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 UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS 
 LIBRARY 
 
 SPECIAL 
 COLLECTIONS 
 
 S 
 
 1826 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 S 
 
 499 
 
 L35 
 
^ 
 
THE 
 
 ^I'MlllB^S LOIEAlB^e 
 
 OR 
 
 DESIGNED TO ENCOURAGE THE PURSUITS, AND 
 PROMOTE THE SCIENCE OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 BY LEOJ^TARD E. UiTHROPy ESq, 
 
 INDtTSTRT IS HOST EFFICACIOUS WHEV AIDED BT SCXE5C£;( 
 
 •V^^/t %^^IWW% MW« WW WW 
 
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 WINDSOR: 
 
 FRINTED BY WYiMAN SPOONE»<r 
 1826. 
 
LS4 
 
 DISTRICT OF VERMOJVT, TO WIT: 
 
 *»«»;:«« «^^» BE 11 REMEiMBEKED, that on the twenty- 
 »w«JVvvv^vg ninth day of June, in the fiftieth year of the Inde- 
 
 posu 
 
 "Whereof he claims as author, in the werds following, to wit: 
 *'The Farmer's Library, or Essays designed to encourage the pur- 
 suits and promote the science of Agriculture. By Leonard E, 
 Lathrop, Esquire. Industry is most efficacious when aided by 
 science." In conformity to the act of the Congress ot tht- United 
 States, entitled, "An act for the encouragement of learnmg, by 
 securing the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and 
 proprietors of such copies, during the times t^J^^^g^"^^^'^"^''^- 
 
 Clerk of the District of Vermont, 
 A true eopy of record, examined and sealed by^m^ ^^^^^^ 
 
FREFACS. 
 
 In most countries, where the arts of civil life have reached 
 any considerable degree of improvement, practical farming has 
 been studied as a science ; — and books innumerable have been 
 published upon the subject in almost every language ; yet, ia 
 the United States of America, the great business of making 
 the most of the labors of the field has been imperfectly under- 
 stood. Those periodical publications, which have often issued 
 from the press, containing useful information on agricultural 
 subjects, have not been rendered permanently useful, by select- 
 ing and comprising them in a volume, except in a few instan- 
 ces. 
 
 One object of the following essays is to explain some of the 
 fundamental principles, which relate to agricultural science. 
 Another, and perhaps not the least important one, is to awakea 
 a spirit of ^nquiry, and invite the attention of our citizens t* 
 those pursuits, which are indispensable in the attainment of ag- 
 ricultural improvements. 
 
 In every part of the civilized world it has happened that the 
 disposition to consider the business of agriculture as a mere 
 menial employment, suited only to the lowest class in society, 
 or to slaves, has been in proport.on to the progress of science, 
 and the arts of civil refinement. The indulgence of this dispo- 
 sition is too conspicuous in the character of our citizens. But 
 it is hoped and believed by many, that a different tendency 
 
 I^OM^^ 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 might be given to it, by a system of national education, disci- 
 pline and laws. This however, can never be expected, so long 
 as the knowledge and the practice of agriculture are, by force 
 of public opinion, considered degrading and unworthy the efforts 
 of intellectual capacity. 
 
 Although agriculture, as an art, has engaged the attention 
 of mankind from the earliest ages, yet at this advanced period 
 the farmer may be considered as remaining without fixed prin- 
 ciples for regulating his practice in many important branches 
 of his business. Writers on this subject have too often amus- 
 ed their readers, by publishing opinions founded solely in spec- 
 ulation ; without reflecting that every kind of theory which has 
 not extensive practice and observation for its basis, is prepos- 
 terous and absurd. It is equally so, too, for the practical farmer 
 to pretend that from one successful result of a simple operation, 
 he can furnish a theory which should be considered invariable 
 and uniform in its application. The various opinions, founded 
 solely on practical knowledge, are often the result of correct 
 and judicious observations ; but when the same operations ter- 
 minate in a different result, then it is that the philosophy of 
 nature becomes necessary to explain the reason and the neces- 
 sity of changing those opinions, and of accommodating practi- 
 cal means to a change of circumstances. 
 
 The business of agriculture depends on a greater variety of 
 knowledge and experience, and requires much more judgment 
 and discretion, than any art or trade which pertains to manual 
 labor. The great variety of the properties in different soils, 
 the perpetual changes of the weather, and the seasons, as well 
 as many accidents, must continually vary its operations to ren- 
 ^tr them successful^. 
 
PREFACIS. **^ 
 
 It is the duty of patriotism and philanthropy to investigate 
 those means which may, under all circumstances prove most 
 efficacious to the labors of the husbandman. 
 
 It is an error to indulge an opinion that the knowledge of 
 these means is to be acquired only by practice ; and that the 
 most perfect acquisition of it, may as well be reserved to that 
 period of our history, when it shall be rendered necessary by a 
 crowded poDulation. 
 
 Under Ihe influence of this error, and of that indisposition to 
 laborious pursuits, so predominant in the human character, we 
 suffer a great portion of our republic, which is said to be ini- 
 proved,to remain but a barren waste ; and under this influence, 
 too, we are forming habits which are to direct the destinies of 
 generations yet unborn. 
 
 Itis one great object of the following essays, to stimulate 
 to those efibrts by which the quantity of productive and fertile 
 grounds may be increased. But this cannot be effected with- 
 out improving the general system of agriculture ; without in- 
 creasing the physical energies of our citizens, by engaging a 
 greater proportion of our population in the business of husban- 
 dry. 
 
 It is not believed that an improved state of agriculture would 
 produce the means of indolence, or even of leisure ; but that 
 it would require more labor, while it would render industry 
 more efficacious. The particular mode of cultivating the vari- 
 ous fruits of the earth, adopted by the American farmer, has 
 generally been the result of his observation and experience. 
 The remarks therefore, which are made in the following essays 
 on that subject, are intended only as references to those prac- 
 Uces w which there has been found the gieateat union of opia- 
 
^"^ PREFACE. 
 
 ion ; and to explain those circumstances which often create di- 
 versity of opinions among intelligent farmers, so as to reconcUe 
 hem if possible ; for, it is certain that this diversity does exist 
 among cultivators of the soil in the same vicinity, although the 
 laws which govern the vegetable creation are as uniform and 
 unalterable as the progress of time. In the hands of one per- 
 son, a plan will succeed ; in the hands of another, it fails ; a 
 knowledge ofthe causes of these different results constitutes 
 the basis of agricultural science. It has been found necessa- 
 ry from the limited extent ofthe work, to confine the subject to 
 remarks which relate only to some ofthe modern modes of im- 
 proving land, and of producing those crops, and rearing and 
 improving those animals, which have hitherto been considered 
 most useful. It is not intended to amuse the speculative theo- 
 rist, but aid the practical farmer in his pursuits. Those gen- 
 tlemen, both in Europe and America, who have made efforts in 
 modern times to improve the science of agriculture, have gen- 
 erally received no other compensation for their services, ex- 
 cept what individuals have been pleased to bestow on them as 
 the reward of their industry. Should the author ofthe follow- 
 ing essays not receive even the reward which may be due to 
 his industry, yet he hopes he may enjoy that gratitude from the 
 public, to which he thinks he has a just claim from the effor^- 
 he his mide to encourage the pursuits, and promote the sci- 
 ence of agriculture, although it should be found inadequate to 
 his design. 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
COKTEKTS. 
 
 INTROD¥CT0RY ESSAYS. 
 
 1. Remarks on tKe general condition of Agriculture in the 
 
 United States. 
 
 2. The dignity and importance of Agricultural Pursuits must 
 
 direct the policy and manners of the people, to secure 
 the perpetuity of our civil privileges. 
 
 3. On the utility of the importance of studying Agriculture as a 
 
 science. 
 
 I 
 
 AGRICULTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 1. Nature and constituent properties of the Soil. 
 
 2. Nature and efficacy of the different Manures, and the best 
 
 mode of preparing and applying them, 
 
 3. Improvement of Land by breaking up old Grass with the 
 
 Plough. 
 
 4. Improvement of Lands by Ploughing and Harrowing. 
 
 5. Rotation of Crops as a substitute for Summer Fallow. 
 
 6. Soiling, its origin and advantages. 
 
 7. Advantages of the Roller. 
 
 8. Culture of Wheat. 
 
 9. Culture of Rye. 
 
 10. Culture of Indian Com. 
 Jl. Culture of Oats. 
 
 12. Culture of Flax. 
 
 13. Culture of Hemp. 
 
 14. Culture of Turnips. 
 
 15. Culture of Potatoes. 
 
 16. Culture of Hops. 
 
 17. Culture of Artificial Grasset. 
 
 18. Buckwheat. 
 
 19. Peas. 
 
 ao. Culture of Fruit Trees. 
 
X CONTENTS. 
 
 21. Making and improving Cider. 
 
 22. Economy of managing Wood Land so as to make durable- 
 
 provision for fuel. 
 
 23. Fences. 
 
 24. Teams. 
 
 25. Horses. 
 
 26. Neai Cattle. 
 
 27. Nature and management of the different kinds of Sheep. 
 
 28. Rearing and management of Swine. 
 
 29. Management of Bees. 
 
 30. Insects. 
 
 31. Practicability of fertilizing the barren Pine Plain Land. 
 
 32. Management of a Dairy. 
 
 33. Poultry. 
 
 84. Improvement of Bog Meadowe. 
 
 35. Flooding Land. 
 
 36. The Horse Rake. 
 
 37. Horrows and Harrowing. 
 88. The Plough. 
 
 39. Ploughing. 
 
 40. Weeds. 
 
 41. Economy of saving Straw. 
 
 42. Gypsum or Plaster of Paris. 
 
 43. Remarks on the effects of different shades on Vegetation^ 
 
 44. Advantages of Experiments. 
 
 45. Account of a Cottager's cultivation — shewing how great 
 
 profits may be obtained from a small piece of Land. 
 
 46. On the culture of Gardens — and its advantages to everj 
 
 class of citizens. 
 
 47. On the m nagement of the Bee. 
 
 48. The advantages which accrue to the State and to individ- 
 
 uals from the culture of the Bee. 
 
 49. Manufacture of Metheglin. 
 
 50. Manufacture of Mead. 
 
 51. Threshing. 
 
 56. General remarks on the objects of improving our Agricul- 
 t«ral Economy. 
 
 53. Manufacture of the sap of the Maple. 
 
 54. Fining Maple Sugar. 
 .55. On Sowing/" 
 
INTRODUCTOa-Sr ESSATTS- 
 
 REMARKS ON THE GENERAL CONDITION OF AGRICULTURE 
 IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The cultivators of the soil in the United States, may be di- 
 vided into four classes: the great farmer, as he is usually cal- 
 led, who improves from two hundred to one thousand acres of 
 land; the common farmer, who cultivates from fifty to one 
 hundred and fifty or two hundred acres ; the third class is 
 made up of professional men, mechanics and traders, or specula- 
 tors, who live in the country, and do not make the business of 
 agriculture their principal object, but calculate to derive from 
 it some profits which may contribute to their living ; and the 
 fourth, of those who cultivate a garden only. Among all 
 these, but few are willing to be confined exclusively to the em- 
 ployment of cultivating the soil ; but would pursue some specu- 
 lative object by which they may gain something without earn- 
 ing it. The science of agriculture can never be expected to 
 arrive to its most perfect state, unless individuals will make it 
 an exclusive object of pursuit. In the United States, where ev- 
 ery man is at liberty to pursue any and every sort of business, 
 by which he would improve his condition, any legislative regu- 
 lation which would controul this liberty, would be considered 
 an infringement of our natural rights, and could not be enforced. 
 The wisdom of individuals, aided by the influence of public o- 
 pinion, may coincide, so as to make some of our citikens exclu- 
 sively agriculturalists. The great farmer, to increase his 
 wealth, too often calculates more on the number of acres which 
 he may possess, than on his efforts to increase their productive 
 powers ; and would sooner engage in any speculation, by which 
 he might increase the dimensions of his farm, than bestow his 
 labor in useful improvements on the land he already possesses, 
 and which might increase the quantity of those productions, 
 without which the soil is of no value. We offen see afaroaer 
 B 
 
14 INTRODUCTORY ESSAYS. 
 
 who pretends to cultivate from three to five hundred acres of 
 vahiable land, manage his business with so little economy, that 
 he barely obtains from them, after defraying the necessary ex- 
 pences of cultivation, produce enough to afford a scanty subsis- 
 tence for himself and family. Cincinnatus, the noble Roman, 
 got as much from his six acres : and some few farmers in our 
 own country obtain as much produce, from their industry, on 
 fifteen or twenty acres. Those who would justify such a sys- 
 tem of economy, often direct their conduct by the calculation 
 that no efforts to increase the piolucts of the soil, are useful, 
 beyond what may be necessary to procure a living, unless the 
 market is such as to afford great pecuniary encouragement for 
 surplus produce ; and, to obtain money, will neglect their ag- 
 ricultural interests to pursue some visionary and haz-ardous 
 speculation. It is a truth, which reflects dishonor upon the 
 character of our republic, that while paupers and idlers are ev- 
 ery where multiplying through our country, we may see, in al- 
 most every section of our territory, large tracts of land which 
 present to the eye nothing but a barren waste. The population 
 of the United States is but about the same as that of Great Brit- 
 ain and Ireland.* Ours at the present time occupies about ten 
 times the extent of territory, exclusive of Louisiana. Can this 
 be consistent with sound policy, or the interest and happiness 
 of individuals ? Notwithstanding a few of our citizen..; may 
 have accumulated greater estates, by this prodigious and rapid 
 extension of our settlements to the west and south, it is very 
 certain that the people generally, might, by a practical use of 
 agricultural science, at this time, have been as wise and happy 
 within the limits of the Atlantic States, as they now are, scat- 
 tered over a million of square miles. It is said that we have 
 already more surplus produce than we can sell, and it will be 
 soon enough to provide for the evils of a crowded population, 
 when they begin to press upon us. But it should be consider- 
 ed, that by directing our pursuits too much to other than agri- 
 cultural objects, our national habits and manners may become 
 so degenerated, and our prejudices so established, that we shall 
 have no disposition to return to the innocent and honest busi- 
 ness to which we were destined by nature. Will not Ameri- 
 cans be admonished by the examples of the old world, which 
 have passed and are passing in awful review before us ? Through 
 all the kingdoms and empires of the east, which have risen, 
 flourished and fell, and which are now hastening to ruin, it is 
 not probable, from the best calculations, that more than about 
 
 '■Accordiag to the census of 1820. 
 
GENERAL CONDITION OF AGRICULTURE. 18 
 
 one s.xth part of their PoP^^aU^^^^^^^^^^^ 
 
 the soil, while beggars ^n^ W^^^ 7ast dominions, mniions of 
 
 public expence, swarm through their ^asi unimproved. 
 
 acres of their valuable lands J^y ^^JJ^ enLge their terri- 
 
 This disposition in ^he Ame-can pej^^ ^^^^^.^^ ^.^^^ 
 
 tory, rather than i^pvove m a proper m f^.^^^, ^^^ 
 
 alrLdy possess appears toje^^^^^^^^ 
 
 ancestors, the English. -^ ^^ r>ri f ^^ore impor- 
 
 to estimate «^.-^^;f^^f ^^^^ 
 
 tance than agriculture. ^^.^''^^ ''^territories, than im.provmg 
 
 been "more desirous «^ g^^7fX^Slions Were expended" 
 
 what they already P^^^^^^^/l^^.^^^^^^^ colonies, when a 
 
 by them, "in defendmg and ^PfT^^'^f ^'^^^^^^^^ every part of 
 
 .Lll part of that "loney would have^^^^^^^^^ 
 
 their island like a garden." J^^^^^f^^P^^^^ of five miles ex- 
 
 Americans, that'^HansTow^^^^^^^ a mere deser^^^ ,,,,|,, tion 
 lent, covered with black furze, ^^ aimo . and there 
 
 ana of ^^^^^l^^^^^^^^^^^^^ and the ab- 
 
 grazmg upon it ^^^^/^^i^ ^^^^^n for a part of an American wiiu. 
 sence of trees, iV"^'^,,--thin ten miles of the Capital.* Thie 
 Yet the whole of It is ^^ f^'^J^'^^.e X^^^as so conspicuously 
 disposition in the American P^^^^P^^' ^JS^^^^^ of our repub- 
 chlracterized ^hem ever since the es^^^^^^^^^ , ^J^^, 
 
 lie, is an error, and ought o ^e ^^^^^^^^^^ ,„! business, and 
 should be mduced ^^ "^f ^^^|[^?[^^^^^^ 
 
 to study it as -^ f ^«\^f ' f^^^.^^eom or t^^^ blades of grass 
 "Whoever could make ^^^^^^^^^^''X one grew before, would 
 grow upon a spot of ground ^^ere on^ one gre ,^.^^ ^^^ 
 
 is the principal d"'y °f f''^^^|~^^ our national rights, 
 
 enue, as will bestpromote tne enjuy renublic ; but the 
 
 and those of individuals who consti ute ^^«;7"^i,,„e^, de- 
 amount of the public '.even"«|^^JJ«^7jVe JUm of individu- 
 pends more on the pnvate efforts and the m ^^^_ 
 
 W especially on 'hose of the farmer han^on P^ ^^^^^^ ^^ 
 duct of any ^'1™?°'^"'^''°" J, f„ Reproductive powers of the 
 solid and lasting ''"f ''^'"^tiiable rSrces of the country, 
 soil, may increase the most .™'"°,"ybr1^ad and empl^ 
 while at the same time h« *■'" •j'^^X thrmise ies of pau- 
 the unfortunate poor, and ^^^™ *em from the m ^^ ^^^^ p^^^ 
 
 » See Slliiman's Travels, v. 1. p. 167. 
 
10 
 
 liVTRODeCTORT ESSATS. 
 
 practice of agriculture wouU admft H t r "="'."';? ""<* *« 
 mencan people to evincp h," „, ■' ^ reserved tor the A- 
 of inteUi|e„r beingsl wUj'dit!rt[Z"t'' "^'"'"'^ "'" Creator 
 of earth which cannit be made to n^^] P^P^'^'te on a spot 
 cient to afford them a comfSleirf" """"^l-mcnt suffi- 
 the result of this experiment must he?"""':, .^'"^ "'"'""gh 
 ty. at some very distant period of our IIT""^ ^°'- °"' P^^^^"- 
 of the present generation to nrPn,r»th''^\J'''' '"" "le duty 
 pursuits to that object, °n the form nti' T^' ""y ''""'''"S our 
 manners and prejidices and nr.T 1 ^^ S" 1""°"''' '"'"t^- 
 one sixth, but niLtentli ofour 'onid?"^'""''' ""P'^y ""iy 
 eulture, and make the s udv nf"^ Population, m practical agri- 
 
 *«.s,ary, and ^^ Z^^^^IZ^^^^':^^ -- 
 
 The pursuit of national objects, is direcfprl hv fi.^ • a 
 
 ade of wealth, has been ?oo ' ^h ™ "^^'^V" ^^^^^ ^'^^ P^^' 
 
 of public opin on in staterw^Ph K ?'^^ ^y ^^^ influence 
 ous and free. C possession of T ^,tf "/^P^^ed to be virtu- 
 tend to improve the Sfpfn? ^^^^^^ t°^" "°^ necessarily 
 be improved by the pursuts'?^^^ "^."^^" ' t^^^«« ^^e to 
 
 aree^aged. Ilith^r? W^e^pt^i^n^^LTe^Ar "'"^^ ^^7 
 have been amused with the ide^ThTihl i ^J^^^^'^^J^ People 
 tion of political happiness denend phH ^ '^"'^?^" ^"^ P^^^^*^" 
 written on paper. But man? h^!. /r"^^''^^ ^^"^^^^"t^on 
 P per. i5ut many have ever beheved, that when the 
 
INFLUENCE OF AGRICULTURE ON MANNERS. ■ 17 
 
 manners of the people arrive to a certain degree of degeneracy, 
 the laws which have usually governed human actions and pas- 
 sions will decide its fate; and that such a state of degeneracy 
 can be prevented only by habits of industry in the pursuit ot 
 objects, best calculated to meliorate the human co.idition. 
 Should our republic exhibit the phenomenon which has never 
 yet been exhibited m the civilized world, that of a nation of 
 husbandmen making commerce and the mechanical arts whol- 
 Iv subservient to the interests of agriculture, and entorcing up- 
 on our citizens, as it were by a national discipline and the in- 
 fluence of public opinion, habits of rigid temperam^e andmdus- 
 trv, we mio-ht indulge more sanguine hopes ot its immortal du- 
 ration. History, that monumental record of national rise and 
 national ruin, has taught us that through every stage ot civil 
 society, the miseries attending the condition of man, hav^e been 
 accumulated, in proportion to their neglect of the peaceful and 
 happy emplovment of cultivating the earth. It has been justiy 
 remarked b/ one* who has heretofore directed the destinies ot 
 our country, "that God has made the breasts of those that labor 
 in the earth his peculiar deposit for substantial virtue ; the lo- 
 cus in which he keeps alive the sacred lire, which otherwise 
 mio-ht escape from the face of the earth : that corruption of mor- 
 als'in the mass of cidtivators is a phenomenon ot which no age 
 or nation has furnished an example ; it is the mark set on those, 
 who, not looking up to Heaven, to their own soil and maustry, as 
 does the husbandman, depend for it on the casualties and ca- 
 price of customers: and that the proportion which the aogre- 
 gate of the other classes of citizens bears, m any state, to that ot 
 its husbandmen, is the proportion of its unsound to its healthy 
 parts." The voice of reason and nature confirm the truth ot 
 these remarks. There is no occupation which, like agriculti ire, 
 contributes to the health and energy of the human constitution; 
 and when attended to as a science, it presents a vast iield tor 
 the display of intellectual improvement and philosophical mves- 
 tio-ation. The mechanical arts, such as of masons, carpenters 
 and smiths, particularlv, are necessary, not only to aid taot ar- 
 mor in the progress of his occupation, but contribute essentially 
 to liis convenience and comfort. But a small proportion oi this 
 class of citii^ens, are however sufficient for all the necessary 
 purposes of their respective arts. It is very obvious that with- 
 out the plouo-h, the hoe and the harrow, the productive powers ot 
 the soil would never have been developed m any degree ade- 
 quate to the great objects of civilization, and of impioving tli€ 
 
 * Jefferson, late Tresident of the U. S. 
 b2 
 
1® INTRODUCTORY ESSAYS. 
 
 natural condition of man. But in the invention of these art* 
 which were necessary to improve the science of agriculture 
 mankind were gradually led to the discovery of those^whici L: 
 creased their riches ; and when by the acquisition of a surplus 
 of the produce of the earth, and the introduction of commence 
 money was invented as the representation of property, and by 
 hat means It was found practicable to purchase no['only the 
 necessaries but the conveniences of life, the natural indofence 
 «Lri^ nn"^" disposition began to yield to the fascinating 
 charms of luxurious ease. According to the christian chronof- 
 op, It was more than three tliousan°d years from the creaUon 
 troI'T^^' ^"^"'1 '^' "^^ °^ ^"^^r ^"d sold metals were n- 
 
 ed a?d ?pl1 ^ tV '""?! u^^^'^ P^'^^^ ^"^P^*-^^ ^««e' ^nd flourish- 
 hi.CunVti' J^^'o^ld be a curious subject to investigate the 
 history ot the ongm and use of money, and its progressive in- 
 
 practical use to Americans, in their present condition, it is 
 sufficient for them to learn whether its present use, or the 
 means which are practised to accumulate it, have a tendency 
 o advance our political happiness, or to perpetuate the dura^ 
 1.? i^'l*'' °''^'' repubhcan privileges. If the great object of 
 accumulating money is not to meliorate the condition of our 
 country, by facilitating the means of subsistence generally, and 
 making our citizens wiser and better, is it not^questionable, 
 wnfpZ -M""*!^^'^ ""^ our money capital, and our population 
 will essentia ly advance the happiness, and the durable strength 
 of our repubhc.^ It has been remarked that the strength of a 
 nation IS derived from the character, not from the weaTth, nor 
 Iroin the number of its people. And of the truth of this re- 
 mark ancient Sparta has furnished us with an example. The 
 republic of Sparta after Lycurgus had suppressed the circula- 
 tion of gold and silver corns, and introduced money made of 
 iron, as the only circulating medium, and enforced bV law such 
 a distribution of property that there were no citizens either 
 ^'.Hn''' T'' T 7'^^ ^ ^"^'^ population than the surrounding 
 ^nS V^""""'^'^^ ?' ^r^"' th^ ^"°^t powerful and happy re- 
 public of Greece, and perhaps of any other tliat has ever existed. 
 Ihe ODject of the celebrated institutions of Lycurgus was to 
 
 Td hpjrp^''!;'^"' P^^^'^"! ^"^ ^^PP^' ^y "^^k^ng them wiser 
 and better ; by improving their manners and habiS, rather than 
 
 ,n^.r'r .f "^ ^^T "^^'"^^^^ extending their dominion and 
 Iu^'T'"^,*^^^%P°P^^'^tion. And Americans should not forget 
 that the policy of Lycurgus, so far as it related to the importance 
 Ot torramg the habitd of our citizens to industry, and their mor- 
 
INFLUENCE OF AGRICULTURE ON MANNERS. 19 
 
 als to virtue, in establishing a national character, was enjoined 
 on us by the advice, and exemplified in the character, of our 
 Washington. When on tlie occasion of his inauguration to the 
 office of our first chief magistrate, he admonished them to hon- 
 or the men v, ho with their own hands maintain their families, 
 and raise up children who are inured to toil, he doubtless saw 
 in this class of citizens the surest pledges of their welfare, and 
 the permanency of our privileges. This remark of our illustri- 
 ous chief was a salutary reproof to that class of overgrown 
 planters and farmers, who would degrade the concition of the 
 laboring husbandman to that of the slave. In giving lessons to 
 posterity, his exalted policy was not influenced by partial views 
 or personal motives ; by the pri-cie or prejudices of the world. 
 In the experience of a life devoted to the welfare and glory of 
 his country, he found in the employment of agriculture, the 
 best resources of individual happiness and national prosperity. 
 But although there have been characters renovvned for wisdom, 
 for intellectual capacity, and for patriotism, wlio have in every 
 age and country, been disposed to raise the dignity and improve 
 the science of agricultural pursuits, yet, strange as it may ap- 
 pear, in Republican America, to labor in the field is unfashion- 
 able! Cincinnatus was called from the plough to direct the 
 destinies of an empire, that gave laws to the world ; and to the 
 proffers of unbounded wealth, and the splendors of ambition and 
 of power, preferred his cottage and the cultivation of his little 
 farm ; yet among Americans, a large class of our citizens, who 
 would claim the exclusive right to the title of gentlemen, would 
 think it degrading to their dignity to be found, as the deputies 
 of the Roman senate found Cincinnatus.holding the plough and 
 dressed in the mean attire of a laboring husbandman ! In re- 
 publican America, too, many of our sons and daughters would 
 excuse themselves from honest industry, because it is supposed 
 to be unworthy of the capacity improved by science. But A- 
 mericans should not forget what the lessons of history and ex- 
 perience have taught, that degeneracy of morals and manners 
 has invariably originated in that class of citizens who have shun- 
 ned honest industry as degrading ; and that when that class be- 
 comes so numerous as to controul the current of popular opin- 
 ion, the ruin of political happiness and of liberty is inevitable. 
 If then we love our country, and would transmit to our posteri- 
 ty the blessings we enjoy, we should adopt the advice of our 
 greatest political benefactor, honor the men, who with their 
 own hands maintain their families, and thereby render agricul- 
 tural pursuits popular, render them fashionable, and raise them 
 
»20 INTRODUCTORY ESSAYS. 
 
 to that dignity, to which they should be elevated, and to which 
 they must be elevated, to preserve the happiness and secure the 
 permanency of our republic. 
 
 ON THE UTILITY AND IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING AGRICUL- 
 TURE AS A SCIENCE. 
 
 Since the science of Chemistry has become fashionable, and 
 been considered one of the most useful and important sciences, 
 agriculture has derived from it, improvements which could be 
 obtained from no other source. The great object of agricultur- 
 al ch3(nistry is, to explain all those changes in the arrange- 
 ments of matter, which are connected with the growth and 
 nourishment of plants ; the constitution of different, soils ; and 
 the manner in which lands are enriched by manure, as well as 
 the particular manner in v.^iich they are rendered more fertile 
 by the various modes of cultivation. This knowledge is highly 
 useful to the practical farmer, by furnishing him with simple 
 and easy experiments for directing his labors, and enabling him 
 to pursue a certain and systematic plan of improvements ; and 
 it will be found not only useful, but indispensable in its apphca- 
 tion, in most if not all his practical experiments. Every intelli- 
 gent farmer, who can read our language, may obtain enough of 
 this science, to render his labors more easy and more efficacious. 
 The connection of chemistry with agriculture, is not founded 
 oil uncertain speculations, but furnishes principles which must 
 be understood and followed, to insure to the practical agricultu- 
 ralist any considerable degree of success. It is an erroneous 
 opinion, which extensively prevails, that the science which may 
 be efficacious in its application to the culture of a particular 
 soil and climate, cannot be so, also, to that of others. The prin- 
 ciples of agriculture are uniform and universal in their opera- 
 tions ; and it is the business of the intelligent farmer to vary 
 the application of them, according to the nature and condition 
 of the soil he cultivates. There is in every climate some soils 
 to be found which contain an excess of some of the original 
 earths, of sand or clay, for instance. A chemical analysis of the 
 Boil, has proved what proportions of these are most conducive to 
 fertility; and when proper proportions of each cannot be 
 
STUDY OF AGRICULTURE AS A SCIENCE. 2i 
 
 procured What Other substitutes may prove most efficacious 
 feir Humphrey Davy, in his introduction to agricultural chemL: 
 try, remarks, that some lands of g-ood apparelit texture are ye 
 P 'actLc^ffoif V^'^''' ' T' ^""^"°^^ observation and cSmnL' 
 inTthe effpr "^,"^^^"V^ ascertaining the cause, or of remov- 
 mg the efiect. The application of ciiemical tests in such cases 
 isobvious; for the soil must contain some noxious prmcil 
 Sneofre^Pn ''"^' discovered, an^^ probably easily dist^oyed! 
 One of these noxious substances, which such a soil may contain 
 IS the salts of iron. This, chemists have discoveredrmav be 
 decomposed or destroyed by lime. But this defect in thl soil 
 ^nt.Tf^h'^^^' ""'' be discovered by the pSical^^^^^^^ 
 
 oTanv knoXd^^^^ may convince us, that the farmer, with- 
 
 th.s, yet many of them will say timt the k-no^idgrthTderif e 
 
 wmmss 
 
 Fnrrlar,^ c!* ^ ^ 1 . ^^ ' ^"® Tarmers m many parts of the Npw 
 KltivafeTfn' S''^ '">'•'''«<' =>" oi'ini"" th"wheat could n^ 
 
22 INTRODUCTORY ESSAYS. 
 
 not indeed admit of the practice of that science necessary to an 
 improved state of cultivation. But it is very obvious that had 
 tliey preserved records of it and assiduously improved them, 
 as they probably did those of many others less interesting, it 
 would have greatly meliorated their condition. 
 
 The knovvledcre of the mechanical arts, and indeed the whole 
 science of civililed man, has been the result of the prog-ressive 
 improvements of individual : the aggregate of their discoveries 
 has contributed to these improvements, and has at last, ana 
 after a long succession of years, resulted in the knowledge of 
 the variouf arts and sciences which have distinguished the 
 civil from the natural state. The mechanical arts depend on 
 certain fixed principles, and are performed by «^"^P ^ ami "m- 
 form operations; whereas the business ^f husbandry i. to be 
 directed according to every change of weather, and the great 
 variety of the properties in different soils; and also many acci- 
 dents which must continually vary its operations, to render 
 them successful. From these and various other considera ions, 
 it is, that a competent knowledge of the science should em. 
 brace the experience and the philosophy of he whole age m 
 which we live. The improvements which have been some- 
 Ws made in our country, and which are -^Wo-d by -^^^^^^^ 
 have resulted from recent discoveries and obser^ ations are 
 ?ound, on examining the history of the science of ^|ncul u e, 
 to have been practised hundreds of years ago ; and the know- 
 edge of them but recently developed to us, by that spirit of 
 enqmry which the combined ctforts of a few individuals 
 has inspired. But the efforts of a few individuals to pro- 
 moter science of agriculture, cannot he exten-^^^^^^ 
 permtnently useful, unless our farmers generally believe in its 
 Fmporiance.^ And there is among our citr.ens, a disposition 
 
 oo prevalent, to treat every P^^PO^^^^^" .^^VT^^^^f.^t 
 chimerical, or a useless innovation. This disposition is not 
 unprecedented. Instances enough might be adduced in v^^^^^^^ 
 error has been venerated for its antiquity, wlnle truth has been 
 discarded for its novelty Ev^n in this enlightened r^^^^^^^^^ 
 this age of reason and philosophy, the first f «f^^ ^^1^^^^^, ^^^^ 
 lition of any popular custom, however absurd, ^^^ ^^en charg 
 ed with the e]>ithet of a visionary project B"\ '^^f^^^.^ 
 would estimate the correctness of their habits ^"^ thej^ P^f J^ ^ 
 dices by the antiquity of their origin, or are ^vdlmg to lim 
 their knowledffc to those improvements which are the result 
 ofXir own personal observations and experience should b^^ 
 reminded that the idea of treating agriculture as a science 
 a^d of improving its condition, by collecting and recording the 
 
STUDY OF AGRICULTURE AS A SCIENCE. 23 
 
 precepts and discoveries which relate to it, is not a new one. 
 Three thousand years ago, the Greeks, whose wisdom and 
 whose science gave to the nature of man a new and distin- 
 guished lustre, coiisidered that the business of agriculture 
 could not well succeed and progress towards perfection, with- 
 out a knowledge of those precepts which had resulted from a 
 long series of observations and experiments, which should em- 
 brace the piiiiosophy and the practical discoveries of the whole 
 age in which they lived. Several writers among that illustri- 
 ous people, employed themselves in collecting such precepts, 
 and recording them for their own improvement, and the benefit 
 of their posterity. Several of their celebrated philosophers, 
 as Demacritus, Archylas, and Epicharmas, left useful instruc- 
 tions on the subject of agriculture ; and many ages before 
 them, they had been sung by Hesicod, in one of his poems. 
 And many of those precepts were transmitted through suc- 
 cessive generations to our ancestors. Whatever knov/ledge 
 of those precepts is possessed by their descendants, the farm- 
 ers in the United States, has generally been acquired by 
 either tradition or observation. Traditions, it will be acknov/i- 
 edged, are often founded in error, and the evils resulting from 
 them descend from generation to generation. The observa- 
 tions and successful experiments of intelligent farmers, it is 
 evident, cannot be extensively communicated to others, but 
 through the medium of the press. Such is the condition of 
 many young gentlemen, when they commence the business of 
 agriculture, that they have to depend for their knowledge on 
 their own practical experiments : to acquire this so as to ren- 
 der their labors most efficacious, may, and often does, require 
 the greatest and best part of their lives ; when by a very little 
 expense of time and money, they may learn from books what 
 have been the results of the most important experiments in the 
 history of agricultural science. It is very obvious, then, that 
 the maxims and principles which relate to it, should be correct- 
 ly recorded and studied, as other sciences. The innumerable 
 volumes that have been written upon this subject, among the 
 wisest and most learned nations, may convince us that it has 
 been so considered by them, and not regarded as a matter very 
 easily understood. But the great mass of our common farmers, 
 whose minds are not much enlightened by general scicnce| 
 cannot expect their occupation will ever be elevated in public 
 opinion, to that dignity among the employments of men, which 
 it ought to sustain, so long as they are disposed to treat it as a 
 mere menial exercise, and unworthy the efforts of intellectual 
 capacity. The knowledge which gives man hi^ supremacy 
 
24 
 
 INTRODUCTORY ESSAYS. 
 
 over the beasts of the field, and the fowls of the air, and which 
 bestows on individuals among mankind, a pre-eminence more 
 substantial and less invidious than birth, wealth, titles, or pop- 
 ular applause, can be acquired only by three modes, observa- 
 tion, conversation, and reading-. Althoug-h observation and 
 conversation are fruitful resources for the attainm.ent of usefal 
 ideas, the impressions they make are but transient, and when 
 committed to no other record but that of the memory, cannot 
 be rendered permanently useful. But when a useful discov- 
 ery or improvement in agriculture, as well as in any other 
 occupation, is committed to the press, and by that means pre- 
 served, they may thereby become extensively useful, not only 
 to our citizens g-enerally, now on the stage of'life, but to remote 
 posterity. Many of the sciences are industriously pursued, 
 and considered as objects worthy of great attention, on 
 account of the intellectual pleasure they afford, and because 
 they enable us to extend our view^s, and to reason more cor- 
 rectly concerning the objects which surround us. But the 
 discoveries in the cultivation of the earth, are not confined to 
 the time and country in which they are made, but maybe con- 
 sidered a,s extending to future ages, and intended to meliorate 
 the condition of the whole human race, and providing subsia- 
 teiice and enjoyment for generations yet unborn. 
 
AGB,1C\5LT\]RA1. ESSAYS. 
 
 Nature and Constituent Properties op the Soil. 
 
 It has been discovered by chemists, that the soil from which 
 we derive our subsistence, is composed of several simple sub- 
 stances, to wit, sand, clay, lime, and magnesia. But with res- 
 pect to the original uncompounded earths, there has been a di- 
 versity of opinion : some of the ancient philosophers supposing 
 that matter is the same in essence, and that the different sub- 
 «tances, considered as elements by chemists, are merely differ- 
 ent arrangements of the same indestructible particles; that the 
 varieties of the principles to be found in plants may be formed 
 from the substances in the atmosphere ; and that vegetable life 
 is a process in which bodies that the analytical philosopher is 
 unable to change or to form, are constantly composed or decom- 
 posed. An opinion has prevailed that loam is also an original 
 earth ; but it is believed that the evidence of its being merely an 
 artificial soil, produced by calcareous matters and animal and 
 vegetable manures, must preponderate against every opinion 
 to the contrary. In the improvement of agricultural science, it 
 is sufficient for the practical farmer to know that the most fer- 
 tile soil contains the greatest quantity of sand and clay for its 
 constituent ingredients, with a due proportion of each; and 
 that all other earthly substances are to make up the other con- 
 stituent ingredients of such a soil, by a judicious application 
 of them, as manures. Every soil in a productive state, has 
 been found to contain at least three of these simple substances, 
 or different kinds of earths, to wit, sand, lime, and clay, and 
 eometimes, also, magnesia. It has been found also, and perhaps 
 generally known by practical agriculturalists, that soils retain 
 moisture longer or shorter, accordbg to the proportions of these 
 C 
 
•^ AGRICULTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 earths. Those which contain the greatest quantity of sand, re- 
 tain it the shortest ; and those which contain the greatest quan- 
 tity of clay, retain it the longest. The first is a dry, the sec- 
 ond a wet soil. Lime and magnesia are intermediate between 
 these two extremes. They render a sandy soil more reten- 
 tive of moisture, and diminish the wetness of a clayey soil. 
 By mixing together therefore proper proportions of these four 
 earths, we may form a soil of any degree of dryness or mois- 
 ture, which can be effected by human agency. The degree of 
 its moisture must ultimately depend on the quantity of rain 
 which falls ; though it will be seen from what has been discov- 
 ered, that in certain soils, the farmer may, by apportioning the 
 different constituents of his soil, in some degree, mitigate the 
 evils which otherwise might result from extraordinary degrees 
 of drought and moisture, occasioned by the diversity of the sea- 
 sons. It may be considered a fundamental principle m agricul- 
 tural operations, that the four simple substances which have 
 been mentioned, do not constitute a fertile soil, in whatever pro- 
 portions they may be mixed. This has been proved by vari- 
 ous experiments. Among others, Giobert mixed together the 
 four earths, sand, clay, lime and magnesia, in the proper pro- 
 portions, to constitute a fertile soil ; and after moistening them 
 with pure water, planted several vegetables in them; but none 
 of them grew well, till he moistened his soil with water from a 
 dunghill. Lampodius planted different vegetables in compart- 
 ments of his garden, filled each with only one of the pure 
 earths, and v;atered them with the liquor which exuded from a 
 dunghill. They all grew, notwithstanding the diversity of the 
 soil. From the experiment of Giobert, it appears that the pure 
 earths cannot be mixed so as to make a fertile soil, without the 
 application of vegetable manure;''^ and by that of Lampodius, 
 that by an application of a suitable proportion of this manure 
 with either one of the simple earths, a productive soil may be 
 created. It would perhaps be a useless effort of the philosoph- 
 ic mind, to inquire respecting the origin of the first fertilizino- 
 principle which produced'^ the forests which generally 
 cover the earth in its primeval or natural state. It is sufficient 
 for the practical farmer to know that their foliage is continual- 
 ly deposited on the surface of the earth, and that the fertihty of 
 the soil is thereby increased. And if by cultivation we would 
 create or continue that fertility, we must by industry endeavor 
 to imitate the operation of nature, by restoring to the soil that 
 
 * By vegetable manure is understood every vegetable or animal 
 substance, in a decayed or decomposed state. 
 
NATURE AND PROPERTIES OF THE SOlt. 5^ 
 
 necessary ingredient of its fertility which the vegetative prin- 
 ciple has provided. But it is of great importance to learn 
 what proportions of the simple earths and vegetable manure are 
 requisite to create a ^rtile soil. Much useful information on 
 this subject may be derived from the result of a late investiga- 
 tion. A quantity of soil, of a supposed average quality, was ta- 
 ken from a farm in the vicinity of Albany, in the State of New- 
 York; and on being analyzed, was found to be composed of the 
 following constituent substances : 
 
 Sand, - - - 56-lOOths. 
 
 Clay, - - - - 26-lOOths. 
 
 Vegetable manure, - 12-lOOths. 
 
 Soluble Salts, - - 6-lOOths. 
 The farm containing this soil is supposed to be one of the most 
 productive in the northern states. It should be here remark- 
 ed, that salts soluble by water, in greater or less quantities, are 
 one of the necessary constituent ingredients of plants. With 
 respect to the practical use of the above analysis, it may be ob- 
 served, that in every part of our country where any considera- 
 ble improvements have been made, there are many tracts of 
 land which are barren beyond what the general complexion of 
 the soil would indicate, and which cannot be made fertile by 
 the application of any vegetable manure which can be obtained. 
 In many of those soils it will be found that the defect may be 
 Ihe want of a proper apportionment of the primitive eartiis. 
 For, from what has been asserted and proved too, by actual ex- 
 periment, it is evident there may be such great proportions of 
 some of the primitive earths, in some soilsj as to render them 
 birron, without ihe application of more proper manure iiiari 
 the occupant can procure : when by increasing the quantity' 
 of some of the primitive earths, a great degree of fertility may 
 be produced in some soils, with the application of but a very 
 small portion of vegetable mariure. Suppose, for instance, the 
 soil of the farm, the analysis of which has been given, had con- 
 sisted of 02 parts clay, and 20 parts, instead of 58 parts, sand, 
 and 2Ct clay; the inference is very obvious that the 12 parts of 
 vegetable manure, which was found in that soil, would not have 
 rendered it fertile, as it was, unless the proportion ofthesandto 
 the clay had been greatly increased. May we not then con- 
 clude from that analysis, that the proper apportionment of the 
 sand and clay, had as important an agency in the fertility of the 
 soil, as that of the vegetable manure. For although it would 
 seem from the experiment of Giobert, referred to above, that 
 the primitive earlhs are not productive without the application 
 of vegetable manure ; yet it is found, also, by experhncnt, that. 
 
3S AGRICULTURAL BSSaYS* 
 
 vegetable manure, of itself, cannot be rendered productive with- 
 out the agency of some of the primitive earths, c^'rom what 
 has been disclosed on this subject, the intelligent farmer may 
 be convinced that amixture of the primitijt-e earths, as well as 
 the application of vegetable manure, is indispensable to the fer- 
 tility of the soil. It is very evident too, that the proportion of 
 these several ingredients of a fertile soil must be somewhat va- 
 ried, according to the climate. In a very warm climate, on a 
 soil composed principally of sand, the expediency of applying 
 clay, when it can be had, as well as a due proportion of vege- 
 table manure, is obvious. As it is of great importance in a ju- 
 dicious system of farming, to learn the condition of the natural 
 soil, or the apportionment of the simple earths which constitute 
 it, the following remarks of a distinguished agriculturalist, 
 more fully explain the principles which relate to it, and are of 
 too much interest to the farmer to be omitted : "The obsta- 
 cles which baJSie the hopes of improvement are just as likely to 
 lie in the subsoil which is placed beyond the reach of the plough- 
 share, as in the upper surface, w^hich is more immediately sub- 
 jected to culture ; and for this reason neither of them ought to 
 be disregarded. A coat of stiff clay has been rendered pro- 
 ductive by the mere circumstance of resting on a bed of sand, 
 or a rock of limestone; and therefore, every cultivator, if he 
 would pursue a successful course, should (if he finds invisible 
 defects in his soil Vvhich defeat liis efforts) dig pits in various 
 places of it, at least eighteen inches down, that he may discov- 
 er the materials on which he is to operate. The subsoil may 
 furnish him with the means by which to meliorate the surface. 
 Clay, called in agricultural publications, alumine, or argillace- 
 ous earth, is a substance so familiarly known that it needs no 
 particular description. When pure, it is white ; but in general 
 it is found discolored by the mineral waters, which are perpet- 
 ually escaping from their beds and running on the surface. It 
 is tinged with blue, brown, grey and red shades, for it has a 
 strong affinity to all coloring matter. As an ingredient of soil, 
 it has the four following properties, by which it exerts a power- 
 ful effect on vegetation : it absorbs water like a sponge, and 
 is so close in the texture, as to prevent it from filtrating through 
 its pores. When thoroughly soaked and afterwards dried, it 
 hardens and cakes into a solid mass. It shrinks considerably 
 in bulk when exposed to heat, and the contraction of its parts is 
 in proportion to the intensity of that heat. It powerfully re- 
 tards putrefaction, by enclosing animal and vegetable remains, 
 and thus shutting out the dissolvent action of the external air.* 
 
 ''Mr. Davy, ia his elements of agricultural chemistry, remark?, 
 
NAT^URE AND PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL. 2^ 
 
 The roots, which are the collectors of the nutriment, and are 
 withal of a tender and delicate texture, cannot easily stretch 
 themselves in a substance of such stiffness and tenacity; and 
 which besides, so readily consolidates after rain into a compact 
 body. Its closeness opposes material resistance to their extent 
 sion, and accordingly in its unmellowed state, the fibres arer 
 hampered from extending themselves. Besides, admitting that 
 they overcome in part this obstacle in the soil, they must, 
 whenever it hardens in the sun and gapes into chinks, be vio- 
 lently torn asunder and separated from the stem. If clay be so 
 hurtful on the surface, it is almost equally pernicious in the sub- 
 soil, from the capacity it has of interrupting the passage of wa- 
 ter downward, and keeping the roots perpetually drenched, an 
 evil no less destructive to the health and vigor of the plant than 
 the opposite extreme. All its qualities are unfriendly to vege- 
 tation, except its capacity of absorbing and retaining moisture, 
 and this is of so much importance, as in some measure, to make 
 atonement for its other defects. When existing by itself, this 
 virtue which it possesses in so eminent a degree, is useless and 
 unavailing ; but when mixed with other materials, of aloose and 
 friable nature, it gives tenacity and firmness to the whole, and 
 is highly retentive of the dews and rains which fall to fertilize 
 the soil. Sand or gravel, called sometimes silex, silica, silicious 
 matter, or earth of flints, is distinguished by properties of a to- 
 tally opposite character. Sand is incapable of retaining water 
 when poured upon it, and far less of attracting moisture from 
 the atmosphere. It powerfully promotes putrefaction, but al- 
 lows the gasses set at liberty, to escape. It has little or no co- 
 hesion among its parts, and never binds by the alternations of 
 wet and dry, into a compact body. It will appear from this ac- 
 count of the properties of sand, that it is provided as a correct- 
 er of alumine, or clay, and that in their effects, the two are des- 
 tined to counteract each other. Sand suffers water to filter ea- 
 sily ; clay is highly retentive : sand promotes putrefaction ; clay 
 delays it, but absorbs the gasses which are formed in the de- 
 composition: sand opens an unobstructed path for the exten- 
 sion of the roots : clay gives them firmness in their course, and 
 supplies the moisture which sustains them. Thus we see, that 
 
 that one cause of the nnproductiveness of cold, clayey, adhesive 
 soils is, that the seed is coated with matter impenetrable to air, 
 and that in clayey soils, there can scarcely be toog^reat a mechan- 
 ical division of parts in the process of tillaofe. And seed, says he, 
 not fully supplied with air, always produces a weak and diseased 
 plant. 
 
 e 2 
 
30 AGRICULTURAL £SSAt3. 
 
 by their union their common virtues are heightened, while their 
 defects are rectified and subdued." It is very obvious there- 
 fore, that a mixture of those two kinds of earth will greatly in- 
 crease the value of the soil. "Lime, called calcareous earth, 
 enters into the composition of soils. This is never found in its 
 pure state, but in combination with carbonic acid, for which it 
 has so strong an affinity, that it attracts it from the atmosphere. 
 It is closer- than sand, and much less adhesive than clay. It 
 occVipies therefore ft. middle region between the two, free 
 from their imperfections, and blending their common qualities. 
 It is a powerful promoter of putrefaction, and helps to decom- 
 pose the anini&l aud vegetable matter lying in the soil. To 
 this circumstance is owing i^ a great measure its efficacy, as a 
 manure. It has the power of fixing and retaining a very great 
 quantity of carbonic acid, and although it combines chemically 
 with a certain portion, which can only be expelled by red heat, 
 yet the excess can easily be disengaged in a low temperature, 
 and thus tends to nourish the growing crops. This earth ex- 
 ists in abundance among the solid strata of our globe, mostly 
 without any foreign mixture, except the acids with which it 
 combines ; but is occasionally blended also, v/ith the other prim- 
 itive masses. With carbonic acid it forms the most frequent 
 compounds; denominated carbonates of lim.e,"^ and assumes a 
 variety of appearances, and even possesses distinct properties. 
 Spar, marble, stalactites, limestone and chalk, are all Jiarieties 
 of this combination. With the sulphuric acid, (which is com- 
 posed of sulphur and oxigen,) it forms plaster of paris. It is al- 
 so found ml.-'.ed with clay, and sometimes with sand, and then 
 receives the appellation of marble, and which is valuable pre- 
 cisely in proportion to the quantity of this earth." Magnesia, 
 the last earth v/hich has been found in soils, and that too, in a 
 much smaller proportion than the other tliree, is a substance 
 with which every farmer must be acquainted, since it is com- 
 monly used as a medicine of the shops. Its properties are 
 nearly analogous to those of lime, and were long supposed to 
 operate in the same way. It has also a strong, though less, af- 
 finity for carbonic acid, and- often forms a constituent principle 
 in lime-stone rock. Agricultiirali^s are divided at present, 
 with respect to its usefulness as a manure. Some of them 
 holding it to be poisonous to plants, while others support it by 
 an appeal to experiments. But it is thought to be uncertain 
 
 * Carbonate of lime is not soluble in water, unless the wa • 
 ter itself be charged with carbonic acid. Carbonate of lime is * 
 compound of lime 86, carbonic acid 44. 
 
NATURE AND PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL. 3i 
 
 whether our limestone contains any portion of magnesia. It ie 
 only pernicious when applied in an excessive dose; and Uns 
 holds equally true with respect to ime, for these two eaithe 
 should, in all cases, be used sparingly by the skdful cultivator. 
 Loam is by no means a distinct body, possessing m itselt ap- 
 propriate and marked characters, as many of our farmers sup- 
 pose : but is a combination of clay, sand, or calcareous matter. 
 The diversity which exists among what are accounted loams, is 
 a decisive proof of this; some of them we denominate clayey, 
 from the excess of argillaceous matter ; others open and light, 
 from the preponderance of sand. Mould, as it is sometimes 
 called, contains the putrid relics of organized substances t^i at 
 have grown auil decayed upon it, or have been conveyed tluther 
 in the prooress of cultivation. The resident earth remaining 
 after the process of dissolution, is extremely lio'ht m weight, 
 and always of a blackish color. It is owing to this, that a gar- 
 den which has been under long continued culture, approaches 
 to a black tinge, progressively deepening, according to the a- 
 bundance of this matter. Soils lying in the territory of an old 
 countrv, are found to contain various chemical compounds, min- 
 eral salts, and metallic oxids; some of which are beneficial, 
 others harmless, and a few injurious to vegetation ; and which 
 either pre-existed in the strata from which the surface has 
 been formed, or have been carried to it by subterraneous 
 sprino-s, or by foreign causes, operating in the course ot past 
 ao-es^The most frequent are epsom and common salts combin- 
 ations of potash, lime and magnesia, with the acid and oxid ot 
 iron, which is just the rust produced by exposing this metal to 
 the action of the air. It is this oxid which gives the 
 brown and redish color, as well as the intermediate shades, to 
 
 sand and clay. , u j • 4 
 
 It seems plain that considerable advantages may be derived 
 to the practical farmer, from analyzing the different kinds of 
 soils, from comparing the proportion ot the earths in the pro- 
 ductive, with those found in the barren, from studymg the 
 separate effects of these ingredients, and from ail these re- 
 sults, deducing the most skilful plan of procedure m effec- 
 tuating permanent improvements. But the usual process 
 which the learned chemist would adopt, m analyzmg soils, 19 
 too laborious and intricate for practical use to farmers in gen- 
 eral. The following simple process is within their reach, and 
 may lead them to adopt for themselves more accurate and per- 
 fectmethods. In the field to be examined, take earth, a little be- 
 low the surface, from four separate places, about 1-4 if', avoir- 
 dupois, from each. Expose it to the sun, or before the fire, tiii 
 
3*^ AGRICULTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 it is completely dry, and turn it over frequently, that it may be 
 ^ well mixed together. From the heap take exactly 4 ounces, 
 and pass it through a sieve, which will allow all the particles 
 of sand and gravel to escape, but hold back stones, small 
 fibrous roots, and decayed wood. WeigJi the two parts separate- 
 ly, and take a note of each. The stones and other bulky ma- 
 terials are then to be examined apart from the roots and wood. 
 If they are hard and rough to the touch, and scratch glass 
 easily, they are silicious, or flinty ; if they are without much 
 difficulty broken to pieces with the fingers, and can be scraped 
 by a knife to powder, they are aluminous, or clayey : or if 
 when put in a wine glass, and lemon vinegar poured upon 
 them, small air bubbles ascend to the top of the, liquid, they are 
 calcaraeous. The finely divided matter wliich ran through the 
 sieve, must next undergo the test of experiment After being 
 weighed, agitate the whole in water, till the earth be taken up 
 from the bottom, and mechanically suspended, adding water 
 till this efiTect be produced. Allow the mass then to settle for 
 two or tliree minutes, and in that time the sandy particles shall 
 have all sunk to the bottom. Pour off* the water, which will 
 then contain the clay in suspension, with the insoluble earth 
 arising from animal and vegetable decomposition. The sand 
 should first be attended to; and if, from inspection, it be 
 thought either silicious or calcareous in its nature, the requi- 
 site tests may be instantly applied. By this time the mixture 
 will have deposited at tlie bottom of the vessel, the clay and 
 other earths, with the insoluble animal and vegetable matter. 
 After pouring off the water, dry tlie sedeinent, and apply a 
 strong fire by placing it on the bottom of a pot heated to red- 
 ness, and the animal and vegetable matter will burn and fly off 
 in uniform products. The remainder lying in the bottom, will 
 be found to consist of clay, magnesia, and lime. To obtain 
 accuracy, another 1-4 lb. of earth should be taken from the 
 same heap, and the whole process gone over a second tune, 
 that the operator may rectify any blunders he had previously 
 committed, and be satisfied as to the result of his experiments. 
 He should provide himself with a pair of scales, and a set of 
 weights, divided at least into ounces and drachms. Although 
 vinegar will detect lime by eflTervescence, it does not dissolve 
 it so eflfectually as the nitre, or muriatic acid ; small quantities 
 of which may be procured from the druggists at no great ex- 
 pense. The importance of sometimes resorting to an analysis 
 of the soil, will appear, from the consideration that many soils, 
 apparently of good texture, are yet "barren in a high degree, 
 when, as has been observed by Sir Humphrey Davy, common 
 
NATURE AND PROPERTy ON THE SOIL 3tJ 
 
 observation and common practice, afford no means of ascer- 
 taining the cause, or of removing the effect. And also, when 
 it is considered that the primitive earths, clay and sand, con- 
 tain, each perhaps in nearly equal degrees, the food of plants ; 
 and that in their union, the purposes of vegetation are most 
 completelv answered. What precise quantities of each 
 maybe necessary, to make this union perfect, it is neitlier very 
 easy nor very material to ascertain, since that point is best de- 
 termined in practice, when the soil proves to be neither too 
 stiff nor adhesive from the superabundance of clay, nor of too 
 loose and weak a texture from an over quantity of sand in its 
 composition. The medium is undoubtedly best; though an 
 exc&ss towards adhesion is obviously the most safe. But when, 
 from the situation of the soil, there must necessarily be a defi- 
 ciency of either sand or clay, the most perfect remedy for that 
 deficiency, is compost manure, or decomposed animal and veg- 
 etable substances. For compost manure, whether it is made 
 up solely of these substances, or with barn dung intermixed 
 vv'ith them, is the product of all the nutritive ingredients v.-hich 
 are essential to vegetation. It is therefore the most certain 
 and durable agent in promoting fertility ; and is not only the 
 most salutary substitute for either of the primitive snnple earths, 
 bat tlie most powerful auxiliary, to render them efficacious. It 
 should be observed, that what are sometimes called gravelly 
 soils, may be distinguished from sandy soils, in this, that the 
 former is chiefiy composed of small soft stones ; though in 
 some instances, the stones are of the silicious, or flinty nature, 
 and in others, of the calcareous, or chalky. From these con- 
 stitutional circumstances, arises the propriety of deepemng 
 gravelly soils by coats of marl, or keeping them fresh by fre- 
 quent returns of grass, and repeated applications of manure. 
 Like sand, they are naturally barren, unless mixed v/ith other 
 earths; an 1 the surface would exhibit the same appearance as 
 the subsoil, or what is beyond the reach of the plough, were it 
 not changed ajid meliorated by vegetable manure. The con- 
 stitutional qualities of gravels also point out the propriety of 
 ploughing them deep, so that the surface of the soil may be 
 augmented, or rather its fertility increased, by exposing the 
 subsoil to the salutary influences of the sun and atmospheric air. 
 Although mucli more useful information might be disclose 1 on 
 this subject, yet enough has been aaid to convince the farmer, 
 that if he would render his efforts successful, he should make 
 the knowledge of the nature and properties of the soil he would 
 cultivate, a fundamental principle. 
 
^ AURICCLTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 Food of Vegetables, and the Manner in which it i% 
 
 COMMUNICATED TO THE PlaNT. 
 
 Vegetables are probably the most numerous class of bodies 
 which belong to our globe ; more than forty thousand of tho 
 species having already been discovered, and additions are con- 
 tinually making to the number. It has been shown in a former 
 essay, that no plant which we cultivate can be brought to ma- 
 turity, without the nourishment derived from some kind of veg-- 
 etable manure. If, therefore, we would ascertain what kind of 
 manure is best adapted to the different plants, ana the best 
 mode ot applying it, we must have some knowledge of the pro- 
 cess by which the seed, after it is committed to the earth, ger- 
 minates and progresses towards perfection. It is well known 
 by all who cultivate the earth, that seeds of any kind will not 
 germinate without a certain degree of heat and moisture. But 
 we are indebted to chemists for the discovery that seeds will 
 not germinate, unless atmospheric air, or eome air havino- the 
 same properties, have access to it.* '^ 
 
 It is probable, for this reason, that seeds will not germinate 
 at a certa, depth below the surface of the earth ; and for this 
 reason, the first growth of the plant is often retarded by bury- 
 mg the seed too deep. Is not this fact confirmed by the ob- 
 servation, that the plant of any seed which we commit to the 
 earth, has a more healthy appearance, and grows with more 
 vig-or, the sooner it makes its appearance above the surface 
 alter it begins to germinate. As the progress of the root is 
 dowuvvard, no injury will be likely to happen to it in seasons of 
 common moisture, from its lying too near the surface of the 
 soil; and by springing from the seed, which is buried no 
 deeper than is necessary to germinate, it will be more likely to 
 derive support and efficacy from the noarishmonL furnished 
 trom manure, if properly applied. That the farmer may pre- 
 pare and upply hu manure in the most judicious and efficacious 
 
 *Oa (his suHfict Mr. Davy remark. . fhal in all rases ortill3«^e, 
 the seed should be sowo so as to be fully exposed to the infli.Pnco 
 ofthe air; and one cause of the nnproductivenes? of cold, riavey 
 adhesive soils, is, that tlie seed is r>oated w,fh matt-r imper.Hra- 
 ble to H.r. That in saudy soils the air is ahvavs s.ifficiently pene- 
 trable bv the atmosphtre; but in cl:ivfy sails.' there can scarcely 
 bn too o-reat a ninchanical division of onrfs in Ine proces«o' tillao-e- 
 and sepd not f,,lly «nnp!ivd with air, always produces a weak a"nd 
 d.neased pla.it. gee his Oeiacnls of Agricultural Chemistry, 
 page 191, 192. ° " 
 
??ATURE AND PROPERTIES OP THE SOIL. 05 
 
 manner, it should be considered, that whatever may be the 
 nature of the substances derived from manure, they cannot 
 communicate nourishment to the plant, without first going into 
 a state of solution ; and that water is the agent made use of to 
 effect this solution. For as water has been proved by various 
 experiments to be insufficient, of itself, to bring the seeds o^ 
 any plant to maturity, while at the same time the presence of it 
 is indispensable to carry on the process of vegetation, we are 
 forced to conclude, that the principal, if not the sole use of it, is 
 to dissolve all those substances which form essential parts of 
 the food necessary to its growth and maturity ; especially, 
 since it has been well demonstrated by experiments, that all 
 those substances may be dissolved in water. So far, then, as 
 the food of plants is supplied by the soil in which they vege- 
 tate, it is probable that it is imbibed by the extremities of the 
 roots only. For it has been discovered, that the portion of the 
 soil which is soonest exhausted, is precisely that part in v/hich 
 the greatest number of the extremities of roots lie. By this- 
 means it has been observed, they are enabled to go in quest of 
 nourishment, and the extremities of the roots seem to have a 
 peculiar structure, adapted for the imbibing of moisture : al- 
 though it has no visible opening, yet, if we cut it off, it never 
 increases any more in length, and its use, as a root, is in a 
 great measure destroyed ; but its sides send out fibres which 
 act the part of roots, and imbibe food by their extremities. 
 This is the theory in which chemists are generally agreed, 
 respecting the manner in which food is communicated to the 
 plant, so far as it is supplied from the soil. Plants derive some 
 part of their nourishment from the atmosphere. The house- 
 leek, and some other plants, may be supported from the influ- 
 ences of the atmosphere alone. But the influence of the at- 
 mosphere on the vegetation of plants generally, is efficacious, 
 in proportion to the productive power of the soil, or the efficacy 
 derived from its fertility. From what has been observed, it 
 will be seen that the nourishment derived from manure, must 
 first be dissolved by the moisture there is in the soil, and 
 after being so dissolved, must come in contact with the ex- 
 tremity of the roots of tJie plant, before it can contribute to its 
 growth and maturity. It is not known that there is any attrac- 
 tive power, either in this i.carishment, or in the roots of the 
 plants, by means of which the former is communicated, so as to 
 promote vegetation. It i ^ obvious the plant will not flourish, 
 unless some such nourishment may be found located in those 
 parts of the soil to which the extremities of the roots will, in 
 tlie progress of vegetation, become contiguous, or nearly so. 
 
)'^ AGRICULTUR'AL ESSAYS. 
 
 It is often observed by farmers, that vegetable manure, before 
 it becomes decomposed, or reduced to a state of putrefaction, 
 will improve the soil, though it will not contribute so much to 
 the value of the crop the first year that it is applied. This is 
 true; but the application ofundecayed vegetable manure, such 
 4as straw, &c. spread on land, and mixed with the soil as effec- 
 tually as is practicable with the plough and the harrow, in the 
 usual manner of performing the operation, will contribute much 
 less to the immediate value of any crop, than many farmers 
 have believed. The following account of a celebrated author,* 
 on the science of chemistry, developes facts, relating to this sub- 
 ject, worthy of consideration, and may be of much practical u- 
 tility. " It appears," says he, "from the e>periments of Mr. 
 Hf.ssenfratz, that substances employed as manures, produce ef- 
 fects in times proportioned to their degree of putrefaction: 
 those substances which are most putrid, producing the most 
 speedy effects, and of course, soonest losing their efficacy. 
 Having manured two pieces of the same kind of soil, the one 
 with a mixture of dung and straw, highly putrified, the other 
 with the same mixture newly made, and the straw almost fresh, 
 he observed, that during the first year, the plants which grew 
 on the sand manured with the putrefied dung, produced a much 
 better crop than the other : but the second year, (no new dung 
 being added) the ground which had been manured with the 
 unputrefied dung, produced the best crop. The same thing 
 took place the third year, after which both seemed to be 
 equally exhausted. Here it is evident that the putrefied dimg 
 acted soonest, and was soonest exhausted. It follows from this, 
 that carbonf only acts as a manure, when in a particular state 
 of combination ; and this state, whatever it may be, is evident- 
 ly produced by putrefaction. Another experiment of the same 
 chemist, renders this truth still more evident. He allowed 
 shavings of wood to remain for about ten months in a moist 
 place, till they began to putrefy, then spread them over a 
 piece of ground by way of mai.ure. The first two years, this 
 piece of ground produced nothing more than others which had 
 
 * Thomas Thompsoij. 
 
 i .Carbon exists pure in the state of the diamond only. It forms 
 a constituent part of marble, of chalk, of all VF^etable and animal 
 matter, it is the basis of charcoal. Combined with oxigen and 
 forming a ^a?, it float? in the atmosphere. All the glasses "whirh 
 are produced whe'^ animal matter passes into a state of putrefac- 
 tion, beina: absorbed by it, it is very important in resistin* and 
 checkifg the rrosrress of putrefaction. See Eaton's Chemical In- 
 structor, p. 108-109, 
 
Mature and preparation of manure. 
 
 37 
 
 not been manured at all ; the third year it was better, the fourth 
 year it was still better, the fifth year it reached its greatest 
 fertility ; after which it declined constantly till the ninth, when 
 it was quite exhausted. Here the effect of the manure evident- 
 ly depended upon its progress in putrefaction. 
 
 From this account, as well as from the knowledge we may 
 derive from our own observations and reflections on this sub- 
 ject, it will be seen, that the class of cultivators who depend on 
 the immediate produce of their industry for support, err in the 
 mode of applying, as manure, straw, or other undecayed veg- 
 etable substances. The nutritive powers of this kind of ma- 
 nure, contribute something to its weight, but very little to its 
 bulk ; that may principally remain, when its efficacy in the 
 growth of plants is entirely destroyed ; and this destruction 
 may be effected by its being continually leached in w^ater, by 
 being pushed to excessive fermentation, when deposited in 
 heaps, or being much exposed to alternations of drought and 
 moisture. 
 
 After its dissolution, the residual earth remaining, is very 
 light in weight, and always of a blackish color ; so that what- 
 ever may be the visible bulk of such vegetable substances, 
 after their nutritive elements are exhausted by any of the 
 means which have been mentioned above, or otherwise, they 
 contain no matter essentially efficacious as the proper food of 
 vegetables. 
 
 But the knowledge of the manner in which nourishment is 
 communicated to the plant, is so inseparably connected with 
 the science of preparing and applying vegetable manure, that 
 the principles which relate to both may perhaps be better ex- 
 plained, by considering them in their connection. 
 
 Nature and Efficacy of the different MaNi^res, 
 AND the Best Mode of Preparing and Applyin© 
 them. 
 
 When the soil in the United States becomes exhausted, by 
 
 too frequent cropping, or bad husbandry, as it has in some of 
 
 the northern and middle states^ the knowledge of the nature 
 
 and efficacy of tho different kinds of manure, and the best mode 
 
 D 
 
38 
 
 AGRICULTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 of preparing and applying them, becomes important to the far- 
 mer. This knowledge was lost to our ancestors, who beo-an 
 the first settlement of our country. They did not need it, the 
 Jand of new settlements bemg generally sufficiently productive 
 tor the purposes of culture. But it has now become necessary 
 in many parts of our country; and it is fortunate for us that we 
 have not only the discoveries of practical and intelligent far- 
 mers, but the science of chemistry, also, to aid us in the inves- 
 tigation of this subject. 
 
 Manures are composed of a great variety of substances, 
 which are necessary to supply plants with their requisite food. 
 
 It has been found that even different earths will serve to ma- 
 nure each other. Sand will fertilize a soil that has much clay, 
 and light sandy soil is also fertilized by clay. When clayey 
 lands are in grass, the sand may be laid on as a top dressing ; 
 but when they are ploughed, it should be well mixed with the 
 soil, for the purpose of lessening its adhesion. Sand which 
 has been washed down in roads or elsewhere, is best. When 
 clay is applied to a sandy soil, it should be carted on in the fall, 
 and spread evenly over the ground, that the frosts may pulver- 
 ize it, before it is mixed with the soil-, in the spring. The bet- 
 ter these earths are mixed in the respective soils, the more sen- 
 sible and immediate will be their effects ; but they differ from 
 most other kinds of manure in this, that they are calculated 
 permanently to improve the soil to which they are applied. 
 Loams are also in the same way assisted by sand, and sand a- 
 gain by them. Sand will fertilize the soil of bog meadow, and 
 this earth again is very good for all upland soils, but best for 
 those which are light and dry. It has been found to be pecu- 
 liarly excellent for Indian corn, when applied to the hills, and 
 it is said to be very good also, for flax, hemp, and most other 
 summer crops. It is also friendly to the growth of white clo- 
 ver. When applied to upland grasses, it should be laid on as 'a 
 top dressing. 
 
 Every kind of black mud, from ponds and swamps, answers 
 a good purpose on a light and dry soil. The different sorts of 
 marl found in bog swamps, are also excellent manures for all 
 upland soils. These earths are usually found from one to three 
 feet from the surface, and are either of while, grey, or a brown- 
 ish color. The former is believed to be most efficacious, and 
 the latter the least so ; their strength being in proportion to 
 the quantity of the carbonate of lime, which Ihey contain. It 
 is thought best to mix these earths with the mass of black earth 
 or bog dirt, that forms the upper stratum, in order to reduce 
 their strength^ and when thus mixed, a load of even the weak- 
 
J^ATURE AND PHEPARATION OF MANURE. 39 
 
 t(st kind has been found to be more efficacious than two of the 
 common barn dung. Their operation as manures is similar to 
 that of g-ypsum, having little or no effect when first applied to 
 wheat or rye ; but by its afterwards covering the ground with a 
 thick growth of white clover, it is then rendered fit for produc- 
 ing largely of these crops. They are peculiarly excellent for 
 Indian corn, and all summer grain, and a less quantity is suffi- 
 cient. They may be used as top dressings. It will be recol- 
 lected that in all the older states, considerable tracts of land 
 are frequently found to consist of these bog meadows and 
 swamps, as they are usually called, which are often surrounded 
 by a dry barren soil ; all of which, by applying the manures 
 they contain, as above described, may be gradually converted 
 into healthy and productive soils, capable of supporting thou- 
 sands of our citizens, with the necessaries and conveniences of 
 life. 
 
 Ashes, as manure, are found to be more efficacious, m^some 
 parts of the country, than in others ; most so when applied to 
 lands near the ocean. They generally answer the most valua- 
 ble parpose, when applied to Indian corn, especially on such 
 soils as are not suitable to this plant. When the soil is wet, 
 cold, loamy, or clayey, the plants are apt to become stunted by 
 tha cold rains, which usually fall after planting, and the ashes, 
 in such cases, supply the natural deficiency of the soil, till it 
 becomes fertilized by the summer sun. But when the soil is 
 natural to the growth of this plant, and when it will not be 
 likely to be stunted in its first growth, it would probably be bet- 
 ter to apply the ashes later, so that the plant may derive il e 
 greatest assistance from this manure, while the ears are settlr-g 
 and forming. Ashes shotild generally be used for top drer:- 
 sings ; their salts lose nothing by exposure to the air, and soon 
 find their way into the soil. 
 
 Lime is much used in Great Britain, and other northern parts 
 of Europe, where the summers are cool, and much soil that may 
 be called cold. It has been thought best to apply it pure t.>^ 
 soils, or in compost, immediately after it is slacked. In stiff 
 clays, it is found that lime would be peculiarly useful in des- 
 troying the adhesive quality of the soil. Some limestone is 
 principally combined with argillaceous, and some with silicious 
 earths, and some is found to contain a large portion of magne- 
 sia. The former is generally known by its hardness and smooth- 
 ness of surface when broken, and is the best calculated to ben- 
 efit a clay soil. The silicious limestone is the best for clay, 
 and is most soft and of unequal parts when broken. That 
 which contains much magnesia is found to bo destructive U> 
 
4y 
 
 AemCBLTKRAlr ilSSATS. 
 
 vegetation. The magnesia limestone is (listing uLslied tTow 
 that which is purely calcareous, by the slowness of its solution 
 m acid, which is so considerable, that the softest kind of the 
 Jbrmer is much longer in dissolving than marble.* 
 
 GrrsuM. The qualities of this manure are so well under- 
 stood by our farmers, that a particular explanation of them may 
 be thought unnecessary. It may however, be interesting to 
 know that gypsum is found in the earth, in four different states : 
 1, in the pulverulent and friable form, which constitutes gyp- 
 »ious earth, fossil flour, &c. ; 2, in solid masses, which consti- 
 tute plaster stone ; 3, in stalactites, and 4, in determinate crys- 
 tals of different forms." The author f who has given this ac- 
 eount of gypsum, observes, "that on 3 hundred parts of gypsum 
 »ontain thirty of sulphuric acid, thirty-two of pure earth, and 
 thirty-eight of water. It is subject to a great number of vari- 
 eties of color, which are the signs of various qualities, relative 
 to its uses. That which is grey is less valuable than the white. 
 The several states of the oxides of iron, with which it abounds 
 in greater or less quantities, constitutes its rose colored, red 
 and black varieties." In all tight, hard and dry soils, which 
 are not too near the ocean, it has generally been found to be a 
 valuable manure, and it has a tendency to equalize the respec- 
 tive value of the soils, by enabling the farmer to render those 
 which are light and sterile, almost as productive as those 
 which are naturally rich. From one to two bushels has been 
 found sufficient for an acre, varying the quantity according 
 to the condition of the soil It has been generally 
 found most valuable when applied to red clover, as it great- 
 ly increases that crop, and fits tliq soil to produce others. For 
 corn, planted on land of rather a light and dry soil, it is very ef- 
 ficacious: about a common spoonful, of that which is good, is 
 sufficient for a hill. It has been found more or less, a stimu- 
 lant to every kind of plant, except wheat and rye ; on those it 
 seems to have no very sensible effect, but will often cover the 
 ground with a fine sward of white clover, which is an indica- 
 tion that it has enriched the soil and fitted it for a better suc- 
 ceeding crop ; for it is well known that a rich sward will al- 
 ways atford a good crop of wheat or rye. If then, the farmer 
 would reap immediate benefit from this manure, by putting it 
 on his fallow ground, or that which he intends for winter grain, 
 he should apply it early in the spring, and by the first of^'June 
 the field may be covered with a fine growth of white clover; 
 then if the ground be broken up, and the sward effectually coy- 
 
 * See Henry's Chemistry. t Mr, Chaptal. 
 
Nature and preparation of manure. 41 
 
 6red, it has been found to yield a good crop of wheat or rye, 
 nearly double the amount which might be expected from the 
 field without the gypsum. 
 
 But when the farmer by good husbandry, has once put his 
 farm in a condition to produce good crops, it would be better 
 economy to turn his attention to the business of saving the ma- 
 nure, that might be furnished from the various substances annu- 
 ally produced, especially, when he has to transport the gypsum 
 any considerable distance, it being a heavy and expensive arti- 
 cle to move. The expence of manure, as well as every other 
 part of husbandry, should be apportioned to the profits which 
 are to be expected as the probable result. 
 
 Of the dung of domestic animals, most used, horse dung ig 
 believed to be the worst, and that of sheep and swine the best 
 If the former be suffered to he long in a heap, it will be great-- 
 ]y mjured, and may be entirely spoiled by its own heat, whick 
 is to be known by its white mouldy appearance ; and therefore^ 
 if it is lying in a large heap, should be applied as soon as fosii- 
 ble, for spring crops. It is most suitable for cold, wet and stiff 
 soils ; as is that also, of sheep dung, though this is good for any 
 soil. Every kind of barn manure is much injured by being ex- 
 posed to rains, and therefore, should be kept as much under 
 cover as is practicable. The opinion that some farmers have 
 entertamed, that a wet or moist yard for cattle is profitable, be- 
 cause in it, vegetable substances become rotten, or decompos- 
 ed more rapidly and effectually, is very erroneous, and should 
 be exploded. 
 
 It is observed by Mr. Davy, in his agricultural chemistrv. 
 that there has been no question on which more difference of o- 
 pmion has existed, than that of the state in which manure 
 ought to be ploughed into the land ; whether recent, or when 
 It has gone through the process of fermentation ; and this, he 
 observed, was a subject of discussion, so late as 1812. Yet, he 
 IS of opmion, that the knowledge of the simplest principles of 
 chemistry, may remove all doubt on this subject. For, says he, 
 as soon as dung begins to decompose, it throAvs off its volatile 
 parts, which are the most valuable and most efficient. Duno- 
 which has fermented, so as to become a soft, cohesive mass! 
 has generally lost from one third to one half, of its most useful 
 constituent elements. It evidently, says he, should be applied 
 as soon as fermentation begins, that it may exert its full action 
 upon the plant, and lose none of its nutritive powers. He fur- 
 ther remarks, that besides the dissipation of gasseous matter, 
 When fermentation is pushed to the extreme, there is another 
 disadvantage m the loss of heat, which if excited in the soil, is 
 p 2 
 
4SS AGRICULTURAL E3SATS. 
 
 useful in promoting the germination of the seed, and in assist- 
 ing the plant in the first stage of its growth, when it is most 
 feeble, and most liable to disease ; and the fermentation of ma- 
 nure in the soil, must be particularly favorable to the wheat 
 crop, in preserving a genial temperature beneath the surface 
 late in autumn, and during winter." Again, says he, it is a 
 general principle in chemistry, that in all cases of decomposi- 
 tion, substances combine much more readily at the moment of 
 their disengagement, than after they have been perfectly form- 
 ed. And in fermentation beneath the soil, the fluid matter pro- 
 duced is applied instantly, even while it is warm, to the organs of 
 the plant, and consequently, is more likely to be efficient, than 
 in manure that has gone through the process ; and of which, all 
 the principles have entered into new combinations." 
 
 It would seem from the above remarks of Mr. Davy, which 
 are probably founded on correct principles, that vegetable sub- 
 stances, proper for compost manure, would prove most effica- 
 eious, by being buried v/ith the seed, before they had become 
 decomposed by fermentation. But as such substances, during 
 the time necessary to collect tliem, are exposed, many of them, 
 to the alternations of drought and moisture, before the proper" 
 period of seed time,the expediency of collecting them together in 
 some suitable and convenient place of deposit, where they may 
 become partially decomposed,withoutbeing injured by excessive 
 fermentation, is very obvious. These, and other considerations, 
 have induced ma^ny farmers, both in England and America, to 
 appropriate for this object, a small piece of ground with boards 
 or stone, as circumstances will best admit, from two to four rods 
 in length, and five or six feet high; the extent to be apportion- 
 ed to the probable quantity of substances, intended to be there- 
 by secured ; one end of which is left open, or so that it may be 
 opened, to take out the compost, v/hen ready for use. This to 
 be made the receptacle in T/hich to deposit every ingredient 
 which in a itate of decomposition, may be useful as manure. 
 In the spring of the year, whaterer remains in the barn-yard, 
 of any kind of straw, or spoiled hay, or any substances not in a 
 proper or convenient state to be applied as a manure, to be de- 
 posited in this receptacle, which should generally be located 
 adjoining the barn-yard. This to be considered the place of 
 deposit for all the scrapings of the wood-yard, cleanings of the 
 cellar, leached ashes, and generally, for every kind of dirt or 
 substance capable of making manure.* When this by practice, 
 
 * Among the refuse matters which furnish continual re?ourres 
 for compost manure, may be enumerated the flesh of shambles 
 
NATURE AND PREPARATION OP MANURE. 43^ 
 
 has become an essential measure, it will be found that much litter, 
 not only about the barn, but house, will be converted to a use- 
 ful purpose ; and, even if no other object was thereby promoted, 
 it would greatly contribute to that neatness, conducive to 
 health and comfort. The receptacle where composts are de- 
 posited, should be covered, so that no more water can pervade 
 it than is necessary to aid in the process of its decomposition.* 
 For if it be permitted to be kept so moist, as to keep up a con- 
 siderable degree of fermentation long before it is applied, it 
 will thereby throw ofFa great portion of its most nutritive ele- 
 ments. To render it, therefore, most efficacious, it should be- 
 come only so far decomposed and rotten, that it may be man- 
 ageable with a shovel and dungfork, for carting and covering 
 in the soil. Dry vegetable substances, of ai^y description, 
 which may be proper for manure, when they are permitted to 
 lie scattered, and exposed to continual alternations of drought 
 and moisture, as they usually are over the large team yards of 
 many of our farmers, through the summer, lose by that means, 
 as well as by excessive fermentation, a great part of their fer- 
 tilizing ingredients. So, also, if they are permitted to lie in a 
 wet yard, where they will be leached with water, the farmer 
 may be assured, he will thereby lose a great share of the bene- 
 fits, which he might otherwise derive from them. 
 
 It is easy to discover, from what has been observed above, 
 that dry, and other vegetable substances, may be made man- 
 ageable as manure, and deposited in the soil, so that the pro- 
 cess of fermentation may be made to progress with the ger- 
 mination of the plant that it is intended to nourish. The prac- 
 tical farmer may be apt to think it will require too much 
 
 and other anirual substance!, of fish, of soap-boilers, of tallow- 
 chandlers, oi rhoe-maker"*s shops, of dye-houses, of printing works, 
 of rag^5, of hair, of horns, of scrapings of oiled leather, of sweepings 
 of cotton and wooden mills, work-shops, ware-houses, rubbish of 
 old buildings, &c. &c. Spent tanner's bark, mixed with lime, it 
 ia said, will make a valuable manure. 
 
 Night Soil. Decency and health require every practicable 
 means to be used, to render innoxious, or speedily to remove all 
 accumulations of this kind frotR our dwellings. Yet this manure, 
 which is esteemed by far the moit efficacious of all others, is com- 
 monly lost. If fine sifted coal ashes, or more especially fresh 
 slacked lime, were frequently thrown down the privies, all disa- 
 greeable and unwholesome smells would be prevented, and the 
 quantity and value of the compost g^ieatly increased. By this 
 management, its removal would be also rendered conveaient and 
 inoffensive to those employed. 
 
44 
 
 AGRICULTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 attention to use those means which may be necessary, to make 
 such an exact preparation of his manure, that it may become 
 decomposed to such a certain degree as to be easily managed 
 With the shovel or dung-fork, and yet be able to commit it to 
 the soil before its value is too much diminished by fermenta- 
 tion. When, however, the ingredients are collected in the 
 manner which has been mentioned, a very little experience, 
 with the exercise of his discretion, will enable him so to man- 
 age it, that It may become decomposed sufficiently for the pur- 
 poses of manure, without heating it so that it would produce 
 too great a degree of fermentation. If the depository is suffi- 
 ciently large, it may be spread, when deposited, so as not to 
 expose It to any great degree of heat, and it should be exposed 
 to no more moisture than to decompose it so that it may be cut 
 and managed with the shovel. The English farmers, when 
 they provide a depository, construct the roof, or cover to it, so 
 that only a little rain will drop through ; and some of them even 
 provide certain places on the roof, where, by removing a board 
 or shingle, they can let in water at their discretion. The 
 sheds which are usually attached to barns, may be so situated 
 that the horse-dung may be throv/n unJer them, and then some 
 part of it occasionally spread over the whole mass of composts. 
 This will prevent too great a degree of heat in the horse-dung, 
 and at the same time help to improve or prepare the composts.* 
 It is easy to conceive tliat the farmer who cultivates no 
 more land than enough to furnish him, with his industry, a 
 comfortable support for his family, or the one Mho cultivates 
 any less quantity of land, and needs all the income from it that 
 It can be made to produce, may lose a great portion of his 
 
 * From the science, derived both from philosophical principles 
 and practical observations, respectin? the apphcatimi of compost 
 manure, it is very obvious, the diversity of opinion refpecting its 
 application arises trom errors in prartict-. Thote who destroy the 
 efficacy of their compost manure, by exposif^ it to excessive mois- 
 ture, or too great heat by A rment'ation, may well suppose it had 
 belter be carried fresh to the field, and buried with the seed ; 
 while those who carry it fresh to :^e field, and do not leave it 
 thoroughly deposited with the seed, unexposed to the sun and 
 wind and rain, may believe it would be n.ore efficacious, to first 
 decompose it so that it may thereby be re-^dered more practicable 
 to bury it, or mix it with the soil. Whatever mode the farmer 
 may be disposed to adopt, he should recollect that the excessive 
 heat necessary to reduce it to a fertilizing state, should commence 
 and progress with the gernaiDation and growth 0/ the plant. 
 
NATURE AND PREPARATION OF MANURE. 45 
 
 (ime and labor in tilling it, by not making a careful an.! judi- 
 cious application of compost manure, which may be entirely 
 v.-ithin his power. When he is apprised of this, and has adopt- 
 ed the principle, that it is necessary and proper to collect and 
 save every thing that is suitable to make this kind of manure, 
 he will find the quantity immediately hicreasing bey£)nd what 
 he had conceived, without the experiment; and which, by ap- 
 plying it while it still retains its most nutritious elements, will 
 so increase the efhcacy of his labor, as richly to reward him 
 for his particular attention to this branch of agricultural science. 
 
 There is hardly a day passes, in which a child may not be 
 taught to contribute something, by its industry, to the quantity 
 of compost. 
 
 There are certain chemical tests by v^^hich the progress of 
 fermentation may be ascertained. But the farmer will be 
 more likely to regard some general principle, which may aid 
 Iiim in the exercise of his discretion, to decide correctly in this 
 matter. If he finds the degree of heat, either in the com- 
 mon dung-hill or heap of compost, is not so great as to destroy 
 itself, and terminate in a degree of temperature equal to that 
 of common earth at the same distance from the surface, it may 
 be continued without injury. Any moderate degree of heat 
 which may be continued until the manure is committed to the 
 soil, may be kept up without materially impairing the efficacy 
 of the manure. His own observation may therefore aid him 
 to a correct exercise of his discretion. Too much attention to 
 the object of providing compost manure, cannot be given by 
 the farmer who would increase the productive powers of the 
 soil to their greatest extent. 
 
 What has been remarked above, respecting the importance 
 of properly securing and preparing compost manure, is not 
 considered inconsistent with the practice of applying vegetable 
 substances, such as straw, dry corn-stalks, &:c. as manure, 
 whenever they are ready at seed time, in sufficient quantities ; 
 but the farmer will see from what has been observed, that such 
 substances must be efiectually buried with seed, if he would 
 render them most efficacious. But it is well known that this 
 is seldom if e^er effected by the usual process of jiloughing 
 and harrowing, as it is practiced by most farmers. The coarse 
 undecomposed substances spread on the field, are not all buri- 
 ed wii!) the plough, many of those that are, are drawn out 
 again by the drag teeth, and left exposed to the alternations of 
 drought and rain, to evaporate and waste, without efficacy to 
 the soil. Some few farmers in our country, are so well av/arc 
 of the importance of effectually covering coarse vegetable sub- 
 
46 AGRICULTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 stances when applied as manure, especially such as straw, or 
 the remaining stalks of Indian corn, that they cause it to bo 
 deposited in the furrow by one who follows the plough, in such 
 manner that it is entirely covered by the succeeding- furrow, 
 and then construct the- harrow by placing an additional frame 
 on the tpp, so that the teeth are prevented from running so 
 deep as to disturb the manure ; and it is believed that a strict 
 regard to economy would justify such a measure, unless other 
 means equally operative can effect the object. The pioper 
 application, as well as the providing a supply of nutritious 
 aliment for the plant, are equally essential in a good system of 
 husbandry. 
 
 The great mass of our practical farmers are not learned in 
 chemical science, and generally attend more to the most prac- 
 ticable and convenient modes of applying manure, than to what 
 may prove to be the most efficacious results of their particular 
 modes of applying it. Although many of them are easily made 
 to believe that compost manure cannot be expected to afford 
 food for plants, until it is covered in the earth, and goes into a 
 state of entire decomposition, and the nutritive qualities dis- 
 solved, or converted into a liquid state ; yet, notwithstanding, 
 they are in the practice of carrying it into the field in its un- 
 decomposed state, and after the process of ploughing and har- 
 rowing is finished, to leave a large portion of it uncovered, 
 and the rest of it not located in a manner from which they can 
 have reason to expect any immediate benefit. After the pro- 
 cess of seeding is finished, the strawy, or other coarse fibrous 
 substances, are often to be seen scattered on the surface, which 
 are either pulled out of the ground with the harrow, or which 
 have never been covered with the plough. While persisting 
 in this erroneous practice, derived from tradition, they seem to 
 indulge in the hope that if they once spread upon the land, 
 straw half rotted, or other similar ingredients of manure, it 
 will somehow get mixed with the soil, and become efficacious 
 for some future crop, if not for the present season. 
 
 There is much diversity of opinion respecting the location of 
 manure, whether it should be above or below the seed. It is 
 very certain that it must be placed near the space which the 
 root will probably occupy. What that distance should be to 
 render it most efficacious to different plants, must be determin- 
 ed by observation and experience. Tap rooted plants, like the 
 carrot, parsnip, beet, &lc. which extend downward as they pro- 
 gress to maturity, require the ground to be mellowed, and tho 
 manure buried deeper, than roots which are bulbous, as the 
 potato, onion, turnip, &c. or than wheat, barley, oats, &c. 
 
THE BREAKING UP OLD GRASS. 47 
 
 %vhich have fibrous roots, which extend horizontally in every 
 direction. 
 
 The efficacy of ploughing in green crops, has been particu- 
 larly noticed in the essay on wheat culture, &c. But as it is a 
 most important me cus of fertili. ing the soil, from the fermenta- 
 tion gradually converting the vegetable substances into the 
 food of plants, it should be here remarked, that in those cases 
 where they do not prove efficacious, it must necessarily be 
 from some circumstances of bad management or inattention, 
 which counteract the obvious tendency of the substances to 
 that conversion, which is necessary to enable them to act. 
 Every vegetable particle under the surface, dissolves and yields 
 gasses, which may be either taken up by the roots of plants, 
 or carried away by the atmospheie ; but crops may be so im- 
 perfectly buried as to convey those gasses into the air, instead 
 of retaining them in the soil. If this operation be not strictly 
 attended to, failures may be expected. The best way of pro- 
 ceeding is to roll down the crops Vvith a barley roller, and to 
 add a skim coulter to the plough, going in the same direction 
 as the roller, to plough six inches deep, and to have no other 
 successive tillage than shallow on the surface. The effect of 
 the operation, like many others, will depend on the execution. 
 
 Improvement of Land et Breaking up Old Grass 
 WITH THE Plough. 
 
 The f*ll«wing remarks fr«m the agricultural Encyclopedia, 
 appear to have been the result of observations, founded on the 
 experience of tlie best English farmers. 
 
 The author of these essays has thought proper to abridge 
 them, and occasionally adopt his own language, so as to ren- 
 der it more intelligible, and more applicable to the condition of 
 the American farmers. 
 
 By old grass is meant that which has remained a great num- 
 ber of years without being turned up by the plough. Although 
 few branches of husbandry afford room for more successful 
 cultivation than the breaking up of old grass, yet it generally 
 happens that those so engaged seldom gain much profit to 
 themselves, or convey any benefit to the land unaer their man- 
 
48 AGRICULTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 agement ; and it is probable that to the imperfect mode of" cul- 
 ture often practised when the plough was introduced into old 
 grass land, may be attributed this failure, and the strong antip- 
 athy which influences the majority of proprietors against ren- 
 ovating them by tillage. It is, indeed, well known, that many 
 fields of such land have been considerably injured, in conse- 
 quence of the plough being used, which was entirely owing to 
 the omission of the most proper mode of destroying the abori- 
 ginal inhabitants. 
 
 Ploughing the land at proper intervals, will never reduce the 
 natural value of any land, provided the management in the in- 
 terim is well executed. 
 
 Land, which has laid a considerable time in grass, is in every 
 situation brought with difficulty into a proper arable state ; be- 
 cause the roots of the natural grasses retain such a hold of the 
 soil, that artificial plants cannot either thrive or prove produc- 
 tive, till the former are completely eradicated, or destroyed. 
 This difficulty prevails in different degrees, according to the 
 nature of the soil cultivated ; for upon soils of a light, or mel- 
 low nature, grass roots may be destroyed with greater facility, 
 and corn crops gained, for a series of years, at much less ex- 
 pense than is practicable upon soils that are composed of clay, 
 and which are situated on a bottom which is retentive of mois- 
 ture. But though corn crops may, in the first instance, be 
 easier cultivated, upon some soils than upon others, yet no 
 soil whatever can be successfully restored to grass in a suita- 
 ble manner, without being completely summer fallowed, or 
 sufficiently cleaned by a fellow crop, according to its nature 
 and other circumstances. It is from neglecting these radical 
 operations, tliot the conversion of grass land to tillage so often 
 proves injurious to the occupiers. 
 
 No kind of soil requires to be oftener renovated by the 
 plough than clay, especially if it be of a thin nature. The 
 "best grass is always obtained in the first year after being sown 
 down, while the roots are creeping upon the surface, and not 
 obstructed by the poverty or sterility of the subsoil. Rich 
 clays will progressively improve while kept in grass, though in 
 an inferior degree to those soils of a drier and less obstinate 
 nature. Hence the great propriety of exercising alternate 
 husbandry upon clayey soils ; in other words, of breaking them 
 frequently up with the plough, and restoring them again to 
 grass, after being cropped for five or six years. When grass 
 land of a clayey soil is converted to tillage, it has been said 
 the first crop in every case ought to be oats ; the reason as- 
 signed, is, that there, is no other grain that forages so well, and 
 
THE BREAKING HP •Ii» «FRA9i. 4^ 
 
 oonsequently makes a greater return of produce at the outset, 
 when the surface is obstinate, and the natural gr^see unsub- 
 
 To' procure a full crop, both good ploughing and plentiful 
 harrowing are necessary. The plough should go deep, and 
 lay the furrow w^ell over. . . 
 
 It should be harrowed length ways, till the surface is m 
 some measure broken, when cross harrowing may be resorted 
 to. Old grass lands have sometimes required eight or nine 
 double lines of harrows, before it would be considered as in 
 any thing like a finished state. The most advantageous prac- 
 tice is, to'^summer fallow all such lands in the second year; and 
 this practice is decisively recommended as being most condu- 
 cive to the interest of the occupier. Repeated trials confirm 
 the fact that heavy land cannot be brought into a good cultiva- 
 ble state without this radical measure is resorted to. 
 
 The grub-worm is often a dangerous foe to corn crops, on 
 clayey soils newly broken up from grass, especially m the sec- 
 ond and third year, and indeed during every subsequent year, 
 till the land is fallowed ; and no other effectual method of ex- 
 tirpating this mischievous insect is so well known as that of re- 
 peatedly ploughing the ground in the summer months, or pair- 
 ing and burning the surface. Another circumstance, which 
 renders an early fallow highly necessary, is, the quantity of 
 thistles and other rubbish usually infesting grass land, which, 
 if allowed to remain undestroyed, will effectually prevent artifi- 
 cial crops from thriving.* 
 
 A dressing with lime will also be highly beneficial, as all old 
 grass land, when first ploughed, is much improved by calcare- 
 ous matter. If the ploughing is effectually done, so as to place 
 the grass and other vegetable substances accumulated m for- 
 mer years, in a proper state for their entire decomposition, it 
 will be sufficient, without dung, for carrying on the growth of 
 
 * This measure is not in conformity to the principle of a rotatioa. 
 of crops, as recommended in other essays contained in this work. 
 Why is it not better to plough such lands in the preceding autumn, 
 and expose them to the winter frosts ? And a crop of corn and po- 
 tatoes, or even beans and peas, would more effectually clear such 
 lands of weeds, than a summer fallow, as it is usually executed. 
 The method of brfeaking; up old grass land much oftener than hat 
 been practiced heretofore, in this country, is, undoubtedly, one of 
 the most valuable modern improvements in agriculture ; but sa jb 
 that of substituting a summer crop for a summer fallow. 
 
50 ■ AtfRItULTU^AL ESSAYS. 
 
 plants fot a considerable lime. This, however, will depend on 
 the natural strength of the soil. 
 
 Many of the American farmers, who believe the raising of 
 stock more profitable than grain, often err in supposing that 
 more stock can be supported by letting their old grass land re- 
 main for pasture, than by converting it to tillage ; and to intro- 
 duce the system of alternate husbandry, no doubt more capital 
 is required, besides a good deal of trouble in its execution, but 
 these are indispensable requisites in every improved system. 
 
 As the result of great experience, the English farmers have 
 found, that alternate husbandry is most beneficial to cultivators, 
 and to the public ; that a farm managed according to its rules, 
 will yield a greater quantity of pioduce, than if any other sys- 
 tem is adopted; that if one half of the farm is kept under arti- 
 ficial grasses, and other green crops, as much live stock may be 
 supported and fattened upon the produce, as if the whole farm 
 was kept in old pasture : and that the other half, from the large 
 quantity of dung produced from the consumption of green 
 crops, will furnish as much disposable produce for supplyino- 
 the market, as if the whole farm had been kept in a regu* 
 lar sequence of corn crops. 
 
 When a soil contains a great quantity of small lose stones, 
 and the surface been made smooth for mowing, and it has been 
 long appropriated to the use of meadow, the breaking it up with 
 the plough is a more troublesome and expensive operation ; but 
 even under such circumstances, it is believed great advantao-es 
 would generally be derived by breaking up such meadows, and 
 if the soil is sufliciently dry, or can be made so by any tolerable 
 expense of draining, to convert them to tillage by a rotation of 
 grain crops,* giving it occasional supplies of manure when it 
 can be had, until the roots are entirely decomposed, so as to be- 
 come a constituent of the soil. 
 
 By this means the soil becomes fertilized, by exposure to the 
 salutary influence of the solar rays, and by reducing to compost 
 manure the whole mass of vegetable substances formed by the 
 roots of grass and weeds. 
 
 It is well known that many of our farmers, especially those 
 
 * Grain, in its most extensive sense, may be descriptive of seeds 
 of any fruit, though by common acceptation, it is understood to de- 
 scribe such as are used for bread. But when we consider it as a 
 necessary article in the rotation of crops, it may be extended to 
 signify not only Indian corn and the culmiferous crops, such as 
 bear seed in a chaffy head, as wheat, rye, barley, &c. but also Ic- 
 juramoua crops, as peas and beans. 
 
rLOUGHFNG AND HARROWING. 51 
 
 who cultivate but a few acres, say from ten to fifty, contentthem^ 
 selves to partake the small pittance of grass which is the pro- 
 duce of a feeble growth, from roots which have been undis- 
 turbed, without culture and almost destitute of nourishment, 
 for a great number of years. Some justify this practice from 
 the uncertainty of getting it so well stocked again with 
 grass, as well as from their incapacity to defray the ex- 
 pense of introducing the necessary operations of the success- 
 ful tillage of such land. And this latter objection may, under 
 certain circumstances, be insuperable. But certain it is that 
 those who have both disposition and capacity to overcome every 
 objection to the breaking up of their old grass, and have judi- 
 ciously and thoroughly introduced grain crops in a proper 
 course of alternate husbandry, have generally been amply com- 
 pensated for all their extra expense and trouble, which this 
 mode of culture requires. 
 
 I am aware that the argument in favor of often converting 
 «ld grass to tillage, does not apply here with the same force 
 that it does in Great Britain ; as laborers are more scarce here, 
 the price of labor higher, and much less is requisite to manage 
 OUT grass crops. But that we may duly appreciate the system 
 of^alternale husbandry here, we should consider that by a judi- 
 cious management of it, the same quantity of labor may not on- 
 ly greatly increase the quantity of grain, while it will also pro- 
 vide us with at least as much grass, and thereby instead of di- 
 minishing, might greatly increase the quantity of animal food. 
 
 Improvement of Lands by PLOUGHiNe anb Harrowing. 
 
 There has been much diversity of opinion ancnong farmers in 
 America, heretofore, relative to the depth of the furrow most 
 likely to improve the soil, and thereby enhance the crop. But 
 this diversity must always have been owing to the want of cor- 
 rect knowledge respecting the nature and properties of the' 
 different soils. 
 
 It is very certain that the depth of the furrow in ploughing 
 should depend on the nature of the soil and of the sub-soil. It 
 is said by a celebrated ,. chemist, that in rich clayey soils, tji? 
 furrow can scarcely be too deep; ajid in sands, unless the gub- 
 
a*i A6RltlLT%RAL ESSAYS. 
 
 Boil contains J5Pme principle noxious to vegetables, the asitoie 
 practice should be adopted. 
 
 When the roots are deep they are less liable to be injured 
 by rain or drought; that as the layers shoot forth their radi- 
 eles into every part of the soil, the space from which the nour- 
 ishment is derived is more considerable than when the seed is 
 euperficiaJly inserted in the soil. But in a fertile shallow 
 «oil, situated upon cold clay or sandy sub-soil, deep ploughing 
 may be very prejudicial. 
 
 It is of consequence to attend to the season proper for plough- 
 ing clayey soils. If it be too dry it will not crumble, as it should 
 do to prepare it for a crop ; and if too wet,the ploughing will only 
 render it more compact. The hard clods are easily mellowed 
 with a plough after they have been merely wet through with a 
 gentle rain. 
 
 The ploughing of land in the best manner for the culture of 
 particular plants, is of great importance in the improvement of 
 Hbe soil. 
 
 Some remarks have been made in the Essay on the culture 
 of wheat, relative to the practice of summer fallowing in pre- 
 paring the soil for that crop ; by which it appears that the fallow 
 'Ijloughing would, if performed in the month of November in 
 the preceding year, or just before the commencement of winter 
 frosts, not omy be better for crops of wheat, but better contri- 
 bute to the durable unproveraent of the soil. 
 
 It has been found by various experimeiila that summer fal- 
 lowing at the usual season in June, is never useful, unless it is 
 repeated so often as to prevent the growth of grass and weeds, 
 and too keep up a fermentation in the soil. That although a 
 ▼ery rich soil may require ahttle more tlian to be sufficiently 
 mellowed for the reception of the seed ; but that all others 
 which are naturally more or less sterile, or have been exhaust- 
 ed by too frequent cropping, may be greatly recruited by fre- 
 quent ploughing and harrowing. 
 
 A Mr. Quell, a practical and intelligent farmer of Great Bri- 
 tain, from a course of experiments and observations, formed an 
 opinion that laAds can be made and kept rich by the mere use 
 of the plough and the harrow. Various experiments have been 
 made to ascertain the degrees of efficacy to be derived from 
 repeated ploughing, and the result has been found, that the 
 crop has been increased, other circumstances being equal, in 
 proportion to the number of times the ploughing has been so 
 repeated. More especially is frequent ploughing necessary in 
 tiie clayey and stiff or hard soils; as it wUl not only better 
 
|»fepare the ground for a single crop, but will thereby greatly 
 iniprovc^the soil. 
 
 When your sward land is intended fof spring crops, it should 
 always when circumstances will admit, be broken up early in 
 the fall preceding, and if it is a very moist soil, should be 
 thrown up into ridges by repeated ploughing, that it mtty be 
 fertilized by being exposed to the winter frosts. 
 
 In fact it is well ascertained by experiment that the sediment 
 or settlings of dew water are greater in quantity, blacker 
 and richer, than those of rain water ; hence the utility of 
 ploughing w^hen the dew is on is obvious, as it tends to fertil- 
 ize the soil. 
 
 The farmer cannot, it will be said, always wait to have hie 
 lands ploughed while the dew is on, and neither can he always 
 appropriate as much of his labor to repeated ploughings, as the 
 benefit of his crops may require ; but when he comes to duly 
 appreciate this measure, he will find himself well compensated 
 for so arranging his business as to devote much more of tis 
 time to this subject, than has usually been practiced by the A= 
 merican husbandman. 
 
 The repeated and thorough ploughings, as well as maiiy 
 other practices necessary to enhance the productive powers of 
 the soil, if properly attended to, will leave to the practical agri- 
 culturalist but a very little leisure. The more science he obtains 
 relating to his occupation, if he would properly improve it, the 
 less time he will find to devote to idleness or dissipation. 
 
 Since writing the above the following instances of the utility 
 of frequent ploughing has come to my knowledge, which is 
 worthy of notice. A farmer in Connecticut owned a certain 
 piece of very light sandy soil, such as generally constitutes 
 the plain land which produces a natural growth of pine tim- 
 ber. About two acres of this soil which had been cleared, lay 
 a great number of years in a barren state without producing 
 any useful vegetable. He ploughed it eight times successive- 
 ly during the summer months; some part of the ploughing he 
 performed in the morning when the dew was on. At the 
 usual season he sowed it with winter wheat, without applying 
 any kind of manure ; and the next summer it produced a very 
 valuable crop. The barrenness of this kind of soil and its usual 
 properties are well understood by farmers throughout the U- 
 nited States. It is impossible therefore to account for the in- 
 crease of its fertility, on any other principle whatever, but thai 
 of the repeated ploughings. 
 
 It is believed that ploughing any soil juet previovw to tlic 
 * 2 
 
i54 AGRICULTURAL ESSAYS, 
 
 commenceraent of the winter frosts, next previous to the seat- 
 son when it is to be seeded for a crop, has a great tendency to 
 fertilize the soil. 
 
 The following experiment is a confirmation of this fact. A 
 farmer in New-Jersey some years since, trench pleughed an 
 exhausted field of stiff soil in the fall ; cross ploughed apart of 
 it, and in that part broke the lumps to pieces. In the spring 
 the field was all ploughed equally and sown with barley and 
 •lover. The part on which the most labor had been bestowed 
 v/as in fine order when sown, and yielded about thirty bushel*- 
 an acre of barley; the other part was still in lumps, the frost 
 Dot having been found sufficient to mellow them entirely, and 
 the product of barley was only about twenty bushels an acre. 
 The same difference was a-fterwards observed in the clover. 
 
 But this field with this stratum of crude earth thrown uper- 
 most, it is e-^ident would have yielded little or nothing the next 
 •pring, and until mellowed and fertiUzed by summer suns, had 
 it not been mellowed and fertilized by winter frosts.* 
 
 To improve land by ploughing, or to plough it so as effectu- 
 ally to ansv.'er the necessary purposes of tillage, — it is essen- 
 tial tliat the plough should be constructe<i and so managed when 
 in operation, as to cut aU the land at the bottom of the furrow 
 clean, and nu-t only so but to turn it flat over, especially if there 
 is any vegetable living en the surface, to be destroyed. By 
 .#nly loosening the soil, v/ithout cutting the bottom of the fur- 
 jow clean, the purposes of ploughing are in part defeated. 
 
 It is a fundamental principle in tillage that the soil must be 
 pulverized, and the seed so distributed, that the food necessary 
 to its growth may be made to contribute equally to the nour- 
 ishment of every grain sown or planted. If this is true, the 
 more perfectly this operation is performed by ploughing, the 
 greater crop may be expected. If parts of the soil which th« 
 roots of the plant would penetrate, are left in a hard state un- 
 loosened by the plough at the bottom of the furrow, the growth 
 •f the plant will be mereby retarded tnd its produce lessened. 
 Or if the stiff clods of earth are left unbroken after the process 
 •f harrowing is finished, the space whict they occupy is thereby 
 lendered less productive ; the seed it is true may force its plant 
 \o emerge from under the clod, but the stock of the plant in that 
 ease is forced to occupy the space which, if the seed is equally 
 distributed, as it should be, is barely sufficient for the growth 
 of the plants which would otherwise be its sole occupants ; the 
 jCpnsequence ii, that the plants around the clod, by being too 
 
 * Bee Fwmer*» Assistant, page 68. 
 
PLOUGHING ANl) HARROWING. 53 
 
 much crowded and retarded in their growth, are rendered 
 thereby less productive ; while the space occupied by the hard 
 unbroken clods is rendered less conducive to the success of the 
 crop. The savings made by a proper use of the plough and 
 the harrow, and the roller too, when necessary, are no incon- 
 siderable items in the aggregate profits of the farmer; if there 
 is a little negligence and unskilful management in every part 
 of the tillage process, it cannot be expected that the soil will 
 yield an adequate compensation for the labors thus bestowed. 
 It was probably the importance of a perfect pulverization of the 
 soil, that might have led to the invention of the roller, which 
 ie often necessary to effect that operation, especially in very 
 clayey or stiff soils. But on ordinary loose soils, the proper use 
 of the plough and the harrow may effect the object. By a. 
 proper knowledge of the food of vegetables, and the manner in 
 which it is communicated to the plant, the farmer will derive 
 additional evidence of the necessity of tlic entire separation of 
 the particles which compose the soil, by the tillage process j 
 whence it will appear that no proper nourishment of the plant 
 which may be contained in unbroken clumps or clods of the 
 soil, can contribute to its growth until they become pulverized.* 
 
 The want of sufficient animal strength to plough the ground 
 of a suitable depth for the effectual pulverization of the soil, 
 may be considered an insuperable objection to many well in- 
 formed farmers. To remove this objection and introduce aa 
 improvement in the economy of teams generally, a celebrated 
 agriculturalistjf suggested the following practice, the efficacy 
 of which he has attested by actual experiment. To first plough 
 the ground only half the depth required ; that the resistance of 
 the soil may by that means be overcome by the application of 
 one half of the animal strength ; and by repeating the opera- 
 tion the same depth of ploughing will be attained by only one 
 half of the animal exertion, which wonldbe required, to plough 
 the same depth with double the exertion at one operation, the 
 resistance of the loose soil occasioned by the first furrow, be- 
 ing too small to be taken into the computation. 
 
 It may be worthy of consideration, whether even those who 
 have the command of sufficient strength of team for any pur- 
 poses of tillage, may nol pulverise some soils more effectually 
 and more economicaUy, by taking two or more furrows instead 
 
 * See essay on food of veg^etables and the mafiner in which it ia 
 communicated to the plant. 
 
 t Major General Alexander Bealson, honorary mettbcF of the 
 Engliaij board of Agriculture* 
 
56 AOAfCtJLTURAL ESSAtS. 
 
 of one, to loosen the soil to a proper depth for g^dod cultivation. 
 
 The celebrated Q,uell was of opinion, that land can never be 
 made too fine by tillage ; and that the finer it is made the rich* 
 er it will become. He observed that the fine parts of the earth 
 are impregnated with some of the riches carried in by the dews : 
 but the larger rough parts cannot have that benefit ; the dews 
 not penetrating to their centres, they remain poorer. 
 
 There can be no doubt but that a perfect pulverization of th^ 
 soil places it in a better condition to let in the atmospheric air 
 amongst the minute particles, and for permitting the rain and 
 dew to spread equally, and for giving to the roots the faculty 
 of entering into all the cavities* 
 
 fvOTATlON OF CroPS AS A SuBSTITtTTE FOR SlfMlVfEH 
 
 Fallow. 
 
 In treating of fallows, there appears to be some difficulty in 
 comprehendmg the real views of diflferent writers, probably on 
 account of the diflferent import with which the term fallow has 
 been understood in different countries, •nd at different periods 
 of agricultural history ; even the expositors of the Americart 
 language are not very explicit in their difmitions Cf the term. 
 It is believed, however, that the farmers of New-Ertgland have 
 generally applied the term fallow to the ploughing of land 
 which has lain at rest in grass, or which has rested after a pre- 
 vious crop the preceding year without being stocked with grass- 
 iseed or ploughed. And when it is ploughed early, or in any of the 
 suittraer months, for the purpose of ploughing it again,and thereby 
 preparing it for an autumual seeding with wheat or other winter 
 crop, it is termed fallowing, or fallow ploughing. With these 
 views, which the farmers of our country have had of fallowiiiyg;, 
 of land, and of fallow land, it will be easy to understand what ia 
 intended by substituting the rotation of crops, for the summer 
 fallow, as an improvement in the system of agricultuie. 
 
 '^The substance of the arguments generally used against 
 fallow, may be comprised under four keads : 
 
 1st. Nature d«es not require any pause, or rest ; and the 
 earth was evidently designed to yield a regular uninterrupted 
 produce. 
 
ROTATION OF CROPS. 
 
 ^7 
 
 odly As the productive quality of the earth never ceases, if 
 corn is not sown, weeds will be produced : therefore it is our 
 business to expel the unproductive plant, and to introduce oth- 
 ers that are beneficial. . .J- 1 c. ■ 
 
 3dly. That the idea of leaving land to rest, is ridiculous ; tor 
 by keeping it clean, and by a judicious intermixture of crops, it 
 may be managed like a garden, and sown from one generation 
 to another. ^ ^ ^ ^ .^ . ,, . , ^ 
 
 4thly. That the fallows in England exhibit nothing but a 
 conflict between the farmer and his weeds, in which the jattex 
 generally prevail ; for at best they are but half stifled, and nev^ 
 cr effectually killed." 
 
 Notwithstanding these arguments, which ought to have great 
 consideration in deciding with respect to the expediency of a- 
 bolishing summer fallowing, as pertinent to a general systeni 
 of good husbandry, some writers contend for the practice ot 
 summer fallows, while the reasons they assign for it obviously 
 show that they have derived their information from farmers 
 who have not understood the efficacjr of a rotation of crops, ae 
 a substitute or preparatory measure for summer fallows. Their 
 reasons are, that a fallow in the summer months is the only ef- 
 fectual method to thoroughly clean the land of weeds ; but the 
 object of. leguminous* crops, raised on the lands, which would 
 be otherwise fallowed, is intended not only to extirpate the 
 weeds more eft*ectually, but to enrich the lande, and better pre- 
 pare them for a winter crop. If any of the leguminous crops 
 are to precede the sowing of winter grain, and they are kept 
 clean, as every sucli crop should be to render it successful, it 
 is very evident that the prevalence of weeds will not only be 
 thereby better prevented, but if the same nourishment is appli- 
 ed to the leguminous crop which was intended for the succeed- 
 ing crop, the soil will be thereby more fertilized. 
 
 It should however be understood, that this practice of substi- 
 tuting a rotation of crops for summer fallow, cannot be recom- 
 mended only in those parts of the country, where the continu* 
 anceof the warm season will admit of bringing to maturity and 
 clearing off the preparatory crop in season for the reception of 
 the winter grain seed. But where the climate will admit of a 
 tillagef crop annually, it appears to be the prevailing opinion 
 
 * Under the head of le^umiiious crops, the British farmers rank 
 beHDs, peas, lares, potatoes, turnips. rota-ba*a. cabbages, and car- 
 rots, which they call enriching crops* See lincyclopedia, under 
 agriculture, p. 232. 
 
 t By tillage crops, should be understood, those which are culti- 
 vated with the plouo;h aud hoe, in distinction from those of grass. 
 
AGRreULTURAL ESSAIS. 
 
 among modern agriculturalists, both in Europe and the United 
 ►States, that the productive capital of our country may be in- 
 creased by increasing both the quality and fertility of lands 
 suitable for annua] tillage, by substituting a rotation of crops, 
 tor summer fallow, whenever circumstances will admit of it. 
 
 U is very evident that old grass, when broken up, cannot be 
 Hufiiciently subdued, for a culmiferous crop, either of summer or 
 winter gram, unless ploughed the autumn preceding seed time ; 
 and if broken up in autumn, it may be prepared for a summer 
 crop, which if properly managed, will make to the cultivator a 
 saving of one year's rent.'* 
 
 When lands are stocked with clover, or any other artificial 
 grass, which is in such a state of vegetation that it may be 
 supposed to fertilize the soil, so that the crop of grass it may 
 produce, together with the increased fertility of the soil, will 
 more than compensate for the advantages to be derived from a 
 summer tillage crop, it may be best to let it remain, till the 
 crop of grass is off, und then after turning it over with the 
 plough, sow on the furrows winter grain, after first drawing a 
 bush, or very light harrow, so as not to uncover the sward, and 
 then cover the seed in the same manner. But still it is believ- 
 ed that on such lands, if the farmer can dispense with the crop 
 of hay, the soil may be better prepared for winter grain by 
 swne leguminous crop. A tillage summer crop will more 
 effectually pulverize the soil, than can be effected by the usual 
 BU'mmer fallow. 
 
 SoiLiivc, ITS Origin attd Advantages. 
 
 The feeding of cattle,t in stalls or other suitable places, du- 
 ring the growing season, with grass cut and carried to them, 
 is a practice denominated soiling of cattle; and prevails exten- 
 sively in Great Britain and some parts of the United States. 
 
 This practice, like many others, which have led to important 
 
 * See Essay on Wheat. 
 
 t In r.gricultnral science, the e:eneral name of cattle is given to 
 all tame animals which ar^ f-V? in pastures, and the term neat 
 fettle, is used to distinguish the low kind from other?. 
 
ORIGIN AND ADVANTAGES OV SOILING. 59 
 
 discoveries and improvements in the science of agricultrire, 
 must have probably orig^inated from the necessities of those 
 who occupied but small tracts of land, and who needed the 
 produce of more stock tlian could be sustained from common 
 pasture, as it is generally improved. This practice cannot 
 therefore be recommended t© that class of farmers, which per- 
 tiaps are the most numerous in this country, who possess con- 
 siderable tracts of land, which can hardly be rendered suitable 
 for any other purpose but pasturage ; or to that class, who, 
 without the greatest regard to the neat profits, would rather 
 indulge a disposition to consult their ease in their modes of 
 cultivation : but to that class whose farms are small, and who 
 are stimulated by the laudable ambition of improving a little 
 land highly cultivated, rather than a great farm badly manag- 
 ed ; and to that class also whose whole farms are capable of 
 bemg cither tilled or mown ; particularly, when their condition 
 IS such that they cannot easily procure manures. 
 
 The advantages to be derived from soiling', have been re 
 commended by some very celebrated authors, and other emi 
 nent farmers of Great Britain. 
 
 Dr. Thaer, physician to the Electoral court of Hanover in » 
 communication to the English Board of Agriculture, lays do^n 
 the following as facts which are incontrovertible, as the result 
 of the experience of the Baron de Bulan and others • "That i 
 spot of ground which, when pastured, will yield only'sufficient 
 hUhestablT abundantly maintain four Vjien kept 
 
 "Soiling affords at least double the quantity of manure from 
 the same number of cattle ; for the best summer manrelpro 
 duced in the stable, and carried to the fields at the most proper 
 period of Its fermentation ; whereas when spread on the mea 
 wasted" ''''^^"'^^^ ^y ^^^ ^"* ^"^ «""' Its power is ent"Jefy 
 
 "Cows which are accustomed to soiling, will yield much 
 more milk when kept in this manner: and fatting^caitir w'll 
 increase much faster in weight. ^ 
 
 nJwf ^/r ^^M'^^i'^"^ ^^ accidents and diseases ; thev are 
 protected from the flies, whicrh torment them in the Lws 
 
 ofTIm^" ""''"' '"' ''^^'^ -ot suffer from the heS 
 
 . As it respects the quantity of land saved by soiling-, it must 
 
 l.l1Zr.Z^!r\ ^tP""^ "" '^' natureof thesc^ andthe 
 condition of the land appropriated for that purpose. All the 
 writers on this subject, as ^ell as many other practical farm! 
 ers, appear to be well agreed in this one point, that a given 
 
GO AGRICULTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 quantity of land may be made to sustain many more cattle, 
 and to keep them better, by soiling than by pasturing them. 
 The great question is,, whether the economy on land and sav- 
 ing of manure is a sufficient compensation for the extra labor. 
 There can be no doubt but that the practice of soiling would 
 be very profitable to those who would derive the greatest pro- 
 fit from a small tract of land ; and many who practise it upon 
 a large scale, think it good husbandry.* 
 
 Advantages or the Roller. 
 
 This implement has long been used in Great Britain, and 
 considered very necessary in an improved state of husbandry. 
 Tt c^kTlnot however be used successfully, except on lands which 
 are clear of stumps and stones on the sarface. But on such 
 ground it is useful to smooth the surface of meadows, which 
 are uneven. They are useful also in breaking the lumps of 
 baked earth in a clayey soil, and for passing over ground new- 
 ly sown with grain, or that are to be laid down to grass, as it 
 will render the surface forever after while in meadow, more 
 smooth, so as to enable the farmer to cut more of the grass, 
 and with less labor. • , j-^j. 
 
 Its use, on dry grounds, which are sowed with different 
 kinds of grain, is to cause the mould to inclose the seed, many 
 of which°by lying in cavities, that soon become dried, might 
 otherwise fail of vegetating ; while it prevents the moisture 
 p-enerally from evaporating so easily as it otherwise would. 
 It is also useful in depriving certain insects of their hiding 
 places in the cavities of the soil. 
 
 The rolling of land in tillage, should be done when the ground 
 is so dry that it will not stick to the roller ; and it should be 
 performed on grass lands in the spring when the ground is soft 
 and wet. j i ^ 
 
 A wooden roller should be about six feet in length, and about 
 twenty inches in diameter, round and of a uniform surface. It 
 ae sometimes made with stone, and then it should be about foifr- 
 
 * See further remarks on this subject, under essay on artificial 
 
 grasses. 
 
ADVANTAGES OF THE ROLLER. 61 
 
 teen inches in diameter, and about the same length as the a- 
 bove mentioned wooden one. The summer fallow is greatly 
 improved in strong soils, because without its aid the large and 
 obdarate clods cannot be reduced ; and it appears that for ac- 
 complishing the different purposes for which rollers may be 
 necessary, those of various sizes and dimensions may be re- 
 quired. It is said that wooden rollers drawn by one horse an- 
 swer very well for grass and turnip land ; but massy stone rol- 
 lers drawn by two or three horses, are necessary on clayey 
 soils. "The expedition which takes place when rollers are 
 used, compared with the tedious and expensive progress of 
 breaking clods with malls, formerly the general custom,* suffi- 
 ciently proves the importance of these implements, though it 
 deserves to be remarked, that when rolling is bestow-^ 
 ed upon a spring sown field, harrowing it afterwards, is of 
 great advantage. By harrowing it after the clods are reduced, 
 the earth stands the effects of rain better afterwards, and does 
 not consolidate so firmly as when that process is neglected. 
 
 "The spiky roller is much recommended by some English 
 writers for mellowing some clayey ground that is baked in clods. 
 It is also recommended to be passed over fields of wheat in the 
 spring, for the purpose of loosening the ground, and then to be 
 followed by a brush harrowing." But quere ; this must depend 
 on the peculiar condition of the soil and grain at the time. "Its 
 further use is to tear and loosen old grass bound meadows, for 
 the purpose of making the grass grow more thriftly again." 
 But had not such old grass bound meadows ought to be 
 ploughed up ? f 
 
 The spiky roller is merely a wooden roller with iron teeth, or 
 spikr- drove into it. They are to be about seven inches long, 
 and drove three inches into the wood, and set four inches a- 
 part, in diagonal rows round the roller, the outer ends are not 
 to be sharp, but square. 
 
 * This has an allusion to the custom in Great Britain ; Ihe farm- 
 ers in the United States have generally used in tillage no other 
 process to break the clods, but with the harrow. It is only in pla- 
 c^es where agriculture is progressing in a state of great improvement, 
 that it is believed to be necessary that the soil should be perfectly 
 and uniformly pulverized, either before or after the seed is commit- 
 ted to it. 
 
 t See essay on improving land by breaking up old grass with 
 the plough. 
 
^ agricultural essays. 
 
 Culture of Wheat. 
 
 The great varieties of wheat which have heretofore been 
 known by different names and properties, appear at present to 
 be classed by the British Agriculturalists under two principal 
 divisions, though each of these admits of several subdivisions. 
 The first is composed of all the varieties of red wheat. The 
 second division comprehends the whole varieties of white wheat; 
 which again may be arranged under two distmct heads, name- 
 ly, thick chaffed and thin chaffed. But as the the thick chaffed 
 wheat has by the British farmers been supposed to be constitu- 
 tionally predisposed to the disease called mildew, it is generally 
 gone out of use. The thin chaffed wheat is said to be a hardy 
 class, and seldom mildewed, unless the weather be particular- 
 ly inimical during the stages of blossoming, filling and ripen- 
 ing, though some of them are rather better qualified to resist 
 that disorder than others. There is no important di- 
 vision of the classes of wheat generally in use in the United 
 States, but that of winter and spring or summer wheat. The 
 varieties which may be said to grow out of these two divisions, 
 respectively, are distinguished rather by their different quali- 
 ties, than by any distinct properties peculiar to their kind. And 
 the different qualities are owing sometimes to diseases, as mil- 
 dew, blight and rust, occasioned by the inevitable effects of un- 
 propitious seasons ; though perhaps oftener from bad culture, 
 such as sowing poor seed, on unsuitable soil, want of manure 
 and proper tillage. Bad seasons may unavoidably injure the 
 quality of wheat, bad culture will inevitably do it. 
 
 In every part of the United States where the climate and sit- 
 uation will admit of this crop, it has been found that winter 
 wheat will grow in almost every dry soil that is sufficiently 
 rich. Very sandy and very gravelly soils are however thought 
 to be the most unsuitable. Dry red loaims with a trifle of clay 
 in them are thought to be the best. It is said that the soil, the 
 analysis of which is mentioned in the essay on the nature and 
 constituent properties of soil, which consisted 5(3 parts sand, 26 
 clay, 12 of vegetable substances, such as compost manure, and 
 six of soluble salts, would produce great wheat, as almost every 
 other crop. It has been found by experience that the time for 
 sowing depends much on previous habit. Thus, if it were 
 sown a number of successive years by the middle of August, 
 and then the time of sowing were changed at once to October, 
 the crop would be lighter on that account. But where wheat 
 has become habituated to be sown late, it does well. The la- 
 ter it is sown the more seed is requisite. A bushel to tlie acre 
 
CULTURE OF WHEAT. g3 
 
 might answer when sown early, when the same seed, on the 
 same soil might be sown so late as to require a bushel and a 
 
 1^5/' T"f\ ,^"^-^^^ ^"^"^^^y °^ '^^^ ^^^eat like most o?her 
 seeds, should also, m some measure, be apportioned to the qual- 
 
 XnuTl^ ' ^' '^ T^ ^^ supposed to produce more stalks in 
 a rich than m a more barren soil, by affording more of that nour- 
 ishment necessary to their germination and growth. The quan- 
 tity necessary must therefore be left to the discretion of the 
 fhpTrf' J. " ^Jll '^''^'.'K^ ^^^^ '^^"^^ t^k^ into consideration 
 
 t is sowpr"" f .K ' '^'^'/^^ V^^^y ^^ ^^^ ^^^^' ^nd tlie time 
 It is sowed, whether early or later. 
 
 seedls'^ofn'aln'i^ ^ ^r?"^ T^ ^.^^"^'^ ^^ expected unless the 
 wheat ,nS IZi "^""^'1^' !'^^ ^'^"^ th^ ^^^in^ «f diseased 
 that tt ^PP^ i? u '^^^' f '^^^^'- T^^ English farmers say 
 ' on sandv kn/ r V'"'^' ^^ ^^l'"'' of wheat which has grown 
 on sandy land nor from any other but from that which has 
 grown on soils most natural to it. The changing of seel 
 
 n^ If h.' t"^'' '' ""Tfl^ '^ "^^" circumstances wil ad 
 nnt. It has been remarked that in the culture of Indian corn 
 Its seed will be more productive if brought from diSnt nla' 
 
 a large proporUon of water, becomes celLlar as the later free 
 Hell r„t b^onlT"' protuberance., so that the mot^ rfSfe 
 « heat plant become disengaged from their hold in the soil It 
 .s very manifest that if wheat be sowed so early haTeach nlan 
 may have tmie to extend its roots into the so [, its chance for 
 retaining its hold will be better."* " 
 
 Spring wheat should be sown as early as thp irmim^ „,„ >. 
 mademellow It grows best on new ribband! frlandswLh 
 
 ptTedrng yTa "'Tist^:;^ ^"7' '"'''" '"" "Po"t:s''lhe 
 f-^^.l-^ ^ ^ ^'^ , ""d ^^ degenerate very quicklv • and 
 
 necessL7'"°"''' '"'^ '' '"" ' "^"'^ northe^irclimtt'e arc 
 
 The summer wheat which is brought from Canada m found 
 
 caZn Tha^ wH n^' l''^' ^" the ^northern states of aSS 
 lul\l . • which has been sown here for some time. Bat 
 Wheat that is carried to a climate much more northerly thm 
 
 * Eaton's Agricultural Calender. 
 
g4 A©RlC«Li;iRAL E&SATB. 
 
 that in which it has long been sown, wiU not answer well, as it 
 will be too long in ripening. ^ ,. . , 
 
 When a soil natural to the production of wheat becomes too 
 much exhausted, the farmer who can apply a suitable quantity 
 of vegetable manure, will be thereby enabled to insure a good 
 crop But as the economy of saving and preparing manure 
 composed of vegetable substances, decayed or decomposed, has 
 not yet been much attended to in this country, other means 
 may be successfully resorted to. One of these is what is cal- 
 led rreen dressing. This is done by turnmg under with the 
 plough a growth of green vegetables, for the purpose of manur- 
 
 'In^Gr'eat Britain, and in ^ome parts of our country buck 
 wheat is much used for this purpose. When this is to be aone 
 the land which is intended for a crop of wheat, should be 
 lughed up in the month of May, instead of the time usually 
 practiced, after the first hoeing of corn; and about half a 
 bushel of buckwheat to the acre, sown and lightly cove ed 
 with a bush, so as not to uncover any of the vegetable anb 
 ...tances that may be turned under with the plough ; and ^^ hen 
 in blossom, run a roller over it exactly in the way ^t is « ^e 
 ploughed under. By that means, it may be more effectually 
 S)VP?pd with The plough. Aft^^r it ha« h^.n turned under 
 Xut twenty days or a month, it will be rotten, and ma pro- 
 nerstate to be ploughed again to receive the grain intended 
 to be sown If the buckwheat, before it is sown, is wet, 
 Ind as much gypsum as will adhere to the grain, strewed oyer 
 ft the ^rowt!/ of it will be much larger, and of course the 
 quantity of manure thereby increased. u ;» 
 
 ^Another vegetable, proper for the green dressing culture, i« 
 red clover. This too should be turned under with the plough 
 when in full blossom ; if the farmer cannot dispense with the 
 Top of clover for feeding his stock, still he will find by plough- 
 inVunder what remains of the clover, will ftirnish him with a 
 considerable supply of manure for his crop of wheat. 
 
 If the soil is dfy and sandy, gypsum should be sovyn on the 
 €lover, and in a good season, a good crop of wheat may, by 
 
 ''Tn moToV'tL';^'^^^^^^^ in the northern and middle 
 
 States, a considerable portion of the lands which are summer fal- 
 lowed are lands which have been considerably reduced by too 
 freq lent cropping, and some benefit is expected from the ma- 
 nure which mW he derived from the small quantity of grass and 
 other vegetable substances which are turned under ^vith the 
 plough; and for tj« rest of the food necessary for the success of 
 
Culture of wheat. 63 
 
 the crop, they rely on scattering over the field what little ma- 
 nure they have saved from their barn-yard, and that often by 
 greatly lessening their spring crop which needs its nourishment. 
 This practice, as a general system of husbandry, has been 
 too much over rated. Mr. Davey, in his agricultural chemistry, 
 observes, that when weeds are buried in the soil, by their grad- 
 ual decomposition, they furnish a certain quantity of soluble 
 matter ; but it may be doubted whether there is as much use- 
 ful manure in the land at the end of a clean fallow, as at the 
 time the vegetables clothing the surface were first ploughed 
 in. Carbonic acid gas is formed during the whole time by the 
 action of the vegetable matter upon the oxygen of the air, and 
 the greater part of it is lost to the soil in which it was formed, 
 and dissipated in the atmosphere. The action of the sun upon 
 the surface of the soil tends to disengage the gasseous and 
 the volatile fluid matters that it contains. And heat increases 
 the rapidity of fermentation ; and by the summer fallow nour- 
 ishment is rapidly produced at a time when no vegetables are 
 present capable of absorbing it. 
 
 He farther observes, that land, when it is not employed in 
 preparing food for animals, should be applied to the purposes 
 of preparing manure for plants ; and this is eflTected by means 
 of green crops in consequence of the absorption of carbona- 
 cious matter in the carbonic acid of the atmosphere. In a 
 summer fallow, a period is always lost in which vegetables 
 may be raised either as food for animals, or as nourishment 
 for the next crop ; and the texture of the soil is not so much 
 improved by its exposure as in winter, when the expansive . 
 powers of ice, the gradual dissolution of snows, and the alter- 
 nations from wet to dry, tend to pulverize it and to mix its dif- 
 ferent parts together. 
 
 By the method of green dressing, above described, two 
 great advantages are obviously derived. One is the acquisi- 
 tion of a supply of manure which wUl be sufficient to insure a 
 good crop ; and which in some conditions the farmer could ■ 
 procure from no other source : — The other is that by plough- 
 ing it in the spring, as in the case of buckwheat, before grass 
 and other noxious weeds gain strength, their prolific tendency 
 is greatly retarded if not entirely destroyed. And it cannot be 
 kept too much in mind, that all weeds by being suffered to 
 grow, exhaust the soil. Any given quantity of grass or weeds, 
 growing with a crop of wheat, or any other which is cultivated, 
 lessens its product in proportion to the weight of the green 
 weeds with that of the growing crop. 
 
 But to remedy the evil resulting from summer fallowing 
 r 2 
 
6& AGRICULTURAL ES3AfS. 
 
 and also prepare the soil for a crop of wheat with less barn Gi 
 vegetable manure, the best method, and that which is most 
 practised at the present time, both in Europe and some parte 
 of the United States, is by a change of crops. That is, by 
 sowing wheat after certain other crops, which from their na- 
 ture are calculated to prepare the soil for the culture of wheat. 
 There is no doubt but that the land which is fallowed for a 
 wheat crop in the month of June, in the usual way, might, by 
 being ploughed early in the spring, and sowed with peas, or 
 planted with potatoes or beans, be made by such culture not 
 only to produce to the farmer a clear saving of either of those 
 crops for that year, but also prepare the soil so as to render the 
 success of the crop of wheat thereon the next year much more 
 certain. — The adrantages of this mode of culture for wheat 
 result from two considerations — first it has been found by 
 ehemical analysis of these plants, that the bean, the pea, and 
 the potato, contain a large portion of the same soluble and 
 nutrative substances that are contained in wheat. The vines 
 if those plants, therefore, when ploughed under the surface of 
 the soil, furnish a useful manure for wheat ; and by the culture 
 of these plants, the w^eeds of eveiy description are more effec- 
 tually destroyed, than by the summer fallow. It may there- 
 fore, be correctly calculated, that the barn or other vegetable 
 manure which is usually applied to the soil after a fallow for 
 wheat, will, if first applied to those preparatory crops^ become 
 jnuch more useful to the crop of wheat. 
 
 The changes of crops which are best calculated to affect 
 the success of the wheat crop, as well as many others, will de- 
 pend on the soil and other circumstances which may attend the 
 condition of the farmer. In a fertile sand, sandy loam, grav- 
 elly loam, or other dry warm soil, it has been found profitable 
 by some practical farmers to adopt the following rotation of 
 orops ; to begin the first year with corn and potatoes, first 
 ploughing in all the barn dung made that spring ; the second 
 year corn, which will then receive the greatest benefit from 
 the rotten dung, and the previously fermented state of the soil ; 
 the third year barley, and clover sown with it ; the fourth clo- 
 ver; the fifth clover, one crop, and then the sward after the clo- 
 ver has grown considerably again, well turned over, and harrow- 
 ed in with wheat; the sixth, wheat sown as before mentioned 
 ^ith clover ; the seventh and eighth with clover ; and then the 
 sward torn up again in the fall for potatoes the next year. 
 
 It will be seen that in this rotation, if the soil is well fertiliz- 
 ed and prepared the first year for the corn and potatoes, it may- 
 be kept in good condition for any of the succeeding crops of 
 
CtLTURE OF W HE AST. 67 
 
 wheat, by the fertilizing effects of the other crops, without any 
 other additional manure, and that too, with the saving of a valu- 
 able crop in every year. There will also be materials furnish- 
 ed for making an annual provision for manure from the clover 
 hay, corn stalks, potato vines, and the strav/ and stubble of the 
 barley and wheat, which being properly saved and applied will 
 not only preserve the soil in its original fertility when the rota- 
 tion commenced, but would greatly increase it. 
 
 The rotation which has been above described may suggest 
 to the mind of the intelligent farmer, olliers, by which the 
 same object may be effected. In raising this crop the hopegf 
 of the farmer are often liable to be blasted by the ravages of are 
 insect called tbe Hessian Fly. 
 
 A remedy for this evil may be found in the following account 
 of a respectable farmer of Pennsylvania: — "This destructive 
 insect is propagated from the egg's of the fly, deposited on the 
 grains of wheat when ripening; the truth of which I learned 
 from actual observation. The fly may be seen by the middle' 
 of June, and from that time till wheat is cut, flying about and 
 lighting upon ears of wheat. It deposits its eggs upon the ou- 
 ter end of the grain, where they may be seen with a good mi- 
 croscope or optic glass ; sometimes to the number of six or sev- 
 en on one grain. They remain there till the grain is sown. It 
 bursts its shell and enters the shoot where it lie's in a torpitf 
 state till the next spring, except in some instances, when wheat 
 is sown early, the fly commences its ravages in the fall. When- 
 this is discovered, the best method is to turn sheep upon it, and 
 pasture it short, either in the fall or in the winter. 
 
 The most effectual way to check the propagation, is in pre- 
 paring the seed before sown, which should be in the following 
 manner : — Put you seed into a nogshead, tub, or vat, and even 
 it with water ; let it stand ten or twelve hours ; then put off 
 the water, put the wheat upon the barn floor and sprinkle lime 
 over, and with a shovel mix it till it is well covered with lime. 
 Let it remain in that state 24 hours, and the eggs will be des- 
 troyed without any injury to the seed. The following obser- 
 vations lead to this discovery. In viewing several grains of 
 wheat in a microscope something resembling the egga of in- 
 sects was observed upon them. Twenty grains were selected 
 with those appearances ; they ^ere put upon some raw cotton 
 and a little earth, in a tumbler of water, and observed every 
 day ; and on the day the grain opened and put forth its tender 
 fibre, the insect burst from its shell and was not to be seen. 
 Ten days after, five of the grains with their roots and blades 
 were taken from the glass and carefully examined. In three 
 
66 AGRierTLYtTRAL ESSAYS. 
 
 of them the insects were found. The other seventeen remained, 
 and overspread the top of the glass. They were preserved till 
 spring, when on examining them, every stalk had an insect in 
 it, some two, and one had four. Twenty other grains were se- 
 lected, and the lime applied for twelve hours. It was then 
 washed, and the color of the eggs were changed, and being 
 put into a glass, in like manner as the others, the wheat grew,, 
 but the eggs did not produce. The roots were transplanted 
 and grew well. And ten bushels of wheat limed as above, pro- 
 duced a good crop, while the neighboring fields suffered mate- 
 rially, and some v/ere almost wholly destroyed by the fly." 
 
 Smut is often a great injury to a crop of wheat. For a rem- 
 edy the following experiment developes much useful informa- 
 tion on this subject: — Mr. Young sowed fourteen beds with the 
 same wheat seed as black with smut, he says, as he ever saw 
 any. The first bed was sown with this wheat without wash- 
 ing, and this had 377 smutty ears. That washed in clean wa- 
 ter had 3*25 ; that in lime water 43 ; that in lye of wood ashes 
 31 ; that in arsenic 28 ; again, that steeped in lime water four 
 hours had 12 ; that in lye four hours had 12 ; that in arsenic 
 four hours had 1. And again, that which was steeped in ly^ 
 as before mentioned 12 hours had none, and that which was 
 steeped in the same kind of lye 24 hours had none ; that also- 
 which w-as steeped 24 hours in lime water had none ; that steep- 
 ed in arsenic 24 hours, had five. It appears from this experi- 
 ment that steeping the seed 24 hours inlye will eflfectually pre- 
 vent smut. Let the lye be ma,de pretty strong, and if the seed 
 wheat is steeped longer it will not injure it unless it be kept 
 too warm. Lime water and salt lime applied in this manner, 
 will, no doubt, answer the same purpose. If steeping in arsen- 
 ic a longer time should prove effectual, this would also be an 
 excellent antidote to birds ; or to prevent them from picking 
 up the seeds, the lime water and arsenic might be used togeth- 
 er. It has been observed that seed wheat which has been well 
 ripened before harvesting is much less liable to must than that 
 which has been cut early. Let tlie wheat for seed be the last 
 harvested, and let it be kept by itself perfectly dry until it is 
 thraghed. Some have practiced thrashing it out in the field 
 when in a very dry state. The reason assigned for this is that 
 smut is believed to be somewhat infectious •, and therefore if 
 wheat, entirely free of this disorder, be put in a mow with 
 smutty wheat, the whole mass will become more or less in- 
 fected with smut, by reason of sweating or heating of the 
 mow. 
 
 Wheat that is very smutty in the field, should not be hat- 
 
CULTURE OF WHEAT". ^ 
 
 ^^A nntn thP croD is SO fully ripe and dry that it will shell 
 ruffonTit^brrharlestin/and^ 
 
 the field would no doubt, in this case, be preferable. As the 
 dryer the crop is when thrashed, the more readily would the 
 
 '"^Mn^wtThought to be occasioned by cool nights when 
 the atmosphere has become cooler than the earth, which m 
 that caTe forces the juices upward too fast, and thus bursts o- 
 pen the stalks ; to which there is no remedy known: butite 
 ^ffoM« ft m said may be in a great measure counteracted, by 
 cS the XatTsoon as if is discovered to be struck with 
 mS . thir may be done three weeks before the usual time 
 
 "^The'^rallf in that case will be smaller than usual but, it is 
 said will make much better flour, and the q^/n^i^y J^f ,^« 
 greater, as the skin will be found very thm. If the g^a^n has 
 Attained its full si-e, though only m the milk, i is suffi- 
 c entT as it will receive that nourishment from the s alk which 
 serve; to mature it. Mr. Young says, that when the wheat 
 4m has a particular cast, of a blmsh green, it is then aff-ected 
 with mildew. The green stalks of the wheat must be suffi- 
 cYently dried before stacking, and when carted m, they will be 
 clear of the mildew, and will make good fodder. 
 
 It is believed by some farmers, that nothing is gamed by let- 
 ting wheat stand 'until it is fully ripe, that is, till the heads turn 
 down, before it is harvested. One reason given is, that if it 
 standi so long, considerable will be sheUed out before it is got 
 into the barnTand even if the bulk should m this case be great- 
 er still it is not certain the weight will be increased ; and as 
 wheat is sold by weight, not by the bushel, and as it is known 
 that the best flour is made from the earhest harvested wheat, 
 the farmer, from these considerations, may probably he the 
 gainer by commencing his harvest some earlier than the usual 
 time By this means too, he will be less m danger of havmg 
 his wheat grown by long continued rains; for wheat harvest- 
 ed early, is less liable to grow than that which is cut late. Hut 
 in ascertaining the proper state, it is necessary to discriminate 
 betwixt the ripeness of the grain and the ripeness of the straw ; 
 for in some seasons the straw dies upwards; under such cir^ 
 cumstances, a field, which to the eye appears to be completely 
 fit for the sickle, may have its grain but imperfectly consoli- 
 dated, and perhaps not much removed from a milky state, 
 though it is obvious that under such circumstances, no further 
 benefit can be conveyed from the root, and that nourishment 
 js withheld the moment that the roots die ; yet it uoes ngi tol- 
 
'^ AGRICULTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 low that ^ram m that condition should be immediately cut 
 because after that operation is performed it isST^rp!,/^ ^ 
 ure necessarily deprived of every benefit from th^ peatmeas- 
 both of whichjav^ greater .nr^u'enc^^fn^^fn"^^^^^^ ^^^ 
 ty, so long as It remains on foot, than when cut down «Tf^ 
 laid on the ground or bound up in she^^^i es ThT^' . ^^^^'^ 
 weather at the time aUo deserves notice for il mo f ""^'^'^ 
 variable weather -.., ki,a o"gTa^n?wht' ^pTet^^^^^^^^^ 
 IS more exposed to damage than when completely ripS^' 
 
 .f ^l^^fu'^^ Z^ Wheat. Since the last essay on the culture 
 of wheat has been prepared for the press, the following inter- 
 estmg remarks on the diseases of wheLt, which have been 
 H^vf/"^'" ^i^^'f^^ '^ '^"^ agricultural Encyclopedia,Tis be 
 
 r.io'^V'fin^.''"^'?'^"''"^' ^^^" ^^J^^n ^or granted by some peo- 
 ple, that bhght, mildevv, and lust, are the sime disorder Though 
 most agriculturalists have hitherto reckoned them separate 
 diseases biought on at different periods, and occT.norrd by 
 
 that the proximate cause of every disease which attacks thl 
 Stock and ear of wheat plants, may be foundln the s ate ofthe 
 weather at the time, conjoined wfth the circumstLces of so l! 
 situation and the seed that has been used. It is difficult o 
 cUsmry these diseases, or describe them in a distinct manner ; 
 because the sentiments, or rather the language of agricultural- 
 • .? l^u ^""^^^""h IS arbitrary and indistinct. Notwithstand- 
 ing that they are by the great body of the farmers, attributed 
 to atmospherical mfluence solely, yet much confusion arises in 
 their nomenclature ; for many people use the terms bhght, mil- 
 i'sd^ct diseases! '^""^^"^""^' ^^^"^^ ^^ "« they appear to be 
 "Blight according to our ideas, originates from moist or fog- 
 gy weather and from hoar frost, the effects of which when ex- 
 pelled by a hot sun, are first discernible on he straw, and af- 
 terwards on the ear, in a greater or less dejrree, according to 
 the local circumstances. Let the field be ^examined in a day 
 ''^ T fl^r ^"ch,,^'eather, and a careful observer will soon be 
 satisfiedthat the fibres and leaves of the plants are contracted, 
 and enfeebled m consequence ofwhat may be called a stoppage 
 of perspiration. This disorder may take place either earlier or 
 ia.er, but is niost fatal when it appears at the time it is forming 
 m the ear. It may appear at an earUqr sta^e; aud thougS 
 
CtJLTURE dF WHEAT. 71 
 
 tJie productive power of the plant will thereby be lessened, yet 
 if circumstances are aftoiV/ards favorable, the quality of the 
 grain produced may not be much impaired ; or it may appear 
 after the grain is fully formed, and then very little damage will 
 be sustained, except by the straw. 
 
 "Mildew, again, strictly speaking, may be ranked as a dis- 
 ease which affects the ear, and is brought on by causes similar 
 to those which occasion blight, though at a more advanced 
 period of the season. If this disorder comes on immediately 
 after the first appearance of the ear, the straw will also be af- 
 fected ; but if the grain is nearly or fully formed, then injury 
 on the straw is not much discernible. We have seen a crop 
 which carried wheat that was mildewed when the straw was 
 perfectly fresh, though this rarely happens. A severe mil- 
 dew, however, effectually prevents both corn and straw from 
 making any further progress ; the whole plant apparently go- 
 ing backward every day, till existence in a manner ceases al- 
 together. Something akin to mildew is the gum or red ochre, 
 which in warm moist seasons, attaches itself to the ear, and 
 often occasions considerable damage. All these different dis- 
 orders are generally accompanied by insects ; which animal- 
 culae, by many people who take the effect for the cause, are 
 considered though without the least foundation, as the authors 
 of the mischief that follows. Their appearance, however, may 
 justly be attributed to the diseased state of the plant ; for, 
 wherever putrefaction takes place, either in animal or vegeta- 
 ble substances, the presence of these insects w^ill never be 
 wanting. Another aisorder which affects wheat, aid by sev- 
 eral people denominated the red rust, is brought on by exces- 
 sive heats, which occasion the plants to suffer from a privation 
 of nourishment, and become sickly and feeble. In this state, 
 a kind of dust gathers on the stalk and leaves which increases 
 with the disease, till the plant is in a great measure worn out 
 and exhausted. The only remedy in this case is one that can- 
 not be administered by the hand, a plentiful supply of moisture, 
 by which if it is received, before consumption is too far advan- 
 ed, the crop is benefited in a degree proportioual to the ex- 
 tent of nourishment received, and the stage at which the dis- 
 ease has arrived. 
 
 "There is not the slightest reason to believe that parasitical 
 animalculse are the agents of these diseases, because the whole 
 of them may be imputed to atmospherical influence, yet it is 
 not easily ascertained whether excessive drought or excessive 
 rains are most pernicious. Perhaps both may have an influ- 
 ea©€, as tlie plant being stinted and debilitated by drought ii^ 
 
73 AeMC«LT»RAL ESSAYS. 
 
 the first instance, is afterwards unable to bear up and floiTrisfi 
 when visited with heavy rains, especially if these set in when 
 the crop is in a critical stage. 
 
 "Whether blight and mildew be considered separately, or 
 viewed as one and the same disorder, appearing at different pe- 
 riods of the plant's growth, we are convinced that both may 
 with truth be reckoned to proceed from an unhealthy atmos- 
 phere, when the crop is in certain stages of its progress to ma- 
 turity. Not only the extent but the very appearance of blight 
 and mildew are entirely governed by the seasons, and that with 
 respect to wheat, the kind sown, whether thin or thick chaffed, 
 has a very considerable effect in lessening or increasing the 
 effects of these baneful disorders ; and that even soil, culture 
 and situation, each have their respective influence. It seldom 
 happens that either blight and mildew are felt in dry warm sea- 
 sons, except i?4 close confined fields, when the evening dewe 
 stagnate, anl remain till they are removed by the meridian sun. 
 On the oJier hand in every moist season, whether cold or warm, 
 blight, mildew and gum, on the ear, are experienced in a great- 
 er or lesser degree. In such seasons thin chaffed wheats ar€ 
 much less injured than those that are thick chaffed, which 
 circumstance is in direct opposition to the doctrine that blight 
 mildew and rust, are brouoht on by parasitical plants or fungi. 
 
 "Soil, culture and situation have in an inferior degree an in- 
 fluence in the growth and progress of diseases. Some soils 
 are naturally so moist at bottom, that dampness issues from 
 them at all times. Superior culture and excessive manuring 
 are apt to cause a crop to be early lodged, in nhich case one 
 disease or other is sure to seize upon it ; and a southern as- 
 pect and every confined situation are much more hazardous 
 than those of a northern or western exposure, and where the 
 air has free egress. In a word, when hoar frost or vapour of 
 any kind is dispelled by wind, no danger will follow to the 
 crop ; but when a hot sun is the agent, we have repeatedly no- 
 ticed the most serious losses.* 
 
 * See Encylopedia on diseases of wheat, page, 277. 
 
«tjlt¥re of rye. *p 
 
 Culture of Rye. 
 
 •There is no difference between what is called winter and 
 spring rye. Winter rye, by sowing it later and later each 
 year in the fall, will acquire a habit and quality by which it 
 may at length be sown in the spring, and then it is spring rye ; 
 or take spring rye and sow it very late in the fall, and then a 
 little earlier each succeeding year, and it will become confirm- 
 ed in the habit of winter rye. 
 
 One circumstance favourable to the cultivation of this kind 
 of grain is, that it will grow year after year on the same soil 
 without exhausting it, provided the stubble be constantly plough- 
 ed under immediately after taking off the crops. Another cir- 
 cumstance peculiar to this plant is, that it will grow very well, 
 and produce the best grain for bread, on a thin gravelly soil, 
 and will flourish well too on the richest. 
 
 There is an instance mentioned in the Farmer's Assistant, 
 of a gravelly soil being highly manured and sowed with rye, 
 in which the rye was twice successively eaten off close to the 
 ground by sheep breaking in, after it had acquired a height of 
 nine inclies the first time and six inches the latter. These 
 croppings, however, only served to make it grow thic ker and 
 stronger than before ; and when harvested, it produced at the 
 rate of one hundred and twenty eight bushels to the acre. 
 The author of the above account supposed that the crop would 
 have been lost by lodging, had it not been for the two succes- 
 sive croppings of the sheep, and suggests the expediency of 
 trying similar experiments with wheat. 
 
 It has been remark'jd that winter rye may be sowed early in 
 the spring and used as pasture during the season ; and that it 
 may be sown at the usual tune, and serve for a sheep pasture, 
 a while during the next spring without injury to the crop. It may 
 also be'mowed down for hay two or three times during the sum- 
 mer, when sown in the eprmg. But in such culture the ground 
 should have much more seed than the usual allowance,which for 
 early sowing in the fall is about a bushel to the acre, or a 
 bushel and a half for later sowing. Spring rye it is believed 
 should have this latter allowance, and be sowed as early as 
 the ground can be well prepared. 
 
 Rye, when it is intended for family use, should, if the weath- 
 er will admit, be harvested even as early as when the rye is 
 yet in the milk, and left to lie on the ground for some days to 
 dry and harden. By such management the grain will make a.-> 
 much whiter flour. . though perhaps not quite as heavy as 
 when it stands till it is fully rip©. 
 G 
 
74 AORICULTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 When"" rye is sown successively on the same soil, the stub- 
 ble should be ploughed under as soon as the crop is taken off, 
 which helps to improve the ground and serves to destroy the 
 seeds of weeds. It should then lie until about the first of 
 September, then ploughed again, and the next crop harrowed 
 in. Some have supposed that m this way the crops will in- 
 crease in quantity. 
 
 Rye is subject to a distemper called the spur. The grains, 
 which are affected with it, are larger than the rest, mostly 
 crooked, bitter to the taste, projecting beyond their husks, 
 dark coloured, rough, and deeply furrowed from end to end. 
 This kind of diseased grain sometimes proves very destructive 
 to those who eat it. In some parts of France, where the dis- 
 ease prevails most, the peasants who eat it are liable to be at- 
 tacked with a dry gangrene in the extreme parts of the body, 
 which causes those parts to fall off, almost without pain. "The 
 Hotel Dieu at Orleans," says Duhamel, "has had many of 
 these miserable objects who had not any thing more remaining 
 than the bare trunk of the body, and yet lived in that condi- 
 tion for several days." It is not every year that the spur pro- 
 duces these effects, and it is said that if the grain be kept a 
 certain time before it is eaten it will not be hurtful. It is 
 thought however, that no very bad effects have been known 
 in this country from eating this kind of rye. 
 
 When we consider that rye fiour mixed with corn meal 
 makes a wholesome and valuable bread, and can be raised on 
 light soils, which under' some circumstances may be de- 
 voted to that crop better than to any other, and when it is 
 considered, too, that it is not an exhausting crop, the raising it 
 cannot be considered an unimportant article of domestic econ- 
 omy. 
 
 Rye should never be sown on wet soils, nor even upon sandy 
 soils, when the subsoil is retentive of moisture. 
 
 Upon all soft lands which have received manure, this grain 
 thrives in perfection, and if once covered, it is believed, it will 
 stand a drought afterwards that would consume any of the 
 culmiferpus tribe. 
 
 Where it is sown for pasture, as has been mentioned, it 
 should, after having been fed, be suffered to grow up to a con- 
 siderable green crop, before it is turned under with the plough,^ 
 and with such culture it may be considered a certain means of 
 improving the soil, not only for another crop of rye, but for any 
 other crop, which is adapted to the nature of the soil. 
 
CtlLTtfRE OF 1^'DIA^ CORN, 
 
 Culture or Lvdian Corn. 
 
 75 
 
 This plant is believed to be a native of America, and is well 
 adapted to every part of the country, that has hitherto been ex- 
 plored. This grain presents at this time a great number of va- 
 rieties, which are distinguished from each other by the color 
 and size of the grain ; by the number of rows on the cob ; by 
 the leno-th of time they respectively take m ripening, and by 
 the detn-ee of hardness acquired by them. Some are white, 
 and others black; some are yellow, and others are brown, or 
 red, or violet. Some have cobs twelve inches long, studed with 
 twelve rows of large grains ; while others have only six rows, 
 or a cob three inches long, and covered with grains even smal- 
 ler than pepper corns. Some again are five months m ripen- 
 ing, while others are soft, and even succulent, and cannot long 
 be preserved, but by means of artificial heat. The small, trom 
 its ripening soon, and the soft, from its greater tenderness, are 
 most valuable in garden culture, and least valuable in com- 
 merce. It is thought no one of these varieties car. ce said 
 much to excel all tlie others, because the difference in climate, 
 soil, and culture, may, and probably has differently affected the 
 growtii and produce cf the different varieties. 
 
 A change of seed with this grain, as with others, is expedi- 
 ent, and it'is said that a change of seeds grown in different 
 soils is better ; and that changes ought to be from east to west, 
 or from west to east, and not from north to south, or from south 
 to north. Where the crop is raised on low grounds, which are 
 subject to early frosts, the seed should be brought from the 
 northward, that it may ripen before the frosts. It is believed 
 that the longest ears and largest grains will yield the most. 
 
 It has been observed by a respectable farmer that he had 
 found his crop of corn consideiably increased by procuring iiis 
 seed from different parts of the country, and mixing it. 
 
 With respect to the proper time for planting Indian corn, no 
 invariable rule can be given ; the farmer has to take into con- 
 sideralion the peculiarities of the season at the time of plant- 
 ing, as also the climate, and calculate as correctly as he can, 
 so as to give the crop time to ripen before it is exposed to the 
 frosts. From the 1.5th of May to the 1st of June, varying accord- 
 ing to the variety of season and climate, arQ the most usual times 
 throughout New-England.* 
 
 * For other remarks respecting the efficacy and application of 
 manures proper for this plant, see essay on manures. 
 
76 
 
 ASRieVLTVnXh ESSATSi 
 
 An opinion has heretofore prevailed, that corn is a very ex- 
 hausting crop, much more so than potatoes. Tliis is denied by 
 some distinguished modern agriculturalists, especially by Doct. 
 Elliot, called the father of New-England husbandry. In his 
 Essays on Field Husbandry, published in 1747, he remarks, 
 that "the larger the crop of corn, the better the succeeding 
 erop; which is contrary to the fact from- which the knowledge 
 of an exhausting crop is usually derived. 
 
 Respecting the great value of this plant, it has been observ- 
 ed by an eminent agriculturalist,* that "if the theory which sup- 
 poses that plants extract most or all their matter from the at- 
 mosphere, and that the whole wf this matter is manure, be true, 
 then that plant which produces most vegetable offal must be 
 the most improving crop ; and it will hardly be denied that In- 
 dian corn 19 entitled to this preeminence ; compared with 
 Wheat, suppose the same land to produce as much grain of the 
 one as the other, which in its use will make equal returns to 
 the earth. Here the equality ends, if indeed it exists even in 
 this point. The corn stalks exceed the wheat stalks in bulk 
 weight, and a ?apacit^ for making food for the earth. If any 
 one who converts both his stalks and straw into manure, will 
 compare their product in April, when he may distinguish one 
 from the other, he will find in the former a vast superiorhy in 
 quantity. The English fiirmers consider wheat straw as their 
 most abundant resource for manure, and corn stalks are far 
 more abundaot : corn, therefore, is a less impoverishing, be- 
 cause more compensating crop to the earth, credited onTy for 
 its stalks, than any in England. In comparing crops, to ascer- 
 tain their relative product and operation on the earth, we must 
 compare farinacious crops with each other ; and consider the 
 litter and ofFal th6y produce, not as wasted, but as judiciously 
 applied to the compensation of the land. Corn produces a re- 
 turn, from the same land, of more offal or litter, in its stalks a- 
 lone, than wheat does altogether. But to the stalks of corn, its 
 blades, tops, husks, and cobs, remain to be added, each of which 
 will nearly balance the litter bestowed on the land bv the 
 wheat." .. ^ 
 
 The celebrated Arthur Young, in his travels through France, 
 in 1789, makes the following remarks respecting Indian corn ; 
 Perhaps, says he, it is the most important plant that can be in- 
 troduced into the agriculture of any country, whose climate 
 will suit it. For the inhabitants of a country to live upon that 
 plant which is the preparation for wheat, and at the same time 
 
 *■ Col. John Taylor, of Virgiaia; 
 
CtJLTURE OF INDIAN CORN. 77' 
 
 Iteep their cattle fat upon the leaves of it, is a treasure for' 
 which they are indebted to their climate." Planted in squares 
 or rows, so far asunder that all imaginable tillage may be giv- 
 en between them, and the ground thus cleared and prepared 
 at-the will of the farmer, is an invaluable circumstance ; and 
 finally it is succeeded by wheat. A country, whose soil and 
 climate admit the course of, 1st, maize, (corn,) 2d, wheat, is un- 
 der a cultivation that perhaps yields the most food for man and 
 beast, that is possible to be drawn from the land." 
 
 The proper soils for this grain, are thought to be the sandy, 
 sandy loam, gravelly loam, and rich red and dark colored earths, 
 which have not much clay in them. Stiff clays are very unfit 
 for this crop; and cold and wet loams are not much better, un- 
 less well managed. 
 
 There has been much diversity of opinion among farmers re- 
 specting the best manner of distributing the seed, so as to draw 
 from the soil the greatest portion of food; and to equalize the 
 apportionment of the soil, so as to produce the greatest crop. 
 
 A Mr. Stephens, near New- York, who raised on three acres 
 at the rate of 118 bushels to the acre, planted his seed in double 
 rows, about eight inches apart, and the seeds were set diago- 
 nally, the same distance from each other. Between these dou- 
 ble rows, he left a space of five and half feet. A Mr. Ludlow,, 
 in the same vicinity, who produced at the rate of 98 bushels to^ 
 the acre, on three acres, planted his seed in single rows, which 
 were four feet apart, with the grains set eight inches asunder. 
 A very extraordinary crop was raised in Massachusetts, by 
 planting the rows two feet apart, in which the grain was plant- 
 ed in hills the same distance from each other, and two grains 
 in each hill. This latter mode produced 112 bushels to the a- 
 ere. In all these experiments an abundance of good manure 
 was applied. As all these mode^ of distributing the seed were 
 somewhat different from that heretofore most generally prac- 
 ticed throughout New-England, their successful result should 
 remind the farmer, that it may often be expedient to examine 
 the correctness of practices which may owe their origin to im- 
 memorial usage. 
 
 It should be remarked, that as this crop requires that the 
 plants should be separated so that they can be kept clear of 
 weeds by the plough and hoe, and hilled too, for the purpose of 
 advancing its growth as well as to prevent its breaking down 
 by the wind, the seed should be so distributed as to answer 
 these purposes ; and at the same time, the grains should be so 
 far separated from each other, as to admit the salutary influen- 
 ces from the eun and atmospheric air. It will be noticed that 
 
78 AGRICULTURAL ESSAtS. 
 
 in the above experiments, except the last, the grains were plac- 
 ed eight inches from each other ; and in the last, only two, in- 
 stead of four or five, (the usual number) were placed in the 
 same hill. Those who have planted in rows, and separated the 
 grams, as in the two first mentioned experiments, have thought 
 that about one sixth more can be raise<i on an acre, other cir- 
 cumstances being equal. 
 
 Those farmers who may adopt the mode of plantmgin rows, 
 will find their account in using a light drill plough, that may 
 be easily made for the purpose. One of this description may 
 be drawn by hand, and so contrived as to make a small furrow 
 about two inches deep, drop the seed at proper distances into 
 the furrow, and cover the seeds, all in one operation. This 
 method, however, is only practicable on ground entirely clear 
 of stones. When every part of the soil is not sufficiently fertile 
 to secure a crop, the method of placing the manure m the hillv 
 or row, where the grain is deposited, is, doubtless, correct. 
 
 Culture of Oats. 
 
 There is, perhaps, no crop, to the cultivation of which less 
 attention is paid, than to that of oats ; and perhaps the reason 
 which would often be assigned for this negligence, is, that the 
 crop, when raised, is of small comparative value with other 
 crops of grain. But this is believed to be an error. For, 
 where there is any tolerable mode of culture and preparing- 
 the ground, considering the usual market price, the crop ought 
 to be good, to make it an object for the farmer to raise them : 
 and it is a mistaken notion that they will do well with indiffer- 
 ©nt culture. 
 
 To raise a good crop of oats, the ground should be in good 
 heart, and well prepared. Weeds, which are often permitted 
 to grow among this grain, are very prejudicial. 
 
 The culture of oats should be encouraged, where the gene- 
 ral use of horses, and the improvement of their breed, is an ob- 
 ject, as it will always be in the United States. For, oats may 
 be considered their best food, particularly when travelling, as 
 they are of a loosening nature, while most other grains which 
 ve given to them, are binding. 
 
Culture of oats.^ 70 
 
 in Great Britain, they have many varieties of this grain, 
 among which are the oat in most common use here. "The 
 Angus oat is there considered an improved variety of the other ; 
 the Poland oat, the Triesland oat, the red oat, the dun ©at, the 
 Tartar, or Siberian oat, and the potato oat. The Poland and 
 potato varieties are best adapted to rich soils ; the red oat for 
 late climates ; and the other varieties, for the generality of 
 soils, of which the British isles are composed. The Tartar, 
 or Siberian kind, though very hard and prolific, is much out of 
 use, being of a coarse substance, and unproductive of meal ; 
 and the other kinds are, it appears, now principally superceded 
 by the potato oats, which are considered by the most discern- 
 ing agriculturists, as of superior value, in every respect, Vvhen 
 the soil is rich and properly cultivated." 
 
 This variety has, it is said, in some respects degenerated, 
 owing to the farina of other oats having communicated with it. 
 it should be remarked that oats will always degenerate from 
 this cause, as well as from bad culture, and when this happens, 
 the farmer should renovate them by procuring pure seed from 
 others, when it can be had, and if it cannot, it w^ould be better 
 to make a selection of the strongest ears, wliich contained the 
 purest grain for seed, than to sow that which is light and im- 
 pure. 
 
 From twelve to eighteen pecks of seed is generally allowed 
 to the acre, according to the strength of the soil, and the vari- 
 ety that is cultivated.* 
 
 It is affirmed that land sown with potato oats, requires much 
 less seed, in point of measure, than when any of the other sorts 
 are used ; because they tiller well, much better than Poland 
 oats, and have not an awn, or tail, like the ordinary varieties* 
 On that account a measure contains many more seeds of them 
 than of any other kind.f 
 
 * A less quantity of seed is perhaps generally applied by our 
 farmers; but it is believed that the crop is often lessened by too 
 thin sowin*. If the farmer understands the general principles 
 ■which relate to the g-ermination of seeds, he can safely exercise 
 his discretion in assigning the quantity. 
 
 tThis seed perhaps may have been improved from the oats in 
 most common use in the United States ; for there is no doubt but 
 that this seed, as well as all othess, may be greatly improved by 
 selecting the largest grains, and which contain the most meal, 
 and cultivating them bo as to keep them clear from weeds and 
 light impure seed. But if we would procure the best varieties ef 
 seeds, of domestic and foreign growth, by purchase, we may find 
 
80 Aeitic^ii'roRAi. essays. 
 
 A moist soil is favorable to oats ; they sliould therefore be 
 sown as early as the season will admit of, to avoid the injurious 
 effects of the drought, which sometimes greatly injures this 
 crop before it comes to maturity. 
 
 It has been found that gypsum will greatly increase this crop, 
 if the soil be suitable for this kind of manure. It is the opin- 
 ion of some respectable practical farmers, that the next crop to 
 be sown after spring wheat and rye, should be oats ; and that 
 it grows well on hills, or even mountains, where the soil is- 
 ioam, underlayed by hard pan. 
 
 When the condition of a farm is such, that the farmer can- 
 not procure a sufficient supply of- hay for the support of his 
 stock, without procuring it from l^is tillage ground, the expe- 
 dient of raising a crop of oats for that purpose, has often beeii' 
 practised with success ; but when oats are sown for that pur- 
 pose, a much larger quantity of seed should be sown, and the 
 crop harvested after the oats liave headed, and while the straw 
 is green. This grain, as well as spring and winter rye, may 
 be substituted for some of the artificial grasses, which are of-- 
 ten. raised for such purposes, on dry tillage lands.^ 
 
 Culture of Flax. 
 
 The raising of flax requires so much labor, and at the same 
 time is so impoverishing to the soil, that it can hardly be thought 
 an object in the United States to make a business of growing, 
 more of it than may be necessary for domestic uses. 
 
 The same soil, it is thought by many good farmers, should 
 not be sown with flax oftener than once in seven years. 
 
 It has been the practice of the New-England farmers gene- 
 rally, to prepare their ground for flax by previous hoed crops, 
 which have been well manured. And this practice may be 
 relied on for success, perhaps as well as any, especially when 
 
 them in moat of our largfe cities, particularly in New- York and 
 Albany, where they are kept by seed merchants, who make it 
 their object to keep for sale the best kinds and varieties of set'ds 
 f»r culture. 
 
 ♦ See e»iay on artificial grasses. 
 
eCri^TURE OF FiAX, 81 
 
 the hoeing has been thoroughly attended to, so as effectually to 
 destroy the weeds, which are fatal to the growth of flax. 
 
 It has been remarked above, that flax is an exhausting crop. 
 But as I have found a difierent opinion communicated to the 
 Philadelphia Agricultural Society, I think it merits too much 
 consideration not to be noticed, while on this subject. 
 
 The author observes, that he cultivated flax and potatoes in 
 the same field ; each crop having an equal quantity of manure ; 
 that in gathering an excellent crop of flax in July, the ground 
 was immediately ploughed, and sov/ed with turnips ; and pro* 
 duced one hundred bushels of good turnips per acre ; on re- 
 moving the crops of potatoes and^turnips, about the middle of 
 October, the ground was put into wheat ; and that the wheat 
 on the flax and turnip ground, was fully equal, if not superior, 
 to the wheat on the potato ground. The same author ob- 
 serves, that the Irish, who for many years, have had great ex- 
 perience in the cultivation of this valuable plant, generally 
 raised it on ground manured and planted with potatoes the 
 preceding year. They sow on such ground three or four 
 bushels of the best American seed to the acre. Hence a query 
 may be suggested, whether the fineness of the Irish flax may 
 not be owing to this thick sowing, rather than to their flax be- 
 ing pulled before it is fully ripe. It is said that the Flemings 
 nev-er pull the flax intended for their fine cambrics and linen, 
 until the seed is ripe. 
 
 The quality of the flax may also depend very much on the 
 future operations of rotting, breaking, and dressing. 
 
 In America, flax is for the most part rotted, by being laid 
 thni on a grass field. The time required in this operation de- 
 pends on the dryness or wetness, heat or cold, of the season. 
 Flax is judged to be sufficiently grassed, when its bark is a lit- 
 tle blistered towards the extremityof the plant, and when it parts 
 easily from the seed, which at this time becomes very brittle. 
 
 The same author farther observes, thit he had exposed flax 
 m the months of August, September, and October, and that he 
 had always found it rotted in August the best ; and that some 
 farmers of experience had observed, that the injury which the 
 flax is thought to receive by the heat of the mid-summer sun, 
 is by no means equal to the benefit it receives by being ouick- 
 ly maturated. When flax is exposed in a variety of weather 
 in a cold season, the putrefaction necessary to loosen and de- 
 stroy the cohesion of the fibres of the flax from the seed, is SQ 
 tedious as frequently to injure the fibres themselves. 
 ^ The process of water rotting flax, is almost wholly practised 
 m Ireland. One motiiod of water rotting practised in soim 
 
i^2 IfcMCULTrRAL ESSAYS. 
 
 parts of our country, is to bind it up in small sheaves, laid 
 length ways across tlie stream, and sunk completely under ; 
 about five days are generally requisite for this purpose. When 
 Rufficiently rotted in this way, a small handful may be pulled 
 asunder with a little exertion ; and then should be taken out 
 very carefully, so as not to injure the coat, and dried. The 
 water in which it is rotted, should not run rapidly, as such will 
 wash away the coat. If rotted in standing water, it should be 
 turned once while it is rotting. It is essential that flax should 
 have a proper degree of rotting. If rotted too much, its 
 strength is impaired for present use, and it wastes more in 
 cleaning ; and if rotted too little, a great addition of labor is re- 
 quisite in fitting it for use. That which is coarse will rot 
 quicker than that which is fine ; it would therefore be better, 
 when practicable, that these should be kept separate while 
 rotting, in order that the latter may have longer thne for this 
 purpose. 
 
 The short ana the long should also be sorted, as it is incon- 
 venient to have them mixed in dressing. It is of importance 
 that the seed should be sown as evenly as possible, and to 
 effect this, it is best to sow one half of the seed over the whole 
 ground, and then the other half cross wise, and sown when 
 there is no air in motion. 
 
 Salt is said to be one of the most valuable manures for flax. 
 In one experiment by Richard Peters, Esq. of Philadelphia, it 
 appears that, by sowing about twice the quantity of foul salt to 
 that of flax seed, he had from three acres, fifty bushels of ex- 
 cellent seed, and a great crop of flax. From extensive exper- 
 iments of this kind of manure, it is well ascertained that salt, 
 as a manure for flax, should be applied, when it can be procur- 
 ed at any reasonable expsnsc. 
 
 It is attested by some respectable farmers, that they have 
 always succeeded in raising a crop of flax, by soaking the seed 
 about half an hour if^ weak lye, or in strong lye diluted with 
 six times as much water, and just as the seed is coming up, to 
 sow on it two or three bushels of strong ashes per acre ; and 
 that if it is taken wet from the lye and rolled in plaster, it is 
 better. 
 
 No crop is thought to be better than potatoes to precede 9, 
 crop of flax. 
 
 Notwithstanding the weight of authorities to the contrary, 
 many farmers are of the opinion that flax is better if pulled a 
 little before the seed is ripe ; they say the seed will ripen, in 
 the swarth, if it is plump and full grown before the flax i§. 
 pulled • 
 
etLTtJRE OF HEMP, 8S 
 
 Culture of Hemp. 
 
 Some farmers, well informed in the business of practical ag- 
 riculture, arc of the opinion that hemp may ultimately become 
 one of the most important and valuable exports from the interi- 
 or of New-England, as well as the western and southern States; 
 and that it is as natural and valuable a staple, and every way 
 adapted to our climate and soil, as cotton is to the climate and 
 soil of the south. Some of them say that it will produce more 
 pounds to the acre than cotton, and with much less manual la- 
 bor ; and will command in market, if properly prepared and 
 handled, a price as great as the short stapled cottons, by the 
 pound. And to induce our northern farmers to engage in it, it 
 has been observed, that before the introduction of cotton into 
 the interior of the Carolinas and of Georgia, corn and provi- 
 sions were, as tliey now are among us, a mere drug, utterly un- 
 convertable into cash, even at a very low price : and that as 
 the introduction of cotton there raised the demand and the 
 price, and made a ready market for grain, so that of raising 
 hemp may in New-England and the western States. 
 
 Could the introduction of hemp become the means of divert- 
 ing, in some measure, the market of rye and corn from the dis- 
 tilleries, those engines of corruption, disease and misery, it cer- 
 tainly would be a valuable improvement to the condition of our 
 country. 
 
 We now purchase great quantities of Russian hemp at enor- 
 mous prices, for the calls of our commerce and naval establish- 
 ments, because we have not, it is said, sufficient that is fit for 
 use. 
 
 Our surplus rye and corn now go to the retailing merchant, 
 a great proportion of it, and from the merchant to the distiller. 
 But if hemp were introduced as one of the staples of our agri- 
 cultural system, the growers of it would be in a condition to 
 purchase much of the grain ^vhich is now sold for foreign mer- 
 chandize, and to pay cash for it, which would better promote 
 the interest of those who cultivate it. 
 
 As the culture of this plant has not been much attended to in 
 the northern States, the following remarks, by a writer who ap- 
 pears to have been a practical farmer, are worthy of consider- 
 ation : "This plant flourishes most in a mellow, dry soil,* and 
 the richer the better. It affords little or no profit on lands of 
 
 * The editors of the Agfricultural Encyclopedia, howerer, say 
 that the soils most suited to the culture of this plant, are those of 
 the deep, black, putrid, rogetablo kind, that are low, and rather 
 
84 A»RI8C1TURAL ES3ATS. 
 
 ordinary fertility. In soils naturally adapted to its cultnre, •» 
 in those sufficiently manured, it is one of the surest and most 
 profitable crops, as the plant is subject to no disease, nor is it lia- 
 ble to be annoyed by any insect. Droughts do not sensibly affect 
 its s^rowth, and it is in no danger of being destroyed by cattle. 
 
 From two to three bushels of seed are requisite to the acre, 
 proportioned to the fertility of the soil, as in other crops. 
 
 The seed must be of the year next preceding, as it quickly 
 loses its germinative powers. 
 
 A ton of hemp when dressed, may be raised from two acres 
 of land, of the highest fertility. 
 
 It is believed that in this crop, as in almost every other, ma- 
 terial benefit is to be derived from soaking the seed, in a solu- 
 tion, not too strong, of common salt, or salt petre, or in a mod- 
 erate lye of wood ashes, and then rolling the seed in gypsum, 
 before sowing. The application of gypsum, as manure, af- 
 ter the seed is sown, is also beneficial, if the soil is suitable. 
 
 The ground should be harrowed before the seed is sown, as 
 by that means the seed may be sov;n of a more even depth, that 
 it may all start together ; otherwise a part of the plants will 
 outgrow and keep down the rest. 
 
 It should be sown as early in the spring as the ground can 
 be put in proper order, and sufficiently dry. In ordinary sea- 
 sons in New-England, it will be ripe for harvest about the first 
 of August, the time for harvesting being indicated by the fal- 
 ling of the flow^ers, and the withering of the leaves. 
 
 The male plants of hemp bear the flowers, and the female 
 plants the seed. A sufficiency of the latter are to be left for 
 seed, and those will require about six weeks further time to ri- 
 pen, the ripeness being known by the seed turning brown. 
 
 The seeds may be gently beat off the stalks wlien dried, or 
 they may be taken off by a coarse comb, made for the purpose. 
 
 It is said the female hemp which has stood to ripen the seeds, 
 requires a longer time to rot, than the male, and when dressed 
 is jharsher. It has been advised to sow some hemp thinly by 
 itself for seed, and then the rest of the crop may be all pulled 
 or cut together. In grounds that are smooth the crop is cut 
 close to the earth, by a kind of scythe, made for the purpose. 
 The usual practice, however, is to pull it in the manner of pul- 
 ling flax. 
 
 inclined to moisture, as well as those of the deep, itk.IIow, loamy 
 or sandy descriptions ; and that the qMantity of produce is g^ener- 
 ally much sfreater oo the former than on the latter, but it is said to 
 be greatly inferior Id quality. 
 
CULTURE OF HKaXP. 85 
 
 When it is sufficiently dried, which in good weather will he in 
 about one week, it is to be gathered in bundles, bound with in 
 straw, and then carefully stacked up so as to be kept in a dry 
 situation. 
 
 Many farmers practice rotting it in the winter, by spreading 
 it on the snow, in the early part of winter, so that by being cov- 
 ered with other snows, it will be bleached and improved in its 
 color. When the snows dissolve in March, it will be found suf- 
 ficiently rotted. 
 
 When sufficiently dry, it should be first broken with a coarse 
 break, and then with the common flax break ; and dressed in 
 the manner of flax, but more gently, as it will waste with hard 
 beating. 
 
 The crop may also be rotted in the fall, in a manner similar 
 to that of rottmg flax ; or, it may be water-rotted like that crop. 
 When water-rotted, the hemp should be sunk completely un- 
 der the water ; and if it be stagnant, the hemp should be turn- 
 ed upside down, when about half rotted, otherwise, from the 
 greater degree of heat on the surface of such waters than be- 
 low, the upper part will be rotted before the under. 
 
 By water or winter rotting the coat of the hemp blackens much 
 less than when rotted in the fall ; and itis observed,that the warn> 
 er the weather, or the earlier in the fall the crop is rotted, the 
 blacker the coat will be, as is the case also with regard to flax. 
 
 The crop of hemp should be harvested as soon as it is fit for 
 the purpose ; otherwise the male stalks will soon wither and 
 blacken, after which the coat is of little value. 
 
 Hemp may be made a substitute for flax, for all common pur- 
 poses. But in that case it is said it must be softened by steam- 
 ing it over boiling water or lye, and beating it after it is dried 
 again. 
 
 An excellent crop of wheat has been taken after a crop of 
 hemp, and with very little expence. 
 
 The policy of introducing any new crop, to constitute a sta- 
 ple for market, should be adopted with caution. It has been re- 
 marked, that it might raise the price of grain, as did the intro- 
 duction of cotton in the southern States ; but is it certain that a 
 ready market and high price for grain, are indicative of the 
 most prosperous condition of a country ? It is not certain that 
 a majority of the citizens ofany country would always be ready 
 to give an affirmative answer to this question. The [rreat ques- 
 tion respecting the policy of raising our own hemp for commer- 
 cial and naval purposes, rather than purchase it of foreianers, 
 must depend on the effect it would have on the price of Labor. 
 A very large portion of our citizens, who constitute an impor- 
 H 
 
86 AGRICULTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 tantpart of the physical strength of our country, purchase their 
 bread corn, for which they have to pay in their services only. 
 The price of those services is not always enhanced in propor- 
 tion to that of grain or butchery's meat. It should be a predom- 
 inent object in the policy of our country, not to attempt the ad- 
 vancement of its general interests by 'means, which, in their 
 •peration, tend to depress the condition of the poorer class of 
 «itizens. 
 
 Culture qf Turnips. 
 
 The culture of the turnip has, in England, been long con- 
 sidered a profitable part of field husbandry, though it has been 
 in some degree superceded by that of carrots, which has been 
 thought more profitable. 
 
 The raising of turnips is there considered not only an impor- 
 tant object for the purposes of winter food for cattle, but also to 
 improve and prepare the soil for other crops. It is said by the 
 greatest authorities on English agriculture, that the introduc- 
 tion of turnips into the husbandry of Great Britain, occasioned 
 one of those revolutions in the rural art, which are constantly 
 occurring among husbandmen ; and though the revolution came 
 on with slow and gradual steps, yet it may now be viewed as 
 completely established. 
 
 There are tkree kinds of turnips : the flat or round sort, 
 which are in most common use in this country ; also, the long 
 and French turnip. Of the former, there are the green topped, 
 the red purple, the yellow, and the early Dutch turnip. The 
 last are sown early in the spring, for a supply of the market 
 during the summer season. The green topped are considered 
 the most profitable, and are raised for winter use. For raising 
 them on a small scale, the following method has been found to 
 succeed well : Turn over a turf of old sward the first week in 
 June. Yard cattle on this, in the proportion of six head at least, 
 to a quarter of an acre, until the 20th of July ; then harrow 
 lengthwise of the furrows, so as not to disturb or overturn them, 
 and sow in the proportion of about half a pound of seed to the 
 acre. If not convenient to yard cattle upon it suflSciently, a- 
 bout two inches of well rotted manure, harrowed in as abovCi 
 win do for a a.ubstitute. 
 
CULTURE OF TURNIPS. , Wt 
 
 Some farmers who have made the culture of turnips an im- 
 portant branch of field husbandry in this country, give a decid- 
 ed preference to the drill husbandry in their cultivation. One 
 farmer in the state of New- York, who has succeeded in raising 
 vast quantities of this root, has practiced the following mode : 
 After the manure is spread on the surface, to plough it in about 
 the 12th of June, and then to harrow it smooth. After this ie 
 done to plough it into ridges, about 30 inches apart, and not 
 wider than three feet ; and then to sow on the ridges with a 
 drill harrow ; and as soon as the turnips are in the rough leaf, 
 to separate them v/ith hoes to about the distance of from four to 
 eight inches, according" to the species of the turnip, the larger 
 sort requiring more room to spread; (killing at the same time 
 all the weeds on the top of the ridges." When the turnips have 
 become well fixed again, as many must be loosened in this op- 
 eratioD, and the sides of those ridges covered with weeds, to 
 introduce a small plough, and take a slice from both sides of 
 every ridge close to the turnips ; these slices of course fall into 
 the farrow, carrying the weeds which grew on their sides. A 
 day or two after, another plough, w4th a double mould board, is 
 introduced into the furrow, and sweeps back the mould to its 
 place. This operation may be repeated as often as weeds ap^ 
 pear; but if it is effectually done once, it will not be wanted a- 
 gain. 
 
 This farmer, * in the year 1822, when he gave this account, 
 raised of the Swedish turnip, or ruta baga, on one acre, one 
 thousand and ninety-six bushels; and of the white globe tur- 
 nip, on an acre, eleven hundred and forty-three bushels ; f and 
 he observes, that no crop can be more valuable than turnips. 
 The thinning and weeding process, mentioned above, is consid- 
 ered an essential measure in the culture of turnips ; and one 
 would suppose the prejudices which may exist against it, on 
 account of the extraordinary labor it requires, should be re- 
 moved, froai the consideration of the value of the erop which it 
 produces. Another objection to making the culture of turnips 
 an important object, may arise from the expence of harvesting 
 and storing an article which requires so much room secure from 
 frost. As the manner in which sa greai a crop is secured, 
 seems to be connected with its utility, it may be interesting to 
 state the manner in which this crop was harvested and secured, 
 taken from the farmer's own account, who raised the crop, 
 
 *Mr. Fealherstonau^h, of Duanesburg;, State New- York, 
 t Upwards of two thousand bushels to the acre have been krIs- 
 od in Great Britain, 
 
^S AGRICULTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 Six men were directed to take each a row, draw the turnios, 
 strike off the long thin tap root and the soil with it, with a knife 
 made out of old scythes, and throw them into one row, with 
 their bottoms to the ground ; and keeping their tops as free from 
 dirt as possible. When a sufficient quantity were drawn for 
 the day, the parties, six men, went back to their drawn rows, 
 took up the turnips, and struck off the leafy tops into small con- 
 fenient heaps, dropping the bulbs on the ground, which were 
 taken up as.d carried in carts and sleds to cellars near the sheep 
 to ds containmg about 500 bushels each. When these were 
 mi, long square pits were prepared on dry knolls, in the fields, 
 about a foot deep, and the turnips piled up in each, to the num- 
 ber perhaps, of three hundred bushels. Straw was put over 
 them, and subsequently a foot deep of earth, making this cov- 
 ering somewhat thicker to the north-west; this he found by 
 experience to be a sufficient covering, having taken them out 
 in the month of May, perfectly sound. The tops were fed out 
 constantly to horned cattle, as long as they lasted. The hand- 
 somest turnips with the smallest necks and tops, were selected 
 tbr seed, without cutting the roots, and only a part of the top<! 
 and then secured by themselves. These are planted out in dry 
 mellow, and rich ground, on the first opening of the spring, 
 a foot apart, and kept perfectly clean. The seed when ripe, is 
 gathered early in the morning, while the dew is on the pods, 
 and before they split open. • 
 
 This crop, it is said, without exhausting the soil, prepares it 
 as well as any other, for wheat or for grass. Where the soil 
 IS suitable for turnips, and the sheep husbandry is an object of 
 much attention to the farmer, the raising them for feeding to 
 sheep as well as cattle has been found greatly efficacious, and 
 an important improvement in the system of agriculture. The 
 following specific against the fly or little black flea, which are 
 so destructive to the young turnip plant in warm dry weather, 
 should be here noticed in addition to what, has been suc-o-ested 
 on that subject, under the essay on insects. °° 
 
 Steep the seed in train or fish oil and sulphur, from 15 to 20 
 hours before seeding ; the oil may then be strained off, and the 
 seed rolled in plaster or ashes. The oil assists the vegetation 
 of the seed, and impregnates the plant so strongly, that no fly 
 will trouble it, till it is well leafed out. 
 
 Two, perhaps the greatest, difficulties to encounter in the 
 cultivation of the turnip, are the fly and the worm. The for- 
 mer makes its attacks between the time of shooting out of the 
 earth and the expansion of the seed leaf; the latter, from the 
 tap?? of becommj^ a bulb until it is at maturity. T© counteract 
 
CULTURE OF TURNIP^r C» 
 
 the former, in addition to what has been said, it may be observ- 
 ed, that tke first stage of vegetation should b» forced, by sow- 
 ing the seed immediately on the manure, and then top-dressm^ 
 with lime, plaster, or ashes. The latter are repulsed m a great 
 measure, by means of the hoe, by which the superfluous plants 
 are thinned out, and the earth taken from those left for the 
 crop, leaving the tap root only in the earth. By givmg the full 
 force of the manure immediately to the seed, the rough leaf is 
 thrown out so rapidly, that the fly has little chance to operate ; 
 and by taking the earth from the bulbs, the worm cannot find 
 means to attack it. It is said the best time to put in the seeo © 
 immediately after a shower, and that the seed should follow m:- 
 mediately the spreading of the manure, in the drills, so that it 
 may not have a chance to evaporate or cool. From three pints 
 to two quarts of seed has been thought to be a suitable quanti- 
 ty for an acre. . 
 
 In cold climates, the securing of turnips from frost during the 
 winter, where large quantities are raised, may be thought aa 
 objection to the cultivation of this plant. But those farmers 
 who have made it an important object to feed neat cattle and 
 sheep with them, through the winter months, think the provid- 
 ing proper cellars for the storing them, a necessary item in the 
 expence of a good system of husbandry.* 
 
 If the farmer will compare the quantity of essential aliment 
 contained in turnips, with that of good hay, which may be rais- 
 ed on an acre, he will be better enabled to form a correct opin- 
 ion respecting their relative value, and respecting the expedi- 
 ency of bestowing the extraordinary expence, necessary to cul- 
 tivate the former to advantage. Sixteen hundred bushels, 
 which is not the most abundant crop known to have been raised 
 on an acre, are estin^ated at about forty-seven tons. But let one 
 third of that quantity, or about five hundred bushels, be con- 
 sidered an ordinary crop, equal to about fifteen tons ; an or- 
 dinary crop of hay, say at about two tons, which is however, a 
 large average estimate ; and then compare the relative value 
 and expence of the two crops. 
 
 It is not pretended that this root should be made a substitute 
 for hay, or other dry food, but it seems to have been proved 
 from the actual experiments of the best farmers in our coiin.ry, 
 a very important auxilary in the raising and improving the bree4 
 of our neat cattle and sheep. 
 
 * See essays on neat cattle and sheep. 
 
 H ^ 
 
5*0 Jl«RIC»LTURAL KS3AY3; 
 
 Potato. 
 
 The culture of this root, although a native of America, has^ 
 sot been sufficiently improved, except in the vicinity of our 
 large cities. To improve the quantity as well as the quality 
 of the crop, particular attention should be paid to the seed. 
 Potatoes planted several years from the same seed, will greatly 
 degenerate, and produce little or nothing. One method to 
 obtain new and various kinds of potatoes, is, to raise the' seed 
 from that which is contained in the apples. For this purpose, 
 the apples should be gathered after the seeds are fully ripe, 
 and mashed together in some water until the pulp is washed 
 away and separated from the seeds. Then dry them, and the 
 next spring sow them in a bed, and keep them clear from 
 weeds until the young plants acquire their growth. The po- 
 tatoes thus laised, of the first year's growth, it is said, will be 
 small ; they should then be sorted, and the next year planted, 
 each kind by itself, and the products will be full grown, or 
 mearly so. It will be found that some of the new sorts produc- 
 ed in this way, will excel in size and in the amount of the pro- 
 duct ; and others, also, will excel in dryness and superiority of 
 taste. In this way the farmer can accommodate himself with 
 such as are best for the table, and such as are more suitable 
 for feeding swine, &c. A great diversity of opinion has pre- 
 vailed respecting the size and condition of the potato best for 
 seed ; wJiether large or small ; or whether large ones cut in 
 pieces are not equally productive. But it is believed that no 
 general and invariable rule can be adopted respecting this 
 matter, from w^hich circumstances may not render it expedient 
 to vary. From some cause, which perhaps it would be useless 
 to explain, were it even possible, crops e^ally good have been 
 raised from seed in either condition. The large whole potato 
 miight how^ever be considered preferable upon a dry soil, for 
 the following reason : the outside skin of the potato, called the 
 (Siuticle, is the most durable part, and seems to retain the mois- 
 fcure for the use of the plant, till it is all exhausted ; and when 
 potatoes are cut for planting, the nutritive juice is in a great 
 measure absorbed by the earth. The opinion that the whole 
 potato is not so good, on account of bringing the plants too 
 fear together, appears to be erroneous, when it is considered 
 that in the progress of vegetation, the roots spread in every 
 direction in quest of nourishment ; and if that food which is 
 necessary for the growth of the plant, is properly located con- 
 tiguous to the soil of which the hill is composed, the plant will 
 spread until it comei ia contact with it, and absorbs it, and fills 
 
CtTLTtTRE OF POTATOES. 91 
 
 the hill. But for a moist and weak soil, the seed potato may be 
 cut, and thereby the crop increased from the same weight of 
 seed ; for on such a soil tiie moisture furnished trora the whole 
 potato is not wanted ; and as the nutritive qualities in such a 
 soil are more scattered, the roots ot the plant will be more 
 likely to come in contact with it, and derive nourishment from 
 it, than if placed only in one particular point in the hill. For 
 this reason too, it would seem to be more profitable to plant 
 small potatoes in a moist soil than in a dry one. 
 
 The Irish, who perhaps raise and use more potatoes than any- 
 other people, it is said, generally cut their potatoes, and set 
 them about ten inches apart The practice, however, might 
 have originated from tlie necessity of using a part of the pota- 
 to for food. Circumstances may render that a sufficient rea- 
 son here also. 
 
 Potatoes should be hoed when first up, just to clean out the 
 weeds, with but little hilling, and when they are about seven 
 inches high, should be hilled up for the last time. The hilling 
 them up by a third hoeing may be rather injurious than other- 
 wise. If weeds spring up so as to render a third hoeing necessa- 
 ry, they had better be pulled from the hill and cut up round it 
 with the hoe, without enlarging the hill. It is an error to suppose, 
 that it increases the crop of potatoes by enlarging the hill, in 
 any instance where sufficient manure is deposited in or near 
 the hill. By reference to the principles of vegetation, it will 
 be found, that if the influence of light and atmospheric air are 
 too far removed from the root by too deep burying, the less 
 vigorous the plant and root. It is said that potatoes may be rais- 
 ed by covering them over with straw, when only laid on a clean 
 sward, to the depth of about eight inches ; and that in this con- 
 dition tney have been found to grow nearly as large as if buri- 
 ed in the ground, and to be drier and better flavored. 
 
 To get the greatest product of potatoes from a given quantity 
 of ground, ihe most approved practice appears to be that of 
 planting in rows, instead of hills. The following method has 
 been extensively practised with success. After the ground is 
 suitably prepared, to run very liaht furrows at the distance of 
 about three, or three and a half ^et apart : to drop the potatoes 
 along the furrows at the distance of about eighteen inches 
 apart, and to cover them with a light furrow run along on one 
 side, or with the hoe ; when the plants have grown to the 
 height of six or eififht inches, run the plough along on each 
 side of the rows as close as possible without injuring the plants, ' 
 turning the furrow from them, then immediately turn the fur- 
 row back 10 them,andtlius the soil becomes sufficiently meUowed 
 
^•i AOm CULT URAL ESS ATS. 
 
 to keep up a due degree of fermentation about the K)ot8. Thig^ 
 process to be repeated sol ong as the condition of the soil may 
 require it, to keep the weeds down, till the tops become so 
 large as to prevent them. This mode of culture in rows, it 
 will be seen, will better admit the plough as a substitute for the 
 hoe, and thereby save much time and labor. 
 
 When potatoes are planted in rows or in hills, before the po- 
 tatoes are taken out of the ground, the tops should be first pul- 
 led and laid in heaps to be carried off for manure. Tf this is 
 not done, they should be covered over with dirt, as the prac- 
 tice of some is ; and the soil thereby becomes gi eatly fertilized, 
 and prepared to rieceive the seed for winter grain. When this 
 latter mode is practised, if the seed of another crop is immedi- 
 ately to follow, care should be taken that the tops should not 
 be disturbed with the teeth of the harrow. 
 
 When the farmer has not sufficient manure to fertilize every 
 part of the soil, it is a good practice to place it in the holes of 
 rows, with the potatoes, the better to secure its efficacy for the 
 present crop. 
 
 The editors of the Agricultural Encyclopedia, have observed 
 that a new variety of potato may be propagated at any time 
 by mixing different kinds in the same hill or furrow, and that 
 if these are allowed to come to maturity, a kind of connection 
 takes place betwixt the blossoms of each, which produces a 
 new race, or variety. In this way, they say the numerous va- 
 rieties of the potato root now prevailing in Britain, have been 
 procreated and introduced. 
 
 This mode of acquiring new varieties is worth the attention 
 of the American farmer, as we have not yet many of those va- 
 rieties in general use, some of which may possess qualities of 
 superior excellence and profit to any which are commonly 
 cultivated. 
 
 In Great Britain, the leading and prevailing variety has been 
 the yellow kidney, which, though it is not the most productive, 
 it is thought to be the most delicious potato that is cultivated. 
 
 The black potato is the next favorite, though it should bf 
 remarked that this kind, being rarely taken- up in a ripe state, 
 is not fit for use till the spring monthsy when it acquires a close- 
 ness of texture and mellowness which it does not possess ata». 
 earlier period. The common red potato is probably a branch 
 of this breed, as it appears to have the same qualities last de- 
 scribed. 
 
 There has been found to have been sixty varieties' of thi» i 
 vegetable, a particular description of which will not comport 
 with the limits of this work. But it is hoped our farm/>r« win 
 
CULTURE OF HOPS. 9S 
 
 by one or other of the means which have been mentioned, soon 
 have all the varieties which may be adapted to different soils 
 and uses. 
 
 As the practice of sowing the land with wheat next after a 
 crop of potatoes, is so important to the interest of the farmer, it 
 may be expected it will become a part of our geneiral system. 
 In addition, th-arefore, to what has been remarked respecting 
 the depositing of the potato tops for manure, the following prac- 
 ticable mode has been found very efficacious. 
 
 Before the digging is commenced, run a deep furrow near 
 the row, turning the soil from them, deposit the tops in the 
 bottom of the furrow ; dig the potatoes, and then by turning a 
 back furrow, the tops may be covered a sufficient depth to es- 
 cape the teeth of the harrow. After the potatoes are dug, a 
 single furrow on the row will be sufficient to prepare the 
 ground for the reception of the seed. The vines placed in this 
 condition will affiard a good supply of excellent manure, and 
 although it may not be so equally dieUibuted to every part of 
 the soil by this operation, yet the preference of this mode of 
 securing the whole benefit of the manure, will more than com- 
 pensate for this defect in its distribution. But w^hen wheat is 
 to follow the potato crop, the soil should have been rendered 
 sufficiently fertile in the cultivation of that crop. The teeth of 
 the harrow, in harrowing in the wheat, should be guaged, as 
 may be necessary in many other uses of it, by putting them 
 through pieces of slit work, or plank, laid on'the top of the 
 harrow, with holes for the teeth, that they may thereby be pre- 
 vented from running so deep as to disturb the vines which are 
 buried. 
 
 The practice of leaving potato vines on the field without be- 
 ing buried, whether wheat is to follow Ihe potato crop or not, 
 is slovenly, bad husbandry, a wanton v/aste of manure, and 
 ought to be exploded by all who would sustcdn the reputatioR 
 «f good farmers. 
 
 Culture of Hops. 
 
 This plant requires a rich mellow soil, which should be pre- 
 pared by digging or deep ploughing. "When a piece of 
 land is intended to be planted, the first thing is to plough Ihe 
 
94 AGRICULTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 land as deep as possible in October, and to harrow it level : 
 it is then marked each way with a four rod chain, placing pie- 
 ces of wood or stick at every tenth link, to mark the place of 
 the hills, which make 1000 per acre. This is the general meth- 
 od : but some few grounds are planted 800, and some 1200 per 
 acre ; some are planted wider one way than the other in order 
 to admit the ploughing between the hills, instead of digging, 
 But this practice, although it hasbeen tried many years, does 
 not seem to increase on account of the difficulty of digging 
 along the rows, where the plough cannot go ; that ipart being 
 much trodden with the horses in ploughing, digs so much the 
 worse that an extra expense is incurred, which in some mea- 
 sure defeats the economy of the plan. When the hills are 
 marked out, holes are dug about the size of a gallon, which 
 are filled with fine mould, and the nursery plants placed in 
 them. 
 
 Some put three plants, others two, and some only one good 
 plant to each hole. If the land is planted with cuttings, in- 
 stead of nursery plants, the holes are dug in the spring, as 
 soon as cutting time commences. Some fine mould is provided 
 to fill up the holeSjinwhich are placed four or five cuttings each a- 
 bout three or four inches in length. They are covered about an 
 inch deep with fine mould, and pressed down close with the 
 hand. When the land is planted with cuttings, no sticks are 
 required, but if nursery plaats are used they require sticks, or 
 small poles, six or seven feet high the first year. In both 
 cases the land is kept clear during the 'summer by horse and 
 hand hoeing ; the next winter dug with a spade ; and early in 
 the spring the old binds are cut off* smooth, about an inch be- 
 low the surface ; a little fine mould is then drawn over the 
 crow.i of the hills. As soon as the young shoots appear, so that 
 the hills may be seen, they are stuck with small poles, from 
 seven to ten feet long, in proportion to the length it is expect- 
 ed the vine will run." * It is said the poles should never be 
 too long, ELS the vines never begin to bear much till they have 
 got to the ends of the poles ; that poles often feet are long 
 enough for the first year ; after that they are to be longer ac- 
 cording to the strength of the ground, but never so long as 
 that the vines cannot go somewhat beyond their tops. When 
 the vine gets about two feet in length, it is the practice of 
 some to tie them to the pole. 
 
 The proper time for gathering them is known by the hop 
 tubbmg freely to pieces, and the seed beginning to turn- 
 
 • See Encylopedia, t. 1, p. 302, 
 
t"»LTURE OF HOPS. 
 
 S5 
 
 brown ; about tlie first of September is the time generally in 
 New-England. If gathered later, the vines will bear more the 
 next year, but the present crop will not be quite as good. 
 When the poles are drawn to be picked, it is advised to cut 
 the vmes asunder three or four inches from the giound, for cut- 
 ting lower while they are green, weakens the root by too 
 great a flow of sap. When large crops are raised, the best 
 way to dry them is on kilns ; but they may be dried on floors 
 ui?der cover, or in the sun, though it is said they will not be 
 so well flavored as when kiln dried. When kiln dried, the 
 fire should be kept on a ii.oderate heat, foi- if it steams the hop 
 brown it will be injured. They should lie about six inches 
 thick and be frequently stirred v.iiile drying. The seeds will 
 crackle a little when bursting, and then if the hops have been 
 equally exposed to the heat hey are all sutficiently dried. 
 
 Before they are put into bags they should be laid in heaps 
 three or lour days, to sweat and grow tough. Those vrho 
 raise them for market, should procure bags of coarse linen 
 doth about eleven feet long and about two and a half yards in 
 circumference, which rhould contain about 250 lbs. of hops. 
 
 The best poles are those which are most durable. Each 
 pole should have thiee vines and all above this should be brok- 
 en off'in the spring. Mr. Young is of the opinion that a hop 
 garden will last almost forever by renewing the hills that now 
 and then fail ; but that the better way is, ^7 grub it up and 
 new plant it once in about twenty five years. VThe seed of the 
 hop is found to be the strongest part, and care should therefore 
 be taken that they are gathered so soon that these will not 
 fall out while gathering. 
 
 The long white hop is preferred, but care should be taken 
 that they are all of one kind, for of difterent sorts some may 
 ripen quicker than others. When bog meadows are w'ell 
 drained, hops will grow well on them. The culture of hops, 
 where proper attention has been paid to it, has been found to 
 be very profitable ; at the prices tlicy have commanded in this 
 country, an acre of them has produced from two to three hun- 
 dred dollars, and the whole expence per acre for raising them 
 cannot be supposed in any instance, to exceed one hundred 
 dollars ; and they have always been found a profitable article 
 for exportation. Rut very considerable quantities are wanted 
 for our breweries at home ; and they are of considerable impor- 
 tance, as a necessary article in the beer made for domestic 
 uses, wiiich is an excellent beverage, and a fine substitute for 
 cider. 
 
^6 A»RieULTHRAL ESSAYS. 
 
 CWLTITRE OF ARTIFICIAL GrASSES. 
 
 The term artificial grasses, has been defined to imply a se- 
 lection from the promiscuous family, and a culture, by human 
 art, of the kinds best adapted to the soil and climate of the 
 country, in preference to a reliance upon the grasses produced 
 naturally. The great value of this selection is illustrated by 
 the contrast between the crab of the wilderness and the culti- 
 vated pippin of the orchard; or by a comparison between the 
 esculents of the garden and those of spontaneous production. 
 
 It is remarked by John Taylor, of Caroline, in a paper com- 
 municated to the Agricultural Society of Virginia, that an im- 
 provement of the soil by the culture of artificial grasses, arises 
 from the vegetable matter of both root and top, when ungrazed ; 
 from the former when grazed ; from protecting the grounds a- 
 gainst heat in summer, and cold in winter ^from producing 
 food to create animal manure ; from rendering the ground fit 
 to bear deeper ploughing, by reason of the mass of vegetable 
 matter minglea with it,that it can bear in a naked state,by which 
 its soil is deepened ; and from saving four-fifths of the farm 
 from the hoof and the tooth, by making one fifth far more ade- 
 quate to supply the demand for grass, than the whole without 
 such cultivation. 
 
 The artificiul grasses enable the farmer to raise meats of all 
 kinds, for his G,^7n use and for the market, of the best quality, 
 in the cheapest modes, and to increase the size of all animals 
 destined to slaughter or labor. By a skilful management of ar- 
 tificial grasses, the manure they cause domestic animals to pro- 
 duce, will more than repay in'the improvement of the soil and 
 increase of crops, the expence of their maintenance. Men 
 chiefly subsist upon grain and meat ; brutes upon grass, grain, 
 or dry hay. The difference between th^ expence t)f cultivat- 
 ing an acre of grain, and one of grass, is inconsiderable; and 
 yet the latter will raise far more meat, butter, tallow, leather, 
 and wool. Grass being the basis of food in the case of stocks, 
 as bread stuff* is for man, that mode of obtaining it which pro- 
 duces the most and best,*: with the least injury to the land, and 
 from the smallest space, is' entitled to the preference. 
 
 The artificial grasses, also, produce considerable profit by 
 saving labor. 
 
 But the greatest benefit from the cultivation of artificial 
 grasses, arises from their exclusive capacity to make high land 
 meadows. The expense of clearing and draining the latter, 
 will generally exceed that of manuring the former ; yet th« 
 draining i« considered every v/here as highly profitable and 
 
CULTURE OF ARTIFICIAL GRASSES. 1*7 
 
 aseful. The comparative expense between that and making^ 
 high land grass, is not materially affected by the probable com- 
 parative profit. A good spring crop of high land grass, is 
 more common in our climate, than of low land, and is not expos- 
 ed to inundation. A pound of high land grass, green or dry, 
 generally contains as much nutriment as two of low land. It is 
 more easily made into good hay. And high land grasses pos- 
 sess the great exclusive value of enriching the high and dry 
 land on which they are sown. These considerations disclose 
 items of profit, resulting from the culture of artificial grasses, 
 which, when united, warrant the conclusion, that it is capable 
 of rendering a great proportion of our high, dry, and hilly land 
 as valuable as reclaimed meadow land. 
 
 After these general remarks respecting the utility of artifi- 
 cial grasses, it is necessary, for the purpose of forming a cor- 
 rect opinion on this subject, to take a view of the several kinds 
 which have been cultivated in Great Britain, and some parts of 
 the United States, together with the mode of culture, and soil 
 most suitable to them, respectively. 
 
 The science on this subject, as it may be applicable to our 
 country, has been well digested in a work lately published, en- 
 titled the Farmer's Assistant, a compendium of which shall be 
 here inserted. 
 
 LucERN, {Medicass Saliva). This grass is very highly es- 
 teemed for soiling, though it makes good hay if cut quite green. 
 Mr. Livingston, of New- York, has made considerable trials of 
 it in that State, and the products have, in some instances, been 
 greater than those mentioned by British writers. With the 
 best cultivation and plentiful manuring, from six to nine tons of 
 hay, per acre, may be had in a season, of this grass. Twenty 
 pounds 3f seed are requisite for an acre, if sown in the broad 
 cast, or six pounds if drilled. If cultivated in the latter way, 
 it is to be ploughed and hand hoed three or four time^in the 
 season : but perhaps the broad cast is the more profitable, 
 when labor is high. Mr. Young recommends sowing it with 
 oats ; first sowing and harrowing in that gjain, and then sow- 
 ing or drilling in the lucern, and covering it lightly with a 
 light harrow. Others, however, advise that the ground be 
 previously well prepared by deep, frequent, and effectual 
 ploughings ; and that the seed be sown by itself. And as it it 
 essential that the ground be well seeded, perhaps this is the 
 best way. Mr. Livingston sowed it in the fore part of Septem- 
 iber, after a crop of early potatoes, and found it to answer very 
 jwcll, if the ground be prepared for it by summer fallowing 
 !«<, tiiia time. The essential points in preparing the ground are 
 
'OS AGRICULTURAL ESSAYS, 
 
 firsUo manure it well, and then to have it frequently and deep- 
 ly ploughed, and well cleared of the seeds of weeds. A dry 
 loam, sandy or gravelly loam, rich sand, or other good dry 
 soil, is suitable for it : it is said to grow well in the coldest cli- 
 mates ; but those which are mild are most suitable for it. It 
 is a very early grass, endures drought well, and grows very 
 late. When ground has been well prepared for flax, this grass 
 will be sowed to advantage immediately after that crop. 
 
 During the first season of its growth the product will not be 
 so large as afterwards ; in this season, too, when cultivated in 
 the broad cast way, it is most infested with weeds, which are 
 most easily destroyed by frequent mowings for the purpose of 
 soiling. The mowings may be as often as the grass will fill 
 the scythe. During th*>s season, too, it will be much hurt by be 
 ing pastured ; but after this it may be fed without injury. 
 
 Sometimes this grass becomes diseased and turns yellow; 
 in such case, let it be mowed, immediately, and it will then start 
 as fresh and green as ever. 
 
 Mr. De La Bigarre says, that after this grass has stood two 
 or three seasons, it should be well harrowed early in the 
 spring ; and if the roots are considerably torn by the operation 
 they will not be injured. This should be repeated every second 
 spring afterwards, and at these times the ground should previ- 
 ously have a good top dressing,which will be well mixedwith the 
 soil in the operation of harrovring. The dressing should not 
 be of barn dung, but some manure, or compost, free of the 
 seed of weeds. Bog durt,bog marie, mud, &c. are good for 
 this purpose. Gypsum may well be applied every spring, but 
 not before the harrowing, as this manure should never be bu- 
 ried in the soil. Mr. Young, of Great Britain, makes a compu- 
 tation of his expenses in cultirating one acre of this grass in 
 the drill way ; and after deducting the expenses and rent of 
 the ground, tythe and rates, he makes the clear profit of 9;. ' 
 I85. trf. sterling. Mr. Livingston has also made a similar 
 computation of some cultivated by him in the broad cast, the re- 
 sult of which was not very far diflferent, though the value of the 
 crop was in this case set much lower than that put upon it by 
 the former gentleman. This grass lasts about ten years, when 
 the ground should be ploughed up, and it will then b^ found 
 very rich, as the crops do not materially exhaust the soil. 
 
 It is believed by some that for soiling, in particular, this 
 grass will be found more productive and profitable than any 
 other, where the highest cultivation and a suitable soil are giv- 
 en to it, and where the climate is suitable for its growth. It has 
 i^een pbserved by Mr. Young that for fatting biiilocks, and for 
 
C¥LTURE GF ARTIFICIAL GRASSES. 99 
 
 pasturing swine, this grass may be very advantageously used. 
 When it is made into hay, let it be cut while quite green, and 
 made without much shaking about, as the leaves fall off con- 
 siderably when dry. A little salt added to it when laid down 
 in the mow would no doubt be a great improvement. 
 
 Saintfoin will grow well on dry stony soils,, that are unfit 
 for any good cultivation, and will produce on the waste lands 
 a ton of hay, beside considerable aftermath, in the season. 
 On good dry lands the product will be much greater. It may 
 be used for soiling during the forepart of the season, and mow- 
 ed for hay in the latter part. The hay will fatten horses con- 
 siderably, as is said, without the aid of oats. It increases the 
 quantity of the milk, and some say of the cream also : while 
 the butter is improved in its Color and flavor. Saintfoin re- 
 quires a soil free of weeds, as for lucern, and the ground 
 should be well mellowed by deep ploughings. The seed may 
 be sown with the drill or in the broad cast ; three bushels be- 
 in-g allowed to the acre in the former method, and at least four 
 in the latter* Tlie seeds should be fresh and sown early in 
 the spring. Those which have a bright husk, a plump kernel, 
 which is bluish or grey v.'ithout and greenish within, are the 
 beet. It is believed to be the better method to sow from one 
 to three bushels of this seed, with about five pounds of common 
 red clover to the aero ; as the clover serves to keep down the 
 weeds till the saintfoin has became well rooted. The seeds 
 may be sown with oats or barley. 
 
 Durijig the first season of its growth, no cattle should feed 
 dn it, nor should sheep during the second season. At the 
 end of six or seven years, and afterwards, the ground should 
 have such top-dressings and harrowings as is directed for lu- 
 cern, and let gypsum be also applied every other spring. 
 
 If the first season for mowing proves wet, let the cropbe left 
 for seed. It is at no time to be cut before it is in full bloom* 
 
 JjLiixrT, {Potorium Saiiguisoi'ba,) is mostly used for early 
 shenp tecding, though it may be advantageously used fof soil- 
 ing cattle, as it'is hardy, is little affected by drought or frosts — 
 and vvill even vegetate in moderate winter weather. If season- 
 ed for hay, it must be cut early, or it will become too coarse. It 
 requires a dry soil and may be sown with the drill or broad cast. 
 It is essential to have good seed, for which purpose a spot for 
 raising it should be selected. When a crop is designed for 
 .seed, let the ground be fed till sometime in May, otherwise the 
 grass will be too rank for seed. These should be gathered 
 while moist with dew, and threshed out in the barn as soon as 
 they can bo dried there. They may be sown any time before 
 
1()0 
 
 ACRieULTURAL ESSATS. 
 
 August, after the ground has been well prepared. The tbi- 
 iowing season the crop is to be kept clear of weeds by the har- 
 row ; and after that it will grow so strongly as to keep down 
 all other growths. 
 
 CicHORY, {Chichorium Intibiis,) commonly called Wild Suc- 
 cory, has been but lately cultivated ; but on poor blowing sands 
 and weak dry soils, Mr. Young thinks it superior to any other 
 plant, and that if sown with burp.et and cock's-foot, it will form 
 a layer for six or seven years, far exceeding those made of tri- 
 foil, ray grass, and white clover. It grows more luxuriantly 
 than burnet, lucern, or saintfoin, and may be often cut for soil- 
 ing during t»S olIir.nier. twice during the first season, and 
 three or four times afterwards, or every second month till Oc- 
 tober. It may be made into hayjwhich is coarse, but tolerably 
 nourishing. Its principal use, however, is for soiling and for 
 sheep feeding, as it is less injured by close feeding than most 
 other vegetables. 
 
 Mr. Young advises that it be drilled at the distance of nine 
 inches on poor lands, or twelve when the soil is richer, after the 
 soil has been first duly mellowed. In this case it will be great- 
 ly improved by an occasional scarifying. It may also be sown 
 with oats, in the broad cast ;. but for soiling, it is best sown in 
 the fore part of the season, and lightly harrov, ed in. It pro- 
 duces plenty of head, wliicli is easily gathered. 
 
 Spurry, [Spangula Arvonsis,) has been considerably culti- 
 fated in Flanden, on account of its growing very late in the 
 fall, and even during winter, and afior-^liug gcod food for sheep 
 and cows. Cattle are very fond of it. It flowers from July to 
 •Sei^tembc!*,' anu i-? best suited to sandy and other dry soils. 
 
 The bush vkich, {Vicia Sepium,) is said to shoot earlier in 
 spring than any other artificial grass ; it grows late in autumn, 
 and in Great Britain retains its verdure through the winter. 
 Mr. Sawyer states the amount of its produce, per acre, to have 
 been about twenty-four and an half tons of green foilder, equal 
 to about four and an half tons of dry hay. The culture of this 
 plant was long since recommended by Anderson, but the prin- 
 cipal difnculty seems to be in collecting the seeds, as the pods 
 burst when ripe, and thus scatter them before they can be con- 
 veniently gathered. Doct. Withering, also, observes, that the 
 see^s are often destroyed by the larvce of a species of catela- 
 bus, 
 
 Tares, ( Vicia Sativa,) a kind of Pea. Of these there are 
 two varieties, the winter and spring tares. The spring tare i^ 
 to be sown as early in the spring as'the ground can be well pre- 
 pared_, and the winter tare early in September.; each at the 
 
CULTURE OF ARTIFICIAL GRASSES. I0| 
 
 rate of about eight or ten pecks to the acre, broad cast,-or a- 
 bout half that proportion for the drill. Each kind is o-ood for 
 feeding cattle of every description, particularly the winter tare 
 Which in Great Britain, comes into use just as the turnip crop 
 , IS exhausted. This plant is not proper for making into hay be- 
 ing greatly injured by wet weather, and requiring more than 
 common pains to dry it. The seeds of the different kinds must 
 be carefully kept apart, as they cannot be distinguished from 
 each other. 
 
 The BROAD LEAVED VEICH, Or EVERLASTING TARE, [LotU' 
 
 pus Lahfohus,) was long since recommended by Dr. Anderson 
 as promising to afford large crops of hay and grass. It is eat- 
 en eagerly by cattle, and often grows to the height of twelve 
 feet. 
 
 The TUFTED VEICH, or TARE, {Vicia Erracca,) attains con- 
 ^ f ^u "^^^"^' ^^^ produces abundance of leaves. This sort 
 and the wood vitch, ( Vicia Eracca) attains considerable heio-ht 
 and produces abundance of leaves. This sort and the wSod 
 vitch, [vicia sylvahca,) whieh rises from two to four feet high 
 are said to restore weak or starved cattle sooner than anv oth- 
 er vegetable known. ^ 
 
 The STRANGE VEICH, (/.a%rotc?€5,) has been strongly re- 
 foo"d'for''fhe '^°'^'^' ""^ ^^'^''^'"^ ^ ^^"^^^ ^"^ agreeable 
 
 Clovers. Of these the following are the most valuable 
 which are known and cultivated. 
 
 Trefoil, or common red clover, [Trifolium Praiense,) 
 which IS commonly cultivated in the United States. It ffrows 
 well on all dry soils. About ten or twelve pounds of seed are 
 requisite for an acre. It is generally sown in this country with 
 barley, oats, or spring v^heat, when that article is raised, or it 
 may be sown with winter wheat in the fall, if the land be dry 
 and warmly exposed ; or in the spring when it should be light- 
 ly bushed or harrowed in. It is peculiarly excellent for form- 
 ing a lay for a crop of wheat ; which may be sown to great ad- 
 vantage on the clover sward, when properly turned under * 
 
 Ail kinds of cattle feed and thrive well on it, either in pas- 
 tures, when soiled on it, or when fed on the hay. 
 
 It is said also, that it will keep swine well through the winter > 
 thrm ^ ' ^^^^^ ^"^' ^""^ ^^^^^ foiled, before it is given ' 
 
 Red perennial clover, or cow GiiAUs,(Trifoliu7n Medi- 
 um,) is cultivated m Great Britain, in aJmost every kind of good 
 
 * See essay on wheat, and rotation of crop*. 
 i2 
 
102 AGRICULTWRAL ESSAlfS. 
 
 upland soil, even in heavy clayey lands. It is to be sowed iii 
 the spring with oats, bailey, &c. It is also usual to sow it 
 there as w^ell as the common red clover, with the crop of flax. 
 It rarely succeeds when sown by itself. It produces abun- 
 dance of seeds, which are easily collected. 
 
 Hop clover, [Trifolium Procumbins,) grows naturally in 
 Great Britain, in dry meadows and pastures. It is recommen- 
 ded for laying down land to grass by mixing it with the clover 
 last mentioned and the 
 
 White clover, {Trijolium Repens.) This grass grows 
 spontaneously on dry uplands, after they have been manured 
 with gypsum, or with bog marie, &,c. It is a very sweet grass 
 for pasture or hay, but not very productive. It is generally 
 short lived, but may be made to last longer by passing a roller 
 over it ; for where the stalks come in close contact with the 
 ground, new roots will start and descend into it. It is culti- 
 vated in Great Rritain for cheep pastures, and for other uses. 
 It is most useful in mixing w^ith other grasses for the purpose 
 of thickening the grow^th at the bottom, and thus increasing the 
 product. 
 
 In laying down lands to grass of every kind, the ground 
 aliould be made mellow and fine ; the seed should be clean and 
 good, and sowed evenly and plentifully, and lightly covereff, 
 and the ground made perfectly smooth, particularly where it is 
 intended for mowing and soiling. The graziers of Great Brit- 
 ain in laying down their grass lands, make use of much more 
 seed than is usual in this country. The quantity which may 
 be mo3t profitable to sow on a given surface of soil can best be 
 determined by experiment. Let one square rod of ground pro- 
 perly prepared belaid down with a given quantity of seed ; a- 
 nother square rod with a greater quantity ; and another with 
 a still greater; then carefully gather and weigh the product of 
 each square rod separately, and if that which has most seed has 
 an increase of product sufficient to pay for the extra seed, and 
 about thirty per cent, more, that quantity of seed may be most 
 advisable to give the ground. In the same way it may be as- 
 certained how far it is profitable to sow the ground with differ- 
 ent ki.ids of grasses, in order to increase the product of the 
 whole. This practice is much attended to in Great Britain, ae 
 will be seen by the following directions of Mr. Young and Mr. 
 Tallet, for laying down particular soils to grass. Mr. Young 
 directs for an acre of clayey land, the following grasses and 
 proportions of each: of cow grass, five pounds ; trefoil (com- 
 mon red clover,) five do. ; dog tail, ten do. ; and of fescue and 
 f\»x tail, ojie builiel. 
 
CWXTURE OF ARTIFICrAL BRASSES. iO@ 
 
 For an acre of loam, of white clover, five pounds ; dogr's tail, 
 ten do.; ray, one peck ; fescue, three do. ; and of yarrow, two 
 ditto. 
 
 For an acre of sand, of white clover, seven pounds; trefoil, 
 
 five do. ; burnet, six do. ; ray, one peck, and yarrow, one bushel! 
 
 Mr. Tallet directs that for an acre of such dry light soil as is 
 
 adapted to the culture of turnips, the following proportions of 
 
 seed be given: 
 
 Of smooth stalked poa or meadow grass, six quarts; ray 
 grass, four do. ; dog's tail, six do. ; yellow oat grass, four do. j 
 cock's foot, two do. ; vernal grasy, one do. ; cow grass, three 
 do.; white clover, two do. ; rib grass, two do.; and of yarrow, 
 two do. 
 
 Again, for such soil as is of the moister kind of upland, he al- 
 lows for an acre, of fox tail, six quarts; rough stalked poa, six 
 do. ; vernal grass, one do.; cow grass, three do. ; white clover, 
 two do. ; rib grass, two do. ; and of rib, two do. 
 
 When the water lies longer, he uirects the composition to be 
 as follows : 
 
 Of rough stalked poa, two pecks ; fox tail, two do. ; meadow 
 tescue, two do. ; flote foxtail, three quarts ; and of flote fescue, 
 tour do. ; and tor situations still more wet, the following- Of 
 rough stalked poa, two pecks ; fox tail, two do. ; ilote fox tail, 
 one do.; and of flote fescue, one do. The above are given 
 merely as specimens of the quantities of seeds advised to be 
 apportioned to dirferent soils and of the several kinds which 
 are deemed most suitable, in Great Britain. It does not follow 
 that the same sorts of grasses and the same proportions and 
 quantities of the seeds of each would here be iound most pro- 
 per in similar soils : as our summers are warmer and our atmos- 
 phere less moist than theirs. These are matters which are 
 proper subjects of inquiry with the experimental farmer It is 
 believed that the British farmers and graziers give their grounds 
 more seed than will generally be necessary in this country 
 
 VVhat IS usually termed meadow land has been ever consid 
 ered as almost an indispensible appendage to a farm ; and with- 
 out a proportion of such land the farmer supposes he cannot 
 procure a suitable supply of hay ; but although such meadow 
 land seldom fads of producmg a crop of hay, yet the quality of 
 such hay IS vastly inferior to that produced by cultivation ; Ind 
 even the quantity too is often much less ; and the land totally 
 lost to the production of any other crop. On what is called 
 good natural meadow you may often find ten or tjvelve differ- 
 ent species of grass within the compass of a few rods square 
 
104 
 
 AGRICULTURAL fiSSATS. 
 
 and not more than one or two of them that are noticed as fur- 
 nishing food suitable for the sustenance of stock, while many 
 rushes, mosses, &c. are found growing or? the same spot which 
 are of no value whatever. 
 
 It is certainly then worthy of great consideration whether the 
 farmer should not make it more of an object to cultivate his 
 grass as well as his grain. It is well known that grasses growrr 
 on dry or arable land, are of a quality vastly superior to' those 
 of natural meadow, and it appears from the above account of 
 the artificial grasses, that even a much greater quantity of 
 good buy may be obtained by cultivation from the same quan- 
 tity of land. Besides, the system, if it is properly pursued, will 
 have the effect to increase the quantity and quality of all his 
 other crops, to a degree more than sufficient to compensate 
 him for all the extra labor and expense.* 
 
 There are several other kinds of grasses, v/hick do not so 
 properly belong to those wliich are denominated artificial, be- 
 cause they will grow and iionri^li longer without cultivation ; 
 among these are the following. 
 
 Meadow cats tail, timothy gras3, or herds grass, 
 {Phleum Pratensis.) the grass most used for hay in the northern 
 states. It is sometimes called fox tail, but this is another grass. 
 The cats tail has a long head, somewhat resembling the tail of a 
 cat,v;ith very fine seeds ; the fox tail has a long bushy head more 
 like the tail ofthe fox with coarse seed. In other respects 
 they have considerable resemblance. 
 
 Cats tail grows best in rich moist soils but will grow well in 
 a rich wet soil, or in a rich arable soil. In the ri-^h wet soil it 
 gradually lessens in product, while at the same time it gives 
 way to wild grasses. In the rich arable soil it gradually fails^ 
 by reason ofthe ground becoming bound and the sward thick- 
 ened with other grasses. If it were considerably torn with 
 the harrow every spring, and not too closely pastured in the 
 fall, and none in the spring, it would grow well for many years 
 in such soil. By close pasturing in the fall it is apt to be torn 
 out by the roots ; and by cropping it again in the spring, it 
 suffers greatly, -^t^will yield one half more if not pastured 
 any, than when pl^ured clos^^ly in the fall and again in the 
 spring. In the richest soils, and when not pastured, upwards 
 of four tons may be had in a season at two mowings. It does 
 not fertilize land so mvich as clover ; but on the contrary binds 
 and somewhat exhausts the soil. It is perennial and will last 
 
 •See essay on rotation of crops, 
 
Culture of artifjcial grasses. 
 
 i05 
 
 beyond the memory of man if not destroyed by close pastuf- 
 in^. Some believe it is most valuable for hay if cut when in 
 blossom or soon after ; others, when the seed is nearly ripe ; 
 and others again when it is quite ripe. But as the nourish- 
 ment to be derived from it, is principally from the stock or 
 blade, and not from the seed, it certainly must furnish a bet- 
 ter hay for either cattle or horses, when cut soon after the 
 time when it is in full blossom. When however it is intended 
 to be continued a considerable length of time without plough- 
 ing, it might be well to let it stand some seasons until the seed 
 is fully npd, and by that means check, in some measure, the 
 prevalence of weeds and wild grass. 
 
 Meadow fox tail, {Alopenerus Pratensis). This grass is 
 much cultivated in Great Britain ; it is an early grass and veg- 
 etates with such luxuriancy, that it may be mowed three 
 times in a year. The British graziers consider it one of their 
 best grasses, particularly for larger cattle. The soil best 
 suited for it is moist meadovV land, or that which is occasion- 
 ally overflowed, though it will grow well on almost any soil 
 except those that are very wet, or very dry. LinnaBous states 
 it to be a proper grass for grounds, which have been drained. 
 It is perennial, and yields abundance of seed, which is easily 
 gathered. The seed is however sometimes liable to be destroy- 
 ed by an insect. 
 
 Meadow ri:^c\jE,{Festua Pratensis) is an early hardy pe- 
 remiia.1 grass, and grows well in almost every soil ; good fot 
 liay or pasture, and produces abundance of seed which is easi- 
 ly gathered. Mr. Custis says it has a great resemblance to 
 ray grass, but is superior to it in forming meadows, as it ^rowa 
 longer, and has more foliage. It blossoms about the middle (jf 
 June. 
 
 Darnel, or -rat grass, {Lalium Pereene,) is good for an 
 early supply of pasture, as it starts very early. It grows to 
 the height of about two feet, and blossoms the latter end of 
 May. Horses are extremely fond of it when made early into 
 hay ; and for race horses particularly, has been found prefera- 
 ble to any other hay. It is however apt to run too much to 
 stalks in most soils, and tlien cattle dislike it in pastures. 
 
 Crested dog's tail, {Cynosurus Cnstatus.) is good for up- 
 land pastures, and is a wholesome food for sheep. " It forms a 
 thick turf, and blossoms about the middle of June. It abounds 
 with seed which is easily gathered ; but care shoulo be taken 
 that it be fully ripe ; it is suitable for dry sandy eoils, and \^li,\ 
 net thriye in wet mes^dows. 
 
106 AGRICULTrRAL ESSAYS. 
 
 Meadow grass, {Poa Praiensis,) will flourish well even iu 
 the driest soils, and will endure drought better perhaps than 
 any other grass. It makes fine hay and is fit for early cutting. 
 It is also good for early pasture. It yields plenty of seed ; but 
 this is difficult to sow on account of their filaments, causing 
 them to adhere to each other. To remedy this it is recom- 
 mended to put them in newly slacked lime, to separate them, 
 and then to be rubbed in dry sand. 
 
 Vernal, or spring grass, [Anlhose Antiem Odoratum,) is 
 a very early grass for pasture, and grows in almost every sit- 
 uation, though not equally productive in each. It is an odor- 
 iferous grass, and is recommended by some to be sowed with 
 other grasses, in proportion of about one eighth for meadow. 
 It is not very productive. 
 
 Meadow soft grass, [Holcus Lanates,) grows well on any 
 soil not too dry and barren. It is best calculated for sheep in 
 pastures. It is injurious to horses when made into hay, by pro- 
 ducing a profuse discharge of urine, and general weaknesi?, 
 which rnay, however, be readily removed by a change of food. 
 It is not a very early grass. 
 
 Sheeps fescue, {Fcstuca Ocina,) grows well in dry s^^n-y 
 soils ; is very good for sheep, as they are fond of it, and soon 
 fattened with it. It is perennial, and flowers in June. 
 
 Hard fescue, [Festuca Duricustula,) flourishes in almost 
 every situation, wet or dry, and blossoms in June. It grows 
 luxuriantly at first, often to the height of four feet ; but it soon 
 becomes thin and disappears after a while. It is best for mix- 
 ing with some other grasses. 
 
 Annual meadow grass, {Poa Annua,) is in flower through- 
 out the summer. " Cattle of every kind are fond of it. It is re- 
 commended for milch cows, on account of its alTording butter 
 of a superior quality. 
 
 Rough stalked meadow grass, [Poa Th'iviaJis,) resem- 
 bles tlie preceding in its appearance and its flowering, but is 
 best suited for moist or wet meadows. It is very productive, 
 and good for pa?ture or hay. It is hovvever said, that it is lia- 
 ble to be injured by severe cold, or excessive drougiit. 
 
 Fowl >ieadow grass, {Poa Avaria, Spicnlis LuhbiJlonsA 
 was first said to be discovered in a meadow in Dedham, ana 
 was supposed to have been brought there by water fowls, says 
 Mr.Deane. It is an excellent grass for wet meadows, and has 
 been known to yield three tons to an acre in a season. It re- 
 mains so long green that it maybe mowed anytime from July 
 till Ov-^tobcr."^ It makes very good hay for horses, and. neat cat- 
 tle particularly. 
 
106 AGHlCirtTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 Meadow grass, {Poa Pratensis,) will flourish well even m 
 the driest soils, and will endure drought better perhaps than 
 any other grass. It makes fine hay and is fit for early cutting-. 
 It is also good for early pasture. It yields plenty of seed ; but 
 this is difficult to sow on account of their filaments,' causing 
 them to adhere to each other. To remedy this it is recom- 
 mended to put them in newly slacked lime, to separate them, 
 and then to be rubbed in- dry sand. 
 
 Vernal, or spring grass, [Antkose Antiem Odoratum,) is 
 a very early grass for pasture, and grows in almost every sit- 
 uation, though not equally productive in each. It is an odor- 
 iferous grass, and is recommended by some to be sowed with 
 other grasses, in proportion of about one eighth for meadow. 
 It is not very productive. 
 
 Meadow sqet grass, [Holcus Lanates,) grows well on any 
 soil not too dry and barren. It is best calculated for sheep in 
 pastures. It is injurious to horses when made into hay, by pro- 
 ducing a profuse discharge of urine, and general weakness, 
 which may, however, be readily removed by a change of food, 
 •ft is not a very early grass. 
 
 Sheeps fescue, {Feshica Ocina,) grows well in dry sandy 
 soils; is very good for sheep, as they are fond of it, and soon 
 fattened with it. It is perennial, and flowers in June. 
 
 Hard fescue, {Festuca Duricitstula,) flourishes in almost 
 every situation, wet or dry, and blossoms in June. It grows 
 luxuriantly at first, often to the height of four feet ; but it soon 
 becomes thin and disappears after a, while.. It is best for mix* 
 ing with some other grasses. 
 
 Annual meadow grass, {Poa Annua,) is in flower through- 
 out the summer. Cattle of every kind are fond of it. It is re- 
 commended for milch cow;s, on account of its affording butter 
 of a superior quality. 
 
 Rough stalked meadow grass, [Poa TnviaUs,) resem- 
 bles the preceding in its appearance and its flowering, but ifr 
 best suited for moist or wet meadows. It is very productive, 
 and good for pasture or hay. It is however said, that it is lia- 
 ble to be injured by severe cold, or excessive drought. 
 
 Fowl meadow grass,. {Poa Avaria, Sjiicalis Lmbhijloris,) 
 was first said to be discovered in a meadow in Dedham, and 
 was supposed to have been brought there by water fowls, sayg 
 Mr.Deane. It is an excellent grass for wet meadows, and has 
 been known to yield three tons to an acre in a season. It re- 
 mains so long green that it mfay be mowed any time from July 
 till October. It makes very good bay fpr horses^ and neat c^.^ 
 tie paftipularly, 
 
-CULTURE or ARTIFICIAL GRASSES- 1^' 
 
 FlATSTALKED RED MEADOW GRASS,( Poa C077ipM55a.)fl0Urish- 
 
 es in dry soils, and flowers from June to August. It forms a fine 
 turf and imparts a delicate flavor to the flesh of sheep and 
 deer which anunals are very fond of it. 
 
 Silver hair grass, {Aira Curyophy Cea) is most suitable 
 for «andy lands, and is recommended tor sheep walks, on ac- 
 roimt of the fineness of the mutton of those sheep which are 
 fed on it It flowers in July. Mr. TiUingfleet applies the 
 same remark to the waved mountain hair grass, (aira fiexuosa) 
 which grows in heaths and barren pastures, and is m flower 
 from June to August. . « , . n • • i. 
 
 r Creepkn'g bExNI grass, {Agrosiis Stolompra) grows m moist 
 lands, and is a good food for cattle. It grows with such lux- 
 uriance as to suppress the growth of moss and other weeds. 
 
 Tall oat grass, (Orena Elatiorf flowers m June and July. 
 It grows very large and coarse, and makes a pretty good hay, 
 though horses are not fond of it. In point of exceUence, Mr. 
 Custis ranks it next to fox tail. In pastures it should be close- 
 ly fed. It yields plentifully of seed. No doubt, a litth^alt 
 appHed to the hay made of this grass, when laid down ii|the 
 tnow, would be a great improvement to it. \ 
 
 Mr. Muhlenbergh, of Pennsylvania, recommends this grass 
 very much, as one of the best he had cultivated. It would pro- 
 bably answer well for soiling, as it starts very early and grow« 
 very late. ^ . , 
 
 Yellow oat grass, [Avena Havescens) is also a coarse^ 
 grass, which thrives m meadows and pastures, and on hills of 
 calcareous soil, where it flowers in June and July. Though 
 tolerably sweet, it is less relished by cattle than the poas and 
 fescue grasses ; though it is said, it makes good sheep pastures. 
 
 Rib grass; {Plantago Lacnalata.) It has been considerably 
 propagated in some parts of Great Britain, where it is held in 
 estimation. It is" best adapted to rich sands and loams, and on 
 poor sands it answers tolerably well for sheep. It is not liked 
 by horses, and is "bad for hay, on account of its retaining its 
 sap. It is said by Baron Haller, that the richness of the milk 
 in the celebrated daisies of the Alps, is' owing to the cov/s 
 feeding .on this plant and the lady's mantle, (alchemilla vulga- 
 ris.) Its seed is plentiful. 
 
 Cock's foot, {Dactylis Glpmerain,) is a coarse grass, and 
 grows with luxuriance. It suits all kinds of soils, but those 
 which are very wet or very dry. It is said to afford an abun- 
 
 . *■ This ^ras3 is sometimes called by farmers, Tall Oat Grass, 
 ^ojnetimes Tall Meadov7 Oats, and also by some, Orchard Grass^ 
 
tes 
 
 AeKICUIiTTJRAL E«-SATT5. 
 
 dant crop, springs early, yields abundance of seed, maljes ex- 
 cellent hay, and is very permanent. It flowers in June- 
 Where it grows on rank soils, however, or in coarse patches, 
 cattle will not eat it. 
 
 Bi.uE dog's tail grass, {Ctjuosusus Camlius) is the ear- 
 liest of all the British grasses, and flowers a fortnight sooner 
 than any other, it is not very productive, but may be useful 
 in sheep pastures, in high rocl^ situations, where there is but 
 little sail. 
 
 The following Aquatic plants may be of some use to some of 
 our citizens, in certain conditions. 
 
 Flote fox tail, [jnopecurus Geniculatus) grows in mead- 
 ows on the Severn, in Great Britain, where other good grasses 
 are expelled by reason of wetness and inundations. It is a 
 good grass for hay, and flowers in May and June. It is recom- 
 mended for newly reclaimed morasses, and lands recovered 
 iVom the sea. 
 
 Flote fescue, {Festuca Fluitans,) will grow in still wetter 
 grounds than the flote fox tail, or rather may be said to be am- 
 phibious, growing as well in the water or otherwise. It flow- 
 •ers in June, and is a constituent part of the celebrated Orches- 
 ton meadow, in Great Britain. Horses and cows are very 
 fond of it. It springs early, and promises to be useful for the 
 same purposes as the last mentioned grass. The Chedder and 
 Cattenham cheese owe their excellence principally to this 
 gra^, and to the 
 
 Water har grass ; {^ira Aqualica) which is further said 
 to contribute much to the fine flavor of the Cambridge butter. 
 It generally grows in the edges of standing waters, and flow- 
 ers in June aod July. 
 
 Reed meadow <jras«, {Foa Aquatica) is one of the largest 
 and most useful of the British grasses, and forms much of the 
 riches of Cambridgeshire, and other counties in England, 
 where draining meadows by wind machinery, is carried on. 
 It is good for pasture and hay, particularly for milch cows, 
 though it is not relished so well by horses. It is strong, and 
 well suited to low places, which are liable to be inundated. It 
 grows to the height of six feet, but should be mowed when 
 about four feet high. It may be mowed several times in a sea- 
 son. It grows plentifully in ths marshes of Sandusky Bay, 
 River Raisin, Detroit, and elsewhere, round the westerly part 
 of Lake Erie, where it is the principal reliance for pasture and 
 hay. The French farmers there, cut it and bind it in bundles, 
 when dried, which seems to be similar to the management of it, 
 in the parts where it is cultivated in Great Britain. 
 
CWLTURE OF BrCKWHEAT. 
 
 1^9 
 
 It is not supposed that it will be found necessary to introduce 
 all the grasses which have been. here enumerated, into general 
 use * But it was thought expedient to describe them, because 
 the great diversity of the condition of our citizens, especially 
 of the locality of their situation, may, if not even at the present 
 thne, at no very distant period, render the knowledge of them 
 interesting. But it may be easily conceived that a better 
 knowledge of those grasses already in general cultivation, will 
 be requisite, when we understand and practise the system of 
 husbandry connected with the plan of rotation of crops, and 
 that also of making improvements by the turning in the green 
 ■erops for manure. 
 
 Buckwheat. 
 
 It may be observed respecting this kind of grain, that it will 
 .^ow on a soil perhaps less fertile than any other, and with 
 the nourishment which may be derived from a little gypsum, 
 crops of it may be raised year after year on the same spot of 
 ground. 
 
 In those parts of the United States where chesnut trees 
 ■^row, it has been found, from long experience, that the proper 
 time for sowing the seed is when that tree is in full blossom. 
 But for a general rule, it may be sown about the time when 
 •herds-grass first begins to blossom, or a little sooner in more 
 northern climates. It requires about half a bushel to the acre. 
 But this, like all other crops, would require that the quantity of 
 seed should be increased or diminished, according to the 
 strength of the soil. 
 
 Spring rye may be sown with buckwheat, and a crop of each 
 Hiay be produced together, which will constitute a very good 
 food to assist iA the fatting of hogs. It answers also a goo«l 
 purpose to feed to horses and fowlsv But as it may be oftem 
 raised where other grain cannot be procured so easily, it is 
 worthy of attention, in consideration of its answering a valuable 
 
 *The artificial grass seeds trbich hare been enumerated, or any 
 
CfLTURE OF BUCKWHEAT. 
 
 m 
 
 It is not supposed that it will be found necessary to introduce 
 all the grasses which have been here enumerated, into general 
 use * But it was thought expedient to describe them, because 
 the great diversity of the condition of our citizens, especially 
 of the locality of their situation, may, if not even at the present 
 time, at no very distant period, render the knowledge of them 
 interesting. But it may be easily conceived that a better 
 knowledge of those grasses already in general cultivation, will 
 "be requisite, when we understand and practise the system ot 
 husbandry connected with the plan of rotation ol crops, and 
 that also of making improvements by the turnmg m Uie green 
 -crops for manure. 
 
 Buckwheat. 
 
 It may be observed respecting this kind of grain, that it will 
 jrow on a soil perhaps less fertile than any other, and with 
 the nourishment which may be derived from a little gypsum, 
 €rops of it may be raised year after year on the same spot of 
 ground. 
 
 In those parts of the United States where chesnut trees 
 grow, it has been found, from long experience, that the proper 
 time for sowing the seed is when chat tree is m full blossom. 
 But for a general rule, it may be sown about the time when 
 herds-grass first begins to blossom, or a little sooner in more 
 northern climates. It requires about half a bushel to the acre. 
 But this, like all other crops, would require that the quantity of 
 seed should be inc^^3ased or diminished, according to the 
 
 strength of the soil. , , t i j ^ i 
 
 Sprino- rye may be sown with buckwheat, and a crop oi each 
 may be produced together, which will constitute a very good 
 food to assist in the fatting of hogs. It answers also a good 
 purpose CO feed to horses and fowls. But as it may be often 
 raised where other grain cannot be procured so easily, it is 
 worthy of attention, in consideration of its answering a valuable 
 
 *The artificial grass seeds which have been enumerated, or any 
 other seeds mentioned in these essays, may be obtained frem shops 
 in New- York and Albany, at a small expense. 
 K 
 
il^ AGRICULTURAL ESSA^. 
 
 purpose for making cakes, which when warm are esteemed as 
 a good substitute for- more expensive kinds of bread, and are e- 
 ven used by many out of choice. The raising of buckwheat 
 for the valuable purpose of preparing the soil for a crop of 
 wheat, should be kept in view.^ 
 
 Some farmers have practiced sowing rye invariably after 
 buckwheat; and some have sown the rye in July with their 
 buckwheat, which, it is said, keeps the rye down so as to pre- 
 vent its bemg too forward when the buckwheat comes off. This 
 IS a labor savmg culture, and good crops of rye have been rais- 
 ed m this way ; but it is believed to be better husbandry to 
 plough up the ground after the buckwheat comes off. 
 
 It is useful in driving out the azeyed daisy, butter cup, crow 
 toot, Canada thistle, and other noxious weeds, as well as the 
 ijuack grass, or couch gr^s. 
 
 P.EA. 
 
 Peas, of all kinds, for family use, may be sown in the field 
 mthe broad cast way, and the farmer, who has land plentv 
 may raise them cheaper, and with much less trouble It is 
 said that the German farmers attend much to the culture of 
 this pea. An average product is about eighteen bushels to 
 the acre. They preserve the liuum to feed their cattle, which 
 may answer as a substitute for other food when it is scarce 
 tt'^^^:,^^^^'^^^ of ^^® P®^ «ho"W be ^ore attended to in the 
 United States, when it is considered, tY.at the crop, though of 
 less value than many others, does not mbch exhai-st the soil 
 and does no injury to the crop of wheat, which may succeed it! 
 By such culture, the farmer may gain an extra crop from the 
 land which he intends for sowing to wheat the next fall, f 
 
 A bug is often found which, has eat into ti^ heart of 
 the pea ; although it does not prevent the growth of them 
 they will injure the next crop, if they are not destroyed. One* 
 method to kill them is to let the peas be thrown into hot wa- 
 tefr, and after remaining there a few seconds, take them out 
 
 * See essay on^the culture of wheat, 
 t Ses Essay on wheat. 
 
Culture oi^ peas. Ill 
 
 arid let theia be dried and sowed immediately. The same 
 means too may be used to prepare them for cooking, and the 
 bugs will drop out after they are dead, and are then easily 
 separated from th« peas. In that case however, tliey should 
 be kept longer in the hot water. 
 
 The time for sowing any kind of peas is as early in the 
 spring as the ground can be well prepared. A dry soil is the 
 best for them. The quantity usually sown upon an acre is two 
 bushels. Some sow three ; and as a reason for sowing the 
 latter qiiantity, they say that by growing thicker they will be 
 less liable to fa]l flat on the ground, which has a tendency to 
 prevent the pods from filling. 
 
 It is difficult to cover peas with the harrow ; they should be 
 ploughed in. It has been said by Lord Kames that peas laid a 
 foot below the surface will vegetate ; but that the most ap- 
 proved depth is six inches in light soil, and four inches in clay- 
 ey soil. 
 
 The following remarks of Mr. Bartram, of Pennsylvania, a 
 distinguished naturalist, respecting the bug in the pea, may 
 lead to some means by which their mischievous effects may 
 be avoided ; "They feed, when in the caterpiUar or grub stata, 
 on tne green garden or field pea as soon as the pods have ar- 
 nvea to a state of maturity, sufficient to show the peas which 
 are withm them. In the evening, or on a cloudy day, the fe- 
 male deposits her eggs on the out side of the pods ; these egg« 
 or nits soon hatch, and the young larva, or worm eats directly 
 through, and enters the tender young pea where it lodges, and 
 remains feeding on its contents, until it changes to a crysalis, 
 aftdthencetoa fly or beetle, before the succeeding spring: 
 but do not eat their way out until the cold and frosts are past. 
 abouUhe beginning of April, when we generally begin to plant 
 peas. After they have disseminated their eggs, they perish, 
 liutthat which is surprising and difficult to be accounted for, 
 IS that the worm leaves the rostellum, or sprout, untouched, or 
 at least umnjured ; for almost every pea vegetates and thrives 
 vigorously, notwithstanding the corculum (the rudiment of 
 the young plant) Plumula seem to be consumed. J. Pecker- 
 mg, ot Wyommg, in Pennsylvania, sowed the early charlton 
 and green marrow-fats, in his garden, in 1789, the first week 
 m May ; the first had green pods in July ; the marrow-fats 
 came later. Some of both kinds were left to ripen. The seed 
 ott he earliest in thespring following were found swarming with 
 fi ?!' u T^'n^T^""^ ^^^'* ^^^ "one. He afterwards sowed his 
 field about the 20th of May, and the crop was free from-bug,s. 
 ne thought the obvious inference was that this mischievous in~ 
 
ilQ AGRieUXTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 sect is limited to a certain period for depositing its eggs ; and 
 that if the tender pods are not found till that period is passed, 
 the peas will be free from bugs. Wyoming (now Wilkes- 
 bare) is in latitude 41 degrees, 13 minutes. The active flight 
 of the pea bug will be doubtless earlier there than in raor^ 
 nertherly regions. 
 
 GULTFRE OF PrUIT-TrE£S. 
 
 If success is expected in raising fruit-trees, much attention 
 IS necessary, both in the planting them, and afterwards in 
 their preservation. 
 
 In taking up the tree from the nursery, care should be taken 
 to dig away the earth around the roots, so as to come at their 
 Several parts to cut them off; for if they are torn out of the 
 
 f round, as they frequently are, the roots will be broken and 
 ruised, to the great injury of the trees. To prepare them for 
 planting, all the small fibres are to be cut off, as near to the 
 place from whence they are produced as may be, excepting^ 
 perhaps, when they are to be immediately replanted as soon 
 as taken up. But it will require great care to plant them in 
 such a manner as not to distort or entangle the fibrous roots, 
 which will be worse for the plant than if they were cut off. 
 All the bruised or broken roots, all such as are irregular, and 
 cross each other, and all downright roots in fruit-trees, should 
 be pruned off. The lateral, or side roots, should be shortened 
 in proportion to the age, the strength, and nature of the trees. 
 The walnut, mulberry, and some other tender rooted kinds, 
 should not be pruned so close, as the more hardy sorts of fruit- 
 and forest trees. In young fruit trees, such as pears, apples, 
 plumbs, and peaches, that are one year old from the time of 
 their budding, or grafting, the roots may be left only about 
 eight or nine inches long. This is only to be understood of 
 the longer roots. 
 
 In pruning their heads, prune off all the small branches, and 
 irregular ones which cross each other ; also all sueh parts of 
 branches as have been broken or wounded, leaving only the 
 main leading shoots which are necessary to attract the sap 
 firem the root, thereby to promote the growth of t-he tree. 
 
CULTURE OF FRUIT-TREES. 113 
 
 If' they have been long out of the ground, before they are 
 planted they should be placed in water, with their heads erect, 
 the roots only immersed, by means of which the roots will be- 
 come ^welled and prepared to imbibe nourishment from the 
 earth. 
 
 In planting, regard should be had to the nature of the soil ; 
 if it be cold and moist, the trees should be planted very shal- 
 low ; if a hard rock, or gravel, it will be better to raise a hill 
 of earth, where each tree is to be planted, than to dig into the 
 rock or gravel, and fill it up with earth, as too often practised ; 
 by which means they have not sufficient room to extend their 
 roots. The earth witli which the hole is filled up, should be 
 broken with the spade, that it may fall between every root, so 
 as to leave no hollow places in the earth. In transplanting 
 trees, especially large ones, Mr. Forsyth considers it to be of 
 great consequence that they be placed in the same position, 
 having the same parts facing the same points of compass as 
 before they were removed. 
 
 In deciding on the proper distance of trees in an orchard, it 
 should be considered that they should be set so far apart that 
 their limbs will not be likely to interfere with each other, 
 when they arrive at their full growth. 
 
 In a soil best suited to their growth, in which they will be- 
 come largest, thirty-five, or even forty feet will not be too 
 much. 
 
 It is said that after an orchard is planted, it is best to keep 
 the land continually in tillage, until the trees have begun to 
 bear plentifully.* But great care should be taken that the 
 roots be not disturbed by ploughing, nor the bark on the stems 
 of the trees wounded ; and the ground near the trees which 
 the plough leaves, should be broken and made mellow with 
 the spade, for two or three years, before the roots have far 
 extended* 
 
 * Any use to which an orchard should >)e appropriated, besides 
 that of procuring fruit, must depend on the condition of the farm. 
 It may be expedient to appropriate it to pasture the fore part of 
 the season, or to meadow ; but the growth of the trees when cir- 
 cumstances wil! admit, is best promtted by tilla§;e, as above 
 directed. 
 
 k2 
 
tl4 AGRICULTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 PRUNING OF FRUIT-TREES. 
 
 A writer, whose essay on the subject of apple-trees, is pub- 
 lished in the Massachusetts Agricultural Repository,* mentions 
 three modes of mismanagement which injure orchards. 1. Be- 
 ginning to prune them in March, when there is still much wet 
 and frosty weather, and no activity in the sap of the tree. 2. The 
 old practice of hacking and mutilating apple-trees in a manner 
 ruinous to an orchard. It is, says he, an universal practice 
 among the old farmers, to mount the tree with a hatchet, or 
 bill-hook; and hack off any branch which is in a state of decay, 
 •r which is misplaced, about six or eight inches from its inser- 
 tion, leaving a stump to rot, and to operate as a conductor of 
 the water, frost, and canker, into tlie mother branch in which 
 it grew, or into the body of the tree, according to its situation. 
 This was done originally from an idea that if you cut close to 
 tiie mother branch, or to the body of the tree, the rot, or can- 
 ker will seize more readily on its trunk, than if cut at a dis- 
 tance, and that the tree will decay the sooner. The practice 
 has been followed without reflection, and without reason by 
 jnany. 
 
 The error is obvious, as any man may learn by making his 
 experiments on a young tree. This writer advises the farmer, 
 when he has fixed upon a limb to be lopped off, if it is large 
 and heavy, to cut it first at some distance from its insertion, ta 
 prevent its vv^eight, in falling, from lacerating the bark at the 
 shoulder, whence your final cut is to be ; because this leaves 
 an opening for water to get under the bark, and cannot easily 
 be healed. You may now saw the stump close to the branch 
 from whence it proceeds, with safety ; or if it be a portion of a 
 branchwhich is to be lopped off,the cut should be down to a sound 
 healthy lateral branch, growing from the same limb ; or if the 
 limb to be cut off, proceed from the body, or trunk of the tree, 
 then it should be sawed close to the shaft. The wood in all 
 •ases, should be smoothed o^er, and the edges of the bark 
 earefully pared with your knife or hatchet, so that the water 
 will run off the wound. If the cut be made on a lateral branch, 
 it should be sawed obliquely, or slanting, so as to leave no 
 dead wood, or wood to die, and in all cases the cut should be 
 ©n a sound and healthy part of the tree. If the branch oh 
 which it is cut is a healthy, vigorous one, it will heal without 
 difficulty, if pruned the last of April or beginning of May ; but 
 if in March, the wound should be covered with a compost j 
 
 * VoU T. p. 121-127* 
 
PRUNING OF FRUIT-TREES. 115 
 
 but if the wound is large, so as to require several seasons be- 
 fore it can heal entirely, it will be better to apply the eompost, 
 whether it be pruned in March or later. 
 
 Third error consists in the habit of encouraging luxuriant 
 upright branches, to the great injury of the natural horizontal 
 fruit-bearing branches ; these are very properly called glutton 
 branches, because they consume the sap which would other- 
 wise go into the lateral and fruit-bearing branches, and in the 
 course of a few years, they leave the fruit branches decaying 
 and decayed ; the farmer then resorts to his axe, cuts away 
 the dead 'and dying wood, and leaves the glutton in full pos- 
 session of all the nourishment which the rcots afford ; but in 
 return this voracious member of the orchard gives no fruit 
 until many years, and then it is of an inferior quality. 
 
 To prevent this, the cultivator should suppress ail the stiff, 
 upright shoots, the first year they appear, by cutting them off 
 down to the branch from which they issue : taking care not to 
 leave the shoulder of the shoot, as he will in such case have 
 the same duty to perform again ; but if the shoulder of the 
 glutton be cut away, the sap will be distributed among the 
 lateral fruit-bearing branches, which will be kept in vigor, and 
 continue in a healthful bearing state. 
 
 The compost best suited to cover the wounds of all trees, is 
 a composition of tar, beeswax, and red ochre, boiled and sim- 
 mered for half an hoar or twenty minutes together. The pro- 
 portion recommended, is a pint of tar, and a piece of beeswax as 
 big as an English walnut. When these are incorporated, 
 scatter a small quantity of pulverized red ochre, say halfagill^ 
 and stir them well togethe:^ while boiling hot, or simmering. 
 When this compost is cool, it should be stiff enough to resist 
 the heat of the sun sufficiently to prevent its running, and yet 
 soft enough to be applied to the wound with a small, flat, smooth 
 stick ; it will last two years without renewing ; it yields to the 
 sap as it issues from under the bark round the wound to cover 
 it, while it continues to protect both the wood and the edge of 
 the bark from water, and of course from decay. 
 
 To prevent the decline of fruit trees, washing and rubbing 
 their bodies v;ith soft soap has been used with success, on ap- 
 ple trees, pear trees and peach trees. It is used in the spring, 
 and repeated the followmg years as often as the trees seem to 
 require it. It is also recommended to whitewash the bodies of 
 fruit trees in the spring with a mixture of lime and water. 
 
 The following composition for curing defects in trees, and 
 restoring old decayed ones, is recommended by Mr. Forsyth^ 
 as being very efficacious. 
 
li^ AdiiieijLTVRAt ESfsAfsr. 
 
 Take a bushel of fresh cow dung, half a bushel of lime rub- 
 bish from the ceilings of old rooms, which is best, or pounded 
 chalk, or old slaked lime will answer, half a bushel of wood 
 ashes, and a sixteenth of river sand ; sift the the three last ar- 
 ticles fine before they are mixed ; work them well together by 
 beating, &c. so as completely to mix them : Then reduce the 
 mass to the consistence of thick paint, by mixing with it a suf- 
 ficient quantity of urine and soap suds, so that it can be used 
 with a brush. A good coat of this is to be applied to the nak- 
 ed wood where a limb is cut off, or the wool otherwise laid 
 bare, and the pov/der of wood ashes arid burnt bones is to be 
 sprinkled over this and gently pressed down with the hand.- 
 With this he restores all rotten decayed trees to a flourishing 
 state. To effect this, all the rotten and dead part of the tree 
 is first cut away and scraped out quite down into the roots, till 
 you come to the live wood, and then smoothed, and the edges- 
 i?ext the live bark rounded off. The composition is then laid 
 on with a brush, and covered as before directed with the pow- 
 der. As the bark of the edges grows over this covered wood, 
 it works off the composition and supplies its place, till at length 
 the bark of the two edges meet and grow together. If the 
 growing bark should raise up any flakes of the composition, sa 
 as to expose the wood, let them be pressed down with, the fin- 
 gers some rainy day, when the composition is pliable. Wherff 
 a tree would be too much weakened by cutting away all its 
 dead wood at once, cut only a part away next fhe edges, and 
 as the bark covers this, cut away more. Where limbs aye 
 cutoff, let the stumps be pared smooth and the edges round-^ 
 ed, before the composition is kid on. He says this should al- 
 ways be applied wherever a limb is cut off, in order topfeserve 
 the tree from rotting at such places. 
 
 Fruit trees are subject to a disease called the canker. It 
 •ccasions the bark to grow rough and scabby, and turns the' 
 wood affected to a rusty brown color. It will sometimes kill 
 the tree if not remedied in due season. 
 
 This disease may arise from various causes; from bad 
 pruning ; from dead shoots left on the tree ; from frosts kil-> 
 ling the last year's shoots, &c. 
 
 The diseased parts are to be instantly cut away, till noth-^ 
 ing but sound white wood remains ; or if the disease be mel-e- 
 ly in the bark, the outer bark ratrst be cut away, and if the in- 
 ner bark be also affected, which is to be known by its exhib- 
 iting small black spots like the dots of a pen ; cut all away that 
 is thus affected, and let the composition be applied as befoi^e 
 directed. 
 
PRUr^ING OF FRUIT TREES, H'' 
 
 Fruit trees of the stone kind are frequently diseased with 
 »um, which arises from bad pruning, bruises and other caus- 
 es. The diseased parts are to be cut away, and the composi- 
 tion applied as before. * . <. * ^f 
 
 Youna apple and plum trees, in particular, are apt to get 
 Govered'with what are usually called lice, an mammate sub- 
 stance resembling an insect, of the color, and somewhat of the 
 shape of a grain of flaxseed, but narrower. \\ here the bark 
 is thickly covered with these, the growth of the tree will be 
 very much impeded, and sometimes it wiU be killed it they are 
 not removed. They are to be scraped off ^ylth a knife. Moss 
 also should be scraped off, as it greatly injures the growtli 
 
 of the tree. . , i • * ^r. 
 
 The washing the bodies of the trees with the mixture ot 
 lime and water as before directed is said to be very efficacious 
 in keeping off moss, lice and other noxious substances. 
 
 Perhaps the composition before mentioned, would be equal- 
 ly good, t , /i ..r • 
 
 It is a general complaint, that the finest apple trees of thie 
 country have degenerated, and that many of the best sorts 
 have entirely disappeared from our gardens and orchards. It 
 would not be difficult to show that every successive grafting 
 deteriorates the part engrafted ; or to point oUt an effectual 
 method of retaining good apples in this country without the 
 trouble of engrafting, as in every perfectly ripe apple there 
 will be found one or more seeds with flatted sides. The round 
 ones will produce the improved fruit from which they are taken, 
 . and those with the flatted sides will produce the fruit of the 
 crab upon which the graft was inserted. If a circle is drawn 
 in rich ground, and the flat sided seeds planted therein, and 
 the round seeds in the centre, the variation of quality will ba 
 discovered in two or three years. The first will throw out the 
 leaves of a crab, and the latter of an improved tree, distinguish- 
 sible in shape and fibre, and with a wooly appearance ; and in 
 due time the fruit of each will putjevery thing beyound doubt. 
 It is observed that the seeds of crabs (being originals) ar» 
 mostly if not altogether round. J" 
 
 If this rule for pruning the original qualities of fruit trees, 
 should not prove universally infalible in its operation, yet it 
 suggests to our consideration, the practibility and expediency 
 
 * Forsyth on fruit tr^es. 
 
 ft See Farmer's Assistant, title fruil tree9, 
 
 X Furopean Magazine, 
 
^^® AfiRICULtURAL ESSATSi 
 
 tentTortr^L^^^^^^^^^^ ^'Tf^ ^^P^y^"^ more particular at-- 
 Th^iJu r% 'T "^^'^^ •'"" nurseries are produced. 
 The method of grafting to improve fruit, cannot be practic- 
 
 l?%rr^^'fT^""^^"y toimpiove the qualitvToar 
 cider, without much labor, and often too, for the want^ of thaJ 
 science necessary to its success.' oi mai 
 
 i.>/Aw .^ '^^" ^''''" "^^^^ ^'l^ ^^^" remarked on this sub- 
 ject that the mismanagement of the apple tree begins in the 
 nursery; and first by paying little or no attention to the seed 
 andon ransplantmg them by leaving suckers from the root^' 
 and by eaving branches for two or threeyears, Xcl must e-' 
 Imtlrl ^' '"' away, when by their increased growth, they 
 tKilf- f ^ "?«r^^"J"rious amputation: then by squeezing 
 tiiem into small ho es so as to cramp the root, where the holf 
 ought to extend at least one foot beyond the longest roots and 
 the mould to be made quite mellow. The» by neo-lectin^r 
 
 i^rrf T^' % '' '^ ^f ^^'"^ ^^' ^"'« ^ ^^^""ted and defay- 
 mg state by suffering the ravages of insects upon them, or 
 from want of giving them proper nourishment, Ld bad prun' 
 
 It isnot strange that under such circumstances, our orchards 
 are so generally made up of a mongrel kind of degenerated 
 fruij:, neither delicious to the taste nor capable of making good 
 
 It is the duty of the phUanthropist as well as the farmer to 
 endeavor to cultivate the apple tr»e with diligent skill, as it 
 yields a fruit equalled by none in abundance and excellence 
 and ahquor which if properly made, is little if any inferior to- 
 he best wme. Besides it would , by discouraging the general 
 use of ardent spirits, have a tendency to promote the health 
 and protract thelives of those who mi^ghtb^e useful fn socfety: 
 wcaltr""^ ^"^' ^'^'^"^''''''' ^^ ^ great saving of iiationd 
 
 Making and Improving Cider. 
 
 s.hnnU^'ho '"^ ""'f^'^ *?^ '"^"'l*^^ P'*^^^' ^"^ a" the materials 
 should be sweet and clean, and the straw free from must. The 
 rrwt should be npe, but not rotten; and for making the first 
 
MAK1N» AN» I1tfPR0VIN» CIDER. 119 
 
 rate cider the knotty and wormy ones should be rejected. The 
 apples thus selected should be spread on a floor raised from the 
 ground, with a cover over it, and the sides enclosed. Here 
 ihey are to lie for the purpose of sweating, by which their 
 more watry parts are thrown off. Inthis situation they should 
 lie four or five days, when the weather is warm and dry, but 
 longer when wet and cold. They should then be ground, and 
 if the juice is left in the pomace from 12 to 24 hours, according 
 to the heat of the weather, the cider will be the richer, softer 
 and higher colored. It would be better, it has been said, that 
 the fruit should be all of one kind, as the fermentation Vvill be 
 more regular. Mr. Deane directs that the juice of the fruit, as 
 it comes from the press, should be placed in open headed casks 
 or vats, there to remain until it undergoes the first fermenta- 
 tion. Such vessels are not, however, provided at our common 
 cider-mills, but the juice is put into common casks. The ves- 
 sels which receive the juice should be perfectly sweet and 
 clean, or the juice v.-ill be reduced in its quality, if not spoiled. 
 For cleansing casks', let them be washed perfectly clean after 
 they are emptied of the old cider, and be bunged up tight. 
 Before they are used again take at the rate of a pint or more of 
 unslacked lime for a barrel, put it in, and pour in three or four 
 gallons of hot water, or more, for a larger cask. Shake it well, 
 and while the lime is slacking, give it some vent, lest it burst 
 the cask. Let it stand till cooled, and then rinse it with cool 
 water. If it still has any sour smell, repeat the operation till 
 it smells perfectly sweet. The lime destroys all the acidity 
 which may be in the cask. 
 
 The first and last running of the cheese is not so good as the 
 rest, and should be put in the cask by itself. There should be 
 a strainer of coarse eloth, when it can be had, instead of straw, 
 that is generally used, on the bottom of the funnel, to keep out 
 the pomace. The next process is the fermentation. There 
 are three fermentations, the vinous, the acid, and the putrid. 
 When the fii-et ceases, tha second begins ; and when that ceases, 
 the third begins. The first is only necessary for cider ; and 
 care should be taken to stop riH further fermentation as soon as 
 this is over. This is known by the liquor ceasing to throw up 
 little bubbles to the top ; then too, all the pomace is raised up, 
 and if suflered to remain there, will again sink to the bottom, 
 and render the liquor turbid. At this time the barrel is usually 
 bunged up, when cider is intended for common use. But for 
 the best cider, the liquor should then be drawn off, not too close- 
 ly, and put into other clean casks, or botued and closed tio-ht 
 ana set awa^r in a cool cellar. ° 
 
120 AGRieULTURAL ESSAT9. 
 
 While the fermentation is going on, the cask should be fil- 
 led quite full with similar juice, that the pomace which rises to 
 the top may be thrown off, and not permitted to sink to the bot- 
 tom after the fermentation ceases ; this, however, is not neces- 
 sary, when the cider is to be drawn off into other casks, as a- 
 bove directed. 
 
 "To prevent the fermentation of cider, let the cask be first 
 strongly fumigated with burnt sulphur, then put in some of the 
 cider, burn more sulphur in the cask, stop it tight, and shake 
 the whole up together ; fill the cask, bung it tight, and put it 
 away in a cool cellar." 
 
 To refine cider, and give it a fine amber color, the following 
 method is much approved of; take the whites of six eggs, with 
 a handful of fine beach sand, washed clean ; stir them well to- 
 gether ; then boil a quart of molasses down to a candy, and cool 
 it by pouring in cider, and put this, together with the eggs and 
 sand into a barrel of cider, and mix the whole together. When 
 it is thus managed, it will keep for many years. A piece of 
 fresh bloody meat put into the cask, will also refine the cider, 
 and serve for it to feed on. 
 
 A dozen of sweet apples, sliced mto a cask of cider, have 
 been found advantageous. Three quarts of good wheat, boiled 
 and hulled, put into each hogshead, it is said, improves the li- 
 quor, and prevents it becoming tart. 
 
 To clarify cider with isinglass, pour into each vessel about a 
 pint of the infusion of about sixty grains of the most transpar- 
 ent of this glue, in a little white wine, (any common sour wine, 
 or well wrought cider, perhaps will do as well) and rain or riv- 
 er water, stirred well together, after being strained through a 
 linen cloth. This viscious substance spreads over the surface of 
 the liquor, and carries all the dregs with it to the bottom. 
 
 "A quart of honey, or molasses, and « quart of brandy or oth- 
 er spirits, added to a barrel of cider, will improve the liquor ve- 
 ry much, and will restore that which has become too flat and 
 insipid." 
 
 To prevent its beconjing pricked, or to cure it when it is so, 
 put a little pearl-ashe», or other mild alkali into the cask. "A 
 lump of chalk, broken in pieces, and thrown in, is also good." 
 
 The usual practice of boiling cider in the spring for summer 
 use, is said in the Farmer's Assistant, to be a very bad one, es- 
 pecially when boiled in brass kettles ; and, that if any boihng 
 be ever prooer for cider, it should be as it comes from the press. 
 
 **To cure oily cider, take one ounce of salt of tartar, and two 
 and a half of sweet spirit of nitre, in a gallon of milk, for a 
 hogshead. To cure ropy cider, take six pounds of powdered 
 
MAKING AND IMPROrfNG QIBRR. i%l 
 
 allum, and stir it Into a hogsliead ; then rock it and clarify it. 
 
 To bring on a fermentation, the same author directs, to take 
 three pints of yeast for a hogshead, add as much jallop as wiTl 
 lie on a sixpence, mLx them well with some of the cider, beat 
 the mass up till it is frothy, then pour it into the cask, and stir it 
 up wel]. Keep the vessel full, and the bung open, for the froth 
 and foul stuff to work out. In about fifteen days the froth will 
 be clean and white ; then to stop the fermentation, rack the ci- 
 der off into a ..clean vessel ; add two gallons of brandy, or well 
 rectified whiskey to jt, and bung it up. Let the cask be full, 
 and keep the vent hole open for a day or two. By this proce^, 
 cider that is poor and ill tasted, may be much improved. Let 
 it be refined by some of the methods before described. 
 
 Cider brandy mixed with an equal quantity of honey, or clar- 
 ified sugar, is much recommended by some, for improviiig com- 
 mon cider ; so that, when refined, it may be made as strong ajid 
 as pleasant as the most of wines. It is not to be supposed that 
 all the methods recommended for making and improving the 
 quality of cider are expedient, or even practicable, for the 
 greater number of the cider making farmers of our country, 
 by whom it may be urged, that cider madeund prepared in the 
 common methods, may answer the necessary purposes of this 
 liquor ; but it may be observed, that cider, when made only for 
 family use, is much more likely to constitute to health, or at- 
 least, not to injure health, when it is so managed that its con- 
 stituents are made up of nothing feuttht pure ripe juice of the 
 apple, perfectly clarified in the process of fermentation, from 
 every substance which may be in any manner deleterious to the 
 human constitution. This should be one great object in im- 
 proving this valuable liquor, that we may prepare it for use, un- 
 adulterated witii any unripe or decayed juices, or other substan- 
 ces, which may be either offensive to the taste, or injurious t* 
 the health. This indeed is a aufficient object, to induce the 
 farmer to maJce improvements on the usual methods of making 
 and preserving cider, for liis own use. But if money is his ob- 
 ject, it is very certain, that the market price of his cider, will 
 depend on its good ©r bad qualities. Cider has been made in 
 Great-Britain of such a superior quality, as to command a price 
 of sixty guineas a hogshead. If such cider can be made there, 
 it may also here, where our climate is believed to be more fa- 
 vorable forthe production of the best apples, and we have all the 
 means and the information, necessary for making the best cider. 
 
 The apple called the Virginia crab, has been thought prefer- 
 able to any other in this country, for cider ; as its must * is leas 
 
 * Must — a word more commonly used to signify new wine, or 
 wort for beer, is here applied to the unfermented juice of apples. 
 
AGRICULTURAL ESSAYS. 123 
 
 disposed, ftom its great acidity to rise too high in fermenta- 
 tion, than any other known here. Were there no other advan- 
 tages, this simple one, it is said, would render it exceedingly 
 valuable to the common farmer, who will be hardly brought to 
 pay attention to the nice operation of fermenting the sweeter 
 fruits, but it has almost every other good property of a cider 
 apple. The trees bear abundantly, the fruit ripens late, and is 
 free from rot of any kind ; the fruit is small and hard, and there- 
 fore bears the fall from the tree without bruising. It grinds 
 small, and the pulp is remarkably tough«5 yet parts with its 
 juice readily ; hence the must runs from the press very fine, 
 and being acid, it will bear to stand in the pomace longer than 
 any sweeter apple. This fact deserves much attention. 
 It would, therefore, be well to preserve those apples for the 
 best cider, which have qualities similar to the crab apple. 
 
 As good cider cannot be expected v/ithout proper attention 
 to its fermentation, the following piinciples should be regard- 
 ed : "Cider requirss a very gentle fermentation, and ought to 
 be confined between 44 ?nd 48 degree's of heat, (by Faren- 
 heit's thermometer). Musts, of ::il kinds, increase their heat 
 iy fermentation. Liquors, of all kinds, ;vill not be colder than 
 the air in which th<?y stand. It is obvious then, that it is diffi- 
 cult, if not impossible, to make good cider, when the medium 
 heat of the day exceeds 48 degrees ; and it is said that because 
 our best cellars are 50 degrees of heat in the latter end of Oc- 
 tober, they are generally unfit for fermenting cider ; and that, 
 therefore, there is a necessity of having your first fermenta- 
 tion above ground, where the heat of tno day will have its ef- 
 fect. Hence the known fact, that cider ferments most kindly 
 in the shade on the north side of your buildings, whenever the 
 cool nights of the fall reduce the medium heat of tlie day below 
 48 degrees."^ Early made cider intended for immediate use, 
 should be checked in its fermentation, from time to time, and it 
 is said by that maansjit will soon become fine, and a very plea- 
 sant drink. 
 
 * It is not supposed that ths common practical farmer ran al» 
 ^ays direct his process by the deg^rces of heat indicated by the 
 thermometer. But the immediatti and rapid progress of the fer- 
 aftntation of the juice, after it comes fr«m the press, is a sufficient 
 indication of too g;reat a deg^ree of heat. 
 
MAIVAGEMEN'T OF WOOD LAND. 128 
 
 UCOXOMY OF MANAGING WoOD LaND, SO AS TO MAKE DU- 
 RABLE PROVISION FOR F¥EL. 
 
 The practice of the populous nations of Europe, where 
 forests have been cut off centuries ago, and who are compelled 
 to resort to measures of the strictest economy to supply 1 hem- 
 selves with fuel, ought to have great weight with us. France 
 in an especial manner, ought to be looked up to for lessons on 
 this subject. Her vast and thickly settled population, her 
 numerous manufactures, her poverty in mineral coal, the 
 eminence which she has attained in all economical arts, entitle 
 her to great respect. It is the practice of the French people 
 not to cut off their woods oftener than once -ii twenty or twen- 
 ty-five years, and by law , when they are cut over, the owner 
 is obliged to cut the whole smooth, with the exception of a 
 very few trees which the officers of the government had 
 marked to be spared for longer growth. This example proves 
 that in the opinion of the French scientific and political men,, 
 it is expedient, where wood lands are cut, that they should be 
 cut smooth, in order that the new growth might start ^^gether, 
 not overshaded with other trees of larger growth."* It has 
 been said too, that the practical economists of that country are 
 of the opinion that the young sprouts will spring and grow 
 more rapidly, from the roots of trees which are cut in the full 
 vigor of their early growth, before they have arrived even 
 very near to their maturity ; and that therefore the greatest 
 quantity of wood for fuel may be produced from a given quan- 
 tity of land, by cutting the trees smooth and clean at about 
 their middle size, and the land inclosed, so as to keep off all 
 animals which may injure the growth of the young sprouts. 
 By the system of management which now prevails, (inFrance)it 
 is computed that their forests and the supplies which they fur- 
 nish, will never diminish, and that there wijl be always suffi- 
 cient for domestic consumptien for fuel, as well as for archi- 
 tectural and naval purposes.f 
 
 France, it appears, is the only country in Europe, if not in the 
 world, which has been so long improved with a crowded popu- 
 lation, where fuel is so plenty and cheap, and it is obv-iously to 
 be attributed to their peculiar system of managing their wood 
 i lands, which is entirely different from that which has general- 
 ly hitherto prevailed in the United States of America. 
 
 Here the first object in making new settlements, is to cle^ 
 
 * New England Farmer, title wood land p. h\Q. 
 t M, Micour, on the forest trees of North America. 
 
J-34 AGRICULTURAL ES3ATS. 
 
 as winch of the land of its forest trees as is practicable, and a& 
 soon as the roots are sufficienly decayed to admit of cultivation,to 
 plough and sow and reap, till the rich vegetable mould is cx- 
 Jiausted; and then instead of adopting such a mode of cultivatioa 
 as may perpetuate its fertility, they fly to new forests for relief. 
 By this means, too great'a portion of our lands are cleared 
 ©f their trees, while vast tracts of those which are called im- 
 proved, often present to our view a miserable barren waete. 
 
 The next error vi that of running over the old forests that 
 remain, to pick out the few scattered trees in a state of decay. 
 "By this means it is believed, the saving of such trees will 
 not generally compensate for the loss which is sustained by 
 the injury to young sprouts, and by the loss of the more rapid 
 growth of the eproute, which the roots of the trees might pro- 
 duce when left uBshaded and undisturbed, according to the 
 system adopted in France. This practice of running over eve- 
 vy part of the forest tcvpick out the decaying and dead trees, 
 may be justifiable where bad economy and other circumstan- 
 ces has, eo far reduced the number of forest trees; as to 
 render the entire consumption of the present growth indispen- 
 sable, sooner than fuel can be expected from the new growth. 
 Such a state of our wood lands, however, can hardly be con- 
 ceived, and even under any circumstances it would be difficuld 
 to show that a more durable and abundant growth of forest 
 trees for fuel might not be expected from the wood landar 
 throutrhout the United States, by cutting them smooth and 
 cleanr especially clearing off all trees which have arrived to 
 any considerable degree of maturity ; reserving occasionally 
 a few scattering ones which might be wanted for timber. 
 
 The farmer who would appropriate but a small portion of 
 his lands to forest, might find it for his interest to have a small 
 spot of ground set apart for the purposes of an artificial forest. 
 Thetocust is a very valuable tree to cultivate either for 
 fuel or other purposes. It is said this tree will grow well on 
 barren sandy land, and indeed on every kind of dry soil where 
 the climate is not too cold ; though a sandy loam or gravelly 
 loam is best suited for it. The trees will acquire a considera- 
 ble size in fifteen years, and in about twenty-five years are 
 full grown. The timber is very good for the trunions and 
 knees of vessels, for cogs for mills and many other purposes, 
 which require solidity and durability. It will last from fifty ta 
 sixtr years for fence posts, and is excellent for fuel. 
 
 The following is an easy method of raising it. Plant about 
 twenty trees on an acre ; and when they have got to be about 
 twelve feet high, and their roots well extended, run straggling 
 
MANAGEMENT OF WOOD LAND. 1*^ 
 
 furrows through the ground, and whenever the roots are cut 
 hy the plough, new trees will start up,& stock the whole ground 
 ^ith a plentiful growth. This tree has beenbut lately intro- 
 duced into general use in France ; and it is there valued more 
 than any other in that country. 
 
 The Lombardy poplar grows very rapidly, and is easily 
 raised from cuttings, and when dried, answers well for fuel. 
 It is cultivated extensively for that purpose in some parts of 
 Europe, and has been introduced into some parts of our own 
 country for that purpose. It acquires its full size in about 
 twenty years, by which time ithas been said a tree will contain 
 abouthalf acordof wood ; it is believed it will contain more. 
 It will not make wood equal in quality to locust ; but as it 
 grows more rapidly, its inferiority may be compensated from 
 that circumstance. In France and Italy it is trimmed up for 
 beams and other timber for building. 
 
 In most parts of the United States of America, wood for 
 tueJ and timber is yet plenty, and bears but a moderate price, 
 except in the vicinity of our large towns and cities, and it may 
 always be preserved so as to supply all the necessary purpos- 
 es of our citizens, if we practice that system of economy which 
 has so much distinguished the policy of France. But we 
 must change the conduct which has marked the progress of 
 our new settlements generally. Instead of running over so 
 much of our new forests, and exhausting the strong vegetable 
 mould which has been accumulating for ages, we must bestow 
 more labor in making durable improvements on such as are 
 cleared ; and m bringing our waste and barren land to as hio-h 
 a degree of productiveness as they will bear. Farmers wfth 
 large tracts of land half cultivated, and which yield little more 
 than the value of the labor bestowed upon them, as is too often 
 the case in many parts of our country, are but poor ; and their 
 condition is not much better than those who earn their bread 
 by their daily labor. In our older settlements, if our forests 
 were made extensive, and our improved lands more highly 
 cultivated it would promise to our future generations more du- 
 rable blessings. 
 
 The following observations respecting the economy of using 
 luel is worthy of consideration. 
 
 It is well known to philosophers that when water commen- 
 ces boiling m the open air, no additional fire can make it any 
 hotter. A contrary opinion prevails,& those employedin cooking 
 victuals think they cannot make the fire too intense.' The fu? 
 ei added for this purpose is, in fact not only a wanton waste, 
 but by causing a violent ebulition it forces from the victuals^ 
 
J36 ASRICULTURAL E39AT3, 
 
 •vvith the steam its finest flavor. Much fuel might therefore be 
 saved in Ifamilies, if in cooking no more fuel were used 
 than to keep the water just at the boiling point, besides the 
 victuals would be much better for it. 
 
 Fei^ces. 
 
 To fence a form in the most economical manner, and at the 
 same time the most secure and durable, is an object of great 
 j^nsideration to the farmer. While timber is plenty, but little 
 is often thought of the necessity of economy in this branch of 
 farming. But however great the supply of fencing timber may 
 be, or of stone suitable for wall, the labor necessary for furnish- 
 jng the materials at the places where they may be needed, for 
 erecting the fenee and keeping it in repair, constitutes the 
 greatest item of expense, which relates to this branch of farm- 
 ing. It has, therefore, been considered an important object 
 in older countries, and some parts of our own, to substitute 
 some kind of fence which might be more durable, and at the 
 same time perhaps not more expensive than any kind of wood- 
 en fence, other than such as are made to grow around the field 
 to be inclosed. For this purpose, hedges have been raised, 
 composed of different kinds of shrubs, in some parts of New- 
 England and the middle States. It has been found that the 
 white mulberry answers well tor this purpose, and is recom- 
 mended as having the peculiar advantage of affording food for 
 silk-worms, which may be either raised on the hedges, or the 
 leaves may be gathered to feed them. For making white muV- 
 berry hedges, Mr. De La Bigane directs that the plants, when 
 set, should have a year's growth, and be cut off about six inch- 
 es above ground, that their roots be taken off, and that they be 
 set five inches apart and eighteen inches deep in a ditch dug 
 for the purpose, and the earth thrown in upon them again. 
 This depth has been thought too great, and the distances be- 
 tween them too small, unless they are to be afterwards thinned 
 as they grow larger. He also directs that the shoots be cut off 
 the following spring, a little above ground, in order that they 
 acquire more strength, and shoot forth more branches ; and 
 l^nthey will form a good fence the third or fourth year, and 
 
SOOB grow so thick as to be totally impassable by any cattle.- 
 fie further observes, that the branches must be twisted and wo- 
 ven tog-ether much earlier than those of thorn. The young 
 plants, when set out, are to be kept clear of w^eeds, and pro^ 
 tected from cattle. Mulberry hedges may be made from slips, 
 or cuttings, taken from mulberry frees^; and in that case, should 
 be set as deep as has been recommended for sets. Mr. Nich- 
 olson, in his Farmer's Assistant, remarks, that the mulberry 
 tree is well worth raising, not only for its fruit and use in feed- 
 ing silk-worms, but also for its timber and for fuel,-as it grows 
 very rapidly, and is generally well adapted to our climate. He- 
 further observes that it grows well in a deep dry soil, that is 
 moderately rich, and that it may be raised from the seeds, or 
 by cuttings or slips. Taking into consideration its use for hedg- 
 es and fuel, perhaps it might be a useful substitute for theLom- 
 bardy poplar. • 
 
 When hedges are to inclose wet land, they should be set on- 
 the bank of a ditch, made around the field for that purpose. 
 
 The thorn, the apple, and the willow, are most used for the 
 purposes of hedges. But it is said that the English thorn is apt 
 to be killed by the winters, in the northern parts of New-Eno-- 
 land ; and the same author says, that the difficulty in making 
 the seeds of our own thorn vegetate, it is believed can be easi- 
 ly overcome, by their being put into hot water, or in muriatic 
 acid gas mixed with water. * To raise the thorn from the seed 
 it should be sown in the fall, in u warm rich soil, ihnd if it has 
 a southern exposure it will be better, and at the depth of about 
 two inches. After they have come up, they should be trans- 
 planted into other beds, and kept clear of weeds until they are 
 set out in the hedge, which should be at the height of about 
 two feet. Mr. Miller has directed that the sets of them, when 
 planted out, be of the thickness of a common goose quill ; that 
 they be planted when newly taken up, with their tops cut 'off a- 
 bout six inches above ground ; and that they be bedded in the 
 richest mould dug out of the ditch. When two rows are set 
 together, that each plant be put at the distance of about a foot 
 but when only one row is set tljey should stand closer The 
 same author observes, that they should be hoed and kept clean 
 ot weeds during summer, and after having one summer growth 
 should be cut oft early next spring, at the distance of about an 
 inch from the ground, which ^vill make them send out stron^rer 
 shoots and help their growth. When the hedge is eight'or 
 nine years old, it should be slashed by cutting them half through 
 
 * See essay on the germination of plants. 
 
128 AttRiC^t^URAL ESSAYS. 
 
 and weaving them together, trimming off the superffuouW 
 branches, early in the spring. 
 
 Mr. L. Hommedieu says, that apple seeds in the pomace, 
 strewed along and buried in the top of the banks of ditches 
 made for hedges, and kept from the cattle until they have at- 
 tained sufficient strength, will answer very well for this pur- 
 pose : and as the cattle will be continually biting off the young 
 shoots, it will make the hedge grow more bushy, thick, and 
 strong. 
 
 Hedges, in dry land, may do well without ditches. Where 
 no ditch is used, the hedge perhaps may be better set in two 
 rows, about a foot apart. The young hedge should be protect- 
 ed from cattle. But to save the expense of making a fence for 
 the purpose of protecting the young hedge, it would be best, 
 when circumstances will admit, tocommenc^ the setting of the 
 hedge around a field which is intended for such improvements- 
 as to exclude cattle the most of the time which may be necessa- 
 ry to raise the hedge above the reach 6f their ravages. 
 Where, for instance, a rotation of crops is intended, of potatoes, 
 pease, wheat, and clover, it will be no inconvenience to keep 
 cattle from such a field a sufficient time for the hedge to arrive 
 to maturity. If a hedge is intended around a moadow, cattle 
 will not be likely to injure it, if they are turned in to feed only 
 when there is plenty of grass. 
 
 One objection to hedges for fence is, that in a eountry s6 
 young as the United States^ the system of improving particular 
 tractJof land, is not so settled and matured, as to render it suf- 
 ficiently certain what may be the permanent dimensions of 
 particular inclosures, and where a durable fence may be expe- 
 dient. But the better the science of agriculture is understood, 
 the more practicable it will be to fix durable dimensions to cer- 
 tain fields. For it is very certain that the scientific farmer can 
 BO direct his labors as to render the same field permanently 
 productive, and the culture of it profitable, without removing 
 any part oi the fence which incloses it. 
 
 Hedges are believed, by some who have used them, to be 
 cheaper than any wooden fences. And v/hen once they are 
 mad*^, it is certain they are more durable, and need but little 
 repairs. It is believed,' too, that they are a much better protec- 
 tion to crops than wooden fences, as they are usually made* 
 They are insufficient only against hogs ; and they should al- 
 ways be kept in inclosures made for the purpose. 
 
 Where the land is very wet, a ditch two feet or two and a 
 half, and about two feet deep, with a steep bank, may answer 
 well without a hedge on the top. But a small hedge, in such 
 
PENCSS. 12^ 
 
 places, would be preferable ; and it is very easily made from 
 the shrubby kind of willow that is found growing by the side of 
 many of our streams. 
 
 For making the hedge of the willow, whether in the bank of 
 the ditch, or any other suitable place, stakes of a proper length 
 are to be cut and set a considerable depth in the ground, about 
 a foot apart, and they will take root and grow, and new twigs 
 will sprout out from every part and soon form them into a thick 
 bushy hedge. This, when sufficiently grown, should be manag-- 
 ed as other hedges. The sets may be two or two and a half 
 feet long, when stuck for the hedge. 
 
 The willow hedge is very easily raised from sets or cuttings;^ 
 which readily take root either in the spring or fall. 
 
 When land naturally wet, is situated by the highway, one 
 pretty wide and deep ditch made on the line between the field 
 and highway, witK a hedge of willows on its bank, is preferable 
 to any other fence, and should be commenced by our farmers 
 as soon as practicable, as it would contribute to the double ad- 
 vantage of improving both the field and the road, by drawing 
 off the excess of water, besides making a useful and durable^ 
 fence. 
 
 If the farmer has rail timber in plenty, and prefers using^t,' 
 he will find that posts set on the bank of the ditch, witbnot 
 more than two rails inserted in them, will make a sufiicient 
 fence. The post to be set, would always be much more dura- 
 ble if the end of it to be set in the ground is burnt so as to- 
 make them black. 
 
 The farmer who would object to hedges for fence, because 
 they cannot so soon become efficacious for the purpose, should 
 reflect that it is the duty of the good citizen to direct his labors 
 so as to make the most lasting improvement to his lands ; and 
 that we live as well for posterity as ourselves. 
 
 I have just now been favored with the perusal of Mr. Silli- 
 man's remarks on hedge rows, taken from his tiavels in Eng- 
 land, and made on a personal view of them while in that coun- 
 try. They are, says he, the most perfect fence that can be im- 
 agined, being at once impervious to small animals, and impass- 
 able by large ones ; incapable of being pulled up, overthrown, 
 or disordered, and for many years needing no repairs ; they 
 also form a most beautiful feature in the scenery of the country^ 
 especially when they are filled up by flowers, which is more or 
 less the fact very generally ; the fields are a rich garment, and 
 the hedge rows form the embroidered edge or border. In some 
 instances the hedge rows are placed on mounds or dvkes of 
 earth, which in general woujd form a competent icclosure. oil 
 
130 AGRIcyLTUBAL ESSAYS. 
 
 themselves ; especially as they are accompanied by ditches, 
 out of which the earth which formed them had been takea. 
 In many instances, and especially in the vicinity of gentle- 
 men's houses, these mounds, or dykes, are sodded with great 
 neatness, so that the verdure is as perfect as their almost 
 perpendicular sides are in the field ; and when upon the top of 
 these rural parapets, the fine hedge row rises, trimmed with 
 perfect precision, and forming the most elegant green fringe, it 
 is scarcely possible to imagine any thing of the kind more grat- 
 ifying. Around some plantations, the mound and hedge row 
 together, estimating from the bottom of the ditch, form a fenfce 
 of ten or twelve feet in height. 
 
 The length of time, and attention to make hedges, or live 
 fence, is a discouraging circumstance. The expense of trim- 
 ming and keeping a live fence in order, is thought by some 
 who have used them in this country, to exceed that of keeping 
 an ordinary rail or board fence in repair. Should a very unru- 
 ly animal break through a good live fence, or an evil disposed 
 person cut their way through, a gap is left, which must be filled 
 by a dead fence of some sort, until a new growth. 
 
 Notwithstanding the good properties of this kind offence, it 
 is not to be supposed that the farmer who has a plenty of tlirifty 
 growing timber, or a suitable quantity of loose stones within a 
 reasonable distance, will undertake the cultivation of live 
 fences. But there are farms, and even extensive tracts of 
 lanu in our country, in which there are no stones suitable for 
 walling : and where fencing timber too has become scarce. 
 In such places live fences and ditches are the last and only 
 resort. And when live fences have become indispensable, or 
 are likely soon to become so, they ought to be set about before 
 the old stock of fencing timber is gone entirely; and by mak- 
 ing a short piece every year, a knowledge of their usefulness 
 may be acquired, as well as the manner of making and taking 
 care of them. 
 
 A good fence may be made by running a ditch around the 
 field, whether it be a dry or wet soil, and on the top of the 
 mound which is raised by the excavations of the ditch, to set 
 pickets of some durable timber, about three or four inches 
 apart, the height of the pickets need only be about three feet 
 above the top of the mound, and if.it is four or five inches in 
 diameter, it wuU be of sufficient strength to guard against or- 
 dinary animals of any description. Such a fence would, per- 
 haps,"rQquire less timber than any other wooden fence, 
 
Teams, 
 
 The superior advantages of horses in teams, are their quick- 
 ness of motion, and greater docility; and their disadvantages 
 are, their greater expense in raising and keeping, and extra 
 expense of harness, and being of no value, when their service 
 is at an end. The advantages of oxen, are said to be their bemg 
 less expensive in raising and keeping,and their value, after their 
 time of service expires ; and their disadvantages are, their 
 slowness of motion, and their being less tractable. 
 
 The following calculations, respecting the relative value, 
 utility of horse and ox teams, is worthy of consideration : "Say 
 that a good span of farming horses are worth, at four years 
 old, one hundred dollars : at fourteen years from that time, 
 they are worth little or nothing ; of course, another sum of one 
 hundred dollars, at the expiration of that time, be expended in 
 the purchase of a new span. This sum, laid out at the end of 
 fourteen years, is about equal to fifty dollars paid down. In 
 order, therefore, to keep the span, a capital of one hundred and 
 fifty dollars, is necessary ; which is equal to an expenditure of 
 ten doUara and fifty cents a year. A yoke of oxen, at four 
 years old, are worth, say sixty dollars ; and allowing them 
 not to depreciate in value, till turned off for fattening, 
 they require an expenditure of four dollars and twen- 
 ty cents a year, as the interest of the capital, laid out for 
 them. Say that the horses will cost fifteen dollars a year 
 more than the oxen, to keep them, and provide harness for 
 them. Say also, that they do a hundred days work in a year, 
 andthat the oxen, vorking a quarter slower, require one hun- 
 dred and thirty-three days to perform the same labor ; then if 
 one hand only, is ernployi'd with the oxen, his Avages and board 
 dunng the extra thivty-three days, at fifty cents per day, would 
 stillleave a balance m favor of the osen, of four dollars and 
 eighty cents, for the year's v/otk ; but if they should require a 
 boy to dnve, v/hile another handh^ide the plough, then the bal- 
 ance would be very considerahb in favor of the horses. 
 
 Perhapg on smooth laads, atid for carrying loads to market 
 at a distance, horses may be preferable. But oxen are certain- 
 ly preferable for husbandry in maay respects ; they are cheap- 
 er than Wse?, as it regards tl^b food, the method of keeping 
 tiieni, the superiorxty of their dung, their being subject to fewer 
 ciiseases,and their suffering no loss of value by W. Two oxen in 
 a plough require not a driver more than a span of horses. Lord 
 Skame3says,thattheDutch,atthe capeofGoodHope,plouffh with 
 oxen, Without a driver, and early exercise them to a quicl pa^-e 
 
132 AGRieUIiTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 SO as to equal horses, both in the plough and in the waggon: 
 that the people of Malabar use no other animal for the plough, 
 nor for burdens ; and that about Pondichery, no beasts of bur- 
 den are to be seen but oxen. He^urther remarks, that if oxen 
 were more generally used, the article of beef, candles, and 
 leather, three essential necessaries of life, would become much 
 cheaper. In some parts of Great-Britain, they are used sin- 
 ^\y in carts, and two in a plough, with cords, without a driver. 
 It has been observed by Mr. Livingston, of New- York, that if 
 we may argue the utility of a practice,, from its extent, we must 
 prefer drawing by the horns, to any other mode ; that nine 
 tenths of Europe make their cattle draw in this way, and from 
 what he had seen of this performance, he was persuaded it was 
 to be preferred to the yoke. He observes, that a bull's strength 
 appears to be placed in his neck, and in drawing in this way, 
 the whole of it is exerted ; his motion is not impeded, or his 
 skin chafed, as it is by the yoke." 
 
 In the mountains of Savoy, he observes, he saw many cattle, 
 chiefly cows, ^ drawing by the horns, not in carts, but in wag- 
 gons. He observes, however, that our cows are in general 
 inuch smaller than those usually worked in Europe. That al- 
 though yokes are used in some parts of Italy, they differ from 
 ours. Instead of bows, they have four flat pieces of wood 
 which hang from each side of the yoke, and are about ten mch- 
 es long, and hollowed so as to fit the sides of the neck, and so 
 thick as to admit a rope or chain to pass through them, by which 
 they are fixed to the yoke ; and each pair of tkem are united 
 by a chain or rope under the oxen's neck. The draft, in this 
 case, he tjbserves, is by the top of the shoulders only, and that 
 he believes it is to be preferred to our bows on that accouot, 
 because the bow, by pressing the shoulder blade, impedes the 
 motion of the animal. For holding back, whether thoy draw 
 by these yokes, or by the horns, the end of the whole projects 
 considerably by the heads of the c .ttle, and teems up very 
 much. To this is fixed a leather strsp that goes round the 
 horns of the oxen, so that they keep back the weight by the 
 horns, and with much more esse than ours do by twisting 
 their necks. In England they ere v/orked in a harness, which 
 were it not more expensive and more troublesome, it is said, 
 ought to be preferred to the method practised here. The 
 
 * This practice, and raany others, which the American farmer 
 may be disposed to deride, though in some future period of our his- 
 tory, his circumstances may render it expedient to adopt from ne- 
 cessity, if from no other cause. 
 
TEAM5.. 
 
 im 
 
 elownesg of oxen, which is the greatest objection to their util- 
 ity in husbandry, is doubtless owing in part to their weight 
 and natural inactivity, and in part, too, by overloading thera 
 with burdens that are made to bear constantly and heavily up- 
 on their necks. But it appears that these causes are in some 
 measure remedied in Europe, by different modes of draft, some 
 of which have been described ; and by exercising them to a 
 quick pace. It has been said that the Sussex Oxen, in Eng- 
 land, have beaten horses at the plough in the deepest clay. 
 The Ilartfordshire and Devonshire oxen there are recommend- 
 ed as the most speedy. It is well known that there is a great 
 difference in our oxen with respect to their agility and docility, 
 and it would be an object worthy of much attention for our farm- 
 ers to seek for such ones for farm labor, that excel \v those pro- 
 perties. Some oxen to be selected from our common stock may 
 be found that will perform nearly double the labor on account 
 of possesing these properties in a superior degree. When by 
 experience and observation the farmer may discover a particu- 
 lar breed of cows whose bull calves are such generally as to 
 make oxen possessing these peculiar properties, he would do 
 well to keep and improve them for that purpose. 
 
 The choice of the most convenient carts for the purposes of 
 husbandry, is a subject connected with thcvt of teaming. 
 
 It is said that some of the best British farmers generally use 
 one horse carts instead of wagons on their farms ; and they 
 are particularly recommended by Mr. Young, for this purpose, 
 as being on the whole more convenient and cheaper. In Ire- 
 land, the wheel car, as it is called, is almost imiversally used 
 on farms, and for transporting on the highways. Each horse 
 in that carriage, draws from ten to twenty hundred weight, ac- 
 cording to the state of the roads ; and it is said there that one 
 animal drawing by itself, in a car or cart, can as easily draw 
 eight hundred weight, as two can draw twelve hundred, when 
 put together in a waggon. The reason assigned is, that in a 
 cart the horse cS.rries a part of the load on his back ; and ia 
 drawing, his exertions are not baffled by the jostling and une- 
 qual exertions of another. It is objected against carts, tbat they 
 press too heavily on the horse, or oxen, when going downhill, 
 particularly when carrying a top-heavy load, and that they will 
 incline to tilt up, when going up hill, with such load. These 
 -defects have, however, been in some degree obviated, by a con- 
 trivance fixed in front of the box, for the purpose of raising its 
 fore end when going down hill, and of sinking it, when up, so 
 that in either case, the centre of gravity of the load will not be 
 fKaterially altered, from what it is on level ground. In the 
 M 
 
134 AGRICULTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 construction of the body of the cart, the essential points are t© 
 fit it for the purposes for which it is mostly to be used ; to place 
 so much of it before the axletree, as that, when filled, about a 
 fifth of the weig-htof its cotitents will rest on the horse; and 
 that it be so constructed as to be tilted up, to empty its load. 
 
 To those farmers in our country, who keep so many cattle, as 
 always to have a sufficient number of both hores and oxen, for 
 any purposes of husbandry, the introduction of the one horse 
 cart, may be considered as an object of minor importance. But 
 there are in our country, as in all other, a large class of the cul- 
 tivators of the soil, who find it necessary to use much economy 
 in the use of a team. In older countries, as well as in some 
 parts of our own, this class of farmers have found the one horse 
 cart to be one of the most useful implements of husbandry. I 
 have been informed by a farmer, who made the study of agricul- 
 tural economy an important object, that with a single horse 
 and horse cart and other implements of tillage, he performed all 
 the team work on his farm, which afforded him all the necessa- 
 ry produce for the support of his family, and that, with this 
 team, he found it both convenient and profitable, to transport 
 both his hay and fuel. The wagons in common use, are doubt- 
 less best, and indeed necessary, for those cultivators who pur- 
 sue the business of Arming on a large scale ; or who have occa- 
 sion to carry produce, or other heavy articles any considerable 
 distance ; though farmers of this description, would frequently 
 find the common horse cart a very convenient and profitable 
 vehicle for many purposes. It would therefore be a great im- 
 provement, in rural economy, to introduce the one horse cart 
 into general use among the farmers ; experience will soon at- 
 test its numerous advantages. That class of cultivators par- 
 ticularly, who improve only a garden, or a few acres of land, 
 will thereby save themselves from much expense, as well as the 
 great delay and inconvenience, which must stccrue from de- 
 pending on farmers to perform for them the numerous services, 
 which they might themselves perform with this cart and a sin- 
 gle horse, and one too, which might be purchased for a small 
 price, while he would possess all the properties necessary t© 
 carry into effect an economical and profitable plan of husband- 
 ry, on a small scale. 
 
 The following improvement in the harnessing of horses for 
 the wagon, so as to do less injury to roads in travelling, has 
 J)een suggested to the citizens of the State of New- York, by 
 direction of the board of agriculture. Let the double whippel- 
 tree and neck-yoke be so long that each horse may travel in a 
 Jirte directly forward of the wheels. Travelling in this manner- 
 
HORSES. 
 
 135 
 
 it is said, would entirely prevent all ruts, as the horse's feet 
 would beat down and level the small track cf each preceding 
 wagon ; and in case some ruts or holes should begin to makf^ 
 their appearance, the horses, to avoid them, would immediately 
 turn to the right or left, and the wheels of course would follow: 
 the consequence of which, would be smooth, level, and dura- 
 ble roads, with half the expense for repairs which is now laid 
 out upon them. 
 
 If the advantages which are suggested, will result from such 
 a constructed harness as has been above described, the gener- 
 al use of them, especially on great market roads, ought to be 
 introduced ; as a partial use of them, would not effect the ob- 
 ject. 
 
 The above remarks, respecting teams, are submitted to the 
 consideration of the'American farmer, without any farther com- 
 ment than barely the suggestion that, they are the result of the 
 observations and experience of practical farmers, in some parts 
 of our own country, and in Europe, where every branch of hus- 
 bandry has been gradually progressing in improvement, fot 
 five hundred, perhaps for one tliousand years. 
 
 Horses. 
 
 The raising a good breed of horses, is an object worthy of' 
 the attention of the American farmer. 
 
 The opinion that the value of the colt depends on the gcod 
 properties of the horse, has by universal experience been prov- 
 ed to be incorrect. The laws which govern the generative 
 powers in every animal, with which we are acquainted, evi- 
 dently give to the female, its full share in characterizing the 
 issue. Common observation confirms the truth of this fact. 
 If farmers would secure a good breed of colts, they would be 
 more likely to succeed in that business, if they would keep 
 mares for that purpose which have such properties only as are 
 essential to render a horse valuable ; notwithstanding it may 
 be expedient to preserve a stud which has valuable properties- 
 But the only reliance which most farmers have upon the value 
 and properties of the sire, too often disappoints their expecta- 
 tions, and subjects them to great expense, as the price of the? 
 
^3S ACRICgLirjlAL. ESSAYS. 
 
 fial. It has often happened that the colts, begotten in a seasoTi 
 will hordiy ui the time of weaning pay for the use of their sire! 
 Tbc; raising of a valuable breed of stud-horses should be en- 
 couraged; but the interest of the farmers would certainly be 
 better promoted, m raising a valuable breed of horses, if thev 
 would make it an object to keep no mares for breeding but 
 such^as possess the properties which constitute a valuable 
 
 It ha^ been usual to work breeding mares through the great- 
 est part of the year, laying them aside only a week or tw^o be- 
 lore toaling, and during the summer season, when giving suck 
 to the young foal. By this means, the strength and vigor of 
 the mother is not only weakened, but the size and powers of 
 tne toal are often diminished by the exertions of the mother, 
 when kept at work. It is believed by some farmers, that from 
 three months before foaling, until the colt is weaned at seven 
 months old, the dam should not work. 
 
 .Jr!}l ^^^1^'f "^^n^ethod of weaning is preferable, whencircum^ 
 stances render it practicable. Suppose the colt about sever! 
 months 6.U tr.e li^t cf J?.]i'i-;y ; put a haltdi- oil it, and tis it to 
 the manger, by the side of the dam. Loosen it and let it suck 
 two or three times each day, for about a week. Afterwards 
 continue it tied by the side or the dam, watering it three times 
 a day, by carrying water into the stable. Gradually teach it to 
 drink milk, to eat bran mixed with water, patatoes, and other 
 succulent food; and to give this kind of food, together with 
 good hay, until grass time. It should always have a good dry 
 bed to sleep on. The second winter it should be kept tender- 
 ly also, and well fed with potatoes, good hay, &c. but should 
 eat no oats or corn, until it is at least three years old. A colt 
 should never be allowed to be poor in flesh. 
 
 It is believed that the superiority of the English breed ofhor- 
 ges, may be accounted for by the same reasons, which have in 
 these essays been assigned for the extraordinary breeds of 
 Lnglish neat cattle.* 
 
 It is probably owing in a great measure, if not principally, to 
 the succulent and other food, moie nutritive than dry dav giv- 
 en to their horses through the winter, by means of which they 
 keep them growing the whole time from the foal, till they ar- 
 rive to the period assigned by nature, at which they attain the 
 utmost size and maturity which 1 heir nature and constitution 
 Will admit. It IS doubtless by this moans, that the English 
 
 ^ Soe e«say oo Neat cattle. 
 
Breed of horses exceed the American more in size than in any 
 other qualities which may be thought to enhance their value. 
 If the Americans would improve their breed of horses, they 
 had much better adopt the same means which they do in 
 Great-Britain to improve theirs, than to pay the enormous tax 
 for that purpose which they often do to the importers of stud 
 horses from that country. 
 
 To make horses profitable, they should be kept well, and 
 not worked beyond their strength. Grain is most efficacious 
 when given to a horse either ground or boiled. 
 
 When horses by long journeys, or otherwise, have the skin 
 rubbed off their backs, a little dry white led occasionally 
 sprinkled over the raw flesh, will soon heal the horse. 
 
 Persons on journeys might well carry some of this article 
 With them for this purpose. When the withers of the horse 
 are wrung and swelled by means of bad saddles or otherwise, 
 the swelling may be allayed by washing the part with brine 
 and with salt and black soap mixed together, applied to the 
 swelling. Any restringent, such as allum beat up with the 
 white of eggs, is also said to be efficacious. 
 
 There has been a great diversity of opinion respecting the 
 Relative advantages of horses and oxen for the use of the farm ; 
 and it is of importance to farmers that they decide correctly 
 in this particular.* The marks of a good horse are, a full 
 breast, high neck, a strong black lively eye, stiff dock, full 
 buttocks, ribs reaching near to the hips and good hoofs. 
 
 In first breaking a horse for the saddle or harness, when 
 young, gentle means are better than the common method of 
 forcibly breaking them. After he is broke to the halter, he 
 should be tamed by leading him by the bridle with a saddle on 
 his back, then by putting weights on the saddle, adding to 
 them till he carries the full weight of a man. By making use 
 of very forcible means, and that too without effectually subdu* 
 ing his spirit, his temper is sometimes forever after spoiled. 
 
 The usefulness and even the value of a horse often depends 
 6n proper breaking and careful usage when young. 
 
 A horse should never be exercised so severely, as to make 
 him sweat profusely ; but if he does, he should be covered, if 
 the weather is cold, until his skin and hair be dried; and in 
 the mean time thoroughly rubbed down. He should at all 
 times be kept clean and well curried. 
 
 It is said to be profitable to give somethinD- to a horse when 
 feeding on dry hay, to supply the want of saliva, which, te 
 
 * See essay on teamsi 
 
 M 9 
 
133 AGRICCLTFRAL ESSAYS. 
 
 thereby absorbed. Snow set before a horse for this purpose, id- 
 recommended ; or some may be thrown into the manger. The 
 experiment is worth trying. 
 
 DISEASES. Heaves.— The symptoms of this disorder 
 are Well known. In early stages of the disease, the following 
 medicine has proved efficacious in the cure of several cases of 
 obstinate heaves : Take one pound and a half of good ginger 
 for a horse, give two table spoonfulls a day, one in the morn- 
 ing and the other in the evening, mixt with wheat bran. 
 
 Film over the eyes. — Take a little clean hogVlard on 
 one end of your finger, rub it well in the quadrupid's eye, once 
 a day, for three or four days in succession, and it is said the 
 film will be removed effectually. 
 
 Colic or gripes. — When occasioned by wind the horse 
 is often lying down and suddenly rising again with a spring, 
 and strikes his belly with his hind feet; stamps with his fore 
 feet ; refuses food ; stretches out his limbs ; his ears and 
 feet are alternately hot and cold ; falls into profuse sweats and 
 then into cold damps : and often tries to stool, but cannot. 
 This proceeds from a stoppage of urine, by a load of dung pres- 
 sing on the neck of the bladder which should be removed with 
 a hand dipt in oil. The following ball should be given as 
 soon as possible : Take Venice turpentine, and Juniper berries 
 pounded, of each one ounce, nitre, one ounce, oil of juniper 
 one drachm, salt of tarter two drachms : make into a ball 
 with honey or molasses: wash down with a horn or two of 
 warm gruel. The following drink has proved an effectual 
 eure. Take one ounce of juniper berries powdered, one 
 •unce of anniseeds, half a gill of spirits of turpentine, and 
 half a gill of liquid landanum : mixed in three half pints of warm 
 ale and sweetened with molasses : at the same time give warm . 
 opening clysters. If this does not give relief in an hour or 
 two, walk or trot the horse about gently, but not to jade him. 
 Another species of colic, is termed billions or inflamatory, and 
 is attended with most of the preceding symptoms. But a high 
 Ifever soon comes on with a panting and dryness of the mouth ; 
 the horse continues to throw out a Tittle hot dung, which ap- 
 pears blackish, or of a red color, and is of a foetid smell, this 
 denotes an approaching mortification. In this case the horse 
 should be immediately bled, as much as three or four quarts : 
 and it should be repeated m three or four hours, if the symp- 
 toms do not abate ; emolient cluster should be given, with 
 two ounces of nitre dissolved in it, two or three times a day. 
 The following cooling drink should be given every two or 
 tfcree boure, Ull aeverS gtooLi are produced ; afterwards to be 
 
HORSES. XjO 
 
 only given night and morning- r Take of senna, three ounces, 
 salt of tartar half an ounce, infuse in a quart of boiling water : 
 in an hour or two add four ounces of glauber salts, with two 
 ounces of honey. If the symptoms do not abate, the only thing 
 to be depended on is a strong decoction of jusuitsbark, given to 
 the quantity of a pint every Ihree hours, with halfa pint of port 
 wine. — Carver. 
 
 BoT WORMS.— This insect often proves very fatal to horses, 
 and is produced by an insect somewhat resembling a bee in its 
 head and neck, which in the summer months is almost ccn- 
 stantly flymg about horses, and in the course of a few weeks 
 will fill their hair, particularly about the breast and legs, with 
 a great number of its nits. It is an easy matter to scrape the 
 nits off from the horse, about once a week, in the months of 
 September and October ; and a horse that is so served, it i« 
 believed, will never be troubled with the bots. If the lips oi 
 tongue of the horse, covered with warm silva, come in contact 
 with the nit, the hot immediately leaves the nit and adheres to 
 the tongue, and is swallowed with the food of the horse. It s 
 often difficult, sometimes impossible, to dislodge the bots from 
 the bowels of the horse, or to compel them to loose their hold 
 from the maw\ It is therefore important to take much 
 pains to prevent their being taken into the stomach, by the 
 means above prescribed. Whenever a horse itches in any 
 part, he applies his teeth for the purpose of scratching; in do- 
 ing this he loosens some of the nits, and they are received into 
 his mouth, from whence tliey pass with his food into the stom- 
 ach, and from these the bot is produced. To kill bots in a 
 horse, pour a quart of rum down his throat: this will make 
 them loose their hold of the nmw, and they will be carried off 
 with its contents. Repeat th*^ dose as often as may be found 
 necessary. A few doses of linseed oil, about a pint each time, 
 will also quickly effect a cure. When these cannot be pro- 
 cured in season, a table spoonful of the powder of the blue 
 flagg root, in a fresh state, given to a horse, will frequently ex- 
 pel a great number of the bots from his bowels. If the nits of 
 a horse are scraped off about once a week, in the months of 
 September and October, it is said a horse Vv'ill never be troub- 
 led with the bots. Every attention necessary to dislodge the 
 nits, from the horse, and thereby prevent the disease, should bel 
 attended to : for it is often very difficult and sometimes impossibc 
 with any medicine to dislodge the bot from the maw of the bowel « 
 
 False quarter, is- a cleft or chink in the hoof of a horse 
 ^romto top bottom. The inner side of the hoof being the thin- 
 aest is most liable to it. When it becomes troublesome to a 
 
Mo iGRICeLTURiL ESSAYS. 
 
 horse, Gibson directs, that the cleft be paired out to tlie quicfe, 
 then annoint the hoof with a mixture of tar, honey and 
 suet melted together, and lay a pledget dipt in the game a- 
 long the cleft. Then bind up the hoof as tight as possible, by 
 winding rope yarn closely around it from top to bottom. The 
 shoe should previously be taken off. The wound should be 
 Opened and drest every third or fourth day, and to prevent any 
 inconvenience from this, let the cleft be held together at the 
 bottom by a thin plate fastened on for that purpose. It is how- 
 ever very difficult, and often impossible, says the same author^ 
 to effect a cure in an old and a diseased horse. 
 
 Farcy is a disease in' horses similar to the scurvy among 
 men, and is caused by confining a horse too long to dry meal. 
 Tt is known by small tumors appearing on the head and 
 other parts of the body. Turning a horse to fresh pastures 
 will effect a cure in the first stages of the disorder; but when 
 it has become more inveterate by long standing, Gibson directs 
 that the horse be bled, moderately purged, and then that doses" 
 of antimony be given him. 
 
 Foundering of horses. — It is usuaHy said that a horse is- 
 foundered, when his feet and legs have become stiffened and 
 sore, by eating too large a quantity of hard grain at once. The" 
 best remedy for this has been found to be exercise by riding- ;.• 
 and in addition to this, also, put into a rag human ordure and 
 wind round the bits, and let him chevv upon it while riding him>- 
 and in due season repeat the dose, if necessary. 
 
 There is a disorder of the feet of horses, in which they ard 
 also said to be foundered. This is a p ainful disease ; the horse,^ 
 affected with it, draws hhnself up in a heap, and is loth to 
 move. It is occasioned by standing in cold water, after being 
 heated v/ith exercise, or sometimes even by standing still in- 
 the stable several days after exercise ; sometimes by bad shoe- 
 ing, or by bruises on the legs. 
 
 In this case, if a remedy be not immediately applied, a gath- 
 ering will take place in the feet, and the hoofs will be cast off j^ 
 by which the use of the horse will be lost for some time. The 
 remedy is, to slit the hoofs open from top to bottorh, so that 
 blood will follow pretty freely^ In order to cure these wounds 
 again, apply tar, turpentine, and honey, melted together, with 
 a fourth part of the spirits of wine 4 let pledgets, made of tow^ 
 be soaked in this, and then laid in the chinks of the foot bound 
 up. These are not to be opened for two days ; and then let 
 fresh applications be made every day till the channels in the 
 hoofs bje grown up. 
 
 If the Bole of the foot is also drawn, it must fee served in » 
 
HORSES. I4t 
 
 similar manner. A piece of leather should be laid over the 
 sole, and the whole foot so bound up with strong^ bandages that 
 the applications may not be displaced. 
 
 Gigs ; little tumors, or bladders, filled with matter, fonnd 
 in the mouths of horses. The cure is effected by slitting them 
 open, and then washing them with salt and vinegar. 
 
 Glanders ; usually called the horse distemper. It is al- 
 ways accompanied with a discharge of matter from the nos- 
 trils, and a swelling of the glands under the throat and tongue. 
 When the bones in that part become carious, it is generally 
 incurable ; and this may be know n by the bad smell which is 
 produced in such cases. Gibson, in his treatise on farriery, 
 for this disease, while in its first stages, recommends, to make 
 use of purges, diaphoretic ks, and rowelling in the hinder parta. 
 Rowelling in the breast is thought will answer the same pur- 
 pose. 
 
 A disease of ^he nature of a cholic, wuth hoises, and with 
 which also horned cattle are sometim'es troubled. It general^ 
 ly proceeds from wind pent up in the stomach, or bowels, and 
 is caused by a. high statG of costivsnesS. :Iiorse>j have bee?? 
 known to have the dung within them so hard and dry, that it 
 could not be voided without assistance by clearing it out by 
 the hand. After it has in this way been cleared out, clysters 
 are to be administered, which will open the passage, and of 
 course give vent to the wind. 
 
 Hyde-boUxNd. This often happens when horses are poorly 
 kept, and badly used. In this the animal grows poor, his skin 
 sticks to his ribs, and small boils break out on his back. A 
 method of treatment opposite to that which the horse has re- 
 ceived, will generally restore him ; that is, keep and feed him 
 well, work him moderately, and Icoson his skin by oiling it, 
 and using the curry-comb frequently, but not too harshly. 
 
 Lampas. These are vulgarly called lampers. It is an ex- 
 crescence in the roof of tlie mouth of a horse, which hinders 
 him from feeding. Youn^- horses arc most liable :c it. It is 
 cured by applying a hot iron, ma-e for the purpose, to the 
 swollen parts. Care must be taken not to penetrate so deep 
 as to scale the bone that hes unc'er the upper bans of th^ 
 mouth, for this would be v-ny injurious. 
 
 Poll-evil. This is an impost tumor on the poll of a horse. 
 At first it requires no other method of cure than is proper for 
 boils and inflamed tumors ; but it sometimes, from neglect or 
 mismanagement, becomes a sinuous ulcer. In that case, the 
 matter is apt to lodge in a small sinus v/hich is under the poll 
 bone, unless care be taken t« keep the part firm with a band. 
 
142 IgrJccltural essays. 
 
 age ; that if the tumor has a large cavity, it should be laid 
 •pen, and if it acquires an ulcerous disposition, it should be 
 treated as such. 
 
 Tt-MORS. When these appear on the poll, withers, under 
 the jaws, or in the groins of horses, they should be forwarded 
 by ripening poultices of oat-meal, boiled soft in milk, mixed 
 with oil and lard, and applied twice a day, till the matter is 
 perceived to grow soft, and moves under the fingers ; and then 
 it should be let out by a sufficiently large opening with the 
 lancet. Let the opening be full as far as the matter extends. 
 After cleansing the sore, apply pledgets of tow, spread with a 
 salve, or ointment, made of Venice turpentine, beeswax, oil 
 of olives, and yellow rosin; and let these be administered 
 twice a day, if the discharge is great, till a proper digestion 
 takes place, when it should be changed for pledgets spread 
 with the red precipitate ointment, applied in the same manner.. 
 Should the sore not digest, but run a thin witter, foment it aa 
 often as you dress it, and apply over this dressing, a strong 
 beer poultice, and continue this rill the matter grows thick, 
 and the sore liorid. Should any proud flesh get into the sore^ 
 wash it as often as you dress it, with a solution of blue vitriol 
 in water, or sprinkle it with burnt allum and precipitate. If 
 these should not prove sufficiently powerful, apply caustics, by 
 washing it with a solution of half an ounce of corrosive subli- 
 mate in a pint of water. When the sore can be tightly com- 
 pressed with a bandage, however, these funguses may be 
 generally prevented. 
 
 Tumors caused by bruises, should, if nee ssary, be bathed 
 with hot vinegar and verjuice; and then a flannel cloth should 
 be wrapped round the part, if it can be done. If tliis does not 
 abate the swelling, especially if it be in either of the legs, 
 poultice it twice a day, after bathing it with wine lees, or beer 
 groands and oat meal, or with vinegar, oil, and oat meal, till 
 the swelling abates ; when, in order to disperse it entirely, let 
 it be bathed twice a day with a mixture of two oimces oi' crude 
 sal amtnoniac in a quart of chamber-lie, having rags dipped in 
 it and laid on. 
 
 When the extravasated blood is not dispersed by thes^ 
 means, let an opening be made in the skin, and let the blood 
 out. and then heal the wound. 
 
 Scratches, is a disease in the legs of horses, occasioned by 
 bad blood and too Irird labor. The skin of the legs becomes 
 cracked open, emitting a reddish colored humor. To cure the ;; 
 disease, wash the cracks with soap suds, and then rub theaa 
 
HORSES. 1^ 
 
 twice a day with aa ointment of hog's lard, mixed with a little 
 sublimate mercury. 
 
 Spavin ; a swelling about the joints of horses, causing lame- 
 ness. There are two kinds of this disorder, a blood'^spavin 
 and a bag spavin. The former is a swelling of the vein that 
 runs along the inside of the middle joint of the hind legs, w'hich 
 is frequently attended with a lameness of the joint. To cure 
 it, says Mr. Gibson, apply restringents and a bandag-e tightly 
 drawn round the joint ; for then, if early applied, it will gener- 
 ally effect a cure : but if by these means the vein is not reduc- 
 ed to its usual dimensions, the skin should be opened, and the 
 vein tied with a crooked needle and a wax thread, passed un- 
 derneath, ahove. and below the swelling, and the turged part 
 will then digest away with the ligatures. Let the wound be 
 daily dressed with a mjxture of turpentine, honey, and spirit 
 of wine. 
 
 The bag spavin is merely a cyst, or bag, filled with the gel- 
 atinous matter of the joint, erupted from its proper place. To 
 cure this, cut into the bag and let the matter discharge ; then 
 dress the sore with lint dipped in oil of turpentine, putting into 
 it once in three or four days, apmvder made of calcined v°itriol, 
 allum, and bole. By this method of dressing, the bao- will 
 come away, and a cure will be effected without any visible 
 scar. Should this fail of a cure, the hot iron is directed to be 
 applied ; and in that case if the joint becomes inflamed, apply 
 a poultice over the dressings, till the swelling is reduced. 
 
 Staggers. When this disease is occasioned byhardusao-e 
 Gibson directs to take a pint of blood from his neck, and then 
 a quart from some vein in his hinder parts, and that he be kept 
 on moderate cleansing diet. 
 
 When the disease arises from an apoplectic disorder, he 
 must be treated as before, and exercising every day with 
 chewing assafoBteda, savin, and other noisome medicine, which 
 will keep hini in constant action, and forward the circulation 
 of the blood in the small vessels ; afterwards recourse must be 
 had to clysters, strong purgatives, rubbing, and exercise. 
 
 When it arises from the swimming of the head, the animal 
 reels, turns around and falls. For this take an ounce of senna, 
 boiled in ft9e pints of water with four ounces of common trea- 
 cle, and the usual quantity of oils or lard, to throw on as a clys- 
 ter, and repeat this for two or three days ; after this he niay 
 "have a drink of beer, in wiiich the roots of peony, angelica, rue 
 rosemary, and flowers of lavender, have been steeped. If the 
 disease continues obstina^.e, balls of cinnibar and a^safceteda, 
 With bog berries, will be proper : here, as in apopleQtive cases, 
 
144 AGRlCtlLTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 Gibson condemns the practice of putting ginger and other stim- 
 ulating things into the ear, as dangerous, though it may some- 
 times prove beneficial. v 
 
 Strain, or Sprain. Horses are liable to strains, particular- 
 ly in the shoulders. Anointing them with spirits of turpentine 
 in the part injured, will help them for a while, but will not af- 
 ford them a permanent relief. Washing the shoulder, when 
 that partis affected, with brine, as warm as it can wel] be borne, 
 will effect a cure in a few days. It should be done twice a 
 day. And letting the animal rest from labor, will generally 
 perform a cure in a few weeks, at fartherest. If these will not 
 answer, let warm poultices be applied, of bran boiled in vine- 
 gar, with a sufficiency of hog's lard to prevent its growing 
 hard ; let this be repeated, if necessary, until the cure is com- 
 pleted ; and then mind to keep that part covered a while so that 
 it shall not be affected by colds. 
 
 Wheezing. A disease of horses commonly called broken 
 wind. Caused by surfeits, violent exercise when the helly is 
 ful], by being rode into cold water when very warm, or by ob- 
 stinate colds not cured. For the curft, it is advised that the 
 horse should have good nourishment, much grain, and little 
 iiay : and that tJxe v/ater given him to drink daily, have a solu- 
 tion of half an ounce of saltpetre, and two drachms of sal am- 
 moniac. It is said that the hay made of white weed, or what 
 is called bull's eye, rnay-weed, &c. will cure this disorder. 
 
 WiNDGALL These are flatulent swellings on the bodies of 
 horses, but most commonly they are seated on both sides of 
 the back sinew, above the fet-locks. Sometimes they are in 
 the joints and tendons. They are generally filled with air and 
 a watry matter. When they appear in the interstices of the 
 large muscles, which then appear blown up like bladders, they 
 aie principally filled with air, and may be safely opsned^and 
 treated as a common wound. When they first appear, tliey are 
 usually cured with restringents and bandages, drawn very tiglit- 
 ly round them ; for which purpose, let the swelling be bathed 
 twice a day with vinoa ar or verjuice, or fomented with a decoc- 
 tion of oak bark, from granite and allum boiled in verjuice, and 
 Jet the bandage which binds the wind-gall be soaked in the 
 same. If this should fail, the swelling may be drawn off by 
 blistering, and applying the blistering ointment, repeating it || 
 at times, till the humor is all drawn off. Some, however, cut ij 
 open these swellings, wherever they may be situated, and 
 treat them as a wound. But perhaps, when they are in tho- 
 joints, the blistering is the safer remedy, as the joints may be- 
 stiffened by imprudent management., 
 
HORSES. 145 
 
 Yelloavs. In cattle, this disease is called the overflowings 
 of the gall ; in horses it is called the yellows, or jaundice. 
 This disease is known by the yellowness of the eyes, and of 
 the inside of the mouth; the animal becomes dull and refuses 
 to eat. His urine is voided with difficulty, and looks red like 
 blood, after it has lain sometime : the off side of the belly is 
 sometimes hard and distended. First bleed plentifully, and 
 (five the lasative clyster, as horses having this disorder arg 
 usually costive, and the next day give him a purge of an ounce 
 and a half of cream of tartar, half an ounce of castile soap, and 
 ten drachms of saccobine aloes. Repeat this two or three 
 times, giving intermediately the following balls and drink f 
 Take ethiop mineral, half an ounce; mellepedes, the same 
 quantity ; castile soap, one ounce ; make this into a ball, and 
 give one every day, and wash it down with a pint of this de- 
 coction : Take madder root and tumerick, of each four ounces ; 
 burdock root sliced, half a pound ; monks rhubarb, four oun- 
 ces ; boil the whole in a gallon of forge water down to three 
 quarts ; strain it off and sweeten it with honey. Balls of cas- 
 tile soap and tumerick may also be given for this purpose, 
 three or four ounces a day, and will in most cases succeed in 
 effecting a cure. By these means the disorder generally 
 abates in a week, which may be seen in the alteration of the 
 horse's eyes and mouth ; but the medicine must be continued 
 till the yellowness is removed. Should the disorder prove ob- 
 stinate, more potent medicine must be tried; viz. mercurial 
 physic, repeated two or three times at proper intervals, and 
 then the following balls : Take salt of tartar, two ounces ; cen- 
 nabar of antimony, four ounces ; live mellepedes, and filings of 
 steel, of each four ounces ; castile soap, half a pound ; make 
 them into balls of the size of hen's eggs, and give one of thena 
 night and morning, with a pint of the above drink. On the re- 
 covery of the horse, give him two or three mild purges ; and if 
 he be full and fat, put in a rowel. 
 
 There are some other diseases incident to horses, which 
 must not be noticed in this short treatise ; and perhaps it is not 
 necessary, when it is considered that good keeping and proper 
 management is almost a general antidote against all diseases. 
 
 N 
 
iiff AGRICULTURAL ESSAT^S. 
 
 Neat Cattle. 
 
 The neat cattle in the United States, are evidently mixtures 
 of various breeds, from different stocks, which have, in their 
 origin, distinct and specific characters. This mixture has not 
 probably diminished the aggregate value of the stock. 
 
 The distinct breeds as they are known in Great-Britain, will 
 not generally be distinguished in our courtry by distinct and 
 peculiar characteristics, until they are made so by the obser- 
 vations and practice of our farmers, in keeping them which 
 have peculiar properties from intermixing with others posses- 
 sing different properties. . 
 
 The cattle, in Great Britain, which are called by particular 
 names, as the Devonshire, the Lancashire, &c. originated from 
 a stock possessing some peculiar valuable properties, for which 
 they were originally distinguished. But it is by no means cer- 
 tain that the cattle, which may be caUed by tliose particular 
 names in this country, possess their original valuable proper- 
 ties. These names are indeed convenient to distinguish a par^ 
 ticular breed. But they are made use of doubtless, in market, 
 very often, for the purposes of speculation and fraud. Names 
 furnish no more evidence of peculiar valuable qualifications a- 
 mong cattle, than they do among political sects. 
 
 Our citizens, therefore, who purchase cattle for the purpose 
 of improving the breed, should be careful to see that they do 
 possess the qualities for which they are characterized, rather 
 than rely on names as evidence of those properties. 
 
 Those who go into Great-Britain themselves, for the purpose 
 of making purchases to improve our breed, are perhaps not so 
 likely to be imposed upon by names, as our citizens are, who 
 purchase here, without any historical knowledge of the origin 
 of those cattle which are imported. , . , 
 
 But if there is no fraud practiced in the sale of imported cat- 
 tle, still it is believed our breed of cattle may be sufficiently im. 
 proved for every valuable purpose, at much less expense than 
 by importing them. , 
 
 There can be no doubt but that among our mongrel breed 
 of cattle, all the properties may be found, which distinguish the 
 various breeds in Great-Britain ; and as breeds of cattle areu- 
 aually much improved by crossing or mixing different kinds to^ 
 eether we have no reason to believe that these properties are 
 diminished in value, or that, on the whole, the stock is degener- 
 
 Put very fe^ of our citizens have capit^il sufficient ; and very; 
 
Neat cattle. 
 
 147 
 
 few of those who have, are disposed to attempt to improve our 
 breed by importing stock from any other country. 
 
 Those few which are imported, do not come to the possession, 
 or even to the knowledge of but few of our citizens, until their 
 blood becomes variously intermixed. 
 
 A particular account 'of the various breeds of cattle, which 
 are known in Great-Britain by distinct names, can be of no oth- 
 er use to our farmers generally, than to convince them, in the 
 first place, that our stock of neat cattle possess, in the aggre- 
 gate of their various properties, all those which distinguish the 
 stock of the English farmers, and to aid them in the object of se- 
 lecting those cows for breeders, which possess those peculiar 
 properties which are best adapted for those uses for which they 
 may be wanted. 
 
 In the selection and improvement of our breeds of cattle, re- 
 gard is to be had to the uses for which they are mtended. If 
 the best milch cows are desired, we should select from the 
 breeds which are known to be the best for that use, and so with 
 respect toothers. I have made these remarks to explain ray 
 views, in describing the various breeds of cattle, known in 
 Great-Hritain at this time, a concise account of which is here 
 given. 
 
 1. The original or wild race of that country, color invariably 
 white ; horns tipped with black ; end of the ears, inside ami 
 outside reddish ; black muggels ; flesh fine, and weU tasted. 
 
 2. The Devonshire bree^ said to be in part descended from 
 the above race ; color, light red, with a light dim ring round 
 the eye ; thin face ; thin skin ; hips wide ; tail quite low ; rath- 
 er small horned ; horns turning upward ; the cows yield good 
 rich milk ; oxen good for draught, and fatten early. 
 
 3. Dutch, or short horned breed ; hide thin ; horns short ; 
 tails sethigh ; color red and white, nearly mixed ; tender con- 
 stitutions ; fatten kindly, and yield large quantities both of 
 milk and tallow. 
 
 4. Lancashire breed, with straiter horns than those of any 
 other, spreading widely, and extending forward ; large, and 
 square built; fore quarters deep; milk not abundant, but rich; 
 the animal hardy. From an intermixture of this breed with 
 others, Mr. Bakewell obtained the Dishley breed, which are 
 remarkable for fattening easily, and upon the most valuable 
 parts ; though they yield but little milk or tallow, when com- 
 pared with some others. 
 
 5. Highland breed, or Sheyloes, with horns turned upwards : 
 colors various, chiefly black, though sometimes brindled, or 
 dun; hair long and close; bodies well shaped, best suited to 
 
*48 AORICULTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 Qold, mountainous countries ; good for milk, and kind to fatten. 
 
 6. Polled breed, shaped like the Devonshire breed, though 
 lather shorter ; hides moderately thick ; hardy, and fatten 
 kindly on the best parts ; flesh good, and well mixed with fat ; 
 oxen good for draft. A variety of this breed of cows called 
 the Suffolk duns, are excellent for the dairy. These are small, 
 )ean, big bellied, and of a dun color. 
 
 7. Alderney, or French breed ; smaJl; light red; smooth, neat 
 korns ; tender constitutions ; rich milkers ; flesh good. 
 
 8. Welch breed, chiefly black ; small, with horns thick, and 
 turning upwards ; well shaped ; vigorous, and well calculated 
 for labor. 
 
 It is believed that our cattle mostly resemble those of the 
 Devonshire, but in comparing our cattle with the English breeds, 
 it appears, as has been observed, that ours are made up of mix- 
 tures of different breeds, and that all the good properties of the 
 English stock of neat cattle, are to be found among ours ; but 
 so variously distributed that no specific characters can be 
 given them. 
 
 Some few individuals in the United States have made efforts 
 to improve our breed of cattle, by importing bulls and cows 
 from some known specific breeds in Great Britain. But when 
 we consider the enormous expense which those importers im- 
 pede on our farmers, we have no great reason of gratitude to 
 them for their patriotism in so doing. It is very obvious that 
 it is to the peculiar mode of rearing and keeping their neat 
 cattle, that we are to attribute their superiority, rather than to 
 any excellence peculiar to their origin. 
 
 Were the same money which is paid to the speculator for 
 his imported cattle, expended in the nurture, and better keep- 
 ing, and managing our own native breed, we should probably by 
 that means, make it equal to theirs, with a great saving of ex- 
 pense, and thereby expose the absurdity of the opinion of M. 
 de Buffon, and many historians and philosophers of Europe, 
 that all the animals in America are inferior in every thing 
 which constitutes their proper perfection, to those of the same 
 species in Europe ; and that there was something deficient 
 and degrading in the American climate, with regard to the 
 productions and powers of animal life. 
 
 If we would rival the English farmers in raising up an im- 
 proved breed of cattle, we must make use of similar means 
 with them. 
 
 The first object is to select the best cows we have among us, 
 from which we must raise our calves ; and in making this se- 
 lection, a du« regard is to be had to the uses for which they 
 
i»EAT CATTLEr 14t 
 
 lire intended. If the best mileh eows are desired, select from 
 the best breeds of those which are known to h& the best for 
 that uie ; those which yield the most of such cream as makee 
 the best butter, in any one year, are generally to be preferred. 
 The size of cows is not so material ; as it is found that all cat- 
 tle eat nearly in proportion to their respective sizes. What 
 would be necessary to feed one of the large Lancashire breed 
 of cows, would be nearly sufficient for two of the Alderney 
 fcreed, before mehti6ned ; while the milk of the tw;o latter 
 would probably nearly double that of the former. There is 
 hardly any breed of neat cattle but what are sufficiently large 
 formilchcows, if well kept. ^ , ^ w r^ • 
 
 A perfect cow, says the compiler of the Complete trrazier, 
 should have a broad smooth forehead, black eyes, large clean 
 horns, thick skin, large deep body, strong muscular thighs, 
 large white or yellow udder, with long elastic teats, together 
 With every other token requisite in a bull, allowmg for the dit- 
 ference of sex. It is said milch kine are not good for breed- 
 ing after they are twelve. ,, _ ^^. , r. 
 The signs of a good ox, says Mr. Dean, are thick, sett, 
 smooth short hair, short thick head, gloss smooth horns, large 
 shaggy ears, wide forehead, full black eyes, wide nostrils, 
 black lips, thick fleshy neck, large shoulders, broad yems, 
 large belly, thick rump and thighs, straight back, long tail well 
 covered with hair, and short broad hoofs. The best colors are 
 brown, dark red, and brindled. 
 
 When a cow is found to produce calves which make cowe 
 or oxen of the above description, she should be kept for a 
 breeder, and her calves, provided they come in proper season, 
 ehould be raised instead of being committed to the butcher, as 
 
 they too oflen are. ^ /* ., , • .1 
 
 Calves, for raising, should be brought forth early in the 
 apring ; those brought late will not so well endure the succeed- 
 ing winter, and, if heifers, will usually go to the thirdi'year be- 
 fore they are with calf, while those that are calved earlier will 
 usually "bring forth a year sooner. 
 
 It often happens, throug want of attention, that the best cows 
 for breeding, bring their calves too late for raising, and is it not 
 too generally the practice among farmers to be governed by 
 no other rule of decision, with respect to the calves they will 
 raise, except of their being brought forth in proper season : 
 while they perhaps improvidently let their best cows calve 
 out of season, and for that reason kill them. 
 
 Heifers generally arrive at the age of puberty when they 
 are eighteen months ; though in some instances they h&VG. 
 
150* AGtiiCVLrVtLAL £SSAtS. 
 
 brought forth calves before that time. The better they are 
 kept, the sooner they will breed ; if, however, they bjeed so 
 early, they should be highly kept ; for otherwise they will be 
 apt to be stinted in their subsequent growth. Mr. Bakewell 
 used to keep his Diskley breed of heifers from the bull until 
 the age of three ; Sir Jolm Sinclair attributes to this their often 
 missing being with calf. It is believed to be best to follow 
 nature's law : — let them go to the bull as soon as they feel the 
 inclination. 
 
 Breeds of cattle are much hnproved by crossing, or mixing 
 different kinds together. 
 
 As the purest American breed is almost universally a mix- 
 ture we may consider that a favorable circumstance to the rais- 
 ing from it a valuable stock, which may possess all the superior 
 characteristics of the English breed. 
 
 But in doing this, much sound discretion and pi-actical sci- 
 ence is to be exercised. 
 
 In Great Britain, much pains has been taken to select breeds 
 which should unite the two qualities of being the best for milk- 
 ing, and the kindest to fatten ; but hitherto such breed is not 
 to be found. It has been observed, however, by Sir John Sin- 
 clair, that by great attention, a breed might probably be raised, 
 the males of which might be well calculated for the shambles, 
 and the females produce abundance of milk, and yet when 
 they reached eight or nine years,* might be easily fattened. 
 He further adds, that some of the English and Scottish breeds 
 have nearly reached this point of perfection. 
 
 To improve the breed, it is also of importance that there 
 should be no fornication between animals which are nearly re- 
 lated ; no consanguinity between the bull and the cow which 
 is put to him. This seems to be agreeable to the laws of na- 
 ture, and among men is strikingly exemplified in the degener- 
 acy of the race, where the posterity of some small secluded 
 districts constantly intermarry with relatives ; or where the 
 pride of families has served to preclude a due intermixture 
 with others. 
 
 For the bull, the finest looking calf, possessing as nearly as 
 can be judged, the foregoing requisites for a good ox, should 
 be selected, and from the finest of the breed which he is intend- 
 ed to propagate ; and he should not be suffered to go to the 
 cow until he has attained a good growth. Suffering young, 
 or dwarfish, or ill looking bulls to go to cows, only tends to 
 degenerate the breed ; and in the two former cases, the cow, 
 by being served with such, frequently misses having a calf. 
 
NEAT CATTLEi 
 
 i3l 
 
 The bull should have good keeping, so that he may be ic 
 prime condition when he is put to cows. 
 
 But although the circumstance of raising the best stock, and 
 such as are brought forth in proper season, is essential to im- 
 prove the breed, yet it is believed that the superiority of the 
 English breed of cattle, is owing principally to the ditferent 
 keeping which they give them Mr. Featherstonhaugh, a dis- 
 tinguished farmer, in the state of New-York, after a journey of 
 fifteen hundred miles in the diftesent states, for the puipose 
 of viewing the imported cattle, and to examine the method af- 
 ter which their owners keep them, as well as the condition of 
 our own native cattle, remarks, that in order to keep up the 
 great qualities of the im.ported breeds, we must remember 
 that in their native country it is considered indfspensible to keep 
 them extremely well, anil in a very different manner from the 
 general custom prevailing here ; which is, in summer to leave 
 cattle to kelp themselves to what they can find, even in the 
 most severe drought ; and in v.inter, to give them a moderate 
 quantity of hay and straw* That in England, vrhere they are 
 less troubled with dry weather than we are, they give them 
 green crops and roots in abundance, and that if all this provi- 
 dent attention be necessary in that n oist climate, it is certain^ 
 the breed will degenerate with us if it is not kept in high con- 
 dition. He observed that he was convinced that negligence 
 was the universal cause of diseases, and that they ordinarily 
 arise from too high feeding or too low. In the one case, the 
 digestive powers are embarrassed, in the other they are not 
 sutRciently exercised, and in both the animal suifers ; that an- 
 imals, regularly yet plentifully fed and v*-ell housed in winter, 
 are generally healthy. 
 
 In those places where milk may be considered so valuable as 
 to make it an object to substitute other food for the raising of 
 calves, the following experiment of Mr. Crook, mentioned in 
 letters and papers of the Bath and^ West of England Society, 
 are worthy of consideration. In 1787, he purchased three' 
 sacks of linseed, of the value of about nine dollars, which 
 lasted him three years ; one quart of linseed was boiled in six 
 quarts of water for ten minutes, to a jelly, which was given to 
 the calves three times a day mixed with a little hay tea. Thus 
 he was enabled to raise in 1787, seventeen calves ; in 1788, 
 twenty three ; and in 1789, fifteen, without any milk at all. He 
 states that his calves throve much better than those of his 
 neighbors, which were fed with milk. It appears from this 
 statement that less than eighteen cents worth of flax seed, 
 with a trifle of hay, is suflicient for one calf. Linseed oil 
 
IJ3 ACzRlCULTURAL ESs»*;TJ = 
 
 cakes, wheii pulverized and boiled, make an equally good jellyV 
 Mr. Clift, ofNew-York, directs that after the calf has been fed 
 for a fortnight with sweet milk, give it skim milk mixed with 
 an equal or larger quantity of flaxseed broth, or jelly, and 
 let be given to it milk warm. Enough jelly may be boil- 
 ed at once for three or four days, but if the weather be warm 
 it will be spoiled by souring. With this drink, he says, calves 
 will thrive as well as if fed on sweet milk. 
 
 The following communication obtained from the agricultur- 
 al society of Massachusetts, the prize for Mr. Rudd. He di- 
 rects to take the calves from the cows when three days old^ 
 and feed them with gruel composed of one third barley, and 
 two thirds oats, each ground fine and the mixture sifted. A 
 quart of this gruel is to be given to each calf, morning and 
 evening. The gruel is made by taking one quart of the flour 
 and twelve of water, and boiling them together for half ari' 
 hour, and is to be given when milk warm. In about ten days 
 after commencing the feeding, tie up and suspend a hrfndle of 
 sweet hay in the middle of the pen where the calves are kepty 
 which they will eat by degrees. A little of the flour put into a 
 trough for them to lick is also of service, t f'eed them till twa 
 months old, increasing the quantity as they grow larger. Hal^ 
 a bushel of the above mixture is sufficient for one Calf. 
 
 The pasture into which calves are put, should be dry and 
 sweet. White clover is thought to be the best. Red clover, 
 6r trefoil, is also good. Mr. L. Hommendice, recommends 
 that tliere should be no water in the pasture, but sufficient of 
 shade. The effect of this, he says, is that the ceJves learn to 
 feed at night, when the dew is ofl, and lie by in the day time^ 
 and as grass whOe wet with dew is more nourishing, they 
 will thrive in this Way much better than when they hai?e free 
 access to water, which he says has a tendency to stunt thea* 
 and make them pot bellied. But it is thought to be the better 
 way to give them a little nourishing drink at certain times 
 when the dews fail, or at mid ^ay when the weather is very 
 tvarm. 
 
 It is not sufficient for Calyes to ^^ kept well until they are S 
 year old, and have warm shelter in the winter. But it is toff 
 common for farmers, to turn their yOung growing cattle inta 
 pastures of stunted growth. Or iiito woods where there is not 
 sufficient for them to eat, by means of which their growth is 
 retarded ; and what is worse, they hereby often learn to be- 
 come habitually unruly, from the constant temptation they are 
 under of breaking into fields where there is plenty. 
 
 It is believed that the superior keeping of the English cattle 
 
NEAT CATTJ/E. lOrj 
 
 consists very much, if not principally in the quantity of succu- 
 lent food with which they are fed during the winter season, 
 such as turnips, potatoes, beet^, carrots, &c. 
 
 This opinion must derive great influence from the consider- 
 ation, that nearly one half of the year during the cold season, 
 the food with which our cattle are kept, is such as has lost a 
 very large proportion of its most nutritive constituents, by dry- 
 ing* it for preservation. 
 
 On this subject the following remarks from the Massachu- 
 setts Agricultural Repository, are pertinent and interesting : 
 
 "It is observed by Sir John Sinclair, to whom agricultural 
 science is much indebted, that although the mode in which 
 manures operate on soils, is not so obvious to the senses as to 
 be fully understood, there are three ways in which water pro- 
 motes their improvement. Tt preserves a favorable degree of 
 temperature ; feeds by conveying nourishing substances ; and 
 so as a pure element, it is beneficial. To prove that water 
 enters largely into the composition of vegetables, and is thus 
 advantageous, the same writer observes: "That plants, cut 
 green, and afterwards dried, lose by evaporation C6 to 70 parts 
 of 100. The loss of weight by drying, will be found in this 
 country to vary essentially from what takes place in Scotland, 
 especially as it respects difierent plants. But our hay is of 
 necessity made lighter by the heat of our summer, as well as 
 for the purpose of its being stowed in large bodies and tight 
 barns. 
 
 It should be premised, that the time of cutting the several 
 grasses as m the following statement, was the same as is usu- 
 ally practised by husbandmen in New-England. 
 
 bf lOOlba. of vegetables cured in 1822, the product was as 
 follows, viz. 
 
 lUOlbs, of grfen white clover, gave of hay, - 17 1 Slba. 
 lOOlbs. of red do. gave - - - £7 1.21bsv 
 
 100]!)s. of herds grass gave - - - 40 
 
 lOOibs. of frfsh meaciovy gave — _ _ 3H 
 
 lOOU)?. of sal'- grass gave - - - 39 
 
 lOOlbs. of mixed 2d crop or Eng. Rowan - - 18 3-4 
 lOOlbs. of corn-stalks gave - - - £5 
 
 lOOlb?. of do. cut in milk with the ear - - -26 
 It should be observed that the weight will vary from ripeness, 
 and many other causes, such as wetness of season, shade, 
 thickness of growth, &c. 
 
 It appears from the above experiment, that eight hundred 
 pounds of those vegetables on which we usually keep our cattle 
 in the winter, there is a loss of five hundred and sixty-nine 
 
154 
 
 AGRICULTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 pounds and one qaarter of their weight, by drying it for a state 
 of preservation: and when we consider the great prevalence df 
 water in the composition of vegetables, we are led to conclude 
 that this loss consists of those substantial aliments which are es- 
 sential to the support of animal life." 
 
 It must be expected then, that the growth of cattle, fed only 
 on such food during nearly half the 3''ear, anl often only a scan- 
 ty pittance of that, will be stunted in their growth. 
 
 It may be observed that there is a certain period of time, in 
 which animals, according to the laws which govern their 
 growth, arrive to maturity, and beyond which their natural 
 weight will not be increased. If then, during a considerable 
 part of this time, to wit, that part in which they are kept on dry 
 food through the cold season, the progress of their growth is re- 
 tarded, or perhaps stayed intirely, they never can be expected 
 to arrive to that size and value, as if they were so nurtured that 
 their growth continually progressed until they arrived to the 
 utmost extent of size and value of which their constitutions 
 would admit. If then, a plenty of succulent food given to cat- 
 , tie, thrDugh the cold season, will in a great measure have the ef- 
 fect to continue their growth, it is a natural conclusion, that 
 such nurture of cattle, by the English farmers, is one great 
 cause of the great superiority of theirs to those in general of 
 our own country. 
 
 When roots of any description, proper and useful to feed cat- 
 tle, are preserved from the frost for furnishing food during the 
 winter season, it is well known that they retain their native jui- 
 ces; and it is pretty evident from the observation and experi- 
 ence of the English farmers, as well as from some of our own, 
 -that those alimentary juices in such roots, are a most efficacious 
 substitute for green cropfe of grass. And there is no doubt but 
 that those cattle in England, so distinguished for their extraor- 
 dinary sire, and valuable properties, are in a great measure in- 
 debted to their being kept in part on succulent food through the 
 cold season. 
 
 Perhaps it may not be for the farming interest, at present, to 
 go so extensbively into the system of raising roots for the feed- 
 ing of cattle, as is practised in England and some other parts of 
 Europe, because we have more land for grazing, and the price of 
 labor here is much higher. But there can be no doubt but that it 
 would greatly improve the farming interest, to make the use of 
 succulent food for cattle, the means by which we may gradu- 
 ally improve the breed, instead of incurring the enormous ex- 
 pense of importing cattle for that purpose from Europe ; and 
 
NEAT CATTLE. 
 
 156 
 
 by which means, too, the farmer may derive more immediate 
 profit from the stock which is now in his possession. 
 
 The editor of this work is aware of the objections which are 
 made by our farmers, to the root husbandry, as it is sometimes 
 called, and especially to that of turnips. It is said by some, 
 they are a precarious crop, being exposed to the ravages ot 
 insects : and by others that they are of little utility as food for 
 
 Mr.* Curwen, in England, who has been considered a great 
 authority on tlie subject, and a practical farmer, relied on tur- 
 nips and straw onlv, for his cattle, with occasional steamed 
 chuff and salt, and never gave them corn, oil-cake or hay. 
 
 By that management he observes, he converts all his straw 
 into excellent manure, keeping his grain for sale. 
 
 When we consider the great diminution of the value ot 
 grasses by drying them for preservation, it is worthy of great 
 consideration whether those, especially, who cultivate smail 
 tracts of land, may not procure more animal nutriment from a 
 given quantity of soil by the root husbandry, than would be ob- 
 tained from the cultivation of green vegetables of any descrip- 
 tion, allowing for the extra labor. 
 
 There are various diseases to which neat cattle are subject, 
 and assistance is not often to be obtained from those w^ho are 
 skilful in their cure: some account of those, and the most ap- 
 proved remedies may be useful in this work. 
 
 Hoof ail.— Cause of the disease is not well known. The 
 feet become diseased, and then they are frozen during the 
 course of the winter, after which they are of no value except 
 for their skins. Feedinsr them with plants of rich food, and 
 keeping them well littered in warm stables, is thought to be 
 the most profitable and effectual method of avoiding this disor- 
 der. 
 
 IIoRX DISTEMPER, subjects them to a wasting of the pith of 
 the horn. It is sometimes in one horn only, and sometimes in 
 both. Indications of the disease are coldness ofthe horn, 
 dulness of the eyes, sluggishitess, want of appetite, and a dis- 
 position to lie down. Where the brain is affected, the anima- 
 will toss its head, groan, and exhibit indications of great pain. 
 Cure : bore a hole with a small gimblet in the lower side of 
 the horn, about an inch from the head, and the corrupted mat- 
 ter in the horn will run out. If this does not complete the cure^ 
 Mr. Dean directs, that the horn have a mixture of ruin, honey^ 
 myrrh, and aloes thrown into itwuth syringe ; and that this be 
 repeated till a cure be effected. 
 
 T4.lL SICKNESS. Cause, ^enerj^Uy poor keeping. The euro 
 
156 AORIClJLTUKAL ESSAYS. 
 
 is effected by cutting off a small piece of the tail, which will be 
 attended with a small discharge of blood ; or when the hollow 
 part is near the end, cut a slit in it one or two inches lono-, and 
 this will effect a cure. '° 
 
 Gripes, or cholic. When attacked with it, they lie down 
 and rise up incessantly, and stick their horns against any ob- 
 ject that presents. It is attended with either costiveness or 
 scouring. In the former case, they are to be treated with pur- 
 gatives, and in the latter, with restringents. To stop the purg- 
 ing, give thern halfa pint of olive oil sweetened with sugar; or 
 a quart of ale, mixed with a few drops of laudanum, and°two or 
 three ounces of oil of sweet almonds. To promote purging, give 
 them five or six drachms of fine Barbadoes' aloes, and half' a 
 pint of brandy, mixed with two quarts of water gruel, in a luke 
 warm state. In either case, speedy attention to the beast is 
 necessary, in order to prevent an inflammation of the intestines, 
 which must prove fatal. 
 
 Scouring SYMPTOMS. Frequent discharge of slimy excre- 
 ment, loss of appetite, loss of flesh, increasing paleness of the 
 eyes, and general debility. Cure.— The beast should be imme- 
 diately housed, and put to dry food, and this in the early stage 
 of the disease will generally effect a cure. Should this fail, it 
 is directed by the same author to boil a pound of mutton suet in 
 three quarts of milk, till the former is dissolved, and give it to 
 the beast in a luke warm state ; or in obstinate cases, boil half 
 a pound of powdered chalk in two quarts of water, till it is re- 
 duced to three pints ; add four ounces of hartshorn shavings, 
 ©ne of cassia, and stir the whole together ; when cold, add a 
 pint of lime water and two drachms of the tincture of opium; 
 keep the whole m a corked bottle, and after shaking it before 
 using, give one or two horna full two or three times a day, as 
 the nature of the case may require. Sometimes however, thia 
 disease proves incurable. 
 
 HovEN. Occasioned by eating too much when turned into 
 rich pastures, by swallowing potatoes, or other roots without 
 sufficient chewing, and to other causes. The stomach of the 
 animal becomes distended with wind, and if a vent for this can- 
 not be afforded, the beast must die. Remedy. — Open a hole 
 with a sharp pointed knife, with a blade three or four inches 
 long, between the hip and short ribs, where the swelling rises 
 highest, and insert a small tube in the orifice, till the wind ceas- 
 es to be troublesome. The wound will soon heal up again. Mr. 
 Young recommends for curing this complaint, to take three- 
 fourths of a pmt of olive oil, and a pint of melted butter or hog's 
 lard, and pour this mixture down the throat of the beast ; and 
 
NEAT CATTLF. l^^ 
 
 if no favorable change be produced in a quarter of an hour, 
 repeat the dose. Fox sheep, about a gill should in like man- 
 ner be given, and the dose repeated if necessary. This, he 
 says, will not fail of a cure in half an hour. To prevent this 
 disorder, cattle should not be turned at first with empty stom- 
 achs into rich pastures ; nor should they be allowed to feed on 
 potatoes, and some other roots, without their first being cut 
 into pieces. 
 
 Staggers. — This disease is known by the drowsiness, leth- 
 argy, and straggling gait of the animal. It is sometimes occa- 
 sioned by plethora or fullness of blood, and sometimes it is 
 seated on the brain; in which case it is incurable, except by 
 trepanning. In the former case, the remedy is to keep the 
 ■beast housed, and bleed and purge it sufficiently. 
 
 Overflowing of the gall, and which is sometimes cal- 
 led yellows or jaundice, is known by yellow tinge in the 
 moutl#and eyes, and sometimes the body assumes a yellow- 
 ish cast, the nose is dry ; the udder of the cow becomes swol- 
 len, and yields but little milk, which also becomes yellow, 
 and curdled when boiled, and sometimes the fore teeth become 
 .very loose. Remedy. — The beast should be housed, and have 
 two or three gentle purges ; then give it twice a day a pint of 
 beer, in w^hich has been infused, for three or fo t days, about en 
 ounce to each quart of the filings of iron, and a small quantity of 
 hard soap. Let the beast be vvell kept during the time with 
 warm messes of bran, and other nourishing food, to which 
 some olive oil, and other purgative medicine should be added, 
 if the beast be restive. For curing this distemper Mr. Dean 
 directs, to take an egg and empty it of its white, retaining its 
 yolk, and fill the cavity with equal quantities of soot, salt, 
 and black pepper; draw out the tongue of the beast, and with 
 a smooth stick push the egg down its throat.' Repeat 
 this two or three mornings, and be says, it will seldom fail of 
 a cure. Sometimes this distemper does not yield to the pow- 
 er of medicine, but at length turns to the black jaundice 
 "which is incurable. 
 
 PA?fTASiE. — Syp»^tomsare the panting or heaving of the 
 animal's flanks, w^ich is accompanied with trembling and a 
 decay of flesb. Remedy. — House the beast, and give it every 
 six hours <^ring the continuance of the chilly symptoms, 6 
 
•158 JLGRIC\?LTURAL ESSA'Y^. 
 
 quart of warm strong beer in which a table spoonful of lauda- 
 nura,another of ground ginger,and two of the spirits of hartshorn 
 have been infused. The beast should be fed on sweet hay 
 and well littered. Its drink should be warm water with a lit- 
 tle nitre dissolved in it, if there be symptoms of fever. As it 
 gains strength, let it out in the middle of the day, until such 
 time as it has fully recovered. 
 
 Inflamation or the liver. — Indicated by fever, difficult 
 breathing, and swelling near the shorter ribs, and in cows a re- 
 markable distemper about the womb. Cattle afflicted with 
 this disorder will never fatten. It is said to be hereditary 
 sometimes in certain breeds ; in which case it is incurable. 
 Remedy. House the beast, bleed it profusely, and give it the 
 following medicine in a tepid state, to wit, salt petre and glau- 
 ber salts of eacli two ounces ; Venice treacle, mithridate and 
 white ginger pulverized, of each one.ounce ; let them be boil- 
 ed in three pints of water, in which maybe gradually #.dded, 
 one gill of oil of sweet almonds, the whole being stirred to- 
 gether. This is sufficient for: one dose, which should be re- 
 peated the succeeding day. Warm messes of bran should be 
 the principal diet of the beast till it has recovered. 
 
 Inflamation of the lungs: indicated by shortness of 
 4)reath and a painful cough. The animal looks dull ; the skin 
 is hot and harsh; and a copious discharge of thick ropy 
 phlegm issues from its moutb. Remedy. — House the beast, 
 bleed it plentifully, and give it a dose composed of the flower 
 of sulphur, balsam of sulphur, syrup of colts foot, and oil of 
 ,sweet almonds ; of each one ounce, blended together. If the 
 above treatment produces no visible alteration in eighteen 
 hours, repeat it. Probably any other purge would answer as 
 well as the above. Let the beast be kept comfortable, and 
 have some exercise every day till it recovers. 
 
 The locked jaw is saia to be similar to that in the hu- 
 man frafne, caused by similar moans, and requires a similar 
 treatment. If the beast be hardy, opiate frictions, and dash- 
 ing on of cold water, is recommended. If it be of slender con- 
 stitution, opiate frictons, and warm fomentations of the part 
 afflicted is directed. As the beast cannot swallow, let gruel 
 be poured down its throat with a horn, till the dib^^der is re- 
 iBQved., 
 
'rfEAT CATTLE. 159° 
 
 Cattle are sometimes poisoned, by eating poisonous plants 
 or being bit with mad dogs. In the latter case, if the wound- 
 ed part be cut away shortly after the bite, and then be kept 
 open for some time, it is thought to be the only effectual rem- 
 edy. It is said that any medicine which is very strongly anti- 
 gpasmodic, if given plentifully, and in proper season, will coun- 
 teract the effects of the bite of mad animals. 
 
 It has been remarked that cattle in a plethoric or state, when- 
 pver fed wi'h rich food, or where too suddenly surfeited with 
 it, are suddenly indisposed and carried off before relief can 
 be given. It is believed, that among the horned race, either 
 plentiful bleeding, or purging, or both will be found a preven- 
 tative, and in mjst instances, a cure of the maladies which 
 are usually most fatal to them from the full habit. 
 
 When oxen are drav/n hardly in muddy roads, especially if 
 the soil is calcairous, they are liable to a soreness between 
 their claws. This will make the beast lame ; and when dis- 
 covered, the part should be cleansed and healed, with some 
 proper ointment. Sometimes from inattention to this, the 
 part becomes horny ; in this case, the hard parts must be cut 
 av.-ay, and the w^ounded flesh cured. 
 
 A general indication of health in neat cattle is a moist or 
 vvet nose, and when this is found dry, it is a certain symptom of 
 disease of some kind or other. 
 
 Cows have some diseases which are peculiar to them. 
 
 It should be kept in mind that the udder of the cow is divid- 
 ed into as many apartments as there are teats, so that if one 
 or more of those is diseased, this does not affeet the rest. The 
 milk of one teat may be good and that of another bad. 
 
 Garget. — The name of this disease denotes any hard swel- 
 ling in the udder. As one remedy, Mr. Deane recommends 
 making a rowel or seton in the dewlap, and inserting therein 
 a piece of the root ofmechoacan, as large as a nut meg, with a 
 string fastened to it, so that it may be drawn out when the 
 cure IS effected ; and this, he says will cause a revulsion of 
 the humor in the udder into the orifice, in the dewlap, where it 
 will be discharged. When the cure is effected, the piece of 
 root IS to be drawn out by the string. Piobably a common 
 rowel placed in the breast, or dewlap, would answer the samar 
 purpose. 
 
 In obstinate cases of ulcerated udders, the Complete Grazier- 
 
iGO A6RIGULTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 recommends, to take gum amoniac, gum galbanum, castile 
 soap, and extract of hemlock, of each one ounce ; form therft 
 into eight bolusses, and give one every mornmg and evening. 
 The same author observes, tljat internal remedies are al- 
 ways necessary where the udder and teats are considerably 
 inflamed, and for this purpose, he says, he takes four ounces 
 of nitre mixed with a pound of common salt; give two table 
 spoonfuls of this powder in a gallon of thin water gruel every 
 three hours. 
 
 Where the inflamations are less violent, and exhibit no 
 symptoms ofincreasing rapidly, it may answer to anoint the 
 udder frequently through the day with fresh butter, or with a 
 salve made of an ounce of castile soap, dissolved m a pint of 
 sweet milk over a gentle fire ; or with an ointment made with 
 the juice of the leaves of them, mixed with hog's lard; if the 
 malady increase, about a drachm of calomel may be given in 
 a horn, full of warm beer. 
 
 When the teats are only sore, they may be washed with 
 aoapsuds and rubbed with anointment made of white lead and 
 ^oose grease, or fresh butter. 
 
 Puerperal FEVER, is caused by (aking cold while calving. 
 Cows thus affected should have warm housing, and it is said 
 the head should be placed highest to assist the natural dis- 
 charges. Blood should not be taken except in violent cases, 
 5nd then only at the commencement of the disorder. 
 
 Nurture and Mana»ement of the different kindb 
 or Sheep. 
 
 This subject has been treated with great ability by Mr. Liv- 
 ingston, of New-York ; hut -as his writings on this branch of 
 rural economy are not extensively circulated, it is believed the 
 following extract from them may render these essays more 
 'aseful to the American farmer. 
 
 It is probable that different climates and soils have done 
 •pauch in producing differences ainong- sheep ; and probably 
 
SHEtP. 
 
 161 
 
 different kinds, as we now find them, have descended from 
 stocks which were of the same genus, but possessing proper- 
 ties different from each other. It has been found that different 
 soils are best suited to different breeds of sheep : and that the 
 soil often serves eventually to produce a difference in sheep. 
 Fat pastures, it has been observed, breed straight, tall sheep, 
 and the barren hills, short, square ones. The large long 
 wooled sheep of Great Britain require rich pastures ; and it 
 has been thought will suit them belter than any other sheep. 
 A wet soil, salt marshes excepted, is, however, unfriendly to- 
 sheep of all kinds. 
 
 It is important that farmers, in stocking their farms wiUi 
 sheep, should pay attention to such as are best suited to theii 
 
 soil. 1 J ■ V 
 
 It is believed that much of the high, moist lands m the 
 northern and middle States, would be found suitable for rais- 
 ing the large long wooled English sheep. 
 
 But in the United States, as well as in England, it is an ob* 
 ject worthy of attention, to have our farms stocked with sheep 
 of various kinds, that our citizens may be supplied with the 
 various sorts of cloths which are necessary in different uses. 
 In England, they have the Teeswater, the Lincolnshire, and 
 the DELTtmoor breeds, which yield fleeces of long coarse wool, 
 weighing on an average, from eight to eleven pounds. The 
 wool of those sheep, and of the Heath, Exmere, and Berkshire 
 breeds, which are smaller, and have still coarser wool, is made 
 use of for the manufacture of blankets, carpets, and other 
 cloths of a coarse texture. The New-Leicester and Bakewell 
 breeds, and the Eastwold, and Romney-marsh breeds, have 
 long wool also, but somewhat finer, being better fitted for the 
 manufacture of worsted fabricks ; and the average weight of 
 their fleeces is from eight to nine pounds ; the average weight 
 of their quarters is from twenty-two to twenty-four pounds. 
 The Bakewell is an improved breed, which was engrafted 
 upon some of those before mentioned, and are, it is said, high- 
 ly esteemed for the fatness of their carcases, and the fine fla- 
 vor of their mutton. The English have also various other 
 breeds besides the meri^io, yielding fleeces of short wool of 
 various quantities and qualities, the finest of which are the 
 Dunfaced and Shetland breeds ; the next finest is the Hereford, 
 or Ryeland breed, and the next the South Downs. The latter, 
 it is said, very much resemble our common sheep, having wool 
 about equally fine, and that in England they are esteemed 
 2 
 
i^ 
 
 AGRICULTURAL ESSAtS. 
 
 next to the Bakewell breed. There is a new breed rearing 
 in Virginia, by a Mr. Custis, which he calls the Arlington 
 sheep, that yield fleeces of long wool, well fitted for the man- 
 ufacture of worsted fabricks. They are said to be a mixture 
 of the Bakewell breed, with a long wooled Persian ram. which 
 was imported by Gen. Washington. 
 
 The island called Smith's Island, lying off the eastern cape 
 of Virginia, is remarkable for producing a breed of sheep of 
 uncommonly fine wool, which on account of the largeness and 
 fineness of their fleeces, promise to be highly valuable, provid- 
 ed the breed does not degenerate, in a few years, when takei> 
 trom that Island. They are shorn twice a year, and some of 
 their fleeces weigh four pounds at each shearing. 
 
 These are the only breeds of this animal which it is neces- 
 sary to notice ; and the introduction of all these, it is evident, 
 might be greatly conducive to the farming interest of the Uni- 
 ted States ; and to derive the greatest advantage from them 
 It is obvious from the above account, that the great diversity 
 of our soil requires different breeds suited to each, by their 
 particular constitutions and habits. 
 
 It is well known that any considerable improvements, even 
 in our common breed of sheep, have not been made in this 
 country until within a few years ; little or no attention having 
 been paid to appropriating to them the soil best suited to the 
 particular breed we might happen to possess. 
 ^ A proper consideration of the peculiar properties of the dif- 
 ferent kinds of sheep that have been mentioned, may induce 
 the farmer to introduce such as may best comport with his 
 disposition and his mterest. 
 
 The merino breed hav€ of late been considered the most 
 profitable. 
 
 Though it may be doubtful whether the extraordinary price 
 which their wool has heretofore commanded, has been of gen- 
 eral utility to our country, unless it might be considered an un- 
 avoidable tax, necessarily imposed by those who introduced 
 them. It IS believed to be well for our farmers generally, that 
 U\e mcrease of the merino sheep has so soon diminished the 
 price of the wool, as might be expected ; as the profits which 
 have heretofore been engrossed by a few speculators, are now 
 becoming generally distributed among tfee great mass of our 
 common farmers. One of the greatest advantages to be de- 
 nved from this breed of sheep, is to enable us to manufacture 
 a finer quality of cloth from our own produce, which we should 
 
3HEEr. lo: 
 
 otherwise import from foreign countries. li is found also, 
 that by mixing the breed with our common sheep, the wool 
 which is intended for cloth of a coarser quality, is thereby 
 greatly improved. Mr. Livingston says, that in improving the 
 breed of these sheep, the size of the ewes, more than that of 
 the ram, governs the size of their lambs ; that the ewes of a 
 email race cannot bear large lambs, though the ram be ever 
 so large. For this reason, the lambs which are raised from a 
 merino ram on our common ewes, will be larger than those 
 raised from one of our common rams on merino ewes. This is 
 the reason why rams of thp large English breed, when brought 
 here, do not produce a race any way corresponding to tlfeir 
 own size. He therefore recommends the engrafting'a merino 
 stock upon our common ewes, to increase the size of the breed; 
 though if they only eat in proportion to their size, as has been 
 proved in many experiment?, this is not so material. 
 
 The following rule is given for a judicious selection of the 
 €wes : Let them be at least three years old, as large as can 
 be obtained of the sort,— with the belly large and well covered 
 with wool, chine and loin broad, breast deep, buttocks full the 
 eyes lively, the bag large, and the teats long. In addition to 
 these qualities, they should have fine, short,' thick wool, their 
 belUes well covered, and with the least hair on the hinder 
 parts. Li the choice of the ram, which we-wiU suppose to be 
 three fourths blooded, select one that is of good size, broad in 
 the chine and loins, deep in th€ carcase, the back straight, the 
 ribs well set cut, so as to give room for a lar^e belly well cov- 
 ered with wool, the forehead broad, the eyes lively, (a heavy 
 eye being a mark of a diseased sheep) let him also be strong 
 close knit, and active, of which vou can judge by taking hold 
 of his hind legs ; and let his wool be of a good quality, and as 
 clear of hair in the hinder parts, as possible. It is said that 
 the product of such a ram with common ewes, would be lambs 
 possessing nine twenty-fourth parts of merino blood • and 
 twice repeating the females of the successive products would 
 give three fourths blooded lambs. Two further repetitions 
 trom a tull blooded ram, w-ould give lambs possessino- fifteen- 
 sixteenths of merino blood, which is probably sufficient. The 
 ram shoiild be changed at each time ; as the rearing of suc- 
 ceeding stocks between which there is the closest consanguin- 
 ity, must inevitably tend to degenerate the breed. 
 
 ♦uT ^^^u^^""^ °( ^^^ ^^"°^ ^^^^P ^ay be some later than 
 that of others, as their wool nev^r falls off. The merino woo* 
 
1G4 AGRICULTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 cannot be washed sufficiently until after shearing. But fhose 
 sheep whose fleeces are washed before, should be kept some 
 days previous to shearing, after they are washed, which will 
 render the shearing more easy, and require less oil to be af- 
 terwards added for spinning. The fleece of the merino sheep 
 being more close, this operation is more slow and difficult, and 
 it is thought best to use for that purpose, shears with blades 
 much narrower than those of the common Idnd. In England 
 it is a common practice after shearing, to smear the bodies of 
 the sheep with a mixture of tar and fresh butter, which serves 
 to cure the wounds in the skin, and to fortify their bodies a- 
 gainst the cold. This mixture may be improved by a small 
 quantity of sulphur. They should be again anointed in the month 
 of August, thoroughly on the back and sides, by parting the 
 wool for that purpose. This ointment is useful to cure any 
 wound made by cutting, and effectually to destroy all the 
 ticks, which are very pernicious to sheep. During cold rains 
 and cold nights after shearing,they should be placed where they 
 can go into their house, or place of shelter, when they please ', 
 as they know best when they want shelter, and when they be- 
 come so warm as to require the open air. 
 
 They should at all times have plenty of salt, but particularly 
 after shearing, as it is a stimulus which enables them to with- 
 stand the cold the better. 
 
 * A warm sun is injurious to the backs of sheep after shearingf 
 their pasture should therefore have some shade, to which they 
 can retire during the heat of the day. 
 
 The wool of yearling sheep should be kept by itself, because 
 not having the same texture or strength which the wool of 
 older sheep has, it will make the cloth shrink unequally if mix- 
 ed wit)i such wool. Some think it best to sort the other fleeces 
 also, at shearing time, making separate parcels of the thighs, 
 the belly, and the back sides, as the texture of these is often so 
 different as to render it inexpedient to wash it together. 
 
 The follov/ing is an European method of managing merino 
 wool before carding. After it has been sorted, and is to be 
 manufactured in the family, let it be covered with soft water, 
 mixed with one third urine, and stand fifteen hours, or longer 
 if the weather be cold. A cauldron is then to be put in the 
 fire with some soft water, and two thirds of that which covers 
 the fleeces be added to it. When so hot that the hand cannot v 
 bear it, take out the wool, put it in a basket, put the basket in 
 the cauldron, and then wash the wool by pressing, without any 
 
SKEEP. ^^^ 
 
 u'rincringofit, and then cleanse it in running water. If this 
 water in the cauldron become too dirty, take more from that m 
 wh ch It was tirst soaked. Dry the wool in the fade not m 
 he sun ; let it then be beaten with a rod, which takes out all 
 eeds &c and softens it ; then pick it by opening it lengthwise 
 carefiilY, and card it with cotton, not witn wool cards 
 
 Cardmc machines are not to be used for this wool, unless 
 
 ^t?S^l:n£^-r, is of the o^nionthat if the wc^Ue 
 carefully picked and carded, so as to get out most of Uie 
 dirt, and woven in this way, that it will answer without wash- 
 ing in which case less oil or greace ^^ill ^e^^^^^'^^J/, „ „v 
 Mr Daubentor, a celebrated French Agriculturalist has ob- 
 servek,that when'his sheep were fed on dry dodder during the 
 
 winter season, many of the yo"?^,^."^! ^^,t^P,^l°J' ^which 
 he found, on opening them, the tood in the third stomach, which 
 is that which receives the food after the second chewing, to be 
 so dry as to be unfit for digestion, and to this cause he ascribes 
 their^death. This state of the stomach he concludes, is produ- 
 ced by t^e sudden change of food from g-f.^^^^^f ttVa^^^ 
 der The antidote against this, is to leed them when they are 
 firsi put to hay, with I proportion of succulent food, such as po- 
 tatoes, turnips, carrots, cabbages, rape, &c. 
 
 Those farmers who would succeed well m raising a good 
 breed of sheep, should make it an object of par icular attention^^ 
 to adopt this practice of feeding their sheep with these kmds of 
 vegetables, especially at the setting in of winter. 
 
 It is ver; probable that the superiority of the sheepjn Great- 
 Britain is owing altogether to their different mode oi keeping 
 S r'especialfy to their keeping them through the w^^^^^^^^^ 
 succulent food, as they do their cattle ; by "^^^^^f ^^^f ^.;^J 
 *re not stunted in their grovyth until they ^7^y.^t°/^^\^,g^, ^^ I 
 signed for them, to acquire the utmost extent of size which their 
 nature and constitution will admit. The farmers m England 
 and some of the first practical farmers in the United States, do 
 not Uiinkthey can well succeed in rearing and e^PP^rting a 
 good breed of sheep, without feeding them abundantly through 
 the winter with succulent food, such as carrots, turnips, &ic. 
 
■^^ AGRICULTURAL ESSAY^ 
 
 The following are seme of the most common diieases to wMVk 
 B^eeparehable, with the remedies whichTavT;r":d%"ffi"a' 
 
 CIOUS. 
 
 Ro- 
 in men. 
 
 Rot. a disease in sheep similar to pulmonary consnmntmn 
 
 ine same manner as persons m a hectic. The sick in the flock 
 
 sivc mornmgs, w,ll probably offect a cure : as the addition cf 
 SL k", a""^ ""'"?'■ ""^ <"Jy ^'"''es the pungency of the dis ' 
 
 w til about sixty grains of iron filings, by means of flour »nd 
 ».trouuced into the sheep's throat Wc'ry^rrnrngfTr' ^Se 
 
 .JX'^^'rsV'm'^ '"' '"^ "' '" ^''^^P- '^ <■-» Young V 
 
 .Z'^r ^f ""' "'"^1"^ ^'^ "^^y^ ''«'^^««n each Ze. Thl 5' 
 fleecXXtn'nV'f'^ with success, even in cases where the 
 neecella» been nearly gone, and the throat terribly swelled." 
 
 .„?*^*?v '^'"^ appears by the sheep rubbing the nart affected 
 afldpullmg. out the wool in that part with fheirSh or bV' ' 
 Iw '.<"=''^°'^^^™°J rising on their backs and shiuldirs "The 
 
 self Cd't'h! 'f,"''' '° ''J '*''^" '■'•'"' the floci, and pul bfu 
 self, and then the part affected is to have the wool taken off 
 asfaras the skin feels hard to the finger, washed with soan 
 
 SkThe'stab' Tl' "'''"■'' ^'"'^ ""'"' - - '0 'reaie a£ 
 ,f„»„ • J ,.^''^" ='"""'* '"■ with a decoction of tobacco 4 
 water, mixed with the third of ley of wood ashes afmuch 
 
SHEEP. 167 
 
 grease as this ley will dissolve, a small quantity of tar, and a- 
 bout an eighth of the whole mass of the spirits of turpentine. 
 This ointment is to be rubbed on the part affected, and for 
 some little distance around it, at three different times, with an 
 interval of three days after each washing. With timely precau- 
 tion, this will always be foimd sufficient. 
 
 Sir Joseph Banks, in a communication to the society for the 
 encouragement of the arts, directs, also, for this disorder, pure 
 quicksilver one pound, of hoo-*s lard, four pounds, to be tritur- 
 ated in a mortar till the mercury be completely incorporated 
 with the ingredients. The method of using this ointment is as 
 follows: the head of the sheep must first be rubbed, after which 
 a furrow is to be drawn with the finger from the region be- 
 tween the ears, along the back to the point of the tail, so as to 
 divide the wool till the skin be exposed to the touch. Next, the 
 fingers, being shghtly dipped in the preparation, should be 
 drawn along the skin. Similar lines should be opened down 
 the shoulders and thighs, as far as the wool extends ; and if the 
 animal be considerably infected,:two other furrows are directed 
 to be traced parallel to that on the back, and one should like- 
 wise be drawn downward on each side between the fore and 
 hind legs. After this application, the sheep may be turned a- 
 mong the flock, without any danger of the infection being 
 communicated. 
 
 Another remedy is, an ointment composed of three parts 
 grease, and one of spirits of turpentine. 
 
 Ticks. These may be destroyed by oil, a strong decoction 
 oT tobacco, or tobacco smoke. The smoke may be taken mto 
 the bellows, the wool opened^ the smoke blown in, and the wool 
 closed. This should be repeated at proper distances, over eve- 
 ry part of the body . 
 
 A still easier method, though perhaps not so immediately ef- 
 ficacious, is, to part the wool of the animal on each side of its 
 spine, from its head to its tail, and drop some Scotch snuff in 
 (the opening. 
 
 I Staggers is a species of the apoplexy, arising from too 
 Igreat fuUnes of blood. It principally attacks young lambs, 
 , which fall down, and if not timely relieved, immediately perish. 
 ui'^j^l"^^''' of cure, generally adopted by shepherds, is to 
 I bleed the creatures frequently in the eve vein, and to remove 
 |them scarce to a pasture, with a view to prevent a relapse. 
 
168 AGRICULTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 HovEN, or SWOLLEN. It has been affirmed that a sinali 
 quantity of ley, made either of wood ashes, or pot or pearl ash- 
 es, turned down the throat of a sheep that is hoven or swollen, 
 by eating too much green or succulent food, will give immedi- 
 ate relief. 
 
 Purging. When sheep are first turned to grass, a slight 
 purging will not hurt them. But when this is severe the sheep 
 should be housed, dosed with castor oil, and fed with some 
 crusts of wheat bread. 
 
 The fly or maggot, is an insect which breeds in the skin 
 of sheep. If the animal is a tacked before shearing it be- 
 comes sickly and indisposed ; its wool not yielding a sufficient 
 quantity of yolk,offers a warm nest for the reception of the 
 eggs, which are speedily hatched. The maggots immediate- 
 ly feed on the flesh of the sheep; and if they be not timely 
 destroyed, the vermin will multiply so rapidly as to destroy 
 the animal in a short time. The remedy recommended is cor- 
 rosive sublimate and turpentine rubbed into the sore. Proba- 
 bly spirits of turpentine, or fine salt, would be equally effica- 
 cious. 
 
 Mr. Livingston, in the transactions of the agricultural so- 
 ciety, New-York, observes that the legs of sheep are furnished 
 with a duet, terminating in the fissure of the hoof; from v.hich 
 when the animal is in health there is secreted a white fluid, 
 but when sickly the duets are stopped by the hardening of the 
 fluid ; and that he has in some instances found the sheep re- 
 lieved, merely by pressing out the hardened matter with the 
 finger from the orifice of the duct in each foot, and thinks that 
 it may in some cases be proper to place their feet in w'arm wa- 
 ter, or to use a probe or hard brusii for cleansing this pas- 
 sage." 
 
 A writer in the Massachusetts Agricultural Journal, vol. 3, 
 p. 351, observes that "the dysentaiy or flux in sheep has been 
 c ured by rubbing with a co^ between the sheep's hoofs." 
 
 Worms tn the head of sheep. — The syratoms of this 
 complaint are seen in the animals lopping their ears, shaking 
 their heads, scouring, stupidity, loss of appetite. These gen- 
 erally ter minate in consumption and death. 
 
 Remedy . — Force vineger, by a syringe into the head of the 
 sheep. This will produce sneezing, and convulsions in the' 
 sheep, by which the worms will be discharged." 
 
SWINE. IGU 
 
 These are tlie principal diseases to whiclfi sheep have been 
 subjected. Others may hereafter be discovered peculiar to 
 our climate, and the condition of this animal, and the man- 
 agement of the shepherd. There has been much diversity of 
 opinion respecting the best covering provided for the shelter- 
 ing of sheep from the inclemencies of the season. That which 
 seems to be most generally approved is a shed open to the 
 south when circumstances will admit ; the extent of it to be 
 apportioned to the number of sheep intended to occupy it. It 
 should be so large on the ground, that they are not crowded 
 when collected under it, nor exposed to very driving storms, of 
 either rain or snow, but should be left to act from the impulse 
 of their own inclination, as the proper time to repair to the shelter 
 provided. Whenever it is practicable, it is believed by many, 
 to provide light moveable coverings to be placed in the pas- 
 ture during the summer season. For feeding them, small nar- 
 row troughs should be provided for their esculent food and 
 salt, and small racks for hay or other dry firbous food. 
 
 Rearing and Management of Swine, 
 
 The best means of rendering the raising of this use- 
 ful animal most profitable, are not equally m the. power of 
 1 those who would use them. The proprietor who improves on- 
 ly a garden, or a very small tract of land, must depend on the 
 j economy of his domestics, and his industry, for the supply 
 I of such vegetables as may be necessary for the growing and 
 ' fattening them : and the exegencies of his conditition will gen- 
 erally lead hini to the discovery of the most profitable means 
 of obtaining this object. The little savings from the gleanings 
 of the table, sour milk, and weeds from the garden, must gener- 
 ally constitute the principal food for raising one or two hogs to 
 I a suitable size for fattenmg, among the poorer class of citizens. 
 But it is generally found that this class make as wise a 
 use of the means in their power as those who are enabled to 
 i carry on the business of raising and fattening swine, upon a more 
 
170 AGRICULTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 extensive scale * But to'the occupants of land, of every descrip- 
 tion, whether they keep but one or more hogs, it is of impor- 
 tance that they should have such as will give the greatest weight 
 from any given quantity of food. It is a very favorable circum- 
 stance in this branch of rural economy, that the long legged, 
 lon^ i.ose.l, and long guant bodied hogs are nearly extinct in 
 every part o'* the country ; and that the grass breed, and a 
 Tp.ixV.ire of r^fc grass bre'ed with the Chinese, generally occu- 
 py '.heir placeg. There are sdme others possessing similar 
 properties, anj known by the names of those persons who have 
 mVconvzed then), into different parts of the country. 
 
 Ti'fey are distL.v-u.ished in their general texture by a'moderate 
 
 .gth in Dropoition to thesi?e of the body; the head and 
 ^ueek plum^' anj full, neck thick and short, quarters full, car- 
 case thick and full, hair fine and thin. These are marks of a 
 good ho^; ^nd the iariner who would improve the breed shouid 
 not rest satisfied, until hy crossing the Guinea breed, the 
 Chinese anj 30iae cth«r of a siriiiiar breed, with our old com- 
 mon breed, they have oiituined hogs of the above description. 
 
 George G. Banet, Esq. when American consul, at Malaga, 
 Spr.in, some years ./r.ce, in a letter addressed to the Albany 
 Coiaity Agricultural Society, advised to introduce from Spain, 
 a breed of hogs, which he observes are seen in droves of hun- 
 dreds all over Spain, and that they subsist in summer on 
 weeds, and with a little corn in autumn, become astonishing- 
 ly fat, and make the most delicious pork in the world. 
 
 To improve our breed of hogs, it has been remarked that 
 'Hhe sow will bring forth a stronger and better litter if she be 
 kept till she is a year old before she goes to the boar, and he 
 Bhoold be kept till that age, before he is put to sows. He 
 should be kept in good condition for the purpose, and as the 
 author of the Complete Grazier observes, should not serve 
 more than ten sows in a year. The sows should also be kept 
 in good condition, but not too fat ; as in that case they will 
 not produce an abundant litter of pigs. To cause them to go 
 to the boar if they miss the right season, give them says he, 
 some prr.^hed outs in their wash, or the small end of a runnet 
 bag. If, however, they are well kept, they will seldom require 
 any stimulus to colition at the proper time. 
 
 Those are reckoned the best breeders that have about ten or 
 twelve paps. They should be kept clean and well littej-ed^ 
 
 * See the cottager's account, Shropshire, England. 
 
SWI^E. 
 
 m 
 
 bu should not have too much litter at the time of farrowing, 
 least they over-lay their pigs in it." As sows will sometimes 
 eat their own offspring, it is said that supplying them with 
 plenty of water at this time will prevent this mischief. Pigs 
 for market should be killed at about the end of four weeks. 
 The castration and spaying the rest may as well be perform- 
 ed at about the age of six weeks. When milk or whey 
 cannot be had, a thin drink of pea, buckwheat, or Indian 
 meal may be given them. After the age of three months 
 they may be turned out with the larger hogs into the clover 
 field, which will keep them well, during the rest of the growing^ 
 season. Mr. Young says, pigs should be w^eaned at the age of 
 eight weeks. 
 
 The great objection to making the raising hogs for market 
 an object of agricultural pursuits, has been the great expense 
 of labor in raising grain for fattening them. This objection 
 will be greatly obviated by introducing the grass breed. 
 Those who have land plenty, and w^ould keep any considerable 
 number of hogs, no doubt may save a great portion of the ex- 
 pense by keeping them through the summer, in the method 
 which has heretofore been practiced of giving them more or 
 less grain through the year, with the wash of the house and 
 milk of the dairy. Those who go largely into the raising of 
 swine inGreat Britain, and some parts of our own coiTiitry.appro- 
 priate certain fields enclosed for the purpose, and well stocked 
 with white clover, and other good grass, which constituted 
 their principal food through the summer, and until they aro 
 shut up for fattening. The celebrated Mr. Young prefers! 
 soiling them in a yard for the purpose ; and in this case he 
 makes use of lucern, richory clover, tares, and other green 
 food, cut and carried in for feeding them. The water crow- 
 foot, rununculus aquatilis, ia also highly recommended for 
 this purpose. But it is observed by the author of the Farmer's 
 Assistant, that this method, though it may save some ground 
 in pasture, and may be the means of making considerable ma- 
 nure, does not seem so apparently beneficial as the practice of 
 soiling some othei animals. Mr. Young mentions his having 
 fed sixty -four hogs, great and small, on two acres of clover a- 
 lone, during one season, and that they all grew very well. 
 
 The pasture in which they are kept should have a supply of 
 water. 
 
 It is well remarked in the New-England Farmer "that the 
 pasturing with swine will enrich land more than pasturing with 
 
Ti''2 
 
 AGRieiTLTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 other beasts : and hereby the profit of the farmer will be in- 
 creased. And if a common clover lay, will produce a good 
 crop of wheat, much more maybe expected of [the same 
 kind of ground, after pasturing swine upon it ; as their dung 
 adds much to the fertility of the soil. Hogs may be turned in- 
 to their pasture about the first of May, and kept in it till the 
 last of October ; and if the grass should not be quite sufficient 
 for their support, some potatoes or other ragtsmay be thrown 
 'Cp them. 
 
 When it can with convenience be done, it is an excellent 
 piece of husbandry to make a hog pasture of an orchard ; their 
 dung is allowed to be the very best of manure for the trees. 
 They will keep the ground light and loose, destroy insects that 
 infect tlie trees,* and feed heartily on the premature apples 
 that fall, which ihe farmer is too often tempted to grind up for 
 cider. An orchard may be prepared with clover, as we 
 as any other spot of'ground." If the trees are young ai>d 
 amall, they should be secured by stakes drove in the ground 
 around them, to prevent their being wounded by stripping off 
 the bark. The loss v^'liich the farming interest sustains by 
 suffering hogs to run at large in the highways, is so obvious 
 that no good husbandman should suffer it in those districts 
 Vv'here by law they are commonable. It is observed by Mr. 
 Deane, that to prepare a pasture for hogs "the ground should 
 be broken up, tilled and manured, and then laid dawn with clo- 
 ver ; for swine are more fond of this grass than of any other 
 which our country produces. Let the quantity of land be so 
 proportioned to the number of swine, that they may keep the 
 grass from running up to seed ; for this will prevent waste ; 
 and the shorter the grass is the sweeter it will be, and the 
 more tender and agreeable to their palates. The same author 
 supposes that one acre of rich land in clover will support twen- 
 ty or more swine, large and small together, through the sum- 
 mer, and bring them well forward in their growth," and that "it 
 has been proved, by many trials, that hogs in such a pasture 
 m 'V be kept in good plight, without any other food." 
 
 While they are young let the top of the gristle of the nose 
 be paired off with a sharp knife, which will ever afterwards 
 prevent their roocing up the sward, and answers the same pur- 
 pose as ringing. 
 
 It has been uniformly remarked, that, although these animals 
 
 *'S^e an account of the Curicules in essav on insects. 
 
SWINE. 173 
 
 &te naturally filthy if left to themselves, yet the cleaner they 
 are kept, the better they will grow and fatten. 
 
 To those who would raise hogs without that tillage which 
 may be necessary to raise a suitable quantity of grain for that 
 purpose, it may be proper to remark, that some farmers, both in 
 GreatBritain and America^have practiced keeping them through 
 the "'inter on boiled or steamed clover; hay. In that case the 
 clover should be cut a little sooner than usual, and should be 
 well cured, and have about a peck of salt to each ton, when 
 laid down in the mow. For boiling in this case, as well ^s for 
 boiling roots, and for other purposes, a wooden vessel full of 
 holes at the bottom, is placed over the boiler which holds the 
 water and which is heated underneath ; being set in a brick 
 stove, or furnice for the purpose. The steam from the boiler runs 
 through the holes in the bottom of the vessel which holds the 
 articles to be boiled or steamed, and after passing through 
 them, is let off at the top ; not faster however than is necessary, 
 being partly confined with a lid. If the hay or other article? 
 are to be boiled in water, the steam is conducted by a tube into 
 the bottom of a vessel holding the water, into which articles are. 
 to be put. 
 
 ^The steam boiler is a necessary article in rearing swine, and 
 for other purposes which every farmer should possess,if consis- 
 tent with his condition. 
 
 In some parts of our country, great account is made of boiling 
 potatoes, ana cariots, and other roots, as winter food for swinej 
 andin the more southern parts of the United States^ where it 
 is less difficult to preserve roots from the frost, the same 
 measure would no doubt be equally profitable and practicable. 
 But our common farmers, in the more northern cli- 
 mate, will ? probably, in their present condition, think it expe- 
 dient to rely more on hard food, such as corn, peas, oats, &c., 
 because they are attended with much less expense in preserving 
 and feeding; these however, will prove much more efficacious? 
 tvhen ground and boiled, or steamed. 
 
 It is observed by the author of the Complete Grazier, that 
 when many hogs are put up together to fatten, they will fall 
 a^ay at first, if ever bo well fed ; which he attributes to the 
 noise and confusion produced among them by this new 
 state of keeping ; he observes too, that in such ca^s it is not un- 
 frequent for one of the family to become so much the object of 
 hatred to the rest, as eventually to be killed by them; and from 
 all this he infers that it is much better to have them in a number 
 
 p 2 
 
I'?4 AGRICULTURAL ESSAtS. 
 
 of small companies detached from each other, so that th6 
 noise and bustle will be less, and in order that they may mor0 
 unmolested enjoy the repose which is most suitable to their 
 drowsy faculties. For this purpose the sty should have a 
 number of distinct apartments by close partitions from each 
 other, and where the inmates of each can come forward separ- 
 ately to the general feeding trough, and retire separately again 
 to rest. 
 
 To increase the appetite of hogs, when fattenmg, it is said 
 a dose or two of sulphur should be occasionally given them in 
 their food. Change of food is also good for that purpose. 
 Laxative food should be avoided, as they are seldom costive. 
 If they are too much so, a little rye will generally prove effica- 
 cious, as a remedy. Mr. Young says it has been found that the 
 best method of feeding all kinds of grain to hogs, is ;to grind it 
 to meal and mix it with water, in cisterns made for the purpose, 
 m the proportion of five bushels of meal, to a hundred gallons 
 of water; the mass to be well stirred several times each day, 
 until it has fermented and become acid, when it will be ready 
 for use. In this way two or three cisterns must be kept fer- 
 menting in succession. He further remarks, that the profits 
 will amply pay the expence. Is not the correctness of this re- 
 mark, as it relates to the condition of the farmers in our own 
 country, evinced from the riutritiows effect which the grains of 
 distillers, and the refuse of etarch factories, has in fattening 
 hog's. Were the nutrative substances contained in these-arti- 
 cies of food separated entirely from the water with which 'they 
 are mixed, and in that condition fed to swine, we should 
 doubtless find a great diminution of their efficacy. It has 
 been observed that the cause of pork, as well as ather meats 
 shrinking very much, and losing much of its oils in cooking, 
 seems not to be well understood ; ibut that it is general- 
 ly believed the more fully any animal is fatted, the leas will its 
 saeat shrink and part with its oil in cooking. 
 
 DISEASES. Measles.— This disorder is mostly in the 
 throat, which is filled with small pustules, and sometimes these 
 appear on the outside of the neck. The animal affected looks 
 languied, with red eyes, and loses flesh. Remedy.— Gi\e him 
 «naall quantities of levigated crude antimony in his food. 
 
 The mange is like the scab in sheep, a cutaneous erup- 
 ,t;ion of the skin, is occasioned by want of cleanliness in the 
 
hogstye. It is known by the violent rubbing of the animal 
 till he tears the pustules, and thus produces scabs. Remedy. 
 —First wash th^ animal with strong soap suds, then an- 
 oint him with an ointment formed of an ounce of the flow- 
 er of sulphur, two drachms of fresh pulverized hellibore, 
 three ounces of hogs lard, and half an ounce of the wa- 
 ter of hali. This is to be rubbed in at one time, and is suth- 
 cient for a hog weighing one hundred. This will be sufficient- 
 ly efficacious if the hog be afterwards kept clean. When he 
 has a slight cough, doses of antimony, and from half an ourice 
 to an ounce and a half is recommended, according to the size 
 of the animal, to be mixed with his food for ten days or more. 
 But where from long neglect, the neck, ears and other parts 
 become ulcerated, they should be anointed every third or tourth 
 day with an ointment made of equal parts lard and mutton suet, 
 melted together, till the cure is completed. 
 
 The murrain or leprosy in swine, is known by the short= 
 ness and heat of the breath, hanging dowm of the head, lag- 
 gering, and secretion from the eyes. It is said to be caused by 
 hot seasons, when the blood becomes inflamed. Remedy, 
 —Boil a handful of nettles in a gallon of small beer, add a 
 half a pound of flour of sulphur, a quarter of a pound of anm- 
 seeds, pulverized, three ounces of liquorice, and a quarter oi & 
 pound of elecampane, and give this mixture in milk at six 
 doses. 
 
 The garg£t is an inflamation of the uddef, by being filled 
 with coagulated milk. It is said chiefly to happen when sows 
 are too fat at littering ; and when they are thus afiected the 
 pigs will not suck. In slight cases the udder may be bathed with 
 camphorated wine ; but the miik mtist be squeezed out by 
 hand if possible. If relief cannot thus be given, it is best to 
 kill the animal. 
 
 Dry cough and wasting of the flesh, is best remedied by 
 a dry,warm sty, with a regular supply of food that is calculated 
 to keep them cool, and to allay their initation of the lungs. 
 
 Fever or rising of the lites, appears to be caused by 
 overfeeding, and may be remedied by doses of sulphur and oil. 
 In reviewing the causes of diseases in swine, it will be seeti 
 that they may often be prevented by proper care and manage- 
 ment. 
 
176 agricultcrai essays. 
 
 Management of Bees. 
 
 In every swarm, or hive of bees, there are two sorts, beside 
 what is called the queen bee. She is distinguished by being 
 larger, and of a lighter red than the rest ; and it is said by 
 those who have investigated the eGonomy of bees, that she is 
 the leader of the swarm, and lays the eggs in the cells for 
 new broods, which consist of thousands every year. The 
 other kinds are the drones, which have no stings, are the dark- 
 est colored, and are supposed to be the males ; and the honey, 
 or working bees, which are much the most numerous. 
 
 The bee-hive ought to be placed at a suitable distance from 
 places where cattle are kept, or where horses are tied ; and 
 from places where filth of any kmd is collected. It should be 
 open to the south, with the other sides close. It should stand 
 leaning forward a little, with the front part of the roof project- 
 ing over considerably, to prevent southerly rains from wetting 
 the hives. These should be kept dry, clean, and warm during 
 the winter ; though not so warm as to tempt the bees abroad 
 in warm winter days. 
 
 The following method of managing bees is recommended 
 by Mr. Deane : place three hives of the same dimensions, 
 say ten inches in height, each, and fourteen inches in diameter 
 each way, are to be placed one on the top of the other. The 
 two undermost ones are to have square holes in the top, about 
 three inches in diameter, and covered with a sliding shutter. 
 Let each hive also have a place of entrance, two or three inches 
 long, and a third of an inch wide. The square holes in the two 
 lowermost are to be open. The bees will fill the uppermost 
 hive first. When this is full, which can be ascertained by- 
 weighing it in a cool morning, when the bees do not stir, take 
 it off and carry it into a room, with a window]open to the morn- 
 ing sun, and as this enlivens the bees, they will fly off to their 
 accustomed place, and commence their labors in storing the 
 second hive, which should then have the hole in its top closed. 
 When this is filled, the same process is to be repeated ; but 
 when they have filled the last hive, let it remam for the winter 
 stock of provisions for the swarm. In taking out the honey 
 from the hive, which should be done speedily, let those bees 
 which are found unable to fly, be thrown into a tub of water, 
 out of which they can crawl again, and they will soon recover 
 their wonted activity, and go after their companions. In this 
 way thexe is no necessity tor the process of fire and brimstone 
 
r.IANAGE-VEiNT OF BEES. 
 
 177 
 
 for getting rid of the bee^, a method unnecessarily destructive 
 to their race. 
 
 Another method of taking the honey without killing the bees, 
 is, when the hive is filled with honey, in the night season turn 
 it bottom upwards, and set an empty hive of the same size, with 
 its bottom exactly on the bottom of the other: let there be one 
 or two cross pieces within the empty hive, for the bees to light 
 on : then take a stick and strike gently on the sides of the full 
 hive, and the bees will leave it and ascend to the upper one. 
 When they have all got into this, take it off gently, and set it 
 where the full hive stood, and the bees will go to work again 
 as before. This is said to be the method usually practised in 
 France. 
 
 The following management is said to be an improvement :— 
 Have a hole in the top of the hive, covered with a shutter, as 
 before described. When this is filled, which is to be known 
 by the bees lyin^j inactive about its mouth, open the hole above, 
 and set a smairhive on the top, into which they will kscend, 
 and fill it vvith the purest honey, without any mixture of the 
 bee-bread. When full, take it off as before directed, and place 
 another in its stead. The bees in the full hive will soon fly 
 off to the old one, and the swarm will re-commence their la- 
 bors in fillinsr the empty one again. When full, take it away 
 as before, aifd set the em.pty one iu its place. These upper 
 hives should hold about seventeen pounds of honey whenfilleaj 
 and such the svrarm will usually fill three times in a season. 
 The honey in the lower hive is to remain for their winter food. 
 
 Either of the methods which have been here described, may 
 with proper attention prove successful. Those who wish to 
 derive profits from this useful insect, will soon learn from ob- 
 servation and experience, the m.ethod of managing them v.'hich 
 appears best. 
 
 It is sometimes necessary to feed, bees when their stock is 
 exhausted ; and as honey is the most natural food for bees, it 
 is to be conveyed by small troughs into the hives, until they 
 are able to provide for themselves. It is said that bread soaked 
 in strong ale is also good to give them, and that they will con- 
 sume the whole of it. It may be advisable, sometimes, to join 
 two small swarms together. To effect this, the hives intended 
 to be joined, are to be placed with their bottoms over those of 
 two empty ones : a piece of dried mushroom, commonly called 
 puff-ball, IS set on fire, is placed under each full hive so thatk 
 the scioke will ascend into them, and when the baes become 
 
178 
 
 agrico'ltural essays. 
 
 stupified, let the fuU hives be knocked gently oh the side^?, aft^ 
 the bees will fall into the empty ones in a torpid state ; it is ex- 
 pedient, then, if practicable, to find the qiieen bee of one of 
 the swarms, and kill it. The two swarms are then to be put 
 together, mixing- them well, and dropping them among the 
 combs of the hives they are to inhabit. The door of the hive 
 IS then to be covered with a cloth, so that they cannot get out 
 The second night after their union, remove the cloth in the 
 dusk of the evening, and the bees will sally forth ; but a? the 
 night approaches they will return. Keep them confined three 
 or four days longer, letting them out in the evening as before, 
 and then the cloth may be removed. 
 
 To preserve bees from the worm, or butterfly, which some- 
 times proves destructive to them, one remedy proposed, is to 
 raise the hives up about the first of May, and strew some fine 
 salt under the edges, which will drive the worms away. This 
 has been tried with success. 
 
 It has been said, also, that the ravages of this insect may be 
 prevented by simply raising the hive l;wo inches with blocks, 
 one under each corner ; this v/ill give the bees an opportunity 
 to clear the hive of this pest, and other filth, and also keep the 
 
 When the sun shines warm upon the south side of the bee- 
 house, in the months of February and March, the bees are 
 eometimes induced to venture abroad, to void their excrements 
 and get water : and as soon as they come in contact with the 
 cold air, they fall upon the snow and are lost. Hives almost 
 full of honey are sometimes deserted in this manner. To 
 avoid this loss, the door on the front of the hive should be kept 
 shut during the warm days in those months. 
 
 It is said that during the working months bees should be often 
 salted with fine salt, as it will conduce to the health of the in- 
 sect, and also improve the flavor of the honey. 
 
 Honey has medicinal qualities, is a great luxury, and a pro- 
 fitable article of consumption. It is therefore strange indeed, 
 that so many neglect the economy of keeping bees, when it is 
 considered they support themselves by their own industry. 
 With only a very trifling exptlise. 
 
INSfiCtS. l^P 
 
 INSECTS. 
 
 Insects of some description are continually preying upon the 
 labors of the farmer, and in many instances it is difficult, if not 
 impossible, to provide adequate remedies agamst their ravages. 
 Some account of those which are most injurious to vegetation, 
 together with .the best remedies that have been discovered to 
 prevent their ravages, shall here be given. 
 
 Canker w.oRMs are insects of the species of the miller, 
 which about eighty year" since, made their first appearance in 
 the oldest settled parts of the New-England States, and were 
 called canker worms because they produced an eifectupon the 
 apple-trees similar to that produced by canker. One of the 
 most effectual methods to prevent their ascending the trees, 
 which the female does early in the spring, to deposit her eggs, 
 is that which is found equally effectual in preventing the ascent 
 of caterpillars, that is, to fasten a strip of sheepskin, with the 
 wool outwards, round the body of the tree. This, it is found, 
 is a barrier they cannot pass, as in attempting to climb over the 
 wool they lose their hold, and fall down. Another method is, 
 "to fasten a piece of oiled paper about the tree, with the lower 
 edge projecting out an inch or more, and standing downwards, 
 which edge they cannot pass. These strips must be closely fit- 
 ted round the tree to prevent their passage between them and 
 the body. The scraping off the shaggy parts of the bark is al- 
 so recommended, in order to deprive them of places of safety 
 from birds, and of shelter from storms. Mr. Forsyth also r©- 
 cornmends, that the bodies and large limbs of the trees be 
 whitewashed with lime and w^ater, or with a mixture of old 
 urine and soapsuds for keeping off all insects. 
 
 Caterpillars. The above directions it is saidi are al?o 
 -equally applicable to these insects. 
 
 When a nest of them are formed, run a pole into it, twist it 
 round till the nest and its contents are wrapped round the pole 
 and bring the whole down and kill the worms. Let this be 
 done m the morning, when the worms are all in the nest. If 
 any escape this operation, repeatjit when they have rebuilt the 
 nest. This remedy is thought to be more efiicacioua when ap- 
 plied m a shower of rain. When the nests have been suffered 
 to remain till the insects have left them, young broods for ♦he 
 ensuing year, will ftie next spring be found on the trees, in the 
 
180 AGRICULTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 chrysalis state, under the shelter of a dry curled leaf or two, 
 bound with filaments like cobwebs ; these should be searched 
 for and destroyed. It is said that caterpillars will take shelter 
 under woolen rags, Avhen put on trees where they resort, from 
 which they can easily be taken and destroyed. 
 
 Grubs are large maggots, produced from the eggs of a cer- 
 tain species of the butterfly, very injurious to corn by eating 
 its roots. They are said to produce the beetle. Frequent 
 ploughings will nearly destroy them. 
 
 Top, or spindle worms, are white worms, resembling 
 grubs, found in the central hole which is formed by the leaves 
 of Indian corn ; and they there cut off the stem which forms 
 the top of the plant. They are mostly to be found near barn- 
 yards, and in rich spots. They are discovered by their excre- 
 ment appearing on the leaves. Sprinkling the corn with a 
 weak ley ;"of wood ashes will extirpate them. 
 
 Black worms, called also the cut worm. Ash colored 
 worms, with black stripes on their backs. When full grown 
 they are of the thickness of a goose-quill, and about an inch 
 and a quarter long. They hide in the soil by day and commit 
 their depredations by night. They eat off young plants above 
 ground, and frequently endeavor to draw them under. It is 
 said that manuring the ground with salt will drive them from 
 it and that lime and ashes will also have neraly a similar effect. 
 
 Red worms. These are slender, about an inch long, with 
 a hard coat, and pointed head. They eat off wheat, barley and 
 oats, above the crown of the roots ; and they also eat through 
 turnips, potatoes, &c. No remedy known better than lime 
 and soot, and effectual summer fallowings, which destroys 
 them by depriving them of food. 
 
 Timber worms. The smaller kind merely eat into the sap 
 of wood, and turn it into powder post, as it is commonly called. 
 Felling timber about the middle of winter, the time it has the 
 least sap in it, will obviate this difficulty. The large boring 
 worm takes its residence chiefly in pine timber. They are 
 hatched in the cavities of the bark, and being small when they 
 enter the cavities of the wood, they grow larger as they pro- 
 ceed, till their boring may be heard at a considerable distance. 
 
INSECTS. 181 
 
 tf the trees be scorched with a light flame, or washed, (Mr. 
 Deane says steeped,) in salt water, it will destroy these worms, 
 or prevent their entering the wood. 
 
 The same author says, that in 1770, formidable armies of 
 worms overrun the county of Cumberland, about the middle of 
 July, and stripped the vegetables of their leaves, leaving only 
 the stems. They were extremely voracious, moved in appa- 
 rent haste and all in the same direction, crawling over houses, 
 &c. unless they found an entrance. Other paits of the eastern 
 states have since experienced their ravages. 
 
 The best security found against them was to stop their course 
 by trenches, having their sides leaning over, out of which they 
 could not climb, after they had got into them. 
 
 Hesssian fly. As the ravages of this insect are confined 
 to wheat, it is described, together with the remedy, ia the es- 
 say on wheat. 
 
 Maggots. Injurious to the roots of cabbages, and to tur- 
 nips and radishes. Let the ground have a previous manuring 
 with salt, which it is believed will be effectual ; if not, let some 
 brine, about as strong as sea water, be sprinkled once only a- 
 bout the plants, for if repeated it will probably be found hurtful 
 to them. Or, perhaps, a better way is to apply a weak brine 
 more than once, and that just after a rain. 
 
 Yellow striped b^g. This insect commits its ravages on 
 the young plants of cucumbers, squashes, melons, pumpkins, 
 &c. while in the seed leaf. 
 
 Water, made bitter by bruising tansy in it, and sprinkled o- 
 ver the plants, will keep off this insect; but this must be fre- 
 quently repeated, particularly after rains. Green eider leaves 
 are also very useful, either laid near the plants, or steeped in 
 water and sprinkled on the plants. Soot, also, is very good, 
 sprinkled on the plants while the dew is on, but must be repeat- 
 ed after every rain. Gypsum and ashes are also good for this 
 purpose, sprinkled over the plants when the dew is on. Most, 
 er all of these applications, to become efficacious must be re- 
 peated, with persevering diligence. 
 
 Turnip fly. This eats the seed of the leaves of the young 
 turnip plants, and thus destroys them. One remedy is, to sow 
 the grouad thiekly, partly with old and partly with new seed, 
 
i^ AeRICULTURAL ES3AT3, 
 
 which will come up at different times, and thus a part of the oi;fi 
 or of the other will stand a chance of escaping. Gypsum soot 
 and tansy water, applied as mentioned before is good. Elder 
 leaves, frequently dragged over the ground after the plants are 
 up, IS also efficacious. Smokes, made to the windward side, 
 will help to keep off this insect. Rolling the ground after sow- 
 ing, IS also recommended, where the ground is smooth : the 
 benefit derived from this, consists in compressing the surface 
 ot the ground so as to afford fewer hiding places in it for these 
 insects. It IS said ducks, in a turnip Seld, will- destroy the in- 
 sects without mjuring the young plants. 
 
 Garden flea. Destructive to young cabbage plants while 
 m the seed leaf. 
 
 i?eme(fy.— Elder leaves, gypsum, soot and tansy water, as 
 mentioned above. Soap suds is also good to be sprinkled over 
 
 Lice, These infest cabbages, &e. They may be extirpate 
 ed by smoke, particularly of tobacco. They sometimes, how^ 
 ever, appear so late in the season that the frosts destroy them-, 
 beiore they do much injury. 
 
 Weavel. a little black bug, very destructive to wheat,, 
 either in barns or granaries. On thrusting your hand into a 
 bm of wheat infested with them, considerable warmth will be 
 felt ; but as they are usually collected together, every part of 
 the heap or bin should be examined 
 
 It is said they may be destroyed in a close apartment, by fu- 
 migating It with burnt sulphur, for about twelve hours. Anoth- 
 BT Remedy. Mr L'Hommedieu, having found his bin of wheat 
 tull of weavel, he emptied the bin, white-washed the inside, 
 and then returned the wheat into it, sprinkling a handful of fine 
 unslacked hme over every four or five bushels, thus returned, 
 and five or six handfuls was sprinkled over the whole. In ten 
 or twelve days the weavel disappeared. When the wheat wa& 
 used, he winnowed it, which took out the lime. 
 
 Weavel may be sifted out of wheat by a sieve, wl ich will let 
 them pass through, and retain the wheat. 
 
 Grasshoppers. Great numbers of these are generated in- 
 upland mowing grounds. They are not so troublesome in up- 
 land pastures, for the reason, probably, that the feet of the cat- 
 
IlfSECtS. -*^^ 
 
 ^e destroy many of them before they are ^^.^^?^t forth. The 
 only remedy known is said t^ be the keeping large flocks of 
 turkeys and other poultry to feed on them ; this is not, howev- 
 •er, extensively efficacious, only when grass is appropriated te 
 pasture. 
 
 CuRCULio. A genus of insects belonging to the beetle ordet. 
 >rhe species are slid to be very numerous. The immense dam- 
 Tge dJne by an insect of this Ue to the fniits of this country 
 of which there is no similar account m Europe, has induced 
 Bome naturalists to coirjecture, tliat we have a pecu lar and ve- 
 Tdestructive species in America. This insect injures and 
 Zstrovsourfri^tsbyits mode of propogation. ^f^^yi^J^^ 
 spring, about the time when the fruit trees are in blossom, the 
 curcul ones ascend in swarms from the earth, "awl up the 
 frees and as the several fruits advance, they puncture the rind, 
 or skin, with their pointed rostra, and deposit their embryos m 
 the wound thus inflicted. The maggot thus bedded m the fruity 
 preys upon its pulp and juices, until, m most instances, the fruit 
 Irishes, falls to the ground, and the msect escaping from so 
 unsafe a residence, retreats into the earth: wb»re, hke other 
 beetles, it remains in the form of a grub, or worm during the 
 winter, ready to be metamorphosed into a bug, or beetle, as the 
 ^n-n^r advances. Dr. Tilton say-s, ^at although theeeijuge 
 have manifestly the capacity of flying they appear very reluc- 
 tant in the use of their wings, and perhaps never employ them, 
 except when necessity compels th^ to migrate. Hence au- 
 thorities difi-er on the subject of the best remedies. Some who 
 suppose they crawl up on the bodies, would tie a ^^pe dipt in 
 tar, or make some other application to the bodies which would 
 prevent their crawling up. But Dr. Deane, who thmks they 
 Le their wings to ascend the tree, believes, with many others, 
 that they must be prevented from coming out of the ground or 
 destroyed in the maggot before they enter it. It is said that 
 tanner's spent bark spread around the tree will pre-^ent them. 
 As the smooth stone fruits are.the grand. nurseries of the cur- 
 • culio, special care should be -taken to have the^e effectu^ly 
 protected. Unless this can be done, a farmer siiould not suher 
 them to grow on his plantation, as they will furnvsh a destruc- 
 tive vermin that will ruin his other fruite. €herry-trees, nec- 
 tarines, plums, apricots, &c. should therefore be Planted in 
 lanes and hard beaten yards, the common higliwaysot all the 
 ,£tock ofthe farm, and not.beyondtjie range of the ordinary do^- 
 
}84 
 
 AGRieULTURAL ESSAYSi 
 
 maggots as crawl from the fallen fnJte '' '^'"''"" 
 
 tha 'tb^hU^h'T^ ^'°'" the history of this destructive insect 
 
 great abui^daLe e^ce^onTpp "and oal Zlef'^'^yT'"'"' 
 S'ny'Zl'VtifrZgesTve'r /T ^''".^ '" ^"--^- 
 
 reS^hrsSi^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 
 
 sward, or ffrassv lan^ f^^ D^ades. Whenever, therefore, . 
 
INSECTS. 185 
 
 subterraneous feeders, as you have destroyed their natural 
 stores, must now feed upon your plants, or perish. Fall 
 ploughing will do much towards lessening their numbers ; but 
 in some instances enough will escape to injure materially the 
 sprouts of Indian corn, and many other plants in your garden; 
 they seldom if ever injure potatoes, beets or carrots, or do 
 much damage to a crop of oats. It has been remarked by one 
 writer, that whenever you have reason to expect these insects 
 are in your flax ground or garden, sow the land with fine salt, 
 broad cast, at the rate of two bushels to the acre. This will 
 effectually destroy them, and as a manure, will more than repay 
 the cost. This remedy, it may be observed, may be judiciously 
 applied, when we have reason to conclude the egg, or larva, 
 wiiich produces the worm, has been deposited, or the worm so 
 produced, actually exists in the ground from which you would 
 raise any of those crops liable to its devastations. But the 
 better and more certain remedy is, when circumstances will 
 admit, to put the ground in such condition previous to commit- 
 ting your seed to it, that the grass-hopper, or other winged 
 insect, will not probably deposit its egg therein ; or if it is al- 
 ready deposited, to destroy its vivific principle. The surest 
 way to effect this, is to plough it thoroughly just previous to 
 the connnencement of the winter frosts. And then early in 
 the spring plough it again, and thus prevent every thing from 
 ^-egetating until you commit your seed to the ground. With 
 such management, the winter frosts will generally destroy the 
 worm or the larva, that may have been deposited in the fall be- 
 fore ; and as no green thing makes its appearance in the spring 
 previous to the vegetation of the plant you wish to cultivate, 
 the winged insect will seek some other place to deposit its egg ; 
 and before the worm thus produced becomes of sufficient mag- 
 nitude and strength to injure it, the texture of the plant will 
 probably become so firm as to withstand its attacks, and finally 
 out-grow its ravages. 
 
 An antidote consistent with the interest of every farmer, or 
 one who cultivates the earth, against the ravages of those in- 
 sects which commit their depredations principally upon plants 
 when in the first stages of their growth, is, to so fertilize the 
 soil and prepare it for the reception of the seed, that it may 
 vegetate rapidly and vigorously, that it may thereby the 
 sooner acquire that strength and solidity which tends to forti- 
 fy it, in some measure, against their attacks. Common ©bserv- 
 ation will teach us that the more feeble and unhealthy the plant 
 q 2 
 
186 ^CfRICULTURAX ESSAYS. 
 
 when it first emerges from the surface, the more it will be exr 
 posed to the injurious effects of every species of insect to which 
 it ma^ be subjected. 
 
 Practicability of Fertilizing the Barren Pine Plajf 
 Land. 
 
 There are vast tracts of this land in different parts of the U- 
 idited States, the propritors of which, either through negligencs, 
 or want of proper information, suffer to remain in a barren 
 state , even after it has been cleared of its timber. 
 
 The question probably is, with many of them, how they can 
 commence the process of tillage, so as to encourage them with 
 a prospect of success to their labors, not havmg suitable ma- 
 nures to enrich it,or the means, as they may suppose, of provid- 
 mg them. 
 
 It is, however, very certain that such land have been in 'ma- 
 ay instances converted into fruitful fields, and rendered highly 
 productive. The m»des of effecting this change in the state of 
 these lands, has been discovered either by experiment, or 
 from the science of those principles which govern the vegeta- 
 tion and growth of plants. 
 
 It is believed that this science, may now save the farme th e 
 oxpence and time necessary, in making improvements on their 
 lands, by experiment. 
 
 The difficulty in commencing successful operations 
 on such lands, appears to arise from a supposed imprac- 
 ticability of effecting the growth of any green crop, what- 
 ever, ia the outset, arising from the barrenness of the soil. 
 But before an effort is made to overcome this obstacle, it is ne- 
 cessary to understand the nature and constituent proper- 
 ties of such soils ; for notwithstanding there may be a 
 uniformity in the complexion of their surface, it is certain that 
 their constituent ingredients may be very different. As to 
 the necessity of a knowledge of these, and the means of dis- 
 covering them, the reader is referred to the essay on the na- 
 fture and constituent properties of the soil. 
 
FERTILIZING PIKE PLAIN LAND". \W 
 
 Those lands of thig description, which are so barren that no 
 green plant whatever, is found on the surface, may generally, 
 perhaps always, be supposed to consist of pure sand, or that 
 which is nearly pure. Such lands cannot sufficiently retain 
 moisture unless they have a close under stratum, consisting of 
 some clay which may prevent the necessary moisture fronres- 
 caping-, before it can assist in the g-ermination of plants. If 
 such soils are situated upon a 'clayey bottom, which is within 
 the reach of the plough, it should be brought up by the use of 
 that instrument, and mixed with the sand. But if a mixture 
 of clay cannot be provided from such means, if it is to be pro- 
 cured within a convenient distance, it should be carted on. 
 spread on the surface, and pulverized in the first place, the 
 finer the better.* This is done most expeditiously, and effec- 
 tQaily with the harrow, and the roller.f When sufficiently 
 pulverized it should be thoroughly mixed with the sand by 
 ploughing and harrowing. When clayey earths cannot be 
 procured in the vicinity of barren sands, compost manure, such 
 as may be provided from the foliageof tr^es, or any other veg- 
 etable substances, in a state of decay, which may generally be 
 procured from neighboring forests, :[ if from no other scarce, 
 carted on and mixed with the sand, or other barren soil. Tare a 
 sure remedy against every defect which there may be in the 
 soil ; for although pure vegetable manure alone would furnish 
 too much nourishment to the -plant to render it productive, 
 yet as it may be supposed to contain some particles of every ne- 
 cessary ingredient to the growth of a plant of which clay is 
 considered one, it is the best substitute for that earth. There 
 may, however, be instances in which either elay or vegetable 
 substances cannot be procured without too much inconven- 
 ience and expense. In such cases there is an alternative which 
 has been tried with success ; that is ploughing in moist weath- 
 
 * The expeidency of mixing clay with sand; and in what pro- 
 portion to constitute a fertile soil, will be seen by referring to the 
 analysis of the soil mentioned in essay en the nature and consti- 
 'luent properties of the soil. 
 
 + See essay on roller and lolling land. 
 
 :{:If any part of North America may be discovered to hare bar- 
 ren sanuy tracts of land, so extensive as to render it impractica- , 
 ble to procure either clayey earths, or vegetable substances to fer- 
 tilize them, they may not be ^wanted for the purposes of tillage, 
 within ten centuries to come. ' 
 
188 AGRICULTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 er or when the dew is on. Let this be repeated, the oftener 
 the better. This of itself, has been found to have brought into 
 operation the vegetable principle.* 
 
 Gypsum, it is believed when spread on such lands as a top- 
 dressing has been generally found efficacious to the growth of 
 crops, in bringing into operation the vegetable principle, and 
 often to become a substitute, in some degree, for the actual 
 seeding with clover. 
 
 In common seasons some of the means above mentioned, it is 
 believed, will be foun(J efficacious in bringing such barren lands 
 into a condition to bear a green crop. 
 
 If the soil can be prepared suitably in the spring so that a crop 
 of spring or winter rye might be early sown, its fertility would be 
 greatly increased by seeding it with either of those kinds of grain, 
 and turning it under with tlie plough ; say justbefore it heads. If 
 some of the first green crops are not ploughed under, the farmer 
 must, if he would increase, or even continue the fertility which he 
 has thus effected, be careful to return all the straw, of whatever 
 nature, which he carries off, for the purpose of manure, and 
 the stubble which may remain after harvest, by being burnt on 
 the land would add much to its fertility. This should be an 
 invariable practice with all tillage lands, to restore to them the 
 whole amount of the crop except the seed. It would not be 
 best to attempt to take a summer crop of any culmiferous or 
 legumenous kind as preparatory to a winter crop, until the land 
 had become somewhat permanently fertilized. 
 
 When sandy, plain land is not entirely barren, but produc«B 
 only some useless vegetable : paring and burning will produce 
 fertility ; that is, paring the surface to the deepness of one, two 
 or three inches, gathering it into heaps and burning it, and 
 spreading the ashes as manure, on the soil that remains. This 
 is done in different ways, as has been thought expedient by 
 different cultivators. Perhaps it might as well be cut up with 
 a shallow furrow of the depth intended for burning, and after 
 lying a few days to dry, scraped together in small heaps. This 
 has been long practiced in Great-Britain, and many other coun- 
 tries ; and been considered by many, as the most, advantagous 
 way of bringing in and improving, not only pine plain lands, 
 but all soils, where the surface carried a coarse sward, and was 
 , composed of peat earth, or other inactive substances ; being 
 viewed as the best way of bringing them into action ; the ashes 
 
 ♦ Sec essay on improving land by plougbiag. 
 
FERTILIZING PINE PLAIN LAND. 189 
 
 ^rnished by the burning, serving as a stimulant to raise up their 
 dormant powers, thereby rendering them fertile and productive 
 ma superior degree, than could otherwise be accomplished. 
 
 The practice of paring and burning such lands should not be 
 resorted to, wJien a green crop may be produced by other means, 
 but only in extreme cases. 
 
 It appears that the improvement of barren lands by burning, 
 was known to the Romans, who were excellent farmers. Vir- 
 gil mentions it in the iirst book of the Georgics, and it is much 
 practiced still in Great-Britain, and other places. "Sape etiam 
 stenles incendore profuit agros." * It would seem, however, 
 that other barren lands where sand is not the principal constit- 
 uent of the soil, might generally be burnt with more efficacy ; 
 because as the sand itself, it is said, is not improved, but rather 
 impaired by the process, it cannot alwavs be determined, with- 
 out an experiment, whether the destruction of the inert vege- 
 table matter and the ashes produced from it, will compensate 
 tor the possible injury it may be to the quality of the sand. 
 
 feir Humphrey Davy observes, that many obscure causes 
 have been referred to for the purpose of explaining the effects of 
 paring and burning ; and believes they may be referred entire- 
 ly to the dimmution of the coherence and tenacity of cl a vs, and 
 to the destruction of inert and useless vegetable matter, and it* 
 conversion into a manure. + 
 
 Gypsum has perhaps been used with as much success, as anr 
 other means, m first producing a green crop of clover, or sum 
 mer or winter rye, on such soils. But the great difficulty and 
 expense mcurred to obtain this manure, in many sections of 
 our country, renders the use of it impracticable 
 . It should be remarked respecting the barren pine-plain land, 
 as well as other barren soils, that when once a green crop of any 
 description has been first made to grow upon them, the surest 
 and perhaps least expensive method of continuing and increas- 
 ing their fertility, is to turn such crop under, as'is directed fn 
 the essay on the culture of wheat. Such g^een croD mav bp 
 that of buckwheat, rye red clover, and somf other oTtheIrd! 
 ficial grasses, or perhaps other plants not valuable for anv 
 other purpose but manure. The efficacy of turning under 
 green crops as a manure, has been so u ell attested both bv 
 experiment as well as by the principles which go4rn\heger^ 
 
 ! l^ ""l' °JJe° profitable also, to burn barren lands. 
 
 f bee Sir Humphrey Davj's Agricultural Chemisfry, No. 45, 
 
190 AGRICULTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 mination and growth of vegetables, that any further remarks 
 to establish the fact, would be useless, and when other suffi- 
 cient quantities of efficacious manure cannot be had, this seems 
 to be indispensable, on barren lands where green crops can be 
 made to grow ; and the barrenness of lands may be considered 
 as justifying that measure, in all cases where the lands are so 
 far destitute of fertility, that it cannot produce any valuable 
 crop, as potatoes, beans, peas, &c. preparatory to a wmter 
 
 The remarks which have been made relative to the barren 
 sandy lands, refer to those on which there has been known to 
 have been a growth of timber, and have become barren by be- 
 ing left inactive, or by improper management. And as other 
 tracts of land may be reduced to barrenness by the same means, 
 it should be observed, that the same method should be used to 
 preserve their fertility before they have become reduced, as are 
 necessary to preserve it after they have been restored. The 
 tracts of land of the latter description, are as yet probably the 
 most extensive in our country. The owners of them should 
 Iherefore be reminded, that whenever their productive powers 
 are discovered to be on the decline, and cannot be kept m tufl 
 vitror by any mode of tillage which their circumstances will 
 otherwise admit, they should be stocked with clover, or other 
 grass seed, and left to i=ot tmttl their fertility is so far eetablisli- 
 id as to admit of another course of tinage. 
 
 Those who doubt of the practicability of fertilizing the bar- 
 ren sandy pine-plain lands, on account of a supposed barren- 
 'aess peculiar to the sandy earth, are referred to the essay on 
 the nature and constituent properties of the soil from which it 
 appears that a much greater proportion of sand is admissible*^ 
 if not an indispensable ingredient in constituting a fertile soil,: 
 than any other of the original earths or of any one of the sim- 
 4)le ingredients which are found efficacious in fertilizing the. 
 soil. Of sand, fifty-six parts of a hundred was found contained^ 
 in a soil, as fertile, perhaps, as any in the northern States ■ p 
 
 The soil of the pine-plain land, when first cleared of the tim- 
 ber, is generally covered by a thick vegetable mould, which, 
 when properly combined with the soil, usually produces at firs^ 
 a luxuriaMcrQp. This is uniformly winter wheat. It is thea 
 planted for two or three years with Indian corn; then rye, oate, 
 4c. are taken from it, until it becomes completely exhausted. 
 
 • See essay on nature grnd constitueat properties of soil 
 
FERTILIZING PINE PLAIN LAND. 191 
 
 rt is then suffered to lay two or three years, during which time 
 it has probably been supposed it might regain, in some measure, 
 its original strength, so as to sustain vegetation. But a differ- 
 ent mode of culture has been found to be more correct, and 
 pursued with success, not only with the pine-plain land, but 
 with all lands, after having been newly cleared. Which is first 
 a crop of winter wheat ; second, Indian corn ; third, barley, 
 oats, spring wheat, or rye, with which grass-seed should be 
 sown, {clover and timothy may be preferred) and the whole cov- 
 ered at the same time, either with the plough or the harrow. 
 On the following season, the clover should be well plastered, 
 especially if th« soil is sandy, and the crop may be mowed for 
 hay. The next season it would be well to give it a top dres- 
 sing with plaster, and then may be fed until the latter part of 
 August, or the begmning of SeptembVr, at which time it should 
 be turned over with the plough, and prepared for a future crop. 
 It is well ascertained, both from experiment and the principles 
 of vegetation, that only three successive crops should be at- 
 tempted before the field be again seeded ; and then the same 
 rotation of crops may be pursued. 
 
 Under this culture, it is obvious that not only the pine plain 
 lands,^ but all others, may not only be preserved in their ori- 
 ginal fertility, but the quality, as well as the quantity, of their 
 produce be improved and increased. 
 
 It is to be regretted that those lands have been often aban- 
 doned from an erroneous opinion that their soil would not ad- 
 mit of a successful cultivation ; although it is a notorious fact 
 that some of the most fertile and pleasant townships in the 
 northern States consists of lands which were originally of the 
 description of pine plains ; but from the industry and wisdom 
 of their occupants, have been rendered fertile and profitable. 
 
 *■ They are called pine plains, from the forest which they pro- 
 duce being composed principally of pine timber. But it is a fact 
 worthy of remark^ that when this timber is cut off, or destroyed by 
 fire, it is usually succeeded by a luxuriant growth of several vari- 
 eties of the oak, combined with the chesnut, and sometimes hick- 
 ory. 
 
102 AGRICULTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 Management or a Dairy* 
 
 To make a dairy profitable, the first thing to be attended to 
 is, the quantity and quality of the milk. These depend much 
 on the nature of the food with which cows are fed, though the 
 former is often much affected by the manner of milking- them. 
 It is well, therefore, to be cautious in the choice of milkers. 
 •For, as has been w€ll observed, if a cow be roughly handled, it 
 is not only hurtful to her, but will also cause her to withhold 
 her milk, which is Often attended with unprofitable consequen- 
 ces. Where cows are skittish, they should by no means be 
 handled roughly. If the udder be hard and painful it should 
 be fomented with luke warm water, and stroaked gently, by 
 which means she may be ISrought to a good temper, and to 
 yield her milk freely. 
 
 If the fact was not sufficiently established by the dairy maid, 
 it has been by chemical experiments, that the first milk which 
 is drawn from the cow is serous, and that which succeeds is less 
 so, and the last, or what are called strippings, is nearly all 
 cream. 
 
 The portion of cream rising first to the surface is richer in 
 point of quality, and greater in quantity, than that which rises 
 in the second equal space of time, and so of the rest ; the cream 
 continually decreasing, and growing worse than the preceding. 
 
 Thick milk produces a smaller proportion of cream than that 
 which is thinner, though the cream of the former is of a richer 
 quality. If thick milk, therefore, be diluted with water it will 
 aflford more cream than it would have yielded in its pure state, 
 though its quality will at the same time be mferior. 
 
 Milk carried about in pails or other vessels, agitated, 
 and partly cooled before it be poured into the milk-pans, never 
 throws up such good and plentiful cream as if it had been put 
 into proper vessels immediately after it came from tlie cow. 
 
 From these fundamental facts it is observed in Doct. Ander- 
 son's valuable essay, that many very important corollaries, serv- 
 ing to direct the practice, may be deduced, among which are 
 the following : 
 
 1. It is evidently of much importance, that cows should be' 
 always milked aa near the dairy as possible, to prevent the ne- 
 cessity of carrying and cooling the milk before it be put into the 
 dishes ; and as cows are much hurt by far driving, it must be a 
 
 treat advantage in a dairy farm to have the principal grasa- 
 @lds as near tke dairy and komestead as possible. 
 
MANAGEMENT OF A DAIRT. WS 
 
 2. The mUk drawn from each Cow separately, should be put 
 Into the creaming pans as soon as milked, without being ever 
 mixed with any other. The dairy maid would thua be able to 
 remark without any trouble, the quantity of milk afforded by 
 each cow every day, as well as the peculiar qualities of the 
 cow's milk. By this means it would be easy to ascertain which 
 of the cows it would be the owner's interest to dispose of, and 
 "which it would be best to keep and breed from, 
 
 3. To make butter of the best quality, it will be advisable, 
 not only to reject entirely the milk of ail those cows which 
 yield milk of a bad quality, but also, in every case, to keep the 
 milk that is first drawn from the cow, at each milking-, entirely 
 separate from that which is got last, as it is obvious, if this is 
 not done, the quality of the butter must be greatly debased, 
 without much augmenting its quantity. It is also obvious, that 
 the quality of the butter will be improved in proportion to the 
 smallness of the quantity of the last drawn milk which is used, 
 as it increases in richness to the very last drop that can be 
 drawn from the udder at that time ; so that those who wish to 
 be very particular as to the quality of their butter, will do well 
 to keep a very small proportion only, of the last drawn milk, 
 for that purpose. 
 
 In that case too, they will give to calves which are designed 
 for rearing, the first part of the milk instead of the last, as the 
 practice of many farmers has been. 
 
 "Butter is found suspended in milk in the form of a white 
 and liquid oil. This suspension is the effect of the saccharine 
 matter and the curd, which are among the component parts of 
 milk. In a state of repose and a cool temperature, this oily 
 matter separates itself in a great degi-ee from the serum, rises 
 to the surface, and there forms a pelicle of greater or less den- 
 sity. 
 
 The formation of cream is a process of nature, which we 
 best promote by giving to the dairies a northern exposition ; by 
 keeping then: perfectly clean ; because filth, besides other mis- 
 chief, is predisposed to fermentation, and is, of course, produc- 
 tive of heat : and by forming the pans in which it ie placed, so 
 as to make them narrow at the bottom and wide at the top, that 
 tliev may offer to the atpiosphere the largest possible surface. 
 
 The separation of the butter from the milk, by churning, must 
 be C3.refully and thoroughly performed. And for an invariable 
 fule, it should be a moderate and continued agitation. If the 
 
194 AORICCLTURAL ESSAT3. 
 
 movement be too slow, or frequently intercepted, the effect in 
 tended is not produced ; and if hurried and violent, the cream 
 is too r»uch heated, and yields a white and curd like butter. 
 When this operation is well performed, the butter is found ad- 
 hering to the stajffand flyers of the churn; is of an agreeable 
 taste and color, and of a certain degree of consistency. 
 
 The ordinary process of salting butter, is general 'y wellun^ 
 derstood by those who have the management of the dairy. It 
 need only be remarked, that the salt employed for that purpose 
 should be of the purest kind, well oried and broken down, but: 
 not completely pulverized ; and should be so worked in as toi 
 become equally incorporated with the mass. j 
 
 The following preparation however, is recommended by Doet 
 Andersen, which not only prevents the butter from becoming 
 in any way tainted, or rancid, but also improves its look or ap- 
 pearance, while it imparts a sweeter and richer taste than could 
 have been eifected by theuse of common salt only. Let two 
 parts of the best common salt, sugar and salt petre, of each 
 one part, be completely blended together by beating, and add 
 one ounce of this mixture to every pound of butter, incorporate 
 it thoroughly in the mass, and close it up for use. It will, how- 
 ever, be necessary to keep butter thus prepared for two oi 
 three weeks before it is used, otherwise it will not taste well 
 
 But if properly cured, according to the directions above 
 Doct. Anderson states, that it will continue so perfectly sweei 
 for three years, as not to be distinguished from newly madt 
 and salted butter. The best butter is that made during the 
 summer ; but by adding a certain portion (which experienc* 
 only can determine,) of the juice, expressed from the pulp o: 
 carrots, to the cream, previously to churning, winter made but- 
 ter will acquire the appearance and flavor- of butter that ha! 
 been churned during the prime part of the summer season. 
 
 There are several modes, or variations, of making this im 
 portant article of domestic consumption, the explanation o 
 which would occupy too much of this limited work. 
 
 Those, of either sex, who may have the management of th< 
 dairy, will, after whatever may be said upon the subject, insis, 
 that' it is the most important and the most difficult to procurt 
 the means of furnishing themselves with a competent supply 
 good milk for the purpose. But as the quantity desired cannj 
 always be procured, it is an object of no small consequence 
 po>sses? the science of making the most of it. 
 
MANAGEMENT OF A DAIRY. jg'S 
 
 The fojiov/ing method of preparing cream, which is said to 
 
 |be pecuhar to some counties in Great Britain, is too interesting 
 
 to be unnoticed. The milk, when 24 hours from the cow, is put 
 
 into a kettle over a slow fire, which should be hot enoucrh to 
 
 ibring It very near to the boiling point in about two hoursr and 
 
 ;not less. A person, usually a child, is set to watch it, and the 
 
 moment a bubble rises to the top, formed by the vaporized 
 
 milk, the whole is taken off and set to rest for 24 hours more. 
 
 At the end of this time, if the quantity of milk be consi'derahle, 
 
 tn e crearn will be an inch or more thick uptn the surface. It is 
 
 now divided by a knife into squares of a convenient size and 
 
 -emoyed. The milk, remaining after the cream is taken off, 
 
 contains little beside the watry particles in its original compo- 
 
 n.ion I he djury women in those counties say, that milk thus 
 
 reated, will yield one fourth more butter than is pi-oduced-in 
 
 he common way, and that a few strokes of the churn wiU form 
 
 uch cream into excellent butter. At present this cream is 
 
 hietiy confined to the breakfast table : it is excellent for w^e 
 
 vith coffee, but when put into tea, it injures its taste, bv beinff 
 
 ns. antly converted, partiaUy into butter, which rises to the sur- 
 
 ace. Cream, prepared as above, will keep somewhat longer 
 
 nan common cream. ^ 
 
 It is said that the quantity of milk produced by cows fed by 
 
 intoin, IS neariy double to that of any other food. The milk 
 
 ^'Iso much richer, and will yield a larger quantity of cream. 
 
 s butter will also be better colorea and flavored than any 
 
 cr. Parsnips are also easily raised, and will cause cows t© 
 
 Mice abundance of milk, and they eat them as freely as they 
 
 3 oil cake or corn meal. For cows w'dch are milked in the 
 
 inter season, succulent food, as roots of some kind, should be 
 
 •ovr.eu, and there is. none of more value than the parsnip-.* 
 
 VV ith respect to the making and preservation of cheese, there 
 
 much valuable science to be found in the Complete Grazier: 
 
 3m which a few remarks shall here be inserted. 
 
 The primary object in making good cheese is to have run- 
 
 tvyeil prepared. Dairy women. usually preserve the maw, 
 
 d the curd contamed in it, after salting them, and then by 
 
 icping tins bag and curd, make a rennet, to turn the milk for 
 
 iking cheese. But a more simple method, and which is e- 
 
 ally good in every respect, is to throw away She curd, and af- 
 
 • steeping it in pickle, stretcn out the maw upon a slend^ 
 
 '-Seeessy on gardeaingio 
 
 aiR 
 
 'he I 
 
196 AsmceLttriiAL essAts. 
 
 bow inserted int. it, which will sooBbe ve'v dry, and keep ^» 
 for a long t.me. Take an inch or two of the maw thus (Iriea, 
 eSid steep it over night in a few spoonfulls of warm water, 
 which wSerservesfuB as wellas if the cuid had been preserved 
 ^r turning the milk. It is said that one inch will serve for the 
 mSk of fivl cows An ingenious writer, who has made strict 
 mq.,iry into tto subject, recommends the Mo^fg ™fth°d »f 
 prepar^inga^««°«t'^'^''''^'' ^"^ ""'" ^"""^ *" *" ''"""*''^'' 
 """Throw I^ay the natural curd, which is apt to taint and give 
 the bag a bad smell ; then make an art'^'^-.^'^ "J '^*a1 
 butter, of new cream, of sufficient quantity to 6" ^e bag. Add 
 three new laid eggs well beaten, one nutmeg grated tine, or any 
 other good spicSfmix them well together with three teacup, 
 full of fine salt • fill the rennet bag with this substance, tie up 
 the mouSi lav it under a strong brine for three days, turning 
 kov^daUy'^ Then hang it up^n a cool and dry place for s« 
 It over aaiiy. a " ^ g r ^. ^ ^ gg^ take with 
 
 ""But whatever kind of rennet the dairy woman "»? 'h°°f^ J 
 prepare, it should be remembered that this animal ^"^ '^^^f 
 U-emelv aptto become rancid and putrescent, and that g[^" 
 
 c^res necessary to apply '^ ^"S"^"' \"''"',"y ,°fi^/L\e*^oc 
 serve it in its best slate ; because the rank and putrid taste, oc 
 farionally found in some cheeses, is owing to a putridity m the 
 
 '"The following mode of preserving it in a swcetstateis prac- 
 ''•^^^L^rrCtCS'st^oT^he purpose, le, a strong sol. 
 tion of salt be made, with two quarts of sweet ™ft water, ^ 
 add to this small quantities of almost ev_ery indigenous and tor 
 eien aromatics and spices that can be obtained. B"'' '^ 
 whole ..ently, till the decoction is reduced to three P™ ^. °v«a 
 Sear fire, if possible, or ataU events, so that it may not become 
 iokyAexriet theliquor be carefully strained, and pour^^^^ 
 Lpid state upon the rennet bag. A lemon may now be sliced mlo 
 it • and after the whole has stood at rest for one or tw o days, ii 
 miy be s tained and bottled. If well corked it ^v•■ll;et«'"^'; 
 Joidaess for a year, or even longer, and will communicate an 
 
-5rA:NAGEMENT OF A DAITIT. 1^ 
 
 ■agreeable aromatic "flavor to the cheese that may be made with 
 it. When no good rennet can be procured, a decoction of 
 the yellow flowers of the cheese rennet, or yellow lady's bed 
 straw, gallium verreni, (which blossoms in July and August,) 
 will answer every purpose for coagulating miik. Or the ma- 
 rine acid, in the hands of a judiciol^B person may be used for 
 this purpose, as is practiced in Holland. 
 
 There are different modes of making cheese-practised by 
 our dairy women, who have each of them much confidence in 
 their own skill and soience. It will, perhaps, best comport 
 with this short work, to insert only an -account of a single 
 mode, practised in England, which seems to embrace the best 
 and most generally approved views of this manufactory in the 
 United States. 
 
 After the milk is brought to a certain degree of heat, (about 
 100 degrees of the thermometer upon the average, though in 
 summer 90 will be sufficient, as on the contrary, during win- 
 ter a higher degree will be requisite) it is poured into a large 
 -vessel, where the rennet is added to it, and which is closely 
 covered up for a short time, perhaps ten or twelve minutes. 
 If the rennet be good, it will have effected a coagulation of 
 the milk, which is gently stirred, when the whey-begins imme- 
 diately to separate, which is taken off* as it gathers, until the 
 cura becomes tolerably solid. It is then put into a drainer, 
 (a vessel made for the purpose, the bottom of which is perfor- 
 ated with small holes] and the cover of which is pressed down 
 with any convenient weight. After it hus thus stood for some 
 time, and is pretty dry, it is returned into the first vessel, or 
 dish, where it le cut into very small pieces by means of a 
 cheese knife, (which is furnished with three or fowr blades, 
 fixed on prongs from the handle, that cut m ^horizontal di- 
 rection) it is then salted, and properly mixed by the hand. 
 Lastly, it is pat into a cheesitt, or stout dish with iron hoops, 
 which has a cover that goes exactly into it :• a cloth being pla- 
 ced between the curd and the vessel. In this case it is'sub- 
 mitted to the action of the cheese-press, when it is occasion- 
 ally taken and. wrapped in dry cloths, till it has. completely 
 parted with the whey: when this is suspected to be the case^ 
 the cheese is laid aside for one or. two days, when it is again 
 eaxmined : and if there-be any appearance ef whey remaining, 
 the pressure and application of cioths are repeated. As soon 
 as it IS ascertained that the whey is extracted, the cheese is 
 laid out on boards made for the purpose, (and which are, si 
 
 Jl:3 
 
198 A6a!€ULTtniAL ESSAYS. 
 
 should be, of the same breadth as the cheese) or 6n a "deal, or 
 pine-wood floor, or boards, as well as to notice whether any 
 whey runs from them, because no cheese will keep well whilfe 
 amy whey remains. Besides, if that part sours, the whole cheese 
 will acquire a disagreeable flavor and smell ; or if any immod- 
 erate quantity of rennet be used, it will produce similar efiects, 
 and also blow up the cheese full* of small holes ; which last ef- 
 fect will alsoresult from suffering the cheese to continue too 
 long on one side. Aft«r the cheese is cured, various modes 
 ' are adopted in polishing them for-sale, which are often rather 
 injurious than beneficial ; nothing farther being requisite, be- 
 -fiides turning them, than to rub them occasionally with a coars* 
 <cloth, especially after harvest, because at that time they terni 
 to breed mites.* 
 
 Some general remarks must close this essay. 
 
 Throughout the system Of the dairy management, the vigi- 
 lant eye of the principal ought carefully to pervade ; as it rare- 
 'ly happens that servants -are to be found ,who will give that 
 ioainute attention to every particular, which is so indispensably 
 necessary, to insure success. On this accotmt, it is more like- 
 ly that a dairy farm of moderate size, one for instance that 
 will keep tea or twelve cows, will, if well managed, afford more 
 "profit than one of greater extent ; because in the former case, 
 the farmer's wife (and daughter, if he have any) can more easi- 
 ly superintend, or perhaps perform, a considerable part of the 
 dairy qperatioDB themselves ; and thisis always better done by 
 them than we can ever expect it to be by hired servants. No 
 brajtich Of husbandry requires such unremitting attentiouA. 
 If, as has been very justly remarked by Sir John Sinclair, a 
 few spoonfulls of milk are left in thetidder of the cow at milk- 
 ing 5 if any one of the implements of the dairy be allowed to 
 be tainted by neglect ; if the dairy house be kept dirty, or out 
 •f order ; if the milk is either too hot or too cold at coagulat- 
 ing ; if too much or too little rennet is put into the milk ; if th« 
 whey is not immediately taken ©if; if too much or too littte 
 
 * Farm*r^s Magassine, vol. iv. p. 381. 
 
PdVLTRY. ^^ 
 
 sSlt is applied ; if the butter is too slowly or too hastily churn- 
 ed • or if other minute attentions are neglected, the milk will be 
 in a great measure lost. If these nice operations occurred 
 -enly once a month, or once a week, they might be easily.guard- 
 ed against; but as they require to be observed during every 
 8ta4 of the process, and almost every hour of the day, the 
 most vigilant attention must be kept up throughout the whole 
 -season. That is not to be expected from hired servants. 1 he 
 wives and daughters of farmers, therefore, havmg a greater 
 interest in the concern, are more likely to bestow tharcon- 
 slant, anxious, and unremitting attention to the dairj', without 
 • which it cannotbe rendered profitable;* 
 
 PoULTlfY. 
 
 ^TflE advftntacres which the farmer may derive from keeping 
 Doultry, may depend in some measure on his local situation. 
 Cthe vicinity oflarge towns, or cities, they may be made a 
 profitable source ot" income ; and m pvery situation in the 
 c^ntrv, though one may have the occupancy of no more land 
 SVs^sufficilnt for a garden, the keeping ot a few fowls wO^ 
 furnish some of the necessaries, and even luxuries .of life, at 
 but little expence. Indeed, an actual advantage is derived to 
 the owner by the destruction of various insects, which conBti- 
 tute at least, a part of their food a great proportion of the 
 
 ^^There is not a more nutrative food, of the same expence, than 
 the eggs of the dunghill fowl 
 
 * Seelhe Complete GrazieTc 
 
^ AGRICULTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 'wT^ 1/ V"^ ^'".^"1^7 c^Penment, respecting the fattening 
 of poultry, IS from the National -Recorder. In^the winter If 
 J«l«, a gentleman in the city of New-York placed a Turkey 
 
 Z '?on"r f°'f ^^^"'■ r^' ^'^' ^^"ff' t^'« ^e^t wide, and three 
 or four feet high. He excluded as much light as he could 
 without a circulation of air, and fed the turkey with soft brick 
 broken in pieces, vvith charcoal also broken, and with six grains 
 €f corn per day.^Fresh water was daily supplied. The^ box! 
 or coop, in which the turkey was placed,iie always locked up 
 h/t^rf^'l r^i^'Ju"'^^"^ '^^' perfectly confident that no body 
 interfered with the experiment. At the end of one month 
 tne turkey was killed, and Avas found to be filled up with fat, ' 
 / /w and entraife were dissected, and nothing was 
 ^ound but a residuum of charcoal and brick. The Turkey was 
 eaten and found to be very good. The next year he repeated 
 the experiment with the same success.* This is not mention- 
 ed as a matter of so much importance to the farmer, whogen- 
 
 jfX^^^f^^'l''''^'''^}^^^y^^'^^^ P«"ltry; but it is an in- 
 stance of the efficacy of chemical science, in the develope- 
 ment of facts which may be of great importance in the im- 
 provement of agricultural and domestic economy. 
 _ it may, however, be an object of no minor consequence to 
 the poorer class of our citizens, to know, that in exigences oT 
 extremity, they may save their little stock of poultry by raking- 
 from their ashes the remnant of charcoal. 
 
 It is observed in the Complete Grazier, that a spirited farm- 
 er near Liverpool, keeps a large stock ofpoultry in the same . 
 mclosure, with smgular success. He has nearly an aero en- 
 closed with a close slab fence, about seven feet high. The 
 
 !?P u u"^ ^^ •^''^^y '^^^^^ ^^"P pointed, likl pickets, 
 though perhaps this is not necessary. Within this enclosure 
 are put up slight small sheds, well secured from rains, how- 
 ever, for the different kinds ofpoultry, and his supplied with a 
 OTiall stream of water. The poultry are regularly fed three 
 times a day with boiled potatoes, which is their only food, ex- 
 cept what grass may grow within their encloeure. The dung 
 
 *The farmfer, or ether citizen, unacquainted with the science of 
 -chemistry, will not think this account so incredible, when thej 
 are informed, that carbon is the basis of charcoal, and that car- 
 bon IS a necessary part of sugrar of oil, &c. and Consequently en- 
 tersinto the composition of animal milk, and of animal oils and 
 ' ?at. See Parker'3 Chemistry ,^ p. 270, 
 
201 
 
 formixing with comports ihi^n^^^ 1 ^^^^^^^^^^,^ ^^ 
 
 ment in the vicinity of large ^^^,f '. ^"^^ntiemen vho live in 
 be practiced upon a ^^^^^^^'^^^^^ are continually 
 
 villages or ^"^"^P^f ,^"„\'^^^^^^^^ H ib believed 
 
 rrid^^rrtlTe^'tL^^akrei^^^ Umdf of poultry sep- 
 arate when practicable. 
 
 if , veil kept and 'f h^^ ,;|^4\%,'^f .^bj ea?rful n>;nagl- 
 Sa^itet^nt":kS:^nrn;ay be We. fro. each 
 
 brood. 
 
 blood, and the chickens ^^lll presently recover. 
 {];i^?owir.^ree geese .hoSld be allowed but one gander ; and .f 
 
^^ AGillCULTDRAJL ESSAYS. 
 
 the number be increased, the e^s:s will usuulWhn r^nr\.^^r 
 llllJ -f ^^^ ^'^V^^ ^^^ ^^"^^^ «t tl^is time should have 
 
 f fni^P Although the plucking them so often as is the prac- 
 i?. fr"""'/^^ ^^J," '"^^ ^^^y th^i^'^ better by repeated pfuck 
 hf;«t "i'"^^"'" they are permitted to shed their feathe s in 
 of r w'^ -T^^' ''^t'^^ ^\^^ ^^^ t^"^^ of maulting. In a part 
 of Great Britain where they are raised in the greatest num 
 Ws they are plucked five times a year. Their flesh when wdl 
 . atted IS preferred by some to that of the turkey. 
 
 Tw\^^''^^'^'i °^ ^^"'^ "^""^^ ^^^ the same as the \vild 
 They begin early to lay their eggs, and produce a cons der- 
 
 Aboui twelve IS said to be a proper number for the ducks to 
 
 thlw fnJ %u^'^ gieeay feeders, and not particular as to 
 
 fiftoi :^^r^l ^'"^ ^oud of animal food, and are quickly 
 
 tirf "T t ^^^^ ^'^ "^^^^"^ ^" turnip fields, to dest^ov the 
 
 iS/iT^''^ ^'^ ^P' ^^ P'"-^ "P«" th^ yo«"^ plants. they 
 'Should have access-to a supply of running watir. ^ 
 
 hJf'^ Relieved by some that poultry is most easiiy fatted Whes 
 kept m a dark place, and fed on boiled grain. 
 
IjaPEOVEMEXT OF BOG MEADOWS. 203 
 
 Improve 3IENT or Bog Meadows. 
 
 Those bog meadows which are to be found in almost every 
 BGCtion of oar countrv, if so situated as to admit of draining^ 
 may make very valuable lands. In some parts of the northern 
 states, they are said to exceed almost any others for raismg 
 hemp. Great crops of herds-grass may also be raised upon 
 them. But they must be vrell drained pthe drier thev are laid 
 
 the better. . i j • « + 
 
 The method recommended, for drammg these lands, is, tirst 
 to run a ditch through the middle, and draw off as much of the 
 water in this way as possible. When the meadow is very wet 
 and miry, you commence at the lowest part of the ground,, 
 where the outlet is to begin, and from thence carry the ditch 
 into the meadow, sinking it all the way, as you proceed, as 1o%t 
 as will barelv give the water a current to run off; a ditch 
 should then be run, of the same depth, all round the edge of 
 the bog, for the purpose of cutting off ail the springs. Cross 
 ditches should then be made, in number and size, proportionate 
 to the extent of the bog, and of the depth of the middle and 
 surrounding ditches. When the mud, taken from the ditches, 
 is carted on to dry gravelly and sandy land, it makes excel- 
 lent manure ; and gravel and sand is equally beneficial, too, as 
 a manure for bog meadows. * 
 
 Potatoes, cabbage, carrots, beets, turnips, parsnips, and even 
 corn, and almost every grain, except w^heat, have been cultivat- 
 ed to great advantage on well drained bog lands, w'hen well 
 manured with upland earths. Hops, also, are cultivated to 
 great advantage on these lands. 
 
 When the farmer discovers that there is but a thin layer of 
 bog dirt, situated on a deep clayey bottom, it, perhaps, ought to 
 deter him from the expense of draining the s=wamp, especially 
 if it be covered with a thrifty growth of timber. Because sit- 
 uated as such clayey bottoms are, so contiguous to the sur- 
 rounding wet lands, it would probably always retain too muck 
 moisture, to admit of the successful tillage of any soil that 
 ciight be made on the surface. 
 
 It should be remembered that bog lands will settle down ve- 
 ry much after draining, for which a proper allowance should. 
 be made with respect to ths depth of the ditch^, 
 
 * See essay oq manures. 
 
^04 AGRICULTURAL KSSA\S. 
 
 Fi-OODI.\G Land. 
 
 This may be done by -eovenng low lands with water, when 
 a rivulet passes through them, by .-naking a dam at the out- 
 let. Where there is a sufficiency of water, and a short dam 
 will answer, this is a piece of husbandry that ought not to be 
 neglected. Oftentimes it may be of great advantage. Some- 
 times it is done for the purpose of destroying the natural 
 growth of trees, bushes, &c. The water not only makes an 
 essential alteration in their food, but also excludes these from 
 the free air, which is essentially necessary to vegetation. It 
 is no wonder therefore, that it proves their destruction, 
 
 The flowing of two summers, is found sufficient to kill eve- 
 ry plant of the woody kind, so that it will not sprout any more. 
 But some advige to draw off the water in August, that the 
 ground maybe for a few days heated by the sun. The plants 
 thus suddenly pass from one extreme to another, which will 
 doubtless tend to destroy them ^e sooper. But when the sea- 
 son is so dry that another pond of water cannot be immediate- 
 ly raised, the drawing off had better be omitted. Another 
 object of flooding is to enrich the soil. Some lay their low 
 grass lands under water during the whole of the winter. This 
 may be a good method for lands which are so low and wet> 
 that none of the best grasses can be made to grow on them. 
 The poor water grasses will grow the faster, and the crops of 
 such hay as jt is, will be the larger. 
 
 But places where clover, or herds grass, or red top will 
 flourish, should not be flowed during the winter; because the 
 winter frosts are known to be necessary to the production of 
 those grasses. 
 
 Flooded lands should always be laid bare early in the sipring). 
 that the growth of the grass be npt prevented ; or that the 
 
i tOOBlNG LAND. 
 
 20j 
 
 -ground may be dried so early as to be fit lor tillage crops. 
 And ditching flooded lands, at least round the borders, will be 
 necessary to lay them dry enowgh for tillage. 
 
 As standing water catches dust from the atmosphere, and 
 always contains more or less of the finest particles of soil, it 
 deposits a rich eedement ^ a fat slime therefore, will remain 
 on the surface after the water is removed. And a time should 
 be chosen for drawing it off, when'the air is calm, and the wa- 
 ter clearest, that as little aquantity as possible of the food of 
 the plants may pass off with it. Such land is no more liable to 
 suffer by drouglitthan the fertile land of Egypt, which is year- 
 ly enriched by the overflowing of the Nile. 
 
 Though winter flooding does not suit the nature of good gras- 
 ses, a few days flooding hi the spring and fall will not hurt 
 "them, but will enrich the soil and so promote their growth. 
 The soil will have the same advantage as intervale, which is 
 made rich and fruitful by occasional flooding; and even a 
 greater advantage, as the water may be removed and applied 
 at pleasure." 
 
208" AGRICULTURAL ESi*.?^ 
 
 The Horse-Rake. 
 
 A- horse-rake may be procured at an expense not exceeding^ 
 two dollars. It is constructed thus : Take a stick of timber, 
 of any stout wood, ash, chessnut, fir, or spruce, will be suffi- 
 cient, ten feet long, if your mowing. lands are free from ob- 
 structions, and if obstructed with stumps or rocks, then short- 
 en the head of the rake to your convenience. The rake-head 
 may be three and a half inches by two and a half diameter, 
 or as you please; The t^eth should be twenty-two inches 
 long, and one inch by one inch and a half diameter, and set 
 firmly into the head, about two inches and a half apart. These 
 teeth may be made of firm white ash, or walnut, or oak. The 
 Jeeth should b6 made at the end to turn up, so as to run on the 
 ground like a small sled, and not into the earth. On the top^ of 
 the head should be fixed about sevea small standards, eighteen 
 inches high, to prevent the hay falling over the head; In the 
 centre of the head fix two handles, such as are usually fixed 
 to ploughs, at a suitable distance, to guide and steady the rake. 
 From the ends of the rake extend a ropeof the size of a cart, 
 rope, to fasten the horse's collar. The distance of the horse 
 from the rake may be such a&^to leave room foj.tiie hay to, 
 gather. Observation will soon direct the length of. the ropes. . 
 Gare must be used to have the teeth set even and 2rm, that they 
 may run near the earth. This raka may be used to collect the 
 hay into winrows, or pile it up into heaps ; and it is useful in. 
 all grain fields, to glean the scattered grain, and to lay down 
 the stubble close to the earth, to rot and promote vegetation. 
 
 This rake may be considered a labor-saving machine, and is 
 particularly useful, when the place of deposit for your hay is 
 in the same fifeld where the grass is out, whether it is to be 
 stacked or put into a barn ; as you can then gather large piles 
 out of the winrow, and draw them direct to tlie pfece of depo- 
 sit at one and the same operation,.,thereby saving. the once 
 gitching of your hay.. 
 
HARROWS AND HARROWING. JJ07 
 
 ' It is said by one who is acquainted with this machine, th«t 
 "it will enable one man, with a steady horse and boy, to perform 
 T^t least as much work in gathering hay into winrow and pile, 
 as six good men can accomplish, and as clean as is commonly 
 idone" in reking by hand. 
 
 Those who occasionally cut grass for hay on smooth tillage 
 ground, or have smooth meadows, will find this implement 
 
 worthy of their attention. 
 
 Harrows, and HarrowinGo 
 
 The three-square harrow is in most general use, and b^e- 
 ijeved to be best^ it should be longer and narrower for stony 
 or stumpy ground, and wider where the ground is smooth. It 
 is essential for a good harrow to have long heavy teeth, made 
 G-f iron, and pointed with steel at the end. When the land is 
 rough, there ought to be fewer eeth than where it is smootho 
 -The teeth of the harrow, for rough ground, ought to be set 
 slanting a little backward, to prevent its getting^ fastened by 
 the stones, roots, and stumps ; and on the contrary, where it is 
 used for smooth ground, .they ought to be set slanting consid- 
 erably forward. 
 
 Harrowing on wet ground should be performed in a dry time, 
 tind in the middle of the day, when practicable. - On dry lands 
 it is best to harrow in the morning while the dew is on, aad 
 when the ground is moderately dry. 
 
 - The ground should be harrowed before ^eeds are sown;" 
 -'•Uierwisa ihey will be buried ^f unequal depths, and will come 
 
;"iUS AGRICULTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 up in rows ; as most of the seeds, in that case, will be thrown- 
 into the bottom of the furrow. On furrows of green sward 
 turned under, the harrow should be loaded with more than its 
 common weight, and run length-ways with the furrows. When 
 the seed is sown on ridges, the harrow ought also- to run 
 length-ways. Harrowing meadow lands, when they become 
 bound, or become cold and mossy, is often of essential service 
 to them, and will make them produce much more abundantly 
 the following years ; though when circumstances will admit, 
 breaking such lands up with the plough, as is directed in the 
 essay on improvement of land by ploughing, is preferable. 
 
 Harrowing wheat and rye in the spring is considered by 
 European writers to be very beneficial ; but this must depend 
 on the condition of the land. It might be useful if the grain 
 v/as obstructed with such kind of grass or weeds, the growth 
 of which would probably be retarded or defeated by the ope- 
 ration. 
 
 The double harrow, or two three-square harrow^s, the one 
 inside of the other, is believed to be an improvement on the 
 common harrow. To make this, let the two outside pieces be 
 eix feet six inches long *, the tongue, or middle piece, five feet 
 eix inches ; the inside pieces, four feet long; the sheath, or 
 cross piece, one inch thick by four inches wide ; the rest of 
 the timber three by four inches square ; the hind part of 
 the harrow, nx feet six inches wide, from outside to outside ; 
 and to contain nineteen teeth. It is very obvious that such a 
 harrow will more completely pulverize the ground, thah the 
 ones most commonly in use. 
 
 It should always be considered that the condition of the soil 
 may be such as to require the harrowing to be deeper for 
 some purposes than others. If, for instance, you have plough- 
 ed in dry compost manure, with a shallow furrow, in that case 
 your harrow teeth should not be permitted to penetrate so 
 deep as to uncover it: To be rendered most efficacious, it 
 should all remain covered by the soil. So also -some seed 
 <^hould be covered deeper than others. Hpnce it is obvious 
 
tHE PLOUGH. 209 
 
 that it 19 expedient for the farmer to have tWn pieces of wcoci, 
 or slit-work, of different widths, at hand, to be placed on the 
 top of the harrow, with holes, through which the teeth may 
 fee placed, to prevent their penetrating deeper than the condi- 
 tion of the soil, or the nature of the crop may require. 
 
 The Plougu, 
 
 We are indebted to the proper and efficacious use of the 
 plough, for the advantages of agricultural science, and the 
 blessings of civil life. A knowledge, therefore, of its best 
 construction and management, is indispensable. There is in- 
 deed no other means of avoiding the errors and impositions of 
 visionary and speculating projects relating to this important 
 implement, but by adopting certain correct and practical prin- 
 ciples relating to it. 
 
 The great points to be attended to in ploughing, are, 1, to 
 open a fair, regular furrow ; and 2, to do this with as little 
 resistance as possible. It has been believed that these advan- 
 tages may as well be obtained by the use of a plough to which 
 the mould board invented by Thomas Jefferson, is affixed ; the 
 following account of which, and of the principles upon which it 
 is constructed, are taken from a communication addressed to 
 Sir John Sinclair, in 1798, then President of the British Board 
 of Agriculture, and inserted in the Transactions of the American 
 Philosophical Society ,4th vol. "The mould board should be a 
 continuation of the wing of the plough-share, beginning at its 
 kinder edge, ^nd in the same place. Its first offic? is to receiv© 
 s 2 
 
210 A6RICULTU&AL iESSAYS. 
 
 the sod horizontally from the wing ; to raise it to a proper 
 height for being turned over, and to make, in its progress, the 
 least resistance possible, and consequently to require a less 
 force in the moving power. Were this its only office, the 
 wedge would offer itself as the most eligible form in practice. 
 But the sod is to be turned over also. To do this, the one edge 
 of it is not to be raised at all ; for to raise this would be a waste 
 of labor. The other edge is to be raised till it passes the per- 
 pendicular, that it might fall over of its own weight. And that 
 this may be done so as to give also the least resistance, it must 
 ^e made to rise gradually from the moment the sod is receiv- 
 ed. The mould board then, m this second office, operates as a 
 transverse, or rising wedge, ihe point of which sliding back 
 horizontally on the ground, the other end continues rising till 
 it passes the perpendicular. Or, to vary the point of view, 
 place on the ground a v^edge of the breadth of the plough- 
 share, of its length from the wing backward, and as high at the 
 heel as it is >vide : draw a diagonal on its upper face, from the 
 left angle at the point, to the right upper angle of the heel ; 
 bevil the face from the diagonal to the right bottom edge, 
 which lies on the ground. That half is thea evidently in the 
 best form for performing the two offices of raising and turning 
 the sod gradually, and with the best effect ; and if you will 
 suppose the same bevil continued across the left side of the di- 
 agonal, that is, if you will suppose a straight line, whose length 
 is at least equal to the breadth of the wedge, applied on the 
 face of the first bevil, and moved backwards on it, parallel with 
 itself and with the end of the wedge, the lower end of the hne 
 moving along the right bottom edge, a curved plane will b« 
 generated, whose characteristic will be acombinatien of the 
 principle of the wedge in cross directions^ and will give what 
 we seek, the mould board of least resistance. It offers to tW« 
 great advantage, that it may be made by the coarsest work- 
 man, by a process so exact, that its form shall never be varied 
 ^ single hair's breadth. One fault of all other mould boards is, 
 that being copied by the eye, no two will be alike. In truth, 
 
THE PiOUGH, 211 
 
 it is easier to form the mould board I speak of, with precision, 
 than to describe that method, either by words or figures. 
 
 The following rules for constructing a plough are from a 
 Pennsylvania farmer :— In constructing ploughs, the beam 
 ought to be placed directly over the land side of the plough, 
 so that the cut of the coulter may be square with the cut of 
 the share ; and the land should be given to the plough be- 
 tween the coulter mortise and the fore end of the beam : for 
 if the cutting of the share and coulter makes an acute angle 
 with the land, then the plough will incline to fall to the right : 
 but if it makes an obtuse angle, then it will incline to fall to 
 the left. A plough for two horses ought not to be less than 
 nine inches, nor more than ten inches wide, in the bottom ; 
 and for three horses, from eleven to twelve inches wide. The 
 share should never differ much in width from the plough. 
 The cut of the share and bottom of the plough should be ex= 
 actly in one plane. A three-horse plough requires no land in 
 -Its construction. A crook of three inches and a half in the 
 beam, before the coulter mortise, to the right, will suffice for 
 the land of a two-horse plough. A plough with a long beam 
 runs the steadiest, and it being long prevents the plough from 
 kicking ; and long shafts give the ploughman a greater com- 
 mand of its direction. The cast iron plate ought to be ecour- 
 ^ with a grit-etone before it is used. 
 
212 AGRZCrjLTURAl E€dAT». 
 
 Ploughing. 
 
 In the essay on improvement of land by ploughing, soin6 
 remarks have been made on the proper manner of performing 
 that operation. Although it is believed that the soil may be 
 fertilized by repeated ploughing, yet much will depend on the 
 manner in which that process is executed. No land, excepting^ 
 green sward, should be ploughed when it is so wet that it will 
 not easily crumble. The principal design of ploughing is tfe- 
 break the cohesion of the soil, and so loosen the particles froift 
 each other, that the smallest and tenderest roots of plants may 
 find their way between them in quest of their nourishment. 
 Neither should land be ploughed when the furrow turns over 
 like a dead mass of mortar ; as the soil becomes no lighter or 
 looser by it, but rather heavier and more compact On the 
 contrary, land should n«t be ploughed when it is too dry, as 
 the furrows in that case cannot be so well turned over, and it 
 requires the more strength of team to perform it. 
 
 Green sward land may be ploughed at any season of the 
 year, if it be not too dry, nor too much frozen. 
 
 The English farmers practise ploughing green sward ill 
 January, not only because they have leisure, but because it is 
 BO wet as to plough easily. They call it ploughing in lays ; 
 and it is said to be well performed, when the sward is all com- 
 pletely turned over, without lapping one furrow on another. 
 
 t3ur farmers are sometimes led to plough too shallow to save 
 ft little labor. And some are too much afraid to turn up what 
 they call dead earth. But it is believed that all the soil above 
 the hard pan may be well employed in tillage for some crops 
 •or other; and that if they turn up a red soil, it will in a year 
 or two become dark, and fit to nourish plants, by being exposed 
 to the sun and to the weather, and imbibing rich particles frona 
 the atmosphere. 
 
]?LOUGHING^ , 2i'i 
 
 French ploughing is sometimes practised to advantage ; and 
 the culture of some plants with tap roots requires it. This ie 
 done by passing a plough twice in a furrow. Ground may be 
 thus ploughed to the depth of twelve or fifteen inches. But 
 instead of this double labor of the plough, where laborers are 
 plenty, the furrows may be deepened with shovels, by a number 
 of hands following the plough. 
 
 In old countries, where lands have been tilled for many 
 centuries, and have been frequently manured, the rich black 
 soil has been growing deeper and deeper, so that trench 
 ploughing may be very necessary, to bring up the strength of 
 manures, which has subsided to a greater depth than common 
 ploughing reaches. Where this practice is once begun, it 
 should be continued, at least through a course of tillage; or 
 ^Ise the first ploughings will be in some measure lost. The 
 best of the soil would be buried at such a depth as to become 
 almost useless, unless it were alternately'^ brought near the 
 surface, by after ploughings equally deep. 
 
 Green sward ground that is broken up in the fall, is usually 
 cross ploughed in the spring following. But this should not 
 be done without caution. For if the turf be not considerably 
 rotted, cross ploughing will only drive it into heaps, instead of 
 cutting it to pieces. Neither will the harrow reduce the turf 
 to powder. In this case it would be best to omit the cross 
 ploughing t and after a heavy harrowing lengthwise of the 
 furrows, seed the land with peas, potatoes, or maize, or any 
 thing that will do well with such culture. 
 
 For a crop of winter wheat, the tillage ground should be 
 ploughed in the spring, again in June, and lastly just before 
 aowing. Neither should this practice justify the omission of 
 ploughing the same ground the preceding fall, before the com- 
 mencement of the hard frosts, which should always be done 
 when circumstances v.'ill admit. 
 
 Whatever manure js put on, it should be done just before th& 
 
'^^^ AGRICrtT^AL ESSAtS. 
 
 4ast ploughing, and ploughed in immediately. If the grain be 
 .ploughed in with a shoal furrow, it will not be so liable to be 
 killed by the winter frosts. The roots will lie deeper than 
 those of harrowed grain, and will the better bear drought in 
 the following summer, if that should happen. 
 
 Some, to save labor, plough their lands' so shallow for sowing 
 as ^carcely to take up the roots of the weeds. This is believed 
 to be bad husbandry: for in that case-a larger crx)p of weeds 
 may be expected, than if it had not been ploughed at all ; and 
 that the roots will not have sufficient room to extend them- 
 selves. Ploughing the ground-in autumn will have a tendency 
 to prevent this most absurd conduct in theepring, which sonS6 
 practice toTavor theit teams in the faint season. 
 
 Land thatis low and flat, and therefore apt to be too w^t and 
 heavy, ought to be ploughed in ridges. The ridges may have 
 two, three, or four furrows on each side, according as the 
 ground IS wetter or drier. The wettest ground should have 
 the narrowest ridges ; but they never should be narrower than 
 four furrows in a ridge. The rows will be between four and 
 -five feet apart, if one row of plants be set on each ridge. But 
 if there be- eix or eight furrows in a ridge, it may admit of two 
 rows, one on each side of the veering. 
 
 After lying In ridges through the winter, the ridges should 
 be thrown into the hollows by another ploughing in the sprino-, 
 which will bring it into good order for seeding. Or, if it shoufd 
 be too miry to be ploughed in the spring, either Indian corn or 
 potatoes may be planted on the' ridges ; and -what is wanting 
 6f the proper tillage, may be made up after the ground has be-, 
 come drier, by frequent and deep horse hoeings. Good cropj 
 -of com, It is said, have been obtained iri this method, on lane 
 which, With plain ploughing, would have produced next t© va 
 thing. 
 
 Most clay soils, which lie level, require this sort of culture, 
 for this more than any other soil is liable to be injured by over- 
 much wetness. And tbe drierit lies, the weaker wUl be the co- 
 iieiion of it« ^arts. 
 
^ome sells, which lie gently slopinor, are so wet as to need 
 r^gingf. It IS not best to make the ridges directly up and 
 -dovvn the slope, nor horizontally , but on a medium between, 
 both But when t^ie land will admit of it, the ridges should lie 
 north and south. 
 
 Tt is no bad practice to lay lands to grass in ridges or beds, 
 ^or too much wetness isapt to hurtgrass lands, as weU-as lands 
 tor tillage, whether they are used for mowing or -pasturage. In- 
 the former the grass will be too sour to- make a good hay ; and 
 m the latter, not only the grass will be bad, but the soil so soft 
 as not well to bear the tread of cattle. It has been found that 
 better grass and a greater quantity may be produced in this 
 way. Nor will the soil so soon become hard and bound 
 
 Itis practised by some to split the hills with a lio-ht plough, in 
 autumn, after a crop of corn; even though the ground be not 
 seeaed till the following, spring. . One side of a row of hills is 
 ploughed off with- one furrow, and the other side ploughed off 
 the contrary way by another furrow, so as to form m'oderate 
 ridges in the intervals. It is performed with less than half the 
 expense of plain ploughing ; and nearly the whole of the sur- 
 face is either taken up or -covered. It has been said by Eu- 
 ropean writers, that land should be. ploughed immediately 
 after a crop of corn, to prevent the stubs from robbing the soil 
 of Its jmces. However this may be, the ploughing is perhaps 
 as useful as other autumnal ploughings ; and where dung has 
 been put in the holes, it mixes it with the soil ; not to mention 
 the burying of some of the stubs and leaves of the corn, which, 
 vrjil contribute something towards enriching the soil. 
 
 The following maxims respecting the proper depth of 
 ploughing are from the Code of Agriculture : 
 
 1. The depth to which land ought to beplouo-hed, must 
 first be regulated by the depth of the soil. On "these soils 
 more especially, on a rocky substratum, the ploughing must ' 
 Becessarily be shallow. 
 
 2. The depth ought likewise to depend on the means ofim% 
 
210 AGRICULTUltAL ESSAYS, 
 
 proving the soil : for when the land is poor, and the mesma of 
 enriching it are scanty, the depth of ploughing ought to be in 
 proportion to the quantity of manure which can be obtained. 
 
 '3. Deep ploughing is highly advantageous upon every soil, 
 excepting those where the substratum is of an ochry sand. In 
 fact such are scarcely worthy of being cultivated, unless in sit- 
 uations where much alluvial compost, or common street manure 
 can be procured. 
 
 4. It is a general rule, never to plough so deep as to pene- 
 trate below the soil that was formerly manured and cultivated, 
 excepting upon fallow, and then only when you have plenty of 
 lime or dung to add to and improve the new soil. 
 
 5. Many farmers recommend, wlien fallowing land, to go as 
 deep as possible with the first furrow, by which the subsequent 
 furrows will be more easily done ; and to expose the soil to the 
 winter's frost and the summer's heat. But when the land is 
 ploughed in spring, for a crop of oats, a strong soil cannot be 
 ploughed with safety above five or six inches. 
 
 Deep ploughing is advisable on moorish cold soils, as it af- 
 fords a greater scope for the roots of plants to procure nourish- 
 -ment, admits the superabundant moisture to subside from them, 
 and prevents the summer droughts from making any injurious 
 impressions on the growing crops ; for, on such lands, shallow 
 ploughing exposes vegetation to be starved or drowned in wet 
 weather, and to be scorched or withered in dry. 
 
 7. It is unnecessary to plough deeper, when the seed is sown, 
 than where there is a fair probability of the different kinds of 
 plants sending their roots ; and as beans, clover and turnips, the 
 only tap rooted kinds usually cultivated in this country, seldom 
 send their shoots above seven or eight inches down into the soil, 
 and the culmiferous species not so far, it is probable from these 
 circumstances, that from seven to eight inches may be deep e- 
 nouo-h for all the purposes of ordinary culture. Occasionally, 
 however, ploughing even ten inches, in theco.ura©of arotation# 
 4anag tUe fallow process, is advisable. 
 
PL«UGH1N6* 
 
 217 
 
 Deep ploughing is not to be recommended, 1 , When 
 lime or marie has been recently applied, as they have such a 
 tendency to sink, from their weight, and the moisture they im- 
 bibe : % When turnips have been eaten off by sheep on the 
 land where they were grown : 3, When grass, only two or 
 three years old, more especially when it has been pastured with 
 sheep, is broken up; because owing to the extreme conden- 
 sation of the soil, by the trampling of the sheep, a furrow, even 
 of a moderate depth, to appearance, will make the plough pen- 
 etrate below the staple that has had been cleared, by the cul- 
 ture given tluring the previous fallow." 
 
 The advantages of deep ploughing, according to the same 
 writer, are, 1, Bringing up new mould, which is peculiarly 
 favorable to clover, turnips, beans, and potatoes ; and indeed 
 without that advantage, these crops usually diminish in quan- 
 tity, quality and value. Deep ploughing is likewise of great 
 consequence to every species of plant, furnishing not only 
 more means of nourishment to their roots, but above all by 
 counteracting the injurious consequences of either to wet, or 
 too dry a season. This is a most important consideration, for if 
 the season be wet, there is a greater depth ©f soil to absorb the 
 moisture, so that the plants are not likely to have their roots 
 immersed in water ; and in a dry season, it is still more useful, 
 for in the lower part of the cultivated soil, there is thus a re- 
 servior of water moisture, which is brought up to the roots of 
 the plants, by the evaporation which the heat of the sun oc- 
 casions. 3. By deep ploughing, animal and vegetable ma- 
 nures, which have such a tendency to rise to the surface are 
 properly covered. This cannot be done by shallow ploughing, 
 in consequence of which much of the value oi feuch manures is 
 lost: 4, By deep ploughing a heavier crop is iR.^ed 
 than can be got from a shallow furrow. An intelligent fanricr, 
 after painting out that deep ploughing increases the etaple of 
 the soil, keeps the roots of the corn from being injured by wet- 
 ness, and also enables the crop longer toresiscthe drorght, 
 adds, I have ever found deep ploughing attended with giC£.t 
 
218 AftRICFLTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 crops, when 1-idges, shallow ploughed in the same field, wcrt 
 but indifferent," which seems a decisive proof in favor of deep 
 plougtiing. 
 
 Wej 
 
 Weeds infest all kinds of land more or less, and occasion 
 so much labor that it is seldom perfectly accomplished. But 
 there are varions considerations to mduce the farmer to do all 
 in his power to suppress their growth. 1. Whenever weeds 
 are suffered to stand and grow among cultivated plants, the 
 crop wiU receive proportionably the less quantity of nourish- 
 ment from the earth: for they require as much nourishment 
 from the earth as better plants do. 2. Their roots occupy 
 and fill many of those interstices in the soil, which would have 
 been occupied by the roots of the cultivated plants ; and many 
 kinds of weeds have such a multitude of strong and binding 
 roots, that they render the soil stiff and hard, and so compact 
 that the roots of tender plants cannot extend themselves in it. 
 This bad quality is possessed in a remaikabie degree by the 
 quitch grass, and by some other weeds. 3. Weeds prevent 
 plants from tillering, or branching out from their loots, as 
 many kinds, and particularly the farinacous, which are the 
 most valuable, are inclined to do when they have room. But 
 the growing of a multitude of weeds among them, reduces them 
 to a crowded situation ; the consequence is, that they shoot up 
 only single stalks, by which means the crop is greatly dimin- 
 Bshed. 4. Weeds deprive plants of that free circulation of air 
 
WEEDS. 219 
 
 about them which is necessary to their being in a healthy and 
 vigorous state. For this reason they run up slender, and re- 
 main of a loose and spongy contexture, and bend down and 
 lodge by their own weight, unless the weeds happen to be so 
 strong as to hold ,them up. 5. Weeds, besides the general 
 evil of taking away the food of plants, rob the soil, particular- 
 ly of its moisture, and speedily reduce it to such a. dry state, 
 that neither weeds nor other plants can receive from it any 
 vegetable food, for want of that proportion of moisture which 
 is necessary to give it fluidity. Accordingly it is observable 
 that the abounding of weeds brings on an early appearance of 
 drought ; and some weeds of the creeping kind twine about 
 the plants in such a manner as to prevent their growth, and the 
 circulation of their sap. Others shade them, and shut out the 
 direct influence of the sun ; while others, the dodder in partic- 
 ular, it is believed, draw their nourishment directly out of the 
 bodies of plants, by sticking their fibres into them, and thereby 
 cause them to decline. 
 
 So many and great are the mischiefs done by weeds, that 
 when they are suffered to grow unmolested among useful 
 plants, whatever culture may have been bestowed to prepare 
 a crop, is, in a great measure lost, and the seeds wasted. 
 
 With a view to investigating the best means of subduing, 
 or destroying weeds, we should consider them as divided into, 
 two classes ; those which chiefly infest lands that are in til- 
 lage, and those that prevail in our grass land ; and how to 
 prevent the existence or prevalence of thera. 
 
 When it is necessary to make use of new dung, or such a^ 
 may cofttain the seeds of weeds, it should be applied to hoed 
 crops, in preference to others, in the tilling of which, the 
 weeds will be destroyed as fast as they rise during the summer. 
 But it is best to avoid carrying seeds on to other tillage lands 
 when practicable, while they retain their germinating princi- 
 ple. No dung or compost manure should therefore be applied 
 ^o the soil, until it has undergone such fermentation i n heaps, 
 
4S20 ^GRI€ULTTTRAL £S6A"r«» 
 
 as to allow opportunity to destroy the vegetative quality of all 
 the seeds that are contained in it. Therefore, it is advised 
 that heaps of manure, intended for sowed fields,6hould be shov- 
 elled over two or three times in a summer ; by which means, 
 most, or all of the seeds contained in the heaps, will vegetate 
 and be destroyed. But when land is laid down for grass, this 
 precaution is not necessary, because tillage weeds will not 
 flourish 60 as to do much damage in grass lands. Or if low 
 ground hay has been used by itself in feeding the young part 
 •f the stock, as it often is, the dung that is made of that, 
 •hould be laid on the dryest parts of the farm ; for should 
 the seeds sprout and come up, they will not be likely to pros- 
 per, as the soil does not suit their nature, being mostly aquatics. 
 Marie, mud, ashes, lime, soot, sea-weeds, &c. having no seeds, 
 will not propagate weeds, unless by vivifying latent seeds in 
 the soil. 
 
 Another thing which is indispensably necessary to prevent 
 the abounding of weeds, ia to suffer no weeds, either in gar- 
 dens or in tillage lands, to ripen their seeds in autumn, and 
 scatter them out upon the ground. 
 
 Before the seeds of the weeds are ripened, the prudent hus- 
 bandman, if he has neglected his duty thus far, will go over his 
 grounds and destroy all the weeds that appear. If there should 
 happen to be considerable quantities of them, they should be 
 piled in heaps, in the borders of the fields, and a little earth 
 throwti on them ; in which situation they will ferment and pu- 
 trify, and become good heaps of manure the succeeding year. 
 
 The objection to the labor of doing' this, is answered by the 
 obnsideration, that it will save them more labor in future, in 
 subduing the weeds, after the ground is filled' with them, be- 
 sides procuring them the advantage of having much better 
 crops. 
 
 Another preventative of the increase of weeds, is burning 
 the stubble as it stands after reaping. On land that isdesign- 
 ad to be sowed the next year, this^ good husbandry. For it 
 
^"ill not only destroy so many of the seeds of weeds as to pre- 
 vent the ensuing crop from being weedy, as it otherwise would 
 be, but will also destroy many insects, clean the ground, and 
 render it more St for the operations of tillage ; besides the soil 
 will be fertilized by the ashes of the stubble. 
 
 But to prevent the increase of weeds, as well as for other 
 good purposes, it is not best that two broad cast sowed crops, 
 when it can be otherwise ordered, should succeed each other. 
 When a hoed crop is well tilled every other year, the weeds 
 are not wont to increase in such a degree as to be very trou- 
 blesome. 
 
 Another precaution, and which has not been sufficiently at- 
 tended to, is to avoid sowing the seeds of weeds with grain and 
 •other crops. 
 
 Notwithstanding all the precautions that may be used, how- 
 ever, s«me weed seed may be wafted by the winds from other 
 fields, and will he found in the farmer's enclosures ; he should, 
 therefore, practice the most effectual methods of subduing 
 them. 
 
 Oae way to effect this is by summer fallowing, alternately 
 ploughing and harrowing the ground in dry weather, as often 
 as the weeds appear in plenty on the surface. By this opera- 
 tion a large quantity of weeds is destroyed and converted into 
 manure, and the seeds of another crop so exposed that they 
 will spring up, and at the next stirring of the soil be destroyed. 
 If these operations are continued until no more weeds arise, it 
 may be concluded the ground is in good order for a crop, and 
 thereby too, made more fertile. 
 
 But the modern improvement of land, by substituting the 
 system of a rotation of crops, for the summer fallow, seems to 
 be well calculated to prevent the prevalence of weeds, as well 
 as to preserve and increase the productive powers of the e^ii* 
 
 low.^*^ *^^*J ®o rotation of crops as a snbrtitute fof summer M^ 
 
 ^2 
 
•gafe AeRICBLTURAL ESSAY*. 
 
 In that system of agricultural operations, the hoed crops, as 
 corn, potatoes, &c. or peas sowed thick, so as to form a close 
 <;over to the surface, will keep the weeds under, so as to pre- 
 vent their going to seed ; until the seed of a winter or spring 
 crop of grain follows, and the tillage land laid down to grass 
 with clean grass seed. A strong sward will then be formed, 
 thro' which the tender kinds of annual weeds will not penetrate, 
 of which sort those generally are that are found in land that is 
 tilled. It is said that even the quitch grass, one of the most 
 noxious of all weeds, is by this means either destroyed or ren- 
 dered harmless ; for if it even flourishes in grass ground it 
 makes good hay. 
 
 The limits of these short essays will not admit of a descrip- 
 tion of the particular weeds that infest our lands. 
 
 The weed-called the Canada thistle, which is .perhaps most 
 prevalent in the northern parts of New-England and New- 
 York, flourishes in close and stiff" soils ; but does not prevail 
 often in those which are dry and gravelly, or sandy. In lands 
 ~which have been closely pastured for a number of successive 
 years, it will nearly disappear ; and in mowing grounds its 
 growth will be constantly retarded, where the grasses grow 
 uxuriantly. 
 
 Pasturing, cultivating tall grasses, and Tceeping the lands 
 highly manured, will be found among the most effectual meth- 
 ods of getting rid of this thistle, except perhaps, the culture of 
 hoed crops. If they are not otherwise destroyed, they should 
 be cut up in autumn, about the beginning of September, and 
 iburnt before they have scattered their seed. 
 
 1X is said by Mr. Deane, that "common thistles, cut an inch 
 above the ground, will not be so difficult to subdue, as those cut 
 at the same time with the hoe, and below the surface. In the 
 -former case the remaining stub of the thistle gets filled with 
 water, which rots and destroys the plant. This mode of cut- 
 ikng may operate with similar efficacy on the Canada thistle* 
 
WEEDS. 1^8 
 
 But is signifies little for one farmer to destroy the thistles in 
 his ground so long as they are suffered to flourish in contigu- 
 ous fields ; because the seeds are wafted in the air from field to 
 field, to a considerable distance. For this reason it is, that ia 
 France, a man may sue his neighbor for neglecting to thistle 
 his ground in the proper season ; or may employ people to do it 
 €it his expence. 
 
 The great importance of keeping tillage lands clear of weeds' 
 was probably one great reason which led to the introduction of 
 the drill husbandry among the European farmers ; asby leaving 
 the grain very thin between the drill rows of culmiferous crops, 
 as wheat, rye, barley, &c. a passage between the drill beds is 
 tnereby provided, by which more convenient access is had to 
 the grain for the purposes of clearing the weeds from thera. 
 
 The weeding of culmiferous crops, when sown in the broad 
 -cast way, is much practiced in Europe, and great additions 
 are believed to be thereby gained to the crop. 
 
^'^ agricl&ltural essays. 
 
 Economy of Saving Straw. 
 
 Notwithstanding the English farmers have hitherto so 
 much exceeded the American, in the business of saving and 
 preparing compost manure, the following remarks from the 
 Agricultural EncyclopsBdia may convint^e us of the great value 
 of that part of husbandry, in the estimation of the agricultural- 
 ists in England, and that the inattention to 1 hat business, was, 
 even there, chargeable as a great defect in their rural econ* 
 omy. 
 
 "As straw is the basis of manure, it might be expected that 
 every good husbandman would bestow the most sedulous atten- 
 tion » upon the shearing or cutting his crop, so that the great- 
 est possible quantity of the raw material may be procured. 
 Very different, however, is the conduct of farmers in general ; 
 ^s over one half of Brftain, it may be safely estimated, that at 
 least one fourth of the straw is left in the field, where its 
 strength is wasted and dissipated by the rains and storms that 
 commonly prevail at the conclusion of Autumn. 
 
 While it is recommended, that the crop should be cut low, 
 in order that materials for making manure may be increased, 
 that accuracy is not contended for that cannot be repaid by the 
 benefit to be derived from the-extra care that might be bestow- 
 ed in cuttmg it with view to that object. By running the 
 sickle upon the ground, drawing a level stroke, and gathering 
 no .-nore into the hand than can be fairly cut, all the advantages 
 of low shearing are obtained at a very trifling increase of ex- 
 pence. By a steady perseverance in this practice, from on^ 
 to two tons of manure per acre, may be annually gained 
 more than is procured in the common mode of cutting the 
 straw, especially where the crops are good. This annual 
 increase must operate powerfully upon the improvement of 
 the country. 
 
EGONOMT OF SAVING STRAW. 
 
 225 
 
 The benefit to be derived from saving straw as food for 
 eattle of every description, presents to the farmer a sufficient 
 inducement to save all he can by any prudent measures, even 
 if after being thus appropriated it was of no farther use, as a 
 manure. It has been found from repeated experiments, that 
 neat cattle, horses, or sheep can be kept as well on wheat or 
 rye straw with a very little oil meal, or that of almost any 
 kind of grain as upon good hay, the value of which has gener- 
 ally been considered much less, than the quantity of hay usual- 
 ly thought necessary ; and after it has beea used as food for 
 cattle, it is prepared in the best manner possible for a rich and 
 efficacious manure. 
 
 It is believed that the straw which is left to waste in the 
 field after harvest, by evaporation, and also that which is spoil- 
 ed for cattle's food, from the careless manner in which it is 
 given to them, if it were saved and converted into manure after 
 having first been made conducive to their support, it would be 
 an improvement in our system of domestic economy, which 
 would increase the agricultural resources of our own coun- 
 try." 
 
 It should be considered, that straw, as a constituent of com- 
 post manure, merits a different consideration from any other, 
 except that of Indian corn stalks, in as much as the farmer 
 from necessity must provide large quantities of this article as 
 an appendage to his bread stuff. It ?is therefore, obviously a 
 dictate of wisdom to turn it to the best account in his agricul- 
 tural operations.' After taking from it the seed, whatever sub- 
 stance he can give to his live stock from it, before it is appro- 
 priated as a manure, is an object which claims from the farm- 
 er the most sedulous attention. The remarks relating to 
 straw, in the essay on manures, relate to the mode of applying 
 it for that object in its crude state ; but in no way can it be 
 Tendered so valuable a manure, as that of first feeding it to caU 
 tie. The dry fibrious substances in straw, exceed those iii 
 gooa hay, in proportion to the respective nutrativc allio«i^l 
 
^26 
 
 AGRICULTUKAL ESSAYS. 
 
 they contain. F<?r that reason, probably, cattle prefer the for- 
 mer, when both are offered thern. But this furnishes no con- 
 clusive evidence against the value of straw, any more than 
 the preference which most men might have to the most deli- 
 cious and expensive food, above that of the simple potato, 
 when both were offered on equal terms, would furnish against 
 the value of that root. It is not perhaps, well ascertained, 
 that well saved straw, free from rust or any other disease, 
 does not contain as much nutrative aliment as good hay, in 
 proportion to the fibrous substances v,?ith which they are res- 
 piectively coated. 
 
 While cattle are kept on straw, they should have no hay 
 given them, and it should be placed in racks or mangers, to 
 prevent their trampling it under their feet ; and with a little 
 oil meal, or that of any other kind of grain, or succulent food, 
 as potatoes, turnigs, or carrots, they may be kept well, where 
 the whole experice of their keeping, taking into consideration 
 the value of seed taken from your straw, would not exceed 
 that of hay. It may answer a better purpose when fed to 
 sheep, to have it cut. and after being wet, and mixed with a 
 little of some kind of meal, such as the farmer may have at 
 hand. 
 
 In a report of the Berkshire agricultural society, mention is 
 made of a straw cutter, with which it is stated, that two men, 
 the one to feed and the other to turn, will cut at the rate of 
 sixty bushels of chopped straw in an hour. 
 
 But it is well attested by experiment, that either neat cattle 
 or horses will eat straw without cutting ; when fed with that or 
 any other kind of grain alternately, in moderate quantities, 
 having no hay ; and may be kept in good plight on such food, 
 irequiring at the same time hut little water. 
 
ttYP9UM, OR ?LASr£R OF PARIS. 227 
 
 Gypsum, or Plaster of Paris. 
 
 It will be seen from various experiments, relative to the ap- 
 plication of plaster as a manure, that very different views have 
 been had respecting the best mode of rendering it most effica- 
 cious. Sir Humphrey Davy observes, that the reason why 
 gypsum is not generally efficacious, is probably because that 
 most cultivated soils contain it in sufficient quantities for the 
 use of the grasses. That in the common course of cultivation 
 gypsum is furnished in the manure ; for it is contained in sta- 
 ble dung, and in the dung of cattle fed on grass ; and it is not 
 taken up in corn crops, or crops of peas and beans, and in very 
 small quanties in turnip crops ; but when lands are exclusive- 
 ly devoted to pasturage or hay, it will be continually consumed. 
 He further observes, that Lord Dundas informed him, that 
 Kaving tried gypsum without any benefit, on two of his estates 
 in Yorkshire, he was induced to have the soil examined for 
 gypsum, and this substance, was found in both the soils.^ 
 
 Col. Taylor, in answer to some questions by Mr. Jeffreys, 
 respecting the nature and effects of gypsum, observes, that he 
 sows from three pecks to one bushel of piaster upon an acre; 
 that It succeeded upon all soils to v^'hich he had applied it ; those 
 requiring to be drained excepted. Sown on clover in the 
 spring, it benefits it considerably ; that used in any oHier mode, 
 he ploughed it in. But I have, says he, even discontinued the 
 first practice, from observing that when plaster is sown and 
 ploughed in with wheat in the fail, a top dressing to the sub- 
 sequent clover is of little or no use ; and from thinking that the 
 effect of the plaster sooner ceases, as a top dressing, than 
 when ploughed in. That the best ways of using it are in the 
 spring, upon the long manure of the preceding winter, to be 
 ploughed in with it upon well covered fields, to be sown imme- 
 diately before they are fallowed. In rolling it very wet, vrith 
 
 ^ZUc Elements of Ajricaltural Chemistry^ p. 224, 225. Phil.ed. 
 
2S8 AGRlCCLtURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 8Ped corn, bushel to bushel, and in mixing it wiih seed wheat 
 so moist as to let the wheat divide in sowiKg, in such a quanti- 
 ty as that the land shall receive not less than three pecks to 
 the acre. The latter is chiefly for the sake of the succeeaing 
 clover. The wheat is benefited in a very small degree, but it 
 prevents embezzlement of the seed. He thinks it a valuable 
 ally of, but by no means a substitute for, manure. That there 
 should be intervals of two, three, or four years between apply- 
 ing it to the same land. That its effect is graduated by the 
 quantity of vegetable matter upon which it is sown. That 
 upon close grazed land it does little good at first,'and repeated, 
 would become pernicious ; and that it must be united with 
 long manure of the winter, or the ungrazed vegetable cover 
 produced in the summer. That all crops are ultimately im*- 
 proved by its impro\^ng the soil, even when its effects are not 
 immediately visible, but he does not recommend it as a top 
 dressing, except for clover. M. Canolle, a French writer, ob- 
 serves, that plaster, acting, or operating chiefly on the absorb- 
 ant sys/em of plants, its effects are not like those of manures 
 buried in the soil, which act principally on the roots. The 
 latter, according to their particular nature, divide, soften, en- 
 rich, warm, or stiffen the soils with which they are mixed. 
 The quantity of plaster, spread upon the land, is so trifling, that 
 it can have little effect on the soil. I speak, says he, from ex- 
 perience. Plaster buried in the earth where sain foin has been 
 sown, has produced no visible alteration; whilst the same 
 quantity of plaster spread over the same surface of sain foin, 
 has produced the most beautiful vegetation. From this expe- 
 rience, so uniform in the application of plaster, I am led to be- 
 lieve, that one must consult as well the nature jf the soil, as 
 the kinds of plants to which we apply plaster. Thus whatever 
 may be the soil on which clover, lucerne, and sain foin natur- 
 ally flourish vigorously, or with that vigor which encourages 
 us to apply manure, there is no risque in trying plaster. 
 
 In an essay on manures, which took the premiumin Albany, 
 in 1819 some remarks were made on the proper manner of 
 
aVPSUM, OR PLASTER PARI3. 239 
 
 applyiilg gypsum as a manure for a crop of winter grain, in 
 which, it is observed, that this manure, when applied to suck 
 crops when sown, or in the spring following, has scarcely any 
 preceptible effect in increasing their growth. In order, there- 
 fore, to render the manure profitable,in applications of this kind, 
 the ground must be enriched with gypsum, previous to its be- 
 ing broken up, preparatory for what we call a summer fallowing 
 for the crops in question. If, for instance, a field is intended to 
 be broken up, say by the middle of June, for the purpose of be- 
 ing sown with winter grain in the fall, this manure is to be 
 strewn over the sward early in the spring, or perhaps in the 
 fall preceding ; at all events, a sufficient length of time pre- 
 vious, for tlie manure to exhibit its effect on the land. This 
 is to be known by a growth of white clover starting up, and 
 the sward exhibiting Eufine green appearance ; and as soon as 
 this change is effected in the appearance of the sward, it may 
 be turned over for a crop of winter grain. 
 
 I have been more particular on the subject of gypsum, be- 
 cause it is become a very important item in the expence of ag- 
 ricultural operations, which is often lost to the farmer for 
 want of complete knowledge of its proper use and application, 
 and also fox the purpose of convincing the farmer of the ne- 
 cessity of attending to the information derived from the expe- 
 riments of others, as well as from philosophical investigations. 
 It is not impossible that its inefficiency, often attributed to a 
 defect in gypsum, may be owing to the peculiar state of the 
 6oil to which it is applied, or to the mode of its application. 
 Many of the most prevalent opinions respecting its efficient a- 
 gency, as amanure, have proved fallacious, both by experiment 
 and chemical facts. 
 
230 AGRICULTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 Remarks on tite Effects of different Shades on 
 Vegetation. 
 
 As trees are placed either naturally or artificially around the 
 borders of fields appropriated to tillage, it is important that the 
 farmer should be apprised of the different effects which the 
 shades of different trees may have on certain plants. The in- 
 formation on this subject is derived from the certificate of Mr. 
 Livingston, of New- York. 
 
 I planted maize, says he, on the west side of a young wood, 
 consisting of oaks, poplars, a few chesnuts, and a large mulber- 
 ry somewhat advanced into the field. The shade made by the 
 rising sun extended nearly across the field, and was not entire- 
 ly off until about ten o'clock. I remarked, that as far as the 
 shade of the chesnat reached, the corn was extremely injured; 
 it was yellow and small. The conical shape of the morning- 
 shade, from particular trees, might be traced a considerable 
 extent, in the sickly appearance of the plants. The black oaks 
 were likewise injurious, but less so than the chesnuts : the 
 poplars, very little eo. Near the mulberry tree the corn was 
 covered by its shade for a very long time every morning, and 
 though not so large as that which had more sun, maintained a 
 healthy appearance. 
 
 He further remarks, that the shade of the black oak is partic- 
 ularly hurtful to the growth of wheat : that of the locust is, on 
 the contrary, beneficial to grass grounds : and that of the su- 
 gar maple does but very little injury to the growth of grain, 
 and none 'to grass. 
 
 From the observations respecting the effects of the shades of 
 the sugar maple, the mulberry, and the locust, it might be ex- 
 pedient to piantifiose trees around some fields, designed for 
 pasture, grain, or meadow ; especially the locust, which, in the 
 essay on the management of wood land, is described to be ve- 
 
EPl'ECTS O^ SHADES ON VEGETATION. 231 
 
 ry Valuable for many mechanical purposes, which require so- 
 lidity and durability. It will propogate itself, too, in the most 
 barren places, where the soil is even so light as to be blown a- 
 way by the winds. By sheltering such places, and dropping 
 its leaves on thera, it causes a sward to grow over them, and 
 grass to grow upon them. It is, however, objected by some, 
 that it is not advisable to plant the locust on the borders of 
 fields, on account of their spreading too much, by scattering 
 their leaves, unless on those which are most barren. This ob- 
 jection, however, it would seem, might be obviated, when the 
 field to be enclosed by the locust was often to be appropriated 
 to the purposes of tillage, especially to the culture of the hoe, 
 by which every superfluous plant may be suppressed. 
 
 It is of importance to the ^rmer, when' making a new settle- 
 ment, to ascertain, by observation, the effects of the various 
 forest trees, on vegetation, that he may be able to decide cor- 
 rectly respecting what ones are most proper to be left stand- 
 ing on the borders of his fields. 
 
 In some of the best cultivated parts of Europe, as well as A- 
 merica, the border of the field adjoining the highway, is often 
 found ornamented with either a natural or artificial row of 
 trees, such as are found least injurious to vegetation ; and 
 w-hich are often, too, appropriated as important constituents of 
 the fence. 
 
 It is believed that the shades of many other trees, that have' 
 not been mentioned in this essay, will be found to be but little 
 injurious to many of our valuable plants.- 
 
 So far as this inconvenience can be avoided, it is h(i)ped the 
 disposition for the destruction of our trees generally, will be 
 less prevalent. Monsieur Mihaux, in his work on the forest 
 trees of North America, in stating the causes which induced so 
 general a destruction of them in this country, observes : "The 
 cost and expense of clearing our lands, compared with their 
 value after they were cleared, and the difficulty of eradicating 
 completely the after growth,, were so great, and the forests 
 
232 AGRICULfUKAL ESSAYS. 
 
 themselves appeared so vast in proportion to the probable de- 
 mand for fuel, ^nd wood for building, and other purposes, that 
 no man dreampt that the day would arrive when their descend- 
 ants might regret the improvidence of their ancestors. Hence 
 there seems to have been a sort of hatred, an indescribable pre- 
 jndice against trees, especially around their dwellings." 
 
 The above causes, perhaps, can alone account for the fact, 
 Ihat in our climate, where the summer months are so hot, com- 
 l^ared with the climate of Europe, and where the clearness of 
 the sky seems to render shade so much more important, we 
 find such a general warfare waged upon trees, in the vicinity 
 of dwelling houses, and about fields, where they might havei 
 remained without any detriment to plants. 
 
ADVAWTAeES OF fiXtERIMENTS. ^^ 
 
 Advantages of Experimentji, 
 
 It would greatly advance the farming interest, if more ex* 
 periments were made in our country, where the science of ag" 
 riculture is yet in its infancy. We ought not to rely too 
 much upon the experiment's made in other countries, as proofe 
 of the utility of one mode of culture in preference to another, 
 in this country. Therefore, we should not trust to the exper- 
 iments of Europeans, but make experiments for ourselves. 
 Till this is done we are not to expect improvements in husban- 
 dry will rapidly progress. It is true, there is some hazard 
 attending new experiments. Therefore farmers in indigent 
 circumstances, should venture with caution on experiments, 
 except on a small scale ; as the failure of a year's crop migh^ 
 greatly embarrass them. They might, however, compare oaie 
 crop with another, estimating the cost expended in the culture 
 of each, and of one course of crops with another, as also the 
 different effect of manures on the same, or different soils; and 
 by this means they may find which methods are preferable, by 
 & little attention, without any risque. It is necessary to learn 
 what practices should be continued, as well as what to adopt, 
 or bring into use. Gentlemen who possess large estates may 
 sustain considerable losses without suffering material incon- 
 venience from it, should they fail of success. Thf>y should,, 
 therefore, from principles of patriotism, hazard experiments, 
 for there can be no reason to doubt but that our husbandry 
 may admit of many very important improvements. 
 
 The making of experiments, would not only tend to the im- 
 provement of our agricultural science, but would prove a sourcer 
 of interesting and laudable amusement to persons who have 
 leisure, and are in a condition to make them. 
 
 Trench ploughing,whicfe has not been much practiced m this 
 country, should be tried by those who have deep soili, clear of 
 
234 ASRICFtTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 rocks and other obstacles. Trials should be made of the advan- 
 tages which might result from ploughing flat land into ridges ; 
 and whether'ridge ploughing will not have a tendency to secure 
 grain from destruction by winter frosts. Attempts should also 
 be more extensively made, to raise winter wheat, which is 
 the most valuable of all grain ; also to obviate by culture, if 
 possible, the causes of the failure of wheat crops on our flat, 
 deep, rich soils, on which it is well known, attempts to ra se 
 wheat, successfully, have hitherto proved abortive, and 
 generally been abandoned. To discover also the best steeps 
 for grain and other seeds, to quicken vegetation and secure 
 them against smut and insects. What also may be the best 
 quantities of seed for sowing in different soils ; and the pecu- 
 liar advantages which might result from sowing different seeds 
 with a drill. Also whether dramed swamps are not the most 
 profitable lands, or what crops can be best raised upon them : 
 how lime as a manure will answer in our hot summers, and on 
 what kind of soil it is most profitable. 
 
 In making experiments, care should be taken that we do not 
 draw conclusions too hastily. We ought seldom to do it from 
 a single trial. For a certain practice may answer well at one 
 time, owing to the peculiarity of the season, or some unknown 
 cause, which would not have the same operation at another 
 time. Too much ^confidence in smgle experiments, might 
 embarrass ormislead, rather than increase useful agricultural 
 science. 
 
 If experiments are intended to make improvements, they 
 should be carefully recoided. For want of such records, much 
 useful knowledge is continually lost. Though many individu- 
 als have derived advantages to themselves from experiments, 
 but few have recorded them. Even those who make experi- 
 ments are liable to forget them, so as to give incorrect repre- 
 sentations of them when they attempt to relate them. 
 
 Many useful discoveries therefore often die with those who 
 make them. To prevent these evils, either voluntary opera^ 
 
ADVANTAGES OF EXPERIMENTS. 235 
 
 tions of individuals, or a board of agriculture should be formed 
 in every well regulatea conimuiyty, to collect and record for 
 the benefit of the present generation, and for posterity, useful 
 and important agricultural information. 
 
286' AGRICULTURAL iy«3AtB 
 
 ACCOUNT OF A COTTAGER'S CULTIVATIOIf. 
 
 Showing how great protp-its may be obtained from 
 a small piece of land. 
 
 There is in the United States, and indeed in every civilized 
 country of which we have any knowledge, a large class of cit- 
 izens who are greatly dependant for their support on the pro- 
 duce of small parcels of land, perhaps one or two acres. 
 
 It has been said that an ancient Roman understood so well 
 the art of cultivating the soil, that he could support his family 
 upon the produce of one acre of ground. It may be expected 
 that in the United States, that classi of citizens whose condition 
 will render them dependant on the produce of a very small 
 piece of land for their subsisterice, will hereafter be very 
 Numerous. It may therefore be truly said, that the science 
 which enables us to acquire the greatest quantity of useful veg- 
 etables from a small piece of ground, is of most importance to 
 that class of our citizens to whom we shall be greatly indebted 
 for our physical strength. Those of that description, who 
 would better their condition, and increase their comforts, may 
 derive essential benefits fiom the following account of a cotta- 
 ger's cultivation, in Shrepshire, England j published by Sir 
 William Pultney, Bart. May, 1805. 
 
 Within two and a half miles of Shrewsbury, a cottager 
 whose name is Richard Millward, has a house, and adjoining to 
 
«OTTAGI,R*S CULTIVATION. 237 
 
 it, a garden and land ; making about one acre and one six- 
 teenth of an acre, including the garden. He is a collier: and 
 the management of the ground is in a great measure left to his 
 wife. The soil was a thin covering of about three or four inch- 
 es of strong loam, over a clay impregnated with iron, and con- 
 sidered as the worst soil They pay three shillings sterling of 
 yearly rent for the house and land. It was leased to thegj 
 thirty-eight years ago, for three lives, one of which is dead. 
 
 The wife has managed the ground in a particular manner, 
 for thirteen years, w-ith potatoes and wheat, chiefly by her«wn 
 labor ; and in a way which has yielded good crops, fully equal 
 or rather superior to the produce of the neighboring farms, and 
 with little or no expense. 
 
 The potato and the wheat land (exclusive of the garden) 
 contains sixty-four digging poles of land, (eighty yards square 
 to the pole, and seventy-five of which make an acre,) and is di- 
 rided into two parts. One of the divisions she plants alternate- 
 ly wuth potatoes, and the other is sown with wheat. On the 
 wheat stubble she plants potatoes in rows ; and sows wheat on 
 the potato ground. She puts dung in the bottom of the rows 
 where she plants potatoes ; but uses no dung for the wheat. 
 And she has repeate^. this succession for nearly thirteen years; 
 but with better success and more economy, during the last six 
 or seven years. 
 
 She provides manure, by keeping- a pig, and by collecting all 
 the manure she can from her house, and by mixing it with the 
 scrapings ofc the roads, &c. She forms it into a heap, and 
 ^ ns itj before she puts it on her ground for potatoes. 
 
238 AGRICULTURAL ESS ATS. 
 
 The ground is. dug for potatoes, in the months of March and 
 April, to the depth of about nine inches. (This digging would 
 cost sixpence per pole, if hired.) After putting in the dung, the 
 potatoes are planted in rows, about twelve or fourteen inches 
 distant. The sets are placed about four or five inches apart in 
 the rows. 
 
 When the potatoes conie above the ground, the weeds are 
 destroyed by the hoe ; and then laid up on both sides to the 
 shoots. And this is repeated from time to time, as the seasons 
 require. Hand weeding is also used, when necessary. 
 
 In the month of October, when the potatoes are ripC; she 
 takes off all the stalks, (or haulm) of the potato, which she se- 
 cures, to produce manure, by means of their pig. She now 
 goes over the whole with a rake, an-d takes off all the weeds ; 
 and before taking up the potatoes, she sows her wheat on as 
 much ground as she can clear of potatoes that day. They are 
 taken up with a three-pronged fork ; in which her husband ass- 
 ists : and by the same operation, the wheat is covered deep. 
 She leaves it quite rough ; and the frost mellows the earth, and 
 by the earth falling down, it adds much strength and vigor to 
 the wheat plants in spring. Her crops of wheat havo been of 
 iaie always good ; and even this year, (which in this country, 
 has not been favorable for the wheat crop,) she has threshed 
 fifteen Winchester bushels from thirty-four poles ; though part 
 of her wheat had suffered much by the mildew. ,The straw of 
 her wheat she carefully preserves for litter to her pig, and tO' 
 increase her manure. When her potatoes are gathered, she 
 separates the best for use, then a proper quantity for seed, and 
 the small potatoes are giveiv to her pig. 
 
cottager's cultivation. QSB 
 
 She has sixteen poles for her garden ; upon which she plants 
 peas, beans, and a part with cabbages ; but has early potatoes, 
 and peas and cabbages, and boils the turnips for her pig. 
 
 The only other expence of feeding her pig, is swo or three 
 bushels of peas ; and when fit to kill, it weighs about three hun- 
 dred pounds. She buys it at the age of four or five months, a- 
 bout the month of February ; and it is killed about the month 
 of January in the following year. 
 
 When she first began this method of alternate crops, and 
 for several years after, she depended on the neighobringfarm- 
 ers for ploughing her land and harrowing, both for the potatoes 
 and wheat: but as the farmers naturally delayed working for 
 her, till their own work was chiefly over, her land was not 
 ploughed in proper season. She has been for the last six 
 years independent of the farmer. 
 
 She is careful to sow no more land at a time, than she car- 
 clear of potatoes that day. 
 
 Observations by the sam€ writer. 
 
 This mode of culture proves, that potatoes and wheat can be 
 produced alternately upon the same land, for a long course of 
 years, provided that a small quantity of manure be every year 
 used for the potatoes; and it shews that a cottager may procure 
 food from a small portion of land, by his owokbor, without anf 
 expence. 
 
240 AGRICULTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 Both wheat and potatoes have been reckoned exhausting 
 crops ; but this mode of culture shows that great crops of both 
 may be long alternately produced ; which may probahJy be im- 
 puted to the culture by the spade and hoe,to the manuring every 
 s econd year for potatoes, to the careful destroying of weeds, to 
 the planting and sowing in proper season, and to the prevent 
 ing the earth from being too loose, (by the mode of sowing 
 the wheat before the potatoes aye taken up.) 
 
 An experienced farmer is of opinion that the same culture 
 and succession of crops, will answer in almost any land, if 
 properly drained and skilfully managed ; for that althoug'h 
 strong land does not answer well for potatoes, nor very light 
 land for wheat, yet that cultivation and manure, (and .particu. 
 larly the manure of lime) will soon render strong land, when 
 elrained, more loose ; and will make light land more firm, es- 
 pecially if cultivated with the spade and hoe. 
 
CULTURE #F GARDENS. 'Mk 
 
 0N THE CULTURE OF GARDENS, 
 AND ITS Advantages to every class of Citizens. 
 
 The profits which may be derived from the culture of a gar- 
 den, are much more than those are aware of who have not 
 made it an object of attention. It vvill be found of great impor- 
 tance, even to the farmer. For it is believed that the use of the 
 various vegetables, which may be therein produced, might su- 
 percede the necessity of consuming such large quantities of 
 meat as is too often practiced, not only by our farmers, but by 
 every class. 
 
 There is in the United States, as in every civilized country, 
 very many who are greatly dependent for their support, on the 
 produce of a small parcel of land, a garden 'only, or perhaps 
 one or two acres in addition ; and it may be expected, that in 
 the progress of our history, that class of citizens will continual- 
 ly increase, and become very numerous. To that class, there- 
 fore, on whom we may expect to be greatly dependent for our 
 physical strength, the science of gardening is partic#arly im- 
 portant ; as it will enable them to acquire the greatest quantity 
 of useful vegetables from a small piece of ground. 
 
 Gardens consist of three divisions, the kitchen, the fruit and 
 the flower garden. The latter is of little utility, except for or- 
 nament. The art of planting may, however, be so understood 
 and practiced, as to render useful vegetables when growing, 
 highly ornamental. Every plant, or fruit tree, which pertains 
 to a garden, had better be included in the same inclosure ;, 
 though it is not best to have fruit trees and plants blended to- 
 gether, as is often done; the shade of fruit trees being injuri- 
 ous to the growth of most kinds of vegetables, should be placed 
 by themselves. 
 
 The quince, the currant, and some other shrubbery, may be in- 
 termixed with other plants without much injury, as they make 
 but little shade. The garden vegetables, which have been 
 found of most general utility, are, beets^parrots^.parsnips, peas* 
 W 
 
242 A^KICWXTURAL B8SAt«. 
 
 beans, sallads of different kinds, cabbages, squasbes, mclions, 
 onions, and corn and potatoes of an early growth, for culinary 
 ipurposes. 
 
 Of the different kinds of beets, the led winter beet is believ- 
 ed to be the best. The early beet of a white or pale red color, 
 comes to maturity much sooner, and is very productive, but is 
 of a more insipid flavor, and less nutritive than the red. This 
 root boiled, is a very nutricious vegetable to use with every 
 kind of meat, and also makes an excellent pickle when pre- 
 served like the cucumbej, in vinegar. It is also raised in some 
 parts of Europe for the purpose of making sugar, and ardent 
 spinl.s. which gives it an additional value. The beet and car- 
 rot may be sown from the tenth to the twentieth of May, vary- 
 ing according to the difference of climate and season, in the 
 Ne\v-E;igla.nJ States. The parsnip may be sown much earli- 
 er, as the seed does not germinate so soon, and it is not affect- 
 ed by the frost. 
 
 To prepare the ground properly, for the reception of the seed of 
 either of these roots, the soil should be made very rich, and mel- 
 lowed to the depth often inches, and perfectly pulverized, so 
 that no hard substance or clump of earth may come in contact 
 with it. To effect this, it is always best to plow the ground 
 first when fruit trees or shrubbery are not in the way, as by 
 that means the soil is more easily aad effectually mellowed 
 with the spade. The seed of beets, carrots, and parsnips sbould 
 be barely covered with light earth, in rows across the bed, and 
 at the last weeding, should be thinned so as to stand about 
 four inches apart, the same distance to be observed between 
 the rows, though carrots will often grow to a good size if left 
 standing much thicker. In the management of the parsnip, w« 
 may see the tyranny of custom, and one of the evils of igno- ; 
 yance. The farmers and other citizens generally, through th* 
 country, are governed by a tradition that the parsnip is only & 
 rarity, to be used a few days in the spring ; and that it shouW 
 be kept in the ground through the winter, when by digging it 
 in the fall they may provide thsir table with a very pleasant. 
 
CULTURE OF GARDENS* ^43 
 
 and useful vegetable, and thereby not only gain the longer use 
 of the plant, but have it in much greater perfection, as it often 
 cannot be taken up in the spring until it has sprouted, and the 
 inside of it become ligneous. It is better to pack them in a box 
 and cover them with sand, or some of the earth from which 
 they are taken ; but they may be kept well as beets or other 
 roots, and not liable to injury from frost ; besides it takes from 
 them that rankness of flavor offensive to some tastes. The beet 
 root, when in the early stage of its growth, boiled with its top, 
 is an excellent sauce for any kind of meat. 
 
 Among the great variety of peas cultivated in the garden, 
 are the small early pea, the marrow fat, and the sugar pea. 
 The first, which is often called the June pea, grow^ about three 
 feet high, ripen very early, but are not very productive. The 
 marrow fats and sugar pea grow five or six feet high, in a rich 
 soil, and are much more productive. They should be sown in 
 two rows, about five inches apart, and it is best to set two rows 
 of bushes on each side of the rows, which will secure the vines 
 more effectually from falling down. The bushes of the latter 
 kind should be six feet high, but the early June pea require a 
 bush of only three feet in height. These kinds of peas may 
 ftlso be sown in the broad cast way, and for those who have lan^d 
 enough, it is the cheapest way of raismg them, as it requires 
 considerable time to procure and set the bushes ; though it ie 
 believed, the size and flavor of the pea is improved by garden 
 culture ; and as the bush furnishes the vine with more atmos- 
 pheric space, in which it may extend itself, a much greater 
 quantity may, in this mode of culture, be produced. 
 
 After the peas have had their growth, and the vines are cm 
 the decay, they may be removed, and the soil mellowed and 
 cleared of weeds with the hoe and rake, and the seed of tur- 
 nips sown across the bed made for the purpose, from four to 
 five inches apart ; and sown so that they be wed with the nar- 
 row garden hoe, and thinned so that the plants should be left 
 standing two or three inches apart ; if fowls are kept from 
 running over them and eating the leaves, and insects are kept 
 
244 AGRieULTtrRAL i:S9AYS. 
 
 from devouring them, by some of the means described in the 
 essay on insects, a valuable crop of turnips may be raised, which 
 will compensate for the extraordinary expence of cultivating 
 the pea, which also furnishes one of the most nutritive and de- 
 licious vegetables for the table. 
 
 Among the various modes of planting the garden bean, it is 
 believed the greatest quantity may be raised on a given spot of 
 ground, by planting them ih rows, about eight or ten inches 
 from each other, and the seed in the rows about one inch apart ; 
 perhaps to©, the same quantity of soil may produce rather more, 
 by planting those which are called the poll bean, in hills about 
 eighteen inches apart, and erecting a poll near the hill, frofti 
 five to seven feet high. As there are a great variety of beans, 
 distinguished by their color and qualities, the choice of them 
 will be directed by the discretion and tastes of those who cul- 
 tivate them. When boiled, and mixed with boiled green corn, 
 they make a very delicious sauce. 
 
 Melons. Of this fruit there are but two species. The 
 mellon with a rough coat, and tha*. with a smooth skin. The | 
 first is called the musk, from its peculiar flavoi, and the other I 
 from its thin and abundant juices. Of these there are many 
 varieties. The most approved of the musk mellon species, are 
 gaid to be the cantelope, the citron, the nutmeg, and the Per- 
 sian; and of the water melon, the Carolina, the Maltise, the 
 Candia, and the Chate, or Egyptian. As both of these species, 
 and all their varieties, succeed best in a hot climate and sandy 
 soil, it is obvious that in the colder climate of cur country, to 
 succeed best in their cultivation, a spot should be selected well 
 defended against the north wind, and open to the sun through- 
 out the day. In the most northerly part of our country, the on- 
 ly difficulty in the culture of the melon arises from the short- 
 nessof the warm season, it being but barely sufficient to brin|fi 
 them to maturity ; they cannot therefore be expected early m ! 
 the season without the use of artificial heat, by means of hot 
 beds. But as the best substitute for such means, and to insure 
 
i^tWRB 9T GARDENS, ^5 
 
 a crop, a hole may be dug about twelve inches, and filled 
 with strong barn manure to the di pth of about five or six mch- 
 cs, and covered with common sand, on which six or eight seeds 
 may be planted, and thinly covered with a rich earth. The 
 hUls should be about five feet apart, and three or four plants 
 left standing in a hill. If more than this escape the ravages 
 of the insect, they should be pulled out. But it is thought this 
 mode of culture is not necessary when the soil is presented to 
 asoutiiern exposure, and is very fertile ; though it is believed 
 the former may better secure them against the attacks ot the 
 insect. The seeds of the last year only should the sown, be- 
 cause they vegetate quicker than old ones, and accord- 
 ingly best promote the object of the hot b^d, which is to give 
 early fruit. 
 
 Another provision for the want of early and continued heat, 
 gardeners would make choice of those varieties which have 
 the thinnest skins, and least bulk, as such require the least 
 heat, other things being equal. If the branches are long and 
 vigorous, it has been practiced by some, to stretch them care- 
 fully over a level surface, and bury every fourth or fifth joint, 
 that wherever the plant is buried new roots may be formed, 
 for the better nutrition of the stem and the fruit. 
 
 The ripeness of the musk melon is known by its color and its 
 odor, and by the drying of the stem where it attaches itself to 
 the fruit. 
 
 The water melon furnishes neither of these signs, but affords 
 another peculiar to itself, a hollow sound on being struck on the 
 rind, the result of an actual hollowness beginning and increas- 
 ing with its maturity. 
 
 Onion. This is called by botanists the Allium Cepa, and has 
 many varieties distinguished by color, size and taste, and one 
 of them, the canadense, by organization, its fruit growing on 
 its head, and in the place of flowers. Of these varieties, the 
 led is the largest, but most acrid ; the pale red and the yellow, 
 
 w2 
 
^46 AQRKVVrURAL ^33 AYS. 
 
 are less in size than the red, and somewhat milder, but the white, 
 (of Spain and of Florence,) though the smallest, are the mUdest, 
 the soonest fit for use, and the best for keeping-. They 
 are eaten by some like apples. On analysis, they are 
 found to possess less of those elements (oil and sulphur) which 
 give the common onion its peculiar taste and smell. A rich 
 aandy soil is the most favorable to the onion. They have been 
 known to grow to the size of a foot or more in diameter. In 
 clay or stony soil, or pure sand, the onion does not prosper. It 
 IS propagated by the seeds or the bulbs. It is said the Tartars 
 propagate them by cutting; they slit the bulb downwards, and 
 leave to each cutting a portion of the fibrous roots. 
 
 When sown, it should be in drills, twelve or fourteen inch- 
 es apart, cover with mould, and when the plants come up 
 they should be thinned, so as to stand three or four inchest 
 apart. The ground should be mellowed at the depth of three 
 or four inches only. After the ^rth has acquired a tempera- 
 ture favorable to vegetation in the spring, the sooner they are 
 sown the better. In hoeing them, they should only be kept 
 •lear of weeds, and the dirt loosened about them, but no earth 
 4rawn upon the root to hill them. The tops should be broken 
 'down after they have grown to the length of eight or ten inch- 
 es, that the juices may determine to the bulbs. The small 
 'kalf grown onion may be institute^ for the seed. The cana- 
 4ense variety should always be managed in this way: They 
 May be preserved through the winter in a dry and moderately 
 warm cellar. Frost does not injure them as it does many 
 ^ther roots. The largest are set out in the spring for see^ 
 and when perfectly ripe, the stems are cut, and the seed left 
 m the capsules for use. If preserved in this way, it is said the 
 "meed retains its germinating power much longer than if thrash- 
 «d immediately after ripening. 
 
 Sallads. Of these, lettice is|the plant in most general use 
 Ihe principal varieties of which are, the head lettice, the curled 
 Jettice, and the lettice with open, straight, and erect leaves:; 
 altJiou^h 4)otanists, it is said, have multiplied the varieties of 
 
CTTLTURE Of SARDEWS. 2^ 
 
 this plant to the immber of one hundred or more. The head 
 and curled lettice should be sown early in the spring, in beds, 
 in rows across the bed^ix inches apart. When the plant is 
 up, and the leaf grows to the size of half a cent, they should 
 be thinned so as to stand three or four inches from each other, 
 or they may be sown in a bed, and the plants transplanted like 
 cabbages. The seed may also be sown in the fall, and as the 
 frost approaches, covered with a light layer of stable litter ^ 
 which in that case should be removed in the spring, and the 
 surface of the bed loosened with an iron toothed rake ; it ie 
 said the first vegetation that she ,vs itself will be that of lettice, 
 and it may be thinned and cultivated where it stands, or trans- 
 planted into beds, as that which is sown in the spring. 
 
 Cale is a species of the cabbage, and like that plant, boiled 
 for use. It is distinguished for its upright, long, broad, and 
 open leaves. It has the power of resisting frost beyond that 
 of any other variety of the family. Frost that would be de- 
 •atructive of head cabbage, will make-Cale better. This fact 
 gives it a preference for garden culture, which is always for 
 spring greens. There are a great varietyof other rare sallads, 
 a discription of which is not compatible with the limits of this 
 little volume. 
 
 Cabbage. This plant requires a rich, strong soil ; and wDl, 
 it is believed, grow yearly on the same ground without much 
 exhausting the soil. When an early crop for the table is in- 
 tended, the seeds should be sown very earlj', as soon as the 
 soil presents signs of spontaneous vegetation. The seeds may 
 be sown in the beds where they are designed to be cultivated, 
 though transplanting is the best method. The ^plant should be 
 set up to the leaves, at least two feet apart. But to insure a 
 good crop, the ground must be well worked, and abundantly 
 manured with weU rotted dung. When the crop is intended 
 ■for fall or winter use, the seeds had better be sown some later. 
 'The Romans, who were said to be very successful in the cul- 
 tivation of the cabbage, aimed particularly at giving to the 
 plant ^reat size. And it is believed its tender and deliciouf 
 
!^9 AGRICVLTVRAL ESSAYS. 
 
 quialities are in some measure proportioned to its magnitudei 
 Frequent hoeing or stirring the ground about the plant, espe- 
 cially in the morning while the dew is on, will greatly acceler- 
 ate the growth, and increase the size of the head. 
 
 When they are kept in the cellar for winter use, it is the 
 practice of some to hang them up with the heads downward ; 
 they may be kept also through the winter by cutting off the 
 heads, and laying them away in a cask filled with snow, and 
 keeping them in a cold place. For a spring supply, the fol- 
 lowing mode is recommended : to make a trench in a dry soil, 
 and line it with straw : set the heads in closely together, with 
 the roots upwards ; cover them with straw, and then with 
 ear!h, piled up as steep as possible. In this manner it is said 
 they will keep till May, and occasionally dug out as they are 
 wanted. 
 
 The common white and red cabbage, the winter-green globe, 
 and the Dutch, Scotch, and Savoy, are mostly in use. The 
 white and winter green globe are best for winter use ; the 
 red for sallad, and the others are early, and have smaller 
 
 heads. !^ 
 
 ii 
 
 Asparagus is one of the first green vegetables which the I. 
 opening spring presents, and for which no substitute equally 
 productive can be had till the season for green peas and beans, | 
 which are not usually to be bad until some time in the sum- 
 mer. It is an excellent green vegetable, with any kind of meat | 
 either roasted or boiled. It is usually prepared for the table j 
 ^y tying it together in bunches three or four inches in diame- 
 ter, and boiled ; its nutriment and flavor very much resemblee 
 that of the pea. 
 
 There are various modes of cultivating it. The following ie 
 the most usual and simple. Open a trench four or five feet 
 wide and one foot deep, in the warmest part of your garaen, 
 the warmer the better. Fill the trench half full of good barn 
 dung ; level it, and scatter some good earth over it ; then lay 
 on your roots eight or nine inches apart, in their ratural posi- 
 tion: orifeeedsbe used about half the dietance apart; then 
 
249 
 
 CULTURE OF GARDENS. 
 
 ■,„ complete the bed, fill «P the trench with good «>il. If roote 
 are planted, they may be cut the second year ; but if seeds, 
 rttillTethW.' After thebudisfit for -■ f ;he =hooU 
 which come up before the m.^le of June may be c^ off, btt. 
 all after that should run to seed to strengthen the plants, m 
 tm Ihey should have a layer of rotten dung spread over 
 them an inch in depth, which may m P"* '>\*t«° f !^" "^^ 
 sprin.T ; and when the bed becomes too b-h by the constant 
 addition of dung, part of the earth may be pared off m the 
 spring, before the plants shoot, and the bed covered again witn _ 
 a thin compost of rotten dung. 
 
 CocuMBERS. This plant is cultivated by planting^it in hUls 
 about six feet apart, other wise the vines will cover the grouM 
 so thickly that it will be difficult to go among them without 
 injuring the vines. The greatest difficulty in raising this 
 ffuitis to keep the insects from destroying them, when tne 
 pknts are young. For sotoe,the means of effecting this, see arti- 
 Gleon insects. Those who have but a very ^-ff ,^P°V''„^. ^„„ 
 den sometimes practice filling a tub or barrel half full of stones 
 and with as much water, over this lay some straw and fill the 
 vessel with the richest earth, and plant on the top a Pl<;nty »« 
 seeds; spread some bushes round the tub for the vnes toj«n 
 on ; u^ this way a great cropmay be raised ; the cask may be 
 open atthelower end; in that case or otherwise water mu. 
 be occasionally applied to keep them sufficiently moist I 
 might be an improvement to this method to raise »° "™'a' 
 mound ofearth about the circumference, and a little higher 
 than a common barrel, and of a conical structure, the diameter 
 of the upper surface being but one third and ""^ ^f *=;' "^ '^ 
 base ; plant on the top of it as on the cask. If the mound is 
 ..composed ofaconsiderable portion of clay, one quarter or one 
 third, the plants would require much less water to be applied 
 By this method, it will be seen, that atmospheric space will 
 furnish room for the vines, which otherwise would o^cuppy he 
 same extent . of soil. The same economy might be practiced 
 
'^ AGntCULTtRAL ESSAYS. 
 
 mthecuItu™ofsqu«he.,a,elons,&c.wherethevineissufficienl 
 to eusta.n the weight of the fruit without injury. 
 
 'This may appear to some as the useless project of a visiona- 
 ry imagination. But agricultural essays should be written 
 «.th a reference to the interests of distant times, and other 
 Circumstances, whichin the progress of human affairs, we may 
 expect will be inevitable. 
 
 Red Peppxk. This is said to be the annual pepper of the 
 botanists, of which there are two species, the grossumand 
 the Irustenaus, the latter of which is usually seen in hot houses. 
 It requires a warm soil, and if sown early, a good deal of dung 
 and a favorable exposition. The seeds may be placed in rows 
 three feet apart, or in hills, at the like distance from each oth- 
 er. In dry weather, the planta require watering, and in all 
 kmds of weather, weeding and hoeing. Ths seeds are best 
 preserved by running a string through the pods and hanging 
 them up in a dry garret." 
 
 There are various other plants both ornamental and useful, 
 for garden culture, the particular description of which, can be 
 expected from essays devoted wholly to horticultural agricul- 
 ture. The author of these essays, hopes by publishing the 
 Me mformation herein contained, to obtain one important ob^ 
 ject he had in view, that of exciting more attention to this de- 
 Bghtful branch of rural economy. 
 
 It has been observed thkt "Europeans who have travelled in 
 tJie United States, have observed that the people in this country 
 •at more meat than in any other." This is believed to be true. 
 Besides eating meat three times a day, among the farmers, we 
 
ttJLTTniE OF GARDENS. 251 
 
 frequently see the table spread with nothing but meat and 
 bread, or with only one or two of the poorest kinds of vegeta- 
 bles with it. It has been noticed too, that there is a very 
 great difference in the goodness of living in families of nearly 
 the same rank and wealth ; and that good living does not de- 
 pend on the expence ; bu* on the contrary, those families who 
 live at the greatest expence generally live the poorest. Bread 
 and meat are by far, the two most expensive articles of food ; 
 and as most families are in the use of these articles, the dif- 
 ference in living in different familieSjdepends principally on the 
 different kinds of culinary vegetables which are prepared and 
 presented at the table with the bread and meat. As all those 
 kinds of vegetables are much cheaper than bread or meat, the 
 greater the quantity of these consumed in a family, the less 
 will be the expence of living ; for it is presumed that people 
 will consume but a given quantity of food, and that what is 
 consumed of one kind will be spared of another. It is not e- 
 nough to have but one or two kinds of vegetables on the ta- 
 ble at once ; people have not all the same taste ; some will pre- 
 fer one kind and some another, so that when there is a variety, 
 every one will meet with something agreeable to his taste ; 
 and there is no loss in preparing more vegetables for the ta- 
 bles than can be consumed, as they afford more nutriment for 
 domestic animals than they do in their raw state. There ie 
 no class of people in the community who have it in their power 
 to supply themselves with such a variety of the best kinds of 
 vegetables, at all seasons of the year, as the farmers. But this 
 would require a garden, and some attention to it. And in 
 this a great portion of the farmers in the northern states are 
 generally deficient. A small piece of m-ound w^ithout any 
 permanent inclosure, and planted with a Tew of the coarsest, 
 and most common vegetables, is all they call the garden. 
 And even this is indifferently cultivated. One might suppose 
 that the farmer considered the garden oflittle or no con- 
 sequeoce ; and the labor bestowed uix)n it little better than 
 lost, while they toil excessively in the field. This is an error 
 
g52 A6RIGULTURAX ESSAYS*. 
 
 which should be corrected. To remedy this defect, and render 
 their living both pleasant and cheap, it is recommended to every 
 farmer, who has not already done it, to select a piece of ground 
 liear his house, from half an acre to an acre, to inclose it with 
 a permanent fence,and to break and manure it sufficientfy, and 
 plant and sow it with all the variety of culinary vegetables 
 camraon to our country. Any family that, will adopt this 
 method and follow it for several years, will think it strange 
 indeed that they had neglected this important branch of rural 
 economy so long. 
 
 There is an advantage to be derived from gardening, which» 
 the farmer may extend to his field husbandry. It will give 
 him an opportunity oftrying various experiments upon a smali 
 scale, with respect to the different effect of the various kinds 
 of manure, and the best manner of applying it, as also many 
 others with respect to the culture of different plants which he 
 would not be willing to hazard, or it might not be so conven- 
 ient for him to do it in a course of field husbandry. 
 
 The husbandman is not advised to sacrifice the advantage- 
 of his farm, to the ornaments or the pleasures of a garden ; his 
 gram fields, for the culture of roses; but his attention is in- 
 vited to the utility, convenience, and economy, that can be 
 found in the cultivation of a substantial kitchen garden, from 
 which his family may derive many innocent luxuries, which 
 providence with a liberal; hand, has spread around him. 
 
 The moral and physical effects of gardening furnish no in- 
 considerable motive to its occupation. It expands the mind, 
 strengthens the body, and tends to promote habits of order, dil-. 
 i.gence, temperance, economy and observation. 
 
maladies of bees. 253 
 
 Maladies of Bees. 
 
 A Mr. Huish, who appears to have attended much to the 
 management of bees, acknowledges great difhculty, both in 
 discovering the maladies of tlie bee, and the remedies ; but 
 adds, if you have many hives, and any one becomes sickly, re- 
 move it as soon as possible, that it may not infect the remain- 
 der. If you have but few hives, you may attempt first to inves- 
 tigate the disease, and next its cure. He farther states, that 
 the dysentary is one of the most common, as well as fatal dis- 
 eases of the bee. And that the mark of this disease, is the ex- 
 crement voided by the bee at the entrance of the hives, in 
 spots, like linseed, nearly black, and of an insupportable smell; 
 and that this malady is contagious. The bees, when afSicted 
 with this disease, destroy each other, by contaminating their 
 wings with this excrement, and thus stop the organs of perspi- 
 ration. The cause of this disease is, by some, ascribed to new 
 honey, when eaten in winter ; by some, to the deficiency of 
 propolis, or bee bread ; and by others, to the flowers of the elm» 
 and lime, from which they extract honey. Other causes are 
 also ascribed to this disease ; in any general one, however, wri- 
 ters do not appear to be agreed. Mr. HuisJi, considers the dis- 
 ease incurable, although its prevention may be effected. As 
 fioon, therefore, says he, as I see any of my hives affected with 
 it, I give them a little of the following composition, which has 
 invariably checked the malady, when given in the early sta- 
 ges. 
 
 iluZe.— To a quart of white wine, add a pint of honey, and 
 two pounds of loaf sugar ; put the whole into a tin sauce pan, 
 and let it boil gently over a slow fire, skimming it at different 
 times until it is reduced to the consistency of Syrup. Il may 
 then be bottled, and put into the cellar, and kept cool for use. 
 Whenever it is used, it must be genily heated, until it partakes 
 of the consistency of honey. Mr. lionconi, an Italian author 
 
■S54 AGRICULTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 recommends fresh urine, placed on plates near the hives, for the 
 use of the bees. He also recommends white wine, boiled with 
 an equal quantity of loaf sugar, with an addition of cloves and 
 nutmegs, as doing well. Also, the bark of pomegranates, 
 pounded and mixed with honey and sweet wine, as being con- 
 ducive to the health of the bee. 
 
 •Mr. Duchet recommends good old port wine, mixed with 
 honey. 
 
 Mr. Wildman recommends fine salt as a remedy, to be placed 
 on the bee stand, where they may eat it at pleasure. 
 
 Oat meal is also recommended in the dysentary. 
 
 All these remedies are approved of by Mr. Huish, who ob- 
 serves, that great care should be taken to keep the hives as 
 clean as possible during the prevalence of the dysentary a- 
 mongst your bees. 
 
 He further observes, that the antenna of the bee . are some- 
 times diseased, and turn yellow, attended with some swelling ; 
 but considers the disease as slight. The abortive brood, al- 
 though not an epedemical disorder, is still very injurious in its 
 effects upon the bees. Two causes produce this effect : first, 
 when the bees have given the larva improper food ; second, 
 when the worm is placed in the cell with the tail towards its 
 mouth. In this case, the young bees, incapable of extrication, 
 die and putrif}^ 
 
 The bees generally remedy the evils 6f this putrefaction by 
 removmg the gtbortive brood ; but should this accident take 
 place in winter, the infected combs may be cht out when the 
 hives are examined in the spring. The tops of the cells, when 
 Bound, are convex- and yeUowish ; when abortive, concave anil 
 blackish. 
 
 There are various enemies of the bee, besides the worm, or 
 butterfly, mentioned in the essay on btes, disclosed to the au- 
 thor smce.that essay was sent to the press,araong which are Uie 
 mouse, pf all kinds, the rat, the toad, and the ant. It is believ^ 
 
MALADIES OF BEES. 255 
 
 ed. the attention of the keeper in fixing his apiary, may guard 
 the bee generally agafnst these common enemies. The king 
 bird also, and the woodpecker, sometimes hover about the api- 
 ary to feed on the bees ; they may be carefully watched and 
 destroyed. The spider will also entrap the bee in his web, and 
 feed on him. The spider enters the hive when the weather is 
 cold, and the bees have lost their energies, spin their web and 
 thus obtain their prey. The wasp is also an enemy to the'bee ; 
 he surveys the hive m summer, and whenever he finds a crevice 
 enters and robs the hive, aad feeds on the honey. The wasps 
 collectively, sometimes attack weak hives, the same as robbin* 
 bee^, and rob the swarm. ® 
 
 Mr. Huish observes, that he does not know a more efficacious 
 inethod of destroying wasp's nests, than sulphur. The wasp, 
 the bumble bee, aiid the honey bee, all feed on the same food 
 for this reason,the two first should be driven as much as possi- 
 ble from the neighborhood of the apiary, particularly in Sep- 
 tember and October, when the herbage of the field fails, they 
 are driven by hunger to rob the hives. Unless you watch vour 
 bees carefully at this season, they may be ruined beforeVou 
 are aware. The toad is also the enemy of bees, and will catch 
 them, particularly in warm weather. He should be driven 
 from the vicinity of the apiary. A little garlic rubbed about 
 your lave, will guard them against the ravages of the ant. 
 
 The moth is an pnemy to the bee. It is the caterpillar, which 
 m a certam state, gnaws our trees, books, paper, &c. Stroncr' 
 hives can protect themselves against the moth ; but weak hivel 
 
 ZlZ^T.u'T' '"' '"^^"'' '^'^ "^^^^' '- '^^ butterfly 
 ter tv. ! . ^'"'' '" ^'''^ '"^ ^^'°^^^' ^"d ^y her dex- 
 
 terity deposits her eggs amongst the comb, and dies. ' From ev- 
 ery egg a smooth caterpillar bursts forth, of a pale white, its 
 head bro^^^ and scaly. It encloses itself in a little web of wliite 
 a^lkwhichit attaches to the combs, and in which it finds its 
 ^ood, by projecting its head beyond its case. When the food 
 ground It begins to faU, it prolongs its silken webj which. 
 
2ijQ A6R1CULTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 though a mere thread at the beginning, becomes almost insen- 
 sibly, as large as a quill. This insect, having attained its 
 growth, submits to the metamorphosis, common to all caterpil- 
 lars ; it quits its residence, retires to one corner of the hive, or 
 departs from it ; spins a white covering, emerges as a butterfly, 
 copulates, and re-enters the hive to deposit its eggs as before. 
 This insect, next to man, is the most destructive enemy of the 
 bee. Mr. Huish thinks a remedy against this insect is very dif- 
 ficult, and advises that whenever you suspect your hives are 
 devouring by the moth, oin your hive, and thus save the little 
 which remains. If your bees become inactive, when other 
 swarms are at work, and continue so 10 or 15 days, no time is 
 to be lost in examining your hive, when the ravages of the 
 moth will appear. The same author observes, save your bees 
 if possible by removal to another hive ; all their labors are lost 
 in that hive. 
 
 Every apiarian, who expects to reap profits from his hives, 
 must be constantly on the alert, to effect the destruction of the 
 enemies of the bees ; who always would carry on their depre- 
 dations in secret. 
 
Ctn^tFKE OF THE BEE. *257 
 
 The Adva'ntages whtch accrue to the State and to 
 "Individuals fro.m the Culture of the Bee. 
 
 The whole history of the proper management of the bee, 
 would fill a considerable volume. But when the advantages to 
 be derived from them, are duly appreciated, it cannot be be- 
 lieved that individuals would want inducements to pay more at- 
 
 'tention to their culture. 
 
 "It is a notorious fact, that England pays annually to the 
 north of Germany, £40 or £50,000 sterling, for the produce of 
 the bee, which could be saved by a small expence by her own 
 peasantry. Even in America, we are so regardless of the pro- 
 
 'fits of the bee, as to import honey in hogsheads from the island 
 of Cuba and elsewhere. T^To country possesses greater ad van- 
 
 'tages for the culture of 'the bee. and perhaps no country has 
 so grossly neglected it." 
 Mr. Huish, after having gone over a complete system of the 
 
 .jnanagement of the bee, observes, "I consider 200 hives may be 
 managed by one person, with some slight assistance, during tht 
 
 swarming season. 
 
 Some French authors eulogize the skill of M. Proerteac, who 
 had constantly under his care, from 5 to 600 hives ; this is rare, 
 and pei-haps the only one. I will state the profits of five years, 
 •upon a fair and equitable scale, making, at the same time, fair 
 and ample allowances for the losses, which even the most skil- 
 ful apiarian cannot prevent. 
 
 Suppose a person to buy a sw arm in 1819, for v,^hich he payp 
 one guinea. In the month of Blay or June his hive swarms, 
 and in about ten days it swarms again ; this is called a cast. 
 His apiary now consists of three hives, from one of which, (the 
 last,) it will be most prudent for him to take the honey, and the 
 bees be joined to the strongest stock of hives. Suppose the 
 •casts weigh 15 pounds, say 22 shillings; thus, in the first year 
 he has received back the price ofhis original hive, and dou- 
 
258 AGRICFLTURAL ESSAfS. 
 
 bled his stock. The second year his two hives produce him 
 four swarms and two casts ; let him sell the honey his of casts at 
 15 shillings each, which will give him thirty shillings, and add 
 the swarms to his stocks ; he has now four good stocks ; at the 
 end of each year let him weigh his hives and take all the 
 comb over thirty pounds ; say eleven pounds a year from each 
 hive ; this gives him forty pounds of honey comb, at one shil- 
 ling sixpence, gives him three pounds; this added to the profit, 
 or the two casts as before, gives four pounds ten shillings. 
 The third year his four hives produce four swarms and four 
 casts ; he goes on as before, and on the fourth year his 
 apiary consists of eight stocks. At the beginsning of the 
 fifth year, his apiary has increased to sixteen stocks. 
 
 From the above statement let him who is, or would be an 
 apiarian, or keeper of bees, calculate the actual profit 
 
 The profit which is obtained from the bee, bears no propor- 
 tion to the little trouble and time required to their culture, 
 which should induce more of our farmers to engage in the bu- 
 siness, as but very little expence of time or property, and no 
 extensive capital is necessary. 
 
 "As a proof of the importance attached to the culture of the 
 Bee, Wildman qu jtes a modern author, who affirms that when 
 the Romans took possession of the Island of Corsica,they impos- 
 ed a tribute of wax on the inhabitants, to the amount of 2CO,000 
 pounds annually ; supposing the island retained the same quan- 
 tity, that would give 400,000 pounds per annum made in one 
 Island by this wonderful insect. The known proportion of 
 wax to honey in a hive is as 1 to J 5 or 20 ; then multiply 
 400,000 pounds by 15 or 20, we have six or eight millions of 
 pounds of honey, independent of the wax as above." Linneus, 
 in speaking of the bee, says it is not yet determined if the 
 bees, and other insects which feed on lioney, occasion any in- 
 jury to the little embryos, or cause any destruction to their 
 generation, by imbibing the nectar of the flowers." It ia ob- 
 vious that tiie Bees afford immense profits to the cwltivatorsr 
 
MANUFACTURE OF METHEGLlN. 
 
 and that too with very little expence and trouble, and withoi^t 
 any injury to the vegetable kingdom. It must therefore, be 
 from either a want of knowledge or attention to this branch of 
 rural economy, that America has hitherto derived so little 
 share from the profits of this wonderful insect 
 
 The Manufacture of Metheglin. 
 
 A hundred pounds of honey is generally used to make a 
 barrel of this liquor ; ninety has, however, been found to an- 
 swer very well. The liquor is thus made. Take of honey 
 and clear water, in the above proportions, and boil them for an 
 hour ; when the liquor is cool, barrel it, adding some ginger, 
 cloves, and mace, if you would improve it, though it will make a 
 good and delicious beverage without. Some yeast is to be put m- 
 to the cask to ferment it ; and let it have a little vent while fer- 
 menting, but close the vent as soon as moat of the fermenta- 
 tion is over. It may be improved by bottling it, af^er five or 
 six months* 
 
20© 
 
 A6KICJ5LTURAL ESflAYS 
 
 Manufacture of Mead, 
 
 Mead is a beverage prepared of water and boney. There 
 ^re three distinct kinds of Mead, the simple, the compound, and 
 the vinous. Simple Mead is made of water and honey, which 
 does not undergo fermentation. Compound Mead is mixed 
 with fruits and essences, in order to give it a flavour. Vinous 
 Mead is made ^f honey and water which is subject to fermen- 
 tation. Simple Mead is made by boiling three parts of water 
 to one of honey ; the honey may be increased or diminished to 
 the taste. The process is over a slow fire until one third is e- 
 vaporated, then skimmed and put into a cask, until the cask 
 is full. After three or four days it will be fit for use. The cloths 
 which have been used in filtrating the honey from the combs 
 may now be used and cleared from their hoiiey in the boiling 
 -mead. 
 To make CompoundMead, during the boiling process of simple 
 mead, add half a pound of raisins, stoned and seeded, to six 
 pounds of honey, or four pints of water ; boil these well togeth- 
 er until the raisins become soft, and the four pints are wasted, 
 to two : strain this liquor through linen, gently, and mix it with 
 your mead, and let them continue to boil ; add to the boiling 
 mead a toasted crust of bread steeped in beer. Skim the 
 mead again; remove it from the fire and when cool, barrel it 
 as in simple mead, with an ounce of the salt of tartar dissolved 
 in a glass of brandy. Let the barrel be full, that the froth may 
 work over, and continue to fill, as the barrel diminishes 
 by working. When this subsides, bung close and stow it a- 
 way in your cellar ; after a few months it will be fit for use. 
 To give a variety of flavors to this mead, a few drops of the 
 essence of cinnamon may be mixed with tlie salt of tartar and 
 brandy ; some lemon peal, syrup of gooseberries, cherries, 
 strawberries, or aromatic flowers, according to the taste of 
 thoee wlio are to use it. 
 
Qfil 
 MANOFACTCRE OF MEAD, 
 
 VinousMead is said to bo the beverage of all the no'^ernpeo- 
 nle of Europe. The Russians complete thei^mead with heney, 
 rheries" strawberries, goosberries, and -'^ernes- they soak 
 these fruits several days in cleor ^f '' to«h>ch they add 
 some virgin honey, and a piece of bread soaked in beer The 
 bamls are placed in a room 18 to 25 degreesof heat day and 
 night. The fermentation commences in s,x or e^htdays and 
 Usu about six weeks, spontaneously ; it isthen fit for use, but 
 increases its value by age. 
 
 The French imitate with Mead the choices wines, such as 
 Malaga, Rota, Muscat, Constantia, &c. The beverage is said 
 not to be unhealthy. 
 
 It may be considered that by substituting the delicious bev^ 
 era.e of Metheglin and Mead for distilled liquors, an immense 
 sX of health and expence maybe made by those who, by 
 habitfwouldmakesomekind of stimulating ^P-^^'^.XTto 
 articl'e of sustenance; it may also be ^he means of add^^^^ to 
 the value of honey; by converting some part of it to those U 
 auors for market. 
 
OH0 
 
 ASRrCUirURAL EMATS, 
 
 TlIRESHI.NGV 
 
 When the threshing ofgrain is performed- with flails, it is 
 dow and hard work. Farmers in some parts of our country 
 thresh with a roller, which turns on a centre at one end and 
 ^hich ,s small and confined to the iioor at that enrbyan' iron 
 pivot oil which ,t turn,, and the other end is large in propor- 
 tion to the increase ofthe circle which it makes It is drawn 
 by ahorse, and IS usually of the length of about twel™ feet 
 It IS set full ofiittle square pieces of wooden teeth lln^™ 
 
 perfice ofthe roller. With this a man and horse itis said 
 will thresh out about twelve bushels of wheat in a dJ ' 
 
 put in use. Sir John Sinclair observes, that the threshinsr ma- 
 chine IS considered to be the most vduable imp lemenf t"at 
 r'r: *--,'>-7-^-<l, and states tlie follo^ a a- 
 
 ^fld ?^ ™""""- "'■ From the superiority of 
 
 tiie mode, one twentieth part more is o-nmprl fr^J *u 
 
 quantitrof straw than by?he«ldTsMoSrme«iod t The' ' 
 work IS done much more expeditiously. 3. The grain is Teas 
 subjec to injury. 4. Seed can be produced without ^ctty 
 from the new crop. 5. The markets may be supplied with 
 gram sooner m tunes of scarcity. 6. The straw softened by 
 themJl,.smoreusefulia feeding cattle. 7. If a stock of 
 corn be heated, it may be threshed in a day an. the gra n pre 
 
 fromlT'"'"^- '• ^''^"'^'^^''ingmmiessenslheinl,; 
 from smutty gram. And 9. By the same machine, the grah^ 
 
 fr:LtTar ''°™*^^'^^'^^"^^"'^" --'^'^ -' - 
 
 tZtw ^'""S!'"^'' Encylopedia, gives a description of a 
 threshing machine invented by Mr. Meckle, which on a large 
 scale, and driven by water, threshes, fans, and cleans wheat. 
 
THRESHIKG. '26^ 
 
 at the rate of sixty "bushels an hour. On a smaller scale, work- 
 ed by two horses and three hands to attend to it, this machine 
 will thresh and clear sixty bushels of wheat, or double that 
 quantity of oats, in eight hours. Rollers or small mill stones 
 are added to many of these machines for crushi.ig or grinding 
 grain. Knives for cutting hay, he obsi^rves, might be added, 
 Mr. Elihue Hotchkiss, of Brattleborough, Vermont, has invent- 
 ed and taken a patent for a threshing machine, from the Mas- 
 sachusetts Agricultural Society, in 1818. The Society like- 
 wise purchased the patent right for Massachusetts, and it may 
 be found am.ong the implements belonging to that Society. 
 
 A remark may be made relating to the threshing machine, 
 which has been mentisned, that is applicable to the economy 
 of all labor-saving machines ; which is, that their object is not 
 to encourage habits of indolence, or any exemption from those 
 of the most indefatigable industry. Let all the labor be saved 
 which can be effected by the intelligence and ingenuity of man, 
 and still, in the progress of agricultural miprovements, enough 
 will be found to engage the whole attention, and give emplo'}'- 
 ment to all his energies. The most perfect state of agricultur- 
 al improvements, is not to be expected, without the intellectual 
 powers of man are called into action, te aid and facilitate his 
 labors.. 
 
t6i AGRICULTURAL ESSATS. 
 
 General Remarks on the objects of imfrovins t>tJK 
 Agricultural Economy. 
 
 The first object to be answered by efforts to increase the 
 productive powers of the soil, is to promote the interest and 
 increase the comfors of the present generation. Another, and 
 perhaps not the least important one, is, to form the habits of 
 posterity for encountering the evils of a crowded population. 
 With respect to the Srst, it is very obvious, that if the farmer 
 could obtain as much or more produce from one third or one 
 half of the land he cultivates, whether it be fifty, an hundred, 
 or any greater number of acres, and that too with the same 
 expense of labor, he would thereby make a clear saving of 
 capital to the value of the one half or two thirds of the land 
 he possesses, which he might rent or otherwise dispose of. 
 I'hat he may make this saving of capital, is proved from nu- 
 merous experiments. It is often observed, that those farmers 
 in our country, who have the fewest acres, generally get the 
 best living. They do uctually derive more produce from their 
 soil ; and possess more of the comforts and conveniences of 
 life. These spend their whole time, we will suppose, in culti" 
 vataig their smaller number of acres; so also does he who 
 possesses the larger farm. The farmer having smaller enclo- 
 sures makes a saving in the article of fence, a less quantity of 
 seed is required, a saving in the expense of ploughing, and a 
 saving of taxes. Although the former does, and ought to 
 spend his whole time in the cultivation of his soil, yet a much 
 less capital is required to render his labors successful, than 
 would be to cultivate one half, or two thirds more land. It is 
 often, too, for want of sufficient capital, that the farmer who is 
 ambitious of possessing a large farm, that he may appear to be 
 rich, often fails of success ; not having sufficient stock to work 
 his lands properly, nor cattle enough to furnish manure, nor 
 money to purchase the articles he ought to possess, to make 
 
FMPROVING OUR AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY. 2G^, 
 
 the cultivation of his soil profitable. For this reason we often 
 gee respectable, intelligent, and industrious farmers living in a 
 state of penury and hard labor : and at last, from some unfavor- 
 able seasons, and other incidental misfortunes, sinking under 
 the weight of accumulated butdens. 
 
 There are, it is true, many farmers scattered over our wide 
 extended country, who possess c|pital sufficient, and whose 
 wisdom and industry enable them to cultivate extensive iarms 
 with success. But the establishments of that class of farmers 
 by the policy of our government, are liable to be dissolved, to 
 be subdivided among their descendants, and eventually among 
 other citizens. It is to the wisdom, and success of the small 
 kind owner, the common farmer, that our republic will event- 
 ually owe its prosperity, the dignity of its character, and the 
 perpetuity of its privileges. The occupancy of many very large 
 farms by individuals, can never be expected to characterise the 
 prosperity of ouj Republic. The value and respectability of 
 our population will diminish in proportion to the unequal distri- 
 bution of our lands. 
 
 But our farmers are continually hazarding the loss of 
 the lands they possess, by cultivating so much, and in such 
 a manner, that no one acre yields to them an adequate 
 remuneration for their toil and expense. Their embarrass- 
 ments consequently accumulate, untill they are forced to sell 
 their farms to enable them to meet the claims of their creditors ; 
 or if they are not driven to this extremity, they are often sub- 
 jected to the evil of toiling through the year, without obtaining 
 from their industry a competency to defray the current expen- 
 ses of their living. 
 
 It is believed that on the same number of acres, the expense 
 of raising a poor crop is generally nearly as much as that of 
 raising a large one. There is the same expended in fencing — 
 the same in taxes — the same quantity of seed sown — and per- 
 haps nearly the same expended in ploughing — and the same, 
 or more, labor in threshing ;— and generally, as much or more- 
 labor in the whole process of tillage. 
 
26G AGRICULTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 These considerations, one would suppose, are sufficient to 
 induce our farmers to improve their crops by a more thorough 
 and skilful course of cultivation. 
 
 It is well known that there are men in our country who are 
 intelligent and industrious, who possess perhaps from thirty to 
 fifty acres of land, and yet are devoting their services to the 
 concerns of their neighbors, for the avowed leason, that they 
 caniot support their families on so small an extent of land. But 
 the)^and most other farmers in our country ,have yet to learn the 
 productive power of a perfectly cultivated soil. Instead, there- 
 fore, of seeking wealth by increasing the number of their a- 
 cres, it is hoped they will be induced to seek it in better modes 
 of husbandry* It is believed that, as a general truth, it may be 
 said the farms throughout New- England, containing one hun- 
 dred acres, were they divided into thirds, by quantity and qual- 
 ity, that each third might, by suitable cultivation, be made to 
 produce more than the whole hundred acre^do at present 
 
 If the farmer, who barely subsists by toiling all the year oA 
 one hundred, or one hundred and fifty acres of land, thinks he 
 cannot afford to expend a cent more on the tillage of an acre 
 than he has been accustomed to do, let him enable himself to 
 do it by saving it in fencing, leaving out some of his lands that 
 bring him but little profit, by means of which he will have to 
 pay less taxes on tillage land ; or he may turn some of his til- 
 lage land to grass ; and so bestow the same labor and manure 
 on, say, a third less land in tillage. 
 
 If lands are naturally so unproductive, or so badly cultivated, 
 a? not to yield to the owner a reasonable profit for his labor 
 and capital employed, it would be much better to abandon 
 them altogether, or bestow more labor and manure on only a 
 part of th^n, and let the remaining part be appropriated as a 
 pasture for cattle or sheep. 
 
 A renovation in the general system of agricultural economy 
 hjay not be expected until the habits of our farmers, formed 
 
IMPROVING OVR AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY. 267 
 
 under the influence of tradition and prejudice, shall many of 
 them be exploded ; nor until we shall begin duly to appreciate 
 the importance of forming our own habits, as well as those of 
 our posterity, for encountering the evils of a crowded popula- 
 tion. 
 
 This consideration presents an object of vast importance. 
 In the Eastern World, those evils have began to press, when 
 the habits and manners of the people were formed ; and so 
 formed as to aggravate and increase, rather than to avert 
 them. They probably were governed by the influence of the 
 same error that we now are. The farmer who possessed only 
 an hundred acres, and had a number of sons, did not think him- 
 self able to provide a competent agricultural establishment for 
 only one. The others, if tkey were not educated for some of 
 the learned professions, were either sent to the army, or en- 
 gaged in commercial or mechanical pursuits, to depend for 
 support on the casualties and caprice of customers ; or on the 
 degrading and dependent emploympnt of hired servants. 
 
 It is very obvious from a view of their present condition, that 
 no calculation has been made throughout most of the kingdoms 
 of Europe, to provide for the evils of a crowded population, by 
 engaging the laboring class of their citizens in developing the 
 utmost productive resources of their soil. For while they 
 have vast forests, as well as extensive tracts of valuable land 
 lying in an uncultivated state, not more than one sixth part of 
 her population is employed in practical agriculture, and a great 
 proportion of it doomed to the most abject state of servitude 
 and penury. 
 
 The American people are too much inclined to form the 
 habit of the rising generation for other than agricultural pur- 
 suits ; too many had rather see their sons engaged in some 
 specnlative pursuits, by vvhich they may chance to live, without 
 the drudgery of the field, rather than settle down on fifteen or 
 twenty acres of land, to "seize the plough and greatly indepen- 
 dent live." We have in our republic too many professional 
 
rbO AfiRiCULtURAL E5^AY4. 
 
 naen, too many mechanics, too many commercial men, and too 
 many soldiers ; as well as too many who, by the policy of our 
 government, 6r the indulgence of their fathers or guardians, 
 "ure permitted to waste the vigor of their youth, without any 
 ostensible object of pursuit, which may prepare them for use- 
 fulness. 
 
 In this state of things our larger farms are not cultivated as 
 'they ought to be, and our small ones, though well cultivated 
 'when in the" occupancy of wise and industrious husbandmen,yet 
 "ure frequently almost entirely neglected,' because they are not 
 supposed to be large enough to make their cultivation a suf- 
 ficient object. It has been remarked that farmers are often 
 ruined because they have too great plenty of land in their 
 possession. This may be true, but there is no reason why it 
 'should continue to be so any more than that being rich should 
 necessarily make a man poor. The man ^ who possesses 
 timch land, should clear and improve no more than he can cul- 
 tivate to advantage. 
 
 The author of these essays does not pretend that new theo- 
 ries will give to agricultural operations any sudden and extra- 
 ordinary impulse, in the developement of national or mdividu- 
 al resources. Nature has given nothing to man without labor. 
 The truth of this has been attested by the efforts which were 
 necessary in cbmpihng this small volume; in which, however 
 judiciously the information it contains, may appear to 
 have been selected, it presents only an introductory view 
 to a science, in the pursuit of which, we may expect to make, 
 indefinite progression. Notwithstanding how much may be at- 
 tributed to the expediency of studying agriculture as a science, 
 it is believed that it is not so much for the want of knowledge 
 " or of theories, as of attention, of proper emulation, of industry, 
 and economy, that it is not yet in a condition as much improved 
 and prosperous as it probably would be, and as it should be, 
 if we would act with a wise reference to the interests of our 
 posterity, and ©f our country. 
 
-. IMPROVING OUR AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY^ */^6^ 
 
 ' One important object of recording the discoveries and ex- 
 periment of agriculturaUsts, may be to put farmers upon 
 thinking about their proper business, and to excite emulatioa 
 among them, so as to callinto action the talent and resource 
 they possess. When this is accomplished, we may confident^ 
 ly expect aU other obstacles to the progress of theiSSi«iv&e «il 
 be removed^ 
 
 t2 
 
'^0 agricultural essay?. 
 
 Manufacturing thc Sap of the Maple. 
 
 The manufacturing sugar from the maple, is an important 
 item in the system of domestic economy. And as our young 
 men are often engaged in clearing our forests, it is important 
 that they are not only apprisedof the importance of preserving 
 the sugar maple,but that they should understand the process of 
 making the greatest profit from its juices. 
 
 Seasons fou tapping. By trials made in the month of 
 February, it will readily be discovered when this valuable 
 tree ought to be bored, for the purpose of extracting the sap, 
 as in that month either earlier or later, according to the sea- 
 son, it generally begins to yield a sufficient quantity for com- 
 jnencing the business. 
 
 Tapping or boring. Four hundred trees, each bored with 
 two holes,as nearly as may be on the south side : and also with 
 two holes on the north side of the tree in the early part of the 
 season, with screw augers, from two to four quarters of an 
 inch, according to the size of the tree ; and towards the middle 
 of the season, a like number of trees to be bored in the same 
 manner, is recommended as abetter mode for the management 
 «f four hands, than if the whole number of eight bundled trees 
 were tapped at the first running of the sap. This calculation 
 Biay of course be varied according to the number of trees, or 
 kands employed. The sap of the second parcel tapped, will be 
 found richer, and more productive than if a part had been ex- 
 tracted earlier. The auger should enter the tree at first, not 
 »ore than three quarters of an inch : the holes may at several 
 times, be deepened to the extent of two inches and a half, as 
 the manner of the sap running may render necessary. 
 The hole should be made slanting or descending, so that the 
 sap may run freely in frosty weather, and not by a slow motion 
 
MANUFACTURE OP MAPLE SAP. 
 
 271 
 
 be liable to freeze in the mouth of the orifice. In these holes 
 spouts should be fixed, to project from the tree, from eight to 
 twelve inches, and not to enter the tree more than about half 
 an inch; as the farther they enter the more the running of 
 the sap is obstructed ; they should be prepared, in readiuess 
 for the season, of elder and sumach. 
 
 Preserving the sap. In the early part of the season the 
 sap will keep two or three days without injuring ; but as the 
 spring advances, it will be necessary to boil the sap the day 
 after it iscollected, or it may ferment and sour. Lime. — To 
 every half barrel, or fifteen gallon kettle, a tea spoonful of 
 slacked lime should be put in, while the sap is fermenting, 
 and before it boils : this promotes the rising of the scum and 
 forming of the grain. Boiling.-^ A smart fire should be 
 kept up, while the sap is boiling. As the scum rises, be careful 
 to skim it off. When the liquor is reduced one half in quanti- 
 ty, lade the second kettle from the end into the end one, and 
 when the contents of three or four kettles can be contained in 
 one, let the whole be laded into that, at the end ; flUing up 
 the empty kettles without delay, with fresh sap. As the li- 
 quor in the end kettle, removed from tJiose which have been 
 mentioned, becomes a syrup, it should be strained through a 
 good blanket or woolen cloth ; and care must be taken not to 
 suffer it to boil so long as to be too thick to be strained in this 
 manner. It should, when thus cleansed from its impurities, 
 stand in buckets or other suitable vessels, twelve hours or 
 more, that the particles of lime, and other remaining sediment 
 may settle to the bottom ; after which it should be so gently 
 poured ofi*into a kettle or boiler, as not to carry with it any 
 of theie settlings. However they need not be wholly lost, 
 they will mostly contain a considerable quantity of sugar and 
 eyrup ; by pouring fresh sap on them, stirring them well to- 
 gether, and suffering them to stand a while to settle, a great 
 part of the valuable sweets contained in such sediment may be 
 saved. It may be further noted, that when the sap is weak. 
 
-^78 
 
 • Aa*ie*LTHRAL £S8AT^^ 
 
 which is generally the case toward the latter part of the eea- 
 son, it requires more boiling, and a higher proof, than that 
 collected earlier and of greater strength. 
 
 The above method, on actual experiment, is said to 
 have answered well pbut a judicious su^ar boiler believes, 
 .hat It would be best to avoid letting the syrup stand 
 twelve hours after being strained through a blanket: when 
 the process is begun, the sooner it is completed, in his opinion, 
 the better ; the design of its so standing for twelve hours be- 
 ing chiefly intended to give sufficient time for the particles of 
 hme and other sediment to collect at the bottom of the kettle. 
 It is proposed that Jime should be mixed • with a quantity of 
 fresh sap in the evening, and be well stirred ; the large parti- 
 cles oflimeinthis case, will be likely to-subside before morn- 
 ing, and the clear sap so impregnated, may be mixed the next 
 morning, in proper proportions, in the several kettles, observ- 
 ing however, that in this mode, more lime will be necessary, 
 as less of its strength will be extracted by cold than byiiot 
 water. 
 
 Graining. The syrup having stood twelve hours orupwar^Ifi, 
 then to be gently poured into a kettle or boiler, as above men- 
 tioned ; which would be best placed over afire made of char- 
 coal, as before hinted ; unless the kettle is so fixed in a firnace, 
 Grin such a situation that the flame can be confined to the 
 bottom ; for if it be suffered to pass on the sides,it endangers the 
 syrup's being burned. This operation should^lso be performed 
 with a smart fire, tobeuniformlyand equally kept up, in which, 
 as well as in boiling the green saj^ the use of butter,' hog's lard, 
 and other fat, is notonly very useful and advantageous, but abso^ 
 lutely necessary. 'When m the course of boiling, the sap rises 
 towards the top, apiece of fat equal in sise to a small nutmeg 
 thrown in, will keep it^own. • Particular care should be taken 
 by these means to prevent the risigig of the syrup when grain- 
 ing, which may require a largerproporcion of Dutter, &c. It 
 Is found that the evaporation is much more expeditious, and iit 
 
MANUFACTURE OF MAPLE SAP. 
 
 273 
 
 ^Is'believed that the quantity of sug^ar made is larger, when a 
 ■careful guar€ is kept up to prevent the sap, and particularly 
 "the syrup when graining, from rising, by the timely intro- 
 -duction of a piece of fat as above described. To form ^ judg- 
 'toent when the syrup is sufficiently boiled, take out with 
 quickness the stirring stick v/hich is constantly kept in the 
 boiler for the purpose of takiHg the proof, rub some of the sy- 
 rup off the lower end of it with the thumb, and if on applying the 
 finger thereto, it draws into a thread, it may be deemed in a 
 proper state to be laded icto a tub or cooler. Then it should 
 be forthwith, and incessantly stirred with a stick about 
 three inches broad, until the grain can be felt between the fin- 
 der and the thumb, v/hen it is in a fit state to be poured intd 
 
 the moulds. 
 
 It requires much practical information, and the exercise of 
 sound discretion, to determine from the different appearances 
 of the syrup in the time of boiling, the moment when some 
 material movements, or changes ought to be mad*. 
 
 Claying, or wUttning the Sugar. To promote the molasses 
 passing more freely from the sugar, when draining in the 
 moulds, and to improve its color, in two or three days after the 
 moulds are unstopped at the lower end, mix white clay with 
 water, so as to reduce it to a thin mortar ; with this cover the ' 
 top of the moulds one inch and a half thick : when this cover- 
 ing appears dry, remove it, and supply the place with a fresh 
 covering of about two inches thick. 
 
 Although it -16 apprehended the use of clay, as above set 
 forth, particularly in the latter part of the season, will be 
 found beneficial, it may, however, be. prudent to continue or 
 decline the practice, according to the effect or use it appears 
 to be of, on a careful trial ; the quantity of clay must be pro- 
 portioned to the manner in which the sugar has been boiled ; 
 if high boiled, it will require much more clay than if boiled 
 . lew. It is also thought the use ©f clay lessen the quantity of 
 
274 
 
 AGRICULTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 sugar, perhaps one fifth part, and may be more or less 
 according to the knowledge of the person who undertakes 
 the busmess. It may be also remarked, that if the quantity 
 of sugar be lessened in weight by claying, one fifth part, 
 it is not to be concluded that the whole of this fifth part 
 will be eventually lost ; there will be more syrup than 
 there otherwise would have been, independent of the water 
 from the clay that passes through the sugar 
 
 Molasses and vinegar. When the trees of the second 
 tapping become poor in quantity and quality, which may be 
 about the tenth of April, or perhaps sooner, then the number of 
 fresh tapped trees will yield a eap ef which may be made good 
 molasses, and also excellent vinegar. In all sugar plantations, 
 it will be advantageous to cut out the different sorts of timber 
 which grow intermixed with the sugar maple, and even those 
 of that species which are not thriving, promising trees. The 
 timber so cut out will serve for fuel for the boilers, and leave 
 greater openings for the rays of the sun to enter, which have 
 a tendency to improve the value of the remaining trees. The 
 ground so cleared of all except the maple tree, it has been ob- 
 served, is particularly favorable for pasture and the g^rowth of 
 grass. 
 
 It appears not to be ascertained, that this tree becomes im- 
 poverished by repeated tappings. There'are instances, partic- 
 ularly among the old settlements on North River, of trees 
 which have been tapped for fiftyyears or upwards, and contin- 
 ue to yield their sap in the season, equal to any brought into 
 use of later time. It is asserted with confidence by some, that 
 those trees by use become more valuable, yielding a sap of a 
 richer quality. 
 
 The above account from the Encyclopedia, may aid the in- 
 experienced manufacturer of sugar, until he may by practice, 
 discover other and more perfect modes. 
 
 It is said all sorts of maple may be propagated by cuttinge. 
 And that if they be cut from the trees before the buds begin to 
 
FINING MAPLE SUGAR. 275 
 
 swell, and before the ground be lit to receive them^ they'may 
 be wrapped in moss, and put in a cool place where they may 
 be kept a month or five weeks without injury. The trees may 
 also be propagated by sowing the seeds commonly called kegs= 
 
 Fining Maple Sugar. 
 
 The following account from Memoirs of the Board of Agri- 
 culture, N. Y. relates solely to the operations of reducing tlie 
 syrup to sugar. When the syrup is reduced to the consistence 
 of West-India molasses, set it away till it is perfectly cold, and 
 then mix with it the clarifying matter, which is milk or eggs ; 
 the latter are said to be preferable, because when heated, the 
 whole of it curdles ; wherens milk produces only a small por- 
 tion of curds. The eggs should be thoroughly beaten and ef- 
 fectually mixed wuth the syrup while cold. The syrup should 
 then be heated till just before it would boii, when the curd ri- 
 ses, bringing with it every impurity, even the coloring matter, 
 or a great portion of it, which it had received from the smoke, 
 kettles, buckets, or reserviors. The boiling should be check- 
 ed, and the scum carefully removed, when the syrup should be 
 slowly turned into a thick woolen strainer, and left to run 
 through at leisure. It is remarked by the author of this ac- 
 count, that a great proportion of the sugar that is made in our 
 country, is not strained after cleansing ; which he thinks is an 
 error. And observes, that if examined in a wine glass, innu- 
 merable minute, and almost imperceptible particles of curd, will 
 be seen floating in it, which, if not removed, render it liable t© 
 burn, and otherwise injure the taste and color of it. A flannel 
 strai/er, he observes, is not only better than a linen one, but is 
 indispensable. One pint of eggs to a pailful of syrup is amply 
 sufficient; and half as much will do very well. The syrup is 
 then put into another kettle, which has been made perfectly 
 clean aiid bright, when it is placed over a quick, but solid fire, 
 
97t> . AGRI^LTURAL ESSAYS. 
 
 and soon rises, but is kept from overflowing" by being- laded 
 with a long dipper. When it is sufficiently reduced, (which 
 may be ascertained by dropping it from the point of a knife, 
 while hot, into one inch of cold water — if done, it will not im- 
 mediately mix with the water, but lies at the bottom in a round 
 flat drop,} it is taken from the fire, and the foaming allowed to 
 subside. A thick white scum, which is useable, is removed, 
 and the sugar turned into a cask, placed on an inclined platform,, 
 and left undisturbed for six weeks or longer, when it should be 
 tapped in the bottom, and the molasses drawn off. It will draio 
 perfectly dry in a few days. 
 
 The sugar made in this way is said to be very nearly as 
 white as lump sugar, and beautifully grained. It is observed 
 by the same writer, that two hands will sugar off 250 pounds 
 m a day. And that from the scum taken off in cleansing, he 
 usually made, by diluting and re-cleansing, one sixth as much 
 -iugar as he had at first, and of an equal quality. 
 
 It is not, he observes, of much consequence, as it regards the 
 quality of the sugar, whether care be taken to keep the sap 
 clean or not. The points in which the greatest error is com- 
 mitted, are, neglecting to use a flannel strainer, to strain after, 
 cleansing ; to have the sugaring kettle properly cleansed : an* 
 to remove the white scum from the sugar,. 
 
Sowing. 
 
 Some remarks have been made in these essays «a the sub- 
 ject of sowing, or properly covering seeds committed to the 
 earth ; but as it is of great importance that this process is cor- 
 rectly understood and practiced, the following remarks on this 
 subject, from the New-England Farmer, are too pertinent and 
 interesting to be omitted. 
 
 "There are three ways of seeding the ground : 1, in hills, as 
 it is called, or in squares ; 2, in drills, or continued rows ; and 
 3, in the broad cast method, or at random with a cast of the 
 hand — which last method is always termed sowing. The first 
 requires the least quantity of seed, the last the greatest. But 
 the crops will not be in proportion to the different quantities of 
 seed. 
 
 With regard to sowing, several things ought to be attended 
 to ; the quality or goodness of the seeds, the time of sowing 
 them, the depth that is best for them, and the quantity or pro- 
 portion of seed to the ground. 
 
 The quality of the seed should be ascertained, in order to 
 determine the quantity that is proper to be sown; for if one 
 tenth part of the seeds, for instance, should be destitute of a 
 vegetative power, a tenth part more of such seeds should be 
 sown than the usual quantity, supposing the seeds to be in per-, 
 fection. 
 
 In order to determine the goodness of the seed to be sown* 
 you should previously take fifty grains, at random, from the 
 parcel ; sow them in good mould, at a proper depth, and care- 
 fully observe how great a proportion fail of coming up. They 
 may be sown in a pot, ^nd kept in a warm part of the house, 
 or in hot bed, that the farmer may have timely notice of the 
 quality of his seeds, when it is too early in the spring to do it 
 in the open ground. Many have missed of a crop, by not tak- 
 ing thi« |)recaution. When seeds are suspected of being to« 
 
U78 AGRICtfLTCRAL ESSAYS. 
 
 old to vegetate, this previous trial should by no means be neg- 
 lected. 
 
 But if we wish to have seeds in the best condition for sow- 
 ing, they should be well ripened on their plants, before they 
 are gathered in; afterwards they should be kept perfectly dry, 
 that they may not contract the least mouldiness ; and never be 
 secluded from the air. Mr. Miller found that air was absolute- 
 ly necessary to maintain the principle of vegetation in seeds* 
 Havmg saved a parcel of fresh seeds, of several kinds, he took 
 some of each, and sealed them up in glass phials ; the other 
 parts of the same seeds he put into bags, and hung them up in 
 a dry place, in a free air. After a year had passed, he took 
 some of the seeds from each phial and each bag, and sowed 
 them at the same time, and on different parts of the same bed. 
 The result was, that almost all the seeds hd took out of the bags 
 grew well, but of those which had been kept in phials not one 
 came up. His discovery was further confirmed by experiments 
 afterwards. How careful then should both farmers and gar- 
 deners be, that no seed designed for sowing, be kept totally se- 
 cluded from the air. 
 
 All kinds of seeds are best kept in their pods or husks ; es- 
 pecially they should be so kept when they are designed to be 
 transported to distant countries or places. 
 
 Accordingly some of the best writers recommend the lying of 
 seed wheat in the sheaf, to the time of sowing. And that none 
 but the best of the grain may be sown, instead of threshing, 
 it is advisable to strike a handful at a time gently against 
 a post, and collect what falls out ; because the heaviest and 
 best grain is always the most easily detached from the ear. 
 
 Being furnished with good seeds, the time for committing 
 them to the earth must in a great measure be determined by 
 the judgment of the experienced husbandman ; because, from 
 various circumstances, it comes to pass, that the true time ad- 
 mits of some latitude. The time for spring sowing will vary 
 according to the variation of the forwardness of the season f 
 
SOWING. 279 
 
 which may be best determined by the respective forwardness 
 6f trees and slvrubs. 
 
 That great naturalist, Linnseus, did not approve of farmerti 
 confining themselves to certain set days or weeks, for commit- 
 ting their seeds to the earth. The seasons are much forward- 
 er in some years than in others. He, therefore, recommends 
 to his countrymen, as a better practice, to take notice at what 
 time the trees unfold their leaves. Nature is so uniform in her 
 operations, that the forwardness of trees is an unfailing indica- 
 tion of the forwardness of the spring. And the genial warmth, 
 which causes trees and shrubs to put forth their leaves, will be 
 sufficient to cause seeds to vegetate. 
 
 it would b6 desirable, if gentlemen would keep and regular- 
 ly publish a record of the flowering of plants, according to the 
 example exhibited in the following account of the leafing and 
 blossoming of trees and shrubs, which was taken in that part 
 of New-Englaad which lies in the 44th degree of latitude, in 
 the spring of the year 178^. 
 
 
 Leafing. 
 
 Blossoming. 
 
 Gooseberry 
 
 April 16. 
 
 May 12. 
 
 English Willow - 
 Wild Red Cherry - 
 
 - 28. 
 
 
 29. 
 
 19. 
 
 Lilac - - - - 
 
 - - 30, 
 
 
 Currant , - - 
 
 May 1. 
 
 9. 
 
 Alder . - - - 
 
 - - 5. 
 
 
 Apple-tree 
 
 . - 6. 
 
 25. 
 
 Thorn-bush 
 
 - 7. 
 
 
 White Birch - 
 
 8. 
 
 
 White Maple 
 
 - - a 
 
 
 Beech . - - 
 
 10. 
 
 
 Plumb-tree - - - 
 
 . 12. 
 
 
 Hazle 
 
 - . 14. 
 
 
 Elm - - • - 
 
 - 15. 
 
 
 Summer Pear - 
 
 17. 
 
 32. 
 
 Common Red Cherry - 
 
 - la 
 
 20. 
 
 Damascene Plumb - 
 
 > 
 
 20 
 
 GrevOak - 
 
 - 20. 
 
 
 White Oak 
 
 , 28, 
 
 
280 AttllieFLTWRAli ESSAYS. 
 
 But there are other circumstances to be taken into the account 
 which may further vary the seaedn for spring sowing. A light 
 warm soil may receive the seeds earlier than one that is strong 
 tnd moist The former will arrive to the right degree of dry- 
 ness sooner than the latter, and is earlier fit for the operations 
 •f tillage. And this is certain, that seeds that require the ear- 
 liest sowing, must not be sown befoie the earth can be well 
 pulverized. Neither should plants that are easily killed by 
 frost, be 60 early sown as to be up till the spring frosts are 
 past. 
 
 If seeds are sown too early, or when the ground is too wet 
 %nd cold for them, they will either perish or fail of coming up J 
 •r if they come up, it is slowly, so that the plants become 6tin^ 
 ed in their growth, and never arrive to a full size. If the 
 right season for sowing should elapse, the husbandman may 
 accelerate vegetation by steeping the seeds in a ley of wood 
 ashes, or other proper monstruum, so that they may overtake 
 in their growth those which were sown in the right season. 
 
 The depth at which different seeds should be buried in the 
 •oil, is various, according to the difference in seeds and soils, 
 M. Duhamel found by experiment, that but few seeds will 
 come up at all, when buried deeper than nine inches ; that 
 some seeds rise very well from the depth of six inches ; and 
 that other seeds do not rise at all when they are more than two 
 inches under the surface. And in general, those seeds the 
 body of which are thrown above the surface in vegetating, 
 ihould have the less quantity of soil above them, that they may 
 ■ot meet with too much resistance in rising ; such as kidney 
 beans, and many other sorts. Also the same may and ought 
 to be buried deeper in a light and dry, than in a heavy and 
 moist soil. When the ground is rolled after sowing, the seeds 
 will vegetate the nearer to the surface. And therefore they 
 donot need to be sown so deep as when the rolling is omitted. 
 To d&termiDO what ia tho ri^ht depth iti a doubtful case^ Mr. 
 
sowise. 
 
 281 
 
 Tull hag suggested an excellent method : Take a dozen of 
 sticks for guages ; mark the first at half an inch from the end: 
 the next at an inch ; and so on, increasing half an inch to each. 
 Then in the sort of ground you intend to sow, make a row of 
 twenty holes, with the half inch guagc ; put in twenty good 
 seeds and cover them, and stick up the guage at the end of 
 the row. Then do the like with the rest of the sticks. Ob- 
 serve how the seeds prosper in the different rows, and you 
 will discover at what depth that kmd of seed should be buried. 
 This experiment, however useful, can be of little or no use in 
 the old field husbandry ; for in the broad cast way of sowing, 
 the seeds will be differently covered. But sbwing fields with 
 the driU, in equi-distant rows, when horse-hoeing is not in- 
 tended, cannot be too much commended, if it were only on ac- 
 count of the seed that may be saved by it. Much seed is wast- 
 ed in the common way of sowing. For some of the seed will 
 be so deeply covered that they will not vegetate ; some will be 
 left on the surface, which is a prey for birds, and perhaps 
 leads them to- scratch up some of the rest: some will lie so 
 near the surface as to be destroyed by variation of weather, 
 being alternately wetted or scorched. And of those seeds 
 that grow, some rise earlier and some later, so that the crop 
 does not ripen equally. The seeds will fell from the hands of 
 the sower too thick in some spots and too thin in others, by 
 meuns of the unevenness of the surface ; and the harrowing 
 will perhaps increase the inequality, so that many will be so 
 crowded as to be unfruitful, while the rest have more room 
 than is necessary.. 
 
 But when the seeds are put in with the drill, they will rise 
 nearly together ; not so much so as one seed will be wast- 
 ed or lostr supposing them sown at the right distance; each 
 one may have so much room, as is most conducive to its 
 growth ; no starved head will appear, and the whole will ripen 
 together. Haifa bushel of wheat, or even a less quantity, in 
 this way will seed an acre sufficiently ; which would be a greai» 
 advantage at a time of scarcity of seed.. 
 
282 
 
 AGRKJULTURAL ESSAT8. 
 
 It is difficult to determine the quantity of seed that is 
 best to be sown in the broad cast way. Doubtless it should 
 vary according to circumstances. When seed is very large 
 ^nd full grown, two bushels may not be more than equal 
 to one that is small and pinched, suppose the seeds equally dis- 
 posed to vegetate, which is often the case. For the true 
 quantity should be estimated, rather by the number of grains, 
 than by measure or weight. Not that pinched grain should 
 be sowed except in ease of necessity. For it may be expected 
 that the most pe rfect seeds will produce the best plants. 
 
 Rich land will afford nourishment to a greater number of 
 plants than that which is poor. But if by furnishing more 
 Rourishment it will increase the number of sprouts from a 
 aingle seed, then it maybe supposed in some cases of sowing, 
 a less quantity of seed would produce more plants on such 
 land than could be cultivated successfully on that of a poorer 
 soil. Therefore, the proportion of seed sown on a rich or poor 
 fioil, must be determined by the nature of the seed, aa well as 
 the relative strength of the soils. 
 
 The sowmg of winter grain is perhaps a more difficult matter 
 to manage rightly than vernal seeding. Mr. Deane thinks far- 
 mers mistake their interests when they persist in sowing win- 
 ter grain at a certain time of the year, let the weather be ever 
 so hot, and the ground be ever so dry. By heat and dryness 
 the seeds will sometimes be so scorched in the soil, that not a 
 fourth part of them ever come up. Therefore, if a drought 
 happen at the usual sowing season, it will be needful to defer 
 sowing till some rain has fallen, and the soil has got a due de- 
 free of moisture. How long it may be best to wait for such a 
 favorable opportunity, must be left to the jndgment of the ex- 
 perienced farmer. Also, a spot that has been newJy cleared 
 by burning, may be sown later in autumn than other land. It 
 ought to be sown later, if the growth before winter be wished 
 'to be only equally forward ; for the ashes will so quicken the 
 <?egetation, that if it be seeded early, it will attain to too large 
 
SOWING. 28S 
 
 ti'growth before winter. It is, however, believed by many, that 
 early sown grain is not so likely to be injured by tlie frosts^, 
 which are more likely to disengage, and throw out of the 
 ground, and thereby destroy the roots of grain of less size and 
 strength than those of earlier sown grain. But, perhaps it will 
 be found to be a good rule, to sow grain the earlier, in propor- 
 tion as the winters are longer and colder. But it cannot be ju- 
 dicious to confine the true time to certain days or weeks. 
 
 The experience of persons in other countries may mislead 
 us, it is therefore greatly to be wished, that a set of the most 
 accurate experiments were made by some judicious persons in 
 this country, in order to ascertain the best time for autumnai 
 sewing 
 
CHEMICAL TERMS EXPLAINEIT. 
 
 Gas. All the airs, or vapour separated from bcwlies by 
 means of heat or any chemical process, if they differ in theii 
 properti^ from the air of the atmosphere, are called gasses. 
 
 Carbonate of Lime. This substance, under the name of 
 marble, chalk, limestone, «&c. exists in great abundance various- 
 ly mixed with other bodies. It is often found chrystilized, and- 
 perfectly transparent. It has scarcely any taste. It i^ insolu- 
 ble in pure water. See Bergman, 1st. 26^ for further exjilanas- 
 tion. 
 
 Calcarious. A term used to describe chalk, marble, and al 
 other combinations of lime with carbonic acid. 
 
 Carbonic Acid. A combination of carbon and oxygen. 
 
 Carbon, Thebasis of charcoal. 
 
 Oxygen. A simple substance, composing the greatest part 
 <yf water, and part of atmospheric air. 
 
 Argillaceous. A term descriptive^of those earths which con- 
 tain aktmine, or clay. 
 
ZKDEZi 
 
 Agricultaralits conapo&e four classes - - - 13 
 
 Agriculture not made the sole object of pursuit - - 13 
 
 Unless it is, will never arrive to its most perfect state - 19 
 
 The rapid extension of our settlements totbe -^vest and south 
 has not increased the aggreg;atc of wisdom and happiness 
 amoo» the Asaerican people - - - - 13 
 
 The erils of a crowded population have never yet been aver- 
 ted in any country to the extent which the science and 
 the practice of agriculture would admit - - - 16 
 
 Whether they may, remains to be decided by the American 
 
 people .-..-_ 15 
 
 If we would perpetuate the duration of our civil privileges, 
 we should consider agricultural pursuits the most honorable 
 and fashionable among the sciences - - 19 
 
 The principles of agriculture are uniform and universal in 
 Iheir operations, and it is the business of the farmer to vary 
 the application of them according to the nature and con- 
 dition of the soil he cnliivates - - - 20 
 The Greeks supposed a competent knowledge of the science 
 of agriculture should embrace the experience and the phi- 
 losophy of the whole age in which they lived - - 23 
 Several of their celebrated philosophers left useful instruc- 
 tions on the subject of agriculture - - • 23 
 The occupation of agriculture will never be elevated to that 
 dignity which it merits, so long as it is considered a mere 
 menial exercise, unworthy the efforts of intellectual capa- 
 city .-.-.. .p 23 
 Ashes — their efficacy as a manure .- ,- • 39 
 Asparagus — remarks on its use - « -. - 248 
 
 B 
 
 Buckwheat does not require a very fertile soil - ' 109 
 
 May be raised in succession on tbe same ground * - 109 
 
 Fropei time for sowing ,.-.•=« 109 
 
*^^ l^DEX, 
 
 Buckwheat and spths rye, may be sown and raised to^"^^^' 
 
 gether --.,,_ . 
 
 Remarks on its culture and value . . " inQ-nn 
 
 Bees— where the hive should be placed - - \ir 
 
 Method of managing bees - . \iy 
 
 Other methods described - . - " - - 177 
 
 Directions for feeding bees - . . * , ' j«« 
 
 To preserve bees from the worm, or butterfly " - ' - 178 
 Method to save them from being killed with the frostor cold 178 
 eogmeadows— method recommended for draining - - £03 
 
 What crops may be successfully raised on them - ^03 
 
 cean, garden, mode of cultivation - ^ . 944 
 
 BEES-.dysentarvadi--i„; . , . . I^J 
 
 Cause and remedy - - - - . . 253 
 
 The various enemies of bees described - - 254-5 
 
 The profits of bees, a calculation on . - - 2^7 
 
 Clay— its use and properties particularly explained - 28 
 Its capacity for absorbing and retaining moisture no antidote 
 against drought, when existing by itself, unmixed with 
 
 sand or other substances - - - . - *>0 
 Clay, most efficacious in promoting vegetation when thor- 
 oughly pulverized and mixed with sand and vegetable or 
 
 other manures - - - . __ go 
 
 Carbon— its nature and properties explained - - 36 
 
 Cattle — a general term for domestic animald - . 53 
 
 Corn — remarks on the varieties of - . , - 75 
 
 A change of seed necessary to secure the best crop - 75 
 
 Remarks on the changes of seed corn - ' . - 75 
 
 Remarks on the proper time for planting corn - - 75 
 
 Corn, said not to be an exhausting crop - - - 76 
 
 Remarks on the particular value of corn . , 76 
 
 Remarks on the soil proper for corn - - - 77 
 Remarks on the best method of planting cora to secure the 
 
 largest crop - - . , , _ .y^ 
 
 The drill recommended in planting corn - - - 78 
 
 Cider— remarks on preparing the fruit for making cider 1 19 
 Casks, open headed said to be the best for the first ferment- 
 ation of cider - - - _ . -119 
 
 Remarks on the fermentation of cider - - . Hj) 
 
 How to prevent the fermentation of cider - - - 120 
 
 A method to refine cider - . _ . jgQ 
 
 A method to clarifv cidec - , , , ^ 12.0 
 
Page, 
 A method to prevent cider from becoming pricked, or cure it 
 
 when it is so - - - - - - 120 
 
 Au opinion that cider should be boiled when it comes from 
 
 the pres?, if CA'er • • . • * 120 
 Reasons why mnre attention should be given to the im- 
 provement of cider . . . • • \2\ 
 Remarks on the qualities of the Virginia crab apple for 
 
 making the best cider . . . • • 121 
 
 To make good cider great attention to the fermentation m- 
 
 dispenstble ..... 123 
 
 Carts — for one horse recommended • • * 133 
 
 Cattle Neat — Our neat cattle possess all tb« valuable 
 properties which distinguish the various breeds in Great 
 
 Britain ...••. 146 
 
 What is to be regarded in the selection and improvement of 
 
 our breeds of cattle ..... J47 
 
 Various breeds of cattle in Great Britain described • 147 
 
 The wild race of Great Britain • • • • 147 
 
 The Devonshire — the Dutch — the Lancashire — and th*e 
 
 Highland or Sheylffis .... 147 
 
 The Polled — the Aldemey or French*— and the Welch ' 14S 
 
 Objections to importing bulls and cows from Great Britain 
 
 to improve our breed .... ;i4g 
 
 How we may improve our breed of cattle • • 148-149 
 
 Cow — a description of a perfect one ' • » 149 
 
 Signsof agood ox • • • • • • 149 
 
 Calves — rules to be observed in raising • • 149 
 
 Mismanagement in selections for raising • ♦ • 149 
 
 Heifers— time they arrive at the age of puberty • 149 
 
 Crossing — rules to be observed in improving the breed by 
 
 crossing • • ' ♦ • '150 
 
 English breed of neat cattle, to what their superiority is prin- 
 cipally owing • • • • '150 
 
 Mode of keeping their neat cattle ♦ - * 150 
 
 An opinion respecting the cause of their diseases • 151 
 
 Calves — a particular mode of raising them described • 151 
 
 Another mode described • • • • 152 ; 
 
 What pasture best for calves^fter weaned • • • 152 ^ 
 
 Neat Cattle — ubat keeping necessary to increase their size 154 
 
 Remarks on the value of roofs in feeding cattle • • 154 
 
 Mr. Curwen's remarks on the value of turnips as food for "^ 
 
 neat cattle • • • • • • 155 - 
 
 Diseases of neat cattle • ' • • • I55 
 
 Hoof ail — horn distemper — soil sickness • • 155 />« 
 
 Gripesorcholic in neat cattle • • • • 156 
 
 Scouring symptoms in neat cattle • • ' 156 
 
'^m 
 
 IMBEX 
 
 Hoven, a disease ia neat cattle 
 
 Stag:gers 
 
 Overflowing of the gall 
 
 Panlasie 
 
 Inflamation of the liver 
 
 Inflamation of the lungs 
 
 The lock jaw 
 
 Garget 
 
 Puerperal 
 
 Canker worms — Caterpillars 
 
 Canada thistle, remarks on 
 
 Chesnut tree — the effect of its shade on vegetation 
 
 Compost MANURii — remarks on 
 
 Method to prcv.de compost recommended 
 
 Various ingredients valuable for compost manure 
 
 Cale — its use aad cultivation 
 
 Cabbage — remarks on (he cuUivatiori of 
 
 Method of preserving them 
 
 Different varieties of, and relative value of each 
 
 Cucumbers — method of cultivating them 
 
 Page. 
 
 ' 156 
 
 157 
 
 • 157 
 157 
 
 • 158 
 158 
 
 ' 15» 
 159 
 
 • 160 
 1*79 
 
 • 222 
 130 
 
 • 42 
 42-43 
 
 • 42 
 247 
 
 • 247 
 248 
 
 • 248 
 249 
 
 Diseases of neat cattle ..... I55, 
 
 Dairy — in managing a dairy successfully attention to the 
 
 quality of the milk necessary • • • 19^ 
 
 The last drawn milk, or slrippings, the most valuable for dairy 192 
 Remarks on the quality and management of milk • '192 
 
 Remarks on the process of making butter • • 193 
 
 Mode of preserving and improving butter, recommended by 
 
 Doct. Anderson • • • • • 194 
 
 Mode of managing milk so as to increase the quantity of 
 
 cream ...... 195 
 
 Feeding cows on sainfoin will be greatly increased • 195 
 
 Process of making cheese • • • • 295-6 
 
 Simple method of making cheese practiced in England and 
 
 America ...... ij>7 
 
 General remarks on the management of a dairy • 198 
 
 Experiments — the advantages of . . ^ 233 
 
 How made without hazard .... 233 
 
 In what branches of husbandry experiments should be made 234 
 Too much confidence not to be placed in single experiments, 
 
 the reasons why . • • • • 234 
 
 Experiment? should be recorded . . » . 2S4 
 A successful experiment in raising wheat and potatoes, ac- 
 count of • -, • • ' • 222-3 
 
PifBEX, 
 
 26^, 
 
 Page. 
 Fallow— the term explained • * ' ^ '56 
 
 Objpctions against the usual practice of summer fallowing 56-7 
 Utility of substituting rotation of crops for summer fallow 57 
 
 "What crops should be cultivated as a substitute for summer 
 
 fallow ^ • • ' ' \,' ^'^ 
 
 When substitutfn^ rotation of crops for summer fallow may 
 
 bo dispensed with or omitted * ' * • 50 
 
 Flax — remarks on the objections to this crop • • 80 
 
 Diversity of opinion regpecting the exhausting n?ture of a 
 
 flax crop ....•• 81 
 
 Preparation of the soil for a flax crop • * ' oU-1 
 
 Causes of the fineness of the Irish fiax • * , ' ^^ 
 
 Different causes that aifect the quality of flax considered 81 
 
 Different modes of rotting flax • * * ' ^^ol 
 
 Salt, said to be a valuable manure tor flax • ' 82 
 
 How seed for a flax crop should be prepared • * 82 
 
 Proper time for pulling flax • ' • \ -,/ t.cPi 
 
 Fruit trees— remarks on plantmgand pruning fruit trees 112-^ 
 What culture of land best promotes the growth of fruit trees 113 
 Farther remarks on pruning fruit trees • • * o^}£. 
 
 Diseases of fruit trees . . • • • 116-17 
 
 Degeneracy of our apple tree? • * ' ill 
 
 Fences — remarks on hedges for fence • • • 126 
 
 Method for making hedges for fence of the white mulberry, 
 recommended • ' ' * , r * l ' 
 
 The thorn, the apple, and the willow roost used for the pur- 
 poses of hedges . . . • • IJ7 
 Method to raise the thorn from the seed - • '127 
 Method to make hedges for fence from apple seeds • 128 
 Objections to hedges for fence considered • • '128 
 Ditches for fence • • • • * 128 
 Directions for making the hedge of the willow • • 129 
 Mr. Silliman's remarks on hedge rows • • • 129 
 Reasovis for introducing hedges in some parts of our country 130 
 Floodinff land — trees and useless plants killed by flooding 
 
 land • - ' 204 
 
 General remarks on the advantages of flooding land • 205 
 
 Farmers — the bad ecoLomy of many, and the consequences 265 
 The wisdom and success of the common farmer will eventu- 
 ally characterize our republic, and tend to its perpetuity 2G5 
 Farmers not enough inclined to form the habits of their sons 
 
 to agricultural pursuits • • • • • 267. 
 
 Farms in New England generally too large for the benefit of 
 the proprietors • • • ° • 256 
 
 >i A 
 
2^ INDEX. 
 
 a 
 
 Gypsum— its constituent properties explained • • 40. 
 
 Its different efficacy on different soils ' • • 40 
 
 The quantities wiiich have been thought best to be u«»ed • 40 
 Grass— the importance of breaking up old grass to improve 
 _thesc,l ... . . . ^. 4^_3_ 
 
 Remarks on • • • . . . . rQ_^ 
 
 Grasses artificial — what we are to understand by them • 96 
 
 improvement of the soil by cultivating artificial grasses 
 Other advantagesresuUing from the culture of artificial ffras- 
 
 06 
 
 Comparative value of artificial grasses and those which grow 
 without cultivation • . . . . 95.7 
 
 Lucern an artificial grass described • • . 97-8 
 
 Sanfoin and Burnet • • . . . ^9-100 
 
 Cichory or wild Scurvy • • . . . jqq 
 
 Spuny, the bush vetch, and tares • i . . -100 
 
 The broad leafed vetch, or everlasting tare 
 
 The tufted velch, or tare • . . , 
 
 The strange vetch ' ' • ' - ^^Jl 
 
 Clovers — varieties and culture of • • . 101-2-3 
 
 Mr. Young's opinion respecting the proper quantity of differ 
 
 ^ ent grass seeds to be sown on an acre 
 
 Natural meadow land • • . . 
 
 Grasses called natural, because they will grow lon'^er with 
 out cultivation — herds grass • • . ** . 
 
 Meadow fox tail and meadow fescue 
 
 Darnel, or ray grass • • . . . 
 
 Crested dogs tail • • - . . 
 
 Meadow grass, and vernal or spring grass 
 
 Sheep's fescue and hard fescue 
 
 Annual meadow grass • • . . . 
 
 Rough stalked meadow grass 
 
 Fowl meadow grass • • . , . 
 
 Flat stalked red meadow grass, and creeping beni grass 
 
 Silver hair grass, and tall oat grass 
 
 Yellow oat grass, rib grass, and cock's foot • 
 
 Blue dog's tail grass • • . . 
 
 Aquatic plants or grasses — flote fox tail 
 
 "Water hair grass, or red meadow grass • 
 
 Garget — disease in cows «... 
 
 Grubs ...... 
 
 Garden flea •►•♦<. 
 
 Grasshoppers ' • • • 
 
 Grub and wire worm • • • • . • i»^ 
 
 Gardens— general remarks oa the advantages of • 24I 
 
 101 
 101 
 101 
 
 102-3 
 103-4 
 
 104 
 105 
 105 
 106 
 106 
 106 
 106 
 106 
 106 
 107 
 107 
 107 
 108 
 108 
 10« 
 159 
 180 
 182 
 182 
 182 
 
Divisions and plan of a g-arden .... ^j 
 Plants usually cultivated in gardens, as beets, carrots, pars- 
 nips, &c. — observations on the cultivation of • / • 242 
 A table cannot be well furnished without attention to ^^-ar- 
 
 dening • • • . • • " • 251 
 
 O bscrvatiens of European travellers relating to this subject 250 
 
 Gardens useful for trying various experiments • • 252 
 
 The utility, convenience, and economy of gardening, claim 
 
 thefarmer^s attention to this branch of husbandry • 252 
 
 Hemp — remarks on the advantages of cuUivalino* • 83 
 
 The soil proper for a hemp crop • • " . '83 
 
 What quantity of seed nequisite to the acre • • 84 
 
 The seed should be of the next preceding ye&r . • 84 
 
 How the seed should be prepared • * * 84 
 
 What time the seed should be sown • • • -84 
 
 Harvesting hemp, and getting off the seed • • 84 
 
 Different modes of rotting hemp ... g 
 
 Wheat may be raised successfully after heMp • . 35 
 The policy of raising our own hemp /or commercial and na- 
 val pni poses • • . . . - &r 
 Hops— soil proper for hops • • . '• 93 
 The particular mode of planting and cultivating hops 04 
 1 roper time for harvesting hops • • • - 95 
 Method of preparing and securing then> for market ■• . 95 
 i-conomy of raising hops * * * • • oc 
 Horses — improving the br^ed of • • . . jgg 
 To improve the breed of horses, it is essential to attend to 
 
 the properties of the mare as well as to those of the hor«e l'?'; 
 
 Management of bleeding mares • • • ." jgg 
 
 A particular mode of weaning colts recommended • . log 
 A reason assigned for the superiority of the English breed of 
 
 horses • • . . . . 
 
 iM^rksofa good horse • • • • ' • 1S7 
 
 Breaking a horse to the saddle and harness » . {oZ 
 
 Diseases of HORSES-heaves, film over the eyes, cholic • 133 
 
 Bot worms, false quarter . . . . i^Q 
 
 Farcy, foundering of horses • • . , . j^^ 
 
 Gigs, glanders, hide bound, lampas, poll evH • • 141 
 
 Tumors, scratches • . . . . j^^ 
 
 Spavin, stago^ers \^^ 
 
 Sprain, wheezing, wind-gail • • . . tji 
 Yellows ... .... 
 
 HEiFERg-what time they arrire to the age of puberty * . j^ 
 
292 iNDBX. ^^^ 
 
 Hat— the loss it sustains of its nutritjve aliments by drying:, 
 
 shown by experiment *.'.*.'. 155 
 
 Hoof ail • • ' *.-.*. 355 
 Horn distemper • • • * * 
 
 Hoven, a disease in neat cattle • ' ' i^o 
 
 Hoven,or swollen, disease in sheep • ' * 9^7 
 
 Harrows, the best, how constructed • * ^t 
 
 How and when used aflvanta-eously • * * ono 
 
 The double harrow described - ' ' ' Z?l 
 
 M'henprogtable to barroTV grassland • ' . -tuo 
 
 Harrows should be coustructed so as to prevent harrowing ^^ 
 
 too deep .*•*•' 
 
 Z 
 
 Iron— the add and oxld of iron explained - ' ,. T ^^ 
 The oxid of Iron gives to saNd and clay the brown and redish 
 
 color, as Well as the intermediate shades - " ?? 
 
 Improvement of lands by ploughing and harrowing - i>i 
 How the process of ploughing and harrowing should be «^e-^^_^^ 
 
 cuted to render it efficacious - "1 1 J- i 
 
 Mr. Quell's^pinion respecting the efficacy of ploughing and ^^ 
 
 harrowing in improving land - - ^T„.. ' 
 
 Two experiments in attestation of the utility ^^ P^°"S^'°5^^_52 
 
 and harrowing cited - - ' * * 179 
 Insects, Canker worms, catterpillars - - - 
 
 Grubs, to or spindle worms, blackworms - - ^^ 
 
 Red worms, timber worms - " " * " 184 
 
 Maggots, yellow striped bug, turmp fly - - " iS 
 
 Garden flea, lice, weave], grasshoppers ^ * . ' . 183 
 
 Circulio - - * , . " ' ._ iqo 
 
 z. 
 
 Lime-its use and properties as constituents of the soil ex- ^^ 
 
 Jam-not an original e;rth, its'constitJents explained - 25 
 
 Lime— its use and properties explained - - ' . 31 
 
 Loam— its constituent properties explained . - ^ ^^ 
 
 Lime, remarks on as a manure - - ' ' ^g^ 
 
 ^me, its effects on strong land, in the cultu're of wheat 240 
 
 XH 
 
 Magnusia; its nse and properties «*P\^.'"^^.^^ ' -^ - ' 
 Opinions respecting the use and properties of magnesia as a 
 manure explained 
 
 26 
 30-31 
 
Page. 
 Mould — its constituents and properties explained . - 31 
 
 Manures — The experiments ofMr. Hassenfratz respecting 
 the effects of manures in their different conditioiis 
 whether whole or decomposed - - - 36 
 
 Carbon — its nature and operations as a manure explained - 36 
 Coarse manure as straw, &c. — remarks on its effects and ap- 
 plication .----- 3T 
 
 The various ways in which such manure is rendered less ef. 
 ficacious - - - - - - * 2'' 
 
 Different earths will manure each other - - 38 
 
 In what ways sand and ctay should be applied when 
 intended to be used as manures - - - - 38 
 
 The fcflBcacy of various substances, useful as manures - 38 
 
 Marl from bog swamps a good manure on upland soils • 38 
 
 The different kinds of marl described - - - 38 
 
 To what soils and for what crops marl may be eflScaciously 
 
 applied ---.--- 3d 
 Ashes — remarks as a manure - - - - 39^ 
 
 Gypsum — remarks as a manure - - - - 40 
 
 Ad opinion respecting the different eflBcacy of the dung of 
 
 different domestic animals ... - 41 
 
 Horse dung injured by laying long in a heap - - 41 
 
 The opinion which has heretofore prevailed that wet yards 
 are best for the purposes of preparing barn manure an er- 
 roneous one ------ 41 
 
 Various opinions respecting the best mode of applying co&rse 
 manure to the soil - - - - - 41 
 
 Mr. Davy's opinion repecting the proper mode of applying it, 
 
 and his reasons for it - - ^ . 41-42 
 
 How coarse materials should be disposed of, and prepared 
 for manure - ----- 42 
 
 Variou ^substances proper for compost manure described 43- 
 
 Coarse manure should not be long exposed to drought, and 
 mo s'ure before it is applied - - - - 43 
 
 Remarks on the diversity of opinion and practice respecting 
 
 the application of compost manure - - - 44 
 
 Remarks on the economy, and the means of providing com- 
 post manure - - - - - - 45 
 
 Kemarks on the ImjH'oper manner of applying compost ma- 
 nure - - - - - 45-46 
 
 The method of covering coarse manure practiced by some 
 farmers ----- . 4g 
 
 Remarks en the importance of ploughmg in green crops as a 
 manure - - - - - - -47 
 
 A mode suggested, by which green crops may be most effec- 
 
 » tually covered by ploughing , - =^ - 47 
 
Mulberry tree — ^^the effect of its shade on vegetation - 230 
 Mellons — different varieties and cultivation of - • 244 
 Metheglin, manufacture of • . . , g^g 
 Mead, different kinds described • • • 260 
 Maple sugar, process of manufacturing • • • 270 
 Mode of reducing the syrup to sugar so as to make it Tery 
 •white and beautifully grained • • , 27g 
 O 
 Oats — too much inattention to the culture of this crop gener- 
 ally - 7S 
 
 The culture of oat« should be encouraged * - 78 
 
 Remarks on the value of oats for horses - - - 78 
 
 Remarks on the different varieties of oats - - 79 
 
 Remarks on the proper quantity of seed oats on an acre - 79 
 
 Remarks on the soil proper for oats - - - 80 
 Ao opinion that oats succeed "well after a crop of spring 
 
 wheat or rye - - - . - CO 
 
 Oats may be soivn for the purposees of hay - •► 80 
 
 Ox — signsof a good one - ^ * . - 149 
 
 Overflowing of the gall - * - » * 157 
 
 Ox — disease in the foot of - - - * - 159 
 
 Oak black — <he effects of its shade on vegetation - 130 
 
 Onions — cultivation of • _ - 4. . 245 
 
 Plant— the supposed maftner in which tiourishment is com- 
 municated to the plant - - - - 35 
 
 The agency of water in the growth 6f plants - - 36 
 Plants derive some part uf their nourishment from the at- 
 mosphere ------ 36 
 
 The efficacy of the atmosphere on plants in proportion to 
 
 that of the' soil - ----- - 35 
 
 The science of the manner in which nourishment is commu- 
 nicated to the plant, important to make a proper applica- 
 tion of manure ------ 36 
 
 ^Ploughing and harrowing — how it should be executed to im- 
 prove the soil and prepare it for a crop - - 54-55 
 In ploughing, so as best to promote vegetation, there cannot 
 
 be too perfect pulverizaltion of the soil - - 56 
 
 Potato — remarks on methods to improve the crop of - 90 
 
 How to obtain new varieties of - - - - 90 
 
 Diversity of opinion respecting the best seed potatoe - 90 
 
 Irish method of preparing seed potatoes - - - 91 
 Remarks on the different methods of cultivating potatoei 91-92 
 
 Other modes of acquiring new varieties of potatoes - 92 
 Remarks on the (different varieties of potatoes - 92-93 
 
 JPatatoes the best preparatory crop for wheat - - 93 
 
INDS*. 
 
 ^K^S 
 
 Page. 
 
 Remarks on djg;ging potatoes - • " - 93 
 
 Pea — Remarks on the value and cultivation of peas - 110 
 
 Remarks on the pea bug - - - - - 110 
 
 What time peas should be sown - - * 111 
 Peas should be ploughed in - - - -111 
 
 Mr. Batram's remarks on the pea bug - - - 111 
 
 Poison of animals — remedy ----- 159 
 
 ?-5rperal fever — disease in cows - - - 160 
 
 Purging — disease -in sheep ----- 168 
 
 P-ine plain land — remarks on the nature and condition of 186-187 
 
 Fertilizing by clay a vegetable manure - - - 187 
 
 Fertilizing by Gypsum - - - - - 188 
 
 Fertilizing by turning in green crops - - - 188 
 
 Fertilizing by repeated ploughing . - _ 188 
 
 Fertilizing by paring and burning - - . - 188 
 
 A rotation of crops in pine plain land recommended - 191 
 
 Pine plain land - - - - - - 191 
 
 Rsmarks on the value ef the pine plain lands - * 191 
 Poultry — gfeneral remarks on the advantages of keeping 
 
 poultry ---..--- 199 
 A singular experiment respecting the fattening of poultry 200 
 The value of charcoal in feeding poultry explained - ^00 
 Remarks on the prolific nature of the dunghill fowl - 201 
 Remarks on the ofuinea fowl and turkey . _ . 201 
 Remarks on the management of geese - - - 202 
 On the varieties of tame ducks . - - - 202 
 Plough — certain important principles relating to the con- 
 struction of the plou^g'h, to be attended te - - 209 
 Plough invented by Thomas Jefferson described - - 209 
 Rules for Cfn?tructing a'plough by a Pennsylvania farmer 211 
 Ploughing — general remarks on the process of ploughing - 212 
 General remail s on the purposes and mode of ploughing 212 
 ©n deep ploughing, and turning up red soil - - 212 
 Crench ploughing., when proper - - - 213 
 When cos ploughing ah^uld be omitted - - - 213 
 Remarks on ploughing for winter wheat - - 213 
 How low flat land should be ploughed . ^ - 214 
 Ploughing in grain instead cf harrowing recommended id 
 
 some instances \. - - » - 214 
 
 On ploughing clay soils ^ - . - - 214 
 
 Remarks on ploughing in ridges - - - - 215 
 
 On. ploughing indian corn lands immediately after the corn 
 
 is off - - ^- . - . - 215 
 General maxims respecting the proper depth of ploughing 215-216 
 
 Circumstances which render deep ploughing inexpedient - 217 
 
 Remarks on the particular advantages of deep ploughing 217 
 
Page. 
 Plaster of Fans — A reason tvhy U is sometimes not efficacious, 
 
 by Sir Humphrey Davy - - , - - 22*7 
 Remarks on different modes of apply ingf it, by Colonel 
 
 Taylor - - - - '. - - 227 
 
 Its value in mixioj^ with seed wheat ^ . . 228 
 Plaster of Paris, a valuable ally, but not a substitute for 
 
 manure .----- 228 
 In the use of the plaster, the nature of the soil as weH as the 
 
 plants to be considered - - * - - 228 
 flow it should be applied when intended to increase a Crop 
 
 of winter grain . - - - - 229 
 
 Its u&e and proper applicafion not sufficiently understood •' 22^' 
 
 Poplars — the effect o its shade on vegetation - - 239 
 
 Poplar lombardy, its use and properties - • • 12& 
 
 Pkpper red — cultivation and preservation of - - 250 
 
 P£A« Garden— varieties and cultiTation of - - 243 
 
 75 
 
 Rte — no essential difference between winter and sfpring 
 
 rye ------- to 
 
 Remarks on the advantages of the rye crop - - 73 
 
 Remarks on the advantages of feeding rye in some conditions 73 
 
 Remarks on the proper quantity of seed for rye - * "^S 
 
 The proper time for harvesting rye - - - 7Sf 
 
 Rye—sometimef^sown for the purpose of pasture and hay 73 
 Rye stubble should be ploughed under to destroy weeds and 
 
 improve the soil - - - - » 74 
 
 Remarks on rye flour for bread - - - - 74 
 
 Roots— their value in feeding^ to neat-cattle - - 154 
 
 Red WORM8 - - - - - - 180 
 
 HoRSE-RAKE — description of it - - - - 206- 
 
 Advantages of a horse rake and bow used .- - - 206 
 
 Diseases of swine ^ . - - * 175 
 
 Fever or raising of the lites - - - - 175 
 
 Straw — winter waste of straw by farmers - - 224 
 
 Method of saving straw recommended - - - 224 
 Straw as a constituent of compost manure claims a different 
 
 consideration from otb€r constituents - - - 225 
 
 The best mode of converting it into manure - - 226 
 
 Method of feeding straw recommended - - - 226 
 
 Shades— of some particular trees, their tfffeets on vegetation 230 
 Soil composed of several simple substances, viz. sand clay, 
 
 lime magnesia •• - - " . ' . ^ 
 Those four simple substances do not constitute a fertile «oil 
 
 in whateteT proportions they may be mixed - - 26 
 
INDEX. ^^ 
 
 Page. 
 26 
 
 33 
 34 
 
 •proved bv Ibe experiments of Giobert and Lampodfns - 
 
 The consLuent substances of a fertile so.l^ discovered from ^^ 
 
 Sand and'clay the'priuclpal constituent sample substances ^^ 
 
 Th^ n't^le td'properti'es of th; differ;nt constituent sub- ^^ 
 
 stances of soils eiplamed - " . 
 
 The obstacles to improvement may be found in ^the subsoil, ^^ 
 
 as well aa the surface - " "* »•« 9Q 
 
 The u^eand properties of sand in promoliD- vegetation - «9 
 
 landTnd day when thoroughly niixed become -mportant a- ^^ 
 
 Sofl-.l.'J'bSshToloVfrsSi^inthe territory of a country ^^ 
 
 long cultivated, explamed ' . . 31 
 
 Soils, advantages of analyzmg them * . . 23^32 
 
 A processxlescribed to analyze the soil 
 
 Soils apparently good sometimes m a great ^^^'^ ^ 
 
 The proper proportions of the simple earths to ^onstitute a 
 
 fertile soil, to be determined by practice f^"^ ob^rvat.on 
 Seeds will not germinate at a ceitain depth below the sur- 
 
 TheTooner the^plant make its 'appearance after the seed is ^ 
 sown the more vigorous and healthy will it appear ' ^ 
 
 Mr Davy^s remarks^especting the necessity of atmospheric ^ 
 air in the germination of seed • * .47 
 
 Soil, improved by breaking up old grass • * 
 
 The reason why br*.aking up oldgrassisnot of tea practiced 
 
 ThT'.^;ScVof"br; up ;idgras; particularly appli- 
 
 Remal^ks^^Th Jmtner in* .hich the process of breaking 
 
 up old grass ought to be executed to render it efficacious 
 The opinion that the farmer can keep more stock by letting 
 his old -lasa remain in pasture, rather than convert it to 
 tillage^^believed to be erroneous * .^ * * ?i 
 
 The objections to breaking up old grass considered • * oi 
 
 Soiling— what is understood by ii, and its object ' »» 
 
 The probable origin of soiling suggested • * * 59 
 
 Remarks on the advantages of soiling • • * 
 
 Those who cultivate small tracts of land most benefited by ^^ 
 
 RoLLEl-The use of the plain and spiky roller explained ^61 
 Soil sickness in neat cattle • * ' * ^ 
 
 Scouring symptoms in neat-cattle ^ ' * ^,^ 
 
 Staggers in 4ieat cattle • ' ' * 
 
 4& 
 
 48 
 
 49 
 
 50 
 
^^ JXD£X.. 
 
 SHEEP-,Or;|IiiaI causes of differences among sheep ^fai 
 
 Different soils suited to the different breeds of sheeo • iRi 
 
 oTsheer*^' expediency of keeping the different kinds 
 
 33ifferent kinds ofsheep in Great Britain described • * . JfiJ 
 Merin© sheep—remarks on the introduction of • • 
 
 Our common sheep improved by mixing with 
 Mr Livingston's remarks on improving the breed of sheeD 
 by crossing • • . . . "^^^^ 
 
 Rule tor selecting ewes 
 On shearing merino sheep ' . 
 
 Management of sheep after shearing • . * 
 
 Remarks on managing the wool- • 
 
 An European methodof managing merinos before cardin* 
 
 Dry food for sheep in winter, its effect • . " 
 
 Succulent food for sheep recommended • 
 
 superiority of sheep in Great Britain and to what owing 
 Uiseases of#heep » . . . ''. 
 
 Bot — scab •«.«,. 
 
 Ticks— staggers • . . . * . 
 
 Hoven or swollen— purging—the fly or Maggot 
 
 Worms m the head of sheep • . , 
 
 SwiPfE— Remarks on the economy of keepino- 
 
 The Chinese breed, described and recommended 
 
 Spanish breed described and recommended 
 
 Rules for improving the breed of swine • 
 
 Remarks on sows eating their offspring 
 
 Objections to raising hogs for market considered • 
 
 Remarks on feeding swine • • . , 1»i 
 
 Diseases of swine — Measles— Mange • . . 
 
 Murrian, or Leprosy, garget, inflamation of the udder 
 
 i^ry caugh • . . . . ^ 
 
 Sowing circumstances to be attended, to render it successful 
 
 feeeds, how provided and preserved 
 
 Miller's rxperirneuts respecting seeds for sowing 
 
 Proper times tor committing seeds to th€ earth 
 
 1 be forwardness of trees in unfolding their leaves the best 
 
 criterion for the sowing season • . .. ^79 
 
 Proper depths for burying seeds • » » , gfiO 
 
 Few seeds will come up if buried deeper than nine inches 280 
 feome seeds will not rise if buried more than two inches 280 
 
 ^ature and state of the soil to determine depth of sowing- 280 
 
 I ull 3 method to determine the depth in a doubtful case 281 
 
 Advantages of sowing with a drill • . • 28X 
 
 Relative quantity of seed to be sown on rich and poor land 282 
 Reason proper for sowing winter grain • * '282 
 
 162 
 163 
 
 163 
 163 
 163 
 164 
 164 
 164 
 165 
 165 
 165 
 165 
 166 
 167 
 168 
 168 
 169 
 170 
 170 
 170 
 171 
 171 
 -172 
 174 
 165 
 175 
 277 
 278 
 278 
 279 
 
HfCEX. 299 
 
 T Page. 
 
 Teams, a mode to effect deep ploughing with less strengtTi 
 
 of tram suorge^ted • • . * ' 55 
 TuRifiPS, 1 he raiiiug of turnips a great object in the hus- 
 baodry of Great Britain • • • • 86 
 
 Remarks on the varieties of turnips • • '86 
 
 Remarks on the methods of raising turnips • • 86-87 
 
 Objections to the raising of turnips considered • • 87 
 A method of harvesting a large crop described • - 87-88 
 
 Turnip crops prepare the ground for wheat or grass . 88 
 Antidote to the ravages of the turnip fly, little black flea 
 
 that infests them ♦ • • • . 88 
 
 The quantity of seed proper for an acre * * 89 
 
 Remarks on sowing the turnip • • • * 89 
 Teams — remarks on the relative value of horse and os 
 
 teams • • . • . ' * • 131 
 Ox teams the only ones used for the plough or for burden 
 
 in many places ^ • • - • * 132 
 Mr. Livingston's remarks respecting catties drawing by the 
 
 horns • • . . . . • 132 
 
 A mode of harnessing cattle substituted for bows in Europe, 
 
 described ... ... 132 
 
 Mr. Livingiston's remarks on the utility of different modes 
 
 of draft for cattle ...... 133 
 
 Advantages of horse cart explained • • • 133 
 
 An improvement in the harness suggested • * • 134 
 
 Ticks in sheep ....•• 168 
 
 Timber worms . . . . . • 180 
 
 Threshing machines, advantages of • - • 262 
 
 V 
 
 Vegetables, number on our globe which have been dis- 
 coved ...... 34 
 
 W 
 
 Wheat. The different varieties of wheat in use described 62 
 General divisions of wheat, divided into two classes, the 
 
 thick chaffed and the thin chaffed . . .62 
 
 The thick chaffed most exposed to mildew, and gone out of 
 Use generally . ... . . 62 
 
 The general divisions of wheat in the United States, are win- 
 ter and spring, from which other varieties are derived 62 
 In what soils wheat will flourish ... 6^ 
 Proper time for sowing whemt . - . ..62 
 Quantity of seed to.be sown per a«re . • . 63 
 
^ INDEX. 
 
 Pag€,. 
 Wheat cannot be raised successfully without proper attention 
 
 is paid to preparing the seed .... 63 
 
 Antidote against frosts^ injuring wheat . . .63 
 
 Manner in which frost injures wheat ... 63 
 
 When spring wheat should be sown . . .63 
 
 Eifect produced from bringing wheat for seed from the north 
 
 into the United States . ... 63 
 
 Difiercnt methods of preparing the soil for a crop of wheat 64-65 
 A summer crop should precede wheat, instead of summer 
 
 fallow •••••*•«« 
 
 Hessian Fly, a remedy described for . • • 67 
 
 Smut, how prevented in wheat . • • .68 
 
 Harvesting smutty wheat * * * * En 
 
 Mildew, remarks on the cause of it . . • * ? 
 
 Mildewed wheat, when to be harvested • • 69 
 
 Evidence of mildewed wheat , . • .69 
 
 Troper time for harvesting wheat . • ' „^^^ 
 
 Diseases of wheat, generally . . • • . ^^"^1 
 
 WOODLA.NB. Policy of France in the economy of preserving ^^^ 
 
 wood . • • • ' • * J • ' 
 
 An opinion that the economy of France in preserving wood is 
 
 such, that their supplies will never diministi ; ,. , " ^^"^ 
 
 Erroneous management of the American people relating to ^^^ 
 
 their woodland . « » • "> * lo^ 
 
 Artificial forests recommended to small land owners , ~4 
 
 The locust, and Lombardy poplar . • . ' „„ . ' 
 
 Further remarks on the bad economy of Amcncaa farmers in 
 
 relation to woodland . / .,. ^ ^ \. ^j ' " m? 
 
 Unnecessary waste of fuel in boilmg water noticea^ 
 
 WEEDS, the injurious effects of weeds on the growth of ^^^ 
 
 plants described ' * * ^ . oiq 
 
 Weeds may be divided into two classes * „^ p^j-tence ilQ 
 
 Necessary means to prevent their prevalence and existence 219 
 Ofhpr means described * 
 
 Remarks on the Canada thistle and some means recommen- ^^^ 
 
 To'^pr^elenfwerdVVas an object of introducing the drill ^^^ 
 
 W Sxf 7successsful method of cultivating wheat and po- ^^ 
 tocB, alternatively , .. • « 
 
 125 
 182 
 
mmt^ 
 
 ^v>.. 
 
 w.;. 
 
 ^'^^^g; 
 
 
 
 % 
 
 H"^' 
 
 ■HI 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ■^v.'^,