UMASS/AMHERST 31EDt.hDDSaSSDfl7 mill;- it!!:.'" ■ ■ Pi . f!l pp !!i ifiiiiijili;: iii'P vr: will'"' ''^.'' !<)'•' mm" [.'.'liiiiiiiiii ■■•. lis > ^vi:„.,,iJiSiii Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from Boston Library Consortium IVIember Libraries http://www.archive.org/details/positionoflimeinOOwarn M ' ' The Position of Lime m the Chemistry of the Soil published by Charles Warner Company m^mm The Position of Lime in the Chemistry of the Soil A paper read before The National L^ime Manufacturers' Association February, 1910 By IRVING WARNER Published by CHARLES WARNER COMPANY Wilmington Philadelphia New York Boston The Position of Lime in the Chemistry of the Soil By Irving Warner THERE seems to be such general misunderstanding as to the actual needs of agricultural soils that it is timely that a resume or summary be given, the object of which is to bring about a clearer comprehension of the fundamentals of the subject, not only by the farmer, but also by those who cater to his needs, — the producers of limes and fertilizers. It is to be regretted that there has existed and still exists between the latter two, an antagonism that is entirely uncalled for and that is not necessary, in order that each may do profitable business with the farmer to his advantage. The actual facts of the case are that the lime and the fertilizers complement each other and are not in competition, and the sooner this situation is accepted by both parties, the sooner will the confidence of the farmer replace his present dovibt and misunderstanding. While there are and always will be both lime burners, and fer- tilizer manufacturers who, in their advice to farmers, will sacrifice the interests of their customer and their own future business deal- ings with him, to the profits of the immediate sale, nevertheless there is already a decided trend towards putting the business on a better basis. The members of our association should use their efforts in furthering this movement and adhering strictly to the better prin- ciple involved. In this way only, can we hope to obtain that confidence in our goods to which we are rightfully entitled. But if we are to correctly advise our agricultural trade, then we must understand our subject thoroughly. It is broad and complex and must be studied diligently. Still it is founded on a few funda- mental facts, which are exceedingly simple. It is these facts and the position of lime in reference to them with which we are here dealing. It must first be understood that there are eight necessary ingredients to plant life. One authority, whom we will accept^ states, "Soils contain nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulphur, iron and chlorine, and if a soil is deficient in any of these essential elements of plant food, it will not produce a satisfactory crop." The first four are of major importance, the last four are minor. Of course, it is well known that other things are needed such as soil-air, moisture and humus or decaying organic matter, but we are dealing merely with the mineral chemis- try of the soil and plant life. Also plants need carbon for their structure and this is obtained both from the atmosphere and from the humus of the soil, which in decaying evolves the gas, carbon dioxide or carbonic acid gas. These elements do not appear in the soil or plant in their elementary form, but always as compounds. It is to be noted that of these substances named above, some are acid-forming and others are bases, i. e. form alkalis. The acid-forming are nitrogen, phos- phorus, sulphur and chlorine, becoming respectively, nitric, phos- phoric, sulphuric and hydrochloric acids. Carbon is also acid, forming carbonic acid. The bases are potassium, calcium and magnesium forming potassium, hydroxide, etc. The chemical and popular names of these acids and alkalis are shown on Table 1, together with their chemical composition. Iron is eitlier acid or alkali according to conditions surrounding it. Acids and alkalis combine together to form salts, which sub- stances in general show neither acid nor caustic properties. A few familiar examples of such salts are calcium phosphate, commonly known as phosphate of lime, magnesium sulphate or Epsom salts, and potassium nitrate or nitrate of potash. 4 Of these eight materials named as plant foods, the custom of the trade and of the laboratories has seen fit to nominate only nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium as fertilizers. This, however, should cause the lime manufacturer but little concern, for lime covers a field of usefulness far broader than that of mere plant food. Crops vary considerably in their requirements of the different sub- stances, as shown on Table 2, and though in clover it is observed that the lime content exceeds that of some of the three so called fertilizers, still lime has a bigger duty to perform for the soil. That duty has been aptly characterized in the term "A Soil Amendment." Before proceeding further with this phase of our subject, we will consider certain other fundamental facts. All of these mineral substances must enter into the plant as salts. Also these salts must be soluble, for in plant life no food is available, nor can the plant in any way take up a substance except it be in solution. This fact has been demonstrated in the laboratories. Now since some of the nine necessary substances are acid and some are alkaline, it would be ideal if fertilizing salts could be ob- tained in which both the acid and alkali which form that salt, would be of use to the plant. But this in general is an impossibility owing to the high expense of such balanced salts, as for example nitrate of potash, which furnished both the major ingredients of potassium and nitrogen, and is also a soluble salt therefore quickly available. Or, in the case of sulphate of potash, the plant is so much more in need of the potash than of the sulphur, that it takes the former, leaving the latter to sour the soil. Nitorgen has a peculiarity which should here be noted. It is commonly called an acid substance, forming nitric acid and thence the salts known as nitrates. But nitrogen also combines with hydrogen to form an entirely different substance, ammonia, which strange to say, is strongly alkaline, forming when properly combined with acids, salts of ammonia, as for example, sulphate of ammonia. It will even combine with nitric acid to form nitrate of ammonia, an ideal fertilizing salt for nitrogen only, but this is an artificial salt, never occurring naturally and would be very expensive. 5 In fertilizers, nitrogen is most easily gotten as a salt of ammon- ia, so that the plant, in utilizing the ammonia, i. e. nitrogen, sets free the acid in the soil. With potassium, an alkaline material, the same action takes place. If a phosphate salt is used, the re- verse takes place, that is the plant utilizes the phosphoric acid and sets the alkali free. But phosphate salts are quite insoluble, so that in general they are treated with acid to form acid phosphates or superphosphates, which acid salts are soluble, but the sweetening- effect on the soil of setting free an alkali is therebv greatlv reduced. The insoluble phosphate salts are however used with considerable success and this will be taken up later. Hence it is seen that the effect of using the three fertilizers is to sour the soil with acid and in order to counteract this tendency, some alkali must be supplied. Lime is at once the cheap and the efficacious material to accomplish this end, because it readily forms the salts with the acids, thus neutralizing the soil. There are practically only two acids met with, sulphuric and hydrochloric or muriatic and the two salts, sulphate and muriate of lime will remain inert in the soil, pending the desire of the plant to utilize any part of them. This is one of the uses of lime as "A Soil Amendment." The Form Which His Fertilizers are to be in for their Application. It is evident therefore that the farmer should exercise care in selecting the form in which he applies his fertilizers, so as to get a maximum of valuable material and a minimum of inert valueless substances left in the soil. And he, as well as the fertilizer manu- facturer, must realize that fertilizers in general are inherently sourino- to the soil, and that lime is the onlv satisfactory means of restoring the soil to a condition where it can once more profit by the use of fertilizers. Conversely, the lime manufacturer must realize that nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are major needs of the plant and must be supplied. Whenever phenominal results have been obtained from the use of lime, it is invariably due to the fact that the fertilizers were already present in the soil in ample quanti- ties and there was only needed the presence of Hme either in its lesser capacity as a plant food, or in some form of its greater func- tion as a soil amendment to accomplish the wonderful results observed. Every agricultural lime marmfacturer should therefore be prepared to give his customer full information and advice as to where and in what form the so called fertilizers can most economi- cally be bought. Many farmers believe that they are subserving all the needs of their soil by returning the manure to it from the stables and by the occasional growth of some fertilizing crop. That this belief is without foundation and wholly fallacious is easily explained. Matter in its elementary form can neither be destroyed nor created. If the analysis of a crop shows that it contains so much potassium, so much phosphorous, etc., then those materials come from the soil. The soil also loses through leaching. Now if that crop goes to feed a dairy herd, then these valuable mineral ingre- dients are distributed to milk, to flesh of the growing animal and to the manure, both liquid and solid. Obviously, neither the milk nor the flesh of the animal finds its way back to the soil. In addition, authorities state that a large portion of the fertilizer value of the manure is lost through improper protection and handling. Accordingly, but a small percentage of the mineral matter taken from the soil ever gets back to it. The necessity of replacing it is self evident. It is well then to consider how the farmer can most economi- cally obtain the difl^erent plant foods, all of which are necessary for successful crops. Nitrogen: This is the most expensive of all fertilizers to buy and the cheapest for the farmer to make. If bought in the form of a nitrate or of a salt of ammonia, the cost will usually be greater than 15 cents per pound, of actual nitrogen. Table III shows that the purchase of nitrogen at such a price for the use of tlie staple crops is practically prohibitive. On the other hand nitrogen is evolved in all decaying animal or vegetable matter. Therefore, any organic waste is the proper fertilizer for obtaining nitrogen and fresh manure 7 stands pi-e-eminent. But by far the most prolific source of nitro- gen is the atmosphere itself which is composed of 80% of this valuable element. Clover, alfalfa and other legumes have the power, through tubercle germs growing on their roots, of fixing the free nitrogen of the air into compounds available for plant food. Several of the legumes can be grown as catch crops between regular rotation crops, the}^ can be harvested with profit, and the roots turned imder, not only greatly enriching the soil, in nitrogen, but also increasing the quantity of humus and improving its physical condition. This method is by far the best and cheapest of return- ing nitrogen to the soil. The absolute necessity of lime for the growth of clovers and other legumes is now an accepted fact by all authorities. Many farmers grow buckwheat, barley or rye as a green manure for turning under, but these crops positively will not return any nitrogen or other fertilizer to the soil except that which they took from it. Phosphorus : This occurs naturally as phosphate rock which is chemically phosphate of lime. When finely ground it is known commercially as "floats." In the process of manufacture of "commercial fertilizer," it is treated with sulphuric acid, and is changed to an acid phosphate, which is soluble. This reaction reduces the percentage of phosphorous to one-half that contained in the original raw rock. By far the cheapest and most far-sighted method of applying phosphate is as floats. Since it is insoluble it will not be leached out. It can therefore be applied in quantities sufficient for several years cropping. It becomes slowly available through the natural tendency of all soils to become acid. It is attacked and rendered available by the evolution of carbon dioxide either through the de- cay of humus or through the decomposition of ground limestone. It is very satisfactorily used as an absorbent of the liquid portion of stable manure. It may be top dressed on clover sod and turned under. When thus turned under with manure or clover, the floats are acted on by the acids of the decaying organic matter. If imme- diate results are desired, it is well to put on a small portion of acid phosphate, sufficient for the first year's crop along with the floats for the more permanent results. The manufacturers of floats claim for it a complete fertilizer in that it contains both phosphorous and lime, stating that all soils contain huge stores of potash and calling on the air for the nitrogen. The weak points in this claim are first that in general only the heavy clay soils are rich in potash and this is in a form rendered available only through the use of caustic lime, and second, nitrogen is secur- able from the air only through the clovers, which crop usually fails unless well supplied with lime in addition to that in the phosphate rock. Nevertheless finely ground phosphate rock is an excellent and cheap carrier of phosphorous and as such its use should be encouraged wherever permanent enrichment of the soil is desired. Other sources of phosphorous are certain slags and some organ- ic matters such as bone. These forms like floats are all slowly available and as such should be finely ground. Potassium: The stores of insoluble potash that many soils contain may be rendered available by the use of lime. But such drawing upon the capital cannot be continued indefinitely, so that the application of a certain amount of potash fertilizer is to be recommended. Various potash salts can be purchased in the crude form. Much is imported from Germany as chorides and sulphates, as well as kainit, a cheaper, cruder natural product. Wood ashes, cotton seed, hull ashes, tobacco stems and barn yard manure are all carriers of potash. Calcium and Magnesium: These not only form necessary plant food, but, as stated previously, fill the larger field of soil amendment. While this has now come to be an accepted fact, it is such a broad and intricate study that it can only be touched on lightly here. In regard to the oft-heard controversy of calcium vs. magnesium, I will quote from Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 159. "Magnesia is as necessary to plant growth as lime; it is probably equally effective with lime in the neu- tralization of soil acidity and in the amelioration of the physical condition of the soil; so that, for ordinary agricultural purposes, the 9 proportion of magnesia in a limestone is a matter of no consequence. It is true that, under certain conditions, an excess of magnesia may be hurtful to vegetation, and it could not be advisable to use a pure salt of magnesia as a fertilizer on this account; but it has been shown that so long as lime is in excess of magnesia, no injurious results follow its use." There is no occasion for unseemly quarreling between the high calcium and the magnesian lime manufacturers. They have a common cause. In general, the farmer should purchase the cheap- est lime, when calculated for available oxides, delivered and spread, only I would make this recommendation : — ^That where a farmer has been continually using high calcium lime, he should occasionally give his fields a treatment of magnesian lime and vice versa. Calcium is also obtained as gypsum or land plaster, but since this is a sulphate, it follows that the plant in utilizing the calcium, sets free sulphuric acid, thereby souring the soil. This method of applying calcium is therefore to be avoided. Ground limestone is calcium carbonate, a neutral salt. It is particularly adaptable as a filler for all fertilizers for home mixing. It will not break up compounds of ammonia, setting free the latter to be lost. Accordingly it is a good absorbent of stable manure. While of a neutral nature it is readily broken up itself by the strong- er acids, such as sulphuric and hydrochloric. Hence it is an auto- matic rectifier of soil acidity, always remaining inert, and insoluble in the meantime. When thus broken up by a stronger acid, car- bonic acid is set free, but this acid is so exceedingly weak that it further breaks up into water and carbonic acid gas or carbon dioxide and this gas is exactly the same as that which the plant takes from the atmosphere, and from the decaying humus of the soil, for the building of its own carbonic structure. It is easy to conceive that the setting free of carbon dioxide in the soil is helpful rather than detrimental to the plant. The same rule as to fineness of grinding of phosphates applies to ground limestone. In fact, I am fully of the opinion that 10 material which will not pass through a 50 mesh screen might as well not be put on the soil. Many authorities hold that all the needs of the soil are sub- served by the use of ground stone, always, of course, based upon the amount of the oxide content. The argument for this is, that if lime is applied either as oxide or hydrate, it very quickly takes up carbon dioxide from the air and returns to the carbonate form in an exceedingly finely divided state. But one of the well known actions of lime as a soil amendment, is the rendering available of inert compounds of potash, with which many soils abound. Now lime cannot perform this function unless in an active state. It is evident that if either ground lime or hydrate is harrowed into the soil, it will be more or less protected from the carbon dioxide of the air. and will better perform its duty of freeing the potash. Also, being thus protected, it tends to keep the entire soil alkaline, a condition usually considered favorable to plant life by most investi- gators. Therefore, it is my opinion that whereas ground lime- stone is the proper material for a filler of fertilizers, nevertheless when liming is done, as it should be at least, once in the cycle of crop rotation, it should be done with ground or hydrate lime. Ground limestone is of value however in rendering ground phos- phate rock available. It performs this function because of the fact that as a carbonate it is readily decomposed by practicallv all soil acids. The carbon dioxide evolved will in turn acidulate the phosphate turning it to a superphosphate which is available. The question of whether it is better to use ground quick lime or hydrate, each farmer must decide for himself. Delivered cost of actual oxide, ease of handling, machinery for applying, all enter into the consideration. I would personally prefer the use of ground lime on account of greater economy of purchasing and applying, except only in such crops which might be injured by the more vio- lent action of the quick lime; in which case the hydrate will be found to be milder. Wherever it is desired to have an actively alkaline lime which still must be mild in its action, it is necessary to use the hydrate form. 11 Stjlphur and Chlorine: Some authorities claim that these acid substances are not necessary to plant growth, but that plants will take them up in limited quantities when present. Be that as it may, since potash is most easily obtained in the form of sulphates and chlorides, the general tendency is for too much of these sub- stances to get into the soil rather than that a deficiency should exist. Therefore, the farmer should take care not to overload his soil with these materials, but still see to it that his potash is sometimes gotten as sulphates and chlorides. Whether it is better to purchase potash as a chloride or sulphate can usually best be decided by an inquiry into the requirements of the crop immediately following. Potatoes, tobacco and sugar l)eets are benefitted by the sulphate form, while other plants seem to prefer the chloride. Iron : It usually abounds to an extent in all soils sufficient for the limited requirements. It is also being constantly added through the other fertihzing materials, which invariably contain a small per- centage of this metal as an oxide. It has never been considered necessary that this element be specifically added to the soil. In commercial fertilizers, the valuable ingredients form but a very small percentage of the total, the most part being worthless filler. iVn analysis of many fertilizers on the market shows that the manufacturer takes from $10 . 00 to $'20 . 00 per ton to cover his cost of mixing, bagging and profit. In other words, the farmer pays that much more for his fertilizing materials than if he bought them in the concentrated form. Hence it has become good practice to purchase concentrated fertilizers, mix them in the barn, and add a desirable filler which is necessary to get distribution of the concen- trates uniformly over the ground. And there is no more valuable nor more efficacious filler than ground limestone. There are a great host of bi-products and natural products which claim to have special fertilizing powers. Ground bone, tankage, fish refuse, dried blood, lava dust, various ashes, slags and so on without number. When the farmer is importuned to buy such materials, he should simply request a guaranteed analysis, then calculate for the nitrogen contained at 15 cents per pound, phosphorous at 12 5 cents and potassium at 5 cents and then determine whether he desires the fertilizer elements contained and what it is worth to him delivered. It is always well to have such analysis and calcu- lations checked by the experimental station. liCt this paper then, be the humble herald of a new era in supplying the needs of the farmer. Having studied his needs intelli- gently, let us not be afraid to recommend to him the use of potash and phosphate but rather let us carry a list of names of suppliers, where these materials in concentrated form can be purchased economically: then tell him the ground stone necessary as a tiller and the aoricultural lime that he will need the vear foUowino;. It is not proposed at this time to say how, when, or in what propor- tions the various mineral elements should be added to the soil for various crops. This information can be readily gotten from the experimental stations. A table similar to table II showing analysis of the ash of different plants is the best guide. Let us summarize our new policy of education and of selling lime to the farmer as follows: — 1st. Nitrogen, potassium, phosphorous and lime are all im- portant necessities of the soil and chlorine, sulphur and iron are minor ones. 2nd. Nitrogen being a very expensive fertilizer to purchase, should be returned to the soil by stable manure, and by the growing of legumes for which lime is needed. 3rd. Potash and phosphate should be purchased in concen- trated forms and mixed in proper proportions to suit the crop to be gro\^'n and the deficiencies of the soil to be treated. Ground lime stone will be found excellent as a filler. 4th. Use lime in either quick, ground or hydrate form at least once in the cycle of crop rotation, at a time shortly prior to the seed- ing of the crop of clover or other legume. Lime in this form, well harrowed in, will help materially in rendering valuable the inert potashes of the soil and in keeping the soil in the slightly alkaline condition, desirable for most plant growth. 13 5th. Stable manure being the greatest of all fertilizers should be carefully conserved, and its liquid portion absorbed by ground phosphate rock or ground limestone. 6th. Run in a catch crop of clover between the regular rota- tion crops whenever possible. The harvest will pay for the trouble and the roots will immenselv enrich the soil in nitrogen and humus. 7th. Sulphates and chlorides should be used sparingly, and then only as compounds for the carrying of potash. The ground limestone used as fertilizer filler and stable manure absorbent will usually be sufficient to correct the scouring tendency of these acid materials. 8th. Fertilizers in the mineral form do not improve the physi- cal condition of the soil, nor increase its content of humus. Accord- ingly whenever organic fertilizers are cheaply available, give them the preference. The souring tendency of rotting organic matter when detected, can be corrected by liming. 9th. Lime, whether considered to be a fertilizer or not, forms a necessary part of all plant life. But far greater is its field as a soil amendment, to lighten clay soils, to compact sandy soils, to make soil more healthful, to foster desirable germ life, and to render avail- able for the plant, other foods and fertilizers contained by the soil. 10th. The farmer loses a large portion of the value of lime if he fails to use it as a means of growing clover or other legume. This is the natural and only cheap method of returning the expen- sive and necessary nitrogen to the soil. For financial success in farming, it must be done. 11th. Farming is a manufacturing enterprise and the soil is a factory. The amount of finished material in entirely a function of the raw material supplied and the labor used. It the farmer is to follow modern factory practice of obtaining the greatest possible out-put from his property, then he must feed in the raw material diligently and intelligently as well as till the soil, and in this policy he will find lime his strong right bower in intensifying production and in getting the greatest and completest value from his fertilizers. 14 Note on Adding Lime to the Soil. 1. In general, modern agriculture limes are much purer than those of a generation ago. Accordingly their action is much more intense. Smaller quantities must be used and carelessnesss on the part of the user may harm the soil. 2. Ground lime and hydrated lime must be used in very much smaller quantities than other forms on account of the fact that a more intimate mixture between the soil humus and active lime is obtained with them, than with the older form of run of kiln and air slacked lime. 3. The practice of drilling hydrated lime with clover seed has been found successful but must be done with great care and only under the advice of an experimental station. 4. Ground limestone is "fool-proof." It can be applied to a soil in any desired quantity within reason, so as to suffice for many years, without in any way endangering the soil. It leaches out but very slowly. The limestone should be ground so that it will all pass a 12 mesh screen and at least 50% should pass 100 mesh. 5. Quick lime, hydrated lime and ground limestone, all have the same ultimate effects. Their respective total values are based upon the available oxide of lime and magnesia present. In good grades of materials these available oxides should run in excess of the following, — Ground lime 86%, hydrate 77%, ground limestone 46%. 6. Lime or ground limestone can to advantage, be spread upon the field any time during the winter on frozen ground. This is particularly desirable on level ground. On rolling or hilly country there is danger of the material being lost thru surface washing unless the ground is protected by a cover crop. Ground limestone is less susceptible to surface washing and hydrate lime most susceptible until it gets thoroly wet and incorporates with the soil. 7. Many chemical tests are proposed for the determination o^ whether the soil does or does not need lime. These tests require 15 special materials and a certain technical knowledge, and it is to be preferred, therefore, that a farmer should determine the require- ments of the soil by its history and appearance. If the soil has been richly supplied with manure and fertilizer and cropped regularly for several years, then it is certainly in need of lime, even tho it should be overlaying limestone. If the soil refuses to give a good crop of clover, and is inclined to grow weeds, such as sorrel, etc., "then lime is quickly needed. References in Connection With 'The Position of Lime in the Chemistry of the Soil." Ohio Agricultural Experimental Station, Lyster. Ohio. Bulletin No. 159. "Manual of Practical Farming," Joseph McLennan (McMul- lin Co.) * 'Farmers Cyclopedia of Agriculture," Wilcox & Smith (Orange Jud Co., New York). ""Principles of Profitable Farming" and "Plant Foods" issued by the German Kali Works, Baltimore, ^Id. "Compendium of Results of the Agricultural Stations of Illinois, Ohio, Maryland, Pennsylvania in the use of Ground Rock Phosphate," issued by the Farmers Ground Rock Phosphate Co., of Mt. Pleasant, Tenn. Rhode Island Agricultural Experimental Station, . 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