LIBRARY OF THE O^-M^^, ■Z863' DATE DUE 1 1 1 UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS LIBRARY LB 1569 R8 PAl'IPHLETS ON RURAL SCHOOLS ': -; -? . *, -^ i ■i , i%if'%>. /Babcock, E* B. Suggestions for garden v/ork in California schools oGockefair, S. A» The use of the score card in rural schools, JDcivis ^ J. Practical training in negro rural schools ^Draper J A. T). Shall we have school super- vision in the rural districts? "^ Gates, p. T* The country school of to-morrow [fe James, C C* Teaching of the elements of f agriculture in the common schools 'acfeat, M» Elementary agriculture and school gardening at Winthrop College, Rock Hill, S.C. 5 Hearing, S. Doing things in rural schools I, Ohio rural school agricultural cluhs. Direction and report sheet for corn. I^Updegraff, H* The improvement of the rural school ^Windsor County Y.M.C.A«, White River Juncton, Vt, I Bom.e conditions and needs among the rural schools of Windsor County « 4 « » 9 ' ttttl|ro|i Normal nnh 0f ^nittlf Qlarolma Bulletin No. 4 APRIL, 1910 Volume 3 ementary Agriculture „;■ AND. ' , ; School Gardening ROCK HILL, SOLfTH CAROLINA Issued Qjjarterly by the College. Entered as Second-Class Matter, October 4. 1907, at the Postoffice at Rock Hill, under Act of Congress of July 6; 1894 BULLETIN OF THE Winthrop Normal and Industrial College OF South Carolina Bulletin No. 4 APRIL, 1910 Volume 3 Elementary Agriculture and School Gardening at Winthrop BY MISS MINNIE MACFEAT X 1910 The Record Press rock hill. s. c. CONTENTS Card of Acknowledgment 5 Purpose of Bulletin Q Introduction Y City School Garden g Rural School Garden 9 Commercial Phase of Gardening ]^]^ JIaking School Garden , . . . 12 Selection of Site 12 Kind of Garden-Group or Individual. 13 Preparation of Soil 13 Fertilization of Soil 13 (a) Study of Soils ar.d Their Needs 14 Laying off Plat3 • . 15 Garden Tools 16 Garden Seeds 17 Fall Lessons in Gardening 17 Indoor Work 17 Outdoor Work 20 Winter Lessons in Gardening 23 Laboratory Exercises 23 A Winter Garden 31 Spring Gardening 31 Summary of Results Attained at Winthrop 34 Grandmother's Garden -. 36 Summer ^Management of Gardens 37 Course of Study 37 Reference Books and Bulletins 39 Addresses of Seed and Garden Implement Houses 40 Illustrations (By Permission, from U. S. Dept. Agr. Bulletin 186.) Fig. 1— A Pistil. Fig. 2— A Stamen. Fig. 3 — A Vertical Section of Tomato Bloom. Fig. 4 — To Show the Escape of Moisture from Growing Plants. Fig. 5 — Capacity of Soils for Storing Up Water. Fig. 6 — Germination Test of Seeds. Fig. 7 — Depth of Planting. Fig. 8 — Whip or Tongue Grafting. Fig. 9 — Cutting in Furrow. Fig. 10 — Hard-wood Cuttings. Fig. 11— Cutting of Coleus. Full Page Pictures Winthrop's Kindergarten Garden. Making the School Garden. (First Three Grades, Winthrop Training School). Garden Plows and Hand Tools Used at Winthrop. Sixth and Seventh Grades at Work. Winthrop Training School. Winthrop Children Testing Seeds. Spring Gardening at Winthrop. Fourth and Fifth Grades at Work. The Harvest at Winthrop. i Acknowledgment To Professor H. P. Stiickey, under whose supervision the school gardening recorded in this bulletin was worked out, I am indebted for the main facts concerning the work; to Prof. L. A. Niven, the present head of the Department of Elementary Agriculture, for the Course of Study which he is now using in the Grades, also for the list of suggested reference works and addresses for purchasing tools, seeds, etc. To the United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin, No. 1 86, we are indebted for suggestions for experimental work and for plates to illustrate the same. X Purpose of Bulletin Every school in South CaroHna should have its garden. Every teacher in South Carolina should be able to aid pupils in the making of this garden. It is the purpose of this bulletin to help the teachers of our State in this important work by setting before them as simply and clearly as possible the methods in school gardening which have been successfully worked out at A\'inthrop. We hope to ofifer suggestions which any teacher in any part of the State will be able to put into practice. Of course these methods and suggestions are tentative only- As the work here continues, there will necessarily follow many changes and corrections. One most important suggestion we would make to the school boards all over our State is this : That they show their sympathy with this movement by giving it the financial aid necessary to the greatest success. It is said that a poor workman complains of his tools, but no workman can work without tools. V Introduction In the fall of 1896 the teaching of Horticnlture was begnn at Winthrop. In the Propagation House students were giA^en instruction in the rearing of plants and methods of propagating them. A few 3^ears later the first school gardening was done by the children of the Winthrop Kindergarten, a suitable area having been set apart on the campus and fenced in for this purpose. Gardens for the primary grades followed next. In 1907 the College added to its curriculum a course in "Elementary Agriculture. A considerable area was set aside for gardens, and every child from the Kindergarten through the Ninth Grade had the advantage of a course in school gardening, the student-teachers and children working under the supervision of the head of the department. This year, 1910, the College has begun the work of organizing boys' and girls' clubs in Agriculture. Prizes are offered for the best corn, best tomatoes, finest flowers, etc. This organization of clubs is a vital accompaniment to the teaching of Agriculture in the schools. The introduction of Agriculture into the State Normal College for women is of great significance. In the first place it is another assurance that the College is making good her policy to give her students an education that will fit them for life — the life of an agricultural people, such as we are. A large number of our young women come from the farms nnd will return to them to meet and grapple with the problems peculiar to country life. Again, Winthrop furnishes very largely the teachers of our elementar)^ and secondar}^ schools. These teachers must- be able to give instruction in school gardening, because our schools are awakening to their responsibilities along this line, and the time is not far distant when instruction in these subjects will be required by law. The study of Agriculture by our young women will also aid very materially in forming public sentiment, in building Winthrop College Bulletin up "that abiding foundation of a strong and satisfied life in the open country," which will be a potent factor in arresting the exodus from the farms, ^^'hich is a real menace to the progress of our State. Too many of our young people, desiring to, make money easily, carried away with the conceit of a little knowledge and the glitter of a false coin, look down upon country ways and country people, and feel that city life, with its flats and fashions, excels the pure and dignified, though perchance crude and simple, style of country living. A false sentiment like this is undermining the life and the morals of our people. To the schools we must look for a change of sentiment. Too often, also, has the boy from the country had a hard time among his fellows, when in pursuit of learning he has left the rural school and entered that of the city. Often have "hay seed" and other opprobrious epithets been hurled at him, and his greatest asset in life, a knowledge of ha)^, cotton and corn, been the subject of derision. A study of hay, cotton and corn will change all this. The city bred boy will honor and respect the farmer boy, who has. a greater knowledge of these things than he has. The study of the farm, its conditions, its prospects, its relation to other great social industries, is sure to bring about a truer estimate of the value of farm life, a keener appreciation of the dignity of labor and a closer fellowship between country and city. THE CITY SCHOOL GARDEN Theoretically we all agree that every city school should have its garden. And yet, how many of our city schools have them? We read with interest of the agricultural movement which, having swept over Europe, is now engaging the thoughtful attention of the educators and statesmen of our country. We are convinced of the educational value of school gardening. We believe that it furnishes the best motor education so emphasized in these days- We believe that the co-ordination of sensor and motor brain induced by it quickens all other lines of school work. We know that there are unmistakable physical benefits to be derived from it. We are Winthrop College Bulletin 9 assured that incipient tuberculosis, as well as other organic diseases, may be overcome by the safest of all physicians, nature, in the best of all sanitariums, the garden. We beheve in its moral worth. We accept the statement that in the slums of the great cities, school gardening has transformed whole neighborhoods. But we fold our arms complacently and say: "We have no slums." ( ?) We are ready to concede that to the city child who lives within brick, who treads upon brick, who looks upon brick — the garden, an oasis of loveliness in the midst of the ugly, man-constructed city, is a necessity, but we say "we have no cities like these. Conditions in the South are different." But we have soil and we have plants, and we have children to be educated, and we have not yet grasped the relation between these things. We have not yet realized that we are withholding from our children the means to vitalize, to enrich and socialize the education we have provided. We South Carolinians, with our gracious climate, we, who are so "land poor" that we could easily furnish every boy and girl in our State a garden plot of his own, continue to deprive them of their birthright. But the garden bee is buzzing in our bonnets, and its buzz is going to grow louder and louder, until we get up and do the thing we ought to do. We will not rest until the school garden is as much a part of every city school as the building itself with its equipment. THE RURAL SCHOOL GARDEN. But what of the rural school? To the country child all this is his birthright. Gardens are matters of course ; in fact, often too much matters of course. To him they are apt to be ordinary and common-place. They savor of drudgery, and, many times a drudgery unbrightened by zest or interest. -The soil in which he works throbs with the mysterious life processes taking place beneath it, but does he feel it? Regarding the plants about him from an economic point of view only, is he likely to catch the subtle charm of beauty which is also coherent in them? 10 Winthrop College Bulletin A city child stood enraptured over a field of cotton in bloom. "Oh, the lots of beautiful flowers.!"' exclaimed the little one lost in amazement at this prodigality of nature. The little country child came running up to see the cause of all this wonder and delight- As his eyes fell upon the field of cotton, his amazement was no less great and sincere. "Why, them ain't no flowers ; they ain't nothing in the world but cotton blooms," he exclaimed in cold disgust. Our country children need an education that will enable them to rejoice in the beauty of the cotton bloom, in the fieecy whiteness of the fruit that follows, as well as to be able later on to convert this white staple into the gold of money. The country boy knows how much the crop will bring in dollars and cents, perchance. Does he know how fair and rich the yield may be in that market where prices never fluctuate? The fruits of the spirit may be harvested with the fruits of the field, and the latter be not lessened thereby. The school garden has its aesthetic, its economic, its ethical phase, and these three are one. They form a unity of instruction in this subject essential to the highest good of the child. The claim is made that as the country child has the- garden at home and takes part in the operations there, that it is not necessar}^ for him to take time from his other studies for these. But is it true that all, or even a large per cent., of our boys and girls do gardening at home ? Man); of our girls raised in rural districts know next to nothing about gardening. If any school, however, should be made up of students who have had plenty of experience in practical gardenmg, they should not be held to the same kind of work. They should not spend their time and energy cultivating crops with which they are quite familiar, but different work, experimental in its nature, should be given. These experiments in Agriculture may prove valuable subject matter for other studies, if Ihe proper correlation be sustained. The rural school has peculiar need of the school garden; the problems of farm and country life are vital to these children, and they are vitally concerned in an intelligent investigation and improvement of the conditions around them. Winthrop College Bulletin 11 The home garden cannot be turned into an experiment station — the old folks would scarcely allow it, and, besides, experiments here might prove too costly. In the home garfler- the methods relied upon are usually those backed by tradition. We do as our fathers did and we ask no questions. An old man was whitewashing his trees. A young man came along and said : 'A\'hy do you Avhitewash your trees?" The whitewasher replied : "Young man, luy father whitewashed his trees, Jiis father whitewashed his trees, and / whitewash my trees." The school garden of the rural school should give the why of methods used. It should be an experiment station looking towards the betterment of farm conditions through the discoveries made there. The economic value of school gardening has been demonstrated in many rural communities, where the productive power of the land has been materially increased and in many cases doubled and tripled by this practical study of scientific Agriculture. Not only has there been an increase in quantity, but a decided betterment in C|ualit3^ By a careful study of corn, teaching the children how to choose the best seed corn, a number of boys and girls in ]\Iacon county, Illinois, learned to raise corn of such a grade that it readily sold for $1.50 per bushel, while that of their fathers \^•as bringing the customary 40 cents. Every farmer bo}^, and girl, too, for that matter, -houid have the business education Avhich comes as the result of harvesting and marketing the products of their gardens. "School gardens teach, among other things," says Dr. Jewell, "private care for public property, economy, honesty, concentration, justice, appreciation of the dignity of labor, and a love for the beauties of nature;"' and this training every boy i nd girl in rural and city schools should have. COMMERCIAL PHASE OF SCHOOL GARDENIIVG}. In the beginning Adam and Eve gardened for the fun of it — for the love of it — and later on when, for more serious 12 Winthrop College Bulletin reasons, they tilled the soil it was the "love" that drew from EEDS. In order that older pupils may become intelligent gardeners, a brief, simple study of type soils should be made. Pupils should learn that the soil is really the storehouse for ""plant food. That most "storehouses" will be foinid to be deficient in either nitrogen, potash or phosphoric acid. Pupils sliould know the effect of these three essential elements on plant life — that "nitrogen stimulates growth of stems and leaves." Too little nitrogen betrays itself in a weak grovv'th of yellowish, green color. Too much nitrogen tends to make plants "run to leaves" at the expense of fruit and flowers. Potash builds up the Avoody tissue and stimulates the production of plump seeds and fruit and intensifies the color of the bloom. Phosphoric acid aids materially in developing seeds. It is applied in bone compounds and fossil phosphates, as South Carolina and Florida rocks. A complete fertilizer is niade by mixing these three elements, potash, nitrogen and phosphoric acid. TO niPROVE CLAY SOILS. ''Many of the ciuestions of soil management are really the questions of how to deal with clay." The use of coarse barnyard refuse is helpful to clay soils. It not only adds fertility (available plant food) but also, by separating the finer particles, the texture of the soil is improved. Lime is also valuable on clay soil, as it acts as a Winthrop College Bulletin 15 fertilizer, neutralizes the acid in the soil, and makes the clay soil easily worked. Lime should be applied at the rate of about twenty bushels to the acre once in every four or iive years. TO IMPROVE SANDY SOIt Add fine stable manure or other barnyard refuse so as to fill up soil spaces and furnish finer particles. Temporary improvement may be made by compacting soil with roller. (A. study of "The Soil and Its Relation to Plants," by R. i\l. Davis, I\Iiami Bulletin, will be helpful to teachers.) PROPER TILLAGE. After all, the proper tillage of the soil is the real question. In order to conserve moisture plats should be raked at least once a week. If the top soil is hard and crusty, as after a rain, rake more often. And do not be deceived by a moist surface- rake anyhow. Stirring the soil often prevents baking. LAYING OFF PLATS. The most convenient shape for a garden plat is probably the oblong. The size of these plats depends, of course, upon the size of area and number of children. We have found 9 x 24 a convenient size. This, being just 1-200 of an acre, makes it comparatively easy for the children to compute amount of fertilizers they are applying per acre, or how much their crops produce per acre. It is very important to have them work out problems of this kind. Another reason why the oblong, rather narrow, strip of ground has proven satisfactory is that it will keep the children scattered when they are all working at one time. In laying out the plats, stretch a line, or strong string, across the outer edge of the area to be used for the work- Have children measure ofi^ their plats by this. At each corner of each plat drive a good substantial stake securely in the giound. Pull up these stakes after the garden is clearly outlined by growing plants. Number each garden. Print this 16 Winthrop College Bulletin number on a ten or twelve inch nursery label, and stick in the ground in front center of garden. If nursery labels cannot be procured, print number on stakes made of pieces of boards. (Nursery labels may be procured from Henry F. Michell Company, Philadelphia, Pa. Twelve-inch ones cost sixty cents per hundred.) A path three feet wide should be left between each row of gardens, and one two feet wide between each individual garden. If space is not limited, wider walks should be made. Before planting, lay out straight and continuous rows through the entire garden row. To do this, take one long garden line and stretch across the entire number of plat? where the rows should be; have the children lay off the rows by this line. When the first row is completed move the line over and lay off the second one, and so on. Have same plants or seedsv planted in rows occupying same relative position in each plat. When the seeds begin to germinate this will give to the gardens a neat and orderly appearance, which will be very pleasing. gakde:x tools. The use of toy tools has long been discarded, even for the }'0ungest children. But there is a set of small, light, strong tools manufactured for use in Kindergarten and First Grades. The tools used at Winthrop were about the same as those used in the home garden. To each plat was given one hoe, one rake (a ten or twelve foot rake), one garden (or push) plow, one hand trowel, one fifty-foot measuring tape, one garden line, and watering pot. By skillful management man} oi these implements were used in common so as to avoid the expense of buying so many full sets. If small crops are grown, the hand-weeder is useful, but not essential. If children are to do their own spading, the spades should be smaller than the ordinary garden spades. Most local dealer.^ carry this lighter spade. Inasmuch as we now "water our gardens with a rake,"' watering pots are not a necessity, though they are useful when setting out plants. Winthrop College Bulletin 17 GAEDEN SEEDS. As we intend to grow "common crops," we will need a supply of common seeds, such as lettuce, turnip, spinach, cabbage, string beans, English peas, radish, tomatoes, corn, scjuash, etc. For many years now there has been a free distribution of seeds made by the government. These can be had in limited quantities by applying to local congressmen. But it is best not to rely entirely upon this source of supply. Often the children will bring seeds for planting. But when seeds have to be purchased consult catalogues of reliable seedsmen and order your seeds in bulk, not small packages, as that is very expensive. FALL LESSONS IN GARDENING IIVDOOE WOKK. As an introduction to garden work the pupils should have an illustrated blackboard talk on the subject, showing designs for garden plat, what and where to plant, and the best use of the best tools. The talk should be as stimulating to interest as possible. Opportunities for applying their mathematics may be given pupils, as the size of bed, number of rows, distance between rows, etc., have to be computed. Each child should have a note book which he or she has made. Convenient size for pocket is 8^x4%, though larger ones are all right. These books may be made of ordinary manilla paper, covered with some stiff cover paper and decorated vvith appropriate design, if desired. These books are to contain : Diagram of garden bed, date -of planting each crop, date of maturing, harvesting, and other interesting" data. The following notes kept by a pupil in the Fifth Grade of the Winthrop Training" School, will illustrate one method of using these books : 18 Winthrop College Bulletin School Garden ^otes, Fifth Grade, Winthrop Training School. 1908 Rozvs I and 2 — Radish, Mixed Turnip and Olive Shape : planted, Alarch 7; germinated, March 14; thinned, March 18; gathered, April 25. Rozvs 3 and 4 — Enghsh Peas, Lightning Excelsior; planted, February 29; germinated, March 10; thinned, March 17; gathered, April 25. 1908 Rozv 5 — Cabbage, Charleston Wakefield ; seed sown in hotbed, October 10, 1907 ; transplanted to garden, February 29 ; ready to use. May 23. 1908 Rows 6 and 7 — Beans, Red X'alentine; planted, ]\Iarcli 14; germinated, March 21 ; gathered, Alay 20. 1908 Rozv S^Zinnia, Tom Thumb, planted March 14; germinated, March 28; bloomed. May 25. i^ows 9 and 10 — Cupid Sweet Peas, planted, INIarch 7 ; germinated, March 21 ; bloomed, May 23. REMARKS. Snow fell on March 20th. The sweet peas were not rairred by it, nor were English peas, cabbage and radish. PLANT STUDY Pupils should have lessons in the 1 Structure of plants. 2 Function of roots, stems, leaves, flowers, etc 3 Propagation of plants. Winthrop College Bulletin 19 Some laboratory or indoor lessons are necessary in [ilaut stud}'. . Older pupils should analyze carefully a few plauls, learning the function of each part. But the teacher should bear in mind always the necessity of studying nature at home. The most profitable nature study may be carried on by means oi school gardening. Here the pupils may get on intimate terms with the plants, become acquainted with their home habits, ways of eating, drinking", breathing", etc. Stroma. Style. Ovar-y— L — Fig. 1— A Pistil Avther- Filcanent-- Fig. 2— A Stamen Sti-gmOr rCorolla V A vertical section of a tomato bloom 20 Winthrop College Bulletin Avoid use of technical terms with younger pupils, but teach the truth. j\Iuch of our so-called nature study is mere rubbish, because of failure to adhere to scientific facts. In higher grades a more technical study may be made and a good text book used. But pupils should always have the real plant to study. Older pupils should study more complex flowers. The functions of the organs of flowers — such as stamens, pistils, anthers and stigmas — should be emphasized. These lessons may be given m mid-winter (if specimens can be obtained) or in the spring. OUTDOOR LESSONS. The children, those who are old enough, should aid in preparing soil and in laying off garden plats, after the method described. Younger children observe. FALL PLAIVTOG. Violet plants, narcissus and daffodils and sweet peas should be planted now. For opening furrows, the hoe or garden plow may be used for deep-planted seeds, such as sweet peas, or the trowel or the rakestall for smaller seeds. Make the earth above shallow planted seeds firm by patting it down with a hoe. Yegetables. Such vegetables as can stand ordinary cold may be planted- Fall onions, winter radishes, spinach, lettuce, winter cabbage and turnips. Seed Sowing'. Large seeds should usually be planted quite deeply, that is, in most cases from three to five inches in depth. Small, fine seed should not be deeply covered with earth. Economy in seed planting should be emphasized, as there is usually a sad waste in this line. As nearly as possible, correct quantity for planting a row, at given distances apart, should be placed in small envelopes and given to each child. ^ Iw^Kim^'^-^- ;^-■' PIHK'' T:M^I^-' ^" V ;- ^^hrs-:t miJ^Bp^iS^^^^*^^' ■"*■ -'"''-^^^ '^ ^f^fig ^^^ft ^ ^^^P ^^M ^^^^^^r-*^;'?^^^: ^^^^^m^'^ .. m FOURTH AND FIFTH GRADES. SIXTH AND SEVENTH GRADES AT WORK Winthrop College Bulletin 21 (These seed envelopes may be made in manual training class.) The younger children — Kindergarten and First Grade children — should, when possible, plant the large seed, as it is so much easier for them to drop. HOTBEDS AJfD COLDFRAMES. In order to have vegetables and flowers grown successfully during the winter, Winthrop pupils were taught how to construct and manage hotbeds and coldframes. Professor J. S. Newman's suggestions for doing this were followed : "Excavate to the depth of eight inches an area three feet three inches wide by five feet eight inches long. Fill this excavation with fermenting stable manure and green cotton seed, mixed in equal parts, moisten it and stamp down smoothly. Moisten the material as it is mixed, and again when put into the pit, if it seems dry. "Construct a close frame of one and one-half-inch heart lumber to fit over this pit. Have this two feet high at' the north end and one foot at the south end, the sides sloping uniformly. The heat will be retained better, and the cold air excluded, if soil is banked around the lower part of the plank When the frame is completed and placed over the manure fill into the depth of four inches with sifted dark loam soil and put en the sash. In three or four days remove the sash, water gently, and replace the sash. When the temperature in the hotbed gets about 70 degrees Fahrenheit ventilate by placing a block of wood under one end of the sash, and during warm days the sash may be removed entirely. Keep the surface of the bed moist, but not wet, and for such crops as lettuce try to let the temperature range between 45 degrees Fahrenheit at night and 65 degrees Fahrenheit during the day. It should be remembered that a hotbed loses its heat within about six or seven weeks and should be refilled where continuous planting is desired. • "Thx2 coldframe is made in the same way as the hotbed, excepting that rich earth is used instead of manure, which supplies the heat for the hotbed. If glass is too expensive for the coldframe, white cloth may be substituted, as a cover, with fair results. 22 Winthrop College Bulletin "The hotbed is used for growing" lettuce, radishes, liasturtiums, etc., during the winter, and for starting tender plants, such as peppers, egg plants and tomatoes, for early spring setting". "The.coldframe is used for hardening off rather tender plants for setting to the open ground and for growing rather hardy plants, such as winter radishes, lettuce, beets, carrots, endive, etc., during the winter and early spring. DECORATING THE SCHOOL GROUNDS It should be the aim of every school to make its grounds as beautiful as possible. The school grounds, indeed, should be object lessons to the communit3^ To this end every school should stand in the midst of a well kept lawn. Nothing else will add so decorative an effect to the surroundings. Lawn seeds should be "sown in the fall. In our section "Woods Permanent grass mixture" has given great satisfaction. Pupils should be taught "the A. B. C- of Landscape Gardening : (a) Keep open center. (b) Plant in masses. (c) Avoid straight lines." Children should draw plans for beautifying school grounds, design walks, indicate places in which to plant trees, .shrubbery and masses of flowers. If there are any unsightly objects which cannot be removed from the school premises, drop beside them, in well fertilized soil, a few seeds from some rapidly growing vine, such as Moon Flower, Flowering Bean or Morning Glory. Like the wonderful beans in "Jack, the Giant Killer," they will foon climb up, and most marvelously will they transform an ugly outbuilding, an old fence or outstanding post or even a "junk heap." The Castor Bean plant, Caladium and Canna are tall foliage plants which grow rapidly and add much to the beauty of the grounds. Winthrop College Bulletin 23 Winter Lessons in Gardening ELEMENTARY AGKICULTURE. A climate, such as ours, makes it possible for the children to have outdoor work nearly all the year round. But there are times when IMother Nature treats us to a spell of bad temper; it rains, the wind blows or the snow, for a brief season, shrouds our gardens in white. These are opportunities for doing most valuable indoor work, which will lead to an understanding of some of the underlying principles of Agriculture. Laboratory Exercises. While a well-ecjuipped laboratory would not come amiss, still there are valuable experiments, requiring no expenditure of money, which may be given by even the tuitrained teacher, in the "one-room rural school." The real need is that the teacher have the zviU — the rest will follow. Material ISeeded. Two dozen empty tomato cans, three or four lard pails, a few small wooden boxes, a lot of empty bottles, a collection of typical soils (clay, sand, loam, muck or peat), a few seeds of garden and farm crops, and the teacher is ready to demonstrate, without cost, many important principles of Agriculture. (Consult "The L^se of Illustrative Material in Rural Schools," by Dick J. Crosby.) If to this equipment be added four dairy thermometers, a few test tubes, a set of metric weights, an alcohol lamp, some cork bottle stoppers, glass and rubber tubing, litmus paper and a few ordinary tin pie plates, the school will be well equipped at a nominal cost for doing much experimental work, both valuable and interesting. With this material the teacher may show that "the soil contains plant food, the escape of moisture from plants, habits of plant growth, that plants recjuire air to form roots, effect of hght on plants, capacity of soils for water, methods of plant propagation," and many other interesting: facts- 24 Winthrop College Bulletin Demonstratious. (i) To show the escape of moisture from growing plants. Take a small vigorous plant, which has been well established in a tomato can or a small flower pot, and around the base of the plant place a piece of card board or stifl: paper. This may be done by making a slit from the edge to the center for the introduction of the stem of the plant. This paper should be securely sealed to prevent the rise of moisture from the soil in the pot. Then if a common tumbler should be placed over the plant, con- densed moisture will soon be seen in the inside of the glass, showing that the moisture is given ofl: by the plant. (2) To show that soil contains plant food. Burn all vegetable matter from about one gallon of clean sand. With this fill two equal sized cans, first punching holes in bottom of cans to give drainage. In each can plant three or four plump beans or grains of corn. Water both cans with rain water till the seeds are up. Then continue watering one can with rain water, while the other is watered with soil solution, that is, with water which has been drained out from a mass of rich soil, and note how much faster the plants grow which have been watered with the soil solution- This is due to the fact that water is able to dissolve plant food in the soil and, by so doing, make it available or ready for use. (3) To show habits of plant growth. This may be shown by the use of a tin plate, two small pieces of glass and a piece of cloth. Take some large well- sprouted seed — as a grain of corn — each, the root and the top Fig-. 4 — To show the escape of moisture from growing- plants Winthrop College Bulletin 25 of the stem, being more than an inch in length. First lay one piece of glass in plate, one end resting on rim of plate. On this lay the cloth, after tying dark-colored thread at short intervals around the root and top of stem, place the seed on the cloth, folding corners over the seed covering the roots and leaving the top out. Place over this the second piece of plass, placing a chip or splinter of wood between the pieces of glass to prevent the bursting of the roots, and put water in the plate to support the plant. It will be observed that the roots will grow from the ends, allowing the strings to remain apparently unremoved, while the spaces between the strings around the stem are increased, showing that the stem lengthens, not at the end, as is the case with the roots, but all along the entire lensrth. Fig. 5— Capacity of soils for storing up water (4) To show the capacity of soils for taking in water. (a) Break the bottoms of five large bottles, tie a piece of thin cloth over the mouth of each and fill each with a different type of &Qi\, say gravel, sand, loam, clay and peat. Arrange as shown in Fig. 5. Then gently pour water in one of the (a). To break the bottom of a bottle, tie a cotton string around the bottle near the end or bottom, saturate this string with kerosene, set the string on fire and when it is almost burned off plunge that end of the bottle into cold water and the bottom will crack and may be pulled off. 26 Winthrop College Bulletin bottles; pour just fast enough to keep the surface covered, and note the time (with watch in hand) it takes for the water to drip into the tumbler below. Do this Avith each bottle, and note which soil takes in water most rapidly. The power of storing up monsture ma}^ be determined by the same apparatus, by weighing the bottle before and after filling it with dry soil and again after the water ceases to drip from the mouth of the bottle. The difference in weight between the wet and dry soil will equal the amount of water stored. STUDY OF SEEDS. The fundamental need of a good crop is good seed. No amount of cultivation can produce perfect corn from imperfect seed corn- Hence, one of the most valuable studies in Agriculture is that of seeds. It can also be made one of tlie most interesting to even quite small children. In the Fall the children should gather the seeds of our garden vegetables, field crops and flowering plants. They should be carefully put awa}^ and later on a careful study of them, be means of simple experiments, be made. Tests were made by the Winthrop pupils in regard to — • 1 Maturity of seeds. 2 Age of seeds. 3 Size of seeds. 4 Temperature required for germination. 5 ]\Ioisture required for germination, etc. (a) Germination Test of Seeds: Fig. 6— Germinal ion test of seeds Count out 50 or 100 peas, beans, corn, or any other seed to be tested. Take a plate, two pieces of canton flannel. 01 blotting paper, cut to fit the plate. Moisten one piece of flannel and spread the seeds on it. Over this place the other moistened cloth. Cover the whole with another plate oi patie Winthrop College Bulletin 27 of glass to prevent rapid evaporation. Set the plate in a warm room (68-86 degrees Fahrenheit). Examine the seeds every- day for six or eight days. If they get too dry. add enough Vs'ater to moisten, but not saturate the cloth. When the seeds begin to sprout, count out those germinated, and from them determine what percentage of the whole number tested were good. If very small seeds are to be tested, count out a larger number and use, instead of cloth, thin blotting paper which has been moistened. Pupils should record in note book variety and number of seeds, and date when test begins, date of germination and per cent, of seeds germinated, (b) Depth of planting. To determine the best depth at v,'hich to plant different seeds, take a few big-mouthed bottles, eight-inch olive bottles will do ; fill these bottles with moist loamy soil ; plant in them, at various depths, beans, peas, etc., and some smaller seed, such as lettuce, radish and onions. Wrap these bottles up to the neck in black paper, or cloth, and set them in a warm place. Take these wrappings off daily and observe. The pupils will make many interesting discoveries with regard to "best depth at which to plant different seeds, the rate of germination, how the little plants make their way through the soil, whether they carry their roots up with them, or leave them behind," etc. Have pupils make very close and careful observations, taking accurate notes. Fig. 1- Depth of Planting LESSONS IX PEOPAGATIOX OF PLANTS In the Propagation House at Winthrop older students are instructed in methods of plant propagation by means of — Winthrop College Bulletin 1 Layers (scoppernong grapes, black and raspberries). 2 Cuttings (grape, fig, apricot). 3 Buds (peach, plum, cherry). 4 Grafts (apple, pear, pecan). TYliip or Tongue (xraftiog. The scions for this work may be had from any nearby apple orchard, while a sufficient number of stalks may be purchased from almost any nurseryman. We purchased No. 2 stalks, for use at this College, from J. K. Skinner & Co., Topeka, Kansas, at a very reasonable cost. The raffia, or waxed cord, for tying the graft, may be purchased from most seedsnien. To make a whip graft, cut the stalk off diagonally, just above where the side roots usually appear, cut the stalks off diagonally leaving a half -inch or more of cut surface. Then about one-third from the end of the cut surface, split the stalk, making the tongue. Prepare the basal scion in a similar way and fit the two together, taking care to make the inner bark, or 'cambrium, layers come side of the cut surface, together at least on one The grafts should be securely tied, either with raffia, or waxed cord, to exclude the air from the cut surface, and to hold the scion in place. This work may be done indoors at any time during the winter. After the grafts are made they may be packed in moist sand and the children required to put them out in a nursery in the early spring. This will enable the pupils to have a good supply of young fruit trees Fig-. 8 — Whip or tongue grafting-, (a), stock; lb), scion; (c), stock and scion united Winthrop College Bulletin 29 to take to their liomes the following fall, thus improving the home orchards, and at the same time creating more interest in and a better feeling towards the school on the part of the patrons. Hardwood Cuttings. Many common plants, such as the grape, fig, privet, etc., are propagated by means of cuttings. These cuttings are made during the dormant season, and usually consist of a straight portion of the shoot or cane which contains two or more buds. These cuttings may be made at any time during the winter, and packed in moist sand to keep till early spring, when they are set about four inches apart in a nursery row. Each plant should be placed in the soil, leaving only the top bud out, as shown in Fig. 9. Fig. 9 — Cutting in furrow Fig. 10~Hardwood cuttings : (a), simple cutting; (b), heel cutting; (c), mallet cutting; (d), single-eye cutting 30 Winthrop College Bulletin SOFT OR GREENWOOD CUTTINGS. Parts of the stem containing two or more nodes, with g r e e n leaves, are often used as cuttings. Many green house plants, such as the coleus. ge rani u m s and begonias, are propagated in this way. ■ LEAF CUTTINGS. Such plants as the rex begonia and the b r y o p h y 1 lum can readily be propagated by means of leaf cuttings. These cuttings, if held in contact with moist sand, will often produce many plants from a single leaf. This is especially true of the bryophyllum. Soft wood cuttings may be very successfully rooted in boxes of sand placed in the windows of the school room. Fig-. 11 — Cutting of Coleus Fig. 12~Leaf cutting V Winthrop College Bulletin 31 A WIMER GARDE:V. By proper attention to a rotation of crops, that is, putting in a crop as soon as one has been exhausted, we should be able to enjoy fresh vegetables from oui gardens the year round. In our Kindergarten garden, at Winthrop, tlie following vegetables were in good edible condition all winter : Turnips, curly leaf cabbage (set to the soil late in September, ready for use in December), mustard, Kohl-Rabi, lettuce, beets, carrots, winter cabbage. Wi:SDOW BOXES. Every school room should have its window boxes, especially during the winter, if the heating of the room makes it practicable. Alake the box six or eight inches deep, twelve to fifteen ir-^hes wide , "d as long as the window is Avide. Fasten box firmi_, ,^,o Su.^/iiiest window. A very satisfactory box is one that slopes toward the sun, so as to distribute light evenly to all the plants. Fill the box with fine rich soil. Plant begonia cuttings, calliopsis, hyancinths, ferns, narcissus or geraniums in middle of box. Plant climbing nasturtiums or Wandering Jew near inside to hang down over box, on the window side. Plant sweet peas and train up on strings, Fiants should stand four or iive inches apart. Water boxes every day. Spring Lessons in Gardening This is the time of the year when all the world loves a garden. The children take to gardening as naturally a-, the duckhngs to the water- Spring gardening at AA'inthrop was begun in the latter part of February or first of March. The soil should be thoroughly prepared and fertilized, all old plants and roots having been removed. Seeds of plants Avhicli mature rapidly, so that the children may have the pleasure of harvesting before school closes, should be planted. 5- N/ -r G^ /<5-^ CrAAAj-gyqA/ n CyrxJr^i Uyiyyi/. I t^^yTA/yUO. t?>j>/n/yiJ I^jjAa . ^=5^ n ltd \i/ l:^ Combined Flower and Vegetable Garden Winthrop College Bulletin The combined vegetable and flower garden plat is most generally used for school gardens. Tall plants should be placed in center of garden, dwarf or bush form, at the ends. In each plat sow two rows of the following early vegctribles • Radish, lettuce, English peas, beans, beets. Later on replace radish and lettuce and peas with later crops, tomatoes, cabbage, Irish potatoes, etc." This continuous use of the ground is one of the most important lessons to be learned in intensive horticulture. Among the most satisfactory flowers for school gardens, we have found the sweet pea, California poppy, nasturtiums and zinnia. Directions for Planting Radishes — Sow seeds continuous in the drill, not deeper than one inch nor less than one-half inch. As soon as tJic second set of the leaves appear, plants should be thinned to stand from two to three inches apart in row. As the plants mature quickly, they should be replaced by other cro{;s, tomatoes, for instance. Beans — Plant in rows one foot apart, placing seeds about two inches deep and six inches apart in rows. They are tender plants and should not be planted till danger of frost is over. Beets — Beets may be planted at same time as radish and lettuce, but they mature more slowly. Plant in rows one foot apart, place one inch apart in row and cover one inch deep. When plants are about two inches high, thin, leaving them four inches apart in row. Lettuce — Seeds should be sown in the drill in the open, or in hotbeds and coldframes. If in the open, scatter almost one-half inch apart along the row, and cover about one-half inch with earth. When plants are well up, thin to six inches apart in the row. If sown in hotbed or coldframe, thin to two inches apart, and when they begin to crowd transplant to garden, if weather will permit. Szveet Peas — The first crop of sweet peas planted before the loth of October, bloom early in the spring and are over 34 Winthrop College Bulletin by the 4th of July. So in order to have a continuous supply of these beautiful flowers, another planting should take place early in March, or even in February, just as soon as the ground xan be dug. Plant sweet peas at least three or four inches deep. Sow seed continuous in the drill. It is a good plan to sow sweet peas in "double rows only five or six inches apart and stick the brush or chicken wire support between them." When plants are a few inches high, thin out, so that they will not stand nearer together than six inches in the row. J^arictics—Tjixy four or five varieties — not the mixed packets. At Winthrop we found "WYiod's Special" mixture very satisfactory. California Poppy — This is an annual which adds much to the garden, the flowers being very brilliant in coloring. The seeds, like the sweet peas, may be sown in Autumn for early bloom. If beds of the flowers are desired, sow broad- cast. The soil should be well fertilized. Each plant should be given about five or six inches of space in which to grow. They bloom abundantly from early Spring to frost. Nostitrtiuuis — The dwarf variety should be used in the garden plat. If early blooms are desired, plant in window boxes or coldframes. The seeds, which are large, should be planted at least an inch deep. Sow in rows, placing seeds about six inches apart in row. When all plants are up, thin. If the soil is very rich, plants should be left a foot apart. Plants should be kept clean of weeds. Zinnias — Sow seed in open ground early in Spring- Fertilize the soil well, for strong rich soil is needed by this plant in order to secure large flowers and a profusion of blooms. Be careful to thin and transplant. Plants should be given ample room in which to grow. Their average height is one and one-half feet. In addition to their use in school gardens, they make efifective borders and summer hedges. A SUMMARY OF RESULTS ATTAIIVED AT WINTHROP. On an area of 96x170 feet the Winthrop children early in March planted the following vegetables: English peas, Winthrop College Bulletin 35 radishes, Irish potatoes, set out cabbage plants, spinach, lettuce. The cabbage plants were set in rows two and one-half feet apart and one and one-half feet apart in the row. Irish potatoes planted in two and one-half feet rows and two feet apart in rows. Lettuce sown continuous in drill in rows two feet apart, and thinned to about four inches apart, when plants were small. A little later on turnips, corn, beans were planted, and Kohl-Rabi set out, plants having been previously grown under glass. In addition to these vegetables, many flower seeds were sown, such as sweet peas, dwarf nasturtiums, castor' beans, zinnias, algeratum, Sweet William, stock, pansies, etc. Before close of session, pupils were able to harvest many of the product of their garden, the approximate yield being — Cabbage, 230 heads, each weighing 2^^ to 3^^ pounds; Kohl-Rabi, 50 heads; beets, 144; onions, 120; radishes, in quantity ; English peas, 62 quarts ; beans, 40 quarts ; lettuce, 150 heads. In a coldframe on an acre 8^x9 feet, where lettuce was thickly sown, enough was gathered at one time to serve 500 students for one meal and yet leaving one plant to each square foot to head. Flowers in great abundance were raised, which were gathered by the children and used for decorating the school rooms. Tests of Tomatoes and Lettuce. Nineteen varieties of tomatoes and twelve of lettuce were planted for testing. The seeds were sown in hotbeds. After plants were well up, they were transplanted to stand 2x2 inches apart. They were kept slowly growing until about the loth of April, when they were placed in the garden. The tomato plants were set in rows eighteen inches apart and placed about twenty inches apart in the rows. As the plants grew they were pruned, the side branches being removed. "Pruning lessens competition among the br- :hes, and thus the food supply to the fruits retained is greatly increased." As each plant grew the main stem was lied to a strong 36 Winthrop College Bulletin stake driven securely in the ground. The lettuce plants were set out in rows about eighteen inches apart and placed six inches apart in rows. When plants were well matured, they were tested by pupils of Eighth and Ninth Grades, who filled out descriptive blanks furnished by IT. S. Department of Agriculture. Cotton. Two varieties of cotton, one of the long and one of the short staple, were planted. In the Fall when the children returned to the school, the cotton patch was white, and eager young fingers were soon picking the cotton. The yield was not sufiicient to afl^ect the cotton market, but quite large enough to thrill the young farmers with pride. The cotton was sold and money deposited in the school treasury. (iSraiKlniotlier's Garden. A plat 15x30 was set aside for an old-fashioned herb garden, in which were planted many of the herbs prized for medicinal, flavoring, perfuming and other valuable qualities. Among these were caraway, sage, fennell, thyme, summer savory, sweet basil, and anise. School Exliiljit At the close of school, in each room, from the Kindergarten up, an exhibit was made of vegetables and flowers grown in the respective gardens. This exhibit was most creditable and beautiful. Radishes, beets, onions, potatoes, corn, turnips, cabbage and lettuce were effectively arranged on large tables, with bowls of nasturtiums, sweet peas and other flowers adding grace and beauty to the collection. Distribution of Bulbs and Plants. The College distributed large quantities of narcissus, jonquil, dafi^odil and other bulbs to schools throughout the State applying for them. Also privet plants or settings for hedges for school grounds. Winthrop College Bulletin 37 Sniuiiiier Management olt Uardens. A committee of school chiklren living near the gardens was appointed to sell the products during the summer. This committee made a report in the Fall to the teacher in charge of the matter. With the money realized pictures for school rooms were furnished. Course of Study in Elementary Grades First, Second and Third Grades FALL >TOBK. (i) Gathering of economic seeds, such as corn, cotton, etc. (2) Gathering of weed and tree seeds. (3) A careful study of seeds gathered, as to shape, color and texture. (4) Sow cabbage seed about the middle of October for transplanting in November or December. (5) Fall gardening. Plant bulbs, sweet peas, onion seS, radishes, spinach, and sow in unused portion of garden plat clover or rye for a cover crop. WIJfTER WORK. (i) Seed testing. (2) A study of the four principal types of soil — clay, sand, loam and muck or peat. (3) Making of window gardens from cuttings. (4) Sowing of seed in hotbed in January. SPRING WORK. (i) Sowing seed in garden, such as radish, beet, lettuce, etc. (2") Planting Irish potatoes (3) Transplanting cabbage, tomato, egg plant, plants, etc. (4) A study of the functions of the roots and leaves of plants. Wirithrop Gbllege Bulletin Fourth and Fifth Grades FALL WORK. (i) Seed gathering and the study of seeds in more advanced form than in previous grades. (2) Fall gardening continued, the pupils doing more independent work. Laying off gardens plats, etc. (3) Methods of seed distribution studied. — ^■'■--■■"- ^V • ■ WINTER- WoilK. ...-:- A. Jl- J (i) See"d 'testing. (2) Simple experiments in soil porosity and soil capillarity. (3) Review of soil studies made in previous grades. (4) Seed planting in hotbeds. (5) Making of various kinds of cuttings and window gardens. SPRING WORK. (i) Planting and cultivating garden by pupils. (2) A more definite study of the structure and the functions of the different parts of the plants. Sixth and Seventh Grades FALL WORK. (i) Text book study begun. (Agriculture for Beginners by Burkett, Stevens and Hill.) ' - (2) Advanced gardening work. WINTER WORK. (i) Text-book stuely continued. _ (2) . Seed testing. (3) Experiments to illustrate soil porosity and soil capillarity. (4)' Construction and care of hotbeds and coldframes. (5) The making of cuttings and window gardens. The lorcino" of bulbs in school room. Winthrop College Bulletin 39 SPKIIVO WORK. (i) Text-book stud}^ continued. (2) Planting and cultivating garden by pupils. Eighth and Ninth Grades FALL WORK. (i) Text-book. High School Agriculture begun. (2) Advanced gardening work. (3) Practice seed selection in corn and cotton field. WINTER WORK. (i) Text-book — Warner's Elcnicnts of .Agriculture continued. (2) A study of the types and breed of farm animals. (3) Scoring farm animals according to official score card. . (4) Construction and care of hotbeds and coldframes. (5) A study of the insects destructive to local crops and methods of combating them. SPRING WORK. (i) Text-book study continued. (2) A careful study of crop rotation as practiced by the dilterent farmers of the neighborhood. (3) Advanced garden work. (4) Advanced garden work. (Elements of Agriculture. G. F. Warren, Cornell University.) REFERENCE BOOKS ANB BULLETINS. 1 "Garden-Making" by L. H. Bailey. 2 "The Nursery Book" by L. H. Bailey. ■3 "The Flower Garden" by Bennett. 4 "The School Garden Book" by Weed & Emerson. 5 "Agriculture Through the Laboratory and School Garden" by Jackson and Daugherty. 6 "One Hundred Lessons in Agriculture" by A. E. Nolan. 7 "Soils" by C. W. Burkett. 40 Winthrop College Bulletin 8 "First Principles of Soil Fertility" by Alfred Vivian. 9 Tree Planting. Farmer's Bulletin No. 134. 10 Annual Flowering Plants. Farmer's Bulletin No. 195. 11 Soil Fertility. Farmer's Bulletin No. 257. 12 Renovation of Worn-out Soils. Farmer's Bulletin No. 13 Management of Soils to Conserve Moisture. Farmer's 245- 14 Exercises in Elementary Agriculture. Office of Bulletin No. 266. 15 Exercises in Elementary Agriculture. Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletin No. 186. All of the bulletins mentioned, and many others, may be had free of charge by addressing United States Department of Agriculture at Washington, D. C. The books may be had from Orange Judd & Co., of New York City, or from the Southern School Book Depository, of Atlanta, Ga. ADDRESSES OF SEED AJfD GARDEN IMPLEMENT HOUSES. T. W. Wood & Sons, Richmond, Virginia. W. Henry Maule, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Alexander Seed Co., Augusta, Georgia. Peter Henderson & Son, New York, N. Y. Henry A. Dreer, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. For Garden Plows and General Farming Implements — B. F. Avery & Sons, Atlanta, Georgia. X