has 
 done laying her eggs, and never eat after leaving 
 the cocoons. 
 
 13. Those cocoons which are designed for pro- 
 ducing silk are prepared by killing, or, as it is 
 commonly called, stifling the chrysalis, which is 
 done by baking or steaming, or sometimes by the 
 heat of the sun ; and being thus prepared they are 
 ready for reeling. 
 
 14. When the silk is to be reeled, several co- 
 coons are placed together in a vessel of hot water, 
 in order to soften the gummy or glutinous matter 
 which holds the fibres of the cocoon together. By 
 stirring them round in the hot water with a kind 
 of wisp, the ends of the fibres are collected, and 
 the silk is reeled ofi* with a brisk motion, each co- 
 coon yielding a continuous fibre several hundred 
 yards in lengths 
 
 15. As these fibres, taken singly, would be too 
 fine for use, several of them are united together in 
 reeling, and the glutinous substance connected 
 with the silk connects and binds them in a single 
 thread, of any size required. It may be reeled on 
 any common reel, but when the business is ex- 
 tended, long experience has dictated a form of 
 reels much better adapted to the purpose. 
 
 16. The silk thus reeled is called raw silk, and 
 intended for market in that state, is sold by the 
 pound, in skeins or hanks. The ingenious Mr. 
 Gay of Providence has invented a plan of winding 
 the silk from the cocoons on spools or bobbins 
 which bids fair to be a valuable improvement. 
 
 17. The loose fibres which surround the co- 
 
SILK CONTINUED. 137 
 
 coons previous to reeling are carefully separated, 
 and are called lioss, or waste silk. Those co- 
 coons, also, in which the chrysalis has been pre- 
 served, and others, from not being perfectly formed, 
 and. of course not susceptible of being reeled, are 
 denominated waste silk, and when carded and 
 spun, answer a va.riety of purposes. 
 
 18. The establishments where silk is reeled are 
 called filatures, some of which are very extensive , 
 and the buildings appropriated to rearing and 
 feeding silkworms are called cocooneries. 
 
 19. The raw silk is transferred to the manufac- 
 turer, who transforms it into the elegant articles 
 of dress and ornament we see offered for sale ; 
 in many of which great ingenuity and refined taste 
 are displayed. But the people who produce them 
 in foreign countries, from whence we import many 
 millions of dollars worth every year, have no more 
 ingenuity, and probably, in most cases, less refine- 
 ment of taste, and less enterprise, than the people 
 of our own country ; and no article of silk can be 
 imported that cannot, in a short time, be produced 
 in this country of equal value and beauty. 
 
 20. The production of silk is certainly one of 
 the most lucrative, as well as pleasing and interest- 
 ing employments which human industry can be en- 
 gaged in. In the cultivation of the Chinese mul- 
 berry itself — the facility with which it is propa- 
 gated by cuttings or layers — its peculiar tenacity 
 of life — its beauty as a shrub, with its numerous 
 stalks, bending with their burden of broad and 
 shining leaves, cannot but aflbrd pleasure to an 
 agriculturist of any refinement of taste. 
 
 21. The gathering the leaves and feeding th© 
 
188 SILK CONTINUED. 
 
 worms give light and wholesome exercise, enli- 
 vened by the anticipation of a rich reward ; while 
 the spectacle of millions of insects feeding with 
 avidity and gi'owing in a few days, from a scarcely 
 visible speck to several inches in length ; then 
 almost simultaneously ceasing to eat and commen- 
 cing to spin and wind themselves in a thick coat 
 of silk, affording more than ample compensation 
 for the food they have received ; after a few days 
 reappearing, changed to a butterfly, for no appa- 
 rent purpose but to deposite the eggs for a succeed* 
 ing generation, must be, to a reflecting mind, a 
 rich subject for contemplation. 
 
 22, It must afford no less agreeable anticipa- 
 tions to the patriot, to reflect that in a very few 
 years the growing and manufacture of silk in the 
 United States will not only aflbrd a living, and 
 perhaps wealth to thousands, who are now, and 
 would otherwise remain poor and destitute, but 
 will save to the country the immense sums which 
 are now annually sent out of it to purchase arti- 
 cles which we can as Avell produce ourselves, and 
 probably cheaper than those from whom we buy 
 them. 
 
 23. The growth of silk is peculiarly adapted to 
 the minds, capacities, and tastes of youth of both 
 sexes ; we fondly hope, therefore, that those of 
 that class into whose hands this little book may 
 fall, will feel sufficiently awakened by the impor- 
 tance of the subject to endeavour to become more 
 fully acquainted with it, which they can do by 
 procuring such publications as treat of it more 
 extensively, and perfecting the knowledge thus 
 acquired by practice. 
 
BEET SUGAR. 139 
 
 24. The best source to which we can refer our 
 readers for a thorough knowledge of the silk busi- 
 ness is " The Silkworm,^'* a monthly periodical, 
 published in Albany, by Mr. S. Blydenburgh, and 
 we believe the only one in the United States, and 
 perhaps in the world, devoted solely to the subject. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 SUGAR MADE FROM BEETS. 
 
 What is here said on beet sugar is taken from 
 Pedder's Report to the " Beet Sugar Society of 
 Pennsylvania." The latest information fiom the 
 highest autliority. 
 
 1. ''What is the quality of land best suited to 
 the growth of the beet ? A healthy subsoil is indis- 
 pensable ; after this, it is cultivated on almost any, 
 of course, with various degrees of success. In the 
 neighbourhood of Boulogne, the manufacture of 
 sugar from the beet has been discontinued, ex- 
 ■pressly on account of the unsuitableness of the 
 soil, which is chalk, with a very shallow depth of 
 mould. 
 
 2. " Monsieur C considers the soil of New- 
 
 'Jersey (a sandy soil, not apt to burn in the summer) 
 as very likely to be excellent for the purpose ; the 
 facility with which the crop might be taken up, 
 and the advantages of obtaining the roots free 
 from filth or clay, are valuable considerations ; the 
 
140 BEET SUGAR. 
 
 latter will conduce much to their preservation 
 during the winter. 
 
 3. "What is the mode of cultivation? Plough 
 the land in winter and lay it dry ; obtain a pulver- 
 ized surface before sowing, and drill the seed 
 eight pounds per acre ; hoe the land in the inter- 
 vals of the rows (which might be twenty inches 
 apart if the land is not very rich, or twenty-four 
 inches) as soon as the plants have made tolera- 
 ble progress ; at the second hoing, thin the plants 
 in the rows to the distance of about fifteen inches, 
 and the third hoing may be performed with a 
 horse hoe. 
 
 4. "Which are the best kinds of seed ? The 
 white or Silesian, and the rose coloured are the 
 only kinds now sown in a large way ; the yellow 
 is still sown by a few, but to no great extent. 
 Other kinds are said not only to yield no sugar, 
 but to be destructive to the process of crystalliza- 
 tion, if mixed or worked with them. The greatest 
 care is taken to select the best roots for the pro- 
 duction of seed, both as to their kinds and perfect 
 formation ; the largest roots are not the best for 
 thrs purpose. 
 
 5. " Which is the best time for sowing the seed ? 
 As early as the season will admit, as the greatest 
 advantage is derived from an early crushing ; some- 
 times as much as two per cent, of sugar, besides, 
 the ease with which it is made to crystallize, the 
 quality being also superior: the latter part of 
 April and all May is considered the proper sea- 
 son, but this might be extended to the first day of 
 June . ^ 
 
 6. " When is the proper time for taking up the 
 
BEET SUOAR. 141 
 
 crop ? For reasons just slated, the crop should bs 
 taken up as soon as the roots have completed their 
 growth ; the months of September and October are 
 the proper seasons. 
 
 7. " What is the manner of protecting the crops 
 during winter ? Heat is as injurious to the roots as 
 cold, as it induces fermentation, which is destruc- 
 tive of the saccharine. The best-preserved roots 
 which I have seen were deposited in long trenches, 
 formed by throwing out the earth to the sides, and 
 forming with it sloping banks 2^ feet in height ; 
 these trenches were 10 feet wide and about 100 
 feet long, in a dry soil, where the roots were 
 packed without straw either at the bottom or sides, 
 the tops of the heaps conical, and covered with a 
 slight coat of straw, which was thickened during 
 the severity of winter. 
 
 8. " But the almost universal practice is to bury 
 them in pits, dug in the fields where the roots are 
 grown, 17 feet long, 2^ feet deep, and 2 feet 
 broad ; each pit contains 3000 pounds of roots, is 
 dug and the roots covered for one franc, or twenty 
 cents per pit. This is by no means a good method ; 
 the throwing out of the earth mixes a great quan- 
 tity of the steril subsoil with the enriched upper 
 stratum, and removing the roots during winter- is 
 the cause of much injury to the soil, by the cutting 
 in of wheels in wet weather ; it prevents also the 
 proper cultivation of the land, by ploughing to lay 
 dry. 
 
 9. ** What is the method of manufacturing sugar 
 in all its processes ? The manufacture of sugar 
 consists of seven distinct processes. 
 
 li^. " Clca?img the Roots. In many large facto- 
 
142 BEET SUGAR. 
 
 ries this is done by washing in long wooden cyl- 
 inders, vv^ith open sides, which revolve by the 
 power of steam in cisterns of water : the roots 
 are thrown in at one end of this cylinder and are 
 carried round and ejected at the other by a spiral 
 or Archimedes' screw ; and if the work could be 
 effectually performed by this means, it would be 
 a great saving of expense, but the fact is, it is at 
 best a most inefficient mode. 
 
 11. "If the roots have grown in a stiff soil, 
 quantities of earth will still be found adhering to 
 them, maugre all your attempts to free them from 
 it. This will do great injury to the teeth of the 
 rasp while crushing, and will, I presume, be of 
 no value in the cake as food for sheep or cattle. 
 The large roots are often found to be hollow and 
 partially decayed at the crown ; this putrid matter 
 being acetous, is peculiarly destructive to the yield 
 of saccharine, and no washing will remove it. 
 
 12. " The end of the tap root and the lateral 
 fibres are almost useless to the production of sugar 
 — often very injurious ; I therefore prefer to clean 
 by scraping with a knife, when the earth and de- 
 cayed parts are easily removed : the cuttings are 
 greedily devoured by cattle and hogs, and that por- 
 tion only of the root is used which is best calcu- 
 lated to yield a superior quality of sugar. 
 
 13. " Crushing or Rasping the Roots. In no 
 manufactory, except where maceration is practised, 
 is this process performed by any other means than 
 by the rasp. This is a wooden barrel, set trans- 
 versely with steel saws at half an inch apart. It 
 is 13^ inches wide, and 23 inches diameter, and 
 when propelled by steam makes about 900 revolu- 
 
BEET SUGAR. 143 
 
 tions in a minute, crushing into impalpable pulp 90 
 pounds of roots in that space of time. Prevssing 
 by cylinders has often been tried, but found to be 
 totally inapplicable to the purpose. 
 
 14. " Pressing the Pulp. The heat engendered 
 by the process of rasping brings on instantaneous 
 fermentation, which is destructive to the yield of 
 sugar : no time is therefore lost in submitting the 
 pulp to the action of the press, by which the juice 
 is extracted in a surprisingly short space of time. 
 In no instance did I see this operation performed 
 by any but hydraulic pressure, the power of which 
 is astonishingly great. 
 
 15. " The machine for this purpose is very ex- 
 pensive, but when obtained, the saving of labour 
 and time is great. The pulp falls from the rasp 
 into a square box below, from whence it is taken 
 in a deep icooden or copper shovel and put into a 
 bag which is held open for its reception ; it is then 
 placed upon a frame of wicker work, standing 
 upon a small handbarrow resting upon wheels, 
 where it is spread evenly in the bag, and the mouth 
 is then turned down to prevent the escape of the 
 pulp while under the press ; it is then covered by 
 another wicker frame and another bag, until the 
 pile consists of thirty-five bags and wicker frames. 
 
 16. " The whole is then removed to ihe press, 
 where a man takes and deposites *'them on the 
 wooden platform, which rests on the bed of the 
 press, and the pressure is then applied. So soon 
 as the juice is extracted, the pressure is taken off, 
 the bags are emptied of the dry cakes, and the 
 press is ready for another load. 
 
 17. " These presses are always worked in 
 
144 ^ BEET SUCA*R. 
 
 pairs, so that while one is pressing the other is 
 being loaded. The juice flows from the press 
 into a cistern beneath the floor, whence it is im- 
 mediately pumped into the defficating pan, which 
 is placed so high that the contents may flow from 
 it by a pipe into the evaporator. 
 
 18. " Dedication. The defiicator is a copper 
 pan, into which the juice is pumped, so as to fill it 
 within four inches of the top, when heat is applied 
 either by means of steam or fire. As soon as the 
 juice has attained the heat of 58'^ Reaumur (162^° 
 Fahrenheit) lime is added in exact proportion to 
 (he acid contained in it, which is ascertained by 
 chymical tests. This lime is prepared by slacking 
 with hot water and mixing, so as to be of the con- 
 sistence of cream, and when it is added the great- 
 est care is taken to mix it most intimately with the 
 juice by stirring it with a wooden spatula, 
 
 19. " After this it is suffered to rest, and the 
 heat is raised to the boiling point, when it is sud- 
 denly checked by withdrawing the steam or fire ; 
 as soon as the juice has become perfectly clear, it 
 is run off" into the first evaporator, taking care that 
 none of the scum or sediment at the bottom of 
 the pan passes with it. The scum and sediment 
 are then collected, put into bags and pressed, to 
 obtain all the juice they contain ; after which, the 
 residuum is thrown to the dunghill, a valuable ma- 
 nure. 
 
 20. " Evaporation. The evaporator is a copper 
 pan, into which the clear defficated liquor flows, 
 until the pan is about a third part full ; to this a 
 small quantity of animal charcoal is added, and 
 the fire or steam is applied ; here it is boiled until 
 
BEET sue An. 145 
 
 it marks 21^^ by tho saccharometer, when it is 
 passed into a receiver, whence it flows into the 
 clarifiers for puriiication. During the boiling, if 
 the juice rises in the pan so as to threaten to over- 
 flow, a small quantity of tallow-^ is added, which 
 causes an immediate subsidence, and facilitates 
 evaporation. 
 
 21. " Clarifying. The clarifiers are wooden or 
 copper pans, 2 feet 8 inches deep, 20 inches di- 
 ameter at top, 11 inches diameter at bottom, each 
 with a small brass cock near the bottom. A cop- 
 per strainer standing on three feet and covered 
 with canvass is placed in the bottom of each clar- 
 ifier, v/hich is then filled with granulated animal 
 charcoal, (about 100 pounds in each pan,) and is 
 covered with another copper strainer and cloth, 
 and then the sirup is permitted to flow upon it until 
 the pan is full. 
 
 22. " After it has stood some time, the cock is 
 opened, the sirup is permitted to flow slowly into 
 a cistern, and the pans are refilled as fast as they 
 empty. From the cistern the sirup is pumped into 
 the condenser, for a last evaporation. These clari- 
 fiers are emptied of their animal carbon twice in 
 the day, and filled with other, fresh burnt from 
 the kilns. 
 
 23. " It is found that some of the saccharine re- 
 mains in this carbon, it is therefore put up to re- 
 ceive the juice from the defficator as it passes into 
 the first evaporater, by which means the saccha- 
 rine is extracted ; after which, the animal carbon 
 is turned out to be washed preparatory to another 
 
 ♦ Butter is preferable. 
 
 K 
 
146 BEET SUGAR. 
 
 calcination, whereby it is rendered fit for further 
 use, ad infinitum. 
 
 24. " Concentration. The clarified sirup is 
 evaporated in the condenser to 41*^, at which point 
 it indicates signs of fitness for crystallization, 
 which may be known by the usual test ; drawing 
 between the finger and thumb, when if the thread 
 break and the end draws up to the finger in a kind 
 of homy substance, it is enough. Another mode 
 is, to blow through the holes of the skimmer, when 
 if the sirup be sufficiently tenacious to form air 
 bubbles and fall to the ground, and on bursting 
 leave a while substance, it is immediately removed 
 from the fire. 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 BEET SUGAR CONTINUED. 
 
 1 . " What is the yield of sugar per acre and 
 cost of manufacture, independent of the expense of 
 cultivating the crop ? Much contrariety of opinion 
 exists upon this subject. Under favourable cir- 
 cumstances, I have reason to know that 8^ per 
 cent, of sugar has been obtained. This consists 
 of first, second, and third qualities, and leaves only 
 the molasses, which cannot be crystallized by any 
 process now known. 
 
 2. "In the estimate of the cost of the manufacture 
 of sugar, the profit upon the beet culture must be 
 made to appear, as also the profit arising from the 
 
BEET SUGAR. 147 
 
 feeding of cattle and sheep, with the moUsses and 
 cakes, and the value of the manure. To this add 
 the profit arising from the preparation of animal 
 carbon, which every extensive manufacturer pre- 
 pares for his own use, and the value of the seed, 
 which all such are enabled to send to market, and 
 I estimate the cost of sugar to the manufacturer at 
 44 sous (4^ cents) per pound. 
 
 3. " What mode of expending the refuse of the 
 sugar house for the fattening of cattle? The 
 cakes are preserved in magazines sunk in the 
 ground, where they are beaten hard and left to fer- 
 ment. At the end of 6 or 9 months they are cut 
 out in a vinous state and given to cattle and sheep ; 
 excellent for the purpose. A sheep will eat 5 
 pounds of this food (mixed with a small quantity of 
 oilcake, say about 2 pounds for 10 sheep) a day. 
 Cattle, while fatting, eat 75 pounds of beetcake 
 and 6 pounds of oilcake per day. 
 
 4. " The molasses is mixed with water and 
 poured upon chopped straw in cisterns, where it 
 remains for 24 hours, when it is given to horses, 
 cattle, and sheep, which devour it voraciously. The 
 sheep pens are strewed with lime instead of straw, 
 a most excellent mode, as it saves straw which 
 might be cut into chaif, and conduces to the health 
 of sheep, as well as to their cleanliness. The 
 lime prevents and cures the foot rot, and is the 
 means of forming a large quantity of most valuable 
 compost, which is applied as a spring dressing to 
 young clovers ; the effect is instantaneous. Sheep 
 fatten in 2 months or 60 days. 
 
 5. " The cakes from 100 pounds of beet, with 
 a mixture of molasses and straw, are sufnrient food 
 
148 BEET SUGAR. 
 
 for 3 sheep per day. From 2000 pounds of oeet, 
 food for 60 sheep for 1 day ; from 1 acre of 
 beet, therefore, food for 60 sheep for 20 days ; 
 the cakes from 3 acres of beet, with an allowance 
 of straw and molasses, and the above quantity of oil- 
 cake, are sufficient to fatten 60 sheep for the market. 
 
 6. " What kind of cattle, and at what age 
 are they preferred, so as to give the greatest 
 profit for fattening, and the usual time of feed- 
 ing 1 Oxen are not put to fatten until five years 
 old, being worked on the farms until that age. 
 Cows fatten well, and all descriptions of cattle 
 are fed in as short a time as upon other customary 
 food. 
 
 7. " The sugar which was forwarded, together 
 with the beet seed, was obtained from a refinery 
 at Paris. The samples of unrefined sugar which 
 were delivered, are bo?ia fide from the beet, and 
 were procured from the difterent manufactories 
 which I have visited, and show the various quali- 
 ties and sorts distinctly. 
 
 8. " What crop precedes the beet, and what is 
 the estimated quantity ? In many places beet is 
 grown every second year, a crop of grain inter- 
 vening ; in some places every year in succession ; 
 a field in the neighbourhood of Arras has borne 
 beet, either as a crop for crushing or for seed, for 
 the last fifteen years. It is sov/n after every 
 crop, but Joes best, perhaps, after clover, the land 
 being ploughed in winter and got ready for an 
 early spring sowing. Oats often precede the 
 beet, but in this case it is usual to manure for the 
 beet, the manure buried in drills after the English 
 method. 
 
DEET SUGAR. 149 
 
 9. " What crop succeeds it, &c. I Too often 
 wheat, a bad practice. The land should be laid 
 dry for the winter and sown with a spring crop, 
 clover always accompanying it. Such crops are 
 excellent ; wheat light and small eared, apt to 
 blight, quantity often not more than 18 or 20 bush- 
 els per acre. 
 
 10. " Is the crop ever manured for ? Yes, after 
 oats, for it is found that manure is not, of neces- 
 sily, injurious to the crop of sugar, as it was once 
 thought to be. 
 
 11. "What kind of manure is used, and what 
 effect are different manures supposed to have (if 
 different are used) on the saccharine ? An abun- 
 dant supply is always found in the farmyard, for 
 as the beet is sown as a fallow crop, generally 
 without dung, it throws the usual time for manu- 
 ring one year back, an incalculable assistance to 
 the dungheap. The refuse of the sugar house is 
 reserved as a top dressing to the clovers ; bones 
 are too valuable to be used as manure, as they are 
 required for clarifying the sugar : lime not in use 
 except for strewing the floors of the sheep sheds, 
 where it becomes one of the richest and most valu- 
 able manures known. 
 
 12. "What is the weight of the average crop of 
 beet and grain ? Under favourable circumstances 
 and seasons, beet 40,000 pounds per acre, oats 
 and barley 35 to 40 bushels, wheat 25 to 30, or 33 
 bushels per acre. 
 
 1 3. " Are crops most productive of saccharine 
 on sandy soil, or loam ? Light soils are preferred, 
 if they are not of a burning nature. Moisture is 
 necessary to the growth of the beet ; but if they 
 
150 BEET SUGAR. 
 
 are raised on land x\'ith a wet subsoil, they will 
 rot in the winter, although they may appear, at the 
 time of taking up, to be perfectly sound. Deep 
 soils produce large crops, but they are not valued 
 on that account, the small roots often producing 
 more sugar than large ones. No judgment can 
 be formed but by experiment. 
 
 14. " What is the rotation of crops ? Beet, beet, 
 beet. Beet, wheat, beet. Oats, beet, barley with 
 seeds. What is the price of the best beef, fed 
 from the beet of a sugar house, when compared 
 with beef otherwise fed ? Equal, as cattle are 
 never finished with beetcakes alone ; an allowance 
 of oilcake does the business more quickly. 
 
 15. " How does the uso of the refuse of the su- 
 gar house affect the produce of the dairy ? Good 
 for all kinds of cattle. Cows which give milk 
 must not be fed with fermented cakes, as they 
 communicate an unpleasant flavour to the butter. 
 Molasses, when mixed with water and poured on 
 cut straw or hay, and left for twenty-four hours, is 
 excellent for the purpose. 
 
 16. "What are the expenses of conducting a 
 beet sugar manufactory, and what the estimated 
 profits ? The raising of the beet and the manufac- 
 turing of the sugar should always accompany each 
 other, and an estimate made of both united would 
 show the result. If the beet is grown, and sold to 
 the sugar maker, the land is robbed of the manure 
 arising from the expenditure of the crop, and al- 
 though great profits might arise at first from this 
 system, it must in the end prove ruinous. 
 
 17. "And if the sugar maker has to purchase 
 his roots for crushing, he often meets with those 
 
BEST BREEDS OF CATTLE. 151 
 
 which yield but little sugar; he sells the cakes 
 and molasses to those who get his profit upon feed- 
 ing, and his manure, from the sugar house, for less 
 than a quarter part of its value, I have scarcely 
 met with any one who is contented with his share, 
 if divided, although there are many who are com- 
 pelled so to act. The perfection of the beet-root 
 culture in France is, when it is joined to the making 
 of sugar. 
 
 18. "Ill the town of Arras, a person has estab- 
 lished a sugar house upon a very economical 
 scale, performing much of the labour and superin- 
 tendence in person ; he erected most of the ma- 
 chinery with his own hands, and is a very intelli- 
 gent man. He rents land, properly prepared, of 
 the farmers in the neighbourhood, for the growth 
 of his crops of beet, at the charge of from 200 to 
 230 francs per acre ; he has no means of feeding 
 sheep with the cakes, and the molasses and ma- 
 nure he sells to those who are making a profit from 
 this branch of his business ; it must be a good 
 trade which could bear such weeding ; and yet he 
 made 110,000 pounds of sugar last season/' 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 BEST BREEDS OF CATTLE. 
 
 1. The Devonshire breed is supposed to have 
 descended directly from the wild race. Its head 
 is small, clean, and free from flesh about the jaws, 
 
152 BEST BREEDS OF CATTLE. 
 
 deerlike, light and airy in its countenance, neck 
 long and thin, throat free from jowl or dewlap, 
 nose and round its eyes of a dark orange colour^ 
 ears thin and pointed, tinged on their inside with 
 the same colour that is always found to encircle its 
 eyes. 
 
 2. Horns thin, and fine to their roots, of a 
 cream colour, tipped with black, growing with a 
 regular curve upward, and rather springing from 
 each other. Light in the withers, resting on a 
 shoulder a little retiring and spreading, small, and 
 tapering below the knee, fine at and above the 
 joint, and where the arm begins to increase it be- 
 comes suddenly lost in the shoulder. Thin loose 
 skin, covered with hair of a soft and furry nature, 
 inclined to curl whenever the animal is in good 
 condition and in full coat, bright blood red, with- 
 out white or other spots. 
 
 3. The Devon cattle are highly esteemed both 
 for feeding and draught ; but are not so much 
 valued for the dairy. For all the purposes of la- 
 bour, whether activity, docility, or strength, and 
 hardiness, this breed can scarcely be excelled. 
 The ordinary average weight of the oxen, when 
 fatted at five years old, is about eleven hundred, 
 and that of full-sized cows seldom exceeds eight. 
 
 4. The Sussex breed differs but little from the 
 Devonshire : when pure, the cattle are invariably 
 dark red ; and those which are marked with a mix- 
 ture of either white or black, although called Sus^ 
 sex, are always crossed Avith foreign blood. 
 
 5. The Hereford breed is a variety of the 
 Devon and Sussex, but is larger, broader, and 
 weightier than either. The prevailing colour a 
 
BEST BREEDS OF CATTLE. 163 
 
 reddish brown, with white faces ; the hair fine, 
 and the skin thin. In the true-bred Hereford cat- 
 tle there is no projecting bone in the point of the 
 shoulder, which in some breeds forms almost a 
 shelf, against which the collar rests. 
 
 6. The horn pushes aside a little, and then turns 
 up thin and tapering ; remarkably well feeling, and 
 very mellow on the bones. The quality of the 
 meat not hard, but fine as well as fat ; little coarse 
 flesh about them, the bone being small in propor- 
 tion to their weight. Their disposition to fatten is 
 equal, or nearly so, to that of any other breed in 
 the island. 
 
 7. They arc, however, ill calculated for the 
 dairy ; their disposition to accumulate flesh being 
 opposed to the qualities of good milking cows : an 
 observation which will equally apply to every 
 breed, when similarly constituted. A breed of cat- 
 tle equally adapted to the shambles, the dairy, and 
 the plough, is indeed not to be met with ; experi- 
 ence teaches that these properties are inconsistent 
 with each other. 
 
 8. The Hereford cattle are by many good judges 
 considered to approach the nearest to that perfect 
 state, of any of the large breeds. They arrive 
 early at maturity, and are fit for labour ; but it is 
 as fatting stock that they excel, and it is a difi'erent 
 variety of the same breed that is preferred for the 
 dairy. 
 
 9. On comparison with the Devon and Sussex, 
 the Hereford breed will probably not be found 
 equally active and hardy in the yoke ; but it is gen- 
 erally considered to exceed them in the quality of 
 fat{enillf,^ 
 
154 BEST BREEDS OF t'.ATTLE. 
 
 10. The short-horned cattle are more generally- 
 known as the Durham or Yorkshire breed. This 
 breed was made known in England about forty 
 years ago, and has rapidly risen in the public es- 
 timation. The cattle are very large, and are beau- 
 tifully mottled with red or black upon a white 
 ground. Their backs are level — throat clean — 
 neck fine, and body full and round. 
 
 11. They have a very fine coat, and thin hide. 
 They differ from the other breeds, not only in the 
 shortness of their horns, but in being wider and 
 thicker in their form, and consequently feeding to 
 greater weight : also, in affording the greatest 
 quantity of tallow when fatted ; and in having very 
 thin hides, with much less hair upon them than 
 ony other kind except the Aldemeys. 
 
 12. They also possess the valuable properties 
 of fattening kindly at an early age, and of yielding 
 large quantities of milk. The quality of the latter, 
 however, is not so rich as that of some other spe- 
 cies. This breed is now preferred in this country 
 and in England, though the Devonshire makes the 
 best oxen. 
 
 13. The Galloway breed are black or dark brin- 
 dled. They are without horns, except occasion- 
 ally a small bunch resembling them. They are 
 rather under the medium size, being smaller than 
 the Devons, though in some other respects resem- 
 bling them. 
 
 14. Galloways are a hardy race, subsisting on 
 the coarsest pastures, and increasing rapidly when 
 removed to more favourable situations ; they fatten 
 kindly on the best parts. Their flesh is of the 
 finest quality ; and the joints being of a moderate 
 
DIFFERENT BREEDS COMPARED. 155 
 
 size, more suitable for private families than those 
 of the larger breeds. They are remarkably good 
 milkers ; and are well adapted to poor lands. 
 
 15. The Ayrshire breed ranks deservedly high 
 in the estimation of dairymen. The head is small, 
 but rather long and narrow at the muzzle — the eye 
 small but quick and lively— ^the horns small, clear, 
 bended, and the roots at a considerable distance 
 from each other. The neck is long and slender, 
 and tapering towards the head, with little loose 
 skin hanging below — and shoulders thin. The 
 akin is thin and loose — hair, soft and woolly — the 
 head, horns, and other parts of least value, small, 
 and the general figure compact and well propor- 
 tioned. 
 
 16. Such are the chief breeds now in high re- 
 pute. But it must be admitted, that there are great 
 deviations in many animals of the same, and of 
 the most approved stocks ; and there are, besides, 
 many crosses and local breeds distinguished by 
 the name of the district, or the breeder, which it 
 would be tedious to particularize. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF NEAT CATTLE 
 
 COMPARED. 
 
 1. From what has been said, the reader will 
 probably be enabled lo form some estimate of the 
 value of the respective breeds of cattle. The two 
 
156 DIFFERENT BREEDS COMPARED. 
 
 kinds, however, which are chiefly reared, are the 
 long-horned and the short-horned. Concerning 
 their merits and demerits, there has long been a 
 difference of opinion among the most experienced 
 breeders. On that subject, therefore, it may not 
 be altogether useless to offer a few comparative 
 remarks for the consideration of the young farmer. 
 
 2. The long-horns excel in the thickness and 
 firm texture of the hides, in the length and close- 
 ness of the hair, in their beef being finer grained 
 and more mixed and marbled than that of the short- 
 horns, in weighing more in proportion to their size, 
 and in giving richer milk. But they are inferior 
 to the short-horns in giving a less quantity of milk, 
 in weighing less upon the whole, in affording less 
 tallow when killed, in being slower feeders, and 
 of a coarser make. 
 
 3. In few words, the long-horns excel in the 
 hide, hair, and quality of the beef; the short- 
 horns in the quantity of beef, tallow, and milk. 
 Each breed has long had, and probably may have, 
 its particular advocates ; but, if I may hazard a 
 conjecture, is it not probable that both kinds may 
 have their particular advantages in different situa- 
 tions ? 
 
 4. Why may not the thick, firm hides, and long, 
 close-set hair of the one kind be a protection and 
 security against those impetuous winds and heavy 
 storms to which the north part of this country is 
 so subject ; while the more regular seasons and 
 mild climate, at the south, are most suitable to the 
 constitutions of the short-horn ? 
 
 5. Further trials of their respective qualities 
 must be accurately made and faithfully recorded, 
 
STOCKING A FARM WITH CATTLE. 157 
 
 before an undisputed preference can be awarded 
 to either ; for it cannot be concealed that local 
 prejudice is often opposed to fact. The long-horns 
 appear best adapted for grazing ; being well pro- 
 tected by thick hides and long hair, and seemingly- 
 intended by nature for the range of pasture land. 
 
 6. The short-horns, on the contrary, have thin 
 hides and short hair, and being of a more tender 
 constitution than the former,- and arriving to greater 
 weight, seem better calculated for the system of 
 stallfeeding ; while the Devons have the advan- 
 tage as working oxen. 
 
 CHARTER XXXIII. 
 
 ON BUYING AND STOCKING A FARM WITH CATTLE. 
 
 1. The first object of attention ta the farmer 
 is to consider the proportion between his stock and 
 the quantity of feed which will be necessary to 
 support them. The nature, situation, and fertil- 
 ity of the soils that compose his farm are worthy 
 of notice ; also the purpose for which he de- 
 signs more particularly to rear or feed his cattle ; 
 whether for the pail, or for beef. 
 
 2. In fact, it will be expedient to observe the 
 greatest exactness in this proportion, because if 
 he .should overstock his land, he will be compelled 
 to resell before the cattle are in a fit state for the 
 market, and, consequently, at certain loss ; while, 
 on the other hand, he will incur a loss in his profit, 
 
158 STOCKING A FARM WITH CATTLE. 
 
 if he does not stock his land with as many cattle 
 as it will bear. 
 
 3. Formerly, a great prejudice prevailed in fa- 
 vour of big-boned, large beasts, but it has been as- 
 certained that this breed is, in point of profit, 
 much inferior to the middle-sized kind. By a 
 careful attention to the selection of stock, great 
 progress may be made towards the improvement 
 of the different species. Among the various pro- 
 fessional breeders of modern times, (ew have at- 
 tained greater celebrity than the late Mr. Bake- 
 well of England, to whom we are indebted for 
 many new and important improvements in the 
 science of rearing cattle. 
 
 4. The principle which he invariably adopted 
 was, to select the best beast, that would weigh 
 most in the valuable joints ; so that, while he 
 gained in point of shape, he also acquired a more 
 hardy breed. By attending to the kindliness of 
 their skin, he became possessed of a race which 
 was more easily fed and fattened than any other. 
 
 5. For many years, the practice was to judge 
 by the eye only, without regarding the other qual- 
 ities of the animal. But, in the present improved 
 age, a more rational mode of forming the judgment 
 has been adopted. The sense of touch is now 
 brought in aid of the sight. By repeated practice, 
 the art of judging of the kindliness to fatten has 
 been brought to such perfection, that any well-in- 
 formed breeder will tell, almost instantaneously, 
 in what points or parts they will or will not fatten. 
 
 6. In the selection, therefore, of live stock in 
 general, the young farmer will find it necessary 
 attentively to consider the foliowing particulars ; 
 
STOCKING A FARM WITH CATTLE. 169 
 
 Beauty y or symmetry of shape ; in which the form 
 is so compact that every part of the animal bears 
 an exact consistency, while the carcass should be 
 deep and broad, and the less valuable parts (such 
 as the head, bones, <fec.) ought to be as small as 
 possible. Further, the shoulders should not only be 
 light of bone, and rounded off at the lower point, 
 but also broad, and well covered with flesh. The 
 back also ought to be wide and level throughout. 
 
 7. In rearing live stock of any description, it 
 should be an invariable rule to have the increase 
 from small-boned, straight-backed, healthy, clean, 
 kindly skinned, round-bodied, and barrel-shaped 
 animals. 
 
 8. In the purchasing of cattle, whether in a lean 
 or fat state, the farmer should on no account buy 
 beasts out of richer or better grounds than those 
 into which he intends to turn them. For, in this 
 case, he must inevitably sustain a very material 
 loss, by the cattle not thriving, particularly if they 
 be old. It will, therefore, be advisable to select 
 them, either from stock feedinjij in the neighbour- 
 hood, or from such breeds as are best adapted to 
 the nature and situation of the soil. 
 
 9. Docility of disposition, without being deficient 
 in spirit, is of equal moment. Independently of 
 the damage committed by cattle of wild tempers 
 on fences, fields, &c., it is a fact, that tame beasts 
 require less food to rear, support, and fatten them, : 
 consequently every attention ought to be paid, 
 early to accustom them to be docile and familiar. 
 
 10. Hardiness of constitution, particularly in 
 bleak and exposed districts, is indeed a most im- 
 portant requisite. In every case it is highly es- 
 
160 STOCKING A FARM WITH CATTLE. 
 
 seiitial to a farmer's interest to have a breed that 
 is liable neither to disease nor to any hereditary 
 distemper. 
 
 11. Connected with hardiness of constitution is 
 early maturity. This, however, can only be at- 
 tained by feeding cattle in such a maimer as to 
 keep them constantly in a growing state. By an 
 observance of this principle, it has been found 
 that beasts and sheep thrive more in three years, 
 than they usually do in five when they have not 
 sufficient food during the winter. In the common 
 mode of rearing, their growth is checked. 
 
 12. Working, or an aptitude for labour. Whe- 
 ther kine be purchased for the plough or for the 
 purpose of fattening, it will be necessary to see 
 that they are young, in perfect health, full mouthed, 
 and not broken in any part. That the hair stare 
 not, and that they are not hidebound, or they will 
 not feed kindly. 
 
 13. The same remark is applicable to cows 
 intended for the pail. Their horns should be fair 
 and smooth, the forehead broad, udders white, 
 yet not fleshy, thin and loose when empty, (to 
 hold the greater quantity of milk,) but large when 
 full. 
 
 14. Beside the rules above stated, there are some 
 particulars with regard to the age of cattle and sheep, 
 which merit the farmer's consideration. Neat cat- 
 tle cast no teeth until turned two years old, when 
 they get- two new teeth; at three they get two 
 more ; and in every succeeding year get two, until 
 five years old, when they are called full mouthed 
 Though they are not properly full mouthed imtil 
 six years old, because the two corner teeth, which 
 
THE COW. RAISING CALVES. 161 
 
 are last in reneAvrng, are not perfectly up until they 
 are six. 
 
 16. The horns of neat cattle also supply an- 
 other criterion by which the judgment may be as- 
 sisted, after the signs afforded by the teeth become 
 uncertain. When three years old, their horns are 
 smooth and handsome ; after which period there 
 appears a circle, or wrinkle, which is annually 
 increased as long as the horn remains ; so that, ac- 
 cording to the number of these circles or rings, 
 the age of a beast may be ascertained with tolera- 
 ble precision. 
 
 16. Sometimes the wrinkles are defaced, or ar- 
 tificially removed, by scraping or filing. This is 
 a fraudulent practice, too frequently adopted, in 
 order to deceive the ignorant or inexperienced 
 purchaser, as to the real age of the animal. These 
 circles, however, must not be confounded with 
 the ringlets which are sometimes found at the 
 root of the horn, and which are a pretty sure in- 
 dication that the animal had been ill-fed during its 
 growth. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 THE COW. RAISING CALVES. 
 
 1 . A PERFECT breeding cow ought to have a fine 
 head, with a broad, smooth forehead ; black eyes ; 
 clean horns, and a smooth, elastic skin. 
 
 2. Cows are purchased either with a view of 
 
162 THE COW. RAI:3liNG CALVES. 
 
 being fattened for sale, for breeding, or for the 
 purposes of the dairy. If for beef, it will be ad- 
 visable to attend to the kindliness of their skins, 
 and disposition to fatten. With regard to those 
 which are intended for breeding, care should be 
 taken to select the best of that particular stock in- 
 tended to be raised ; and for the dairy, those which 
 yield the most, and the richest milk. The last 
 subject will be treated more at large under that 
 head. 
 
 3. The desirable qualities of a dairy cow are, 
 that she should give an abundant supply of milk ; 
 fatten readily ; and turn to good account in the 
 shambles. But, in fact, those beasts which yield 
 great quantities of milk seldom fatten quickly. 
 There is, it is true, a middling kind of cows, 
 which give a tolerable quantity of milk, and also 
 keep in pretty good condition. 
 
 4. But, though many of this 3ort will become 
 very fat when they are dried, or their milk is taken 
 from them, yet they will not fatten so speedily or 
 so well as those Avhich yield a less portion of 
 milk, and which are more kindly disposed to fatten 
 while they are in a milking state. 
 
 5. As, however, the dairy constitutes, in many 
 parts of this country, an object of great importance, 
 it is a point worthy of the most deliberate consid- 
 ation, whether a particular breed ought to be kept 
 for that purpose only, or whether it be preferable 
 to have stock calculated partly for the butcher, and 
 partly for the dairy. 
 
 6. " It is probable," observes Sir John Sinclair, 
 *' that, by great attention, a breed might be reared, 
 the males of which might }>€ well calculated, in 
 
TI4E COW. RAISING CALVES. 163 
 
 every respect, for the shambles ; and the females 
 of which might, when young, produce abundant 
 quantities of good milk ; yet, when they reached 
 eight or nine years of age, might be easily fattened. 
 This," he justly remarks, " would be the most val- 
 uable breed that could be propagated in any country ; 
 and, indeed, some of the best English and Scot- 
 tish breeds have almost reached that point of per- 
 fection." 
 
 7. There are two modes of feeding calves : — 
 one is, to permit them to run about with the parent 
 cow the whole of the first year ; and the other 
 mode is, to wean them when about a fortnight old, 
 and bring them up by hand. The former expe- 
 dient is generally allowed to be productive of the 
 best cattle, and is adopted in those countries where 
 fodder is abundant and cheap. In others, where 
 it is found prudent to reserve a portion of the milk, 
 the latter plan is pursued. 
 
 8. Whether calves are designed to be raised for 
 breed, labour, or feeding, care should be taken that 
 they have a sufficient supply of good pasture. If 
 this be scanty at first, they rarely, if ever, attain 
 to large growth. Various plans have been sug- 
 gested, and tried with considerable success, for 
 rearing calves without any, or at least with a 
 small quantity of milk. The time of separating 
 them- from the parent cow varies, from one fort- 
 night till they are seven weeks old ; but the latter 
 period is preferable, on account of the weak state 
 of the calves, if separated from the dam at an earlier 
 age. 
 
 9. In winter the calves may be fed with luke- 
 warm skimmed milk and water, having bran or 
 
164 THE COAV. RAISING CALVES. 
 
 oats in it, and some very sweet hay by them, till 
 the grass is ready. If the farmer have carrots, 
 they form an excellent article of food, and render 
 the use of oats unnecessary. About three gallons 
 of milk daily are sufficient for the support of a 
 calf until he begins to eat. It should be given 
 regularly at the same hours ; and he should be 
 kept as quiet as possible, as rest is found to pro- 
 mote his growth. ^ 
 
 10. Some feed partly with meal mixed in the 
 milk after the third or fourth week ; or gradually 
 introduce some new whey along with the meal, and 
 afterward withdraw the milk altogether. Hay tea, 
 flaxseed jelly, <fcc., are also sometimes used with 
 advantage. But milk, when it can be spared, is 
 by far the best as well as the most natural food. 
 Another mode of rearing calves has been suggested 
 to render the use of new milk unnecessary, while 
 the expense is reduced in the proportion of two 
 thirds. 
 
 11. It is effected in the following manner : Let 
 half an ounce of common molasses be well mixed 
 with a pint of skimmed milk, then gradually add 
 one ounce of finely powdered flaxseed oilcake, 
 stirring it till the mixture be properly made, after 
 which it is to be added to the remainder of a gal- 
 lon of milk. The whole, being made nearly of 
 the temperature of new milk, may then be given 
 to the animal. After a short time, the quantity 
 of pulverized oilcake may be increased. This 
 method is said to have been advantageously adopt- 
 ed. 
 
 12. An infusion of hay tea or hay water has 
 been also applied to the purpose of rearing calves 
 
THE (.OVY. — RAISINC CALVES. 165 
 
 with the smallest quantity of milk. In order to 
 make this infusion, such a portion of fine, sweet 
 hay, cut once or twice, is put into a small earthen 
 vessel as will fill it. The vessel is then filled 
 with boiling water, and carefully closed ; at the 
 end of two hours a brown, rich, and sweet infusion 
 will be produced, not,unlike alewort, or strong tea, 
 >^ich will remain good for two days. 
 " 13. In the rearing of calves, much, however, de- 
 pends on the regularity of feeding them. The 
 common practice is, to supply them with food 
 twice in the day, in the morning and at evening. 
 Then they generally receive as large a quantity 
 as their craving appetites can take. Hence the 
 digestive organs are necessarily injured, and nu- 
 merous animals either become tainted with disease, 
 or perish from the inattention of their keepers. 
 When, by feeding them thrice in the day, at equal 
 intervals, and allowing sufficient room for exercise, 
 (when they are not intended to be fattened,) they 
 will not only be preserved in health, but they will 
 also greatly improve in condition. 
 
 14. Whatever food be allowed to young calves, 
 care should also be taken not to change it too sud- 
 denly. A calf must have attained a certain de- 
 gree of strength before it can dispense with the 
 food most natural to its age. It should always, 
 therefore, be allowed as long as possible. It is a 
 common notion that provided young stock acquire 
 size, their condition is immaterial ; and, after the 
 first winter, they are generally turned into the 
 toughest pasture, and kept during the following 
 winter on straw, with, perhaps, a little indifTerent 
 hay. 
 
166 WORKING OXEiN. 
 
 16. But they should be kept on good pasture 
 during the summer, and allowed roots with some 
 sound hay in the winter, and green food in the 
 spring ; a contrary mode, though the most econom- 
 ical, is decidedly disadvantageous ; for the worst 
 breed will ultimately be improved by good feeding, 
 while the best will degenerate under a system of 
 starvation. 
 
 16. With regard to those calves which are in- 
 tended for the draught, it will be advisable to ac- 
 custom them, while young, to be handled and 
 stroked, and tied up to the manger ; as they may, 
 when they come to be broken in, be handled with 
 less apprehension of danger. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 WORKING OXEN. 
 
 1, A GOOD OX for the plough should be neither 
 too fat nor too lean. In the former case, he will 
 be lazy ; and in the latter, he will be weak and 
 unfit for labour. His body ought to be round, joints 
 short, legs strong, eyes full, his coat smooth and 
 fine, and every part well put together, so that his 
 strength may be easily seen. Another requisite 
 is, that he may answer to the goad, and be obedient 
 to the voice ; but he can only be governed by 
 gradual use and gentle treatment. 
 
 2. Calves designed for the yoke should not be 
 broken in earlier than two and a half or three 
 
WORKING OXEN. 167 
 
 years, lest they be overstrained ; nor should that 
 operation be deferred longer, as they will become 
 headstrong or stubborn. Their work should then 
 be so proportioned as not to aflect their growth, 
 which continues till about their seventh year. If 
 this be not attended to, their value will be lessened 
 in a greater degree than will be compensated by 
 their laboui-. 
 
 3. The strength of this animal, when properly 
 trained and managed, is very great. He has pa- 
 tience to endure fatigue ; but, being naturally slow, 
 he must not be urged beyond his usual pace. The 
 only method by which success can be attained is, 
 by patience, mildness, and even by caresses ; for 
 compulsion and ill treatment will irritate and dis- 
 gust him. 
 
 4. Hence, great assistance will be derived from 
 gently stroking the animal along the back, by pat- 
 ting him, and encouraging him with the voice, and 
 occasionally feeding him with such aliments as are 
 most grateful to his palate. When he has thus 
 become familiar, a yoke may be put upon his neck, 
 when he should be fastened to a plough with a 
 tame old ox, of equal size. 
 
 5. Next, the oxen should be employed in some 
 light work, which they may be suffered to per- 
 form easily and slowly ; thus they will draw 
 equally, and the young steer will be gradually in- 
 ured to work. After working in this manner, he 
 should be yoked with an ox of greater spirit and 
 agilit}^ in order that the steer may learn to quick- 
 en his pace. By thus frequently changing his 
 companions, as occasion may allow, he will, in the 
 course of the first month or six weeks of his la- 
 
168 WORKING OXEN. 
 
 hour, be capable of drawing with the briskest of 
 the stock. 
 
 6. Another circumstance of essential impor- 
 tance in breaking-in young oxen is, that, when 
 first put to work, they be not fatigued or over- 
 heated. Till they are thoroughly trained, there- 
 fore, it will be necessary to employ them in la- 
 bour only at short intervals — to indulge them 
 with rest during the noonday heats of summer, and 
 to feed them with good hay, which, in this case, is 
 preferable to grass. 
 
 7. In fact, while oxen are worked, they must be 
 kept in good condition and spirits, by moderate, 
 but wholesome sustenance. Further, on their re- 
 turn home from labour, it will greatly contribute 
 to preserve their health if their feet be well 
 washed previous to leading them into their stalls ; 
 otherwise diseases might be generated by the dirt 
 adhering to them ; while their hoofs, becoming 
 soft and tender, would necessarily disable them 
 from working on hard or stony soils. 
 
 8. The extremes of heat and cold ought also 
 to be carefully guarded against, as disorders not 
 unfrequently arise from excess of either tempera- 
 ture ; and they are peculiarly exposed to fevers 
 and the flux, if chased or hurried, especially in hot 
 weather. 
 
 9. Farmers, generally, exercise but very little 
 skill in managing oxen. They run ahead of the 
 cattle and cry " Come along r' and then run back 
 to them and give them a cut or two, and then walk 
 on ahead of the cattle again. By such driving, the 
 oxen are made very slow. 
 
 10. The driver should walk by their side and 
 
PASTURING CATTLE. 169 
 
 close to them. He should accustom tliem to walk 
 fast, and encourage them by his voice, and not 
 break their spirits by pounding them with a large 
 pole, as is frequently done. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVI. 
 
 PASTURING CATTLE. 
 
 1. The feeding and fattening of cattle, whether 
 for labour or for sale, is the most important in the 
 whole economy of the grass farm. Hence the 
 farmer should previously consider the nature and 
 fertility of his pastures^ and the extent and quality 
 of his other resources. According to these, he 
 ought to regulate his system o{ grazing^ sailing, or 
 stallfeeding. 
 
 2. He should then select those beasts only which 
 evince the most thriving disposition to fatten with 
 the least consumption of food, and pasture them 
 upon such lands as are best calculated for the re- 
 spective breeds. He should not take cattle from 
 rich to inferior soils, but, wherever it is practica- 
 ble, choose them from lands of nearly the same 
 quality as those destined for their reception. It is 
 also proper in all situations which are not pro- 
 vided with wholesome water, to avoid selecting 
 cattle from those districts where it abounds in a 
 state of purity. 
 
 3. In order to graze cattle to advantage, it will 
 be profitable to change them from one pasture to 
 
170 PASTURING CATTLE. 
 
 another ; beginning with the most inferior grass, 
 and gradually removing them into the best. By 
 this expedient, as cattle delight in variety, they 
 will cull the choicest part of tlie grass, and by till- 
 ing themselves quickly, they will rapidly advance 
 towards a proper state of fatness. 
 
 4. The grass which is thus left may be fed off 
 with labouring cattl«, and lastly with sheep. Hence 
 it will be advisable to have several enclosures, well 
 fenced and sheltered, and abundantly supplied with 
 wholesome water. Respecting the best size for 
 such enclosures, there is a difference of opinion. 
 From four to eight acres, perhaps, is the most ap- 
 propriate ; though, if any be of a greater extent 
 than this, they may be divided by a temporary 
 fence for this purpose. 
 
 5. Thus the greatest and strongest cattle will 
 be separated from the weaker ones. For, if cat- 
 tle of various sizes are mingled together, the more 
 powerful beasts will master the others, driving 
 them from place to place, and trampling upon or 
 wasting more food than they can eat. 
 
 6. In the grazing of cattle, a variety of circum- 
 stances will claim the farmers attention, in order 
 to conduct his business either with regularity or 
 profit. He ought to take especial care not to turn 
 his stock out into the pastures in the spring, before 
 there is a fall bite, or the grass has obtained a 
 sufficient degree of length and maturity. 
 
 7. Where beasts are turned into fields, great 
 circumspection is required, to see that they do not 
 eat to such excess as to become blown or hoven. 
 That disorder, however, may be prevented, either 
 by feeding the animals so as to gratify the cravings 
 
PASTURING CATTLE. 171 
 
 of appetite before they are turned into the pas- 
 ture, or by constantly moving them about the field 
 for a few hours after they have been turned in. 
 Should they, notwithstanding, be attacked with that 
 dangerous swelling, they may be relieved by adopt- 
 ing the remedies pointed out in the chapter of dis- 
 eases. 
 
 8. The hard or light stocking of pasture ground 
 is a point on which many experienced graziers are 
 by no means agreed. By some, it is contended 
 that pastures ought to be stocked very lightly. 
 They say, that although much of the produce is 
 thus allowed to run to seed, which the cattle^ will 
 not eat, and is trodden under foot, and thus wast- 
 ed, yet experience, say the advocates for light 
 stocking, evinces that a greater profit will, upon 
 the whole, be thence derived than by any other 
 practice on account of the superior thriving of the 
 animals. 
 
 9. By others, it is maintained that the practice 
 of light stocking is to be condemned. They say 
 it not only tends to diminish the produce of the 
 fields, but also to encourage the growth of coarse 
 and unprofitable grasses. They contend that the 
 hard stocking of grass lands, particularly those of 
 a rich quality, is indispensable to good manage- 
 ment. 
 
 10. It is recommended by a third party, that 
 mixed stock should be always kept on the same 
 field. The foul grass produced by the manure of 
 some animals will then be consumed by others. 
 And as it is well known that different species of 
 cattle prefer different kinds of grass, there is an 
 evident advantage in this practice. 
 
172 SOILING CATTLE. 
 
 11. In every field, plants spring up, some ot 
 which are disliked by one class of animals, while 
 they are eaten by others. Hence, it becomes 
 necessary to have a great variety of cattle in the 
 same pasture. 
 
 12. On this, it is however to be observed, that 
 where a great variety of animals are allowed to 
 go at large in the same pasture, they rarely feed 
 with that tranquillity which is necessary to ensure 
 thriving. It frequently happens that one class or 
 sort of beasts wishes to feed or to play, while 
 others are inclined to rest. 
 
 li Thus they mutually tease and disturb each 
 other ; and this inconvenience is increased, if 
 any sort of penning or confinement be attempted. 
 Hence it is obvious, that the practice of intermix- 
 ing various kinds of live stock is productive of 
 evils, which are, in many instances, greater than 
 those resulting from the waste of food intended to 
 be prevented by this practice. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVn. 
 
 SOILING CATTLE. 
 
 1. Soiling simply means cutting the grass in 
 summer and feeding the cattle, instead of letting 
 them run in the field. By introducing the practice 
 of soiling, a very considerable saving of land will 
 be effected, one acre of cut grass soiled being 
 equal to three acres used as pasture ; and one acre 
 of cut clover being equal to two acres pastured. 
 
SOILING CATTLE. 173 
 
 In this case the clover is not trampled upon, and 
 grows much faster than if it were often corroded 
 with the teeth of an animal, or the young leaves 
 nibbled off before they are sufficiently formed. 
 
 2. It has even been affirmed that sixteen acres 
 of cut clover and tares v/ill feed as many horses 
 and cattle as tliirly-six acres of the same kind of 
 grass would do if used in pasturage. As all plants 
 draw much of their food from the atmosphere by 
 means of their foliage, they are deprived of their 
 chief support and never attain perfection, if the 
 herbage be trodden before it has arrived at ma- 
 turity. 
 
 3. There is also a very considerable saving in 
 the quantity of food consumed, as well as a greater 
 variety of plants eaten. When animals are suf- 
 fered to go upon the field, many plants are neces- 
 sarily trodden under foot and bruised, or partly 
 buried in the earth. In this state they are greatly 
 disrelished by cattle, and are suffered to run to 
 waste. 
 
 4. This circumstance never could occur, if the 
 practice of cutting were adopted. Cattle also will 
 eat with avidity many plants, if cut and given to 
 thein in the house, which they never would touch 
 while growing in the field : such are the dock, 
 cow parsley, thistles, nettles, and numerous other 
 plants. 
 
 5. As to the influence of soiling on the health 
 and comfort of cattle, the balance is conceived to be 
 in favour of the cutting system, when compared 
 with that of pasturing. Thus, they arc not liable 
 to be blown or hoven,or to be staked or injured by 
 breaking fences. And it is well known that when 
 
174 S0ILIN« CATTLE. 
 
 animals are exposed to the sun, in the open air, 
 they are not only greatly incommoded on many oc- 
 casions by the heat, but are also annoyed by swarms 
 of flies, gnats, and hornets, which obviously tends 
 to impede their thriving. 
 
 6. At other times they are hurt by chilling blasts, 
 or drenched by cheerless rains. Under proper 
 management, in well-constructed stalls, all these 
 evils would be removed, and they would be kept 
 inauniform state of coolness, tranquillity, and ease. 
 Lastly, by judiciously mingling green vegetables 
 with dry food, as circumstances may require it, 
 and by varying the diflerent articles so as to pro- 
 voke appetite, not only the health but also the thri- 
 ving of the creatures will be greatly augmented 
 beyond what they could be by any other mode of 
 treatment. 
 
 7. The proportionate increase of manure ob- 
 tained by soiling and slallfeeding further evinces 
 their superiority over pasturing. Manure is the 
 life and soul of husbandry. And there can be no 
 doubt that the quantity of manure made during the . 
 summer may be made to equal the produce during 
 the winter. The qaality must depend on the na- 
 ture of the food. 
 
 8. As to the qua)itity of herbage afforded from 
 the same field, under the cutting and grazing sys- 
 tems, the balance will be found equally in favour 
 of the former. All animals, it is well known, de- 
 light more to feed on the young and fresh shoots 
 of grass than on such as are older. Hence it in- 
 variably happens, that those patches in pastures 
 which have been once eaten bare, in the begin- 
 ning of the season, are kept very short during that 
 
SOILING CATTLK. 175 
 
 season, by the animals prefering ihem to other 
 parts of the field where the grass is longer ; so 
 that the latter are often siifTered to continue in a 
 great measure untouched. 
 
 9. Another circumstance, which is not generally 
 known, is, that grass, when it has attained a cer- 
 tain length, becomes stationary. Notwithstanding 
 it will retain its verdure in that state for some 
 months, yet, were it cut, it would continue in a 
 constant state of progress, proportioned to the fre- 
 quency of its being cropped. Experiments have, 
 indeed, been brought forward to prove that with 
 clover, rye grass, lucerne, and tares, double the 
 number of cattle may be supported in much better 
 condition, when cut, than when pastured. 
 
 10. Many exaggerated statements have been 
 produced in support of the system of soiling : but, 
 without attaching implicit faith to these, we are 
 convinced, that, by judicious management in this 
 respect, the profits of the grazier may be largely 
 augmented. 
 
 11. The following facts and conclusions are un- 
 doubtedly true. A spot of ground which, when 
 pastured upon, will yield sufficient food for only one 
 head, will maintain three head of cattle in the sta- 
 ble, if the vegetables be mowed in proper time, 
 and given to the cattle in a proper order. 
 
 12. The stallfeeding yields at least double the 
 quantity of manure from the same number of cattle. 
 The best and most efficacious manure is produced 
 in the stable, and carried to the fields at the proper 
 period of its fermentation. Whereas, when spread 
 on the meadow, and exhausted by the air and sun, 
 its power is almost wasted. 
 
17b SUlLIiNG CATTLE. 
 
 13. The cows used to stallfeeding will yield a 
 much greater quantity of milk, and increase faster 
 in weight, when fattening, than when they go into 
 the field. They are less subject to accidents, do 
 not suffer by the heat, by flies and insects, and if 
 everything be properly managed, they remain in a 
 constant state of health and vigour. 
 
 14. The stalls may be so constructed as to ad- 
 rait a regular circulation of air, and yet shelter 
 them from the attacks of flies. The cattle may 
 also be allowed the freedom of an open yard. In- 
 deed, in that season, fold j/ards, with open sheds, 
 are much to be preferred to stalls. This is the 
 practice in England, where the management of 
 stock is well understood. 
 
 15. Air is, indeed, indispensably necessary to 
 the preservation of the health and the speedy fat- 
 tening of animals. If they are kept too hot, they 
 will perspire profusely, and their hides will itch : 
 this vexes them and necessarily retards their quick 
 feeding. When grass is to be given, it ought to 
 be cut in the morning for the evening food, and in 
 the afternoon for the morning. The afternoon 
 crop should be carried to the barn, or some other 
 convenient place, and spread out in order to exhale 
 its superfluous moisture. 
 
 16. In the early part of the season, when grass 
 is scant, it may be mixed with the hay or straw 
 on which the cattle are fed. If the mixture be 
 made up over night, the dry provender will be 
 found to have acquired a sweet vegetable taste, 
 and to be rendered so moist and palatable as to be 
 more readilv eaten. 
 
STALLFBEDING BEEF CATTLE. 177 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
 
 STALLFEEDING BEEF CATTLE. 
 
 1. Parsnips are employed not only for feeding 
 store cattle, but particularly for fatting oxen. This 
 flesh is considered superior to any other beef, and 
 commands an additional price. 
 
 2. Next to parsnips we may class the carrot — 
 a most useful root. Mangel-wurtzel comes next 
 in order in feeding cattle : indeed, in some late 
 experiments it has been found superior to car- 
 rots, and nearly equal to parsnips. Turnips, espe- 
 cially rutabaga, also supply a nutritive article for 
 food. 
 
 3. These roots may be fed or thrown on the 
 land in the following manner. A cart enters a 
 field, in which stands a boy, who, as the vehicle 
 is going along, throws the roots out, with their 
 tops and stems on, as they are drawn out of the 
 ground. 
 
 4. The second method of giving these roots to 
 cattle is by means of close bins, while the beasts 
 are kept in a loose strawyard. The tap root, and 
 also the tops, unless they are fresh and palatable, 
 should be previously cut off, so that the fatting 
 animals receive only the bulb. The tops, if eat- 
 able, may be consumed by store cattle. 
 
 5. The third method consists in keeping the cat- 
 tle tied up in open sheds, with mangers for receiv- 
 ing the roots. The roots may be cut into pieces, 
 which will make them more palatable. 
 
 M 
 
178 STALLTTTSITING BEEF CATTLE, 
 
 6. In autumn, while the weather continues mod- 
 erate, the beeves may be allowed to remain 
 abroad. But whenever it sets in very wet, or be- 
 comes intensely severe, they should be kept under 
 shelter, either nntU their fattening is completed, or 
 ihe warmth of spring again invites them abroad. 
 
 7. Among the various vegetable productions 
 that have been appropriated to the stallfeeding of 
 cattle, none have occasioned greater discussion 
 than potatoes. They furnish an excellent supply 
 when cut and steamed, and appear adequate to the 
 fattening of cattle, in connection with a small por- 
 tion of other food. 
 
 8. These roots shouM, at first, be given in small 
 quantities, which should be gradually increased to 
 one or two bushels per day, dry food being al- 
 ways intermixed, and the proportion of hay being 
 regulated by the effect which the potatoes produce 
 o\\ the bowels. There ought to be at least five 
 servings in the day. According to the quantity of 
 roots which a beast can be induced to eat with ap- 
 petite, he will fatten the sooner, of course with 
 less expense and more profit. The potatoes need 
 not be cut, except at first, in order to entice the 
 beasts to eat them ; but they ought always to be 
 fresh and clean. 
 
 9. Flaxseed, when mixed with a due propor- 
 tion of hay or meal, affords an excellent composi- 
 tion for stallfeeding and fattening. It is prepared 
 in the fallowing manner : To seven parts of 
 water let one part of flaxseed be put, for forty- 
 eight hours ; then boil it slowly for two hours, 
 gently stirring the whole lest it should burn. Af- 
 terward cool it in tubs, and mix it with meal, bran, 
 
fcTALLFEKDINQ BEEF CATTLE. 179 
 
 or cut straw, in the proportion of one bushel of hay 
 to the jelly produced by one quart of flaxseed, 
 well mashed together. This qaanlity given daily, 
 with other food, will forward cattle rapidly ; but it 
 must be increased when they are intended to be 
 completely fattened. 
 
 10. With regard to oxen used in draught, it 
 should be observed, that they ought to be well fed, 
 while they are kept in constant employ, particu- 
 larly in the commencement of spring and in au- 
 tumn, when their labour is most wanted. During 
 those seasons, they should be supplied with abun- 
 dance of cut hay, and with an allowance of a 
 bushel or two of steamed patatoes, turnips, or car- 
 rots, per day. 
 
 11. If the labour be unusually severe, a mod- 
 erate quantity of oats should be allowed. Some 
 farmers endeavour to support working oxen on hay 
 alone, and the possibility of this is one great ar- 
 gument used in favour of their employment ; but it 
 will be generally found to injure them in a gTeater 
 proportion than the saving in food. 
 
 12. But whatever articles of food may be used, 
 ihey ought to be given with as much regard to 
 regularity of time and quantity as is practicable. 
 If a small part be at any time left unconsumed, it 
 should be removed before the next feed is given, 
 otherwise the beast will loath it. In stallfeeding, 
 it is too common a practice to give a certain al- 
 lowance, every day, without regard to any cir- 
 cumstance. But it is a fact, that a fattening beast 
 will eat with a keener appetite on a cold day than 
 in warm, damp weather. Hence his food ought 
 to be proportioned accordingly. 
 
180 MILCH KINE. 
 
 13. By giving the same quantity every day, the 
 animnl may be cloyed ; thus his appetite becomes 
 impaired, the food is wasted, and several days will 
 necessarily elapse before he can recover it. At 
 least three periods of the day, as nearly equidistant 
 as possible, should be selected, when such an al- 
 lowance should be given to each animal as he can 
 eat with a good appetite ; which point can be reg- 
 ulated best by attending duly to the state of the 
 weather, or season, and the progress he makes in 
 flesh. As he fattens, his appetite will become 
 more delicate, and he will require more frequent 
 feeding in smaller quantities. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIX. 
 
 MILCH KINE. 
 
 1. Rep cows have been long celebrated for the 
 excellence of their milk ; and the calves of black 
 cows have been proverbially deemed good. But 
 colour in this respect is a matter of no moment ; 
 the breed alone should claim the farmer's attention. 
 Yet cows even of the same breed will not always 
 yield the same quantity of milk ; and of those which 
 yield the most, it is not unfrequently deficient in 
 richness. 
 
 2. 'iVials are easily made, by keeping the cows 
 on the same food, weighing the quantity consumed 
 by each, and measuring their milk. Then keep- 
 ing and churning it, a iew times, separately. Thus, 
 
MILCH KliNE. 181 
 
 reckoning the cost of the provender, and the pro- 
 duce (»f the milk of each, and coinparing the result, 
 it will be soon discovered which is the most prof- 
 itable animal. Comparisons of this kind are not 
 often made ; for farmers usually purchase what- 
 ever stock they can most conveniently or most 
 cheaply lay their hands on ; and are then content 
 to keep them so long as they turn out tolerably 
 M^ell. 
 
 3. This is the height of bad economy ; for an 
 indiflerent cow will eat as much and require as 
 much attendance as the best; and thus occasions 
 a daily loss, thit will soon exceed the saving in 
 the original price. The man who takes the pains 
 to acquire a good stock, and has the sense to keep 
 it, lays the sure foundation of a fortune. 
 
 4. It will be found, that those cows which yield 
 least in quantity have the richest milk. Yet both 
 quantity and quality constantly vary, even in in- 
 dividuals of the same breed, age, and ap[)earance, 
 and are always affected by the mode of feeding. 
 When kept on old meadow, the butter will have a 
 better flavour than when the cows are fed on arti- 
 ficial grasses. 
 
 5. Grains, cabbages, turnips, and other succu- 
 lent roots will increase the quantity of the milk, 
 yet hay and corn will add most to its richness. 
 Lean cows never yield eiihei so much or so good 
 milk as those which, without being actually fat, 
 are kept in proper condition. 
 
182 BEST FEED FOR COWS. 
 
 CHAPTER XL. 
 
 THK PASTUi'.E AND OTHER FOOD BEST FOR COWS, AS 
 IT KEGARDS THEIR MILK. 
 
 1. As the nature of the grass has a very con- 
 siderable influence on the quality and quantity of 
 milk which cows produce, ilie attention of the 
 thinking farmer will be directed to this point. In- 
 stances have occurred, where six cows, fed on 
 some pastures, have yielded as much milk as ninej 
 or even a dozen, will afford (m inferior ground. 
 
 2. It is obviously his interest to have his cows 
 well fed, rather than to keep up a particular num- 
 ber, without heeding whether they are properly 
 supplied- or not. He.nce, it will be proper to suit 
 the milch cows to the nature and fertility of the 
 soil ; and on no acctjunt to purchase them from 
 pastures superior to those destined for their recep- 
 tion. 
 
 3. To obtain an abundant supply of good milk, 
 it is not alone requisite that the grass be plentiful, 
 but also that it be of that quality which is relished 
 by the cattle. The long, rank grass, growing in 
 orchards or other places, in general feeds well, 
 and produces a flush of milk. Yet such milk will 
 neither be so rich, nor carry so much cream in 
 proportion, as the milk of those cows which are 
 led upon short fine grass ; nor, of course, will the 
 butter be so good. 
 
 4. The quality and quantity of milk are mate- 
 rially affected by driving them to a distance from 
 
BEST F£ED FOR COWS, 1K3 
 
 llie house to the pasture ; hence it will be proper 
 to have the cowsheds in as central a part of the 
 farm as possible. 
 
 5. In the management of cows, it is essential 
 that they be at all times kept in high health and 
 good condition. If they are suffered to fall in flesh 
 during the winter, it will be impossible to have an 
 abundant supply of milk by bringing ihem into high 
 condition in the summer. Hence, if cows are lean 
 in the spring, no subsequent management can bring 
 them to yield, for that season, anything like the 
 quantity they would furnish if they had been well 
 kept during the winter. 
 
 6. Farmers cannot be easily persuaded to afford 
 high feeding to unproductive stock ; nor is that 
 requisite for cows that are dry ; but the common 
 practice of keeping them during that period on 
 straw alone, or on the worst hay, is very improvi- 
 dent. During that inclement season, some nutri- 
 tious food should be provided for them, and the 
 animals be kept moderately warm. 
 
 7. Beasts will thrive more, and yet not eat so 
 much, when kept warm, as when they are shiver- 
 ing with cold. When fed on straw, or coarse hay, 
 without any green food, till towards spring, their 
 milk vessels become dried up, and they will not 
 afterward yield either much milk, or of good qual- 
 ity, until ihey are tiirned out to pasture. The 
 milk of lean cows is always thin, and as deficient 
 in quantity as nutriment. 
 
 8. For this purpose, a small quantity of any of 
 the succulent roots will be found sufficient in addi- 
 tion to their usually dry food. Even a very few 
 Swedish turnips in a day will be found essentially 
 
184 BEST FEED FOB COWS. 
 
 useful in preventing costiveness, binding of the 
 hide, and the drying up of the juices. 
 
 9. In Holland, where it is well known that the 
 management of cows is carried to the highest 
 perfection, they are curried in the same manner, 
 and kept as clean, as horses in the stable. 
 
 10. It has already been intimated, that the best 
 summer food for cows is good grass. Additions to 
 hay for winter food are those most commonly em- 
 ployed for fatting cattle — parsnips and carrots, 
 which roots not only render the milk richer, but 
 also communicate to the butter made from such 
 milk a fine colour, equal to that produced by the 
 most luxuriant grasses. 
 
 11. The mangel'ivurfzcl, in Europe, is preferred 
 to every other vegetable for feeding cattle in gen- 
 eral. On potatoes cows will thrive well, so that 
 with one bushel of these roots, together with soft 
 meadow hay, they have been known to yield as 
 large a quantity of sweet milk, or butter, as they 
 usually afford when fed on the finest pastures. 
 
 12. Turnips, the utility of which is too well 
 known to require any particular detail here, are 
 apt to impart an unpleasant flavour to butter, unless 
 great care be taken to remove all the decayed 
 leaves. Also, flaxseed jelly and grains. By the 
 judicious use of these various articles, together with 
 a due admixture of dry food, the quality of the milk 
 is very materially improved. 
 
 1 3. Salt should become an object of serious at- 
 tention to every one engaged in husbandry. Some 
 of the advantages of its application to stock may be 
 thus enumerated : It restores the tone of the stom- 
 ach when impaired by excess In other food^ and 
 
MANAGEMENT OF MILK AND CREAM. 185 
 
 corrects the crudity of moist vegetables and grasses 
 in a green state. 
 
 14. It helps digestion, keeps the body cool, by 
 which many disorders are prevented ; and it de- 
 stroys bolls. It renders inferior food palatable ; 
 and is so much relished by cattle, that ihey seek 
 it with eagerness, in whatever state it may be 
 found. When given to cows, it increases the 
 quantity of their milk, and has a material efiect 
 in correcting ihe disagreeable taste it acquires 
 from turnips. 
 
 CHAPTER XLI. 
 
 THE MANAGEMENT OF MILK AND CREAM MAKING 
 
 AND PRESERVING BUTTER. 
 
 1. It is necessary to be very cautious in choos- 
 ing milkers. If a cow be roughly handled, it is 
 not only painful to her, but will also cause her to 
 withhold her milk. If it be gently drawn, she will 
 yield it freely. And it is of importance that it be 
 drawn to the last drop, for it will otherwise decrease 
 at each succeeding milking. 
 
 2. It is well to feed the cows at the time of 
 milking, for while eating they give out their milk 
 with greater freedom. They are also prevented, 
 by the motion of their jaws, from the common and 
 very pernicious trick of withholding their milk ; by 
 which, if not promptly prevented, they will soon 
 become dry. 
 
186 MANAGEMENT OF MILK AND CREAM. 
 
 3. In this country, it is the general practice to 
 milk cows twice in the course of twenty-four hours ; 
 but in summer the proper periods are at least 
 three every day, and at intervals as nearly equidis- 
 tant as possible. Very early in the morning, at 
 noon, and a little before the approach of night. 
 For it is said to be a fact, that cows, when milked 
 thrice in the dny, will yield more milk in point of 
 quantity, and of as good, if not better quality, than 
 they will under the common mode of milking only 
 in the morning and evening. 
 
 4. After the milk is drawn from the cow, it 
 should be carefully strained into the cream dishes, 
 which should never exceed three inches in depth, 
 and which ought to be perfectly clean, sweet, and 
 cool. If any ill flavour is apprehended from the 
 cows' having eaten turnips, <fcc.,the addition of one 
 eighth part of boiling water to the milk, before it 
 is poured into the dishes, will, in a great degree, 
 remove it ; and, when filled, the dishes ought to 
 be set upon shelves, there to continue till the cream 
 is removed. 
 
 5. It should also be observed that the milk 
 first drawn from a cow is always thinner and infe- 
 rior in quality to that afterward obtained ; and this 
 richness increases to the very last drop that can be 
 drawn. The portion of cream rising first to the 
 surface is richer in point of quality, and greater in 
 quantity, than that which rises in the second equal 
 space of time, and so of the rest; the cream con- 
 tinually de creasing, and growing worse than the 
 preceding. 
 
 6. Thick milk produces a smaller proportion of 
 cream than that which is thinner, though the cream 
 
MANAGEMENT OF MILK AND CREAM. 187 
 
 of the foj-mer is of a richer quality. If thick milk, 
 therefore, be diluted with water, it will afford more 
 cream than it would have yielded in its pure 
 state, though its quality will at the same time be 
 inferior. 
 
 7. Milk carried about in pails, or other vessels, 
 agitated and partly cooled before it be poured into 
 the milk pans, never throws up such good and 
 plentiful cream as if it had been put into proper 
 vessels immediately after it came from the cow. 
 From these fundamental facts, some important in- 
 ferences, serving to direct the practice, may bo 
 deduced, among which we can only notice the fol- 
 lowing: — 
 
 8. It is of much importance, that the cows be al- 
 ways milked as near the dairy as possible, to pre- 
 vent the necessity of carrying and cooling the milk 
 before it is put into the dishes. And as cows are 
 much hurt by far driving, it must be a great advan- 
 tage in a dairy farm to have the principal grass 
 fields as near the dairy homesteads as possible. 
 
 9. The practice of putting the milk of all the 
 cows of a large dairy into one vessel, as it is milked, 
 there to remain till the whole milking be finished, 
 before any part is put into the milk pans, seems to 
 be highly injudicious. 'J''here is a loss sustained 
 by the agitation and cooling, and the owner of the 
 dairy is prevented from distinguishing the good from 
 the bad cow's milk, so as to enlighten his judgment 
 respecting the profit that he may derive from each. 
 
 10. If these pans were labelled with the cow's 
 name, the careful dairyman would be enabled 
 to remark, without any trouble, the quantity of 
 
188 MANAGEMENT OF MILK AND CREAM. 
 
 milk afforded by each cow every day, as well as 
 the peculiar qualities of the milk. 
 
 11. A small quantity of clear water, cold in 
 summer and wkrm in winter, put into the bottom 
 of the milk pan, will be found to assist the rising 
 of the cream ; but it is thought by some persons 
 to be prejudicial to the butter. 
 
 12. If it be intended to make butter of a vary 
 Jine quality^ it will be advisable to reject entirely 
 the milk of all those cows which yield cream of a 
 bad quality. Also, in every case, to keep the milk 
 that is first drawn from the cow, at each milking, 
 entirely separate from that which is got last. It 
 is obvious, that if this be not done, the quality of 
 the butter must be greatly debased, without much 
 increasing its quantity. 
 
 13. It is also obvious, that the quality of the 
 butter will be improved, in proportion to the quan- 
 tity of the last-drawn milk which is used, 'i^hose 
 who wish to be singularly nice, will do well to 
 keep for their best butter a proportion only of the 
 last-drawn milk ; in like manner of the first-drawn 
 cream. 
 
 14. Milk consists of three component parts, 
 blended into one, and distinguished as hutyraceous^ 
 or oily substance, of which butter is composed ; 
 caseous matter, from which cheese is formed ; and 
 serum, or whey. To separate these is the chief 
 object of the dairy. With regard to butter, two 
 different modes have been adopted : the one, from 
 the cream alone ; the other, from the milk and 
 cream united. The former operation is thus per- 
 formed. 
 
 15. The milk is carefully skimmed by means 
 
MANAGEMENT OF MILK AND CREAM. 189 
 
 of a skimming dish, and the cream poured into 
 a vessel, till enough is obtained for churning. 
 When the cream has been collected, it should be 
 put into a deep, covered vessel, for the action 
 of the air on the surface dries it. It should be 
 well stirred with a stick or spoon once or twice a 
 day. 
 
 16. The time of keeping depends on the wea- 
 ther. If the cream from each milking be kept sep- 
 arate, it may remain a week without being injured; 
 but if sweet cream be mixed with that which is 
 sour, they ferment and soon become sour. It is 
 far better to keep the cream from every milking 
 apart, and thus allow each to become sour of itself. 
 The contrary practice should never be adopted, un- 
 less it be intended to churn the moment the whole 
 mass has become acid. 
 
 17. With respect to the operation of churning, 
 VfQ would particularly remark, that it ought to be 
 regularly continued, till the butter is come. If the 
 motion be, in summer, too quick, the butter will, in 
 consequence, ferment, and become ill tasted ; and, 
 in winter, it will go back. In hot weather, the 
 business of churning may be much facilitated by 
 immersing the churn about one foot deep inio a 
 vessel of cold water, arid continuing it there until 
 the butter is made. 
 
 18. It is hurtful to the quality of the butter to 
 pour much cold water on it during this operation. 
 If the butter is too soft to receive the impression 
 of the mould, it may be put into small vessels, and 
 these be permitted to float in a tub of cold water 
 beneath the table, without wetting the butter., which 
 will soon become sufficiently firm. Or, when but- 
 
190 MANAGEMENT OF MILK AND CREAM, 
 
 ter is first made, after as much of the milk has 
 been got out as possible, it may be thinly spread 
 on a marble slab, and the remaining moisture be 
 absorbed by patting it with clean dry towels. 
 
 19. Water is well known to be a great dissol- 
 vent ; at least, if it be not essentially so, it serves 
 as a conductor to air, which is universally such. 
 Fresh butter, then, in consequence of imbibing wa- 
 ter, and water being saturated with air, is always 
 in a progressive state of decay. 
 
 20. Not so when Water is excluded: its oleagi- 
 nous parts are admirably calculated to secure it 
 from putrefaction, and it is not improbable that but- 
 ter might be made with as little trouble as in the 
 present method, to keep the whole year fresh and 
 sweet, with the least particle of salt, solely by the 
 exclusion of water. In order to effect this, the 
 floor of the dairy should be kept perfectly dry, for 
 water thrown down in hot weather will assuredly 
 rise again in vapour, and affect the milk with its 
 humidity. 
 
 21. The vessels used for holding the milk, the 
 churn, and all the dairy utensils, after being first 
 washed clean, should then be rinsed a first and 
 second time with sweet milk — a cruet, washed 
 ever so clean with water, will cause vinegar to 
 become dreggy ; but if rinsed with a little of the 
 same, will always appear limpid and clear. No 
 water to be put in with the cream when it is 
 churned, 
 
 22. The butter, as it is taken out, to be put into 
 a tray, full of holes, and placed over any other 
 vessel ; but not to be squeezed into lumps, as it 
 will drain the better for being loose in its texture. 
 
MANAGEMENT OF MILK AND CREAM. 191 
 
 It should then (after having well drained) be re- 
 moved to a tray without holes, and be kneaded 
 with the hands (first rinsed in whey) and formed 
 into a thin flat cake, slightly sprinkled with salt, 
 and left in that state ior about half an hour; by 
 which time the salt will have extracted the whey, 
 and it may be made up in the usual maimer, 
 
 23. Butter thus freed from the remaining milk 
 is called fresh butter ; and, when sold on the spot 
 or in neighbouring markets, it is formed into rolls 
 weighing a pound, or more. But where it is in- 
 tended to be kept, or sent to a distance, it is salted 
 and put into casks, usually denominated half fir- 
 kins, firkins, and tubs. 
 
 24. Previous to putting the butter into these 
 vessels, especial care must be taken that they be 
 well seasoned by frequent washing and exposure 
 to the air for two or three weeks. As it is very 
 difficult to season new firkins, it will always be 
 preferable to employ those which have been al- 
 ready used where they can be returned to the dairy 
 owner. 
 
 25. The most speedy method of seasoning fir- 
 kins is, by the use of unslacked lime, or a large 
 quantity of salt and water well boiled ; with which 
 they should be repeatedly scrubbed, and after- 
 ward thrown into cold water to remain there 
 three or four days till wanted. They should then 
 be scrubbed as before, and well rinsed with cold 
 water ; and, before the butter is put in, every 
 part of the inside of the firkin must be well rubbed 
 with salt. 
 
 26. Butter may also be preserved sweet without 
 salt, by adding a certain quantity of fine honey. 
 
192 MAKING AND PRESERVING CHEESE. 
 
 in the proportion of one ounce of the latter to a 
 pound of butter, and mixing them thoroughly, so 
 that they be perfectly incorporated. A mixture of 
 this sort has a sweet pleasant taste, and will keep 
 for years without becoming rancid. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIl. 
 
 MAKING A^'D PRESERVING CHEESE. 
 
 1. The goodness of cheese, as well as of but- 
 ter, depends much on the quality of the milk. The 
 season, and particular way of making it, also have 
 a very considerable influence upon it in this re- 
 spect — more, perhaps, than the material of which 
 it is prepared. We shall, therefore, briefly notice 
 these circumstances. 
 
 2. The best season for this purpose is from the 
 commencement of June till the close of Septem- 
 ber. There is no doubt, however, that good cheese 
 may be made throughout the year, provided the 
 cows be well fed in the winter. It is also worthy 
 of attention, tliat milk abounds most in caseous 
 matter during the spring, and with the butyraceous 
 in summer and autumn. 
 
 3. The Cheshire cheese, made in England, is 
 celebrated for its excellence, and we shall give 
 the mode of making it adopted by the Cheshire 
 dairymen. 
 
 4. The thermometer of a Cheshire diarywoman 
 IS constantly at her fingers' ends. The heat of the 
 
MAKING AND PRESERVING CHEESE. 193 
 
 milk when set is regulated by the warmth ol" the 
 room and the heat of the external air ; so that the 
 milk may be the proper length of time in suffi- 
 ciently coagulating. The time is generally thought 
 to be about an hour and a half. 
 
 5. The evening's milk— of suppose twenty cows 
 —having stood all night in the cooler and brass 
 pans, the cheesemaker, (in summer,) about six 
 o'clock in the morning, carefully skims ofT the 
 cream, which is put into a brass pan. While the 
 dairy woman is thus employed, the servants are 
 milking the cows, having previously lighted a fire 
 under the furnace, which is half full of Vv^ater. 
 
 6. As soon as the night's milk is skimmed, it is 
 all carried into the cheese tub, except about three 
 fourths of a brass pan full, (three to four gallons,) 
 which is immediately placed in the furnace of hot 
 water, in the pan, and is made scalding hot ; then 
 half of the milk thus heated is poured to the cream, 
 which, as before observed, had been already skim- 
 med into another pan. 
 
 7. By this means all the cream is liquefied and 
 dissolved, so as apparently to form one homoge- 
 neous or uniform liquid, and in that state it is 
 poured into the cheese tub. But before this is 
 done, several bowls or vessels full of new milk, or 
 perhaps the whole morning's milk, will generally 
 have been poured into the cheese tub. 
 
 8. In some celebrated dairies, however, they do 
 not, during the whole summer, heat a drop of the 
 night's milk ; only dissolve the cream in a brass 
 pan floated or suspended in a furnace of hot wa- 
 ter. In other dairies, they heat one third, one 
 half^or even more than that of the previous night's 
 
 N 
 
194 MAKING AiSD PREJSERVING CHEESE. 
 
 milk. But in all, they are careful to liquefy, oi 
 melt the cream well before it is mixed with the 
 milk in the tub. 
 
 9. Whatever may be the general custom in any 
 given dairy respecting the heating of the milk, the 
 practice varies according to the weather. It is 
 generally on poor clay lands that the milk most 
 requires warming. On good rich soils, it will not 
 bear much heating ; at least, by so doing, the pro- 
 cess of cheesemaking is rendered more difficult. 
 
 10. The process of making cheese is much 
 more difficult than that of making butter. The 
 quality depends more on the mode of performing 
 that operation than on the richness of the milk. 
 The temperature at which the milk is kept before 
 it is formed into cheese, and that at which it is 
 coagulated, or turned into curds, are objects of the 
 greatest importance in the management of a cheese 
 dairy. The temperature of the milk ought not to 
 exceed 55, nor to be under 50 degrees of Fahren- 
 heit's thermometer. For coagulating, it should be 
 from 90 to 95. 
 
 11. If the milk is kept warmer than 55, it will 
 not throw up the cream so well as at the lower 
 degree. It is also subject to get sour and give a 
 bad taste to the cheese. If it be allowed to be 
 much colder than that, it becomes difficult to sep- 
 arate the curd from the whey, and the cheese made 
 from it will be soft and insipid. 
 
 12. If the curd be coagulated too hot it becomes 
 tough ; much of the butyraceous matter will go off 
 with the whey, and the cheese will be hard and 
 tasteless. The thermometer should, therefore, al- 
 ways be employed in every dairy. Although the 
 
MAKING AND PRESERVING CHEESE. 195 
 
 dairy women may at first be prejudiced against it, 
 yet its evident utility and great simplicity will 
 eventually reconcile them to its use. 
 
 13. The greatest care should be taken thoroughly 
 to extract every particle of whey from the curd. 
 No cheese will keep well while any whey remains ; 
 and if any part become sour, the whole will ac- 
 quire a disagreeable flavour. Similar eflects are 
 produced by the use of an immoderate quantity 
 of rennet; it is also apt to blow up the cheese 
 full of small holes. This last eflfect will be pro- 
 duced if it be allowed to remain too long on one 
 side. 
 
 14. A very experienced dairyman is of opinion, 
 that from nine to twelve months' time is requi- 
 site to ripen a cheese of from fourteen to twenty 
 pounds weight. It is laid down as a rule, in the 
 process of making cheese, that the hotter it is put 
 together, the sounder it will be ; and the cooler, 
 the richer, and more apt to decay. It should be 
 kept in an airy but not in a cold place. If the 
 moderately dried leaves of the young twigs of the 
 common birch tree be placed on the surface or 
 sides of cheeses, they will be found very service- 
 able in preventing the depredations of mites. 
 
 15. It is a good practice to strew a little dry 
 moss, or fine hay, upon the shelvies on which the 
 cheeses are laid ; for when new, they sometimes 
 adhere to the board, and communicate a dampness 
 to it that is prejudicial to the other side of the 
 cheese when turned. It also promotes their dry- 
 ing. 
 
 16. At a more advanced stage they may be laid 
 upon straw ; but at first, it would sink into and 
 
196 SWINE. 
 
 deface the surface. To which we will add, as 
 general maxims — that great cleanliness, sweet 
 rennet, and attention to the heat of the milk and 
 breaking the curd, are the chief requisites in 
 cheesemaking. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIII. 
 
 SWINE. ' .• 
 
 1. The Chinese oreed were originally obtained, 
 as their name imports, from China. Of these 
 there are two nearly distinct kinds : the white, and 
 the black. Both are small ; and, although of an 
 extraordinary disposition to fatten, will seldom ar- 
 rive at a greater weight than 300 pounds, at two 
 years of age. 
 
 2. The white are better shaped than the black ; 
 but they are less hardy. They are both very 
 small limbed ; round in the carcass ; thin skinned, 
 and fine bristled ; and have the head so bedded in 
 the neck, that when quite fat, the end only of the 
 snout is perceptible. They are tender and diffi- 
 cult to rear, yet, from their early aptitude to fatten, 
 they are in great esteem with those who only rear 
 young porkers. 
 
 3. Their flesh is rather too delicate for bacon ; 
 it is also deficient in lean. They likewise cut up 
 to disadvantage when intended for ham. How- 
 ever, they possess the valuable properties of being 
 
SWINE. 197 
 
 very thrifty, and of fattening on a small quantity of 
 food. 
 
 4. The Berkshire breed has attracted universal 
 admiration. The specific characters are a reddish 
 colour with brown or black spots ; sides very 
 broad ; body thick, close, and well formed ; short 
 legs ; the head well placed, and the ears large, 
 and generally standing forward ; but sometimes 
 pendent over the eyes. 
 
 5. Another distinctive mark of this breed is, 
 that the best are without bristles ; their hair is 
 long and curly ; and from its rough appearance, 
 seems to indicate coarse skin and flesh : but in 
 fact, both are fine ; and the bacon is of very supe- 
 rior quality. 'J'he hogs arrive at very large size, 
 and have been reared even to the weight of 800 
 pounds. All the better and improved breeds are 
 from either the Chinese or Berkshire breed, or 
 from the crossing of these two breeds. 
 
 6. The marks of a good hog are a moderate 
 length in proportion to the size of the body ; the 
 nose short ; the cheek plump and full ; neck thick 
 and short ; quarters full ; carcass thick and full ; 
 hair fine and thin ; with a symmetry adapted to 
 the breed to which it belongs. Above all, it is es- 
 sential that it be of a kindly disposition to fatten 
 early. 
 
 7. Farmers difier much in their plans of raising 
 holding stock for pork. Some permitting their 
 shoats to run at large eighteen months, till they 
 are penned up to fatten ; this is the most trouble- 
 some and least profitable way. Others give them 
 a range in clover pastures, and begin to fatten 
 them earlier. I apprehend there is a much more 
 
198 SWINE. 
 
 profitable way, and attended with less trouble for 
 those who have the right breed. 
 
 8. According to the quantity of pork wanted 
 should be the number of breeding sows kept over, 
 and there should be no other hogs on the farm 
 [that is, kept over winter] but the breeding sows. 
 These should be fed in the most attentive manner. 
 As soon as the pigs begin to feed freely out of the 
 trough, they should be separated, and afterward 
 fed regularly with green tares, clover, boiled po- 
 tatoes, ground peas, unmerchantable corn, or any 
 other nourishing food ; turning them out every day 
 into a small yard, where there is a shallow pond 
 for them to lie in. 
 
 9. This method, as it is attended with little 
 trouble, and leaves so small a quantity of stock 
 on hand to winter over, appears to me to be more 
 economical, in every point of view, than any other 
 which is practised. Some farmers assert that 
 *' March pigs, killed about Christmas, are the most 
 profitable for pork." Others say, "pigs ought 
 never to come until June ; for the cost of earlier 
 pigs exceeds the profit." 
 
 10. Some recommend keeping hogs in pastures, 
 with slops from the dairy, &c., till near the last 
 of August ; others say a little later. All agree 
 that near this time they manifest a disrelish for 
 grass. Small patches of peas will then be con- 
 venient to turn them into for a few weeks. About 
 the first of September begin with boiled potatoes 
 and pumpkins, mashed together with a little Indian 
 meal, ground oats and peas, or other grain, stirred 
 into the mixture. 
 
 1 1 . From two to four weeks before killing tinie, 
 
DISEASES OF CATTLE. 199 
 
 ihc food should be dry Indian corn, and clean cold 
 water. Hogs should never know what liberty is, 
 (unless it be in clover pasture,) but should be kept 
 close all their lives, and as inactive as possible. 
 With this method, almost double the quantity of 
 pork can be produced with the same expense of 
 i'eed. Young pigs require warm meat to make 
 them grow. Corn and cold water will make them 
 healthy ; but warm beverage is considered as re- 
 quisite to a quick growth. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIV. 
 
 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 
 
 i. The brute creation are, in general, liable to 
 fewer diseases than mankind ; and, as their dis- 
 eases are less complicated, they are of course 
 more easily relieved. The treatment of sick cat- 
 tle has hitherto been confined chiefly to the most 
 illiterate persons — to men equally unacquainted 
 with anatomy, and with the relative powers of 
 medicine. Hence many thousands of valuable 
 beasts have necessarily perished for want of that 
 assistance which attentive observation, aided by 
 sedulous inquiries, might have remedied, if not 
 altogether prevented. 
 
 2. Various are the maladies to which cattle are 
 liable ; though constant and careful examhiation of 
 their health will greatly contribute to the preven- 
 tion of difteases It will frequently happen, how» 
 
200 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 
 
 ever, that they become sick, either from the effects 
 of our variable climate, or from causes which all 
 ihs. vigilance of the farmer cannot possibly control. 
 It vs'ould greatly swell the limits of the present 
 work were we to enumerate every malady incident 
 to cattle. 
 
 3. We shall therefore confine our attention to a 
 few of those which are of most common occur- 
 rence. But it cannot be sufficiently impressed 
 upon the owner of cattle, that in all sudden cases, 
 it will be his real interest promptly to call in the 
 aid of some expert cattle doctor. 
 
 4. Colds are frequent attendants in the rearing 
 of numerous animals, and are too well known to 
 require any minute description. In these affec- 
 tions, as in every other malady, prevention is pref- 
 erable to cure. It will, therefore, be necessary to 
 preserve cattle from undue exposure to sudden 
 blasts of wind, particularly from the northeast, 
 and not to suffer them to lie in wet pastures. 
 
 5. Chilling the surface of the body causes an 
 undue determination of blood to some internal or- 
 gan, which not unfrequently terminates in acute 
 inflammation. The lungs and bowels are more lia- 
 ble to suffer from cold and wet than any other 
 parts of the body, and hence it is that colds often 
 lead to diseases of these parts. 
 
 6. When they become confirmed, or settle on 
 some internal part of the body, the affected cattle 
 may be easily discovered by the hoUowness of 
 their flanks, the roughness of their coats, the run- 
 ning or weeping of their eyes, and the heat of the 
 breath. Colds prevail chiefly in the brute creation, 
 as among mankind, in those springs which follo-w 
 
DISEASES OF CATTLE. 201 
 
 mild winters ; and as they become contagious if 
 long neglected, the diseased beasts should be se- 
 lected as soon as possible, and separated from the 
 rest of the herd. 
 
 7. Formerly, it used to be the practice to keep 
 beasts affected with colds as warm as possible, and 
 no doubt many have fallen sacrifices to this very 
 improper mode of treatment. Unless sweating 
 can be excited, the warm atmosphere in which an- 
 imals were kept only tended to increase the in- 
 flammation. Thus the disease, which at first was 
 confined perhaps to the windpipe, has extended to 
 the lungs, and has either produced inflammation of 
 the membrane lining the air cells, or of the sub- 
 stance of the lungs themselves. 
 
 8. As those medicines generally termed sudo- 
 rifics are not always found to excite sweating in 
 animals, they of course never can be relied on for 
 producing that effect. It is better to keep the beast 
 affected with cold in such a situation that he may 
 breathe a perfectly pure and cool air without being 
 exposed to draughts or wet. In order to relieve 
 the lungs and other parts of the body from the 
 load of blood they are forced to receive, from two 
 to four or more quarts of blood may be drawn, ac- 
 cording to the urgency of the symptoms. 
 
 9. 'J'he Colic may be ascertained by the restless- 
 ness of the diseased animal, which rises up and 
 lies down almost incessantly, continually striking 
 its head and horns against any object that occurs. 
 Young cattle are chiefly affected by the colic. This 
 di&ease is attended either with a scouring or with 
 costiveness, and of course must be treated accord- 
 ing to those two circumstances. 
 
202 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 
 
 10. In the former case, there is generally an 
 acid in the stomach, which should be corrected by 
 the administration of about an ounce or more of 
 magnesia in a quart or more of warm water ; and 
 this should shortly be followed by a dose of castor 
 oil. Should the scouring continue after the proper 
 use of purgatives, and the coal be staring and 
 rough, the animal should be housed. Its diet 
 should be nutritive, and wheat-flour gruel, with a 
 drachm of laudanum, if necessary, should be given 
 three or four times a day. 
 
 11. Foul, This disease eff'ects the feet of cat- 
 tle. It is generally caused by gravel or some 
 other hard substance getting between the claws. 
 The part aftected must be cleansed by washing, in 
 order to discharge the offensive matter contained 
 in the claws ; after which they should be dressed 
 with a mild digestive ointment, and kept perfectly 
 clean from all tilth. 
 
 12. Should, however, ulceration appear, some 
 local stimulant may be applied, and the part should 
 be dressed with a saturated solution of alum. If 
 the disease spread under the horn, this must be 
 freely pared away, and the part dressed with some 
 mild caustic or ointment, according to the state of 
 the parts. 
 
 13. Hoven. No distemper is of more frequent 
 occurrence among cattle than that of being swol- 
 len, hloivn or hoven, as it is usually denominated 
 by farmers. It is induced either by too sudden 
 removal from an inferior to a rich pasture, or 
 by eating too eagerly of turnips, clover, or any 
 other succulent food. The stomach is loaded with 
 foodf and the process of chewing the cud being 
 
DISEASES OF CATTLE. 203 
 
 prevented, decomposition takes place, gas is gen- 
 erated, and the animal becomes swollen with con- 
 fined air, which distends the stomach and intes- 
 tines. 
 
 14. Its preventive is obvious, and consists sim- 
 ply in turning cattle into such rich pastures only 
 when they are not pressed by hunger, so that their 
 appetite may be soon gratified. Or they should be 
 gently driven about for a few hours, that the ani- 
 mals being thus suffered to graze a very short time 
 at once, the stomach may become gradually accus- 
 tomed to it. 
 
 15. Specific. Let three quarters of a pint of 
 olive oil, and one pint of melted butter, or hog*s 
 lard, be mixed together, and given to the animal 
 by means of a horn or bottle ; if no favourable 
 change be produced in a quarter of an hour, the 
 same quantity may be repeated. This dose is 
 calculated for neat cattle : for sheep, when hoven 
 or blown, a wineglass full and a half, or two 
 glasses, will be sufficient to be given in like man- 
 ner. And it is asserted that this remedy is a spe- 
 cific for the malady in question, eff*ecting a cure 
 within the short period of half an hour. 
 
 16. Looseness^ or Scouring, equally affects oxeii 
 and cows, though its causes in both are different. 
 In general, it arises either from want of sufficient 
 food, both in quality and proportion ; from being 
 overheated or overworked ;' from feeding on wet, 
 unwholesome fog, or after grass ; or on bad hay 
 and straw ; and from not being lodged in dry situ- 
 ations ; though it is sometimes a hereditary taint. 
 
 17. But whatever be the cause, as soon as the 
 ecour or lax begins to appear, (and it may be 
 
204 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 
 
 easily known by the general debility and loss of 
 flesh, the increasing paleness of the eyes, and 
 irregular beating of the pulse, weakness of appe- 
 tite, &c.,) it will be necessary to house the beast, 
 and put it to dry food ; which, in early stages of 
 the disease, will mostly effect a cure. Should the 
 looseness increase, a pound of mutton suet, boiled 
 in three quarts of milk, till the former is completely 
 dissolved, may be given in a lukewarm state. 
 
 18. The Pantas, or Panting Evil, prevails 
 chiefly during the intense heat of summer, though 
 it is sometimes occasioned by sudden colds. It 
 may be easily known by the panting, or heaving, 
 of the animal's flanks, which is likewise accom- 
 panied by trembling and decay of flesh. In the 
 treatment of this disease, it will be necessary to 
 house the beast, and give it every six hours (during 
 the continuance of the chilly symptoms) one quart 
 of warm strong beer, in which one table spoonful 
 of laudanum, a similar quantity of ground or grated 
 ginger, and two table spoonfuls of spirit of hartshorn 
 have been previously infused. 
 
 19. His food should consist chiefly of sweet dry 
 hay, with warm water, in which nitre may be dis- 
 solved, if a fever be approaching ; and the animal 
 should be well littered with abundance of straw. 
 As he gains strength, he should be gradually ac- 
 customed to the air, and after a short time will be 
 fully recovered. 
 
 20. Poisons.. While grazing abroad, cattle are 
 subject to a variety of accidents, by eating the 
 leaves of yew, various species of crowsfoot, and 
 other acid plants, as well as by bites from mad 
 dogs, or venomous reptiles. In the former case, 
 
DISEASES OF CATTLE. 205 
 
 the most eftectual practice consists in drenching 
 the animal with a mixture of equal parts of luke- 
 warm salad oil and vinegar, afterward giving a 
 gentle purgative of Glauber's salts. 
 
 21. With regard to bites of mad dogs, the only 
 remedy is to eradicate the lacerated part, either by 
 excision, or by the actual cautery, the wound being 
 kept open for a considerable time ; but in cases of 
 bites by serpents, or vipers, we know of no better 
 remedy than the continued and copious use of 
 spirit of hartshorn, both as an application to the 
 part affected, and also internally as a medicine. 
 
 22. The Staggers. This disorder is variously 
 known by the names of the daisy, dizziness, epi- 
 lepsy, lethargy, turning, or vertigo, that sufficiently 
 indicate its symptoms, the chief of which is a 
 lethargic drowsiness, accompanied with a waver- 
 ing, unsteady, and staggering gait. The seat of 
 this malady is either in the brain or in the stomach. 
 In the former case, it is usually produced lj,y hy- 
 datids, or small transparent bladders filled with 
 water, or by some other matters immediately act^ 
 ing upon the brain. Where this is the cause, med- 
 icine can afford no assistance whatever. 
 
 23. Where the staggers is caused by plethora, 
 or too much fulness of blood, bleeding and cool- 
 ing purgative medicines should be resorted to. As 
 it is necessary to confine the beast in a warm 
 stable or shelter, it will greatly contribute to pro- 
 mote the circulation, thus necessarily stagnated for 
 want of exercise, by rubbing him every day with 
 dry straw, and allowing him plenty of litter to pro- 
 mote perspiration. 
 
 24. In the Mad Staggers, (which disease, how- 
 
206 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 
 
 ever, is chiefly noticed in horses,) the animal throws 
 itself about with the greatest violence, and exhibits 
 every symptom of inflammation of the brain, which 
 is, in fact, the proper name of the disease. Bleed 
 till the animal faint, and give laxative drenches and 
 clysters, repeating the bleeding if necessary. The 
 diet must consist of bran. 
 
 25. Wuiuids. Cattle, in general, are subject to 
 a variety of accidents, which the limits of our work 
 forbid us to specify, and which, indeed, are so 
 numerous, that it is scarcely possible for human 
 foresight to provide for every contingency. Hence 
 our remarks will be confined to the most appro- 
 priate remedies for punctures, braises, or common 
 wounds. 
 
 26. In cases of common, fresh wounds, nothing 
 more is necessary than to apply a salve, consisting 
 of white lead, and oil of turpentine incorporated, 
 together with a little brandy, to the lips of the cut, 
 which should be drawn as closely together as pos- 
 sible ; and carefully to exclude the air. But if the 
 laceration be deep, it must be washed with warm 
 milk and water ; after which, the wound may be 
 filled with lint or tow, dipped in a digestive oint- 
 ment, composed of Venice turpentine and balsam 
 of capivi, of each one ounce, with two ounces of 
 yellow basilicon. The wound must, as in the 
 former case, be kept from air and dirt, or its heal- 
 ing will be materially retarded. 
 
 27. The following remedy has been recom- 
 mended as a certain styptic for fresli wounds : 
 Bruise equal parts of stinging nettles and salt in 
 a mortar, till a pulp or mash is formed, and ap- 
 ply it to the wound ; tlip bleeding of which, it is 
 
DISEASES Oi' CATTLE. 207 
 
 asserted, will immediately cease, however deep or 
 dangerous such wounds may be. Not having had 
 experience of its efficacy, we cannot vouch for its 
 utility ; but as the articles are always at hand, 
 this specific, if such it be, certainly deserves a fair 
 trial. 
 
 28. Where, however, an animal has received 
 any blows or bruises, without breaking the skin, 
 it will be sufficient to bathe the part affected with 
 camphorated spirit of wine ; but if the swelling be- 
 come inflamed, it will be requisite to make a slight 
 incision below the bruised spot, in order to promote 
 suppuration, after which the following salve, or 
 plaster, may be applied. 
 
 29. Let frankincense and Venice turpentine, of 
 each one ounce, be gradually incorporated over a 
 slow lire, with two ounces of Burgundy pitch ; and, 
 when of a proper consistence, let a sufficient quan- 
 tity be spread upon a pledget of tow or strong linen 
 rag, and well fastened on with a bandage. 
 
 CHAPTER XLV. 
 
 DISEASES PECULIAR TO OXEN, COWS, AND CALVES. 
 
 1. Oxen are subject to few maladies, exclusive 
 of those incident to neat cattle in general, except 
 the effects produced in these animals by the oxfly, 
 or gadfly, as it is variously termed. This insect 
 has spotted wings, and a yellow breast ; it is fiur- 
 nished with a long proboscis, armed with a sharp 
 
208 1>ISEA6£S OF CATTLE. 
 
 dart, enclosing two others within it. The gadfly 
 particularly infests oxen, in the backs of which 
 these insects deposite their eggs, where the maggots 
 are nourished during the month of June. 
 
 2. Throughout the summer they plague the cat- 
 tle by means of their darts to such a degree, that 
 they are often induced to rush into the water for 
 relief till the approach of night. It has been sug- 
 gested, that the production of these terrible insects 
 might be greatly checked, if not prevented, by 
 washing oxen and cows in the spring with a 
 decoction of tobacco, or any other bitter and acrid 
 vegetable. 
 
 3. Cough, or Housing. This disease may be 
 easily known, by the shortness of breath and dif- 
 ficult respiration that invariably accompany it. 
 Sometimes it arises from extraneous matters ad- 
 hering to the throat, which produce an unusual 
 tickling in that part : but more commonly it origi- 
 nates from cows' taking cold. 
 
 4. A regular supply of sweet, succulent food, to- 
 gether with warm housing, (especially during the 
 winter,) is the only certain remedy that can be 
 depended upon in this case ; though some have 
 recommended one ounce of pulverized aniseed, a 
 similar quantity of tar, and the vinegar of squills, 
 to be infused in a quart of warm ale, sweetened 
 with honey. With this liquor the animal must be 
 drenched every day for several weeks, otherwise 
 no beneficial eflects can be expected from such 
 treatment. 
 
 5. Scouring, or Looseness, is generally the first 
 malady that attacks calves. As soon as the loose- 
 ness is discovered, it has been recommended to 
 
DISEASES OF HORSfiS. 209 
 
 Stint the calf in its diet, and to give an egg, boiled 
 hard and chopped small, by drenching, fasting. 
 A mixture of pulverized chalk and wheat meal, 
 made into balls with gin, or strong ale, has also 
 been recommended as a medicine which may be 
 administered with safety. 
 
 6. Cough. Where calves are exposed, at too 
 early an age, to all the vicissitudes of the weather, 
 before they acquire sufficient strength to undergo 
 the changes of this climate, they are liable to take 
 frequent colds ; the consequence of which is a 
 cough, that often proves fatal if it be neglected. 
 
 7. For curing this malady, it has been recom- 
 mended to pour half a table spoonful of spirit of 
 turpentine into the calfs nostrils, which must be 
 held upward, in order that the turpentine may flow 
 into the throat : at the same lime, the nose should 
 be smeared with tar, and the animal kept within 
 doors for a few hours, repeating this treatment as 
 often as the cough is troublesome. 
 
 CHAPTER XLVI. 
 
 DISEASES OF HORSES. 
 
 1. Op all domestic animals, the horse is, per- 
 haps, more liable to disease than any other ; and 
 this is not to be wondered at, when we consider 
 the toil he is frequently forced to undergo^— the 
 brutality with whicli he is often treated — the ten- 
 der age at which he is very generally compelled 
 
 O 
 
210 DISEASES OF HORSES. 
 
 to work — and the improper treatment he commonly 
 meets with from those even who are most desirous 
 of using him well, and who, in most instances, enr 
 through ignorance. 
 
 2. Bolts are short, thick, reddish worms, sar- 
 rounded by small prickles, and armed with two 
 hooks or claws, by means of which they attach 
 themselves firmly to the horse's stomach. They 
 frequently exist in such quantities as to cause 
 many serious diseases, not only of the viscus in 
 which they are lodged, but also of the brain and 
 nervous system ^ with which the stomach is well 
 known to sympathize. 
 
 3w Common oil, given fasting, in doses of from 
 ialf a pint to a pint, has been known to succeed in 
 destroying these insects. But as good a method 
 of getting rid of them as any, is to keep the horse 
 fasting during the night, and in the morning to 
 give him about a pint of warm milk, sweetened 
 with honey; and, five or ten minutes after, a 
 drench composed of one qtsart of warm water or 
 thin gruel, and four or five ounces of common salt* 
 
 4. Several other species of worms exist in the 
 bowels of the horse, and are not unfrequently met 
 with even in the large blood vessels. The most 
 efficacious mode of destroying them, is to give 
 one or two drachms of calomel at night ; to keep 
 the horse fasting, and in the morning to administer 
 the following ball : — 
 
 Barbadoes aloes ..... 5 drachms. 
 
 Ginger l^ drachms. 
 
 Oil of Carraway 15 or 20 drops. 
 
 Castile Soap 3 drachms. 
 
 Sirup enough to form the ball. 
 
DISEASES OP HORSES. 211 
 
 5. Or a drench made by dissolving four or five 
 ounces of common salt in a quart of thin gruel, 
 and three or four ounces of olive oil. Previous to 
 physicking a horse, he should be kept on warm 
 bran mashes for a couple of days ; and care must 
 be taken, after giving the medicine, that he be not 
 exposed to cold or wet, or allowed to drink cold 
 water. 
 
 6. A run at grass is perhaps the best remedy 
 for worms ; and where this cannot be had, soiling 
 on green food will be found beneficial. Oil of 
 turpentine in doses of three or four ounces in a 
 pint of gruel, is a very efficacious remedy for 
 worms. 
 
 7. Colic is generally produced by an overload- 
 ed stomach ; which, impairing the digestive pro- 
 cess, causes a great quantity of air to be formed, 
 which distends the stomach and intestines, and 
 produces those symptoms hereafter to be noticed. 
 It is also frequently induced by allowing a horse 
 to drink cold water or hard well water, or by feed- 
 ing him on new oats or hay. 
 
 8. As this disease, unless relieved, is liable to 
 terminate in inflammation of the intestines, it may 
 perhaps always be proper to bleed to the extent of 
 two or three quarts. Also, to administer a clyster 
 made of half a pound or more of common salt, and 
 five or six quarts of warm water or gruel ; to which 
 may be added half a pint of olive oil. 
 
 9. Then gin and water, and brandy and water, 
 are perhaps as good medicines as can be had for 
 this purpose, and possess the advantage of being 
 more simple. Four ounces of spirit to twelve of 
 water, are the proportions in which they may be 
 
212 DISEASES OF HORSES. 
 
 used ; thai is, one pint of spirit and water should 
 contain one fourth spirit and three fourths water. 
 Should the animal not appear relieved in the space 
 of half an hour, the above remedies may be again 
 resorted to with greater freedom. 
 
 10. The symptoms of colic are as follows : The 
 horse appears restless and uneasy ; frequently 
 paws his litter ; looks around at his flanks ; falls 
 down ; rolls on his back ; gets up suddenly, and 
 after a short time falls again, with other demon- 
 strations of extreme pain. 
 
 1 1 . Cold, or Catarrh. This disorder is gener- 
 ally induced by exposing a horse to cold or wet 
 while in a state of perspiration. Its symptoms are 
 dulness and watering of tlve eyes, cough, discharge 
 from the nostrils, sore throat, quickness of breath- 
 ing, general lassitude, and accelerated pulse. (A 
 healthy horse's pulse heats from thirty -six to forty 
 strokes in a minute.) 
 
 12. As catarrh is an inflammatory complaint, it 
 is proper in the first instance to bleed largely : five 
 or six quarts of blood may be drawn, unless the 
 animal becomes faint before that quantity be ab- 
 stracted. The diet should consist of bran mashes, 
 containing a small quantity of nitrate of potash, 
 (about half an ounce,) given three times a day ; and 
 the horse should be kept in a cool stable, or loose 
 box, or turned into a dry yard. 
 
 13. When the throat is very sore, an emolient 
 drink, composed of decoction of mr.rsh mallows, 
 or flaxseed with mucilage of acacia and liquorice, 
 may be given. When catarrh terminates in chronic 
 cough, the best remedy is attention to diet, exercise, 
 and grooming. The horse should never be al- 
 
DISEASES OF HORSES. 213 
 
 lowed to overload his stomach, especially with hay ; 
 his bowels should be kept moderately open by 
 means of bran mashes or clysters, when requisite. 
 
 14. Take one ounce of bruised squills, three of 
 garlic, and twelve of vinegar ; macerate the squills 
 and garlic in the vinegar for one hour in a moder- 
 ately warm oven ; then strain off the liquid, and 
 add one pound of honey or molasses. Three or 
 four ounces of this mixture may be given at a time 
 in bad coughs ; and when great irritation appears 
 to exist about the windpipe, one teaspoonful of 
 tincture of opium may be added to every dose. 
 
 15. Bruises should always be poulticed, or fo- 
 mented with hot water. A towel dipped in greasy 
 water is a good application. Galls. When a 
 horse is galled by the saddle or harness, or when 
 he is chafed between the arm and chest, an acci- 
 dent which frequently happens in travelling through 
 muddy roads, the following lotion will be found 
 serviceable : — 
 
 Sulphate of zinc I ounce. 
 
 Super acetate of lead .... 1 ounce. 
 Water 1 quart. 
 
 16. Strains. The best method of preventing 
 the inflammation attendant upon a strain is, imme- 
 diately on the receipt of the injury to bleed and 
 wrap the injured part in a large poultice. The 
 horse should then be physicked and kept to a lo\y 
 diet. Some people, instead of poultices, employ- 
 cold applications ; as 
 
 Super acetate of lead .... 1 ounce. 
 
 Vinegar 4 ounces. 
 
 Water 1 pint. 
 
214 SHEEP. 
 
 Their effect is the same as the poultice; each 
 tending to reduce inflammation. On the whole, 
 we are inclined to give the preference to the poul- 
 tice. 
 
 17. When a strain is neglected for some time, 
 and the inflammation has gone off*, bleeding will 
 be improper. Blistering, and, in some cases, fi- 
 ring must be resorted to. There are several sorts 
 of strains ; as strains of the back sinews, of the 
 pastern joint, of the shoulder, loins, &c. ; but our 
 limits do not permit us to give a detailed account 
 of their different symptoms. The rationale of their 
 treatment is in all cases the same. 
 
 CHAPTER XLVII. 
 
 SHEEP. 
 
 1. The Saxon and Spanish merino, South Down, 
 New Leicester, Bakewell, and Policerate are some 
 of the best varieties. The Saxony sheep imported 
 into this country were from a variety of flocks, of 
 which the electoral was the parent. 
 
 2. The Saxon and Spanish merino are the most 
 profitable sheep for fleece. The electoral were 
 originally from Spain. At the beginning of the 
 eighteenth century, one was carried from Spain as 
 a present to the Elector of Saxony ; and from 
 thence they derived their name. The South Down 
 and New Leicester are the most proper for their 
 
SHEEP. 215 
 
 mutton. The Policerate are remarkable only for 
 their four horns, 
 
 3. Proper Soil. Sheep deHght in pure, free 
 air and, dry pasture, and seem constitutionally 
 fitted for rocky and stony situations ; and, indeed, 
 it is the opinion of many intelligent men, and 
 with much reason, that stony uplands are essen- 
 tial to their health ; that on rough, dry soils, 
 they are not so subject to the many diseases 
 which afflict them, as when kept on moist, soft 
 places. 
 
 4. Sheep, if fed in a country of plains and rich 
 pasture, increase in size, and their fleece becomes 
 heavier and coarser. If in an elevated country, 
 where the pasture is short and thin, the size and 
 fleece diminish, while the texture o( the latter is 
 improved. 
 
 5. Caretaking. As soon as sheep are brought 
 into the yard for winter, the different kinds of lambs» 
 ewes, and wethers should be carefully separated, 
 and kept apart. It is important that those in one 
 yard should be as nearly of a size as possible ; 
 then there will be no stronger ones among them, 
 to drive the weaker ones from their food. All will 
 then feed alike and do well. 
 
 6. The flocks ought to be as small as we can 
 conveniently make them. Each flock should not 
 consist of more than from fifty to one hundred — 
 fifty is the better number. 
 
 7. It is also necessary to have a separate yard 
 for old and poor sheep, and if there are any in the 
 flock that do not subsequently thrive well, they 
 should be removed into what is commonly called 
 the hospital. 
 
816 SHEEP. 
 
 8. These hospital sheep, by being few in nuni' 
 ber, having a good warm shed, a sheaf of oats, or a 
 few screenings from under the fanning mill, once 
 a day, will soon begin to improve. 
 
 9. Sheep ought to be rather sparingly fed, three 
 times a day, and out of racks, to prevent them from 
 running over and trampling on the hay. It js of 
 service to give them a feeding of straw, or pine 
 tops, if you please ; it invigorates their health, and 
 makes a change in their food. 
 
 10. They should be daily watered, and if their 
 hay has not been salted, likewise have a lick of 
 salt occasionally. Sheep should have access to 
 sheds, v/here they may be fed in stormy weather. 
 
 11. If they can always go to a shed, they will 
 resort to it as an indulgence ; this indulgence will 
 soon become a habit ; they will have no inclination 
 to motion, but will become debilitated and lose their 
 appetite. It would be well for farmers to make it 
 a practice to count their sheep once a day, to see 
 if any are missing ; to examine them, and see if 
 any are sick, and if there are, to remove them from 
 the flock, and take care of them until they are en- 
 tirely recovered. 
 
 12. Raising Lambs, Lambs should not be shorn 
 the first season ; they need their fleece to protect 
 them during the cold weather, and it is found that 
 nothing is gained by early shearing. Lambs should 
 always be left at home when sheep are to be washed, 
 as they are saved much fatigue ; besides the ad- 
 vantage of having the sheep go directly home after 
 washing, without any trouble. 
 
 13. To ensure the life and health of every lamb, 
 the ewes should be in good condition — should be 
 
SHEEP. 217 
 
 fed with fresh grass, as it adds greatly to the quan- 
 tity as well as quality of the milk. Lambs should 
 be taken from the sheep the last of August ; and 
 then fed, for three months, on oats in the bundle. 
 
 14. Lambs will live twenty-four hours, and even 
 longer, without any nourishment ; and, as a general 
 rule, should not be fed until you discover by their 
 actions they are seeking food ; then they will drink 
 without any trouble. They should be furnished 
 with as much milk as they will drink. 
 
 15. Food. Sheep should have plenty of salt. 
 They should be fed on carrots, potatoes, turnips, 
 and a little coarse grain occasionally. If you have 
 not these roots, provide them another year ; for 
 there is no spring food more profitable than tur- 
 nips. They are extremely nourishing, and tend 
 greatly to enrich and increase the milk of the 
 ewes. 
 
 16. Sheep, through the winter, should be fed on 
 rutabaga and mangel-wurtzel, regularly, once a 
 day. Dry provender and green food which do not 
 abound in cold and watery juices, are most appro- 
 priate and salutary for them. 
 
 17. Diseases of Sheep. The diseases of sheep 
 are various, and often prove fatal. They, there- 
 fore, need our attention. Of these diseases, the 
 most to be feared is rot, which often extends over 
 whole districts of country. It prevails most in wet 
 seasons, and at this time is the most fatal. The 
 chief cause of this disease is pasturing on wet land. 
 It is well known that sheep kept on dry soil are 
 seldom, if ever, troubled with rot. 
 
 18. The animal affected does not at once show 
 symptoms of disease, but frequently reniain^s fgr a 
 
218 SHEEP. 
 
 long time in apparent health ; and likewise shows 
 a great tendency to feed. 
 
 19. The signs of rottenness in sheep are un- 
 doubtedly familiar to all shepherds. The sheep 
 becomes emaciated, its eye becomes heavy and 
 glassy ; the wool, on being pulled slightly, comes 
 readily from the skin ; the breath becomes fetid ; 
 and as the disease progresses, the skin is often 
 marked with spots, and the waste of flesh increases 
 until the sheep dies. 
 
 20. The rot often attacks a large flock at once, 
 and sometimes only two or three of a flock. Du- 
 ring the progress of this disease, the fluke, a small 
 animal, appears on the parts connected with the 
 liver. These animals increase as the disease ad- 
 vances ; and are sometimes very numerous. 
 
 21. Remedy. — Salt, in most cases, prevents and 
 cures this disease. As soon as the symptoms ap- 
 pear, salt should be placed near the animals in 
 pans or troughs, in large quantities ; and the sheep 
 will readily consume it. In the early stages of 
 this complaint, change of food is highly beneficial ; 
 this alone, in some cases, has been found suflicient 
 to effect a cure. 
 
 22. The Hunger Rot. This arises from the 
 want of sufllicient food, which produces an unhealthy 
 state of the bowels, leamiess, and often death. In 
 this disease the wool generally falls off" the animal. 
 Remedy. — Plenty of nutritious food. 
 
 23. Pining. This disease is common among 
 sheep, and sometimes proves very fatal, destroy- 
 ing whole flocks. This disease arises from the 
 want of exercise, the want of water, and from feed- 
 ing on very dry pasture. They should also have 
 
SHEEP. 219 
 
 access to running water. Remedy. — Change of food 
 will very often remove the disease ; if this should 
 fail, the sheep must be removed to a richer and 
 moister pasture. They should have access also 
 to a running stream. 
 
 24. Diarrhcta or Dysentery. These are also 
 diseases of sheep. Diarrhoea is most generally 
 produced by a too hasty growth of grass in spring. 
 It is frequently hurtful to lambs. Remedy. — The 
 sheep should immediately be removed to a drier 
 pasture ; and be fed with corn until they recover. 
 
 CHAPTER XLVin. 
 
 SHEEP — CONTINUED. 
 
 1, Scab. Sheep are also troubled with diseases 
 of the skin. The principal one is called scab ; 
 it may be known by the extreme itching, and 
 eruptions of the skin. Remedy. — Flour of sulphur 
 mixed with a little lard or fresh butter. The wool 
 should be opened, and the skin well rubbed with 
 this preparation, A decoction of tobacco, and 
 spirit of turpentine mixed with a little soft soap, 
 have also a very good effect. 
 
 2. Th« decoction of tobacco may be obtained 
 by boiling the tabacco in brine or salt water. 
 The liquid, when prepared, is applied from a ves- 
 sel like a teapot with a spout, or from a bottle 
 with a quill passed through the cork. A person lays 
 the wool back in lines so as to expose the skin, 
 
220 SHEEP. 
 
 and then pours out the liquid along the lines up- 
 on it 
 
 3. If the distemper be very violent, a mercurial 
 ' preparation will be necessary. This can be pro- 
 cured in the apothecary stores, under the name of 
 sheep ointment. It is made in balls, and when 
 used, it is dissolved in oil, and applied to the skin. 
 
 4. Foot Rot. This is an inflammation of the 
 foot, followed by breaking out of sores in the hoof. 
 It generally occasions the entire lameness of the 
 animal. Remedy, — The tainted part of the hoof 
 must be pared away, and the ulcerous matter re- 
 moved ; the foot should then be washed with soap 
 and hot water, and the surface be dressed with 
 some caustic, the best of which is muriate of anti- 
 mony. 
 
 5. In the early stages of this disease it can be 
 cured by paring, and by cleansing the hoof with 
 soap and water, and dipping it in boiling tar. An- 
 other remedy for this disease : The hoof should 
 be scraped clean, and spirit of turpentine poured 
 in. This should be done once in eight days till 
 the cure is effected. Three or four applications 
 are generally sufficient. 
 
 6. Hydatids, or Water in the Head. This is a 
 common occurrence. The cause of this complaint 
 is a small animal, which finds its way into the 
 brain ; which, if not speedily removed, causes the 
 death of the sheep. This creature resembles a 
 bladder filled with water, and for a long time was 
 supposed by many shepherds to be water. 
 
 7. The hydatids is frequently found in other 
 parts of the body, as the liver and spleen. When 
 the brain of the sheep is diseased it shows symp- 
 
SHEEP. 221 
 
 toms of great pain ; leans its head to one side, and 
 continues turning round, and finally dies. 
 
 8. Remedy. — The remedy for this complaint is 
 to reach the hydatids, and to extract it, or to pierce 
 it in such a manner as to destroy its life. When 
 it is situated at the surface of the brain, the part 
 feels soft, and it may be reached by an awl, or by 
 a sharp penknife. A little round piece of the 
 scull is to be cut, and lifted up like a lid. 
 
 9. The hydatids being made bare, is to be taken 
 out with pincers, and the liquid absorbed by a 
 small sponge. The scull is then to be put back 
 into its place, and dressed with tar on a bit of kid. 
 When the hydatids is in the heart of the brain, 
 it can be reached by putting a fine wire up the nos- 
 trils. 
 
 10. Sheep Bug. This generally prevails where 
 the sheep are in an unhealthy state. The bug is 
 of a flat form ; and is found about the throat and 
 other parts, and occasions great irritation. /2cm- 
 edy. — Turpentine, tar, or tobacco juice, seldom 
 fails to effect a cure. 
 
 11. Sheep Maggot. This is the most destruc- 
 tive enemy that attacks sheep. The fly lays her 
 eggs on the skin of the sheep, and the larvae are 
 hatched in great numbers, and grow with aston- 
 ishing quickness. They frequently spread over 
 the .whole body, and consume the skin, and eat the 
 flesh. 
 
 12. The sheep manifest great suffering, and run 
 with great rapidity, until they become exhausted, 
 and finally lie down and perish. In moist and 
 warm seasons, the maggot is most troublesome. 
 The shepherd should be careful to inspect his 
 
222 SHEEP. 
 
 sheep every day, and clip away all the dirty pieces 
 of wool. Remedy. — The maggot may effectually 
 be destroyed by a solution of the corrosive subli- 
 mate. 
 
 13. Cure for Sheep Ticks. Take for fifty sheep 
 about two pounds of tobacco, soak it five or six 
 days in two gallons of water ; then strain the liquor 
 ofT: put into a pot over a slow fire five quarts of 
 tar, ten quarts of lard, stir them well till melted ; 
 then pour it into the tobacco liquor, mixing it tho- 
 roughly. 
 
 14. Then add thirty-five quarts of old buttermilk ; 
 and when about milk warm, take a sheep, lay ii 
 on its side, open the wool, and apply the remedy ; 
 taking care at the same time to keep the sheep in 
 such a position that the liquid will run all over the 
 skin, and not on the wool. One quart is sufficient 
 for each sheep. A vessel with a small spout should 
 be used, to prevent its pouring too fast, or spilling 
 over the wool. 
 
 15. The right time for this operation is a warm 
 dry day about the first of March. Shearing. This 
 should be performed about the fifteenth of June, 
 after the cold rains have subsided. Great care 
 should be taken, while shearing, not to cut the skin 
 of the sheep ; as it not only makes the animal 
 poor, but makes the wool which grows over the 
 cut places much coarser. 
 
 16. Care of the Wool. Greasing the sheep once 
 every six months is highly recommended by some ; 
 as it is thought beneficial to both the carcass and 
 the wool. Wool which has been shorn two or 
 three years does not spin or fill so well as when 
 kept only one year. 
 
THE FARMYARD. '^^23 
 
 17. Wool should be kept in a dry, but not a 
 very warm situation. The wool intended for ex- 
 portation should be carefully folded up, each fleece 
 by itself, and tied and sent to market. The best 
 wool is raised on healthy sheep, and on those 
 which are usually kept in good order, and receive 
 proper food. 
 
 18. How to tell the Age of Sheep. The age of 
 sheep may be known by examining the front teeth. 
 They are eight in number and all of a size ; and 
 appear the first year. In the second year, the 
 two middle ones drop out, and two larger ones 
 supply their places. The third year two other 
 small teeth, one from each side, fall out, and are 
 replace'd by two large ones ; so that there are now 
 four large teeth in the middle, and two pointed 
 ones each side. 
 
 19. The fourth year there are six large teeth, 
 and two small ones remaining, one at each end of 
 the range. In the fifth year, all the small teeth 
 are lost, and the whole of the front teeth are large. 
 In the sixth year all begin to be worn, and in the 
 seventh some drop out or are broken. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIX. 
 
 THE FARMYARD. 
 
 1. No subject of rural economy is of greater 
 importance than the judicious disposition of the 
 outbuildings of a farm ; yet there is, perhaps, less 
 
224 THE FARMYARD. 
 
 consideration bestowed on this point than on any 
 other. It is obvious to the most common observer, 
 that the size of the various outhouses ought to be 
 regulated by the extent of the farm, and also by 
 that branch of husbandry which is carried on. 
 
 2. In a dairy farm, there are fewer buildings 
 requisite than in any other department of agri- 
 culture ; but it is nevertheless highly necessary 
 to have distinct buildings for the various sorts of 
 cattle ; and the whole of these should be so ar- 
 ranged and distributed as to facilitate the opera- 
 tions of the labourers. 
 
 3. Further to promote this object, the whole of 
 the buildings should, if possible, be placed within 
 the same enclosure. The yard in which they are 
 situated should also be secured against all outward 
 access ; if the buildings are not so connected as 
 to form a complete enclosure, the spaces between 
 them should be filled up with wall, or high paling, 
 and the yard should be closed by solid gates. 
 
 4. Where chalk can be commanded, the surface 
 or bottom of the yard should be bedded or coated 
 with it, or with some other material impenetrable 
 to water ; by which means the moisture, in the 
 smallest degree, will be effectually prevented, and 
 consequently a great saving obtained in the article 
 of manure. The construction of the yard should 
 be nearly concave, or shelving to the centre, in 
 order to collect the drainage. 
 
 5. In order to avoid this expense, which is, in 
 fact, very trifling, most farmers bottom the yards 
 with earth, or rubbish, to absorb the drainage, and 
 thus form a compost in the yard itself. This 
 saving, even were it larger, can be of no impor- 
 
T«E FARMYARD. 225 
 
 tance in comparison with the injury done to the 
 store cattle by thus retaining the moisture under- 
 neath them. Dryness of situation is of the most 
 essential consequence to their health, and indis- 
 pensable to their thriving. 
 
 6. The driest bottoming is furze ; but stubble, 
 potato tops, or any other loose refuse, will answer 
 the purpose ; over which the yard should be bed- 
 ded deep in straw. Earth, though most valuable 
 in a compost, should never be used within the 
 yard. Of the principal offices requisite to a farm, 
 we now proceed to give an outline, 
 
 7. Ox Stails or Feeding Houses. The structure 
 of th^se buildings is very simple. It is requisite 
 that each interval, or stall, should not only be pro- 
 vided with a crib, for dry food, but there should 
 also be, in the centre of each, a trough, for the 
 reception of water, which may be conducted into 
 them by means of tubes leading from the pump. 
 The size must depend upon the manner in which 
 the farm is occupied ; but it ought never to be for- 
 gotten, that the beast should have ample accommo- 
 dation. 
 
 8. In order to erect feeding houses to advantage, 
 great attention should be bestowed on their situa- 
 tion. They ought to lie dry, and not be exposed 
 too much to the sun, or to the heat of the weather. 
 It will be advisable to lay the floors in a gently 
 sloping direction, with proper drains, and also for 
 the more easy removal of the litter. 
 
 9. The floors are variously paved. By some 
 it has been recommended to have the pavement of 
 stone pitched ; but the least expensive method is to 
 Jay the floor with bricks. The doors also should 
 
226 THE FARMYARD. 
 
 be so hung as to open outward, by which means a 
 waste of room will be prevented, and the sheds 
 will be rendered more secure against intruders. 
 Their safety will also be greatly increased by 
 hanging them with a fall to the catch. 
 
 10. The vridth of stalls is various. For two 
 middle-sized working oxen, seven feet have been 
 found sufficient, and nine feet for those of a larger 
 size. Cows require equal, if not more room, for 
 the convenience of milking them ; and it is always 
 best to place them in single stalls. The stalls 
 should not be made too wide, lest the cattle turn 
 round in them ; for thus the stronger beasts would 
 have an opportunity of injuring their weaker fel- 
 lows. This danger may be avoided by placing 
 a post in the middle of the stall, immediately be- 
 fore the shoulders of the cattle. 
 
 11. Where the system of stallfeeding is adopt- 
 ed on a large scale, it will be necessary that there 
 be a regular temperature maintained. Otherwise 
 the confined respiration of many animals must 
 necessarily tend to generate disease. Hence, 
 though a loft may be built over the stalls for the 
 reception of provender, a funnel may be passed 
 through it from the ceiling of the feeding house 
 to the roof, which will allow of the escape of the 
 foul air. 
 
 12. It will also be advisable to construct latticed 
 windows, or apertures, at a considerable distance 
 from the ground, at the gable ends of the feeding 
 houses, and to supply them with shutters, which 
 may be closed or withdrawn as the season of the 
 year, or the temperature of the weather, may ren- 
 der necessary. Where it is practicable, such 
 
THE FARMYARD. 227 
 
 openings should be towards the north or east, in 
 order that they may derive some benefit from the 
 genial rays of the morning sun, and from the 
 cooler air of the day in summer. The large front 
 doors may vsometimes be set open for the purpose 
 o( further ventilation. 
 
 13. Various modes are employed for securing 
 cattle in their stalls ; but when the common method 
 of tying up is insufficient for the security of vi- 
 cious beasts, the following will be found to answer 
 the purpose : A fixed iron chain, by way of a 
 halter, should be fastened to a standard, mortised 
 into the front side of the manger and the joist 
 above. 
 
 14. It is composed of two parts : one of these 
 has sixteen links, and is two feet in length, meas- 
 uring from the staple ; the other, which contains 
 twenty-six links, measures about thirty-nine inches, 
 and serves as a collar. At one end of this collar 
 chain there is a ring, about one inch in diameter, 
 and at the opposite extremity a key, three or four 
 inches in length, having a hole at its middle, by 
 which it is joined to, and freely plays in the last 
 link. 
 
 15. The first chain, which by one end is fixed 
 to the manger, is by the other linked into a mid- 
 dle link of the collar chain, and thus forms two 
 arms, which, being thrown round the neck of the 
 beast, and the key being thrust through the ring, 
 and placed at a bar across it, make a very secure 
 fastening. 
 
228 THE FARMYARD. 
 
 CHAPTER L. 
 
 THE FARMYARD CONTINUED. 
 
 1. Among the smaller buildings of a farm, not 
 the least worthy of notice is a cart and tool house, 
 for the reception of the wagons and implements-, 
 which, when not actually employed, are often 
 heedlessly left on the spot where they are last 
 used. 
 
 2. An open spot, free to everj'^ wind, should be 
 selected. The roof ought to be supported on pil- 
 lars, high enough to admit a loaded wagon, and 
 containing lofts for the care of light implements, 
 sacks, or other small spare articles. But as the 
 only object is to preserve the carriages and tools 
 from the effects of wet, this can be attained by 
 mere sheds, the most economical mode of erecting 
 which is, to project a roof from the back of a barn 
 or stable. 
 
 3. Calf Pens. In most parts of this country, it 
 is the practice to appropriate a part of the cow- 
 house to the reception of calves ; a measure which 
 caimot fail of producing uneasiness among the 
 cows, which often withhold their milk in conse- 
 quence of the bleating of the young animals. It 
 is preferable to have the pens at such a distance 
 from the feeding house that the cows cannot hear 
 them. 
 
 4. The construction of these buildings is so 
 simple and so well known, that a particular de- 
 scription is deemed unnecessary. They should 
 
THB FARMYARD. 229 
 
 be latticed, so as to admit fr^sh air, as a moderate 
 and rather cool temperature ought at all times to 
 be kept in calf pens. Light should be excluded, 
 as darkness inclines all animals to rest, and the 
 quieter calves are kept, the better they will thrive. 
 The strictest cleanliness should also be observed, 
 and every attention paid to keep them drj' and 
 sweet. 
 
 5. If possible, they should open either into the 
 stackyard or the orchard, or some small and quiet 
 enclosure, in order to afford an opportunity of oc- 
 casionally turning out calves that are intended to 
 be reared. When the profit arising from the rear- 
 ing of swine is duly considered, it will be admitted, 
 that the rearing of a piggery demands nearly as 
 much attention as a dairy. 
 
 6. A piggery should be in a circle, or it must 
 fail in convenience. xVccording to this idea, in 
 the centre there should be the boiling or steam- 
 ing house, with a granary for corn, meal, &c. 
 Around this, a range of cisterns ought to be dis- 
 posed, in divisions, for receiving immediately from 
 the steam apparatus, and also by tubes from the 
 granary. 
 
 7. Around these should run a path, then a fence 
 or paling, in which are the troughs, with hang- 
 ing lids, for supplying food directly from the cis- 
 terns, on one side, and for hogs feeding on the 
 other. A range of yard next. The potato stores, 
 or />ye^, should at one end point near to the en- 
 trance, and water must be raised to the coppers 
 and cisterns at once by a pump ; a trough, or other 
 conveyance from the dairy to the <;isterns, for milk, 
 whey, &;c. 
 
230 THE FARMYARD. 
 
 '8. An arrangement like this would be very con- 
 venient, while the expense attending it would be 
 inconsiderable. Great profit might be derived by 
 setting apart a plot of natural or artificial grasses, 
 into which the sAvine might be turned at pleasure. 
 Those who do not possess a convenient pig ap- 
 paratus, can have little idea of the great use of it 
 in making manure. This alone becomes an object, 
 that would justify any good farmer in going to a 
 certain expense, for attaining so profitable a part 
 of what ought to be his farmyard system. 
 
 9. This plan, however, is calculated only for 
 those farms where the fattening of swine is carried 
 on extensively. Where these animals are kept 
 chiefly for domestic consumption, it will be suffi- 
 cient if hog sties be constructed with due regard 
 to warmth and dryness, and divided into various 
 partitions for the reception of swine, according to 
 their age and varieties. 
 
 10. Each division should be between six and 
 seven feet in width, of such height as the largest 
 pigs can conveniently enter, and should be pro- 
 vided with a small space sufficiently capacious for 
 holding the feeding troughs. 
 
 11. If possible, troughs should be so arranged, 
 thai offal, milk, &c., may be conveyed into them 
 from the milkhouse, or scalding house, by means 
 of pipes ; and as these animals often thrust their 
 feet into the troughs, and thus waste a considera- 
 ble portion of food, this may be avoided by fixing 
 sticks in a frame over the troughs, not unlike a 
 rack ; or a thin piece of plank may be nailed on 
 the back part of the troughs, and so project as to 
 allow their heads only to enter. 
 
THE FARMYARD. 231 
 
 12. This object may also be attained when 
 Bwine are put up to fatten on dry food, by fixing 
 a conical hopper (holding any given quantity) in 
 a trough with the broad end upward, and covered 
 with a strong lid. At the lower end should be an 
 aperture for giving out the meat into the trough, 
 where the animal may eat it as it falls, without 
 being capable of spoiling or wasting any portion 
 of it. 
 
 13. By adopting the expedient here suggested, 
 the further advantage will be derived in fattening 
 swine, that, by feeding more leisurely than in the 
 common mode, their food will probably be more 
 thoroughly masticated ; the effect of which has 
 been thought to render their fat more firm, and of 
 a better flavour, 
 
 14. Root Houses are buildings, the utility of 
 which, on those farms v/here the system of stall- 
 feeding is adopted, is very great. They should 
 adjoin the feeding house, and be provided with a 
 steamer, for the purpose of preparing the vegeta- 
 bles for the use of the cattle. This simple machine, 
 in fact, is indispensably necessary on all farms 
 where the feeding of cattle is conducted to any ex- 
 tent, and will not be found useless even on those 
 in which it is not an object of attention. 
 
 15. An apparatus for steaming consists of a 
 brick or stone stove, about three feet in every di- 
 rection, in which is fixed a pot or kettle, six or 
 eight inches deep, and eighteen or twenty inches 
 in diameter. Over this boiler (when about half 
 full of water) is placed a hogshead, or cask, the 
 bottom of which is perforated with numerous holes. 
 
232 THE FARMYARD. 
 
 about an inch in diameter, so that the steam ma}' 
 freely pass through the roots. 
 
 16. The top of the cask is usually left open, 
 which might more advantageously be covered with 
 a thick coarse cloth. The cask may either be re- 
 moved by a rope and pulley, suspended from th& 
 ceiling, or it may be turned over when the roots 
 are sufficiently steamed. 
 
 TK8 END. 
 
 
 I 
 
 
DICTIONARY 
 
 OF 
 
 TECHNICAL TERMS 
 
 Agriculturist, a fanner. 
 
 Attraction, the power by which bodies tend towards 
 
 each other. 
 AfBnity, an agreement between bodies. 
 Acidifying, souring. 
 Aqueous, watery. 
 Ammonia, a light thin alkali. 
 Assimilation, uniting several bodies into one of the 
 
 same nature. 
 Alumina, a primitive earth, pertaining to alum. 
 Arable, fit for ploughing. 
 Argillaceous, clayey. 
 Azote, a gas destructive to animal life,' 
 Acrid, sharp, biting to the taste. 
 Agrostis, bent grass. 
 Acetous, sour. 
 
234 DICTIONARY OF 
 
 Ad infinitum, indefinitely, without end. 
 
 Berkshire, a place in England. 
 Biennial, continuing for two years and then perish- 
 ing. 
 Bona fide, truly in good faith. 
 
 Chemistry, the science that discovers the nature 
 and properties of matter. 
 
 Cohesion, a kind of attraction, a force that draws 
 particles of matter of the same kind together. 
 
 Crystallization, the act by which separate parts 
 unite and form a regular solid body. 
 
 Caloric, a very thin subtle fluid, that which causes 
 the feeling of heat. Heat is the name of the feel- 
 ing produced by caloric. Caloric is diffused thro' 
 every thing. 
 
 Combustion, the act of burning. 
 
 Carbon, one of the simple elements. 
 
 Calcareous, having qualities of lime. 
 
 Caustic, corroding. 
 
 Corrosive, eating, wearing away. 
 
 Calcined, converted into a powder. 
 
 Cocoon, a ball of silk in which the silk- worm windf 
 itself. 
 
 Cylinder, a long circular body, a roller. 
 
 Costiveness, tightness of bowels. 
 
TECHNICAL TER^fS. 236 
 
 Digestion, preparing food in the stomach for nou- 
 rishment. 
 Drench, a portion of medicine. 
 
 Electric, from electricity, which means an invisible 
 subtle fluid, diffused through all nature. 
 
 Expansibility, the capacity of being enlarged. 
 
 Elasticity, the property in bodies by which they re- 
 cover their former figure, after pressure or being 
 pulled. 
 
 Friction, the effect of rubbing one body against ano- 
 ther. 
 Fluidity, capable of flowing, a liquid state. 
 Feldspar, a mineral made up of thin scales. ||^ 
 
 Farina, the pollen, the fine powder on the plant. 
 
 Geology, the study of rocks. 
 
 Gravitation, the force which draws bodies together, 
 or to the centre of the earth. 
 
 Gases, simple substances in the form of vapors. 
 
 Galvanic apparatus, an instrument that developes 
 electricity without the aid of friction for some 
 chemical effect. It produces an intense heat. 
 
 Gravity, that force which draws bodies to the cen- 
 tre of the earth. 
 
 Gelatine, a mixed animal substance, dissolvable in 
 water. 
 
336 DICTIONARY OF 
 
 Hydrogen, a primary part of water, a simple ele- 
 ment. 
 
 Hygrometer, an instrument for measuring the mois- 
 ture in the atmosphere. 
 
 Hectolitre, a measure containing nearly two bush- 
 els. 
 
 Hydraulic pressure, water pressure. 
 
 Lime, calcareous earth. 
 
 Liquids, bodies that flow, like milk, water, &c. 
 
 Leguminous, consisting of pulse. 
 
 Mineralogy, the study of ores, minerals, &c. 
 
 Marl, a kind of earth possessed of considerable 
 lime, vegetable or animal matter. 
 
 Mangnetic, from magnetism. 
 
 Maganese, a metal of a dusky white. 
 
 Magnesia, one of the primitive earths. 
 
 Mica, a mineral made up of thin limber scales, ha- 
 ving a shining surface. 
 
 Marl, a mixture of lime and clay, and lime and 
 sand. 
 
 Nitrogen, an original element, found in air and in 
 many other substances. 
 
 Oxidized, rusted. 
 
TECHNICAL TERMS. 237 
 
 Oxygen, one of the elements of the air — that part 
 of the air which supports life. 
 
 Plaster, a union of lime, sulphuric acid and water. 
 
 Phosphorus, a combustable substance, of a yellow- 
 ish color. It burns very readily. 
 
 Pearlash, refined potash obtained from the ashes of 
 wood. 
 
 Petrifaction, soft substances changed to the hard- 
 ness of a stone. 
 
 Piggery, a hog-pen. 
 
 Quartz, a hard flinty mineral. 
 
 Repulsion, a power that drives particles of matter 
 
 from each other. 
 Radiating, passing through. 
 Reflecting, throwing back rays of light and heat. 
 Residuum, remainder. 
 
 Stimulating, exciting. 
 
 Solids, hard bodies, such as do not run like water. 
 
 Safety-valve, a moving valve to let off* steam from 
 
 the boiler. 
 Salt-petre, a substance formed by uniting potash 
 
 and nitre. 
 Silicia, one of the primitive earths. It is hard and 
 
238 DICTIONARY OF 
 
 flinty, and is generally found in the state of 
 
 stone. 
 Substratum, under layer. 
 Silicious, hard, stony, flinty. 
 Saccharine, having the qualities of sugar. 
 Spatula, a flat stick for spreading or stirring. 
 
 Thermometer, an instrument that discovers the de- 
 gree of heat that may be in any thing. 
 
 Vacuum, an empty place having nothing in it, not 
 even air. 
 
THE 
 
 YOUNG CITIZEN'S MANUAL : 
 
 Being a Digest of the Laws of the State of New- 
 York and of the United States, relating to Crinies 
 and their Punishments, and of such other parts 
 of the l^ws of the State of New-York relating 
 to the ordinary business of social life as are most 
 necessary to be generally known ; with explana- 
 tory remarks. To which is prefixed, 
 
 Ah ESSAY ON TME PRINCIPLES OF CIVIL GOVERN- 
 MENT. 
 
 Designed for the Instruction of Young Persons in general, and 
 especially for the use of Schools. By Alfred Cankling. 
 
 Published at the Common School Depository, 
 Albany. This work is included in the *' Useful 
 School Book" series. 
 
■^^* 
 
^^. 
 
* UMASS/AMHERST * 
 
 312066 0333 2781 9 
 
 
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