+3:1027i. 4c77- C.. ()Li -4/ / /o'ci.ecif lic-tdevd U. S. NAVY FLIGHT TRAINING MANUALS No. 1 CAA-WTS ELEMENTARY No. 2 PRIMARY GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS UNIV. OF WASH. LIBRARIES JUN 27 2016 U.S. DEPOSITORY COPY U. S. NAVY FLIGHT TRAINING MANUAL 1. CAA-WTS ELEMENTARY TO THE NAVAL AVIATION CADET SECTION A. NAVY CAA-WTS FLIGHT TRAINING 1. Description of the Course 2. Check Flights SECTION B. THE AIRPLANE AND ITS CARE 3. Care of equipment 4. Familiarization with the Plane 5. Inspection of the Plane SECTION C. HANDLING THE AIRPLANE ON THE GROUND 6. Starting the Engine 7. Taxiing SECTION D. PRELIMINARY AIR WORK 8. Effect of the Controls 9. Straight and Level Flight 10. Demonstration of Inherent Stability 11. Medium Banked Turns 12. Elementary Coordination Exercises (S-Turns) 13. Normal Climbs 14. Normal Glides 15. Climbing Turns 16. Gliding Turns 17. Coordination Exercises (Advanced) 18. A Series of Stalls 19. Rectangular Course 3 SECTION E. TAKE-OFFS AND LANDINGS 20. Note on the Traffic Pattern 21. Normal Take-Offs 22. Approach to Landings 23. Landings Without Power 24. Power Wheel Landings 25. Cross-Wind Take-Offs 26. Cross-Wind Landings 27. Emergencies On Take-Off SECTION F. GETTING READY FOR SOLO FLIGHT 28. Normal Spins • 29. Accidental Spins 30. Your First Solo Flight 31. Solo Flight Practice SECTION G. MORE AU( WORK 32. Steeply Banked Turns 33. Spirals 34. S-Turns Across a Road 35. Series of Eights (No. 1, 2, and 3). 36. Series of Turns 37. Slips SECTION H. PRECISION LANDINGS 38. Precision Landings to a Circle 39. Slips to a Circle 40. "Dragging" Areas 41. Emergencies Away from the Field 42. Orientation This Flight Training Manual has been prepared specifically for use with the CAA-WTS Navy Elementary Flight Training Program. It has been approved by the Bureau of Aeronautics and the Naval Air Primary Training Command for the Navy and by the Flight Standards Division of the War Trctining Service for the Civil Aeronautics Administration. Actual preparation of the manual was carried out by representatives of the Training Division of the Bureau of Aeronautics, the Aviation Psychology Section of the Bureau of Medicine and Surgery and the Staff of the Naval Air Primary Training Command. Liberal use has been made of materials from "Fundamentals of Elementary Flight Maneuvers" (Civil Aeronautics Bulletin No. 32) which was originally prepared as a project of. the National Research Council Committee on the Selection and Training of Aircraft Pilots. 5 To the Naval Aviation Cadet: At last you are ready to begin actual flight training; in the next few weeks of Navy CAA-WTS training you will not only solo but also lay the foundations of your flying career. True, you will be flying light planes, but experience shows a direct relationship between skill in handling light planes and later performance with heavier and higher-powered military aircraft. Like all other skills, flying is easy when you have once learned it—that is, once it has become a series of correct habits. But learning to fly is not "a snap"; neither is it -so difficult that you should have trouble, if you put forth your best efforts. It is extremely important, however, that you learn correct habits of flying from the beginning. Just as most boys learn to swim well enough to stay afloat, it is possible to learn to fly in a manner which will enable you "to stay up" but still not be able to use an airplane as a military weapon. .In this course, the Navy expects you not only to learn to fly but also to learn certain basic habits of good flying so that you will be able to transfer them to heavier aircraft and become a useful combat pilot. This booklet has been prepared to help you in learning to fly well enough to deserve further training for Naval Aviation. In no sense will this booklet take the place of your flight instructor. It should however, be of real help, both to him and to you, in that you will be able to think over in advance—and even to "practice," preferably with a model, the new maneuvers that you will learn in the next lesson. Study them carefully. Be sure that you know just what each maneuver is; just how it is executed; so that you can make the best possible use of the time you spend in the air with your instructor. If, however, anything about the maneuver is not clear, ask your instructor about it before you take off. In this booklet, you will find brief, concise, and simple explanations of each maneuver; things which your instructor could tell you, but which can be as well or better understood from written descriptions and diagrams such as these. Thus your instructor's time and energy, which are so valuable in wartime, will be saved for those aspects of instructions which can take place only in the plane. • One can learn to fly without reading a manual, but he will find his flying is better, safer, and more enjoyable if he understands why an airplane behaves as it does under various conditions of flight. Make frequent reference to your copy of Principles of Flying. It is suggested that you take care of this booklet. You will find it of real help in "reviewing," and in improving your flying in the future. 6 Your flight instructor will proceed with each flight lesson on the assumption that you have studied these materials thoroughly. He may even give you a short "quiz" on the maneuvers before taking off. Here are a few suggestions for your study of flying. (1) After each flight, spend a few minutes reviewing what you did and what you learned. (2) Keep notes on your progress, the advice given you, and the mistakes you have made. Resolve never to repeat those errors. (3) Read up on tomorrow's work—and be prepared! If your instructor forgets to tell you what the next lesson will cover, ask him. He will appreciate your desire to be prepared. "A good pilot is one who knows he still has a lot to learn about flying." 7 SECTION A—NAVY CAA-WTS FLIGHT TRAINING The Navy CAA-WTS course represents a unique and effective merger of naval and civilian activities in the furtherance of the War effort. In order that this training will be most valuable as preparation for your further training the Navy has decided what you are to be taught. The actual teaching will be done by civilian instructors using civilian equipment, but the WTS course is officially recognized as an integral part of Naval Aviation Training. In a sense, since it represents your first actual flight training, it is the most important part of the entire training program. It will be in this course that you will learn your original and therefore your most permanent flying habits. Be sure they are the correct ones! An example of a good habit which you should acquire at once: Always refer to an airplane as an airplane, never as a ship! In the Navy the word "ship" is reserved specifically for surface craft. Description of the Course The Navy CAA-WTS Elementary Flight course includes not less than 35 hours and not more than 45 hours of flying, depending on the rapidity with which you acquire proficiency in the maneuvers which make up the course. In all, you will receive at least 21 hours of dual instruction. The course is divided into two stages, A and B, and you will be given a check flight at the end of each stage. By regulation, you must have at least eight hours of dual instruction before you are permitted to solo. Even after soloing, however, you will find dual instruction of great value. Soloing means only that you can take off and land safely; you will still have much to learn before you can make an airplane do whatever you want it to do. Your first job is that of learning about the airplane you are going to fly (Section B); next you will learn to start the engine and handle the airplane on the ground (Section C). Then, in order that you will have plenty of room in which to make mistakes, you will first learn to fly "upstairs" (Section D). After you have learned to control the airplane fairly well, you will begin to learn take-offs and landings (Section E). When you can take off and land satisfactorily, you will get ready for your first solo (Section F). Then will come more dual instruction during which you will learn several new maneuvers designed to give you practice in planning and flying with precision (Section F). At this point, you will return to landings, but this time with emphasis on precision •landings, that is, landing without using the whole airport! (Section H). 8 2. Check Flights At the end of your training period you will be given a flight test by CAA personnel. Furthermore, at intervals during your training, you may be given periodic check flights by someone other than your instructor. These check flights are examinations. Their purpose is to determine how well you have learned to maneuver an airplane. As in any other examination, how well you do on the check flight depends upon how well you are prepared. If you have taken your instructions seriously, if you have practiced conscientiously during your solo flying, and if you understand the fundamentals you learned in ground school, you will not need to worry about your check flights. Some trainees get "checkitis," and blow up during their check flight. Sometimes this results from a feeling of unpreparedness. Often, however, the simple fact of having the check pilot in the front seat makes a trainee "jittery." • Remember that the check flight is just like any other flight. The check pilot will merely ride along while you fly the plane through a series of maneuvers. Unlike most examinations, you will know the series of maneuvers which the check pilot will require. You will have practiced them many times, both with your instructor and solo. You will know what is coming, and there is no reason why you should not fly as well with the check pilot as you did while practicing. The check pilot is a human being, he was once a trainee himself, and would probably rather give you a good mark than a poor one. When practicing the flight maneuvers solo, imagine that the check pilot is sitting in the front seat and give yourself a "check flight" from time to time. During the "check flight," the check pilot will say little or nothing, so the practice situation won't be wholly different from the actual flight. For some of the check flights you will be required to memorize the sequence of the various maneuvers, and to go through the series without directions from the check pilot. If this is the case, be certain that you know the sequence of the maneuvers. This should. be easy, since you will have flown the series both with your instructor, and solo many times. The sequence of maneuvers for the final check flight is given on a following page. At any given point in your flight training, practice until you are proficient in all the maneuvers in this list which you have learned up to that time. The emphasis during the check flights is on precision! This means you must plan ahead. All maneuvers will be done with reference to some landmark on the ground. 9 During the maneuvers, always be aware of the position of your plane in reference to these landmarks. For instance, while you are making a turn, estimate where your turn is to be completed, and how you will have to vary your bank in order to recover in the proper position in regard to your landmark. During the maneuver, and during the straight and level flight between maneuvers, plan ahead, and decide how and where you will start the next ones. Don't get rattled and hurry through .the maneuvers. Thp sequence in which the maneuvers will be flown has been arranged so that the most flying can be done in the least time. But be deliberate. Enter and recover from your maneuvers decisively, and unless directed otherwise, fly straight and level for a few seconds between maneuvers while you "pull yourself together." Finally, don't become alarmed if you do poorly on one of the maneuvers early in a check flight. Your check pilot will not expect you to be a top notch pilot. He will, however, expect you to do as well as you can. So forget about the maneuvers you have already done and the ones ahead so that you may fly your best on each maneuver as you come to it. AGAIN, REMEMBER, THE CHECK FLIGHT IS JUST LIKE ANY OTHER FLIGHT. Following is the sequence of maneuvers for the Stage A Check Flight: 1. Taxiing and use of brakes. 1). Demonstration of inherent stability (confidence maneuvers). 2. Take-offs. 12. Series of stalls. 3. Traffic Pattern. 13. *Normal spins. 4. Straight and level. 14. *Spirals. 5. Coordination exercises (Elementary). 15. Glides and gliding turns. 6. Rectangular course. 16. Approaches to landing. (Navy type)? 7. S-turns. 17. Landings without power. 8. Series of eights. 18. Primary emergencies. 9. Climbs and climbing turns. 10. Series of shallow turns. *Note: These maneuvers must not be practiced solo in Stage A. Emergencies to be given any time during sequence of maneuvers. Maneuvers 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14 (high altitude work) may be inserted elsewhere in the sequence if necessary to suit the individual requirements of the operation. Following is the sequence of maneuvers for the Stage B Check Flight: 1. Taxiing and use of brakes. 5. Coordination exercises (Ele- 2. Take-offs. mentary and Advanced). 3. Traffic pattern. 6. Rectangular course. 4. Straight and level. 7. S-turns. 10 8. Series of eights. 18. Precision landings (circular approach). 9. Dragging areas. 19. Precision landings• (slips to circle). 10. Climbs and climbing turns. 20. Landings without power. 11. Series of turns. 21. Power wheel landings. 12. Series of stalls. 22. Cross wind take-offs. 13. Normal Spins. 23. Cross wind landings. 14. Accidental Spins. 24. Emergencies. 15. Slips. 16. Spirals. 17. Glides and gliding turns. Emergencies to be given any time during sequence of maneuvers. Maneuvers 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, and 16 (high altitude work) may be inserted elsewhere in the sequence if necessary to suit the individual requirements of the operation. The Stage B sequence of maneuvers will also constitute the check flight at the end of the Navy CAA-WTS Intermediate Flight course. More proficiency will be expected. I' SECTION B—THE AIRPLANE AND ITS CARE Your first task as a student pilot is that of getting acquainted with the plane in which you will learn to fly. And because your life will be continually depending on its condition, you will want to learn to examine it thoroughly and thus be able to decide whether or not it is ready for flight. Even after you have become an "old pilot" this will still be your responsibility as "skipper" of your plane. Furthermore, .as the pilot of an airplane, you are directly responsible for its care. DO YOU KNOW? What is a line inspection? When and by whom is a line inspection made? Why. is the engine idling R.P.M. very important? 3. Care of Equipment In Flight Preparatory School, you learned much about airplanes and engines. Now you have an opportunity of getting to know them intimately. The wise cadet will take advantage of this opportunity not only tb learn what he has to know in order to fly, but to become thoroughly familiar with the structural and operating characteristics of his plane, so that he may fly it all the better. As the pilot of a plane, it will be your responsibility to decide whether or not it is airworthy and to report any needed repairs. Similarly, you will need to learn the optimum operating conditions of the plane and engine so that you may fly with a minimum of wear and tear on them. With the extreme shortage of training planes and repair parts, you have a real responsibility for careful handling of the equipment on which you are trained. You are not likely to get hurt in a light plane, but cts you know, all airplanes can be easily damaged by mishandling. Treat the airplane as you would if it belonged to you. Taxi and fly it carefully according to instructions and it will still be available for training the next class of cadets. Remember that every plane damaged by careless students impedes the war effort just as much as if the damage had resulted from a Jap or Nazi bomb ! 12 4. Familiarization With the Plane LEARN THE LOCATION OF ALL CONTROLS AND INSTRUMENTS IN THE COCKPIT. The inside of the cockpit should be as familiar to you as the inside of your car, and you should feel as much at home there. PROPER POSITION IN THE COCKPIT IS IMPORTANT. Seat yourself in the cockpit with a parachute and make all possible adjustments (use of a cushion for example) to make sure you are comfortable, have maximum visibility, can reach the rudder pedals and move them a full throw. NOTICE THE LOCATION OF ALL CONTROLS AND INSTRUMENTS. The controls include: rudder pedals, brakes, control stick, stabilizer adjuster (trim tab), throttle, mixture controls, switch, gas valve, primer, heat control, fire extinguisher. Know where they are. You should be able to reach directly to any one of them. Locate the position of each of the instruments and know their functions. You should be able to glance directly at any instrument without having to look all over the panel to find it. EXPERIMENT WITH THE ACTION OF THE CONTROLS. Rest your heels on the deck with your toes resting lightly on the rudder pedals. Press the left . pedal, at the same time letting your right heel slide to allow the other pedal fo come back. This is how you should use the rudder while flying. Hold the stick lightly with the fingers of your right hand; never clench it as though it were a baseball bat. Place your left hand on the throttle so that you can move it with a wrist motion. As you grasp the throttle keep your little finger (or the edge of your hand) on the side of the cockpit or on base of the throttle. This serves as a reference to tell you how much you are moying the throttle. Practice these control movements so that they become familiar to you. NOW LOOK AROUND AGAIN. Don't hesitate to sit in the plane for 10 to 15 minutes. Locate the instruments in their various positions on the instrument .panel: the tachometer (R.P.M.'s), airspeed indicator, oil temperature, etc.. Note the full "ON". AND "OFF" position of the Fuel Shut-Off Valve and Carburetor Heat Control. Your instructor will point them out to you and explain their functions. Don't be afraid to ask questions. It would be a good idea to try to draw from memory, the various instruments in their correct positions. S. Inspection of the Plane All airplanes must be carefully checked each day before being placed on the line and released for flight. This so-called "line inspection" is ordinarily made by a mechanic, but as a pilot you must learn to make 13 such an inspection. You may not always have a mechanic to do it and in any case you will want to check up on certain things before each flight. (Something could have been damaged or have become loose on the flight just before yours!) Items which should be inspected before each flight are marked with an asterisk (*) in the outline below. An airplane is a very carefully designed precision instrument. The precision was built into it so that its flight characteristics would be accurate and desirable. As in all precision instruments, there is no broad tolerance in adjustment and- upkeep. If you expect the plane to fly as you want it to (or, for that matter, if you expect it to fly at all) you must be certain that it is in the, same condition that the designers intended. Therefore, DON'T TAKE IT FOR GRANTED THAT YOUR PLANE IS IN GOOD FLYING CONDITION. THIS IS THE PROCEDURE FOR RUNNING A LINE INSPECTION: As the phrase suggests, the inspection is run while the plane is on the line. If you inspect the various parts of the plane in a regular sequence, you will soon find that you won't overlook anything. Start at the propeller. Then inspect the engine and the cowling. Then go down to the landing gear. From there, go to the wing on one side of the plane. Don't forget the other wing after this. Then walk down on one side of the, fuselage to inspect it. When you reach the empennage, check that. Then inspect the tail wheel and, after that, the other side of the fuselage. After you have covered all that, get in the plane and inspect the cockpit. PROPELLER *1. Make sure that the ignition switch is OFF before you attempt to inspect the propeller. Touching the propeller with the switch on is in the same class of brilliance as squinting into the barrel of a loaded and cocked pistol. *2. Inspect the propeller blades for nicks, dents, and cracks. 3. Check the clevis pin and cotter key to see they are secure. WARNING: BEWARE OF THE PROPELLER, EVEN WHEN THE SWITCH IS OFF—ESPECIALLY WHEN THE ENGINE IS WARM. ENGINE 1. Inspect the ignition wires to see that they're not loose. *2. Look carefully around the engine for any indications of oil or fuel leaks. Inspect the oil and fuel lines that are visible, and the apron beneath the engine. A pool theri, or streaks, indicate leak'age. 15 3. Test the fittings for looseness. Loose fittings are not only noisy in flight, but also dangerous. 4. Inspect the cylinders and crankcase for cracks. The designers didn't intend that you should fly around losing oil and compression; both are necessary for flight. COWLING *1. Make sure that it is secure all around. The windshield and wings on your plane will come out second best if the cowling comes off in flight. *2. Tighten the oil tank cap. It doesn't matter how much oil there is in the engine when you take off, if the oil tank cap comes off in flight. LANDING GEAR *1. If the plane has an oleo gear, be sure that there is the proper amount of fluid (or air) on both sides. If the wings aren't level when the plane is on the line, there isn't an equal amount of fluid on both sides. Don't get into a plane that looks like a sick duck. 2. Check the landing gear for loose fittings and missing cotter pins. If the wheels wash out on a landing, you'll never convince anyone that you didn't bounce too hard or fly the plane into the ground. 3. Check the tire inflation. 4. Shake the wheels to check for excessive side play. 5. Look for indications of fluid leakage on the brake rods or fluid lines. Shake them to see that they are secure. *6. Stand off and inspect the gear for general appearance—both wheels should look the same; if they don't, they are out of alignment. WINGS *1. Grasp the end of the wing and shake it to see if the spars are secure and rigid. Oleo action can be determined visually at this point, *2. Inspect the wings for torn fabric, bulges, or wrinkles. Any of these will change the lifting characteristics of the wing. *3. Make sure that the pitot tube and venturi cover is removed. It would 16 be embarassing to discover, after you're in the air, that your pressure-operated instruments indicate that you're still on the ground. *4. Carefully inspect the ailerons (and their fittings and connections) to see that they are secure and that there are no tears in the fabric. *5. Grasp the wing struts and test their rigidity. Test the fittings for security. On your way over to test the wings on the other side, MAKE SURE THE GAS TANK CAP IS SECURE: A full tank can soon become empty if the cap is off. Now walk over to the wing that you haven't yet inspected. Inspecting the wing on one •side only is like checking traffic on one side only. FUSELAGE 0 *1. Inspect carefully for torn or wrinkled fabric; a wrinkle indicates that something is bent or stretched. *2. Inspect the baggage compartment to see that everything is secure. Anything loose and banging around in flight is likely to tear through the side of the plane. 3. See if there are any indications of broken members. Whenever possible, remove inspection plates and check the control cables; also see that there is no foreign matter present. Loose rags 'adrift have fouled more than one control cable in flight. EMPENNAGE I. Carefully inspect the fabric of the empennage for tears. A small piece of fabric waving in the slip stream soon becomes a large piece of fabric floating through the air. 2. Test the tautness of the wires and check their streamlining. 3. See that the fittings are secure. *4. Do the control surfaces move freely? It will help you to fly smoothly if the rudder moves when you want it to. 5. Check the clevis pins for security; each should have a cotter pin or safety wire. 6. Inspect the stabilizer and tab; a stabilizer out of 'adjustment can make you very tired before the flight is over. 17 TAIL WHEEL 1. Is the tail wheel in functioning condition? Is it well lubricated, so that it is a free-rolling wheel and not a tail skid? 2. Now check the other side of the fuselage. *STAND OFF AND TAKE IN THE GENERAL APPEARANCE OF THE PLANE. Are you satisfied that the plane will fly well? NOW GET IN THE PLANE AND INSPECT THE COCKPIT *1. Is the fire extinguisher present and secure, also full? 2. Look carefully for loose gear. A spare wrench can jam your controls and cables. A piece of waste rag can blow up into your face when you're trying to land. *3. Check the safety belt fastening—in fact, fasten the safety belt snugly around you. You should always do this; even if you're only going to warm up the engine. *4. Set the altimeter to altitude of field above sea level. *5. Set the carburetor heat on COLD. *6. See that you have free movements of the controls. If there is a control lock, place it in the FREE position. 4'7. Move the controls and watch the control surfaces to see that they move in the correct direction. You should have FULL THROW of the controls. *8. Check the gas gauge and be sure that the gas valve is on the proper setting for take-off. NOW GO OVER THE DAILY FLIGHT INSPECTION RECORD WHICH HAS BEEN MADE OUT ON THE 'PLANE. IF IN DOUBT, ASK THE MECHANIC IF ALL NECESSARY REPAIRS HAVE BEEN MADE. 6. Starting the Engine Make sure that your plane is clear of other planes. Head it so that it won't blow dust on spectators, other planes, or into the hangar. The dust and dirt raised by your propeller blast can damage other planes. 2. Place blocks under the wheels. It is dangerous for the plane to start moving when you are unprepared. Remember, too, that someone has to 18 spin the propeller to start the engine for you, and that he will be in the path of the plane when the engine starts. Spinning the propeller by hand is called "propping." Always make sure that your plane is blocked (or "chocked") securely before starting the engine and also when you leave it after a flight. 3. Inspect the airplane. If you are confident that a competent mechanic has given it the required "line-inspection," you will make this a briefer inspection, of the more important items. 4. Check the gas and oil supply. Never rely on 'the gas gauges; they can, and often will, register incorrectly. Look in the tanks yourself. Replace gas and oil tank caps securely. An empty gas or oil tank is a miserable excuse for a forced landing—and it's a frequent reason. 5. Fasten your safety belt as soon as you get in the plane. Make this a firm habit, even if you're just going to warm up the engine. On the few occasions when you really need a belt, you don't have time to fasten it.' 6. Next, see that the Gas Shut Valve is in the full ON position, that both the ignition 'switches are in the full OFF position, and that the throttle is fully closed (pulled all the way back). 7. Never try to "prop" the engine yourself while attempting to handle the throttle at the same time. Have some competent person, such as a mechanic, "prop" it for you. You can't be in two places at once, and you certainly can't do a good job of both things. Civil Air Regulations require that a competent person must be in the plane at all times while the engine is running. Don't violate a Civil Air Regulation. 8. Keep the stick back, so that when the engine starts, the airplane's tail will stay on the ground. Holding the stick back keeps the elevators raised, and the air stream from the propeller will force the tail down.. 9. "Propping" the engine: The person "propping" the engine for you will call "OFF." Make sure again that both switches are Off, and answer "OFF," then he will probably turn the propeller over a few times to prime the engine (draw gas into the cylinders), and then call "Contact." You will answer "CONTACT" and then put the switches in the On position. When he wants the switches Off, he will call "OFF." You turn them Off and then (but not until then) answer "OFF." It's important that you repeat all of his instructions so he can be sure that you have understood them. Notice that you always Answer "CONTACT" before you turn the switches on; and you 'always Answer "OFF" after you turn the switches off! 10. Handle the throttle gently. While the engine is being turned over to start it, the throttle is kept closed. Sometimes, it is very slightly opened- 20 this is called "cracking" the throttle. Just as the engine starts, open the throttle a little to "catch" it. With a little practice, you'll learn, how to do this well and smoothly, so that the mechanic won't have to work too long to start your engine. 11. Check the oil pressure immediately after the engine has started. If the oil pressure gage does not register the correct pressure in a few seconds, stop the engine and have a mechanic locate the trouble: 12. Warm up the engine at about 1000 R.P.M. (or the proper speed for the particular engine on your plane). This means that the propeller is rotating at the- rate of 1000 revolutions per minute (R.P.M.) as indicated by the tachometer. At this speed, the oil pump is working efficiently and the propeller is blowing enough air past the cylinders to prevent the engine from overheating. You'll damage the engine if you 'run it at a higher speed before the oil has reached its proper operating temperature. Never..121.410 Azaine idle (run with the throttle closed) for an len th of time, because the propeller may_not circulate enough air .at this speed to cool the engine properly. It car i overheat dangerously, under these conditions, before it registers on the oil temperature gage and warns you. 13. Run your engine on each magneto separately for a check. The engine on the plane has "twin ignition" (also called "dual ignition"). This means that there are two spark plugs on each cylinder. Each set of spark plugs gets its spark from a separate magneto. There are usually two ignition switches in the plane—one for each magneto. (On many planes the two magnetos will be controlled by a single four-position switch marked: "OFF, Mag 1, Mag 2, BOTH"). When both magnetos are off, the engine stops. If the full throttle engine R.P.M. on either magneto alone is 75 R.P.M. less than on both, something is wrong. Have the engine checked by one of the mechanics. 14. After the engine warms up, hold the stick back and open the throttle fully, for a moment, to check if the engine is delivering maximum power. Check the engine Idle R.P.M. Find out from your instructor what ig the proper tachometer reading (R.P.M.) for your particular type of engine under these conditions. Check the other instruments, too: oil temperature, oil pressure, carburetor heat, etc., to make sure that they register within the proper operating limits (ask your instructor about this). Under certain conditions of ignition trouble causing engine failure during flight you will find that the engine will function normally on the good magneto turned on alone but when both magnetos are on, or the defective magneto on alone the engine will not function normally. Remember this and if you ever encounter engine trouble during flight, first try the engine on each magneto separately, by switching from one magneto to the other and note any change in engine R.P.M. 21 7. Taxiing When taxiing, look for other airplanes and ground obstructions! Your visibility is extremely limited when on the ground. Be careful that the blast of air from your propeller (the "prop-blast") doesn't blow dust on spectators, or endanger other airplanes on the ground behind you. The rudder is the most important control when taxiing. The plane's movements are controlled by the pressure of the air as it moves past the control surfaces of the plane (the elevators, rudder, and ailerons). On the ground, most of the pressure on the controls is exerted by the stream of air from the propeller. Thus the ailerons are ineffective since the "prop-blast" does not reach them. Furthermore, since the plane is not moving through the air and the "prop-blast" alone affects the controls, you will find that you need a much greater movement of the rudder pedals to maneuver the plane than you do when the plane is flying. While taxiing, follow an "S" shaped course from time to time so that you can see what is directly ahead of the plane. If there is danger of collision, turn off the switches. A revolving propeller causes more damage than a still one. If your training plane has a steerable tail-wheel, the rudder control will be rather stiff while the plane is on the ground. More pressure but less movement of the rudder pedals will be used in taxiing that if directional control is dependent on the rudder alone. If the plane has brakes, they are used to control the plane when it is moving slowly on the ground. The brake pedals are usually located just below the rudder pedals, and are operated with your heels. To stop, both right and left brakes are pressed simultaneously (But don't try to stop too quickly!). To turn right, the right brake is used, to turn left, the left brake is used, but always with rudder. All pressure should be applied gently. Never use your brakes when taking off or landing (unless in an emergency). Never turn with one wheel stationary, it's too hard on tires! Keep your tail down while taxiing. If the wind is at all strong while taxiing, the stick is used to keep the tail on the ground. When taxiing into the wind (up wind) the elevators should be raised (by holding the stick back) so that a sudden gust of the wind will serve only to hold the tail on the ground. When taxiing with the wind (down wind) the elevators should be lowered (by holding the stick forward) so that a sudden gust of wind from behind the airplane will force the tail down. Remember—in a strong wind, when taxiing into the wind (up-wind), keep the stick back of neutral. When taxiing with the wind (down wind) 23 0 \go Z “:# 0 oc z4 4 (n )40 co`1 Iv 41U a 17- keep the stick forward of neutral. The general rule is: When taxiing into or with the wind, move the stick with the wind. Use the throttle gently. In taxiing, the engine should be kept running only fast enough to keep the plane moving slowly, about as fast as you could walk across the ground. When the plane is at rest, it is necessary to increase the engine R.P.M. to start the plane moving, but once it is rolling, the engine R.P.M. should be reduced. Rest your hand lightly on the throttle at all times. Before taking off, check the air and ground in all directions for incoming traffic by making a. complete turn to the right. Incoming traffic circles to the left around the field. By turning to the right you get the best possible view of the approaches to the field. Landing airplanes have the right of way. If, as you check your traffic, you see a plane approaching, turn your plane facing the traffic as a signal to the pilot who is .landing that you intend to wait for him to land. (If your field rules are such that' incoming traffic circles to the right, your turn on the ground before takeoff should be to the left.) Thoroughly familiarize yourself with local field rules and traffic patterns. After landing, make a complete turn to the left or right (according to local field rules) and check for air and ground traffic before taxiing back to take off, or up to the hangar. MAKE IT A RULE TO LOOK IN ALL DIRECTIONS WHEN TAXIING—A STIFF NECK IS BETTER THAN A BROKEN NECK. 25 SECTION D—PRELIMINARY AIR WORK Your first few hours of flight training will take place over a thousand feet in the air. There are several reasons for this: (1) In learning to handle the controls, you will naturally make certain errors. If you are well above the ground, such errors will not be at all dangerous, since you will have plenty of space in which to skid, slip, and dive without hitting anything. The instructor can thus turn the plane completely over to you and let you acquire the full feel of the controls, without worrying about the possible results of your errors. (2) Even though you should completely lose control of the airplane (which is not likely!) your height above ground will enable your instructor to "take-over" and regain control before there is any danger of crashing. In altitude, there is safety. (3) All flying, including take-offs and landings, is only a combination of certain basic simple maneuvers which you can best learn in the air. Only after you can fly are you ready for the precision flying involved in getting the plane off and on the ground (4) Finally, because you are far away from any reference points, you will not know how badly you fly at first! After you have acquired considerable skill in handling the controls, you will begin flying lower and then discover the magnitude of your errors. 8. Effect of the Controls To appreciate fully the effect of the controls, make sure you are seated comfortably in the plane and that you can operate all the controls to their fullest extent. When the airplane is in level flight, the control surfaces (the ailerons, elevators, and rudder) tend to "streamline" themselves with the surfaces to which they are attached. That is, due to the pressure of the air flowing over them, the elevators will lie flush with (or in the same plane as) the stabilizer, and the rudder will lie flush with the vertical tail fin. Therefore, with the plane in level flight, the stick and rudder will assume the "neutral" position, even if the pilot takes his hands and feet off the controls. The airplane is maneuvered by moving these control surfaces out of this streamlined neutral position. This is done by exerting pressure on the controls (the stick and rudder pedals), moving them away from the neutral position. Hold the stick between the thumb and fingers of your right hand, and rest the balls of your feet on the rudde,r pedals, with your heels on the deck. 26 The plane is maneuvered by exerting steady pressure on the controls, never by quick rough movements. Think of yourself as the point around which the plane pivots when maneuvered. Forward pressure on the stick pushes the nose of the plane away from you, or toward the landing gear. Back pressure on the stick pulls the nose of the plane toward your head. Side pressure on the stick causes the plane to roll or bank in the direction of the pressure. That is, pressure on the stick to the right lowers the right wing and raises the left wing. Pressure on the stick to the left lowers the left wing and raises the right wing. Pressure on the rudder pedal causes the nose of the plane to swing in the direction of the pressure; therefore, right rudder pressure causes the nose of the plane to swing toward the right wing tip. Left rudder pressure has the opposite effect. These relationships hold, irrespective of the position of the plane in relation to the horizon or ground. After a few hours, you will find that your handling of the controls is entirely automatic; you are no longer any more conscious of how you use them than you now are of how you walk. At first, we shall have to talk about control pressures involved in each maneuirer. The throttle is the control which regulates the amount of fuel going to your engine, and thus the power available at any moment. As such, it controls either speed or climb. It should be handled gently, since sudden movements of this control put undue loads on the engine or flood. it with gas. Learn to fly with your hand on the throttle at all times so that you can use it promptly in case of emergency. The stabilizer control, usually a crank, is used to adjust the fore and aft balance of the plane. If the plane tends to be "nose-heavy," crank the stabilizer control back (or counter clockwise). This holds the nose in a higher position. If the plane tends to be "tail-heavy" crank the stabilizer control forward (or clockwise) until the plane flies level without forward or back pressure being exerted on the stick. The trim-tab is used not only for level flight but may be adjusted so as to maintain the plane in a constant speed climb or glide. Note the 'position of the magneto switches. The engine should be able to operate on either one of the magnetos. Normally, of course, it is operated on both for maximum efficiency and safety. Note the 'carburetor heater control. This turns on the carburetor heater which heats the air going into the carburetor intake. Whenever the engine is idling (as in a glide), it is necessary that the carburetor heater be in 27 the "on" position. "Make it a rule to turn on your carburetor heat before closing your throttle." Some engines also need carburetor heat on take-off. Ask your instructor about the engine in your training plane. CAN YOU ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS? How do you lower the left wing? How would you raise the nose of the plane? What is the correct manner of holding the control stick? 9. Straight and Level Flight Straight and level flying is one of the fundamental maneuvers, and in certain respects, one of the most difficult. Flying , straight and level means, of course, that the plane is flying horizontally, with the wings level, and in a straight line. Later on, the straight and level attitude of your plane will be "sensed." At first, however, keeping the plane flying straight and level is a matter of a number of mechanical adjustments. Your instructor will demonstrate straight and level flight at cruising speed, since the relationships are not the same at other speeds. Note the position of the nose of the plane in relation to the horizon. Usually it is possible to pick out some reference point on the nose of the plane (a cylinder, the gas cap, etc.) which is even with the horizon when the plane is flying level. During the demonstration, find some reference point on the plane or engine that seems to be on the horizon to you in your position, when flying straight and level. Note that the under side of the wing tip seems to form a line. When this line is parallel with the horizon you are flying level. Look out of both sides of the plane and note that there is the same amount of sky under each wing tip. This indicates that your wings are level. To maintain a straight path over the ground, pick out a landmark on your line of flight, and fly toward it. In still air, little or no pressure on the controls should be necessary when flying straight and level. "Trim" your plane by adjusting the stabilizer control so the plane flies level without pressure on the stick. Don't fight the controls. Relax. If a sudden gust of air blows the plane off its straight and level flight, it will return to straight and level flight of its own accord eventually. However, by gently coordinated pressure on 28 STR.AIGLIT AND UV__ ffLIGIAT • "s• '"•\ ,.. ‘.... , • \ ....................... — .. ,tck ‘kmakttk, , \ LONGITUDINALLY LEVEL • .... ....... ..... ..... \\\ \ \ \ LATERALLY LEVEL \ \ \ \ \ \ ... . \‘‘‘z:, ''''''‘‘s"`-=`"•------•‘‘‘,•- • • DIRECTIONALLY STIZAIGI-IT \ , the controls, you can speed up its return to straight and level flight. But don't be in too much of a hurry to make it do what wants to do anyway. Be careful that you don't let either wing "droop." You may tend to fly with your right wing low. Since you control the stick with your right hand, you may have a tendency to hold the stick slightly to the right. A helpful practice exercise to overcome this tendency follows: Sit in the plane on the ground. Keep your eye on the ailerons, and practice pulling the stick back. You should be able to pull the stick back, consistently, without moving the ailerons. REMEMBER TO FLY THE AIRPLANE, NOT THE CONTROLS CAN YOU ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS? How do you maintain a straight flight path over the ground? At what position should the throttle be set (R.P.M.) for straight and level flight? How can you tell the angle of climb? How can you tell when your wings are level? How do you raise a wing that is low? What happens to the control surfaces if you release the stick and rudder while in flight? 30 10. Demonstration of Inherent Stability By this time, you may have the idea that an airplane is a pretty complicated mechanism to handle, and that it must be carefully watched to keep it behaving properly. These maneuvers are designed to show you that the PLANE CAN TAKE CARE OF ITSELF, if necessary, very nicely. Many times, when you use the controls to place the plane in a certain attitude, you are merely helping it to do what it would anyway. In this instruction flight, your instructor will climb the plane to about 1,000 feet. There, he will place the plane in level flight position. Then both you and he will remove your hands and feet from the controls. You'll see how the plane flies straight and level fairly well with no one controlling. If a wing drops a little, the plane will slip toward the low wing, and THE PLANE WILL TEND TO RIGHT ITSELF. THE PLANE WILL RECOVER FROM A BANK AND TURN BY ITSELF. This will be demonstrated by putting the plane in a medium bank and releasing all the controls. The nose will immediately drop a little and the plane will slip toward the low wing, but after a short time will return to level flight. After this, your instructor will .fly the plane straight and level and then close the throttle to idling position. You will notice that the nose of the plane drops a little and dives slightly. In other words, the, plane is nose heavy. This characteristic is built into the airplane as a safety measure. If the plane is allowed to fly "hands-off," it will dive until it gains enough speed to raise the nose to level flight again. However, the plane can be trimmed to glide "hands-off" by adjusting the stabilizer control until no pressure is required on the stick to hold the plane in a glide. Later you will learn to trim it this way for all landings. THE FINAL MANEUVERS WILL DEMONSTRATE THE OVERLAPPING. FUNCTIONS OF THE CONTROLS. They show how the controls can be used in an emergency. First, your instructor will show how a turn can be made using only the elevators and rudder. He'll apply only rudder, causing the plane to start a flat skidding turn. In the turn, the outside wing is traveling through the air faster than the inside wing. This gives it more lift, so it goes up, putting the plane in a bank. Just as in any turn, the instructor will apply back pressure as the bank progresses. , When the rudder is released and opposite aileron is applied, the plane will return to straight and level flight. Your instructor will demonstrate the same maneuver using only the ailerons and elevators. As he dpplies pressure to the stick, the plane will bank and start slipping toward the low wing. This causes air to strike against the vertical fin and rudder surfaces, turning the plane. When 31 'aileron pressure in the opposite direction is applied, the plane will slowly return to straight and level flight. You will notice in entering a turn that the plane skids when the rudder alone is used, and it slips when the ailerons alone are used. The reverse holds true in recovering from a turn. • ALTHOUGH A TURN CAN BE ACCOMPLISHED BY USING THE RUDDER OR AILERONS ONLY, you can see that no precision will result. This emphasizes the importance of coordination of control pressures in all maneuvers, i.e., the right combination and sequence of pressure on the controls. THERE IS NO REASON FOR ALARM when the instructor demonstrates these maneuvers. Modern airplanes have an amazing amount of stability built into them; in fact your plane will "fly itself" better than most trainees can fly it during their first few hours of instruction I CAN YOU ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS? What happens if the throttle is closed while the plane is flying "hands off"? r What happens when the rudder alone is used to turn the plane? What happens when the ailer*ons alone are used to turn the plane? 11. Medium Banked Turns Suppose you are in an automobile. If you make a turn too fast on a flat road there is a tendency for the car to skid forward. Even if you made a sharp turn fairly slowly, this tendency to skid would 'be evident. However, if the road were banked the correct amount (the degree of bank depending upon the speed of the car and the sharpness of the turn), this tendency would be eliminated: Similarly, if a car made a turn which was banked too steeply it would have a tendency to slip down toward the inside of a turn. Instead of an airplane flying along a road which is banked, the pilot banks the plane and at the same time adjusts the rate of turn to correspond with the amount of bank. Thus, whether he slips or skids depends on whether or not his pressures on the controls are coordinated. If these control pressures are coordinated, he will have just the right amount of bank for his rate of turn. 32 A NOTE ON COORDINATION: The term "Coordination" (or "coordinated pressures," "coordinated controls," etc.) is one which you will meet frequently in flying. Therefore it is important that you understand clearly what it means. Coordinated pressures on the controls merely means that pressures are applied to one or more controls simultaneously, or in sequence, in such a manner that the plane does EXACTLY what you want it to do. Coordination is important in all maneuvers, but in your elementary flight training you will hear it referred to more often in regard to turns than in regard to any other maneuver. This is because most of the maneuvers in your primary training are combinations of turns. Good coordination in a turn requires that pressures be applied to stick and rudder in such a manner that the plane neither skids nor slips. Since in your turns your air speed will be ,fairly constant, the excellence of your turn depends upon how well your rate of turn and amount of bank are adjusted to each other. The pressures on the controls used in making a turn will be discussed shortly. You will probably wonder how you can tell if you skid or slip in a turn. The explanation is simple. During a turn, the same forces acting on the plane that cause it to skid and slip are acting on you, the pilot. If the plane skids, you will tend to slide over toward the edge of the seat that is on the outside of the turn. If the plane slips, you will tend to slide over toward the edge of the seat that is on the inside of the turn. In a good turn, neither of these tendencies will be evident. You will merely feel as if you were being pushed • down into the seat. (This results from the centrifugal force that is developed.) Remember, and this is important, these forces which action the plane will be felt only if you are "riding with the plane." Therefore, don't lean away from the bank or attempt to keep your body perpendicular to the horizon. Relax and try to feel the effect of pressures on the weight of your body. You can't detect skids or slips unless you are "Riding With the Plane." An even better indicator of skids or slips is a "Ball Bank" instrument, mounted on the instrument panel. This consists of a metal ball resting loosely inside a slightly curved glass tube. In a slip or skid, the ball rolls to one side or the other from its normal central position and thus permits the pilot to "see" as well as "feel" a skid or slip. Such an instrument is more sensitive than the "seat sense" of even a good pilot and will be useful later in perfecting your coordination. As a student, however, you must not depend on the ball bank or any other instrument. In fact, your instructor will probably cover the ball bank and perhaps the -airspeed 33 meter on some flights, to make sure you are learning to fly by attitude and "feel." Right now you will be concerned with medium banked and gentle banked turns. A medium banked turn is one in which the angle of bank is between 30 and 50 degrees. In a shallow gentle banking turn, the angle of bank is less than 30 degrees. Your instructor will demonstrate the correct relationship of the lowered wing with the horizon in both of these turns. Both of these maneuvers are done at cruising engine R.P.M. Before you turn, check the air on all sides of you for other airplanes. Note with particular care the area in which you will be turning, and look behind you in that same direction. To make a turn, apply coordinated pressure on stick and rudder in the desired direction. If you apply too much rudder, the nose of the plane will turn too rapidly for your angle of bank, and the plane will skid. If you apply too little rudder, the plane will not be turning enough for your angle of bank, and the plane will slip. Coordination of pressure on rudder and stick is essential. Whenever you skid or slip, it is a direct result of lack of coordination on your part. Just as the plane starts to bank and turn, the nose will drop below its level flight position. You will have to exert some back pressure on the stick to hold the nose on the horizon, and prevent loss of altitude. For a detailed discussion of why this back pressure is needed, see Principles of Flying. After the bank and turn is established relax your pressure on the rudder and ailerons and return them to neutral, at the same time holding enough back pressure on the elevators to keep the nose on the horizon and prevent loss of altitude. During a tern, back pressure on the stick must be held, but neither rudder nor aileron controls are needed after the turn has been started. Both remain in approximate neutral position. However, just as in level flight, slight applications of coordinated rudder and aileron pressures may be needed to correct for gusts. Note that this is not to keep the airplane turning, but to keep the turn and bank constant if it tends to vary. To come out of a turn, apply coordinated rudder and aileron pressure in the opposite direction to the turn, and gradually release the back pressure as the wings become level. Again, the rudder and aileron pressure must be coordinated, and the back pressure released so that the nose of the plane remains level. You will have to start to recover from the turn slightly before the plane heads in the desired new direction, since it continues turning during the recovery process. 34 Remember: Coordinate your rudder, aileron, and elevator pressure. Ride with the airplane during the turn. Don't. lean away from the bank. After the bank and turn is established, release rudder and aileron pressure, and then apply enough aileron and elevator pressure to maintain a constant bank and altitude. Don't get the nose of the plane too .high in a turn, for the plane will stall at a higher speed in a turn than in straight and level flight. CAN YOU ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS? Why is it necessary to hold back pressure in a turn? Where should you look before starting a turn? Why? After a turn has been established, why must you use opposite aileron? Why must you "ride with the plane" during a turn? What are the usual causes of a skid in a turn?--of a slip? 12. Elementary Coordination Exercises (S-Turns) Coordination of the controls is very important, especially in turns. It's a good idea to practice coordination whenever you can. Here is an. exercise which will do much to increase your flying skill. Alternating banks and turns in level flight: Before you turn, check the air on all sides and to the rear of you for other planes, particularly the area in which you will be turning. Start a medium banked turn in either direction, and turn through an arc of 90 degrees. Then roll the plane out of this turn, fly straight and level for a moment, and proceed to make a turn in the other direction. Keep your bank constant during the turn. Keep the nose of your plane at a position on the horizon that will prevent loss of altitude. Keep all the movements smooth and well-coordinated. You'll soon discover thb deep satisfaction that comes with smooth maneuvering and good coordination. Sit relaxed and ride with the plane and try to "feel" your coordinated control pressures. CAN YOU ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS? What degree of -bank do yOu use in this exercise? Through how great an arc are the turns made? 35 13. Normal Climbs Before you start a normal climb, make sure that the air ahead and above is clear of other planes. To start a normal climb, increase your engine R.P.M. about 100 above cruising. Then raise the nose of the plane so that it is slightly higher than in straight and level flight. Don't raise the nose abruptly; always move your controls smoothly. You will notice that, in the climb, your engine speed will drop back to cruising. This is because the engine has more work to do. The proper attitude of the airplane in a normal climb will be shown to you by your instructor. Find some reference point on the plane, such as a cylinder, which is even with the horizon in the climb. This can be a useful guide to you later on in estimating if your climb is normal. Note also the angle which the underside of the wing makes with the horizon. This is an even more dependable cue especially when the horizon is hazy. Many things affect the climb. Although we speak of a "normal climb" it is important to realize that the performance of the plane in a climb is affected by weight of the plane, condition of the motor, temperature of the air, altitude, and other factors! If in doubt climb less steeply than in a normal climb! If your engine seems to be working too hard or vibrating more than usual, you are climbing too steeply. Remember that the engine has more work to do in a climb; the steeper the climb, the more work it has to do. For any given set of conditions there is one climbing angle at which the plane gains altitude most rapidly. If you try to climb more steeply than this, the plane will "mush" and although you seem to be climbing steeply, you actually gain altitude less rapidly. If you continue to climb too steeply, the airspeed becomes less and less, and eventually the plane is not moving fast enough through the air to maintain flight, and a stall (to be taken up later) will result. To recover from a normal climb, release the back pressure on the stick to lower the nose to level flight position. When you do this, you'll notice that the engine R.P.M. increases, so you must throttle back to cruising engine R.P.M. THE MAXIMUM CLIMB A maximum climb is executed in the same way, except that full throttle is used. As a result, your angle of climb can be slightly steeper. When a continued climb is called for, as in climbing for altitude for acrobatics, adjust the stabilizer so that the plane will climb "hands off." On reaching the desired altitude, readjust the stabilizer for level flight. 36 14. Normal Glides A normal glide is a glide at an angle and speed that will give the greatest distance forward for a given loss of altitude in still air. It is important that you be able to recognize and maintain a normal glide. In all approaches to a landing, the 'glide must be normal and constant for good results. For instance, if the glide is too fast the plane will glide a considerable distance just above the ground before the excess speed is dissipated and it can land. However, if the gliding speed is slower than normal gliding speed, the plane settles more rapidly and the gliding distance is shortened. If the speed is decreased any more, danger enters as the stalling speed of the plane is reached. At first, you will be allowed to check with the airspeed indicator and keep the glide normal and constant by referring to it. After you are familiar with a normal glide, you must not depend on the airspeed indicator but sense the plane's attitude •and speed. This is done by noting the position of the nose on the horizon, the angle formed between the wing and the horizon, the feel of the controls, and the sound of the air past the plane. You will get experience in this while the instructor is demonstrating a normal glide and while you are practicing them using the airspeed indicator. In a gliding attitude, the nose of most training planes will cover the intended flight path of. the plane. In other words, the plane goes where it points. To begin the glide, the throttle is slowly and smoothly closed and the nose lowered slightly by exerting slight forward pressure on the stick. When the nose is at the proper position, which will be demonstrated, release the forward pressure on the stick and apply enough back pressure to keep the speed normal and the nose in this position. If the glide is to be continued for some time as in landing, the stabilizer is adjusted to maintain the normal glide "hands off." Apply carburetor heat if the glide is to be continued for some time. Clear the motor about every 20 seconds by opening the throttle and closing it again. CAN YOU ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS? How do you establish a normal glide? Where should you look before starting a normal glide? Is the throttle ever opened during a normal glide? Explain. How can you tell when you have a normal angle of glide? How do you recover from a normal glide? 38 15. Climbing Turns A shallow climbing turn is simply a gentle turn made while the airplane is climbing. Thus, in making a climbing turn, combine the principles you learned when you practiced normal climbs and normal turns. As in all turns, coordination of your controls is important. You will find it necessary to hold more back pressure in a climbing turn than in a normal turn, since the nose is already held in a climbing position. • Remember: In a climb, the air speed of the plane decreases. In a turn your minimum safe flying speed becomes greater. Thus, in a climbing turn, your margin of safety above this minimum flying speed is less than during either a normal climb or a normal turn. Therefore: With the same amount of power, the same degree of climb cannot be maintained in a climbing turn as in a straight climb. Decrease the angle of climb before starting the turn. Make only shallow-banked climbing turns. Coordinate your controls. If you don't use enough rudder for your angle of bank you will climb with one wing low and- "slip." Too much rudder for your angle of bank results in a skid, and a resultant loss of air speed. To recover from, a climbing turn, coordinate opposite rudder and aileron pressure. At the same time ease off your additional back pressure so that, by the time the plane is flying straight, you are back in a normal climb. A maximum climbing turn is executed similarly to a normal climbing turn, except that it is done at full throttle so that your angle of climb can be slightly steeper. In maximum climbing turns ,your bank should be less than in a shallow climbing turn. In general, the steeper the climb, the shallower should be your bank in a turn. The recovery is the same as from a normal climbing turn, except that when you come out of the turn you should be back in a maximum climb. CAN YOU ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS? Where should you look before you start a climbing turn? What is the engine R.P.M. in a climbing turn? What is the angle of climb in a climbing turn? How does it compare with a normal climb? What is the engine R.P.M. setting for a maximum climbing turn? 39 16. Gliding Turns A turn which is made during a normal glide is called a gliding turn. Since it is generally used in approaches for landings, this maneuver is often executed near the ground. More attention must • be given to the degree of bank and turn, position of the nose, speed of the plane, and also to the difference of control pressure as compared with turns with power on. Therefore, it is particularly important that it be done correctly. As in all glides, remember to apply carburetor heat before closing the throttle. Also remember to "clear" the engine about every 20 seconds by opening the throttle and closing it again. Before starting your turn, look in all directions for other airplanes. Then lower your nose below the normal glide position to pick up speed, and start your turn. As usual, coordinated rudder and aileron pressure must be given in the direction you wish to turn. Your bank should be medium. Control pressures are only slightly different in a gliding turn from those in a turn with power. More back pressure is needed after the bank has been established, since you already will be exerting back pressure to hold the plane in a normal glide. You may notice that the resistance of the controls, particularly the rudder, is less than in flight with power on. This follows from the fact that there is no slip stream from the propeller to blow on the rudder during the gliding turn. The plane will recover more quickly than it did when you recovered from 'a turn with power. In a turn with power, you must start your recovery somewhat before the plane has turned the desired amount. In a gliding turn, the plane stops turning almost as soon as you start your recovery. WATCH YOUR COORDINATION. A SKID IN A GLIDING TURN MAY DEVELOP INTO A SPIN. KEEP YOUR NOSE DOWN IN GLIDING TURNS. ALWAYS KEEP FLYING SPEED. FLY THE AIRPLANE: DON'T JUST MECHANICALLY MOVE THE CONTROLS AND LET THE AIRPLANE FLY YOU. CAN YOU ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS? How is the recovery from a gliding turn different from a turn with power? How does the gliding angle of a gliding turn differ from a normal glide? How is the throttle used in a gliding turn? 40 17. Coordination Exerciies (Advanced) You have already had one coordination exercise. Here are some more that are essentially similar to the first one, but slightly advanced. Practice them whenever you have the opportunity. (A) ALTERNATING BANKS AND TURNS WHILE CLIMBING: Before you turn, check the air on all sides. and to the rear of you for other planes, particularly the area in which you will be turning. Start a shallow-banked climbing turn in either direction, and turn through an arc of 90 degrees. Then recover from the turn, climb straight for a moment, and proceed to make a climbing turn in the other direction. Remember to increase your throttle setting 100 engine R.P.M.'s above cruising for the climb. Remember, a higher airspeed is needed in a turn than in level flight, so: Reduce your angle of climb to slightly below that for normal climb. Make your banks shallow. (B) ALTERNATING BANKS AND TURNS WHILE GLIDING: This is the same as the preceding exercise, except that it is done while gliding. Start this exercise at about 2,000 feet or higher. Lower the nose of the plane slightly below the normal glide position before starting. This will provide the extra margin of airspeed needed for safety in the turns. Keep your airspeed constant. (C) ALTERNATING CLIMBING AND GLIDING TURNS: Another excellent coordination exercise is one that combines the principles of the two preceding ones. It consists of alternating climbing and gliding turns, in alternating directions. You can start, for example with a climbing turn to the right through an arc of 180 degrees. Follow this with a gliding turn to the left of 180 degrees. Then execute another climbing turn to the right, and so on. The turns are made through 180 degrees in this maneuver since it is more complicated than the others. This gives you more time to keep track of what's going on. Start this exercise at altitude of 800 to 1,000 feet, It's a good idea to practice along a road or some other straight landmark to get an idea of how the maneuver progresses. At first, choose a road that is parallel to the wind direction. After you become more skillful, you can use a road that is crosswind. Practice smooth throttle coordination in climbs and glides. 41 CAN YOU ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS? In what two ways do you provide for more lift in a climbing turn? Why is the gliding angle made steeper during the gliding turn? Through how great an arc are these turns made? 18. A Series of Stalls You need to learn about stalls for two reasons: First, every landing consists in approaching a stall while the airplane is just a little above the ground, and letting it "settle to the ground." Second, in a stall, an airplane is almost unmanageable and considerable altitude is lost before control is regained. It is very dangerous to stall an airplane at low altitude (except, of course, while landing), since it is likely to hit the ground before you are able to regain control. Therefore, it is very necessary that you practice stalls (at a safe altitude) in order to be able to recognize when an airplane is approaching the stalling condition. You must learn to avoid allowing it actually to stall, except when you have sufficient altitude and stall it intentionally. A STALL IS A PERFECTLY SAFE MANEUVER, BUT EXCEPT IN LRNDING, IT SHOULD NEVER BE ATTEMPTED AT ALTITUDES BELOW 2,000 FEET. An airplcine stalls for one basic reason: The angle of attack has become too great for the speed at which it is moving through the air. However, since we have no "angle of attack" indicator, it is very important to know the conditions which lead to too great an angle of attack—and hence to a stall. Most planes will continue to fly at airspeeds much below the normal cruising airspeed. In level flight most training planes stall at between 35 and 45 m.p.h. air speed. However: There is no such thing as a fixed stalling speed,. The speed at which a plane stalls is a function of so many factors that one must not think of stalling speed but of stalling condition. Stalling speed is increased by the load, by air temperature and pressure, by altitude, by steepness of bank, sharpness of a turn, whether power is off or on, ice on wings, etc., etc. An airplane can be stalled at any position—. even in a dive if one attempts to pull out of it too quickly. Always it re- 43 sults from too much back pressure on the stick—and always an approaching stall can be stopped by releasing the back pressure on the stick. Stalls will be demonstrated, and you will execute them ,in order that you may (a) learn to recognize approaching stalls and (b) learn to recover (i.e. regain flying speed and control) with as little loss of altitude as possible. An airplane may be stalled with power off or with power on. In a glide (when the power is off), the airspeed is maintained only by "coasting down hill." Any attempt to make the glide too shallow, or to climb without sufficient power, results in a loss of airspeed and the airplane soon stalls. Loss of airspeed, whether power is on or off, may result from raising the nose by the application of back pressure on the stick, or from flat skidding turns. There are other ways of losing airspeed, but they needn't be discussed here. SYMPTOMS OF AN APPROACHING STALL (POWER OFF). Vision, which has played so large a part in your previous maneuvers, is of less help in sensing an approaching stall (except in noting the airspeed indicator). Rather, you have to learn to "feel" a stall. Though you won't be able to see a stall approaching, you may be able to "hear" it. Learn to sense a stall by the "sound" and the "feel" of your plane. As the airspeed decreases, the first symptom of a stall is that the controls (both stick and rudder) begin to feel "loose" or "sloppy" (i.e., they move much more easily than at cruising speed). Also, you will discover that normal movements of the controls result in much less response on the part of the plane than in normal flight. As the stalling condition gets nearer and nearer, the controls become less and less effective. First, you will notice that applying aileron pressure no longer enables you to bank or to pick up a low wing. As the stall approaches closer, you will discover that aileron pressures not only fail to secure the usual results, but that they actually result in the opposite effect on the plane. This is due to the fact that, at slow speed, the aileron surfaces exert drag instead of affording lift. Hence, after aileron control is lost, the wings are maintained level without the use of ailerons. Your instructor will demonstrate how this is accomplished with the rudder. Aileron control is lost first, but as the airspeed decreases, the elevators too will become less and less effective until this, control is lost also. The only remaining control is the rudder, which is almost ineffective. 44 Finally, in spite of all your efforts to hold the nose up, it will start dropping; actually the entire airplane is dropping through the air although it is still moving forword. At this point, you will literally feel yourself falling, as indicated by the feeling of bodily lightness (i.e., you won't be pressing down on the seat as hard as usual.) To recover from the stall, it is only necessary to lessen the angle of attack and thus regain flying speed. This is accomplished by simply releasing the back pressure on the stick, which drops the nose still lower and permits the plane to run "down hill" and thus pick up more speed. As cruising speed is regained, all controls will be found to function normally again, and, the plane will maneuver as usual. So far we have discussed power-off stalls. An airplane may be similarly stalled with either cruising or full throttle engine R.P.M., but because of the power being applied, the nose will have to be held higher before the airspeed becomes low enough for the plane to stall. Similar loss of control will be experienced, but neither the rudder nor elevators will be as sloppy as in a power-off stall, because of the "propeller wash" flowing over them during a power-on stall. As the power-on stall is approached you will note that the engine "labors." You will feel and hear this laboring, due to the 'greater vibration ,present. To Summarize: (I) A stall is the condition of an airplane when it is no longer flying but is, rather, "falling" through the air. (2) It is an extremely dangerous condition unless: (a) the plane is within a few feet of the ground and in position for a landing, or (b) the plane is a couple of thousand feet above the ground so that it can be dived to regain flying speed. (3) You must learn to "feel" an approaching stall through the controls and "in your seat." (4) Recovery is always accomplished by easing off back pressure. (5) The airspeed indicator may be used as a check, but it should not be depended upon as an indicator of an approaching stall. As noted above, stalls may be executed with power on or with power off. Furthermore, we distinguish three types of stalls under each of the two conditions. No. 1 is an "Approach to a stall," No. 2 a "Normal Stall," and No. 3 a "Full ,Stall." 46 Specific instructions for executing this series of six stalls are as follows: Note carefully the difference in procedure involved so that you will be able to go through the entire series without any coaching from your instructor or the check-flight pilot. Power-On Stalls: 1. Approach to a Stall—Set throttle engine R.P.M. in level flight. Slowly and steadily maneuver the airplane by the use of elevator pressures into an attitude of excessive climb causing a constantly decreasing airspeed and resultant loss of control pressure. As the plane begins to settle, but just before the "break" occurs, full throttle is applied and recovery is affected by application of forward stick in dropping the nose to the horizon. 2. Normal Stall—Starts as above, but apply back pressure on stick until a definite break occurs Emphasis should be placed on the importance of getting a clean-breaking stall. Recovery is effected by using full power just aafter the break and consists of a moderate dive. until flying speed is recovered. 3. Full Stall—Stall is started as above, but stick and elevator action continued until maximum elevator action is obtained. Heading is held constant and wings level, stick full back, until the nose falls through the horizon on the downward swing. Recovery is effected by application of full power as the nose passes through the horizon on the way down and a moderate dive is made until flying speed is regained. Wings will be held level without the use of ailerons. Power-Off Stalls 1. Approach to a Stall—While in straight and level flight, close the throttle fully, and climb the plane slowly by application of back pressure, thus gradually causing a reduction of air speed and control pressures. As the plane begins to settle, recovery is made just before the break of the actual stall. For a rapid recovery and minimum loss of altitUde, full power is applied. Heading must be held constant and wings level, without use of ailerons. -2. Normal Stall—This maneuver is entered in the same manner as the Approach to a Stall, except. that a full-breaking stall is desired. Power is used on recovery so that used a minimum of altitude is lost. AppliCation of full-power is desired, coordinated with forward stick. 3. Full Stall—Stall is started the same as above. The stick is held all the way back until the nose of the plane cuts through the horizon after the break. The wings are held level and the heading constant without the use of ailerons. Recovery is effected by applying full power and nosing the plane down until flying speed is regained. 48 11- I 1-- cYt- 0 _ j k.9 Z < t t_r. ° 0 4,11 0 da 0 °I _I Ul I 11) ° ry o co (.) 1- OLD CY - 0 j 0 .a >-01- et al 0 F. ZfruCga44iLD21- Far-44 I- Not)121 930- awoo D 4 Z _1 0 0 LI"