Artists Who Work with Their Hands: 
 
 Painters, Sculptors, Craft Artists and Artist Printmakers 
 
 A Trend Report, 1970-1990 
 
 By Joan Jeffri and Robert Greenblatt 
 November, 1994 
 
 This report was prepared for the National Endowment for the Arts under contract no. 93- 
 42. Thanks are due to Rachel Moore for handling large volumes of data and difficult 
 information required to generate this report. The opinions expressed in this report are 
 those of the authors and do not reflect the position of the Endowment. 
 
Artists Who Work With Their Hands: Painters, Sculptors, Craft Artists and Artist Printmaker: 
 A Trend Report, 1970-1990 
 
 By Joan Jeffri and Robert Greenblatt 
 
 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 
 
 This report examines trends in the visual arts occupations of painters, sculptors, craft artists and artist 
 printmakers — all of whom currently occupy one category of the United States Census — from 1970 to 1990 — in the 
 areas of employment, earnings and geographic distribution. In addition to information from the US. census, 
 information has been used from the artist population surveys conducted by the Research Center for Arts and 
 Culture at Columbia University and artist population surveys conducted by other researchers, both in and outside of 
 the United States. 
 
 While the census has certain limitations, it also has certain advantages. The limitations center on (1) its inability to 
 reflect certain conditions for artists such as: artists who work at a number of different jobs simultaneously, in more 
 than one art form, artists for whom art making is only one of a number of careers, and (2) its system of 
 classification. The advantages are the provision of (1) a relatively large and comprehensive database, (2) a broad 
 picture of central tendencies of the artist population, and (3) one answer to the question, “How many artists?” 
 
 The discrete surveys used here provide more details for artist-specific areas, and more refined categories. Some 
 provide more attitudinally based information, a factor which some economists are beginning to acknowledge as 
 important when studying economic data on artists. We have focused on the decade of the 1980s with our non- 
 census information: by 1980, public funding at the federal and state levels had been solidified into a workable 
 system, a source of support that has been increasingly important to artists in visual arts occupations. The 1980s 
 also provided us with the “art boom”, a time during which prices for contemporary art reached an economic peak in 
 the marketplace. Finally, in the 1980s the visual arts provided a catalyst, through controversy over work by artists 
 Robert Mapplethorpe and Andres Serrano, among many others, for a broad-based public discussion of the role, 
 function and support of art. 
 
 It would be unwise to view this report without acknowledging the enormous changes in opportunities for education 
 and formal training for visual artists in this country, and the growth of public funding. The resources that have 
 developed for individual artists in the last several decades — in the form of grants, arts service organizations, 
 commissions, cooperative and commercial galleries — have changed artists’ relationship to their own development, 
 their careers and their support systems. 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 
 in 2015 
 
 https://archive.org/details/artistswhoworkwiOOjeff 
 
Where possible, painters, sculptors, craft artists and artist printmakers (referred to as painters/craft artists) are 
 compared to the experienced civilian labor force, professional specialty occupations, and all artists by gender. 
 Major areas of concentration are geographic distribution, age, education, employment and earnings. Highlights 
 appear below. 
 
 Between 1970 and 1990 the total artist population more than doubled, from 720,000 to 1,671,000. While the male 
 artists population almost doubled (a rise of 46%), from 499,000 in 1970 to 931,000 in 1990, the female artist 
 population tripled from 221, 000 in 1970 to 675,000 in 1990. By 1990, painters/craft artists more than doubled 
 from 102,600 in 1970 to 191,160 in 1990 and represented 13% of all artists. Women painters/craft artists had a 
 substantial increase of 34% between 1980 and 1990. 
 
 While 78% of male artists and 72% of female artists are urban residents, these percentages have declined from 
 1980, with both male and female painters at slightly higher rates (80% in 1990 for males; 76% for female painters). 
 While male artists and painters/craft artists had their highest proportions in the West in 1990, females in both 
 categories moved South and substantially decreased in the Northwest. 
 
 Median ages for painters were higher at 40 than for all male artists at 37 and higher than the general labor force, 
 and higher at 39 for female painters than for all female artists at 37, but similar to the general labor force. Both 
 male and female painters and craftspeople have median ages of 41 in a study during the same time conducted by 
 the Research Center for Arts and Culture. 
 
 The area of education seems to prove the most difficult when comparing census figures to discrete survey figures. 
 According to the census, education for both male and female painters and craft artists is just holding steady at the 
 4+ years of college level and above, and both years of graduate education and degrees are suspect due to changes in 
 the coding procedures of the census. According to the findings of the discrete surveys used here, over 40% of the 
 painters/craft artists have graduate degrees. 
 
 Self-employment rose for both male and female painters and craft artists from 32% of males and 34% of females in 
 1970 to 47% of males and 49% of females in 1990. For females, as self-employment increased, unemployment 
 declined but the definition of self-employment for visual artists is a highly complex one. 
 
 Females continued to earn less than males in all sectors between 1970 and 1990, even though between 1980 and 
 1990, the female median income for professionals more than doubled to $23,113, and the median income for 
 female painters/craft artists more than tripled to $22,041. For female professionals who worked 50-52 weeks, 
 median income was $29,181; for female painters/craft artists, $18,762. They did not fare as well as their artist 
 counterparts, whose median income was $20,825 in 1990. 
 

 
In 1990, what we see from the census is a larger proportion of women as painters, sculptors, craft artists and artist 
 printmakers, with fewer living in urban areas. They have a higher median income than all artists and the general 
 labor force, but are closer in median age to professionals. For both males and females, the level of education, 
 according to the census, seems to be just holding steady or rising slightly at the higher education levels, and more 
 and more of them are self-employed, with percentages much higher than other kinds of artists. The median income 
 for male painters and craft artists grew more slowly than for the total work force, male professionals and female 
 painters/craft artists whose median income tripled since 1980. Finally, we seem to find that part-year female 
 painters/craft artists earned more than their full-year counterparts. 
 
 What the discrete surveys offer us here is another view, one which targets the artist population more narrowly than 
 the census and which suggests additional ways of looking at how artists view their occupations. These surveys also 
 identify other areas of inquiry that broaden the picture of the artist in society. Neither the census nor the discrete 
 surveys purport to provide a longitudinal database, a problem which the National Endowment for the Arts should 
 perhaps try to address for artists in the future. Finally, research indicates the need for a regular survey of artists, if 
 possible, by the National Endowment for the Arts, which combines the more relevant aspects of the census with 
 other areas of inquiry, some of which have been identified in this document. 
 
V 
 
 
 
Artists Who Work with Their Hands: 
 
 Painters, Sculptors, Craft Artists and Artist Printmakers 
 A Trend Report, 1970-1990 
 
 I. Background 
 
 Data From the United States Census 
 
 Focus Areas 
 
 Challenges 
 
 Other United States Data 
 Data from Other Countries 
 
 n. United States Census Data, 1970-1990 
 
 ID. Other Data 
 
 Discrete Surveys, United States: 
 
 Artist’s Work-Related, Human and Social Services Questionnaire 
 Information on Artists 
 Artists Training and Career Project 
 Artists and Jobs Questionnaire 
 Discrete Survey, Australia 
 
 IV. Comparisons 
 Tables 
 Appendices 
 Bibliography 
 

 
 
I. 
 
 BACKGROUND 
 
 This report examines trends in the visual arts occupations of painters, sculptors, craft artists and 
 artist printmakers— all of whom currently occupy one category of the United States Census — 
 from 1970 to 1990 in the areas of employment, earnings and geographic distribution. In 
 addition to information from the U. S. Census and related research monographs, information 
 will be targeted from: 
 
 • artist population surveys conducted by the Research Center for Arts and Culture at 
 Columbia University; 
 
 • artist population surveys conducted by other researchers, including one 
 commissioned by the New England Foundation for the Arts and a longitudinal 
 study conducted by psychologists from the University of Chicago; 
 
 • an artist population study commissioned by The Australia Council. 
 
 There are both limitations and advantages to all the above data sets, but we believe, that — 
 taken together — this inquiry can provide a broader profile of visual artists in the United States 
 than has been possible before. 
 
 Perhaps a basic limitation of all these surveys is their regard of arts occupations as comparable 
 to other trades and professions. Sociologist Judith Adler summarizes this: 
 
 A study of the job market experience of professional plumbers does not need 
 to be overly concerned with distinguishing its population from people who fix 
 washers in their spare time with uncertain competence. A study of artists in a 
 society in which occupational membership is (fortunately) not defined or 
 restricted by a guild, an academy, or a state system of licensing can neither 
 comfortably ignore problems of occupational definition nor resolve them.l 
 
 Accepting, then, an imperfect definition of occupations for artists, there are various limitations 
 
 and advantages of the data used as a basis of this analysis. 
 
 1 Judith Adler, “Artists Job Market Experiences,” Journal of Arts Management and Law , 13:3 (1983), pp. 177- 
 182. 
 
 1-1 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
Data From the United States Census 
 
 Limitations 
 
 Multi-Categories 
 
 Those who have a particular interest in visual artists will acknowledge immediately that the 
 combination of artist types in one category not only groups together very different kinds of 
 creators, but each individual group interacts very differently with the profit and nonprofit 
 marketplaces. Their commonality lies in the fact that they all work with their hands. Lumping 
 together artists whose work can appear in multiples with artists who work in singular objects 
 distorts the information we might gather on earnings (money made from a single object, a 
 limited edition, or a series of multiples), hours worked (time required to produce one painting, 
 one sculpture, one craft work or the original for what will become a series of prints, glass 
 goblets), and even geographic distribution (access to equipment from suitable studio space to 
 foundries and kilns). [For a discussion of how these categories have changed over time, see pp. 
 1-4 and 1-5] 
 
 Multi-Jobs 
 
 Artists included in the census are asked to describe their chief occupation during the previous 
 week and are cited under a single occupation. These are two facets of the same dilemma, since 
 it is well known that artists often hold two or more jobs simultaneously. While the "reference 
 week" may limit the artist’s census occupation according to the job he spent the most hours 
 earning money from (i.e., taxi driving), there is no provision for his "artist occupation" to be 
 cited. Finally, the broadness of census categories, along with the factors mentioned above, tends 
 to hide certain subtleties. (What about multi-media artists, for example?) This kind of 
 information becomes more difficult to find useful when agencies like the National Endowment 
 for the Arts seem to have understood these very differences for funding purposes, using many 
 discrete categories which represent a broad variety of artists. 
 
 1-2 
 

Multi- Art Forms 
 
 A problem not addressed by the census or most other artist surveys is the fact that some artists 
 work in more than one art form. For some, in fact, it is the process of being an artist that 
 attracts them to pursue art with a number of resulting scenarios, including: (a) they pursue a 
 number of art forms until they find the one that best suits their mode of expression; (b) they 
 work for a period of time in one art form and their work evolves into expression through a 
 different art form; (c) they combine art forms in their work sometimes getting labeled as multi- 
 media artists and sometimes as hyphenates — painter-craftsperson, dancer-photographer, etc. 
 Taken together with the multi-job and multi-career situations mentioned above, it becomes 
 clear that accurate "artist categories" can be extremely complex. 
 
 How Do Artists Get Placed in Categories in the (19901 United States Census? 
 
 The census asks six basic questions about current or most recent job activity with instructions to 
 describe the person's "chief job activity or business last week." If the person had more than a 
 single job, he is instructed to describe the one at which he worked the most hours. If the person 
 had no job last week, he should refer to his last job or business since 1985. (See Appendix A.) 
 The six questions center on: 
 
 Industry or Employer — employer, kind of business (2 questions) 
 
 Occupation — kind of work, most important activities (4 questions) 
 
 Organizational sector question— private nonprofit, government, self-employed, working 
 without pay. While both industry and occupation titles undergo changes from one decennial 
 census to the next, the basic way artists (and others) get fitted into a category is by answering 
 the requisite six questions, and census bureau employees deciding into which category they fit 
 based on a classification listing. An additional difficulty in making comparisons from one 
 decade to the next and also within decades, is the other systems used to classify workers and/or 
 survey them. These include: 
 
 1-3 
 

 
 
 
Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) reports monthly and annually on employment and 
 unemployment. Based on the Current Population Survey (CPS), a monthly survey of 57,000.. 
 Limitations: On a monthly basis by individual artist-category, the sample sizes are too small for 
 some of the categories , so that 12-month annual figures are used but must still be used with 
 great caution. 
 
 Equal Employment Opportunities File (EEO), a by-product of the decennial census and 
 gathered for employment equity needs, is particularly good for geographical distinctions. It is 
 based on the full long form sample of 16.7% of the population. 
 
 One month each year, for the last several years, some questions have been added to BLS 
 surveys regarding multiple jobs. It is our understanding that since January 1994, these 
 questions will be asked on a monthly basis. It should be noted that, as long as a person has 
 worked one hour during the survey reference week, in anv iob . he is considered employed and 
 not included in the unemployment rate. For visual artists, the whole concept of “employment” 
 has other problems not addressed by BLS surveys. This is discussed more fully in Chapter II. 2 
 
 There are a few major discrepancies which should be pointed out, in addition to the ones 
 mentioned elsewhere in this report: 
 
 • Artists are classified in the census under Managerial and Professional Specialty Occupations 
 with a subset of Writers, Artists, Entertainers and Athletes: Under this are finer categories 
 of architects, designers, etc., some of which "combine" artist types-actors and directors, for 
 example. (See Multi-Categories above.) 
 
 • Through the decades, even within this category, at least one occupation has gone 
 through a major revision according to the census: before 1980 there was no category defining 
 
 2 Professional Workers and Unions: A Reference Manual, (Washington DC: Department of Professional 
 Employees AFL-CIO, 1993) p. 24. 
 
 1-4 
 

 
 
 
 
"craft artists" so we do not know where craftspeople were identified. Since 1980, the craft artist 
 
 is part of our multi-category. However, within the finer census categories (just as 
 
 examples), there are no categories for: 
 
 Fiber Artist 
 Weaver 
 
 Goldsmith, Silversmith 
 Leatherworker 
 Papermaker 
 Bookbinder 
 
 Calligraphers appear in the 1990 census category "Artists, Performers, and Related Workers, 
 Not Elsewhere Classified," but are not counted in the census figures which report craft artists. 
 
 • Before 1970 many of the artists in the multi-category we are analyzing in this report were 
 classified under Artists and Art Teachers. In 1970 the category became Painters and 
 Sculptors. Starting in 1980 the category became Painters, Sculptors, Craft Artists and Artist 
 Printmakers. 
 
 • Job titles under the census category "Painters and Sculptors" include, in artist occupations of 
 the 1980 census, cardpainters, music autographers and tattoo artists. 
 
 • In the 1980 Standard Occupational Classification Manual under the larger classification 
 “Fabricators, Assemblers and Hand Working Occupations" the following were listed: 
 
 Hand Sewing Occupations (Embroiderers?) 
 
 Hand Painting, Coating, and Decorating Occupations 
 Miscellaneous Hand Working Occupations 
 
 Also in this Manual there are separate numbered listings for Bookbinders and Cabinet Makers. 
 Clearly, not everyone who fits into one of these categories would claim he is an artist or 
 craftsperson, but some would. The above examples illustrate difficulties of inclusion as well as 
 exclusion in census categories. 
 
 1-5 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Longitudinal Data 
 
 Although this report focuses, at least in the census analysis, on trend data, it must be noted that 
 the census provides cross-sectional data. The long form of the census questionnaire targets a 
 sample at two points in time of 16% of the population and the census does not purport to 
 provide a longitudinal database. This provides even more reason to use discrete surveys for an 
 additional view of artists. A limitation, then, of both the census and discrete surveys, is the lack 
 of a longitudinal database. This might be an important problem for the National Endowment for 
 the Arts to address, possibly by trying to create its own longitudinal database of artists. 
 
 Multi-Careers 
 
 Another reality which has been overlooked in the study of occupations in general, which also 
 applies to the arts, is the multiple career phenomenon. With people living longer, being exposed 
 to more opportunities for training and education, some are likely to have more than one career 
 during their lifetimes. While we can measure growth and decline in numbers of artists by 
 occupation, these measures tell us nothing about whether this occupation is one of a series of 
 careers, whether these are consecutive or simultaneous, or what influence earnings and 
 employment have on these occupations' growth or decline. Statistical changes that are "driven 
 by individual decisions, not by birthrates" have not been articulated or examined.^ So the 
 "trends" on artists put forward here, using the census data, must be considered as best guesses in 
 terms of blanketing the universe, first, of residents and second, of artists. 
 
 Myaniagcs 
 
 There are certain advantages to using census data, perhaps the first of which is that it is a 
 national stage on which artists can be considered serious players. There are other distinct 
 advantages: (1) There is a large database available which is relatively good for comparison. 
 
 3 Brann J. Wry. “The Artist’s Condition: Comment and Discussion,” in C. Richard Swaim (ed.). The Modern 
 Muse: The Support and Condition of Artists (New York: ACA Books, 1989), pp. 55-63. This comment was 
 made by George Koch. 
 
 1-6 
 

 
(e.g. 1990 census included 1,671,277 artists.) These data also allow for comparison with other 
 non-artist occupations surveyed by the census. (2) The census database is the most 
 comprehensive available. (3) Central tendencies — the census can give us a firm hold on the 
 central tendencies of a large number of artists which can give us a broad general picture of the 
 census' artist population. (4) How many artists? Acknowledging the above limitations, the 
 census can provide an answer to this question which is used time and again by policy makers, 
 funders and arts groups, particularly in times of scarce resources. 
 
 Other Data 
 
 The limitations of working solely with census data can be mitigated by carefully integrating 
 results from other discrete artist surveys with one important caveat: the assumption that the 
 census data and the data represented in the other discrete surveys represent comparable 
 universes, that each is a reflection of the same world through different lenses. Therefore, while 
 the census is more comprehensive, the discrete surveys are more detailed in artist- specific areas, 
 and the broader, coarser categories of the census can suggest stratification using the discrete 
 surveys' more refined categories. Some are more attitudinally based than the census, a factor 
 which some economists are beginning to acknowledge as important when studying economic 
 data on artists. Although not part of the investigators' agenda in most cases, these other data 
 may provide a forum for artists to advocate for themselves. Finally, these data can indicate 
 areas for further research. 
 
 Focus Areas 
 Focus on the 1980s 
 
 Our focus with non-U. S. census data, in the United States, will be the decade of the 1980s. 
 
 First, we have several discrete surveys which cover different geographic locations during this 
 decade that will serve to complement and broaden the discussion from U.S. census data. 
 
 Second, it is generally acknowledged that by 1980, public funding at the federal and state levels 
 
 1-7 
 

 
 
had been solidified into a workable system, a source of support that has been increasingly 
 important to artists in visual arts occupations. Third, the 1980s provided us with the "art boom" 
 as it is described by journalists, a time during which prices for contemporary visual art (which 
 began to escalate somewhat wildly in the 1960s) reached an economic peak in the marketplace. 
 And fourth, the visual arts provided a catalyst, through controversy over work by artists Robert 
 Mapplethorpe and Andres Serrano, among many others, for a broad-based public discussion of 
 the role, function and support of art. 
 
 Discrete surveys 
 
 We will be using three surveys conducted by the Research Center for Arts and Culture at 
 Columbia University. 
 
 1. A 1986 survey, THE ARTISTS WORK-RELATED, HUMAN AND SOCIAL 
 SERVICES QUESTIONNAIRE, surveying the fellowship applicants to the New York 
 Foundation for the Arts with a focus on visual artists categories in New York City. 
 
 2. The 1988 INFORMATION ON ARTISTS survey, both in aggregate for visual artists in 
 the ten locations covered in the survey, and, in particular for visual artists in New York 
 and Boston. 
 
 3. The 1991 ARTISTS TRAINING AND CAREER PROJECT surveys on painters and 
 craftspeople (since information is often based on the previous year, we felt that 1990 
 would be a good way to round off the end of the 1980s.) 
 
 In addition, we will be using the survey conducted by Gregory Wassail and Neil Alper for the 
 New England Foundation for the Arts between 1980 and 1982, with a special focus on Boston. 
 
 International Data 
 
 On an international level, we will be highlighting the area of education with data from a survey 
 collected in 1987 by C. David Throsby for the The Australia Council on which some 
 comparative work has already been done. (See Bibliography: Jeffri, Joan and Throsby, David). 
 
 1-8 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Additional Material 
 
 A complete literature search on information about visual artists was done for this study and a 
 bibliography is included for future work. In particular, fields like sociology, economics and 
 psychology were combed for relevant writings. Throughout this text references are made to 
 appropriate sources which broaden or deepen this investigation. One study in particular needs 
 special mention since it is the only truly longitudinal study done of fine artists in this country. 
 
 In 1963 two psychologists from the University of Chicago, Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi and Jacob 
 W.Getzels, undertook a study which tested, interviewed and observed at work almost three 
 hundred students at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago. Their study of juniors and 
 seniors, all fine arts majors intending a career in the fine arts, resulted in many papers and a 
 book. The Creative Vision ( New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1976). The purpose of their study 
 "was to find out the extent to which various cognitive abilities..., perceptual abilities, values, and 
 personality characteristics are involved in the making of art that is thought to be creative."^ 
 
 In 1980 these scholars were able to locate 250 of the original sample of 281, and administer the 
 first truly longitudinal study. 208 or 74% responded. This second study 18 years later, focused 
 on "the vicissitudes of creativity in art" and was also a "study of young people moving into 
 adulthood."^ It produced an unpublished report in 1984, Talent and Achievement, which 
 provides important insights into the very areas we are tracking in this report — income, 
 employment and geographical differences, as well as many other areas. Where relevant, this 
 information has been included in this text. 
 
 4 Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Jacob W. Getzels and Stephen P. Kahn, Talent and Achievement (Chicago, 1984) an 
 unpublished report, p. 1. 
 
 5 Ibid. p. 10. 
 
 1-9 
 

 
 
 
 
CHALLENGES 
 
 Occupation vs. Career 
 
 A few more distinctions should be pointed out at the outset of this analysis. While the census 
 has some strengths in isolating artists as occupations, for artists, their occupations may be 
 different from their careers. Even accepting our imperfect definition of artists' occupations, for 
 some artists the ideas of “occupation" and "career" are not the way they choose to identify 
 themselves. (Indeed, some painters interviewed for a Research Center for Arts and Culture 
 project said that in their early painting days in the 1950s 'career' was not part of their 
 professional vocabulary; they simply "were painters.") Since census and most other surveys at 
 some point ask artists to "self-identify" either their occupation, their career, or both, this creates 
 difficulties for identifying the targeted population. 
 
 Professional vs. Amateur 
 
 In addition to definitions of artists there is the question of who is a "professional artist." Since 
 professionalism is viewed by many in terms which are based on economic measures—money 
 earned, hours worked, and/or affiliation with a professionalizing auspice, many artists may be 
 eliminated. And, since there is disagreement in the art world itself as to what constitutes a 
 professional artist, a distorted picture may emerge. Finally, analyses based on who is a 
 professional artist raise the question of who are “amateur artists," who are also producers of art. 
 
 As a study commissioned by the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation in early 1970s in Great 
 Britain attested, “art is not a formally 'closed' profession," so the "composition and character of 
 the profession of the fine artist" is rooted in an 'open' system.^ This system provides an 
 interesting background for study, but it is one where standard entry measures do not exist. 
 There is no formal Academy to accredit the artist, no equivalent to the attorney's bar exam to 
 
 Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, The Economic Situation of the Visual Artist (London: Gulbenkian 
 Foundation, 1985), pp.22-23. 
 
 1-10 
 

 
certify him. Although some would argue that the formal education system has tried to provide 
 this through university degrees of fine arts, this is not a universally accepted standard for being 
 an artist. 
 
 Geographic attitudes 
 
 One of the problems in measuring artists' occupations in geographic terms is the "big city' bias 
 of many, including many artists, in the art world. This may be different for different art forms, 
 but in most of the arts the centers of artist activity against which artists are always comparing 
 themselves (whether this means the need to get to or reject them) are New York and Los 
 Angeles. For the visual artists we are addressing here, the primary locus seems to be New York. 
 
 The tension about this reality was reflected in a 1992 article in the New Art Examiner by 
 Montana painter Karen Kitchel: 
 
 The most widespread assumption in the U.S. art world is that if you’re not in New 
 York, you’re nowhere. The implication is that everything else is the hinterlands, 
 the boonies, or provinces. ...To simplify the tremendous amount of activity going 
 on outside of New York City. ..is a transparent attempt to minimize any accurate 
 sense of the creative depth, diversity, or market in the United States. ...Whether 
 above board or under the table, standards obsessed with regional hierarchy betray 
 a lack of aesthetic focus and miss the point. They’re out of date and fail to reflect 
 this age of travel and instant information, as well as artists’ diverse living and 
 working arrangements/ 
 
 In an application by Arts Midwest to the National Endowment for the Arts in 1987, the 
 “location argument” emerged in a different way: 
 
 Visual artists choosing to live in the Midwest have fewer opportunities for 
 encouragement, recognition, and financial support. ...There has been a migration 
 of artists away from the Midwest. A study of artists published in March 1987 by 
 the National Endowment for the Arts indicates that our region of the country has 
 lost more artists than any other region over the five-year period researched.. .Arts 
 Midwest believes that artists do not have to live in New York to succeed in their 
 
 7 Karen Kitchel, “Speakeasy.” New Art Examiner, Summer 1992, pp. 13-15. 
 
 1-11 
 

 
 
 
profession;although that city may boast an active artistic climate, it should not be 
 the only place for artists to successfully create and market their works.® 
 
 Some interesting data supplement these opinions. In their previously mentioned landmark 
 
 longitudinal study of fine artists who studied at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago in 
 
 1963, which was followed up in 1981, one-fourth of the former students stayed in Chicago, 
 
 17% lived in Chicago suburbs, and another 18% lived in the Midwest. ^ Only half the artists 
 
 who lived in New York in 1981 were fully involved in art, and at least "one third had given up 
 
 on the practice of art entirely. In fact," say the study’s authors, "moving to New York is clearly 
 
 an either-or proposition: those living there are either fully committed or quit; very few remain 
 
 only partly committed to art." 10 
 
 In its 1988 study of 10,000 artists in ten locations across the U.S. called INFORMATION ON 
 ARTISTS, the Research Center for Arts and Culture at Columbia University found that, of 
 4,146 responses, 61% of the painters and 58% of the craftspeople received art-related training 
 in the city or region where they currently reside.! 1 It should be noted that the artists in the 
 Chicago study, in 1981, were approximately in their late 30s, which is near the mean age (39) 
 and the median age (37) for all artists in the 1988 IOA study. 
 
 Art as a Core Activity 
 
 Howard Becker describes some of society's attitudes towards the artist which complicate 
 economic analyses: 
 
 Participants in the making of artworks, and members of society generally, regard 
 some of the activities necessary to the production of a form of art as 'artistic,' 
 requiring the special gifts or sensibility of an artist. They further regard those 
 
 8 C. Lynn Cowan, “The Artists’ Condition from the Regional Perspective,” in C. Richard Swaim (ed.). The 
 Modern Muse: The Support and Condition of Artists (New York: ACA Books, 1989), pp. 33-45. 
 
 9 Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Jacob W. Getzels and Stephen P. Kahn, Talent and Achievement (Chicago, 1984) an 
 unpublished report, p. 44. 
 
 10 Ibid. pp. 44-45. 
 
 11 Joan Jeffri, (ed.) Information on Artists (New York: Research Center for Arts and Culture/Columbia 
 University, 1989.) 
 
 1-12 
 

 
 
activities as the core activities of art, necessary to make the work art rather than (in 
 the case of objects), an industrial product, a craft item, or a natural object. The 
 remaining activities seem to them a matter of craft, business acumen, or some ability 
 less rare, less characteristic of art, less necessary to the work's success, less worthy of 
 respect. They define the people who perform these other activities as (to borrow a 
 military term) support personnel, reserving the title of 'artist' for those who perform 
 
 the core activities. ^ 
 
 Becker goes on to describe the change in status of that 'core activity' we call art and how it 
 changes over time, painting once being regarded as skilled work and then elevated to more 
 special status during the Renaissance, craft activities being redefined as art. 
 
 In the artist categories with which we are dealing, these elements are central, for they help to 
 contextualize the artist in relation to the social and economic realities of his time. 
 
 Artist Focus 
 
 Another descriptor which may help us to understand the data analyses which follow is the 
 demarcation between artists who are "creator oriented" with a focus on the process and creation 
 of the work itself, and those who are "consumer oriented." This is not an attempt to judge either 
 the artists or their art, but to point out that the former state "translates economically into limited 
 audiences and low wages. "13 
 
 While the "starving artist" descriptor has frequently been used to describe fine artists (a theory 
 refuted by Randall Filer), research in psychology has put the economic motivation of such 
 artists in perspective by suggesting that some fine artists may operate according to intrinsic 
 rather than extrinsic activity. 14 Deci and Porac defined this kind of activity as "that which 
 enable the individual to be more competent and self-determining without being motivated by an 
 
 12 Howard Becker, Artworlds. (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982),pp. 16-17. 
 
 13 Mary Jean Ryan, In Quiet Desperation: Professional Strategies of the Aspiring Fine Artist (UCLA, 1985) 
 unpublished dissertation, p. 1 1 . 
 
 14 Randall K. Filer, “The ‘Starving Artist’ — Myth or Reality? Earnings of Artists in the United States,” Journal 
 of Political Economy, vol. 94, February 1986, pp. 56-75. 
 
 1-13 
 

 
 
 
external reward."^ Stated more simply, intrinsic motivation is defined by Joanna Stohs by 
 stating that the fine artist: 
 
 engages in art work for reasons such as satisfaction, intellectual growth, or 
 emotional or psychological goals (self-fulfillment or gratification). There are no 
 references to things outside the self (e.g. income or evaluations by others). The 
 activity is sought because it increases competence or self-determination or 
 provides inner rewards or personal challenges. 16 
 
 While Stohs' small sample of fine artists, taken from Csikszentmihalyi and Getzels' study, does 
 
 not claim to be representative, the above is part of a larger discussion: perhaps economic 
 
 success is not of primary importance to the artists themselves, or at least to certain kinds of 
 
 "fine artists." If this is true, then measurement of trends in income and employment for these 
 
 artists may be relevant for comparison with other professions, even other artist professions, but 
 
 it may not necessarily provide an accurate representation of the artists. 
 
 Another view is held by Randall Filer who notes that the census defines a person's occupation 
 by "hours not earnings." Moreover, the wording of the question suggests “hours involved in the 
 profession, not paid for.”l^ Filer deepens the confusion by pointing out the difficulty in 
 “analyzing activities that simultaneously make a positive contribution to utility and income.” In 
 other words, what some call an occupation is simultaneously undertaken by others for fun and 
 recreation. 18 This brings us back to the topic of professional versus amateur with clear 
 implications for allocation of resources through public policy. 
 
 15 Joanna H. Stohs, “Young Adult Predictors and Midlife Outcomes of Male Fine Arts Careers,” The Career 
 Development Quarterly, March 1990, Vol. 38, pp.213-229. Paraphrasing Deci, E. and Porac, J. (1978) Cognitive 
 evaluation theory and the study of human development. In M.R. Lepper & D. Greene (eds.) The Hidden Costs of 
 Reward: New Perspectives in the Psychology of Human Motivation (New York: Wiley )pp. 140-176. 
 
 16 Joanne H. Stohs, “Intrinsic Motivation and Sustained Art Activity Among Male Fine and Applied Artists,” 
 Creativity Research Journal, 1992, Vol. 5, p. 247. 
 
 17 Randall Filer, “Labor Market Earnings, of American Artists in 1980” (Washington DC: National Endowment 
 for the Arts, 1988)p.8. 
 
 18 Ibid. p. 5. 
 
 1-14 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Context: Education and Resources 
 
 It would be unwise to view this report without acknowledging the enormous changes in 
 opportunities for education and formal training for visual artists in the country, and the growth 
 of public funding. BFA and MFA Programs in Fine Arts, targeted to all the artist specialties we 
 are covering here, were well underway by the end of the sixties when our analysis begins. By 
 the late 1980s, a Directory of the National Schools of Art and Design listed 164 of them.^ By 
 the 1960s state arts agencies multiplied to include every state and U.S. territory, the National 
 Endowment for the Arts was created, and community and local arts agencies began 
 strengthening their force; by the 1970s new programs targeting unthought-of constituencies 
 were added to funding agencies (like the Expansion Arts Program in the NEA); by the 1980s, 
 individual agencies in the forefront of funding individual artists (like the New York Foundation 
 for the Arts) joined together to form a seven-state consortium and applied for and received a 
 challenge grant from the NEA; by the 1990s, the central pegs around which arguments of 
 freedom of expression, censorship, and the relationship between the government and artists 
 swirled were individual visual artists. 
 
 To bring these data into the realm of the contemporary, the resources that have developed for 
 individual artists — in the form of grants, arts service organizations, commissions, cooperative 
 and commercial galleries, to name a few — have changed artists' relationship to their own 
 development, their careers and their support systems. Indeed, artists are always a product of 
 their own times. Many would agree, for example, that the education of artists (as well as 
 others) after World War II through the G.I. Bill became a turning point in the formal higher 
 education of visual artists. The development of the nonprofit sector on a broad scale after 1950, 
 but especially after 1970, provided a series of opportunities for visual artists in the form of 
 cooperative galleries and artists spaces which allowed artists many more venues to show, if not 
 
 19 Joan Jeffiri, (ed.) The Craft sper son Speaks: Artists in Varied Median Discuss Their Craft (Westport: 
 Greenwood Press, 1990), xxxc. 
 
 1-15 
 

 
 
 
 
always to sell, their work. The creation of organizations of pro bono attorneys, like Volunteer 
 Lawyers of the Arts, in many states saw an increase in informing visual artists about their 
 rights, including copyright, and new laws appeared in a handful of states trying to approach the 
 kinds of moral rights legislation so prevalent in many European countries. These 
 developments, and many more, continue to have an effect on tidy subjects like employment, 
 earnings and geography. 
 
 Other United States Data 
 
 The inclusion in this report of discrete surveys which serve to complement and question the 
 U.S. census findings have a number of common characteristics. First, they all represent 
 findings from artists in the decade of the 1980s. Second, they all relied on the cooperation of 
 the arts institution community to provide their investigators with lists of artists' names. This is 
 both an advantage and a limitation for, while a profile of people who are considered artists can 
 certainly be constructed from the responses, the lists cannot be said to be comprehensive or 
 fully representative of the artist community. Artists who do not join institutions, apply for 
 funding, or use service organizations are not represented, for example, and we have no 
 quantitative information on what other characteristics correlate with these. 
 
 Finally, the studies that are included here seek to give some insight into the national as well as 
 the local picture of artists since these are studies which targeted (1) a state population of 14 
 categories of artists in the mid-1980s (The Artist’s Work-Related, Human and Social Services 
 Questionnaire) from which we have examined respondents in New York City; (2) a regional 
 population of all kinds of artists at the start of the 1980s (Artists and Jobs Questionnaire) from 
 which we have examined respondents in Boston; (3) a ten-site study, again of all kinds of artists 
 in the late 1980s, from which we have examined results from all ten sites and from New York 
 and Boston; and (4) a national study of two particular kinds of artists, both germane to this 
 
 1-16 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
report — painters and craftspeople. Thus, we have included discrete studies which represent the 
 decade of the 1980s. 
 
 For purposes of at least rough comparison with the U.S. census, we have analyzed painters, 
 sculptors and craftspeople together as one category (artist printmakers were impossible to 
 identify according to the definitional categories of the surveys) for three of the four studies. 
 The fourth, The Artists Training and Career Project, was conducted with the purpose of 
 providing in-depth results for specific kinds of artists; therefore, in this case, results were 
 analyzed for one national study of painters and another of craftspeople. 
 
 1-17 
 

 
 
Discrete Surveys from the Research Center for Arts and Culture. Columbia University. New 
 York 
 
 The Artist's Work-Related, Human and Social Services Questionnaire (1986) 
 
 In 1986 the Research Center for Arts and Culture (RCAC) used a random sample of nine 
 hundred 1985-86 Fellowship applicants to the New York Foundation for the Arts (NYFA). The 
 nine hundred artists were randomly selected from a total statewide population of 5,635 
 applicants to NYFA's 1986 Artists' Fellowship Program. The RCAC administered the same 
 questionnaire in three separate rounds of three hundred artists each in March, June and 
 September of 1986. In October a random sample of fifty artists was sent the questionnaire as a 
 control group. The major reason for this methodology was to ascertain if fellowship applicants 
 responded differently before, during and after the fellowship application process, since this was 
 a universe of artists applying for money, and, in fact, there was a significant decrease in the 
 response rate from March 1986 (before fellowships were announced) and the subsequent two 
 rounds (after fellowships were announced). 
 
 The nine hundred artists surveyed represented fourteen artistic disciplines; they were surveyed 
 in three separate rounds, but the information has been aggregated here. The total response was 
 561 artists or 62%. Of these, 163 represent artists in the painting, sculpture and crafts categories 
 in New York City. 
 
 1-18 
 

 
 
 
Information on Artists (1988) 
 
 In 1988 the RCAC conducted a survey of 9,870 artists in ten locations in the United States: 
 Boston, Cape Cod, Chicago, Dallas, Los Angeles, Minneapolis/St. Paul, New York City, 
 Philadelphia, San Francisco, and western Massachusetts. Artists were located with the help of 
 local, regional and national organizations, and the overall response rate was 4,146 or 42%. 
 Although the sample was a random one, we cannot say with perfect certainty that it was 
 representative of the artist population, since one of the problems of artist definition is the 
 universe from which the sample is drawn. Nevertheless, we feel confident that this information 
 provides a parallel portrait to that portrayed by the U.S. census. 
 
 For this report, we will focus on painters, sculptors and craftspeople who, when asked their 
 major field of concentration, gave painting/drawing, sculpture or crafts as their first, second or 
 third choice. 
 
 1-19 
 

 
 
The Artists Training and Career Project (1990-91) 
 
 In 1990 and 1991, the RCAC conducted surveys of 4,000 crafts people and 2,000 painters. 
 Although the thrust of the surveys was training and career development, certain basic 
 information found in all RCAC surveys appears here. 
 
 In the craft survey, from a national sample provided by local, regional and national agencies, 
 41,705 names were obtained. 1,366 of the names came from local sources, 5,907 came from 
 regional ones, and 34,517 from national ones. By craft media, the original sample broke down 
 this way: 
 
 General: 21,928 
 
 By Media: 
 
 Clay 2,617 
 
 Fibers 1,936 
 
 Glass 2,000 
 
 Leather 21 
 
 Metals 5,500 
 
 Paper 650 
 
 Wood 7.000 
 
 Total 41,705 
 
 After these 41,705 names were merged and purged to avoid duplicates, a random sample of 
 4,195 craftspeople were chosen. After further adjustments, (e.g. when we were provided with 
 names of institutions or firms instead of individuals, these had to be deleted) 3,942 
 questionnaires were mailed in 1990. The response rate was 33% representing 1,301 crafts 
 people. Since, there is no source that can give the universe of craft media, or the percentages of 
 people in each craft field, the aggregate percentages which merge all craft media together may 
 not be representative, although some preliminary investigations indicate that clay, fiber and 
 glass may be represented at a slightly lower rate in our survey and metals, woods and "other" 
 (paper, leather, mixed media) at a slightly higher rate in our survey. 
 
 1-20 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
In the painters survey, after the 20,035 names submitted to use by local, regional and national 
 sources in both the profit and nonprofit sectors, we arrived at a total list of 18,329 names, 
 broken down as follows: 
 
 Local 568 
 
 Regional 15,023 
 
 National 2.738 
 
 Total: 18,329 
 
 A random sample of 2,000 painters was chosen from this list and surveys were mailed in 1991. 
 The response was 48% (960 painters) with 2% arriving after the data entry period, so 46% (920 
 painters) was the number used for reporting. 
 
 1-21 
 

Artists and Jobs Questionnaire 
 
 In 1980 and 1981 the New England Foundation for the Arts commissioned a survey of 17,653 
 artists by Neil Alper, Paula McCabe and Gregory Wassail. Artists were selected through 
 obtaining a variety of lists from organizations and resources in the field, including libraries, 
 artists' organizations, training schools and artists directories. 3,096 artists in six New England 
 states (17%) responded. 
 
 For this report, we have selected Massachusetts, where the questionnaire was administered in 
 1981, thus gathering information from 1980. In Massachusetts, 8,000 questionnaires were sent, 
 with a response rate of 1,281 (16%). Of this response, we have data for 291 painters, sculptors 
 and craftspeople from greater metropolitan Boston, about one-fourth of the total respondents for 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 While this sample is small in number, it is nevertheless interesting to compare these findings 
 with those of the RCAC in its Information on Artists data on Boston. The surveys are, of 
 course, seven years apart and they do not necessarily survey the same universe, but the decade 
 of the 1980s was a unique one in terms of the economic climate for the visual arts, as well as 
 the growth in number of artists, and the information on Boston and New York can begin to give 
 us a set of insights that, when placed alongside both the decennial census data, can deepen our 
 understanding of the visual arts in America. Future investigation using CPS data will provide 
 more specific comparisons. 
 
 1-22 
 

 
 
 
Data from Other Countries 
 
 Data from Australia 
 
 In 1988, David Throsby and Devon Mills conducted an economic study of artists in all art 
 forms for The Australia Council. Painters who responded to this study have been compared at 
 least once to the painters responding to the RCAC's Artists in Training and Career Project 
 (Jeffri, J. and Throsby, D., "Professionalism and the Visual Artist," European Journal of 
 Cultural Policy , 1:1, Spring 1994.). Future research should be undertaken to compare the census 
 data from both the U.S. and Australia and the data from the Throsby and RCAC discrete 
 surveys. 
 
 The major differences in methodology between the Throsby and RCAC surveys are: 
 
 1. While organizational lists were used to obtain names in both surveys, the Australian survey 
 used a screening question to judge if artists were "practicing professional artists": artists were 
 eligible for inclusion ONLY if they had achieved some professional recognition in the last 3-5 
 years, specified as professionally published or exhibited, had a professional engagement as a 
 performer, been involved in creating a substantial body of work as a professional artist, had 
 undertaken full-time training as an artist, or had received a grant to work as an artist. The 
 RCAC intentionally kept the pool of artists as broad as possible, surveying, for example, artists 
 from associations of woodworkers and watercolor societies as well as those from commercial 
 galleries. 
 
 2. Data were collected in the Australian survey by personal interview, with the survey taking 
 approximately 40 minutes to complete. The RCAC survey was a mail survey which included 
 the initial mailing and a reminder card sent 10 days later. It took approximately the same time 
 to complete. 
 
 1-23 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
3. In the Australian survey, questions about income and expenditure were kept separate from 
 the main survey, and respondents were give the options of replying on the spot, or filling this 
 section out later and returning it by post. 
 
 4. The financial section of the Australian survey included a series of questions about The 
 Australia Council. Although relationships to government funding are different among artists in 
 both countries, this portion of the questionnaire clearly signaled the involvement of government 
 in the Australian survey. 
 
 1-24 
 

n. 
 
 UNITED STATES CENSUS DATA, 1970-1990 
 
 The Decennial Census of Population has looked at the characteristics of the U.S. 
 population as a whole and has provided a regular source from which to compare trends 
 over time. This research monograph looks at one occupation category of visual artists, 
 which combines painters, sculptors, craft artists and artist printmakers, from 1970-1990. 
 How specific census job titles are arrived at is described in the preceding text as are 
 changes in definition in this particular category and the accompanying tables provide the 
 actual census trends in employment and earnings, education and geographic trends by 
 age and gender. 
 
 From 1970 to 1990, the U.S. population experienced substantial growth. In 1970 
 there were 139,203,000 adults age 16 and older, and by 1990 that number had reached 
 
 189.686.000 a growth of 73%. The experienced civilian labor force (i.e. working or 
 recently working adults) grew from 79,802,000 in 1970 to 122,473,000 in 1990, a 
 growth of 65%. 
 
 The number of women in the labor force increased dramatically from 72,819,000 in 
 1970 to 99,803,000 in 1990, an average of 73% over the 20 years, while the number of 
 working men barely kept up with the increase in the adult male population, going from 
 
 66.385.000 in 1970 to 92,026,000 in 1990, an average annual growth of 72%. 
 
 When looking at labor force participation patterns by gender and age (Table IL2), the 
 most dramatic declines among males were among men of retirement age (65 and older — 
 13%) but even more so among men in the 55-64 age range — 15%, perhaps reflecting 
 early retirement choices. Other age categories for men showed only small increases or 
 declines. 
 
 Women, on the other hand, experienced sizable increases at all ages except for very 
 
 slight increases and decreases over age 55. Between 25 and 44 these increases were over 
 
 25% (Table IL2). As professionals (Table II.l), by 1990 women seem to have out 
 
 II-l 
 

distanced men with 8,942,000, up from 6,027,000 in 1980, as compared to 7,706,000 
 male professionals in 1990 and 6,248,000 in 1980 with increases between 1980 and 1990 
 at 48% for women, 19% for men as compared to 35% for women and 22% for men 
 between 1970 and 1980. 
 
 The number of professional specialty workers doubled between 1970 and 1990, from 
 
 8.822.000 to 16,648,000, with females increasing at a faster rate than males in both 
 decades. Between 1970 and 1990 the total artists population more than doubled, from 
 
 720.000 to 1,671,000. (Table n.l). While the male artist population almost doubled (a 
 rise of 46%) from 499, 000 in 1970 to 931,000 in 1990, the female artist population 
 tripled from 221,000 in 1970 to 675,000 in 1990. 
 
 For painters, craft artists, by 1990, women accounted for 56% of painters/craft artists 
 (Table IL4) compared to their percentages among all artists, up 7% from 1970 to 1980 
 and another 3% from 1980 to 1990 (Table IL4). Even though the growth rate of female 
 workers slowed after 1980, from 1970 to 1980 there was over 7% point rate of growth 
 for women artists. For male painters/craft-artists rate of growth decreased 64% in 1970 to 
 52% in 1980 and decreased to 44% in 1990. (Table II.4) 
 
 In 1970, painters/craft artists totaled 102,600. In 1980, painters/craft-artists totaled 
 151, 360 — 14% of all artists; by 1990 painters/craft-artists totaled 191,160 (Beresford’s 
 figure is 212,762) — 13% of all artists, the second largest of all artist occupations, 
 representing .174% of the total labor force. Women painters/craft artists' numbers made 
 dramatic increases after the 1950s as the two-earning family became more and more 
 commonplace in America, and increased sharply between 1980 and 1990, from 72,920 to 
 107,920 a rise of 34% (Table IL4). 
 
 II-2 
 

Geographic Trends 
 
 According to Deirdre Gauqinl, between 1980 and 1985, 41% of the population 
 changed their place of residence. 
 
 In 1970, 74% of the male experienced civilian labor force resided in urban areas, a 
 rate which stayed at 74% in 1980. For women, in 1970, 79% were urban residents and in 
 1980, 78%. (Table II.6). 
 
 In terms of professional specialty occupations, patterns were similar, by 1980, 82% 
 of male professionals (compared to 74% of all male workers) and 80% of female 
 professionals (compared to 78% of all female workers) resided in urban areas. 
 Unfortunately, according to Deidre Gaquin the statistics in this area for 1990 are too 
 unreliable to include here due to a change in urban/rural distinctions by the census. We 
 cite the following figures on artists and painters/craft artists with caution. 
 
 When the numbers concentrate on artists, we find 86% of male artists and 85% of 
 female artists as urban residents in 1980. By 1990, 78% of male artists and 72% of 
 female artists are urban residents. (Table n.6). 
 
 Painters and craft artists resided in high proportions in urban areas between 1970 and 
 1990, but male painters and craft artists went from 90% in 1970 to 86% in 1980 to 80% 
 in 1990. By 1980 this was the most marked decline in urban dwellers for any group of 
 artists, harking back to Karen Kitchel's comments in chapter I. 
 
 Proportions of urban dwellers among women painters and craft artists also declined 
 from 86% in 1970 to 85% in 1980 to 76% in 1990, bringing up the age-old argument of 
 whether artists need to work in the same location as their work is sold. 
 
 For the experienced civilian labor force the Midwest continued to attract population 
 (up 21% in 1980 and 38% in 1990) and population in the South declined by 17% in 
 1990. (Table H.7) 
 
 Naquin, Deirdre, Constance Citro. Artists in the Workforce, 1950 to 1985. Research Division of the 
 National Endowment for the Arts, Washington DC. p. III-2. 
 
 II-3 
 

 
 
 
The general population shifts were also true of both the male and female labor force: 
 after W.W.II male workers moved from the Northeast and Midwest United States to the 
 South and West, but by 1990 the Midwest and West rose to 34% and 20% respectively 
 for both men and women. (Table II.8) 
 
 Male professionals showed trends similar to all male workers, although the 
 distribution by region differed with larger percentages of residents in the South. Male 
 professionals in the Northeast showed a similar proportionate decline and in the South a 
 larger proportionate increase than all male workers. 
 
 Female professionals had similar trends too, with the total female labor force, 
 however, by 1990 women professionals were more prevalent in the Northeast when 
 compared with the total female workforce, and more likely to reside in the South, and 
 less likely than male professionals to reside in the West. 
 
 For artists, by 1990 males had highest proportions residing in the West; females had 
 highest proportions residing in the South. Male artists had increases in the West, up to 
 30%, and male painters and craft artists had also much greater increases in the West, up 
 to 28%, than the general labor force. (Table IL8). 
 
 Male painters and craft artists had highest proportions residing in the West; their most 
 substantial decrease was in the Northwest. Female painters and craft artists had highest 
 proportions residing in the South and for female painters and craft artists the most 
 substantial decrease was in the Northeast. 
 
 Age 
 
 Between 1970 and 1990 clear patterns emerge that result from the entrance of the 
 baby boom into the labor force, and decline in the labor force participation by male 
 workers possibly due to their choosing early retirement and the longer tenure of females 
 in the labor force. 
 
 n-4 
 

The median age for male workers declined from 40-41 in 1970 to 36 in 1980 and rose 
 to 37 in 1990.(Table II.3). Male professionals' median age remained at 38-39 from 1970 
 to 1980, then rose to 40 in 1990. 
 
 Male artists were similar in 1990 to all male workers with their median age dropping 
 from 37-38 in 1970 to 34 in 1980 and rising to 37 in 1990. Male artists were younger on 
 average than their counterparts in the labor force. 
 
 Male painters and crafts artists had higher median ages than the general labor force in 
 1990, but were closer to male professionals, moving from a median age of 39 in 1970, to 
 36 in 1980 and 40 in 1990. 
 
 The largest age group for male workers was the 25-34 year olds with 29% of all male 
 workers. For male professionals, it was the 35-44 year olds with 31%. For all artists the 
 largest age group for males was 25-34 year olds with 31%, and for male painters and 
 craft artists, the 35-44 year old group was largest, with 29%. (Table EL5) 
 
 The median age for female workers declined from 39-40 in 1970 to 35 in 1980 and 
 rose to 36 in 1990. (Table II.3) Female professionals’ median age declined from 37-38 in 
 1970 to 35 in 1980 and rose to 39 in 1990. 
 
 Female artists were similar 1990 to all female workers with their median age 
 dropping from 37-38 in 1970 to 33 in 1980 and rising to 37 in 1990. Female artists were 
 younger on average than their counterparts in the labor force. 
 
 The largest age group for female workers was also the 25-34 year olds with 28% of 
 all female workers. For female professionals, it was the 35-44 year olds with 34%. For 
 all artists the largest age group for females was 25-34 year olds at 32%, and for female 
 painters and craft artists, like males, it was the 35-44 year old group that was largest with 
 31%. (Table II.5) 
 
 Female painters and craft artists had also had higher median ages than the general 
 labor force in 1990, and were close to female professionals, moving from a median age 
 of 35 in 1970, to 33 in 1980 and 39 in 1990. 
 
 II-5 
 

 
 ' 
 
 
Trend data for age patterns is particularly difficult to assess with confidence for a 
 number of reasons including the definitional changes of artist categories, the relatively 
 small sample size of each occupation group and many of the challenges presented in 
 Chapter I. 
 
 Education 
 
 One of the most interesting areas to focus on among all workers, male and female, 
 professional specialty workers and artists is education. The post-W.W.H availability of 
 education in general, and for artists in particular, raised the educational profile of many 
 Americans. 
 
 By 1991, 37% of male workers had completed high school and 16% had a college 
 degree (Table II. 9) Female workers showed similar patterns with 42% having completed 
 high school and 15% with a college degree. 
 
 However, professionals consistently exceeded educational attainment levels of the 
 general workforce, with much higher percentage point increases in proportions with 
 college degrees. By 1990, 5% of male professionals had completed high school and 76% 
 had a college degree; 8% of female professionals had completed high school and 66% 
 had a college degree. 
 
 For artists, although their educational levels were higher than the general work force, 
 they were below all professionals and showed smaller percentage point increase in 
 proportions with college degrees. 
 
 In 1990, 40% of male artists had completed 4 or more years of college compared 
 with 76% of male professionals. 40% of female artists had completed 4 or more years 
 of college compared with 66% of female professionals. 
 
 For male painters and craft artists, by 1990 37% had 4 or more years of college, for 
 female painters and craft-artists 43% had 4 or more years of college. The statistics on 
 
 II-6 
 

 
 
 
education suffer from a change in the wording of the census questions and should be 
 viewed with some caution. (See Appendix C.) 
 
 This area is one in which discrete studies of painters and craft artists (to be looked at 
 in the following chapter) provide a very different profile. 
 
 Employment and Earnings 
 
 Deirdre Gauquin has succinctly summarized a number of striking trends 
 characterizing patterns of employment and earnings after W.W.II. These are: 
 
 • Men workers experienced a decline in self-employment and corresponding 
 increases in the proportions working for private employers and also government; 
 
 • Women workers were also increasingly attracted to public sector employment; 
 
 • More and more workers, particularly among women, were employed year-round; 
 
 • Earnings rose strongly from 1950 to 1970 — after adjusting for inflation, the 
 median earnings for men increased 75 percent and for women by 43 percent: 
 
 • After 1970, real earnings adjusted for inflation declined sharply, particularly 
 among women; 
 
 • Despite advances in employment and earnings of women, their median earnings 
 remained less than half the median earnings for men throughout this period.^ 
 
 While the male and female employment profile in the labor force as a whole has 
 become more similar in the last 2 decades, in 1970 73% of males and 75% of females 
 worked for private firms; 12% males and 5% females were self-employed. 1980 found 
 76% of males and 75% of females working for private firms, and 9% and 4% self- 
 employed — by 1990, 78% of males and 77% of females were working for private firms 
 and 9% of males and 5% of females were self-employed. (Table II- 11) 
 
 2 ibid, p V-l. 
 
 II-7 
 

 
 
Male and female professionals, however, differ greatly from the above, male 
 professionals being more likely to work for the government, women professionals 
 showing strong private-sector participation. In 1970, 58% of male professionals and 
 44% of female professionals were in private firms, 30% of males and 51% of females in 
 government, and 12% and 4% self-employed. 1980 found 55% of males and 44% of 
 females working for private firms, and 12% and 4% self-employed — by 1990, 57% of 
 males and 53% of females were working for private firms and 16% of males and 6% of 
 females were self-employed. 
 
 Artists differ greatly from both of these profiles. (Table n.12) In 1970, 67% of male 
 artists and 69% of female artists worked in private firms, 10% of males artists and 8% of 
 female artists worked in government, and 23% of males and 21% of females were self- 
 employed. In 1980, self-employment was on the rise, with 60% of male artists and 65% 
 of female artists working for private firms, 7% of both male and female artists working 
 for government, and 32% male and 28% female artists self-employed. Self-employment 
 continued to be high for artists in 1990, with 62% of male artists and 64% of female 
 artists working for private firms, 5% of both males and females working for the 
 government, and 33% of male artists and 31% of female artists ( a slight increase since 
 1980) self-employed. 
 
 Painters and craft artists differ even more, with still higher percentages of self 
 employment. In 1970, 62% of male painters and craft artists and 58% of female painters 
 and craft artists worked for private firms, 7% of males and 8% of females worked for 
 government, and 32% of males and 34% of females were self-employed. In 1980, 48% 
 of both male and females painters and craft artists worked for private firms, 7% of both 
 males and females worked for government, and 45% of males and 42% of females were 
 self-employed. By 1990, 48% of male painters and craft artists and 45% of female 
 painters and craft artists worked for private firms, 5% of males and 4% of females 
 worked for the government, and 47% of males and 49% of females were self-employed. 
 
 II-8 
 

 
In terms of unemployment according to census definitions, unemployment declined 
 for both male and female painters and craft artists from 1980 to 1990 after a rise from 
 1970 to 1980. (Table n.13) 
 
 For all male workers unemployment rose almost 2% between 1970 and 1990, while 
 for female workers unemployment rose less than 1%. (Table 11.12) For professionals, 
 both males’ and females’ unemployment declined less than 1 %. For artists, male artists’ 
 unemployment declined by almost 2% from 1970 to 1990, while female artists’ 
 unemployment declined by a full 2%. For male painters/ craft artists unemployment 
 growth was less than 1%, but for female painters/craft artists unemployment growth 
 between 1970 and 1990 declined by less than 1%. 
 
 The area of employment and its year-round measurement is problematic when 
 applied to artists; but even more so when it comes to painters and craft artists since the 
 nature of employment is 1) often not attached to a single employer, 2) not always 
 characterized as "employment" — the sale of a painting is not employment; 3) not always 
 measurable by the standards of full-time and part-time work the census uses (many artists 
 are literally always working); 4) not often eligible for unemployment benefits. (Whether 
 an artist works the requisite number of weeks to be eligible for unemployment can 
 generally not be verified by an "employer" — an artist's gallery is not his employer in this 
 sense; a crafts person's sales booth at a craft fair is not his "employer.") Clearly the artist 
 may be self-employed, but he also may not. He may, for example, earn most of his 
 income teaching, and may declare his art income as "other," whereby it becomes 
 impossible through the census to ascertain his 'income' or 'earnings' from 'art') 
 
 That females earn less than males in all sectors is obvious throughout the 1970-1990 
 period. ( Tables 11 . 14 , n.15). Male painters’ and craft artists' median incomes fall below 
 the medians for the total labor force and professionals. Female painters and craft artists’ 
 median earnings are either close to or above those of the total female work force. 
 
 II-9 
 

While the median income for males almost doubled between 1970 and 1980 for the 
 total work force and professionals, from $7,620 to $14,422 for the total work force and 
 from $10,617 to $19,918 for male professionals, for male artists the median grew from 
 $8,768 to $14,219. And for male painters and craft artists the median income grew from 
 $8,893 in 1970 to $12,684 in 1980. By 1990, median income for males in the total work 
 force was $21,522, for professionals $36,942, for artists $21,600, and for painters and 
 craft artists, $18,187. (Table 11.14) 
 
 Female painters and craft artists were more like both professionals and the total work 
 force between 1970 and 1980. For the total work force, the median was $3,646 in 1970 
 and $7,237 in 1980. For professionals, the median was $6,030 in 1970 and $11,172 in 
 1980. For artists, the median was $3,637 in 1970 and $6,712 in 1980, for painters and 
 craft artists , the median was $3,682 in 1970 and $6,612 in 1980. 
 
 Between 1980 and 1990 median income for female professionals more than doubled, 
 and for female painters and craft artists, it more than tripled. For the total work force, 
 the median income was $12,150 for women, but for female professionals it was $23,113, 
 for artists it was $11,096, and for female painters and craft artists it was $22,041. (Table 
 IL14) 
 
 The description that follows represents those workers who worked between 50 and 52 
 weeks per year. (Table IL15) 
 
 The median income from males roughly doubled between 1970 and 1980 for both the 
 total work force and professionals, from $8,529 to $17,107 for the total work force and 
 from $11,456 to $22,226 for male professionals. For artists the median income almost 
 tripled from $9,550 in 1970 to $27,961 in 1980. And for male painters and craft artists 
 the median income grew more slowly from $9,672 in 1970 to $15,112 in 1980. By 1990, 
 median income for males in the total work force for 50-52 weeks was $27,768, for 
 professionals $41,000, for artists $31,124, and for painters and craft artists $24,320. 
 
 11-10 
 

Female painters and craft artists were more like males in relation to each other. For 
 the total female work force for 50-52 weeks the median was $4,719 in 1970 and $10,124 
 in 1980. For professionals, the median was $6,881 in 1970 and $13,801 in 1980. For 
 artists, the median was $4,152 in 1970 and $17,328 in 1980 (a four-fold increase), and 
 for painters and craft artists, the median was $5,347 in 1970 and $9,344 in 1980. 
 
 Between 1980 and 1990 female median income for professionals and for painters and 
 craft artists more than doubled. By 1990, median income for females in the total work 
 force for 50-52 weeks was $19,822; for female professionals, $29,181; for female artists, 
 $20,825; and for female painters and craft artists $18,762. 
 
 Full-year male painters and craft artists' median earnings exceeded that of their part- 
 year colleagues, but full-year female painters and craft artists’ median income did not. 
 
 So that in 1990, what we see is a larger proportion of women as painters, sculptors, 
 craft artists and artist printmakers, with fewer living in urban areas. They have a higher 
 median income than all artists and the general labor force but are closer in median age to 
 professionals. For both males and females, their level of education, according to the 
 census, seems to be holding steady or rising slighdy, and more and more of them are 
 self-employed, with percentages much higher than other kinds of artists. The median 
 income for male painters and craft artists grew more slowly than for the total male work 
 force, male professionals and female painters and craft artists, whose median income 
 more than tripled since 1980. Finally, using a set of figures that should be scrutinized 
 further, we seem to find that part-year female painters and craft artists earned more than 
 their full-year counterparts. 
 

 
 
in. 
 
 OTHER DATA 
 
 Discrete Surveys. United States 
 
 Both an asset and a liability in the three studies that follow conducted by the Research Center for 
 Arts and Culture is the search for an understanding of what artists do which is closer to their own 
 perception than the census. The introduction to this report reminds us that artists' major sources of 
 income may not be the same as their primary work. In order to complement the strict census 
 definitions of occupations, the following three surveys asked, in addition to questions about which 
 occupation provided the artist's major income and number of hours worked, questions about: 
 
 • the occupation that is primary to the respondent 
 
 • the occupation that is most important to the respondent 
 
 • the major area of concentration 
 
 • if the respondent considers him/herself to be a professional artist 
 
 In the three RCAC surveys, 93% of the respondents to The Artist's Work-Related, Human and 
 Social Services Questionnaire consider themselves professional artists; in Information on Artists, 
 89% consider themselves professional artists; in the Artists Training and Career Project , 91% of 
 the painters and 86% of the craftspeople consider themselves professional artists. 
 
 Since a major motivation for these studies was to look at other-than-census-based information and 
 methodologies, the RCAC's findings should provide areas for further investigation. In the section 
 following this one, some preliminary comparisons are made with U.S. Census data, to begin to 
 frame those areas. 
 
 The fourth study, the Artists and Jobs Questionnaire, commissioned by the New England 
 Foundation on the Arts and done by Wassail, Alper and McCabe, is based on more traditional 
 census-based definitions. 
 
 ID-1 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The Artist's Work-Related, Human and Social Services Questionnaire (1986) 
 
 Of the 163 respondents, 86% claimed artist as the "occupation that is primary" to them. The 
 drawback in this questionnaire is that it asked respondents to identify their major area of 
 concentration, the occupation that is "primary" to them, and the occupation(s) from which they 
 earn their major income. The major area of concentration is listed as painting, sculpture and crafts 
 in this case but, since 86% of these respondents claimed the occupation that is primary to them is 
 "artist" and since there are relatively small numbers to begin with, we must view these findings 
 with caution. 
 
 Since this was a pilot study for the Research Center for Arts and Culture, two of its contributions 
 were a broadening the base of investigation to a larger geographic area, and the realization that 
 studies which isolated particular types of artists would allow for a much more specific 
 investigation. 
 
 Age and Gender 
 
 The mean age for these artists was 38 (standard deviation 9.969); and the median 36. 1 Half were 
 male and half were female. 
 
 Education 
 
 1 1% of these artists had some college. 23% had at least 4 years of college and 63% had some 
 graduate education. 29.1% of males and 16.1% of females had 4 years of college; 55.6% of males 
 and 69.5% of females had some graduate education. 
 
 1 We have chosen to include the mean as well as the median age in this chapter. In most cases the 
 difference is two or more years which we feel is significant. 
 
 ID-2 
 

 
 
 
Income 
 
 25% of these artists earned $500 or less from their art and 12% earned over $20,000 from their art 
 in 1985. 28.6% males and 21.4% females earned $0-500, 26.8% males and 24.9% females earned 
 between $501 and $3,000. 18.8% males and 21.5% females earned between $3,001 and $7,000, 
 3.6% males and 10.7% females earned between $7,001 and $12,000, 9% males and 11.6% females 
 earned between $12,001 and $20,000 and 12.5% of males and 9.8% females earned over $20,000. 
 
 IE-3 
 

 
Information on Artists (1988) 
 
 The data presented here are for all artists and for the category of painters, sculptors and 
 craftspeople for age, education, income and art-related costs. These same breakdowns are then 
 applied to Boston and New York. 
 
 Age 
 
 The mean age for all artist respondents from the broad variety of art fields used for the entire study 
 is 38.7; the median age, 37. The mean age for all 1,705 painters, sculptors and craftspeople in this 
 1988 study of ten sites is 38.6 and the median 37. 
 
 Education 
 
 The educational attainment of these artists can be seen in Table HI.l. When broken down by 
 gender, 39.3% of all male artists and 44.9% of female artists have college degrees; 38.6% of all 
 male artists and and 38.7% of all female artists have graduate degrees. For all male painters, 
 sculptors and craftspeople 35.5% have college degrees and another 44.8% have graduate degrees. 
 For female painters, sculptors and craftspeople 45.7% have college degrees and another 41.3% 
 have graduate degrees. 
 
 Income 
 
 Income as Artist 
 
 Table m.2 shows a breakdown of total income as an artist and total gross income in 1988. For all 
 male artists, individual income as an artist shows 25.2% earning $500 or less, 24.1% earning 
 between $501 and $3,000, 13.2% between $3,001 and $7,000, 9.9% between $7,001 and $12,000, 
 10.4% between $12,001 and $20,000, 11.6% between $20,001 and $40,000 and 5.6% over 
 $40,000. 
 
 m-4 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
For all male painters, sculptors and craftspeople, individual income as an artist shows 25.4% 
 earning $500 or less, 26,6% earning between $501 and $3,000, 14.3% between $3,001 and $7,000, 
 9.9% between $7,001 and $12,000, 7.9% between $12,001 and $20,000, 9.7% between $20,001 
 and $40,000 and 6.2% over $40,000, very similar findings to those for all the artists in this study. 
 
 For female artists, individual income as an artist shows 27.8% earning $500 or less, 29% earning 
 between $501 and $3,000, 14.3% between $3,001 and $7,000, 10.7% between $7,001 and 
 $12,000, 8.5% between $12,001 and $20,000, 7.1% between $20,001 and $40,000 and 2.7% over 
 $40,000. 
 
 For female painters, sculptors and craftspeople, individual income as an artist shows 26.9% 
 earning $500 or less, 33.7% earning between $501 and $3,000, 15.8% between $3,001 and $7,000, 
 9.7% between $7,001 and $12,000, 6.9% between $12,001 and $20,000, 5.3% between $20,001 
 and $40,000 and 1.7% over $40,000.2 
 
 Total Gross Income 
 
 For all male artists, total gross income in 1988 is: 5.7% earning $5,000 or less, 11.2% earning 
 between $5,001 and $10,000, 31.6% between $10,001 and $20,000, and 23.7% between $20,001 
 and $30,000, 14.4% between $30,001 and $40,000 and 13.4% over $40,000. (See Table m.2). 
 
 For all male painters, sculptors and craftspeople, total gross income in 1988 is: 7.1% earning 
 $5,000 or less, 12.3% earning between $5,001 and $10,000, 32% between $10,001 and $20,000, 
 and 20.6% between $20,001 and $30,000, 15% between $30,001 and $40,000 and 13% over 
 $40,000, very similar findings to those for all artists in this study. 
 
 2 Please note, totals may not equal 100% due to rounding. 
 
 III-5 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
For all female artists, total gross income in 1988 is: 1 1.2% earning $5,000 or less, 9.1% earning 
 between $5,001 and $10,000, 34.2% between $10,001 and $20,000, and 20% between $20,001 
 and $30,000, 9.2% between $30,001 and $40,000 and 6.4% over $40,000. 
 
 For female painters, sculptors and craftspeople, total gross income in 1988 is: 13.8% earning 
 $5,000 or less, 21.2% earning between $5,001 and $10,000, 33.5% between $10,001 and $20,000, 
 and 17% between $20,001 and $30,000, 8.8% between $30,001 and $40,000 and 5.7% over 
 $40,000.3 
 
 Artists’ Costs 
 
 Relevant to earnings are the costs for space to work and maintenance of one's craft. About two- 
 thirds of the respondents answered questions on costs of materials and space. For all male artists, 
 72.9% pay under $500 for art-related expenses and another 20.9% pay between $501 and $2,500. 
 For female artists, 65.1% pay under $500 for art-related expenses and another 29.9% pay between 
 $501 and $3,000. In terms of monthly costs for space, over two-thirds of the male artists and 
 female artists paid under $500 per month for workspace in 1988. (See Table m.4). 
 
 For annual art-related expenses excluding workspace and including art supplies and services, tools 
 and equipment, capital improvements, training and maintaining their craft, publicity, marketing, 
 travel and shipping, 72.9% of male artists and 65.1% of female artists spent $500 or less per year, 
 and another 20.9% of male artists and 29.9% of female artists spent between $501 and $2,500 in 
 1988. 
 
 For male painters, sculptors and craftspeople, even more of them spent less than their general artist 
 counterparts. 86.2% of male painters, sculptors and craftspeople and 78.6% of female painters, 
 sculptors and craftspeople, spent under $500 on annual art-related expenses in 1988; another 
 
 3 Please note, totals may not equal 100% due to rounding. 
 
 III-6 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
10.3% of painters, sculptors and craftspeople, and 19.5% of female painters, sculptors and 
 craftspeople, spent between $501 and $2,500. Thus, in 1988, over 89% of the painters, sculptors 
 and craftspeople spent $2,500 or less on art-related expenses for 1988. 
 
 In terms of monthly costs for space, over two-thirds of the male painters, sculptors and 
 craftspeople (74%), and female painters, sculptors and craftspeople (83%) paid under $500 for 
 workspace in 1988. 
 
 Comments and informal information indicate that, especially for visual artists in need of expensive 
 \ equipment like kilns, often their "other" employment (i.e. teaching) fills this need. This 
 information is reinforced by the Artists and Job Questionnaire done in New England in the early 
 1980s. 
 
 Professionalism 
 
 89% of all artists in this survey consider themselves to be professional artists. To gain a better 
 understanding of professionalism as viewed by artists, especially in relation to the census, the 
 RCAC tried to determine the extent to which artists valued market based definitions and what 
 other factors were valued to define their professionalism. 
 
 As in our earlier 1986 study with the New York Foundation for the Arts, a three-way division was 
 
 used which included both external and self-assessment criteria. The groups of these definitions 
 
 were done after the data were collected to identify three main areas: 
 
 1 . The Marketplace Definition: 
 
 The person makes his/her living as an artist. 
 
 The person receives some income from his/her work as an artist. 
 
 The person intends to make his/her living as an artist. 
 
 Ill -7 
 

 
 
 
 
 
2. The Education and Affiliation Definition 
 
 The person belongs to an artists' association (discussion group, artists' group, artists' coop, etc ) 
 The person belongs to an artists' union or guild. 
 
 The person has been formally educated in the fine, creative, literary or performing arts. 
 
 3. The Self and Peer Definition 
 
 The person is recognized by his/her peers as an artist. 
 
 The person considers him/herself to be an artist. 
 
 The person spends a substantial amount of time working at art. 
 
 The person has a special talent. 
 
 The person has an inner drive to make art. 
 
 The person receives some public recognition for his/her art. 
 
 The final choice about "public recognition" was the only one added after the earlier 1986 study; 
 this model was continued in the study which followed this one, the Artists Training and Career 
 Project. The above criteria were used in two different questions, one which asked respondents to 
 identify their three most important choices in rank order in considering "someone to be a 
 professional artist," and one, similarly ranked, in which these "reasons apply to you." The table 
 shows the overwhelming first choice in the Self-Definition category. We have broken out painters 
 and craftspeople in these two tables only to illustrate this for comparison with The Artists Training 
 and Career Project which surveyed painters and craftspeople separately. 
 
 IOA: Important Criteria for Professional Artist: Someone 
 
 
 Painters 
 
 Craft Artists 
 
 All Respondents 
 
 Market Definition 
 
 18% 
 
 26.1% 
 
 23.1% 
 
 Peer/Educ Definition 
 
 10.3% 
 
 12.5% 
 
 12.5% 
 
 Self Definition 
 
 71.7% 
 
 61.4% 
 
 64.4% 
 
 III-8 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
IOA: Important Criteria for Professional Artist: Self 
 
 
 Painters 
 
 Craft Artists 
 
 All Respondents 
 
 Market Definition 
 
 16.1% 
 
 36.7% 
 
 22.8% 
 
 Peer/Educ Definition 
 
 7.2% 
 
 7.6% 
 
 9.3% 
 
 Self Definition 
 
 76.8% 
 
 55.7% 
 
 68.0% 
 
 III-9 
 
Information on Artists: Boston and New York 
 
 Since data should always be viewed within a context, at least a few introductory remarks should be 
 made about the cultural environment in Boston and New York during the 1980s. While these brief 
 remarks provide only the barest background, anyone wishing to investigate data further would be 
 wise to expand upon them. 
 
 Boston 
 
 Boston, in the state where the first arts education course was offered in the public school system, 
 had an artist population of 20,839 in 1980, according to the U.S. census. An era of downtown 
 redevelopment, with the renewal of Faneuil Hall and the adjacent Quincy Market, the '80s were a 
 time for increased public funding through the Massachusetts Council for the Arts and Humanities, 
 at least until Governor Michael Dukakis ran for U.S. President and lost. Individual artists were 
 involved in getting grants, honing business skills, and lobbying for ownership of real estate they 
 had gentrified at their own expense through organizations like The Artists Foundation. 
 
 The number of artists of all kinds surveyed in Boston total 350. The number of 
 painters/sculptors/craft artists totals 157. 
 
 Age 
 
 The mean age for all Boston artists is 38; the median age is 36. The mean age for all Boston 
 painters, sculptors and craftspeople is 36.4; the median age is 35. 
 
 Education 
 
 When broken down by gender, 42.2% of all male Boston artists and 44.5% of all female Boston 
 artists have college degrees; another 40.3% of male Boston artists and 44.5% of female Boston 
 artists have graduate degrees. For all male Boston painters, sculptors, and craftspeople 36.8% 
 
 III-10 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
have college degrees and 47.4% have graduate degrees; for female Boston painters, sculptors, and 
 craftspeople 52.8% have college degrees and another 40.3% have graduate degrees. (Table DLl) 
 
 There is a large spread between males and females during the college years for painters, sculptors, 
 and craftspeople in particular with 13.2 of the males and only 4.2 of the females having some 
 college, 36.8 of the males and 52.8 of the females having college degrees. The separation lessens 
 at the graduate level, but is still marked with 47.4 of the male painters, sculptors, and craftspeople 
 having graduate degrees, and 40.3 of the female painters, sculptors, and craftspeople having them. 
 
 Income 
 
 Income as Artists 
 
 For all 156 male Boston artists, individual income as an artist shows 29.5% earning $500 or less, 
 24.4% earning between $501 and $3,000, 14.7% earning between $3,001 and $7,000. 9% earning 
 between $7,001 and $12,000, 7.7% earning between $12,001 and $20,00, 10.9% earning between 
 $20,001 and $40,000, and 3.8% earning over $40,000. (Table UL2) 
 
 For all male Boston painters, sculptors and craftspeople, individual earnings as an artist look like 
 this for 39 respondents: 28.2% earning $500 or less, 30.8% earning between $501 and $3,000, 
 17.9% earning between $3,001 and $7,000. 15.4% earning between $7,001 and $12,000, 2.6% 
 earning between $12,001 and $20,00, 5.1% earning between $20,001 and $40,000, and no one 
 earning over $40,000. 
 
 For all 194 female Boston artists, individual income as an artist shows 30.4% earning $500 or less, 
 33.5% earning between $501 and $3,000, 11.3% earning between $3,001 and $7,000. 8.2% 
 earning between $7,001 and $12,000, 9.8% earning between $12,001 and $20,00, 6.2% earning 
 between $20,001 and $40,000, and .5% earning over $40,000. 
 
 III-ll 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
For all female Boston painters, sculptors and craftspeople, individual earnings look like this for 73 
 respondents: 26% earning $500 or less, 42.5% earning between $501 and $3,000, 13.7% earning 
 between $3,001 and $7,000. 6.8% earning between $7,001 and $12,000, 6.8% earning between 
 $12,001 and $20,00, 4.1% earning between $20,001 and $40,000, and no one earning over 
 $40,000. 4 
 
 Total Gross Income 
 
 For all 156 male Boston artists, total gross income in 1988 is : 7.2% earned less than $5,000; 
 6.5% earned between $5,001 and $10,000; 34.6% between $10,001 and $20,000; 19.6% between 
 $20,000 and $30,000; 16.3% between $30,000 and $40,000 and 15.7% over $40,000.(Table EH.2) 
 
 For all 37 male Boston painters, sculptors, and craftspeople total gross income in 1988 is : 5.4% 
 earned less than $5,000; 8.1% earned between $5,001 and $10,000; 45.9% between $10,001 and 
 $20,000; 21.6% between $20,000 and $30,000; 10.8% between $30,000 and $40,000 and 8.1% 
 over $40,000. 
 
 For all 194 female Boston artists, total gross income in 1988 is : 7.4% earned less than $5,000; 
 19.7% earned between $5,001 and $10,000; 29.3% between $10,001 and $20,000; 24.5% between 
 $20,000 and $30,000; 13.3% between $30,000 and $40,000 and 5.9% over $40,000. 
 
 For all 72 female painters, sculptors and craftspeople, total gross income in 1988 is : 8.3% earned 
 less than $5,000; 23.9% earned between $5,001 and $10,000; 33.3% between $10,001 and 
 $20,000; 16.7% between $20,000 and $30,000; 9.7% between $30,000 and $40,000 and 8.3% 
 over $40,000. 
 
 4 Please note, numbers may not equal 100% due to rounding. The small numbers in this analysis must be 
 taken with extreme caution; they are included here for their site-specific purposes, and because 
 comparisons with larger studies indicate directions for the future. 
 
 111-12 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
Artists’ Costs 
 
 For all male Boston artists, 74.7% pay under $500 for art-related expenses and 18.7% pay 
 between $501 and $2,500. For all female artists, 62.3% pay under $500 for art-related expenses 
 and another 33% pay between $501 and $2,500. In terms of monthly costs for space, three- 
 quarters of the male Boston artists and female Boston artists pay less than $400 per month for 
 workspace, and 8.5% of male Boston artists and 7.8% of female Boston artists pay over $700 per 
 month for workspace. (Table HL4) 
 
 Of 21 male Boston painters, sculptors, and craftspeople and 41 female painters, sculptors, and 
 craftspeople virtually all pay less than $2,500 in annual art-related expenses. Over three-quarters 
 of male and female Boston painters, sculptors and craftspeople pay less than $400 a month for 
 workspace. 
 
 New York 
 
 The artist population of New York City, according to the 1980 U.S. census, was 102, 954. 15,640 
 of these were painters, sculptors, craft artists and artists printmakers. The 1980s will go down in 
 history as one with a huge infusion of money in the for-profit, art market arena, with descriptions 
 as the decade of "hype" and "hyperinflation" of visual art prices. Even though much of the profit 
 went to the work of dead (and non-American) artists, the contemporary American art market also 
 benefited with artists like Jeff Koons giving up Wall Street trading in cotton futures to be an artist. 
 
 From the cooperative galleries and artists spaces of the 1970s came an explosion of East Village 
 galleries, and commercial spaces in Soho, Noho, Tribeca as the line between profit and nonprofit 
 spaces became thinner and thinner. Museums asked avant-garde artists to donate one-of-a-kind 
 objects, coming perilously close to commercial activity. Non-mainstream museums collaborated 
 on shows featuring a range and breadth of artists previously unknown to many New Yorkers, and 
 artists fought to landmark and preserve loft spaces they had lived in and renovated. 
 
 III-13 
 

 
 
 
Some of this art market hype may have had an adverse effect when political controversy erupted 
 over the photographs of Robert Mapplethorpe and Andres Serrano and, even if New York was not 
 the seat of controversy, New York was considered by many the seat of the art market. The 
 ambivalence mentioned in this report's introduction reconfirms the ambivalence many artists feel 
 about the City; in fact, census figures attest to a slight decline (to 15,058) of these kinds of artists 
 by 1990. 
 
 The number of artists of all kinds surveyed in New York totals 485. The number of 
 painters/sculptors/craft artists totals 290. 
 
 Age 
 
 The mean age of all New York artists is 39.7; the median age is 38. The mean age for all New 
 York painters, sculptors and craftspeople is 37.6; the median age is 36. 
 
 Education 
 
 When broken down by gender, 39.3% of all male New York artists and 44% of all female New 
 York artists have college degrees; another 42.2 % of male New York artists and 45.1% of female 
 New York artists have graduate degrees. For all male New York painters, sculptors, and 
 craftspeople 30% have college degrees and 53.8% have graduate degrees; for female New York 
 painters, sculptors, and craftspeople 46.8% have college degrees and another 47.6% have graduate 
 degrees. (Table m.l) 
 
 There is a large spread between males and females for college degrees for painters, sculptors, and 
 craftspeople in particular with 30% of the males and 46.8% of the females having college 
 degrees. The separation lessens at the graduate level, but is still marked with 53.8% of the male 
 painters having graduate degrees, and 47.6 of the female painters having them. 
 
 III-14 
 

 
 
Income 
 
 Income as Artists 
 
 For all 204 male New York artists, individual income as an artists shows 18.1% earning $500 or 
 less, 32.4% earning between $501 and $3,000, 8.8% earning between $3,001 and $7,000. 11.3% 
 earning between $7,001 and $12,000, 13.7% earning between $12,001 and $20,00, 10.3% earning 
 between $20,001 and $40,000, and 5.4% earning over $40,000. (Table m.2) 
 
 For all male New York painters, sculptors and craftspeople, individual earnings as an artist look 
 like this for 79 respondents: 25.3% earning $500 or less, 32.9% earning between $501 and $3,000, 
 12.7% earning between $3,001 and $7,000. 10.1% earning between $7,001 and $12,000, 8.9% 
 earning between $12,001 and $20,00, 8.9% earning between $20,001 and $40,000, and 1.3% 
 earning over $40,000. 
 
 For all 281 female New York artists, individual income as an artist shows 23.8% earning $500 or 
 less, 27.4% earning between $501 and $3,000, 13.5% earning between $3,001 and $7,000. 8.5% 
 earning between $7,001 and $12,000, 10.3% earning between $12,001 and $20,00, 10.3% earning 
 between $20,001 and $40,000, and 7.1% earning over $40,000. 
 
 For all female New York painters, sculptors and craftspeople, individual earnings look like this for 
 126 respondents: 24.6% earning $500 or less, 33.3% earning between $501 and $3,000, 17.5% 
 earning between $3,001 and $7,000. 6.3% earning between $7,001 and $12,000, 10.3% earning 
 between $12,001 and $20,000, 6.3% earning between $20,001 and $40,000, and 1.6% earning 
 over $40,000.5 
 
 5 Please note, numbers may not equal 100% due to rounding. The small numbers in this analysis must be 
 taken with extreme caution; they are included here for their site-specific purposes, and because 
 comparisons with larger studies indicate directions for the future. 
 
 III-15 
 

 
 
 
Total Gross Income 
 
 For all 205 male New York artists, total gross income in 1988 is : 5.4% earned less than $5,000; 
 7.8% earned between $5,001 and $10,000; 28.8% between $10,001 and $20,000; 28.3% between 
 $20,000 and $30,000; 17.1% between $30,001 and $40,000 and 12.7% over $40,000. (Table HL2) 
 
 For all 79 male New York painters, sculptors, and craftspeople total gross income in 1988 is : 
 
 7.6% earned less than $5,000; 1 1.4% earned between $5,001 and $10,000; 34.2% between 
 $10,001 and $20,000; 20.3% between $20,000 and $30,000; 17.7% between $30,001 and $40,000 
 and 8.4% over $40,000. 
 
 For all 281 female New York artists, total gross income in 1988 is : 5% earned less than $5,000; 
 15.7% earned between $5,001 and $10,000; 29.2% between $10,001 and $20,000; 24.6% between 
 $20,000 and $30,000; 15.3% between $30,000 and $40,000 and 10.3% over $40,000. 
 
 For all 127 female painters, sculptors and craftspeople, total gross income in 1988 is : 9.4% 
 earned less than $5,000; 18.9% earned between $5,001 and $10,000; 32.3% between $10,001 and 
 $20,000; 21.8% between $20,000 and $30,000; 14.2% between $30,000 and $40,000 and 3.9% 
 over $40,000. 
 
 III-16 
 

 
 
 
 
Artists' Costs 
 
 For all male New York artists, 65.6% pay under $500 for art-related expenses and 24% pay 
 between $501 and $2,500. For all female artists, 63.2% pay under $500 for art-related expenses 
 and another 26.4% pay between $501 and $2,500. In terms of monthly costs for space, over half 
 the male New York artists and female New York artists pay less than $400 per month for 
 workspace, and 15.8% of male New York artists and 12.5% of female New York artists pay over 
 $700 per month for workspace. (Table HL4). 
 
 Of 44 male New York painters, sculptors, and craftspeople and 59 female painters, sculptors, and 
 craftspeople virtually all pay less than $2,500 in annual art-related expenses. Of 77 male New 
 York painters, sculptors, and craftspeople over half pay less than $400 a month for workspace 
 while over half of the 118 female New York painters, sculptors, and craftspeople pay less than 
 $400 per month for workspace. 
 
 III-17 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Artists Training and Career Project (ATC) (1990-91) 
 
 Age, Gender, Ethnic Background 
 
 The mean age for all painters and craftspeople from this 1990-91 national survey to which 960 
 painters and 1,301 craft artists responded, is 43.1 for painters and 43.4 for craftspeople. 
 
 (Standard deviation 1 1.5-12.3) The median age is 41 for painters and 41 for craftspeople. 58% of 
 the painters are female; 42% are male. 54% of the craftspeople are female, 46% are male. 
 
 Median age for male painters is 38% and for craftsmen 42%. Median age for female painters is 40 
 and for crafts women 41. 
 
 The following chart shows the ethnic background of painters and craftspeople from the ATC 
 study: 
 
 
 White 
 
 Amer 
 
 Indian 
 
 Asian 
 
 Black 
 
 Hispanic 
 
 Other/ 
 
 Specify 
 
 Painters 
 
 86% 
 
 >2% 
 
 <2% 
 
 3% 
 
 >2% 
 
 5% 
 
 Crafts 
 
 92% 
 
 >1% 
 
 1% 
 
 <1% 
 
 1% 
 
 5% 
 
 Education 
 
 40.6% of the painters have a college degree and 42.5% listed a graduate degree as their highest 
 level of formal education; 38.3% of the craftspeople have a college degree and 33.6% listed a 
 graduate degree as their highest level of formal education. By gender, 33.4% of male painters and 
 45.7% of women painters, and 31.5% of male craftspeople and 45.2% of female craftspeople have 
 a college degree; 45.6% of male painters and 34.2% of male craftspeople, and 40.2 % of female 
 painters and 33% of female craftspeople listed a graduate degree as their highest level of formal 
 education. (Table HI.5) 
 
 III-18 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Income 
 
 Income as Artist 
 
 Table 111.5 shows a breakdown of total income as an artist and total gross individual income for 
 the painters in 1990 and for the craftspeople in 1989. For painters, over half the males (56%) and 
 62% of the females earned less than $3,000 as artists and 65% of the males and 78% of the 
 females earned less than $7,000 as artists. (Table III.5) 
 
 For craftspeople, 36% of the males and 39% of the females earned less than $3,000 as artists and 
 47% of the males and 53% of the females earned less than $7,000 as artists. 
 
 Total Gross Income 
 
 Total gross income as an individual breaks down as follows. For male painters in 1990, 8.6% 
 earned under $5,000, 13.3% earned between $5,001 and $10,000, 25.1% earned between $10,001 
 and $20,000, 20.2% earned between $20,001 and $30,000, 14.4% earned between $30,001 and 
 $40,000, 16.7% earned between $40,001 and $60,000, and 1.7% earned over $60,000. (Table 
 
 m.5) 
 
 For female painters in 1990, 17.9% earned under $5,000, 16% earned between $5,001 and 
 $10,000, 26.7% earned between $10,001 and $20,000, 19.8% earned between $20,001 and 
 $30,000, 10.8% earned between $30,001 and $40,000, 7.5% earned between $40,001 and $60,000, 
 and 1.3% earned over $60,000. 
 
 For male craftspeople in 1989, 1 1.5% earned under $5,000, 6.1% earned between $5,001 and 
 $10,000, 14.3% earned between $10,001 and $20,000, 17% earned between $20,001 and $30,000, 
 19.1% earned between $30,001 and $40,000, 32% earned over $40,000. 
 
 III-19 
 

 
 
 
 
 
For female craftspeople in 1989, 19.8% earned under $5,000, 14.3% earned between $5,001 and 
 $10,000, 21.8% earned between $10,001 and $20,000, 18% earned between $20,001 and $30,000, 
 11.1% earned between $30,001 and $40,000, and 15% earned over $40,000. 
 
 Total Gross Household Income 
 
 Total gross household income breaks down this way: For male painters' households in 1990, 4.1% 
 earned under $5,000, 8.6% earned between $5,001 and $10,000, 18% earned between $10,001 and 
 $20,000, 20.1% earned beween $20,001 and $30,000, 16.6% earned between $30,001 and 
 $40,000, 19.5% earned between $40,001 and $60,000, 5.9% earned between $60,001 and $80,000 
 and 7.1% earned over $80,000. (Table in.5) 
 
 For female painters' households: 4.4% earned under $5,000, 7.8% earned between $5,001 and 
 $10,000, 13.2% earned between $10,001 and $20,000, 18.7% earned beween $20,001 and 
 $30,000, 16.2% earned between $30,001 and $40,000, 20.8% earned between $40,001 and 
 $60,000, 8.8% earned between $60,001 and $80,000 and 10.1% earned over $80,000. 
 
 Total gross income for male craftspeople's households breaks down this way in 1989: 1 1.5% 
 earned under $5,000, 2.8% earned between $5,001 and $10,000, 9.7% earned between $10,001 
 and $20,000, 15.1% earned beween $20,001 and $30,000, 15% earned between $30,001 and 
 $40,000, 21.4% earned between $40,001 and $60,000, and 24.5% earning over $60,000. 
 
 Total gross income for female craftspeople's households breaks down this way in 1989: 13.2% 
 earned under $5,000, 3.9% earned between $5,001 and $10,000, 9.7% earned between $10,001 
 and $20,000, 14.9% earned beween $20,001 and $30,000, 16.3% earned between $30,001 and 
 $40,000, 21% earned between $40,001 and $60,000, and 21.1% earning over $60,000. 
 
 III-20 
 

 
Professionalism 
 
 In the Artists Training and Career Project the RCAC continued its attempt to gain a better 
 understanding of professionalism as defined by the artists themselves. 
 
 91.2% of the painters, 85.7% of the craftspeople in this survey consider themselves professionals. 
 As in the earlier 1986 study with the New York Foundation for the Arts and 1988 Information on 
 Artists study, the same three-way division was used which included both external and self- 
 assessment criteria. 
 
 Again, the above criteria were used in two different questions, one which asked respondents to 
 identify their three most important choices in rank order in considering "someone to be a 
 professional artist," and one in which these "reasons apply to you." The table below shows the 
 overwhelming first choice in the Self-Definition category. 
 
 ATC: Important Criteria for Professional Artist: Someone* 
 
 
 Painters 
 
 Craft Artists 
 
 Market Definition 
 
 16.8% 
 
 29.7% 
 
 Peer/Educ Definition 
 
 1.7% 
 
 2.0% 
 
 Self Definition 
 
 80.2% 
 
 66.9% 
 
 ATC: Important Criteria for Professional Artist: Self* 
 
 
 Painters 
 
 Craft Artists 
 
 Market Definition 
 
 14.3% 
 
 30.0% 
 
 Peer/Educ Definition 
 
 2.0% 
 
 2.5% 
 
 Self Definition 
 
 81.5% 
 
 65.5% 
 
 * These figures do not add up to 100% since they do not include responses for "other." See pp III- 
 7 and III-8 for breakdowns of each category. 
 
 111-21 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Artists and Jobs Questionnaire (1980) 
 
 Age and Gender 
 
 The mean age for 287 Boston painters, sculptors and craftspeople is 37.3; the median is 34. 
 (Standard deviation 10.846) For males, the mean age is 36.3 (Standard deviation 10.049); the 
 median, 33. For females, the mean is 38.7(Standard deviation 11.897); the median was 35.5. 
 
 Education 
 
 3.5% of the Boston painters, sculptors and craftspeople have a high school education; 23.7% some 
 college; 46.2% have a college degree and 60.8% have a graduate degree. For males, 8.4% have a 
 high school education; 28% some college; 45.8% have a college degree and 57.9% have a 
 graduate degree. For females, 16.5% have some college; 47.4% have a college degree and 62.9% 
 have a graduate degree. 
 
 Income 
 
 Income as Artist 
 
 355 artists gave information about their art income. The investigators’ computer printout had a 
 statement which describes their findings, "Find out why these artists earn so little." These analysts 
 seem shocked at what artists earn. For the 255 artists, art income broke down this way: for 100 
 males, 37% under $500, 20% between $501 and $3,000, 14% between $3,001 and $7,000, 14% 
 between $7,001 and $12,000, 3% between 12,001 and $20,000, 9% between $20,001 and $40,000 
 and 3% over $40,000. For 155 females, 49% under $500, 29% between $501 and $3,000, 12.3% 
 between $3,001 and $7,000, 5.2% between $7,001 and $12,000, 3.2% between 12,001 and 
 $20,000, 1.3% between $20,001 and $40,000 and none over $40,000. (Table HI.6) 
 
 The New England Study gave us an opportunity to look at art income both by gender and by 
 number of weeks worked. We chose several demarcations: 0 weeks, 10 weeks, 30 weeks, 50 and 
 
 III-22 
 

 
 
 
 
52 weeks. For male painters, sculptors and craftspeople in the metropolitan Boston area in 1980, 
 percentages for $0-$500 look like this: 
 
 
 0 weeks 
 
 11.1% 
 
 
 
 10 weeks 
 
 8.3% 
 
 
 
 30 weeks 
 
 0.0% 
 
 
 
 50 weeks 
 
 2.8% 
 
 
 
 52 weeks 
 
 50.0% 
 
 # of male artists — 36 
 
 For Females: 
 
 0 weeks 
 
 14.1% 
 
 
 
 10 weeks 
 
 4.2% 
 
 
 
 30 weeks 
 
 7.0% 
 
 
 
 50 weeks 
 
 7.0% 
 
 
 
 52 weeks 
 
 32.4% 
 
 # of female artists — 7 1 
 
 Thus, for half the males and almost one-third of the females, these artists worked a full year to 
 earn under $500 from their art. For the remaining earnings from art categories we used the same 
 demarcations. 
 
 $501-$3,000 
 
 
 
 
 Males 
 
 Females 
 
 0 weeks 
 
 n/a 
 
 n/a 
 
 10 weeks 
 
 0.0% 
 
 2.6% 
 
 30 weeks 
 
 10.5% 
 
 5.1% 
 
 50 weeks 
 
 5.3% 
 
 12.8% 
 
 52 weeks 
 
 57.9% 
 
 35.9% # of male artists — 19 
 
 
 
 # of female artists — 39 
 
 $3,001-$7,000 
 
 
 
 
 Males 
 
 Females 
 
 0 weeks 
 
 n/a 
 
 n/a 
 
 10 weeks 
 
 n/a 
 
 n/a 
 
 30 weeks 
 
 n/a 
 
 n/a 
 
 50 weeks 
 
 15.4% 
 
 5.6% 
 
 52 weeks 
 
 72.2% 
 
 53.8% # of male artists — 13 
 
 
 
 # of female artists — 18 
 
 in-23 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
$7,001-$12,000 
 
 
 Males 
 
 Females 
 
 0 weeks 
 
 n/a 
 
 n/a 
 
 10 weeks 
 
 n/a 
 
 n/a 
 
 30 weeks 
 
 7.1% 
 
 12.5% 
 
 50 weeks 
 
 14.3% 
 
 0.0% 
 
 52 weeks 
 
 50.0% 
 
 37.5% # of male artists — 14 
 
 
 
 # of female artists — 8 
 
 $12,001-$20,000 
 
 Males 
 
 Females 
 
 
 28 weeks 
 
 33.3% 
 
 0.0% 
 
 
 52 weeks 
 
 66.7% 
 
 100.0% 
 
 # of male artists — 3 
 
 # of female artists — 5 
 
 $20,001-$40,000 
 
 Males 
 
 Females 
 
 
 50 weeks 
 
 11.1% 
 
 0.0% 
 
 
 52 weeks 
 
 44.4% 
 
 50.0% 
 
 # of male artists — 9 
 
 # of female artists — 2 
 
 $40,000+ 
 
 Males 
 
 Females 
 
 
 52 weeks 
 
 0.0% 
 
 100.0% 
 
 # male of artists — 0 
 
 # of female artists — ' 
 
 Total Gross Income 
 
 For 96 male artists, total gross income was 12.1% under $5,000, 27.3% between $5,001 and 
 $10,000, 29.3% between $10,001 and $20,000, 13.1% between $20,001 and $30,000, 12.1% 
 between $30,001 and $40,000 and 6.1% earning over $40,000. 
 
 For 147 females, 23.4% under $5,000, 36.4% between $5,001 and $10,000, 31.2% between 
 $10,001 and $20,000, 6.5% between $20,001 and $30,000, 1.9% between $30,001 and $40,000 
 and 6% earning over $40,000. (Table m.6) 
 
 III-24 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The artists' total individual gross income was measured in different monetary categories, but 
 approximately the same demarcation weeks were chosen. 
 
 $ 0 -$ 5,000 
 
 Males 
 
 Females 
 
 0 weeks 
 
 0.0% 
 
 6.3% 
 
 10 weeks 
 
 0.0% 
 
 3.1% 
 
 30 weeks 
 
 0.0% 
 
 6.3% 
 
 50 weeks 
 
 0.0% 
 
 3.1% 
 
 52 weeks 
 
 50.0% 
 
 34.4% # of male artists — 10 
 
 
 
 # of female artists — 32 
 
 III-25 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
$5,001- $10,000 
 
 
 Males 
 
 Females 
 
 
 0 weeks 
 
 3.7% 
 
 1.9% 
 
 
 10 weeks 
 
 0.0% 
 
 1.9% 
 
 
 30 weeks 
 
 3.7% 
 
 1.9% 
 
 
 50 weeks 
 
 14.8% 
 
 13.5% 
 
 
 52 weeks 
 
 44.4% 
 
 42.3% 
 
 # of male artists — 27 
 
 # of female artists — 52 
 
 $10,001-$20,000 
 
 Males 
 
 Females 
 
 
 0 weeks 
 
 10.3% 
 
 6.4% 
 
 
 10 weeks 
 
 6.9% 
 
 4.3% 
 
 
 30 weeks 
 
 3.4% 
 
 10.6% 
 
 
 50 weeks 
 
 0.0% 
 
 4.3% 
 
 
 52 weeks 
 
 58.6% 
 
 44.7% 
 
 # of male artists — 29 
 
 # of female artists — 47 
 
 $20,001-$30,000 
 
 Males 
 
 Females 
 
 
 0 weeks 
 
 0.0% 
 
 25.0% 
 
 
 10 weeks 
 
 8.3% 
 
 0.0% 
 
 
 52 weeks 
 
 66.7% 
 
 50.0% 
 
 # of male artists — 12 
 
 # of female artists — 8 
 
 $30,001-$40,000 
 
 Males 
 
 Females 
 
 
 0 weeks 
 
 33.3% 
 
 0.0% 
 
 
 30 weeks 
 
 8.3% 
 
 0.0% 
 
 
 50 weeks 
 
 16.7% 
 
 33.3% 
 
 
 52 weeks 
 
 33.3% 
 
 0.0% 
 
 # of male artists — 12 
 
 # of female artists — 3 
 
 $40,000+ 
 
 Males 
 
 Females 
 
 
 50 weeks 
 
 16.7% 
 
 0.0% 
 
 
 52 weeks 
 
 83.3% 
 
 100.0% 
 
 # of male artists — 6 
 
 # of female artists — 1 
 
 Gross Household Income 
 
 For 96 male Boston painters, sculptors and craftspeople 5.1% earned under $5,000, 22.2% earned 
 between $5,001 and $10,000, 22.2% earned between $10,001 and $20,000, 20.2% earned between 
 
 III-26 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
$20,001 and $30,000, 14.1% earned between $30,001 and $40,000 and 16.2% earned over 
 $40,000. (Table m.6) 
 
 For 145 of females, 5.8% earned under $5,000, 18.6% earned between $5,001 and $10,000, 27.6% 
 earned between $10,001 and $20,000, 14.1% earned between $20,001 and $30,000, 19.9% earned 
 between $30,001 and $40,000 and 14.1% earned over $40,000. 
 
 Total household income broke down this way: 
 
 $0-$5,000 
 
 ^ ~ 7 ~ 
 
 Males 
 
 Females 
 
 
 28 weeks 
 
 0.0% 
 
 12.5% 
 
 
 50 weeks 
 
 0.0% 
 
 12.5% 
 
 
 52 weeks 
 
 40.0% 
 
 50.0% 
 
 # of male artists — 5 
 
 # of female artists — 8 
 
 $5,001- $10,000 
 
 Males 
 
 Females 
 
 
 30 weeks 
 
 0.0% 
 
 3.7% 
 
 
 50 weeks 
 
 18.2% 
 
 7.4% 
 
 
 52 weeks 
 
 59.1% 
 
 44.4% 
 
 # of male artists — 22 
 
 # of female artists — 27 
 
 $10,001-$20,000 
 
 Males 
 
 Females 
 
 
 0 weeks 
 
 9.5% 
 
 10.0% 
 
 
 30 weeks 
 
 4.8% 
 
 7.5% 
 
 
 50 weeks 
 
 0.0% 
 
 10.0% 
 
 
 52 weeks 
 
 61.9% 
 
 42.5% 
 
 # of male artists — 21 
 
 # of female artists — 40 
 
 $20,001-$30,000 
 
 Males 
 
 Females 
 
 
 0 weeks 
 
 11.1% 
 
 5.0% 
 
 
 30 weeks 
 
 5.6% 
 
 5.0% 
 
 
 50 weeks 
 
 0.0% 
 
 10.0% 
 
 
 52 weeks 
 
 33.3% 
 
 35.0% 
 
 # of male artists — 18 
 
 # of female artists — 20 
 
 III-27 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
$30,001-$40,000 
 
 Males 
 
 Females 
 
 
 0 weeks 
 
 0.0% 
 
 12.9% 
 
 
 30 weeks 
 
 0.0% 
 
 3.2% 
 
 
 50 weeks 
 
 14.3% 
 
 9.7% 
 
 
 52 weeks 
 
 50.0% 
 
 32.3% 
 
 # of male artists — 14 
 
 # of female artists — 31 
 
 $40,000+ 
 
 Males 
 
 Females 
 
 
 30 weeks 
 
 6.3% 
 
 10.5% 
 
 
 50 weeks 
 
 6.3% 
 
 0.0% 
 
 
 52 weeks 
 
 62.5% 
 
 47.4% 
 
 # of male artists — 16 
 
 # of female artists — 19 
 
 III-28 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Discrete Survey 
 
 Australia 
 
 If we extend our comparisons of the education of artists to encompass some international data, the 
 results reinforce information gathered by discrete surveys in the United States. C. David Throsby 
 and Devon Mills gathered data for 1988 from a random sample of 815 practicing professional 
 artists, of whom 213 were visual artists located across the country. 
 
 For both the Australian survey and the Research Center for Arts and Culture survey of a random 
 sample of 2,000 painters across the U.S. (Artists Training and Career Project) the artists' education 
 at the level of college degree or beyond exceeded the labor force substantially. While the 
 differences in actual figures reflect differences in each country's educational system, these data 
 continue to make it clear that professional visual artists as a group are much better educated than 
 the general labor force. 
 
 Highest level of formal education^ 
 
 United States 
 
 Visual Artists Labor force 
 
 Australia 
 
 Visual Artists Labor force 
 
 Elementary school 
 
 1% 
 
 6% 
 
 1% 
 
 3% 
 
 Some high school 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 40 
 
 Completed high school 
 
 4 
 
 39 
 
 9 
 
 13 
 
 Some college 
 
 13 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 College degree 
 
 39 
 
 15 
 
 57 
 
 25 
 
 Graduate degree/diploma 
 
 41 
 
 11 
 
 24 
 
 2 
 
 6 Joan Jeffri and David Throsby, "Professionalism and the Visual Artist, " ( European Journal of Cultural 
 Policy, 1:1 (1994), pp. 
 
 III-29 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Why there is such a discrepancy between the findings in all the discrete surveys we have reviewed 
 and the census in the area of education? If we refer back to the definitional problems of the census 
 and examples of tattoo artists and cardpainters being included as painters, one can see how the 
 numbers become inflated with people whose data cannot be accurate markers for a large segment 
 of the arts, whose information — as in the example here— seems to be out of sync with everything 
 we know. 
 
 In fact, most studies of artists during the last ten years, outside of the census, have clearly 
 established the high degree of formal education as well as its lack of corresponding income. 
 
 III-30 
 

 
 
IV. 
 
 COMPARISONS 
 
 Education 
 
 As we have noted several times, the area of education is a particularly illustrative one 
 when making even the most preliminary comparisons between the census and other 
 sources of data. These comparisons are complicated by the changes in education coding 
 in the census from 1980 to 1990. In 1980 people were asked how many years of school 
 they had completed while in 1990 they were asked the type of degree they had 
 completed. Since variations include a 4-year Bachelor’s degree , a 5-year Bachelor’s 
 degree often considered a “professional degree,” and a 5-year combined Bachelor’s and 
 Master’s degree, the potential for confusion increases. 
 
 While Beresford has made comparisons between Some College and No College, in this 
 particular census category, we feel the more meaningful measures are at the college 
 degree and graduate degree levels. While these figures, too, must be viewed with some 
 caution due to the discrepancies mentioned above, the differences between census figures 
 and every other data source included here is substantial enough to bear investigation. 
 
 Table IV. 1 illustrates the period between 1988 and 1990, showing numbers for 
 Information on Artists (1988), the Artists Training and Career Project (1990-91) 
 and the U.S. Census (1990). For all artists, and the painters and craftspeople category, 
 34-46% have college degrees, and another 39-46% have graduate degrees. This 
 compares with a college degree range of 27-33% and a graduate degree range of 9-12% 
 for the 1990 census. 
 
 IV-1 
 

 
 
 
In Table IV.2 although the comparison is really unfair, we went back to the 1980 census 
 and compared it to the Boston painters/craft artists from the 1980 Artists and Jobs 
 Questionnaire, and then added the 1990 census in comparison with the 1988 Boston 
 painters/craft artists from Information on Artists. While the Census Population Survey 
 could give a more accurate geographic picture, even with this rough comparison the 
 census figures are substantially different from other data sources. 
 
 In fact, the figures that emerge from non-census data about painters and craft artists 
 described here are closer to the figures for Professional Specialty Occupations. 
 Information gathered from every independent U.S. study we have reviewed here 
 indicates a huge discrepancy between what researchers have identified directly from 
 artists, and results from the 1990 census. This in an area warranting substantial further 
 investigation. 1 
 
 Age 
 
 The median age for painters/craft artists, was 38, according to the 1990 census. The 
 median age for artists in the Information on Artists survey (1988) is 37. For 
 craftspeople and painters in the Artists Training and Career Project survey (1989-90), 
 the median age was 41. 
 
 Earnings 
 
 Although it is difficult to be certain that respondents included the exact same kinds of 
 sources for earnings, Beresford reports the 1989 median earnings for painters according 
 to the 1990 census as $24,320 for males and $18,762 for females, men showing a 
 decrease of 3.2% and women an increase of 10.4% from a decade earlier. (Table 11.15) 
 
 1 See 1-7, "Other Data," for further discussion. It should be noted that artist lists outside the 
 census are more pointed and samples are drawn differently across samples. 
 
 IV-2 
 
In the Research Center’s studies, only a range of income can be ascertained, but for the 
 1990 painters (ATC), the median falls in the range of $10,001-20,000 for total individual 
 gross income from 1989, while for craftspeople the median falls in the $20,001-30,000 
 range for total individual gross income for 1988. 
 
 The total median household income for 1989 for painters/craft artists according to 
 Beresford’s figures from the census was $41,159; for males $39,943 and for females, 
 $42,367. The median range for total household income for painters in 1990 in the 
 Research Center’s ATC study was $30,001-40,000; for craftspeople in 1989, it was the 
 same. 
 
 An important area for inquiry, and one that has rarely been addressed, is the income of 
 artists who have abandoned art as an occupation compared to those who have stuck with 
 it. In Talent and Achievement , the authors report that “for both men and women, the 
 household income of those who had abandoned fine art by mid-life is higher than the 
 income of those still involved.”^ In addition, the range of individual earnings for those 
 artists who remained involved in fine art was $500-$80,000, “either a feast or a 
 famine. ’’^ The ranges in Research Center Studies were similar. 
 
 Figures for income from art are provided in chapter III. 
 
 Many characteristics of artists emerge which, although not quantified by the census, have 
 been explored by independent researchers and which bear continued attention. 
 Czikszentmihalyi, Getzels and Kahn note that, of the artists they studied, “at least since 
 
 2 Mihaly Czikszentmihalyi, Jacob W. Getzels and Stephen P. Kahn, Talent and Achievement (Chicago, 
 1984) an unpublished paper, p.305. 
 
 3 Ibid, p.306. 
 
 IV-3 
 

their early twenties, young people interested in art show a remarkable determination to 
 shape their own destiny.”^ In addition, they comment on art as a profession: 
 
 Art differs from other occupations in that artists must find their jobs within 
 themselves... The typical occupation or profession consists of skills and rules 
 which tradition has clearly delineated. In contrast, the modem artist is 
 expected to develop the content and the rules of his profession from within. 
 
 External signposts are few, and ambiguous by definition.^ 
 
 The Research Center for Arts and Culture at Columbia University has explored other 
 facets of the ‘art as profession and/or occupation’ construct. Their studies have shown 
 that artists consistently define themselves as artists through definitions based on self 
 evaluation, peer review, commitment, time and public recognition as opposed to market 
 or education-based definitions. (See Chapter III.) 
 
 By focusing solely on measures like earnings and education, we limit our analysis of 
 artists to “conventional goals of affluence and status” in the “roles prescribed by 
 society.”^ 
 
 What the discrete surveys offer us here is another view, one which targets the artist 
 population more narrowly than the census and which suggests additional ways of looking 
 at how artists view their occupations. These surveys also identify other areas of inquiry 
 that broaden the picture of the artist in society. Finally, they indicate the need for a 
 regular survey of artists, if possible, by the National Endowment for the Arts, which 
 combines the more relevant aspects of the census with other areas of inquiry, some of 
 which have been identified in this document. 
 
 4 Ibid, p.483. 
 5 Ibid. 
 
 6 Ibid. 
 
 IV-4 
 
e 
 
 < 
 
 
 * 
 
 I 
 
 * 
 
 I 
 
These are, of course, the most preliminary of comparisons and further investigation is 
 needed, not only to compare other data sets and sources to the census findings, but to 
 provide a broader landscape in which to think about artists in ways which are valuable to 
 society, the government, and to the artists themselves. 
 
 IV-5 
 
r 
 
 
 r 
 
 c 
 
 r 
 
 r 
 
 r 
 
 r 
 
 f 
 
 c 
 
 C <i 
 
 C i 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Table II.l Growth in the Total Population Age 16 and Older, the Experienced Civilian 
 Labor Force, Professional Specialty Workers, and Artists, by Gender, 1970 to 1990 
 
 (numbers in thousands) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 1980 
 
 1990 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total Population age 16 & older 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 139,203 
 
 169,349 
 
 189,686 
 
 
 
 Male 
 
 66,385 
 
 80,879 
 
 92,026 
 
 
 
 Female 
 
 72,819 
 
 88,472 
 
 99,803 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Experienced civilian labor force 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 79,802 
 
 104,058 
 
 122,474 
 
 
 
 Male 
 
 49,455 
 
 59,754 
 
 66,432 
 
 
 
 Female 
 
 30,347 
 
 44,304 
 
 56,042 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Professional specialty workers 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 8,822 
 
 12,275 
 
 16,648 
 
 
 
 Male 
 
 4,895 
 
 6,248 
 
 7,706 
 
 
 
 Female 
 
 3,927 
 
 6,027 
 
 8,942 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Artists 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 720 
 
 1,086 
 
 1,671 
 
 
 
 Male 
 
 499 
 
 675 
 
 931 
 
 
 
 Female 
 
 221 
 
 411 
 
 675 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Source: Beresford, Jack. "Using the 1990 Census Artist Extract Files for the National Endowment for the Arts." 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 [Notes: Total population is the noninstitutional population; the experienced civilian labor force is 
 
 
 noninstitutionalized persons employed in civilian jobs (excluding the Armed Forces) or unemployed 
 
 (available and seeking work) with prior work experience in the last five years. The sums for males and females may 
 
 not equal totals due to rounding. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 r 
 
 r 
 
 
 ( 
 
 f 
 
 f 
 
 f 
 
 L 
 
 C 
 
 
 t 
 
Table II 2 . Change in Labor Force Participation Rates of Men and Women, by Age, 1970 to 1990 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Percent Participating in the Civilian Labor Force 
 
 Percent Point Change 1970-1990 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 1990 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Men age 16 & Older: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total: 
 
 
 79.70% 
 
 76.10% 
 
 
 -3.60% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Age: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16-17 
 
 
 47.00% 
 
 43.70% 
 
 
 3.30% 
 
 
 18-19 
 
 
 66.70% 
 
 67.00% 
 
 
 -0.30% 
 
 
 20-24 
 
 
 83.30% 
 
 84.30% 
 
 
 -1.00% 
 
 
 25-34 
 
 
 96.40% 
 
 94.20% 
 
 
 2.20% 
 
 
 35-44 
 
 
 96.90% 
 
 94.40% 
 
 
 2.50% 
 
 
 45-54 
 
 
 94.30% 
 
 90.70% 
 
 
 3.60% 
 
 
 55-64 
 
 
 83.00% 
 
 67.70% 
 
 
 15.30% 
 
 
 65 and older 
 
 
 26.80% 
 
 13.40% 
 
 
 13.40% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Women age 16 & Older 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total: 
 
 
 43.30% 
 
 57.50% 
 
 
 -14.20% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Age: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16-17 
 
 
 34.90% 
 
 41.90% 
 
 
 -7.00% 
 
 
 18-19 
 
 
 53.50% 
 
 60.50% 
 
 
 -7.00% 
 
 
 20-24 
 
 
 57.70% 
 
 71.60% 
 
 
 -13.90% 
 
 
 25-34 
 
 
 45.00% 
 
 73.60% 
 
 
 -28.60% 
 
 
 35-44 
 
 
 51.10% 
 
 76.50% 
 
 
 -25.40% 
 
 
 45-54 
 
 
 54.40% 
 
 71.20% 
 
 
 -16.80% 
 
 
 55-64 
 
 
 43.00% 
 
 45.30% 
 
 
 -2.30% 
 
 
 65 and older 
 
 
 9.70% 
 
 8.70% 
 
 
 1.00% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SOUR OF - TI 
 
 S Rnrenii nf the C 
 
 p.nsiis Stnlixtiral ,4 
 
 hxtrart nf ths> l 
 
 Initpd States - 1 993 
 
 n 13th edition ! Washington. DC. 
 
 
 
 1993. 
 
 NOTE: The base for percentages is the civilian noninstitutionalized population of the indicated gender and age. The 
 numerator includes noninstitutionalized persons of the indicated gender and age who were in the civilian labor force, that 
 is, employed in civilian jobs (excluding members of the Armed Forces) or unemployed (i.e. available for and seeking 
 work). The labor force participation rates shown above for all men and women age 16 and older differ slightly from the 
 rates cited in the text based on Table II. 1 because of differences in both the numberator (civilian labor force versus 
 experienced civilian labor force) and denominator (civilian versus total noninstitutionalized population. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
r v 
 
 € < 
 
 € ' 
 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 4 » 
 
 4 > 
 
 *1 
 
 * 
 
 ft 
 
Table II-3 Age and Education by Gender of the Experienced Civilian Labor Force, 
 
 
 
 Professional Workers, and All Artists, 1970-1990. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Percent Age 
 
 Percent with Education 
 
 
 
 16-34 
 
 55 & Older 
 
 Median Age 
 (in Yrs.) 
 
 Less than High 
 School 
 
 4+ Years of 
 College** 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Male Exp. Civ. Labor Force: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 39.60% 
 
 18.60% 
 
 40.10 
 
 42.70 
 
 13.80 
 
 1980 
 
 
 47.50% 
 
 15.80% 
 
 36.30 
 
 25.90 
 
 20.60 
 
 1990 
 
 
 45.50% 
 
 12.90% 
 
 36.90 
 
 14.90 
 
 28.00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Male Professionals: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 43.00% 
 
 13.60% 
 
 37.80 
 
 6.10 
 
 57.90 
 
 1980 
 
 
 42.50% 
 
 14.90% 
 
 38.10 
 
 2.80 
 
 73.70 
 
 1990 
 
 
 34.10% 
 
 15.20% 
 
 40.20 
 
 1.50 
 
 75.70 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Male Artists: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 44.80% 
 
 14.10% 
 
 37.30 
 
 13.70 
 
 32.30 
 
 1980 
 
 
 52.40% 
 
 13.40% 
 
 34.30 
 
 8.30 
 
 41.70 
 
 1990 
 
 
 42.00% 
 
 14.20% 
 
 36.55 
 
 5.30 
 
 40.00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Male Painters and 
 
 Craft-Artists: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 40.40% 
 
 15.20% 
 
 39.00 
 
 10.30 
 
 25.30 
 
 1980 
 
 
 47.80% 
 
 16.30% 
 
 36.10 
 
 7.60 
 
 35.10 
 
 1990 
 
 
 38.30% 
 
 16.80% 
 
 39.72 
 
 1.40 
 
 27.10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Female Exp. Civ. 
 
 Labor Force: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 42.30% 
 
 17.40% 
 
 39.40 
 
 35.20 
 
 11.60 
 
 1980 
 
 
 51.00% 
 
 14.00% 
 
 34.60 
 
 21.80 
 
 15.80 
 
 1990 
 
 
 46.20% 
 
 11.70% 
 
 36.45 
 
 11.20 
 
 24.60 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Female Professionals: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 44.70% 
 
 16.70% 
 
 37.60 
 
 6.70 
 
 53.30 
 
 1980 
 
 
 50.70% 
 
 11.20% 
 
 34.80 
 
 3.50 
 
 63.50 
 
 1990 
 
 
 37.50% 
 
 10.20% 
 
 38.56 
 
 2.30 
 
 66.10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Female Artists: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 44.40% 
 
 16.60% 
 
 37.70 
 
 16.80 
 
 26.80 
 
 1980 
 
 
 56.70% 
 
 12.20% 
 
 33.10 
 
 9.30 
 
 38.20 
 
 1990 
 
 
 44.30% 
 
 11.50% 
 
 36.99 
 
 5.40 
 
 32.30 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Female Painters and Craft- Artists: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 49.50% 
 
 12.10% 
 
 35.20 
 
 10.90 
 
 26.10 
 
 1980 
 
 
 57.70% 
 
 10.90% 
 
 33.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 41.70 
 
 1990 
 
 
 39.50% 
 
 12.30% 
 
 38.57 
 
 0.90 
 
 33.00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SOURCES and NOTES: See Appendix C. 
 
 For a complete break-out of age and education, please see tables n.5 and n.9. 
 **For 1990, Education calulated for the 25-64 age group. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
( 
 
 ( 
 
 r 
 
 < 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 ( 
 
 c 
 
Table II.4. Growth in Artist Occupation, by Gender, 1970 to 1990 (numbers in thousands 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 1980 
 
 1990 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Painters/craft-artists: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total: 
 
 102,600 
 
 151,360 
 
 191,160 
 
 
 
 
 
 Male 
 
 65,225 
 
 78,440 
 
 83,240 
 
 
 
 
 
 Female 
 
 37,375 
 
 72,920 
 
 107,920 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 % Female 
 
 36.40% 
 
 48.18% 
 
 56.46% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 All Artists 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total: 
 
 720,000 
 
 1,086,000 
 
 1,671,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 Male 
 
 499,000 
 
 675,000 
 
 931,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 Female 
 
 221,000 
 
 411,000 
 
 675,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 % Female 
 
 30.60% 
 
 37.80% 
 
 40.39% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SOURCES: Painters/craft artists are Greenblatt's numbers. All 
 Artists are from Beresford. 
 
 NOTES: Sums for men and women may not add to totals due to 
 rounding. 
 
 1 1 1 1 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
f ’ 
 
 r 
 
 r 
 
 
 ( 
 
 i 
 
 
 i 
 
 < 
 
 
Tabic Qi: Age of the Experienced Civilian Labor Force, Professional Specially Workers, and All Artists, 
 
 
 by Detailed Artist Occupation and Gender 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 MALE 
 
 
 
 AGE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 16-24 
 
 25-34 
 
 35-44 
 
 45-54 
 
 55-64 
 
 65 & over 
 
 Total ECLF age 
 16+ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 49.536,472 
 
 8.625,111 
 
 11.001363 
 
 10.432.847 
 
 10346534 
 
 7.126560 
 
 2.103.757 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 17.41% 
 
 2321% 
 
 21.06% 
 
 20.68% 
 
 14.39% 
 
 4.25% 
 
 1980 
 
 56.004,690 
 
 10588352 
 
 15.607328 
 
 11.116.179 
 
 9.453.810 
 
 6563.868 
 
 1.875353 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 19.62% 
 
 27.87% 
 
 19.85% 
 
 16.88% 
 
 12.43% 
 
 3.35% 
 
 1990 
 
 68.200.000 
 
 11300,000 
 
 19.800.000 
 
 17300.000 
 
 11300.000 
 
 6,800.000 
 
 2,000.000 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 16.42% 
 
 29.03% 
 
 25.37% 
 
 16.42% 
 
 9.97% 
 
 2.93% 
 
 Professional 
 Specialty Occup. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 6.992.250 
 
 851.140 
 
 2.153565 
 
 1.731342 
 
 1304399 
 
 719,493 
 
 232,111 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 1317% 
 
 30.81% 
 
 24.76% 
 
 18.65% 
 
 10.29% 
 
 3.32% 
 
 1980 
 
 6.133,501 
 
 489330 
 
 2.115.448 
 
 1501398 
 
 1.112.479 
 
 702552 
 
 211.894 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 7.98% 
 
 34.49% 
 
 24.48% 
 
 18.14% 
 
 11.46% 
 
 3.45% 
 
 1990 
 
 7.680,874 
 
 476,794 
 
 2.145375 
 
 2387536 
 
 1506,718 
 
 856,440 
 
 307.711 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 6.20% 
 
 27.90% 
 
 31.10% 
 
 19.60% 
 
 11.20% 
 
 4.00% 
 
 All Artists 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 469,742 
 
 80397 
 
 130.137 
 
 107.602 
 
 85399 
 
 48546 
 
 17361 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 17.12% 
 
 27.70% 
 
 2391% 
 
 18.18% 
 
 10.42% 
 
 3.67% 
 
 1980 
 
 670,540 
 
 104.120 
 
 247.100 
 
 134540 
 
 94500 
 
 64.440 
 
 25.440 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 15.53% 
 
 36.85% 
 
 20.06% 
 
 14.15% 
 
 9.61% 
 
 3.79% 
 
 1990 
 
 733.100 
 
 84,060 
 
 224.600 
 
 213580 
 
 106.820 
 
 68.740 
 
 1.765 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 11.40% 
 
 30.60% 
 
 29.10% 
 
 14.60% 
 
 9.40% 
 
 4.80% 
 
 Painters, 
 Sculptors, etc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 65.225 
 
 8375 
 
 18.000 
 
 15575 
 
 13325 
 
 7.050 
 
 2.900 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 12.84% 
 
 27.60% 
 
 23.88% 
 
 20.43% 
 
 10.81% 
 
 4.45% 
 
 1980 
 
 78.440 
 
 10380 
 
 27.180 
 
 16300 
 
 12.000 
 
 9360 
 
 3520 
 
 
 100.00%' 
 
 13.11% 
 
 34.65% 
 
 20.65% 
 
 15.30% 
 
 11.81% 
 
 4.49% 
 
 •*1990 
 
 83.240 
 
 9.760 
 
 25540 
 
 26500 
 
 14.960 
 
 10.060 
 
 5.620 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 10.50% 
 
 27.80% 
 
 28.90% 
 
 16.00% 
 
 10.80% 
 
 6.00% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 FEMALE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total ECLF age 
 16+ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 30.534,658 
 
 7302.081 
 
 5.704,702 
 
 3584,807 
 
 6331308 
 
 4.155,130 
 
 1.156,630 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 23.59% 
 
 18.68% 
 
 19.60% 
 
 20.73% 
 
 13.61% 
 
 3.79% 
 
 1980 
 
 41,634.665 
 
 9.851342 
 
 11365570 
 
 8.021355 
 
 6.604355 
 
 4.619532 
 
 1.172.711 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 13.03% 
 
 37.70% 
 
 2372% 
 
 15.39% 
 
 8.94% 
 
 2.22% 
 
 1990 
 
 56.600,000 
 
 10.100.000 
 
 16.000.000 
 
 14.600,000 
 
 9300.000 
 
 5.100,000 
 
 1500.000 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 17.84% 
 
 28.27% 
 
 25.80% 
 
 16.43% 
 
 9.01% 
 
 2.65% 
 
 Professional 
 Specialty Occup. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 4.674.716 
 
 890.798 
 
 1.199.879 
 
 941,473 
 
 860342 
 
 619.824 
 
 162500 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 19.06% 
 
 25.67% 
 
 20.14% 
 
 18.40% 
 
 13.26% 
 
 3.48% 
 
 1980 
 
 5.884.596 
 
 766.837 
 
 2318.627 
 
 1337.156 
 
 905,462 
 
 526.039 
 
 130,475 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 13.03% 
 
 37.70% 
 
 19.27% 
 
 15.86% 
 
 11.10% 
 
 2.82% 
 
 1990 
 
 8539532 
 
 710358 
 
 2.648375 
 
 3.007.177 
 
 1.655327 
 
 728.485 
 
 190.110 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 7.90% 
 
 29.60% 
 
 33.60% 
 
 18.50% 
 
 8.10% 
 
 310% 
 
 All Artists 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 201.862 
 
 42.843 
 
 46.791 
 
 42.048 
 
 36.719 
 
 22,849 
 
 10,618 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 21.22% 
 
 23.13% 
 
 20.83% 
 
 18.19% 
 
 11.32% 
 
 5.26% 
 
 1980 
 
 413.280 
 
 87.760 
 
 146,440 
 
 77.020 
 
 51.820 
 
 34300 
 
 16.040 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 21.23% 
 
 35.43% 
 
 18.64% 
 
 12.54% 
 
 8.28% 
 
 3.88% 
 
 1990 
 
 691.880 
 
 88.020 
 
 218.020 
 
 197520 
 
 108580 
 
 54.780 
 
 1348 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 12.80% 
 
 31.50% 
 
 28.50% 
 
 15.70% 
 
 7.90% 
 
 3.60% 
 
 Painters, 
 Sculptors, etc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 37375 
 
 8.950 
 
 9575 
 
 7,875 
 
 6.425 
 
 3.150 
 
 1.400 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 23.95% 
 
 25.62% 
 
 21.07% 
 
 17.19% 
 
 8.43% 
 
 3.75% 
 
 1980 
 
 72.920 
 
 14,480 
 
 27560 
 
 13.460 
 
 9.460 
 
 5.700 
 
 2360 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 19.86% 
 
 37.79% 
 
 18.46% 
 
 1397% 
 
 7.82% 
 
 3.10% 
 
 **1990 
 
 107,920 
 
 9.860 
 
 32.840 
 
 33.880 
 
 18.000 
 
 9320 
 
 4,060 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 9.10% 
 
 30.40% 
 
 31.40% 
 
 16.70% 
 
 8.50% 
 
 3.80% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 All Artists are Greenblatt's numbers. All 1970 and 1980 numbers are Citro & Gaquin. 1990 ECLF numbers are from 
 the 1993 US Census Statistcial Abstracts. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
t 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 f 
 
 f 
 
 ( 
 
 f 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 < 
 
 
 
Table n.t: Urban/Rural Residence of the Experienced Civilian Labor Force, and Professional Specialty Worker, 
 
 and All Artists, by Detailed Artist Occupation and Gender 
 
 
 
 
 MALE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Urban 
 
 Rural 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total ECLF Age 
 16+ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 49436,472 
 
 36,638,127 
 
 12,898445 
 
 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 73.96% 
 
 26.04% 
 
 
 
 1980 
 
 
 59,753412 
 
 44,082,062 
 
 15,671,450 
 
 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 73.77% 
 
 26.23% 
 
 
 
 Professional 
 Specialty Occp. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 6,992,250 
 
 5,851,583 
 
 1,140,667 
 
 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 83.69% 
 
 16.31% 
 
 
 
 1980 
 
 
 6,247,708 
 
 5,136,109 
 
 1,111,599 
 
 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 8121% 
 
 17.79% 
 
 
 
 All Artists 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 440,100 
 
 387,400 
 
 52,700 
 
 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 88.03% 
 
 11.97% 
 
 
 
 1980 
 
 
 672,000 
 
 578,900 
 
 93,100 
 
 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 86.15% 
 
 13.85% 
 
 
 
 1990 
 
 
 566,740 
 
 439,680 
 
 127,060 
 
 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 77.60% 
 
 22.40% 
 
 
 
 Painters, 
 Scuptors, etc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 65,400 
 
 58,700 
 
 8,700 
 
 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 89.76% 
 
 10.24% 
 
 
 
 1980 
 
 
 84,200 
 
 72,000 
 
 12400 
 
 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 85.51% 
 
 14.49% 
 
 
 
 1990 
 
 
 93,240 
 
 74,720 
 
 18420 
 
 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 80.10% 
 
 19.90% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 FEMALE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total ECLF Age 
 16+ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 30474,658 
 
 23,986,682 
 
 6447,976 
 
 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 78.56% 
 
 21.44% 
 
 
 
 1980 
 
 
 44404,473 
 
 344 87,627 
 
 9416,846 
 
 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 77.62% 
 
 2248% 
 
 
 
 Professional 
 Specialty Occp. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 4,674,716 
 
 3,801,651 
 
 873,065 
 
 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 81.32% 
 
 18.68% 
 
 
 
 1980 
 
 
 6,027,432 
 
 4,827,763 
 
 1,199,669 
 
 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 80.10% 
 
 19.90% 
 
 
 
 All Artists 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 206,787 
 
 178,869 
 
 27418 
 
 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 86.50% 
 
 13.50% 
 
 
 
 1980 
 
 
 415,700 
 
 354,400 
 
 61400 
 
 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 85.25% 
 
 14.75% 
 
 
 
 1990 
 
 
 534400 
 
 384,060 
 
 150,440 
 
 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 71.90% 
 
 28.20% 
 
 
 
 Painters, 
 Sculptors, etc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 40,050 
 
 34,600 
 
 5,450 
 
 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 86.39% 
 
 13.61% 
 
 
 
 1980 
 
 
 70400 
 
 60,000 
 
 10400 
 
 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 85.11% 
 
 14.89% 
 
 
 
 1990 
 
 
 107480 
 
 82,020 
 
 25400 
 
 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 76.00% 
 
 24.00% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sources: Numbers for 1970 and 19 
 1990 are from Greenblatt. Unfortu 
 - due to a change in urban/rural distil 
 with caution. 
 
 80 are from Gauquin and Citno. All Artists and Painters, Sculptors etc. for 
 nately, the statistics for urban/rural for 1990 are too unreliable to include here 
 ictions by the census. We cite the figures on artists and painter/craft artists 
 
 
 1 1 1 1 1 1 
 
 

 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 ( 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 c 
 
Table IL7 Percent Distribution and Percent Growth of ECLF by Region of Residence, 1970-1990 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Population (ECLF 
 
 by Region 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 1980 
 
 1990 
 
 
 Northeast 
 
 19,993,615 
 
 22,822,108 
 
 23,138,000 
 
 
 Midwest 
 
 22,535,875 
 
 27,451,994 
 
 38,008,000 
 
 
 South 
 
 23,646,862 
 
 33,451,838 
 
 27,906,000 
 
 
 West 
 
 13,625,253 
 
 20,332,045 
 
 23,020,000 
 
 
 Total 
 
 79,801,605 
 
 104,057,985 
 
 112,072,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Distribution by Region 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Northeast 
 
 25.05% 
 
 21.93% 
 
 20.65% 
 
 
 Midwest 
 
 28.24% 
 
 26.38% 
 
 33.91% 
 
 
 South 
 
 29.63% 
 
 32.15% 
 
 24.90% 
 
 
 West 
 
 17.07% 
 
 19.54% 
 
 20.54% 
 
 
 Total 
 
 100.00% 
 
 100.00% 
 
 100.00% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Percent Change By Previous Decade by Region 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Northeast 
 
 
 14.15% 
 
 1.38% 
 
 
 Midwest 
 
 
 21.81% 
 
 38.45% 
 
 
 South 
 
 
 41.46% 
 
 -16.58% 
 
 
 West 
 
 
 49.22% 
 
 13.22% 
 
 
 
 
 30.40% 
 
 7.70% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SOURCE: U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1993 
 (1 13th Edition) Washington, DC, 1993. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
( 
 
 
 
 
 
 ( 
 
 1 
 
 < 
 
 l 
 
 ( 
 
 
 t 
 
 c 
 
 
 c 
 
Table II.8: Region of the Experienced Civilian Labor Force, Professional Specialty Workers, 
 
 
 and All Artists, b 
 
 j Detailed Artist Occupation and Gender 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Northeast 
 
 South 
 
 Mid-West 
 
 West 
 
 MALE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total ECLF age 
 
 164- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 49,454,750 
 
 12297,777 
 
 14,496,048 
 
 14,164371 
 
 8,496,554 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 2437% 
 
 2931% 
 
 28.64% 
 
 17.18% 
 
 1980 
 
 
 59,753,512 
 
 12,992230 
 
 19,095,118 
 
 15,916377 
 
 11,749,887 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 21.74% 
 
 31.96% 
 
 26.64% 
 
 19.66% 
 
 1989 
 
 
 56,030,000 
 
 11369,000 
 
 13,953,000 
 
 19,004,000 
 
 11310,000 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 20.65% 
 
 24.90% 
 
 33.92% 
 
 2034% 
 
 1991 
 
 
 56,898,000 
 
 11,635,000 
 
 14,146,000 
 
 19,488,000 
 
 11,624,000 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 2045% 
 
 2436% 
 
 3435% 
 
 2043% 
 
 Professional 
 Specialty Occup. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 4,897,893 
 
 1352854 
 
 1269,027 
 
 1369,675 
 
 1,006,337 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 27.62% 
 
 25.91% 
 
 25.92% 
 
 2035% 
 
 1980 
 
 
 6,247,708 
 
 1349,503 
 
 1,787,714 
 
 1310,601 
 
 1 399.890 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 2430% 
 
 28.61% 
 
 24.18% 
 
 2241% 
 
 1990 
 
 
 7,680,874 
 
 1,799,687 
 
 2331,516 
 
 1,712374 
 
 1,837,397 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 2340% 
 
 3040% 
 
 2230% 
 
 23.90% 
 
 All Artists 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 439,025 
 
 132,075 
 
 100,750 
 
 105325 
 
 100,875 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 30.08% 
 
 2235% 
 
 23.99% 
 
 2298% 
 
 1980 
 
 
 670,540 
 
 178,480 
 
 174,660 
 
 139,800 
 
 177,602 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 26.62% 
 
 26.05% 
 
 2035% 
 
 26.49% 
 
 1990 
 
 
 733,100 
 
 177340 
 
 201,900 
 
 137340 
 
 216,420 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 2420% 
 
 2830% 
 
 18.70% 
 
 2930% 
 
 Painters, 
 Sculptors, etc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 65,225 
 
 23200 
 
 12050 
 
 16,725 
 
 13350 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 3537% 
 
 18.47% 
 
 25.64% 
 
 2031% 
 
 1980 
 
 
 78,440 
 
 23380 
 
 17360 
 
 16,440 
 
 21,060 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 2931% 
 
 2239% 
 
 20.96% 
 
 2635% 
 
 1990 
 
 
 93.240 
 
 24320 
 
 24,000 
 
 18300 
 
 26,000 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 26.10% 
 
 25.90% 
 
 2020% 
 
 27.90 % 
 
 FEMALE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total ECLF age 
 164- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 30346,855 
 
 7,695,838 
 
 9,150.814 
 
 8371.504 
 
 5,128,699 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 2536% 
 
 30.15% 
 
 2739% 
 
 16.90% 
 
 1980 
 
 
 44304,473 
 
 9,829,878 
 
 14356,720 
 
 11335,717 
 
 8382158 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 2219% 
 
 3240% 
 
 26.04% 
 
 1937% 
 
 1989 
 
 
 56,030,000 
 
 11369,000 
 
 13,953,000 
 
 19,004,000 
 
 11310,000 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 20.65% 
 
 24.90% 
 
 33.92% 
 
 2034% 
 
 1991 
 
 
 56393,000 
 
 11,635,000 
 
 14,146,000 
 
 19,488,000 
 
 11,614,000 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 20.45% 
 
 2436% 
 
 3435% 
 
 2041% 
 
 Professional 
 Specialty Occup. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 3,902,317 
 
 1,014,864 
 
 1,149,025 
 
 1,044,513 
 
 693,915 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 26.01% 
 
 2944% 
 
 26.77% 
 
 17.78% 
 
 1980 
 
 
 6,027,432 
 
 1,461,084 
 
 1,913,123 
 
 1317,197 
 
 1,136,028 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 2424% 
 
 31.74% 
 
 25.17% 
 
 1835% 
 
 1990 
 
 
 8,939,932 
 
 2,117,933 
 
 2,906,372 
 
 2,077,082 
 
 1838545 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 23.70% 
 
 3230% 
 
 2330% 
 
 20.60% 
 
 All Artists 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 158375 
 
 49,425 
 
 37,400 
 
 36,700 
 
 35.050 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 31.17% 
 
 2339% 
 
 23.14% 
 
 2210% 
 
 1980 
 
 
 413380 
 
 102,980 
 
 1 19,620 
 
 88340 
 
 102320 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 24.92% 
 
 28.94% 
 
 2142% 
 
 24.76% 
 
 1990 
 
 
 691,880 
 
 105,000 
 
 202,680 
 
 133,940 
 
 190360 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 2330% 
 
 2930% 
 
 1930% 
 
 2730% 
 
 Painters, 
 Sculptors, etc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 37375 
 
 12025 
 
 8,650 
 
 9,175 
 
 7325 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 3217% 
 
 23.14% 
 
 2435% 
 
 20.13% 
 
 1980 
 
 
 72,920 
 
 19,100 
 
 19340 
 
 14,300 
 
 20,180 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 26.19% 
 
 26.52% 
 
 19.61% 
 
 27.67% 
 
 1990 
 
 
 107,920 
 
 26,140 
 
 30,760 
 
 21,180 
 
 29,840 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 24.20% 
 
 2830% 
 
 19.60% 
 
 27.70% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gaqum. 1 990 Professional Specialty Workers is from Gaquin. All other data is from the 
 Abstracts. 
 
 U.S. Statistical 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
* 
 
 * 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 r 
 
 r 
 
 
 r 
 
Table IL9: Yean of School Completed for the Experienced Civilian Labor Force, Professional Specialty Workers 
 
 
 and AD Artists, by Detailed Artist Occupation and Gender** 
 
 
 
 
 
 MALE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 High School 
 
 College 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Elementary 
 
 1 to 3 yrs 
 
 4 yrs 
 
 1 to 3 yrs 
 
 4 yis(4+ for 1980) 
 
 5+ yrs 
 
 Total ECLF age 
 16f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 49.536,472 
 
 10,015,889 
 
 10,631,063 
 
 15,631,490 
 
 6,418,736 
 
 3.539,792 
 
 3.299302 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 20.22% 
 
 21.46% 
 
 31.56% 
 
 12.96% 
 
 7.15% 
 
 6.66% 
 
 1980 
 
 56,004,690 
 
 5,697,166 
 
 8,817,924 
 
 19,623,030 
 
 10,339,690 
 
 11.526,880 
 
 n/a 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 10.17% 
 
 15.74% 
 
 35.04% 
 
 18.46% 
 
 20.58% 
 
 
 1989 
 
 56,246 
 
 3,772 
 
 5,175 
 
 20,638 
 
 10,905 
 
 8,673 
 
 7,083 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 6.71% 
 
 9.20% 
 
 36.69% 
 
 19.39% 
 
 15.42% 
 
 1239% 
 
 1991 
 
 57,553 
 
 3,540 
 
 5,044 
 
 21,168 
 
 11,575 
 
 9.059 
 
 7,167 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 6.15% 
 
 8.76% 
 
 36.78% 
 
 20.11% 
 
 15.74% 
 
 12.45% 
 
 Professional 
 
 Specialty 
 
 Occupations 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 6,992,250 
 
 130,445 
 
 297,419 
 
 1,178,610 
 
 1,338.434 
 
 1.651,817 
 
 2395325 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 1.87% 
 
 4.25% 
 
 16.86% 
 
 19.14% 
 
 23.62% 
 
 34.26% 
 
 1980 
 
 6,133,501 
 
 58,279 
 
 111,853 
 
 543,065 
 
 902,601 
 
 4,517,703 
 
 n/a 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 0.95% 
 
 1.82% 
 
 8.85% 
 
 14.72% 
 
 73.66% 
 
 
 1990 
 
 7,680,874 
 
 32,482 
 
 102,463 
 
 403,557 
 
 1,326,452 
 
 5,815,920 
 
 □/a 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 0.40% 
 
 1.30% 
 
 5.30% 
 
 17.30% 
 
 75.70% 
 
 
 All Artists 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 19701 
 
 469,742 
 
 17,777 
 
 46,353 
 
 129,854 
 
 124,040 
 
 68.989 
 
 82729 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 3.78% 
 
 9.87% 
 
 27.64% 
 
 26.41% 
 
 14.69% 
 
 17.61% 
 
 1980 
 
 674,540 
 
 15.900 
 
 40,000 
 
 145,020 
 
 189,780 
 
 279,840 
 
 n/a 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 2.37% 
 
 5.97% 
 
 21.63% 
 
 28.30% 
 
 41.73% 
 
 
 1990 
 
 733,100 
 
 12,200 
 
 26,340 
 
 122,760 
 
 278,360 
 
 213,400 
 
 80,040 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 1.70% 
 
 3.60% 
 
 16.70% 
 
 38.00% 
 
 29.10% 
 
 10.90% 
 
 Painters, 
 Sculptors, etc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 65,225 
 
 1,800 
 
 4,900 
 
 22,275 
 
 19,725 
 
 11,300 
 
 5,225 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 2.76% 
 
 7.51% 
 
 34.15% 
 
 30.24% 
 
 17.32% 
 
 8.01% 
 
 1980 
 
 78,440 
 
 1,620 
 
 4,340 
 
 18,360 
 
 26,540 
 
 27,580 
 
 n/a 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 2.07% 
 
 5.53% 
 
 23.41% 
 
 33.83% 
 
 35.16% 
 
 
 1990 
 
 93,240 
 
 1.340 
 
 3.120 
 
 16,560 
 
 38,200 
 
 25,440 
 
 8,520 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 1.40% 
 
 3.30% 
 
 17.80% 
 
 41.00% 
 
 27.30% 
 
 9.20% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 FEMALE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total ECLF age 
 16+ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 30,534,658 
 
 4,359,536 
 
 6,381,722 
 
 12,449.111 
 
 4,114,831 
 
 2088367 
 
 1,141,091 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 14.28% 
 
 20.90% 
 
 40.77% 
 
 13.48% 
 
 6.84% 
 
 3.74% 
 
 1980 
 
 41,634,665 
 
 2,776,538 
 
 6,281,789 
 
 17,545,958 
 
 8.441,023 
 
 6.589357 
 
 n/a 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 6.67% 
 
 15.09% 
 
 42.14% 
 
 20.27% 
 
 15.80% 
 
 
 1989 
 
 45.490 
 
 1,934 
 
 3.674 
 
 19,295 
 
 9,707 
 
 6,476 
 
 4,354 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 4.25% 
 
 8.08% 
 
 42.42% 
 
 21.34% 
 
 14.24% 
 
 9.57% 
 
 1991 
 
 47,123 
 
 1.802 
 
 3.474 
 
 19,665 
 
 10.514 
 
 7,086 
 
 4,581 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 3.82% 
 
 7.37% 
 
 41.73% 
 
 22.31% 
 
 15.04% 
 
 9.72% 
 
 Professional 
 
 Specialty 
 
 Occupations 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 4,674,716 
 
 84,339 
 
 226,824 
 
 912.800 
 
 961,731 
 
 1,534,077 
 
 954,954 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 1.80% 
 
 4.85% 
 
 19.53% 
 
 20.57% 
 
 32.82% 
 
 20.43% 
 
 1980 
 
 5,884,596 
 
 61,014 
 
 143,990 
 
 646.618 
 
 1,295,451 
 
 3,737323 
 
 n/a 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 1.04% 
 
 2.45% 
 
 10.99% 
 
 22.01% 
 
 63.51% 
 
 
 1990 
 
 8,939,932 
 
 29.980 
 
 134,237 
 
 704,235 
 
 2,157,910 
 
 5,913370 
 
 n/a 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 0.30% 
 
 1.50% 
 
 7.90% 
 
 24.10% 
 
 66.10% 
 
 
 All Artists 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 201,862 
 
 9,621 
 
 24,191 
 
 63.664 
 
 50,235 
 
 32788 
 
 21,363 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 4.77% 
 
 11.98% 
 
 31.54% 
 
 24.89% 
 
 16.24% 
 
 10.58% 
 
 1980 
 
 413,280 
 
 9,420 
 
 28.840 
 
 105,620 
 
 111,560 
 
 157,840 
 
 n/a 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 2.28% 
 
 6.98% 
 
 25.56% 
 
 26.99% 
 
 38.19% 
 
 
 1990 
 
 691,880 
 
 9,080 
 
 28,220 
 
 143,820 
 
 231,740 
 
 216,940 
 
 62.080 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 1.30% 
 
 4.10% 
 
 20.80% 
 
 33.50% 
 
 31.40% 
 
 9.00% 
 
 Painters, 
 Sculptors, etc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 37,375 
 
 1,100 
 
 3,000 
 
 11,600 
 
 11,925 
 
 7,100 
 
 2650 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 2.94% 
 
 8.03% 
 
 31.04% 
 
 31.91% 
 
 19.00% 
 
 7.09% 
 
 1980 
 
 72,920 
 
 900 
 
 2,760 
 
 15,600 
 
 23,240 
 
 30,420 
 
 n/a 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 1.23% 
 
 3.78% 
 
 21.39% 
 
 31.87% 
 
 41.72% 
 
 
 1990 
 
 107,920 
 
 940 
 
 2,500 
 
 18,100 
 
 41,680 
 
 35.580 
 
 9,120 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 0.90% 
 
 2.30% 
 
 16.80% 
 
 38.60% 
 
 33.00% 
 
 8.50% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 **For 1989/1991 Education is calculated for 25+ age group. All Artists and Painters, Sculptors etc. for 1990 
 are from GreenblatL ECLF data is from the U.S. Statistical Abstracts. Please note that for 1980, the college 
 category 5+ years did not exist. Please also note a change in the way education questions were asked from 
 1980 to 1990. "In 1980 people were asked how mxny years they completed. In 1990 they were asked the 
 type of degree completed" (Beresford, 18). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i [ " i i i r 
 
 
c 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 
Table 11.10: Age and Education of Painters/Craft-Artists, by Gender, 1970-1990. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Percent A 
 
 ge 
 
 Percent with Ed 
 
 ucation 
 
 
 
 16-34 
 
 55 & Older 
 
 Median Age (in 
 Yrs) 
 
 Less than High 
 School 
 
 4+ Years of 
 College 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Male Painters/Craft- Artists 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 40.40 
 
 15.20 
 
 39.00 
 
 10.30 
 
 25.30 
 
 1980 
 
 
 47.80 
 
 16.30 
 
 36.10 
 
 7.60 
 
 35.10 
 
 1990 
 
 
 38.30 
 
 16.80 
 
 39.72 
 
 1.40 
 
 27.10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Female Painters/Craft-Artists 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 49.50 
 
 12.10 
 
 35.20 
 
 10.90 
 
 26.10 
 
 1980 
 
 
 57.70 
 
 10.90 
 
 33.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 41.70 
 
 1990 
 
 
 39.50 
 
 12.30 
 
 38.57 
 
 0.90 
 
 33.00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SOURCES: Data from 1970/1980 are from Citro & Gaquin. 1990 
 data is from Greenblatt. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 1 1 
 
 
 
c 
 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 L 
 
Table 11.11: Class of Worker of Employed Persons, By Detailed Artist Occupation and Gender 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Class of Worker 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Private 
 
 Government 
 
 Self-Employed 
 
 Unpaid Family 
 
 
 MALE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total employed 
 age 16+ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 47,730,661 
 
 35,004,990 
 
 6,71 1,592 
 
 5,889,183 
 
 124,896 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 73.34% 
 
 14.06% 
 
 12.34% 
 
 0.26% 
 
 
 1980 
 
 56,004,690 
 
 42,553,015 
 
 8,146,335 
 
 5,148,681 
 
 156,659 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 75.98% 
 
 14.55% 
 
 9.19% 
 
 0.28% 
 
 
 1990 
 
 62,704,579 
 
 48,848,391 
 
 8,283,164 
 
 5,358,775 
 
 214,249 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 77.90% 
 
 13.20% 
 
 8.60% 
 
 0.30% 
 
 
 Professional 
 
 Specialty 
 
 Occupation 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 6,875,878 
 
 3,981,210 
 
 2,058,777 
 
 832,916 
 
 2,975 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 57.90% 
 
 29.94% 
 
 12.11% 
 
 0.04% 
 
 
 1980 
 
 6,133,501 
 
 3,362,315 
 
 2,006,461 
 
 761,071 
 
 3,654 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 54.82% 
 
 32.71% 
 
 12.41% 
 
 0.06% 
 
 
 1990 
 
 7,518,644 
 
 4,278,972 
 
 2,050,963 
 
 1,183,308 
 
 5,401 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 56.90% 
 
 27.30% 
 
 15.70% 
 
 0.10% 
 
 
 Painter, 
 Sculptors, etc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 63,275 
 
 39,075 
 
 4,125 
 
 19,950 
 
 125 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 61.75% 
 
 6.52% 
 
 31.53% 
 
 0.20% 
 
 
 1980 
 
 75,040 
 
 36,220 
 
 5,000 
 
 33,520 
 
 300 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 48.27% 
 
 6.66% 
 
 44.67% 
 
 0.40% 
 
 
 1990 
 
 96,300 
 
 44,840 
 
 4,240 
 
 43,540 
 
 3,680 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 48.10% 
 
 4.60% 
 
 46.70% 
 
 3.90% 
 
 
 FEMALE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total employed 
 age 16+ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 29,074.510 
 
 21,849,789 
 
 5,676,267 
 
 1,256,987 
 
 291,467 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 75.15% 
 
 19.52% 
 
 4.73% 
 
 1.00% 
 
 
 1980 
 
 41,634,665 
 
 31,219,189 
 
 8,543,466 
 
 1,529,190 
 
 342,820 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 74.98% 
 
 20.52% 
 
 3.67% 
 
 0.82% 
 
 
 1990 
 
 52,976,623 
 
 40,893,002 
 
 9,283,936 
 
 2,708,708 
 
 290,977 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 76.80% 
 
 17.50% 
 
 5.10% 
 
 0.50% 
 
 
 Professional 
 
 Specialty 
 
 Occupation 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 4,575,990 
 
 2,022,126 
 
 2,346,960 
 
 194,903 
 
 12,001 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 44.19% 
 
 51.29% 
 
 4.26% 
 
 0.26% 
 
 
 1980 
 
 5,884,596 
 
 2,607,244 
 
 3,012,994 
 
 252,979 
 
 11,379 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 44.31% 
 
 51.20% 
 
 4.30% 
 
 0.19% 
 
 
 1990 
 
 8,760,243 
 
 4,671,253 
 
 3,538,735 
 
 536,443 
 
 13,812 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 53.30% 
 
 40.40% 
 
 6.10% 
 
 0.20% 
 
 
 Painter, 
 Sculptors, etc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 35,775 
 
 20,675 
 
 2,750 
 
 12,000 
 
 350 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 57.79% 
 
 7.69% 
 
 33.54% 
 
 0.98% 
 
 
 1980 
 
 69,380 
 
 33,160 
 
 4,900 
 
 30,720 
 
 600 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 47.79% 
 
 7.06% 
 
 44.28% 
 
 0.86% 
 
 
 1990 
 
 110,400 
 
 48,920 
 
 4,560 
 
 53,280 
 
 3,640 
 
 
 
 100.00% 
 
 45.30% 
 
 4.10% 
 
 49.40% 
 
 3.50% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sources: 1970/1980 are from Citro & Gaquin. 1990 ECLF and Professional Specialty Workers are from 
 Gaquin. 1990 Painters, Sculptors etc. are from Greenblatt. 
 
 ' ' ' ' ' — 1~ 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 < 
 
 4 
 
 
 4 
 
Table IL12: Employment Sector and Experience by Gender of the Experienced Civilian Labor Force, 
 
 Professional Workers, and All Artists, detailed by Artist Occuption, 1970- 1990 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Percent Working For 
 
 
 Percent 
 
 
 
 
 Private Employer 
 
 Government 
 
 Self-Employed 
 
 
 Unemployed 
 
 
 Male Exp. Civ. Labor Force: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 73.30% 
 
 14.10% 
 
 12.30% 
 
 
 3.70% 
 
 
 1980 
 
 
 76.00% 
 
 14.60% 
 
 9.20% 
 
 
 6.30% 
 
 
 1990 
 
 
 77.90% 
 
 13.20% 
 
 8.60% 
 
 
 5.20% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Male Professionals: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 57.90% 
 
 29.90% 
 
 12.10% 
 
 
 1.70% 
 
 
 1980 
 
 
 54.80% 
 
 32.70% 
 
 12.40% 
 
 
 1.80% 
 
 
 1990 
 
 
 56.90% 
 
 27.30% 
 
 15.70% 
 
 
 1.40% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Male Artists 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 66.90% 
 
 10.00% 
 
 22.90% 
 
 
 4.00% 
 
 
 1980 
 
 
 60.40% 
 
 7.20% 
 
 32.10% 
 
 
 5.10% 
 
 
 1990 
 
 
 62.00% 
 
 4.90% 
 
 32.60% 
 
 
 2.30% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Male Painters 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 61.80% 
 
 6.50% 
 
 31.50% 
 
 
 3.00% 
 
 
 1980 
 
 
 48.30% 
 
 6.70% 
 
 44.70% 
 
 
 4.30% 
 
 
 1990 
 
 
 48.10% 
 
 4.60% 
 
 46.70% 
 
 
 3.95% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Female Exp. Civ. Labor Force: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 75.20% 
 
 19.50% 
 
 4.30% 
 
 
 4.80% 
 
 
 1980 
 
 
 75.00% 
 
 20.50% 
 
 3.40% 
 
 
 6.00% 
 
 
 1990 
 
 
 76.80% 
 
 17.50% 
 
 5.10% 
 
 
 5.40% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Female Professionals: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 44.20% 
 
 51.30% 
 
 4.30% 
 
 
 2.10% 
 
 
 1980 
 
 
 44.30% 
 
 51.20% 
 
 4.30% 
 
 
 2.40% 
 
 
 1990 
 
 
 53.30% 
 
 40.40% 
 
 6.10% 
 
 
 1.70% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Female Artists 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 69.00% 
 
 8.40% 
 
 21.40% 
 
 
 5.50% 
 
 
 1980 
 
 
 64.70% 
 
 6.50% 
 
 27.80% 
 
 
 6.10% 
 
 
 1990 
 
 
 63.50% 
 
 4.60% 
 
 31.00% 
 
 
 3.50% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Female Painters 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 57.80% 
 
 7.70% 
 
 33.50% 
 
 
 4.30% 
 
 
 1980 
 
 
 47.80% 
 
 7.10% 
 
 42.40% 
 
 
 4.90% 
 
 
 1990 
 
 
 45.30% 
 
 4.10% 
 
 49.40% 
 
 
 3.47% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SOURC 
 data is i 
 
 • Data f 
 
 mm 1070/1080 arf 
 
 from f’itm k 
 
 / fiannin Paintprs 
 
 and 
 
 All Artists 
 
 
 
 
 rom Greenblatt. 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
Table n.13: Percent Unemployed by Detailed Artist Occupation and Gender 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total ECLF 
 
 Total Employed 
 
 Percent Unemployed 
 
 
 MALE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 49,536,472 
 
 47,730,661 
 
 3.65% 
 
 
 1980 
 
 
 59,753,512 
 
 56,004,690 
 
 6.27% 
 
 
 1990 
 
 
 68,234,000 
 
 64,435,000 
 
 5.60% 
 
 
 Professional 
 Specialty Occup. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 6,992,250 
 
 6,875,878 
 
 1.66% 
 
 
 1980 
 
 
 6,247,708 
 
 6,133,501 
 
 1.83% 
 
 
 1990 
 
 
 7,680,874 
 
 7,434,524 
 
 1.90% 
 
 
 All Artists 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 469,742 
 
 450,902 
 
 4.01% 
 
 
 1980 
 
 
 670,540 
 
 636,500 
 
 5.08% 
 
 
 1990 
 
 
 931,000 
 
 733,100 
 
 5.10% 
 
 
 Painters, 
 Sculptors, etc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 65,225 
 
 63,275 
 
 2.99% 
 
 
 1980 
 
 
 78,440 
 
 75,040 
 
 4.33% 
 
 
 1990 
 
 
 93,240 
 
 88,320 
 
 3.95% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 FEMALE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 30,534,658 
 
 29,074,510 
 
 4.78% 
 
 
 1980 
 
 
 44,304,473 
 
 41,634,665 
 
 6.03% 
 
 
 1990 
 
 
 56,554,000 
 
 53,479,000 
 
 5.40% 
 
 
 Professional 
 Specialty Occup. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 4,674,716 
 
 4,575,990 
 
 2.11% 
 
 
 1980 
 
 
 6,027,432 
 
 5,884,596 
 
 2.37% 
 
 
 1990 
 
 
 8,939,910 
 
 8,566,059 
 
 1.70% 
 
 
 All Artists 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 201,862 
 
 190,726 
 
 5.52% 
 
 
 1980 
 
 
 413,280 
 
 388,040 
 
 6.11% 
 
 
 1990 
 
 
 675,000 
 
 691,880 
 
 4.80% 
 
 
 Painters, 
 Sculptors, etc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 37,375 
 
 35,775 
 
 4.28% 
 
 
 1980 
 
 
 72,920 
 
 69,380 
 
 4.85% 
 
 
 1990 
 
 
 107,920 
 
 101,800 
 
 3.47% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sources: Data 
 Greenblatt. IS 
 Statistical Abs 
 
 from 1970/1980 i; 
 )90 Professional Sp 
 tract. 
 
 from Citro & Gac 
 >ecialty Workers is 
 
 uin. Data on Painte 
 from Gaquin. All 
 
 rs. Sculptors etc. for IS 
 tther 1990 data is from 
 
 )90 is from 
 the U.S. 
 
 
 1111 L 
 
I 
 
 * 
 
 i 
 
 < 
 
 < 
 
 t 
 
 
 ( 
 
 
 * 
 
Table 11.14: Earnings of the Experienced Civilian Labor Force, by Detailed Artist Occui 
 
 >ation and Gender 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total ECLF (1) 
 
 Total with 
 Earnings (2) 
 
 Percent with 
 Earnings 
 
 Median Earnings 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 MALE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total ECLF age 
 16+ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 49,536,472 
 
 48,593,009 
 
 98.10% 
 
 $7,620 
 
 
 
 1980 
 
 59,753,512 
 
 57,971,180 
 
 97.02% 
 
 $14,422 
 
 
 
 1990 
 
 66,431,987 
 
 62,978,000 
 
 94.80% 
 
 $21,522 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Professional 
 Specialty Occup. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 6,992,250 
 
 6,929,281 
 
 99.10% 
 
 $10,617 
 
 
 
 1980 
 
 6,247,708 
 
 6,153,681 
 
 98.50% 
 
 $19,918 
 
 
 
 1990 
 
 7,706,256 
 
 6,502,000 
 
 84.37% 
 
 $36,942 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 All Artists (3) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 469,742 
 
 459,822 
 
 97.89% 
 
 $8,768 
 
 
 
 1980 
 
 749,200 
 
 703,840 
 
 93.90% 
 
 $14,219 
 
 
 
 1990 
 
 1,043,901 
 
 984,063 
 
 94.20% 
 
 $21,600 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Painters, 
 Sculptors, etc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 65,225 
 
 63,625 
 
 97.55% 
 
 $8,893 
 
 
 
 1980 
 
 78,440 
 
 74,680 
 
 95.21% 
 
 $12,684 
 
 
 
 1990 
 
 101,067 
 
 81,720 
 
 80.86% 
 
 $18,187 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 FEMALE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ♦Total ECLF 14+ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 30,534,658 
 
 28,428,072 
 
 93.10% 
 
 $3,646 
 
 
 
 1980 
 
 44,304,473 
 
 41,602,227 
 
 93.90% 
 
 $7,237 
 
 
 
 1990 
 
 56,041,572 
 
 49,452,000 
 
 88.24% 
 
 $12,150 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Professional 
 Specialty Occup. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 4,674,716 
 
 4,496,380 
 
 96.19% 
 
 $6,030 
 
 
 
 1980 
 
 6,027,432 
 
 5,841,389 
 
 96.91% 
 
 $11,172 
 
 
 
 1990 
 
 8,941,432 
 
 6,655,000 
 
 74.43% 
 
 $23,113 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 All Artists (3) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 201,862 
 
 187,125 
 
 92.72% 
 
 $3,637 
 
 
 
 1980 
 
 533,260 
 
 464,480 
 
 87.10% 
 
 $6,712 
 
 
 
 1990 
 
 930,707 
 
 830,449 
 
 89.20% 
 
 $11,096 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Painters, 
 Sculptors, etc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 37,375 
 
 34,675 
 
 92.78% 
 
 $3,682 
 
 
 
 1980 
 
 72,920 
 
 66,540 
 
 91.25% 
 
 $6,612 
 
 
 
 1990 
 
 111,695 
 
 80,240 
 
 71.84% 
 
 $22,041 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * Please note change in FCFF ape for females, fl'l From Reresford r 
 
 able 1 (21 From 
 
 Statistical Ahstracts. 1992. 
 
 
 
 Table 656, page 414. (3) Beresford Tables 5 & 6 and Citro & Gaquin. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
I 
 
Table 11.15: Earnings of the E.C.L.F. who worked 50-52 weeks by detailed Artist Occupation and Gendei 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total ECLF 
 
 Total with full- 
 year earnings 
 
 Percent with full- 
 year earnings 
 
 Median full- year 
 earnings 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 MALE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total ECLF 16+ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 49,536,472 
 
 35,321,088 
 
 71.30% 
 
 $8,529 
 
 
 1980 
 
 59,753,512 
 
 38,848,275 
 
 65.01% 
 
 $17,107 
 
 
 1990 
 
 66,431,987 
 
 49,171,000 
 
 74.02% 
 
 $27,678 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Professional 
 Specialty Occup. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 6,992,250 
 
 5,232,038 
 
 74.83% 
 
 $11,456 
 
 
 1980 
 
 6,247,708 
 
 4,250,727 
 
 68.04% 
 
 $22,266 
 
 
 1990 
 
 7,706,256 
 
 6,192,000 
 
 80.35% 
 
 $41,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 All Artists (1) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 468,742 
 
 323,236 
 
 68.81% 
 
 $9,550 
 
 
 1980 
 
 749,200 
 
 3%, 490 
 
 52.90% 
 
 $27,961 
 
 
 1990 
 
 1,043,901 
 
 581,811 
 
 55.70% 
 
 $31,124 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Painters, 
 Sculptors, etc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 65,225 
 
 46,775 
 
 71.71% 
 
 $9,672 
 
 
 1980 
 
 78,440 
 
 51,340 
 
 65.46% 
 
 $15,112 
 
 
 1990 (1) 
 
 101,067 
 
 60,433 
 
 59.79% 
 
 $24320 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 FEMALE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total ECLF 14+* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 30,534,658 
 
 14,908,157 
 
 48.82% 
 
 $4,719 
 
 
 1980 
 
 44,304,473 
 
 19,593,222 
 
 44.22% 
 
 $10,124 
 
 
 1990 
 
 56,041,512 
 
 31,682,000 
 
 56.53% 
 
 $19,822 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Professional 
 Specialty Occup. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 4,674,716 
 
 1,886,987 
 
 40.37% 
 
 $6,881 
 
 
 1980 
 
 6,027,432 
 
 2,181,162 
 
 36.19% 
 
 $13,801 
 
 
 1990 
 
 8,941,432 
 
 4,982,000 
 
 55.72% 
 
 $29,181 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 All Artists (1) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 210,862 
 
 86,926 
 
 43.06% 
 
 $4,152 
 
 
 1980 
 
 533,260 
 
 152,800 
 
 28.70% 
 
 $17328 
 
 
 1990 
 
 930,707 
 
 325,962 
 
 35.00% 
 
 $20,825 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Painters, 
 Sculptors, etc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1970 
 
 37,375 
 
 17,250 
 
 46.15% 
 
 $5,347 
 
 
 1980 
 
 72,920 
 
 36,220 
 
 49.67% 
 
 $9,344 
 
 
 1990 (1) 
 
 111,695 
 
 49,595 
 
 44.40% 
 
 $18,762 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * Please note change in female ECLF age. (1) From 
 
 Gaquin. 
 
 Beresford table 5 & 6 and Citro & 
 
 i r i i 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 Missing Values 
 
 
 081 
 
 
 
 79 
 
 
 
 © 
 
 <N 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 Os 
 
 
 
 r-~ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total Responses 
 
 
 
 99\Z 
 
 
 £09 
 
 £001 
 
 
 154 
 
 Os 
 
 
 00 
 
 m 
 
 72 
 
 
 s 
 
 <N 
 
 00 
 
 <N 
 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 126 
 
 
 
 
 
 Graduate Degree 
 
 38.65% 
 
 8 
 
 oo 
 
 m 
 
 38.70% 
 
 43.05% 
 
 44.80% 
 
 41.30% 
 
 42.40% 
 
 40.30% 
 
 44.50% 
 
 43.85% 
 
 47.40% 
 
 40.30% 
 
 43.65% 
 
 42.20% 
 
 45.10% 
 
 50.70% 
 
 53.80% 
 
 47.60% 
 
 
 
 
 
 College Degree 
 
 42.10% 
 
 39.30% 
 
 44.90% 
 
 40.60% 
 
 35.50% 
 
 45.70% 
 
 43.35% 
 
 42.20% 
 
 44.50% 
 
 44.80% 
 
 36.80% 
 
 52.80% 
 
 41.65% 
 
 39.30% 
 
 44.00% 
 
 38.40% 
 
 30.00% 
 
 46.80% 
 
 
 
 
 
 Some College 
 
 16.25% 
 
 o 
 
 oo 
 
 od 
 
 13.70% 
 
 13.05% 
 
 15.90% 
 
 10.20% 
 
 17.50% 
 
 15.60% 
 
 19.40% 
 
 £ 
 
 o 
 
 t"; 
 
 OO 
 
 13.20% 
 
 4.20% 
 
 12.60% 
 
 16.00% 
 
 9.20% 
 
 9.70% 
 
 13.80% 
 
 5.60% 
 
 
 
 
 
 High School 4 
 
 2.15% 
 
 2.30% 
 
 2.00% 
 
 2.65% 
 
 3.20% 
 
 2.10% 
 
 1.45% 
 
 1.30% 
 
 1.60% 
 
 2.70% 
 
 2.60% 
 
 2.80% 
 
 1.50% 
 
 1.90% 
 
 1.10% 
 
 2.50% 
 
 2.50% 
 
 n/a 
 
 m.l: Information on Artists 
 
 
 
 
 High School 1-3 
 
 0.70% 
 
 o 
 
 oo 
 
 © 
 
 0.60% 
 
 0.55% 
 
 0.50% 
 
 0.60% 
 
 0.60% 
 
 0.60% 
 
 n/a 
 
 
 n/a 
 
 n/a 
 
 0.60% 
 
 0.50% 
 
 o 
 
 r-~ 
 
 o 
 
 
 n/a 
 
 n/a 
 
 
 
 Education 
 
 
 All Artists 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 Painters, et. al 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 All Artists: Boston 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 Painters: Boston 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 All Artists: New York 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 Painters: New York 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 

 
 Missing Values 
 (both M/F) 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 vO 
 
 
 
 04 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (A 
 
 8 
 
 i 
 
 u 
 
 C* 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 to 
 
 so 
 
 04 
 
 
 to 
 
 On 
 
 to 
 
 04 
 
 8 
 
 
 vO 
 
 to 
 
 
 ON 
 
 CO 
 
 co 
 
 O' 
 
 
 3 
 
 04 
 
 s 
 
 04 
 
 
 On 
 
 VO 
 
 04 
 
 
 
 
 Missing Values 
 (both M/F) 
 
 
 
 04 
 
 
 
 r- 
 
 On 
 
 
 
 04 
 
 
 
 On 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 04 
 
 
 
 p- 
 
 
 
 
 $40,000+ 
 
 
 £ 
 
 Tf 
 
 to 
 
 g 
 
 t"; 
 
 04 
 
 £ 
 
 to 
 
 ON 
 
 to 
 
 § 
 
 NO 
 
 g 
 
 to 
 
 04 
 
 § 
 
 00 
 
 to 
 
 § 
 
 •n 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 rr 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 p-’ 
 
 to 
 
 § 
 
 to 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 Total Responses 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 to 
 
 vO. 
 
 § 
 
 04 
 
 
 OI 
 
 ON 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 On 
 
 O' 
 
 
 vO 
 
 to 
 
 s 
 
 
 r- 
 
 m 
 
 04 
 
 
 8 
 
 04 
 
 oo 
 
 04 
 
 
 On 
 
 r- 
 
 
 
 
 ©“ 
 
 T 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 Os 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 r-‘ 
 
 g 
 
 r- 
 
 g 
 
 O' 
 
 § 
 
 n 
 
 to 
 
 £ 
 
 to 
 
 00 
 
 # 
 
 8 
 
 o 
 
 gs 
 
 o^ VJ 
 VO t 
 
 s> 
 
 g 1 
 
 t to 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 o 
 
 p-’ 
 
 § 
 
 ON 
 
 00 
 
 g 
 
 to 
 
 NO 
 
 
 
 
 $40,000+ 
 
 
 
 § 
 
 to 
 
 g 
 
 VO 
 
 
 8 
 
 to 
 
 g 
 
 ^r 
 
 NO 
 
 
 o 
 
 r- 
 
 to 
 
 g 
 
 ON 
 
 to 
 
 
 1 
 
 00 
 
 g 
 
 to 
 
 00 
 
 
 £ 
 
 o 
 
 P- 
 
 <N 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 
 g 
 
 On 
 
 00 
 
 g 
 
 ON 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 $12,001-20,000 
 
 
 to 
 
 Tf 
 
 o^ 
 
 e£ 
 
 § 
 
 © 
 
 g 
 
 •n 
 
 oo 
 
 § 
 
 r-’ 
 
 g 
 
 ON 
 
 p^ 
 
 § 
 
 ON 
 
 NO 
 
 to 
 
 oo 
 
 g 
 
 p^ 
 
 gt 
 
 oo r 
 On t 
 
 §i 
 
 i oi 
 
 g 
 
 OO 
 
 NO 
 
 8 
 
 04 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 o 
 
 On 
 
 g 
 
 On 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 ! 
 
 8 
 
 o‘ 
 
 to 
 
 
 O 
 
 00 
 
 eP 
 
 § 
 
 g 
 
 O' 
 
 8 
 
 e? 
 
 8 
 
 to 
 
 g 
 
 00 
 
 oo 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 Tf 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 VO 
 
 o 
 
 tn 
 
 to 
 
 £ 
 
 to 
 
 04 
 
 d 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 d 
 
 g 
 
 p^ 
 
 o^ 
 
 O 
 
 04 
 
 NO 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 ON 
 
 to 
 
 o 
 
 P; 
 
 P^ 
 
 o 
 
 04 
 
 
 
 $7,001-12,000 
 
 
 £ 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 © 
 
 g 
 
 On 
 
 ON 
 
 o 
 
 r- 
 
 © 
 
 g 
 
 00 
 
 O' 
 
 g 
 
 ON 
 
 ON 
 
 g 
 
 r- 
 
 ON 
 
 00 
 
 O' 
 
 gs 
 
 04 - 
 oo - 
 
 £ 
 
 2 8 
 -1 to 
 
 g 
 
 00 
 
 NO 
 
 § 
 
 Tf 
 
 O' 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 g 
 
 *0 
 
 g 
 
 00 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 g 
 
 to 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 $20,001-30,000 
 
 
 V~) 
 
 00 
 
 04 
 
 O 
 
 to 
 
 04 
 
 & 
 
 8 
 
 o 
 
 04 
 
 O 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 8 
 
 o 
 
 04 
 
 8 
 
 r-’ 
 
 8 
 
 04 
 
 04 
 
 8 
 
 o< 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 04 
 
 £ 
 
 to 
 
 ON 
 
 «£ 
 
 8 
 
 <N 
 
 o 
 
 h 
 
 NO 
 
 to 
 
 Tf 
 
 NO 
 
 04 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 oo 
 
 04 
 
 8 
 
 Tt 
 
 04 
 
 o 
 
 oo 
 
 o 
 
 04 
 
 O 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 04 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 04 
 
 
 
 $3,001-7,000 
 
 
 to 
 
 I'J 
 
 to 
 
 O 
 
 04 
 
 to 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 & 
 
 8 
 
 to 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 £ 
 
 o 
 
 oo 
 
 to 
 
 e£ 
 
 8 
 
 to 
 
 o 
 
 ■'T 
 
 £ 
 
 o c 
 
 to 0 
 
 -H W 
 
 £ # 
 i 8 
 
 o r~ 
 
 o 
 
 O; 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 g 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 o 
 
 r~- 
 
 04 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 $10,001-20,000 
 
 
 8 
 
 04 
 
 3 1.60% | 
 
 o 
 
 04 
 
 n 
 
 ro 
 
 to 
 
 04 
 
 to 
 
 32.00%| 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 m 
 
 to 
 
 On 
 
 to 
 
 8 
 
 Tf 
 
 to 
 
 O 
 
 to 
 
 d 
 
 04 
 
 8 
 
 ON 
 
 CO 
 
 8 
 
 to 
 
 Tt 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 ro 
 
 to 
 
 8 
 
 O' 
 
 04 
 
 o 
 
 oo 
 
 00 
 
 04 
 
 o 
 
 04 
 
 O' 
 
 04 
 
 33.25%| 
 
 £ 
 
 O 
 
 04 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 04 
 
 CO 
 
 - 
 
 |IIL2: Income — 10 A Total Income as an Artist 
 
 $501-3,000 
 
 
 £ 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 vO 
 
 04 
 
 © 
 
 Tf 
 
 04 
 
 8 
 
 On 
 
 04 
 
 to 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 £ 
 
 8 
 
 NO 
 
 04 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 to 
 
 £ 
 
 to 
 
 ON 
 
 00 
 
 04 
 
 § 
 
 s 
 
 e£ e 
 
 O * 
 to VJ 
 to vi 
 to c 
 
 S £ 
 2 8 
 o o 
 
 n co 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 04 
 
 Tf 
 
 £ 
 
 8 
 
 On 
 
 04 
 
 § 
 
 04 
 
 to 
 
 § 
 
 04 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 8 
 
 ri 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 oo 
 
 8 
 
 U 
 
 £ 
 
 $5,001-10,000 
 
 
 to 
 
 d 
 
 o 
 
 04 
 
 O 
 
 d 
 
 to 
 
 r^ 
 
 NO 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 04 
 
 & 
 
 o 
 
 04 
 
 04 
 
 o 
 
 ro 
 
 g 
 
 *o 
 
 VO 
 
 £ 
 
 O 
 
 ON 
 
 to 
 
 oo 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 OO 
 
 8 
 
 CO 
 
 04 
 
 £ 
 
 to 
 
 r- 
 
 g 
 
 oo 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 £ 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 § 
 
 8 
 
 oo 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 NO 
 
 04 
 
 £ 
 
 O 
 
 04 
 
 to 
 
 n 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 r4 
 
 to 
 
 NO 
 
 04 
 
 § 
 
 to 
 
 04 
 
 8 
 
 NO 
 
 04 
 
 (£ 
 
 to 
 
 ON 
 
 ON 
 
 04 
 
 £ 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 O' 
 
 04 
 
 # * 
 o p 
 
 to f 
 
 £ 
 
 0 o 
 
 1 °i 
 00 
 
 4 04 
 
 £ 
 
 8 
 
 NO 
 
 04 
 
 to 
 
 ON 
 
 o 
 
 04 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 £ 
 
 O 
 
 00 
 
 to 
 
 04 
 
 to 
 
 On 
 
 Tf 
 
 04 
 
 O 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 04 
 
 8 
 
 Tf 
 
 04 
 
 
 
 1 Income: 10 A Total Gross Income 
 
 $0-5,000 
 
 
 tO) 
 
 oo 
 
 g 
 
 O'; 
 
 to 
 
 o 
 
 04 
 
 to 
 
 TT 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 O 
 
 00 
 
 ro 
 
 g 
 
 n 
 
 r- 
 
 g 
 
 g 
 
 r- 
 
 to 
 
 oo 
 
 NO 
 
 g 
 
 tT 
 
 to 
 
 g 
 
 CO 
 
 OO 
 
 g 
 
 04 
 
 to 
 
 g 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 g 
 
 00 
 
 p^ 
 
 g 
 
 -t 
 
 ON 
 
 
 
 All Artists | 
 
 u 
 
 ■a 
 
 s 
 
 A) 
 
 i 
 
 Painters, et. al 
 
 o 
 
 15 
 
 s 
 
 O 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 All Artists: Boston \ 
 
 V 
 
 ■a 
 
 S 
 
 ■a 
 
 r 
 
 U. c 
 c 
 
 1 s 
 
 a 
 
 0 
 
 £ 
 
 s 
 
 c 
 
 3 
 
 k 
 
 t> 
 
 15 
 
 i 
 
 All Artists: New York 
 
 u 
 
 a 
 
 S 
 
 l> 
 
 15 
 
 i 
 
 Painters : New York | 
 
 u 
 
 a 
 
 S 
 
 O 
 
 15 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 All Artists | 
 
 u 
 
 a 
 
 S 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 u. 
 
 Painters, et. al \ 
 
 u 
 
 a 
 
 S 
 
 <u 
 
 15 
 
 S 
 
 4-) 
 
 u. 
 
 All Artists: Boston I 
 
 o 
 
 15 
 
 s 
 
 a 
 
 g 
 
 IX 
 
 Painters: Boston \ 
 
 u 
 
 a 
 
 S 
 
 a 
 
 g 
 
 u. 
 
 All Artists: New York \ 
 
 o 
 
 15 
 
 s 
 
 0 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 Painters: New York \ 
 
 u 
 
 a 
 
 S 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 


 
 Over $40,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 4.15% 
 
 5.60% 
 
 2.70% 
 
 2.15% 
 
 3.80% 
 
 0.50% 
 
 <5.40% 
 
 5.40% 
 
 7.40% 
 
 16.35% 
 
 21.70% 
 
 11.00% 
 
 4.05% 
 
 7.10% 
 
 1.00% 
 
 
 
 $20,000-40,000 
 
 
 12.00% 
 
 12.50% 
 
 9.80% 
 
 12.00% 
 
 11.60% 
 
 7.10% 
 
 10.00% 
 
 10.90% 
 
 6.20% 
 
 16.00% 
 
 10.30% 
 
 10.30% 
 
 13.90% 
 
 15.00% 
 
 12.80% 
 
 6.70% 
 
 9.70% 
 
 3.70% 
 
 
 
 $12,001-20,000 
 
 
 10.00% 
 
 9.00% 
 
 11.60% 
 
 9.00% 
 
 o 
 
 © 
 
 8.50% 
 
 9.00% 
 
 7.70% 
 
 9.80% 
 
 12.00% 
 
 13.70% 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 © 
 
 11.70% 
 
 o 
 
 m 
 
 o 
 
 13.10% 
 
 8.05% 
 
 9.70% 
 
 6.40% 
 
 
 
 $7,001-12,000 
 
 
 7.00% 
 
 3.60% 
 
 10.70% 
 
 10.00% 
 
 9.90% 
 
 o 
 
 t— 
 
 © 
 
 9.00% 
 
 9.00% 
 
 8.20% 
 
 9.00% 
 
 11.30% 
 
 7.50% 
 
 8.10% 
 
 6.40% 
 
 9.80% 
 
 9.70% 
 
 8.50% 
 
 10.90% 
 
 m.3 :Total Income as Artist-Painters, Sculptors and Craftspeople 
 
 
 $3,001-7,000 
 
 
 20.00% 
 
 o 
 oo 
 o o 
 
 21.50% 
 
 14.00% 
 
 13.20% 
 
 14.30% 
 
 13.00% 
 
 14.70% 
 
 11.30% 
 
 12.00% 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 13.50% 
 
 12.45% 
 
 11.10% 
 
 13.80% 
 
 15.65% 
 
 15.10% 
 
 16.20% 
 
 
 $501-3,000 
 
 
 26.00% 
 
 26.80% 
 
 24.90% 
 
 27.00% 
 
 24.10% 
 
 29.00% 
 
 30.00% 
 
 24.40% 
 
 33.50% 
 
 30.00% 
 
 32.40% 
 
 27.40% 
 
 17.80% 
 
 14.40% 
 
 21.20% 
 
 28.70% 
 
 27.10% 
 
 30.30% 
 
 
 $0-500 
 
 
 25.00% 
 
 28.60% 
 
 21.40% 
 
 27.00% 
 
 25.20% 
 
 27.80% 
 
 30.00% 
 
 29.50% 
 
 30.40% 
 
 21.00% 
 
 18.10% 
 
 23.80% 
 
 19.60% 
 
 21.00% 
 
 18.20% 
 
 27.20% 
 
 22.80% 
 
 31.60% 
 
 
 
 
 Artists Q: 1986 
 
 male artists 
 
 female artists 
 
 IO A: 1988 
 
 male artists 
 
 female artists 
 
 10 A: Boston (1988) 
 
 male artists 
 
 female artists 
 
 10 A: New York (1988) 
 
 male artists 
 
 female artists 
 
 ATC: Craftspeople (1989) 
 
 male 
 
 female 
 
 ATC: Painters (1990) 
 
 male 
 
 female 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 § 
 
 r- 
 
 40 
 
 
 8 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 r~ 
 
 vo 
 
 wn 
 
 o 
 
 d 
 
 8 
 
 55 
 
 00 
 
 
 »o 
 
 00 
 
 55 
 
 00 
 
 r* 
 
 $ 
 
 00 
 
 O 
 
 ® 
 
 o 
 
 8 
 
 vo 
 
 
 14.151 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 vd 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 vo 
 
 n 
 
 to 
 
 18.201 
 
 5! 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 vo 
 
 8 
 
 »o 
 
 o 
 
 xt 
 
 o 
 
 •Xt 
 
 Q 
 
 vo 
 
 8 
 
 xt 
 
 
 vo 
 
 *0 
 
 VC 
 
 »C 
 
 o 
 
 r~ 
 
 VC 
 
 V) 
 
 VC 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 8 
 
 vo 
 
 
 vo 
 
 00 
 
 VC 
 
 o 
 
 8 
 
 VC 
 
 $ 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 
 r^ 
 
 8! 
 
 vri 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 »o 
 
 $ 
 
 
 o 
 
 VO 
 
 o 
 
 «ri 
 
 55 
 
 VC 
 
 O 
 
 VO 
 
 8 
 
 VC 
 
 8 
 
 VC 
 
 
 8 
 
 xt 
 
 ?! 
 
 to 
 
 55 
 
 xt 
 
 ?! 
 
 vo 
 
 3 
 
 vo 
 
 8 
 
 vd 
 
 
 vo 
 
 •0 
 
 O' 
 
 8 
 
 00 
 
 O 
 
 O' 
 
 o 
 
 8 
 
 d 
 
 s? 
 
 VC 
 
 O 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IIII.4 Information on Artists: Painters, Sculptors and Craftspeople 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 VO 
 
 n 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 00 
 
 O 
 
 t-; 
 
 00 
 
 ?! 
 
 O' 
 
 O 
 
 00 
 
 
 8 
 
 vd 
 
 O 
 
 r~' 
 
 O 
 
 VC 
 
 S? 
 
 VC 
 
 O 
 
 «i 
 
 o 
 
 8 
 
 tN 
 
 
 vo 
 
 SO 
 
 c4 
 
 8 
 
 td 
 
 o 
 
 vn 
 
 •0 
 
 r- 
 
 O 
 
 <N 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 
 O' 
 
 VC 
 
 
 
 
 
 VO* 
 
 
 ? 
 
 O 
 
 <N 
 
 2 
 
 VO 
 
 8 
 
 s? 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 8 
 
 N 
 
 8 
 
 o 
 
 tN 
 
 s 
 
 xt 
 
 8 
 
 d 
 
 
 ro 
 
 f? 
 
 to 
 
 o 
 
 r<i 
 
 8 
 
 o 
 
 8 
 
 o 
 
 8 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 to 
 
 
 VO 
 
 o 
 
 c4 
 
 O 
 
 n 
 
 to 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 cJ 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 o 
 
 O' 
 
 o 
 
 r*^ 
 
 
 O 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 O 
 
 *0 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 
 VC 
 
 O 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 
 vo 
 
 vd 
 
 O 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 xt 
 
 o 
 
 <* 
 
 vd 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 s 
 
 rd 
 
 
 
 t- 
 
 0 
 
 r 
 
 c 
 
 0 1 
 c 
 
 a 
 
 *s 
 
 # c 
 
 *S 
 
 s 
 
 
 VO* 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 v» 
 
 
 to 
 
 O 
 
 xt 
 
 55 
 
 to 
 
 VO 
 
 8 
 
 o 
 
 
 VO 
 
 Xt 
 
 8 
 
 xt 
 
 o 
 
 r*j 
 
 xt 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 tN 
 
 
 55 
 
 t^ 
 
 S 
 
 r* 
 
 ? 
 
 r- 
 
 o 
 
 r-~ 
 
 8 
 
 d 
 
 8 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 8 
 
 O' 
 
 8 
 
 r*’ 
 
 8 
 
 rt 
 
 3 
 
 r~ 
 
 8 
 
 o 
 
 «i 
 
 
 •o 
 
 a 
 
 tN 
 
 o 
 
 <5 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 <N 
 
 «o 
 
 VO 
 
 H 
 
 tN 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 3 
 
 VO 
 
 tN 
 
 
 o 
 
 O' 
 
 VC 
 
 o 
 
 r- 
 
 Xt 
 
 O 
 
 d 
 
 VO 
 
 Oj 
 
 t- 
 
 8 
 
 td 
 
 O 
 
 O' 
 
 c4 
 
 (N 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 •n. 
 
 cs 
 
 8 
 
 
 § 
 
 a 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 ts 
 
 0 
 
 01 
 
 oj 
 
 o 
 
 O) 
 
 xt 
 
 O 
 
 2 
 
 o 
 
 O' 
 
 
 VO 
 
 ® 
 
 a 
 
 O 
 
 00 
 
 8 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 VO 
 
 H 
 
 a 
 
 xt 
 
 O 
 
 •0 
 
 O' 
 
 
 O 
 
 VO 
 
 <N 
 
 8 
 
 a 
 
 SO 
 
 n 
 
 3 
 
 O' 
 
 o 
 
 <s 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 o 
 
 tN 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 CL 
 
 J2 
 
 U 
 
 © 
 
 £ 
 
 «*_ 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 u 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 i 
 
 u 
 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 ** 
 
 
 8 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 O' 
 
 O' 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 8 
 
 r4 
 
 tN 
 
 O 
 
 O' 
 
 d 
 
 <s 
 
 o 
 
 n 
 
 a 
 
 
 O 
 
 r*j 
 
 o 
 
 c4 
 
 tN 
 
 O 
 
 r~ 
 
 o 
 
 rs 
 
 O 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 <n 
 
 8 
 
 rs 
 
 5 
 
 O' 
 
 
 «0 
 
 VC 
 
 VC 
 
 O 
 
 «! 
 
 vo 
 
 o 
 
 r~ 
 
 vo 
 
 r~. 
 
 xt 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 -o 
 
 e 
 
 « 
 
 DC 
 
 C 
 
 ;a 
 
 ’3 
 
 u 
 
 H 
 
 <«. 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 U 
 
 ■a 
 
 3 
 
 C 
 
 e 
 
 < 
 
 M 
 
 a 
 
 
 8 
 
 VO 
 
 6 
 
 v> 
 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 o 
 
 s 
 
 r- 
 
 o 
 
 VO 
 
 VC 
 
 o 
 
 Xt 
 
 ri 
 
 00 
 
 a 
 
 so 
 
 00 
 
 8 
 
 00 
 
 t^- 
 
 
 o 
 
 *0 
 
 8 
 
 o 
 
 f"; 
 
 xt 
 
 r- 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 VC 
 
 VO 
 
 <N 
 
 3 
 
 O 
 
 *0 
 
 o 
 
 O' 
 
 8 
 
 00 
 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 ? 
 
 VO 
 
 VC 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 VC 
 
 VO 
 
 O 
 
 d 
 
 r' 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 
 n 
 
 VO 
 
 r- 
 
 
 
 
 
 O' 
 
 O' 
 
 6 
 
 
 8 
 
 r4 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 xt 
 
 o 
 
 8 
 
 00 
 
 8 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 
 O' 
 
 
 vo 
 
 00 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 xt 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 td 
 
 
 a 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 S5 
 
 r~ 
 
 *o 
 
 ri 
 
 8 
 
 ri 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •j 
 
 t 
 
 x£ 
 
 < 
 
 o 
 
 
 ■a 
 
 •> 
 
 v* 
 
 £ 
 
 o 
 
 _o 
 
 c 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 a 
 
 •> 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 *> 
 
 < 
 
 a 
 
 £ 
 
 1> 
 
 j 
 
 J* 
 
 fe 
 
 >• 
 
 44 
 
 z 
 
 •? 
 
 t 
 
 xt: 
 
 « 
 
 
 V 
 
 r 
 
 | 
 
 2 
 
 V 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •» 
 
 * 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 "5 
 
 •> 
 
 v» 
 
 c 
 
 «2 
 
 o 
 
 yj 
 
 c 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 SI 
 
 •S 
 
 t 
 
 V 
 
 "i 
 
 r? 
 
 c 
 
 <5 
 
 o 
 
 
 fe 
 
 >* 
 
 44 
 
 Z 
 
 *> 
 
 t 
 
 < 
 
 V 
 
 ji 
 
 "a 
 
 t 
 
 •» 
 
 t 
 
 <2 
 
 1* 
 
 j 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 

 
 
 Total Responses 1 
 
 (N 
 
 8 
 
 IT) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 1.50% 
 
 3.00% 
 
 8 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 Total Responses 
 
 CO 
 
 <N 
 
 96 
 
 
 
 
 Total Responses 
 
 
 96 
 
 145 
 
 
 
 
 $20,00140,000 
 
 5.15% 
 
 9.00% 
 
 1.30% 
 
 
 
 $40,000+ 
 
 6.05% 
 
 6.10% 
 
 6.00% 
 
 
 
 $40,000+ 
 
 15.15% 
 
 16.20% 
 
 14.10% 
 
 
 
 
 $12,001-20,000 
 
 3.10% 
 
 3.00% 
 
 3.20% 
 
 
 
 $30,00140,000 
 
 7.00% 
 
 12.10% 
 
 1.90% 
 
 
 
 l 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 OO 
 
 17.00% 
 
 14.10% 
 
 19.90% 
 
 
 
 
 $7,001-12,000 
 
 9.60% 
 
 14.00% 
 
 5.20% 
 
 
 
 $20,001-30,000 
 
 9.80% 
 
 13.10% 
 
 6.50% 
 
 
 
 $20,001-30,000 
 
 17.15% 
 
 20.20% 
 
 14.10% 
 
 
 
 
 $3,001-7,000 
 
 13.15% 
 
 14.00% 
 
 12.30% 
 
 
 
 $10,001-20,000 
 
 60.50% 
 
 29.30% 
 
 31.20% 
 
 
 
 $10,001-20,000 
 
 24.90% 
 
 22.20% 
 
 27.60% 
 
 
 
 
 $501-3,000 
 
 24.50% 
 
 20.00% 
 
 29.00% 
 
 
 
 $5,001-10,000 
 
 31.85% 
 
 27.30% 
 
 36.40% 
 
 
 
 $5,001-10,000 
 
 20.40% 
 
 22.20% 
 
 18.60% 
 
 ionnaire (1980; 
 
 
 
 $0-500 
 
 43.00% 
 
 37.00% 
 
 49.00% 
 
 
 
 $0-5,000 
 
 17.75% 
 
 12.10% 
 
 23.40% 
 
 
 
 $0-5,000 
 
 5.45% 
 
 5.10% 
 
 5.80% 
 
 |III.6: Artists and Jobs Quest 
 
 
 1 Income as Artists 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total Gross Income 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 iTotal Gross Household Income 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 All Artists 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 
 
 All Artists 
 
 Male 
 
 1 Female 
 
 
 
 1 All Artists 
 
 Male 
 
 Feamle 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 Missing Values 
 
 
 081 
 
 
 
 79 
 
 
 
 
 
 Missing Values 
 
 
 
 © 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Missing Values 
 
 
 90Z 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total Responses 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 (S 
 
 
 £09 
 
 £001 
 
 
 
 
 Total Responses 
 
 
 
 4,662 
 
 5,396 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total Responses 
 
 
 oo 
 
 VO 
 
 Ov 
 
 cr> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Graduate Degree 
 
 38.65% 
 
 38.60% 
 
 £ 
 
 o 
 
 r-; 
 
 oo 
 
 CO 
 
 43.05% 
 
 44.80% 
 
 41.30% 
 
 
 
 
 Graduate Degree 
 
 12.30% 
 
 8.85% 
 
 9.20% 
 
 8.50% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Graduate Degree 
 
 42.50% 
 
 45.60% 
 
 40.20% 
 
 33.60% 
 
 34.20% 
 
 33.00% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 College Degree 
 
 42.10% 
 
 39.30% 
 
 44.90% 
 
 40.60% 
 
 35.50% 
 
 45.70% 
 
 
 
 
 College Degree 
 
 32.50% 
 
 30.15% 
 
 27.30% 
 
 33.00% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 College Degree 
 
 40.60% 
 
 33.40% 
 
 45.70% 
 
 38.35% 
 
 31.50% 
 
 45.20% 
 
 Table IV.l: IO A/Census/ ATC Table: Education 
 
 
 
 
 
 Some College 
 
 16.25% 
 
 o 
 oo 
 o 6 
 
 13.70% 
 
 13.05% 
 
 15.90% 
 
 10.20% 
 
 
 
 
 Some College 
 
 33.90% 
 
 39.80% 
 
 41.00% 
 
 38.60% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Some College 
 
 13.00% 
 
 15.30% 
 
 11.40% 
 
 19.60% 
 
 23.70% 
 
 8 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 High School 4 
 
 2.15% 
 
 2.30% 
 
 2.00% 
 
 2.65% 
 
 3.20% 
 
 2.10% 
 
 
 
 
 High School 4 
 
 15.00% 
 
 17.30% 
 
 17.80% 
 
 16.80% 
 
 
 
 i-.' 
 
 •o 
 
 c 
 
 <d 
 
 oo 
 
 £> 
 
 C 
 
 £ 
 
 o 
 
 "O 
 
 c 
 
 CD 
 
 M 
 
 O 
 
 i— 
 
 x> 
 
 0 
 c 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 High School 4 
 
 3.20% 
 
 3.80% 
 
 2.80% 
 
 0.71% 
 
 0.93% 
 
 0.53% 
 
 
 
 
 
 High School 1-3 
 
 o 
 
 r- 
 
 © 
 
 £ 
 
 o 
 
 oo 
 
 © 
 
 0.60% 
 
 0.55% 
 
 0.50% 
 
 0.60% 
 
 
 
 
 High School 1-3 
 
 5.00% 
 
 2.80% 
 
 3.30% 
 
 2.30% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 High School 1-3 
 
 0.60% 
 
 1.40% 
 
 8 
 
 o 
 
 0.60% 
 
 o 
 
 oo 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 tT 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 Education 
 
 IOA (1988) 
 
 
 All Artists 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 Painters, et. al 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 
 
 Census (1990) 
 
 
 All Artists (1) 
 
 Painters, et. al 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 
 
 ■y 
 
 <2 
 
 CO 
 
 e 
 
 ID 
 
 CQ 
 
 CD 
 
 y 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 ATC (1989) 
 
 
 Painters 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 Craft Artists 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
IV J: Artists and Jobs/IOA/Census Table: Education 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 College Degree 
 
 Graduate Degree 
 
 
 
 
 
 Artists and Jobs: Boston, 1980 
 
 
 
 Painters, et. al. 
 
 
 46.20% 
 
 60.80% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Census: 1980 
 
 
 
 
 Painters, et. al. 
 
 
 35.16% 
 
 n/a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IOA: Boston, 1988 
 
 
 
 
 Painters, et. al. 
 
 
 45.00% 
 
 50.00% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Census, 1990 
 
 
 
 
 Painters, et. al. 
 
 
 30.15% 
 
 8.85% 
 
APPENDIX A: CENSUS QUESTIONNAIRE: OCCUPATION 
 
 The wording for both the 1980 and the 1990 census questionnaire when asking people to 
 supply information about their occupation is as follows: 
 
 Describe clearly this person’s chief job activity or business last week. If this person 
 had more than one job, describe the one at which this person worked the most hours. 
 If this person had no job or business last week, give infomation for last job or 
 business since 1975/1985. 
 
 29. Occupation 
 
 a. What kind of work was this person doing? (For example: Registered nurse, 
 personnel manager, supervisor or order department, gasoline engineer assembler, 
 grinder operator). 
 
 b. What were this person’s most important activites or duties? (For example: 
 Patient care, directing hiring policies, supervising order clerks, assembling engines, 
 operating grinding mill.)l 
 
 ’U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1990 Census of Population and Housing, Public Use Microdata Samples, 
 U.S. (Washington, DC: The Bureau of the Census, 1992), Appendix E., and U.S. Bureau of the Census, 
 1980 Census of the Population, Vol. 1, Charactersitics of the Population, PC80-1-D1-A (Washington, 
 DC: US Government Printing Office, 1984). 
 
 App A-l 
 

 
 
APPENDIX B 
 
 The data for Experienced Civilian Labor Force and Professional Specialty Occupations 
 was taken, in large part, from the NEA report “Artists in the Workforce, 1950-1985” by 
 Constance R. Citro and Deirdre A. Gaquin. Included here is Appendix C of that 
 document which delineates their methodology. Additional information for 1990 was 
 provided by Deirdre Gaquin. 
 
 A ppendix C: The Impact of Sampling Error on Reliability of the Data 
 
 Because most of the data used in this report are based on a sample of the population, 
 conducted as part of each decennial census or current survey, the estimates may differ 
 somewhat from figures that would have been obtained if all persons had been surveyed 
 using the same procedures. 1 In addition, if one were able to survey all possible samples, 
 the estimates from each sample would differ, but the average of the estimates would 
 approximate the complete-count figure. The difference between a particular sample 
 estimate and the average value obtainable from all possible samples is called the 
 sampling error or standard error, which is a measure of the reliability of the particular 
 sample estimate. With the estimated standard error, one can construct an interval around 
 the sample estimate that, with a prescribed degree of confidence, contains the average 
 result of all possible samples. Most commonly used is the 95 percent confidence 
 interval, which is that interval around the sample estimate that 95 times out of a 100 can 
 be assumed to contain the average result of all possible samples. 
 
 1 The material in this section is drawn from US. Bureau of the Census, Census of Population and Housing 
 1980: Public-Use Microdata Samples — Technical Documentation (Washington, EXT : US. Department of 
 Commerce, 1983), Chapter 3. 
 
 App B-l 
 
In addition to the variability which arises from the sampling procedures, both sample 
 data and complete-count data are subject to nonsampling error. The data in this report on 
 occupational groups and their characteristics over time are importantly affected by 
 nonsampling error due to changes in concepts and definitions as described in the chapter 
 notes and Appendices B and D and due to other problems such as errors in assigning 
 occupation codes in the census. Nonsampling errors undoubtedly dwarf sampling errors 
 in their impact on data reliability. Nonetheless, sampling error needs to be considered, 
 and this appendix provides guidelines for the reader to use in assessing the impact of 
 sampling variability on the estimates. 
 
 Standard Errors for Estimates of Growth in Occupations Over Time 
 
 Standard errors (se) were calculated for the estimates of persons in each occupation that 
 are provided in Chapter II and Appendix B. The basic formula used was as follows: 
 
 Se (Y) - (1/f - 1) Y (1 - Y/N) where: 
 
 Y = Weighted number of persons in specific occupation 
 N = Weighted number in the experienced civilian labor forces 
 f = Sampling rate 
 
 ( .033 for 1950, .05 for 1960, .05 for 1970, .19 for 1980, .0076 
 for 1985). 
 
 Because every census after 1950, as well as the 1985 Current Population Survey, selected 
 clustered samples of households rather than simple random or systematic samples of 
 persons, it was necessary to include an additional factor to adjust for the bias introduced 
 by the clustered sample design (persons selected from the sample household are more 
 likely to share some characteristics in common than are persons selected at random). The 
 standard errors calculated from the above formula for 1960, 1970, 1980 and 1985 were 
 accordingly multiplied by a factor of 1 .2. 
 
 App B-2 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Then, calculations were made of the statistical significance or reliability of the estimated 
 growth for each occupation from one time period to the next. The procedure is to 
 calculate the standard error of each difference (i.e. the estimated number of persons in an 
 occupation in time period t + 1 minus the estimated number in time period t) and to 
 determine whether the difference exceeds the estimated error of the difference by a factor 
 of at least 2. If the answer is yes, then one can have 95 percent confidence that the 
 observed difference is not the result of sampling variability but is reliably measured. 
 
 The formula for the standard error of a difference between two estimates, x and y, is: 
 
 Se (x-y) - S x + S y - 2cSxSy where 
 
 Sx = The standard error of the estimate for t + 1 
 Sy = The standard error of the estimate for t 
 c = The correlation between the two estimates/ 
 
 If the two estimates being compared are highly correlated, this will reduce the standard 
 error of the difference and increase the likelihood that the difference is statistically 
 significant. Determination of the statistical significance of the observed change for each 
 occupation over each time period (e.g., the estimate of actors in 1970 compared with the 
 estimate of actors for 1960) was first made assuming zero correlation between the two 
 estimates. Then, if the difference appeared insignificant, another determination was 
 made assuming a fairly high correlation. This is not unreasonable, given that many of 
 the people in an occupation at one time period are still in that occupation at the next time 
 period. Table II. 5 indicates those differences in the growth of occupations that are not 
 significant at the 95 percent confidence level, even after assuming that the estimates are 
 fairly highly correlated. 
 
 App B-3 
 

It should be noted that the standard error calculations just described did not include the 
 effect of sampling error in the occupational crosswalks that provided the factors to apply 
 to the census estimates for 1950 through 1970 to achieve comparability with 1980 census 
 definitions (see Appendix B). The sampling rates for the crosswalks were approximately 
 . 001 . 
 
 Standard Errors for Comparisons of Occupational Characteristics 
 
 Chapters III, IV, and V compare percentages of workers, professionals, and artists on a 
 number of characteristics. Census Bureau documentation provides formulas for 
 calculating standard errors of percentages and includes tables showing the estimated 
 standard errors of certain size percentages based on certain size populations and certain 
 size samples. ^ As a general guide, this section discusses the standard errors of 
 percentages and differences between percentages based on a 5 percent sample which is 
 the sampling rate of most of the 1960, 1970 and 1980 census data used in the report. The 
 standard errors are similar for the 1950 census 3.3 percent sample data, because the 
 smaller sample size is offset by the fact that no adjustment is necessary for the sample 
 design which, in 1950, represented a simple systematic sample of persons. 
 
 The standard error of estimated percentages for the male and female experienced civilian 
 labor force are very small, less than 0.1 percentage point in each case. Hence, very small 
 differences, such as the 0.3 percentage point increase in the proportion of men working 
 for private employers between 1960 and 1970 (see V.l), are statistically significant, that 
 is, reliably measured, although they are not particularly significant from the perspective 
 of the society and economy as a whole. 
 
 2 lbid. 
 
 App B-4 
 

 
 
 
The standard errors of estimated percentages for male and female professional workers 
 are also very small, no more than .2 percentage points in any case. Hence, even very 
 small differences of as little as .5 percentage points are reliably measured. 
 
 The standard error of estimated percentages of all artists are somewhat larger. For 
 example, the standard errors for estimated percentages of male and female artists in 
 1960, expressed in the percentage points, are approximately: 
 
 Estimated Percent 
 
 Men Artists 
 
 Women Artists 
 
 2 or 98 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.2 
 
 5 or 95 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.3 
 
 10 or 90 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.4 
 
 15 or 85 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.5 
 
 20 or 80 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.6 
 
 25 or 75 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.6 
 
 30 or 70 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.6 
 
 35 or 65 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.7 
 
 50 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.7 
 
 Even so, in the work case, differences of as little as 1 percentage point in characteristics 
 of male or female artists across time are generally statistically significant. Differences of 
 as little as .5 percentage points between the characteristics of artists and those of 
 professionals and of the total labor force at any point in time are also generally 
 significant. 
 
 The standard errors of estimated percentages for specific artist occupations are much 
 larger. Table C.l shows approximate standard errors based on a 5 percent sample for 
 various size percentages for populations representing the range of artist occupations. 
 Standard errors of percentages for the larger artist occupations — 50,000 persons or 
 more — do not exceed about 1 percentage point. Hence, differences of about 1.5 or more 
 percentage points are statistically significant as are differences of about 1 percentage 
 
 App B-5 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
point or more between characteristics of the specific category of artists and those of all 
 artists. Standard errors of percentages for artist occupations with 7,500 up to 50,000 
 persons can approach 3 percentage points. In the worst case, a difference of 4 percentage 
 points over time is required for statistical significance, as is a difference of 3 percentage 
 points between the specific category and all artists. Standard errors of percentages for 
 the smallest artist occupations of 2,500 or less can be as high as 8 percentage points. In 
 the worst case, a difference of 10 percentage points over time is required for statistical 
 significance, as is a difference of 8 percentage points between the specific category and 
 all artists. The worst case estimates apply to the smallest groups and the percentages with 
 the largest standard errors. They also may not make sufficient allowance for the 
 correlation between estimates for the same artist occupation at two points in time. 
 Nonetheless, it is clear that data for the very small artist occupations, such as women 
 announcers and architects and men dancers in 1950, 1960 and 1970, are importantly 
 affected by sampling error. 
 
 Of the characteristics included in this report, the data on region of residence are the most 
 reliable, as they are based on the complete census count in 1950, the 25 percent sample in 
 1960, 20 percent sample in 1970, and 19 percent sample in 1980, with sampling errors 
 for 1960 through 1980 of less than half those of a 5 percent sample. Data from March 
 1985 Current Population Survey have very large standard errors, even allowing for the 
 increased size of most occupational categories. The standard errors of percentages for all 
 men and women artists from the March 1985 CPS are about 3 percentage points, and, for 
 particular artist occupations, they are 7 times as great as those from a 5 percent sample 
 for the same percentage and population base. 
 
 App B-6 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
APPENDIX C: IMPORTANT QUALIFIERS WHEN USING THESE DATA 
 
 One difficulty in preparing this research monograph is the lack of agreement of data sets 
 based on the census, as well as the size of the samples used for analysis. The figures in 
 this report on artists in the census are taken from two sources — a January 28, 1993 
 document prepared by Jack Beresford of Right Data Company in preparation for the 
 National Endowment for the Arts report “Using the 1990 Census Artist Extract Files of 
 the National Endowment for the Arts,” and analysis by Robert Greenblatt for this report. 
 Beresford’s analysis is from a 16.7% sample: Greenblatt’ s is from a 5% sample and is 
 explained below. 
 
 Census Tabulations 
 
 All census tabulations were based on the National Endowment for the Arts Extract tapes 
 based on the 5% Microdata Sample of the 1990 Census of Population and Housing. As 
 our tabulations were primarily ‘person’ oriented, limited use was made of the ‘housing’ 
 portion of the records for geographical information. In particular, sample tallies were 
 used without ‘Housing Weight’ factors in estimation of percentages as they normally 
 yield the same results for percentage estimates. 1 
 
 The occupational categories of Athletes, Editors and Reporters, and Public Relations 
 Specialists while grouped by the census along with Writers, Artists, and Entertainers, was 
 omitted from all our tabulations: 
 
 Some recoding had to be done for comparability with other data including previous 
 census tabulations. 
 
 1 United States Census Bureau, Technical Documentation, Chapter 2, page 3. 
 
 App C-l 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Regions of Residence (Division): The nine categories of the country (in the 5 % sample) 
 in the census were collapsed to Northeast (1,2), Midwest (3,4), South (5,6,7), and West 
 (8,9). 
 
 Education: ‘Years in School’ codes were changed in the 1990 census and are “Now 
 combined and grouped to show highest level completed” (USCB Tech Doc — Chapter 2, 
 page 5). To enable comparability, we recoded: 
 
 • “12th grade, no diploma” and “High school graduate, diploma or GED” to “4 
 years high school”; 
 
 • “Some college, but no degree”, “Associate degree in college, occupational 
 program”, “Associate degree in college, academic program”, to “Some college”; 
 
 • “Masters degree”, “Professional degree”, and “Doctorate degree” to “Some 
 graduate”. 
 
 This leaves some ambiguities, such as persons with 4 or more years of college but no 
 Bachelor’s degree or persons with graduate courses but no graduate degree. 
 Nevertheless, this recoding seemed most consistent with the need for comparability. 
 
 In Beresford’s document he also refers to the Census Bureau’s definitional changes in the 
 area of education. Acknowledging notes prepared by Deirdre Gaquin, he compares the 
 1980 census question in which people were asked how many years of school they 
 completed to the 1990 census question in which they were asked the type of degree 
 completed. Comparisons from one decennial census to the next are thus made more 
 difficult. An example of this difficulty is given by Beresford: 
 
 Using architects as an example: Currently the most common route for 
 
 architects is a 4-year [sic] bachelors followed by a professional masters degree. 
 However, prior to 1980 the most common pattern was a 5-year [sic] Bachelor 
 of Architecture which was considered a professional degree and recipients were 
 
 App C-2 
 

 
allowed to take licensing exams. The 5-year [sic] Bachelor of Architecture is 
 still acceptable but less common. Thus, an architect in 1980 would have said he 
 had completed 5 years of college. ...The same individual when asked the 1990 
 question might respond that he had a bachelors degree. 2 
 
 Information gathered from all the independent U.S. studies we have reviewed here 
 indicates a huge discrepency between what researchers have identified directly from 
 artists and results from the 1990 census. 
 
 There are many possible reasons for the discrepancy between the 1990 census figures and 
 all other U.S. surveys reviewed in this report, aside from the definitional changes in the 
 census categories in the area of education. One explanation might be that the other U.S. 
 surveys all concentrate on urban areas and that more highly educated artists reside in 
 these areas. Another explanation might be the age of the people sampled. If the U.S. 
 surveys have a sample which is older in age than the census sample, higher educational 
 attainment percentages might result. On this speculation, we ran the mean and the 
 median ages of all the painters et. al. in the census sample over 20 years of age. The 
 mean was 39.7; the median, 38. This is further substantiated by Beresford, who also 
 reports a median age of 38. This is not substantially different from the other surveys: 
 Information on Artists mean for painters, et. al. is 38.6; the median 37. For the Artists 
 Training and Career Project the mean for painters is 43.1, the median is 38; the mean for 
 craftspeople is 43.4; the median for both is 41. The difference in mean and median age 
 between the census and non-census data do not seem significant enough to us to use this 
 explanation to justify the discrepancies in education. 
 
 Please see chapter I for a discussion of definitional changes for artist occupations. 
 
 2 Jack Beresford, Notes on Trends in Artist Occupations 1970-1990 (Washington, D.C. : National 
 Endowment for the Arts, January 28, 1993), pp. 18-19. 
 
 App C-3 
 

 
 
There is also an additional age category and an expanded definition of the civilian labor 
 force in the 1990 census. 
 
 There are some instances of differences among tabulations derived from the census data 
 by different researchers. We believe these are due, in various degrees, to the above 
 factors. (Any differences in estimation of totals still fall within the statistical margin of 
 error at 95% confidence level). 
 
 App C-4 
 

 
 
 
Research Center Data 
 
 These studies share some fundamental problems of methodology that limit their utility 
 but are unavoidable at the current state of our quantitative understanding of the artist 
 universe. 
 
 The most obvious problem is that the sampling technique usually does not begin with an 
 unambiguous definition of the artist universe to be studied ( 1988 Information on Artists 
 study) or else the universe itself is perhaps too narrow and particular ( 1986 NYFA study). 
 
 There are two main sources for these problems from a statistical point of view: absence 
 of a common definition of categories, such as ‘artist’, and difficulty in physically 
 identifying the members of the universe when definitions are precisely drawn. These 
 problems are not easily overcome without much greater resources and experience in the 
 field. (Even the basic census population estimates themselves have recently been 
 successfully challenged in the federal court system.) Similar difficulties appear in the 
 studies from New England and Australia referred to in this report. 
 
 Despite these methodological problems, we are encouraged by the broad consistency of 
 data from a variety of these studies despite the diversity of sources. And even with their 
 sampling limitations, much could be gained if the more comprehensive of these studies 
 could be repeated periodically (e.g. at 5 year intervals) for longitudinal trends. 
 
 App C-5 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 RESEARCH ABOUT ARTISTS 
 
 Adler, J. Artists’ Job Market Experience." Journal of Arts Management and Law , 13 (Spring 1983), 177-183. 
 Adler, M. "Stardom amd Talent " American Economic Review 75, (1985), 208-212. 
 
 AFL-CIO. "Professional Workers amd Unions: A Reference Manual." Washington, DC: Dept, of Professional 
 Employees AFL-CIO, 1993. 
 
 American Federation of Musicians, Wage Scales and Conditions in the Symphony Orchestra, 1979-80 Season. 
 
 New York: American Federation of Musicians, 1980. 
 
 Baumol W. and W. G. Bowen, Performing Arts The Economic Dilemma, New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 
 1966, Chapter 5, 99-135. (income problems of artists). 
 
 Becker, C. "The education of young artists and the issue of audience." Cultural Studies 7, (1993). 
 
 Becker, H.S. Art Worlds. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984. 
 
 Bellow, Rachael Newton. "What Artists Want." Deciding What to Do. Cambridge: Center for Effective 
 Philanthropy, December 1986. 
 
 Bergman, Charles and Sanford Hirsch. "Artists Remembering Artists-A Tale of Two Foundations." Interview by 
 William Keens. Vantage Point, 10 (1986), 9-13. 
 
 Berry, Wendell. "People, Land and Community. " In Standing by Words, Berkeley: North Point Press, 1983. 
 
 Blaug, Mark. "The Empirical Status of Human Capital Theory: A Slightly Jaundiced View. " Journal Of 
 Economic Literature 14,(1976). 
 
 Braden, Su. Artists and People. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1978. 
 
 Bradshaw, T. "An Examination of the Comparability of the 1970 and 1980 Census Statistics on Artists. " in The 
 Economics of Cultural Decisions. W.S. Hendon, et. al., eds. Akron: Association of Cultural Economics, 1984. 
 
 Bradshaw ,T. "Projecting Growth in Artists Occupations” in Artists and Cultural Consumer s.D.V.ShdiW, W.S. 
 Hendon amd C.R. Waits, eds. Akron: Association for Cultural Economics, 1987. 
 
 Bradshaw, Tom. "Predicting Artist Employment in the Year 2000. " in Cultural Economics 88: An American 
 
 Perspective, vol. 2. Douglas V. Shaw, William S. Hendon and Virginia Lee Owen, eds. Akron: Association of 
 Cultural Economics, 1988. 
 
 - Please note: The original version of this bibliography was gathered by Richard Swaim for a Roundtable on Artist 
 Research at the National Endowment for the Arts in August of 1993. We would like to extend our thanks to 
 him for sharing this information, to which we have added, to create a resource for those wishing to do further 
 research 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Brighton, A. and Pearson, N. The Economic Situation of the Visual Artist. London: Calouste Gulbenkian 
 Foundation, 1982. 
 
 Burkey, Evelyn F. "The Creative Artist's Problems." in Broadcasting and Bargaining: Labor Relations in Radio 
 and Television. Allen B. Koening, ed. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1970. 
 
 .Canada Council. Canadian Dictionary and Selected Statistical Profile of Arts Employment. Working Document 
 525, Research and Evaluation. January 15, 1984. 
 
 Canada Council. Trends in Support to Artists by Discipline, Gender, Language, Citizenship and Program. (7th 
 Edition). Ottawa: Canada Council, 1992. 
 
 Cantor, Muriel and Cheryl Zollars, eds. Creators of Culture: Occupations and Professions in Culture Industries. 
 Greenwich: JAI Press, 1993. 
 
 Cantor, Muriel and Anne Peters. “The Employment and Unemployment of Screen Actors in the United States." in 
 Economic Policy for the Arts. W.S. Hendon, et. al., eds. Cambridge: ABT, 1980. 
 
 Chmelar, Robin D. "Health Insurance and Workers' Compensation Issues for Performing Artists, Part 1 1." 
 
 Medical Problems of Performing Artists 5, (1990), 67-71. 
 
 Chmelar, Robin D. "Health Insurance and Workers' Compensation Issues for Performing Artists, Part II." Medical 
 Problems of Performing Artists 5, (1990), 101-105. 
 
 Chong, J. Zaza C„ and Smith F. "Design and Implementation of a Performing Artists' Health Program m Canada. 
 
 " Medical Problems of Performing Artists 6, (1991). 
 
 CheatwoodJD."The Private Muse in the Public World."in Public Policy and the Am.K.V.Mulcaby amd C.R 
 Swaim, eds. Westview Press: Boulder, 1982. 
 
 Clark, M.A. "Counseling Artists in the Acquisition and Use of New York City Cooperative Housing. " Columbia- 
 VLA Journal of Law and the Arts 14, 1990, 165- 
 
 Cleveland, William. Art in Other Places. Artists at Work in America s Community and Social Institutions. 
 Westport: Preager, 1992. 
 
 Csikszentmihalyi, Mihalyi, Getzels, Jacob and Kahn, Stephen P. "Talent and Achievement." Chicago, 1984. 
 Unpublished report. 
 
 Cwi, David, ed. Research in the Arts,, Baltimore: The Walters Art Gallery, 1978, "Research on the American 
 Artist and Craftsman," 72-97. 
 
 Dahl, Dam and Irvin Magnus. Moving Studios or How to Succeed in the Business by Really Trying Artists 
 Newsletter. June 1990. pp. 32-33. 
 
 Diesenhaus, Susan. "Bankers, Artists Unite in Creation of Brickbottom." Boston Business Journal. January 4, 
 1988.. 
 
 Doig, Adriemne and Tess Horowitz (eds.). Endangered Spaces Artist Run Initiatives in New South Wales. Sydney: 
 Artspace Sydney, 1989. 
 
 Economic Situation of the Visual Artist. (Report unpublished). London: Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, 1985. 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Egan, Sue. Framing the Visual Arts in Newham: The Report of a Feasibility Study into the Establishment of Studio 
 & Exhibition Space in the London Borough of Newham. Newham: Newham Arts Council, March 1989. 
 
 Ehrlich, Cyril. "Profession or Job? Musicians in Late Nineteenth Century Britain." in Economic Policy for the 
 Arts. W.S. Hendon, et. al., eds. Cambridge: ABT, 1980. 
 
 Ekos Research Associates, Inc. "Rethinking the Status of the Artist: A Celebration of Excellence. Integrated 
 Report: The Status of the Artist Study. " Ottawa: 31 March 1987. 
 
 Ennis, P. and J. Bonin. Understanding the Employment of Actors. Washington, DC.: National Endowment for the 
 Arts, 1977. 
 
 Felton, M.V. "The Economics of the Creative Arts: The Case of the Composer." Journal of Cultural Economics 2, 
 (1978), 41-61. 
 
 Felton, M.V. "Policy Implications of a Composer Labor Supply." in Economic Policy for the Arts. W.S. Hendon, 
 et. al.,eds. Cambridge: ABT, 1980. 
 
 Filer, RK. "The 'starving artist' - myth or reality? Earnings of artists in the United States." Journal of Political 
 Economy 94, (February, 1986), 56-75. 
 
 Filer, R.K. "The Effects of Nonpecuniary Compensation on Estimates of Labor Supply Functions. Quarterly 
 Review of Economics and Business 16, (Spring 1986), 17-30. 
 
 Filer, R K. "The Price of Failure: Earnings of Former Artists.” in Artists and Cultural Consumers. D. V. Shaw, 
 W.S. Hendon and C.R. Waits, eds. Akron: Association for Cultural Economics, 1987. 
 
 Filer, R.K. "The Economic Condition of Artists in America." in Cultural Economics 88: An American 
 Perspective. Shaw, D., et al., eds. Akron: Association of Cultural Economists, 1989. 
 
 Filer, Randall K. "Arts and Academe: The Effect of Education on Earnings of Artists." Journal of Cultural 
 Economics 14, (December 1990), 15-40. 
 
 Fisher, Mark and Ursula Owen (eds). Whose Cities? London: Penguin, 1991. 
 
 Fohrbeck, K. and Wiesand, A.J. The Social Status of the Artist in the Federal Republic of Germany. Bonn: Inter 
 Nationes, 1980. 
 
 Forbes, Jonathan. Artists and the Workplace. The Pilot Phase. A report from the Ontario Arts Council, 12 
 February 1990. 
 
 Goode, D.J. and Knight, S-P. "Identification, Retrieval and Analysis of Arts Medicine Literature." Medical 
 Problems of Performing Artists 6, (1991). 
 
 Gray, C.M. "Nonpecuniary Rewards in the Performing Arts Labor Market: A Case Study of Dancers and 
 
 Choreographers." in The Economics of Cultural Industries. W.S. Hendon, et al., eds. Akron: Association for 
 Cultural Economics, 1984. 
 
 Gray, C.M. "The Economics of Arts Labor Markets: An Overview.” in Artists and Cultural Consumers. D. V. 
 Shaw, W.S. Hendon and C.R. Waits, eds. Akron: Association for Cultural Economics, 1987. 
 

 
 
Greben, S.E. "The Dancer Transition Centre of Canada: Addressing the Stress of Giving up Professional 
 Dancing." Medical Problems of Performing Artists 4, (1989), 128- 
 
 Greben, S.E. "Dealing with the Stresses of Aging in Dancers." Medical Problems of Performing Artists 7, (1992). 
 
 Griff, M. "Fine Arts: Recruitment and Socialization of Artists." In International Encyclopedia of the Social 
 Sciences 5, 447-455, New York: Macmillan Press, 1968. 
 
 Griff. M. "The Recruitment and Socialization of Artists. " in The Sociology of Art and Literature: A Reader. M.C. 
 Albrecht, J.H. Barret, and M. Griff, eds.. New York: Praeger, 1970. 
 
 Gritzer, Glenn. “The Role of Gender, Class and Race in the Student Careers of Artists.” Art& Academes (Feb. 
 1992). 
 
 Hackney, Fiona. "Trials and Tribulations,” Artist Newsletter. April 1991. 
 
 Hale, Rosemary D. "An Economic Analysis of the Architectural Profession. " Journal of Cultural Economics 4, 
 (December 1980), 29-38. 
 
 Harman, S. E. "Bibliography of Occupational Disorders in Instrumental Musicians.” Medical Problems of 
 Performing Artists 3, (1988). 
 
 Harris, N. The Artist in American Society: The Formative Years. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966. 
 
 Harris, N. The Artist in American Society. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1970. 
 
 Harrison Brian R and John R Thera. "Economic Status of Canadian Freelance Writers." in Economics of Cultural 
 Decisions. William S. Hendon and James L. Shanahan, eds. Cambridge: Abt Books, 1983. 
 
 Harrison, J. "Arts-related Hazards: Artists should be put in the picture," Canadian Medical Association Journal 
 140,(1989). 
 
 Hercombe, Sue. What the hell do we need an Artist here for? London: Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, 1986. 
 
 Hewitt, Alan "Like It Is, Man: Professional Theater Employment 1961- 1968.” Performing Arts Review 1 , (1970), 
 623-667. 
 
 Hope, Ken. "Musings on Themes from the Artists Fellowship Roundtable." in Grantmakers in the Arts Newsletter 
 (date?),3-6, 12. 
 
 Horowitz JJ." Work and Earnings of Artists in the Media Fields." Journal of Cultural Economics 7,(1983),69-89. 
 
 Horowitz, H. "The Status of Artists in the USA." Journal of Cultural Economics 17, (1993). This is a revised and 
 updated version of "Status of Artists in USA" in European Symposium of the Status of the Artists, Hanasaari 
 Finland, May 31 June 2, 1992, Final Report, Auli Irjala, ed. Publications of the Finish National Commission 
 for UNESCO, No. 64, Helsinki 1992. 
 
 Housing and Work Space Needs of Toronto 's Artists and Artisans. Paper prepared for the City of Toronto Housing 
 Department. Prepared by Social Data Research Ltd. Toronto, April 1990. 
 
 Jamison, Kay Redfield. "Suicide and Manic-depressive Illness in Artists and Writers." National Forum 72, (1993). 
 
 Jarmusch, Ann. "Economy Paints Bleak Picture for Artists " Dallas Times Herald. January 21, 1990, pp JI/4. 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
Jeffri J. ed. The Artists' Work-Related, Human and Social Services Questionnaire I. New York: Research Center 
 for Arts and Culture, Columbia University, 1986. 
 
 Jeffri, J., J. Hosie and R. Greenblatt. "The Artist Alone: Work-Related and Social Needs-Selected Findings. " 
 Journal of Arts Management and Law 17, (Fall 1987), 5-22. 
 
 Jeffri J. ed. The Artists' Work-Related, Human and Social Services Questionnaire 11 New York: Research Center 
 for Arts and Culture, Columbia University, 1988. 
 
 Jeffri J. "Artists as Consumers. The Needs of Creative Artists are Marketing Opportunities." American 
 Demographics (April 1988), 28-31, 61. 
 
 Jeffri J. ed. Information on Artists. New York: Research Center for Arts and Culture, Columbia University, 1989. 
 
 Jeffri, J. and R. Greenblatt. "Between Extremities: The Artist Described.” Journal of Arts Management and Law 
 19, (Spring 1989), 5-14. 
 
 Jeffri, J. and Throsby, D. "Professionalism and the Visual Artist." European Journal of Cultural Policy, 1.1, 
 
 1994. 
 
 Jeffri J. ed. The Artists' Training and Career Project. New York: Research Center for Arts and Culture, Columbia 
 University, 1990. 
 
 Jeffri J. "The Artist in an Integrated Society. " in Public Money and the Muse. Stephen Benedict, ed. New York: 
 Norton, 1991. 
 
 Jeffri. J. The Craftsperson Speaks: Artists in Varied Media Discuss Their Crafts. Westport: Greenwood, 1992. 
 
 Jeffri. J. The Painter Speaks. Westport: Greenwood, 1993. 
 
 Jeffri. J. The Actor Speaks. Westport: Greenwood, 1994. 
 
 Jollant-Kneebone, Francoise. 1940-2000: Crafts and Industry, From Divorce to Honeymoon. London: RSA 
 Lecture, 1992. 
 
 L. Ferguson Julenda. Black Choreographers Moving. Berkeley, Expansion Arts Services, 1991. 
 
 Kammerman, J. B. and R. Martorella. Performers and Performances. South Hadley: Bergin-Garvey, 1983. 
 
 Kaplan, M. "Part II: Creators" in his The Arts: A Social Perspective. Cranbury: Associated University Press, 1990. 
 
 Kazanijian, Dodie, ed. "Artists on Their Art." Arts Review 2, (Spring 1985). 
 
 Kazanijiam, Dodie, ed. "Portrait of the Artist 1987 : Who Supports Him/Her TArts Review 4,(Spring 1987). 
 
 Keens, William. Roundtable Discussion on the Needs of Visual Artists, report of a meeting convened by the Marie 
 Walsh Sharpe Art Foundation, New York, 1988. 
 
 Keller, Anthony, "The Artists and Public Policy I: An Interview with Douglas Davis;" "The Artists and Public 
 Policy 11: An Interview with Laurie Anderson." Journal of Arts Management and Law 13, (Spring 1983), 
 129-148. 
 

 
 
 
Kingston, P. et al., "The Columbia Economic Survey of American Authors: A Summary of the Findings." Mimeo. 
 New York: Columbia University Center for Social Science, 1981. (For the Authors Guild Foundation) 
 
 Kitchell, Karen. "Speakeasy." New Art Examiner. Summer l 992. 
 
 Kouwenhoven, John A. "The Artists Dilemma." in The Arts in Modern American Civilization. New York: Norton, 
 1967. 
 
 Lang, Gladys Engel and Lang, Kurt. "Recognition and Renown: The Survival of Artistic Reputation." American 
 Journal of Sociology 94:1 (July 1988): 79-109. 
 
 Lee, S. "Patterns of Choice, Bias, and belief: Report from a Pilot Study on Dancers and Health Care." Medical 
 Problems of Performing Artists 7, (1992), 52-59. 
 
 Lesnick, Howard. "Artists, Workers, and the Law of Work: Keynote Address." Journal of Arts Management and 
 Law 16, (Summer 1986), 39-46. 
 
 Levine, E. "Artists in Society." The Public Interest 66,(1982). 
 
 Lipske, Mike. Artists 'Housing-Creating Live/Work Space That Lasts. New York: Center for Cultural Resources, 
 1988. 
 
 Live Work Form & Function. San Francisco: ArtHouse & California Lawyers for the Arts, 1989. 
 
 Live Work LA. Los Angeles: California Lawyers for the Arts, 1990. 
 
 Lord, William Jr. How Authors Make A Living. New York: Scarecrow Press, 1962. 
 
 Lowry, W. McNeil. "The Individual Artist: Training and Development." A symposium in his The Performing Arts 
 and American Society. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1978. 
 
 McEwin, Florence. "An Aesthetic and Historical Background of American Women Artists." Kansas Quarterly 19, 
 (1987). 
 
 MacDonald, G. "The Economics of Rising Stars" American Economic Review 78, (1988), 155-66. 
 
 MacRitichie, Lynn. "To the Lighthouse." Financial Times. 25 November 1991. 
 
 Mayeda, Cynthia. “A Place at the Table." in The Challenge of Change: Papers and Presentations from the 15th 
 Annual Conference, New York: FEDAPT, 1987. 
 
 McLain, J.J. "The Income of Visual Artists in New Orleans." Journal of Cultural Economics 2,(1978)63-76. 
 
 Miller, Kate. "Challenges of a Poisoned Chalice - As Housing Associations expamd their Role to tackle the 
 Homes Crisis." The Guardian. 14 August 1991. 
 
 Ministry of Culture and Communications. The Status of the Artist in Ontario: Summary. Toronto: Ministry of 
 Culture and Communications, 1992. 
 
 Mitchell, Ritva and Sari Karttunen. "Why and How to Define an Artist: Types of Definitions and Their 
 
 Implications for Empirical Research Results." in Cultural Economics. Ruth Towse and Abdul Khakee, eds. 
 Heidelberg: Springer- Verlag, 1992. 
 

 
Moulin, Raymonde. A Handbook for Plastic Artists. London: HSMO, 1988. 
 
 Munk, Erika. "New York to the Arts: Drop Dead - How the Real Estate Boom is Wrecking the Cultural Capital of 
 the World.'- The Village Voice. May 13, 1986. 
 
 Myerscough, John. Facts about the Arts-2. London: PSI. 1986. 
 
 Nagel, Julie Jaffee. "An Examination of the Commitment to Careers in the Musical Performing Arts: Implications 
 for Alienation from Vocational Choice.” in Artists and Cultural Consumers, D. V. Shaw, W.S. Hendon and 
 C.R. Waits, eds. Akron: Association for Cultural Economics, 1987. 
 
 Nagel, Julie Jaffee. "Identity and Career Choice in Music." Journal of Cultural Economics 12, (December 1988), 
 67-76. 
 
 Nagel, Julie Jaffee. "In Pursuit of Perfection: Career Choice and Performance Anxiety in Musicians. " Medical 
 Problems of Performing Artists 3, (1988-, 140- National Endowment for the Arts, 1989 Sourcebook of Arts 
 Statistics, 1992 Addendum. Westat: Washington, DC. 1992. 
 
 Nesson, Jero. Artists in Space. A Handbook for Developing Artists 'Studio Space. Boston: Fort Point Arts 
 Community, Inc. of South Boston, 1987. 
 
 New York Foundation for the Arts, The Orcas Conference Notebook November 1988, Orcas Island, Washington 
 State. 
 
 O'Hagan, John and Joseph Dennehy. Employment and the Arts Definitional Issues and some Data for Ireland. 
 CIRCLE Paper. Dublin: Trinity College, 1989. 
 
 Ontario Arts Council. "In the Province of Artists." Toronto: OAC, 1989. 
 
 Ontario Arts Council. "Occupation Artist." Toronto: OAC, 1992. 
 
 Panasuk, C. An Analysis of Selected Performing Arts Occupations. Ottawa, Canada: Council for the Select 
 Commission on Manpower and Immigration, 1974. 
 
 Peters, Monnie and Sarah Foote Cohen. "Study of Health Coverage and Health Care Needs of Originating Artists 
 in the United States." New York: ACA, 1991. 
 
 Plender, John. "Where Housing West Wrong." Financial Times. 21 March 1991. 
 
 Piirto, J. "Why Are There So Few? (Creative Women: Visual Artists, Mathematicians, Musicians). Roeper 
 Review, 13 (3), 1991. 
 
 Recommendationsconcerning the Status of the Artist. UNESCO. Adopted by the General Conference at it twenty- 
 first session. Belgrade, 27 October 1980. 
 
 Richardson, James F. "Career Patterns of American Opera Singers." in Economic Policy for the Arts. W.S. 
 Hendon, et. al., eds. Cambridge: ABT, 1980. 
 
 Rosen, S "The Economics of Superstars." American Economic Review 71, (1981) 845-58. 
 
 Rosenbloom, Barbara. "The Artist as Economic Actor in the Art Market." in Art, Ideology and Politics. J. Balfe 
 and M. J. Wyszomirski, eds. New York: Praeger, 1985. 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
Rossol, Monona, The Artist's Complete Health and Safety Guide. New York: Allworth Press, 1990. 
 
 Ruttenberg, Friedman, Kilgallen, Gutchess and Associates. "A Survey of Employment, Unemployment and 
 
 Underemployment in the Performing Arts." Washington, DC.: The Human Resources Development Institute, 
 1978. 
 
 Ruttenberg, Friedman, Kilgallen, Gutchess and Associates. "Working and not Working in the Performing Arts: A 
 Survey of Employment, Unemployment and Underemployment Among Performing Artists, 1980." 
 Washington, D.C. : Labor institute for Human Enrichment, 1981. 
 
 Ryan, Mary Jean. "In Quiet Desperation: Professional Strategies of the Aspiring Fine Artist." UCLA: 1985. 
 Unpublished dissertation. 
 
 Santos, FP. "Risk, Uncertainty and the Performing Artist." in The Economics of the Arts. Mark Blaug, ed. 
 London: Martin Robertson, 1976. 
 
 Schmitt, D. "AIDS Deaths Among Professional Dancers. “Medical Problems of Performing Artists 5, (1990), 128- 
 131. 
 
 Schwarz, Samuel. ’’Differential Economics and A Decreasing Share of Artistic Personnel Costs. " Journal of 
 Cultural Economics 7, (June 1983), 27-32. 
 
 Sennett, Richard. The Conscience of the Eye. London: Faber & Faber, 1991. 
 
 Simpson Charles R. SoHo: The Arts in the City. Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 1981. 
 
 Singer, L.P. "Supply decisions of professional artists” American Economic Review 71, (May 1981), 334-346. 
 
 Singer, L. P. Are Public Subventions For Visual Artists Creativist or Anticreativist? A Neo-Classical Analysis 
 1982 conference report - Markets for the Arts. Association for Cultural Economics. Akron: University of 
 Akron, 1982. 
 
 Smith, D.W.E. "Aging and the Careers of Symphony Orchestra Musicians." Medical Problems of Performing 
 Artists 4, (1989). 
 
 Smith, D.W.E. "Medical Problems of Orchestral Musicians According to Age and Stage of Career." Medical 
 Problems of Performing Artists 7, (1992). 
 
 Snooks, G.D. "Determinants of earnings inequality amongst Australian artists. " Australian Economic Papers 22, 
 (December 1983), 322-332. 
 
 Solesbury, William. Reconstructing National Urban Policy for the 1990s. Paper prepared during a Research 
 Fellowship at Nuffield College, Oxford. December 1990. 
 
 Stanford, Jon. D. "The Economics of the Market for Contemporary Visual Arts." in Cultural Economics 88: A 
 European Perspective. C.R. Waits, W.S. Hendon and J.M.D. Schuster, eds. Akron: Association for Cultural 
 Economics, 1987. 
 
 Stock, Jon. "Art is Taking Vacant Possession." Daily Telegraph. 15 October, 1991. p. 16. 
 
 Stohs, J. "Intrinsic Motivation and Sustained Art Activity Among Male Fine and Applied Artists." Creativity 
 Research Journal V, 1992. 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Stohs, J. "Young Adult Predictors and Middle Outcomes of "Starving Artists” Careers: A Longitudinal Study of 
 Male Fine Artists." The Journal of Creative Behavior 25- (1991)- 92- . 
 
 Stohs, J. "Career Patterns and Family Status of Women and Men Artists." The Career Development Quarterly 40, 
 (1992). 
 
 Summerton, Janet. "Patterns of Success in the Contemporary Visual Arts." in Cultural Economics 88: A European 
 Perspective. C.R Waits, W.S. Hendon and J.M.D. Schuster, eds. Akron: Association for Cultural Economics, 
 1987. 
 
 Swaim, Richard. The Modern Muse: The Support and Condition of Artists. New York: American Council for the 
 Arts, 1989. 
 
 Taylor 11, Brian. "Artists in the Marketplace: A Framework for Analysis.” in Artists and Cultural Consumers, D. 
 V. Shaw, W.S. Hendon and C.R Waits, eds. Akron: Association for Cultural Economics, 1987. 
 
 "The Status of the Artist." A discussion paper. Ministry of Culture and Communications, Canada, February 1990. 
 
 Throsby, C.D. The Arts in Australia Today. Sydney: Australia Council, 1984. 
 
 Throsby, D. "Artists as Workers, n in Towse, Ruth and Abdul Khakee, Eds. Cultural Economics. Heidelberg: 
 Springer-Verlag, 1992. 
 
 Throsby, D. and Mills, D. Occupational and Employment Characteristics of Artists. Sydney: Australia Council, 
 1986. 
 
 Throsby, D. and Mills, D. When Are You Going to Get a Real Job? Sydney : Australia Council, 1989. 
 
 Throsby, D. and Towse, Ruth. "On Labor Markets in the Arts: Some Unresolved Issues." American Economic 
 Association Annual Meeting, January 4- 1994. 
 
 Thomcroft, Antony. "The Best Drama is Off Stage." Financial Times, 7 September 1991. 
 
 Towse, R. "The Earnings of Singers: An Economic Analysis." in Cultural Economics. Ruth Towse and Abdul 
 Khakee, eds. Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, 1992. 
 
 Towse, R The Economics of the Singing Profession, Forthcoming. 
 
 Towse, Ruth and Abdul Khakee, eds. Cultural Economics. Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, 1992. 
 
 Towse, Ruth. "The Social and Economic Characteristics of Artists in Devon. " A Report commissioned by South 
 West Arts and the Arts Council of Great Britain. Prepared in conjunction with Social Community Planning 
 Research, 1991. 
 
 Towse, Ruth. The Labor Market for Artists. University of Exeter, Department of Economics, January 1992. 
 
 Under Billy Penn 's Hat: Living & Work Space for Artists & Others. Philadelphia: Philadelphia Volunteer Lawyers 
 for the Arts (PVLA), 1987. 
 
 UNESCO. "Recommendations Concerning the Status of the Artist." Adopted by the General Conference at its 
 Twenty-First Session, Belgrade, 27 October 1980. 
 

 
Visual and Crafts Artists A National Study of the Australian Crafts and Visual Arts Industry. Sydney: Australia 
 Council, 1989. 
 
 Waits, C.R. and E. M. McNertney. "Uncertainty and Investment in Human Capital in the Arts." in Economic 
 Policy for the Arts. W.S. Hendon, et. al., eds. Cambridge: Abt, 1980. 
 
 Waits,C.R and McNertney, E.M. "Income Incentives and the Selection of Artistic Careers.” in Markets for the 
 Arts. Shanahan, J.L. et. al., eds. Akron: Association for Cultural Economics, 1983. 
 
 Waits, C.R. and McNertney, E.M. "An Economic Model of Artistic Behavior", Journal of Cultural Economics 8, 
 (1984) 49-60. 
 
 Waits, C.R. and McNertney, E.M. "The Incomes of Cultural Providers: A Review of Current Research. " in Artists 
 and Cultural Consumers. D. V. Shaw, W.S. Hendon and C.R. Waits, eds. Akron: Association for Cultural 
 Economics, 1987. 
 
 Wassail, G.H. and N.O. Alper. Art Work. Cambridge: New England Foundation for the Arts, 1983. 
 
 Wassail, G.H. and Alper, N.O. "Determinants of Artists' Earnings " In The Economics of Cultural Industries. 
 Hendon, et. al., eds. Akron: Association for Cultural Economics, 1984. 
 
 Wassail, G.H. and Alper, N.O. "Occupational Characteristics of Artists: A Statistical Analysis." Journal of 
 Cultural Economics 9, (1985) 13-3. 
 
 Wassail, G. H. and N. O. Alper. "When Is am Artist am Artist: An Analysis of Factors Related to Claiming 
 Membership to this Profession." Journal of Arts Management and Law 19, (Winter 1990), 37-50. 
 
 Wassail, G. and N. Alper. "Toward a Unified Theory of the Determinants of the Earnings of Artists." in Cultural 
 Economics, Ruth Towse and Abdul Khakee, eds. Heidelberg: Spranger-Verlag, 1992. 
 
 Wallis, Brian(ed.). If You Lived Here. The City in Art, Theory, and Social Activism. Seattle: Bay Press, 1991. 
 
 J. Williams, H. Bollen, M. Gidney, P. Owens. The Artist in the Changing City. London: British American Arts 
 Assn., 1993. 
 
 Withers, G. "Artists' Subsidy of the Arts." Australian Economic Papers 24, (1985), 290-95. 
 
 Withers, G. "Artists' Subsidy of the Arts: A Reply." Australian Economic Papers 28, (1989), 289-90. 
 
 Wolff, Janet. The Social Production of Art" London: Macmillan Press, 1981. 
 
 Zukin, Sharon. "Loft Living. Balto: John Hopkins University Press, 1982. 
 

 
 
Publications, Research Division, National Endowment for the Arts. 
 
 A, Research Division Reports 
 
 The following Research Division Reports are available from the Research Division, National Endowment for the 
 Arts, 1100 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW., Washington, DC 20506. Single copies are available free while 
 quantities last. 
 
 REPORT 
 
 #1 Employment and Unemployment of Artists: 1970-1975. 
 
 #2 To Survey American Crafts: A Planning Study. 
 
 #3 Understanding the Employment of Actors. 
 
 #5 Where Artists Live: 1970. 
 
 #7 Minorities and Women in the Arts: 1970. 
 
 #10 Selected Characteristics of Artists 1970. 
 
 #12 Artists Compared by Age, Sex, and Earnings in 1970 and 1976. 
 
 #13 Craft Artist Membership Organizations 1978. 
 
 #16 Artist Employment and Unemployment: 1971-1980. 
 
 # 18 Visual Artists in Houston, Minneapolis, Washington, and San Francisco: Earnings and Exhibition 
 Opportunities, 
 
 #19 Where Artists Live 1980. 
 

 
 
 
 
 
B. Research Division Notes 
 
 The following Research Division Notes are available from the Research Division, National Endowment for the 
 Arts, 1 100 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW., Washington DC 20506. Single copies are available free. 
 
 NOTE 
 
 #2 Artist Employment in 1982 (January 24,1983) 
 
 #3 Artists Increase 81% in the 1970s (April 27,1983) 
 
 #4 Women and Minorities in Artist Occupations (July 4,1983) 
 
 #5 Artists in the Large Metropolitan Areas (September 5,1983) 
 
 #7 Artist Employment in 1983 (March 15,1984) 
 
 #9 Changing Proportions of Men and Women in the Artist Occupations 1970-1980 (March 4,1985) 
 
 #10 Artists Real Earnings Decline 37 Percent in the 1970s March 5,1985) 
 
 #11 Artist Employment in 1984 (March 5,1985) 
 
 #15 Artist Employment in 1985 (March 10,1986) 
 
 #22 Artist Employment in 1986 (March 20,1987) 
 
 #29 Artist Employment in 1987 February 17, 1988) 
 
 #31 Artist Employment in 1988 (April 17, 1989) 
 
 #33 Artist Employment in 1989 (September 24, 1990) 
 
 #35 Artist Employment in 1990 (October 21, 1991) 
 
 #37 Artist Employment in 1991 (November 30, 1992) 
 

C. Others not listed as Research Reports or Research Notes 
 
 Available through ERIC. Abstracts of these are appended to this bibliography. 
 
 "Craft Artists in the United States," 
 
 C. Citro. ERIC # ED 287 765 
 
 "The Distribution of Artists Among Industrial Sectors," 
 
 Diane EUis. ERIC # ED 289 768 
 
 "Trends in Artistic Occupations: 1970-1980," 
 
 Diane Ellis. No ERIC # could be found. 
 
 "Women and Minorities in the Arts: A Portrait from the 1980 Census," 
 
 C. Citro and D. Gaquin. ERIC # ED 298 028 
 
 "Employment Status of Performing Artists, 1970-1980,~N 
 Muriel Cantor. ERIC # ED 298 024 
 
 "Earnings of Artists," Diane Ellis. ERIC # ED 289 761 
 
 "Labor Market Earnings of American Artists in 1980. A report to the National Endowment for the Arts," R. Filer. 
 ERIC# ED 309 109 
 
 "Artists in the Workforce," 
 
 C. Citro and D. Gaquin. ERIC # ED 298 027 
 
 ’’Visual Artists in America: A Report on the 1970 and 1980 Census Data on Visual Arts," R. Orend, No ERIC 
 number has been assigned. 
 
* 
 
 
 
Census Related Sources 
 
 Beresford, Jack. Notes on Trends in Artist Occupations 1970-1990. January 28,1993. National Endowment for the 
 Arts. 
 
 Public Use Microdata Samples: United States 1990 Census of Population and Housing, US. Dept, of Commerce, 
 Economics and Statistics Administration, Bureau of Census.