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Plymouth Rocks; 
 
 ORIGIN, CHARACTERISTICS, 
 
 EEQUIREMENTS, ETC., 
 
 WITH 
 
 SPECIAL REFERENCE 
 
 IMPROVED STRAIN 
 
 BY F. H. CORBIN. 
 
 HARTFORD: 
 
 PRESS OF THE CASE, LOCKWOOD & BRAINARD COMPANY. 
 
 1879. 
 
436. r 
 
 Copyrighted. 
 
 1879. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Preface, .... 
 
 The Poultry Business. . 
 
 Original Plymouth Rocks, 
 
 Origin of Plymouth Rocks, . 
 
 Improved Plymouth Rocks, . 
 
 Excellences of Plymouth Rocks, 
 
 Hardiness, .... 
 
 Early Maturity, 
 
 Productiveness, 
 
 Table Quality, . . 
 
 Fanciers, .... 
 
 Fanciers' Mating and Breeding, 
 
 In-and-in Breeding, 
 
 Mating and Breeding for Utility, 
 
 Management and Care of Stock, 
 
 Warmth, 
 
 Ventilation, . 
 
 Range, 
 
 Quarters, 
 
 Poultry-House, 
 
 Food for Adult Fowls, . 
 
 Care of Breeding Stock. 
 
 Incubation, . 
 
 Care of Chicks, 
 
 Food for Chicks, . 
 
 Fattening of Fowls, 
 
 ft7(*^9 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 In offering the following work to the public for its 
 perusal, we can but hope that the truths contained in 
 its pages will be of some service to the beginner and 
 amateur. We do not expect the lireeder of large and 
 varied experience to find many new facts presented 
 for his consideration ; but if it shall, to any extent, 
 aid the beginner to escape the pitfalls and difficulties 
 which we, in common with others, have experienced, 
 we shall be amply repaid for our labor. 
 
 There has been much discussion upon the subject 
 here presented, and not a little difference of opinion, 
 even among breeders of first-class birds ; l^ut we be- 
 lieve there has been no considerable work written, 
 although the need of one has been felt for some time. 
 
 Whether this treatise supplies the need or not is 
 for the public generally, and especially those inter- 
 ested in breeding this justly popular fowl, to deter- 
 mine. 
 
THE POULTRY BUSINESS. 
 
 For quite a number of years the interest in the 
 raising of fowls has been steadily increasing, and 
 those who, twenty years since, prophesied that the 
 business was being overdone, and must, inevitably, 
 soon collapse, have been perfectly amazed to see the 
 rapid strides with which it has advanced, until to-day 
 it forms one of the leading industries of this country. 
 
 The amount of capital invested in this pursuit is 
 simply enormous, and yet it is constantly increasing. 
 Pass through the country in any direction, and at 
 nearly every habitation you will find more or fewer 
 fowls of some kind, while here and there may be 
 seen the more pretentious buildings of the fancier or 
 amateur. 
 
 The reason for this is obvious. Men will do, as a 
 rule, whatever it pays them best to do, and this of 
 itself is a tacit acknowledgment of the value of this 
 pursuit. 
 
 Let us briefly examine the annual value of some of 
 the other leading industries of this country, and com- 
 pare the result with this branch. This will enable us 
 to obtain an approximate idea, at least, of their rela- 
 tive importance. 
 1* 
 
6 
 
 The Report of the Department of Agriculture for 
 the year 1877 gives the total cash values of several 
 products as follows : Corn, four hundred and eighty 
 million dollars plus ($480,643,400): wheat, three 
 hundred and ninety-four million dollars plus (|394,- 
 675,779) ; hay, two hundred and seventy-one million 
 dollars plus (1271,934,950) ; oats, one hundred and 
 eighteen million dollars plus (1118,666,550) ; and 
 potatoes, only seventy-six million dollars plus (i76,- 
 249,500). 
 
 It is, of course, impossible to give the exact value 
 of the poultry business, but a sufficiently accurate 
 estimate may be made. 
 
 The number of inhabitants in the United States 
 will not vary far from forty-five millions (45,000,000). 
 Now, suppose that each one, on the average, consumes 
 directly or indirectly five eggs per week (which is a 
 small allowance). Estimating on this basis, we shall 
 find that the production of eggs amounts to nine hund- 
 red and seventy-five million (975,000,000) dozen, 
 which, at the low price of twenty cents per dozen, 
 yields a total value of one hundred and ninety-five 
 million dollars (1195,000,000) for eggs alone. 
 
 Each inhabitant will also consume, on the average, 
 about five dollars' worth of dressed poultry during 
 the year, which will amount to the respectable sum 
 of two hundred and twenty-five million dollars (1225,- 
 
000,000) for all. Add the two amounts together and 
 we find the total value of the poultry business to 
 be four hundred and twenty million dollars (1420,- 
 000,000). 
 
 This, of course, does not include the foreign or 
 export trade, which, if added, would materially in- 
 crease its value. 
 
 It will thus be seen that the value of the poultry 
 business is greater than that of either of the products 
 named, with the exception of corn, and, also, that if 
 the export trade were added it would closely approach 
 that in value. 
 
 This business, however, like any other, requires to 
 be conducted upon fixed principles, and demands both 
 skill and attention in order to render it remunerative. 
 
 The greatest mistake made by beginners is in sup- 
 posing that they can engage in poultry-raising with 
 nothing more than a theoretical knowledge of the 
 business, and yet obtain exactly the same results, and 
 that, too, witli a large number of fowls, that a breeder 
 of many years of experience does. 
 
 Any one who should engage in extensive mercantile 
 pursuits with no practical knowledge of the branch to 
 which he proposed to devote himself, would be con- 
 sidered but little better than a lunatic ; and yet this is 
 precisely what many have done, and are still doing, 
 in this business. 
 
8 
 
 A few failures must be expected at the start; it 
 cannot be otherwise ; but with careful attention to 
 details there need not be many. 
 
 Every beginner should make choice of some one 
 breed, and, before adding others to his yard, devote 
 himself to this until he has made it a success or 
 proved it a failure. He can then use his acquired 
 skill to advantage. 
 
 It is with a hope of helping him, in some measure, 
 in making an intelligent choice of such stock or breed, 
 and then of aiding him in breeding and caring for 
 the same, that the following pages are written. 
 
ORIGINAL PLYMOUTH EOCKS. 
 
 Something like thirty years since, a cross-breed 
 fowl was originated by Dr. J. C. Bennett, then in the 
 height of his popularity. A few of this cross-breed 
 were exhibited at Boston in 1849. To this breed. Dr. 
 Bennett gave the name of Plymouth Rocks, for what 
 reason it is impossible to see, as the severe austerity 
 of the early settlers of that region have little resem- 
 blance to this gay, parti-colored fowl, whose plumage 
 was as varied as Joseph's coat, and as changeable as 
 a chameleon. 
 
 The first cross seems to have been quite a success, 
 and to have caused considerable expectations ; but the 
 subsequent breeding of its progeny did not, apparently, 
 fulfil these expectations ; probably because it was 
 found to be impossible to permanently fix its charac- 
 teristics, the tendency to revert being strengthened 
 by mixing the blood of so many different breeds. 
 
 Taking Dr. Bennett as authority for the composition 
 of this breed (as appears both in his book and in the 
 Boston Cultivator of Aug. 25, 1849), we find it was 
 a cross of a Cochin China cockerel with a hen, herself 
 a cross between the fawn-colored Dorking, the great 
 Malay, and the Wild India. 
 
10 
 
 The Doctor adds : " The Plymouth Rock fowl, then, 
 is, in reality, one-half Cochin China, one-fourth fawn- 
 colored Dorking, one-eighth great Malay, and one- 
 eighth Wild India. The pullets commenced laying 
 when five months old, proving themselves very supe- 
 rior layers. Their eggs are of a medium size, rich, 
 and reddish-yellow in color. Their plumage is rich 
 and variegated ; the cockerels usually red or speckled, 
 and the pullets darkish-brown. They are very fine- 
 fleshed, and easily made fit for the table. Their legs 
 are very large, and usually blue orgreen, but occasion- 
 ally yellow or white, generally having five toes upon 
 each foot." 
 
 This breed continued to exist for several years, and 
 quite a number of fanciers became interested in its 
 success; but it was found impossible to cause it to 
 breed true or to transmit its qualities with any degree 
 of certainty, and therefore it gradually gave place to 
 other and more reliable breeds. 
 
OEIGIN OF PLYMOUTH ROCKS, 
 
 The breed of so-called Plymouth Rocks mentioned 
 in the previous chapter is now wholly extinct, and is, 
 practically, of no account, except that the name leads 
 to some confusion where the facts are not known. 
 For this reason a short account was deemed necessary 
 in order that the reader might clearly understand the 
 difference between those and the Plymouth Rocks of 
 the present day. It was not until several years after 
 the practical disappearance of the former breed that 
 the latter sprang into existence ; and the facts con- 
 cerning its origin caused an amount of controversy 
 almost unprecedented in the history of fowls. 
 
 The theories advanced were various, and were urged 
 pro and con by many of the leading fanciers of the 
 country. It is a true saying, and one well worthy of 
 acceptation, " That all men like to father a success 
 and disown a failure." It proved to be true indeed 
 in this case, for while little was heard or written in 
 regard to them previous to their being exhibited in 
 1869, and while, in fact, for some years afterwards, 
 they were but little known except to a few prominent 
 breeders, and found only in their yards, no sooner 
 was it generally understood that the most successful 
 
12 
 
 cross of the century had been made, and that its char- 
 acteristics had been sufficiently fixed to allow its being 
 admitted into the Standard as a fixed and permanent 
 breed, than numbers of articles from fanciers of well- 
 known ability began to appear in poultry papers and 
 journals in regard to them. Most of these writers 
 wielded a trenchant pen, and, for a time, the fate of 
 the subject-matter seemed in doubt. The fact that 
 there were apparently several different origins only 
 confounded the discussion and added fuel to the 
 flames. 
 
 The Upham-Ramsdell controversy was conducted 
 with both vigor and bitterness. The conceded ability 
 of these gentlemen, together with their readiness of 
 pen, only magnified the contest, diffused a knowledge 
 of the question among the poultry fraternity, and 
 caused others to take up the pen, both as principals 
 and advocates. After a time, it began to be uncertain 
 whether any such breed ever existed, and if there 
 was any, wiiere or from whence it sprang. 
 
 Another question intensified the controversy. While 
 all were agreed as to the Plymouth Rock being a 
 " cross "-breed, scarcely any two were agreed as to 
 what the cross was. The Black Java, Cochin, Domi- 
 nique, Dunghill, Gray Chittagongs, and English Gray 
 Dorkings, were all named as entering into the cross. 
 
 This disputation itself showed that the fanciers 
 
13 
 
 considered the Plymouth Rock well worthy of atten- 
 tion, and also that it was advancing with rapid strides 
 to the first place in the estimation of breeders gen- 
 erally. 
 
 As before intimated, there were several different 
 suspected origins to this breed, and some two or three, 
 perhaps worthy of mention. The most reliable one, 
 however, in the estimation of breeders of the present 
 day, was the cross of a single-combed Dominique cock 
 with Black Java hens. This may not be admitted by 
 all, but it has the best authority, and is now generally 
 acquiesced in. 
 
IMPROVED PLYMOUTH EOCKS. 
 
 There has probably never been a breed of fowls 
 that has given rise to a greater range of discussion, 
 and that, too, in regard to the minutest details, than 
 the Plymouth Rock. 
 
 We have seen that the halo of its early prosperity 
 had scarcely covered it when the honor of originating 
 it was hotly contested by foemen worthy of their 
 steel ; or, perhaps, it would be more in accordance 
 with facts to say, foemen worthy of their quills. 
 
 Hardly had the heat of this literary contest sub- 
 sided when the question what the Plymouth Rock 
 really was begun to be agitated. The question now 
 was, not " What was the cross? '• but, "What is the 
 breed ? " These two questions, being similar to each 
 other and of a kindred nature, are frequently con- 
 founded. They are, however, entirely distinct; the 
 first, viz., "What was the cross?" dealing with the 
 elements procuring a certain result ; and the second, 
 viz., " What is the breed?" dealing with the result 
 already produced. 
 
 Writers of greater or less note, some of national 
 reputation, took up this latter question ; a portion of 
 whom, by substituting cause for effect, endeavored to 
 
17 
 
 prove that it was only a modified form of some other 
 breed, forgetting, in their haste, that however much it 
 might resemble others in certain points or peculiari- 
 ties, still it was a distinct breed with a form, shape, 
 comb, color, and marking, peculiar to itself and recog- 
 nized as such by the Standard ; and that the only way 
 to change or modify any of its peculiarities was by 
 improvement, to which all breeds are susceptible. 
 
 Considerable dissatisfaction having arisen in regard 
 to the shape, the writer was induced to try a series 
 of experiments for the purpose of modifying this if 
 possible. After repeated failures, he succeeded in 
 fixing permanently upon his strain what he considers 
 the true Plymouth Rock shape, or rather one peculiar 
 to itself. 
 
 This partakes mucli more of the Dorking than of 
 the Cochin, being deeper and longer than the latter. 
 An examination of the fowls themselves shows, at 
 once, their manifest superiority. 
 
 The following editorial from the American Agricul- 
 turist of Dec, 1877, gives something of an idea as to 
 the estimation in which they are held by first-class 
 judges : " First among the good qualities of a fowl is 
 size. This the Plymouth Rocks have in an unusual 
 degree. There are many excellent breeds of poultry 
 which are all that can be desired, except as to size, 
 and the lack of this is fatal to their popularity; for, 
 
18 
 
 after all, profit is the chief object with most people 
 in choosing a kind of fowl to keep. Hardiness of 
 constitution, vigor, pleasing form, handsome and 
 attractive plumage, and prolific production of eggs 
 are all very desirable qualities in fowls, and these all 
 belong to this breed. It will probably be noticed 
 that the birds pictured in our illustration are remark- 
 ably heavy-bodied. This is a peculiarity which be- 
 longs in an especial degree to a strain bred by Mr. 
 F. H. Corbin of Newington, Conn." In the case 
 of the birds here represented, they come fully up to 
 the accepted Standard of Excellence of American 
 breeders and meet it in every respect. The form of 
 these birds is therefore nearly perfect. The Country, 
 an English paper, contains the following article : "An 
 American contemporary informs us that the Improved 
 Plymouth Rock fowls originated with F. H. Corbin of 
 Newington, Conn. This strain reproduces itself true 
 to feather and form. The form is peculiar, being 
 plump in tlie breast and square as to the body, and is 
 very much better than the original American Domi- 
 nique, which was a smaller bird. The Improved Ply- 
 mouth Rock is one of the best breeds for eggs and 
 the table, as it combines the fleshy body of the Asiatic 
 fowls with productiveness in eggs of the Leghorn. 
 The hen is a good mother, and, what is unusual, the 
 cock is a remarkably good foster-parent to the young 
 chicks." 
 
19 
 
 In regard to this improvement, the American Poul- 
 try Yard editorially says: "Mr. Corbin once ex- 
 pressed to us his preference for a long, square-bodied 
 fowl in. opposition to a tall, or a triangular, or Cochin- 
 shaped bird, and signified to us his intention to breed 
 to his ideal type. On the occasion of a quite recent 
 visit to his fine flock, we remarked that he had some 
 of the most decidedly Dorking-shaped birds that we 
 ever saw of that breed. Not that we mean that they 
 were anything other than true Plymouth Rocks- in 
 outline, or that they were shaped exactly like Dorkings, 
 but they suggested the Dorking type. Mr. Corbin 
 claims that his efforts have improved the breed, and 
 we see no reason to doubt itJ" 
 
 2* 
 
EXCELLENCES OF PLYMOUTH EOCKS, 
 HARDINESS. 
 
 The Plymouth Rock is one of the most, if not the 
 most, popular breeds of the present day, and the 
 elements of its popularity are such that its perma- 
 nency seems to be assured. It combines within itself 
 all of the essential properties that contribute to make 
 a breed preeminent, and which are justly sought, by 
 both the fancier and the farmer. 
 
 First of all, it is a very hardy and vigorous fowl. 
 There can be no question on this point. Scores of 
 letters from amateurs in all parts of the country tes- 
 tify as to this fact, while the experience of the best 
 breeders also shows that there is not a more hardy 
 fowl bred, or one that will succeed better, even under 
 neglect and ill usage. 
 
 Hardiness is generally understood to mean health, 
 strength, and vigor ; together with a constitution able 
 to resist disease. This, of course, is a secondary 
 meaning of the word, but is the one now generally 
 accepted, certainly in the breeding and raising of 
 stock. 
 
21 
 
 The Asiatics have always borne the palm for hardy 
 and vigorous constitutions. That they possess these 
 qualities in an eminent degree, all will admit. But 
 where they are bred in connection with Plymouth 
 Rocks, so that they may be compared under the same 
 circumstances, it will be found that the latter breed is 
 fully equal if not superior to any breed in existence 
 in point of hardiness. 
 
 This is a very important consideration, and one 
 that it is impossible to overestimate. Without it we 
 can do comparatively little. Our winters are so cold, 
 and the temperature so liable to change, that a breed 
 possessing a weak or delicate constitution had better 
 be let severely alone by the ordinary poultry-breeder ; 
 as there will nothing but failure and disappointment 
 follow its breeding. 
 
 Those who have all the conveniences of the fancier 
 may succeed measurably well in breeding from stock 
 lacking in hardiness ; but the class of men breeding 
 and raising most of the fowls in this country should 
 never touch such stock. We would not be understood 
 now as advocating this quality in order that the fowls 
 may be neglected, for that is never advantageous ; but 
 only to show that the Plymouth Rock wdll measurably 
 succeed in spite of it. Their hardiness, thrift, vigor, 
 and alertness, all combine to render them very active 
 foragers, and thus on good runs they are enabled to 
 
22 
 
 procure a great part of their food, and that of the kind 
 and quaUty best suited to their needs. 
 
 This inures to the benefit of the breeder in several 
 ways. It conduces to the general health of the fowl 
 and prevents disease, which is far better than any sys- 
 tem of cure, and also diminislies largely the cost of 
 feeding, which is a very great desideratum, as it de- 
 termines, to a certain extent, the amount of profits in 
 poultry-raising ; or, at least, largely increases them. 
 
EARLY MATUEITY. 
 
 Early maturity is another attribute which any breed 
 of fowls must possess, if it would rank high in the 
 breeder's estimation ; and here it is that the Plymouth 
 Rock stands without a rival. Not that it matures 
 earlier than any other breed ; for some of the smaller 
 ones may equal it, simply taking weeks and months 
 into account. It will, however, produce more pounds 
 of flesh, well laid on, in a given space of time, than 
 any other fowl. 
 
 The Asiatic will, perhaps, produce nearly as many 
 pounds weight, but has so large and bony a frame 
 that it is in a most undesirable condition for market 
 until fully matured, which is fatal to its popularity in 
 this respect ; while the Plymouth Rock always pre- 
 sents a fine appearance, when well fed, and is fit for 
 broiling at the age of three months. 
 
 A large fowl, maturing in the early fall, and ready 
 for market before extensive shipments are made from 
 the West and interior sections, is very desirable for a 
 number of reasons, and, other things being equal, will 
 always remain the popular breed. The cost of grain 
 is much higher here than at the West, and the expense 
 of transportation is greater in its natural condition 
 
24 
 
 than after being transformed into poultry. We must, 
 therefore, fit our fowls for market before the arrival 
 of theirs, in order to secure the greatest amount of 
 profit. This operates to tlie advantage of all con- 
 cerned, as the exhaustion of our home supply creates 
 a demand for western poultry at the proper season. 
 
 A strong competition is inevitably fatal to the 
 profits of almost any business ; and poultry-raising is 
 no exception to the rule. 
 
 It should be borne in mind also, by the reader, 
 that the cost of producing poultry for market purposes 
 is in inverse ratio to the time consumed in producing 
 it. The cost of simply keeping fowls or other stock 
 and supplying their wants will equal a certain amount 
 in value. Therefore, where flesh is the object sought, 
 the stock must sufficiently increase in size or flesh to 
 meet this cost, in order that there may be no actual 
 loss. Now the secret of profit in raising fowls for this 
 purpose consists in obtaining a greater increase of 
 weight than merely sufficient to pay the cost of keep- 
 ing, and will be in direct proportion to the extent the 
 breeder is enabled to do this. To illustrate : Suppose 
 that B lias a pen of Plymouth Rocks consisting of 
 twelve cockerels bred for market, and costing him 
 81.50 per month for feed. Now, estimating poultry at 
 twenty cent^ per pound, those cockerels must increase 
 at the rate of seven and one-half pounds per month, 
 
25 
 
 in order that B may lose nothing. If they do less 
 than that, he makes an actual loss. If, on the other 
 hand, however, they increase at the rate of fifteen 
 pounds per month, he makes a clear profit of one 
 hundred per cent. 
 
 It will thus be seen that the time consumed in pre- 
 paring fowls for market is an important factor to be 
 considered in determining what breed to keep, and in 
 estimating the profit to be derived from them. 
 
 Thus far we have discussed the flesh-forming prop- 
 erties of this fowl ; but there is another point worthy 
 of notice. Pullets will begin to lay, on the average, 
 at the age of six months, provided they have anything 
 like proper care and attention. Many will lay at an 
 earlier age, but the average will be as above stated. 
 
 Now, if chickens are hatched in March or April, 
 as they should be, they will be all ready to give us a 
 good supply of eggs before November 1st, when most 
 of the other breeds begin to fail. 
 
 Here again is a point where their hardy and vigor- 
 ous constitution is of paramount importance. Most 
 breeds, other than the Asiatics, are so much affected 
 by the cold, inclement weather of this season, that it 
 is useless to expect them to give us a plentiful, or 
 even a fair number of eggs, unless artificial heat is 
 used to raise the temperature sufficiently high ; and 
 even then the attempt is usually a partial failure. 
 
26 
 
 But give the Plymouth Rock good care and a suffi- 
 cient supply of varied food, and you will find no 
 trouble in having an abundance of eggs all through 
 the winter months. This in itself is a great desid- 
 eratum ; as one egg at this time is worth two in tlie 
 warm season. 
 
 We have the statement of the Rev. J. M. Bates, 
 that his Plymouth Rock pullets, in 1878, laid at the 
 age of four and one-half months. They also averaged 
 two hundred and twenty-five eggs each during the 
 following year ; and one of them laid seven eggs in 
 four days ; that is to say, three out of the four eggs 
 had double yelks. 
 
 As we know the gentleman in e]uestion to be per- 
 fectly reliable in all matters, we can vouch for the ac- 
 curacy of this statement. 
 
 In 1878, J. S. Pollock had five Plymouth Rock 
 pullets which laid before the age of four months, viz. : 
 one at the age of three months and twenty days ; a 
 second at three months and twenty-three days ; a 
 third at three months and twenty-seven days ; while 
 the others laid at the age of three months and twenty- 
 eight days. 
 
PRODUCTIVENESS. 
 
 Another excellent characteristic is productiveness ; 
 and any one who has bred and kept Plymouth Rocks 
 will readily concede that they possess this in an extra- 
 ordinary degree. It is true that some writers claim 
 the palm as layers for the Leghorns, and write eulo- 
 gistic works by the score to prove their superiority 
 over any other breed. 
 
 That they are fine layers, and have few equals in 
 this respect, is certainly true ; but with the same care 
 and attention the Plymouth Rock will lay fully as 
 many, if not more, eggs during the year than the 
 Leghorn. Both were bred in our yards for years. 
 Many and varied experiments were made as to this 
 very point, and the result invariably showed that the 
 Plymouth Rock was the more productive. 
 
 The value of the eggs from the latter breed was 
 
 found to be far greater than the former, from the fact 
 
 that a great part of their eggs were laid in winter 
 
 when eggs were scarce, and brought a good price, in 
 
 fact nearly double the price obtained in summer. In 
 
 regard to the number of eggs annually laid by each 
 
 hen, the best authorities agree that, while with small 
 
 flocks and good care vou may average one hundred 
 3 
 
28 
 
 and seventy-five per hen, still, with an ordinarily 
 large number of fowls it would be useless to expect 
 more than about one hundred and fifty. That will be 
 found to be about the average number laid by good, 
 fair Plymouth Rock hens or pullets ; although fre- 
 quently they will lay a much larger number. 
 
 In this estimation, an allowance is made for the 
 hatching and rearing annually one brood of chickens 
 by each hen. This course will usually be found much 
 more advantageous than to prevent their sitting alto- 
 gether ; as their egg-producing functions really need 
 a respite from their labors. This, the period of incu- 
 bation and the time spent in rearing the chicks will 
 give. 
 
 Many have advocated the use of incubators and 
 "artificial mothers." None of the former have as 
 yet been so arranged or constructed as to be of any 
 practical use to the ordinary breeder, and probably 
 will not, for many years to come. It is a very difficult 
 thing to supplant nature ; and while it may sometimes 
 be done, it nearly always costs more, in some form, 
 than it amounts to. 
 
 Artificial mothers may be used with profit when a 
 large number of chicks is desired, and with close 
 care and attention will be found a success ; but, as 
 before stated, it is better to let each hen rear one 
 brood a year herself. It has been found, in prac- 
 
29 
 
 tice, that small flocks pay the best in proportion to 
 numbers kept. To this rule the Plymouth Rock is no 
 exception. 
 
 On the 20tli of May, 1874, S. F. Peck had one 
 Plymouth Rock cockerel and eight pullets ; and from 
 these eight pullets he obtained, during the succeeding 
 year, one thousand eight hundred and forty-one eggs ; 
 an average of two hundred and thirty each, or nine- 
 teen and one-sixth dozen ; which at thirty cents per 
 dozen would amount to the modest sum of $5.75 per 
 head. 
 
 Now, if we estimate the feed at $1.25 each, which 
 is a liberal allowance, we shall find the profit on each 
 hen or pullet to have been $4.50 ; or on all, $36.00 ; 
 proving, conclusively, that where proper attention is 
 given, a good breed of fowls will pay better than any- 
 thing else bred or raised on the farm. 
 
TABLE QUALITY. 
 
 Considered as a table fowl, few, if any, who have 
 ever raised, sold, or eaten them, would care to make 
 any exchange. In market their full breast, compact 
 body, and yellow skin make a decidedly attractive 
 appearance. This has caused a strong demand to be 
 made for them by market-men, where they are 
 known, and better prices are paid than for any other 
 breed. This is certainly true in the Eastern States, 
 where from two to live cents additional per pound is 
 nothing unusual. 
 
 In fact, it would be practically useless to discuss 
 this quality, if it were intended to limit this work to 
 New England ; for there are comparatively few in this 
 section who do not know and fully appreciate this 
 truly valuable fowl. It is in fact the foivl for farmers. 
 
 It is almost impossible to raise the smaller breeds 
 at a profit, on account of their lack of size ; while the 
 Asiatics are so long in maturing, meanwhile being 
 exposed to all the vicissitudes incident to poultry life, 
 
L 
 
 33 
 
 that the profit in breeding them for market is certainly 
 a debatable one. 
 
 The Plymouth Rock, on the other hand, combines 
 all the elements essential to success, in this respect, 
 at least. It grows rapidly, fledges quick, lays on flesh 
 fast, matures early, and eats less according to size 
 than any other breed, and is always ready for market, 
 when well cared for, from the age of tliree months 
 upwards. 
 
 The size and shape should be closely looked after in 
 breeding for this quality, as the Improved will lay on 
 flesh much faster, with the same amount of feed, than 
 the old triangle-shape. This has been proven by a 
 number* of reliable breeders, using a system of varied 
 experiments, which can be cited, if necessary. 
 
 As regards size, tliere is really but little difference 
 of opinion, although a few breeders profess to have a 
 preference for small-sized birds. Those would prob- 
 ably succeed better with " Dominique improved." 
 
 The best authorities, however, agree that a large 
 size is desirable and much more profitable. In point 
 of fact, the larger birds you can breed, the better, pro- 
 vided you still retain early maturity, and that plump 
 appearance, at once so tempting and so valuable in a 
 market-fowl. 
 
 We do not wish to be understood as advocating any 
 further crossing with Asiatics, in order to increase the 
 
34 
 
 size ; as tliat in effect would practically change the 
 breed, without receiving in return anything really valu- 
 able ; but we would advocate breeding from the largest 
 hens and cocks of pure blood in the flock, provided 
 they were suitable for mating in other respects, and 
 thus gradually increase the size within the breed. 
 
 If this be done, no fear need be entertained of losing, 
 either in early maturity, or plump appearance ; for 
 neither of these qualities is controlled hy the size, hut 
 hy the blood. This is a mistake made frequently by 
 breeders. They reason, and, in fact, breed, on the 
 principle that one quality or characteristic controls 
 others, when the truth of the matter is, the blood con- 
 trols them all. • 
 
 The amount of flesh produced, is, of course, impor- 
 tant, and this is directly affected by the amount of 
 waste or shrinkage in preparing poultry for market. 
 Too little attention is given to this point. Many have 
 no idea what per cent, of waste there should be ; 
 while others seem to think that all should be alike in 
 this respect. This is a great mistake, as the several 
 varieties differ materially, and it is important in select- 
 ing a breed of fowls to understand how much they 
 differ, and also what tlie waste should be in any given 
 variety. 
 
 It has been asserted by some that the Houdan was 
 incomparable in the small per cent, of shrinkage in 
 
85 
 
 dressing ; but full experiments have shown that it has 
 one superior at least, and that one is the Plymouth 
 Rock. The waste in this fowl, when well-fattened, 
 will vary but little from fifteen per cent., and fre- 
 quently will be less. 
 
FANCIEES, 
 
 It is sometimes said that the fancier produces noth- 
 ing of practical utility ; while the truth is, that if it 
 were not for the fancier, we should have nothing but 
 a scrub lot of fowls not worth the trouble and expense 
 of keeping. 
 
 It is the fancier who at considerable cost and 
 trouble makes experiments, originates new breeds, 
 fixes their characteristics, and learns the best mode 
 of management. The ordinary breeder has neither 
 the time, skill, nor necessary means for arriving at 
 satisfactory results in these particulars. 
 
 This is the fancier's true forte, who, if he is only 
 true to himself, has a position alike honorable in itself 
 and of great benefit to the people at large. One that 
 is reliable, and a true lover of fine-bred stock, will so 
 mate and breed his birds that their progeny will breed 
 true in the hands of purchasers. 
 
 His aim will be to do this rather than to produce a 
 single pair or trio for exhibition purposes, and sell the 
 remainder of his stock on the reputation of those exhib- 
 ited, though well aware that most of his birds will not 
 breed true to all their characteristics. 
 
37 
 
 We do not wish to be understood as saying that 
 exhibitors do not sell fine stock, for such is not the 
 fact ; but we wish to impress upon the mind of e very- 
 fancier the fact that it is for his individual interest to 
 send out birds, as far as possible, which will breed 
 true in every particular. Fortunately, the number 
 who do not do this is very small and constantly decreas- 
 ing. The poultry fraternity is no place for them. 
 
FANCIER'S MATING AND BREEDING. 
 
 This is at once the most difficult, and at the same 
 time the most interesting, operation during the entire 
 year, requiring the exercise of all the skill and knowl- 
 edge gained by long experience, and frequently per- 
 plexing the most noted breeders. 
 
 It not only determines the character of the stock to 
 be produced during the current year, but has, also, an 
 important influence on future generations. In mating 
 fowls, man takes the place of nature, or rather he 
 seeks to guide and control, to the best of his ability, 
 well-known natural laws. 
 
 It is a fixed natural law that the best and fittest 
 survive. It makes no diffei'ence, in the application of 
 this law, wliether you are treating of an analytical 
 truth or the propagation of life ; it still remains the 
 central point around and towards which all researches 
 must be directed. It is in direct proportion to the 
 observance of this law by fanciers that they are en- 
 abled to perpetuate and improve all classes of fowls. 
 
 The first requisite in mating fowls for any purpose, 
 is to secure birds possessing strength, vigor, and 
 stamina. Select stock famed for these requirements, 
 and you will be very sure of obtaining strong, hardy 
 
39 
 
 chicks. Let the parent stock consist of birds standing- 
 head and shoulders above ordinary stock, and you will 
 be little troubled with roup and its kindred diseases. - 
 
 Breeders disagree as to the age of breeding-birds ; 
 but we have found that cockerels nearly or quite a 
 year old, mated to two-year-old hens, usually give the 
 best results. A cock two years of age, mated to early 
 pullets, will also be found satisfactory. 
 
 The best authorities agree that the ages of the 
 males and females should vary, and for this reason 
 cockerels and pullets should seldom be mated together, 
 unless it is particularly desirable to secure or render 
 permanent some peculiar characteristic or point in 
 that way, and then they should be at least a year old. 
 
 If the cocks and hens have been entirely separated 
 during the several months preceding tlie mating, so 
 much the better, as the added amount of vigor is very 
 beneficial. Most breeders find it advantageous to pur- 
 sue this plan. In the breeding of no other choice stock 
 is it considered beneficial, or allowable, even, to per- 
 mit the male to roam at will with the females during 
 the entire year, and choice fowls will be found to be 
 no exception to the rule. 
 
 Whatever may be the practice of the breeder on 
 this point, it is certain that a male of another breed 
 should never have been allowed access to your breeding 
 stock, as it will surely destroy the purity of their 
 
40 
 
 progeny for at least the coming season. We are 
 aware that a different opinion has been held and ably 
 advocated by a few well-known fanciers ; but facts are 
 stronger than any mere theory, however plausibly ad- 
 vanced, and experience has abundantly shown that our 
 statement is correct. 
 
 In breeding for " fancy points,'' one should under- 
 stand exactly the object sought, and have a clear 
 idea of the means to be employed in obtaining that 
 object. 
 
 The different elements, about to be brought together 
 and harmonized, must be carefully studied, and if 
 there is necessarily a defect in either cock or hen, it 
 should be counterbalanced by perfection on this point 
 in the other. 
 
 For instance, if the cock's comb be defective in 
 any way, as lop-combed, the hen's comb should stand 
 perfectly erect, and be fine in other respects, in order 
 to breed out the defect arising from the comb of the 
 cock. Of course, no defective bird should be bred 
 from unless it is absolutely necessary, and under no 
 circumstances should a male and female both having 
 the same defect be bred from. 
 
 No over-fattened birds should be used in the breed- 
 ing-pen, as non-fertile eggs will abound if they are. 
 
 The respective influence of cock and hen has been 
 a fruitful topic of discussion, and as a fair understand- 
 
41 
 
 ing of this subject is desirable in '' fancy " breeding, 
 to say the least, it is necessary to give the question a 
 little attention. It has been held by many writers 
 that the cock possesses the greater influence over ex- 
 ternals, and the hen over the interior and life-giving 
 qualities ; the reason given for this being that the 
 procreative act of the cock stamps upon passive ma- 
 terials already prepared his image, and forms the 
 embryo chick ; while the materials before mentioned, 
 which furnish food for the chick until hatched (and, 
 in fact, for several hours after), and all of the other 
 life-giving properties are furnished by the hen. 
 
 The result obtained by this course of reasoning is 
 probably true, to a certain extent, while the course ot 
 reasoning itself by which it is obtained is as evidently 
 fallacious. 
 
 It is well understood that in tlie act creating animal 
 life, the parent possessing the greater amount of 
 vitality, other things being equal, will indelibly stamp 
 his image upon the embryo created. 
 
 In all forms of animal life the proportion of the 
 sexes is about even. In the human race, where, ne- 
 cessarily, but one object is sought by the male, this 
 proportion results in no particular culling ; that is, of 
 necessity. But with the feathered ti-ibe, where the 
 <30ck necessarily requires several hens, the case is en- 
 tirely different. There the culling is certain and 
 4 
 
42 
 
 extensive. No sooner do the cockerels arrive at a 
 suitable age for mating, than the question as to who 
 shall be lord of the harem arises. Frequently the 
 battles to determine this question are long and bloody, 
 extending over a period of several days ; the result, 
 however, being certain from the beginning. The one 
 possessed of the most vigor and the greatest amount 
 of staying power will win ; while the weaker and 
 inferior specimens will either be killed or driven into 
 such obscurity that they can have no perceptible influ- 
 ence in fixing the characteristics or qualities of the 
 progeny. 
 
 It will be seen, therefore, that, in a state of nature, 
 comparatively few of the males are used for the pur- 
 pose of begetting progeny, and these the creme de la 
 creme of the flock, while all of the females are em- 
 ployed. 
 
 In a state of domestication this course has been 
 followed in a greater or less degree, especially by far- 
 mers and amateurs who breed most of the fowls. 
 This is true of all kinds and classes of animal life. 
 Choice specimens of fine-bred stock, possessing this 
 power of vitality in an eminent degree, are selected 
 from the males for breeding purposes ; while in most 
 cases no attention whatever is paid to this quality in 
 the females, but all are bred from indiscriminately, 
 provided they possess the other requisite qualities. 
 
43 
 
 This method, of course, endows the male with far 
 more vitality than the female, and, necessarily, causes 
 him to transmit or fix his image upon the progeny to 
 a far greater extent than the female. Wherever a hen 
 is found, however, surpassing the cock in vigor and 
 vitality, the rule is reversed ; and this fact enables the 
 breeder of experience to mould, shape, and fashion 
 his birds to an almost unlimited extent. 
 
 In a perfect mating, the sire should possess beauti- 
 ful plumage perfectly marked, fine symmetry, and as 
 large size as is compatible with full vigor. Tlie con- 
 stitutional requirements, which apply with equal force 
 to the hen, have already been spoken of, and need not 
 be repeated here. 
 
 The dam should excel in productiveness and size, 
 while the shape and plumage must not be lost sight 
 of. This union is the most desirable one for any pur- 
 pose. Symmetry is especially important in breeding 
 for " points," as, in the show-pen, it is marked higher 
 than any other single qualification, and by many 
 judges is again marked in estimating breast and body. 
 
 The Standard of Excellence requires that the breast 
 of a Plymouth Rock be " broad, deep, and full," and 
 the " body large, square, and compact." This neces- 
 sitates birds for breeding that are both of large size 
 and the Improved shape ; as no other is or can be 
 square in sliape. 
 
44 
 
 In breeding Plymouth Rocks to feather, it should be 
 remembered that they are parti-colored and therefore 
 more difficult to breed exactly true to a particular 
 shade than the solid-colored breeds. Moreover, being 
 a somewhat recent cross, the tendency to revert in 
 color is stronger and the result more perceptible. 
 
 That there has been no well-settled rule in regard 
 to mating with a view to breeding true to feather is 
 well known, and each breeder, be he experienced or a 
 beginner, has been left to his own devices. The 
 result has been a whole or partial failure in a majority 
 of yards. 
 
 Five different matings have been advocated and 
 practiced as follows : 
 
 No. 1. A male light in color mated to dark females. 
 " 2. " dark ^' " " light " 
 
 u 3^ a u u u u ^^^.^ u 
 
 " 4. Birds matching in the show-pen. 
 " 5. A female medium in color mated with a 
 male about two points or shades lighter 
 in color. 
 Now, in deciding this question, it is necessary, as in 
 other matters, for the breeder to understand exactly 
 what he proposes to accomplish. If the ordinary 
 interpretation of the Standard is correct, then it cer- 
 tainly follows that two different matings are required ; 
 one for breeding purposes, and one for exhibition. 
 But is the ordinary interpretation the correct one ? 
 
45 
 
 The Standard does not refer to this matter, except 
 under the head of disqualifications, and here " birds 
 not matching in the show-pen " are said to be disqual- 
 ified. 
 
 What does this phrase mean ? Most judges have 
 construed it to mean not only that birds exhibited in 
 pairs (or trios, as was formerly the custom,) must 
 match closely in color, but also in shade of coloring. 
 There is no necessity for such a forced construction, 
 as there is nothing said or intimated in regard to the 
 shade, nor in regard to color, even, which would re- 
 quire it. 
 
 One of the main objects in exhibiting fowls in pairs 
 or trios has been supposed to be for the very purpose 
 of showing birds mated for breeding. If this be true, 
 as we think it is, either the Standard is unnatural 
 and arbitrary, and should l^e changed, or the present 
 construction is erroneous. 
 
 The same phrase, or one similar, is used in the 
 Standard in regard to a variety of other breeds, not 
 one of which (except those of one single color) is 
 required to be of exactly the same shade in the show- 
 pen ; and many differ widely. 
 
 We are jjleased to see a disposition on the part of 
 some of our judges to modify this construction, and 
 allow a greater latitude in color. 
 
 There should be but one mating necessary. That 
 4* 
 
46 
 
 for exhibition should be precisely the same as that 
 for breeding. The trouble and annoyance of being 
 obliged to have two different styles of mating is obvi- 
 ous to any one, and it utterly befogs amateurs. 
 
 There is no necessity for this. The best mating for 
 breeding purposes is that of No. 5, and this is or 
 should be the same as No. 4. Mating No. 1 is urged 
 by many as the proper one ; and where a beginner has 
 no really suitable birds, and does not feel able to pay 
 the prices demanded for the finest ones, he will do very 
 well with fine bred stock mated in this Avay : that is, 
 he will obtain a certain percentage of the progeny 
 fitted for a proper mating the next season. 
 
 But where you have already obtained the desired 
 mediimi shades by careful breeding, it is worse than 
 useless to again return to the exti^emes and expect 
 more favorable results. Mating No. 2 is objection- 
 able, and should not be practiced, except as a necessity 
 to utilize stock, and even then seldom proves satisfac- 
 tory. Mating No. 3 should never be made use of ; as 
 the pullets from such a mating would run from very 
 dark to black, while the cockerels would be splashed 
 with black or too dark either for the breeding or 
 show-pen. Possibly a few cockerels could be obtained 
 fit to be exhibited ; but they would not be suitable to 
 use as breeders, and their proportion would be very 
 small. 
 
47 
 
 It is impossible, also, to obtain by this mating any 
 number of chicks having the required yellow legs and 
 beaks. They will invariably have legs either dark or 
 spotted. This is a disqualification in exhibition birds, 
 and, of course, destroys all but their economic value. 
 
 If birds exactly alike could always be bred from, or 
 if the mingling of like elements always produced the 
 same results, there would be but little difficulty in 
 breeding exhibition birds by the score; but such is 
 not the fact. 
 
 That "like produces like" is usually true (to a cer- 
 tain extent), but here the law of reversion comes in 
 and seems to say that it also produces unlike. That 
 is to say, the rule is that parents transmit their own 
 characteristics to their progeny. This transmission 
 of qualities greatly depends, however, upon the ances- 
 try of the breeding stock. Birds having a long line 
 of noble ancestors, of the same blood, possessed of the 
 same prominent qualities or characteristics, and 
 breeding true to them in each generation, will almost 
 certainly transmit those qualities or characteristics to 
 their offspring, while with birds of no particular ances- 
 try or of different blood, there is no surety of success. 
 
 It is this underlying truth that gives such an 
 extraxDrdinary value to certain strains. Breeders 
 understand that in order to render valuable any 
 strain, the peculiar points pertaining to it must be 
 
48 
 
 rendered fixed and permanent to such an extent that 
 these peculiar points will be reproduced with certainty 
 in their descendants. It is the work of years to per- 
 fect such a strain, and is accomplished only after 
 much labor and expense. 
 
IN-AND-IN BEEEDINd 
 
 The merits and demerits of the above system of 
 breeding have been discussed and experimented upon 
 for a long series of years by many and prominent 
 breeders, both of fowls and other stock, and there 
 have resulted no very satisfactory results; that is, 
 none accepted by all as authority in deciding this 
 question. 
 
 That it is a question of great practical importance 
 in the propagation of any species of stock, will be 
 readily admitted; and any course of experiments 
 which shall succeed in definitely settling this vexed 
 question will procure for the fortunate experimenter 
 the gratitude of breeders in general, and will endow 
 him with a fair portion of this world's goods. 
 
 In-and-in breeding has been practiced for genera- 
 tions, sometimes successfully and sometimes with 
 injurious effects. 
 
 The value of strains has been heretofore shown, 
 and it is in forming or perpetuating these that this 
 system has been mainly resorted to. 
 
 It is obviously true that in such cases close breed- 
 ing is a necessity, if we would retain the peculiar 
 qualities pertaining to any particular strain. It is 
 
50 
 
 also true that birds can be bred truer to feather, of 
 finer bone, of greater uniformity, and in a shorter 
 space of time, in this way than by any other method. 
 
 The main question then arises as to whether it will 
 cause the progeny to deteriorate in strength and 
 vigor, and other points of equal value, as it is asserted 
 by many. We believe that it will, if resorted to in 
 any considerable degree, or by any but the most 
 experienced breeders. Doubtless there are occasions 
 when it is beneficial, and where breeders may resort 
 to it with advantage, in fixing and perpetuating the 
 characteristics of their birds; but the occasions are 
 very rare which will admit of its being tolerated for 
 more than one generation, and then only by those 
 perfectly well versed in the matter. That the degen- 
 eracy of much once famous stock may be traced to 
 this cause is unquestionably true; and the less we 
 have of it, the better. It certainly gives a violent shock 
 to the system, and it requires birds exceptionably 
 strong and hardy to be able to resist it. That the 
 Plymouth Rocks possess these qualities in an excep- 
 tional degree is an undeniable fact, and they could, 
 probably, sustain the shock much more easily than 
 most breeds ; but it would be at the expense of those 
 very qualities so much desired, and so difficult to 
 regain when once lost. 
 
 That which is the most difficult to obtain is usually 
 
51 
 
 the most valuable ; and it is true in this case. It is 
 far better in breeding ''to feather," to breed as close 
 as possible, and avoid in-and-in breeding, even if this 
 be at the expense of a little time. It is a good plan 
 to have several yards of the same blood, and select 
 your breeding stock from these different runs, mating 
 a male from one with females from the others. 
 
lATING AND BEEEDING FOR UTILITY. 
 
 In mating and breeding for utility, the first requi- 
 sites are hardiness and vigor. These are of para- 
 mount importance ; for, however perfect a chick may 
 be in all other respects, without a sound constitution 
 it is a failure. 
 
 Not only should the birds mated be strong and 
 vigorous at the time of mating, but they should have . 
 always been so : since one that has ever been weak and 
 puny will be very apt to produce a certain proportion 
 of puny chicks, under the most favorable circum- 
 stances. 
 
 Of course, their ancestors should have been the 
 same ; otherwise it is useless to breed from them for 
 utility. It is always Ijetter to breed from a moder- 
 ately indifferent bird descended from a long line of 
 hardy and vigorous ancestors, than to breed from a 
 good specimen descended from debilitated stock. In 
 this mating, also, the value of a good strain becomes 
 apparent. 
 
 The four main points to be sought after in l^reeding 
 for utility are hardiness, early maturity, productive- 
 ness, and table quality. Thes^ are of importance in 
 the order named. When, the above-named qualities 
 

 ^liilf 
 
55 
 
 have been carefully sought by the breeder, and ren- 
 dered fixed and permanent, in any strain, by a judi- 
 cious system of mating for years, it will be found 
 much more advantageous to breed from this stock 
 than from ordinary choice specimens. 
 
 In the matter of productiveness, it is necessary to 
 be particularly careful in the selection of the dam, 
 since this quality is almost solely under her influence. 
 
 Fowls, from a utilitarian standpoint, are mere ma- 
 chines for the conversion of food into eggs and flesh ; 
 and their value is in direct proportion to the quantity 
 and quality produced. 
 
 The size and shape now demand attention, and 
 require more consideration than is usually given them 
 by breeders. Other things being equal, a fine, large, 
 early-maturing fowl is, of course, more valuable than 
 a smaller one ; since the cost of feed is about the 
 same in one case as in the other, and the amount of 
 flesh produced much more in one case than in the 
 other. 
 
 It is comparatively easy to allow stock of any kind 
 to deteriorate either in quality or size ; but it requires 
 both skill and patience on the part of the breeder to 
 reverse the operation. For this reason, if for no other, 
 large-sized birds of this variety should be sought and 
 bred from. 
 
 The shape of the Plymouth Rock should also be 
 
56 
 
 closely looked after, as it will make quite a difference 
 in the cost of the feed necessary to produce a certain 
 number of pounds of flesh within a given time, 
 whether one breeds from the ordinary or Improved 
 shape. • 
 
 In order to secure fertility in the eggs, and vigorous 
 chicks, the males and females used for breeding 
 should have been kept separated up to the time of 
 mating, which ought to take place in December or 
 January. 
 
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF STOCK. 
 
 WARMTH. 
 
 The number of fowls kept should depend lioth on 
 the experience of the breeder and the accommoda- 
 tions for them. Expensive houses are not necessary, 
 though the amateur possessing ample means, and 
 desiring to beautify and adorn liis grounds, will doubt- 
 less find pleasure in furnishing and ornamenting his 
 buildings. Shelter of some kind must, however, be 
 supplied, and the more simple the better, provided it 
 fully serves the purpose required. 
 
 Before entering into any description of houses, it 
 may be well to consider a few requirements that are 
 absolutely essential to success in this pursuit. During 
 the cold winter months the fowls need warm, comfort/- 
 able quarters ; and they must have them, if one 
 expects any eggs at this season. 
 
 It must be borne in mind that a certain amount of 
 warmth is absolutely necessar}^ for the preservation of 
 life. When the atmosphere surrounding animal life 
 of any kind possesses the requisite amount of heat, 
 of course no artificial means are needed to increase it ; 
 
58 
 
 but when the air becomes deficient in life-giving- 
 warmth, the supply must be artificially given, and if 
 it is not externally supplied, it must be internally. 
 In other words, if fowls are not kept sufficiently warm, 
 the food given them will be appropriated to supplying 
 the deficiency, rather than to the production of eggs 
 or flesh. This is a very costly way of warming stock, 
 and one never resorted to by breeders of experience. 
 
 Let every one bear in mind, then, that the growth 
 of fowls, as well as the production of eggs, is retarded 
 by undue exposure to cold, and especially to variable 
 weather and chilling winds, which, being a good con- 
 ductor of heat, leave the fowls in a ])enumbed and 
 torpid state. They then require the best of care, 
 together with extra feed, to restore their vigor ; and 
 very frequently all is of no avail ; the fowls or chicks 
 will die in spite of your tardy care. 
 
 If the house has a sunny exposure, is well battened, 
 and has large glass windows reaching nearly to the 
 floor in the south side, there will usually be no neces- 
 sity of supplying artificial heat, which we do not 
 approve of with most beginners, at least. But if the 
 situation or construction of the house renders it abso- 
 lutely necessary, it needs much greater care to pre- 
 vent sudden changes of temperature, especially when 
 the fowls are allowed a run, as they should be. 
 
VENTILATION. 
 
 It must not be supposed, however, that you can fur- 
 nish heat by building perfectly tight quarters, and not 
 allowing for ventilation. It is scarcely possible to 
 exaggerate the importance of this latter requirement, 
 in breeding poultry of any kind. We all know how dele- 
 terious are the effects of the want of it, upon the human 
 system. Fill a room with people, and allow no ingress of 
 fresh air, and how soon will its evil effects he perceived. 
 The reason for this is obvious. In respiration, animal 
 life of every species and kind is constantly consuming 
 oxygen, without which no animal life can survive, and 
 throwing off' carbonic acid gas, which, mixed in suffi- 
 cient quantity with atmospheric air, is fatal to animal 
 life. This process is continued as long as a proper 
 supply of oxygen is furnished by suitable ventilation ; 
 but as soon as that is withheld, it becomes necessary 
 to again inhale the carbonic acid gas. What is true of 
 the human race, is also true, in this respect, of fowls. 
 
 The decomposition and fermentation of the drop- 
 pings in the fowl-houses generate other gases also, 
 which contaminate and pollute the air, unless a means 
 of egress for them is afforded. 
 
 The necessity of suitable ventilation, therefore, is 
 5 
 
60 
 
 obvious. A supply of pure fresh aii% at all times, is 
 a vital requirement in raising poultry, and the begin- 
 ner who disregards it will be very sure to experience 
 evil consequences of which he little dreams. 
 
 This supply must not be furnished in such a man- 
 ner as to cause a draught upon the fowls. This is 
 always bad, and especially at night. It is far better 
 to have the ventilator in the upper part of the build- 
 ing, several feet al)ove their heads, since bad air rises 
 as it becomes heated, and is thus carried off in a 
 -natural manner, while the fowls are preserved from 
 the evils effects of a constant draught of cold air. 
 
EANGE. 
 
 Ill selecting quarters for stock, it should be remem- 
 bered that a large range is very beneficial. A limited 
 number of fowls can be kept in close quarters, but 
 even that is not desirable. In their natural condition 
 the range was unlimited, and they were enabled and 
 in a measure forced to take exercise in procuring 
 food. Domestication has changed all this, and to a 
 great extent taken away this necessity. Exercise in 
 some form is an absolute requirement. Without it 
 no one can possibly breed poultry at a profit. Hens 
 will not lay, and their eggs would not hatch if they 
 did, without they have it. Inactivity enervates the 
 system and renders it liable to disease of every kind, 
 to which it falls an easy prey. 
 
 This is one great reason why so large a proportion 
 of our fine-bred stock is said to be weak and debili- 
 tated. As well leave a fine trotting horse for months 
 in his stall, and then expect him to win a race, as to 
 deprive fowls of exercise, and then expect them to 
 lay or be hardy. 
 
 Chickens will, however, take sufficient exercise, if 
 allowed to follow their natural inclinations. Walk- 
 ing and scratching are the principal means })y which 
 
62 
 
 this desirable result is secured, and where fowls are 
 closely confined, or the quarters quite limited, some 
 provision must be made for this purpose. Perhaps 
 one of the best, and at the same time most convenient 
 means, is to scatter whole grain over the runs in the 
 morning, and cover with straw or leaves to the depth 
 of several inches. This will furnish them an oppor- 
 tunity to scratch for their food, which they always 
 relish much J^etter when obtained in that manner; 
 and will also give the required amount of exercise. 
 
 When they have a ground run, which is almost 
 essential to success, it should be dug over every few 
 days, particularly in the warm season. The fowls 
 will appreciate this, and the owner will appreciate 
 their increased productiveness. 
 
 A range is also desirable on account of the variety 
 of food it enables the birds to procure in its proper 
 season. Where they are allowed their liberty, they 
 will obtain, in the warm season, all of the green food 
 and insects necessary, together with gravel, lime, etc., 
 and obtain it, too, in a much better proportion than 
 any fancier or breeder can supply them. 
 
 Therefore, where but one breed is kept, it will be 
 found more profitable to give them their liberty ; but 
 where, for any reason, this is impossible, the runs 
 should be so arranged that they may have as much 
 space allotted to them as is compatible with the sur- 
 roundings. 
 
QUAKTERS. 
 
 The location of the poultry-house is a matter which 
 requires consideration. The house need not be 
 expensive, but it should be comfortable and conven- 
 ient. It should always be built on dry ground, which 
 has a sufficient slope to carry off the surface water. 
 A moist or damp atmosphere is detrimental to both 
 the comfort and the health of fowls, and they should 
 not be forced to live in it. 
 
 The house should be sheltered, as far as possible, 
 from cold and chilling winds, since it will cost more 
 to feed the same number of fowls when exposed, and 
 the number of eggs will be much smaller. 
 
 The size of the house will depend upon the number 
 of fowls to be kept in it. The beginner must be 
 reminded that too many must not be kept together, 
 since small flocks always pay l^etter in proportion, 
 and are far less liable to disease. 
 
 It is better and more economical, in the long run, 
 to build several small houses rather than to crowd a 
 large number under the same roof and compel them 
 to inhale each other's exhalations. 
 
 Where from forty to fifty are housed under the 
 same roof, there should be several pens, so that the 
 
64 
 
 flock may be divided. Fifty is about as many as can 
 be kept together with advantage, and some prefer 
 less. The partitions between breeding pens should be 
 boarded up to a height of two feet, for the purpose of 
 preventing trouble among the different males. Wire 
 netting is much better for the upper portion, as it 
 allows the free circulation of air. 
 
 The old-fashioned perches, or roosts (where one 
 rises above the other), should be avoided, since they 
 cause the birds to crowd and soil each other. Perches 
 should never be placed or arranged at h distance of 
 six or eight feet from the floor, no matter what 
 approaches are made to them, since fowls will almost 
 invariably fly off the perch, and are very liable to 
 hurt their feet, as well as suffer other injuries, if the 
 distance from the floor is considerable; and, more- 
 over, the air is purer nearer the floor. Those perches 
 which are stationary, are not as convenient as those 
 which can l^e easily removed, and the same is true of 
 a platform for the droppings. The l^etter plan is to 
 make them both removable, with the perch three feet 
 from the floor, and the platform about midway between. 
 This latter article should always be placed under the 
 perch in every pen, since it saves much time and 
 trouble, besides keeping the pen cleaner and giving 
 more room to the fowls. 
 
 The floor should be of earth, where it is possible to 
 
65 
 
 build upon dry soil ; Init where the ground is inclined 
 to be a little damp, sand may, with advantage, be 
 spread to the depth of several inches. In fact, a 
 sandy loam makes the best possible floor. 
 
 The nests for laying hens should be arranged 
 beneath the platform, and, where they are so arranged, 
 single boxes, about fifteen inches square, without bot- 
 toms, are the best. These are much more easily 
 cleaned, and not as liable to be troubled with vermin. 
 
 If the platform, perch, nests, etc., be arranged as 
 suggested, and the floor be of earth, it will be a com- 
 paratively easy matter to keep the pen in a perfectly 
 sweet and fresh condition, as the construction and 
 height of platform render its scraping the work of a 
 few minutes, and the floor may be quickly raked over. 
 
 The fact of all the furniture, if we may so speak, 
 being non-fixtures, reduces the amount of necessary 
 labor. 
 
 It is convenient, also, to have a passage-way at the 
 rear of the pens, opening into each pen, and furnished 
 with a trap-door opening into the nests. 
 
 By this means the attendant is enabled to collect 
 the eggs without disturbing the hens, and is forced 
 to enter the pen only for the purpose of conveying the 
 necessary food and drink, and collecting the droppings. 
 This is of some importance, as quiet tends to an 
 increased production of eggs. 
 
The room for sitting he^is should be in another sec- 
 tion of the building, entirely separated from the lay- 
 ing quarters, and will be treated of elsewhere. 
 
 In addition to the quarters already mentioned, there 
 ought to be a shed on the outside of the house, for the 
 use of fowls in wet and cold weather. This should 
 be provided with a roof, and be covered on all sides 
 except the south, and kept perfectly dry. Where the 
 space is limited to a few feet, it is usually better to 
 cover the whole and form a covered run, being careful 
 to leave plenty of sunlight. In this shed or run 
 should be placed a dust-bath, which is very essential 
 to the well-being of the fowls. 
 
 For this purpose, dry, pulverized earth is the best. 
 That gathered dry from the road where it has been 
 pulverized by the passing wheels is admirable. Where 
 this is not easily obtained, coal ashes will do, but are 
 not as good, and when used may be mixed with loam 
 to advantage. 
 
 If fowls are confined during the warm season, a 
 shade of some kind must be furnished their runs, for 
 the unobstructed rays of the sun are very detrimental 
 to their health, frequently causing death. In a state 
 of nature, birds always seek the shade during the 
 warmer part of the day, and domesticated do the same, 
 when allowed their liberty. Fowls, therefore, should 
 never be forced to endure the sweltering rays of the 
 sun or to retreat to the roost. 
 
67 
 
 A southern front is very desirable, with the win- 
 dows so placed or arranged that all possible sunlight 
 may be admitted during the cold season. 
 
 Light you must have, and the more the better. 
 Very few kinds of life, either animal or vegetable, can 
 long survive, and certainly cannot be expected to be 
 productive, without it. For this reason, the windows 
 should cover as much of the south side of the house 
 as the style of the building will allow of. 
 
 Cleanliness must also be carefully looked after, as 
 it greatly aids both health and production. The house 
 ought to be cleaned at least once a week, and the plat- 
 form scraped. In the warm season it is better to do 
 this every day, since the droppings befoul the air very 
 quickly in warm weather. This may seem a small 
 matter ; but a little experience will prove that it is a 
 very important one. 
 
 The great pest of the fowl-house, however, is ver- 
 min. Against them an unrelenting warfare must be 
 waged. Perfect cleanliness will almost certainly pre- 
 vent their obtaining a foothold, but where they have 
 already done so, other means must be used. The Per- 
 sian Insect Powder is the best weapon to use for this 
 purpose, but is rather expensive. Powdered sulphur 
 is a very good remedy, and should be plentifully 
 sprinkled in the nests and throughout the house, espe- 
 cially on and around the roosts. Carbolic acid is also 
 6 
 
68 
 
 good, and should always be mixed with whitewash 
 when applied to the interior of the house. This should 
 be done as often as once in six months, using the wash 
 thoroughly and filling all cracks and crevices with it. 
 This is one of the best means of subduing vermin. If 
 sassafras poles are used for perches, no vermin more 
 harmful than the wood-louse will be found on them. 
 This is the result of ten years of experience. These 
 poles shoidd be at least three inches in diameter at 
 the large end. 
 
 After the breeding-season is over, kerosene is by far 
 the best to use, either as a preventive or remedy, since 
 it is more powerful and acts quickly. The perches, 
 especially the under side, should be frequently washed 
 with it, and it may occasionally be used to advantage 
 upon the other parts of the building, and in the nests ; 
 remembering not to use it in any way so that it may 
 come in contact with the eggs during the breeding- 
 season, as it sometimes prevents their hatching. 
 

POULTRY-HOUSE. 
 
 In the illustration on page 70, a fowl-house is repre- 
 sented that is desirable for the reason that it com}>ines 
 utility, convenience, and cheapness. It can, of course, 
 be modified to suit circumstances. It is seventy-five 
 feet in length by twelve in width ; posts seven feet in 
 height. At one end, a space twelve by fifteen feet is 
 reserved for sitting hens and early chicks, leaving a 
 space sixty feet in length to be used as Ijreeding-pens, 
 of which there are five. 
 
 In the rear is a passage-way two and one-half feet 
 in width, extending the entire length of the breeding- 
 pens ; opening at one end on the outside of the build- 
 ing, and, on the other, into the room for the sitting- 
 hens. This arrangement gives five pens, twelve \)y 
 nine and one-half feet, which will accommodate from 
 fifty to sixty fowls. This is as large a numljer as should 
 ever be kept in one building, and some prefer a less. 
 
 The partitions between the pens are made of ))oards, 
 to the height of two feet, and the remaining portion 
 of wire netting. The platform, to catch the drop- 
 pings, is two feet wide and four inches deep, and is 
 placed at the extreme rear of the pen upon a frame 
 eighteen inches in height. 
 
72 
 
 The perch proper is made of scantling, two by three 
 inches, with the upper edges well rounded. This is 
 fitted into a frame made for the purpose, the whole 
 forming what is termed a " wooden horse." The 
 height of perch is twenty inches above the platform. 
 
 The nests are single boxes, fifteen inches square, 
 without bottoms, and are placed under the platform. 
 A trap-door from the passage-way opens into them, 
 thus obviating the necessity of entering the pen for 
 the eggs, which should be collected several times a 
 day, especially in cold weather. Each pen is furnished 
 with two windows. These can be l^oth raised from 
 the bottom and lowered from the top. 
 
 The floor is a sandy loam. The room for sitting 
 hens is, as l^efore stated, twelve by fifteen feet, and, 
 in the extreme rear, is furnished with three tiers of 
 nest-boxes, fifteen inches square. Each nest has a 
 separate space in front where the food, drink, and 
 dust-bath are placed. This prevents confusion as to 
 nests, and, at the same time, allows the hen perfect 
 liberty. 
 
 " In this room most of the early chicks are cooped. 
 A coal stove is placed here, insuring warmth and 
 comfort for both fowls and chicks. 
 
 The roof being double, gives an upper room, the 
 ends of which are used for cooping either chicks or 
 single birds in the cold season, and for fattening 
 
73 
 
 fowls ; while the remaining portion is very serviceable 
 as a store-room. The ventilators are at the junction 
 of the roof, and are so constructed that a plentiful 
 supply of fresh air is constantly obtained. Nearly all 
 of the interior portion of this house is put together 
 by means of grooves, so that all parts may be easily 
 detached, and rooms of different sizes constructed. 
 On page 53, an illustration of a small movable house 
 is given. This is sufficiently large for a dozen fowls, 
 being six by eight feet. This style of house is very 
 convenient, since it can easily be moved to any part 
 of the yards ; and thus any particular fowls or breed 
 can be completely isolated from the others. 
 
 It will be seen that the nests are on a level with 
 the house-floor, but entirely beyond and outside the 
 house. This obviates the most serious objection to 
 this style of house, viz., the constant disturbance of 
 fowls. The food and drink may also be given from 
 the outside, so that it is not necessary to enter the 
 liouse, except to clean it, and remove the droppings. 
 
FOOD FOR ADULT FOWLS. 
 
 There is, perhaps, no part of the poultry business 
 so apparently easy and yet so difficult as the proper 
 feeding of fowls. A regular and judicious system is 
 very necessary both to the birds themselves and to 
 the breeders' profit. 
 
 In considering this subject, the ulterior object 
 sought should he kept constantly in mind. There are 
 two classes who breed poultry with the expectancy of 
 profit, viz., fanciers, so called, and the ordinary 
 breeder for eggs and market fowls. These are not 
 necessarily distinct, and each may include the other ; 
 yet, for practical purposes, it will be found that they 
 are sufficiently distinct to be classified as above. The 
 main object of the former is to produce fine, standard 
 birds, breeding true to form and feather ; while the 
 latter seeks the greatest possible number of eggs and 
 amount of flesh. 
 
 The feed and care necessary for fowls devoted ex- 
 clusively to laying eggs, differ somewhat from that 
 given breeding stock ; inasmuch as the object now is 
 to obtain as many eggs as possible without regard to 
 quality. 
 
 All that has heretofore ])een said will have lieen 
 
75 
 
 said in vain, if there is now a lack of care and atten- 
 tion. 
 
 In order that the greatest numljer of eggs may be 
 obtained, it is requisite that a reguhir supply of nutri- 
 tious food be furnished. That half-starved fowls will 
 not prove profitable is obvious to all ; neither are 
 those which are half-fed at one time and over-fed at 
 another. If an egg daily is desired from each hen, 
 it is evident that a proper supply of egg-producing 
 materials must daily be furnished the hen, or she can- 
 not produce the egg. Eo: niliilo nihil fit. 
 
 On the other hand, too great a supply of food will 
 surely over-fatten the hen, and cause her to lay very 
 few eggs, while she is thereby rendered much more 
 subject to disease. It may be objected that this does 
 not apply to all fowls, and we are willing to admit that 
 some of the smaller breeds may lie fed all they will 
 eat, with perfect impunity, so far as over-fattening is 
 concerned; but it does apply to the larger breeds, 
 among which is the Plymouth Rock. 
 
 It will be seen, therefore, that it requires consider- 
 able care and forethought to secure a proper medium. 
 It has been urged by some that fowls should receive 
 no more feed — and that of the same quality — ^than 
 they obtained in a state of nature. This is obviously 
 incorrect, for in that condition they rarely laid more 
 than were sufficient for a single hatching during the 
 
76 
 
 season, and their lives extended over a period of sev- 
 eral years. But it does not pay to keep them for that 
 number of eggs, nor for a longer period of time than 
 two years; therefore they should receive a much 
 greater amount of food, and that of a much more 
 stimulating nature. 
 
 ^ The proper amount of food varies. When the 
 fowls are confined they will need more than when at 
 liberty ; at the same time, the danger of glutting them 
 is greater, from their lack of vigorous exercise. Cold 
 weather also increases their demand for and need of 
 food. The exact amount can never be stated, as 
 different fowls of the same Ijreed and under the same 
 circumstances will consume different amounts. A 
 good rule is to feed them as long as they show an 
 eager desire for it, and stop as soon as they cease to 
 run after it, when scattered on the ground or floor. 
 The food should be varied in its character, and what- 
 ever variety may l)e mentioned as being excellent 
 should not on that account be exclusively used. 
 
 During the cold season, a soft, warm feed of some 
 kind should be given once a day. The morning is 
 the best time for this, since it is much more quickly 
 digested than whole grain, and therefore more quickly 
 introduced into the system. This food must be mixed 
 nearly dry. If too wet it will improperly dilute the 
 gastric secretions, and thereby impair the digestion. 
 
77 
 
 A good plan is to mix it sufficiently dry to readily 
 mould into a ball, and l)reak on being thrown upon 
 the ground. 
 
 Boiled potatoes, mashed, and thoroughly mixed 
 with corn meal, while warm, are eagerly devoured by 
 fowls, and form one of the best morning feeds pos- 
 sible in cold weather. At this season, all ground 
 grains^ and, in fact, all soft food, ought to be either 
 cooked or thoroughly scalded, the former being prefer- 
 able. Barley meal, provender, and wheat middlings 
 are all good, and each should be given as a change. 
 During the winter, and when the fowls have no run 
 sufficiently large to procure any food, a light repast 
 should be given in the middle of the day; at other 
 times, none. This meal, and that at evening also, 
 should usually consist of whole grains, as they digest 
 more slowly, and therefore furnish a more constant 
 support through the long night. Of these, wheat, 
 oats, buckwheat, cracked corn, and corn are all good, 
 and for the production of eggs are valuable in about 
 the order named, with the possible exception of corn, 
 which, in some form, is and should be the staple food. 
 
 Meat, in some form, is very beneficial, and should 
 always be furnished in cold weather, when worms and 
 insects cannot be obtained, and at all seasons when 
 the birds are closely confined. Cheap pieces may be 
 procured of the butcher at a trifling cost, and after 
 
78 
 
 being chopped fine, mixed with the soft feed. The 
 fowls relish it fed in this waj, and it enables all to 
 obtain a share, which they would not be likely to do 
 if it were fed separately. If meat is first boiled, it 
 will be all the better. Chandlers' scraps are also 
 good, but should first be cut into small pieces and 
 thoroughly soaked. These are now ground fine and 
 offered for sale in that form. In this condition they 
 are much more convenient to feed. 
 
 Another necessary article of diet is a plentiful sup- 
 ply of green food ; this, too, should be furnished daily. 
 Most vegetables are good for this purpose, and may 
 all be used in turn. One, however, is so excellent in 
 its effects that we cannot forbear mentioning it. We 
 refer to the onion. This vegetable is of a highly 
 stimulating nature, increases the production, and pre- 
 serves the health. By its unlimited use, combined 
 with the Douglass mixture, we have been enabled to 
 keep our fowls in fine health for a number of years, 
 and very rarely have a sick l^ird. Any quantity may 
 be given with perfect safety, and they may be fed 
 whole, thus saving the labor of chopping. We believe 
 that prevention is much better than a cure in any 
 case ; and if fowls can, by any reasonable course of 
 care or feeding, or both combined, be kept in a 
 healthy condition, it o]3viates one of the greatest of 
 known evils in the raising of poultry. 
 
79 
 
 Lime is also necessary, since it is requisite in the 
 formation of egg-shells and bones. The most conve 
 nient way to feed this is in the form of broken oyster 
 and clam-shells, the former being preferable. Fresh 
 bones pounded, or burnt, even, are always good, much 
 better, in fact, than anything of the kind to l^e pur- 
 chased in market. The refuse bones should be util- 
 ized in that way. 
 
 Gravel is also essential, as it performs the same 
 function with fowls that teeth do with the human 
 race. For this reason, it ought to be given both regu- 
 larly and liberally, when the fowls are so confined 
 that they cannot obtain it for themselves. 
 
 Charcoal should occasionally be fed. This stimu- 
 lates digestion and thereby benefits the health and 
 increases the production. It is best fed as l^urnt corn, 
 or, when this is not convenient, any charcoal may be 
 powdered and mixed with soft food. Most fowls will 
 eat it also broken into small pieces and mixed with 
 the corn. 
 
 Where but few fowls are kept, the refuse from the 
 table will in great part supply their wants. This is a 
 far more valuable food than is usually supposed. If 
 the refuse be abundant, it will cause the birds to 
 thrive and lay better than any other food. It ought, 
 however, to be fed while fresh. Remember that in 
 feeding fowls tlie main things are regularity, a proper 
 amount, and variety. 
 
80 
 
 Milk is the best drink that can be furnished fowls ; 
 combining, as it does, at once drink and food of the 
 most nourishing nature, causing the birds to largely 
 increase their productiveness. This may be given to 
 them in any form, and either sweet or sour. It is 
 almost the only article that can be so given, and yet 
 be relished by the fowls. 
 
 If it is not convenient to obtain milk, water cer- 
 tainly may be had, and enough of it. This should be 
 furnished freely, in a perfectly clean and fresh state. 
 In the winter, it should be slightly warmed, as it is 
 thus made more acceptable to the fowls, and does not 
 freeze as quickly. 
 
 If it is not given regularly and in sufficient quantity, 
 the birds will eat snow or drink snow-water, which 
 checks production, renders them dull and stupid, and 
 chills the entire system. 
 
 The vessels in which food and drink are given fowls 
 should be kept perfectly clean and wholesome, both 
 because they will relish food and drink much better 
 when contained in such vessels and also because it 
 does them far more good. 
 
CAKE OF BREEDING-STOCK. 
 
 Having properly mated such stock as is desirable 
 for breeding purposes, the next step is to give them 
 suitable care and attention. Not the same food, either 
 in quantity or quality, should be given as is proper for 
 laying-birds. 
 
 The object now sought is not a large number of 
 eggs, but such as will give the greatest number of fine 
 chicks. For this reason, care must be taken not to 
 feed a sufficient quantity to over-fatten the fowls, as 
 otherwise many eggs will l^e sterile. Neither should 
 stimulating food be given, since this forces the pro- 
 ductive powers, and, as a consequence, gives inferior 
 progeny. 
 
 The first laying of pullets does not give as good sat- 
 isfaction as the second ; but with hens the rule is 
 reversed. 
 
 For market purposes, the chickens ought to be 
 hatched in March, and, with suitable quarters, may be 
 to advantage in February. Tliis applies with equal 
 force to chickens intended for the show-pen. 
 
 Those intended for future breeding-stock should be 
 hatched not earlier than April or May, since their 
 chances of developing into strong, hardy birds will 
 7 
 
82 
 
 be much greater than if hatched before ; neither will 
 they be as apt to lay a large number of eggs before 
 the time for mating arrives, and so enter the breeding- 
 season in a debilitated condition. 
 
 If but a limited number of pure-blooded hens are 
 kept, the cock should be allowed to remain in the 
 breeding-pen but a small portion of each day, or a 
 sufficient number of other hens, laying an egg differ- 
 ent in color, may be introduced. This is perhaps 
 the better plan. 
 
 Under ordinary circumstances, from ten to twelve 
 hens may be given to a vigorous, agile cock. Care 
 must be taken, however, to observe whether he pays a 
 proper amount of attention to the hens ; too much 
 being as detrimental as not enough. 
 
 If he has been allowed to run with the females for 
 some time previous to mating, he is very apt to have 
 become sluggish ; in which case strong, hardy chicks 
 need not be expected, as they cannot possibly be bred. 
 
 The eggs should be plainly marked when they are 
 taken from the nest ; as the exact date when each is 
 laid is very desirable, to say the least. By keeping 
 such a record upon the eggs themselves, one avoids 
 the danger of setting those which are not sufficiently 
 fresh, and is able to select, as far as possible, those laid 
 upon the same day. This is an advantage, since the 
 age of eggs makes quite a difference in the number of 
 days required for hatching. 
 
83 
 
 Eggs are good for setting until they are two weeks 
 old, but after that, they are constantly losing their 
 life-giving quality ; although they will frei^uently do 
 well at the age of three weeks. 
 
INCUBATION. 
 
 The successful hatching of chickens is quite diffi- 
 cult, and requires care, good judgment, and careful 
 attention to accomplish it. 
 
 If possil^le. a separate room should be given to sit- 
 ting hens, where they mil l)e undisturbed. If they are 
 allowed to remain in the same room with the layers, 
 it is almost impossible to prevent their being disturbed 
 by the laying hens. This is very apt to result in 
 breaking the eggs, and, at least, will force the attend- 
 ant to daily remove those freshly laid. Only the 
 most constant care will insure any degree of success- 
 ful hatching in a room devoted to both laying and 
 sitting fowls. 
 
 The nest itself should be about fifteen inches 
 square, and, during the cold season, should be made 
 warm. We have found that broken hay or straw for 
 the bottom, covered with feathers, makes a very good 
 one. Later in the season, however, this plan should 
 be reversed, and a piece of fresh turf hollowed out 
 into a concave form and covered with broken straw 
 will be found to serve every purpose. 
 
 The nests should be in as secluded a place as pos- 
 sible, as they are more inclined to sit steadily if per- 
 
85 
 
 mitted a certain amount of privacy. It is far better 
 to allow each hen a small pen by herself in front of 
 her nest. In this pen should be placed food, drink, 
 and the dust-bath ; which last is of especial import- 
 ance at this time. 
 
 This plan may be followed in most houses, and in 
 all except those where the quarters are very restricted, 
 since it requires but little more space than furnishing 
 a large room for several sitters. This prevents the 
 confusion likely to result from changing nests, and 
 does away with the confinement necessary where the 
 nests all open into one room. 
 
 Never set a hen or pullet that will leave the nest 
 at your approach. Such hens are always unsteady 
 sitters, and are liable to break their eggs while sitting. 
 It is better to purchase hens of some ordinary breed 
 to use for this purpose than to use such stock. Un- 
 der ordinary circumstances, however, the Plymouth 
 Rock is a fine sitter and a good mother. 
 
 During the early season, from seven to nine eggs 
 only should be given each sitter, since in the case of 
 a larger number those upon the outer edge would be 
 liable to become chilled, and, as their position is 
 changed daily, all in turn might ]je rendered of no 
 value. With warm weather, however, thirteen may 
 be given to an ordinarily large hen with perfect 
 safety. 
 
S6 
 
 These should always be placed under the hen in the 
 evening, as this course is less likely to frighten the 
 hen and cause her to leave the nest. Where valuable 
 eggs are to be used, it is lietter to give artificial ones 
 for a day or two, or until the hen l)ecomes reconciled 
 to her new quarters. They should be required to 
 leave their nests daily, in order that the eggs may 
 receive a supply of fresh air, without which very few 
 chickens would be hatched, and those weak and puny 
 specimens. 
 
 Seven or eight days after setting, the eggs should 
 be examined with reference to their fertility. The 
 non-fertile ones should be removed and may still he 
 used as food for young chicks. If a number of hens 
 were set at about the same time, which is advisable 
 when convenient, the fertile eggs may now be placed 
 under a part of the hens and the remainder furnished 
 with fresh ones. In this manner quite a saving of 
 time is made, and the number of chicks increased. 
 The fertility of the eggs may be determined by means 
 of an egg-tester (which is the most reliable) , or look- 
 ing through them at the light. Those that are fertile 
 will have a thick, cloudy appearance, while the others 
 will not. 
 
 Of course, both hens and eggs must be kept free 
 from vermin during the period of incubation. This 
 may readily be done by means of sulphur and the 
 
dust-bath. Sprinkle sulphur plentifully through the 
 nest and a little upon the hen before setting ; then 
 provide a suitable dust-l.iath easy of access, and you 
 will seldom be troubled with vermin. 
 
 Medium-sized eggs, and those that are smooth and 
 regular in shape, are the only ones that should be 
 used. 
 
 A good supply of pure, fresh water, and whole 
 grain, corn being preferable, must be given, and 
 should be so placed that the hen may be able to eat 
 and drink whenever she feels so disposed. Soft food 
 at this time would (by reason of its quick digestion) 
 cause the hen to l^ecome hungry too often, and, con- 
 sequently, leave her nest. Therefore, it should not 
 be given. 
 
 The Plymouth Rocks are gentle, patient, and tract- 
 able, and, therefore, better results follow their use as 
 sitters than fowls of many other breeds. 
 
 In warm weather, sprinkling the eggs daily with 
 tepid water for three or four days immediately pre- 
 ceding the hatching is advisal)le. While hatching, 
 the hen should be disturbed as little as possible, sim- 
 ply removing the broken shells and allowing nature 
 to take its course. Chickens helped from the shell 
 seldom i>av for the trouble- 
 
CAEE OF CHICKS. 
 
 Chickens should not be disturbed for at least 
 twenty-four hours after being hatched, neither should 
 any food be given them, as their last act within the 
 shell is to absorb the yelk of the egg into the abdo- 
 men, and that will furnish a sufficient supply of food 
 for the time mentioned. " If the hen is not inclined to 
 remain quiet for that length of time, feed and water 
 her on the nest. 
 
 When the chicks are ready to leave the nest, they, 
 together with the hen, should be placed in a perfectly 
 clean coop. The germs of disease, as well as vermin, 
 cling to filthy, uncleaned ones. This proves a fruitful 
 source of disease among otherwise healthy chicks, 
 and renders the proportionate loss much greater than 
 it need be. 
 
 Early in the season, this coop should have a board 
 bottom, or else be placed in a warm room having a 
 sunny exposure. This is to prevent the tender chicks 
 from coming in contact with earth that is cold, or 
 wet, as such continued contact is very likely to pro- 
 duce colds and rheumatism. 
 
 If they are allowed a warm room, or one so shel- 
 tered and exposed to the rays of the sun that the 
 
89 
 
 earth is dry and warm, a dirt floor is much more con- 
 genial to their nature, and will cause them to thrive 
 better ; but under no circumstances must they be 
 exposed to cold rains or chilling winds. 
 
 Remember that sudden changes in temperature and 
 exposure to wet, occasion a greater loss in chicks than 
 all other causes comljined, and, therefore, should be 
 more closely guarded against. 
 
 Many seem to think that chicks may be crowded into 
 close, ill-ventilated coops, while the adult stock require 
 large, roomy quarters, and those well ventilated ; at 
 any rate, this is their practice. This is on the princi- 
 ple that a young and delicate child requires less care 
 and attention than a strong, robust man. 
 
 The absurdity of this course is so apparent that it 
 only needs to be stated to be perceived. Give the 
 young birds, then, suitable accommodations and they 
 will amply repay you for the extra care or slight 
 expense this course entails. 
 
 Of course chicks do better with as much liberty as 
 is compatible with other desirable things, and it is 
 advisable, therefore, to allow them this, a portion of 
 each day, when it is warm, dry, and sunny, gradually 
 increasing the length of time allowed them, until, in 
 suita])le weather, they are given their entire liberty. 
 
 Many fanciers partially rear their early chicks in a 
 room having a fire in it ; and there is no question but 
 
90 
 
 what they thrive better and grow faster in such an 
 atmosphere. Where these are to be sold as broilers, 
 direct from the warm rooms, this plan is advan- 
 tageous ; but the danger lies in the necessarily sudden 
 change of temperature when the artificial heat is 
 removed. 
 
 Without greater care than most ordinary breeders 
 give, a far greater loss would occur at this time than 
 the extra growth would compensate for. A check in 
 growth at this juncture, or, in fact, at any time while 
 chicks, should lie avoided, if possible, as they seldom 
 recover from it. 
 
 Later in the season, it is not necessary to use so 
 great care in regard to the degree of warmth. Dews 
 and rains are the things to be especially avoided then. 
 If the down upon a young chick Ijecomes thoroughly 
 saturated with moisture, it will almost certainly cause 
 death or render it of little value ; for, even if it lives, 
 its growth will be checked, and it will become delicate, 
 a most undesirable condition for a Plymouth Rock. 
 
 When they have a grass run, therefore, they should 
 be closely confined in the morning, until the dew has 
 disappeared, and always in rainy weather. 
 
 Wliere there is a good range, it is better to allow 
 the hen her liberty in pleasant weather when the 
 morning dew has disappeared, and after the chicks 
 are about two weeks old, as the Plymouth Rock makes 
 
91 
 
 a good mother, being attentive to the wants of her 
 brood, and a very active forager. 
 
 This should not be construed to mean that the hen 
 must be set at liberty when the chicks arrive at a cer- 
 tain age, regardless of other circumstances, nor that 
 she should be permitted to roam from early morning 
 until late at night, as frequently there are heavy dews 
 which the chicks should not encounter. 
 
 It should be construed to mean that when such a 
 course is in harmony with other requirements, the hen 
 should have the greatest possible amount of liberty, 
 after the chicks have arrived at the age above men- 
 tioned. 
 
FOOD FOR CHICKS. 
 
 The best food for chicks, for several days after they 
 are hatched, is hard-boiled eggs. The length of time 
 that these should be fed depends somewhat upon the 
 character of the stock you wish to raise. 
 
 For standard birds they should, of course, be fed 
 longer than for those intended for market. The 
 same is true of most kinds of expensive feed. You 
 can now make a good use of the non-fertile eggs 
 taken from the sitting hens. 
 
 Corn meal and ground oats mixed with stale bread 
 soaked in milk may be gradually substituted as food 
 in the place of the eggs. Wheat middlings mixed 
 with other ground grains is also good for a change. 
 
 All soft food should either be scalded or be wet 
 with milk, and allowed to stand for a short time 
 before feeding, especially when scalded, as there is a 
 tendency with all ground grains to swell on being 
 moistened, and this should take place before being 
 introduced into the chick's crop. It is always better 
 to moisten the soft food with milk, since nothing con- 
 tributes more to the thrift of chicks than this article 
 of diet. For this reason it is " a good plan to have 
 
93 
 
 vessels filled with milk so placed that the young 
 birds may drink it whenever they wish. 
 
 The early broods require to have everything they 
 need furnished by the attendant, and therefore 
 especial care should be taken to understand just 
 what their wants are, and then to see that these are 
 properly supplied. 
 
 A variety of food is always Ijeneficial to fowls, and 
 at no period more so than when young. Their nature 
 also demands a very nourishing diet, since they are 
 not only growing rapidly, but fledging also, which is 
 a severe tax upon the system. Both, taken together, 
 cause the chick to require more nutritious food, in 
 proportion to size, than at any other period of life. 
 
 Being small, however, they can partake of but a 
 small amount of food at a time, and therefore should 
 be fed often. This ought to be at least every two 
 hours, while the chicks are young, gradually increas- 
 ing the length of time between each meal, until they 
 are fed four times a day. Regularity, both in the 
 amount of food and time for feeding, is even more 
 essential than in the case of older birds. 
 
 Many of these delicacies are not needed by the hen, 
 and consequently it is well to have an outside coop so 
 arranged that none but the chicks can enter it. 
 
 Milk or clean fresh water should always ]3e kept 
 within their reach, but too much of either should not 
 
 8 
 
94 
 
 be mixed with their food, as too wet food causes them 
 to take a greater amount of liquid than is necessary, 
 dikites the gastric secretions, and deranges the system 
 generally. 
 
 Green food of some kind must be furnished until 
 the grass has sufficiently started for them to obtain 
 that. For this purpose the fresh sprouts of onions, 
 or the onions themselves, together with cabbage 
 leaves, chopped fine, are all good. These may be 
 mixed and fed with their soft food. Ground bone 
 should occasionally be fed. 
 
 As soon as the chicks are able to eat it readily (say 
 at the age of two weeks), cracked corn should be 
 given, and from this time corn in some form should 
 be the staple food. There is no danger of over-fatten- 
 ing chicks, whatever amount of food be given ; but no 
 more should he fed them than they ivill eat up clean. 
 It is apt to sour, and not only that, but the chicks 
 will not eat it as readily after they have pecked it 
 over and left it. 
 
 If any be left by them, remove it at once and give 
 fresh at the next feeding. 
 
 As in the case of adult fowls, the vessels for both 
 food and drink should be kept perfectly sweet and 
 wholesome by frequent cleansing, since the chicks 
 will not eat as much, nor grow as fast, if the vessels 
 are dirty and unfit for use, and, besides, will waste 
 more food. 
 
FATTENING OP FOWLS. 
 
 At the age of three months, those which it is not 
 desirable to keep, either for breeding or for later fat- 
 tening, may be sold to advantage for broiling, and 
 frequently will bring more than if kept to the age of 
 six months, while the cost of food is saved in addi- 
 tion. When the birds are late in hatching, however, 
 or when it is not convenient to sell for broiling, they 
 must be marketed later in the season. September, or 
 early in October, is the best time for this purpose in 
 the Eastern States. We have advocated generous 
 feed from the shell, and if our advice has been fol- 
 lowed, the fowls, at the age of five or six months, are 
 ready for home use ; but for market, a greater weight 
 is desirable, and therefore a system of fattening nnist 
 be resorted to. 
 
 Ten days or two weeks are sufficient for this pur- 
 pose. As soon as the fowl has reached the required 
 degree of fatness, it must be disposed of at once, since 
 it will lose in weight from this time. 
 
 The fowls should be placed in a long, narrow coop, 
 giving them but little more than standing-room, as 
 exercise is not now desired. If this can be darkened, 
 except at meal time, so much the better. 
 
96 
 
 Corn-meal, mixed with milk, should be the staple 
 food, with provender for a change. Green food and 
 gravel should also be regularly given. 
 
 They should be fed at least three times a day, and, 
 while they must have all that they will eat, no more 
 tlian that should be given, as such a course will cloy 
 them. 
 
 Pure water should be easy of access at all times. 
 When a fowl begins to neglect its food and be dainty, 
 the sooner it is disposed of the better. 
 
 The cockerels and pullets should have been sepa- 
 rated ere this, and from now until the close of the 
 year should receive the care advised for adult stock. 
 
 Our thanks are due to a number of our most noted 
 fanciers, for facts furnished us during the preparation 
 of this book. These facts were received with pleasure, 
 and the weight of authority has been the rule in deter- 
 mining any point. Our thanks are also due to H. H. 
 Stoddard, Esq., for the use of his cut of Modern Ply- 
 mouth Rocks.